Digestive System

KS4 Biology
Digestion
1 of 55 © Boardworks Ltd 2004

The digestive system:
The digestive system, being an organ system, is

made of a group of organs all working together.
Each organ has a particular function and only by

working together will they get the job done.

External digestive system
The only visible parts of the digestive system are the

entry and exit points.
Mouth Anus
The sound of a rumbling stomach and the fact that

food looks very different when it leaves, compared to
when it enters mean that the body must be doing
something to the food during its journey.
What happens to the food in our bodies?

What happens to the food in our body?
It is digested.
This means it is broken down.
This digestion happens in 2 ways.
As we know all food has a physical shape and is

made of chemicals. These chemicals are held
together by chemical bonds.

Chemical and physical digestion
Our digestive system uses both:
chemical digestion
physical digestion
As we move through the digestive system, we will see one or

both of these methods in action at any one time.
physical chemical
The shape of the food must be This allows useful chemicals

physically changed so that it can to be released and dissolve
fit through the small diameter of in the blood. To be broken
the digestive system. down chemically, the bonds
must be broken.
In we go!
Digestion is the chemical and physical breakdown of

large insoluble molecules into small soluble molecules.
Let’s take a close look at how this happens… Open wide

The digestive tract
All food enters our digestive system through the

mouth and waste material leaves through the anus.
The digestive system is really mouth

one long tube with an opening
at each end.
Stretched out it is a 9m tube!
anus

Our guts
But how does a 9m tube fit into a space,

which is less than a metre long?
It is extremely folded!
In addition, the tube passes through organs on its

route from the mouth to the anus.

Digestive system diagram

Physical digestion
The mouth is where digestion begins. Here we find both

chemical and physical methods of digestion.
We will consider physical digestion first.
If you look in the mirror and smile, you immediately notice

your teeth.
You will also realise that your teeth are different shapes.
You have 4 basic types of teeth; each type is designed

for a different role.

Teeth:
Each is designed to do a different job.
premolar molar
canine incisor
central latent
incisor incisor
canine
1st premolar
2nd premolar
1st molar
2nd molar
3rd molar

Diagram of a tooth

Tooth size and shape
The shape and size of each tooth is related to the

function they have in digesting food.
If we look at the teeth of other animals many of them too

have these 4 types of teeth.
However, the number of each type, their size and their

shape differ between species.
This is because other organisms have different diets.

Mammalian tooth types
Canine
Sharp pointed teeth, which are used to bite and tear food.
Incisors
Small rectangular shaped teeth, which are found

between the canines. They are used for cutting food.
Premolars
Found behind the canines and are used to grind soft food.
Molars
Found behind the premolars and are used to grind hard food.

Action in the mouth
Together, these teeth can break up most foods that

we put into our mouths. The mechanical act of
chewing food is part of physical digestion.
Once the teeth have digested the food, it may be small

enough to be swallowed. However, some food can be
sharp and it would be uncomfortable to swallow. The
food also needs chemically breaking down.
Therefore, the mouth produces a substance that solves

both of these problems at the same time.

Saliva
These glands (a special type of tissue)

produce saliva, a sticky liquid.
As mentioned, the saliva has two jobs.
Being a liquid, it softens the food and allows the digested

food to be rolled into a ball just before it is swallowed.
It also contains a chemical known as an enzyme.

Digestive enzymes:
Carbohydrates are chains of identical sugar molecules.

The enzyme that digests carbohydrates must be able to
break the chemical bonds between the individual sugar
molecules.
sites of enzyme attack
sugar
The product of the chemical breakdown of carbohydrates

is sugar. The sugar is known as glucose.
Enzymes that digests carbohydrates are known as

carbohydrases.

Enzyme driven reaction
The digestion of carbohydrates can be represented

by the following equation.
carbohydrase
Carbohydrates Sugars
carbohydrase

Proteins and amino acids
As with carbohydrates, proteins are made of chains of

chemicals. However, instead of the chain containing
identical molecules, in protein these molecules are
different.
Protein is made up of chains of amino acids. There
are over 20 different kinds of amino acid.
sites of enzyme attack

amino acids
Imagine a bead necklace made up of over 20

different kinds of bead.
Enzymes for digesting proteins
The enzymes that digest proteins must

be able to break the chemical bonds
between the different amino acids. sites of
amino
acids enzyme
Enzymes that digest protein are known attack
as proteases.
The digestion of proteins can be represented by the

following equation.
protease
Protein Amino Acids

Fat in our food
Fats are made up of a molecule of glycerol phosphate

attached to three fatty acid molecules.
The enzymes that digest fats must be able to break the

chemical bonds between the glycerol phosphates and the
fatty acids.
Fats are also known as lipids.
fatty
acids
site of
enzyme
attack
glycerol
phosphate
Enzymes for digesting fat
The enzymes that digest fats must be able to break

the chemical bonds between the glycerol phosphates
and the fatty acids.
Fats are also known as lipids.
Enzymes that digest fat (lipid) are known as lipases.
Fat digestion can be represented by the following equation:
lipase
Fat Fatty Acids + Glycerol Phosphate

Carbohydrase in saliva
Of these three enzymes, the only one that is released

within the mouth is carbohydrase. This is partly because
the conditions within the mouth are suitable for
carbohydrase action.
It works best within an alkaline (pH > 7) environment.
The carbohydrase in saliva in combination with other

digestive carbohydrases added later from the pancreas
and the small intestine complete carbohydrate digestion.

Mouth to the gullet:
The semi-digested food has been formed into a ball by

the tongue and is now swallowed.
The ball firstly moves to the pharynx, the region at the

back of the mouth where there is a junction between
two pipes.
It needs to pass down through the gullet. To ensure

that it does not fall into the trachea and thus block our
breathing, a small flap moves to cover the tube.

Protecting the windpipe

Epiglottis
The flap is known as the epiglottis.

If ever food accidentally got into the trachea, we would
choke and try to cough it back out.
How do we swallow?
Once the ball of food has passed through the top of the
gullet, it is forced downwards by waves of muscular
contraction.

Keeping it down
The swallowing process finishes with a muscle known

as a sphincter relaxing and the food passes into the
stomach.
The sphincter muscle found at the entry

and exits points of the stomach acts
rather like a drawstring on a bag.
It allows the stomach to shut off both

entry and exit points and hold food
inside it.

The basics on the stomach
The stomach is basically a muscular bag, filled with

hydrochloric acid (HCl).
cross section of stomach

food enters from
the gullet
muscle tissue
glandular tissue makes:

hydrochloric acid, mucus
and protease enzyme
digested food leaves liquids mix with the food

Gastric processes:
When the food enters the stomach.

The sphincter contracts behind it.
The food is then subjected to
a coordinated attack.
Firstly the
the hydrochloric acid
…attacks any microbes (bacteria) that may have been
swallowed accidentally when the food was eaten.
Microbes HCl
Food bolus
Protein digestion
Secondly, the hydrochloric acid provides the perfect

conditions for protease enzyme.
These enzymes begin digesting the proteins in the
swallowed food.
These proteins are broken down to release the amino

acids.
protein protease amino

acids
Protease enzymes work best under acidic conditions

(pH < 7).
Mucus and muscles
Thirdly, the muscular tissue of the stomach has the

ability to contract and relax and in doing so, physically
grinds the food inside it.
Mucus is produced to protect the lining of the stomach

from the acid. If the mucus were not present, the
hydrochloric acid would actually digest the tissue that
had made it!

Making gastric juice
muscle and
presence glandular
of HCl tissue
wall of
stomach is layer of
protected mucus
The hydrochloric acid, mucus, food and enzyme

solution is given the name - gastric juice.

The stomach’s digestive action - summary
protein fat
sugar
carbohydrate
physical chemical
digestion digestion
muscular tissue protease enzyme and

of stomach hydrochloric acid
sugars fats
carbohydrates amino proteins

acids
and after the stomach…
By this stage many large insoluble molecules are slowly

being digested to produce the small soluble molecules that
can easily be absorbed into the blood system.
Small soluble molecules
Glucose Amino Acids Glycerol phosphate
It is also clear that the fat has yet to be chemically digested.
This happens in the next section of the digestive system.

The small intestine:
The name of this organ is deceiving. Although it is called

small, it can stretch up to 6 metres in length. In order to fit
into the body, it is heavily folded.
When the gastric juices leave

the stomach, they pass into
the small intestine.
X-ray of the small intestine

Dealing with the acid
A nasty problem!
The gastric juices are very acidic. There could be a

danger of the lining of the small intestine being digested.
Luckily two substances are produced to stop this

happening. The first is mucus and we have seen how
this works. The second is bile.
Bile is made in the liver. It is a yellow/green liquid that

is naturally alkaline (pH > 7).

Why neutralise?
This means that when bile and the gastric juices meet,
the result is neutralisation of the acid.
pH >7 + pH <7 Neutralisation
This is essential for lipase (the enzyme that

digests fat) to function properly.
The active site of the lipase enzymes is only

effective in conditions above pH 7.

Parts of the small intestine

How is the fat digested?
Let’s consider the process of fat digestion.
This section of the digestive system exemplifies the true

idea of an organ system as a group of organs working
together for a common function.
The influential organs in the digestion of fat are the:
gall bladder
liver small intestine
pancreas
Each organ plays its part in turning fat into fatty acids
and glycerol phosphates.

A whole lot of bile
liver produces bile fat within the

gastric juice
bile is released from the gall
bladder and passes down
through the bile duct
The bile and the fat meet within the small intestine.
The bile emulsifies the fat. This basically means the fat
is physically broken into smaller pieces.
emulsification by bile
Notice that the fat has not been chemically digested,

only physically. The result is a greater surface area
over which the enzyme, lipase, can attack the fat.

Influx of enzymes
The pancreas and the small intestine now release

enzymes.
Both organs produce all three enzyme types:

pancreas
carbohydrases
proteases
lipases
small intestine

Lipid digestion:
If we just consider fat, the lipase begins to break its

chemical bonds:
lipase
glycerol
phosphate
fat
fatty
acids

Digestive processes - summary
The three processes of chemical digestion can be

summarized as follows.
Large insoluble Enzyme Small soluble food

food
Carbohydrates carbohydrase sugars
Proteins protease amino acids
Fats lipase glycerol phosphates

and fatty acids

Design of the small intestine
There is a further advantage for the small intestine in
being a narrow tube.
With the enzymes being produced in the lining of the

tube, it is essential that the food be forced to mix with
them to ensure that there is efficient digestion before the
food passes through the organ.
If the tube is tight, the food is forced against the sides of

the tube and thus, mixes directly with the enzymes.
enzymes come into contact with food.

What about the waste?
Now that the large insoluble molecules have been

digested down into the small soluble molecules, the body
must separate them from the waste food that has not
been digested.
No food is 100% useful and so there will

always be some waste that needs excreting.
In order to understand how the body carries out this

selection procedure, we need to take a closer look at
the lining of the small intestine.

Inside the small intestine
At first glance, the small intestine appears to

have a flat surface.
However, if we consider what it has to do, we will

understand why this idea cannot be correct.

Absorption:
The small intestine is the site of absorption of useful

molecules of digested food.
These molecules must pass across the lining of the small

intestine and enter the blood stream.
Their destinations are the cells of the body.
Our body cells constantly need these chemicals and

therefore the absorption process must be very efficient
to keep up with the high demand.

Surface area and absorption
If absorption were to occur across a flat lining, then not

enough molecules would pass across the lining in the
desired time.
The only way to improve this situation would be to create

a larger surface area over which absorption could occur.
That is exactly what is present in the small intestine.
Its lining is in fact a highly folded lining, which creates an

enormous surface area in a small space.

Have a look inside a human’s intestines
The small intestine

Maximising the surface area
The result of this folding means that the surface area

of the lining of the small intestine is enormous!
Direction of Food
Epithelium
of small
intestine
This increases the number of places where small

soluble food molecules can pass across and move
into the blood.

Where is the blood?
The blood is found in minute small vessels known as

capillaries. The capillaries are found protruding into the villi.
The blood approaches the villus, picks up the absorbed food

molecules and then leaves.
Digestive products in the blood
Remember that the small intestine lining is made up of thousands
of villi.
Here is a summary of the process of absorption. A
S
sugars
O B
R L
amino acids O
P
O
fatty acids T
D
and glycerol
phosphates I
O
Any indigestible food will leave the small N
intestine without having been absorbed.

The large intestine
Let us now move on to the next organ in the system, the

large intestine or colon.
As the food enters this organ, all that is left is waste

material and water. The body will want to leave the waste
material within the digestive system but the water is
valuable.

Water regulation
This water will need to be retained by the body in order to

prevent dehydration.
Remember that all the liquids you drink provide the largest
source of water for the body.
The blood reabsorbs the excess water that is mixed with

the waste food.
Again, if something is going to be absorbed, it

must have somewhere to go.

Expelling the waste
Waste material then passes

into a storage organ called
the rectum.
This waste material mainly

rectum
consists of indigestible food.
It makes up the bulk of the
faeces (solid excrement) that
will be excreted.
In order for the waste material to be removed, another

sphincter muscle must relax. This opens the anus and
the faeces can pass out of the system.

Important body tissues in digestion
We have now finished our journey through the digestive

system. We have seen the chemical and physical
digestion of large & insoluble into small & soluble food.
It is important to remember that the digestive system

relies heavily on the presence of two important types of
body tissue.
1. Glandular tissue This is responsible for the

production of the digestive
enzymes.
2. Muscular tissue Through constant contraction

and relaxation, the food is kept
moving through the system,
from the mouth to the anus.

Digestive System

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KS4 Biology

1 of 55 © Boardworks Ltd 2004

The digestive system, being an organ system, is

Each organ has a particular function and only by

2 of 55 © Boardworks Ltd 2004

The only visible parts of the digestive system are the

The sound of a rumbling stomach and the fact that

What happens to the food in our bodies?

3 of 55 © Boardworks Ltd 2004

This means it is broken down.

This digestion happens in 2 ways.

As we know all food has a physical shape and is

4 of 55 © Boardworks Ltd 2004

As we move through the digestive system, we will see one or

The shape of the food must be This allows useful chemicals

Digestion is the chemical and physical breakdown of

Let’s take a close look at how this happens… Open wide

6 of 55 © Boardworks Ltd 2004

All food enters our digestive system through the

The digestive system is really mouth

Stretched out it is a 9m tube!

7 of 55 © Boardworks Ltd 2004

But how does a 9m tube fit into a space,

In addition, the tube passes through organs on its

8 of 55 © Boardworks Ltd 2004

9 of 55 © Boardworks Ltd 2004

The mouth is where digestion begins. Here we find both

We will consider physical digestion first.

If you look in the mirror and smile, you immediately notice

You have 4 basic types of teeth; each type is designed

10 of 55 © Boardworks Ltd 2004

Each is designed to do a different job.

11 of 55 © Boardworks Ltd 2004

12 of 55 © Boardworks Ltd 2004

The shape and size of each tooth is related to the

If we look at the teeth of other animals many of them too

However, the number of each type, their size and their

This is because other organisms have different diets.

13 of 55 © Boardworks Ltd 2004

Small rectangular shaped teeth, which are found

14 of 55 © Boardworks Ltd 2004

Together, these teeth can break up most foods that

Once the teeth have digested the food, it may be small

Therefore, the mouth produces a substance that solves

15 of 55 © Boardworks Ltd 2004

These glands (a special type of tissue)

As mentioned, the saliva has two jobs.

Being a liquid, it softens the food and allows the digested

It also contains a chemical known as an enzyme.

16 of 55 © Boardworks Ltd 2004

Carbohydrates are chains of identical sugar molecules.

sites of enzyme attack

The product of the chemical breakdown of carbohydrates

Enzymes that digests carbohydrates are known as

17 of 55 © Boardworks Ltd 2004

The digestion of carbohydrates can be represented

18 of 55 © Boardworks Ltd 2004

As with carbohydrates, proteins are made of chains of

sites of enzyme attack

Imagine a bead necklace made up of over 20

The enzymes that digest proteins must

The digestion of proteins can be represented by the

20 of 55 © Boardworks Ltd 2004