ELECTRIC VEHICLE

An electric vehicle, also called an electric drive vehicle, uses one or more electric
motors for propulsion. An electric vehicle may be self-contained with a
battery, solar panels or an electric generator toconvert fuel to electricity. EVs
include road and rail vehicles, surface and underwater vessels, electric
aircraft and electric spacecraft.EVs first came into existence in the mid-19th
century, when electricity was among the preferred methods for motor vehicle
propulsion, providing a level of comfort and ease of operation that could not be
achieved by the gasoline cars of the time. Modern internal combustion engines
have been the dominant propulsion method for motor vehicles for almost 100
years, but electric power has remained commonplace in other vehicle types, such
as trains and smaller vehicles of all types in the 21st century.

Abstract:

Due to the problems caused by the gasoline engine on the environment and people,
the automotive industry has turned to the electrical powered vehicle. This report
explains how an electric vehicle works and compares the electric vehicle to the
internal Combustion engine and hybrid vehicle.
History

The first electric vehicle was built between 1832 and 1839 in Scotland by Robert
Anderson, who created the first crude electric carriage. It was not until 1895, after
A.L. Ryker built an electric tricycle and William Morrison built a six passenger
wagon, that America paid attention to the electric vehicle. In 1902 Wood created
the Electric Phaeton, which was more than an electrified horseless carriage and
surrey. The decline in use and production of the electric vehicle occurred in the
1920s. Causes of the decline in production include: a better road system, reduced
price of gasoline by the discovery of the Texas crude oil, invention of the electric
starter, and the mass production of the internal combustion engine vehicles.

Description

The electric vehicle (EV) is propelled by an electric motor, powered by

rechargeable battery packs, rather than a gasoline engine. From the outside, the
vehicle does not appear to be electric. In most cases, electric cars are created by
converting a gasoline-powered car. Often, the only thing that clues the vehicle is
electric is the fact that it is nearly silent

Under the hood, the electric car has:

An electric motor.

A controller.

A rechargeable battery.
The electric motor gets its power from a controller and the controller gets its power
from a rechargeable battery. The electric vehicle operates on an electric/current
principle. It uses a battery pack (batteries) to provide power for the electric motor.
The motor then uses the power (voltage) received from the batteries to rotate a
transmission and the transmission turns the wheels .Four main parts make up the
electric vehicle: the potentiometer, batteries, direct current (DC) controller, and
motor.

Potentiometer. It is circular in shape and it is hooked to the accelerator pedal. The

potentiometer, also called the variable resistor, provides the signal that tells the
controller how much power is it supposed to deliver.

Batteries. The batteries provide power for the controller. Three types of batteries:
leadacid, lithium ion, and nickel-metal hydride batteries. Batteries range in voltage
(power).

DC Controller. The controller takes power from the batteries and delivers it to the
motor. The controller can deliver zero power (when the car is stopped), full power
(when the driver floors the accelerator pedal), or any power level in between. If the
battery pack contains twelve 12-volt batteries, wired in series to create 144 volts,
the controller takes in 144 volts direct current.

Motor. The motor receives power from the controller and turns a transmission.
The transmission then turns the wheels, causing the vehicle to run.

Working of an Electric Car

The base of any car is the battery. As told earlier, the battery used for this car is
very expensive. By using lead acid batteries, the weight of the car increases a lot .
As the number of batteries range from 50 to more, they occupy a lot of space as
well. They generate lesser driving powers comparing to gasoline cars. After a long
drive, they need at least ten hours to get recharged completely. Apart from the
battery used for the car mechanism, there is also an additional 12 V battery on
board. This is needed to provide power for other components like wipers, radio,
and air conditioner and so on. But the extra expense comes when you have to
recharge the battery. You will need a 300V Dc to 12V DC converter.
As told earlier we need 300V DC to drive the AC motor. This rating is converted
to 240V AC and is sent to the motor with the help of the converter. This can only
be done using a set of transistors, which will convert the DC signal into sine waves
rapidly. Thus when the accelerator is fully pressed, the controller produces almost
96 V to the motor. If the accelerator is released, the controller delivers 0V. Thus
the controller stands as a buyer of power from the battery and giver of power to the
motor. As the accelerator is pressed in different modes, the controller is supposed
to give an output power accordingly. So, variable potentiometers are connected
between the accelerator and the controller, so that variable, but proportional power
can be delivered to the motor. But, if the potentiometer goes wrong the result can
be fatal. So, as a safety measure, there are two potentiometers connected to the
accelerator. If both show equal value, then the controller proceeds. If they are
different, the controller stops working. The greatest disadvantage of this is that the
whole car stops working if a single potentiometer goes wrong. In most of the cars,
the controller is just a normal switch with an ON position while accelerating and
an OFF position while decelerating. But, this is difficult for the driver as he will
not get a flow. Thus the controller acts as a pulsator. It notices the value of
potentiometer and rapidly switches the proportional power to the motor.

The motors used in electric cars can be AC or DC. Mostly DC motors are preferred
than AC motors because they are simple to configure and are not at all expensive.
For AC motors 3-phase motors have to be used, running at 240V AC. DC motors,
on the other hand requires only (96-192)Volts. DC motors can also be overdriven
for a short period of time.

Advantages

1. Fuel can be harnessed from any source of electricity, which is available in most
homes and businesses.
2. It reduces hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide, responsible for many
environmental problems, by 98%

3.Also reduces pollution.

4.Does not produce emissions. Important in urban cities, where cleaner air is much
needed.

Disadvantages

1. Accessories, such as air conditioning and radios drain the battery.

2. Limited in the distance that can be driven before the complete failure of the
battery.
3. Heavier car due to the electric motors, batteries, chargers, and controllers.
4. More expensive because of cost of the parts.

Emissions

Compared to gasoline powered vehicles, electric vehicles are considered to be

ninetyseven percent cleaner, producing no tailpipe emissions that
canplaceparticulate matter into the air.

Future of the electric vehicle:

Future electric cars will most likely carry lithium-ion phosphate (LiFePO4)
batteries that are now becoming popular in other countries. The LiFePO4 batteries
are rechargeable and powerful and are being used in electric bikes and scooters.
Electric cars will most likely adopt this technology in the future.Another
technology that is likely for future electric cars is the increased use of
supercapacitors and ultracapacitors for storing and delivering electrical charge.
Many of these batteries are currently being used in conjunction with hybrid car
prototypes, sothese are expected in the electric car future markets as well.
Electric vehicle manufacturers in India
Fully Electric Cars

 Mahindra e2oPlus
 Mahindra e Verito

Mahindra Electric, the electric mobility division of the Mahindra Group,

recently announced the launch of the all-electric eVerito. The drivetrain
technology has been developed by Mahindra Electric, and the direct-drive
single-speed transmission car can be fully charged in 8 hours and 45 minutes,
as well as quick charged to 80 per cent in under two hours through fast-
charging technology. Mahindra claim that on a full charge, the eVerito can
travel for about 110 kilometres, subject to vehicle loading, and can achieve a
top speed of 86 km/h. All this, and running costs of about Rs 1.12 per
kilometre. The company also provides include real-time and immediate
assistance wherever the vehicle may be. The eVerito boasts several features
seen on electric and hybrid vehicles from all over the world, but many are firsts
for India. These include regenerative braking, where the kinetic energy from
the wheels is recovered while braking and stored as electric energy, and
telematics to capture more than 190 vehicle performance parameters to enable
remote monitoring and diagnostics. Mahindra has also developed a patented
system called Revive, which is like an emergency reserve charge; this feature
can be activated to gain an extra eight kilometres of range, to help users get
home or to the nearest charging station in case of an emergency. The new
eVerito also features a hill hold feature to prevent the car from rolling
backwards on an incline.

Conclusion

As seen in this report, the electric vehicle has many advantages and benefits over
the internal combustion engine and hybrid vehicle. It is cleaner and much more
efficient; however, it also has disadvantages. It is heavier, limited to the distance it
can travel before recharge, and costs more. The future of the EV relies on its
battery. If researchers can produce or find the “super battery”, the EV’s future is
promising. As of today, each vehicle has its own characteristic that makes it better
than the other. Only time and technological improvements will tell which vehicle
will excel in the future

Hybrid Vehicle:

Abstract:

With the advancement in 21st Century, there hasbeen increase in usage of Oil and
Gas leading to problems likeGlobal Warming, climate change, shortage of crude
oil, etc. Dueto these reasons Automobile Companies have started doingresearch for
making Hybrid Techonology usable into the daily
life. discuss the technologies used in the making of Hybrid Carssuch as “Hybrid
Solar Vehicle”, “Hybrid Electric Vehicle” and“Plug In hybrid electric vehicles”.
there areexplanation of such technologies, their function, drawback of
thistechnology, efficiency of Hybrid Cars, Case studies on thepresent commercial
hybrid cars such as Toyota Prius series,etc and the fuels and raw materials used in
the HybridCars.

INTRODUCTION

This technology made Human Efforts very easythrough commercializing in the

market. As, the world wentthrough 20th Century, there happened many
advancements formaking this technology efficient and cost-effective. Due, to
which it became the commercial success and its use in the dayto day period
increased. People could reach thousands ofkilometres/miles in hours with the help
of this technology. Aswe know everything has its own positive and negative
side.The rate of Carbon Monoxide (CO) and Carbon Dioxide(CO2) suddenly
increased at the dangerous level in the
beginning of 21st Century which made a negative impact onEcosystem, reason for
Global Warming, Health related issues,etc. Hence, the 21st Century will become
the Centuryfor Evolution in various technologies with the main focus
inAutomobile Sector.
TYPES OF HYBRID VEHCILE

A. Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) -A hybrid electric vehicle is a type of hybrid

vehicle which\combines a conventional internal combustion enginepropulsion
system with an electric propulsion system. Or in atechnical way, a Hybrid Electric
Vehicle is a type oftechnology which indulges both mechanical drive train and
electric vehicle. A mechanical drive consists of the Fuel tank, the
CombustionEngine, the gear box and transmission to the wheels in An electric
drive consists of the Battery, an electric motor andPower Electronics for control
The use of Ultracapacitors has a high potential in the Hybrid Electric Vehicles.

B. Hybrid Solar Vehicle (HSV)

This technology is an integration of Vehicle and PhotovoltaicPanels. Normally,
photovoltaic panels are mounted on theroof-tops of the vehicles. It is also classified
into four types: -Series Hybrid, Parallel Hybrid, Series-Parallel Hybrid
andComplex Hybrid. Out of which, Series Hybrid technology is very efficient.

Description of a Hybrid Vehicle

1. The hybrid vehicle (HV) is powered by both a gasoline engine and

electricmotor.

2. The HV runs using power from an internal combustion engine and electric
motor.
3. The engine provides most of the vehicle’s power, and the electric motor
provides additional power when needed.

4. The hybrid vehicle operates on a gasoline and electric energy principle.

5. A hybrid car features a small fuel-efficient gas engine combined with an electric
motor that assists the engine when accelerating.

6. The electric motor is powered by batteries that recharge automatically while

you drive.

7. Five main parts make up the hybrid vehicle: the battery, internal combustion
engine (ICE), generator, power split device, and electric motor.

Battery: The batteries in a hybrid car are the energy storage device for the electric
motor. Unlike the gasoline in the fuel tank, which can only power the gasoline
engine, the electric motor on a hybrid car can put energy into the batteries as well
as draw energy from them.

Internal Combustion Engine (ICE): The hybrid car has an ICE, also known as a
gasoline engine, much like the ones found on most cars. However, the engine on a
hybrid is smaller and uses advanced technologies to reduce emissions and increase
efficiency. Receives its energy from the fuel tank where the gasoline is stored.

Generator: The generator is similar to an electric motor, but it acts only to

produce electrical power for the battery.

Power Split Device: The power-split-device resides between the two motors and
together with the two motors creates a type of continuously variable transmission.

Electric Motor: The electric motor on a hybrid car acts as a motor as well as a
generator. For example, when needed, it takes energy from the batteries to
accelerate the car. But acting as a generator, it slows the car down and returns
energy to the batteries.

Working

In a full hybrid car, the electrical energy is used while the car needs less power.
The gasoline energy is used when the car needs less power. Thus at lower speeds
the battery drives the vehicle and at higher speed the gasoline drives the vehicle.
This technology has been used in cars like Toyota Prius and Ford Escape.

Since both electric motor and an engine are used simultaneously, the size of the
engine will be considerably smaller than the usual ones. But they will be a lot more
advanced than the usual ones. The motor, on the other hand is also used to give
power for the air conditioner, power windows, water pump and also power
steering.

During the starting position, none of the system is working. After the car starts to
move, it is in the normal driving mode. Thus the car will automatically change to
the use of electric motor. Later when the car is accelerated and gains speed, it
switches from the use of motor to the use of engine. Thus the gasoline engine
supplies the required power. This switching is carried out automatically, with the
help of an on-board computer. Since the battery has lost some of its charge, it
needs to be immediately recharged. This is also done automatically. When the car
starts to go in a uniform speed or when it is descending a road, the generator starts
charging the battery.

Working Principle
Theory of Operation for Hybrid

When the driver steps on the pedal the generator converts energy from the engine
into electricity and stores it in the battery. The battery then provides power to the
electric motor. The internal combustion engine and electric motor work
simultaneously and each provide power to the power split device. The power split
device combines both powers and uses it to turn the transmission. The transmission
then turns the wheels and propels the vehicle.The energy used when braking is
converted into electricity and stored in the battery. When braking, the electric
motor is reversed so that, instead of using electricity to turn the wheels, the rotating
wheels turn the motor and create electricity. Using energy from the wheels to turn
the motor slows the vehicle down. When the vehicle is stopped, the gasoline
engine and electric motor shut off automatically so that energy is not wasted in
idling. The battery continues to power auxiliary systems, such as the air
conditioning and dashboard displays.

Advantages

1. Environmentally Friendly
2. Financial Benefits
3. Less dependence on Fossil Fuels
4. Regenerative Braking System
5. Built From Light Materials
Disadvantages

1. Less Power
2. Can be Expensive
3. Poorer Handling
4. Higher Maintenance Costs
5. Presence of High Voltage in Batteries

CONCLUSION

Hybrid Vehicle use no energy during idling state; they turn offand use less energy
than petrol engines at low speeds. Atlower speeds, no smog is emitted maintaining
its sustainable advantage. Till lower speed, the car runs on the electric motorand on
cruising speed, it runs on IC engine. They offer greater mileage than conventional
cars. Noise pollution and emissionof CO2 is considerably reduced. But, they are
more expensive than conventional cars, are.More complex in construction
andworking than IC engine cars, offer larger repair bills, capacity of batteries is not
much advanced.
Comparison between the ICE, HV, and EV:

I.C.E. H.V. E.V.

Converts 20% of Converts 40% of Converts 70%
1. Efficiency the Energy stored the Energy stored Chemical Energy
in gasoline to in gasoline to from the battery to
power the vechicle power the vechicle power the wheel

2. Speed 124 miles/hrs 110 miles/hrs 30-95 miles/hrs

3. Maintenance High High Less

Experimentation-
In January 1990, General Motors' President introduced its EV concept two-seater,
the "Impact", at the Los Angeles Auto Show. That September, the California Air
Resources Board mandated major-automaker sales of EVs, in phases starting in
1998. From 1996 to 1998 GM produced 1117 electric vehicle, 800 of which were
made available through three-year leases.

Ford released a number of their Ford ecostar delivery vans into the market. Honda,
Nissan and Toyota also repossessed and crushed most of their EVs, which, like the
GM EV1s, had been available only by closed-end lease. After public protests,
Toyota sold 200 of its RAV EV to eager buyers; they later sold at over their
original forty-thousand-dollar price. This lesson did not go unlearned; BMW of
Canada sold off a number of Mini EV's when their Canadian testing ended.
The production of the Citroen Berlingo electric stopped in September 2005.
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Edward J. Domino, and Joseph T. kotnik, Result From Sert ion
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