ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS

The fundamental purpose of an electronic communications is to transfer information from

one place to another. Thus electronic communications can be summarized as the transmission,
reception, and processing of information between two or more locations using electronic circuits.
The original source information can be in analog (continuous) form, such as the human voice or
music, or in digital (discrete) form, such as binary-coded numbers or alphanumeric codes. All forms
of information, however, must be converted to electromagnetic energy before being propagated
through an electronic communications systems.

HISTORY
1800 James Clerk Maxwell
-a British Physicist, indicate that electricity and light both travel in form of electromagnetic waves
1888 Heinrich Hertz
-German scientist who able to radiate electromagnetic energy from a machine called oscillator
1892 E. Branley
-developed the first detector
1893 AS Popoff
-Russian experimenter, recorded radio waves emanating from lightning
1837 Samuel Morse
-developed telegraph, the 1st electronic communications system using electromagnetic induction
1876 Alexander Graham Bell
-successfully transmitted human conversation over a functional & Thomas Watson telephone system
1894 Guglielmo Marconi
-Italian Scientist, accomplished the 1st wireless electronic communications
1896 Marconi
-transmitting radio signal up to 2 miles from ship to shore
1899 Marconi
-sent the 1st wireless message across the english channel
1902-The first transatlantic signal were sent from Poldu, England, to newfoundland
1908 Lee Deforest
-invented the triode vacuum tube which allowed for the 1st practical amplification of
electronic signal
1920 -Regular AM radio broadcast began
1933 Maj Edward Armstrong -invented FM
1936 -1st FM commercial broadcasting began
1948 -invented transistor at bell William Shockley, Walter Bratain and John Bardeen
1960 -transistor lead to development and refinement of IC

ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS

A simplified block diagram for an electronic communication system includes a transmitter,
transmission medium, and a receiver. A transmitter is a collection of one or more electronic devices or
circuits that converts the original source information to a signal that is more suitable for transmission over
a given transmission medium. The transmission medium provides a means of transporting signals from a
transmitter to a receiver and can be as simple as a pair of copper wire that propagate signal in the form of
electric current flow. Information can also be converted to electromagnetic light waves and propagated
over optical cables constructed from glass or plastics, and free space can be used for transmission of
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electromagnetic radio waves over great distance or over terrain where it is difficult or expensive to install a
physical cable. A receiver is a collection of electronic devices and circuits that accepts the transmitted
signals from the transmission medium and converts them back to their original form.

MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

Because it is often impractical to propagate information signals over metallic , optical fiber cables
or through Earth’s atmosphere, it is often necessary to modulate the source information onto a higher-
frequency analog signal called a carrier. In essence, the carrier signal carries the information through the
system. The information signal modulates the carrier by changing either its amplitude, frequency, or phase.
Modulation is simply the process of changing one or more properties of the carrier in proportion with the
information signal.
The two basic types of electronic communication systems are digital and analog. An analog
communications system is a system in which energy is transmitted and received in analog form (a
continuously varying signal such as a sine wave). With analog communications systems, both the
information and the carrier are analog signals.
The term digital communications, however, covers a broad range of communications techniques
including digital transmission and digital radio. Digital transmission is a true digital system where digital
pulses (discrete levels such as +5V and ground) are transferred between two or more points in a
communications system, With digital transmission there is no analog carrier and the original source
information may be in digital or analog form. If it is an analog form, it must be converted to digital pulses
prior to transmission and converted back to analog form at the receive end. Digital transmission systems
require a physical facility between the transmitter and receiver such as a metallic wire or an optical fiber
cable.
Digital radio is the transmittal of digitally modulated analog carriers between two or more points in
a communication system. With digital radio, the modulating signal and the transmission system, from a
digital source such as a computer, or be a binary encoded analog signal. In digital radio systems, the
transmission medium may be a physical facility or free space (i.e, the earth atmosphere). Analog
communication systems were the first to developed; however, in recent years, digital communication
systems become more popular.
Equation below is the general expression for a time- varying sine wave of voltage such as a high-
frequency carrier signal. If the information signal is analog and the amplitude (V) of the carrier is varied
proportional to the information signal, amplitude modulation (AM) is produced. If the frequency (f) is varied
proportional to the information signal, frequency modulation (FM) is produced, and, if the phase (θ ) is
varied proportional to the information signal, phase modulation (PM) is produced.
If the information signal is digital and the amplitude (V) of the carrier is varied proportional to the
information signal, a digitally modulated signal known as amplitude shift keying (ASK) is produced. If the
frequency (f) is varied proportional to the information signal, frequency shift keying (FSK) is produced, and if
the phase (θ) is varied proportional to the information signal, phase shift keying is produced. If both the

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amplitude and phase are varied proportional to the information signal, quadrature amplitude modulation
(QAM) resulted. ASK, FSK, PSK, and QAM are forms of digital modulation.

v(t) = V sin (2πft + θ)

where v(t) = time-varying sine wave of voltage

v = peak amplitude in volts
f = frequency in hertz
θ = phase shift in radians

A summary of the various modulation techniques is shown below:

Modulation is performed in a transmitter by a circuit called a modulator. A carrier that has been acted upon
by an information signa is called a modulated wave or modulated signal. Demodulation is the reverse
process of modulation and converts the modulated carrier back to the original information ( i.e. removes
the information from the carrier). Demodulation is performed in a receiver by a circuit called a
demodulator.
There are two reasons why modulation is necessary in electronic communications: (1) It is
extremely difficult to radiate low-frequency signals from an antenna in the form of electromagnetic energy,
and (2) information signals often occupy the same frequency band and, if signals from two or more sources
are transmitted at the same time, they would interfere with each other. For example, all commercial FM
stations broadcast voice and music signals that occupy the audio-frequency band from approximately
300Hz to 15 kHz. To avoid interfering with each other, each station converts its information to a different
frequency band or channel. The term channel is often used to refer to a specific band of frequencies
allocated a particular service. A standard voice-band channel occupies approximately a 3 kHz bandwidth
and is used for transmission of voice-quality signals; commercial AM broadcast channels occupy
approximately a 10 kHz frequency band and 30 MHz or more of bandwidth is required for microwave and
satellite radio.
The simplified block diagram for an electronic communication system showing the relationship
among the modulationg signal, the high frequency carrier, and the modulated sine wave. The information
signal ( sometimes called the intelligence signal) combines with the carrier in the modulator to produce the
modulated wave. The information can be in analog or digital form and the modulator can perform either
analog or digital modulation. Information signals are up-converted from low frequencies to high frequencies
in the transmitter and down-converted from high frequencies to low frequencies in the receiver. The
process of converting a frequency or band of frequencies to another location in the total frequency
spectrum is called frequency transation. Frequency translation is an intricate part of electronic

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communications because information signals may be up – and down- converted many times as they are
tranported through the system called a channel. The modulated signal is transported to the receiver over a
transmission system. In the receiver the modulated signal is amplified, down convertd in frequency, then
demodulated to reproduce the original source information.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

The purpose of an electronic communications system is communicate information between two or more
locations commonly called stations. This is accomplished by converting the information into
electromagnetic energy and then transmitting it to one or more receive stations where it is converted bak
to its original form.. Electromagnetic energy can propagate as a voltage or current along a metallic wire, as
emitted radio wave through free space, or as light waves down an optical fiber. Electromagnetic energy is
distributed throughout an almost infinite range of frequencies.
Frequency is simply the number of times a periodic motion, such as a sine wave of voltage or
current, occurs in a given period of time. Each complete alternation of the waveform is called a cycle.
The basic unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz) and one hertz equals one cycle per second ( 1Hz= 1cps). In
electronics it is common to use metric prefixes to represent higer frequencies.

TRANSMISSION FREQUENCIES
The total electromagnetic frequency spectrum showing the approximate locations of various service
is shown below. The frequency spectrum extends from subsonic frequencies (a few herts) to cosmic rays
(1022 Hz)
The frequency spectrum is further divided into subsections or bands. Each band has a name and
boundaries. In the United States, frequency assignment for free-space radio propagation are assigned by
the Federal Communications Commision (FCC). For example, the commercial FM broadcast band has been
assigned the 88-MHZ to 108- Mhz band. The exact frequencies assigned specific trasmitters operating in the
various classes of services are constantly being updated and altered to meet the nation’s communication
needs.
The total usable radio-frequency (RF) spectrum is divided into narrower frequency bandas, which
are given descriptive names and band numbers, and several of these bands are further broken down into
various types of services. The International Radio Consultative Committee’s (CCIR’s) band designations are
listed below.

Extremely Low Frequencies (ELF) – are signals in the 30Hz – 300Hz range and include AC power
distribution signals (60Hz) and low frequency telemetry signals.
Voice Frequencies (VF) – are signals in the 300Hz to 3000Hz range and include frequencies
generally associated with human speech. Standard telephone channels have a 300Hz to 3kHz bandwidth
and are often called voice frequency or voice-band channels.
Very Low Frequencies (VLF) – are signals in 3kHz-30kHz range, which include the upper end of the
human hearing range. VLF’s are used for some specialized government and military system such as
submarine communications.
Low Frequencies (LF) – are signals in the 30kHz-300kHz range and are used primarily for maritime
and aeronautical navigation.
Medium Frequencies (MF)- are signals in the 300kHz-3MHz range and are used primarily for
commercial AM radio broadcasting (535-1605 kHz)
High Frequencies (HF)- are signals in the 3MHz-30MHz range are often referred to as short waves.
Most two-way radio communications use this range, and Voice of America and Radio Free Europe
broadcast within the HF band. Amateur radio and Citizens band (CB) radio also use signals in the HF range.

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 Very High Frequencies (VHF)- are signals in the 30MHz-300Mhz, commercial FM broadcasting (88-
108MHz) and commercial television broadcasting of channels 2-13 (54-216 MHz).
Ultra High Frequencies – are signals in the 300MHz-3GHz range and are used by commercial
television broadcasting of channel 14-83, land mobile communications services, cellular telephones, certain
radar and navigation systems, and microwave and satellite radio systems. Generally speaking, frequencies
above 1 GHz are considered microwave frequencies, which includes the upper end of the UHF range.
Super High Frequencies – are signals in the 3GHz- to 30GHz range and include the majority of the
frequencies used for microwave and satellite radio communication systems.
Extremely High Frequencies – are signals in 30GHz-300GHz range and are seldom used for radio
communications except in very sophisticated , expensive and specialized applications.
Infrared – are signals in the 0.3THz to 300THz range and are not generally referred to as radio
waves. It refers to electromagnetic rdiation generallt associated with heat. Infrared signals are used in heat-
seeking guidance systems, electronic photography, and astronomy.
Visible light – includes electromagnetic frequencies that fall within the visible range of humans (0.3
PHz t0 3 PHz). Ight wave communications is used with optical fiber system, which in recent years have
become a primary transmission medium for electronic communications system.
Ultraviolet rays, X-rays, gamma rays and cosmic rays have little application to electronic
communications and, therefore, will not be described.

Band Number Frequency Range Designation

2 30-300 Hz Extremely Low Frequencies
3 300-3000 Hz Voice Frequency
4 3-30 kHz Very Low Frequencies
5 30-300 kHz Low Frequencies
6 300-3000 kHz Medium Frequencies
7 3-30 MHz High Frequencies
8 30-300 MHz Very High Frequencies
9 300-3000 MHz Ultra High Frequencies
10 3-30 GHz Super High Frequencies
11 30-300 GHz Extremely High Frequencies
12 300-3000 GHz Infrared Light
13 3-30 THz Infrared Light
14 30-300 THz Infrared Light
15 300-3000 THz Visible Light
16 3-30 PHz Ultraviolet light
17 30-300 PHz X-rays
18 300-3000 PHz Gamma Rays
19 3-30 Ehz Cosmic rays

When dealing with radio waves, it is common to use the units of wavelength rather than frequency.
Wavelength is the length that one cycle of an electromagnetic wave occupies in space (i.e, the distance
between similar points in a repetitive wave). Wavelength is inversely proportional to the frequency of the
wave and directly proportional to the velocity of propagation ( the velocity of propagation of
electromagnetic energy in free space is assumed to be the speed of light, 3x108 m/s. The relationship
among frequency, velocity and wavelength is expressed mathematically as

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 Where λ = wavelength (meters per cycle)
c = velocity of light (3x108 m/s)
f = frequency (hertz)

Example
Determine the wavelength in meters for the following frequencies 1 kHz, 100 kHz and 10 MHz

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSMITTERS
For licensing purposes in US, radio transmitters are classified according to their bandwidth,

modulation scheme, and type of information. The emission classifications are identified by a three-
symbol code containing a combination of letters and numbers . The first symbol is a letter that designates
the type of modulation of the main carrier. The second symbol is a number that identifies the type of
emission, and the third symbol is another letter that describes the type of information being transmitted.
For exampe, the designation A3E describes a double-sideband, full-carrier, amplitude-modulated signal
carrying voice or music telephony information.

FIRST LETTER SECOND LETTER

N Un-modulated Carrier 0 No modulating signal
A Double Sideband Full Carrier 1 Digitally keyed carrier
B Independent Sideband Full Carrier 2 Digitally keyed tone
C Vestigial Sideband Full Carrier 3 Analog (sound or video)
H Single Sideband Full Carrier 7 Two or more digital channels
J Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier 8 Two or more analog channels
R Single Sideband Reduced Carrier 9 Analog and digital
F Frequency modulation THIRD LETTER
G Phase Modulation A Telegraphy, manual
D AM and FM simultaneously or sequenced B Telegraphy, automatic (teletype)
K Pulse Amplitude modulation C Facsimile
L Pulse Width Modulation D Data, telemetry
M Pulse Position Modulation E telephony (sound broadcasting)
P Un-modulated Pulses (binary data) F Telephony (video broadcasting)
Q Angle Modulated during pulses N No information transmitted
V Any combination of pulse-modulation category W Any combination of second letter
W Any combination of two or more of the above
forms of modulation
X Cases not otherwise covered

BANDWIDTH AND INFORMATION CAPACITY

The two most significant limitations on the performance of a communications system are noise and
bandwidth. The bandwidth of an information signal is simply the difference between the highest and lowest
frequencies contained in the information, and the bandwidth of communications channel is the difference
between the highest and lowest frequencies that the channel will allow to pass through it (i.e., its
passband). The bandwidth of a communication channel must be large (wide) enough to pass all significant
information frequencies. In other words, the bandwidth f the communications channel must be equal to or
greater than the bandwidth of the information. For example, voice frequencies contain signals between 300

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Hz and 3000Hz. Therefore, a voice-frequency channel must have a bandwith equal to or greater than
2700Hz (300Hz-3000Hz). If a cable television transmission system has a passband from 500kHz to 5000kHz,
it has a bandwidth of 4500kHz. As a general rule, a communications channel cannot propagate a signal that
contains a frequency that is changing at a rate greater than the bandwidth of the channel.
Informatiom theory is a highly theoretical study of the efficient use of bandwidth to propagate
information through electronic communications systems. Information theory can be used to determine the
information capacity of a communications system. Information capacity is a measure of how much
information can be propagated through a trnsmission system is a function of system bandwidth and
transmission time. In 1920, R Hartley of Bell Telephone Labarotories developed the relationship among the
width, transmission time, and information capacity. Hartley’s law simply states that the wider the
bandwidth and the longer time of transmission, the more information that can be conveyed through the
system. Mathematically, Hartley’s law is stated as

Where I = information capacity (bits per second)

B= system bandwidth (hertz)
t = transmission time (seconds)
The equation show that the information capacity is a linear function and directly proportional to
both system bandwidth and transmission time. If the bandwidth of a communications channel doubles, the
amount informtion it can carry also doubles. If the transmission time increases or decreases, there is a
proportional change in the amount of the information that can be trasferred throught the system.
In general, the more complex the information signal, the more bandwidth required to transport it
in a given period of time. Approximately 3 kHz of bandwidth is required to transmit voice-quality telephone
signals. In contrast 200kHz of bandwidth is allocated for commercial FM transmission of high-fidelity music,
and almost 6MHz of bandwidth is required for broadcast-quality television signals.
In 1948, C. E. Shannon (also a Bell Telephone Laboratories) published a paper in the Bell System
Technical Journal relating the information capacity of a communications channel in bits-per-second (bps) to
bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio. Mathematically stated, the Shannon limit for information capacity is

or

Where I = information capacity (bits per second)

B= bandwidth (hertz)
S= signal-to-noise ratio (unitless)
N

For a standard voice band communications channel with a signal-to-noise power ratio of 1000 (30dB) and a
bandwidth of 2.7 kHz, the shannon limit for information capacity is?

Shannon’s formula is often misunderstood. The results of the preceding example indicate that that 26.9
kbps can be transferred through a 2.7 kHz channel. This may be true, but it cannot be done with a binary
system. To achieve an informtion transmission rate of 26.9 kbps through a 2.7 kHz channel, each symbol
transmitted must contain more than one bit of information. Therefore, to achieve the shannon limit for
information capacity, digital transmission systems that have more than two output conditions (symbols)
must be used.

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 TRANSMISSION MODES
Electronic communications systems can be designed to handel transmission only in one direction, in both
directions but it only one direction at a time, or in both directions at the same time. These are called
transmission models. Four transmission modes are possible: simplex, half duplex, full duplex and full/full
duplex
Simplex (SX)
With simplex operation, transmission can occur only in one direction. Simplex sysytems are
sometimes called one-way-only, receive only, or transmit only systems. A location may be a transmitter or a
receiver, but not both.
Half Duplex (HDX)
With half-duplex operation, transmissions can occur in both directions, but not at the same time.
Half duplex systems are sometimes called two-way-alternate, either-way, or over-and-out systems. A
location may be a transmitter and a receiver, but not at the same time.

Full Duplex (FDX)

With full-duplex operation, transmission can occur in both directions at the same time. Full-duplex
systems are sometimes called two-way simultaneous, duplex or both-way lines. A location can transmit and
receive simultaneously; however, the station it is transmitting to must also be the station it is receiving
from.
Full/Full Duplex (F/FDX)
With full/full duplex, it is possible to transmit and receive simultaneously, but not necessarily
between the same two locations (i.e. one station can transmit to a second station and receive from a third
station at the same time). Full/full duplex transmissions are used almost exclusivley with data
communication circuits.

Mode of Electronic Communication Transmission

SIMPLEX Duplex
a. Amplitude Modulation Radio ->Half Duplex
b. Frequency Modulation Radio a. Two way radio
c. Television Broadcasting b. Radio detection and ranging
d. Cable television c. Sound navigation and Ranging
e. Facsimile d. Amateur Radio
f. Teletext and view data e. Citizen band radio
g.Garage door openers
h. Baby monitors ->Full Duplex
i. Wireless microphones a. Cellular network
j. Radio controlled models b. Telephones
k. Public address systems
l. Surveillance cameras -> Full-Full Duplex
m. Pagers a. Local Area network
n. Communication between a mouse and a computer b. Data Communication
o. Internet multicast
p. Radio navigation beacons and radiolocation services such as GPS
q. Telemetry
r. printers

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Simplex
a.Amplitude Modulation Radio - AM broadcasting is the process of radio broadcasting using amplitude
modulation (AM). AM was the first method of impressing sound on a radio signal and is still widely used
today. Commercial and public AM broadcasting is authorized in the medium wave band worldwide, and
also in parts of the longwave and shortwave bands.
b. Frequency Modulation Radio-FM broadcasting is a VHF broadcasting technology, pioneered by Edwin
Howard Armstrong, which uses frequency modulation (FM) to provide high-fidelity sound over broadcast
radio. The term "FM band" describes the frequency band in a given country which is dedicated to FM
broadcasting.
c. Television Broadcasting- A Television, commonly referred to as TV or Tele is a telecommunication
medium used for transmitting sound with moving images in monochrome (black-and-white), colour, or in
three dimensions. It can refer to a television set, a television program, or the medium of television
transmission. Television is a mass medium, for entertainment, advertising and news.
d. Cable television - Cable television is a system of delivering television programming to paying subscribers
via radio frequency (RF) signals transmitted through coaxial cables or light pulses through fiber-optic cables.
The abbreviation CATV is often used for cable television. It originally stood for Community Access Television
or Community Antenna Television, from cable television's origins in 1948: in areas where over-the-air
reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large "community antennas"
were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes
e. Facsimile- Fax (short for facsimile), sometimes called telecopying or telefax, is the telephonic
transmission of scanned printed material (both text and images), normally to a telephone number
connected to a printer or other output device. The original document is scanned with a fax machine (or a
telecopier), which processes the contents (text or images) as a single fixed graphic image, converting it into
a bitmap, and then transmitting it through the telephone system in the form of audio-frequency tones. The
receiving fax machine interprets the tones and reconstructs the image, printing a paper copy.
f. Teletext and view data- Teletext is a means of sending text and simple geometric shapes to a properly
equipped television screen by use of one of the "vertical blanking interval" lines that together form the dark
band dividing pictures horizontally on the television screen. It offers a range of text-based information,
typically including news, weather and TV schedules. Paged subtitle (or closed captioning) information is also
transmitted within the television signal.
g. Garage door openers- A garage door opener is a motorized device that opens and closes garage doors.
Most are controlled by switches on the garage wall, as well as by remote controls carried by the owner.
h. Baby monitors- A baby monitor, also known as a baby alarm, is a radio system used to remotely listen to
sounds made by an infant. An audio monitor consists of a transmitter unit, equipped with a microphone,
placed near to the child. It transmits the sounds by radio waves to a receiver unit with a speaker carried by,
or near to, the person caring for the infant. One of the primary uses of baby monitors is to allow attendants
to hear when an infant wakes, while out of immediate hearing distance of the infant
i. Wireless microphones - A wireless microphone is a microphone without a physical cable connecting it
directly to the sound recording or amplifying equipment with which it is associated. Also known as a radio
microphone, it has a small, battery-powered radio transmitter in the microphone body, which transmits the
audio signal from the microphone by radio waves to a nearby receiver unit, which recovers the audio.
j. Radio controlled models - A radio-controlled model (or RC model) is a model that is steerable with the
use of radio control. All types of vehicles imaginable have had RC systems installed in them, including cars,
boats, planes, and even helicopters and scale railway locomotives.
k. Public address systems- A public address system (PA system) is an electronic sound amplification and
distribution system with a microphone, amplifier and loudspeakers, used to allow a person to address a

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large public, for example for announcements of movements at large and noisy air and rail terminals or at a
sports stadium.
l.Surveillance cameras- Closed-circuit television (CCTV), also known as video surveillance, is the use of video
cameras to transmit a signal to a specific place, on a limited set of monitors. It differs from broadcast
television in that the signal is not openly transmitted, though it may employ point to point (P2P), point to
multipoint, or mesh wireless links
m.Pagers- A pager (also known as a beeper) is a wireless telecommunications device that receives and
displays numeric and/or receives and announces voice messages. One-way pagers can only receive
messages, while response pagers and two-way pagers can also acknowledge, reply to, and originate
messages using an internal transmitter.
n. Communication between a mouse and a computer - a mouse is a pointing device that detects two-
dimensional motion relative to a surface. This motion is typically translated into the motion of a pointer on
a display, which allows for fine control of a graphical user interface.
o. Internet multicast - IP multicast is a method of sending Internet Protocol (IP) datagrams to a group of
interested receivers in a single transmission. It is often employed for streaming media applications on the
Internet and private networks.
p. Radio navigation beacons and radiolocation services such as GPS - Radio navigation or radionavigation
is the application of radio frequencies to determine a position on the Earth.
Radiolocating is the process of finding the location of something through the use of radio waves. It
generally refers to passive uses, particularly radar—as well as detecting buried cables, water mains, and
other public utilities. It is similar to radionavigation, but radiolocation usually refers to passively finding a
distant object rather than actively one's own position. Both are types of radiodetermination. Radiolocation
is also used in real-time locating systems (RTLS) for tracking valuable assets.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based satellite navigation system that provides location and
time information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near the earth where there is an unobstructed
line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. The system provides critical capabilities to military, civil, and
commercial users around the world.
q.Telemetry- Telemetry is the highly automated communications process by which measurements are
made and other data collected at remote or inaccessible points and transmitted to receiving equipment for
monitoring.[1] The word is derived from Greek roots: tele = remote, and metron = measure. A telemeter is
a device used to remotely measure any quantity. It consists of a sensor, a transmission path, and a display,
recording, or control device
r.printers - a printer is a peripheral which makes a persistent human readable representation of graphics or
text on paper or similar physical media.

Duplex
->Half Duplex
a. Two way radio- A two-way radio is a radio that can both transmit and receive (a transceiver), unlike a
broadcast receiver which only receives content. A two-way radio (transceiver) allows the operator to have a
conversation with other similar radios operating on the same radio frequency (channel).
b. Radio detection and ranging - Radar is an object-detection system that uses radio waves to determine
the range, altitude, direction, or speed of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided
missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. The radar dish (or antenna) transmits pulses of
radio waves or microwaves that bounce off any object in their path. The object returns a tiny part of the
wave's energy to a dish or antenna that is usually located at the same site as the transmitter.

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c. Sound navigation and Ranging- Sonar (originally an acronym for SOund Navigation And Ranging) is a
technique that uses sound propagation (usually underwater, as in submarine navigation) to navigate,
communicate with or detect objects on or under the surface of the water, such as other vessels. Two types
of technology share the name "sonar": passive sonar is essentially listening for the sound made by vessels;
active sonar is emitting pulses of sounds and listening for echoes. Sonar may be used as a means of acoustic
location and of measurement of the echo characteristics of "targets" in the water.
d. Amateur Radio - Amateur radio (also called "ham" radio) is the use of designated radio frequency
spectra for purposes of private recreation, non-commercial exchange of messages, wireless
experimentation, self-training, and emergency communication. The term "amateur" is used to specify "a
duly authorized person interested in radioelectric practice with a purely personal aim and without
pecuniary interest;
e. Citizen band radio- Citizens Band radio (also known as CB radio) is, in many countries, a system of short-
distance radio communications between individuals on a selection of 40 channels within the 27 MHz (11 m)
band. Citizens band is distinct from the FRS, GMRS, MURS, and Amateur Radio Service ("ham" radio)
systems. In many countries, CB operation does not require a license, and (unlike amateur radio) it may be
used for business or personal communications. Like many other two-way radio services, citizens band
channels are shared by many users. Only one station may transmit at a time; other stations must listen and
wait for the shared channel to be available.

->Full Duplex
a.Cellular Network - A cellular network or mobile network is a wireless network distributed over land areas
called cells, each served by at least one fixed-location transceiver, known as a cell site or base station. In a
cellular network, each cell uses a different set of frequencies from neighboring cells, to avoid interference
and provide guaranteed bandwidth within each cell.
b.Telephones- A telephone, or phone, is a telecommunications device that permits two or more users to
conduct a conversation when they are too far apart to be heard directly. A telephone converts sound,
typically and most efficiently the human voice, into electronic signals suitable for transmission via cables or
other transmission media over long distances, and replays such signals simultaneously in audible form to its
user.

->Full-Full Duplex
a. Local Area network- A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects computers
within a limited area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, or office building, using network media
b. Data Communication

Antenna
An antenna is the interface between transmission lines and through free space, it can transmit in all
direction (omnidirectional) or in specific direction (directional)

An antenna (plural antennae or antennas), or aerial, is an electrical device which converts electric
power into radio waves, and vice versa. It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver. In
transmission, a radio transmitter supplies an electric current oscillating at radio frequency (i.e. a high
frequency alternating current (AC)) to the antenna's terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from
the current as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power
of an electromagnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminals that is applied to a receiver to
be amplified.

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 Antennas are essential components of all equipment that uses radio. They are used in systems such
as radio broadcasting, broadcast television, two-way radio, communications receivers, radar, cell phones,
and satellite communications, as well as other devices such as garage door openers, wireless microphones,
Bluetooth-enabled devices, wireless computer networks, baby monitors, and RFID tags on merchandise.

Typically an antenna consists of an arrangement of metallic conductors (elements), electrically

connected (often through a transmission line) to the receiver or transmitter. An oscillating current of
electrons forced through the antenna by a transmitter will create an oscillating magnetic field around the
antenna elements, while the charge of the electrons also creates an oscillating electric field along the
elements. These time-varying fields radiate away from the antenna into space as a moving transverse
electromagnetic field wave. Conversely, during reception, the oscillating electric and magnetic fields of an
incoming radio wave exert force on the electrons in the antenna elements, causing them to move back and
forth, creating oscillating currents in the antenna.

Antennas can be designed to transmit and receive radio waves in all horizontal directions equally
(omnidirectional antennas), or preferentially in a particular direction (directional or high gain antennas).

Reciprocity is a fundamental property of antennas that the electrical characteristics of an antenna

described in the next section, such as gain, radiation pattern, impedance, bandwidth, resonant frequency
and polarization, are the same whether the antenna is transmitting or receiving

Antenna types
Isotropic: An isotropic antenna (isotropic radiator) is a hypothetical antenna that radiates equal signal
power in all directions. It is a mathematical model that is used as the base of comparison to calculate the
gain of real antennas. No real antenna can have an isotropic radiation pattern.

Dipole: The dipole is the prototypical antenna on which a large class of antennas are based. A basic dipole
antenna consists of two conductors (usually metal rods or wires) arranged symmetrically, with one side of
the balanced feedline from the transmitter or receiver attached to each

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Monopole antennas consist of a single conductor such as a metal rod, mounted over the ground or an
artificial conducting surface (a so-called ground plane). One side of the feedline from the receiver or
transmitter is connected to the conductor, and the other side to ground and/or the artificial ground plane.
The monopole is best understood as a dipole antenna in which one conductor is omitted; the radiation is
generated as if the second arm of the dipole were present due to the effective image current seen as a
reflection of the monopole from the ground. Since all of the equivalent dipole's radiation is concentrated in
a half-space, the antenna has twice (3 dB increase of) the gain of a similar dipole, not considering losses in
the ground plane.

Radio Wave Propagation

There are three way in propagating the frequency in free space

Surface wave propagation- The surface wave is a radio wave that is modified by the nature of the terrain
over which it travels. A surface wave will predominate at all radio frequencies up to approximately 3 MHz.

Surface Wave Propagation.—The surface wave reaches the receiving site by travelling along the surface of
the ground. A surface wave can follow the contours of the Earth because of the process of diffraction.
When a surface wave meets an object and the dimensions of the object do not exceed its wavelength, the
wave tends to curve or bend around the object. The smaller the object, the more pronounced the
diffractive action will be.

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As a surface wave passes over the ground, the wave induces a voltage in the Earth. The induced voltage
takes energy away from the surface wave, thereby weakening, or attenuating, the wave as it moves away
from the transmitting antenna. To reduce the attenuation, the amount of induced voltage must be
reduced. This is done by using vertically polarized waves that minimize the extent to which the electric field
of the wave is in contact with the Earth. When a surface wave is horizontally polarized, the electric field of
the wave is parallel with the surface of the Earth and, therefore, is constantly in contact with it. The wave is
then completely attenuated within a short distance from the transmitting site. On the other hand, when
the surface wave is vertically polarized, the electric field is vertical to the Earth and merely dips into and out
of the Earth's surface. For this reason, vertical polarization is vastly superior to horizontal polarization for
surface wave propagation.

The attenuation that a surface wave undergoes because of induced voltage also depends on the electrical
properties of the terrain over which the wave travels. The best type of surface is one that has good
electrical conductivity. The better the conductivity the less the attenuation it is.

Another major factor in the attenuation of surface waves is frequency. Recall from earlier discussions on
wavelength that the higher the frequency of a radio wave, the shorter its wavelength will be. These high
frequencies, with their shorter wavelengths, are not normally diffracted but are absorbed by the Earth at
points relatively close to the transmitting site. You can assume, therefore, that as the frequency of a surface
wave is increased, the more rapidly the surface wave will be absorbed, or attenuated, by the Earth. Because
of this loss by attenuation, the surface wave is impractical for long- distance transmissions at frequencies
above 2 megahertz. On the other hand, when the frequency of a surface wave is low enough to have a very
long wavelength, the Earth appears to be very small, and diffraction is sufficient for propagation well
beyond the horizon. In fact, by lowering the transmitting frequency into the very low frequency (VLF) range
and using very high-powered transmitters, the surface wave can be propagated great distances. The Navy's
extremely high-powered VLF transmitters are actually capable of transmitting surface wave signals around
the Earth and can provide coverage to naval units operating anywhere at sea.

Sky wave propagation - Sky waves are severely influenced by the action of free electrons, called ions, in
the upper atmosphere and are caused to be attenuated and refracted, possibly being returned to earth.
The prime method of radio wave propagation in the HF band between 3 and 30 MHz is by sky wave

The sky wave, often called the ionospheric wave, is radiated in an upward direction and returned to Earth
at some distant location because of refraction from the ionosphere. This form of propagation is relatively
unaffected by the Earth's surface and can propagate signals over great distances. Usually the high
frequency (HF) band is used for sky wave propagation. The following in-depth study of the ionosphere and
its effect on sky waves will help you to better understand the nature of sky wave propagation.

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Space wave propagation, when propagated into the troposphere by an earth surface station, is subject
to deflection by variations in the refractive index structure of the air through which it passes. This causes
the radio wave to follow the earth’s curvature for a short distance beyond the horizon making the radio
horizon somewhat longer than the visible horizon.

The space wave follows two distinct paths from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna—one
through the air directly to the receiving antenna, the other reflected from the ground to the receiving
antenna. This is illustrated in figure 2-13. The primary path of the space wave is directly from the
transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna. So, the receiving antenna must be located within the radio
horizon of the transmitting antenna. Because space waves are refracted slightly, even when propagated
through the troposphere, the radio horizon is actually about one-third farther than the line-of-sight or
natural horizon.

Although space waves suffer little ground attenuation, they nevertheless are susceptible to fading. This is
because space waves actually follow two paths of different lengths (direct path and ground reflected path)
to the receiving site and, therefore, may arrive in or out of phase. If these two component waves are
received in phase, the result is a reinforced or stronger signal. Likewise, if they are received out of phase,
they tend to cancel one another, which results in a weak or fading signal.

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