Tom Drozda - Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook, Vol 1 - Machining (1983, Society of Manufacturing) PDF

TOOL AND MANUFACTURING
ENGINEERS HANDBOOK
VOLUME I
MACHINING
SOCIETY OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERS
OFFICERS AND DIRECTORS
President Nathan A. Chiantella, CMfgE John E. Mayer, Jr., CMfgE

Charles F. Carter, Jr., CMfgE, PE IBM Corporation Ford Motor Company
Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
Frank R.L. Daley, CMfgE, PE
Vice President John E. Mungerson, CMfgE, PE
Reginald W. Barrett, CMfgE John J. DiPonio, CMfgE, PE Boeing Commercial Airplane
Pyle National Company Ford Motor Company Company
Vice President Clarehce W. Doty, CMfgE Bill B. Osborne, CMfgE
Forrest D. Brummett, CMfgE Rockwell International Company IBM Corporation
General Motors Corporation J.B. FitzPatrick, CMfgE, PE Gary J. Peterson, CMfgE, PE
Vice President J .B. BIO-Engineering Hewlett-Packard Company
Marvin F. DeVries, CMfgE, PE Donald E. Gardiner Sam C. Peticolas, CMfgE
University of Wisconsin-Madison General Electric Company Ferris State College
Secretary/ Treasurer Wilfred E. Greenlee, CMfgE Fred W. Randall, CMfgE, PE
Donald G. Zook, CMfgE, PE Vought Corporation
Caterpillar Tractor Co. William H. Haussler
Frank J. Riley, CMfgE, PE
William J. Hilty Kenneth D. Hurt, CMfgE The Bodine Corporation
Executive Vice President Caterpillar Tractor Co.
and General Manager Anthony J. Roedel, Jr., CMfgE
Neal P. Jeffries, CMfgE, PE
Center for Manufacturing Khalil S. Taraman, CMfgE, PE
Technology University of Detroit
Robert C.Laumann, CMfgE Frank M. Trcka, CMfgE, PE
Herbert A. Beyer Technical Equipment Sales Bourns Inc.
DeVlieg Machine Company Company
Robert L. Vaughn, CMfgE, PE
Douglas E. Booth, CMfgE, PE Jerry L. Lyons, CMfgE, PE Lockheed Missiles & Space
Livernois Automation Company Essex Industries Inc. Co., Inc.
TOOL AND MANUFACTURING
ENGINEERS HANDBOOK
Fourth Edition
VOLUME I
MACHINING
A reference book f o r manufacturing engineers, managers, and technicians
Thomas J. Drozda, PE, CMfgE

Editor-In-Chief
Charles Wick, CMfgE

Managing Editor
Revised under the supervision of

the SME Publications Committee
i n cooperation with the SME
Tech nica I Divisions
Society of Manufacturing Engineers

One SME Drive
Dear bor n, Mic higa n
ISBN N O . 0-87263-085-4
Library of Congress Catalog No. 82-060312

Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME)
Copyright @ 1983, 1976, 1959, 1949 by Society of Manufacturing Engineers. One S M E

Drive, P.O. Box 930, Dearborn, Michigan 48128
All rights reserved, including those of translation. This book, or parts thereof, may not be
reproduced in any form without written permission of the copyright owner. The Society
does not, by publication of data in this book, ensure to anyone the use of such data against
liability of any kind, including infringement of any patent. Publication of any data in this
book does not constitute a recommendation of any patent or proprietary right that may be
involved. The Society of Manufacturing Engineers disclaims any and all responsibility for
use of the information contained herein by readers and users of this Handbook.
First edition published 1949 by McGraw-Hill Book Co. in cooperation with SME under
earlier Society name, American Society of Tool Engineers (ASTE), and under title: Tool
Engineers Handbook. Second edition published 1959 by McGraw-Hill Book Co. in
cooperation with SME under earlier Society name, American Society of Tool and
Manufacturing Engineers (ASTME), and under title: Tool Engineers Handbook. Third
edition published 1976 by McGraw-Hill Book Co. in cooperation with SME under
current Society name, and under title: Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook.
Printed in the United States of America

PREFACE
The first edition, published as the Tool Engineers Handbook in 1949,
established a useful and authoritative editorial format that was successfully
expanded and improved upon in the publication of highly acclaimed
subsequent editions, published in 1959 and 1976 respectively. Now, with
continuing dramatic advances in manufacturing technology, increasing
competitive pressure both in the United States and abroad, and a significant
diversification of informational needs of the modern manufacturing engineer,
comes the need for further expansion of the Handbook. As succinctly stated
by Editor Frank W. Wilson in the preface to the second edition: “. . . no
‘Bible’ of the industry can indefinitely survive the impact of new and changed
technology.”
Although greatly expanded and updated to reflect the latest in manufac-

turing technology, the nature of coverage in this edition is deeply rooted in
the heritage of previous editions, constituting a unique compilation of
practical data detailing the specification and use of modern manufacturing
equipment and processes. Yet, the publication of this edition marks an
important break with tradition in that this volume, dedicated solely to
machining technology, is the first of five volumes to be published in the
coming years to comprise the fourth edition. Other volumes of this edition
will include Forming; Materials and Finishing; Assembly, Testing and
Quality Control; and Manufacturing Engineering Management.
The scope of this edition is multifaceted, offering a ready-reference source

of authoritative manufacturing information for daily use by engineers,
managers, and technicians, yet providing significant coverage of the
fundamentals of manufacturing processes, equipment, and tooling for study
by the novice engineer or student. Uniquely, this blend of coverage has
characterized the proven usefulness and reputation of SME Handbooks in
previous editions and continues in this edition to provide the basis for
acceptance across all segments of manufacturing.
The scope of this volume encompasses the universe of conventional and

nontraditional machining processes, covering in detail the fundamentals,
capabilities and limitations, and applications of all processes. Included are
discussions of the various types of machine tool configurations, fixtures and
tooling, troubleshooting guidelines, suggested speeds and feeds and other
operating parameters, and safety considerations.
Every aspect of machining technology is provided in-depth coverage in

this volume, presented in a completely new, easy-to-read format. An
exhaustive index that cross references processes, equipment, tools, and
workpiece materials enhances readability and facilitates the quick access of
information. Liberal presentation of illustrations, graphs, and tables speeds
information gathering and problem solving.
V
The reference material contained in this volume is the product of
incalculable hours of unselfish contribution by hundreds of individuals and
organizations, as listed at the beginning of each chapter. No written words of
appreciation can sufficiently express the special thanks due these many
forward-thinking professionals. Their work is deeply appreciated by the
Society; but more important, their contributions will undoubtedly serve to
advance the understanding of machining technology throughout industry
and will certainly help spur major productivity gains in the years ahead.
Industry as a whole will be the beneficiary of their dedication.
Further recognition is due the members of the SME Publications

Committee for their expert guidance and support as well as the many
members of the SME Technical Activities Board, particularly the members
of the Material Removal Council.
Thomas J. Drozda
SME staff who participated in the editorial development and production of this volume include:
EDITORIAL TYPESETTING GRAPHICS

Thomas J. Drozda Victoria E. Soto Judith Munro
Manager, Editorial Division Supervisor, Word Processing Graphics Manager-Designer
Charles Wick Susan J. Leinart Johanne D. Kanney
Managing Editor Assistant Supervisor Director - Designer
John T. Benedict Cynthia L. Zuzack Lena M. Coles
Senior Staff Editor Typesetter Operator Keyliner
Gerri J. Andrews Shari L. Rogers
Technical Copy Editor Typesetter Operator
Shirley A. Barrick
Editorial Secretary
Judy A. Justice
Word Processor Operator
vi
The Society of Manufacturing Engineers is a professional engineering
society dedicated to advancing manufacturing technology through the
continuing education of manufacturing engineers, managers, and tech-
nicians. The specific goal of the Society is “to advance scientific knowledge in
the field of manufacturing engineering and to apply its resources to research,
writing , pub 1ish ing , and disseminating informa t ion .”
The Society was founded in 1932 as the American Society of Tool

Engineers (ASTE). From 1960 to 1969, it was known as the American
Society of Tool and Manufacturing Engineers (ASTME), and in January
1970 it became the Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
The changes in name reflect the evolution of the manufacturing engineering

profession, and the growth and increasing sophistication of a technical
society that has gained an international reputation for being the most
knowledgeable and progressive voice in the field. The Society has some
66,000 members in 60 countries, most of whom are affiliated with SME’s
230-plus senior chapters. The Society also sponsors more than 90 student
chapters at universities and colleges.
As a member of the World Federation of Engineering Organizations,

S M E is the universally acknowledged technical society serving the
manufacturing industries.
vii
CONTENTS
VOLUME I-MACHINING
Symbols and Abbreviations ............................................................ xi
Principles of Metalcutting and Machinability .......................................... 1-1

Tolerance Control ...................................................................... 2-1
Cutting Tool Materials ................................................................. 3-1
Cutting Fluids and Industrial Lubricants ............................................... 4-1
Machine Controls ...................................................................... 5-1
Sawing ................................................................................. 6-1
Broaching. Planing. Shaping and Slotting .............................................. 7-1
Turning and Boring .................................................................... 8-1
Drilling. Reaming and Related Processes .............................................. 9-1
Milling ................................................................................. 10-1
Grinding ................................................................................ 11-1
Threading .............................................................................. 12-1
Gear and Spline Production ............................................................ 13-1
Nontraditional Machining .............................................................. 14-1
Multifunction Machines ................................................................ 15-1
Machine Loading and Unlaading ...................................................... 16-1
Machine Rebuilding .................................................................... 17-1
Safety and Noise Control ............................................................... 18-1
Index ................................................................................... 1-1
ix
SYMBOLS AND
ABBREVIATIONS
The following is a list of symbols and abbreviations in general use throughout this volume. Supplementary and/or derived units,
symbols, and abbreviations which are peculiar to specific subject matter are listed within chapters.
A c
A Ampere c Coulomb, Celsius or carbon

AA Arithmetic average CAD/CAM Computer aided design/ Computer aided
ABN Amber boron nitride manufacturing
ABS Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene cal Calorie
a-c Alternating current CAL Conversional algebraic language
AC Adaptive control cal/cm3 Calorie per cubic centimeter
ACC Adaptive control for constraint cal/ in.3 Calorie per cubic inch
ACD Annealed cold drawn CAM] Coated Abrasive Manufacturers Institute
A/cm2 Ampere per square centimeter CAPP Computer aided process planning
ACO Adaptive control for optimization Cb Columbium
A/D Analog/digital CbC Columbium carbide
AFM Abrasive flow machining CBN Cubic boron nitride
AFMDC Air Force Machinability Data Center cfm Cubic foot per minute
AGMA American Gear Manufacturers Association CIMS Computer integrated manufacturing system
A/in.2 Ampere per square inch CL Cutter location
AIS1 American Iron and Steel Institute cm Centimeter
Al Aluminum cmz Square centimeter
ALGOL Algorithmic language cm3 / A-s Cubic centimeter per ampere second
A1203 Aluminum oxide (alumina) CMfgE Certified manufacturing engineer
ANSI American National Standards Institute cm2 / hr Square centimeter per hour
API American Petroleum Institute cm2 / m Square centimeter per meter
APT Automatic programming tool cm2 / min Square centimeter per minute
ASLE American Society of Lubrication Engineers cm3 / min Cubic centimeter per minute
ASM American Society for Metals CMOS Complementary metal oxide semiconductor
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers cm/s Centimeter per second
ASP Antisegregation process cm3 /s Cubic centimeter per second
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials CNC Computer numerical control
AUTOSPOT Automatic system for positioning of tools co Cobalt
AWG American wire gauge co. Company
co Compliance officer
C02 Carbon dioxide
B COBOL Common Business Oriented Language
COD Chemical oxidation demand
BASIC Beginner’s all-purpose symbolic instruction COM Computer output microfilm
code Corp. Corporation
B,C Boron carbide CP Centipoise
BCD Binary coded data CPM Crucible Particle Metallurgy
Be’ Baume’ specific gravity scale Cps Cycle per second
Bhn Brinell hardness CPU Central processing unit
BOD Biological oxidation demand Cr Chromium
B/P Blueprint CRT Cathode ray tube
BTR Behind the tape reader CSA Canadian Standards Association
BTU British thermal unit Cst Centistoke
BTU/in,2 British thermal unit per square inch Ctbr Counterbore
BUE Built-up edge Cu Copper
BZN Borazon brand cubic boron nitride (G. E.) CVD Chemical vapor deposition
xi
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook Knowledge Base • Copyright © 1998 • Society of Manufacturing Engineers
D F-G-H
dB Decibel F Fahrenheit
d-c Direct current FCI Flux changes per inch
DC Data communication fd Farad
DCF Discounted cash flow FDX Full duplex
DCTL Direct-coupled transistor logic FeC13 Ferric chloride
DDA Digital differential analyzer FIFO First in, first out
DEC Digital Equipment Corp. Fig. Figure
deg or 0 Degree fpm Foot per minute
diam Diameter fps Foot per second
DIN Dcutscher Normenausschuss (German fpt Feed per tooth
Standards Organization) FRN Feed rate number
Div. Division FSK Frequency shift keying
DNC Direct numerical control ft Foot
DRO Digital readout ft2 Square foot
ft, Cubic foot
DTL Diode transistor logic
DX Data transfer ft’ / hr Cubic foot per hour
FTS Full top skive
E gal Gallon
gl cm3 Gram per cubic centimeter
GDM Glow discharge machining
E Modulus of elasticity
GJ / m’ Giga Joule per cubic meter
EBG Electrolytic belt grinding Gram per liter
g/L
EBM Electron beam machining
GP General purpose
EBW Electron beam welding
GPa Giga pascal
ECD Electrochemical deburring
GPAC General purpose aqueous coolant
ECDG Electrochemical discharge grinding
GPG Grain per gallon
ECEA End cutting edge angle
gpm Gallon per minute
ECG Electrochemical grinding
GPO General purpose oil
ECH Electrochemical honing
GPS General purpose soluble oil
ECM Electrochemical machining
GR Grinding ratio
ECP Electrochemical polishing
GT Group technology
ECT Electrochemical turning
ECVT Electrochemical vibratory tumbling
EDC Extended data comparison H Henry
EDG Electrical discharge grinding HAZ Heat-affected zone
EDM Electrical discharge machining HBM Horizontal boring machine
EDP Electronic data processing HC1 Hydrochloric acid
EDWC Electrical discharge wire cutting HZCr04 Chromic acid
EEM Electrolytic end milling HD Heavy duty
EHD Elastohydrodynamic HDAC Heavy duty aqueous coolant
EIA Electronic Industries Association HDM Hydrodynamic machining
ELP Electropolishing HDO Heavy duty oil
EMD Electromechanical drilling HDX Half duplex
EMM Electromechanical machining Hf Hafnium
EMT Electromechanical turning HF Hone-Forming
EOB End of block HfC Hafnium carbide
EOP End of program Hg Mercury
EOT End of tape HI-E High efficiency
EP Extreme pressure H*O Water
EPA Environmental Protection Agency hp Horsepower
EPROM Erasable programmable read only memory hp/in, Horsepower per inch
Eq, Equation hp/ in.3/ min Horsepower per cubic inch per minute
ER Electro-Ream hr Hour
ESCM F.lectro-Stream chemical milling HZ S4 Sulphuric acid
ESM Electro-Stream miUing HSS High speed steel
ESR Electroslag remelting HTM High technology materials
EVM Electrovapor machining H7 Cycles per second
EXAPT Extended subst?t of APT
xii
LBM Laser beam machining
I-J Lid Length to diameter
LD Light duty
I Current or Moment of inertia LED Light emitting diode
Ic Inscribed circle or Integrated circuit LH Left hand
ID Inside diameter lin Linear
IGA Intergranular attack LMC Least material condition
in. or “ Inch L/rein Liter per minute
in.z Square inch LPM Lines per minute
in.’ Cubic inch LS Low stress
in. /ft Inch per linear foot LSD Least significant digit
LSI Large scale integration
in.2/ft Square inch per foot
in.2/hr Square inch per hour
in.3/hr Cubic inch per hour
in. /in, Inch per inch M
in. -lbf inch pound force
in. /rein Inch per minute
m Meter
in,2/min Square inch per minute
m2 Square meter
in.3/min Cubic inch per minute m3
Cubic meter
in.j rein/ in. Cubic inch per minute per inch Milliampere
mA
in. jpass Inch per pass
math Machine
in. js Inch per second
man Manual
1/0 Input-output Maximum
max
1P Index of performance or United Kingdom
MC Molybdenum carbide
Standard Master control relay
MCR
ipm Inch per minute
MCTI Metal Cutting Tool Institute
ipr Inch per revolution MCU Machine control unit
IRR Internal rate of return MD Medium duty
IRS Internal Revenue Service MD] Manual data input
1s0 international Standards Organization MFM Magnetic field machining
Mg Magnesium
J Joule MgO Magnesium Oxide
J / cm~ Joule per square centimeter
m3/ hr Cubic meter per hour
JIC Joint Industry Conference
MHz Megahertz
min Minimum or Minute
MIS Management information system
ml Milliliter
mm Millimeter
mm2 Square millimeter
kc Kilocycles mm’ Cubic millimeter
kg Kilogram MMC Maximum material condition
kg/ mm2 Kilogram per square millimeter mm3 / hr Cubic millimeter per hour
kg/mm3 Kilogram per cubic millimeter m/ min Meter per minute
kHz Kilohertz mm/m Millimeter per linear meter
k] Kiloliter mm/min Millimeter per minute
kN KiloNewton
mm2 / min Square millimeter per minute
kN. m KiloNewton meter
mm3 / min Cubic millimeter per minute
kohm Kilo-ohm
mm/ mm Millimeter per millimeter
kPa Kilopascal
mm/pass Millimeter per pass
ksi 1000 pounds per square inch
mm/rev Millimeter per revolution
kV Kilovolt
mm/s Millimeter per second
kW Kilowatt
mmz / s Square millimeter per second
kW/cm3/min Kilowatt per cubic centimeter per minute
mm3 ;/s Cubic millimeter per second
mm3/s/mm Cubic millimeter per second per millimeter
L Liter
Mn Manganese
lb Pound mass
MnS Manganese sulfide
lbf Pound force
Mo Molybdenum
Ibf-ft Foot pound
MODEM MODulator Demodulator
lbf) in. Pound force per inch
MOS Metal oxide semiconductor
lb/gal Pound mass per gallon
MOSV Molybdenum disulfide
lb/ in.’ Pound mass per cubic inch
,..
Xlll
M Pa Megapascal 02 Ounce
MR Machinability rating
MRP Material requirements planning P Phosphorus or Poise
ms Millisecond Pa Pascal
M/s Meter per second PAM Plasma arc machining
MS1 Medium scale integration Pans Pascal second
MTBF Mean time between failure PAU Position analog unit
MTS Medium top skive Pb Lead
MTTR Mean time to repair Pc Programmable controller
mV Millivolt PCB Printed circuit board
pcs/hr Pieces per hour
pcs/ shift Pieces per shift
PD Plastic deformation or Pitch diameter
N PD2 Plastically deformed debris
PE Professional engineer
N Newton or Nitrogen PERA Production Engineering Research
NZ Nit rogen Association
NaCl Sodium chloride pH Acidity measure
NaC103 Sodium chlorate PID Proportional, integral derivative
NaNOZ Sodium nitrite PM or P/M Powder metallurgy
NaN03 Sodium nitrate pos Positive
NaOH Sodium hydroxide PPD Pour point depressant
NAS National Aerospace Standards ppm Parts per million
Na2S04 Sodium sulphate PROM Programmable read only memory
NbN Niobium nitride PRS Product relative step
NBR Nitrile rubber psi Pound per square inch
NC Numerical control pt Part
NCD Normalized cold drawn PTC Programmed turning center
Nd:YAG Neodymium-doped, yttrium aluminum PVD Physical vapor deposition
garnet PWM Pulse width modulated
NEC National Electrical Code
neg negative
NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers
R-S
Association
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
Ni Nickel R Resistance
NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety Ra Arithmetic average roughness
and Health RA, B, ., c Rockwell hardness—A, B, or C scale
NLG1 National Lubricating Grease Institute RAM Random access memory
N“ m Newton meter RB Rockwell hardness—B scale
N/mm Newton per millimeter w Rockwell hardness—C scale
N/mm* Newton per square millimeter RCTL Resistor capacitor transistor logic
N“m/s Newton meter per second (Watt) Ref Reference
NMTBA National Machine Tool Builders Association R] O Reverse osmosis
No. Number R&O Rust and oxidation inhibited
Nontrad Nontraditional ROM Read only memory
NPV Net present value rpm Revolution per minute
NR Nose radius RTL Resistor transistor logic
NS Nonstaining RUM Rotary ultrasonic machining
NTS No top skive
s or sec Second
s Sulfur
SACD Spheroidized annealed cold drawn
o-P SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
s/ cm2 Second per square centimeter
02 Oxygen SCR Silicon controlled rectifier
OA Overaging SE Selective etch
OD Outside diameter SES Stationary ElectroStream
OEM Original equipment manufacturer sfm Surface feet per minute
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health SHF Synthetic hydrocarbon fluids
Administration Si Silicon
OTM Overtempered martensite S1 International System of Units
xiv
s/ in.2 Second per square inch yr Year
Si02 Silicon dioxide
SME Society of Manufacturing Engineers ZFM Zero force machining
Sn Tin Zn Zinc
S-N Stress vs. number of cycles until failure Zr Zirconium
Ssl Small scale integration Zr02 Zirconium oxide
Ssu Seconds Savbolt Universal
St Stoke -
STEM Shaped Tube Electrolytic Machining
T-U-V
t Metric ton
Ta Tantalum
TaC Tantalum carbide
Ti Titanium
TiC Titanium carbide
TiN Titanium nitride P Coefficient of friction
TI R Total indicator runout or Total indicator /.LA Microampere
reading p fd Micro Farad
Thin joint p in. Microinch (micron)
TJ
TLV Threshold limit valve pm Micrometer
TMEH Tool and Manufacturing Engineers ps Microsecond
Handbook n Ohm
tol Tolerance 7r Pi(3.14159, ..)
Threads per inch $ Dollar
tpi
. Approximately
TPI Teeth per inch
Transverse rupture strength Plus or minus
TRS
Toxic Substances Control Act Dollar per hour
TSCA
Dollar
TTL Transistor transistor logic
Time weighted average Percent
TWA
Perpendicular to
Parallel to
UAM Ultrasonically assisted machining
Uhp Unit horsepower
UNC Unified coarse thread
UNF Unified fine thread
USM Ultrasonic machining
UTM Untempered martensite
UTS Ultimate tensile strength
v Vanadium or Volt
VBM Vertical boring machine
Vc Vanadium carbide
VI Viscosity index
Vll Viscosity index improver
VO1 Volume
VTL Vertical turret lathe
w-Y-z
w Watt or Tungsten
W B, Tungsten boride
Wc Tungsten carbide
We-co Tungsten carbide with cobalt binder
W/cm* Watt per square centimeter
W/in.2 Watt per square inch
WJ M Water jet machining
W/mm Watt per millimeter
xv
CHAPTER 1
PRINCIPLES OF METALCUTTING
AND MACHINABILITY
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an finish and integrity, machinability, and metalcutting CHAPTER
overview of the various qualitative and quantitative economics. When analyses are presented in metric CONTENTS:
relationships that have been developed in attempts units, U.S. customary units are ommitted to
to describe the metalcutting phenomenon. Included simplify the presentation and to conserve space. CHIP FORMATION
in this chapter are discussions of the geometry of When the analyses are presented in U.S. customary Orthogonal
Model 1-1
chip formation, forces at the cutting tool, surface units, metric units are added parenthetically. Strain 1-3
Chip Typas 1-3
Inclination
Angle 1-6
GEOMETRY OF CHIP FORMATION FORCES

Orthogonal
Model 1-1o
The following is a list of symbols and abbrevia- Symbol Definition Obliqua
Model 1-11
tions used in formulas and discussions of chip Work 1-13
formation theory: & Effective rake angle (deg) Power 1-14
Measure-
ffb Back rake angle (deg) ment 1-15
Symbol Definition 0’s Side rake angle (deg) Friction
cr. Velocity rake angle (deg) vs. Cutting 1-17
Variables 1-18
B Depth of cut (in. or mm) G Normal rake angle (deg)
b Width of work (in, or mm) m Chip flow angle (deg) SURFACE
b, Width of chip (in. or mm) FINISH 1-21
BUE Built-up edge ORTHOGONAL CUTTING MODEL SURFACE
c, Side cutting edge angle (deg) As with most problems in mechanics, it is INTEGRITY 1-27
i Inclination angle (deg) advisable to consider a two-dimensional cutting
MACHINABILITY
1 Undeformed chip length (in. or mm) situation before tackling more complex three- Test
1, Corresponding chip length (in. or mm) dimensional problems. The simplest two- Methods 1-41
n Angle normal to the cutting edge (deg) dimensional cutting situation (Fig. 1-1) is obtained Tool Life 1-44
Tablas 1-49
r Cutting ratio or chip length ratio under the following conditions:
f Undeformed chip thickness (in. or mm) ECONOMICS 1-59
1. Straight, sharp cutting edge oriented per-
t. Chip thickness (in. or mm)
pendicular to the relative velocity between
v Tool velocity or cutting speed
tool and work.
(sfm or m/rein)
2. Length of cutting edge greater than width of
v, Chip speed (fpm or m/rein)
work, b.
v, Velocity of chip relative to the work
3. Undeformed chip thickness, I, small relative
(fpm or m/min)
to width of cut, b, (i.e. t/b < 5).
u Rake angle (deg)
4. Medium cutting speed.
Clearance angle (deg)
5. Homogeneous, highly strain-hardened work
; Shear angle (deg)
material.
‘Y Shear strain
6. Low tool face friction.
T Rate of shear
Contributors of sections of this chepter are: Guy Bellows, Machinability Data Center Consultant, Metcut
Research Associates, Inc.; Dr. Marvin F. De Vries, Professor of Mechanical Engineering, University of
Wisconsin—Madison; Michael Field, Chief Executive Officer, Metcut Resaarch Associates, Inc.; Brian K.
Lambert, PhD, P. E. , Associate Professor, Department of Industrial Engineering, Texas Tech Universit y; David
Nixon, Technical Service Engineer, LaSalle Steel Co.; Milton C. Shaw, Professor of Engineering, Arizona State
University; E. J. Weller, CMfgE, P. E., Consultant.
Reviewers of sections of this chapter are: Robert K. Albright, Senior Process Engineer, Bendix Corp.; Gary D.
Baldwin, Manager, Technical Programs, Carboloy S ystems Department, General Electric Co.; Charles F. Carter,
Jr. , Technical Director, Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.; Dr. Marvin F. De Vries, Professor of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Wisconsin—Madison; Clarence W, Doty, CMfgE, Director. SME; Dr. DonaidS. Ermer, Professor of
Mechanical Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin—Madison; Dr. Franz
Jaklitsch, P.E. , Consultant, Valeron Corp.; Jon S. Johnson, Research Engineer, Machining and Wear
Department, Engineering and Research Staff, Ford Motor Co.; John E. Mayer, Jr., Manager, Machining and
Wear Department, Engineering and Research Staff, Ford Motor CO.;David Nixon. Technical service Engineer,
La Salle Steel Co,; Sam Peticolas, Associate Professor, Machine Tool & Manufacturing Technology, Industrial
Department, Ferris State College; Milton C. Sha w, Professor of Engineering, Arizona State University; Dr. S.
Ramafingam, Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota; Fred Shallenberger,
Vice President, Engineering, Metal Cutting Tools Inc.; James L. Thomas. Manager, Tool and Process
Engineering, Marsh alltown Operations. Fisher Controls Co.; Dr. Robert W. Thompson, Senior Research
Enginear, Research, Inland Steel Co.; E. J. Weller. CMfgE, P.E. , Consultant.
1-1
CHAPTER 1
GEOMETRY OF CHIP FORMATION
(1)
In orthogonal cutting, the width of the chip, b,, equals the

width of the work, b, to a good approximation (as long as b/t >
5). When any metal is deformed plastically, no change occurs in
volume; hence:
lbt ❑Lb,t, (2)
or since the width of the work, b, equals the width of the chip, bc:
~zL=2 1
(3)
1 where:
t< 1
t 9 1 = undeformed
1, = corresponding
chip length
chip length
(in. or mm)
(in. or mm)
—.. . . . In view of Eq. (3), r is sometimes referred to as the chip length
I$ig. 1-1 tMthogonal chip formation.
ratio.
The cutting ratio is a convenient measure of cutting efficiency.
The chip that forms under these conditions is continuous as Figure 1-3 shows material being orthogonally cut with high and
shown in Fig. l-l where: low cutting ratios and corresponding shear angles @Land @.
a ❑ rake angle (deg) Since most of the energy in orthogonal cutting is associated
with the shear plane, less energy is required to form thin chips
0 = clearance angle (deg) than thick ones. This is because the shear stress is essentially
Continuous orthogonal chip formation involves concen- constant (neglecting strain hardening), while the area sheared is
trated shear. The work material remains elastic until it reaches A Blb for the thin chip, but ABlb for the thick chip. Thus, the
line .4B (Fig. 1-1), then it is sheared abruptly to a large strain. greater the cutting ratio, the more efficient the cutting operation.
After crossing All, the material is subjected to no further plastic The cutting ratio may be measured by use of either Eq. (2) or
flow unless the friction stress along contact length AC exceeds (3). However, since the back of the chip is usually rough, it is
the flow stress of the material in the chiu in shear. difficult to obtain an accurate measurement of the mean Va]ue
Figure 1-2 is a drawing of a photomi~rograph of a partially of t,; and therefore, when possible, Eq. (3) should be used.
formed chip produced under orthogonal conditions. The One of the important uses of the cutting ratio, r, is in
photomicrograph was obtained by suddenly bringing the tool estimating the shear angle, O. This may be done by use of the
velocity, V, to zero, backing off the tool, sawing out the “chip following equation:
root, ” and mounting, polishing, and etching the chip root. r cos a
tan @J❑ (4)
l-r sin a
-------- .,
Fig. 1-2 Drawing of a photomicrograph of continuous chip.
CUTTING RATlO
The thickness of the chip, rc, is always greater than the
undeformed chip thickness, I, in orthogonal cutting, and the Fig. 1-3 Orthogonal cutting with large and small shear angles, I#Jand
ratio of t to t,is called the cutting ratio, r. +?.
1-2
CHAPTER 1
STRAIN AND STRAIN RATE

The shear strain, y, on the shear plane in orthogonal cutting / - —~ of work,,,.,
may be obtained as follows:
-y= cot @+tan (@-a) (5) ~? l-’
B
As a consequence of r being less than one, the velocity of the
~~
chip, V,, is always less than the cutting speed, V, Figure 1-4 A
Feed marks
v t
shows the kinematic relationship between the cutting speed, ~
the chip speed, k’,; and the velocity of the chip relative to the
work, P’,. From this figure, it is evident that: Tool
Feed 4- -
v, . Cos a
(6)
-7 Cos (($ -cl)
The rate of shear, +, is: Fig. 1-5 Single point turning operation: B = depth of cut, t = feed per
revolution,
v Cos a v
i’~;’ cos(~..a)” Xjy (7)
a = side rake angle of tool (deg)
z ❑feed per revolution (in. or mm)
where: B = depth of cut (in. or mm)
V ❑ surface speed of work at OD (sfm or m/min)
Ay ❑ the thickness of the shear zone along.4B in the direction
of V,, which is about 0.001” (0.03 mm) for a typical The cutting ratio may be obtained by taking a chip of any
orthogonal cut. convenient corresponding chip length, 1,, and calculating the
When typical values are substituted in Eqs. (5) and (7), it is corresponding undeformed length, 1, from the weight of the
chip, the specific weight of the work material, and the known
evident that orthogonal cutting involves very high values of
values of B and t.
shear strain (typically 3 to 5) and very high values of strain rate
(typically 105/see) compared with values for other engineering
PRINCIPAL CHIP TYPES
situations.
Up to this point, it has been assumed that the chip produced is
a continuous ribbon of uniform thickness, t,, with a well-
defined thin shear plane (Figs. 1-1 and 1-2). However, in
practice, this is not always the case.
Discontinuous Chips
At low cutting speeds or when cutting a material containing
points of stress concentration (such as the graphite flakes in cast
iron or the manganese sulfide inclusions in a free-machining
steel), discontinuous chips may form (Fig. 1-6). The result is a
series of discrete chip segments that have broken at stress
concentrations in the workpiece. The orthogonal model and
subsequent calculations presented in previous sections repre-
sent a very poor approximation for cutting with disco n-
tinuous chips.
Fig. 1-4 Velocity diagram for orthogonal cutting.
SINGLE POINT TURNING

Figure 1-5 shows a cutting tool having zero side cutting edge
angle in a straight turning situation. The depth of cut is B, and
the feed rate is t(ipr or mm/ rev). There are two cutting edges (of
extent B and t respectively). In most cases B/ ts 10; therefore,
cutting on the end of the tool is negligible compared with
cutting along the main cutting edge of extent B, As a first
approximation, therefore, this three-dimensional chip forma-
tion situation may be approximated by an equivalent two- I I
dimensional orthogonal case where: Fig. 1-6 Drawing of a photomicrograph of discontinuous chip.
1-3
CHAPTER 1
with the chip tend to increase abrasive wear while the BUE
actually protects the cutting edge from wear. On the other hand,
cutting with a large variable BUE always gives rise to a
Built-up edge
substantial increase in surface roughness. Figure 1-9 is a
drawing of a photomicrograph of a partially formed continuous
chip and a tool with a BUE.
Shear fracture
I
Fig. 1-7 Built-up edge (BUE) formation.
Continuous Chips with Built-Up Edge

Another deviation ‘from simple orthogonal c~tting is con-
tinuous chip formation with a built-up edge (BUE). At speeds at
which the temperature at the chip/tool interface is relatively
low, fracture may occur within the chip, leaving behind a
portion of the chip attached to the tool face (Fig. 1-7). This
attached material then acts as the cutting edge and is called a
edge
built-up edge. A BUE tends to grow until it reaches a critical
size and then passes off with the chip. This results in a cyclic
variation in size of the BUE. Since the BUE grows outward and
Fig. 1-9 Drawing of a photomicrograph of continuous chip and tool
downward, this gives rise to a variation in depth of the cut which with a built-up edge (BUE).
represents a major component of surface roughness when
cutting with a tool with a BUE (Fig, 1-8). As cutting speed
(and hence chip/ tool interface temperature) increases, the size
Secondary Shear
Still another deviation from the simple orthogonal model
of the BUE decreases. The BUE disappears when thermal
involves secondary shear on the tool face. When the friction
softening at the interface causes a lower flow stress at the
stress on the tool face reaches a value equal to the shear flow
interface than in the main body of the chip. Under ordinary
stress of the chip material, flow occurs internally within the chip
turning conditions, the BUE usually has its largest value at a
adjacent to the tool face. This is called secondary shear flow to
cutting speed of about 50 sfm (1 5.2 m/ rein) and disappears at
distinguish it from shear flow occurring on the shear plane
about 200 sfm (60.9 m/rein).
(primary shear). Figure I-10, u, is a partially formed chip on
The simple orthogonal model represents only an approxi-
which secondary shear flow is clearly evident. Figure 1-10, b, is
mation when cutting with a continuous chip and a tool with a
a diagrammatic sketch corresponding to Fig. 1-10, a. The
BUE. The main influences of the BUE are to give an unusually
secondary shear zone is seen to increase in thickness as the chip
high friction stress at the tool point, but an increase in the
travels from A to C. Since secondary shear is due to high shear
effective rake angle. These two effects influence cutting forces in
stress on the tool face, it is accompanied by an increase in
opposite directions and hence tend to cancel each other.
cutting forces. One way of considering the influence of
Similarly, the BUE has opposing actions relative to tool wear.
secondary shear is in terms of a decrease in rake angle by an
The rough particles of hard, highly worked BUE passing off
amount a’ (Fig. 1-10, b). AC’ in Fig. 1-10, b, corresponds to an
equivalent rake face when cutting with sticking friction (i.e.
with shear stress on the tool face equal to flow stress of the chip
material in shear). Any action that tends to increase shear angle,
@, also tends to decrease the magnitude of secondary shear a’.
Since angle a’is usually small, the orthogonal model represents
a good approximation for cutting with secondary shear flow
provided the chip is continuous.
Extensive Shear Zone

When the material cut is soft and not strain hardened, the
shear zone tends to be pie shaped, as shown in Fig. 1-11, instead
of being uniformly thin, as in Fig. 1-1. An increase in feed will
tend to favor a pie-shaped shear zone. When cutting with a
pie-shaped shear zone, there is no definite shear angle. Use of
the dotted line in Fig. 1-11 for the equivalent shear angle in the
Fig. 1-8 Surface roughness due to instability of built-up edge (BUE). orthogonal analysis represents a good first approximation.
1-4
CHAPTER 1
Cutting with chip curlers (chip breakers), as illustrated in Fig.

1-13, of different types designed to break the chip periodically
represents still another departure from the idealized model (Fig.
1-l). Cutting under these conditions is very complex; therefore,
it is difficult to suggest a simple equivalent that approximates
the idealized model.
Under certain conditions, strain in the chip is very inhomo-
geneous (Fig. 1-14) even though the chip is continuous. There
appear to be two types of chip formations involving inhomo-
geneous strain. These are formed by:
1. Cutting believed to involve fracture and rewelding.
2. Cutting believed to involve adiabatic shear.
Figure 1-14, a, is a photo micrograph of a partially formed
titanium chip cut at very low speed. Shear in the chip is very
inhomogeneous due to periodic gross fracture of the chip and
extensive sliding on the fracture surface followed by rewelding.
Figure 1-14, b, is a photomicrograph of a similar chip at higher
magnification cut at high speed. The strain in this chip is equally
(a) inhomogeneous, but unlike (a), does not undergo gross fracture
and rewelding. Instead, the inhomogeneity is due to adiabatic
shear (plastic flow followed by thermal softening followed by
Secondorq shear zone
more plastic flow, etc.).
Chip
(b)
)=
\
Fig. 1-10 (a) Photomicrograph of partially formed continuous chip.
\
AISI 1015 steel cut at 24sfm(7.3 m/min) with cutting fluid: water + 1%
rust inhibitor. (b) Diagrammatic interpretation of (a). (0)
Other Variations
Controlled contact cutting (Fig. 1-12, a) and cutting with a
small negative rake honed on the cutting edge (Fig. I-12, b)
represent further departures from the ideal orthogonal model.
In these cases, a composite rake angle exists and the only
reasonable approximation appears to be to use an equivalent
rake angle that represents a compromise between the extremes.
(b)
Fig. 1-12 (a) Limited contact tool. (b) Tool with chamfered cutting
edge.
Cutting with adiabatic shear occurs when a material that has

difficult thermal properties (low volume, specific heat, and low
thermal conductivity), reasonably high specific cutting energy,
and a tendency to soften at elevated temperatures is machined
Sh&r zone
at high speed. Titanium cut at high speed represents such a case
(Fig. I-14, b). Here shear begins at a point of stress concentra-
Fig. 1-11 Orthogonal chip formation with extensive shear zone. tion. The shear work does not have time to escape and raises the
1-5
CHAPTER 1
is more accurately called the velocity rake angle, a,, since it is

Chip breaker the angle measured from a normal to the finished surface and
containing the cutting velocity vector, P’. The relation between
the effective rake angle, a,, and the velocity rake angle, a,, is:
tan a, ❑ tan a. cos i (10)
The inclination angle, i, is the distinguishing feature between

three-dimensional cutting and two-dimensional orthogonal
cutting. The simplest three-dimensional case corresponds to a
planing situation with i not equal to O(Fig. I-15). When a plane
milling cutter has an inclination angle other than @ this
inclination angle is referred to as a helix angle (see Chapter 10,
“Milling,” in this volume).
Two important effects of an inclination angle other than
“’.~ 0’ are:
Fig. 1-13 Chip formation with chip breaker.

1. To give an effective rake angle that is 1%sthan the normal
rake angle. This in turn gives rise to lower cutting forces,
energy, and temperatures for a tool of given wedge angle
temperature on the shear plane, which in turn causes thermal
softening. This causes more strain than ordinary to occur on the
initial plane, The shear plane then jumps to the next point of
stress concentration leaving the material that is between
relatively unstrained.
The chip in Fig. 1-14, c, is obviously like that of Fig. 1-14, a, and
involves gross fracture and rewelding instead of adiabatic shear.
In both types of cutting with inhomogeneous strain, the back
of the chip is very wavy, the cutting ratio (as ordinarily
obtained) is without meaning, and the simple orthogonal
cutting model is not appropriate.
INCLINATION ANGLE
Up to this point the cutting edge has been considered to be
perpendicular to the direction of relative velocity, V. When the
cutting edge deviates from this orthogonal direction, the angle
of deviation is referred to as the inclination angle, i. Figure 1-15
shows a tool with an inclination angle, i, other than zero
(b)
degrees. The main effect of this is to cause the chip to flow up the
tool face in a direction different from that for orthogonal
cutting. In orthogonal cutting (where i is not equal to 0° ), the
chip flows up the tool face in the direction of a normal angle to
the cutting edge, n. However, when the inclination angle, i, is
equal to 0°, the chip flows at an angle q, to the normal to the
cutting edge measured in the plane of the tool face (Fig. 1-15).
Thus, P’, is at an angle q, to normal, n, when i is not equal to O.
To a reasonably good approximation, the inclination angle, i,
m,-mured in the plane of the uncut surface is equal to the chip
flow angle, q,, measured in the plane of the tooI face. This is
known as Stabler’s Rule:
~,=i (8)
The effective rake angle, a,, is measured in the plane of V and V,

and differs from the normal rake angle, cw, measured in the
plane containing V and the angle normal to the cutting edge, n. I .4. . - —.. —
For the general case when i is not equal to O, the effective rake
angle, a,, is less than the normal rake angle, m.
It may be readily shown that:
sin a, = sinz i + cos2 i sin a. (9) Fig, 1-14 Photomicrographs of semidiscontinuous chips: (a) Chip of
commercially pure titanium cut at very low speed (1 ipm, 25 mm/min).
when Stabler’s Rule holds. From Eq. (9) it is evident that, only (b) Photomicrograph of small portion of chip of commercially pure
when i is equal to O. will a. be equal to an. titanium cut at high speed (175 sfm, 53.3 m/min). (c) Partially formed
60-40 cold-worked (60~0 RA) brass cut using HSS with tool of-15° rake
A rake angle, sometimes referred to as the true rake angle in angle at low speed (2.95 ipm, 75 m/min) and 0.0063” (0.160 mm)
the literature, should not be confused with the effective undeformed chip thickness. (Pfrotorrricrograp/r oj brass chip courtesy
rake angle, What is sometimes referred to as the true rake angle oj K. Nakayama, Yokohama National University)
1-6
CHAPTER 1
and hence with a tool tip of given strength and heat

absorbing capacity. Ctllp Inclmatlon, Chip length,
2. To cause the chip to flow to the side instead of straight I, deg r (mm)
back to produce a spiral with a helix angle. This is

o I 32(33.5)
illustrated in Fig. 1-16 in which planing chips are shown @
for cuts of 4“ ( 102 mm) length made with tools of different
inclination angles.
By properly choosing the inclination angle, chips may be
caused to flow to that side of the cutter at which they are less
~ “ “’(4’7)
likely to become jammed and rub and scratch the finished
surface of the workpiece.
From a few of the commonly specified tool dimensions, it is
possible to derive the quantities of fundamental importance to 2 30(58.4)
the performance of the tool (effective rake angle, a,, and
inclination angle, i). For example, in the case of a single point ~
turning tool, the most significant dimensions are:
1. Back rake angle, ah,
2. Side rake angle, a,. ,,,
3. Side cutting edge angle, C,. I I
254 mm
For a turning tool, the inclination angle, i, and the normal
rake angle, an, may be found from the following: Fig. 1-16 Chips produced with different inclination angles. Normal
rake angle, an ❑ 10°; length of cut, h 4“ (102 mm); undeformed chip
tan (i) = tan cw cos C, - tan a. sin C, (11) thickness, 0.005” (0.13 mm); cutting speed, K 20 ipm (0.51 m/min);
work material, AISI 1015 steel.
tan a. ❑ (tan a, cos C. = tan ~b sin c.) cos (i) (12)
Then, the effective rake angle may be estimated by use of Eq. INTERACTIONS
(9). The geometry of chip formation interacts with other
As an example, consider a single point turning tool having machining variables to have an important influence on cutting
the following geometry: forces, surface finish, and chip control,
In general, cutting forces are less with discontinuous chips
back rake angle, ab ❑ 15°
than with continuous chips and a BUE may decrease (larger
side rake angle, a, = lfP
effective rake angIe) or increase (higher tool face friction)
side cutting edge angle, C, = 15°
cutting forces, The greater the secondary shear zone on the
From Eqs, (9), (11), and (12) respectively: face of the tool, the greater are the cutting forces. Cutting forces
are decreased by a decrease in relative chip thickness (increase
a, = 19.2°
in cutting ratio or of shear angle). An increase in inclination
i = 12.0°
angle decreases cutting forces by causing an increase in the
rrn ❑ 13.2°
effective rake angle of the tool (see “Forces at the Cutting Tool”
Thus, to a first approximation, this relatively complex in this chapter).
turning tool is equivalent relative to chip formation to a simple The main components of surface roughness are BUE, feed
oblique planing tool for which: marks associated with a secondary cutting edge, and tool
chatter. Cutting with continuous chip formation or with a BUE
normal rake angle, an ❑ 13°
of variable amplitude gives rise to variable cutting forces which
inclination angle, i ❑ 12°
may result in a forced vibration of the cutting tool, Roughness
effective rake angle, a, = 19“
due to feed marks is reduced by a decrease in feed rate and an
Other types of tools (milling cutters. drills, etc.) may be increase in the nose radius of the tool, The main methods of
treated in a similar manner, reducing the size and instability of a BUE include increasing
cutting speed, hot or warm machining (heating workpiece by
noncutting source of thermal energy), using free-machining
additives (MnS, Pb, graphite), increasing the effective rake
1’ c
angle, decreasing the tool face friction, precold-working
work material, and decreasing the tool/ chip contact length (see
“Surface Finish” in this chapter).
the
Chip control is an important element of safety and produc-

V* tivity. Long, unbroken, continuous chips are a source of danger
to the operator and to the tool and work. Chip curlers, or chip
A breakers, of different designs are an important means of
T decreasing the tool/ chip contact length and yielding short
Workplece
Cutil.g edge periodically broken chips that rapidly leave the cutting zone.
F
Broken chips are more easily extracted from the machine. A
large positive inclination angle leads the chips away from the
Fig. 1-15 Plan view of tool with nonzero inclination angle. finished surface. Free-machining additives such as manganese
1-7
CHAPTER 1
FORCES AT THE CUTTING TOOL
sulfide and lead increase chip curl as does a strong flow of light reflected from the surface of an oxide coating and from the
water-based cutting fluid directed on the back of a chip, underlying metal surface. It is thus a measure of the thickness of
particularly at light feeds. the oxide coating on the chip and only rather remotely a
For each given strength of work material, there is an measure of the cutting temperature involved when the chip is
optimum chip/tool contact length. For relatively weak produced. The thickness of the oxide coating on a chip depends
materials such as mild steel, the smaller the contact length, the on the concentration of oxygen during chip formation and the
better. The inclusion of insoluble lead particles in mild steel time at temperature, as well as on the maximum temperature of
causes chip curl, an approach to optimum tool/chip contact the chip. Chips that are produced under a flood of fluid that
length, and an improvement in tool life. Use of lead with a excludes oxygen appear clean and free of oxide even though the
relatively strong work material (such as heat-treated AISI 4340 temperature of the chip is higher than that of a chip having a
steel) may result in a decrease in tool life. This is because the deep blue color produced in air (02). Likewise, a chip produced
greater the energy required to produce a cut, the greater will be at a high feed rate (thick chip) remains hot longer than one
the life-optimum value of tool/chip contact length. When a produced at a low feed rate; hence, it tends to acquire an oxide
material that gives high cutting forces is machined, it is possible film of greater thickness and therefore a greater tendency to be
to overcurl the chip bringing the resultant cutting force and blue in color.
maximum tool face temperature too close to the cutting edge. The color of two chips may be used as a rough indication of
cutting temperatures involved only if both chips were subjected
CHIP COLOR to the same oxygen, have about the same cross-sectional area
The color of a chip is a readily observable characteristic that (approximately the same cooling rate), and come from a work
can be misleading. The color of a chip is due to interference of material having about the same tendency to oxidize.

The following is a list of symbols and abbreviations used in Symbol Definition
formulas and discussions of forces at the cutting tool:
h, Chip thickness (mm)
Definition H Brinell hardness number
i Inclination angle
Depth of cut (mm) i. .i, and k Unit normal vectors in the x, y, z directions
Area of the undeformed chip section (mmz) k Piozoelectric constant
Area of the chip section (mmz) K. Metal removal factor, the reciprocal of the
Area of the shear plane (mmj) specific power consumption
Width of cut (mm) I Nominal strain (in. / in.)
Capacitance (farads) m Mass of the dynamometer
Chip area ratio N Normalizing magnitude for vector eP’ and eg’
IViaterial constant used in Eq. (48) ~~-q~ Orthogonal coordinate system in which
Apparent efficiency of the machine tool cutting is two dimensional
(percent) Pg Gross power developed by a machine tool
Specific cutting energy (GJ/ mj) while cutting
Resultant cutting force in orthogonal P. Net power supplied to a cutting tool to remove
cutting (N) metal
Power force in two dimensional cutting (N) P, Tare power, eqUd to Pg-ph
Power force in p’-q’ plane (N) Q Electrical charge (coulombs)
Normal force in p’-q’ plane (N) R Electrical resistance (ohms)
Normal force at cutting tool (N) RI, R2 Coordinate transformation matrices
Resultant cutting force in three s Feed per revolution (mm)
dimensional cutting (N) v Voltage across the capacitor, Eq. (51)
Force in the direction of relative tool v Cutting velocity vector
travel (N) v, Local cutting velocity
Shear force in the shear plane (N) v, Chip velocity vector
Normal force on the shear plane (N) Undamped natural frequency
Normal force to the direction of relative tool $f Work done in overcoming friction between
travel (N) chip and tool (GJ/mj)
Power force at cutting tool (N) w. Work done in shearing of metal (GJ/ mJ)
Feed force at cutting tool (N) x, y, and z Orthogonal directions in which cutting forces
Radial force at cutting tool (N) are measured
Shear force on the face (N) P Apparent coefficient of friction between chip
Normal force on the face (N) and tool
Strain gage factor Tshi Shear stress in the shear plane
Undeformed chip thickness (mm) Oshi Normal stress on the shear plane
1-8
CHAPTER 1
Symbol Definition
Normal clearance angle (deg)

Friction angle (deg)
Normal rake angle (deg)
Imaginary shear angle (deg)
Cutting edge inclination angle (deg)
Location angle for chip flow direction (deg)
Tool back rake angle (deg)
Effective rake angle (deg)
Modified side rake angle (deg)
Location angle for chip flow direction (deg)
Chip flow angle in the rake face plane (deg)
Normalizing scalar
For over 100 years metalcutting researchers, attempting to

better understand cutting phenomena, have investigated the
forces in cutting. A knowledge of these forces is useful for a
variety of reasons. For example, knowledge of the power
requirements and the forces acting on a cutting tool is desirable
in both the design and selection of machine tools. The strength
and rigidity of machine tool structures and the size of motors Fig. 1-17 Schematic diagram of force system acting in the case of
orthogonal cutting with a continuous-type chip.
can be computed once the forces are known. In addition, the
optimization of cutting tool design depends on a knowledge of
the cutting forces which vary with the tool angles. Furthermore, The force system illustrated in Fig. 1-17 is arrived at by
the analysis of the scientific principles of metalcutting requires a assuming that the chip is a body in stable mechanical equil-
knowledge of the forces that exist during cutting. The efficiency ibrium under the action of the forces exerted on it at the face
of metal removal can then be computed so that analyses maybe and at the shear plane, as shown in Fig. 1-18. At the tool face,
made of variables such as tool materials, cutting fluids, and the the force components F7 and Fy~ act on the chip. FY, known as
material being cut. All of these factors have lead to the the shear force on the face, represents the frictional resistance
development of metalcutting dynamometers which, during the met by the chip as it slides over the face of the tool. Fv. is known
past century, have evolved in such a way that they are capable of as the normal force on the face. The ratio of Fy to Fyn is P, the
measuring forces at the cutting tool with considerable precision apparent coefficient of friction between chip and tool.
and accuracy. In this section the general principles of cutting The force components acting at the shear plane are F.~, and
forces, work, and power are described and relationships F,h,n.F.b, represents the force required to shear the metal on the
between forces and power and other cutting parameters are plane of shear and is known as the shearing force. Fshm acts
discussed. normal to the plane of shear and results in a compressive stress
being applied to the plane of shear. The mean shear stress on the
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS shear plane, which is equal to the mean shear strength of the
In the general case, the force system acting on a cutting tool is metal being cut, can be obtained by dividing F,h, by the area of
three dimensional; i.e., the geometry of the system cannot be the shear plane. Correspondingly, the compressive stress on the
represented as lying in a single plane. The resultant force on the shear plane is found by dividing F,htn by the area of the shear
tool has three basic components. This situation exists in all plane.
cases except that of orthogonal cutting. Cutting-force com-
ponents are measured by special tool or workholding devices
called dynamometers.
It should be noted that the magnitude of the forces in
metalcutting is small in ~omparison to the level of forces that
develop in the metalforming processes such as extrusion, wire
drawing, or forging. This is due to the small area being cut at
any particular instant; the forces measured are often on the
order of several hundred pounds or Newtons.
In the case of orthogonal cutting, the force geometry is
considerably simplified as compared to three-dimensional
systems. In orthogonal cutting, the entire force system lies in
a single plane, as shown in Fig. 1-17.1 The resultant force, F,
has two basic components, F, and F,.. The force component in
the direction of relative tool travel, F,, determines the amount
of work required to move the cutting tool a given distance.
The component F,. does not contribute to the work, but
both components produce deflections of the tool relative to the
work piece. Fig. 1-18 Free body diagram of chip.
1-9
CHAPTER 1
ORTHOGONAL CUTTING MODELS ~shi F ❑ COS (01 + ~. - Yn) (15)

A special case of cutting in which the cutting edge of the tool
F.hin ❑ F sin (@, + /?. - Y.) (16)
is arranged to be perpendicular to the direction of relative
work/tool motion is known as orthogonal cutting (see Fig.
1-19, a), Orthogonal cutting represents a two-dimensional These forces in terms of F, and F,. (the dynamometer
problem rather than a three-dimensional one; therefore, it lends measured components) become:
itself to research investigations when the elimination of as many Fsh;= Fs cos I#It - FL sin di (17)
independent variables as possible is desirable. As a con-
sequence, the relatively simple arrangement of orthogonal Fsh,n = F, sin @,+ F., cos #1, (18)
cutting is widely used in theoretical and experimental work. The Thus, the apparent shear stress of the material in the shear
other possible topview of Fig. l-17 ispresented as Fig. l-19, b. plane. T.h,, k
In this case the cutting action is inclined to the cutting edge and
is referred to as oblique cutting. Oblique cutting (drilling, Fski _ (F. cos 6) - (F.. sin 4,) sin 0,
(19)
milling, etc.) is far more common in actual practice than “h’ - z - A
orthogonal cutting. since the area of the shear plane, Ah,, is given by:
If a free body diagram of a chip is considered, the resultant
cutting force exerted by the cutting tool on the work and the A.+, ‘ & (20)
reaction of the work on the cutting tool must be equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction, as shown in Fig. 1-18. In where:
practice, the chip has a tendency to curl away from the cutting
tool. This may be due to noncollinearity in the forces. Ignoring ,4 ❑ the cross-sectional area of the uncut chip.
this complication, the resultant force, F, can be divided into The area of the shear plane, Ask,, and the yield strength of the
three sets of components. workpiece material in shear are the two principal factors that
determine the magnitude of the force necessary to form the
Force Components Parallel and Perpendicular chip. As a result, the shear yield strength in cutting is a
to the Cutting Velocity Vector frequently calculated parameter in cutting experiments and
These components are generally measured by a cutting tool there is much experimental evidence to show that this parameter
dynamometer with F, the component parallel to the cutting varies only slightly over a wide range of cutting conditions. If
velocity vector. It is sometimes called the power component the area of the shear plane would be constant during metal-
since, when it is multiplied by the cutting speed, the power cutting, the forces in cutting could easily be estimated once the
required for the cut is obtained. From the circular force shear yield strength is known. However, the shear plane angle,
diagram of Fig. 1-17, it is evident that: @i, and hence the shear plane area, vary widely for different
cutting conditions. As a result, the forces needed to shear the
F, ❑ F COS (& - Y.) (13)
metal vary widely and require the analyses of chip formation
F,,, ❑ F sin ($. - y.) (14) that are described earlier in this chapter (see “Geometry of Chip
Formation”).
Force Components Parallel and Perpendicular Force Components Parallel and Perpendicular
to the Shear Plane to the Tool Rake Face
These force components can be used to estimate the magni- The ratio of the friction to the normal component along the
tude of the stresses on the shear plane. Again, from the circular tool rake face gives rise to an apparent coefficient of friction
force diagram, Fig. 1-17: between the cutting tool and chip,
(cl) (b)
Fig. 1-19 (a) Orthogonal cutting, (b) Nonorthogonal (oblique) cutting.
1-1o
CHAPTER 1
The friction angle, /3., is shown in Fig. I-18 and is given by: TABLE 1-1
Summary of Equations for Calculating
& = tan-’ p (21)
Important Mechanical Quantities
The components F7 and Fy, on the tool rake face in terms of F (For the case of orthogonal cutting and a continuous chip)
are given by:
F,n + F, tan -yn
FY ❑ F sin /3. (22) Coefficient of friction p = (26)
F, - F5n tan -yn
FTn ❑ F COS~. (23)
while in terms of F, and F.,. (the dynamometer measured Friction force F7 = F,,fl cos Yn + F, sin yn (27)
components), they can be expressed as:
< sin ~iCOS4j-&~ Sin2@r
F? z F, sin y,, + F,. cos yn (24) Mean shear strength T$hi = (28)
A
FY~ ❑ F., cos Y“ - i% sin -y. (25)
Work done in shear W,, = 7,$~i[cot @j + tan (Oi - Yn)] (29)
In realit y, the coefficient of friction between the cutting tool and
chip in metalcutting is not analogous with coulomb friction
(sliding friction) for the following reasons: Fy sin @j
Work done in ‘/ = ~ “ COS(C$~- 7.) (30)
1. In coulomb friction, the real area of contact between the overcoming friction
two surfaces is only a small fraction of the apparent area
of contact; in metalcutting, the real area of contact
Total work done in E,P = ~ (31)
between tool and chip is significantly larger. ,.
cutting
2. In coulomb friction, p decreases with a reduction in the
Where: A cross-sectional area of chip before removal
friction force; in metalcutting, as the friction force
from workpiece (mm*)
decreases, the normal force reduces faster, resulting in an
increased p. Fy shear force in the face; force component
3. In coulomb friction, plastic deformation of the moving acting between tool face and sliding chip (N)
body does not occur; in metalcutting, plastic deformation
F, shear force in the flank; force component
of the chip takes place.
acting in direction of tool travel (N)
From the force equations and the geometry of Fig. I-17,
F,n normal force on the flank: force component
various mechanical quantities can be calculated if certain
acting in direction perpendicular to surface
quantities are known or readily measurable. These quantities
generated (N)
are the shear angle, o,; the rake angle, Y., of the tool; the force
components F., and F.,.; the chip cross-sectional area, A; and the ‘.~hl mean shear stress on shear plane; mean shear
cutting speed, VI. The equations for making such calculations strength of metal being cut (N; mm2)
from these known quantities are summarized in Table I-1.2 w, work done in overcoming friction between
Typical values for the quantities that may be calculated from
chip and tool per unit volume of metal
the equations in Table l-l are shown in Figs. I-20 through removed (GJ/ m3)
1-25,3 These values, relating to force relationships in orthogonal
cutting, show typical results obtained from cutting tests, The E
.$P specific cutting energy; total work done in
material used in these tests was: SAE 4340 steel; Brinell cutting per unit volume of metal removed
hardness was 200; cutting speed was 542 sfm ( 165 m/ rein); the (GJ/m3)
tool was sintered carbide. Circles (o) indicate +IW rake-angle w, work done in shearing of metal per unit
tool; triangles (A) indicate -10° rake-angle tool. volume of metal removed (GJ/ ms)
-Yrl normal rake angle of tool as measured in a

OBLIQUE CUTTING MODELS
plane perpendicular to its cutting edge (deg)
To improve understanding of three-dimensional turning
(oblique cutting), as seen in Fig. I-26, it is useful to have a @i imaginary shear angle between shear plane
mathematical model which predicts three-dimensional cutting and surface being generated (deg)
forces for this process. One method of predicting three-
dimensional cutting forces is to apply two-dimensional metal- in this plane to a set of x,y, and z directions in which the forces
cutting theory on a plane (which must be identified) where the are experimentally measured,
cutting process appears to be two dimensional. The forces To reference the position of the tool to the actual turning
which act on the workpiece in the radial, tangential, and axial operation, z is equivalent to the radial direction (depth of cut), y
directions can then be obtained by a coordinate transformation.q is equivalent to the negative feed direction (chip thickness), and
In modeling three-dimensional cutting, it is convenient to x is equivalent to the tangential direction (power force
define a plane @’-q’) which contains both the cutting velocity direction).
and chip velocity vectors. In this plane, the methods for To simplify the mathematical analyses, the cutting tool is
predicting two-dimensional cutting forces are applied. modeled without a side relief angle, nose radius, or end relief
One method of modeling three-dimensional cutting is to angle. Although these angles are present on a “real cutting
analyze the single point turning operation by first predicting the tool,” their effects are believed to be secondary compared to
Iocat ion of the p ‘-q’ plane and then referring the forces acting those of the angles which are included in the analyses. s
1-11
CHAPTER 1
25
n
0 0001 0.003 0.005 0007 (Ipr)
, , 4
1 1 I , J 1
015
0 005 010 020
o 005 010 0.T5 0,20 (mm/rev)
(mmlrev)
s—Feed rote s—Fees rote
. . . .
Fig. 1-20 Coefficient of friction versus feed rate in orthogonal cuttin[ Fig, l-23 Work doneinshearing ofmetal versus ieedrateln onnogona[
(o: + IfIo rake angle, A: -10° rake angle). cutting (o: +10° rake angle, A:-l OOrake angle).
(lb.) (GJ/m3) (hp/n.3/mn)
500 062
400
050
\ \
300 037
w Q
200 025 r
4
I00 012
NI
o 0
0 0.00I 0003 0005 0007 (p,) 0 0001 0003 0005 0007 (Iv)
J , , I I 4 1 1 1
o 005 010 015 0.20 0 00.5 010 015 020
(mm/rev) (m~/ev)
s—Feed rate s—keg rate
. . . . . .. —---- C.. .I ---- ,-

Fig. 1-24 Work done in overcoming incmrn versus Ieeu raw m
–.-. 1-21 Frictional force versus feed rate in orthogonal
Fir?. cutting (o:
orthogonal cutting (o: +10° rake angle, A:-l OOrake angle).
+10° rake angle, A:-l OOrake arrgle).
(N/mm2) (PSI) (GJ/m3) (hp/m.3/mn)
8 25
; 900 w125,00Ch m
c1
~ $ 20
I 00,000~ a o ?6
~. ~
600 - al I.5
s 75,000
2 u54
-9 + 10
.
50,000
E 300 - 72
~. 05
25,000 s
;
5 s o 0 ‘w ‘ ‘ - = - ‘
0r o 0 0.001 0.003 0.005 0.007 (Ird
0 0,001 0003 0005 0007 (pr)
) 1 1 1 I
1 , 1 o 0.05 0.10 015 0.20
0 005 010 0.15 020 (mm/rev)
(mm/rev) s—Feed rate
s—Feed rate
. ---- ,—.—. I-- —— --, . . . . ----
Fig. 1-22 Mean shear stress on shear plane versus feed rate in Fig. 1-25 Work done inputting versus feearaLe InurIr,uguna, ~uItl,,~
orthogonal cutting (o: +10” rake angle, A:-l OOrake angle). (o:+lW rake angle, A:-lOO rake angle).
1-12
CHAPTER 1
Figure 1-27 shows a cross section of the tool perpendicular to

the p ‘-q’ plane. The angle ac in this figure is the effective
rake angle. This is the three-dimensional equivalent of the rake
in orthogonal cutting. An expression for the effective rake
angle is:
sin a, = sin ~c . sin A, + cos q, . cos A, . cos y,, (32)
where:
Y. = thenormal rake angle
The resultant force, F,, having components along the x, y, z
axes can be expressed by:
F, = Fq’eq’+ FPreP’ (33]
F, = F,i + F,,j + F,k (34)
Also, F can be written as follows:
F,
[1 [1
F\
F;
= R,
F’
F’,
P
The predicted orthogonal forces can be related to q’-p’,

(35)
with the
Fig. 1-26 Oblique cutting.
WORK DONE IN CUTTING

aid of Fig. 1-27, as: The total work done by the cutting tool in removing metal, as
determined by the value of the force component F,, is dissipated
in the following forms fora sharp cutting tool: (1) as work done
WR’El (36) in shear deformation, (2) as work done to overcome chip/ tool
interracial friction, (3) as work done to generate the new
where: surfaces in cutting, and (4) as work done due to the change in
momentum of the metal as it crosses the shear plane.
“‘ R:::$ (37) The third and fourth forms are of negligible importance for
practical cutting conditions and can be ignored. As a result,
practically all of the energy generated in metalcutting is
-sin a (COSa, cos afi)/N dissipated in plastic deformation and friction as heat.
RI = cos a cos q (sin a, cos ab)/N (38)
[ -COSa sin q - (COSa, sin afi)/N 1 Work Done in Shearing Metal, W.S
A certain portion of the work done in removing a chip goes
Performing the matrix algebra of Eq. (35), Eq. (36) results in:
into the shearing of the metal on the plane of shear. The amount
T,hts(l. b
of work consumed in deforming the metal can be calculated
F. = F, = Fg,w,, = from Eq. (29).
sm 0, cos (0, + /?. - a.)
+ [sin (a - a,.) cos (& - a.) cos (a - a.) cos (Brt- ffe)] (39)
+ [-COS(a - a,) sin (/3. - a,) sin (a - a,) cos (& - a,)] (40)
r.,h;-a. b.sin~
F, ❑ F, ❑ Frad,ol=
sin O, cos (C#A + /3. - ac)
+ [COS(a -a, ) sin (~. - a,) sin(a -a.) cos (Bn - a.)] (41)
A matrix model of three-dimensional metalcutting, based on

an extension of two-dimensional metalcutting theory, has thus
been developed. The matrix model operates by locating a
reference plane where cutting is assumed to be two dimensional.
Cutting forces are then predicted in this plane, and these forces
are rotated to a set of orthogonal axes on the cutting tool.
Experimental results of three-dimensional turning indicate
good correlation to the matrix model predictions. The matrix
model results are also in good agreement with other models that Fig. 1-27 Cross section of cutting tool on plane p’-q’. (On this plane,
have been proposed in the literature.~ cutting is two-dimensional.)
1-13
CHAPTER 1
Work Done in Overcoming Friction Between being the actual efficiency. However, for general purposes, it is
Chip and Tool, Wf convenient to arrive at net power figures as follows: Subtract
Nearly all of the remainder of the work done in removing a the power required to run the machine idle with the cutter drive
chip goes into overcoming the frictional resistance to sliding of and feed running, but with no cutting taking place (tare power,
the chip on the tool. The amount of work consumed this way P,), from the power required by the machine when it is cutting
can be calculated from Eq. (30). (the gross power). Then:
Pn=Pg -P! (43)
Specific Cutting Energy (Total Work Done in where:
Cutting), Esp
Although the total amount of work done in cutting is the sum P, = tare power, as defined previously
of the work consumed in shearing the metal and the work used Also, apparent efficiency can be determined as follows:
in overcoming friction, it may also be calculated directly from
the cutting force F, and the chip cross-sectional area, A, by use ~= P.-P,
of Eq. (31). — x 100 (44)
Px
Mean Shear Strength, Tshi This method of arriving at net power and efficiency figures,
The mean shear stress on the plane of shear is equal to the although approximate, is convenient and sufficiently accurate
mean shear strength of the metal being cut, Its value can be for most practical purposes. The net power figures arrived at by
determined from Eq. (28). this method are roughly 209ff higher than actual values.
POWER The Specific (or Unit) Power

Various considerations are generally used in specifying the Consumption, Esp
power consumed in machining. These include: The specific power consumption is the amount of power (net)
required to remove a unit volume of metal in unit time, usually
1. Gross power, Pg.
expressed in terms of horsepower per cubic inch per minute or
2, Net power, P..
gigajoules per cubic meter. It is related to power consumption
3. Specific (or unit) power consumption, E,P.
and rate of metal removal in the following manner:
4, Specific cutting pressure.
5. Metal removal factor, K.. E . F,. V1
.P (45)
A.VI
Gross Power, Pq where:
The gross power, or power to the machine, is the power F, ❑ cutting force
actually developed by the motor (supplied to the machine tool) A ❑ area of the undeformed chip section
when the machine is cutting. It can be measured by use of a VI ❑ cutting speed
wattmeter in the electrical line supplying the motor in the case
of machine tools powered by individual electric motors (ne- Since the velocity terms in Eq. (45) can be canceled, the
glecting electrical losses in the motor). specific power consumption can also be expressed as:
Net Power, Pn E,p . + (46)

The net power, or power at the tool, is the power actually
supplied to the cutting tool and consumed in removing metal in Specific Cutting Pressure
a machining operation. The net power, rather than the gross In Eq. (46) the specific power consumption is expressed as a
power, is significant in force and specific power calculations. It ratio of a force to an area which is dimensionally (although not
is less than the gross power by the amount used in overcoming physically) a stress; thus, this quantity is also commonly
frictional losses in the machine tool and by the amount used in referred to as the specific cutting pressure.
the feeding system. However, the amount of power consumed in The specific cutting pressure, the specific power consumption,
the feeding system is very small compared to the amount and the unit horsepower are identical terms and can be used to
consumed in removing metal. For this reason, the power used in characterize cutting processes. The value of this parameter
feeding is generally combined with the frictional losses in the varies from material to material with the more difficult to
machine tool; the apparent efficiency of the machine tool is then machine materials characterized by higher values. The specific
based on this entire quantity, The relation between the net and cutting pressure also varies considerably for a given material
gross power is: and is affected by a variet y of cutting parameters, especially the
feed. The value of the parameter tends to be constant at the
(42) higher speeds and feeds at which it can be used as a guide to
estimate the forces and power required to cut the material.
where:
E = apparent efficiency of the machine tool (%). Metal Removal Factor, Kn
The metal removal factor is the volume of the metal removed
Highly accurate determinations of net power can be made by per unit of power (net) in a unit of time. It is the reciprocal of the
calibrating the machine tool (as with a pony brake) to determine specific power consumption. Thus:
its actual efficiency over the range of feeds and speeds possible
with the machine, The power at the tool may then be obtained (47)
from measurements of the gross power by use of Eq. (42), E then
1-14
CHAPTER 1
where: care must be exercised to prevent cross sensitivity. Cross

sensitivity occurs when the application of a force in one
K. ❑ cubic inches of metal removed per minute per
direction causes the dynamometer to record readings of
horsepower
apparent force in other perpendicular directions. If this mutual
Both the metal removal factor, or its reciprocal, and the interference of the force-measuring elements occurs, a set of
specific power consumption are useful quantities for expressing simultaneous equations must be solved to determine the
the power requirements for metal removal in a given machining force components—unnecessarily complicating the data
operation; they remain relatively constant in value for small interpretation.
changes in the cutting conditions and are, therefore, to some Hysteresis. A cutting force dynamometer should have linear
extent characteristic of the material being machined. For calibration characteristics and not exhibit hysteresis. Hysteresis
instance, the metal removal factor, K., has a value of approx- is an effect that is characterized in dynamometers by a
imately 1 in. j/rein per net hp (22 000 mmj/min per kW) for difference that exists in the force vs. displacement curves during
steel, under average machining conditions, while under condi- loading and unloading. The transfer of forces in dynamometers
tions required for machining cast iron, it has a value of about 2 should be accomplished by avoiding sliding surfaces with their
in.3/ min per net hp (about 44000 mm3/ min per kW). Thus, if 5 unknown amounts of friction acting as variable sources
hp (3.73 kW) were available at the cutter on a given machine, of error.
roughly 5 ins (82 000 mms) of steel or 10 in. j (164 000 mmj) of
cast iron could be removed per minute. Design Considerations
In addition to the general characteristics that are desirable in
PRACTICAL MEASUREMENT OF cutting force dynamometers, a number of design choices are
CUTTING FORCES available for specific applications. It may help to illustrate this
The cutting forces developed in machining operations maybe point if several questions are postulated, the answers to which
estimated indirectly by obtaining the power consumed or influence the design criteria or selection of an appropriate
directly through the use of metalcutting dynamometers. This dynamometer. Six representative questions are listed from a
section first discusses the desirable characteristics of cutting total of seventeen originally proposed by Cook and RabinowiczT
force dynamometers. Second, a number of different types of to establish reasonable design criteria for a force-measuring
dynamometers are discussed with respect to their principles of system.
operation and their advantages or limitations.
1. IS it the force or the result of the force application (e.g.
velocity or acceleration) that is the more meaningful
Desirable Characteristics of measurement of the forces acting on a system?
Metalcutting Dynamometers 2. Is it necessary to know the point of force application?
The desirable characteristics of a metalcutting dynamometer 3. Is the resultant force vector direction known or must it be
can be categorized into two groups: general characteristics and determined?
specific characteristics. General characteristics desirable in 4. In a system where there are interacting forces, is it easier
dynamometers include rigidity, sensitivity, and lack of cross to measure the force or the reaction force?
sensitivity and hysteresis. Specific desirable characteristics 5. What are the maximum, minimum, and average forces
involve design choices; for example, whether to put the force expected and how much accuracy and resolution is
measuring device on the tool or to put it on the workpiece. necessary?
Rigidity and sensitivity. The two primary prerequisites of a 6. For transient forces, what dvnamic characteristics of the
cutting tool dynamometer are rigidity and sensitivity. The force-measuring system are necessary to follow the force
dynamometer must be rigid to prevent any significant tool variations?
deflections affecting the normal cutting operation, yet it must
be flexible or sensitive enough to measure force variations with The question of where to mount the cutting force dynamo-
time. To assure the complete transmittibility of the cutting meter is suggested in the previous list of questions. A decision to
force, the natural frequency of the dynamometer should be at mount the force-measuring system on the cutting tool or the
least 4 to 5 times higher than the maximum exciting frequency workpiece depends in part upon whether it is necessary to
to which the cutting tool maybe subjected. Since the undamped measure the force applied to the workpiece as it changes with
natural frequency is given by the equation: the progress of the cut. In most applications the dynamometer
should bean integral part of the stationary element, although it
is possible to place the dynamometer on the rotating element. In
w =F (48) the latter situation, slip rings or mercury-bath pick-up devices
m
must be employed. Another device, referred to as the Garter-
where: Spring,s also offers a design alternative.
k = the spring constant (high values of k imply a “stiff” Principles and Examples of Metalcutting
spring)
m . the mass of the dynamometer
Dynamometers
The cutting forces existing in metalcutting operations can be
The desirable attributes for high natural frequency are a high measured directly from a variety of mechanical, hydraulic, or
spring constant with a corresponding low mass. Obviously, in pneumatic dynamometers or from several types of electro-
addition to being stiff and lightweight, the dynamometer should mechanical dynamometers. In the majority of force-measuring
be rugged and reliable. techniques currently employed, the cutting force is applied to an
Cross sensitivity y. If the dynamometer is designed to be used elastic member of the dynamometer and the resulting deflection
to measure two or more cutting force components, considerable of the member is measured. If a suitable calibration curve exists
1-15
CHAPTER 1
between the applied force and the resultant deflection, the Pneumatic and optical dynamometers. Techniques incor-
cutting force can be determined. As discussed earlier, the porating pneumatic and optical principles have been developed
dynamometer must be stiff, allowing only small deflections on to measure cutting forces. These principles are not easy to apply
the order of 10-1000 ~ in. (0.25-25.4p m). Thus, the measuring to metalcutting dynamometers and thus have found only
devices must be capable of measuring these small deflections. limited use.
Dial indicator dynamometers. Some of the earliest metal- Electromechanical dynamometers. Many cutting force
cutting dynamometers incorporated the use of dial iridicators as dynamometers fall into the category of the electromechanical
measuring elements. A simple two-component turning dyna- types. The electric displacement measuring devices (which will
mometer utilizing dial indicators is illustrated in Fig. 1-28. The be referred to as transducers) include the differential trans-
accuracy of the dial gages employed is about 0.001” (0.03 mm); former, the magnetic strain gage, and several types of wire
however, higher accuracy can be obtained through a lever resistance strain gages.
system. The inherent inertia effect of mechanical systems is a Differential transformer dynamometers. The differential
drawback of this type of dynamometer, especially in situations transformer, illustrated in Fig. 1-30, employs a primary and two
in which the forces are changing quickly. Furthermore, dial secondary coils mounted on a common axis along with a
indicators are subject to sticking and lack dependability under common movable core. Excitation by a-c is supplied to the
static conditions. primary coil, and a displacement of the movable core results in
an output from the secondary coils that is proportional to the
displacement. Since the secondary coils are wired to oppose
each other, there is no net output when the core is in the center
Overorm
position. This principle has proved satisfactory for metalcutting
dynamometers and is ideally suited for torque measurement.
::.
Magnetic strain gage dynamometer. The principle of oper-
I ation of the magnetic strain gage dynamometer is presented
Indicator
schematically in Fig. 1-31. The displacement (due to a cutting
force) of the magnet, M, toward or away from the coil, C, causes
I
1. a current to flow through the galvanometers, G. It is measured
., Indicator directly there, or a balancing unit, B, is utilized to adjust the
~.p
system until no current flows through the galvanometers. The
Work
sensitivity of this simple and safe device is approximately 100P
motion ~
in. (2.54 ~ m). -
Vokoge
m
M’ 1 Primary
Fig. 1-28 Schematic diagram of a dial indicator dynamometer.
Hydraulic pressure dynainometers. Hydraulic pressure has

1
been utilized in building dynamometers in which the tool forces
have been mortitered with pressure gages. Many of the early
dynamometers incorporated this principle, which is illustrtiterf
N Core ,
1
t
in Fig. I-29. However, they did not produce permanent

recordings of the data and have been discarded as being
too cumbersome.
I Vohacje 1A
o our 6 S&ondary COIIS
Fig. 1-30 Schematic diagrnm of a differential transformer (LVDT:

linearly variable displacement transducer).
Wire resistance strain gage dynamometers. Wire resistance

strain gage transducers operate on the principle that the
electrical resistance of a wire changes when it is stretched or
contracted over its length.
There are two types of wire resistance strain gages—the
unbended type and the bonded type; the latter is the newer and
more common type. The bonded wire resistance strain gage
(Fig. 1-32) ‘isa long fine wire approximately 0.001” (0.03 mm)
diam, folded several times to accommodate it in a small space
and yet have a nominal resistance of 120 ohm. The wire is
cemented (bonded) between two sheets of insulating paper. This
unit is cemented to the elastic element. In this way the wire
Fig. 1-29 Schematic diagram of a hydraulic pressure dynamometer. expands or contracts along with the surface of the element.
1-16
CHAPTER 1
Piezoelectric crystal dynamometers. Piezoelectric crystals

Meosurfng unit Balonclng wwt have been used as force-measuring units in metalcutting
dynamometers. These crystals have conducting charge col-
lectors attached to each side. The total charge, Q, (coulombs) is
~ B~
c1 proportional to the applied force, E
Q=kF (50)
where:
k ❑ the piezoelectric constant
The collector plates, separated by the thickness, r, of the
piezoelectric crys~al, act as a capacitor. The voltage across a
capacitor due to a charge, Q, is:
v=+ (51)
----- -.. . .. As an example, a barium titanate piezoelectric pickup 0.2” x

Klg. 1-51 Sctsematlc rtlagramot amagnetl cstraingage. 0.2” x 0.05” (5.0x 5.0x 1.3 mm) subject to a force of 1 Ibf (4.45
N) develops a voltage of 2.5 V.s
Each wire resistance strain gage has a resistance and gage
factor. The gage factor is a measurement of the gage sensitivity
and can be calculated from the equation:
(49)
where:
A R/R ❑ thechange inresistance per unit resistance
A 1/1 ❑ the nominal strain
The bonded gages can measure strains on the order of 1-10 p
in. (0.025-0,254 p m) with a practical operating range of 2000 to 1.
The use of a Wheatstone bridge is also a common method of
measuring strains on a system using the wire resistance
strain gages.
Among the earliest bonded wire resistance strain gage
dynamometers utilized for force measurement in single point
turning is the type illustrated in Fig, 1-33. This type of lathe
dynamometer consists essentially of a cantilever beam with
strain gages bonded symmetrically on each face of the rec-
tangular or square segment. Forces applied perpendicular to .
Fig. 1-33 Simple two-component lathe tool dynamometer.
any one of the faces cause tension on that face and compression
on the opposite face. If the gages on the faces are connected into In a three-component force dynamometer a piezoelectric
a Wheatstone bridge, the tool forces applied to the dynamo- transducer is used for each of the three force components. The
meter can be measured, measuring platform is designed to be very rigid to give a
Figure 1-34 illustrates schematically the features of a three- correspondingly high natural frequency so that very rapid
component lathe dynamometer that can measure all the cutting changes in the forces can be measured. One of the fundamental
force components in a nonorthogonal turning operation. In features of the piezoelectric measuring technique is that small
these designs, based on measurement of moments, the point of changes in the level of force can be measured accurately even
load application must be fixed at all times. though the system is subjected to a substantial preload.
Since piezoelectric devices produce a charge as a result of a
physical deformation, the voltage developed, as determirwd in
~Gqy31eng+h~ Eq. (50), exists only as long as the charge does not leak off.
Because finite leakage invariably occurs, piezoelectric crystal
Loops
I dynamometers are not very satisfactory for steady-state
operation. These devices are better suited for the measurement
Leads
c of dynamic cutting forces. Another major disadvantage of the
piezoelectric crystal dynamometer is their high cost,
+ - Paper
protecton FRICTION IN METALCUTTING
Wire grid
In metalcutting operations, several factors influence friction.
The friction force and coefficient of friction are discussed in
Fig. 1-32 Schematic diagram of a honded wire resistance strain gage. this section.
1-17
CHAPTER 1
specific power consumption, E,P; the metal removal factor, K.;

and the forces on the tool are not greatly dependent on cutting
Tangential speed at speeds above 10-20 sfm (3.0-6.1 m/rein) when positive
force true rake angle tools are used. The maximum variation of these
r. -.* L\\
quantities with cutting speed is on the order of 10-1590 over the
I& range of speeds normally used in practice.
I The effect of cutting speed on tool forces F. and F,. depends

upon a number of factors including the tool/work combination,
tool geometry, speed range involved, feed, depth of cut, and
Radial type of machining operation. The frictional characteristics at
force
\
1 the tool/ chip interface are related to the effect of speed on
\ cutting forces.
\ In view of the many possible combinations of the foregoing
Longitudinal force \
\ factors, any generalization is hazardous. However, the most
\
reliable criterion is the change in the thickness of the chip with
change in speed under otherwise fixed cutting conditions.
Strain gages= The chip thickness ratio is a reliable gage of the amo.mt of
shearing strain undergone during chip formation [see Eq. (1) in
this chapter]. This shearing action accounts for most of the
Fig. 1-34 Three-component lathe tool dynamometer. energy expended in cutting. If a speed change results in little
difference in the chip thickness, the forces are substantially
Friction Force constant.
The friction force is the actual force that resists sliding of the A variety of trends have been observed and maybe general-
chip over the face of the tool. Its magnitude can be found from ized as follows:
Eq. (27) in Table 1-1. A knowledge of the two force components 1. In single point turning of steel or cast iron with high-
and the rake angle of the tool is employed in the calculation. speed steel tools and usual rake angles, cutting speed has
little effect on cutting forces.
Coefficient of Friction, p 2. When employing carbide tools with usual rake angles in
The coefficient of friction between the chip and the tool is a single point turning of steel and other metals producing a
measure of the resistance to sliding encountered by the chip as it “continuous” chip [in the range of 200-600 sfm (61-183
passes over the face of the tool. It is equal to the tangent of the m/ rein)], an increase in speed results in a pronounced
ang]e, @n,shown in Fig. 1-17. This coefficient of friction can be decrease in chip thickness and a corresponding decrease
calculated from Eq. (26) in Table 1-1. A knowledge of the two in cutting forces. The change is relatively slight above
force components and the rake angle of the tool is employed in 500-600 sfm (152-183 m/rein).
the calculation. 3. In the milling of steel with carbide or high-speed steel
-.
The coefficient of friction can be reduced by using an effective cutters, comparatively little effect from speed is noted on
cutting fluid, by taking a thicker chip (feed per revolution), by either chip thickness or forces. In some instances, the
decreasing the effective rake angle, or by using a higher cutting forces increase moderately with an increase in speed.
speed (see Fig. 1-20). It can also be reduced by certain chemical
additives in the work material. For instance, the presence of
lead or bismuth in steel or graphite in cast iron reduces the Dimension of Cut
friction of the chip on the face of the tool. Because these The size of cut is the variable having the greatest influence on
materials are relatively soft at the temperatures found at the forces and power consumption in the machining of metals. The
tool face, they smear over that face to produce a film of empirical equations relating cutting force F, and the metal
relatively weak material on which the chip can slide. removal factor, K., (or specific power consumption, J&.) to
An increase in the coefficient of friction often is associated depth of cut, a, and feed per revolution,s, are as follows:
with an increase in rake angle in the positive direction.
However, the cutting performance is improved by virtue of an F. ❑ F, = CF ax.? (52)
overall reduction of the cutting forces despite an increase in the
ratio of friction to normal force.
(53)
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FORCES,
POWER, AND CUTTING VARIABLES where:
The forces and power in metaIcutting are affected by a variety
of factors, including cutting speed, dimensions of cut, temper- CF a constant whose value depends on the material being
❑
ature at the cut, cutting fluids, work piece and tool material, work piece cut and the true rake angle of the tool
hardness, and other variables. Several key factors are discussed x, y = exponents
in this section.
In average commercial machining practice, in which the nose
Cutting Speed radius or chamfer is small in relation to the depth, x = 1 andy =
Power consumption in a machining operation is roughly 0.8J011I so that Eqs. (52) and (53) become:
proportional to the cutting speed, since the rate at which metal
is removed is proportional to that speed. On the other hand, the F,= F~=C~. a.s0”8 (54)
1-18
CHAPTER 1
and, since A ❑ a c s:
(N) (lb)
, _ ~02
350- 80 , , r 1
K.=E; -~ (55) Moterlal Copper tubing
300 - 1/16 (1 58 mm) wall
60 — . Feed rate 0001 ln,/rev (O 027 mm/rev)
~ 250 -
Several important conclusions can be drawn from these two ~.
equations: Y 200 - High-speed steel too
~ 40 rake 4“ 35’
IT!
‘Dlomorw~ol
1. A change in feed has less effect on cutting force than does 9150 - clear T 58’ rakeN 50’
a change in depth. “=1 00 - ave flnlsh I 5 ptn. clear P 55’
20 (0.04 mm) R,, ove fnlsh I p m (O 03 mm) R,
2. More importantly, the cutting force does not increase in
50 - I I
direct proportion to an increase in feed.
3. The metal removal factor, K“, is to a large extent 0~ o I I
o 100 200 300 400 500 600 (sfm)
characteristic of the metal being cut; it is only slightly , ‘
I 4
dependent on the feed and is practically independent of 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 (m/mlr)
the depth of cut. Cenlng speea, s
4. Most importantly, the metal-removal factor actuallv
increases ~lightly with increasing feed.
Fig. 1-35 Typical example of large decrease in cutting force effected by
Thus, a general rule maybe stated: The use of a high feed and using a diamond tool when cutting copper.
large depth of cut allows metal to be removed most efficiently in
machining (i.e., a large volume of metal can be removed per Workpiece materials. The basic material variables that
minute per horsepower). The use of the high feed and large control forces and power consumption were discussed earlier.
depth of cut can be combined with a low cutting speed to give However, in practice it is convenient to correlate forces and
long tool life (as indicated in the general rule stated in the power directly with readily measured properties of the materials
previous discussion of the relation of tool life to the dimensions by empirical relationships, These relationships are useful for
of the cut). However, although a high feed and large depth of quickly estimating the power required to machine given
cut are beneficial to tool life and efficient metal removal, several materials. (See “Turning and Boring, ” Chapter 8 of this volume;
factors set a limit on the maximum size of cut that can be taken. “Drilling, Reaming and Related Processes,” Chapter 9 of this
These are (1) the maximum power available from the machine volume; and “Milling,” Chapter 10 of this volume for specific
tool, (2) the maximum forces that the cutter can withstand, empirical relationships.)
(3) the maximum permissible deflections of the machine tool Approximate values of net power consumption for drilling,
and workpiece consistent with the accuracy required, (4) the milling, or planing many of the common metals under average
tendency to chatter, and (5) the fact that finish grows rougher as conditions are shown in Fig. 1-36.13 Drill penetration time as a
the depth of cut is increased. measure of ease of machining is also shown in comparison. As
pointed out earlier, since the specific power consumption is not
Temperature greatly affected by changes in cutting conditions, the values in
Brief discussions of the effects of temperature in metalcutting Fig. 1-36 can be used to make rough estimates of the power
operations are presented in Chapter 4 of this volume, “Cutting required for machining given materials. (Also see “Power
Fluids and Industrial Lubricants, ” and other sections of Requirements for Turning” in Chapter 8 of this volume,
this chapter. “Turning and Boring.”)
Cutting Fluids Workpiece Hardness

The use of a cutting fluid has little effect on forces and power As a rough general rule, power consumption and forces
at high cutting speeds. However, a good cutting fluid reduces increase with increasing workpiece hardness. This is evident
power consumption at intermediate to low cutting speeds. At from Fig. 1-36, in which most of the soft metals are found at the
very low speeds, the cutting fluid is able to reduce the friction left of the figure and most of the hard metals at the right.
between the chip and tool. However, properly selected fluids are In the case of steel and cast iron, empirical relationships
effective in reducing cutting temperatures either by dissipating between hardness and specific power consumption or cutting
generated heat through cooling or by reducing frictional heat force can be stated in terms of the EsPvalue. Kronenberglq has
generation through lubrication (see “Functions of Cutting found the following approximate relationships:
Fluids” in Chapter 4 of this volume). For steel:
E,, ❑ 4.26 *(85 - 7.) (56)
Workpiece and Tool Materials
Tool materials. With few exceptions, power consumption For cast iron:
and forces are practically independent of tool material. This is
E,, = 1.07 ‘n- (57)
true for most of the common types, such as carbon tool steel,
high-speed steel, cast alloy, or sintered carbide. However, with a where:
diamond tool, appreciably lower power consumption and
H = Brinell hardness number
forces may sometimes be found. An interesting case is that of
Y. ❑ rake angle
copper. When this metal is cut with a diamond tool, the power
and force may be reduced to as little as one-fifth that required Values of specific power consumption that have been
when a high-speed steel tool is used. This is illustrated in calculated from Eq. (56) for an average case in which A = 0.001
Fig. 1-35.12 in.z (0.64 mmj) are plotted in Fig. 1-37 IS(for different velocity
1-19
CHAPTER 1
(GJ/mj) (hp/tn s/inn) (mm)

Time required for
O 10” (O 25 mm)
penetrotlon of
0.250” (6.3 mm)
dam drill
“l-
Fig. 1-36 Values of specific power consumption (net), E,,,, for a variety of metals as determined for drilling, milling, and planing. The drill used was
3/4” (19.0 mm) diam, had a 30° helix, and was operated at 153 rpm and 0.012 ipr (0.30 mm/rev) feed. The planing tool was an end-cutting type, 1/2”
(12.7 mm) wide, having 15’ back rake and no side rake. It was operated at a speed of 20 fpm (100 mm/s) for a 0.01” (0.25 mm) depth of cut per stroke.
The milling cutter was of the end-cutting type, 0.25” (6.3 mm) wide, 3.5” (89 mm) diam. and having 15° back rake, no side rake, a depth of cut of 0.125”
(3.1 7 mm), and a feed of 0.010” (0.25 mm) per tooth. The penetrator drill indicating machinability was 1/4” (6.3 mm) diam, had a helix of 24°, and
operated under a feed load of 94 Ibf (418 N) at 500 rpm.
rake angles). This figure can be used to estimate roughly the

power required for machining steel of known hardness. In the
I (hp/in.s/mm) y,= @
special case of good free-machining sulphurized or leaded
2.0- Average values
steels, the power actually required is about 40’% less than that I
specjf[c power consumption
estimated from Eq. (56) or Fig. 1-37.
18
Brlnell hardne”~sfor steel
[calculated from Eq. (56)]
CURRENT RESEARCH AND TRENDS [ [ [ 1 1
I i
In recent years there has been an ever increasing trend toward 16 -
the use of automated machines in the metalcutting industries.

As a result, the use of highly skilled machinists to operate 1.
machine tools in production has declined. This has caused a
demand for automated ways of monitoring the condition of the 1.
cutting tool during the cutting process. New developments in
this field are directed both at a monitoring role used for I
operation security and reliability and at methods to control the
cutting process in such a way that production rate or costs are o.
optimized. Torque control on machine tool spindles and feed 100 140 180 220 260 300 340 380 420
force monitoring are two techniques becoming increasingly Brlnell hardness number, H
accepted in the metalcutting industry. In a recent development,
a real-time sensor that is accurate and rugged and does not
interfere with the operation of a machining system has Fig. 1-37 Chart for estimating average power consumption for
been introduced.lb machining steel of a given hardness with tool of a given velocity rake.
1-20
CHAPTER 1
SURFACE FINISH
SURFACE FINISH
The following is a list of symbols and abbreviations used in
formulas and discussions of surface finish:
Flaw
/-
Symbol Definition
AA Arithmetic average (R.) (~in. or #m)

c Lead angle at cutting point or trailing angle [see
Eq, (64)] (deg)
Face clearance angle, or dish (deg) \
Feed per insert (in. or mm) .-
Y
I TvpIcal traversng’
Feed rate (in. or mm)
Peak-to-valley roughness height (in. or mm)
.
Percent machining cost (qO) ‘Wovlness
spcic ng \
.
Number of teeth in milling cutter
.
k \
W\t
A
/
Nose radius (in. or mm)
Milling cutter radius (in. or mm)
Undeformed chip thickness (in. or mm)
Cut chip thickness (in. or mm)
Shear angle (deg) wclvl-ess
Surface finish or surface texture are terms used to describe Ro~ghness

the general quality of a workpiece surface. Surface texture
consists of roughness, waviness, lay, and flaws (see Fig. I-38).
Roughness consists of the finer irregularities which generally
result from the production process. These include transverse
feed marks and other irregularities within the limits of
sampling length. “*$-
Vclleys
Waviness includes all irregularities having spacing that is
greater than the roughness sampling length. Waviness may 1- Rcughness sompllng +
result from machine or work deflection, chatter, vibration, heat length o CUICH
treatment, or cutting tool runout, Roughness maybe considered

to be superimposed on a wavy surface. Fig. 1-38 Illustration of unidkectional lay surface characteristics.
Lay is the direction of predominant surface pattern (relative (ANSI Standard B46.1-1978, published by (he ASWE)
to a reference edge), ordinarily determined by the production
method used.
Flaws are unintentional irregularities which occur at one SURFACE FINISH AND
place or at relatively infrequent or widely varying intervals on DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCE
the workpiece surface. Flaws can occur either in the manufac- Surface finish and dimensional tolerances usually go hand in
turing of the material or during the machining of the workpiece. hand. Bearing surfaces and locating surfaces usually require
Flaws include cracks, blow holes, inclusions, checks, ridges, close dimensional and surface finish control for proper func-
and scratches. Unless otherwise specified, the effect of flaws is tioning and for ensuring that functional dimensions are
usually not included in the roughness-average measurements. maintained throughout the useful life of the workpiece.
When flaws are to be restricted or controlled, a special note as to Other surface finish requirements exist that are not related to
the method of inspection should be included on the drawing or dimensional tolerance. For example, surface finish is important
in the specifications. for surfaces that are to be painted to ensure that good paint
The purpose of this section is to provide an overview of the adherance is obtained; for surfaces that are to be marked to
impact of machining operations on surface finish. A general ensure legibility of marking; for surfaces over which gases or
discussion of surface finish and its measurement is presented in fluids are to flow; for surfaces having special appearance
Volume 111of this Handbook series, “’Materials and Finishing. ” requirements; and for surfaces for which specific heat or light
Accepted measuring instructions for surface finish are presented reflectivity requirements exist. In some cases specific surface
in ANSI Standard B46. 1-1978, published by the American patterns must be maintained.
Society of Mechanical Engineers. 17
Machining may result in metallurgical, chemical (oxidation), SURFACE FINISH AND MACHINING COST
or mechanical changes in the workpiece material at or near the The approximate relationship between machining cost and
surface. The influence of these changes on workpiece surface roughness is plotted in Fig. 1-39. The smoother the
performance may be critically important, depending upon the surface, the higher the cost.
application. Such changes are discussed later in this chapter The percent machining cost, J4C, versus the surface
under “Surface Integrity. ” smoothness (i.e. the reciprocal of the finish) is plotted in Fig.
1-21
CHAPTER 1
SURFACE FINISH
conditions, cutting fluid, and the workpiece itself. Table 1-2 lists
major elements which collectively affect surface texture.
Machine Tool Considerations

=WzmE
c cm Each machine tool process has an inherent ability to produce
(%) surface texture. Turning and milling usually produce surfaces in
1000 the range of 125-500p in. (3.17 -12.7 p m) Ra roughness. When
800 specialized techniques are used, these processes are capable of
600
producing surfaces as smooth as 40p in. (1.01 p m) Ra or less.
400
Machine tool rigidity. The effect of machine tool rigidity on
200 ~ surface texture is particularly apparent in the waviness of
surfaces produced. The machine tool must rigidly support the
100 3 workpiece and cutting tool in relation to each other; must be
80 y designed, built, and maintained to minimize tendencies to
60 c
vibrate and telegraph vibrations from driving elements and
40 g
adjacent machines into the workpiece and cutting tool; and
20 must have sufficient power and rigidity to effectively handle
cutting forces. Design of the machine tool need not necessarily
10 be massive (though a heavy mass is usually beneficial), but it
I
1/2~ l/1~ 1/503 1/250 1/125 1/63 132 1:16 (M.)
must be properly engineered, designed, and built. Dynamic and
i 1 1 I 1 # 1 1 1 1 1 I I static forces acting within the system must be understood and
1/60 1/30 I 1/10 I 1/5 I 1,3 7,/1 I 110.3 properly considered. Vibration damping capacity and elastic
1/50 1{20 1,’6 1/4 1/2 1/0.5
(# m)
properties of structural materials and designs are important,
Machine tool drives. The machine tool drive must be
sufficient to maintain set cutting speed and feed; otherwise,
Fig. 1-39 Relative machining costs and surface finish. waviness may be introduced into the surface texture. Except for
special machine tools designed, built, and used to perform a
single operation on a single workpiece with one tool material,
1-39. As the graph shows, two distinct cost intensities are
machine tool drive and control systems need to effectively
characterized by the gradient m. Is
provide for operation over a range of cutting conditions. This is
In the range up to 125 p in. (3.2 ~ m) Ra, the machining cost
usually considered to be a requirement for optimum produc-
increased inversely with the fourth root of the finish according to:
tivity, but is also important in relation to surface texture. The
softer a workpiece material, the higher the cutting speed
(58) required to minimize development of a buih-up edge on the
cutting tool. This is particularly true of carbide tools when
relatively soft, continuous-chip materials are machined.
for cast, sawed, and rough-turned surfaces and for the rougher
Installation. Proper installation of machine tools is required
half of semifinished surfaces. For finished, ground, and honed
to minimize problems in producing consistent surface texture.
surfaces, the machining cost increases inversely with the
Vibration from other sources may be transmitted from the
smoothness of the finish, as shown by:
TABLE 1-2
(59) Major Elements which Collectively Affect Surface Texture
In metric units, AA surface finish (in micrometers) should be Machine tool: Cutting tool:
converted to microinches, then MC (W m + 0.0254 ❑ y in.) Rigidity Material
should be calculated. Drive Geometry
Figure 1-39 is labeled for turning operations, but a similar Installation Rake angles
pattern applies to other machined parts, such as those that Maintenance Relief angles
are milled. Nose radius
It is obvious that the lowest cost is achieved when an as- Workpiece:
End cutting edge angle
received surface of a bar, casting, forging, or stamped part is Design
Side cutting edge angle
used. As operations are added, costs increase. Material
The product designer is responsible for accurately assessing Composition Cutting conditions:
the functional requirements of the surface and specifying the Metallurgical structure Depth of cut
least costly surface that will function properly. Manufacturing Physical properties Feed
personnel are responsible for efficiently planning the tooling Form Uncut chip thickness
and processing that will yield the required surface at the lowest Cast Cutting speed
manufacturing cost. Rolled Cutting friction
Forged Interface temperature
SURFACE TEXTURE AND Stamped
MACHINING PARAMETERS Inch3sions
Surface texture is affected by many variables in the cutting Form, shape, and
process, including the machine tool, cutting tool, cutting distribution
1-22
CHAPTER 1
SURFACE FINISH
surface on which the machine is mounted, or the mounting desirable surface texture. Usually, inclusions that serve as aids
surface may act as a sounding board to receive, reinforce, and to chip formation are helpful. Inclusions that are abrasive
return to the machine tool its own vibrations. These vibrations promote rapid wear on the tool which is reflected in deterior-
may appear as chatter in surface texture. ation of surface texture.
The machine tool also requires solid support to avoid shifting Metallurgical consistency. As was mentioned earlier,
the tool relative to the workpiece during cutting. Such shifting consistency in metallurgical structure and physical properties of
may result in dimensional variation and waviness. the workpiece material is important. One very obvious example
Maintenance. A machine tool in good condition may produce which illustrates the effect of material inconsistency is apparent
satisfactory surface texture, but after having been used for a when the end of a relatively large diameter of bar stock is faced.
period of time, may yield less than satisfactory results. New Near the center of the bar the surface texture is often much
machines and rebuilt machines usually wear-in as bearing rougher than it is near the outside diameter, This difference in
surfaces settle. Relatively minor maintenance is usually required texture develops for a variety of reasons. It is common to find
to restore satisfactory results when timely corrective action is that, as the center of a bar is approached by the tool, the work
taken. Usually, a good preventive maintenance program extends material becomes softer. To develop the same or similar surface
total satisfactory life of the machine. Proper preventive texture, relief and rake angles on the tooI should be increased
maintenance programs include maintaining proper adjustment (which is quite impractical) or cutting speed should be increased
of bearings, slides, and shaft supports. Looseness in these (which is practical). Sufficient speed increase is required tp
elements may appear as chatter or waviness in the workpiece, compensate for the decreased hardness and the falloff in cutting
Lubrication is an essential element in proper maintenance. speed due to decreased diameter. (It must be recognized that
Machine tools are recognized to consist of an engineered group there is a reasonable limit to which cutting speed and revolutions
of elements which act together with a film of lubricating per minute may be safely increased, )
material that separates working surfaces, Whenever this film is Workpiece design. The various elements of the cutting tool
removed, erratic movement occurs. This erratic movement may (nose radius, rake angles, cutting edge angles, and relief angles)
adversely affect surface texture. have considerable impact on surface texture. However helpful
changes in tool geometry may be, workpiece design may not
Workpiece Considerations permit taking advantage of such changes. Parts should be
Workpiece material composition, metallurgical structure, designed to permit as large as possible female corner radii if
physical properties (whether the material is cast or cold smooth surface finish is required. (In some cases, it may be
worked), inclusions in the material, and workpiece design all desirable to generate corner radii to avoid the chatter which
affect surface texture. It is usually not practical to select, for any may occur when large nose radii on cutting tools are used. ) The
given part, workpiece material that inherently yields the desired workpiece must be stiff enough to resist deflection due to the use
surface texture. Workpiece material is selected based on a wide of relatively large nose radii and/or reduced end cutting edge
variety of considerations which may affect part performance. angles which produce smoother surface texture. Thin, large-
Very low-priced raw material may cost an inordinate amount diameter flanges and shafts with large length-to-diameter ratios
to process. are particularly difficult to machine with cutting tools designed
Maintaining consistent surface texture requires that the to produce smooth surface texture. This is because these tool
workpiece material be as consistent as practical in composition, designs usually impose high radial pressures.
metallurgical structure, and physical properties. Variations in
these factors may require changes in tooling to produce Cutting Tool Material
consistent parts. (This applies not only to surface texture, but Cutting tool materials play an important role in surface
also to dimensional tolerances.) Extensive data has been finish. The following sections describe, in a general way, how
accumulated relative to the composition, metallurgical struc- the characteristics of the various cutting tool materials affect
ture, and physical properties of materials as these affect surface finish, A more detailed discussion of cutting tool
machining characteristics. To achieve optimum cost in materials is presented in Chapter 3 of this volume, “Cutting
producing parts, the services of competent metallurgists should Tool Materials. ”
be obtained. High-speed steel. Various types of high-speed steel tool
In the case of steel, carbon content is one of the most materials yield very similar surface texture. With HSS tools it isi
important considerations. When carbon content is less than normal to increase rake angles to obtain high shear angles in tha
O.10%, the material machined is prone to rapid development of chip. These materials have relatively high edge strength to resist
built-up edges on the cutting tool. This usually results in a rough chipping when rake angles are increased, but they do not have
surface texture. Steel which contains free-machining additives the ability to successfully resist softening due to cutting
usually has much less tendency to develop built-up edges. When temperatures generated when cutting speed is increased to the
such steel does develop BUE, the problem can be handled by values needed to reduce the chip shear angle.
increasing the rake and relief angles and/ or increasing Carbide. Carbide tool materials, particularly titanium car-
cutting speed. bide, have lower edge strength than high-speed steel, but they
Workpiece hardness. Very low hardness and high ductility have excellent temperature resistance. Therefore, cutting speed
also require the use of increased rake and relief angles and usually may be increased to the point that the chip shear angle
increases in cutting speed. The machine tool used and the design and built-up edge are reduced and surface texture is improved.
of the part may be of such a nature that sufficient speed cannot The composition of carbide tools can affect surface texture.
be applied to eliminate the built-up edge. In this case, increasing This becomes apparent when steel is machined. [t is not
the hardness of the workpiece material may provide a situation necessarily true that measured surface roughness will differ
in which surface texture becomes satisfactory. greatly, but appearance of surface texture varies with changes in
Inclusions in the work material may help or hinder producing carbide tool composition.
1-23
CHAPTER 1
SURFACE FINISH
The following is a much generalized statement relative to temperatures than diamonds and are at present of interest to
carbide tool materials. Considerable liberty has been taken to researchers searching for efficient means of machining high-
simplify, without distortion, references to tool material temperature alloys and machining hard steels.
compositions relative to surface texture on workpiece materials.
Carbide cutting tool materials composed of various per- Cutting Tool Geometry
centages of tungsten carbide and cobalt binder are used for Elements of the tool/chip interface are illustrated in Fig, 1-1.
machining cast iron and most nonferrous alloys. Variations in This illustration defines the shear angle, @; undeformed chip
percentage of tpngsten carbide and cobalt have little discernible thickness, t;and the deformed chip or cut chip thickness, t,.
effect on surface texture, but may have considerable effect on These parameters affect chip formation which in turn is highly
time between grinding or toolchanging. When ductile irons and related to surface texture. The orientation of Fig. 1-1 is usually
most steels are machined, it is necessary to alter the composition applied to single point tools used for turning, facing, or boring.
of the tool material. Carbide tool material used for machining However, these elements also apply to multipoint tools such as
these materials contains, in addition to tungsten carbide and milling cutters, drills, or broaches,
cobalt, varying percentages of tantalum carbide and titanium The tool geometry shown in Fig. 1-1 is the working geometry
carbide. Carbide tool materials which contain a large percentage when the tool is set normal to the surface generated on the
of titanium carbide and which use nickel as the binder are also workpiece and is traversed parallel to the machined surface
used, as are coatings of various compositions applied to carbide being produced. When orientation and/ or traverse direction
substrates. Tantalum carbide, titanium carbide, and various differs from these, effective rake and relief angles change.
coatings reduce built-up edge and cratering. This is perhaps an Geometry illustrated in Fig. 1-1 applies to the working edges
oversimplified description of carbide tool material; however, it and surfaces of the tool. When chip-directing grooves, steps,
serves the purpose of this reference of tool materials to surface etc., are provided in a cutting tool. geometry of the cutting
texture. The importa~t point is that the addition of tantalum tool’s actual working surfaces is different than that shown in
carbide and titanium carbide and the application of various Fig. 1-1. These changes in geometry may affect chip formation
carbides, nitrides, and oxides as surface coatings on a carbide and in turn surface texture (see “Geometry of Chip Formation”
substrate affects surface texture. These “steel machining” in this chapter),
materials generate a more cleanly cut surface which has a Shear angle. The shear angle in metalcutting operations
“shinier” appearance. The use of these materials permits should be as large as practical. Increasing shear angle reduces
operating at higher cutting speeds, which further advantageously cut chip thickness as compared to uncut chip thickness, reduces
affects development of the built-up edge. Properly used, these cutting forces (feed force and tangential force), and helps reduce
tool materials yield enhanced surface texture. Optimization of built-up edge. The shear angle may be increased through
interface temperature improves surface structure and tool life. changing the tool geometry, increasing cutting speed, increasing
In general, weak and brittle chips require straight carbide lubricity of the cutting fluid, or improving machinability of
grades (C 1 to C4); strong and tough chips need crater-resistant workpiece material. Changes in the shear angle are best
grades (C5 to C8). accomplished through changing of a combination of elements
Ceramics. Ceramic tool materials are useful in producing since each element has limiting considerations. For example,
enhanced surface texture. These tool materials, due to their tool geometry is usually changed to increase the shear angle by
relatively low strength, usually require negative rake angles. increasing the rake angle. Increasing the rake angle reduces the
They yield good surface texture on parts due to low affinity for cross section of the cutting edge; therefore, the cutting edge is
work material and have excellent resistance to wear at high weakened and the ability to conduct heat away from the cutting
cutting temperatures. Built-up edge is usually minor in nature, area is reduced. Increasing cutting speed also usually increases
and the high cutting speed characteristic of their use serves to the shear angle; however, the temperature of the cutting edge
yield smooth workpiece surface texture. may increase and the rate of tool wear will probably increase,
Single-crystal diamonds. Single-crystal diamond cutting Increasing lubricity of the cutting fluid reduces the fluid’s
tools yield particularly smooth surface texture on workplaces. cooling capacity. Improvements in machinability of work
This type of diamond is capable of having its cutting edge material is usually at the expense of work material strength. If
finished to produce the most continuous cutting edge of any changes are made judiciously, the shear angle can be reduced
tool material. In addition, it is extremely hard, provides long and surface texture can be improved with little, if any, loss
tool life when properly used, and is relatively inert in reaction to in productivity.
many work materials if cutting temperatures are properly Relief angles. Relief angles are important in developing
controlled. For these reasons, single-crystal diamond tools are desirable surface texture. Relief must be sufficient to assure that
used when it is necessary to produce the smoothest possible the workpiece does not rub against the relief surfaces of the tool.
surface texture by machining. Many times, however, too little allowance is made for elasticity
Polycrystalline diamonds. Polycrystalline diamond and in the part or loss in relief due to advance of the cutting tool into
polycrystalline boron nitride tool materials also yield excellent the work. Commonly, adequate allowance is not provided for
surface texture on workplaces. Surface textures yielded are not the considerable increase in relief required to bore an internal
as smooth as may be obtained with a single-crystal diamond, diameter. Relief must also be sufficient to permit debris
but these polycrystalline materials are less prone to edge (breaking off of particles from the built-up edge) to be freed as
chipping than single-crystal diamonds. Polycrystalline quickly as possible in their passage over the tool edge and past
diamonds are somewhat limited in operating temperature, as the finished workpiece surface.
are single-crystal diamonds. Therefore, they are used more Estimating surface roughness when turning, boring and
extensively when very abrasive materials such as high silicon- facing with single poi~t tools. Nose radius and feed rate are the
aluminum alloys are machined. Polycrystalline boron nitride cutting variables which exhibit the greatest impact on average
tool materials are capable of operating at higher cutting roughness height in a turning or boring process.lg These two
1-24
CHAPTER 1
SURFACE FINISH
variables interact to define the minimum theoretical roughness— Metric units:

the roughness value which would be achieved if the impression
formed on the workpiece by the cutting tool were an exact r-J.*~
mirror image of thecontour of thetQol and no deflection of AA=. x Id (63)
either workplace or tool existed. Since actual surface finishis 2
always higher, although often only slightly higher, than the where:
minimum theoretical finish, the theoretical surface finish is
AA ❑ surface roughness by the arithmetic average method
somewhat below the actual finish required. Increasing nose
(p in. or g m)
radius size improves surface finish; reducing feed rate improves
r = nose radius (in. or mm)
surface finish.
j ❑ feed per insert (in. or mm)
To select a nose radius, the following procedures should be
followed: There is currently a trend in milling away from the use of
corner radius inserts and toward the use of inserts with corner
1. Find the horizontal line in Fig. 8-97 (Chapter 8)
chamfers parallel to the direction of feed. The reason for the
corresponding to the desired theoretical roughness value.
popularity of inserts with corner chamfers is that they can often
2. Note the point at which the line intersects the diagonal
substantially improve surface finish. When either parallel-land
line corresponding to the feed rate of the operation.
corner-chamfer inserts or wiper inserts are used, advance per
3. Project a line from this point downward to the nose
revolution should ideally be at least less than the width of the
radius scale.
land or wiper surface. In this case, the surface will be formed by
4. If this line falls between two nose-radius values, choose
only one insert—the insert that is highest (or furthest from the
the larger value.
back of the cutter). So, face runout will not be a critical
5. If no avail?ble nose radius generates a finish equal to or
influence on surface finish. In some cases, a special sweep insert
better than thespecifiedvaiue, reduce the feed _rate.
is used and set 0.003-0.005” (0.08-0.13 mm) “hi~her on t-he face
Equations (60) and (61 ) are general formulas that can be used than the other inserts in the cutter, but to a-slightly smaller
to determine theoretical surface finish from a given nose radius diameter. This allows less expensive inserts to be used in all
and feed rate (see Fig. 1-40).20 other pockets. Theoretical roughness height in this ideal case
U.S. customary units: will be O. As mentioned earlier, however, actual roughness
height is always greater than the theoretical value. Typically,
AA . 2(r2B-HG) ,4A (Ra) roughness height readings in the range of 20-50 p in.
(60)
F (0.5 1-1.27 p m) are achieved when a single wiper insert with a
Metric units: land width 0.030” (0.76 mm) greater than the feed is used.
Unfortun@ely, it is not always possible for the width of the
land to exceed the feed per revolution. Increasing the size of the
AA .2(rZB-HG)
x 10-3 (61) parallel land increases axial farce, which can lead to chatter
F
under certain conditions. Likewise, reducing the feed rate
where: reduces productivity. The result is that @ many milling
operations, particularly those in which larger cutters are used,
AA ❑ surface roughness by the arithmetic average method feed per revolution must exceed the width of the wiper land. In
(p in. or p m) this case, the surface will be formed by several inserts.
rz
nose radius (in. or mm) Sometimes two to four special sweep inserts, set higher than the
F. feed rate (in. or mm) other @serts, are used. Other times flatted corner inserts are
H. distance from the center of the nose radius to the used in every pocket and set at the same height. In these cases,
mean line of the generated peaks and valleys of the when more than one sweep insert is used, face runout of the
workpiece profile (in. or mm)
G. perpendicular distance to the mean line from the r
normal centerline of the radius to the intersection of Feed per revolution, F
generated profile (in. or mm) Y ?

B. the angle between the normal centerline and the
radial line which intersects the mean line and cutting -- I I
point in a common point (deg)
Estimating surface roughness in face milling operations.
Insert corner geometry, feed per insert, spindle and cutter
runout, and stability of the workpiece and fixturing interact to
determine the surface roughness or waviness in face milling
operations.
When an insert with a corner radius is used, the following
formulas can be used to determine approximate theoreticalAA
(Ra) roughness height:
U.S. customary units:
r-J2-@2 X,d
,4A . (62) Fig. 1-40 Elements used to calculate theoretical surface roughness in
2 single point @ring and boring operations. (GeneralElectric Carboloy)
CHAPTER 1
SURFACE FINISH
inserts is critical to achieving a very fine surface finish. These The most common causes of waviness in face milling are face
inserts are required to be gaged with an indicator and adjusted runout, spindle runout, instability of the part or fixturing, and
appropriately, use of a crowned wiper at excessive feed rates. If waviness height
In practice, the insert land may not always be parallel to is a problem, face runout of the cutter should be checked on an
direction of the feed. The inclination of the land with respect to indicator stand. If there is little or no face runout on the
the direction of feed is called dish. If (with the cutter laid on its indicator stand, the cutter of the spindle should be mounted and
back) the cutting point is higher than the heel of the insert, dish the face runout checked again. If there is substantial runout
is positive; if the cutting point is lower than the heel, dish when the cutter is mounted, the cutter mounting surfaces
is negative. should be checked for dirt or nicks and spindle bearing runout
The lowest roughness height will be achieved by an insert should also be checked. If deflection of the part or fixturing is
with zero dish—with the land exactly parallel to the direction of suspected, reducing axial force by reducing the lead angle
feed. However, both negative and positive dishes are frequently and/ or increasing the rake angle may be of help. Finally, if
used to improve the surface integrity of the part (see “Surface crowned wipers are used, feed per revolution should be checked
Integrity” in this chapter). An estimate of peak-to-valley to assure that it is no greater than 0.125” (3,17 mm) for each
roughness height when dish is positive or negative can be made crowned wiper used in the cutter. Otherwise, these wipers,
with the following formula (see Fig. 1-4 1): because of their convex shape, may generate waves of excessive
height. Waviness width is usually equal to the feed per
h. J (64) revolution, so if necessary, it can be manipulated by changing
tan C + cot D that value.
where: Estimating surface roughness in peripheral milling operations.
h = peak-to-valley roughness height (in. or mm) The following variables effect surface roughness in peripheral
J = feed. per insert (in. or mm) milling:
D = face clearance angle, or dish (deg) . Feed per insert
C = if dish is positive—lead angle at cutting point; if dish . Cutter diameter
is negative—trailing angle (at heel) (deg) ● Number of inserts in cutter body
. Type of milling—up or down
● Cutter face runout
. Spindle runout
● Stability of part and fixturing
The following formula can be used to estimate rseak-to-vallev
roughness heig~t (see Fig. I-42):
h=& (67)
where:
h = peak-to-valley roughness height (in. or mm)
j ❑ feed per insert (in. or mm)
R ❑ cutter radius (in, or mm)
Workpece Workplece
Posltlve dish Negative dish
Fig. 1-41 Elements used to calculate theoretical surface roughness in

face milling operations. (General Electric Carboloy)
Peak-to-valley roughness height can be converted to ,4,4 (Ra)

roughness height with the following formula, which gives h
approximate values.
U.S. customary units:
L
,4 A=hx3.18xld (65)
Metric units: wOkOleCe

1
AA=hx3.18 xl@ (66) Toble

1’ I
where:
AA = surface roughness by the arithmetic average method
(p in. or p m) Fig. 1-42 Elements used to calculate theoretical peak-to-valley surface
h = peak-to-valley roughness height (in. or mm) roughness in peripheral milling operations. (GeneralE[ectric Carboloy)
1-26
CHAPTER 1
SURFACE INTEGRITY
More accurate values for the roughness h;ight generated by a fixturing should be suspected. In this case, the radial cutting
peripheral milling operation can be obtained if the differences force should be reduced by increasing the lead angle, reducing
between up and down milling are taken into account. The the depth of cut, or increasing the rake angle. Also, increasing
following formula can be used for up milling: arbor diameter may help. Waviness width in peripheral milling
is usually equal to the advance per revolution and can be
II changed by adjusting that quantity.
h. Cutting edge angles. Side cutting edge angle determines the
8x R+&N ratio of feed rate per revolution in turning and advance per
( T ) tooth in face milling toundeformed chip thickness. Although
this angle is used to determine the actual undeformed chip
For down milling, the following formula can be used:
thickness as measured perpendicular to the cutting edge, it has
little apparent effect on surface texture.
h. End cutting edge (end cutting edge concavity angle in milling)
84’-%) is provided to assure the cutting tool does not rub on the surface
produced by tbe cutting tool, This angle has no apparent effect
on surface texture. There is an exception, however, when a
where: “wiper flat” is provided on a milling cutter blade or when a flat
h= tangent to the nose radius and parallel to the traverse of a single
peak-to-valley roughness height (in. or mm)
$. point tool is intentionally provided. These intentional deviations
feed per insert (in. or mm)
R= from otherwise normal end cutting edge angles provide for
cutter radius (in. or mm)
N= partial or total removal of the “groove” generated by the nose
number of teeth in cutter
radius of the tool. When this end cutting edge angle of@ is used
These formulas show that the most important factors on a single point tool, it is usually no more than I 112 times the
determining roughness in a peripheral milling operation are advance per revolution. When this is practiced on a milling
feed per insert and cutter diameter. Roughness height is cutter, the width of “wiper flat’’ slightly exceeds the advance per
approximately proportional to the square of the feed per insert. revolution of the face mill. Under these conditions surface
Thus, if feed per insert is cut in half, roughness is reduced to 1/4 roughness in the range of 30-60p in. (0,76-1.52p m) Rl maybe
of its previous value. Roughness is approximately inversely achieved regardless of nose radius or corner configuration on
proportional to the cutter diameter. If the cutter diameter is the face mill cutter. This approach is not without problems. The
doubled, roughness is cut to 1/2 of its previous value. very thin chip generated along this 0° end cutting edge angle
The major causes of waviness in peripheral milling operations imposes higher than normal radial force which may result in
are cutter runout, spindle runout, and flexing of the part or chatter or displacement of the workpiece. The workpiece and
fixturing. If waves are too high, the cutter runout should be tooling must be rigid enough to withstand these relatively high
checked on an indicator stand. If there is little or no runout forces. A further problem is present in that conventional
here, it should be checked again on the spindle, If there is little disposable inserts for turning, facing. and boring tools with 0°
or no runout on the indicator stand, but significant runout on primary plus a secondary end cutting edge angle are not
the spindle, all cutter mounting surfaces should be carefully commonly available, It is supposed that disposable inserts
examined for nicks or dirt in the tapered mounting surfaces of furnished as “sweep wiper” blades for face milling cutters may
the spindle and arbor. If there is little or no runout even with the be used for such turning, facing, and boring.
cutter on the spindle, deflection of either the arbor, part, or
SURFACE INTEGRITY
When any component whose application has a bearing on the superficial and quite shallow. Surface integrity is a relatively
safety of individuals or property is manufactured, it is necessary new term which covers the nature of the surface condition that
to consider every facet of the material from which the component is developed in hardware by controlled manufacturing processes.
is made. Historically, the design engineer has focused attention The identification of surface layer alterations is particularly
on the dimensional accuracy and surface finish required of a important on components that are subjected to high stress and,
part. It has been found, however, that for many of the high- in particular, high alternating stress. It is also important for
strength materials and for many components which are hardware that operates under high temperatures or in corrosive
subjected to high temperatures -and high repeated stresses, atmospheres, since it has been found that altered surface layers
careful consideration must also be given to the nature of the may seriously affect the fatigue strength and other mechanical
surface layers produced during machining. properties of a component when it is exposed to extreme
Nearly all components are manufactured using some type of environments.
metal removal process. These processes might consist of chip Two elements comprise the surface of a component. The first
removal, such as turning, milling, or drilling, or material is the topography (the geometry) that is produced on the surface
removal by the use of an abrasive, such as grinding, honing, or by the cutting tool or abrasive during machining. The second is
polishing. Each metal removal process produces a characteristic the metallurgical alterations produced at the surface. The
surface alteration, This surface alteration makes the surface surface topography in simple metal processing operations can
layers quite different from the interior of the material. The be estimated before the operations are actually performed. For
surface alteration may be extensive and deep, or it may be very example, in a turning operation it is possible to calculate the
1-27
CHAPTER 1
SURFACE INTEGRITY
theoretical surface roughness and the peak-to-valley height that Plastic Deformation and Plastically
are produced by machining a cylinder (see “Surface Finish” in Deformed Debris
this chapter). The actual surface roughness is usually higher
Plastic deformation per se often occurs at surfaces. Figure
than the theoretical roughness. The actual surface roughness is
1-43 shows plastic deformation at the surface of a taper-reamed
affected by the runout of the spindle and by vibration and
hole in Ti6A 1-6 V-2Sn. During the process of metalcutting, a
chatter. It is further affected by tool wear or by the built-up edge
compressed layer of metal known as the built-up edge (BUE) is
or plastically deformed material that occurs during most generally formed between the tool and the chip. The built-up
machining operations.
edge is created principally at low cutting speeds and has the
tendency to be more pronounced when machining is done with
SURFACE ALTERATIONS high-speed steel tools than when it is done with carbide tools.
Conventional and nontraditional machining operations Most of the built-up edge flows off with the chip; however, some
produce a variety of surface alterations. The major types of
of the built-up edge remains on the workpiece, as shown in Fig.
alterations and their depths of penetration are given in Tables
1-44.23 Often a crack is formed below the built-up edge on the
1-321 and 1-422. Theprincipal causes ofsurface alterations are
workpiece surface. This crack or crevice-like defect can be
as follows:
highly detrimental to the fatigue strength of the material. In an
1. The high temperatures or high temperature gradients abrasive-type operation such as grinding, plastically deformed
developed during the machining process. debris is created by the abrasive grit during its plowing action
2. Plastic deformation andplastically deformed debris. into the workpiece. Both the built-up edge and the plastically
3. Chemical reactions andsubsequent absorption into the deformed debris contribute to the surface roughness of a
machined surface. machined surface.
TABLE 1-3
Summary of Possible Surface Alterations Resulting from Various Metal Removal Processes
Conventional Metal Removal Methods Nontraditional Removal Methods

Material Milling, Drilling, or Turning Grinding EDM ECM CHM
Steels:
Nonhardenable R R R R R
1018 PD PD MCK SE SE
L&T RC IGA IGA
Hardenable R R R R R
4340 PD PD MCK SE SE
D6AC L&T MCK RC IGA IGA
MCK UTM UTM
UTM OTM OTM
OTM
Tool Steel R R R R R
D2 PD PD MCK SE SE
L&T MCK RC lGA lGA
MCK UTM UTM
UTM OTM OTM
OTM
Stainless (martensitic) R R R R R
410 PD PD MCK SE SE
L&T MCK RC IGA IGA
MCK UTM UTM
UTM OTM OTM
OTM
Stainless (austenitic) R R R R R
302 PD PD MCK SE SE
L&T RC lGA lGA
Precipitation hardening R R R R R
17-4 PH PD PD MCK SE SE
L&T OA RC lGA IGA
OA OA
1-28
CHAPTER 1
SURFACE INTEGRITY
TABLE 1-3—Continued
Conventional Metal Removal Methods Nontraditional Removal Methods

Material Milling, Drilling, or Turning Grinding EDM ECM CHM
Maraging ( 18% Ni) R R R R R

250 Grade PD PD RC SE SE
L&T RS RS IGA IGA
RS OA OA
OA
Nickel and Cobalt-Based Alloys: HAZ HAZ

Inconel alloy 718 R R R R R
Rene 4 I PD PD MCK SE SE
HS 31 L&T MCK RC IGA IGA
lN-100 MCK
Titanium Alloy: HAZ HAZ
Ti-6Al-4V R R R R R
PD PD MCK SE SE
L&T MCK RC lGA
Refractory Alloys:
TZ M R R R R R
L&T MCK MCK SE SE
MCK IGA
Tungsten (pressed and sintered) R R R R R

L&T MCK MCK SE SE
MCK MCK MCK
IGA IGA
Source: “A Review of Measuring Methods for Surface Integrity,” Annals of the CIRP, 2 I (2) pp. 219-238.
Key:
R— Roughness of surface UTM — Untempered martensite
PD — Plastic deformation and plastically deformed OTM — Overtempered martensite
debris OA — Overaging
L & T — Laps and tears and crevice-like defects RS — Resolution or austenite reversion
MCK — Microcracks RC — Recast, respattered metal, or vapor deposited metal
SE — Selective etch H AZ — Heat-affected zone
IGA — Intergranular attack
Phase Transformation 61 hardness exists to a depth of about 0.00 l“ (0.03 mm). At that
When certain materials are machined, a phase transformation point, the hardness drops off rapidly to a value of RC 43. The
can be generated in the surface layers. The best example of this hardness then increases to the base hardness value of RC 52at a
is in drilling, turning, or grinding of a hardenable steel. Figure depth of about 0.010” (0.25 mm) below the surface.
1-45 shows the surface produced by abusive drilling of a 4340 When a maraging steel is machined, softening can occur as a
steel that has been quenched and tempered to Rc 52.24 The high result of the high temperature at the surface, as shown in Fig.
temperature produced during the drilling process has heated the 1-46.2s The softening is caused by resolutioning of the aged
surface to over 1550° F (840° C). This layer was subsequently material, The microhardness traverse for the 189Z0nickel
hardened by quenching of the bulk material, and a layer of maraging steel shown in Fig, 1-46 indicates that the surface has
untempered martensite of RC 61 was produced, This layer been softened to a value of Rc 37. Full hardness of the material
appears white when the surface is etched with a dilute solution of Rc 52 is obtained at a depth of 0.002” (0.05 mm),
of nitric acid. The untempered martensite is not only hard, but
very brittle. Below the untempered martensite layer, an Intergranular Attack
overtempered martensite layer usually exists which is softer Intergranular attack or selective etching at the grain
than the base material. The presence of either an untempered boundaries of the material can occur during electrochemical
martensite zone or an overtempered martensite zone is highly machining or chemical machining. Intergranular attack is
detrimental to the fatigue strength of the material. As previously highly detrimental to the fatigue strength of materials. It can
mentioned, the untempered martensite which is formed on the occur when the process goes out of control or when improper
surface of the material is very hard. The hardness is usually Rc operating conditions are used. Intergranular attack generally
60 or higher. A microhardness traverse from the surface into the occurs at the grain boundaries, which tend to have different
base material is also shown in Fig. 1-45. The white layer of Rc reactions to etching rates during the electrochemical or chemical
1-29
CHAPTER 1
SURFACE INTEGRITY
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1-30
cHAPTER 1
SURFACE INTEGRITY
5
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n
1-31
CHAPTER 1
SURFACE INTEGRITY
Fig. 1-43 Plastic deformation at the surface of hole reamed in Ti-6Al-

6V-2Sn (Etchant: 2% HF, 1000X).
action. During electrochemical machining, intergranular attack

tends to occur on surfaces which are subjected to very low
current densities; for example, on surfaces which are receiving
stray current from the electrode, as shown in Fig. 1-47 (see
“Nontraditional Machining,” Chapter 14 in this volume).
Redeposited and Recast Layers

During thermal machining processes such as electrical
discharge machining (EDM) or laser beam machining (LBM),
particles of metal are vaporized and are then redeposited on the
machined surface. The recast metal can be porous and cracked,
as shown in Fig. 1-48.26 The cracks can extend from the
redeposited metal into the workplace surface layers. The layer
ofredeposited material isusually thin(see Table l-4), butit has (b)
been found that, regardless of thickness, this coating is highly

70
c White layer I +–4- Gentle
T 0.’00 I“
(0.03 mm)
dw44$$l
4oo~
L
0
I
03
I
06
(IP)
1
0.9 (m)
L
Depth below surface
Fig. 1-45 Surface characteristics of AISI 4340 steel (quenched and

tempered, Rc 52) produced by drilling. (a) Gentle conditions—no
noticeable microstructural surface alterations (500X). (b) Abusive
conditions—rehardened primary martensite layer, RC 61, approaching
0.001’’ (0.03 mm) deep. Overtempered subsurface zone having hardness
Fig. 1-44 Built-up edge produced in carbide milling of AISI 4340 steel, as low as Rc 43. Total depth of effect is 0.010” (0.25 mm) (500X).
Rc 40. Microcrack originating at base of built-up edge should be noted. (“Surface Integrity in Conventional and Nonconventional Machining,”
(Machining of High Strength Steels with Emphasis on Simface presented at Pennsylvania State University Seminar on “Advancement
Integrity, AFMDC 70-1, Cincinnati, Air Force Macbinahility Data in Machine Tools and Production Trends,” Cincinnati, 1969, by J4eCcut
Center, 1970.) ResearchA ssociutesJrrc. )
1-32
CHAPTER 1
SURFACE INTEGRITY
detrimental to the fatigue life of the finished part (see

“Nontraditional Machining,” Chapter 14 in this volume).
Cracks
Microcracks and macrocracks are often produced during
traditional as well as nontraditional machining processes.
Cracking tends to be more prominent when brittle materials,
such as the hardened steel part shown in Fig. 1-49,27 are
machined or ground. Cracking can occur in the region of the
built-up edge, in the vicinity of untempered martensite, and
during thermal material removal processes. Microcracking is
particularly prevalent during conventional or abusive grinding
of cast nickel alloys andcobalt-based alloys. Microcracks are
generally detrimental to fatigue and stress corrosion and should
be avoided.
(0) Recrystallization
Any of the metals whose surfaces are plastically deformed
during the machining operation may experience recrystalli-
zation when the material is subsequently heated above the
recrystallization temperature. An illustration of recrystalli-
zationis shown in Fig. l-50, zBAn HS-31cast cobalt-based alloy
was abusively ground and subsequently heated to 200CPF
(llOO° C) for one hour. Recrystallization isevidenced by the
layer of fine grains at the surface. The recrystallized grains may
be further subjected to grain growth if the material is kept at
high temperatures for an extended period of time. There is very
little data indicating the effect of a recrystallized surface layer
on the properties of materials.
Residual Stress Distribution

Residual stresses are introduced into the surface by the
machining process. The stresses may be tensile or compressive,
high or low, shallow or deep. Typical residual stress patterns
produced on 4340 steel quenched and tempered to Rc 50 are
shown in Fig. 1-51.29 When conventional or abusive grinding is
used, a resultant tensile-stressed layer is introduced into the
surface. In abusive grinding, it can be seen that the stress at the
surface is zero, A tensile stress exists below the surface and
peaks at a value of 100 ksi (700 MPa) at a depth of 0.002”
(b) (0.05 mm) below the surface. This stress then diminishes to a
value of O at a depth of 0.007” (O.18 mm) below the surface.
Conventional grinding produces a similar high tensile stress,
but at a much shallower depth. The use of gentle grinding
J
o
1
03
1
0.6 09
I
(mm)
-7-
0001”
Deoth below s~rface
(0.03 mm)
L
Fig. 1-46 Surface characteristics of 18~0 nickel maraging steel grade
250 (aged, Rc 52) produced by drilling. (a) Gentle conditions—very thin
trace of cold work on the surface (500X). (b) Abusive conditions—an
overaged or resolutioned layer, 0.001” (0.03 mm) deep at Rc 37, is found
on the surface. Total affected depth is approximately 0.002” (0.05 mm)
(500X). (Machirrirrg of High StrengthSteels withEmphasison Surface
Integrity, AFMDC 70-1, Cincinnati, Air Force Machinability Data Fig. 1-47 Example nf intergranrdar attack from electrochemical
Center, 1970.) machining (ECM) of Waspaloy (aged, Rc 40, lOOOX).
1-33
CHAPTER 1
SURFACE INTEGRITY
parameters produces a shallow compressive stress extending

only 0.002” (0.05 mm) below the surface.
The data for 4340 steel given in Fig. 1-51 also shows that
electropolishing produces surfaces essentially free from residual
T 000 I ‘(
stress. Shot peening produces a compressive stress at and below
the surface. It should be noted in this example that shot peening
(003 mm) was done after abusive grinding. Shot peening changed the
residual-stressed layer from highly tensile to highly compressive.
4
Other typical residual stresses produced by a variety of
machining conditions are shown in Fks. 1-52.1-53. and 1-54. A
typical re~dual stress pattern produced by carbide face milling
is shown in Fig. 1-52 in which the stresses were plotted for a
sharp cutter (zero wearland) and for cutters with varying
degrees of cutter wear.so The sharp cutter had a stress of zero at
the surface, and the stress became compressive below the
surface. For the worn cutters with either 0.008” (0.20 mm) or
0.0 16“ (0.4 1 mm) wearland, tensile stress was evident at the
surface and the stress became compressive below the surface. It
(0) should be noted that the cutter with the larger wearland
produced not only the greatest magnitude of compressive
~esidual stress, but-also th~ greatest depth of residual stress.
A typical residual stress pattern produced by electrical
discharge machining (EDM) is shown in Fig. 1-53.s’ EDM
tends to produce very high tensile stresses at the surface;
however, the stressed layer is very shallow and diminishes to
zero at a depth of 0.002” (0.05 mm) below the surface.
(b)
1
Recast structure t–- ,Flmshn:
. Roughing
- Heat alfected zone
0010 0.020 0030
Depth below surface (mm)
Fig. 1-48 Surface characteristics of Waspaloy (aged, Rc 40) produced

by electrical discharge machining (EDM). (a) Finishing conditions—a
discontinuous recast layer averaging 0.0002” (0.005 mm) deep was
produced on this surface (1 OOOX).(b) Roughing conditions—a recast
layer approximately 0.0005” (0.013 mm) deep plus a heat-affected
microstructure averaging 0.001” (0.03 mm) deep, both frequently
cracked, were produced on the surface. Microhardness measurements Fig. 1-49 Ultraviolet light photograph of cracks exposed by fluorescent
indicate a total heat-affected depth of 0.005” (0.13 mm) (1 OOOX).(U.S. penetrant inspection of a ground carburized 8620 steel worm gear. (Low
Air Force Technical Report AFML-TR-70-11, Metcut Research Stress Grinding:For Quality Production MDC 78-103, Cincinnati,
Associates Inc. 1970.) Metcut Research Associates Inc., 1978.)
1-34
CHAPTER 1
SURFACE INTEGRITY
Electrochemical machining (ECM) produces a surface which is

essentially free of residual stress, as shown in Fig. 1-54.32
(Nontraditional machining processes are discussed in Chapter
14 of this volume.)
Post-Processing Treatments
Residual compressive stresses can be produced by various
post-processing treatments. Shot peening isan important and
widely used post-processing treatment. Shot peening introduces
acontrolled compressive stress ofa predetermined magnitude
anddepth into the surface. Inorder toachieve this control of
residual stress from peening, however, it is necessary to exercise
careful control of the shot peening process. The basic parameters
that must be controlled are the size, cleanliness, and uniformity
of the shot; theexposure time; theairpressure; the nozzle size;
the distance of the nozzle from the surface; and the angle
between the shot stream and the angle of the surface. Burnishing
is also an effective way of producing a compressive residual
Fig. 1-50 Recrystallization resulting from abusive grinding of HS-31 stress. Burnishing is commonly performed on the radius of
alloy heat treated after grinding at 2000° F (1100° C) for one hour in shafts, crankshafts, and other finished surfaces. A compressive
vacuum (300X ). Recrystallized layer at surface. (Machining Data
Handbook, 3rd ed. Cincinnati: Metcut Research Associates Inc., 1980.) residual stress can also be introduced by tumbling. Tumbling
yields only a small improvement in fatigue life, however,
Grnding Condltons because the residual stress produced by tumbling tends to be
Gentle Convent Abusive shallow in depth. (Surface finishing is discussed in Volume 111
Wheel A46HV A46KV A46MV of this Handbook series, “Materials and Finishing.”)
Wheel speed, 2000 6000 6000
fpm (m/s) (I 0.2) (30.5) (30 5) Microhardness Alterations
Downfeed, 1S” 0001 0002 The various material removal processes tend to produce a
r /pass (0.03) (o 05)
(mm/ poss) characteristic microhardness distribution as a function of the
Grndmg Sulf. 011 sol. 011 Dry
machining process and the parameters of that process. Surface
(MPa) (k,,)
flu(d (I 20) hardening results from:
800 - . Formation of untempered martensite.
700 - . Plastic deformation by cold work; that is, at temperatures
below the recrystallization temperature.
600 -
500 - Cu+ter 4“ (10 i mm) dam single-tooth face m,ll
400 - with C-6 corb,de
AXIOI rake @ Corner angle 45°
300 - Rodal rake -15° Clearance 8°
End cuthng edge angle 5°
200 - Cufing speed 180 ‘pm (55 m/mm)
Feed per tooth: 0005” (O 13 mm)
I00 - Depth of cut 0,40” ( I 02 mm)
MPo (kst) Cuthnq fluld wme
0-
.100 - ‘g’’”rmlnlll
au ] 00
-200- 500
300 - 50
250
-400- 00
500 - “250 .50
-50 J“ ,~ 0.008” (O 20 mm) wechnd
-600- .~~o -100 , 1
\ I .~; low;+re~~
r I
-700- -11
30 . r’*Numbersln 1 t
IOOL1501 I
.10( I I
2.01 6“ (0.41 mm) weorland
parentheses lndlcatespeclmen
o 0.001 0003 0005 0007 0009 (In)
-800 - dl;tortlonm 35’’(889mm) gage length, m, mm 0002 0004 0006 0.008
.120 &
0 0,00200040.00600080.010 0012 (n.) o 0.05 010 0.15 020 (mm)
I 1 I 1 1 1 I 1
Depth below surface
0 0.05 010 0.15 0.20 0250.30 035 (mm)
Depth below surface Fig. 1-52 Effect of tool wear on residual stress in milled surface; face
milling of AISI 4340 steel (Rc 52). The amount of residual compressive
Fig. 1-51 Residual surface stress in AISI 4340 steel (quenched and stress produced in this specimen is related to the tool sharpness. The
tempered, Rc 50) produced by surface grinding. (“A Review of worn tool produced a deeper compressive layer. (Relationof Surjace
Measuring Methods for Surface hrtergrity,” Annals of the CIRP, 21 Integrity to Cost and Reliability oj StructuralComponents, SME
(2), f.sfl.219-238.) Technical Paper IQ72-207, 1972.)
1-3!5
CHAPTER 1
SURFACE INTEGRITY
(MPa) (k,,)
ECIM Condt.ions
800 -
Gentle Abusive
700 -+100 Voltage Applied to Flrwh Surface 20 20/2
Current, amps (stort/ftn,sh) 1300/2500 I 300-2500/I 5
— Flnlsh ED’M
600 -
Feed Rate, 10.I (’rm/ m,.) 0045(1 14\ ., 0045/0,., (1 .14/0)
+80 Electrolyte Pressure, ‘PSI [kPa)
EDM conditions Inlet smrt,/kh 175/ 185(1 200/ 1275) 175/190 (l ZOO/1300)
500 - 70/’40(480/275)
Fn[shlng Roughing Outlet stO-/ftnls~ 70/35(480/240)
400 - +60 Electrolyte Tempercx.re, “F TC) I 05 [40) 100 (38)

Bo+tam GOD, r (mm) 0.005 (o I 3) O009/0.050 (O23/ I 27)
200 - +4(J (MPa) (ks)
800 “
300 -
+20 700 - +100
100- - .- AbJswe ECM,
— Gen+le ECM
600 - +80 .
.100 - 500 -
-20 , +60
400 -
.200 -
300 - -40 300 - +40
-400. -60 200 -

+20
0 0002 0004 0006 0008 0.010 (,. )
100-
L I , (
o 0.05 0 Io 0,15 0.20 025 030 (mm) 0- o L .-
Depth nelow surface
-1oo-
-20
Fig. 1-53 Residual surface stress in Inconel 718 alloy (solution treated
and aged, Rc 44) produced by electrical discharge machining (EDM). .200 -
(U.S. Air Force TechnicalReport AFMC-TR-70-11, Metcrrt Research
-40
Associates, Inc., 1970,) 300 -
-400 - -60
Conditions which tend to produce softening are: 0 0.002 0004 0.006 0008 0010 (.)
. Overtempering of tempered martensite. I 1 1 1 # 1 I

. Resolutioning or reversion of maraging steel. o 005 0.10 015 020 025 0.30(m~)
. Electrochemical machining (ECM) and chemical milling Dmth below surface
on almost all materials. Note: There is a tendency in these
operations to produce a very shallow softening, less than
0.002” (0.05 mm) deep. (These processes are discussed in Fiz 1-54 Residual surface stress in hrconel 718 allov (solution treated
Chapter 14 of this volume, “Nontraditional Machining.”) anfi aged, Rc 44) produced by electrochemical mach[rsing (ECM). (U.S.
Air Force TechnicalReport AFML-TR-70-11, Metcut Research
Associates Inc., 1970.)
EFFECT OF SURFACE CONDITION ON
MATERIAL PROPERTIES eters and can be used as a measure of the relative effect of
Two of the more important factors influenced by the surface various parameters or various metal removal operations. A
condition are distortion and fatigue strength as discussed in the sample of the effect of grinding wheel speed and downfeed on
following sections. distortion in surface grinding of D6AC steel, RC56, is shown in
Fig. 1-56.34 It is evident that the low-stress downfeed produced
Distortion in Machining very little distortion over the range of wheel speeds of 2000-6000
Whenever a surface is machined by a metal removal process, fpm (10. 1-30.5 m/s). At higher downfeeds of 0.001 and 0.002
there is a tendency for distortion to occur. This distortion is in. / pass (0.03 and 0.05 mm/ pass), the distortion increased
produced either by the removal of prior residual stresses from considerably,
the workpiece or by [he introduction of new residual stresses Various machining operations have a tendency to produce
into the workpiece. As previously described, material removal varying amounts of distortion. The relative distortion is
processes produce characteristic residual stress patterns. The dependent on the material that is being machined. A study was
distortion of the workpiece is a function of the bulk residual made of the relative distortion of the following four alloys:
stress induced by the machining process. The distortion is also a
1. 18’ZOmaraging steel, aged, Rc 50.
function of the thickness of the workpiece and the modulus of
2. 4340 steel, quenched and tempered, RC 50.
elasticity of the alloy. One convenient method of measuring
3, D6AC steel, quenched and tempered, RC 50.
distortion in machining is to determine the change in curvature
4. Titanium 8A I-I Me-IV, RC 35.
of a strip specimen using a fixture such as that shown in Fig,
1-55.33The distortion or change in deflection in a3.5’’(88.9 mm) The following four machining operations were performed on
gage length can be plotted against various machining param- specimens of the alloys:
1-36
CHAPTER 1
SURFACE INTEGRITY
1. Abrasive surface grinding; both gentle and abusive. gentle abrasive surface grinding (Fig. 1-57) produced very little
2. Carbide face milling; both gentle and abusive. distortion on any of the alloys. However, the abusive surface
3. Electrical discharge grinding (EDG), finishing and grinding produced a very high tensile distortion on 4340 steel,
roughing. D6AC steel, and titanium. It is also evident that distortion on
4. Electrochemical grinding (ECG), finishing and the maraging steel was very small. (It has been noticed that
. . .
roughing. maraging steel has a tendency not to distort uncter a~uswe
grinding conditions. ) lt should be noted that the titanium
The relative distortion of the various operations on the four
~istorte~ far more than the steel. This maybe attributed to the
materials, based on deflection of the specimen on 3,5” (88.9
low modulus of elasticity of titanium, which is about one-half
mm), is shown in Figs. 1-57 and 1-58.3S It is evident that the
that of steel, The distortion produced by gentle face milling was
quite small and in the compressive direction. Distortion
obtained when abusive face milling was performed was quite
O 0001” ndfcotor
high and in the compressive direction. The major difference
between the gentle and abusive face milling operations was that
[,) Ztlng a sharp cutter was used during gentle face milling, while a dull
pm cutter with a large flank wearland was employed during abusive
meosureme~, stop face milling.
Rough electrical discharge grinding (EDG) produced
distortion characteristics similar to those of the abusive surface
grinding (see Fig. 1-58). Finally, it should be observed that
electrochemical grinding (ECG), either finish or rough, caused
essentially no distortion-on any of the materials.
- 35“ (889 mm) gage length ~
Fig. 1-55 Deflection measurement fixture. ~A Review of Measuring

Methods for Surface Integrity,’’,4srrra/s ojt/re CIRP, 21 (2), p. 219-238.]
(n-m) [In )
Wheel grade 32A 46K 8VBE 4’tO’80t

Crossfeec 0050,. /poss ( I 27 mm/poss) 4,0 -0
Table speed 40 ‘pm (1 22 m,/Tm)
Deoth of cut 00 10“ ((l 25 (mm) 35 -0
Speame. size 0.070 x 34 x 4 I 4
~lr) (178 x19x 108mrr) 30 .0
(mm)
Grfndlng ft.!d soluble 011( 120)
25 -0
20 -0
0040
0002 n /poss—(005 mm/pOss)
downteed 15 -Q
0035
]0 .0 Gentle AbLsve
face mill (cm mtll
0030 05 .0
I
0.00I n./pass-(O.O3 mm/pass) 0 -
0025 ,
05 -o
0020 /
10 -0
0015 15 ‘0
(b-
d\ 20 -o.
0.0Io /
25 -o
low.s,ess .
0005 30 “~
/ , downfeed
()
o
0 w Q 35 .0
2000 4000 6000 (fprn) 21
1 , , I
o 10 15 20 25 30 35 (m/s) — I
Wheel speeo
Fig. 1-56 Change in deflection versus wheel speed for surface grinding
D6AC steel (quenched and tempered, Rc 56) for three downfeed rates. Fig. 1-57 Specimen distortion produced by conventional machining
(Machining of High Strength Steels with Emphasis on Surface methods. ~Tbe Surface Effects Produced in Nonconventional Metal
Integrity, AFMDC 70-1, Cincinnati, Air Force Machinability Data Removal—Comparison with Conventional Machining Techniques,”
Center, 1970.) Metals EngineeringQuarterly,vol. 6, no. 3, (1966) p. 32-45.]
“ 1-37
CHAPTER 1
SURFACE INTEGRITY
Fatigue Strength
High cycle fatigue properties show the greatest sensitivity and
(0) (b)
reaction to the type of metal removal and its parameters. The low stress Abuswe
effect of machining on high cycle fatigue can best be Wheel: A46H8V A46M5V
demonstrated by examining the S-N curve which is the plot of Wheel speed 2000 fDm 6000 (pm
the applied stress versus number of cycles until failure. A typical (101 m/s) (30.4 m/5)
example of such a curve in surface grinding 4340 steel, Work speed 40 Ipm 40 fpm
quenched and tempered (RC51), is shown in Fig. 1-59.36 Here (122 m/rrm) (I22 m/mn)
the alternating stress was plotted against the number of cycles Down feed 00002 in./poss 0002 m /pass
until failure for two sets of specimens ground under low-stress (0.005 mm/pOss) (0.05 mm/ pass)
(MPa) (k,)
Fl~ld Sulf 011 Dry
and abusive conditions. The low-stress grinding technique (see
“Special Grinding Processes” in Chapter 11 of this volume)
1200 !60
which employed a soft wheel, a low wheel speed, a light
downfeed, and sulfurized oil, produced an endurance limit of I 000 !40
110,000 psi (758 MPa). The abusive grinding conditions, which
~ 900 -
employed a harder wheel, a higher wheel speed, a heavier -2 120 I
down feed, and no fluid, produced an endurance of 75,000 psi ; 800 - I III1! (a) low-stress
(517 MPa), which is a 32% drop from the low-stress condition. ~ lendurance Ikmlt=
F 700 -
The endurance limit was defined as a stress below which no h I 00 Htl I I I Ii-t
failure occurs within 107 cycles. The range in the value of ~ 600 -
endurance limit described previously is characteristically that 80 ~ (kI)AbusIve‘
500 - ;endwcmce Ilml, =
experienced by most of the high-strength, quenched and
I [11111 Abus(vearlndllll I
tempered steels in grinding. It has been observed that these I 11,,
400 ~613
I
10> 10b I 0“
NLmber of cycles
Fig. 1-59 S-N curve, surface-ground 4340 steel (quenched and

tempered, Rc 51). (Machiningoj High StrengthSteels withEmphasis
cm .Ss@rce Integrity, AFMDC 70-1, Cincinnati, Air Force Machin-
<
co ability Data Center, 1970.)
(mm) (In.)
t+
,180
45 -
hardenable steels show a major decrease in fatigue strength if
40 - 160 any perceptible amount of overtempered martensite is produced
during the grinding process or if any untempered martensite is
35 - .140
evident prior to grinding.
I 20 The fatigue strengths produced by gentle, conventional, and
: 3.0 -
I 00
abusive (high-stress) surface grinding of a wide variety of
_~25 -
E engineering materials are shown in Fig. 1-60.37 Abusive, or
E
p 2.0 -
080 high-stress, conditions produce major reductions in fatigue
m
~ strength for all the alloys. Conventional grinding also tends to
15 - ,060
produce significant decreases in fatigue strength.
‘w
m I .0 - 040 The effects of a wide variety of metal removal operations on
~
the fatigue strength of Inconel 718 are shown in Table 1-5.3S
5 .020
&
0.5 - Electrochemical machining (ECM), when done by standard or
=0 nonstandard conditions, tends to decrease the fatigue strength
o -o
J 05 -
of materials. In this example, when compared to the low-stress
020
grinding conditions, a decrease in fatigue strength of as much as
&
0 I .0 -
.040 35% was observed. Electrical discharge machining (EDM)
3 tends to produce a very large decrease in fatigue strength. Table
:15 - 060
~
1-5 shows a decrease of 63’% after EDM compared to gentle
&20 - 080 surface grinding for Inconel 718. The decrease in fatigue
E strength after EDM occurs whether rough or finish conditions
$25 - 100 are used in the EDM process. (Nontraditional machining
30 - processes are discussed in Chapter 14 of this volume.)
i 20
Shot peening can be used to restore the fatigue strength of
3.5 -
materials, as demonstrated by some of the data in Table 1-5.
Shot peening can improve the fatigue strength of materials that
are ground, milled, or machined with nontraditional processes.
However, a word of caution is necessary in shot peening. The
Fig. 1-58 Specimen distortion produced by nontraditional machining
methods. ~The Surface Effects Produced in Nonconventional Metal favorable compressive residual stress produced by shot peening
Removal-Comparison with Conventional Machining Techniques,” can be removed by heat treating or by exposure of the material
Metals EngineeringQuarters’y,vol. 6, no. 3, (1966) p. 32-45.] to high temperatures over a long period of time. Residual stress
1-38
CHAPTER 1
SURFACE INTEGRITY
AISI 4340 8 p m (0,2 P m) roughness

Q& T,50Rc 165pln [1.6 pm) roughness
(Iong!tudmol grind) ‘127 pin, (3,22v m) roughness
[ [ I I
AIS 4340 11 VIn. (027pm) roughness
Q& T,50Rc 58 pn.(1 47#m) roughness
I
AISI 4340 127#ln, (3,22pm) roughness
29 pin (0.73 #m)wughness
Q& T,50Rc 64 p m ( 1.62 p m) roughness
(Iong,tuulnol grind) 97#m (246 pm) roughness
,.
AISI 4340
Q& T,50Rc f II
4340 Mod
Q& T,53Rc I
Grade 300 I 1 , I I
moragtng steel
STA, 54 Rc I I I I
II
17.4 PH steel
43 Rc
\ .,, ,
I I 1
I
TI-6A 1-4V
be,o rolled, 32 Rc
TI-6A 1.2Sn.4Zr-2Mo
EFi7 I I I I
STA, 36 Rc ‘l Ill
I i I
T16A 1.6V-2Sn
STA, 42 Rc
I
I?conel 718
STA, 44 Rc
Rene 41
STA, 40 Rc
I=i=Fl I I I I
Rene 80
t+” i ‘1 I i I I
STA, 40 Rc
tiiiiel I I I
M,
STplusgr(nd pusoge I
AFF95 (Re.e 95)
STA, 50 Rc low stress
or gentle
AF2- I DA
E%Tr
STA, 46Rc
MAR-M509 Convent(onol ‘X
as cast 29 R(
7075 Alum,nun,
T7351, 77 RF Eil
~
I I
H(gh stress
or rough
t-l
o 120 140 (ksl)
I 1 I i 1 I
o 200 400 600 800 1000 (MPo)
Fotlgue Strength@ 10’ cycles

(room temperature, full reverse bending)
Fig. 1-60 Summary of high cycle fatigue strength data for surface traverse grinding. (Machinability Data Center, Muc/rirrirrg Data Harrrfbook,
3rd ed. Cincinnati: Metcut Research Associates Inc., 1980.)
patterns of solution-treated and agedInconel718 alloy produced this, established guidelines, some of which are given in detail in
by low-stress grinding plus peening after 100 hours exposure to the Machining Data Handbook40 and other sources, must be
elevated temperatures are shown in Fig. 1-61.39 As the temper- considered only as general or starting recommendations. Each
ature was increased from 1000° F (540° C) to higher and higher material-process combination is unique and can have variable
temperatures, the residual stress was diminished. After being effects depending on the metallurgical state of the material and
exposed to 1400° F (760° C) for 100 hours, the compressive the energy intensity level used during processing. The designer
residual stress was essentially removed. The diminution or should assess the critical areas on the workpiece and apply
removal of the compressive stress would in turn diminish or surface integrity specifications to these areas only—otherwise,
remove the beneficial effect of shot peening on the fatigue component costs may be excessive. The manufacturing
strength. engineer, in turn, should realize that maintaining the proper
Well developed methods for evaluating surface integrity exist sequence of operations is as important to surface integrity as the
today, but data from which guidelines can be drawn and trends selection and precise maintenance of the correct process
or patterns uncovered is only slowly accumulating. Because of operating parameters.
1-39
CHAPTER 1
MACHINABILITY
TABLE 1-5
(MPa) (ks)
Effect of Machining and Peening on Fatigue Strength of
Inconel 718 (Solution Treated and Aged, Rc 44) 40
Fatigue Strength* 20 1 1
140CPF (760’ C)
Percent of
..— ----
Operation ksi MPa gentle grind 0 p
Gentle surface grinding 60 414 100
Conventional surface grinding 24 165 40 -20
Gentle turning 60 414 100

Abusive turning 60 414 100
Standard ECM 39 269 65 60
Off-standard EC M 39 269 65 ‘1 10(T F (59 0“ c)
-80
Standard ECM plus Peen 78 538 130
Off-standard ECM plus Peen 67 462 112
.100
Finish EDM 22 152 37
Rough EDM 22 152 37 -120
0 0002 0,0040006 0008 0010 0.0 I 2 (In )
Finish EDM plus Peen 66 455 110
J 1 A
Rough EDM plus Peen 75 517 125 0.2
o 01 03 (mm)
Electropolishing (ELP) 42 290 70 Depth below surface
ELP plus Peen 78 538 130

Source: Machinability Data Center, Machining Data Hand- Fig. 1-61 Residual stress patterns in Inconel 718 alloy (sohrtiontreated
and aged) produced by low-stress grinding plus peening (0.006A to
book, 3rd cd., Cincinnati: Metcut Research Associates Inc., 0.008A intensity) after 100-hour exposure to various elevated
1980. temperatures. (SurfaceIntegrityof MachinedInconel 718A lloy, SME
* Room temperature, 107 cycles full-reverse bending. Technical Paper IQ71-239, 1971.)
MACHINABILITY
The following is a list of symbols and abbreviations used in The term “machinability” does not lend itself to an exact
formulas and discussions in this section: definition acceptable to all authorities. The ease with which a
given material may be worked with a cutting tool changes with
the machine variables—the various quantities that define the
Symbol Definition
particular machine setup used in carrying out a given operation
on the work material. Common machine variables affecting
c A constant (dependent on tool/ workpiece com-
ease of cutting are:
bination and cutting variables other than speed)
CA A constant whose value depends on other machine 1. Cutting speed.
variables and the work material variables 2. Dimensions of the cut (feed, depth, etc.).
c, A constant equal numerically to the cutting speed 3. Tool form (angles, radii, type, etc.).
that gives a tool life of 1 min (sfm or m/rein) 4. Tool material.
Depth of cut (in. or mm) 5. Cutting fluid (chemical and physical properties, temper-
? Feed per revolution (ipr or mm/rev) atures, etc.).
n Exponent [see Eqs. (67) and (68)] 6. Rigidity and freedom from chatter of machine tool and
T Actual cutting time between sharpening (rein) workholding device.
v Cutting speed (sfm, m/rein) 7. Nature of engagement of tool with work (continuous or
v, Equivalent cutting speed (sfm or m/rein) intermittent, “entrance” and “exit” conditions, etc.).
V60 Cutting speed for tool life of 60 min (sfm or m/ rein)
For a given set of machine conditions, the ease of machining
x> Y Bxponents [see Eq.(69)]
varies with the work material variables—the various quantities
f?, Temperature at the tool/chip interface ~ F or 0 C)
that are used in practice to specify the properties of the work
& Temperature rise in the body of the chip due to shear
material. Common work material variables affecting ease of
(“F or° C)
cutting are:
eJ Temperature rise due to friction of the chip rubbing
against the tool face r F or 0 C) 1. Hardness.
00 Workpiece temperature ~ F or 0 C) 2. Tensile properties.
a Rake angle 3. Chemical composition.
6 Angle of engagement 4. ~~crostructure.
1-40
CHAPTER 1
MACHINABILITY
5. Degree of cold work. been devised through the years to measure machining
6. Strain hardenability. performance. These machinability tests include:
7. Shape and dimensions of work.
1. Tool life or tool wear tests.
8. Rigidity of workpiece.
2. Surface finish test.
The criteria for judging the ease of working a metal vary also 3. Cutting force test.
with the preference of the experimenter or the requirements of 4. Cutting temperature test.
the job. Some of the more common of these criteria are used 5. Power consumption test.
singly or jointly as a measure of the ease of working a metal. 6. Cuttability tests (for example, the rate of penetration of a
Common criteria for judging ease of cutting are classified drill under constant feed pressure).
as follows: 7. Simulated production tests (in which the optimum speed
or optimum speed and feed combination a~e determ-ined
General criteria:
while tool life and surface quality are held constant).
1. Life of the cutting tool between resharpenings, expressed
in various terms.
Tool Life and Tool Wear Tests
2. Magnitude of the tool forces, machining work or energy, The objective of these tests is not limited to evaluation of
or power consumption.
work materials; they can also be used to test the performance of
3. Quality of the surface finish produced on the work. the tool or cutting fluid. The tool life test was pioneered by
Specific criteria (generally used as quick tests for judging ease F. W. Taylor, who used it to evaluate the performance of
of machining): various compositions of tool steels. In Taylor’s test, a given
work material is machined under given cutting conditions of
1. Drilling torque or thrust.
depth of cut and feed by various tools of different composition
2. Drilling time or rate of penetration.
but identical geometry. The objective of the testis to determine
3. Energy absorbed in pendulum-type milling cut. the cutting speed which will produce a given tool life, which is
4. Temperature of cutting tool or chip.
oftentimes taken to be 60 minutes of tool life. Tool materials are
5. Amount that chip is hardened during removal. compared on the basis of these speeds. When the test is
6. Cutting ratio of chip. employed to compare work materials, the tool material is held
7. Combined values of the mechanical variables that control
constant and the work material is varied.
forces and chip geometry.
Another test similar to the tool life test is one in which the
8. Feed rate under constant feed pressure in turning at a
amount of wear (usually flank land wear) is measured under
constant speed.
constant cutting conditions and at a given time of cut. This test
9, Ease of chip disposal.
is easier to perform, but not quite as reliable due to the irregular
The three general criteria—tool life; tool forces, energy, or nature of the tool wear rates. The wear rate is relatively high at
power consumption; and finish-relate in general terms to the the beginning of the cut, while during the latter portion of the
cost of machining operations as carried out in the shop and can wear process, it is approximately proportional to the time
be given numerical values. It would seem logical then that these of cut.
three quantities should have become the most commonly Use of tool life (and tool wear) tests is supported by the fact
accepted measures of machinability for shop use. Historically, that the life of the tool is one of the most important economic
however, tool life—the life of the tool between grinds—is considerations in a machining operation, and a comparison of
usually the primary criterion for judging machinability and alternatives (tools, work materials, or cutting fluids) is justifiable
controlling the cost of the operation. Tool forces and surface on economic grounds, (Tool life and its relation to process
finish (or other criteria) have played a much smaller role in variables and material characteristics is discussed in a latter part
defining machinability. The purpose of this section is to provide of this section entitled, “TooI Life and Its Relation to Practical
a general discussion of machinability and tool life. Surface Variables.”) Because of the strong justification that can be made
finish, forces at the cutting tool, and surface integrity are on behalf of tool life as an indicator of machinability, a great
discussed in earlier sections of this chapter. deal of attention has been focused on the problem of tool life
testing. Specifically, much of the research effort has been
MACHINABILITY TEST METHODS4’ devoted to developing short time methods of tool life
Measurement of machinability is difficult for several reasons. determination.42
The machinability of a metal is not only a function of the metal’s Two approaches by Heginbotham and Pandey43’44 are the
own metallurgical properties, such as hardness, microstructure, taper turning test and the variable speed test. Both of these tests
and chemical composition, but also a function of the type of vary cutting speed during a turning process to determine the
machining process, the size and shape of cut, the cutting tool, value of the constants in the Taylor tool life equation (see “TooI
and the cutting fluid. Variation of any of these environmental Life and Its Relation to Practical Variables” in this section).
conditions may affect the machinability ranking. There does While yielding comparable results, the testing times and
not seem to be any single dependent variable in the metalcutting amounts of work material required were reduced substantially
process that is universally acceptable as an indicator of with respect to the conventional testing used to develop Taylor-
machinability. Whatever the variable, when it is measured type parameters.
under one set of experimental conditions, the ratings will Another accelerated test method by Lorenz and Gibson45
probably differ from those obtained under a different set of uses a facing test to determine the desired tool life parameters.
conditions. Also, the rating determined by one test variable may The general approach is similar to the previously mentioned
be quite different from the rating obtained by other variables. approaches in the sense that cutting speed is varied during the
These difficulties notwithstanding, a variety of tests have test. Facing cuts are made from the center of the cylindrical
1-41
CHAPTER 1
MACHINABILITY
work bar toward the outside diameter at a constant spindle Rating—65%) and SAE 3140 (AS ME Machinability Rating—
speed. Still another test (based on the same principle as the 55%): For a light depth of cut (0.010”, 0.25 mm), the SAE 1035
preceding accelerated tool life tests) is the step turning test by showed a better finish; while for a heavier depth of cut (O.125”,
Kiang and Barrow.4c Significant savings in time and material 3.17 mm), the SAE 3140 showed a better finish, Fora small nose
are reported by these authors for this method. radius (O to 1/ 16”, 1.58 mm), the finish was better on the SAE
In each of the previously cited approaches, the disadvantages 3140; but fora larger nose radius (1 /8 to 1/4”, 3.17 to 6.35 mm),
would appear to be (1) the possible variation in work material the surface finish was better on the 1035 steel.s3 Both of these
chemistry and properties radially in the work bar and (2) the comparisons were made while other cutting variables were held
complexity of the computations required to extract the desired constant. More examples of these types of comparisons could
information from the results of the tests. An additional be cited, but this example serves to make the point: Mainly, by
disadvantage of the taper turning testis in the preparation of the reason of the interaction effects, surface roughness, taken by
tapered work bar. itself, is not a reliable indicator of machinability (see “Surface
Thomas and Lambert47’4a have carried out a comparison of Finish” in this chapter).
several of the previous tests against a conventional test method. One way of overcoming this interaction problem is
Their study used the facing test, the taper turning test, and a demonstrated in the simulated production tests that are dis-
“shortened conventional method. ” The shortened conventional cussed later. Surface roughness is standardized at a certain level
method simply reduced the time of cutting to around 5-8 and other variables (speed and feed) are optimized within the
minutes and extrapolated the wear to determine tool life for the limitations imposed by this finish requirement.
defined life criterion. In assessing the results, the authors
conclude the following: “It was found that the facing method, Tool Force Test
the taper method, and the shortened conventional method While information about metalcutting forces is most
predicted tool life values within acceptable limits 95% of the important in the designing of machine tools, it can also be used
time. Because the relative accuracy of the accelerated methods to evaluate machining performance. The justification for the
were approximately the same, the decision as to which method use of force as an indicator of machinability lies in the logical
should be used must therefore be based on other decision assumption that the more difficult-to-machine metals require
criteria, namely economic factors. “49 greater cutting force (see “Forces at the Cutting Tool” in
Of course, another way to achieve an accelerated tool life test this chapter).
is simply to increase the cutting speed (or feed rate, or both) to a A study of tool force tests conducted to appraise the
level high enough to induce tool failure in a relatively short machinability of several steels is documented by Murphy and
time. The parameters in the tool life equation can then be Aylward in Machinability of Steel.5~ The procedure for these
determined, and it can be assumed that these parameters are tests was to determine for each work material the feed which
valid over a more practical speed range. However, this test has would produce a given longitudinal or feeding force. The idea
several drawbacks.so’s 1 Many complaints seem to revolve behind this was that the easier-to-machine steels would produce
around the fact that the test data is taken under cutting the lower forces. However, the data generated during the study
conditions which do not represent the normal machining indicates that tool forces are not a good measure of machining
situation. The cutting speeds in these tool life tests are designed quality. The ratings obtained from these tests do not agree with
to induce a short tool life. The result of these high speeds is commercial rankings, and in addition, the variability of the tool
increased cutting temperatures, which accelerate the tool wear force data makes it difficult to draw any concrete conclusions.
through higher metallic diffusion rates. Thus, the tool life is Another disadvantage of this type of test is that no consideration
influenced by an environment which is somewhat different from is made for either the quality of the newly machined surface or
that normally found in the usual production operation. As a the life of the cutting tool.
consequence, conclusions made from these accelerated life tests
are not completely reliable. The tool life test also pays little Cutting Temperature Test
attention to the quality of the machined surface or to The temperature generated during machining has been used
dimensional stability, both of which are important in most to indicate machinability. The justification for the cutting
commercial operations. temperature test lies in the close relationship between temper-
In an experiment in which an accelerated togl life test was ature and tool life. Higher cutting temperatures would have a
used to measure the machinability of various steels, the results detrimental effect on tool life, Accordingly, work materials
showed considerable disagreement with commercial exper- which produce higher temperatures would be expected to be
ience.52 The conclusion of the experiment was “. that the less machinable (see “Temperature and Tool Life” in
relative machinability values determined from . laboratory this chapter).
data do not agree, either in trend or in magnitude, with accepted In one studysq, the experimental objective was to determine if
commercial ratings. ” cutting temperature is a more consistent and reliable measure of
machinability than tool wear or surface roughness. Testing was
Surface Finish performed on nine steels ranging from free-machining to
The quality of the machined surface is one of the important difficult-to-machine, Results of the tests showed that the
criteria by which the success of a machining operation is judged. temperature test exhibits good agreement with two “reference”
Unfortunately, the combination of machining conditions that machinability rankings used for comparison.
produces a good finish on one work material may produce an Other work using cutting temperatures was carried out by the
unrepresentatively poor finish on another material. For Carpenter Steel Companyss using the tool/ chip thermocouple.
example, in a series of tests conducted to study the effect of Its research utilized not only temperature, but also cutting
several variables on roughness, the following observations were forces.
made between two steels, SAE 1035 (ASME Machinability Finally, studies by YellowleysG have pointed to the importance
1-42
CHAPTER 1
MACHINABILITY
of initial cutting temperature and normal flank stress in by Armourfg and by Murphy and Aylward.sg These tests are
determining tool life. This has lead to the proposal for a almost identical. They both involve the manufacturing (in the
machinability test procedure based on these relationships. laboratory) of a typical production part using a six-spindle
automatic screw machine. The objective of both tests is to
Power Consumption determine the maximum production rates by optimizing feed
The power generated in metalcutting has been proposed as an and speed while maintaining a 6-8 hour tool life and a specified
indicator of a metal’s machinability. It is obviously related to surface finish. Machinability rankings are then obtained by
cutting forces and cutting temperature. comparing the maximum production rates among materials.
The power consumption in a machining operation can be Some of the laboratory production tests base comparisons of
obtained by attaching a wattmeter or ammeter to the power line materials upon speeds alone, rather than speeds and feeds.
coming into the machine tool. However, this gives the total The principle objection to the simulated production test is
power developed by the machine tool rather than the desired that it requires that a large amount of metal (on the order of
cutting power. The power can also be determined by measuring tons) be consumed before a rating of a material can be obtained,
the heat developed at tbe tool, since nearly all the energy in This, of course, necessitates the use of much time and money.
cutting is converted into heat. This is done by use of either a The process of optimizing cutting conditions subject to a set of
calorimeter or a thermocouple. Finally, power can be assessed constraints is a trial-and-error process which is inherently
by measuring the cutting forces on the tool with a dynamometer. time-consuming.
These forces, multipled by their respective speeds, determine Also, in spite of the test’s relative accuracy, discrepancies still
the power generated during the machining operation (see exist in rankings among the various users of the simulated
“Forces at the Cutting Tool” in this chapter). production tests, A steel that is ranked at 75T0 by one researcher
may be ranked at 6070 by another researcher. The discrepancy
Cuttability Tests might be traced to any of a number of possible sources.
This type of test, also called a ranking test, is adaptable to Although the steels are nominally the same, they might reflect
several different cutting operations. The test measures how different steelmaking practices or slight variations in chemistry.
much material can be cut in a given length of time and under a For example, one researcher might have used a six-spindle
given feeding force, other conditions being fixed. It seems screw machine, while another may have used a single-spindle
reasonable to believe that a larger cut can be taken with the machine; this could account for differences.co However, too
more machinable metals. much should not be made of these discrepancies in ratings. This
Three possible cuttability tests are as follows: is a problem which might never be eliminated. The point is,
although the laboratory production test is relatively accurate, it
1. Drilling test, in which the depth of penetration is
is by no means without fault. And, it is the most expensive type
measured in a specified time under a constant feed
of machinability test.
pressure. Materials are compared on the basis of their
relative depths of penetration (see “Drilling, Reaming
Test Standardization
and Related Processes, ” Chapter 9 of this volume).
One of the problems of machinability testing, as mentioned in
2. Turning test, in which the length of travel of a turning
the preceding discussion on test methods, is the variability in
tool subjected to a constant feeding force is measured
results from seemingly minor alterations in test conditions. The
after a given time of cut (see “Turning and Boring,”
logical answer to this problem of test condition changes is
Chapter 8 of this volume).
standardization. A number of groupsb]’cz have worked in past
3. Sawing test, in which the measure of machinability is the
years to develop a standard test procedure which could be used
time or number of strokes required to cut off a certain
for tool life and machinability testing. Included among these
cross section with a hacksaw subjected to a given feeding
groups is the International Standards Organization (1S0).
load. A bandsaw could also be used instead of a hacksaw
In 1977, the 1S0 issued a standard method for tool life testing
(see “Sawing,” Chapter 6 of this volume),
(1S0 Standard 3685-1977, “Tool-Life Testing with Single-
Documented results of research on these tests are not readily Point Turning Tools”), This standard is the accepted
found in the literature. Colwell and McKeeST, although their international testing method. Most of the other groups are
research was of a more general nature and not limited to expected to develop standards which are compatible with the
machinability testing, concluded that the relative machinability ISO standard.
of five materials studied was about the same for a sawing test as An attempt has been made to incorporate a certain amount of
for a turning test. Other than inferences of this sort, the general flexibility in the ISO standard to satisfy different user’s
cuttability tests do not seem to be taken very seriously by most requirements. Five cutting tools are specified as reference tools
researchers, but rather are the kind of tests which might be used for machinability testing: three cemented carbides and two
as a rough measure on the production floor, In one case, a high-speed steels. For purposes of ensuring standardization of
saw-type cuttability test is used as a receiving inspection the tooling, an international tool bank may ultimately be
procedure to guide the selection of cutting conditions when the instituted. Several different tool life criteria are proposed in the
material reaches the machine shop. 1S0 standard, including flank wear, crater wear, and catas-
trophic failure.
Simulated Production Tests Other aspects of the standard include the specification of a
Production testing in the laboratory represents one of the standard reference steel work material, The feeds and speeds
most accurate answers to the problem of determining proposed range through light, medium, and heavy machining
machinability ratings, This is because machining performance operations, while a number of cutting speeds are recommended
is determined under conditions which most closely approximate to produce a series of different tool lives. There are various
the production shop. Examples of this type of test are provided other characteristics of the testing procedure, such as tool
1-43
CHAPTER 1
MACHINABILITY
geometry, toolholders, workpiece dimensions and properties, 4. Built-up edge, thermal cracking, or deformation.
which are specified in the standard. 5, Various combinations of the above.
The biggest criticism of the 1S0 test is that it is an expensive
The actual figure given for tool life in any machining
test and by no means a short-time test. Typically such a test
operation or cutting test depends not only on the method used
carried out to assess the machinability of a free-machining
for specifying tool life, but also on the criteria used for judging
stainless steel uses about 400 lb (181 kg) of material and 80
tool failure. These criteria vary with the type of operation, the
man-hours. c3 From an industrial viewpoint, the high cost and
tool material used, and other factors. Some of the more
length of time required to perform the I SO standard reduces the
common criteria for judging tool failure are:
attractiveness of the standard test. It is hoped that, ultimately, a
standard short-time test will be developed which accomplishes
[. Complete failure—tool completely unable to cut.
most of what the previously mentioned test can accomplish. 2. Preliminary failure—appearance on the finished surface
or on the shoulder of a narrow, highly burnished band,
SPECIFICATION OF TOOL LIFE indicating rubbing on the flank of the tool.
Methods of specifying life of a cutting tool between
3. Flank failure—occurrence of a certain size of wear area
resharpenings may be specified in various ways: on the tool flank, (Usually based on eithera certain width
1, Machine time—elapsed time of operation of machine of wear mark or a certain volume of metal worn away, )
tool. (Tools may be cutting intermittently during this 4. Finish failure—occurrence of a sudden, pronounced
time.) change in finish on the work surface in the direction of
2. Actual cutting time—elapsed time during which tools either improvement or deterioration.
were actually cutting (common definition of tool life). 5. Size failure—occurrence of a change in dimension(s) of
3. Volume of metal removed. the finished part by a certain amount (for instance, an
4. Number of pieces machined. increase in the diameter of a turned piece, of a specific
5. Equivalent cutting speed (often referred to as “Taylor amount. based on the diameter originally obtained with
speed”). For example, V60 cutting speed, at which a the sharp tool).
standard value of machine time or actual cutting time, 6. Cutting-force (or power) failure—increase of the cutting
such as 60 rein, is obtained under a given set of cutting force (tangential force), or the power consumption, by a
conditions. certain amount,
6. Relative cutting speed—a modification of equivalent 7. Thrust-force failure—increase of the thrust on the tool by
cutting speed for general practical use. This is the cutting a certain amount; indicative of end wear.
speed at which the same machine time or actual cutting 8. Feedinsz-force failure—increase in the force needed to
time is obtained for the test material (or tool) as for feed th~ tool by a certain amount, indicative of flank
standard material (or tools) when cutting is performed wear,
under given conditions, This quantity is also called
Although all the previously cited methods of judging tool
relative machinability or percent machinability. In the
failure have found use in the laboratory, many of them are not
latter case, the standard material is assigned a value
equally useful in the shop. The important consideration is that
of 100.
the tools be used until they are worn to a condition just short of
In the case of cutters having more than one tooth, the tool that at which extensive regrinding would be necessary; they
life, when specified as in methods 3 and 4, is usually expressed in should be run only to the point at which regrinding is still
terms of one tooth by dividing the over-all value by the number economical with respect to time and tool material. It has been
of teeth on the cutter. found that, for high-speed steel tools, preliminary failure is a
It should be noted that tool life may be, and often is, reasonably dependable criterion of tool failure for shop use.
expressed in terms of cutting speed (equivalent or relative The appearance of the burnished band on the workpiece
cutting speed). The reason is that, if all other machine and indicates that regrinding of the tool is necessary. Since it is
material variables are held constant while cutting speed is uneconomical to run cast-alloy, sintered-carbide, or ceramic
varied, the time required to dull the tool will be a direct function tools to complete breakdowns, it has been found that flank
of the cutting speed. Thus, if the proper cutting speed is found, a failure is a very good criterion of tool failure for shop use.
tool can be made to run almost any desired time before
resharpening is necessary. Each value of cutting speed is then, in REACTION OF THE WORK MATERIAL ON
this sense, a measure of the relative tool life obtainable with
THE CUTTING TOOL
each material.
The primary cause of tool failure under normal cutting
conditions is usually gradual wear. Wear, which is a loss of mass
OBSERVING TOOL FAILURE or weight of the tool, is caused by five mechanisms:
Tool failure can be monitored by observing the following:
1. Abrasion.
1, Flank wear-abrasion or wear on the flank below the
2. Adhesion.
cutting edge.
3. Diffusion.
2. Cratering—caused by the flowing chip which wears
4. Chemical.
(thermo-chemical abrasion) a cup in the tool face behind
5. Oxidation.
the cutting edge which gradually grows Iargerand finally
causes the cutting edge to crumble.
3. Chipping—breaking out of small chips from the face or Abrasion
flank, at the cutting edge; usually due to mechanical or Abrasion wear occurs when hard particles on the surface of
thermal shock on brittle tool materials. the chip slide on the tool faces and remove tool material. These
1-44
CHAPTER 1
MACHINABILITY
hard particles could be fragments of the built-up edge or into heat. About 75’%0or more of this heat is carried away by the
abrasive inclusions within the workpiece material. chip; the remainder is divided between the workpiece and the
tool. An increase in speed or feed decreases the proportion of
Adhesion the heat transferred to the tool and workpiece.
Adhesion wear occurs when two surfaces are brought The tool/ chip interface temperature is not uniformly distributed
together under high pressure and high temperature. The along the path of chip contact with the tool face. The peak
pressures generated are determined by the condition of the temperature, with a sharp tool, is located some distance from
workpiece material and the force applied; whereas, the the cutting edge. The crater formation, initiated some distance
temperature generated is determined by the frictional environ- from the cutting edge, is due to the nonuniform temperature
ment at the tool/ chip interface. At sufficiently higher temper- distribution. The rate of crater formation depends upon the
atures and pressures, welding occurs between the chip and the interface temperature as an exponential function.
tool face; when these welds fracture, minute bits of tool material With high-speed steel tools, a small temperature increase at
are carried away with the chip. about 1025” F (550° C) causes a sharp increase in the rate of
crater wear. This is referred to as the temperature-sensitive
Diffusion range of high-speed steel and varies somewhat with the type and
Diffusion wear occurs when the atoms of a metallic crystal composition of the tool material. The crater-wear rate is low or
lattice move from an area of high atomic concentration to an negligible at temperatures below this range and excessive
area of low concentration. This process is dependent on (1) the above it.
temperature at the interface between the tool and the chip and Sintered-carbide tool materials also exhibit a temperature-
at the interface between the tool and the workpiece and (2) the sensitive range in the area of 1700° F (926° C), although the
atomic bonding affinity of the tool and workpiece material. effect is less pronounced. As with high-speed steel tools, the
crater-wear rate with carbides becomes rapid when the cutting
Chemical Wear temperature is above their temperature-sensitive range.
Chemical wear occurs when the tool and workpiece are used In the single point turning of steel with high-speed steel tools,
in an environment of suitably active chemicals, which are the cutting temperature is a predominant factor in determining
generally part of the cutting fluid that is present. It is also tool life, The tools normally fail as a result of concentrated wear
possible that electrochemical wear is induced through galvanic at one or more regions of the active cutting edge. Except at low
action. It is this chemical reaction that wears the tool in a speeds (and low cutting temperatures) at which mechanical
corrosive manner. Cratering is believed to be a thermo- effects are operative, the wear is due principally to local
chemical reaction. temperature and its effect on the softening and flow of the tool
material at or near the cutting edge. This action increases edge
Oxidation Wear rubbing and further aggravates the local temperature problem.
Oxidation wear of a cutting tool occurs at very high The cutting temperature may be measured by the tool/work
temperatures at the point at which the structure of the cutting thermocouple method. With a given combination, such as
tool is weakened. The temperatures are of a magnitude that medium-carbon steel and high-speed steel tools, the cutting
permits softening of the cutting tool microstructure, which temperature depends upon cutting speed, feed, depth of cut,
severely weakens the actual cutting edge. tool geometry, and to a certain extent, the cutting fluid (see
It is significant to note that the temperature at the tool/chip “Cutting Fluids and Industrial Lubricants, ” Chapter 4 of
interface is of paramount importance in optimizing tool wear. this volume),
Substantiated data relative to this phenomenon proves that, as The relationship of cutting temperature to cutting speed (in
cutting speed increases, temperature increases and, therefore, the realm of a continuous chip) is in the form:
tool wear also increases.
0, ❑ Cv
General Considerations
Continuing investigations in tool wear using metallography, where:
X-ray detraction, radioactive, and electron microprobe tech-
0, = tool/chip interface temperature
niques should provide advances in the measurement of various
V ❑ cutting speed (sfm or m/ rein)
mechanisms involved in the study of tool wear.
C ❑ constant (dependent on tool/ workpiece combination
These techniques will permit quantitative evaluation of the
and cutting variables other than cutting speed)
amount of tool material lost and the amount of oxidation and
n ❑ exponent
diffusion generated at the tool/ chip interface, among other
things. When working with U.S. customary units, the value ofn for
high-speed steel tools used to cut steel is approximately 1/2; for
TEMPERATURE AND TOOL LIFE sintered carbides used to machine steel, it is about 1/5.
The term “cutting temperature” as used in this discussion An empirical equation of similar form relates cutting
refers to the temperature at the tool/chip interface and is temperature to feed. In this case, however, the exponent is
denoted by the symbol 0,. It consists of the temperature rise, 0,, somewhat lower, being about 3/8 for high-speed steels on steel
in the body of the chip due to shear, the further rise, Of, at the and 1/7 to 1/ 8 for sintered carbides on steel when working with
interface as the hot chip rubs on the tool face, and the workpiece U.S. customary units. From these values, it is seen that the
temperature, 190. increase in feed is less hazardous as far as temperature is
The ratio of & to Of varies with cutting speed, generally concerned than a corresponding increase in speed.
decreasing with an increase in cutting speed. Most of the The depth of cut influences the cutting temperature in a
mechanical energy expended in metalcutting is transformed limited manner. If the depth of cut is more than twice the nose
1-45
CHAPTER 1
MACHINABILITY
radius, a further increase in depth will have little or no effect on Equation (68) is commonly known as the cutting speed and
the cutting temperature.cl Additionally, a depth of cut of ten tool life relationship. In practice, the exponent n varies in value
times the feed rate creates little further temperature effect. from about 0.4 to 0.1, depending on the values of the tool
Tool geometry affects cutting temperature somewhat, since variables and material variables. Table 1-6 gives numerical
changes in side cutting edge angle, rake angle, etc., alter chip values for exponent n. The exponent n has gained significance
formation and flow. If the change in tool geometry results in less in recent years because it is also an indication of sensitivity to
plastic deformation in the chip, the heat generated there is vibration.cT
reduced and a lower cutting temperature can be expected. Table 1-7 shows numerical values for exponent n and the
However, if this is accomplished by an increase in the rake effect it has on cutting speed reduction to obtain a desired tool
angle, a, it must be kept in mind that large angles reduce the life in comparison with a 60 min tool life, assuming that there is
mechanical strength and heat-conducting capacity of the cutting no tool failure by flaking, chipping, or breakage. Ga,c9In general,
edge. With work materials of low shear strength, this is usually
not serious; however, with such materials as medium-carbon
steels the reduction in strength and heat-conducting capacity Turning 300M Steel— Q & T Rc56
may cause early tool failure. Tool: SNG432 Inseris

BR: 5° Neg ECEA: 15°
The effect of cutting fluid on cutting temperature maybe due SR 5“ Neg. Relief. 5°
to either direct cooling or reduction of the energy required in SCEA. 15° NR: 0.030” (O 76 mm)
cutting. At low speeds, the cutting fluid has time to penetrate Feed: 0.005 Ipr (O. 13 mm/rev)
Depth of cut 0.062” (1 .57 mm)
and react, thus providing friction-reducing effects and decreas-
Cuttng fluld: Dry
ing the cutting temperature. At high speeds, little effect on the TOOI hfe 0.015“ (O38 mm) umform wear
(m/min) (sfm)
cutting temperature is noted. However, the cutting fluid will end point: O 030” (0.76 mm) Iocollzed wear
remove heat from the tool and the workpiece, and decrease heat 3000~ I 0,000
8,000
accumulation and temperature build-up in the vicinity of the
2000 - 6,000
active cutting edge of the tool (see “Cutting Fluids and
Industrial Lubricants,” Chapter 4 of this volume). 4,000
I 000
900 - 3,000
TOOL LIFE AND ITS RELATION TO 800 -
700 :
PRACTICAL VARIABLES 600 2,000
Tool life is related to cutting speed, dimensions of the cut, 500 -

400 -
tool angles, tool shape, cutting fluid used, rigidity of the setup, j 300 - 1000
chatter, dimensions of the work, and other variables. Since the Q 800
largest amount of information on tool life has been obtained ; 200 - 600
from tests on single point tools, many of the relationships and 5
much of the data presented in the following sections are based v 400
100-
on them. However, these can be usefully applied to nearly every 90 z 300
type of machining operation when the extra factors entering %- 200

into the particular process are kept in mind. 60
50 -
40 -
Cutting Speed 30 - I 00
Cutting speed is the variable having by far the greatest 80

20 - 60
influence on tool life. Taylorbj showed that the relation between
tool life and cutting speed ordinarily could be represented 40
approximately by the empirical equation: 10 - 30
2 3456810 20 3040 60
(mIn)
VT = c, (68) Tool hfe
where:
Fig. 1-62 Typical cutting speed versus tool life curves for various
J“. cutting speed (sfm or m/ rein) cutting tool materials. (Derivationoj Cost ControlCriteriajarCutters,
T= SME Technical Paper MR76-996.)
actual cutting time between resharpening (rein)
c1 . constant whose value depends on other machine
variables and the work material variables. The TABLE 1-6
value of C( is numerically equal to the cutting Average Numerical Values for
speed that gives a tool life of 1 min (sfm or m/ rein). Tool-Life Exponent n“ [Eq. (68)]
~= exponent whose value varies to some extent with
other machine variables and work material variables HSS TOOk
Material to be Machined Carbide Tools 18-4-1
Equation (68) defines a straight line on log-log graph paper.
Figure 1-62 shows the salient features of such a plot.bb It is Steel 0.3 0.15
Cast iron 0.25 0.25
evident that tool life decreases as cutting speed is increased.
Although there are few exceptions to this general rule, it may Light metals 0.41 0.41
Brass and cast brass 0.25
fail when cutting speeds are low. Very short tool life can occur
when steel is machined with carbides at very low or excessively Copper 0.13
high cutting speeds. * According to M. KronenbergW@
1-46
CHAPTER
MACHINABILITY
TABLE 1-7
Effect of Exponent n [Eq. (68)] on Cutting-Speed Reduction for Required Tool Life*
Multiply the cutting speed for 60-min tool life by the following
values when the ex~onent n is
To obtain a tool
life of, min 0.1 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40
60 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
120 0.93 0.90 0.87 0.84 0.81 0.79 0.76
240 0.87 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.66 0.62 0.58
480 0.81 0.73 0.66 0.60 0.54 0.48 0.43
* According to M. Kronenberg@Wq
the exponent corresponding to the use of high-speed steel and Tool Angles and Shape
cast-alloy tools will be in the low end of this range; that for A general discussion of tool angles for turning operations is
sintered-carbide tools will be in the middle of the range, and presented in Chapter 8 of this volume, “Turning and Boring. ”
that for ceramic tools in the high end of the range. Tool form, as controlled by such other factors as the amount
and type of curvature (nose radius) of the cutting edge(s) and
Dimensions of Cut the type of tool (turning, planing, shaping, drilling, etc.), may
The tool life obtained at a given cutting speed is, of course, have a very marked effect on tool life. However, little numerical
influenced by the dimensions of the cut. The general empirical correlation of these factors has yet been accomplished.
relationship between the cutting speed for a chosen tool life (for The purpose of a clearance angle is to avoid physical
example, 60 rein) and the feed and depth of cut is recognized to interference between the tool flank and the workpiece. Clearance
be ordinarily in the form: angles should be no larger than necessary for a given workpiece
CA material. They are usually between 10 and 12° for machining
(69)
‘“ ~ light alloys and 4 and 6° for the harder steels. In a sharp tool, the
amount of clearance, as long as it is sufficient, does not
where: influence the tool forces. As the tool becomes dull, however,
V, equivalent cutting speed—cutting
❑ speed for a given actual interference of the tool flank and the workpiece occurs.
tool life With smaller clearance angles, flank wear will reach a given
C,4 ❑ constant whose value depends on machine variables width sooner than it would with larger clearance angles.
and the work material variables Table 1-9 summarizes the known qualitative relations between
f = feed per revolution tool life and tool angles and form. These are formulated in
d ❑ depth of cut terms of single point tool nomenclature for convenience.
x,y = exponents
TABLE 1-8
In practice, when working with U.S. customary units or
Exponents n, x, and y for Use in Eq. (69)*
metric units, average values for the exponents x and y are: for
machining of steel, x ❑ 0.14 and y ❑ 0.42; for machining of cast Exuonent for
iron, x ❑ O.JO and y ❑ 0.30. Table 1-8 lists exponent values for
various tool materials used in machining C-1045 steel, TO Depth
Sometimes called the extended tool life relationship, this Tool Life of cut Feed
equation emphasizes two important general facts about the Tool Material (t),n (d)~ W)LY
machining of metals: Tungsten carbide 0.30 0.13 0,31
1. As feed or depth is increased, the cutting speed must be Ti-coated tungsten
decreased to keep the tool life constant. carbide 0.27 0.15 0.43
2. However. when this is done. the amount of metal
removed by the tool during the same given life is Solid titanium carbide 0.31 0.23 0.41
considerably increased. (This is especially true of an
Niobium nitride 0.38 0.17 0.40
increase in the depth of cut, because of its very low
exponent.) Aluminum oxide 0.38 0.12 0.48
Thus, a general rule may be stated: The combination of a (Warner and Swasey Co. )
large depth of cut and a high rate of feed with a low cutting * Cutting Conditions:
speed will allow a large amount of metal to be remove dduringa Nominal Feed: 0.025 ipr (0.63 mm/rev)
given hye of the tool. There are few exceptions to this rule. Nominal Depth: 0.200” (5.08 mm)
However, limitations on the extent to which one can proceed in Tool life criterion: 0,015” (0.38 mm) flank wear
the direction of large cuts and low speeds are set by the Cutting fluid: dry
increasingly poorer finish and the ability of the tool, workpiece, Work material: C-1045 steel
holding device, and machine tool to resist deflection caused by Hardness: 197 Bhn
cutting forces. The greatest benefit from the principle comes in Tool signature: -5, -5, 5, 5, 15, 15, 1/32
taking roughing cuts on stable workplaces in rigid machines. Machine: W/S SC 15 NC turret lathe
1-47
CHAPTER 1
MACHINABILITY
TABLE 1-9
Usual Effect of Tool Angles and Shape on Tool Life
As the Value of the Variable

Is Increased in Size from Zero,
Variable Tool Life Ordinarily Will Feed
Rake angle First increase, then decrease*

+
Working relief angle First increase, then decrease
Side cutting edge angle Increase Plone of

engagement
Nose radius Increase
* Negative rake angles at the cutting edge are needed generally
for increased tool life with carbide and ceramic tools in
machining most steels.
Fig. 1-63 Schematic diagram showing the angle, 6, for face milling
operations. ( Kronenberg%z~)
Cutting Fluid RELATION OF TOOL LIFE TO

The use of a cutting fluid ordinarily increases tool life WORK MATERIAL VARIABLES
considerably. A general discussion of cutting fluids is presented General machinability ratings are expressed in terms of
in Chapter 4 of this volume, “Cutting Fluids and Industrial relative values. Rating figures (often called percent machin-
Lubricants. ” ability or relative machinability) represent the relative speeds to
use with each given metal to obtain a given tool life. They are
RIGIDITY, CHATTER, SHAPE AND relative cutting speed values. A material with a rating of 50
DIMENSIONS OF WORK should be machined at (roughly) half the speed used for a
The large effect that any or all of these machine variables can material with a rating of 100 if identical tool life for both
have on tool life is not always appreciated. It has not as yet been is desired.
possible to work out specific laws for the effects of these As mentioned in earlier sections of this chapter, machinability
quantities. However, it is accepted that tool life is, in general, ratings have been and continue to be developed using a variety
favored by rigid conditions in the machine and the tool and of methods (see “Machinability Test Methods” in this section).
work mountings and by freedom from chatter. However, in recent years, some experts have discounted the
Changes in the shape and dimensions of the workpiece may value of machinability rating systems. Some critics have
have a varied effect on tool life. Generally, in addition to the described the application of machinability indexes as futile.71
evident loss of accuracy, if the shape and size are such that Certainly problems in application of machinability ratings
excessive deflections take place under the action of the cutting remain unresolved in many areas. However, it is clear that
forces, tool life may be impaired. industry has benefited greatly from the research aimed at
developing such indices of machinability. Not only has
NATURE OF ENGAGEMENT industry’s general knowledge of the machining processes
OF TOOL WITH WORK increased as a consequence of these studies, but this knowledge
If the nature of an operation is such that the tool cuts has been translated into more machinable steels and other
continuously, as in turning a full cylinder, the tool life will workpiece materials. Also, the development of new tool
ordinarily be greater than if the cut is interrupted, as in turning materials can probably be traced to some of this work on
a cylindrical piece with slots. machinability rating schemes. Tq
In operations in which the cutting is intermittent in nature, Obviously, the primary objective of machinability testing is
the exact manner in which the tool enters and leaves the cut the development of data which can be used to guide the
often has a marked effect on tool life, especially when sintered- selection of cutting parameters in production operations. A
carbide tools are used. In this case, it appears that failure will comparison of machinability information from various sources
generally be more rapid when the tool angles and position are will show that it does not agree in many cases. However, the
such that the impact on entering the cut occurs at the sharp recommendations derived from machinability data in this
cutting edge or the tool point, rather than at a spot on the tool Handbook or other references should serve as a useful starting
face away from the cutting edge. point—an approach which is considered by many experts to be
In addition, in face milling operations on steel with sintered- vastly superior to the use of uninformed judgment. The general
carbide cutters, the relative position of the cutter and work can consensus of machinability experts is that the use of machin-
be a factor in tool life. The controlling variable is the angle ability ratings should be considered with specific speed and
between a radial plane through the cutter tooth and the plane of feed recommendations to arrive at starting points for pro-
the particular face of the workpiece through which the tooth is duction use.
entering the cut. This is illustrated in Fig. 1-63 in which this Several tables of machinability data are presented in the
angle of engagement is denoted by t. In some cases in the face following sections. The general machinability ratings in Table
milling of steel with a carbide cutter, if this angle is less than 1-10 are for various workpiece materials. The machinability
about 2P, the tool life will be normal; if the angle c is greater ratings for SAE alloys steels listed in Table 1-11 are based on a
than about 35°, the cutter may fail almost immediately after value of 100% for SAE 1212 cold-drawn steel. Table 1-12, a,
cutting is started. provides machinability ratings for nonresulfurized carbon steel
1-48
CHAPTER 1
MACHINABILITY
TABLE 1-10
Relative Machinability Ratings of Various Materials*
Material BHN MR Material BHN MR

12~0 Chrome A-8640 170 .55
Stainless iron 165 .70 A-8645 210 .50
80B40 195 .35 A-8650 212 .45
81 B45 179 .60 A-8740 200 .55
86B45 212 .35 A-8745 219 .45
98B40 185 .40 A-8750 212 .40
1020 (Castings) 134 .60 AM 350 420 ,14
1040 (Castings) 190 .45 AM 355 360 .10
1330 223 .60 AMS 6407 180 ,50
3140 197 .55 AMS 6418 195 .50
3250 220 .45 AMS 6427 180 .50
3312 191 .50 B-1112 160 1.00
3340 220 .45 B-1113 170 1.35
3450 197 .45 C-1OO8 155 .55
4130 (Castings) 175 .35 C-lolo 150 .55
4130 183 .65 C-1OI5 131 .60
4140 190 .55 X-102O 148 .65
4140 (Leaded) 187 .70 C-1025 143 .65
4145 200 .55 C-103O 190 .65
4340 (100% Pearlitic) 221 .45 c-1 040 205 .6o
4340 (Spheroidized) 206 .65 C-1045 217 .50
4340 (Castings) 300 .25 C-1050 205 .50
4620 170 .65 C-1095 210 .45
4640 187 .55 C-1117 170 .90
4815 183 .55 C-1118 160 .80
5120 191 .65 C-1120 160 .80
6130 183 .55 C-1137 197 .75
6135 190 .55 C-1141 240 .50
6180 207 .40 Cast Iron (soft) 160 .6o
8030 (Castings) 175 .45 Cast Iron (med.) 195 .40
8430 (Castings) 180 .40 Cast Iron (hard) 262 .20
8620 I94 .60 Cast Iron
8630 190 .60 (Chilled White) 500 .70
8630 (Castings) 240 .30 Cast Iron
8720 190 .60 (Gray Pearlitic) 190 .70
9255 218 .45 Chromaloy 293 .50
9260 221 .45 Discaloy 135 .40
9262H 255 .25 E-331O 196 .40
A-286 300 ,10 E-4137 200 .60
A-3115 160 .65 E-52100 206 .30
A-3 120 150 .65 E-6150 197 .50
A-4023 183 .70 E-9310 223 .40
A-4027 189 .70 E-9315 204 .40
A-4032 190 .70 H-11 190 .45
A-4037 200 .65 Hastelloy B (Cast) 200 .12
A-4042 200 .60 Hastelloy C 170 .20
A-4047 209 .55 Hastelloy X 197 .09
A-4 150 208 .50 Haynes Stellite
A-4320 200 .55 #21 (Cast) .06
A-4340 210 .50 Haynes Stellite #25 .12
A-4820 205 .45 Haynes Stellite
A-5 140 202 .60 #31 (Cast) .06
A-5150 207 .50 High Speed Steel 18-4-1 220 .35
A-6120 187 .50 High Speed Steel 8-2-1 210 .40
A-6 140 205 .50 Inconel 240 .30
A-6 145 207 .50 Inconel X 360 .15
A-6152 195 .50 Inconel 700 290 .09
1-49
CHAPTER 1
MACHINABILITY
TABLE I-lO—Continued

Inconel 702 225 .11 TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS:
Inconel 901 200 .20
A-55 160 .30
Inconel 901 300 .15
A-70 188 .27
M-252 220 .05
A-110 220 .23
M-308 352 .05
c-1 20 240 .20
Malleable—(Pearlitic) 185 .90 255 .18
C-130
Malleable (Standard 285 .15
c-1 40
Mailable) 120 1.10
MST 380 .09
Molybdenum (Cast) 190 .30
Monel (K Monel) 240 .35 ALUMINUM ALLOYS CAST:
Monel- (K-R Monel) 240 .45 A-1 32-T 1.10
Monel (R Monel) 208 .45 A-214 2.00
Monel (S Monel Cast) 300 .25 A-356-T 1.40
NE-9261 198 .50 B-113 1.80
Ni-Hard 550 .03 D-132-T 1.30
Ni-Resist 145 .45 108 1.40
Nimonic 75 220 .17 112 1.80
Nimonic 80 270 .12 122-T 1.40
Nimonic 90 300 .10 195-T 1.90
Nitrolloy (135) 200 .45 212 1.60
Nodular Iron #1 183 .60 21 8-T 2.40
Nodular Iron #2 200 .50 220-T 2.30
Nodular Iron #3 230 .40 3 19-T 1.60
Potomac M 200 .45 333-T 1.30
Rene 41 215 .15 355-T 1.60
Rycut 40 187 .65 750-T 1.80
Stressproof 203 .50
.40 ALUMINUM ALLOYS WROUGHT:
Super Triscent 180
Turbaloy 135 .40 2011 2.00
Udimet 500 290 .09 20 14-T 1.40
v-57 375 .08 2017-T 1,40
Vasco X4 150 .50 2024-T 1,50
Vascojet 1000 190 .45 3003 1.80
Waspalloy 270 .12 3004 1.80
Tungsten Estimated .05 5052 1,90
.5056 1.90
STAINLESS STEELS:
4032-T 1,10
PH 15-7 Mo 270 .20 6051-T 1.40
17-4PH 388 .28 6061 -T 1,90
17-7PH 200 .20 6063-T 1.90
301 183 .55 7075-T 1.20
302 178 .50 Aluminum-bronze
303 180 .65 (5% Al) .60
304 160 .40
OTHER MATERIALS:
310 160 .30
317 195 .35 (8% Al) ,60
405 145 .60 (9.25% Al) .60
416 200 .90 (9.5% Al) .60
418 160 .40 Aluminum
420 207 .45 silicon-bronze 1,80
430F 147 .65 Architectural bronze 2,70
440C 240 .35 Beryllium-copper
440 160 .50 (not heat-~reated) .60
1-50
CHAPTER 1
MACHINABILITY
TABLE I-l O—Continued


Chromium-copper .60 Leaded silicon-bronze 1.80
Commerical bronze Low brass (80% Cu) .90
(90% Cu) .60 Low-leaded brass 1.80
Cupro-nickel .60 Low-leaded (tube) 1.80
Deoxidized copper .60 Manganese bronze .90
Electrolytic tough- Medium-leaded brass 2.10
pitch copper .60 Muntz metal 1.20
Extruded leaded Naval brass .90
nickel-silver ( IOTO Ni) 2.40 Nickel 2.00
Forging brass 2.40 Nickel-silver (18% Ni) .60
Free-cutting brass 3.00 Nickel-silver (20% Ni) .60
High-leaded brass 2.70 Phosphor-bronze
High-leaded brass (tube) 2.40 (5% Tin) .60
High silicon-bronze .90 Phosphor-bronze
Leaded commercial (8% Tin) .60
bronze 2.40 Phosphor-bronze
Leaded copper 2.40 (10% Tin) .60
Leaded naval brass 2.10 Red brass (35% Cu) .90
Leaded nickel-silver Selenium or
(12% Ni) 1.30 telh.rrium-copper 2.70
Leaded nickel-silver Special free-cutting
(18% Ni) 1.50 phosphor-bronze 2.70
Leaded phosphor-bronze Zinc 2.00
(5% Tin) 1.50
*The machinability ratings, MR, in this chart were established for materials with Brinell
hardness numbers BHN as listed. When a material listed is to be machined and is found to
have a BHN different from that shown in the table, the ratio of the BHN in the table to the
actual BHN of the workpiece is multiplied by the listed machinability rating, MR, to
provide the MR of the actual workpiece. For example:
A 3140at a BHNof 197is shown onthetable tohavean MRof0.55. The3140to
be machined has an actual BHN of 220. Therefore:
%x 0.55 ❑ .049= MR @ BHN 220
The MR of the part to be machined is 0.49,
On the other hand, if the 3140 to be machined has an actual hardness of 170:
%X 0.55 = 0.64 = MR @ BHN 170
(Carboloy Systems Div. )
bars, manganese 1.00% maximum; Table 1-12, b, provides approach the hardness of the cutting tool, the abrasive action of
machinability ratings for nonresulfurized carbon steel bars, the chip on the tool causes tool life to be shortened. As the
manganese over 1.00T0. Table 1-12, c, provides machinability hardness decreases below this range, it is accompanied by an
ratings of resulfurized carbon steel bars. increase in ductility, which is detrimental to good machining
because of tearing of the work material and difficulty in chip
Physical Properties disposal. Cold drawing is often used on low-carbon and free-
Sources on machining theoryTj list hardness and strain- cutting steels to make these soft materials more brittle, thus
hardenability among the most important factors affecting facilitating the breaking up of the chips.
machinability. Other properties are also related to the machining Strength. Research has been reported75’7bwhich studies the
performance of steels. relationship between the strength properties of a steel and its
Workpiece hardness. Brinell hardness has been used as a machinability. It has been concluded that, as the strength of the
rough measure of machinability. It is believed that an optimum material increases, an adverse effect on tool life results.
hardness range for machinability of steel is about 187 to 227 However, commercial experience has shown that an optimum
Bhn.74 As the hardness increases above this range and begins to condition for machining exists at a tensile strength of
1-51
CHAPTER
MACHINABILITY
c
o
..-
.=
-c
c
2
1-52
CHAPTER 1
MACHINABILITY
mmm
1-53
CHAPTER 1
MACHINABILITY
TABLE 1-12, a
Estimated Mechanical Properties and Machinability Ratings
of Nonrestdfurized Carbon Steel Bars, Manganese 1.00% Maximum
Average
Estimated Minimum Values Machinability
Tensile Yield Rating
SAE and/or Type of Strength, Strength, Elongation in Reduction in BrineO (Cold-Drawn
UNS No. AISl No, Processing* psi MPa psi MPa 2 in. (51 mm), % Area, % Hardness 1212= 100%)
G10060 1006 Hot Rolled 43000 300 24000 170 30 55 86

Cold Drawn 48000 330 41000 280 20 45 95 50
G1OO8O 1008 Hot Rolled 44000 303 24500 170 30 55 86
Cold Drawn 49000 340 41500 290 20 45 95 55
G101OO 1010 Hot Rolled 47000 320 26000 180 28 50 95
Cold Drawn 53000 370 44000 300 20 40 I 05 55
GIO120 1012 Hot Rolled 48000 330 26500 180 28 50 95
Cold Drawn 54000 370 45000 310 19 40 105 55
GI0150 1015 Hot Rolled 50000 340 27500 190 28 50 101
Cold Drawn 56000 390 47000 320 18 40 111 60
GIO160 1016 Hot Rolled 55000 380 30000 210 25 50 111
Cold Drawn 61000 420 51000 350 18 40 121 70
G1017O 1017 Hot Rolled 53000 370 29000 200 26 50 105
Cold Drawn 59000 410 49000 340 18 40 116 65
G1018O 1018 Hot Rolled 58000 400 32000 220 25 50 116
Cold Drawn 64000 440 54000 370 15 40 126 70
GIO190 1019 Hot Rolled 59000 410 32500 220 25 50 116
Cold Drawn 66000 460 55000 380 15 40 131 70
G102OO 1020 Hot Rolled 55000 380 30000 210 25 50 111
Cold Drawn 61000 420 51000 350 15 40 121 65
G102IO 1021 Hot Rolled 61000 420 33000 230 24 48 116
Cold Drawn 68000 470 57000 390 15 40 131 70
G1022O 1022 Hot Rolled 62000 430 34000 230 23 47 151
Cold Drawn 69000 480 58000 400 15 40 I37 70
GI0230 1023 Hot Rolled 56000 370 31000 210 25 50 111
Cold Drawn 62000 430 52500 360 15 40 121 65
GI0250 1025 Hot Rolled 58000 400 32000 220 25 50 116
Cold Drawn 64000 440 54000 370 15 40 126 65
G 10260 1026 Hot Rolled 64000 440 35000 240 24 49 126
Cold Drawn 71000 490 60000 410 15 40 143 75
GI0300 1030 Hot Rolled 68000 470 37500 260 20 42 137
Cold Drawn 76000 520 64000 440 12 35 149 70
GI0350 1035 Hot Rolled 72000 500 39500 270 18 40 143
Cold Drawn 80000 550 67000 460 12 35 163 65
G1037O 1037 Hot Rolled 74000 510 40500 280 18 40 143
Cold Drawn 82000 570 69000 480 12 35 167 65
GI0380 1038 Hot Rolled 75000 520 41000 280 18 40 149

Cold Drawn 83000 570 70000 480 12 35 163 65
G 10390 1039 Hot Rolled 79000 540 43500 300 16 40 156
Cold Drawn 88000 610 74000 510 12 35 179 60
G 10400 1040 Hot Rolled 76000 520 42000 290 18 40 149

Cold Drawn 85000 590 71000 490 12 35 170 60
1-54
CHAPTER 1
MACHINABILITY
TABLE 1-12, a—Continued
Average
Estimated Minimum Values
Machinability
SAE and/or Type of Strength, Strength, Elongation in Reduction in Brinell (Cold-Drawn
UNS No. AISI No. Processing* psi MPa psi MPa 2 in. (51 mm), VO Area, % Hardness 1212= 100%)
G1042O 1042 Hot Rolled 80000 550 44000 300 16 40 163

Cold Drawn 89000 610 75000 520 12 35 179 60
NCD 85000 590 73000 500 12 45 179 70
G1043O 1043 Hot Rolled 82000 570 45000 310 16 40 163
Cold Drawn 91000 630 77000 530 12 35 179 60
NCD 87000 600 75000 520 12 45 179 70
G 10440 1044 Hot Rolled 80000 550 44000 300 16 40 163
G1045O 1045 Hot Rolled 82000 570 45000 310 16 40 163
Cold Drawn 91000 630 77000 530 12 35 179 55
ACD 85000 590 73000 500 12 45 170 65
G 10460 1046 Hot Rolled 85000 590 47000 320 15 40 170
Cold Drawn 94000 650 79000 540 12 35 187 55
ACD 90000 620 75000 520 12 45 179 65
G1049O 1049 Hot Rolled 87000 600 48000 330 15 35 179
Cold Drawn 97000 670 81500 560 10 30 197 45
ACD 92000 630 77000 530 10 40 187 55
G105OO 1050 Hot Rolled 90000 620 49500 340 15 35 179
Cold Drawn 100000 690 84000 580 10 30 197 45
ACD 95000 660 80000 550 10 40 189 55
GI0550 1055 Hot Rolled 94000 650 51500 360 12 30 192
ACD 96000 660 81000 560 10 40 197 55
G 10600 1060 Hot Rolled 98000 680 54000 370 12 30 201
SACD 90000 620 70000 480 10 45 183 60
G1064O 1064 Hot Rolled 97000 670 53500 370 12 30 201
SACD 89000 610 69000 480 10 45 183 60
G1065O 1065 Hot Rolled 100000 690 55000 380 12 30 207
SACD 92000 630 71000 490 10 45 187 60
G 10700 1070 Hot Rolled 102000 700 56000 390 12 30 212
SACD 93000 640 72000 500 10 45 192 55
G1074O 1074 Hot Rolled 105000 720 58000 400 12 30 217
SACD 94500 650 73000 500 10 40 192 55
GI0780 1078 Hot Rolled 100000 690 55000 380 12 30 207
SACD 94000 650 72500 500 10 40 192 55
GI0800 1080 Hot Rolled 112000 770 61500 420 10 25 229
SACD 98000 680 75000 520 10 40 192 45
G 10840 1084 Hot Rolled 119000 820 65500 450 10 25 241
SACD 100000 690 77000 530 10 40 192 45
G1085O 1085 Hot Rolled 121000 830 66500 460 10 25 248
SACD 100500 690 78000 540 10 40 192 45
GI0860 1086 Hot Rolled 112000 770 61500 420 10 25 229
SACD 97000 670 74000 510 10 40 192 45
G 10900 1090 Hot Rolled 122000 840 67000 460 10 25 248

SACD 101000 700 78000 540 10 40 197 45
G1095O 1095 Hot Rolled 120000 830 66000 460 10 25 248
SACD 99000 680 76000 520 10 40 197 45
1-55
CHA PTER 1
MACHINABILITY
TABLE 1-12, b
Estimated Mechanical Properties and Machinability Ratings
of Nonresulfurized Carbon Steel Bars, Manganese Maximum Over 1.00%
Average
Tensile Yield Rating -
SAE and/or Type of Strength, Strength, Elongation in Reduction in Brinell (Cold-Drawn
UNS No. AISI No. Processing* psi MPa psi MPa 2 in. (51 mm), % Area, % Hardness 1212= 100%)
G15240 1524 Hot Rolled 74000 510 41000 280 20 42 149
Cold Drawn 82000 570 69000 480 12 35 163 60
G 15270 1527 Hot Rolled 75000 520 41000 280 40 149
Cold Drawn 83000 570 70000 480 35 163 65
G15360 1536 Hot Rolled 83000 570 45500 310 16 40 163
Cold Drawn 92000 630 77500 530 12 35 187 55
G1541O 1541 Hot Rolled 92000 630 51000 350 15 40 187
Cold Drawn 102500 710 87000 600 10 30 207 45
ACD 94000 650 80000 550 10 45 184 60
G15470 1547 Hot Rolled 94000 650 52000 360 15 30 192
Cold Drawn 103000 710 88000 610 10 28 207 40
ACD 95000 660 85000 590 10 35 187 45
G15520 1552 Hot Rolled 108000 740 59500 410 12 30 217
ACD 98000 680 83000 570 10 40 193 50
G 15480 1548 Hot Rolled 96000 660 53000 370 14 33 197
Cold Drawn 106500 730 89500 620 10 28 217 45
ACD 93500 640 78500 540 10 35 192 50
TABLE 1-12, C
Estimated Mechanical Properties and Machinability Ratings of Resulfurized Carbon Steel Bars
Average
SAE andjor Type of Strength, Strength, Elongation in Reduction in Brinell (Cold-Drawn
UNS No. AISI No. Processing* mi MPa rxi MPa 2 in. (51 mm). % Area. % Hardness 1212= 100%)
G] 1080 1108 Hot Rolled 50000 340 27500 190 30 50 101
Cold Drawn 56000 390 47000 320 20 40 121 80
G] 1090 1109 Hot Rolled 50000 340 27500 190 30 50 101
Cold Drawn 56000 390 47000 320 20 40 121 80
G11170 1117 Hot Rolled 62000 430 34000 230 23 47 121
Cold Drawn 69000 480 58000 400 15 40 137 90
G11180 1118 Hot Rolled 65000 450 36000 250 23 47 131
Cold Drawn 72000 500 61000 420 15 40 143 85
GI1190 1119 Hot Rolled 62000 430 34000 230 23 47 121
Cold Drawn 69000 480 58000 400 15 40 137 100
G11320 1132 Hot Rolled 83000 570 45500 310 16 40 167
Cold Drawn 92000 630 77000 530 12 35 183 75
G11370 1137 Hot Rolled 88000 610 48000 330 15 35 179
Cold Drawn 98000 680 82000 570 10 30 197 70
GI 1400 1140 Hot Rolled 79000 540 43500 300 16 40 156
Cold Drawn 88000 610 74000 510 12 35 170 70
G1141O 1141 Hot Rolled 94000 650 51500 360 15 35 187
Cold Drawn 105100 720 88000 610 10 30 212 70
G] 1440 1144 Hot Rolled 97000 670 53000 370 15 35 197
Cold Drawn 108000 740 90000 620 10 30 217 80
G1 1450 1145 Hot Rolled 85000 590 47000 320 15 40 170
Cold Drawn 94000 650 80000 550 12 35 187 65
1-56
CHAPTER 1
MACHINABILITY
TABLE 1-12, c—Cwrtirufesf
Average
Estimated Minimum Values Machinabilityy
SAEand/or Type of Strength, Strength, Elongation in Reduction in Brinell (Cold-Drawn
UNS No, AISI No. Processing* psi MPa psi MPa 2 in. (51 mm), x Area, YO Hardness 1212= 100%)
G11460 1146 Hot Rolled 85000 590 47000 320 15 40 170

Cold Drawn 94000 650 80000 550 12 35 187 70
G1151O 1151 Hot Rolled 92000 630 50500 340 15 35 187
Cold Drawn 102000 700 86000 590 10 30 207 65
G12110 1211 Hot Rolled 55000 380 33000 230 25 45 121
Cold Drawn 75000 520 58000 400 10 35 163 95
G12120 1212 Hot Rolled 56000 390 33500 23o 25 45 121
Cold Drawn 78000 540 60000 410 10 35 167 100
G12130 1213 Hot Rolled 56000 390 33500 230 25 45 121
Cold Drawn 78000 540 60000 410 10 35 167 135
G12144 12L14 Hot Rolled 57000 390 34000 230 22 45 121
Cold Drawn 78000 540 60000 410 10 35 163 160
Mec/sanica/Properties-The mechanical properties listed in Tables 1-12,a, b, and c are given as a matter of general information. They do not
form a part or requirement of any specification unless each instance is approved by the source of supply, The properties in Tables 1-12,a, b, and c
can generaBy be expected from bars in sizes ranging from 3/4 to 1 1/4 in. (20 to 30 mm) based on the standard round tensile test specimen with 2 in.
(50 mm) gage length.
Sizes under 3/4 in. (20 mm) will show slightly higher strength than those shown in the tables. The mass effect of larger sections has a direct
influence on mechanical properties and results in slightly lower values as the section increases.
Properties of turned and polished or turned and ground types of cold-finished material will correspond to the hot-rolled values.
The cold-drawn properties are based on conventional production from hot-rolled bars. When required, these properties may be varied by
modified cold-drawing practices or a combination of cold-drawing practice plus thermal treatment for grades SAE 1050 and lower in carbon.
Grades higher in carbon than SAE 1050 are commonly annealed before cold drawing,
MachinabilityRatings—The machinabilityy ratings listed are based on a value of 100%for SAE 1212cold drawn. This value involves turning at a
cutting speed of 180for feeds up to 0.007 ipr (O.18mm/rev) and depths of cut up to 0.250” (6.4 mm) using appropriate cutting fluids with high-speed
steel tools, SAE Grade T-1 ( 18-4-1) hardened to Rc 63/65.
Relative machinability data shown in the tables represents results obtained from various experimental data and actual shop production
information obtained from results of machining cold-drawn bars on single and multiple spindle automatic machines, Various factors influence
machinability; therefore, results shown in the tables are average and may be affected to some degree by amount of cold reduction, mechanical
properties, grain size, and microstructure.
Source: SAE Information Report—’’Estimated Mechanical Properties and Machinability of Hot Rolled and Cold Drawn Carbon
Steel Bars’’—SAE J414a, SAE Handbook, 1981, Part 1, Society of Automotive Engineers, p. 3.14.
* ACD represents annealed cold drawn.
NCD represents normalized cold drawn.
SACD represents spheroidized annealed cold drawn.
** AII I 100 and 1zoo series steels are rated on the basis of O.10% max. silicon or coarse grain melting practice.
approximately 85,000 psi (586 MPa).TT This corresponds roughly It should be noted that these formulas apply to steel and, in
with the optimum Brinell hardness range mentioned earlier. some cases, certain aluminum alloys. The formulas should not
The U.S. Air Force Machinability ReportTg establishes a be used for nonferrous alloys and are not sufficiently accurate
more consistent relationship between hardness and strength, on for use in structural design.
one hand, and machinability as measured by allowable cutting In addition to the hardness and strength of the work material,
speed, on the other hand. The general trend of their “Guide to two additional mechanical factors are strain-hardenability and
the Proper Cutting Speed” is illustrated in Fig. 1-64.79 coefficient of friction between tool and chip.
A useful approximate relationship between the Brinell Strain-hardenability. Strain-hardenability is the capacity of
hardness number, BHN, and ultimate tensile strength, UTS, the material for work hardening upon deformation. Because
exists for steel. In U.S. customary units: metalcutting is a deformation process, this property is important
in the machining of a material. As the strain hardening capacity
UTS = BHN X 500 (70)
of the material increases, poorer machinability manifests itself
In metric: in the form of shorter tool life due to increased hardness of the
chip, and poorer surface quality due to the formation of built-
UTS ❑ BHN X 0.355 (71]
up edges.
where: Coefficient of friction. Another of the important factors
UTS = ultimate tensile strengths (psi or kg/ mm2) influencing tool life, surface quality, and power consumption is
BHN = Brinell hardness number the coefficient of friction between the cutting tool and chip. This
1-57
CHAPTER 1
MACHINABILITY
is not a property of the work material alone, but rather a ature) dissolved in it. Cementite is the hard compound Fe~C. All
characteristic of the combination of tool and workpiece. It can things being equal, the proportion of Fe3 C increases as the
be defined as the ratio of the frictional force along the rake face carbon content increases. At very low carbon contents, the
of the tool to the force normal to the tool face. For example, as proportion of ferrite present in the steel is too high for good
the coefficient of friction is decreased, through changes in machinability. The consequences of the high ferrite content are
chemistry of either the workpiece material or the tool material, built-up edge due to welding of the chip on the tool, poor
machining performance is improved, surface finish, and excessive frictional heat. Ferrite is responsible
for these unwanted effects because of its toughness and ductility
Thermal Properties and its ability to adhere to the cutting edge of the tool.
Besides the mechanical properties of the workpiece material, At carbon contents above about 0.30%, too much of the hard
the thermal properties have been shown to influence the abrasive cementite exists and the result is accelerated tool wear.
machinability of metals. In a study of thermal properties and For these steels, the machinability is improved by spheroidizing
their effect on machinability, Ewe180’81found a significant the Iamellar pearlite.
correlation to exist. There appears to be a rather definite Between these two carbon levels, good machining is obtained
relationship between allowable cutting speed, which is used as with the pearlitic structure, owing to the combination of brittle
the measure of machinability, and a characteristic defined as the carbide plates separating the soft, deformable ferrite layers.
thermal dispersion. The thermal dispersion of a work material This pearlite fractures relatively easily, causing less ductile
is the ratio of its thermal conductivity to its density. Many of the deformation and therefore less generation of heat. Longer tool
titanium and superalloy, which have a low value of thermal life, better surface finish, and better chip removal are the
dispersion are very difficult to machine. On the other hand, desired results.
many of the aluminum and magnesium alloys, which can be
machined at high speeds, possess relatively high values of Chemical Composition
thermal dispersion. The chemistry of a metal has a pronounced influence on the
The attempt to establish a definite and quantitative relation- metal’s mechanical properties and microstructure; through this
ship between a material’s physical properties and its machin- influence, chemistry affects machinability. It is now well
ability is probably best illustrated by the work of Datsko and established that significant improvements in machinability can
Henkin.s2’83’84’85 be obtained through proper control of the chemistry and
microstructure of the workpiece materials.Bx Development of
Microstructure free-machining steels with additions of manganese sulfide and
The literature is replete with results of research testifying to lead incursions are typical examples.
the importance of microstructure in determining the machining Carbon. Carbon content greatly affects the properties of
qualities of a metal. In one of the most significant studies, Field steel, including machinability. High-carbon steels, unless
and Stansbury investigated the effect of structure on the spheroidized, are too strong and hard for good machinability.
machinability of cast iron.sG Other sources summarize the At very low carbon contents, the steels are generally of poor
results of studies conducted on steels.87 machining quality because of less than optimum hardness. The
For steels of low carbon content (below 0.30% carbon), the best carbon range, for the sake of machinability, depends on the
structure most desirable for good machinability is lamellar steelmaking process. The best carbon content for machinability
pearlite. This pearlite is a microstructure which contains two is about 0.20~0 for open-hearth steel. Cutting quality decreases
uhases. ferrite and cementite. in the form of ulates or laminates. rapidly with an increase of carbon to more than 0.30~0 in
‘errite is a soft, ductile phase consisting of iron with a very open-hearth steel.sg
mall amount of carbon (0.007Y0 maximum at room temper- Alloying elements. Many alloying elements are added to steel
for their beneficial effects on mechanical properties and
hardenability. Some of these, such as chromium, molybdenum,
(PSI) (MPa) vanadium, and tungsten, are carbide-formers and tend to
increase abrasion on the tool. Suitable annealing processes
1?’:+
‘ 500400 \ reduce the abrasive property of these steels to some extent.
200’00 I 200 Htgh-strength TI alloys
Manganese and nickel are ferrite strengtheners which usually
+ 900 Pure tltanlum reduce machinability by increasing hardness and toughness.
p 100,000 200
g 600 % 188 Stalnlcss steel The effect of manganese on machinability depends largely on
. + 75 ST6 Alwmnum
the total content of carbon, manganese, and phosphorus. In
; 50,000 I 00 “; free-machining steels, the most favorable manganese content is
p
300 : Magnes[um alloys
about 1.00-1 .30~o in open-hearth steel.go
25,000 50 17 Alummum Other elements which form hard, abrasive inclusions are
I 00 detrimental to the machining performance of steels. Aluminum
and silicon fall into this category.
0 50 I 00 200 400 800 1600(sfm) Free-machining elements. Certain elements are added to
I 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 25 50 100 20g~:o~$/mln)
steels specifically for the purpose of increasing the machinability
of the steels. The advantage of these additives is usually
Culmg speed attributed to a reduction in the coefficient of friction between
chip and tool face. This reduction has two beneficial effects.
Fig. 1-64 Approximate relationship between Brinell hardness and
First, energy requirements are reduced because a decrease in the
tensile strength vs. allowable cutting speed. ( t7rrited States Air Force coefficient of friction causes a decrease in cutting temperature
MachinabilityReport, vol. 3, 1954.) and cutting forces. Second, surface finish is improved through a
1-58
CHAPTER 1
MACHINING ECONOMICS
reduction in the tendency of a built-up edge to form and, as a of contact. In this sense, these additives may be referred to as
consequence, leave behind particles on the work surface and internal lubricants.9 i
make it rough. The mechanism by which these additives reduce The more important elements which have been used as free
the coefficient of friction is similar to the action of a cutting machining additives in steel are lead, sulphur, phosphorus,
fluid. Free-machining additives are thought to involve the nitrogen, selenium and tellurium. Of these, lead and sulphur are
formation of low-shear-strength contaminating films at points the principle additives.92’93>94>9sJ9c’97
MACHINING ECONOMICS
The following is a list of symbols and abbreviations used in A total analysis of a machining operation should include
formulas and discussions in this section: decisions regarding the following factors:
Symbol Definition 1. Processing operations—selection of the necessary
machining operations and sequence to generate the
c Constant in Taylor’s tool life equation [see Eq. (68) desired shape, size, finish, tolerance, etc. (see Chapter 2 in
in this chapter] t~is volume, “Tolerance Control”).
cd Cost of direct labor ($) 2. Machine tools—selection of the proper machine tool for
c, Cost of a cutting edge ($) performing the job, including such factors as power,
co Overhead cost per unit time ($/ hr) rigidity, and available speeds and feeds.
c. Cost per minute to regrind ($/rein) 3. Workpiece material—selection of work material based
C[ Initial cost of an insert ($) not only on design features, but also on the manufacturing
CT Total cost per part ($) characteristics of the material (i.e., machinability).
c TMA x Cost per part under maximum rate conditions ($)
4. Cutting tools—selection of the most appropriate cutting
c~M~~ Cost per part under minimum cost conditions ($)
tool material and geometry.
Workpiece diameter (in. or mm)
Feed (in. or mm) 5. Cutting fluids-determination of the correct cutting fluid
?
kc Cost of changing a worn tool ($) and method of application (see Chapter 4 of this volume,
k. Machining cost per part ($) “Cutting Fluids and Industrial Lubricants”).
k, Cost of raw material per part ($) 6. Machining variables—determination of the levels of
k, Overhead cost ($) cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut to be utilized.
k. Cost of preparing the work station for the actual 7. Other factors—items which should be considered include
machining process ($) jigs and fixtures, operator methods, material handling
k, Tool Cost ($) procedures, inspection, etc.
K General labor and overhead rate, cd + Q ($/ lw)
L Length of cut (in. or mm) Consideration of all these factors makes the design of optimal
n Exponent in Taylor’s tool life equation [see Eg. (68) processing systems difficult; however, portions of the total
in this chapter] design procedure have been optimized. For example, the
N, Number of cutting edges on an insert following discussion examines the costs involved in a machining
N. Number of possible regrinds operation. In addition, methods for selecting optimum cutting
t. Time to change and adjust a cutting tool (rein) speeds are presented, assuming that a rigid workpiece is
tg Time required for regrinding (rein) machined and that constraints such as machine capacity,
tm Machining time (rein) surface roughness, etc., are not significant factors.
‘m(min) Machining time under minimum cost
conditions (rein) DECISION CRITERIA
1, Time required for setup (rein) The first step in the analysis procedure is to decide on the
T Tool life (rein) most applicable decision criterion for the operation under
TMIN Tool life for minimum cost per part (rein) consideration. Two basic criteria are commonly used: (1)
TMAX Tool life for maximum production rate (rein) minimum cost per part and (2) maximum production rate or
TT Total time to machine one part (rein) minimum time per part. (Some more advanced economic
v~~ ,y Cutting speed for maximum production rate (fpm or models employ profit maximization as the decision criterion.
m/ rein) Beyond the scope of this presentation, profit maximization
vM[,lJ Cutting speed for minimum cost per part models are detailed in some of the papers and reports listed in
(fpm or m/min) the bibliography at the end of this chapter.)
The minimum cost criterion is aimed at producing a part at
The ultimate purpose of a machining operation is to produce the lowest cost; whereas, maximum production rate criterion
parts which meet all the required specifications (dimensional deals with maximizing the number of units produced during a
tolerances, surface characteristics, physical property require- given planning horizon. The choice of criterion to be used is a
ments, etc.) at the lowest possible cost or in the minimum management decision dependent on numerous factors such as
possible time. Due to the high cost of machining operations, competitive standing, orders waiting to be processed, contractual
careful analysis of the costs and operating conditions are agreements, number of pieces to be produced, and plant
necessary. capacity.
1-59
CHAPTER 1
MACHINING ECONOMICS
COST FACTORS For regrindable tools:

All machining operations involve at least six basic cost
components, described as follows: (80)
1. Material cost, lc—the cost of raw material per part.

2. Setup cost, ks—the cost of preparing the work station for where:
the actual machining process. If the cost of direct labor is
cd and the time required for setup is t., then the setup cost N~ = number of possible regrinds
C~ = cost per minute to regrind
may be expressed as:
t~ = time required for regrinding
k, = cJx , (72)
The total cost per part, CT, is the sum of these individual cost
components:
3. Machining cost, km—the cost of actual machining time. If
r~ is the machining time required, then the machining
cost per part is: cT=kr+cdfs+cd’m+c’@)
‘c’(+)+
co t.+tm+t,.~
(81)
(73) ( T )
km = cdt~
CUTTING SPEED FOR MINIMUM COST

4. Toolchanging cost, kc—the cost of changing a worn tool.
To determine the cutting speed that will result in minimum
If t, represents the time necessary to change and adjust a
cost per part, the total cost equation is expressed in terms of
cutting tool, then the toolchanging cost per part is given
cutting speed and then differentiated with respect to cutting
by:
speed, set equal to zero, and solved.
k, = tCCd
() ~
(74)
The cutting speed for minimum cost per part, VM1,V,is
independent of the setup and material costs and is computed
from:
where:
T= tool life
tm ❑ machining time (82)
t
A= number of cutting edges needed per workpiece ‘“’’’= c[(K1+)lnln
T
where:
5. Overhead cost, ko—indirect cost of producing a part,
including factors such as depreciation and general C ❑ constant in a tool life equation of the form VT’ ❑ C
administrative expenses. The overhead cost per part is n ❑ exponent in tool life equation
the production time per part multiplied by the overhead K ❑ general labor and overhead rate, cd + co
cost per unit time, co:
The tool life for minimum cost per part, T.wN, is found from:
ko ❑ CO TT (75)
where: (83)
Tr ❑ total time needed to machine one part. The total
time per part consists of the setup time, t,; the
machining time, f~; and the toolchanging time, t,, The total cost per part under minimum cost conditions
or: becomes:
TT=t,+tm+t+ (76)
Thus, the overhead

()
cost per part becomes:
CT”]’=K’S+K’”+K’
4*)+C’(*) ’84)
The value of t~(~,.),
the machining time under minimum cost
~=c, t,+fm+ t.”+ (77) conditions, depends upon the type of machining operation
( )
being performed. For example, for a turning operation:
6. Tool cost, k,—the tool cost per part. If c, represents the
cost of a cutting edge, then the tool cost per part is given ~dL
‘m~m’”) ]2v,M,,vf (85)
by: ❑
(78) where:
d ❑ diameter of workpiece
For disposable inserts:
L ❑ length of cut (in. or mm)
f ❑ feed (in./min or mm/min)
(79)
where: In general, r~ is given by:
C1 ❑ initial cost of the insert t. . Length of Cut

(86)
N, ❑ number of cutting edges available on the insert Feed Rate
1-60
CHA PTER 1
MACHINING ECONOMICS
MAXIMUM PRODUCTION RATE TABLE 1-15

In certain situations, minimizing production time or maxi- Application of Economic Models:
mizing production rate may be preferred to cost minimization. Labor Rate Data-Example
As mentioned earlier, the total production time per part, TT, is
given by: Item $lHr
Machine operators rate 6.75
(87)
Machine department overhead 17.00
Tool grinders rate 7.25
Expressing the time components in terms of cutting speed Grinding de~artment overhead 15.00
and solving for the speed that yields minimum cutting time
(maximum rate, independent of the setup timing) result in:
rool Life Equations
[“(:
i“JfAx = HSS (U.S. customary units):
-1 n (88)
)1
ln(Vl) +nln(Tl)= ln(V, ) +nln(T, )
and: ln(136) + nln(30) = ln(l 11)+ rrln(90)
c’
~= ln(136)-ln(lll)
TMAX -
()VMAX T (89)
~=o.]jJ3
ln(90) - ln(30)
where:
Since V~ = C, then 136(30)188 ❑ 258
V,wAx ❑ cutting speed for maximum production rate
TMAX ❑ tool life for maximum production rate Tool life equation: VT188 ❑ 258
HSS (metric units):
APPLYING ECONOMIC MODELS
ln(Vl) +rrln(Tl)= ln(VZ) +nln(Tj)
To illustrate the economic models described in the previous
sections, consider the following hypothetical example. ln(41.4) + nln(30) ❑ ln(33.8) + rrln(90)
Machinability tests for a turning operation were conducted
* ❑ hr(41 .4) - ln(33.8)
using a depth of cut of 0.20” (5.0 mm) and a feed of 0.006 ipr
ht(90) - ln(30)
(O.15 mm/rev). The data in Table 1-13 resulted.
The length of cut on the part to be machined is 13” (330 mm), ~=o.188
and the diameter of the part is 7“ ( 178 mm). The setup time per
Since V~ = C, then 41.4(30)188 = 78.46
part, including load / unload and tool advance time, is 10 min.
Costs and pertinent work times are given in Tables 1-14 and Tool life equation: VT”* ❑ 78.46
1-15.
CARBIDE (U.S. customary units):
It is desired to find the minimum cost and maximum
production rate cutting speeds and the cost per part for each ln(199) + rrln(30) ❑ ln(148) + nln(90)
condition,
~= ln(199) - ln(148)
ln(90) - ln(30)
TABLE 1-13
Application of Economic Models: ~ = 0,27
Results of Machinability Tests—Example 199(30)27 ❑ 500
Cutting Speed Tool life equation: VT2’ ❑ 500

Tool Life
Tool Tv~e fDm m/ min (rein) CARBIDE (metric units):
HSS 136 41.4 30 ln(60.6) + rrln(30) = nht(45. 1)+ ~]n(90)
111 33.8 90
~ = ln(60.6) - ht(45. 1)
Carbide insert 199 60.6 30 ln(90) - ln(30)
148 45.1 90 n = 0.27
60.6( 30)’7 ❑ 151.81
TABLE 1-14
Application of Economic Models: Tool life equation: VT’27 ❑ 151.81
Time and Cost Data-Example
General Labor and Overhead Cost-Machining
Item HSS Carbide
K. —
Q + (J
❑ 675’17 ❑ $.396/rein
Original tool cost $4.50 $8.85 60 60
Regrinding time 12 min ---
Toolchanging time 4 min 3 min General Labor and Overhead Cost-Grinding
Number of edges 1 4/ insert 7,25+ 15
--- c, . = $.371 /rein
Possible regrinds 15 60
1-61
CHAPTER 1
MACHINING ECONOMICS
Tool Cost C~~,~ = $20.50/part

HSS:
C, +IVr(C&)
c1 = N~+l 500 h
T~,~ = = 23 rein/edge
~, ❑ 4.50 + 15(.371)(12) ❑ ~4,46, edge ()m
16
CARBIDE: ()( )
❑ 18.5 rein/ part
‘m= 12; ;4)(%06)
C,. ~ = ~ = $2.21/edge CARBIDE (metric units):
N. 4
Cutting Speed for Minimum Cost Per Part
151.81 +
HSS (U.S. customary units): T~,~ ❑ ❑ 23 rein/edge
() 65.22
VM,N = c
rT(177.8)(330.2)
‘m = 1000(65.22)(0. 152) = 18”5 ‘in/ ‘art
L*I n
Cr~,~ ❑ .396( 10) + .396( 18.5)+ .396(3)
(%)+22’ (%)
C~~I,v = $14.03/ part
‘“’N= 258L396(4)+4:(.*-1 )1”’88
v ~,~= l17fpm Cutting Speed for Maximum Production Rate
HSS (U.S. customary units):
HSS (metric units):
5
‘“’N’78”46[(396(4)+ ~~~)(.k-,)1 “’88 ‘MAX’ [c (+:’)1 “ ❑ [4(.::’) 1”’88

V~,~ ❑ 35.65 m/ min V,W~x= 151 fpm
CARBIDE (U.S. customary units): HSS (metric units):
‘“’N=5wi396(3)+f~~)(.+
v ~,~ = 214 fpm
-01 “27
V~~x = 46 m~min
CARBIDE (metric units):
27
“’”x= F(*5~0127
V~,~ ❑ 65,22 m/ min
V~~x z 284 fpm
Cost Per Part—Minimum Cost Conditions
HSS (U.S. customary units):
CARBIDE (metric units):
CTM’N=K*S+K’”+K’C(*”)
+C’(*.)
‘MAX= F($”!] ‘7
‘M’”’ (a+=(+3A‘66min’edge V~~x ❑ 86 m/min
Cost Per Part-Maximum Rate Conditions

rrdL rr(7)(13)
tm ❑
E 34 rein/ part HSS (U.S. Customary units):
12 vM,Nf = 12( 11 7)(.006)
HSS (metric units): CTVAX ❑ Kt, + Kttn + Kt,

1 (*) ‘c’ (k)
T
T ~[”. —c = 7’.46 ‘= 66 mini edge
tm =
v Ml”
rrdL
1000 VM,N’ ‘
35.65
T( 177.8)(330.2)
1000(35.65)(0. 152) =34 ‘in’ ‘art
“’’AX= (d =(%+)+
T~~x = 17.2 rein/edge
~dL 7T(7)(13)
CT~,~ ❑ .396( 10)+ .396(34)+ .396(4) ‘m = 12V~~,.J = 12(151)(.006) = 26”3 ‘in/part
(%)+4%$)
1-62
CHAPTER 1
REFERENCES
HSS (metric units): /ndustry, Transactions of ASME, Series B (1973), p. 960.

1 7. N. Cook and E, Rabinowicz, Physics/ Measurement and
im Ana/ysis, (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.,
78.46
T MAX= — 1963).
() 46 8. M. F. DeVries, S. M. Wu, and J. W. Mitchell, “Measurement of
Drill Temperature by the Garter-Spring Thermocouple
Method, ” Microtecnic, no. 6/67(1 967),
T~~x = 17.2 rein/edge 9. Cook and Rabinowicz, op. cit.
10. 0. W. Boston, Mets/ Processing (New York: John Wiley &
rr(177.8)(330.2) ❑ 26,3 rein, part
Sons Inc.r 1 941).
‘m ❑ 1000(46)(0. 152) 11. M. C. Shaw and C. J. Oxford, Jr., “On the Drilling of Metals,
The Torque and Thrust in Drill ing,” Transactions of ASM,E,
vol. 79 (1 957), p. 139.
C~~~x = .396( 10) + .396(26.3)+ .396(4) 12. M. E. Merchant, “Comparative Cutting Tests of a Diamond
Tool and High Speed Tool, ” /rid. Diamond Rev, , vol. 4 (June
(%)+4%) 1 944).
13. O. W. Boston, “Metal Cutting Forces and Power Require-
ments for Machine Tools, ” Automotive and Aviation /rrdus-
C~~~x = $23.57/ part tries, vol. 86 (May 1942).
14. M. Kronenberg, Grundzuga der Zerspanungs/ehre, Vol. 1,2nd
CARBIDE (U.S. customary units): ed. (Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Gottingen- Heidelberg, 1954). A
book dealing with the analysis of metalcutting investigations
in Germany, the United States, and England and derivations
500 ‘+ of formulas, tabulations, etc., in metric dimensions.
T ❑ 8.1 rein/edge 15. Ibid.
‘Ax= ()m
16. N. H. Cook, J. F. Pearson, and W. D. Syniuta, Cutting Force
*m= *1 = 14 rein/ part Measurement in Production Machining via Instrumented
Too/ho/ders, Phase I Final Report, National Science Founda-
tion, May 1980.
17 “Surface Texture, ” American National Standards Institute
CARBIDE (metric units): (ANSI) Standard B46.1 -1978, published by the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers.
18, Franz Jaklitsch, “Influence of Cutting Efficiency on Surface
T~~x=
()
151.81 *
~ ❑ 8.1 rein/edge 19
Finish,” Cutting Too/Engineering
General
Efficiency
Electric Carboloy
Mets/ Cutting,
(May 1969), p. 16.
Turning
General
Handbook of High-
Electric Carboloy, 1980,
rr(177.8)(330.2) ❑ 14 rein, part pp. 61 & 62.
20 Ibid.
‘“’ = 1000(86)(0. 152) 21 M. Field, J. F. Kahies, and J, T. Cammett, “A Review of
Measuring Methods for Surface Integrity,” Anna/s of the
C/RP, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 219-238.
C~~.x= .396(10)+ .396(14)+ .396(3) (8) 2.21 (%) 22 G. Bellows and W. P. Koster, Surface /rrtegrity Update ’72,
General Electric Co. Report TM72-384, Cincinnati.
Cr~~x= $15.35/part 23 M, Field, W. P. Koster, and J. B, Kohls, Machinino of Hiah
Strength Steels with Emphasis on Surface Irrtegrit y: AFM~C
70-1, Air Force Machinability Data Center, Cincinnati, 1970.
ADVANCE~ ECONOMIC MOPELS 24 M. Field, “Surface Integrity in Conventional and Nonconven-
The previous sections dealt with a simple machining economic tional Machining, ” Presented at Pennsylvania State Uni-
model. Considerable research has been performed over the last versity Seminar, “Advancement in Machine Tools and
Production Trends, ” by Metcut Research Associates Inc.,
few years to extend these models into areas such as optimization Cincinnati, 1969,
with constraints on machining variables, multipass operations, Field, Koster, and Kohls, op. cit.
and multistage situations. The list of references in the biblio- W, P. Koster, et al., Surface Integrity of Machined Structural
graphy of this chapter is provided as a guide to the more Components, U.S. Air Force Technical Report AFML-TR-70-
11, Metcut Research Associates Inc., Cincinnati, 1970.
advanced economic models. 27 G. Bellows, Low Stress Grinding: For Qua/it y Production,
MDC 78-103, Machinability Data Center, Metcut Research
Associates, Cincinnati, 1978.
28 Machinability Data Center, Machining Data Handbook, 3rd
ed. (Cincinnati: Metcut Research Associates Inc., 1980).
29 Field, Kahles, and Cammett, op. cit.
30 W. P. Koster and J. B. Kohls, Relation of Surface Integrity to
Cost andReliabi/ity of Structura/Components, SME Technical
Paper IQ72-207, 1972.
References 31. Koster, op. cit.
32. Koster, op. cit.
1. M. E. Merchant, ‘“Basic Mechanics of the Metal Cutting 33. Field, Kahll,s, and Cammett, op. cit.
Process, ” Journa/ of App/ied Mechanics, vol. 11 (1944). 34. Field, Koster, and Kohls, op. cit.
2. Ibid. 35. M. Field, J. F, Kahles, and W. P. Koster, “The Surface Effects
3. M. E. Merchant and N. Zlatin, “New Methods of Analysis of Produced in Nonconventional Metal Removal—Comparison
Machining Processes, ” Experimental Stress Analvsis, vol. 3, with Conventional Machining Techniques, ” Mets/s Engi-
no. 2 (1 94-6). neering Quarter/y, vol. 6, no. 3 (1 966), pp. 32-45.
4. J. A. Kirk, “Matrix Representation and Prediction of Three 36. Field, Koster, and Kohls, op. cit.
Dimensional Cutting Forces,” Journa/ of Engineering for 37. Machining Data Center, op. cit.
Industry, Transactions of ASME (Nov. 1977), p. 828. 38. Machining Data Center, op. cit.
5. Ibid. 39. G. Bellows and R. M. Niem, Surface Integrity of Machined
6. A. B. Husein, M. F. DeVries, and S, M. Wu, “Analysisof Force /rrcone/ 718 A//oy, SME Technical Paper IQ71 -239, 1971.
Components in Bar Turning,” Journa/ of Engineering for 40. Machining Data Center, op. cit.
1-63
CHAPTER 1
REFERENCES
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Bethlehem, PA. Machinability of Cast Irons, ” Transactions of ASME, Vol. 69,
52. Ibid. No. 6 (August 1947), pp. 665-682.
53. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Manua/ on 87. Datsko, Matarial Properties and Manufacturing Processes,
Cutting of Mets/s (New York, 1939), (2nd cd., 1952), pp. Ioc. cit.
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as a Measure of tha Machinability of Steels, American ----, ,-.n. 31
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Society of Tool and Manufacturing Engineers (SME)Technical 89. American Society for Metals, op. cit. p. 369.
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1968), pp. 89-90. Influence of Lead on Metal Cutting Forces and Temper-
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58, J. D. Armour, “Metallurgy and Machinability of Steels, ” 94. Murphy, /oc, cit.
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63. Chisholm, Mills, and Redford, op. cit., p. 24,
64. B. T. Chao and K. J. Trigger, “Temperature Distribution at the
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65. F. W. Taylor, “’On the Art of Cutting Metals, ” Transactions of
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1-66
CHAPTER 2
TOLERANCE CONTROL
Today, more than ever before in the history of tolerances within the framework of manufacturing CHAPTER
the industrial world, there is a growing need for a process concepts. CONTENTS:
systematic approach to tolerance control in The manufacturing process concepts mentioned
machined parts manufacturing. This need is based previously are not, however, unalterable–-they are Tolerence
on the self-evident importance of “doing it right the subject to change if it can be demonstrated that vs. cost 2-1
first time’’—which implies that structured, method- they are responsible for the creation of tolerancing Tolerance
ical, analytic techniques are to be properly used at problems. Therefore, if a structured, systematic Specs. 2-1
the right point in time to locate, define, and resolve approach has the capability of maximizing tol-
Stackup
tolerance problems. erances based on an initial set of manufacturing Control 2-2
It is no longer practical or economically feasible process concepts, the technique should also permit
to use hit-or-miss tolerance calculations, to pluck the critiquing of those concepts, and thus indicate Chart
Development 2-5
tolerances from the air because accurate machines the nature of the changes that must be made in
are available, or to wait for tool tryout on new those concept decisions to produce an economi- Angular Cuts 2-22
processes to reveal the presence of a tolerance cally viable process/ tooling package for use in
Radii
control problem. By that time the situation is cast production. Breakouts 2-45
in concrete, the tooling and gaging have been built,
and the best of frantic corrective actions will TOLERANCE SPECIFICATIONS Heat
Treatmant 2-49
seldom yield an ideal, cost-effective solution to the Until this point the term rolerance has been used in
tolerance problem. These “debugging” actions for an all-inclusive sense. However, tolerances can be Plating 2-52
tolerance control problems are characterized by defined as being concerned either with physical
Gaometric
maximized start-up times, demands that product sizes of features on a part or with the geometric Tolerances 2-52
design open up tolerances to suit the process characteristics of those features. Complete cover-
deficiencies and thus legitimize them, and an age of standard practices for dimensioning of sizes Do’s and
Don’ts 2-58
increase in manufacturing costs over those that and geometric characteristics is given in the ANSI
could have been possible if proper tolerance control Standard Y14.5-1973,1
techniques had been used at the “paper stage” of This standard applies to the dimensioning and
planning. tolerancing of machined part drawings and is
The economy of any industrialized nation simply universally accepted by American industry and by
cannot afford to squander vast sums of money the U.S. Department of Defense. Agreement
represented by the scrap, rework, and debugging between this standard and the British Standard BS
time generated by uncontrolled tolerances, Compe- 308, the Canadian Standard CSA B78.2, and the
tition, both internal and external to the country, International Standard ISO-R 1101 is very close or
puts a premium on quality of design and quality of equal in most respects. Evolved over the years,
manufacturing, and this quality in large part is these standards make it possible to unambiguously
based on control of tolerances, define the design intent in a standardized, uniform
Hand-in-hand with this need to systematically manner and thereby communicate precise under-
control tolerances walks the need to control manu- standings related to workpiece drawings.
facturing costs—and one way to minimize pro- Many companies find it desirable, however, to
duction costs is to ensure that no tolerance is held develop and assign their own in-house specification
tighter than required by the product-design drawing numbers to this same body of methodology.
or by the nature of the manufacturing process Comparison of most in-house specifications on
concepts covering sequencing, choice of location dimensioning and tolerancing with specifications
surfaces, dimensioning schemes on the cuts, in the ANSI Standard Y14.5 will show almost
workholding principles, etc. complete correspondence except in those special
situations unique to the company’s product line.
TOLERANCE VS. COST In this chapter the ANSI Standard Y 14.5 is used
Figure 2-1 illustrates typical size holding for definitions and symbols to identify geometric
tolerances for various material-removal production characteristics, Figure 2-3 is based on the ANSI
processes. The relationship between tightness of Standard Y14.5 presentation of geometric symbols.2
tolerance and manufacturing cost is shown in Fig. Most, but not all, of the 14 geometric character-
2-2. The cost of production increases geometrically istics shown in Fig. 2-3 are controlled by correct
for uniform incremental tightening of tolerances. operation sequencing, by correct application of
If the truth of this relationship is accepted—and it workholding principles, by properly designed
has been found to be correct in numerous writings tooling and gaging compatible with the end result
by different specialists in a number of countries— accuracies to be controlled, and by the machine
then a systematic approach to tolerancing will have tool accuracies themselves. Four of the 14
as one of its main thrusts the maximizing of production characteristics: profile of a surface, position,
This chapter is contributed by Oliver Wade, President, Tolerance Chart Services Co. , Inc.
The reviewer of this chapter is Stu White, Curriculum Development Analyst, Caterpillar Tractor Co.
2-1
CHAPTER 2
+ Tolerance, .00 I in.

PROCESS
100 50 20 10 5 21 0.5 0.2 0. I ( )5
TRADITIONAL
Flome cutilng
Hand grinding
Disk grlndlng or fllkng
Turning, shaping, or m(llng
Drilling
Boring
Reaming or broaching
Grinding
Honing, Iapplng, bufkg, or pokhlng
NONTRADITIONAL
Plasma beam mach[ntng

Electrical d(scharge mach(nlng
Chem(cal machtnmg
Electrochem,col machlnlng
laser beam or electron beam machning
Electrochemical grlndlng
Electropol(sh(ng
= less frequent appllcaticm

2.0 0.5 0.2 0.05 0.02 0.005 0.002
- Average appkcatlon
& Tolerance, mm
Fig. 2-1 Typical tolerances for material removal production processes. (Reprinted by permission of the MachirrabilityDuta Center’, Metcutl?esearch
Associates Inc.)
concentricity, and symmetry are handled within tolerance

control of sizes. How this is done is covered in detail later in this 0.030
chapter in the material on tolerance charting. (O 76)
CONTROL OF SIZE TOLERANCES 0.025

(0.63)
AND TOLERANCE STACKUPS
Given a drawing of a component and the raw material and
0.020
told to make one piece, a toolmaker will machine the part and
(0.51)
upon inspection will find that it conforms very closely to the -F-
&_
mean dimensions on the drawing. This is a result of machining g“ 0.015
from one feature to another, zeroing out each completed ~.
al (0.38)
feature, and using that zeroed out condition as the datum to :
0
machine the next feature. Tolerance stackups are bypassed. ~
~ 0.010
In production planning for quantity runs, however, the part (0.25)
cannot always be machined dimensionally as shown on the
drawing, so datum surfaces must be set up by the production 0.005
engineer based on a selection of locating surfaces for fixturing (0. 13)
and on cutting tool design layout decisions. As a result, the
problem of tolerance stackups is encountered. 0.000
The principle of tolerance stackups—or buildup of tolerances 123 5 11 17
or accumulation of tolerances—is illustrated in Fig. 2-4.
Simply, addition or subtraction of length dimensions is always
characterized by the adding of tolerances on the individual Relatlve costs
lengths. This principle applies with equal force whenever

lengths are added or subtracted. Fig. 2-2 Relationship between tolerances and production costs,
THE TOLERANCE CHART the tolerances assigned to the machining cuts. When tolerance
Whether a part is made completely to print in one operation stackup problems must be handled, the easiest, quickest, and
or routed over a series of machines, some of which maybe NC, most foolproof way is by use of the tolerance chart,
the process engineer must be capable of recognizing that a Whether the tolerance chart is built manually or by a
tolerance stackup situation has been created which will affect computer program, it is only built after all the initial engineering
2-2
CHAPTER 2
(a) Y14.5 GEOMETRIC TOLERANCES-CONTROL OF AND USE IN TOLERANCE CHARTING
COMMENTS
Fig. 2-3 (a) Definitions and symbols to identify geometric characteristics, and (b) conversion of geometric characteristic tolerances to mean size *
tolerance for use in tolerance charting.z
2-3
CHAPTER 2
c:~;;~;;;ix
3. Every tolerance assigned is equal to and preferably larger
than the estimated process capability for the cut in
question. Since the relationship between the working
~ tolerance and the process capability has a direct bearing
L1
on the frequency of tool changes or adjustments, many
A+ TI+B*T2 companies have in-house rules that call for the working
Tolerances ore tolerance to be 1.5-2.0 times the process capability value.
always added
During the course of building the tolerance chart, it may
become obvious that one or more of the initial process/tooling
decisions results in assigning an impossibly tight tolerance to an
Computing piece pari length Y in-process dimension. When this happens, it is necessary to
change these decisions to satisfy the criteria for economic
Y=(D-C)*(T3+T4) production.
Means Tolerances
+ Since all these decisions are still in the paper stage, that is, no
C*T3 Y
tooling has yet been designed, no great time or dollar loss will
+
Tolerances are
occur if a process change is required. However, failure to
always added respond to the clear signals from the tolerance chart will result
D*T4
L in the problems on paper being transferred into iron on the shop
floor.
The widespread and growing use of NC machining, when it
Computing assembly clearance Z can be applied, has reduced the extent of the tolerance stackup
control problem by allowing cuts to be machined as shown on
Z=(E+F- G)*(T5+T6+T7)
the blueprint dimensioning schemes, by eliminating manual
Means Tolerances
control of machine decisions affecting the cuts, and by reducing
the number of location surface changes and the attendant
Tolerances are
fixturing required by non-NC machining. In general, it has also
always added improved size control and control of geometric characteristics
of part features. However, not all tolerance stackups are
,- -1 “ WI. . —.-... -. ..C .-, ------ . . . . .. .. . .
eliminated by using NC machines.
Numerical Control machines are often combined with
conventional machines to forma grouping of machines to make
decisions have been made concerning the process. These
a part. If the volume justifies it, special-purpose transfer lines
decisions include:
are buih which incorporate all milling, drilling, boring,
1. The sequence of operations to be performed. broaching, etc., so that the transfer line is equivalent to a
20 The machine selection for each operation, based on its selection from a large inventory of machine tools. Designing
capacities and known accuracies. (Note: If a transfer line such a transfer line without basing the design on a tolerance
is to be designed, the same considerations apply except chart is far more risky than processing a part on the basis of
that the stations of the line will be custom designed to stand-alone machines selected from a large inventory since each
accuracy levels based on the tolerances developed by station is custom built for that part alone. Imagine the excess
construction of the tolerance chart.) cost if, when the last stations of the machine are built and tested,
3. The dimensioning patterns for the cuts to be made in each it is found that failure to meet blueprint specifications is due to a
operation. (These patterns do not always correspond to tolerance stackup problem that traces back to the early stations.
the blueprint.) During testing is no time to find out that the sequence of
4. The selection of the locating surface to be used in each stations is wrong or that the selection of locating surfaces is
operation. (These datum surfaces do not always conform responsible for the tolerance stackup problem, etc.
to those shown on the blueprint.)
5. The kind and type of tooling to be used in each operation CURRENT TRENDS
to control geometric characteristics such as squareness, Process planning for machining is undergoing major changes
parallelism, concentricity, symmetry, etc. as computer programs are being developed to do the complete
processing job on either the basis of a family design of parts or
Once these decisions have been made, and possibly subjected
the basis of a true generative approach.
to critiquing by tool engineers, the master mechanic, etc., a
These programs, to be complete, should include subroutines
tolerance chart can be constructed to generate the dimensions
that will handle the tolerance charting function for development
and tolerances required by each process cut. Properly con-
of required mean sizes and tolerances for machining cuts, and
structed, the tolerance chart will verify that the following
that will also analyze the process and tooling capabilities
criteria for economical production have been satisfied:
relative to control of squareness, parallelism, roundness, etc.
1. Within the framework of the process/tooling decisions, If predictions are correct, it will come about in time—near,
as much as possible of the blueprint maximum tolerance not far, that the design engineer’s job will fuse with the
has been allocated among the in-process cuts, which production engineer’s job. A common data base will be in
results in the maximum possible tolerance being assigned computer memory, along with design and production
to each cut in the process. methodologies, From this amalgam will flow not only the
2. The minimum and maximum stock removals on product design but all production engineering outputs of
secondary cuts are practical and acceptable to the shop. operation sheets, tool designs, tolerance charts, NC tapes, etc.
2-4
CHAPTER 2
TOLERANCE CHART DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT OF A TOLERANCE CHART

A tolerance chart is a graphic tool used to ensure the orderly suit the Fig. 2-5, a, blueprint and its matching strip layout, Fig.
and accurate development of mean sizes and working tolerances 2-5, b. The Fig. 2-6 tolerance chart is used hereto describe the
required by a new manufacturing process or to analyze a set of various elements of a tolerance chart and the design and
existing mean dimensions and their tolerances to determine if a function of the elements. When appropriate, it also provides
part can be made to print. detailed information on handling these elements.
The latter task is by far the easier of the two applications and The tolerance chart represented in Fig. 2-6 consists of a
is not discussed further in this section since the technique for workpiece sketch at the top, plane lines drawn to the bottom of
building a tolerance chart for a new process also permits one to the chart, a series of column headings with recorded entries, and
analyze existing processes. a heavy black Iine near the bottom of the chart separating the
The tolerance chart assumes the character of an accountant’s column entries into two areas. Above the black line and zig-
worksheet except that tolerances are manipulated rather than zagging back and forth are a number of heavy black lines. The
dollars. Just as the entries in the accountant’s worksheets are lines with an arrow at one end and a dot at the other represent
entered in strict conformance to rules and procedures to arrive machining cuts; those with a dot at each end represent balance
at an ironclad picture of the results and the manner in which dimensions. The purpose of balance dimensions is explained
they were obtained, every numerical entry in the tolerance chart later.
is also based on rules and procedures. In this section, procedures These numbered, arrow-dot, machining cut lines are trans-
for tolerance chart construction are described, defined, and ferred from Fig. 2-5, b, to the Fig. 2-6 chart. In addition, the
demonstrated. operation numbers and the machine to be used are recorded on
The purpose of this section is to provide a working knowledge the chart.
of the construction and analysis of tolerance charts. When
material related to the development of the tolerance charting Blueprint Dimensions
technique is discussed, U.S. customary units are employed Below the heavy black line, under the heading Blueprint, the
without parenthetical metric notation to simplify the pre- length dimensions from Fig. 2-5, a, are listed. (They are not in
sentation and conserve space. the same order as shown in Fig. 2-5, a, because order makes no
difference. In contrast, the machining cut lines from Fig. 2-5, b,
WORKPIECE SKETCH AND STRIP LAYOUT must be drawn and numbered on the chart in chronological
To facilitate the explanation of tolerance chart construction, order by operation number and within the proper operation in
a sample workpiece, Fig. 2-5, a, is used and a strip layout Fig. accordance with certain restrictions to be described later.) A
2-5, b, is set up to illustrate how an engineer might organize his double-dot heavy black line is drawn between the planes for
ideas for machining part. each blueprint dimension.
‘Both Fig. 2-5, a, and Fig. 2-5, b, Iayouts are simplified to
highlight those dimensional and tolerance aspects that are
involved with the tolerance chart. For example, Fig. 2-5, a,
Resultant Dimensions
To the right side of the tolerance chart, under the heavy black
blueprint shows four length dimensions measured along the
Iine, the heading Resultants is printed. Recorded under this
X-Xaxisof the part. While there isa Y-Yaxis understood at
heading are the same mean blueprint values as shown at the left
right angles to the X-X axis, the Y-Y axis is of no concern in this
under Blueprint, but the resultant tolerances are either equal to
analysis. This discussion involves analysis of the stackup of
or less than the blueprint tolerances. It should be noted that
tolerances among the shoulders along the X-X axis.
none of these tolerances exceed the blueprint tolerances. This is
The Fig. 2-5, b, strip layout provides the following vital
not accidental, as will be shown, but an inevitable result of the
information required before a tolerance chart can be produced:
process engineering/ tooling decisions displayed in the Fig. 2-5,
1. Sequence of operations to be performed-chronologically b, strip layout. More information is presented on this later.
by operation number.
2. The surfaces machined in each operation, as shown by Process Sketch
the heavy black lines. The following points concern the process sketch at the top of
3. The location surfaces chosen for purposes of fixture a tolerance chart (see Fig. 2-7):
design or gaging.
1. When possible, the process sketch should be setup so that
4. The dimensioning scheme employed for each cut in each
its attitude matches that of the blueprint machining con-
operation.
figuration. (This presumes that the strip layout sketches
5. The machine chosen for each operation.
were also set up that way—although this is not
With respect to the strip layout (Fig. 2-5, b), it has been mandatory.)
deliberately designed to violate sound machining practices and 2. The sketch does not have to be to scale, but it should have
sound tolerance charting principles to reveal as many problems the same general configuration as the blueprint. As a
as possible. Many of the deficiencies in the sample strip layout matter of fact, there will be many occasions when the
are highlighted by the nature of the tolerance charting technique sketch will be exaggerated to more clearly depict features
and are commented on in terms of possible corrective actions. that would be jammed together if drawn to scale. As a
rule, the part sketch should resemble the blueprint
ELEMENTS OF A TOLERANCE CHART enough to avoid confusion as to its identification with the
The tolerance chart represented in Fig. 2-6 is constructed to print,
2-5
CHAPTER 2
3. The part sketch should be laid out on the basis of mean different features are close together, faulty plane
blueprint length dimensions, even if the blueprint dimen- relationships (reversed left-to-right or vice-versa) can
sions are not displayed in the equal bilateral tolerance lead to faulty numerical relationships in the tolerance
system. The result of laying the sketch out on the basis of chart.
mean dimensions is that ailplanes will be in the correct 4. If two features are in line with one another on the basis of
left-to-right relationship to one another. If not done this mean dimensions, one should be offset from the other,
way, for certain conditions of design in which planes of leaving 3/ 16“ to 1/4“ between the features.
(a) BLUEPRINTOF STEELPLUG

Y
I.900&.001@
— —G 1,600
+ ,001@
— –G— 1.300
t .ool@J
— –G 1.000
+ .001@
x—
f+
6
A I.000* .020
[ 4 2000* .009
3000+ .002
‘x G 4000* .005
(b) STRIPLAYOUT ~R OPERATIONSTO MAKE STEELPLUG

OP. 1O—FACE-CNT.-TURN-CUT OFF w&.5 OP. 40—GRIND DIAMETER & SHOULDER NORTON
‘m’ p
J
2 15
3
6
w
OP. 20-FACE-CNT.-TURN MONARCH OP. 50—GRIND DIAMETER & SHOULDER NORTON
P q=y
18
8
M
OP. 30-GRIND DIAMETER & SHOULDER NORTON OP. 60—GRIND END FACE BLANCHARD
12 20
l---d m
---- ,. -.. .. .
E lg. Z-5 (~) lWepn?st dimensions and tolerances for sample part—steel plug. (b) Workpiece strip layout-operations to machine steel plug.
2-6
CHAPTER 2
NE OPER. REV. MACHINE MACHINE TO BALANCE DIM. LINES STOCK REMOVAL

w. NO. NO, USEO MEAN : TOL.
t\ Ei (: i)
? MEAN t TOL. INVCWEO WAN ? TOL,
I io WIs 979 .003 I SOL) D
2 10 )q94 003 2 j SOL\ D
3 10 3.003 .003 3 SOLI D
4 4- I.ooq 006 3-2
5 5 Z.024 .006 3- J
6 10 4.031 .010 6 Soi. D
7 7 lti28 .013 6-3
e Lo tIONAICU 1.008 .004 8 7-8 .020 .ol~
@
9 9 7..017 010 4+8
r
10 10 3.032 .010 s+e
II II 4.911 007 3+6
12 343 NOLTbU 1000 .00) — @; 12 8-12 008 .005
13 13 I “o 17 011 9-12
14 14 2.032 0]1 10-12
15 40 NO?,TQN 1000 003 *: Is 13-1s .O1-1 .014
16 16 2000 .004 )2+ Is
17 [ I-1 L— I ,032 .o\4 l+- IS
la 50 NoIll u 1.000 .015- FI )8 17- M 032 .02’+
*
19 19 ._ 3000 019 16+119
?0 60 Uiwum 4000 .oo1- * : 20 7 u-m .011 .008
?1 21 w 3000 .002 26-12
!2 22 ta)x) .00s ~
?3 —. 23 .,y )000 .0?.0 20:1!
!4
:5 .-
!6
!7
?8 -.
?9 -—
bo
)1 }k
!2 RESU LTANTS
!3 4,000 .001 20
)4 1000 .020 I .000 .020 23
15 2.000 .Ooq _ 22 lx Zoos .00s 22
16 3 ._ooo .002 . . .–. 21 u-.–.. _ .3’O>Q. .“OOA . al
37
Fig. 2-6 Sample tolerance chart developed from blueprint dimerrskwrs undtolerances given in Fig. 2-5, a, and production sequence given in strip layout
Fig. 2-5, b.
2-7
CHAPTER 2
~.250 ~ C’Bore .500 * .010 Deep
~ FORGING DRAWING
1
1
+=I+=++M ~.5oo*.olo
+==R=-MACH’N’NGDRAW u
TOLERANCE CHART
1 I
TOLERANCE CHART
I
.500
_____ -- 4 .500
--1 l-- ----- ,
— ; :*
: -’--- ) I
I Offsethng m-llne planes for easy ldentiflcatlon Of CUE VS. features
I
I
I
1 I
~ 2 ; .250 @ C’Bore ,500 ~ ~~P
t
I 3 . ------ “z
I I 4 ; MACHINING DRAWING
1 I ------
t
I .5 0
k —
-,T
TOLERANCE CHART SKETCH NOTES:

I--4 ,500* .002
1) Forged outline superimposed on machining oufllne.

2) Forged dlmenstons 1, 2, and 3 in chad.
~- u TOLERANCE CHART
3) Only half sectton below centerline adequote

cylindrical Paris,
for
i-H-t7
I I I I 1
I MACHINING DRAWING
SCALE: 1/1
‘=EBEI=
Offsethng in-fine planes on basis of mean dimensions
—
~ DRAWINC
.040 x 45°
.0504- p- 4
TOLERANCE CHART II----Q
L
I <
6
m n
z
m
Nonsymmetr(cal parts can have mult[ple

i tolerance charts
NOTE: The .050 ond .040 lengths are too shotito carry cut Ihnewith
II
I ST CHART
arrow and dot Distort for clatity, but molntcmndrawing
sense
Fig. 2-7 Workpiece sketches for tolerance charts.
2-8
CHAPTER 2
5. As with the Fig. 2-6 sketch, since the workpiece is balance dimension results from subtracting or adding two
cylindrical, it is not necessary to draw the full Fig. 2-5, a, machine cuts or a balance dimension and a machine cut, The
configuration; the half below the centerline is an adequate line numbers of the two elements composing each balance
representation. dimension are recorded in the Lines Involved column.
6. If diameters are to be machined, the balloons should be Figure 2-10 presents a step-by-step technique on the
set up, as shown in Fig. 2-6, to display the successive derivation of balance dimensions using schematics. Mastery of
diameter size changes. the technique laid out in Fig. 2-10 is absolutely vital if correct
7. If a forging or casting is used, it is helpful to show, by tolerance charts are to be constructed.
dashed lines, the forged/ cast outline superimposed on
the machining configuration, Lines Involved Column
The following comments are made relative to the entries in
the Lines Involved column (see Fig. 2-6):
Machine To Column
Under the column heading Machine To in Fig, 2-6, a column 1, On any line, only two line numbers are listed, indicating
for mean sizes and a column for tolerances are presented. Since that only two line-numbered values are being added or
the development ofmean sizes is the easiest part of tolerance subtracted at one time.
charting it is explained later. The discussion now centers on the 2. The line-numbered values may be either two listed
* Tel. column. Machine To values (Means + Tolerances) or a single
All tolerances in the tolerance chart must be expressed in the Machine To value and a single Balance Dimension
equal bilateral system. When two or more dimensions are added value—but never two Balance Dimension values.
or subtracted, the tolerances are always added (see Fig. 2-4). 3. These two numbers permit immediate tracing of any
This simplifies the arithmetic. In the event that a blueprint dimensional relationship without having to reinvent the
dimension tolerance is expressed by any other system, it must be analysis of the line relationship. The value of this is
converted to the equal bilateral system before it is entered in the evident after the process has been released. These numbers
chart under the Blueprint column. (the Lines Involved numbers) can be used to track
No matter how the tolerances are displayed, the following discrepant dimensions in a process. If dimensions are
steps can be performed to convert them to the equal bilateral discrepant, is the part scrap at this point in the processor
system: can it be salvaged by rework? Or, if design engineering
changes the drawing and the original process is in
1. If it is not given, compute the maximum dimension. production, the big questions are: What dimensions are
2. If it is not given, compute the minimum dimension. affected? and How can the required changes be made?
3. Then compute the equal bilateral mean dimension Under these conditions, the information in the Lines
Involved column simplifies and speeds the effort to
MEAN ❑ (MAX + MIN) + 2. answer these questions.
4. Finally compute the equal bilateral tolerance

Stock Removal Column
* TOL. ❑ (MAX - MIN) + 2. The Stock Removal column consists of a Mean column and a
+ Tel. column. Each stock removal is calculated by subtracting
Example (inches): two machining cuts or a balance dimension and a machining
cut. Like the balance dimension, the line numbers of the two
Given: 0.105 + 0.010/-0.004 elements composing each stock removal are recorded in the
Lines Involved column. To understand the Stock Removal
MAX= 0.105+0.010= 0.115 column entries, and the considerations involved, see Fig. 2-11,
MIN ❑ 0.105 -0.004= 0.101 in which two different methods for controlling stock removals
MEAN= (0.115+0.101)+ 2= 0.108 are defined,
* TOL. = (0.115 -0,101)+ 2= 0.007
MEA N + TOL. ❑ O.108+ 0.007 MECHANICS OF CHART CONSTRUCTION
The components of the tolerance chart have been dissected
The magnitude of the tolerances that are inserted in the and analyzed in detail concerning form and function, Now these
Machine T’o column under + Tel. must be considered very components are combined to construct Fig. 2-6 from scratch.
carefully in relation to the process capabilities of the operation. Six distinct steps are involved. They are shown, in chrono-
Figure 2-8 defines the relationship between production tol- logical order of construction, starting with Fig. 2-12 and ending
erances and the process capability values which are expressed in with Fig. 2-17.
terms of* 3 u, This relationship should be maintained when
assigning the Machine To tolerances. Tolerance Chart Construction—Step 1
Figure 2-12 summarizes and displays, within the framework
Symbols Used in Tolerance Charting of the tolerance chart format, all information from Fig. 2-5, a,
The symbols used intolerance charting are defined in Fig. 2-9
and Fig. 2-5, b, that is required to construct the Fig. 2-6 chart.
and do not require amplification here. Figure 2-9 should be
The specifics of this information are:
referenced for all definitions and explanations.
1. The machining configuration from Fig. 2-5, a, blueprint
Balance Dimension Column is drawn at the top of the form in the space provided
Figure 2-9 defines a balance dimension and explains the between the borders of the Machine To and Balance
reasons it is needed. Furthermore, Fig. 2-9 explains that a Dimension columns. It does not extend beyond them.
2-9
CHAPTER 2
A@ b
-t .001-9
&30 PROCESS
CAPABILITY ~ ~t .i3132~
a * .003 *
—.— . —— — — .—. — — — —— ——
—----+ .002 A K = 0,66

PRODUCTION * * .IJ03 * B’ K=l.00
TOLERANCES - * .131345 * —c K=l.50
BASED ON ~
m * .006 D K = 2.00
K X t3CI
* * .009 E–K= 3.00
GIVEN: * TOL. = PRODUCTION VALUE, K ❑ DESIRED MULTIPLIER, * 30 = Pf?OCES

&30 VIEWED AS
CAPABILITY (ESTIMATED FOR EXISTING MACHINE OR IS DESIGN REQUIREMEN
K PERCENTAGE
FOR SPECIAL PURPOSE MACHINE)
:ASE FACTOR OF PRODUCTION FIND: 1)* TOL=KX*3U,0R,
TOLERANCE
2) f3u=t TOL+K
Not practlcol—h,gh risk— 100% Inspection a must—shaded arecx under curve equal guaranteed 5% of ports scrap (
A 0.66 I50% rework, Any sh[ft m averages WIII see morked increase In percentage figure.
Avoid wherever possible—no room for process averages drlfi-more adjustments requred or tool setlngs, setu
B 1.00 I 00% etc,—lnspedlon frequencies 1 I, 13, I:5 depending on value of pcr—marginal operutlon—process must be accurate
centered to ovoid scrop,lrework.
Bulk of processing should o!m at this as a mlnlmum whenever posstble. Fewer odlustments are requred on tool setting
c I .50 66% setup, etc. Inspeclon frequency can be relaxed to 1:5, 1 10, etc.
D 2.00 50% More flexhllty then C--as with C, a production operation.
E 3.00 33% Wfde open tolerance—no production problems on sizes
The above constderatlons play a role m tolerance charhng In that tolerances cmgned to cuts must be attcmable (n production. For example, assume
a * .004 tolerance is assigned m the chart to a cut ond It IS desired that a K= 2foctor prevail. To determfne how capable the mochme selected must
be, or (f a transfer hne IS being des[gned, what * 30 Ihmlts(process capoblity) the machine must be built for, .004 ~ 2= .002= ~ 30 and process
capabity tests should produce this * 002 volue if presence of K = 2 factor is to be verlfled.
Th(s does not mean that produchon WIII be held to * .002. Only the machme selected m the custom-bulk transfer Ine stohon must demonstrate the *
.002 copablity If the K = 2 factor (or 50%) ,s to be made avabble to the shop Prod.cho. will work to * .004.
If tolerances dictated by the tolerance chart place undue burden on machine selectlon or special purpose mochlne design (I.e., transfer fines), reltef
may come from: I ) Opening up product tolerances
2) Changing process (Iocotlng surkxes, operoton sequence, etc ).
3) Statistical toleranclng
4) Accepting a K = 1, 9, .8, etc., knowing there WIII be strop/rework fallout.
Fig. 2-8 Production tolerances vs. * 3 u process capabilities.
2. Feature plane lines are drawn to the bottom of the form these cuts are the first cuts (as shown by an arrow) to be
only for those features whose length dimensions will be shown on these planes. Solid is written in the Stock
included in the chart. Removal column, and, in effect, shows that no problem
3. Machining cut lines are installed as shown in Fig. 2-5, b. exists concerning stock removal since these cuts are the
The facing cut symbol must be used—even on castings initial or primary cuts on the plane, not the secondary
or forgings. cuts. Caution: The datum dot of any Solid cut must be
4. Cut lines are numbered. These line numbers match anchored to an existing plane at that point in the
those of preprinted line numbers on the chart form. process. The datum dot plane of a Solid cut exists if the
5. Operation numbers are added. arrow of a previously made cut is found on the plane in
6. The machine to be used in each operation is listed. question above the Solid cut.
7. All solid cuts are labeled Solid to indicate that each of 8. Normally, the location symbols would be added just
2-1o
CHAPTER 2
END SURFACE ON PART

1
F = FACING CUT SYMBOL OR REGISTRY SURFACE IN MACHINE FOR SLUG, CASTING, OR FORGING
2 = LOCATING SYMBOL— Spec[fies, for each operation, that part feoture plane that IS to be used for ax,al Iocotlon of pari n
mach(ne. Chuck IOWS, fixture, etc., would buttagainst th!s plane,
311
11X
I*
I--4I ~
=MACHINING CUT SYMBOL— Serves two purposes. I ) arrow denotes plane A IS beng machfned Ior I st or nth time, ond 2) dot
denotes plane B IS datum plane from which length A-B IS measured. (Value of length A-B of IhneX IS
hsted under “mochme to” column n chad.)
II As shown, plane B IS datum plane (ref. section 54 In ANSI standard Y 14.5) and tolerance on A-B
length E centered around mean plane A.
NOTE: Dot of every cut must I[e on plane

which shows arrow on it up above
in tolerance chart; othe,wise, cut IS
anchored to nonexistent plane,
=BALANCE DIMENSION—%e Ihnes 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, I I, 13, 14, 16, 17, 19, 21, 22, snd 23 In Fg. 2-6
4
=B/P LENGTH OR RESULTANT LENGTH —See Ihnes 33, 34, 35, 36 m Fg. 2-6
Id (Same symbol as balance dimension, but represents ot thts ste the doublearrowed B/ P lengths)
NOTES:
I ) A balance dimermo. length represents add,t,on or subxtroct,on of two rnach,n,ng cut lengths made prtor to balonce dlmensicm Ihne# or a cut length
and another balance dlmenslon—both from above In the toleronce charts,
2) Balance dimensions ore requwed for either of two reasons. They ore:
A) When necessary to compwe stock removal on a secondary cut m o process,
No Balance Dim, Requ,red Balance D[m Is Requ, red
BC BC
See Ikne 12—Fig. 2-6 See Ihne 8—F[g. 2-6
‘w Stock removal = direct ‘w Stock removal = subtrac-

.500 * .005 subtract[on af twa machln- 500 * 00.5 t{on of cut & bolance
2 Ing cuts dimensions
1220+ 010 .720~ .010 2
3
= 1.220 ~ .015 (1 + 2) = bolance dimension
4 4
1 200 * ,002 H = .020 + .012 (2 4) = stock remaval 1.200 * .002 = .020 * .0} 7 (3 4) = stock remaval
ET
B) When necessary to determine a B/P required length value that IS not produced by o single mactimng cut In the process, but rather by addltlan or
subtraction of two or more cuts, os shown.
See Ihne21 —Fig. 2-6

‘e
B/P resultant (3) = s.b-
1
.500 +.010 ) traction of two cuts
2.000 * .002 .: 41
v 1 500* 012 (2 1) = bclonce d,mens,on
Bluepr[nt Resultants
3
1.500+ 012 1500+ f)lz
( I
.500* 010 , r 500+ 010
3) For deicmled nstr.,ctfons on detwmnntlon of balance dlmens(ons

and their placement m chort, see Flg 2-10.
NOTES: I ) Dot IS nslde Iron.

5 L-4- ‘pLAT’NGsyMBOL 2) Arrow oppases
represents
dot, but
-pLATfNG
ig. 2-9 Symbols used in tolerance charting (reference Figs. 2-6 and 2-10).
2-11
CHAPTER 2
2-12
CHAPTER 2
(a) COMPUTING STOCK REMOVAIS-%TOPS” ARE USED-EXTERNAL& INTERNAL
T - T_l_l’_ EXTERNAL ON X
h (Rough cut > f,nsh cut)
2)= SR* on 2 = .005+ .002
I -.880+ 001
Datum .007 max SR
88I Mean SR /
min .879 i
Rough- max under
“stops” is
always > I
tolerance Rough -- .869 mln .871 mox
~ mln
875 * .001 buldup
SR
1) value ,,
.003
.870 * .001
~ mn
Flnlsh - mln .874 876
\ SR
max
Thfs stock removal \
I
IS read exactly as
shown, I.e.,
Flmsh d 874 ml. 876
Datum nax
.007 max SR mln = ,005-.002 = .003
i
max = .005 + .002 = 007 t 875 * .001
SR = Stock Removal
(b) COMPUTING STOCKREMOVALS-”NO STOPS’’-EXTERNAL & INTERNAL
(+ 880* 007
Rough
m
.003 “rein
.873 887
.870 t .007
mln max .007 ‘imax ,I
available”
necessary” Rough \ .003 ‘hn avalfable”
going down
going up from going up from high
from low .863
low limit of h of the roughing
Iimlt of the
he roughing cut to the htgh limit
roughtng
Flnlsh of the flnlsh[ng cut.
cut to the .007 “max necessary” wt to the
.880 going down from high ow Ilmlt of
low Iim[t of
the finlsh(ng mm max Ikmltof the roughing the f}mshlng 1!
cut.
cut to the high hmit wt. Flmsh I
of the flmshmg cut. .870 380
.875 * .005 - J
tI min lax
.875 t .005 -1
NOTE: t-
I ) The 005 ~ 012 stock removal on cut 2 above IS Ieglilmote only under
the “no stops” concept wherein the “mln avo[loble” and “max
necessary” amounts of stock removal are known and controlled by the
NOTE
machine operator on a oneby-one bass,
I ) Note I at left oppl[es here
2) Under this setup, when bulldlng tolero.ce chart, the roughing meon
2) Problem In nate 2 at left, [f nternal, gives roughing min = .870-.007 =
and the roughing tolerance both fall out af calculotlons.
.863, roughing ma. = .880-.003= .877. Therefore mean= .870
Example If .875+ 005 ts a B/P size and .003 -,007 SR IS desired
and t tot = .007
under “no stops”, then roughtng mln = ,870 + .003= 873,
roughing mox = 880 + 007 = .887. Therefore mean =
880 and + !ol.= .007
g.. .2-11 ternsl. (b) Computing stock removals—”No Stops” are used-External
. (a). Computing stock removals-’’Stopare are used -External and
ana Imernal.
before the first cut in each operation or between the last the diameter sizes established in each operation. They
cut in an operation and the first cut in the next too are omitted here for convenience since they play no
operation, as shown in Fig. 2-6, but they are omitted role in the tolerance calculations for the cuts shown
here for convenience. The location symbols in the chart below in the chart.
must match those shown in the strip layout of Fig. 2-5, b. 10. Space is provided after the last cut line for the possible
9. If the part is cylindrical, balloons are drawn off the inclusion of blueprint balance dimensions, and a heavy
diameters in the sketch, as shown in Fig. 2-6, to record black line is drawn across the chart.
2-13
CHAPTER 2
11. The headings Blueprint and Resultants are printed, as satisfied, the listed blueprint dimensions should be
shown in Fig. 2-12, in line with the Machine To and checked using the following procedures:
Balance Dimension columns. Step 1. Consecutively number/letter the feature
12. Under Blueprint are listed the mean sizes of the length planes passing through each blueprint dimension dot
dimensions that are to be handled in the chart. This list (Reference Fig. 2-6). Note: If a feature plane line passes
must not include reference, duplicate, or double through the blueprint dimension area, but does not
dimensions. Violation of this rule is a major source of intersect the dot end of a blueprint dimension, do not
charting problems. To ensure that this ‘condition is assign a number/letter to that plane.
EFFF
.INE OPER. REV. MACHINE MACHINE TO BALANCE DIM, LINES STOCK REMOVAL
/4 EP (: c) t:
No. No. NO, USED MEAN ? TOL. MEAN t TOL. INVCLVEO M2AN ? TCI.
1 10 wfs I SOL( D
2 10 ‘i H- z j SOLI D
3 10 “ 3 d) SelLl D
4
5
6 10 “ 6 () S011 D
-
7
8 20 nownmaf 8
9
10
II
12 30 U06?T0U
4I
12
13
14
15 40 NQKION )5
16
17
18 50 NORTOU 18 y
4t
19 —
20 60 MAUCN6AD ,. 20 +
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
. .
30 I
31 [----- -- A $ c, in $
32 BLUEPRINT RESULTANTS
.—
33 4.000- .005 _, . . .Z
34 \.oQo .020 _ ,.
35. 2*O .009 .__. _. ●L Ix
36 3.000 .002
. . I T
Fig, 2-12 Constructing a tolerance chart- Step 1. Setup of blueprint and strip layout data from Figs. 2-5, a, and 2-5, & hi tolerance chart
framework.
2-14
CHAPTER 2
Step 2. Make a list of step 1 plane numbers/letters. 0.005” values or schematic W would be violated if 0.003”
Step 3. Taking each blueprint dimension in turn, or 0.005” were assigned to 12.
strike its two plane numbers from the step 2 list. Based on this reasoning, tolerances in the second
Step 4. When all plane numbers/letters are crossed column titled Adjusted Tolerances Due to Common
off the step 2 list, all remaining blueprint dimensions are Cuts, Erc.—ReJ are changed as follows: 0.001” still
reference, duplicate, or double dimensions. Delete these stands on cuts 12 and 20 in W, but in X, 12 is reduced to
dimensions. O.001’’from 0.003”, 15 stands at 0.003”, and 20 is reduced
Step 5. Count the number N of blueprint dimensions to 0.001” from 0.003”. In Y, the same changes are made as
remaining after the step 4 deletions. These are the in X plus cut 15 is reduced to 0.003” since 15 is set at
blueprint dimensions to be handled in the chart. 0.003” in X.
Step 6. Count the number of numbered/lettered The result of these tolerance reductions is that the sum
planes on the step 2 list. This number must equal N + 1 of tolerances in X is equal to 0.005”—or 0.004” less than
planes—if not, recheck steps 1 through 6 for errors. the blueprint maximum of 0.009”, and in Y, the sum of
Step 7. Finally, verify that each of these N + 1 planes tolerances is equal to O.010’’—or 0.010” less than blueprint
(same as step 2 list) has a machining cut arrow on it. If maximum of 0.020”. Do we want to live with these losses
an arrow is not found on a plane, the blueprint of blueprint tolerance?
dimension(s) to that plane cannot be produced. To find 3. The third column is titled Optimized Tolerances— Use
the arrow, (a) review the strip layout sketches to locate These Tolerances in Chart. How are the tolerances
the missing cut and add it to the chart or (b) add a cut on optimized? Note that cut 18 in Y is not common, it is not a
that plane in an appropriate strip layout sketch, then direct blueprint cut subject to a specific maximum
add it to the tolerance chart. Otherwise, delete the tolerance by blueprint, etc. It is free to be assigned any
blueprint dimension(s) to that plane. Value; 50, since 0.010” tolerance has been lost in this
13. Under Blueprint are listed the maximum blueprint schematic, 0.010” is added to 0.005” (cut 18), resulting in a
tolerances. Now and then, it might be advantageous to tolerance of 0.0 15“ on cut 18, and the sum of the
tighten this tolerance for machining or tooling or for tolerances on Y cuts now equals 0.020 ”—the schematic
assembly reasons, but normally, the maximum tolerance cuts are optimized in Y.
should be used to conform to the goals of economic The same could be done in X schematic, but is not
production. presented here to illustrate how easy it is to build a chart
14. The blueprint length lines are drawn, using the balance that does not use all possible tolerance allowed by print.
dimension symbol. How might X be optimized also? Simply, if 15 were
made 0.007” in X, the sum of tolerances in X would equal
the blueprint maximum of 0.009”, but then 15 in Y wquld
go up to 0.007” and 18 in Y would go down to 0.01 l“,
Tolerance Chart Construction—Step 2 while still holding the sum of tolerances in Y to 0.020”,
Figure 2-13 shows construction of all schematics necessary to
which equals blueprint.
determine required ba[ance dimensions.
As pointed out earlier, this is a simplistic approach
In addition, biueprint tolerances are budgeted among the
that does not consider differing process capabilities of the
blueprint resultant schematic cuts and then are optimized to
cuts performed on different machines. The realities of
ensure maximum economics. actual shop conditions are better served if either of the
Optimizing of blueprint resultant tolerances takes place in
following two methods (which are essentially equal in
the following three stages:
philosophy) is used to generate the initial startup
1. In Fig. 2-13 the column titled Initial Tolerances—Stand tolerances in the first column:
Alone Schematic Basis—ReJ shows the initial tolerances Method 1: The blueprint maximum tolerances should
assigned to the cuts in schematics W, X, and Y. These
be proportionately budgeted among the schematic
values are based on dividing the blueprint maximum
cuts in terms of the estimated process capabilities on
tolerance by the number of cuts in the schematic. This is a
the cuts. For example, in schematic X, 12 is a rough
simplistic approach—not to be used in practice—and is
milling operation, 15 is a finish milling operation, and
used here to simplify the explanation of budgeting 20 is a grinding operation. They have differing process
tolerances.
capabilities as shown in Table 2-1. As illustrated in
Based on this approach, 0.001“ is assigned to cuts 12 Table 2-1, this “fair-sharing” method conforms to
and 20 in the W schematic, 0.003” is assigned to cuts 12, shop realities,
15, and 20 in the X schematic, and 0.005” is assigned to Method 2: If company standards exist in tabulated
cuts 12, 15, 18, and 20 in the Y schematic. The result is form covering the minimum tolerance to assign to
that the total of cut tolerances in each schematic equals machining cuts when processing, then headings in
the blueprint maximum value in schematics W, X, and Y.
Table 2-1 of the first method would change to
2. Note that cut 12 is common to W, X, and Y, cut 15 is
Minimum Cut Tolerances, Computed Tolerances on
common to X and Y, and cut 20 is common to W, X, and
Cuts, and Schematics and the same apportioning
Y. Let us consider now the significance of cut 12 being
scheme would be used.
common to W, X, and Y. Cut 12, having been assigned
0.001” in W, 0.003” in X, and 0.005” in Y, cannot, in the The difference between the two methods is a time
tolerance chart, use but one of these three values. Which savings advantage for the second method—and probably
one will be selected for use? Obviously, the tightest a higher degree of uniformity exists for a body of
tolerance of 0.001” must prevail over the 0.003” and engineers—since no individual cut-by-cut evaluations
2-15
CHAPTER 2
BLUEPRINTRESULTANTSCHEMATICS STOCK REMOVAL SCHEMATICS

nitial tol- Adiusted Optimized
!rances— tolerances tolerances—
tand-alone due to com- use these
thematic mon cuts, tolerances
msis-ref. etc.—ref. in chari
- - - !2!3. P d
Max B/P = * .002
CUT 8 CUT 20
8 Ignore
12 8
.003 .001 001
15 12
003 .003 .003 Cl
16
.003 001 .001
20 As wth the Z schemaitc, no schematic
x 005 005 IS needed for cut 12 since direct
subtrnctlon between 8-12 y[elds the
0/P Max pOSSl- < B/P 22
toleronce bddt,p value on 12.
max ble < B/P max
mox
- - % x
Max B/P = t .009 CUT 12
8 Ignore 2
12
3
.005 .001 00 I
15
4
.005 .003 003
8
005 005
m 16 18
9
.005 .001 001 19

12
z 010 x 20
13
8/P Max pOSSl- = B/P
23
mox ble < B/P mox 15
- ~ F
max
‘t
Max B/P = f 020 CUT 15
dz 8:
Max B/P - t ,005 10
12
14
NOTE
15
Since cut 20 E a dtrect B/P cut,
scherrotlc for Z = a rectangle—and 17
IS not needed Volue for 20 tolerance 18
m chart IS set r W. ~
CUT 18
Fig. 2-13 Constructing a tolerance chart- Step 2. Construct schematics and optimize blueprint resultant cut tolerances.
2-16
CHAPTER 2
TABLE 2-1
Apportionment of Blueprint Maximum Tolerances
K X 3 SIGMA VALUES ON THE COMPUTED TOLERANCES SCHEMATICS

CUTS, IN. ON CUTS, IN.
12
0003” 0.0045”
0002” 0.0030”
16
() 4)
Ooo1” 0 0015“ 20
● *
0.006” 0.0090”
22
(# 4,
x
Maximum blueprint = + 0.009” b &
NOTE:
Cut I 2 tolerance = ~ x .009 = .0045”
Cut I 5 tolerance= +j#x .009 = 0030”

&x ,009.,00, ~,,
cut 20 ‘“lerance= .006
would have to be made by each engineer. does the physical distance between A and B increase or decrease
Obviously, for the second method to be reliable, when stock is removed?
maintenance of tabulated process capability data would If cut 8 would cause a decrease in the A/ B length—as it does
rely on support systems (machine maintenance, quality in this chart—then length 7 must be longer than length 8 if stock
control, etc.) monitoring and correcting data on a is to come off due to the cut 8. Hence, lines involved for cut 8
periodic, controlled basis. Feedbacks from the shop and should read: 7 minus 8.
inspection become important if integrity of standard data If a mistake is made on this decision, chart dimensions above
is to be maintained. cut 8 will incorporate mean size errors based on two times the
mean stock removal on cut 8. The chart will therefore be useless
Of all steps in tolerance chart construction, step 2 is the most for production since parts, if not immediately scrapped by
critical—and determines in large part the cost picture for the excessive stock coming off above cut 8, will have to be reworked
process insofar as tolerances are responsible. on a salvage basis.
At this time in tolerance chart construction, it can be
recognized that the process/ tooling decisions around which the Tolerance Chart Construction—Step 4
schematics are built can, in themselves, be responsible for Figure 2-15 assigns tolerances to remaining cuts in the
excessively tight tolerances. At this time, optional changes can process. These tolerances play no role in blueprint resultant
be made in sequence, dimensioning patterns, or location lengths, but do have an impact on stock removal tolerance
surfaces to optimize the indiviual tolerances assigned. buildups. Therefore, one can be generous in these tolerance
assignments in order to ensure trouble-free production—but
Tolerance Chart Construction—Step 3 not so generous as to cause excessively large tolerance buildups
Figure 2-14 transfers to the tolerance chart the Fig. 2-13 on subsequent secondary cuts.
results: Once all cuts have a working tolerance, all tolerance buildups
should be computed in the Balance Dimension column, then—
1. Cut tolerances.
and only then—the tolerance buildups should be completed on
2. Balance Dimension lines and numbers.
stock removals.
3. Lines Involved factors for all secondary cuts and balance
This is the second place where it can be seen that excessively
dimensions,
large tolerance buildups are due to the nature of the sequence,
4. Mean blueprint values and their tolerances under the
dimensioning patterns, or choice of location surfaces. (Actually,
Machine To, Balance Dimension, and Resultant columns.
in Fig. 2-13, schematics for cuts 15 and 18 show involvement of
With respect to the Lines Involved for stock removal on cuts 5 and 6 respectively—and that should be the point for
secondary cuts, it should be noted that a subtraction is always alarm bells to go off.)
involved. If this is so, then the question arises: Which of the line For example, cut 18 has a tolerance buildup tO.029”. Why is
lengths involved is physically (in the iron) longer (or larger it so big? First, examine cut 18 schematic. It has 6 cuts in it and
numerically) than the other? For example, stock removal for cut 18 was assigned +0.015“ to optimize a blueprint resultant.
cut 8 is equal to 7 minus 8. Why not 8 minus 7? The only way to This suggests that cut 18 might be reduced to, say, A 0,005”,
determine this is to examine the end planes A/B of cut 8 above thus eliminating * 0.010” of the * 0.029” on cut 18. Or, as
in the part sketch and ask the question: When cut 8 is taken, shown in “Do’s and Don’ts in Tolerance Charting” later in this
2-17
cHAPTER 2
LINE OPER. HEV. MACHINE MACHINE TO BALANCE DIM. LINES STOCK REMOVAL
w, NO. NO. USED MEAN ~ TOL i 4 I (: r)
+ MEAN ? TOL. lNVCiVE O WAN ? Ta.
I 10 wts I SOL1 D
~! 2
2 10 1 SOLI D
3 10 & 3 SOLI D
4 4 3-2
5 s 3-1
1/
6 10 6 SOLI D
r 7 6-3
e 20 tlounlctl 7-0
9 9 –. . 4+8
10 10 ., 5+6
II II 3+6
J2 30 MORTON .001 — b 12 - 0- (z
13 -13 9-IZ
14 A 14 IO-K
Is 40 !SaUTON 003 15 13-)5
16 16 12+1s
17 1? 14-15
18 50 KWo u .o~5 18 + 11- la
19 19 16+ 16
20 60 BMUCSRSO 4.090 .00] 20 7 I\- 20
21 al , ,x_ 3.000 .002 20-\2
22 .- 22 x 2.000 .,00s 20-16
23 — 23 Y J.QO .020 20-1’3
.24
25
26
27
28
29 .—
30
31 I4 FI c: r
$
32 BLUEPRINT RESULTANTS
33 4.000 .00!5 _____ 7-0 * ,Z 4.000 .001 2CI

4— — —
34 j 000 .020
35 x- _ 2000 .00s 22
36
Fig. 2-14 Constructing a tolerance chart -Step 3. (1) Add cut tolerances developed in Step 2. (2) Add balance dimension lines.(3) Add Lirreshdved
data. (4) Add all blueprint mean values.
chapter, it might be more economical to live with the* 0.029” system (tolerance charting), the engineer stays in positive
stock removal tolerance by adding a qualifying operation prior control of what is happening at all stages of manipulation and,
to cut 18 to wipe out the tolerance buildup. thus, can make the best tradeoffs between conflicting factors.
As explained once the schematics are available, the builder of
the tolerance chart is in position to adjust tolerances freely to Tolerance Chart Construction—Step 5
satisfy a host of desirable end conditions—and under this Figure 2-16 shows the setup of the mean stock removals.
2-18
CHAPTER 2
I
LINEOPER. REV. MACHINE MACHINE TO
(:
BALANCE DIM.
No. NO. NO. USEO MEAN ? TOL.
i4 E) T) 4 MEAN ~ TOL
I 10 w{ s i ,003 I I d 50LI D
2 // 2
10, 003 Sokt o
3 10 “ !003 3 k. SOLI n
4 4 .006 5’2
5 s .006 5- I
6 10 t( .010 6 SOLI D
7 7 - .013 6-3
8 20 JlO@
.
.004 1-0 .017
9 [:8’: ‘9, . . ..0[0 4+8
10 10 . .010 5t8
II I II .007 3t8
12 30 NORTON .OQI 12 &12 .005
13 13 .01( 9-12
14 14 .011 10-12
.15 40 KOlqgu 003 I 15 13-1s .014
16 16 ..004 12+Is
17 l-f .0!4 1+-15
●
18 !50 JJ!J5TcW .01s —_ .-— m 11-la 02q

*
19
b
- .019 16+18
20 60 luuct~ 4006 001 20 1 11-20 .&8
r
21 — 21 N 3000 .002 ‘20-12
22 L 22 K___ km.o .00s ZO-16
23 . 23 -,.L. 1“!00 .:GZ% Zo-lq
24
25
26 --
27
28
29 .
30
31 —. 4... .$... c: !/ E.
20
23
Fig. 2-15 Constructing a tolerance chart— Step 4. (1) Assign tolerances to all remaining cuts. (2) Compute and add
buildups. (3) Compute and add stock removal tolerance buildups.
bahmce
33
Z2
%!.
dimension
–
tolerance
These values were obtained by merely adding a uniform 0.003” Going back to cut 18 in Fig. 2-16, the maximum possible
value to each tolerance buildup in order to get the mean value stock removal could be 0.032” + 0.029” = 0.061”-a most
for stock removal. impractical value since shoulder grinding is being performed by
This approach of adding a uniform amount would also not cut 18.
be used in practice—but serves to simplify the discussion at this
point.
2-19
CHAPTER 2
Tolerance Chart Construction—Step 6 with. The steps involved with these calculations are based on
Figure 2-17 is the final step in chart construction and is the following these rules:
easiest step of all. No decision making is involved. Only
straightforward calculations are required as shown at the top of 1. Whenever a mean machining cut size is known—in this
Fig. 2-17. Having reached this point, no more thinking is case, line 20 is equal to the blueprint length 4.000’-use
required about tolerances; only mean dimensions are dealt its mean stock removal (a nonsolid, secondary cut) to
TTIFT
OPER. REV, MWilNE MACHINE TO BALANCE DIM, LINES STOCK R
MEAN ? TOL. 6j I ) ‘(: c E:
NO, NO. USEO MEAN t TOL INVIIVED MSAN
lb .003 ) M SOL
Wi s
/!
10 .003 z .50L
//
10 .003 3 SOL
4 00 6 3-2
5 .006 3- I
#
10 .0!0 6 so 1
7 .013 6-3 ●
7
20 ROM42CU .004 8 7-8 .020
<
9 .010 4+8
10 .010 !j+e
j II [ .007 3+8
30 N OWOU .001 12 8- IZ .008

r
13 _.011 9-12
A 1+ .011 10-11
40 MoHoN ,003 15 13-15 .O1-f
16 .004 12+15
r
\7 .014 14’-15
30 NMTOU .01s 16 \ 17-18 .032
19 .017 16+18
60 stau~ 4.000 .001 20 7 II-Zo .011

2[ . w 3.000 .002 20-12
22 2000 .005 20-16
23 Y 1.000 Ozo Zo-lq
-. —
/4 EJ cp C[ E:
BLuEPRINT RESU LTANTS
4.000 .005 — 20 , z ‘- 4.QOO .001 20

).000 .020 23 2 I .000 .Ozo 23
‘L 000 .rJoq 22 ix — L.000 005 22
3.000 .002 21 - .Y.mo ‘~oz _..z\
—
37 T
ig. 2 16 Constructing a tolerance chart-Step 5. Determine and add mean stock removal values.
2-20
CHAPTER 2
SR.20= 11-20 23 = 20-19 22 =20-16 21 =20-12. S.R.12= 8-12 S.R.8 = 7-8 19= 16+18
.011= II -4.000 1.000 =4.000-19 2000 = 4.000’16 3000 = 4.000-12 .008 = 8-)000 .020 = 7-1008 3.000 = 2.000+18
11= 4.011 ~ 19 = 3.000 ~ 16 = 2.000 ~ 12 = 1.000 ~ 8 = 1.000 ~ 7 = 1.028 ~ Is = 1.000 ~
5.R. 18 = 11-IS II = 14-15 16=12+15 : l-f = 14-Is S.R.15 = 13-15 14 = 1O-I2 13 = 9 -)2
.032 = R- 1.000 ko32= ?-? 2-000= moo+ls E 1032= 14-1.000 .011 = 13-1.000 2.032 = 10-WIO Loll = 9-1.000
I-f = i032 ~ 5TOP-GOON-R2TURN
~ Is = ).000 10 k< 14= 2.032 ~ 13 = 1.017 ~ 10 = 3.032 13 9 = 2017 14
II = 3+33 )0= 5+8 9 = 4+8 1= 6-3 5 = 3-1 4 = 3-2

4.011 = 3+ 1.008 3.032 = 5+!.008 1017 ❑ 4 + 1008 1.0223 = 6-3.003 2.024 = 3003-1 1.009 = 3.003-2
3 = 3.003 p 5 = 2.024 ~ 4 = 1009 ~ 6 = 4.031 ~ = .979 ~ 2 = 1.994p
> , .1 ,-’
INE OPER. REV. MACHINE MACHINE TO BALANCE OIM, LINES STOCK REMOVAL
w. NO. NO. uSED MEAN Z TOL. MEAN ? TOL. lNVU_VE D MEAN ? T&.
I 10 W$s .?-f ’l .003 ._. 1 SO L( o

2 fo 1.’3’+4 .003 2 SOLI b
3 10 3.003 .003 3 SOLI r)
4 4 \ooq 006 3-z

5 5 2.014 006 3- I
6 10 4.031 .010 6 SOLI o
7 L 7 I.oa 013 6-3

8 m CR 1.008
nQNm .004 8 7-8 .020 017
9 9 2017 .010 4+8
10 10 3032 010 5t8
II I II 4.01[ 00-( 3+0
12 30 NORTON].000 .001 12 — 8-12 .008 .005
13 13 1017 0(1 9-12
14 14 Z032 .011 \o-12
Is 40 NOR’tON 1.000 .003 15 13-15 017 .014

16 16 2000 004 12+15
17 17 I 031 .014 14-15

18 50 NoR704J 015 ,,18> \l- 15 :032 . Ozq
19 — )9 1 .- 3000 .Olq 16f10
20 60 WCSS8D 4.000 ,00 J 4 — — 20 ./ z [1-20
’011 .008
21 2[ N .3’000 Ooz 20-12
22 22 z 000 005 .20-16
23 23 — 1.000 020 20-19
24 —
35
26 —
27
2B
29
30
y i\ f) c I) r:
.
BLUEPRINT RESULTANTS
32
33 4.000 Qos 20 , 2 ~.000 .001 20
34 I .000 ,Ozo __ 23 .Y—-- ..1”-000 Ozo lx
33 2000 .009 22 Ix ---- 2’000“~os 22

36 3Qo o .002 .._ 21, -N- --- .3..000 .’002 z]
4b
37
.. . .- .-.. . . .
Fig. 2-17 Constructing a tolerance chart- Step 6. (1) Compute and add missing cut and Lsafswscedimension means. (Z) F OUOWtext mstrucnons and
model calculations shown shove.
2-21
CHAPTER 2
ANGULAR CUTS
compute the value of its related balance dimension (as in machining cut 8 mean size. Note: In the box 9 calculation
this case) or its related roughing machining cut as shown in Fig. 2-17, mean dimensions were not available for lines
by the Lines Invo/ved column (see Fig. 2-17). 14-15. The instruction “stop-go on-return” indicates that
A simple equation is set up that reads: SR 20 ❑ 11-20, one of the subsequent box calculations will produce one
which is interpreted as: mean stock removal on cut 20 = of the two missing values and, once developed, the box 9
mean length of line 11- mean length of cut 20 (0.011” ❑ calculation can be completed. In the case shown, box 10
mean length line 11- 4.000”; mean length line 11 ❑ 4.011 “). produced a value for line 15, and in box 11, the box 9
The mean length of line 11,4.01 1“, is installed in the chart calculation is repeated to produce a mean dimension for
on line 11. line 14.
Then, because in this chart at this stage, no more mean
The process of developing the mean sizes is characterized by
sizes are available in the Machine To column, the second
this alternating from known machining cut means to known
rule by which mean sizes can be developed is used.
balance dimension means and then back to the cuts until all the
2. In followine the second rule. take the bottom-most of the
unknown mean sizes are developed.
blueprint b;lance dimensions—in this case line 23—and
The instructions on building the Fig. 2-6 tolerance chart, as
set up another kind of simple equation that reads: 23 ❑ 20
presented heretofore, represent the basic process of tolerance
-19, which is interpreted as: mean length of line 23= mean
charting. This basic process can be used to chart tolerances on
length of line 20- mean length of line 19(1.000” ❑ 4.000”
about 75% of the dimensions and part configurations commonly
-mean length of line 19). The mean length of line 19,
found in industry. The charting of angles, radii breakouts,
3.000”, is installed on line 19, and the same process is plating, heat treating, and symmetry are somewhat special
employed for the next blueprint resultant line 22, etc.,
problems which are covered in the following sections of this
until finally, line 12, a machining cut, is developed for
presentation.
mean size. At this point, rule 1 is used to solve the
TOLERANCE CHARTING OF ANGULAR CUTS

Many workplaces have one or more angular features in configurations shown in Fig. 2-18, a. The system also applies to
addition to square-shouldered features. Such angular features asymmetrical and noncylindrical workplaces.
can range from simple chamfers to high-precision tapered Setups 1 and 3 are defined as being axially dimensioned—
surfaces. the blueprint angle dimension (MF f D) to the point P is
With respect to the problem of handling angular features in measured along the X-X axis of the part (like square-shouldered
the tolerance chart, angular features are considered somewhat features); Sefups 2 and 4 are defined as being radially
special cases which must be treated differently than simple dimensioned—the MF * D dimension to the point F’ is
square-shouldered cuts. When angular cuts are charted, mean measured along the Y-Y axis of the part (like radial or
stock removals along the X-X axis of the part must be cylindrical features).
computed using trigonometric formulas. These formulas are In blueprint Setups 1,3, and4, the angular surface is defined
used to convert mean stock removals from the Y-Y axis or located by two X-Y coordinate dimensions (RF* B and MF
(workpiece diameters on cylindrical parts, for example), or * D in Setup 1, for example) to the point P on the angular
from the angular surface itself, to component values along the surface. In Setup2, however, the angular surface is defined by a
X-X axis. single Y-Y axis ordinate dimension to the point P which is
As with square-shouldered cuts (see Fig. 2-6), control and located at the intersection of the angular surface and a square
use of mean stock removals along the X-X axis is the key to shoulder. Se/up 2 can be viewed as a special case of Setup 4
building mean angle cut sizes working from the bottom up in wherein X is equal to zero.
the chart. In all four blueprin[ angle Setups, the h4F* D dimension to
The purpose of this section is to present a systematic the point P is the key angle location value which must be
approach to the handling of angular features in the tolerance controlled in the tolerance chart. Axial MF& D dimensions to
chart, including a presentation of required trigonometric the point Pare interspersed with square-shouldered cut dimen-
formulas and discussions of how the results of these formulas sions in the tolerance chart; radially dimensioned MF t D
are employed in tolerance chart development. dimensions to the point P are affixed to the balloons on the
workpiece sketch at the top of the tolerance chart. As discussed
BLUEPRINT DIMENSIONING in the previous section of this chapter, these balloon callouts
specify changes in the Y-Y axis of a part (the diameter of a
OF ANGULAR CUTS cylindrical workpiece, for example).
Blueprint dimensioning of angular features can be presented
The angle a in all four blueprint Setups must satisfy the
in a variety of ways, depending upon the intent of the design
following conditions for proper use in the formulas presented
engineer, company practice, etc. Figure 2-18, a, shows four
later in this section:
commonly used methods for dimensioning angular features.
These four dimensioning schemes are designated as Setups 1,2, 1. The angle a must be the mean angle value. If the angle
3, and 4. Experience shows that 90-95% of all angular features given on the blueprint is not in equal bilateral form. it
are dimensioned according to one of these four Se/ups. This must be converted to obtain the mean value.
system of four dimensioning schemes for angular surfaces 2. The angle a, as used in the trigonometric formulas, is
applies to internal angles as well as to the external angle considered to be basic—a no tolerance angle.
2-22
CHAPTER 2
ANGULAR CUTS
I
t
t
‘(l
I J
x
-
.
V-)U.11-3L *(-Y
2-23
CHAPTER 2
ANGULAR CUTS
3. The angle a, as shown in all four blueprint Setups, is the suit nonstandard configurations greatly expands the usefulness
angle between the angular surface (extended if necessary) of the standard formulas.
and the X-X axis (not the Y-Y axis). If the angle of the
angular surface is given on the blueprint taken from the STANDARD TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS
Y-Y axis, this angle, /3, should be converted to its Standard trigonometric formulas are presented in the series
complementary value, a,as follows: of illustrations labeled Fig. 2-19, b, through Fig. 2-19,0. Formula
numbers range from 1 through 42. Note that for each machining
Step 1. If /3 is the angle to the Y-Y axis of the part,
nethod illustrated in Fig. 2-18, b, the appropriate trigonometric
verify that it is displayed in the equal bilateral
‘ormula numbers are given. For example, when blueprinr Setup
system. If not, convert /3 to the equal bilateral ,?represents the dimensioning scheme on the blueprint, and a
form to get the mean value of/3.
Group II machining method is employed, Formula Numbers
Step 2. Compute a: (F#) 19 and 20 are applicable. Discussions in later parts of this
a ❑ 90° - mean /3 section explain how formulas are selected and applied given a
particular blueprint angle Se[up and machining method.
Derivations of the Formulas I through 42 are outside the
STANDARD STRIP LAYOUT PROCESSING scope and beyond the space limitations of this chapter. For those
AND DIMENSIONING METHODS FOR engineers concerned with the validity of the formulas, three
ANGULAR CUTS actions can be taken to validate the integrity of the formulas:
Figure 2-18, b, shows the standard angle machining cut
1. Derive the formulas based on zone diagrams (presented
methods that can be employed to produce the corresponding
in Fig. 2-19, b, through Fig. 2-19, o).
blueprint angle Setups, as defined in Fig. 2-18, a. Note that for
2. Use the formulas and then draft a 100:1 precision-scale
each of the four blueprint angle Setups shown in Fig. 2-18, a,
layout of the problem. Scaled answers will match formula
several machining methods are shown in Fig. 2-18, b. The angle
answers within 0.001” in the third decimal place or closer.
cut machining methods are presented as both two and three-
3. Review the bibliography material on tolerance charting.
stage machining processes and are classified as Groups 1, 1[,
[[I-A, and III-B.
In each standard angle machining method, a rough angle HOW TO CHART ANGULAR CUTS
machining cut, MR1 * Cl, initially establishes point P. Figure 2-19, a, defines the nature of the trigonometric
Following this, one or two subsequent machining cuts are problem involved with angle machining and how trigonometric
taken, moving the point P to the finished location defined by the calculations are incorporated into the framework of the tol-
MF * D blueprint dimension. erance chart (which is structured primarily on the basis of
Group I machining methods cover the remachining of the square-shouldered cuts). The purpose of Fig. 2-19, a, is to
boundary surjaces that delimit the length of the angular surface present several practical examples of considerations involved
(boundary surJaces are defined in Fig. 2-19, a). Group II with the tolerance charting of angular cuts. As a matter of
methods cover the remachining of the angular surface; Groups reference, examples presented in Fig. 2-19, a, are based on angle
III-A and III-B cover methods which are combinations of Formula 1 (see Fig. 2-19, b) and blueprint angle Setup 1 (see
Groups I and II. Fig. 2-18, a).
In Fig. 2-18, b, various notes accompany the strip layout Panel A in Fig. 2-19, a, shows a tolerance chart of a
sketches. These notes define conditions associated with the workpiece with an angular feature machined as shown in the
various machining methods and, if complied with, result in the accompanying strip layout. A two-stage machining process is
angle machining processes being considered “standard. ” The employed: operation 10 and operation 50, Also shown in panel
term standard as used in this presentation means only that the A of Fig. 2-19, a, are the trigonometric calculations to produce
blueprint angle Setup and corresponding machining method the line 1 value for the MR1 A Cl cut, the nomenclature used in
match the conditions specified in Fig. 2-18, a, and 2-18, b; the Formula 1 angle formula, and graphic definitions of
consequently, the corresponding trigonometric formulas pre- surfaces involved with machining of the angle.
sented later in this section can be applied without modification. Two of the graphic definitions in panel A of Fig. 2-19, a—
Using the standard angle machining cut methods presented Y-Y ❑ Barrier Plane Through Point P and Z1 ❑ Blueprint
in Fig. 2-18, a, and Fig. 2-18, b, as a basis, 42 trigonometric Primar}, Angle Datum Plane—are most important in that their
formulas are derived for calculating the rough angle machining relationship determines how control is exercised over the
cut MR1 * Cl for Groups I and II and the rough MRI A Cl remachining of angle cut datums, selection of angle machining
and semifinish machining cut MR2 * C2 for Groups III-A datums, and selection of angle formulas for computing MR1 *
and ZII-B. These 42 angle machining formulas are shown in Cl and MR2 * C2 values, and how these values are integrated
the Fig. 2-19, b, through 2-19, 0, series of layouts (see the into the tolerance chart.
following section). Panels B and B’in Fig. 2-19, a, duplicate the structure of the
Under certain conditions, however, the need may arise to panel A chart—except that the B’ chart expands the panel B
depart from the standard conditions as specified in Fig. 2-18, a, chart to show, as though in slow motion, how the barrierplane
and Fig. 2-18, b. For example, processing/tooling conditions through point P moves when the RF+ B cut is made and how
may require selection of angle cut datum surfaces or the the mean axial plane movement G-P2 is calculated on the basis
remachining of angle cut datums in a manner which is of mean values of a, RR, and RF.
nonstandard, In such cases, the standard trigonometric formulas Panels C and C’ in Fig. 2-19, a, show a panel B look-alike
cannot be used. However, many nonstandard configurations chart except that it is a square-shouldered-cut chart analogy of
can be handled effectively using techniques presented in later the panel B angle chart to highlight the differences in computing
parts of this section. The modification of standard formulas to the line 1 MR1 * Cl values, Compare the line 3 Lines Used
2-24
CHAPTER 2
ANGULAR CUTS
q::!;;; -J$pjGy:,
q:;:= YY = BARRIER PLANE
ANGULAR THROUGH POINT P 7=MR] *Cl- - MF*D
SURFACE ~ I
Z1 =B/PPRIMARY XDATUMPL4NE
i-
NE OPER. MACHINE TO *;: BA1. DIM. LINES STOCK REMVL1
STANDARD STRIP LAYOUT CUTS FOR B/P SETUP#l , GROUP ~ g F#l
Jo. NO. MEAN k TOL I I MEAN + TO,. USED MEAN I f TO,.
“GIVEN:
A
- RR = 1.010 = ROUGHING RADIUS AT TIME MRI ANGLE CUT IS MADE
1 10 .4173 .0131 MR1+CI I. - SOLID
. *A = .003= TOLERANCE ON RR
2 10 L r2. SOLID = 1.000= FINISHING RADIUS—CAUSES MF * D VALUE TO FAN OUT
3 50 .400 1-3 .0173 .0331 ~B = .00 I = TOLERANCE ON RF
= 30’ = MEAN ANGLE OF ANGULAR SURFACE WITH X-X AXIS
BLUEPRINT - fiF = .400= BLUE PRINT MEAN DIMENSION TO POINT P FROM ZI
1 RESULTANTS
*D = .020= TOLERANCE ON MF
.400 020 MF+Q 3]1 .400 .020
FIND:
2T
- MR1 = ? = MEAN LENGTH FROM Z] TO P IN OPER. 101INE 1 IN CHART,
T 1 +*CI = ? = TOLERANCE ON MRI
IOTES 1) NOTES 1 TO 5, FIG. 2-18, b, APPLY HERE FOR~ F#l USE ~ F#l = MR1 f Cl = MF + COT a (RR-RF] * [D - COT a (A + Bj
2) SEE LAYOUTS BE1OW FOR 10GIC UNDERLYING (REF:FIG 2-19,b) = I 400 + COT 3CP (1 010- 1 000] +[.020 - COT3@(O03+.001j
FORMULA FOR COMPUTING MEAN VALUE MRI
3) NOMENCLATURE AND TERMINOLOGY SHOWN
MRI f Cl =.4173* .0131 = LINE I CHART VAU-JE
ABOVE APPLY, WHERE APPLICABLE, TO ALL 42
ANGLE FORMULAS IN FIG, 2-19, b THROUGH FIG.
2-19, 0.
PANEL A
n
Fig. 2-19, a The nature of the angle machining problem. (B/P. blueprint; x . angle; F# . formula number; SR = stock removal; T = toward, and A =
away).
2-25
CHAPTER 2
ANGULAR CUTS
entries for charts in panels B and C. The entries are reversed accounts for the sign difference between the two terms in
since the point P moves toward the angle datum Z2 in the panel Formula 1 and Formula 2.
B chart when the i?Fcut is made, but away from the Zi datum Other look-alike formula combinations are:
in the square-shouldered-cut chart (panel C) when the line 3 cut
● Formula 3 and Formula 4.
(equivalent to the h4F& D angle cut in panel B chart) is made,
pushing point PI to the P2 position.
. Formula 7 and Formula 8.
In Fig. 2-19, a, panels B, B’, C, and C’, a large T or A is shown
beside the line 3 MF& D cut to indicate that this cut causes the
point P to move either toward (T) or away (A) from the
blueprint primary da~um Z1.
This determination of toward (T) or away (A) is used to
select formula numbers for trigonometric calculations when the
formulas are look alikes. The toward or away question is equal
in importance to the decision made covering a secondary The last column of Fig. 2-19, b, shows three special pointers
square-shouldered cut when the question is asked: Does this cut that have general application to the handling of angles in the
increase or decrease the distance between planes B and C when tolerance chart.
stock is removed? When considering square-shouldered stock Since there are a total of 42 standard angle machining
removals, this decision governs the lines invcdvedentries and, if formulas, the question is: How should the appropriate formula
the decision is wrong, the buildup of mean sizes in the square- be selected for a particular blueprint and process condition?
shouldered-cut chart is wrong as a result. Assuming that the blueprint condition is one of the four
The left-hand column of Fig. 2-19, b, shows four variations blueprint Setups illustrated in Fig. 2-18, a, and that the process
of blueprint Serup I; the second column from the left shows the is standard according to the strip layouts and standard notes in
matching strip layout machining cuts to produce the angle. Fig. 2-18, b, the appropriate formula is selected by comparing
Each of these four blueprint variations of Setup 1, and their the blueprint and process with Fig. 2-18, a, and Fig. 2-18, b, and
matching strip layouts, results in a unique formula for calcu- by answering the following questions:
lating MR1 * Cl.
1. Is the blueprint angle designation a Setup 1 or 2 or3 or 4?
The top two cases in Fig. 2-19, b, are external angles; the
2. Is the angle as processed a Group [or I1or III-A or III-B?
bottom two cases are internal angles. Each of the four cases
3. Is the angle external or internal?
makes use of a unique formula identification number for
4. When the MFcut is made, does the point move toward or
computing MR1 * Cl. The formula associated with any
away from the blueprint angle datum?
formula number is slightly different from those used by the
other three. NOTE: Question No. 4 is only applicable for Formulas 1
The differences between the formulas 1,2,3, and 4 are based through 16 and Formulas 25 through 28.
on the toward vs. away consideration and on whether the angle
is external or internal. GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR HANDLING
In the third column of Fig. 2-19, b, two zone diagrams show ANGLES IN THE CHART
the geometry from which the four formulas were derived. The The following list provides general procedural guidelines for
formulas, shown in column 4, are based on the geometric representing angle cuts in the tolerance chart.
representations of the MRI * Cl, MF~ D, RR* A, and RF*
1. Install all strip layout machining cuts in the chart.
B cuts and the da~um surfaces Zl, Z2, Z3, and Z4.
2. Construct blueprint and stock removal schematics, but
Compare the top zone diagram for angle Formula I with
separate schematics into two groups:
panel B’ of Fig. 2-19, a. The only difference is that a rectangular-
shaped and a parallelogram-shaped tolerance zone encloses ● Square-shouldered cut schematics only.
points PI and P2 in Fig. 2-19, b. Points PI and P2 represent the . Angle cut schematics.
mean positions based on mean values of MRI, MF, RR, and RF.
3. Install all balance dimensions in the chart and Lines
The sides of the rectangular zone represent the f Cl and + A
Involved numbers.
tolerance limit lines. From the diagonal corners of the rectangle,
4. Label or flag Real angle cuts and Virtual angle length
farthest from the P1-P2 angle line, parallel lines are drawn to
balance dimensions as shown in panels A, B, C, D, E, F,
represent the angular surfaces to extreme conditions. Then,
G, and H in Figs, 2-19, c, e, and g.
when the RF* B cut is made, the i B limit Iines intersect the
parallel angle lines to create the parallelogram. The end points 5. In accordance with the decision table (to be discussed in
the following section), handle angle tolerance budgeting
farthest apart in the parallelogram, measured along the X-X
and assignments first. Then,
axis, represent the MF + D blueprint dimension’s minimum
6. Handle tolerance assignments and tolerance budgeting in
and maximum conditions.
the square-shouldere~ cut schematics; some of t~ese c-uts
Formula 1 and Formula 2 are look-alikes. Their Cl and
will have already been assigned tolerances from the angle
MR1 formulas are identical except for the sign between the two
schematics.
terms in the MRI formulas. This is because Formula 1 and
Formula 2 are locked into the same zone geometry.
In the zone geometry for Formula”1, point PI moves toward CONTROL OF NONSTANDARD
(T) the blueprint datum Z1 when RF t B is machined. But in ANGLE AND RADII BREAKOUT
the case of Formula 2, this point moves away (A) from the MACHINING CONDITIONS
datum Z2. This difference in the direction that point Pl moves Material presented in this section on angle Formulas 1 and 4
2-26
CHAPTER 2
ANGULAR CUTS
2-27
CHAPTER 2
ANGULAR CUTS
apphes equally to radii breakout Formulas 1 and 4 as treated in Blueprint to ME

the next section of this chapter. The material presented on
Column 1: First, since the process is two-stage angle
nonstandard angle machining conditions applies to angle
machining, the upper half of the table is used.
Formulas 1 through 16 and Formulas 25 through 28. The
Column 2: Secondly, since two cut pairs occur with any
balance of the 42 formulas do not require these special methods.
two-stage process—blueprint to MF, and MF to MRl—
So far, the discussion on angles has been confined to standard
blueprint to MF is taken first.
angle machining conditions. In Fig. 2-19, a, the standard angle
Column 3: This column establishes whether the two cuts in
machining method for Formula 1 was set up in the tolerance
the cut pair have equal boundary planes. In Panel A, Fig.
chart. What if the angle in Fig. 2-19, a, is machined using a
2-19, c, blueprint angle dimension, A, and MFcut 6 have the
nonstandard method? For example, what happens to the
same boundary planes—that is, their boundary planes are
trigonometric equations if the blueprint angle datum Z] is
equal.
remachined after the MF cut, or between the MR1 and MF
Column 4: This column establishes whether the blueprint
cuts? Or, what happens if the MRI cut is not anchored to the
datum is recut after the MFcut. In Panel A, Fig. 2-19, c, cut
blueprint angle datum Zl? In Fig. 2-19, c, four minicharts along
8 remachines the b/ueprinr datum after the MF cut—cut 6.
with notes, schematics, and calculations provide answers to
Column 5: This combination of conditions leads to Decision
these questions. Above each minichart is a strip layout with
4 (Decision 4 appears in Panel A, Fig. 2-19, c, beside the
notes describing the blueprint and process conditions.
schematic and at the end of step 1 B). This decision dictates
In each chart the angle line values are labeled as being either
the assignment of the +0.020” blueprin~ angle tolerance to
Real or Virtual. Real MR1, MR2, and MF line values are
Virluai MF and that Lions Share budgeting logic should be
always cuts— VirtuaI MR1, MR2, and MF vaIues are always
used to develop tolerance for the Real MFcut. Lions Share
balance dimensions. Balance dimensions come from the
logic results in assignment *0.O 13“ to Real MF cut—cut 6.
schematic diagrams under each chart. Unlike standard angle
machining, nonstandard machining methods require construc- Next, the decision table is used to determine how to develop
tion of schematic diagrams. tolerance for the Real MR1 cut—cut 1.
As in Panel A, Fig. 2-19, a, Formula 1 is also used in Panels
MFto MR1:
A, B, C, and D in Fig. 2-19, c. Each panel in Fig. 2-19, c,
is a deviation from the standard angle machining conditions Column 1: “When Angle machining is .....2 stage”
presented in Panel A, Fig. 2-19, a. The deviations in Column 2: “And cut pair is .....MF to MRI”
Fig. 2-19, c, are: Column 3: “And L/R (left/right) cut boundary planes are
.....equal”
Panel A: Blueprint ang/e datum Z) is remachined after the
Column 4: “And. ....MF angle datum is not recut between
MF cut.
MF and MR1 cuts”
Panel B: MF angle cut datum is remachined between the
Column 5: “Then. ....MF to MRI equals direct subtraction.
MR1 and MF cuts.
Use trig value for Cl tolerance on Real MR1 cut. ”
Panel C: The MR1 cut is not anchored to the blueprint angle
datum Zl, but to a plane which is on the opposite side of the Formula 1 is used to calculate MR I+ Cl—cut 1. Notice
barrier plane from blueprinr angle datum Z1. Cl is 0.0061” compared to 0.0131” in Panel A, Fig. 2-19, a.
Panel D: The MRI cut is not anchored to the biueprint angle This is because Real MFtolerance, D, in Panel A, Fig. 2-19, c,
datum ZI, but to a plane which is on the same side of the was reduced from 0.020” to 0.013“ by resultant blueprint
barrier plane as blueprint angle datum Z1. schematic A.
In Panel B, Fig. 2-19, c, the impact of the second deviation is
In Panel A, Fig. 2-19, c, cut 8 remachines datum Zl after the
shown—namely the MF angle cut datum Zl is remachined
MFcut is taken. The blueprint angle dimension and tolerance is
between the h4Rl and MF cut. Looking at the decision table:
assigned to balance dimension 9, which is the VirtuaIMF. Since
the blueprim angle dimension is not created by a direct B/ Pto MF
machining cut as it was in Panel A, Fig. 2-19, a, a blueprint
Column I: “When angle machining is.....2 stage”
resultant schematic is constructed. Steps beside the schematic
Column 2: “And cut pair is....PB/P to A4F’
describe the MRl& C Development.
Column 3: “And L/R cut boundary planes are .....equal”
In step 1B Lions Share logic is the method used to budget the
Column 4: “And. ....B/ P angle datum is not recut after the
+0.020” blueprint angle tolerance. Table 2-2 shows that the
MF cut”
nature of this budgeting action consists of assigning tolerances to
Column 5: “Then. ....assign maximum B/P tolerance to Real
lines 2 and 8 equal to their respective Kx3 u values, summing them,
MF cut.”
and subtracting that sum from the *0.020” to get the largest
possible or Lions Share tolerance for the line 6 Rea/ MF cut. Next, the decision table is used to develop tolerance for the Real
Determining how to assign tolerances is probably the most MRI cut—cut 1.
difficult part of tolerance charting nonstandard angle machining
MFto MR1:
conditions. Decision Table 2-3 is designed to make this task
easier. This table is applicable for standard as well as non- Column 1: “When angle machining is .....2 stage”
standard angle machining conditions. The first four columns Column 2; “And cut pair is .....MF to MRI°
list the possible conditions, whereas the fifth column, labeled Column 3: “And L) R cut boundary is.....equal”
“THEN,” states the tolerance—assignment procedure to use for Column 4: “And. ....MF angle datum is recut between MF
each different combination of conditions. Referencing Panel A and MRI cuts”
in Fig. 2-19, c, it can be seen how the decision table is used. Column 5: “Then. .. .. Virtual MRI equals balance dimension
2-28
CHAPTER 2
ANGULAR CUTS
Lx
2-29
CHAPTER 2
ANGULAR CUTS
TABLE 2-2
Apportionment of Tolerances for Angles Using the “Lions Share” Method
I I
X.X37VALUES
I I
AssIGNED AND COMPUTED
SCHEMATICS
ON CUTS TOLERANCES ON CUTS
UUJ .UU.3
6= REA1MF*D
004 013
7
1I 4I
002 002 8
● *
.020
9 = VIRTUAL MF A D = 020
I MAXIMUM BLUEPRINT = * .020

m
I NOTE. lne 6 REAL D = .020 - ~LINE 2 (0005) + LINE 8 (0,002)] = 013
equals trig value. Use Fair-,Share logic to get Cl tolerance on chances are line 2 would be assigned a value larger than 0.005”
Real MR1 cut. ” Note: Fair-Share logic assigns tolerance and line 1 would be assigned a value smaller than 0.010”, both of
proportionally to cuts according to Kx3 u value. Table 2-I them adding up to the computed Vir/ual Cl of 0.0 15“ on line 3.
explains Fair Share logic.
Figure 2-19, f
in Panel C, Fig. 2-19, c, the Real MRf cut—cut 1—is not Figure 2-19,X supplies Group III-A Formulas 9,10,11, and
anchored to the blueprim angle dalum ZI, but to a plane, W, 12 which combine Group I and Group 11-type problems into a
which is on the opposite side of the barrier plane from blueprim single machining problem. Note that the callout of Formula 9
angle datum Z1. For cut pair blueprint to MF, these conditions involves two equations, one to compute an J4R2 * C2 value
lead to Decision 3 in the decision table .....’’Assign maximum based on the MF5c D of the blueprint, and another to compute
B/P tolerance to Real MF cut—cut 6.” For cut pair MF to an MRI t Cl value based on the MR2 * C2 value just
MR1, these angle machining conditions lead to Decision 2— computed. They must be calculated in that order—see the
“ Virtual MRI equals balance dimension equals trig value. Use decision table (Table 2-3) for three-stage angle machining. Once
Fair Share logic to get Cl tolerance on Real MR1 cut—cut 1.“ again, Flip-Flop is possible and nonstandard equations
The nonstandard angle machining condition in Panel D, Fig. are provided.
2-19, c, is like Panel C, except that the Real MR1 cut—cut l—is
anchored to a plane X, which is on the same side of the barrier Figure 2-19, g, Panel G and H
plane as blueprint angle datum ZI. Figure 2-19, g, provides a standard Formula 9 chart in panel
Although all four nonstandard deviations presented in G; and in panel H, the MRI and MF cuts are both Flip-
Panels A, B, C, and D, Fig. 2-19, c, are for Formula 1, these Flopped. In this situation Lions Share budgeting is used both in
deviations may occur for angle Formulas 1 through 8, 25 the blueprint resultant schematic and in the MF-MR2 stock
through 28, and radii breakout Formulas I through 4. Decision removal schematic to maximize the final Cl calculation value.
Table 2-3 is applicable for all of these formulas. Despite use of the Lions Share method twice, Cl was calculated
to be 0.0016’’—an impractical working tolerance for the Cl cut.
Figure 2-19, d Beneath panels G and H are shown the relationships
Figure 2-19, d, supplies Group If Formulas 5,6,7, and 8 for
between the C2 and Cl tolerance equations, and suggestion 3 is
remachining the angular surface itself. This layout is similar to
made to decrease the D value from 0.020 to 0.017” to see if Cl
the Fig. 2-19, b, sheet for Formulas 1, 2, 3, and 4, but also
can be increased. The result is that Cl will be increased to
provides a column of nonstandard formulas for handling the
0.0046”. Similar improvements might be derived by altering
Flip-Flop of the MF cut when the MF cut datum is not on the
tolerance input values A, B, and NE.
same side of the barrier plane as the blueprint angle datum.
Figure 2-19, e, Panels E and F Corrective Actions to Increase Computed Cl
Figure 2-19, e, provides a standard Formula 5 chart in panel Working Tolerances
E and a Flip-Flopped Formula 5 MFcut in panel F. Because of This section describes and summarizes the adjustments that
the datum switch, the MR1 calculation in panel F uses Formula can be made to tolerance calculation equations (C2 or Cl) to
6—not Formula 5—to derive the Virtual MRI mean value of develop practical working tolerances.
0.550” (panel F illustrates Flip-F/opping). Table 2-4 lists these equations and provides the possibilities
Panel F uses both the Lions Share and the Fair Share for corrections, either by changing input values or by revising
methods for budgeting tolerances. Note that line 2 is common the original strip layout processing/ dimensioning factors
to both schematics shown at the bottom of panel F; and since it affecting the angle calculations.
was assigned its K x 3 u value of 0.005” in the first schematic (in Previous text comments have covered some of the changes
accordance with the Lions Share approach), it is at a minimum from Table 2-3, and in particular, panel H of Fig. 2-19, g, shows
in the line 6 stock removal schematic and therefore line 1 Cl how a simple reduction of D from +0.020 to AO.017° changed
value is at a maximum of 0.010”. Strictly speaking, the Fair the Cl value from 0.0016 to 0.0046”.
Share method does not apply here because line 2 is common to Note that all of the suggested changes except one do not
both schematics. If line 2 were not common to both schematics, require the participation of product design for approval.
2-30
CHAPTER 2
ANGULAR CUTS
z
u-l
~
—
—
—
2-31
CHAPTER 2
ANGULAR CUTS
TABLE 2-4
Corrective Actions to Increase Computed CI Tolerances
ANGLE CAN PRODUCT SEQUENCE AND

TOIERANCE REDUCE REDUCE REDUCE INCREASE
FORMULA DESIGN IN 31MENSION ING
EQUATIONS D VALUE A VALUE B VALUE NE VALUE
NO.S CREASE D VAIUE’ ANGES SEE BE1OW
*1 THRU 4 CI=D-COICY(A+B) x x x x
I I
5 THRU 8
I Cl= NE CSCa-D
I x x
C2=NEcsca+2Bcot a-D x
x
9THRU’2 +“Ax’M’zEC’
I Cl= C2-cota(A+B) I x
C2=D+cota(A+B) x x
3THRU 16 x
+“NM’z’c’
cl= NEccsac2
‘ Also apolies to radii breakout formulas 1, 2, 3, and 4
SEQUENCE AND DIMENSIONING CHANGES—TO BE CONSIDERED
I Con equations be by-passed by cuthng angle to blueprm, size [n o Ioter operoton?

2 Can schetrotlcs be elmnored bv returmna to a stonoard mochlnma setbp n the strip lovouts~
3 Can the number of cuts m ‘he s~hemot,cs”be ,educed by changes ~ the seq.ence or dlrnamonng~
Figure 2-19, h TABLE 2-5

Figure 2-19, h, supplies Group 111-B Formulas 13, 14, 15, Equivalent Angle Formula Numbers
and 16. Nonstandard modifications are also shown.
IS EQUAL TO
FIGURE NO. FORMULA NO.
FORMULA NO.
Figure 2-19, i
Figure 2-19, i, shows four radially dimensioned angle 2-19,1 29 17
machining processes, two from Group land two from Group II 2-19,1 30 18
of Fig. 2-18, b, blueprint Setup 2. The MRI f Cl and MFti D 2-19, I 31 18
values are listed alongside balloon callouts in the tolerance chart. 2-19, 32 17
Note that the SSR * SE shoulder stock removal comes out

2-19, m 33 19
of the completed chart for length dimensions. In the event the 2-19, m 34 20
computed Cl tolerance is too tight, changes would have to be
made in the tolerances on the cuts that produce the SE value in 2-19, n 21
2-19, n
the chart to reduce the SE value so that Cl would increase. In
2-19, n 22
Formulas 19 and 20, increasing iVEand/ or decreasing D could 219, n 38
also tend to increase Cl.
219,c 39 23
Figure 2-19, j 2-19, 0 40
Figure 2-19,-i, shows the Groups I and II radial angles from 2-19,0 41 24
Fig. 2-19, i, combined into a three-stage machining process. 219, 0 42
Once again, examination of the Cl and C2 tolerance equations
will show how to adjust tolerance factors to develop practical NONSTANDARD ANGLE
values for Cl.
MACHINING SETUPS
Figure 2-19, k Selection of the proper formula to use on an angle problem is
Figure 2-19, k, introduces blueprint Setup 3 problems— a matter of matching the strip layout angle setups to that of the
Formulas 25 through 28. Handling these formulas is the same as charting problem at hand. If no matchup can be made, the
handling angle Formulas 5,6,7, and 8. problem must be handled on a custom basis using 20:1 precision
layouts of the zone diagrams and then scaling the answers for
Figures 2-19, i, m, n, and o use in the tolerance chart.
Figures 2-19,1, m, n, and o, provide fourteen more equations Once the 20: I layout is made, the geometry may indicate
for blueprint Setup 4, basic length, radially dimensioned to an how the needed values may be computed by trigonometry.
MF * D value. Table 2-5 shows these formula numbers and Beyond this, if the type of custom problem is typical of a family
which of these basic length formulas are equal to formulas of design problems, general equations, similar to the general
already developed that treat angles wherein the point P is located equations presented in this section, may be developed to
at the intersection of the angular surface and a square shoulder. handle them.
2-32
CHAPTER 2
ANGULAR CUTS
w“
——
t I_
I 1
I o-
CHAPTER 2
ANGULAR CUTS
g. 2-19, e Application of standard Formula 5 and Flip-Flopped Formula 5, blueprint Setup 1, Group H.
2-34
CHAPTER 2
ANGULAR CUTS
a
II II II II
~cX__ k
o
$U?u z
2-35
CHAPTER 2
ANGULAR CUTS
10 50
,9 9
MRlt Cl ~, $
7 MFf D
H w
2 :cl~’ !llERrk”
T
\/P SETUP #I GROUP lilA PROCESS.~ F#9 B/P SETUP #1 GROUP ~-A PROCESSX F#9
NOTES. 1) Z9= B/P PRIMARY ANGIE DATUM

NOTES 1) Z9= B/P PRIMARY ANGIE DATUM 2) SAME PROCESS AS PANEL G EXCEPT THAT.
PANEL 2) THIS IS STANDARD PROCESS FOR PANEL A) MR2 DATUM IS REMACHINED BETWEEN MR2 MRI
D G ~ F#9 FROM FIG. 2-19, ‘
n
H B) MF x DATUM W IS NOT ON SAME SIDE OF BARRIER
PLANE ASZ9 (FIIP-FLOPSX F#9T0 #10 FOR MF+MR2)
~
GIVEN
MF = .400
D = 020
.3@
w
RR= 1010
A = .003
RF= I 000
B= .001 MR2y
NSR = 025
NE=
COMPUTE
C2&MRI
015
~Cl +1
v b
SAME ~ DATA AS PANEL G
0016
005
2*
*
.0066
MACHINE TO [ I LINES STK REMOVAL ; .0066
BC ME~NL’l ‘~”TO~
vlEAN * TOL h uSED 8
MEA:OIL: ’01 %
.3673 .0066 I REAL MRI LINE 5=*.0135 5
.900 .030 4 S011 D ~
- p F
FAIR-SHARE* 5
m
.350 .0135 & ~ REAL MR2 I -5 0173 020 I N
MR2+MR1 Y
‘1 +
.400 020 REAL MF 7.5 050 .0335
BLUEPRINT AB c RESULTANTS
.400 .020
(
.900 030
LIONS SHARE* ~
MR2 = MF NSR CSC a
= .400 - 025 CSC30 co
= 350 MF+MR2 ?
=
C2 =NEcsca+2BcoT @-D C2 =NEcsca+2BcoT a-D .005 3~

= .015 CSC30 + 2(.001) COT30 020 = 015 CSC39+2(O01)COT30 015
= .0135 = 0185 .015 7’
xF#9= 10
m 8 020
A
MR1 = MR2 + COT Q’ (RR-RF) MRI = MR2 + COT a (RR-RF) ~
= .350 + COT30 (1 010- 1.000) = 350+ COT30(I 010 I 000) B/P= ~ 020
= .3673 = .3673 ti F#9
LIONS SHARE*
Cl =C2COTCY(A+B) cl =c2coTa(A+B)
= 0135 COT30(0 03+ 001) = 0135 COT30(O03 +.001) B/P-MF
= 0066 = 0066 d F#9
ADJUSTMENT OF GIVEN & DATA TO MAXIMIZE Cl WORKING TOLERANCE REF,lINE 2, PANEL H, Cl = * .0016
10
*cy ,Cg ,$ll.B,p ‘Jggi:$

*C I &C~ kti=B/p
U
GROUP II-A PROCESS—X F#’S 9, IO, I 1, AND 12 2) IN Y, ALSO REDUCE

GROUP~B PROCESS—X, Fff’S 13. 14, 15, AND 16
B/P D TO MAXIMIZE
MF - MR2 c2=NEcsca+2BcoT @-D MFjMR2 c2~:;:,ZEc2
3) PROBIEM:TRY D = *
x +M.X.ZEC2
;{,!}:iyi
MR2 - MRI Cl= C2-COTa(A+B) MR2 ‘MRI Cl= NE CSCa C2 0046
Fig. 2-19, g Application of standard Formula 9 and Fl$r-Flopped Formula 9, blueprint Setup 1, Group III-A.
2-36
CHAPTER 2
AIUGULAR CUTS
2-37
CHAPTER 2
ANGULAR CUTS
II II
—
t--””’w-i
H H
?-38
CHAPTER 2
ANGULAR CUTS
.
2-39
CHAPTER 2
ANGULAR CUTS
2-40
CHAPTER 2
ANGULAR CUTS
—
C-N
g
L
M
—
t--w u
Xylz
II Q3y
4 z +
x
2-41
CHAPTER 2
ANGULAR CUTS
a
+1
+1
2-42
CHAPTER 2
ANGULAR CUTS
2-43
CHAPTER 2
ANGULAR CUTS
2-44
CHAPTER 2
RADII BREAKOUT CUTS
TOLERANCE CHARTING OF RADII BREAKOUT CUTS

The concept of radii breakout is best understood by referring calculations are to be verified for correctness. Construct the
to the geometry setup diagram in the center-right panel of Fig. zone diagram prior to using the equations.
2-20, a. In the diagram, a finish-machined arc, S, is shown The zone diagram shown in the center-left panel of Fig. 2-20,
tangent to a finish-machined radius, P. At the other end of the a, was constructed to an accurate 100:1 scale. Tbe scaled
arc, S, the arc intersects a rough machined radius, RR, at the answers matched the equation results for MR MAX and MR
point PI. MIN within 0.0002’’—thus verifying the correctness of the
At tbe point where the arc breaks out into the air, PI, the arc calculated results.
has moved through an angle a that is less than 90°. It is this Sometimes the construction of the zone diagram results in
less-than-90° characteristic that creates the radii breakout the arcs crossing over each other. This is due to an incom-
problem since subsequent remachining of the radius RR at the parability in the tolerance spread allowed on the variables by
breakout point will cause the point PI to move along the the blueprint, The solution to this problem—as revealed by the
arc—away (A) from the datum Zf or toward (T) the darum zone diagram constmction--is to reduce the tolerance spread
Z2—and come to rest at the point P2. allowed by the blueprint on the variable causing the crossover.
NATURE OF THE TOLERANCE CHARTING TYPES OF RADII BREAKOUT PROBLEMS

PROBLEM Figure 2-20, a, covers axially dimensioned, external radii
The tolerance charting problem with the MR & C cut is: breakout cuts frequently found in shafting and occasionally in
How are the MR and C values to be determined so that the asymmetrical parts. Blueprint Setup 1 in the top left panel
correct MF MEAN value will be produced when the RF cut is shows that point P may be dimensioned from either datum Z/
made and the full blueprint tolerance of D will be reflected in or Z2,
the C tolerance? Regardless of whether the blueprint dimensions point P
The complexity of the MR + C calculation problem is a from datum Z1 or from dafum Z2, the strip layout sketch must
result of the fact that in the geometry setup of Fig. 2-20, a, five show the MF cut dimensioned the same way as the blueprint—
variables are tied into the MR + C calculation for point P1. that is, the lefti right boundary planes of the MF Real cut must
These variables are MF, RR, RF, P, and S. match the left/ right boundary planes of the blueprint radii
At the bottom of the geometry setup panel in Fig. 2-20, a, the breakout length. Formulas 1 and 2 depend on this condition
formula for MR to the datum Z1 is given as: being true. On the other hand, the MR cut maybe dimensioned
from any nonstandard datum surface,
MR ❑ MF + HP2 - GP1
These observations concerning the dimensioning of the radii
but neither HP2 or GP1 is given in terms of the five variables. breakout cuts are identical to those covering the angle machining
Developing expressions that equal GPf and HP2 in terms of the Formula 1 covered in the previous section of this chapter.
RR, RF, P, and S variables and substituting them into the Anything concerned with the machining of angle Formula 1
previously developed equation produces, for the datum Z1 applies equally to radii breakout Formula 1—and to Formula
setup, the general equation: numbers 2, 3, and 4 also. The only difference between the two
types of problems in the chart is the formula calculations
P+ S-RF themselves. The radii breakout Formulas 1, 2, 3, and 4 are
MR ❑ MF+ S. sin
[(cos-’
s )1 considered equal to the angle Formulas 1, 2, 3, and 4 and the
methods for handling datum remachining of angles apply
-1 !P+ S-RR equally to the radii breakout cuts.
- S” sin cos
s Figure 2-20, b, covers the internal radii breakout cuts that
[\ H
are equivalent to the external type of radii breakout cuts. The
Formulas 3 and 4, for datunrs Z.3 and Z4, are handled in all
This general formula is used to compute both the MR respects exactly the way the external Formulas 1 and 2 are
MEA N and the C values. Unlike angle formulas developed in handled.
the previous sections of this chapter, no separate formulas are Figure 2-20, c, covers radii breakout cuts involving webs and
employed for A4R and C. Instead, the MAX and MIN values hubs. The Formulas 5 and 6 are slightly less complicated than
are computed separately for MR. Then, averaging the Formulas 1,2,3, and 4 but essentially are handled the same as
MAX] MIN values produces the required MR value, and the axially dimensioned radii breakouts. The end face in which
computing one half the difference between the MAX/ MIN point PI lies may be remachined any number of times—what
values produces the C value. counts in Formulas 5 and 6 is the final depth, RF t B.
Proper computation of the MR MAX and then the MR
MIN values depends on using the correct combinations of PROCEDURE FOR DETERMINING
MAX/ MIN factors in the general equation, In the radii MR + C VALUE
breakout formulas for MR MAX and MR MIN, and in the Step 1. On the basis of the strip layout sketches and the
zone diagrams, MAX values are denoted by black dot circles blueprint setups—as shown at the top of Figs. 2-20, a, b, and
and MIN values by open circles. c—make a table of MIN/MAX input data values for
Construction of the zone diagram is essential, as is the setup variables MF, RR, RF, P, and S similar to the tables shown
of the input values in table form for MIN/ MAX values of the in the bottom-right panels of Figs. 2-20, a, b, and c.
variables (see the bottom-right column of Fig. 2-20, a) if the Step 2. Construct the zone diagram based on the Formula
2-45
CHAPTER 2
RADII BREAKOUT CUTS
Fig. 2-20,a Radii breakout formulas and their use in tbe tolerance chart —axial dimensioning, external, Formulas 1 and 2, blueprint Setup 1.
2-46
CHAPTER 2
RADII BREAKOUT CUTS
..
Fig. 2-20, b Radii breakout formulas and their use in the tolerance chart -axial dimensioning, internal, Formulas 3 and 4, blueprint Setup 2.
2-47
CHAPTER 2
RADII BREAKOUT CUTS
ONE DIAGRAM ORIGINAL = 100:1 SCALE—PUBLISHED == 50:1 SCALE

MAX VALUE O MIN VALUE (SEE INPUT DATA TABLE) ]
~ F#5
Z5 INPUT DATA FOR Z5 & Z<
F+W””N
F“”c+,]
Z5 WEB
WEB MAX MR 9CALCULAT10NS
‘RMAx=fiF+:”s’N [co” . MR MEAN=
(MR MAX + MR MIN) % 2 ~5
‘034’040’’N[c0’’P040”N”N
[co”
(Yf$Hl (;:(); + 0351): 2
WEB
MF = 0285
~D = t 0055
= 0403 COMPUTED. 0403 SCAIED FROM ZONE DIAGRAM ABOVE c. MF= ,0215
&B MR MIN = RF +:- SIN

[
COS1
($w””” ko” f+)] %% ‘~~xo3y;M’y):2
:,C=:::TA
ITEM MEAN k TC)l. MAX MIP
= 023+ ““”N [Cos’f-)l””””h

[Cos’
c-l MR ~ C = .0378 i 0026
s
RR
037
019
003
.002
.040 .03
.021 .0 I
= 0351 COMPUTED: 0352 SCALED FROM ZONE DIAGRAM ABOVE RF .008 002 .010 .00(
Z6 $g
MRMAX=&+:-,,N[cOS (&$-; sINIcos~~)]
HUB
MR MEAN=
(MR MAX+ MR MlN): 2
‘ ‘27+”34S’N H(%W”34X (=)1 ‘,24

(01 49+ .0097) + 2
NOTE
UNLIKE FIG 2-20,0,
2-20, b, MINIMAX
AND
ARCS
= .0149 COMPUTED: 0148 SCALED FROM ZONE DIAGRAM ABOVE c= CANNOT CROSS
(j91-’””N
Fos’
($9I %i ~~o:;y’;)’2
‘:F:;;;;FZSAME
26
riUB
“MRM’N=:F+g”s’N [’Os)
‘ ““+”4”S’N’[COS’( *)1-” 4”S’N Fos) (-1

MR*C=.0124t .0025
= .0097 COMPUTED: .0098 SCALED FROM ZONE DIAGRAM ABOVE
Fig. 2-20, c Radii breakout formulas and their use in the tolerance chart–radial dimensioning, hubs and webs, Formulas 5 and 6, frfueprirrfSetup 3.
2-48
CHAPTER 2
HEAT-TREAT SHRINKAGE/EXPANSION
selection (note the toward (T) and away (A) designations on computing one half the sum of the MA X/MIN values
the MF cuts in layouts 2-20, a, and in 2-20, b, wherein they computed in Step 3. The C value is obtained by computing
function the same way as in Fig. 2-19, b, for angle Formula one half the difference between the MAX/ MIN values
numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4) and the Step 1 MIN/ MAX variable computed in Step 3.
values from the table. Label and dimension all lines as shown Step 5. Install the computed MR * C value in the tolerance
in the zone diagrams to avoid confusion. chart.
Once the rectangular zone for MR is constructed, scale
from its datum the values for MR MAX and MR MIN. ADJUSTMENT OF TOLERANCES WHEN
Record these scaled values for comparison to computed THE C TOLERANCE IS TOO TIGHT
values from the formulas. In the event the Ctolerance is too tight, decreasing the A and
Step 3. Set up the MAX and MIN formulas, showing the B tolerances for RR and RF will reduce the spread between
black dot circle over the MAX vah.res and the open circle their MIN/ MAX table values and result in an increased value
over the MIN values. for C. Tight tolerances can be more easily held on the RR and
Then install the specified MIN/MAXvalues and compute RF features of the workpiece as compared to tightened
the MR MAX value and then the MR MIN value. tolerances on P or S.
Step 4. The required MR MEAN value is obtained by
CONTROL OF HEAT-TREAT SHRINKAGE/EXPANSION

IN THE TOLERANCE CHART
Shrinkage or expansion due to heat treatment is expressed in rectangular, single-cut schematic, but it is done here and
thousandths of an inch per inch of length (0.001 in. / in,) or balance dimension 9 is created to represent the cut 4 size
thousandths of a millimeter per millimeter of length (0.001 value modified by heat treatment. Balance dimension 9 is
mm/ mm). This ratio is the same, whether expressed in inch or the blueprint condition—not cut 4.
metric units, and its numerical value is based on judgment— 2. Blueprint condition B is established in the chart by
which, in turn, is based on empirical data drawn from postheat-treatment cut 13, But, cut 13 is a secondary cut
controlled tests on small lots of parts. and its stock removal schematic B shows that two cuts—2
When confronted with materials for which no empirical data and 10—are involved in closing the schematic loop. Since
is available, test lots of material should be processed as close as cut 2 passes through the heat-treatment zone, a balance
possible to the final process in terms of stock removal rates and dimension 8 is added to the schematic to represent cut 2
sequence. Then, when the material is heat treated, the observed size value modified by heat treatment. Balance dimension
shrinkage/ expansion will approximate that expected in the 12 then is equal to lines 8 + 10—not lines 2 + 10.
final production process. Based on these sizes, the unknown 3, Blueprint condition C schematic shows that two cuts— 1
shrinkage/ expansion rate factor can be developed for use in the and 2—are involved, both made prior to heat treatment.
tolerance chart. Balance dimension 5 is established before heat treatment
For most parts, shrinkage/ expansion may be considered to and then duplicated (in 6 in the heat-treatment zone) to
be uniform from end to end. However, certain types of part modify its size. Balance dimension 6 is the blueprint
configurations, such as crankshafts, camshafts, etc., may condition—not line 5.
display gross differences in shrinkage/expansion rates within a 4. Blueprint condition D schematic involves four cuts, two
single piece. This is due mostly to gross changes in cross before and two after heat treatment.
sectional area, with drastic changes in cooling rates, etc. Under 5. Cut 10 stock removal schematic would normally not be
these conditions further experimental development must be built since cuts 3 and 10 would be direct subtractions.
performed to estimate the expected shrinkage or expansion rate But, since cut 3 passes through heat treatment, balance
for specific areas of the workpiece. Figure 2-21 tolerance chart dimension 7 is added to reflect line 3 size change due to
and associated schematics, show how heat-treatment effects are heat treatment. Stock removal on cut 10 would be lines
controlled. After the last preheat-treatment cut is drawn, a 7-10, not lines 3-10.
heat-treatment zone is set up in the chart, allowing space for as
many heat-treated lengths as there are cuts above the zone.
When all the balance dimensions are installed in the chart,
Then, the balance of the cuts are drawn for the process and
all tolerance assignments are made in the usual manner, but
the schematics are built. With respect to the schematics (see Fig.
with no concern for the impact of heat treating on their values.
2-2 1), note these differences:
Theoretically, tolerances are affected by heat treatment;
1. Blueprint condition A would be established in a chart however, the magnitude of such changes has no practical
without heat treatment by direct cut 4—but cut 4 is made significance in the chart. Only mean sizes are significantly
prior to heat treatment and its size must pass through the altered by heat treatment. To aid such calculations, the table at
heat-treatment zone. Normally, one would not draw a the bottom of Fig. 2-21 summarizes the four possible conditions
schematic for a direct blueprint cut since it would be a for computing heat-treatment size changes on mean dimensions.
2-49
CHAPTER 2
HEAT-TREAT SHRINKAGE/EXPANSION
NOTES I) SYNTHESIS TYPE CHART (MEAN

SIZES BUILT FROM BOTTOM UP)
2) SHRINKAGE= .002/lN,
~ m
2
8HT
10
12
MACHINE TO BA1. DIM, 11N ES STK. REMVL
vIEAN t TO1 MEAN * TO1 USED MEAN * TO1 13 B
~ a
977 ,005 I
?.043 005 2
3031 010 _3. . 1
4028 ,010 4 2
5 10020 010 1+2 5
6 H.T.
c
a
H EAT TREAT
ZONE 6. c 10000 — 5-HT,
7- 3025 — 3 H.T.
8 9025 — 2- H.T I
9 A 14,000 — 4- H.T 2
H EAT TREAT 5
ZONE 6 HT.
10
3.000 005 10 7-10 .025 015 11

II 13,000 015 6+lo
13
12 12,025 .010 EI+IO 14
2.000 005 13 B 12-13 .025 015 D
_ +
.144 D 1000 020 11-13
BLUE PRINT RESUlTANTS

I 000 .020 D I .000 020 14
3
0.000 Olo c I 0.000 .010 6
7 H.T.
2000 005 B I 2000 .005 13
10
4000 010 A I 4000 010 9 a
E
COMPUTING HEAT TREATED MEANS
~ b AND — > THEN NOTES: I ) IN TABLE FORMULAS

CHA~~ TYPE HEAT TREAT USE X = SIZE CHANGE PER UNIT LENGTH DUE TO H.T.
Is CAUSES FORMUIA Y = MEAN SIZE PRIOR TO HT.
Z = MEAN SIZE AFTER H.T.
2) EXAMPLE: SHRINKAGE—SYNTHESIS (CHART ABOVE)
SHRINKAGE Y=z(l +x)
LINE 7 = 3.025 COMPUTE LINE 3 = Y
SYNTHESIS Y=z(l +x)
Y = 3.025 (1 + .002)
Y= 3.03105= 3.031 ROUNDOFF = lINE 3
EXPANSION Y=z (l-x)
3) EXAMPIE—SHRINKAGE-ANALYSIS (CHART ABOVE)
LINE 3 = 3.031 COMPUTE LINE 7 = Z
Z= Y(I -X)
SHRINKAGE Z= Y(l -X) Z= 3031 (1 002)
Z = 3.024938= 3,025 ROUNDOFF = UNE 7
ANALYSIS
EXPANSION Z= Y(I +X)
,_ * ** c. __..-, -c 1----- .---. —..-. -1--,.., ---- -_J . .._--.. -_ :_ .L” .-, -.-.-”- “l---- /“ T - l---- .. . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER 2
PLATED SURFACES
2-51
CHAPTER 2
PLATED SURFACES
CONTROL OF PLATED SURFACES IN

THE TOLERANCE CHART
Secondary machining operations on square-shouldered 4, Machine—Partial plate—Finish machine some plated
surfaces result in stock removals that are recorded in the surfaces.
Stock Removal column in the chart. Plating of machined 5. Machine—Partial plate—Finish machine all plated
surfaces will modify any chart sizes that exist prior to plating. surfaces.
These size modifications must be considered in developing the 6. Machine—Partial plate.
tolerance chart.
Panel A chart in Fig. 2-22 represents example 4 in that plane
Since plating represents an add-on operation due to a
1 is not plated and diameter 1 is finish ground to blueprint size
production process, it is treated like a machining operation and
after plating.
the plating thickness value—the opposite of the stock removal
As shown by the schematics, handling plating on square-
value—is recorded in the Machine To column.
shouldered surfaces is fairly simple; but when an angle is
The plating symbol defined in Fig. 2-9 and applied in the
involved, complications develop in that the movement of the
tolerance chart represented in Fig. 2-22 is designed to avoid the point P on the angle will be a function of the plating thickness
need to draw additional plane lines in the chart to represent the
and the angle value.
outer surface of the piated film.
As shown, the schematic for an angle should be constructed
Note that the dot of the plating symbol is tangent to the
to show a blow-up of the base-metal and plated plane lines to
machined plane line and inside the base metal of the part. The
clarify the plane relationships.
arrow indicates that plating is applied to the side of the
With respect to angles, trigonometric formulas are needed to
machined plane surface exposed to the air; but in the schematics
compute how much the angle point P moves axially or radially.
for Fig. 2-22, the arrow is shown facing away from the dot of the
Four formulas are presented for blueprinf Setups 1,2,3, and
chart symbol,
4 when the angular surface and its boundary surfaces are plated.
Each square-shouldered surface (and the plane through the
The formula for blueprint Serup 1 is derived; the other three are
point P of the angle) that is to be plated is assigned a plating listed in the table (see Panels C and D), Other plating conditions
symbol—with only one plating symbol shown on any given
on angles may require development of special formulas to suit
numbered plane.
the specific configuration.
Plating operations can follow many sequences in the chart,
In all cases, a 500: I or 1000: I scale layout of the zone around
depending upon blueprint specifications.
point Pwillassist in determining the manner in which the point
P on the angle moves axially or radially.
Examples:
Once the movement of point P has been calculated, its
1. Machine—Plate all over—Finish machine some plated value is installed in the Machine To column or used to compute
surfaces. radial sizes.
2. Machine—Plate all over—Finish machine all plated No formula solutions are offered for radii breakout
surfaces. problems—20: 1 or larger layouts should be constructed to
3. Machine—Plate all over. determine movement of point P axially or radially.
TOLERANCE CHARTING OF
GEOMETRIC TOLERANCES
Four of the 14 geometric tolerances shown in Fig. 2-3 practical or desirable because of the nature of the tooling. Or,
(items 6, 10, 11, and 12) are controlled in the tolerance chart. sequencing may require that a tighter tolerance be held on the X
These four tolerances are: profile of a plane, position, concen- axis—or the Y axis—so that the radial tolerance value will be
tricity, and symmetry. The remaining ten tolerances shown in based on the equation C~ ❑ X’ + Y~instead of the equation C’2❑
Fig. 2-3 depend solely on the tooling, sequencing, and machine 2XZ or C~ ❑ 2Y~.
tool accuracies.
In order for these four geometric tolerances to be factored PROFILE OF A PLANE, POSITION,
into the tolerance chart, the blueprint-defined values must be
SYMMETRY AND CONCENTRICITY
converted into equivalent, equal bilateral form coupled to basic
With respect to tolerance charting, note the following
dimensions. The required conversions are shown at the bottom
regarding these characteristics:
of Fig. 2-3.
With respect to the position conversion note (#10) at the 1, Profile of a plane. Treat in the tolerance chart like any
bottom on Fig. 2-3, the position conversion is based on an other dimension with an equal bilateral tolerance,
implied 45° condition so that the X tolerances equal the Y 2. Position and symmetry. Control in the tolerance chart a
tolerances. In practice, however, the 45° setup may not be gap between the centerline of one feature and the
2-52
CHAPTER 2
L Y
<
F
~ ;OU~H
+
6
‘c’
*RY *FY
a! —x
g
*R, ~
*Hx + (Rx+ Fx)
2
*Fx > Q ;/Pc
s
X-X AXIS TOIERANCE CHART LOCATION
Y
DIMENSIONS ‘A’
AC= ECCENTRICITY BETWEEN ROUGH/

FINISH @
2 X AC= REQUIRED DIAMETER REDUCTION
c FACTOR FOR ROUGH BORE
1. AC= (R, + Fx)z + (Ry + Fy)z AND, WHEN

(R, + F,)= (Ry + F,), OR AB = EC, THEN
RY
AC= ~-
L RK
2 AC= ~
Fy
B~–– - Fx A 3. 2AC =2 G
NOTES 1) BORE SIZE CALCULATIONS IN FIG 2-23, d USE EQ. (3) TO
~ %’
B/P SIMPLIFY EXAMPLES.
2) EQ, (2) IS USED IN PROOFS OF BORE SIZE CALCULATIONS IN FIG.
2-23, d.
3) USE EQ. (1) WHEN AB# BC
4) EQ. (3) IS ALSO USED FOR IN-LINE BORE CONCENTRICITY CONTROL
IN TOLERANCE CHARTS.
. . . . . . . .
Fig. 2-23, a Concentricity control us me tolerance chart —calccclat]on ot axis eccentricities.
centerline of the second feature so that the gap equals one will deuend on the nature of the oart and the moblem
A
half the converted symmetry or position callout value conditions. These two techniques are described as:
(see the following section). 1. Single, common centerline plane to represent two or
3. Concentricity. Control in the chart in accordance with
more features related by a symmetry callout in the
calculation values shown in Fig. 2-23, a.
blueprint.
2. Multiple feature centerline planes to represent two or
POSITION AND SYMMETRY more features related by a symmetry callout in the
blueprint.
IN TOLERANCE CHARTING
Of the four characteristics, position and symmetry require When the first technique is used—a single, common center-
special handling in the chart. For purposes of explaining these line plane—the symmetry values will be shown in tbe Stock
handling methods, an example of symmetry calculation is Removal cohtmns in the tolerance chart; but when the second
provided. technique is used—multiple centerline planes—the symmetry
At this writing, Y 14.5-1973 is being readied for reissuance in values are shown as dummy blueprint length dimensions.
an updated version. When the new version is printed it will be Figure 2-23, b, shows these two methods side by side so that
found that the symmetry symbol and characteristic have been their equivalency, panel A-A’, B-B’ etc. can be verified.
replaced by the position characteristic. Elimination of the For symmetry to exist between two features, the centerline
symmetry characteristic does not invalidate the treatment of one feature must lie in the plane of the centerline of the other
offered here since, for tolerance charting, position and symmetry feature; or, expressing it differently, the two centerlines must
are handled in the same manner. be coincidental.
If two features are symmetrical to one another, their Panel A in Fig. 2-23, b, shows a 2.000 i 0.0” block (perfect
centerlines will coincide. As one feature shifts with respect to 2.000” size). The line 2 centerline dimension is located exactly
the other, a gap develops between their centerlines and it is said 1.000 ~ 0.0” distance from X 1 (or X2).
that symmetry error exists between the two features. Line 2 in panel A shows a block centerline dimension of
Inspection of a machined part for conformance to a 1.000 ”-a dummy cut whose mean value is one half the X 1 to
blueprint symmetry condition is a routine matter. However, X2 mean block dimension.
setup of the machining cuts and tolerances to control a specific If a slot were machined in this block at exactly 1.000 f 0.0”
amount of centerline gap—or symmetry—is not always a from X I (or X2), its centerline would fall on the centerline of
routine task. X 1I X2 (the two centerlines would be coincidental) and the two
Two different techniques are presented here for handling features would then be considered to be symmetrical since srock
symmetry conditions. Selection of one technique over the other removal on line 3 equals 0.0 * 0.0”, or a zero gap would exist
2-53
CHAPTER 2
-.---,
rig. .4-L5,D Iwo
m. .,. –.. ..–. .— . . . . . –,
.. 1-..
memoas VI symmewy control m me tulerance
. ..
–L -..
cnarr.
. ..
. .
I.L —. –-.
– mw .. ..
nmn; . . .
tiL . . .
= mgn .. ..
nmtl.
2-54
CHAPTER 2
m * .005
i, 003 B/P-HONE 70 4.0000 ~ .0010
!
,,
II
FINBORE 60 3.7960 f .cXXO
72
23
B/P=
27
0.0000 i 0010
5.002
R s
S.F BORE
RG BORE 40
CORE DR
50
30
3 q730
3. q315
3.815EI
* .00\5
~ 0030
: .0050
1+ I XI-X2
OR
].om]
94
L
+
w
–) (2 CORED 10 3.4090 : .C600
[)(1-X2 I.ozq
NE OPER REv MACHINE MACHINE TO BALANCE DIM LINEs STOCK REMOVAL

40 NO NO USEO MEAN ? TOL. MEAN ? TOL, INVII-VEO MEAN ? TOL.
— c Sollb
I 10 .:–. FOJDP.Y 8.5J0 060 CAST - ) SOLID
,,
2 lo_ 3130 060 CA6T 2 SOLID
~ 3 5200 \zo I-2
4 iL_ _ ___ _ “_ 3 000 _ .030 cam 4 SOLID
5 20 .MIL& _3&oo _-.gQ ML. ~ s Z-5 130 . 070
6 6 82Q0 .130 3 +s
7 — 7 6-000 .Q4Q 4+5
II
8 20 8000 ‘Q D___ mL 8 6-8 .200 140
x .22-. —! ’.. 4.000 .005 9 .- X2

DUMMY $ DHIx\. so LID
10 3Q __ QRL. _ &oQ_ .003 . 10 SOLID
II
4P II 3.000. .008 9-10
12 3V tl_–_3603. ;Q ___
fORERR, , 12 > 5-E 0.000 .020
13 4 2000 .013 1?-10

1+ 30 II
400Q _.:0)0 . DR. 14 SOLID
15 _ 15 ~o oB__ m-10
16 30 :y___ fjooo_ @ IQ. ....@EQR. ,. I& 7-16 0,000 .050
17 17 s.ego_ 013 16& _ ._—- —.
11
&_ 34. 600Q- ,Q.a 18 SOLID
y .Q. BORINq J,00L .QQ __ K.&a&. )9 )3-17 0.00Q 017
,, 20
Q_ 4f -- 3y)oo .QfJ4_ &.~ 15-20 0.000 :o17_
J_ .4Q..-___ L__ .5.QC!!...
B4.. R6.PIORF ?1 -. 17-21 owl 017
II _ 2CCC_ .Qz — 22. lg-22 o .0%. ,:Og 6_
?_..50 M 80RF —
.3 50 _ _’ ‘ 10QQ 002 J .Plm& _-+, L -. _ . 20-2>. Q.000 .:go&
~ 5Q. _:’_ 5.00.0. :.oo~ ~.~ w. 24 _ 21-24 0000 o~~
~ ~&_ “ ___ z.oo_o .00 I F BORL –< &!& __~-_25 0000. -- oo~_
.6 60 II z4-&~_ Q:o~_o__ 003
__ .500.Q Col .F.BORE 26
7 21 .000. 010 II-23
8 74 now R-S 5C ?&S
.9
0
—
II BLIJE PRINT RESLILTANTS
— —
12 I 000 .005 G, I o 0 003 10
,3 6.OWJ ..002 F 6 Oca 002 18
* ___ .8.003 020 E mm 010 8
Is 2030 .001 I) 2.000 oo~ 25
6 !3.00Q 001 c 5ao 001 L6
‘7 . 0.000 .010 0 O.coq 010 27
8 3000 010 A 1 _ _ L .000 002 23
‘9 [
Fig. 2-23, c Example of how symmetry condition is handled in the tolerance chart (see also Fig. 2-23, d).
2-55
CHAPTER 2
ig. 2-23, d Calculation of progressive bore sizes used in the tolerance chart illustrated in Fig. 2-23, c.
2-56
CHAPTER 2
between the centerline of X 1/ X2 and the centerline of the slot. is done, schematics are involved in order to compute the final
Panel Bin Fig. 2-23, b, duplicates panel A conditions, except value of 0.0 + O.XXX” and then three or more cut tolerances
that the slot location is now assigned a tolerance of ~0.004”. will be involved with the result that the symmetry budget
The stock removal on line 3 in panel B is now 0.0 + 0.004”, tolerance is split into smaller and smaller values.
which means that the centerline of the slot lies 0.004” to the left Note in Fig. 2-23, c, that tolerance chart blueprint condition
or 0.004” to the right of the X 1/X2 centerline or, as shown in B represents a symmetry condition of 0.020’’—hole T to X 1/ X2.
panel C, within a zone that is 0.008” wide. It is installed in the chart as a 0.000 ~ 0,010” dummy blueprint
Panel Din Fig. 2-23, b, duplicates panel B conditions, except condition. It is established on line 27 and involves a schematic
that the 2.000” block is now assigned a tolerance oft 0.002”, which fixes tolerances on lines 9, 10, and 23. Note also that line 8
which results in the addition of a + 0.001” tolerance to line 2, value for X1/ X2 is set at twice line 9 of 0.005”.
and the stock removal on line 3 now equals 0.0 ~ 0.005”. Once Two other aspects of the tolerance chart in Fig. 2-23, c,
again, the centerline of the slot is either 0.005” to the left or should be noted. They are:
0.005” to the right of the X 1/X2 centerline.
Panel E in Fig. 2-23, b, interprets the panel D relation- 1. Lines 16,21,24, and 26 have been assigned a 0.000” mean
ships—but note that a single 0.010” wide zone does not exist. stock removal—contrary to what has been done up to
Instead two zones of 0.005” width which overlap are shown. this point—to insure that when mean sizes are being
This is due to the X I /X2 length now having a tolerance on it built, the bore axis for successive boring cuts are not
other than 0.0”. eccentric to one another due to mismatch of mean boring
From the foregoing it can be seen that if the slot feature were dimensions.
shown in the blueprint with a symmetry callout of 0.0 10“ 2. The boring sizes for hole S were developed by calculations
relative to the X1 /X2 feature, a dummy line 2 (centerline of that took into account the possible axis eccentricities
Xl; X2) cut would be set up, and then tolerances would be between every two successive boring cuts (see Fig. 2-23,
assigned to line 2 and line 3 cuts based on a 0,0 + 0.005” stock d). These values were pulled off the chart from lines 16,
removal on cut 3—satisfying the 0.0 10“ symmetry requirement, 21,24, and 26, and represent the AH= (A+ 1?)factor used
And then, the tolerance on the Xl /X2 feature would be set in the bore size calculations shown in Fig. 2-23, a, and
equal to twice the tolerance assigned to the line 2 cut—since its Fig. 2-23, d.
tolerance must be twice that of its centerline dimension.
If the X 1/ X2 block were allowed a tolerance of t 0,015” by Failure to include axis eccentricities in bore size calculations
the blueprint, then 2C0.0[ 3“ tolerance would be lost to the shop can result in hole cleanup problems, problems in handling close
under the conditions described in panels D and E in Fig. 2-23, b. tolerances on finish bores, or problems meeting surface texture
This is a direct result of locating the milling of the slot from requirements—all due to eccentric stock removals. Since the
surface X I instead of from the centerline of X I / X2—which tolerance chart provides these eccentricity values as a by-
could be done by designing centralizing jaws or fixtures that product of chart construction, use should be made of them
would zero out the centerline of X 1/ X2 for all parts to be milled. as shown.
Further complications can result when one feature plane Progressive bore sizes based on these methods should prove
centerline is machined from a datum that is not one of the end of major value in the processing of engine blocks, heads,
planes of the feature to which it is to be symmetrical. When this housings, and other components featuring a multitude of holes.
DO’S AND DON’TS FOR COST

EFFECTIVE TOLERANCE CHARTING
Construction of tolerance charts can be time consumingand and start over if the tolerance chart shows a tendency to
costly. However, the costs in time and money required for produce overtight tolerances,
construction of the charts are often monies well spent toward 2. Keep the relationship of the K and t 3 u values in mind
the important goal of developing the most cost effective set of when developing tolerances (see Fig. 2-8).
tolerances for use in the shop. Observance of what might be 3. No operation sketch should reflect machining instructions
termed “good standard practices” tends to keep the costs in time to the operator that cannot be included in the tolerance
and money to a minimum. chart. Such instructions are often single-valued dimen-
Presented in this section are tactics to keep the cost of sions or they offer the operator the option of removing an
tolerance chart construction to a minimum while satisfying indeterminate amount of material. Examples:
shop requirements for practical tolerances.
. Skim cut to clean up.
TOLERANCES ASSIGNED TO CUTS . Skim cut—remove 0.010” stock.
The following suggestions will help optimize the advantages . Grind to clean up 80~,
of tolerance charting when assigning tolerances to cuts: . A size with a tolerance is shown but a note pointing to
the dimension says: “Hold to the high side, ”
1. Plan to use as much of the blueprint tolerance as is
possible, considering the nature of the process/tooling These examples illustrate that a problem is recognized
concepts. Do not hesitate to scrap the original set of ideas but they do not represent an acceptable solution since,
2-57
CHAPTER 2
COST EFFECTIVE CHARTING
6
I I
I 1 >< I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
0
-G- -u-
0
YJ_
.m - - .m -
? —<- —<-
X> )-
2-58
CHAPTER 2
COST EFFECTIVE CHARTING
once this kind of cut is made, it is not possible to verify TABLE 2-6
how much material came off, Instead, the No Stops Tabulation of Tolerances for Two Processing Methods—
methods described in Fig. 2-11 should be used. X & Y–Shown in Fig. 2-24
4. lt is expected that shop supervision will not arbitrarily
work to closer tolerances than are shown on the operation Process X Process Y
sheet sketch. (Note: Where precontrol, X and range Line # Tolerance (in.) Tolerance (in,)
Line #
charts, or other statistical techniques are used to verify
the correct centering of tools and to control the process, it 1 0.0030 14 0.0025
is understood that this expectation is not being violated.) 6 0.0010 18 0.0005
8 0.0010 [9 0.0005
10 0.0010 22 0.0005
LOCATION SURFACES 25 0.0005
The following suggestions relating to location surfaces will
help maximize process effectiveness:
1. All location surfaces should be shown on the tolerance sketches. Certainly, if surfaces A, B, C, D, E, and F are to be
chart, the strip layout sketches, and in the operation sheet remachined, and possibly in separate operations, excessive
sketches. tolerance buildups may be encountered if chain-type dimen-
2. The tool designer must design fixtures and gages to sioning is used in the strip layouts.
conform with the dimensions and locating surfaces Panel B of Fig. 2-24 shows the importance of selecting
shown in the operation sheet sketches, datum surfaces for cuts that tie in with the location surface to be
3. Asanoperating principle inchoosing a process sequence, used in the operation. In both examples, the 0.250 + 0.001”
never change the locating surfaces from one operation to dimension is measured from a surface that floats* 0.003” from
the next unless it is absolutely unavoidable. the locating surface, making it impossible to set stops; or, as
shown in the Blanchard operation, making it impossible to load
Every time a previously used locating surface is abandoned
the table to capacity.
or remachined, additional tolerance buildup takes place. The
larger the tolerance buildups the larger the mean stock removals,
or the tighter the machining tolerances must be held to achieve a
QUALIFYING OPERATIONS
blueprint resullant tolerance. In Fig. 2-24, the left side is Panel C of Fig. 2-24 shows the kind of situation wherein the
concerned with two processes, X and Y, for producing the
excessive tolerance buildup of 0.0250+ 0.0223” (max ❑ 0.047”)
simple shaft gear. Study the two strip layout processes at the makes it impossible to hold tolerance or surface finish. For this
top, the two toIerance charts in the middle, and the two sets of kind of situation, it may pay to add a qualifying operation (op.
schematics fortheprocesses Xand Y. 30) to remove the bulk of the stock prior to the final operation.
With respect to the two machining processes shown at the
top of Fig. 2-24, they are identical for operations 10 and 20 with
respect to the dimensioning of the cuts and the selection of the FORGING/CASTING TOLERANCES
locating surface in operation 20. However, after heat treatment, Forging/ casting tolerances are normally large compared to
shoulders B and C must be ground. The process engineer can machining tolerances. Based on how the machining cuts are
specify to grind either shoulder B before C or shoulder C before dimensioned (and the schematics), it may happen that two or
B. This is a very simple situation that, on the surface, does not more forged/ cast tolerances are added and a monumental
require much thinking, yet can have profound effects on the tolerance buildup is shown, which if accepted as a real
manufacturing costs. possibility, produces major problems in stock removal.
In process X at the top of Fig. 2-24, the process engineer uses However, the situation of massive tolerance buildup may
the same locating surface in operation 20 and operation 40. In not occur. While dies wash out and patterns degrade, the
the X process tolerance chart (as shown by the X schematics at changes in the dies and patterns may still show that massive
the bottom), the process engineer developed tolerances of tolerance buildups are not possible. Check with foundry/
0.003”, 0.001”, 0.001”, and 0.001” on cuts 1, 6, 8, and supplier people to find out what will really be true of the
10 respectively. variations in the forgings/ castings. One or two dimensions may
However, in process Y at the top of Fig. 2-24, the process vary as broadly as the forging/ casting drawing allows, but the
engineer reversed the locating surfaces, and ground C before B. others may be fairly stable and uniform within much smaller
As a result, in the Y process (as shown by the Y schematics at the limits—and these smaller limits are the ones that should be
bottom), the process engineer developed tolerances of 0,0025”, considered for use in the chart.
0.0005”,0.0005”, 0.0005’’ and 0.0005” on cuts 14,18,19, 22and 25
respectively. These tolerance values are tabulated in Table 2-6.
The cost of process Y is obviously much more than twice the MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS
cost of process X—solely due to indiscriminate switching of the No single operations sheet sketch should require two setups
locating surfaces in operation 40 of process Y. to machine the part. Given such an option by a sketch, the shop
would have a 50-50 chance of destroying the sense of the
tolerance chart. All heat treating, plating, shot peening, in-
DIMENSIONING PATTERNS-SELECTION process inspections, or other non-chipmaking operations should
OF DATUM SURFACES FOR CUTS be indicated on the tolerance chart so that the complete process
Panel A of Fig. 2-24 shows chain dimensioning on the is visible in the chart. Calculations and scale layouts should be
blueprint and the use of a single datum in the strip layout stored in a history file.
2-59
CHAPTER 2
BIBLIOGRAPHY
References
1,American National Standard on Dimensioning and Tolerancing,

ANSI Standard Y14.5-1 973, American National Standards
Institute, New York. [Note: At this writing, a revised version of
Y14.5 called Y14.5M is being reviewed for publication. Written
in metric units and presenting some rather significant changes
in symbology, the new standard is written to provide more
commonality with European practice. Changes in the standard
do not impact the validity of concepts presented in this chapter
on tolerance charting, although some modifications in tech-
nique may be required to suit company practice or in-house
standards where they apply. See also: Richard S. Marrelli,
“New Rules for Dimensioning and Tolerancing Drawings, ”
Machine Design (March 11, 1982), p. 21 5.]
2. Ibid, p. 26.
Bibliography
Drozda, Thomas J. “Pre-prove your Process? Test it with a

Tolerance Chart. ” Production (January 1978),
Eary and Johnson. Process Engineering. Englewood cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1963.
Gadza la, John L. Dimensional Control in Precision Manufacturing.
New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co,, Inc., 1959,
Johnson, Allen, “Index Tolerance Chart Simplifies Production, ”
Too/ Engineer (February 1954).
Marks, Charles J. “Tolerance Charts Control Production Machin-
ing, ” American Machinist (March 1953),
Matter, James K. “Tolerance Charts Forecast Accuracy. ”
American Machinist (October 1947),
Mooney, Clyde. “How to Adjust Tolerance Charts. ” Too/Engineer
(October 1955).
Nicks, J. E. Basic Programming Solutions for Manufacturing.
Dearborn, Ml: SME, 1982.
Wade, Oliver R. Comdo/ Users Manua/, H untirmton Station, NY:
Oliver R. Wade, 1972.
Tolerance Control in Design and Manufacturing.
New York: ”Industrial Press Inc., 1967.
Wood, William K. “Tolerance Charts Aid Dimensioning for
Machining. ” American Machinist (December 1957).
2-60
CHAPTER 3
CUITlhlG TOOL MATERIALS

Of the many variables affecting any machining The continuing development and increased use
operation. the cutting tool—while small and rela- of new work materials (many of which are difficult CHAPTER
CONTENTS:
tively inexpensive—is one of the most critical. to machine), the wide variety and complexity of
Cutting tool geometries, toolholders, feeds, speeds, machining operations now performed, the demand
High-Speed
and cutting fluids for specific machining operations for closer tolerances and better finishes, the availa- Steels 3-4
are discussed in subsequent chapters of this volume. bility of improved machine tools, the economic
This chapter is limited to a discussion of the many need for increased productivity, and the escalating Powdered Metal
High-Speed
materials now being used for cutting tools. costs of labor, energy, and materials have neces- Tool Steels 3-11
sitated the constant introduction of new cutting
MATERIAL SELECTION tool materials, as well as the improvement of Cast Cobalt-
Factors affecting the selection of a cutting tool Based Alloys 3-14
existing ones. The numerous tool materials, grades,
material for a specific application include: and geometries now available make proper selec- Cemented
tion confusing and increasingly difficult. Tungsten
1. Hardness and condition of the workpiece Carbides 3-16
material. Currently, most engineers must base their selec-
2. Operations to be performed—optimum tool tion of cutting tool materials on the recommen- Titanium
dations of material and tool producers, on Carbidea 3-25
selection may reduce the number of opera-
tions required. experience, and when practical, on testing or Coated
3. Amount of stock to be removed. tryout. Classification systems for various types and Carbides 3-30
4. Accuracy and finish requirements. grades of different cutting tool materials are not
Caramics 3-32
5. Type, capability, and condition of the precise. They can only serve as a general guide to
machine tool to be used. users and as a method of eliminating grades that Single-Crystal
may prove unsatisfactory for specific applications. Diamonds 3-38
6. Rigidity of the tool and workpiece.
7. Production requirements influencing the Also, similarly classified grades from different Polycrystelline
speeds and feeds selected. material producers often vary because ofalteratiom Diamond
in composition and production techniques. Tools 3-41
8. Operating conditions such as cutting forces
and temperatures. Cubic Boron
DESIRABLE PROPERTIES Nitride 3-45
9. Tool cost per part machined, including
Important requirements for any cutting tool
initial tool “cost: grinding cost, tool life:
material are good wear resistance, toughness, and
frequency of regrinding or replacement, and
hot hardness, Resistance to the various wear
labor cost—the most economical tool is not
mechanisms (discussed in Chapter I of this volume)
necessarily the one providing the longest life,
is essential for the tool to retain its shape and
or the one having the lowest initial cost.
cutting efficiency, as well as to provide long life.
Selecting the proper cutting tool material for a Unfortunately, for cutting tool applications, any
specific machining application can provide sub- increase in wear resistance is generally accompanied
stantial advantages, including increased producti- by a reduction in toughness, This is the primary
vity, improved quality, and reduced costs. Increased reason for the development and success of coated
productivity can be obtained by boosting cutting carbide inserts, which provide increased wear
speeds and/ or feed rates. Increasing the speeds and resistance and hot hardness while retaining strength
feeds, however, is limited by the capability of the and toughness.
cutting tool material and machine tool. Speeds and Wear resistance is difficult to measure satisfactorily
feeds must be kept low enough to provide an because it depends on the material being cut and on
acceptable tool life. Otherwise, toolchanging and other variables such as operating conditions and
grinding costs can outweigh the advantages of cutting fluid used. It is commonly measured by
faster machining rates by increasing the cost per abrasion wear and grindability tests, but results
part produced, Machine tool downtime attribut- vary with the test conditions.
able to the replacement of dull or broken tools is a The most common type of failure in cutting
major deterrent to increasing productivity, tools is flank wear—abrasion occurring between
While highly desirable, no single cutting tool the flank of the tool and the workpiece. Flank wear
material is available to meet the needs of all is directly related to speed and feed; as they are
machining applications, This is because of the wide increased, the rate of wear increases.
range of conditions and requirements encountered. Cratering (a combination of abrasion, adhesion,
Each tool material has its own combination of and chemical diffusion) is another common form
properties making it best for a specific operation. of tool wear. It occurs on the rake face of the tool,
Contributors of sections of this chapter are: Edward J. Berger, Associate Metallurgist, Tool and Alloy
Metallurgy, Carpanter Technology Corp.: Richard W. Bratt, Chief Product Metallurgist, Crucible Specialty Metals
Div. . Colt Industries; Herbert S. Kalish, Vice President, Adamas Carbida Corp.; Daniel J. Klaphaak, Grade
Specialist, Sandvik, Inc.; Erich W. Krumrai, Program Engineer, Spacialt y Materials Dept., General Electric Co.;
Richard C. Ladd. Program Engineer, Spacialty Materials Dept. , General Electric Co.; Harold R. Lebrecht,
Consultant, Cast A Iloys, VR/ Wesson Div., Fansteel, Inc.; David Moskowitz, Resaarch Staff, Ford Motor Co.;
Albert F. Shuster, Projact Engineer, Kennamatal, Inc.; Donald 0, Wood, The Lodge & Shipley Co.; Marino
Zapico, Senior Application Engineer, Carmet Materials Div. , Allaghan y Ludlum Industries, Inc.
Revie wars of sections of this chap tar are: W. H. Bleecker, Metallurgist, Tool & Abrasive Products Div. ,
Ex-Call-O Corp.; Richard W. Bratt, Chiaf Product Metallurgist, Crucible SpacialtV Matals Div., Colt Industrial;
3-1
CHAPTER 3
behind the cutting edge where the direction of the chip is without fracturing under compressive loading. It can be divided
abruptly changed and heat and pressure on the tool are at a into an elastic component (strength), which increases with
maximum. increasing hardness, and a plastic component (ductility), which
High strength is also critical, especially with high cutting decreases with increasing hardness. In other words, as the
speeds and feed rates. Cutting tools must be tough enough to hardness of a material increases, it becomes less ductile.
withstand high mechanical shock loads without chipping or A need still exists for simple tests to measure material
fracturing, and also be resistant to heat deformation. properties that are closely related to cutting conditions. With
Toughness has no universally accepted definition, but in the most laboratory tests, such as Charpy and Izod, the stresses are
case of cutting tools it is generally considered to be the ability of largely in tension, while stresses during machining are primarily
the material to absorb energy and withstand plastic deformation in compression, with forces concentrated at the cutting edges of
M~(_HA~lcAL C++o(_K RESISTANCE ABRASION RESISTANCE CRATER RESISTANCE

Trons.erse RLpture Hardness, RA Arb,+rar, Scale
Strength, ksi (MPo)
3
81 0
865
(60-70 Rc)
‘OOR
1
“gh-speeds’ee’~
3
81-
c“’’”’’”’+
84
(60-65 R(-)
~::jy” 400540
I
(2758-3723)
C-1 and C-2 240325

corblde I
:1655224 I)
:O:byed C-4 175260

I
:1207-1 793)
P
:a$b~ed C-6 200-300 GOOD
I
( 1379-2068)
P
C-7 and C-8 ,002<0
. 920-950 I
corbtde I
(689 5- 1724)
P
Ceramic 80-1 I O 935940
(55 I 6-758.4)
Polycrystolhne
dlomond
Cl
, ~0200
(689 5- I 379)
6500-8000 Knoop I EXCELLENT
I
FIG. 3-1 Comparative properties of tool materials. Crater resistance refers to ferrous metals. (Reprinted from Machining Data Handbook,
3rd cd., by permission of the Machinability Data Center. Copyright 1980 by Metcut Research Associates, Inc.)
Reviewers, cont.: P. Donald Brehm, President, Pneumo Precision, Inc.; S, R. Christopher, Technical Sales Supervisor. Wear
Technology Div. , Deloro Stellite Canada, Ltd.; Dr. Bertil N. Colding, Director, Group Research, Sandvik, Inc.; Hubert W. Delano, Cyclops
Corp.; Walt Edwards, Operations Manager, Tool & Abrasive Products Div., Ex-Cell-O Corp..’ Thomas R. Fabian, Chief Engineer, Metal
Carbides Corp.; BernardA. Ferrone, Product Supervisor, Diamond Tool Div., Norton Co.; Jack Gallagher, Valform Div., Valeron Corp.; PaulB.
Gallagher, Technical Director, Columbia Tool Steel Co.; Walter Gruss, Manufacturing Manager, American Feldmuehle Corp.; Peter J.
Heath, De Beers Industrial Diamond Div. , Ltd.; Dr. Per Hellman, Uddeholm Steel Corp.; RichardJ. Henry, Manager-Development, Teledyne
Vasco; Richard P, Herve y, Sigma Associates; Fred C. Holtz, Valeron Corp.; Herbert S, Kalish, Vice President, Adamas Carbide Corp.;
Dr. John B. Lambert, Technical Director. VR/ Wesson Div. , Fansteel, Inc.; Joseph J, Le y, Manager Technical Services, Wendt-Sonis Div. ,
TRW, Inc.; DonaldM. MacKay, Director R & D and Marketing, Union /Butter fieldDiv. , Litton Industries; James J. McCarth y, Metallurgical
Engineer, Bethlehem Steel Corp.; PaulJ. McIntyre, Crafts Co.; EdwardJ. Meade, Product Manager-Cutting Tools, Teledyne Firth Sterling;
3-2
CHAPTER 3
the tool. Such impact tests, however, do directly measure the strength) of high-speed steels falls off rapidly above about
energy needed to cause catastrophic failure, and laboratory 1000° F (538° C). The wide range of values indicated for the
results are often in general correlation with actual cutting carbides is primarily due to the range of cobalt content
conditions. normally employed. As the cobalt content is increased, the
The toughness of some cutting tool materials, normally carbide becomes more ductile and shock resistant, but less
carbide, is specified as transverse rupture strength. This is a refract ory.
simple test consisting of bending a small, rectangular bar of the As shown by the recovery hardness values, cast cobalt alloys,
material to measure strength and ductility. However, since carbides, and ceramics recover their hardness completely upon
transverse rupture strength is measured at room temperature cooling from elevated temperatures. However, tool materials
and under static conditions, it rarely shows precise correlation that may be heat treated (carbon and high-speed tool steels)
with desired properties under actual cutting conditions. A com- soften when they are cooled after being subjected to a given
parison of some properties of cutting tool materials is presented elevated temperature. For this reason, high-speed steels are
in Fig. 3-1. limited to operations that generate temperatures below about
Cutting action produces high temperatures at the tool/work 1000° F (538” C).
interface, especially when high speeds and/or feed rates are
used, and when materials with high strengths and thermal MATERIAL DEVELOPMENTS
resistance are machined. Hot hardness—the ability of a cutting Historically, cutting tool materials have progressed con-
tool material to resist stresses and maintain hardness and siderably from the plain carbon steels used for all machining
cutting efficiency at elevated temperatures—is important for prior to 1900. Successive advances have included high-speed
such applications. Recovery hardness—the ability of a cutting steels introduced shortly after 1900; cast cobalts about 1915;
tool material to retain hardness at room temperature after being tungsten carbides, about 1930; alloyed carbides, about 1940;
exposed to elevated temperatures—is also critical. ceramics, about 1955; synthetic diamonds, about 1957; coated
Hot and recovery hardness indentation values for several carbides, about 1970; and subsequently, cubic boron nitrides.
types of cutting tool materials, measured over a wide range of As new and improved cutting tool materials were developed,
temperatures, are shown in Fig. 3-2. The hardness (and the older ones have generally not been replaced. Instead, they
70
85
65
60
80
55 ~
50 $
7.5
45 2
I
40
70
35
65 30
25
60 20
55
o 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400° F 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 0 F
I I I I I I I I J L I I I I I I I I
o I 00 200 300 400 500 600 700 “c o 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 0 c
Temperature Temperature
FIG. 3-2 Hot hardness (left) and recovery hardness (right) for several types of cutting tool materiats.
Thomas A. Myers, Teledyne Vasco; Kenneth S. Michael, President, Accurate Diamond Tool Corp.; David A. Nixon, Technical Service
Engineer, LaSalle Steel Co.; S. B. Schier, Clipper Diamond Tool Co.; Charles W. Schuck, Director of Metallurgy, Braeburn Alloy Steel;
Dr. Ron Sivan, Chief Metallurgist, Iscar, Ltd.; Keith H. Smith, Marketing Manager, Greenleaf Corp.; Dan Stashko, R & D Project Engineer,
Valeron Corp.; Dorm E. Stone, J. K. Smit & Sons of Michigan; Frederick J. Tae yaerts, Executive Vice President. Precision Diamond Tool Co.;
Eugene Tkac, Manager, Blackalloy Company of America; Michael Toke, Vice President-Manufacturing, CITCO, Inc.; Tom Tokieda,
Manager of Engineering, Sumiden Carbide A merica. Inc.; J. D. Vedoe, Vice President, Special Tools, New England Carbide Div. , Wallace
Murray Corp.; Jerry E. Vest, Sumiden Carbide America, Inc.; Lee R. Walton, Manager, Tool Steel Services, Latrobe Steel Co.; E. Dow
Whitney, Professor- Ceramics Div. , College of Engineering, University of Florida; William H. Wills, Jr. , Tool Steel Product Metallurgist,
AL Tech Specialty Stael Corp.
3-3
CHAPTER 3
CARBON AND LOW-ALLOY TOOL STEELS
are no longer used for certain applications. With the introduction

of improved tool materials, machine tool builders have increased
the power and rigidity of their machines as well as their speeds
l\
100 ● Corbon steel ~~ (1 00..)
and feeds to take advantage of the tool properties.
w~
The continuing evolutionary changes and technological
advances in cutting tool materials and machine tools has
–-* i High-speed steel
.1
permitted faster, better, and more economical manufactur- 26
ing, thus boosting productivity .Cuttingspeeds up to 1000sfm \ Cast cobalt-based alloys

Z15 ––-
(305 m/min)are nowcommon, and even higher speeds are s
\
practical for some applications such as machining aluminum
>. Cemented carbdes
alloys and free machining low-carbon steels. ~6 _—— ——
Based on data compiled by Sandvik Coromant, Fig. 3-3

demonstrates the progress made since 1900 in the development ————— ____ \ ___ . Improved corblde grades
[3
of cutting tools, The chart is based on turning a cylindrical piece \
4“(100 mm) diam x 20’’(500 mm) long. From the use of carbon ’15 ______________ oF[rst coated grades
-—-— -_—_ ____ ___ \aFlrst double. coated
steel tooling in 1900, productivity with improved cutting tool
materials hasincreased ataratio of about 100:1. 0.7 / ––––--–--–––- --%:::::D,e.coa,ed
Some manufacturing plants, however, are still using the
same tools they have employed for many years when substantial I grades
-
increases in productivity and reduced costs could be realized by
1900-10 -20-30-40 -50-60 -70-80
switching to improved cutting tool materials now available.
Year
Even with machine tools still being used that do not have the
power and speed capabilities to take full advantage of these
materials, some increase in productivity can still be gained in FIG. 3-3 Comtrarative times recwired to machine a metal bar with
many cases. cutting tools made from various mnterials. (Sandvik Coromant)
CARBON AND LOW-ALLOY TOOL STEELS

Before 1900, practically all machining was performed with Also, tools made from these materials must be operated at low
cutting tools made from either plain carbon or low-alloy steels. cutting speeds.
Advantages of these steels include the ease with which they can There are, however, limited applications for which such tool
be machined in their annealed conditions, and with proper heat steels are still practical. These include less critical and nonpro-
treatment, their relatively high surface hardness and fairly duction applications, specialized operations such as knurling
tough core. and burnishing, occasional short-run job shop work, and the
A major disadvantage of these tool steels is their poor hot machining of soft, nonferrous metals such as brass. These tools
hardness—cutting edges of tools made from carbon steels can are also widely employed as woodworking tools and utility
only withstand a maximum temperature of about 50W F tools used in home workshops. These applications, however,
(260° C) during machining because of softening. At a cutting are not within the scope of this volume.
temperature of about 1000° F (538” C), plain carbon and low- Tool steels (other than high-speed steels) occasionally used
alloy tool steels exhibit no significant hardness. This requires for drills, reamers, taps, threading dies, and special form tools
care in grinding and regrinding after hardening. Care is also include AISI type W J, W2, and W5 water-hardening tool steels,
required during heat treatment to maintain dimensional stability and 01, 02, 06, and 07 oil-hardening, cold-work tool steels.
and to prevent cracking when drastic dimensional changes are Other types having only limited application for cutting tools
required. include A2 and A3 medium alloy, air-hardening, cold-work
Plain carbon and tool steels having a lower alloy content tool steels, and D2, D3, and D4 high-carbon, high-chromium,
than high-speed steels (discussed next in this chapter) are cold-work tool steels. The AISI types carrying the A and D
seldom used anymore for production metalcutting appli- symbols have higher resistance to wear and softening at
cations. One reason, in addition to their low hot hardness, is elevated temperatures than those with the W and O symbols,
that increasing material and labor costs have resulted in but they are less machinable. They are used more for punching,
minimal savings over more desirable cutting tool materials. forming, and shearing applications than for cutting applications.
HIGH-SPEED STEELS
Since the beginning of the twentieth century, high-speed of the tools.
steels (H SS’S) have been an essential class of cutting tool The original HSS was not invented, but rather discovered
materials used by the metalworking industry. HSS’S are high- from experiments on air-hardening tool steel grades. In 1898,
alloy steels designed to cut other materials efficiently at high Taylor and White of Bethlehem Steel Co. experimented with
speeds, despite the extreme heat generated at the cutting edges high-temperature heat treatments on steels containing 1.85%
3-4
CHAPTER 3
HIGH-SPEED STEELS
carbon, 3.8% chromium, and 8% tungsten. Through these significant roles in fostering continuing developments of new
experiments they expected to show that high-temperature heat and improved HSS’S. Recent alloy development trends illustrate
treatments of tool steels would be deleterious to the cutting the impact of emerging manufacturing technologies. For
efficiency of the tool. Instead, they found that with austenitizing example, powder manufacturing methods have allowed the
temperatures higher than 185&’F (10 10° C), cutting efficiency addition of greater amounts of alloying elements to produce a
actually increased, They did not, however, understand the steel with higher cutting performance than could be made with
reason for this improved cutting performance. the conventional cast-ingot technology. Although some of these
In 1904, J. M. Matthews of Crucible Steel Co. was issued a grades are capable of longer cutting life, and in some instances
patent covering the addition of vanadium to tool steels. This led are easier and less costly to grind, the higher inherent cost in the
to the development of the best-known HSS, containing 18% ,Ilethod of manufacturing them leads to a value trade-off in
tungsten, 490 chromium, and 1% vanadium. This popular HSS application. Economic realities require that they be evaluated
is called 18-4-1 or T 1. Six years later, data by 0, M. Becker on the basis of volume cut per dollar value of tool consumed.
showed an advantage in efficiency of about 6:1 for tools made Recent geopolitical instabilities in the mineral rich parts of
from these vanadium HSS’S when compared to those made the world have led metallurgists to seriously reconsider alloying
from plain carbon steels. Increasing the vanadium content philosophy to include world politics as an additional factor in
increased the wear resistance of the tool steel. Further research the development equation. This has led to the development of
and development showed that when the vanadium content was cobalt-free replacements for M42 and T 15 HSS’S, which are
increased, the carbon content also had to be increased to attain made by the powder metallurgy process discussed in the next
a high hardness. section of this chapter. In a separate effort, new solid-state alloy
In 1912, research conducted in Germany showed that the chemistry has been developed which has resulted in the
addition of 3-5% cobalt further increased the cutting efficiency production of a new type of HSS that utilizes readily available
of HSS’S by increasing their hot hardness capability. During the domestic raw materials for its premium performance. None of
1920s, development work concentrated on the effects of cobalt these steels has yet been classified by the AISI.
contents as high as 25T0 on cutting performance; this led to the An examination of the HSS market today would show that
development of premium grades containing 12% cobalt. molybdenum-based steels’ dominate the market place. M 1, M2,
During the next decade the discovery of large molybdenum M7 and M 10 types of HSS’S are the four most important
ore deposits in Colorado spurred the development of HSS’S grades. The tonnage of molybdenum-type HSS’S produced now
containing molybdenum. Until this point, molybdenum was exceed tungsten-type HSS’S by about 20:1. The impact of the
more expensive than tungsten. Work, however, was already emerging technologies has not been fully felt, but the economic
underway to understand the potential benefits of using advantages inherent in higher performance or lower alloyed
molybdenum as a partial or full substitute for tungsten. compositions should lead to the new steels’ becoming increas-
During the 1930s, several molybdenum HSS compositions ingly important.
were developed and produced by leading steel companies and
toolmakers. Cleveland Twist Drill Co. developed 9% molybde- PRODUCTION METHODS FOR HSS’S
num-].5~o tungsten grades (M 1 and M7), Allegheny Ludlum Most HSS’S are melted in an electric-arc furnace. A small
Co, developed a 6~o tungsten-5$70 molybdenum-2% vanadium portion of the overall production is melted in air or vacuum-
grade (M2), and Teledyne Vasco developed an 890 molybdenum induction furnaces. in all cases, the molten steel is cast into
grade with no tungsten (M 10) and two high carbon-high molds and allowed to solidify to form ingots or electrodes.
vanadium grades (M4 and T15). These HSS’S are among the During solidification, the thermodynamic differences between
most popular in use today. the liquid and solid steel produce a situation in which the
The outbreak of hostilities in the late 1930s and early 1940s initially solidified steel is leaner in alloying elements than the
disrupted the supply of raw materials to the United States. As a liquid, thus producing an ingot in which the center portion is
result, development efforts concentrated on optimizing the richer in alloy than the edges. Electrodes (usually round) maybe
newly developed molybdenum HSS’S which more fully utilized remelted by a consumable technique, either under the pro-
domestic raw materials. The end of World War II and the tection of a vacuum or a chemically reactive slag, called
subsequent resumption of world trade permitted metallurgists electroslag remelting (ES R). These methods can improve the
to further explore the potential for developing higher perfor- cleanliness of the steel by removing undesirable nonmetallic
mance HSS’S. During the 1950s the effects of cobalt additions inclusions and unwanted gases; they may also help reduce the
on the hot hardness and cutting performance of the molybdenum degree of segregation. Modern practices employing electric-arc
HSS’S were thoroughly studied. This resulted in the development furnaces, however, produce a high-quality product, thus limiting
of the M30 series of HSS’S and subsequently, in the early 1960s, the occasions for which the additional cost of consumable
the M40 series of HSS’S. Of the dozen or more M30 and M40 melting is economically justified.
types of compositions developed, several are no longer manu- The ingots are heated to an appropriate forging temperature
factured or are available on a limited basis only. M33 and M42 and hot pressed or hammer forged, and/or hot rolled, into
have emerged as two of the most popular grades for a wide billets. These billets are then conditioned by surface grinding to
variety of cutting applications. remove surface defects and cracks. Discs are cut from selected
Production methods for making HSS’S have influenced the billets, hot-acid etched, and examined for surface and internal
ability of metallurgists to utilize the various alloying elements in defects.
the development of improved chemical compositions. The The billets meeting the desired quality standards are next
advent of electric-furnace melting first permitted the needed reduced in size by hot rolling or additional forging into bars or
chemical control to produce the precise alloys necessary for coil stock. This continues the breakup of the carbide particles
high cutting performance. Further developments in melt control, begun in forging and produces a carbide structure that tends to
solidification, hot working, and heat treating have played follow the direction of rolling. The formation of this structure,
3-5
CHAPTER 3
HIGH-SPEED STEELS
referred to asa carbide stringer or band, can be a problem if it is The tungsten type T1 does not contain molybdenum or
excessively heavy and not properly controlled. Normally, cobalt. Cobalt-bearing tungsten types range from T4 through
however, the smaller the finished size after hot working, the T15 and contain various amounts of cobalt.
finer and more uniform will be the distribution of primary Using M l—a good multipurpose HSS—as a base, wear
carbides. Smaller sized, annealed bars of HSS can be hot or resistance can be increased by adding more vanadium. When
cold drawn to form smaller bars, rods, wire, and special shapes. the vanadium content of M 1 is increased from 1 to 2% and the
Cast-to-shape HSS cutters produced in the early years carbon content from 0.85 to 17., type M7 HSS, with increased
lacked sufficient toughness. Now, however, with improvements wear resistance, is obtained. To increase hot hardness, cobalt
incasting methods and better control ofpotsring temperatures, can be added. For example, adding 8% cobalt to Ml and
cooling rates, and variations in heat-treating cycles, the impact increasing the molybdenum content from 8.50 to 9.50% and
toughness of cast’ tools is somewhat closer to that of wrought carbon from 0.85 to 0,90V0 produces M33 HSS having a higher
tools. Cast tools are most often cast from high-alloy types of hot hardness,
HSS that are difficult to fabricate by other methods. Cast tools, In selecting a particular grade of HSS for a specific
however, amount to only a small percentage of the HSS tools application, consideration must be given to performance,
produced today. availability, cost, and ease of manufacturing. Table 3-2 presents
a numerical guideline for some of the relative properties and
CLASSIFICATION OF HSS’S selection factors.
Because of the wide variety of tool steels available, the
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) has classified HSS’S ADVANTAGES OF HSS TOOLS
according to their chemical compositions. Table 3-1 presents For good cutting tooI performance, a material must resist
some of the more commonly used types of molybdenum and deformation and wear. It must also possess a certain degree of
tungsten HSS’S, including those that are cobalt bearing and the toughness, the ability to absorb shock without catastrophic
so-called super HSS’S. failure, while maintaining a high hardness at cutting edge
All types, whether molybdenum or tungsten, contain about temperatures, Also. the material must have the ability to be
490 chromium; the carbon and vanadium contents vary. As a readily and economically brought to a final desired shape.
general rule, when the vanadium content is increased, the HSS’S are capable of being heat treated to high harnesses,
carbon content is usually increased. within the range of RC63-68. In fact, the M40 series of HSS’S is
Molybdenum types of HSS are identified with the prefix M; normally capable of being hardened to RC70, but a maximum of
the tungsten types, with the prefix T. Molybdenum types M 1 RC68 is recommended to avoid brittleness. HSS’S are also
through M 10 (except M6) contain no cobalt, but most contain capable of maintaining a high hardness at cutting temperatures.
some tungsten. The cobalt-bearing, molybdenum-tungsten, This hot hardness property of HSS’S is related to their
premium types are generally classified in the M30 and M40 composition and to a secondary hardening reaction, which is
series. Super HSS’S normally range from M40 upward; they are the precipitation of fine alloy carbides during the tempering
capable of being heat treated to high harnesses. operation.
TABLE 3-1
Chemical Compositions of High-Speed Steels
AISI Composition, %
Tvve c Cr w Mo v co
Molybdenum HSS:
Ml 0.85 4.00 1.50 8.50 1.00 ----
M2 0.85 4,00 6.00 5,00 2.00 ----
M2 (High C) I.oo 4.00 6.00 5.00 2.00 ----
M3 (Class 1) 1.05 4.00 6.00 5.00 2.40
M3 (Class 2) 1.20 4.00 6.00 5.00 3.00 ----
M4 1.30 4.00 5.50 4.50 4.00 ----
M7 1.00 4.00 1.75 8,75 2.00
MIO 0.85 4.00 ---- 8,00 2.00 ----
M33 0.90 4.00 1,50 9.50 1.15 8.00
M36 0.80 4.00 6.00 5.00 2.00 8.00
M41 1.10 4.25 6.75 3.75 2.00 j,oo
M42 1.10 3.75 1.50 9.50 1.15 8.00
Tungsten HSS:
TI 0.75 4.00 18.00 ---- 1.00 ----
T4 0.75 4.00 18.00 ---- 1.00 5.00
T5 0.80 4.00 18.00 ---- 2.00 8.00
T6 0.80 4.50 20.00 ---- 1.50 12.00
T8 0.75 4.00 14.00 ---- 2.00 5.00
T15 1.50 4.00 12.00 ---- 5.00 5.00
3-6
CHAPTER 3
HIGH-SPEED STEELS
HSS’S also possess a high level of wear resistance due to the certain other cutting tool materials.
high hardness of their tempered martensite matrix and the
extremely hard refractory carbides distributed within this COMPOSITION OF HSS
martensitic structure. The hardness of molybdenum-rich carbide Carbon is one of the most important alloying elements in
M6C is approximately RC75, while the hardness of vanadium- HSS’S because it is required for heat treatment response. The
rich carbide MC is about RC84. Therefore, increasing the carbon level, which varies from 0.75 to 1.50yG, must permit the
amount of MC increases the wear resistance of HSS. Although HSS to be quenched to a full martensitic structure and must
the higher vanadium HSS’S (with up to 5~Gvanadium) are more provide sufficient excess carbon for the formation of the
wear resistant, they are more difficult to machine or grind. alloying carbides. In the completely annealed state, very little
HSS tools possess an adequate degree of impact toughness carbon is in solution in the matrix of HSS. Usually, most of the
and are more capable of taking the shock loading of interrupted carbon is combined with the alloying elements to form complex
cuts than carbide took. Toughness in HSS’S can be increased by carbides. When the steel is austenitized, some of the carbides are
adjusting the chemistry to a lower carbon level or by hardening dissolved; when quenched, the carbon and iron form a hard
at an austenitizing temperature lower than that usually recom- martensitic matrix. During tempering, secondary hardening is
mended for the steel, thereby providing a finer grain size. promoted by precipitating wear-resistant carbides.
Tempering at a temperature range between 1I00-1200° F (593- Chromium is an element that provides the ability to harden
649° C) will also increase the toughness of HSS. When toughness HSS’S by increasing carbide volubility during heating for
increases, however, hardness and wear resistance decrease, hardening. During hardening of HSS’S, nearly all the
TABLE 3-2
Relative Properties and Selection Factors for High-Speed Steels-from 1 (low) to 10 (high)
G—
AIS1 Wear Avail- Machin- Grinding
Type Resistance Toughness Hardness ability cost ability Ratio*
Ml 4 10 5 8 2 6 7.0
M2 5 10 5 8 3 5 4.0
M3 (Class 1) 6 7 6 8 4 4 3.0
M3 (Class 2) 7 5 6 6 4 4 2.5
M4 9 5 6 6 4 3 1.0
M7 6 8 5 8 3 5 3.5
MIO 5 8 5 8 3 6 3.5
M33 5 5 8 6 5 3 4.0
M36 5 5 8 4 5 3 4.0
M41 6 4 8 4 5 3 2.5
M42 6 4 9 4 5 3 5.0
T] 4 8 5 6 5 5 6.5
T4 5 4 7 4 6 3 6.0
T5 5 4 8 4 6 2 5.0
T6 5 2 9 4 8 2 3.0
T8 5 4 6 4 6 3 4.0
T15 10 3 9 6 6 1 0.8
*The grinding ratio (G) is the cubic inches of removed metal divided by the cubic inches of wheel wear.
When H SS’s are in the annealed state, they can be fabricated, chromium-type carbides go into solution in the austenite and
hot worked, machined. ground, etc., to produce the cutting tool contribute to martensite formation during quenching. The pres-
shape. ence of chromium also promotes scaling resistance in HSS’S.
Tungsten promotes hot hardness in HSS’S because tungsten
LIMITATIONS OF HSS’S carbides dissolve at very high temperatures. At usual hardening
A possible problem with the use of HSS’S can result from the temperatures, an appreciable portion of the tungsten carbides
tendency of the carbide to agglomerate in the centers of large remain undissolved in the austenite. These tungsten carbides
ingots, This can be minimized by remelting or by adequate hot are highly wear resistant. The amount of tungsten that does
working. If the agglomeration is not minimized, however, dissolve into the austenite readily promotes secondary hardening
physical properties can be reduced and grinding becomes more through carbide precipitation during tempering.
difficult. Improved properties and grindability are important Molybdenum is an element that is essentially interchangeable
advantages of powdered metal HSS’S, discussed next in this with tungsten and is generally preferred because of lower cost.
chapter. Like tungsten, it promotes hot hardness and secondary
Another limitation of HSS’S is that the hardness of these hardening in HSS’S, forming a carbide which is very hard and
materials falls off rapidly when machining temperatures exceed wear resistant,
about 1000- I I00° F (538-593° C). This requires the use of lower Vanadium also forms highly wear-resistant carbides—the
cutting speeds than those used with carbides, ceramics, and hardest found in HSS’S. These vanadium carbides are sluggish
3-7
CHAPTER 3
HIGH-SPEED STEELS
to dissolve in the austenite during the hardening treatment, and To reiieve any machining stresses and to achieve greater
the undissolved carbides contribute to maintaining a fine grain dimensional accuracy during hardening, H SS can be sub-
size of the steel. Vanadium carbides add to the wear resistance critically annealed at 1100-1200° F (593-649° C) for approxi-
and secondary hardening response of HSS’S, but make the mately one hour and cooled slowly.
steels more difficult to grind. A general procedure for full annealing of a tool made from
Cobalt does not form carbides, but dissolves in the matrix— HSS is to place it in a controlled-atmosphere furnace or pack it
substituting for the iron atoms. Therefore, cobalt promotes in a suitable container, The tool is then heated uniformly to
hardness and hot hardness by strengthening the martensitic approximately 1550-1600° F (843-871° C) for two hours then
structure of HSS. Cobalt retards the softening of the steel cooled very slowly in the furnace at a rate of not more than 40° F
during the tempering treatment, and this gives a higher hot (4,4” C) per hour until the tool being annealed turns black. This
hardness to the steel. Cobalt tends to decrease the retained occurs usually at a temperature less than 1000° F (538° C). The
austenite in the quenched steel. tool can then be removed from the furnace and allowed to cool
Miscellaneous elements, such as silicon, manganese, sulfur, naturally. Once HSS has been conditioned by the annealing
and phosphorus, arc present in small amounts in HSS’S; treatment and machined into the required tool, it is ready to be
however, these elements do not materially affect the properties. hardened.
In free machining HSS’S, often used for large cutting tools, HSS’S are generally hardened at high temperatures, approxi-
sulfur is intentionally added in amounts of 0.07-0. 15Y0. Sulfur mately 2150-2375° F ( 1177-1302”C), and quenched in either oil,
increases the machinability of steels by forming alloy sulfides in air, nitrogen, or salt. Details of the heat treatment of various
the shape of short stringers, but toughness is sometimes HSS’S are presented in Table 3-3. I The hardening treatment is
adversely affected to a minor degree. These sulfides increase the usually conducted in a neutral salt bath or a controlled-
grindability of HSS’S in their hardened condition. atmosphere or vacuum furnace. In most cases, one or more
preheat treatments at a lower temperature of about 1500° F
HEAT TREATMENT OF HSS (8 16° C) are employed to prevent thermal shock which ma~
Prior to any hardening heat treatment, HSS’S are annealed cause cracking or warping of the material. The tool is usuall~
to permit forming them into tools. This annealing treatment transferred from the preheating furnace to a secondary salt bath
promotes a structure that consists of spheroidized alloy carbides or to a furnace operating at the austenitizing temperature.
in a matrix of low-alloy ferrite. In the annealed state, the When processed in a vacuum furnace, the tools are preheated
different carbide-forming elements. such as chromium, tung- and austenitized within one furnace.
sten, molybdenum, and vanadium, are present as complex With increased austenitizing temperatures, increased solu-
carbides. tioning of the carbides occurs, along with a gradual coarsening
After being annealed, HSS’S are relatively soft—in the range of the grains. This promotes high room and hot harnesses.
of approximately 229-255 Bhn—and can be readily machined, Low austenitizing temperatures promote toughness. The steel,
TABLE 3-3
Typical Heat Treatments for High-Speed Steels
Preheat Austenitizing Tempering

Temperature Temperature* Temperature
AISI Recommen-
Type ‘F “c ‘F “c ‘F “c dation**
Ml 1350-1550 732-843 2150-2225 1177-1218 1000-1100 538-593 (a)
M2 1350-1550 732-843 2175-2250 1191-1232 1000-1100 538-593 (a)
M3 (1>2) 1350-1550 732-843 2200-2250 1204-1232 I000-1100 538-593 (a)
M4 1350-1550 732-843 2200-2250 1204-1232 1000-1 I00 538-593 (b)
M7 1350-1550 732-843 2150-2225 1177-1218 1000-1100 538-593 (a)
MIO 1350-1550 732-843 2150-2225 1177-1218 1000-I 100 538-593 (a)
M33 I 350-1550 732-843 2175-2225 1191-1218 I000-I100 538-593 (a)
M36 1350-1550 732-843 2225-2275 1218-1246 1000-1100 538-593 (a)
M41 1350-1550 732-843 2175-2220 1191-1216 I000-1100 538-593 (b)
M42 1350-1550 732-843 2125-2175 1163-1191 950-1100 510-593 (b)
T1 1500-1600 816-871 2300-2375 1260-1302 I000-1100 538-593 (a)
T4 1500-1600 816-871 2300-2375 1260-1302 1000-1100 538-593 (a)
T5 1500-1600 816-871 2325-2375 1274-1302 1000-1100 538-593 (a)
T6 1500-1600 816-871 2325-2375 1274-1302 1000-1100 538-593 (a)
T8 1500-1600 816-871 2300-2375 1260-1302 1000-1100 538-593 (a)
T15 1500-1600 816-871 2200-2275 1177-1246 I000-1200 538-649 (b)
* When austenitizing in a salt bath, the temperatures should be about 25° F (-3,9° C) lower than those shown.
Time at austenitizing temperature should be 2-5 min. Quenching medium from austenitizing temperature can
be air, oil, or salt.
** Recommendations:
(a) Double tempering is recommended for not less than one hour at temperature for each temper.
(b) Triple tempering is recommended for not less than one hour at temperature for each temper.
3-8
CHAPTER 3
HIGH-SPEED STEELS
which consists of austenite and excess residual carbides, is then of the heat treating furnace has a low carbon potential, carbon
quenched from the hardening temperature in air, oil, nitrogen, will be lost from the surface of the steel part. This will cause a
or salt. region on the quenched part to have a lower carbon martensite,
The austenite present in the steel at the austenitizing and this region will exhibit lower hardness. Metallographically,
temperature transforms to martensite upon quenching, with a white ferritic area can often be seen on decarburized HSS’S.
some austenite and residual carbides retained at room tempera- Highly decarburized parts are likely to crack upon quenching.
ture. In HSS’S, enough primary carbides remain to inhibit grain To prevent decarburization, HSS’S should be heat treated in a
growth. At room temperature, the structure consists of fine- neutral salt bath or controlled-atmosphere furnace. More
grained martensite with about 7-15% residual carbides and recently, vacuum-furnace hardening has also been used. Close
1O-257Oretained austenite dispersed throughout. The retained control of the protective atmosphere is essential, and removal of
austenite is deleterious to the HSS tool, since it will gradually mill scale and/ or decarburized surfaces is recommended before
decompose and make the tool expand or grow, even at room hardening.
temperature. The quenched martensitic matrix is hard and If the atmosphere of the heat-treating furnace has an
brittle, and to obtain any ductility, the steel must be tempered. exceedingly high carbon potential, carbon can be diffused into
the surface of the HSS tool. The surface of a carburized HSS
Tempering of HSS’S tool will show a high-carbon martensite with high levels of
Four major factors that make the tempering of HSS’S retained austenite. This is generally deleterious to toughness. In
desirable are: severe cases of carburization, areas may be seen on which
1. Tempering of the as-hardened martensitic structure pro- melting at the grain boundaries has occurred.
motes ductility and toughness and prevents cracking.
2. Tempering at sufficiently high temperatures conditions most Other Heat Treatment Problems
of the retained austenite, causing it to transform into Once hardened, a HSS cannot be immediately rehardened
martensite on cooling from the tempering temperature. without the formation of extremely large and discontinuous
3. Tempering precipitates the alloy carbides—this is known as grains, resulting in what is termed as fish-scale fracture. This
secondary hardening reaction. effect can be avoided in a heat-treated part by reannealing the
4. Tempering acts as a relief for internal stresses that may have tool prior to the second hardening operation.
built up in the part due to thermal gradients upon cooling, or Distortion and cracking is another problem that may be
in the transformation of austenite to martensite. encountered during the heat treatment of HSS’S. This problem
Tempering should be performed immediately after quen- is due to excessive thermal gradients which may exist in the steel
ching to minimize the possibility of cracking. A typical tool during heating to or upon quenching from the hardening
tempering operation for HSS’S is a double treatment consisting temperature. Distortion and cracking may also occur from the
of heating for two hours at 1050° F (566” C), cooling to room stresses built up during the expansion caused by the transfor-
temperature, and then reheating to 1050° F. This procedure mation of austenite to martensite. One way to avoid the
greatly reduces retained austenite in most grades of HSS. building up of these stresses is to quench from the hardening
Transformation of austenite to martensite is temperature temperature into a salt bath operating at about 100W F (538° C)
dependent, occurring over the range of about 450° F (232° C) to and allow the temperature throughout the part to equalize. This
below room temperature. On tempering at 105W F (566° C) for procedure is known as step quenching. The hardness of the
two hours, the retained austenite is conditioned by the precipi- heat-treated steel is not affected by this quenching procedure.
tation of alloy carbides and the austenite gets leaner in carbon Stress relieving before hardening also helps reduce distortion
and alloying elements. On cooling to room temperature from and cracking. Long, thin tools should be suspended vertically
the first tempering treatment, a good portion of the retained during hardening to prevent warping.
austenite will transform to martensite.
The second tempering treatment at 1050° F (566° C) for two SURFACE TREATMENTS
hours simply tempers the freshly formed martensite. In most of For some applications, cutting performance and tool life
the high-carbon, super HSS’S, however, a third tempering may be improved by surface treatment. Surface treatments
treatment is necessary to complete transformation of the include smoothing processes, lubricating and hardening treat-
retained austenite. ments, and the application of coatings. Methods that produce
brittle surface layers should be avoided, especially on tools that
Subzero Treatment are subjected to impact forces. Most treatments are recom-
Another method of transforming retained austenite is to mended only for tools having a minimum number of surfaces
cool the tool to a subzero temperature immediately after that are resharpened.
hardening. The finish temperature for martensite in HSS is
approximately -150 to -20W F (-101 to -12!YC). Therefore,
quenching the tool to this temperature immediately after Surface Smoothing Processes
hardening will transform most of the austenite to martensite. Various blasting methods, grinding, honing, and polishing
The tool must then be tempered after the subzero cooling are employed to smooth tool surfaces. Some of these processes
treatment. Subzero treatment, however, significantly increases have long been used to clean tools after heat treatment, remove
the chances of quench cracking and is seldom used on a burrs, and smooth machining marks. The removal of machining
commercial, high-production basis. and grinding marks decreases the tendency of chips to weld to
the tools in machining some materials, allowing smoother
Decarburization surface finishes to be produced on workplaces. Shot peening of
One of the problems that can develop during the heat tool surfaces is sometimes done to introduce compressive
treating of HSS’S is surface decarburization. If the atmosphere stresses, which can improve cutting edge strength.
3-9
CHAPTER 3
HIGH-SPEED STEELS
Surface Lubricating Treatments low cutting speeds; on older, less rigid machine tools with low
Oxidizing, sulfidizing, and phosphating are included in horsepower; and when good surface finishes are required on
surface lubricating treatments. Steam treatment is a common workplaces. They are often best for tough, interrupted-cut
process for tools used to machine certain steels that present operations on difficult-to-machine materials, such as heat-
chip-flow problems, such as drills for soft steels and austenitic treated steels, titanium alloys, and high-temperature materials.
stainless steels. It produces a hard, porous, black layer of iron Reasons for the continued high usage of HSS took include their
oxide, usually about 0.0002” (0.005 mm) thick, that reduces relatively low cost and easy fabrication, good wear resistance
friction and retains cutting fluid. The layer also decreases heat and toughness, and versatility (they are suitable for virtually all
transfer, provides corrosion resistance, and adds luster to make types of cutting tools).
the tool surface more attractive. Type M 1 HSS, which costs about 10% less than the multi-
purpose type M2 and has the best grindability of all HSS’S, is
Surface Hardening Treatments used to produce some taps and drills. Type M2, which has
Molten salt-bath nitriding, carburizing, and carbonitriding almost replaced T], is employed extensively for turning tools,
are used to produce a thin, hard skin on tools, The surface layers broaches, drills, gear cutting tools, and form tools. This type
produced are harder and more wear resistant than the interior of HSS can give good performance in machining carbon and
structures of the tools, and generally increase tool life, Combina- alloy steels that have a hardness to 375 Bhn; stainless and
tion surface treatments, such as nitridingfollowed by oxidizing, high-strength steels, to 300 Bhn; and cast steels and irons, to 255
are sometimes used on rotary cutting tools to provide increased Bhn; as well as most nonferrous materials. Recommended
abrasion resistance, minimized edge buildup, and improved cutting speeds range from about 45 sfm (13.7 m/rein) for
lubrication. machining austenitic stainless steels to approximately 1000 sfm
(305 m/rein) for aluminum alloys. The cutting-speed range for
Coatings turning carbon and alloy steels is generally 60-150 sfm (18.3-
Chromium, tungsten, tungsten carbide, and other materials 45.7 m/min).
are sometimes applied as coatings to cutting tool surfaces by Types M7 and M 10 HSS’S, which are more wear resistant
electroplating, chemical or vapor deposition, flame or plasma than M 1, are used extensively for drills, reamers, and end mills.
torch deposition, and electrosparking. Coatings can provide a M 1 and M2 HSS’S are used for saw blades. M3 (classes 1 and 2),
lower coefficient of friction, increased abrasion resistance, and M4, and TI 5 HSS’S are used for drills, milling cutters, broaches,
better antiwelding characteristics to tool surfaces. They can also and turning and form tools because of their greater wear
be used to restore worn took to their original dimensions. Care resistance and hot hardness, but they are more difficult to grind.
is necessary in the application of coatings to prevent spalling M33, M36, and M42 HSS’S, with their increased hot hardness,
and peeling, and application temperature must be low enough are used for drills and milling cutters when machining hard
to prevent overtempering of the HSS substrate or micro- steels and heat-resistant alloys, as well as for interrupted-cut
cracking. Obtaining uniform coating thicknesses is difficult, turning tools used on tough, scaly forgings. The tungsten
however, particularly on complexly shaped tools. Thin HSS’S, T2, T4, T5, and T6, are sometimes used for form tools,
chromium coatings, usually 0.00012-0.0004’’ (0.0030-0.01 Omm) turning tool bits, and large lathe tools, but applications are
thick, are the most common of this type of surface treatment. restricted by their cost.
Improved cutting performance has been obtained on coated Tools made from the M40 series of HSS’S perform well in
deep-hole drills, but the coating is not suitable for lathe tools. many applications for which the requirements are between
More recently, promising results have been obtained using those of other HSS tools and carbide cutting tools. Their hot
HSS tools coated with titanium carbide (TiC) and titanium hardness and wear resistance are higher than other HSS’S but
nitride (TiN). Two methods, yielding coating thicknesses of less than carbides, and their toughness is slightly below that of
0.00008-0.00024” (2-6 pm), are used: physical vapor deposition other HSS’S but considerably higher than carbides. They are
(PVD) and chemical vapor deposition (CVD).2 While these generally best for operations with relatively slow cutting speeds,
coated tools cost from 2-6 times as much as traditional HSS for operations requiring high rake angles on the tools, and for
tools, they may last from 5-10 times longer or provide 50-100% operations requiring the machining of heat-treated steels,
higher metal removal rates with the same tool life, Drills, taps, titanium, and high-temperature alloys, and other hard-to-
cutoff took, throwaway inserts, end mills, form tools, and gear machine materials. Grindability is superior to carbides and
cutting bobs have been coated with these methods. HSS’S containing more vanadium, but heat treating and
tempering require precise controls.
APPLICATIONS OF HSS TOOLS
Despite the increased use of carbides and other cutting tool
materials, HSS’S are still employed extensively—some estimates TOOL GEOMETRIES AND OPERATING
peg their use for about 60% of all metalcutting operations. Most PARAMETERS
drills, reamers, taps, thread chasers, end mills, and gear cutting Recommended geometries for HSS cutting took are pre-
tools are made from HSS’S. They are also widely used for sented in subsequent chapters of this volume. Recommended
complexly shaped tools such as form tools, parting (cutoff) starting cutting speeds and feed rates for machining various
tools for which sharp cutting edges are required. Most broaches materials with HSS tools, based on a tool life of about 1-2 hours
and many lathe and planer tools are made from HSS’S. of cutting time for most of the common alloys, are presented in
HSS tools are usually preferred for operations performed at the Machining Data Handbook. 3
3-1o
CHAPTER 3
POWDERED METAL HIGH-SPEED TOOL STEELS

High-speed tool steels, especially the higher alloy types such or binders are added to the powder. This contributes to assuring
as M4 and T 15 produced conventionally in larger ingot sizes, high purity and full density. Several different compacting
tend to form carbide segregations in the slowly cooled, cast methods are used by the various producers. Conventional
ingots. These segregated clusters of carbides persist even after mechanical pressing with dies and cold isostatic pressing, both
hot working. They cause undesirable effects on both tool followed by sintering to virtually 100% density, are used by
fabrication (heat treating and grinding) and tool performance Valform, and Amsted uses mechanical pressing only. Crucible
(limited toughness). and Uddeholm employ hot isostatic pressing for compacting
High-speed tool steels made by powder metallurgy processes the gas-atomized powders directly to full density.
generally have a uniform structure, with fine carbide particles Mechanical pressing is generally preferable for compacting
and no segregation. Powder metallurgy produced HSS’S provide simpler shapes, such as cutting tool inserts, and for higher
many advantages, and tools made from these materials are volume requirements. Tooling costs, however, are higher than
being increasingly applied. for isostatic pressing. With the isostatic processes, pressure is
Among the first production processes were the Crucible equally distributed throughout the compacts, and these methods
Particle Metallurgy (CPM) process developed by Crucible are desirable for producing more intricate shapes and for lower
Specialty Metals Div., Colt Industries, and the Anti-Segregation volume requirements.
Process (ASP) developed by Uddeholm Steel Corp. They have In cold isostatic pressing, powder is poured into reusable
been commercially applied to the production of HSS’S since flexible rubber molds; the molds are sealed with caps; and
1970. Other methods being used to produce these materials hydraulic pressure is applied from all directions. Cold pressed
include the powder metallurgy (PM) process of Valform Div., tools, whether pressed mechanically or isostatically, must be
Valeron Corp., and the High Technology Materials (HTM) sintered after pressing. Sintering of the compacts is generally
process of Amsted Industries Research Laboratories. done in a vacuum furnace. This causes shrinkage, but results in
tools with virtually 10070 density.
THE PROCESSES In hot isostatic pressing, powder is poured into cylindrical
All of the processes start by producing baths of molten, steel cans; the cans are evacuated and sealed, then subjected to
prealloyed steel in induction furnaces. Powder particles are hot isostatic compaction that consolidates the particles into
produced by high-pressure, water or gas-jet atomization of the dense compacts. The compacts can then be rolled or forged on
molten metal. The particles have a uniform distribution of fine conventional steel mill equipment or used as consolidated after
carbides. the cans are stripped off.
Compacting of the dried and screened particles differs from Heat treatment, including hardening and tempering, is
conventional powder metallurgy processes in that no lubricants similar to that for conventional wrought HSS’S, depending on
FIG. 3-4 Typical carbide size and distribution in T15 HSS produced conventionally (left) and by the CPM process (right). Photomicrogrsrphs
were taken at 500 magnification. (Crucible Specially MelaIs Div.)
3-11
CHAPTER 3
required strength. Maximum hardness of the powdered HSS’S sometimes be used, thus further boosting productivity.
available is about RC70. Finish grinding can be done by the Superior grindability of these steels in their hardened
material producer, tool manufacturer, or user. TiC and TiN conditions, without any sacrifice of tool wear, is another major
coatings for tools made from these materials are available. A advantage. This is of particular importance for higher alloy
ferrous oxide treatment to reduce chip welding is used on inserts grades of HSS’S, such as M4 and T15, which are difficrdt to
that are made from T15 HSS powder and sold by the grind when produced conventionally. Toolmaking and reshar-
Union/ Butterfield Div. of Litton Industries. pening can be done more easily and at a lower cost, with less
chance of damage due to burning.
MATERIAL ADVANTAGES Increased grinding (G) ratios (volume of material removed
These powder metallurgy processes often permit the produc- from the tool to the volume of abrasive worn away from the
tion of superior quality grades of high-speed and other alloy wheel during grinding) for several grades of heat-treated
steels that are not practical with conventional steel making. powder metallurgy steels, compared with those of corresponding
Steels made in this way arc characterized by better hot conventional grades, are shown in Fig. 3-6. The considerable
workability and homogeneity compared to conventional steels, improvement in grindability for resulfurized M2HCHS (high
with no segregation. Carbide particle size is considerably finer carbon— 1.()%, high suIfur) HSS is due to the very fine,
and more uniformly distributed than in HSS’S produced uniformly distributed sulfides in the powdered metal.
conventionally. Fig. 3-4 illustrates the appearance of primary
carbides in Tl 5 HSS produced conventionally and by the CPM
process,
20 20
Results of quantitative metallographic analyses of primary m PM
18
carbide size distribution of these same materials shown in Fig. ‘8 E 161 U Conventtonol 1
3-4 are depicted in Fig. 3-5. Virtually all carbides in the gas-
atomized and hot isostatic pressed, powdered metal steel had a
section size less than 3 microns (1 18 K in.). In the steel produced
conventionally, about one-half of the carbide population was
larger than 6.2 microns (244 v in.) and sizes up to 34 microns
( 1339 p in.) were observed. Mechanically pressed or cold
isostatic pressed material generally exhibits somewhat larger
carbide sizes than 3 microns.
Steel grade
FIG. 3-6 Comparative grinding ratios of several grades of beat-

treated HSS’S produced by CPNf process and conventionally. (Crucible
Specialty Metals Div.)
Ease of grinding unsulfurized HSS of equivalent hardness is

determined primarily by the volume and particularly the size of
the vanadium carbides. These carbides are harder than
aluminum oxide. As a result, when they are large, as in steels
I , t 1 made conventionally, they fracture the abrasive grain. When
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 fine, they are sheared from the tool with the grinding chips.
Prlmarv carbtde section s!ze (~ In.)
Tool wear rate is a function of the steel hardness and vanadium
carbide area, which is identical for both conventional and
FIG. 3-5 Primary carbide size distribution in T15 HSS produced powder metallurgy products. Therefore, improved grindability
conventionally and by the CPM process. (Crucible Specialty Metals is obtained with no sacrifice in wear resistance.
Div.) While HSS’S made by the powder metallurgy process are
generally slightly higher in cost, tool manufacturing and
This uniform distribution of fine primary carbides provides performance benefits may rapidly outweigh this premium. In
several benefits in both tool manufacturing and performance. many cases, however, tools made from these materials are lower
One major advantage is that these steels have a faster and more in cost because of reduced material, labor, and machining costs,
uniform response to hardening heat treatment, as well as more compared to those made from wrought materials. Near-net
predictable size changes. Greater dimensional stability means shapes produced often require only a minimum of grinding, and
less chance of distortion or damage due to cracking. Proper the more complex the tool, the more savings possible. Also, the
heat treatment can provide a desirable combination of higher higher the alloy content of the steel, the greater the savings.
hot hardness, wear resistance, and toughness. Higher harnesses Another important advantage is that the powder metallurgy
can be obtained without embrittlement. process permits more design flexibility. This is because com-
Toughness of the took is improved, particularly in larger plexly shaped tools can be produced economically. Also, the
sections and in the transverse direction. Increases in tool life method may allow the use of better grade, higher alloy steels
result in greater productivity because of reduced downtime for that would be uneconomical to employ for tools with conven-
toolchanging. Also, higher cutting speeds and/or feed rates can tional production methods.
3-12
CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND TOOLS AVAILABLE TABLE 3-5

Crucible Specialty Metals Div., Colt Industries, offers a Compositions of Some Steels Produced by the ASP Process
range of HSS grades, including M2, M3, M4, M42, and T15, for
various cutting tool applications--gear cutting tools, milling Chemical Composition, %
cutters, broaching tools, spade drills, form tools, tool bits, etc. Uddeholm
This firm has also developed several more highly alloyed Grade c Cr Mo W v co
grades, the compositions of which are given in Table 3-4.
23 1.27 4.2 5.0 6.4 3.1 ----
30 1.27 4.2 5.0 6.4 3.1 8.5
TABLE 3-4 60 2.30 4.0 7.0 6.5 6.5 10.5
Compositions of Some Super High-Speed Steels
Produced by tbe CPM Process inserts of isostatically compacted, T 15 HSS powder metal.
Amsted Industries Research Laboratories is using the HTM
Chemical Composition, 9% process to mechanically press and sinter cutting tool preforms
Crucible from M2, M3 Class 2, and T15 HSS powders. Preforms
Grade c Cr W Mo V Co commercially produced include indexable spade drill inserts,
milling cutters, and tool bits.
CPM Rex 76 1.50 3.75 10.00 5.25 3.00 9.00
CPM Rex 25 1,80 4.00 [2,50 6.50 5.00 ---- APPLICATIONS
CPM Rex 20 1.30 3.75 6.25 10.50 2.00 ---- Cutting tools made from steels produced by the powder
metallurgy process are recommended for turning, boring, and
milling applications in which carbide tools chip, crack, or fail
CPM Rex 76 is a super HSS with superior hot hardness and because of interrupted cuts or hard spots, for operations
a high carbon, vanadium. and cobalt content for abrasion requiring frequent starting and stopping, and for machines with
resistance equal to T 15. It is heat treatable to a hardness of RC70 underpowered spindles.
and is recommended for special-purpose cutting tools beyond Milling cutters are becoming a major application for these
the capabilities of M40 steels. An example of improved tool steels, Stock removal rates can generally be raised by
performance when this material is employed is the use of a 1/2” increasing the cutting speed and/ or feed rate. In general, the
( 12.7 mm) square tool bit for turning weld flash from alloy steel feed per cutter tooth is increased for roughing operations, and
tool shanks. When the bits were made from a cast cobalt alloy, the cutting speed is boosted for finishing. In milling splines on
tool life was 3 hours. When the tool bit material was changed to transmission axles made from a case-hardening steel, only 200
CPM Rex T15, life was increased to 48 hours; and when the bits parts could be machined before resharpening when using
were made from CPM Rex 76, a tool life of 75 hours was cutters made from M42 steel, with a cutting speed of 60 m/ min
obtained. ( 197 sfm) and a feed rate of 500 mm/min (19.7 ipm). With
CPM Rex 25 is a super HSS without any cobalt content. It is cutters made from ASP 30, 500 axles can be milled before
comparable to T 15 with respect to heat treatment properties resharpening. Cutting speed is the same, but the feed rate has
and tool performance and is designed for machining with heavy been increased to 630 mm/ min (24.8 ipm).
cuts and high speeds and feeds. It can be used to cut materials When form tools for machining bearing components from
that are high in hardness, abrasion resistant, and difficult to AISI 52100 steel were made from M3 C-2 and M47 HSS’S, tool
machine. CPM Rex 20 is another super HSS without cobalt life between grindings was only 4 hours. Changing the tool
and is comparable to the M40 series, particularly M42, with material to CPM Rex M42 doubled the life to 8 hours between
respect to heat-treatment properties and tool performance. grindings. Then the tools were made from CPM Rex T 15, with
Machining applications for tools made from this material are an increase in life to 1I hours between grindings and improved
similar to those for tools made from CPM Rex 25, surface finish on the parts produced.
Uddeholm Steel Corp. currently produces three grades of Reamers, taps, and drills are also being made from these
powder metallurgy steels, the compositions of which are given materials. While they are not normally used for standard twist
in Table 3-5. Grade ASP 23 has higher yield and fracture drills, the materials often provide superior performance for
strengths and better grindability than M2 HSS, with improved special drills with demanding requirements. In drilling tough
wear resistance. It is recommended for normal cutting tool manganese alloy steel having a hardness of 330 Bhn, tools made
applications for which hot hardness is not of primary concern. of M2 steel could produce only 25 holes, Drills made of ASP 30,
ASP 30 has the same grindability, with slightly higher fracture however, are completing 80 holes.
strength than M2, and improved wear resistance, with the same Broaching tools are another important application. In
hot hardness, as M42. It is recommended for cutting at higher broaching internal splines in transmission gear blanks made
speeds and feeds, for machining stainless steels and superalloy, from SAE 8620 steel, took made from M2 steel produced only
and for other applications for which hot hardness is important. 2400 parts before resharpening was required. Now, 4250 blanks
ASP 60 has a higher hot hardness and slightly higher fracture are being broached with tools made from ASP 23 steel before
strength than M42, with the same grind ability plus better wear resharpening. Also, 20 resharpening per tool can be made with
resistance than T15. It is particularly suitable for tough the powder metallurgy steel, compared to only 9 for the
machining applications (titanium, high-hardness materials, and conventional M2 HSS, because of less wear and no chipping.
iron forgings) and for applications in which wear resistance and Turning with compacted, sintered, and heat-treated inserts,
hot hardness are critical. and gear cutting tools (bobs and shaping cutters) are also
Valform Div., Valeron Corp., is producing cutting tools, growing applications. With T 15 inserts sold by Union/Butter-
wear-resistant part preforms, and square and triangular tool field Div., Litton Industries, production has been increased 7-8
3-13
CHAPTER 3
times in turning radii on bearing caps for universal joints. The 3.6 gears, made from a case-hardening steel, have 39 teeth, a
rough steel caps each have four slots, 9(P apart, and four caps face width of 26 mm ( 1.024”), and a hardness of 200 Bhn.
are machined at a time. This interrupted cutting caused Cutting speed was increased from 66.8 to 95 m/ min (219 to
chipping of the carbide inserts used previously, which required 312 sfm), and the feed rate was increased from 2.58 to 3.75 mm/rev
considerable downtime for toolchanging. (O.102 to 0.148 ipr).
In machining gears for light truck transmissions, a switch Geometries of cutting took made by the powder metallurgy
from M2 to ASP 30 HSS bobs reduced the actual machining process are essentially the same as for conventional HSS tools.
time for a set of three gears from 4.5 to 2.6 minutes. The module Cutting fluids used are also generally the same.
CAST COBALT-BASED ALLOYS

Proprietary cutting tool materials are available as cast from carbide tools. For certain applications, however, they combine
cobalt-chromium-tungsten alloys. Molten metal is cast in chill favorable features of both high-speed steel and cemented
molds made from graphite. Rapid cooling imparts a fine- carbide tools. They have proven effective for machining
grained, bard surface of complex carbides with a tough core, operations that are considered too fast for high-speed steel tools
These cobalt-based alloys were developed by Elwood P. and too slow for carbide tools.
Haynes about 1913. Originally marketed by the Haynes Stellite Cutting tools cast from cobalt-based alloys are particularly
Co., Stellite alloys are now sold by the Wear Technology Div. of advantageous for machines with multiple tooling setups in
Cabot Corp. Tantung cobalt-based alloys, developed about which spindle speeds of the machines are restricted and several
1939, are marketed by Fansteel. Blackalloy grades are sold by operations must be performed with widely varying cutting
the Blackalloy Co. of America, dating from about 1951. speeds. In such cases, at least one, and often several, of the tools
Chemical compositions of some of these commercially cannot be operated under ideal cutting conditions, since the
available cutting tool grades are listed in Table 3-6. Physical needs of one dictate the speeds for the rest. Cast cobalt-based
properties and cutting characterktics differ for the various alloy tools adapt to such varying conditions as these and allow
grades. Typical tensile strength ranges from 70 to 90 ksi (482.6 machining cycles to be shortened,
to 620.5 MPa), and compressive strength, from 330 to 400 ksi Cutting tools made from these materials are less apt to
(2275 to 2758 MPa). The transverse rupture strength varies fracture or chip than tools made from carbide, and they provide
from 200 to 350 ksi (1379 to 2413 MPa). Hardness at the cast more resistance to heat than high-speed steel tools. They have
surfaces, with a temperature of 72° F (22° C), is RC60-65. proven to be especially effective for cutoff and grooving
Impact strength, using a V-notch Charpy specimen, is from 3 to operations. Rough, heavy, and interrupted turning is easily
5 ft-lbf (4.07 to 6.78 J), and the coefficient of friction against performed, and with proper application, the finishes produced
mild steel is O.15. can equal those possible with most other cutting tools. Their
high transverse rupture strength permits making interrupted
TABLE 3-6 cuts often not possible with carbide tools, Also, the high
Compositions of Cast Cobalt-Based Alloys strength and low coefficient of friction of these tools make them
ideal for slow speed, high-pressure operations such as cutoff
Composition Ranges, YO and grooving.
Tantung G Tantung 144 Since iron is the principal alloying element in high-speed
and Black- and Black- steels, the matrix softens at temperatures in the range of 1050-
Element alloy TX-90 alloy 525 Stellite 100 1150° F (566-621° C), well below the melting points of the alloys.
$Co:; 4::;7 4~:;5 41.5 -43.5 This causes a reduction in strength. Hard carbides in the cutting
1.5 max. edges are removed, and the steels remain soft until rehardened.
Chromium 27-32 25-30 32.75-34.25 Cast alloys, with their cobalt-rich matrices, do not soften
Tungsten 14-19 l$:; l 18.25-19.25
Carbon 2-4 1.85-2.05
markedly until heated to temperatures approaching their
Columbium 2-5 3-8 ---- melting points. Carbides remain in the matrix, strength is
Manganese T-3 i-3 0.75 max. retained, and the cutting edge remains sharp, even at
Iron 2-5 2-5 2.00 max. temperatures approaching 1600° F (871° C),
Silicon 0,3-0.7 0.3-0.7 0.4-0.6
Boron ---- ---- 0.85-1.05 Just as important as their hot hardness are the recovery
hardness characteristics of cast cobalt-based alloys. After
machining at temperatures approaching 160(Y’F, tools made
ADVANTAGES from these materials. when cooled, recover harnesses of RC60
High hot hardness and transverse rupture strength, plus or better. In contrast, a typical high-speed steel tool drops in
good resistance to abrasive wear, thermal and mechanical hardness at a rapid rate. For example, after machining at
shock, and impact, as well as a low coefficient of friction against 1300° F (704° C), it will have a hardness of only RC20-25 when
any material, enable cobalt-based alloys to remove large cooled, and is useless as a cutting tool unless rehardened.
amounts of metal in a limited amount of machining time. Effectiveness of any tool is determined by its ability to cut,
Tools cast from cobalt-based alloys are sometimes referred rather than its hardness. Given two tools of equal hardness, the
to as the in-between or intermediate tools—for applications one that retains strength at a higher temperature can be
requiring properties between those of high-speed steel tools and operated faster, thus increasing productivity.
3-14
CHAPTER 3
APPLICATIONS suited for applications in which higher production is desired

Versatility is another important advantage of the cast than is possible with high-speed steel tools. Tools made from
cobalt-based materials. They are used for a wide variety of tools these materials are frequently used on automatic screw, bar,
including solid tool bits, brazed-tip tools, toolholder inserts, and other machines requiring multiple tooling operations in
cutoff blades, grooving tools, spade drills, milling cutter inserts which the cutting speeds for one or more of the operations fall
and blades, andcast-to-form tools and tips. Incast form tools, within the range of cobalt-based cutting tools. They are also
holes are not practical. Also, dovetails are not generally employed when machine tools lack the power or rigidity to use
feasible, because it is more economical to braze the tools to carbide tools effectively,
holders. Stellite drills, having a pyramid point with an included
angle of 100° andachip groove ground intheclearance face, are TOOL GEOMETRY
recommended only for case-hardened steel, manganese steel, Suggested cutting angles for tools cast from cobalt-based
chilled iron, and tool steels having a hardness over RC50. alloys are given in Table 3-7. It is important to provide
A wide range of machining operations can be performed on maximum support for the cutting edges of the tools by keeping
practically all metals and nonmetallic materials using tools cast the clearance angles at a minimum. Large nose radii provide
from cobalt-based alloys. Workpiece materials include cast and longer tool life, but care is necessary to prevent chatter. One
malleable irons, alloy steels, stainless steels, nickel and titanium recommendation is to use a radius equal to one-half to one-
alloys, nonferrous metals (such as aluminum, brass, and third the depth of cut.
bronze), graphite, and plastics. On heavy cuts, it may be necessary to grind a chipbreaker
Cast cobalt-based tools are typically well suited for applica- into the surface of the tool, Roller box tools can be ground in
tions in which relatively low cutting s~eeds can cause buildurt of the usual manner. then a narrow land can be stoned in the
the material being m~chined on ~h~ tool. They are also &ell cutting edge when heavy cuts are taken.
r-+x’u “9’0“’”
c“’””’
/YQiQ!!~,,T
Side clearance J
/1 ~ Side cuttlnq
II
— ‘en’h --1
W
I Back rake
j
7
‘e9~t
,ron+clearanc> p
4
TABLE 3-7
Cutting Angles for Cast Cobalt-Based Alloy Cutting Tools
Side Cutting- End Cutting- Front and Side

Back Rake Side Rake Edge Angle, Edge Angle, Clearance Angles,
Material to be Cut Angle, degrees Angle, degrees degrees degrees degrees
Cast Iron o 5 0-15 8-10 5-6
Malleable Iron O-8 8-12 0-15 8-15 6
Steel: Cast 0-8 8 0-1o 8-10 6
Steel: Soft 15 10-12 0-15 8-15 7
Steel: Medium 10 10 0-1o 8-15 6
Steel: Hard 6-8 6 0-8 8-15 6
Stainless Steel: Soft 0-15 15 0-15 8-15 7
Stainless Steel: Medium o-1o 10 0-15 8-15 7
Stainless Steel: Hard o 8 0-15 8-15 7
Aluminum 10-20 12-15 0-15 8-10 7-1o

Brass 4 4 0-15 8-10 5-6
Bronze 4 4 0-15 8-10 5-6
(Fcrnsteel)
3-15
CHAPTER 3
OPERATING PARAMETERS cutting fluids, however, is generally not recommended for

Many variables affect the choice of speeds and feeds—the heavy machining, since better results are often obtained with
hardness and condition of the material to be machined; dry cutting.
suitability of the machine and tool and workholding devices;
tolerance, surface finish, and production requirements; whether TOOL GRINDING
the cut is continuous or interrupted; type of cutting fluid used; As soon as cobalt-based alloys are cast, they cannot be
and other parameters. annealed and are too hard to machine except by grinding. The
Cutting tools cast from cobalt-based alloys are designed need for grinding can be minimized, however, by casting the
specifically forhigh-volume chip removal at moderate cutting tools as close to finished shape as possible. Simple tools can be
speeds, but they are also excellent finishing tools. Best results ground by hand, but machine grinding is preferred, especially
are generally obtained with moderate speeds and heavier feeds for form tools and when a high degree of accuracy is required.
and depths of cut, rather than with high speeds and light feeds. Whenever possible, all grinding should be done on the end and
Speeds should be lower for intermittent cuts than for continuous side faces only, not on the top face.
cutting. Although these cutting tool materials arc not difficult to
Suggested cutting speeds and feed rates for performing grind, good grinding practice is essential to prevent cracking or
various machining operations with tools cast from cobalt-based checking. Proper wheel and grinding-speed selection is impor-
alloys are provided in Table 3-8. These values should only be tant; recommendations are presented in Table 3-9. It is
used as a guide or starting point in determining the optimum desirable to use wheels of slightly softer grades than would be
speed and feed, from the standpoint of tool life and cycle time, used for high-speed steels. Tools should be traversed with
for a specific application. When a range of values is given for a respect to the wheel to avoid local overheating, and the wheel
material to be machined, the higher cutting speeds should be should be dressed frequently to keep it cutting freely. Excessively
used for softer grades of the material and the slower speeds, for hard or glazed wheels should not be used, and pressure of the
the harder grades. The suggested speeds can sometimes be tool against the wheel should be light.
exceeded, particularly with the newer free-machining materials. With the exception of crush-form grinding, which requires
Rigid machines, as well as workpiece and tool setups, are an ample flow of oil, cobalt-based alloys can be ground with or
essential to prevent stalling under load. Also, tool overhang without a cutting fluid. If a cutting fluid is used, a copious
should be as small as possible and should not protrude from the supply should be directed at the contact area between the wheel
toolholder for a distance greater than the tool depth. and tool. Rubber-bonded wheels used for cutoff operations
Cutting fluids can increase tool life or permissible cutting should be run dry. Tools should not be quenched immediately
speeds up to 30V0or more if properly applied. Either soluble oil, after grinding because this can cause cracking due to thermal
diluted 10:1 or 15:1, or sulfurized oil may be used. The use of shock.
CEMENTED TUNGSTEN CARBIDES

Cemented carbides include a broad family of hard metals machining operation or workpiece material forms long,
produced by powder metallurgy techniques that provide proper- continuous chips, as is the case in machining steels.
ties making them suitable for metalcutting tools, The first Since the late 1930s, developments in carbide cutting tools
cemented carbide cutting tool material was developed in have been aimed at optimizing the composition and grain
Germany and contained tungsten carbide (WC) with 4-13% structure of straight WC-Co and alloyed WC-TiC-TaC-Co
cobalt (Co)as a binder. It was marketed in 1926 and introduced materials, often for specific machining applications. An addi-
in the United States in 1928. tional major development has been in the configuration of the
These so-called straight WC-Co carbides are well suited for tool itself. For example, brazed tools have been broadly
tools used to machine most cast irons, nonferrous metals, and replaced with mechanically clamped inserts, In addition, the use
nonmetallic materials. They provide an increase in cutting of pressed-in chipbreakers and special geometries to reduce
speed capability of about five times that possible with tool cutting forces and horsepower requirements, improve chip
steels, plus the ability of cutting harder materials with improved control, and simplify tool setup has increased.
efficiency.
Cutting tools made from straight WC-Co carbides are not, PRODUCTION OF TUNGSTEN CARBIDE
however, satisfactory for machining steels. In such applications, In producing WC, 94 parts of tungsten powder and 6 parts of
early tool failure results from the formation ofa crater at the top carbon powder, by weight, are blended. In general, fine-grain
of the cutting edge. This is caused by the chips diffusing and powder (1-2 microns) will yield a harder, more wear-resistant
reacting chemically with the carbide surface, thus promoting end product. Conversely, coarse-grain powder (6-8 microns)
rapid wear in the chip contact area. produces a comparatively softer, less wear-resistant, but
During the 1930s, more crater-resistant grades of alloyed stronger product. Small variations in carbon content have a
tungsten carbides, suitable for tools used to machine steels, major effect on tool properties.
were developed. Alloying of the two-phase WC-Co system is Carburizing the mixture of tungsten and carbon powders at
accomplished by the addition of other carbides such as titanium a temperature of about 2800° F (1538° C) combines them into
carbide (TiC) and tantalum carbide (TaC). This delays the WC. To provide the required strength, a ductile binder element
formation of craters on the top faces of cutting tools when the (usually Co powder) is added and mixed. After subsequent
3-16
CHAPTER 3
3-17
CHAPTER 3
TABLE 3-9
Recommended Grinding Wheels and Speeds for Cast Cobalt-Based Alloys
Wheel Elements
Grinding Grain Wheel Speed,
Operation Abrasive* Size Grade Structure Bond sfm (m/s)
Offhand Aluminum 60 K 6 Vitrified 3800-4200
Roughing Oxide (19.3-21.3)
Offhand Aluminum 60 I 6 Vitrified 3800-4200

Finishing Oxide (19.3-21.3)
Machine Aluminum 60 1 8 Vitrified 3800-4200
Roughing Oxide (19.3-21.3)
Machine Aluminum 60 1 6 Vitrified 3800-4200

Finishing Oxide (19.3-21,3)
Forming Aluminum 100 I 6 Vitrified 3800-4200

Oxide (19.3-21.3)
Crush-form Aluminum 220 J 13 Vitrified 3800-4200

Oxide (19.3-21.3)
cutoff Aluminum 30 A 5 Rubber 11,000

Oxide (56)
* Cubic boron nitride wheels are also being used with good results,
sintering, the cobalt or other binder material melts and alloys a uniform dispersion of WC particles surrounded by a thin film
with the WC phase to provide a ductile, strongly bonded of Co. During sintering, compacts shrink about 16-17T0 in
material. linear dimensions or 40!70in volume; the exact amount depen-
ding on several factors.
Compacting
The most common method for compacting the mixed ADVANTAGES OF CEMENTED CARBIDES
powders is cold pressing, using a die made to the shape of the High hardness at both room and high temperatures makes
desired product. Dies, however, are made larger than the final cemented carbides particularly well suited for metalcutting. The
product sizes to allow for dimensional shrinkage during final hardness of even the softest carbide used for machining is
sintering. Such dies are usually made with WC liners and are significantly higher than the hardest tool steel. Hot hardness,
expensive. As a result, large quantities of compacts must be the capacity of WC-Co to maintain a high hardness at elevated
required to justify the cost. For smaller quantities, larger temperatures, permits the use of higher cutting speeds. Critical
briquettes or billets are often cold pressed, cut into smaller loss of hardness does not occur until the cobalt binder has
units, and shaped or preformed to the required configuration. reached a temperature high enough to allow plastic deformation
A third method, normally used for large pieces, is isostatic to take place on a microscale at the cutting edge.
pressing. Powders are charged into a closed, flexible container, Cemented carbides are also characterized by high compres-
which is then suspended in a liquid in a closed pressure vessel. sive strength values. The compressive strength is most influenced
The liquid is pressurized to compact the powder from all by Co content, increasing as the Co content is increased to
directions. A fourth method, used only infrequently and for about 4-670, then decreasing with additional amounts of Co
large parts, is hot pressing the powders in graphite dies at the (see Fig. 3-7).
sintering temperature. The modulus of elasticity (resistance to bending under load)
of cemented carbides is high—about 2-3 times that of steel. This
Sintering property contributes to tbe success of carbides for cutting tools,
Presintering, sometimes called half-sintering, is a low- making them useful as soIid tools or boring bars for which long
temperature heat treatment used to remove lubricant added to lengths are unsupported and deflections must be minimized. In
the mixed powders prior to compacting, Presintering also general, the elastic modulus decreases with increased amounts
imparts sufficient strength to the compacts to permit preforming of cobalt binder.
or shaping operations, but careful handling is required. Pre-
forming of the compacts can be done with conventional STRAIGHT TUNGSTEN CARBIDES
techniques such as drilling, turning, slicing, and grinding. The family of two-phase WC-Co compositions, commonly
Allowances must be made for shrinkage in subsequent sintering. referred to as the straight tungsten carbide grades, are particu-
Sintering is accomplished by heating the compacts in a larly well suited for tools used to machine materials that cause
hydrogen-atmosphere or vacuum furnace to temperatures tool wear primarily due to abrasion. One major class of such
ranging from 2500-2900° F (1371- 1593° C), depending on the materials is cast iron; consequently, these compositions are
composition, High sintering temperatures densify the compacts often referred to as cast iron grades. They are also used,
to the theoretical maximum. The resultant structure consists of however, for machining many other metals, aluminum, high-
3-18
CHAPTER 3
The toughness of tungsten carbide cutting tools is high

compared to other hard materials, but lower than the toughness
of HSS’S. An almost linear relationship exists between impact
resistance and the Co content of WC-Co compositions—the
greater the Co content, the greater the impact strength. Grain
size also affects impact strength, but not nearly as much as the
Co content. Increasing grain size, however, usually increases
the impact strength. Although the relationship between
increasing transverse rupture strength (TRS) and increasing Co
content is not a straight line function, it is almost linear, as
shown in Fig. 3-9,
Co content, % (by we!ght)
FIG. 3-7 Compressive strength of WC-Co carbides as a function of

cobalt content.
temperature alloys, and nonferrous metals.

The straight WC-Co grades are not normally effective in
machining steels because of the nature of the wear that develops Co ccmtent, % (by v.mght)
rapidly on the rake face of the tool—cratering, This is the result

of adhesion and diffusion between the tool and the chips ---- _- .. ——
- .- ---
Klti. 5-Y 1ransverse rupture strength (’1KS) as a tunction of Co
because of the affinity of iron in the chips to the cobalt binder in content in WC-Co compositions.
the tool,
WC-Co grades can be characterized by their hardness values
ALLOYED TUNGSTEN CARBIDES
and have the greatest strength for lowest hardness. Co content
Alloying of the two-phase WC-Co system with additional
has the most profound influence on apparent hardness, as
carbides can delay the formation of a crater on the top face of a
shown in Fig. 3-8 for a typical grade. Grain size is also cutting tool used in the machining operations that form long,
important, Most commercial grades of WC-Co made for metal
continuous chips, as is the case when cutting steels. The alloys
removal operations havea Cocontent ranging from 3-12%by
can be introduced as single carbides or as solid solutions in
weight,
combination with part of the WC. After preparation of the
Toughness and strength of metalcutting carbide composi-
carbides, the manufacturing process is essentially the same as
tions are also influenced mostly by the Co content, Although
for straight WC-Co compositions.
toughness is not defined in specific numerical values, it is
Alloyed tungsten carbides are created when part of the WC
generally considered to be the ability of a tool to resist failure
in the WC-Co system is replaced by TiC, TaC, ora combination
from impact loading. Tough tool materials with a large amount
of both. The microstructure of alloyed grades varies greatly
of shock resistance are required for heavy roughing operations,
because of the many chemical compositions which have been
interrupted cutting, and milling applications. Toughness can be
adopted for commercial production.
a more important property than wear resistance for such
applications. TiC Alloyed Grades
The most significant contribution of TiC in carbide cutting
tools is a reduction in the tendency toward built-up edges on the
cutting tools and a reduction in the diffusion wear process.
94 Reduced diffusion between the workpiece and tool at the high
temperatures developed during machining delays cratering,
93
< which is a common cause of tool failure in cutting steel. Hot
; 92 hardness is also improved with the addition of TiC.
Cl
As the TiC content increases, however, the transverse
+ 91
0 rupture, compressive, and impact strengths, as well as the
= 90 elastic modulus, are all reduced for any given Co content. For
this reason, it is common practice in producing commercial
89 ;\, grades of alloyed carbides to counteract the weakening effect of
TiC additions by increasing the amount of Co to maintain the
5 10 15 desired strength level.
Co content, % (by weight)
TaC Alloyed Grades
FIG. 3-8 Hardness as a function of cobalt content in WC-Co The contribution which TaC makes to carbide cutting tool
carbides. performance is similar to that of TiC in that it prolongs the tool
3-19
CHAPTER 3
life of tools used to cut materials such as steels that yield long, grades. For example, many soft, ductile, nodular, and malleable
continuous chips. Small additions of TaC to WC-Co alloys cast irons are being cut economically with tools made from steel
inhibit the recrystallization of the carbide phase, and resulting cutting grades, and light chip-load machining operations on
alloys generally have a finer grain size and higher hardness than medium-to-hard alloy steels are being done at low cost with
corresponding TaC-free compositions. Such alloys also permit tools made from cast-iron grades. In addition, austenitic
wider sintering ranges and are therefore less sensitive to stainless steels and iron-based, high-temperature alloys are
oversintering. being economically machined with tools made from cast-iron
Although TaC has lower hardness than TiC at room cutting grades,
temperature, the hot hardness is higher. Therefore, TaC may The two most popular classification systems for cemented
improve wear resistance at cutting temperatures. Also, the carbide cutting tools are:
coefficient of thermal expansion for TaC more closely matches
1. The unofficial C-classification system initiated in the
that for WC-Co, thereby resulting in better resistance to
U.S. automotive industry and more commonly used in
thermal shock. Consequently, TaC is useful when added to
the United States (see Table 3-1 O).
WC-Co compositions to produce grades for special applications.
2. The International Organization for Standardization
These applications include trimming hot flash from welded
(1S0) system, based ~n 1S0 Standard 513-1975(E),
tubes, deep slotting when heat generation is high and cutting
which is widely used in Europe and appears to be gaining
fluid application difficult, and machining uranium when chip
acceptance in the United States (see Table 3-1 1). The ISO
adhesion is a serious problem. The high cost of TaC, however,
committee for this standard is considering eliminating
has led some producers to use substitutions, including niobium
the M classification of carbides and adding a C to the
carbide (NbC), columbium carbide (CbC), mixtures of TaC and
ends of other designation numbers for coated inserts,
CbC, or hafnium carbide (HfC) and CbC.
Most of the alloyed tungsten carbide cutting tool composi- Although these two classification systems for identifying
tions produced commercially, particularly in the United States, carbide cutting tools are widely used, they both share the
contain both TiC and TaC. The use of both of these carbides as common fault of being based on application rather than
alloys provides better crater resistance, as well as higher hot composition, microstructure, and performance characteristics.
hardness and compressive strength. Various carbide manufacturers use different techniques (compo-
sition, processing, microstructure control, etc. ) to achieve
MICROGRAIN CARBIDES properties suited for specific applications. As a result, wide
So-called micrograin high-strength carbides are actually an variations exist in available carbides that are classified the
extension of conventional WC-Co grades, which are essentially same, A single producer can have as many as eight grades in a
of micrograin structure. The concept is to maintain wear single classification.
resistance or hardness by producing extremely fine micro- A problem specific to the C-classification system is that it
structure while increasing binder levels to maximize strength has become outdated by the advances and refinements in
and shock resistance. carbide tooling. Neither the C-classification nor the 1S0 system
The major advantage of micrograin compositions is their covers the many tool geometries, machine conditions, tolerance
higher toughness compared to conventional grades of equal and finish requirements, cutting fluid effects, or the increasingly
hardness but lower binder content. They are used for machining popular, coated carbide tools. Also, the application terms used
applications in which their higher transverse rupture strengths in both systems—roughing, finishing, etc.—are too general and
and toughness offer an advantage. Such applications include vary with different industries.
operations requiring severe interrupted cuts, cutoff and form
tools that chip or break when made from conventional carbides,
and some machining operations on stainless steels, high- SELECTION AND APPLICATIONS OF
temperature alloys, superalloy, and titanium. Micrograin CARBIDE TOOLS
carbides also have utility for positive-rake tooling in which a Despite the inroads made by coated carbide inserts, discussed
free cutting edge is needed but is relatively unsupported, One later in this chapter, conventional grades of uncoated carbides
disadvantage of micrograin carbides, however, is that they have are still being used extensively, and they are the most economical
a somewhat greater tendency to fail by cratering than other and productive for some applications. The wide variety of
carbides. carbide compositions with different performance characteristics
commercially available is necessary because of the many
GRADE CLASSIFICATIONS workpiece materials, operations, and production conditions
Classification of cemented carbides for cutting tools is a and requirements encountered in industry.
controversial subject because cemented carbides are available Selection of the proper cutting tool for a specific application
in a wide variety of compositions with different properties from is important economically. In some cases, more money is spent
many suppliers. Frequent reference is made to cast-iron and for cutting tools than for capital equipment over a 10-year
steel cutting grades, and to some extent, edge-wear and crater- period, or an even shorter period. It is recommended that plants
resistant grades. These terms are often misleading because the using cutting tools conduct periodic tool evaluation programs,
first two tend to limit consideration to the workpiece material, which can result in significant cost savings.
while the latter two are related to the mode of tool failure. An effective tool evaluation program is simply an organized
Most steels are machined with tools made from the steel effort to determine which tools are available, their advantages
cutting grades and present no particular grade selection prob- and limitations, and their implementation for specific applica-
lems. Problems do occur, however, when steel parts cannot be tions. The program should include an analysis of present tool
economically machined with tools made from steel cutting performance (based on controlled tests), the evaluation of new
grades or cast iron parts with tools made from cast-iron cutting tools under test conditions, and the establishment of tooI
3-20
CHAPTER 3
TABLE 3-10
Classification of Tungsten Carbides According to Machining Application, per U.S. C-System
Typical Properties
Transverse
Classi- Characteristics Hardness. Rrmture
fication
Number
IbeMaterials
Machined
to Machining
Operation
Type of
Carbide
of
cut
of
Carbide
R/’ Strength,
ksi (MPa)
Cast iron, Roughing Wear- Increasing Increasing 89.0 350
c- I
I
d
nonferrous Cuts resistant cutting speed hardness and (2413)
metals, and grades. wear resistance
c-2 nonmetallic General Generally.
Ifb
materials purpose straight
requiring WC-CO with
c-3 abrasion Finishing varying
~
1
resistance grain sizes.
c-4 Precision
boring and Increasing
Increasing
strength and
93,5
(1207)
175
fine finishing feed rate binder content I

c-5 Steels and Roughing Crater- Increasing Increasing 91.0 300
d
steel alloys cuts resistant cutting speed hardness and (2068)
requiring grades. I wear resistance
C-6 crater and General Various I 92.0 250
deformation purpose WC-Co compo- ( 1724)
resistance sitions with
c-7 Finishing TiC and/or 93.0 200
TaC alloys, (l 379)
I
C-8 Precision Increasing 94.0 150
boring and Increasing strength and (1034)
fine finishing feed rate binder content
standards, tool handling methods, and tool troubleshooting tors to production costs. Factors that should be considered in
procedures. grade selection are presented in Fig. 3-10.
As previously discussed, classification systems and grade
Types of Tools Available charts from carbide producers are of only limited help as a
Four basic types of carbide tools are available: indexable general guide in the selection process. No two grades obtained
inserts, brazed carbide tools, mechanically-held, regrindable from different carbide manufacturers are identical in composi-
carbide tools, and solid carbide tools. Indexable inserts, tion, method of production, and properties. As a result, no two
mechanically clamped in holders, represent by far the largest grades can be equivalent in performance.
percentage of carbide tools used. They provide unlimited grade More specific grade recommendations can be obtained from
selection in a wide variety of standard shapes, sizes, and built-in carbide tool manufacturers, permitting a better first-choice
chip-control geometries. Indexable inserts are used in both selection for a given application. Optimization, however,
single-point tools and multiedge cutting heads for combinations requires a complete evaluation analysis, including the analysis
of turning, boring, milling, facing, chamfering, and related of costs, machining and indexing/changing times, tool life, etc.
operations.
Brazed carbide tools, in addition to their use for special
applications, have good utility characteristics because of the Tool Geometries
wide range of shapes and geometries that can be ground with In addition to the large number of carbide grades available,
them and because of their relatively low initial cost. Regrindable, many insert geometries and chip-control configurations, as well
mechanically-held tools are well suited for many specia! as toolholders, can also complicate the selection of an optimum
applications and are used for heavy-duty turning and planing tool for a specific application. A discussion of insert geometries
operations, as well as for certain form tool applications. They and toolholder styles is presented in Chapter 8, “Turning and
are, however, relatively high in maintenance costs and conse- Boring, “ of this volume.
quently are often replaced with indexable inserts when possible, To minimize the possibility of breakage, carbide tools with
Solid carbide tools are generally limited to special applications sharp cutting edges should not be used for roughing cuts.
because of their high initial costs and maintenance costs. They Chamfers and/or rounded corners are widely used for such
are used frequently, however, for applications such as boring of applkations. Nose radii should be as large as the workpiece and
deep holes that require the inherently high stiffness of carbide. operating conditions permit because they result in stronger
tools and can improve the surface finishes produced. Tools with
Grade Selection Factors large nose radii, however, tend to generate higher radial forces
Selection of the proper carbide grade is of considerable that may cause chatter if the workpiece or fixturing lack
economic importance because edge wear or breakage and the stability.
frequency of tool indexing and replacement are major contribu- Both positive and negative-rake carbide tools are used for
3-21
CHAPTER 3
80
CHAPTER 3
M
3-23
CHAPTER 3
Machtne tool ProductIon

type and Operatton requlrerments
condl$lon I
#
, 1
Work ~ater[al 1
(Lorllpuworl, Sbr{.,ke Port cLn-
strLcture, condltlon fg~rotor
hardness) 1 and rlgldlty
I
Type of cut
(roughng for Tool ~tyle Tool geometry
stock ,emoval (brazed or (Ieod angle,
or flmshlng throwaway roke ongles,
for tolerance !I, ser.) nose radius)
and ftmsh) I
I
1
, I
Mochntng Cutllng edge
conditions ccndttlon Tool J/c
(depth, feed (honed, .nhoned end poIr I
and speed) or chamfered)
FIG. 3-10 Basic factors that should reconsidered inselecting carbide grades.
various applications. With proper edge preparation, carbide points in machining various materials with carbide tools are
tools with positive rake angles reduce the cutting forces, can presented in Table 3-12. These recommendations cover a broad
increase tool life, help control chatter, and are often more range of applications and grades. Coated carbides are being
efficient formachining many materials. Positive rake angles to widely used for higher speed applications. More specific
20° areused, with 5-6° being common, forcutting steels, and recommendations, based on a tool life of about 1-2 hours for
higher angles are employed for machining nonferrous materials. brazed carbide tools and 30-40 minutes for indexable carbide
Carbide tools with negative rake angles, however, can withstand inserts, are presented in the Machining Data Handbook. 4
higher cutting forces, and from the cost standpoint, they A guide to possible solutions for problems that may be
provide twice as many cutting edges. Negative-rake tools are encountered when using carbide tools is given in Table 3-13.
used extensively on older machine tools and when machining
conditions are not favorable. GRINDING CARBIDE TOOLS
While carbide indexable inserts are not often resharpened.
brazed, solid, and regrindable carbide tools are frequently
OPERATING PARAMETERS FOR ground. With suitable grinding machines and wheels (silicon
USING CARBIDE TOOLS carbide or diamond) and proper techniques, no problems
The important machining variables of material removal should arise in offhand or precision grinding of carbide tools.
rates and tool life are controlled by the operating parameters of Restoring the edges of dull tools maybe done on carbide tool
cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut. Increasing any one or grinders designed to use diamond wheels. Vitrified-bond
all of these parameters increases the metal removal rate but diamond wheels are generally recommended for fast stock
decreases tool life. The heaviest depth of cut possible should be removal and long life, with about 100 grit size for roughing and
used for the most favorable tool life andmaterial removal rate. 220 grit size or finer for finishing. Metal-coated diamond
Forany given depth of cut and desired tool life an optimum abrasives have resulted in increased grinding ratios (the volume
feed/speed combination exists that yields a maximum metal of carbide removed per unit volume of wheel wear).
removal rate. Surface finish requirements, however, must also When large amounts of carbide have to be removed, as is the
be considered because they are influenced more by the feed rate case with chipped tools, silicon carbide wheels are often used. A
than the cutting speed. Too low a feed and/or speed should be 60 or 80-grit wheel is generally suitable for most roughing
avoided because this promotes built-up edge formation. It is operations, and 100-grit wheel or finer for finishing. While
also important to select the proper chip-control geometry silicon carbide wheels are satisfactory for grinding the high-
(discussed in Chapter 8 “Turning and Boring”) for the cutting cobalt grade of carbide, they may cause heat checking of lower
speed and feed rate to be used. cobalt grades, and appropriate precautions must be taken. Even
Recommendations with respect to cutting speeds, feed rates, diamond wheels of improper hardness, grit size, or metal
and depths of cut for carbide tools must, of necessity, be general removal rate can result in heat checking of the lower cobalt
because of the many variables involved in different machining grades. Such heat checking is often undetected and can result in
processes and because of the materials being cut. The condition, premature failure of the carbide.
size, strength, and rigidity of the machine tool, workpiece, and Soft grade wheels are needed because of the hardness of
cutting tool must all be considered. Economic considerations carbide. The pressure of grinding will help keep the wheel free
are also important. Adequate power, speed, and feed-rate cutting, but periodic dressing of the diamond wheels with a soft
capabilities of the machine are essential for the high metal silicon carbide stick is recommended to keep the wheel face
removal rates possible with carbide tooling. open. Tools should be kept moving across the face of the wheel,
Suggested operating parameters that can be used as starting and a generous flow of cutting fluid must be directed at the
3-24
CHAPTER 3
TABLE 3-12
Suggested Operating Parameters for Machining Various Materials with Carbide Tools
Cutting Speed, Feed Rate, Depth of Cut,

sfm (m/min) ipr (mm/rev) in. (mm)
Work Material Roughing Finishing Roughing Finishing Roughing Finishing
Free-machining carbon 250-I 100 I000-2000 0,010-0.085 0.005-0.015 0.125-0.675 Up to 0.180
steels: AISI 1100 and (76-335) (305-610) (0.25-2.16) (O.13-0.38) & up (4.57)
1200 series, 140-190 Bhn (3.18-17.15)
Plain carbon steels: 200-800 700- I600 0.010-0.085 0.005-0,015 0.125-0.675 Up to 0.180
AISI 1000 series, (61-244) (213-488) (0.25-2. 16) (0.13-0,38) & up (4.57)
185-240 Bhn (3.18-17.15)
Alloy steels: AIS1 1300, 175-600 550-1200 0.010-0.085 0.005-0.015 0.125-0.675 Up to 0.180
4000, 5000, 8000, and (53-183) (168-366) (0.25-2. 16) (O.13-0.38) & up (4.57)
9000 series, 190-240 Bhn (3.18-17.15)
Cast irons: gray, nodular, 200- I200 200-750 0.010-0.055 0.005-0.015 0.125-0.675 Up to 0,180
and malleable, 150-210Bhn (61-366) (61-229) (0.25-1.40) (O.13-0.38) & up (4.57)
(3.18-17.15)
Martensitic stainless 175-450 450-850 0,010-0.040 0.005-0.015 0.125-0.500 UP to 0.180

steels: wrought 400 and (53-137) ( 137-259) (0.25- 1.02) (O.13-0.38) (3.18-12.70) (4.57)
500 series, and PH types,
175-210 Bhn
Austenitic stainless 125-425 425-650 0.010-0.040 0.005-0.015 0,125-0.500 Up to 0,180

steels; wrought 200 and (38-130) ( 130- 198) (0.25- 1,02) (O.13-0.38) (3.18-12.70) (4.57)
300 series, 140-190 Bhn
Superalloy: iron, nickel, 30-150 I50-400 0.010-0.025 0.005-0.015 0.100-0.300 up to 0,100

titanium, and cobalt- (9-46) (46- 122) (0.25-1.02) (O.13-0.38) (2.54-7.62) (4.57)
based alloys, 240-300 Bhn
Tool steels: wrought high- 100-300 275-750 0.010-0.065 0.005-0.0 I5 0.125-0.675 UP to 0.180
speed, shock resistant, (30-9 I) (84-229) (0,25-1.65) (0, 13-0.38) & up (4.57)
and hot and cold work, (3.18-17.15)
210-240 Bhn
Nonferrous free-machining 400-1200 I000-2000 0.010-0.085 0.005-0.015 0.125-0.675 Up to 0,180

alloys: aluminum, copper, ( 122-366) (305-610) (0.25-2. 16) (O.13-0.38) & up (4.57)
zinc, and brass alloys, (3.18-17.15)
80-120 Bhn
Nonmetallic: nylons, 350-800 800-1500 0.010-0,040 0.005-0.015 0,125-0.500 Up to 0,180
acrylics, and phenolic (107-244) (244-457) (0.25- 1.02) (0.13-0.38) (3.18-12.70) (4,57)
(Kerrnametal Inc.)
grinding area, Athinsolution ofsoluble oilandwater (about resinoid or vitrified-bond diamond wheels, Cutting edges are
80: 1) has been found satisfactory as a cutting fluid. Intermittent often honed to remove any marks left by the grinding wheels.
cooling can produce thermal cracks. Hand stones such as vitrified-bond, 280-grit silicon carbide or
Chipbreakers are usually ground in carbide tools with either 320-grit diamond can be used for this purpose.
TITANIUM CARBIDES
The first titanium-based carbide cutting tools became com- Ford Motor Co,, led to the successful development of a
mercially available in 1930. They were composed of 42.5Yc finishing grade of cemented titanium carbide (TiC) by 1960.
titanium carbide, 42.5~0 molybdenum carbide, 14’70nickel, and Today, the strength of TiC-based materials is comparable to the
1% chromium. Failure of these early cemented titanium carbide tungsten carbide-cobalt types. These materials, often incorrectly
materials to gain widespread use is generally attributed to their referred to as solid TiC, are cermets (metal ceramic combina-
low strengths—no more than 50-60% the strength of cemented tions), with nickel and molybdenum binder metal acting as a
tungsten carbide (WC and Co) materials. matrix for the titanium carbide. The addition of molybdenum
Continued research and development, much of it done by to nickel-titanium carbide compositions promotes the wetting
3-25
CHAPTER 3
TITANIUM CARBIDES
TABLE 3-13 for four grades of cemented WC (I SO application classifications

Troubleshooting Guide for Carbide Tools P05, P 10, P20, and P30) and four grades of cemented TiC
(T-50, T-60, T-80, and T-100) made by Adamas Carbide Corp.
Problem Possible Solutions is presented in Fig. 3-1 I.6 Although transverse rupture strengths
are high for the TiC grades, they are slightly lower than those
Abrasion or Reduce cutting speed and/ or feed rate.
for the WC grades. A virtually linear slope of decreasing
flank wear Use a more abrasion-resistant grade of
strength with increasing hardness is noticeable for both WC-
carbide.
based and TiC-based compositions. Also, an almost linear
Cratering Use a harder grade of alloyed carbide or slope of increasing fracture toughness with decreasing hardness
coated insert. Reduce cutting speed. is evident for the TiC grades. For WC grades, however, the
Apply cutting fluid. fracture toughness varies imperceptibly for the high-hardness
grades and only increases noticeably for the toughest grades.
Chipping Hone cutting edge. Reduce deflection. Recent improvements in plastic deformation and thermal
Select stronger tool geometry or more cracking resistance of cemented TiC-based took have been
shock-resistant grade of carbide. achieved by additions of vanadium carbide (VC), titanium
Built-up edge Increase cutting speed. Apply cutting nitride (TiN), and aluminum (A1), TOptimization of the physical
fluid. Use positive rake angles to reduce properties of these newer TiC-based materials containing TiN
cutting forces. Try a coated-carbide additives, with respect to composition and processing, has
insert. resulted in the development of newer grades that permit the
machining of harder workpieces, using higher cutting speeds,
Edge Reduce cutting speed andi or feed rate, and performing intermittent cutting operations such as milling.
deformation Use carbide grade with higher hot Increased life results from superior edge and crater wear
hardness and more wear resistance. resistance.
Apply cutting fluid. An interesting example of improvement in thermal con-
ductivity is the development of TiC/ TiN-based materials
Thermal Reduce cutting speed. Apply cutting
containing as much as 609c TiN by weights These materials
cracking fluid correctly or discontinue its use.
appear to have excellent cutting properties, especially in turning
Use a more shock-resistant grade of
and milling chromium-molybdenum alloy steels. Several grades
carbide.
of these materials are now being marketed commercially.
Fracture Reduce feed rate and /or depth of cut. The development of another interesting TiC/ TiN-based tool
Use a stronger tool geometry and/or material resulted from studies involving nickel-bonded titanium-
thicker insert. Use a softer, tougher, molybdenum carbon itrides produced by spinodal decomposi-
more shock-resistant grade of carbide. tion, gThe tool material developed has applicability for finishing
cuts on cast iron, as well as on some hardened steels and
superalloy.
of the carbide particles and results in a refinement of carbide ADVANTAGES

grain size. The improved microstructure gives a substantial Desirable properties of cemented TiC include high melting
increase in strength and hardness. point and hardness (TiC is the hardest of all carbides—hardness
Three basic grades of TiC are now being applied in is retained at high temperatures to resist plastic deformation),
production machining applications. All three grades are manu- good oxidation resistance at temperatures encountered in
factured by cold pressing and vacuum sintering, which are machining, low density, good crater resistance, and lower
standard practices in the carbide industry. Properties of these thermal conductivity and coefficient of friction than WC, which
grades and the areas of application according to the generally helps reduce heat in tools. These properties contribute to
accepted U.S. and I SO standard classifications for carbide making TiC a good tooling material for machining steel, as well
grades are detailed in Table 3-14.5 as certain cast iron applications, Advantages include the
A comparison of transverse rupture strengths vs. harnesses following:
TABLE 3-14
Properties of Titanium Carbide Cutting Tool Grades
Nominal Transverse Young’s

Tool Nickel Rupture Density, Modulus,
Designation Content, % Hardness, Strength, lb/in.3 psi x 106
Us. Iso (by weight) RA ksi (MPa) (kg/m’) (G Pa)
C-7, C-8 Pol, Plo 12 92,8 200 0.200 63.9
(1379) (5550) (440.6)
C-6, C-7 Plo, P20 17 92.0 235 0,203 62.5
( 1620) (5630) (430.9)
C-5, C-6 P20, P30 22 91.0 275 0.209 59.9
(1896) (5800) (413,0)
3-26
CHAPTER 3
TITANIUM CARBIDES
T[tanium carb[de
Tungsten corblde 400
Hardness, RA
FIG. 3-11 Comparison between harnesses and transverse rupture strengths for cemented TiC and steel cutting grades of cemented WC.
● Resistance to edge buildup and cratering is high— machining of steels that Iequire high speeds and light-to-
superior to that of WC and ceramic materials. moderate feed rates. These were considered the only feasible
● Keen edge retention because of resistance to wear permits applications for early available grades; because of this, the
holding close tolerances on long finishing cuts. material has often been considered usable only in filling a gap
● Capability of producing smooth surface finishes exists, between tungsten carbide and ceramic tools.
often eliminating tbe need for subsequent grinding. Now, however, with the improved grades available, tools
● The range of possible cutting speeds approaches the made from this material are applied to a broader range of
range used for ceramic tools, but superior strength applications. These include heavy and semifinish machining of
permits heavier cuts—resulting in the removal of more some steels and certain cast irons, particularly the newer
metal at the same tool life. Compared with WC tools modified and malleable types that produce some chip curl, and
operating at equivalent speeds, TiC can provide longer certain milling operations. They have proven effective for close-
tool life or faster cutting speeds at tbe same tool life. tolerance machining with long cuts and for grooving operations
● TiC tools can tolerate wider variations in cutting speeds in which depth and width dimensions are critical. In some
than either WC or ceramic tools. applications involving the replacement of C-7 and C-8 grades of
● TiC inserts are less expensive than those made of WC. WC tools, improvements in tool life of over 300% have been
● TiC tools require less-strategic raw materials than those obtained,
made from WC. TiC-based tools, however, are not generally used for very
Initial wear rates for both TiC-coated WC tools and heavy cuts or at very slow speeds. Also, they are not recom-
cemented TiC tools are similar. However, uncoated TiC tools mended for removing heavy, abrasive surface scale or for
retain the same rate of wear after extended machining, while machining most nonferrous materials, hard cast irons, graphite,
coated WC tools show an increased wear rate with longer or higb-temperature alloys. On nonferrous materials, such as
cutting times.’” Tests under the same conditions have shown aluminum alloys, affinity between the tool and work produces a
that TiC-based grades have 3-4 times as much resistance to built-up edge.
flank wear as uncoated WC grades, Table 3-15 illustrates the comparative performance between
TiC and WC tools when used in machining cast irons and steels.
APPLICATIONS The P20/ TiN designation is for a dual-coated steel cutting
TiC tools are widely used for finishing and precision grade of WC tool with a coating of TiN over a coating of TiC. In
3-27
CHAPTER 3
TITANIUM CARBIDES
TABLE 3-15
Comparative Performance of TiC and WC Tools in Machining Cast Irons and Steels
Workpiece Cutting Speed, Feed Rate, Depth of Cut, WC-Based TiC-Based Improve-
Material Operation sfm (m/min) ipr (mm/ rev) in. (mm) Grade Grade ment, YO
Cast Iron Turn and 170-275 0.010 1% c-2 Ex-Cell-O 500
( 165 Bhn) face (52-84) (0.25) (3.2) XL-85
1020 Turn 375 0,015 0.188 P20 Adamas 43

Steel (114) (0.38) (4.78) Titan 60
Nodular Turn 1250 0.017 0,010-0.020 c-7 Ex-Cell-O 300

Iron (381) (0.43) (0.25-0.51) XL-88
( 179-229 Bhn)
1020 Mill 485 0.002 0.040 P20/ TiN Adamas 100

( 148) (0.05) (1.02) Titan 80
1018 Turn 800 0.015 0.200 P40 Adamas 400

(244) (0.38) (5,08) Titan 80
1018 Turn I500 0.008 0.062 Plo Adamas 95

(457) (0.20) (1.57) Titan 100
8720H ‘Iaper 710 0.003 0.020 C-8, Ex-Cell-O 250

Alloy Steel bore (216) (0.08) (0.51) AI*O3 XL-88
coated
5132 Turn 532 0,013 0,125 P20 Adamas 400

(162) (0.33) (3,18) Titan 60
every case, a significant improvement in performance was to only 850 parts per corner with the 1S0 P30 (C-5) grade
obtained by using a TiC grade, with a cutting speed range from WC-based inserts used previously.
170 to 1500 sfm (52 to 457 m/min), feed rates up to 0.017 ipr
(0.43 mm/rev). and depths of cut to 0.200” (5.08 mm).
In machining medium carbon steels, TiC tools will generally
outperform WC tools for straight turning applications without
interruptions and scale on the work surface. For alloy steels, 10 .
4
WC-based tools are generally better for the majority of
applications. Exceptions exist, however, as indicated by the 8 - 54% cost savings
~.
details of the production applications presented. \O
In turning, facing, and chamfering ring gears of SAE 4027H 6 -
5$$
steel, TiC inserts have a life sufficient to cut 250 pieces per ~\5
corner, compared to only 75 pieces per corner with C-7 WC 4 – ~,~~o
inserts. This operation is performed at a cutting speed of
790 sfm (241 m/ rein), with feed rates of 0.003 and 0.006 ipr 2 -
/
(0,08 and 0.15 mm/rev).
J
Results of a tool economics analysis to determine the o– Mlmmum cost ~ ~ Maximum productivity
optimum cutting speed are shown in Fig. 3-12.11 The operation 91 /

in the analysis consists of using TiC inserts in place of C-7 WC
inserts to machine ball bearing races forged from SAE 52100
steel. Cost per piece was computed by summing the machining
time cost, idle time cost, toolchanging cost, and tool cost.
Productivity was computed by considering the machining, idle,
and toolchanging times. Since the minimum-cost cutting speed
differs from the maximum-productivity cutting speed, a com-
promise cutting speed of 720 sfm (219 m/min) was selected.
The study showed that TiC tools provide a 5495 cost savings and
a 1690 productivity increase compared to WC took.
A recently developed TiC-based milling grade with TiN and
VC additives has been successfully applied in milling front
wheel spindles made from SAE 5132 steel forgings having a
hardness of 269-321 Bhn. 12 This operation, involving severe Cutting speed, sfm
intermittent cutting of a relatively hard forging, is performed at
a cutting speed of 393 sfm ( 120 m/mist), with a feed rate of
0.0047” (O.119 mm) per tooth. An average of 1340 spindles are FIG. 3-12 Tool economics analysis showing the benefits of TiC
produced per insert corner with the TiC-based tools, compared compared to WC tools for machining forged ball-bearing races.
3-28
CHAPTER 3
TITANIUM CARBIDES
TOOL GEOMETRIES speeds with TiC tools, experience has shown that WC and TiC
The geometries used for TiC-based cutting tools are generally tools compete equally, depending on their grades, at speeds
the same as for WC tools. Both throwaway-type and brazed between 150 and 700 sfm (46 and 213 m/ rein). At cutting speeds
tools are used successfully, although indexable inserts are by far below 150 sfm, WC tools have a longer life. The graph also
the most common. shows that TiC tools outperformed ceramic tools in regard to
Proper cutting edge preparation is essential to the successful life, at speeds up to about 1300 sfm (400 m/rein).
application of these tools. So-called honing of the cutting While this limited data indicates that TiC-based tools may
edge—the application of a radius in the range from 0.001 to be preferable for all machining of steel, except at very low and
0.005” (0.03 to 0.13 mm)—is often a successful remedy for high cutting speeds, actual machining applications have many
chipping types of failure, Chamfering of the cutting edge (using
a so-called K-land) should be done when more massive types of
failures (such as breakage) are encountered in interrupted
TABLE 3-16
cutting. The chamfer angle should be at least 15°, with the
Guide to Operating Parameters for TiC TOOIS*
optimum angle being a function of the feed rate used. 13
Cutting Speed,
OPERATING PARAMETERS
Cutting speeds that can be used with TiC tools cover a wide Materials sfm (m/rein)
range—from as low as 150 sfm (46 m/ rein) for some hardened Machined Roughing Finishing
tool steels to as high as 2400 sfm (732 m/min) for certain Carbon steels: 1000 series 200-750 800-2000—
applications. A guide to cutting speeds and feed rates for (61-229) (244-610)
machining various materials with TiC tools is presented in
Table 3-16. These values are suggestions only and should be Free-machining steels: 1100 325-925 1100-1750
used as starting points in determining optimum parameters, & 1200 series, leaded or (99-282) (335-533)
which can vary widely for different applications. resulfurized
A comparison of tool life vs. cutting speed for WC, TiC, and Alloy steels: 4000, 5000, 150-500 700-1500
ceramics is shown in Fig. 3-13. This data is based on standard 8000, & 9000 series (46- 152) (21 3-457)
turning tests on AISI 1045 steel of controlled composition and
properties, using a depth of cut of 0.100” (2.54 mm) and a feed Tool steels: hot & cold-work, 175-350 350-700
rate of 0.0[ ipr (0.25 mm/rev) .14 Tool life was based on a high-speed, & shock-resisting (53-107) ( 107-2 13)
measured flank wear of 0.010” (0.25 mm). Under these condi-
Cast irons: nodular, 275-800 725-1500
tions, TiC tools showed longer life than WC tools at all speeds
malleable, & chilled (84-244) (221-457)
exceeding 700 sfm (213 m/ rein). Although not shown in this
illustration because these tests were not performed at lower Alloy cast irons 300-600 650-1200
(91-183) (198-366)
Stainless steels: 200-500 450-725

200 & 300 series (61-152) (137-221)
Stainless steels: 400 & 500 180-425 525-925

series & precipitation- (55-130) ( 160-282)
hardening
Nonferrous alloys & 500-1500 1750-3oo~
pure metals ( 152-457) (533-9 14;
(Ex- Cell-O Corp.)
‘IA \ \\ Ceramcs . I
* Recommended cutting speeds are based on materials having a
hardness up to 250 Bhn. Slower speeds are necessary for
machining harder materials.
For roughing operations, lower cutting speeds (in the ranges

given) should be used for heavier applications. Also, for
rough, as-cast surfaces, a reduction in cutting speed of 10-20%
is generally required.
5
Depths of cut range up to 1“ (25.4 mm) for roughing
I 1 , I operations, and ~“ (9.5 mm) for finishing.
200 300 500 m/mln
I I I I I
Feed rates range from 0.010 to 0.100 ipr (0.25 to 2.54 mm/rev)
700 1000 1600 sfm
for roughing, with higher feeds in this range for heavier duty
Cutt[ng speed
operations. Feed rates range from 0.002 to 0.015 ipr (0.05 to
0.38 mm/ rev) for finishing, with lower feeds in this range for
FIG. 3-13 Comparison of tool life vs. cutting speed for WC, TiC, and higher cutting speeds. Low feed rates, however, may work to
ceramics in turning AISI 1045 steel. harden the material and should be avoided.
3-29
CHAPTER 3
TITANIUM CARBIDES
other variables that affect cutting tool performance. While WC Use of a cutting fluid is often recommended for machining
is still the predominant material for cutting tools, the limited operations with tools made from these materials. The same
data available indicates that TiC took may be preferable for fluids used for WC tools, such as water-soluble oils or chemical
many applications, except those that require cutting highly fluids, are satisfactory. In many instances, however, machining
abrasive materials and those performed at very low speeds. is done without cutting fluid, and usually results in no adverse
For optimum performance, TiC-based tools, like WC-based effect. This is because of the good hot-hardness and low-friction
tools, require rigid vibration-free machines, as well as rigid properties of the TiC-based tools. Grinding and resharpening of
work and tool holding. Sufficient power is also needed to take tools made from these materials is done essentially the same
full advantage of the capabilities of TiC-based tools. way as for WC tools.
COATED CARBIDES
Carbide inserts coated with wear-resistant compounds for cuts, including precision boring and turning of thin-walled
increased performance and longer tool life represent the fastest workpieces, two operations which usually require sharp cutting
growing segment of the cutting tool materials spectrum. The use edges for satisfactory results.
of coated carbide inserts has permitted increases in machining They should not be used in most cases for machining
rates up to five or more times over machining rates possible with workplaces containing surface sand or scale, inclusions, or
uncoated carbide tools, although in some cases increases are other imperfections. Most heavy roughing operations and
only about 207.. Many consider coated carbide tools the most severely interrupted cuts are not recommended. Also, they are
significant advance in cutting tool materials since the develop- often not as suitable as uncoated carbide inserts or other tooling
ment of WC tooling. materials for machining some nonferrous metals and non-
The first coated insert consisted of a thin titanium carbide metallic materials.
(TiC) layer on a conventional WC substrate. Since then, various Coated carbide inserts are slightly higher in cost. However, a
single and multiple coatings of carbides and nitrides of titanium, cost analysis should be made because the higher cutting speeds
hafnium, and zirconium, and coatings of oxides of aluminum possible often increase productivity enough to more than offset
and zirconium, as well as improved substrates better suited for their cost premium.
coating, have been developed to increase the range of applica- Coatings are currently applied only to throwaway-type,
tions for coated carbide inserts. indexable inserts intended for one-time use. While coatings may
be applied to sharp edges, they are more successful on edges
ADVANTAGES honed to a small radius—in the range of 0.00 I-O.005° (0,03-
A general rule for all carbide tooling is that toughness 0.13 mm). Such edge treatment improves the strength of the
(impact resistance) decreases as wear resistance (hardness) insert. Most inserts to be coated are honed prior to coating.
increases. Conversely, as toughness increases, wear resistance Coated inserts can also be lightly honed after coating to
decreases. While it is impossible to alter the general shape of the improve performance for specific applications,
curve depicting this relationship, it is possible to obtain a more
favorable disposition of the curve. A thin layer of a high- COATING AND SUBSTRATE
temperature, stable, hard material metallurgically bonded to REQUIREMENTS
the surface of a proper high-strength, temperature-resistant Coatings are currently applied to carbide inserts by the
substrate improves wear resistance and provides longer life for chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process, but other application
the inserts. methods are being investigated. Advances in the CVD tech-
The capability for increased productivity is the most impor- nology have permitted improving the bonds between the
tant advantage of using coated carbide inserts, With no loss of coatings and carbide substrates; producing coatings of other
tool life, they can be operated at higher cutting speeds than hard, wear-resistant compounds (in addition to the original
uncoated inserts; longer tool life can be obtained when the tools TiC); and applying several different materials in a multilayered
are operated at the same speed. Higher speed operation, rather structure to achieve improved performance by combining
than increased tool life, is generally recommended for improved properties.
productivity and reduced costs. The feed rate used is generally a The cutting edge of any tool can be considered an interface
function of the insert geometry, not of the coating. between the chip produced and the insert. The coating acts as a
Increased versatility of coated carbide inserts is another diffusion barrier between the chemical elements of the workpiece
major benefit. Fewer grades are required to cover a broader material and those of the carbide substrate to minimize wear
range of machining applications, because the available grades caused by high cutting speeds and interface temperatures, An
generally overlap several of the C classifications for uncoated effective coating should be wear resistant at the high tempera-
carbide tools. This simplifies the selection process and reduces tures— 1700° F (927° C) or more—encountered during machin-
inventory requirements. Most producers of coated carbide ing, chemically inert at these temperatures, and resistant to heat
inserts offer three grades: one for machining cast iron and transfer. A coating may also help decrease the amount of heat
nonferrous metals and two for cutting steels. Some, however, generated by reducing the coefficient of friction between the
offer more grades. chip and insert surface,
Comparative properties of some of the more popular
LIMITATIONS coatings—titanium carbide (TiC), titanium nitride (TiN),
Coated carbide inserts are not suitable for all applications. hafnium nitride (HfN), and alumina (Alz03)—are presented in
For example, they are generally not suitable for light finishing Table 3-17,
3-30
CHAPTER 3
COATED CARBIDES
TABLE 3-17
Comparative Properties of Some Coatings for Carbide Inserts
Hardness at Room Coefficient

Coating Temperature, Chemical Thermal of
Material Diamond Pyramid Resistance Barrier Friction
TiC 2700 Good Good Good
TiN 2200 Good Good Excellent
HfN 2000 Good Good Good
A]203 2300 Excellent Excellent Good
Coating thickness and adherence are critical to the success Aluminum oxide (A1203) is also applied as a single coating to
of coated carbide inserts. Thin coatings are required because the carbide inserts. High hot hardness, better chemical stability
coatings are brittle, but as a general rule, no improvement in under cutting conditions, and an excellent heat barrier provide
performance is evident when coatings are less than about the capability of high-speed operation that is about twice the
2 microns (0.00008”) thick. When the coating thickness exceeds speed possible for operations using TiC-coated carbide inserts.
about 12 microns (0.0005”), brittle properties dominate, and the This capability can be accomplished while maintaining the
coating is easily cracked, chipped, or even separated from the same tool life and makes AIZOs-coated tools competitive with
substrate. Within this coating thickness range of 2-12 microns, ceramic cutting tools in the speed range of 1000-1800 sfm (305-
various combinations of properties can be obtained. 549 mimin) for cast irons and 700-900 sfm (2 I 3-274 m/ rein) for
The combination of coating and grade of carbide for the cutting of steels. A llOj-coated carbide inserts are generally best
substrate must be properly selected to optimize the toughness for machining cast irons with a cutting speed range of about
vs. wear-resistance relationship for various machining applica- 400-1500 sfm ( 122-457 m/ rein).
tions. The first TiC-coated inserts had substrates made from Hf3’-coated carbide inserts are also available. HfN coatings
conventional steel cutting grades of WC. Since then. new have a coefficient of expansion that is almost the same as WC.
substrates tailored to the specific coating and application have thus eliminating any danger of chipping due to differential
been developed. expansion at elevated cutting temperatures. Other advantages
Important requirements for the substrate material are of HfN coatings include high stability and hot hardness, plus
maximum compressive strength, high toughness, good high- good resistance to wear and cratering. It has been claimed that
temperature strength, and resistance to heat and thermal shock. HfN coatings provide better crater resistance than TiC coatings
Some wear and crater resistance, to supplement that of the when used on carbide inserts for turning alloy steels.
coating, is also desirable. Substrates used for coated inserts The success of single-layer coatings led to the development
often do not require costly additives, such as tantalum carbides, of coatings consisting of two or more layers. Carbide inserts
which are almost always used in uncoated carbide inserts for with such multilayer or mtdtiphase coatings can provide a
machining steel. better combination of properties than single-lay ercoatings. The
first layer, applied directly to a properly selected substrate, is
TYPES OF COATINGS usually TiC because of its good adhesion and wear-resistant
TiC-coated carbide inserts, the first type to become com- properties, as well as its thermal expansion similar to that of the
mercially available, are still widely used and are still considered substrate. Intermediate and/ or outer-layer materials are selected
by some to provide slightly better performance for certain for maximum heat, chemical, wear, and cratering resistance;
applications. One problem encountered with some TiC-coated increased edge strength; and good adhesion properties.
inserts is caused by the method of application of the coating, Duplex coatings commercially available on carbide inserts
which may decarburize the substrate slightly thereby limiting its include an outer layer of A]Z03 over an intermediate layer of
suitability for some operations. Advantages of TiC-coated TiC (applied to the substrate) and TiN over TiC. Different
inserts include high hot hardness and chemical stability at substrates and coating thicknesses are often used for various
elevated temperatures, good wear resistance, and low friction at applications. For example, one producer makes two duplex-
the tool/ workpiece interface. TiC-coated carbide inserts permit coated grades for milling cast irons. The grade recommended
an increase in cutting speed of 50- 100’ZO,compared to uncoated for roughing operations has a tougher substrate and a thinner,
carbide inserts having the same strength. and at a given speed, more flexible layer of TiC under an OUM ]ayer of A1203 for
wear resistance is 2-3 times greater. Less friction results in greater resistance to edge breakage. The grade for medium-duty
reduced heat and cutting-force requirements. While the trans- and finishing operations has a harder, mol-e deformation-
verse rupture strength of TiC-coated carbide inserts is less than resistant substrate and a thicker layer of TiC for improved
that of uncoated inserts, cutting behavior is essentially resistance to wear and edge deformation. The outer layers of
unchanged because of lower power needs. Ahoj are the same thickness for both grades.
TiN is another coating applied to carbide inserts. While this One type of triple-layer coating, consists of a thin layer of
coating material is not as hard as TiC, it does provide inserts TiC applied to the WC base, an intermediate layer of titanium
with a lower coefficient of friction and improved resistance to carbonitride (TiCN), and an outer layer of TiN. These coated
cratering. TiC coatings, however, are superior in resistance to carbide tools are said to have excellent resistance to edge wear
nose and flank wear. Another advantage of the TiN coatings is and cratering.
that they usually do not cause decarburization of the substrates, More recently, triple-coated carbide inserts have been
as is the case with TiC coatings. introduced with a thin coating of TiC on the substrate, an
3-31
CHAPTER 3
COATED CARBIDES
intermediate coating of A1203, and an OUter coating of TiN. difficult machining operations. Details of some case histories
These inserts carry a price premium of about 15%, but are said comparing the performance of coated vs. uncoated carbide
to provide up to 75y~ longer tool life or increased production inserts are presented in Table 3-18.
rates for many applications. It is claimed that the initial phases
of insert wear are benefited by the low coefficient of friction of
TiN, which allows the chips to flow more freely over the insert OPERATING PARAMETERS
surface. This is said to establish a uniform wear pattern that Coated carbide inserts are generally more suitable for
persists even after the TiN has worn away and the wear-resistant operation at cutting speeds higher than those used for uncoated
layer of A1z03 is exposed to the chips. inserts. Operating these tools at slower speeds to extend tool life
is poor economy. Higher speeds can increase productivity and
APPLICATIONS OF COATED CARBIDE reduce costs per piece machined. For machining plain carbon
INSERTS and low-alloy steels, the cutting speed range for coated carbide
Most applications for coated carbide inserts are in turning inserts is generally 350-1200 sfm ( 107-366 m/ rein). The speed
and milling operations for cast irons and steels. Often, these often falls between the capabilities of uncoated carbide and
operations can be performed at higher speeds than possible with ceramic cutting tools.
uncoated inserts. Problems, however, can be encountered with Most coated carbide inserts can be used without a cutting
severe interrupted cuts, particularly those with varying depths fluid. Sometimes, however, a cutting fluid must be used to
of cut, which subject the cutting edges to severe mechanical and protect the workpiece from heat or to remove chips. This can
thermal shocks, as well as fatigue. The greater toughness of generally be done without diminishing the performance of
uncoated inserts often makes them more desirable for such the inserts.
CERAMICS
Ceramic or aluminum-oxide (A1203) cutting tools were first wheels. Another processing method—hot pressing—
proposed for machining operations in Germany as early as simultaneously combines high-pressure compacting and
1905—21 years before the introduction of cemented carbides in high-temperature sintering in a single operation to pro-
Germany in 1926. Patents on ceramic tools were issued in duce inserts that are light gray in color. Hot isostatic
England in 1912, and in Germany in 1913. Initial work on pressing, which simplifies the production of chipbreaker
ceramic tools began in the United States as early as 1935, but it geometries, is also used.
was not until 1945 that they were considered seriously for use in 2. Composite ceramics, sometimes incorrectly called cer-
machining. Ceramic cutting tool inserts became commercially mets, are A120s-based materials containing 15-3(Y?Z0 or
available in the United States during the 1950s. more titanium carbide (TiC) and/or other alloying
Initially, these cemented-oxide, nonmetallic tools produced ingredients. Cutting tool inserts made from these
inconsistent and unsatisfactory results. This was partially materials are hot pressed or hot isostatically pressed and
because of the nonuniformity and weakness of the tools, but are black in color.
primarily because of lack of understanding and misapplication Purity, uniformly fine grain size, and density are critical to
by the users, Ceramic tools were often used on older machines tool performance, which increases with decreasing porosity.
with inadequate rigidity and power. Depending on the producer, small amounts of additives are
Since then, many improvements have been made in the sometimes used to obtain certain properties, primarily increased
mechanical properties of ceramic tools as the result of better mechanical strength, Magnesium oxide is often added in small
control of microstructure (primarily in grain size refinement) amounts to inhibit grain growth during sintering. One grade of
and density, improved processing, the use of additives, the ceramic tool, which is an example of a dispersion-strengthened
development of composite materials, and better grinding and oxide, is reported to contain a small amount of molybdenum to
edge preparation methods. Tools made from these materials are help refine the grain structure, Other additives sometimes used
now stronger, more uniform, and higher in quality; conse- include ceramic materials and/ or refractory metal carbides
quently, resurgence of interest in their application has arisen. such as titanium carbide.
Ceramic cutting tool materials, commercially available from
TYPES OF CERAMIC TOOLS
several producers, contain dispersed zirconia, which increases
Two basic types of ceramic cutting tools are available:
the strength and toughness. These materials may be processed
]. Plain ceramics, which are highly pure (99% or more) by cold pressing and sintering, or by hot pressing.
A Iz03 and contain only minor amounts of secondary Ceramic cutting tools are not classified into grades, as are
oxides. One producer of ceramic cutting tools, however, carbides. Instead they are classified by type. The range of
offers two grades with a higher amount of a secondary physical properties for some types of ceramic tools is presented
oxide—zirconium oxide. One grade contains less than in Table 3-19.
10% and the other less than 20Yc of zirconium oxide. Chemical etching of ceramic inserts to reduce the size of
Cutting tool inserts made from plain ceramics are often surface flaws created during grinding has been studied by
produced by cold pressing fine alumina powder under cutting tool researchers at Pennsylvania State University and
high pressure, followed by sintering at high temperature, the University of Florida. Results of these studies indicate that
which bonds the particles together. The product, white in benefits of chemical etching include some increase in strength
color, is then ground to finished dimensions with diamond and the capability of producing smoother surface finishes,
3-32
CHAPTE R3
+4-+
● ☛
●
3-33
CHAPTER 3
CERAMICS
TABLE 3-19
Range of Physical Properties for Some Ceramic Cutting Tools
Transverse Rupture Average Density,

Cutting Tool Strength Range, g/cm3 Hardness Grain Size,
Material psi (M Pa) (lb/in,’) RA Microns (p in.)
Cold-pressed 80,000-114,000 3.90-3.99 91-94 3.0
pure ceramics (55 1.6-786) (o. 141-0. 144) (118)
Hot-pressed 100,000-135,000 4,10-4.30 92-95.5 2,0

composite ceramics (689.5-931) (O. 148-0, 155) (78.7)
Ceramic inserts treated in this way, however, are not commer- steels and irons. As a result, they are more effective for
cially available. machining softer materials, such as cast irons (gray, malleable,
and nodular), with a hardness under about 330 Bhn; hot-rolled
ADVANTAGES or cold-drawn carbon and alloy steels with a hardness to about
A major advantage of using ceramic cutting tools is increased RC32; and brass, bronze, rubber, carbon, and plastics.
productivity for many applications. Ceramic cutting tools are Hot-pressed composite ceramic tools have a denser, finer
operated at higher cutting speeds than tungsten carbide tools. grain structure and are generally stronger and more shock
In many applications, this results in increased metal removal resistant than cold-pressed ceramic tools. They have better wear
rates. Favorable properties of ceramic tools that promote these resistance when machining hard materials or parts with scaled
benefits include good hot hardness, low coefficient of friction, surfaces. As a result, finishing cuts, for which close tolerances
high wear resistance. chemical inertness, and low coefficient of must be maintained, are ideal applications. Hot-pressed
thermal conductivity. (Most of the heat generated during composite ceramic tools are recommended for harder
cutting is carried away in the chips, resulting in less heat buildup materials—cast irons having a hardness over 330 Bhn; carbon,
in the workpiece, insert, and toolholder.) alloy, and tool steels having a hardness over RC32 and to RC68;
Another important advantage is that improved-quality parts chilled cast irons and hardened steel rolls; and martensitic and
can often be produced because of better size control resulting precipitation-hardening stainless steels. They are also used for
f“rom less tool wear. In addition, smoother surface finishes aid turning softer cast irons, which have abrasive scale or hard
size control. Also, ceramic tools are capable of machining many chilled areas on their surfaces, and for most milling applications.
hard metals, often eliminating the need for subsequent grinding. Ceramic cutting tools are used successfully for the high-
Machining of hardened steel rolls used in rolling mills is an speed machining of cast irons and steels, particularly those
important application. requiring a continuous cutting action. They are generally good
replacements for carbide took that wear rapidly, but not for
LIMITATIONS applications in which carbide tools break. Face milling of steel
Despite the many improvements in physical properties and and Iron castings is being done successfully, but heavy inter-
uniformity of ceramic tools, careful application is required rupted cutting is not recommended. Also, while ceramic cutting
because ceramic tools are more brittle than carbides. Mechanical tools are useful for machining abrasive materials and most
shock must be minimized, and thermal shock must be avoided. chemically reactive materials, they are not suitable, as previously
Stronger grades now available, however, plus the use of proper mentioned, for cutting refractory metals, such as titanium and
tool and holder geometry, help minimize the effects of lower reactive metal alloys, and certain aluminum alloys. Some
strength and ductility. examples of improvement in performance obtained with ceramic
While ceramic tools exhibit chemical inertness when used to tools, compared to carbide tools, are presented in Table 3-20.
cut most metals, they tend to develop built-up edges, thereby
increasing the wear rate when machining refractory metals, TOOL GEOMETRIES
such as titanium and other reactive alloys, and certain aluminum Ceramic cutting tool inserts are available in a variety of
alloys. Tools made from ceramic materials are being used shapes, including triangular, round, square, rectangular, penta-
successfully for interrupted cuts of light-to-medium severity, gonal, 55 and 80° diamond and special configurations. Selection
but they are usually not recommended for heavy interrupted of a specific shape is usually dictated by the workpiece and
cutting. machine specifications, material to be machined, clearance
Another possible limitation of using ceramic tools is that required for the workpiece, operations to be performed, the
thicker inserts, sometimes required to compensate for the lower setup, and toolholder used. Insert shapes with large included
transverse rupture strength of the tools, may not be inter- angles (rounds, pentagons, or squares) are stronger than those
changeable in toolholders used for carbide inserts. Some with smaller angles (triangles or diamond shapes) and should be
milling cutters and other toolholders are available, however, used when permissible.
that permit interchangeability, Negative-rake inserts or toolholders are used almost exclu-
sively with ceramic tools to compensate for their low tensile and
APPLICATIONS shear strengths and to take advantage of their high compressive
The differences in properties of various types of pure and strength and wear resistance. Inserts thicker than comparable
composite ceramics allow their use for a wide range of carbides are often recommended, particularly for roughing
applications. Cold-pressed pure ceramic inserts have less resis- operations. Of critical importance is the manner in which the
tance to thermal shock than hot-pressed composite ceramic insert is presented to the workpiece—generally at a compound
inserts, but they are more wear resistant when machining softer angle that varies with the material being machined, the cutting
3-34
CHAPTER 3
CERAMICS
TABLE 3-20
Comparative Performance of Ceramic vs. Carbide Inserts
Cutting Speed, Feed Rate, Depth Machining

Hard- sfm (m/min) ipr (mm/rev) of cut, Time, min.
Operation Material ness Carbide Ceramic Carbide Ceramic in. (mm) Carbide Ceramic
Finish AIS1 1053 RC32 550 I200 0.010 0.010 0.020 17 55
turning steel forging (168) (366) (0.25) (0.25) (0.51)
Rough Gray iron 179-24 I 650 5000 0.025 0.020 0,187 21 18

turning casting Bhn (198) (1524) (0.64) (0.51) (4.75)
Rough SAE 4340 200 Bhn 700 1800 0.018 0.016 0.250 28 15
turning steel forging (2 13) (549) (0,46) (0.41) (6.35)
Rough Gray iron 179-241 650 2200 0.020 0.016 0.187 33 23

turning casting Bhn (198) (671) (0.51) (0.41) (4,75)
Finish SAE 4340 RC32 500 2000 0,010 0.010 0,020 36 63

turning steel forging (152) (610) (0.25) (0.25) (0.51)
speeds and feeds used, and the depths of cut. chipping, permit the production of smoother surface finishes,
General recommendations for ceramic tool geometries are and allow a wider variety of applications. A large nose radius is
given in Table 3-21. Neutral or negative, side and back rake particularly recommended for high feed rates and for deep
angles are generally best for most ferrous metals, and negative and/ or interrupted cuts,
angles are essential for interrupted cuts. For heavy cuts in hard Nose radii generally range from 1/ 64-1/ 8“ (0.4-3.2 mm) or
metals and for cuts using higher speeds, negative rake angles to more. Selection fora specific application often is determined by
30° have been used. Positive rake angles, however, which the requirements for the workpiece. If not, as large a radius as
provide a freer cutting action, can be used for nonmetallic, possible, without causing chatter or vibration, should be used.
copper, carbon, and similar materials. Round inserts with diameters of 1 1/4” (32 mm) or more are
Relief or clearance angles in the nonfeeding plane are frequently used, particularly for turning railroad car wheels,
generally a minimum of 2°. The maximum relief angle is limited and such inserts have appreciably larger radii, Regardless of the
by strength and is usually 10° for ferrous metals and 18° for radius selected, it must be tangent to both the side and end
nonferrous materials. Side cutting-edge angles can vary up to cutting-edge angle surfaces because any sharp line of intersection
60° for heavy cuts and high cutting speeds, depending on the can act as points of stress concentration. This may result in edge
application, but are generally about 15°. End cutting-edge chipping.
angles usually vary between 5-20°. While sharp cutting edges are sometimes used on cold-
The nose radius used on a ceramic insert is also important, pressed, pure ceramic inserts for light, uninterrupted finishing
Small radii reduce the cutting forces, thus decreasing the cuts, most applications of both pure and composite inserts
possibility of chatter. A trend now exists, however, toward the require edge rounding or chamfering, or both. This is necessary
use of larger nose radii because they increase tool strength, to strengthen and protect the cutting edges. Finish turning is
reduce chip thickness, distribute cutting forces over a greater often done with the cutting edges honed to a radius from
portion of the cutting edges, minimize the possibility of edge 0.001-0.004” (0.03-0. 10 mm). All other applications require
TABLE 3-21
Recommended Geometries for Ceramic Cutting Tools
Material Hardness Side and Back End and Side Side Cutting- End Cutting- Nose
to be Bhn, Rake Angles, Relief Angles, Edge Angles, Edge Angles, Radius,
Machined up to degrees degrees degrees degrees in. (mm)
Soft to medium 350 oto -15 2 to 10 0 to 60 5 to 20 l/32to 1/8
hard steels (0.8 to 3.2)
Hard steels 600 0 to -7 2t05 O to 60 5to 15 l/32to 1/16
(0.8 to 1.6)
Cast iron ---- 0 to -7 2to 10 0 to 60 5 to 20 l/32to 1/16
(0.8 to 1.6)
Nonmetallic, ---- Oto+lo 6to 18 0 to 60 5 to 20 l/32to 1/8

copper, (0.8 to 3.2)
carbon, etc.
3-35
CHAPTER 3
grinding a chamfer (K-land) on the cutting edges, and also edge tools—are generally practical, however, only when impact
radii that eliminate intersecting grind lines. shock is minimized. Many successful operations exist in which
Typical edge chamfers and radii for ceramic inserts for the cutting speed is about the same or only slightly higher than
various machining operations are shown in Fig. 3-14. Decreasing that used for carbide tools. For example, some hard steel-mill
the edge chamfer angle reduces the cutting forces, and increasing rolls are being turned with ceramic tools at cutting speeds as low
the angle improves the tool strength. Chamfer angles greater as 80 sfm (24.4 m/rein), but with substantial savings due to
than 30°, however, are not recommended because of excessive greatly increased tool life. Operations also exist in which
heat generation and the possibility of thermal cracking. ceramic tools are used for rolI turning at speeds 2-5 times faster
Chipbreaker grooves are normally not used on ceramic than when carbide tools are used.
inserts, but some inserts are available with molded-in chip- Feed rates are critical to the successful use of ceramic cutting
breakers. Chipbreakers, however, should never be ground into tools, with the maximum feed rate generally being less than the
the inserts because this can cause stress concentrations. An feed rates used with carbide tools. Feed rates as low as 0.0008 ipr
adjustable, floating or self-aligning, carbide clamp and chip- (O.O2Omm/rev) are used to produce very smooth finishes; feed
breaker, such as the one shown in Fig. 3-15, is preferable. rates as high as 0.045 ipr (1.14 mm/rev) are used on very soft
materials. lt may be advantageous to have the tool begin the cut
slowly to minimize the shock load. Then the feed rate can be
increased after initial contact of the tool with the workpiece.
rR:chamferwid’h
This is also true at the end of the cut, as illustrated in Fig. 3-16.
Providing cl.amfers on the workpiece at both the beginning and
end of the cut permits a constant feed rate to be maintained.
Reducing the cutting speed at the beginning of the operation
F r“’’”<
may also be helpful. Depths of cut to 1/ 2“ (12.7 mm) are
common, and 1 1/ 2“ (38 mm) deep cuts are being made with
specially designed machines. The depth of cut generally should
Hone radius not exceed the thickness of the insert.
A suggested guide for the selection of cutting speeds and feed
rates in turning cast irons and steels of various hardness with
ceramic cutting tools is presented in Fig. 3-17. The recommended
values are based on a tool life of about 20-30 minutes, but actual
s \
FIG. 3-14 Typical edge chamfers and hones for ceramic cutting tools.
values used can vary depending on the specific application.
Cuttirw sDeeds can generally be increased when machining
clean o; p}emachine~ surfac~s, annealed or ferritic irons, an~
OPERATING PARAMETERS free-machining steels. Speeds and/ or feeds usually have to be
Ceramic cutting tools are generally used with higher cutting decreased when machining scaly or rough surfaces, irons with
speeds and shallower depths of cut than carbide tools. Very high embedded sand or chill spots, and high-alloy irons or steels, as
cutting speeds—as high as 10 times those used for c~rbi~e well as for interrupted cutting applications.
law
ker
Indexab
Insert
Sh)
tder
FIG. 3-15 Adjustable carbide chipbreaker and clamping arrangement for ceramic inserts. (American Fe/dmueh[e Corp.)
3-36
CHAPTER 3
Beglnn[ng of cut
75”
W
.,”
. . . .
. . . . .
:..
OO161pr 0.008 ,pr

(0.41 mm/rev) (0.20 mm/rev)
——
With chamfer on workp[ece, no reduction m feed rate

IS With no chamfer on workpece, teed rate should be
necessary, reduced at beglnmng of cut.
— —
End of cut
4 4
00161pr
* *
(0.41 mm/rev)
0.016 ipr 0.008 lpr

- - *
(O 41 mm/rev) (020 mm/rev)
— — — —
[f runcut IS charrfered, component con be If runout IS not chamfered, feed rote
machlnedw[thout reduction of feed rate should be reduced at end of c“t
01 end of cut.
-. -.. . .. . . ..- . . . . . . . .
FIG. 3-16 Llramlers on workplaces umuence ttre teed rates Used at the beginrrmg and end 01 a cut. (Amerlctrn Feldmuehle Corp.)
Ceramic inserts are also used successfully for some milling machines, is a desirable feature. Such NC machines have been
applications, The same guidelines as for turning are applicable, largely responsible for the increased use of ceramic tools. Rigid
although edge chamfers and radii are essential. A chamfer angle toolholding and workholding devices are also important;
of 30° and widths wider than for turning—about 0.008-0.012” overhang of the tool should be kept at a minimum to limit
(0.20-0.30 mm)—are preferred. It is generally desirable to use a deflection. The higher cutting speeds and lower feed rates
fine-pitch cutter with as many teeth engaging the work as generally used with ceramic tools, however, result in less thrust
possible to minimize the shock effect when the cutter enters and on the workpiece. This may permit lower work-gripping
leaves the workpiece. pressures which may help avoid workpiece distortion, especially
Rigid machines with minimum vibration, ample power, and on thin-wall parts, but care is required because of increased
a high-speed range are essential for maximum productivity centrifugal forces, A toolholder with top clamping and good
when using ceramic tooling. The capability of generating insert clamping is desirable.
constant surface speed, which is available on many NC Cutting points of ceramic inserts should generally be
3-37
CHAPTER 3
CERAMICS
speeds, and chip conveyors or special handling devices may be

Hardness required.
R. R, The use of cutting fluids is generally not recommended or
65 needed when machining with ceramic inserts. Ceramic cutting
+ 900 tools remain relatively cool during cutting because their
thermal conductivity is less than one-half that of carbide tools.
Most of the heat generated is removed in the chips. When
“ 600
machining metals having a low thermal conductivity, such as
stainless steel, a cutting fluid may be required to reduce
- 500 temperatures at the cutting edge. In such cases, a continuous
and copious flow of fluid is needed. An intermittent flow can
– 400
cause thermal shock, heat checking, and premature failure. The
application of mist coolant is sometimes used in machining
- 300 copper and its alloys.
. 250 Grinding of ceramic tools is not recommended. A guide to
&
E
possible causes of troubles that maybe encountered when using
- 200 > ceramic tools is presented in Table 3-22.
~’
— 150 :
m
TABLE 3-22
g
= Troubleshooting Guide for Ceramic Tools
6
–loo Trouble Possible Causes
Edge chipping Lack of rigidity, too keen a cutting
\ edge, chipbreaker too narrow or
\
deep, chatter, scale or inclusions,
> improper grinding, too much relief,
,
5 -50 defective toolholder, rake too
positive.
+
/
Tool cracking Insert surfaces not flat, insert not
or breaking seated tightly, stopping workpiece
rotation while tool is engaged, worn
— or chipped cutting edge, feed too
700
heavy, improperly applied coolant,
Hardness, Bhn too much rake or relief, too much
Feed Rates
overhang or tool too small, lack of
rigidity in setup, speed too slow,
I 0,015-0030 lpr 4 0.005-0.010 Ipr
chatter, grinding cracks.
(O 38-076 mm/rev) (O 13-025 mm/rev)
Chatter Tool not on center, insufficient relief
2 0.010-0020 lpr 5. (0.003-0.005 lpr
(O 25-051 rrm/rev) (O 08-013 mm/rev)
and/ or clearance, too much rake,
too much overhang or tool too small,
3 0008-0015 lpr nose radius too large, feed too heavy,
(O 20-038 mm/rev) lack of rigidity, insufficient horse-
power or slippage in drive train, too
FIG. 3-17 Suggested cutting speeds and feed rates for turning cast deep a cut.
irons and steels of various hardness with ceramic cutting tools. (Vafenite
Div., Va[eron Corp.) Torn finish Lack of rigidity, dull tool, speed too
slow, chipbreaker too narrow or
positioned on the centerlines of the workplaces. For turning deep, improper grinding.
or facing, the cutting point should not be more than 0.015”
(0.38 mm) below the work center; and for boring, not more than Rapid wear Speed too high or feed too light,
0.015’’ above center. Tools should not be allowed to dwell in the nose radius too large, improper
cut. Chip disposal may be a problem when machining at high grinding.
IIAMONDS
Cutting tools made from industrial grade, mined single- taken over by polycrystalline diamond tools, discussed in the
crystal diamonds have been used for many years. Usage next section of this chapter.
continues to increase, although many applications have been Increased use of both single-crystal and polycrystalline
3-38
CHAPTER 3
SINGLE-CRYSTAL DIAMONDS
diamond cutting tools is due primarily to the greater demand Nonferrous metals such as aluminum, babbitt, brass,
for increased precision and smoother finishes in modern copper, bronze, and other bearing materials.
manufacturing, the proliferation of lighter weight materials in Precious metals such as gold, silver, and platinum.
today’s products, and the need to reduce downtime for tool- Nonmetallic and abrasive materials. including hard
changing and adjustments to increase productivity. More rubber, phenolic or other plastics or resins, cellulose
widespread knowledge of the proper use of these tools and the acetate, compressed graphite and carbon, composites,
availability of improved machine tools with greater rigidity, some carbides and ceramics, fiberglass, and a variety of
higher speeds, and finer feeds have also contributed to increased epoxies and fiberglass-filled resins,
usage.
Diamond crystals can be lapped to a fine cutting edge that
Diamond is the cubic crystalline form of carbon that is
can produce surface finishes as smooth as 1 p in. (0.025 p m) or
produced in various sizes under high heat and pressure.
less. For this reason, single-crystal diamond tools are often used
Natural, mined single-crystal stones of the industrial type used
for high-precision machining operations in which a smooth,
for cutting tools are cut (sawed, cleaved, or lapped) to produce
reflective su[-face is required, The need for subsequent grinding,
the cutting-edge geometry required for the application.
polishing, or lapping of workplaces is generally eliminated. One
ADVANTAGES plant is using these tools on a specially built machine tool to
Diamond is the hardest known natural substance. Its produce an optical finish on copper-plated aluminum alloy
indentation hardness is about five times that of carbide. mirrors.
Extreme hardness and abrasion resistance can result in single- Other parts machined with single-crystal diamond tools
crystal diamond tools retaining their cutting edges virtually include computer memory discs, printing gravure and photo-
unchanged throughout most of their useftrl lives. High thermal copy rolls, plastic lenses, lens mounts, guidance system compo-
conductivity and low compressibility and thermal expansion nents, ordnance parts, workplaces for which the cost of lapping
provide dimensional stability, thus assuring the maintenance of and polishing can be eliminated, and parts with shapes, or made
close tolerances and the production of smooth finishes. from materials, that do not lend themselves to lapping or
Although single-crystal diamond tools are much more polishing.
expensive than those made from other materials, the cost per Turning of electric motor armatures has proven to be a good
piece machined is often lower with proper application. Savings application for single-crystal diamond tools because the tools
result from reduced downtime and scrap, and in most cases, the prevent the formation of burrs in the armature slots. Also, in
elimination of subsequent finishing operations. Because of the turning commutators, these tools can produce up to 50,000
diamond’s chemical inertness, low coefficient of friction, and parts before resharpening is necessary, compared to an average
smoothness, chips do not adhere to its surface or form built-up of 200 parts with tungsten carbide tools. The diamond tools
edges when nonferrous and nonmetallic materials are machined. provide a satin finish that helps the carbon brushes lap in
perfectly. This results in quieter motor operation.
LIMITATIONS Aluminum alloy memory discs for computers are faced with
Selection of industrial single-crystal diamonds is critical. single-crystal diamond tools, producing a surface finish of
They should be of fine quality, free of cracks or inclusions in the 0.8 II in. (0.02p m), Thin-wall aluminum tubes are finish turned
cutting area. Also, skillful orientation is required in the tools for on a special lathe having an air-bearing headstock, tailstock,
maximum wear. The stone must be mounted so that the tool and toolslide. A surface finish of 0.3 # in. (0,008 AI m) is
approaches the workpiece along one of its hard planes—not produced.
parallel to soft cleavage planes (which are parallel to the In addition to being used in turning and boring operations,
octahedral plane)—or the tool will start to flake and chip at the single-crystal diamonds are used for milling with flycutters.
edge. Orienting the diamond in the soft direction will cause Flat, optically smooth surfaces can be produced on the joint
premature wear and possibly flaking or chipping. faces of light-alloy components, eliminating the need for hand
Tools with a low impact resistance require careful handling scraping. In such operations, the workpiece is fed past the
and protection against shock. Such tools should only be used on flycutter, which is rotated at high speed. The single-crystal
rigid machines in good condition. Rigid means for holding the diamond tool takes one continuous chip across the work per
tool and work piece are also essential, and balancing or damping revolution.
of the work piece and its driver are often required, especially for To obtain tool relief so that cutting occurs less than 180° of
turning. Three-jaw chucks are generally not recommended each revolution, the trailing edge of the flycutter is generally set
because they cannot be dynamically balanced. If required, they slightly higher, about 0.0001” (0.002 mm), by tilting the spindle
should be provided with dampers. Damping of boring bars is axis. The concave error that this causes in the workpiece can be
also recommended. calculated from the formula in Fig. 3-18,
Single-crystal diamond tools are not suitable for cutting Multiple flycutting with stepped tools can be used for higher
ferrous metals, particularly alloys having high tensile strengths, production, but the finish produced will generally not be as
because the high cutting forces required may break the tools. good. Also, the dynamic balance of the cutter is critical. In
The diamond tends to react chemically with such materials, and addition, flycutting can be done with the workpiece mounted on
it will graphitize at temperatures between 1450 and 1800° F (788 a rotary table rather than a slide. By tilting the table axis,
and 982° C). Single-crystal diamond tools are also not recom- spherical surfaces can be generated,
mended for interrupted cutting of hard materials or for the
removal of scale from rough surfaces. TOOL GEOMETRIES
The cutting edge geometries of single-crystal diamond tools
APPLICATIONS are lapped to suit the requirements for the specific operation to
Single-crystal diamond cutting tools are generally most be performed. Round-nose tools are generally designed with as
efficient when used to machine: large a radius as possible—usually 50- 100% greater than that of
3-39
CHAPTER 3
comparable carbide tools. Since wear is minimal, the radius on Natural single-crystal diamond tools should be designed
the tool nose can approach that specified for the workpiece. The with large included angles—90° or more. If shaped to an
larger the radius, the stronger the tool; however. larger radii included angle less than 72°, they can be weakened considerably
increase the cutting pressures. Also, depending on the feed rate, because of the intersection of cleavage planes.
the radius used can affect the surface finish produced. Positive-rake tool geometry is widely used to reduce cutting
Flat-nose tools having multiple facets are sometimes pre- forces on the tools, but negative-rake geometries are being used
ferable to round-nose tools. Multifaced inserts can be set in tips successfully for some applications. Minimum clearance angles,
that can be moved through an arc for greater economy, with the 5-10° average, and minimum rake angles, 0-2° positive, are
various cutting edges successively moved into cutting position generally desirable for maximum tool strength. However,
as dulling occurs. Round-nose inserts, however, have the positive back and side rake angles to 5° may be suitable for
advantage of not requiring as much care with respect to some applications. and negative rake angles to 20° are
presentation to the work. - sometimes used for light cuts on soft materials.
Examples of design geometries for single-crystal diamond
boring and turning tools are given in Fig, 3-19. Because of the
special nature of most applications for these tools; however,
4--- standardization of tool and shank geometries is practically
nonexistent.
T—
w OPERATING PARAMETERS
L. ——_
__ Single-crystal diamond tools generally perform best at the
highest possible cutting speeds—up to15,000sfm
or more, with a minimum of about 500 sfm (152 m/min),
(4572 m/min)
Higher speeds reduce pressures onthe cutting edges. Cutting

depths generally range fromaslittle as O.0005° (0.013 mm) for
i’ some nonferrous
nonmetallic materials.
metals to 0.060” (1.52 mm) for certain
Light feeds are also recommended—ranging from a mini-

mum of about 0.0004 ipr (0.010 mm/rev) to as high as 0.020 ipr
d!%!!i+
(0.51 mm/rev). The feed rate used affects the surface finish
produced, as shown by the approximate equation for the
theoretical finish produced with a round-nose tool, Fig. 3-20.
Finer feeds and higher speeds are desirable when very smooth
finishes are reauired.
c= +-4&j-- Single-crys~al diamond tools should not be operated below
the centerline of the workpiece, except possibly a slight amount
where: C = Conccwtv
to obtain a burnishing action. Either on or slightly above center
h = Amount tral,ng edge IS hfted
R = Flycutter rod,us
is recommended. One rule-of-thumb for workplaces larger than
W = Workolece width about 1“(25 mm) in diameter is to mount the tool above centera
distance equal to 0.001 times the work diameter.
Cutting edges of these tools should not be brought into
FIG. 3-18 Concave error caused by setting trailing edge of flycutter
contact with stationary workplaces. Some users employ a
higher to obtain tool relief. plastic shim between the tool and workpiece during setup.
Workpiece or tool rotation should not be stopped in the cut,
Since excessive heat will burn or crack diamond tools, an
abundant and continuous flow of cutting fluid is generally
Diamond tips set into cylindrical bits are also available and recommended. Any cutting fluid that is effective for use with
can be used with simple holders. The tips can be round nosed or carbide tools is satisfactory for use with diamonds. There are,
multifaceted. Compound or multiple tools can be used in the however, successful applications of dry machining with diamond
same setup to perform several operations simultaneously. tools. A stream of air is sometimes used to cool the tool, and a
A universal boring and turning tool made by Accurate suction system may be employed to remove chips.
Diamond Tool Corp. can be equipped with any one of three Single-crystal diamond tools should be reset to exposea new
indexable and interchangeable caps. One cap consists of a point, or they should be resharpened as soon as they become
single-crystal diamond tool; another, of polycrystalline dia- dull. This is essential to minimize breakage and to increase the
mond; and the third, of cubic boron nitride, which is discussed number of resharpenings possible. Many users return the tools
later in this chapter. Tool shanks range from 3/8 to 1 1/4” to the suppliers for expert resharpening. When the tools are not
(9.5-3 1.8 mm) square or round. Boring and turning operations being used, cutting edges should be protected with rubber or
can be performed with the same tool by releasing tbe cap, plastic caps and the tools should be stored in padded, separate
indexing it to the desired position, and locking it in place. containers.
3-40
CHAPTER 3
Diamond boring tool
0.050” (1 .27 mm) rod

0.045” (1.14 mm)
,>~~$ —
9 6“(]4.3 mm) J
W Rake
0.060”
(1.52 mm) 30”
16“ (3.2 mm)
L —
+
3
03,2$:*>*
0020”
(051 mm) \ 9.
0.3120” (7 925 mm)
q,5:#
Diamond turnng tool
8°
~
,k
/ — —
0.025” rod
(O 64 rnrn)~
0.375”
J (953 mm)
1- ~“’’’(38mm)+
‘
0° Roke
-+
0375
(9 53 mm) ‘-
L ~
@ II \
‘\
“+ 1 2“
y ‘F
12“
FIG. 3-19 Typical geometries for single-crystal diamond tools used for turning and boring operations.
POLYCRYSTALLINE DIAMOND CUTTING TOOLS

Polycrystalline diamond blanks, introduced in the United produced from both types of crystals.
States about 1973, consist of fine diamond crystals that are Various shapes are compacted for cutting tool purposes, and
bonded together under high pressure and temperature. Both some are made integral with a tungsten or tungsten carbide
natural and synthetic diamond crystals can be sintered in this substrate. Polycrystalline diamond cutting tools are generally
way, and cutting tool blanks and inserts are currently being recommended only for machining nonferrous metals and
3-41
CHAPTER 3
which also applies to single-crystal diamond tools is that they

are not generally suitable for machining ferrous metals such as
steel and cast iron. Diamonds—both natural and synthetic—
are carbon, which reacts chemically with ferrous metals at high
52+ ~? p.v . —
v,here:
8R
F = Feed per rev.
cutting temperatures and with other materials that are tough
and have relatively high tensile strengths that can generate high
pressures and induce chipping.
The high cost of polycrystalline diamond tools, as well as
single-crystal diamond tools, limits their application to opera-
tions in which the specific advantages of the tools are necessary
R = TOOI rad,us
or economically feasible in that increased productivity makes
‘-. P-V = Theoretical
/ peak to volley them cost effective. Such applications include the machining of
‘\
/ \ fresh abrasive materials that result in short life with other tool
F materials and the high-volume production of close-tolerance
\
/’ parts that require good finishes.
t:
-\
R P-v
TOOLS AVAILABLE
\ The Specialty Materials Dept. of General Electric Co.
\ ;
Diamond tool manufactures Compax tool blanks for sale to cutting tool
\
// manufacturers. They are produced under high pressures and
‘m’ \
\ / high temperatures to provide crystal-to-crystal bonding of GE’s
\ / Man-Made diamond crystals. Each integral blank consists of a
.— -
polycrystalline diamond aggregate, 0.5 mm (0.02”) thick, fused
to a tungsten carbide substrate, either 1,0 or 2.7 mm (0.04 or
FIG. 3-20 Approximate equatiou for the theoretical tiuish produced O.11“) thick. The blanks, having a total thickness of 1.5 or
with a rouud-uosed diamond tool.
3.2 mm (0.059 or O.126”) are available in 45, 60, 90, or 180°
segments; 360° discs; and many sizes of rectangular forms that
nonmetallic materials, and not for cutting ferrous metals. can be fabricated into different tool shapes, including indexable
inserts.
ADVANTAGES Carbide bases of the blanks are usually brazed to steel or
An important advantage of polycrystalline diamond cutting carbide tool shanks or to indexable inserts for use in standard
tools is that the crystals are randomly oriented so that the toolholders. Forming of the diamond portions of the blanks to
agglomerate does not have the cleavage planes found in single- the desired tool configuration is done with diamond grinding
crystal diamond cutting tools. As a result, hardness and wheels, Since this is a difficult operation, it is generally done by
abrasion resistance are uniformly high in all directions, Hard- the tool manufacturer rather than the user.
ness is about four times that of carbide and nearly equals that of Syndite is the name of the polycrystalline, synthetic diamond
single-crystal natural diamond, When polycrystalline diamond made by De Beers Industrial Diamond Div., Ltd. It is produced
blanks are bonded to a tungsten or tungsten carbide substrate, in discs, which are cut into a variety of segments and rectangles.
cutting tools are produced that are not only high in hardness For cutting tool blanks, the diamond layer, 0.7 mm (0.03”)
and abrasion resistance, but also greater in strength and shock thick, is bonded to a tungsten carbide substrate with an
resistance. intermediate, refractory metal, bonding layer. Blanks, ranging
Polycrystalline diamond cutting tools often cost less than from 1.6-3.18 mm (0.06-0. 125”) in overall thickness, can be
single-crystal diamond tools, depending on their design and brazed to standard toolholders. Round blanks are 9.52 and 12,7
application; and they have proven superior for most machining mm (0.375 and 0.50’9 diam, and rectangular blanks vary from
applications. They generally show more uniformity, often 1-4 mm (0.039-0. 157”) wide x 3-12 mm (0,1 18-O.472”) long.
allowing production results to be predicted more accurately. Megadiamond Industries, Inc., makes polycrystalline
The compacts are also tougher than single-crystal diamonds diamond indexable inserts that are solid compacts of natural
and provide increased versatility, permitting the production of diamond grains, with no carbide substrate, The inserts, 0.070”
a wider variety of cutting tools with more desirable shapes. (1 .78 mm) thick, are available as rounds, triangles, and squares.
While smoother surface finishes can be produced with single- Indexability of the inserts offers the advantage of providing
crystal diamond tools, polycrystalline diamond tools are compe- more than one cutting edge, the number of edges depending on
titive in this respect for some applications. the geometry For example, negative-rake, square inserts have
In comparison with carbide cutting tools, cutting tools made eight cutting edges. Because of manufacturing size limitations,
from polycrystalline diamond can provide much longer tool special toolholders are required for these inserts. Valenite Div.
life, better size control, improved finishes, increased produc- of Valeron Corp. has developed a complete line of standard
tivity, reduced scrap and rework, and lower tool cost per toolholders for indexable inserts used in turning and facing,
machined part for certain applications, The capability of using cartridges used in boring and facing, boring systems that are
higher cutting speeds and feeds, plus the reduction in downtime vernier adjustable, and boring bars that are solid carbide.
by eliminating many tool changes and adjustments, can result in Megadiamond Industries, Inc., also makes blanks having an
substantial increases in productivity. average 0.025” (0.64 mm) thick polycrystalline diamond layer
and a 0.008” (0.20 mm) thick tungsten substrate for brazing to
LIMITATIONS tool shanks. Tips with metal backing on both sides are being
One limitation to the use of polycrystalline diamond tools used for spade drills by placing the sandwich in a slotted solid-
3-42
CHAPTER 3
carbide blade blank, brazing it in place, and grinding it to the downtime has been reduced 20:1. Soluble oil is used as the
required geometry with diamond wheels. cutting fluid. The operation is performed with a cutting speed of
151 I sfm (460.5 m/min), feed rate of 92.3 ipm (2344 mm/min),
APPLICATIONS and depth of cut of 0,040-0.060” (1.02 -I.52 mm).
Tools made from polycrystalline diamond are most suitable In semifinish and finish turning of the skirts of pistons made
for cutting very abrasive nonmetallic materials, such as carbon, from an aluminum-silicon alloy, the edge life of tools made
presintered ceramics, fiberglass and its composites, graphite, from Compax polycrystalline diamond blanks is over 100,000
reinforced plastics, and hard rubber; nonferrous metals, such as parts, compared to as few as 600 for carbide tools. Cutting speed
aluminum alloys (particularly those containing silicon), copper, is 2940 sfm (896 m/ rein), feed rate is 0.006 ipr (O. 15 mm/rev),
brass, bronze, lead, zinc, and their alloys; and presintered and depth of cut is 0.014” (0.36 mm), In semifinish and finish
carbides and sintered tungsten carbides having a cobalt content boring of wristpin holes in these pistons, tool life has increased
above 6Y0. to over 100,000 parts, compared to less than 400 with carbide
They are being increasingly applied because more nonferrous tools. Machine downtime for tool changes was reduced from
metals, plastics, and composites are now being used to reduce 42,9 to O.16 hours per month. Cutting speed for this operation is
product weights. Increased demand for parts with closer 3600 sfm ( 1097 m/min), feed rate is 0,005’’ (0.38 mm), and depth
tolerances and smoother finishes and the availability of of cut is 0,015” (0.38 mm).
improved machines with higher speeds, finer feeds, and greater Machining costs were reduced substantially in machining
rigidity have also boosted the use of these tools. glass-filled phenolic brake pistons. Carbide tools had a life of
Polycrystalline diamond tools have proven to be superior to only 350 parts, while polycrystalline diamond tools produced
natural, single-crystal diamonds for applications in which 15,000 parts, providing a substantial reduction in machine
chipping of the cutting edge rather than wear has caused tool downtime. In turning motor commutators made of copper,
failure. They can better withstand the higher pressures and slots in the parts cause severe interrupted cutting. Polycrystalline
impact forces of increased speeds, feeds, and depths of cut and diamond tools can be resharpened 6-10 times after turning
are suitable for many interrupted cut applications such as face about 100,000 parts between sharpening. The average life for
milling. Sharpness of their cutting edges, however, is limited, single-crystal diamond tools varied from 1000 to 20,000 parts.
and natural, single-crystal diamonds are still preferable for
operations in which very smooth surface finishes are required. OPERATING PARAMETERS
Applications exhibiting excessive edge wear with the use of Geometries for polycrystalline diamond tools are basically
carbide cutting tools generally are good candidates for poly- positive, and similar to those for carbide tools. Positive rake
crystalline diamond tools. Other applications include operations angles of less than 15° are generally preferable, but higher rake
in which materials build up on cutting edges and cause burrs, angles are successful for some applications, Large positive rake
operations resulting in smeared finishes, and operations that and relief angles should be avoided. Back rake angles of 0-5° are
produce out-of-tolerance parts. For certain applications, poly - common. Relief angles of 10° are also common, but angles
crystalline diamond tools outlast carbide tools by 50:1 or more. greater than 30° should be avoided to reduce the possibility of
A major application is machining aluminum alloys having a chipping.
high silicon content. These alloys are increasingly being used in Since tool wear is not a significant factor, nose radii on the
the automotive and marine industries to save weight. Parts now tools can be made closer to that required on the workpieces, but
being made from these alloys include pistons, engine blocks, small radii (sharp noses) are not recommended, To minimize
intake manifolds, automatic transmission cases, master brake costs, the tools should be designed to facilitate maximum
cylinders, and compressor bodies. resharpening or relapping.
Aluminum is relatively easy to cut, but a high silicon content Some geometries and operating parameters for turning
makes it very abrasive. Machining problems with carbide and various materials with poiycrystalline diamond tools are pre-
other tool materials include rapid tool wear, built-up edges on sented in Table 3-23, Cutting speeds can sometimes be doubled
the tools, and poor finishes. Polycrystalline diamond tools over those used for carbide, but feed rates are generally in the
provide reduced built-up edges because of their high level of lower range of those used for carbide tools—with a maximum
chemical inertness, longer tool life (even with higher cutting of about 0.022 ipr (0.56 mm/rev). Feed rates depend on the
speeds), lower costs, and increased productivity. In addition to surface finish required.
turning and boring operations, the tools are being used Cutting speeds of about 10,000 sfm (3048 m/ rein) are being
successfully for milling and other operations requiring inter- used to mill aluminum alloys containing 8(% silicon; speeds of
rupted cuts. about 900-1500 sfm (274-457 m/min) are being used to turn
One manufacturer of marine engines uses indexable Compax aluminum alloys with higher silicon content. For milling
polycrystalline diamond blanks in face milling cutters for operations, the feed rate should be kept below about 0.010”
engine blocks made from Type 380 aluminum alloy. This has (0.25 mm) per tooth. Depths of cut can sometimes be increased
provided a 450: I increase in life over carbide tools and has over those used with carbide tools, depending on the capability
eliminated burring problems. The operation is performed of the machines used.
without cutting fluid at a speed of 10,000 sfm (3048 m/min), Rigid, vibration-free machines are essential to minimize
feed rate of 100 ipm (2540 mm/ rein), and depth of cut of 0.100” impact damage to the tools, and sufficient power is required to
(2.54 mm). With carbide tools, the maximum cutting speed take full advantage of their capabilities, The use of cutting fluids
permissible was 500 sfm ( 152.4 m/min), generally helps reduce tool wear, and they should be employed
An automotive manufacturer is milling the joint faces of whenever possible, depending on the material being machined.
intake manifolds, cast from Type 380 aluminum alloy, on a Cooling, rather than lubricating properties of the fluid, is most
transfer machine. Edge life of the polycrystalline diamond tools important, and good results have been obtained with a water-
is about 89,000 parts, compared to 6200 for carbide tools, and soluble oil having a water-to-oil ratio of about 15:1. Successful
3-43
CHAPTER 3
00
00
00
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,
,
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CHAPTER 3
operations, however, are being performed without cutting bonded wheels containing 325 to 400-mesh or finer diamond
fluids. grits, depending on the tool. Finish grinding the clearance face
Resharpening of polycrystalline diamond tools must be can be done when necessary with a resin-bonded wheel
done carefully on rigid machines with the proper wheel to avoid containing 15 to 30 micron size diamond grits. Wheel speed
edge chipping and scratching of the surfaces. Many firms return should be in the range of 3600-5400 sfm ( 18.3-27.4 m)s), ample
the tools to the manufacturer for resharpening because the cutting fluid should be applied, and glazing should be avoided
process is highly specialized. Rough grinding of the clearance by frequent dressing.
face (away from the cutting edge) can be done with resin-
CUBIC BORON NITRIDE

Cubic boron nitride (CBN), a form of boron nitride (BN), is styles, and 1/2 and 5/ 8“( 12.7 and 15.9 mm) squares and rounds
a superabrasive crystal that is second in hardness and abrasion with negative rakes. Various nose radii are available.
resistance only to diamond. It is produced by a high-pressure/ BZN Compact tool blanks, 1/ 8“(3.2 mm) thick, consist of a
high-temperature process similar to that used to make synthetic 0.020’’(0.51 mm) thick layer bonded to a carbide substrate. The
diamonds. CBN crystals are used most commonly in super- blanks are brazed to steel tool shanks, or steel or carbide
abrasive wheels for precision grinding of steels and superalloy, indexable inserts for use in standard toolholders. Cutting edges
The crystals are also compacted to produce polycrystalline are ground to any desired configuration. The blanks are
cutting tools. available in 0.33’’ (8.4 mm) diam roqnds and 180,90,60, and 45°
segments.
ADVANTAGES SumiBoron is the trade name for CBN inserts developed by
For machining operations, cutting tools compacted from Sumitomo Electric Industries of Japan. The CBN crystals used
CBN crystals offer the advantage of greater heat resistance than differ from GE’s Borazon CBN in that a ceramic is used as a
diamond tools. Another important advantage of CBN tools bonding material, The compacted CBN crystals are rigidly
over those made from diamonds is their high level of chemical joined to a cemented carbide-based metal in producing the
inertness. This provides greater resistance to oxidation and inserts.
chemical attack by many workpiece materials machined at high The SumiBoron inserts have only a single CBN corner and
cutting temperatures—including ferrous metals. Compacted are therefore not indexable, They are available in a variety of
CBN tools are suitable, unlike diamond tools, for the high- 3/8 and I /2” (9.5 and 12.7 mm) triangles. squares, and 81Y
speed machining of tool and alloy steels with harnesses to diamond shapes, I / 8 and 3/ 16“ (3.2 and 4.8 mm) thick, with
RC70, steel forgings and Ni-Hard or chilled cast irons with positive and negative rakes. Round inserts and toolholders for
harnesses from RC45-68, surface-hardened parts, and nickel or roll turning are also available, as well as jig boring tools. The
cobalt-based superalloy. They have also been used successfully CBN structure on all inserts is 0.040” ( 1,02 mm) thick.
for machining powdered metals, plastics, and graphite. Amborite is a CBN-based tool material from De Beers
The high wear resistance of cutting tools made from Industrial Diamond Div., Ltd. This composite material is
compacted CBN has resulted in increased productivity because manufactured by subjecting fine and randomly oriented particles
of the higher cutting speeds that may be utilized and/or the of CBN to high temperature and pressure in the presence of
longer tool life possible. Also, in many cases, productivity is metal to form a ceramic binder phase and produce a dense,
substantially improved because the need for grinding is elimi- polycrystalline structure.
nated. The relatively high cost of compacted CBN tools, as well Cutting tool inserts made from this material differ from
as diamond tools, however, has limited their use to applica- those previously described in that they are solid, unbacked by
tions, such as difficult-to-machine materials, for which they can tungsten carbide or any other material, thus providing more
be economically justified on a cost-per-piece production basis. cutting edges because they are double sided. Inserts are
available in rounds and squares, 3/8 or I /2’’ (9.5 or 12,7 mm) in
TOOLS AVAILABLE diameter or edge length and 1/8’’ (3. 12 mm) thick to fit standard
Borazon CBN is a trademark of the Specialty Materials negative-rake toolholders. They can be ordered with chamfered
Dept., General Electric Co., for its brand of cubic boron nitride. or unchamfered edges.
In addition to producing CBN abrasive crystals for grinding
wheels and other applications, GE also manufactures poly- APPLICATIONS
crystalline CBN cutting tools called BZN Compacts. These are Applications of cutting tools made from compacted CBN
available from various cutting tool manufacturers in the form crystals include turning, facing, boring, and milling of various
of indexable inserts and blanks. hard materials. Many of the applications eliminate the need for
Indexable inserts, 3/ 16’’(4.8 mm) thick, are designed for use previously required grinding or minimize the amount of
in standard clamp-type mechanical toolholders. Each insert grinding needed. With the proper cutting conditions, the same
consists of a dense, polycrystalline structure of Borazon CBN, surface finish is often produced as with grinding.
0.020-0.030” (0.51-0.76 mm) thick. bonded to a cemented Many successful applications involve interrupted cutting,
tungsten carbide substrate. The tungsten carbide base provides including the milling of hard ferrous metals, Because of their
a tough, strong, shock-resistant support for the brittle cutting brittleness, however, CBN cutting tools are not generally
edge. Insert geometries available include l/2° (12.7 mm) recommended for heavy interrupted cutting,
inscribed circle (lC) triangles in both positive and negative-rake Metal removal rates up to 20 times those of carbide cutting
3-45
CHAPTER 3
CUBIC BORON NITRIDE
tools have been reported in machining superalloy. For example, A productivity increase of 10 times was realized by using
in one operation involving machining Inconel 718, the normal SumiBoron tools in an operation involving boring die molds
cutting speed with carbide tools is 100 sfm (30.5 m/min), with a made from high-speed steel that have a hardness of RC63, The
feed rate of 0.008 ipr (0.20 mm/rev) and O.100’’(2,54 mm) depth previous method consisted of electrical discharge machin-
of cut. With BZN Compact tools, the cutting speed was ing,grinding, and lapping. Cutting speed for this operation
increased to 600 sfm ( 183 mj rein), with the same feed rate and is 260 sfm (8O m/min), depth of cut varies from 0.0078 to
depth of cut. In another operation involving facing a gas turbine 0.0098” (O.198 to 0.249 mm), and the feed rate is 0.0039 ipr
part made from Rene 77, cutting time was reduced by 90% and (0.099 mm/ rev).
the subsequent grinding time was shortened by 50~o. Cutting Comparative tests were made using Amborite and composite
speed for this operation is 410 sfm ( 125 m/ rein), with a feed rate ceramic (A 120~ and TiC) tools. Depths of cut were generally
of 0.004 ipr (O. 10 mm/rev) and 0.055” (1.40 mm) depth of cut. 0.080” (2,03 mm) with round inserts and 0.040, 0.020, and
In an operation requiring boring roller-bearing races made 0.004” (1.02, 0.51, and 0.10 mm) with square inserts. one set of
from a material similar to AISI 52100, with a hardness of RC62, tests consisted of machining AISI D3 high-carbon, high-
the need for subsequent grinding and an average scrap rate chromium, cold-work tool steel having a hardness of RC58, The
of 28 workplaces per day were eliminated by changing to ceramic tools could not be used at feed rates greater than
BZN Compact tools. This operation is performed at a cutting 0.009 ipr (0.22 mm/rev) or at cutting speeds higher than
speed of 262 sfm (80 m/min), with a feed rate of 0.008 ipr 98.4 sfm (30 m/min) because of the risk of tool failure. In
(0.20 mm/ rev) and 0.098” (2.49 mm) depth of cut. contrast, the CBN tools performed well at feed rates of O.016ipr
Material removal rate was increased from 2 in. j/ min (0.40 mm/rev) and at cutting speeds of 246 sfm (75 m/min).
(32.8 cm3/min) with carbide tools to 4.8 in.3/min (78.7 cm3/min) Also, tool life was longer by up to 25 times that of ceramic
with BZN Compact tools in an operation requiring turning inserts.
chilled cast iron, steel-mill rolls having a hardness of RC61-62. When machining the D3 steel it was found that, under
Also, the need for subsequent grinding was eliminated, total identical conditions, the life of inserts with chamfered edges was
machining time was reduced from 52.1 to 37.5 hours, and tool about double that of inserts with unchamfered edges. The use of
life was extended by four times. Cutting speed for this operation chamfered-edge inserts does, however, increase cutting forces.
varied from 275-300 sfm (83.8 -91.4 m/ rein), with a feed rate For example, the radial force acting on the workpiece is
from 0.012-0,020 ipr (0.30-0.51 mm/ rev) and a depth of cut approximately 30% higher with a chamfered-edge insert. Still,
from 0.090-0.100” (2.29-2.54 mm). the forces are lower than when ceramic inserts are used, a
Under certain conditions, these took can also be used for reduction of ]6970in the radial cutting force with chamfered
interrupted cutting. One application involves facing the end CBN inserts and almost 4096 with unchamfered tools.
surfaces of gears made from a case-hardened steel having a Machining tests were also conducted on a chilled cast iron
hardness of RC60. By switching to SumiBoron tools, the cutting havinga hardness of RC55. Ceramic tools could not be used for
speed was increased to 328 sfm ( 100 m/ rein), compared to the roughing operations at feed rates much above 0.006 ipr
131 sfm (40 m/min) with carbide tools, Depth of cut, 0.008” (O.16 mm/rev), particularly at cutting speeds greater than
(0.20 mm), remained the same, as did the feed rate, 0.010 ipr 131 sfm (40 m/min). Amborite inserts performed well at feed
(0.25 mm/rev). Tool life was extended by 45 times. rates of 0.016 ipr (0.40 mm/rev) and a cutting speed of 262 sfm
TABLE 3-24
Recommended Cutting Conditions for SumiBoron CBN
Work Cutting Speed Depth of Cut Feed Rate

Material RC Operation sfm m/min in. mm ipr mm/ rev
Carbon steels, Turning, 330- 1oo- 0.0196 0.498 0.0078 0.198
carbon tool steels, boring, 660 200
alloy steels, 45-68 etc.
bearing steels, and
structural steels Milling 330- 100- 0.0196 0.498 0.0059 0,150
660 200
High-speed tool Turning, 165- 50- 0.0196 0.498 0.0078 0.198
and die steels boring, 330 100
45-68 etc.
Milling 330- 100- 0.0196 0.498 0.0059 0. I50
660 200
Scleroscope
Chilled and
ductile cast irons, 50-75 Turning 231- 70- 0.0984 2.499 0.059 1.50
cast steel, and 495 I 50
forged steel rolls
75-85 Turning 132- 40- 0.0984 2.499 0.0314 0.798
264 80
3-46
CHAPTER 3
CUBIC BORON NITRIDE
(80 m/rein). Tool life was up to 100 times longer than the life of distance from the nose of the tool corresponding to the depth of
ceramic tools. Better performance was also obtained in finishing cut. If this occurs when using round inserts, the feed rate or
cuts on the iron, with as good a surface finish as produced by the depth of cut should be reduced or the cutting speed should be
ceramic tools, but at 13 times the stock removal rate or with 40 increased. With square tools, the cutting speed or the approach
times longer tool life. angle should be increased,
An interesting phenomenon was observed when the CBN
tools were used to machine M2 steel at high cutting speeds. OPERATING PARAMETERS
With a constant feed rate and the cutting speed increased Cutting tools made from compacted CBN should be used on
progressively, there was a marked transition to a different rigid machines having the cutting-speed and feed-rate capabili-
cutting mode, with a resultant improvement in tool life. In the ties for realizing the full productive potential of the tools. Tool
transition zone between low and high cutting speed regions, no overhangs should be kept to a minimum, and negative-tool
simple relationship existed between cutting speed and tool life. geometries and large nose radii, especially for medium to heavy
This phenomenon cannot be explained without further study. cuts, are recommended for most applications. The application
At high speeds, stock is removed in the form of a continuous, of ample cutting fluid is also generally recommended, but there
red hot ribbon of material, which may cause chip-control are successful applications using no fluid. Good results have
problems. At low speeds, the more usual helical or arc-shaped been obtained with soluble oils as the cutting fluid, using a
chips are formed. mixture of about 20 parts water to 1 part oil.
With respect to the wear of Amborite tools, an initial, small Recommended operating parameters for machining various
amount of wear occurs almost immediately. Once this initial materials with SumiBoron CBN inserts are presented in Table
wear has developed, the edge becomes very stable and further 3-24. Operating parameters for several applications of BZN
wear takes place at a much reduced rate. With too high a feed Compact tooling arc given in Table 3-25, Tool geometries for
rate, a notch may develop on the leading edge of the insert, most of these were -5° for both back and side rake angles and 5°
particularly when machining M2 steel. The notch is at a for the relief angles,
TABLE 3-25
Operating Parameters for Machining Various Materials with BZN Compact TOOIS
Cutting Feed Depth of

Speed, Rate, cut,
Material m/min mm/rev Relative
Machined Operation (sfm) (ipr) (Yn~ Performance
Modified AISI 52100 Turning 0.55 I.1 Previously 6 hrs

steel rolls, RC68 (2~:6) (0.022) (0.04) grinding; now
2.5 hrs turning
T15 HSS punches, Turning 0.58 0.80 Eliminated grinding
RC60 (29y03) (0.023) (0.031)
AISI 1020 steel rings, Interrupted 0.25 0.51 Cycle time reduced
RC62 facing (2;8’.6) (0,010) (0.020) to 3 hrs compared to
12 hrs with carbide
turning
AISI 1055 steel Profile 0.30 0.76 400%
wheels, RC60 turning (2;i.6) (0.012) (0.030) productivity
increase over
grinding
02 HSS sprocket Boring 0.20 0.25 Cycle time reduced

wheels, RC58 (::2) (0.008) (0.010) by 60% over
grinding
D4 HSS rolls, RC63 Turning 0.20 0.30-0.60 Cycle time reduced

(:;2) (0.008) (0.012-0.024)to 14 rein/roll
compared to 150
min with grinding
Ni-Hard cast iron Turning, 30-100 0.25-0.50 0.70-2.00 Eliminated grinding;

pump parts, RC53-56 boring and (98.4-328) (0,010-0.020) (0.028-0.079)$500,000 savings/ yr.
facing
AISI 8620 steel gear, Turning 110 0.25 0.30 Cycle time reduced
carburized to RC59-6 1 and facing (361) (0.010) (0.012) by 14s compared to
26s with ceramic tools
(Specialty Materials Dept., General Electric Co.)
3-47
CHAPTER 3
BIBLIOGRAPHY
References Heaton, James W. The Marriage of a High Performance Insert with

a Reliable Coated Carbide. SME Technical Report MRR79-01,
1. Steel Products Manual—Tool Steels, American Iron end 1979.
Steel Institute, Washington, DC, March 1978. Hell man, P. High-Speed Steels forBroaches. SME Technical Paper
2. Bertil N. Colding, Coated Cutting Tools, SMETechnical Paper MR80-906, 1980.
MR80-901 , 1980. High-Speed Steels for Gear Cutting Tools. SM E
3. Machinability Data Center, Machining Data Handbook, Technical ”Report MRR8O-10, 1980.
Volume 11,3rd ed. (Cincinnati: Metcut Research Associates Harvey, Richard P. “Cutting Tools from PM Preforms. ” Manufac-
Inc., 1980). turing Enginaaring (October 1978), pp. 36-38.
4. Ibid. Ka Iish, Herbert S, ISO and Other Carbide Grade Cfassifications—
5. “Materials for Metal Cutting, ” Proceedings of Materials for What They Mean. SME Technical Paper MR78-1 34, 1978.
Matal Cutting Conference, jointly sponsored by the British “The Potential of Titanium Carbide for Machining
Iron and Steel Research Association, the Corporate Labora- Steel. ” C~tting Tool Engineering (September/October 1972).
tories of British Steel Corporation, and The Iron and Steel Krumrei, Erich W, “Machining Applications and Performance of
Institute, Scarborough, England, April 14-16, 1970. COMPAX Blank Tools and BZN Compact Tools.” Paper pre-
6. Herbert S. Kalish, “Cemented Titanium Carbide Cutting sented at Conference on Tools and Dies for Industry at the
Tools, ” presented at SME Cutting Tools Clinic, Cleveland, ~;~;rsity of Birmingham, Birmingham, England, October
March 27, 1980.
7. D. Moskowitz and M. Humenik, Jr., “Cemented TiC Bese Machining with Stelfite Alloys. Wear Technology Div., Cabot Corp.,
Tools with Improved Deformation Resistance,” Proceedings Kokomo, IN, 1980.
of the International P/M Conference (P/M 80), Washington, Methods in Mefalcutting. The MGI Management Institute,
DC, June 1980. Larchmont, NY, 1980.
8. H. Tanaka, “Relationship Between the Thermal, Mechanical Navarro, Nathan P, “Polycrystalline Diamond—The Uptime
Properties and Cutting Performance of TiN-TiC Cermets,” Tool ina. ” Proceedings of Svmoosium, ‘“Diamonds in the BO’S, ”
Proceedings of the international Conference on Cutting Tool Industrial Diamond-Association of America, October 13-15,
Materials, Ft. Mitchell, KY, September 1980. 1980.
9. E. Rudy, Modified Spinodal Carbonitride Alloys for Tool Wear Payson, P. “The Seventh Decade of High Speed Steel. ” Carnegie
Applications, U.S. Patent 3,971,656, 1976. Lecture, Pittsburgh Chapter, American Society for Metals,
10, John E. Mayer, Jr., and S. Cowell, Cemented Titanium 1960.
Carbide Cutting Tools—Performance of Finishing, Semifini- Roberts, Georga A., and Cary, Robert A. Too/ Stee/s, 4th cd.,
shing, and Roughing Grades, SME Technical Paper MR71 - American Society for Metals, Metals Park, OH, 19B0.
934, 1971. Stauffer, Robert N. “Diamond Tools Solve New Machining Prob-
11. Ibid. lems. ” Manufacturing Engineering (January 1979), pp. 54-56.
12. Moskowitz and Humenik, Jr., op. cit. Storrs, B. E, Coated Carbides Produce Machining Economies. SM E
13. E. Lenz, D. Moskowitz, J. E. Mayer, Jr., and D. J. Stauffer, Technical Paper MR80-348, 1980.
Optimal Edge Geometry for Maximum Tool Life, Paper #77- Swinehart, Haldon J., ed. Cutting Tool Material Salection.
WA/Prod-43, American Society of Mechanical Engineers American Society of Tool and Manufacturing Engineers (SME),
Conference, November 1977. 1968.
14. Kalish, op. cit. SYNDITE— The New Isotropic Diamond. Diamond Information
Bulletin L37, De Beers Industrial Diamond Div., Ltd., Berkshire,
England.
Taeyaerts, Frederick J. “Design Considerations for Polycrystalline
Tools. ” Proceedings of Symposium, “Diamonds in the 80’s, ”
Industrial Diamond Association of America, October 13-15,
1980.
Bibliography Tantung Data Manual. VR/Wesson Div., Fansteel Inc., North
Chicago, IL, 1965.
Bhattacharyya, S. K., and Aspinwall, D. “The Application Town, H, C. “The Diamond as Production Tool. ” Machinery and
of Polycrystalline Tooling. ” Paper presented at the 30th Anni- Production Engineering (July 30, 1975), pp. 98-106, and
versary Meeting and Seminar, Tokyo, Japan, May 17, 1978. (August 5, 1975), pp. 122-124.
Breh m, P, Don a Id. Diamond Turning and Flycutting for Precision, Vasiiash, Gary S. “Powder Metal Tools: Density Makes the
SME Technical Paper MR77-965, 1977. Difference.” Manufacturing Engineering (January 1981 ), pp.
Brooks, J. A, World Directory and Handbook of Hardmetals. 66-67.
London, England: Engineers’ Digest Ltd., Venkatesh, V. C. On the Role of Titanium Carbide in Cutting Tools.
Ekemar, Sven. Coatad Irrdexable Cemanted Carbides—A Devel- SME Technical Paoer MR80-217, 1980.
opment in Progress. SME Technical Paper MR77-201, 1977. Whitney, E. Dow. New Advances in Ceramic Tooling. SME
Harvey, Richard F. Heat Treatment of Tool Staels and Other Technical Report MR76-15, 1976.
Specialty Steels Made From Powdered Metals. SM E Technical Wick, Charles H. “Better Tools from PM High-Speed Steels. ”
Paper MR78-348, 1978. Manufacturing Engineering (September 1980), pp. 52-54.
Haswell, Walter T., and Bratt, R, W. Particle Metallurgy Produces “Ceramic Cutting Tools. ” Machinarv (July 1966),
Superior Tool Steels. SME Technical Report TER78-06, 1978. pp. 83-98
3-48
CHAPTER 4
CUTTING FLUIDS AND

INDUSTRIAL LUBRICANTS
This chapter presents material dealing with sections cover the properties of industrial lubri- CHAPTER
metalcutting fluid technology and industrial lubricants, including oils, greases, and hydraulic fluids. CONTENTS:
cation. The first sections of the chapter detail the Grinding fluid technology is covered in the chapter
selection and use of cutting fluids; the latter devoted to grinding, Chapter 11 of this volume. CUTTING FLUIDS
Functions 4-1
Types 4-5
Selection 4-7
CUTTING FLUIDS Application

Filtration
Maintenance
4-13
4-15
4-23
Heelth &
Fluids developed for and applied to cutting fluid selection process is further complicated by the Sef ety 4-33
Recycling &
operations to reduce costs and enhance workpiece fact that the cutting fluid is only one component in Disposel 4-53
characteristics have been used extensively for an integrated metalcutting system. Tools, machines,
about 200 years, W. H, Northcott was probably the workpiece material, and operator considerations INDUSTRIAL
LUBRICANTS
first to write about significant improvements in also play important roles in the decision-making Health &
productivity due to application of cutting fluids. In process. Each of these components influence selec- Safety 4-33
1868, Northcott published his research in London, tion, design, application, and operation of the Fundamentals 4-35
Types &
England, in a book entitled,.4 Treatise on Lafhes others. Properties 4-38
and Turning. About 15 years later, F. W. Taylor A rapidly changing regulatory climate, fluctu- Greaaes 4-42
showed that by flooding the workpiece/ tool inter- ating raw material supplies, foreign and domestic Additives 4-47
Application 4-49
face with a heavy stream of water, cutting speed competitive pressures, and technological improve- Recyctirrg &
could be increased 30-407.. ments in metalcutting operations are combining Disposal 4-53
Since then, cutting fluid developments have uniquely to create a climate for dramatic change in Hydraulic
Fluids 4-56
been numerous. Cutting fluid technology has metalcutting fluid technology. The essentials of
expanded to include the formulation and use of this evolving technology are presented in the
mineral, vegetable, and fatty oils to impart an following sections.
extended range of desirable properties—corrosion
protection, resistance to bacterial attack, improved FUNCTIONS OF CUTTING FLUIDS
lubricity, greater chemical stability, and improved Cutting fluids typically perform numerous func-
emulsibility. tions simultaneously, including cooling the
In recent years, water-soluble fluids and cutting workpiece/ tool interface, lubricating, minimizing
fluids comprised of chemicals in water solution the effects of built-up edge (BUE), protecting the
have replaced oil-based fluids in many applications. workpiece from corrosion, and flushing away
This trend is spurred by dwindling oil supplies and chips, The relative significance of these functions
rising costs for petroleum products. Increased of cutting fluids for a particular application is
costs to clean workplaces and rising costs of cutting dependent upon a combination of interacting
fluid disposal have fueled development and use of parameters, such as cutting fluid formulation,
synthetic water-based fluids that contain little or workpiece material, tool material and tool geo-
no oil. metry, surrounding atmosphere, and cutting speed.
Increasingly significant in the formulation of Machine design is of increasing importance,
both metalcutting fluids and decisions involving
application, maintenance, and disposal of waste Deformation and Friction in the
cutting fluids is a confusing array of government Cutting Process
regulations (federal, state, and local). The compo- In order to understand the function of cutting
sition and use of cutting fluids is now more than fluids, it is useful to consider briefly the forces
ever directly impacted by human safety considera- involved in a cutting operation. For simplicity,
tions, air and water pollution regulations, chemical cutting forces are usually discussed in terms of a
toxicity registration, waste disposal regulations, two-dimensional or orthogonal cutting geometry
shipping regulations, energy policy, etc. The cutting such as that shown in Fig. 4-1. (A more detailed
Contributors of sections of this chapter are: E, J. Buchanan, Supervisor, Petroleum Products Research,
Texaco Inc.; 1. R. Dolich. Director. Corporate Technology, Quaker Chemical Corp.; Greg Foltz, Specialist,
Cimcool Technical Services, Products Div., Cincinnati Milacrorr; Gerald B. Frenklin, Technical Service Engi-
neer, E. F, Houghton & Co.; Dr. Bernard Hamrock, Scientific Consultant, Tribology Branch, NASA -Lawis
Research Center; R. E. Hatton, Technical Service Mvnager, Monsanto Industrial Chemicals Co,; T. V. Hazelton,
Product Manager, Hydraulic Fluids, Quaker Chemical Corp.; William Katzenstein. General Manager,
Michigan Petroleum Co.; Geoffrey L. Manna, Product Manager, Machining and Grinding Fluids, Quaker Chemi-
cal Corp.; William H. Millett, Consultant, Manager (retirad), Fluid Power Products, E, F. Houghton & Co.;
Dr. Elliot S. Nachtman, Manager, Tower Oil and Technology Co.; Andrew G. Papay, Associate Director, Edwin
Cooper Div. , Ethyl Corp.; Dr. Harold W. Rossmoore, Professor of Environmental and Industrial Microbiology,
Wayne State University; Donald J. Sargent, Vice President, Technical Director, E/M Lubricants. Inc.:
4-1
cHAPTER 4
FUNCTIONS OF CUTTING FLUIDS
Rake
Shear
1: Clearance/ f I I
Workpiece space Workpiece
FIG. 4-1 Two-dimensional metalcutting geometry. FIG. 4-2 Presumed zones of shear and friction in metalcutting (1)
primary deformation zone (shearing, strain hardening), (2) secondary
deformation zone (built-up edge), (3) primary friction zone (tool/chip
treatment of chip formation and forces at the cutting tool is interface), and (4) secondary friction zone (tool/workpiece interface).
presented in this volume in Chapter 1—Principles of Metal-
cutting and Machinability.) Although simplified, this model
illustrates the two processes common to most metalcutting continuously forms, breaks away, then reforms, causing surface
operations: chip formation and chip movement over the tool finish irregularities on the workpiece, increased flank wear on
face. Thus Fig. 4-1 has applicability to such processes as the tool, and cratering of the tool face. Formation of the built-
turning, boring, milling, broaching, drilling, and planing opera- up edge is largely a function of cutting speed. Its characteristics
tions on a wide variety of materials. can be controlled somewhat through the selection of a proper
Cutting ratio. A frequently quoted parameter in machining cutting fluid.
is the cutting ratio r-c, or ratio of depth of cut to chip thickness Sliding friction accounts for a lesser fraction ( 1/4 to 1/3) of
t,/ t>From Fig. 4-1, this is seen to be simply related to the shear the power consumption in a cutting operation. The two sources
angle @ in the folIowing manner: of friction occur at the tool/chip interface (zone 3) and the
workpiece/ tool interface (zone 4). The tool/chip friction along
rc= +!=sin~ (1) the rake face is generally considered to be more significant
because the contact pressures are usually 2-3 times higher than
For a given depth of cut, as the shear angle@ increases, the along the flank face and can be in excess of 200 ksi(1380 MPa).
chip thickness decreases, the cutting ratio rc increases, and the Tool/ chip friction is dependent upon, among other things, the
cutting forces are reduced. The power required per unit volume amount of wear on the rake face and the rake angle of the tool.
of metal removed and the heat generated by the cut are also Tool/ workpiece friction appears to be a strong function of the
red uced. amount of flank wear on the tool.
Shear and friction zones. Fig. 4-2 illustrates the approximate
location of the principle shear and friction zones in a metal- Effects of Temperature in Cutting Operations
cutting operation. I As the tool is moved through the workpiece, The energy dissipated through metal deformation and
most of the energy is consumed in deforming (primarily in sliding friction processes in a cutting operation appears as
shear) the metal in zone 1. This is the primary deformation zone thermal energy or heat. About 60~ of the heat is generated in
and can be considered to be centered about the line of the shear the primary deformation zone; the balance is generated in the
angle @. A large shear angle tends to reduce the shear path and secondary deformation zone and the friction zones.z
thus minimizes the volume of the primary deformation zone. High cutting temperatures generated by the processes of
The secondary deformation zone (zone 2) is the region of the shearing, strain hardening, and friction are advantageous only
built-up edge. A wedge-shaped mass of workpiece material in the sense that they reduce to a limited extent the forces
fused to the tool tip, the built-up edge is usually much harder required for deformation of the workpiece during cutting. The
than the workpiece material. Hardness of the built-up edge is disadvantages of high cutting temperatures far outweigh this
primarily a function of the strain-hardening characteristics of single advantage in most cases. Characteristic effects of high
the workpiece material. A large built-up edge decreases the cutting temperatures often include poor tool life, unacceptable
effective rake angle of the tool. In addition, the built-up edge surface finish, and the need to reduce cutting speed.
Contributors, cont.; Kathryn F. Strang, Regulatory Information Coordinator, Quaker Chemical Corp.; Herman F. Weindet, Senior
Engineer, Mobil Oil Corp.; J. George Wills, Chief Technical Editor, Mobil Oil Corp.
Reviawers of sections of this chapter are: George Arbocus, Chief L ubricetion Engineer, Keystone Div., Pennwalt Corp.; CarlBonnell,
Group Sales Manager, TMA (Transportation, Machinery, and Appliances), Hydromation Co.; Robert H. Brandt, President, Micronic
Filtration, inc.; John M, Burke, Senior Manufacturing Engineer, Manufacturing Chemical Processes, Eaton Corp.; A. E. Cichelli. Senior
Consultant (retired), Bethlehem Steel Corp.; P. A. Cook, Technologist, Petroleum Products Research, Texaco Inc.: J. Jeffrey Crotty,
Manager, Cimcool Marketing Development, Cimcool Div., Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.; Dr. Michaal Field, Chief Executiva Officer, Metcut
Research Associates Inc.; Thomas N, George, D. A. Stuart Oil Co..’ Douglas Godfrey, Senior Engineering Associate, Chevron Research Co.;
C. J. Henry, Supervisor, Petroleum Products Research, Texaco inc.; Donald R. Hixson, Sales Manager, International Refining and
Manufacturing Co.; G. H. Michael Holtzman, Group L eader, Microbiology. Corporate Research and Development, International Minerals
and Chemical Corp.; Ruthanne Hubbs, Supervisor, Cimcool Technical Information, Cimcool Div., Cincinnati Miiacron, Inc.; Ralph Kelly,
New Products Manager, CimcoolMarket Development, Products Div. , Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.; GeraldH. Kyle, Senior Market Manager,
4-2
CHAPTER 4
Temperature vs. tool life. The relationship between tool life It is not completely clear how a cutting fluid actually manages
and cutting temperature can be described by the following to penetrate to the deformation and friction zones since (1) the
empirical formula: relative motions of the chip, tool, and workpiece combine to
T@t = K carry fluid away from the cutting zone and (2) the contact
(2)
pressures between the tool and the material can be extremely
where: high. Since most materials are believed to undergo extensive
plastic deformation at these high contact stresses and tempera-
T = tool life (minutes)
tures, some authorities suspect that the actual area of contact
t = temperature at the chip/tool interface (centigrade)
between the tool and the material closely approaches the
n = anexponent dependent onthetool (a number usually
geometric interracial area. This is in sharp contrast to the
between 20 and 30)
situations experienced with normal sliding in which the true
K =aconstant dependent ontooland workplace
area of contact can be appreciably less than 1YO of the apparent
materials
contact area.
This relationship suggests that small reductions in cutting Se\,eral mechanisms have been proposed to account for the
temperature produce marked increases in tool life or permis- ability of a cutting fluid to penetrate the system. Some
sible cutting speeds. Experience has shown this general rela- authorities suggest that the presence of small (on the order of
tionshipto be reasonable inmost areas. However, in special .0001”, 2.5 pm) crcviccs or fissures at the interface allows fluid
cases, such as so-called hot machining, this relationship does to spread by capillary action. Other authorities believe that
not apply. some cutting fluids penetrate through the metal lattice via a
not machining. In hot machining, heat is applied to the diffusion mechanism. The diffusion of cutting fluids through
workpiece by an external source to raise the temperature of the the deforming material in the primary deformation zone is not
part just ahead of the cut. In some cases, especially when used well supported by evidence, however. Another proposed
with difficult-to-machine alloys, hot machining is reported to mechanism is the volatilization of the liquid to a gas of much
increase tool life and provide improved surface finish.3 lower viscosity, allowing the gas to penetrate the cutting zones.
In one application, hot machining was shown to dramatically It has also been suggested that the cutting fluid can gain access
improve tool life in a turning operation involving 4140 steel from the flank region, but many authorities believe that the
(RC59) workplaces. (Feed: 0.008 ipr (0.20 mm/rev); depth of intimate contact at the tool tip and the opposed direction of
cut: 0.100” (2.54 mm); tool material: Carboloy 350.) At a cutting motion cast doubt on this mechanism.
speed of 200 fpm (60.9 m/ rein), tool life increased from about The most persistent alternative mechanism is the
8 min to about 23 min when the workpiece was heated from “Rehbinder effect” observed with certain surface-active addi-
600° F (3 I 5° C) to 900° F(482° C). At a cutting speed of 300 fpm tives. Although the details of the effect are not well understood,
(91.4 m/ rein), tool life increased from about 3 min to about it is believed that the surface-active species (usually chlorine)
6 min when the workplaces were heated from 600° F to 900° F. interact with the workpiece material to reduce the shear
In both cases, tool life determinations were based on 0.015“ strength in the primary deformation zone. The exact means by
(0.38 mm) flank wear of the tool. which the chlorine accomplishes the reduction of shear strength
has not yet been determined, It is possible, as some have
Cooling Mechanism suggested, that absorbed films of chlorine reaction products
The application of a suitable cutting fluid is known to reduce stabilize microcracks in the material and prevent their closure
the forces in cutting. This effect is most noticeable at low-to- during deformation. It appears also possible that the high
moderate cutting speeds, the cooling effect of the cutting fluid electronegativity of chlorine may assist dislocation motion by
being more significant at elevated cutting speeds.4 maintaining electrical neutrality at the emerging slip steps on
In order for a cutting fluid to function effectively as a the surface of the material. Further experiments are required,
coolant, two requirements must be met. The fluid must gain however, before the role of the Rehbinder effect in cutting fluids
access to the sources of heat, and the fluid must have the can bc confirmed.
thermal capability of removing the heat. The factors which The penetration of a particular fluid in a particular opera-
effect the accessibility of the fluid, however, are common to tion may actually involve more than one such process acting in
both the cooling and lubricating mechanisms. combination. Regardless of any uncertainties associated with
Fluid accessibility. Fluid accessibility depends on cutting the mechanisms of fluid penetration, it appears obvious that
geometry, severity of the operation, properties of the fluid, and fluids do penetrate, causing both a cooling and lubricating
to some extent, condition and nature of the workpiece material. action.
Metalworking, Worldwide Innochem Operations, U.S, Specialty Chemicals; Dr. Elliot S. Nachtman, Manager, Tower Oil and Technology
Co.; A. Bruce Paakh, Manager, Metalworking Products, D. A. Stuart Oil Co.; Ernest i. PiIon. Technologist, Petroleum Products Research,
Texaco Inc.; John C. Quigley, Vice President. Sales, Van Straaten Chemical Co,; Thomas J. Slattery, Manager, Press and Public Relations,
DoALL Co.; W. A. Sluhan, Vice President and General Manager, Systems Equipment Div., Master Chemical Corp.; Charles J. Smith,
Assistant Laboratories Director, Fluids Div. , Master Chemical Corp.; R. F. Sutton, Jr., Manager, Technology Coordination. Gulf Oil Co.;
J. L, Thompson, Project Manager, Lubricants, Amoco Research Center, Amoco Oil Co.; James W. Throop, Professor, Manufacturing
Processes and Materials, Mechanical Engineering Depr. . General Motors Institute; Kenneth J. Trigger, Professor of Mechanical
Engineering, Emeritus, Dept. of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Univ. of Illinois; W. C. Unangst, Senior Research Engineer:
Research Dept., Bethlehem Steel Corp.; T, M. Warne, Amoco Research Center, Amoco Oil CO,; Herman F. Weindel, Senior Engineer. Mobd
Oil Corp.; Joe H. Wright, Vice President and General Manager, Fluids Operetion, Master Chemical Corp.; Dennis Zintak, Product Manager,
Van Streaten Chemical Co.
4-3
CHAPTER 4
Heat removal and cooling properties. Temperature ture. These compounds are protective in that they inhibit
measurements of the cutting zone, although often criticized as welding which would occur with bare metal surfaces in contact.
not providing a true indication of temperature at the A variety of evidence exists to substantiate the boundary-
tool~ workpiece interface, have repeatedly shown that cutting lubrication mechanism in metalcutting. This includes reduction
fluids are effective in reducing cutting temperatures, Estimation in cutting forces and tool wear, improvements in surface finish
of interracial temperatures has been performed using a variety with the use of EP additives, and observation of the expected
of methods, including radiation pyrometers, embedded thermo- surface compounds on both tool and chip materials.
couples, temperature-sensitive paints, and indirect calorimetric Effective boundary lubrication is a matter of achieving
techniques. proper balances: (1) the fluid additive must be present in
The properties of a fluid which determine its ability to cool sufficient quantities to be effective; (2) the reactive species in the
are its thermal conductivity, specific heat, heat of vaporization, additive must be in the proper form to become available at the
and nettability with metal surfaces. Water-based fluids and metal surface; (3) the temperatures must be high enough to
dilute emulsions have a significant advantage over oil-based promote surface compound formation, but not so high as to
fluids in terms of thermal properties, since the specific heat of cause compound decomposition or melting; and (4) the sliding
water is approximately twice that of organic fluids, and since speeds must be low enough to permit time for the surface
water also has a higher thermal conductivity. Recognition and reaction to occur. Increases in cutting speeds, for example, tend
confirmation of these advantages are demonstrated by the to limit fluid accessibility, to decrease reaction times available
widespread and effective use of aqueous fluids and dilute for compound formation, and to prohibit the use of lower-
emulsions in machining operations at higher speeds. melting-point compounds. Despite these rather rigid require-
Vaporization is an efficient method of heat removal, since ments, boundary and EP lubricants are effective in a wide
relatively large amounts of thermal energy are required to variety of machining operations on many materials over a wide
transform a unit mass of liquid to the gaseous state, The range of speeds.
effectiveness of vaporization cooling in a cutting geometry is In the lighter cutting operations, boundary lubrication is
difficult to establish, however, because the tight clearances may sometimes achieved with the addition of certain fatty acids (e.g.,
promote the formation of dormant vapor blankets which would oleic acid) to the cutting fluid. The acids react at low tempera-
actually inhibit further cooling. The ability of a fluid to wet the tures with the clean metal surfaces via either physical or
metal determines the effective heat-transfer area in cooling. chemical absorption to form metal soaps. These soaps may be
Obviously, it is an advantage if the fluid has a relatively low considered a quasi-solid film lubricant with some load-carrying
surface tension so that it spreads on the metal rather than ability up to 200-300° F (93-149° C). For more severe cutting
forming beads on the surface. Many of the common additives to operations, most commercial cutting fluids employ compounds
aqueous fluids (e.g., rust inhibitors, oils, fatty acids) act to of chlorine or sulfur (e.g., chlorinated paraffins, elemental
reduce the surface tension of the fluid. Also, in metalcutting, the sulfur, or sulfurized fats) as extreme-pressure additives. Release
newly created surfaces are momentarily clean on an atomic and reaction of the active species (Cl, S) are enhanced by the
scale and, therefore, promote wetting by the cutting fluid. local conditions of high temperature and pressure. The reaction
The effectiveness and validity of the cooling mechanism products are true solid surface films that retain their effectiveness
have been demonstrated in a variety of ways. As previously to their approximate melting temperatures, which can be as
mentioned, increases in tool life have been correlated with high as 1800” F (982° C) in the case of iron sulfides. In addition
increases in the thermal capability of fluids in many instances. to fairly direct evidence of iron chloride and sulfide film
Experiments have shown also that tool life may be extended by formation on chip and workpiece material, experimental
cooling the tool internally with a circulating fluid or by cooling correlations have also been obtained between the shear strengths
the fluid (either liquids or gas) itself. In addition, cooling of these layered compounds and measured reductions in
capability is enhanced by increased penetration of the fluid, and friction forces.
high-pressure jets of both liquids and gases (e.g., nitrogen and
carbon dioxide) have been shown effective in this regard. Corrosion Protection Mechanism
Corrosion protection of the machine tool and workpiece is
Lubricating Mechanism important when machining operations employ the use of a
High pressures and temperatures in most cutting operations cutting fluid. One of the first methods used to control corrosion
suggest that it is highly unlikely that a cutting fluid can sustain a was the addition of soda ash to the cutting fluid, which
complete liquid film between the cutting tool and workpiece increased the alkalinity of the fluid and reduced the tendency to
material. Instead, the conditions in a typical metalcutting cause rust. When the use of mineral oils as cutting fluids
operation are believed to approach those at which boundary, or increased, it was found that they provided a major deterrent to
extreme-pressure (EP), lubrication can occur. In boundary rust formation—an ability to coat or wet-out on the surfaces of
lubrication, additives in the fluid react chemically with the the machine tool and workpiece to form a physical barrier to
workpiece material and tool material to form compounds on prevent chemical reaction from taking place. As machining
the metal surfaces. One theory suggests that lubrication in speeds and hardness of metals increased, straight mineral oils
cutting occurs by a reduction in severity of secondary deforma- were found lacking in that better wetting ability was needed for
tion or shear strains This process is thought to occur by two the oils to penetrate the tool/ workpiece interface. This was
interrelated mechanisms. First, the lubricant absorbs into the accomplished by the addition of polar compounds, such as fatty
chip surface and restricts the adhesion of chip material to the and vegetable oils, to form so-called emulsifiable oil cutting
tool. Second, reactive components of the fluid combine fluids (see “Types of Cutting Fluids” in this chapter).
chemically with the freshly generated metal surface of the chip Emulsifiable oils. These cutting fluids combine the cooling
to produce a film of lower shear strength than that of the chip properties of water with the lubrication properties of oil. They
material, thus reducing friction, cutting forces, and tempera- provide a friction-reducing film between the tool/ workpiece
4-4
CHAPTER 4
TYPES OF CUTTING FLUIDS
interface and conduct heat away from the interface rapidly. based cutting fluids are classified as inactive or active. Applica-
This class of fluids, as well as semi-synthetic chemical cutting tions of compounded cutting oils, whether active or inactive,
fluids which contain a small amount of mineral oil, is alkaline in are generally limited to low-speed, low-feed, chip-crowding
nature to prevent the formation of rust. Components such as conditions on difficult-to-machine metals or in form grinding
alkanolamines, petroleum-sulfonate emulsifiers, wetting agents, from the solid. High cost, danger from smoke and fire, and
and fatty acids are used to enhance the protection of the oily operator health problems generally limit application to those
film that remains upon evaporation of the water from the machines not designed to use a water-miscible cutting fluid or to
emulsion. those operations in which water-miscible fluid does not provide
The use of emulsifiable oils requires more attention than the satisfactory performance, Compounded cutting oils are
use of straight oils. Corrosion protection depends upon the generally more expensive than water-miscible fluids.
recommended in-use concentration, which should be checked Inactive cutting oils. These cutting oils are mineral oil
at regular intervals. Other factors that directly relate to the compounded with chemically inactive additives. In general,
rust-protection properties of these fluids are the quality of the they provide high lubricity and are nonstaining, but exhibit
water used for the emulsion, temperature and humidity condi- limited antiweld properties.
tions at the operation, fluid storage conditions, microbiological Straight mineral oils. The application of straight mineral oils
contamination, and the presence of extraneous materials (e.g., is restricted to very light-duty operations that do not require
hydraulic oil and way lubricants). extremely high levels of cooling and lubrication. Typical
Synthetic coolants. These fluids are defined as water- applications include operations on metals of high machinability,
extendible products that are free of oil, They offer excellent such as aluminum, magnesium, brass, and sulfurized or leaded
cooling, rust protection, hard-water compatibility, and bio- free-cutting steels. Straight mineral oils are noncorrosive and, if
logical resistance.d As with emulsifiable oils, the most important kept clean, can be used for long periods of time.
aspect of their rust-preventive characteristics is concentration Compounded cutting oils. These cutting oils are formulated
control. The most common corrosion inhibitor used in this type by blending mineral oil with polar additives and/or chemically
fluid is a combination alkanolamine/ sodium nitrite inhibitor active additives. Naphthenic-based oils or mixed naphthenic
package. This combination results in the formulation of nitro- and paraffinic oils are generally used in formulating com-
samines now thought to be harmful. Alternative systems are pounded oils because of their greater compatibility with
being developed (see “Health and Safety Aspects of Cutting additives.
Fluids and Industrial Lubricants” in this chapter). Other Common polar additives include animal and vegetable oils,
additives that give corrosion protection, although needed in derivations of castor oil, and synthetic sperm oils. Adding polar
slightly higher amounts, are berates and phosphates in combi- additives to mineral oil increases the wetting ability of the fluid
nation with alkanolamines and, more recently, organic acid and allows the fluid to penetrate the tool/ chip interface by
derivatives. reducing the interracial tension between the mineral oil and the
workpiece metal. Polar additives contribute to increasing
Chip Removal Mechanism cutting capability. The degree of refinement of the polar
In machining operations that generate large amounts of additives will vary the oxidation resistance and volubility of the
metal chips, an important function of a cutting fluid is to flush polar additive in the mineral oil. In the past, the use of polar
chips away from the cutting zone. The flushing action removes additives sometimes caused the formation of disagreeable odors
the chips from the cutting zone and keeps thcm from scratching and produced the tendency to gum. However, today most polar
the machined surfaces.7 This action is useful in deep-hole additives have been refined sufficiently to minimize these
drilling, trepanning, and gundrilling operations, in which fluid problems. Care in selection is recommended.
is used under pressure and is fed through the cutting tool to Fatty mineral oils. These compounded mineral oil based
force the chips out of the hole. In these operations, when large fluids are formulated by blending straight mineral oil with up to
amounts of fluid are required at high flow rates, proper 40~ fatt~ oils. They are generally used to improve surface finish
selection of the cutting fluid is important to avoid excessive in machming mild steel, brass, copper, or aluminum. The
foam generation which can interrupt the machining and cutting harder grades of brass and copper are often machined with fatty
fluid filtering process. mineral oil compounds when straight mineral oil cannot
provide surface finish requirements and chemically active fluids
TYPES OF CUTTING FLUIDS would cause staining of the workpiece.
Although hundreds of cutting fluids and special formulations Inactive extreme-pressure (EP) additives. Some extreme-
exist for cooling and lubricating metalcutting operations, all pressure additives are blended with mineral oil or fatty mineral
cutting fluids can be classified according to one of four types. oil blends to provide inactive cutting oil for machining applica-
Each of the four basic types—straight cutting oils, emulsifiable tions where cutting forces are particularly high. Additives such
oils, chemical fluids, and gaseous products—has distinctive as sulfur, chlorine, or phosphorus compounds react at high
features, benefits to the user, and limitations. Often the temperatures in the cutting zone to form metallic sulfides,
distinctions are not clearly identifiable, but an understanding of chlorides, and phosphides. These additives cause a film to be
the similarities and differences among the various types of developed on the tool surface to provide antiweld properties
cutting fluids is necessary to obtain optimum cutting fluid that minimize the built-up edge. Fatty mineral oil blends that
performance through proper fluid selection. are sulfurized may have sulfur added in a strongly bonded form
that may be totally nonstaining.
Cutting Oils Active cutting oils. Active cutting oils contain sulfur,
Cutting oils are made from mineral oil and may be used chlorine, and/ or phosphorus in an active form blended with
straight (uncompounded) or compounded—combined with mineral oil or fatty mineral oil blends. These chemical additives,
polar additives and/ or chemically active additives. Mineral oil extreme-pressure lubricants, provide a tough, stable film of
4-5
CHAPTER 4
TYPES OF CUTTING FLUIDS
lubrication at the tool/chip interface. They are particularly performed on a routine basis.
useful in extending tool life in high-temperature and high- Traditio~ally, Lubricating properties of emulsifiable oils
-pressure applications, Active cutting oils include sulfurized were not sufficient for severe grinding operations such as form,
mineral oil, phosphorized mineral oil, sulfa-chlorinated mineral thread, and crush grinding in which wheel form was the key
oil, and sulfa-chlorinated fatty oil blends. Many chemical- factor. Today, however, heavy-duty emulsifiable oils are used in
active cutting oils may stain certain metals. many of these applications. Emulsifiable oils also are subject to
Sulfur additives. Sulfurized mineral oil is more active at foam problems in high-agitation or turbulent operations, such
lower cutting temperatures. It may stain aluminum, copper, as gundrilling and double-disc grinding. However, with the
brass, bronze, and magnesium alloys. Nonferrous metals and incorporation of special wetting agents and foam depressants,
steels are less likely to be stained by sulfurized fatty oil because foam in emulsifiable oils can be controlled in most operations.
the fluid does not release sulfur as readily. Cutting oils that Emulsifiable oils can be applied in practically all light and
contain sulfur additives form metallic sulfide films which act as moderate and some heavy-duty cutting operations except those
solid lubricants at temperatures up to 1300° F (700° C). involving extremely difficult-to-machine metals. Practically all
Ch/cn-irreadditives. Chlorine is generally more reactive than grinding operations can be performed with emulsifiable oils
sulfur, but it functions in about the same manner as sulfur when except some form-grinding and the various dry-grinding
added to mineral or fatty oil blends. Inhibiting ingredients are operations.
added to minimize corrosion of ferrous workplaces. Chemical Emulsifiable mineral oils. The most widely used of the
reactions caused by the presence of chlorine occur at the emulsifiable oils, emulsifiable mineral oils are light mineral oils
tool/ chip interface where temperatures are high. The iron made emulsifiable with water through the introduction of
chloride film, which is formed when the chloride reacts with petroleum sulfonates, amine fatty acids, etc. For normal cutting
ferrous workplaces or HSS tools, has a low shear strength and applications, emulsifiable mineral oils provide adequate lubri-
reduces friction at temperatures up to about 750° F (400° C). city. Usually oii/ water dilutions are about 1:20.
Above this temperature, the film decomposes. Nonferrous Super-fatted emulsifiable oils are similar to emulsifiable
alloys usually are not stained by chlorinated oils, mineral oils except they have added fatty oils. The suppliers of
When sulfur and chlorine are combined in a cutting oil, EP cutting fluids provide emulsifiable oils as concentrates that the
characteristics and anti weld properties are provided over a wide user prepares by mixing with water. Oil/water ratios can range
range of cutting temperatures. from I:5 to 1:100. Smaller concentrations are used in lighter
Phosphorus additives. When phosphorus is added to cutting machining operations and when cooling is the major objective.
oil, it provides friction and wear-reducing characteristics. Higher concentrations are used when increased rust-prevention
Generally, the effects of phosphorus are less dramatic than the and lubricating properties are required.
effects of sulfur or chlorine, but phosphorus will usually not The fatty oils allow the fluid to be used in more demanding
stain ferrous or nonferrous workplaces. Some phosphorus applications, Typical oil/ water dilution is 1:5 to 1:20.
additives provide a synergistic improvement in cutting perfor- Extreme-pressure (EP) emulsifiable oils. Sometimes called
mance. Some phosphorus containing polymers are added to heavy-duty soluble oils, these oil emulsions contain sulfur,
cutting oils as mist suppressants, chlorine, or phosphorus and fatty oils to provide lubricity for
heavier machining operations. EP emulsifiable oils typically are
Emulsifiable Oils mixed in an oil/~ater ratio of 1:5 to 1:20.
Emulsifiable oils, commonly called soluble oils, water- In some broaching, gear bobbing, shaving, and shaping
miscible fluids, or emulsifiable cutting fluids, are oil droplets operations, EP emulsifiable oils have replaced mineral oil
suspended in water by blending the oil with emulsifying agents fluids.
and other materials. The addition of polar additives and/or EP
additives produces emulsions of greater lubricating value. Chemical and Semichemical Fluids
Emulsifiable oils form mixtures ranging in appearance from Chemical or synthetic fluids are generally defined as cutting
milky to translucent and provide the combined cooling and fluids containing no petroleum oil. They may form clear
lubrication required by metal-removal operations conducted at solutions, collodial dispersions, or translucent or milky
high speeds and low pressures with considerable heat generated. emulsions.
They are available in many forms and variations. The normal True-solution fluids. Chemical cutting fluids without wetting
emulsified oil contains emulsion particles large enough to agents are often called true solutions. They provide excellent
reflect incident light and therefore appears milky. rust control, but little or no lubricity. These fluids are usually
Emulsifiable oils offer the following advantages over straight used at 1:50 to 1:100 ratios; they are generally clear in
cutting oil: appearance, but may be dyed to indicate their presence in water.
True solutions may leave residue of crystalline or gummy
1. Greater reduction of heat, allowing higher cutting speeds
deposits. When seiecting a true solution fluid, it is usually best
in some applications.
to request specific information from the supplier regarding fluid
2. Potentially cleaner working conditions.
residue or to perform in-plant residue studies (see “Maintenance
3. More economical—dilution with water brings application
of Cutting Fluids” in this chapter). In some cases, true solution
costs down.
chemicals are added to emulsifiable oils or other chemical fluids
4. Better operator acceptance—cooler, cleaner parts.
to enhance corrosion protection.
5. improved health and safety benefits-no fire hazard, and
Surface-active chemical fluids. These fluids are fine colloidal
reduction of oil misting and fogging (hydrocarbon
solutions of organic and inorganic materials dissolved in water.
emissions).
Wetting agents added to the solution provide moderate lubricity.
Generally, in-process rust controI and rancidity control are These fluids have low surface-tension and good rust-inhibiting
satisfactory when fluid maintenance of emulsifiable oil is properties and usually leave a powdery residue upon drying.
4-6
CHAPTER 4
SELECTION OF CUlllNG FLUIDS
The lubricating qualities of chemical cutting fluids with wetting would be removed by natural convection. In addition,
agents are sufficient to allow machine slides, turrets, and other compressed air can be used to blow chips away. (Safety must be
moving parts to function smoothly. They are typically mixed in considered.)
ratios of I :10 to 1:40. Other gases such as argon, helium, and nitrogen have been
For rougher machining operations, EP surface active used to prevent the oxidation of workpiece and chip, but their
chemical fluids are used. These fluids contain sulfur, chlorine, high cost generally makes them uneconomical in production
or phosphorus to provide EP properties and are typically mixed except in very special applications. Gases with boiling points
at ratios of 1:5 to 1:30. As with true-solution fluids, prior to below room temperature, such as carbon dioxide, can be
selecting the surface-active chemical fluid, specific information compressed and sprayed at the cutting zone to give evaporative
pertaining to residue should be requested from the supplier or cooling to temperatures well below 0’ F (-18° C).
in-plant residue studies should be performed.
Semichemical fluids. Semichemical or semisynthetic fluids, SELECTION OF CUTTING FLUIDS
unlike true-solution fluids, contain a small amount of mineral The proper selection of cutting fluids is a factor that,
oil (about 5-30% of the base fluid) plus additives to enhance unfortunately, is sometimes neglected in machining practice.
lubricating properties. These products are gaining favor in Considerable effort is usually put forth in choosing the correct
industry today because they incorporate the best qualities of tooling, workpiece stock, and machining parameters; yet too
both chemical fluid and emulsified oils. often, only a cursory review of existing cutting fluid technology
Advantages and disadvantages of chemical and semi- is completed in selecting an appropriate cutting fluid.
chemical fluids. Both chemical and semichemical fluids are Realistically, and more practically, cutting fluids should be
available containing chlorine, sulfur, or other additives which considered an integral part of the material removal process in
afford extreme-pressure or boundary lubrication effects. that proper selection and use of cutting fluids can significantly
Because of these additives, chemical or semichemical fluids can affect overall production costs. In addition to the obvious
be used on some of the more difficult machining and grinding impact on tool life, other factors which cutting fluids can
applications. The concentration of additives may vary from influence include:
2-10%,
In general, the chemical and semichemical fluids offer the 1. Machining time per part.
following advantages: 2. Number of rejects resulting from unacceptable surface
finish and dimensional out-of-tolerance parts.
1. Rapid heat dissipation and good size control. 3. Machine downtime resulting from tool changes and
2. A high degree of cleanliness resulting in clean machine- maintenance.
tool surfaces and clean coolant troughs. 4. Cutting fluid consumption per part.
3. Very light residual films that are easy to remove. 5. Cutting fluid batch life.
4. Ease of mixing, with very little agitation necessary. 6. Cutting fluid disposal or recycling costs.
5. Relatively easy concentration control, with less inter-
ference from tramp oils. Satisfactory performance of a particular cutting fluid in a
Chemical and semichemical fluids can be formulated to specific application is usually a trade-off among various
provide very good wet “contact” corrosion control and to functions and attributes of the cutting fluids (see “Functions of
exhibit relatively good protection from overall atmospheric Cutting Fluids” in this chapter). Some of these functions and
corrosion. attributes are:
The disadvantages sometimes encountered with chemical
and semichemical fluids are: 1. Lubricating the tool and chip to reduce heat of friction,
tool wear, and power consumption.
1. Some lack of lubricity (in chemical fluids without wetting 2. Flushing away chips.
agents) that may cause sticking in the moving parts of 3. Providing antiweld properties to the tool and work
machine tools. surfaces.
2. High detergency, which may irritate sensitive hands when 4. Cooling the workpiece to minimize heat distortion.
operator exposure is continual for long periods of time 5. Protecting the tools and finished work from the effects
(may be formulated to minimize this effect). of corrosion.
3. Tendency to foam in high-agitation operations (may be 6, Preventing the workpiece from becoming discolored.
formulated to minimize this effect). 7. Minimizing smoking and fogging.
4. Some disposal problems. At this time, no cost-effective 8. Maintaining an acceptable odor.
technique is available to remove the inorganic and 9. Remaining stable over the required use period. In the
organic, highly soluble, chemical complexes from the case of water-soluble products, they should tolerate
water phase of synthetic and semisynthetic compounds. varied levels of water hardness, as well as contaminants,
especially tramp oil.
Gaseous Fluids 10. Maintaining acceptable toxicity levels.
Air is the most commonly used gaseous cutting fluid. It is the 11. Producing no residual contamination of the workpiece
sole fluid constituent in dry cutting and is also present, of that could negatively affect the part in service.
course, when liquid fluids are used. The cooling and lubricating 12. Having no adverse effect on painted or machined surfaces
action of air is taken for granted because it is always present. of the machine tool.
Air can also be used as a compressed gas to provide better 13. Being compatible with the type of filtration system
cooling. A stream of compressed “shop air” directed at the utilized or able to settle fines when no filtration is
cutting zone removes more heat by forced convection than present.
4-7
CHAPTER 4
SELECTION OF CUTTING FLUIDS
Economic Evaluation of Cutting Fluids production variables. Thus, realistic economic comparisons
When determining the economics of using various cutting require a somewhat detailed cost/performance analysis that
fluids, the judgment is often made by comparing the per-gallon includes primary and secondary in-plant costs. Further, to
cutting fluid costs as supplied, rather than the cost per mixed achieve maximum production economics, industry trends
gallon, which is a truer measure of the cost, As previously appear to be in the direction of cutting fluids having greater
illustrated, cutting fluid performance generally affects several versatility, higher performance, and longer life. The higher unit
TABLE 4-1
Cutting and Grinding Fluid Justification-Cost Work Sheet
Fluid Type O~eration

Associated Direct Costs: Associated Indirect Costs:
Al. Price/ Gal H 1. System Capacity, Gal
+A2. Taxes/ Gal XH2. Mix Cost/Gal
+A3. Inv & Hdlg/Gal ❑ Jl, Cost of Initial Charge
❑ BI, Total Cost/ Gal
XB2. Gal Used/ Shift +J2. Labor to Charge
= C. Makeup/Shift ($) +J3. Labor to Clean
+J4. Cleaner Cost
D 1. Gal Water/ Shift +J5. Cost to Dispose Used Fluid
X D2. Cost of Water/ Gal = K, Cost of System Recharge
= E. Cost of Water/ Shift
L1. Maintenance Additives During Life
F. Units Production/ Shift +L2. Labor for Additives
G. Associated Direct Cost/ Unit +L3. Lab Control Labor/ Tank Life
(C+ E):F +L4. Mech. Maintenance of System/Tank Life
= M. Control Maintenance Cost/ Tank Life
N. Tank Life
P. Units Production/ Tank Life
Q. Associated Indirect Cost/ Unit
(K+ M):P
Affected Direct Costs: Affected Indirect Costs:

RI. Initial Tool Cost VI. Raw Material Cost/ Unit
R2. Reconditioning Cost V2. Direct Labor Cost/ Unit
Resharpening V3. Machine Cost/ Unit
Diamond Dressing (Depreciation + Interest)
R3. No. of Recond. /Tool V4, Machine Maintenance/ Unit
S. Total Tool Cost V5. Size Tooling Cost/ Unit
RI + (R2 X R3) V6. Scrap Cost/ Unit
Tl, Units Production/ Recond. V7. Rework Cost/ Unit
T2. Units Production/Tool w. Affected Indirect Cost/ Unit
U. Affected Direct Cost/ Unit (V1+V2+V3+V4+
(S : T2) V5 + V6 + V7)
Summary
Associated Costs Affected Costs
Direct (G) (u)
Indirect (Q) (w)
Total
Total Manufacturing Cost per Unit
4-8
CHAPTER 4
cost of these “heavy-duty” cutting fluids is, in many cases, chemically lubricate the area, or a combination of the two,
justified by significant gains in overall production economics. depending upon the operation.
In the evaluation of a cutting fluid, manufacturing costs can Carbide tooling. Carbide and coated carbide tools are also
be separated into two principal categories: (1) costs associated compatible with the various cutting fluids. For a period of time,
with the cutting and/ or grinding fluid itself and (2) costs some question existed as to possible carbide corrosion and
affected by use of the fluid. A breakdown of these categories, as reduced tool life resulting from the use of many cutting fluids.
illustrated in the cost worksheet provided in Table 4-1, can Improvements in both carbide and cutting fluid technologies
facilitate determining direct and indirect costs.g appear to have eliminated this problem.
In cases in which the influence of the costs is great, it is In general, carbide tooling is operated at higher temperatures
possible to make a rough estimate of the savings without the than HSS tooling. Fluids that have high cooling rates due to the
complete cost analysis illustrated in Table 4-1. In all cases, the presence of water are often used in carbide tooling. Carbide is,
effect of the fluid on the cost of manufacturing should also however, sensitive to thermal shock; rapid thermal cycling can
include its effect on the cost of tools, downtime, etc. cause early tool failure due to cracking and chipping. This can
be minimized by the following actions:
Cutting Fluid Classifications
Although many methods exist for classifying cutting fluids, 1, Starting full coolant flow before cutting is initiated.
the following method serves as a practical selection guide, with 2, Continuing coolant flow fora brief period after cutting is
the fluids classified under two basic types: straight oil cutting completed.
fluids and cutting fluids mixed with water. 3. Using oil-based cutting fluids, which have lower heat
Straight oil cutting fluids. The four major classifications of transfer properties, when intermittent applications of
straight oil cutting fluids are: cutting fluid are necessary.
1. General purpose, oil-based, nonstaining (GPO-NS)— In situations in which mixed tooling (HSS and carbide) is
some lubricity and antiweld performance. Sulfur addi- used, overall tool life can generally be maximized by the use of
tives, if included, are nonstaining to copper and copper oil or a high-quality synthetic cutting fluid, thus providing the
alloys. maximum available lubricity required by the high-speed steel
2. General purpose, oil-based, staining (GPO-S)—similar tooling.
to GPO-NS, but containing sulfur in active form resulting Ceramic tooling. Just as in carbide tooling, care must be
in staining to copper and copper alloys. exercised to avoid mechanical and thermal shocks or stresses
3. Heavy-duty, oil-based, nonstaining (HDO-NS)—high when using this tooling. Machining with ceramics is usually
degree of lubricity and antiweld performance. Sulfur, done without cutting fluids.
when present, is nonstaining to copper and copper alloys. Diamond tooling. Diamond tools are used for the machining
4. Heavv-dutv. oil-based. stainitre (H DO-S) —similar to of carbide, ceramic, and other abrasive or nonferrous material.
HDO”-NS products, but contain~ng sulfur i’n active form A cutting fluid, usually a water-soluble type, is used to cool the
which will stain copper and copper alloys. tool and keep it free of chips.
Cutting fluids mixed with water. The following major Metallurgical/Cutting Fluid Compatibility
classifications of cutting fluids are mixed with water: The effects of residual films of cutting lubricants on the
metallurgical integrity of metallic parts operating under condi-
1. General purpose soluble oil (GPS)—emulsifiable oils
tions of high stress and temperature have become a highly
exhibiting limited lubricity and EP performance.
controversial issue in recent years, especially among producers
2. Heavy-duty soluble oil (HDS)—similar to GPS, but
of aerospace and nuclear products, This concern has been
providing high levels of lubricity and EP performance,
generated primarily as a result of laboratory and service failures
Some of these products may also contain corrosion
of critical components, which have been attributed to stress-
inhibitors and brocides.
corrosion cracking and intergranular corrosion. In general,
3. General purpose aqueous coolants (GPAC)—chemical
failure analyses of components and laboratory simulation
fluids generally exhibiting wetting, lubricating, and
studies have associated these failures with the presence of
corrosion-controlling properties.
chloride (and possibly other ions of the halogen family), as well
4. Heavy-duty aqueous coolants (H DAC)—chemical fluids
as sulfide ions and some organic solvents.
exhibiting enhanced lubricity and EP properties, and
semisynthetic fluids having a much lower oil content than Cleaning procedures can be established to remove all traces
soluble oils. These semisynthetic (or preformed chemical of metalworking fluids from surfaces of machined parts that do
emulsion) products exhibit both chemical and physical not contain internal recesses or crevices in which fluids can be
lubrication properties. trapped. For very critical components which cannot be
thoroughly cleaned, or when a doubt exists as to the possible
Tool Material/Cutting Fluid Compatibility effect of residual contamination, or when total procedure
To obtain optimum cutting fluid performance, the fluid compliance may be too uncertain or costly, the only reliable
must be matched with not only the workpiece material, but also approach is to perform simulated service testing of the part
the tooling material. The following sections highlight the material by subjecting it to fluid being considered for use during
compatibility of cutting fluids with various tool materials. processing.
High-speed steel tooling. In general, most cutting fluids are Staining. Although active sulfur in cutting fluids offers
compatible with high-speed steel (HSS) tooling. However, tool enhanced machining capability, it can cause staining on copper,
wear is usually minimized when tool/chip friction is low. A low brass, bronze and other nonferrous alloys containing high
level of friction can be maintained with the use of oil-based percentages of copper. In cases in which this copper-sulfide
fluids to physically lubricate the area, synthetic-type fluids to stain is undesirable, nonstaining (by definition) cutting fluids
4-9
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CHAPTER 4
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CHAPTER 4
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4-12
CHAPTER 4
APPLICATION OF CUTTING FLUIDS
should be used, Many nonstaining types of cutting fluids may grinding conditions usually require that the fluid be flooded
contain sulfur in a form having lower activity. These products around the cutting area so that the heat generated by the
are widely used with excellent success for machining copper and deformation of the metal is efficiently removed.
copper containing alloys. It is generally accepted that continuous application of a
Corrosion. Much machining of cast iron is done utilizing cutting fluid is preferable to intermittent application. Sporadic
soluble oils and aqueous coolants. Occasionally, corrosion or fluid applications cause thermal cycling, which leads to the
rusting is encountered. In some cases, this may be the result of formation and propagation of microcracks in hard and relatively
inherent, marginal, rust-inhibition properties of a particular brittle tool materials, such as carbides and high-speed steels. In
cutting fluid at the high dilution ratios often used. A second addition to shortened tool life, intermittent fluid application
possibility, often overlooked, is microbial action on the working can also lead to irregular surface finish due to expansion and
cutting fluid system wherein rust inhibitors and other compo- contraction of the workpiece.
nents are degraded. At the same time, microbial metabolic A secondary and sometimes overlooked advantage of proper
processes can release corrosive electrolytes into the cutting fluid fluid application is the efficient removal of chips. This can also
system. This is detected by a marked pH drop in tbe fluid mix. aid in prolonging tool life, since properly placed fluid nozzles
Premium cutting fluids contain biocides to inhibit the growth of can prevent blockage or packing of the chips in the flutes of
bacteria and mold. A third cause of corrosion, as well as other milling cutters and drills. Proper fluid flow will also prevent
performance problems, can result from using the fluid at a chips from building up in areas of moving machine parts.
much leaner dilution than recommended by the manufacturer. Proper machine design will allow for fluid flow to continuously
Cutting fluids for magnesium. Magnesium and its alloys, wash these sensitive areas.
while generally easy to machine, are highly reactive to water.
Under machining conditions, the exposure of magnesium can Manual Application
result in fire; consequently, water-based cutting fluids and Cutting fluids, pastes, and solid lubricants are often manually
soluble oils should never be used for machining magnesium or applied in small jobs, or in one-of-a-kind operations, simply
its alloys. The use of a low-to-medium viscosity, nonstaining, because this is the easiest and least expensive method of fluid
mineral-oil type of cutting fluid, flooded into the cutting zone to delivery. The disadvantages of manual application, however,
minimize heat buildup, can be expected to provide safe and generally preclude its use in larger scale or production oper-
efficient machining conditions. ations. These disadvantages include intermittent application of
Cutting fluids for refractories and ceramics. Cutting fluids the fluid, poor chip removal, and probably most important,
for machining refractories and ceramics serve essentially as limited accessibility to the cutting zone. The operator who
coolant and grit-removal media. Water-based fluids satisfy applies oil with a brush on a small turning or milling job, for
these requirements. In cases in which the workpiece is somewhat example, usually can reach only the outer surface of the chip;
porous and residual contamination by the cutting fluid cannot thus, the fluid seldom fully penetrates to the area of the cut. In
be tolerated, machining should be done dry or with water alone. drilling at low-to-moderate speeds, the situation is somewhat
Cutting fluids for plastics. Because of their sensitivity to improved. If the drill is retracted frequently, the fluid can gain
heat, most plastics require machining conditions which minimize access to the cutting zone. Similarly, in tapping if the fluid is
heat buildup. This is best accomplished by using water-based brushed onto the tap, cutting forces (and the number of broken
fluids. Workpiece surface finish can generally be improved taps) can be reduced. In recent years, pressurized aerosol
when the cutting fluid provides some degree of lubricity. dispersants and foams that cling to the tool and workpiece have
Soluble oils offer a good balance of cooling and lubricity. Since increased in use.
plastics vary in their resistance to oil, the effect of oil on the
specific plastic should be determined during the cutting fluid Flood Application
selection process. The most common method of !luid application is that of
Cutting fluid recommendations. Table 4-2 presents cutting flooding the tool, workpiece. and cutting zone. Flood applica-
fluid recommendations for some of the more common workpiece tion of cutting fluids permits a continuous flow of the fluid to
material/ machining operation combinations. Cutting fluid the cutting zone and is most efficient in chip removal. A low-
recommendations categorized by brand name and supplier are pressure pump delivers the cutting fluid through piping and
available in the Machining Da/a Handbook. 10This information valves to a nozzle situated near the cutting zone. When an
can also be found in the article “Cutting and Grinding Fluid operation has its own cutting fluid sump, the used fluid drains
Sources” in A4anujacruring Engineering. 11 Grinding fluid over various machine components, collects in the chip pan, and
recommendations are available in Chapter 11 of this volume. It returns by gravity to the sump where it passes through a filtering
is important to remember that regardless of the cutting fluid element. Then the fluid flows into the clean side of the sump
selected, proper application, control, and maintenance are where it is pumped back to the metal-removal operation, The
necessary to achieve optimum performance. volume of the sump must be large enough to allow the cutting
fluid to cool and to allow fine swarf to settle before the cutting
APPLICATION OF CUTTING FLUIDS fluid is pumped back to the operation. Sumps for individual
The proper application of cutting fluids is, unfortunately, machines may require capacities ranging from 5 to 50 gal ( 19 to
sometimes neglected in machining practice. It is obvious, 190 L) or more depending upon the operation,
however, that even the best fluid cannot perform its function In central-system operations, the cutting fluid from a
unless it is effectively delivered to the cutting zone. Thus, a fluid number of machines flows to a central filtering area where it is
chosen for its lubricating qualities must be directed so that it can cleansed and returned to the individual machines (see “Filtration
form a film at the sliding surfaces, and a fluid used for cooling of Cutting Fluids” in this chapter).
must gain reasonable access to the cutting edge of the tool (see The effectiveness of flooding is sensitive to the geometry of
“Functions of Cutting Fluids” in this chapter). Machining and the application. Care should be taken, for example, in the
4-13
CHAPTER 4
APPLICATION OF CUTTING FLUIDS
TABLE 4-3
Cutting Fluid Flow Recommendations
Operation Fluid Flow

Turning 5 gpm (19 L/rein)/ tool
Screw Machining
1 in. (25 mm) diam 35 gpm (132 L/rein)
Milling
Small cutters 5 gpm (19 L/rein)/ tool
Large cutters Up to 60 gpm (227 L/min)/tool
Drilling, Reaming
1 in. (25 mm) diam 2-3 gpm (7.6-11 L/rein)
Drilling, Large 2-3 gpm x diam, in.
(0.3-0.43 L/rein x diam, mm)
Gundrilling
External chip removal type
0.18-0.37 in. (4.6-9.4 mm) diam 2-6 gpm (7.6-23 L/rein)
0.37-0.75 in. (9.4-19 mm) diam 5-17 gpm (19-64 L/rein)
0.75-1.25 in. (19-32 mm) diam 10-40 gpm (38-151 L/rein)
Internal chip removal type
0.31-0.37 in. (7.9-9.4 mm) diam 5-8 gpm (19-30 L/rein)
0.37-0.75 in. (9.4-19 mm) diam 8-26 gpm (30-98 L/rein)
Trepanning
External chip removal heads
2-3.5 in. (51-89 mm) diam 8-48 gpm (30-182 L/rein)
3.5-6 in. (89-152 mm) diam 16-80 gpm (6 I-303 L/rein)
6-8 in. (152-203 mm) diam 32-104 gpm (121-394 L/rein)
Internal chip removal heads
2.37-6 in. (60-152 mm) diam 110-215 gpm (416-814 L/rein)
6-12 in. (152-305 mm) diam 215-340 gpm (8 14-1.287 L/rein)
12-18 in. (305-457 mm) diam 340-460 gpm (1287-1741 L/ rein)
18-24 in. (457-610 mm) diam 460-570 gpm (1741-2158 L/rein)
Honing
Small 3 gpm (11 L/rein)/ hole
Large 5 gpm (I9 L/min)/hole
Broaching
Small 10 gal (38 L)/stroke
Large 3 gal/ stroke x length of cut in
in. (0.45 L/stroke x length
of cut in mm)
Centerless grinding
Small 20 gpm (76 L/rein)
Large 40 gpm (151 L/ rein)
Other grinding 5 gpm/ in. of wheel width

(0.75 L/ rein/mm of wheel width)
orientation of the nozzles so that the cutting fluid is not small holes on the inside diameter, is used to flood the tool
misdirected from the cutting zone of a rotating workpiece by circumferentially in broaching and face-milling operations.
centrifugal force, Frequently, two nozzles are used in a single Although standard nozzles with round orifices are effective
operation; one is directed into the cutting zone, and the other is with most narrow cutters, a fan-shaped nozzle provides a better
used for both auxiliary cooling and chip removal. Occasionally, fluid distribution when wider cutters are used. The primary
a ring distributor, in the form of a circular tube with a series of fluid flow must be directed to the tool so that the chip is
4-14
CHAPTER 4
FILTRATION OF CUTTING FLUIDS
sufficiently cooled. Some authorities believe that insufficient tube that is immersed in the fluid. A partial vacuum is created,
cooling of the formed metallic chip is the greatest single cause of and the fluid is drawn up the tube to become entrained in the
tool wear and tool failure in metalcutting operations. Table 4-3 airstream. The direct-pressure type uses either pressurized
presents typical cutting fluid flow requirements for various bottled gas or the shop air line to force the fluid into the
machining operations. 12 airstream.
Turning and boring. The cutting fluid in turning and boring
operations should be directed at the cutting zone. An empirical Special Application Methods
rule developed for the operation of lathe-type tools is that the Both chilled cutting fluids and highly pressurized bottled gas
inside diameter of the cutting fluid supply nozzle should be at have been shown effective in increasing tool life in some
least 75% of the width of the cutting tool. The fluid should applications. These techniques are somewhat more exotic than
competely envelop the portion of the tool producing the chip. conventional fluid application methods and, particularly in the
A second nozzle is often desirable in operations involving case of low-temperature fluids, may not prove economically
heavy-duty turning and boring. The second nozzle should justifiable. Chilled fluids require, for example, the use of well-
provide fluid along the flank of the tool to aid in lubrication at insulated piping and specially designed low-temperature pumps
slower cutting speeds. and valves. In addition, the operator must be aware of the
Drilling. Conventional flooding in drilling operations is hazard in handling the cooled workpiece, tool, and fluid
sometimes ineffective because of the pumping action of the plumbing. When pressurized gas is used, the gas is allowed to
spiral flutes, which tend to remove the fluid from the cutting expand through a nozzle in the region of the cutting zone. The
zone. However, maximum flooding effectiveness in drilling expansion process cools the gas to temperatures below -100° F
operations can be achieved by increasing pump pressure and (-73° C). The same insulation and operator protection required
aligning the fluid with the axis of the drill, rather than aligning for chilled fluids is required when pressurized gas is used.
the fluid flow at an obtuse angle.
Problems of fluid flow in deep-hole drilling have been FILTRATION OF CUTTING FLUIDS
diminished through the use of oil-groove, oil-hole, or oil-tube During machining operations, cutting and grinding fluids
drills. With oil-hole drills, the fluid, under pressure of about can become contaminated rapidly by chips; swarf such as
50-100 psi (345-690 kPa), is forced directly into the cutting zone grinding fines, abrasive grains, and bonding material; tramp oil
through a fluid passage running down the body of the drill. from lubricating and hydraulic systems; and organic wastes
Generally, oil-hole cooling gives better tool life at higher speeds such as food particles, rags, paper, gum, and tobacco. If these
than flood cooling. contaminants are not effectively removed, fluid life decreases,
Gundrilling. High-pressure fluid delivery systems are used in fluid performance diminishes, and costs increase. This section
operations such as gundrilling and trepanning. In these systems, describes the various methods that are used to “clean” cutting
fluids are applied at pressures ranging from 100 to 200 psi (690 fluids and thereby alleviate these problems. IS Many of the
to 13790 kPa). systems described in this section are applicable to both cutting
Milling. Two fluid nozzles should be used in most milling and grinding operations. However, systems and filtration
operations. One nozzle should be directed at the cutting zone; concepts peculiar to grinding operations are covered in Chapter
the other nozzle should be positioned to wash away chips. In 11 of this volume.
most cases, standard nozzles with round orifices are sufficient,
but when large-diameter cutters are used, a fan-shaped nozzle at Clarity Requirements
least 75% of the width of the cutter should be employed. Ring- An important factor influencing the selection of cutting fluid
type distributors often are effective in face-milling operations. cleaning systems is the degree of fluid cleanliness actually
required for a specific application, especially since this degree
Mist Application has a major effect on cleaning costs. Other major factors include
In addition to manual application and flooding, cutting the type of fluid; and the fluid’s viscosity, temperature, pressure,
fluids may also be applied in the form of an air-carried mist, flow rate, and compatibility with the cleaning medium; the
Mist application is best suited to operations in which the cutting kind, concentration, and size of contaminants; the tramp-oil
speed is high and the areas of cut are low, as in end milling. Mist level; the microbiological content; the type of operation and
application provides better tool life than dry cutting; provides a machine, including chip or swarf and fluid movements; and the
means of cooling and lubricating in cases in which flood material being machined. Other considerations include initial
application is impractical; provides a means of applying fluids installation, operation, and maintenance costs; floor-space
in otherwise inaccessible areas; and provides better visibility to requirements; existing downtime and cost for toolchanging,
the cutting zone. sump cleaning, coolant dumping; and production losses through
The primary disadvantage of mist application of fluids is the rejects.
possibility of inhalation of the fluid droplets by the operator Determining the minimum amount and size of contaminants
and co-workers. The inhalation problem can be minimized by that must be removed for satisfactory operation is difficult, yet
good ventilation. including the use of fans to blow the mist away important, because higher fluid clarity generally means higher
from personnel. In continuous applications, the problem can be cost. Removal of every particle from a fluid is rare and can only
minimized by the use of special mist collectors placed near the be accomplished with costly methods such as microfiltration,
cutting zone. Another disadvantage of mist application is that ultrafiltration, or reverse osmosis (R/O). Some fluid cleaning
the nozzles are somewhat prone to clogging, necessitating techniques may clean the fluid, but produce secondary adverse
periodic cleaning. effects. For most manufacturing operations, removing only a
Two types of mist generators are normally used—the portion of particles of a given size or mass is generally
aspirator type and the direct-pressure type. The aspirator type satisfactory.
consists of a stream of air that is blown over the open end of a Cleanliness of fluids can be measured in several ways,
4-15
CHAPTER 4
including percent-by-weight, percent-by-size, parts-per-million difficult-to-remove coolant and chip guards should be
(pPm), and percentage of particles removed. Percent-by-weight avoided to minimize complications during the cleaning
is the ratio of the weight of contaminants to the total weight of process, particularly on vertical turret lathes.
contaminants and fluid. Percent-by-size is the ratio of removed 4. All exterior machine surfaces in contact with coolant
particles of specific sizes to particles of the same sizes in the flow should be smooth and free of depressions or other
fluid. Parts-per-million is a unitless comparative value of “dead” spots that allow the coolant to stagnate; surfaces
weight or volume of particles per weight or volume of fluid, should be sufficiently sloped to promote the washing of
Efficiency of the cleaning system’s separation or retention is chips or grinding swarf to the coolant reservoir.
generally given as a percentage of particles removed. Some 5. All channels or troughs used to return coolant should
manufacturers specify a percentage removal figure and a be free of turns sharper than 45°; coolant supply lines
micron rating. For example, a 90Y0, 10-micron filter is designed should be made from ungalvanized black iron pipe.
to retain 90’?ZO of the particles that are 10 microns or larger in 6. For those machines equipped with chip conveyors,
size. One micron (micrometer or pm) equals 0.001 mm or installation should be designed for ease of removal to
0.0000394”. facilitate cleaning.
No accepted standard is available for such rating systems, 7. For those machines not equipped with conveyors, an
and no one measurement can be employed as a reliable means alternate mode of readily separating and removing the
for selecting cleaning equipment to be used with a specific chips from the coolant reservoir is desirable. Here, the
application. fluid system should be equipped with some type of
In some cases, the quantity of particles in a fluid may be separator, trap, or filter to prevent buildup of chips in
critical; and in others, the size of particles. For most machining the reservoir.
operations filtration to 25 microns (0.001”) is sufficient. For 8. Recommended coolant pump capacity is as follows:
more demanding operations, such as grinding, honing, lapping, a. For general purpose machining and grinding
and deep-hole drilling in which high-quality work is more operations, gal/ min ❑ machining hp; (L/ min ❑
dependent on the removal of fine swarf and abrasive particles, [5.073] X kW).
finer filtration may be required. b. For high-production machining and grinding oper-
ations, gal/ rein= (2 to 4) x(machininghp); (L/ rein=
[10 to 20] X kW).
Machine Tool Design and Installation
9. Recommended reservoir capacity is m follows:
Recommendations
a. For general purpose machining and grinding
The following recommended guidelines were developed by
operations,
the Metalworking Fluids Division of the SME Technical 1) Grinding: tank volume= gal/rein x 10; (L/minx
Council. 14These guidelines provide suggested approaches for 38).
machine design and installation to help control cutting fluid 2) Machining cast iron and aluminum: tank volume
contaminants and simplify the cleaning of machine tool
❑ gal/minx 7; (L/ min x 26).
reservoirs (see’’ Maintenance of Cutting Fluids” in this chapter). 3) Machining steel: tank volume ❑ gal/ min x 5;
1. When possible, external coolant tanks should be used, (L/ minx 19).
rather than reservoirs in the machine base, to allow b. For high stock-removal machining and grinding
proper sizing, facilitate cleaning, and simplify the operations, tank volume= gal/ min x 10 to gal/minx
removal of chips. Machine tools should not be installed 20; (L/ min x 38 to L/ min x 76).
in shallow pans (as a substitute for a reservoir), because 10. Machine gear boxes and servomechanisms should be
the cutting fluid will be subject to many forms of designed to prevent entry of fluids and to minimize
harmful contamination. leakage of lubricating and hydraulic oils.
2. Reservoirs below floor level shouId have clear access for 11, The flow of cutting fluid over machine tool ways should
cleaning and chip removal. Depressed areas around the be avoided, or covers should be provided to minimize
machine tool should be avoided to deter accumulation the removal of way oil by the cutting fluid.
of dirty coolant and other debris that will contaminate 12, Electrical controls should be located to avoid exposure
the clean fluid. These depressed areas allow drainage of to highly humid conditions and to avoid direct splashing
floor-cleaning compounds into the fluid, introducing of cutting fluid.
not only dirt and micro-organism contamination, but 13, Cutting fluid supply lines should be sized to maintain a
also chemicals which are not compatible with the fluid v~locity o~approximately 10 fps (3 m/s) to avoid
cutting fluid. Floor gratings should not be used as buildup of fines, etc.
covers; solid steel plate installed for drainage away from
the reservoir is recommended, Concrete reservoirs are
not recommended for use, unless the surface is properly General Filtering Considerations
sealed, or preferably, covered with steel plate. The filtering system for a particular operation may be
3. In operations in which machine design or floor-space comprised of numerous components. General considerations
requirements dictate the placement of the reservoir regarding these components include straining, sump cleaning,
within the machine base, all interior surfaces should be and tramp-oil skimmers.
unpainted and free of ribs, channels, etc., which compli- Straining. Screening or straining is a fundamental require-
cate the removal of chips, sludge, and other contami- ment for all fluid-handling systems to protect pumps and other
nants. Sufficiently large access holes should be provided equipment from large contaminants and debris, such as rags. It
so that all interior surfaces are within arms reach of consists of metal screens or woven wire in the form of baskets,
clean-out personnel. Also, when possible, heavy, drums, cartridges, plates, or flat beds. For water-based fluids
4-16
CHAPTER 4
that do not contain a rust inhibitor, screens made from stainless unemr.dsified and coarsely emulsified tramp oils to the surface
steel should be used. where they are skimmed off. The clean fluid is pumped through
While screens are not generally designed to remove fine a heat exchanger and returned to the central system.
contaminants, their efficiency varies according to the size of Clarification. Clarification is the cleaning of fluids by the
their openings. Also, some screens can collect chips and removal of impurities. It is generally accomplished by one of
contaminants in the form of cakes, thus increasing clarification two types of methods: separation or filtration. Separation is
efficiency. Screens are relatively inexpensive, but operating accomplished physically without any filtering medium; filtration
costs can be high if manual cleaning or frequent replacement is is accomplished with permanent or disposable filter media
necessary. Screens can sometimes be automatically cleaned by consisting of various porous materials through which a fluid is
backwashing, or by scraping devices, but exposure of the passed to remove contaminants.
screen’s bare metal to the fluid may not be suitable for certain Separation methods. Separators are units which remove
applications. chips and swarf by gravitational, magnetic, centrifugal, or other
Sump cleaning. Periodic cleaning of individual sumps is an attractive forces. Methods of separating include settling, flota-
important part of an effective program for maintaining cutting tion, centrifuges, chip processing, hydrocyclones, and magnetic
fluid performance. Sump cleaning is covered in the section separators,
entitled “Maintenance of Cutting Fluids” in this chapter. Settling. Settling consists of allowing a large body of fluid to
Tramp-oil skimmers. In systems in which water-miscible stand in a tank long enough for solid particles to settle to the
fluid is not recirculated, an overnight delay or a weekend delay bottom by gravity. The larger and denser the particles and the
can permit tramp oil to float to the surface. It can then be lower the viscosity of the fluid, the faster the settling will be,
vacuumed or allowed to float off. Oil skimmers can be used to Tanks must be designed for proper distribution of incoming
remove tramp oil from operating systems. The typical oil fluid to promote settling—and to avoid short circuiting. Gee.
skimmer consists of a slowly rotating disc or continuous belt metry of the tank is critical; for example, surface area is more
made from stainless steel or other metal, or materials such as important than depth. Also, since effective settling requires
neoprene or polypropylene. The adhesive quality of the tramp stillness, baffles and weirs are often necessary to minimize
oil in the system causes the oil to adhere to the disc or belt as the turbulence. With folded or multiple-weir clarifiers, the length of
medium is continuously fed through the fluid. Scraper blades the wall over which the fluid flows is greatly increased. The
remove the oil from the disc or belt and divert it to a collecting multiple-weir clarifier is particularly efficient in grinding oper-
tank or drum. ations for settling fine grit and swarf, such as cast iron,
Rotating disc, belt, and similar-type skimmers only remove molybdenum, glass, and other types of swarf that pack tightly
free oil on the surface of the fluid; generally, emulsified tramp and clog positive-filter media. Manual clean out of the tank can
oil is not removed. Some combination separator-and-skimmer be eliminated with a flight conveyor and scrapers to drag sludge
systems for aqueous solutions remove tramp oil, kill bacteria, from the bottom.
and aid in recoupling the cutting fluid into a tighter emulsion Settling is one of the simplest, most economical, and most
and in reducing oil particle size. In such systems, a portion of commonly used methods of cleaning fluids. Slowness of
the cutting fluid from a central system is heated to release operation may be a limitation; if particles do not settle in about
Flctoton urwt coolont wmped here from senllng tc>nk

IS nerated b, separate umt (not shown;
\
f h , Froth skmmer (a rotary paddle)
for d rb{ coolant
\
= Scrcpers on bek ‘o
Cleaned 011
pick up setded-oLt so!lds
FIG. 4-3 Settling and flotation combined to remove coarse particles, then tine particles,
4-17
CHAPTER 4
10 minutes, other clarification methods may be required to

obtain efficient cleaning. Some units, such as the conical- Cover
bottom settling tanks are equipped with a thermostatically
7’
controlled electric heating element to raise the temperature of
contaminated oils (not for use with water-soluble coolants) to
accelerate settling of suspended foreign materials. Since settling
llqutd layer
does not remove swarf or other fine particles, it is often used as
formed during h
the first stage of a clarification system that provides cleaner ODercltiOn PI }
fluids than can be obtained by settling alone. Large floor space
requirements may be another limitation to the use of this
method.
Flotation. A flotation system makes use of an agitator or
aeration unit to induce foaming of the fluid, producing air
bubbles that float to the surface. Fine particles attach themselves
to the air bubbles and are removed by a skimmer. Since a
flotation system cannot remove coarse particles, and since
settling often takes too long to remove fine particles, these two
methods are sometimes combined. Coarse particles are first
removed in a settling tank; the partially cleaned fluid is then
pumped to the flotation tank, where fine particles are removed
by skimming.
Flotation combined with settling provides an effective FIG. 4-4 Three-bowl centrifuge providing large surface area to triple
means of cleaning emulsions having a wide range of contaminant solid capacity and increase intervals between servicing.
sizes (see Fig. 4-3). However, if the fluid contains agents to
promote wetting, flotation might not work because the particles fluids is equipped with a series of cone-shaped discs that divide
may sink. Also, the fluid must maintain a stable foam layer. the contaminated fluid into layers not more than 0.050”
When a specific application requires finer clarification, further (1.27 mm) thick. Fluid to be purified is fed through the top inlet
separation or filtration is required. and flows down a central tube into the bowl. The fluid is then
C’en@uges. In centrifuges, centrifugal force generated in forced upward through holes in intermediate discs and into
rotating bowls or drums is used to quickly separate particulate spaces between the discs while centrifugal action separates the
contaminants from cutting oils and particulate contaminants material into heavy and light phases. Solids are thrown directly
and tramp oil from water-miscible cutting fluids. However, to the wall of the bowl, and the oil, because of its lighter density,
centrifuges cannot remove particles that have the same specific is displaced inward and upward through the space around the
gravity as the liquid in which they are suspended, unless the inlet tube to the light-phase discharge level. The heavy phase,
mixture is heated to change the specific gravity. They are more thrown outward by centrifugal force, is displaced by incoming
efficient than hydrocyclones (discussed later) for removing fluid and travels upward along the outer edge of the bowl to the
small particles, and can handle more viscous fluids. Low-speed heavy-phase discharge level. Conversion of the unit from a
centrifuges are designed to remove all types of suspended solids separator to a clarifier is accomplished by changing the disc
from any type of liquid, but not tramp oil. High-speed disc-type stack.
units effectively remove tramp oil, as well as solids. Using A self-cleaning feature is available which automatically
specific gravity as a separating principle, additives in the fluids ejects accumulated solids from the rotating bowl, thus per-
can be retained. Also, bacteria is removed from the aqueous mitting continuous operation by eliminating periodic down-
phase and concentrated in the tramp oil and sludge that is times for manual removal of the solids. This automatic solid-
discarded. Centrifuges, however, have a relatively limited dirt- ejecting centrifuge has a bowl fitted with a sliding bottom which
load capacity; they are generally used as a side-stream process functions in the same manner that a large vertically moving
with prior clarification equipment, such as sump filters and piston would function. The bowl is V-shaped at the periphery to
settling/ flotation systems. Multiple-bowl and self-cleaning form a pocket for the accumulation of solids and sludge. During
centrifuges permit a larger solid capacity. normal operation, the sliding bottom is held in its upper
One type of multiple-bowl centrifuge has three nested bowls, position by hydraulic pressure. When this pressure, which is
and permits high separation efficiency with relatively low-speed automatically controlled by timers and solenoid valves, is
(650 rpm) operation (see Fig. 4-4). The larger surface area released, the contents of the bowl force the sliding bottom
provided by the three concentric bowls in a single housing downward, exposing side slots through which the sludge is
triples the solids capacity and increases the intervals between forced by centrifugal action.
servicing. Incoming fluid is distributed into the three bowls by a Chip processing. A typical basket-type centrifuge can be
manifold, and each bowl operates independently—providing used to recover cutting oil from chips. Known as a “chip
three parallel paths for the fluid. Rim heights progressively wringer, “ such a unit can recover as much as 40 gal (150 L) of
increase as the bowl diameters decrease. and centrifugal force cutting oil from 1000 lb (450 kg) of chips produced from
causes clean fluid spilling over the rims to be thrown to the operations performed on turret lathes, automatic screw
housing wall instead of other bowls. The clean fluid flows down machines, milling machines, and scrapers. As much as 20 gal
the housing wall and exits from a tangential outlet in the bottom (75 L) of oil can be recovered from larger chips produced on
of the body. Contaminants are retained in layers of tubes on the operations performed on automatic multispindle machines. IS
walls of the bowls for periodic removal. Low-speed (1200 rpm) chip/coolant separators (see Fig. 4-5)
Another type of centrifuge for recycling cutting and grinding provide reusable coolant and dry chips that can be sold at a
CHAPTER 4
down the decreasing diameter of the housing, centrifugal force

drives suspended particles outward to the wall of the housing.
These particles fall downward and are discharged through the
outlet nozzle. Back pressure created by the decreasing diameter
of the housing and the outlet nozzle causes the clean fluid to
reverse direction and spin upward through the center of the
housing for discharging at the top (see Fig. 4-7).
Hydrocyclones provide a simple and economical method of
clarification for some applications. The only moving part on a
hydrocyclone is the pump; however, maintenance can be
significant because contaminated fluid is pumped. Power
requirements are typically higher for hydrocyclones than for
separators, system pump filters, etc. Automatic discharge of the
solids minimizes daily service requirements, and aeration of the
fluid reduces bacterial growth.
Hydrocyclones are best suited for clarifying low-viscosity
fluids such as water-based and synthetic coolants; they are
generally not recommended for use with straight oils. Also, they
will not remove tramp oil. Prior settling of the fluid or another
means of removing large particles is recommended to prevent
clogging. Some manufacturers of small-diameter hydrocyclones
claim removal of particles as fine as 5 microns (0.00019”);
however, centrifuges are generally better for removing fine
particles in fluids of high viscosity when flow rates are relatively
low. Cleaner fluids can also be obtained by filtering after
passing through a hydrocyclone.
Single-tube hydrocyclones are available with fairly high flow
rates; even higher flow rates can be provided by using several
cyclone tubes at one time, either separately or within one
housing. A hydrocyclone unit for a central coolant system used
with a transfer machine is rated at 3200 gpm (about 12000
L/ rein) and consists of eight 400 gpm (about 1500 L/rein)
FIG. 4-5 Low-speed separator providing reusable cutting fluid and hydrocyclones.
dry chips that can be sold at a premium. Magnetic separator~. Extensively used when “machining or
grinding ferrous metals, magnetic separators remove ferrous
metal particles from the cutting fluid as the fluid passes over a
premium. In such systems, a curved spinner first accelerates the magnetic drum. Nonferrous particles, such as abrasive grain
wet chips, then decelerates them as they pass over the separator adhering to the ferrous particles, are also removed by these
screen. Dry chips are discharged onto conveyors or into tote separators. Magnetic separators are simple, economical, and
boxes, and the cutting fluid flows into a self-flushing trough can be operated continuously. Maximum efficiency is obtained
requiring no pump. An air-jet cleaner blows trapped fines out of when handling low-viscosity fluids or water-based cutting
the separator screen. fluids, and when removing particles as large as about 35
One type of chip wringer, has a two-speed motor (see Fig. microns (0.00 13“)-although some manufacturers claim good
4-6). Wet chips fall by gravity onto distributing discs which efficiency for particles as fine as 5 microns (0.00019”). Heavy
rotate at low speed to throw the chips, by centrifugal force, to abrasive loads may require prior use of settling or other
the wall of a perforated basket that is also rotating. There, the separation means.
chips are retained and speed is increased to recover the major In magnetic separators made by one supplier, incoming fluid
part of the oil. After a preset time, the basket stops and the chips is channeled pasta continuously rotating, sealed, stainless-steel
fall into a collecting hopper. Compressed air is sprayed on both drum containing permanent ceramic magnets. As particles cling
the interior and exterior of the perforated basket to clear chips to the drum, they are squeezed into a semidry state by a roller
at the start of each cycle. and then automatically scraped off the drum into a sludge
Generally, 2000 lb (about 900 kg) or more of oily chips each discharge chute. Magnetized particles projecting perpendicu-
week will generate enough savings to make a chip wringer larly from the drum surface help remove free abrasives and
economical when machining ferrous metals. When nonferrous other nonmagnetic particles. Also available is a combination
chips, such as brass chips, are being produced, as little as 650 lb unit in which fluid first flows through a magnetic separator and
(about 300 kg) a week of chips will justify a chip wringing then passes through a fabric filter (supplied from a roll and
process because of the higher value of the nonferrous chips. supported by a conveyor belt) that removes nonferrous
Hydrocyclones. Hydrocyclones, like centrifuges, use centri- contaminants.
fugal force to separate solid contaminants from liquids, but the Magnetic filters made by another manufacturer have a
contaminated liquid is forced by a pump through a tangential permanent ferromagnetic drum and an intermittent drive. As
outlet nozzle, helical vane, or axial distributor. In a hydro- contaminants form an increasingly denser cake and restrict
cyclone, a vortex is formed in the column of liquid inside a flow, the liquid level rises and a drive-actuating sensor rotates
cone-shaped housing. As the rapidly spinning liquid accelerates the drum slightly, thus moving the cake and decreasing flow
4-19
CHAPTER 4
( :Iutch
TwmF )eed .
motor
“l’”l
Clutch bloc’k =
Brake bond
r .1 ‘.>
/’ ,/( \
/’ J&&&. . +’. Wet :h+p
Atr spro)
pipes — Perforated
steel basket
{j
ii Dstrlbutlng
ii+ plates
+_ Spindle
_;!l
“-+!
T.+,
~1
!
1: LLl
,!
!J
Cleonout doors f y $--
‘,; ,,,../ ““ f i
/ Recovered oil
~,<..; ..– .-
—--- ..-. ..j’
FIG. 4-6 Chip wringer with a two-speed motor. Low speed throws chips to wall of basket, and high speed recovers major part of fluid.
resistance. Also available are magnetic slide conveyors that automatically indexes the roll about 5°, thus removing the mass
move ferrous materials upward along an inclined stainless-steel and allowing fluid to pass, Also available are conveyors having
slide with magnetic fields, generated by permanent magnets, permanent magnets moving inside liquid-tight submersible
moving under the slide. housings to remove chips or particles and allow the fluid to
Indexing-roll types of permanent magnetic cutting fluid drain back into the sump.
cleaners are available in a slightly different configuration from Filtration methods. Filters separate solids from liquids by
another manufacturer. Magnetically attracted material builds passing the mixture through a permeable medium that can be
up a mass between the magnetic roll and a steel deflector plate permanent or disposable. They are available in a wide variety of
that serves as a filter medium to entrap nonmagnetic particles. types, with different media configurations and materials.
When the mass blocks the passageway, a float-actuated switch Selection depends primarily on the size and type of particles to
4-20
CHAPTER 4
excessive filter use. To preclude this, the filter manufacturer’s

recommendations on the media should be followed exactly. A
filter having a flow capacity somewhat greater than actually
required may be selected for maximum efficiency and economy.
D,rty fluld Clear flu(d Gravity filters. Flat-bed or area-type gravity filters are
commonly used for large flows of low-viscosity fluids that have
relatively light contamination and fairly uniform particle sizes.
With one such unit, contaminated fluid flows onto a disposable
filter blanket or sheet that is supplied from a roll and supported
AXIO dlstrl
d pipe above a collection tank by a continuous, mesh conveyor belt.
Sloping sides of the conveyor belt create a pool of liquid which
passes through the medium by gravity and deposits a cake of
solids on the surface, thus providing increased filtering.
When the rate of flow through the medium is reduced
excessively by accumulated solids, the liquid level rises and
actuates a float control. This advances the motor-driven
conveyor belt, dumping the waste-laden filter into a holding
box and indexing a section of fresh medium into position under
the liquid flow. For some applications, a settling tank with a
cell sludge-removal conveyor belt is provided ahead of the filtering
unit to lessen the load on the filter.
Vacuum j71ters. When gravity filters are inefficient in
removing light particles from fluids, automatic vacuum filters
are often used (see Fig. 4-8). In one such system, coolant is
drawn by vacuum through a large area of a semipermanent,
Outlet n synthetic filter medium that is automatically cleaned during
each cycle. The vacuum is created by a filter pump, During
cleaning, a flexible diaphragm is pulled back slowly by an air
cylinder, allowing clean liquid to be drawn into the vacuum
chamber and pumped to the clean section of the tank.
i On the return stroke of the air cylinder, the diaphragm forces
some filtered liquid through the medium, thus breaking loose
for removal by a dragout conveyor any agglomerated solids
FIG. 4-7 Cvclone cell formine Iiauid vortex which allows oarticles to
be thrown oa{ward and to fall f;om- tbe bottom of housing, ~lean fluid that may have settled to the bottom of the tank. These systems,
is discharged from the top of cell. which are also available in vertical models that require less floor
space, are most efficient for filtering oils having a viscosity
be removed; flow-capacity requirements; initial, operating, and lower than 250 SSU, and can be used with some water-soluble
maintenance costs; and the effect of the media on the fluid. solutions. For finer clarification, further processing in a
Permanent filter media consist of metal meshes, belts, or centrifuge is recommended.
screens; stacked discs separated by thin spacers; braided tubing A vacuum filter that has been designed to positively remove
made of metallic or synthetic strands; and particles of metal fines without reliance upon settling is shown in Fig. 4-9. This
sintered together. In most cases, such filters can be cleaned filter is basically a liquid reservoir with a vacuum chamber at
manually, or by backwashing or other means. The simplest type the bottom covered by a disposable filter medium. A flight
of filter is a strainer, consisting of a coarse screen to remove conveyor rests on top of the medium holding it in place.
large objects that could cause serious damage to equipment, as During the filtration cycle, dirty coolant is pumped or
discussed earlier in this section. gravity fed into the filter reservoir. The contaminated liquid is
Disposable filter media, in the form of cartridges, rolls, pulled downward through the filter medium where the dirt
sheets, discs, and other shapes, are made from a variety of particles are trapped. Filtered liquid drawn through the medium
materials including paper, cotton, wool, synthetic fibers, felted by the filter pump is recirculated to the system. As dirt particles
materials, excelsior, and many other materials and combina- successively accumulate on the filter medium, they combine to
tions. Filter aids, such as Fuller’s or diatomaceous earth, form a filter cake that traps additional particles. All liquid must
cellulose fibers, or other fine particles, are often used as a pass through this cake, thus fines are trapped before having the
precoat for the media (or added to the contaminated fluid) to opportunity to settle.
assist in building up a cake of particle layers, which permits fine As the filter cake builds, vacuum increase is sensed, initiating
filtration. This type of media, with fixed pore openings, filters an automatic index cycle. The dirt-laden filter medium is
out particles by size, regardless of their specific gravity and/or indexed, by the flight conveyor, out the discharge end of the
magnetic properties. filter and deposited in a hopper for disposal. A fresh filter
In addition to the cost of replacing disposable filter media, medium is simultaneously brought into the filter, beginning a
other factors must be considered. Some media can change new cycle. The supplying of clean coolant is not interrupted
desirable fluid characteristics by removing oxidation inhibitors, during this short index cycle.
detergents, and other additives, as well as contaminants. Also, Pressure filters. Even higher flow rates per square foot of
control of tramp oil is important because nonemulsified tramp medium can be obtained with positive-pressure types of filters.
oil can blind (prematurely block) some media, thus resulting in High initial pressures, however, should be avoided so that
4-21
CHAPTER 4
Flow regulating
globe valve Clean
coolant
+0 work
Vowum A r-l
CompressIon Shutoff waive

AH*
coudma 1 , 1
Optton(
clean
coolant
retwn
pump
Filter 1
element
L ~ Dragout ccmve{or 4 4 d
FIG. 4-8 Vacuum filter in which contaminated fluids are pulled through semipermanent medium that is automatically cleaned each cycle.
initial particles are not forced into the filter medium to produce primary filtering vessel from the slurry tank filling the
a tight mass of low permeability. Automatic flat-bed pressure vessel entirely.
filters are relatively simple. One system consists of an upper 2. Slurry mix. As clean water is circulated from the primary
shell that receives contaminated liquid and a lower shell, filter back into the slurry tank, a hopper meters d-e
directly below, that receives and recycles clean liquid. Sealed filter-aid powder into the slurry tank, mixing it with clear
between the two shells is a filter medium that retains particles as water and creating a precoat slurry.
the liquid passes through, under pressure, from the upper to the 3. Precoat. As the slurry is pumped into the bottom of the
lower shell, The medium is automatically indexed when it primary filter vessel, it flows up through the tubes and
becomes loaded. Such systems can be equipped with either a back to the slurry tank. Repeatedly recirculating this
disposable or permanent-type filter medium, such as a nylon or slurry deposits a full layer of filter-d-e powder on the
stainless-steel, continuous, mesh belt that can be cleaned by air outside of the tubes (screened surface).
or steam blowoff (see Fig. 4-10). 4. Filter cycle, When the screened tubes are precoated, the
Pressure filters are also available in tubular types. In some filtration process begins automatically. As the filter
designs of these depth-type filters, a semipermanent synthetic pump feeds dirty liquid to the primary filter, the slurry
filter or wire media sleeve is stretched over a mesh tube, Liquid pump stops and the slurry feed valve closes. The dirty
is forced through the medium into the tube under pressure. liquid flows through the intricate micropassages of the
Cleaning of the medium can be done by periodic backwashing, precoat filter cake, where particles as fine as 1/2 micron
which knocks the sludge loose for removal by a dragout (20 p in.) and finer are retained. The filtered liquid travels
conveyor. Leaf-type elements of woven synthetic fibers, which up the perforated tubes to the upper chamber of the
are flat instead of round, are used in place of tubular elements in primary filter and is then transferred out the clean liquid
some types of pressure filters. Precoating of the medium with return line.
filter aid is used with some designs to assist cake development
Also available are flexible tube filters consisting of precoated,
and fine filtration (see Fig. 4- I 1).
braided tubes hanging from a movable tube sheet. Pressure on
The automatic sequence of operations for a typical precoat
the tubes tends to tighten the braid strands so that only liquid
ultrahigh filtration system is as follows:
can flow through them. When liquid flowing through the tubes
1. Filter-fill. When the filter-fill operation starts, the primary falls to a predetermined level, the filter shuts off and the tube
filter vessel is empty, the tubes are clean, and the recovery sheet is moved up and down to knock off the filter cakes.
system is isolated. Clean liquid is pumped into the Horizontal plate pressure filters are also available which
4-22
CHAPTER 4
MAINTENANCE OF CUlllNG FLUIDS
1--1
Index
distance
Fig. 4-9 Vacuum filter designed to positively remove fines without reliance upon settting. (Hydromation)
provide precoat options and disposal of a semidry cake. One cutting oils are prone to physical changes resulting from high
advantage of this type of filter is that its horizontal plate unit and low temperatures. Therefore, indoor storage of drummed
will not drop or shed its precoat and dirt as will tubular or materials at temperatures between 50 and 120° F (IO and 49° C)
drum-type filters in the event of a power failure or pump is best. If outdoor storage is unavoidable, the drums should be
problem. covered or set on their sides to avoid water accumulation
Cartridge-type filters are generally cylindrical housings around the bung.
containing cartridge filters. Throwaway cartridges are available Bulk storage facilities are best located indoors; however,
in a variety of materials (cellulose fibers, asbestos, wool, and because of space requirements, they are frequently placed
acrylic) that can be felted, woven, or wound. Permanent outdoors—aboveground or underground. Tanks located
cartridges made of wire mesh or sintered powdered metal can be aboveground should have a means of heating and circulating
removed, cleaned chemically or ultrasonically, and replaced. the contents to maintain a constant temperature. In either
Edge-type filters, which filter by clearance, consist of narrowly location, the tanks should have access ports, bottom draft, and
separated, stacked discs. Fluid passes between the discs, but drains to facilitate cleaning. Many straight oils and high oil
particles larger than the distance between discs are retained. content solubles are sensitive to water contamination. For this
These filters can be made self-cleaning with scraper blades. reason, it is important to prevent condensation in storage tanks
or drums.
MAINTENANCE OF CUTTING FLUIDS
The responsibility for obtaining maximum performance
from any cutting fluid rests with both the fluid supplier and Water Quality
user. The supplier must provide a product that, at the time of The quality of water is extremely important to the perfor-
use, still meets original quality control tests (i.e., has not mance of aqueous metalcutting fluids. Many cutting fluid
deteriorated in storage). Equally important are the user’s experts believe that cutting fluid performance is affected more
methods of storing the product, his handling and cleaning by the quality of the water with which the concentrate is mixed
procedures, and his adherence to a general fluid maintenance than by any other single factor. In most cases, water used in
program. cutting fluids represents about 90-99% of the final mixture.
Thus, water quality plays a major role in establishing the
Storage of Concentrate chemical characteristics of the cutting fluid.
Good storage conditions assure the quality of the cutting Water hardness. The cleanest of shop water is not pure.
fluid at the time of use. Both water-miscible fluids and straight Water usually contains minerals or salts or both. The mineral
4-23
CHAPTER 4
Cleon ‘ “- ‘ Pos)hve Index ppe

elfluert D}rry Ihqu(d
dschorge ~
urt , --%.. ‘\ -%./ /- /

coke %
dlschorge ‘
‘..L
-..,. /-”
/ /’
I \“ Clean hq.d
,Uedn belt
comer crcm
Fig. 4-10 Flat-bed pressure filter. (Hydromation)
content, or hardness of water, is most conveniently expressed in water used for mixing with cutting fluid concentrate, the longer
parts per million (ppm) of carbonates present in the water. the fluid can be used before hardness problems diminish the
Hardness is also measured in grains per gallon (GPG)— 17.1 effectiveness of the fluid.
ppm is equal to 1 GPG. Table 4-4 presents classifications of Water hardness is particularly important when cutting fluid
water hardness in both systems.lb concentrate containing wetting agents is used. The fluid concen-
The average water supply in most plants usually contains trate is “used up” in reacting with certain minerals and becomes
150-250 ppm dissolved minerals and organics, but some unavailable for its intended function. This type of reaction
supplies contain morethan2000ppm, Water hardness varies to places the cutting fluid in a constant state of chemical change,
a great extent with locale. affecting the fluid’s performance. The reaction products that
Hardness in water is caused almost entirely by calcium and are formed between surface-active fluids and certain dissolved
magnesium ions. Other elements, such as iron and aluminum, minerals tend to cling to parts, and the fluid is carried off or lost
may also be present. Iron and aluminum can produce undesir- from the system more rapidly than would be the case if no such
able effects that are far out of proportion to their concentration. reaction had occurred. The amount of surface-active fluids
A coolant tank tends to behave much like a still in that, carried off will usually increase in proportion to the concen-
through evaporation, pure water is lost from the system and tration of dissolved minerals.17
dissolved minerals stay behind, Fluid “make-up” or additions The buildup of minerals in a cutting fluid can cause a variety
to the sump usually are about 5-20% per day, depending upon of problems, including corrosion, separation, and formation of
sump capacity, severity of the machining operation, and the undesirable residues.
magnitude of cutting fluid loss due to splashing. Hence, ovel- a Corrosion. Pure deionized water provides optimum cor-
period of a month, the buildup of solids in the fluid mixture can rosion inhibition at any level of concentration when mixed with
be 3-4 times that of the original water. Therefore, the purer the most cutting fluids. Chlorides and sulfates in cutting fluids
4-24
CHAPTER 4
t
L
4 Filter @e 1
IL.-L-4111
1-41
=4i---k%fl I
n:. r) . . . . ..-. ..,..

l’ij+
“ ,,
*-1, ulmsmgn r?,.
r ICLWaL --.,
mwssuun .— ---..
-L U-U —
system. !,,. .>-.
/nyurumatiur]j –.-., –-,
contribute to corrosion, deposits, and staining of ferrous and remove heat more efficiently than an emulsion of larger second-
nonferrous metals. phase particles.
The use of “softened” water at any given fluid concentration Large particles in soluble-oil emulsions tend to separate
provides a greater tendency for corrosion or staining than the from solution and float to the surface of the cutting fluid,
use of untreated hard water. (Water softening is discussed in causing a dilution of working fluid and formation of residue on
later sections.) This is true because zeolite softening replaces workplaces.
minerals such as calcium and magnesium with sodium. Sodium Minerals tend to increase the particle size in the cutting fluid.
chloride and sodium sulfate are more corrosive than the In the case of soluble oils, the emulsified-oil droplets tend to
corresponding calcium and magnesium salts.ls coalesce to form larger particles which promote “creaming” or
Iron also promotes corrosive affects of cutting fluids. As the free-oil separation, Also, soluble-oil concentrates often disperse
level of iron increases in the cutting fluid, the tendency for iron ineffectively when high concentrations of certain minerals exist
to be deposited on workplaces and machine tool components in the water used for mixing.
increases; thus, staining can occur despite the presence of In many cases, these types of reactions caused by water
corrosion inhibitors in the fluid that are effective in reducing hardness can be avoided through the use of nonionic surface-
other types of corrosion. active additives or formulations that do not react with hardness
Oil particle size. Performance of water-miscible fluids is minerals. However, cutting fluids with nonionic materials
highly related to the size of the emulsion particles in solution. 19 sometimes tend to foam, even at low concentrations. Use of
An emulsion comprised of smaller oil particles exhibits a higher nonionic materials adds to the cost of the cutting fluid and may
surface area per volume of oil emulsified. Because of this, complicate fluid treatment for disposal.
lubricants such as chlorine, sulfur, and phosphorus are more Water treatment. As a general rule, the purest water possible
readily available for chemical reaction at the cut. Smaller should be used for mixing with cutting fluid concentrate. In
particles more easily penetrate to the tool/ workpiece interface. most cases, water hardness in excess of 250 ppm may cause
It is also believed that an emulsion of smaller particles will problems. Several alternatives are available when water treatment
4-25
CHAPTER 4
MAINTENANCE OF CUITING FLUIDS
TABLE 4-4
Water hardness
Grains per
Classification Parts uer Million U.S. Gal Grams rrer Liter
Very soft water Less than 17 Less than 1 Less than 0.017
Soft water 17-52 1-3 0.017-0.051
Medium-hard water 52-105 3-6 0.051-0.102
Hard water 105-210 6-12 0.102-0.205
Very hard water More than 210 Greater than 12 Greater than 0.205
is needed to reduce raw water hardness before mixing. costly than distillation by company-owned facilities, and the
Water sojlenirrg. One method of removing hardness is to quality of purchased water usually is better.
process the water through an ion-exchange (zeolite) water Reverse osmosis. Water purification by reverse osmosis
softener. This method has been used successfully in waters up to (R/ O) is another technique for improving water quality. With
300 ppm in hardness. Generally, water softening can contribute this process, high pressure is used to force water through a
to corrosiveness of the cutting fluid because the process merely membrane, leaving behind about 70-90% of the minerals. In
replaces hardness minerals with more corrosive sodium chloride general, this process is not considered a satisfactory method of
or sodium sulfate. purifying water for water-miscible fluids.Z2 Water purity is not
Deionizaliorr. Another alternative is to treat the raw water sufficient to obtain “infinite” cutting fluid life, and about half of
supply with a deionization process. This process can result in a the feed water is waste water adding to the load on plant waste
water purity that is often greater than that of distilled water,JO as facilities. Sodium salts are not easily rejected by the membranes
shown in Table 4-5. When deionized water is used for mixing and therefore can be present in significant amounts in R/O
with cutting fluid concentrate, the evaporation of water from processed water. These sodium salts generally render R/O and
the cutting fluid sump does not result in the formation of salt softened water unacceptable for use in cutting fluid emulsions.
residues and corrosive effects of the cutting fluid are all but
eliminated. Rancidity Control
Deionization allows mixing water to be closely held to a The growth of bacteria and fungi in water-miscible fluids can
predetermined hardness level. If water is supplied at a constant result in strong offensive odors, staining of workplaces and
100 ppm hardness, less-expensive water-miscible cutting fluids machines, and interference with filters or fluid clarifiers, which
can sometimes be used and the fluids can be used longer before in turn can result in a decrease in the effective life of a cutting
bacterial spoilage occurs or gumming and corrosion becomes fluid (see “Health and Safety Aspects of Cutting Fluids and
excessive. In some cases, the use of deionized water allows Industrial Lubricants” in this chapter).
cutting fluids to be used at lower concentrations. Usage of Bacteria. Two types of bacteria are commonly found in
cutting fluid concentrate can be reduced as much as 40% in cutting fluids: aerobic, which grow in the presence of oxygen,
some instances. z] and anaerobic, which grow in the absence of oxygen. However,
Disrilled waler, Distilled water from plant boilers is also each type can adjust to the other’s environment to some degree.
sometimes used for mixing cutting fluids. This approach may be Tramp-oil leakage and other contaminants in the cutting fluid
acceptable if the boiler condensate is not contaminated with stimulate the growth of bacteria and serve as breeding grounds
materials that might be incompatible with the cutting fluid for both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria.
concentrate—antirust compounds, for example. In general, High concentrations of anaerobic bacteria characteristically
however, the purchase of distilled water in bulk quantities is less produce hydrogen sulfide, which can cause severe dark staining
TABLE 4-5
Comparison of Water Purity-
the Best Grade of Commercially Distilled Water and High-Quality Deionized Water
Element Distilled Water-ppm Deionized Water-ppm

Calcium 0.00 0.00
Magnesium 0.00 0.00
Sodium Less than 0.01 Less than 0.01
Iron 0.02 0.00
Copper 0.01 0.00
Sulfates 0.00 0.00
Chlorides 0.00 0.00
Silica 0.01 0.01
Carbon Dioxide 0.82 0.10
Resistance—ohms 750,000 10,000,000
4-26
CHAPTER 4
of machines and workplaces and turn the fluid a gray-to-black concentrate are physically metered and the ability of pumps to
color. provide accurate proportions is unaffected by changes in water
The odor associated with rancid cutting fluid is most pressure, flow rate, or viscosity of the concentrate.
prevalent after a shutdown period because tramp oil rises to the Proportioning pumps can provide initial charge solutions
top of the fluid sump and forms a barrier to atmospheric and make-up solutions for individual sumps and/or make-up
oxygen. This is the ideal environment for Desulfovibrio, an additions for central systems. Automatic valves are used on
anaerobic bacteria. This bacteria reduces sulfates to hydrogen central systems to start and stop fluid flow according to the level
sulfides. The hydrogen-sulfide gas is trapped under the oil layer of the fluid in the system. Automatic fluid concentration
until “Monday morning” when the oil barrier is broken by the control is said to provide savings of 15% in concentrate usage
turbulence created when the machine operator turns on the when compared to manual mixing methods.23
machine, and the gas escapes. When make-up additions of fluid are required to a system,
Circulating the fluid over the weekend and/ or using a premixing the make-up solution with high-quality water is
bactericide such as hexahydro 1, 3, 5-tris (2-hydroxy-ethyl S- advisable rather than adding the fluid concentrate directly to
triazine) will help reduce odors, (Many variables are involved in the sump where considerable mineral accumulation and bacteria
the proper selection of a bactericide, so it is always best to check buildup have occurred. Whether the additions are mixed
with the fluid supplier.) Using a bactericide appears to be much manually or mixed with a proportioning pump, eventually, the
more practical than leaving pumps running, especially if no one mineral content and/ or bacteria buildup of the fluid will reach
is around to check on them periodically. The incorporation of a the level at which even premixing cannot prevent separation of
bactericide or preservative can be helpful in preventing or the fluid.
retarding bacterial degradation. However, few bactericide are If a starting mix for a particular fluid is 20:1 but subsequent
effective, and they must be used with care. Some bactericide tests show a ratio of 50:1, “tramp oil” being skimmed off may
that function well in clean cutting fluid can actually serve as not be entirely tramp oil, but rather oil out of the emulsion that
food for bacteria when mixed with heavily contaminated fluid. lacks emulsifier to hold it. If the system is contaminated with
Only preservatives that are registered for use in cutting and bacteria, addition of concentrate may not solve the problem
grinding fluids by the U.S. Department of Agriculture should alone. Rather, a bactericide should be used and then fresh
be used. concentrate should be added. It may be necessary to drain,
Overall, the most effective means of controlling bacteria clean, and flush the system and add new fluid if the bacteria
growth in cutting fluids is through good housekeeping practices. level cannot be reduced.
Machine tools and fluid sumps should be cleaned periodically
with a detergent cleaner before adding clean, fresh cutting fluid. Machine Cleaning
(Machine cleaning is covered later in this chapter.) Fine metal The need for a complete cleaning of the machine and fluid
particles and bacteria settle at the bottom of the sump and sump before the addition of fresh fluid is well documented.Z4 In
combine to promote the growth of anaerobic bacteria, so sumps some cases, cutting fluid life may be improved 300% merely by
should be cleaned frequently. Tramp oil in the form of machine following proper cleaning procedures and using a bactericide to
lubricants and hydraulic fluids should not be allowed to float on wash machine components prior to refilling.
the surface of the cutting fluid because its presence seals the The relationship of cleaning procedures to the growth rate of
fluid from the air and results in the growth of anaerobic bacteria in a machine tool with a 200 gal (about 760 L) reservoir
bacteria. used in broaching cast iron is presented in Table 4-6,2s
Bacteria growth is usually more difficult to control in large A similar study showed that effective cleaning of a machine
central systems than in single-machine sumps. Proper cleaning can lead to significant improvement in the fluid life and that
of sumps between fluid changes; skimming off tramp oils or partial cleaning leads to only slight improvement.zG This study
utilizing tramp-oil skimming, high-speed, disc-bowl centrifuges was done on a vertical turning lathe.
to continuously remove emulsified tramp oil; draining fluid This indicates that a minimum of a twofold decrease in the
from the tank bottoms; and judiciously using proper preserva- number of clean outs required can be obtained, with a much
tives can keep bacterial growth under control. more significant number of reductions possible, due only to
Fungus. The growth of fungus (mold) in cutting fluids can changes which effect the biological deterioration of the cutting
also be a problem. Presence of fungi in the form of slimy, fluid.
semisolid deposits that cling to the walls of fluid reservoirs or
central systems frequently interferes with the performance of
the fluid, particularly the filtering systems. In general, a natural
antagonism exists between most bacteria and fungi, so a TABLE 4-6
consistent bacteria-control program may not effect a solution Relationship Between Cleaning Procedures
to fungi problems. The cutting fluid supplier should be and Growth Rate of Bacteria*
contacted for specific recommendations when fungi problems
become excessive. Bacteria
Cleanirw Procedure Growth Rate
Concentration Control
Concentration control is needed to obtain optimum tool life,
Drain, clean, rinse and recharge “x“
Drain, rinse and recharge 2X**
production rates, corrosion control, and resistance to bacterial
Drain and recharge only 20X
or other microbial growth. Effective, automatic concentration
control can be achieved using variable-ratio, positive-displace- * 200 gal (about 760 L) reservoir, cast iron
ment proportioning pumps. These pumps are successfully used broaching operation
for concentration control because the water and fluid ** Assuming no significant residue of chips remaining
4-27
CHAPTER 4
Proper machine cleaning procedures can ensure maximum under manufacturing conditions. This makes a machinability
cutting fluid life. During the cleaning process, the contaminated laboratory very useful in developing and evaluating fluids.
water-miscible fluid should be pumped out first, and all chips To test a fluid’s ability to fulflla particular set of requirements
and oil residue cleaned out. Then the sump should be filled with in a particular production plant, one or more machines should
a high-quality cleaner that has been mixed with appropriate be isolated, cleaned, and charged with the fluid to be tested.
quantities of clean water. This cleaning solution should be Accurate data on tool or grinding-wheel life, finish, or other
circulated for several hours and applied directly to machine criteria important to the particular operation should be obtained
components not in contact with fluid flow. When the machine and recorded for sufficient time to get statistically reliable
and sump are sufficiently clean, the cleaner should be pumped information. Since performance is always relative, the test
out and the remaining residue and sediment cleaned from the should be repeated using identical conditions for all fluids
sump, The entire system should then be rinsed by circulating under consideration.
clean water, and all previously cleaned surfaces should be Laboratory comparisons are useful as a guide and may
washed down. Rinsing with clean water should be performed as include physical, chemical, metallurgical, and mechanical tests.
many times as necessary to completely flush all sediment, Laboratory microbiological and skin-irritation tests also offer
residue, and cleaning solution. After the machine is completely valuable information. The true value of the fluid can be
cleaned and rinsed, it should immediately be recharged with established only under production conditions.
fresh cutting fluid to protect exposed metal surfaces from Laboratory tests should be designed to correlate as nearly as
corrosion. possible with the situations to be met under production
Systems in which mineral oil based fluids are used can conditions. The following tests are typical of those developed
usually be cleaned effectively through periodic removal of chips through years of experience by both manufacturers and users of
and sludge prior to flushing with clean cutting fluid, cutting and grinding fluids. Acceptability standards will vary
The use of sump cleaning equipment is important to proper according to the requirements of the user.
fluid maintenance. Typical of the equipment available is a sump Concentration checks for emulsifiers, rust preventives, and
cleaner driven by a 5 hp (3,7 kW) motor. The unit is capable of other ingredients of cutting fluids are of extreme importance in
picking up fluids at a rate of about 50 gpm (190 L/rein) and can fluid maintenance. A number of standard industrial tests exist
remove any solids that can pass through a 2“ (5 I mm) diam such as tests for nitrite, borate, and cationic titration. A cutting
hose. This type of sump cleaner incorporates chip or swarf fluid supplier should be consulted for specific recommendations.
baskets that can be lined with filter sleeves. If the cutting fluid is Physical tests. The principal physical properties measured in
not rancid or heavily contaminated with tramp oil, the blower the laboratory are indicated in the following list. ASTM test
on the sump cleaner can be reversed to place the filtered fluid procedures can be obtained for all listed properties accompanied
back to the reservoir. by an ASTM identifier. Procedures for testing those properties
With the use of sump cleaning equipment, sumps are more not accompanied by an identifier are detailed in the following
likely to be cleaned thoroughly. In addition, downtime for text.
cleaning is reduced up to 80% over manual methods in some 1. Viscosity (ASTM D88-57).
cases. This type of portable cleaning equipment is particularly 2. Flash point (ASTM D92-57).
effective in skimming tramp oil from cutting fluid sumps (see 3. Fire point (ASTM D92-57).
“Filtration of Cutting Fluids” in this chapter). 4, Corrosion, copper strip (ASTM D130-56).
5. Stability.
6. Emulsion stability, for water-miscible fluid (ASTM
Testing of Cutting Fluids
Cutting fluids have many chemical and physical properties D 1479-57T).
which influence their performance under machining conditions. 7. Residue, for water-miscible fluids.
Because so many variables are involved in manufacturing 8. Foaming, for oil (ASTM D892-58T). for water miscibles.
operations, including metal differences, cutting tool and Stability. A typical stability test is as follows:
machine differences, and the operator’s skill, judgment, and Place the concentrate in a 4 oz(118 ml) bottle in a cold test
experience; any variations in the chemical and physical proper- chamber at -20” F (-29° C) for a period of 24 hours. After the
ties of the cutting fluid can be critical. sample reaches room temperature, examine it for phase separation,
Many users, as well as manufacturers of cutting (and flocculation, and sedimentation. If it is a water-miscible type
grinding) fluids, establish laboratory procedures to evaluate (emulsions, semichemical, or chemical), mix it with distilled or
these fluids in terms of (1) uniformity of the product and (2) deionized water, and also with typical plant process water, to
satisfactory performance in service. determine if the concentrate mixes properly after being subjected
Even though physical, chemical, and mechanical tests are to this low temperature. The temperature of-2fP F may never be
performed on a fluid in a laboratory setting, such tests cannot reached under normal storage conditions. In this case, determine
be used as the only or absolute criterion for fluid performance. the lowest temperature that the concentrate could experience,
Laboratory test results should be verified by using a product in and test it at that temperature to ascertain whether or not its
a clean machine tool, under actual production conditions, or by function would be impaired. Repeat this test procedure at
using it in a specially equipped machinability laboratory, over a 120° F (49 C) to determine high-temperature stability.
period of weeks or months to obtain the proper evaluation. Residue, for water-miscible fi’uids. Nonfluid residues left
Such a “test run” can uncover product characteristics that after water has evaporated from water-miscible fluids can
cannot be determined by laboratory evaluation techniques interfere with some machine tools. As machines become more
alone. fully automated (e.g., transfer, N/ C), it is more necessary than
No series of chemical or physical laboratory tests can ever that machines operate without impairment. The ideal
duplicate the pressures, temperatures, and other factors found residue would be one that has high lubricating value and is
4-28
CHAPTER 4
easily resoluble in the fluid. A typical method for testing is as Two examples of typical corrosion tests are as follows:
follows:
1. Immerse cleaned and abraded strips of the metals (steel,
Make a solution or emulsion of the cutting fluid at the
copper, aluminum, brass, etc.) in a container of the fluid.
concentration contemplated for use. Place in a glass petri dish a
Close the container and maintain at room temperature,
layer of the solution I /4” (about 6 mm) thick and allow it to
observing reactions daily for 10 days. Particularly observe
evaporate at room temperature. Examine it for amount,
for gas evolution and discoloration of the fluid as well as
tackiness, fluidity, crystallization, etc.
the metal. If the fluid being tested is water miscible, test it
Ideally, the residue should remain liquid, but under some
at several concentrations, such as2, 4, and 1070. Remove
conditions of operation, a solid residue can be tolerated. In any
the metal strips, clean them with a suitable solvent, and
case, the residue should be readily water soluble or emulsifiable.
check for stain and pitting on the surfaces of the strips.
Foaming of water-miscible fluids. Excessive foaming can be
Losses or gains in mass and the influence of water quality
objectionable. Some fluids that are high in wetting-agent
may also be measured.
content or have high “wettability” tend to foam more than those
2. Abrade and clean flat metal specimens. Place drops
that have lower nettability or higher surface tension. Machines
about 1/ 4“ (about 6 mm) diam on the metal surface.
that “whip” air into fluids and do not have sufficient sump
Maintain at room temperature for a 24-hour period. In
capacity for foam subsidence will cause even more foam to be
the case of water mixtures, a beaker can be placed over
generated. Laboratory tests for foaming cannot be used to
the specimen to retard the rate of evaporation. After 24
predict accurately how a fluid will foam in a particular machine
hours, record the amount and type of stain, corrosion, or
tool, but they may give an indication. Some possible foam tests
pitting.
are as follows:
Ferrous metals are generally not stained or corroded by
1. Place 100 ml (about 3.5 OZ) of fluid (emulsion, chemical, anhydrous cutting and grinding fluids. If oil-based fluids
or semichemical) of 1,2, or4% concentration in a 200 ml containing certain types of commonly used sulfur and chlorine
(about 7 OZ)glass-stoppered cylinder. Agitate the cylinder additives become contaminated with water, they will stain and
vigorously for I minute and time the period required for sometimes severly corrode ferrous metals.
the foam to break. A time interval of up to 30 seconds is Usual dilutions of water-miscible fluids should retard rusting
usually acceptable. for periods up to several days. In addition to protecting the
2. Stir a specific volume of fluid at 1, 2, or 4% in an electric machine components, the fluid should protect the metal being
blender or mixer for 5 minutes. Measure the foam machined. Since cast iron is the ferrous metal most susceptible
heights, sizes of bubbles, and rates of break. Run fluids to rusting, it is most commonly used in laboratory corrosion
known to have satisfactory foam characteristics under tests. Typical corrosion tests on cast-iron or other ferrous alloys
the conditions of use for comparison, are as follows:
Chemical tests. The most important chemical tests are those Cast-iron chip test:
for determining pH for water-miscible fluids and those for Materials: Cast-iron chips cut dry, free from rust,
determining the chemical or corrosive attack of fluids on nearly flat, and less than 1/ 4“ (about 6 mm) in length.
metals. Unfortunately laboratory tests cannot always predict They should be well screened to move fines and should be
production results, but they can be a useful guide. kept in a closed container. Prepare emulsions or solutions
pH test. Determine the pH of solutions or emulsions of of the test water-miscible product and, as a standard,
water-miscible fluids at 2 and 470 or at the concentration being prepare emulsions or solutions of a water-miscible
used. The measurement of pH of emulsions in use is helpful for product of known rust-inhibiting quality. The two
controlling the condition of the fluids. A drop in pH of products should be of the same class. Petri dishes—
emulsions is almost universal during use. The pH is measured in approximately 60 mm (2,367 diam and 15 mm (0.59”)
the laboratory with a pH meter and sometimes in the plant with high should be used.
short-range pH paper. Various test papers for pH cover a range Method: Shake the container of chips so that fines
from 2 to 11 or 12. Usually, these papers are accurate to within settle to the bottom. (If fine cast-iron dust is on the chip,
I / 2 pH, but they should not be used for testing cutting fluids rust is greatly accelerated and test results will show poor
containing dyes. The addition of soda ash or borax will raise the correlation. ) From the top, take a teaspoonful of chips
pH. The supplier should be consulted before making such and place them in a petri dish. Fill the dish with the test
additions. emulsion; and with the fingers covering the top, shake
pH is the concentration of hydrogen (acid) or hydroxyl well, up and down, and from side to side. Invert the dish
(alkaline) ions and is represented by the logarithmic pH scale. and drain well by shaking. Again add the emulsion,
Water normally has a neutral pH of 7. A solution with a pH of 8, Repeat the process twice. Drain well after the third time
therefore, has ten times as many hydroxyl ions as a solution and tap the dish to spread the chips well.
with a pH of 7—it is ten times more alkaline. Cutting fluids For a full comparison, emulsions should be tested at
should generally have an initial pH between 8 and 9. The concentrations varying from 1 to 109., For inplant use,
spoilage range of cutting fluids is usually between 7 and 9. the important test concentration is that at which the
Above 9.5 the tendency for spoilage is not as great, but fluids emulsion is to be used.
with a pH of 9 or 10 may be damaging to the skin of operators. Now place the petri dishes in a place free from drafts
(The natural pH of the skin is 6.8.) and in a noncorrosive atmosphere and allow the chips to
Corrosion tests. No fluids should corrode metals being dry at room temperature.
machined or ground, nor should they corrode the machine When the chips are thoroughly dry, examine them
tools. In fact, they should retard the corrosion of metals. before stirring. Especially note the presence or absence of
4-29
CHAPTER 4
chip sticking and bottom rust on the glass. Now stir the their tendency to undergo mutation, as well as the unavailability
chips well and estimate and record the approximate of any bactericide or combination of bactericide that can kill
percent of rusted chips. all organisms. If an objectionable odor develops the manufac-
Normally the humidity is a minor factor, since a turer of the cutting fluid being used should be contacted.
standard is run at the same time, The chips usually dry
overnight or within 24 hours. Should the humidity be Analyzing Factors Influencing Fluid Life
high and the drying time greater than 24 hours, the test Figure 4-12 illustrates a cutting fluid evaluation chart that can
should be rerun when the humidity is lower. be used to record and analyze factors when gaging the overall
Since this test is always run against a known standard performance of a cutting fluid .2aThe chart is particularly useful
at the same time, it gives a good overall picture of a in establishing a systematic record-keeping procedure for test
water-soluble product’s rust-preventive qualities. A1low- and performance data. Troubleshooting cutting fluid problems
ance must be made for conditions of use. is made easier through the use of such a chart. The lubrication
Products which form opaque or milky emulsions engineer or supplier’s technical serviceman, when armed with
leave an oily film on work, and this oily film will give data in the cutting fluid evaluation chart, is in an excellent
some protection against rust. These products might show position to evaluate the status of a cutting fluid system and to
some rust at 3 to 5Yc on this cast-iron chip test and still diagnose problem areas. The chart can be used as is or can be
give adequate rust protection in actual use. modified by the user to include only those columns most
The required degree of rust inhibition must be deter- meaningful to a particular situation. The following sections
mined by the user. Convey orized operations, for example, describe the chart and indicate data that should be specified to
give fewer rust problems than operations in which parts establish a complete record.
are stacked or placed in tote boxes. Identification. All information describing the system being
This cast-iron chip rust test should be used in conjunc- studied should be recorded, including the system or machine
tion with the drop-stain test on a cast-iron block or a number, capacity, mix ratio, cutting fluid name and manufac-
sample of workpiece material. Together, the two tests turer. Accurate capacity definition is critically important
give a good indication of the rust-preventive qualities of because the volume of the system determines the addition rate
any water-miscible product. Cast iron has properties that of the oil and additives for makeup. The optimum oil/water
make it unique when compared with other metals. For ratio (which’should be the starting ratio) should be noted as well
this reason, cast iron corrosion tests should be used only as the name of the cutting fluid, so that anyone having to make
for evaluations when cast iron is the work material to be additions to the system will know which product to use.
used in production. Fluids that perform satisfactorily on Date. All entries to the chart should be dated to ensure
steel, aluminum, brass, titanium, etc., may not perform proper evaluation of time-related variables.
well when used with cast iron. Cast iron corrosion tests pH. A record of the pH is essential in monitoring the
exhibit little practical value if used to attempt to extrapo- bacteria count. If the starting pH is 9 and two weeks later a
late cast iron results to other materials, such as high- check reveals a drop to 8 or 7.5, the bacteria count has probably
temperature alloys or high-strength aircraft steels. increased significantly. Chemically treated pH paper usually
2. Drop-stain test: provides sufficient accuracy in testing.
Materials: Freshly ground cast-iron blocks of approxi- Oil/water ratio. Recording the mix ratio over time is
mately x2 x3/4’’(5l x 51 x 19 mm). Test emulsion and important in analyzing fluid life. Too lean a mix may decrease
standard emulsion of known rust-inhibiting quality at tool life and cause flash rusting, and too rich a mix may decrease
concentrations of 1- IOYO. cooling qualities and waste concentrate. A number of emulsion-
Method: Place three large and separated drops of stability tests described previously can be used for analysis.
emulsion on the surface of the freshly ground block and Corrosion. Anticorrosion properties can be affected by
cover the block with a 400 ml (about 14 OZ) dry, clean, excessive bacterial growth which may break down rust inhibitors
inverted beaker. Let it stand at room temperature in a and/ or cause imbalance in the oil/water ratio. Corrosion tests
draft-free room until dry. Examine for rust or stain described in previous sections can be used effectively for
development. For a good indication of rust protection, at evaluating corrosion characteristics of used cutting fluids over
least three duplications of this test should be made. time.
Inconsistencies due to variations in preparation of ground Odors. The presence and type of offensive odor should be
blocks may be observed. recorded on the chart when it occurs. Odors are indications of
Interpretation: No water-miscible fluid should be excessive bacterial growth.
used at concentrations that cause staining or rusting on Machining qualities. As microbes in cutting fluids multiply,
the particular metal, especially if the parts are to be they often destroy the ingredients which affect the lubrication
stacked or stored in tote bins, etc., with the fluid residue qualities of the fluid. Extremely high levels of bacteria can
on them. reduce the cooling properties of the fluid. Noticeable affects of
Microbiological tests. Resistance to microbiological attack such fluid degradation on tool life, surface finish, etc., should be
is an important property of water-miscible cutting fluids, recorded.
Microbiological attack may cause annoying odors, a reduction Workpiece material. The material being machined should be
in corrosion protection, emulsion stability, lubrication, and recorded and monitored. Cutting fluid performance may vary
overall cutting efficiency. significantly from material to material.
Laboratory tests are available to measure the resistance of Cutting fluid appearance. All changes in the appearance of
cutting fluids to microbiological attack;ZT however, the results the cutting fluid should be recorded. Dyes in fluids sometimes
of the tests do not always correlate satisfactorily with plant mask graying of the fluid as metal fines build up. Some of the
experience. This is due to the large variety of organisms and dyes used are pH sensitive.
4-30
CHAPTER 4
.-G
4-31
CHAPTER 4
HEALTH AND SAFETY ASPECTS
Bactericide level. When possible, the level of bactericide in United States alone. It is not the purpose nor intent of this
the fluid should be analyzed and recorded. This is important presentation to add to the ample body of papers and articles
whether short or long-life bactericide are used. dealing with the effects of metalworking fluids on skin. It is,
Concentration addition. This column should be used to however, important to note that with skin disorders being the
indicate the amount of concentrate added to the system. Along most reported form of occupational illness, much testing and
with the oil/water ratio, this amount shows how long the formulating activity will be directed to this area. Given the
emulsion is lasting. broad range of operations to which cutting fluids and lubricants
Water addition. The addition of water should be accurately are applied, there are very specific routes for these products to
noted. Without accurate records of water additions, concen- interface with highly complex human biology. These are:
tration and oil/ water ratio analyses cannot be effective.
1. Skin or dermal contact (cutaneous and subcutaneous
Bactericide addition. Any time a bactericide is added to the
system interaction and potential involvement with the
system, it should be recorded. Gaging the impact of any product
circulatory system).
on the system is impossible unless addition rates are analyzed
2, Oral ingestion (direct intake into the digestive system).
along with the other factors.
3. Inhalation (potential contact of the respiratory system to
Other additions. On occasion when other additives are used
foreign materials and potential passage of these materials
to raise pH, to improve wetting properties, or to obtain better
to the cardio-vascular system).
corrosion protection, the amounts of the additions should be
4. Eye contact (penetration of the protective fluid film
noted on the chart.
re-suiting in temporary discomfort and irritation and
Comments. Other tests may have important meaning for
potential chronic effects).
specific situations. Measurements of particle size, metal fine
buildup, etc., should be recorded if useful. This column should Types of Risks
also be used to record data such as notations on machine A key element in defining the health and safety aspects of
performance, unusually long shutdowns, and dates when the cutting fluids or any type of industrial chemical is that there are
system is drained, flusbed, and cleaned. two different types of risks associated with their use. The
situations in which the risk of harm is immediate or readily
apparent are known as acute risks. These include the type of risk
HEALTH AND SAFETY ASPECTS OF that is associated with having a highly active straight cutting oil
CUTTING FLUIDS AND INDUSTRIAL or highly alkaline synthetic cutting fluid contact the eye of a
LUBRICANTS machine tool operator not wearing safety glasses either through
For the past decade, a number of approaches have been put conscious decision or outright forgetfulness. The effect is
forward in response to increasing concern over safety and almost immediately noted by either irritation or encountering a
health hazards in the workplace. These approaches have, in the long-term burning sensation and/ or nonpermanent vision
main, come from government agencies holding a congressional problems. Other risks are not so obvious or immediate. These
mandate for these activities. There are widely divergent points are long term in the making and may arise from constant
of view as to whether past activities have had any substantiative exposure to materials over extremely long periods of time
impact on the core issue—are health and safety problems through any of the routes listed previously. These are known as
created by products found in the workplace environment, and if chronic risks and are more recently recognized problems.
so, what can be done to mitigate the impact on workers? In both acute risk and chronic risk cases, attempts to clarify
The fundamental issue that is addressed here is that regardless the risks attendant in using cutting fluids of any type have been
of ongoing government regulatory activities, whether federal, relegated to the phalanx of animal tests that have been specified
state or local, there is now a heightened worker awareness of under the U.S. Federal Hazardous Substances Acts. These are:
job-related health threats. And, the concern over chemical
1. Acute Oral Toxicity—16 CFR 1500.3 (c)(1 & 2).
hazards and the general product safety issue will probably not 2. Acute Inhalation Toxicity—16 CFR 1500.3 (c) (1 & 2).
fade from the scene in the very near future. Former OSHA
3. Acute Dermal Toxicity— 16 CFR 1500.40.
Director, Eula Bingham, commented that her biggest
4. Primary Skin Irritation—16 CFR 1500.41.
accomplishment was “raising the consciousness of American
5. Acute Eye Irritation— 16 CFR 1500.42.
workers to health and safety issues. ” How will this find focus
relative to the activities of producers as well as users of cutting For acute risks, many of these tests do give some indication
fluids and lubricants? One key element will be related to the of the type of activity that can be expected under fairly narrow
development of personnel and environmentally compatible conditions should the fluid enter the system in the manner
cutting fluids and lubricants. Part of the push forthesetypes of described. In contrast, it has been more difficult and, in fact, the
products will eminate from ongoing regulatory activities source of great controversy to demonstrate cause and effect
regardless of the government’s attempt to reduce this element, with respect to animal testing and chronic health hazards in
and another part will hinge on ethical concerns. human beings.
To those in the cutting fluid and lubricant production and
use areas, it comes as no surprise that of all occupational Health and Safety Legislation
injuries and illnesses, skin disease and disorders account for In view of the potential problem with the use of chemicals,
more than 40% of all reported occupational diseases. The exact various acts have been passed to protect human health and the
figure may never be known as recent work by the National environment. Under the Occupational Safety and Health Act,
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (N1OSH) verified Toxic Substances Control Act and the Resource Conservation
certain hypotheses that much occupational disease is never and Recovery Act, a regulatory framework has been developed.
recognized. However, NIOSH estimates that 780,000 persons The Occupational Safety and Health Act created a series of
are occupationally exposed to cutting fluids each year in the health and safety standard regulations covering personal protec-
4-32
CHAPTER 4
tive clothing, fire standards, ventilation, specific chemical passed “Worker Right To Know” laws. These laws require
substances, etc. employers to train their workers in the safe use of chemicals and
Mist generation is a common occurrence with the use of to tell them of the specific chemicals which they are using and
cutting fluids. Occupational Safety and Health Administration any hazards associated with those chemicals. This increases the
(OSHA) standards call for a threshold limit value (TLV) of 5 worker’s ability to make proper decisions regarding the use
mg/ m3 (3 x 10-7 lb/ ftq) for oil mist. Oil mists such as those from and/ or misuse of chemicals.
straight oils may have a tendency to cause irritation to the
respiratory tract. This TLV is intended to protect the worker by Manufacturing Practices
requiring ventilation to keep the amount of mist in the air below Prudence dictates that contact between the worker and the
the TLV level. While there are no standards for synthetic cutting fluid should be kept to a minimum. This can be
cutting fluids, the amount of mist generated should be limited. accomplished by (1) minimizing misting and (2) imposing
No discussion regarding the health and safety of cutting physical shielding between the operation and/ or the fluid and
fluids would be complete without some mention of the the operator.
“nitrosamine controversy. ”ln 1976, NIOSH issued an advisory This advice is not based on known or anticipated toxicity. A
which stated that under certain conditions ofp H, temperature, hazard analysis of metalworking fluids states that exposure to
etc., combinations of alkanolamines and nitrites could form oil mists at current (typical) levels is not harmful to the
compounds known as nitrosamines, which exhibit carcinogenic respiratory tract and, in spite of known carcinogens in some
characteristics in animals. The alkanolamine/ nitrite package petroleum oils, the level of skin cancer in this work force is not
had been a basic component of water-expendable machining significantly higher than in the general population. zqHowever,
and grinding fluids for some years. There was obviously there are well-known dermatological problems associated with
considerable concern regarding this advisory, and it is of exposure to straight oils (see Table 4-7), although the use of
interest to note that without any strict regulations eminating straight oils is not as significant as in past years.
from this advisory, amine/ nitrite combinations have essentially
been eliminated from machining and grinding fluids and new
TABLE 4-7
materiaIs are used in their place. At this point, it is still not
Cutting Fluids: Actions on Metal and Skin
known whether nitrosamines are indeed carcinogenic and
present any health threat or hazard to humans.
Tv~es of Cuttine Fluids
The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) was enacted in
1976 to cover all the gaps in the existing laws. There are a Straight Oils Water-Miscible
number of provisions of this act which will help to develop safer Insoluble Oils Soluble Oils
cutting fluids. Action/ Synthetic Fluids
Under TSCA, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Effect Semisvnthetic Fluids
has the authority to require health testing of various materials
and, if appropriate, to restrict the use, require the labeling of the Action 1, Cool the cutting tool, prolonging tool life
compound, or even ban the use of a material. Chlorinated on metal 2. Lubricate, which minimizes heat due to friction
benzenes, alkyl phthalates, and dichloromethane are examples 3. Anti-rust action
of materials under question. 4. Flush away metal chips
Another provision of TSCA is the Premanufacture Notifi- Action on Mechanical blockage Solvent and alkaline
cation Program. Under this provision, manufacturers must Skin of the follicular actions cause
submit health and environmental data prior to the start of orifices demeasine of skin
manufacturing a new material. The EPA has 90 days in which to
Effect on Oil acne: comedones Eczematous contact
perform a risk assessment. Based on the risk assessment, the
Skin and folliculitis dermatitis: irritant
EPA can allow full production, limit production, limit use of
and allergic
the new material, require labeling, or ban production of the
material. This provision will allow for both the development of
safer materials and the ability to immediately see the hazards
Dermatitis
associated with the material prior to human injury or environ-
The major concern currently relates to water-miscible fluids
mental damage,
and problems, either real or anticipated, associated with them.
There are a number of other provisions under TSCA which
Because of the relatively high pH (8.5-9.5) and low surface
call for the immediate reporting of health hazards, employee
tension of water-miscible fluids, continually exposed skin
protection, and employer duties to protect workers and the
readily loses its protective oil layer, becoming dry and sensitive.
environment.
This condition is frequently aggravated by exposure to organic
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act is a waste
(nonaqueous) solvents, metal fine, grinding grit, and high-pH,
disposal act. At the present time, only regulations covering
abrasive soap.
hazardous wastes have been developed. These regulations
Dermatitis is much simpler to prevent than to treat. In
create a cradle-to-grave tracking system for hazardous wastes in
addition, treatment takes time away from the workplace if the
order to prevent midnight dumping and occurrences such as
condition is severe. Prevention can be achieved by the following
those that took place at Love Canal and Kentucky Valley of
practices:
Drums. The benefit of this type of regulation will be the
conservation of our natural resources, safer disposal, and the 1. Fluids at use concentration should not be excessively
development of products which do not cause an environmental irritating.
hazard when disposed of. 2. Fluids should not exceed recommended concentration
Recently, a number of states and local communities have levels.
4-33
CHAPTER 4
3. Hypersensitive operators should be prescreened or mation of data should be done with a standard microbial
transferred. laboratory from time-to-time.
4. Fluids should be physically cleaned—fines and tramp oil
removed. Individual Sumps vs. Central Systems
5. Suitable barrier cream should be provided. These are not There are differences between microbiological problems
universal; water-insoluble cream should be used for involving small, individual sumps (about 100 gal, 380 L) and
water-miscible fluids. and water-soluble cream for oils. those involving large, central, recirculating systems (more than
6. Protective gloves should be provided. 10,000 gal, 38 kl). In large systems a significant part of the total
7. Mildly abrasive cornmeal soap with low pE (about 5.6) volume is always in the sump and not in circulation, and the
should be provided. turnover rate (the residence time) is much lower, as low as IOvo
8, The work force should be educated as to he value of weekly; whereas in small systems the total volume in machine
good personal hygiene. sumps is circulated, with turnover rates as high as 100% weekly.
However, the time and expense necessary in the monitoring and
treatment of small individual sumps has often resulted in their
Germicides being ignored. Thus, the relative ease of treating very large
Germicides are used to control bacteria, fungi, and yeasts, systems and the economic value in protecting them may have
which grow in water-miscible fluids. There have been no reports been a major factor in the “use, abuse, and dump” philosophy
in scientific literature linking micro-organisms in fluid to associated in the past with individual sumps. However, with
infectious disease in any body site. Infected hair follicles tighter restrictions on industrial waste effluents and the bigher
associated with cutting-fluid contact results from normal skin cost of even the least expensive fluids, greater emphasis is
bacteria occluded by oil. The only reason for germicidal currently on protecting all fluid systems.
treatment is for the control of deterioration—not for the
control of communicable disease.
However, it is important that germicide selection be made on
Types of Organisms in Metalworking Fluids
a rational basis. Foremost, this means making the selection Controlling microbial populations in metalworking fluids is
not always simple since the types and number of organisms
from the approved list of antimicrobial registered for use in
vary,30 There are three major groups of organisms associated
metalworking fluids with the EPA under the Pesticide Act. This
with deterioration of metalworking fluid: aerobic bacteria,
registration assures compliance with toxicological and environ-
anaerobic bacteria, and fungi.
mental testing. It also implies efficacy testing in the fluids.
Aerobic bacteria. In terms of numbers, aerobic bacteria are
the most numerous and possibly the easiest to monitor. Most
Microbiological Testing belong to the group known as the Pseudomonades and sometimes
Most water-miscible fluids support the growth of micro- reach levels as high as 109/ml (3 x 1010/OZ). They are found in
organisms. Many fluid formulators include antimicrobial agents water and soil and in about every environment with even a trace
in the fluid concentrates which should beat optimal levels when of organic material. Their growth rate is increased by aeration.
the fluids are diluted with water. Unfortunately, all fluid Anaerobic bacteria. Anaerobic bacteria grow in the absence
dilutions do not yield optimal levels of germicide and all of oxygen, in the sludge in the bottom of sumps, or under tramp
systems do not guarantee the same residence time; some fluids oil where the oxidation-reduction potential is low. They reduce
are replaced in one week and some in two months. This means sulfate to sulfide, producing the odor of rotten eggs. This sulfide
that germicidal addition may be required for the longer reacts with ferrous material to produce black ferrous sulfide. In
residence times. addition, in oxygen-free areas their metabolic activity can cause
Care should be exercised in selecting the biocide. It should anaerobic corrosion of metal. They are rarely, if ever, seen as
be done after consultation with the formulator, since knowledge the only microbial group and are always accompanied by
of the compatibility of any biocide with the fluid is essential. aerobic bacteria which have previously consumed the dissolved
The biocide added must not be antagonistic to the biocide oxygen. Although they can be kept to a minimum by continual
already in the formulation, aeration of the fluid, this practice tends to stimulate the growth
Two test methods that have good correlation with the field of the aerobic population.
and will help in evaluating biocide performance are ASTM Fungi. Fungi physically are the most noticeable microbial
E686-80: Standard Method for Evacuation of Antimicrobial group. They grow in visible masses on machines, filters, and
Agents in Aqueous Metal Working Fluids; and ASTM D-3946- exposed surfaces. They can plug return lines and can interfere
80: Standard Method for Evaluating the Bioresistance of with filtration. In the case of fungal involvement, prevention is
Water-Soluble Metal- Working Fluids (see “Maintenance of indeed worth every effort.
Cutting Fluids” in this chapter). A good microbiological control program begins with selec-
On a regular basis, at least weekly, systems should be tion of a fluid, with prior knowledge of its relative bioresistance;
monitored for microbiological levels to determine the need for use of high-quality water; and good manufacturing practices
biocide addition. It is now possible to do on-site microbiological that should include maintenance of sanitation and routine
testing with simple, disposable devices without the need for monitoring for micro-organisms of interest (see “Maintenance
special facilities or special personnel. Correlation and cortfir- of Cutting Fluids” in this chapter).
4-34
CHAPTER 4
FUNDAMENTALS OF LUBRICATION
INDUSTRIAL LUBRICANTS
The elements of machines that require lubrication are load-carrying surface area remains essentially constant while
bearings—plain, rolling elements, guides, and ways; gears; the load is increased. Fluid-film journal and slider bearings
spindles; cylinders; flexible couplings; chains; and cams and exhibit conformal surfaces, In journal bearings the radial
cam followers. These elements have fitted or formed surfaces clearance between the shaft and bearing is typically one-
that move with respect to each other by sliding, rolling, thousandth of the shaft diameter; in slider bearings the
approaching and receding or by combinations of these motions. inclination of the bearing surface to the runner is typically one
If actual contact between surfaces occurs, high frictional forces part in a thousand.
leading to high temperatures and wear will result. Therefore, Many machine elements have contacting surfaces that do
the elements are lubricated in order to prevent or reduce the not conform to each other very well. Tbe full burden of the load
actual contact between surfaces. must then be carried by a very small contact area. In general the
With inadequate lubrication, excessive wear of machine contact areas between nonconformal surfaces enlarge con-
parts is usually the most serious consequence because a point siderably with increasing load, but they are still small compared
will be reached, usually after a short period of operation, when with the contact areas between conformal surfaces. Some
the machine elements cannot function and the machine must be examples of these nonconformal surfaces are mating gear teeth,
taken out of service and repaired. Repair costs—material and cams and followers, and rolling-element bearings.
labor—may be high, but the cost of lost production or lost The load per unit area in conformal bearings is relatively
availability of the machine may be the greatest cost by far. With low, typically only 145 psi ( 1 MPa) and seldom over 1 ksi
inadequate lubrication, even before failure of elements occurs, (7 MPa). By contrast, the load per unit area in nonconformal
frictional forces between surfaces may be so great that drive contacts, such as those that exist in ball bearings, will generally
motors will be overloaded or frictional power losses excessive. exceed 100 ksi (700 MPa) even at modest applied loads. These
Finally, with inadequate lubrication, machines will not run high pressures result in elastic deformation of the bearing
smoothly and quietly, materials such that the eliptical contact areas are formed for oil
Machine elements are lubricated by interposing and main- film generation and load support. The significance of the high
taining, between moving surfaces, films that minimize actual contact pressures is that they result in a considerable increase in
contact between the surfaces—films that shear easily, so that fluid viscosity within the contact area. Inasmuch as viscosity is a
the frictional force opposing motion of the surfaces is low. measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow, this increase in viscosity
Although proper lubrication is critically important to the greatly enhances tbe lubricant’s ability to support load without
performance of machine tools and related equipment, cost- being squeezed out of the contact zone.
effective lubrication of machine tools is of more importance Figure 4-13 illustrates the two distinctly different geometries.
than ever before. With the rising cost of oil comes tbe need for On the left is a typical journal bearing; on the right is a rolling-
establishing plant-wide lubrication programs to direct the element bearing. A universal characteristic of the journal
specification and implementation of lubricating products bearing—and other sliding-surface bearings such as pad-thrust
capable of functioning over extended time periods without bearings—is a high degree of conformity between tbe surfaces,
detrimental deterioration. Also of increasing importance is the relatively large effective contact areas, and low unit loading. In
use of more sophisticated filtration and clarification equipment contrast, as mentioned earlier, the rolling-element bearing has
to remove contaminants and to help extend lubricant life. These poor conformity between surfaces, very small contact areas,
trends, along with the increasing interest throughout the and very high unit loads.
metalworking community in waste prevention programs. lubri-
cant reclamation, recycling, etc., highlight the growing impact Hydrodynamic Lubrication
and importance of lubrication technology in the industrial Fluid-film lubrication occurs when the lubricant film is
environment. The purpose of this section is to present the sufficiently thick to prevent the opposing solids from coming
essentials of modern lubrication technology as applied in the into contact. This condition is often referred to as the ideal form
maintenance of industrial equipment. (Lubrication technology of lubrication since it provides low friction and a high resistance
as applied to workpiece and tool lubrication in forming
operations is covered in Volume II of this Handbook. )
?011 ng
FUNDAMENTALS OF LUBRICATION elc~enl
A lubricant is any substance that is used to reduce friction

and wear and to provide smooth running and a satisfactory life
for machine components. This section deals with lubrication
fundamentals and, in particular, defines the various lubrication
mechanisms: hydrodynamic, elastohydrodynamic, mixed, \ Inn.?, I(1:J
boundary, and extreme-pressure (EP).
Bear nq
Conformal and Nonconformal Surfaces

Hydrodynamic lubrication is generally characterized by @@ .+ Rolllng.ele?-etl
surfaces that are conformal. That is, the surfaces fit snugly into bearng berm.g
each other with a high degree of geometrical conformity so that
tbe load is carried over a relatively large area. Furthermore the FIG. 4-13 Comparative bearing geometries.
4-35
CHAPTER 4
to wear. The lubrication of the contact is governed by the bulk Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication
physical properties of the lubricant, notably viscosity; the Elastohydrodynamic lubrication is a form of fluid-film
frictional characteristics arise purely from the shearing of the lubrication in which elastic deformation of the bearing surfaces
viscous lubricant. The characteristics of hydrodynamic lubri- becomes significant. It is usually associated with highly stressed
cation are illustrated in Fig. 4-14. The pressure developed in the machine components of low conformity, such as gears and
oil film of hydrodynamically lubricated bearings is due to the rolling-element bearings. Besides the elastic effect there is a
following two factors: viscous effect; for example, at a pressure of 100 ksi (700 M Pa),
1. The geometry of the moving surfaces produces a which is moderate since the pressure can be as high as 300 ksi
convergent wedge of the liquid. (2100 MPa), the viscosity may be increased 10,000-fold. The
2. The liquid is viscous, which results in a resistance to flow, liquid entering the gap between the gear teeth is trapped
between the surfaces and, at the high pressures existing in the
contact region, acts virtually as a solid separating layer.
Con formol contad
Figure 4-15 demonstrates the contact effects found in elasto-
hydrodvnamc lubrication hydrodynamic lubrication. As the contacts approach, they
force lubricant from between them because of the hydrodynamic
effect, The flow of the lubricant is resisted by viscous forces, and
an accompanying pressure rise occurs that, in turn, raises the
viscosity of the trapped lubricant. As the pressure increases, the
surfaces deform elastically. The increased pressure resulting
from the contact interaction represents load support by the
contacts through the fluid film. Elastohydrodynamic lubrication
normally occurs in contacts where the film thickness is in the
range 3.9-39 p in. (O. 1-1 p m) and the film parameter A is in the
range 3-10. The characteristics . .
of elastohvdrodvnamic lubri-
cati~n arc illustrated in Fig. 4-16.
%zzi#(&e&Wz#f!
Pmox = I ks, (7 MPo)
— -
Vz& m&w
l—
— J—
hm,n = f (W,
hmln == 00012“
N, Geometry, VIscosIty)
(30 p m) 4—
& 5— 6—
FIG. 4-14 Hydrodynamic lubrication. FIG. 4-15 Model illustrating contact interaction.
The lubricant films are normally many times thicker than the The elastohydrodynamic lubrication mechanism is also
surface roughness. The physical properties of the lubricant encountered with soft bearing materials, such as elastomeric
dictate contact behavior. The film thickness normally exceeds seals and rubber tires. The common factors in these applications
40p in. (1 p m). The effect of the surface finish can be related to are that the local elastic deformation of the solids provides
the film thickness by the following equation: coherent fluid film and that contact of asperities (high points on
the surface) is largely prevented. Another feature of the
elastohydrodynamic lubrication of low-elastic-modulus
A= h (3) materials is the negligible effect of the relatively low pressures
h-: ‘f: on viscosity of the lubricating fluid.
where: Boundary Lubrication
h ❑ film thickness If in a lubricated contact the pressures become too high, the
J, y, = rms surface finish of solids a and b running speeds too low, or the surface roughness too great,
penetration of the lubricant film will occur. Contact will take
place between the asperities. The friction will rise and, more
Therefore the film parameter A is a ratio of the film thickness importantly, wear will take place. Adding a small quantity of a
to the composite rms. For hydrodynamic lubrication the film certain active organic compound to the lubricating oil can
parameter is in excess of 10 and may even rise to 100. Films of extend the life of machine elements, These additives are present
this thickness are insensitive to chemical action in surface layers in small quantities, usually less than 1To. They function because
of moiecular proportions. they form low shear strength surface films that are strongly
4-36
CHAPTER 4
attached to the metal surfaces. Although they generally are only

Nonconformol contact
one or two molecules thick, they are able to prevent metal-to-
elastohydrodynamlc
Iubrfcotfon metal contact.
Some boundary lubricants are Iong-chain molecules with an
active end group, typically an alcohol, an amine, or a fatty acid.
When such a material, dissolved in a mineral oil, meets a metal
or other solid surface, the active end group attaches itself to the
solid and gradually builds up a surface layer. The surface films
vary in thickness from 0.2-0.4 p in. (0.005-0.01 p m), and the
film parameter A is less than one.
Mixed-Film Lubrication
The behavior of the conjunction in a mixed-film lubrication
regime is governed by a combination of boundary and hydro-
dynamic or elastohydrodynamic effects. Some asperity contact
may occur. Interaction takes place between one or more
molecular layers of boundary-lubricating films. A partial fluid-
// film lubrication action develops in the bulk of the space between
the solids. The film thickness in a mixed-film lubrication
hmln
contact is less than 0.4 p in. (.01 p m) and greater than 40 p in.
Pmax ~ 300 ks. (2 I00 MPo) (1 ~ m). The film parameter A is normally between 1 and 4.
hm,n = f (W, N, Geometry, Material elcsttc properties,
Figure 4-17 illustrates the film conditions existing in fluid-
Pressure, Vlscosty) film, mixed-film, and boundary lubrication. The surfaces
shown are greatly distorted for purposes of illustration. To
hmln~ll .&3p ln, (03pm) scale, real surfaces would appear as gently rolling hills rather
than sharp peaks.
FIG. 4-16 Ehrstohydrodynamic lubrication.
- BO””dcl,fllm
(a) F1.[dflrn I.brlcotlor—surtoces separated by bulk Iubrlco.t ftlm (b] Mixed-film l~orlcotlon—botb tbe bblk I.brccmt nnd b3Lndar,
‘Ilm ploy o role
(c) Bo.ndory l.bricot[on—per-or’nance esswhally dependent on

boundcm, film
FIG. 4-17 Illustration of conditions existing in fluid-film, mixed- film, and boundary-lubrication regimes.
4-37
CHAPTER 4
TYPES AND PROPERTIES OF LUBRICATING OILS
The variation of the coefficient of friction ~ with the film Many different fluids can be used to formulate oils for
parameter A is shown in Fig. 4-18. In this figure the approximate Itsbricating applications. Conventional mineral oils and so-
locations of the various lubrication regimes already discussed called synthetics, such as synthetic hydrocarbons, diesters,
are shown. This figure shows that, as the film parameter k polyesters, polyglycols, fluorinated compounds, silicones, and
increases, an initial decrease occurs in the coefficient of friction phosphate esters can be used. The synthetics have properties
in the elastohydrodynamic regime, and then an increase occurs which make them particularly effective in specific applications,
in the coefficient of friction in the hydrodynamic regime. although many synthetics are costly and some may not be
readily available.
No simple, generalized criterion can be used for deciding
whether a mineral or synthetic fluid should be used in a
3oundarv
particular application. When temperature extremes are
expected, when a high degree of fire resistance is required, or
when other unusual conditions exist, the use ofa synthetic fluid
with special properties may be required. However, in the
Alxed E ostohydrodynomc Hydrodynom,c majority of applications, conventional mineral oils achieve
satisfactory lubrication at a considerable cost advantage.
-t
The International Organization for Standardization (1S0) is
preparing a system to classify all petroleum products and
synthetics by end-use application. When complete, this system
should be a great aid in selecting lubricating oils. An excellent
source of information regarding selection of lubricating oils for
machine tools is presented in the Standard Handbook of
Lubrication Engineers. 32
/ Properties of Lubricants
Properties associated with lubricants include: viscosity, the
viscosity index, density, flash and fire points, the pour point,
I and properties dependent upon additives.
- Viscosity. The most important property associated with
20 lubricants is that of viscosity. The viscosity of a lubricant has
direct impact on heat generation in bearings, gears, etc., and
~Ilm parameter, A
influences the sealing effect of the lubricant and rate of
—
consumption. Viscosity is also the property which determines
FIG. 4-18 Variation of coefficient of friction with film parameter,
oil-film thickness between lubricated surfaces. The key is to
have viscosity high enough to form the desired film, but not so
Extreme-Pressure [EP) Lubrication high that internal fluid friction results in unnecessary heat
The best boundary lu”bric~nts cease to be effective above generation. In selecting a lubricant for a particular application,
390-480° F (200-250° C) because the softening or melting point definition of required viscosity levels at startup and during
of the surface film is exceeded. If surfaces are to operate under operating conditions is critically important to ensure optimum
more severe conditions, other types of lubricants must be used, lubricant performance.
Extreme-pressure (EP) lubricants usually consist of a small Absolute or dynamic viscosity is determined by measuring
quantity of an EP additive in a lubricating oil. The most widely the force required to overcome fluid friction in a film of
used additives for this purpose contain phosphorus, chlorine, standard dimensional characteristics. Dynamic viscosity is a
and sulfur. In general these materials function by reacting with function only of the internal friction of a fluid. The unit of
the surface to form a surface film that prevents metal-to-metal measurement for dynamic viscosity is usually the poise (P) or
contact at high temperatures. If, in addition, the surface film centipoise; 1 cP= 0.01 P. Pascal-seconds (Pa. s)are used as
formed has a low shear strength, it will not only protect the reporting units in the S1 system; 1 Pa. s ❑ 10 P,
surface, but will also give a low coefficient of friction. A word of Kinematic viscosity that measures viscosity in relation to the
caution: Although EP additives function by reacting with the density of the fluid usually is used to characterize lubricants.
surface, they must not be too reactive or chemical corrosion Kinematic viscosity is the quotient of the fluid’s dynamic
may be more troublesome than friction and wear. viscosity divided by its density, with both measurements taken
at the same temperature and in consistent units. The units of
TYPES AND PROPERTIES OF measurement for kinematic viscosity are usually Stoke (St) or
LUBRICATING OILS centistoke (cSt); 1 cSt ❑ 0.01 St. In the S1 system, mmj/s units
Lubricating oils, in a general sense, include all types of are used; 1 mmz/s ❑ 1 cSt.
lubricating materials that are applied as fluids.Jl Although the Other systems used to characterize viscosity include the
greatest percentage of lubricating oils in use today are obtained Say bolt, Redwood, and Engler systems. However, viscosity
by refining distillate or residual fractions obtained directly from measurements are usually made in centistoke and converted to
crude oil, synthetic lubricants in both lubricating oils and these systems. The use of these other systems of viscosity
greases are growing in use. The properties of mineral lubricating measurement is declining in practice, although Saybolt Secor,ds
oils and synthetic oils are covered in this section; greases are (SSU) are still widely used in the petroleum industry.
covered in the following section. Viscosity-temperature charts,jj developed by the American
4-38
CHAPTER 4
TYPES AND PROPERTIES OF LUBRICATING OILS
Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM), are used to character- of the VI for a particular application is based upon the
ize the change of a fluid’s viscosity as the temperature varies. temperature variation expected in the application. W is less
(Viscosity of a fluid decreases with increasing temperature.) important in constant temperature applications.
These charts are used to define the viscosity of a fluid at Density. The density of a fluid is the mass of a unit volume of
temperatures other than those at which it was originally the fluid at a standard temperature. The specific gravity
measured. The viscosity is measured at two temperatures, then (relative density) is the ratio of the mass of a given volume of
plotted on the special chart. A straight line can be drawn fluid at a standard temperature to the mass of an equal volume
through the measured viscosity points; the line can be used to of water at the same temperature. Hydrometers are used to
read the expected viscosity of the fluid at other temperatures. In obtain density and gravity measurements.
the United States, the two temperatures that have been most Flash and fire points. The temperature at which an oil
used for defining viscosity are 100° F (37.8° C) and 210° F releases sufficient vapor at its surface to ignite when an open
(98.9° C). However, international standardization is progressing flame is applied is called the oil’s flash point. The release of
which calls for reporting temperatures at 40° C ( 104° F) and vapors at the flash temperature will not sustain combustion, but
10tY’C(212° F). at an increased temperature, the fire point of the oil will be
Increasing in use is a viscosity classification system developed reached—that temperature at which sufficient vapors are
jointly by ASTM and the American Society of Lubrication released to sustain combustion, Flash and fire points will vary
Engineers (ASLE) in cooperation with ISO that establishes a depending upon the methodology used to obtain the
series of viscosity levels to be used for specifying and selecting measurements, The flash point of a petroleum oil usually varies
industrial lubricants. The system is presented in ASTM D 2422, with viscosity, with high-viscosity oils having higher flash
American National Standard Z 11.232. Table 4-8 shows the points. Naphthenic oils generally have lower flash points than
viscosity ranges and identifying grade numbers established for paraffinic oils. (Naphthenic and paraffinic oils are discussed in
the 1S0 viscosity (ISO-Vis.) system. later sections.)
TABLE 4-8
Viscosity System for industrial Fluid Lubricants
Kinematic Viscositv Limits

Midpoint Viscosity cSt (mmZ/s) ~
Viscosity System Grade cSt (mm2/s) @ 40.0° C ( 104° F)
Identification 40.(F’C (104° F) Min Max
1S0 VG 2 2.2 1.98 2.42
1S0 VG 3 3.2 2.88 3.52
1S0 VG 5 4.6 4.14 5.06
1S0 VG 7 6.8 6.12 7.48
ISO VG 10 10 9.00 11.0
ISO VG 15 15 13.5 16.5
1S0 VG 22 22 19.8 24.2
1S0 VG 32 32 28.8 35.2
1S0 VG 46 46 41.4 50.6
ISO VG 68 68 61.2 74.8
1S0 VG 100 100 90.0 110
1S0 VG 150 150 135 165
1S0 VG 220 220 198 242
1S0 VG 320 320 288 352
1S0 VG 460 460 414 506
1S0 VG 680 680 612 748
1S0 VG 1000 1000 900 1100
ISO VG 1500 1500 1350 1650
Viscosity index. Oils of different composition exhibit From the user’s standpoint, flash and fire points of
different rates of change of viscosity with changes in temper- lubricating oils may be useful considerations, especially in high-
ature. The viscosity index (VI) is a method of applying a temperature applications. In such instances, the use of a low
quantitative value to this rate of change. The index is based on a flash point oil (higher volatility), may result in higher oil
comparison of the relative rates of change of two arbitrarily consumption. Generally, flash and fire points are of limited
selected types of oils that differ widely in the characteristic of value in judging whether fire-resistant oils are safe near possible
viscosity vs. temperature, A higher VI means that the oil has a ignition points in the plant. A lower than normal flash point or a
relatively lower rate of change of viscosity with temperature. drop in the flash point may indicate the presence of fuel or
Lubricating oils typically exhibit VIS from slightly below O solvent dilution.
to slightly above 100. Some synthetic lubricating oils have VIS Pour point. The lowest temperature at which an oil will pour
above and below this range, Additives called VI improvers can when it is cooled without disturbance is called the oil’s pour
be used to extend VIS well above 100. Obviously, the significance point. Oils free of wax will thicken due to increases in viscosity
4-39
CHAPTER 4
as the temperature is lowered. However, most petroleum oils These considerations have made synthetic oils an integral
contain some dissolved wax that causes further thickening. As part of modern lubrication practices. (Parts of this section are
the oil is cooled, the wax crystallizes and traps oil within its presented with permission from “Synthetic Oils” by R. E.
structure, thereby thickening the oil. Pour-point depressants Hatton.jg)
(additives) interfere with the crystallization of wax in the oil, Classification of synthetic oils. Two classification systems
and help decrease the pour point of the oil. Oils that do not are normally employed when considering synthetic oils. Syn-
contain wax will not be significantly affected by the addition of thetics can be grouped in terms of specific operating properties
pour-point depressants, such as viscosity, temperature range, volatility, density, etc., or
The significance of pour points of oils is entirely dependent they can be classified in terms of their chemical structure. Each
upon the intended use of the oil. In general, oil with a low pour system exhibits advantages and disadvantages. Classification of
point need not be specified for an application inside a heated synthetics by specific operating properties is most useful as a
plant. guide to selection, but a grouping by chemical structure
Other properties. Many of the additional properties of presents the most logical development.
lubricating oils—oxidation resistance, detergency and dis- The field of synthetic lubricants is comprised of hundreds of
persancy, rust protection, extreme-pressure and antiwear organic and semiorganic compounds that cannot be easily
characteristics, emulsibility, antifoaming, and adhesiveness— classified within the scope of this presentation. The purpose of
are functionally dependent on additives (see “Additives for this section is to provide a brief introduction and to present a
Industrial Lubricants” in this chapter). brief summary of the properties of some of the more popular
synthetics (see Table 4-9).
Refined Petroleum Oils
Synthetic hydrocarbons. These are compounds containing
Refined petroleum oils fall into two basic categories:
only carbon and hydrogen that are prepared by chemical
paraffinic and naphthenic oils. Paraffinic oils are characterized
reactions starting with low-molecular-weight materials. Syn-
by pour points, usually O to 20° F (-17,8 to -6.7° C), and
thetic hydrocarbons typically possess narrower boiling ranges
moderate change in viscosity with increase in temperature. In
for a given viscosity than petroleum oils. Their compatibility
general VIS will range from 85-100. Paraffirric oils have a lower
with other fluids, corrosivity, etc., are similar to mineral oils.
density than naphthenic oils. Naphthenic oils are characterized
The primary reasons for preparing synthetic hydrocarbons
by pour points from -60 to +lfP F (-50 to -12° C) and larger
for use as lubricants is that chemical synthesis provides specific
change in viscosity with increase in temperature. In general, VIS
structures and characteristics, and molecular weight can be
will range from 0-60. Both naphthenic and paraffinic oils have a
controlled within very narrow ranges. Therefore, properties
wide range of flash and fire points.
that are functions of molecular weight, such as vapor pressure,
Paraffinic oils are high in paraffin hydrocarbons and
boiling point, viscosity, and low-temperature characteristics,
contain some wax. Naphthenic oils are high in napthenic
can be controlled within narrow ranges.
hydrocarbons and contain very little wax. In applications that
Organic esters. The term organic esters is applied to those
operate over a wide range of temperatures, a naphthenic oil
materials that consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and
would generally be less suitable than a paraffinic oil. Naphthenic
contain an ester or carboxyl linkage in the molecule. The most
products are usually used in applications exhibiting a limited
widely used as lubricants are those that contain two ester groups
range of operating temperatures and when a relatively low pour
and are made from dibasic acids. They are commonly called
point is required. Also, naphthenic oils tend to swell seal
diesters. Diesters are the most widely used synthetic lubricants.
materials more than most paraffinic oils.
The esters have a good overall balance of properties,
Synthetic Oils particularly in liquid range and in viscosity-volatility charac-
Synthetic lubricants have the potential of satisfying a wide teristics, They possess fair lubricity due to good response to
range of requirements, since they can be formulated with nearly additives. Aliphatic diesters are thermally stable to about 500° F
any desired range of a specific property. However, certain other (260° C), but are exceedingly vulnerable to oxidation above
properties fixed by the chemical structures must be accepted in 300° F ( 149° C). This results in increased viscosity, and the
many cases. Applications must be considered in terms of all generation of oil insoluble and large amounts of acid or
properties associated with the proposed synthetic fluid. corrosive material,
Choosing the right synthetic fluid can be tricky because to get Polyol esters were developed to improve upon the thermal
special characteristics, the user usually must trade off some stability of the diesters while maintaining other desirable
other performance feature, Generally, synthetics have good properties. However, they are poorer on low-temperature
thermal and oxidation stability, but a common weakness is performance. The polyol esters are used in other applications
limited lubricity. requiring enhanced thermal stability.
The selection of a synthetic lubricating oil is a complex Polyglycols. The polyalkylene glycols are the most widely
process. Generally, the industrial user is encouraged to seek the used of this class. They are high-molecular-weight polymers of
technical guidance of the supplier when a synthetic lubricant is ethylene or propylene oxide, which are available in a wide range
under consideration. of viscosities. Some polymers are completely soluble in water
Many items of machinery that would be unable to function if and are often diluted and used as fire-resistant hydraulic fluids
their only source of lubricant was petroleum oil now operate or lubricants. Another type of polyglycol is insoluble in water
satisfactorily. Also, synthetic oils have improved performance and is used as a lubricant base stock.
of equipment, making the machines more economical and The polyglycols are excellent lubricants and respond well to
productive. In general, synthetic oils cost more per unit volume additives. They have high flash points, good viscosity-temper-
than the petroleum oils they replace. However, the real va]ue of ature properties, low wax-free pour points, and shear stability.
the lubricant must be calculated on a price-to-performance They have little or no adverse effect on many of the common
basis. seal materials, but have a strong solvent action on nonresistant
4-40
CHAPTE R4
TABLE4-9
Comparative Ratings ofSynthetic Lubricants
Property
u
u
Class c
a
.-s
;
.-2
P.
Petroleum oils . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . G G G F F E Y- A H L G
Super-refined petroleum oils . .. . . . . . . . . . . . E G G G F E L L H L G
Synthetic hydrocarbons . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . G G G G F E L L H L G
Organic esters . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . G E G F F F L A A A G
Polyglycols . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . G G G F F G L L A A G
Polyphenyl ethers .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P G P E G E L A H H G
Phosphate esters, alkyl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G G G F G F H A L H G
Phosphate esters, aryl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F P P G G F H L L H G
Silicate esters andpolysiloxanes ........ E E E G F P L A L A F
Silicones . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . E E E G G G L L L A G
Silanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . G G G G F E L H L L G
Halogenated polyaryls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G G F G G E H H L H G
Fluorocarbons . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F G F G G F H A L H F
Perfluoropolyglycols ........................ F G G G G G H A L H G
— — —
Ratings: E ❑ excellent, G = good, F ❑ fair, P ❑ poor, H = high, L ❑ low, A ❑ average.
paints. Volatility can be a problem, particularly under severe directlv to the silicon atoms. Dimethvl silicones are charac-
thermal and oxidative conditions, Stability characteristics, terized by low freezing points and probably the best viscosity-
even when improved with appropriate additives, are not temperature properties of any synthetic lubricant. They have
outstanding among the synthetics. Rust-preventing character- better thermal and oxidative properties than corresponding
istics are generally poor. hydrocarbons, polyglycols, or aliphalic diesters, they can form
Polyglycols are used as industrial lubricants in rubber gels when permitted to degrade excessively, particularly above
processing applications, machining lubricants, lubricants for 400° F (204° C). Stabilization is possible, permitting properly
rubber seals, and in heat-transfer applications. inhibited fluids to be used at temperatures as high as 600° F
Phosphate esters. The phosphate esters are a diverse group (3150c).
of chemical compounds varying widely in physical and chemical The dimethyl silicones are chemically inert, noncorrosive,
characteristics. The oxidative stability of most phosphate esters and inert to most common plastics, elastomers, and paints.
is good; the thermal stability is excellent at medium temper- They have low surface tension and are shear stable. Their major
atures, but poorer at higher temperatures, In severe applications, shortcoming is their lack of steel-on-steel lubricating ability.
extensive thermal, oxidative, or hydrolytic breakdown of the They show relatively weak response to the usual lubricating
phosphate esters can form acidic substances that may corrode additives. Lubricating properties of silicones can be improved
metals. The outstanding properties of phosphate esters are their by incorporating chlorine or fluorine into the molecule.
ability to lubricate moving surfaces and their good fire resistance. Silanes. The silanes are compounds that contain only
They are used as the sole component or as the major component carbon-silicon bonds. These products possess wide liquid
of synthetic lubricants and hydraulic fluids. They are also ranges and thermal stabilities up to 700° F(371° C), but they are
widely used as an additive in both synthetic lubricants and poor lubricants for sliding surfaces.
petroleum oils. The phosphate esters require special considera- Halogen-containing compounds. The incorporation of
tion with respect to material compatibility—proper material halogen atoms into organic molecules resuks in higher densities
matching is critical to successful performance. and reduced flammability compared to the parent compound.
Silicon-containing compounds. One of the more fruitful Chlorine tends to increase the pour point and viscosity.
areas of research in modifying the carbon, hydrogen, and Fluorine has little influence on the pour point or viscosity;
oxygen compounds has been the inclusion of silicon in the however, it greatly decreases surface tension.
molecule. Chlorine-aliphatic carbon bonds are generally weak;
Silicate esters. These synthetics have found use as base therefore, chlorinated aliphatic compounds have found little
stocks for wide temperature range fluids and lubricants. They use as synthetic lubricants, per se. They have found use in
have excellent viscosity-temperature characteristics and good lubricants as additives to provide a source of chlorine that can
lubricating properties. be reacted with the surface to improve boundary lubrication.
Silicones. Properly called siloxane polymers, silicones are Fluorine-containing materials have not found particular
characterized by the nature of the substituents that are attached application as lubricants, because on a price-to-performance
4-41
CHAPTER 4
LUBRICATING GREASES
basis, the desired properties can better be obtained by other not include all the promising classes nor do they include aIl
materials. those that have been previously studied. Table 4-10 provides a
Halogenated polyaryls. The chlorine-containing biphenyls brief summary of applications of the more welI-known synthetic
and polyphenyls have found some use as lubricants. These lubricants.
products range from mobile liquids to tacky solids. In the past, LUBRICATING GREASES
they have found use as lubricant base stocks, heat-transfer
A lubricating grease is a lubricating oil to which material
agents, industrial lubricants, and additives. However, these uses has been added to thicken it to a semifluid or solid state. It may
are now prohibited because of potential environmental prob- also contain additives to enhance specific properties, such
lems. Common terminology for these materials is PCB. as oxidation stability, rust-preventive ability, and extreme-
Fluorocarbons. Fluorocarbons are compounds containing pressure (EP) capability. A more comprehensive definition,
only fluorine and carbon. Such compounds have been made which includes the functional requirements of a lubricating
and proposed as synthetic lubricant base stocks. In general, grease, is offered by Void and VoldJj who state:
they are thermally and oxidatively stable and have physical
properties quite similar to those of the corresponding hydro- A grease is a lubricant which has been thickened in order
carbons, except they have a higher density and lower surface that it remain in contact with the moving surfaces and not
tension. They have a tendency to creep over surfaces, but do not leak out under gravity or centrifugal action, or be squeezed
appear to wet them in terms of boundary lubrication. Such out under pressure. Thus a major practical problem is the
compounds are particularly useful because of their extreme provision of a structure [grease formulation] which will
chemical inertness, These compounds are resistant to ignition stand up under shear, and at all temperatures to which it may
by any source and represent some of the most fire-resistant be subjected during use. At the same time the grease must be
organic compounds known, able to flow into the bearing through ‘grease guns’from spot
Recent studies have been concentrated on the tetrafluoro- to spot in the lubricated machine as needed, and must not of
ethylene polymers. These have been used as liquid oxygen- itself add significantly to the power required to operate the
resistant fluids, lubricants, and greases. machine, particularly at the start. This is an exacting set of
Although not strictly fluorocarbons, the chlorotrifluoro- theological requirements.
ethylene polyers have found some applications and are better Lubricating greases are preferred to oil when the application
lubricants than fluorocarbons because the reactivity of chlorine of a continuous supply of oil is impractical. Greases are also
toward metals is greater than that of fluorine. These materials preferred when equipment is not readily accessible and when a
generally have similar properties to the fluorocarbons, but are sufficiently tight enclosure for retaining oil does not exist.
significantly less stable.
Perfluoropolygly cols. The perfluoropolyglycols are poly- Thickeners
alkyleneglycols in which all the hydrogens have been substituted A major factor influencing the properties of a lubricating
by fluorines. These types of products derived from propylene grease is the thickener employed in it. Thickeners compose
oxide are under consideration for a number of applications. 5-17% of a simple grease formulation. Ninety percent of all
Their primary advantages are high thermal stability, extreme greases sold in the United States are based on what is termed
fire resistance, relatively good liquid range, and moderate metallic soap. Soaps utilized in lubricating greases are produced,
lubricating characteristics. However, they lack stability in the during grease manufacturing, by saponifying (neutralizing)
presence of certain commonly used high-temperature metals, fats; compounds (neutralizers) most commonly used are the
have high specific gravities, and do not respond to common hydroxides of lithium, calcium, sodium, barium, and aluminum,
additives. Studies are underway to improve performance in The saponifiable compounds include tallow, lard oil, hydro-
these areas. genated fats and oils, fish oil, fatty acids, and vegetable oils. The
Miscellaneous compounds. The chemical classes mentioned two most commonly used fatty acids are stearic and
previously include those that provide the majority of the 12-hydroxystearic.
synthetic lubricant base stocks in use today. However, they do During the grease manufacturing process, the oil and fatty
TABLE 4-10
Typical Application for Synthetic Lubricants
Lubricants
Synthetic Poly-
Hydro- Polyol Alkylene Phosphate
Application Carbons Diesters Ester Glycol Silicone Ester
Air Compressor ● ● ● ● ● ●
Chain ● ● ●
Diesel Crankcase ● ● ●
Gasoline Crankcase ● ● ●
Gas Turbine ● ● ● ●
Gear ● ●
High Temperature ● ● ● ●
Low Temperature ● ● ● ●
Steam Turbine ●
Vacuum Pump ● ● ●
4-42
CHAPTER 4
LUBRICATING GREASES
acids are heated to 275-300° F (135-150° C), at which time the about 500° F (26W C) or higher. This permits their use in
alkaline compound is added and saponification occurs. The applications in which the temperature may at times exceed the
water resulting from thechemical reaction is boiled off. melting point of the simple soap thickeners. Generally, if these
The amount of fatty acid and metal hydroxide added to the greases are used in sustained service above about 250° F
oil determines the amount of soap formed. The soap is the ( 120° C), frequent relubrication is needed unless the product is
thickener. Theresultant thickening action is referred to in the specially formulated for sustained high-temperature service.
grease industry as consistency. Consistency is a measure of the
Polyureas. Polyureas are nonsoap thickeners that are
hardness or softness of the grease.
polymerized substituted ureas. Like the complex soaps, they
The major thickener types and the properties associated with
typically melt at about 500° F (26@ C) and are used in similar
them are detailed in the following text. The properties described
types of service.
for each thickener are typical; however, in some formulations
they may be radically altered due to the influence of other grease Clay thickeners. These thickeners are generally bentonite or
components. hectorite clay that has been chemically treated to make it
Water-stabilized calcium soap (cup-type thickener). thicken oil. The chief feature of clay-thickened greases is that
Typically this thickener is based on calcium stearate, stabilized the thickener does not melt; hence, these greases can be used in
with water. It yields a buttery grease with excellent water operations in which temperatures occasionally exceed the
resistance. However, service islimited toatemperature of about melting points of other thickeners. It should be noted that their
175° F(800C) maximum because at higher temperatures the oxidation stability is generally no better than that of other
water of stabilization is lost, causing the soap to separate from petroleum products. Therefore, if these greases are used in
the oil. This type of grease is chiefly used for mild service sustained service at temperatures above about 25W F ( 120° C),
applications. frequent relubrication is necessary unless the product has been
Anhydrous-calcium soap. Typically this thickener is calcium explicitly formulated for sustained service at higher temperatures.
12-hydroxystearate. Greases with this thickener are similar to
the cup-type products. However, they do not need water to Lubricating Oil
stabilize the system, so they have a higher operating temperature Lubricating oil is the largest single component of a lubricating
range, typically to as high as about 250° F (120” C). At about grease and is the component which provides the grease with its
290” F(145” C) they melt, often separating into soap and oil ability to lubricate. Simple greases, only oil and thickener,
phases, Commonly such greases are used on rolling-element usually contain 83-95% oil. While the retentive properties of
bearings for which temperature extremes do not occur. grease, as well as its resistance to heat, water, and extreme
Sodium soap. Usually sodium soap greases employ sodium loads, depend upon the proportion and type of soap, the
stearate or similar materials. They tend to be fibrous relative to frictional characteristics of grease are based on its oil content.j7
other types of thickeners. Typically they are usable to about The more important oil properties affecting overall grease
250° F (120° C) with melting points in the range of 300-45W F performance are as follows:
( 150-230° C). The thickener provides some inherent rust protec-
tion. However, large amounts of water contamination cause 1. Viscosity and viscosity-temperature characteristics,
these greases to wash out. They also generally lack the which influence the ability of a grease to form a
oxidation resistance of the lithium and clay greases. They are lubricating film in service. They also influence low-
typically used in plain journal and sliding bearings. Certain temperature grease behavior,
short-fibered products may be used in greases for rolling- 2. Oxidation resistance and evaporation characteristics, which
element bearings. influence the ability of a grease to lubricate for extended
Lithium soap. Usually this thickener is lithium 12-hydroxy- periods, especially at higher temperatures.
stearate. Lithium soap greases are the most versatile and 3. Characteristics affecting elastomers, which influence the
widely used grease type. They are buttery and havea melting compatibility of a grease with seal materials used in
point of about 385° F ( 195° C). When melted and retooled, they bearings and other devices.
generally return to a grease texture (though the properties of the
resulting retooled grease are usually changed from unmelted
Most greases employ petroleum-based oils as the lubricating
grease). These greases are also resistant to water, oxidation, and
oil. Some synthetic fluids are also employed in grease formu-
mechanical working. Most formulations will operate for long
lating. Diesters, silicones, polyol esters, polyalkylene glycols
periods at 250° F (12P C); some will function for extended
and fluorosilicones are most commonly used. These fluids offer
periods to about 330° F (165° C). They are widely used as
special characteristics, such as high-temperature performance,
multipurpose greases and are particularly suited for rolling-
chemical resistance, and low-temperature performance. which
element bearings. Through the use of lithium soap greases, the
elude refined petroleum oils. Their cost is substantially higher
number of complex specialty lubricating greases that would
than that of the refined petroleum oil.
normally be required in modern manufacturing plants has been
reduced substantially. Jc
Complex soap. Complex soap thickeners are generally Additives
formed by reacting several distinctly different acids with the Lubricating greases are, ever increasingly, required to
alkali. For example, calcium-complex soap greases may be perform at higher temperature, with heavier loads, and for
formed from calcium 12-hydroxystearate and calcium acetate. longer periods of time, or quite simply—under conditions at the
Calcium-complex, lithium-complex, and aluminum-complex extremes of those considered normal. As such, the oils and
thickened greases are fairly common, with some other types thickeners are pushed beyond their limits and supplemental
being used occasionally. The principal advantage of most materials are required to extend the performance capabilities of
complex soap thickeners is their high melting point, typically the lubricating grease.
4-43
CHAPTER 4
LUBRICATING GREASES
Grease properties which may be enhanced by use of soluble Lubricating Grease Selection
(chemical) or insoluble (solid lubricants or fillers) additives are: The selection of a lubricating grease is dictated by the part to
be lubricated. The lubrication engineer must have all of the
1. Oxidation stability. available facts regarding the part to be lubricated before
2. Rust and/ or corrosion protection. making a proper lubricant selection. The type of bearing and
3. Water resistance. the operating conditions must be known, including load, speed,
4. Extreme-pressure (EP) load-carrying capability. temperature, and environmental conditions; whether the
5. Antiwear. bearing is operated continuously or intermittently; and the
6. Adhesiveness. method by which the lubricant will be applied, either auto-
7. Oil separation. matically or manually. Cost must be considered. Knowledge of
8. Pour point (low temperature properties). this information will facilitate selecting the most appropriate
lubricant for the particular application.
The decision to employ additives is dependent upon the If a lubrication engineer is not available, the individual
application requirements. The grease formulator is dependent responsible for making the lubricant selection must, of necessity,
upon a proper and thorough understanding of the application define the lubricant problem as would the lubrication engineer.
requirements before commencing to mix ingredients. In addition With such information in hand, the engineer or individual can
the formulator must have a basic knowledge of grease types and peruse the technical data sheets offered by lubricant suppliers
characteristics such as those shown in Table 4-11. and attempt to match operation requirements with product
TABLE 4-11
Typical Characteristics of Lubricating Greases
Percent of Max. Temp.

Total Dropping for
C,rease Point. Water Mechanical Cont. Use. Relative
Thickener Solid Texture degrees F (C) Resistance Stability degrees F (C) cost*
Soap Base
Lithium 59.2 Smooth to Buttery 375 (190) Yes Fair to Good 250(121) 3
Calcium: 17.0
Hydrated 9.0 Smooth 190 (88) Yes Poor to Good 150 (65) 2
Anhydrous 3.8 Smooth 290 ( 143) Yes Fair to Good --- 3
Complex 3.8 Smooth 500+ (260+) Yes Poor to Good 300 ( 149) 5
Sodium 5.0 Buttery to Fibrous 360 (182) No Fair to Good 250 (121) 1
Aluminum: 6.0
Normal 0.4 Smooth 180 (87) Yes Poor to Fair 150 (65) 2
Complex 5.6 Smooth 480 (249) Yes Fair to Good 300 (149) 4
Barium 2.6 Buttery to Fibrous 400 (204) Yes Good 250(121) 4
Nonsoap Base
Clay 2.8 Smooth 500+ (260+) Yes Fair to Good 300 (149) 4
Polyurea 2.3 Smooth 470 (243) Yes Good 300 ( 149) 5
Other 4.9 Smooth 470+ (243+) Yes Fair to Good 300 ( 149) 5
* Cost: 1 ❑ low; 5 ❑ high
The properties of a grease may be improved by inclusion of performance descriptions. This is all well and good if the
additives. Some common types of additives and their functions product descriptions are adequate.
are: A lubrican{sales representative can be consulted, and during
the consultation, a satisfactory selection can be arrived at
1. Oxidation inhibitors, which improve resistance to oxi- mutually. Obviously, such a selection would depend upon the
dative degradation in storage and in service. breadth of knowledge, both from an engineering and lubricating
2. Rust and corrosion inhibitors, which prevent the forma- standpoint, that all persons involved in the selection process
tion of rust and nonferrous corrosion on lubricated parts. possess.
3, Extreme-pressure (EP) agents, which make lubrication The fact is, a need exists now for a grease classification
possible under loads where seizure would normally system. This need has been recognized for several years;
occur, however, only in the last few years has an effort been made to
4, Solid lubricants, which supplement normal lubrication develou a viable classification svstem.
under heavily loaded, low-speed, operating conditions. Th~ough the cooperative eff~rts of ASTM, NLGI and SAE,
Molybdenum disulfide and graphite are the most common a system for classifying automotive wheelbearing and chassis
solid lubricants. greases has been proposed.
4-44
CHAPTER 4
LUBRICATING GREASES
A proposal covering the classification of greases for industrial Grease Tests

use is currently under consideration by ASTM and NLGI. The The following grease tests developed in the United States
proposed format is similar to that of the automotive grease (ASTM), Britain (1P), and Germany (DIN) are common tests
classification system. that can be used to judge the suitability of a grease for particular
Until such classification systems are completed, users (with armlications:
the help of supplier representatives) are faced with making the “-~
Penetration (ASTM D-217, 1P 50, DIN 51 804).
decision as to the best lubricant to be selected for a particular
2; Dropping Point (ASTM D-566 and D-2265,1P 132, DIN
application. As an aid in making such a selection, Tables 4-12
51 801).
and 4-13 describe in broad terms lubricating greases by service
3. Rust Preventive Properties (ASTM D-1 743).
requirements, as well as the reasons for choosing a particular
4. Water Washout (ASTM D-1264, 1P 215).
lubricating grease by typical application.
5. Timken Test (ASTM D-2509,1P 240) and Four Ball EP
The proper selection of a lubricating grease decreases the
Test (ASTM D-2596, 1P 239).
chance of lost operating time. It is, therefore, very important
that the proper selection of a lubricant be based on all of the Penetration (ASTM D-217, 1P 50, DIN 51 804). This testis
available performance parameters. the basic method of measuring the consistency or “hardness” of
TABLE 4-12
Lubricating Grease Service Guidelines
Service Properties and Performance Type of Grease

Assembly High load carrying, anti- Lithium, calcium complex;
galling, antiwear contain high concentrations
of molybdenum disulfide
Ball and Roller Extended service, mechanical Lithium, calcium complex,

Bearings stability, water resistant barium, polyureas
Brick Hard or stiff, high melting Sodium or sodium-calcium

point
Chassis Extended service, mechanical Lithium, calcium complex,

stability, water resistant aluminum, barium
cup Water resistance, low torque Calcium (low vis. oil)
Farm (See Chassis.)
EP (Extreme Pressure) Mechanical stability, water Lithium, calcium complex,

resistant; antiwear, high load aluminum
carrying
Pipe Thread, Drill Antiwear, antigalling, Lithium, calcium, clay

Collar (gasoline corrosion resistance, thickened; high content
resistant) sealing, solvent resistant, zinc, copper, lead,
high dropping point molybdenum disulfide
and graphite
Steel Mill Water resistant, antiwear, (See EP.)

high load carrying
Textile Extended service, high Calcium, clay thickened

dropping point, contain formulated with low
no graphite or molybdenum viscosity and light color
disulfide oils
Tool Joint Protect threads and permit (See Pipe Thread.)

ease of coupling
Track Roller Adhesive, water resistant, Aluminum, calcium

extended service, tacky complex, lithium, clay
thickened formulated
with high viscosity oils.
Universal Joint (See Chassis.)
Water Pump Water resistant, low (See Cup.)

penetration
4-45
cHAPTER 4
LUBRICATING GREASES
TABLE 4-13
Lubricating Grease Service Guidelines By Type
Grease Type Characteristics Typical Uses

Thickener (Soap)
Aluminum Complex Clarity, high melting, water Chassis, track roller

resistant
Barium Mechanical stability, water Bearings, industrial,
resistant, high melting point general purpose
Clay (Bentone) Nonmelting Industrial, general purpose
Calcium Water resistant, low priced Chassis
Calcium Complex Water resistant, high Bearings, industrial

inherent load carrying
Lithium Water resistant, mechanical General purposes
stability, moderate price
Polyurea Water resistant, high Bearings

melting, expefisive
Sodium Inexpensive Industrial
Fluid (Other than

refined petroleum)
Diester Wide temperature range Aircraft
Fluorocarbon Oxidation resistance, Chemical industry,

chemical resistant, valves, pumps
nonflammable
Silicones Wide temperature range High temperature
industrial applications
Polyalkylene Glycols Wide temperature range, Oven chains, kiln cans,
fluids volatilize rather than steel mills
carbonize at high temperature
a grease. It represents the depth, in I / 10 mm (0.004”) units to are considered to possess a high degree of rust protection.
which a standard cone will sink in the grease at 25° C (77° F) Water Washout (ASTM D-1264, 1P 215). This test indicates
under normal conditions. Hardness is often expressed as the ability of a grease to stay in a bearing subjected to water
National Lubricating Grease Institute (NLGI) grades which washing. It is reasonably predictive for NLGI No. 2 and harder
range from O (the softest) to 6 (the hardest). s8 Grades arc grades of grease, but is less meaningful for softer grades.
determined by the range in which the penetration value falls (see
Table 4-14). A great majority of greases utilized in both TABLE 4-14
automotive and industrial applications are of the NLGI grade. NLGI* Hardness Grading System for Greases
Dropping Point (ASTM D-566 and D-2265, 1P 132, DIN 51
801). Generally, this test indicates the temperature at which the Grade Penetration
thickener system deteriorates (melts, loses water of stabilization, Number Range** Description
etc.). While greases generally should not be used above their
dropping point temperatures, many greases cannot be used o 355-385 Very Soft
even near them because of limits on base-oil oxidation stability, 1 310-340 soft
additive stability, etc. In addition, soft greases tend to give 2 265-295 Firm
artificially low dropping point temperatures. Hence, while the 3 220-250 Very Firm
test may be used to check batch-to-batch uniformity, it should 4 175-205 Hard
not be used alone to assess the operating-temperature range ofa 5 130-160 Very Hard
grease. 6 85-115 Solid
Rust Preventive Properties (ASTM D-1743). This test * National Lubricating Grease Institute
measures the ability of a grease to protect a bearing against rust ** Depth, in I / IO mm (0.004”) units to which a standard
when the bearing is exposed to water. Greases passing this test cone sinks in grease at 25° C (77° F)
4-46
CHAPTER 4
ADDITIVES FOR INDUSTRIAL LUBRICANTS
Timken Test (ASTM D-2509,1P 240) and Four Ball EP Test Machine Protecting Additives
(ASTM D-2596, 1P 239). These tests are used to estimate the Antiwear and extreme-pressure (EP) agents. These vital
ability of a grease to provide extreme-pressure properties. They additives increase the load-carrying capacity of the lubricant—
indicate the presence or absence of EP properties and, to a be it a metalworking fluid, a hydraulic oil, a gear oil, or a grease.
limited extent, the degree of EP protection available. However, Without such help the lubricant is limited to only the capacity
a generally established correlation of results in these tests with that elastohydrodynamic (EHD) lubrication can carry (see
particular service applications is not available. “Fundamentals of Lubrication” in this chapter). For many
high-speed operations with heavy loads, EHD lubrication alone
ADDITIVES FOR INDUSTRIAL LUBRICANTS is insufficient. Without antiwear and EP agents, high rates of
Modern industrial lubricants are specialized and sophisti- wear and metal distress (scoring, ridging, seizure, etc. ) can be
cated products with the additive package in them serving as the expected in some applications.
critical ingredient. Some lubricant experts describe lubricants Chemically, antiwear and EP agents are organic phosphates,
as primarily carriers of high-technology additives. The selection phosphates, thiophosphites, zinc dithiophosphates and sulfur,
and matching of the proper additives to a base fluid for a or chlorine containing compounds. They work by reacting with
particular application is a complex process. As such, it is carried the metal surface at high loads and temperatures to form tough,
out by highly trained and skilled formulators who can bring invisible films that prevent metal-to-metal contact between
together chemistry, performance, and economics to a successful mating metal surfaces. Thus, wear and distress are reduced. The
product application. EP film often contains iron sulfide, chloride or phosphate in a
Not all additives are compatible. Experience and research is semiplastic matrix of organic fragments and reaction products.
needed to determine satisfactory additive combinations and The difference between antiwear (mild conditions) and EP
optimum mixes for each type of product. Antagonisms or (severe conditions) is, to a large extent, that of degree and
synergisms appear often in such mixtures. For that reason temperature/ pressure activation.
many lubricant manufacturers prefer to use an optimized Solid lubricants. These are in a sense special types of EP
package rather than individual additives. agents that are different from conventional EP agents in that
The hundreds of different additives used in the various they do not have to react with the metal to form a protective
industrial lubricants can be classified into two main functional film. Solid lubricants are normally insoluble—they deposit
categories: ( 1) those which protect the lubricated machine themselves on the metal surface and protect it as long as they
surfaces (see Table 4-1 5) and (2) those which protect the stay in place. Solid lubricants include molybdenum disulfide
lubricant, extending its performance capabilities and its life (see (MoS2), graphite, berates, phosphates, polyamides, Teflon,
Table 4-1 6). and various glasses. They can be applied as a spray, a dispersion
TABLE 4-15
Machine Protecting Additives
Additive Type Purpose Function Typical Compounds

Antiwear Agent Reduce wear Strengthen boundary film, Organic phosphate, phosphates,
smooth finish thiophosphites, zinc
dithiophosphates
Extreme Pressure (EP) Prevent scoring, Form tough, low-shear Sulfur, phosphorus and
ridging, seizure films on mating metal chlorine containing organic
surfaces compounds
Solid lubricants Prevent scoring, Plate metal surfaces, MoSZ, graphite, glass,
ridging, seizure fill microscopic valleys berates, Teflon
Oiliness Agents Reduce friction Adsorption of polar High-molecular-weight fatty

under near boundary molecules on metal acids, metal soaps
conditions surfaces
Friction Modifiers Reduce boundary Adsorb/ chemisorb on metal Long-chain (above C-12) fatty
friction, allow surfaces to form multi- acids, esters, amides, amines,
smooth sliding of layered, easily sheared phosphates, phosphates, and
ways structures salts of these compounds
Rust Inhibitors Prevent corrosion Form protective adsorbed/ Metal sulfonates, amines,
of ferrous metals chemisorbed film or fatty acids, half esters, and
passify active sites amine salts of phosphates
or fatty acids
Corrosion Inhibitors Prevent corrosion Form protective film or Sulfur or nitrogen organic
of alloy bearings “scavenge” wild species compounds; i.e., benzotriazole,
and nonferrous of sulfur thiadiazole derivatives,
metals mercaDtobenzothiazole
4-47
CHAPTER 4
ADDITIVES FOR INDUSTRIAL LUBRICANTS
(in water or solvent), as a paste, etc. Generally, they are used in metals), or complex sulfur and/or nitrogen compounds (for
high-temperature operations, such as hot extrusion, forging, or copper alloys),
rolling, in which a liquid might fail. They are also used in
pressing operations for powdered metals, in stamping and Lubricant-Protecting and Performance-
drawing operations, in vacuum equipment, and in industrial Extending Additives
equipment, as a crutch for marginal equipment design. Solid Antioxidants. These additives prevent the formation of
lubricants work by plating and filling microscopic valleys on the
sludge, varnish, and other deposits, as well as acids due to
contact surface. This “landfill” increases the actual loading
oxidation. They work by decomposing peroxides and/or chain
area, thus reducing the welding frequency of the asperities. For
this reason particle size of solid lubricants should be tailored to breaking. Mainly they are hindered phenols, aromatic amines,
the metal surface roughness for optimum results. sulfur and/or phosphorus organic compounds.
Oiliness agents and friction modifiers (reducers). These Antifoamants. These additives prevent the formation of
additives reduce friction under boundary or near boundary stable foam by changing the surface tension. They are mostly
conditions by forming easily sheared, adsorbed or chemisorbed, silicone or acrylate polymers.
multimolecular films on metal contact surfaces, Chemically Bactericide and fungicides. These additives control the
they are long-chain polar compounds of the following types: growth of micro-organisms that promote odor, emulsion
fatty oils, metal soaps (oiliness agents) or fatty acids, esters, breaking, and metal staining, as well as skin disorders of
amines, phosphates and derivatives (friction modifiers) of these workers. Phenols, chlorine compounds, certain amines,
compound types. Lubricants containing such additives can save
alcohols, glycols, and nitrites are among such additives.
energy.
Viscosity index improvers (VII) and pour point depressants
Rust and corrosion inhibitors. These prevent moisture
(PPD). Viscosity index improvers raise the high-temperature
corrosion on ferrous metals and/or corrosive attack on alloy
bearings and copper alloys. They function by forming protective viscosity of the oil without an appreciable low-temperature
films on metal surfaces. Chemically, they are surface active viscosity increase. Some of the VIIS suppress fog or mist
compounds, such as sulfonate salts, amines, fatty acids, half- formation in metalworking operations, VIIS are olefin
esters of bicarboxylic acids, and amine salts (for ferrous copolymers (ethylene/ propylene, butylene, alkylated styrene)
TABLE 4-16
Lubricant-Protecting and Performance-Extending Additives
Additive Type Purpose Function Typical Compounds

Antioxidant Prevent sludge, Inhibit oil oxidation Hindered phenols, aromatic
varnish, and acid by taking up 02, or amines, S or P—containing
formation breaking chain reactions organic compounds
Antifoamant Prevent formation of Change interracial tension, Silicone polymers, acrylate

stable foam coalesce small bubbles copolymers
Bactericide, Control micro- Prevent growth of bacteria Phenols, chlorine containing

Fungicide, etc. organisms to reduce and fungi compounds, certain amines,
odor, emulsion alcohols, glycols and
breaking, and staining aldehydes
Pour Point Lower pour point of Interfere with wax Methacrylate polymers,
Depressant lubricating oils crystal growth at low styrene maleic anhydride
temperatures polymer esters, alkylated
styrene or naphthalene
Viscosity Index Lower rate of Raise viscosity at high Olefin copolymers (ethylene/
Improvers, viscosity change temperature, but not at low propylene, butylene, styrene),
Antifog with temperature temperature polymethacrylates
Emulsifiers Emulsify concentrate Change oil/ water Soaps of fatty, sulfonic or
in water or make interface tension naphthenic acids. Succinimide,
invert emulsions ester or Mannich ashless
dispersants. Fatty acid
esters of sorbitol, glycols, etc.
Demulsifiers Break troublesome Lower emulsion stability Polyalcoxylated compounds,
emulsions some metal soaps
Tackiness Agents Increase adhesiveness Increase lubricating-film High-molecular-weight
of lubricant on viscosity and adhesiveness polymers, Al soaps of
metal surfaces on metal surfaces unsaturated fatty acids
4-48
CHAPTER 4
APPLICATION OF LUBRICANTS
or polymethacrylates. The PPDs lower the pour point of

lubricants
temperatures.
by interfering with wax-crystal growth at low
Examples are styrene maleic anhydride polymer n
o
Drop feed one,
f4$T
esters, methacrylate polymers, alkylated polystyrene, and
naphthalene (see’’Types and Properties of Lubricating Oils”in
this chapter).
Emulsifiers and demulsifiers. Emulsifiers disperse oil or
concentrate in water or make invert emulsions. They are mainly
soaps of fatty, sulfonic or naphthenic acids, ashless dispersants
(succinimide, ester or Mannich type), polyalcoxylated esters of
fatty acids, etc. Demulsifiers lower theemtdsion stability and
Wick ‘eed cup
help separate water from oil. Examples are certain poly-
alcoxylated compounds and metal salts. Both emulsifiers and
demulsifiers work by changing the oil~ water interface tension.
Tackiness agents. These increase the adhesiveness of the
Iubricatingfilm on metal surfaces and prevent runoff, Examples
are some high-molecular-weight polymers and aluminum soaps
of high-molecular-weight, unsaturated fatty acids.
After the proper lubricant for an application is selected, it
must be delivered to the elements that require lubrication. Two
categories of lubricant application are prevalent: (1) all-loss FIG. 4-19 Drop-feed oiler (left) and wick-feed cup. In the drop feed
application, drops of oil fall on the lock nut, which throws a spray of oil
methods, in which a relatively small amount of lubricant is into the hearing.
applied periodically and allowed to leak or drain away to waste
after it is used and (2) reuse methods in which the lubricant
oil feed from the wick-feed cup can be adjusted by changing the
leaving the elements is collected and recirculated to lubricate
number of strands in the wick. The disadvantage of both devices
again. Reuse application systems are preferred because they
is that they must be started and stopped by hand when the
conserve lubricant and minimize waste control and environ-
machine is started or stopped. Some drop-feed cups are
mental pollution. (Parts of this section are excerpted with
controlled by solenoid-operated valves; this eliminates the
permission from “Lubrication Fundamentals.’’s~)
problems of manual actuation.
Bottle oilers. In a typical bottle oiler (Fig. 4-21), the spindle
All-Loss Methods of the oiler rests on the journal and is vibrated slightly as the
Some open gears; many drive chains and rolling-element journal rotates. This motion results in a pumping action which
bearings; and cylinders, bearings, and enclosed gears are forces air into the bottle, causing minute amounts of oil to feed
lubricated by all-loss methods. Nearly all grease lubrication,
except on sealed, packed rolling-element bearings, is performed
as an all-loss method. Only relatively small amounts of grease
are applied, mainly to replenish the lubricating films, but in
some cases to flush away some or all of the old lubricant and
contaminants.
Hand oiling. The oldest known method of applying lubri-
cants is by using an oil can, With high-viscosity lubricants, such
as those used on open gears and some wire ropes, a paddle,
swab, brush, or caulking gun may be required in place of an oil
can. These are all variations of hand oiling.
While still widely used, hand oiling has several disadvantages.
Immediately after application, an over supply of oil usually
exists, and excessive leakage orthrowoff occurs. Then follows a
period when the proper quantity of oil is more or less present;
finally, depending upon the frequency of application, a period
usually arises when too little oil is present. During this latter
period, wear and friction may be high, Also, with hand
application, lubrication points may be neglected, either because
they are overlooked or because they are difficult or hazardous
to reach.
Drop-feed and wick-feed cups. These devices (Figs. 4-19 and
4-20) are often used to supply the small amount of oil required
by high-speed rolling-element bearings, thin-film plain bearings
and slides, and some open gears. The rate of oil feed from the
drop-fed cup can be adjusted with a needle valve; the quantity of r..
rib.
r. .
4-AU
arm n--— c..-
urvp-[eea
–,,,—— --.
omng sysIem.
-.-—
4-49
CHAPTER 4
downward along the spindle to the bearing. The oil feed is more
or less continuous, but stous and starts when the machine is lnhvr,ntb
stopped or started.
r
FIG. 4-21 Bottle oiler,
FIG. 4-23 Wick-fed spray oiler in which the wick carries oil to a
slinger, which throws the oil into the bearing in the form of a fine spray.
Wick and pad oilers. In one type of wick oiler (Fig. 4-22), a
felt wick is held against the journal by a spring. The wick draws
oil up from the reservoir by capillary action, and the turning
journal wipes oil from the wick. No oil is fed when the journal is
not turning. In another variation (Fig. 4-23), the wick carries oil
up to a slinger, which throws it into the bearing in the form of a
fine spray. In both cases, oil leaking out along the shaft drains
back to the reservoir, so the devices have some elements of a
reuse system.
Mechanical force-feed lubricators. Force-feed lubricators
are used in applications requiring positive feed of lubricants
under pressure. A variety of force-feed lubricators are in use. In
the type shown in Fig. 4-24, oil is drawn from the reservoir in the
base on the downstroke of the single-plunger pump and forced
under pressure on the upstroke through the liquid-filled sight
glass to the delivery line. The pump is operated by an eccentric
cam and lever, which can be driven from a shaft on the machine
or can be operated by a hand crank. The stroke of the pump can
be regulated to adjust the oil feed rate, which can be estimated
by counting the drops as they pass through the liquid-filled sight
Felt glass.
wick
Mechanical force-feed lubricators are used on large
stationary and machine diesel engines, gas engines, and cross-
head reciprocating compressors to supply lubricant to the
cylinders. One pumping unit is used for each cylinder feed, and
all of the pumping units are usually mounted on a single
reservoir.
Air-1ine oilers. Air-line oilers are specialized variations of
FIG. 4-22 Wick oiler in which a felt wick is held sreainst the iournal oil-mist lubrication, which is discussed at the end of this section.
by a spring. Air tools are often lubricated by means of air-line oilers. The
4-50
CHAPTER 4
airless atomizing equipment. This method, however, has the

repressor same disadvantages as hand oiling. A number of automatic or
semiautomatic units, such as the unit shown in Fig. 4-26 have
been developed to overcome some of these problems.
Reuse Methods
Reuse methods of oil lubricating include circulation systems
supplying lubricant for one or more machines and self-
contained systems, such as bath, splash, flood, and ring oiling
systems.
Circulation systems. The term “circulation system” generally
refers to a system in which oil is delivered from a central
Slghtfeed reservoir to all bearings, gears, and elements requiring lubri-
. gloss cation. All the oil, disregarding minor leakage, drains back to a
central sump and is reused. Two principal variations of this type
of system are used—pressure and gravity feed. In pressure-feed
I I A I I Feed reaulatw systems, aseparate sump and reservoir maybe used or the two
Check may be combined. The oil is pumped directly to the parts
valves
requiring lubrication. When a separate sump is used, it may be
\
‘$,\,
either wet, in which case the drain is located so that a certain
~$,, amount of oil remains in the sump at all times, or dry, in which
case the drain is located and sized so that the sump remains
essentially empty at all times. In gravity feed systems, oil is
pumped to an overhead tank and then flows under gravity head
to the elements requiring lubrication.
In either type of system, very often the rate of flow is
determined primarily by what is needed for cooling. This
amount of oil usually will be more than is needed for
lubrication. Means of cooling and purifying the returned oil are
often included in the circulation systems,
FIG. 4-24 Force-feed lubricator with lubricant-filled sight glass.
air-line oiler consists of an oil reservoir which contains a device

for feeding a metered amount of atomized oil into the air
n
stream. It is coupled into the air hose a short distance from the
tool, and a fine spray of oil is carried from it to lubricate the
tool-wearing surfaces that are reached by the air. A method of
varying the rate of oil feed is provided so that the oil feed can be
adjusted to the tool and operating conditions.
In the air-line oiler illustrated in Fig. 4-25, air for tool
actuation passes through the center tube; line pressure is
applied to the oil reservoir via port A and the vertical drilled
passages shown in the bottom view. As the result of a Venturi A
effect, a reduced pressure prevails at port B. Because of the
difference in pressure, oil feeds through the valve (top view in
Fig. 4-25) and port B into the air stream.
Air-spray lubrication. Air-spray lubrication is a specialized
variation of oil-mist lubrication, which is discussed at the end of
this section. Some open-gear lubricants, including a number of FIG. 4-25 Air-line oiler. Oil is drawn into the air stream through the
port B by Venturi effect. Tbe enlarged section around the valve acts as a
grease-type materials, are applied by hand-operated, air-spray pendulum to swing the valve and keep tbe oil intake submerged in oil
lubricating equipment using either external mixing nozzles or regardless of the position of tbe outer housing.
4-51
CHAPTER 4
water and settled impurities and permits their removal without

excessive loss of oil. In addition, it permits more complete
(’ removal of flushing oil or solvents used in cleaning operations
Ar@perOted
cycle recorder d /
prior to startup or during an oil change. When oil is taken
directly from the reservoir for purification, it should be
removed close to the low point, but above the water and settled
impurities. An opening or openings that are adequate for
inspection and cleaning, should be provided above the oil level.
Large reservoirs should have an opening large enough for a
person to enter. These and any other openings should have
well-secured, dust-tight covers.
A connection should be provided at the highest point in the
reservoir for ventilation. Proper ventilation results in the
removal of moisture-laden air and, thereby, reduces condensa-
tion on cooler surfaces above the oil level as well as subsequent
Metering /,
?
rusting of these surfaces. Ventilation fixtures should be designed
with air filters to prevent entrance of airborne contaminants.
Chec / Instead of natural ventilation, where a source of water
— contamination is common, some medium and large-sized
Spray
reservoirs are provided with a vapor extractor, or exhauster,
capable of maintaining a slight vacuum in the air space above
the oil level. Too high a vacuum should be avoided; however,
... - since it may have the effect of pulling plant atmospheric

contaminants into the lubrication system.
Ar manifold
T I The main oil return connection should be located at or
slightly above the oil level and remote from the oil pump
E=+==+ suction. Returning oil should not be permitted to drop from a
considerable height directly into the oil body, since this action
tends to whip air into the oil and cause foaming or to hold water
FIG. 4-26 Spray panel for open-gear lubrication. and contaminants in suspension. Instead, the fall of oil should
be broken and dispersed by means of a baffle, sheet-metal
apron, or fine screen. When a line may carry any air, it should
Oil reservoirs. The bottom of an oil reservoir (Fig. 4-27) never discharge below the oil level. A connection for return to
should sloue at a ratio of more than 1:25 (about 4%) toward a the reservoir of a solid stream of oil, for example, from a
drain conn~ction, which should be located at the lowest point in pressure-relief valve, should be placed about 6“ ( 150mm) below
the reservoir. This construction promotes the concentration of the oil level.
—
Filler hole with
Return Ikne Sudlon he .,,,
n-.,
.’-
-., . . .
.,,, > ,m,
. .
”r
screen and corJ , .
c
E’ Clean-out
door I
I
,;:
i!
Boltom P II /
Drain —
at low point
-f
~
;
1
.———....__ L___
\
/
Clea;-out
door
. . .
II
II
------ -..
IIIG. 4-27 “1’ypicalcentral reservoir construction,
4-52
CHAPTER 4
RECYCLING AND DISPOSAL
tubing. When the mist reaches the application point, it is

condensed, or coalesced, into larger particles that wet the
surfaces and provide lubrication. Condensation can be
accomplished in several ways.
In a typical mist oiling system (Fig. 4-30) compressed air
enters through a water separator, a fine filter, and an air
regulator to the mist generator. From the generator the mist is
carried to a manifold and then to the various application points.
To produce an oil mist, liquid oil is blasted with air to
mechanically break it up into tiny particles. Droplets over 118
p in. (3 p m) diam are screened or baffled out of the flow and
returned to the sump or reservoir. The resultant dispersion,
containing oil droplets averaging 40-1 I8 p in. ( 1-3 ~ m) diam is
fed into the distribution system as an oil mist.
Sedimen, chamber
,-i--
FIG. 4-28 Splash oiling system. Gear teeth carry oil directly to some
gears and splash it to others. The gear teeth also carry oil to collecting
troughs, which lead it to bearings not reached by splash.
It is convenient to consider reservoir size in terms of the oil

volume flowing in the system. The reservoir should be large
enough so that oil velocity in it will be low and the oil will have
sufficient rest time to assure adequate separation of water and
entrained solids, separation of entrained air, and collapse of any
foam that may exist. In practice, reservoir sizes range from a
minimum of 2 times system flow per minute to a maximum of
about 40 times. Many representative systems have reservoirs of
5-10 times system flow per minute.
Other reuse systems. In addition to circulation systems, a
number of other methods of oil lubrication involve more or less
continuous reuse of the oil. These are differentiated from
integral circulation systems primarily in that pumps are not FIG. 4-29 Ring oil application. Oil is raised from a reservoir by a ring
used to lift the oil. which rides on and turns with tbe journal.
Sp/a.rh oiling. Splash oiling is encountered mainly in gear
sets or in compressor or steam engine crankcases. Gear teeth, or
RECYCLING AND DISPOSAL OF CUTTING
projections on connecting rods, dip into the reservoir and
splash oil to the parts to be lubricated or to the casing walls,
FLUIDS AND LUBRICANTS
where pockets and channels are provided to catch the oil and The recycling of metalworking fluids is a topic that has
lead it to the bearings (see Fig. 4-28). commanded increasing interest in recent years, spurred by the
impact of more stringent local, state, and federal environmental
Bath oiling. The bath system is used for the lubrication of
regulations and the increasing cost of oil. Today, manufacturers
vertical-shaft, hydrodynamic, thrust bearings and for some
are faced with increasingly complex fluid recycling and disposal
vertical-shaft journal bearings. The lubricated surfaces are
problems.
submerged in a bath of oil, which is maintained at a constant
The following is a list of definitions associated with the
level. When necessary, cooling coils are placed directly in the
topics of oil disposal and recycling:
bath. The bath system for a thrust bearing may be a separate
system or may be connected into a circulation system, 1. Used oil. Oil whose original characteristics have changed
Ring, chain, and collar oiling. In a ring-oiled bearing, oil is during use whether or not it has thereby been rendered
raised from a reservoir by a ring which rides on and turns with unsuitable for further use for the purpose for which it was
the journal (Fig. 4-29). Some of the oil is distributed by suitable intended.
grooves in the bearing. After flowing through the bearing, the 2. Waste oil. Oil which through use, storage, or handling
oil drains back to the reservoir for reuse. has become unsuitable for its original purpose due to the
Ring oiling is applied to a wide variety of medium-speed presence of impurities or loss of original properties and
bearings in stationary service. At high surface speeds, too much which is not considered recyclable.
slip occurs between the ring and journal and not enough oil is 3. Inservice oil. Used oil that is suitable for further use for
delivered. Also, at high speeds, in large, heavily loaded the purpose for which the original oil was intended.
bearings, enough cooling may not be provided. 4, Oily waste. A mixture of oil with substances, such as
Mist oiling. In mist oiling systems, oil is atomized by low- water, solvents, dirt, debris, and/ or other materials.
pressure ( 10-50 psi, 69-345 kPa) compressed air into droplets so 5. Recycling. The generic term for re-refining, reclaiming or
small that they float in the air forming a practically dry mist, or reprocessing used oil for reuse. The product is recycled
fog, that can be transported relatively long distances in small oil.
4-53
cHAPTER 4
6. Re-refining. The use of refining techniques on used oil to may be used to recycle the oil. The three most frequently used
produce lubricants or other petroleum products that are methods of recycling industrial oils are reclaiming, reprocessing
substantially equivalent in quality to original oil intended and re-refining.
for the same purpose. Re-refining may include distillation Industrial lubricating oils can be recycled from a number of
and/ or treatments employing acid; caustic, solvent, and sources; the most typical sources include:
clay chemicals; and/ or other chemicals. The product is
re-refined base oil. 1. Industrial waste water treatment plants
7. Reclaiming. The use of physical methods and/or 2. Collections from plant pits.
chemical treatments primarily to remove insoluble con- 3. Spills.
taminants from used oil, thus substantially restoring it 4. Leakage from equipment.
for further use. The methods may include settling, 5. Large, contaminated, central systems.
heating, dehydrating, filtering and centrifuging. The 6. Chip-ringing operations.
product is reclaimed oil.
8. Reprocessing. Minimal reclaiming primarily to obtain a Reclaiming. Most manufacturers segregate their used oils.
fuel (see reclaiming), Each type of oil is then specifically treated in either a highly
automated treatment facility or a large-volume (5000-20,000
Recycling of Cutting Fluids and Lubricants gal, 19-76 kl), batch-type, reclaiming operation.
The recycling of cutting fluids, whether mineral oil or Reclaiming industrial lubricants usually entails a number of
oil/ water emulsions, entails periodic or continuous filtering as methods to split oil emulsions and water-contaminant oils and
part of an overall fluid maintenance program. Such recycling to remove insoluble contaminants. A more detailed description
can reduce fluid costs by extending the life of the fluid (see of the reclaiming process of oil/water emulsions is presented in
“Filtration of Cutting Fluids” and “Maintenance of Cutting the section “Disposal of Cutting Fluids and Lubricants. ”
Fluids” in this chapter). Regardless of the method used, the goal is to split the
When normal filtering processes cannot effectively restore emulsion, which will enable gravity, heat, and time to convert
the fluid to certain acceptable levels of performance, treatment the batch of waste oil into a three-layer batch, with oil as the top
_ A/r regulotor
F,ne ftlter
Separotor
MIS
ge~erolor
> or
T
Iubrlcotor i
..
FIG. 4-30 Mist oiling system.
4-54
CHAPTER 4
layer, an interphase of oil emulsion as the middle layer, and Disposal of Cutting Fluids and Lubricants
water as the bottom layer. Requirements set forth by the many effluent standards in
Oil that is reclaimed from emulsions is usually transferred to force today preclude the arbitrary dumping of used cutting
drying tanks, and the interphase emulsion is transferred to fluids and lubricants into normal sewage outlets or lakes or
another tank for secondary processing. Oil from the drying tank streams.
is dried completely, filtered to remove any remaining traces of The first step in planning a disposal program is to study the
solids, then stored in tanks. The final product is ready for reuse local water-purity regulations to determine the requirements
in formulating industrial lubricants such as cutting oils, soluble that plant effluents must meet in a particular area and the rules
oils, drawing compounds, and invert-emulsion hydraulic fluids. that govern the construction of holding tanks, holding ponds,
Reprocessing. This form of recycling is essentially a etc. In most cases, more than one agency has jurisdiction over a
reclaiming process for less-contaminated fluids. The major particular locale. Federal, state, and local requirements may
factor determining whether a feedstock of used oil is reclaimed differ widely.
or reprocessed is the origin and quality of the feedstock. The next step is to make a careful survey of the various waste
Feedstocks that are reprocessed are usually obtained from materials and volumes of materials requiring disposal. Any
highly selective segregated sources, such as contaminated known future plant expansions or changes, or possible
hydraulic, cutting, gear, or motor oils. In simply heating and tightening of disposal regulations, should be considered because
filtering the contaminated oils, the original product can be it is usually less expensive to include future requirements in
obtained and returned to the system containing the pure original plans than to make costly adjustments in the future.
lubricant. Some plants pay to have used metalworking fluids hauled
Reprocessing can be done by a reprocessing company that away. But it is important to consider that legally, in many cases,
maintains batch tanks, fdterpresses, and drying tanks speci- title to trade waste does not pass to the hauler but remains with
fically for reprocessing such products. The product is repro- the generating plant. For this reason a known, reputable firm
cessed and returned to the generator for a fee. should be engaged for haul-away disposal. Some manufacturers
Reprocessing can also be performed on site with specialized are moving away from the practice of haul-away disposal
equipment installed permanently for the purpose. The principle because even a small manufacturer can usually realize a modest
function of the equipment is to heat the oil, remove trace savings over haul-away costs by treating waste fluids in volumes
moisture, and filter the oil. A sample must then be checked for as small as 150 gal/week (0.56 kl/ week).
viscosity, moisture, clarity, neut number, flash point, and Disposal of straight oil. Batch-type reclaiming equipment
corrosion. When these specifications are met, the oil is pumped (centrifuges, etc.) are used to remove water contaminants from
back to the central system for reuse with virgin oil. used straight-oil products. In some cases, application of heat
To eliminate the need to ship this segregated oil to a and/ or filtration maybe required. When the reclaimed oil is not
reprocessor or to invest in on-site equipment, reprocessing can suitable for its intended use, the oil is sometimes “turned”-
be done by companies that come to the site and clean the used as fuel for power plant steam generation, for example.
contaminated oil. This procedure typically costs about 50$70of Disposal of oil emulsions. Water-miscible cutting fluids and
the cost of virgin oil. lubricants require treatment before disposal into municipal
Reprocessing is successful only when the oil to be reprocessed sewage outlets. Some of the substances considered as pollutants
has been completely segregated initially and is free from large in most areas are: oil, nitrites. phenols, phosphates, and heavy
amounts of various contaminants. metals.
Re-refining. Re-refining is used when the finished product Cutting fluid emulsions usually contain stabilizing additives
must meet the performance specifications of virgin oil. which form an interracial film that prevents dispersed oil
Until recently, re-refiners used processes that operated at droplets from coalescing. These films may be complex mixtures
atmospheric pressure and high temperatures. Normally low- of dissolved or colloidal matter, together with suspended solids.
flash material was removed from the product, leaving in the To break the emulsion, it is necessary to overcome the
tank the high-flash material. The material left in the tank was emulsifying agents. Chemical, physical, and biodegradable
usually a mixture of cutting oils, hydraulic oils, and other methods are available. The water obtained in these reclaiming
industrial oils. processes is checked for residual oil content and locally
In the past few years, however, because of the increasing cost restricted chemical compounds, then the pH is adjusted as
of oils, the re-refining of automotive and industrial oils to required by the municipal waste treatment plant. The water is
high-quality products has been performed using sophisticated then sewered to the system, where it is tested by the local
processes that utilize high-technology equipment. This equip- municipality for biological oxidation demand (BOD), chemical
ment produces high-quality base stocks that can actually be oxidation demand (COD), phosphates, free oil, suspended and
used in place of virgin oils. dissolved solids, and any other locally restricted potential
Thin-film flash evaporators, under high vacuum, fractionate pollutants.
the particular oil mixtures into specific base stocks. If the color Chemical methods. Relatively clean emulsions can be broken
of the product is too dark, mild hydrogenation is performed with the addition of an acid or salt. Usually, the oil/ water
making it impossible to distinguish between virgin oils and the emulsion will not separate completely if it is heavily contami-
re-refined oils. nated. The water may contain small amounts of dispersed oil
Although reclaiming, reprocessing, and re-refining all result even after standing for a long period after the emulsion has been
in successful recycling of used industrial oil, the decision as to broken. In such cases, the water can be further clarified by air
which process to use should be determined by the end user of the flotation, coagulation, and filtration with sand and/ or charcoal.
product through consultations with the oil supplier and recycling Air flotation is accomplished by dissolving air in the effluent
experts. water at 50-60 psi (345-414 kPa) and reducing the pressure to
4-55
CHAPTER 4
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
ambient pressure as the water enters a flotation tank. The small generated a high level of interest for specialized applications.
air bubbles adhere to the oil and solid matter, floating them to One function of hydraulic fluids is that of lubrication. Since
the surface to be removed by skimmers (see “Filtration of hydraulic fluids are used to lubricate the moving parts of
Cutting Fluids” in this chapter), hydraulic systems, they almost always serve the dual role of
Coagulation methods cause a precipitate to be formed in the power transmission and lubrication. In most instances, they are
fluid, which upon settling, carries oil and other contaminants to lubricants that have been selected to serve as a medium for
the bottom of the tank. Later, when coagulation is required, it is power transmission. Because of this dual role, much of the
useful for the emulsion breaker to also be a coagulant. Ferric information on lubrication and lubricants presented in this
chloride and aluminum sulfate (alum) are efficient emulsion chapter is applicable to the consideration of hydraulic fluids.
breakers and coagulators. The addition of alkali to water Some significant differences exist pertaining to nonpetroleum
containing these salts causes insoluble ferric or aluminum products, and these are covered in the following sections.
hydroxide to be formed as a precipitate. As this “fleecy”
precipitate settles through the water, it accludes particulate Types of Hydraulic Fluids
matter to leave an upper layer of clear water ready for disposal Hydraulic fluids can be classified by chemical composition
or subsequent polishing treatments. If the water requires (petroleum, synthetic, aqueous, etc.); by application (industrial,
further clarification, sand or charcoal filtration can be used, automotive, aircraft, marine); and by performance property
Regeneration of the alum can be accomplished by acidifying, (fire resistant, high temperature. biodegradable, super-clean,
with sulfuric acid, the lower layer precipitate. In this way, the etc.). Table 4-17 indicates the various types of fluids and their
alum can be reused to break other emulsion batches. performance characteristics, (See “Requirements for Hydraulic
Physical me[hods. These methods usually consist of placing Fluids” and “Industrial Uses of Hydraulic Fluids” for further
the used emulsion in a holding pond that serves as a detention details on performance properties and industrial application.)
basin. The emulsion is kept in the pond until the soluble oil Petroleum-based hydraulic fluids. An estimated 85-90% of
emulsion breaks. After the breaking point, the oil rises to the the industrial hydraulic systems in service today utilize some
surface where it can be skimmed and the impurities rise to the type of petroleum oil as the medium for power transmission.
top with the oil or settle to the bottom. Generally, used These oils can be classified broadly as straight, rust and
emulsion should be placed in a settling basin before it is placed oxidation-inhibited (R& O), antiwear, and specially formulated
in the pond. This is particularly important if the emulsion is hydraulic oils.
heavily contaminated with metal chips or other solid matter .Srraigh[ oils. Refined petroleum stocks with no additives are
that would gradually fill the holding pond, The settling tank termed straight oils. They were widely used as industrial
may be a simple pit or mechanical separator. hydraulic oils until the late 1940s when hydraulic equipment
Although physical methods are effective in the disposal of became more sophisticated and required a higher level of
used emulsions, the methods are not widely used by manufac- performance than could be achieved with nonadditive oils.
turers. The methods require a significant investment in land and R & O hydraulic oils. Petroleum oil containing rust and
often require complex handling procedures. oxidation inhibitors are called R & O hydraulic oils. These
Biodegradation. Biodegradation is the breaking of chemical inhibitors serve to improve the level of corrosion resistance
compounds into less-complex components by the biological imparted to metallic system components in contact with the oil
action of living organisms. Petroleum products are biodegrad- and to prevent oxidative degradation of the oil in service. R & O
able, but long periods of time are required for the biodegradation hydraulic oils came into widespread industrial use in the 1950s
to occur. Overall, effective biodegradation is a function of(1) and remain as the most widely used type of hydraulic fluid
time, (2) type and quantity of materials, (3) temperature, (4) today.
availability of nutrients and trace materials, (5) type and vitality Anriwear hydraulic oils. R & O oils that contain an additive
of bacteria present, and (6) toxicity of the material to the system designed to decrease wear of moving parts are called
bacteria in the system. antiwear hydraulic oils. These additives are usually polar
Although the biodegradation method of disposing of used compounds that are absorbed on metallic surfaces and
cutting fluid and lubricant emulsions is possible in theory, effectively reduce friction coefficients and wear. Zinc dithio-
contamination with metal chips and other inorganic matter phosphates are the most common antiwear additives in use
greatly inhibits the biodegradation process. At this time, today.
consequently, biodegradation is not widely used as a method of Specialformtdations. Special formulations having a petro-
disposal for used oil/ water emulsions. leum oil base are often used when a particular performance
property is desired. These formulations are created through the
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS use of special additives, such as antifoam agents, demulsifiers,
Hydraulic fluids can be defined most simply as fluids used to tackiness additives, pour-point depressants, viscosity-index.
transmit power. Although many different types of fluids are improvers and metal passivators.
available, ranging from water to combinations of exotic Synthetic hydraulic fluids. Synthetic lubricants and hydrau-
chemicals, the most widely used product by far is petroleum- lic fluids are playing an increasingly important role in current
based hydraulic oil. Other types of fluids are used for specialized lubricant technology, since unique and exceptional performance
applications, such as automotive or aircraft hydraulic systems, characteristics can often be realized through the use of such
or to take advantage of some particular property, such as fire products. Although several types of synthetic lubricants are
resistance or high-temperature performance, These types of available, the only ones that are used significantly as industrial
fluids include aqueous-based fluids and a variety of synthetic hydraulic fluids are those that have some degree of fire
and nonpetroleum fluids. Because these fluids are special and resistance. The most common types of synthetic lubricants are
often call for somewhat different practices in the installation, phosphate esters (both triaryl and alkyl aryl), polyglycols,
maintenance, and operation of hydraulic equipment, they have silicones, diesters, polyesters, silicate esters, and synthetic
4-56
CHAPTER 4
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
TABLE 4-17
Hydraulic Fluids and Comparative Performance Characteristics*
Prorrertv
,. or Performance Characteristics
Viscosity- Low- Temperature
Type of Fire Temperature Temperature Corrosion Seal Lubricating Range,
Hydraulic Fluid Resistant Properties Properties Resistance Compatibility Quality degrees F (C)
Petroleum Hydraulic
Oil:
R&O P G G E G G 2oto 150
(-7 to 66)
Antiwear P G G E G E 2oto 150

(-7 to 66)
Phosphate Ester G F F G F E 20 to 150
(-7 to 66)
Water-Glycol E E E Fto G E Fto G Oto 120
(-18 to 49)
Water-in-Oil Emulsion F G P F G F 4oto 120

(4 to 49)
Oil-Synthetic F Fto G Fto G G F G 2oto 150

(-7 to 66)
*Ratings: E= excellent, G= good, F= fair, P= poor.

These are broad generalizations. Specific instances will often deviate from indicated performance quality,
hydrocarbon fluids (SHF). Of these, those most widely used as Aqueous-based fluids include water-glycol fluids, water-in-oil
the base for orasa component of industrial hydraulic fluids are emulsions, oil-in-water emulsions, and chemical-water addi-
the phosphate esters and the polyglycols (see “Types and tives. Additional information on these products is presented in
Properties of Lubricating Oils” in this chapter). the section on fire-resistant hydraulic fluids.
F%o.rphatee .rrer-s. With good fire resistance and excellent
lubricating properties, phosphate esters are used extensively as
Requirements for Hydraulic Fluids
fire-resistant hydraulic fluids. In general, they have low viscosity-
Key performance requirements for hydraulic fluids are
index values and typically are incompatible with some of the
presented in Table 4-18. The general properties listed should be
seals and other elastomeric components used with petroleum
considered for any hydraulic fluid application. Selection of the
oils. Triaryl esters have viscosities suitable for industrial
proper hydraulic fluid involves selecting a product that will
hydraulic systems, and alkyl aryl esters are used as less-
operate satisfssctorily in the hydraulic system under anticipated
flammable hydraulic fluids for aircraft.
operating conditions, with particular attention to the general
Polyglycols. Although polyglycols have good hydraulic
properties and performance characteristics listed in Table 4-18.
fluid properties, they are not truly fire resistant and are rarely
Special properties that may need to be considered, depending
used alone in industrial service. Their most significant role in
on the nature of the equipment, operating conditions and
hydraulics is as a major component for the widely used water-
environment are also listed in Table 4-18.
glycol type of fire-resistant hydraulic fluid and as the lubricant
One factor not presented in Table 4-18 is fluid cost. An
base for automotive hydraulic brake fluids.
overall cost consideration needs to include such aspects as
Other syn[hetic Jluids. Generally not regarded as fire
initial fluid cost, cost of maintenance, anticipated length of
resistant, most other synthetic fluids are not used heavily in
service, safety, and disposal requirements. Initial fluid cost may
industrial hydraulic systems. Most of them have good hydraulic
represent only a minor percentage of the total cost of using a
fluid properties, and several have been used in special aircraft
hydraulic fluid.
applications to take advantage of such characteristics as low
volatility, high-temperature stability, low-temperature fluidity,
and lubricating quality. It should be recognized that essentially Industrial Uses of Hydraulic Fluids
all of these products have performance characteristics well A listing of the types of equipment utilizing fluid power
suited for hydraulic service; however, the higher cost of these would be a representative cross section of the entire spectrum of
less-common synthetic fluids, as compared with petroleum oil, U.S. industry. From the hand-operated jack to the most
precludes their use for most industrial applications. Fire- complex, automated machine tool, the common denominator is
resistant fluids are a noteworthy exception. lt is anticipated the use of a hydraulic fluid. As performance requirements have
that, as industrial equipment becomes more sophisticated and increased, fluid power or fluid power coupled with electrical
more demanding, synthetic fluids will be utilized increasingly to control has become the industry standard. A partial list of types
take advantage of their unique properties. of equipment utilizing fluid power would include machine
Aqueous-based hydraulic fluids. Because of their inherent tools, material handling and processing equipment, transfer
fire resistance, the use of aqueous-based fluids in industrial lines, hydraulic presses, metalworking machines, conveyors,
hydraulic service has expanded rapidly in recent years. metal-producing equipment, and mobile handling equipment.
4-57
CHAPTER 4
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
Standard R & O or antiwear petroleum-based hydraulic (1) oil-in-water emulsions and (2) solutions, dispersions, or
fluids are generally used in industrial equipment, although in emulsions of chemical additives.
some instances special formulations may be required to realize a It should be noted that these products have a viscosity
specific performance characteristic. The percentage of hydraulic comparable to that of water. Thus, they are not suitable for
equipment using fire-resistant hydraulic fluids is increasing. applications dependent on fluid viscosity or hydrodynamic
These products have demonstrated satisfactory performance lubrication. Although they offer significant economics and
levels and a pronounced improvement in operational safety performance advantages, they will expand in use only as
when hydraulic systems are operating in proximity to such pumps, valves, and related equipment are developed that can
ignition sources as hot or molten metal or open flames. operate efficiently with fluids having the viscosity level of water,
In addition to fluid cost, other advantages include ease of
Fire-Resistant Hydraulic Fluids disposal and reduction of the adverse effect of contamination
The use of fire-resistant hydraulic fluids has expanded by cutting fluids and other aqueous contaminants.
rapidly over the past thirty years, and this expansion can be
attributed to several factors: Fluid Maintenance
1. Increased attention to operational safety. Proper attention to the maintenance of industrial hydraulic
2. Recognition by equipment builders and users that these fluids and systems is an essential aspect of the use of the
nonpetroleum products can be used successfully in hydraulic fluid. Items of particular concern that merit careful
modern hydraulic equipment. attention are fluid handling, system integrity, fluid cleanliness,
3. Equipment design tailored to the various types of availa- and fluid stability.
ble fluids. Fluid handling. Hydraulic fluids should be stored and
4. Wide dissemination of technical and operational informa- handled in a manner that minimizes contamination. The proper
tion on fire-resistant fluids to plant supervisory and fluid should be used for the equipment, and fluid grades or
operating personnel. brands should not be mixed. Fluid should be stored inside or
5. Availability of several types of fire-resistant fluids with under cover, preferably with drums on their sides and with
different le~els of perfo~rnance and fire resistance. protected caps or bungs. Clean hoses and containers should be
used in transferring fluid to the hydraulic system, and a 200-
The most widely used industrial fire-resistant fluids are mesh screen should be used on the reservoir filler pipe. The fluid
triaryl phosphate esters, blends of phosphate esters or other supplier’s instructions for fluid installation should be followed.
synthetic fluids with oil, water-glycols, and water-in-oil emul- System integrity. It is important to maintain the hydraulic
sions. Additionally, a growing interest has developed in high system as well as the fluid. The system should be as clean as
water based fluids that contain 85-98$Z0water. Each of these possible when the fluid is installed. All joints and connections
products is discussed briefly in the following paragraphs. should be free of leaks, and seals and packing materials should
Triaryl phosphate esters. Often referred to as “synthetic” be in good condition. Soft or spongy seals and hoses should be
fire-resistant fluids, these products are marketed under several replaced.
different brand identifications. They are excellent lubricants Fluid leakage is probably the biggest single problem related
and have good fire resistance. They are available in a range of to the use of hydraulic fluids. It is expensive; it creates pollution
viscosities suitable for most industrial applications. and disposal problems; and it serves as a source of contamination
Oil-synthetic blends. These fluids are blends of phosphate for cutting fluids and other lubricants. Extra effort to minimize
esters and petroleum oils plus appropriate additives. They have hydraulic fluid leakage is a good investment.
good lubricating properties, but their fire resistance is between Fluid cleanliness. Another prerequisite for optimum perfor-
that of the phosphate esters and petroleum oil and will reflect mance of hydraulic fluids and hydraulic systems is clean fluid.
the relative proportion of each. Good filtration, frequent filter maintenance, and filter replace-
Water-glycol fluids. Water-glycol fluids are ternary blends ment as needed is essential. Filters should be no coarser than 25
of water, a glycol, and a high-viscosity, water-soluble polyglycol K m (984 p in.), Finer filtration is preferred if it can be
plus corrosion inhibitors and lubricity agents. Water content is incorporated in the system. Steps should be taken to avoid
usually 40-4570. These fluids have excellent fire resistance and contamination with dirt, water, lubricants, or cutting fluids.
provide good lubrication when used in appropriate equipment. Water and aqueous products are particularly undesirable
Water-in-oil (invert) emulsions. With oil as the continuous contaminants. When significant contamination occurs, the
phase in which water is dispersed, these fluids are nonNewtonian contaminated fluid should be discarded or removed and
emulsions. The additive package provides improved emulsion reclaimed. If these steps are not practicable, contaminants
stability and good lubricating properties. Water-in-oil emulsions should be removed at the earliest opportunity.
are the least expensive of the three basic types of fire-resistant Fluid stability. Good maintenance practices involve periodic
fluids, but their fire-resistance is not as good as that of either checks of fluid quality. Users should be alert for changes in
water-glycols or phosphate esters. appearance, viscosity, and acid value, since these are the best
High water hased fluids. Products identified as high water indicators of fluid degradation.
based fluids represent a relatively new classification of hydraulic Potential problems and their indicators, as well as the
fluid. They are essentially water additives that, when added to appropriate test methods, are often different for fire-resistant
water, provide both corrosion protection and oiliness or hydraulic fluids than for oil. Phosphate esters and oil-synthetic
reduction in friction coefficients. Since they will normally blends can be treated in much the same manner as oil.
contain 90-9870 water as used, they have excellent fire resistance. Particular care should be taken to avoid water contamination
Their use in fire-resistant fluid applications is limited because of because, in protracted contact, undesirable acidic reaction
their inherent limitations with respect to lubrication in currently products can be formed. Water-containing fluids should be
used equipment. Products included in this group of fluids are checked periodically to guard against excessive water loss
4-58
CHAPTER 4
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
TABLE 4-18
Key Properties and Requirements of Industrial Hydraulic Fluids
Property or
Requirement Comment
General
Viscosity Characteristics:
Viscosity Value Should have proper viscosity for equipment at temperatures
of use
Viscosity Index Should have high viscosity index if equipment operates over
broad temperature range
Lubricating Quality Provides good lubrication to all components of hydraulic
system under normal operating conditions
Fluid Stability:
Oxidative Is resistant to oxidative degradation under prolonged, normal
operating conditions
Thermal Is resistant to thermal degradation at temperatures
anticipated in service
Shear Is resistant to irreversible viscosity loss when subjected to
high shear conditions in service
Hydrolytic 1s resistant to chemical change of fluid or additive system
when contaminated with water
Homogeneity y Maintains fluid homogeneity when subjected to prolonged
storage at anticipated storage temperatures
Compatibility with
System Materials:
Metal Is noncorrosive to metallic components in the hydraulic
system
Nonmetal Does not soften, dissolve, or react with such nonmetallic
components in the hydraulic system as packings, seals,
plastic parts, coatings, etc.
Compressibility Should have low compressibility (high bulk modulus) for

(Bulk Modulus) optimum performance
Toxicity Should have low level of toxicity and be safe to handle
and use
Special
Fire Resistance Should be considered when hydraulic fluid is used in
proximity to sources of ignition
High-Temperature Stability Should be considered when hydraulic fluid is used at

high-bulk fluid temperatures
Low-Temperature Fluidity Should be considered when hydraulic fluid is used at
low-ambient temperatures
Demulsibility Should be considered when hydraulic fluid is used with
potentially high levels of water contamination
Antifoaming Should be considered when hydraulic fluid is used under

aerating or pro-foaming conditions
Dielectric Properties Should be considered when hydraulic fluid is used in an
electric field
Radiation Resistance Should be considered when hydraulic fluid is used in a

radioactive environment
4-59
CHAPTER 4
REFERENCES
through evaporation. For water-glycols, fluid viscosity provides 28. Edward L. Kana, Jr., “A Chart for Recording and Analyzing
a ready means of measuring water content. If high water loss, Factors Influencing Coolant Life,” Lubrication Engineering
(September 1973), p. 391.
with a resultant viscosity increase, has occurred, controlled
29. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National
water additions can be used to restore the fluid to its original Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Guidelines for
viscosity level. the Control of Exposure to Metalworking Fluids, NIOSH
Technical Report, DHEW (NIOSH) Publication No. 78-165
\wa;hington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office), February
30. Rossmoore, Ioc. cit.

31. J. George Wills (Mobil Oil Corp.), Lubrication Fundamentals
(New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1980), p, 9.
32. Standard Handbook of Lubrication Engineering (New York:
McGraw Hill Book Co., 1968), p. 34-1.
33. Wills, op. cit. , p. 41.
1. C, Cassin and G. 8oothroyd, “Lubricating Action of Cutting
Flu ids, ” Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science, VOI. 7 34. R. E. Hattan, “Synthetic Oils,” /rrter-discip/inary Approach to
(March 1965), p. 67-81. Liquidfubricanf Tachno/ogy, National Aeronautics and Space
W, M. Stocker, Jr,, and T. Hicks, eds., Mets/cutting: Today’s Administration, SP318, 1972, p. 101.
2.
Techniques for Engineers and Shop Personnel (McGraw-Hill 35. Marjorie J. and Robert D. Void, Journal of the /nstitute of
Publications Co., 1979), p, 182. Petro/eum Tacfrrro/ogy, vol. 38(1 952), pp. 155-163.
36. J. J. Dwyer, Jr., “Effective Lubrication,” American Machinist
3. K. C. Tripothi, “Contradictions and Gaps in Present Theory of
Lubrication: Main Challenge to Newer Developments, ” (August 1976), p. SR 5.
Proceedings of tha InternationalSymposium on Metalworking 37. E. L. PiIon, “Gear Lubrication-l, ” Lubrication, vol. 66, no. 1
Lubrication, 1980, San Francisco, The American Society of (1980), p. 10.
38. Dwyer, Jr., Ioc. cit.
Mechanical Engineers, p. 31.
4. J. G, Home, D. Tabor, and J. A. Williams, “Action of Gaseous 39. WIIIS, OfJ. Cit., p. 160-182.
and Liquid Lubricants in Metalcutting,” Proceedings of the
hrternationalSy mposium on Metalworking ubrication, 1980,
San Francisco, The American Society of Mechanical Engi-
neers. D, 193.
5. Ibid, p.’1 95. Bibliography
6. D. A. Hope, “Cutting Fluids - Pet or Pest,” Tribo/ogy /rrter-
natiorra/ (February 1977), p, 23-27. “Better Lubrication and Finishes Help Boost Horsepower of
i’. W. S. Backer, Principles of Machining, Cutting Fluids Section, Gears. ” Product Engineering (February 8, 1979).
Metals Engineering Institute Study Course. Dowson, D.; Taylor, C. M.; and Godet, M.; eds. E/astohydrodynamics
Dennis A. Fra izer, Cutting Fluid Applications for Today’s and f?e/ated Topics. London: Mechanical Engineering Publica-
8.
tions Ltd., 1979.
Materials, SME Technical Paper MR74-701, 1974,
R, K. Springborn, cd., Cutting and Grinding Fluids: Selection Dowson, D.; Taylor, C. M.; Godet, M.; and Berthe, D.; eds. Surface
9.
Roughness Effects in Lubrication. London: Mechanical Engi-
avrdApp/ication, (Dearborn, Ml: American Society of Tool and
Manufacturing Engineers [SME], 1967), p, 124. neering Publications Ltd., 1978,
10. Machinability Data Center, Machining Data Handbook, “Fuel and Lubricant Additlties 11,”Lubrication. Texaco Inc., 1977.
Volume 11,3rd cd., (Cincinnati: Metcut Research Associates Industrial Oils and Functional Fluids 1977. C. H. Kline & Co., Inc.,
Inc., 1980), p. 16-1. 1977.
Kitchen, G. “Solid Film Lubricants: A User’s Perspective on
11, Charles Wick, “Cutting and Grindina Fluid Sources, ” Manu-
facturing Engineering~November 1577), p. 53. Selection and Application, ” F/uid and .Lubricant /deas. vol. 3,
12, Machinability Data Center, op. cit., p, 16-11. no. 6 (December 1980).
13, Charles Wick, “Clean Caolants Cut Costs, ” Manufacturing Lipp, L, C. “Solid Lubricants - Their Advantages and Limitations. ”
Engineering (November 1977), p. 34, Paper presented at American Society of Lubrication Engineers/
14. Machine Design Considerations for Improving Metalworking American Society of Mechanical Engineers Lubrication Confer-
F/uid Performance, Metalworking Fluids Division of SME ence, Miami Beach, October 1975.
Technical Council, SME Technical Paper MR76-252, 1976. Neale, M. J., ed. Tribo/ogy Handbook, New York: John Wiley and
15. Stocker, Jr., and Hicks, op. cit., p, 200. Sons., 1973.
16. Stephen Humnicky, Water Qua/ity Factors on the Cost and Papay, A, G., and Jayne, G. J. “New Developments in Gear Oil
Performance of Coo/ants, SME Technical Paper MR70-253, Additive Technology. ” Paper presented at International Col-
1970, p. 4. Ioguim on Lubrication on Industrial and Automotive Gears,
17. Joe H. Wright, “Water Quality and the Performance of Water Technishe Akademie Esalingen, Germany, January 1980.
Miscible Cutting and Grinding Fluids, ” Cutting Too/ Errgi- U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National
neering (March/April 1975), p. 6. Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Hea/th and Safety
18. Ibid , p, 7. Guide— Tool, Die and Precision Machining Industry. DHEW
19. Wright, op. cit. , p, 5. (NIOSH)Publication No. 77-196. Washington, DC: U. S. Govern-
ment Printing Office, 1977.
20, Herman P, Abel, High Purity Water for Industrial Processes,
Zlatkin, Norman, and Christopher, John. “Evaluation of the
SME Technical Paper MM70-706, 1970, p, 18.
Effectiveness of Cutting Fluids for Industry,” Lubrication Engi-
21. Wright, op. cit. , p, 8.
neering (September 1973).
22. William A. Sluhen, ‘“Equipment for Control and Maintenance
af Water Miscible Cutting and Grinding Fluids, ” Cutting Too/
Engineering (May/June 1975), D. 5.
23. Ibid., p. 7,
24. Joseph Tomko, Cutting Fiuid Maintenance, SME Technical
Paper MR71-802, 1971, p, 2,
25. H. W, Rossmoore, Microbiological Causes of Cutting Fluid
Deterioration, SME Technical Paper MR74-1 69, 1974.
26. Joseph Tomko, Cutting Fluid Se/ection and Maintenance
Factors Which Determine Product Longevity, SME Technical
Paper MF74-1 70, 1974.
27. M. R, Roaer, A. M. KarJlan, and E. Beaumont. “A Laboratory
In-Plant Analysis of a“Test Procedure for Biocides in Metal:
y::king Fluids, ” Lubrication Engineering (June 1975), p.
4-60
CHAPTER 5
MACHINE CONTROLS
The evolution of machine tool technology has controllers, numerical control, computer numerical CHAPTER
been paced by dramatic increases in machine control, direct numerical control, and adaptive CONTENTS:
control capability, particularly within the past 25 control. At the end of this chapter, a comprehensive
years. In fact, many machine tool experts credit glossary of machine control terms is presented. Sequence
major improvements in manufacturing produc- The scope of this chapter entails discussions of Controllers 5-1
tivity and enhancements in workpiece quality over controls at the machine tool. Many of the machine Programmable
the last several decades to the fast-paced growth of control topics discussed in this chapter are related Controllers 5-2
capability of machine tool controls. The basic to broader subjects such as CAD/ CAM, especially
Numericel
configurations of many machine tools (lathes, for with the increasing development of integration Control
example) have not changed significantly for many among computerized systems in manufacturing, Advantages 5-9
years; but, the advent of numerical control, however, CAD/ CAM and other higher level topics Justification 5-13
CNC Basics 5-23
computer numerical control, and related enhance- are discussed in Volume V of this Handbook series, DNC Basics 5-29
ments has spurred important changes in the “Manufacturing Engineering Management. ” Speci- Selection 5-37
methods employed in manufacturing and has fic machine tools are covered in various chapters of Config-
urations 5-34
shown great impact on manufacturing cost. this volume. For example, lathes are discussed in
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an Chapter 8, “Turning and Boring,” and machining P;::u;ming
overview of the various types of machine controls, centers are covered in Chapter 15, “Multifunction 5-40
Computar-
including sequence controllers, programmable Machines. ” Assisted 5-44
Languages 5-55
Adaptive
Control 5-66
SEtNJENCE CONTROLLERS Glossary 6-70
Sequence controllers are a class of electro- inputs, causes the closure of circuits to output
mechanical and electronic devices used to control devices such as solenoids and motor starters. When
the operation of a machine tool or other equipment the logic section senses that selected inputs in that
in a predetermined step-by-step manner. Charac- row are in the proper condition, the controller then
teristic of these devices is the method of establishing advances, or “steps,” the cylinder by rotating it to
the desired control sequence and the manner in the next row. The pins in the next row then present
which the controller functions. The more common the next set of input conditions to the controller
types of sequence controllers available today are and cause the closure of the corresponding desired
electromechanical stepping-drum programmers, output circuits.
perforated wide-paper-tape programmers, and In a perforated wide-paper-tape programmer,
diode-matrix pinboard programmers. the desired control sequence is established by the
In the drum programmer, the desired control pattern of holes which are punched into the tape.
sequence is commonly established by inserting The operation of this type of device is similar to the
pins into appropriate rows in the surface of a operation of the familiar old player piano. In the
cylinder. Mounted over one row of the cylinder diode-matrix pinboard programmer, the desired
surface are momentary contact switches so that, as control sequence is established by inserting small
each row moves into position under the switches, plastic pins (each containing a diode) into a
the pins in that row activate the switches plugboard. Alteration of the desired control
corresponding to the position of the pins present. sequence is accomplished by changing the positions
As the cylinder rotates or steps to the next row, the of the plastic plugs, the pattern of holes, or the
pins in that row cause the connection of certain position of the diode pins. All types of sequence
input devices, such as pushbuttons, limit switches, controllers are typically used for applications
and timer contacts, to the logic section of the having a fixed sequence of operation for a large
controller. The logic section, as a result of the number of repetitions.
Contributors of sections of this chapter are: Thomas M. A ustin. Technical Writer, Giddings & Lewis Machine
Tool Co. (Electronics Div.); John A. Blaeser, Vice President & General Manager, Gould Inc., Modicon Div.;
Vincent F. Bobrowicz, Director, CAD/CAM Technology, MDSI, a Schlumberger Co.; Gary Cavano, Promotion
Specialist, Allen-Bradley—Systems Div.; Robert M. Elliott, Editor, MDSI; Llo ydFogg. Manager of Documentation
and Training, MDSI; Donald R. Fontecchio, Supervisor—Sales Service. Giddings & Lewis Machine Tool Co.;
James Gilgenbach, Supervisor, Advanced Manufacturing Engineering, Giddings & Lewis Machine Tool Co.;
Hillary A. Handwerger, Librarian, MDSI; Golden E. Herrin, Control Specialist, Advanced Systems, Cincinnati
Milacron; John H. Kidd, Project Manager/NC Graphics, MDSI; Robert J. Samson, Director, Compact
n/Applications, MDSI; Michael K. Savelyev, Application Engineer, Gould Inc., Modicon Div.; Arne L. Watland,
Gould Inc., Modicon Div.; David R. Witt, Instructor, Giddings & Lewis Machine Tool Co. (Electronics Div.)
Reviewers of sections of this chapter are: AIAho, Senior Technical Writer, Systems Div. , A hen-Bradley Co.;
John J. Backovitch, Manager, Industrial Engineering, Armstrong Blum Manufacturing; Parker Bailey, Market-
ing Manager, McDonnell Douglas. Industrial Control Products; James D. Barber, Supervisor Customer Training,
5-1
CHAPTER 5
PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLERS
A programmable controller (PC) is a solid-state device used just if it is on or off. For example, the processor may be
to control machine motion or process operation by means of a programmed to increase or decrease the steam flow to a boiler
stored program. The PC sends output control signals and (analog output) based on a comparison of the actual temperature
receives input signals through input/ output (1/ O) devices. A in the boiler (analog input) to the desired temperature. This is
PC controls outputs in response to stimuli at the inputs often performed by utilizing the built-in PID (proportional,
according to the logic prescribed by the stored program. The integral, derivative) capabilities of the processor.
inputs are made up of limit switches, pushbuttons, thumbwheels, Because a PC is “software based,” its control logic functions
switches, pulses, analog signals, ASCII serial data, and binary can be changed by reprogramming its memory. Keyboard
or BCD data from absolute position encoders. The outputs are programming devices facilitate entry of the revised program,
voltage or current levels to drive end devices such as solenoids, which can be designed to cause an existing machine or process
motor starters, relays, lights, and so on. Other output devices to operate in a different sequence or to respond to different
include analog devices, digital BCD displays, ASCII compatible levels of, or combinations of, stimuli. Hardware modifications
devices, servo variable-speed drives, and even computers. are needed only if additional, changed, or relocated input/output
Programmable controllers were developed (circa 1968) when devices are involved.
General Motors Corp. and other automobile manufacturers
were experimenting to see if there might be an alternative to PC VS COMPUTER
scrapping all their hardwired control panels of machine tools There are a few key characteristics which make the PC unlike
and other production equipment during a model changeover. a computer or other types of controllers. First, the PC is
This annual tradition was necessary because rewiring of tbe designed to communicate with the outside world (the process to
panels was more expensive than buying new ones. be controlled) directly. That is, inputs from the process and
The automotive companies approached a number of control controlling outputs to the process are wired directly to the PC
equipment manufacturers and asked them to develop a control system. The PC recognizes these inputs and outputs by means
system that would have a longer productive life without major of a unique fixed address assigned to each 1/O.
rewiring, but would still be understandable to and repairable by The second difference between PC’s and computers or other
plant personnel. The new product was named a “programmable controllers is the relative ease of programming. The PC uses
controller. ” relatively simple programming techniques that a plant tech-
The processor part of a PC contains a central processing unit nician or electrician easily can understand with minimal
and memory. The central processing unit (CPU) is the “traffic training. Some programmable controllers use a simple relay
director” of the processor; the memory stores information. ladder diagram programming concept. In such cases, knowledge
Coming into the processor are the electrical signals from the of Fortran, PAL, or any other computer language is not
input devices, as conditioned by the input module to voltage required; nor is the use of Boolean or other logical expressions
levels acceptable to processor logic. The processor scans the required, although these can be converted into a relay ladder
state of 1/ O and updates outputs based on instructions stored in diagram format when necessary. The programming can be
the memory of the PC. For example, the processor may be accomplished on-line with a portable programming panel or a
programmed so that if an input connected to a limit switch is CRT programmer in many cases.
true (limit switch closed), then a corresponding output wired to An important point to note about PC’s is that a good PC can
an output module is to be energized. This output might be a be reprogrammed “on-line”; that is, while the process is
solenoid, for example. The processor remembers this command running. Such operations are satisfactory and safe if, and only
through its memory and compares on each scan to see if that if, complete ladder rungs are operated on by the processor.
limit switch is, in fact, closed. If it is closed, the processor Furthermore, on-line programming is successful only if the 1/O
energizes the solenoid by turning on the output module. structure is unaffected. An on-line program change could be
The output device, such as a solenoid or motor starter, is hazardous for unproven programs. On-line programming
wired to an output module’s terminal, and it receives its shift capability can be a valuable feature in some process industries
signal from the processor. In effect, the processor is performing when shutting down a production line can be prohibitively
a long and complicated series of logic decisions. The PC expensive. The on-line feature allows certain portions of a
performs such decisions sequentially and in accordance with the program to be changed with minimum disruption of processing.
stored program. Similarly, analog 1/O allows the processor to However, the program or changes to a program should be
make decis~ons based on the magnitude of a signal, rather than debugged prior to use in a production situation.
Reviewers, cont.: Bendix Industrial Controls; Larry D. Beer, Engineering Manager/Electronics, Digital Techniques Div. , Valeron Corp.;
Joseph J. Bingham, Senior Product Coordinator, Industry Electronics Div. —Numa-Logic Dept. , Westinghouse Electric Corp.; Thomas B.
Bullock, Vice-President—Sales, Electronics Div. , Giddings & Lewis; Charles F. Carter, Jr. , Technical Director, Cincinnati Milacron;
Bruce C. Cuppan, Manager. Mechanical Research & Developments. Giddings & Lewis Machine Tool Co.; R. H. Eisengrein, Manager,
Systems, Kingsbury Machine Tool Co.; John M. Engel, Senior Technical Writer, Industry Electronics Div. —Numa-Logic Dept. .
Westinghouse Electric Corp.; Andy Fertal, Supervisor, Technical Writing, Systems Div. , A hen-Bradley; Dr. Michael Field, Chief Executive
Officer, Metcut Research Associates, Inc..’ James R, Finn, Jr. , Senior Engineer, lndustriaIA utomation Div. , Westinghouse Electric Corp.;
Scott Flowers, Application Engineer, NC S ystems, Allen-Bradley Co., S ystems Div.; James R. Folkman, Product Manager, S ystems Div. ,
A hen-Bradley; Donald Fontecchio, Supervisor, Sales—Service, Giddings & Lewis, Machine Tool Div.; Richard L. Friberg, Project
Development Engineer, Industrial Control Department, General Electric Co.; Gary Garcia, Press Relations Specialist, Press Relations
Department. Gould Inc. , Electronic Systems Group; David C. Greulich, Manager, Manufacturing Engineering, Cincinnati Incorporated;
5-2
CHAPTER 5
The third and perhaps most important difference when PC’s appropriate display method is chosen according to how many
are compared to computers is that PC’s are designed for an diagnostic messages must be displayed, where the display is to
industrial environment. A well-designed PC should allow the be located, and how much detailed information is to be
user to locate a PC in a relatively high-noise, high-vibration, displayed within each message.
high-temperature, high-humidity (noncondensing) environ- Until recently, the cost of diagnostic displays was prohibitive
ment without affecting its operation. The performance of a for small applications. Now, advanced capabilities are available
control system is influenced to a great degree by the environ- even on small, low-cost processors, and user-programmable
ment in which it is expected to operate. Part lCS 1-108 of alphanumeric displays are being offered on low-cost program-
NEMA Standards Publication ICSl provides some guidelines mers. This allows a maintenance person to plug in the
for service and installation conditions of PC’s and other programmer and get an instant diagnostic message. Since the
industrial controls. maintenance person often does not have to interpret the ladder
diagram, troubleshooting time is minimized and uptime is
PC VS RELAYS maximized. Having found the trouble, the operator can swap
Before the advent of PC’s, especially in the automotive I/O modules, power supplies, or even mainframes since they are
industry, the user would design a relay panel or panels and all modular with quick plug-in connections.
would have them built, wired, and checked out. Any modifica- Also, at the end of the production period when new car
tions in the relay logic would mean redrawing, rewiring of models or other product models have to be built or other
relays, and rechecking. Of course, if a failure occurred some- production changes must be instituted, only the ladder diagram
where, troubleshooting was time-consuming. At the beginning must be reprogrammed and I / O devices added or deleted. In
of the next year’s automobile production, the car models and other words, the PC can be used over and over again with
relay logic would change, causing some automobile companies different logic.
to find it actually cheaper to build new cabinets from scratch
and get rid of the old ones than to try to save them. ADVANTAGES OF PROGRAMMABLE
The PC, on the other hand, can be programmed with the CONTROLLERS
user’s ladder diagram logic after the I / O wiring is completed Time is saved when PC’s are used because reprogramming
because the program is not as highly dependent on the wiring. usually takes less time than changing the wiring of a hardwired
Although often technically feasible, this generally would not be control panel. For example, money is saved because the PC can
good or efficient practice. A programmer and installer, there- perform multiple jobs for many years and additional equipment
fore, should work together and coordinate their efforts to may not be required. A PC is built to be easily expandable.
achieve economical installation and programming, Addresses Many PC’s are computer-compatible, so PC data can be fed to a
assigned for 1/ O in the program must match the addresses of the computer or from a computer to a PC; also, multiple PC’s,
physical wiring of I /0 devices, or the system will not function. computers, and peripherals can be tied together in a data
The program can also be put on a magnetic or paper tape or in network in which each component can communicate with the
computer memory for direct insertion into several systems or a others. This makes the PC an ideal basis for a system of
spare system. If there is a malfunction somewhere, status lights integrated machine systems.
on the PC can often tell the operator which part of the system Furthermore, depending on the application and PC chosen, a
malfunctioned. Further troubleshooting can be accomplished considerable space savings can be achieved. Because the PC
from the programming panel by looking at the ladder diagram sYstem is basically modular, the parts of the system which
and the status of all its inputs and outputs. An 1/0 simulator is should be close to the machine can be placed closest to the
especially helpful for verifying I / O signals to and from the machine and the cable can be run a long distance to the
processor. processor. The processor does not need constant attention or
Some processors have advanced functions which allow large close proximity to the function it is controlling. The remote 1/0
blocks of data to be transferred, compared, or loaded via the rack can be located near the machine or process it is controlling.
user program. This allows a processor to learn a machine Aside from space savings, this replaces a considerable number
sequence and to automatically diagnose its failures. A first-in, of wires, which can be both cumbersome and expensive.
first-out stack (FIFO) can then store the failures in the order in Also, no special computer knowledge is needed to operate or
which they occurred. This is the first stage of diagnostics. The maintain a programmable controller. Many PC’s are pro-
second stage is to display the information to the operator or grammed with slightly modified ladder diagrams, the same kind
maintenance personnel. that electrical engineers and technicians employ in relay logic.
Display of diagnostic information can be accomplished by (However, some PC’s are beginning to get more complex and
indicator lights, printers, number-code readouts, CRT displays, may use different programming languages, each with its own
network communications, or alphanumeric readouts. The special advantage, ) In addition, because PC’s are modular,
Reviewers, cont.: Eddie Harmon, General Manager, Procurement, N/C Servo Technology.’ Frank W. Hesford. Chief Enginaer,
Electronic Systems Div., Cincinnati Milacron Inc.; Bernard G. Ibbs, CNC Product Managar, Clausing Machine Tools; Carl A. Johnson.
Senior Product Coordinator, Industry Electronics Div. —rVuma-Logic Dept.. Westinghouse Electric Corp.; Edward E. Kirkham, Director of
Research and Development, Kearney & Trecker Corp.; Mike Kuhn. Senior Product Coordinator, industry Electronics Div, —Numa-Logic
Dapt. , Westinghouse Electric Corp.; David r14allisk, NC Technical Writing Coordinator, Systems Div. , Allen-Bradley Co.; R. A. Mathias, Vice
President, Macotech Corp.; T. McCloghry, Director—NC Marketing, Bridgeport Machines Div. , Textron Inc.; W. N, Moore, Chief Engineer,
Manufacturing Process Systems, Ford Motor Co.; Warren E. Ponemon, President, A utonumerics, Inc.; Robert W. Schmid, Technical
Writer/Instructor, Customer Service Department, Giddings & Le wis Electronics Co.; Kurt L. Schutz, President, CNC Associates; DavidA.
Shipp, Sales Manager. Weldon Hydraulics, Inc.; P. B. Skinner, Manufacturing Process Systems Engineer, Manufacturing Process
Systems, Ford Motor Co.; Francis H. Stein, Project Engineer, Product Safety Dept. , Allen-Bradley Co.; Donald F. Stuart, Supervisor, NC
Programming, De Vlieg Machine Co.; Paul J. Sturdevant, Supervisor—NC Systems Development, Cincinnati Milacron.
5-3
CHAPTER 5
getting them back on-line if a problem develops, is usually just a of the analysis since the evaluation is purely objective. First of
matter of making a relatively simple hardware replacement. all, the product should be large enough to fit expected needs.
This kind of modularity also makes PC’s easily expandable. The memory size, discrete 1/O limits, and analog 1/0 limits
should be determined. A word in the programmable controller
SELECTING A PROGRAMMABLE industry does not have a concrete definition. No one criterion is
CONTROLLER a “best evaluation” of memory size, although some users
The selection of a programmable controller for a specific consider how many “bytes” are available and, in turn, how
application can become an involved process. The following many bytes (eight bits of data) are required per contact, timer,
presentation offers some guidelines which may help simplify the and any special functions. Core memory is nonvolatile; i.e., it
selection procedure. does not lose data when power is removed, CMOS memory is
Three basic areas of consideration exist. They include the volatile, a back-up battery is required to retain data when power
product, the cost/ value ratio, and the supplier company, Each is removed. Erasable, Programmable Read Only Memory
aspect should be considered, but one aspect may weigh more (EPROM) is a type of nonvolatile memory used in some special
heavily than another, depending upon the situation. applications, it does not have reprogramming capability unless
first exposed to ultraviolet (UV) radiation to erase previously
Suppliers
programmed data. Most manufacturers of PC’s today are using
A new user should ensure that in the event that assistance is
a CMOS type of memory vs. core or EPROM. However, the
needed with system development, it will be available. Applica-
type of memory used for storage of data has minor significance
tions assistance, training, and warranty period (parts and labor)
to the logic-solving capability of the processor. The architecture
should be investigated, and the associated cost of each should
of the central processor (CPU) determines the time required to
be documented. Company policies differ regarding training and
perform a task or series of tasks specified in a user program.
applications assistance. Certain manufacturers offer services
More efficient use of circuitry with techniques such as bit-slice
that may cost more than the hardware; other companies
processing can enhance processor capability and reduce logic
provide them free of charge. Warranty periods also vary from
solving time.
90 days to 18 months and may not inchtde labor.
Some manufacturers offer low-cost EPROM programming
Cost/Value Ratio which automates the loading process. Most PC systems, once
The cost of a programmable controller cannot be measured started up and debugged in CMOS RAM, are seldom repro-
in dollars alone. For this reason, it is suggested that a personal grammed, Transferring the program to EPROM offers freedom
cost/ value (feature) ratio be established. In establishing this from batteries at absolute minimum cost. This is very important
ratio, the base features which are required to meet specific needs for cost-sensitive original equipment manufacturers (OEM’s)
(amount of 1/0, memory, etc.) should be established. The costs who may ship a programmed processor, but must wait six
of these features should be determined, and the prices of the months to a year before power-up. The PROM program will
systems should be compared. still be intact.
Next, the enhancements that are included with the base cost Memory can also be evaluated in terms of efficiency. One
as standard should be evaluated. Such items could be math manufacturer’s PC may be able to perform functions identical
functions, diagnostics, or free training. Initially, these extra to those of another, but there can be a significantly large
features may not appear important, but experience has shown difference in the amount of memory consumed.
that once these features are understood, their uses, as well as Along with memory type, concern should be given to how the
user needs, expand exponentially, This could reduce future system logic is solved, The best logic system available has all the
expansion costs of a system by 50-75T0. With the future in mind, special functions written in micro-code and resident in the
a list of PC features should be established, including consider- programmable controller’s main processor, These special codes
ation of previously experienced control problems and potential may include such functions as table-to-register moves, PID,
solutions to every control problem expected. Features that the “get status,” ASC11, “bit manipulation,” “bit compare, ” and
programmable controller can offer as options should be others. Such features eliminate the need for data to be
determined in order to achieve these goals. The cost of transmitted from one memory to another. Data transmission
achieving these goals should be estimated. It is also important lengthens logic solving time, increases the use of user logic and
to keep front-end costs down. The processor should be matched programming time, and may create problems due to loss of data
to the job. Purchasing a processor capable of 32K of memory during a transmission.
expansion and thousands of 1/O for a job requiring less than Most suppliers have more than one product to offer. These
100 or so relays is overkill, and front-end cost, along with spare may include not only a variety of programmable controllers,
parts stocking, will reflect such overkill. but communications systems as well. The PC’s should all be
The only remaining potential costs to be added are for any
compatible with the communications network and, if possible,
hidden requirements. Some systems do not have individually the same programmer and tape loader.
fused outputs and may even need special loading to prevent The interfacing to ASCI1-compatible peripherals and
intermittent on/ off cycling of 1/O. Other systems may require computers is generally not via an input/ output (1/O) device
isolation or ferroresonant transformers to protect them from interface and must be considered when a PC is selected. Most
line transients. These types of costs and other “special service”
auxiliary functions such as capability for hard copy output and
costs may not appear in a quote; however, they should be
data exchange with computers are generally not involved
included in the final cost estimates of those systems requiring
directly with the control algorithm, although computers provide
such peripherals. capability for uploading and downloading programs or
The Product variables. These auxiliary functions are handled via an RS 232
In parallel with evaluating the cost of a system, an appraisal or other suitable 1/ O ports and do not decrease the 1/ O capacity
of the product is accomplished. This is probably the easiest part of a specified model of PC. This could be an important
5-4
CHAPTER 5
consideration when selecting a PC since the 1/O structure for a TABLE 5-1
specified model is physically limited by hardware. Summary Evaluation Sheet
A factor in an evaluation, the I/O should also be reviewed. for Analysis of Programmable Controllers
Available types should be checked; their current and voltage
capabilities and cycle times should be evaluated. 1/O capabilities
are important. Their specifications are an important factor in Manufacturer’s Name:
the overall system response.
The final two related products which should be considered Years in Business:
are the programmer and tape loader. Using a CRT programmer
Controller Name (Model):
is the easiest programming method presently available. Such a
system should not only permit programming in a “free format,” Memory Size:
but also allow systems control and monitoring. Free formatting
is the “unrestricted” use of nested branches, timers, and special 1/0 Size: Des.-
functions. The ability to disable logic and force it to an active
state and control/ monitor the system saves many hours of setup
Analog-
and troubleshooting time; therefore, many users consider this
feature a must. The CRT should have the capability to search Memory Types Available:
and find all forces in a processor. Forced contacts in a
processor, long ago forgotten, may present a safety hazard 1/O Types Available:
today. The ability to list all forced contacts automatically
prevents the possibility of losing track of forced contacts. Special Purpose 1/O:
Also available in some CRT’s is the ability to make tapes of
logic. If possible, a system should be purchased with both the Software Functions:
programmer and tape loader capabilities in one package. In
this way, money may be saved and functionality of the control
may be increased. Enhancements and alternatives to pro-
gramming systems also should be investigated. An example of
an alternative is LED/ numerical keypads. Remote 1/O: — Yes — No
These LED/ numerical keypads are classified as operator
interfaces. Capabilities may include forcing I/ O and setting or Manufacturer:
monitoring timers and counters, along with some contact
monitoring. The most advanced of these operator interfaces Field Service: Yes — No
allow operations such as message displays, user programmable
or assignable keys, and bar-graph monitoring and control of cost:
analog data, along with full ladder-diagram programming and
Field Applications Engineer: — Yes — No
monitoring capabilities. A useable operator interface must
display at least two registers (numerical data) at the same time cost:
for ease in comparison of position, timing, and process data. It
is also helpful to be able to display at least one register while Telephone Communications: — Yes — No
monitoring or forcing one or more contacts to speed
troubleshooting. cost:
As mentioned previously, although the product and its
software capabilities are important factors in evaluating pro- Special Services:
grammable controllers, care must also be taken in the selection
of a supplier. It is recommended that a system not be chosen on
price alone. Too many times a chosen system limits expansion Warranty:
capabilities. If cost is a major factor in the evaluation,
measurement of the true cost of the PC should be ensured Programmer Type:
taking into consideration services and training. Table 5-1 is a
summary comparison sheet for evaluation of programmable Tape Loader Type:
controllers. One sheet of this type should be filled in for each
programmable controller under consideration. Compatibility with Computer:
PC LANGUAGES Compatibility with other PC by manufacturer:

The first PC’s were developed as replacements for conven-
tional hard-wired relay panels. Users installed them with the
idea of overcoming several deficiencies inherent in relay Analysis:
systems:
. A relay panel was very difficult to modify, or “reprogram.”
Any substantial change to the system meant extensive
rewiring—sometimes to the extent that the original panel
had to be scrapped.
Cost/ Value (Feature) <atio:
● Documentation of changes was difficult. There was no
(Gould, Inc.)
5-5
CHAPTER 5
way to “read” panel wiring other than the tedious and

(A) Relay ladder diagram Motor
error-prone procedure of wringing it out, point by point.
~m
PB starl PB stop starter
Even when that was done, a draftsman still had to
commit it all to D-size drawings.
. Construction time—mounting and wiring—was long and
expensive.
. Communication with a host computer—for data “ 0000 I
acquisition or supervisory control—was difficult.
Relays did have the following two big advantages over the (B1 ) Sol,d state symbclogy
solid-state devices of the time: f 1
. Operating and maintenance people knew them well and
felt reasonably comfortable with them.
● They were far less sensitive to electrical noise.
The successful early PC’s all had, in addition to their other
features, the same kind of relay ladder logic symbology as the
(B2) Boolean symbology
devices they replaced.
Motor starter = (PB stari + motor starter) X not PB stop
In recent years, PC’s have acquired many new, powerful I =(10001 + l)x/looo2
features. The current generation of PC’s have, for example,
capabilities such as: (C) Microprocessor assembly language
PBSTART EQU *
● Extensive arithmetic functions, such as the ability to
PBSTOP: E(W *
perform proportional/ integral/ derivative control.
STARTER: EQU ‘
● Powerful data handling capabilities, such as the ability to PUSH Pwv
handle large amounts of tabular data and record or PUSH B
retrieve information on a first-in, first-out (FIFO) basis. LDA PBSTART
● The ability to generate reports and annunciate alarm MOV B,A
lDA STARTER
messages on standard terminals and printers.
ORA B
● High-speed programmable motion and analog control MOV B, A
features. Response of a PC is limited by several factors LDA PBSTOP
including program scan time and 1/O update rate. CMA
ANA
Special modules and techniques may permit some high-
STA ~TARTER
speed programmable motion; tradeoffs of resolution and POP B
speed need to be considered in the application. POP Psw
● Compatibility with the most recent machine networking
systems. ‘ig. 5-1 Three plausible languages for programming PC’S. The relay
Idder diagram. . enjoys
. . the highest literacy rate among engineers,
In some ways the functionality of the modern PC is looking operators, and electricians.
more and more like that of its big brother, the minicomputer.
Yet there remain some sharp distinctions—not the least of Electrical Code (NEC). The presentation here is for illustrative
which is the difference between the languages the two machines purposes only. Motor control circuits are discussed more fully
speak. in many books addressing industrial control devices.2
The relay ladder diagram persists even today as the dominant In some respects these three formats are very much alike.
language for PC’S. However, there is no particular feature of the They all express the same set of rules. The PC manufacturer can
PC’s electronics that should make this so. The microprocessor implement them all without difficulty. Yet, all indications today
inside the PC, which actually solves the user’s logic, could just are that the designer, the operator, and the maintenance
as easily be taught to understand Fortran, Basic, C, Pascal, electrician, as a group, find the relay ladder diagram the most
Forth, its own assembly language, or some other artificial convenient form of expression. The relay ladder enjoys by far
language. (A natural language, such as English, is still well the highest literacy rate of all possible PC languages. This
beyond the state of the art.) This is best illustrated by a motor literacy is crucial if the three individuals are to achieve any kind
starter that is to be controlled with a start pushbutton and a stop of mutual goal.
pushbutton according to these rules: The inertia against this fundamental precept is strong. In the
early days of solid-state machines, the human being played a
1, If the stop button is depressed, turn the starter off.
subservient role. Man’s time, after all, was much less expensive
Otherwise,
than the machine’s time, and extensive sacrifices in the name of
2. If the start button is depressed, turn the starter on.
economy could reasonably be expected. In this era of low-cost
Otherwise,
processors, however, the priority has shifted. Today the
3. Leave the starter in its present state.
important thing is to get the job done quickly.
Figure 5-1 illustrates three possible ways of expressing these One big economic advantage that PC’s enjoy is that the PC
rules to a PC—(a) relay ladder diagram, (b) Boolean symbology, manufacturer is able to write the systems software once only
and (c) microprocessor assembly language. Note: These three and amortize it over many thousands of units. The manufacturer
items in Fig. 5- I do not provide a complete description of the need not, as would an individual user, reinvent tbe wheel for
functions of a motor starter. There is no mention of overload each unit. Once software is written that makes one unit
protection as required by Part C of Article 430 of the National understand a language, it can be reused another 10,000 times or
5-6
CHAPTER 5
more. As long as the language employed is reasonably universal The literacy rate of computer languages is growing. The
and easy to use, everyone is better off. growing personal computer market is exposing more people
every day to languages like Basic. When they become a
Dialects majority, PC programming will have to cater to their experience.
Although the major PC manufacturers have pretty much In fact, some PC manufacturers are already incorporating
settled on the relay ladder diagram as the standard language, Basic, assembly language, and Boolean symbology in their
they have not completely agreed on all the fine points. For machines as secondary alternatives.
example, differences exist in these areas: It is difficult to predict which language will dominate.
Assembly language, for all its efficiency in using memory, has
● How many “relay coils” are available for user logic?
the drawbacks of severely reducing programmer efficiency and
Some machines allow the user to set this number, while
resisting most attempts at modification. And as the cost of
others come with a fixed quantity, which may range from
memory continues to plunge, the main advantage of assembly
100 or so to several thousand.
language becomes meaningless. The winner in the PC language
● Which “coils” can be used to drive real-world devices,
race will likely be a high-level language which enjoys a high
such as valves and pumps? Although some machines
literacy rate and maximizes programmer efficiency, It maybe a
assign certain fixed coils to serve output purposes and
structured langu~ge like Pascal––the currently fashionable
others to serve internal purposes only, other PC’s let the
favorite of theoreticians; or it may be Basic—the home-
user make the decision.
9 computer staple.
How much logic can the programming panel display at
once? Some smaller units permit the display of only one
logic element (such as a relay contact) at a time, while APPLICATIONS OF PROGRAMMABLE
others show as many as 77 elements simultaneously on a CONTROLLERS
CRT. However, a more useful criterion for judging In general, a PC application should be configured “top-
display capability is the number of rungs displayed. down” according to the following steps:
It is important to note that flexibility is not “free.” Selection 1. System functional requirements defined.
of the number of and addresses of 1/O, register space, and 2. Assembly drawing, bill of materials, schematics and
number of and location of logic coils can now be made in the wiring diagrams prepared by appropriate design
larger capacity PC’S, This is known as configuration, personnel.
Configuration itself may use up to two thousand words of the 3. Drawings committed to proper format by drafting
user memory. Thus a larger memory must be purchased by the department.
user to accomplish a given task on a processor requiring 4. Drawings reviewed and approved for production.
configuration than is needed on one not requiring configuration. 5. Drawings sent to production department for physical
This configuration also adds complexity and time during the assembly and wiring.
programming process. 6. If necessary, all changes reviewed and approved by
Even greater diversity appears when some of the more appropriate, responsible design function.
advanced functions presently available on PC’s are considered. Any PC worthy of its name performs logic functions, such as
Not only may machine X have capabilities different from those “if input A is on, input B is off, and input C is also off, then turn
of machine Y, but it may display the same function (such as a on output one. ” They also allow branching of mutiple sets of
timer) in a different way. conditions, any one of which must be true before the output will
These various dialects of the relay ladder diagram do not be activated.
always make for easy translation. A control algorithm which is PC’s also perform timing and counting functions—how
easily stated to one PC may be quite difficult to express to many parts were manufactured, how many pukes from a chain
another. To be sure, every language has dialects; but standardi- have occurred, how long an interval is desired before an alarm
zation among artificial language dialects is growing. ANSI condition is signaled, or what amount of time is needed for a
standards are in place for some computer languages, such as For- drill to feed and dwell.
tran and Basic. An IEEE committee has submitted a proposed The newer generations of PC’s can do much more than this,
standard for microprocessor assembly languages. It is likely though, They feature, for example, math calculations. A PC
that such a standard for PC logic will be developed in time. can be programmed to add the value at one memory location to
that at another location, with the sum used for a subsequent
Future Developments control function and/ or displayed on the programming
The present state of PC programming is a natural outgrowth terminal’s CRT screen. The capability exists for subtraction,
of the roots from which PC’s grew. The relay ladder diagram is division, and multiplication, though not all PC models can do
firmly established as the method of choice for conversing with all four functions.
PC’S. As the state of the PC art evolves, it is possible to hazard a Report generation is also an attractive attribute of modern
few educated guesses about the direction in which PC pro- day PC’S. If the PC is programmed appropriately, on command,
gramming is headed. an operator can get from the system a record of such information
In the next five to ten years, the use of PC’s will continue to as the number of parts rejected during a shift, the amount of
grow. However, at present there are some control applications machine downtime, or even the number of times a particular
for which relays are the better control technology because some input or output device has cycled. The latest PC’s interface to
applications are more cost effective when performed by relays. s peripheral devices, such as printers, and allow a hard-copy
In the future, PC manufacturers will come closer to agreement printout of information. This is especially valuable when
on forms of expressing relay concepts and will combine to management information is a requirement.
formalize the ladder diagram in an industrial standard. Data transfer and comparison with PC’s allows data to be
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CHAPTER 5
moved from one memory location to another, either in the form of production reports gathered from PC’s or in the
increments of one “word” at time or in entire blocks. As PC form of downloaded programs to PC’S.
programs become more complex, the ability to shift memory The temptation is to use the data highway concept extensively
locations can save time for the PC programmer. Coupled with for PC-to-PC communications. This is known as peer-to-peer
math capabilities, a PC can be programmed, for example, to networking. Data can be gathered or sent from any location in a
“get” the value at location 005, put it in location 110, subtract its given PC to any location in any other PC on the network. The
contents from the value at location 060, and based on that flexibility is outstanding, but the potential for unsolvable
calculation, turn on or off a specified output. An experienced software nightmares is ever present.
PC programmer can manipulate data in this way for an entire For larger systems utilizing (or potentially utilizing) peer-to-
program, affording the application maximum flexibility. peer communications, the user is wise to investigate networks
One of the more exciting developments in PC’s of late is the with built-in, hardware-augmented, data-base-management
data highway concept. This involves tying multiple PC’s capabilities. Investment in such systems on the front end of a
together, each transferring information back and forth to the project eliminates the chance of possibly unsolvable, tangled
other. In such a scheme, each PC is controlling its own machine communication problems later.
in an integrated manufacturing system. If machining operations Another budding area for the use of PC’s is in motion control
are sequential, the first PC “tells” the second that its work is or positioning. Some PC’s can use Resolver feedback or
completed, so the second PC then can begin its functions, and Inductosyn@ feedback to position to accuracy comparable with
so on for all. expensive computerized numerical control (CNC) systems.
A data highway, as such, may not be required if the same Coordinated motion among several axes, however, remains in
thing can be accomplished with a few outputs of a PC, or even the future for PC’S. They can use encoder and/or counter
with remote I/O. The added complexity in hardware and equipment (sometimes input/ output modules) to provide
software is most useful when larger amounts of data must be feedback for closed-loop systems and can be an attractive
transferred. A good example consists of sending or gathering alternative to more expensive control systems whose accuracy
data at a central computer from many PC’S. Data could be in and capability exceed the needs of the application.
ADVANTAGES OF NUMERICAL CONTROL

Numerical control (NC), computer numerical control (CNC), 3. A relatively complex sequence of operations to be
and direct numerical control (DNC) have given the manu- performed.
facturing industry the capability to exercise a new and greater 4. An operation in which it is impractical for a human
degree of freedom in the designing and manufacturing of being-to operate in the environment required. Some NC
products. This new freedom is demonstrated by the ability machines run unattended by an operator; however, this
to automatically produce products requiring complex proces- benefit usually is associated with the use of robots which
sing with a very high degree of quality and reliability. Further- load and unload NC and non-NC equipment grouped to
more, products which previously were impossible to form a robotized machining cell (see “Machine Loading
manufacture economically can now be made with relative ease and Unloading,” Chapter 16 of this volume).
using NC machines.
The advances in product design and machines have been ADVANTAGES OF NC IN
parallel; each advance in NC machines not only allows MANUFACTURING
designing of products previously not practical, but suggests Numerical control has been shown to be one of the most
additional improvements in machines which would permit significant advances in part manufacturing since the develop-
more complexity in product designing. Thus machine/product ment of methods for interchangeable parts production. Over
designing is a continuing cycle. The complexity of design of the the past 20 years, NC has demonstrated the ability to improve in
product is reflected in the machine that produces it. Although dramatic ways such things as:
many basic NC machine tools are currently available from
. Planning, flexibility, and scheduling.
various manufacturers, specialty applications of NC provide a
fertile field for new machines. Retrofitting conventional or ● Setup, lead, and processing time.
standard tools for NC has proved practical and popular (see . Machine utilization.
. Tooling cost.
“Machine Rebuild ing, ” Chapter 17 of this volume); however,
very sophisticated systems are usually designed and built . Cutting tool standardization.
specifically for NC. ● Accuracy, efficiency, and productivity.
Numerical control is applicable to a wide variety of industrial ● Material flow and workpiece handling time.
tasks. In evaluating the applicability of NC to a particular job, ● Interchangeability of work, tools, etc.
the heaviest weight should be given to jobs which include: ● Safety.
● Cost estimating.
1. A long series of operations in which an error in the
sequence would destroy the value of the operations. Planning
2. A wide variety of different sequences of operation which Numerically controlled machine tools provide an economic
must rapidly and frequently be set up on the same piece means for manufacturing management to make detailed plans
of equipment. of operation and at the same time retain documentary support
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ADVANTAGES OF NC
for such plans. Where conventional machine tools are employed reduced complexity of workholding devices, and the detailed
in job shop manufacturing operations, it is common practice to operation-sequence-planning function carried out in the office.
pre-establish only a general description of the operation In programming the numerical control operation and preparing
sequence content. This broad planning approach makes it tool charts, lead time is reduced significantly because of major
necessary for the machine operator to do the more detailed simplification of tool design. Many workplaces can be completed
planning at the machine. This phase of operation planning in a few operations on NC machines as compared with three to
frequently involves final determination regarding the type of four times as many operations for accomplishing the same work
setup and workholding devices to be employed, cutting tool on conventional machines. Significantly, with NC, drastic
configuration, and operating feeds and speeds. Often these reductions are often possible in the number of machines
factors are based entirely upon the skill of the operators and are required. Also, NC has proved to make short runs profitable—
dependent upon operator knowledge of workpiece requirements and often a critical consideration.
and capabilities of the machine and cutting tools. In shops
engaged in repetitive part manufacturing, this detailed planning Scheduling
must be performed each time a job is assigned. Acceptance of the complete numerically controlled machining
Planning-retention capabilities inherent in numerically concept means that fewer setups will be performed on a given
controlled machine tapes or other storage media provide a workpiece with less spindle idle time. Reduced lead time means
means for transferring a substantial degree of planning from the that management can forecast for a shorter period into the
machine operator to specialists who can work without inter- future and thereby realize a proportional increase in accuracy of
ruption in an environment conducive to concentration. For forecast requirements.
each part to be machined, the machine programmer prepares a The ability to convert raw materials into finished parts in a
detailed manuscript for the entire operation with respect (1) to relatively short time results in forecasting of raw-material
sequence of cuts; (2) operating conditions including feed, speed, requirements only, rather than in forecasting of completely
and auxiliary functions such as coolant application, manual finished components, When many variations and special
intervention points for inspection, or final tool sizing during the customer requirements are involved, better forecasting and
operation; (3) a rough sketch of the setup to guide the tool scheduling techniques result.
designer in the final shop drawing to be employed; and (4) a Reduced quantities, reduced lead times, and fewer setups all
complete list of all the cutting and inspection tools required. lead to less work in process. These factors permit management
This documentary base provides a permanent record which can to do a better job of establishing net requirements and to plan
be used by management for repeat runs of the same workpiece. machine shop loading and scheduling.
All of this detailed planning data is recorded and is in a format
in such a way that the information is understandable to Setup and Lead Time
subsequent users (see “NC Programming” in this chapter). It is practical to run smaller batch quantities on NC machine
Basic design configuration of numerically controlled machine tools than would be economical with conventional machine
tools is such that positioning accuracy and repeatability, tools performing the same operations. This is because of the
alignment geometry, and machine operation are more reliable, minimal setup costs involved with these machines as a result of
with the result that less dependence is placed upon operator preset tooling techniques developed to support the machine
knowledge of the idiosyncrasies of the individual machine tool operation to reduce nonproductive machine time; larger lot
and planning and scheduling are made easier. It is quite sizes (through group technology) can also be handled effectively
common in the application of conventional machine tools to with NC.
depend upon the operator to provide compensatory skills for Capabilities of NC machines enable several conventional
inadequacies of the machine tool. machining operations to be replaced with a single NC operation.
Fundamentally, the numerically controlled machine tool Because of the smaller quantities and fewer operations per-
indirectly provides the user with greater knowledge of the formed, the work in process for a given volume of output is less
operation and provides the means for retaining all the detailed than that of equivalent production on conventional machines.
planning and skill required for any metalcutting operation. Lead time is a complex factor composed of many individual
These benefits accrue to both large and small manufacturers. operational elements—market-forecast accuracy, number of
variables involved, lot size, number of operations performed,
Flexibility number of jobs in process, total available machine capacity, and
Because of the advantageous capabilities inherent in NC work-force capacity. Because NC machines provide a means for
machine configurations, substantially more individual oper- converting raw material to a useable finished part in a minimum
ations on a workpiece can be completed in a single setup than number of setups, most of the factors influencing lead time can
would be possible if conventional machine tools were employed. be reduced. Forecasting accuracy is inversely proportional to
This concept is clearly demonstrated on NC machining centers the forecasting period. Thus the closed-loop principle applies in
on which a combination of milling, drilling, turning, tapping, that less stock-out and error-forecast protection is required
boring, and reaming operations can be performed in a single because of faster response to changing sales requirements. Also,
setup on multiple sides of the workpiece (see “Multifunction ability to quickly convert raw material to finished parts reduces
Machines,” Chapter 15 in this volume). the need to maintain a finished inventory of such parts.
With NC, new product lines can be introduced faster, and
engineering changes and special workpiece configurations can Better Control of Processing and
be implemented in less time than required when conventional Machining Time
machine tools are employed. Factors influencing this savings of When the human element is removed from the manufacturing
time include the multioperational capabilities of many NC process, as is the case on numerically controlled machine tools,
machines, the reduced number of fixtures and in some cases manufactured parts are made in the manner prescribed by the
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ADVANTAGES OF NC
manufacturing engineering department. Machining operations a result, tool-maintenance time is reduced, less interference with
are done in the order that has proved to be most economical and production is encountered, and tool-maintenance labor costs
desirable from the manufacturing standpoint. This order are avoided.
cannot be altered without the approval of the manufacturing The reduced tooling costs have an indirect influence on time
engineering department. The cutting tools and fixtures which factors. The greater simplicity of the workholding device results
are required for the manufacturing of these parts are pro- in minimization of total lead time in tool engineering, in
grammed into the manufacturing process and are the same for manufacturing, and in prove-out for production. Subsequently,
all parts. On a machine tool that has automatic toolchanging when engineering design or customer requirements for modifi-
capabilities and automatic tool selection, the tools which are cations are encountered, fewer tooling modifications are neces-
called for on the original tape or other program control media sary. With conventional tooling, such modifications are
are those which must be used in order for the machine to primarily related to the cutter-guiding devices rather than to the
operate correctly. workpiece-holding portion of the tooling. On NC machines,
Feed rates and cutter speeds may be made unalterable if so however, the machine-control tape or other storage media
desired. Most numerically controlled machine tools, however, acts as the cutter-guiding/ location device, and virtually no
have a dial on the controller which allows the feed rate to be time-consuming, costly changes need to be made to the
reduced in the event that the material being cut is harder than workholding device.
normal or the cutter is dull, The feed rates can, therefore, be
reduced or increased if circumstances require it. Most NC Cutting Tools
controls feature override capabilities of 0-12070. Some controls With the programmer developing a detailed list of cutting
can be overridden to as much as 999’%o. Many modern tools required for the complete operation, it follows that
numerically controlled machine tools have adaptive controls in standardization of cutting tools will be promoted. Such stan-
which feeds are reduced automatically by the controller as the dardization provides the advantage of familiarity on the part of
load on the cutter is increased because of hard materials or dull programmers, tool-crib setup men, and machine operators,
cutters (see “Adaptive Control” in this chapter). thereby reducing the amount of time required in each phase of
As a result of these control innovations, the time necessary the work. Standardization by inference would include develop-
for a part to be manufactured is known and can be controlled ment of preferred tool sizes and configurations, which in turn
precisely by management. This time is predictable and is the influence the engineering-design phase, tool storage, inventory
same for all parts, with the exception of those parts which requirements, purchased-quantity prices, and tool-sharpening
require a reduced feed rate, When a consistent reduction in feed costs. OveI- a period of time the inclusion of preferred sizes at
rate exists, this reduction becomes evident to management the engineering-design phase reduces the need for special
because of the increased production time and steps can be taken cutting tools and virtually eliminates the extended lead time to
either to correct the tape or to make necessary adjustments. procure such special items. Also eliminated are the procurement
Again, the important point is that the control of the manu- at a high unit cost (with the prove-out problems attendant to
facturing process is now in the hands of the management team every new tool) and the obsolescence of tools caused by
and is removed from the judgment of the machine operator. engineering modifications.
Numerically controlled machine tools use the same basic
Machine Utilization tools as conventional machine tools, except that they are used
Generally, NC machines have a higher unit operating cost per for more operations. Thus the number of tools required in
hour than equivalent conventional machines. However, in inventory is reduced. An example of this is an end mill. This tool
many cases, reduced cycle time per job offsets much of the can be used for cutting slots of various widths, for machining
increase in operating cost per hour. In situations in which the pockets, and for internal and external contouring. It has indeed
operating cost per hour is higher than equivalent conventional become a versatile tool in the hands of the programmer while at
equipment, multiple-shift operations are advisable. Lack of the same time reducing the need for special tools. This reduction
operator fatigue and minimal operator interference or oppor- leads to a reduction in tool inventory as well as to a reduction in
tunity to delay the machine result in substantially higher costs to maintain tools and preset them.
machine-utilization potential. To take maximum advantage of the savings in tooling, it is
necessary to establish a standard tool list. As an example, drill
Tooling Costs sizes and the number of drills required can be greatly reduced by
Workpiece-holding devices generally form the most expensive looking at the functional requirements of a part and having the
portion oftotaltoolingcosts for job shop machining operations. engineering department design around standard tools, when
A prime requirement of NC machine workholding devices is possible, rather than using special tools. For example, a 1/ 2“
maximum accessibility to the workpiece for performing as drill is often called for to make a clearance hole for a shaft or
many operations as possible in a single setup. This suggests hydraulic tubing. A 17/ 32” drill, which would provide an equal
considerable simplicity in the configuration of the workholding amount of clearance, is also required for clearance holes for
devices, which in turn means simpler design, manufacturing, 1/2” screws. Since the 17/32’’drill can serve both functions, the
and prove-out. I / 2“ drill can be eliminated. Similar circumstances often occur
One of the prime advantages of NC machines is their ability when metric drills are used.
to position accurately and repetitively. This capability eliminates
the need for almost all cutter-guiding elements, such as Accuracy
bushings and set gages, in the design of the workholding device. Numerically controlled machines generally are designed
This configuration eliminates those tooling elements most from the ground up with a degree of sophistication that often is
prone to deterioration: the cutter-guiding elements which come not encountered with conventional machine tools. The machine
in contact with the cutter each time the surface is generated. As design elements provide inherently higher quality potential
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CHAPTER 5
ADVANTAGES OF NC
because of greater rigidity in the structural members. Closed- the shop environment to an office environment has direct
loop measuring systems used on many machines make the influence on operator safety, since it removes the need for
measuring devices independent of the feed-drive systems. This concentration on work for which the operator has no special
provides significantly greater accuracy potential than is training, in an environment that is highly distracting. When this
commonly available on conventional machines. detailed planning function is eliminated from the machine
The programmed sequence of NC operations also contributes operator’s scope of responsibility, full attention can be concen-
significantly to increased accuracy with cutter-workpiece trated on doing the job the operator is most familiar with—
relationships established in response to the instructions on the auditing the machine operation.
tape or other media. For NC machines with automatic tool-
changing capability, the correct tool is selected, feeds and Interchangeability
speeds are changed automatically to the optimum levels for the The first time a part is programmed across NC machine took.,
cutter-workpiece conditions, coolant is provided as required, manufacturing management is equipped with documentary
the number of passes over the workpiece for roughing and support in the form of paper tape, magnetic tape, disc, or other
finishing cuts is controlled by the machine, the sequence of cuts storage media. All elements involved in applying the NC
is optimized, tools are withdrawn to clear chips as required, and machining concept provide a basis for easy interchangeability
complete tool movement to full required travel is accomplished of work between plants, standardized workholding and cutting
each time. Machining with NC equipment increases repeatability tools, standardized NC machines, methods, and programming
from piece to piece and from run to run as compared with techniques.
repeatability attainable using conventional machine tools.
Cost Estimating
Material Flow Time In determining the cost of a part, the two major items
Many workplaces can be completed in only a few operations involved are material cost and cost of labor necessary to
on NC machines as compared with three to four times as many machine the part. When using a numerically controlled machine,
setups for accomplishing the same work on conventional the time necessary to machine the part, which is a function of
machines. Consequently, reduced material-flow time results slide feed rates and cutter speeds, is predictable. Therefore the
from the reduced number of operations. This means fewer estimates of cost of parts can be very accurately determined and
assignments by the supervisor, fewer tool-kitting operations, the cost of the parts more realistically predicted.
and less in-process work in storage in the plant at any one time. Several other costs are involved in machining operations
Numerical control machine capabilities make it possible to which are not directly connected with the machine. One of these
convert raw material to finished parts in minimum lead time. is inspection cost. Because of the increased reliability of
This capability reduces the need to keep finished parts in numerically controlled machining, and the fact that it is done on
inventory. It provides faster response to introduce engineering one machine, inspection operations are greatly reduced in
modifications without the possibility of high obsolescence costs number. Usually only final inspection on a selected number of
for existing inventory and also permits faster response to pieces is necessary to prove out the correctness of the tape and
customer requests for special designs. to ensure that the quality that is functionally required is being
achieved. Often 100% inspection can be accomplished by the
Workpiece Handling operator during periods between loading and unloading. In this
The need to transport parts from operation to operation and way, NC may contribute to improved part quality by allowing
internal machine-operator workpiece-handling efforts are both the operator more time to concentrate on inspection functions.
reduced with NC machine manufacturing methods. For Also, the use of numerically controlled machines reduces
example, on an NC machining center, numerous different material-handling costs. Several machining operations can be
operations are performed in a single setup, With conventional done in one setup on one machine, and in many cases the only
machines, the workpiece is often scheduled over several different material handling required is bringing raw material to the
machines to have the same work performed. There are fewer machine and taking the finished parts from the machine to the
setups and requirements for the operator to load and unload the stockroom. This is in contrast to the material-handling functions
workholding device. The manual time internal to the machine required when parts are milled on one machine, drilled on
operating time during the normal NC machining cycle permits another, and contoured or form-cut on a third. Again these
the operator to perform work such as deburring, with the result costs are available immediately and reliably to the cost depart-
that a separate operation for this purpose can be eliminated, ment so that expenses can be correctly determined.
thereby reducing workpiece handling. Another important, but often overlooked, consideration is
the depreciation rates which can be established for a numerically
Safety controlled machine, On these machines, costs and depreciation
Specialization in planning the details of the operation, in rates can be established accurately. This contrasts with several
setting up the cutting and workholding tools, and in operating depreciation rates for different machine tools which might be
the machine all contribute to greater operator safety. Under required to produce the same part.
direction of the tape or other program storage media, the
machine establishes the cutter-workpiece relationship. The Productivity
operator is not required to interfere with the operation to adjust Productivity can be defined as the effective result of the
measuring devices in hazardous locations. These measuring operator in employing machine tools to convert raw materials
devices are generally located near the cutter or workpiece on to useable parts. Numerically controlled machines contribute
conventional machines for greatest accuracy, but at the same substantially to increased productivity for a wide variety of
time in the most hazardous location for operator safety. reasons. After installation in the reader, the tape or other
Transfer of the detailed operation-planning function from program storage media is always ready to continue the operation
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CHAPTER 5
ADVANTAGES OF NC
sequence—there is no delay for the operator to implement the which can be used for many parts on numerically controlled
operation as is the case in conventional machine operations. machines, has reduced the costs in manufacturing.
Efficiently programmed operation sequences cause the When a part is designed, the first and most important thing to
machine to have a minimum amount of idle time in traversing be considered is its function. Many times functional require-
from one cutting position to another. Where automatic tool- ments dictate close tolerances on dimensions. The impact of
changers are used, toolchanging is performed immediately these tolerances has a direct bearing on manufacturing cost.
when desired. The tool is changed in the same amount of Numerically controlled machines, being controlled by an
time necessary for the operator to change it, yet the auto- electronic system rather than an individual, reduce human
matic changer does not suffer fatigue as would the operator in errors and move as accurately as the machine slide can position
making manual toolchanges. The toolchanges are performed to the commanded dimension. Thus the tolerance band which
correctly, and correct feeds and speeds are employed on each the machining system is capable of producing is achieved on all
cut with coolant applied as required. When tool retractions are parts. The only time the specified design tolerance enters into
required to clear chips, as in the case of deep-hole-drilling the cost of the part is when the tolerance exceeds the manufac-
operations, they are performed automatically and consistently turing capabilities of the machining system and the machining
from part to part. operation must be done in steps. This increase in the reliability
Combined, these factors all provide for a higher percentage of the machining system leads to a reduction in scrap and
of time devoted to cutting chips during the operation. Since rework costs, which is an important factor in prototype costs
chip cutting is the prime objective in machine tool operation, it (see “Tolerance Control,” Chapter 2 in this volume).
follows that increased productivity is a predictable result. An additional benefit which is derived from numerically
The preset-tool concept can be applied to conventional controlled manufacturing is the fact that a prototype part
machines as well as NC machines; however, the discipline produced on a numerically controlled machine and the produc-
involved in successful installation of NC machining concepts tion lot produced on the same machine are representative of
makes preset tooling mandatory. Productivity at the machine each other. This is true because the tape or other program
spindle is influenced because the preset-tool concept provides storage media, tools, fixtures, and setup that are used for the
for both cutting tools and workholding devices to be set up in a prototype often are used on the production lot. As a result, the
remote tool crib away from the machine itself. Cutting tools are time and expense necessary to introduce new parts into the
set to length and diameter using specific tool drawings with all manufacturing system are reduced.
significant dimensions established. This provides for immediate
interchangeability when a tool is dull and virtually removes the Adherence to Specifications
need for an operator to reset the tool and interfere with machine Parts which are manufactured on numerically controlled
operation. When a shuttle-type machine is involved, produc- machine tools often are more representative of the actual
tivity is increased because there is no unloading and reloading engineering design than those made by conventional means. A
time. The idle station is unloaded and reloaded while the second major reason for this is that the manufacturing of the part and
station is in the cutting position in front of the spindle. the decisions involved in the manufacturing of the part are
removed from the hands of the operator of the machine tool and
ADVANTAGES OF NC IN DESIGN placed in the hands of the part programmer. The machine
The use of NC in the shop dramatically impacts the flexibility operator has little or no control over the sequence of operations
of part design. For example, more accurate prototypes can be or over the tools that are to be used. The tolerances which are
produced when NC machine tools are employed. When the part designed into the control tape or other program storage media
is put into production, closer tolerances often can be held if NC and into the tooling that is used are repetitive on all the parts.
equipment is used. In addition, workplaces that were impossible These features lead to manufacturing consistency.
to manufacture using conventional machine tools are now Another important benefit available through the use of NC is
routinely produced using NC equipment. that, in the future, parts which are manufactured only for
Numerical control machines which have contouring ability service will be the same as parts made during normal production
can be economically used to eliminate the cost of special form runs at the time the product was originally manufactured. This
tools. By the elimination of these special tools, the design allows manufacturing specifications to be established which are
flexibility to make engineering changes is greatly simplified. In consistent throughout the life of the part as well as in any parts
most cases, an engineering change means a change in the part that are used for service in the future.
program and the tape which controls the machine.
When a new design is introduced, it is advantageous to the Difficult-to-Manufacture Parts
engineering department to see this design in actual hardware as One of the prime advantages of manufacturing with
soon as economically possible. Numerical control has made this numerically controlled machine tools, from the standpoint of
lead time short because of the elimination of the need for special the design engineer, is the ability to design a part which can be
tools and fixtures. This allows the designer to review his design quickly and economically manufactured. This is in contrast to
and make any necessary engineering and design changes in a the requirements of conventional machine tools which often
short period of time, thus decreasing the time from the drawing require form cutters. In many cases, special machines were
board to the finished product. formerly required to produce parts which today are produced
quickly and economically on machines with contouring ability.
Accurate Prototypes It is now possible for a tape to be produced for a machine to
A major cost in the manufacturing of a prototype is the manufacture a part economically, whereas in the past it may
expense involved in tooling; this includes both capital tooling have been impossible to justify the necessary expenditures for
expenditures and perishable tooling costs. This use of standard the manufacturing of the part. New areas are now open to the
tooling, which is common to many parts, and universal fixtures, design engineer who is aware of the manufacturing abilities
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CHAPTER 5
ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION OF NC
available on modern machine tools. Any parts which can be due to economic considerations have now become everyday,
defined mathematically can now be manufactured at nominal commonplace workplaces.
costs. Parts which in the past were impossible to manufacture
ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION OF
NUMERICAL CONTROL
Evaluating numerically controlled facilities for the first-time equipment fails to operate on a regular, dependable schedule.
buyer is generally encumbered by various fears. The expenditure This element occurs when equipment is not available for
is large, and the changes on the enterprise are anticipated as production. The loss may occur when a machine is actively
being large and disrupting. Frequently, persons evaluating the under repair or when the equipment is waiting to be returned to
project are uncomfortable in examining a decision with so production. The total cost is the sum of repair costs and lost
many “unknowns” and such large “risks. ” production vahre.
This section covers some of the key issues that should be The purpose of an economic justification is the evaluation of’
considered in a project or equipment economic evaluation. A several proposals under the same set of circumstances to select
rather exhaustive economic analysis is presented as an example. the one which gives optimum benefit to the enterprise, con-
The entire process—from project conception through presen- sidering levels of investment and business objectives. The
tation of a proposal to buy—should be well thought out. evaluation can be further divided into two categories—tangibles
Whether it is a one-man shop or a multibillion dollar corpora- and intangibles.
tion, the same general approach is necessary: Intangibles may be such things as skill level and number of
people to support the project, ability to react to changes in
1. Define the need, the objective. What is to be
business environment, what the competition is doing, and other
accomplished? Business objectives should be considered.
things which are not easily quantified. One approach evaluates
2. Why are the objectives required? This is most important
these by assigning point values for each factor and point values
because it establishes the criteria on which the alterna-
to the degree each alternative meets each factor. Multiplying
tives are to be evaluated.
and summing gives a weighted point value for each alternative.
3. Develop a list of alternative methods to meet the
Dividing the investment required by each alternative into the
objectives. These alternatives will have various strengths
weighted sum gives a relative evaluation of each alternative per
and weaknesses. The list should include the present
dollar of investment.
production method as well as the production methods of
An economic analysis of all business financial decisions is
the new alternatives.
mandatory. The objective is to optimize the costs, risks, and
4. Reevaluate the objectives in view of the alternatives.
benefits of several alternative actions under the same assumed
This step is most- crucial to eliminate unreasonable
conditions. This economic analysis is commonly called the
objectives and solutions. By the same token, new
“justification.”
opportunities may be identified which were not known
The study of alternatives must include the sources from
or in proper perspective at the start of the study. It is
which economic benefit will issue. Often, in past economic
important to realize that not every opportunity could or
analyses, direct labor savings were so great that they dominated
should be reduced to dollars and cents at this time.
all other benefits, or other benefits were so small that they could
Depending on the potential bias of the person performing
be ignored. When NC is being considered, an entirely new range
the analysis or the bias of the company, the conversion
of technology is available, so the areas to consider for economic
from explanation to dollar value may be meaningless.
benefits are much greater.
This step should be saved for later in the analysis.
A report prepared by the University of Michigan’s Industrial
The evaluation to this point should be as unbiased as Development Division based on a survey of 356 users of NC
possible. One common bias often ignored is the unwarranted equipment4 indicated the following ranges of savings attrib-
assumption that the future will be a continuation of past utable to the use of NC: machine setup—20-70%; material
experience. There is no reason to expect that competitors will handling—20-50%; inspection—30-45%; scrap and rework—
preserve the status quo, that changes in business will not occur, 30-45%; work in process—20-3070; and part-cycle time—20-
or that the work force and management will act in the future as 75% (see “Advantages of Numerical Control” in this chapter).
they did in the past. These assumptions make a convenient basis Benefits in NC are not common to all types of NC machine
for evaluation; but they are no more valid than any other well tools. For example, the benefits obtained from a simple two-
thought-out scenario. axis NC drill are not the same as expected benefits derived
At this point it is wise to confer with management or refer to through the use of a toolchanging machining center. Typically,
statements of business objectives to establish the environment the more operations that can be combined on a single machine,
under which the alternatives should be evaluated, One the greater the advantageous impact on the manufacturing
company’s practice is to assess the question “When do we adopt organization. An approach to NC justification, then, is to
the proposal?”; not “Should we adopt the proposal?” outline each function of the manufacturing organization and
Evaluating only the costs associated with deteriorating estimate the benefits that NC provides for that function, i.e.,
current equipment is a trap. There is an additional cost of lost sales, production control, cost accounting, etc. Each of these
value added—overhead absorption and profit-when current benefits must then be quantified.
5-13
CHAPTER 5
Many of the benefits of NC will not be realized on a single- 2. NC machining data:

machine basis. Therefore, a plan of greater scope than a single a. Cycle, The machine cycle time of all the NC machine
machine is necessary. A 5 or 10-year plan is required, comparing operations.
the total existing environment with one totally replaced by NC. b. Pro rata setup. The setup time for the production lot
of workplaces divided by the lot size. This provides a
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS pro rata setup time per workpiece. On equipment
After each alternative has been evaluated based on technical studied, 15 min is allowed for setup. On an NC
characteristics, each alternative should be assessed based on machine tool with absorbed loading time (shuttles),
value to the company as compared to the other alternatives and no time is provided for setup.
to the present production method. The present method should c. Total cycle. The sum of the NC machine cycle time
be the benchmark against which the alternatives are compared. and the pro rata setup time.
In the following example, only one alternative is compared to 3. Conventional data:
the present method although the same analysis could be a. Cycle. The cycle time for all of the conventional
performed for each alternative. Usually the one technically best operations the NC machine tool will replace.
alternative is selected for in-depth economic analysis. b. Pro rata setup time. The setup time for the operations
The first step in such an analysis is to develop a sample of the for the entire lot of the specific workpiece divided by
workload to be processed across the new equipment. It must be the lot size. This provides the pro rata setup time for
representative of the work to be performed. From this sample, each workpiece.
projections can be made of the effect on the total workload, c. Total cycle. The sum of the conventional cycle and
eliminating the need for a very large, detailed study while the pro-rata setup time.
preserving statistical accuracy. After the project has been
At this point, the cycle time of the sample work group for the
adopted and implemented, this sample forms the basis for a
NC machine tool (column 4 in Table 5-2) is totaled; the same
performance audit, a critical but often omitted step.
procedure is employed to obtain the conventional total cycle
The categories of benefit and costs should be identified next.
time (column 7 in Table 5-2). These times represent the totals of
Typically savings can be obtained in the following areas.
the machine cycle time plus the pro rata setup time in both
1. Direct labor. cases.
2. Tool and fixture costs. The next question to answer is: what amount or percent of the
3. Consumable tool cost. total available workload (time) does the sample workload
4. Inventory carrying cost. represent? What is the sample workload ratio? To obtain this, a
5. Tool setting cost. table should be established in the form of Table 5-3. Items in the
6. Programming cost. table should include:
7. inspection cost.
1. Part number.
8. In-plant transportation cost.
2. NC machine tool cycle time. The total cycle time from
9. Maintenance cost.
Table 5-2.
It should be noted that the impact of these factors varies with 3. Lot size. The same lot size used in Table 5-2.
the project. For example, if workplaces are costly, the inventory 4. Lots per year. The number of times the lot size would be
considerations may be more of an influence than the direct run to obtain the yearly requirement.
labor savings. The optimum balance of the costs is what is 5. Yearly requirement. The number of workplaces needed
desired. to meet the annual production requirements.
6. Hours required per year. Obtained by multiplying the
DIRECT LABOR SAVINGS NC machine cycle time (item 2) by the yearly requirement
After the NC production analysis (cycle-time, setup-time, (item 5).
and fixture estimates) is obtained, along with the corresponding
The total hours required per year for the sample workload
conventional data, a table such as Table 5-2 can be set up as
group is now obtained by totaling the sixth column in Table
shown. Data to be recorded includes:
5-3—Hours Required Per Year. This gives an indication of the
1. Part number. The part number of the workplaces number of machines required.
studied. The next calculation is to determine the sample workload
Table 5-2
Cycle-Time Comparison
NC Machine Conventional
Pro Rata Setup Pro Rata Setup
Total Total
Part No. Cycle Rate per Lot Size cycle Cycle Rate per Lot Size cycle
0001 0.59 0.50/ 17 ❑ 0.029 0.619 1.86 27.0/ 100 = 0.27 2.130
0002 0.82 0.50/ 17= 0.029 0.849 4.46 77.8/ 100 = 0.78 5.238
0003 0.42 0.25/ 35= 0.007 0.427 0.85 20.8/140 ❑ 0.15 0.999
0004 0.08 0.25/ 25 ❑ 0.010 0.090 0.35 6.9/ 150 = 0.05 0.401
0005 0.29 0,25/ 17 ❑ 0.015 0.305 0.88 lo.3/ loo = 0.10 0.983
Total ❑ 2.291 Total = 9.751
5-14
CHAPTER 5
TABLE 5-3
Sample Workload Ratio*
NC Machining Center Lot Lots per Yearly Hours Required Part

Part No. Cycle Time Size Year Requirement per Year Description
0001 0.619 17 12 200 123.88 Housing
0002 0.849 17 12 200 169.88 Gear case
0003 0.427 35 12 420 179.40 Cover
0004 0.090 25 12 300 27.00 Linkage
0005 0.305 17 12 200 6094 Bracket
Total hours required per year ❑ -
* Based on a three-shift operation, one machine would be required.
ratio. First, the number of shifts the NC machine would be TOOL AND FIXTURE SAVINGS
operated is determined. Second, this figure is multiplied by the Tool and fixture savings occur in two basic forms: ( 1) new,
number of hours per shift per year (about 2000) to obtain the conventional tooling cost avoided and (2) toolholding costs
total number of NC machine hours available, The total number reduced or eliminated. Table 5-4 on tool and fixture savings
of hours, however, has to be modified by the NC machine considers these items:
production efficiency. This efficiency represents the amount of
time the NC machine is actually making parts. The difference 1. Part number.
between the NC machine efficiency and 100yO represents the 2. NC machine fixture costs. Estimates of the cost of the
amount of time the machine is waiting for work, program NC machine fixtures.
proveout, maintenance, and general production inefficiencies. 3. Conventional fixture cost. The cost of fixtures and tools
The equation is: for the conventional operations replaced by the NC
operations. If tools are already built, the historical cost
NC machine hours available x —percent efficiency (1) data can be used. However, if these costs are old, they
NC machine hours requiredperyear for sample workload should be increased by at least 5yo per year compounded
starting from the day of their construction. If conven-
In the example, 6000 hr of NC machine time is available at an tional fixtures have not yet been designed or built (a new
assumed 85% efficiency. The sample workload requires 561.11 product), estimates as to anticipated conventional
hr. tooling costs should be made. The sample workload data
6000/561. 11 x 0.85 = 9.09 (sample workload ratio) [Eq. (1)] is again used to complete the calculations for
new tooling costs that are avoided,
Thus, the projected sample workload requires 1/9.09, or 11.O?lO,
of the total NC machine availability. The sample group represents fixture savings of $69,812.
Based on the data in Table 5-2, the productivity ratio can be Thus:
determined: Sample-group savings x the sample workload (3)
ralio = total fixture savings
Productivity ratio =
$69,812 .X9.09 = $634,591.08
total conventional cycle time (sample workload) (2)
total NC machine cycle time (sample workload) This savings, of course, exists only in the unlikely case that
every part processed for the NC machine would be a new part
and would have no existing tooling.
The productivity ratio indicates the number of conventional
Many evaluations ignore the cost of maintaining fixtures and
manufacturing hours NC machine tools will produce in 1 hr. tools. Table 5-5 is an example of a toolholding cost breakdown.
The example below then carries out the calculations to determine Economist Baxter Fullerton states that tool-maintenance cost
direct labor savings. The direct hourly labor rate must include represents 2470 of the original cost of fixtures or tools. Thus, if
all fringe benefits. The productivity ratio, based on the data in total fixture savings = $634,591.08, tool maintenance cost
Table 5-2, is: savings = $634,591.08 x 0.24 ❑ $152,301.86.
9.75 hr conventional/ 2.29 hr NC machine ❑ 4.26 This represents the unlikely possibility that all the parts
This indicates that every NC machine hour produces 4.26 TABLE 5-4
conventional machine hours. Tool and Fixture Savings
On the assumption that one NC machine is required, direct
labor savings are computed as follows: NC Machine Conventional
Part No. Fixture Cost Fixture Cost
2000 hr/ shift x 3 shifts x 0.85 efficiency= 5100 available NC
machine hours 000 I $4,440 !$27,224
0002 5,840 19,520
21,708 conventional machine hours - 6000 NC machine- 0003 5,240 30,920
operator hours ❑ 15,708 hr saved 0004 1,240 1,200
15,708 hr x $19.28 (direct labor rate including fringes) ❑ 0005 2,440 10,148
$302,850.24 ❑ direct labor savings Total costs $19,200 $89,012
5-15
CHAPTER 5
Table 5-5 TOOL CONSUMPTION COST

Toolholding Costs, Percent Several arguments have been advanced on the subject of
consumable tool expenditure for conventional versus NC
Repair and alteration expense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,50 facilities. The heart of the matter is that, per operating hour, the
Interest orreturn on capital investment ............. 6.00
tool cost for NC is higher because more actual metal removal
Physical deterioration or its prevention ............. 5.00
occurs, hence per hour tool usage is increased. However, due to
Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 2,50 the greater number of hours required to achieve the same value
Transportation ..................... ............. 0.50
of output, the overall tool consumption for conventional
Taxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 0.50
machining exceeds thatof NC. One company audited itstool
Insurance ......................... ............. 0.25
expenditures per direct labor hour and found the results shown
Storage facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. ~
in Fig. 5-2. Further examination showed that types of tools used
Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.50
did not change very much, but the effectiveness of their use did
change drastically. Cutting parameters were controlled better
processed would be old parts, previously tooled. More likely, with NC, whereas operator prejudice and misuse were more
some percentage of the NC workload will be new parts and common on conventional machines.
some will be old parts previously tooled. A review of obso- Referring to Fig. 5-2, it can be seen that anaverage NC
lescence of the parts in the sample group can provide an facilityusesabout $4.10perdirectlabor hourandaconventional
indication of the breakdown. facility $1.75 per direct labor hour. Based on the equivalent
Table 5-6 projects five years into the future the anticipated hours calculated in an earlier section, the consumable tool costs
toolingandfixture changoverrequirements. Byreferringto the are:
sample workload, it is possible to determine when these
For a conventional facility:
particular parts will require substantial engineering changes or
whentheywill become obsolete andthusbereplaced byanother 21,708 hr x $1 .75/hr = $37,989
workpiece. This will probably require consultation with engi-
ForanNCfacility:
neering and marketing departments.
For the purpose of continuing calculations, it should be 6000 hr x $4. 10/ hr ❑ $24,600
assumed that 20Yoof the machine workload will be new parts
By subtracting the tool costs for the NC facility from those
with no existing tooling and80Yo wiilbe old parts. Thus:
for the conventional facility, it can be seen that use of the NC
0.20 x $634,591.08 (net fixture savings) = $126,918.22 facility results in a savings of about $13,389.
0.80 x $152,301.86 (tool maintenance cost savings) =
INVENTORY-REDUCTION SAVINGS
$121,841.49 Inventory savings taketwo basic forms. Oneisthereduction
Total annual tool and fixture savings ❑ $248,759.71 in total in-process inventory; the other is the reduction in
TABLE5-6
Tooling and Fixtures Change-Over Re@sirements
Part No. 1 2 3 4 5
0001 ●
0002 ●
0003 ●
0004 ●
0005 ●
Step 1*
Year. . . 1 2 3 4 5
Total Yoyear. 1/5=20~ 0/5=0% 2/5=40% l/’5=20~o 1/5=20%
* Step 1: Determine percent of part change-over each year:
Number of parts requiring new tools or retooling (4)
Number of parts in sample group
= (See Chart)= % of part change-over for specific year
Step 2: Determine average percent change-over for duration of study:

Total of% change-over of all study years (5)
Number of years of study
20% + 0%+ 4070+ 20~ + 20%
❑ 20% average annual part change-over
5-16
CHAPTER 5
TABLE 5-7
Conventional Average Inventory
Lot No. of Lots Cost Value Cost Value of Average

Part No. Size per Year per Piece Completed Lot Inventory
0001 100 2 $67.56 $6,756 $3,378
0002 100 2 97.96 9,796 4,898
0003 140 3 30.64 4,289 2,144
0004 I50 2 10.52 1,578 789
0005 I00 2 44.20 4,420 2,210
Total conventional average inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $13,419
* This represents the present conventional lot sizes, and in turn, average inventory.
5. Cost value of completed lot. The multiplication of

Tool column 2 in Table 5-8, lot size, times column 4, cost per
cost per
direct Iabar
piece. Itrepresents theamount ofworking capital tied
hour ❑ Conventional rncdine up in in-process inventory at the completion of each lot.
(1 982
dollars)
‘egend ● NC machme 6. The average inventory. The average amount of money
tied up in this particular workpiece in in-process inven-
4.50
tory working capital. Normal accounting practice is to
(4.08) —(A’W)~447 divide by 2 the total amount of inventory at the
r
4.00
completion of the lot (column 5 in Table 5-8):
3.50 w ,9”1,
3,00 Average inventory z cost of completed lot +-2 (6)
2.50 The theory is that at one time no working capital is
2.00 — tied up in in-process inventory of this particular work-
1.50 — piece, while at another time the total amount demanded
by this workpiece is tied up. On the average, one half of
the total amount is tied up.
.50 t+
Conventional manufacturing requires maximizing lot
Mlling Horizontal Dfillkng Lathe Machln,ng sizes in order to minimize setup time. The reduced lead
machine boring center
time provided by the NC machine tool, and particularly
mill 36 n.3
by the machining-center method, allows the machining
Type of Machine of these parts virtually on a to-order basis. Thus, sample-
workload parts are run more frequently. For this reason
Fig. 5-2 Consumable tool costs—typical, as experienced by one major the machining center is referred to as it makes the
U.S. manufacturer. primary contribution of combining operations and
reducing lead time.
inventory holding costs. The data listed on Table 5-7 is required The following calculations, then, are performed with a
to obtain an average inventory cost using only conventional reduced lot size and an increased number of lots run per
machine tools. The primary reason for NC’s contribution to year. The same calculations are then carried out for the
inventory reduction is its capability to combine operations and, NC machine tool.
therefore, reduce lead time. Included in Table 5-8 (an analysis of The total reduction in average inventory level is the
inventory using NC machine tools) are: difference between the conventional average inventory
and the NC machine tool inventory:
1. Part number.
2. Lot size. The conventional lot size. $13,419.80-$2,450.32 ❑ $10,969.48
3. Numbers of lots per year.
The total reduction in inventory level then is:
4. Cost value per piece. The value of the workpiece, at cost,
for inventory purposes. $10,969.48 x9.09 (sample workload ratio) = $99,712.57
TABLE 5-8
Average Inventory/NC Machine Tool
Lot No. of Lots Cost Value Cost Value of Average

Part No. Size per Year per Piece Completed Lot Inventory
0001 17 12 $67.56 $1,143.52 $ 574.26
0002 17 12 97.96 1,665.32 832.66
0003 35 12 30.64 1,072.40 536.20
0004 25 12 10.52 263.00 131.50
0005 17 12 44.20 751.40 375.70
Total NCmachine tool average inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $2.450.32
5-17
CHAPTER 5
TABLE 5-9
Toolsetting Cost
Lots per Tools per Tools set Hours per Total Hours
Part No. Year Part per Year Tool per Year
0001 12 23 276 0.25 69.0
0002 12 46 552 0.25 138.0
0003 12 22 324 0.25 81.0
0004 12 6 72 0.25 18.0
0005 12 27 297 0.25 74.0
Total ❑ 380.0”
* 380 hr x 9.09 (samDle workload ratio) ❑ 3.454 hr. This could be rounded off to 3500 hr.
3500 hr x 19.28/ hr’ ❑ $67,480 per yea}.
This is a one-time savings only and represents the cash This calculation is based upon resetting the tools completely
inflow of the inventory being sold and not having to be every time each lot is run. In actual practice many of the tools
replaced at the higher conventional level. would not be reset each time. Actual cost could therefore be less
Annual savings occur in the reduction of inventory than shown.
carrying cost. Assuming an inventory-carrying-cost rate
of 25~0, the savings would be:
PROGRAMMING COST
$99,712.57 X 0.25 = $24,928.14 Another major area of concern in justification is NC
programming costs. Normally not recognized is the fact that
there is such a thing as “conventional programming costs. ”
TOOL-SETTING COST These costs include the time that process engineering personnel
A concern of manufacturing engineers is the cost of setting spend setting standards, troubleshooting the conventional
tools for NC machine tools that require preset tools. Actually it machine operations, processing the workpiece, etc., for all the
must be recognized that even with conventional machines, this conventional operations. Consider the items of Table 5-10.
cost exists in that tool-setting costs are paid for at a machine
1. Part number.
rate while depth stops are being set, cutters shimmed, etc. With
2. NC machine cycle. Obtained from Table 5-2.
NC, however, tools are preset off the machine and the cost,
3. Manual program ratio. A ratio of programming time to
therefore, is the bench rate of the tool setter.
NC cycle time should be estimated or obtained. In this
To determine the cost of setting tools for an NC machine tool,
example, a manual programming ratio of 40 hr of
Table 5-9 is presented. The categories of the table are:
programming to a I hr cycle time workpiece is used. This
1. Part number. ratio is based upon manual programming. Computer-
2. Lots per year. The number of times the workplaces assisted part programming could use a 20: I ratio.
would be run per year. 4. Total hours for NC machine tool. The total programming
3. Tools per part. Obtained by counting the number of hours required for the sample-workload workplaces. It
tools used in each workpiece of the sample workload. is the multiplication of the NC machine cycle times the
4. Tools set per year. Obtained by multiplying the lots per manual programming ratio.
year times the number of took per part. 5. Conventional cycle time. Taken from Table 5-2.
5. Hours per tool. Time estimates would have to be made; 6. Conventional programming ratio. An estimate or an
15 min per tool is reasonable and is used in the example historical ratio (7.5: 1, for example). This says that it
in Table 5-9. takes 7 1/2 hr of process engineering time for a part of 1
6. Total hours per year. This is the multiplication of the hr conventional cycle time.
tools set per year times the hours per tool. 7. Total hours for conventional. The multiplication of the
TABLE 5-10
Programming Cost Calculations
Conventional Total
NC Machine Manual Program Total Hours for Conventional Programming Hours/
Part No. Cvcle Ratio NC Machine Tool Cycle Ratio* Conventional
0001 0.62 40/ 1 24.78 1.86 7.5/ 1 13.95
0002 0.85 40/ 1 33.98 4.46 7.5/ 1 33.45
0003 0.43 40/ 1 17.09 0.85 7.5/ 1 6.37
0004 0.09 40/ 1 3.60 0.35 7.5/ 1 2.66
0005 0.30 40/1 12.19 0.88 7.5/1 6.60
Total ❑ 91.63 Total = 63.04
* Conventional program ratio is the time required to process, set standards, and troubleshoot the conventional machining process,
A ratio of 7.5 hr to a 1-hr cycle time is used in this example.
5-18
CHAPTER 5
TABLE 5-11
Inspection-Cost Savings—NC Machine Average Cost*
Number of Parts per Percent Number Cost per Total Cost

Part No. Operations Year Inspected Inspected Inspection per Part
0001 2 200 8 32 $8.00 $ 256.00
0002 2 200 8 32 8.00 256.00
0003 1 420 8 33 8.00 264.00
0004 1 300 8 24 8.00 192.00
0005 1 200 8 16 8.00 128.00
Total ❑ $1.096.00
* The calculations for conventional manufacturing inspection costs are carried out in the same fashion (see Table
5-12).
conventional cycle time of the workplaces of the sample each of the workplaces in the sample-workload group.
workload times tbe conventional programming ratio. 4. Percent inspected. The percentage of workplaces
inspected after each operation. In the absence of other
If all the workplaces in the sample group workload were
information, 1/ (lot size) should be used, presuming that
already processed conventionally, the cost of programming
the first piece of each lot for each operation would be
these workplaces for the first year must be considered as an
inspected.
additional cost for the NC machine tool. These calculations are
5. Number inspected. The multiplication of the number of
as follows:
operations times the parts per year times the percent
First-year programming would require 91.63 x 9.09 (sample inspected.
workload ratio) hours programming ❑ 832.81 hr. 6. Cost per inspection. An estimate of the cost per individual
inspection. Because the NC operation is a combination
832.81 hr x S20/hr = $16,656.20
of many conventional operations, it is reasonable to
For the ensuing years, however, the difference between conclude that more part features will be checked per NC
conventional and NC machine tool process time would have to operation than conventional operation. Therefore, the
be considered. At this point it is necessary to consider the new cost per inspection for NC will be greater, For calculation
workload percentage that was derived from Table 5-2. From purposes, it is assumed that the NC operation takes
this data, the difference between conventional and NC twice as long to inspect as the conventional operation,
programs is: 7. Total cost. The multiplication of the number of inspec-
tions times the cost per inspection.
Percentage of part changeover (0.20)x(91.63 hr -63.04 hr) x
9.09 ❑ 51.97 hr/ year
IN-PLANT TRANSPORTATION COSTS
51.97 hr x $20/ hr = $1,039.40 One method of determining in-plant transportation cost
savings is shown in the following listing. The in-plant trans-
INSPECTION-COST SAVINGS portation cost is a function of the number of operations and, in
1nspection savings area function of the NC machine’s capability turn, tbe number of moves. A general rule of thumb is to
to combine operations. items to be considered are listed in provide three moves for interdepartmental handlings and two
Table 5-11 for NC machines and Table 5-12 for conventional moves for intradepartmental handlings. These would be
machines. required for each machine operation. Again, the NC machine
that can combine the greatest number of operations contributes
1. Part number.
the greatest savings.
2. Number of NC machine operations. The total number of
The following information appears in Table 5-13:
individual NC or conventional operations required to
complete the workpiece. 1. Part number.
3. Parts per year. The customer’s yearly requirement for 2. Cost per move. This cost is normally an estimate. One
TABLE 5-12
Conventional Inspection Cost*
Number of Parts per Percent Number Cost per Total Cost

Part No. Operations Year Inspected Inspected Inspection per Part
0001 12 200 30 720 .$4.00 $ 2,889.00
0002 15 200 30 900 4.00 3,600.00
0003 10 420 30 1,260 4.00 5,040.00
0004 5 300 30 450 4.00 1,800.00
0005 7 200 30 420 4.00 1,680.00
Total ❑ .$15,000 .00
* Net inspection cost savings equal conventional cost $15,000.00 minus NC machine cost of $1,096,00 times 9.09
(sample workload ratio). Total inspection cost savings = $126,387.36
5-19
CHAPTER 5
TABLE 5-13
In-Plant Part Transpiration Cost
NC Machine Tool Conventional

Moves
cost No. of Lots per Lots Conven- Conven- Net
per Opera- per Opera- Opera- per tional tional Transport
Part No. Move tions Year Moves cost* tions tion* Year Moves cost* Savings
000 I 3.00 2 12 24 $72.00 12 2 2 48 $144.00 $72.00
0002 3400 2 12 24 72.00 15 2 2 60 180.00 108.00
0003 3.00 1 12 12 37.00 10 2 3 60 180.00 144.00
0004 3.00 1 12 12 36.00 5 2 2 20 60.00 24.00
0005 3.00 1 12 12 36.00 7 2 2 28 84.00 48.00
Total ❑ $396.00
* Two moves per operation are assumed in a conventional environment. Total in-plant transportation cost of $396.00 saved on parts
studied tim& 9.09 (sample workload ratio) = $3,599.64
can estimate the average length of time a move takes ALTERNATIVE CAPITAL
and multiply that times the hourly rate of the trucker INVESTMENT AVOIDED
and the trucking equipment. Frequently, an equipment justification involves an increment
3. Number of operations. The number of NC machine of investment over some base amount. In other cases, the
operations for each workpiece in the sample workload. equipment is already in operation and will be removed and sold
4. Lots per year. The number of NC machine lots per upon installation of the new equipment. In still other cases, the
workpiece in the sample workload. company will keep the conventional equipment to expand other
5. NC machine moves. Obtained by multiplying the number product manufacturing or to sell machine time.
of operations times the lots per year. Regardless of the conventional equipment disposition, the
6. NC machine cost. Obtained by multiplying the cost per method of accounting for it is the same. The investment in NC
move times the number of NC machine moves (item 2 x equipment is reduced by the cost of the conventional facilities
item 5). that must be bought andj or the disposal value of replaced
7, Number of operations. The number of operations for facilities. It should be remembered that the justification
the conventional manufacturing process. addresses the incremental benefit of NC over conventional
8. M eves per operation. It is estimated, for example, that equipment and thus only the incremental capital cost should be
two handlings per move are required. considered. It is quite common for the capital investment in new
9. Lots per year. The number of conventional lots per conventional equipment to exceed the investment in NC
year, equipment for the same output capacity.
10, Conventional moves. The number of conventional
moves per year per workpiece in the sample workload.
It is obtained by multiplying the number of conven- SUMMARY
The summary of benefits in Table 5-14 is divided into two
tional operations times the moves per operation times
sections. The first section deals with annual benefits; those
the lots per year.
savings enjoyed every year the project is active. The second
11 Conventional cost. The conventional transportation
section includes one-time benefits and costs which are either
cost per year for the particular workpiece in the sample
subtracted from or added to the gross investment.
workload. It is the product of multiplying the conven-
tional moves times the cost per move.
12, Net trans~ortation savinm. The difference between the CASH FLOW ANALYSES
In the past, because of the complexity of analyzing the
transport~tion costs fo~ the NC machine tool and
transportation costs for the conventional machine differing cash flows from year to year, the assumption was made
operation. The savings for the sample workload are that cash flows remained constant throughout the life of the
machine tool being considered. Tax and depreciation impacts
then multiplied by the same workload ratio to give the
total savings in handlings. and the time value of money were also ignored for the same
reason. With the advent of minicomputers and specialized
business calculators, the horrendous task of determining the
MAINTENANCE COST true financial effects of adding an NC machine has been
There undoubtedly is an increased cost for maintenance of simplified to a clerical function. Computers thus allow the use
NC. The NC machine itself is more complex, plus the electronic of Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) techniques for determining
control requires additional skill as compared to conventional the feasibility of NC machine acquisitions.
facilities. The actual costs vary widely depending on the nature The Discounted Cash Flow approach considers the effect of
of the equipment being considered and the company’s attitude cash flow in business activities and recognizes the time value of
toward machine maintenance and upkeep. For purposes of this money as an important factor in financial decisions. The key
evaluation example, it is assumed that an amount of $8000 feature of the DCF approach is the use of compound interest in
labor and $8000 materials per year is required for maintenance. determining the time value of money.
5-20
CHAPTER 5
TABLE 5-14 r = the number of years from zero date (i.e.; from the start
Summary of Benefits and Costs of the project)
n ❑ the project’s expected life in years
Annual: C = the initial cost of the project
Director labor savings $302,850
The above equations consider yearly compounding. If the
Tooling and fixture savings 248,760
firm’s financial department uses continuous compounding, the
Consumable tool savings 13,389
equation would be:
Inventory carrying cost reduction 24,928
Tool setting cost (67,480) R, -c
NPV= ; (9)
Programming cost (1,039) #
t=l
Inspection savings 126,387
in-plant transportation savings 3,600 The summary of savings in Table 5-14 assumes an even
Maintenance cost ( 16,000) cash flow throughout the project life, In reality, however, this is
Total annual benefits $635,395 seldom true. Normally when a new NC machine tool is
installed, the purchaser goes through a learning phase which
One time: increases the projected costs. As the project progresses, the
Gross investment savings increase and costs decrease to a point in time after which
Machining center, 36 in.3 the savings remain relatively constant while some of the costs
including tooling and accessories $750,000 (such as maintenance) start to increase. The DCF approach
Less, sale of replaced assets takes these changing cash flows into account.
(3 mills, I drill) (30,000) Table 5-15 shows the effect of varying cash flows, The tax
implications are also considered for illustrative purposes. (Note
Less, one time inventory savings (99,713) that tax treatments constantly change; the analysis should
Plus, first year addition reflect the latest procedures.)
programming costs 16,656 Using a desired rate of return of 15%, yearly compounding,
and the data from Table 5-15, the after-tax NPV would be
Net investment $636,943 calculated as follows:
Less capital investment avoided R,
(2 mills, I drill) (350,000) Npv. ; -c
[=1 (l+k)’
Incremental investment $286,943
171,278 361,166 415,563 607,970
Payback period ❑ incremental investment +- annual benefit NPV=
❑ $286,943 +- $635,395/ yr 1.15( + 1.15’ + 1.153 + 1.154 +
= 0.45 vr 603,110
-667,794
1.155
Two DCF techniques which have proven to be beneficial in
recent years are the Net Present Value (NPV) method and the = 148,937 + 273,093 + 273,239 + 347,609 + 299,852-
Internal Rate of Return (/RR) method. 667,794
❑ $674,936
Net Present Value Method
With the NPV approach, all cash inflows and outflows are With the NPV approach, it is implicitly assumed that the
discounted to present value using the company’s desired rate of profit will be reinvested at the desired rate of return. This
return. This gives the present value of all cash flows. The Net project, therefore, will generate the same revenue as an extra
Present Value is the sum of the present value of all cash flows. A $674,936 immediately available for investment at 15910interest.
positive sum indicates the project did meet the desired rate of
return objective; a negative sum indicates the project did not Internal Rate of Return Method
meet it. The degree to which several projects exceed the required The second DCF approach which should be considered is the
rate of return can be used as a method of ranking those several Internal Rate of Return (IRR). The IRR is defined as the
projects when they are competing for limited capital resources. interest rate that equates the present value of the expected
The equation for the NPV is: future cash flows or receipts to the initial cost outlay. The IRR
R} R. is calculated as follows with yearly compounding considered:
Rz
NPV =
( (l +/k)’ + (1 + k)’
● t.-.
(1 +k)n )
- c (7)
IRR = :
R,
-Co (lo)
or ~=1 (l+r)’
R, where:
NPV= ; -c (8)
/=1 (l+k)’ R = the cash flow per given year
r ❑ the internal rate of return
where: r = the number of years from zero date (i.e.; from the start
R = the net cash flow per given year of the project)
k = the desired rate of return (percent per year, expressed as n = the project’s expected life in years
a decimal) C = the initial cost of the project
5-21
CHAPTER 5
If continuous compounding is used, the equation would be: rate of return, and selecting among mutually exclusive projects
R, the one with the higher ZRR. Cash inflows are assumed to be
IRR = .c. ~ (11)
:- reinvested at the IRR. 7
~=] e“’ The two methods give the same accept-reject decisions for
This equation has one unknown and can therefore be solved specific projects; if project X is acceptable under the NPV
for the value of r. Some value of r will cause the sum of the criterion, it is also acceptable if the IRR method is used. Under
discounted receipts to equal the initial cost of the project, certain conditions, the NPV and IRR methods can rank
making the equation equal zero. At this point the value of r projects differently; and if mutually exclusive projects are
equals the IRR. The /RR must therefore be found through trial involved or if capital is limited, rankings can be important.
and error. One reasonable approach is to make as good a first How should conflicts be resolved when the NPV and IRR
approximation as possible, then “straddle” the IRR by making methods yield conflicting rankings of two mutually exclusive
a fairly large change in the interest rate early in the iterative projects? The NPV method compares the future value of a
process. A much easier way is to use a computer, small project discounted to the present, while the ZRR method
programmable calculator, or business calculator. evaluates the cash flow generating ability of the project. In a
Using a business calculator and considering yearly com- real-world analysis, both methods would be used on several
pounding and the data from Table 5-15, the after-tax IRR projects competing for the same limited capital funds. A
would be: balanced trade-off decision could then be made. Neither
IRR = 43.4973 method gives the compiete answer; they each give a different
perspective to the answer.
The /RR can be used to determine whether or not a project
In the sample calculations, the net present value is $674,936,
will be profitable. If the IRR exceeds the desired rate of return,
indicating its high worth to the firm. The IRR indicates that it
the project is considered profitable; if the IRR is less than the
also generates a high degree of cash flow. On both counts the
desired rate of return, taking on the project would result in
proposal is extremely attractive and would be recommended for
losses. It is this “break-even” characteristic that makes the IRR
adoption.
useful.
In evaluating the financial considerations and justification of
Net Present Value vs. Internal Rate of Return NC facilities it should be remembered that the key issue is the
The NPV method accepts all independent projects whose identification and tabulation of impact on various areas of the
NP V is greater than zero; it ranks mutually exclusive projects company. Subsequently, the financial effect of the decision over
by their NPV’S, selecting the project with the higher NPV. Cash time must be analyzed and the proper investment alternative
inflows are assumed to be reinvested at the desired rate of must be selected. Because this decision involves financial
return. fi managers, the proposal must be prepared in a form consistent
The IRR method calls for accepting independent projects with other financial analyses, hence the use of Discounted Cash
where r, the internal rate of return, is greater thank, the desired Flow techniques.
TABLE 5-15
Summary of Cash Flows (After Tax)
Timing from Zero Date (Years)
Item Description o 1 2 3 4 5
Direct labor savings 100,000 250,000 302,850 430,700 430,700
Tooling and fixturing savings 80,000 170,000 248,760 372,520 372,520
Inventory-holding cost reduction 8,000 17,000 24,928 37,356 37,356
Consumable tool savings 4,421 8,842 13,389 19,041 19,041
In-plant transportation savings 1,200 2,400 3,600 5,400 5,400
Inspection savings 42,000 84,000 126>387 189,774 189,774
Tool setting cost (100,000) (85,000) (67,480) (42,460) (42,460)
Programming cost (16,656) ( 1,600) (1 ,300) (1 ,039) (628) (628)
Maintenance cost (5,000) (10,000) (16,000) (20,000) (29,000)
Total net savings/ yr (16,656) (129,021) 435,942 635,395 991,703 982,703
(Before tax)
Total net savings/ yr (8,994) 69,671 235,409 343,113 535,520 530,660
(After tax of 46%)*
Gross investment (N C machining (750,000)
center and access)
Excess inventory recuperation 49,857 49,857
Depreciation tax credit** 51,750 75,900 72,450 72,450 72,450
(Depreciation x 46%)
Investment tax credit of 10~o** 75,000
Sale of replaced assets after taxes 16,200
AFTER TAX CASH FLOWS 667,794 171,278 361,166 415,563 607,970 603,110
* Total net savings/ yr (Before Tax) x ( I-.46)
** Based upon Depreciation Schedule of the Economic Recovery Act of 1981.
5-22
CHAPTER 5
FUNDAMENTALS OF CNC
FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
NUMERICAL CONTROL
Computer numerical control (CNC) by Electronic Industries This software program can be thought of as the mechanism
Association (EIA) definition is an NC system in which a for converting a general-purpose computer to a machine
dedicated stored-program computer is used to perform some or control system for a specific machine tool—for example, a
all of the basic NC functions in accordance with control two-axis lathe with a 12-tool turret. The term “soft-wired” is
programs stored in the read-write memory of the computer. applicable because the functions created to control the specific
Computer numerical control and soft-wired NC are synony- machine tool result from the application software program
mous terms. Computer numerical control is the dominant type rather than from any physical wiring of a group of logic
of machine control being manufactured today. On the soft- elements.
wired control, the 11O-volt a-c outputs are wired directly to the The application software program permits flexibility in
electromechanical devices on the machine (solenoids, for features and changes in a given machine tool (in addition to the
example). Likewise, switches and sensors on the machine are ability to revise the software for different machines) basically
wired directly to the inputs. This contrasts with conventional without changes in physical wiring or hardware. This flexibility,
hard-wired controls in which logic functions are wired together however, is not unlimited in that certain options or changes may
in a fixed, preengineered arrangement. require additional hardware (switches, input/ output boards,
The key element of the soft-wired controller is a micro- etc. ) or additional memory may be required to achieve the
processor or minicomputer. Because a computer is involved, desired results.
there is a tendency to confuse the soft-wired controller and its Soft-wired controls usually employ punched-paper-tape
application to computer numerical control (CNC) with direct readers to load the application software program, and then use
numerical control (DNC). There are, however, several differ- the same tape reader or other device for input for the NC
ences between the two. part programs. The tape format used for these part programs
Computers supporting DNC are used to disseminate manu- has usually adhered to the same EIA standards as hard-wired
facturing data to, and collect product information from, several NC systems.
machine controllers. Soft-wired controllers, on the other hand, Soft-wired controls generally have offered additional features
generally support only one machine or a very small number of that conventional hard-wired numerical controls did not origi-
machines. Also, DNC computers may be remote from the nally provide. Among these is part-program storage (the tape
machine tools, whereas soft-wired controllers are normally in reader is used for input only; the machine is operated from the
close proximity. In addition, the software supporting DNC is computer’s memory). It is technically feasible to add memory to
usually written to support overall manufacturing activity, i.e., hard-wired controls to provide these features, but any change in
machine loading, productivity, and efficiency trends. Software the operation of these features requires some rewiring.
for soft-wired controllers, however, is written specifically for a The ease of changing the operation of a soft-wired control
particular machine/ device and its required fixed sequences (see after original manufacturing is its greatest difference from hard-
“Fundamentals of Direct Numerical Control” in this chapter). wired NC.
As a result of the ability to change the application software
HARD-WIRED CONTROLS program, soft-wired controls have a built-in resistance to
Today’s hard-wired NC uses integrated-circuit (IC) digital- obsolescence. But it must be pointed out that this feature (and
logic circuit packages—usually medium-scale integration such others as superior diagnostics and the ability to tailor a
(M Sl)—which are mounted and wired in a fixed and permanent standard control for specific applications) does have a price.
arrangement on plug-in printed-circuit boards (PCB’S). The These features must be designed into the control. Engineering is
PCB connectors that receive these boards are also wired still a requirement. Table 5- I6 lists the characteristics of soft-
together permanently (this is usually called “back-plane” wiring) wired NC units.g
in a prescribed manner that is preengineered and tailored to
accomplish the desired operation. In addition, changes in the DIAGNOSTICS
operation of a hard-wired numerical control require wiring The bringing together of the computer and NC technologies
changes as well as the addition or omission of related hardware has cleared the way for increasing development and practical
devices such as operator control buttons and PCB’S. Customer- use of CNC diagnostics, or so-called self-diagnostics. This self-
selectable options are feasible in a hard-wired NC provided checking feature of modern CNC units, which is offered at
their incorporation was planned for in the original design. various levels of sophistication, is considered an important aid
in optimizing the uptime of CNC equipment.
SOFT-WIRED CONTROLS Generally, modern diagnostic systems can be one of two
A soft-wired CNC system incorporates a programmable types: real-time or off-line. Real-time diagnostics operate while
control unit—usually a general-purpose computer (mini or the machine tool is in normal operation; off-line diagnostics are
micro) with a read-write memory. The computer and memory employed when the machine tool is not operating. The diagnostic
replace much of the general-purpose fixed-logic circuitry of the program of a real-time system is part of the software resident in
hard-wired NC with programmable logic that is stored in the the control memory; off-line diagnostic programs typically are
computer’s memory. This stored logic, together with stored loaded into computer memory via punched paper tape or other
computer instructions, is called an “application software media when the machine requires diagnostic attention. Real-
program. ” time diagnostic systems often feature self-correcting logic
5-23
CHAPTER 5
FUNDAMENTALS OF CNC
TABLE 5-16
Advantages of Soft-Wired Computer Numerical Control
Flexibility Options can be added in the field by software revision and hardware augmentation in standard building
blocks. Less costly to tailor CNC for each shop’s unique problems and practice.
Field Newly developed options can be added after installation. Hardware and software are needed, but are easier
addition of than changes in hard-wired NC. Equipment cn be upgraded as new options become available. Premature
new options obsolescence is minimized by this feature.
Variable Part programs for earlier NC machines can be used on CNC machine with software change. Eliminates need
tape format to reprogram existing tape library. Must be tailored for individual user.
inch/ metric Allows inch or metric tapes (switch provided) without need for separate feedback device. Facilitates machin-
conversion ing under both systems during conversion.
Machine- Simplifies geometry changes and feed/ speed optimizataion during tryout. Generate new tape at machine.
language Speeds program debugging. Increases available production time. Speeds cycle time. Improves programmer
editing efficiency.
Part-program Part program is stored in mini-computer memory. Tape reader, used for loading only, can be eliminated in
storage DNC. Useful in repetitive production. Tapereader maintenance reduced or eliminated. Reader speed does
not limit short block execution. No time required for tape rewind. With DNC, facilitates file maintenance
(use of updated programs only).
Fewer types of CNC design greatly reduces the number of boards required. Board types are common for different machine
print circuit types. Reduces inventory of spare boards for single CNC unit or several, even if different machines are
boards involved.
Board-level Design feature permitting fault and malfunction isolation to board. Minimizes production downtime.
diagnostics Allows ordinary maintenance and troubleshooting by less-skilled personnel.
Building-block Flexibility of CNC allows better integration within total system than hard-wired NC. Step-by-step imple-
approach to mentation of overall system. Part-program storage at CNC machine level improves system reliability,
manufacturing reduces data-rate requirement from central computer. Fits variety of DNC configurations. Allows later
automation or addition of plant data feedback and monitoring.
DNC
capability which allows production to continue even though a incremental cost than is possible with a hard-wired control.
minor error is detected. This is a valuable time saver when the This advantage lends itself to NC machine types with more
source of the problems is not severe enough to warrant sophisticated requirements, such as machining centers, boring
immediate concern, but will require attention at some time in machines, and special multiaxis machines. Thus NC users who
the future. Off-line diagnostic systems typically are employed have special requirements may find the soft-wired NC particu-
by maintenance personnel when the machine tool is down. larly advantageous.
In addition to the general classifications of real-time and “Software is easy” is a frequently made claim for the
off-line, various levels of sophistication characterize the broad programming required to implement a soft-wired numerical
field of CNC diagnostics, Some experts consider the real-time control. This claim is not necessarily true. It may appear easy,
operation of LED status lights to be a form of diagnostics. but in practice this is not always so. Creating software is a
Other experts consider true, real-time diagnostics to include discipline that must be learned and practiced. It entails as
sophisticated error detection and automatic reporting via CRT much NC application knowledge and engineering effort as the
messages or automatic machine shutdown. Some of the more design of a hard-wired control—and sometimes more. This is
modern CNC units feature resident diagnostic capability particularly true if efficient utilization of the computer memory
which automatically tests control functions when power is is to be achieved.
applied to the system. Messages at the CRT alert the operator The power of a software approach as it applies to NC is that a
when boards are missing or are not seated properly, when library of modular software programs can be developed. This
power supply voltages are abnormal, etc. More and more, the library can grow in time so that eventually most NC functions
diagnostic capabilities of modern CNC units are being inte- can be applied by using existing program segments and less
grated with so-called adaptive controls which can change special software will have to be developed for each new or
operating parameters and machine conditions in real-time to different requirement. The capabilities of this feature have been
suit changing workpiece characteristics. (See “Adaptive amply demonstrated in the application of computer systems in
Controls” in this chapter.) other fields.
An important advantage of flexible software is that powerful
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS test and diagnostic routines can be developed. Use of such
An important inherent advantage of the soft-wired NC routines permits relatively unskilled maintenance personnel to
concept is that once a basic control capability has been use the diagnostic software for rapid identification and isolation
provided, additional options can be added for a smaller of any control malfunction (see “Diagnostics” in this section).
5-24
CHAPTER 5
CNC SYSTEM ELEMENTS
Another maintenance-associated feature that tends to be used to speed a machine’s operation, they could also be
increase the production availability of CNC machines is the applied with hard-wired NC.
reduced reliance on the tape reader. Because the tape reader is Nevertheless, a major benefit in terms of increased produc-
used only for loading part programs into the computer tivity is associated with the use of a computerized NC system.
memory, it is less subject to mechanical wear and is afforded This benefit is the facility with which part programs can be
fewer opportunities to misread part-program data. On many edited. Not only can new programs be debugged rapidly,
controls, programs are loaded to the control via magnetic tape, yielding more productive time, but also cycle times can be
eliminating the maintenance problems sometimes associated speeded for relatively short production lots because program
with paper tape readers. optimization is much more practical. No new tape needs to be
1n general, soft-wired NC does not enable the metalcutting punched, although this can be done later to incorporate changes
process to be speeded up. Where higher performance servos can permanently for future runs of the program.
CNC SYSTEM ELEMENTS
~:e
The basic elements of a computer numerical control system I
are shown in Fig. 5-3. The control is the heart of the system. It ,-------- ------------ .-,
processes information received from the operator and machine
interface. This information is interpreted and manipulated with
hardware logic and computer programs (software). Memory
provides the means to store programs and manipulate input
data. Based on the information received, the control outputs
data back to the operator interface and machine.
The operator interface consists of devices which send,
receive, and interpret information. Since the operations per-
I
formed by NC systems are defined by the software, interface Fig. 5-4 Five major functional units of a computer numerical-control
devices are needed to input the various programs from memory. system.
Paper tape input is the most common. The operator station(s) is
the other major operator interface element. It contains all the needed. The status of machine and operator station devices are
switches, pushbuttons, displays, etc., required to operate and input in the form of a-c, d-c, and analog signals. Analog signals
monitor machine activities, are converted to digital signals (A/D converter) in order to be
Machine devices are regulated by the control. Based on understood by the control. Input signals are sent to memory,
information supplied by operator interface devices and feedback where they are used by the control and arithmetic units to arrive
from various machine devices, the control turns on and off at output decisions.
machine outputs and controls machine motion. For systems with many a-c or d-c inputs, a scheme called
multiplexing may be used. With this scheme, the state of many
THE CONTROL devices can be monitored on a single channel. This reduces
The control performs “real-time” decisions on a process that wiring without restricting real-time operation.
is in operation at the same time. There are several types of
control systems; however, each can be broken down into the Memory Unit
same functional units. Each unit performs specific functions, The memory unit stores instructions and data received from
and all units function together to execute the programmed the input. It also stores the results of arithmetic operations and
instructions. Figure 5-4 shows the five major functional units of supplies information to the output. The size of the programs
a control. The dashed lines with arrows represent the flow of and space required to manipulate data determines the amount
timing and control signals. The solid lines with arrows represent of memory required. Basically, there are two types of
the flow of data. memory—Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only
Memory (ROM).
Input Unit RAM. Random Access Memory provides immediate access
All instructions and data are fed into the control through the to any storage location point in memory. Information may be
input unit. Software, such as the system operating program, “read” or “written” in the same very fast procedure. Part
part programs, and diagnostics are input by means of paper programs are usually stored in RAM memory to enable editing.
tape, magnetic devices, etc., and are stored in memory until While there are many types of RAM, only certain types (i.e.,
core and bubble) are able to retain data during a power loss.
I I Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) memory
is retentive if it has battery backup.
ROM. Read Only Memory stores information permanently
or semipermanently. Information can be “read,” but cannot be
altered. Only fixed programs such as the system operating
program and diagnostics should be stored on ROM.
I I “Programmable” ROMs are referred to as PROMS, and
Fig. 5-3 Elements of a computer numerical-control system, electrically erased PROMS are called EPROMs.
5-25
CHAPTER 5
CNC SYSTEM ELEMENTS
Arithmetic Unit
The arithmetic unit performs calculations and makes deci-
sions. The resuks are sent to the memory unit to be stored. I Paper tape reader/punch
Control Unit
The control unit takes instructions from the memory unit and
interprets them one at a time. It then sends appropriate Punched cord
[
instructions to other units to cause instruction execution. Control
Operator statlors
Output Unit
The output unit takes data from memory when commanded. Host computer
Outputs are in the form of a-c, d-c, and digital signals. Digital
signals used as axis drive commands are first converted to
analog (D/ A converter). Output signals are used to turn on and
I Modem
off devices, display information, position axes, etc.

Fig. 5-5 Operator interface devices used in a computer numerical-
OPERATOR INTERFACE control system.
The operator interface consists of all devices, exclusive of the
machine, which send and receive control information. Figure much faster than electromechanical types. Electromechanical
5-5 depicts some of the more common devices. tape readers use fingers or other devices to make electrical
contact through holes of the tape.
Paper Tape Reader/Punch There are two types of photoelectric tape readers: detected-
Punched tape is the most commonly used input system for Iight and reflected-light. In a detected-light tape reader, as the
NC systems. Several different tape widths are available, but tape passes over the read head and a hole is encountered, light
eight-channel, 1” (25.4 mm) wide tape is almost universally contacts the photoelectrical devices in the read head on the side
used, as discussed in the section “Manual NC Programming” in of the tape opposite the light source and transmits an electrical
this chapter. signal. This type of reader requires that the tape be opaque so
Typewriters having a tape-punch attachment are frequently that a reading of a “hole” condition does not occur where a “no
used to prepare NC punched-tape programs. Another common hole” condition actually exists.
method of preparing tape is by means of a computer system In the reflected-light type of photoelectric tape reader, the
equipped with a tape-punching unit (see “Computer-Assisted light source and the read head are on the same side of the tape
NC Part Programming” in this chapter). Some control builders and displaced at a slight angle. A hole condition is the absence
may also provide the option of punching previously entered of light reflected from the surface of the tape, while a no hole
programs directly from control memory. condition is the presence of a light signal from the light source
When punched tape is used, the instructions for a given reflected by the tape to the read head.
operation are contained in several rows of information called a
block. The tape may be made as long as required in order to Magnetic Tape, Disc, Drum
contain the entire NC program. A unique feature of tape is that Magnetic devices record and read magnetic spots on a
when the beginning and the end of it are joined to form a moving surface of material. Each of these devices has a thin
continuous loop, it is always ready upon completion of one part coating of magnetic material applied to a smooth, nonmagnetic
to start the next part. This feature is used when many parts of a material on plastic tape. Drums are thinly coated metal
given program are required for a single setup and the tape cylinders. The disk (floppy disk) resembles a phonograph
length is relatively short. The operator merely loads a new part record with magnetic material on both sides.
and starts the cycle again. When the length of tape becomes Magnetic devices have the ability to store large amounts of
significantly large, it is wound on a takeup reel in belt fashion data on a small amount of surface. Magnetic tape is the most
during the operation; then at the end of the program, the tape is economical of the three. Typically, 1/ 2“ ( 12.7 mm) wide tape is
rewound on the first reel and the cycle is started again. used which can store 500 characters per inch (20 characters per
By means of the hole patterns punched in the tape, all the millimeter) of tape. Both higher and lower densities are available.
letters of the alphabet as well as the digits O through 9 can be A single reel of magnetic tape can store approximately 14
coded to form words within a block. Various other symbols million characters of data. This would be a very long single
useful for controlling machine functions can also be coded. Two program, but several programs which might represent all the
types of standard coding are used as described later in this required programs for a given machine can thus be stored on a
chapter. single reel of tape.
Some tape readers are capable of reading an entire block of
tape holes simultaneously. Such readers are used on some Punch Cards
simple positioning machines, but they are generally not satisfac- In the past, punch cards were used as input to NC systems
tory for more sophisticated applications because they cannot primarily because of the availability of the equipment on which
take advantage of the economics of variable-block format. the programs could be prepared. Because keypunch operators
Therefore, the more widely used tape readers read only one row and keypunch departments exist in many businesses for
of holes at a time. accounting purposes, the same equipment and trained
Tape readers are usually either electromechanical or photo- personnel were utilized to assist in NC program preparation.
electric; both detect the presence or absence of holes and Today, however, punch cards are used as input to relatively few
transmit information. Photoelectric tape readers are typically NC machines.
5-26
CHAPTER 5
CNC SYSTEM ELEMENTS
Operator Station(s) it is running by making corrections based on the error table to

The operator station(s) consists of all the switches, push- obtain improved accuracy on the part (see “Fundamentals of
buttons, displays, etc., required to operate the machine (unless Direct Numerical Control” in this chapter).
the machine has been completely automated with numerical Another application in which an on-line computer is
control, in which case the operator’s attention is not required). advantageous is that in which the number of programs or
Devices such as switches and pushbuttons are used to command different kinds of parts made from any one program are small,
the machine to perform an activity, i.e., machine start and or changes in programs are very frequent and the same parts are
master stop. The commanded actions, machine member posi- to be made again a short time later. In this case, the computer
tion, state of machine devices, etc., are usually displayed for has access to the programs, which are stored on either tape or
operator reference. Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT), Light Emitting magnetic disks, and it is merely necessary to enter the desired
Diodes (LED), and plasma displays are some of the more number of the program required for the parts to be made. The
common methods of displaying information. computer then searches for the data and has it ready at the
The main purpose of the operator station is to initiate proper time. In such applications, the computer is used as a
automatic operation, to input data, and to monitor activities source for rapid search and recovery of a specific program from
using display devices. More and more, with the increasing a large number of programs. Several machines maybe serviced
intelligence built into the control systems, so-called “manual by one computer operating in this mode.
data input”(M Dl) is employed. Manual data input is employed
on NC systems, as an auxiliary means of providing an input. Modem
Manual data input requires that the operator set up a series of A MODulator Demodulator (MODEM) converts data
switches or controls to perform a given function and, when the from the control into a form compatible with telephone
operation is completed, set up the next step in the opera- transmission lines. The primary use of the MODEM for NC is
tion sequence. This may be a time-consuming approach for diagnostics. For example, some control builders can send and
complex workplaces and is usually employed for relatively receive data from a customer’s control over telephone trans-
simple workplaces or for programs that are to be used only once mission lines to determine control problems.
or a very few times. The same kind of error is possible in
manual data input NC systems as is possible in a non- MACHINE INTERFACE
numerically controlled system in which the operator sets up the The machine interface consists of all devices used to monitor
machine for each operation. On some machines, manual data and control the machine tool. Extreme travel limits, miscel-
input is used to override the program (see “Manual Data Input” laneous position locations, hydraulic and air pressures can be
in this chapter). monitored. Additionally, solenoids for hydraulic and air control
as well as motor control are provided. Outputs are usually a
Host Computer single d-c and a-c level or a d-c output with remote a-c switching
The direct link of a general-purpose host computer to a devices.
machine tool is advantageous for certain applications. (A Several systems employ a multiplexing scheme which greatly
special-purpose design would be incorporated into the control reduces hardware requirements. Since multiplex cycles are
system of the machine tool itself.) General-purpose computers usually less than 50 ps, few reliability problems are encountered.
are normally expensive on either a purchase or rental basis. Figure 5-6 depicts some of the more common machine devices.
Recently, lower priced models have become available and have
been used for NC. A Direct Numerical Control (DNC) system Limit and Proximity Switches
can have certain characteristics which the computer can handle Limit and proximity switches are used to determine the
much more efficiently than an alternative type of system. For location of a machine member. Proximity switches are located
instance, computation may be required while running a part to at defined intervals along the machine’s travel. The control
correct for various machine conditions such as tool wear or detects which switch is tripped to determine axis position. This
errors inherent in the machine tool itself. An example of this is a method is no longer in common usage due to limited accuracy.
precision leadscrew that has error throughout its length. The There are usually two limit switches on each linear axis; one
error in the screw is measured and stored in the computer for plus motion, and one for minus motion. When the control
memory in the form of a table. When a part is made on this detects that a limit switch has been tripped, machine operation
machine, the computer system modifies the part program while is halted until the axis is manually moved off the limit.
Pressure and Temperature Switches

Pressure and temperature switches are used to determine
system conditions. Oil and air pressure for the machine and
llmlt and proxlmlty switches
1 temperatures of the control cabinet and lube maybe monitored
as needed.
Control
*
I Pressure and temperature switches
Control Valves
Many machine functions are performed by applying air or oil
Control valves
pressure to devices. Power drawbars, turret indexers, tool-
changer magazines, and coolant flow are but a few of the
Servomechanisms machine mounted devices and functions controlled by the
1
numerical control unit.
Many machine tools use hydraulic or air operated cylinders
Fig. 5-6 Numerical-control interface devices. to control spindle speed and axis feed transmissions. The
5-27
CHAPTER 5
CNC SYSTEM ELEMENTS
control of these devices is programmed in the controller and Electtic or hydraul[c Mach,ne table Feedback
activated by control codes. dwe unit
u
– -L
~ ~a
Servomechanisms
A servomechanism (often termed a “servo”) is a group of
elements which convert the NC input into precision mechanical
displacements. These elements include motors (hydraulic or T
“’’’’’’’’”
T
(table feedscrew) “x Clrculatmg boll nut
Feedback—signal clrcud
r
I
electric), gear trains, and transducers (velocity or position). Commard-signol I
The drive to spindles and slides in NC tools is usually circut
provided by either hydraulic or electric motors.

Servomechanisms may be either open or closed loop as
I
L
I
I
1-
I
Control
shown in Fig. 5-7. Fig. 5-8 Mechanical elements of a computer numerical-control system.
Open loop. In the case of the open-loop servo, there is no
feedback signal to assure that the machine axis actually moved The controlled machine slide is any controlled part of the
the distance programmed. For instance, if the servo is designed machine, or the controlled machine itself. It can be an addition
to move 0.0001” (0.003 mm) for each input pulse, and 100 pulses to a machine tool, such as a retrofit positioning table or a
are programmed, the servo will move a table 0.010” (0.25 mm), conversion, but the controlled unit must be designed for
The only assurance that the table actually moved 0.010 in this numerical control in any case.
type of system is the reliability of the system. Electric or hydraulic drive unit. The rotary hydraulic motor
Closed loop. The closed-loop servo, on the other hand, uses the pressure of fluid flowing through gears or against
compares information feedback from the machine slide with pistons to effect a shaft rotation. These motors are usually of the
programmed information to assure that the motion has actually positive-displacement variety. The motor itself is very small for
been performed. The signal to the drive motor is modified by the horsepower it is capable of developing. Oil flow to the motor
the feedback signal. is controlled by a servovalve. A servovalve is typically an
Servomechanism elements. The basic or main elements of a electrohydraulic unit using an electrical solenoid to actuate a
numerical control system are shown in Fig. 5-8. The principles small flapper which controls hydraulic pressure on a spool
here essentially are the same for positioning and contouring, valve. The spool valve directs oil to the hydraulic motor, which
although the principles of contouring are somewhat more produces the desired mechanical motion.
complex. Both a-c and d-c electric motors are commonly used for
Command signal circuit. From the machine control unit, the powering NC tools. Recently, printed-circuit motors have also
signals proceed via the command-signal circuit to the servo- become popular. These motors are high-torque devices which
mechanism and drive unit. Each machine slide or movement can be directly coupled to a Ieadscrew to drive a machine-tool
that is to be controlled by the system has its own servomechanism slide. A stepping motor is a particular type of electric motor
and drive. which is actuated by pulses and moves a fixed angular unit for
A servomechanism amplifies the incoming signal and provides each electrical pulse. The motor is usually clamped magnetically
power to move the desired machine slide or carry out a at fixed angular positions.
mechanical movement as required. Commonly, it can be For instance, a stepping motor might be designed so that it is
electric or hydraulic. The servomechanism may be an electric magnetically clamped at each 15° of rotation. One electrical
motor which drives a machine table through a Ieadscrew; or the pulse would advance it 15°, where it would remain, held in
system may involve hydraulic motors, hydraulic rams, or other position by a magnetic detent until the next electrical pulse
devices for moving the controlled machine elements or slides as advanced it. A slide driven by the motor would normally be
required. Motors may drive the slides through low-friction geared so that each 15“ step would move the table O.OOO1-
Ieadscrews employing circulating ball nuts or through rack- 0.0005” (0.003-0.013 mm).
and-pinion arrangements, or still other devices can be employed. Leadscrew. Precision slides are usually powered by a motor
which drives the slide through a gearbox and leadscrew. The
leadscrew is almost universally used to convert rotary motion
from electric or hydraulic motors into linear movement of a
machine slide. The recirculating-ball leadscrew is a precision
screw with very low friction. The leadscrew is precisely made to
provide a given linear displacement to the slide for each
revolution. This distance can be very accurate.
d=l--Jg’’tOr Feedback devices. Two kinds of transducers are commonly

used in machine tools for feedback. Velocity transducers are
used to measure spindle speed and slide velocity, and position
Closed LOOP transducers are used to measure slide displacement.
D,g,tal
The most common velocity transducer is an electric
Input Pulses tachometer. Electric tachometers provide a voltage which is
Storage 1 proportional to the speed of a shaft. The voltage produced may
and pulse be either a-c or d-c.
gererotor There are many types of position transducers in use. These
Open Loop
include synchros and resolvers, digitizers, and linear induction
types. Since measurement of position is one of the key elements
ig. 5-7 Open and closed-loop servomechanisms. of NC, this area has received a great deal of attention.
5-28
CHAPTER 5
FUNDAMENTALS OF DNC
Synchros and resolvers are electric transformers which control unit. Systems with feedback are generally classed as
provide a voltage output that varies with the angular position of closed-loop types, whereas open-loop systems do not incorpo-
a shaft. This voltage is used as a measure of displacement. rate feed back.
Coupled toa leadscrew through a gear train, the resolver or Servomechanism accuracy and speed. When a machine slide
synchro provides position information on a slide. and servo are coupled through a leadscrew; the leadscrew, the
A linear resolver is a precision-made scale which utilizes the ways of the machine, and the accuracy of the servo (including
resolver principle of induction. Signals are induced on the linear the accuracy of the measuring system) all contribute to the
scale by an adjacent exciter scale. machine error. A closed-loop servo can achieve a high degree of
A rotary digitizer isa device which provides a pulse fora precision when a feedback element such as a linear system is
given angular displacement at its shaft. For example, a digitizer attached to the machine slide, Such a system eliminates gearing,
might generate a pulse for each degree of angular rotation of its Ieadscrew, and backlash errors. In many cases, however, the
shaft. These pulses can recounted andtherelationship of the drive and feedback units are attached to the end of a leadscrew,
linear displacement to the digitizer angle can be used to in which case the open-loop and closed-loop systems may have
determine the slide displacement. equal accuracy at the machine slide. The accuracy of the system
Feedback signal circuit. Themachine motion, as provided must be designed for the jobs that the machine performs. Very
through the servomechanism, is recorded or monitored by a high accuracy can be achieved—limited primarily by the ability
feedback (measuring) unit, which may be electrical, mechanical, to measure, The cost of the machine, however, is related to the
or optical; corrections are automatically made by the machine machine accuracy and increases as the accuracy is improved.
FUNDAMENTALS OF DIRECT NUMERICAL CONTROL

By EIA definition, direct numerical control (DNC) is a few isolated applications; however, some of the promises of
system connecting a group of numerically controlled machines DNC never were realized on a broad scale. For example, the
to a common computer memory for part-program storage, with thought that DNC could eliminate the need for tape readers or
provision for on-demand distribution of machining data. other input devices at the machine tool proved unrealistic. Tape
Typically, additional provisions are available for collection, readers or other alternate input devices at the machine tool were
display, or editing of part programs, operator instructions, or found to be useful in the early DNC systems as backups to the
data related to the NC process. computerized system. Such manual backup was required
because occasional downtime of the central computer caused
the entire DNC system to go down, sometimes idlinga dozen or
CHANGING CONCEPTS more expensive NC machine tools.
The original DNC concept was forwarded (circa 1965) as a
With the advent of computer numerical control, came the
means of reducing NC control costs through use of one
availability of relatively inexpensive computer memory at the
powerful controller for a group of machines, rather than a
machine tool. The nature of the DNC concept was altered as a
separate controller for each machine tool. The cost of electronic
consequence. With computer memory at the machine tool, it is
control equipment was much higher in the early 1960’s than it is
no longer required that the CNC machines of a DNC network
today; so high that the DNC concept was driven by a need to
be driven in real time. Instead, NC programs can be downloaded
reduce control cost.
in total from the memory of the central computer to the
Proponents of the DNC concept believed that punched paper
memory of the computer at the machine tool; the connection
tape and tape readers at the machine tool could be completely
between the central computer and the individual machine tools
eliminated by driving the NC machines directly from the
in the system need only be maintained for a short period of
memory of a central computer. Because NC machines of the day
time—the time necessary to transmit the NC program. In this
typically were not equipped with memory, the central computer
way, the uptime of individual machine tools is less dependent
would drive the machines in real time—that is, the computer
upon the uptime of the central computer and, because the
would send NC data to the machine tools in sequence or pulse
machines are not driven in real time by the central computer,
form during the actual machining operation. By operating in
program editing at the machine is made much easier. This
this manner, it was expected that maintenance costs of tape
concept, known as distributed numerical control, is growing in
readers at the machine tool could be eliminated and that input
usage. In fact, the acronym DNC, originally defined as direct
errors caused by improper operation of tape readers at the
numerical control, is now used by many experts in the controls
machine tool could be avoided.
industries to describe distributed numerical control.
In addition, the original DNC concept promised simpler
management of NC programs and an elimination of a need for
costly libraries of punched paper tape. It was believed that by APPLICATIONS
storing NC programs and monitoring NC machines using a In general, two areas of application exist in which DNC has
central computer, the optimization of NC programs and shown specific advantages. First, the DNC concept is often
simulation of numerical control functions (verification of tool justifiable in applications that have large amounts of control
path using a plotter, for example) would be more easily information which must be managed, stored, and distributed—
performed. Also, it was thought that collection and reporting of many NC programs or very complex programs. DNC facilitates
system operating data such as downtime, production, and the management of large numbers of NC programs and helps to
maintenance information would be more easily accomplished. sidestep the possibility of using the wrong NC program or using
The original concepts of DNC worked reasonably well in a a program that is not the latest version. With DNC, lengthy NC
5-29
CHAPTER 5
FUNDAMENTALS OF DNC
programs can be loaded quickly, eliminating the costly nonpro- is not of much concern when a part program is being down-
ductive time often associated with the loading of complex loaded if, for example, the CNC can accept the data to memory
programs via punched paper tape or other mechanical input while another part program is running to produce parts.
media. The payoff is achieved in increased uptime and greater The differences among the various CNC machines in the
machine tool efficiency. DNC system must be accounted for in the design of the system.
The DNC concept is also employed as the heart of the control For example, some CNC units may have limited internal
system for so-called flexible production systems in which a storage. In cases in which the NC program length is larger than
number of numerically controlled machine tools are linked by the internal memory capacity at the machine tool, the DNC
means of electronic data communication and mechanical system must have the capability to automatically download
automation. Often employed to machine families of parts, such only portions of the program that are within the capacity of the
systems are equipped with a central computer which directs the machine tool. This capability should be built-in from the start.
flow of parts through the system and operates in a DNC mode, Often, NC programs are optimized by the machine tool
downloading NC programs to the member machine tools as operator during the first several production runs of a new part.
required. In such systems, the central computer is also used to An efficient DNC system should be capable of accepting
collect operating data, as described more fully in Chapter 15 of optimized NC programs from the CNC machine tools in the
this volume, “Multifunction Machines. ” network; however, a system should be established that prevents
the revised program from being used in place of the original
DNC OPERATING GUIDELINES program before the changes are approved by the programmer.
Experience has shown that NC part programs which are to be The possibility of downtime of the central computer must be
stored and distributed via a DNC network should contain considered in the design of the DNC system. In many cases,
certain introductory information. Information of this type short periods of downtime of the central computer will not stop
should include the part number of the workpiece to be production because current DNC systems generally do not
machined, the drawing number, and any special processing- drive machine tools in real time; a number of programs maybe
related information such as a list of fixtures or clamping devices stored at the machine tool so that production can continue even
that will be required to facilitate the machining of the workpiece. when the central computer is down. In emergencies, NC
Special machining instructions should also be listed according programs can be downloaded to machine tools via a storage
to a standard format and a list should be included of the disk (a disk containing the programs for a day’s production)
machine tools on which the part can be processed, including and a portable disk reader. These and other provisions for
machine numbers and descriptions. emergency operation of the system are extremely important and
Part programs of a DNC system should be protected via an should be considered in the design phase of any DNC system.
automated security system. Each part program should contain The printing of certain lists is an invaluable feature of DNC
an authorization code at the beginning of the program which which should be designed to be compatible with current
can be read by the central computer. Such a code can be management style and reporting systems. The following are a
employed, if necessary, to block the transfer of an NC program few examples of the lists which can be printed using the
to a machine tool that is unauthorized for machining of the capabilities of the central computer of a DNC system:
part. In this way, the use of specific machine tools for
workplaces can be easily controlled. . Production schedules.
In a DNC system, the part programs should be managed and . Running times of programs.
classified in a logical fashion. Some of the classification . Tools required to machine a specific part.
breakdowns that have proven useful include access and ● Instructions for the operator.
reporting by program number or program name (workpiece . NC programs contained on a disk.
name), machine tool authorization codes, date of program . Block programs.
preparation, and date of change. . Data on when each program was used last.
Experiences of users familiar with the operations of a DNC
The ability of a DNC system to collect and report machine-
system indicate that the call-up of NC programs from the
related data is also important in some applications. Such data
system should be sufficiently simple so that users who are not
can be used to structure useful management reports. The
data processing professionals can call up programs without
following are examples of some data which can be collected
difficulty. Experience has also shown that a DNC system
using the central computer of a DNC system:
should be capable of downloading the same program to
different machine tools simultaneously. This capability is
● Meantime between failures.
particularly important and may have significant impact on the
. Duration of downtime and causes.
operating efficiency of a flexible production system, for example. ● Machine utilization reports.
The system employed for data transmission is the heart of any
. Machine loading.
DNC installation. System reliability and performance is often
dictated by the viability of the data transmission network.
Operating performance of the communication system in a DNC THE FUTURE OF DIRECT NUMERICAL
network is optimal if it does not present constraints causing one CONTROL
or both of the following conditions to occur: Direct numerical control systems of the future are expected
to perform more and more sophisticated tasks which will aid in
. Machine is idled while waiting for transmission of data.
production management and help increase machine tool utili-
. Operator’s time is wasted while waiting for responses
zation and productivity. In the coming years, the use of DNC
from the DNC computer.
will not be limited merely to tasks of monitoring but will play an
The operating baud rate or even the effective throughput rate ever-increasing role in controlling the manufacturing operation
5-30
CHAPTER 5
SELECTING CNC CONTROLS
and optimizing production efficiency. Future DNC systems will DNC in the years ahead as package systems continue to
be more fully integrated with data processing and computer- proliferate and further standards are developed.
aided design systems, More smaller NC shops will move to

The selection of the numerical control (NC or CNC) system software options can be added at a later date and at a minimal
for a machine tool has become a major consideration for the additional price, whereas hardware options may cost signifi-
manufacturing manager in recent years. The advanced features, cantly more to add at a later date.
increased flexibility, maintenance reduction, and cost oftoday’s The selection of a CNC system breaks down into four major
CNC systems can make a major impact on the productivity and categories of consideration: machine design interface, software
price of the machine tool. features, hardware features, and control design specifications.
The days of selecting a metalcutting machine that can provide A spread sheet on all the CNC system specifications should be
the best capacity to machine the average part assigned to the made and compared as a basis for selection,
machine have changed, Most machines are not dedicated to
only a few distinct parts for long periods of time. The machine MACHINE DESIGN INTERFACE
and CNC system must be considered for long-range plans as The machine design interface is a measure of the design
well as the short run. Since machines can be called on to criteria and the level of sophistication of the basic executive
machine different types of parts, the CNC system should not be program and hardware in the computer of the CNC system.
the limiting factor in the machine’s performance. Just as With the proliferation of second or third generation mini/
machine tools have limitations in the size of part they’ can microcomputers, CNC systems have become extremely power-
handle, the spindle speed it can operate at, the power available ful and provide machine tool manufacturers with virtually
at the tool, etc., CNC systems have their limitations as well. A unlimited design capacity.
CNC system has limitations in the speed of execution of
computer instructions; the size of memory (feet or meters of Continuous Path Controls
part program tape it can store); the maximum dimension and Most of today’s CNC systems are designed to operate as
feed rates; the sophistication of software programs for utilization continuous path controls, Continuous path controls are superior
of DNC; special contouring heads; probes; etc. to positioning controls since all axes can move simultaneously
Today’s manufacturing manager now has the challenge of and independently thus reducing the cycle time. Rapid traverse
selecting a machine and a control that will be the best package rates of 250 ipm (6350 mm/ rein) and feed rates of 0.01 ipm (0.3
as this new tool will be a key element in the company’s profits. mm~ rein) are typical with medium to large-size machine tools
The top priority is still given to the best machine for the assigned without any gear range changes.
parts; but once that is decided, the selection of the best CNC
system needs to be wrestled with. Some experts believe that if Interpolation
the machine tool builder also manufactures the CNC system, Linear interpolation used on several axes can provide
there is a high probability this package will be the most contouring capability on two or more axis with short straight
compatible and will provide the best value to the purchaser. In line segments approximating contours. If the contour has either
recent years, many machine tool builders have recognized this a circular (radius) or parabolic shape, circular or parabolic
possibility and have supplied their machines with their own interpolation can greatly minimize the amount of data put into
designed and manufactured control or at least have standardized the control. Some controls can automatically generate the
on a limited number of CNC systems purchased from specific complete circular path across four quadrants as in 360° circular
control builders. milling with as little as one block of information, although
The trend with newer CNC systems is to make most of the many controls confine circular interpolation to a single quadrant.
software features (such as editing, which primarily requires only
additional memory). The list of optional features contains Servo Control
essentially hardware items such as larger part program Some consideration should be given to the type of servo
memories. When a feature is critical in the operation of the control designed into the CNC mini/ microcomputer. If the
equipment, the purchaser should analyze the feature for computer outputs a step function for starting or stopping axes
essential qualities, The fact that a CNC system has tool length motion to the servodrive, some damage can be done to the
compensation is no guarantee it has the capability desired. For machine, Ieadscrews, and gears which may degrade accuracy
example, tool length compensation has a number of variables. over a period of time. A computer with a ramp-type function
The number of offsets can vary from 10 to 100 or more. The output with gain breaks or an exponential function provides
range of the offset values can vary from tO.000” to *99.9999” superior contouring and smoother operation.
on machines which are programmed in U.S. customary units.
Historically, tool offset lengths have been loaded into the Servo Amplifier
control system by the operator. Alternately, tool length offsets The electric servodrive has become increasingly popular
in some newer CNC systems can be loaded via the CNC tape, among machine tool design engineers in recent years. The
via the machine automatically, or via an automatic gaging continued improvement of high-performance, permanent-
center. Any one of these qualities may have a profound effect on magnet, direct-current motors and amplifiers has resulted in
the ability to use the machine and tooling effectively. Most their replacing hydraulic motors and servovalves on most
5-31
CHAPTER 5
machine tools. The silicon control rectifier (SCR) drive, either approval. There is no substitute for a part program that is
half or full wave, has greater thrust ratings than the power proven out on a plotter or CAD system and then edited to
transistor pulse width modulated (PWM) drive. The PWM optimize feeds and speeds.
drive has better performance characteristics. Two d-c drive
motors can be connected together on a rack and pinion drive Inch/Metric Switchable
train to provide antibacklash and replace wound-up gear boxes. The control system should be capable of operating with either
inch or metric data. Switching between inch and metric can be
Feedback done automatically by “g” function tape command or by a
Many types of position measuring devices are compatible switch setting. The control should be capable of switching the
with CNC systems. Digital transducers provide a stream of tool offset lengths automatically when modes are being switched.
pulses that are compared with the tape command from the CNC Considerable delay time and errors are inevitable if the operator
system. Rotary resolvers or linear scales provide analog must make tool offsets or other conversions because the control
(amplitude or phase) signals for comparison. Linear scales are data is not 100~0 switchable. The capability of looking at the
not connected to the machine’s drive train and can provide program dimensions at any time in either inch or metric can be
feedback that does not have any errors introduced by lead- helpful to operators.
screws, backlash, wind-up, or heat. The accuracy and
repeatability of the machine can be improved by linear scales
Subroutines
which also can be used to compensate for machine mechanical The ability to write the equivalent of canned cycles (g-80
alignment errors. Software programs such as Ieadscrew and
codes) for drilling bolt hole patterns, milling pockets, drilling
antibacklash compensation are available to improve the deep holes, etc., is a very useful feature. Because of it, a row of
accuracy of feedback systems. any number of holes can be described using only a single block
of data. The subroutine will eliminate the need for a lot of
Resolution calculations and memory storage. Parametric subroutines can
The CNC system is normally set for 0.0001” or 0.0002” as the
contain variables, but a limit should be set on the complexity of
least increment of programmable motion. Comparable resolu-
the subroutine especially when operator intervention is fre-
tions of 0.001 mm or 0.002 mm are available for metric systems. quently necessary.
Mini/ microcomputers are not as limited as previous NC
systems to the maximum linear programmable dimensions in
one block of tape. Typical dimensions of +999.9999” or more Polar Coordinates
are standard features and are usually greater than actual Holes in a bolt circle can be drilled from information
machine travels. Rotary axis resolutions are typically 0.0010 containing the location of the circle center, the radius, the start
with up to 360,000 discreet programmable points. Shot pins at angle, and spacing. This method of drilling is similar to that
four or more positions improve the accuracy and repeatability possible with subroutines described earlier. In addition, it
at these locations. utilizes the power of the on-board computer to calculate all the
necessary positions and to output rectangular coordinate data
Programmable Interface to the axis drives. With this feature, circumferential slots and
Many CNC systems offer a software programmable interface cams defined by radius and angle can also be input directly from
of the logic between the CNC system and the machine tool. the drawing.
These are called PAL, PMI, PIF, SPI, etc., by various control
manufacturers. The ladder-type diagram is symbolic of relay Transformation of Data
logic and is usually displayed on the CRT readout. This type of Simple commands can relocate a complete tool path to a new
interface is especially helpful to the maintenance technicians location by linear displacement, by rotation about a point, or by
who service complex sequential machine tools or standard scaling up or down. All such features are useful in the milling of
machine tools with tool or workchangers. The interface should symmetrical parts or in taking care of shrinkage in molds.
have suitable safeguards that restrict who can make logic
changes. The interface should also provide means for proper Auto Reentry Sequence
documentation of all changes. The control should provide the ability, especially in turning
machines, to return to operation automatically after inter-
SOFTWARE FEATURES ruption. The breaking of inserts or inspection for size on lathes
Many CNC systems today offer a variety of software can present much difficulty that can, in turn, result in lost time
features. These features enable a number of functions and or errors if the CNC system is not designed to handle these
capabilities to be performed; yet, at the same time, they conditions. Consideration should be given to the sequence the
minimize the time required to program, set up, and debug a machine follows, because automatic traversing to the point of
new part. interruption can cause additional problems if the axes were
started near the chuck jaws or if the interruption is in a bore.
Edit
The capability of editing a program that is loaded into Macros
memory is a necessary feature. All information pertaining to the Certain types of macros are available that can simplify the
part program, such as dimensions, feed rates, etc., should be operator/ programmer’s calculations. On a threading macro,
alterable. The addition or deletion of “blocks of tape” anywhere the operator needs only to enter the length, depth, and lead of
in the program is an important requirement. Key locks should the thread. The control automatically calculates the number of
be provided so that once the program is optimized the passes and generates the program, eliminating operator calcu-
information cannot be changed except with management lations and errors.
5-32
CHAPTER 5
Post Processors typewriter-style keyboard or buttons with a thin membrane

The use of computer-aided programming is necessary on panel. The membrane is less expensive and requires less
complex parts being machined on multiple-axis machine tools. maintenance.
The higher level languages such as APT, Compact II, and
UNIAPT eliminate the large amount of mathematics associated Probes
with manual programming (see “Computer-Assisted NC Part Computer numerical control systems can have special soft-
Programming” in this chapter). Some machine tool builders ware programs written for them to make probe applications for
supply post processors for the machine tool and CNC system, identification of bore centers, depths of cuts, etc.
which is a highly desirable feature, rather than buying a post
processor from a software house. Some CNC manufacturers
Contour Heads
have integrated a post processor into their executive program
Computer numerical control systems can have special
thereby eliminating the need to purchase or rent post processor
software programs written for them to make contour head
and computer time. Smaller CAD/CAM systems using mini-
applications for machining tapers, radii, or single point threads.
computers interfaced to larger computers can minimize
programming once the part is integrated into the CAD systems.
Diagnostics
Computer numerical control systems have various levels of
DNC Interface
resident diagnostic programs; some have remote diagnostic
Most CNC systems can be downloaded (can receive part
capability. One manufacturer offers, as an option, a self-
program data) from a tape preparation center such as a
contained microprocessor which receives and transmits diag-
Numeridex or Bridgeport system. This downloading can
nostic messages via telephone lines. Sophisticated diagnostic
eliminate having a part program tape on the shop floor or
programs should be a large improvement in reducing
loading a program and having a tape reading error. The higher
machine/ CNC system downtime.
level DNC link can be made to larger host-type computers
such as various models manufactured by Digital Equipment
Corp. (DEC) or Hewlett-Packard. The computer can have a DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
protocol which can provide for a management information Design specifications have a significant bearing on the
system (M 1S) being tied into the CNC control system for operation of CNC control systems. Because of the variety of
generating reports on tool wear, scheduling part runs, trans- environments the CNC system may have to operate in, control
mitting diagnostics, etc. design specifications must receive special attention to ensure
maximum performance. This includes specifications pertaining
HARDWARE FEATURES to enclosures, PC board design, control operating standards,
Most CNC systems have only a few hardware options and construction standards.
available. These options typically facilitate functions and
capabilities related to memory, readouts, probes, contour Enclosure
heads, and diagnostics. The construction of the enclosure should be compatible with
the NEMA 12 standard (dustproof and completely sealed) to
Memories ensure best performance. External cooling should be avoided
Both volatile and nonvolatile memories are available. The wherever possible because it adds to cost and maintenance. Air
nonvolatile (magnetic core and bubble) memories have the conditioners help to keep the system cool; but they may stress
advantage of not needing battery backup for power failures. components and cause condensation, so they should be avoided
Both types of memory are available in either 32K, 64K, or larger if possible.
sizes. Each K of memory ( 1024 words) stores approximately 15
ft (4.5 m) of part program tape. Bulk memories such as floppy PC Board Design
disks are available, but have potential problems in shop The printed circuit board should be designed to MIL-spec
environments due to their sensitivity to heat, metallic dust, and standard or J IC Electronic standards (EL-1-71). The compo-
magnetic fields. Large part-program memories (64K or larger) nents on the board should be made by a reputable manufacturer
resident in the CNC system may have limited benefits unless and should be preburned before being soldered into the board.
families-of-parts or small-lot manufacturing is required.
Control Operating Standards
Readouts The CNC system should be designed to meet Electronic
The cathode ray tube (CRT) is available on most major CNC Industries Association (EIA) standards or National Aerospace
systems. The CRT readout provides simultaneously over 1007o Standards (NAS). These specifications provide for greater
more information than switchable alphanumeric displays. The standardization when a variety of machine tools are purchased.
CRT is easier to read and, on some systems, can provide double
character size or intensity, ladder diagrams and even the outline Construction Standards
of the part. The CRT readout is primarily used by the The control system should be designed to a construction
programmer to setup and check out a program. It is also used as standard such as NMTBA, J IC, or EIA. The standards provide
an operator tool to run the machine and may double as an the size and type of hardware to be used in the control as well as
excellent maintenance aid. Future enhancements with DNC or other pertinent documentation. Elementary drawings as well as
higher level computers are more compatible with CRT readouts. construction drawings should be available for maintenance
purposes. Software listings of the executive program and
Operator Station drawings of the PC board should be available only where
Most of the newer CNC systems have replaced the on-site repairs may be necessary.
5-33
CHAPTER 5
NC MACHINE CONFIGURATIONS
Numerical control is employed effectively with a wide range Point-to-Point
of machine tools and with many machines that are used for A point-to-point machine (sometimes called a positioning
operations other than metal removal. This section describes the machine) is one that moves the slides until a specific point on the
various configurations of NC machines; discussions focus on workpiece is at the exact position at which the machining
machine tools used for metal removal. Other machines which operation can begin. In some machines, the table slides move
employ numerical control are given brief treatment; detailed the workpiece to a specific location under the tool so that
coverage of such machines is provided in other volumes of this machining can start. In other machines, the table and workpiece
Handbook series. remain stationary and the tool is moved to the desired location
The number of axes or machine motions to which numerical in relation to the workpiece. Certain machines can position
control is applied commonly ranges from two to five. In both part and tool simultaneously.
general, NC machines are grouped into two classes: position- In the first instance, each slide attempts to move at its
ing machines and contouring machines. The functional maximum traverse rate to the new location, ignoring the status
capabilities of both types of machines are explained in the of other slides in the system. Because the slides operate
following sections. independently of each other, the tool path between operations
The two axes of a representative point-to-point or positioning can be predicted only roughly. The path is affected by the
system are the straight-line movements of the longitudinal and distance between points, acceleration or deceleration, and the
cross or transverse slides, these two machine motions occurring maximum traverse rate of each slide. The lack of linearity of the
at 90” to each other. They are respectively X and Y axes, and tool path between locations is of little consequence since the
these motions position the workpiece by positioning the table or tool is not in contact with the workpiece during the traverse
surface on which it is mounted according to rectangular sequence.
coordinates. Two-axis control, if provided with contouring
capability, could be used for two-dimensional contouring. Straight-Cut
A third axis maybe added by applying numerical control to The positioning machine operating in the manner described
the up and down movement of the spindle of a vertical milling previously would be useful as a “hole-making” machine, that is,
machine or of an upright drill, for example. This becomes the Z drilling, tapping, or boring holes at different locations on a
axis. These axis designations are diagrammed in Fig. 5-9. workpiece. Such equipment would be more useful if it could
In contouring systems, the third axis provides three- machine (i. e., mill) between adjacent points; however, milling
dimensional control—for milling cavities in dies or molds or for cannot generally be accomplished at maximum traverse rates,
milling other contours in three dimensions. Straight-cut systems are capable of moving the cutter at a
controlled feed rate along paths parallel to one or more of the
POSITIONING MACHINES AND SYSTEMS machine axes.
In its simplest form, the positioning machine is provided with A milling machine, for example, might be designed for a
NC dimensional control of the slide position only. Slide feed maximum error of 0.0005” (0.013 mm) when making a cut. That
rates and spindle-rotating speeds, for example, may be selected is, the machine slide, which is stationary during the cut, would
manually. However, most modern NC positioning machines be required to hold its position to within 0.0005” (0.013 mm) as
provide tape control of feeds and speeds, coolant on-off, turret the maximum allowable error in order for the cut to be within
indexing, etc. The method of handling these functions varies tolerance. The slide would be required to have the rigidity
considerable from one manufacturer to another and cannot be necessary to maintain position under the loads imposed by the
generalized _&fficiently to depict in diagrams. cutting tools. The moving slide would travel at the speed
required for the cut. Many such methods of rate modification
have been devised; thus, straight-cut positioning machines have
been developed.
Because traverse rate is controlled on a per-axis basis and the
path described by the tool between adjacent points in a
mtdtiaxis system is unpredictable, the straight-cut-positioning
machine is usually limited to milling along a principal axis of
the machine. Its path is very predictable because it is as linear as
the guide surface (ways) of the machine.
Two-Axis Systems
A two-axis machine capable of drilling, milling, boring, and
counterboring is illustrated in Fig. 5-10, In a point-to-point
machine of this type, the table and workpiece are moved in both
the X and Y axes by NC and positioned beneath the spindle.
Spindle feed is controlled manually by the operator because NC
of the third (Z-axis) slide is not provided. However, such a
machine can be of substantial economic benefit because once it
Fig. 5-9 Diagram of a vertical spindle machine tool showing the axes- is set up, the operator is concerned only with spindle feeds and
X, longitudinal; Y, transverse; and Z, vertical. speeds and toolchanging.
!5-34
CHAPTER 5
n
A
Fig. 5-10 Two-axis, tape-controlled drilling machine.
When a two-axis machine is equipped with an automatic

feed-cycle unit, several approach points and depths can be
preset by the operator. They are then seiected by tape command,
and the machining operation (including machining to pro-
I
v
grammed depth) can continue under NC until a tool change is ig. 5-11 Three-axis, tape-controlled drilling machine with turret.
required (a general discussion of drilling and drilling machines
is presented in Chapter 9 of this volume, “Drilling, Reaming methods are not exact: however. this “slo~e” ~otential has
and Related Processes”). many advantages if close tolerances are n’ot r~quired. The
machining of a chamfer, when the chamfer does not have to
Three-Axis Systems mate with another surface, is a good example of this application,
A three-axis positioning machine equipped with a tool turret No matter how sophisticated a positioning machine is, it
is illustrated in Fig. 5-l I. This machine requires an additional should not be confused with a contouring machine. A true
servoloop to control the Z-axis machine slides, connected in continuous-path contouring machine must include both inter-
parallel with the X and Y axes. Since the machine has a turret, polation and buffer-storage elements. Positioning systems have
which is indexed by tape control, a workpiece requiring as many been built with buffer storage in cases when the “read time”
as eight different tools can be machined without stopping the without buffer storage was considered excessive, that is, when
cycle for a tool change. This type of machine also provides tape tbe amount of data to be read or the rate at which the data
control of feeds and speeds, and a tape-controlled dwell cycle. should be read consumed too much of the total cycle time.
This three-axis machine may also be equipped with a tool- Positioning-type NC controls are used to control a wide
length compensator. This permits the operator to index to each variety of machine tools and other machines. Typical examples
turret position manually, and advance the turret slide to the include drilling machines (see Chapter 9 of this volume,
workpiece with the rapid-advance control. Using a thickness “Drilling, Reaming and Related Processes”); punch presses (see
gage, the operator can then preset each tool to compensate for Volume 11of this Handbook series, “Forming”); jig borers (see
variances in tool length and tbe programmer can program Chapter 8 of this volume, “Turning and Boring”); and
actual hole depths. Once a machining cycle is started, the cycle coordinate measuring machines and electronic component
can continue under tape control without interruption. insertion systems (see Volume IV of this Handbook series,
The rapid-approach-and-retract and the machining-to-depth “Assembly, Testing and Quality Control”).
operations involve movement of the Z-axis slide. Thus the
analog principles of the servoloop section of the NC system are CONTOURING MACHINES AND SYSTEMS
applied in the same manner as for a single-slide system. Milling machines, skin mills, spar mills, lathes, and other
machines can cut very complex shapes through the use of NC
Special Positioning-Machine Functions contouring control systems. Some examples of other machines
Some manufacturers of positioning NC systems have devised which employ contouring or continuous-path capability are
methods, sometimes proprietary, for controlling the slides flame cutting or plasma torch cutting systems, welding machines,
simultaneously to produce angular movements. These methods drafting machines, filament winders, tape laying equipment,
have good economic reasons for existing in that they have foam/ gasket dispensers, and articulated robots. Discussions in
greatly reduced the programming effort, have reduced the tape this chapter are limited to configurations of machine tools. In
length, and have reduced the need for higher speed readers. such systems, the tool path is maintained by controlling the
Some of the angular cuts, or “slopes,” produced by these simultaneous position of multiple axes. In cutting a flat plate
5-35
CHAPTER 5
into a circular dish, for example, a profiling machine must be contouring” or “contouring” connotes a system having both
able to maintain the circular dimensions with the required interpolation and buffer storage. A machine with only one slide
accuracy and surface finish. This is achieved by designing the which, if directed to move, would do so along its assigned axis.
machine control system so that very small increments such as Linearity, determined by the built-in tolerance of the slides,
0.0001” (0.003 mm) can be attained. The tool could then could be very accurate. However, to produce an angular
theoretically have a maximum error from the desired position movement, a machine must have a minimum of two slides,
(ignoring the affects of machine stiffness) of only about which must move simultaneously. Figure 5-13 represents the
0.00001” (0.0003 mm) at any point on the circumference of the trace of an angular movement which might be produced by the
circle. This type of accuracy would require the use of a position simultaneous movements of the X and Y-axis slides of a
transducer system that has a resolution of 0.0001” (0.003 mm) positioning machine. The lack of linearity of the path is
with no error over the range required. Practical problems have exaggerated in Fig. 5-13 to emphasize that nothing is built into
precluded achieving production systems with this kind of the control system to assure that the cutter follows a straight
performance, however. path during travel between points.
Since it is impractical to provide input data on every
incremental movement of each slide, interpolators are designed
into contouring machines to reduce the amount of information
required and yet produce essentially the same results as if each ,-=.
position were individually programmed. Linear, circular, and
,;[-:----~---~”_T_
parabolic interpolation are the most common types of inter-
polation applied to contouring machines. Linear interpolation
is the simplest. Curved surfaces can be approximated
straight lines, and the error between the actual path and the
desired path can be made as small as desired (within practical
limits) by taking successively smaller straight-line
by
segments
+- ...
A B C time ~ E F
Acceleration Deceleration
between program-defined points. The limit, of course, is the
smallest possible programmable movement of the slide. R
Limited-Contouring Systems
Contouring systems have been built that include interpolation
but not buffer storage (see “Buffer Storage” at the end of this
section). The development of these systems has been brought
about by the need for lower cost contouring systems. One note
of caution should be realized, however, with respect to this type Cutter
of system: there is a significant variation between the pro- radius
grammed feed rate and the actual average feed rate obtained. In
the example shown in Fig. 5-12, each span consists of read-time,
acceleration, programmed or desired feed rate, and deceleration
portions. In averaging the velocity of the slides during these
various portions of the span, it is obvious that the average feed ‘Undercut or
rate does not equal the programmed feed rate. However, this is dwell mark
not the important point; the important point is that during the
periods of deceleration, read time, and acceleration, there is a
Fig. 5-12 Programmed vs. actual feed rates in a limited-contouring
greatly reduced chip-per-tooth feed rate in the machining system—a potential source of undercuts.
operation. In fact, during the read-time portion of the span, the
chip-per-tooth rate is reduced to zero. This results in cutter
pressure relief, which in turn may resuk in undercuts in the [
workpiece. An even more important point is that when some of Y Oxls
the more exotic, work-hardening, space-age materials are
machined, this reduction in chip-per-tooth rate results in work
hardening prior to the entrance of the next cutter tooth into the
workpiece, thereby causing increased cutter wear and damage.
These notes of caution do not mean that this type of system is
completely undesirable. It is superior to the positioning and
positioning-straight-cut systems for contour-milling applica-
tions, yet it does not have all the advantages of the full-
contouring system. Contouring machines can perform many
more functions than positioning machines. Their functional
complexity depends upon the degree of sophistication of
interpolation built into them. Increasingly, newer controls are
set up to eliminate or minimize such problems. X axis
Full-Contouring Systems Fig. 5-13 Trace of movement of a positioning machine, illustrating lack
For the purpose of further discussion, the term “full- of linearity of cutter path.
5-36
CHAPTER 5
If cutting operations are to be performed during angular At each segment the interpolator makes the necessary calcula-
movements of the machine slides, another system (i.e., inter- tions and transmits a signal through the digital-to-analog
polation) must be employed to assure linearity. In positioning converter to each servoloop to ensure that the time/distance
systems, time is an economic consideration; to reduce cycle constants are maintained throughout the path until the pro-
times and thus lower costs, the slides are designed to move grammed destination is reached. The same error detector is
rapidly. In a contouring system, on the other hand, time used in contouring systems as is used in the rate-modified
measurement is an arithmetic function that is essential to the straight-cut system previously discussed. However, in the
control system. Figure 5-14 illustrates a simple 45° angle, straight-cut system the output of the error detector is limited in
linear-path cut produced by a contouring machine. In this order to modify the rate of slide movement; whereas in a
example, both the X and Y-axis slides move the same distance; contouring system, the input to the error detector is the control,
therefore, both slides are controlled at the same speed. In other words, the error detector receives only a small portion
In Fig. 5-15, however, two linear paths are illustrated, one of the slide error at any point in time. The entire span movement
30° and one 60” from the horizontal. Obviously, when the 30° (or error) is the input to the interpolator, the function of which
angle is machined, the X-axis slide must move a greater distance is to break up the span into segments to be fed to the error
than the Y-axis slide; consequently, the X-axis slide must move detector and servosystem. Thus, the interpolator leads the error
at a higher speed than the Y-axis slide. The opposite is true detector dimensionally through the span until the programmed
when the 60° angle is machined. The time/distance relationships end point is reached.
are constant and must bemaintained throughout the path. Two-axis contouring machines. An NC shaft-turning lathe
Interpolators. The slide speed rates required to produce the (see Chapter 8 of this volume, “Turning and Boring”~ is an
angular cuts are not feed rates established by the programmer. example of a contouring machine that would use an NC system.
The programmer selects the feed rate at which the tool is to be
fed through the path of the cut consistent with the workpiece,
tool, and machine parameters. The NC system then makes the Y( Is Y
computations required to control the speed of machine slide.
These computations are accomplished by the interpolator. I
The interpolator may be considered to be a small, fixed-
program computer. It receives slide direction and measurement
instructions from active storage as well as directions as to how
fast the cut of the path is to be made. It then calculates the data
and directs the movement of each slide at the correct B’
time/ distance constants.
The interpolator assures linearity by constantly “looking
ahead.’’ Unless thespathedi stancebetween,4,4 andll(orxt
and B’) in Fig. 5-15—is extremely short$ the interpolator does
not make asingle calculation directing theslidesto the end of 3a=
x axis
the span. Rather, theinterpolator’’looks ahead’’ ina series of a
A X axis travel greater
tiny segments as shown in Fig. 5-16. The minimum segment
then Y OXIS travel
depends on the output resolution of the interpolator; thus, a
machine havinga resohrtion of O.OOO1”(0.003 mm) can divide
the movements-of a slide into segments as small as’O.000 1”. ‘ig. 5-15 Linear paths of 60° and 30° produced by a contouring
machine.
Y axis
Points represent
frequency of
tnterpolatlon
5
g.
a
@
z
&l_
b
~
g
A
x axis X-axIs Interpolator output
Fig. 5-14 A 45° linear path produced by a contouring machine. Fig. 5-16 Cutting path segmented by interpolator.
5-37
CHAPTER 5
There are two important differences between lathes and of axes used to designate a particular system for numerical-
machines such as drills and mills: ( 1) on a lathe, the workpiece control installation does not refer to the number of functions
itself rotates on the headstock and tailstock axes instead of that can be programmed into tape, as these can be numerous.
resting on a table as it does on drilling and milling machines and Provision for an automatic toolchanger is sometimes regarded
(2) Y-axis slide is usually designated as the Z axis in lathe- as adding another axis to a system, but this axis is not an axis in
turning applications. This Z axis moves the tool parallel to the the usual positioning sense.
axis of rotation of the workpiece. The X-axis slide moves the The actual number and combinations of machining opera-
tool perpendicularly to the workpiece. When the two move tions that can be performed by NC are virtually unlimited.
simultaneously, they produce contours. Probably the greatest advantage from an economic standpoint
Three-axis contouring machines. The NC system principles is that very complex parts can frequently be machined with one
for three-axis contouring machines are, in general, the same as setup. This is especially valuable when large and heavy work-
for two-axis systems. An additional servoloop is required to places are involved and/ or volume requirements are low.
control the third slide, and an additional interpolator and The capabilities of machines to accommodate parts of
buffer storage are needed in the information-processing section complex geometry are obviously increased by the addition of
of the system for a three-axis contouring machine. more slides. By adding a fourth, rotating slide to a three-axis
The addition of the third axis gives an NC contouring positioning drill, for example, it is possible to drill slanted holes
machine the capability of machining complicated shapes that by tape control.
would be very difficult or impossible to machine manually. The
machine’s capability is enhanced (and the programmer’s task is Programming for Contouring
greatly reduced) when the machine is equipped with circular or Contouring systems are incremental in that they are not
parabolic interpolation. These higher orders of interpolation affected by past information, only by the information being
reduce the amount of data input otherwise required for received at the present moment. As the system reaches a new
complex contouring. span in the programmed path, it interpolates the new span
Parabolic interpolations for producing free-form curves in without regard to the previous span (manual and computer-
space are especially useful for programming complex surfaces assisted NC programming are discussed in more detail in the
such as those involved in airframe profiling and die-sinking following sections of this chapter).
operations. Figure 5-17 is a representation of a parabolic curve Span length. When an NC system is equipped with linear,
in space that can be contoured on a three-axis bridge-type circular, or parabolic interpolation, the programmer must
planer mill. know the maximum span length over which the system can
Multiaxis machines. NC systems can be designed with as maintain minimum resolution. The length may vary widely
many axes as desired (see Fig. 10-23 in Chapter 10 of this among systems from 10’’(254 mm) or less to at least 400’’ (IO 160
volume, “Milling”). An additional servoloop is required to mm). Figure 5-18 illustrates an angular span from A to B of 50”
control each additional slide; and if the machine performs ( 1270 mm). If the control system can maintain minimum
contouring operations, an additional interpolator and addi- resolution for a span length greater than 50” (1270 mm), the
tional buffer storage for each slide are required in the informa- programmer can program the coordinates for the angle in one
tion-processing section of the system. With these provisions, the sequence-–4O” (1016 mm) for the X axis and 30” (762 mm) for
multiaxis NC system can perform a large number of complex the Y axis. However, if the system cannot maintain minimum
calculations required to direct multiaxis slides. resolution for that long a span, the programmer must break up
Milling an elliptical part with sloping walls, using five axes of the suan into increments compatible with the svstem resolution
the machine at once, and machining of complex dies are as represented by the subspa~s in Fig. 5-18. -
examples of work the machine can perform automatically
under numerical control. An important fact is that the number
Y (MS
(762
mm)
t
I
1
6“
L—— ——-—
1
,
o’
(1016 mm)
Fig. 5-18 A 50 (1270 mm) movement executed on an NC system

Fig. 5-17 Parabolic interpolation describing a free-form curve in space. having a maximum span Iengtb of 10” (254 mm).
5-38
CHAPTER 5
Linear interpolation. Because, as previously discussed,

modern contouring systems can theoretically interpolate linear
increments as small as 0.0001” (0.003 mm), a linear increment
can be programmed to be as short as the system tolerances
allow. Therefore, by means of linear approximations, slopes, E
arcs, parabolic curves, and purely free-form surfaces can be

machined with precision. A representation of a free-form curve
is shown in Fig. 5-19. The amount of tolerance between the
desired path and the actual path is represented by the shaded
area between A and B, The degree of tolerance varies with the
number of XY coordinates programmed between points,4 and
E. With an NC capability of interpolating increments as small D
as 0.000 I” (0.003 mm), coordinates can theoretically be pro-
grammed for 10,000 linear increments for each inch of free-
form curves (about 400 linear increments for each millimeter of
free-form curves). With manual programming, or even with Actual
Interpolated
computer programming, however, the theoretical is impractical
path
because a new block of tape information is needed for each of
the increments. Furthermore, the error of approximation of the
Tolerance
linear span and the curve does not require such a span length.
When a computer is used as a programming aid, the
Des(red
machining of circular, parabolic, and free-form curves with
extremely close tolerances is possible because the programmer A
needs only to specify the entry and end points of a described
path and the computer makes the enormous number of
calculations and tape-block information entries required. Such
intelligence is now built-in at the machine control itself, in some
Fig. 5-19 Free-form curve programmed by linear interpolation.
cases, allowing rather complex workplaces to be machined
using so-called manual data input (M DI).
Circular interpolation. In addition to linear interpolation, polation has some desirable properties in approximating second
higher orders of interpolation are built into certain contour- and higher order curves as well as point-defined curves in which
ing machines. As previously described, the interpolator is a the portion of the curve between defined points requires a
small, fixed-program computer capable of making the many smooth transition, Examples of this type of requirement are
intermediate calculations required along the path of the often noted on part prints: “fair,” “blend, ” and “smooth
centerline of a cutter between programmed end points, transition to, .“ In general, parabolic interpolation has been
However, nothing except cost limits this computer merely to well accepted in the production of airframe components, cams,
subdividing straight lines if given the capability by the builder, templates, and automotive body dies. Other second or higher
the equation or description of the higher order of interpolation orders of interpolation are entirely possible, but their availability
required, and the necessary dimensions or locations to describe depends on the cost to incorporate them into the control system
the specific segment, as well as on the ability of the programmer to take advantage of
Circular interpolation is the most frequently encountered of their inherent characteristics.
the bigher orders of interpolation, The input required to obtain In many contouring operations the machine is required to
circular interpolation includes the starting point (from the end switch between modes; i.e.. from a linear in~erpolation path to a
point of the previous span), the center point, and the end point circular interpolation of a parabolic path.
of the circle. Using this input, the interpolator calculates the
points on the cutter centerline that describe the desired circle Buffer Storage
and the rates for each axis that provide the necessary feed rate. The addition of buffer or intermediate storage is the element
Circular interpolation is generally limited to one quadrant (90° that changes a limited-contouring system to a full-contouring
of arc and no transitions beyond the quadrant change point); if system. During the discussion of the limited-contouring system,
more than a 90° segment is encountered, it must be interpolated it was shown that each span of movement consisted of read-
in successive spans. Circular interpolation is generally used only time, acceleration, programmed rate, and deceleration portions.
to approximate circles and not other second or higher order Figure 5-12 shows the trace of velocity during each of these span
curves or point-defined curves, [t is coplanar in that it can portions and also the resultant damage to theworkpiece caused
produce a circle only in the principal plane of the machine. It by stopping to read the next block of information. Figure 5-20
cannot produce tilted circles because a circle tilted into a skewed shows the same spans of movement compared on a limited vs.
plane ceases to be circle in a principal plane of the machine and full-contouring system.
requires another form of interpolation (elliptical) on a per-axis On the full-contouring system, while the system is inter-
basis, Generally, in many cases, the degree of sophistication in polating between points,4 and B, the tape reader is reading the
the control system also limits circular interpolation to a information pertaining to the move from point Bto point C. As
principal plane of the machine, this information is read, it is stored in a buffer or temporary
Parabolic interpolation. Parabolic interpolation is another storage. As soon as the system interpolates to point B, the active
form of higher order interpolation, but it is not as efficient in storage information is dumped and the temporary or buffer
approximating circles as circular interpolation. Parabolic inter- information is transferred to active storage. In currently
5-39
CHAPTER 5
NC PROGRAMMING FUNDAMENTALS
available contouring systems, the time required to transfer this possibility of this occurring. More efficient postprocessors for
information is measured in microseconds (p s); the slide of a computer-assisted programming systems prevent this occur-
machine tool does not change velocity during this transfer time. rence. A “read-time” check is made within the postprocessor. If
Once the information is cleared from the buffer, the tape reader this read time is greater than the time required to move through
is commanded to read a new block of information into buffer the previous span at the desired rate, the feed rate on the
storage, this time the information concerning the movement previous span is reduced until the traverse time is equal to the
from point C to point D. read time for that next span. Similarly, high-speed readers
Coordinate information is not the only type of information minimize these delays and provide a potential for attaining
that must be buffered. In fact, the entire block of information is higher average machining rates. These and other safeguards are
generally buffered--coordinates, feed rate, type of interpola- of~en built i~to the newe~ control systems.
tion, need for acceleration or deceleration, and any miscel-
laneous function that should occur during the next span. From Programmed
this, it can be deduced that to get from a limited to a full- velocity
contouring system is not quite as simple as the addition of the
little box labeled “buffer storage. ” In addition to another
storage unit, many circuits for switching and cycling of the data
in the unit are required. stop +
A B c D E F
With some older NC machines, it is possible to encounter
dwell marks on a workpiece machined using full-contouring.
Ii l,mlted (nonbuffered contouring system) ~
‘r”’’:idat
This occurs when the system becomes reader-limited. For
instance, if the time required to move from point B to point C in
Fig. 5-20 at a given velocity is less than the time required to read
the information concerning the move from point C to point D,
the system arrives at point C before information is available for
the next move, resuhing in a stoppage and, consequently, FI III (buffered) contouring system
creating dwell marks. The higher the speed of the reader and the I
smaller the amount of information to be read. the lower the Fig. 5-20 Velocity trace of limited vs. full-contouring systems.
NC PROGRAMMING FUNDAMENTALS
Regardless of which type of input is applied to an NC system, operations to be performed by the machine tool in order to
the programming data must be put onto the input media— produce a part. The advantages of its use over complete manual
punched paper or mylar tape, magnetic tape, etc.—by pro- programming are that (1) less time is required by the part
gramming. Programming is the preparation of a detailed set of programmer, (2) fewer errors occur in the final program, and
instructions for input to the NC machine, by which a series of (3) overall programming costs are lower.
machining operations are accomplished. Essentially, there are The part programmer describes the operations to be done in
two principle types of NC programming—manual and worklike statements which are interpreted by the computer to
computer-assisted. produce hundreds of instructions as a result of very simple
In manual programming, part programmers work on a form statements (see computer-assisted NC part programming sec-
sheet (program manuscript) and set up the sequence of operations in this chapter).
tions to be performed by the machine in about the same manner Computers that are more and more sophisticated are being
as if they were physically setting up the machine for those built into CNC units. As a result, relatively complex workplaces
operations. They first define the coordinates of the points to can be programmed at the machine tool using so-called manual
which the cutter is to be positioned, and then define the feeds, data input (MD]). Although MDI is generally not considered to
speeds, etc., for the operation. They must know the charac- be computer-assisted programming in the usual sense, it is
teristics of the machine being programmed and be able to increasing in use along with advances in CNC capability.
enter the proper data into the form and sequence required to Relatively complex workplaces which once required complex
make the part to the drawing (see “Manual NC Programming” manual programming or off-line computer-assisted program-
in this chapter). ming can, in some cases, be programmed via special commands
With computer-assisted NC programming, a general-purpose right at the machine tool using MDI techniques (see “Manual
digital computer usually assists the programmer in defining the Data Input” in this chapter).
MANUAL NC PROGRAMMING
Manual tape preparation, without the use of a computer, can manual programming is feasible. Most modern CNC controls
be accomplished by an experienced individual familiar with feature part surface programming and advanced edit capability
machine operations. The complexity of the part and the which make manual programming easier. Complex workplaces
features of the machine tool control determine whether or not may require computer-assisted programming. A variety of
5-40
CHAPTER 5
considerations must be taken into account from the part sectioned on tape in units that are referred to as “blocks. ” Each
programmer’s viewpoint. Some of the considerations are: block represents a machining operation, a machine function, or
a combination of both. Each data block is separated from the
1. Characteristics of the machine tool numerical control
succeeding block by an end-of-block code. This code is a
unit combination.
punched hole in the tape in channels 2 or 4 (ASCII) or channel 8
2. Axis nomenclature.
(EIA). It is in reality the carriage-return code. Each data block
3. Tape-preparation equipment, such as small computer
consists of “words,” with the words being comprised of the
systems that allow programming in terms of the input
characters entered via the keyboard of the tape-preparation
format of the machine control,
equipment.
4. Tape format, including:
● ‘Available letter ad&-esses in a block.
● Maximum and minimum number of digits permissible
for all codes.
● Maximum block length.
● Programming sequence within a block.
● Miscellaneous function coding and their specific
functions.
● Preparatory function coding and their specific
functions.
● Spindle-speed coding (usually direct rpm).
● Feed-rate coding (usually direct ipm or mm/rein).
● Control features that aid manual part programming.
5. Special programming parameters, including:
Selectable absoIute/ incremental; linear/circular
interpolation; and inch/ metric.
Minimum programmable motion, such as 0.0001“ or
0.001 mm.
Tape-reader limitations (in newer controls, CNC
buffered read eliminates such limitations).
Cutter-path calculations (in newer controls, part
surface programming eliminates such calculations).
Special features or options that may affect part
programming and tape preparation.
INPUT REQUIREMENTS
The coded information on tape (see Figs. 5-21, 5-22, and
5-23) represents input data to the control unit and is acted upon
in such a fashion that the control unit directs the machine tool
through its various operations. The coded information is
o 92+ 0.003”
?6 * 0.08 mm)
,.(’ eed hole When tape is
edge gu[ded
Hole numbering
sequence
~lredlon of f0,009 (0,23 mm)
t“rw lPPr! cumulative ‘se’hSea code
?~”= Rmmd code holes:
teed hoi<e:
y o ,00*0.002
0,046
,3fin”,,
+b.uuz
(2.54 * 0.05 mm) , dlam
-0.00 I ‘
Spoclng of all ,. ._ +Oo.j
hole centerlines (1.1/ .003 mm)
Thickness
0,004 t 0.0003” * Other EIA punching equipment moy have different key osslgnments. Use the
r!ghtmost column to note the keys that differ from the standard flexowrlter.
(0.10 + 0.008 mm)
‘ig. 5-21 Standard eight-channel tape specifications. ‘ig. 5-22 EIA RS 244B (EIA) tape codes. (Bendix Industrial C’on/rok)
5-41
CHAPTER 5
The word-address type of format uses a character, which is only can the characters of a word be omitted if the word is not
usually a letter, to identify the numerical data, or word, that necessary to the program, but also the letter address itself. An
follows it. This type of format permits data to be placed on tape example of the word-address format is illustrated in Fig. 5-24.
in any order within the block, as the letter address will identify The number of digits following a given address character is
that word. There are some exceptions to this rule, however, usually an explicit number and is determined by the machine-
since standards are in existence which recommend a definite control builder on standard models, For instance, preparatory
sequencing of words within a block. In this type of format, not functions (G address) or miscellaneous functions (M address)
are usually followed by two digits (see Fig. 5-24). However, the
dimension information following given axes addresses (X, Y, or
I EIA RS 358B Tape Codes (Ascll) Z) may consist of five, six, or seven digits preceded by a negative
sign (-) when necessary to denote negative quantities. Positive
signs (+) and leading zeros need not appear on the control tape.
Again, the input requirements for numerical-control units do
vary, and it is the responsibility of the programmer to be
familiar with the tape format of each control. With the
exception of MOO, MO 1, M02, and M30, miscellaneous functions
(M address) are not usually used internal to the control unit but
are functions with an on-off nature for use on the machine tool
itself. Examules are coolant on or off. coolant flood or mist.
spindle on or off, and spindle clockwise or counterclockwise.
B76540321 876540321
00 000 x 00 000 x
0000 0 9 0 000 o—
0 0000 . 00 0006
00 00 0 5 OOOOOY
00 000 6
0 00 0 01
0 00 0 0 2 00 0 003
00 00 0 5 0 0000 ●
0 000 0 Yooo
00007
00 0 00 3
000002
0 0000 ● 00 00 05
00 000 6 0 rrloge
000 0 ~e?urn
o 0000 8 Oo 0 EB
o 000 c) z E
o 0000 ●
1 1I I P I 0 0
01 ~Q u 00 0 5
.1 m Q 1 0 00 00 4
00 000 6
00 ‘JOo F
o 00 0 0 2
00 00 0 5
0 0000 ●
00 00 0 5
000 00 5
0 00 “o 4
00 00 0 5
00 0 0
00 0 00 T
00 0 00 3
0 000 0 M
o 0000 4
0 000 0 Carnage return
000E B
Programmer’s process sheet

l-w x Y z Feed Speed TOOI Aux
AxIs AxIs AxIs rate (rpm) “o no.
G Tape Channels
I
9.5625 3.68 .0546 25.5 450 3 4
-6 13.725
* Other ASCll punching equipment may have dtfferent key assignments. Use
the tightmost column to note the keys that differ from the standard ASR 33
teletype.
Fig. 5-23 EIA RS 358B (ASCII) tape codes. (Bendix [ndusrrial

Cotrlrok) Fig. 5-24 Word address format (ASCII, decimal point programming).
5-42
CHAPTER 5
Preparatory functions (G address), on the other hand, are

primarily used internal to the control unit, as required, in order
to direct a machine tool through a given machining operation or
manipulation of an axis. Examples are type of motion control,
plane selection, and fixed cyclic actions of the spindle or head. Under cut error
Spindle speeds, when programmed, are usually prefixed with
an S address and a number of digits to indicate the desired
speed. The digits may represent the rpm directly, or a coded
value. The particular type of coding used varies from one
application to another. —----
Feed rates are specified with the letter F, and generally are
direct ipm or mm/ min. Center pdh
The dimension information required and computed by a of tool
programmer for a given part is the dimension data that must

appear on tape. However, the dimensions are defined in either
Lag when ccmtrol has Issued last
absolute or incremental form. Absolute measurement is the
command to get to this point
accuracy measured from a specified reference zero. Incremental Control ,mmed,ately starts lssulng
measurement is the accuracy measured with respect to the commands to go In ‘“new direction L-J
preceding point in a sequence of points,

Modern CNC systems feature linear interpolation for By programming a short dwell after the tncomlng
straight-line milling and circular interpolation for circu- block, the lag IS reduced before mterpolotion
occurs n the new direction
lar arc milling. Input data requirements vary considerably
among controls,
All dimension words must be divisible by the command-pulse
weight of the numerical-control system. The pulse weight of a
system is the smallest increment of machine slide motion caused
by one single command pulse. As an example, if a control unit
has a command-pulse weight of O.0001” or 0.001 mm, one
command puke generated by the electronics within the system
will cause a movement of the machine slide of O.0001” or 0.001
mm. All dimensional words should be divisible by the pulse
weight of the system in order to prevent an accumulation of
error. In some controls, leading zeros may be dropped while in
others only trailing zeros. Using the decimal point and dropping
both leading and trailing nonsignificant zeros is common ::: :&c:tj,y::n” -A +
practice in industry.
The programmer must consider the lag (or following error) mltted to start Issuing com-
mands to go In new dlrectlon.
of the machine tool. As an example, ifan outside corner is to be
milled, it is unlikely that the tool would approach the corner at
the feed rate required for straight-line milling. The tool would Fig. 5-25 (a) Undercut error on outside corner and (b) correct
programming to reduce lag before permitting interpolation is another
have to be slowed down as it approaches the corner and dwelled direction.
in order to avoid undercut (Fig. 5-25). Formulas and graphs are
often provided to the part programmer in order to assist in
The first item to consider is the start-up point with refer-
calculations,
ence to the origin. Often this origin is referred to as the
Minimum block processing time must also be considered by
“zero reference point. ” It can be a dowel pin, a hole, or any
the programmer. To maintain continuous machine tool motion
known point on the fixture or table which can be conveniently
and avoid dwell marks on the part surface, the control must be
used by the operator to zero-in the cutting tool and/or setup the
“preprocessing” data faster than it is being used by the control.
stock. Keeping this reference point in mind, the programmer
Normally, this is the case. However, it is possible to have an
develops the NC program and records it on a part program
extremely short slide motion with a high feed rate for a given
preparation sheet.
block, causing the interpolation (motion) to be completed
before the following block has been completely preprocessed.
MANUAL DATA INPUT PROGRAMMING
In order to avoid this possibility, the part programmer should
Manual Data Input (M D1) control is a type of computer-
compare the interpolation time of each block and the processing
based numerical control designed for programming directly on
time of the succeeding block.
the shop floor. Compared to standard CNC controls, which
The procedures used in programming a part vary widely
have a limited capability for manual entry of part program data,
among part programmers. It should be understood that the
MDI controls are designed to be programmed manually. Some
mathematical calculations used for any individual program
general characteristics of an M DI control are:
depend primarily on the complexity of the part and the
mathematical background of the part programmer. Machine 1. Compact size.
controls which feature part surface programming allow the 2, A compact, easy-to-use, powerful input data format
programmer to program the surface of the part, reducing (“shop talk”). The operator directly enters a part program
programming complexity. using the keyboard on the control. While a tape cassette
5-43
CHAPTER 5
or tape reader/punch may be used for storage and 11. Miscellaneous (M) functions.
subsequent input of part programs, generally the opera- 12. Rotating coordinates.
tor creates programs at the machine. A professional part 13. Scaling.
programmer is not required to prepare part programs. I4. Cavity milling.
3. A Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) display that has a wide I5. Part surface programming.
variety of easily read screen formats to interactively
Dimensional data can be absolute or incremental and is
guide the operator. This conversational technique makes
entered as a decimal value. Rectangular or polar coordinates
manual data input programming quite easy (the operator
can be used.
simply fills in the blanks).
Part surface programming allows the operator to enter data
MD] controls are generally applied to low cost 2 and 3-axis directly from a part drawing. At the time the part is to be run,
milling machines, machining centers, and 2-axis lathes. They the operator enters the diameter of the cutter into the control.
can also be applied to higher cost milling machines and The control automatically generates a centerpath for the cutter.
machining centers. The edge of the cutter is moved tangentially along the pro-
grammed part surface, as shown in Fig. 5-26.
Typical operating modes are:
I. Jog.
2. Automatic execution of a sequence of programmed
Automatically
events.
generated
3. Execute a single programmed event at a time. center path Programmed
4. Program entry with easy edit. of cutter pan surface
5. Program display.
6. Set up (travel limits, home, etc.). I
7. Entry of offsets (cutter diameters, automatic entry of
I
tool length compensations). I
8. Record program on external device.
I I
9. Load program from external device. #-
//
i
/
In addition, some MDI controls have the capability to I
II
“learn” and memorize a sequence of operations.
I
Typical programming capabilities are: \\i --
Positioning.
1. I +
Fixing cycles (drill, counterbore, etc.).
2. I
Linear interpolation.
3.
I
4.
Circular interpolation.
Milling out rectangular frame or pocket.
5. !
\
.
Milling out circular frame or pocket,
6.
In bolt hole circle operations, executing any fixed cycle
7.
at each hole position.
8. Repeating a series of events. Fig. 5-26 Manual data input (MD1) systems typically feature part
9, Accessing subroutines. surface programming. Data is input at the machine for relatively simple
10. Programming a dwell. workplaces.
COMPUTER-ASSISTED NC PART PROGRAMMING

ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER-ASSISTED need to worry about varying tape formats or about forms
PROGRAMMING of instruction accepted by different machine tools or
Compared with manual programming, the principal benefit machine tool controls.
of computer-assisted programming is increased productivity. ● Allowing for the use and reuse of stored sets of instruc-
Increased productivity results from two factors: (1) a reduction tions and repeated machining patterns.
in the user’s part programming time and (2) improved utilization
Reduced part programming time can result in lower part
of the numerically controlled machine tool. Computer-assisted
programming labor costs and shorter lead times for part
programming reduces part programming time by
production. The degree of savings will depend on the capabilities
. Reducing and simplifying the mathematical calculations of the selected computer-assisted system and the applicability of
which the part programmer must perform. This is the system to the type of machining for which it is intended. The
especially important for more complex parts. applicability of a system is covered later in this chapter.
. Reducing the time spent correcting errors introduced by Computer-assisted programming systems also increase
manual part programming and mathematical calculations productivity by improving utilization of the machine tool. The
made by hand. NC machine tool is a major capital investment; the machine
. Providing a standardized input method that reduces the pays for itself by manufacturing parts. Computer assistance
5-44
CHAPTER 5
u
helps to produce parts more quickly, and therefore to produce
more parts, by allowing for the following:
● Part program error detection and feedback prior to a Input Storage
machine tool trial run. methods methods
and -s and
● Graphic (visual) representation of the programmed part Hardware what you process on devices
devices
or the machine tool cutting path.
● Easy editing of a part program without involving the —
machine tool control. SOftwore
● Optimization of machine tool movements (such as more
Processors — language
accurate calculation of the time and place to accelerate to — nonlonguage
rapid motion).
● Automatic selection of the most efficient path for multiple Postprocessors — general
operations such as pattern drilling or punching. — Speafic
● Potential reduction in machine downtime for repairs
1
caused by programming errors that result in cu~ter/ 1
workpiece/ fixture collisions.
Output media and devices
1
Small savings in machine cycle time can have a large impact
on machine production. The savings can be calculated as
Fig. 5-27 Elements of a computer-assisted NC programming system.
follows:
Savings per,job = savings in machine cycle (12)
ming, the conversion of the part programmer’s input into
timejpart x COSIof machine time .x number ofparts
properly coded NC machine instructions. Software can include
Obviously the number of parts produced has a major effect processors and postprocessors.
on savings. For large production runs, even very small savings Processors. Processors interpret the part programmer’s input
in machine cycle time per part can significantly reduce the total and convert this input to produce the general form and
time the machine is used during the full production run. sequence of NC machine tool instructions. The processor may
Savings in part programming time and machine cycle time perform many of the machine-independent conversions of
are the essential factors used to justify an investment in a format that are required to properly develop a part program.
computer-assisted programming system. An additional advan- The processing that occurs at this stage may include analysis of
tage of such a system may be its ability to handle more complex part programming language statements (such as “DEFINE
parts. (To review the business considerations that influence the POINT 1” at a given location); automatic calculation and
selection of a programming system, see “How to Select a definition of complex geometry, such as surfaces or intersections
Computer-Assisted Programming System” later in this chapter.) that are not dimensioned on a part print; interpretation of the
part programmer’s graphic or voice input; or simply the
ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER-ASSISTED conversion of an answer to a question in a prompted part
PROGRAMMING SYSTEM programming session. Depending on their design, processors
A computer-assisted system to aid part programming can can be distinguished as either language processors or non-
consist of any number of components. The most obvious Ianguage processors.
elements are the visible ones: computers and computer Postprocessors. Postprocessors convert the general form of
terminals; hardware devices for input, output, and storage of machine instruction created by the processor into the specific
part programs; NC tape punches and readers; and the like. Less form of instruction that can be understood at the machine tool
obvious, but perhaps more important, are the hidden elements control. Postprocessors may be general or specific with respect
of the system: part programming languages and the computer to a particular NC machine tool and its control. General
programs that convert the part programmer’s input to appro- postprocessors take the output from a processor and convert it
priate machine instructions. Both the hardware and software into the proper tape format for input at the control. A general
elements of computer-assisted systems are discussed in this postprocessor, however, may not be able to handle unique
section. Figure 5-27 is an illustration of how the elements of a machine-specific capabilities. These are generally provided in
computer-assisted system are related. specific postprocessors. As can be seen in Fig. 5-28, although
Processors, postprocessors, and their languages comprise the the general postprocessor is able to program the appropriate
software elements of a computer-assisted system. They are the bar feed, it requires five separate statements whereas the specific
means by which computing power is put to work. Although postprocessor requires only one statement.
software cannot be readily seen or touched, it is the heart of the The specific postprocessor interprets machine-specific instruc-
computer system. tions and converts them into the proper set of coded commands
The remaining elements of a computing system are the to activate a unique machine feature.
devices that allow for input, processing, output, and storage of Processors and postprocessors are normally separate pieces
information generated during computer-assisted NC part of software. In some systems they are processed at the same
programming. time. For example, in some general-purpose programming
languages, the postprocessor, also called a “link,” is accessed at
Software Elements the same time as the processor. Processing and postprocessing
The term “software” refers to the sets of instructions or occur at the same time and result in a single output. Because this
programs that tell the computer how to perform operations type of processing occurs during one interaction with the
such as mathematical calculations and, in NC part program- computer system, it is termed “single-pass” processing. In other
5-45
CHAPTER 5
Many languages have been designed to conveniently serve

general and/ or specific applications of NC machine technology.
From this potential Tower of Babel, a few predominant
languages (and dialects) have emerged. Two families of
- )—-y
. . . . . . . ---------
languages have reached widespread use and are specified by
Bar stock
national standards. The APT language and its derivatives and
1.-3 c..-; j
1, extensions are covered by ANSI Standard X3.37-1977 and
1,
COMPACT Ii-like languages are covered by proposed ANSI
‘---’~q] Standard X3.94- I98X. These languages are discussed in detail
7
under “Computer-Assisted NC Part Programming Languages,”
With a general postprocessor, With o specific postprocessor, -
later in this chapter.
the programmer may neea to the programmer may be able to Nonlanguages. Some methods of computer-assisted part
program the follow[ng: program th[s: programming exist that do not use programming languages.
1. Open collet 1. Bar feed 2“ (5 I mm)
For example, prompting systems guide the part programmer
2. Move bar stop
3. Feed stock 2“ (5 I mm)
through the process of creating a part program by asking
4. Close collet questions. Answers are interpreted and processed by a compu-
5. Return bar stop ter, which then creates appropriate NC machine instructions
depending on the answers given by the programmer. In a
‘ig. 5-28 Programming automatic bar feeding using a general post- prompting system, the computer is needed to create the
processor and a specific postprocessor. language statements. The part programmer does not write
transferable source statements, and there is no documentation
general-purpose languages, the processor is accessed and the written by the part programmer. Thus, the prompting system,
resultant data is output. This output is then reentered into the although it is a form of computer-assisted part programming, is
computer and separately postprocessed. Because processing not considered a part programming language.
occurs as separate steps during separate computer sessions, it is Other types of nonlangtrage computer-assisted systems
termed “multiple-pass” processing. involve graphic input and voice recognition devices. Unless a
Languages. An NC programming language consists of a source document can be created using such systems, they are
specified set of words or numbers (usually words) that can be not considered to be languages.
used to describe the geometry of a part and the machining
motions and conditions that are to be used to produce the part. Input Devices
With manual programming (without an NC part program- Computer terminals. The most common input device for a
ming language), instructions to the NC machine take the form computer-assisted programming system is a computer terminal,
that is understood directly at the machine control. For example, consisting of a typewriter-like keyboard for input and either a
a cutting motion may be called out by the code “GOI” for a paper copy or cathode-ray tube (CRT) for displaying the
particular machine. With a language, either full or abbreviated information as it is entered at the keyboard. This device allows
forms of English words (such as “CUT”) are normally used in a the part programmer to enter letters, numbers, and special
part program. These words may be handwritten ahead of time characters or codes that send electronic signals to the computer.
or may be directly entered at a keyboard terminal. Graphic deviees. With the advancement of computers, graphic
A true language does not require that the writer (for example, input devices have evolved. These devices permit the program-
the part programmer) use a computer to create the language mer to draw “pictures” of the part on an electronic screen. The
statements. True language statements can be written by a pictures are then interpreted by a processor to obtain informa-
programmer and transferred to another programmer indepen- tion about the geometry or machining operations that are to be
dent of a computer or other intermediary device. The language performed. Figure 5-29 shows the components of a graphic
can be used to program more than one machine; it is machine input device,
independent. A language is used to write “source statements” Several computer-aided design (CAD) graphics systems
that are subsequently processed by processors and postproces- allow a designer to create a picture and then send it to a part
sors. A record of these source statements can be produced and programmer who adds additional machining instructions.
maintained in the form of a written document. Output from some CAD systems can be sent to another
An analogy can be seen between NC part programming computer, which then processes the information to create
languages and computer programming languages, such as source statements in an NC part programming language.
BASIC or FORTRAN. The computer languages allow a Computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing
programmer to create instructions that can be understood (i.e., (CAD/CAM), per se, is discussed in Vohrme V of this
interpreted) by more than one computer. NC part programming Handbook series, “Manufacturing Engineering Management.”
languages can be used to create instructions that can be Another type of graphic input system uses a “digitizer” or
interpreted (after processing) by more than one NC machine “scanner” to visually or mechanically analyze (i.e., scan) a part
tool. For example, the manual programmer’s “GO1” instruction or a print to define part dimensions,
may not mean the same thing to all machines, but the word Methods of graphic input are rapidly advancing. Their
“CUT” can be processed so as to create the appropriate “GO I” evolution is a significant factor in the development of an
(or other appropriate code) for any machine. The goal of any integrated design and manufacturing environment. (See “Trends
NC programming language is to offer a repeatable, easily used, in Computer-Assisted NC Programming” in this chapter.)
consistent, unambiguous form of communication that allows Voice recognition devices. Voice recognition input devices
for the convenient transfer of information from part description can be “trained” to recognize a part programmer’s voice pattern
to machine tool, for a limited vocabulary of words. The user can then “speak”
5-46
CHAPTER 5
Adaptive controls. Controllers have been developed that

I utilize the technique of adaptive control (sometimes abbreviated
AC). Conventional computer-assisted NC programming has
done much to reduce programming and setup time and has had
a significant effect on reducing downtime. However, actual
6 in-process machining time has not been significantly reduced.
Adaptive control helps to reduce this in-process time and helps
to improve workpiece quality by responding to and compensa-
ting for variations in machining during the machining process.
These variations can be caused by such variables as workpiece
hardness, cut widths and depths, and air gaps between sur-
faces to be machined. Adaptive control is useful for applica-
tions that are subject to such variability and for applications in
which the in-process machining time represents a significant
portion of overall production time. (See “Adaptive Control” in
this chapter.)
The importance of software. Computer chips are the hard,
ig. 5-29 Elements of a graphic input device. (1) CRT with graphic tangible (although small) core of computer hardware. Their
capability, (2) terminal keyboard, (3) joystick (for menu selection and development has spurred the rapid application of computers
for entering coordinates on the CRT), (4) light pen (for menu selection throughout modern manufacturing. Although hardware is an
and for entering coordinates on the CRT), (5) tablet (for graphic input important component of a computer-assisted processing system,
of data), (6) mouse/hockey puck (for digitizing data on tablet).
it is absolutely dumb without software to instruct it. Selecting
software that meets application needs ensures that the hard-
instructions to the computer. Currently, most work in this area ware’s computing power is put to effective use.
is experimental. Methods of access. A computer assistance system can be
Of the input devices mentioned previously, the keyboard is by accessed several ways depending on whether or not one owns a
far the most common device for entering part programming computer.
statements in a form that can be transmitted to a computer. If a computer is owned, it is likely to be either a time-shared,
Some keyboard devices are purely input devices. Others include multipurpose mainframe or a dedicated stand-alone system.
some local “intelligence,” or computing power, with which the Access to a multipurpose mainframe for computer-assisted NC
user can perform calculations or preparatory program editing part programming may require scheduling the workload around
before connecting with the main (host) computer system. Use of other company computer applications (such as inventory
an intelligent terminal can reduce the amount of time required control or payroll).
later at the main computer. lf a computer is not owned, computing power may be
obtained from a company that sells “time-sharing” services.
Computers Access to the time-shared computer is normally by way of
Mainframe computers. In their early days, computers were national or international data communications networks (a
very large and often had to be located in specially constructed specialized kind of telephone network). From a local termi-
rooms at a distance from the actual workplace. Today’s large nal, a remote mainframe computer may be dialed and can be
computers, called “mainframe” computers, are generally more shared with other time-sharing customers. The user is only
compact and flexible. These powerful computers can be shared billed for the amount of time and computing power that has
by many users doing a wide variety of tasks, and they are able to actually been used.
process these tasks at the same time. A mainframe computer, Batch or interactive processing. Access to an in-house
for example, might be used to process an NC part program, an computer or a time-shared computer can occur in either batch
account inventory, and several other jobs at the same time. or interactive mode. In batch mode, the entire input package is
Minicomputers and microcomputers. Many of today’s sent and processed. In interactive mode, the input is generally
computers are desk size or smaller, allowing for placement sent and processed line by line. There are two main differences
within a normal office or manufacturing environment. The between these two modes: the timing and cost of access, and the
buyer of a computer system need not concern himself with the timing and quantity of feedback.
terms “mini” or “micro,” as the definitions of these terms In batch mode, the computer can be instructed to process at a
change rapidly. The most important criterion in evaluating time when it is not busy with other tasks. This can lower the cost
small computers is ‘throughput,” that is, the speed with which a of processing, because the computer is used at times when it is
program can be processed. Smaller computers are becoming not in critical demand. However, immediate feedback from the
faster and more powerful, and in general, their cost is declining. job is not available when operations are in batch mode and
CNC controls. Today’s computing power can be placed on feedback may consist of a very long list of errors uncovered
chips as small as 1/ 16 in.z (40 mm2). This has led to the throughout the entire program. Because batch processing does
development of more intelligent NC machine control units, not permit immediate feedback and immediate error correction,
called computer numerical controls (CNC’S), Many controls a single undetected error in a definition, at the beginning of a
include features (such as editing and data communication) that program, for example, may result in a number of errors
may duplicate features of a larger computer-assisted system. throughout the rest of the program. A second pass through a
Some controls may even include the software for processing batch system would then be required to correct errors from the
specially developed NC part programming languages. (See first batch processing.
“Manual Data Input” in this chapter.) In interactive mode, the computer processes one block or line
5-47
CHAPTER 5
of an input program at a time; and any error in that block or line processed source statements in the form of formatted machhe
is immediately noted. Corrections are made while the user is still codes that can later be reused at the NC machine control.
connected to the computer. Interactive processing provides CNC interface. The CNC unit can also be considered an
immediate feedback, but may consume more computer time. output device. With computer intelligence at the CNC unit,
Also, in the interactive mode, computer time is often more in data from the main computer can be sent directly to the CNC
demand and, therefore, may be more expensive. unit over dedicated data transmission lines. The traditional
method of inputting data at the control by paper or plastic tape
Output Devices can therefore be bypassed. Machine codes generated by the part
During or after processing, output from the computer is fed program are sent directly to the control and are either stored at
back to the user. Output devices include hardcopy (paper the control or used immediately to drive the NC machine tool.
printout) terminals, CRT’s, tape punches, graphic plotters, This method of direct transfer of data (sometimes called direct
magnetic recording devices, and NC/ CNC machine control numerical control or distributed numerical control, DNC) is
units. much faster and more reliable than conventional tape reading.
Hardcopy terminals. Hardcopy terminals print a readable In addition, the maintenance and storage requirements of the
script using thermal or impact print mechanisms and tape punch and reader are eliminated (see “Fundamentals of
continuous-feed paper. The speed of hardcopy printers varies Direct Numerical Control” in this chapter).
significantly. Some hardcopy printers operate as slowly as 15 or Output standards. As noted earlier, there are standards for
30 characters per second. Others print entire lines at a time at coding tape by means of punched holes. Obviously, there are
very fast rates. other kinds of output devices besides tape punches. All involve
Hardcopy printers are normally used to output the script (or the translation and/ or transmission of electronic data from one
manuscript) created by the NC part programmer. The script is a device to another. Advancements in the electronics and
document that records the programmer’s source statements and computer industries have resulted in the creation of a number of
the output of the processor and postprocessor. standards relating to the physical and electronic form of data
Cathode ray tubes (CRT’s). Cathode ray tubes are commonly communication media and devices. The following organizations
used to display data or messages that are output from the are among those that govern standards:
computer. Cathode ray tubes can receive and display data ● American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
quickly, but they provide no lasting readable record of the ● International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative
output. Cathode ray tubes can display alphanumeric data
Committee (CCITT).
(letters and numbers) or, in some cases, graphic representations ● Electronic Industries Association (EIA).
of the part geometry or tool path that has been programmed. ● International Standards Organization (1S0).
Tape punches. Within the NC industry, punched tape has for ● National Aerospace Standards (NAS).
many years been the most common form of output from a
computer-assisted part programming system. The output to the Table 5-17 lists standards and their application to elements of
tape is usually in a form that can be read at a machine control computer-assisted systems that have been discussed so far.
and used to instruct the NC control directly. Standards help ensure that technological progress does not
A tape punch is employed to punch holes in paper or plastic arbitrarily make obsolete all systems installed prior to the
reinforced tape. When the tape is passed through a reader, these introduction of more advanced products. As the computer
holes produce electronic signals representing alphanumeric industry continues to mature and as technology continues to
data and other special machine control codes. Standards have develop, new standards will emerge. In addition, existing
been created for the width of the tape and the arrangement of standards will continue to be revised both to reflect advance-
holes that represent each letter or number that might be needed ments in technology and to ensure that technological progress
at the machine tool control. The standard tape formats, from will not be unreasonably constrained by old standards.
the American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII) and the Electronic Industries Association (EIA), are
Storage Devices
discussed in “Manual NC Programming” in this chapter.
Computers are able to handle vast amounts of data, but this
Graphic plotters. Some computer-assisted systems allow the
data must be available for quick access by the computer. The
part programmer to draw (plot) pen-and-ink illustrations of the
computer normally includes magnetic storage areas that are
part description and/ or tool path. As with CRT’s that display
built into the hardware and do not involve special media such as
graphic images, plotters can be used for detecting program-
tapes or disks. To augment the computer’s built-in memory,
ming errors before an operator attempts to machine a part. This
media such as magnetic tape (similar to audio tape) and
can save time later at the NC machine and can prevent costly
magnetic disks or diskettes are commonly used to store
damage to the machine by detecting a potential tool/work-
electronic data. Such media can be stored nearby and brought
piece/ fixture collision or other dangerous error. Plotter output
to the computer when needed. The computer reads the electronic
results in permanent documentation of the programmed
information from the storage device and then processes it.
part. Some plotters can use more than one color of ink when draw-
The use and selection of storage devices for a computer-
ing, and most can add lettering or other information if desired.
assisted programming system depends on the user’s needs.
Magnetic recording devices. These devices record electronic
Factors influencing data storage requirements include the
signals on magnetic storage media, such as reel tape, tape
following:
cassettes, disks, and diskettes. As output devices, recorders are
used to create a retrievable electronic image of data generated ● Permanency of the data used in NC programming: Is it
by the part program. The data may include a record of source likely to be reused?
statements that can later be modified or reused for the same or ● Quantity of data: Does it (or will it) exceed built-in
another part program. The data may also include a record of memory capacity of the computer?
5-48
CHAPTER 5
TABLE 5-17
Data Communications Standards Applicable to Computer-Assisted Programming Systems*
● CNC . Communications (continued)

EIA RS-274-D CCITT X.21
EIA RS-244-A CCITT X.24
EIA RS-358-B CCITT X.25
EIA RS-281-B CCITT X.26
EIA RS-441 CCITT X.31
EIA RS-447
● Magnetic Disks
. CNC Communications/ DNC ANSI X3.46
EIA SP-1292-A ANSI X3.52
EIA SP-131O-A ANSI X3.58
● Communications (for terminals, ● Magnetic Tape
CRTs, computers, modem/ data sets, etc.) ANSI X3.40
EIA RS-232-C ANSI X3.54
EIA RS-449 ANSI X3.14
EIA RS-422-A
. Magentic Tape Cassettes
EIA RS-423-A
ANSI X3.48
EIA RS-404
ANSI X3.55
ANSI X3.28
ANSI X3.56
ANSI X3.66
ANSI X3.4 . Punched Tape
CCITT X.20 EIA RS-358
* Partial listing
● Version control: Does an up-to-date record of the last 7. Begin the production run.
version (and previous versions) of the part program need 8. Update the source program with the modifications made
to be maintained? during the initial run.
● Safety/ backup protection: Does the data need to be
protected by making duplicate copies on separate storage Workpiece Processing
media? Computer-assisted NC programming does not eliminate the
● Type of data stored: For example, will source statements, need for experienced manufacturing know-how. All parts
machine code outputs, or both require retrieving? require the development of some form of plan for their
● Frequency/ ease of access: How often will the user want manufacturing. The development of this plan is called “process
to retrieve and reuse data being stored? planning. ” Process planning requires knowledge of the physical
● Speed of retrieval: How much time will be needed to capacity of available machines, the proper sequence of
retrieve data? machining steps or operations that need to be performed, and
● Security: Does the user need to protect the access to data? the most efficient ways of producing the part using the
company’s available resources. Computer-assisted process
Magnetic media and their respective recording and reading
planning (CAPP) systems are available to assist in this activity
devices vary in speed, capacity, and appropriateness for a
(process planning, per se, is discussed in Volume V of this
computer system. Most are faster and more convenient than
Handbook series, “Manufacturing Engineering Management”).
conventional punched tape storage for larger NC program-
Computer-assisted “group technology” systems are also
ming operations. Nonetheless, punched tape is currently the
most commonly used means for recording and storing NC available to help establish more efficient ways to manufacture
similar parts, Such “families of parts” can be grouped according
part programs,
to similarity of part geometry or machining process. This allows
for retrieval of previously developed manufacturing plans,
COMPUTER-ASSISTED NC
designs, or NC part programs for new parts that might be
PROGRAMMING PROCEDURES
similar to parts produced earlier. Group technology also helps
The way in which a computer-assisted system is used to help
the manufacturer to develop “manufacturing cells,” organized
in writing part programs varies according to the type of system
to integrate the flow of parts, machinery, and labor in the most
used. In general, however, the use of such systems requires that
efficient manner.
the following steps be taken:
On a very limited scale, computers maybe used to assist the
1. Determine how to make the part. planner in determining how to operate machines (automatically
2. Select the appropriate programming method. determining correct feeds and speeds) for the manufacturing of
3. Write part geometry and machining statements (if using specified parts from known stock materials. This method of
a language). computer-assisted programming, called “workshop technol-
4. Process source statements and correct errors. ogy,” might, for example, be used to automatically determine
5. Punch a tape. the correct feeds and speeds for a specific machining opera-
6. Perform a machine trial run. tion. Workshop technology, which was first introduced in
5-49
CHAPTER 5
Europe in the early 1970’s, has seen limited application in the ment. Another disadvantage may be the lack of a permanent
United States. record or documentation of the part programming session.
In determining how to manufacture a part, an experienced For some operations, nonlanguage computer-assisted NC
manufacturing engineer, process planner, or part programmer programming may bean adequate or even preferable method of
usually has to personally weigh such issues as the quality optimizing the time between part print and the start of part
standards for the finished part, the profitability requirements of production. This can be especially true for shops producing
the company, and the optimal use of available machines. smaller numbers of parts at a low frequency.
Language computer-assisted systems. By using an NC part
programming language, the programmer creates a source
Programming Method
statement document which can be easy to revise and reuse.
After planning how to make a part, a decision must be made
Full-language part programming systems allow the development
as to whether or not computer-assisted programming methods
of a manuscript of source statements before the programmer
should be used. Factors that enter into this decision include the
connects to the computer. This can allow more programmers to
following:
work with fewer computer access devices and less direct time at
● How complex N the part? the computer.
● How many times will the manufacturer be likely to Language systems also allow the programmer to ignore
receive new orders for this part or similar parts? idiosyncrasies and differences in the code formats for various
. What programming skills do programming personnel machine tool controls. The programmer is thus able to focus on
already have, and what skills would require special programming the part rather than on correctly coding for the
training? individual machine tool control. This advantage is especially
● What will it cost to use computer-assisted versus manual apparent in a shop with many different types of NC machine
programming methods? tools and controls.
Language systems may also assist in calculating high-level
Obviously, the decision will be influenced by the number of mathematical expressions, thereby allowing the programmer to
alternative programming methods available in the shop. For tackle more complex parts. Languages with specific post-
purposes here, it is assumed that the shop can pick from any of processors may also help the programmer to efficiently call for
the following programming alternatives. the use of more advanced machine tool features and capabilities.
Manual programming. If a part is not too complex, it may be Certain languages may further optimize machine tool operation
programmed manually. Manual calculations may be required by automatically calculating the most efficient tool paths
to define part geometry and tool motions. However, some CNC and/ or rapid motions for rough cutting of part patterns.
units have a built-in calculator to assist the programmer with Use of service bureaus. If the part programming systems
mathematical calculations. The punched tape that is manually mentioned previously are not available, a user might want to
coded can be saved for later use. consider the use of an outside service bureau. A service bureau
Manual programming is efficient for simple parts if the takes a part print and completes the part programming and
programmer is familiar with the special sequence of machine computer processing work at its own location. The bureau then
codes needed to program the machine(s) he will use. Manual typically returns a punched tape to the user, who loads the tape
programming may be less efficient than computer-assisted at the NC machine control unit for part production. Service
programming if the shop produces a relatively large number of bureaus can be expensive for large volumes of work; but for
different parts that require a large number of unique part infrequent and/ or highly specialized part programming
programs (see “Manual NC Programming” in this chapter). projects, they may provide a useful supplement to the shop’s
Computer-assisted manual programming. Some computer- in-house programmers or programming system.
assisted systems apply limited processing, calculating, and
editing power to manual part programming activities. Such Write Part Geometry and Machining
systems may speed up the manual programming process and Statements
allow for magnetic storage of the part program for later The way in which the user defines part geometry and writes
modification and use. Computer-assisted manual programming machining statements depends on ( 1) the information on the
may also allow the programmer to add his own English part drawing and (2) the programming method that will be
language comments and to print a manuscript of his program used. These two factors must normally be considered simultane-
for later review, A record of the programmer’s comments can ously, because the capabilities of the programming method may
help clarify for other users the meaning of the otherwise cryptic or may not be well-suited to the kind of information that the
machine codes. design engineer chose to include on the part print.
Nonlanguage computer-assisted systems. As discussed To help describe how a part program is written, Fig. 5-30
previously, prompting and voice or graphic input systems may shows a simple part (U.S. customary units) and the kinds of
be used to program parts. Such systems may be separate from programming statements that might be written for it. In this
the NC machine control, or they may be built into a CNC unit. example, the part description and machining sequence are
These systems can reduce the time spent generating a part shown using normal English statements for purposes of illustra-
program, and they can reduce the programmer’s need to know tion. Actual programming language statements are usually
the specifics of the format for coding a given machine control. written in a more abbreviated form. (See Table 5-19 later in this
There are also disadvantages to nonlanguage systems. chapter for an example of actual programming statements
Prompting systems, for example, restrict the availability of the written for this same part.) The written statements in this
terminal for other programming activities. This may result in example are the source statements that, when written in a part
nonproductive or inefficient use of equipment, which can be programming language, would be sent to the computer for
especially costly for high-volume shops with expensive equip- processing.
5-50
CHAPTER 5
Contour around circle 1 in a clockwise direction until the

1.5 270° position is reached (12 o’clock). At this point the
tool is directly above line 6.
P‘k
.75 I lfsd!am
Cut in a direction parallel to line 6 until the tool is past
line 5.
#e;- @“n;: ~
Cut to the tangency point of line 5 and circle 2, keeping
+ the tool center to the right of line 5.
,-%
Contour inside circle 2 in a counterclockwise direction
‘@ ,,G’ “e ““ad
until the tangency point of circle 2 and line 4 is reached.
275 _ C[rcle 2 llne 4 At this point the tool is directly above line 4,
2
.
g f
m T
Keeping the tool in contact with line 4, cut past line 3.
15/64
Thru, (8) PIC’S
o 132 Keeping the tool to the right of line 3, cut past line 2.
:
Keeping the tool below line 2, cut past line 1.
Vv llne 2
Process Source Statements and Correct Errors
After a manuscript of part programming source statements
has been prepared, the data is entered into the computer for
processing. Batch or interactive processing may be used.
Feedback on the results of the processing (called “error
diagnostics”) may consist of English words or numerical codes
representing errors that were encountered in the input source
statements. The advantage of English-1ike statements is their
ease of interpretation; numerically coded error messages require
ig.5-30 Example ofsimple part geometry (see Table 5-19for language that the programmer have greater familiarity with the system
atements written in ANSI X3.37 and X3.94 for this part).
and that a document cross referencing the numerical codes and
their meanings be used.
Example: The kinds of errors that might typically be encountered
include:
Part Description (see Fig, 5-30)
. Typographical errors (misspelled words or incorrect
● Construct a line called 1 which passes through the
punctuation).
reference location(e) and is parallel to the Y axis.
. Syntax errors (proper words or punctuation used incor-
● Construct a line called 2 which passes through the
rectly in the source statements).
reference location (0) and is parallel to the X axis.
. Geometric incongruities (geometry elements that do not
● Construct a line called 3 which is parallel to the Y axis
make sense; the tool is unable to follow the part shape or
and is located 4.5 units from the reference location.
complete a movement).
● Construct a line called 4 which is parallel to the X axis
. Machine-specific errors detected by the postprocessor
and is located 1.32 units from the reference location.
(machine limits and speed and feed rates are exceeded).
● Construct a line called5 which passes through a point
located 1.5 units in the X direction and 2.75 units in the Y In batch mode, these kinds of errors maybe part of a long list
direction from the reference location, and whose angle is of errors returned to the programmer after one or more passes
60°, measured clockwise from the 3 o’clock position. through the batch processor. (It should be noted that a
● Construct a line called 6 which is parallel to the X axis completely correct first manuscript is very rare. ) In interactive
and is located 2.75 units from the reference location, mode, each line of the source statement manuscript is processed
● Construct a point called I which is located 0.75 units in X, individually, with the processor reporting any errors it finds in
2 units in Y, and 0.5 units in Z from the reference each line at the time the line is entered by the user.
location. Error corrections can be made online while connected to an
● Construct a circle called 1 whose center lies on point 1 interactive system or offline with either an interactive or batch
and whose radius is 0.75 units. system. Online, interactive editing offers immediate error
● Construct a circle called 2 which is tangent to line 5 and correction, but may tend to use more time at the computer
line 4 and whose radius is 0.625 units. The circle center is terminal. Offline, batch mode error correction allows for the
to the right (XLarge) of line 5 and above (YLarge) line 4. use of cheaper computer time, but may introduce an unwanted
● Construct a bolt circle called SET 1, whose center lies on time interval between each pass of processing and error
point 1 and has a diameter of 1 1/ 8 units. There are 8 correction.
equally spaced holes, starting at 0° and proceeding in a Computer-assisted systems differ in their ability to recognize
counterclockwise direction. or tolerate part program errors. No system can check for all
possible programming errors, particularly those which represent
Machining Sequence (see Fig. 5-30)
possible (but incorrect) geometry or machining. It is here that
. Drill the bolt circle (SET I), each hole 15/64” (0.234”) the programmer may look to additional proofing devices, such
diam, right through a plate 0.5 units thick. as CRT’s that have graphics capability or plotters. Such devices
. Using a I” diam tool, position to the left (XSmall) of line can graphically represent the accepted part program so that the
I and 0.1 units below (YSmall .1) line 2. programmer can make a final, visual check of the part geometry
. Cut to the tangency point of line 1 and circle 1, or tool motion that has been specified (see Fig. 5-31 for an
maintaining the cutter offset to the left. example of a plotted part program).
5-51
CHAPTER 5
I changes are likely to occur if the tape is correct to begin with.

However, the machine operator may find it necessary to make
&’>/‘x’ tooling changes at a given NC machine or may decide to run the
production on a different NC machine for better results.
Finished surfaces on the parts may indicate that slight adjust-
ments to machine speeds or feed rates are needed. The operator
of drilled @‘/
may observe ways to further optimize machine tool move-
hrjes
-,.
A’~ / ./
/ ments. (For example, the operator may find that he can use
rapid tool motion in places or to tolerances that were not
originally programmed.)
A computer-assisted programming system cannot auto-
matically record what an operator does manually at the NC
+ machine to improve the machining process. The operator must
inform the part programmer of whatever modifications are
‘ +/y Lz___ made so that the program accurately reflects the final and
successful machining operation.
// HOW TO SELECTA COMPUTER-ASSISTED
/) PROGRAMMING SYSTEM
No single system or combination of system elements offers
the best solution for everyone. Tbe factors that should be
considered in selecting a system include:
● Types and number of NC machines and machine controls
‘ig. 5-31 Plotted part program. The use of a plotter as a proofing
in place.
evice allows the programmer to visually check the part geometry or ● Types and volume of work being done (including such
tool motion before the workpiece is machined (see also Fig. 5-30). parameters as part complexities, quantities of parts per
production run, time constraints, and volume of repeat
work).
Punch a Tape ● Personnel available (including number of people,
After checking the part program for errors, the programmer
available skills, and training requirements).
is ready to punch an NCtapecontaining the codes that are to
● Future requirements (inchrding expansion plans, diversi-
drive the NC machine tool. This tape is normally tested al the
fication, and new NC machines on order).
machine during a trial run.
● Time constraints (business planning horizon).
● Capital availability and methods of cost recovery.
Machine Trial Run
The purpose of a machine trial run is to provide a final
● Integration requirements (including design and manufac-
turing, CAD/ CAM, and multiple uses for computers).
verification of the part program before the program is used to
● Seasonal fluctuations in the programming Ioad.
start making production parts.
The trial run may consist of a simple run of the tape at the A decision to spend money on computer assistance is, after
machine with the cutting tool mounted at a relatively large all, a business decision. If the above considerations have not
offset and without stock. By watching the machine movements, been addressed by the business managers, the commitment to a
which during the trial run are generally run at block-length particular system may be inappropriate or premature.
intervals, the operator can check for problems that might result In general a decision focuses on (1) the applicability of
in damage to the machine or the workpiece. As a further check, software to the shop’s present and future needs and (2) the
the operator might mount a substitute tool (a pen, for example) selection of hardware (computers and peripheral devices) to
in the toolholder and check the path that the real tool would support a given application.
take. Sometimes scrap material or a cheap substitute for the
part stock, such as wood or Styrofoam, can be mounted and cut Selecting Software
for a more realistic final check of machining. Scores of companies, small and large, offer software products
A trial run helps to reduce excess costs that could result from designed for general or specific use in an NC programming
the production of incorrect parts (a waste of both material and environment, Software includes universal or specialized part
machining time) or from broken tools or damaged machine programming languages and processors, in single or multiuser
components. Replacing damaged equipment is expensive, and versions, adapted to in-house or time-shared computers.
repairs may require extensive machine downtime, which can be A company with a single kind of NC machine and machine
very costly. control unit (and with no plans to add others) may find that a
Errors detected during the trial run can be fixed by producing single-user system with specialized or limited capability best
a new edited NC tape. It is important that any changes made suits its needs. A company with more users and/or more kinds
during trial or production runs be noted on the part program so of machines and control units may find that a general-purpose
that errors do not reoccur in subsequent production runs. system is best.
Because there are so many systems available, each should be
The Production Run closely evaluated to determine their suitability to specific needs.
After the machine tape is verified as being correct, it is For example, competing vendors should be asked to demon-
mounted at the control and NC production can begin. Few strate how their systems perform, using real sample part prints
5-52
CHAPTER 5
or descriptions. By selecting sample parts that represent normal programming or initiating an NC system for the first time, the
operations, the user should be able to determine which system methods by which parts are produced will continue to change
can program and produce these parts most quickly and considerably. This change is more than technological; it is a
efficiently, and at the least cost. change in the jobs that will have to be performed by employees
The software vendor’s reputation and position in the market- and in the knowledge and skills that those employees will need
place should be considered. The service and support the to have. For this reason, a very important factor in selecting a
vendor provides may prove critical to the success of the system is the vendor’s ability to help the employer’s staff learn
user’s operations.
Some companies with the capability to do so may want to TABLE 5-18
consider developing their own software. However, if a company Cost Justifying Computer Systems for
is inexperienced in this area, it may find that it takes considerably Computer-assisted NC Programming
more time, money, and resources to develop software than
might have been first expected. Indeed, the cost of developing 1. Present costs (based on an average part)
software has become the fastest rising cost in the computer a. Present programmer cost
industry. Timely delivery of a finished software product is often of burden/hour $ x
best guaranteed by selecting a product that is already developed, Present time expended programming hrs z
tested, and proven in the application(s) needed. Present cost (average part)
Having made a decision to buy or write software, a user must (total/man)
next consider the kind of computer hardware configuration to b. Burden rate (machine cost)/ hour $ x
run it on. If owning or leasing software or computer hard- Present time expended in prove-out hrs =
ware is not advantageous, the user may want to consider Present cost (average part)
service bureaus. (total/ math.)
c. Present total cost of an average part
from print to the first good part: $
Selecting Hardware
The software that is selected maybe offered on more than one (total/ ma;)
kind of computer hardware. The major options are mainframe $=
computers, mini or microcomputers, or time-sharing networks. (total/ math.)
Depending on how much computing power is needed for an $
application and how often access to the computer is needed, the (total first
user may select a large or small computer either dedicated to NC part costs)
programming work or shared with others. Systems vary widely 2. Proposed costs (based on an
in power, versatility, and cost. average part):
Several of the larger software vendors offer their products on a. Pr~g~ammer time expended hrs x
both stand-alone computers and time-sharing systems. Some Cost or burdenl hour $’
user companies choose to begin with time-sharing and then $
switch to a dedicated in-house computer as their computing b. Machine time expended (prove-out) hrs x
requirements increase. The cost analysis for determining Cost or burden/hour $’
whether such a change is beneficial would normally compare $
projected monthly time-sharing bills against the cost of owning c. Proposed total cost of an average
(capitalizing), operating, and maintaining the in-house compu- part from print to the first good part $
ter. Table 5-18 presents a method to determine the cost (cost of pro-
justification of alternative computing systems. posed method
In addition to the main computer, other hardware options for an average
include input devices (keyboards, or terminals), storage devices part)
(tape or disk drives), and output devices (tape punches, plotters, $
graphics CRT’s, character printers, line printers, etc.). The (total/ man)
speed and reliability of such peripheral devices generally $
increase as their costs go up. In general, the following factors (total/ math.)
should be considered in making a selection of such hardware $
options: (total first
● Availability of service contracts that provide reliable, fast part costs)
service on any hardware components. 3. Summarv
. Compatibility with possible future hardware additions. a. Present cost/ average part $
. Reliability as attested to by NC industry professionals b. Proposed cost/ average part $
and satisfied customers. c. Savings/ part $
Cost should only be one factor in making the decision. $
Because of rapid changes in computer technology, the compati- (savings/ mo)
bility of hardware with next-generation products should be $
considered. (savings/ yr)
$
(savings/ five
Training, Documentation, and Support
years)
Whether moving from manual to computer-assisted NC
5-53
CHAPTER 5
how to operate the new system. The three most important signs and billing systems should be considered. Although these
of the vendor’s ability to do this are the quality and availability features of an integrated manufacturing environment are still
of training programs, documentation, and technical support. far from common, there is a clear trend toward their increased
Training. Training may include classes held at the vendor’s use,
headquarters or in the field at regional facilities or customer
sites. Training should be available when and where it is needed. TRENDS IN COMPUTER-ASSISTED NC
Initial training may be included in the purchase price for a new PROGRAMMING
system, or it may be ah added cost. Some systems now offer In the future, computer-assisted NC programming will be
packaged self-training programs that allow user personnel to influenced by two main factors: ( 1) continued evolution of
learn at their workplace, and at their own pace. Most systems, computers and controls and (2) more complex part design.
however, require that user personnel be sent off-site or trained These factors should resuh in increased demand for more
by the vendor’s representatives at their shop. Training programs precise, higher-level programming capabilities and more power-
vary in duration from as short as a few hours to as long as a ful and versatile computer-assisted systems.
couple of weeks, depending on the complexity of the system and Trends in part design will be influenced most by the
on the user’s willingness to dedicate employee time to the automobile and aerospace industries. General industry trends
training program. Availability of training for future employees include:
should also be considered.
In addition to the vendor’s training programs, the more
● Design of more complex parts.
widely used NC part programming languages maybe taught at
● Requirements for closer tolerances to achieve higher
performance and reliability.
local colleges or trade schools. in some areas, pretrained
● More frequent design changes and retooling.
personnel may be available.
● Increased production in small lot sizes.
Documentation. Documentation should be seen before a
● Use of composite or substitute materials.
purchasing decision is made. Well-developed and fully descrip- ● Increased use of lightweight materials.
tive documentation is normally the product of more developed
● Increased use of molds for materials such as plastics.
systems. It may also reflect the vendor’s attitude and com-
mitment toward training in general. The user should be careful These trends reflect current and projected needs for more
to look beyond the sales literature and judge the quality of the energy-efficient products and reduced assembly costs. They
vendor’s operating instructions. should result in increased demand for NC and continued
Support. Support comes in many forms. In addition to growth in NC machine technologies.
hardware support, the vendor’s ability to receive and handle Improvements in NC will be spurred by advances in computer
calls for assistance in using software for solving specific technology. Computers will continue to get smaller and more
problems should be considered. Training and documentation powerful, offering further reductions in processing costs.
cannot cover all possible ways of applying a particular software Computer intelligence will be distributed among more NC
product to every situation encountered in the shop. A telephone machines and machine control units, resulting in an increased
number to call for immediate program problem-solving should variety of computer-assisted systems that can be purchased with
be available. If the vendor’s facilities are located in a time zone the NC machine itself.
different from that of the plant where the system is to be General-purpose part programming languages will continue
installed, problems encountered at the beginning or end of the to compete with smaller, more specialized languages designed
workday may not be handled in a timely manner, This for individual applications. The general-purpose languages will
possibility should be investigated. be further modified and enhanced to improve capabilities such
As a computer-assisted system is used, the user finds that as specialized language subsets, canned cycles, machining of
service and support are second in importance only to the actual sculptured surfaces, pocketing, and bounded geometry.
capability of the system. If in doubt about a vendor’s claims Graphic input methods are likely to see major advances.
concerning service, the user should ask for references from local These methods will become increasingly more available with
customers. If the vendor is new in the area, or has a new the development of more powerful, less expensive, mini and
product, the user may have to rely on instinct concerning the microcomputers with graphics processing capabilities (es-
vendor’s avail~bility and commitment to serve after the sale. pecially those with 32-bit architecture). General-purpose CAD
system interfaces will continue to be offered for the more
System Integration Requirements common NC programming languages. In addition, specialized
As a final consideration in selecting a computer-assisted CAD and graphic input systems are also expected to emerge.
programming system, the user will want to consider the ability More sophisticated manufacturing companies will integrate
of the system to evolve as the user moves toward an integrated part design and NC programming activities with overall
manufacturing operation. Although it may be difficult to manufacturing activities, drawing from a common data base
project where a company will be in five years, it may be a good that is maintained on a powerful in-house computer.
idea to start planning now. Certain computer applications may In addition to these trends in hardware technology, there will
seem impractical today, but tomorrow they may mean the be increased development of software. Although hardware
difference between winning or losing a competitive edge. costs have been decreasing, it is expected that software
Factors that should be considered include the integration of development costs will continue to rise, representing the fastest
computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufac- rising costs in the computer industry. Nonetheless, the huge
turing (CAM) [integrating a data base of part designs with other market for computers in industry will spur software develop-
features of group technology (GT) systems], families of parts, ment to fill gaps that may exist in today’s applications and to
manufacturing process plans, and material requirement develop new software for sophisticated new forms of NC
planning (MRP) systems. Even the integration of cost estimating technology, such as programmable robots.
5-54
CHAPTER 5
COMPUTER-ASSISTED NC PART PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
An unavoidable trend that will have to be reckoned with is development of simpler, “user-friendly” systems designed with
the increasing cost of change itself. Aside from the rising increased attention to ergonomics, the man-machine interface.
research and development costs associated with new NC In addition, computer-assisted NC programming systems
product development and the rising cost of acquiring new will become increasingly more prevalent in manufacturing.
technology, there will be major, additional costs in training Their use will help to improve productivity in an expanding
people to use this new technology. Computer technology will array of manufacturing tasks. Future development of these
eliminate some jobs while creating new jobs for which people systems will be limited only by the ability of developers to
may be poorly prepared. Recognition of this “human factor” effectively use increasingly available computing power for more
will likely be reflected in increased private and public training sophisticated and cost-effective applications.
programs for computer users. Users will also benefit from the
COMPUTER-ASSISTED NC PART
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
There are a wide variety of general-purpose and specialized requirements of the specific machine tool that is to be used. The
part programming languages from which to choose, and the additional processing that is required to modify the data is
number and types of these languages are increasing rapidly. called “postprocessing.” The part programmer writes special
Because these languages are continually evolving, it would not statements to define parameters for the type of postprocessing
be useful to discuss specific, specialized languages in this required for the machine tool being used. In some languages,
presentation. Instead, when comparing languages, discussion is the language input is first processed by the computer to produce
limited to those general-purpose languages for which standards “cutter location data” that contains intermediate tool location
have been developed by the American National Standards and motion data, This data is then postprocessed. Other
Institute. There are currently two such standards: ANSI languages perform both processing and postprocessing
Standard X3.37-1977, which covers APT and its derivatives simultaneously.
and extensions, and proposed ANSI Standard X3.94-198X, In addition to these shared features of languages, processor
which covers COMPACT II-like languages. and postprocessor language systems can also be distinguished
There are a number of publications that are designed to according to the number and type of applications for which they
inform users of the latest developments in NC part programming were designed. A programmer may select a specialized language
languages and that can be referenced for information on designed to be used only by a specific type of machine tool or for
specific languages. The bibliography at the end of this chapter a specific machining application, or he may select a general-
lists several publications that may be helpful. purpose language that can perform a wide variety of machining
functions on any number of machine tools. The programmer’s
DEFINITION OF LANGUAGE selection of a general-purpose or specialized language will be
Although many different kinds of computer-assisted NC part based on many factors. A summary of the advantages of each
programming languages exist, they all share certain features. type of language system follows.
Each language consists of a “vocabulary” of words and/or
numbers with special meanings or definitions. To communicate Advantages of General-Purpose Languages
with the computer, and eventually with the machine tool, these There are many advantages to the use of general-purpose part
“words” must be combined to form meaningful sets of instruc- programming languages. Among these are:
tions called statements. Each language has its own set of rules, ● Reduced programming time.
or syntax, that governs the way in which words can be arranged ● Permanent source documentation.
to make statements. (These rules are similar to the rules of ● Standardization of parts and machining processes.
grammar in “natural” noncomputer languages like English or ● Ability of the program to be easily read and understood
French.) A part programmer, usually working from a design
by other users.
drawing of a part, uses the vocabulary and syntax of a language ● Protection against changes in machine control technology.
to write statements that control the cutting operations of a ● Broad application of programming skills among a wide
machine tool for a specific part. The part programmer writes
variety of machines.
several basic types of statements. These include geometry ● Availability of trained personnel in the marketplace.
statements describing the physical dimensions of a given part, ● Adaptability of programming to “family of parts”
tool motion statements describing the relative movement of the processing techniques.
tool and part, and other kinds of auxiliary statements, such as
those specifying speed and feed rates. These statements can be
Advantages of Specialized Languages
written by the programmer, and they serve as the “source
Specialized languages also have many advantages. Among
statements” that are entered into the computer for processing.
these are:
A second feature of all language systems is the processor,
which is a set of instructions (or a program) that enables the . Reduced learning time.
computer to process and evaluate the source statements entered ● Reduced complexity of software and programming.
by the part programmer. After these source statements are ● Reduced programming time.
processed, the data must usually be further modified to meet the . Usability on small computers.
5-!55
CHAPTER 5
● Reduced complexity, or elimination, of postprocessor. batch mode, the entire part program is entered and then
● Permanent source documentation. processed. A list of error messages is produced for the entire
● Standardization of parts and machining processes. part program; these errors must then be corrected and the entire
● Protection against changes in machine control technology. program again processed. This step must be repeated until all
● Adaptability of programming to “family of parts” errors are corrected. Although batch processing is generally less
processing techniques. expensive than interactive processing, savings may be reduced
or eliminated because of the time involved in reprocessing the
INPUTTING THE LANGUAGE batch program to produce an error-free tape.
Languages differ in the way in which statements may be Some general-purpose languages require two or more
entered into the computer for processing, Some languages processing steps; for example, one step for editing syntax and
require a “fixed format”; that is, the individual statements must another for correcting machining statement errors. This type of
be entered in a set order for them to be understood by the processing is called “multiple-pass” processing. Other languages
computer. Other languages permit a “free format. ” allowing the are able to perform all processing steps in a single pass. These
statements to reentered in any order. Free format inputting is languages are said to use a “single-pass” processor.
generally simpler to learn and use and can result in fewer
programming errors. LANGUAGE CAPABILITIES
Languages may be either directly or indirectly input into the Languages differ in the way they describe the physical
computer. The method of input is usually determined by the dimensions or geometry of parts and the machining needed to
programming method and the type of computer system produce those parts.
available.
GeneraI-Purpose and Specialized Languages
Direct Input General-purpose languages are capable of machining a wide
There are two methods of direct input: The on-line and variety of parts, although some of these languages may be more
off-line method involves continuous access to the computer; as efficient than others in handling more complex part shapes.
the user enters data at the terminal, the computer is receiving, Specialized languages, on the other hand, may be written for a
storing, and (in interactive mode) processing it. Interactive specific type of machining application and/or part description.
systems (see the following section) require on-line access to the Specialized languages exist for drills, lathes, mills, punch
computer. Data may also be input off-line from the computer, presses, and the like.
prior to its final processing. For example, a part programmer There is a third group of languages, called “parts generator”
may choose to use an in-house minicomputer for initial or “parametric” languages, that is limited to one type of part
calculations and source statement input, and then access a and a specific type of machine tool. A language from this
larger computer for the actual processing and diagnostics group might be used to machine a cam that requires a large
needed to produce the punched NC tape. number of discrete tool motions for it to be machined within
acceptable tolerances.
Indirect Input in general, because the more specialized types of languages
Data may also be input indirectly in a variety of programming perform a relatively small set of NC programming functions,
environments. On a CAD system, for example, data may be they require smaller computers; are more easily learned; and if
input graphically and converted directly to the appropriate designed for a specific machine tool and control, may not
machining codes without the need for direct language input. Or, require a separate postprocessor. However, general-purpose
a CAD system may be used to generate cutter location data programming languages can be more versatile in shops that use
which is then converted into an existing part programming a variety of machine types; once learned, they can be applied to
language. Among the advantages of this second method of a wide variety of functions and can be more easily adapted to
CAD processing is the ability to edit a familiar, general-purpose new technologies as they become available.
NC language prior to postprocessing. A prompt-type system
presents another method of indirect data input; by prompting How Geometry is Determined
the user to respond to questions appearing on a CRT, this type Geometry definitions. Normally, in writing source statements,
of system creates a part program without requiring the part the part programmer relies on a part drawing prepared by a
programmer to write and enter source statements. designer (or detailer). The designer dimensions the shape of the
It is also possible to avoid having to directly input certain part using basic geometry definitions, such as those for points,
typical patterns of tool movement that commonly repeat in lines, and circles. The designer can use these geometry “elements”
similar kinds of machining work. A segment of an existing part many ways to describe the same part dimension, For example, a
program containing such routine machining statements can be specified surface of a taper may be defined by (see also
stored as a “macro’’and automatically inserted, with appropriate “Tolerance Control,” Chapter 2 of this volume):
dimensional modifications, into a new part program.
. Its length and diameter at each end.
PROCESSING THE LANGUAGE . Its length, diameter at one end, and angle of taper.
Languages can be processed in either interactive or batch ● One diameter and Z-Dimension, and tangency to a
mode. In the interactive mode, individual statements are spherical or toro]dal surface at a distance,
processed line by line; with some general-purpose languages, The processor, however, requires that a surface be defined in
they are processed and postprocessed simultaneously line by a single, fixed manner. Fortunately, languages have been
line. This processing method provides immediate feedback and designed so that the part programmer can use any reasonable
diagnostics and permits the part programmer to correct errors form of dimensioning; the processor then converts the calcu-
and perform other editing functions before proceeding. In lation to the one form it understands. However, as can be seen
5-56
CHAPTER 5
in the next section on language syntax, each language has its In some milling and turning applications, there is an additional
own format for each of the acceptable definitions that can be system of axes that describes rotation. These rotational axes,
used for defining a geometry element. Some languages limit the described as the A, B, and C axes, specify angles about the X, Y,
number of formats acceptable for each element, which although and Z axes, respectively. It is common in NC to discuss
it simplifies the software, may require that the programmer machining capabilities according to the number of axes of tool
perform additional calculations when writing the part program. motion under machine control at a given time.
Figure 5-32 provides examples of several, alternative formats The origin (or zero point) of this coordinate system of axes
that can be used to define points, lines, and circles. The must be precisely fixed relative to the position of the tool for
accompanying statements that define these elements are written correct machining. The part programmer may use one of two
in ANSI Standard X3.94; other languages utilize their own methods for determining the location of the origin. A “fixed
distinct formats for distinguishing these elements. zero” method always locates the origin at the same position on
The coordinate system. In order to describe the relative the machine table; a “floating zero” method allows the
positions and dimensions of the geometry elements used to programmer to set the origin at any position on the machine
describe a part, a system of coordinates must be established. table. (This floating zero is also called the datum or base.) The
For purposes of this discussion, the axes of this system are latter method might be used, for example, if the programmer
defined with respect to the machine table. finds that it is more convenient to establish dimensional values
The X and Y axes are defined in the plane of the table, with for a symmetrical part relative to the center of symmetry. An
the Z axis perpendicular to the plane (the vertical direction of example of how a floating zero is established relative to
the spindle relative to the table, see Fig. 5-9). absolute zero is illustrated in Fig. 5-33.
Point definition
Point defined by coordinates Point defined by Ihndne mtersectlon

Y 9
Y
1+
DPTI , 3XB, 2YB, ZB DPT4, LNI , LN3, 4ZB
3 (% ~ L?
m
Base x
Y ~ Point defined by Ihneacle IntersectIon

1<
PT 4
y CIR 62 Po,nt deftned by circle-circle mtersectlon

CIR 1 PT 6
I(D*
PT 6 DPT5, LNI , CIRI , YS, 3ZB DPT6, CIR61 , CIR62, XL, 2ZB
IR61
$’ DPT6, lN1, ClRI, Yl, 3ZB DPT 7, CIR61 , CIR62, XS, 2ZB
PT 5 /@*
PT 7
x x
line definition
bne defined by o point and angle he defined by two po[nts

Y
k
Y PT 30
DLNI , PT1, 30CCW DIN 10, PT25, PT30
,0
PT I 30” .+
\T
\+ PT 25
k x ~x
hne defined by parallel modlflcatlon of another Ihne he defined tanqent to two circles across center
Y CIR 35 DIN 19, CIR35, Xl, CIR40, CROSS

+
DLN20, CIR35, YS, CIR40, CROSS
LN ~0
%
5 + CIR 40
l%.
x
Circle definition
Circle defined os a point and radius .. . Circle deftned tangent to two lines
Y Y
El
~~ 1.5R TyP
Bl!!L
L5R DCIR1, PT1, I 5R DCIR6, LN1/ I 5YS, lN3/1 .5 XL, 1.5R
CIR ~ CIR 9 DCIR7, lN1/1 5YL, LN3/ L5XS, 1.5R

~T , CIR I CIR 6
7 +’ Circle defined tangent
CIR 8
~x x to a line and circle
Circle defined tangent to two circles
IR CIR]8
Y CIR62 DCIR27, Cl R61/1 Rl, Y
:28 !
TYP
CIR 27 ClR62/l RL Xl, IR DCl R18, LN1/l YL, CIRl/l RL, XL, lR
(’M’ lJ)
‘i? ~.? ,. DCIR34, CIR61 I I Rl, - :!,
.- >, 5’?
. .\ DCIR25, LN1/l YS, CIR1/l Rl, XS, IR
.3.5
ClR62/ 1RL, XS, 1 R (i-i ,24 ,
CIR 61 LN
CIR 34 ~3J CIR 1
I @
@ x
CIR 25
Fig. 5-32 Simple point, line, and circle definitions.
5-57
CHAPTER 5
Base,75XA,50YA,50ZA
motion, and other atixiliary statements. General-purpose and
specialized languages may also include statements that initiate
postprocessing.
The syntax of individual NC part programming languages
differ, as do the grammar rules of English or German. In
general, as part programming languages become more
specialized, their syntax becomes simpler, because the language
is restricted to a small set of applications. However, these
languages are usually very limited; they cannot be easily
“translated” from one application to another. For this reason,
these languages are also difficult to compare.
General-purpose programming languages, on the other hand,
are designed to describe a wide variety of applications. Although
the manner in which they process source statements maybe very
different, the basic features of syntax and vocabulary are more
Fig. 5-33 Establishing a floating zero (base). similar and are, therefore, more easily compared. The following
sections describe how syntax is formed for the two previously
A final consideration is that positions can be defined either as mentioned general-purpose language standards: ANSI Stan-
“absolute” or “incremental.” Absolute positioning locates all dard X3.37-1977 and proposed ANSI Standard X3.94-198X.
positions relative to the origin. Incremental positioning relates ANSI Standard X3.37-1977. There are four types of state-
the next position along the tool path to the immediately ments in X3.37 languages: geometry, motion, postprocessor,
preceding tool position. and auxiliary statements, Geometry statements define the
Levels of machine control. The degree of complexity of the geometry elements that comprise the workpiece. Motion state-
part geometry determines the type and complexity of control ments define the path of the cutting tool with respect to the
that the machine must exercise to machine the part. Machining predefine geometry. Postprocessor statements define tool
capabilities of part programming languages vary according to motion and other actions with respect to the specific require-
the geometrical surfaces the languages were designed to handle. ments of the machine tool. Auxiliary statements identify the
In general, machining processes can be categorized according tool, machining tolerances, and other features. Standard
to the degree of machine control needed to produce a given part. formats are followed for entering these four types of statements.
The levels of machine tool control, from the most simple to the Geometry statement. The general form of a geometry state-
most complex, can be categorized according to whether they ment is:
have point-to-point, straight-cut, or contouring capabilities
Symbol ❑ geometry type/ location
(see “NC Machine Configurations” in this chapter).
A point-to-point (or positioning) system moves the cutting For example, a specific point might bc defined as follows:
tool to predefine locations. Because no cutting takes place P] ❑ POINT/ 6,3,0
between these points, tool motion does not need to be
controlled between them. Point-to-point systems are well suited “P l” is the symbol that identifies the geometry element;
to such processes as drilling and spot welding. “POINT” is a vocabulary word that identifies the type of
A straight-cut system moves the cutting tool parallel to one of geometry element; the numbers following the slash delimiter
the major axes at a controlled rate. At any one time, control is describe the location of this point along the X, Y, and Z axes.
limited to a single axis. Straight-cut systems are used for such Motion slatemen[. The format of the motion statement is:
processes as milling rectangular workplaces.
speed
The most complex type of machining system is the contouring
motion command/ location
(also called “continuous-path”) system. The cutter path is
continuously controlled along two or more axes. Most mathe- For example, to move the cutter at rapid traverse motion from
matically definable parts can be machined with a contouring point 1 to a predefine point 2, the programmer would write:
system. contouring is commonly used for angular milling RAPID
and turmng. GOTO/ P2
These three machining systems can also be distinguished by
the number of simultaneous cutting axes they are able to If a hole is to be drilled at this point, the programmer would
control. In general, simpler machining systems are capable of write:
simultaneous cutting on one or two axes. The more complex cYcLE/DRILL,1,3,1PM
contouring systems have either three or four-axis control, or GOTO/ P2
five-axis or more (multiaxis) control. More powerful, and
The first of these two statements defines a drilling cycle that
therefore more complex, programming languages are generally
drills 1” deep at a feed rate of 3 ipm. The second statement
required to program multiaxis machine tools.
executes this cycle at point 2. Similar metric statements could be
Language Syntax constructed.
Part programming languages consist of a vocabulary of Postprocessor statements. The postprocessor statements are
words and/ or numbers which, when combined according to written in the following format:
certain rules, called syntax, are capable of producing sets of part number/job and operation identification
instructions for machining parts. These instructions, called machine/ specification of the postprocessor and (optional)
source statements, are composed of individual geometry, tool other machine tool parameters
5-58
CHAPTER 5
For example, the postprocessor statements for milling a part machine tool is permitted to travel—-all machining activities
might be written: take place within the specified boundary.
Par[ description statements. The format for part description
PARTNO/JOB AB123 OPERATION 25
is:
MACHIN/MILL,M,N
The first statement assigns job and operation numbers so that Symbol, descriptive data
the part program can be easily identified by the programmer or For example, a specific point can be defined as follows:
machine operator. In the second statement, “MILL” specifies
DPTI,6XA,3YA,0ZA
the postprocessor, and “M” and “N” (which are optional)
specify machine tool parameters if the postprocessor is driving “DPT 1” specifies the type of geometry element and identifies
multiple machine tools. it as point 1; the alphanumerics that follow specify the location
Auxiliary s[atemenls. Auxiliary statements are written in the of the point along the X, Y, and Z axes. The “A” following the
following format: axis descriptor indicates that the point is located with reference
to absolute zero and not the current datum or base.
tool change/ tool number, gage length
Tool selection statements. Tool selection is specified in this
cutter/ tool diameter
generaI format:
spindle/ speed of tool’s rotation
feed rate/ value Automatic Tool CHanGe, tool number, gage length, tool
For example, the auxiliary statements for a tool change might diameter, speed of tool’s rotation, feed rate
read: For example, tool selection might be specified as follows:
LoADTL/’l,5 ATCHG,TOOL1,GL5, TDI, IOORPM,61PM
CUTTER/ 1
The tool to be used is number 1; the gage length is set at 5 units;
SPINDL/ 1000
the tool diameter is I unit; and the tool rotates at 100
FEDRAT/6
revolutions per minute and, when cutting, feeds at 6 inches per
The first statement specifies that tool 1, with a gage length of minute. Similar metric statements may be constructed.
5 units, is to be loaded. The cutter statement specifies that the Too/ motion s[aremen[s. Tool motion statements follow this
tool diameter is 1 unit. The spindle statement specifies that the format:
tool rotates at 1000 rpm. The feed rate statement gives a feed
motion type, location
rate of 6 ipm. Similar metric statements may be constructed.
ANSI Standard X3.94-198X. There are four types of state- For example, if the tool is currently at location 6XA,3YA,0ZA,
ments in X3.94 languages: initialization, part description, tool which was specified previously to be point 1, and if the cutter is
selection, and tool motion. Initialization statements specify the to be moved at rapid traverse motion to a predefine point 2.
machine tool/ control combination, job identification, the the programmer would simply write:
input/ output mode, and other machine-specific parameters. MOVE,PT2
Part description defines geometry. Tool selection statements
specify the tool and whether the tool change is automatic or “MOVE”is the vocabulary word for rapid traverse motion. If a
manual. Tool motion statements describe the tool path and hole is to be drilled at point 2, the programmer would write:
speed and feed rates. DRL,PT2,1DP
Initialization starernerr[s. The format for initialization state-
ments is: The hole would then be drilled at point 2, at a depth (“DP”) of 1
unit.
machine, specification of postprocessor (link) Comparison of syntax for two sample part programs. Table
identification, job/ operation identification 5-19 is a sample of how short part programs might be written in
initialization, dimensioning standard for input/ outout two language standards to describe machining of a simple part
setup, tool home position, tool travel limits (Fig. 5-30).
For example, the initialization statements for milling a part
Simplified Programming Methods
might read:
In machining work, certain patterns of tool movement repeat
so often that it becomes useful to store them as separate
MACHIN, MILL
subprograms, which may be recalled and inserted later, where
IDENT, JOB AB123 OPERATION 25
appropriate, in new part programs. These “routines” simplify
lNIT, INCH) lN, METRIC/OUT
part programming by permitting the programmer to recall a
SETUP, X3, Y6.5, ZI0, LIMIT (X-10/ 10, Y-10/ 10. Z-O/20)
series of instructions from a single command.
In these statements, “M lLL”’specifies the postprocessor (also Routines are often distinguished by the terms “macros” and
called a “link”); job and operation numbers are assigned for “canned cycles.” A macro is defined as the source language
purposes of identification by the programmer and machine instruction which is the equivalent of a specified series of
operator; and “INCH/ IN, METRIC/OUT” specifies that the machine instructions. A canned cycle. on the other hand, is the
data is input from the part design in inches but is to be output actual preset sequence of machining events that is initiated by a
for machining in metric units. In the setup statement, the first single command.
group of X, Y, and Z coordinates specifies the position to which A canned cycle, for example, might utilize the single com-
the tool returns following different machining operations; the mand, DRILL PATERN X, to initiate all machining activities
second group of coordinates specifies the furthest limits the needed to drill an array of holes (specified by “PATERN X“).
5-59
CHAPTER 5
TABLE 5-19
Sample Part Programs for Workpiece Illustrated
in Figure 5-30
ANSI Standard X3.37- 1977. ANSI Standard X3.94- 198X,
PARTNO) X337 EXAMPLE MACHIN,MILL

MACHIN/MILL IDENT, X394 EXAMPLE
CLPRNT INIT,INCH
lNTOL/.001 SETUP,5X,5Y,1OZ
OUTTOLI .001 BASE, OXA,OYA,OZA
DEFINE PART GEOMETRY DEFINE PART GEOMETRY
PI = POINT/ .75,2,.5 DLN1,XB

P2 = POINT/ 1.5,2 .75,0 DLN2,YB
LN1 ❑ LINE/0,0,0,1 DLN3,4.5XB
LN2 ❑ LINE/o, o,4.5,0 DLN4,1.32YB
LN3 ❑ L1NE/4.5,0,4.5,1 .32 DLN6,2.75YB
LN4 ❑ LINE/4.5,1.32,0,1.32 DLN5,1,5XB,2.75 YB,60CW
LN5 = LINE/ P2,ATANGL,-60 DPT1,.75XB,2YB,.5ZB
LN6 = LINE/0,2.75, 1,2.75 DCIRI,PT1,.75R
LN7 = LINE/ 0,-.l,l,-.l DCIR2,LN51 XL.625,LN4/ YL.625,.625R
Cl = CIRCLE/.75,2,.75 DSET1,PTl,l+l/8 DIA,8EQSP,0CCW, NOMORE
C2 ❑ ClRCLE/YLARGE,LN4, XLARGE,LN5,RADlUS,.625
C3 = CIRCLE/ .75,2,.5625
DRILL 8 HOLE BOLT CIRCLE
PAT I = PATERN/ ARC, C3,0,315,CCLW,8
PLNI = PLANE/ 0,0,1,-.l ATcHG,TOOL1,GL5,.234 TD,118TPA,1000RPM,3 IPM
DRL,SETI,.5THRU
DRILL 8 HOLE BOLT CIRCLE
MILL PERIPHERY IN CLOCKWISE DIRECTION
LOADTL/ 1,5
CUTTER/ .234 ATCHG,TOOL2>GL4, TD1,300RPM,41PM
SPINDL/ 1000 MovE,oFFLN 1/xs,oFFLN2/Ys.l
FRoM/ 5,5,10 MOVE,.6ZB
CYCLE/ DRILL,.7,3,1PM,9.4 CUT, -.1ZB
GOTO/ PAT I ARC I ,OUT,CW,S( 180), F(270)
RAPID CUT, PARLN6,0FFLN5/XL
GoTo/-l,-l,.6 ARC2,1N,CCW,S(TANLN5 ), F(TANLN4)
CUT, PASTLN3
MILL PERIPHERY IN CLOCKWISE DIRECTION CUT, PASTLN2
CUT, PASTLN1
LOADTL/ 2,4 END
CUTTER/ 1 $
sPINDL/3oo
RAPID
GoTo/’-ll,l 6.6
FEDRAT/4
GO/ LN1 ,PLN 1,LN7
TLLFT,GOLFT/ LN I
GOFWD)CI
GOFWD/ LN6
GORGT/ LN5
GoFwD/c2
GOFWD/ LN4
GoRGT/LN3
GoRGT/LN2,PAsT,LNl
END
FINI
5-60
CHAPTER 5
Following the drilling of these holes, the DRILL command correction of errors. X3.37 languages, on the other hand, first
would simply be replaced by REAM and then TAP, in process the entire program and output a cutter location data
conjunction with PATERN X, to complete the machining of all file. This data is then separately read into the postprocessor. A
holes in the pattern. list of error messages for the entire part program is generated
Routines generally control the following machine functions: following each processing stage.
Postprocessors and formatters are designed to extend
● Selection of the cutting tool according to turret location.
language capabilities over the entire spectrum of possible
● Movement of tbe tool at a rapid speed to tbe general area
machine tool and control combinations. Such “machine-
of the workpiece.
independent” capabilities ensure that the language continues to
● Deceleration and approach to tbe workpiece.
meet the demands of fast-paced advances in machine technology.
● Machining.
● Departure in a safe path from tbe workpiece.
Methods of Error Detection
● Return of the tool, at rapid speed, to tbe turret home
Methods of error detection depend on the mode of processing
position.
and the type of postprocessing. If a language is processed in
Languages vary in the number of simplified programming batch mode, a list of error messages is produced for the entire
routines they are able to handle, the versatility of these routines, program, and the errors must be corrected before further
and the extent to which the programmer can adapt the routines processing can occur, Interactive processing provides line-by-
to a preferred machining method. For lathe operations, for line error analysis. (See the previous section, “Processing tbe
example, the programmer will want to know if the language Language,” for a more complete discussion of error detection
capabilities include: by processing mode.)
Error detection is aimed at three general types of errors:
. Automatic roughing from raw stock size to near finished
syntax (or parsing), geometry, and machining errors. Some
part size.
language systems can analyze all three types in a single
. Finishing cuts along a prescribed profile.
pass. Mukiple-pass systems, on the other hand, may require
. Threading with single point cutting tools.
one or more separate passes for detection of syntax errors, A
. Plunge cuts for grooving and necking.
postprocessor may also be required for detection of
. Drilling, boring, and reaming cuts.
machining errors.
Having determined the availability of such simplified pro-
gramming methods, the programmer then needs to determine MACHINING APPLICATIONS OF
the specific way each language is able to program these routines. LANGUAGES
In addition, the programmer will want to know if the language The acid test of any computer-assisted part programming
has the capability to program additional kinds of routines. language is its ability to efficiently produce both the types of
(Figure 5-34 shows several representative routines written in the parts currently in production and new part types that the user
two ANSI language standards, X3.37 and X3.94.) might want to produce in the future. in machining environments
in which a small set of parts are continually in production and in
Operation of the Postprocessor which machining applications are not expected to change,
Postprocessors convert tbe general form of machine instruc- specialized languages may be suitable. In other machining
tions produced by the processor to the specific form that the environments, in which many diverse types of parts are
machine tool can understand. Capabilities of a postprocessor to produced or in which there is interest in expanding machining
perform this function, however, vary, depending on whether the capabilities, a general-purpose programming language may be
postprocessor is part of a full programming language or a more appropriate.
computer-assisted manual part programming language. The kinds of criteria that need to be considered in determining
Computer-assisted manual programming employs a format- the language best suited for general, specialized, and combined
ter, which although it is similar to a postprocessor, has more machining applications are discussed in the following sections.
restricted capabilities. The formatter converts the processor It must be stressed, however, that it is impossible to say that any
output to the correct tape format for the intended control unit. one programming language is the “best. ” Rather, the best
It checks to ensure that data is correctly entered within each language is that which best fits the specific machining
block of information and automatically enters the correct applications.
leading and trailing zeros and decimal points.
A full-language postprocessor, in addition to the above General Applications
capabilities, provides more sophisticated analysis of tool motion In writing languages that handle a large number of parts of
data, adjusting feed and speed rates to the machine’s level of varying complexity for such general machining applications as
dynamic response and checking for tool path clearance. The milling, drilling, and turning, designers have had to balance
postprocessor also provides more sophisticated diagnostics and flexibility of machining capabilities with the need for economy
generally reduces (and simplifies) the amount of programming and simplicity in the programming language. Some general-
needed to be done. purpose languages are designed to describe part designs of a
Among specific general-purpose languages, postprocessors high level of complexity. Other languages are intentionally
may function in one of two ways: The X3.94 languages specify limited to the programming of simpler workpieces, reflecting
the machine tool/ control in the initialization statement. This the fact that the great majority of parts do not require complex
permits simultaneous processing and postprocessing on a line- programming capabilities. (It is estimated, for example, that
by-line basis. Each line of the resulting, machine-specific data is 85-90% of all NC programs control only two or three simul-
placed in the output file before the next source statement is read taneous axes of motion.) In addition, other languages have
into the processor. This immediate feedback permits quick evolved from the general-purpose languages, providing more
5-61
CHAPTER 5
Drilling Set
Turning Rear Lathe
L5
L4
<
13
L2
\
L1
ANSI Standard X3,94 ANSI Standard x3.94

ANSI Standard X3.37
DSET 1, RECT (2.5 LY/6EQSP, 3LX/7EQSP), NOMORE MOVE, OFFLN I /ZL, 0FFLN2/XL
ATCHG. GO/ L2,Ll AUTOPS
CUT, PARLN2, 0FFlN3/xL
DR1, PTl , XYROT60, .5DP GOFWD/ L2, PAST, L3
CUT, PARLN3, 0FFLN4/ZL
GOLFT/13, TO, L4
ANSI Standard X3.37 CUT, PARLN4, 0FFLN5/XL
GORGT/ 14, PAST, L5
VI = VECTOR/ lENGTH, 2.5 ATANGL, 150, XYPLAN
PAT 1 = PATERN/llNEAR, PI, Vl, 6
V2 = VECTOR/ lENGTH, 3, ATANGL, 60, XYPLAN

PAT 2 = PATERN/LINEAR, PI, V2, 7
PAT 3 = PATERN/GRID, PAT 1, PAT 2 Drilling Bolt Circle
CYCLE/DRILL. I
GOTO/PAT 3 \
Milling Contour
Assumed start Iocatlon
Arc 1
Circle 1
/
ANSI Standard X3.94
ARC I , OUT, CW, S(1OC), F(TANLN I )

I ANSI Standard X3.94
DSET1 , 8EQSP, 5BC, S(1 2), CW, F(327), NOMORE

ARC2, IN, CCW, S(TANIN I ), F(ONLN2, YS) ATCHG.
DRL, SET I , PTI , .5DP
ANSI Standard X3.37
ANSI Standard X3.37
GOFWD/Cl , TANTO, 11
PAT 4 = PATERN/ARC, Cl, 12, 327, CLW, 8
GOFWD/Ll , TANTO, C2
CYCLE/DRILL.
GOFWD/C2, ON, L2
GOTO/ PAT 4
,:.. S ‘IA C- — _,. . -....<___ ..,.,.. -—, —. L- . . ..— ,-.. —.. .—. -.. -.>. —.- “0 a- . .. . w- n,
5-62
CHAPTER 5
simplified subsets of their parent languages for programming require more complex, multiaxis machine control or that
parts of varying types and complexity. involve complex part descriptions may require use of specialized
The types of questions to be answered in matching a language languages designed to handle only those specific applications.
to shop needs involve part complexity, part mix, and machine Such languages may be purchased from a vendor or, when
types. Part description limits should be set that adequately serve possible, may be written by an in-house programmer. A
specific needs. For example, does the plant ever mill threads? general-purpose language might also be successfully applied to
Does it manufacture special threads? If it does, adopted the specialized application, although it may require more
languages must be able to describe their features. Because the extensive programming than would normally be necessary.
characteristics of turning are generally less complex than those
for milling, a simpler programming language might be chosen if
Combined Applications
this is the only type of machining to be performed in the shop.
Machines have been developed that have the capability to
A further concern is the ability of a specific language to
perform a combination of machining operations with one initial
accept alternate formats for defining the geometry elements
setup. Such combined applications include milling on a lathe,
that describe the part dimension. Some languages may limit the
flamecutting on a punch press, and drilling and tapping on a
number of acceptable formats to gain simplicity in the software.
punch press. These machines help to increase productivity by
For example, one could expect that most languages accept the
reducing the number and length of required setups, handling
definition of a line as being designated by two points or by a
time, and in-process inventory and by improving overall
point and an angle to another line or axis. However, the more
utilization of the machine tool. Although the number of
complex definition of a line as the intersection of a line and a
these machines in use is relatively small at this writing, it is
conic or tabulated curve would not be available in many
expected that their population will increase rapidly over the
languages. While the decision to limit such formats may have
next ten years.
advantages, it also may require the programmer to make
Computer-assisted part programming has helped to increase
additional calculations if the part drawing is more conveniently
the productivity of these machines. Because of their increased
dimensioned in another way. (Seethe section on how geometry
versatility and complexity, more powerful, general-purpose
is determined, under “Language Capabilities, ” for specific
programming languages are generally used to program parts on
examples of alternative definitions for geometry elements.)
these machines. Specialized computer-assisted programming
The availability of simplified programming routines must
techniques, such as nesting, also help to enhance combined
also be considered in determining if the machining capabilities
machining capabilities. Versions of general-purpose languages
of a language fit the needs of a particular shop. The availability
specifically designed for combined applications are available.
of individual types of routines, and their versatility and
adaptability, must be assessed. The metal removal features of a
given routine should be compatible with normal operating HOW TO SELECTA LANGUAGE
procedures. Some routines remove metal more efficiently for There are two steps in selecting a language: the first is the
the types of parts produced than do others, thereby optimizing internal analysis, in which the types of part designs, the mix of
machine cycle time. A given routine may also be less easily parts being produced, the anticipated volumes of future NC
adapted to alternative operating methods than another. For a work, and the projected changes in kinds of NC machine tools
more complete discussion of the relative capabilities of routines, and computing vehicles are all considered. (Estimates are
the section “Simplified Programming Methods” should be generally projected over a five-year period, as this figure
referenced. generally coincides with the forecast period for market research,
After the machining capabilities of available languages have product development, and other studies normally conducted by
been evaluated, it may be found that one language is able to most companies.) The second step involves matching internal
handle all of the shop’s applications or that it maybe necessary needs to the systems offered by the vendors. The level of skill of
to use two languages; one, for example, for machining centers part programmers and the types and availability of training that
and the other for lathes. Or, it may be found that a single may be required are important considerations. “Candidate”
computer-assisted language can meet most needs and manual languages should be further investigated by contacting specific
part programming can meet the rest. However, because it is vendors and others who use their systems. Benchmark testing of
difficult, and less efficient, for a part programmer to write in the languages should then be conducted on specific parts before
two languages, it is generally recommended that only one the final selection is made.
language be used in a single plant. The ultimate goal in selecting a language is increased
productivity through a reduction in part programming time and
Specialized Applications through improved utilization of the machine tool. Benchmark
Specialized applications fall into three general categories: testing, as well as standard benchmarking as documented in
fabrication, toolmaking, and assembly. Fabrication includes such studies as the Numerical Control Lathe Language Study
such operations as shearing, spinning, bending, flamecutting, (see Bibliography at the end of this chapter), will help to
punching, and welding. Toolmaking includes grinding, mold- determine the relative costs of each language and will assist in
making, electrical disc~rge machining (ED M), and sculptured determining the overall savings in production costs that can be
surfaces. Although assembly applications do not involve the anticipated by implementing a specific programming system.
types of machining applications generally associated with NC, Deciding on a language wottld be easier if a simple test were
the field of robotics in assembly operations may provide an area available that could be used to “grade” the relative merits of
for future extension of numerical control principles as manu- each language. However, many factors that are specific to the
facturing operations become more fully integrated and needs of a shop influence and perhaps even determine decisions.
controlled by computers. It should be remembered that no single best NC language exists;
Specialized fabrication and toolmaking applications that there is only the one that is best for the user’s specific needs.
5-63
CHAPTER 5
The Internal Analysis

The first step of the internal analysis is determination of the
part mix, that is, the ratio of parts turned, drilled, milled, bored, Group number* ]l1213]4 1516171819
etc. The second step is forecasting the volume of production
over the next five years. This step involves analysis of the
current volume of production as well as anticipated development
of new products and production capabilities. A combined
volume and product mix forecast is then developed to determine
the number and types of parts to be programmed.
The third step involves analysis of current equipment, such
as machine tools, controls, and computing vehicles, and
planned acquisitions. This determines the production capa-
bilities of the plant.
I ~p,
Finally, the evolution of part complexity must be considered. BOX machlnma
Even if the volume of production does not appear to increase

over the next five years, if the parts are generally more complex,
more programming time will be needed to produce them. The
user will also need to determine how routines can help reduce
programming time of a specific part mix.
Having determined the characteristics of present and future
production capabilities, the user can limit the number of
languages to be considered according to machining applications.
At this point, the capabilities of the programming staff may
influence selection. For example, more powerful programming
languages used to produce very complex parts may require a
high degree of mathematical ability on the part of the pro-
grammer. The general criteria for determining the programmer’s
skill level include previous part programming and machining
experience, the ability to visualize three-dimensional machining Spherical trigonometry
operations from two-dimensional part drawings, mathematical
D(gltol computation
ability (generally of no higher level than trigonometry), and
attention to details. Figure 5-35 provides a chart for determining Numerical anolys[s
the level of education required as the machining application

increases in complexity,
* Groups 1 through 5 may utlhze computer-assist progrommlng, or
The result of this internal analysis permits the user to go out programming may be done monually, depending on many foctors
into the marketplace armed with the information needed to Groups 6 through 9, because of mothematcal complexity, should be
evaluate the claimed capabilities of the languages. thought of soley In terms of computer-assst progrommlng
** Basic mochlnlng proctlces means knowledge of machine tools ond
cutilng tools; mochme shop procedures; blueprint reading; shop
Selecting a Vendor mathematics—arithmetic and rlght~ngled trigonometry; an under-
The vendors that are selected for further investigation should standing of NC tape formats, manual ~ort wogmnmng.
be interviewed, and the characteristics and claimed capabilities
of their languages as well as cost figures should be reviewed. The
user should learn if the language is available on an in-house
computer or via timesharing, or both. It should be determined if ‘ig. 5-35 Educational level for programming nine groups of parts.
the language is sold or leased. The quality of documentation
and training services should be checked. Also, the user should used. Testing should proceed through to a trial run, if possible,.
check how long the vendor has been in business and how many so as to evaluate both processing and postprocessing, (Care
of its customers produce parts similar to those produced by the should be taken to ensure that the programmer’s skill in using
user. Those customers should be contacted to check such these languages is fairly uniform, so that variations in skill do
factors as the reliability of service and back-up support and the not unduly influence the test results. ) 1n such an exercise, the
quality and ongoing availability of training. Table 5-20 provides programmer may even want to make a few errors in the
a comprehensive checklist of questions that should be asked in program to test the diagnostics and editing capabilities of the
selecting a language. language. The performance of each of tbe languages should be
Perhaps the most effective means of judging the capabilities compared. It should be remembered that the evaluation is of the
of a language lies in benchmark testing. Several representative total time it takes to: (1) write source statements from a part
workplaces should be selected, including one or two that are the print, (2) enter the program and correct programming errors,
most complex. These parts should be programmed based on the (3) perform the trial run, and (4) complete machining of the
type of computer system and machine tools that will actually be finished part.
5-64
CHAPTER 5
TABLE 5-20
Checklist for Evaluating Computer-Assisted NC Programming Language Systems
Business, operational Cost elements

How long has the vendor been involved in NC programming Local processing system?
service or product business? Host computer purchase or lease if used only for NC
How many employees are assigned to these activities? Programming?
How many NC programming service/ product customers does Host computer, variations in charges for time of day and
the vendor have? turnaround time?
What manuals are provided? cost? Terminals, purchase or lease?
How good is the programmer’s manual? Terminals, connection cost if terminal is remote from host?
What training courses are provided? where? how long are they? Plotter(s), purchase or lease?
cost? Additional memory units and memory controller?
What consulting services are offered? cost? Printers, punches, readers, hard copy units, purchase or lease?
Is it a local or remote processing service? batch or time-shared? Supplies, cards, tape, paper?
Maintenance of hardware, terms, and warranty period?
Local Processing:
Software, operating and communication systems, initial and
What host computer is required? terminals’? other equipment?
service charges?
What peripherals are used: plotters, printers, readers, punches?
Software, processors of all sorts, initial terms, maintenance,
Who maintains the equipment?
service?
What types of terms are offered?
Documentation costs?
Who provides and maintains the software for local systems?
Training costs, per pupil, special courses?
Does the vendor develop and maintain postprocessors?
Consulting service, cost arrangements?
Does the vendor give support for failure reports from users?
Programmer salaries plus fringes?
Remote Processing: Supervision and overhead?
Where is the nearest regional center? Office space, environmental controls?
How is the center contacted for programming work? Stabilized power supply?
What is the host computer? what terminals are required at user Telephone charges for calls to vendor for advice and help?
site? Hardware maintenance technician?
Who maintains the user terminals? cost?
Remote Processing Systems:
What postprocessors are available? cost?
Connect time charges to computer?
Technical capability CPU-use charges?
1s this a 2D, 2fiD, or 3D system? Variations in the above with time of day?
Does it control two, three, four, or five-axis machine took? Storage charges for postprocessors, etc.?
How many axes can be controlled for simultaneous License fee for system?
movement? Telephone tolls to remote site?
Does it control point-to-point, straight-line cutting, contouring? Terminals, purchase or lease?
What definitions may be used for points? for lines’? for circles? Plotters, purchase or lease?
for mathematically defined curves? for tabulated curves? Printers, punches, readers, hard copy units, purchase or lease?
What definitions for planes may be used? for cylinders? cones? Maintenance of terminals, peripherals?
spheres? toroids? for other solids? Documentation costs?
How are patterns of points defined? Training cost per pupil, special courses?
Can patterns be transported? rotated? mirror-imaged? scaled? Consulting services, cost and arrangements?
Can points in patterns be omitted? Postprocessor costs and maintenance charges?
Can the cutting sequence of points in patterns be changed? Programmer salaries plus fringes?
What canned cycles or subroutines are available: Supervision and overhead?
For lathe work: automatic roughing, profile finish cutting, Office space, environmental controls?
single-point threading, tap and die threading, plunge Supplies, cards, tape, paper?
cutting, drilling, boring, reaming, other? Security for proprietary information?
For milling work: straight-line cutting, contour cutting,
change of plane selected for contouring, automatic face
finishing, automatic pocket milling, sculptured surface
cutting, control of fourth and fifth-axis motion, other?
Can it compute feeds and speeds from material specifications?
Note: Hardware may be purchased, leased, or rented through the vendor or through a third party
5-65
CHAPTER 5
ADAPTIVE CONTROL
ADAPTIVE CONTROL
In general, adaptive control (AC), sometimes referred to as The modification function involves implementing the changing
automatic adaptive control (AAC), is a type of system which of process parameters as dictated by the decision function.
automatically and continuously identifies on-line performance
of an activity (a process or operation, for example) by Adaptive Control for Constraint
measuring one or more variables of the activity; comparing the With ACC, machining conditions such as spindle speed
measured quantities with other measured quantities, calculated and/ or feed rate (usually only feed rate) are maximized within
quantities, or established values or limits; and modifying the prescribed limits of machine and tool constraints such as
activity by automatically adjusting one or more variables to maximum horespower, torque, or force. This type of adaptive
improve or optimize performance. control is the most common in metalworking.
Automatic adaptive control was conceived nearly 30 years
ago and has applicability in a variety of industries and TRENDS AND APPLICATIONS
operations, ranging from control of navigation systems in Sophisticated ACO systems have been developed and have
aircraft to process control in the petroleum, chemical, and shown some viability in laboratory work; however, most
metals industries. To a somewhat limited extent, AC has also productive applications of AC are of the less-sophisticated
been applied to the control of machine tool performance; ACC type and usually involve control of a single operation
however, the application of AC to improve performance of the through feed rate adjustments on a stand-alone machine tool.
many machining processes has proved difficult because of the The impetus for development of AC systems initially came
large number and relative unpredictability of variables which from the aircraft and aerospace industries. Early investigative
play roles in establishing machining performance. work resulted in very complex and sophisticated systems that
continuously sensed many variables and varied both spindle
ADAPTIVE CONTROL CLASSIFICATIONS speed and feed rate. ‘0’11 In recent years, both machine tool
Although much controversy exists relative to the exact manufacturers and users have moved from these sophisticated,
definition of AC, particularly as it is applied to control of expensive systems to simpler, lower cost, and more reliable AC
machining operations, some experts consider it to have two systems, some of which measure only a few variables and vary
primary classifications—adaptive control for optimization only the feed rate of a machining operation.
(ACO) and adaptive control for constraint (ACC). Today, most successful applications of AC continue in the
aircraft and aerospace industries, although little if any reliable
Adaptive Control for Optimization information is available regarding the number of AC instal-
With ACO, the performance of an operation is optimized lations. Expertise in CAD/CAM, which is common in these
according to a prescribed index of performance (1P), sometimes high-technology industries, complements and often parallels
called the figure of merit or performance criterion. The 1P or the work required to successfully implement an AC system—
criterion of performance is usually an economic function, such development of advanced computer techniques and structuring
as minimum machining cost or maximum production rate. Part of complex data bases. Additionally, workplaces in the aircraft
quality is used as the criterion of performance in some and aerospace industries are unusually complicated, often
investigations. In many cases, the 1P is usually a character- requiring a great deal of machining time, long NC programs,
istic which is not directly measured, but is calculated from and relatively small production runs, thus making conventional
several variables. methods of optimizing tapes unjustifiable. In some cases,
Systems which employ ACO require three functions: identifi- dimensional variations in large forgings used by these industries
cation, decision, and modification, as shown schematically in create variable machining conditions which must be pro-
Fig. 5-36.9 The identification function compares the process grammed conservatively, thus significantly reducing overall
performance (output) with the 1P value, thus evaluating how machining productivity. Experience has shown that such
well the system is performing. The decision function consists of workplaces are ideally suited to AC.
using this evaluation to determine what should be done to In general, it has also been shown that adaptive control is
improve the performance of the operation (improve the 1P). most appropriate for machining operations on complex work-
places of hard-to-cut alloys and operations characterized by
significant variations in machining parameters, such as work-
Input
piece hardness or machinability, or changes in the dimensions
of cut during the machining operation.
4 Adaptive control, in its current state of development, is often
Modhcotlon
I 1 difficult to justify economically for high-production operations,
4 such as those in the automotive industry, where materials
Declslon typically exhibit fairly consistent properties and relatively
[ J
t
uniform stock removal allowances. This is especially true in
cases when feeds and speeds have been optimized to provide a
measurement of performance reasonable compromise between maximum production and
minimum cost. Some experts believe that, overall, the benefits
of AC decrease as lot sizes increase, although ACC may have a
Fig. 5-36 Three functions are required for optimization-type adaptive beneficial effect on tool life and workpiece quality.
control: identification (measurement of performance), decision, and
modification. Although research and development efforts concentrating on
5-66
CHAPTER 5
ADAPTIVE CONTROL
building reliable AC’s for machine tools have been underway and reduced dependence on operator skill are cited as further
for nearly 20 years, acceptance, overall, has been relatively advantages.
slow; consequently, the use of AC has not grown as rapidly as Other economic advantages are considered attainable through
first expected. This is true even though advancements in related the use of ACC, inchrding reduced interest cost on capital tied
computer hardware and software have taken place at a up in in-process inventory. This savings is often significant
dramatic rate. Several reasons have been forwarded for this when large workplaces are involved that require a great deal of
lack of growth. High cost, complexity, and lack of reliability are machining time.
cited by experts as major roadblocks to wide acceptance. In the As an example of how ACC is used to increase machining
mid 1960’s, sophisticated ACO systems were developed that productivity, Fig. 5-37 illustrates a milling operation and
were very expensive. Today, lower cost ACC systems are machining data which shows the difference between conven-
available which can be retrofit to existing machines; but such tional milling and milling with ACC. This operation is a
systems usually do not guarantee an optimum material removal straight-cut, finish-milling operation in which deflection of the
rate. Tool wear rates and time required for tool changes heavily end mill (1” diam x 3“ flute length, 25.4 mm x 76.2 mm) must not
influence the effective material removal rate, but generally they exceed 0.010” (0.25 mm). When the cutter is sharp and cutting
are not controllable with such AC systems. forces are low, feeding at 20 ipm (508 mm/ rein) is no problem.
Another obstacle to wide acceptance of AC systems is the However, when the cutting tool is dull, the forces increase and
investment required to develop a suitable data base. Expensive the feed rate has to be limited to about 5 ipm ( 127 mm/rein). A
and time-consuming experiments and metalcutting tests are feed rate which is safe for all conditions must be selected, so the
employed to develop these data bases; extensive testing is NC programmer would choose 5 ipm ( 127 mm/ rein). However,
required to collect the data necessary to establish maximum and with the use of ACC, the feed rate can start at 20 ipm (508
minimum allowable values (contraint limits) for measured mm/ rein) with a sharp tool and gradually decrease to 5 ipm (127
process variables for a given tool-workpiece combination. One mm~min) as the tool becomes dull. The average feed rate with
solution to this objection is the development of so-called ACC is more than double the best constant rate.
“trainable” AC systems. i~ The system consists essentially of
automatic inspection of a workpiece characteristic (surface ADAPTIVE CONTROL SYSTEMS
finish, for example) of a completed part and the supplying of the Many different types of AC systems are now available,
output resulting from this inspection to a system which trains ranging from simple automatic tool compensation systems to
the performance measuring system of the adaptive loop. Many sophisticated computer-driven systems which monitor and
experts believe that such systems hold great promise in future control a multitude of machining variables. Increasingly, the
AC applications. proven systems are being offered as standard equipment or as
The development and use of AC systems depends heavily options on modern CNC equipment and other machinery.
upon a thorough understanding of the nature of specific cutting
processes; because such knowledge is limited, satisfactory Automatic Dimensional Control
algorithms are difficult to develop and computer simulation Automatic tool compensation in the pure sense is generally
may be very complicated. The problems involved with AC not considered a form of AC, although many experts consider it
system development are further compounded by the fact that somewhat related. Automatic gaging and cutting tool compen-
many machining processes typically exhibit great variability in sation systems are used for turning and boring operations and
characteristics and strategies to deal with these process varia-
bility are not easily structured.
Probably the greatest stumbling block on the road to AC 2.000* 010
application is the lack of reliable sensors that can be used in (508 i .5mm) -=-
.
,.- I
harsh production environments. Some potential users of ,.
AC cite higher maintenance costs as a major reason for ~-” y
avoiding AC systems. Certainly, the relatively poor success

experienced by early users of AC systems have scared off many Tool deflection m
potential users. (mm) (m) L
JUSTIFICATION OF ADAPTIVE CONTROL

Reduced to its essential, AC means making adjustments in a
machining operation to accommodate changes. Automatic AC,
or ACC, eliminates the need for decision making by the
constant
operator in much the same way as NC allows the operator to Feed rate feed
play a less critical role in process planning. The decline in (mm/min) (pm)
availability of skilled labor and the increased need for improved
part quality highlight the need for such systems as AC.
The problems of economic justification notwithstanding, the
concept of ACC is thought by many experts to be the most
feasible approach to maintaining optimum feeds and speeds in
machining. Proven benefits include increased productivity and Parts machined after tool grind
sometimes longer cutter life; reduced machining costs and (tool wear increases)
reduced scrap rates; improved product quality; greater machine

utilization; and better protection of the machine, tool, and ‘ig. 5-37 Average feed rate with adaptive control is more than double
workpiece from damage. Improved and simplified programming the best constant feed rate possible in this finish-milling operation.
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CHAPTER 5
ADAPTIVE CONTROL
other processes on many types of machine tools, including On some systems, this arrangement is used for automatic
transfer equipment. In boring operations, for example, an wheelhead positioning and retracting, controlling the feed rate
automatic tool compensation system consists of a gage and (both roughing and finishing), stopping the feed for sparkout
feedback circuit that automatically sends a signal to a pneu- and workpiece size control, and compensating for wheel wear.
matically or hydraulically operated tool adjustment mechanism Such controls are ordinarily employed for high-production,
when the tool wear is great enough that the bore size falls out of plunge grinding operations where the use of an in-process
a set of prescribed “compensate” limits. Upon command, the gage is justifiable. More advanced systems have been developed
cutting tool is automatically fed an appropriate amount to for controlling grinding operations, as discussed in the
bring the bore back to nominal size. Such systems are following sections.
commercially available and have been used successfully for
more than 15 years. Sensor Technology
One such system compensates for cutter wear in boring or Sensor technology, often the key to AC advances, has lagged
turning operations. An electronic gage probes a bored hole or behind improvement in computer hardware and software,
turned surface and senses the size difference between the gaged although considerable research and development work has
dimension and predetermined limits. If the size falls outside been and continues to be devoted to the subject of sensors for
prescribed limits (usually set well within actual blueprint limits; AC. High cost and questionable reliability of sensors are the
typically I0-3070 of part print tolerance), a signal is sent to an obstacles most difficult to overcome. Some important machin-
amplifier and relayed to an electronic controller, as shown in ing parameters such as tool wear and surface quality cannot be
Fig. 5-38. [j The controller energizes a compensation module measured practically and accurately during cutting under
which actuates a rod through the revolving spindle to move the production conditions with the current state of the art tech-
cutting edge to the correct setting. Tool cartridges, mounted on nology. As reported in the Machine Tool Task Force Report Lb,
the machine spindles, rest on the precisely tapered ends of the more reliable and economical sensors are required which are
rods. The rods are moved in or out of the spindles by stepping suitable for use in a production environment. They should be
motors with hydraulic or electric drives to push the tool out or easy to retrofit, recalibrate, and replace and should not alter any
in for required adjustments. Adjustments of the cutting edges of the machining parameters. Response speed should be
can be made in increments ofO.0001” (0.0025 mm). To eliminate compatible with the AC system, and output signals should be
drag-out marks, the cutting tools are automatically retracted linear over a wide range of input values and stable over
0.005” (0, 13 mm) after each cut and then reset. temperature variations encountered in production.
Other systems are also designed to compensate for dimen- Laser and electro-optical methods hold some promise of
sional variations in machining operations. For example, means solving problems related to sensor technology as applied to AC.
of compensating for dimensional variations in machine tool Simple, low-cost gas lasers can provide a convenient noncontact
components due to variations in temperature are employed in method of optically measuring a wide range of workpiece
isolated applications. One such system employed on an NC dimensions on-line. This method, operating in isolated produc-
machine features spindle growth compensation. The system tion applications, requires a well-collimated beam of high
automatically offsets the spindle axis and adjusts the NC intensity light which can give a high signal-to-noise ratio. The
commands by the amount of the offset. originating beam can easily be split into several beams, which is
In grinding, automatic in-process gages have been used for the basis for accurately identifying workpiece edges. The effect
many years to continuously measure workpiece size during of reflected and diffracted light in measuring the diameters of
grinding. Such gages are interfaced with the machine controls. cylindrical surfaces can be eliminated with an adjustable system
developed in Japan. The system is shown schematically in Fig.
5-39. Is The workpiece edge is projected by the optical system
and sensed by a position detector.
Surface Rouahness
Surface rough~ess is another important quality parameter
1 Refl
mirr
n
7
I To
* l-n AC
urmt
L
A
12 3
ig. 5-38 A cutting tool (1) bores the workpiece (2). The gage (3) then
probes the bore and sends a signal to the gage amplifier (4) which
comnares the mesent size with the reauired size meset in the control
pan~l. If adjus~ment is required, a signafis relayed f~om the compensator
panel (5) to a stepper motor (6) to adjust a micrometer stop assembly
which controls the motion of a drawbar (7) that adjusts the cutting tool Fig. 5-39 Laser beam can be split and reflected to measure workpiece
to the corrected setting—ready for the next part. diameter on this adjustable system for adaptive control.
5-68
CHAPTER 5
ADAPTIVE CONTROL
which has been of great interest for AC application in recent methods are being used in production applications of AC, but
years. Some investigations suggest that in-process sensing of most direct methods are still confined to the laboratory.
surface finish can be used as an indirect method of measuring Indirect methods of sensing tool wear include measuring
tool wear, although success in this area has been limited (see cutting forces, torque, power, temperature, resistance between
“Tool Wear” in Chapter 1 of this volume, “Principles of tool and workpiece, vibrations, and noise (see “Machinability
Metalcutting and Machinability”). Unfortunately, no practical Test Methods” in Chapter 1 of this volume, “Principles of
methods of sensing surface roughness during machining are Metalcutting and Machinability”).
available at this time for production applications. Several Forces can be measured with relative ease, but correlation
electro-optical sensing methods have been proposed. One with tool wear may be questionable. Correlation is difficult
method developed in Germany involves microscopic measure- because cutting forces are affected by tool geometry, cutting
ments of a projected small light slit on surfaces being turned, conditions, and the work material. Also, an increase in cutting
usinga photodiode array. force due to an increase in flank wear can be compensated by
Another proposed method of measuring surface roughness crater wear, causing a decrease in measured force.
during machining involves measuring the intensity of reflected Cutting temperature (as an indirect measurement of tool
laser light, as shown in Fig, 5-40. 1~This type of sensing device is wear) can be sensed directly by infrared radiation or indirectly
thought to be suitable for specific operations where the surface by thermocouple, although experiments with the latter have
pattern does not change, The relationship between the intensity caused problems of noisy signals, complicated setups, and
of the reflected light and surface finish is affected by many stringent calibration requirements. Sensing of thermal emf
parameters including the type of surface (which varies with the (electromotive force) seems to give a poor correlation with the
operation) and material reflectivity. size of the worn area. However, evaluation of the slope of the
A method of automatically controlling surface roughness by emf vs. the cutting speed may indicate machinability changes
changing in-feed rate in cylindrical plunge grinding operations for the specified tool-workpiece combination. A survey of the
has been developed by Braunschweig Technical University in literature by the University of Michiganla led to the conclusion
West Germany.lT The experimental ACO system employs a that temperature measurement alone would not be adequate for
tracing stylus that follows a peripheral line on the rotating many applications of AC, but that it might be feasible when
workpiece and that is excited to vibrations in its natural combined with measurements of cutting forces. Recommenda-
frequency by the roughness of the surface. These vibrations tions include consideration of imbedded thermocouples as a
generate an electrical signal correlating to centerline average means of temperature measurement, and provision of sensors
and height of peak-to-valley of the surface profile. The for all major components of cutting force.
measuring device may beusedto monitor wheel Iife, as well as Power control is the widely used form of AC systems; often it
tocontrolthe infeed rate tomaintain workplace size. is used in conjunction with other sensed parameters to determine
operating efficiency, to prevent damage to the tool or workpiece,
Tool Wear and to indicate amount of tool wear. One commercially
Several sensing methods have been developed for both direct available system is said to measure true horsepower of a-c oral-c
and indirect on-line sensing of tool wear. Several indirect motors to within 290. Such solid state instruments are supplied
by numerous vendors. In one system, Iso-watt power trans-
ducers in the motor-control panel monitor the voltage and
current of the motor (or any electrical load), and output signals
are converted to hp or kW measurements. The measurements
are displayed and continuously compared to a preset limit,
1 which if exceeded, can be used as a signal to stop the machine or
to signal the operator. Power readings are also available as an
analog and binary-coded decimal output suitable for interfacing
with a recorder, printer, or data acquisition system for AC.
In one lathe system developed in Japan, spindle-motor
current is compared with data-base information in real time.
Feed rate adjustments are performed automatically to compen-
sate for workpiece inconsistencies or tool wear.
Sophisticated milling machines manufactured in Switzerland
employ strain gages in the spindle bearings to monitor cutting
forces. Feeds and speeds are adjusted automatically as the
machine operates.
Direct sensing of tool wear remains mostly experimental.
Tool wear can be indicated by measuring the change in distance
between the tool and machined surface. In a method tested in
Japan, two mechanical feelers and a differential transformer are
employed. The primary detector contacts the work surface, and
a secondary detector (to compensate for thermal expansion and
deflection) contacts the tools. The sensor must be adjusted for
different tools, and there is the risk of possible damage from
chips. Ultrasonic transducers and pneumatic gages have also
Fig. 5-40 Measurement of surface finish involves detecting the intensity been tested for measuring the distance between tool and work,
of reflected laser light. but have not proven practical.
5-69
CHAPTER 5
MACHINE CONTROLS GLOSSARY
Pneumatic gages for scanning flank wear have been tested, placed on tools, just below the cutting edges; when detectors
but this method is rather slow and built-up edges on the tools sense that the spots have worn off, the tools are changed. This
affect the measurements. Small radioactive spots have also been work remains highly experimental.

machine slide and the ideal position. The observer, appara-
A tus, environment, and method of determination influence
A axis An angle defining rotary motion of a machine tool the degree of accuracy obtained.
member or slide around the X axis, such that a right-handed a-c input module Input/ Output Rack module which converts
screw advanced in the positive A direction would be the a-c signals originating in user devices to the appropriate
advanced in the positive X direction. logic level for use with a processor.
abort A signal indicating that an action, operation, or procedure AC/10 An alternating current (a-c) input converts 115V a-c to
is to be terminated. the appropriate logic level for use within the controller. An
absolute accuracy Exactness as measured from a specified a-c output converts the logic levels of the controller to a
reference point. useable 115V a-c output signal.
absolute address 1. The address or identification of a computer ACO See Adaptive Control Optimized.
memory location permanently assigned by the machine acoustic coupler An electronic device that transmits and
designer. 2. A pattern of characters that identifies a storage receives digital data through a standard telephone handset.
location without the use of any intermediate reference. a-c output module Input/ Output Rack module which converts
absolute coding Coding used to write machine language for the logic levels of a processor to an output signal used to
subsequent use when instructions are executed by control control a user’s a-c load.
circuits. acquisition A function which obtains information from memory
absolute coordinate The values of the X, Y, and Z coordinates locations or data files for use in data manipulation or
used in designating a point in space. handling.
absolute dimension A dimension expressed with regard to the a-c reactance See reactance.
origin of a coordinate axis, but not necessarily coinciding active light A LED indicator which, when illuminated, indicates
with the absolute zero point. that valid communication exists between a module and the
absolute readout A presentation, by means of lights, cards, or processor.
other methods, of the true slide position as derived from active storage Data storage locations which hold data being
position commands within a control system. transformed into motion.
absolute reference point An arbitrarily fixed zero location on adapt A computer-aided NC parts programming language
the machine table from which part coordinates are similar to APT, but with fewer capabilities. Developed for
dimensioned. small to medium-scale computers and used basically for
absolute system A system in which all coordinate locations are two-axis contouring.
measured from a fixed location on the machine table or from adapter A device which converts bits of information received
an absolute zero point established by a programmer or a serially into a bit format that can be used by the buffer.
machine designer. adaptive control (AC) A method using automatic means to
a-c See alternating current. change the type and/ or influence of control parameters to
AC See Adaptive Control. achieve near optimum processing performance. Adaptive
ACC See Adaptive Control Constrained. control is used to optimize independent parameters such as
accandec A means of accelerating and decelerating feed rates to speeds and feeds to be consistent with processing constraints
provide smooth starts and stops when an operation is under such as quality of surface finish and cutter life.
numerical control and when feed rate values are changed, Adaptive Control Constrained (ACC) A control system in
acceptance test A test to determine the performance, capability, which improved machine productivity is obtained through
and conformity of software or hardware to design in-process measurement by using limiting values for machine
specifications. parameters such as torque or spindle deflection.
access time 1. The time interval between the instant at which Adaptive Control Optimized (ACO)A control system in which
data is requested from storage and the instant at which optimum machine productivity is obtained through in-
delivery is completed. 2. The time interval between the process measurement and adjustment of operating para-
instant at which data is ready for storage and the instant at meters.
which storage is completed. addend One of a collection of numbers or digital quantities to
accumulator A register in the arithmetic logic unit of a be added to another (augend) to produce a result (sum).
computer in which the result of an arithmetic or logical adder A device capable of forming output representative of the
operation is formed. Numbers may be totaled or manipu- sum of two or more numbers or quantities presented as
lated, or they maybe stored temporarily for transfers to and input.
from memory or external devices. address 1. A name, number, or label identifying a computer
accuracy Conformity of an indicated value to a value accepted register, memory location, storage device, or any other
as standard. The accuracy of a control system is determined computer data source or destination. 2. A symbol indicating
by the difference between the actual position taken by a the significance of information immediately following it.
5-70
CHAPTER 5
address index pin A screw-lock slide pin used to establish number that can be manipulated by the processor.
proper identification of an I/O module. analog 1/0 An analog input converts a continuous analog
address selector A switch, located on the top of each I/O signal to a digital signal which may be processed by the
housing, that establishes the address of the housing. controller. An analog output converts a digital signal from
address word A computer word containing only the memory the controller into an analog signal which may be used in the
location address, process.
ALGOL See algorithmic language. analog output module An 1/O Rack module which supplies
algorithm A finite set of rules or procedures for accomplishing a output, based on and proportional to a three-digit BCD
given result by proceeding on a logical step-by-step basis. number manipulated by the processor and provided to the
Numerical control and computer programs are developed by module.
this method. analog signals Physical variables, such as distance and rotation,
algorithmic language (ALGOL) An international procedure- that correspond to numerical values and represent electrical
oriented language used to develop computer programs by signals.
algorithm. analog-to-digital (A/D) converter A system hardware device
alphameric code See alphanumeric code. sensing continuous analog signals and converting them to
alphanumeric code A coding system consisting of characters, discrete digital signals.
including numbers, letters, punctuation marks, and such AND A logical operation requiring all input values to be TRUE
signs as $, @ and #. Also referred to as alphameric code. to obtain a TRUE resultant quantity or signal.
alternating current (a-c) Electrical current that periodically AND gate A circuit which has two or more input-signal parts
reverses direction, usually many times per second. that must receive coincident signals to produce an output
ambient temperature A temperature within a given volume, signal.
e.g., a room or a building, ANSI American National Standards Institute.
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) application A machine or process monitored by a processor-
A data transmission code used for interchanging information controller by means of a user program developed to
among communication systems, data processing systems, accomplish a specific task.
and associated equipment. Seven bits represent each of the APT See Automatically Programmed Tools.
128 characters in this code. arc clockwise An arc generated by the coordinated motion of
American Wire Gauge (AWG) A standard system used in two axes in which the curvature of the tool in relation to the
designating the diameters and thicknesses of electrical workpiece is clockwise when the plane of motion is viewed
conductors. Used for nonferrous sheets, rods and wires, from the positive direction of the perpendicular axis.
Gauge numbers are inversely related to size. arc counterclockwise An arc generated by the coordinated
ampacity The current-carrying capacity of a wire or cable motion of two axes in which the curvature of the tool in
expressed in amperes. relation to the workpiece is counterclockwise when the plane
ampere 1. The unit of electric current flowing through one ohm of motion is viewed from the positive direction of the
of resistance at one volt potential. 2. A unit of electric perpendicular axis.
current flow equal to a charge of one coulomb (6.24 x IOIX architecture Preset, physical, and logical operating charac-
electrons) past a given point in a circuit in one second. teristics of a control system or control unit.
amplifier A signal gain device that is capable of enlarging the ARELEM Arithmetic Element.
waveform of electric current, voltage, or power supplied as argument The independent variable of a function. Arguments
input. can be passed as part of a subroutine call where they would
amplitude The maximum value attained by the disturbance of a be used in that subroutine.
wave or variance of a quantity. arithmetic capability The ability to do addition, subtraction,
analog The use of physical variables, such as distance and multiplication, and division within a controller or other
rotation, to represent and correspond with numerical vari- device.
ables occurring in a computation, In NC, a system utilizing Arithmetic Element (ARELEM) The part of the APT processor
magnitudes or ratios of electrical voltages to represent that calculates cutter locations based upon the input data
physical axis positions. describing the cutter, geometrical surfaces, and desired
analog computer A continuously measuring computer in which cutting motion along the surfaces.
quantities are represented by physical variables. Problem armor Metal sheath enclosing a cable to increase its mechanical
parameters are translated into mechanical or electrical protection and tensile strength. Generally consisting of steel
circuits as an analog for the physical phenomenon in or aluminum wires, armor is intended for use in dry
question. An analog is used for each variable and produces locations only.
analogs as output. array A series of items or elements arranged in a meaningful
analog data 1. The information content of an analog signal as pattern in one or more dimensions.
conveyed by the value of magnitude of some characteristics ASCII See American Standard Code for Information
of the signal, such as the amplitude, phase, or frequency of a Interchange.
voltage, the amplitude or duration of a pulse, the angular assembler A computer program that converts symbolic input
position of a shaft, or the pressure of a fluid. 2. Data into machine language and assigns memory locations for
representing, in continuous form, original information. For variables and constants. Also referred to as assembly
example, electrical signals on a telephone channel repre- program.
senting a voice. assembly language An operation language consisting of brief
analog input module An 1/O Rack module which converts an expressions. The language is translated by the assembler into
analog signal to a three-digit Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) machine language.
5-71
CHAPTER 5
assembly program See assembler.

associative memory A storage device in which a storage B
location is identified by its data content rather than its background processing Automatic execution of program for
address. performing lower priority wo[-k when progl-ams for higher
asynchronous A method of data transmission in which extra priority work are not using the system resources,
bits are transmitted with each character to identify the backlash The relative motion of interacting mechanical parts
beginning and end of the character. The data bits within each resulting from looseness and deflections.
character are transmitted in a definite time sequence, but the backplane A printed circuit card, located in the back of a
characters themselves are transmitted without a time chassis, that provides the required connections between
relationship between one character and another. logic, memory, and input/ output modules.
asynchronous shift register A shift register that does not require band 1. The range of frequencies between two defined lines. 2. A
a clock. Register segments are loaded and shifted only when group of circular recording tracks on a storage device such as
data is entered. magnetic drum, disk, or tape loop.
asynchronous system A system in which the processes occur as base 1. The quantity of characters for use in each of the digital
needed by data input instead of system timing control. positions of a numbering system. 2. A number multiplied by
attenuation The loss of amplitude in a signal as it is transmitted itself as many times as indicated by an exponent.
through a conductor. base address 1. A given address in a computer instruction
augend A quantity to which another quantity (addend) is added serving as a base, index, initial, or starting point for
to produce a result (sum). subsequent addresses that are to be modified. 2. A number
automated process planning Creation of process plans, with used in symbolic coding in conjunction with a relative
partial or total computer assistance, for items in a particular address.
family. base register See B register.
automatic acceleration and deceleration A control system that BASIC See Beginner’s All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code.
provides for smooth changes in the velocity of the machine batch processing A manufacturing operation in which a
tool slide. designated quantity of material is treated in a series of steps.
Automatically Programmed Tools (APT) A computer-assisted Also, a method of processing jobs so that each is completed
program system describing parts illustrated on a design and before the next job is initialized.
defining, in a sequence of statements, the part geometry, battery low A condition indicating a memory backup battery
cutter operations, and machine tool capabilities. Used for voltage has dropped low enough to warrant battery
turning, point-to-point work, and muhiaxis milling. replacement.
automatic programming Digital computer transformation of baud A unit of signaling speed equal to the number of code
instructions from a person into machine-oriented language elements (bits) per second. Normally one data bit per cycle is
used by the computer. transmitted, but special equipment allows the transmittal of
Automatic System for Positioning of Tools (AUTOSPOT) A 2-4 bits per cycle in an octal train of signals.
general-purpose computer program used in preparing baudot code A code used in transmitting data in which five
instructions for NC positioning and straight-cut systems. equal length bits represent one character.
automatic tape rewind A system feature causing the input tape baud rate Synonymous with signal events (bits)- per-second and
to be rewound to the initial starting block after rcachingend used as a measure of serial data flow between a computer
of program. and/ or communications devices.
AUTOSPOT See Automatic System for Positioning of Tools. B axis The angle defining rotating motion of a machine tool
auxiliary function A function of a machine other than the member or slide about the Y axis.
control of the coordinates of a workpiece or tool. Usually BCD See Binary Coded Decimal.
oni off type operations such as starting and stopping a Beginner’s All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code (BASIC) A
spindle or coolant pump. procedure-level computer language that is easy to learn and
AWG See American Wire Gauge. well suited for time-sharing communication via terminals
axis 1. The general direction of relative motion between cutting connected with a remotely located computer.
tool and workpiece, 2. The reference line determining a Behind the Tape Reader (BTR) A means of putting data
coordinate, obtained by setting all other coordinates to zero. directly into a machine control unit from an external source
other than a tape reader.
axis inhibit A feature of NC control which prevents movement binary A numerical system pertaining to characteristics
of selected machine tool slides when power is on. involving a selection or condition in which two possibilities
axis interchange The capability to put information related to exist.
one axis into the storage of another axis,
binary circuit A circuit operating as a switch, indicating either
axis inversion The reversal of normal plus and minus values of two modes: on or off. Also known as direct circuit and
along an axis making possible the machining of a left- digital circuit.
handed part on equipment programmed for right-handed binary code A code based on two distinct characters expressed
machining, or vice versa. Also referred to as mirror image. as either 1 or O, ON or OFF, or TRUE or FALSE.
axis reversal The reversal of the sign (plus or minus) of the X Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) A method of expressing
and Y input values, on a selective basis, to permit machining individual decimal digits (O through 9) in a binary code
“left-handed” parts from “right-handed” part programs. group, usually the 8-4-2-1 coded decimal notation. For
5-72
CHAPTER 5
example, the number 35 is represented as 0011 0101 in a includes operators, such as AND, OR, NOT, EXCEPT,
BCD notation. Codes in four-bit BCD notations are: IF. . .THEN, that permit mathematical calculations.
bootstrap A short sequence of instructions, or a subroutine,
Bit Decimal
built into the hardware of the computer, that operates a
m o
device allowing another subroutine to be read. The instruc-
0001 1
tions of the second subroutine bring in remaining subroutines
0010 2
and initiate the total program.
0011 3
branch A transfer of control in a program that terminates one
0100 4
sequence of instructions and begins another at a different
0101 5
location.
0110 6
breadboard An experimental circuit set-up exposed on a flat
0111 7
surface for portability and ease of assembly or disassembly.
1000 8
Used to permit a check of an operation or to demonstrate an
1001 9
operation.
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) Notation A positional notation breakdown voltage The voltage at which a disruptive discharge
in which the individual decimal digits expressing a decimal occurs either through or over the surface of insulation.
notation are each represented by a group of four figures breakpoint A point in a program at which an instruction
referred to as a binary number. For example, if the three enables a programmer to interrupt a job by external
rightmost figures of a decimal number are 362, the three intervention.
rightmost figure groups of the BCD number are 0011, 0110, B register A hardware element which holds a number that can
0010. be added to or subtracted from the operand address prior to
binary digit (BIT) A numeral, either 1 or O,in the binary scale of or during execution of a computer instruction. Also known
notation. as index register, base register, or modifier register.
binary word A related grouping of ones and zeroes having Brown and Sharpe Wire gauge (B & S gauge) See American
meaning assigned by position in the binary system. Wire Gauge.
bionics A technology attempting to relate the functions, B & S gauge See American Wire Gauge.
characteristics, and phenomena of living systems to those of BTR See Behind the Tape Reader.
hardware systems. buffer storage 1. A device for storing information for eventual
biquinary system A method of representing decimal numbers, transfer to active storage. It enables the control system to act
each digit of which is represented by one of two binary on stored data without waiting for tape reading. 2. A register
numbers plus one of five quinary numbers. used for intermediate storage of data during the transfer of it
BIT See binary digit. from or to the computer’s accumulators and a peripheral
bit manipulation The process of controlling or monitoring device. 3. A synchronizing element between two forms of
special-purpose bits through user-programmed instructions storage; computation continues while information is trans-
to vary application functions. ferred between the buffer storage device and the secondary
storage device.
bit rate The rate at which binary digits, or the impulses
bug A flaw or defect in a program code or in the design of the
representing them, pass a specific point in a communication
computer rendering the program incapable of performing
line.
the objectives for which it was written.
block Program information that composes one working unit of
building block system A computer system that can be made
several working units of an operation.
larger and more complex by adding modules that permit
block address format 1. A tape programming method for NC
additional operations to be performed.
systems in which only instructions that need changing are
bulk memory A high-capacity memory device, such as magnetic
punched into the tape. 2. A means of identifying words by
tape, disk, or drum, used to store large quantities of data.
use of an address specifying the format and meaning of
This type of memory is nonprogrammable.
words in the block.
bus A conductor, or group of conductors considered as a single
block delete A feature permitting selected blocks of tape to be
entity, which transfers signals or power between elements.
ignored by the control system when indicated by the
operator. byte A sequence of binary digits operated upon as a single unit.
block diagram A simplified schematic drawing setting forth the A byte may be comprised of 8, 12, or 16 binary digits,
sequence of operations to be performed for handling a depending upon the system.
particular application.
blocking The combining of two or more records into one block.
block length The length of a block in regards to the total c
number of records, words, or characters composing it. cable An assembly of electrical conductors that are insulated
bomb out The complete failure of a computer routine resulting from each other, but usually twisted together around a
in the need to restart or reprogram the computer. central core and wrapped in a heavy insulation.
Boolean algebra A process of reasoning or a deduction system CAD See Computer-Aided Design.
of theorems using symbolic logic and dealing with classes, CAL See Conversional Algebraic Language.
propositions, yes/ no criteria, etc., for variablus rather than calibration The adjustment of a device so that output is within a
numeric quantities. Developed by George Boole, this algebra designated tolerance for specific input values.
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CHAPTER 5
calling sequence A specific set of instructions used to begin, containing a specific data set. 3. To include an entry to an
initialize, or transfer to a given subroutine and return from index or to create an entire index.
the subroutine after it is executed. cathode ray tube (CRT) An electronic vacuum tube in which an
CAM See Computer-Aided Manufacturing. electron beam can be focused on a small area of a luminescent
Canadian Standards Association (CSA) The equivalent of screen and varied in position and intensity to form alpha-
Underwriter’s Laboratories (UL). numeric or graphic representations.
cancel A command discontinuing any sequence commands or C axis An angle defining rotary motion of a machine tool part
canned cycles. or slide around the Z axis.
canned cycle In numerical control, a set of operations preset in central processing unit (CPU) The portion of a computer that is
hardware or software and initiated by a single command. the basic memory or logic. It includes the circuits controlling
Several operations are performed in a predetermined the interpretation and execution of instructions. Also known
sequence; the function ends with a return to the beginning as the processor, frame, or main frame.
condition. chad The piece of material that is removed from a storage
capacitance The property of a circuit or body that permits it to medium such as a punched card or tape, when a hole or
store an electrical charge equal to the accumulated charge notch is formed.
divided by the voltage. The unit of capacitance is a farad. chad detector A circuit in an NC system to check for pieces of
capacitive reactance Opposition of current due to capacitance material that remained in the hole of a medium, such as a
which causes any voltage change to slow any change in card or tape, after it was punched.
applied current. Equal to the product of the capacitance and channel 1. A longitudinal row of holes punched in a storage
the angular frequency. The unit of capacitive reactance is the medium such as paper tape. Standard NC tape has eight
ohm. channels. Also known as levels. 2. The part of a storage
capacitor An electric device consisting of conducting surfaces medium that is accessible to a specific reading station in a
separated by thin layers of insulating material (a dielectric). computer; for example, a path parallel to the edge of a
It introduces capacitance into a circuit, stores electrical magnetic tape or drum. 3. A path along which digital
energy, blocks the flow of direct current, and permits the information flows in a computer.
flow of alternating current to a certain degree. Also referred character 1. A letter, digit, or symbol used to express
to as a condensor. information.
card An information-carrying medium that introduces instruc- character set A defined set of unique characters. Examples
tions to computers, either directly or indirectly and often via include the 26 letters of the alphabet, the Boolean O and 1,
punched codes. the signals in the Morse code, and the 128 ASCII characters.
card punch A device used to punch holes in a card according to character string A sequence of characters.
a standard code, charging current The flow of current into a capacitor when a
card reader A device used to sense and transmit information voltage is initially applied to it.
from code punched on cards. charging time The time necessary for the voltage across a
card-to-tape conversion An operation in which data is converted capacitor to acquire a desired value.
directly from punched cards to punched or magnetic tape by chattering Rapid cyclic action within an electromechanical
means of a utility program, device caused either by a fault in the device or an incorrectly
carrier wave The basic frequency repetition rate of signal written user program.
(frequency) which bears no intrinsic intelligence until it is check sum An error detection code in which all 1 bits of a group
varied, or modulated, by another signal that bears intelli- of data storage locations are added. Summing is done
gence. without carrying from one column to the next. The result is
carry A digit, or equivalent signal, resulting from an arithmetic stored for checking subsequent data for variance. Check
operation in which the sum of digits in a positional notation sums are prepared for any part of logic memory, coil storage,
equals or exceeds the numbering system base. The digit is or register content.
forwarded to another digit place for processing there. chip 1. A small piece of semiconductor material on which
cartesian coordinate system A system of two or three axes that electrical components are formed; an electronic circuit
intersect each other at right angles forming rectangles. Any element prior to the addition of terminal connections and
point within the rectangular space can be identified by the prior to being encased. 2. A piece of silicon cut from a slice
distance and direction from any other point. Also known as by scribing or breaking, possibly containing one or more
rectangular coordinate system. circuits but packaged as a unit. Also known as die.
cascading 1. An automatic controlling system in which control CIMS See Computer Integrated Manufacturing System.
units are linked to regulate the operation of the adjacent circuit A system of conductors and related electrical elements
unit. 2. A programming technique that extends the timing through which electrical current flows.
and counting ranges beyond the maximum values that can circuit card A printed circuit board containing electronic
be accumulated. components.
cassette recorder A peripheral device for transferring data to or circular interpolation The control of a cutting tool in a complete
from a cassette tape. circle or arc by a machine control unit which has been given
cassette tape Magnetic tape stored on spools within a standard basic statements such as coordinates of center point, radium,
cartridge—self-contained and operable from a cassette direction of travel, and coordinate locations of arc end
recorder. points.
catalog 1. An ordered list of item descriptions with sufficient clear To erase the contents of a storage device, or return a
data to allow access to the item. 2. A master index of all data memory to a nonprogrammed state, by replacing the
set indexes used by the control program to locate an entry contents with blanks or zeroes.
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CHAPTER 5
CL information See cutter location data. Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) circuitry
clock A device which synchronizes the timing of various logic An integrated circuit family characterized by low power
circuits and memory in a controller. consumption.
clock rate The speed or frequency at which a controller transfers computer An electronic device which uses programmed instruc-
words or bits through internal logic sequences. tions to accept information in the form of signals or symbols,
closed-loop system A system in which a reference signal from a performing substantial computation, including arithmetic
controller is compared with a position signal generated by a or logic operations, and supplying results of its performance
monitoring unit on the machine tool (feedback)—the without human operator intervention during the run.
difference is used to adjust the machine tool to reduce the Computer-Aided Design (CAD) The use of computers to aid in
difference to zero. designing products.
CMOS See Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) The use of computers
circuitry. to aid in the various phases of manufacturing. Numerical
CNC See Computer Numerical Control. Control (NC) is a subset of CAM.
coaxial cable A two-conductor cable comprised of a wire computer grade tape High-quality magnetic digital recording
centrally supported by insulators insidea flexible or non- tape that is rated 1600 FCI (flux changes per inch) or greater.
flexible metal tube. computer graphics The process of communicating between a
COBOL See Common Business Oriented Language. person and a computer in which the computer input and
code 1. A system of organized symbols (bits) representing output are pictorial in nature, having the form of charts,
information in a language that can be understood and drawings or graphs. Cathode ray tubes, curve tracers,
handled by a control system. 2. A system of symbols that can mechanical plotting boards, coordinate digitizers, and light
be used by machines such as computers. Special external pens are employed in the creation of the graphic design.
meaning is dictated by the specific arrangement of the Computer Integrated Manufacturing System (CIMS) A multi-
symbols. machine manufacturing complex linked by a material
code conversions The means of changing a character bit handling system and including features such as toolchangers
grouping in one code into a corresponding character bit and load/ unload stations. Under the control of a computer,
grouping in another code. various workplaces are introduced into the system, then
coded-decimal code See decimal code, randomly and simultaneously transported to the NC machine
coding The preparation of a set of program instructions, by tools and other processing stations.
means of a specialized language, into an accurate represen- computer language The computer understands instructions
tation of the program thereby allowing a given action to be coded as binary numbers. Since programming in binary
taken or problem to be solved. codes is very demanding, symbolic translator programs have
COM See Computer Output Microfilm. been written which enable the programmer to express the
command A signal from a machine control unit initiating a problem not directly in the “MACHINE LANGUAGE” of
movement or function. the computer, but rather in a more powerful language, which
command readout A visual display of input data read from the will be translated into the basic language and encoded into
tape of a control system. the binary format automatically. The symbolic translator is
Common Business Oriented Language (COBOL) A pro- itself a computer program that operates on the format of the
gramming language used mostly for business purposes. input (SOURCE) program and outputs it as machine
Most NC computer programs are written in FORTRAN language (OBJECT) code, ready to be executed.
(Formula Translation), ASSEMBLY language is one of many such translators. It
communications link See data link. enables using mnemonic code sets rather than binary
comparator A device or network used to compare information numbers to program a set of instructions. For example, a
from two sources. program could be written:
compare function A user-programmed instruction which START CLA CLEAR ACC
equates numerical values for’’equal” or “less than” relation- A, IAC INCREMENT ACC
ships for the purpose of varying an operation sequence or SKA SKIP NEXT INSTRUCTION
application. IF ACC = O
compatibility The degree to which tapes, languages, pro- JUMP, A JUMP BACK TO
gramming, and various specified units can be interchanged INSTRUCTIONS
between various machine tools and various NC systems with HLT LABELED A
minimal reduction in capability. STOP THE COMPUTER
compensation 1. Electrical filter circuits used in servo controllers
to improve the performance of closed-loop systems. 2. When FORTRAN is a still more powerful symbolic translator.
contouring, the displacement, always normal to the cutting It lets the user express the problem he is trying to solve in a
path and workpiece programmed surface, that accounts for mixture of English words and mathematical statements.
the variance between the actual and programmed radius and Additionally, an attempt was made to make FORTRAN
dimension of the cutting tool. computer independent so that a program coded in
compile To convert a program written in a high-level problem- FORTRAN does not have to run on a specific computer.
oriented computer language into the binary-coded instruc- The above program coded in FORTRAN would be written:
tions that the computer can interpret. A=O
compiler A software program which translates symbolic opera- A=A+l
tion codes into machine operation codes to produce an IF (A. NE. O)GOTO 2
object language program. STOP
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CHAPTER 5
Computer Numerical Control (CNC) A self-contained NC instructions, initiates proper signals to the other computer
system for a single machine tool utilizing a dedicated circuits to execute instructions.
computer controlled by stored instructions to perform some conversational mode Communication between a human opera-
or all of the basic NC functions. Punched tape and tape tor and a computer via a keyboard terminal or other
readers are not used except possibly as backup in the event of input~ output device. Questions and responses are elicited
computer failure. Through a direct link to a central processor, from the computer by the operator and vice versa.
the CNC system can become part of a Direct Numerical conversion See data conversion.
Control (DNC) system. Conversional Algebraic Language (CAL) A high-level language
Computer Output Microfilm (COM) A microfilm printer that developed especially for time sharing in which a remote
takes output directly from the computer, substituting for a console typewriter connects its user to the computer for
line printer or tape output. on-line solutions to problems.
computer part programming The preparation of a manuscript, coordinate dimensioning A system of assigning dimensions
in an NC computer language, to define the necessary based on a common starting point.
calculations to be performed by the computer. coordinate dimensioning word 1. A word defining an absolute
computer program A detailed set or series of instructions or dimension with respect to a specified reference zero. 2. A
statements in a form acceptable as input to a computer to word in a block of machining information providing instruc-
achieve a specific result. tions for one of the axes of the machine.
condensor See capacitor. core A ring of ferrite which can be magnetized either clockwise
conditional jump An instruction interpreted as an unconditional or counterclockwise to represent a binary digit O or 1.
transfer if a specified condition is satisfied. If the condition is core memory A programmable high-speed random-access data
not satisfied, the transfer does not occur. storage device used to store information in ferrite cores.
conductance The ratio of current passing through a material to Usually employed as a working computer memory, the core
the voltage across it. In d-c, conductance is the reciprocal of memory retains information in the event of a power failure.
resistance. In a-c, it is resistance divided by the square of the Also referred to as magnetic core memory and magnetic core
impedance. storage.
conduit Solid or flexible metal tubing or other tubing through core plane A network of ferromagnetic cores, each representing
which insulated electric wires are run. the same respective bit of all memory locations regardless of
configuration 1. A group of units that are interconnected and the address.
arranged to operate as a system. 2. The arrangement of core resident Programs permanently stored in the core memory,
software routines or hardware instruments when combined or main storage, for frequent execution.
to operate as a system. core stack A number of core planes equal to the number of bits
console The part of a computer or NC machine tool system that in a main storage location,
houses equipment used for communication between the coulomb The practical unit of quantity of electricity or charge.
operator and the computer or machine tool. The charge that crosses a surface at a current of one ampere
contact histogram See histogram. flowing per second.
contactor A heavy-duty relay used to repeatedly establish and counter A device such as a register or storage location
interrupt an electrical power circuit. representing the occurrences of an event as incremented or
contacts 1. The physical moving parts controlling current decremented in response to an input signal.
through a switch or relay. Current conducts through closed CPU See Central Processing Unit.
contacts. 2. Cathode Ray Tube elements for ON and OFF cross assembler A program run on a large computer for
instructions which are similar to open and closed relay translating instructions for a second computer into machine
contact symbols. language for the second computer.
contact symbology diagram A diagram that expresses the user- crosstalk Electrical interference between machine servo signals
programmed logic of the controller in relay-equivalent causing one slide to jump whenever another slide is
symbology. Also known as a ladder diagram. commanded to move.
continuous path operation An operation in which the rate and CRT See Cathode Ray Tube.
direction of relative movement of machine members are cryogenics The area of technology that uses properties assumed
under continuous control so that the machine travels by metals at extremely low temperatures.
through the designated path at a specified rate without CSA See Canadian Standards Association.
pausing. cumulative lost time See downtime.
contouring control system An NC system that generates a current The rate of transfer of electricity per unit time. The
contour by controlling a machine or cutting tool in a path standard unit is the ampere.
resulting from the coordinated, simultaneous motion of two current-carry capacity The specified current that a wire, cable,
or more axes. or contact is able to continuously conduct without causing
controller An apparatus through which commands are intro- permanent deterioration of electrical or mechanical proper-
duced and manipulated to compute, encode and store data, ties of a device or conductor.
produce readouts and process computation and output. In current loop A communication line on which the presence or
NC, also known as machine control unit. absence of electrical current is used to represent transmitted
control system An arrangement of interconnecting elements data.
which interact to maintain a specific machine condition or cursor A visual movable pointer used on a CRT screen to
modify it in a prescribed manner. indicate the position at which data entry or editing is to
control unit A portion of a Central Processing U nit (CPU) that occur.
directs the operation of the computer, interprets computer cutter compensation A feature on certain NC machines enabling
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CHAPTER 5
the operator to incrementally adjust in a direction normal to datamation A shortened term for automatic data processing
the programmed tool path for changes in cutter radius, formed by combining data and automation.
length, or deflection. data processing A computer procedure involving one or more
cutter diameter compensation The capability of a control to operations for collecting data and producing a specified
accept differences between a programmed tool diameter and result.
the actual tool diameter. This compensation generates an data processor Any device capable of performing operations on
entirely new milling path parallel with the old and equidistant data, such as a calculator, a punch card machine, an analog
from it by the compensation amount at all times. computer, or a digital computer.
cutter location data Information describing the coordinates data set 1. One of several prescribed arrangements of related
of the path of the cutter center resulting from a computer records composing the major unit of data storage and
program. Common to all machine tool system combinations, retrieval in the operating system. 2. See MODEM.
this information serves as input to the post-processor. data transfer (DX) The process of transmitting data from
cutter offset 1. The difference between a part surface and the computer to storage areas or from storage areas to computer
axial center of a cutter or cutter path during a machining through specialized user program.
operation, 2. An NC feature enablinga machine operator to d-c See direct current.
use an oversized or undersized cutter. DCTL See direct-coupled transistor logic.
cutter path The cutting path described by the cutter center. DDA See digital differential analyzer.
dead band The range of values through which input can be
cybernetics The field of technology relating to the comparative
varied to the servo portion without initiating a response
study of the control and communication of information-
from a machine tool. Generally if the dead band is narrow,
handling machines and living organisms.
good response can be obtained from the machine tool system
cycle 1. A sequence of operations repeated regularly. 2. The
combination. Also known as dead zone.
time necessary for one sequence of operations to occur.
dead time The time interval between a response to a signal or
cycle time The time required to start and complete a read and
event and the result of the response.
write operation in a memory unit, usually taken as a
dead zone See dead band.
measurement of computer speed. Also known as memory
debug The process of detecting, locating, and removing software
cycle time.
errors and hardware problems causing malfunctions in a
computer.
decade An assembly of ten units.
decade switching The use of a series of switches, each having 10
damping 1. A built-in characteristic of electrical circuits and positions with values of O through 9, in which adjacent
mechanical systems which prevents rapid or excessive switches have a ratio value of 10:1.
corrections that might lead to instability or oscillation. 2. deceleration distance The calculated distance for decreasing the
The reduction or elimination of reverberation in a room by speed of an axis of motion to avoid overshooting a position.
means of sound-absorbing materials. decimal code A code, such as the conventional number system,
data A representation of facts, instructions, concepts, numerical in which each allowable position has one of ten possible
and alphabetical characters, etc., in a manner suitable for states. Also referred to as coded-decimal code.
communicating, interpreting, and processing by humans or decimal digit 1n decimal notation, one of the integers Othrough
by automatic means such as NC systems. 9.
deck A collection of punched cards for computer use.
data bank A complete collection of information such as that
decoder A circuit arrangement enabling the translation of data
contained in libraries stored in drums, disks, orotherstorage
from coded form to a more easily recognized form without
media for computer processing. A library is a collection of
significant loss of information.
files which are a collection of records. Records are a
dedicated computer A computer assigned exclusively to one
collection of items. Also known as data base.
machine, application, or small group of machines.
data base See data bank. delayed output See latch.
data conversion The changing of the format, method of storage, delete character A character used to obliterate erroneous or
language, coding, or symbolism of information without unwanted characters; for example, on a punched tape, a
altering the intelligence or logic content. Also known as delete character would consist of perforations superimposed
conversion. on all other perforations rendering them undecipherable.
data file A collection of related data records or application data delimiter A flag, or character, that separates and organizes
values organized in a specific manner and stored after, and items of data.
separate from, the user program area. demodulation The process of detecting, decoding, recovering,
data link The physical computer equipment, especially trans- or retranslating an original signal from a modulated carrier
mission cables and interface modules, which automatically wave. Used in data sets to render communication signals
transmits information to and receives information from a compatible with business machine signals.
remote location, and vice versa. Also known as communi- derivative control See proportional integral derivative module.
cations link. diagnostic routine A maintenance test of key NC system
data manipulation The process of altering and~ or exchang- components, performed by use of a special programmed
ing information between storage words through user- tape and/ or electronic instruments, to discover failure or
programmed instructions to vary application functions. potential failure of a machine element as well as the location
Functions include sorting, merging, input/ output, and of the failure. Also known as diagnostic check, diagnostic
report generation. subroutine, diagnostic test, or error detection routine.
CHAPTER 5
die See chip. characters; pertaining to physical quantities having distinct

differential 1. A method of signal transmission through two values only.
opposite-state wires. The signal data is the polarity difference discrete component circuit An electrical circuit implemented
between the wires; when one is HIGH, the other is LOW. with individual components such as transistors, resistors,
2. In a control system, the difference between levels in a diodes or capacitors.
turn-on and turn-off operation. discrete jog Movement of a selected axis of an NC machine tool
differential analyzer An analog computer designed to solve slide, etc., in a specific direction for a predetermined
differential equations by means of interconnected integra- distance. Used for checking purposes.
tors, disk A flat rotating circular plate with a magnetizable surface
digit 1. One of the integers in a numbering system such as Oto 9 on which information may be stored as a pattern of
in the decimal system. 2. A character or symbol used alone or polarized portions on concentric recording tracks. Also
in combination with other digits to convey a specific spelled disc and known as magnetic disk.
numerical quantity. disk memory See disk storage.
digital Information and values expressed in discrete terms such disk storage A means of storing binary digits in the form of
as numbers. All information stored, transferred, or processed magnetized spots on thin circular metal plates coated with
by dual-state conditions can be expressed by a combination magnetizable material. Data is stored and retrieved by heads
of binary on/off or positive/negative signals. Contrasted positioned over the disk surfaces. Also known as magnetic
with analog in which fluctuating signal strength determines disk storage.
the fluctuations of values. display The lights, annunciators, numerical indicators, or other
digital circuit See binary circuit. operator output devices on the control console of computer,
digital computer A computer that can accept, store, and operate NC control, or programmable controller, etc., by which
on symbols representing data by performing arithmetic and operations, commands, or data maybe shown electrically to
logic processes on the data. assist the operator.
display format routine Digital computer instructions which
digital data Data supplied indiscrete, discontinuous form as
determine the arrangement of data to be displayed.
digits, quantized pulses, or other coding eIements.
distributor A circuit arrangement used to channel input data to
digital differential analyzer (DDA) A computer or logic circuit
a specific circuit.
which uses numbers to represent anaIog quantities when
disruptive discharge A sudden large increase in current through
solving differential equations.
insulation, resulting from a complete failure of the insulation
digital-to-analog (D-A) conversion The production of an
exposed to intense electrostatic stress,
analog signal by a device which transforms digital input
signals to proportional analog signals. dither An electrical oscillatory signal having a low amplitude
and controlled frequency which is applied continuously to a
digitize 1. To obtain a digital representation of the value of an
mechanical device such as a servo valve to overcome the
analog quantity. 2. To convert analog data to digital data,
effects of stick slip.
3. To convert scaled, nonmathematical drawings or physical
DNC See Direct Numerical Control.
part dimensions to digital data.
diode An electrical device such as an electron tube or semi- documentation Manuals and other printed materials, such as
conductor which allows current to pass in one direction tables, tape, listings, and diagrams, which provide instructive
information regarding the operation, installation, and
only.
maintenance of a manufactured product.
diode matrix A pattern of diodes arranged in a matrix form and
used to represent characters on logic sequences. dopant An impurity added to semiconductor materials to
diode transistor logic (DTL) Integrated circuit logic employing change the electrical characteristics of the material.
diodes with transistors used as inverting amplifiers. double precision 1. The use of two computer words to represent
a number. 2. The storing of a single numerical value in two
direct address An address specifying the location of an operand.
consecutive registers. If each register stored 4 digits, magni-
direct circuit See binary circuit.
tudes 8 digits in length could be stored.
direct-coupled transistor logic (DCTL) Integrated circuit logic
employing only resistors and transistors as active circuit downtime The time period in which a system or machine tool is
elements. not available for use due to failure or routine maintenance.
direct current (d-c) Electric current that flows in one direction Also known as cumulative lost time.
only. drain wire An uninsulated wire used in contact with shielding to
direct memory access The capability of directly transferring provide a low-resistance ground return at any point along
data to or from memory thereby minimizing interruptions the shield.
created by program-controlled data transfers. drift A gradual undesired deviation in output that is unrelated
Direct Numerical Control (DNC) The use of a shared computer to input, operating conditions or load.
to program, service, and log a process such as a machine tool driver A small program or routine that executes other programs
cutting operation. Part program data is distributed via data or controls peripheral devices and the interfacing of these
lines to the machine tools. devices with the CPU.
disable The capability to disconnect a logic line coil or a discrete drum storage The storing of data in the form of magnetized
input from its normal control, and force it ON or OFF. spots on a rotating cylindrical metal drum that has been
disc See disk. coated with a magnetic material. Data is stored and retrieved
discrete 1. The state of being a separate entity or having via read/ write heads positioned over the drum surface.
unconnected elements. 2. Pertaining to distinct elements or DTL See diode transistor logic.
representation of data by means of distinct elements such as dump To remove all or part of the contents of a computer
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CHAPTER 5
storage device. Also, the printed copy resulting from this eleven punch Any hole in the second row from the top on an
operation. 80-cohrmn punched card. Also known as X punch.
duodecimal A number comprised of consecutive characters emulator A device or microprogram which allows one system
representing a sum in which the value of each character is to imitate another enabling it to run programs written for the
based on a radix of 12. other system. The same data can be accepted, the same
duplex circuit A circuit permitting simultaneous two-way programs executed, and the same results obtained.
communication. enable To cause or authorize a particular function to occur by
dwell A timed delay of programmed duration, such as a delay means of pre-established conditions within the program
that enables a cam follower to remain at maximum lift for a logic.
specific period of time. encoder An electromagnetic transducer used to produce digital
DX See data transfer. data (code) indicating angular or linear position.
DX line Any of four types of logic lines used to control internal encoder accuracy The maximum difference in position between
transfer data. The types of lines are MOVE, MATRIX, the input to the encoder and the position indicated by its
EXTENDED ARITHMETIC, and PRINT; each provides a output.
unique group of functions. encoder ambiguity Inherent error resulting from multiple bit
dynamic storage Storage in which data is permitted to move or changes at code transition positions.
vary with time in such a way that it is not always instantly end-around carry [n shift register logic, a carry from the most
available for recovery; for example, storage in a magnetic significant digit place to the least significant digit place.
drum or acoustic delay. End of Block (EOB) The end of one block of data.
End of Block character A character or symbol punched on a
tape denoting the end of a block of tape data; used to halt the
E tape reader after the block has been read.
E See electric field vector. end of line code An indicator that defines the end of a line of
EDC See extended data comparison. information printed on a manuscript.
edit To modify the format of a program or to alter data output End of Program (EOP) Miscellaneous function signifying the
or input by inserting or deleting characters. last block of a program and the completion of a workpiece.
editor A program permitting the user to create new data files or End of Tape (EOT) Miscellaneous function signaling the
to alter existing data files. spindle, coolant, and feed to stop after completion of all the
EDP See Electronic Data Processing. commands in a block. This function is also used to reset
effective address The address of a memory location obtained by control and/ or the machine.
applying a memory reference instruction to a specific end point 1. The coordinates on a display device to which a
address. One instruction can go through several indirect display writer is moved, 2. An extremity of a span, such as
addresses to reach the effective address. the last item to be processed before the completion of a
EIA See Electronic Industries Association. process stage or the process itself.
EIA standard code Any of the Electronic Industries Association energize A computer instruction setting a data table bit to 1,
established codes pertaining to positioning, straight-cut, and signifying ON if the pre-established conditions equate I with
contouring control systems. TRUE. The bit is reset to O, signifying OFF if O is equal to
electric field vector (E) The electric potential on a stationary FALSE.
positive charge per unit charge in an electric field. Usually EOB See End of Block.
representing d-c voltage or the instantaneous value of an EOP See End of Program.
alternating voltage. EOT See End of Tape.
electricity The flow of electrons in a conductor, on a conductor, epitaxial wafer A thin disc or substrate of semiconductive
or through a gas or space as in a vacuum tube. material upon which a semiconductive layer having the same
electrode A conductor through which an electric current enters crystalline orientation as the substrate is grown by a vapor
or leaves, establishing contact with a nonmetallic part of a deposition process. This substrate is used as a source for all
circuit. bipolar integrated circuits.
electromagnetic interference Unwanted electrical energy or epitaxy An arranging of atoms in single-crystal fashion upon a
noise generated within a system because of the presence of substrate so that the growth of the crystal on the surface of
electromagnetic fields. the substrate forms a lattice structure that is an exact
Electronic Data Processing (EDP) Processing of data by means extension of the substrate crystal structure,
of equipment such as a digital computer that is electronic in EPROM See Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory.
nature. Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM) A
Electronic Industries Association (EIA) Association responsible read-only memory in which stored data can be erased and
for the promulgation of recommended standards pertaining reprogrammed with voltage pulses.
to NC. error The discrepancy between a computed or measured value
electronics The branch of science pertaining to the study, and an actual, specified, or theoretically correct value.
control, and application of currents of free electrons, error detecting The capability of detecting false results via a
including the motion, emission, and behavior of the currents. data code in which each acceptable term conforms to specific
electrostatic potential The voltage that must be used and that rules. Any variance from the rules during transmission or
can be measured between two electric forces to bring a unit processing is detected as an error.
charge from a reference point to a desired point. error detection routine See diagnostic routine.
element A circuit or device used to perform an elementary error register or counter A device for accumulating and
computer function. signaling the algebraic difference between the quantized
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signal representing a desired position of a machine and the FDX See full duplex.
signal representing the instantaneous position of a machine. feedback The signal or data sent back to a commanding unit
error signal Signal indicating that a difference between output from a controlled machine or process for use as input in
and input signals in a servo system exists and that an subsequent operations.
alignment must be made between the controlling and feedback control Action in which a measured variable is
controlled elements. compared to its desired value to bring it closer to the desired
even parity check A parity check in which the sum of the O’sor value.
1‘s in a binary word is expected to be even. feedback device The element of a control system that converts
EXAPT Acronym for Extended Subset of APT, a language linear or rotary motion to an electrical signal for subsequent
processor developed in Germany and commonly used for comparison to an input signal.
point-to-point or lathe work. feedback loop The portion of a closed-loop system that
excess-three code A number code in which the decimal digit n is provides controlled response information enabling a
represented by the four-bit binary equivalent of that number
comparison of the information with a referenced command.
plus three. feedback resolution The smallest increment of dimension
exclusive OR A logic operator which has the property that distinguished by the feedback device and reproduced as an
when X and Y are statements, the result is true (1) if either,
electrical output.
but not both, of the statements are true, and the result is false
feed engage point The point at which motion of an axis changes
(0) if both are true or false. Example: from rapid traverse to a programmed feed.
~ ~ Result feedforward control Action in which a change is detected at the
o 0 0 process input and information concerning upstream condi-
0 1 1 tions is converted into anticipatory control signals to
1 1 0 minimize the effect of any disturbances.
1 0 1 feed function The relative motion between the tool and work
resulting from motion of the programmed axis.
In electrical notation, the logical operator is usually repre-
feed rate The rate of movement between a machine element and
sented by an encircled plus sign.
a workpiece in the direction of cutting. Expressed as a unit of
execution The performance of a specific operation, accomp-
distance relative to time; a machine function such as spindle
lished through processing of an instruction, a sequence of
rotation or table stroke.
instructions, or a complete program.
feed rate by-pass A function enabling the control system to
executive Software routine which controls the execution of
ignore the programmed feed rate, allowing an operator to
computer instructions or programs on the basis of established
substitute a selected operational rate,
priorities and real-time or demand requirements.
feed rate divider A feature of certain control units allowing
extended arithmetic element A CPU logic element providing
manual division of the programmed feed rate by a selected
hardware-implemented capabilities that include multiply,
amount as provided for in the control unit.
divide, and normalize functions.
feed rate multiplier A feature of certain control units allowing
extended data comparison An on-line application diagnostic
manual multiplication of the programmed feed rate by a
routine that is user programmed to allow specific data files
selected amount as provided for in the control unit.
to be compared to the data table at various steps in the
application cycle. A printed report describing the type of feed rate number A coded number describing the feed rate
problem and its location is produced when a discrepancy is function.
detected. feed rate override A variable manual control function which
external storage A storage medium or unit, such as a floppy disk directs the control system to ignore the programmed feed
or punched tape, that is not an internal part of the computer. rate, allowing an operator to substitute a selected operational
rate.
ferrite 1. An iron compound which has not been combined with
F carbon in pig iron or steel. 2. Any ferromagnetic material that
is frequently used in the construction of magnetic storage
F See farad.
devices,
fan-in The number of inputs available for connecting to a
ferrite-core memory A storage device using a ferromagnetic core
specific logic circuit, state, or function.
for information storage. The core consists ofa matrix of tiny
fan-out The number of parallel loads that can be driven by a
toroidal cores molded from a square-loop ferrite through
circuit input.
which the pulse-carrying wires and sense wire are threaded.
farad (F) A unit of electrical capacitance in the meter-kilogram-
second system. fetch A programming instruction used to locate a specified
farrand inductosyn scale See inductosyn scale. amount of data in storage and to load it elsewhere.
fault A malfunction that causes a component of a data field A specified area, such as a set of one or more adjacent
processing system to interfere with normal application columns on a punched card or one or more bit positions in a
operation. computer word, consistently used to record similar data.
fault current Circuit current resulting from loss of insulation FIFO stack A table controlled by DX lines to maintain a
between conductors or a conductor and ground. first-in, first-out order of data entered into the table.
fault zone The area in an input/ output program that changes file A group of related data records treated as a unit.
the operation of a portion of the application when a filter 1, A device that separates data according to a specific
communication loss occurs. criteria. 2. An electrical device used to suppress unwanted
FCI See flux changes per inch. electrical noise.
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final control element A device, valve, or motor that changes the grounded at only one end of the cable by means of a drain
value of a manipulated variable. wire.
firmware A series of program instructions used so frequently following error The distance lag at any specific time between the
that they are stored in a read-only memory instead of being actual position and the command position in a closed-loop
handled by software. servo system for NC contouring machines.
first-generation computer The computer design of the early force OFF/ON function A feature which enables the user to
1960’s characterized by vacuum tubes, electronics, off-line change the state of a disable reference by means of the
storage on drum or disc, and programming in machine program panel. The reference is changed from ON to OFF
language. or OFF to ON each time the force pushbutton is pressed.
fixed-block format An arrangement of data in which the foreground/background technique A technique enabling
number and sequence of words and characters in successive automatic execution of programs according to the priority
blocks, as determined by hardware requirements or the of the task to be performed. Low-priority programs can be
programmer, are constant. executed when high-priority programs are not utilizing the
fixed-cycle operation An operation in which a preset series of system.
steps direct machine axis movement and) or bring about the foreground processing The automatic execution of real-time or
completion of such actions as boring, drilling, and tapping high-priority programs designed to preempt the use of
ora combination of these actions. computer facilities.
fixed heads Reading and writing transducers rigidly mounted format The physical arrangement of data on a program tape,
on bulk memory devices. and the pattern in which it is organized for presentation.
fixed-sequence format A means of identifying a word by its format classification A means, usually in abbreviated notation,
position in a block of data. Every word must be stated in a of denoting motion, dimensional data, type of control
specific order, and all words preceding the last desired word, system, number of digits, auxiliary functions, etc., for a
including those repeated from a previous block, must be particular system.
present in the block. Formula Translation (FORTRAN) Any of a family of universal
fixed storage A storage device used to store data that is not procedure-oriented languages used to describe numeric
changeable by computer instructions, such as magnetic core processes in such a way that both humans and computers
storage with a lockout feature. can understand them.
fixed zero A reference position of the origin of the coordinate FORTRAN See Formula Translation.
system; usually a characteristic of machines with absolute fourth generation In the NC industry, the change in technology
feedback elements. of control logic so that computer architecture and core
fixture compensation A control feature that permits a machine memory are included.
tool to be aligned to a fixture eliminating the need to change frame 1. A row of recording or punch positions extending
tbe fixture location. The control automatically compensates across the width of a magnetic or paper tape and in a
for changing the alignment values on machine tools with direction perpendicular to its movement. 2. See Central
rotary axis motion. Processing Unit.
flag An indicator used to signal the occurrence of a particular frequency The number of cycles per second (Hz) occurring in
condition, such as the end of a word or boundary of a field. various electronic devices.
flag bit A processor memory bit which indicates the type or frequency response analysis A measurement of the effectiveness
form of special condition that has been reached and which with which a system transmits frequencies, based on the
can be monitored by user-programmed instructions. introduction of cyclic input and the measurement of the
flexowriter An automatic typewriter incorporating an eight- resulting output at various frequencies.
track tape reader and punch for preparation of punched frequency-shift keying 1. A method of data transmission in
tape. which audible frequencies indicate the state of the bit being
flip flop A hi-stable device or a device capable of assuming one transmitted. 2. A form of frequency modulation in which the
of two possible states, on or off, at a given time. It is capable output frequency is shifted between predefine values that
of storing a bit of information, controlling gates, etc. correspond to the frequencies of correlated sources.
floating zero A characteristic of an NC machine control unit FRN See feed rate number.
allowing the zero reference point of an axis to be established FSK See frequency-shift keying.
at any position over the full travel of the machine tool. full duplex (FDX) The simultaneous two-way independent
floppy disk A flexible, magnetic-based disk used to store data transmission of data enabling it to be transmitted and
input to NC machine control units. received by both ends of the circuitry.
flowchart A graphical representation of a problem or system, in full-range floating zero A feature on some NC systems
which interconnected symbols signify operations, data flow, permitting the zero point on an axis to be shifted over a
equipment, etc. It is used in defining, analyzing, or solving a specified range. The control retains data on the location of
problem. the original position of the zero, Also known as full-range
fluidics The technique of control that uses only a fluid to zero offset.
perform sensing, control, information processing, and full-range zero offset See full-range floating zero.
actuation functions without moving elements. function A specific purpose or characteristic action of an entity,
flux changes per inch (FCI) The number of polarity reversals such as a subroutine of a program.
that can be made in an inch of magnetic tape. functional code A number identifying the type of function to be
foil The thin metal shield in a shielded cable. This shield must be performed.
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by a computer. For example, a printed listing, punched

G cards, or paper tape.
gain The amount of increase in a signal passing through a hardware The physical equipment of a system, as opposed to
software; the mechanical, electrical, magnetic features of a
control system; the sensitivity and ability in a control system
to raise the power of a signal to a specified output. system that are permanent components.
garbage Erroneous, unwanted, meaningless, or extraneous data hard-wired system An NC system with a fixed wired program
in a computer or NC program. built in when manufactured and not subject to changes by
gate A circuit, device, or element which blocks or passes a signal programming. Changes are possible only through altering
depending on one or more specified inputs. the physical components or interconnections.
gauge height A predetermined partial retraction point along the HDX See half duplex.
Z axis that facilitates safe X-Y table travel by allowing the head A device, such as a small electromagnet on a storage
cutter to retreat to it from time to time. medium, that reads, records, or erases information on the
G code A preparatory numerical code in a program addressed storage medium.
by the letter G indicating a special function or cycle type in header card A card placed at the beginning of a batch of cards
an NC system. Also known as G function. and containing information about data on all cards in the
general processor The “executive” program containing the batch.
basic intelligence for NC work that is stored in computer henry (H) A unit of self or mutual inductance.
memory before individual part programs can be processed. hertz (Hz) A unit of frequency; cycles per second.
It can be a computer program for converting geometric heuristic method An exploratory method of problem solving in
input data into cutter path data for NC machines or a fixed which various types of solutions that may or may not work
software program designed specifically for logical manipu- are systematically applied and evaluated until a solution is
lation of data. found.
general-purpose computer A computer not dedicated to a hexadecimal A numbering system with a base of 16 representing
specific task by a design. all possible states of 4 bits with 16 unique digits. Useful in
get 1. To obtain access to a record from an input file for use by a computer technology because of the economy of memory
machine control routine. 2. To extract a value, either coded space and simple representation in binary form.
or transformed, from a field. hierarchy A group or series classified and arranged in rank
G function See G code. order.
graphic input Input of symbols to NC systems that comes from high-level language Computer language which uses readily
lines drawn on a cathode ray tube or information obtained understood symbols and command statements. Each state-
from drawings by a scanner. ment typically represents a series of computer instructions.
graticule A scale on transparent material in the focal plane of an Examples of high-level languages are BASIC, FORTRAN,
optical instrument that is used to locate and measure objects. and APT.
Gray code A modified binary code in which sequential numbers High Noise Immunity Logic (HNIL) A type of bipolar logic
are represented by binary expressions that differ from the that possesses a noise rejection capability of approximately 4
preceding number in one place only. It is used to avoid volts versus 0.4 volt for transistor/ transistor logic (TTL).
ambiguity and minimize errors when coding machine input High = TRUE A signal type in which the higher of two voltages
data. Also known as reflected binary and reflective code. indicates a logic state of 1 (ON).
ground A conducting connection between an electric circuit or histogram A computer feature allowing the display or printing
equipment and earth or a conducting body serving in its of ON/OFF times (measured in seconds) for any data table
place. bit, whether an image table bit, a storage bit, or a bit
ground potential Zero voltage potential with respect to earth associated with a times or counter instruction.
ground. HNIL See High Noise Immunity Logic.
group technology 1. The classification and coding of parts on Hollerith A 12-bit code representing letters, numbers, or special
the basis of similarity of parts. 2. The grouping of parts symbols punched in 80-column cards with 12 rows per
based on processing similarities so that they can be processed column.
together. 3. The grouping of various machines to produce a home position The fixed location in the basic coordinate axes of
family of parts. the machine tool. Usually the point in the work process in
which tools are fully retracted permitting any necessary
changes.
host computer A main computer which monitors and controls
H other computers.
H See henry. housekeeping Reversing, restoring, and clearing memory areas.
half duplex (HDX) A mode of data transmission capable of hunting Unwanted oscillation of an automatic control system in
communicating in two directions, but not in both directions which a machine component moves slightly back and forth
simultaneously. on both sides of a desired position.
handshaking Refers to the required sequence of signals for hysteresis The lagging in the response of a system unit behind
communication between system functions. The I/ O bus the increase or decrease in a control signal.
protocol for a system defines its handshaking requirements. Hz See hertz.
(This is especially true for asynchronous 1/O systems in
which each signal requires a response [reply] to complete an
1/O operation.) I
hard copy Any visually readable form of data output produced I Symbol used to identify current in amperes. Refer to current.
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IC See integrated circuit. inductive coupling between conductors separated by a small

IE Power in watts; expressed in terms of current (1) and voltage air gap. Also known as Farrand Inductosyn scale.
(E). inhibit The application of an appropriate signal to appropriate
image table An area in memory dedicated to input/ output data. output in order to prevent an action or acceptance of data,
The value 1 represents ON; the value O represents OFF. initialize To cause a program or hardware circuit to return a
immediate access The ability to obtain data directly from a program, system, or hardware device to an original state or
storage device or to place data directly in a storage device in to selected points by setting counters, addresses, or switches
a relatively short period of time and without serial delay due to zero or a selected starting value.
to other units of data. input 1. The transfer of external information by an appropri-
immediate input instruction An instruction that immediately ate medium into a computer or machine control unit.
transfers input data from a selected input module to the 2. Information transferred into main memory from terminals,
appropriate 16-bit word in the input image table without buffer storage, or auxiliary storage.
waiting for an input/ output scan. input/output (1/0) The transfer of information into or out of a
immediate output instruction An instruction that immediately computer. Refer also to input and to output.
transfers output data from a selected 16-bit word in the input/output device Equipment such as limit switches, pressure
output image table to the appropriate output modules switches, and pushbuttons, used to communicate with a
without waiting for the normal input/ output scan. control system,
impedance The total opposition a circuit offers to the flow of input foutput handler The program that coordinates input/
alternating current, including resistance and reactance. output functions with the computer processing being done at
impedance compensator A circuit which verifies that a trans- the time.
mission line is the correct electrical load for its communi- input/output scan time The time required for a PC processor or
cating devices. other controller or computer device to monitor all inputs
inch/metric input The capability of selecting, by switch or and control all output.
program controls, inch or metric programming on an NC input resolution The smallest increment of dimension program-
system without having to change the feedback devices. mable as input to a system.
inclusive OR A logic operator which has the property that, input translator A section of some computer programs in which
when X and Y are statements, the result is TRUE (1) if X or instructions are converted into operators and operands that
Y or both are true, and FALSE (0) if X and Y are false. can be understood by the computer. Source statements are
Example: individually read and checked for errors in punctuation,
order, and syntax and for incomplete statements.
x Y Result
instability A state of a control system in which excessive
T T o
positive feedback causes persistent cycling in the output
0 1 1
resulting in output for which no corresponding input exists.
1 1 1
1 0 1 instruction A set of bits which cause a computer to perform a
specific prescribed operation and which may also indicate
incremental coordinates Coordinates measured from the the values or locations of its operands,
preceding value in a sequence of values, instruction set A list of machine language instructions that a
incremental dimension The dimension from one point of computer can perform.
departure to the next. In an NC program, if the entire job is instruction storage The area of storage media containing coded
incrementally dimensioned and the tool programmed to instructions.
return to its start point, the algebraic sum of all the insulator A material with high electrical resistance which
intervening plus and minus motion is zero. supports or separates conductors to prevent undesired flow
incremental feed An automatic or a manual input of a motion of current from them to other objects.
command for a machine axis. integrated circuit (IC) A combination of passive and active
incremental system An NC system in which each coordinate or circuit elements that are interconnected and incorporated on
positional dimension, whether input or feedback, is taken or within a continuous substrate.
from the last position instead of from a common data integrated-circuit diode-matrix memory An integrated circuit
position, as in an absolute system. containing a matrix of diodes which may be individually
index An integer specifying the location of information within a open-circuited or short-circuited to represent a program.
table or program. integrator A device or circuit that integrates an input signal,
indexing The movement of one axis at a time of an NC system usually with respect to time.
part to a precise position through numeric commands. interchange station The position in which a tool of an automatic
index register See B register. toolchanging machine waits for automatic transfer to the
indirect address The address, or identification, in a computer machine spindle or the appropriate coded drum station.
instruction that indicates the location of an address of a interface A hardware circuit or medium by which two separate
referenced operand rather than the operand itself. pieces of electrical equipment having separate functions,
Inductosyn Trademark for the Farrand Controls resolver, in such as a machine control unit and a machine tool, may be
which an output signal is produced by inductive coupling linked.
between conductors in two glass members separated by a interferometer An instrument that uses light interference
small air space. Produced in both rotary and linear phenomena to precisely determine wave length, spectral fine
configurations. structure, indexes of refraction, and small linear displace-
tnductosyn scale A precision data element used to accurately ments.
measure and control angles or linear distances, utilizing the interlock A circuit arrangement that prevents additional
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operations from taking place until another operation is logical expressions and thereby allowing duplicate logical
completed first. functions to be combined.
interlock bypass A command enabling an interlock to be keypunch A keyboard-activated device which punches holes in
temporarily circumvented. cards to represent data.
intermediate transfer arm A mechanical device in automatic kilo (k) A prefix used in decimal notation to designate
toolchanging that automatically grips and removes a pro- quantities 1000 times as great, as in kilowatt or kilovolt.
grammed tool from the coded drum station and places it in
the interchange station. It also grips and removes a used tool
from the interchange station and returns it to a coded drum L
station. label An ordered set of characters used in a program to identify
internal storage The total memory or storage that is directly the location of an instruction, routine, item, file, message, or
controlled by the central processing unit of a computer. record.
interpolation A function of control enabling data points to be ladder diagram See contact symbology diagram.
generated between specific coordinate positions to allow language A set of symbols combined with specific rules
simultaneous movement of two or more axes of motion in a necessary for their interpretation.
defined geometric pattern. For example, in NC, curved language translator Any assembler, compiler or routine that
sections can be approximated by a series of straight lines or converts statements from one language into equivalent
parabolic segments. Also known as linear interpolation. statements in a different language.
interpolator A device that defines the path and rate of travel of a large scale integration (LSI) Any integrated circuits having
cutting tool when provided with a coded mathematical more than 100 interconnected individual devices, such as
description of the path. All points between programmed end gates and transistors, manufactured into a single semi-
points are defined resulting in smooth curves or straight conductor chip.
lines. latch A device or discrete reference enabling the status of a logic
interrupt A break in the normal process of a system or program line coil to be remembered so that, in the event of a power
that enables high-priority work to be done and then normal failure, the line can return to the condition it held prior to the
processing resumed. power failure.
1/0 See input/output. latching relay A relay constructed so that it holds the last
lZR Power in watts expressed in terms of current (1) and position assumed until it is released mechanically or elec-
resistance (R). trically.
IR drop See voltage drop. leader Blank magnetic or paper tape which precedes a section of
12R loss See power loss. coded tape.
isolated 1/0 module Module in which each input or output leading zero Redundant zeroes preceding the first integer of a
circuit is separate from every other input or output circuit number.
instead of sharing commons as is done in standard 1/0 Ieadscrew compensation The automatic compensation for
modules. errors in measured leadscrews.
iteration process A process of repeating computations in which leakage Current gradually escaping over or through insulating
output of each step is input to the following step. material while voltage is applied.
least significant digit (LSD) A digit representing the smallest
value. The rightmost digit.
J-K LED See Light-Emitting Diode.
job control statement Computer statement used in identifying LED display An illuminated visual display composed of LED
the job in a job stream and in describing the job’s require- alphanumeric characters.
ments to the operating system of the computer. left justify To shift the contents of a register so that the left (most
jog 1. A control function enabling the momentary operation of significant) digit is at a specified position. All zeroes to the
a drive to accomplish a small movement of the driven left are ignored.
machine. 2. The manual movement of a selected axis to level 1. The average amplitude of a variable quantity such as
sound or electronic signals. 2. Position in an arranged
accomplish a small movement of the axis. Movement can be
in either direction at varying feed rates. hierarchy. 3. See channel.
library A collection of standard or frequently used routines and
jump A conditional or unconditional instruction which, when subroutines.
executed, causes the control unit to terminate one sequence Light-Emitting Diode (LED) A semiconductor diode that
of instructions and begin another sequence at a different converts electric energy into visible wavelengths.
memory location. limit switch A switch activated by a part or motion of a machine
k See kilo. to change the electrical circuit associated with it.
K In data processing, used to define storage capacity, two to the line 1. The component part of a system which links subsystems
tenth power, 1024 in decimal notation, For example, that are remote from the processor.
information can be stored in 1024 locations in a 1K linear circuit An analog circuit having output that is an
computer memory, in 2048 locations in a 2K memory, etc. amplified version or predetermined variation of its input.
Karnaugh map Used to design logic, this map is a truth table linear interpolation See interpolation.
rearranged to show a geometrical pattern of functional linearization A mathematical procedure whereby a path defining
relationships for gating configurations. It facilitates recog- a curve is subdivided into many small linear segments that
nizing essential gating requirements by detailing similar closely approximate the desired path, such that tool motion
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resulting from the consecutive subdivisions will machine the

shape to a specified tolerance.
line driver A circuit that transmits digital information over mA See milliampere.
extended distances. machine control unit (MCU) See controller.
line loss The total amount of the various energy losses in a machine datum The point in a machine system that is used as a
transmission line. basis to establish a coordinate system.
line printer A printing device that prints an entire line of machine language A language written in symbols, bits,
characters at one time. characters, signs, or a series of bits to convey to a computer
line receiver A device used in conjunction with a line driver to instructions or information to be processed.
detect signals at the receiving end of a long line, machining center A machine tool, usually numerically con-
lines per minute (LPM) A measure of the speed of a line printer. trolled, that can automatically drill, ream, tap, mill, and
linkage A coded means of communicating information from bore workplaces. It is often equipped with a system for
one routine to another. automatic toolchanging.
linking loader A specialized program used to combine and load macro 1. A powerful computer instruction from which a string
two or more separate programs as a single operational of micro instructions can be called as a unit, 2, A source
entity. language instruction from which many instructions can be
liquid crystal display A visual readout of alphanumeric generated. Also known as macro instruction, macro pro-
characters displayed in segments by means of reflected light. gram, or macro routine.
Power consumption is extremely low. Contrasts with LED macro instruction See macro.
display. macro program See macro.
load 1. Power delivered to a machine. 2, A device connected to a macro rout ine See macro.
machine or placed ina circuit to absorb power and convert it magic three See magic three feed rate coding.
to a desired form. 3. To add data to memory storage, magic-three feed rate coding A method of feed rate coding using
loader A program operating on input devices to transfer data 3 digits of data in the F word. The first digit defines the
from off-line to on-line memory. power of 10 multiplier and determines the positioning of the
location A storage position in memory; usually expressed in floating decimal. The last two digits are the most significant
numbers. digits of the desired feed rate.
lockout switch Switch provided with memory to protect the magnetic core A ferrous element for switching or storing a
contents of specified segments from alteration. binary bit of information in a computer.
log A record of values, settings, and/or actions for a particular magnetic core memory See core memory.
operation, magnetic core storage See core memory.
logic 1. A method of solving problems through the repeated use magnetic disk A rotating circular plate that is coated or
of functions defining basic concepts. AND, OR, and NOT permeated with magnetic material on which information is
are the basic logic functions. 2. The systematic scheme recorded and stored for subsequent use.
defining the interactions of signals in an electronic system, magnetic disk storage See disk storage.
logic diagram See block diagram. magnetics Electromechanical devices such as relays and
logic family A group of digital integrated circuits sharing a basic contractors.
circuit design having standardized 1/O characteristics. magnetic tape A plastic, metal, or paper tape that is coated or
logic level The voltage magnitude associated with signal pulses permeated with magnetic material. It is capable of storing
signifying ones and zeroes in binary computation. data by selective polarization of portions of the surface.
logic line A block used to construct the user’s unique logic, magnetic tape storage The storage of binary information as
usually ending with a coil. Types of logic lines are: relay, magnetic spots arranged on tracks across the width of the
timer, arithmetic, counter, or special functions. tape.
longitudinal redundancy check character A character used for main frame See central processing unit.
checking the parity of a track in the longitudinal direction on maintenance The keeping of hardware or programs in working
tape on which each character is represented in a lateral row condition by eliminating faults through part replacement,
of bits. Usually the last character in each block. adjustments, repairs, tests, measurements, etc.
loop The repeated execution of a series of instructions for a malfunction Any incorrect functioning within hardware.
variable number of times, but usually with address modifi- Management Information System (MIS) An information feed-
cations changing the operands of each iteration, until a back system in which data is recorded and processed for use
terminating condition is completed. by management personnel in decision making.
loop tape A short piece of punched tape with ends joined to manipulation The controlling and monitoring of selected data
form a loop for continuous reading of a program or upon which action can be taken to vary application
operation. functions.
low battery bit See battery low and flag bit. manual data input (MDI) A means of manually inserting
low = TRUE A signal type in which the lower of two voltages commands and other data into an NC control.
indicates a logic state with a value of I signifying ON. manual feed rate override A device that permits the operator to
low-voltage modules 1/O modules that function with voltages reduce or increase the feed rate.
lower than 120V. manual mode A mode of operation in which NC machine tools
LPM See lines per minute. are controlled manually through axis jog switches.
LSD See least significant digit. manual part programming The preparation of a manuscript in
LSI See large scale integration. machine control language and format to define a sequence of
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commands required to accomplish a given task on an NC tool function, such as operating power clamps or turning
machine, coolant on or off.
manuscript Form used by a part programmer to organize mho See siemens.
machining instructions. From it a computer program is microcomputer A computer constructed with a microprocessor
prepared. Refer also to part program. as the basic element.
mask 1. A pattern of characters that controls the retention or microelectronic circuit See integrated circuit.
elimination of portions of another pattern of characters. 2. A microelectronics The technology of constructing circuits and
filter. devices in miniaturized components. Refer to chip.
mass storage device A device with a large storage capacity such microinstruction 1. An elementary instruction, usually a single
as a magnetic drum or disk. add, shift, or delete operation command. 2. The part of a
master control relay (M CR) A mandatory hardwired relay that microprogram that specifies the operation of related
can be de-energized by an emergency stop switch. When it is subunits, such as the main memory and input/output
de-energized, its contacts must open to de-energize all interface, as well as the operation of individual computing
application input/ output devices. Its function must never be elements.
replaced bycomputer software or user-programmed MCR micron (p m) One thousandth of a millimeter (mm).
codes. microprocessor A basic element of a central processing unit
matrix 1. A two-dimensional array of circuit elements which manufactured on relatively few integrated-circuit chips. It
can transform a digital code from one type to another. 2. An has a limited instruction set that is expandable by means of
array of input and output leads with logic elements connected microprogramming.
at some of their intersections. microprogramming A programming technique in which each
maximum operating temperature The highest ambient temper- instruction begins execution of a sequence of microinstruc-
ature at which an application system can be safely maintained tion to obtain greater speed and more efficient use of
during continuous use. memory.
MCR See master control relay. microsecond (p s) One millionth of a second.
MCR instructions User-programmed fence codes for MCR mil Unit of length measuring 0.001” (0.03 mm). Also known as
zones. mini-inch.
MCR zones Program areas in which all nonretentive outputs mini A prefix representing one thousandth of a base unit.
can be turned off at the same time. Each MCR zone must be milliampere (mA) One thousandth of an ampere (A).
delimited and controlled by MCR instructions (fence codes). mini-inch See roil.
These instructions, or fence codes, must never replace millisecond (ins) One thousandth of a second.
master control relay hardware. millivolt (mV) One thousandth of a volt (V).
MCU See machine control unit. minicomputer A small, general-purpose computer which has
MDI See manual data input. from4 to 64K words of memory and employs words of 8, 12,
mechanical drum programmer A sequencer which operates 16, 18, 24 or 32 bits in its basic configuration.
switches by means of movable pins placed on a rotating mini PC A scaled-down version of a PC used when the 1/0
drum. When the pins are changed, the switch sequence also requirements are small.
changes. mirror image See axis inversion.
medium scale integration (MSI) A solid-state integrated circuit mirror image programming A machine control unit feature
having between 12 and 100 gate-equivalent circuits. enabling the reversal of all instructions programmed for a
megabit One million binary bits. specific axis, usually the X axis. One result of this feature is
megahertz (MHz) One million cycles per second. that two mirror-image parts can be produced by a single
megohm One million ohms. program tape.
memory Any grouping of circuit elements having data storage MIS See Management Information System.
and retrieval capability. miscellaneous function One of a group of special or auxiliary
memory cycle time See cycle time. functions bf a machine, such as spindle stop, coolant
memory guard See memory protect. control, program stop, and clamp control.
memory module A module capable of storing a finite amount of mislogic Incorrect relay panel wiring, incorrect PC program-
data. ming, or electrical noise in a transmission line resulting in
memory protect A technique employing guard bits to prevent a improper application operation.
portion of stored data from being altered externally by the mnemonic A combination of letters, numbers, pictures, or
execution of a modification instruction. words that aids in recalling a memory location or computer
message An arbitrary combination of alphanumeric characters operation.
with beginning and end implied to establish the content and mnemonic code A programming code that facilitates recall
format of a report. It is entered into PC memory by means of because it is written as meaningful notation resembling the
a keyboard terminal and originates in one place with the original words. For example, M PY signifies multiply.
intent of being transmitted. modal Remains in effect until changed.
metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) 1. A metal insulator semi- mode One of a number of alternative methods of operation.
conductor structure in which the insulating layer is an oxide MODEM See modulator/ demodulator.
of the base material. 2. An electronic circuit in which the modifier register See B register.
active region consists of an insulating oxide layer and a modulation The process or result of an operation by which a
substrate. The oxide layer acts as the insulator between the characteristic of a signal is varied in accordance with another
metal gate and the conducting channel. signal.
M function A function which controls a miscellaneous machine modulator/demodulator (MODEM) A device used to convert
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binary digital data to audio tone signals for transmitting and number of interactions has been performed. The nesting
receiving, Also known as data set. technique allows a program segment to be nested within a
module An interchangeable hardware subassembly containing larger segment and that segment to be nested within an even
electronic components that can be combined with other larger segment.
interchangeable subassemblies to form a complete unit. network A collection of logic elements connected to perform a
monitor To observe a program and supervise its execution to specific function,
ensure that it is operating correctly. nine’s complement The radix-minus-one complement in decimal
monitoring controller A controller used in an application to notation.
continually check a process and alert an operator to node A junction point in a network. Power can be received from
application malfunctions. the left as input, or power flow can be provided to the right as
monolithic integrated circuit An integrated circuit with at least output.
one element formed within a silicon substrate. noise 1. Unwanted and interfering signals in an electrical circuit.
MOS See metal oxide semiconductor. 2. Extra bits or words which serve no purpose and must be
most significant bit(msb) Leftmost bit ofa word. ignored or removed when data is being used.
most significant digit (msd) Digit representing the greatest noise immunity The ability of the PC to reject noise signals that
value, usually the leftmost digit. are unwanted and interfering.
motor controller Device orgroup ofdevices which governs the noise spike A voltage or current surge in an industrial operating
electrical power sent toa motor. Also referred to as motor environment.
starter. nonlinear programming The act of creating a program for
motor starter See motor controller, locating the maximum or minimum of a function of several
movable heads Reading and writing transducers on bulk variables which are subjected to constraints, when the
memory devices that are capable of moving across the function and/or constraints are nonlinear.
surface of the device to access various data locations. nonretentive output An output which is continually controlled
move A capability enabling data to be transferred without by one program rung so that when the rung changes state,
modification within a controller. either from true or false, the output turns on or off,
ms See millisecond. nonvolatile memory See nonvolatile storage.
msb See most significant bit. nonvolatile storage A storage medium which retains data when
msd See most significant digit. its power supply is off, Also known as nonvolatile memory.
MSI See medium scale integration. NOR A logic operator giving a truth table value of true only
multiple-rung display A feature permitting more than one rung when all variables connected by the operator are false.
of program logic to be displayed ona CRTat onetime. NOT A logic operator having tbe property that if P is a logic
multiplexing The simultaneous scanning ofa number of data quantity, then the “NOT P“ quantity is true if P is false, and
lines on a single channel. The data lines are interleaved; only false if P is true.
one data line is enabled at any instant. null 1. The absence of information, as contrasted to a zero
multiprocessing The operation of two or more operations or indicating no information. 2, Pertaining to a balanced or
programs within a single computer. zero output. 3. Pertaining to no deflection from a center or
multiprogramming A technique for handling two or more end position.
routines or progmms by interleaving in succession the numerical control (NC) A technique for controlling actions of
execution of a few instructions from each program. machine tools and similar equipment by the direct insertion
mV See millivolt. of numerical data at a given point. Data is automatically
interpreted.
numerical data Data in which a set of numbers or symbols that
N assume definite discrete values is used to express information.
NAND Boolean logic functions NOT and AND combined. A
logic operator having the property that if P, Q, R. .,are
statements, the NAN D of these statements is true even if o
only one statement is false, and false if all statements are object deck A set of cards containing machine-readable,
true. condensed, computer instructions compiled for handling a
NAND gate A component that implements the NAND function. specific general processor.
Output is produced under all input conditions except when object program A fully compiled or assembled program, which
all inputs are energized. is the output of an automatic coding system, that is ready for
nanosecond (ns) One thousandth of a microsecond (M s). loading onto a computer.
natural binary A number system to the base 2, in which I and O octal 1. A characteristic of a system in which eight possibilities
have weighted value according to relative position in a exist. 2. Pertaining to a numbering system that uses a radix
binary word. Carries may affect several digits. or base of 8; only digits O-7 are used, For example, the
NC See numerical control. decimal number 324 can be converted to octal notation as
negative logic Logic in which the 1 state is represented by follows:
voltage having a lower or more negative value than the 324=(5x64)+4
voltage representing the O state. ❑(5x8~)+ (Ox8’)+(4x8°)
nesting A programming technique in which a segment of a = 504,
larger program is executed iteratively (looping) until a odd parity Condition resulting when the sum of 1‘s in a binary
specific data condition is detected, or until a predetermined word is odd.
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OEM Abbreviation for original equipment manufacturer. orthogonal Mutually perpendicular.

off-delay timer 1. A program instruction which turns off one or output 1. Printed or recorded data resulting from computed
more outputs after a programmed time delay. 2. In relay- source programs. 2. Data transferred from internal storage
panel applications, a device in which the timing period is to output devices or external storage.
initiated upon de-energiz.ation of its coil. output devices Devices which convey data from a computer to
off-line Operation of peripheral equipment that is not under an external device.
direct control of a main frame. output resolution The smallest increment of dimension that can
offset A displacement in the axial direction ofa tool which is the be specified by the interpolation process of a control system
difference between the length established by the programmer and recognized by slide movement.
and the actual tool length, overlays The number of passes through a computer necessary to
ohm Unit of electrical resistance. The resistance of a circuit in complete a task or program.
which one volt maintains a current of one ampere, overload A load greater than that which a device is designed to
Ohm’s law The law that the direct current through an electric handle, possibly resulting in hardware problems.
circuit is proportional to the voltage applied to the circuit; overpotential A voltage above the rated operating voltage of a
given by the equation i = E/R where 1 is current, E is device.
electromotive force, and R is resistance. overpunch The addition of holes in a card column already
on-delay timer 1. Aprogram instruction which turns on one or containing holes.
more outputs after a programmed time delay. 2. [n relay- overshoot The condition resulting when a variable exceeds a
panel applications, adevicein which the timing period is designated value after a change of input.
initiated upon energization of its coil. overvoltage See overpotential.
one’s complement The radix-minus-one complement in binary
notation.
one-shot A discrete reference that is valid for only one program P-Q
scan,
~acer system A manual or motorized method of imparting
on-line Operation of peripheral equipment that is under direct
motion to a machine slide through the use of servo-
control of a central processor.
mechanisms, resolvers, and syncbros.
on-line data change Feature enabling the user to change data
page A portion of memory consisting of a fixed number of
table values through the program panel while the application
locations dictated by the direct addressing range of memory
is operating normally.
reference commands.
on-line editing Feature enabling the user to edit the program
paging The division of a program and data into fixed blocks so
through the program panel while the application is operating
that data transfer between disc and core can take place in
normally,
portions rather than as entire programs.
on-line operation Operation in which a computer directly
paper tape See punched tape.
controls a machine or process.
paper tape reader A device used to translate code perforated on
op code See operation code.
paper tape into electrical signals.
open-ended A process or system that can be augmented to
permit an expansion, extension, or increase in capability, parabola A U-shaped curve in a plane generated by a point
open-loop system A control system that is incapable of moving so that its distance from a fixed second point is equal
comparing output with input for control purposes; that is, to its d-istance from a fixed line.
no feedback is obtainable. parabolic interpolation A method of controlling contouring
operand Any quantity entering into or arising from an opera- which utilizes parabolic arcs to approximate curves by
tion, such as a result, parameter, or an indication of the automatic means within the control system. The arcs are
location of the next instruction. blended automatically.
operating system A group of programs and) or routines that parallel transmission Simultaneous availability of two or more
guide a computer and assist it in accomplishing tasks. bits, channels, or digits.
operation code A recognizable alphanumeric code which is the parallel output See parallel transmission.
part of a program instruction designating an operation to be parameter 1. A system or deviw characteristic, having a value
performed. that distinguishes various specific states. 2. A variable given
operation number Number indicating the position of a particu- a constant value for a specific purpose or process.
lar operation in the performance sequence of all operations.
parity A means of testing the accuracy of binary numbers used
optimize The rearrangement of instructions or data in NC or
in transmitted, recorded, or received data. A self-checking
computer applications to obtain the best set of operating
code is used in which the total number of I‘s or O’sis always
conditions.
even or odd.
optional stop A miscellaneous function allowing a computer
parity bit An additional nondata bit appended to an array of
program to stop before or after a command is obeyed if
bits to make the sum of all 1’s in a word always even or odd.
specific criteria are met.
OR 1. A logical operation with a false (0) result when all parity check A check to determine errors in a group of bits. The
operands are false and true (1) when all operands are true. number of I‘s or O’sin an array of binary digits should always
OR gate A device that implements the OR function. be even or odd.
origin 1. The absolute memory address of the first location of a park A programmed instruction for moving a tool to a location
program or program concept. 2. A reference point whose at which tool and workpiece inspection is safe.
coordinate values are zero; the center of a coordinate system part program A complete set of data and instructions written in
where all coordinate axes meet, source languages for computer processing or written in
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CHAPTER 5
machine language for manual programming for the manu- for description with each figure representing one of the
facturing of parts on an NC machine. characteristics being described.
part programming, computer See computer part programming. port 1. An entrance or exit of an electrical network. 2. A
part programming, hand or manual See manual part program- connecting unit between a data link and a device; for
ming, example, between an 1/O channel, data bus, or interface
patch A section of temporary coding inserted into a routine to module and a computer, data terminal, or CRT.
correct or change the routine. position analog unit (PAU) The unit which feeds analog
pattern manipulation A part programming feature enabling a information corresponding to the position of a machine slide
program mer to reuse a programmed pattern at other back to the servo amplifier for comparison with positional
positions on the part. input information.
PAU See position analog unit. positioning/contouring system An NC system that is able to
PC See programmable controller, contour in two axes, without buffer storage, and position in
peak The maximum or minimum instantaneous value of a a third axis for operations such as drilling, tapping, and
changing quantity, such as voltage. boring.
pecker A pin used in tape or card reading to sense the presence positioning control system See point-to-point control system.
or absence of holes. positioning time Time necessary to rapid traverse a tool from
perforated tape See punched tape. one coordinate to another.
peripheral equipment Auxiliary machines and storage devices position readout A visual display of the absolute position of a
which may be placed under control of a central computer machine axis as derived from a position feedback device
and used on or off line to provide a system with outside normally attached to the leadscrew of the machine.
communication; for example, tape readers, high-speed position sensor A device used in measuring a position and
printers, CRT’s, magnetic tape feeds, and magnetic drums or converting the measurement into a form which facilitates
disks. transmission.
permanent storage See fixed storage. position storage An NC system storage media which contains
photo-isolator A solid-state coupling device which permits the coordinate positions read from tape.
complete electrical isolation between field wiring and the position transducer See position sensor.
controller. positive logic Logic in which the more positive voltage level
photo-optic memory A memory which uses an optical medium represents the 1 state and the less positive level represents the
for storage; for example, a laser used to record on photo- O state.
graphic film. postprocessor A computer program which converts generalized
picosecond One thousandth of a nanosecond, or centerline output, obtained from the general purpose
PID module See proportional, integral, derivative module. processor and all other programming instructions for a
pin 1, A connection point on the edge of a printed circuit board. machine and control, into a form that can be correctly
2, The conductive post, contact, or fitting for each wire interpreted by the machine control.
within a connector. potential difference The voltage measurable between two points
planned stop See optional stop. in a circuit.
plated wire memory A memory consisting of wires coated with a power loss Voltage loss due to drop in current flowing through
magnetic material that may be magnetized in either of two resistance; the value of this loss in watts is equal to the
directions to represent I‘s and 0’s. resistance in ohms multiplied by the square of the current in
plotter 1. A device which will draw a facsimile of coded data amperes, Also known as 12R loss.
input, such as the cutter path of an NC program. 2, A visual power supply circuit An electrical network which converts a-c
display or board on which a dependent variable can be line voltage to one or more d-c voltages.
drawn automatically as a function of one or more variables. precision The degree of exactness with which a quantity is
plug board 1. A perforated board to which plugs are manually stated. Contrasted with accuracy; for example, a quantity
inserted to control the operation of equipment. 2. An array expressed with 10 decimal digits of precision may have only
of jacks in which wires may be plugged to control a device in one digit of accuracy.
a system. precondition A preparatory condition defined by a PC logic
pointer 1. The value in a register which indicates the register of a instruction. One or more preconditions maybe programmed
table or bit in a matrix that is being referred to by the logic prior to an output instruction.
line. 2. The part of an instruction containing the address of preparatory function An NC command on the input tape that
the next record to be accessed. changes the mode of control operation; usually referred to as
point processing Program for processing data containing G function because it is noted at the beginning of a block
addresses and/ or locations of other data items. with the letter character G plus a 2-digit number.
point-to-point control system An NC system which controls preset To establish a value of a variable before it is to be used; to
motion only to move from one point to another without establish an initial condition, such as the control value of a
exercising path control during the transition from one end loop.
point to the next. preset tool A cutting tool placed in a holder so that a
polar axes The fixed lines from which the angles made by radius predetermined geometrical relationship exists with a gage
vectors are measured in a polar coordinates system. point.
polar coordinates A mathematical system of coordinates for printed circuit A circuit for electronic components which is
locating a point in a plane by the length of the plane’s radius made by depositing conductive material in predetermined
vector and the angle the vector makes with a fixed line. continuous paths from terminal to terminal on the surface of
polyvalent number A number comprising several figures used an insulating base.
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CHAPTER 5
printed circuit board A board on which a predetermined change according to the rate at which input signal
conductive pattern, which may or may not include printed variations occur during a certain time interval.
components, has been formed. protected logic module An optional processor module which
printer An output device that prints or types characters in continuously verifies that a critical part of the user’s
parallel or serial entry. program remains unedited.
printout A printed output of a system giving all data that has protocol A formal agreement between two communicating
been processed by a program. devices. It defines how data is formatted, what the control
privileged registers A series of holding registers that cannot be signals mean, how error checking is performed, and the
altered with the memory protect on. Used for storing system order and priority of various types of messages.
constants that are not to change once the controller is pseudo toolchange Miscellaneous function which commands
operating. ~ full return of a tool to toolchanging position, but does not
process 1. Continuous and regular actions executed in a stop the reader or slide movement; therefore, no toolchanging
predetermined, uninterrupted manner. 2. A PC application takes place.
involving assembling, compiling, generating, interpreting, pulse A brief surge of voltage or current of measurable
and computing information. duration.
program A set of instructions that is expressed in a language punched card A card of constant size and shape on which
suitable for computer input and that defines a desired information is represented by holes in specific positions.
sequence of conditions for a process as well as the operations punched tape An input medium of paper or plastic tape from
required between the conditions, which information represented by holes in specific positions
programmable controller (PC) A solid-state industrial control can be sensed.
system with a memory which can be set to operate in a quadrant Any of the four quarters of the rectangular or
specified manner to store instructions that implement func- Cartesian coordinate dimensioning system.
tions such as 1/O control logic, timing, counting, arithmetic, quadrature The state of being displaced 90° in a phase angle.
and data manipulation. quantize See digitize.
Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM) A memory that is quantum 1. The numerical value of the smallest unit of measure
programmed only by special routines. Once programmed used in a system. 2. The sub ranges which result from
with permanent data, such as a mathematical formula, it digitizing.
becomes a Read-Only Memory (ROM). quinary A number system with a base of five.
programmed acceleration A controlled velocity increase to the
programmed feed rate of an NC machine.
programmed dwell A delay in program execution for a R
programmable length of time. rack A PC chassis that contains modules. For example, 1/O
programmer 1. A workpieee device which writes the instructions rack or processor rack.
for the computer to act upon to develop a program tape. 2. A radix Base number; the fundamental number of a number
computer device which develops the routines that give the system. The quantity of different symbols required to
computer the basic intelligence to act upon instructions when express any integer in a number system.
they are prepared by the workpiece programmer, radix complement A numeral in positional notation obtained
programming Preparing a detailed sequence of operating by subtracting each digit of the number from one less than its
instructions for a particular program. This involves the radix, then adding one to the least significant digit.
analysis of the problem, preparation of a general scheme or RAM See random access memory.
flow diagram, preparing details, developing subroutines, random access memory (RAM) A type of memory that can be
specifying formats, etc. accessed (read from) independent of the time of the last
program panel Device used to insert data into a program, access or the location of the most recently accessed data.
monitor a program, or edit it. random tool selection A feature allowing the next tool to be
program scan time Time necessary for a processor to execute all loaded from any position in an automatic toolchanger rather
program instructions once. The scan repeats continuously. than from the next location in the changer.
Inputs are monitored and outputs controlled through the rapid traverse Tool movement at a maximum feed rate from
input/ output image table. one cutting operation to another.
program stop A miscellaneous function command to stop the rated voltage The maximum voltage at which an electrical
spindle, coolant, and feed after completion of the dimen- component can function over an extended period without
sional move in the block. To continue the program, the degradation.
operator must push a button. raw data Data that has not been processed.
PROM See Programmable Read-Only Memory. RCTL See resistor-capacitor-transistor logic.
proportional, integral, derivative module An optional processor reactance Opposition offered to the flow of alternating current
module that provides automatic closed-loop operation of by inductance or capacitance of a component or circuit. Also
multiple continuous process control loops. For each loop, known as a-c reactance.
any of three control actions can be performed. read 1. To copy, usually from one storage device to another.
proportional control Action which causes the output signal 2. To sense the characters involved in numerical information.
to change as a direct ratio of input signal variation. Read-Only Memory (ROM) Digital storage device that can be
iruegral control Action which causes the output signal to read from but cannot be written into by the computer.
change according to the sum of input signal vahses that read-only storage See fixed storage.
have been sampled. read out The presentation of output data by means of visual
derivative control Action which causes the output signal to displays, punched tape, etc.
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CHAPTER 5
read/write memory A memory in which data can be placed or resistivity A factor used in expressing the ability of a material to
accessed. When the data is placed, it destroys previous data. pass an electrical current through its bulk or on the surface.
Stored data is not altered when accessed. resistor A device having electrical resistance and used in an
real time The ability of a computer to function and control a electric circuit for protection, operation, or current control.
process as the process occurs. resistor-capacitor-transistor logic (RCTL) Logic performed by
rectangular coordinate system See cartesian coordinate system. several resistors, a transistor, and a diode. Transistors are
redundancy A backup control that provides a second method of used to produce an inverted output; capacitors are used to
control for certain critical functions. enhance switching speed.
reed relay An assembly combining a reed switch with an resistor-transistor logic (RTL) Logic performed by resistors,
electromagnetic operating coil. with transistors used to produce an inverted output.
reed switch A device that contains two thin, flexible, resolution 1. A measure of the smallest distinguishable incre-
magnetically operated contacts mounted in a hermetically ment of change in the variable output of a device. 2. The
sealed glass tube. minimum positioning motion that can be specified by an NC
reference block A block within an NC program which has system.
enough data to permit resumption of the program following resolver A rotary or linear feedback device used to feed back a
an interruption, signal to the machine control and error detector. The
register A memory word or area used for temporary storage of resolver is usually on the end of a Ieadscrew of an NC
data used within mathematical, logical, or transferal machine tool.
functions. retentive output An output that remains in its last state (on or
relative address An address to which the base is added to find off) depending upon which of its two program rungs was last
the machine address. to be true. It remains in its last state while both rungs are
relative coordinates See incremental coordinates. false and also if power is removed from, then restored to, a
relay An electronic device operated by a variation in the PC,
conditions of one electric circuit to effect the operation of retrofit Modification of a machine originally operated by
other devices in the same circuit or another circuit. manual or tracer control to one that operates by NC
relay logic A representation of the program or other logic in a controls.
form normally used for relays. revision A firmware change that does not greatly affect unit or
relay symbology The use of the symbols developed for the module function.
hardwired relay. rheostat A resistor for regulating a current by means of variable
remote access Access to a data processing facility enabling resistances.
communication by one or more stations that are distant right justify To shift the contents of a register or align printed
from the facility. numbers so that the least significant digit is at a specified
remote input/output The capability to position a portion of a position,
controller’s 1/O (usually one channel) a distance from the rise time The time necessary for the zero potential initially on a
processor, with communication from the 1/O to the processor transmission line to change from 10-90% of its full data
provided by means of two twin-axial cables. communication (DC) value after a d-c potential source is
remote present The capability to place the preset for a timer or instantaneously applied.
counter line into a register and refer to the register in the C RMS See root-mean-square current.
element of the logic line. The preset is not fixed since the roach A slang term for a dual in-line integrated circuit.
register contents (and therefore the preset) can be altered at ROM See read-only memory.
any time. root-mean-square current (RMS) The alternating value which
repeatability y Closeness of agreement among repeated measure- corresponds to the direct current value that produces the
ments of the same characteristics by the same method under same heating effect.
identical conditions. Also known as reproducibility. routine A series of computer instructions which performs a
report An application data display or print-out containing specific application function.
information in a user-designed format. initially entered as row A path perpendicular to the edge of a tape along which
messages, data for the report is stored in a memory area information may be stored by the presence or absence of
separate from the user’s program, holes. The content of a row defines a character.
report generation The printing or displaying of user-formatted row pitch The distance measured along a paper tape between
application data. Initiation is by means of a user’s program the centers of adjacent holes in a row.
or a data terminal keyboard, RS-232C Electronic Institute of America (EIA) standard for
reproducibility 1, The exactness with which measurements of a data communications, RS-232 type C. Data is provided at
given value can be duplicated, 2. The ability of a system to various rates, 8 data bits per character.
maintain its input/ output precision over an extended period RTL See resistor-transistor logic.
of time. Also known as repeatability. rung A grouping of PC instructions controlling one output or
reserved A data table section or word used only for specific storage bit. This is represented as one section of a logic
processor-related functions. The section or word is not ladder diagram.
available to the user.
resistance The property of any material opposing current flow.
The unit of resistance is the ohm.
resistive unbalance The difference in resistances of two or more sample-and-hold circuit A circuit used to increase the interval
conductors in a cable. This unbalance is expressed as a during which a sampled signal is available by maintaining an
percentage of the resistance of a single conductor. output signal equal to the signal of the most recent sample.
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CHAPTER 5
sampled data Data in which the information content is starting point for a program on an NC machine, as
ascertainable only at discrete intervals of time. established by the operator.
scale The process of changing a quantity by a given factor to shielding The confining of the electrical field around a conductor
bring its range within prescribed limits. to the primary insulation of the cable by putting a conducting
scale factor A coefficient used to multiply or divide quantities to layer over and !or under the cable insulation.
convert them to a given magnitude, shift register A register in which characters may be moved
scanner 1. Equipment used to digitize coordinate information serially one or more positions to the right or left, resulting in
from a master and convert it to tape for subsequent the loss of characters on the end toward which characters are
recreation of the master shape on an NC machine. 2, An moved,
instrument that automatically samples or interrogates the siemens A unit of conductance. One ampere flowing through a
state of various processes, fdes, conditions, or physical states material under a voltage difference of one volt provides one
and then initiates action based on the information obtained. siemen of conductance. The conductance of a conductor in
schematic diagram A diagram representing the detailed internal siemens is the reciprocal of its resistance in ohms. Formerly
electrical circuit arrangement of electronic hardware, using known as mho.
conventional electronic component symbols. Sometimes signal The vent, phenomenon, or electrical quantity that
called “prints. ” conveys information from one point to another.
SCR See silicon controlled rectifier. significant digit A digit contributing to the precision of a
search function A PC, CNC, or computer programming number. The number of significant digits is counted
equipment feature allowinga user to quick lydisplayand/or beginning with the digit having the most value, called the
edit any instruction in the program. most significant digit, and ending with the one having the
second generation In NC, the period of technology associated least value, called the least significant digit.
with transistors. silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) An electronic device generally
segmented program A program divided so that each section is used in control systems for high-power loads. It is an
self-contained. Interchange of information between segments electrical “value” that can be turned on by a signal and will
is by means of data tables in known memory locations; each turn off when the power is removed or reverses direction.
segment contains instructions that cause the transfer to the
simulation 1, The representation of physical systems and
next segment, A computer system which can execute
phenomena by computers or other equipment. 2. The
segmented programs without knowledge of the programmer
technique of setting up a routine for one computer to make it
or operator is said to have “virtual memory. ”
operate like another computer.
self-diagnostic The hardware and firmware within a controller
skewing Refers to a time delay or offset between any two signals
enabling it to monitor its own status and indicate any fault
in relation to each other.
that occurs within it, Monitoring maybe continuous or only
upon command from the operator. sleeving Any preformed tubular insulation placed over portions
sensor A transducer or other device whose input is a quantitative of cables or conductors to insulate them or hold them
measurement of an external physical phenomenon and together.
whose output can be monitored by a computer or other small scale integration (SS1) Any integrated circuit having
control system. fewer than 12 equivalent gates.
sequence number A multidigit “N” number identifying the software All programs, routines, and documents associated
block or group of blocks on the NC tape. This sequence with a computer.
number is displayed on the operator’s console. soft wired A system in which a computer generates control logic,
sequencer A controller that operates an application through a as determined by a software program.
fixed sequence of events or states. In contrast, a program- solenoid An electromagnet with a movable core which, when
mable controller (PC) functions according to varying 1/0 energized, can move a small mechanical part a short
patterns. distance.
serial operation Type of information transfer within a pro- solid state Pertaining to an electrical circuit having no moving
grammable controller whereby the bits are handled sequen- parts, relays, vacuum tubes, or gaseous tube components.
tially rather than simultaneously, as they are in parallel source language A computer input language comprised of
operation. Software systems often permit several tasks to be statements and formulas used to specify computer proces-
controlled seemingly in parallel, while they are actually sing. It is translated into object language by an assembler,
serial internally. compiler, or an interpreter.
service bureau A company which offers software support source program 1. A program written in a symbolic language
service to owners of NC equipment. This support can range designed for ease of expression by humans. 2. The input
from simply supplying program tapes to a complete program to be processed.
counseling and computer part programming service. span The section of a program designated by two end points for
servo amplifier The part of a servo system that increases the linear interpolation; by a beginning point, a center point and
error signal and provides the power to drive the machine an ending point for circular interpolation; and by two end
slides or servo valve controlling a hydraulic drive in an NC points and a diameter point for parabolic interpolation.
system. special purpose logic Those proprietary features of a controller
servomechanism A power device for effecting machine motion. which allow it to do things not normally found in relay
It embodies a closed-loop system in which the controlled ladder logic.
variable is mechanical position and velocity. SS1 See small scale integration.
setpoint 1. The final or target value of a controlled variable stand-alone system A complete operational system that does
usually preset in the computer by the operator. 2. The not require support from other devices or systems.
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CHAPTER 5
start-up The time between the installation and the final symbolic coding Coding in which instructions are written in
operation of the system as desired. nonmachine language.
starwheel The tape reader sprocket that moves a punched tape symbolic control Programmer-to-computer communication by
through a tape reader, In mechanical readers, the wheel means of an abstract language using symbols rather than
position determines the opening or closing of reader contacts. numerical codes.
state 1. The logic condition, O or 1, in a PC memory or at a symbolic instruction An instruction in an assembly language
circuit’s input or output. 2. The logic condition of any device directly translatable into a machine code.
which may be a number greater than Oor 1. A sequencer may synchronizer A storage device used to compensate for a
have many states. Refer to sequencer, difference in the flow rate of information when it is being
statement A meaningful expression or generalized instruction transmitted,
ina source language, synchronous A method of data communication in which the
static A state in which a quantity does not change appreciably data characters are transmitted one after another in a steady
within an arbitrarily long period of time. bit stream, A special “sync” character synchronizes the
static behavior The functioning of a control system under fixed sending and receiving ends of groups of characters. In
or steady-state conditions, as contrasted with dynamic continuous data flow it is sent and sensed at the receiving end
behavior, which is the functioning of the system under to ensure synchronization between sending and receiving
changing conditions. ends.
static gain The ratio of steady-state output to input. syntax A format check.
steady state A condition in which only negligible change is system An organized collection of interdependent and inter-
evident with time. active personnel, machines, and methods combined to
step change A change from one value to another by stepped accomplish a set of specific functions as a larger unit having
increments. the capabilities of all the separate units.
stepping motor A bidirectional, permanent magnet motor
which turns through one angular increment for each pulse
applied to it. T
step response time The time required for an instrument to
change from an initial value to a specified percentage of a tab A nonprinting spacing action on a tape preparation device
steady state after an input step change. whose code separates groups of characters in a tab sequential
storage medium Any device or recording medium on which format.
data can be stored for subsequent retrieval. table A group of consecutive registers used to store numerical
stored-field read-only alterable memory Memories, generally values.
read-only in nature, which may be reprogrammed in a tab sequential format A means of identifying a word by the
limited fashion, number of tab characters that precede it in a block. The first
stored program numerical control The same as CNC except character of all words is a tab character. Words are
that it features an internal memory which can be altered by presented in a specific order, but all characters in a word,
receiving new instructions. except the tab character, may be omitted when the command
straight-cut system A system which has feed rate control only represented by the word is not desired.
along the axes and controlled cutting action that occurs only tank A container normally filled with mercury and pro~;ided
along a path parallel to the linear (or circular) machine ways. with a set of transducers for use as a delay line channel or set
stranded conductor A conductor comprised of a group of of channels each forming a separate recirculation path for
noninsulated wires, usually twisted. data storage.
stranding effect The property of a stranded conductor exhibiting tape lagger The trailing end of a magnetic or perforated paper
a higher d-c resistance than a solid conductor due to the medium, Also known as tape trailer.
longer distance that current must travel when following a tape leader The front or lead end of a tape.
stranded conductor’s helically configured wires, tape preparation Tbe act of translating command data onto
subroutine A portion of an NC program, stored in memory and tape.
capable of being called up to accomplish a particular tape trailer See tape lagger.
operation. [t reverts to the master routine upon completion. terminal A point in a system or communication network at
summing point A point at which signals are algebraically which data can either enter or leave.
added. T function A code identifying a tool select command on a
surface A geometric shape used for controlling the location of a program tape.
tool in space. As a cutter is directed alonga path, it is guided
thermocouple A pair of dissimilar metals in contact forming a
by two surfaces from the programmer’s viewpoint. One is
thermojunction at which voltage is generated when the
called the PART SURFACE. Generally, the bottom of the
junction is heated.
cutter moves along the part surface while the side of the
third generation 1. In NC, the period of technology associated
cutter is guided by the DRIVE SURFACE. A third surface,
with integrated circuits. 2. In computer design, the period of
the CHECK SURFACE, is used to check or halt the
technology utilizing integrate circuits, core memory,
movement of the tool in its progress along the DS-PS pair.
advanced programming concepts, advanced subroutines,
swarf cut The removal of a section of material such as clamping
time sharing, and fast core access.
lugs from a part by cutting with a profiling cutter pass.
switching The action of turning on and off a device. thumbwheel switch A rotating numeric switch used to enter
S-word An NC program code that determines spindle speed. numeric information into a controller.
The code is always preceded by the letter S. time constant The time required for output from a first order
5-93
CHAPTER 5
system to complete 63,2~0 of the total rise or decay as a result obtained by subtracting each digit of a number from one less
of a step change of the input. than its radix number and adding 1 to the sum. Example:
timer A logic used to measure and record the time of an event or 1111 I One less than radix which is 2
sequence of events. Timers can accumulate time in seconds, -01101 Subtract original number
10ths of seconds, or 100ths of seconds. 100II
time sharing The interleaved use of a device to provide + 1 Add 1
apparently simultaneous service.
10011 Two’s complement
tool assembly A complete assembly usually consisting of the
toolholder with collet, etc., where necessary, the cutter, and 2. In computer logic, the two’s complement is obtained by
if applicable, the tool insert. The toolholderfits directly into inverting the states of all binary bits in the number and
the spindle nose of the machine. adding 1. Example:
tool function A command identifying a tool and calling for its 01 IOI Original number
selection. 10010 Invert
tooling A set of required standard or special tools needed to + 1 Add 1
produce a particular part, including jigs, fixtures, gages, and
10011 Two’s complement
cutting tools but excluding machine tools,
tool length compensation A manual input means eliminating
the need for preset tooling and enabling a programmer to
program all tools as if they were of equal length. u
tool offset An incremental displacement correction for tool undercut A cut shorter than the programmed cut resulting after
position parallel to a controlled axis. 2. The ability to reset
a command change in direction.
tool position manually to compensate for tool wear, finish
universal fixturing A set of components resembling building
cuts, and tool exchange.
blocks from which a fixture or fixture setup may be
toroid An electrical device with a ring-shaped core that constructed.
subdivides a given sinusoidal input into convenient parts.
unlatch instruction A PC instruction causing a latched output
track The portion of a moving storage medium, such as the to change state. A latched output is one that is state-retentive
drum, tape or disc, that is accessible to a given reading head on power failure. If a latched output is ON when power fails,
position. it stays ON. Similarly, if it is OFF when power fails, it stays
transducer 1. A device for converting energy from one form to OFF. In addition, the latch instruction itself does not cause
another. 2. In NC, a device for measuring output and the output to stay in the new state. A latched output can
converting it into a signal acceptable to an error detector.
change state during the normal course of program execution,
transfer line A manufacturing system in which individual staying in a particular state until a situation causing it to
stations are used for dedicated purposes.
change state occurs. It only latches in a state when power
transformer coupling A method of isolating 1/O devices from a fails.
controller.
unwind The process of reversing a screw or gear direction for a
transistor A device consisting of a small block of semiconductor
period sufficient to reduce torsional stress due to windup.
material that has three or more electrodes and controls the
flow of current. uptime The percentage of total working time in which a
machine is in operating condition.
transistor-transistor logic (TTL) A logic system evolving from
DTL wherein the multiple diode cluster is replaced by a UV erasable PROM An erasable PROM that can be cleared by
multiple emitter transistor, but is commonly applied to a exposure to ultraviolet light. It can then be reprogrammed.
circuit that has a multiple emitter input and an active ptdlup
network.
trap An unprogrammed conditional jump to a known location, v
automatically activated by hardware, with the location from
which the jump was made recorded. value A number representing a computed or assigned quantity.
triac A solid-state component capable of switching unalternating variable block format A tape format allowing the number and
current. order of words in a block of tape to vary from one block to
true An enabling logic state. the next.
truncate To end a computational process in accordance with variable data Numerical information that can be changed
some rule. during application operation.
truth table A tabular representation of the relationships vector A quantity that has magnitude and direction and is
between inputs and outputs of logic elements, indicating the usually represented by a directed line segment whose length
outputs for each combination. represents the magnitude and whose orientation in space
TTL See transistor-transistor logic. represents the direction.
turning center A lathe-type NC machine tool capable of vector feed rate The resultant rate of feed at which a tool moves
automatically boring, turning outer and inner diameters, with respect to the work surface. Individual slides may move
threading, and facing parts. It is often equipped with a at a rate other than the programmed rate, but resultant
system for automatically changing or indexing cutting tools. movement is equal to the programmed rate.
turn key system An NC or computer system installed by a verify To check, usually by automatic means, one typing or
supplier who has total responsibility for building, installing, recording of data against another to minimize the number of
and testing the systcm. errors in the data transcription.
two’s complement 1. A radix complement in binary notation vibration test A test used to determine a device’s ability to
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CHAPTER 5
withstand physical oscillations of specified frequency, zero offset A characteristic of an NC machine which permits the
duration, and magnitude. zero point on an axis to be shifted readily over a specified
virtual memory A combination of core memory and secondary range.
memory that can be treated as a single memory, thereby zero suppression The elimination of nonsignificant zeroes to the
giving the “virtual” appearance of a larger core memory to left of the decimal point or nonsignificant zeroes to the right
the programmer. of the first digit after the decimal point.
volatile storage A memory in which data is retained only while zero synchronization A technique permitting automatic
power is applied. recovery of a precise position after the machine axis has been
volt The amount of electromotive force required to send one approximately positioned by manual control,
ampere of current through a resistance of one ohm.
voltage A term used in place of electromotive force, potential,
potential difference, or voltage drop to describe the electric
pressure existing between two points, It is capable of References
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number
Manufacturers Association (NEMA), New York, NY, p. 1.
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XTABL The APT vocabulary table containing the code
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Z axis The axis of motion that is parallel to the principal spindle
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CHAPTER 5
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CHAPTER 6
SAWING
Sawing is a machining process in which straight, frequently employed for the cutoff of tubes having CHAPTER
band, or circular blades having a series of small wall thicknesses to about 0.250” (6.35 mm). CONTENTS:
teeth are employed to cut various materials. Another method of cutoff is gang milling (see
Practically every manufacturing firm uses wire, Chapter 10, “Milling”), using a bed-type machine PROCESS
SELECTION 6-1
shaped bars, tubes, pipes, extrusions, structural with a number of side-tooth slitting saws and a side
shapes, sheets, plates, castings, or forgings. These milling cutter on each end of an arbor. Flame HACKSAWING
materials generally must be cut to required lengths cutting can be used in the production of slugs; Machines 6-3
Bladea 6-5
for subsequent processing by machining, press however, it has only limited application because of Workholding 6-6
forming, or assembly. the rough surfaces produced and possible effects of Parameters 6-7
Although several methods of cutoff, sometimes burning, hardening, or softening of the cut surfaces.
BANDSAWING
called slugging, exist, sawing with power hacksaws, Slugs used for press-forming operations are often Machines 6-13
bandsaws, and circular saws is one of the more produced by shearing, heading combined with Bands &
widely used methods. shearing, the nick-and-break method, or blanking. Tools 6-19
Workholding 6-23
Cutoff is also done on lathe-type cutoff These methods are discussed in various chapters of Parameters 6-23
machines with single-point tools. On turret lathes Volume 11, Safety 6-35
and automatic bar machines, workplaces can be In spite of the variety of cutoff methods
cut from the stock with a parting tool after available, many shops find that sawing slugs for CIRCULAR
SAWING
machining. This method is discussed in Chapter 8, use on chucking-type automatics, as well as for Machines 6-36
“Turning and Boring, ” In addition, abrasive-wheel other applications, is preferable because this Fixtures 6-40
cutoff, discussed in Chapter 11, “Grinding,’’can be method of cutting is often easier, faster, and Blades 6-40
Parameters 6-45
used to produce slugs; and disc-type cutters are less costly.
SELECTING A SAWING PROCESS

No single method of sawing is best for all cutoff cutting thicknesses to 4 I” ( 1041 mm), Plate saws
operations, and the proper choice of power hack- are made for cutting lengths exceeding 20 ft (6. 1 m)
sawing, bandsawing, or circular sawing can be and thicknesses exceeding 10” (254 mm).
difficult to make for certain applications. The
advantages and limitations of each sawing process MATERIAL TO BE SAWED
are discussed in detail in subsequent sections of this Physical properties of the material to be sawed
chapter, Factors that must be considered in have a major effect on the tooling, feeds and speeds
selecting a sawing process include the size of the used, and capacity of the sawing machine required;
stock and properties of the material to be sawed; their influence on the type of machine is generally
accuracy, finish, and production requirements; minimal, In general, any reduction in the machin-
and the economics of the process, ability of the material to be sawed usually requires
a corresponding reduction in cutting speed and
SIZE OF STOCK TO BE SAWED may necessitate an increase in power requirements
Both the size and geometry of the stock to be and cost of cutting.
sawed are important considerations because they Hardness, ductility, microstructure, and other
determine the machine capacity and affect the type characteristics of the material affect its machin-
of sawing machine to be used. Hacksaws are ability. The most satisfactory range of material
available with capacities for handling workplaces hardness for sawing is about 180-220 Bhn, but
of practically any size, as well as any cutoff length. steels up to 400 Bhn and some free-machining
Stock with a large cross section can often be cut steels up to 450 Bhn can be sawed at reduced
more economically on horizontal bandsaws. Large cutting rates.
horizontal bandsaws in use have a capacity to cut Forged and hot-rolled steels are more difficult
round stock to 62” ( 1575 mm) diam and rectangular to saw than cold-finished steels because of the
stock to 62 x 72” (1575 x 1829 mm). Circular saws possibility of hard spots and abrasive scale. While
are also available with large capacities. The largest cold working of steel increases the surface
known circular sawing machine has a blade hardness, it is beneficial, especially with lower
diameter of 108” (2743 mm) and is capable of carbon and low-alloy steels, because of decreased
Contributors of sections of this chapter are: Merlin 0. Nerd, General Sales Manager, DoALL Co.; Ted A.
Slezak, Technical Director, Armstrong-BlumMfg. Co.; James E. Wolf, Executive Vice President, Kaltenbach, Inc.
Revia wers of sactions of this chaptar are: C. Ronald A arts, Vice President, MetI-Saw Systems, Inc.; Gene
Bates, Manager-A cme Div., The Hill Acme Co.; Robert L. Baach, Peerless Product Manager, Medalist A utomated
Machinery; Ernest J. Edison, President, Wells Manufacturing Corp.; G. R. Frialing, Bohle Machine Tools, Inc.;
Floyd Hagenbuch, National Sales Manager, Wells Manufacturing Corp.; C. E. Manning, Jr. , President, Kasto -
Racine, Inc.; George F. Nielsen, General Sales Manager, Armstrong -Blum Mfg. Co,; Tom Slattery, Manager-
Public Relations, DoALL Co.; Steva Swanson, Product Manager, Centro-Metalcut, Inc.; Tom W. Tritschler, Vice
President-Sales, Kysor Machine Tool Div. , Kysor Industrial Corp.; Lane T. Wells. Vice President-Engineering,
W, F, Wells and Sons, Inc.: James E. Wolf, Executive Vice President, Kaltenbach, Inc.
6-1
CHAPTER 6
SELECTING A SAWING PROCESS
ductility. As the carbon content of the steel exceeds about Machine Cost
0.35%, rapid tool wear is often encountered because of the Initial, operating, and maintenance costs of the sawing
abrasiveness of the material. Cold working of high-carbon or machine to be used are critical considerations. Larger, more
less-ductile alloy steels may increase hardness to a level which rigid, and higher cost machines are often required to satisfy
will adversely affect cutting rates and tool life. production and quality requirements. Consistent production of
Shear strength of the material to be cut also affects the power close-tolerance, high-quality slugs can eliminate or minimize
requirements for the sawing machine. With low shear strengths, the need for secondary operations on the cut surfaces, thereby
power requirements are reduced and thin chips are produced. providing substantial savings.
Metals such as hard brass and cast irons, which have low shear Capabilities of the sawing machine, however, must be
strengths and ductility, generally produce discontinuous flake- matched to job requirements. Purchasing an expensive, more
type chips and require a minimum amount of energy for stock complex machine for simpler applications and utility needs is
removal. Sawing of materials with high shear strengths produces usually poor economy.
thicker chips and requires more energy for the same depth of
cut. Also, the cutting action generates more heat and results in Tooling Costs
faster tooth wear. Metals such as some stainless and high- While the initial cost of a saw blade or band is generally a
manganese steels, which have a tendency to work harden, minimal factor, the cutting rates possible, resharpening capa-
require a heavy feed pressure and lower speeds during sawing to bilities, and tool life are important considerations. These
assure positive cutting without rubbing. factors can vary widely depending on the sawing method and
Surface condition of the stock also has an important the material to be cut. A more expensive blade or band often
influence in sawing efficiency. The greatest wear occurs as the provides longer life, thus decreasing the frequency of tool-
saw teeth enter the workpiece, and any scale or sand inclusions changing requirements and reducing labor costs—the single
on the work surface will decrease blade or band life. Frequently, most important factor affecting cost per cut.
the additional cost of cleaning the work surface by blasting, Long tool life, however, does not in itself mean lower cost
pickling, turning, or other means can be economically justified per cut. Saw blades and bands should generally be used to their
because of the resultant increase in life of the saw blade or band, full capabilities with respect to cutting speeds and feed rates,
Practically any material can be cut with power hacksaws, regardless of tool life. Faster cutting rates are more economical
bandsaws, or circular saws, with variations in sawing rates and because they reduce burden costs per cut drastically, while
tool life dependent upon stock size, the material sawed, and increasing only slightly the tool cost per cut.
accuracy, finish, and production requirements. In general,
hacksawing is not as suitable as the other two methods for the Material Utilization and Other Cost Factors
high-production cutoff of nonferrous metals. The amount of material lost in the form of chips from the
kerf (width of cut) and/or scrap can be an important cost
consideration, especially with increasing material costs and
when sawing more expensive materials. Bandsawing machines,
ACCURACY, FINISH, AND PRODUCTION which use thin cutting bands, produce the smallest kerf.
REQUIREMENTS Hacksawing machines require thicker blades, and circular
Selection of a sawing method and machine is also influenced sawing machines generally need the thickest blades of the three
by accuracy, finish, and production requirements. The closest sawing methods.
dimensional tolerances can generally be maintained and the Raw material losses, however, must be balanced against
smoothest surface finish produced, especially on nonferrous possible increases in productivity and improvement in the
metals, with circular sawing. Good results, however, can also be accuracy and quality of the slugs or workplaces produced.
obtained with hacksawing and bandsawing by the proper Eliminating a need for secondary operations to attain the
selection of parameters and careful operation. required accuracy and quality can more than offset any
High production requirements usually necessitate using increased loss of material in sawing.
more rigid and costly machines, often equipped with automation Other factors that must be considered in any analysis include
devices. Hacksawing and bandsawing offer the advantages of
lower cost machines, greater versatility, and a large cutting TABLE 6-1
range, which can be important when the sizes and shapes to be Cost and Performance Comparisons of Hacksawing,
cut are widely varied and the production lots are small. Some Bandsawing, and Circular Sawing Machines*
bandsawing machines provide the additional flexibility of being
able to perform contour cutting, friction sawing, and filing Characteristics Lowest ~ Highest
operations. Friction sawing can also be done on some circular Machine cost
sawing machines. Power requirements
Productivity
Versatility
ECONOMICS OF SAWING Tool cost
Maximum economy—the lowest cost per slug or workpiece Tool life
cut while meeting the specified requirements for production Accuracy and finish
rates and dimensional, surface-finish, and metallurgical Capacity available
quality—is probably the most important consideration in
selecting a sawing process, In most cases, cost per cut can be * H—hacksawing machine
reduced with increased sawing rates; however, several factors in B—bandsawing machine
addition to the sawing rate affect total costs. C—circular sawing machine
6-2
CHAPTER 6
POWER HACKSAWING
labor and overhead costs. While overhead costs increase with A comparison of some cost and performance characteristics
any rise in utility and tax rates, labor costs can be reduced with of hacksawing, bandsawing, and circular sawing machines is
higher sawing rates, reduced downtime, and increased use of presented in Table 6-1. These comparisons are of necessity
automation devices. Fully automatic machines free the operator generalizations and the ratings given can change completely for
to perform other functions, thus reducing direct labor costs. specific applications.
POWER HACKSAWING
Power hacksawing is characterized by the reciprocating bowing of the blade and some inaccuracy. For this reason,
action of a relatively short, straight, toothed blade that is drawn hacksaw blades are made thicker than the bands used on
back and forth over the workpiece in much the same manner bandsawing machines, thus requiring more power and pro-
as a hand hacksaw. It differs from other sawing methods in ducing more chips. The kerf (cut width) in hacksawing,
that the back-and-forth motion of the blade makes a noncon- however, is less than that in circular sawing. Kerf varies from
tinuous cut. 0.092-0. 183’’(2.34-4.65 mm) with regular hack sawing blades.
The power hacksaw was the first practical cutoff machine. Power hacksawing is essentially a roughing operation, and at
Modern heavy-duty machines provide an economical and least 0.002’’(0.05 mm) should be left on cut surfaces for
efficient means of sawing a wide range of materials and stock finishing.
sizes. They are used extensively for utility needs and in smaller Blade wear in power hacksawing is uneven because only part
shops in which production requirements are not high. of the blade is used for cutting since the arms holding the blade
obstruct use of the blade ends. Also, the necessity for stopping
ADVANTAGES and reversing the direction of blade travel at the end of each
A major advantage of power hacksawing is the relatively low stroke causes the cutting speed to vary, thus reducing efficiency.
capital investment required. The machines themselves are
moderate in cost; however, stock feeds, automatic controls, HACKSAWING MACHINES
and other accessories and attachments can add substantially to Hacksawing machines consist of a supported reciprocating
the price. frame and saw blade mounted to a base for supporting the
Hacksawing machines are easy to set up and simple to work. They are available in several basic designs. Horizontal
operate. Unskilled or semiskilled help can be used, and one machines are the most popular. On column or way-type
operator can often attend two or more machines. Tooling costs horizontal machines, as illustrated in Fig. 6-1, the supporting
are low, and the comparatively thin blades used are inexpensive
enough to make it economically feasible to throw the blades
away when they become worn, rather than resharpen them. —-A —Blode Irame C.tt,ng flu,d valve
~ ~w \~ wOrk Ilgh’ Transm[sslon lever
Maintenance costs also are low because of the simple design and [,.,.4 .-.. r\
operation of these machines.
+rA.
y %;:::7
Versatility is another important advantage of power hack-
sawing. The machines can handle most cutting requirements
including practically all materials, a wide range of stock sizes
within their capacities, and any cutoff length. Hacksawing is
often more practical and economical than bandsawing for
cutting large workplaces with thick cross sections, especially
when cutting materials that are somewhat difficult to machine.
Control
.. .W
Accuracies maintained and finishes produced with power
hacksawing range from fair to good depending on the material
being sawed. Tendency for the hacksaw blades to twist or
deflect is minimal. Since power hacksawing machines can
Gk x
provide fairly accurate cuts in hard materials, they are often ‘>>, , length gage
preferred for cutting tough forgings, hardened tool steels, and
+
similar materials.
., Discharge
\ troy
LIMITATIONS
A major disadvantage of power hacksawing machines is that Dlschorge
chute
they are slower than bandsawing and circular sawing machines. w II
The cutting action is noncontinuous, and only half of each
reciprocating stroke is productive. Noncutting time, however,
has been reduced on modern machines (discussed next in this
chapter) by the development of systems for more rapid return
strokes. Bundling of stock for multiple cutting also increases
productivity.
P
FIG. 6-1 Column-type horizontal hacksawing machine with
The reciprocating action of hacksawing prohibits the use of automatic or manually controlled, power bar feed. (A rmstrong-Blum
blade supports close to the area of cutting. This may cause Mfg. co.)
6-3
CHAPTER 6
POWER HACKSAWING
member (carrying the reciprocating frame and saw blade) is

mounted on one or more vertical columns or uprights with
ways. This s~pporting member is fed downward in a vertical
plane on the column(s) to saw the workpiece(s). On some
machines, such as the one illustrated in Fig. 6-2, angular cuts
:an be made by swiveling the supporting member and columns
m the machine bed. - -“ -
Safety stops
Coolont
n ~ [ lets
Step
collar
FIG. 6-3 Hinge or scissor-type horizontal hacksawing machine with

arc-shaped, push-stroke cutting. (Kasto- Rocine, [nc. j
Completely automatic power hacksawing machines perform

Mo,n the following steps:
housing
1. Feed stock through the open workholding vise or
fixture.
2. Gage length to required dimension.
3. Close and lock clamping vise or fixture.
4. Feed blade through the stock.
5. Raise the blade at the end of the cut.
6. Open the vise or fixture.
This automatic cycle is repeated until the final cut has been
made (of a preset number of slugs or at the end of the stock),
L Angle cutting
after which the machine is stopped.
Reciprocating Drives
FIG. 6-2 Angular cuts can be made on this horizontal hacksawing Many hacksawing machines are mechanically driven with a
machine by swiveling the blade support member. (A rmstrong-fllum simple shaper-type crank mechanism for reciprocating the
Mfg. co,)
frame (bow) and saw blade. However, since no metal removal
can take place during the return stroke, several methods have
On hinge-type horizontal machines (see Fig. 6-3) the sup- been developed to shorten the time required for the blade to be
porting member carrying the reciprocating frame and saw blade returned to its starting position, thus increasing productivity.
is mounted on the back of the machine base. Feeding produces a One machine builder uses a crank/ sliding gear arrange-
scissor-type motion with the reciprocating blade moving ment in the driving mechanism to provide more strokes per
downward in an arc and a vertical plane for sawing. Small minute with the same cutting speed. Another builder uses a
portable hacksawing machines with retractable wheels are also crank/ lever arrangement to complete the cutting strokein212°
available. of each drive revolution, with the return stroke completed in
Vertical machines have the support for the reciprocating 148° of each revolution. This provides one-third more cutting
frame and saw blade mounted on the rear of the machine base, strokes per minute without increasing the blade speed and
with the frame reciprocating in a vertical plane. The supporting cutting stroke,
member is fed horizontally toward the front of the machine, and Electrohydraulic machines are available using a hydraulic
the reciprocating blade saws the fixed workpiece(s). drive instead of a crank mechanism for reciprocating the saw
All hacksawing machines have means, either mechanical or frame and blade. This design provides a substantially constant
hydraulic, of lifting the saw frame at the completion of the cut speed over the length of the stroke.
and keeping it raised during the noncutting return stroke.
Means for adjusting the stroke length are also standard. While Methods of Feeding
single-speed machines are available, most are equipped with Cutting in power hacksawing is done on the push or
transmissions to provide from two to six different cutting pull (draw) stroke, depending on the design of the machine.
speeds. Some have infinitely variable cutting speeds with a Power hacksawing machines are available in a wide range of
constant, but faster, return speed. work capacities, with the largest rated at 55 x 55”(1 400 x 1400
6-4
CHAPTER 6
POWER HACKSAWING
mm). Feeding the blade into the work is accomplished by different but similar method uses an arc-shaped cutting stroke
several methods. produced by a rocking action of the blade and frame combined
Depth of feed, achieved mechanically or hydraulically, with a pushing motion during the cut.
positively controls the depth to which the saw blade cuts. This
can be done mechanically with adjustable springs or hydrau- Optional Equipment
lically by controlling the volume of fluid. With one hydraulic Handling of large and heavy stock on hacksawing machines
feed system, the pump operates only when the saw blade is being can present problems unless special equipment is used. Some
raised. The entire weight of the machine housing is carried on machines have eccentrically mounted rollers for lifting stock
two columns of oil, and feed is accomplished by bleeding oil from the bed for easy positioning. Semiautomatic or automatic
from the cylinders. Depth of feed and feed pressure are adjusted stock feeding mechanisms are popular options since they permit
by a control unit. One mechanical type of positive, incremental sawing without constant attention of an operator. Such devices
downfeed consists of a ratchet-and-pawl mechanism that can be arranged to handle nested or bundled stock when the
actuates a feedscrew, with provisions for adjustments. This type application warrants.
of feed results in a slower cutting rate at the beginning and end Cutting fluid and automatic machine lubrication systems
of a cut, when sawing round stock (in which the cuts are short), may also be desirable depending on the application. Means for
and a faster cutting rate in the middle. holding and clamping stock during sawing are discussed later in
Pressure or friction feed, accomplished hydraulically or by this chapter,
gravity, controls the amount of force exerted on the blade Preset part counters are available to automatically stop the
during sawing. This type of feed results in faster sawing through machines after the desired number of cuts have been made.
shorter lengths and slower sawing of wider cuts. Fully automatic machines that can be programmed to perform
Dual-power feeds, available on some hacksawing machines, all sawing functions are also available.
combine the advantages of both types. The two types of feed
systems can be used singly or in combination. These mechanical HACKSAW BLADES
systems use feedscrews and gearing to change the method of Power hacksaw blades made from different materials, in a
feeding from the pressure (friction) type for shorter cut lengths variety of sizes and pitches and with different tooth geometries,
to the positive-depth type for longer cut lengths. Both pressure are available. Selecting the best blade for a specific application
and depth of feed are controlled and adjusted automatically in depends on many factors including the cross-sectional area and
proportion to the number of teeth in contact with the work. hardness of the material to be sawed, cutting speed, blade
This results in cutoff being accomplished in the fewest possible strength, tooth geometry, and tension. Practically all blades
number of strokes, regardless of any change in the cross- have only one cutting edge, consisting of teeth extending almost
sectional area of the shape being cut, without operator attention. the full length of the blade. A pinhole or pinholes are provided
Mechanical power feeds are generally preferred for smaller near each end of the blade to flt over pins on the saw frame or
hacksawing machines, and hydraulic feeds are usually preferred bow of the machine.
for machines with larger capacities. Hydraulically controlled Proper tensioning of the blades on the machines, usually
feeding systems are also available to control and adjust both accomplished with adjustment nuts, is critical to minimize
pressure and depth of feed. They can provide optimum cutting blade deflection or wandering and possible failure due to
rates for sawing various materials and cross sections, often buckling under heavy cutting loads. The degree of tension
without any need for changing the blade. applied depends primarily on the blade material, length,
Some hydraulic feed systems provide overload valves to thickness, and width; whether the machine cuts on the push or
prevent damaging the machine or blade if excessive cutting draw stroke; and the sawing results obtained. Some machines
resistance is encountered during sawing. One builder offers an have systems to automatically sense and indicate the tension,
automatic stroke-adjustment mechanism to distribute wear and portable devices such m stretch gages for clamping to the
more evenly along the length of the blade. It operates by blades and showing the tension on a dial indicator are available.
decreasing the stroke when the opening of the workholding vise Overtensioning can cause the premature breakage of blades.
is reduced and by increasing the stroke for wider vise openings. Blades will bow (curve away from the work) under heavy
The hydraulic cutting pressure is also varied with different cutting forces. Some bowing is allowable; however, if it results
stroke lengths. in excessive flexing, the blade tension should be increased or a
stronger blade should be used. This problem can be minimized
Cutting with a Rolling Action by using blades with pinholes closer to the cutting edge. With
Maximum efficiency in hacksawing depends on maintaining this design, the tensioned blade is bowed slightly away from the
an optimum chip load per blade tooth. As sawing progresses work when not cutting and straightens during sawing, thus
into thicker cross sections of the work, however, resistance minimizing wandering. Some machines permit the use of
increases and penetration per tooth decreases because more backup bars to provide additional support for blades.
teeth are in contact with the material being cut. Several methods
have been developed to overcome this problem and to increase Blade Materials
productivity by providing a rolling or rocking action of the Three types of materials are generally used for power
blade during the cutting stroke. hacksaw blades. The tips of the teeth on all three types typically
One method progressively raises one end of the blade and have a minimum hardness of RC62. Blades made from through-
lowers the other end as it is drawn through the work, producing hardened tool steels are seldom used for production applica-
a cut that is slightly curved at the bottom. Since the blade is in tions, but they are sometimes employed for cutting soft metals,
contact with only a short section of the work at any instant, for one-of-a-kind jobs, or for general utility requirements.
penetration per tooth is increased and required feed pressure is Blades made from high-speed steels that have only the tooth
decreased. Also, improved chip clearance is provided. A area hardened are widely used for sawing many different
6-5
CHAPTER 6
POWER HACKSAWING
materials. They provide good cutting characteristics, but can cutting-edge clearance angle (usually 15° ), and a rounder flank
present a safety hazard in that they have a tendency to shatter if surface, as shown in view-b in Fig. 6-4.
they break under tension.
Composite or bimetal blades, consisting of a HSS cutting
edge welded to an alloy steel body or backing, are becoming
increasingly popular. This design allows the backing material
to be selected for maximum resilience and fatigue resis-
tance. These blades permit safer operation at higher speeds
and feed pressures. Like blades made from the other materials,
these blades have cutting edges that are hardened to a mini-
mum of RC62, but the hardness of the body is usually a
maximum of RC52,
FIG. 6-4 Straight-tooth geometry (a), which is most widely used for
power hacksaw blades. Undercut face tooth (b), which is sometimes
Sizes of Blades used on coarser pitch blades.
Blade size depends primarily on work and strength require-
ments. The length of the blade should be as short as possible—
Tooth Set
not much more than the maximum width of the work to be
Tooth set is the lateral projection of the teeth from the
sawed. Blades for power hacksawing generally range from
centerline of the blade to provide cutting clearance and prevent
about 12-53” (305-1346 mm) in nominal length, with a usual
binding. Overall set is the total distance between the outer
tolerance of+ 1/ 16” (1.6 mm). Long, wide blades are available
corners of oppositely set teeth. Overall set determines the kerf
in segmental styles, and worn or broken sections can be
(width of cut). Three types of tooth set are:
selectively resharpened or replaced.
Blade widths usually vary from 5/8” (16 mm) for light-duty 1. Alternate set in which the teeth are flared alternately to
sawing to 4 5/ 8“ (1 17.5 mm) for heavy-duty applications, witha the right and left (Fig. 6-5, a),
tolerance of + I/ 32” (0.8 mm). Thicknesses generally range 2. Raker set in which every third tooth is straight (unset)
from 0.032” (0.8 1 mm) for light-duty to 0.150” (3.81 mm) for and the succeeding two teeth are flared alternately to the
heavy-duty use, with a tolerance of ?zO.003° (0,08 mm). Blades right and left (Fig. 6-5, b).
must have sufficient thickness to withstand feed pressures .3 Wavy set in which groups of teeth (two or more) are
applied and to provide the necessary rigidity to minimize flared alternately to the right and left. This type set is not
flexing. Shorter, heavier blades assure straight cuts, give more recommended for power hacksawing and is used infre-
cuts per blade and per hour, and reduce blade breakage. quently, only for ~ine-pitch blades~24 or 32 teeth per
Dimensions and tolerances of both hand and power hacksaw inch (Fig. 6-5, c).
blades are presented in ANSI Standard B94.52-1977 “Hack
Saw Blades. ”
Pitch of the Teeth
I
Pitch, the distance between adjacent teeth on the saw blade,
depends primarily on the hardness of the material to be cut and
the cross-sectional area of the workpiece. At least two or three
teeth should be engaged with the work at all times during
sawing, and as coarse a pitch as possible should be used. Blades
with fewer teeth per inch and larger tooth gullets are generally
preferable for softer materials and solid bars. For average
sawing conditions, blades with six teeth per inch are widely used
for bars 1-5’’(25-127 mm) diam, four teeth per inch for bars 5-8”
(127-203 mm) diam, and three teeth per inch for bars larger than
8“ diam. Blades with 10-18 teeth per inch are generally used for ((l) (b)
bars less than 1“(25 mm) diam, Altern~te Rokel
set set
Power hacksaw blades are available with from 2 1/2 to 18
teeth per inch, but pitches of 4, 6, 10, and 14 are the most
commonly used. Some machine builders claim that a wide FIG. 6-5 Three types of tooth set used to provide cutting clesrance
variety of materials and work sizes can be sawed with the same and prevent binding of the btade in the cut.
pitch blade because the machine controls compensate for the
variables. Another type of”set, not illustrated, is the modified raker in
which the conventional raker set (one tooth right, one tooth left,
Tooth Geometry and one unset) is reversed in the subsequent set of three teeth.
The most widely used tooth geometry for power hacksaw
blades is the regular or standard straight-tooth design shown in WORKHOLDING FOR HACKSAWING
views in Fig. 6-4. This design has a 0° rake angle, a straight 56° As previously mentioned, multiple rollers for positioning
back angle, and a full, round gullet for chip clearance. Another and lifting large, heavy stock are desirable. Automatic machines
geometry sometimes used on blades with coarser pitches has a often have roller-chain or leadscrew bar feed systems. A large
positive rake angle or undercut (generally 10° ), a shallow and substantial swivel-type or variable position vise is often
6-6
CHAPTER 6
POWER HACKSAWING
used to permit miter cutting, Presetting locators for angles 3. Hexagonal stock should be laid on the plane of the bar.
commonly sawed are also useful. Some vises are designed with For multiple cutting, however, almost any arrangement
interchangeable jaws for special workholding requirements, is satisfactory.
and some have two movable jaws. For cutting short lengths, a 4. Round bar stock, when cut in multiples, should be
vise that clamps on either side of the blade is useful. Swivel-type arranged in a square or rectangular bundle. The bars
or variable position vises can only be used on machines with should be interlocked in layers (see Fig. 6-5), with every
manual stock feeds. Automatic machines generally have a other layer having one less bar than the first and last layer
material sensing function, and the vise cannot be moved for more secure clamping and, more importantly, for
without affecting accuracy. constant contact of the saw blade with the work without
For maximum economy, as much stock should be gripped in interruption from layer to layer.
the vise as the blade and machine will cut in one setup. Several 5. Tubing should be clamped in the same manner as round
methods of clamping multiple parts in a power hacksaw are stock.
illustrated in Fig. 6-6. Various nesting equipment, including 6. Multiple or nested cutting of angles, channels, and other
clamps and extensions, is available for efficient bundle cutting. structural shapes can be done by loading the vise as
Bundle cutting, however, is not always practical for production shown in Fig. 6-6.
applications 7. In most cases, an overhead guide bar should be used
when clamping workplaces for multiple cutting. When
the workplaces are clamped with the movable vise jaw,
the parts will readjust their positions and automatically
arrest themselves against the overhead guide bar, thus
being rigidly clamped from the top and side.
Cutting speeds in strokes per minute are not directly
proportional to cutting rates in feet per minute for all hack-
sawing machines because of different stroke lengths and/or
methods of blade reciprocation. The maximum speed—strokes
per minute (spm)—at which a machine can be operated is
limited by the peak blade speed developed during the cutting
stroke. The peak blade speed is limited by the characteristics of
the blade. Machines equipped with fast return strokes
(previously described) can operate at higher effective spin’s
without exceeding the peak blade speed and thereby causing
blade failure due primarily to excessive heat at the cutting teeth.
Speeds for power hacksawing generally range from 25 to 165
spin, with the maximum speed employed only for cutting some
carbon and free-machining steels. When the materials to be cut
are hard, heat treated, and/ or rough, the use of a lower cutting
speed is usually more efficient and economical because blade
life will be lengthened. Excessive speeds, too light a feed
pressure, or dull blades can cause work hardening of some
materials such as austenitic stainless steels, high-temperature
materials containing nickel, and some soft, ductile, low-carbon
steels. Recommended cutting speeds and feed rates for
hacksawing various materials on machines having different
capacities are presented in Table 6-2.
Starting the Cut

When starting a cut on a corner of a workpiece is unavoidable,
it is important that the cut be started with light pressure. Then,
when the blade engages a larger cutting area, more pressure may
be applied. Light feeds, as well as higher speeds and blades with
more teeth per inch, should be used to cut thin sections and
tubes. Cutting with a new blade in a slot previously cut with a
FIG. 6-6 Various methods of clamping multiple parts in a power worn blade should be avoided. It is always better to start the cut
hacksaw. with a new blade or invert the workpiece and use the new blade
to meet the old cut. Possible solutions for problems that maybe
encountered in power hacksawing are presented in Table 6-3.
Recommendations for clamping various types and shapes of
workplaces in conventional clamping vises include the following:
Cutting Fluids
1. Thin strips should be as flat as possible. The use of a cutting fluid is recommended for power
2. Short ends of stock should be cut singly to assure proper hacksawing all materials except cast iron. In sawing cast iron,
clamping and accuracy. the fluid forms a sludge that retards cutting. Good results are
6-7
CHAPTER 6
POWER HACKSAWING
6-8
CHAPTER 6
POWER HACKSAWING
6-9
CHAPTER 6
POWER HACKSAWING
6-10
CHAPTER 6
BANDSAWING
TABLE 6-3 obtained in sawing other materials by using either of the

Troubleshooting Chart for Power Hacksawing Machines following types of cutting fluid:
1. Mineral-based cutting oils with the addition of fatty oils,
Problem Possible Solutions
sulfur for antiwelding characteristics, and chlorine for
Excessive or Reduce speed and/or feed, increase blade film strength.
premature tension, uses blade with a finer pitch, change 2. Soluble oil, with fatty oils and sulfur, mixed in water with
tooth wear cutting fluid, check machine for adjustment. a ratio of 1 part oil to 5 parts water. Leaner mixtures up to
1 part oil to 15 parts water can sometimes be used for
Teeth Use a blade with a finer or coarser pitch, increase
sawing softer materials.
stripping blade tension, avoid starting cuts on sharp
corners or thin sections, reduce feed, check Proper application is also essential for maximum blade life.
clamping of work. Flooding of the blade/ workpiece interface is generally best.
Lubrication of the blade to prevent chips from adhering to the
Blade Replace worn blade, reduce feed pressure, use a
cutting edges is essential when sawing some materials. Some
breakage blade with a finer or coarser pitch, check blade
machines are equipped with adjustable jets above the blade for
tension, work clamping, and blade holding pins.
applying cutting fluid.
Crooked Increase blade tension, replace worn blade
cutting and/or blade holders, reduce feed pressure HACKSAWING SAFETY REQUIREMENTS
and/or speed, adjust or repair machine, check ANSI Standard B 11.10-1974 “Safety Requirements for the
alignment of work in holder and work material Construction, Care, and Use of Metal Sawing Machines”
for hard spots. specifies safety requirements for different types of sawing
machines, including power hacksawing machines.
slow Use a blade with a coarser pitch and/or one with Most machine builders provide enclosures to promote
cutting deeper gullets to prevent chip overloading, safety. Some machines have safety switches to automatically
reduce speed and/ or feed, increase flow of stop all motors if the blade breaks or feed pressure becomes
cutting fluid. excessive.
BANDSAWING
Power bandsawing, often called band machining, uses a long honeycomb material, as well as other fragile, cellular
endless band with many small teeth traveling over two or more structures.
wheels (one is a driven wheel, and the others are idlers) in one 5. Band filing for light stock removal, particularly on
direction. The band, with only a portion exposed, produces a internal surfaces, from a wide variety of materials.
continuous and uniform cutting action with evenly distributed, 6. Band polishing for burr removal and finishing surfaces
low, individual tooth loads. Bandsawing machines are available previously sawed and/ or filed.
in a wide variety of types to suit many different applications. 7. Scallop-edge, wavy-edge, and knife-edge bandsawing,
The cutting action of bandsawing differs from other sawing used primarily for cutting soft and fibrous materials that
methods in that its continuous, single-direction cutting action, may tear, fray, or otherwise result in poor surface finishes
combined with blade guiding and tensioning, gives it the ability when cut with tooth-type bands,
to follow a path that cannot be duplicated with power 8. Spiral-edge bandsawing for the omnidirectional (360° )
hacksawing and circular sawing. The bandsaw blade or band cutting of intricate patterns in thin pieces of metal,
can follow the cutting teeth along any path over which it is plastic, and wood.
guided, making radii or contour cuts possible. Band teeth cut 9. Abrasive wire bandsawing. used .urimarilv on CNC
with a shearing action and tend to take a full, uniform chip. machines for the omnidire~tlonal cutting of~ifficult-to-
machine materials and for finishing dies, cams, and other
ADVANTAGES complex-shaped parts.
Versatility is one of the most important advantages of power
Differences in these methods are discussed in the subsequent
bandsawing. The process is not limited to the use of conventional
section “Saw Bands and Other Tools. ”
saw bands with cutting teeth; at least nine known methods of
Contour band machining offers several major advantages
band machining exist. These methods are as follows:
over other machining methods: rapid cutting to shape, safe and
1. Conventional sawing, used primarily for cutoff, contour easy operation, raw material savings, and relatively low cost.
cutting, and slotting. All these advantages result from the way the bandsawing
2. Friction sawing, used for the high-speed cutting of machine removes unwanted material in sections instead of
hardened ferrous metals, nonferrous metals, and wasted chips, thus increasing production efficiency. Less time is
nonmetallic materials. required to saw around a section than to produce chips, and the
3. Diamond-band machining for cutting glass, carbide, resulting unwanted section can sometimes be used to manu-
semiconductor and graphitic materials, ceramics, and facture other products.
quartz. This ability to create fewer chips also makes the process the
4. Electroband (electrical discharge) machining, generally most material and energy efficient of the three basic types of
used on aluminum, copper, stainless steel, and titanium cutoff sawing machines used to produce slugs for further
6-11
CHAPTER 6
BANDSAWING
processing. Bandsawing produces a smaller kerf (width of cut) rate is assumed to be just under the rate that will tear out the
than hacksawing or circular sawing for any given stock size tooth tips, the rate can be maintained for increasing work
range, thus reducing energy requirements and material losses in widths until the cutting edge of the band goes into compression
the form of chips. Stated another way, more slugs or workplaces rather than tension. Then the limiting factor becomes the beam
can be produced from any given amount of stock. This factor strength of the band and feed force must be reduced to maintain
becomes increasingly significant with more expensive materials a straight cut.
and as material costs rise. A reasonably accurate rule-of-thumb is that allowable feed
force is inversely proportional to the span between the saw
LIMITATIONS guides—double the span, half the rate. For example, if tbe
There are few limitations to the use of power bandsawing. maximum cutting rate for a narrow band when sawing a given
The versatility of the process makes it suitable for a wide variety material to 6“(152 mm) diam is 20 in.j/min (129 cmz/min), the
of applications on many different materials and sizes of maximum cutting rate for 12” (305 mm) diam would be 10
workplaces. Machines equipped with bimetallic bands are used in.z/ Min (64.5 cmj/ rein). Published cutting rate charts will
to saw materials with harnesses to 464 Bhn (R&9). Even generally not support such calculations because they rarely
harder materials can be cut with friction sawing or abrasive- show maximum cutting rates for every diameter.
edge bands. A typical sawing accuracy cited by many manufacturers of
Rigidity of the band used decreases with an increase in the bandsawing machines is +0.002” (0.05 mm) per inch of cut. This
distance between saw guides, but the cutting rates do not tolerance is fairly standard, but because of the many variables
decrease proportionately. Cut widths to 52” (1320 mm) can be for different applications, closer tolerances can often be main-
made in alloy steel with an unsupported 2“ (51 mm) or wider tained. Surface finishes of 450-500 AJin. (11.4 -12.7 p m) are
band, and cut widths to 62” ( 1575 mm) can be made with a wide commonly produced, but smoother finishes can be obtained by
band having backer-bar support. using slower feeds, finer pitch bands, higher band speeds, or a
Factors which influence cutting rates when sawing wide combination of these variables.
workplaces include the pitch, width, thickness, and tension of
the band; the rake angle and sharpness of the teeth; the hardness APPLICATIONS
of the material being sawed; and the band speed. When sawing While bandsawing is most often associated with the cutting
narrow work widths, tooth construction is the limiting factor of metal or wood, this process is being used for sawing a wide
with respect to maximum cutting rates. If a maximum cutting variety of materials ranging from asbestos to zirconium.
Contour cutting Partlr3g-angle cutting Slottlng
Three-dimensional Stack cuttng Shopng

cuttlna
FIG. 6-7 Basic bandsawing operations of cutoff, contouring, and slotting used for many different applications. f LJOA LL Lo.j
6-12
CHAPTER 6
BANDSAWING
Although bandsawing is used for operations such as filing, contouring, filing, or polishing. An important advantage is that
polishing, and others previously listed, by far the largest single these machines only require the simplest of fixturing.
application is sawing. The basic bandsawing operations are Hydraulically powered table machines. Contour-type band-
cutoff, contouring, and slotting. Practically all sawing applica- sawing machines are available with hydraulic power for moving
tions consist of one or more of these operations (see Fig. 6-7).
the table. Controls and fixturing are similar to those for air-
Production cutoff operations are normally performed on
powered tables, and the operator can perform a variety of
semiautomatic or automatic machines designed specifically for sawing operations with a minimum of effort. Instead of the
this purpose. Contouring is nearly always done on vertical
operator having to hold an air-valve lever to apply feed force,
bandsawing machines, most of which have tables that tilt. A
the feeding force is preset on machines with hydraulic tables.
tilting table permits both straight and contour cuts to be made The machine can complete straight cuts without further
at angles to, as well as parallel to, flat workplaces. This three- assistance from the operator.
dimensionaI shaping allows complicated parts to be made
Contouring attachments are available for machines equipped
quickly; some examples are shown in Fig. 6-8. with hydraulically powered tables. On some machines with
constant feed rates, a servovalve is used to compensate for any
BANDSAWING MACHINES overfeed that may occur when cutting radii. The servo will slow
Bandsawing machines have evolved from the simple two- and reverse the table direction under certain conditions to
wheel vertical machine on which the operator pushed a maintain a constant feed rate while cutting along any radius.
workpiece through the band into sophisticated machine tools The operator simply rotates a handwheel to align the workpiece
made in many types. They are now available in two, three, or properly ahead of the band.
four-wheel versions. Contouring, vertical, horizontal, tilt- Friction sawing machines. These vertical bandsawing
frame, angle, cutoff, plate, friction, and universal are some of machines are available with fixed band speeds, variable-speed
the names used to designate various types. Some manufacturers drives, or a combination of a variable-speed drive and a
offer combination vertical/ horizontal bandsawing machines transmission. They operate at high speeds and are often used for
for light to medium-duty cutting of a variety of materials. friction sawing. Wheels on these machines are usually large,
36”(914 mm) diam, and balanced for smooth, vibration-free
Vertical Machines operation. Large wheels are necessary to provide long fatigue
Vertical contour-type bandsawing machines usually have life for the bands operating at high speeds,
two or three wheels with a horizontal table mounted between In friction sawing, the high-speed band generates sufficient
two of the wheels. Workpieces are placed on tbe table and heat to soften the material just ahead of the teeth; the softened
pushed through the band by hand or some mechanical means. material is then easily removed by the band as it passes through
The table on vertical contouring machines may be fixed or the work. Heat generated by the friction is confined to a small
moved by hydraulic or air power. On both fixed and powered- area immediately ahead and slightly to the sides of the band.
table models, a chain (which may be part of a contour- Heat penetration into the material depends on the thermal
ing device) can be wrapped around the workpiece to pull it conductivity of the metal being cut, but seldom exceeds a depth
through the band. of 0.002’’(0.05 mm). Because the high-speed band is only in
Fixed-table machines. Contour-type bandsawing machines momentary contact with the workpiece, the band cools as it
with fixed tables are available in a variety of sizes—typically 16, passes around the machine wheels.
20, 26, 30, and 36’’(406, 508, 660, 762, and 914 mm). This Using this method, hardened materials that are difficult to
dimensional size refers to the throat capacity of the machine, machine by other processes can be cut simply and quickly.
which is the maximum distance between the band and the These machines are normally used to saw hardened ferrous
column or frame. The maximum work thickness capacity for metals less than 1“(25 mm) thick at band speeds between 6000
these machines varies from about 10 to 48’’(254 to 1219 mm), and 15,000 sfm (1829 and 4572 m/min). Stock thicker than 1“
depending on the intended application and the manufacturer. can be friction sawed by using a rocking technique. Tubing can
Fixed-table, hand-fed machines are typically used for varied also be friction sawed if the cut area is less than 1” thick—the
shop work and low-volume sawing, filing, and polishing larger the tube diameter, the thinner the wall thickness must be.
operations. Tables on these machines can usually be tilted Foundries frequently employ these machines for removing
about 10’ above and 45° below their normal horizontal gates and risers from castings. Friction sawing of nonferrous
position for angle sawing, as illustrated in Fig. 6-9. metals and nonmetallic materials typically is done at band
Air-powered table machines. On some machines, compressed speeds from 3000 to 6000 sfm (914 to 1829 m/ rein).
air supplies the power to pull the work through the band. High-speed vertical bandsawing machines, however, are not
Workpieces can be butted against a squaring bar, and the table limited to friction sawing applications. Machines equipped with
pulls the workpiece through the band with little or no additional a variable-speed drive and/ or suitable transmission have the
fixturing. This is because the band tends to pull the work down speed range to make them suitable for toolroom work as well as
against the table. heavy-duty, conventional sawing applications.
A contour fixturing device can also be used to rotate the Diamond-band machines. Modified vertical bandsawing
workpiece during cutting. This method is used to produce machines are available for use with diamond bands to cut glass,
contours, angles, radii, and similar shapes. With this arrange- carbide, semiconductor and graphitic materials, ceramics, and
ment, the operator controls an air valve to supply power to the quartz. Tables on these machines are fed with an air-over-oil
table. A handwheel is turned to rotate the workpiece, if system that provides the delicate control required for cutting
necessary, to cut a scribed line. such materials. The tables and cutting fluid systems on these
Contour band machines with air-powered tables are machines are usually special because the process demands a
frequently used for sawing, slotting, notching, angular cutting, high flow rate for the cutting fluid.
6-13
CHAPTER 6
BANDSAWING
In
---
.—.
Angular cuts
Dmesoo ts
Internal cbk
O I
0
Segmer3tlng
&
●
Sp
f
ng
Idl Bevel cut

Q
Re ess g
Slobblng
●✌✎
✌✌✍
Grtndng rellefs Sllcng
~ Shoplng cuts
~
Slotllng
FIG. 6-8 Three-dimensional cutting possible on contouring-type bandsawing machines which allows the production of many complex parts.
{DoALL Co.)
6-14
CHAPTER 6
BANDSAWING
Bands used on these machines have widths of 1, 1 1/4, or

2“(25, 32,or51 mm) and usually operate at speeds of 40-300 sfm
(12.2 -91.4 m/ rein). Three different band-type plate saws
available are fixed-head saws; fixed-table, limited-stroke saws;
and fixed-table, unlimited-stroke saws.
Fixed-headsaws. These machines have a large moving table
that moves the plate to be sawed into the band. Machines with
tables up to 8 ft (2.4 m) wide x 16 ft (4.9 m) long are in use, with
weight capacities to 80,000 lb (36 287 kg).
Fixed-table, limited-stroke saws. Machines of this type have
a limited-stroke head that moves on tracks or rails. Stroke is
limited by the throat depth of the machine which is usually
100’’(2540 mm). Bands on these machines are twisted 90°
axially from the centerline of the wheels.
Fixed-table, unlimited-stroke saws. On these machines, the
sawing head also moves on tracks or rails that can be 20 ft (6. 1
m) or more in length. Stroke of the head, however, is not limited
L- by the throat depth, which is 26’’(660 mm), and the band is not
twisted. The inboard part of the fixed table serves as a bridge
0 under which the lower wheel of the sawing head passes. Longer
tables require a heavier bridge or hydraulically actuated legs
that retract to let the sawing head pass. After the head passes,
the legs automatically return to their support positions under
the bridge. The operator may observe the sawing operation
from a catwalk alongside the table or ride with the head on a
platform. One of these machines with a sawing width and height
capacity of 26 x 30’’(660 x 762 mm) is shown in Fig. 6-10.
Machines of this type have been built with weight capacities to
40,000 lb (18 144 kg).
Flying cutoff sawing machines. Three-wheel, vertical band-
sawing machines called flying cutoff saws have been adapted to
cut aluminum logs to desired lengths on moving extrusion lines.
These machines have a throat capacity to 72” ( 1829 mm) and a
m
height capacity to about 28”(71 I mm).
\_/’ I
<.,;, Horizontal Machines
,., --- Horizontal bandsawing machines, often known as cutoff or
~.
power saws, are generally classified as light-duty, medium-duty,
- -- ,, ::,
;
\ ,’
f .,
J
45. heavy-duty, and production types. They are available in two
versions. On one version the stock is advanced manually on
rollers; on the other the stock is advanced with powered rollers.
Both of these versions require operator manipulation of
controls to make each cut. Automatic versions use a powered
FIG. 6-9 Fixed-table, contour-type bandsawing machine which device to advance the stock to a predetermined setting as close
usuallv has a table that can he tilted above and below horizontal. as 0.001“ (0.03 mm) of desired length; they continue automatic
(DoAkL Co.) cycling until a required number of parts are produced or the
stock is exhausted. Machines equipped with two vises on an
CNC machines. Another variation of vertical bandsawing automatic shuttle table can reduce bar ends or remnants to
machines is computer numerical control (CNC) machines, lengths of 1/2” (12.7 mm).
which are used for contouring intricate shapes in materials that Smaller cutoff or power saws are generally of hinged or
are difficult to machine. Such machines can often provide lower scissor-type construction, as shown in Fig. 6-11, With this
cost production than other methods for cutting various dies, design, the cutting plane of the band changes as it advances on
stripper plates, electrodes, cams, and other complex-shaped an arc through the workpiece until it is horizontal at the bottom
parts. of the cut. Some of the larger cutoff machines use a box
Plate sawing machines. Modified heavy-duty vertical band- structure or cylindrical cohrmn construction (see Fig. 6-12). On
sawing machines forsaking plate stock area relatively recent these so-called post-type machines, the cutting plane of the
development. They are increasingly used by steel service centers band is always horizontal. There are advantages and disadvan-
to meet user demands for a wide variety of plate sizes, often tages to each type of construction.
needed in small quantities. Advantages of band-type plate saws Scissor-type sawing machines. The maximum practical
over circular sawing machines include lower initial investment capacity for scissor-type, horizontal bandsawing machines is
and tooling costs, reduced power requirements, narrower kerf about 25’’(635 mm). Larger size cutting requirements generally
resulting in less material loss, the ability to cut very thin as well require a machine with post or column construction because of
as thick plates, and reduced noise levels. the increased rigidity afforded.
6-15
CHAPTER 6
BANDSAWING
Front View
FIG. 6-10 Heavy-duty, vertical bandsawing machine which has been adapted to sawing a variety of plate sizes required in small volumes,
(DoA LL Co.)
The angular cutting action of scissor-type saws is an adhered to. The coarsest pitch band usable for sawing the
advantage in cutting some structural shapes because of varia- flanges would be 4 (indicating 4 teeth per inch), but this would
tions in narrow and wide cross sections. For example, in cutting place 76 teeth in the work when sawing the 19“ wide web. This
19’’(483 mm) wide I-beams with 1/2” (12.7 mm) flanges on a would require slower cutting and could create possible blade
post-type machine, the rule-of-thumb “no less than 2 and no deflection problems.
more than 40 teeth should bc engaged with the work” cannot be
r“ -.
/
/
/’
L
i
,/
“1
--- ‘-Y ----
“m%.1’ h
FIG. 6-11 Hinged or scissor-type construction, often used for smaller cutoff versions of horizontal bandsawing machines. (Armstrong-Blum
Mfg. Co.)
6-16
CHAPTER 6
BANDSAWING
Aluminum cutoff saws. Horizontal bandsawing machines

for cutting aluminum, sometimes called aluminum billet saws,
are large hinge-type saws with the same scissor-action design
used on most smaller saws. The reason they are physically large
is to accommodate 36” (914 mm) diam wheels and to tension the
band over a long wheelbase. Higher band speeds, ranging from
3500-7000 sfm (1067-2134 m/ rein), dictate the need for large
wheels and a long wheel base to increase band fatigue life.
For sawing some aluminum alloys, these machines are
capable of cutting rates between 300-500 in.z/ min (1935-3225
cmz/ min)—a 7“(178 mm) diam bar of 6063 aluminum alloy can
be sawed in 41 / 2 seconds. This fast cutting requires the use of
high-speed roller-type saw guides and a pressurized oil-mist
cutting fluid system. Automatic hydraulic brakes are a standard
feature to minimize operator hazards and machine damage
should a band break. Another modified version of the aluminum
billet saw cuts up to 10 bars at a time by using a head with
multiple saw-guide assemblies positioned between each bar to
FIG. 6-12 Box structure or cvlirrdrical column construction used for provide maximum support to the band.
some larger horizontal bandsawing machines. (DoALL Co.)
Post-type saws. Horizontal bandsawing machines with a box
structure or cylindrical column construction have obvious advan-
In contrast, with the angular cutting on a scissor-type tages for notching operations or for cutting to a shoulder because
machine, the band is never sawing through the full 19“ width. the band travels in a horizontal plane. Angle sawing can be
The maximum width presented to the band on this size of accomplished manually or automatically on some models.
I-beam is about 9 7/8’’(251 mm), as illustrated in Fig. 6-13. Asa The largest known metalcutting band machines in use today
result, a 4-pitch band would meet the rule for both minimum are post-type horizontal saws with a capacity of 62 x 72’’(1575 x
and maximum number of teeth in engagement. 1829 mm). These machines are designed for sawing forging
On a typical hinge or scissor-type machine, angle sawing can blooms, ingots, and billets. They use a 2“ (51 mm) wide band
be accomplished in several ways. One method consists of backed by a tensioned 3 1/ 2“ (89 mm) wide bar that provides
adjusting the vise to the required angle and positioning the increased beam strength for the band. This stiffening backer
stock, usually manually. This method requires an outboard bar, (see Fig. 6-14) allows the machine to use narrower, lower
work support and sufficient floor space. Most automatic cost bands while maintaining high cutting rates.
machines and some manual models allow the stock to travel on There is a limit on workpiece width for every band width,
a permanent conveyor system. Provision is made for the sawing with the limiting factor being the torsional strength of the band
head to swing from the usual 9@ straight cutoff position to a (its ability to resist twisting). Use of the backer bar increases the
45° angle, or any angle between the two limits. This method beam strength of the band but does not increase its torsional
requires removing the machine vise and using an outboard strength. Typical tensions used on these large machines are
holding vise. Special versions are available that allow the head 30,000-45,000 psi (207-3 10 M Pa) on the bands and 10,000 psi
to swing 30° to either side of the 90° position. Machines are also (69 MPa) on the backer bar.
available that alternately position the head at different preset
angles for applications such as toolholders. Such angular or Tilt-Frame Universal Machines
miter cutting, however, is generally best performed on vertical While angle sawing can be performed on the types of
tilt-frame universal machines that automatically produce either machines previously described, it is inconvenient; most angle
complementary or opposed angles. sawing today is done on tilt-frame universal bandsawing
machines such as the one shown in Fig. 6-15, On these
machines, the frame (sawing head) is mounted with pivot
bearings on a moving carriage. Workpieces are held stationary
in vises on a machine table structure while the frame guides the
band through the stock to be sawed.
-iF=il=ige
With a shuttle vise or automatic indexing system, such as
powered rollers and automatic workstop, these machines
“’0’1 I hd iawface I
produce 90° cuts, cuts up to 45° either left or right of vertical, or
any angle in between at the discretion of the operator.
Automatic machines are available that can be programmed to
cut various angular cuts and lengths. The operators can devote
most of their time to loading and unloading operations or
Max[mum of 9 7~8 (251 mm) attending several machines.
band/work engagement
Tilt-frame universal saws are often used in conjunction with
conveyor systems when material handling time is frequently
more of a concern than cutting time. In building and bridge
construction work these machines have the versatility to
FIG. 6-13 Angular cutting of I-beams on scissor-type hacksawing perform the variety of trimming work necessary on long,
machines which minimizes the width of cut required. structural shapes and also maintain the accuracies required,
6-17
CHAPTER 6
BANDSAWING
I
I
I
..+
*,,
m
Ill - ,,,
I -------
01
D
I 66
‘~ -%
1. %,
In
I \
Sow bond’ \\
=——
FIG. 6-14 Stiffening backer bar which allows machine to use narrower, lower cost hands while maintaining high cutting rates. (DoALL Co.)
have the broadest raruze of blade sueed o~tions because of the
m variety of materials s~wed. Band ~peeds- down to 5 sfm (1.5

m/rein) are available on small contouring machines with d-c
motor drives, and up to 15,000 sfm (4572 m/ rein) on high-speed
friction saws.
Drive systems used to change the speed of bands on these
machines include the following:
1. Manually changed step pulleys.
2. Variable-speed drives with a-c electric motors.
3, D-c electric motor drives with variable-speed controls,
including minimum-maximum speed adjustment, load
compensation, torque limits, and acceleration adjustment.
4. Hydraulic drives with or without load and/or speed
compensation.
While some bandsawing machines still have belted drives,
many are now equipped with more sophisticated drives and
controls. Hydraulic drives have gained wide acceptance for
universal tilt-frame machines because they are equally efficient
when operating at any head angle and are not subject to
downtime caused by dirt, chips, and cutting fluids.
Some drives are coupled to the band drive wheels with
pinion gears, while other drives use a transmission or gear
reducer to rotate the band within an appropriate speed range. It
FIG. 6-15 Tilt-frame universal bandsawing machine of the tvDe is relatively easy to install a . NO or three-speed transmission on
widely used for angle cutting operations and- producing compo~;d vertical bandsawing machines, especially when the transmission
miters. (Armstrong-BIum Mfg. Co.)
is coupled to a variable-drive system or a variable-speed motor.
Smaller models of universal bandsawing machines are
widely used by farm equipment manufacturers for cutting Feed Systems
round and square tubing and structural shapes. These machines Many different methods are used to move the work material,
are also used extensively in metal service centers, aircraft plants, machine components (head, frame, or table), workholding
shipyard s,tooiand dieshops, and warehouses because of their fixture, or whatever else has to be moved to accomplish a
ruggedness and adaptability to a wide variety of needs. The sawing operation. Methods range from simply moving the
machines are available in work width and height capacities material through the band by hand to moving the material by
ranging from 14x 21’’(356 x 533 mm) to 36 x36’’(914 x 914 mm). way of complex CNC systems. Other material-moving methods
that fall between these two extremes include weight feeds,
Band Drive Systems hydraulic or air-powered tables, and gravity head fall that are
Typical speed ranges for the bands on metalcutting-type controlled by counterbalances or hydraulic devices.
horizontal cutoff machines are 50-450 sfm (15.2-137 m/rein). Sophisticated controls are necessary to obtain an optimum
Options include speeds as low as 40 sfm (12.2 m/ rein) and as combination of high production with sufficient accuracy at
high as 600 sfm (182.9 m/ rein). Vertical bandsawing machines acceptable costs. This is especially true for cutting round stock
6-18
CHAPTER 6
BANDSAWING
and parts having varying cross sections. Control can be hydraulic head tilting, idler or powered infeed and discharge
accomplished by several methods. Common methods are tables, preset cut counters, and band brushes. Fixtures and
through the use of servocontrol (servofeed) or traverse (flow) various sizes of vises are also available from the machine
control. Servofeeds or traverse controls are precise and respond manufacturer or other sources.
rapidly. Some servofeeds are made an integral part of the saw
guides (band-guiding devices). SAW BANDS AND OTHER TOOLS
The function of a servocontrol or traverse control in Selecting the proper type of band tool for a specific
bandsawing is to maintain a feed rate regardless of the cross application is of critical importance. Factors that should be
section being cut, Traverse rate of the machine table or frame on considered in band selection include the following:
some machines changes in response to commands of the
1. Type and hardness of material to be cut, which determine
servovalve or traverse and feed pressure valves, Opposing
the tooth form and composition of the band to be used.
forces on each of the servovalve spool ends shift the spool
2. Size and variations in cross section of the stock to be cut,
position to control the flow of oil through ports in the center
which dictate the pitch of the teeth required.
of the spool.
3. Type of cut required-–whether straight, contour, or
In a typical servocontrol system, the saw band being pushed
both. The need to cut small radii will limit the width of the
against backup bearings on the machine provides one force.
band.
The opposing force, preset by the operator, is provided by
4. Type and condition of the machine to be used,
hydraulic pressure on the other end of the spool. Spool
5. Production requirements.
movement is automatic as the force from the band changes
6. Whether a cutting fluid will be used.
when cutting through wider or narrower sections of the
7. Overhead costs.
workpiece. To obtain higher average cutting rates, the operator
simply sets a higher pressure, indicated bya gage, on the feed
control valve. Conventional Sawing
Toothed bands with different tooth geometries and harn-
With traverse/feed pressure control, the operator simply
esses for specific applications are used for conventional
presets a micrometer valve for traverse control and sets the
bandsawing methods. Terminology generally accepted for saw
recommended feed pressure. Forward traverse of the blade
bands is presented in Fig, 6-16.
automatically changes when cutting through wider or narrower
sections without further operator attention.
Machine Accessories Back edge

/
Standard equipment often furnished with vertical contour-
type bandsawing machines includes extra saw guide assemblies,
a selection of saw guide inserts for various band widths, work
00 Body
area lights, instruction and parts manuals, and wrenches for spacing
normal operation. Popular optional equipment includes variable-
-t U
weight power feeds, workholding jaws, mitering attachments,
rip fences, and magnifying attachments. Other options are i-
various table sizes, etching pencils, heavy-duty workslides, Tooth Tooth bock Gullet depth
~oce Tooth clearance ongle
high-speed roller guides, file guides in various widths, and tool ~
back Tooth rake
supply cabinets. One machine manufacturer lists about 50 (flank) angle
options for a popular size vertical machine.
A saw blade welder, if not furnished as standard equipment,
is a widely used option for vertical contouring machines. Small FIG. 6-16 Terminology commonly accepted with respect to saw
band welders are often mounted on the sawing machine bands.
column. Portable welding units or a stationary welder located
close to the machine are also used, and such welders can serve Tooth geometries. There are three major types of tooth
several sawing machines. Any welder used should have adjust- forms, generally classified as standard (regular), skip, and hook
ments for various band widths and thicknesses, as well as teeth, as illustrated in Fig. 6-17. The standard tooth form has a
different upset forces, and adjustments for annealing voltages zero rake angle and a full rounded gullet with a smooth radius.
are desirable. Bands with standard teeth are the most versatile and are
Standard equipment generally furnished on horizontal recommended for intricate contouring and straight cutoff work.
cutoff machines includes a recirculating cutting fluid system, a They are also widely used to meet smooth finish requirements,
stock unloading tray, band guards, replaceable wear plates for to cut thin work, and when small radii are needed.
machine beds and vises, workpiece counters, bands and brushes, The skip tooth has the same form as the standard except that
hydraulic and transmission oils, and wrenches. Popular options the gullet is lengthened by omitting every other tooth to handle
include multiple indexing attachments, automatic chip con- larger chip loads. The skip tooth is recommended for acceler-
veyors, and nesting fixtures for bundling small stock. Additional ated cutting of nonferrous metals, plastics, and woods.
options include stock conveyors (powered or idler), high The hook tooth has a lengthened gullet, similar to the skip
clamping force attachments, and automatic lubricating devices. tooth form, and a positive rake angle—up to 10° depending on
Standard equipment often provided with tilt-frame universal the manufacturer, type of band, and application. Teeth with
machines includes carbide-faced saw guide inserts, saw frame positive rake angles tend to pull themselves into the work. As
travel stops, and replaceable wear strips for the machine beds, a result, they penetrate the work with less feed pressure than
frames, way surfaces, and vises. Popular options include teeth with no rake. The good penetration and full chip form
6-19
CHAPTER 6
BANDSAWING
I lr+J.QjJ
Raker set Wave set Alternate set
Side cleorance angle

Side clearance
----f l--=T---
Standard tooth Hook tooth
r“’’’’””’--l
Sk,p tooth
FIG. 6-17 Types of tooth forms and sets widely used on bands for bandsawing.
produced with band teeth having a 10° rake angle are illustrated 2. Carbon steel bands with hard cutting edges and hard
in Fig. 6-18 (a drawing made from a high-speed photograph). backs. These bands have almost twice the tensile strength
Bands with hook teeth permit fast cutting of all metals, plastics, of carbon steel bands with flexible backs and may last up
and woods and are generally recommended for sawing hard to 10 times longer. Their spring-tempered backs withstand
materials and penetrating work-hardening metals. up to 50y0 more tension, and a hardness of Rc 45-49
Recent variations of the three major tooth forms include one enables them to resist mushrooming of their back edges.
having a standard tooth form except for a 5° positive rake angle A higher cutting rate capability and longer life make
instead of none. Other modifications have been introduced in them suitable for medium-duty toolroom and main-
an attempt to reduce the noise level on applications requiring tenance operations, as well as for light production
interrupted cuts, such as with structural shapes or tubing. applications.
Bands for this purpose use a combination of pitches and/or a 3. Intermediate alloy steel bands with hard cutting edges
combination of set angles and gullet depths to prevent the and flexible backs. These bands have good shock
buildup of sustained resonant conditions by imparting different resistance. They are sometimes used on horizontal cutoff
frequencies that tend to dampen each other. machines for adverse operating conditions such as sawing
structural shapes, tubing, and stacks of workplaces.
Band materials. Bands made from a variety of materials are
Some band manufacturers have discontinued the produc-
available. Arranged in order from the lowest to highest quality
tion of this type because of the development of bimetallic
with respect to band life and production capability, they are as
follows: bands.
4. High-speed steel bands with hard cutting edges and
1. Carbon steel bands with hard cutting edges and flexible flexible backs. These bands were the original tools
backs. These bands are sometimes used on hand-fed instrumental in the development of power bandsawing
vertical contouring machines for sawing both ferrous and on horizontal cutoff machines. With the development of
nonferrous metals, wood, and plastics. They are operated bimetallic bands, however, they are being discontinued
at relatively low band speeds and are generally restricted by most manufacturers.
to light-duty toolroom and maintenance operations. 5. Bimetallic bands that have hardened HSS cutting edges
6-20
CHAPTER 6
BANDSAWING
purpose sawing, but cutting rates of 100 in.2 (645 cm2) or

more per minute are possible. Development of this type
of band is continuing with respect to the selection of
carbide grades and methods of bonding the tips to
backing materials.
Band widths. The band width is the distance from the tooth
tips to the back surface of the band. The wider the band, the
greater its beam strength and the more accurate its cut. The
widest band that the machine will accommodate should be used
for straight arts. For contouring, band width is limited by the
smallest radius to be cut. Approximate radii dimensions that
can be sawed with bands of different widths are indicated in Fig.
6-19. Bands are available in widths from 1/ 16 to 3“(1 .6-76 mm).
Width of
Rodlus that can be Sowed
Saw Bond
In. mm m. mm
2 50 28 710
I 1:2 40 21 53s
I /4 30 12 305
I 25 ~ 185
3{4 20 5 7!16 140
5! s 15 334 95
1/2 13 21,2 65
3!8 10 ]76 35
114 6 5:8 15
3:16 5 5;14 10
/s 3 1/6 3’
\
FIG. 6-18 Drawing (made from a high-speed photograph) showing 3/32 2 1/)6 2
good penetration and full chip form produced with band teeth having a
10° rnke angle. ,,16 2 SQ
and flexible, alloy steel backs. These bands more than FIG. 6-19 Approximate radii dimensions that ean be sawed with
satisfy all the requirements for the single-metal HSS bands of different widths. (DoALL Co.)
bands used previously. The higher production capabilities
and lower cost per piece sawed generally justify the Band thickness. The thicker (heavier the gage of) the band,
slightly higher cost of these bands. Some producers offer the greater its beam strength. When the band width is limited by
five or six types of bimetallic bands, each tailored for a machine capacity or radii to be cut, beam strength can be
specific application. A special shock-resistant cutting increased by using a heavier gage band. Bands are available in a
edge is provided on some, eliminating the need for any large variety of thicknesses.
break-in period. Others have a very hard cutting edge for Band pitch. Pitch, the number of teeth per inch of length, to
sawing exotic metals, and some have a positive rake angle be used for a band is determined primarily by the thickness of
on the teeth for penetrating tough materials. Also the material to be cut. Thin stock requires bands with a finer
available are types having a combination of sets and/or pitch (with more teeth per inch); thick stock requires bands with
pitches to reduce high resonance when sawing various a coarser pitch. General recommendations for band pitches to
cross sections such as those encountered with structural saw materials of different thicknesses are given in Table 6-4,
shapes, pipe, and tubing, Other factors such as workpiece material and surface finish
6. Carbide-timed allov steel bands. These bands afford required must also be considered in selecting the optimum pitch
high resist~~ce to he~t, abrasion, and fatigue, as well as for a band. The pitch selected, however, should assure that at
fast cutting capabilities. They are used to cut materials least two teeth will be in contact with the workpiece at all times
that cannot be sawed by one of the more conventional during sawing. The finest pitch generally used is 14 teeth per
types of bands previously discussed. High cost and the inch; coarse pitch bands have been made with teeth 1” (25 mm)
possibility of damage precludes their use for general or more apart.
6-21
CHAPTER 6
BANDSAWING
TABLE 6-4 Electrical-Discharge Sawing

Recommended Band Pitches to Saw The process and tools used for electrical-discharge sawing
Materials of Different Thicknesses are discussed in Chapter 14 “Nontraditional Machining
Processes. ”
Material Band
Thickness Pitch Band Filing
File bands consist essentially of short file segments attached
Less than 1” (25.4 mm) 10or 14 to a flexible backing. They function as a continuous file for light
1-3” (25.4-76.2 mm) 6t08 stock removal when used on bandsawing machines. While they
3-6” (76.2-152.4 mm) 4t06 can be used to finish corners, contours, and other external
6-12” (152.4-304.8 mm) 2or3 surfaces, their major application is on internal surfaces for
Over 12” (304.8 mm) l%to3 which surface grinders and other machines or tools are not
practical, File bands are available in widths of 1/ 4, 3/ 8, and 1/ 2“
(DoALL co.) (6.4, 9.5, and 12.7 mm), and in a variety of patterns and
shapes—flat, half round, oval, etc.
Tooth set. Set is the projection of the teeth from the sides of
the band to provide cutting clearance and prevent binding. Band Polishing
Overall set is the total distance between the outer corners of Abrasive bands are used on bandsawing machines to
oppositely set teeth, which determines the kerf (width of cut). provide a smooth finish or polish to parts previously sawed
The three most common types of set (see Fig. 6-17) are as and/ or filed, The process also provides a fast method of
follows: removing burrs. They are generally limited to the finishing of
ferrous metals and are always operated dry—never with a
1. Raker set, Recommended for thin to thick workplaces cutting fluid.
having constant cross section, such as bar stock, die Abrasive bands are continous loops made from a 1“(25.4
blocks, and some forgings. mm) wide cloth backing coated with aluminum-oxide grains.
2. Wave set. Generally no longer recommended for work Bands are available with three different grain (grit) sizes: 50,80,
with varying cross section, such as pipe, tubing, and and 150. The 150 grit size is used for light stock removal and fine
structural shapes. Instead, modified profile bands with polishing with band speeds of 800- I 500 sfm (244-457 m/ rein).
mixed or variable pitch teeth are being increasingly The 80 grit size is for general surface finishing or coarser
applied. polishing with band speeds to 1000 sfm (305 m/ rein). Bands
3. Straight (alternate) set. Recommended for free-cutting with 50 grit size abrasive are for heavier stock removal and
materials. softer materials and are operated at much lower speeds.
Definitions, tooth form and set, dimensions and tolerances,
and pitch sizes are discussed in ANSI Standard B94.51-1976 Knife-Edge Bands
“Specifications for Band Saw Blades (Metal Cutting). ” Knife, wavy, and scallop-edge bands (see Fig. 6-20) are used
to cut soft and fibrous materials that would tear, fray, or
produce a poor surface finish if cut with toothed bands. Knife-
Friction Sawing edge bands are available with either a single or double-bevel
In friction sawing, the band teeth do not cut, Instead, they
cutting edge, while wavy or scallop-edge bands come with only
produce friction and scoop out the softened material. For
double-bevel edges.
maximum efficiency, selection of a band with the proper pitch is
Knife-edge bands separate material without a kerfi they
important. It is possible to friction saw with a band having no
produce no chips and little dust. In cutting dense materials, the
teeth, but results are generally less than satisfactory.
cutting edge might tend to bind. In such cases, wavy-edge bands
may be better because they introduce a light shock to the cutting
Diamond Bandsawing action. Materials that can be parted with knife-edge bands
Diamond-edge bands are available in continuous or seg- include paper, fiberglass, stacked cloth, rubber, leather, fabrics,
mented types for cutting abrasive or friable materials. The and many others.
straight-line cutting action of these bands gives fast cutting Knife-edge bands are available in 1/4 to 3 3/ 8“ (6.4-86 mm)
rates, produces smooth finishes, and maintains a high degree of widths. Wavy and scallop-edge bands come in 1/4 to 1“ (6.4-
accuracy, parallelism, and flatness. 25.4 mm) widths.
A recent development is the use of diamond bandsawing for
slicing operations that previously required drum-type orifice Spiral-Edge Bandsawing
cutting discs called ID slicers. The thin kerf produced with Omnidirectional (360° ) bandsawing is possible with spiral-
diamond bands reduces material losses. This can provide a edge bands. This feature allows spiral-edge bands to produce
substantial cost savings when cutting semiconductor and other intricate patterns in light-gage metals, plastics, and woods. It
friable materials. also allows contour sawing @thout rotating the workpiece.
The continuous or segmented diamond edges are bonded to Two types of spiral-edge bands are available: spring tempered
the flexible backing material of the bands, Bands are available for cutting wood and plastics and hard-edge for sawing metals.
in thicknesses of O.006, 0.008,0.010, and 0.015’’ (0. 15,0.20,0.25, The use of these bands requires special saw guides and center-
and 0.38 mm), and all bands are 3/4” (19 mm) wide. They crowned rubber tires for use on the machine bandwheels.
produce a kerf about 0.006” (O. 15 mm) wider than the band
thickness. The bands are usually operated at speeds of 1000- Abrasive-Wire Bands
4000 sfm (305-1219 m/min), Recent technology has made it possibIe to bond diamonds,
6-22
CHAPTER 6
BANDSAWING
options such as rip fences, work squaring bars, clamps,

universal vises, workholdingjaws, ball transfers, table extension
bars, protractor-type work stops, and other devices to accom-
modate many requirements.
Because the downward cutting force of a saw band tends to
hold a workpiece on the machine table, Fig. 6-21, elaborate
holding and guiding devices are seldom needed. Simple,
Knlle-edge band standard attachments, such as those illustrated in Fig. 6-22, are
capable of holding and/or guiding work for most operations.
There are, however, reasons for using special holding or guiding
devices; these include the following:
1. To hold or support irregularly shaped stock, unstable
stock, or thin material.
2. To improve the accuracy and/or the repetitive accuracy
of the sawing operation.
Wc.y-edge bond 3. To facilitate the production of large quantities of identical
workplaces.
4. To lessen operator fatigue.
5. To make the operation more automatic and thus faster
and less costly.
Every workholding device must have at least two locating
points or surfaces—called primary and secondary locators—to
hold the part in place. These locators are established from a
datum line in the case of castings or forgings, from a reference
Scallop-edge bond
dimension in the case of previously machined parts, or from a
predetermined layout line placed on the workpiece.
FIG. 6-20 Knife, wavy, and scallop-edge bands used to cut soft and OPERATING PARAMETERS
fibrous materials that might tear or fray if cut with toothed bands. When the proper band has been selected for a specific
operation, it is placed on the wheels of the machine. The saw
cubic boron nitride, and aluminum-oxide abrasives to small guides are then adjusted, and the band is tensioned according to
diameter wires. This has made bandsawing an alternative to the manufacturer’s instructions.
electrical-discharge machining for some applications.
Abrasive-wire bandsawing is recommended for producing Speeds and Feeds
dies, stripper plates, electrodes, cams, and other complex- A rule-of-thumb for conventional bandsawing is: the harder
shaped parts, Difficult-to-machine conductive and nonconduc- the material to be cut, the lower the band speed; the softer the
tive materials that can be cut include high-speed steels, carbides, material, the higher the band speed. While some aluminum
ceramics, copper-tungsten, glass, graphite, carbon, and refrac- alloys can be sawed at band speeds to 7000 sfm (2134 m/ rein),
tory materials. most stainless steels are sawed at 75-150 sfm (23-46 m/rein).
On CNC contour bandsawing machines, parts up to 10” Thickness of the material to be cut also influences the band
(254 mm) square and l/32 t02’’(0.8-50,8 mm)thick can be speed to be used. Generally, thinner sections are sawed with
cut, depending on the material. Corner radii as small as 0.027” higher band speeds than thicker sections. The recommenda-
(0.69 mm) can be cut, and surface finishes of 35-40 p in. tions of machine builders and band manufacturers with respect
(0.89-1.02 p m) can be produced. Cutting rates unhardened to band speeds and feed rates for sawing various materials
alloy steel having a hardness of RC65 range from 1/4 to should be followed. Table 6-5 presents band speed recommenda-
1/2 in.2/ min (1 .6-3.2 cmz/ rein), compared to 1-2 in.z/ hr (6.45- tions and typical cutting rates for cutting different materials on
12.9 cmz/hr) with electrical-discharge machining. For internal three classes of machines: vertical contouring, horizontal
cuts, the wire band can be cut, threaded through the part, and cutoff, and tilt-frame universal.
rewelded—the same procedure as used for conventional bands.
Horsepower Requirements
WORKHOLDING AND FIXTURING A general misconception prevails that bandsawing of harder
Horizontal cutoff and tilt-frame bandsawing machines are materials requires more horsepower than cutting softer mater-
usually equipped with from one to four sets of vises, depending ials. This is not true. While higher feed forces are required to
on the machine size and application. The vises serve as saw harder materials, the chip-removal rate is low; and
workholders for most operations because the stock is generally horsepower requirements are related more to chip-removal
long and the saw simply cuts it into shorter pieces. With three or rates than material hardness.
more vises, remnants or bar ends can be minimized or reduced As evidence of this, small contouring saws with 1 or 2 hp
to lengths of 1/ 2“ ( 12.7 mm) or less. Special fixturing is (0.75 or 1.5 kW) drive motors can cut stainless and other alloy
available from machine manufacturers or other sources when steels. These materials require a low band speed, and the
required. machine drive usually includes a transmission for torque
Vertical contouring machines cut many different shapes that multiplication. These same machines, however, cannot saw
may require special fixturing. Most builders offer standard aluminum at high rates because they lack the required horse-
6-23
CHAPTER 6
BANDSAWING
Saw bond downward

force
~ Sow band
Dlrectmn of
/1 cutt[ng
, band
J
IL
, Workpwe
l.=
I P Drectmn
of table
mcvement r
Bond sow
—.
worktable
J
I
-----J
-H- - T “\ /“
Horlzontol
Continuous
plone
bond tool t Irward force o- he ‘able
o Angular
movement
fees holds pece pot
frrmly In place wh[le n
the process of be!ng cut
\u
FIG. 6-21 Downward force of cutting action and inward force of table feed which hold square, rectangular, or other workplaces that have flat
locating surfacesin place without clamping. Other kinds of workplaces require holding with either a standard attachment or fixture. (DoALL Co.)
power. Bandsawing machines designed specifically for cutting speeds, however, should not exceed 150 sfm (45.7 m/ rein) when
aluminum typically have drive motors rated at 25-40 hp using oil because the resulting smoke may be objectionable.
(18,6-29.8 kW). Metals that are difficult or moderately difficult to machine
and are sawed at speeds of 150-300 sfm (45.7 -91.4 m/min) can
Cutting Fluids use a soluble concentrate for the cutting fluid. One part
Proper selection and use of a cutting fluid is critical to concentrate is generally mixed with 3-15 parts water, depending
optimum sawing. The properties of cutting fluids and recommen- on the type of concentrate and the sawing application.
dations for their maintenance are discussed in Chapter 4 Metals that are easy to moderately difficult to machine and
“Cutting Fluids and Lubricants. ” are sawed at band speeds over 200 sfm (61 m/ rein) can usually
Materials sawed. Stainless steels and some other hard alloy be cut most successfully with a heavy-duty synthetic concen-
steels are sawed best with a sulfur-based cutting oil. Band trate mixed 1 part concentrate to 5-10 parts water.
0° ✼
Radfus flllng f(rture @

Calibrated work fixture Fixture for bond-
-,
mochining angle cuts
G. B 0
Fixture used with Low-cost band Stondord radius-cutting

squnrlnq bor mochine fixture attachment
FIG. 6-22 Typical simple fixtures that can be used for power handsawing.
6-24
CHAPTER 6
BANDSAWING
6-25
cHAPTER 6
BANDSAWING
o-
0-
yy
WTo
V2vl
--
6-26
BANDSAWING
6-27
CHAPTER 6
BANDSAWING
m
‘+
m
o-
-w
m~
or.!
bln
--
s
m
A
t-i m
u-i
E
.-s
‘u
m
c
CHAPTER 6
BANDSAWING
6-29
CHAPTER 6
BANDSAWING
r-
CHAPTER 6
BANDSAWING
6-31
CHAPTER 6
BANDSAWING
---
CHAPTER 6
BANDSAWING
V“
CHAPTER
BANDSAWING
TABLE 6-6
Troubleshooting Procedures for Bandsawing Machines, Particularly Vertical, Contouring Types
Problcm Correction Problem Correction

Premature 1. Lower band velocity. Band not 1. If clicking against saw guide backup
dulling of 2. Use band with finer pitch. running true bearing, remove burr on back of band
teeth 3. Apply proper cutting fluid when cutting against saw where joined.
ferrous and nonferrous materials. guide backup 2. If hunting back and forth against saw
4. Keep teeth engaged. Do not allow the bearing guide backup bearing, reweld with back
teeth toidle throughout. Increase of band in true alignment.
feeding pressure. 3. Check alignment of band carrier
5. Apply cutting fluid at point of cut, wheels.
saturating the teeth evenly when cutting 4. Check saw guide backup bearing; if
ferrous and nonferrous alloys. worn or unbalanced, replace same.
6. Be sure band is running with teeth
Negative camber 1. Band riding too heavy on saw guide
pointing down.
developing backup bearing. Adjust band for
Band vibrating 1. Increase or decrease band tool velocity in band alignment on top and bottom wheels.
in cut on the material being cut.
Cutting rate 1. Increase band velocity.
2. Increase band tension.
too slow 2. Use band with coarser pitch.
3. Use band with finer pitch.
3. Increase feeding pressure.
4. Increase feeding pressure.
4. Apply cutting fluid.
5. Hold work firmly.
Band leading 1. Unbalanced set or partial dullness
Band teeth 1. Use fine-pitch bands on thin work
in cut caused by striking hard inclusion in
ripping out sections.
material being cut. Apply cutting fluid
2. Eliminate vibration by holding work
to help reduce this trouble.
firmly while it is fed into band.
2. Saw guides out of adjustment. Carefully
3. Use cutting fluid on ductile materials.
readjust guide inserts or rollers. If worn,
4. If gullets are loading, use heavier duty
replace same.
cutting fluid.
3. In the case of brush-equipped cutoff
5. Reduce feed pressures.
machines, make sure brushes are
Surface of 1. Increase band velocity. properly adjusted; if worn, replace with
finished cut 2. Use band with finer pitch. new.
too rough 3. Use slower feeding rate. 4. Feeding pressure or rate of feed too
4. Apply cutting fluid. high. Reduce feeding pressure.
Premature 1. Change to band with gage that is not Premature 1. Band too wide for radii being cut.
band breakage too heavy for diameter of wheels and loss of set 2. Reduce band tool velocity.
speed of machine. 3. Apply cutting fluid.
2. Decrease band velocity.
Positive camber 1. Feeding pressure too heavy.
3. Check periphery of wheels for defects.
developing 2. Use band with coarser pitch to permit
4. Cracking at weld. Try longer annealing
in band greater tooth penetration.
period, decreasing heat gradually.
3. Saw guides too far apart. Adjust
5. Pitch too coarse. Decrease unit load by
closer to work.
using finer pitch.
6. Decrease feeding force. Band 1. Band binding in cut. Decrease feeding
7. Decrease band tension. developing pressure.
8. Properly adjust band tool guides. twist 2. Side inserts or rollers of saw guides
9. Apply cutting fluid. adjusted too close to band tool.
3. Wrong width band tool for radii.
Band making 1. Increase band tension.
4. Decrease band tension.
belly-shaped 2. Adjust guides close to work.
cut 3. Use band with coarser pitch.
4. Decrease feeding force.
Gullets loading 1. Use band with coarser pitch.
2. Apply cutting fluid.
3. Lower band velocity.
(DoALL co.)
6-34
CHAPTER 6
BANDSAWING
Application methods. In bandsawing, proper application of in Table 6-6. This troubleshooting chart applies primarily to
the right cutting fluid can mean the difference between a vertical bandsawing machines of the contouring type.
profitable and unprofitable operation. It is important that the Some suggested “rules-of-thumb” for changing the speed,
cutting fluid be directed to the cutting area and that a sufficient feed, or band to increase the cutting rate, tool life, finish, and
amount be applied to carry through the entire cross section of accuracy are presented in Table 6-7.
thematerial being sawed. Some machine builders offer means
of feeding cutting fluid through the saw guides, thus assuring
that the fluid reaches both sides of the band as well as the teeth. BANDSAWING SAFETY
Other means available for applying cutting fluid include Most bandsawing machines now on the market comply with
nozzles, mist sprays, pressurized mist systems, and curtain reasonable safety requirements. Belts, pulleys, and bandwheels
applicators (see “Application of Cutting Fluids” in Chapter 4). are usually guarded by covers or doors. Additional guarding is
Fluid properties. Good lubrication qualities are an important generally provided to prevent the operator from nearing
requirement for the cutting fluid used to prevent chips from squeeze points, such as a traversing index table. Chip guards are
bonding to the tooth faces. While the bands are cooled to some available when practical, and limit switches are often used to
extent by air as they pass around the machine wheels, a cutting automatically shutoff the machine under certain conditions,
fluid with good cooling properties is essential to keep the small such as the band breaking.
teeth cool while they are in the cut. Reputable bandsawing machine manufacturers attempt to
Proper viscosity of the cutting fluid is also important. comply with ANSI Standard B1 1.10-1974 “Safety Requirements
Thicker fluids may be desirable for some applications, but they for the Construction, Care, and Use of Metal Sawing Machines.”
must be thin enough to carry through long, narrow cuts— The most dangerous area on a bandsawing machine, as well as
otherwise, overheating and possible softening of the teeth can on most other machine tools, is the point of operation, defined
occur. Sulfur-based cutting oils used for sawing may have in this comprehensive standard as the area through which the
viscosities ranging from 55-160 SSU at 100° F (38° C). Water- cutting tool traverses to process the workpiece.
soluble concentrates may have viscosities to900 SSU at 100° F, Guarding the areas between the saw guides and the band-
undiluted. wheek is usually no problem. However, it is difficult and may be
dangerous to try to guard the area between the saw guides.
Solving Bandsawing Problems Operators should be careful to keep their hands out of the
Possible problems that may be encountered in bandsawing immediate sawing area whenever the band is moving. A
and suggested corrective measures, with respect to the band warning plate cautioning the operator to use safe practices
used, cutting speeds, feed rates, and other factors, are presented should be attached to machines.
TABLE 6-7
General Sawing Factors that Influence Job Requirements
To Increase
Try One or More Cutting Tool
of the Following Rate Life Finish Accuracy
Faster tool velocity ● ● ●
(More teeth per minute)
Slower tool velocity

(Fewer teeth per minute)
Band tool with finer pitch ●
(More teeth I% smaller gullets)
Band tool with coarser pitch ●
(Fewer teeth C%larger gullets)
Slower feeding rate ●
(Decreases chip load)
Faster feeding rate

(Increases chip load)
Medium feeding rate ●
Hook tooth band ●
(Positive rake angle)

●
Standard and skip-tooth bands
(0° rake angle)
(DoALL co.)
6-35
CHAPTER 6
CIRCULAR SAWING
CIRCULAR SAWING
Circular sawing is a process employing a rotating, continuous operations. For blade sizes up to about 16“ (406 mm) diam,
cutting blade having teeth on its periphery to cut ferrous and finishes typicalIy range from 60 to 125 p in. (1.5 to 3.2 p m).
nonferrous metals, plastics, and other materials to required Usually, surface finishes as smooth as 8 g in. (0.2 A m) have been
lengths. With the workpiece clamped securely, the saw blade is produced in circular sawing aluminum, and finishes as smooth
either fed horizontally, vertically, or on an angle into the as 32 p in. (0.8 p m) in cutting steel. The harder the material
material. The process is often called cold circular sawing to being cut, the smoother the finish usually produced.
differentiate it from sawing of hot metal in steel mills and forge Tooling costs are relatively low. It has been estimated that
shops, which is beyond the scope of this discussion. the tool cost for circular sawing of mild steels is less than
Cutting action in circular sawing is essentially the same as in one-half cent per square inch (6.45 cm2) of material removed,
milling, particularly slot milling. Each tooth removes a chip, making it one of the least expensive methods of sawing solid
which curls and is carried away from the cutting area in the metals. Because of its rigidity, there is no tendency for the blade
tooth gullet, thus allowing continuous cutting. Large circular to deflect, which could cause more wear on one side of the blade
sawing machines have been used for many years to cut off than on the other. With the resultant uniform wear rate, no loss
billets, forgings, extrusions, bars, tubes, and simiIar stock. of accuracy occurs as the blade dulls.
Now, smaller machines are being increasingly applied for a wide Operating costs are low because the simple operation of
variety of parts. The process can be used to cut practically any circular saws lends itself to the use of unskilled labor. Blade
material. speed seIection is normally accomplished by pushbutton.
Friction sawing is a related process in which the toothed Changeover time for a modern machine to cut different types
circular blade is rotated at a very high speed and heavy feed and sizes of material is only a few seconds. One blade will cut
pressure is applied. Frictional heat causes the workpiece most materials and stock sizes within the capacity of the
material to soften to a plastic state and to be removed by the machine, and blade changing can be done quickly and easily.
traveling teeth. A blade with a smooth rim (no teeth) ean be Circular saws are relatively safe because of the low rotational
used to circular saw high-carbon steels (0.60-1.00% carbon speed of their blades. No need exists for the operator to have his
content) because the rim becomes roughened on such steels. On hands in the cutting area, and many automatic machines have
low-carbon steels, however, the rim does not roughen, and the completely enclosed feeding and sawing areas.
blade periphery must be indented to form teeth.
While circular friction sawing is fast, it has many limitations. LIMITATIONS
For example, the process is limited to about 4“(102 mm) diam There are no real limitations to the use of circular saws. It is
solid parts, and the best performance is obtained with shapes on true that the initial capital investment is greater than for a
which the length of blade contact is very short. In addition, hacksaw or bandsaw because a heavier, higher horsepower
machines with high horsepower are required, the high blade machine is required for comparable capacity. Increased pro-
speeds require total enclosure for safety, and the high noise level ductivity and accuracy, however, can result in a rapid write-off
necessitates soundproofing. Large burrs that are produced can of the machine if sufficient work is available to keep it operating
be dangerous and must be removed in a secondary operation. efficiently. Circular saw blades are also more expensive initially
Also, the heat-affected metals being cut develop a skin hardness than bandsaw or hacksaw blades, but they can be resharpened
due to rapid cooling. For these reasons, the use of this method many more times and reground, if necessary, to cut different
has declined. The remainder of this chapter, therefore, will be materials. Long blade life generally results in lower tool cost.
devoted to conventional circular sawing. Greater loss of the material being cut, because of the
increased kerf (width of cut), is often cited as a disadvantage of
ADVANTAGES circular sawing, but this is often not the case. Circular saw
Major benefits of circular sawing include high production blades as thin as 0.060” ( 1.52 mm) are available, but such thin
capability and high accuracy. Rigid machines and blades tooling cannot withstand the high cutting forces and maintain
available permit high feed pressures. Many machine attachments the close tolerances for which circular sawing is noted. Most bar
and material handling systems, discussed later, are available to stock that is slugged into short length is 5“ (127 mm) or less in
automate the process and thus reduce the noncutting portion of diameter. In this range, circular saw blades normally have a
the cycle and decrease labor costs. Also, changeover time for thickness ranging from 0.096-0. 118“ (2.44-3.00 mm). With the
different-sized workplaces is fast, making the process econom- inherent accuracy of circular sawing and the short drop (waste)
ical for both small lot sizes and high production requirements. ends produced, generally 2“(51 mm) or less in length, material
Accuracy is inherent in circular sawing due to the rigidity of loss due to cutting width can be less than with other methods.
the machines and milling-type cutters. Length tolerance for Even when cutting very short lengths, it is often less expensive
most stock feed systems is +0.004” (O.10 mm). Accuracy of cut, to produce a slightly wider kerf with circular sawing than to
with respect to combined squareness and parallelism, is generally remove material in a secondary operation to attain the required
tO.001” (0.03 mm) per inch (25.4 mm) of material height or accuracy.
width in the direction of blade travel. One machine builder
guarantees 0.00075” (0.0 190 mm) per inch. In the plane MACHINES USED
perpendicular to the direction of blade travel, the tolerance is Circular sawing machines, having blades mounted on
kO.0005° (0.013 mm). power-driven rotating spindles, are generally of four basic
Virtually burr-free surface finishes are produced, often designs: (1) pivot arm, (2) vertical column, (3) horizontal travel,
eliminating or reducing the need for seeondary finishing and (4) plate saws.
6-36
CHAPTER 6
CIRCULAR SAWING
Virtually all circular sawing machines allow work to be

clamped on both sides of the cut to provide a milled, practically
burr-free finish. Self-adjusting clamping and various automated
systems are available on many machines to maximize produc-
tivity for short-run as well as high production requirements.
Models for both ferrous and nonferrous cutting are available
in high-speed steel and carbide-tipped blade versions. Cutting-
speed and feed-rate ranges necessary for all materials to be cut
should be specified when selecting a circular sawing machine.
Speed changes can be accomplished with selective gearing,
pickoff gears, pulley changes, or more often, variable-speed
drives. Circular sawing machines capable of cutting material up
to 86” (2200 mm) wide by 26” (660 mm) thick have been built.
Pivot-Arm Machines
Pivot-arm circular saws include table models such as the one
shown in Fig. 6-23. Heavy-duty machines of this type are
limited to a blade diameter of about 28” (710 mm) in order to FIG. 6-24 Vertical pivot-arm circular sawing machine used exten-
maintain an optimum table height. This design is generally sively for cutting structural shapes. (Kaltenbach, Inc.)
considered the most universal within its capacity ra-nge. Features
include a high degree of safety, the capability of cutting miters Feed can be of the manually controlled, mechanical type on
and bevels, fast and easy setup, the possibility of fixturing the simple, small machines, but air or hydraulic feed is used on
table top, and easy automation. most. One control system available automatically adjusts the
Vertical pivot-arm (sometimes called chop-stroke) circular feed rate according to the mass of the material being cut. Some
sawing machines are used extensively for high-production machines are equipped with preloaded ballscrew spindle drives
slugging operations and cutoff of structural shapes (see Fig. that eliminate surge in feed motion during cutting, thus
6-24). Features of these machines include rapid cycle times; increasing blade life.
rigid construction; fast changeover; and automatic, semiauto- On tilt-arm circular carbide saw systems built by the Hill
matic, or computer numerical controlled (CNC)
., material Acme Co., the rotating saw blade is pulled through the work
handling system’s, instead of being pushed. This smooth motion, under tension,
is accomplished at any steady rate from 1-120 ipm (25-3048
mm/ rein) by a power-driven ballscrew, with no backlash
or vibration. On one system, the saw blade is driven by a 60 hp
(45 kW), adjustable-speed, d-c drive that provides infinitely
variable cutting speeds from 100-700 sfm (30.5-213 m/ rein).
The machine is capable of sawing a 7“ (178 mm) diam bar of
AISI 4140 alloy steel in 30 seconds with a carbide-tipped
blade rotating at 450 sfm ( 137 m/ rein) and a chip load of 0.007”
(0.18 mm).
The hydraulic feeding, clamping, and discharging system
used on these circular sawing systems is illustrated in Fig. 6-25.
As shown at the upper left, a pair of infeed clamps first travel
back along the workpiece a distance equal to the length to be
cut, which is preset by means of a handwheel and indicator,
During this time, the workpiece is held stationary by a pair of
holding clamps, and a third set of clamps (the discharge clamps)
is in its open position. When the infeed clamps have traveled the
II R
preset distance, as shown at the lower left, they grip the
workpiece and feed it forward until they stop against the
1111 holding clamps. During this portion of the cycle, the holding
clamps have released their grip so that the stock can be moved
across the saw line.
With the workpiece in position for sawing, all three sets of
clamps—two sets on the infeed side and one on the discharge
side—grip the workpiece and hold it during cutoff, as illustrated
in the drawing at the upper right, When cutoff is complete, as
1 shown at the lower right, the discharge clamps transfer the slug
and release it onto a roller conveyor. Simultaneously, the
holding clamps back the uncut workpiece away from the saw
blade to prevent chipping and scoring of the blade as the
pivoting saw head retracts. For the cutoff of longer lengths, a
FIG. 6-23 Table-type, pivot-arm circular sawing machine having skip device can be provided to allow the stock to be fed two or
universal application within its capacity. (Kultenbach, Inc.) more times before a cut is made.
6-37
CHAPTER 6
CIRCULAR SAWING
saw Grip billet as

- I
line saw descends & cuts
S;w Gr;ps & feeds

Ihne I
FIG. 6-25 Feeding, clamping, and discharging arrangement on one type of tilt-arm circular sawing system. (The Hi/f Acme CO,)
@
Chip conveyor 6 Materm dogs II. Saw
Chp container Power conveyor 12. CNC panel
Feed and Indextng und i Ind[wduol port contcmners 13 Short drop-end storage
Zero stop/trim cut Index 9. Part sorter 14 Long drop-end storage
5. Cross transfer rails I o. ElectIon table
FIG. 6-26 CNC circular sawing system which minimizes noncutting time when frequent changes are needed in sizes and cutoff lengths.
(Kaltenbach, Inc.)
6-38
CHAPTER 6
CIRCULAR SAWING
One CNC circular sawing system developed by Kaltenbach,

Inc., is shown schematically in Fig. 6-26. It is designed for low to
medium volume production runs in which sizes, shapes,
materials, and cutoff lengths are changed frequently. Change-
over can be accomplished in a few seconds. The CNC unit
automatically controls transferring of material from the storage
magazine, indexing, and cutting to length. Cut pieces are sorted
automatically into proper containers, and remnant pieces are
ejected as scrap or returned to the storage magazine. A ten-fold
increase in productivity is claimed over conventional saw
performance.
Vertical-Column Machines
Vertical-column machines, sometimes called vertical-feed,
vertical-stroke, or guillotine-type circular sawing machines (see
Fig. 6-27) are also widely used for both high-production
slugging and cutoff of structural shapes. Features of this design
include fast changeover and high productivity. With this design,
the rotating blade moves down in a straight line to contact the
workpiece, with the feed motion of the blade assisted by gravity.
FIG. 6-28 Horizontal-travel circular sawing machine on which the

rotating blade is pushed into the work from the side. (Wagner/
Klingehofer Corp.)
side. These machines are used for both low and high-production
requirements in cutting off solid materials. Features inch.rde
J
rapid cycling, fast changeover, and the availability of a variety
of systems for automating the process, including CNC.
Circular Plate-Sawing Machines

Plate saws, such as the one shown in Fig. 6-29, are a
r
variation of horizontal-travel machines. They feature a long,
horizontal travel of the blade that provides capacity for cutting
solid plates. The rotating blade travels on guideways mounted
either beneath or over the saw table. This type of circular sawing
machine is used extensively for cutting nonferrous materials in
lengths to 20 ft (6 m) or more and up to 6“ (152 mm) thick. For
increased productivity, double-headed sawing machines have
been built with two horizontally opposed blades. Just before the
7 blades would contact, one blade stops and retracts while the
other blade completes the cut.
n nl n
FIG. 6-27 Vertical-column circular sawing machine on which the
rotating blade moves down in a straight line.
Material is centered directly below the centerline of the saw

blade and is cut with a high degree of accuracy. Vertical dual-
column machines can cut solid or tubular rounds and flat or
square stock in multiples with the use of vises. Vertical
machines are also available with the saw blade recessed in the !. ?
table. The blade is pushed up into the workpiece. This approach
is efficient for materials having small cross sections.
Horizontal-Travel Machines
On horizontal-travel or feed circular sawing machines, (see FIG. 6-29 Plate saw providing a long, horizontal travel of tbe
Fig. 6-28), the rotating blade is fed into the workpiece from the rotating blade for cutting solid plates.
6-39
CHAPTER 6
CIRCULAR SAWING
FIG. 6-30 Plates to be cut are fed incrementally to the blade path on this precision plate saw. (kfetl-Saw Sysrems, Inc.)
On precision plate saws made by Metl-Saw Systems, Inc., with the sawing machine and should be reversible to feed into or
such as the one shown in Fig. 6-30, plates to be cut are out of the sawing area.
semiautomatically or automatically fed incrementally on rollers
to the blade path by a powered back-gaging system. Cutting is SAW BLADES
done downward in the direction of blade traverse by a carbide- Three basic types of circular saw blades available are solid,
tipped saw blade. Close tolerances and smooth finishes are segmental, and carbide tipped. Diameters of the blades used
assured on these rigid machines. depend on the size of the workplaces to be sawed. Blades should
have a diameter sufficient to clear through the maximum
Miscellaneous Machines thickness of the stock in one pass.
Other types of circular sawing machines include twin-blade,
miter-cut saws for high-volume production on components
such as aluminum window frames. Some machines have Solid Blades
With solid blades, available from 8 through 16“ (200 through
interchangeable cutting heads that permit their use for friction
400 mm) diam, the body and teeth are made from one solid disc
or hot sawing, abrasive cutoff, or secondary operations such as
drilling or tapping. Radial bench-type saws on which the blade of HSS, such as AISI M2 or M7, that is heat treated to a
hardness of R~5. Blade bodies are made slightly concave by
can be pivoted are also available, but such machines are
hollow grinding on both sides to provide clearance in the cuts.
generally limited to woodworking or thin nonferrous materials.
They are used to saw both ferrous and nonferrous materials,
and they can be resharpened until they reach a diameter that is
CIRCULAR SAWING FIXTURES
Workpieces are generally sawed singly since this simplifies no longer practical for use on the machine. Thinner blades can
material handling. Round bars and tubes are usually held in be used for sawing nonferrous materials.
V-blocks; square, rectangular, or other shaped material can be
clamped directly on the bed, table, or supporting plate of the Segmental Blades
machine. When the stock to be cut is warped or crooked, care is Segmental saw blades, available from 12- I20” (300-3050
necessary to assure that it is properly seated and clamped prior mm) diam, consist of a disc-type body with toothed segments
to sawing. Many circular sawing machines, however, have the around its periphery. The blade body is produced from a high-
capability of cutting two or more pieces in a single pass, and this strength, low-alloy steel capable of absorbing shock while
is often done to increase productivity. Various work-clamping remaining rigid. The toothed segments, tapered to provide side
methods used to facilitate such gang cutting are illustrated in clearance, are made from HSS with a hardness of R@5.
Fig. 6-31. Special fixtures are sometimes required to hold Segment lengths vary with the blade diameters, ranging from
unusual shapes. 2 1/ 2“ (63,5 mm) long for a 12” (305 mm) diam blade to 5“
A typical automated system includes a magazine feed table (127 mm) for 72” (1829 mm) diam blades.
or unscrambler, an infeed conveyor, the sawing machine, a chip Most segmental-type, circular saw blades have a tongue
removal unit, and a workpiece discharge conveyor. Round machined around the outer periphery of the blade body. Inner
stock is easily fed from a storage table having rails sloped surfaces of the segments are grooved to fit over the body tongue.
toward the entry conveyor, with an escapement device for One manufacturer produces segmental blades with grooves in
releasing workplaces as required. Drag-chain conveyors are the blade body and tongues on the segments. With both designs,
often used for storing round-cornered squares and feeding them segments are fastened to the blade bodies with rivets. Rivets are
onto the infeed conveyor. An alternate device is a walking beam also placed outside the blade body, between mating faces of the
unscrambler unit. The entry conveyor must be synchronized segments, to provide lateral stability.
6-40
CHAPTER 6
CIRCULAR SAWING
I
‘Hex.stock
FIG. 6-31 Verfous methods of clamping different shaped material for cutting several parts in a single pass.
Segmental blades are more widely used than solid blades is widely used for carbide-tipped blades to saw ferrous metals,
because of their greater ability to absorb shock. Teeth on the and C-2 or C-3 (1S0 K20 or K30) carbide for carbide-tipped
segments can be designed to suit specific requirements. Also, blades to saw nonferrous materials.
when individual segments are worn or broken, they can be Advantages of sawing large billets with carbide-tipped
removed (see Fig. 6-32), resharpened, and replaced a number of blades include the elimination of ragged billet ends resulting
times, thus reducing blade costs. However, segmental blades
generally have to be thicker than solid blades, and the surface
finishes produced are not usually as smooth.
Carbide-Tipped Blades
Carbide tipped circular saw blades, available from 12-72”
(305-1829 mm) diam with kerfranges between 0.157 and 0.430”
(4.00 and 10.92 mm), have a high-strength, low-alloy steel body,
with carbide brazed to the tooth tips. These blades have been
used for many years to saw aluminum, brass, and some plastics.
More recently, carbide-tipped blades have been increasingly
used in sawing steel, particularly to meet high production
requirements and to saw large forged billets. Dramatic
improvements in productivity have resulted from the use of
carbide-tipped blades for such applications. Because of the
critical loading of the carbide in circular sawing, today’s state-
of-the-art allows economical utilization of this type of blade FIG. 6-32 Individual segments on HSS circular saw blades that can
only for solid shapes. U.S. classification C-5 carbide (1S0 P40) be removed, resharpened, and replaced a number of times.
6-41
CHAPTER 6
CIRCULAR SAWING
from the nick-and-break method, shear cracks sometimes

caused by cold shearing, and the need for expensive, high-
capacity shears required for hot shearing. Also, the flatter, more
J accurate end surfaces produced by circular sawing reduce
rejection rates, save material. and permit easier and more
economical billet handling.
4 One manufacturer of carbide-tipped circular saw blades
c states that blade life usually ranges from 12,000-30,000 in.j
(7.74-1 9.35 mz) of cutting.’ Longer life can often be obtained
when sawing nonferrous materials. The blades can be reground
up to nine times before they have to be retipped. Regrinding can
-d+ be done as long as the blade body is in good condition—as many
as 45 times in some cases.
C= Clearance angle 6° t=0,4x T Cutting times depend on the material being sawed, the
R= Rake angle 18° h= 0.02 x T
machine being used, the cutting speed, and the chip load.
T = Pitch b = Wtdth of blade
~= 005 x T Typical times for sawing round-cornered, square billets of AISI
l~sb = Chamfer of tooth
d=05XT 1040 steel range from 9 seconds for 3 1/ 2“ (89 mm) squares to
47 seconds for 10” (254 mm) squares, with a speed of 550 sfm
(167.6 m/min) and a chip load of 0.008” (0.20 mm). From
FIG. 6-33 Triple-chip tooth geometry, also called the high-low 2 to 3 seconds less are needed to saw round stock of corre-
pattern, used extensively for HSS circular saw blades. sponding sizes, Total cycle time requires adding about
4 seconds for the return stroke of the blade and from 4 to 8
seconds for infeed of the stock.
Tooth Geometry
A major advantage of circular sawing is that the rigid tooling
allows a wide range of materials and stock sizes to be cut with
the same blade. For sawing certain materials and long produc-
tion runs, however, it is generally more economical to change
the few variables available for optimum performance.
Triple-chip tooth design. The most common type of tooth
geometry is the triple-chip or high-low pattern illustrated in Fig.
I J 6-33. This design essentially provides a milling-type cutter wi~h
FIG. 6-34 Tooth gullets which curl the chips produced and store each pair of teeth producing three chips. The first tooth in each
them temporarily to permit continuous circular sawing. pair, called the roughing tooth, is higher and chamfered 45° on
O
,, J
II
h
Hook or
rake
0 Expansmn slot ~
‘/ Top relief
angle
n
1,
I
Tyflcal tcoth IO-IT
0 configuration 1
Plug
-L
,’ * 45”
0
ii Face
~i
Sde cleorance
angle or dish
0.0002-0.0004” Typ
t
(0005 -0010 mm)
FIG. 6-35 Precision-ground, carbide-tipped teeth used on plate saw.
6-42
CHAPTER 6
CIRCULAR SAWING
each side so that one-third of its width remains flat and removes walled tubing, nonferrous materials, or certain plastics. Instead,
a single chip from the center of the cut with each pass. The an alternate-bevel tooth pattern is usually recommended. With
second tooth in each pair, called the finishing tooth, is lower (an this design, every other tooth is beveled on an opposite side for
amount equal to 0.02 times the pitch, generally from 0.010- one-half of the tooth width, with all teeth the same height; the
0.025”,0.25-0.64 mm) and flat and removes two chips per pass, teeth have a finer pitch than with the triple-chip design. One
one from each side of the slot produced by the preceding advantage of the alternate-bevel, equal-height design is that the
roughing tooth. blades are easier to resharpen and, therefore, simpler saw
Tooth widths on circular saw blades must be wider than the grinding machines can be used.
body to prevent jamming in the cut. The roughing teeth guide Straight-tooth design. Another geometry commonly used
the blade straight through the material, and the height differen- for sawing brass and aluminum is the straight-tooth design.
tial prevents the finishing teeth from penetrating deeper than With this design, the teeth are not beveled and they are all the
the roughing teeth due to the constant infeed. This type of same height. Other geometries are also used for specific
geometry breaks up the chips and splits the chip load between applications, For example, some carbide-tipped blades have a
each pair of teeth, allowing faster material removal. Material different blade geometry for each tooth in sets of three teeth.
removed by the finishing teeth flows toward the slot produced Tooth gullets allow chips to curl. The tooth gullets tempo-
by the roughing teeth; this process accounts for the smooth rarily store the chips so that the teeth can continuously remove
milled-type finish that is produced. material from the workpiece, as shown schematically in Fig.
Triple-chip tooth geometry is recommended for most ferrous 6-34. Design of the gullet is a function of the tooth pitch—the
cutting applications, particularly for sawing solid stock and larger the pitch, the larger the gullet.
thick sections, because it can withstand high loads and is Rake angles on the teeth provide the wedge to shear the
capable of rapid stock removal rates. This design, however, is material being sawed, and the clearance angles permit using a
not generally recommended for sawing thin sections, thin- constant feed rate without pushing the backs of the tooth tips
into the workpiece. The easier the material is to saw, the larger
1.6250 40 the rake and clearance angles to permit fast feed rates. Large
I 4375 35
rake angles reduce the cutting forces, but also reduce the
1.3125 33 strength of the teeth. Increasing the clearance angles provides
1 I 250 28 more room for chip removal, but if clearance angles are too
10000 25 high, tooth strength is reduced. The harder the material is to
08750 22 saw, the smaller the rake and clearance angles should be.
0.8125 20 Positive rake angles of up to 18° and clearance angles to 8°
~ 06875 )8 E
E are used for sawing most materials. For long production runs
. 0.6250 16 -
5.-a $ and special applications, however, improved productivity
05625 14 .~
and longer blade life can often be obtained by using other
+ 0.5000 12 &
angles. The geometry for carbide-tipped saw blades used on
; 0.4375 II ;
0.4062 10 precision plate saws made by MetI-Saw Systems, Inc., is
0.3750 9 presented in Fig. 6-35.
03125 8
02500 6
01875 5 TABLE 6-8
Possible Problems and Suggested Solutions
3/4 11/415!8 2 23/S3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 ,.
for Circular Saw Blades
L I
25 50 75 I 00 150 200 250300350 mrr Problem Possible Remedv
Mater[al dimensions
cuts out Make sure saw blade body is flat. Check machine
of square alignment and adjustments, Make sure teeth
are flat across tops and/ or equally chamfered.
Burrs on Check sharpness of blade—a dull blade or a
cut edges blade with teeth having too high a rake angle
II II can cause burrs.

3 H(gh-carbon alloy & 14 6
tool steels
Rapid wear Cutting speed too fast. Clearance angles too
Austemtlc stainless 112161
m
of corners great. Cutting fluid mixture too thin.
I 1 ‘~l’e“eels Ill on flat teeth
Chipping Cutting speed too slow. Feed rate too fast in thin
of cutting work sections. Pitch too great for section being
edges cut. Reduce rake and clearance angles.
Breakage Make sure work is securely clamped, Check and
of teeth maintain tooth geometry. Reduce feed rate.
FIG, 6-36 Geometric parameters for HSS circular saw blades. Select Increase pitch to prevent tooth gullets from
the rake angle R and clearance angle C for the material or shape to be becoming choked with chips.
cut from the table. Using the material or shape group number, select tbe
ideal blade pitch from the graph. (Kaltenbach, Inc.)
6-43
CHAPTER 6
CIRCULAR SAWING
TABLE 6-9
Recommended Cutting Speeds and Metal Removal Rates for Circular Sawing Various Materials with HSS Blades
Material Material
Tensile Cutting Removal Rate,
Materials to be Strength, Speed, Feed Rate, in.2/ min
Circular Sawed ksi (MPa) sfm (m j rein) ipm (mm/rein) (cmz/ rein)
Mild steels: AISI 1008-1035, 50-95 60-100 4-8 25-40
1112. 1132, & 1212-1213 (345-655) (18.3-30.5) (102-203) (161-258)
Low-alloy, high-carbon steels: 85-150 45-60 3-7 20-35

AISI 1040-1095, 1137-1151, (586- 1034) (13.7-18.3) (76-178) (129-226)
1320-1345, 2330-2517, 3115-3150,
3310-3315, 4017-4068, & 4140
Medium to high alloy steels: 115-190 30-50 3-6 15-30
AISI 4142-4161, 4317-4340, (793-13 10) (9.1-15.2) (76- 152) (97- 194)
4608-4640, 5120-5160, 52100,
6117-6152,8615-8660, 8715-8750,
9255-9262,9310-9317, 9437-9763,
& 9840-9850
Stainless steels:
201-205, 301-303, 416-430, & 80-110 30-40 2-4 10-16
501-502 (552-758) (9.1-12.2) (51-102) (65-103)
302-304, 316-321, 347-410, 90-120 20-30 1.5-3.5 6-12
420-440, & 430-446 (621-827) (6. 1-9. 1) (38-89) (39-77)
17-4PH & 17-7PH 150-170 15-25 1-3 2-6
( 1034-11 72) (4.6-7.6) (25-76) (1 3-39)
Cast irons:
soft ---
(2:9) (2;; (2:$
Medium ---
( 1:7) (17; (1;$
Chilled ---
(;.!) (1 2;) (1 ::)
Tool steels: M 1, M2, M3, D7, 110-180 15-30 1-3 3-12

Tl, T2, T4, & T15 (758-1241) (4.6-9.1) (25-76) (1 9-77)
Special alloys: Titanium, 125-200 15-25 0.5-3 1-6

Inconels, Nimonics, Waspaloy (862-1379) (4.6-7.6) ( 13-76) (6-39)
Hastelloys, & Incoloys
Nonferrous metals:
Aluminum & its alloys --- 7000-15,000 40-80 200-2000
(2 134-4572) ( 1016-2032) ( 1290-12 900)
Copper & its alloys --- 1200-7000 20-60 60-500
(366-2134) (508- I524) (387-3225)
Bronze --- 300-600 8-20 50-100
(91-183) (203-508) (323-645)
Blade Pitch from three to five teeth engaged in the material being sawed at
The pitch of the teeth selected for circular saw blades all times. For example, a blade with a I” (25.4 mm) pitch is
depends on the width and hardness of the material to be cut. For suitable for sawing a 5“ ( 127 mm) diam, round bar of mild steel.
sawing nonferrous materials and mild steels, an attempt should Five teeth, each taking a chip from 0.015-0.025” (0.38-0.64 mm)
be made to remove as much metal in as short a time as thick and traveling at a rate of 60-100 sfm (18.3 -30.5 m/ rein),
possible—as much as 0.025” (0.64 mm) per pair of teeth. For produce good efficiency.
this purpose, a large pitch is required to provide room for For sawing stainless steels, exotic alloys, and structural
temporary storage of the large chips. A rule of thumb is to have shapes, blades with finer pitch are used. Because most stainless
6-44
CHAPTER 6
CIRCULAR SAWING
steels, especially austenitic types, and certain other alloys have a Recommended cutting speeds and feed rates for circular
tendency to work harden, a slower feed rate to produce thinner sawing various materials are presenfed in Table 6-9. For cutting
chips—from 0.004-0.008” (O.104I.2O mm) thick—is desirable. nonferrous materials, either HSS or carbide-tipped blades can
These thinner chips break more easily. As a result, more teeth be used. The lower cutting speeds in the ranges given in Table
can be engaged in the material at its widest area and a blade 6-9 are the maximum for HSS blades, while the higher speeds
pitch that engages seven or eight teeth is recommended. can be used for carbide-tipped blades. These recommendations
For the circular sawing of pipes, tubes, and structural are based on the use of modern, rigid, circular sawing machines
shapes, blade pitch cannot be optimized. A good practice is to with ample power and positive hydraulic-feed systems, A
have two teeth engaged in the material at its shortest width for mechanical feed system, such as one with a preloaded ballscrew,
these types of workplaces. Rigidity of the tooling in circular can improve performance, especially for sawing high-strength
sawing, however, allows some variation in this recommendation. alloy metals.
The ideal blade pitch, which can be determined from the graph
in Fig. 6-36, is desirable only when sawing large lot sizes. Blade Life
Some possible problems and suggested solutions for circular Circular saw blades can be resharpened many times, and
saw blades are presented in Table 6-8. each resharpening can improve performance of the blade
because of cold working during grinding. Approximate metal
removal rates per sharpening and the average number of
resharpening possible per blade for circular sawing various
Calculating the exact feed rate for circular sawing any given
materials with different diameter blades are given in Table 6-10.
solid material is possible. However, many interdependent
These values are based on using hydraulic-feed, heavy-duty,
variables exist, including the type (HSS or carbide-tipped),
HSS circular saws. With mechanical ballscrew-feed systems,
diameter, pitch and gullet capacity, and tooth geometry of the
blade life can be increased about 30Y0, but the actual life will
saw blad~ machining characteristics of the material to be
vary with feed rates and cutting speeds used.
sawed; workpiece size; cutting speed; and the rigidity and
condition of, as well as the power available for, the machines to Cutting Fluids
be used. Work material size affects both the feed rate and The use of a cutting fluid is recommended for circular sawing
cutting speed to be used. Larger stock siz& require lower feed all metals except brass and cast irons. Cutting fluids, however,
rates, but the material removal rate increases. are generally not used when cutting with carbide-tipped blades.
Chips produced in circular sawing serve as effective heat sinks,
Cutting Speed and the workplaces generally stay cool. As a result, lubricity of
An inverse relationship exists between the tensile strength of the cutting fluid to facilitate flow of the chips over the tooth
the material to be sawed and the cutting speed. Lower strength surfaces is more important than its cooling capacity.
materials can be sawed with higher cutting speeds, but stronger Good results are obtained with soluble oils and synthetic or
materials require lower speeds. Also, increased feed rates are chemical water mixtures. Relatively rich mixtures, such as one
used with higher cutting speeds, and reduced feeds with lower part oil or synthetic fluid to six parts water are generally
speeds. The limitation in this relationship is the strength of the recommended. Flooding of the cutting area is most often used
teeth—the maximum allowable chip thickness decreases as the since this helps in removal of the chips. For the cutting of
work material becomes stronger. Materials with higher tensile nonferrous metals at high surface speeds and the traverse
strengths require more energy for chip removal, which creates sawing of long plates, however, mist coolant is often applied. (A
additional heat and can anneal the teeth if the surface speed general discussion of cutting fluids is presented in Chapter 4 of
is too high. this volume.)
TABLE 6-10
Metal Removal per Blade Sharpening with Hydraulic-Feed, Heavy-Duty, HSS Circular Saws
Total Metal Removed per Blade Sharpening, ftz (ml)

Blade Diam., Blade Diam., Blade Diam., Blade Diam.,
in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm)
Material 10-15 16-22 25-30 32-40
Sawed (254-381) (406-559) (635-762) (813-1016)
Low and medium 107
carbon steels (:2) (3%) (6!5) (9.95)
High-carbon, tool,
and stainless steels (1!;1) (1!:0) (22;3) (3%7)
Ahtminum and 640 700 1000 1200
its alloys (59.5) (65.1) (93) (111.6)
Pipe, tubing, and

structural shapes ( 12;5) (22?4) (44:0) (6!;8)
Average number of
resharpenings possible 18 24 29 33
6-45
CHAPTER 6
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CIRCULAR SAWING SAFETY

REQUIREMENTS
ANSI Standard B] 1.10-1974 “Safety Requirements for the
Construction, Care, and Use of Metal Sawing Machines”
specifies safety requirements for different types of sawing
machines. Additional requirements cited specifically for circular
sawing machines include a safety guard of eithera stationary or
moving type, a safety barrier for some machines, and a pair of
flanges between which the saw blade is mounted.
References
1. Gene Bates, “Hill Acme Metal Cutting Systems, ” Paper

presented at Forging Equipment Symposium sponsored by the
Forging Industry Association, Chicago, IL, June 20, 1979.
Bibliography
Contour Band Machining Handbook. DoALL Company, Des

Plaines, IL, 1980.
DoALL Band Saw Blade Guide 76-13. DoALL Company, Des
Plaines, IL, 1976.
Dunn, D. M. “A Guide to the Selection of Sawing Machines and
Sawblades. ” Engineers’ Digest (June 1980), 6P. 21-24.
“Fundamental Aspects of Power Sawing. ” Engineers’ Digest
(February 1978), pp. 13-33.
Jablonowski, Joseph. “Fundamentals of Sawing, ” American
Machinist (April 15, 1975), pp. 53-68.
Vasilash, Gary S. “Sawing Technology—Today and Tomorrow. ”
Manufacturing Engineering (August 1980), Pp. 11 a-l 20.
Wilkie Brothers Foundation. Fundarrrenta/s of Band Machining,
Albany, NY: Delmar Publishers, Inc., 1964.
6-46
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING, PLANING,
SHAPING AND SLOTTING
BROACHING
Broaching is a process for internal or external may be broached by limiting the travel of a series of CHAPTER
machining of flat, round, or contoured surfaces. short push-type broaches. A recess, however, larger CONTENTS:
Machines of different types are used to push or pull in diameter than the hole to be broached must be
a multitooth cutting tool or the workpiece in provided at the bottom of the blind hole for chip BROACHING
relation to each other to remove material, Each space. Advantages 7-1
Limitations 7-3
tooth on the cutting tool (broach) is generally Surface broaching applications are practically Materials 7-3
higher than the preceding tooth (see Fig. 7-l). As a unlimited. Any external form can be produced as Machines 7-6
result, the depth of the cut increases as the long as the surfaces are in a straight line and Broachas 7-12
Geometry 7:13
operation progresses. unobstructed. Such forms include slots and key- Strengths 7-20
Generally, broaching machines differ from other ways, flat and contoured surfaces, rack and gear Materials 7-23
machine tools in that they provide only cutting teeth, and serrations. A few of the many forms that Surface 7-26
Internal 7-29
speed and force—the feed is built into the broach. have been broached are illustrated in Fig, 7-2, with Fixtures 7-32
Infeed, however, is provided by the workholding the heavy lines indicating the surfaces formed by Parameters 7-33
fixture for some applications. Another exception is broaching. High-Speed 7-33
Applications 7-34
helical broaching in which the machine provides An infinite number of forms can also be pro- Cutting
rotary motion, duced by internal broaching. In addition to Fluids 7-35
Broaching also differs from other machining machining round, square, rectangular, and other Sharpening 7-35
Handling 7-36
processes in that roughing, semifinishing, and shaped holes, the process is used to cut contoured
finishing teeth are often positioned along the axis surfaces, keyways, splines, serrations, and gear PLANING
of a single tool. This permits completing an teeth. This method is also used to rifle the bores of Machines 7-38
Toola 7-39
operation in a single pass. Several types of broaches gun barrels. A few examples of internally broached WorkhoIding 7-42
are sometimes used in combination to cut different forms are shown in Fig. 7-3. Starting holes for Speeds &
surfaces on the workpiece simultaneously. internal broaching are generally produced by Faeds 7-46
Applications 7-47
Broaching applications are of two major types: casting, forging, punching, drilling, or boring.
external (surface) broaching and internal broach- Details of the machines and tools used for these SHAPING &
ing. Both types are used for machining configurations processes, as well as some of their applications, are SLOTTING
Machines 7-49
ranging from flat surfaces to complex contours on discussed in subsequent sections of this chapter. Tools 7-50
or in workplaces varying from small precision Operations 7-52
components to very large parts made from many ADVANTAGES OF BROACHING Parameters 7-54
different materials. For some applications both Important advantages of broaching include
external and internal broaching are combined in high productivity, the capability of maintaining
one operation. While broaching is generally not close tolerances and producing good finishes,
considered to be a heavy stock removal operation, economical operation, and versatility.
there are applications of surface broaching in
which 1/2” (12.7 mm) or more of stock is removed Productivity
in a single pass. When the process is properly applied, with the
Workpieces with internal surfaces to be right machines and tools, broaching can remove
broached require a starting hole for insertion of the metal faster than any other machining method.
tool. Surfaces to be broached must be parallel to Broaching is competitive with many other
the direction of tool or work travel, but uniformly machining processes, particularly milling and
rotating sections such as helical gear teeth can be occasionally grinding, and high production rates
broached by rotating the tool or work as each are common, The ability to rough and finish
moves in relation to the other. No obstructions machine in one pass increases productivity, Smaller
such as protuberances on or in the workplaces can parts are often stacked and broached in multiple in
block the passage of the broach, but blind holes a single pass; larger parts are often produced two at
Contributors of sections of this chapter are: Steven J. Harem, Assistant Director of Engineering, The
Ohio Broach & Machine Co.; Robert E. Roseliep, President, General Broach and Engineering Co.; Leonard J.
Smith, President, Ty Miles, Inc.; Christopher Van De Motter, Manager of Engineering, The Ohio Broach &
Machine Co.
Raviewers of sactions of this chapter are: Joseph K. A brahamson, Sales Project Engineering Manager-
Broaching Machines. Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.; Eugene J. Bistrick, Chief Broach Tool Engineer, National Broach
& Machine Div. , Lear Siegler, Inc.; David C. Bosch. Executive Assistant, Western Machine Tool Works;
7-1
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
a time. The availability of semiautomatic and automatic can be provided on the finishing end of the broach to further
loading/ unloading and material handling equipment, as well as improve the finish obtained. In many applications the need for
improved machine controls, further increases productivity. subsequent grinding has been eliminated.
DirectIon of
Broach tool
~ broach travel
Chip gullet or Insert
cut
per
tooth
1
-— -- -
-----
---- __ ——
__ ——— — _____
—__
----- ----
———— __— — —— --
——__—_ --—- _—— -——__
—-——______
T ‘
Work p)ece
Fig. 7-1 Broach tool on which each successive tooth is generally Fig. 7-3 A few of the infinite number of forms that can be produced by
higher than the preceding tooth. As a result, the cut gets deeper as the internal broaching. The process requires starting holes in the work-
operation progresses. pieces. (General Broach and Engineering Co,)
Economical Operation
While initial tool costs can be high unless standard tooling is
employed, cost per workpiece produced is generally low
because of long tool life. This is the result of the comparatively
low cutting speeds used in broaching and the small portion of
total stock removed by each tooth. Long tool life provides the
additional benefit of reducing downtime for tool replacement.
Today there is increased availability of standardized, general-
purpose tooling that permits more economical broaching for
many applications. The use of automation equipment and
automatic machine controls permits employing unskilled
or semiskilled operators, which can further reduce opera-
tional costs.
Versatility of Broaching
Fig. 7-2 Examples of the many forms that can be produced by surface Broaching can be used for a wide range of workpiece sizes—
broaching. Heavy lines indicate the surfaces that are broached. (General from small screw machine parts; components formed by cold
Broach a;d Eng~neering Co.)
heading or other methods; and stampings to large castings,
forgings, and weldments. The process is also suitable for
Accuracy and Finishes Produced machining many different materials.
Broaching is capable of consistently maintaining close External surfaces on several parts can often be broached
tolerances because of its inherent accuracy. Several surfaces on simultaneously on wide-ram machines, Universal machines are
a workpiece can also be held in accurate relationship because available to perform a variety of operations, including push and
the relationship is built into the tooling. pull broaching and external and internal cutting.
Surface finishes produced are smooth compared to many An old misconception that still persists is that broaching is
other machining processes, and noncutting burnishing elements limited to high production requirements necessitating special
Reviewers, cont. : Joseph Chayks, Director Marketing Administrator. Bendix Machine Tool Corp.;
Keith Clapp, Carboloy Systems Dept., General Electric Co.; Gary Ezor, General Manager, Pioneer Broach Co.; Harold Franklin, Sales
Engineer- Tool Division, Apex Broach & Machine Co.; B.J. Garrett, Director of Engineering, Mitts & Merrill, Inc.; Steven J.
Harem, Assistant Director of Engineering, The Ohio Broach & Machine Co.; Shreekant Joshi, Deputy General Manager-Marketing,
Cooper Engineering Div. , Walchandnagar Industries; Harold W. Knox, Manager. Quality Assurance, The G,A. Gray Co.; Edward W.
Kokmeyer. President, Amarican Broach & Machine Co.; R. C. Lesperance, Manager-Broach Cutting Tool Engineering, Detroit Broach &
Machine Div., Babcock & Wilcox; D. Manglicmot, Chief Engineer. Morey Machinery. Inc.; Dipak Mukherjee, Deputy General Manager-
Engineering, Cooper Engineering Div. , Walchandnagar Industries; Dick Peterson, Engineering Consultant. Ingersoll Engineers, Inc.;
7-2
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
and costly machines and tools. Instead, broaching is being used surface finishes when broaching them. Steels harder than RC30
for shallow cuts and finishing operations, as well as heavy stock are more difficult to broach; however, many steels with
removal in some applications, and even short runs are now harnesses to RC38 are being broached, and smoother finishes
often economical. The availability of standard and universal are obtained than when softer steels are broached. Steels even
machines plus general-purpose tooling makes small-lot produc- harder than RC42 are also broached, but with these steels tool
tion of families of parts both feasible and economical. life is reduced and power requirements increased. Broaches
for cutting such hard materials are generally made of a higher
grade material and heat treated to a higher hardness for
improved tool life.
LIMITATIONS OF THE PROCESS
Studies of internal gear and spline broaching in which
As previously mentioned, workplaces must be suitable for
material tearing has been encountered have revealed that the
broaching. The surfaces to be broached must be of uniform
cause of tearing is the typical quenched and tempered sorbitic
rotation or parallel to the direction of tool or work travel, and
structure. ] When the steel is normalized to produce a blocky
there cannot be any obstructions in the path of the tool.
lamellar pearlitic structure, smooth finishes can be achieved
Complex contoured surfaces with curves in two or more planes
at normal broaching speeds. Another type of structure that
cannot be formed in a single broaching operation, with the
presents tearing problems is called Widmanstatten. This
exception of helical surface broaching. In surface broaching, it
structure is identified by needle-like ferrite particles which
is not possible to broach to a shoulder if the shoulder is not
result from overheating of the material during the steel-
parallel to the broach axis. Internal broaching requires starting
making process.
holes in the workplaces. Tapered holes generally cannot be
Workpieces having a high surface hardness, such as that
broached, but with some materials, such as aluminum, a
produced by previous work hardening or scaling, require the
tapered swedge can be mounted at the end of a broach. Parts to
first broach tooth to cut beneath the hard surface layer or scale
be broached must also be strong enough to withstand high
if possible. For some applications, it is economical to remove
thrust forces or must be adequately supported.
scale prior to broaching, preferably by pickling rather than by
The high forces produced in broaching require rigid machines
shot or sand blasting. Stainless and high-chromium alloy steels
and workholding devices which add to capital equipment costs.
are difficult to broach because they have a tendency to gall and
When special machines and tools are required, production
to increase tool wear, and free-machining grades are preferable
requirements must be sufficient to economically justify the
for broaching.
higher costs.
Higher cutting speeds can generally be employed when
While light burrs are sometimes produced in broaching, they
broaching cast irons, some steels, and nonferrous metals such as
can generally be removed easily by conventional methods such
brass, bronze, aluminum, and magnesium. A problem in
as brushing or tumbling.
broaching aluminum, however, is obtaining a satisfactory
surface finish, which will vary with the alloy being machined.1
Some softer aluminum alloys exhibit a gummy behavior when
MATERIALS BROACHED machined, and depending on the cutting fluid used, stick to
Any material that can be machined by other processes can practically any material except diamond. The aluminum that
usually be broached. Broachability of materials is essentially adheres to the cutting edge initiates the formation of a built-up
the same as machinability; however, because broaching is a edge on the cutting tool. This built-up edge, which does much of
high-impact machining process, proper grain structure and the cutting, is not stable, and ragged portions of it periodically
hardness are of utmost importance. Broaching has been used to appear on the freshly cut surface of the workpiece, as shown
machine most known metal alloys, some plastics, hard rubber, schematically in Fig. 7-4. Characteristically, the peaks on the
wood, composite materials, and graphite. A sampling of surface rough surface of the workpiece point in a direction opposite to
finishes produced and tolerances maintained in typical broach- that of the tool travel, contrary to the popular idea that the poor
ing operations on various materials is presented in Table 7-1. surface finish has been caused by gouging of the work surface.
Heat treatments, hardness, or other prior processing are More efficient broaching and improved surface finishes can
indicated in each instance. be obtained when machining aluminum and other materials by
Free-machining materials can be broached more easily than proper conditioning of the workpiece material and use of the
hard, tough materials, and a more suitable structure for correct cutting fluid, cutting speed, amount of cut per broach
broaching can be specified if workplaces are heat treated after tooth, and tooth geometry. In addition, the smoothest possible
cutting. The best hardness range for steels to be broached is finish on the broaching tool is of prime importance. These
generally Rcl 8-32, with RC26-30 being an ideal range. Softer subjects are discussed in subsequent sections of this chapter on
steels tend to tear, and it is more difficult to produce smoother broach design and operating parameters.
Reviewers cont.: Joseph A. Psenka, Chief Field Engineer (ratirad), National Broach & Machina Div. . Lear Siegler. Inc.; Robert E.
Roseliep, President, General Broach & Engineering Co.; Myron J. Schmenk, Project Engineer, Technology Development, Cincinnati
Mifacron, Inc.; Leonard Schultz, General Sales Manager, Bandix Machine Tool Corp.; LeonardJ, Smith, President, Ty Milas, Inc.; George
A. Storch, Engineering Supervisor-Broaching Machines, Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.; Michael V. Svetaka, Hassay-Savage Broaches; Eugene
S. Swanson, Vice President of Engineering, Rockford Machine Tool Operations, Ex-Call-O Corp.; Ra y Uber, Manager Proposals. Bendix
Machine Tool Corp.; Dan Young, Product Specialist. Detroit Broach & Machine Div., Babcock & Wilcox.
7-3
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
TABLE 7-1
Commonly Broached Materials
Heat Dimensional
Other Treatment or Hardness Tolerance, Surface Finish,
AMS No. Specification Condition* (as broached) in. (mm) rms, L in. (p m)
4132 26 18-T61 aluminum G R~ 70 0.002 32-45
(0.05) (0.8-1.1)
4135H 2014-T6 aluminum G R~ 70 0.0023 16-32

(0.058) (0.4-0.8)
4928 Ti, 6 Al, 4V E RC 36-38 0.00075 24-32

(0.0 190) (0.6-0.8)
5382B Stellite 31 B Rc 32 0.002

(0.05) (n)
5613C SAE 51410 (410 SS) H RC 32-36 0.002

(0.05) ( ::)
5616C Greek Ascoloy I RC 32-38 0.002 35-42

(0.05) (0.9-1.1)
5665C Inconel A RB 85 0.005

(o. 13) (:.%)
5668D Inconel X H Rc 29 0.002 35-42

(0.05) (0.9-1.1)
5727B Timken 16-25-6 F RC 20-28 0.001 32-63

(0.03) (0.8- 1.6)
5735D A286 G RC 28-30 0.0024 35-42

(0.061) (0.9-1.1)
5735D A286 G RC 30-35 0.001
(0.03) (;;)
5735D A286 G RC 32-38 0.0015 35-42
(0.038) (0.9-1.1)
5765A S816 G RC 24-30 0.001 32-40
(0.03) (0.8- 1.0)
6250D SAE 3310 E Rc 20 0.010
(0.25) ( ::)
6260E SAE 9310 I RC 36-38 0.002
(0.05) (R)
6302 17-22A(S) H RC 29-34 0.001
(0.03) ( f!)
6304 17-22A H RC 35-40 0.003 ---
(0.08)
6342B SAE 9840 I RC 32-36 0.001
(0.03) (:.!)
6370D SAE 4130 1 RC 32 0.0005
(0.013) (R)
6382D SAE 4140 I RC 25-29 0.002 32-63
* Heat-treatment or condition code:

A = annealed, B ❑ as cast, C ❑ as forged, D = cold finished, E = hot finished, F = stress relieved, G ❑ solution and
precipitation heat treated, H = air quench followed by furnace temper, I = oil quench followed by furnace temper, J ❑
salt quench followed by furnace temper.
7-4
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
TABLE 7-l—Continued
Heat Dimensional
Other Treatment or Hardness Tolerance, Surface Finish
AMS No. Specification Condition* (as broached) in. (mm) rms, p in. (p m)
6415E SAE 4340 I RC 38 0.002 45-63
(0.05) (1.1-1,6)
6415E M2 tool steel A RC 24-28 0.002

(0.05) ( P5)
6415E EMS 544 _— Rc 35-38 0.001

(0.03) ( P5)
6415E Incoloy901 1 RC 32-36 0.0015

(0.038) ( ::)
6415E Rene 41 G RC 34-38 0.0024

(0.061) (:2)
6415E WAD 7823A --- RC 28 0.001 40-60

(0.03) (1.0-1.5)
6415E D-979 1 RC 38-40 0.001

(0.03) (T5)
6415E EMS 73030 RC 32-36 0.0028

(0.071) (%
6415E M-308 Rc 36-38 0.0024

(0.061) (::)
6415E Chromoloy RC31-32 0.004

(0.10) (1%
6415E PWA-682 (titanium) --- Rc 34-36 0.001

(0.03) (:;)
6415E Lapelloy J RC 30-37 0.008

(0.20) (;;)
6415E 303 stainless steel A RB 85 0.001

(0.03) (::)
6415E 304 stainless steel A RB 80-85 0.002

(0.05) ( :2)
6415E 403 stainless steel 1 Rc 37-40 0.001

(0.03) f ::)
6415E SAE 1010 D RB 60 0.001

(0.03) (!!5)
6415E SAE 1020 D Rc 3-12 0.002 60-80

(0.05) (1.5-2.0)
6415E SAE 1037 1 RC 15-20 0.001 25-40

(0.03) (0.6-1.0)
6415E SAE 1045 1 Rc 24-31 0.001 40-60

(0.03) (1.0-1.5)
6415E SAE 1063 E RC 12-18 0.004 40-60

A ❑ annealed, B ❑ as cast, C ❑ as forged, D = cold finished, E = hot finished, F = stress relieved, G ❑ solution and
precipitation heat treated, H ❑ air quench followed by furnace temper, I = oil quench followed by furnace temper, J =
7-5
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
TABLE 7-1 —Continued
Heat Dimensional
Other Treatment or Hardness Tolerance, Surface Finish
AMS No. Specification Condition* (as broached) in. (mm) rms, p in. (p m)
6415E SAE 1070 E Rc 5-10 0.002 60-80
(0.05) (1.5-2.0)
6415E SAE 1112 ..- RB 87 0.001 40-45

(0.03) (1.0-1.1)
6415E SAE 1145 c Rc 13-18 --- 50-100

(1.3-2.5)
6415E SAE 1340 c Rc 15-20 0.003 .-—

(0.08)
6415E SAE 4047 c Rc 8-15 0.002 60-80

(0.05) (1 .5-2.0)
6415E SAE 5140 c RC8-15 0.002 60-80

(0.05) (1.5-2.0)
6415E SAE 52100 D RC 25 0.001

(0.03) (::)
6415E Gray cast iron B RB 90 0.003 80-100

(0.08) (2.0-2.5)
6415E KP-7 cast iron B --- 0.001 125
(0.03) (3.2)
A = annealed, B = as cast, C ❑ as forged, D ❑ cold finished, E ❑ hot finished, F ❑ stress relieved, G ❑ solution and
precipitation heat treated, H = air quench followed by furnace temper, I ❑ oil quench followed by furnace temper, J =
BROACHING MACHINES
Broaching is done on a variety of types of equipment,
including portable units, hand-held pulling units, and machines
ranging from small manually operated or powered arbor
presses to large horizontal surface broaching machines.
Conventional presses, however, are multifunction machines
and are seldom used for production broaching. Major require-
ments for any broaching machine include accurate relative
motion between the tool and workpiece and rigid construction
to withstand the high forces encountered. Most machines are of
simple design and are very reliable.
Classification of Machines
Broaching machines can be classified by operational charac-
I I
teristics and/ or the type of operation performed when the
machines are properly tooled. With respect to the direction of
cutting stroke, broaching machines are classified as vertical,
I 1 with the axis of the cutting stroke perpendicular to the floor;
Fig. 7-4 Surface finish generation resulting from built-up edge on the horizontal, with the cutting stroke parallel to the floo~ and
cutting tool when broaching aluminum. special, which encompasses all other variations or combi-
nations. They can be further classified as surface, internal, and
SAE 390 aluminum casting alloy with 1990 silicon con- universal or combination broaching machines.
tent broaches very much like cast iron. SAE 319 aluminum Types of power used to drive the broaching machines are also
alloy, however, is softer and more gummy and requires special used to describe them. Machines are powered hydraulically or
techniques to prevent producing a poor surface finish. mechanically, with hydraulic drives in greatest use for vertical
Smoother finishes can be obtained when SAE 319 alumunium and smaller horizontal machines. Some machines, however,
alloy is in the T6 temper condition (solution heat treated and such as continuous (chain) types and large, horizontal surface
artificially aged). broaching types, are almost exclusively powered electro-
7-6
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
mechanically. With the energy savings possible with electro- merical control (CNC) do not ordinarily lend themselves to the
mechanical drives, this type of power is now being used on other simple requirements of broaching, they have been used for some
broaching machines. special applications.
Further classification of broaching machines is based on Many different accessories and attachments are available for
operational characteristics such as single or dual-ram, ptrll- use with broaching machines. These include reciprocating
down or ptrllup, pushdown or pushup, rotary, continuous, shuttle, tilting, and dial tables with infeed, crossfeed, or rotary
pot-type, and blind spline. A schematic representation of motions for vertical surface broaching machines. Automatic
broaching machine classification according to type of drive, loading/unloading, clamping/ unclamping, and broach retrieval
direction of cutting stroke, and operational characteristics is systems are often desirable, depending on the application, and
presented in Fig. 7-5. chip conveyors are frequently used for high-production appli-
In addition, tonnage ratings (force capability) and maximum cations involving large-volume metal removal. Many different
cutting strokes are used to designate the sizes and capacities of material handling devices are available to automate the
broaching machines in the various classifications. An example broaching process, Broaching machines have been incorporated
is: a 25 ton (222 kN), 72’’(1830 mm) stroke, hydraulic dual-ram into transfer lines that also perform other operations such as
vertical surface broaching machine. drilling, boring, and milling.
Force requirements in broaching, which determine the
tonnage rating of the machine needed, depend on the material Machine Selection
to be broached, the amount of stock removed per tooth, the Important factors in selecting a broaching machine for a
cutting speed, and the design of the broaching tool. These specific application include the type of cutting tool needed for
variables and their influence on force requirements are dis- the operation and the production requirements. Basic machine
cussed in the subsequent section on broach design. features to be considered are the configuration, capa-
Broaching machines are available with single, dual, or city in terms of tons of ram force, ram stroke and speed, and
variable-speed drives. For some applications, dual-speed con- dimensional capacity for tooling and workpiece. Machine size
trols are desirable to drive the broach at one speed during part and capacity are functions of the tool and workpiece sizes,
of the stroke and at a second speed during another portion of broaching power requirements, and available production space.
the stroke. Vertical broaching machines offer the advantages of reduced
Machine control systems can range from simple to sophis- floor-space requirements; having the tools move in a vertical
ticated. Advanced control systems available on some machines plane, thus avoiding possible sag; generally better cutting fluid
can accommodate any required sequence of ram motions, dispersement and chip-removal facilities; and easier workpiece
loading, clamping, workpiece movement, unclamping, and loading, clamping, and unloading. Disadvantages of some
unloading. Programmable controllers are used on some vertical types of machines, compared to horizontal types,
machines. While numerical control (NC) and computer nu- include the need for high ceilings or deep floor pits for long-
Broaching machines
I
( 1
Hydroullc Electro;echanlcal
Veflical I Hcm;ontal
I
f ) ( -1
Surkxe COmbinatlOn Internal surface Comb[notIon Internal
Af-+1
Single Dual- Pulldown Pullup Pushdown One-way Twc-woy
ram ram (press) ram ram
*
I
Special
COnt,nuOus
(
Pot
I I I
Portable
)
Press Bind splme Rotary Other
I
( -1
Pushdown Pushup
(press)
Fig. 7-5 Classification of broaching machines according to type of drive, direction of cutting stroke, and operational characteristics.
(General Broach and Engineering Co.)
7-7
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
stroke machines and, generally, more difficult access for machines are available with maximum speeds approaching
toolchanging. Some small, vertical, table-top machines, how- 300 fpm (9 1.4 m/rein). Some Iarger machines, powered electro-
ever, are relatively inexpensive, and feature fast changeover mechanically, have speeds to 200 fpm (6 1 m/rein).
from one setup to the next. Vertical machines having strokes longer than 24”
Horizontal broaching machines usually have the advantage (610 mm) require either an elevated platform for the operator or
of being able to handle larger and heavier workplaces and a pit in the floor for the machine. Available ceiling clearance
longer broaches for greater stock removal. They often provide heights must be considered when ordering such machines, and
increased versatility in that they can be set up quickly to broach a means for chip removal should be provided when floor pits are
different parts. With the exception of continuous-type provided for machine installation.
machines; special machines; and large, fast, horizontal Cutting tools for vertical surface broaching machines are
broaching machines, however, most broaching machines in generally mounted in broach holders to form an assembly. An
service and being built today are vertical, adapter plate is attached to the machine ram and the subholder
assembly is bolted and cross-keyed to the main holder. For
high-volume production requirements, it is common practice to
Vertical Surface Broaching Machines have three holders, one on the machine, a second preassembled
Single-ram broaching machines. Standard vertical surface for standby use, and a third in the cutter grinding department.
broaching machines with a single ram and downward cutting Dual-ram broaching machines. Dual-ram machines, such as
stroke are available in sizes from 1 ton (8.9 kN), 18” (457 mm) the one shown in Fig. 7-6, operate like two single-ram vertical
stroke to 50 ton (449 kN), 120” (3048 mm) stroke, and larger size surface broaching machines mounted side by side in a common
machines are available on special order. Most are equipped frame, with the two rams moving alternately upward and
with an in-and-out motion shuttle table or a tilting-type table downward. These machines are preferable to single-ram
that allows the operator to unload and reload during the return machines for high production requirements because they
(upward) stroke of the machine ram. Vertical surface broaching permit one operator to load and unload in front of one ram on
machines are usually adaptable to automatic workpiece its return stroke while broaches on the other ram are in the
handling and most have power take-off or an auxiliary power cutting mode.
supply for clamping and fixture motion. Machines equipped Production rates on dual-ram machines are not double that
with wide rams can sometimes hold two or more sets of of two single-ram machines, however, because the speed of the
broaching took to machine several workplaces simultaneously. return stroke must be the same as the cutting speed of the
Cutting speeds on these single-ram vertical surface broaching alternate ram. Usually a 60-70T0 increase in productivity can be
machines are generally adjustable or variable. On hydraulically achieved by tooling both rams to perform the same operation as
powered machines rated at 10 tons (89 kN) or more, the speed previously done on a single-ram machine. Workpieces re-
range is usually 25-60 fpm (7.6-18.3 m/min) with 100 fpm quiring multiple broaching passes can often be transferred from
(30.5 m/min) being common in Europe. Some small hydraulic one ram to the other with reduced part handling. In such cases,
Fig. 7-6 Dual-ram vertical surface broaching machine with hydraulic drive. (Bendix Machine Tool Co.)
7-8
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
however, the longest cutting stroke required will determine the table-top machines often rely on the operator for manual
stroke of each ram. handling of the workplaces and broaches and have one or two
Dual-ram machines are usually not practical for operations stations. High-speed machines usually range in size from 5 ton
requiring less than 42” ( 1067 mm) of stroke because the short (44.5 kN), 24” (610 mm) stroke to 20 ton (178 kN), 48”
ram-return time is generally not sufficient to permit loading/ (12 19 mm) stroke and are available with one to four stations
unloading. Cutting speeds do not normally exceed 60 fpm ( 18.3 and cutting speeds of about 120 fpm (36.6 m/ rein).
m/ rein) for hydraulic machines of this type or 200 fpm Machines with a way-type main slide and a movable, upper
(61 m/min) for electromechanically powered machines. All broach-handling slide are the most common. The broach-
other considerations are the same as for single-ram machines. handling slide travels in unison with the main slide through-
out the cutting stroke for maximum broach support and
Vertical Internal Broaching Machines alignment, Pulldown slide-type vertical internal broaching
Standard vertical internal broaching machines are available machines generally range in size from 4 ton (35.6 kN), 24”
in sizes from 2 ton (17.8 kN), 12” (305 mm) stroke to 75 ton (610 mm) stroke to 75 ton (667 kN), 120’’(3048 mm) stroke, with
(667 kN), 120” (3048 mm) stroke and are made in various styles one to six stations and cutting speeds to 100 fpm (30.5 m/min).
for different applications and production requirements. The Most are hydraulically powered, and a few have electro-
length of the broach tool to be used in relation to its cross mechanical drives.
section may determine whether it must be pulled or pushed Pulldown slide-type and high-speed vertical internal broach-
through the workpiece because the tool is stronger in tension ing machines are usually equipped with shuttle tables that move
than compression. in and out or with automatic loading/unloading fixtures. Floor
Pushdown broaching. Vertical internal broaching machines pits or operator platforms are required for machines having
of the pushdown type are basically presses, most of which are of strokes longer than 24” (610 mm).
C-frame construction and hydraulically powered. In some
cases, the broach is attached to the machine ram and is pushed Vertical Combination Broaching Machines
downward and pulled upward through the workpiece—a Vertical combination (universal) broaching machines feature
process called strip broaching. For most applications, however, a swing-away or detachable toolhandling slide for internal
the broach drops into a catcher tray after being pushed through broaching and a machined slide face for surface broach tooling.
the workpiece or a lower powered slide is provided to lift the On three-way machines the broach can be pushed down for
broach for retrieval. broaching external surfaces or pushed or pulled down for
Pushdown vertical internal broaching is normally used only cutting internal surfaces.
for low-volume production or for applications requiring manual These machines are of the slide type, and most are hydrau-
alignment of the broach with respect to the workplaces. Some lically powered. They are generally available in sizes from 4ton
high-volume applications exist, however, primarily for bur- (35.6 kN), 18” (457 mm) stroke to 15 ton (133.4 kN), 36”
nishing-typejobs. In all cases, stock removal is usually minimal. (914 mm) stroke, with cutting speeds to 50 fpm (15.2 m/min).
Pullup broaching. The pullup method was the original one The combination machines are usually employed for job shop
used on vertical machines for internal broaching. Workpieces or multiple operation requirements.
are manually or automatically placed in alignment with the
broach pull-shank, and the broach is raised through both the Horizontal Internal Broaching Machines
workpiece and a thrust plate called a platen until the upper end At one time, horizontal machines were the predominant type
of the broach engages an automatic broach puller. The upward used for internal broaching. Today, however, with the high cost
pulling motion of the broach lifts the workpiece until it contacts of floor space and a generally lower productivity rate compared
a bushing fixture mounted on the platen. Cutting force holds to vertical machines, they represent less than 10VO of the
the workpiece against the bushing face until the broach is pulled broaching machines purchased, They are still used where ceiling
through, after which the workpiece drops onto a sloping surface heights prohibit vertical machines, for large and heavy
for gravity ejection from the machine. broaching tools that require in-line pulling, for small took that
Standard pullup vertical machines for internal broaching are require manual handling, for some special low-profile equip-
available in sizes from 6 ton (53,4 kN), 24” (610 mm) stroke ment that is adaptable to automated transfer lines, and for
to 50 ton (445 kN), 72” (1829 mm) stroke. Practically all of short-run job shop applications.
these machines are hydraulically powered and generally tooled Horizontal internal broaching machines have a box-type
to pull from one to six broaches simultaneously. Problems with framework with a platen on one end. The platen is equipped
chip disposal, cutting fluid application, and the handling of with a clearance hole to allow the broaches to be pulled through
large and heavy workpieces, however, make them undesirable the stationary workplaces in a horizontal direction. A pulling
for some applications, and they are now specified less frequently. head rides on ways within the machine frame and is aligned with
Pulldown broaching. The pulldown method of broaching the hole in the platen. Most modern machines have optional
is by far the most commonly used on vertical internal broach- outboard and inboard broach supports. They can be supplied
ing machines. Pulldown broaching is often preferred to the with automatic equipment for broach handling and workpiece
pullup method because large workplaces can be handled more loading and unloading.
easily and because gravity helps the cutting fluid reach the Sizes of horizontal machines for internal broaching generally
cutting teeth and facilitates chip removal. Progressive work, in range from 1 ton (8.9 kN), 18° (457 mm) stroke to 100 ton
which several broaches are used in succession, is easier to (89 kN), 120” (3048 mm) stroke. The first machines of this type
perform, and the machines lend themselves well to automatic were screw driven; however, this type drive is now obsolete.
loading and unloading. Most machines are now hydraulically powered. The hydraulic
The construction of vertical internal broaching machines of cylinder is mounted on the machine frame, at the opposite end
the pulldown type varies to suit different applications, Small from the platen, and aligned with the pulling hole and head to
7-9
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
provide in-line pulling force. Some machines are electro- Continuous broaching machines. Continuous chain-t ype
mechanically driven. surface broaching machines consist of a horizontal framework
having a drive sprocket mounted at one end and an idler
Horizontal Surface Broaching Machines sprocket at the opposite end. These sprockets support and
In a class by themselves, large horizontal machines for power a pair of parallel, continuous chains which move
broaching external surfaces are used extensively by the auto- workholding fixture carriers suspended between them. The
motive industry for heavy stock removal. Surfaces are machined carriers are guided by a set of ways within the machine frame,
on large parts such as cast engine blocks, cylinder heads, and the broaching tools are mounted in a tunnel on top of the
manifolds, and bearing clusters, with stock removals of 1/4” machine (see Fig. 7-7).
(6.4 mm) or more using carbide broach inserts. Close tolerances Workpieces to be broached are manually or automatically
are maintained and smooth surface finishes produced, and the placed in the moving fixtures at one end of the machine.
machines have proven to be reliable and efficient with little Clamping of the workplaces in the fixtures is generally done
downtime for toolchanging and maintenance. automatically, and safety devices can be provided to auto-
One-way and two-way broaching machines. These horizontal matically stop the machine if misaligned workplaces or work-
surface broaching machines are made in single-station, one-way places with excessive stock are detected before they enter the
models that cut in one direction only and in two-way models broaching tunnel.
that are capable of cutting in both directions. Workpieces are Properly aligned workplaces with the correct amount of
cradled in swing-up fixtures. On two-way machines for V-type stock are pulled through the stationary broachholder assembly
and in-line engine blocks, the pan-rail, half-bore, and bearing- (tunnel) to complete the broaching operation. The workplaces
lock surfaces are broached as the machine ram moves in one are automatically unclamped and ejected from the fixtures by
direction. Then an automatic transfer mechanism moves the gravity at the other end of the machine.
block to a rollover fixture that rotates the casting 180°. The Production rates from continuous broaching machines are
head joint face or both bank faces on the block are broached on high, usually from four to ten times that of vertical surface
the return stroke of the ram. broaching machines. This is because of the continuous cutting
Horizontal surface broaching machines were originally action and elimination of the noncutting portion of other
powered hydraulically and available in sizes to 30 ton (267 kN), broaching machine cycles. Productivity from these machines
120” (3048 mm) stroke, with cutting speeds from 30-100 fpm can also be varied by changing the speed of the chain or
(9-30.5 m/ rein). Most machines today are driven electro- increasing or decreasing the number of fixtures used; the
mechanically and are available in sizes over 100 tons maximum number of fixtures is limited by the length and
(890 kN), with strokes to 30 ft (9 m) and speeds to 200 fpm tonnage capacity of the machine.
(61 m/ rein) for cast iron or 300 fpm (91 m/min) for aluminum. High production requirements are necessary, however, to
With the introduction of thin-wall iron and aluminum justify the high cost of these machines. Their use is also usually
castings to reduce weight and increase the fuel efficiency of car restricted to workplaces small enough to pass through the
and truck engines, problems were encountered because of the tunnel and sturdy enough to permit gravity ejection without
possibility of breaking weaker sections of the castings due to the damage. Automatic loading and unloading equipment is
high cutting loads. Deflection of the thinner casting ribs also available for most workplaces.
created problems in maintaining required surface flatness. While stationary tooling is most common on these continuous
These problems, however, have been solved by changing the machines, one variation, used for heavy stock removal, is to
design of the tooling and using lighter chip loads, as discussed mount the broaches on the chain-driven carriers to cut a
later in this chapter. stationary workpiece. This adaptation has been used with the
Broaching tunnel Safety dev[ce

(contains cuthng tools)
Fig. 7-7 Schematic of a continuous surface broacbing machine. Workpieces are loaded on chain-driven carriers that move them
through the broaching tunnel.
7-1o
CHAPTER 7
chains operating horizontally (over, under, or alongside the

stationary workpiece) and vertically, with the chains making
one complete revolution each cycle. Chain lengths up to 480”
(12 192 mm) are possible. Continuous broaching machines
designed for this modified method are generally restricted to Pull heed II F
‘i LI
special applications because of the high cost of the equipment.
Conventional continuous machines are generally available
with ratings from 2.5-60 tons (22.2 -533,8 kN) and broach
tunnels from 18-250” (457-6350 mm) long. Cutting speeds are
usually adjustable through change gears from 12-60 sfm (3.7-
18.3 m/min); some continuous machines have d-c motor drives
that provide infinitely adjustable speeds within a given range.
Pot
broach,nq.
tool “
lllt- o Machine
1’‘
column
One manufacturer offers machines with hydrostatic hydraulic
drive that permits variable speeds and constant torque.
,- 0
Blank
Special Machines
Travel
Pot broaching machines. Pot broaching derives its name to
from the hollow surface-type broaching tool assembly, called
the pot, which is used to surround a workpiece for broach- ‘u” b< ~
ing external contours, such as gear teeth, splines, slots, and
cam surfaces, in a single pass. Pot broaches are assembled from
ring or stick-type cutting took, or a combination of both,
Retriever, I!lr
as discussed in the next section of this chapter. The pot broach-
ing of external gears and splines is discussed in Chapter 13,
“Gear Cutting. ” r+
One of the older methods of pot broaching consists of

mounting the workpiece on a post-type fixture and pushing the
pot broach assembly, which is mounted on the ram of a vertical Fig. 7-8 Pulbrp pot broacbing machine showing stationary tool
surface broaching machine, downward to cut the part. With this assembly and head for prdting work tbrougb tool.
method, work unloading is automatic but loading is done
manually and can slow the operation. Most machines of this type are hydraulically powered, with
Modern machines designed specifically for pot broaching ratings of 4-30 tons (35.6-267 kN) and strokes of about 6“
have a stationary pot assembly. Three types of machines are ( 152 mm). The machines can generally be furnished with
available: pushdown, pushup, and pullup. Pushup pot automatic loaders and unloaders and lend themselves well to
broaching, in which workplaces are pushed up through the in-line automation. They are particularly suitable for broaching
stationary pot, offers the advantages of chips falling, by gravity, splines or serrations not more than 0.070” (1.78 mm) deep in
away from the tool and workpiece; simple work feeding; easy thinhine with fully automatic work handling can replace from
loading and unloading; and simplified toolchanging. four tubular parts. It is claimed that one broaching macto nine
Pullup pot broaching, in which workplaces are pulled up gear shapers.
through a stationary tooling pot with a pull head (see Fig. 7-8) Rotary broaching machines. Machines for rotary broaching
permits broaching of parts having deeper teeth and wider faces are considered special, except for the Revacycle machines made
by using longer tools. These machines, however, must be higher by the Gleason Works. The automatic Revacycle machines are
than pushup machines because the upper end of the pull rod has classified as gear-cutting machines, but actually perform broach-
to be retracted below the workpiece with a retriever and the ing operations. They are widely used in the production
lower end has to be pulled up past the top of the pot for of straight bevel gears and are discussed in Chapter 13,
unloading. “Gear Cutting. ”
Most pot broaching machines are hydraulically powered and Some special rotary broaching machines have the broaches
generally range in size from 1ton (8.9 kN), 12“ (305 mm) stroke to rotating on a faceplate and the workpiece held stationary in a
50 tons (445 kN), 48”(1219 mm) stroke. Cutting speeds usually fixture. A few double-ended machines have been built for higher
vary from 30-120 fpm (9. 1-36.6 m/ rein), but special machines are production with a faceplate holding broaches mounted on each
available with speeds to 240 fpm (73.2 m/rein). end of the machine spindle. The broaches on one plate are
Other special broaching machines. Many other types of staggered 18(T with respect to those on the other plate so that
broaching machines are available for specific applications. One cutting can be done at one end of the machine while the other end
example is short-stroke vertical broaching machines with dial is being unloaded and reloaded. Another variation for rotary
index tables for cutting internal or external shapes on work- broaching consists of mounting workplaces on the periphery of a
places having interference surfaces that prevent passing con- rotating disc to carry them past stationary broaches.
ventional broaches completely over or through the workplaces. Portable and other special machines. Some smaller broaching
Tooling stations on the index table hold a series of broaches, machines are available mounted on wheels for moving to various
either punch or ring-type, and the workpiece is retained in a jobs, Hand-held, portable broaching units are used in the
fixture attached to the machine ram. As each broach station is marine, construction, and aircraft industries to enlarge, relieve
indexed under the workpiece, the ram strokes downward to cut stresses, and improve the accuracy of previously drilled holes in
and upward to strip the workpiece from the tool. This cycle is large assemblies that cannot be brought to broaching machines.
repeated until the last broach has completed the operation. Spiral and rifling-type broaching machines are also available.
7-11
CHAPTER 7
TYPES OF BROACHES AND

BROACH DESIGN
Broaches, the cutting tools used for broaching, in their
simplest form consist essentially ofaslightly tapered round or
flat bar with rows of cutting teeth located on one or more
surfaces. Because the teeth are stepped, additional stock is
removed as each successive tooth contacts the workpiece,
Broaches can declassified according to their purpose or use
(internal, external, or combination); method of use (pull, push,
helical, or rotary); construction (solid or sectional); and re-
Overall
quired surface finish (form relieved or generating).
length
The standard nomenclature used to describe essential parts of
most broaches is presented in Fig. 7-9, which illustrates a typical
round internal pull-type broach. Figure 7-10 contains addi- Cutitng
tional terms pertaining to broaches, and a glossary of terms teeth
commonly used with respect to broaching is presented in Table
7-2. In using an internal pull-type broach, the pull end and front
pilot are passed through a starting hole in the workpiece and the
pull end is locked to the pull head of the broaching machine.
The front pilot on internal pull-type broaches ensures correct
I %mlf,nishing
teeth
Fln!shmg
teeth
axial tool alignment with the starting hole and also serves as a T
check on the starting-hole size. The rear pilot on the broach,

which has a diameter slightly less than that of the finishing
teeth, maintains tool alignment as the final finishing teeth pass Fig. 7-9 Typical internal round broacb of tbe pull type illustrating
through the workpiece hole. A notched retriever end is often standard nomenclature used.
TABLE 7-2
Glossary of Terms Commonly used in Broaching
Term Definition
Back-off Angle Relief angle back of the cutting edge of a broach tooth.
Back-of-tooth Radius The radius on the back of the tooth in the chip space.
Broach A metalcutting tool of bar or slab shape, equipped with a series of cutting teeth.
Burnishing Button Broach tooth without a cutting edge. A series of buttons is sometimes placed after the cutting teeth of a
broach to produce a smooth surface by material compression.
Chipbreaker Notches in the teeth of broaches which divide the width of chips, facilitating their removal. On round
broaches they prevent the formation of a solid ring in the chip gullet.
Chip per Tooth The depth of cut which determines chip thickness.
Chip Space Space between broach teeth which accommodates chips during cut. Sometimes called the “chip gullet, ”it
includes the face angle, face-angle radius, and back-of-tooth radius.
Cut per Tooth Progressive increase in tooth height from tooth-to-tooth of a broach. Usually greater in roughing teeth
than in semifinishing teeth. Action of step height produces the equivalent of feed in other types of
machining. Twice the chip per tooth for round broaches.
External Broach A broach which cuts on the external surface of the workpiece.
Face Angle Angle of the cutting edge of a broach tooth. Sometimes called the “hook” angle.
Face-angle Radius The radius just below the cutting edge that blends into the back of the tooth radius.
Finishing Teeth Teeth at the end of broach arranged at a constant size for finishing the surface.
Follower Diameter That part of the broach which rests in the follower support bushing, and which maybe used as a retriever
on the return stroke.
Front Pilot The guiding portion of a broach (usually internal) which serves as a safety check to prevent overloading of
the first roughing tooth.
Gullet Name sometimes applied to “chip space. ”
Hook Angle Name sometimes atmlied

,, to “face ande” of tooth.
7-12
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
TABLE 7-2 -Continued
Term Definition
Internal Broach Broach which is pulled or pushed through a hold in the workpiece to bring the hole to desired size and
shape.
Land Thickness of the top of the broach tooth.
Land, Straight A land having no back-off angle, and used for finishing teeth to retain broach size after a series of
sharpening.
Length to First Tooth The sum of pilot and pull shank length.
Overall Length Total length of a broach.
Pitch Measurement from the cutting edge of one tooth to the corresponding point on the next tooth.
Pull Broach Broach that is pulled through or over the face of the workpiece.
Pull End That end of the broach at which it is coupled to the puller of the broaching machine.
Push Broach A broach that is pushed through or over the surface of the workpiece.
Roughing Teeth The teeth which take the first cuts in any broaching operation. Generally they take heavier cuts than the
semifinishing teeth.
Round Broach Broach of circular section.
Semifinishing Teeth Broach teeth, just ahead of the finishing teeth, which take the semifinishing cut
Shank Length Portion of broach in front of teeth which is the pull end.
Shear Angle The angle between the cutting edge of a shear tooth and a line perpendicular to the broach axis or line of
travel on surface broaches.
Shear Cutting Tooth Tooth positioned so it does not make a right angle with the direction of broach motion. Used on surface or
external broaches, and cuts with a shear action, with maximum tooth overlap.
Surface Broach An external broach which cuts a flat or contoured surface.
Tooth Depth Height of tooth or broach gullet from root to cutting edge.
material adheres to the tip of the tooth and forms a built-up

Face or
edge (BUE). The BUE generally grows in size until it becomes
Rake hook angle
\
unstable. When this happens, part of the BUE will adhere to the
face Pitch +
of chip moving up the rake face; the remainder will pass under the
tooth .Ar clearance face of the tool, producing a rough deposit on the
A machine workpiece surface.
Depth Metalcutting tools generally fail as the result of wear taking
\ place simultaneously on the rake and flank faces of the tools. In
Bock-of-tooth radus Fo&mgle rodtus most broaching operations, however, very little wear takes
/ ( place on the rake faces because of the low cutting speeds and
protection provided the rake faces by the BUE’S. The bulk of the
wear on a broaching tool occurs on the tooth flank (clearance
Fig. 7-10 Terminology used to describe the geometry of broach teeth.
face) in the tooth gullet. Flank wear is generally used to
determine tool life, While the BUE helps protect the rake face,
added to the broach to engage a handling mechanism that breakdown of the BUE causes small bits of tool material to be
supports the rear of the tool. torn from the tool flank. As abrasive and adhesive flank wear
progresses, surface finish suffers and dimensional accuracy is
Cutting Action and Wear reduced. Broaching of high-temperature alloys, in particular, is
The cutting action of broaches is essentially the same as that characterized by short tool life resulting from rapid flank wear.
for all other tools which remove metal by shear deformation. As
each tooth moves across the workpiece surface, the material in Tooth Geometry
front of the tooth is sheared to forma chip which travels up the The cutting edges or teeth on a broach increase in size
rake face of the tooth. When brittle materials such as cast iron (usually height) or change in shape from the starting end to the
are broached, the chips usually break into small segments. finishing end of the broach. Each tooth takes a bite of fixed
When ductile materials such as mild steel are broached, the thickness; this bite, called chip load, corresponds to the feed
chips are less likely to break and will tend to coil in the tooth rate in most other machining operations and cannot be altered
gullets. When certain ductile materials are broached, the by the machine operator.
7-13
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
The teeth on each round or slotting-type broach are usually mm) per tooth was required to minimize edge buildup and
divided into three separate seetions and function as roughing, produce a satisfactory surface finish when broachingSAE319
semifinishing, and finishing teeth. The first roughing tooth is aluminum alloy in the T5 temper condition (stress relieved and
proportionately the smallest tooth on the broach. Subsequent artificially aged). Carbide indexable inserts were used for these
teeth progressively increase in size up to and including the first operations.
finishing tooth. On many broaches, all finishing teeth are the Harder materials may require a smaller cut per tooth to
same size, but on others, a slight step is provided, primarily to avoid imposing an excessive strain on individual teeth. When a
compensate for any elastic springback of the workpiece. Teeth number of teeth are simultaneously engaged in the workpiece,
on spline broaches are divided into sections indicative of the too large a cut per tooth can cause an increase in power
workpiece surfaces broached; i.e., round, spline generating, requirements, possibly beyond the rated tonnage of the machine.
major diameter finishing, minor diameter finishing, and in the A minimum cut per tooth also exists; the depth of cut must be
case of full-form finish broaching, involute profile finishing. sufficient to permit the teeth to bite into the workpiece or a
Cut per tooth. The progressive increase in tooth height from glazed, galled, or torn finish will be produced.
tooth to tooth of a broach is called the cut per tooth, step per Another approach sometimes used in broach design is to
tooth, or tooth rise. This height difference is usually greater provide a tapered holder bar (see Fig. 7-1 1). With this design,
along the roughing section than the semifinishing section. For the cut per tooth is incorporated in the holder bar rather than
round broaches, cut per tooth equals twice the chip per tooth. the teeth, thus affording the convenience and simplicity of
Normal ranges of cuts per tooth for free-machining steels are grinding all but the finishing teeth on the broach to the same
0.003-0.005” (0.08-0. 13 mm) on diameter for splines, 0.0015- height. The finishing teeth may be back stepped to prevent a rise
0.0025” (0.038-0,064 mm) on diameter for round broaches, and when the broach is seated in the holder and are the only teeth
0.002-0.005” (0.05-0. 13 mm) for surface broaches. The cut per having a different grinding height. With this design, the back-
tooth can be 0.015“(0.38 mm) or more for some roughing teeth off angle on the teeth must be increased to compensate for the
and as low as 0.0002” (0.005 mm) on semifinishing sections. taper of the holder
Tests by Cincinnati Milacron in broaching thin-wall iron Pitch. The linear distance from the cutting edge of one tooth
castings having a hardness of 196 Bhn showed that the unit to the corresponding point on the next tooth is the pitch of the
cutting loadwas reduced 30-45% by increasing chip thickness broach. Pitch is determined by the length of cut and is
from 0.002” (0.05 mm) to 0.010” (0.25 mm). These tests also influenced by the type of workpiece material and cut per tooth.
showed that a minimum chip load of 0.001-0.002” (0.03-0.05 A relatively large pitch may be required for roughing teeth to
“Bock-step” f[nlsh teeth
Effective
rise per tooth
Fln,sh
hefght
Toper
Angle
Fig. 7-11 Tapered holder bar provides required eut per tooth and simplifies grinding since all but the finishing teeth are the same height.
(Ohio Broach & Machine Co.)
7-14
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
provide more chip space. Tooth pitch can be smaller on from multiple cuts. Sometimes, however, the chips will adhere
semifinishing and finishing teeth to reduce the overall length of to the tooth gullet and may not shed themselves. It is important,
the broach. The pitch is calculated so that at least two, and therefore, that the tooth gullet have sufficient room to contain
preferably more, teeth cut simultaneously to prevent the broach chips from two successive cuts without packing. This room can
from drifting or chattering. be maintained by providing flat-bottom gullets and wide tooth
An empirical formula sometimes used to determine the pitch spacing for added chip space (see Fig. 7-12). Curled or broken
for short broaches, and not applicable to large horizontal chips that are wedged too tightly in the chip spaces, however,
broacbes, is: will not fall out when the broach clears the work.
(1) Another method of preventing chip packing, which can be
P= 0.35 c
used for some applications, is to grind the teeth at an angle to
where: the axis of broach travel. Placing the teeth at such a shear angle
(discussed later in this section) provides an open path (sometimes
P = pitch, in.
called free egress) for the chips to leave the tooth gullets.
L ❑ length of cut, in.
Gullet geometries. Depth of the tooth gullet on a broach is
To obtain the pitch P in millimeters when the length of cut L is related to the cut per tooth, pitch of the broach teeth, length of
given in millimeters, the following formula is used: cut, and workpiece material. Deeper gullets are required for
P= 1.764< (2) longer cuts and greater stock removal. Radii (face angle and
back-of-tooth) within the gullet are designed to reduce friction
Broach pitches for various lengths of cut with standard tooth and curl the chips tightly within themselves so that they occupy
forms are given in Table 7-3. The data presented in Table 7-3 as little space as possible. Tooth lands, which support the
provides an estimate consistent with common practice, but it is cutting edges against the broaching stresses, are made wider on
only approximate and will vary with the material to be broaches used for longer cuts and those used for high pro-
broached. For example, the proper pitch for broaching cast duction requirements. Gullet depths, radii, and land widths for
iron can be less than that for broaching steel because less chip standard tooth forms and various lengths of cut are presented in
space is required. Table 7-3. These values are often modified to obtain optimum
Broach pitch influences the tooth construction and strength, cutting conditions for specific applications.
the number of teeth cutting at a given instant, and the ability of Chip-carrying capacity calculations. These calculations are
the broach to maintain alignment throughout the cutting important in the initial stages of broach design because they
stroke. Other factors affecting pitch selection, in addition to the determine the maximum cut per tooth and thus, usually, the
material being broached and length of cut, include the amount number of teeth (broach length) needed to perform the
of stock to be removed, the length of machine stroke available, operation. These calculations can be used to determine the
and the number of resharpenings expected for the broach. machine capacity and/ or number of passes required as well as
Variations in the number of teeth in contact with the the stroke lengths necessary for each pass.
workpiece often occur in broaching. With a low number of teeth A close correlation is needed between the chip-carrying
in contact and a large cut per tooth, the broach can surge and capacity and broaching force requirements to obtain optimum
leave tool marks. Differential spacing achieved by varying the broach design for a given set of conditions. In many cases,
pitch in groups of two or three teeth can alleviate this condition. tonnage capacity of the machine or strength of the broach will
Chip space. Except for punch broaches and free-egress prohibit using the maximum cut per tooth, and force require-
broaches—roughing inserts used for surface broaching—chips ments and capacity available must be balanced by varying the
produced are confined in the spaces (gullets) between the teeth basic criteria. For example, increasing the pitch will decrease
for the length of the cut. As a result, chip space or carrying the number of teeth in contact with the workpiece at any given
capacity of the space is a critical consideration. Chip space is time and also reduce the force requirement, but this necessitates
limited by the pitch of the teeth and even by the tool diameter in a longer broach unless the cut per tooth is increased pro-
small round broaches. It is impossible to cut more metal with a portionately. Increasing the cut per tooth usually works well for
broach tooth than the preceding chip space permits without applications in which broach strength is not a factor and when
causing tool breakage, he increased force can be tolerated.
Broach chip space has five major variables: the face or hook
angle, face angle radius, back-of-tooth radius, cross-sectional
area of chip space, and surface finish. A compromise is
necessary with respect to these variables between ideal chip-
carrying capacity and tooth strength.
Chip shapes. Shapes of the chips produced in broaching vary
with the workpiece material. When ductile or malleable
materials such as steels are broached, the chips are curled into
coils; with brittle materials such as cast iron, broken or flaked
chips are produced and less chip space is required. Tightness of
the chip curl depends on the length of the cut, material
hardness, face angle, microstructure of the material, and type of
cutting fluid used. Soft materials form larger diameter spirals
than hard materials, thus soft materials require more chip
space. Materials with lower ductility form tighter curls.
Chips being formed in broaching will normally break free Fig. 7-12 Flat-bottom gullet with wide tooth spacing providing added
the chips previously formed, thereby preventing chip packing chip space for broach.
7-15
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
For small internal broaches with tool strength as a limiting Such applications include the broaching of more ductile
factor, reducing the gullet depth may cause the chips to form materials which tend to resist chip formation, thus forming
unnaturally, thereby increasing the cutting force and resulting wedge-shaped chips that have a tendency to adhere to the
in chip adherence and packing. In such cases, the use of more broach teeth or spring-tempered chips that tend to lock
than 10% of the rectangular area formed by the gullet length themselves into the tooth gullets.
and depth should be avoided when the maximum cut per tooth For applications of internal broaches in which the chips are
is calculated as follows: crowded into a small area at the roots of the tooth gullets, the
cut per tooth is often calculated as follows:
Cr. (). ](J (~;~) D (3)
c,= %of CA (5)
where: LC
CT = maximum cut per tooth for shallow gullets, in. or mm where:

P ❑ pitch, in. or mm CT = maximum cut per tooth, in. or mm
L ❑ land width, in. or mm CA ❑ circle area, in.z or mmz
D ❑ gullet depth, in. or mm LC = length of cut, in. or mm
LC ❑ length of cut, in. or mm
For other applications involving broaching specific mater- The maximum percentage of circle area to be used in this
ials, the maximum cut per tooth is based on certain percentages formula is as follows:
of an area commonly referred to as the circle area, CA, in which:
1. For round internal broaches, 10% of the CA for broaching
CA = 0.7854 D’ (4) ductile materials and 12% of the CA for broaching cast
iron or bronze.
where:
2. For spline-type internal broaches, 20% of the CA for
CA ❑ circle area, in.2 or mmz broaching ductile materials and 25% of the CA for
D ❑ gullet depth, in. or mm broaching cast iron or bronze.
TABLE 7-3
Broach Design Data for Standard Tooth Forms
Depth of Back-of-Tooth Face-Angle

Length of Cut, Pitch, Land Width, Gullet, Radius, Radius, Circle Area,
in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) in, (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) in.2 (mmj)
0.05-0.09 0.044 0.012 0.015 0.044 0.006 ---
(1.3-2.3) (1.12) (0.30) (0.38) (1.12) (1.15)
0.09-0.15 0.062 0.015 0.023 0.062 0.010 0.00043
(2.3-3.8) (1.57) (0.38) (0.58) (1.57) (0.25) (0.2774)
0.15-0.20 0.125 0.046 0.046 0.125 0.023 0.00172
(3.8-5.1) (3,17) (1.17) (1.17) (3.17) (0.58) (1.1097)
0.20-0.25 0.156 0.046 0.060 0.156 0.030 0.00270
(5. 1-6.3) (3.96) (1.17) (1.52) (3,96) (0.76) (1.7419)
0,25-0.35 0.188 0.062 0.070 0.188 0.035 0.00388
(6.3-8.9) (4.76) (1.57) (1.78) (4.78) (0.89) (2.5032)
0.35-0.45 0.218 0,078 0.082 0.218 0.041 0.00528
(8,9-11.4) (5.54) (1.98) (2.08) (5.54) (1.04) (3.4064)
0.45-0.55 0.250 0.078 0.093 0.250 0.046 0.00690
(1 1,4-14.0) (6.35) (1,98) (2.36) (6.35) (1.17) (4.4516)
0.55-0.75 0.281 0.093 0.105 0.281 0.053 0.00875
(14.0-19.0) (7. 14) (2.36) (2.67) (7. 14) (1.35) (5.6451)
0.75-0.90 0.312 0.110 0.118 0.312 0.060 0.01075
(19.0-22,9) (7.92) (2.79) (3.00) (7.92) (1,52) (6.9355)
0.90-1.02 0.343 0.110 0.130 0.343 0.068 0.01300
(22.9-25.9) (8.71) (2.79) (3.30) (8.71) (1.73) (8.3871)
1.02-1.25 0.375 0.125 0.140 0.375 0.075 0.01550
(25.9-31.7) (9.52) (3.17) (3.56) (9.52) (1.90) ( 10.0000)
1.25-1.74 0.437 0.140 0.164 0.437 0.095 0.02112
(3 1.7-44.2) (11.10) (3.56) (4. 17) (11.10) (2.41) (13.6258)
7-16
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
TABLE 7-3-Continued
Depth of Back-of-Tooth Face-Angle

Length of Cut, Pitch, Land Width, Gullet, Radius, Radius, Circle Area,
in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) in, (mm) in. (mm) in.2 (mm2)
1.74-2.26 0.500 0.156 0.188 0.500 0.113 0,02860
(44.2-57.4) (12.70) (3.96) (4.78) 12.70) (2.87) (18.4516)
2.26-2,75 0.562 0.172 0.211 0.562 0,133 0.03500
(57.4-69,8) (14.27) (4.37) (5.36) ( 14.27) (3,38) (22.5806)
2.75-3.74 0.625 0.188 0.234 0.625 0.150 0.04300
(69.8-95.0) (15,87) (4.78) (5.94) (15.87) (3.81) (27.74 19)
3.74-4.26 0.688 0.203 0.258 0.688 0.170 0.05230
(95.0-108.2) ( 17.48) (5. 16) (6.55) ( 17.48) (4.32) (33.7419)
4.26-5.00 0.750 0.218 0.281 0.750 0.188 0.06202
(108.2-127.0) (19.05) (5.54) (7, 14) (19.05) (4.78) (40.0 128)
5.00-5.75 0.812 0.235 0.305 0.812 0.205 0.07306
(127.0-146.0) (20.62) (5.97) (7.75) (20,62) (5.21) (47. I354)
5,75-6,25 0.875 0.250 0.328 0.875 0.224 0.08450
(146,0-158.7) (22.22) (6.35) (8.33) (22.22) (5.69) (54.5 160)
6.25-7.25 0.937 0.265 0.352 0.937 0.245 0.09731
(158.7-184.1) (23.80) (6.73) (8.94) (23.80) (6.22) (62.7805)
7.25-8.25 1.000 0.281 0.375 1.000 0.262 0.11050
(184. 1-209,6) (25,40) (7.14) (9.52) (25.40) (6.65) (7 1.2902)
8.25-9.50 1.062 0.281 0.406 1.062 0.280 0.1295
(209.6-24 1.3) (26.97) (7, 14) (10.13) (26.97) (7.11) (83.548)
9.50-11.00 1.188 0.312 0.437 1,188 0.310 0.1500
(241.3-279.4) (30. 18) (7.92) (11,10) (30.18) (7.87) (96.774)
11.00-14.00 1.312 0.344 0.500 1.312 0.360 0.1964
(279.4-355.6) (33.32) (8.74) (12.70) (33.32) (9. 14) ( 126.709)
3. For flat-surface broaches making cuts wider than 0.375” semifinishing teeth, the entire land is relieved with a back-off
(9. 52 mm), 20% of the CA for broaching ductile materials angle. On finishing teeth, part of the lands immediately behind
and 30$Z0of the CA for broaching cast iron or bronze. the cutting edges is often left straight, parallel to the broach
4, For flat-surface broaches making cuts narrower than axis, so that regrinding of the teeth will not alter their size.
0.375” (9.52 mm), 25% of the CA for broaching ductile Commonly used face and back-off angles for broaching a
materials and 3590 of the CA for broaching cast iron or variety of materials are presented in Table 7-4. Back-off angles
bronze. can generally be reduced on semifinishing and finishing teeth.
The angles shown are sometimes changed depending on
Face and back-off angles. The face, rake, or hook angle variable such as the cutting speed used, surface finish required,
ground below the cutting edge on each tooth varies with the material from which the broach is made, and workpiece
material to be broached. Soft steel workplaces usuallty require a material variations.
larger face angle; hard or brittle materials require a smaller face Chipbreakers. Notches, called chipbreakers, are often used
angle. Ductility of the material also has considerable influence on broaches to eliminate chip packing and to facilitate chip
on selecting an optimum face angle. In general, the face angle removal. The chipbreakers are ground into the roughing and
decreases with reduced ductility. semifinishing teeth of the broach, parallel to the tool or
In broaching thin-wall iron castings with carbide indexable- workpiece travel, as shown in Fig. 7-13. Chip breakers on
insert tools, tests at Cincinnati Milacron showed that unit alternate teeth are staggered so that one set of breakers is
cutting loads were reduced by changing from a 5° negative to a followed by a cutting edge of the same or a slightly smaller size,
15° positive rake angle on the tools. The use of positive gland is V versus U-shaped chipbreakers. For some applications, U-
relieved with a back-off angle. On finishing teeth, part of shaped chipbreakers tend to rub on the sides of the notches and
however, reduces the number of cutting edges the lands break down rapidly at the corners, thus shortening broach life.
immediately behind the cutting edges is often left straight, This can be avoided with the use of V-shaped breakers that are
parallel om eight to four. ground with back-off angles to provide cutting edges (see Fig.
A small back-off or clearance angle is ground on the tooth 7-14). It is more economical to provide cutting edges by
lands to reduce friction in broaching. On the roughing and grinding to a back-off angle on V-shaped notches than on
7-17
CHAPTER 7
Staggered Staggered
Deepslotied S[mple doubl~ut heavy
chlpbreakers chipbreakers chtpbreakers
~ ~~
&
Sides rub
‘.—
U-shaped chipbreokers
Composte of chlpbreakers on flat broach
Alternate
breakers Smooth Cuttng edge
Staggered and smoath fin[shing
chlpbreakers teeth teeth
[
~~~
‘m— ‘r+
V-shaped chipbreakers
Composite of ch(pbreakers on round broach
7-4
Face and Back-off Angles for HSS Broaches Used to Cut Various Materials
Hardness, Face Angle, Back-off

Material Bhn degrees Angle, degrees
Free-Machining Carbon Steels, wrought; Alloy Steels, 100-375 15t020 2t03
wrought and cast
Carbon Steels, wrought 85-375 15t020 lto2
Carbon Steels, cast; Alloy Steels, wrought and cast; 120-375 8to15 lto3
High Strength Steels, wrought; Maraging Steels, wrought
Tool Steels, wrought; Armor Plate, wrought 100-375 8to12 lto2
Nitriding Steels, wrought 200-350 8to15 lto2
Free-Machining Stainless Steels, wrought; Martensitic 135-425 8 to 12 lto2
Stainless Steels, wrought and cast
Ferritic Stainless Steels, wrought and cast 135-185 12to 18 2t03
Austenitic Stainless Steels, wrought and cast 135-275 12to18 1Ato2
Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steels, wrought 150-440 Ioto15 2
and cast
Grav Cast Irons 110-320 6t08 2t03
Ductile and Malleable Cast Irons 110-400 8to15 2t03
Aluminum Alloys, wrought and cast 30-150 IOto 15 lto3
(500 kg)
Magnesium Alloys, wrought and cast 40-90 lo to 15 lto3
(500 kg)
Titanium Alloys, wrought 110-440 8 to 20 2t08
Copper Alloys, wrought and cast* Group 1 40-200 -5 to 5 lto2
(500 ksz)
Group 2 40-200 0 to 10 lto2
(500 kg)
Group 3 40-200 lo to 15 2t03
(500 kg)
7-18
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
Hardness, Face Angle, Back-off

Material Bhn degrees Angle, degrees
Nickel Alloys, wrought and cast 80-360 12to18 !Ato2
High-Temperature Alloys, wrought and cast 140-475 15t020 2t08
Zinc Allovs, cast 80-100 Ioto 15 2t05
* Wrought and cast copper alloys are divided into three groups according to Copper Development Assn. designations:
Group I
C31400 C35600 C37700 C84200 C85800 C93500 C95300
C33000 C36000 C38500 C84400 C86400 C93700 C95400
C33200 C36500 C48500 C84800 C86700 C93800 C95600
C33500 C36600 C54400 C85200 C87900 C93900 C97300
C34000 C36700 C83400 C85400 C92800 C94300 C97400
C34200 C36800 C83600 C85500 C93200 C94400 C97600
C35300 C37000 C83800 C85700 C93400 C94500 C97800
Group 2
C22600 C44200 C46700 C82 100 C87200 C91 500 C94800
C23000 C44300 C65 100 C83300 C87400 C92200 C95200
C24000 C44400 C65500 C85300 C87500 C92300 C95500
C26000 C44500 C67500 C861OO C87600 C92500 C95700
C26800 C46400 C68700 C86200 C87800 C92600 C95800
C27000 C46500 C77000 C86500 C90300 C92700
C28000 C46600 C81700 C86800 C90500 C94700
Group 3
CI0200 C 17200 C6 1400 C80300 C8 1800 C86300 C91700
Cllooo C17500 C70600 C80500 C82000 C90200 C96200
CI1300 C21000 C71 500 C80700 C82200 C90700 C96300
C11400 C22000 C74500 C80900 C82400 C90900 C96400
C11500 C50500 C75200 C811OO C82500 C91OOO C96600
CI1600 C51OOO C75400 C8 1300 C82600 C91100
c 12200 C52100 C75700 C8 1400 C82700 C91 300
c 17000 C52400 C80100 C8 1500 C82800 C9 1600
(ReprinledJrom Machining Data Handbook,3rded., bypermission of Machinability Data Center, copyright 1980 by
Metcut Research Associations, Inc.)
U-shaped notches. U-shaped notches, however, are less tooth is about 50% of the total area cut so that the second tooth
expensive to produce and used more extensively. in each group removes the stock left by the first tooth.
Chipbreakers are vital on round broaches. Without breakers, One manufacturer uses four teeth per set (all teeth in each set
the ring-shaped chips produced would wedge in the tooth having the same diameter), with 6, 8, or 12 flats per tooth,
gullets and eventually cause tool breakage. In addition to the depending on the diameter of the broach. The flats are
chipbreaker designs shown in Fig. 7-13, flat chipbreakers (flats) staggered to produce a full circumferential cut per set of teeth.
are sometimes used on round-hole broaches. Simply grinding As many tooth sets are provided as needed for total stock
one or more flats on the cutting surfaces, as illustrated in Fig. removal requirements. This design results in narrow chips and a
7-15, often provides an effective means of breaking the ring- free cutting action.
shaped chips. The flat areas should be ground with a back-off
angle to prevent dragging on the workpiece and should be Flat chfpbreaker
staggered from tooth to tooth. They must also be of sufficient
width to cut deeper than the cut per tooth.
Special chipbreakers. Special chipbreaker designs can some-
times be used to increase the maximum cut per tooth without
._@.%~dm
overloading the machine. When deep slots are spaced in the
lands of the cutting teeth, the depth of cut and cutting force can
be increased on each tooth without overloading the machine.
SectIon
The area not cut by the slot in the first tooth is removed by the
next tooth, or the next, by staggering the slots along the tool
Fig. 7-15 Flat chipbreaker, referred to as flat. Providing flats on
axis. This type of chip breaker design usually has groups of two cutting surfaces of round-bole broaches is often an effective method of
teeth the same size. The overall area of chipbreakers in each breaking chips. (Ohio Broach & Machine Co.)
7-19
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
Side shear. Broach teeth are sometimes placed at a shear through the entire length of the workpiece. Sides of the broach
angle (see Fig. 7-16) to improve the surface finish produced on teeth will rub the sides of the slot and cause rapid tool wear
the workplaces and to reduce broach chatter. When two unless clearance is provided. This is done by grinding a side
adjacent surfaces are broached simultaneously, having the teeth relief angle on both sides of each tooth with only a small portion
placed at a shear angle is an important factor in moving chips of tbe tooth near the cutting edge, called the side land, allowed
away from the intersecting corner and thus avoiding crowding to rub against the slot (see Fig. 7-18). The same approach is used
chips at the intersection of the cutting teeth. for one-~ided corner cuts and spline broaches.
Another method of placing teeth at a shear angle on broaches
is by using a herringbone pattern (see Fig. 7-17, a). An
advantage of this design is that it eliminates the tendency for
parts to move sideways in the workholding fixtures during
t
Stra,ght
broaching. A disadvantage is its inherent complexity which
side
requires more manufactur%g time and higher co~t. A s-o-called land
///~
‘1:k
criss-cross type of shear (see Fig. 7-17, b) facilitates milling and
grinding of the teeth.
Side relief. When broaching slots, the tool becomes enclosed
by the slot during cutting and must carry the chips produced Workpiece
Side rellef
angle
Fig. 7-18 Side relief which is often provided on both sides of each
tooth on broaches used to cut slots, thus reducing wear due to rubbing
friction. (Ohio Broach & Machine Co.)
Back taper. Another type of relief commonly used on form

~ Dlrefl,on of broach mot,on
broaches, such as internal spline and rack tooth forms, is called
back taper. The purpose of back tapering is to provide a tapered
tooth form in the direction of clearance (face of form to heel
Fig. 7-16 Broach with shear-angle design. This design often improves of tooth) to minimize contact between tooth flank and work-
the surface finish produced on workplaces and can reduce chatter. piece and thus reduce frictional contact, rubbing wear, and
metal pickup.
Back tapering can be accomplished by using a magnetic sine
table and raising the back end of the surface broach with shims
for finish grinding (see Fig. 7-19). The grinding wheel is dressed
to the proper form in relation to the amount of back taper
needed, and this form is ground into the broach. This technique
&3i!ii-
is more practical and economical than backing off or relieving
the individual teeth.
Broach Sizes and Strengths

Whether internal broaching is done by pushing or by pulling
affects the design of the broach. With push broaching, the tools
must be relatively short to avoid buckling and excessive
deflection, and several broaches may be required to complete
the operation. With pull broaching, the broaches can be any
practical length and the operations are generally completed in a
L C.thng edge of teeth
single pass.
(a)
Broach length depends primarily on the amount of stock
to be removed and is limited by such factors as the machine
stroke, strength of the broach, and accuracy and finish required.
Rules-of-thumb are that the lengths of internal push broaches
should not exceed 25 times the diameter of their smallest tooth
gullet and the lengths of pull broaches are usually limited to
75 times their finishing diameters. Broaching tools have been
(b)
made as small as 0.050” (1.27 mm) diam and as large as 20”
(508 mm) diam.
Pull broach strength. Maintaining the maximum force an
internal pull broach can withstand without damage is a function
of the tool’s minimum cross section and the yield strength of the
Fig. 7-17 Broach inserts arranged in herringbone pattern to eliminate material from which the broach is made. The minimum cross
tendency of workplaces to roll over in fixture during cutting. section of a pull broach is usually located either at the root of
7-20
CHAPTER 7
Broach tnserl
. . i . .
--
—IT m
+
‘w Sh,m (Jo block)
(dressed with corrected form)
(front view showing
Enlarged sechon
Fig. 7-19 Method of back relieving form broaches during tinisb grinding to reduce ruhhing and wear. (Ohio Broach & Machine Co.)
the first tooth or through the pull end. The allowable pulling Push broach strength. When the length of a push broach—
force is: from the push end to the first tooth—divided by the minimum
root diameter is equal to or greater than 25, the broach acts as a
~-AY (6) long column, which can buckle and snap when overloaded. The
s allowable load can be determined from the formula:
where:
(9)
P = allowable pulling force, lb or kg
A ❑ minimum cross section of broach, in.2 or mmz
Y = tensile yield strength of the material from which the where:
broach is made, psi or kg/ mmz LA ❑ allowable load, lb or kg
S = factor of safety Y = minimum compressive yield strength of the material
If the minimum cross-sectional area of the broach is at the root from which the broach is made, psi or kg/ mmz
of the first tooth, it is calculated as: D, = root diameter at 1/2 L, in. or mm
L = length from push end to first tooth, in. or mm
A, ❑ 0.7854 D; (7)
S ❑ factor of safety
where:
A, = minimum cross-sectional area, in.2 or mmz When the ratio L:D, is less than 25, the broach acts as a short
D, = minimum root diameter, in. or mm column that resists compressive stress and will not buckle. As a
result, no strength calculation is necessary.
If the pull end of the broach has a key slot, the minimum
When the workplaces rather than the broaches are long
cross-sectional area is calculated as:
slender rods or tubes, the same basic concepts of length and
AP = 0.7854 DP2 - WDP (8) diameter apply to them as to the push broaches. In the case of
tubular workpieces, a slightly different formula must be used,
where:
with calculations based on the column slenderness ratios
AP ❑ minimum cross-sectional area, in.z or mm2 dividing elastic and inelastic buckling under axial compression.
DP ❑ pull end diameter, in. or mm The factor of safety S to be used in the broach strength
W ❑ pull-end key slot width, in. or mm formulas given depends on many variables. These include the
7-21
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
amount of stock to be removed per tooth, the workpiece strengths are generally sufficient to compensate for variations
material and its condition, the overall length of the broach, and in actual force requirements.
the possibility of shock loads. In most cases, a safety factor of 3 is
For surface broaches:
generally adequate for both push and pull broaches. A long
slender broach, however, may require a higher factor of safety F = WIVRC (lo)
than a short thick one, and possibly shock loading may
necessitate a high safety factor. For round-hole internal broaches:
F= 3.14 DNRC (11)
Force requirements. Broaching force requirements, which
determine the tonnage ratings of the machines needed for For splined-hole broaches:
specific applications, depend on many variables. These include
the composition, hardness, and condition of the material to be F = NS WRC (12)
broached; the amount of stock to be removed; the stroke length where:
and cut per tooth; the broach strength and design (pitch, chip
space, gullet geometry, and use of chipbreakers and shear F = minimum pulling or pushing force required, lb or kg
angles); the sharpness of the broach; and the cutting fluid used. W = width of cut per tooth or spline, in. or mm
Since the cut per tooth and the material to be broached are N = maximum number of broach teeth engaged in workpiece
the major variables affecting force requirements, the minimum R ❑ rise or cut per tooth, in. or mm
force needed can be approximated by using the following C ❑ broaching constant from Table 7-5 (Note: To conserve
formulas and the values for the broaching constant presented in space, values for C in Table 7-5 are given in ksi and
Table 7-5. The safety factors used in calculating broach kg/mmz. When working in the U.S. customary system
TABLE 7-5
Typical Values for Broaching Constant C Used to Calculate Minimum Forces
Needed to Broach Various Materials
C, ksi (kg/mm2)
cut
Material to be Broached
per
Tooth, Mild Alloy Cast Malleable
in. (mm) Steels Steels Irons Irons Aluminum Brass Bronze Diecastings
0.0005 900 IIoo 816 726 375 250 412 320
(0.013) (633) (773) (574) (510) (264) (176) (290) (225)
0.001 655 890 610 522 275 208 333 248

(0.03) (460) (626) (429) (367) (193) (146) (234) ( 174)
0.0015 552 770 510 445 262 196 288 234

(0.038) (388) (541) (359) (313) (184) (138) (203) ( 164)
0.002 490 680 445 390 231 180 250 221

(0.05) (344) (478) (313) (274) (162) 127) ( 176) (155)
0.0025 422 617 404 361 210 168 227 200
(0.063) (311) (434) (284) (254) (148) 118) ( 160) (141)
0.003 390 565 361 313 192 159 212 194
(0.08) (274) (397) (254) (220) (135) 112) ( 149) (136)
0.004 361 532 336 290 181 150 198 190

(o. 10) (254) (374) (236) (204) ( 127) ( 105) (139) ( 124)
0.005 340 500 313 270 170 141 183 186
(0.13) (239) (351) (220) (1 90) (1 20) (99) ( 129) (131)
0.0075 330 460 280 250 156 133 168 181
(o. 190) (232) (323) (197) ( 176) (110) (94) (118) (127)
0.010 315 440 270 240 150 127 160 176
(0.25) (22 1) (309) (1 90) ( 169) ( 105) (89) (112) ( 124)
0.0125 313 422 26 I 236 143 123 154 172
(0.317) (220) (297) (184) (I 66) (101) (86) (108) (121)
0.015-0.020 294 413 261 236 140 120 150 172
(0.38-0.51) (207) (290) (184) (I 66) (98) (84) (105) (121)
(General Broach and Engineering Co.)
7-22
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
of units, values of C given in ksi should be converted to Reasons for the increased use of HSS’S made by powder
psi for use in the formula [1 ksi ❑ 1000 psi]. When metallurgy processes include better homogeneity with no
working in the met nc system, values of C given in segregation, more uniform response to hardening heat treat-
kg/ mm can be used in the formula as given.) ment with greater dimensional stability, improved toughness
D = hole diameter before broaching, in. or mm and wear resistance, and superior grindability. The heat
S ❑ the number of splines (for splined holes) treatment of HSS’S, both conventional and those made by
powder metallurgy, is discussed in Chapter 3.
Broach Materials
Most broaches are made of high-speed steels (H SS’S). A list Carbide broaches. One major exception to the use of HSS’S
the more commonly used HSS’S and the materials normally for broaches is in the broaching of gray cast irons, for which
broached with them is presented in Table 7-6. HSS’S made by tungsten carbide tools (usually a C-2 classification number) are
powder metallurgy processes, discussed in Chapter 3, “Cutting widely used. Indexable insert carbide tools have largely
Tool Materials, ” are becoming increasingly popular for large replaced brazed carbide tools for these applications.
broaches, those having a diameter greater than 6“ ( 152 mm), The success of carbide tools for broaching cast iron is due to
and broaches used at higher cutting speeds. Some tool manu- the high resistance of the carbide to abrasion on the tool blank
facturers are also using these materials for smaller broaches below the cutting edge. Carbide broaches are seldom used,
with good results. however, for cutting other materials except at high cutting
speeds. One reason is that good results are obtained with HSS
TABLE 7-6 broaches for most applications. Another reason is that the
Materials Commonly Used for Broaches relatively low cutting speeds of many broaching operations do
to Cut Various Materials not lend themselves to the special advantages of carbide tooling.
Broach Materials Broached and Surface treatments. While little production experience has
Material Special Applications been reported with coated carbides for broaching, surface
treatment of HSS broaches has been successful in extending
High-Speed Steel,
tool life by increasing surface hardness and wear resistance.
AISI Type:
Various surface smoothing, lubricating, and hardening treat-
M2 General purpose broaching of low ments, as well as coatings, for HSS tools are described in
and medium-carbon steels with a hard- Chapter 3, “Cutting Tool Materials. ”
ness of RC34 or less, alloy steels with a
hardness of RC32 or less, ahrminum,
Broach Construction
brass, magnesium, low-alloy bronze,
Broaches are constructed in several ways. Solid broaches are
nylon, plastic, lead, and copper.
made from a single piece of tool steel with ground teeth. This
M3-I Medium-carbon steels with a hardness type of construction is most commonly used for internal
of RC35-42, alloy steels with a hardness broaches. Built-up, sectional, or segmental broaches consist of
of RC33-38, work-hardening bronze, a number of separate sections, inserts, shells, or blades
and alloyed cast irons. assembled into a holder or bar. Advantages of this type of
construction often include lower replacement costs, particu-
M3-2 Cast iron, aluminum diecastings, stain- larly for large, heavy broaches; more uniform heat treatment;
less steels, graphite, and malleable iron. and easier resharpening because the segments are shorter.
M4 High-silicon steels, silicon bronze, The individual segments can be replaced at a lower cost when
aluminum diecastings, and armature- worn or broken, and a common holder can often be used for
grade iron. different broaches.
Sectional broaches can be round or flat, internal or external,
M42 Medium-carbon steels with a hardness and are widely used for broaching unusual or difficult shapes,
of RC35-42, steel forgings, stainless Broaches can be built up from a group of fairly simple tooth
steels, cast steels, work-hardening sections to produce a part of considerable complexity.
bronze, malleable iron, and tool steels. Built-up internal broaches may consist of a series of wafers or
Used as a substitute for M2 HSS at discs mounted on a pull bar and securely clamped. Some shell
broaching speeds above 50 fpm ( 15.24 types consist of a solid broach with an arbor at the finishing end
m/min). for mounting replaceable finishing sections or shells. Other
shell-type broaches consist entirely of shell sections of equal
T15 High-temperature alloys, stainless
length mounted on a pull bar. When this type of broach begins
steels, titanium, Stellite, work-
to cut undersize, the first shell is discarded, the other shells are
hardening bronze, silicon iron, and
moved forward, and a new finishing shell is added. Another
silicon bronze.
type of built-up internal broach has the cutting teeth ground on
Powdered Metal For high-speed applications. Can be long segments which are fitted into slots in the broach body,
High-Speed Steel used in place of M2, M3, T15, and Inserted-tooth or tipped solid broaches have a body made
other high-speed steels to obtain longer from one material and single teeth from another material
tool life. brazed, bonded, or anchored in holes or slots in the broach
body. The teeth usually have brazed carbide tips, as shown on
Tungsten Carbide For broaching gray cast irons and for the broach insert at the top in Fig, 7-20, Indexable, throwaway
high-speed broaching applications. carbide inserts, seen at the bottom of Fig. 7-20 have largely
7-23
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
Fig. 7-20 Brazed carbide-tipped insert (top) which has been largely
replaced by indexable carbide inserts (bottom) for broaching large Fig. 7-21 Half-round broach having round indexanle carmrse inserts
castings. retained by center screws. (J. P. Tool Ltd.)
replaced the brazed carbide-tipped tools for broaching the close tolerances, the diameters of the rear pilots must provide a
surfaces of large castings such as automotive engine blocks. minimum of clearance with respect to the finished hole sizes.
Square carbide inserts with negative rake angles provide Pull ends. The pull ends for broaches are made in a variety of
eight cutting edges. In an application involving broaching cast designs to suit different pull heads, some of which are shown in
iron engine blocks, more than 25,000 parts have been cut with Fig. 7-22. Key-type pullers are simple and relatively inexpensive
each cutting edge before indexing, thus providing a total life and are often used for manual operation on horizontal
of over 200,000 blocks per insert, with resharpening costs elim- machines with low production requirements. Pin-type pullers,
inated. The individual inserts can be replaced without removing which can be automatic in operation, are used primarily for
the broach holder from the machine, This method reduces small-diameter broaches when the slot required for a key-type
machine downtime for tool changing and has decreased manu- puller would weaken the shank.
facturing costs for many applications because of long tool life. Threaded pullers, tapped to engage threads on the broach
Round (button-type) indexable carbide inserts are also being shank, are used primarily on keyway broaches which do not
used for broaching castings. They offer the same advantages as generally have to be disconnected between strokes. Some
square or rectangular inserts with the additional benefit, in threaded pullers are of interchangeable design to handle a range
some applications, of longer tool life. A tool life of 85,000 of thread diameters and pitches.
workplaces per insert index has been reported. Less cutting Automatic round-shank pullers are used extensively for high
force is required with round inserts because they have a reduced production requirements on both horizontal and vertical, pull-
depth-of-cut capability, which may require lengthening the up or pull-down machines. They generally operate by means of
broaching stroke. On a unit-load basis, a round insert requires a spring-loaded sleeve that releases the broach when it strikes a
greater force than a square one. A half-round broach with stop. After another workpiece is loaded, the broach is inserted
double-sided button inserts retained by center screws is shown in the puller, Movement of the machine ram releases the sleeve,
in Fig. 7-21. Inserts can be overlapped and mounted at a shear permitting the jaws to grip the broach shank. Sometimes a
angle along the length of the broach to produce the required size mechanical method of releasing the jaws is desirable, especially
progression and to balance the cutting load. on multiple setups.
Pilots. Overall length of a broach includes the length of the Follower ends. Follower ends on broaches serve to support
cutting portion plus the lengths of the pilots, pull ends, and and guide the back ends of the tools. Automatic types also
follower ends. The front pilot on an internal broach serves to provide a retriever head to retract the broach on the return
guide the tool through the workpiece and should be long stroke. Length and diameter of the end depend on the design of
enough to extend through the hole before the first tooth makes the follower head with which the machine is equipped and
contact. It also acts as a safety gage to reject parts with whether the head recovers the broach. Follower end designs
undersize holes, thereby protecting the first cutting tooth include plain round, round with a locating flat, detent, and
from ovedoad, automatic.
Rear pilots serve as guides while the last teeth of the broach
pass through the workpiece. Without rear pilots or with pilots Broach design, The design of any broach requires careful
too small in diameter, the workpiece can move while the consideration of many factors, some of which have already been
finishing teeth are still active, thus producing bell-mouthed discussed. A general guide that can be used in designing
holes, especially on horizontal machines. For holes requiring broaches is presented in Table 7-7.
7-24
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
Cotwent[onal automatic
Key-type manual
Kevwoy automat,c w
r Pin-type automattc
----- .VaIlety
. . . . .. .
01 pull enaS
.. . . . .
anrt heads tor broaches.
rig. 7-L!
TABLE 7-7
Tips for Designing Broaches
1. Obtain design and production data on the workpiece to be b. Using a tracing overlay on the workpiece drawing to
machined, including: sketch a preliminary broach design. It may be neces-
a, The material from which the workpiece is made, as sary to prepare several alternative designs or a
well as its hardness and condition. combination of designs.
b. Production requirements, which will generally dictate c. Giving consideration to how the broach inserts will be
the type of machine needed. moun~ed in a holder, If an existing holder is to be
c. A copy of the latest workpiece drawing. used. it should be drawn around the inserts on the
d, Copies of related process or manufacturing route layout.
sheets, if possible, to understand prior and subsequent
5. Calculate the physical requirements for the broach, including:
processing, Stock allowance may be required after
a. Stock to be removed, taking into consideration the
broaching for subsequent machining and/ or grinding.
maximum possible condition, For example, allowance
2. Study the workpiece drawing to become familiar with must be made for die wear and possible die shift when
suecific details. including: broaching forged parts, and for draft angles when
a. The surface or sur~aces to be broached. broaching castings.
b. Dimensional tolerances and surface finish require- b. The pitch, cut per tooth (chip load), and broach
ments of surfaces to be broached, and relationship length, based on the length of cut and total stock to be
required with respect to other surfaces on workpiece. removed.
c, The surfaces to be used for locating and clamping. c. The total push or pull force required for the broach or
d. Consideration as to how the workpiece will be loaded, set of broaches.
fixtured, and unloaded,
e. Features of the workpiece that may favorably or 6. Apply the design of the tool to the broaching machine to be
unfavorably affect the design of the broaches and used, taking into consideration:
fixtures, a. Whether the machine has the required tonnage and
3. Prepare a layout drawing of the workpiece, making sure to: stroke length.
a. Use a large enough scale, with as many views as b. Special machine features that may influence the
necessary, to clearly show the broached surface(s) and broach or fixture design.
related geometry. c. That more than one pass may be required.
b. Show the workpiece as it will appear after broaching, d. That most broaches have to be tailored to suit
using solid lines. machine and application requirements,
c. Show the areas of stock to be removed by broaching, 7. Finalize the design, realizing that:
using broken lines. a. Most preliminary broach concepts usually have to be
4. Make a preliminary broach design by: modified several times before an optimum design is
a. Determining the type of broach to be used—push, attained.
pull, surface, internal, etc.—by analyzing the surface(s) b. Last minute changes may occur in the design of the
to be broached and the tolerance and surface finish workpiece or the machine to be used for broaching.
requirements. It may be possible to broach more than c. The design must be acceptable to the manufacturing
one surface with the same insert. department.
7-25
cHAPTER 7
BROACHING
Surface Broaches broaches can be ground from the nearest standard-size broach
Broaches used to remove material from an external surface or made from stock blanks.
are commonly known as surface broaches. Such broaches are A single standard slotting broach can be used to cut slots in
passed over the workpiece surface to be cut, or the workpiece the sides or ends of workpieces, but different workholding
passes over the tool on horizontal or vertical machines to fixtures may be required. Lengthwise slotting requires longer
produce flat or contoured surfaces. broaches if more stock has to be removed.
While some surface broaches are of solid construction, most Programmable broaching is an efficient method of cutting
are of built-up design—with sections, inserts, or indexable tool deep slots because it permits using short broaches. With this
bits that are assembled end-to-end in a broach holder or so-called pecking technique, a reciprocating infeed table on the
subholder. The holder fits on the machine slide and provides machine automatically moves the fixtured workpiece rapidly
rigid alignment and support. The first tooth of each insert or in and out of the broach path in unison with the ram motion.
section of the assembly is ground to conform with the last tooth This permits fast broach return and accurate incremental
of the preceding insert or section. Burnishing inserts are feeding for each stroke. After the preset number of short
sometimes provided at the end of the holder to perform their roughing strokes produces the required slot depth, a full stroke
function after the other teeth have completed their operations, of the finishing teeth completes the job. Deep slots can be
but such tools are very vulnerable to metal pickup and produced in different planes in the same workpiece by using an
can cause tearing. automatic rotary indexing fixture in conjunction with a recip-
Most surface broaches are special and designed for a specific rocating infeed table.
application, but some standard, general-purpose broaches are Keyway and spline broaches. Broaching is the most practical
available. Broach holders can often be standardizedin several method of machining keyways and splines, and most such
sizes to hold various surface broaches. Only the more common surfaces are produced in this way. Both external and internal
of the many different surface broaches available are discussed in keyways and splines are broached; internal broaches are
this section. discussed in the next section of this chapter. A typical external
keyway broach is a narrow flat bar with cutting teeth spaced
Slab broaches. These simple tools for producing flat surfaces
along one surface (see Fig. 7-23).
come closest to being truly general-purpose broaches. A single
slab broach can be used to produce flat surfaces having different
widths and depths on any workpiece by making minor
adjustments to the broach, fixture, and/or machine.
Slab broaches are also used extensively to square the ends of
workplaces and to provide reference or locating surfaces on
parts for subsequent broaching or other machining operations.
The teeth on slab broaches can be positioned straight across the
width of the tool, but better results are often obtained if the
teeth are inclined at a shear angle. After being sharpened, the Fig. 7-23 External keyway broach having cutting teeth spaced along
teeth or inserts can be raised to the required height by shims or one side of a narrow, flat bar.
the holder can be raised.
Standard keyway broaches are commercially available. If
Progressive or nibbling-type broaches. For cutting through
other than straight-sided keyways and splines are needed;
hard surfaces and for heavy stock removal, progressive
however, special broaches are required. Such special broaches
broaches are often employed. These broaches have two sets of
have the teeth shaped to the form required.
narrow roughing teeth, with each set positioned at an angle with
Dovetails and V-shaped serrations. A common application in
respect to the centerline of the broach holder, thereby forming
turbine engine manufacturing is broaching dovetail forms in
an inverted vee. Each tooth or insert takes a shear cut, generally
compressor wheels and so-called pine or fir-tree forms in
to full depth, but covers only a small portion of the workpiece
turbine discs. Complex serrations are needed to lock the turbine
surface. This is similar to a single-point tool on a shaper or
blades in their discs for high-speed operation. Heavy stock
planer progressively generating a flat surface on the workpiece.
removal from tough materials is required for these operations,
Full-width teeth for semifinishing and finishing are located
and a set of broaches is generally used. The first broach cuts a
behind the roughing teeth on progressive broaches so that the
straight-sided V-notch in the rims of the discs, and the
entire surface is cut in one pass. For narrow surfaces, the teeth
workplaces are indexed after each pass to complete all notches.
or inserts at the starting end are V-shaped. On subsequent teeth,
Then, one or more serrated broaches, such as the one shown in
the vees gradually widen until the full required width
Fig. 7-24, progressively widen the notches to the required
of the surface is cut. The final teeth are flat, similar to those on a
configuration. For some discs, each notch is completed before
slab broach.
index~ng the workpiece.
Slot broaches. Broaches for cutting slots are not as general
purpose in function as slab broaches. Adjustments can easily be
made to produce different slot depths, but slot widths are a I
function of the broach width. When sufficent production
volume is required; however, slot broaches are often faster and
more economical than milling cutters. In broaching, two or
more slots can often be cut simultaneously.
Standard slot broaches are available in various widths. They
are generally furnished as inserts for assembly in a holder, along Fig. 7-24 Serrated broacb used to cut complex forms in tbe rims of
with steel spacers to fill any side or end gaps. Special slot turbine discs for locking blades in place.
7-26
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
Contour broaches. Concave, convex, cam-shaped, and Straddle-broaching mtdtisur-aces. When a series of inter-
combination contoured and irregular surfaces can be easily related surfaces must be accurately machined on both sides of a
broached to close tolerances in a single pass. The only workpiece, straddle broaching is often the best method. Stan-
requirement is that all cuts are parallel and that there are no dard inserts can sometimes be assembled in a holder to broach a
obstructions to broach travel. Such operations require the combination of flats and slots on different surfaces with one
development of special broaches, and medium-to-high pro- stroke. However, when contoured surfaces are required, special
duction requirements are often needed to justify the cost. broach inserts are needed. One application entails broaching
In many cases, broaching with special tools is more five separate surfaces simultaneously on a turned part with
economical than using a series of complicated form milling close tolerances and a production rate of about 750 parts per
cutters. Cutting internal teeth is generally an internal broaching hour. The operation consists of cutting two pairs of opposed
operation; but on very large rings, the teeth are sometimes cut a flats, one pair on each side ofa shoulder, and a concave surface
few at a time with a surface broach. In such cases, the workpiece in one end of the part. A special broach insert is used to cut the
encircles the broach and machine and is indexed to complete the concave surface.
operation. Square and hexagonal heads. When identical flat cuts are to
Straddle broaches. Two separate inserts are used on straddle be made on two or more surfaces on opposite sides of a
broaches to cut similar or identical parallel surfaces on opposite workpiece, the procedure is to use multiple strokes of
oradjacent sides ofaworkpiece inasingle pass. The operation the straddle broaches. Such applications include cutting two
is similar in results to straddle milling but is generally faster and opposite flats at a time on square or hexagonal-head round
more accurate. shafts. A rotary collet-type indexing fixture is often used to
Workpieces can be of any configuration so long as they can quickly position the parts to broach the other surfaces. With
be straddled by the broach. A major advantage of straddle this method, two operations would be required to broach all
broaching is the precise dimensional relationship that can be four surfaces on square heads and three operations for hexa-
maintained; it would be difficult to obtain the same accuracy if gonal heads.
each cut were made separately. Such operations can be performed in a single downward pass
Fixturing for straddle broaching is generally simple because of a straddle broach. This is accomplished by using a fast,
equal pressures are exerted on both sides of the workpiece. automatic indexing fixture and providing sections without
Standard straddle-broach sets can be mounted ina holder so cutting teeth along the length of the broach inserts (see Fig.
that the teeth on each insert cut toward each other (conventional 7-26). During the downward stroke of the straddle broach, the
straddle cutting) or parallel to each other (infeed straddle toothless sections movide enough side clearance and time to
cutting). These two methods of straddle broaching are illustrated permit rapid indexing of the wo~kpiece,
in Fig. 7-25. The choice of method depends on whether
maxi~um width or depth cutting is requir~d
Fig. 7-25 Conventional straddle broach (left) and infeed straddle

broach. Choice of conventional straddle broaching or infeed straddle Toothless
broaching de~ends on whether maximum width or depth cutting is sections
required. -( Ty-Miles, Inc.)
Considerable flexibility impossible with straddle broaching

because the inserts can be quickly adjusted toward or away
from each other within the holder to cut a large range of widths.
The method is often used to broach locating or orienting
surfaces on castings and forgings for subsequent broaching or
other machining operations. Contours can also be broached on
opposite sides of a workpiece by using special straddle broaches.
Straddle-broaching slots. Double slots can be cut in work-
places with a single stroke using standard straddle-broach
inserts. For example, double cross slots (one on each side), end
slots, and lengthwise slots are typical cuts on shafts. Double
Fig. 7-26 Set of straddle broaches with sections without teeth.
lengthwise slots may require longer broach inserts than cross or Providing broach insert sections without cutting teeth allows indexing
end slots if more metal has to be removed. of workpiece to broach other surfaces. (Ty Miles, Inc.)
7-27
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
For hexagonal-headed parts, two toothless sections are split holder that supports a series of individual precision-
provided on each side of the straddle broach to permit double ground HSS rings or wafers that are located on four axial bars.
indexing. A1lsixflat surfaces can becutin 13/4secondsusinga Radial positioning of each ring is achieved by a slot engaging a
42” (1067 mm) long broach traveling at 120 fpm (36.6 m/min). long key in the holder. Each ring has internal backed-off teeth
Smooth surface finishes are produced because each of the three of the required shape. Finishing rings are provided to ensure
cutting sections contain roughing, semifinishing, and finishing accuracy and good surface finish.
teeth. For even higher production rates, two sets of straddle Stick pot broaches (see Fig. 7-28) are of similar construction,
broaches can be mounted on the machine ram and two indexing with a two-piece split broach holder; however, they also have a
fixtures on the table, thus enabling two parts to be completed key for mounting a series of precision ground bushings. The
per stroke. bushings have internal slots that mount HSS stick surface
Pot broaches. Pot broaching is an economical, high pro- broaches. The removable broach sticks have long-land teeth
duction method being used extensively for cutting precision that can be staggered to cut fewer teeth or splines initially, thus
external forms, such as involute spur gears and splines, slots, providing a uniform and balanced cutting load.
cam shapes, and special tooth forms, in a single pass. The Stick broaches are used when accuracy requirements permit
process has replaced bobbing and shaping for the production of and are particularly suitable for producing profiles with a
many external gears. Applications of pot broaching for gear length of cut less than 5 / 8“ ( 15.9 mm) —thus ensuring a smooth
production are presented in Chapter 13, “Gear Cutting. ” cutting action and chatter-free finish. They are used to cut short
In pot broaching, one or more workplaces are generally cam shapes, straight-sided teeth, interrupted tooth shapes, and
pulled or pushed up or pushed down through the bore of a pot tooth special profiles. Stick broaches are less expensive than
broach subholder that is normally stationary on a vertical ring broaches, both initially and subsequently when replace-
machine. There are three basic types of pot broaches having ment is necessitated by wear or breakage.
internal cutting tooth configurations: ring, stick, and combi- Combination ring and stick pot broaches are used to
nation ring and stick. simultaneously cut precision involute teeth with protuberance
Ring pot broaches (see Fig. 7-27) generally have a two-piece forms and tip chamfers or slots between the involute tooth
sections. The rings produce the involute teeth, and the sticks
produce the slots or protuberance forms.
Total tool life of more than 1 1/4 million workplaces is being
obtained with pot broaches. Workpieces per broach grind of
15,000-25,000 for steel parts and 35,000-80,000 for cast iron
parts are being consistently attained. Both ring and stick
broaches are easily sharpened on conventional tool grinding
machines. Improved and simplified automation equipment
now available makes the process economically feasible for
broaching several low-production parts on a single machine,
with a changeover time of only about one hour.
Rotary broaches. In rotary broaching, either the work-
places or the broaches move in a circular path. For some
applications, inserts are mounted on the face of a rotating plate
and fed pas? a clamped workpiece. Double-end machines with a
faceplate on each end are used for higher production require-
ments. For other applications, workplaces are sometimes
mounted to the rims of rotating plates and carried past
I I stationary broach inserts.
Fig. 7-27 Ring-type pot broach having a series of rings with internal Gleason Revacycle machines, classified as gear-cutting
cutting teeth mounted in a two-piece split holder. machines, are essentially rotary broaching machines. They cut
Fig. 7-28 Stick-type pot broach which is less expensive than ring-type broaches and is used to cut short profiles. (General Broach and
Engineering Co.)
7-28
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
the teeth of bevel pinions from the solid, one at a time in a single vertical machine to produce the desired shape and size of
revolution, with a disc holding broach-type tools, Details of surface. Although a wide variety of internal broaches are
these machines are presented in Chapter 13, “Gear Cutting. ” available to suit specific applications, only the most common
Rotary broaches developed by Rockwell International Corp. types arediscussed in this section.
for the Marshall Space Flight Center are used to counterbore or
back spotface recesses for bolt heads in difficult to reach Round-hole broaches. Broaching of round holes is the
simplest of all internal broaching operations. Advantages of the
locations, such as those near webs, bosses, or flanges. Around
process include fast production, close tolerances, and smooth
the periphery of the broach, each cutting tooth extends slightly
surface finishes. Conventional round broaches consist of a
further outward than its predecessor (see Fig, 7-29). Operations
series of full circular teeth (see Fig. 7-30) with each tooth cutting
are completed in a single revolution of the broach.
on its entire periphery. As discussed previously, chipbreakers
are required for ~ound-hole broaching of ductile ma~erials.
Tooth
length
Increases
oround
broach
Fig. 7-30 Conventional round-hole broach having aseries of circular

teeth, each tooth cutting on its entire periphery.
Standard push-type, round-hole broaches are commercially

available in many sizes. Tolerances on hole diameters produced
with such broaches vary from 0.0005’’ (0.013 mm) for smaller
sizes to 0.001’’ (0.03 mm) for larger broaches. With a uniform
/
tooth pitch on such broaches, a harmonic action may be
generated during broaching, resulting in surge or ring marks on
the hole surface. This condition can be eliminated by usinga
differential pitch (staggered tooth spacing).
II II Conventional round-hole broaches usually have straight
II ‘ II lands in the finishing section that increase in length from 0.005
to 0.031” (0.13 to 0.79 mm). A better cutting action can be
II II
provided by backing off the teeth in the finishing section to a
II II sharp edge, with a back-off angle of 1/ 4°. This results in a more
I costly broach, but work quality can be improved and tool life
increased, often upto 400%
Surface finishes of broached holes can be improved by
compressing the surfaces with burnishing buttons positioned
Fig. 7-29 Rotary broach for counterboring or back spotfacing
recesses for bolt heads in difficult to reach locations. behind the finishing teeth on the broaches. Such buttons can
compress the surface up to 0.001” (0.03 mm) on the hole
diameter. Excessive compression, however, will ultimately
Threads, knurls, and serrations. Precision threads, knurls, and cause metal pickup and surface tearing of the burnishing teeth.
serrations can be quickly rolled on round shafts with a short- Broaches that perform burnishing only are also used, most
stroke broaching machine and interchangeable flat dies. A flat frequently for polishing the bores of workplaces made from
die, mounted in a holder on the broaching machine ram, nonferrous materials.
engages and rolls the workpiece against a stationary die Smooth surface finishes can also be produced and close
mounted in a fixture on the machine table. A hydraulically tolerances maintained with continuous cutting broaches having
actuated finger automatically positions each workpiece between a single tooth ground in a helical path around the tool axis.
the two dies and retracts. Cycle times of about one second are Such broaches areparticularly suited for short lengths of cut
possible, even with manual loading and unloading. where the broach is in continuous contact with the workpiece.
This assures smooth cutting and minimizes breakout of the
Internal Broaches workpiece edges.
Internal broaches are used to enlarge or modify the shape of When large round-hole broaches are required, it is generally
existing holes that have been produced by casting, forging, good practice to use a built-up or wafer-type design. The simple
punching, drilling, reaming, or other methods. With the construction ofsuch broaches conserves HSS, permits limited
workpiece completely surrounding the tool, the broach is size adjustments to compensate for sharpening, and permits
pushed or pulled through the workpiece on a horizontal or replacing worn or broken tooth sections.
7-29
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
Strip broaching. While it is considered poor practice to

return the broach to its starting position before removing the
workpiece, because of possible damage to both work and tool,
this is done in strip broaching (see Fig. 7-3 1). This method is
f!!!!!)
t!!!!$
commonly used when broaching round holes in large quantities
of low-cost parts for which machining costs must be held to a
minimum. While this procedure can shorten broach life, the
high production capabilities often make it economically feasible.
Providing burnishing buttons on broaches to be used in this
way reduces the possibilities of damage because the buttons (o) Hexagonal (b) Radal (c) Spine
rotary cut rotary cut rotary cut
often produce enough clearance to permit withdrawing the tool
without again contacting the workpiece.
I
Fig. 7-32 Three types of rotary-cut broaches. Choice of type depends
primarily on amount of stock to be removed.
action and removes about half of the hole periphery. The

second tooth is full round and removes the balance of the
peripheral surface. Rear teeth are the same as on other
conventional round-hole broaches.
Blind-hole broaches. Broaching of blind holes violates two
principles of broaching: (1) the tool does not pass completely
I through the workpiece and (2) it must be withdrawn over the

broached surface. This type of operation, however, is done
Fig. 7-31 Strip broaching. While notconsidered to begoodpractice, it successfully, generally using a series of short punch broaches,
is sometimes used because of higher production capability.
such as the one shown in Fig. 7-33, with each broach slightly
larger in diameter than the preceding one.
Rotary-cut broaches. Round holesin rough forgings, mal- An undercut must be provided at the bottom of the blind hole
leable iron castings with a hard skin, and sand castings with to provide space for the chips produced in broaching. The short
abrasive surface inclusions are generally cut with one of three broaches are often mounted on a rotary indexing table. As each
types of rotary-cut broaches (see Fig. 7-32). These types of broach is indexed under the workpiece, the machine pushes the
broaches are used to avoid possible problems associated with workpiece down over the tool and withdraws it. This cycle is
conventional round-hole broaches having teeth that may tend repeated until the operation is complete.
to ride over the rough, hard surfaces. This problem results from
the relatively small cuts per tooth, which can cause rapid wear
or breakage and overloading.
The design of rotary-cut broaches is somewhat similar to the
provision of chipbreaking slots on other broaches. Cutting
edges on these broaches, however, are drastically reduced, and
the slots between the teeth are much deeper to take heavy cuts
under poor-quality surfaces. The diamond-shaped teeth are
heavier and take narrower, deeper cuts to withstand the high
cutting loads. They arespaced inastaggered pattern along the
axis of the broach to generate the entire circumference of the
holes. Once the hard abrasive surface has been penetrated,
conventional round teeth on the balance of the broach perform
semifinishing and finishing operations.
Fig. 7-33 Short punch broach of the type used to broach blind holes.
Hexagonal rotary-cut broaches (see Fig. 7-32, a) are used for
small-diameter holes and produce relatively light stock removal.
Depth ofcutis limited tothedistance across the flats. Radial Broaching holes of other shapes. Square, rectangular, hex-
rotary-cut broaches (see Fig. 7-32, b) permit heavier stock agonal, and octagonal holes, as well as holes of other shapes, are
removal than hexagonal tools because the cutting portions of generally broached starting with a round or oval hole. When
theteeth areconnected byarcsrather than flats. Spline rotary- square holes are broached, the diameter of the starting hole is
cut broaches (see Fig. 7-32, c) permit even greater stock removal usually slightly larger than the length of the sides of the square.
and provide more flexibility than either of the other two types. This allows easier and faster broaching and the use of lower cost
The amount of stock removal is governed primarily by the broaches. Corners of the broached holes can be made sharp or
capacity of the broaching machine rather than the tool, and cut with radii.
per tooth can be as much as 0.050” (1.27 mm). Keyway broaches. Broaching of keyways is one of the most
Double-cut broaches. So-called double-cut or double-jump widely used applications of this machining process. It
broaches are also used for rough and scaly surfaces. These tools can be done on simple machines, and standard sets of keyway
have heavy, paired roughing teeth of the same diameter. The broaches are available with slotted guide bushings to fit various
first tooth in each pair resembles a splined tooth in cutting size holes.
7-30
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
When a number of workpieces, all having the same diameter helical path around the tool axis, with the helix angle cor-
and requiring the same keyway size, are to be machined, responding to that required in the workpiece. For these
internal broaches can be ground to fit into the hole to support operations, either the workpiece or the tool must rotate in the
the cutting teeth (see Fig. 7-34). With this self-supporting, direction and with the lead of the required helix during the
round-body design, only the cutting teeth extend beyond cutting stroke.
the hole bore to cut the keyway. Bushings or horns are not For some applications, when the helix angle is less than about
required; therefore, production time is reduced. The bodies of 15°, the workpiece can be pulled against a ball-bearing thrust
such broaches are often relieved with flats on opposite sides to plate; as the broach cuts, the workpiece rotates automatically.
reduce friction. In other applications with low helix angles, the workpiece is
held stationary and the tool is coupled to a ball-bearing puller
that allows the tool to rotate freely. In most cases, however,
especially for high production or when higher helix angles are
required, the broaching machines must be equipped with
special drive adapters having lead-bars with the required helix
to rotate the broach as it passes through the workpiece.
Rzj7ing broaches. The rifling of gun barrel bores is a modified
application of helical broaching requiring special broaches. The
straight-sided, spline-type grooves required in the barrels are
1 J often only a few thousandths of an inch deep. As a result, only a
Fig. 7-34 Self-supporting type ofkeyway broach which fits into the few broach teeth are required. The broach, however, must
hole in which the keyway is to be cut. be long enough to reach through the full barrel length, and wide
spaces must be provided between the teeth. A typicl helical
For many production applications of keyway broaching, the rifling broach is illustrated in Fig, 7-35, b. For large-bore guns,
workplaces are supported by horns attached to the faceplate on wafer or disc-type broaches are used for rifling to reduce tool
the machine. The front end of the horn is a sliding fit in the bore costs. The grooves in such large bores can be up to 0.120”
of the workpiece. A rectangtdar groove is cut through the full (3.05 mm) deep.
length of the horn, parallel to its axis, to support the broach. Znvolure splines. Both spur and helical internal splines having
For broaching tapered keyways in a constant diameter hole, the involute teeth are also broached. A typical multispline involute
front end of the horn is tilted at the required angle and the front broach is illustrated in Fig. 7-35, c.
face of the horn (against which the workpiece rests)is machined Spline deburring. Burrs created by machining operations
to the same angle. For tapered bores, the horns are similar after the splines have been cut can be removed with a deburring
except they are tapered to fit the workpiece. broach. These simple tools, such as the one shown in Fig. 7-35, d,
Most keyways can be broached in a single pass. When are generally quite short and are designed for push operation.
multiple passes are necessary, shims can be inserted under the They are usually made slightly undersize with respect to the
broach and the height of the pull head adjusted. For broaching spline dimensions.
keyways in thin workpieces, the parts can often be stacked on
the horn, thus increasing productivity. It is sometimes more
economical to use a combination broach to finish the bore and
keyway in a single pass. Broaches of this type are generally
made from a standard round-hole broach, with a slot added
along one side to hold the keyway broach insert.
Spline broaches. A square internal spline can be cut by
(a)
conventional keyway broaching methods, but the broach must
have the tops of its teeth rounded to match the outside diameter
(OD) of the mating shaft, with required clearance. Multiple
internal splines of this type can be cut with a single broach by
using an indexing workholding fixture and a special horn to
permit indexing. For high production requirements, a multi-
(b)
spline broach is generally used (see Fig. 7-35, a).
Blind splines. Broaching of internal splines and other forms
in small blind holes is done with broaches, called spline
punches, having one or more teeth. Until recently, this process
has had limited application because of limitations in producing
(c)
the small tools and requirements for the design of the workpiece
(need for an undercut or relief area for chip space). Now,
however, with the advent of traveling wire, electrical discharge
machining (ED M), small tools with form relief can be machined
economically. Tools have also been developed that clip off the
chips produced, thus eliminating the need for relief areas at the (d)
bottoms of the blind holes.

Helical splines. Helical internal splines (sometimes called Fig. 7-35 Various spline broaching tools: (a) a pull-type multispline
spiral splines), either straight-sided or involute, are cut with tool, (b) a helical rifling broach, (c)a multispline involute broach, and
helical broaches. The teeth on these broaches are ground in a (d) a push-type spline deburring broach.
7-31
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
Internal gear broaches. Conventional broaches for internal

involute gears and splines generate the tooth profile in a Hollow
nibbling pattern. Each tooth of the broach increases in diameter.
Thus the nibbled profile is the envelope of a series of thousands
of corner generations. A nibbling-type internal involute broach
can produce accurate gear teeth with a good surface finish only
when machine alignment is carefully maintained, providing
stringent broach maintenance, and the gear blank is carefully
prepared.
Full-form finishing broaches are available to improve the
accuracy and surface finish of internal gear teeth produced
by nibbling-type broaches. These tools have a removable
floating shell mounted on the end of a nibbling-type broach Fig. 7-37 Tensioned drawbar type of full-form finishing broach for
body. Each tooth on the shell broaches the entire profile of a producing large internal involute gears.
gear tooth, as illustrated schematically in Fig. 7-36, and
removes about 0.0005” (0,01 3 mm) of tooth thickness. Total Rotary broaches. Special tools and machines are sometimes
tooth thickness removal in the full-form finishing section is used to broach circular grooves. Such applications generally
about 0.010” (0,25 mm). consist of a series of short broach inserts mounted in a circular
holder. The machine, operating through a swivel arm set on a
predetermined radius, passes the tools through the workpiece in
a circular or radial path rather than in a straight line or axial
direction. Broaches of this type can have top or side cutting
teeth, or a combination of both.
Cut-and-recut broaches. So-called cut-and-recut broaches
are often used to cut splines in thin-walled workplaces that are
subject to expanding during cutting and shrinking after
broaching. They consist of a normal front cutting section
followed by a “breathing” section that serves as a pilot during
workpiece shrinkage. The end of the broach normally recuts the
entire spline. This recutting section can have a fast taper and
shorter pitch since the teeth only nibble at the sides and major
diameter of the spline.
BROACHING FIXTURES
Properly designed workholding fixtures are necessary for
successful broaching. They must be rigid enough to prevent
movement of the workplaces and minimize deflection under
high forces. The cutting forces in broaching are generally higher
than for other machining processes because of the number of
Fig. 7-36 Full-form finishing broach having teeth that cut tbe entire cutting edges simultaneously in contact with the workpiece.
profile for improved accuracy and better surface finish. (Narional
Insufficient rigidity will result in vibration and tool chatter,
Broach & Machine Div., Lear Siegler, Inc.)
causing poor surface finishes, inaccuracies, and possible tool
breakage or short life.
When the internal gears are above approximately 6“ ( 152 mm) Good fixture design can provide substantial cost savings by
diam, a tensioned drawbar design of broach can be effectively reducing work handling time and labor costs. Other benefits
utilized. This design (see Fig. 7-37) enables broaches up to 9 ft include improved product quality (closer tolerances and
(2.7 m) in length and weighing up to 2300 lb (1043 kg) to be smoother finishes), longer tool life, and improved oper-
economically produced from available sizes of HSS forgings. ator safety.
The broach is made up of a single drawbar that mounts a Principal functions of fixtures are to accurately locate and
hollow, removable front locking collar, front pilot, roughing rigidly hold workplaces during broaching. Other functions
section, full-form finishing section, and rear pilot. include facilitating loading and unloading; providing means for
Concentricity broaches. In the production of internal splines, chip clearance and disposal; allowing free access of cutting fluid
subsequent processing and use of the workplaces is simplified to the broach teeth; and for some applications, guiding broaches.
if the spline internal diameter (ID) is precisely concentric with
the sides (pitch diameter) of the involute teeth. This concen- Types of Fixtures
tricity is difficult to maintain with conventional nibbling-type Fixtures for broaching can vary from simple locating plates
broaches, even with alternate round and spline sections on the or bushings to complex devices. The major types of fixtures
finishing end, include fixed (stationary), shuttle, swivel, tilt, indexing, and
A concentricity of 0.0002” (0.005 mm) between the ID and universal. Fixtures must be of equalizing design when square
tooth sides can be attained by usinga full-form finishing section bearing surfaces are not available on the workplaces. Broaching
having alternate round and spline teeth ground on the end of a fixtures can be operated manually, by power with manual
solid nibbling broach, The full-form finishing section removes a control, or automatically, interlocked with the operation of the
total of about 0.010” (0.25 mm) of tooth thickness. machine ram.
7-32
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
Universal or multipurpose fixtures can be a major factor in broaching machine, it may be more economical to make
reducing broaching costs. They are especially desirable for multiple passes with a shorter stroke broaching machine at high
short-run production requirements of families of similar parts. speeds. This is done with a reciprocating infeed table,
In some cases, only interchangeable jaws, collets, clamps, or synchronized with the machine ram operation, that can be
locator nests have to be changed to broach different parts. In programmed to automatically move the workpiece in and out of
other applications, subassemblies may have to be replaced. For the broach path for the preset number of roughing passes
cylindrical parts, a V-shaped locating nest can accommodate a required. Then a longer stroke finishing pass can bring the cut
range of different diameters. to the required depth. To widen the same cut, a crossfeed can be
To meet high production requirements, automatic fixtures used to shift the fixture sideways and the infeed cycle can be
are often used in conjunction with automatic loading and repeated. To produce several slots in the same workpiece, an
unloading equipment. Automation devices commonly employed indexing fixture can be used. Cuts to about 1 1/2’’ (38 mm) deep
include magazine loaders, vibratory hoppers, workpiece ejec- and 12” (305 mm) wide can be broached in this way with
tors, and industrial robots. standard equipment.
Rotary indexing fixtures permit the continuous cycling of
Fixture Components single-ram machines. Some stations on such fixtures can be
Whenever possible, broaching fixtures should be designed so unloaded and reloaded while a workpiece held at another
that the cutting forces are aligned with the machine ram. In station is being broached. Rotary indexing fixtures can be used
addition, all fixture components should have smooth internal in conjunction with in-out shuttle fixtures for additional
surfaces without holes, corners, or pockets that might trap clearance.
chips. The fixtures should nest the workplaces as deeply as
possible so that only the areas to be broached are exposed. Fixtures for Internal Broaching
Locating pads, blocks, or pins should be directly opposite the Forces exerted on fixtures used for internal broaching are
surfaces to be broached; support pads or jacks should be as generally less complex than those exerted on fixtures used for
close as possible to the surfaces to be broached and should be surface broaching. The major forces are usually in the direction
easily adjustable and replaceable. Previously machined surfaces of broach travel. The broach often locates itself, and the
on the workplaces should be used for locating and support workpiece absorbs most of the force, which is directly trans-
purposes. If this is not possible, some means of adjustment must ferred to the broaching fixture and machine platen.
be provided to compensate for irregularities. Simple internal broaching operations can often be performed
Wear surfaces of the fixture should be hardened and without a fixture and with no workpiece clamping. A shouldered
replaceable, and adjustability is often desirable. Workholding bushing is sometimes placed in the central hole in a faceplate.
clamps for the fixtures should be simple and foolproof they The workpiece bears against the face of the bushing and is held
should be designed for easy operation and should provide room firmly in place by the cutting pressure, thereby eliminating the
for easy loading and unloading. The clamps are generally of need for clamping, The pilot on the broach centers the
cam, screw, toggle, or wedge design, with manual or power workpiece.
operation. For round workpieces, a rough-locating counterbore can be
provided near the faceplate bushing for easier positioning, If the
end surface of the workpiece that will bear against the bushing
Fixtures for Surface Broaching
The fixtures used for broaching external surfaces are gener- face or the counterbore in the bushing is not square, a spherical
swiveling washer can be provided in the bushing.
ally subjected to higher forces than those used for internal
broaching. Forces are exerted both parallel and perpendicular
to the stroke, and if shear-angled teeth are used on the broach, OPERATING PARAMETERS
in a direction transverse to the tool stroke, FOR BROACHING
In most cases, except when the broach is stripped back over Cutting speeds at which workplaces can be successfully
the broached surface, a major requirement for surface broach- broached depend on many factors including the material to be
ing fixtures is removal or retraction of the workpiece from the broached (its machinability, hardness, and condition), geometry
broach path after the operation to allow the broach to return to of the broach, required surface finish, the machine to be used,
its starting position. Many vertical surface broaching machines are and production rate and tool life desired. Because of these and
equipped with automatic table retraction, which is interlocked other variables, it is difficult to establish specific values.
with operation of the machine ram. If not, however, a fixed, Recommendations, however. for starting cutting speeds and
tilting, shuttling, swiveling, or indexing fixture must be used. chip loads to broach a wide variety of materials are presented in
Vise-type fixed (stationary) fixtures are manually unclamped, the Machining Data Handbook. 3
unloaded, and reloaded after the machine ram returns to its
starting position. Manually operated, stationary fixtures are High-Speed Broaching
slower than other types but are suitable for short-run appli- There is a trend toward the use of higher cutting speeds,
cation. They are not used extensively, however, because the particularly for surface broaching operations, Advantages of
need for the operator to place his hands in the cutting zone can high-speed broaching can include increased productivity;
be unsafe. smoother surface finishes when broaching some materials; and
Tilting, trunnion, or tip-up fixtures as well as shuttling or in certain applications, longer tool life. Improved accuracies
swiveling fixtures, permit faster production because workplaces may also be obtained because of less heat distortion, since most
can be loaded and unloaded while the machine ram is returning. of the heat is carried away with the chips and the workplaces
Such fixtures can be operated manually, semiautomatically, or generally remain cooler.
automatically, with air or hydraulic power. Higher cutting speeds require more power, which increases
For deep surface cuts, which normally require a long-stroke machine and energy costs. This is sometimes alleged as a
7-33
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
limitation to high-speed broaching, but productivity gains often stamped, SAE 1010 steel nuts, two at a time, in an automated
make the increased costs economically justifiable. setup at a rate of about 2200 per hour.
Because of the rapid stock removal possible with broaching Connecting-rod broaching. The half-round joint faces and
at conventional speeds, the limiting factor for many appli- side-locating surfaces on connecting rods are broached at
cations is material handling rather than cutting speed. Doubling the rate of 530 rods per hour on a 15 ton (133 kN), twin-ram
the cutting speed will not double production; it merely shortens machine with 66” ( 1676 mm) stroke. These same surfaces
part of the cycle since cutting time is generally only a small and the nut seats are broached on cast bearing cap clusters (five
percentage of total cycle time. Even with complete automation, caps per cluster) at the rate of 100 castings per hour on a 25 ton
the loading, clamping, unloading, and ejecting of workplaces (222 kN), single-ram machine with 110” (2794 mm) stroke.
usually takes longer than the cutting. As a result, improved Forged single-piece connecting rods and caps, 12“ (305 mm)
automation can often offer more potential for higher pro- long and weighing 7 1/ 2 lb (3.4 kg), for diesel engines are
duction than increased speeds. Slight reductions in broaching completed in two passes at the rate of 224 parts per hour on a
times, however, can result in substantial yearly cost reductions, continuous, chain-type, horizontal surface broaching machine.
depending on the number of parts produced. In the first pass, the sides of the bolt bosses, the nut seats, and a
Problems that have been encountered in the design of high- 35° flat under the crank end are broached and the cap is slit
speed broaching machines include controlling the high forces from the rod. In the second pass, with the caps and rods on
resulting from rapid acceleration and deceleration of heavy separate fixtures, the joint faces, mating slots, and crank bores
masses (machine ram and tooling). Another limitation is the are broached. This machine does the same amount of work as
present state-of-the-art with respect to high-pressure hydraulic eight dual-ram vertical broaching machines at one-third the cost.
technology. Heat transfer from the hydraulic cylinders to the Broaching internal and external surfaces simultaneously. A
machine slides, guideways, and frame must also be minimized. fully automated broaching system is being used by a diesel
Other problems involve optimizing the design of the machine engine manufacturer to machine fuel injector bodies made from
and broach tooling and selecting the best cutting fluid. Chip SAE 1141 steel at the rate of 600 per hour. The operation,
formation, which is different when broaching at higher speeds, performed on a 6 ton (53.4 kN), 36”(914 mm) stroke, single-ram
can cause packing in the tooth gullets when cutting some pull-type broaching machine consists of simultaneously finish-
materials. ing the bore and cutting a flat on the external surface of two
High-production broaching. For many years (until about parts at a time. Loading, locating, clamping, broaching,
1960), the cutting speeds used on heavy-duty, high-production and unloading are all done automatically. Stock removal is
broaching machines, generally designed for a specific appli- about 0.014” (0.36 mm) from each bore, and an average of
cation, usually ranged from 10-30 fpm (3-9 m/ rein). Now, some 0.050” (1.27 mm) from the outer surfaces.
of these machines operate up to 60 fpm(18.3 m/min), with a few Mounting work on the ram. Progressive broaching is an
designed to cut at 100 fpm (30.5 m/min). unusual method being used to manufacture cartridge units for a
Broaching castings. Large, horizontal surface broaching line of adjustable boring and turning tools, The operation is
machines, designed especially for automotive engine castings, performed on a 20 ton (178 kN), 6“ (152 mm) stroke, vertical
have been built with electromechanical drives for cutting cast broaching machine equipped with an eight-station, rotary
iron with ram speeds to 200 fpm (61 m/rein). Experimental index table and automatic parts handling system. Unconven-
broaching of SAE 319 aluminum alloy castings has been tionally, the broaching tools are mounted at six stations on the
performed at 300 fpm (91.4 m/rein), and has resulted in the table, and the workplaces are held in a collet on the machine
production of smoother surface finishes. Existing machines of ram during successive broaching passes.
this type can be converted for higher speed operation. As each of the table stations is indexed under the ram, the
General-purpose machines. With general-purpose character- workpiece is pushed down through the broach at that station.
istics in mind, one builder offers a line of standard high-speed When the workpiece has passed through each broach, the tool
machines designed with increased versatility, even for low-to- halves are caromed apart to provide clearance while the
medium production requirements. These machines operate at workpiece is retracted. Five of the broaches machine the outside
cutting speeds of 120 fpm (36.6 m/rein) or more. Experimental diameter (OD) and the other one cuts two tangs on the
broaching with such machines, equipped with indexable-insert periphery. The production rate is 160 parts per hour at 100%
carbide tooling, has proven the viability of cutting at 288 fpm efficiency, and a tolerance of 0.0005” (0.013 mm) is maintained
(87.8 m/min). on the OD.
One builder of high-speed general-purpose broaching mach- Conventional surface or pot broaching was not practical for
ines offers a switchable hydraulic power system. With a typical this application because of the large number of different parts to
system like this, speeds to 288 fpm (87.8 m/rein) are achievable be machined. There are six families of cartridge units in both
with forces to 8 tons (71 kN). If more tonnage is required to English and metric sizes, and each family is composed of five to
make a cut, however, the power system mode can be switched to seven different cartridges. Six different materials, ranging from
provide up to 16 tons (142 kN), but with the cutting speed 1144C steel to M2 HSS, are also used, resulting in the need to
reduced to 144 fpm (43.9 m/rein). handle more than 80 different parts. Changeover from the
production of one part to another—requiring the replacement
of the broaches, the collet, and loading components—can be
B.roachmg Applications done in about 20 minutes.
Applications of broaching are so diversified that only a few Large turbine components. A common application in the
examples can be cited here because of space limitations. manufacture of aircraft turbine engines is the broaching of
Production rates vary widely depending on the workpiece, dovetail forms in compressor wheels and fir-tree forms in
manufacturing requirements, and the equipment used. One turbine discs for holding blades and buckets. One large vertical
example of high production is the straddIe broaching of slots in machine for this purpose handles discs to 60” ( 1524 mm) diam,
7-34
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
weighing as much as 8000 lb (3600 kg). Broaching tools are Soluble oils (mineral or synthetic based), mixed to a ratio of 1
mounted on all six sides of a 9 ft (2.7 m) long, hexagonal turret part oil to 5-10 parts or more water, offer the advantage of
that has a stroke of 90” (2286 mm). Up to 0.250” (6.35 mm) of better cooling properties and are widely used for lighter duty
stainless steel can be removed in a single stroke with a pulling operations and broaching softer materials. They are partic-
force of 50,000 lb (222.4 kN). Machine controls permit the ularly suitable for broaching workplaces with thin cross sections
operator to index the workpiece and tool turret, as well as that are incapable of rapid heat dissipation and for high-speed
control the infeed of the workpiece. operations.
A combination universal cradle and rotary table with hy- Proper application of the cutting fluid is also critical. A
draulic infeed permits broaching helix and cone angles. generous flow should be directed at the cutting edges and gullets
The machine has a two-speed, variable-delivery, hydraulic of the teeth, both at the start and finish of the broaching
pump that allows roughing passes to be madeat rates to 25 fpm operation. Application of fluid at the end of the cut is necessary
(7.6 m/ rein) and finishing passes at rates as slow as 3 fpm to wash chips from the gullets.
(0.9 m/ rein) through a variety of materials. Tolerances of With internal broaching, flow of the cutting fluid into the
0.0008” (0.020 mm) are maintained. workpiece is restricted by the broach teeth. In some cases, this
problem is minimized by submerging the entire workpiece in the
cutting fluid during the operation. When broaching long bores,
Cutting Fluids for Broaching high-pressure streams of cutting fluid are forced around the tool
As is the case with other machining operations, successful and into the workpiece for improved lubricating, cooling, and
broaching often depends on the proper selection and appli- chip removal.
cation of a cutting fluid. Accuracies maintained, surface Maintenance of the cutting fluid is equally important. Good
finishes produced, and tool life are all sensitive to temperature filtration of the fluid is necessary to ensure cleanliness and the
changes during broaching and can be improved with the proper production of smooth surface finishes, as well as long broach
cutting fluid. A detailed discussion of cutting fluids is presented life. Chemistry of the cutting fluid should also be maintained by
in Chapter 4, “Cutting Fluids and Industrial Lubricants. ” periodic testing and with the use of additives when required,
Primary functions of a cutting fluid used for broaching are:
Broach Sharpening
1. Lubricating the chip/ tooth interface, thus reducing fric-
Allowing broaches to become too dull can result in damaged
tion and heat, decreasing wear, and minimizing the
teeth, excessive power requirements, the production of inaccu-
development of built-up edges when broaching certain
rate parts with poor surface finishes, and the need to remove
materials.
more material from the broaches than desirable, thus short-
2. Keeping the tool and workpiece cool by carrying away
ening tool life, It is advisable to constantly monitor tool wear
the heat generated, thus permitting more accurate
and keep careful performance records after each production
broaching and the production of smoother surface
run, Doing this will help in determining when the broaches
finishes.
should be resharpened.
3. Washing chips away from the tooth gullets,thus pre-
The purpose of resharpening is to restore keen cutting edges
venting ~ossible damage and lengtheni~g broach life.
and the original tooth geometry. Broaches are often returned to
Selection of a cutting fluid depends on the specific broaching the manufacturer for resharpening, but resharpening can be
application including the material to be broached, design of the done by the user with proper care, The following recommen-
broach and machine, operating parameters, and production dations apply only to sharpening HSS broaches. Carbide
requirements. The use of a proper cutting fluid can sometimes broaches are generally of the indexable insert-type and are
improve chip formation, resulting in desirable curled chips. seldom reground.
Some materials are broached dry. Some applications require a Internal broaches. Internal broaches are sharpened by grind-
fluid with higher cooling capabilities; while for others, the ing only the faces of the teeth. Removing metal from the tops of
fluid’s lubricating properties are more important. teeth would change the dimensions of the broached surfaces.
Cast iron is generally broached without the use of a fluid, can Grinding of the tooth faces requires that the wheel be inclined
act This is because the brittle chips and fine dust produced are at an angle greater than the face angle of the teeth to avoid
highly abrasive, and when mixed with a fluid, can act as a interference. An approximate formula for determining the
lapping compound and cause rapid tool wear. For many wheel angle is:
applications of broaching cast iron, exhaust systems are
~- FD (13)
provided to remove the dust. Some nonferrous metals, such as
R
brass and magnesium, are also frequently broached without a
cutting fluid. where:
Straight cutting oils having good lubricating properties are
W = wheelhead angle, degrees
generally preferred for heavy-duty broaching, cutting high-
F = face angle of broach tooth, degrees
temperature alloys, and high-force applications such as cutting
D = grinding wheel diameter, in. or mm
splines, gear teeth, and other forms. Good results are obtained
R = root diameter of tooth, in. or mm
with sulfur-chlorinated oils having fatty additives to increase
wetting and cooling properties. For broaching materials that Surface broaches. Flat surface broaches are also generally
will work harden, however, the sulfur content should be kept at resharpened on the faces of the teeth, but they may be reground
a minimum and the chlorine content and fatty materials should on the tops of the teeth if excessive wear lands exist. When this is
generally be increased. If problems occur in removal of chips done, the original dimensions of the broach can be reestablished
from the tooth gullets when using a straight cutting oil, diluting by adjusting the holder or placing shims under the broach. The
the oil slightly with a lighter paraffin oil may help. gullets must be reground to their original depths so that
7-35
CHAPTER 7
BROACHING
adequate chip space is maintained. Chipbreakers should also be Grinding wheels. The wheels used for grinding HSS broaches
reground when they are no longer effective due to resharpening. are most often vitrified-bond, aluminum-oxide types of soft-to-
Contoured surface broaches must be ground on the tooth faces medium grade (H, 1, J, or K). Wheels with grain sizes between
only to ensure required dimensions on the workplaces. 46 and 80 are generally used for rough grinding; those with 100
Blending gullet surfaces. Regrinding of the gullets in both grain size or finer are usually used for finish grinding. Dished
internal and surface broaches requires careful blending of the wheels are required to produce sharp cutting edges.
gullet contours with the tooth faces and the backs of the Broach repair. A broach manufacturer can frequently repair
preceding teeth (see Fig. 7-38). The grinding of pockets in the a large broach at a considerable cost saving to the user. The
gullets must be avoided because they can interfere with chip broken area is ground out of the tool, and a new section is made.
formation and movement and can cause chip packing. Smooth The new section is inserted into the tool and brazed in place with
surfaces are also important to minimize friction and adherence high-strength silver brazing alloys. Even a limited amount of
of chips to the teeth, so the gullets are sometimes polished after welding can be performed on a tool if special precautions
grinding to increase broach life. are taken,
A single tooth or section sometimes can be repaired by a weld
buildup, although this practite has only limited application.
Often the damaged tooth can be removed, and three or four of
Th,s tooth
4a7”TF the following teeth can be restepped to redistribute the chip load
and cutting forces. A composite broach can be repaired simply
properly sharpened
If wheel IS not dished, by replacing the damaged section. The decision to replace or
Proper repair a broken broach requires close consultation with the tool
stock removal manufacturer.
Hook face must Sometimes a broken tooth can be effectively eliminated by
grinding it below the cutting height. The additional cutting load
created by the noncutting tooth should be distributed over the
next several teeth.
Radii must blend
and be smooth.
WIII pock Handling and Storing Broaches
r pockets Broaches are expensive tools; therefore, they should be
handled and stored carefully. The sharp cutting edges must be
Fig. 7-38 Dished grinding wheel used in broach sharpening. A dished protected to prevent damage, and the broaches must be
grinding wheel, careful blending of the gullet radii, and avoidance of supported to prevent bending. Boxes or racks for storage or
pockets are important in broach sharpening. (Apex Broach & Machine
co.)
transport of the broaches should have individual supports or
padding to keep them from contacting one another or other
hard surfaces.
Finishing teeth. It is not necessary to grind all finishing teeth Vertical racks with contact surfaces that are near the ends of
at each resharpening because the first teeth do most of the the broaches and made of wood or other soft material are
cutting. Common practice is to sharpen only the first finishing generally preferable. If the broaches have to be stored hori-
tooth. After this tooth becomes undersized, the second tooth is zontally, they must be properly supported to prevent sagging or
ground. This procedure is repeated on subsequent teeth until bending. Small, short broaches can be stored horizontally in
they are all undersized, at which time a new broach or finishing drawers or bins with soft separators. Broaches should never be
section will be required. left on the floor or a workbench because of possible damage.
Grinding problems. A common problem in grinding HSS’S is For long-term storage, broaches should be cleaned, rust-
the possibility of changing the metallurgical structure or proofed, and wrapped.
hardness of the steel (commonly called burning the tool)
through improper grinding practice. If the temperature gener- Troubleshooting
ated by the grinding process exceeds the tempering temperature Possible causes and suggested solutions for broaching
for the steel, the tool will be overtempered and local softening problems are listed in Table 7-8. Some of the typical problems
will occur. are illustrated in Fig. 7-39.
Cracks from residual stresses may be introduced into the
broach by rapid or localized thermal expansion during grinding,
Cutting edges Wear I“eS Exceswe
followed by rapid contraction. Even if no cracking occurs
chipped and/or
initially, the high residual stresses will lower the effective burned.
strength of the broach, and it may fail at a lower strength level
than normally expected. Stress relieving after sharpening can
Chip not curing. Check
eliminate this problem. Chips packing hook angle and radws.
Build-up on cutting
Sharpening machines. While standard tool and cutter chlpbreakers Blend face must be smooth.
meffectlve. -I ~edges cOuses gOllng
grinders can sometimes be used to sharpen broaches, more I
Heel of chip
accuracy and better finishes can be obtained on special broach
tearing parl -’
grinding machines. Such special machines are available with Check for
manual, semiautomatic, or automatic control and can be used proper hook
for grinding flat, round, or flat and round broaches. Internal angle.
broaches are ground between centers, and steady rests should be

used with longer tools to ensure concentric sharpening. All Fig. 7-39 Typical problems encountered in broaching. (Apex Broach
internal broaches should be straightened before OD grinding. & Machine Co. )
7-36
CHAPTER 7
TABLE 7-8
Possible Causes and Suggested Solutions for Broaching Problems
Problem Possible Cause Suggested Solution

Broach stuck Dull teeth or clogged gullets. Resharpen and check tooth geometry.
in workpiece
during Underpowered machine. Use machine with more capacity.
cutting Power failure. Check power supply. Do not try to back broach out of workpiece under
stroke power. Remove workpiece and broach and try to separate. Workpicce may
have to be broken to separate from broach,
Broach Overloading of broach. Check design of broach and workpiece.
breakage
Dull, mutilated, or improperly Resharpen broach carefully,
sharpened broach.
Stripping. Remove workpiece before broach returns
Crooked hole in workpiece. Check previous operations.
Improper locating surfaces. Check workpiece and fixture.
Excessive work hardness. Check heat treatment and processes that may have work-hardened surfaces.
Improper tooth geometry. Check broach design. Do not stop or start broach in cut,
Broach Improperly sharpened broach. Check sharpening practice and machine.
drifting
Inadequate support. Check broach and workpiece support.
Broach body too small. Use broach with larger body diameter.
Nonsymmetrical cuts. Change processing to improve concentricity.
Variable work hardness. Check previous processing.
Too few teeth in contact. Check broach design.
Abrasive Excessive hard scale. Remove scale by pickling or use broach designed for this condition.
scratching or
Cold worked surfaces. Change previous processing.
nicking of
broach teeth Improper coolant use. Remove scale by filtration.
Broach condition. Check broach hardness and sharpening.
Galling, Variations in work material. Check previous processing.
tearing, and
metal pickup Improper or insufficient cutting Use recommended fluid and check chemistry and cleanliness.
fluid.
Improper broach design or Review design for specific application and check sharpening practice.
sharpening.
Defective or worn fixture. Check fixture design and condition. Softer bushings may be required.
Streaks on Tooth lands too wide. Reduce land widths by regrinding.
work surfaces
Burrs on broach teeth. Reburr broach after grinding.
Scale or abrasive material. Pickel workplaces or change processing.
Rings in Surging of broach. Vary pitch of teeth on broach.
broached
holes Inadequate support. Check broach and workpiece support.
Improper locating surfaces. Check workpiece and fixture.
Poor broach design. Review design for specific application.

Chatter Too few teeth in simultaneous Change broach design to different geometry or provide shear on teeth.
contact.
Excessive work hardness. Check previous processing.
Lack of rigidity. Check rigidity of fixture, broach, and machine.
Surging of machine ram. Reduce or increase cutting speed, check cutting-load variations, and inspect
power supply system.
7-37
CHAPTER 7
PLANING
PLANING
Planing is a material-removal method for producing flat
surfaces that may be horizontal, vertical, or at an angle. With
special equipment, planing machines, called planers, can form
curved or irregular shapes. Simplicity of operation, cutting tool j:
,.. . . . . . j ~ Ex+reme hegh+ of
design, and application make planers versatile machine tools. .-7
?....},
,! crossra[l heads
They are used primarily for medium-to-large size workplaces.
Productivity, however, is comparatively low; most of the work
previously done on planers is now performed on planer-type
milling machines (see Chapter 10, “Milling”) and surface
grinders, discussed in Chapter 11, “Grinding.”
THE PLANING PROCESS

In operations performed on planers, the workpiece is recip-
rocated and a single-point cutting tool is fed into the workpiece.
The feed in planing is intermittent and represents the width of
the cut. Planers are made with mechanical or hydraulic drives. S[d od
The mechanical drive consists of a variable speed, reversing
drive motor; gear train to the table; and control equipment. The
table of a planer with a hydraulic drive is reciprocated by one or
more hydraulic cylinders secured to the bed, the piston rods
‘o
It-1
being secured to the table. The speed at which a mechanical- Bed
drive planer operates depends on the speed of the driving motor o Hwl
and on the gear ratio. In hydraulic planers, the speed of the table
is determined by the effective area of the piston and by the
volume of oil pumped against this area in a given time.
While many jobs formerly handled on planers are now being
performed on other machine tools, applications still remain for Fig. 7-40 Double-bousiog planer having two heads on the crossrail
which planing is economical. Workpieces of certain size and and one sidehead on each housing.
shape, and long, narrow, and angular surfaces are often easier
to machine on a planer. Planing is often preferred for flat
bearing surfaces that have to be hand scraped because, with
planing, work hardening of the surfaces is minimized.
Tooling costs are less for planing than milling, which may be
——
important when production quantities are limited. Tool setting
and regrinding are easier with single-point planing tools. mn
Types of Planers
Several types of planers are available; double-housing and Crossroll +eads
open-side planers are the basic types. The heads on the crossrail
of some planers are constructed rigidly enough to permit
planing across the table.
Double-housing planers, This type of planer has two housings
supporting the crossrail, as shown in Fig. 7-40. It is usually
equipped with four heads, two on the crossrail and one sidehead
on each housing.
Open-side planer. The open-side type shown in Fig. 7-41 has
a column on one side of the machine only. The width of the Recprocatng 1 1111 I
-.
work that can be handled is not limited as it is on a double- toble d
housing planer. The work can extend far beyond the left side of
the table and may have an additional support on an auxiliary t
rolling table placed to the left of the planer and extending 1
parallel to the bed. Bed Wm

Convertible open-side planers, The convertible
planer is an adaptation
open-side
of the open-side type of planer with a
10 14$!
removable housing fastened to the left-hand side of the bed and
supporting the outer end of the rail. A sidehead may be
mounted on this housing.
Adjustable convertible open-side planers. This type of planer Fig. 7-41 Open-side planer which permits handling work of unlimited
is provided with a removable left-hand housing mounted on a width. Work supports can be placed at left of machine if needed.
7-38
CHAPTER 7
PLANING
runway perpendicular to the table travel, allowing this housing’s

position to be adjusted to suit the particular job. The adjustment
permits positioning of the left-hand sidehead to the greatest
advantage.
1
Milling planers. These machines are made with various
combinations of planing, milling, boring, and drilling heads.
They are principally suited for work which requires various
types of operations and which can be done to advantage in the
iJ
same fixturing of the work. In this way, greater accuracy results
from eliminating resetting of the work and work handling is
minimized. These machines have found favor for large jig and
fixture work. They are made in double-housing, open-side, and
convertible types,
\---
& ///~
Double-cut planers. This type of planer is designed by some
manufacturers to incorporate the ability to cut on both the —-l
forward and reverse strokes of the table. The head on the planer
(a) (b) (() (e)
has a limited rotation spindle, oscillated by a small air cylinder
that engages one bit of a double-bit toolholder with the work on
the forward stroke of the table and then the other on the table’s
reverse stroke. This planer is available in both the double-
E
housing and open-side design.
Capacity of Planers
The width of a planer refers to the maximum width of the
I-.
/
work that can be planed on the machine and is slightly less than
the distance between the housings. The height refers to the
maximum height of the work that can be planed on the machine
and is slightly less than the distance between the top of the table
(9)
and the bottom of the crossrail in its highest position.
The length of a planer refers to the maximum table stroke or
to the maximum length of a piece of work that can be planed
77
on the machine and is somewhat less than the distance between
(h) (1)
the chip pockets of the table. Thus, a 48 x 48” x 16 ft (1219 x
1219 mm x 419 m) planer can plane a piece having a maximum
size of 48” wide, 48” high, and 16 ft long. The dimensions
indicating the size of the planer are always expressed in the
order of width, height, and length. Fig. 7-42 Plain planer tools for: (a)right-hand roughing, (b) left-hand
Height and length capacities for an open-side planer are the roughing, (c) slotting, (d) right-hand side cutting, (e) left-hand side
same as explained previously, but the width capacity is not cutting, (~) right-hand dovetail cutting, (g) left-hand dovetail cutting,
(h) straight roughing, and (j) straight finishing.
limited. The maximum distance from the inner side of the
column to the tool in the left-hand crossrail head, with the head
in a vertical position and at the extreme left-hand end of the rail,
is approximately 12“ (300 mm) greater than the nominal width
of the planer. For example, on a 48” ( 1220 mm) wide open-side
planer, this distance is approximately 60” ( 1520 mm). Clcl
Planer Tools
ML
Cutting tools used on a planer are heavy-duty, single-point
tools similar to those used on lathes and shapers. They can be
made of forged high-speed steel or they can consist of a heat-
treated shank with a high-speed steel, cast-alloy, or carbide tip ❑
that is brazed or clamped in place.
Plain cutting tools. Tools of the type shown in Fig. 7-42 are
widely used. These tools are of forged high-speed steel with the
ends ground to the desired shape. They may also be made with a
I
Fig. 7-43 Finishing tool with a clamped tool hit used for planing.
short piece of high-speed steel (on which the cutting edge is
formed) welded or brazed on the end of a mild-steel shank. In
some cases, a high-speed steel, cast-alloy, or carbide tip is Undercutting tools. On some classes of work the use of
cemented to the face of the shank. undercutting tools is necessary. The solid type of undercutting
Figure 7-43 shows a finishing tool with a clamped-in tool bit tool shown in view a of Fig. 7-44 must be lifted clear of the work
that may be made of any one of the three cutting-tip materials. on the return stroke to avoid damage to the tool, workpiece,
Numerous designs of tools with removable tool bits are and planer head.
available from commercial sources. These inserted too} bits are Another type of undercutting tool, with the cutting tool
held in the heat-treated shank or holder by clamps or wedges. pivoted in the holder, is shown in view b of Fig. 7-44. The
7-39
CHAPTER 7
PLANING
toolholder shank must be blocked against the slide at the upper Double-cutting tools. Special tools, often called double-
end to prevent the entire toolholder from lifting. Failure to take cutting tools, have been developed for planing on both strokes
this precaution when using such tools can result in breakage of of the table on machines not specifically designed for this type
the tools, marring of the workpieces, andpossible damage to of work. These tools, of which Fig. 7-46 typifies the general
the planer head. The cutting tool pivots in the holder on the design, have the tool block with tool assembly clamped on the
return stroke, thereby avoiding any tendency to become wedged regular apron and the apron locked against lifting by means of
against the surface being planed. The flat spring A is used to seat screws. The tool shown in view a of Fig. 7-46 is designed for
thetool asitenters the cut. Thetool bits areclamped into the planing the undercut in T-slots; the tool shown in viewb of Fig.
pivoted shank. 7-46 is designed for planing throats in T-slots. Other designs,
Reach tools. Reach tools, sometimes used to reach a highly not shown, provide for planing slots on both planing strokes,
recessed surface to be planed, have a small toolbox attached to with one tool or two separate independently pivoted tools.
the end of a long shan”k, Fig. 7-45. The schematic application of an oscillating toolholder on a
planer designed to cut on both the forward and reverse strokes
of the planer table is illustrated in Fig. 7-47. This arrangement
provides three cuts per planer-table cycle—a roughing cut on
both the forward and reverse strokes of the table, and a
El semifinishing cut on the forward stroke. The double-cut tool, in

combination with a conventional finishing tool on the double-
cut planer, permits roughing and semifinishing
combined into one operation.
cuts to be
0
(a) ‘.
Fig. 7-44 Undercutting tools for planing: (a) solid type, (b) pivoted
type.
Y
D------
------.-Q
....
00
u
I001 (b)
L Tool
Fig. 7-45 Reach-type cutting tool for extended distances to surfaces to Fig. 7-46 Double-cutting tools for planing T-slots: (a) for the
be planed. undercut, (b) for the throat.
7-40
CHAPTER 7
Semi-
finish-
tool
w Semi-finish
“w
~~
Section A-A
-Q
o
~--
~
i Forward stroke Reverse stroke
A
Fig. 7-47 Tooling arrangement providing for two roughing cuts and one semifinishing cut with each cycle of the planer table.
Gang tools. Gang tools consisting of two or more tool bits set
in a holder so that each tool takes its proportional share of the
total feed are sometimes used. The amount of power required
by such tools is proportional to the number of tools, and the
cutting pressure is substantial, However, higher production can
be achieved when the planer, the tool, and the job are of such
design as to permit usage of these tools.
With gang tools, breakout at the end of the cut is frequently
minimized because the width of cut is divided between two or
more tools. A gang tool used in form-planing applications by
feeding the head slide down is shown in Fig, 7-48. Each tool bit
is so located as to cut on a separate surface; chamfering tools are
inserted to chamfer the corners of the workpiece when the
proper depth has been reached.
Tools for finishing cuts. On cast iron, bronze, and aluminum,
finishing cuts are made with broad tools, usually from 1 to
1 1/2” (25 to 38 mm) wide. From 1/4 to 1” (6 to 25 mm) feed is
commonly used. When a good quality of finish is desired, a
depth of cut from 0.001-0,002” (0.03-0.05 mm) is used. A depth
of approximately 0.005” (O.13 mm) can be used for jobs in which
the quality of the finish is less important. Care must be taken to
set the tool so that the cutting edge is exactly parallel to the
finished surface.
The speeds used for finishing vary from shop to shop. In
general, for finishing cast iron when extreme accuracies are
desired, a speed of 30-40 fpm (9-12.2 m/min) is used, with a Fig. 7-48 Gang toolholder with tool hits placed to cut on separate
surfaces during planing.
high-speed steel tool. However, finish cuts are made with
carbide tools at speeds of approximately 200 fpm (61 m/min).
The broad took and coarse feeds used for cast iron do Carbide tools. Carbide tools having brazed-on tips are
not produce a good finish when steel is planed, because of usually restricted to fine cuts and finish work. Tools having
tearing of the metal. Feeds up to 1/2” (12,7 mm) are used for clamped-carbide tips or indexable inserts are used for roughing
finishing steel. Painting the surface of the steel that is being and finishing cuts. A carbide-tipped, clamp-on tool used for
finish-planed with a heavy cutting oil helps to improve the both rough and finish slotting of flat, horizontal, or vertical
quality of the finish. surfaces is shown in view a of Fig. 7-49. This design permits
7-41
CHAPTER 7
Fig. 7-49 Roughing and finishing tools for planing slots. The finishing tool (b) has a split shank and adjusting screw to vary the width of cut.
offsetting the bit to the right or left if necessary for a particular more difficult than on other types of machine tools. This is
cut and further provides a rigid lock for the bit. The tool in view particularly true when a number of small or medium-sized
b of Fig. 7-49 is for finishing and sizing slots. The split shank pieces of irregular shape are to be planed simultaneously. The
and adjusting screw make it possible to adjust the tool to width reason for this is that the work is subjected to the intermittent
without grinding to size. Brazed-on carbide tips may be used cutting pressures of the several tools as well as the inertia forces
since the finish slotting operation involves light cuts. developed during reversal. Also, when finish cuts are taken,
A gang roughing tool for the higher production of flat proper shimming must be done to avoid bending or warping
surfaces is illustrated in Fig. 7-50. Three round carbide inserts strains due to clamping because such strains would distort the
are stack-clamped in a common holder. One clamp secures the piece upon release of the clamping pressure. Paper is commonly
inserts front to back while another lock clamps them sidewise. used under the clamp point of surfaces to be finished in order to
increase friction and protect the table.
Setup and clamping accessories. A plentiful supply of
clamps, bolts, stop pins, etc., such as are shown in Fig. 7-5 I
should be provided for setting up and clamping the work on the
planer table, Clamping devices of this kind are generally used
when several different kinds of jobs are machined on the planer.
An end view of the workpiece setup for planing the top and
the right-hand side simultaneously is shown in Fig. 7-52. The
work is end-stopped by stop pins and an angle bracket. Side
stop pins prevent the work from moving to the left. A jackscrew
o
is used to support the overhanging part of the workpiece, and
offset clamps on the left side and pin clamps hold the work to
the table. The clamp studs screw into T-slot nuts.
Removable T-slot nuts, illustrated in view h of Fig, 7-51 are
Fig. 7-50 Adjustable gang-type carbide-tipped roughing cutter for more convenient and require less time to use than the ordinary
planing flat surfaces. T-slot bolt. The nuts can be placed into the slot from the top,
turned clockwise about one-sixth of a turn, and then lifted out.
Each tip bears against a removable hardened-steel seat. The Their use eliminates cleaning the chips out of the T-slots over
head of the tool is mounted so that it may be swiveled on the the whole length, which is necessary when standard T-bolts
shank to adjust the width of cut. The shank and the toolholding are used.
head are calibrated to match the setting of the feed dial of the Chucks and vises. Magnetic chucks are used in some
planer. For example, if the feed dial is set to feed the head 0.250” instances for holding thin plates made of cast iron or steel. If the
(6.35 mm), the head of the tool is swiveled to a similar amount cutting pressure is not too great, these chucks provide a simple,
and each one of the three tips takes one-third of the total feed, or quick, and convenient means for holding the work. Positive
about 0.083” (2. 11 mm). stops are usually incorporated in the chuck to help carry the
Tool geometries. Recommended tool geometries for planing cutting pressure. Taper gibs are commonly planed on such
various materials are presented in Table 7-9. chucks. A wedge-shaped plate is placed between the chuck body
and the planer table to produce the proper taper on the gib.
Workholding for Planing Workholding vises are sometimes used to good advantage,
Setting up work is probably the most important aspect for particularly when the pieces are small or when only a few pieces
increasing the output of the planer, since setup on planers is of a kind are to be planed.
7-42
CHAPTER 7
PLANING
(e)
(m)
Fig. 7-52 Setup for simultaneously planing the top and right-hand
side of a workpiece.
Fig. 7-51 Common accessories for work setup and clamping on
planers: (a) plain clamp, (b) offset clamp, (c) U-clamp with pin end, (d)
pin clamp, (e) T-slot stop bracket, (J_) T-slot bolt, (g) stud, (h) T-slot the work. Usually the fixture can be so designed that the chips
removable nut, (j) stop pin or planer stop, (k) chisel point, (1) T-slot will fall clear of the surfaces on which the part registers, so that
stop block, and (VI) jackscrew. the cleaning time is minimized.
When the quantity of parts being made does not warrant the
Duplex table. When a number of pieces are planed at one cost of setup fixtures, the parts must be held in the usual way
time (gang planing), the setup time may be greater than the with clamps, end and side stops, etc. Such jobs do not often
actual cutting time. The work must be placed on the table, repeat at frequent intervals, and the operator may forget the
clamped in place, and after being planed, must be removed from arrangement used the last time or another operator may get the
the table; the table must be cleaned off in preparation for the job. To save time and faulty work in such setups, a sketch
next load, While all this is being done, the planer is cutting no should be made in the tool engineer’s department showing the
metal. On planers with divided or duplex tables, work can be various clamps, jackscrews, end stops, etc., all in proper
planed on one half of the table while the other half is being relation to the job.
unloaded and reloaded, A quick-acting coupling connects the Work layout. In nearly all planing jobs, the planer work is the
two halves of the table, bringing one half into tbe position for first operation on the piece, and in subsequent operations,
planing and placing the other half at the end of the bed for measurements or locations are taken from the planed surfaces.
setting up work. Automatic valves in the ends of the tables In cases when a setup fixture is not used and the piece
control the flow and pressure of the lubricating oil to the table is more or less complex in form, it is necessary that lines
ways, The tables can also remain permanently connected for representing the approximate locations of the finished surfaces
planing long workplaces. be scribed on the piece. This is done to ensure correct
Setup plates. Setup plates are sometimes used to reduce the relationship between the finished surfaces and the cored holes
time in which the machine is not used for actual cutting. Such to be bored later and to get correct wall thickness, etc. Accurate
plates have T-slots and holes for end and side stop pins. The surfaces must be located by gage blocks or similar means.
plates have a key at each end that fits into the center T-slot on Laying out the surfaces to be planed on a piece should be done
tbe planer table for aligning the plate parallel to the table. Lugs on a layout plate before the pieces are brought to the planer. In
are provided on the ends of the plate for bolting it down on tbe this way the operator requires much less time to set up the
table. The plate butts against an end stop secured on the front pieces, and the one who lays out the pieces becomes more skilled
end of the planer table to prevent the plate from sliding on the in this phase of the work,
table because of the cutting pressure. Lifting loops are provided Tool setting, Tool-setting gages are used for roughing and
on the plate for attaching chain or cable slings. semifinishing operations. A gage or template is secured to the
While the parts on one setup plate on tbe planer are top of the table at the rear end in correct relation to the work to
machined, finished parts are removed and rough parts are set up be planed. The tools are then set to the gage by pulling a paper
on another plate positioned near the planer. The time required strip between the tool point and the gage, or by the use of a
to remove one plate from the planer and to install tbe other is feeler gage. By this method, much time is saved and the chance
small compared with the total setup time. of error in dimensions is greatly reduced. The gages are usually
Setup fixtures. For some types of work, setup fixtures are made of cast iron; sometimes they have hardened steel inserts at
used to good advantage to reduce the setup time. If the fixture is the points at which the tool positions are gaged. When setup
carefully designed, the part can be clamped in place rapidly. The fixtures are used, the points of the tool-setting gage are
strains due to clamping must be considered to avoid springing sometimes incorporated in the fixture.
7-43
CHAPTER 7
PLANING
...-
7-44
CHAPTER 7
PLANING
, o
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m m
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7-45
CHAPTER 7
PLANING
ESTIMATING PLANING TIME SPEEDS AND FEEDS FOR PLANING

The time required to take one cut over a given surface in It is impossible to specify definite cutting speeds and feeds for
planing depends on the length of stroke, width of the surface to all types of planing applications. For example, the size of the
be cut, feed per stroke, cutting speed and table return speed. The workpiece often limits the speed and feed that can be used. In
approximate time can be calculated from the formula: other cases, clamping of the workpiece on the planer table or in
t.x ()s. s,
f
L+L+a (14)
a fixture may be the limiting factor. The ability of the work to
withstand the pressure of the cut often limits the amount of feed
that can be used. Power of the drive motor or hydraulic system
where: may be a limiting factor when heavy cuts are taken with several
1 = time required to plane a surface, min tools at one time or when a wide contact area exists between the
❑ width of surface to be cut, in. or mm tool(s) and workpiece, as is the case with profile tools.
~ = tool feed per table stroke, in. or mm Cutting speeds and feeds listed in Table 7-10 for planing
❑ length of planer table stroke, ft or m various materials represent approximate values and should
SC ❑ cutting speed, fpm or m/ min only be used as recommended starting points. More detailed
S, = table return speed, fpm or m/ min recommendations with respect to speeds and feeds for HSS and
a = time for reversal of table, min carbide tools, as well as depths of cut, for planing various
Under normal operating conditions, the value for a varies materials are presented in the A4achining Data Handbooks In
from 0.015 min for lower table speeds to 0.040 min for higher actual practice, however, the optimum speed and feed for a
table speeds. specific application should be determined by trial.
TABLE 7-10
Suggested Starting Speeds and Feeds for Planers*
Tool Material
High-Speed Steels Cast Alloys Carbides
Max. Feed Max. Feed Max. Feed
Workpiece Material Cutting Speed, per Stroke, Cutting Speed, per Stroke, Cutting Speed, per Stroke,
to be Planed fpm (m/ rein) in. (mm) fpm (m/ rein) in. (mm) fpm (m/ rein) in. (mm)
Aluminum 200-300 0.125 ** ** + 0.125
(61-91) (3.18) (3.18)
Brass (soft) 150-250 0.250 ** ** t 0.125

(46-76) (6.35) (3.18)
Bronze (medium) 75-125 0.075 ** ** 150-300 0.050
(23-38) (1.91) (46-91) (1.27)
Bronze (hard) 30-60 0.050 50-100 0.040 150-200 0.050

(9-18) (1.27) (1 5-30.5) (1.02) (46-61) (1.27)
Cast iron (soft) 50-80 0.125 90-120 0.050 110-225 0.050

(1 5-24) (3.18) (27-36.6) (1.27) (33.5-68.6) (1.27)
Cast iron (hard) 30-50 0.060 50-80 0.050 100-200 0.050
(9-1 5) (1.52) ( 15-24) (1.27) (30.5-61) (1.27)
Malleable iron 50-90 0.090 80-120 0.050 150-250 0.050
( 15-27) (2.29) (24-36.6) (1.27) (46-76) (1.27)
Cast steel 25-60 0.050 60-80 0,040 100-180 0.040
(7.6-18) (1.27) ( 18-24) (1.02) (30.5-55) (1.02)
Steel (soft) 70-100 0.050 ** ** 180-300 0.050
(21-30.5) (1.27) (55-91) (1.27)
Steel (medium) 60-70 0.060 ** ** 180-250 0.050
(18-21) (1.52) (55-76) (1.27)
Steel (hard) 20-35 0.035 ** ** 100-180 0.035
(6-1 1) (0.89) (30.5-55) (0.89)
* This data is based on an average depth of cut of %“ ( 12.7 mm). Cutting speed increases UP to 50% are frequently possible on light
finishing cuts.
** Cast alloy tools are not recommended for planing these materials.
I Use the maximum speed of the planer.
7-46
CHAPTER 7
/
Planer
m 29 2 fi (9 m) (approx ) *
Fig. 7-53 Pivoted radius rod which is used to plane surfaces having large radii.
SPECIAL PLANER APPLICATIONS

Special planer applications include planing radii, helical
grooves, and contoured surfaces. A number of methods can be
used in these applications.
n!’- Adjustment for length of radius
or and rack
Planing Radii -.
$. ‘,
Surfaces with large radii can be planed on plates or similar . . .’
workplaces with the method illustrated in Fig. 7-53. A radius
rod is attached to a plate that is free to oscillate with respect to a
second plate attached to the planer table. The workpiece is
fastened to the plate carrying the radius rod, and as the planer T
table reciprocates, a surface of the required radius is planed on
the workpiece.
Another method of planing surfaces to required radii is
shown in Fig. 7-54. The planer head is arranged to be swiveled
by means of a gear sector and rack. The saddle on which the
swiveling head is mounted is clamped in position on the rail and
is rotated by feeding the adjacent head on the rail, the latter
head having the rack attached to it. The radius planed is
determined by the distance of the tool point from the center of
the swivel, and this distance can be changed by adjusting the
slide on the swivel member.
Planing Yelical Grooves

A special application is planing helical grooves in rolls,
accomplished with the method illustrated in Fig. 7-55. The roll
is mounted in V-blocks and is end-stopped against an angle Fig. 7-54 Method of swiveling planer head by means of a gear sector
and rack to produce surfrrcea having different radii.
plate. An arm attached to the roll neck and having a roller
follower that is guided by an inclined plate fastened to the bed of
the machine causes the roll to oscillate through a predetermined Hydraulic tracer controls shown in Fig. 7-57 are also used on
arc as the planer table reciprocates. planers for machining certain three-dimensional contours. In
the application illustrated, a propeller blade is being planed.
Planing Coi, inured Surfaces The planer tool is moved up and down as the table reciprocates
One method of planing contoured surfaces is shown in Fig. by the tracer in contact with a master pattern, and the tool also
7-56. In this setup, vertical movements of the planer-head slides moves through an arc as the planer head is fed crosswise on the
are controlled by a cam mounted above the rail on the machine. NC and CNC can also be used for contour planing.
7-47
CHAPTER 7
PLANING
Fig. 7-55 Arrangement for planing helical grooves in rolls. Helic

grooves are planed in rolls by oscillating tbe workplaces with an arm Fig. 7-56 Cam which is mounted above tbe rail and controls vertical
having a roller follower in contact with an inclined plate. movements of the planer-bead slides to machine contoured surfaces.
------ .. . “.””.. - . . ----- -------- . ..-”....” “.. “ ~.”.. -. .“ ,Ila.,..,l. ~1 “s,.l,., “.-” . . .
CHAPTER 7

Shaping and slotting are material-removal processes in which
a single-point cutting tool is reciprocated across or through a
stationary workpiece to produce plane or formed surfaces. This
mode of operation differentiates shaping from planing. In
shaping and slotting, the work is stationary and the tool
reciprocates; in planing, the work is reciprocated while the tool
is stationary.
Simplicity of operation, flexibility of setup, low-cost tooling,
and good accuracy and finish capabilities make shapers and
slotting machines desirable for toolroom and die-shop needs
and for limited production requirements. The machines,
however, are seldom used for medium or high-production
applications because of their comparatively low productivity.
Possible operations are also limited by the maximum lengths of
the ram strokes on these machines.
TYPES OF SHAPERS AND

SLOTTING MACHINES
Several types of shapers and slotting machines are available.
Cutting tools used can be of different configurations and can be
set at various angles to profile, notch, cut angled slots and
grooves, and produce flat surfaces. Both the workpiece and the
cutting tool are firmly held in preselected positions, and the
toolholder head is reciprocated by a powered ram.
Fig. 7-58 Typical horizontal crank-operated push-cut shaper.

Horizontal Shapers
The most common shaper is the horizontal crank-operated
push-cut type (Fig. 7-58) with ram movement in the horizontal that pivots the clapper box. A post for the toolholder is held in
plane. These shapers range in maximum cutting stroke from 7 the clapper block.
or 8“ (178 or 203 mm) in bench models to 36” (914 mm) in Special horizontal shapers are available in a variety of
heavy-duty models. They are built with either mechanical or designs to suit specific applications. One example is a hydraulic
hydraulic drive and with a plain box table or universal table shaper with two toolheads and two holding fixtures for
permitting angular tilt in addition to horizontal and vertical increased production. Draw-cut shapers have also been built
adjustments. with special fixtures for mounting and feeding the workplaces.
A cutting tool is mounted on a shaper head that is attached to
the ram, which reciprocates the tool. Workpieces are held in a
vise on the shaper table or directly on the table. Power or hand Vertical Shapers or Slotters
feeding of the table is provided parallel to the table top and Vertical shapers, also called slotting machines, operate
perpendicular to the stroke of the ram. The tool cuts on the somewhat like horizontal shapers except that the ram recip-
forward stroke of the ram, and the table feeds the workpiece in a rocates vertically rather than horizontally. A typical vertical
direction perpendicular to the ram motion, for the next cut, on slotting machine is shown in Fig. 7-59. Most machines of this
the return stroke of the ram. Many shapers have a rapid traverse type have provisions for adjustable inclination of their rams,
for moving the table to various positions along a crossrail fitted and rotary tables are practically standard equipment. Standard
to the front of the machine column. machines are available with ram strokes ranging from 6-36”
On shapers powered by an electric motor through a V-belt (152-914 mm), with hydraulic or mechanical drives.
drive, a quick-change gear box provides different speeds Vertical slotting machines are available with five axes—
(strokes per minute) for the ram. On hydraulically powered longitudinal and transverse travel of the workpiece in the X
shapers, the ram speeds are infinitely variable. Stroke lengths and Y axes, vertical movement of the ram in the Z axis,
are varied by changing the relative positions of components on swiveling of the ram in the B axis, and rotating the workpiece in
the crank mechanisms or adjusting the positions of two dogs. the C axis—to permit a wide variety of operations. Such
A shaper head is clamped to the end of the ram and has a slide machines are available for manual operation, numerical con-
actuated by a feedscrew to adjust the depth of cut. A clapper trol, or tracer control.
box and block are fastened to the front of the shaper-head slide Keyseaters area specialized form of vertical shapers designed
to allow the tool to pivot away from the workpiece on the return specifically for machining internal keyways. They use a tool
stroke of the ram, thus preventing dragging of the tool over the mounted on a cutter bar above the ram, and it is pulled rather
machined surface. Most shapers have an automatic tool lifter than pushed through the workpiece.
7-49
CHAPTER 7
LH. s[de LH. side Fmshlng LH, roughing Parting or

rougting twl I finlshfng tool I tool tool I sloting tool
, , ,
LH. dovetail R.H doveioil 1.H. dovetoll R.H. dovetail

roughing tool roughfng tool flnshing tool fin[shlng tool
Tools for shaping cast Iron
-Iy~’&
,; !J!k
#Ji!)!,
,)?!
-J (95rrm)R
d+
KO
2J* 4“4L
(1
1,16”
6mm)R
T’J~
L.H. side L.H. side Finishing LH. roughing Poring or
roughing tool finishing tool tool tool slotmg tcql
Tools for shaping stee
Fig. 7-59 Vertical slotting machine equipped with a compound Fig. 7-60 Recommended geometries for common tools osed to shape
pivoting ram. (Cooper Engineering Lid,) cast iron and steel.
SHAPING AND SLOTTING TOOLS

General recommendations of geometry for took used in
shaping cast irons and mild steels are given in Fig. 7-60. The
actual angles can vary for specific types of irons and steels.
Tool steels and die blocks having a hardness of about R@5
can be shaped efficiently with reasonable tool life by using HSS
tools with the approximate geometry indicated in Fig. 7-61.
For shaping high-carbon, high-chromium alloy steels, which
are difficult to machine even in the annealed state, tools made
from shock-resistant grades of carbide are recommended. The
approximate tool geometry indicated in Fig. 7-62 has been
found to give good results. A good tool lifter is essential when
carbide tools are used.
The success of internal shaping on a horizontal
depends largely on the use of proper tooling. Two took com-
shaper I
Fig. 7-61 General purpose HSS tool for shaping tool and die steels.
monly employed for internal shaping are illustrated in Fig. 7-63.
Heavy-duty tools, such as the one shown at the top in Fig, 7-63,
are used with a locked clapper to prevent the tools from lifting proper methods of setting and clamping the tools are illustrated
out of the cuts. The clapper can also be automatically locked by in Fig. 7-64. The gooseneck tool shown in view a is preferable to
locating the cutting bit upward instead of downward. a plain lathe tool because it will swing out of the workpiece
Setting the cutting tools at the proper angles and rigid when subjected to heavy cuts whereas a lathe tool would dig
clamping are essential for good shaping and slotting. Three into the material being machined.
7-50
CHAPTER 7
Tools with sharp noses should be used for operations

requiring excessive overhang of the workpiece or tools and
when there is any tendency for chatter to occur. Keeping the
machine sIide up and having as short a tool overhang as
possible, as shown in view b in Fig. 7-64, are advisable to
eliminate chatter. Setting thetool topresent a slightly negative
rake angle, as shown in view c, permits the tool to swing out of
the workpiece instead of digging into the material.
d=-’n
(a)
Fig. 7-62 Sintered carbide tool for shaping high-carbon, high-

chromium alloy steels.
Clapper
+
Short
Holder
overhang
[ i-
r
~- &
(b)
Nut
Heovy-duty internal tool
Clapper lock
-w III)l]l\lll)l[l\ l\ll
Clapper .
\ . *
Tool post J
Holder
Tool
L
I / (c)
Small mternol tool
Fig. 7-63 Two tools commonly employed for internal cutting on a Fig. 7-64 Three proper methods of setting and clamping tools on
horizontal shaper. horizontal shapers.
7-51
CHAPTER 7
SHAPING AND SLOTTING OPERATIONS

Shaping of flat surfaces is performed primarily with the
workplaces held in vises. Some common methods of holding the
h
workplaces are illustrated in Fig. 7-65. For shaping rough Verlcal - ~$
castings, emery cloth is often placed between the castings and sllde
the vise jaws, as shown in view a. For shaping parallel surfaces,
soft metal is sometimes placed between the workpiece and vise ——
,,,, “o Clapper
lb
jaws, and parallels are sometimes placed under the workpiece, ‘1 ,: l:, box
as ilh.rstrated in view b. For right-angle shaping, a wedge,

parallels, and shims are used, as shown in view c. A setup for
shaping a workpiece having a tapered face is shown in view d.
Emery cloth with emery Soft metal

ogoinst costing
m
Roltgh —
costing 9 /
/
&
‘Vise Po;ollels WI l\Y-.YN
(a) (b)
Fig. 7-66 Typical setup rm a horizontal shaper with workpiece

ms fastened to table.
Vise ‘Vise
PoLlels
(c) (d)
—. .-
Y ig. 7-65 Common methods of holding workplaces in vises on
horizontal shapers.
Standard vises commonly employed for shaping include

single-screw types, which permit rapid clamping, and double-
screw types, which develop higher pressure and have swivel jaws
for workplaces having tapered surfaces. Other types include
moldmaker vises, popular in manufacturing glass and plastic
molds; overhung vises, convenient for shaping the ends of bars;
and on-end vises for special operations. Air and hydraulically
operated vises are also used in some applications.
Workpieces are also frequently fastened directly to the shaper
table. A typical setup is illustrated in Fig, 7-66. With proper
support on the outboard ends by auxiliary standards, long,
heavy workplaces can be machined on shapers.
While keyways, slots, and other similar surfaces can be
machined on horizontal shapers, they are commonly cut on
slotting machines (vertical shapers) or keyseaters. The setup
shown in Fig. 7-67, with the workpiece mounted on the rotary
table of a vertical slotting machine, is used to cut four internal I
slots, several bosses, and outside surfaces simultaneously. Fig. 7-67 Four internal slots, several bosses, and outside surfaces are
Automatic power downfeed to the head, with automatic depth machined simultaneously in this one setup on the rotary table of a
stop, is useful for slotting on horizontal shapers. vertical shaper.
7-52
CHAPTER 7
Contouring Operations
Contouring operations can be performed efficiently on both
horizontal and vertical shapers. A front-mounted control for
table crossfeed on horizontal shapers facilitates dual operation
with the head slide. By manipulating both the head slide and
table feed, contours scribed on the workpiece can be shaped
easily. Another method of shaping contours is to fasten a
template to the base of the machine and a follower to the
!!2!!!%
underside of the table, as illustrated in Fig. 7-68. Automatic
duplicating equipment, such as the hydraulic tracing device
shown in Fig. 7-69, is available for producing more complex
shapes from templates.
Rotary feeding heads and similar devices are also used on
horizontal shapers to produce irregular contours. Vertical
shapers accomplish similar work when equipped with rotary
tables. A master cam and special form tool are used in the setup
on a horizontal shaper, as illustrated in Fig. 7-70, to produce a
helical impeller.
ig. 7-69 Shaper equipped with a hydraulic tracer used to automati-

cally duplicate a shape from a template.
o
#
.dI1 ---l I
-
I I Ild >
Fig. 7-68 A template on the machine base and a follower under the Fig. 7-70 Horizontal shaper with a master cam and special form tool
table can be used to shape simple contours. used to cut a helical impeller.
7-53
CHAPTER 7
BIBLIOGRAPHY
References
Cutting Gears and Splines
One-of-a-kind or limited quantities of splined shafts and 1. Joseph A. Psenka, “Cutting Tools/Broaches—Material
gears are occasionally cut on horizontal shapers by using an Broachability,” Marrufacturing Errgirreering (November 1978),
indexing head on the outer end of the table to support the p. 41,
workplaces. 2. W. Andrew Haggerty and Myron J. Schmenk, “Broaching
Lightweight Castings,” ManufacturirrgEnginaering (December
Five-axis vertical slotting machines can be equipped to cut 1978), pp. 61-63.
gears and splines with rack or rotary shaper cutters, the 3. Machinability Data Center, Machirr/ngData Handbook, Volume
workplaces being mounted on a rotary table. When a rack 1, 3rd ed. (Cincinnati: Metcut Research Associates Inc., 1980).
cutter is used, the traverse axis is coordinated with the rotary
axis to roll the cutter past the workpiece and the tool is
repositioned between passes. Tool relief and infeed are con-
trolled by the longitudinal axis.
When rotary shaper cutters are used, a rotating head mech-
anism can be placed in the ram toolholder, Rotary motion of”
the head is synchronized with the rotary table. The longitudinal Bibliography
axis is used for variable infeed.
Arvy, Samuel. Broach Maintenance and Troubleshooting. S ME
With suitable profiled tools, chain wheels, ratchets, splines,
Technical Paper MR79-957, 1979.
and other profiles can be produced. Racks can be produced by “Automated Broaching: 600 Parts per Hours. ” Manufacturing
rack or single-tool cutters, using a slotting process. Internal Engineering (October 1976), pp. 54 & 55.
gears can be made by using a rotating head mechanism. “Broaching Big Blade Cavities.” Manufacturing Engineering (May
1978), pp. 57 & 58.
Crowning of gears can be done by using a small copying
Haggerty, W. Andrew, and Schmenk, Myron J. “Broaching
attachment, but templates must be made for each contour. Lightweight Castings. ” Manufacturing Engineering (December
1978), DD. 61-63.
OPERATING PARAMETERS Lentz, R“A,’ ‘“Continuous Broaching: What It 1s and What It Can
Do.” Manufacturing Engineering (May 1971 ), pp. 32-35.
Cutting speeds, feeds, and depths of cut used for shaping and
Linsley, Horace E. Broaching—Too/ing and Practice. New York:
slotting vary widely for different applications. The cutting The Industrial Press, 1961,
speed depends primarily on the material to be cut (including its “Progressive Broaching: New Tack for a Proven Process. ”
hardness and condition), the depth of cut and feed, and the Manufacturing Engineering (November 1975), pp. 40 & 41.
Psenka, Joseph A. “Cutting Tools/Broaches. ” Manufacturing
material from which the cutting tool is made. Typical cutting
Engineering (April-December 1978),
speeds range from 25 fpm (7.6 m,l rein) or less for some high- — “Making Precision Tooth Forms with Pot Broaching, ”
alloy steels to 140 fpm (42.7 m/ rein) or more for some brasses Manufacturing Engineering (July 1977), pp. 55-58.
and bronzes. Russell, John X. Report on High-Speed Broaching. SME Technical
Paper MR78-286, 1978.
Depths of cut and feeds vary with the power capacity of the
Smith, Leonard J, High-Speed Broaching via General Purpose
machine being used, length of stroke, rigidity of the setup, Tooling. SME Technical Paper MF79-449, 1979.
amount of stock to be removed, and surface finish require- Weissembach, Helmut G, High-Speed Broaching—Europe. SME
ments. Depths of cut range to 0.125” (3. 18 mm) or more and Technical Parser MR78-288. 1978.
feeds from 0.008 to 0.050’’ (0.20 to 1.27 mm) or more per stroke. — Mode~n Broaching Applications. SM E Technical Paper
MR78-646. 1978
Slower cutting speeds are generally required for deeper cuts and Wort hington,-B. Spe;;fic Cutting Force Relationships in Broaching.
higher feeds. SME Technical Paper MR80-933, 1980.
Cutting fluids are usually not required for planing, shaping,
and slotting operations because of the intermittent contact of
the tools with the workplaces. Also, the chips produced
generally fall clear of the tools and need not be flushed away by
the application of a fluid, There are applications, however, in
which the use of a cutting fluid is desirable to maintain close
tolerances, produce smooth surface finishes, or minimize built-
up edges on the tools. In such cases, the fluid should be directed
at the cutting area and the flow maintained continuously
throughout the cutting stroke. A discussion of cutting fluids is
presented in Chapter 4, “Cutting Fluids and Industrial
Lubricants. ”
7-54
CHAPTER 8
TURNING AND BORING

THE TURNING PROCESS
Turning is a machining process in which a sometimes driven directly by an electric motor, but CHAPTER
workpiece is held and rotated about its longitudinal the drive is usually through belts and) or a gear CONTENTS:
axis on a machine tool called a lathe. Cutting tools train.
mounted on the lathe are fed into the workpiece to Chucks or faceplates connected to the headstock TURNING
remove material and thus produce the required spindle are used to hold short, large-diameter Fundamentals 8-1
Lathes 8-3
shape. The principal surfaces machined are con- workplaces. Collets are used for short, small- Tools 8-24
centric with the longitudinal axis of the workpicce. diameter workpicces or workplaces machined on Workholding 8-47
Turning operations are defined as the removal the end of a bar or tube that is fed through the Operating
Parameters 8-64
of material from external surfaces on rotating spindle and parted from the stock when completed. Cutting Fluids 8-68
workplaces. Related operations on external sur- Between-center holding is used for long workplaces Sharpening 8-69
faces, also performed on lathes, include facing, and requires that center holes be previously drilled Applications 8-71
Trouble-
chamfering, grooving or necking, knurling, skiving, in each end of the workpiece. shooting 8-76
threading, and cutoff (parting). For between-center turning, a center is provided Safety 8-77
Operations that can be performed on internal on the spindle and a tailstock is mounted on the
BORING
surfaces with a lathe include drilling, reaming, outboard end of the bedways. The tailstock is Machines 8-78
boring, threading, and recessing. Boring operations adjustable along the ways for various workpiece Tools 8-82
Toolholders 8-87
are also performed on special-purpose machines lengths and is equipped with a center. The center Workholding 8-95
discussed later in this chapter, as well as on can be replaced by a drill or reamer when required Operating
multifunction machines (see Chapter 15). Drilling for chucking operations. Steady rests or follow Parameters 8-98
and reaming operations are also performed on rests are sometimes placed against the workpiece at Trouble-
shooting 8-100
special-purpose machines (see Chapter 9) and positions between the centers to minimize deflec- Jig Boring 8-101
multifunction machines. tion during machining.
Lathes are one of the most versatile machine
tools available. Most lathes have the capability for Cutting Tool Movements
threading, and with attachments or NC, can cut The carriage of a basic engine lathe (Fig. 8-1)
tapered or contoured surfaces, both external and consists of a carriage, cross slide, compound rest,
internal. Other operations that can be performed and apron. The carriage slides longitudinally along
on some lathes include spinning, honing, polishing, ways on the lathe bed, thus guiding the carriage
and buffing, parallel to the lathe and workpiece axis. Movement
of the cross slide, actuated by a feedscrew, is across
FUNDAMENTALS OF the bedways (perpendicular to the lathe axis) and
LATHE OPERATION over slide ways on top of the carriage.
Many different types of lathes of varying Clamped to the top of the cross slide is a
complexity are available to suit specific applica- compound rest that can be rotated 3600 and
tions. A number of these lathes are discussed in the secured at any angle with respect to the lathe axis.
next section of this chapter. The basic requirements The compound rest has a T-slot used to clamp a
for any of these lathes are (1) means for holding toolpost or toolblock. A slide on the compound
and rotating the workplaces and (2) a means for rest can be moved along the base by a feedscrew to
holding and moving the cutting tools. provide movement of the cutting tool at any
desired angle with respect to the workpiece axis.
Holding and Rotating the Workpiece An apron fastened to the underside of the
Workpieces are held in a lathe between centers carriage contains the gears and clutches for
or by a chuck, collet, fixture, or faceplate, Rotation longitudinal and cross feeds. It also has a split nut
of the workpiece is accomplished by a spindle to engage a Ieadscrew mounted on the lathe bed to
mounted in the lathe headstock. The spindle is drive the carriage when cutting threads.
Contributors of sections of this chapter are: Steve Cole, Technical Writer-Marketing, LeBlond Makino
Machine ToolCo.; ArthurS. Dinsmore, Manager- Technical Services, Seneca Falls Machine Co.; Thomas C. Doud,
Technical Writer, Hardinge Brothers, Inc.; Frank Ferdinand, Vice President-Marketing. Wadell Equipment Co. ,
Inc.; Geoffrey Y, Gill, Vice President, Muskegon Tool Industries; Theodore W. Judson, Professor of Mechanical
Engineering, General Motors Institute; Jack S. Larson, Chief Engineer, Olofsson Corp.; Robert M. Perry,
Technical Representative, Moore Special Tool Co. . Inc.; James M. Sullivan, Director of Engineering, Cushman
Industries, Inc.
Reviewers of sections of this chapter are: John Ambrose, Product Manager-Turning, Machine Tool Div., Bro wn
& Sharpe Manufacturing Co.; DavidL. Beaver, General r14anager, Erickson Div. , Kennametal, Inc.; John P. i30ggess.
Product Manager, Metalworking Div. . Kennametal, lnc.;Robert E. Brooks, Engineering Manager, SMWSystems,
Inc..’ William H. Day, Training Manager, American Tool; Arthur S. Dinsmore, Manager- Technical Services, Seneca
Falls Machine Co.; Clarence W. Doty, Principal Engineer, Energy Systems Group, Rockwell International’
8-1
CHAPTER 8
SELECTING A LATHE
can be difficult because of the wide variety of types and sizes

available. Size and complexity of the workplaces to be machined;
Compound rest
Cross side /
production, accuracy, and surface-finish requirements; operator
skills; and economic considerations are major factors in making
‘\. ~ ,
Carr!oge
a selection. With respect to workpiece size, swing over the lathe
bed and bed length are important criteria.
Production Requirements
Production requirements for the same or similar parts
require a careful analysis with respect to lathe selection,
especially for low to medium volume needs. Hand-operated
lathes are sometimes preferred for limited requirements of
nonrepetitive and relatively simple workplaces.
NC lathes are becoming increasingly popular for producing
small to medium, repetitive quantities of both simple and
complex workplaces. Large production requirements for
identical parts generally dictate the use of single or multiple-
spindle automatics or the use of special machines, discussed in
Chapter 15, “Multifunction Machines. ”
Production of metric-dimensioned workplaces poses no
serious problems with respect to the operation of lathes. Dual-
Fig. 8-1 Basic engine lathe carriage consisting of a cross slide, reading dials and digital readouts are commercially available to
compound rest, and apron. (LeBlond Makino Machine Tool Co.) permit machining to U.S. Customary or metric dimensions.
Lathes are also available equipped with metric feedscrews and
nuts. Most NC units have switchable inch/metric operation.
Operating Variables
Many factors influence any turning operation. The three
major ones are cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut. These Surface-Finish and Tolerance Requirements
factors arediscussed indetail under the section on operating Surface finishes of 20-50 IJ in. (0.51-1.27 K m) are the
parameters later in this chapter. practical limits that can be expected from turning operations
Cutting speed refers to the rotational speed of the lathe when using well-maintained lathes and tools.1 Smoother surface
spindle and workpiece and can be expressed in revoh.rtions per finishes, to 1 p in. (0.025pm) or less, however, can be produced,
minute (rpm). For turning and most other machining operations, particularly with precision machines and diamond cutting tools
however, the cutting speed is generally given in surface feet per (for nonferrous metals), but several cuts are generally required,
minute (sfm) or meters per minute (m/rein), which is the rate at resulting in increased manufacturing costs.
which the workplace surface moves past the cutting tool. The Dimensional tolerances that can be maintained in turning
surface speed equals the rotary speed (rpm) of the spindle times vary depending upon the machine and operating parameters
the circumference of the workpiece (in feet or meters). used, the workpiece, setup rigidity, and other variables. Practical
Feed rate is the rate at which the tool advances along its limits for production applications, with machines and tools in
cutting path. Itisexpressed ininches ormillimeters per minute good condition, range from +0.00 I” (0.03 mm) for workplaces
(ipm or mm/ rein), or in inches or millimeters per revolution (ipr having diameters of about 1/4” (6.4 mm) or less to *0.003° (0.08
or mm/rev). mm) for diameters of 4“ ( 102 mm) or more. Closer tolerances to
Depth of cut is the thickness of the layer of material removed *0.000050(0,00 127 mm) are often maintained, but maintaining
from the workpiece surface (the distance from the uncut surface these tolerances generally requires the use of more precise
to the cut surface), expressed in inches or millimeters, When machines and results in higher manufacturing costs.
turning cylindrical workpieces, the diameter is reduced by twice
the depth of cut. Economics of Turning
A discussion of the economics of turning and other machining
SELECTING A LATHE operations is presented in Chapter 1, “Principles of Metalcutting
Selecting the most appropriate lathe for a specific application and Machinability. ”
Reviewers, cont. .’ Thomas C. Doud, Technical Writer, Hardinge Brothers, Inc.; Alvin A. Ebel, Vice President-Marketing, Seneca
Falls Machine Co.; Frank Ferdinand, Vice President-Markating, Wadell Equipment Co., Inc.; Jack Fickers, Assistant Department Head-
Shop Department. Los A Iamos Scientific Laboratory; Henry E. Gabert, Product Sales Manager, Giddings & Lewis Machine Tool Co.;
Edward D. Gailey, Chief Engineer, Tha S-P Manufacturing Corp.; Richard Garula, Foreman-Spindle Department, Cincinnat\ Milacron,
inc.; Geoffray Y. Gill, Vice President, Muskegon Tool Industries; Laroux K, Gillespie, Staff Enginaer, Bandix Corp.; Derak Greenroyd,
Chief Engineer, Pratt Burnerd America, Inc.; Charlas Haarlamert. Product Managar - Turning Mechines, Cincinnati Milacron, inc..’ Dr. J.
Hazra, Manager, Turning Products, Carboloy Systems Dapt., General Elactric Co.; Theodore W. Judson, Professor of Mechanical
Engineering, GeneralMotors Institute; Rolf Kraemer, Product Manager/Cutting Tool Materials. Greenleaf Corp.; Dr. Brian Lambert, Associate
Professor. Department of Industrial Engineering, Texas TachnologicalUniversit y; Jack S. Larson, Chief Engineer, Machine ToolDiv. , Olofsson
Corp.; Joseph J. Ley, Manager Technical Services, TRW Carbide Tools Div., TRW Inc.; B. J. Lillibridge, Technical Service Manager,
Pratt Burnerd America, Inc.; Rod Luka, Customer Servica Engineer. DoALL Co,; Charles S. Lyla, Product Manager, Metalworking
Div. , Kennametal, Inc.; Guy E. Martin, Assistant Chief Engineer-Tool Design, New Britain Machine Div. . Litton Industrial Products, Inc.;
8-2
CHAPTER 8
TYPES OF LATHES
TYPES OF LATHES particularly for delicate, precision operations.

A wide variety of lathes and turning machines is available Workpieces machined on bench lathes are small. The
in many sizes to suit specific application requirements. They can maximum swing on most machines generally ranges from about
be controlled manually, semiautomatically, or automatically. 4-9” (102-229 mm), with center-to-center distances to 24” (610
Major classifications of different types include engine lathes, mm) and bed lengths seldom exceeding 6 ft (1.8 m).
contouring lathes, turret lathes, and NC/ CNC turning machines. Regular engine lathes. This classification covers general-
Each classification is further subdivided into specific kinds. purpose machines that are larger and more powerful than bench
Other lathe-related machines such as single-spindle automatic lathes. A typical center-type engine lathe is illustrated in Fig.
lathes and screw machines, Swiss-type automatic screw 8-3. Engine lathes are available in both hand and power-fed
machines, and multispindle automatic bar and chucking types; however, most engine lathes are power fed. Power is
machines are discussed in Chapter 15, “Multifunction transmitted through a geared headstock to provide a number of
Machines. ” spindle speeds, and some power-fed lathes have d-c drive
motors for infinitely variable speeds. Practically all engine
Engine Lathes lathes are equipped with a lead screw and quick-change gearbox
The engine lathe is a basic, general-purpose machine tool for threading operations.
that is used primarily to generate forms by removing material Engine lathes are made with a wide range of swings, and beds
with one single-point cutting tool at a time. The tool moves can be any practical length. Dimensional data for some engine
parallel, perpendicular, or at an angle to the axis of rotation of lathes is presented in Table 8-1. Machines have been built with a
the workpiece. swing up to 10 ft (3 m) and drive motors of 150 hp (1 12 kW) or
Through the use of attachments and accessories, a number of more. Some large roll lathes have drive motors rated at 400 hp
different operations can be performed on engine lathes. These (298 kW),
operations include single-point threading, thread chasing, Toolroom lathes. These are precision engine lathes built to
tapping, taper turning, duplicating and contouring, drilling, closer tolerances with respect to accuracy capabilities. The
reaming, boring, milling, and grinding. The versatile engine Engine Lathe Group of the National Machine Tool Builders’
lathe is widely used for producing many different parts in small Association developed accuracy standards which have been
quantities, as well as for toolroom and maintenance work. published as ANSI Standard B5. 16-1952 (reaffirmed 1979),
Engine lathes are generally classified as either chucking or “Accuracy of”Engine and Tool Room Lathes.”
center-type machines. On chucking machines, workplaces are Table 8-2 summarizes most of the items in this standard to
held in chucks or collets or on faceplates mounted on the lathe which member lathe manufacturers of the Association test and
spindles. On center-type machines, workplaces are supported certify their machines. Lathes with greater accuracies can be
between centers mounted in the spindles and the tailslocks of obtained at higher cost. ~JOOd preventative maintenance
the lathes. practices are essential to assure that the accuracies of lathes
Lathes are often divided into arbitrary classifications with are retained.
respect to size, function, and degree of precision. Sizes of lathes Manufacturing lathes. These are engine lathes, such as the
are generally specified by their swings over the bed and cross one illustrated in Fig. 8-4, equipped with special-purpose
slide and by the distances between centers or bed lengths, which attachments for turning specific workplaces on a production
determine the maximum diameters and lengths of workplaces basis. The lathe shown is equipped with multiple length stops,
that can be handled. multiple cross stops, and air chucking. Automatic lathes and
Every engine lathe provides a means for traversing the machines (see Chapter 15) also serve to meet high-production
cutting tool both along the axis of workpiece revolution and at requirements for specific workplaces.
an angle to that axis. Beyond this similarity, lathes may embody Special-purpose lathes. These are adaptations of engine
characteristics common to several different classifications. lathes developed for machining specific types of workplaces or
Bench lathes. These machines are essentially engine lathes for multipurpose machining,
small enough to be placed on a workbench, although modern Gap larhes. One example of a special-purpose machine is the
bench lathes are usually supported by a cabinet or base (see Fig, gap lathe designed to swing workplaces with larger diameters
8-2). This classification includes high-speed (to 5000 rpm or than would be possible on a standard engine lathe of comparable
more), instrument, jeweler’s, and watchmaker’s lathes. size. Some gap lathes have a section cut out of the bed
Since power feed is seldom required, most bench lathes are immediately in front of the headstock, but this restricts the
hand fed. Hand feed is often desirable on these small lathes, travel of the compound slide toward the headstock because the
Reviewers, cont.: Donald J. McCarthy, Senior Product Engineer, Jacobs Manufacturing Co.; Edward J. Meade, Product Manager-Cutting
Tools, Teledyne Firth Sterling; Gerald Mueller, Senior Engineer, Universal Engineering Div. , Houdaille Industries; Leo M, Muller, Manager,
Product Development, Adamas Carbide Corp.; Dennis Mullins, Manager of Engineering, Logansport Machine Co. , Inc.; Paul Neumann,
Manager- Technical Sarvices, The Lodge& Shipley Co.; Larry Nufer, General Sales Manager, American SIP Corp,; Heath Oliver, President,
Bardons & Oliver, lnc.;AnthonyP. Passler. Sales Manager, Davis Tool Co.; Thomas E. Paquette, Veribore Product Manager, De VIieg Machine
Co.; Ralph Prescott, Executive Engineer, The Monarch Machine Tool Co.; Richard F. Pugh, Tool Analyst, Research Dept. , Jones & Lamson
Products, Waterbury Farrel Div. , Textron, Inc.; Randall A. Reinisch, Armstrong Bros. Tool Co.; Harold J. Royal, Product Enginaer,
Metalworking Div., Kennametal, Inc.; Robert H. Sauer, Engineering Managar, Crafts Co.; Mike Schmenk, Tachnical Development Dept.,
Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.; Dr. Terry A. Schroedar, Manager. Mechanical Systems Research, Carboloy Systems Dept. . General Electric Co.; Vic
Seifried, Customer Applications Coordinator, Turning Machine Div. , Warner& Swasey Co,; Jack Sharp, Manager-Marketing Services, The
Lodge & Shipley Co,; James B. Simon, Vice President-Engineering, Giddings & Lewis Machine Tool Co.; James M. Sullivan, Director of
Engineering, Cushman Industries, Inc.; Vaun Walton, Manager-Standards Engineering, Valaron Corp.; Bruce A. White, Marketing Manager,
Metrology Systems Corp.
8-3
CHAPTER 8
TYPES OF LATHES
bedways end at the gap. needed for very long workplaces. Normal between-center work
Other gap lathes are equipped with a removable and can be done on shorter workplaces by inserting a center adapter
replaceable block having ways to allow the lathes to swing in the nose of the spindle.
both normal and larger diameter workplaces. There are also Right-angle lathes. These chucking machines, also called
sliding-bed gap lathes, such as the one shown in Fig. 8-5, that T-lathes or facing lathes, have a bed set at 90° to the spindle axis
permit varying the width of the gap and provide about twice the instead of parallel to it (see Fig. 8-7). The cutting tool (or tools)
normal swing capacity. The distance between centers when the traverse perpendicularly to the axis of workpiece rotation.
bed is fully extended is 50% more than when the bed is in its These lathes are used extensively to machine disc-shaped
normal position. workplaces when facing cuts predominate. Turbine engine
Holiow-spindle lathes. These machines have the same basic manufacturers use these lathes to machine compressor wheels
features as standard engine lathes with the exception of their and turbine discs.
enlarged, hollow, headstock spindles (see Fig. 8-6). They permit CenterIess bar-turning Iathes. These machines have a
loading stock from the rear of the headstock, through the traveling-collet work support. The collet supports the stock just
hollow spindle, and advancing the stock as required. These ahead of the cutting tool and moves with the tool as it is fed
machines are sometimes called oil-country lathes because of along the workpiece. This minimizes deflection, permits heavy
their extensive use for turning and threading long components cuts on slender shafts, and produces close tolerances and
used in oil and gas drilling equipment. smooth finishes. Straight turning and tracing are done by a
An important advantage of hollow-spindle lathes is that single-point tool and template mounted on the carriage. Form
shafts or tubes too long to turn between centers can be extended cuts, grooving, and cutoff are done with a six-tool turret on
through the spindle bore. One or both ends of these workplaces the cross slide, These machines are available with pegboard
can be machined without the need fora lathe witha longer bed. control or NC.
Chucks are often mounted on both the front and rear of the Ocher special-purpose lathes. Engine lathes have been
spindle for increased rigidity, and outboard supports may be adapted to many other special applications. Examples are
Headst~k
Spindle speed 6
control
-El 6/ Compound
YJ slide rest
-==1 5=/ /
Fig. 8-2 Typical hand-fed bench lathe
8-4
CHAPTER 8
TYPES OF LATHES
Lever for
k
heel
Fig. 8-3 Center-type engine lathe.
TABLE 8-1
Dimensional Data for Some Engine Lathes
Swing Over
Engine Lathe Swing Over Bed Compound Rest, Distance
Classification and Carriage with Chip Between Centers,
No. Wings, in. (mm) Guard, in. (mm) in. (mm)*
1610 16 (406) 10 (254) 30 (762)
2013 20fi (521) 13 (330) 30 (762)
2013-16 24 (610) 16 (406) 30 (762)
2516 25 (635) 16 (406) 48 (1219)
2516-20 30 (762) 20 (508) 48 (1219)
3220 32 (813) 20 (508) 48 (1219)
4025 40 (1016) 25 (635) 60 (1524)
* This is generally a minimum distance between centers. Some manufacturers offer models with increases in
center distances in 24” (61 O mm) increments to any practical maximum.
multispindle machines, camshaft and crankshaft lathes, feed at the proper location and are accurate to 0.003-0.005”
center and dual-drive lathes, railroad wheel and brake drum (0,08-0. 13 mm). Multiple automatic carriage stops are used on
machines, shell and gun barrel lathes, spinning machines, and production turning of pieces to desired lengths.
large roll lathes, Cross-slide stops. These devices, often referred to as threading
Lathe accessories, attachments, and features. Accessories stops, operate in the manner indicated for carriage stops but are
and attachments are devices added to lathes to improve their mounted on the cross slide.
versatility and/ or production rate or to perform a particular Rapid traverse. Rapid traverse forward is often furnished as
type of control or function. Some of the more common devices a standard accessory and provides a means for rapidly bringing
that are applicable to various types of lathes are described the carriage or cross slide to the starting point when any length
in this section, and workholding devices are discussed later in of work is being turned or threaded. Rapid traverse reverse is
this chapter. furnished on some machines to provide a means for rapidly
Carriage stops. The carriage stop (Fig. 8-8) is used on the bringing the carriage or cross slide to home position.
outer way of the lathe bed for accurately spacing grooves, Taper turning. Tapers may be cut on engine lathes (1) by
turning multiple diameters and lengths, or cutting off pieces of a setting over the tailstock, (2) by use of the cross-slide compound,
required thickness. They can also be applied to the cross slide. (3) by power feed to the compound rest, which is available on a
Three types of stops are commonly used: (1) positive stops, number of lathes, (4) by use of a taper attachment (Fig. 8-9), and
either single or multiple, (2) dial-indicator stops, and (3) (5) by use of form tools. Internal as well as external tapers may
automatic stops, either single or multiple. Positive stops enable be cut with all these methods except by setting over the
the operator to position the carriage manually with accuracy as tailstock, Setting over the tailstock throws the dead center out
close m 0.001” (0.03 mm); dial-indicator stops can be positioned of alignment with the live center, causing improper seating and
manually to 0.000 I” (0.003 mm). Automatic stops disengage the wear, but it provides a means of producing long slender tapers.
8-5
CHAPTER 8
TYPES OF LATHES
TABLE 8-2
Accuracy of Engine and Toolroom Lathes*
Tolerance, in. (mm)

Engine Lathes with Swing Over
Bed and Carriage Winm of
Tests 12-18” 20-32” 40-72”
and Toolroom (305-457 mm) (508-813 mm) (1016-1829 mm)
Specifications Lathes incl. incl. incl.
Tailstock way alignment, max reading along 0.0005 0.00075 0.001 0.001
length of bed, in 48” (1219 mm) (0.013) (0.0190) (0.03) (0.03)
Spindle center runout, total indicator reading 0-0.0004 0-0.0005 0-0.00075 0-0.00 I
(0.010) (0.0 I3) (0.0190) (0.03)
Spindle nose runout, total indicator reading 0-0.0003 0-0.0004 0-0.0006 0-0.00075
(0.008) (0.010) (0.0 15) (0.0190)
Cam action of spindle, total indicator reading 0-0.0003 0-0.0005 0-0.00075 0-0.00075
with indicator on rear side of test plate (0.008) (0.01 3) (0.0190) (0.0190)
Spindle taper runout, total indicator reading:
at end of 12” (305 mm) test bar 0-0.0006 0-0.0008 0-0.00125 0-0.0015
(0,015) (0.020) (0.0318) (0.038)
at end of spindle nose 0-0.0003 0-0.0004 0-0.0006 0-0.001
(0.008) (0.010) (0.015) (0.03)
Headstock alignment:
vertical, high at end of 12” (305 mm) test bar 0-0.0005 0-0.001 0-0.001 0-0.0015
(0.013) (0.03) (0.03) (0.038)
horizontal, at end of 12” (305 mm) test bar 0-+0.0003 0-+0.0005 0-+0.0008 O-*0.001
(0.008) (0.01 3) (0.020) (0.03)
Tailstock spindle alignment:
horizontal, forward at end of 0-0.0005 0-0.0005 0-0.0005 0-0.001
spindle when fully extended (0.013) (0.0 13) (0.013) (0.03)
vertical, high at end of 0-0.0005 0-0.0008 0-0.0015 0-0.0015

spindle when fully extended (0.0 I 3) (0.020) (0.038) (0.038)
Tailstock taper alignment:
horizontal, at end of 12” (305 mm) test bar O-*0.0005 O-AO.0008 O-*0.00 15 O-*0.0015
(0.01 3) (0.020) (0.038) (0.038)
vertical, high at end of 12” (305 mm) test bar 0-0.0005 0-0.0008 0-0.0015 0-0.0015
(0.013) (0.020) (0.038) (0.038)
Vertical alignment of head and tail centers 0-0.002 0-0.003 0-0.004 0-0.005
(0.05) (0.08) (0.10) (o. 13)
Leadscrew alignment: **
parallel with ways (horizontal or vertical) 0-0.004 0-0.004 0-0.006 0-0.006
(o. 10) (o. 10) (o. 15) (o. 15)
alignment of half-nut (horizontal or vertical) 0-0.006 0-0.006 0-0.008 0-0.008
(0.15) (o. 15) (0.20) (0.20)
Leadscrew cam action, max 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005 0.00075
(0.008) (0.010) (0.013) (0.0190)
Cross slide alignment,
to face hollow or concave only 0-0.0005 0-0.001 0-0.001 0-0.001
on 12” (3o5 mm) diam (0.013) (0.03) (0.03) (0.03)
8-6
cHAPTER 8
TYPES OF LATHES
TABLE 8-2-Continued
Tolerance, in. (mm)

Engine Lathes with Swing Over
Bed and Carriage Wings of
Tests 12-18” 20-32” 40-72”
and Toolroom (305-457 mm) (508-813 mm) (1 OI6-I829 mm)
Specifications Lathes incl. incl. incl.
Faceplate runout:
on diam 0-0.0005 O-o.oo1o O-O.0015 0-0.00 I5
(0.013) (0.03) (0.038) (0.038)
on face at nominal diam 0-0.001 O-O.0015 0-0.002 0-0.002

(0.03) (0.038) (0.05) (0.05)
Chuck runout:
face and periphery 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.005
(0.08) (0.08) (o.10) (o.I 3)
face of steps 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.005
(0.08) (0.08) (o.10) (0,13)
bar test 3“ (76 mm) from end of jaw 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.005
(bar diam same as hole) (0.08) (0.08) (o.10) (o.13)
Collet chuck runout, I” (25.4 mm) from O-o.oo1 0-0.001 0-0.001 Collets not
collet chuck (0.03) (0.03) (0.03) used on these
size lathes
Leadscrew:
lead per ft (0.3048 m) +0.001 *0.0015 +0.002 *0.002
(0.03) (0.038) (0.05) (0.05)
lead in any 4“ (102 mm) +0.0004 +0.0005 *0.0007 *0.001
(0.010) (0.013) [0.018) (0,03)
Backlash:
on crossfeed screw 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.005
(0.10) (o.10) (0.13) (0.13)
on compound rest screw 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.005
(0.10) (0.10) (0.13) (0.13)
Bed level, transverse or longitudinal, when 0.0005 0.0005 O.oo1 0.001
using a precision level. All readings to be (0.013) (0.013) (0.03) (0.03)
within (in 12”—305 mm)
Roundness:
with work mounted in chuck, lathe 0.0003 0.0004 0.0008 0.001
must turn round within (0.008) (0.olo) (0.020) (0.03)
Cylindrical turning
with 12“ (305 mm) long workpiece mounted 0.0008 0.0015 0.002 0.002
in chuck, lathe must turn cylindrically within (0.020) (0.038) (0.05) (0.05)
with 12“ (305 mm) long workpiece 0.0004 0.0008 0.001 0.001
mounted between centers, lathe must turn (0.010) (0.020) (0.03) (0.03)
* Abstracted from ANSI Standard B5. 16-1952 (reaffirmed 1979), “Accuracy of Engine and Tool Room Lathes,” published by
ASME.
** Readingsfor base-]ength bedtakenwith leadscrew stationary; additional 0.00 I” (0.03 mm) should be added for each additional
4 ft (1.2 m) of bed length.
8-7
CHAPTER 8
TYPES OF LATHES
Fig. 8-4 Chucking-type manufacturing lathe.
Fig. 8-5 Sliding-bed type of gap lathe.
—
ig. 8-6 Large-capacity, hollow-spindle lathe, (LeB[ond Makino Machine Tool Co.)
8-8
CHAPTER 8
TYPES OF LATHES
When the taper is to be short, or when only one or a few pieces

are to be machined, the cross-slide compound can be used to
advantage. Power angular turning, when available, is advan-
tageous for medium production quantities because it replaces
manual movement of the compound top slide.
Taper attachments, which are devices containing a guide to
which the cross slide is attached, offer the easiest means to
perform such jobs accurately. Attachments are available in
bed-mounted and carriage-mounted types; required angles are
set by means of graduations on one end of the guide rail. The
guide is angularly adjustable from parallel to the spindle
+X
centerline to the maximum angle of the device. Either turning or
boring of tapers is possible, and two tapered sections diminishing
in opposite directions can be produced on the same workpiece.
Form tools are generally used only for short tapers on a
production basis.
Ball-turning or radius-generating rest. This type of rest
re~laces the comDound rest and is used for turning or borinrz
spherical shapes (Fig. 8-10).
rig. 8-7 Right-angle lathe.
Micrometer stop
Corrmge stop
Fig. 8-10 Rest used to turn or bore spherical shapes.
Milling/sawing attachment. This device is attached to the

cross slide, replacing the compound. One type is adjustable to
hold the workpiece at right angles to the milling cutter or saw
,.( ,
1( I blade and at the correct elevation. The cutter is held by the
headstock chuck, drill chuck, arbor, or collet. In another type
Automotlc corrloge stop
(Fig. 8-1 l), the milling cutter and driving head are mounted on
the compound and the work is held between the lathe centers.
In both types three directions of feed are possible, permitting
7ig. 8-8 Carriage stops for engine lathes. angle milling, dovetailing, T-slotting, keyway cutting, and
thread milling.
Grinding attachments. Several types of this attachment are
commercially available: one smaller type is mounted on the
toolpost; a larger type (Fig. 8-12) is clamped to the compound,
replacing the toolpost. A third type replaces the compound and
mounts directly on the bottom slide. The grinders have two or
three-directional movement and can perform many kinds of
grinding operations. They do not have the rigidity of grinding
machines, however, so they work best under light cuts.
Gear-cutting attachment. In the use of this attachment, the
gear cutter is mounted on a regular arbor held between centers
or on a stub arbor. The gear blank is usually clamped on the
short arbor in the attachment; cutting is generally done at the
bottom of the blank. Indexing of the blank maybe performed
using a dividing head or a finished indexing gear.
Turret attachments. An engine lathe may be equipped with
both a turret toolpost and a ram-type turret attachment to
Fig. 8-9 Engine lathe equipped with taper attachment. convert it to a hand-screw machine or turret lathe capable of
8-9
CHAPTER 8
TYPES OF LATHES
r)
Fig. 8-13 Bed-mounted turret which replaces regular tailstock.
Comrrmrt curting speed. Attachments are available to regulate

the speeds of drive motors on engine lathes in direct relation to
the diameter being turned. This provides a constant cutting
speed, in surface feet per minute (meters per minute), regardless
of varying diameters on the workpiece. Constant cutting speed
is also a feature of many controls used on NC and CNC lathes,
which are discussed later in this chapter.
Boring anddriliing. Fig. 8-14 shows the manner in which the
workpiece size and shape, as well as the nature of the hole to be
bored, affect the method of mounting the workpiece and the
type of boring tool or bar to be used. The workpiece should be
chucked whenever possible, and if the work is liable to spring,
the extended end should be supported by a steady rest. When a
workpiece is to have a hole bored through it, the workpiece
must be mounted away from the face of the chuck. When a blind
Fig. 8-11 Milling attachment for mounting on compound. hole is to be bored full depth, a bar should be used that holds the
cutting edge of the tool ahead of the bar end. Enough room
should be allowed between the tool point and bar end to permit
chip curl without crowding.
Lko
The smaller the hole, the greater the end clearance must be to
prevent the heel of the tool from striking the bored surface. The
boring-tool nose should be set level with the centerline of the
workpiece and ground with more back rake than a turning tool,
in order to reduce tool forces and improve chip formation.
The lathe must always be leveled accurately before any
precise boring or drilling is attempted. Any twist in the bed will
result in a tapered hole. Jackscrews are usually provided in the
base for leveling.
Engine-lathe drilling operations are usually done by rotating
the workpiece while the drill is held fixed in the tailstock spindle
or by a tailstock chuck. A hole maybe drilled in a part having a
flat surface by holding the part against a drill pad and
Fig. 8-12 Grinding attachment which replaces lathe toolpost. advancing it, by the tailstock, against a drill held by a headstock
chuck. Holes may be drilled at right angles to the axis of a
efficient quantity production. Ram-type turrets (Fig. 8-13) are cylindrical part by locating the part in a V-block mounted on
usually bed-mounted and are available with or without power the tailstock spindle. The part maybe advanced against the drill
feed. In addition, they usually revolve automatically and have in the headstock spindle by revolving the tailstock handwheel.
an automatic index feed stop for each face of the turret. The When the workpiece is too large or irregular in shape to be
ram-type attachment usually has five or six positions; the cross- drilled by any of these methods, it may be mounted on the
slide or carriage turret generally holds four tools. Some ram- compound rest or on the cross slide with the compound
type turrets are connected with a rear rest for holding a parting removed. If a relatively large hole is to be drilled, a small lead
or grooving tool. hole is frequently drilled first.
The two types are advantageously used in combination; i.e., Thread cutting. Cutting screw threads on an engine lathe is
the ram-type turret can be used to countersink, drill, ream, and done by connecting the headstock spindle with the Ieadscrew
tap while the cross-slide turret can be used to turn, face, thread, through a gearbox which provides a number of gearing
and part. Turret lathes are discussed later in this section. combinations. This produces the desired ratio of the tool-
Cutter-relieving attachment. With this attachment, side or holding carriage feed to the rpm of the work spindle. With the
face-milling cutters, straight or spiral-fluted taps, reamers, etc., desired speed-feed ratio established, a thread of the desired
may be relieved for free-cutting action. pitch may be cut.
8-10
CHAPTER 8
TYPES OF LATHES
.r lg.
. s-14
. . . umereru
. ... . memoas
.. . .. ...—–––
. ,–.
L-
I
01 oormg on a Iame.
It is possible to cut metric or module-pitch screw threads by Contouring Lathes

using suitable change gears. For example, a setup can be made Contour t{rning is the production of three-dimensional
whereby metric screws of from 0.2 mm lead up to 10 mm lead forms on workplaces by controlling the path of the cutting tool.
can be cut by use ofa standard four-threads-per-inch Ieadscrew. Most contour turning is now done on NC lathes, discussed later
The production cutting of screw threads is often done on in this chapter. There is, however, still considerable work of this
single-purpose machines which roll, mill, chase, or grind type being done on standard engine lathes equipped with
threads. The decision to cut threads on an engine lathe in tracing attachments and on automatic tracer lathes when larger
production depends upon a number of factors including length, production quantities are required.
depth, and accuracy of threads; whether threads are single or Contouring on engine lathes. Movement of the cutting tool
multiple start, internal or external; workpiece material; when contour turning is done on an engine lathe is controlled by
accuracy; and surface finish. a tracing attachment. With these attachments, a follower or
The cutting tool is ground to the shape required, and right- stylus moves over the surface of a flat template, previously
hand or left-hand threads may be cut by reversing the direction machined part, master, or model, thus controlling the move-
of leadscrew rotation. For screw-thread nomenclature, dimen- ments of the cutting tool to duplicate the required shape.
sions, and tolerances, see Chapter 12, “Thread Cutting. ” The controls may be actuated hydraulically, electrically,
Most modern lathes are equipped with a threading dial (Fig. electronically, electromechanically, pneumatically, or mechani-
8- [5) which is used to ensure that the Ieadscrew split nut is cally. A typical hydraulically operated tracing attachment,
engaged with the leadscrew at the proper time so that successive mounted on an engine lathe, is illustrated in Fig. 8-16. The
cuts can be taken in the same groove or so that grooves can be equipment for tracer turning can be divided into two groups:
spaced properly for cutting multiple threads. Another useful
device is a thread-cutting stop, which is a reference stop to the 1, One-dimensional systems, which are the most common,
cross slide. It is attached-to the cross-slide dovetail. produce contours that can be defined in a single plane
and trace from a stationary template, part, or master.
2. Two-dimensional systems produce workplaces requiring
contouring both around the periphery and along the
axis of rotation and trace from a rotating master (see
Fig. 8- 17),
One-dimensional tracing systems. With these systems,
longitudinal movement of the cutting tool is provided by the
lathe carriage, driven by the standard feed mechanism. Systems
are available with toolslide movement at 45° or 9W to the
centerlines of the machines or with a variable-angle toolslide
movement.
When the conventional compound rest on an engine lathe is
replaced with a special toolslide fixed at 45°, it is not necessary
to stop the longitudinal feed of the lathe carriage to produce
shoulders at right angles to the centerlines of the workplaces.
Fig. 8-15 Thread-cutting dial which is standard on most lathes. The carriage feeds continuously, and the cut is uninterrupted.
8-11
CHAPTER 8
TYPES OF LATHES
The maximum decreasing angle or contour that can be traced decreasing angle or contour that can be traced with the 9(Y
with the 45° toolslide movement is 30”. toolslide movement is 80°.
Engine lathes having a standard cross slide and compound Variable-angle systems permit setting the toolslide at the
can be equipped with a hydraulic cylinder to control cross-slide optimum angle for the most difficult cutting conditions in the
movements during tracing, with the toolslide set at 90° to the contour. The greatest angle of the contour is bisected by the
centerline of the workpiece. Longitudinal motion is provided by angle of the toolslide. For stepped shafts, the toolslide is
the standard carriage feed of the lathe. The stylus of the tracing normally set at 45°. When it is set at 90°, the steepest practical
attachment controls in-and-out motion of the cross slide and contour that can be traced continuously is one with a 7(P
also actuates a hydraulic clutch and brake that stops the included angle in the downward direction and 60° in the
carriage feed for right-angle facing cuts. The max-imum outward dire~tion.
Hydroul[c
Tracer sl,de ~
Iknes
Templcte 1 J stylus J ~ Tracervalve

Template
support
Fig. 8-16 Hydraulically operated tracing attachment.
Fig. .S-17 H ydrardic tracing from a rotating master.
8-12
CHAPTER 8
TYPES OF LATHES
Two-dimensional tracer systems. These systems are similar

to one-dimensional systems with the addition of carriage feed
Bridge Round template
control, which permits contouring more complex shapes with a
uniform finish. Feed rates for both motions are arranged to give
a resultant feed rate tangential to the point of contact between
the stylus and the master. The feeds are independent of the
normal feed control of the lathe. -=@-
Operating parameters. The radius on the stylus used for Brldge
tracing should be equal to or smaller than the smallest radius on
the workpiece. If the tool radius is smaller than the stylus rig. 8-18 Bridges on template for steep cuts.
radius, corrections must be made on the template or master.
It is common practice to cut all surfaces of increasing
6-12” (152-305 mm) diam and are up to 138” (3505 mm) long.
diameter in the first setup. Contours of decreasing diameters are
Main drive motors are normally from 15-60 hp (1 1.2-44.8 kW).
cut when the workpiece is reversed. When cuts are too steep to
One, two, and four-speed headstocks are furnished with spin-
be made under tracer control, bridges as shown in Fig. 8-18 are
dle speeds to 4500 rpm on smaller machines and 3700 rpm on
added to the templates to carry the stylus over the steep section
larger models.
at an angle. For some applications, a system may be able to
Most automatic tracer lathes are of modular construction
trace in either direction, which requires a right and left-hand
and incorporate two beds. The upper bed has ways that usually
turning tool and reversal of the longitudinal feed.
carry the tracer carriage. The lower bed has horizontal ways and
Accurate duplication of shoulder locations on all workplaces
is arranged so that attachments can be mounted to the rear of
requires that the stock be cut to length and centered to depth
the spindle centerline for easy workpiece loading and unloading.
within close tolerances. If this cannot be done, allowances
should be made for subsequent facing operations. Tracer carriages are of two types:
Roughing and finishing cuts can be taken in one setup under
1 Single-axis carriage, in which the tracer slide is mounted
tracer control, but some authorities consider this poor practice.
on the carriage body at an angle to the spindle centerline
Four-way toolblocks are sometimes used with the roughing tool
between 45 and 75°. The carriage moves along the ways
set in the block in proper relation to the finishing tool to leave
at a preselected, fixed feed rate. A major advantage of
the correct amount of stock for finishing.
using a 45° slide angle is that the feed rate up a shoulder
Roughing cuts can also be taken with a stylus made oversize
on the workpiece is the same as along the bed ways. With
by the amount desired for the finishing cut. Another method is
other slide angles, the feed up a shoulder increases and it
to position the tool by means of the cross-slide handwheel for
is often necessary to program a feed change.
roughing and then advancing the tooI to a predetermined dial
2, Two-axis carriage, in which the tracer slide is mounted on
setting for the finishing cut. To avoid the need for resetting the
the carriage body at an angle to the spindle centerline of
handwheel, the slide can be fed against a transverse stop. Dual
90°. Motion of the carriage body and of the cross slide are
templates can also be used, one for roughing and the other for
both controlled by output signals from the stylus. The
finishing.
resultant feed rate along any contour is the same as that
Automatic tracer lathes. Considerable profiling of stepped
of either axis operating independently.
shafts and similar parts, as well as contouring, is being done on
lathes especially designed for tracing. Tracer lathes are generally A schematic drawing of the tracer control system on an
less expensive than NC contouring lathes and can sometimes automatic tracer lathe with electric drive is presented in Fig.
outperform them, especially on less-complex workplaces and 8-19. The closed-loop tracer system, repetitive within 0.0002”
larger lot sizes. (0.005 mm), consists of a stylus, an electronic amplifier, and a
Automatic tracer lathes were originally designed with d-c servomotor. The servomotor, activated by the amplifier,
versatile controls and general-purpose attachments for batch- controls the ballscrew-driven tracer slide. A differential trans-
type requirements. These machines featured fast setup and high former type of transducer connected to the stylus tip controls
productivity. the tracer slide velocity (proportional to the stylus deflection).
Mass production industries then started using automatic Multiple slides can be provided on tracer carriages to permit
tracer lathes for finish turning because fewer cutting tools had dividing long cut lengths or, alternatively, using one or more
to be maintained than if the operations were performed on slides for roughing and another for finishing. Carriages can also
single-spindle automatic machines. This method eliminates the be mounted on the lower bed of the lathe. These carriages can be
need for form tools, and long surfaces are free of the match provided to cut toward the headstock or toward the tailstock
marks associated with multiple tools. While the cycle time is and can be arranged for contour boring.
longer on a tracer lathe, more parts per day can often be The simplest arrangement on automatic tracer lathes is that
produced because of reduced downtime. in which one or two passes (switch selectable) are made with a
The next concept for mass production was to rough and single toolblock, With an automatic indexing toolblock, 3-10
finish turn parts in one chucking. This concept requires the passes can be made. Presetting the controls on the machine
addition of special attachments, multislide tracer carriages, and ensures correct stock removal for each pass. Three roughing
a more complex control system. In industries using this method, passes and a finishing pass are made in each of two operations
increased productivity has resulted by eliminating workpiece to produce electric motor shafts, as shown in Fig. 8-20.
handling between rough and finish turning and having several Squaring attachments having slides that move perpendicu-
tools cutting simultaneously. larly to the centerlines of the machines can be mounted on the
Automatic tracer lathes are available in a variety of stan- lower beds for rough-facing flanges, cutting grooves, and other
dard and special capacities. Shaft turning capacities range from operations which do not lend themselves to tracing. Tailstock
8-13
CHAPTER 8
TYPES OF LATHES
leadscrew D-C servomotor

D-C servomotor
with tachometer
with tachometer
1 ‘“Mard”ndreY F-’+ “T
m/ Ur3Der carriaae
W?’AZ-z- / kxkcrew nut
I \ \ I
I Tracer toolblock
Workp’kce to be
machined /
-. ”---- . . . –--. .—. ... -.–. .-–,..-. -–,. L .,--. –,. .–:- . ,0 . .. . . . D_ T). ,J-. r.,... -. i
spindles can be rotated when double-end drives are required, rates. They are particularly well-suited for workplaces requiring
Automatic loading/ unloading equipment, bar feeders, vibration both external and internal operations. A possible limitation of
dampers, and compensating or noncompensating steady rests turret lathes is the length-to-diameter ratio of the workplaces.
that permit pass-through machining of long parts are available. Long parts have to be supported by a center in the turret
because there is no tailstock. Also, it may not be economical to
Horizontal Turret Lathes use power-fed or automatic turret lathes for machining work-
Horizontal turret lathes differ from engine lathes in two basic places that require only a few tools or for meeting production
respects. A square turret is mounted on the cross slide in place requirements of less than 10 identical parts.
of the usual compound rest of the engine lathe and is pivoted Hand turret lathes. The versatility of the horizontal hand-
about a vertical axis to bring one of four tools into cutting operated turret lathe (Fig. 8-2 1) provides economical machining
position, On some lathes, a fixed toolholder is mounted on the of very small lot sizes up to the range at which power-fed or
back end of the cross slide or a separate rear cross slide. The automatic machines are economical. High flexibility permits
second basic difference is that a multisided turret takes the place quick simple setups for the production of a half dozen or fewer
of the tailstock on the engine lathe. The turret usually is pivoted pieces and provides ample stations for a large variety of
about a vertical axis so that, by rotating it, the tool on each side operations when going into higher production for which
may be brought into cutting position. multiple and combined cuts are essential. Basically, the turret
Numerically controlled horizontal turret lathes, discussed lathe is a production roughing machine used for metal removal
next in this section, do not always fit the above description prior to grinding or other fine finishing operations. At times,
because of the numerous turret arrangements available on NC however, it can be more practical to do finishing on the turret
equipment. lathe, especially when the geometry of the piece, lot sizes
Horizontal turret lathes are manufactured as hand-operated, involved, or lack of other equipment makes subsequent finishing
power-fed, automatic, and numerically controlled machines. operations impractical.
The hand-operated machines require an operator to manipulate On most hand turret lathes, the turret—round or hexagonal
the various controls required for indexing and moving the and usually with six tool stations—indexes automatically, An
turrets, changing speeds, etc. On automatic and NC turret indexable stop drum on the right-hand end of the machine ram
lathes the operator places the workpiece in the chuck and starts has adjustable screws to stop the advance of each turret tool.
the machine; all the machine motions are controlled The cross slide is mounted on the bedways with its base clamped
automatically. at a fixed location for a specific application. The cross slide is
A major advantage of turret lathes, compared to engine typically equipped with two toolblocks, one at the rear and one
lathes, is that the availability of more tools permits many parts at the front. An indexable square turret is often used instead of a
to be completely machined in one setup at higher production toolblock on the front of the cross slide. Machines are also
8-14
CHAPTER 8
TYPES OF LATHES
2nd ond 3rd passes, semlfinish and finish turn
*.,
. .
-.
/’
I st operation of two
Floor-tc-floor time 3.49 min
Port —electrlc motor shaft Spindle speed Cufilng spesd Feed—O.O 155 Ipr (0.394 mm,/rev)
h.4oterlol-C- 1045 steel bar 873 rpm 587 sfm (179 mm/min) Total length of cut (3 posses)—38 71E. (987 mm)
Stock removed—z t~r (0.44 mm) ma. Floor-t@floor tim~3 524 min
r lg. 5-ZU ILlectrlc motor snare are proaucea m two Operatloas on automanc tracer lathe. (Seneca falls Machine Co.)
available with a swivelirw com~ound slide.

Hand turret lathes are s-mall machines. Most have a maximum
swing over the cross slide of 51 / 2“( 140 mm), a collet capacity of
I 1/ 8“ (28.6 mm), and a maximum stroke (of both turret and
cross slide) of about 4“ ( 102 mm). The lathes can be operated as
chuckers or bar machines.
I Ram and saddle-type turret lathes. A difference in con-
struction of the turret unit separates conventional turret lathes
into two classes, the ram type and tbe saddle type. All hand
turret lathes are of the ram type. Power-fed turret lathes used
for increased productivity are available in ram and saddle types.
Spindle
controls F ‘
?+flcw~’ Ram-type iurre~ lathe. On the ram-type machine, the turret is
mounted on a slide which moves longitudinally in a stationary
saddle (Fig. 8-22). In setting up, this saddle can be positioned
along the bedways to give the shortest possible stroke of the
turret slide for the job. The advantage of this type of construction
is that the operator has less mass to move, which results in easier
and faster handling. The disadvantage of the ram-type
construction is that, as the turret slide is fed forward, the
.r lg.
..”-....
8-41
.
Harm-lea
. .
ram-type
. .
turret latne.f
. . .
overhang from the bearings in the saddle is increased, resulting
8-15
CHAPTER 8
TYPES OF LATHES
Power feeds. Ram-type turret lathes, such as the one

Hexagontur,ret illustrated in Fig. 8-24, are available with power feed for both
the turret and the cross slide. Some smaller ram-type machines,
however, have hand-fed (plain) cross slides that are generally
clamped to the lathe ways during setup and moved crosswise
only during machining. All saddle-type turret lathes have power
feed for both the turret and cross slide. So-called universal
turret lathes (larger ram types and all saddle types) are made
with powered cross slides that feed in four directions—forward
and reverse, either longitudinal or crosswise.
Attachments for turret lathes. Automatic control of the
headstock through the movement of the turret results in
considerable savings on jobs in which handling time constitutes
a large part of the total floor-to-floor time. The starting,
stopping, speed changing, and reversing of the spindle are all
controlled by a unit actuated by the indexing and forward and
reverse strokes of the hexagon turret. This attachment finds its
Fig. 8-22 Turret construction on ram-type machine.
best use on small machines on which a high number of spindle
changes take place in a short machining cycle.
in sag as the slide reaches the extreme of its forward motion. Threading operations. Some turret lathes are equipped with
This ‘sag may cause taper to be cut when long single-point a Ieadscrew and quick-change gearbox for single-point threading
boring or turning cuts are attempted with the cutters in the operations. Most production threading, however, is done with
vertical position; therefore, heavy cuts should be avoided. In taps and dies, discussed in Chapter 12, “Thread Cutting. ”
some cases this difficulty may warrant transferring the job to a Leadscrew attachments are available for turret lathes. One
saddle-type machine. attachment is a leader and follower mechanism for controlling
Ram-type turret lathes are generally smaller than saddle- the feed rate of a tap or single-point tool in relation to the
type lathes, with swings over the ways ranging to a maximum of workpiece. The leader is a short sleeve, precision threaded on its
22” (559 mm), a maximum turret slide travel of about 15” (380 OD, that is clamped on the feed rod of the lathe. The follower, a
mm), and bar collet capacities to 5“ ( 127 mm). They are mating split-nut device, is mounted on the lathe apron.
generally preferable for smaller diameter or shorter workplaces. Cufting tapers. Taper attachments are used for turning and
Saddle-type turre~ lathe. The turret of the saddle-type boring angular surfaces with the cross slide. Attachments are
machine (Fig. 8-23) is mounted directly to a saddle unit which also available for cutting tapers with cross-feeding turrets. For
traverses along the ways. This provides a more rigid con- steeper tapers, a swivel compound slide can bc mounted on the
struction, as required on larger machines, and also eliminates cross slide.
the turret-slide overhang problem inherent in ram-type Corrrouring operations. Tracer attachments, described
machines. Power rapid traverse reduces operator effort in previously under the discussion of attachments for engine
handling on these heavier units. lathes, are also available for turret lathes. They can be mounted
Saddle-type machines are also built with a cross-feeding on the cross slide, the cross-feeding turret, or one tooling station
turret to meet the requirements of specific jobs. Octagonal of the turret for indexing into position as required.
turrets can be obtained if required on ram or saddle machines.
Automatic turret lathes. These lathes, commonly referred to
The eight-sided turret, while offering two additional tooling
as single-spindle automatic chucking machines, are used
stations, increases the interference between turret and cross- basically for the same type of work as the turret lathe fitted with
slide tools and can limit the size of tools in adjacent stations on chucking equipment. They generally require hand loading and
the turret. unloading, but complete the machining cycle automatically.
Saddle-type turret lathes are generally larger than ram-type These machines are used when production requirements are
lathes, with swings over the ways ranging from 16 to 40” (406 to
too high for hand or power-fed turret lathes and too low for
1016 mm), turret travels of 2 1/2 to 8 ft (0.76 to 2.44 m), bar multiple-spindle automatic machines to produce economically.
capacities to 6“ (152 mm), and chucking capacities to 12” (305
Setup time is slightly higher than for the hand turret lathe, but
mm) or more.
operator fatigue and error are considerably reduced. The setup
time is much lower than for multiple-spindle automatic
machines, and expensive tooling is not usually required, Cost
reduction is also an important factor to be considered. The
automatic features permit a more constant flow of production,
and scrap loss is reduced by eliminating operator error. The
machines are designed to permit combined cuts economically
and automatically, thereby removing the responsibility from
the operator. Also very important is the fact that, during the
automatic machining operation, the operator is free to operate
another machine or is able to inspect the finished parts
completely without loss of time.
Two basic types of automatic turret lathes are available. One
I I has the saddle mounted on the bedways and a turret which
Fig. 8-23 Turret construction on saddle-type machine. rotates around a vertical axis similar to the conventional turret
8-16
CHAPTER 8
TYPES OF LATHES
Swore , Hexagon
I urret
Ram Stnn<
t
/ t
Forward and
reverse .
I
/
Stop rod ‘
J
Feed’ I
shofi
\ / /
LA q_ I
longtudtnol f / ~ {/ Cross-feed
/
feed lever lever
Carriage Cross-sl!de
handwheel Feed selectors
handwheel
Fig. 8-24 Power-fed ram-type turret Iathe.j
lathe. The other (Fig. 8-25) has a turret mounted on a shaft For many applications, NC lathes have at least doubled
extending from the headstock. The turret rotates around a productivity, and in some cases, production has been increased
horizontal axis parallel to the spindle centerline. It normally four or more times over conventional methods. The availability
consists of four, five, or six tooling stations. Standard holders of more tools per machine minimizes toolchanging requirements
are available to adapt commonly used turret-lathe tooling. and often reduces or eliminates the need for preliminary or
Cross-slide tooling stations are available in the front and rear secondary operations. Greater accuracy, repeatability, and
on one long slide or on independently operated front and reliability of these machines has improved the quality of the
rear slides. parts produced and has reduced scrap.
Each machine has a control unit which automatically selects Substantial cost savings can result from reduced operator
the speeds, feeds, lengths of cut, and machine functions. skill requirements and minimal needs for special tooling,
Included under machine functions, as needed. are dwell, cycle material handling, and inspection. Also, less labor may be
stop, index, reverse, cross-slide actuation, and many other needed since it is often possible for one operator to attend two
functions. Chip and splash guards are also standard equipment. or more NC lathes simultaneously. Shorter leadtimes provide
Other units of the machine are similar to the standard turret lathe. reduced inventory costs and faster delivery of workpieccs.
Additional single-spindle automatic machines, as well as Another advantage is that operating variables (cutting speeds,
multispindle automatic machines, are discussed in Chapter 15, feed rates, depths of cut, tooling, etc.) can be controlled by
“Multifunction Machines. ” management and part programmers rather than individual
machine operators.
NC/CNC Turning Machines Limitations. A higher capital investment, the need for
Numerically controlled (NC) and computer numerically personnel with programming skills, and requirements for the
controlled (CNC) lathes and turning machines are being maintenance of more sophisticated equipment are possible
increasingly applied because of their capabilities for increasing limitations to the use of NC turning equipment. Full-time work
productivity, reducing the cost of machined parts, and providing flow to these machines and a good preventive maintenance
more production flexibility, including contouring capability. program are essential. The machines are often operated on a
Advantages. Higher productivity is being obtained with NC multishift basis to justify the higher capital investment. A
lathes because of faster setups, reduced toolchanging require- discussion of economic justification for NC machine tools is
ments, increased utilization (more time spent in cutting), and presented in Chapter 5, “Machine Controls, ”
shorter cycles. Faster metal removal rates are the result of When to use NC lathes. NC lathes have generally been found
higher horsepower, spindle speeds, and feed rates available. to be most economical when lot sizes ranging from about 10 to
These features permit taking full advantage of the improved 200 or more workplaces are required repetitively, when tapes or
cutting tool materials now available (see Chapter 3, “Cutting stored programs can be reused, and/or when families of similar
Tool Materials”), parts are produced. There are exceptions however. Smaller lot
8-17
CHAPTER 8
TYPES OF LATHES
Fig. 8-25 Single-spindle autnmatic chucking machine. (Turning Machine Div., Warner & Swast=y)
sizes, even one-of-a-kind workpieces, can be machined using with more than one set), turrets arranged for both OE
NC turning equipment with cost reductions in cases when the and ID operations, short bed lengths, and either no
parts are complex, require close tolerances, wotdd otherwise tailstocks or optional swing-up style taiktocks for
involve more costly tooling, are difficult or impossible to occasional shaft work. A compact, two-axis, CNC, slant-
produce on engine lathes, and/or are to be manufactured again bed chucking center is illustrated in Fig. 8-26. This
at a later date. machine has a single-disc turret which holds both OD
NC lathes are also being increasingly used for higher and ID tools in combination toolblocks.
production requirements—several thousand parts in some 3. Universal or combination machines are either basic
cases. Single or multiple-spindle automatic machines, automatic center-type machines equipped with chucking-type
tracer lathes, and special-purpose machines, however, are still tooling or chucking-type machines provided with tail-
generally more economical for higher production, long-run stocks. A universal lathe with the CNC unit mounted on
requirements. the headstock is illustrated in Fig. 8-27. This machine is
Types of NC lathes. A wide variety of NC lathes and turning equipped with a round turret for OD operations, an end
machines is available. While some have single or multiple turret for ID operations, and a tailstock for between-
vertical spindles, most are of horizontal-spindle design. centers work.
Horizontal-spindle machines are usually supplied in one of
On a series of column-type turret lathes offered by one
three basic forms.
manufacturer, a single 10 or 12-station turret for both turning
1. Center-type machines, often referred to as shaft lathes, and end working tools indexes on an axis parallel to the spindle
are used primarily for between-center work. They are axis and also moves on a separate carriage in both the X and Z
equipped with a tailstock and are available with long bed axes. This arrangement permits setting the points of all cutting
lengths, High spindle speeds, a single set of slides, and tools to a common plane.
turrets arranged for only OD-type tooling are common Horizontal-spindle turning machines are also available with
characteristics of these machines. two or more spindles. Such machines are often equipped with
2. Chucking-type machines are characterized by larger and auxiliary equipment such as automatic loading devices since
lower speed spindles, wider and heavier slides (sometimes they are more applicable to high production requirements. The
8-18
CHAPTER 8
TYPES OF LATHES
CNC chucking-type turning machine with two horizontal Vertical-spindle turning machines are available with fro 1
spindles shown in Fig. 8-28 features an automatic loading one to four or more spindles. The tooling setup for turning,
device. The hydraulically-operated loading device consists of an facing, and boring on a vertical three-spindle chucker with
X-shaped member that indexes around a horizontal shaft. This vertical and horizontal slides is shown in Fig. 8-29. A built-in
member also moves in and out as its four arms pick up blanks, microprocessor-based control on this machine also permits
loads them onto the machine spindles, unloads the finished two-axis contouring. Some of these machines are discussed in
parts from the machine spindles, and deposits them in an exit the boring section later in this chapter, as well as in Chapter 15,
chute. A workpiece turnover station is also provided to permit “Multifunction Machines. ”
machinine both sides. Different operations can be uerformed Selecting an NC lathe. Selection of a particular NC lathe
when the workpiece is in each spindle. depends primarily on the application. Factors that must be
considered include the variety of workplaces to be produced
and their complexity, production lot sizes and repeatability,
number and types of tools needed, and tolerance and surface
finish requirements.
Machining of long workplaces usually dictates the need for a
center-type machine, while short and large-diameter parts are
handled better on a chucking-type machine. Requirements for a
wide range of different part sizes and shapes indicate the need
for a more versatile universal lathe.
Construction of NC lathes. Modern NC lathes feature
increased rigidity to reduce vibrations and greater stiffness to
minimize deflections. Methods used by different machine tool
builders to accomplish these goals include making the bed and
base an integral casting and innovations, such as making the
beds and /or bases of granite or reinforced concrete.
Types of beds. Slant and vertical beds, instead of the
traditional flat, horizontal beds, are offered by some manu-
ig. 8-26 Two-axis, CNC, slant-bed chucking center. (Ci?scbrnaf facturers of NC lathes. Advantages claimed include greater
filacron) machine rigidity, reduced floor-space requirements, simpler
ig. 8-27 Universal-type lathe with CNC unit mounted on headstock. (Jones & Lamson Products. Waterbury Farrel Div., Texrron Inc.)
8-19
CHAPTER 8
TYPES OF LATHES
Improved bearings. Superprecision, preloaded, ball or taper

roIler bearings are now used for many NC lathe spindles to
loading/unloading
improve rigidity and accuracy. One type uses hydraulically
dewce preloaded, tapered roller spindle bearings to compensate for
thermal expansion and contraction, thus providing constant
dynamic rigidity. Some lathes are designed to permit outside
adjustment of the headstock spindle bearings without
disassembly.
Drives used. NC lathes and turning machines are available
with either variable-speed a-c or d-c drive motors and silicon
controlled rectifiers (SCR) to provide infinitely variable spindle
speeds for increased versatility. These drives also permit
constant surface speed operation, which is particularly desirable
for wide facing and forming operations.
Drive motors up to 100 hp (74.6 kW) are optionally available
on some NC horizontal lathes and up to 400 hp (298 kW) on
some large roll lathes. Spindle speeds over 6000 rpm and rapid
traverse rates exceeding 400 ipm (10 160 mm/rein) are offered
by some lathe manufacturers, although most turning operations
do not require such high power, speeds, or feeds.
Permanent magnet d-c motors with electronic servo controls
(SCR or pulse-width modulated—PWM) and precision-ground,
large-diameter, preloaded ballscrews are being used extensively
for feed drives to provide high torque outputs and fast
Bed acceleration and deceleration.
Accuracy and repeatability. While no generally accepted
standard exists with respect to accuracy for NC turning
Fig. 8-28 Two-spindle, CNC, chucking-type turning machine features machines, these machines are usually built to closer accuracy
automatic loading. (Turning Machine Div., Warner & Swasey Co.) standards than engine lathes. Some builders provide linear
resolvers, independent of the feed drives, and guarantee X-axis
shielding, and improved accessibility for work loading repeatability to *0.000 15“ (0.0038 mm) for diameter control,
and unloading, toolchanging and setup, and chip and cutting using the standard plus or minus three sigma definition.
fluid disposal. Accuracy and repeatability, as the terms apply to NC
One builder of CNC chucking-type lathes has the headstock machine took, have been defined by the Numerical Control
(including the spindle drive) move on a separate bed along the X Committee of the National Machine Tool Builders’ Association
axis, thus providing good accessibility to the chuck area. in the publication “Definition and Evaluation of Accuracy and
Another manufacturer features a sliding spindle, with the quill Repeatability for Numerically Controlled Machine Took+. ”
and spindle guided by the machine bed and moving in the Z axis Tooling arrangements. The availability of more cutting took
while feeding. This reduces the mass that has to be moved, thus per machine is an important advantage of NC lathes. Up to 20
increasing accuracy over the length of the longitudinal stroke. tools on a single lathe can be presented to a workpiece rapidly
f$EEEJ%=
ig. 8-29 Tooling for turning, facing, and boring on a three-spindle vertical cbucker. (MOIch & Merry weafher Machinery Co,)
8-20
CHAPTER 8
TYPES OF LATHES
and precisely. For many applications, one set of standard tools

can be retained on the machine permanently to produce a wide
range of workplaces. When tool changes are necessary, only a
few generally have to be replaced, thus reducing downtime and
increasing productivity.
Turret designs. While turrets have been used for many years
to minimize noncutting time on lathes, their design and
capabilities have proliferated with the development of NC
lathes and turning machines. The wide range of indexable turret
designs available include disc, crown, and combination types
that carry both ID and OD took. Some have two sets of bores in
concentric circles on a single turret, the bores in the outer circle
being for turning toolholders, and those in the inner circle for
end cutting toolholders. Dual-1evel turrets, with end working
tools at one level and turning tools on the other (see Fig. 8-30),
are also available on some chuckers.
NC chucking centers made by one machine tool builder have
synchronized dual turrets on a single slide, with seven tools on a
crown turret and seven on a disc-type ID turret. Both turrets use
a common tool point concept to assure interference free
machining.
A turret that holds both OD and ID tools, arranged in any
order or combination, is shown in Fig. 8-31. The ID tools can be
removed easily for turning shaft-type workplaces.
Dual turrets mounted on independent slides are also available rig. X-3U Turret with end-working tools on one level and turning tools
on another. (Giddings & Lewis Machine Tool Co.)
(see Fig. 8-32). On machines with two-axis control, the slides
can only be operated one at a time. On lathes with three or
four-axis control, both slides can be operated simultaneously.
With three-axis control, the end-working turret is limited to
axial travel—moving on the W axis, parallel to the Z axis. With
four-axis control, full contouring is possible with both slides
operating simultaneously. Another feature offered on some NC
lathes is the capability to use rotating cutters. This requires a
third axis control for rotating the drill, tap, or milling cutter in
the C axis.
A turret within a turret is used on one design of a CNC
bar/ chucker. The two turrets, consisting of an inner and outer
assembly, are coaxially mounted on a double slide. One slide
moves parallel to the machine axis for turning, boring, and
Z-axis positioning. The other, a cross slide, moves laterally for
X-axis positioning. Neither turret has an independent Z-axis
movement, since they advance and retract together.
Some lathe manufacturers offer interchangeable turrets to
provide a second set of tools. For example, on one chucker, a
six-tool hexagonal or eight-tool octagonal turret is used for
chucked parts. When the machine is used with a tailstock for
between-center jobs, a four-tool square turret is installed. On a
bar/ chucker, optional front and rear slides can be used with the
eight-station turret. Other machine builders offer vertical or
angular slides. For example, one CNC bar/ chucker has an
optional vertical cutoff slide, which adds a ninth tooling
position to the eight-station turret.
Automatic toolchangers, Automatic toolchangers are not as
common on NC lathes as on machining centers (see Chapter 15,
“Multifunction Machines”). This is because most turning
operations can be done with fewer tools and available turret
arrangements are generally adequate. However, automatic
toolchangers are available on some NC lathes. These generally
consist of a swing arm or other automatic changing device to
transfer took between a storage magazine and the toolpost.
One automatic toolchanging system consists of a traveling
magazine, with a capacity for 12 toolholders, and a loader that Fig. 8-31 Turret which holds both OD and ID tools. (Monarch
swivels 18W with a thirteenth toolholder. Toolholders are Machine Tool Co.)
8-21
CHAPTER 8
TYPES OF LATHES
1
~
II I 1
u, 1
ri //
7 //
‘ig. 8-32 CNC lathe having turrets mounted on independent slides. (Turning Machine Div., Warner & Swasey)
transferred from the magazine to the swivel loader by a side Certain machine tool builders offer power tailstocks, some of
gripper arm and are located in a double vee. Automatic which are of the swing-away type and/or are programmable for
preelection and loading of the swivel unit with a tool automatic positioning and retracting. A swing-up tailstock
subsequently required takes place while the previous machining (Fig. 8-34) is a popular option on chucking and universal-type
operation is in progress. Indexing time for the swivel loader is turning centers. In Fig. 8-34, it is shown swung up to support
2.5 seconds. shaft-type workplaces during turning and can be swung dovm
A four-axis, CNC, centerdrive lathe with two automatic out of the tool plane to simplify ID operations. Swinging of the
toolchangers is illustrated in Fig. 8-33. Operations are performed tailstock up or down, as well as extension or retraction of the
simultaneously on both ends of the rotating workpiece, and tailstock quill, can be programmed for actuation by the
tools are changed automatically in both spindles on command NC/ CNC unit. This tailstock also has a calibrated, hand-
of the CNC unit. operated dial that adjusts an eccentric quill to compensate for
On vertical lathes made by one builder, a carousel that holds taper caused by tool pressure or workpiece weight differentials.
16 tool blocks and an automatic block changer are provided, Parts handling equipment is also available for storage,
Tool blocks are automatically transported to the lathe ram, transport, loading, positioning/orienting, and unloading.
with an 8-second change cycle, and up to 31 tool blocks maybe Robots are being increasingly applied for loading and
coded. Anoption onthese vertical lathes isan additional head unloading. Figure 8-35 illustrates a rear-loading robot exchang-
that can reequipped with aturret, a standard ram, or another ing a workpiece for an unmachined slug in the chuck of a lathe.
tool block changer system. Robots can be arranged for front loading, but this restricts
Rofating tools. In addition to providing mountings for access to the tooling area; they can also be arranged for top
nonrotating turning and boring tools, NC lathes can be loading, but this requires clearance above the machine.
equipped with one or more auxiliary, powered heads to rotate Automatic inspection equipment is also offered by a few
tools for drilling, reaming, tapping, milling, and other opera- lathe manufacturers for both tools and workplaces. Some work
tions. These heads can be mounted on the X-axis slide, opposite inspection systems automatically detect errors in dimensions
the turning tool station, or on independent slides. The lathe and/ or shape, determine causes, and make corrections by
spindle is provided with an axis of control, either positioning or adjusting tool offsets in the control or feeding values to the d-c
contouring, for orienting the workpiece in relation to the servo drives.
auxiliary head(s). Control systems. A discussion of NC, CNC, and DNC
Optional equipment available. Many of the same attachments systems is presented in Chapter 5, “Machine Controls. ” For NC
and accessories offered for standard engine lathes are available lathes and turning machines, as well as most other machine
from most manufacturers of NC lathes, Popular options for NC tools, CNC, which uses a minicomputer or microprocessor, has
lathes and turning machines, depending upon the type of largely replaced NC, which uses a dedicated and inflexible,
machine, include power chucks, steady rests, bar feeds, bar hardwired controller for a specific machine.
pullers, chip conveyors, and automatic lubrication systems. ,-idvarrtages cJfCNC. CNC is a more versatile system because
8-22
CHAPTER 8
TYPES OF LATHES
Fig. 8-33 Four-axis, CNC, centerdrive lathe with two automatic toolchassgers. (CirrcinrzaIZMilacron)
of storage and editing facilities at the machine. This type of

control system also offers the advantages of being able to
handle more functions in the same or smaller size unit,
diagnostic capabilities, simplified machine/control interfacing,
and easy tailoring to meet specific requirements or changes to
add new features. More compact CNC units now available are
being mounted integral with many NC lathes (see Fig. 8-27)
instead of being free standing, thus increasing operator con-
venience, saving floor space, and permitting the machines to be
moved without any disassembly.
Selecting a conrrol system. Selection of a control system
depends upon specific requirements and personal preference.
Basic controls are available to automatically control a minimum
number of functions, such as slide control plus a few tool
offsets. More sophisticated controls can automate many other
functions including speed changing, turret indexing, coolant on
and off, etc.
Selection of two, three, or four-axis controls for NC lathes
and turning machines also depends on requirements. Two-axis,
point-to-point, positioning systems (Fig. 8-36, a) provide
simultaneous control of longitudinal motion in the Z axis of the
lathe carriage on its bed, and transverse motion in the X axis of ig. 8-34 Swing-up tailstock in its uppermost position to support
the cross slide, The two-axis, point-to-point, control system is workpiece. (Cincinnati Milacron)
satisfactory if no taper or contour turning operations are
required. Some two-axis systems, however, provide simul- Conirolfeatures. Popular features for CNC units for lathes
taneous linear and circular interpolation, as well as threading include manual data input (MDI), program editing capability
capability. at the machine, and a display readout or cathode ray tube
Three and four-axis, continuous-path, control systems for (CRT) for indicating data. Other features available that should
lathes permit machining radii, threads, tapers, and contours be considered, depending upon the application, include
and are more productive than two-axis systems when internal expanded memory capacity, automatic spindle speed selection
and external surfaces can be machined simultaneously. A turret and constant surface speed capability, ipm and ipr feed rate
lathe with a three-axis control system is shown schematically in programming, feed rate override, a greater number of tool
Fig. 8-36, b. offsets, tool nose radius compensation, metric/ inch switching,
8-23
CHAPTER 8
TYPES OF LATHES
I_o
Fig. 8-35 Rear-loading robot exchanging a slug for a machined workpiece in the chuck of a lathe. (Giddirrgs & Lewis Machine TOOICo,)
(a)
[b)
rig. 8-36 Two-axis (a) and three-axis {b) control systems for lathes.
canned cycles, and analytic diagnostics. These and other cutting part consists of the cutting edges, face, and flank.
control features are describ~d in Ch~pter 5, “Machine Controls. ” Sin~le-point tools are availabl~as s~lid tools produced from
Certain features that are standard on one control may be bars o~to~l steel or from carbide blanks with tips brazed to a tool-
optional on other controls. holder. They are also available as indexable inserts made from
various cutting tool materials and clamped to holders. Indexable-
CUTTING TOOLS FOR TURNING insert tools have become the most widely used for turning.
Most metal removal in turning operations is done with
single-point tools. One exception is the use of form tools ground Materials for Turning Tools
to specific shapes. A single-point cutting tool has one cutting A comprehensive discussion of the various materials used for
part (tool point) and a shank by which the tool is held. The cutting tools is presented in Chapter 3, “Cutting Tool Materials. ”
8-24
CHAPTER 8
CUTTING TOOLS FOR TURNING
Selection of a particular material for a specific turning operation medium feed rates, and close tolerances, particularly for long
depends on many variables, including the workpiece material cuts on ferrous alloys. They are also effective for grooving
(its hardness and condition~ the operations to be performed; operations in which the widths and depths of the grooves are
the amount of stock to be removed; production, accuracy, and critical. Advantages of tools made from these materials include
finish requirements; the lathe to be used, including its condition; a high resistance to edge buildup and cratering; keen edge
rigidity of the setup (tool and workpiece); operating conditions retention; the capability of operating at high cutting speeds
(cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut); and tool cost per (approaching those possible with ceramic tools) and producing
part machined. smooth surface finishes; and lower cost and the use of less-
The choice of a proper cutting tool material can increase stratcgic raw materials than tungsten carbide inserts.
productivity, improve quality, and reduce costs. Standard Ceramics. Indexable inserts made from ceramic materials
methods of evaluating the performance of single-point cutting are being increasingly applied for the high-speed machining of
tools are presented in the following ANSI Standards: cast irons and steels, Advantages of such tools include operation
at higher cutting speeds than possible with carbide tools,
. B94.34-1946 (reaffirmed 1971), “Life Tests of Single- reduced tool wear, better size control, the production of
Point Tools of Materials Other Than Sintered Carbides. ”
smoother surface finishes, and the capability of machining very
. B94.36-1956 (reaffirmed 1971), “Life Tests for Single-
hard materials. Careful application of these tools is required,
Point Tools of Sintered Carbide. ”
however, because they are more brittle and are subject to
Carbon and low-alloy tool steels. These materials have thermal shock more than carbide tools. They are generally not
limited application in turning operations, primarily because of recommended for heavy, interrupted-cut turning operations or
their low hot hardness. They are, however, used occasionally for machining refractory metals and certain aluminum alloys
for certain specialized operations, such as knurling and burnish- because they develop built-up edges.
ing tools; the turning of soft, nonferrous materials such as brass; Diamonds. Increased use of both single-crystal and poly-
and for some short-run nonproduction jobs. crystalline diamond cutting tools has resulted from the greater
High-speed steels. Many lathe tools, especially form and demand for increased precision and smoother finishes, the
parting (cutoff) tools, are made from HSS’S, primarily because proliferation of lighter-weight materials in today’s products,
of their good wear resistance and toughness, as well as their and the need for reduced downtime for tool adjustments
relatively low cost and easy fabrication. Tools made from these and changes to increase productivity. Features of these tools
materials are often preferred for operations performed at low include extreme hardness and abrasion resistance, permitting
cutting speeds and on older, less-rigid lathes with low horse- the retention of cutting edges for long life, and high thermal
power. Good results arealso obtained fortough, interrupted- conductivity, as well as low thermal expansion, which pro-
cut operations on difficult-to-machine materials, and when vide dimensional stability and assure close tolerances and
sharp cutting edges are required. smooth finishes.
Applications are increasing for coated HSS tools and inserts The high cost of diamond tools, however, limits applications
and for tools made from HSS’S produced by powder metallurgy to those that can be economically justified on a cost-per-part-
(PM) processes. Advantages of HSS’S made by PM include a produced basis. Careful handling and rigid setups are essential,
uniform structure with fine carbide particles and no segregation, Diamond tools have proven to be most suitable for cutting very
faster and more uniform response to heat treatment, improved abrasive nonmetallic materials and nonferrous metals. They are
toughness and tool life, the capability of using higher cutting not suitable for turning ferrous metals or removing scale from
speeds and/ or feed rates for some applications, and superior rough surfaces. Polycrystalline diamond tools are more able to
grindability. withstand higher cutting pressures and impact forces than
Cast cobalt-based alloys. Tools made from these materials single-crystal tools and, as a result, are used for many
are sometimes used for cutoff and grooving operations and for interrupted-cut applications,
interrupted turning applications. They provide more heat Cubic boron nitride, Cutting tools compacted from CBN
resistance than HSS tools and are less apt to fracture or chip crystals offer the advantages of greater heat resistance than
than carbide tools. diamonds and a higher level of chemical inertness, making them
Carbides. Tungsten carbides are now the predominant suitable for turning ferrous metals. High wear resistance
cutting tool materials for turning operations and are used permits using higher cutting speeds and/ or obtaining longer
mostly in both uncoated and coated indexable inserts. They tool life, plus producing smooth finishes. Tool and alloy steels
provide an increase in cutting speed capability of about five having a hardness to RC70 can be machined at high speeds.
times that possible with tool steels, plus the ability to cut harder Metal-removal rates up to 20 times those possible with carbide
materials with improved efficiency. tools have been obtained in machining superalloy. The high
Carbide inserts coated with wear-resistant compounds are cost of CBN tools, however, has limited their application to
being used increasingly for turning. Coated inserts commonly hard-to-machine materials.
allow increases of 30-50° and, less frequently, can permit as
much as three times the speed possible with uncoated carbide Solid Single-Point Tools
inserts. They are not, however, suitable for some finish turning Solid single-point tools for turning are produced from
operations requiring sharp cutting edges, heavy roughing and castings, forgings, rolled bars, or compacts made by powder
severely interrupted cuts, turning rough surfaces, and machin- metallurgy processes. The cutting tool materials used include
ing some soft nonferrous metals, nonmetallic materials, and carbon and low-alloy tool steels, high-speed steels, cast cobalt-
high-temperature-resistant alloys containing nickel, cobalt, based alloys, and carbides, as discussed in Chapter 3, “Cutting
and titanium. Tool Materials. ”
Titanium carbide inserts are being used for semifinish and Carbon and low-alloy tool steels. As previously mentioned,
finish turning operations requiring high cutting speeds, light-to- these materials are seldom used today for cutting tools,
8-25
CHAPTER 8
especially production metalcutting applications; therefore, they

will not be discussed further.
High-speed steels. Solid HSS single-point tools, called tool
bits, are used extensively for turning, but primarily for low-
volume production ortheapplications
or rectangular cross sections.

previously mentioned.
Tool bits are produced from ground rods having square, round,
m S-might tcol
u—i Leod-nngle tool
Tool bits are available ground to form or cutting edges can be
m
ground directly into tool bit blanks (see Fig. 8-37) to suit the
specific applications. Typical hoIders for HSS tool bits are
illustrated in Fig. 8-38. Various types of HSS’S and their heat
treatment are discussed in Chapter 3, “Cutting Tool Materials. ”
Cast cobalt-based alloys. Solid single-point tools for certain %uorwose tool
a—l Pomtec-nosetool
applications (see Chapter 3) are cast from cobalt-based alloys.
Compositions of these alloys and the grinding of tools made
from them are discussed in Chapter 3.
Carbides. Solid single-point tools compacted from carbides
are limited to special applications because of high initial and
maintenance costs.
met tool
ig. 8-39 Styles of single-point tools in common use.
to square shoulders at the ends of the turning operations.

Square-nose tools. These tools are often carried in stock to
I1 SoKds
I
I
facilitate quick grinding of special styles or forms.
Pointed-nose fools. These tools are available with 6@ and
Fig. 8-37 Typical solid tool bits ground from HSS bars. 80° inchrded angles. The 60° tool is used principally for cutting
6W angle threads. Tools with an 80° included angle are
designed for boring, undercutting, chamfering, and general-
purpose use on Iathes.
Offset fools. These tools are available in end and side-cutting
types, with styles similar to straight side-turning and end-
cutting types. They are used on cuts where the tool offset
permits reaching surfaces that are difficult to machine with
straight-shank tools. Workpieces may be turned, bored,
or faced to a square shoulder with this style of tool. A lead
angle may be added if desired for work not requiring a
square shoulder.
Fig. 8-38 Typical holders for solid HSS single-point tool bits.
Brazed-Tip Single-Point Tools
Styles of single-point tools. Several styles of single-point Single-point tools are available with a body made from a
tools in common use are illustrated in Fig. 8-39. Another style, less-costly material and a tip or blank of cutting material brazed
not shown, is the round-nose tool used extensively for turning or otherwise mounted to the cutting point. Cutting materials
large-diameter workplaces because it permits employing high used for the tips include high-speed steels, cast cobalt-based
feed rates. The straight, lead-angle, and offset tools are made in alloys, carbides, single-crystal and polycrystalline diamonds,
right and left-hand types. All styles have square or rectangular and cubic boron nitride (CBN), as discussed in Chapter 3.
shanks to fit standard toolposts and toolholders. Selection of a Tipped single-point tools are available in the same styles as solid
particular style depends primarily on the type of cut to be made. single-point tools, just discussed.
Straight side-cutting toois. These are general-purpose took Nomenclature. The nomenclature is the same for both solid
for both rough and finish turning, facing, and boring operations. and tipped tools. A single-point tool (Fig. 8-40) embodies
They are usually preferred for machining workplaces with thin several geometrical elements which are classified and defined by
cross sections because most of the cutting pressure is across the the following ANSI Standards:
end of the shank, resulting in little end pressure and deflection
● B94. 1-1977, “Blanks and Semifinished Blanks for Solid
of the workpiece. Since their side cutting edge angles are zero,
Carbide Tips. ”
such took are suitable for machining to square shoulders. They
. B94.5- 1974, “Carbide Blanks and Single-Point Brazed
are available with a small lead angle for light finishing cuts.
Tools.”
Lead-angle tools. These took are generally used for heavier
● B94.50- 1975, “Basic Nomenclature and Definitions for
turning, facing, and boring operations, as well as for interrupted
Single-Point Cutting TooIs.”
or irregular cutting. The side cutting edge angle leads the tool
into the cut and eases it out again with a minimum of shock to Size. The size of a tool of square or rectangular section is
the cutting edge. These tools can be positioned at an angle to cut expressed by giving, in the order named, the width of shank, W;
8-26
CHAPTER 8
Side
1 rellef
angle
t-
r% Sde rake
End cuiiing edge angle (ECEA)
Tip
Tip overhang
width 4
*V Shank
Side cleoronge angle width
Nose radius
L%S:::,Ridgeang~(SCEA
j
Tip thickness g
= .Ekkmke
I <\?% ? ‘shank
&
,< hetght
‘w
Tip overhang
End rehef angle
End clearance
angle
-,—
Elg. a-w A Iyplcal susgle_pcum Larmue-uppeu UJul.
o .fi . . .. —.-., -, —-,. —-,—. .-_l-, .i - .,-- ..> .-. -,
the height of shank, H; and total tool length, L, in inches (mm), positive if the face slopes downward from the point toward the
such as 3/4x 1 l/2x 8’’(19x38x203 mm). shank, tending to reduce the included angle of the tool point; it
Shank. This is the part of the tool by which it is held. is negative if the face slopes upward toward the shank.
Base. This is a flat surface on the tool shank, parallel or Side rake angle. This is the angle between the face of the tool
perpendicular to the tool reference plane and useful for locating and a plane through the cutting edge, parallel to the base of the
or orienting the tool in its manufacture, sharpening, and shank or holder; it is usually measured in a plane to the base and
measurement. perpendicular to the side cutting edge; hence, it is a normal side
Heel. This consists of the areas adjacent to the intersection of rake angle,
the base and flank. Side relief angle. This is the angle between the portion of the
Face. This is the surface which the chip contacts as it is side flank immediately below the side cutting edge and a line
separated from the workpiece. drawn through this cutting edge perpendicular to the base. It is
Tool point (cutting part). This is the part of the tool that is usually measured in a plane at right angles to the side flank;
shaped to produce the cutting edges, face, and flank. hence, it is a normal side relief angle.
Curting edge. This is the portion of the face edge along which End relief angle. This is the angle between the portion of the
the chip is separated from the workpiece. It usually consists of end flank immediately below the end cutting edge and a line
the side cutting edge, the nose, and the end cutting edge. drawn through that cutting edge perpendicular to the base. It is
Nose. This is the corner, arc, or chamfer joining the side usually measured in a plane at right angles to the end flank;
cutting and the end cutting edges. hence it is a normal end relief angle.
Flank. This is the surface or surfaces below and adjacent to Clearance angle. This is the angle between a plane perpen-
the cutting edge. dicular to the base of the tool or holder and that portion of the
Neck. This is an extension of the shank that has a reduced flank immediately below the relieved flank. Side clearance
sect:onal area. A relatively small point, as required in boring, is angle is measured in the plane of the side rake angle. The
sometimes attached to the shank by a neck. clearance angle is greater than its corresponding relief angle,
Tool angles. The angles shown in Fig. 8-40 are “normal,” i.e., except when only one plane exists on the flank, in which case the
taken with reference to the cutting edges, as these are the ones clearance and relief angles could coincide.
specified in grinding a single-point tool. If a land is used, the Side cutting edge angle. This is the angle between the side
rake of the land is usually given, then the rake of the face. For cutting edge and the side of the tool shank or holder.
example, -2 (10) would indicate a land rake of 2° negative and a End cutring edge angle. This is the angle between the cutting
positive side rake of 10°. A drag or flat maybe used to eliminate edge on the end of the tool and a line at right angles to the side of
feed marks. If so, it has cutting relief under this portion of the the tool shank.
cutting edge. As the setting of the tool or holder is changed relative to the
Back rake angle. This is the angle between the face of the tool workpiece, the effective working angles no longer agree with the
and the base of the shank or holder, usually measured in a plane tool angles.
through the side cutting edge and at right angles to the base. It is Tool character. This is a convenient abbreviated designation
8-27
CHAPTER 8
for specifying the angles of a single-point tool as shown in Fig. workpiece and cutting tool materials, the machine to be used,
8-41. The angIes are normal, as used in most tool specifications and operations to be performed.
and in grinding. Rake angles. The most advantageous rake-angle combination
Working angles. Working angles are the angles between the varies greatly with tool material, work material, and economics
tool and the work and depend not only on the shape of the tool of the job. Thermal efficiency of cutting is best with positive
but also on its position with respect to the work. rake angles, or at least positive in direction of chip flow or true
Setting angle. This is the angle made by the straight portion rake. However, a high positive rake results in a more fragile
of the shank of a tool or holder with the machined portion of the cutting edge and must often be compromised for tool durability.
work (most commonly 9fF’). As cutting speeds increase, the rake angle has less effect on tool
En[ering angle. This is the angle that the side cutting edge of a pressures. Hence, in using tool materials which can operate at
tool makes with the machined surface of the work (90° in the higher cutting speeds, it is advantageous to use lower positive
case of a tool with an effective 0° side cutting angle). rakes or even negative rakes to increase tool strength or to
True rake angle. This is the slope of the tool face toward economize on tool maintenance. lndexable insert tools
the tool base, from the active cutting edge in the direction of (discussed next in this section) are greatly simplified in use and
chip flow. maintenance by the use of negative rake angles, at some slight
Cutting angle. This is the angle between the face of the tool sacrifice in power consumption and increased cutting forces.
and a tangent to the machined surface at the point of action. It A good rule is to always select negative-rake geometry
equals 90° minus the true rake angle. whenever machining conditions permit. Rake adds keenness to
Lip angle. This is the included angle of the tool material the cutting edge, facilitates removal and disposal of the chip
between the face and the relieved flank. According to direction from low-strength materials, and reduces cutting pressure. For
of measurement, it may represent the end lip angle, the side lip steel cutting tools, the desired rake may be embodied in a
angle, or the true lip angle. ground chip-control groove (discussed later). Many of these
Working relief angle. This is the angle between the relieved chip-control geometries contribute a positive cutting action
ground flank of the tool and a line tangent to the machined while maintaining the benefits of negative-rake tooling.
surface passing through the active cutting edge. A narrow land often is ground along the side cutting edge at a
Working end cutting edge angle. This is the angle between lesser rake angle or negative rake. Such a tool geometry
the end cutting edge and a plane tangent to the machined combines the cutting efficiency of a substantial side or true rake
surface at the point of cutting. with the durability of a zero to negative rake along the extreme
Selection of tool geometry. The tool geometry to be used for edze, This reduced rake surface often called the K or T land. is
a specific application depends on many variables including ab~ut equal to or less than the feed in width.
Tool character
n:%;$%%?!?~ ~ ““”) ‘“ ““N) ‘5 ‘5 “32”
,,,,%’%,:$%..IJ I I ~ ~
Side rehef angle, nor;al
Side clearance angle, normol
End cuhlng edge angle
Side cutting edge angle
Nose radius
Fig. 8-41 Tool-character code for designating the geometry of a single-point tool in abbreviated form.
8-28
CHAPTER 8
Combinations of negative back rake with positive side rake often used for tools which trace up to a shoulder of the work,
are advantageous in cutting through keyways or slots to place then out to produce a shoulder at 90° to the axis of the work.
the initial impact of interruption on a portion of the cutting End cutting edge angles of 6-15° are common. Less than 6°
edge removed from the nose. may create excessive forces normal to the work surface and
Reliej_angles. Side and end relief angles range from 5-15° for rapid dulling. Greater angles may weaken the tool point, but are
cutting metals and may run somewhat higher on some used for tracing tools which must infeed while operating.
nonmetallic materials. Increased relief angles reduce cutting Nose radius. A small nose radius reduces cutting forces and is
forces somewhat and result in a cleaner cut on metals of low preferred on long slender parts or thin-wall sections. A large
tensile strength. Reduced relief angles give more support to the nose radius makes the tool stronger, often lengthens tool life,
cutting edge and are most practical for cutting high-strength and may be used to advantage for roughing operations;
metals. Wear land of excessive width may result from too small however, it increases cutting forces. Large radii are generally
a relief angle; breakage downward from the cutting edge may used for machining cast iron and similar materials with
result from too large a relief angle. A secondary angle under the crumbling chips, and for machining long large-diameter work-
relief angle is often used to provide adequate clearance between places such as rolls.
the heel of the tool and the workpiece. Such clearance is Geometries for various cutting tool materials. Rake angles,
generally necessary when boring or facing outward, relief angles, and cutting edge angles vary with the material
from which the tool is made and the material to be cut.
Cutting edge angles. The side cutting edge angle is often
Recommended angles for HSS single-point tools are presented
determined by the workpiece shape. When a particular shoulder
in Table 8-3, and for carbide tools, in Table 8-4.
contour is not required, a side cutting edge angle of about 15°
Recommended geometries for other cutting tool materials
reduces power requirement, increases tool life, and aids in
are discussed in Chapter 3, with specific data presented as follows
controlling the chip. A greater angle decreases the chip
thickness or makes increased feed possible. A decreased side . Table 3-7. Cutting Angles for Cast Cobalt-Based Alloy
cutting edge angle reduces the force at right angles to the work Cutting Tools.
and is preferable on thin-wall or long slender workplaces. A . Table 3-2 [. Recommended Geometries for Ceramic
negative side cutting edge (point of the tool leading) of 2-5” is Cutting Tools.
TABLE 8-3
Recommended Angles for High-Speed Single-Point Tools*
Side Relief Front Relief Back Rake Side Rake

Material Angle, degrees Angle, degrees Angle, degrees Angle, degrees
High-speed, alloy, and high-carbon tool steels and
stainless steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9 (8) 6-8 (8) o-7(o) 8-10 (8)
SAE steels:
1020,1035,1040 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10 (8) 8-10 (8) 0-12 (o) 8-12 (8)
1045,1095 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9 (8) 8-10 (8) 0-12 (o) 8-12 (8)
1112,1120 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9 (8) 7-9 (8) o-14(o) 10-14(lo)
1314,1315 . . . . . . . . . . ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9 (8) 7-9 (8) O-14(o) 10-16(10)
1335 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9 (8) 7-9 (8) 0-14(o) 10-16(10)
3115,3120,3130 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9 (8) 7-9 (8) o-1o(o) 8-12(8)
3135,3140 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9 (8) 7-9 (8) 0-10 (o) 8-10(8)
3250,4140,4340 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9 (8) 7-9 (8) O-8(0) 8-10(8)
6140,6145 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9 (8) 7-9 (8) O-8(0) 8-10(8) -
Aluminum ...................................... 12-14(14) (14) (o) (15)
Bakelite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (14) (14) (o) (lo)
Brass, free-cutting .......... ...................... 10-12(lo) 8-10 (10) (o) 1-8(8)
Bronze, red, yellow, or cast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10(10) 8-10 (10) (o) -4 to +6 (+6)
Bronze, free-cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10(10) 8-10 (10) (o) 2-6 (6)
Hard phosphor bror-ue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10(10) 6-10 (10) (o) O-6 (6)
Cast iron, gray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10(8) 6-8 (8) o-5(o) 8-12 (8)
Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...!. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-14(12) 12-14 (12) 0-16 (0) I2-20( 12)
Copper alloys:
Hard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10(10) 6-10 (10) (o) O-8 (8)
soft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-12(12) 8-12(12) o-2(o) o-1o (10)
Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-16(14) 12-14 (14) o-2(o) o-1o (lo)
Formica ........................................ 14-16(14) IO-14 (14) 0-16 (0) IO-12 (12)
Nickel iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-16(14) 10-14(14) O-8(0) 12-15 (15)
Micarta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-16(14) 10-14(14) 0-16 (0) 10-15 (15)
Monel and nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-16(14) 12-14(14) 0-10(o) 12-15 (15)
Nickel silvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-14(14) 1O-I4(I4) o-1o(o) o-1o (lo)
Rubber. hard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
* Angles in parentheses are those recommended as preferred starting points
8-29
CHAPTER 8
TABLE 8-4
Recommended Angles for Carbide Single-Point Tools*
Normal Normal Normal Normal

End Relief, Side Relief, Back Rake, Side Rake,
Material degrees degrees degrees degrees
Ahrminum and magnesium alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10 (10) 6-10 (10) o to 10 (lo) 10 to 20 (15)
Copper ......................................... 6-8 (8) 6-8 (8) o to 4 (o) 15 to 20 (15)
Brass and bronze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8 (8) 6-8 (8) o to -5 (o) +8 to -5 (+8)
Cast iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8 (8) 5-8 (6) o to-7 (o) +6 to -7 (-6)
Lowcarbon steels upto SAE 1020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10 (6) 5-10 (6) o to -7 (o) +6 to -7 (+6)
Carbon steels SAE1025 and above . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8 (6) 5-8 (6) o to -7 (o) +6 to -7 (+6)
Alloy steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8 (6) 5-8 (6) o to -7 (o) +6 to -7 (+6)
Free-machining steels SAE 1100 and 1300 series . . . . . . 5-10 (6) 5-IO (6) o to -7 (o) +6 to -7 (+6)
Stainless steels, austenitic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10 (6) 5-10 (6) o to -7 (o) +6 to -7 (+6)
Stainless steels, hardenable ........................ 5-8 (6) 5-8 (6) o to-7 (o) +6 to -7 (+6)
High-nickel alloys (Monel, Inconel, etc.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10 (8) 5-10 (8) o to-3 (o) +6 to +10 (+10)
Titanium alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8 (6) 5-8 (6) o to -5 (o) +6 to -5 (+6)
* Angles in parentheses are those recommended as preferred starting points.
● Figure 3-19. Typical Geometries for Single-Crystal Diamond them from the vicinity of the tool point. Three common chip-
Tools Used for Turning and Boring Operations. control types for single-point tools are those which are ground
● Table 3-23. ODeratin~ Parameters and Geometries for into the tool uoint.
. . those which are fastened to the tool Doint.
Machining V~rious-Materials with Polycrystalline and those formed into the insert (discussed next in this se~tion)
Diamond Tools. Ground chip-control geometry. The geometry of a ground
chip-control area usually consists of a groove, step, or ledge in
Chip control. The chip-control area ofa single-point tool is a
thetopface of the tool, proportioned to curve the chip back
small step or groove in the face of a tool, or may be a separate
against the uncut portion of the workpiece and break it into
piece fastened to the tool or toolholder, to cause the chip to curl
small pieces.
into the tool or workpiece and break.
Cross-sectional contour of a ground chip-control geometry
When machining operations are being performed, the high
is critical if uniformity of control is to be achieved. Figure 8-42
tensile strength and ductility of steel and some other workpiece
and Tables 8-5 and 8-6 give the pertinent dimensions for general
materials result in continuous chips unless an effective means is
use on carbide-tipped single-point tools. For took with large
provided for breaking the chip into small pieces and removing
Fig. 8-42 Ground chip-control areas for crrrbidetipped single-point tools: (a) parallel-type, (b) groove-type, (c) angular-type, (o’) combination of
parallel and angular-types for tools with a large nose radius, (e) angular-type for shallow finishing cuts, and (f.)reverseangular-type for cuts which vary
greatly in depth.
8-30
CHAPTER 8
TABLE 8-5
Dimensions (Feed, R, T, W) for Parallel and Angular-Type Chipbreakers
for Various Depths of Cut
Feed, ipr 0.006-0.012 0.013-0.017 0.018-0.025 0.028-0.040 Over 0.040

(mm/rev) (O.15-0.30) (0.33-0.43) (0.46-0.63) (0.71-1.02) (1.02)
R, in. * 0.010-0.025 0.035-0.065 0.035-0,065 0.035-0.065 0.035-0.065

(mm) (0.25-0.63) (0.89-1.65) (0.89-1.65) (0.89-1 .65) (0.89-1.65)
Depth of Cut, T, in. * 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.030 0.030

in. (mm) (mm) (0.25) (0.38) (0.51) (0.76) (0.76)
1/64-3/64 W, in, * l/16 3/64 7/64 l/8
(0.4-1.2) (mm) (1.6) (1.2) (2.8) (3,2) ‘--
[/16-1/4 W, in. * 3/32 1/8 5/32 3/16 3/16
( 1.6-6.4) (mm) (2.4) (3.2) (4,0) (4.8) (4.8)
5/16-1/2 W, in. * 1/8 5/32 3/16 3/16 3/16

(7.9-12.7) (mm) (3.2) (4.0) (4.8) (4,8) (4,8)
9/ 16-3/4 W, in. * 5/32 3/16 3/16 3/16 3/16

(14.3-19.1) (mm) (4.0) (4.8) (4.8) (4.8) (4.8)
Over 314 W, in.* 3/16 3/16 3//16 3/16 1/4

(19,1) (mm) (4.8) (4.8) (4.8) (4.8) (6.4)
* See Fig. 8-42.
TABLE 8-6
Dimensions for Groove-Type Chipbreakers*
Radius, R,* Angle, A.* Feed Rate,

in. (mm) degrees ipr (mm/rev)
0.010-0.025 10 0.005-0.010
(0.25-0.63) (O.13-0.25)
0.035-0.065 8 0.011-0.024
(01 (b)
(0.89-I .65) (0.28-0.61)
I I
0.035-0.065 6 0.025 and over Fig. 8-43 Mechanical chipbreaker for carbide-tipped single-point
tools. Shelf width can be varied, as shown in tbe two views, to change
(0.89- 1.65) (0.63) tbe radius of curvature.
* See Fig. 8-42. Groove width, G, to be 3 to 4
times the feed rate, Land, L, (parallel to top The styles for sintered-carbide blanks are illustrated in Fig.
surface) to be 1 to 11)4times the feed rate. 8-44, and dimensions and tolerances are presented in Table 8-7.
Styles of standard carbide-tipped single-point tools are shown
nose radii, a combination of parallel and angular-type chip in Fig. 8-45.
control (Fig. 42, d) is frequently used. For shallow finishing Tipped tools with square or rectangular shanks are designated
cuts, angular-type chip control at 45° to the side cutting edge by a letter or letters for the style, as follows:
angle (Fig. 42, e) may provide optimum chip control. 1. Style A Straight shank with 0° side cutting edge angle
Mechanical chipbreakers. These devices, usually made of (SCEA).
tungsten carbide, serve the same chip-control purpose by 2. Style B: Straight shank with 15° side cutting edge angle
providing a sloping face, back from the cutting edge a proper (SCEA).
distance, to provide the desired curvature of the chip. A good 3. Style C: Straight shank, square end tool.
fit between the chipbreaker and the top surface of the tool tip 4. Style D: Straight shank tool with a centrally located 80°
is necessary to prevent chips from wedging between the two nose angle.
and obstructing normal flow of the chip. Figure 8-43 shows the 5. Style E: Straight shank tool with either a centrally located
most common of the mechanical chipbreakers. Width of the or offset 6W nose angle.
shelf can be varied to produce an effective radius of curvature to 6. Style F: Offset shank tool with 0° end cutting edge angle.
break the chip. 7. Style G: Offset shank tool with 0° side cutting edge angle.
Carbide blanks and styles for tipped tools. Sizes, styles, and
designations of sintered-carbide blanks and carbide-tipped A second letter, R or L, denoting right or left-hand,
single-point tools have been standardized. Details are presented completes the style designation for styles A, B, E, F, and G. For
in ANSI Standard B94.5-1974, “Carbide Blanks and Single- example, Style GR indicates an offset side cutting tool for
Point Brazed Tools. ” right-hand cutting.
8-31
CHAPTER 8
--4
flat
1:54 (0.4 mm) flat

Style 5000 Style 6000 Style 7000
Po[nt central wthm O015“ (0.38 mm) Point central wlthln 0.0 15“ (0.38 mm)
‘ig. 8-44 Standard styles for sintered-carbide blanks.
A number following the tool style and hand designation

indicates the shank size. In the case of square shan-ks, the
ucIa EicIl number represents the number of sixteenths of an inch of width
Siyle AL Style AR and height (1/ 16” ❑ 1.6 mm). For shanks with a rectangular
cross section, the first digit is the number of eighths of an inch in
the shank width; the second digit is the number of quarters of an
inch in the shank height ( I/ 8“= 3.2 mm, 1/ 4“= 6.4 mm). There is
one exception to this method: the I 1/2x 2“ (38 x 51 mm) tools
Style BL “’
have been given the number of 90.
mu “y’e” Holders for tipped tools. A toolholder is a device for holding
Style C a cutting tool in a definite position with respect to the toolslide
of the lathe. Several types of toolholders for tipped single-point
tools are shown in Fig. 8-46. As illustrated, toolholders are
frequently made to hold more than one cutting tool.
To minimize deflection under cutting loads, special attention
must be given to the support of tools that are tipped with
carbide, diamond, or CBN, and have a minimum amount of
overhang. Deflection increases as the cube of the overhang. A
nng StyleEl
good rule is to keep the amount of overhang to a minimum,
generally equal to or less than the height of the tool. Two
methods of reducing deflection are illustrated in Fig. 8-47. The
design shown in view b is preferable because it provides support
Uq fJJKl for both side and down thrusts.

Roller-turner type tools. Roller or vee support of a workpiece
Style FL Stvle FR for axial turning is sometimes combined with so-called roller-
turner type, or box, tools that are made solid with brazed tips or
❑3TJ as indexable inserts. Standards for single-point, roller-turner

type of cutting tools are presented
B94.37M-1979.
in ANSI Standard
Style G1
Indexable Inserts
Fig. 8-45 Styles of standard carbide-tipped single-point tools. Indexable inserts are the most widely used tools for turning
8-32
CHAPTER 8
TABLE 8-7
Standard Size% Styles, and Designations of Sintered-Carbide Blanks*
Dimension, in. (mm)

Blank
Thickness, Width, Length, Designation
T w L Style
1/16 (1.6) 1/8 (3.2) 5/8 (15.9] 1010,2010
1/16 (1.6) 5/32 (4.0) 1/4 (6.4) 10I5, 2015
1/16 (1.6) 3/16 (4.8) 1/4 (6.4) 1020,2020
1/16 (1.6) l/4 (6.4) I/4 (6.4) 1025,2025
1/16 (1.6) 1/4 (6.4) 5/16 (7.9) 1030,2030,5030
3/32 (2.4) 1/8 (3.2) 3/4 (19.4) 1035,2035
3/32 (2.4) 3/16 (4.8) 5/16 (7.9) 1040,2040
3/32 (2.4) 3/16 (4.8) 1/2 (12.7) 1050,2050
3/32 (2.4) 1/4 (6.4) 3/8 (9.5) 1060,2060,7060(F= I / 16”; 1,6mm)
3/32 (2.4) 1/4 (6.4) 1/2 (12.7) 1070, 2070
3/32 (2.4) 5/16 (7.9) 3/8 (9.5) 1080, 2080, 5080, 6080
3/32 (2.4) 3/8 (9.5) 3/8 (9.5) 1090, 2090
3/32 (2.4) 3/8 (9.5) 1/2 (12.7) 1[00, 2100, 5100, 6100
3/32 (2.4) 7/16 (Ill) 1/2 (12.7) 1105, 2105, 5105
1/8 (3.2) 3/16 (4.8) 3/4 (19.4) I11O,2IIO
1/8 (3.2) 1/4 (6.4) 1/2 (12.7) 1120, 2120
l/8 (3.2) 1/4 (6.4) 5/8 (15.9) 1130,2130
1/8 (3.2) l/4 (6.4) 3/4 (19.4) 1140,2140
1/8 (3.2) 5/16 (7.9) 7/16 (11.1) 1150, 2150
1/8 (3.2) 5/16 (7.9) l/2 (12.7) 1160,2160
1/8 (3.2) 5/16 (7.9) 5/8 (15.9) 1170,2170,7170 (F=3/32”; 2.4mm)

l/8 (3.2) 3/8 (9.5) 1/2 (12.7) 1180,2180
1/8 (3.2) 3/8 (9.5) 3/4 (19.4) 1[90,2190
1/8 (3.2) 1/2 (12.7) 1/2 (12.7) 1200, 2200, 5200, 6200
1/8 (3.2) 1/2 (12.7) 3/4 (19.4) 1210, 2210
1/8 (3.2) 3/4 (19.4) 3/4 (19.4) 1215, 2215

5/32 (4.0) 3/8 (9.5) 9/16 (14.3) I220, 2220
5/32 (4.0) 3/8 (9.5) 3/4 (19.4) 1230, 2230, 7230 (F= I / 8“; 3,2mm)
5/32 (4.0) 5/8 (15.9) 5/8 (15.9) 1240, 2240, 5240, 6240
3/16 (4.8) 5/16 (7.9) 7/16 (11.1) 1250, 2250
3/[6 (4.8) 5/16 (7.9) 5/8 (15.9) 1260, 2260

3/16 (4.8) 3/8 (9.5) ‘ 1/2 (12.7) 1270, 2270
3/16 (4.8) 3/8 (9.5) 3/8 (9.5) 1280, 2280
3/16 (4.8) 3/8 (9.5) 3/4 (19.4) 1290, 2290

3/16 (4.8) 7/16 (11.1) 5/8 (15.9) 1300, 2300
3/16 (4.8) 7/16 (11.1) [3/ 16 (20.6) 1310, 2310
3/16 (4.8) 1/2 (12.7) l/2 (12.7) 1320, 2320
3/16 (4.8) l/2 (12.7) 3/4 (19.4) 1330, 2330
3/16 (4.8) 3/4 (19.4) 3/4 (19.4) 1340, 2340, 5340, 6340
l/4 (6.4) 3/8 (9.5) 9/16 (14.3) 0350, 1350,3350,4350
1/4 (6.4) 3/8 (9.5) 3/4 (19.4) 0360, 1360,3360,4360
l/4 (6.4) 7/16 (Ill) 5/8 (15.9) 0370, 1370,3370,4370
I/4 (6.4) [/2 (12.7) 3/4 (19.4) 0380, 1380,3380,4380
l/4 (6.4) 9/16 (14.3) I (25.4) 0390, 1390,3390,4390

1/4 (6.4) 5/8 (15.9) 5/8 (15.9) 0400, 1400,3400,4400
1/4 (6.4) 3/4 (19.4) 3/4 (19.4) 0405, 1405,3405,4405
1/4 (6.4) 3/4 (19.4) 1 (25.4) 0410, I41O, 3410, 4410
I/4 (6.4) I (25.4) 1 (25.4) 0415, 1415, 3415,4415
8-33
CHAPTER 8
Dimension, in.(mm)
Blank
Thickness, Width, Length, Designation
T w L Stvle
I/4 (6.4) I (25.4) 1 (25.4) 5410
5/16 (7.9) 7/16 (11,1) 5/8 (15.9) 0420, 1420,3420,4420
5/16 (7.9) 7/16 (11.1) 15/ 16 (23.8) 0430, 1430,3430,4430
5/16 (7.9) 1/2 (12.7) 3/4 (19.4) 0440, 1440,3440,4440
5/16 (7.9) 1/2 (12.7) I (25.4) 0450, 1450,3450,4450
5/16 (7.9) 5/8 (15.9) 1 (25.4) 0460, 1460,3460,4460
5/16 (7.9) 3/4 (19.4) 3/4 (19.4) 0470, 1470,3470,4470
5/16 (7.9) 3/4 (19.4) 1 (25.4) 0475, 1475,3475,4475
5/16 (7.9) 3/4 (19.4) 1 1/4 (31.7) 0480, 1480,3480,4480
3/8 (9.5) 1/2 (12.7) 3/4 (19.4) 0490, 1490,3490,4400
3/8 (9.5) 1/2 (12.7) 1 (25.4) 0500, I 500, 3500,4500
3/8 (9.5) 5/8 (15.9) 1 (25.4) 0510, 1510,3510,4510
3/8 (9.5) 5/8 ([5.9) 1 1/4 (31.7) 0515, 1515,3515,4515
3/8 (9.5) 3/4 (19.4) I 1/4 (31.7) 0520, 1520,3520,4520
3/8 (9.5) 3/4 (19.4) 1 1/2 (38.1) 0525, 1525,3525,4525
1/2 (12.7) 3/4 (19.4) I (25.4) 0530, 1530,3530,4530
1/2 (12.7) 3/4 (19.4) 1 (31.7) 0540, 1540,3540,4540
1/2 (12.7) 3/4 (19.4) 1 1/2 (38.1) 0550, 1550,3550,4550
Tolerances for blank dimensions except for width of styles 5000, 6000, and 7000
Through 3/8” (9.5 mm) . ................................. +0.015” (0.38 mm)
-0.000
0ver3/8through 1’’(9.5-25.4 mm) ........................ +0.020” (0.5 I mm)

-0.000
Over 1 through 2“ (25,4 -50,8 mm) ......................... +0.040” ( I.02 mm)

-0.000
Tolerances for width
Style 5000
w Style 6000 Style 7000
Through 3/8’’ (9,5 mm) ................ -0.010” (0.25 mm) +0.015” (0.38 mm)
-0.025” (0.63 mm) -0.000”
Over 3/8 through 1“ (9.5 -25.4 mm) ...... -0.010” (0.25 mm) +0.020” (0.5 1 mm)
-0.030”(0.76 mm) -0.000”
Max variation from flatness
Through l/2’’ (12.7 mm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.003” (0.08 mm)
Over l/2through 1’’(12.7-25.4 mm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.005” (O.13 mm)
Over lthrough ll/2’’(25.4-38.1 mm). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.006” (O.15 mm)
Radii furnished with styles 2000, 3000, and 4000 blanks
w R
l/8 through I /4” (3.2 through 6.4 mm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8” (3.2 mm)
Over l/4 through 3/8’’ (6.4 through 9,5 mm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3/ 16” (4.8 mm)
Over 3/8” (9.5 mm) I /4” (6.4 mm)
* See Fig. 8-44 for style drawings.
8-34
CHAPTER 8
m
~ee
,hlDbreaker
~
4dlustoble fixedctipbred=r
@ B:l,+.,n
c Ipbreaker
Heavy duty Button type
‘ig. 8-48 Some typical holders, indexable inserts, and chipbreakers.

(Valenite Div., VaIeron Corp.)
Selection of inserts. When selecting an indexable insert—

whether made of high-speed steel, carbide, ceramic, poly -
crystalline diamond, or cubic boron nitride—seven factors
should be considered. These factors are insert shape, geometry,
size, thickness, radius, tolerance, and material. Variables that
Fig.8-46 Various types of holders for tipped single-point tools. influence insert selection include the following:
1. Workpiece material and condition.
2. Tolerance, surface finish, and production requirements.
3. Cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut.
4. The machine to be used and its power capability.
5. Rigidity of the machine and setup.
6. Operations to be performed.
7. The holder in which the insert is to be used. (Toolholders
for inserts are discussed next in this section.)
(0) (b)
I Insert shape. The strongest insert shape that the configuration
Fig. 8-47 Two methods for reducing tool deflection: (a) down-thrust of the workpiece will allow should be selected. Six commonly
supported and (b) side and down-thrust supported. The design used, standard insert shapes, each offering different benefits
illustrated in (b) is preferable. and limitations, are illustrated in Fig. 8-49 in order of increasing
and decreasing strengths. As can be seen, the larger the included
operations. Uncoated and coated carbide inserts are by far the corner angle, the stronger the insert,
most predominant, but inserts made from high-speed steels, Insert geometry. Negative-rake inserts provide twice the
ceramics, polycrystalline diamonds, and cubic boron nitride are number of cutting surfaces as positive-rake inserts. They are
also used for many applications, as discussed in Chapter 3, also stronger, permitting heavier feed rates and depths of cut.
“Cutting Tool Materials. ” Some typical holders, inserts. and The negative-rake insert, with or without chip control, will
chipbreakers are illustrated in Fig. 8-48. The heavy-duty style often break chips better than positive-rake inserts at higher feed
shown does not have to be side mounted. rates. A good general rule is to use a negative-rake insert
An identification system for indexable inserts for cutting whenever workpiece configuration and material allow.
tools is presented in ANSI Standard B94.4. Identification N-egative-rake inserts, however, generate increased cutting
consists of up to 12 positions (see Table 8-8), but all positions forces; therefore, the lathe used must have sufficient horsepower
are not always used. Each position defines a characteristic of the and rigidity. Positive-rake inserts provide a freer cutting action
insert in the following order: shape, clearance (relief angle), and can reduce chatter and deflection. They are useful when
tolerance class, type (design differences, if needed), size, machining relatively thin-walled workpieces, such as tubing.
thickness, cutting point configuration, special cutting point Positive-rake inserts also work better on the more ductile
configuration, hand, edge and surface preparations, special materials, such as low-carbon steels, high-temperature alloys,
cutting edge condition, and special cutting edge effective length. and materials that work-harden during machining.
Dimensional specifications and styles of solid, sintered- Inserts that combine the strength of negative-rake inserts
carbide inserts of the indexable type are presented in ANSI with the cutting-action geometry of positive-rake inserts are
Standard B94.25, “Indexable Inserts for Cutting Tools. ” proving to be effective. These so-called positive/negative inserts
Identification and standard sizes for heavy-duty carbide inserts are produced through the use of lands (raised edges) or molded
for cutting tools are presented in ANSI Standard B94.24. grooves (see Fig. 8-50) in the rake faces for chip control. They
8-35
CHAPTER 8
TABLE 8-8
Identification System for Indexable Inserts for Cutting Tools
POSITION: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
EXAMPLE: T N M G 5 4 3 R
First position—shape: M ❑ iO.002 to fO.OIOA +0.005” (O.13 mm)
A— Parallelogram 85° (0.05 to 0.25 mm)
B— Parallelogram 82°
C— Diamond 80° (rhombic) u ❑ *0.005 to *0.012’4 *0.005° (O.13 mm)
D— Diamond 55° (rhombic) (O.I 3 to 0.30 mm)
E— Diamond 75° (rhombic) N = fO.002 to fO, OIO’~ +0.001” (0.03 mm)
H— Hexagon (0.05 to 0.25 mm)
K— Parallelogram 55°
L— Rectangle Fourthposition—type:
M—Diamond 86° (rhombic) A— With hole
O— Octagon B— With hole and one countersink
P— Pentagon C— With hole and two countersinks (6.4 mm)
R— Round D— Smaller than ~“ (6.4 mm) IC with hole
S— Square E— Smaller than ?4” (6.4 mm) IC
T— Triangle F— Chip grooves on both surfaes, without hole, 0° top rake
V— Diamond 35° (rhombic) land
W—Trigon 80° G— Chip grooves on both surfaces, with hole, 0° top rake
land
Second position—clearance: H— With hole, one countersink and chip grooves on one top
N— 0° rake surface
A— 3° J— With hole, two countersinks and chip grooves on both
B— 5° top rake surfaces
c— 7° K— Smaller than H“ (6.4 mm) IC with hole and with chip
P— 11° grooves on both top rake surfaces
D— 15° L— Smaller than ~“(6.4 mm) IC without hole and with chip
E— 20° grooves on both top rake surfaces
F— 25° M—With hole and chip grooves on one top rake surface
G— 30° P— With hole and 10° positive chipbreaker both sides
H—O-llO1 R— Without hole but with chip grooves on one top rake
J— 0-14°1 surface
K—O-17”1 S— With hole and 20° chipbreaker one side
L— 0-20°1
M—11-14”1 Fifth position—size (IC):
R— 11-17°1 Regular Polygons and Diamonds—Number of I /8ths inch
s— 11-20°
‘ (3.2 mm) in lC when IC is I /4” and over. For IC of less than
I /4” (6,4 mm), the number of 1/32nejs inch (0.8 mm) IC
Third position—tolerances:2 Rectangles and Parallelograms—Use 2 digits to size:
Cutting Point Thickness 1$[ Digit—Number of l/8ths inch (3.2 mm) in width.
A ❑ +0.0002” (0.005 mm)’ +0.001” (0.03 mm) 2nd Digit—Number of 1/4ths inch (6.4 mm) in length.
B = +L3.00132” (0.005 mm) tO.0135° (O.13 mm) Sixth position—thickness:
&O.001” (0.03 mm) Regular Polygons and Diamonds—Number of 1/ 16ths inch
C ❑ fOOf35° (0.013 mm)
( 1.6 mm) in thickness for IC of I /4”(6.35 mm) and over. For
D ❑ *0.005° (0.013 mm) +0.005” (O. [3 mm) less thap I /4’’ (6.35 mm) IC, the number of I /32nds inch (0.8
mm)
E = &O.001” (0.03 mm) &O.001” (0.03 mm)
Rectangles and Parallelograms—Use width dimension in
F = +0,0002” (0.005 mm)3 *0.00I° (0.03 mm) place of IC
Seventh position—cutting point configuration:
G = AO.001” (0.03 mm) +0.005” (O.13 mm)
O- Sharp Corner
H = *0.0005° (O.Ol3 mm) +0.001” (0.03 mm) 1— I /64” (0.4 mm) Radius
2— I /32” (0.8 mm) Radius
J = +0.0002” (0.005 mm)3 fO.001” (0.03 mm) 3— 3/64” (1.2 mm) Radius
K = $0.0005” (0.013 mm) *0.001” (0.03 mm) 4— 1/ 16” (1.6 mm) Radius
6— 3/32” (2.4 mm) Radius
L = +0.001” (0.03 mm) *0.00I° (0.03 mm) 8— 1/8” (3.2 mm) Radius
8-36
CHAPTER 8
TABLE 8-8-Continued
A— Square Insert 45° Chamfer Ninth position—hand:s

D— Square Insert 30° Chamfer R— Right hand
E— Square Insert 15° Chamfer L— Left hand
F— Square Insert 3° Chamfer
K— Square Insert 30° Double Chamfer Tenth position—edge and surface preparations
L— Square Insert 15° Double Chamfer A— Honed, 0.0005-0,003” (0.013-0.08 mm)
M—Square insert 3° Double Chamfer B— Honed, 0.003-0.005” (0.08-0.13 mm)
N— Truncated Triangle Insert C— Honed, 0.005-0.007” (O.13-0,18 mm)
P— Flatted Corner Triangle J— Polished, 4 p in. (O.I p m) AA, rake surface only
Eighth position—special cutting point configurations Eleventh position—special cutting edge conditions
Only appears following a letter in seventh position. Number The letter S, when shown in the eleventh position, indicates
of I / 16ths inch (0.4 mm) in primary faceted edge. that the insert is tipped with a composite material (cubic
boron nitride, polycrystalline diamond, etc.)
Twelfth position—special cutting edge effective length:f

The twelfth position shall only be used following the letter
S in the eleventh position, and shall indicate the number of
“:vpp mm)
1/ 16ths mch(l.6 mm) in the length of the composite tip along
the cutting edge. The actual length may not be less than
this number, but may exceed it by any length less than I / 16”
(ANSI Standard B94.4, published by ASME)

NOTES:
1. Secondary facet angle may vary by ~ 1°.
2. Tolerances given are plus and minus from nominal.
3. These tolerances normally apply to indexable inserts with facets (secondary cutting edges).
4. The tolerance depends on the size and shape of the insert and should be as shown in the standards for the corresponding shapes and
sizes (See ANSI Standard B94.25, published by ASME.)
5. Shall only be used when required.
@9’6a@Ai!a’=53
Rounc Square 8fY Dmmond Trlongle 55° Diamond 35” Diamond
Fig. 8-49 Relative strengths of six commonly used, standard insert shapes. (Va/errife Div., Valeron Corp.)
provide the lower cutting forces associated with positive-rake Depending upon the shape of the insert, nose radius, and
inserts while combining the favorable economics of negative- toolholder, the lC has a direct relationship to the length of the
rake inserts. This is especially important with coated inserts cutting edge. For example, a square insert with a I / 2“ ( 12.7 mm)
because of their capability to remove metal at higher rates with IC has a 1/ 2“ long cutting edge, and a triangular insert with a
an increased volume of chips. Various designs, some with I / 2“ IC has a cutting edge about 7/ 8“ (22 mm) long. Cutting
special groove geometries, have been developed by different edge lengths must be sufficient to handle the depths of cut
insert producers. required. For general-purpose machining, the cutting edge
Inser? size. For most standard insert shapes, insert size is length should be about twice the depth of cut.
specified by the diameter of the largest circle that can be Insert thickness. The thickness of the insert selected depends
inscribed within the perimeter of the insert. This is generally basically upon the depth of cut and feed rate to be used. When
referred to as the IC (inscribed circle) of the insert. When these two factors are known, the insert thickness can be selected
selecting an insert size, the IC should be large enough to meet from Table 8-9.
the demands of the operation to be performed. For economy, Insert nose radius. The configuration of the workpiece
the smallest insert size that produces the desired depth of cut (necessary radii or fillets) and required surface finish dictate the
should be selected. nose radius used on an insert. Some basic considerations in the
8-37
CHAPTER 8
2. Excessively large radii may result in tool chatter because

of an extreme thinning of the chip and increased radial
pressures.
3. Large radii can be used if the toolholder, workpiece, and
machine setups are rigid.
4. The proper nose radius is one of the most important
factors when a specific surface finish is required.
Relatively large radii produce a better finish.
5. Whenever possible, the radius that is standard for a
specific insert IC size should be selected. Although
several standard insert radii are often available, con-
siderable savings can be achieved by selecting the radius
for which the holder is manufactured.
6. On conventional machines, unless equipped with tracing
attachments, the toolholder must ‘plunge the radius:
Therefore, when the part print specifies a required fillet
I
I I
or radius, this radius must be incorporated on the insert.
Fig.
8-50 lrrdexable carbide inserts with molded-in clrip control lrrsert tolerances. Standard inserts are available in three
grooves. (Valenite Div., Valeron Corp.) tolerance classes: utility, precision, and uItraprecision. The
tolerance of an insert is a determining factor with respect to
TABLE 8-9 indexing accuracy. Utility inserts are ground only on their top
Thickness of Inserts for Various Depths of and bottom surfaces. Depending upon the IC size of the utility
Cut and Feed Rates* inserts, tolerances range from +0.005-0.0 12“ (+0. 13-0.30 mm),
and thicknesses are held to +0.005”.
Depth Insert Precision-pressed inserts with molded-in chipbreakers can
of cut, Feed Rate, Thickness, be produced to a tolerance of &O.002° (0.05 mm) on their IC and
in. (mm) ipr (mm/rev) in. (mm) +0,005” (O. 13 mm) on thickness without grinding. Their
accuracies thus fall between utility and precision inserts. By
1/8 (3.2) 0.008-0.012 (0.20-0.30) 1/8 (3.2)
grinding the peripheries of these press-formed inserts, a toler-
0.015 (0.38) 3/16 (4,8)
ance of *0.001” (0.03 mm) can be held on their IC’S.
0.020 (0.51) 3/16 (4.8)
Precision inserts are ground on all surfaces and held to a
3/16 (4.8) 0.008-0.010 (0.20-0.25) 1/8 (3.2) tolerance of +0.001” (0.03 mm) on the IC, and to +0.001” or
0.012-0.020 (0.30-0.51) 3/16 (4.8) *0.005” (0. 13 mm) on thickness, depending upon the class
0.025 (0.63) l/4 (6.4) desired.
Ultraprecision inserts are ground on all surfaces. Tolerance
1/4 (6.4) O.O1O-O.OI5 (0.25-0.38) 3/16 (4.8) limits are fO.0002° (0.005 mm) or + 0.0005” (0.013 mm) on
0.015-0.025 (0.38-0.63) 1/4 (6.4) their IC and +0.001” (0.03 mm) or tO.005° (O.13 mm) on
5/16 (7.9) 0.010-0.012 (0.25-0.30) thickness, depending upon the class desired.
3/16 (4.8)
0.015-0.025 (0.38-0.63) 1/4 (6.4)
General recommendations for selecting insert tolerance
(0.76) classes are as follows:
0.030 l/4-5/16
(6.4-7.9) 1. Use utility inserts when:
a. Cost per cutting edge must be minimized.
3/8 (9.5) 0.010-0.012 (0.25-0.30) 3/16 (4.8)
b. Workpiece tolerance is not critical.
0.015-0.025 (0.38-0.63) 1/4 (6.4)
c. Roughing operations are to be performed.
0.030 (0.76) 5/16 (7.9)
d. Insert repeatability is not important.
1/2 (12.7) 0.012-0.020 (0.30-0.51) 1/4 (6.4) e. Machining operations result in poor tool life.
0.025-0.030 (0.63-0.76) .
5/16’ (7.9) 2. Use precision or rsltraprecision inserts when:
a. Insert repeatability is required.
(Valenite Div., Valeron Corp.)
b. Workpiece tolerances must be held.
* When inserts are available in two thicknesses, the
c. Tool adjustments must be minimized.
thinner insert should be used for standard cuts and
d. Finishing operations are to be performed.
when impact-resistant grades of carbide are used.
Thicker inserts should be used for interrupted cuts Inseri materials. The selection of a type or grade of cutting
and when harder, wear-resistant grades of carbide are tool material for an insert depends on many factors. Important
used. considerations include the workpiece material (hardness and
condition), operations to be performed, production require-
ments (rate, stock removal, accuracy, and finish), machine to be
selection of insert radii are:
used (type, capability, and condition), rigidity of setup, operat-
1. Extremely small radii (from a sharp corner to a radius of ing parameters (speeds, feeds, and depths of cut), and tool cost
0.0 IO; 0.25 mm) result in very weak corners and may per part machined,
cause the insert to crack or chip. These small radii, Indexable inserts are available made from high-speed steels,
however, control chips better and have less tendency to uncoated and coated carbides, ceramics, polycrystalline
cause chatter. diamond, and cubic boron nitride, with carbides being
8-38
CHAPTER 8
predominant. Each different tool material, as well as the position defining a characteristic of the holder. A tenth position
various types and grades of each material, has specific properties letter is sometimes added by manufacturers to identify some
that make it best for certain applications. Details as to the pocket features or wedge-angle modification for specific
classifications, advantages, limitations, applications, and machine tools.
operating parameters for these cutting tool materials are Some standard styles of holders for round, triangle, and
presented in Chapter 3, “Cutting Tool Materials. ” square inserts are illustrated in Fig. 8-51. They are available for
Holders for indexable inserts. Dimensional specifications, negative and positive-rake inserts and in clamp and pin types.
styles, and designations of holders for mechanically clamping Seats and chipbreakers. Dimensional specifications and
indexable inserts are presented in the following ANSI Standards: styles of solid sintered-carbide seats are presented in ANSI
Standard B94.46-1973, “Carbide Seats Used with Indexable
. B94.26-1969 (reaffirmed 1977), “Indexable (Throw-
Inserts for Clamp-Type Holders.” Seats for pin-lock holders are
Away) Insert Holders. ”
not standardized since they are a function of the pin itself, and
. B94.45M-1979, “Precision Holders for Indexable Inserts. ”
these varv with the manufacturer. Specifications and styles of
Types of holders. Precision holders locate the cutting edge of carbide ‘chip breakers are presen~ed in ANSI Sta-ndard
a gage insert (combination of shim and insert) from the back or B94.47M-1980, “Carbide Chip Breakers Used with Indexable
front and end surfaces to a specified dimension with a fO.003° Inserts for Clamp Type Holders.”
(0.08 mm) tolerance. The identification system for holders Cartridge-type toolholders. The use of cartridges in tool-
consists of eight or nine positions (see Table 8-10), with each holders, boring bars (discussed later in this chapter), and special
TABLE 8-10
Identification System for Holders for Indexable Inserts
First position—method of holding Fifth Position—hand of tool:

horizontally mounted insert: R— Right hand
P— With locking pin (insert with hole in center) L— Left hand
C— Clamp (normally top clamping) N— Either hand
S— With screw
Sixth and Seventh Positions—holder size:
M —With locking pin (insert with hole in center) and clamp
The sixth and seventh positions shall be a significant two-
(normally top clamping)
digit number which indicates the holder cross section. For
W—With wedge*
shanks 7s” (15.88 mm) square and over, the number will
Second position—insert shape: represent the number of sixteenths inch ( 1.59 mm) of width
V— Diamond 35° and height. For shanks under YE”(15.88 mm) square, the
C— Diamond 80° number of sixteenths inch (1 .59 mm) of cross section will be
D— Diamond 55° preceded by a zero. For rectangular holders, the first digit
T— Triangle represents the number of eighths inch (3.18 mm) of width and
S— Square the second digit the number of quarters inch (6.35 mm) of
R— Round height, except the following tool holder:
L— Rectangle insert*
l% x 1~’’(3l.75 x38.10 mm) which is given thenumber91,
Third position—holder styIe:
A— Straight shank with 0“ side cutting edge angle Eighth position—insert size of IC:
B— Straight shank with 15° side cutting edge angle Number of eighths inch (3.18 mm) of IC
C— Straight shank with 0° end cutting edge angle*
Ninth position—qualified surface and length:
D— Straight shank with 45° side cutting edge angle
A— Qualified back and end, 4“(101.60 mm) long
E— Straight shank with 30° side cutting edge angle
B— Qualified back and end, 4.5” ( 114.30 mm) long
F— Offset shank with IT cnd cutting edge angle
C— Qualified back and end, 5“ ( 127.00 mm) long
G— Offset shank with 0° side cutting edge angle
D— Qualified back and end, 6“ ( 152.40 mm) long
H— Straight shank with 38° side cutting edge angle
E— Qualified back and end, 7“ ( 177.80 mm) long
J— Offset shank with neg. 3“ side cutting edge angle
F— Qualified back and end, 8“ (203.20 mm) long
K— Offset shank with 15° end cutting edge angle
G— 5.500” ( 139.70 mm) length and width control*
L— Offset shank with neg. 5° side cutting edge angle
L— 14.000” (355,60 mm) length and width control*
M—Straight shank with 40° side cutting edge angle
M—Qualified front and end, 4“ ( 10 [ .60 mm) Iong
N— Straight shank with 27° side cutting edge angle
N— Qualified front and end, 4.5” ( 114.30 mm) long
P— Straight shank with 27 ti” side cutting edge angle
P— Qualified front and end, 5“ ( 127.00 mm) long
R— Offset shank with 15“ side cutting edge angle*
R— Qualified front and end, 6“ ( 152.40 mm) long
S— Offset shank with 45” side cutting edge angle
S— Qualified front and end, 7“ ( 177.80 mm) long
Fourth position—rake angle: T— Qualified front and end, 8“ (203.20 mm) long
P— Positive rake U— 5.500” ( 139.70 mm) length and width control*
N— Negative rake
O— Ne~tral rake*
(ANSI Sfandard B94.45.M-1979, published by ASME.)
* Not included in standard,
8-39
CHAPTER 8
\r&
-t__..-
450 ,.,@$.:.
Fig. 8-52 System for changing only the cutting head, with the
toolholder remaining fixed on the lathe, (Sandvik Cormrant)
unit, a latch block is hydraulically retracted to the rear of the

tool. During this movement, pressure on the clamp is reduced
‘“*k?$&-
and a new insert is fed automatically from the magazine down in
,., front of the latch block. At full retraction, the latch block
operates a proximity switch connected to the hydraulic system.
The latch block is then advanced hydraulically, sliding a new
insert into position and ejecting the used insert from the holder.
&
Style F
15”*1” \~j-J Form Tools
, ~,.,.:.:.
A form tool is a cutting tool intended to produce a desired
contour on a workpiece by means of a turning operation. Flat
5“*P < or circular form tools are available. A flat form tool (Fig. 8-53)
embodies a square or rectangular cross section with the form
.— along its end. Flat form tools may be mounted in a conventional
ig. %-51 Some standard styles of holders for round, triangular, and
.———.. tool post or provided with a dovetail to fit a special holder. The
square usserrs.
tools may be high-speed steel or steel shanks tipped with cast
alloy cutting material or carbide. A circular form tool (Fig.
tooling utilizes the concept of small insert-holding cartridges in
8-53) is round (disc-shaped) with the form or cutting component
tool shanks. Instead of pockets being machined into the shanks
located on its periphery as a cutout portion. These tools are
for the fitting of pins, seats, and inserts, two or more slots are
made to accommodate small cartridges with the desired shape
z-.-q
and orientation.
An important advantage of cartridges is the capability to
change insert style and orientation in a complex tool by
1.
changing only the cartridge. Damaged tools can also be
repaired by simply changing a relatively inexpensive cartridge.
While these advantages make economic justification easy for
boring bars and special tooling, only limited applications exist
c)
():;
------+ 1,
,
for standard turning operations. I

Block tool system. A system has been developed with which
only the cutting head of the tool is changed; the toolholder
remains fixed on the lathe. The small, light tool heads are
attached to the holders through a coupling that can be manually
D
or automatically operated, A drawbar mechanism pulls the
heads against ground axial and radial contact points (see Fig.
8-52) that lock the heads securely and accurately.
Automatic insert changing. An automatic insert changer
.$3-(
,%--J
,!\\
, ,, .,
developed primarily for tracer lathe application is applicable to ,~$.
+ . ‘..
other operations. The holder for this system includes a body, a J--
00
hydraulically actuated mechanism for exchanging and clamping
the inserts, and a replaceable magazine that holds 10 inserts.
Electronic proximity switches control the internal functions,
and compressed air is used for cleaning and cooling. ‘ig. 8-53 Circular form tool (left) and flat form tool mounted in their
On an impulse from an electric counter or a similar control holders.
8-40
CHAPTER 8
usually made of high-speed steel, but may be either carbide- pertaining to the various tools should be embodied in the
tipped or solid carbide. Blanks for circular and flat (dovetailed) drawings relating to them (Table 8- I I). In each case, complete
form tools, together with their associated mounting and overall dimensions should be included and the blank selected
clamping elements, have been standardized in ANSI B94.32- must be of sufficient size to encompass the desired form.
1954 (reaffirmed 1971). The distinguishing characteristic of the dovetailed form tool is
The overall economic considerations of the operation should the dovetail along one side, usually on the side opposite the form.
be the determining factor in deciding whether to use a flat or The dovetail is parallel to the form. Toolholders have a mating
circular type of form tool in a particular case, but the machine dovetail set at an angle to give the desired front relief angle.
tool and toolholder available for the job usually determine The end form tools have the contour ground on either one or
which type will be employed. Original costs of circular form both ends ofastandard high-speed-steel tool bit. Front relief
tools are ordinarily high, but the cost per unit produced is less. and top rake angles are incorporated relative to the base of the
Flat form tools, particularly those of the end-form kind, tool. The tool height should be consistent with the expected
generally cost less, but the cost per unit produced by them work pressure and must be within the capacity of the tool block
frequently is higher because of a shorter tool life. The least so that the cutting edge is maintained on the work centerline.
expensive form tools to make are the end-form kind made from The shaving tool is similar to the dovetailed form tool and
standard bits with the form ground in the solid. used primarily for holding close tolerances. The shaving
Flat form tools. Flat form tools are made with the desired toolholder (Fig. 8-54) contains a pivoted or self-adjusting
contour in the full length of the tool face. The contour of the holder carrying the tool bit and a roller support. The tool bit
form ordinarily remains constant from the top to the base of the approaches the work tangentially and passes the workpieceat
tool, but may vary if side relief is utilized to relieve the straight the same time as the roller. As the holder floats, size is
sides of the contour. Side relief, when used, must not exceed the determined by the distance between the roll and the cutting
part limits within the useable length of the tool. When wear edge, Accuracy is built into thetool andisindependent of the
occurs, regrinding of the top surface while maintaining the machine. Another type of shaving toolholder has a solid
original top rake angle restores the cutting edges and the support made of hardened wear-resistant steel or carbide. With
precision of the tool is maintained throughout its life. either type of support, the relative position between the support
Types of took. There are several types of flat form tools and tool must enable each to balance the other; otherwise, a
which are usually classified as dovetailed form tools, end form cocking action of the tool may take place. The shaving tool in a
tools, shave tools, and skiving tools. Certain essential details holder with aroller support should havea5° maximum front
TABLE 8-11
Information Required on Form Tool Drawings
Dovetail Form Tools End Form Tools Skiving Tools Circular Forming Tools
Complete overall sizes --- --- All form d]mens]ons
and dovetail dimen- detailed in a radial
sions, or reference to plane through the
a standard tool
Rake and relief angles Rake and relief angles Shear, rake and relief Overall dimensions and
angles holding details, or
reference to a
standard
Form dimensions in Form dimensions in Form dimensions in All cutout dimensions

plane in which form plane in which form plane in which form
is ground is ground is ground
Dimensional relation- --- --- Dimensional relation-

ship of dovetail to ship of the form to
side of tool or to a holder side of tool
point on form
When tool is tipped, When tool is tipped, When tool is tipped, When tool is tipped,
specify dimensions specify dimensions specify dimensions specify dimensions
and location of tip, and location of tip, and location of tip, and location of tip,
and kind of tip and kind of tip and kind of tip and kind of tip
material material material material
When a tapped hole is --- When a tapped hole is ---

desired, specify its desired, specify its
size, depth, location, size, depth, and
and thread location
Specify tool material Specify tool material Specify tool material Specify tool material
and desired hardness and desired hardness and desired hardness and desired hardness
8-41
CHAPTER 8
I
Roller Spindle Workplece
rototIon
\ Topof too parallel
to feed
(
tool Feed
\
I J
I k- i ,’”‘::
Fig. 8-54 Shaving tool and holder used primarily for holding close
tolermsces.
-4y 18-25”
(a)
m
cutting angle. Tools used with a solid support may have up to a
I@ front cutting angle. A circular shaving tool should have a
maximum 5° front cutting angle. Collet foce
A skiving tool is used to form long parts or combinations of Workpiwe , ,, ,
shapes that could not be formed without considerable trouble. /a
When using a regular form tool, the ratio between the diameter
18-25” \\ ;/’
being formed and the length of the formed body can usually not
exceed 2.5: 1; the diameter being that diameter of the workpiece I
closest to the collet. By using a skiving tool, this ratio can, in (b)
some instances, be 10:1 or more.

With a skiving tool, the form is generated by moving the tool
tangentially across the workpiece until all points on the contour
have passed the work centerline. A side angle, commonly called
the skive angle, is used so that only a small portion of the cutting
edge is actually engaged in removing a chip and in providing a
shearing action to produce a high finish. The tool cuts first on
the end away from the collet. As it continues its cutting action,
that portion of the tool closer to the collet gradually comes into
contact with the stock and starts its cutting action. A support is
+’\}8-25°
sometimes used and is held in the turret and advanced closer to (cl
the collet as the cutting edge of the skiving tool approaches the
collet. Unless a clearance angle is used, the tool form is identical Fig. 8-55 General design and arrangement of a skiving tool.
to that desired to be cut on the workpiece. The generating effect
of the tool movement in relation to the workpiece makes it
Nx. OX sin NOX
unnecessary to correct for the end relief angle. If clearance is (4)
sin OIVX
used, the same formulas may be used for calculating the
elements of the skive tools as are used for calculating the LNXY= a+/3 (5)
elements of flat form tools. Most skiving tools are used on
XY ❑ NX COS NXY (6)
free-turning brasses and aluminum. They can be used on steel
with smaller depths of cut. Every corrected step on a form tool must be made in relation
Figure 8-55, view a, shows the side view of a skiving tool with to the base or smallest radius to be cut on the workpiece. When
its front cutting face angle. Viewb shows the top of the tool, the a part has a taper or chamfer, the following equations may be
skive angle, and cutting-edge design for general-purpose work. used to correct the dimension or angle on the tool (Fig. 8-57):
Certain intricate shapes may require a cutting edge similar to
CD = CE sec y cos (y + ~) (7)
that shown in view c. This cutting-edge design reduces the
required travel of the tool, thereby shortening the job cycle cos(y+~)
tan r#J. tan a (8)
time, Cos ‘y
Calculating theform tool. The front clearance and top rake
If the form tool does not have top rake (0” rake),
angles (Fig. 8-56) of a flat form tool must be known to obtain a
cutting edge of proper contour that will produce the desired cut tan q5= tan a cos @ (9)
on the workpiece. The form tool shown in Fig. 8-56 cuts two
Correction of the profile depth, however, will not correct the
different diameters on the work presented by the radii ON and
contour of the cutting edge as well. Even with the simple
OX. To find the depth represented by XY to which the tool
example shown in Fig. 8-57, the tool with corrected profile
contour must be finished if it is to produce the correct depth of
depth will produce concavity on the work. Correction of the
cut in the workpiece, the following equations may be used:
tool contour in this case maybe done by the application of a side
rake large enough to keep the cutting edge constantly in a plane
normal to the work. For tools with more intricate form,
sin Nxo . ON sin ONX (2) correction of contour presents more problems and is generally
ox
neglected unless geometrical tolerances on the work make it
[ NOX ❑ 18@’ -(1 ONX + NXO) (3) absolutely necessary.
8-42
CHAPTER 8
TABLE 8-12
Feed
‘0’”>% Maximum Drop of Cutting Edges Below
Centerline for Various Radii
Smallest Radius, in. (mm)

Drop Dz
0.030 0.100 0.240 0,500 0,750
Produ~
(0.76) (2.54) (6.10) ( 12.70) ( 19.05)
mi
radial
4 step PRSZ Maximum 0.010 0.030 0.060 0.090 0.125
drop, (0.25) (0.76) (1.52) (2.29) (3. 17)
in. (mm)
w
Fig. 8-56 Elements of a flat form tool.
drop values listed in Table 8-12, if the smallest radius to be
formed is 0.500”, the rake angle must be reduced to l@.
Carbide-tippeJ/7atfurm tools. Flat form tools may be tipped
with carbide in a manner similar to single-point tools. Since the
tools are ground on the top, the carbide should be as thick as
possible and maintain the required strength in the shank.
When the steps on the tool are approximately 3/4” ( 19 mm),
the tip may be in two pieces with the back piece of carbide up on
line with the front piece of carbide. As shown in Fig. 8-58, this
method increases the effective top rake, as well as conserves
carbide, and compensates for the gradual decrease in top rake
along the profile depth. This method is not limited to steps of 3/ 4“.
Circular form tools. The blank selected should have the
minimum width capable of carrying the form and any necessary
extra projections for the holding device. Wide tools should be
avoided unless a very rigid method of support is provided
because the work pressure on the side away from the holder may
cause deflection of the tool. The circular form tool that is lowest
in first cost has the smallest diameter capable of carrying the
form depths and also clearing the holding device, It should be
I noted that the actual support of the cutting edge decreases as
smaller form tool diameters are used, but this rarely causes
difficulty. The effect is emphasized when a positive rake angle is
used (Fig. 8-59).
Fig. 8-57 Correction of angles on form tool when workpiece has a taper
or chamfer. A number of devices are employed to prevent rotation of the
tool on its axis under pressure of the cut. The cheapest positive
method uses pinholes, which engage a locking pin in the holder
Sizeofadvisable steps. Reference to Fig. 8-56showsthat the
sector. Another method frequently used consists of radial
highest point of the cutting edge is on the centerline only when
serrations matching into radial serrations in the holder; with
thesmallest radius of thepart, ON, is formed. All other points
this method, perfect mating, which is required in precision
in the plane of the angular cutting edge appear below the center-
forming, is dependent upon accurate indexing and accuracy of
line. The amount below center depends on the relative product
serrations. For less accurate operations, tool rotation under
radial step (PRS) and may affect selection of the proper rake.
work pressure can be prevented by roughening the side of the
Normally, cutting edges function less efficiently when set
tool contacting the holder by means of a turned scroll, milled
beIow the centerline of the work. The amount below center or
cross serrations, or some similar means. When these devices are
drop, Dl or D2, should notexceed the maximum permissible
used, poor contact between tool and holder is inevitable and it is
value, which is dependent upon the smallest radius to be
difficult to determine whether the tool is improperly positioned
formed. The relationship presented in Table 8-12 is satisfactory
(cocked). For light operations the frictional contact of an
for ordinary cases.
unground or blasted tool surface with the toolholder is
When two or more radii are to be formed on a part, the values
preferable and facilitates ready interchangeability, because
in Table 8-13 can be used to determine the greatest advisable
deviations in the mating of the tool with the holder are not
PRS that can be efficiently formed on the given workpiece.
factors in performance.
Since the PRS value is controlled by the maximum drop, the
Calculations for circular form tools. When G is the radius
rake angle can be directly selected.
of the tool at the outer cut and H the radius of the inner cut
Example: Assume a permissible 12° rake for the given (Fig, 8-60), the following formulas may be used to calculate the
material, with a given PRS value of 0.470” ( 1I .94 mm) and a value of H:
smallest radius of 0.500” ( 12.70 mm). Table 8-13 shows that
the point of the cutting edge would be dropped a distance of ~in(j=— D (10)
0.100” (2.54 mm) below centerline. In view of the minimum G
8-43
CHAPTER 8
E= GCOS$ (11) H= Fseca (15)

F. E.c (12) Corrections forpositive rake in a circuiarform tool. With the
major tool radius, AD, the amount of offset, AC, and the
H =~~ (13)
top rake angle, O, known, the following equations may be
employed to calculate DB, which equals the tool radius to cut
To avoid the calculation of square roots, the following may the workpiece radius, OB, in relation to the smallest work
be used: radius, OA, (Fig. 8-59):
tana=~ (14)
TABLE 8-13
Minimum Tool-Point Drop for Various PRS* and Rake Angles
Minimum Minimum Minimum Minimum

PRS, Tool-Point PRS, Tool-Point PRS, Tool-Point PRS, Tool-Point
in. (mm) Drop, in. (mm) in. (mm) Drop, in. (mm) in. (mm) Drop, in. (mm) in. (mm) Drop, in. (mm)
5° rake 8“ rake 10° rake 12° rake
0.690 0.06 0.430 0.06 0.340 0.06 0.280 0.06
(17.53) (1.5) (10.92) (1.5) (8.64) (1.5) (7.11) (1.5)
0.920 0.08 0.570 0.08 0.510 0.09 0.375 0.08
(23.37) (2.0) (14.48) (2.0) (12.95) (2.29) (9.52) (2.0)
1.150 0.10 0.710 0.10 0.710 0.125 0.470 0.10
(29.21) (2.5) (18.03) (2.5) (18.03) (3.17) (11.94) (2.5)
1.430 0.125 0.890 0.125 0.800 0.156 0.590 0.125
(36.32) (3.17) (22.61) (3.17) (20.32) (3.96) (14.99) (3.17)
1.720 0.150 I.loo 0.156 1.130 0.200 0.660 0.140
(43.69) (3.81) (27.94) (3.96) (28.70) (5.08) (16.76) (3.56)
1.950 0.170 1.330 0.187 0.750 0.160
(49.53) (4.32) (33.78) (4.75) (19.05) (4.06)
2.180 0.I 90 1.550 0.218 0.870 0.185
(55.37) (4.83) (39.37) (5.54) (22.10) (4.70)
2.500 0.219 1.780 0.250 0.980 0.250
(63.50) (5.56) (45.21) (6.35) (24.89) (6.35)
2.870 0.250
(72.90) (6.35)
15° rake 18° rake 20° rake 25° rake
0.224 0.06 0.185 0.06 0.165 0.06 0.129 0.06
(5.69) (1.5) (4.70) (1.5) (4. 19) (1.5) (3.28) (1.5)
0.300 0.08 0.250 0.08 0.220 0.08 0.172 0.08
(7.62) (2.0) (6.35) (2.0) (5.59) (2.0) (4.37) (2.0)
0.370 0.1o 0.300 0.10 0.275 0.10 0.220 0.10
(9.40) (2.5) (7.62) (2.5) (6.98) (2.5) (5.59) (2.5)
0.470 0.125 0.385 0.125 0.340 0.125 0.268 0.125
(11.94) (3.17) (9.78) (3.17) (8.64) (3.17) (6.81) (3.17)
0.560 0.150 0.460 0.150 0.410 0.150 0.386 0.180
(14.22) (3.81) (11.68) (3.81) (10.41) (3.81) (9.80) (4.57)
0.670 0.180 0.540 0.175 0.480 0.175 0.430 0.200
( 17.02) (4.57) (13.72) (4.44) (12.19) (4.44) (10.92) (5.08)
0.750 0.200 0.610 0.200 0.550 0.200 0.540 0.250
(19.05) (5.08) (15.49) (5.08) (13.97) (5.08) (13.72) (6.35)
0.930 0.250 0.770 0.250 0.690 0.250
(23.62) (6.35) (19.56) (6.35) (17.53) (6.35)
8-44
CHAPTER 8
Minimum Minimum Minimum Minimum

PRS, Tool-Point PRS, Tool-Point PRS, Tool-Point PRS, Tool-Point
in. (mm) Drop, in. (mm) in. (mm) Drop, in. (mm) in. (mm) Drop, in. (mm) in. (mm) Drop, in. (mm)
30° rake 35° rake 40° rake 45° rake
0.100 0.06 0.085 0.06 0.071 0.06 PRS ❑ D
(2.54) (1.5) (2.16) (1.5) (1.80) (1.5)
0.137 0.08 0.114 0.08 0.095 0.08
(3.48) (2.0) (2.90) (2.0) (2.41) (2.0)
0.171 0.10 0.142 0.10 0.119 0.10
(4.34) (2.5) (3.61) (2.5) (3.02) (2,5)
0.222 0.125 0.178 0.125 0.150 0.125
(5.64) (3.17) (4.52) (3.17) (3.81) (3.17)
0.310 0.180 0.256 0.180 0.220 0.180
(7.87) (4.57) (6.50) (4.57) (5.59) (4.57)
0.342 0.200 0.286 0.200 0.230 0.200
(8.69) (5.08) (7.26) (5.08) (5.84) (5.08)
0.430 0.250 0.356 0.250 0.298 0.250
(10.92) (6.35) (9.04) (6.35) (7.57) (6.35)
x Product radial step
CA
(16)
‘ina=x
/3= a + 0 (rake) (17)
DE= AD sin/3 (18)
L OAB = 180°-6 (rake) (19)
1+ 4
sin ~ OBA . OA sin L OAB 3/4” ( I 9 mm) approx.
(20)
OB
ZAOB= 18W -(L OAB+LOBA) (21)
AB= OBsin LAOB
(22)
sin L OAB
AE = DA COS @ (23)
EB= AE-AB (24)
Fig. 8-58 Method of applying carbide tips to flat form tools.

~ (26)
‘an [ ‘BE ‘ EB
DB = ‘B (27)
cos L DBE
Knurling Tools
Knurling is most commonly used to obtain decorative
surfaces, serrated surfaces when components are locked together
in unit assemblies, and hand-grip or nonslip surfaces. These
surfaces are obtained by the displacement of the material when
the knurl is pressed against the surface of a rotating work blank.
Knurls are used for producing straight, diagonal, or diamond
knurling, and they have teeth of uniform pitch on cylindrical
surfaces, Two general methods of specifying knurls—circular-
pitch and diametral-pitch—are now in use. Knurling tools with
standardized diametral pitches are covered in ANSI Standard I
B94.6- 1981. Fig. 8-59 Corrections for positive rake on circular form tools.
8-45
CHAPTER 8
v-
TABLE 8-14
D
Teeth per Inch and Circular Pitches for
Diagonal and Diamond Knurling
with 30° Helix Angle
TPI Circular Pitch, in. (mm)

F Normal Transverse Normal Transverse
LL 12 10.39 0.0833
(2.116)
0,0962
(2.443)
16 13.86 0.0625 0.0722
( 1.587) (1.834)
19 16.45 0.0526 0.0607

(1.336) (1.542)
Fig. 8-60 Method of obtaining inner cutting radius for circular form 20 17.32 0.0500 0.0577
tool. ( 1.270) ( 1.466)
The circular-pitch method is related to the distance between

24 20.78 0.0417 0,0482
(1.059) ( 1.224)
the teeth on the circumference of the work and is usually
expressed in terms of the number of teeth per inch (TPI). Table 25 21.65 0.0400 0.0462
8-14 indicates the circular pitches for the different numbers of (1.016) (1.173)
teeth in terms of normal pitch and transverse pitch for diagonal
and diamond knurling with a helix angle of 30°. Because of 29 25.11 0.0345 0.0398
differences in work materials, the relationship between the (0.876) (1.011)
work-blank diameter and the finish-knurled diameter should be 30 25.98 0.0333 0.0385
established by experimentation. Also, the exact number of teeth (0.0846) (0.978)
should not be specified unless required. Various types of
toolholders are used to apply either one or two knurling tools to 35 30.3I 0.0286 0.0330
the workpiece. (0.726) (0.838)
Burnishing Tools 40 34.64 0.0250 0.0289

Smooth finishes are produced on turned surfaces by roller (0.635) (0.734)
burnishing. Roller burnishing tools consist of a series of 41 35.51 0.0244 0.0282
tapered, hardened, and polished rolls positioned in slots within (0.620) (0.716)
a retaining cage. As the rolls rotate in a cold-working operation,
plastic deformation removes tool marks and surface irregulari- 47 40.70 0.0213 0.0246
ties. Burnishing can also be accomplished with diamond tools. (0,541) (0.625)
50 43.30 0.0200 0.0231
Other Tools
(0.508) (0.587)
Other tools used on lathes are discussed in subsequent
chapters of this volume. These include: 80 69.28 0.0125 0.0144
● Drills, reamers, and related tools—Chapter 9. (0.317) (0.366)
● Milling cutters—Chapter 10.
. Grinding wheels and beks-Chapter 11.
● Thread cutting tools—Chapter 12.
● Gear cutting tools—Chapter 13.
Cutoff (Parting) Tools

Cutoff tools are used on bar-type machines to part completed
workplaces from the bar stock, pipe, or tube. A straight cutoff
blade is a flat piece of tool steel generally having a cross section
in the shape of a rectangle, trapezoid, or trapezium when the 5“ 5“ ~.
cross section is taken at right angles to its length. Various (a) (b) (c) (d)
L
shapes, as shown in Fig. 8-61, are provided to fit the different Fig. 8-61 Shapes for straight cutoff blades: (a) without side clearance,
holders and clamping devices in general use. The blade is (b) with clearance on one side, (c) with concave side clearance, and (d)
furnished unsharpened, heat treated, and cut to length. These with channeled sides.
blades may be used in special holders for grooving and
recessing. Dimensions of the straight cutoff blades are presented length-adjustable support blade, and replaceable insert. The
in ANSI Standard B94.3- 1965 (reaffirmed 1972). insert can be made with built-in chip control which will produce
Cutoff tools are also manufactured by using the carbide chips narrower than the slot machined in the part. Some of the
insert concept. These tools usually consist of a toolholder, geometries for replaceable inserts are shown in Fig. 8-62.
8-46
CHAPTER 8
fixtures or gages with dial indicators to costly precision

presetting machines. Presetting machines are available with
optical or electronic systems and microscopes, magnifiers,
comparator screens, and digital readouts.
WORKHOLDING FOR TURNING

Safe, fast, accurate, and rigid means of holding workplaces
on lathes are critical requirements for successful turning, All the
power required at the cutting tool must be transmitted through
the workholding device to the workpiece. As a result, solid
gripping of the workpiece is essential. This is especially
Fig. 8-62 Various geometries for carbide-insert type of cutoff tools.
(Valenile Div., Valeron Corp.)
important with the trend toward higher speed machining and
the increased requirements for closer tolerances and smoother
finishes.
A parting tool with a self-gripped insert is illustrated in Fig,
Force requirements for safe workholding depend on many
8-63. The carbide insert fits into a blade type of holder, and a variables, including the geometry and overhang of the
wedging action caused by cutting forces clamps the insert in the workpieces, workpiece materials and their properties, cutting
blade, V-grooves in the top and bottom surfaces of the insert tools used, speed and feed rates, and whether the workplaces
align the insert and mate with corresponding grooves in the must be kept free of marks and distortion. Formulas have been
blade. The insert is removed by an extracting tool with a cam- developed to calculate force requirements as they relate to
shaped end. A chipbreaker geometry on the insert forms the safety factors, coefficients of friction, and other variables. A
chip in two axes fo-r efficient-disposal, formula for force requirements that can be used with jaw-type
chucks is presented later in this section.
The safe maximum speed for any rotary workholding device
also depends on many factors. These include the workpiece size,
shape, and finish; rigidity of the setup; the type and condition of
the workholding device; the gripping force available at
maximum speed; the type of operations performed; and the
cutting tools used.
Major types of workholding devices are faceplates and
fixtures, mandrels, jaw-type chucks, step chucks, collets, and,
occasionally, magnetic and vacuum chucks. The workpiece,
lathe, and tooling used often dictate the type of workholding
device that can be employed. In many cases, however, the use of
several types is possible and judicious selection is required,
Regardless of the type used, the workpiece should be gripped
on the largest diameter practical. This assures a favorable
Fig. 8-63 Parting tool with self-gripped insert. (hear Metals, Inc.)
relationship between the gripping and cutting diameters to
accommodate torque more easily. Workpieces should also be
Qualified and Preset Tooling gripped as close to the faces of chucks as possible.
Making trial cuts and tool adjust~ents by means of offsets
and compensation systems in the controls of NC lathes can be Between-Center Turning Operations
time consuming and costly, and may cause damage to the Many workpieces, particularly shorter parts, are turned on
workpiece, tools, or the machine. As a result, extensive use is chucking-type lathes without the use of centers. This is done
made of qualified or preset tooling. with chucks, collets, or other workholding devices, or by
Qualified tooling. As previously mentioned, qualified bolting workplaces or fixtures directly to the faceplates of
(precision) holders for inserts are ground to locate the cutting lathes. Some faceplates are equipped with jaws for rotating
edges to specified dimensions within a tolerance of +0.003° large-diameter workplaces. Many other workpieces, particularly
(0.08 mm). Most NC lathes and turning machines are offered longer ones, require support on one or two lathe centers with at
with turrets and tool adapter blocks which accept standard least one steadyrest in between.
qualified toolholders. Turning on centers requires that conical center holes be
The combined accuracy of qualified holders and precision drilled in the ends of the workplaces prior to the operation;
inserts sometimes eliminates the need for using tool offsets these holes are often ground for precision operations (see
provided on the machine control, especially for roughing Chapter 1I, “Grinding”). The end of the workpiecc adjacent to
operations, thus speeding setup. Qualified tooling also facili- the lathe tailstock is always supported by a center mounted in
tates programming and establishhg tool positions without the the tailstock. The opposite end of the workpiece can be gripped
need for presetting, thus reducing costs. by a chuck or collet, or it can be supported by a center mounted
Preset tooling. The presetting of tools before they are in the headstock spindle.
brought to the machines offers the advantage of increased Types of centers. Some of the various centers, both live and
flexibility. Compensations can be made for resharpening or the dead types, used on lathes are illustrated in Fig. 8-64, Headstock
changing of inserts, as well as for slightly altered dimensional centers always rotate with the lathe spindles and workplaces.
requirements. A disadvantage is the cost of presetting equip- Tailstock centers may be of the live type, rotating with the
ment. This equipment ranges from relatively inexpensive workpiece, or the dead type, stationary.
8-47
CHAPTER 8
to the workpiece, and the bent end (tail) of the dog is positioned
in one of the slots in the driver plate, A compensating chuck,
with either a solid or spring-loaded center, can also be used to
rotate workplaces between centers.
Face drivers. When the design of the workpiece permits,
exerting driving power on one face of the workpiece can
increase productivity. Face drivers permit machining the entire
OD of a part in one clamping, as well as turning at high speeds.
I A high degree of accuracy is maintained because the position of
Fig. 8-64 Various types of centers, live and dead, used on lathes.
the workpiece does not have to be changed.
One type of face driver (see Fig. 8-66) consists of a driving
Rotating the workpiece, Workpiece rotation by means of a
head and a locating shank that fits on the spindle nose of a lathe.
headstock-motrnted chuck or collet provides a rigid setup and
The driving head contains a spring-loaded center, drive pins,
minimizes any chance of chatter during machining. More
and a compensating device that permits each drive pin to adjust
precise results, however, can often be obtained by supporting
to irregularities on the face of the workpiece.
the workpiece between two centers,
As the lathe taiktock applies axial force to the workpiece, the
Rotation of a workpiece held between centers is accomplished
center of the driver retracts slightly against its spring pressure to
with a slotted driver plate, such as the one shown in Fig. 8-65,
allow the chisel-edged drive pins to bite into the end face of the
view a, mounted on the spindle nose of the lathe. A lathe dog,
workpiece. During cutting, torque is increased and the pins bite
several types of which are shown in Fig, 8-65, viewb, is secured
deeper into the face for positive clamping. Some workpiece
fac~s have holes and the driving pins e~ter-the holes. -
Use of mandrels. Hollow and tubular workplaces are often
4
mounted on mandrels for internal gripping. There is some
interchangeability between the terms mandrel and arbor. For
the purposes of this discussion, however, the term mandrel is
used to describe workholding devices and the term arbor is used to
describe devices for holding cutting tools and grinding wheels.
@, Three types of mandrels for internal gripping are: pin type,
expanding type, and threaded type. Pin-type mandrels are used
for gripping cast, forged, or rough bores. Three or six pins or
(0) shoes move outward to centralize and grip the parts. These pins
are usually power operated through a drawbar that is attached
to the mandrel to push the pins, by cam action, through
openings in the body of the mandrel. Figure 8-67 illustrates an
expanding mandrel with serrated shoes for grippinga 34’’(864 mm)
long workpiece.
Expanding bushing type mandrels are generally used in
smooth or finished bores, They usually provide better
Fig. 8-65 (a) Typical driver plate and {b) various types of dogs used to concentricity (end to end) than solid plug ma-nd~els because the
rotate workplaces held between centers on a lathe. bore tolerance does not affect the accuracy as expansion
Face dwer
Fig. 8-66 Face driver permits turning entire OD of workpiece mounted between centers in one clamping.
8-48
CHAPTER 8
Inner shank (rear)

I Outer shank .,
Serratec shoes (front)
Serrated shoes (rear) Inner shank (front) Workplece
Draw bolt
———
Fig. 8-67 Expanding mandrel and serrated shoes for gripping long, thin-wall workplaces. (Erickson Div., Kennametal Inc.)
centralizes the workpiece, One type of expanding-bushing

mandrel consists of a tapered shaft assembly, threaded on one
end, over which various-sized slotted sleeves with a corre-
sponding taper can be fitted to suit a number of workplaces.
Two retaining rings
Rotation of a clamping bolt in the end of the shaft forces the
sleeve up the tapered surface on the shaft to grip the workpiece, I
Drive can be a problem with this type of mandrel, and the use
of a drive pin is suggested when possible if heavy cuts are
to be taken.
Mandrels are not limited to workplaces having finished or
smooth bores. If the ID is a rough cast surface having a
dimensional variation wider than that which can be handled by
an expanding sleeve, a segmented sleeve such as the one shown
in Fig. 8-68 is used. Segmented sleeves can handle ID variations
of 1/ 8“(3.2 mm) or more; on large workpieces, variations up to
3/ 4“ (19 mm) are possible. Segmented sleeves consist of three
individual segments held together with spring bands, These
.<
‘h’”equ”’se
Grlomm surfaces which
- may be knurleo or serrated
sleeves may have serrated segments, or they can be used with
end locators.
‘ig. 8-68 Three-segment sleeve for handling ID variations. (Erickso~
If the end locating surfaces of workplaces have previously >iv,, Kennametal Inc.)
been machined square with the bores to be gripped, locators
that are flat and square are used. If not, compensating locators
must be used, The locators or end stops are sometimes serrated
to increase the driving force.
When the ID is relatively small compared to the OD of a
workpiece, expanding mandrels can be used with auxiliary
clamp supports for increased rigidity. An expanding mandrel
and a set of outboard clamps (see Fig. 8-69) is used for rigid
holding and positive positioning of gear blanks. In the unit
illustrated in Fig. 8-69, an inner threaded locknut forces the
expanding sleeve up the mandrel. To simplify removal of the
OD support for workpiece mounting, a plate with a swing-out
C-clamp is employed. After the workpiece is mounted on the
mandrel, the threaded locknut is tightened and locked and the
end-clamps are applied.
Threaded mandrels, both ring and plug types, provide means
of locating from threads on workplaces. Holding is done by
running the workpiece onto the threaded locator and against a
stop. The stop can be made retractable to facilitate unloading.
Threaded mandrels can be mounted to chuck faces, and the jaw
movement used to position and retract the top. A discussion of
other types of mandrels is presented in Chapter 11, “Grinding.”
Steady rests and follower rests. Long, slender workplaces are ‘ig. 8-69 Expanding mandrel and outboard clamps for holding gear
often supported for between-center turning by steady rests or ,Iank. (Erickson Div., Kennanreial Inc.)
8-49
CHAPTER 8
follower rests (see Fig. 8-70). When work is mounted between Steadyrests can be the self-centering or independent-jaw type
centers, a general rule-of-thumb is that any part having a and can be hand or power operated. They generally consist of a
length-to-diameter ratio of 10:1 or more requires some kind of frame containing adjustable or telescoping jaws or rollers to
support. More than one rest is frequently used for very long provide three-point bearing. The frame of a steadyrest is usually
parts or precision operations. Steady rests are also used to hinged on one side, allowing the upper half to swing open to
support the outer ends of chucked workplaces for facing, facilitate loading and unloading workplaces. Some are designed
boring, and other operations. to automatically open and close, thus permitting turning
Steadyrests can be clamped to the lathe bed at any desired operations to pass the rest without interference.
position along the workpiece length. Follower rests are attached Surfaces on which the rests are to ride should be smooth or
to the carriages of lathes and support the workplaces at points machined prior to the lathe operation, before the jaws or rolls
opposite the cutting tools. Auxiliary or full-swing rests mount are brought to bear against the surfaces. On most NC lathes, the
on the forward wings of lathe saddles for turning to the steadyrest can be controlled by the NC unit.
naximum diameter capacities of the machines.
Collets for Lathes
Collets, also called collet or bar chucks, are workholding
devices used to grip workplaces or stock—including cold-drawn
and centerless ground bars having smooth or machined
surfaces—on smaller size lathes and other machine tools.
Advantages of collets include high holding power because of
their large contact area with the stock, the absence of clamping
marks normally left by chucks, and relatively low cost. Also,
they do not lose their gripping force due to centrifugal effects.
Standard collets made by Hardinge Brothers are available
with a concentricity of 0.001” (0.03 mm), measured 1“
(25.4 mm) from the faces of the collets, Special collets are made
to closer accuracies, with concentricities within 0.0002”
(0.005 mm). Diameters machined on a workpiece held in a collet
will be concentric with each other and as accurate as the total
indicated runout (TIR) of the machine spindle. Concentricity of
the machined diameters with respect to the chucking diameter
will equal that of the collet TIR.
A collet is usually seated directly in the spindle of a lathe. In
operation, the collet opens under its own spring tension to allow
.L— ——-__L—-. __L -d bar stock to be fed through it or workplaces to be placed in it.
The collet is then closed to securely grip the stock or workpiece.
Collets are hollow steel cylinders generally having slots
extending along most of their length, with a tapered OD at the
closing end and, in some cases, ID threads at one end for
mounting stock stops and OD’threads at the opposite end for
connecting to a draw bar. They are available in fractional,
decimal, letter, number, and metric sizes for holding round,
square, rectangular, hexagonal, and special-shaped stock.
While most collets are made to hold stock on-center, they can be
designed to hold stock off-center any desired distance, as is
required for eccentric or odd-shaped workplaces.
Serrated, taper hole, step, plug chuck, and extended-nose
collets provide additional means to grip stock. So-called
emergency collets have a pilot hole that can be drilled or bored
to required size. This design is useful for short production runs
or when exact collet sizes are not readily available. The three
basic collet styles used for metalcutting are stationary, push out,
and draw in. These styles are illustrated in Fig. 8-7 I; the draw-in
collet shown has interchangeable serrated pads.
Stationary collets. Since these collets do not move longitudi-
nally in the spindle, changes in workpiece lengths caused by
variations in stock diameter are virtually eliminated. A typical
stationary collet is shown mounted in a spindle in Fig. 8-72.
The collet seats directly against a spindle nose cap to prevent
outward movement of the collet. Surrounding the collet is a
sleeve that is threaded into a push bar. After the bar stock is fed
through the spindle and open collet to the required length, or
‘ig. 8-70 Typical steadyrest, auxiliary rest, and follower rest used to after a workpiece has been chucked, the sleeve is pushed
support long workplaces on lathes. outward against the mating tapered surface of the collet head by
8-50
CHAPTER 8
Sp[ndle
nose cap
(0) Stationary collet
(b) Push-out collet

Fig. 8-73 Push-out style collet provides accurate length control because
stock does not pull away from the stop.4
action forces the collet to close around the bar stock and hold it
in place for machining.
Draw-in collets. With this design, the collet is pulled into the
spindle by a drawbar. This action forces the tapered OD of the
collet head to press against the tapered ID of the spindle nose
cap, thus causing the collet to close and securely grip the stock.
For use in automatic screw machines (discussed in Chapter
15), a feed finger is threaded into a feed tube, as shown in Fig.
Fig. 8-71 Three basic styles of collets are: (a) stationary, (b) push-out,
and (c) draw-in. 8-74. As the feed finger grips the bar stock, the feed tube pushes
the feed finger, which in turn pushes the stock through the open
collet to the required length. The collet is then drawn back into
the spindle by the drawbar, forcing the collet to close. Both the
feed tube and the feed fineer automatically retract in the
spindle, and the feed finger r~grips the stock for the next cycle.
Fig. 8-72 Typical stationary collet, shown mounted in a spindle,

minimizes changes in workpiece lengths.~
the push bar. This forces the collet to close and grip the stock.
Push-out collets. These collets, such as the one illustrated in
Fig. 8-73, can provide accurate control of part lengths if the bar
stock is fed up to a turret-mounted stock stop as the collet
closes. After the bar stock has been fed through the open collet,
the push bar or plunger pushes the tapered nose of the collet Fig. 8-74 Draw-in collet equipped with a feed finger threaded into a
against a mating tapered bore in the spindle nose cap. This feed tube.4
8-51
CHAPTER 8
Draw-in collets operate for other lathe-type machines by the When performing secondary operations (chucking semi-
same principle as for automatic screw machines. Instead of using finished workpieces), stock stops may be threaded into some
a feed tube and feed finger, however, the collet is threaded into a draw-in collets to help prevent stock from pushing back into the
drawbar that is connected to a collet closer. Opening and closing collet. This method helps maintain closer length tolerances.
of the collet is either manually or pneumatically controlled by Minimizing stock puliback. Draw-in collets usually have a
the machine operator. Bar stock can be automatically fed I:3 ratio variation between part diameter and length. For
through the spindle by several types of bar feeding devices. example, if thereisa0.001” (0.03 mm) variation in the OD of the
Minimizing stock pushback. When a draw-in collet is used, stock, a 0.003” (0.08 mm) variation in workpiece length will
stock pushback can be caused by an oversized or worn collet; a result when the collet closes, even though the stock is located
collet with a scored or galled ID; bent, scored, or nicked bar against a stop in the collet.
stock; too deep a cut; too fast a feed rate; improper cutting Workpiece Icngths can be controlled to less than 0.001”
tools; or incorrect collet closing pressure. (0.03 mm) for secondary operations on 5C spindle machines by
An excessively undersized collet (Fig. 8-75, a) will cause the using Dead-Length collets made by Hardinge Brothers, Inc.
collet to grip the stock at six points on the innermost gripping These collets allow shoulders and faces to be machined to
area of a three-split collet, An oversized collet (Fig. 75, b) will precision length regardless of variations in the OD of the stock.
provide only three points of contact, toward the face of the As illustrated in Fig. 8-76, the stop body of a Dead-Length
collet. Both of these conditions will allow stock to push back collet is threaded into an inner collet which is spring-loaded into
and also result in bar whip. an outer collet. To maintain accurate location, the inner collet is
Pushback maybe corrected by using a collet having the same keyed to the outer collet. As the collet assembly is mounted into
size as the stock to be machined, as shown in Fig. 8-75, c. If the the machine spindle, the inner collet becomes spring loaded
problem of pushback still persists, a serrated extra-spread collet, against the spindle face to prevent the possibility of axial and
0.003-0.005” (0.08-0. 13 mm) under size, may provide a solution. end movements of the workpiece. Workpieces are loaded into
the inner collet and located against a shoulder or adjustable
solid stop.
Step chucks. Step chucks are collets used on draw-in spindles
to hold workplaces that are beyond the collet capacity of the
chucking machine. The chucks are available in standard sizes in
both regular and extra-depth capacities. Emergency step
chucks, such as the one shown in Fig. 8-77, can be machined to
the exact size required by the machine operator.
Closers are always used with step chucks. As the step chuck is
drawn into the spindle, the tapered OD on the chuck presses
against a corresponding taper in the bore of the closer to grip
the workpiece.
(a)
I Built-in air actuation. Air-powered collet chucks are available
Sptndle
that incorporate a chuck and air-actuating device in an integral
unit mounted on the spindle nose of a lathe. No alterations to
the machine are required. A double-acting air cylinder actuates
a ball-cam mechanism to open and close the collet. Air is
supplied through a standard filter-regulator-lubricator, and
actuation can be automated or by a manually operated valve.
Air-actuated workholding devices made by the Jacobs
Manufacturing Co. use Rubber-Flex collets consisting of
hardened steel inserts molded in a synthetic rubber compound,
Flexibility of the rubber matrix gives each collet a gripping
range of 1/8” (3.2 mm), and only 11 collets can handle round
bars ranging from I /16 to I 3/8’’(1.6 to 35 mm). When mounted
(b)
contoci
I on a true spindle, runout measured at the nose of the chuck does
not exceed 0.0007” (0.018 mm). The chucks can be operated at
speeds to 5000 rpm.
Expanding Collets. These workholding devices provide
internal gripping of workplaces requiring secondary machining
operations. The shoulders, faces, and OD’S of workplaces
having previously machined bores can be machined concentric
and square when the workplaces are held in this way. If an
expanding collet is long in relation to its diameter, it may be
necessary to support the outer end of the collet with a tailstock
center or steadyrest.
0
Some expanding collets, such as the one illustrated in Fig.
8-78, are furnished with machinable pads that can be turned to
(c)
I required size in the machine spindle. This provides concentricity
Fig. 8-75 Influence on clamping of (a) undersized collet, (b) oversized as accurate as the runout of the machine spindle. The shoulder
collet, and (c) exact-sized collet. faced on the pads locates the workplaces for length control
8-52
CHAPTER 8
Inner collet ~
,%sembled view
Outer collet
> kev
Spting
retainer
Storl
f “.,=
bdy stop inner co~et
. . . . . . . .
r lg. ow I0 r,xpmams
m!– “. -I
W-.—.I. J -—> —-. .—.
mm assemmea views m a n.Deaa-sxngm
L,. J.., . r
-––. . . .
– .-–.. .
couer usea. lor
. .
close comrol 01 worKplece Iengms..
when repetitive parts are machined to the same length.

Two expand;ng (OD) collets are used for the mandrel-type
lathe fixture illustrated in Fig. 8-79. Made by Drewco Corp.,
this fixture holds a cylindrical casting measuring about 5 I / 8“
(130 mm) diam x 105/ 16’’(262 mm) long. Before the OD of the
casting is machined and both ends are faced, the ID is finish
bored in one setup while the casting is held on this fixture. The
fixture is held at one end by engaging the spindle nose on the
lathe and at the other end by the lathe tailstock engaging an
insert in the end cap of the fixture.
Both collets in this fixture are keyed to a mandrel body to
assure precise concentricity. Actuation is through the action of
an expander cap threaded to the drawbar of the lathe. As the
drawbar retracts, it forces the collets and a slider to the left.
When the left-hand collet contacts a conical surface on the
mandrel, both collets are expanded to securely hold the
workpiece.
A rack is machined on both the drawbar and the work
Clo’ser Step chuck
locating pin of the fixture, and a pinion engages both racks. As
the drawbar retracts to expand the colIets, the rotating pinion
ig. 8-77 Emergency step chuck for draw-in spindle can be machined to
old large workpiece. withdraws the pin from contact with the workpiece, thus
permitting facing of the locating surface.
Jaw-Type Chucks
Chucks for use on engine, toolroom, turret, and automatic
lathes are designed to fit the spindle noses specified in ANSI
d
Ider
Standard B5.9-1967 (reaffirmed 1972). Dimensions of the
chucks and jaws are listed, and classifications for different types
of duty are specified in ANSI Standard B5.8-1972 (reaffirmed
1979). At present, however, this standard is incomplete in that it
does not cover many chuck designs now available.
Chuck selection. In selecting a chuck, a complete analysis of
the requirements for the specific application should be made.
Factors that must be considered include the size range of the
workplaces to be machined, setup and tooling to be used, speed
pads (3) of the operation, production requirements, and jaw forces
necessary to hold the workplaces rigidly.
Jaw forces required to drive a workpiece can be computed
from the formula presented in Fig. 8-80. This formula is only
Fig. 8-78 Expanding collet with machinable pads that can be turned to recommended for relatively short or tailstock-supported work-
required size. places and when the axial force is absorbed through a workpiece
8-53
CHAPTER 8
-.
I
I
_._ —–_k.
~ ii
, II ,,,,,~ ,.,. I%=-. * -:. . ,.. .,
- +1
L
–– -J---
~ P“
Body
““”’ “’” .-....
Wnrkniece
I b+
Fig. 8-79 Mandrel-type lathe fixture that has two expanding collets for holding castings between centers.
Chucks with improved accuracy are now available to take

full advantage of the improved accuracy of NC lathes.
Accuracies of 0,001” (0.03 mm) TIR and repeatability of
0.0005’’ (0,013 mm) are not uncommon for chucks 15’’(380 mm)
or less in diameter.
Types of chucks.Lathe chucks are available in a wide variety
of types and designs, and are either manually or power
actuated. Manually operated chucks are generally restricted to
toolroom, maintenance, or limited production requirements
because the time required for chucking may take longer than for
machining. Power chucks cost more, but arc faster and more
productive. They also permit adjusting the gripping force to suit
various requirements. Major types of chucks are independent
and self-centering.
Independent chucks. In an independent chuck, each indi-
vidual workholdingjaw can be moved toward or away from the
workpiece without influencing the other jaws. They are widely
used to grip square or irregular-shaped workplaces. Most
where J = low force in pounds per Iow independent chucks are constructed with four equally spaced
T=cuti[ng load torque, ft-lb jaws (see Fig. 8-8 1), but they are also available with two jaws for
S= factor of safety 2t03
~ = ~oefllcjent of frldlon: 0,15-0.2 for smooth iaws, 0.35- 1.0 fOr sharp
dramond-shaped serrottons or molded cchde tips
N = number of chuck laws
R =gripplng radius, m.
In metric umts:
where J = law force In klfonewtons per Iaw

T = torque in newton meters
R = radius m millimeters
Fig. 8-80 Formula for computing jaw force requirements to drive s

workpiece on a lathe.
stop. Gripping forces vary widely, depending upon the size and
design of the chuck. Typical gripping forces for a 10” (254 mm)
diam chuck are 5000-8500 lb (22.2 -37.8 kN) per jaw; for a 24”
(610 mm) diam chuck, typical gripping forces are 10,000-22,000
lb (44.5 -97.9 kN). Chucks are generally guaranteed to maintain
from 50-75% of their rated gripping force at maximum speed.
Some are provided with internal jaw locks that maintain
gripping force in case of power failure or stripped threads on the
drawbar or tube. Chucks are available for operation at speeds in Fig. 8-81 Four-jaw independent chuck (shown with one jaw removed)
the range 4000-6000 rpm or more. for gripping irregular-shaped workpiecex. (Cushman Industries, Inc.)
8-54
CHAPTER 8
irregular-shaped castings and forgings that have to be trued up

individually before machining.
Independent motion of the jaws on these chucks is
accomplished by a screw beneath each jaw which is fixed to the
chuck body by a thrust ring. A mating screw thread is machined
in the bottom of each jaw. When the operating screw is rotated
by a wrench inserted in a socket in the end of the screw, the jaw
moves inward or outward, depending upon the direction of
screw rotation. With this design, high mechanical advantages
are achieved, usually in a ratio of 30-40:1.
Independent chucks require more time to grip workplaces
than self-centering and power types; they also require skill and
care in setup. The jaws should be indicated to assure that their
grip points are a constant distance from the center of rotation.
This is necessary to minimize vibration and chatter.
Self-centering chucks. This type of chuck is available in a
wide variety of styles and configurations. One is the scroll, or
geared-scroll, chuck which is still the most commonly used for
general applications in holding round work. These chucks are
particularly suitable for short-run requirements of a large
variety of workplaces. Combination chucks are also available
having both self-centering and independent jaw action. ig. 8-82 Three-jaw self-centering chuck of geared-scroll design.
A three-jaw, self-centering chuck of geared-scroll design is Zushman Industries, Inc.)
shown in Fig. 8-82. In this design, a pinion is rotated by a
manual or power operated driver which, in turn, rotates a gear Wedge-type power chucks, These chucks consist of a body,
mounted on a plate. On the reverse side of the gear plate is a face wedge, and master jaws which slide radially within slots in the
gear commonly referred to as a scroll. Teeth on the scroll engage body. As the wedge is drawn to the rear of the chuck, the jaws
similar teeth cut in the back of the master jaws. are drawn radially inward. This type of chuck is available in
The set of three jaws on a geared-scroll chuck are matched wedge-hook and wedge-block designs, with the wedge-hook
with the proper offsets so that they move simultaneously design being the most popular. The wedge-type power chuck
toward the chuck center to engage the workpiece and hold it illustrated in Fig. 8-83 has been modified for hi~h-sueed .,l
concentric with powerful gripping action. These chucks are operation by the addition of levers and counterweight slides.
made in light, medium, and heavy-duty series to suit various
jobs to be performed. It is important that the proper chuck be Lever Moster iow
selected for a specific application to assure accuracy and
longevity of the mechanism.
For larger sized lathes, self-centering, geared-scroll chucks
can be operated by a wrench powered electrically, hydraulically,
or pneumatically. Power-wrench chucks provide a more
powerful yet consistent gripping pressure and thereby relieve
the operator of a strenuous task.
Power chucks. Power chucks operated by a pneumatically or
hydraulically powered drawbar or tube, or having a self-
contained power actuating device, are better suited for medium-
to-long, repetitive production runs. Many NC lathes are
provided with chucks such as these.
Power chucks typically have a shorter jaw stroke than
independent or geared-scroll chucks and generally must be
equipped with top jaws suited to the workplaces to be machined. 1
-I- /
Counterw~ght
Most power chucks have a jaw movement limited to about 3/8
to I / 2“ (9.5 to 12.7 mm) per jaw. This permits a variation of
I skde
Fig. 8-83 Wedge-hook power chuck equipped with levers and

about I” (25.4 mm) on the gripping diameter, but the contour of counterweight slides for high-speed operation. (Universal Engineering
the top jaws does not permit the best gripping condition on all Div., Houdaille Industries, Inc.)
diameters within the range. It is therefore recommended that
the variation be limited to about 1/4’’ (6.3 mm) on diameters to Many power chucks are actuated by an air or hydraulic
be gripped with the same set of top jaws. Chuck jaws are cylinder mounted on the rear of the lathe spindle, with a
discussed later in this section. drawbar or tube in the spindle connecting the cylinder to the
Many different designs of power chucks are available from chuck. Many modern NC lathes have spindle-ported hydraulic
various manufacturers. The higher speed capability of modern systems, and power chucks are available that contain a
NC lathes has necessitated the development of improved power hydraulic cylinder within the chuck body. This eliminates the
chucks to provide better retention of gripping force under need for a rear-mounted cylinder and reduces space require-
increased centrifugal forces. Most power chucks are either ments. The spindle bore is also left open to accept maximum-
wedge or lever type. size bar or tube stock.
8-55
CHAPTER 8
Similar chuck designs are available for air operation. Figure One advantage of lever-type chucks is that a larger through
8-84 illustrates a wedge-hook chuck having a built-in air hole, for performing either bar work or swallowing of
cylinder. This permits front mounting and eliminates the need workpieces, can be more readily achieved. These chucks may
for a rear cylinder, drawbar, and coupling. Large through holes also be designed with master jaws that have a provision to affix
in these chucks permit bar work. The integral air piston collet pads. Lever chucks have a power advantage over wedge
operates the wedge-hook master jaws, with a shallow IW chucks in larger sizes because longer levers can be used for
wedge-lock angle to provide gripping force in the event that the greater mechanical advantages. Wedge chucks, however,
trapped air is lost. sometimes have greater repeatability and may be preferred
Wedge-type power chucks are available in the following when concentricity between the gripping diameter and the
styles: diameters to be machined is critical.
Another advantage of lever-type chucks is their ability to be
1. Self-centering chucks with nonadjustable jaws for repetitiw
shifted from high to low gripping pressures on-the-fly without
operations or dedicated machines for which jaw adjust-
the need for stopping the chuck and regripping the workpiece,
ment is not required.
This allows for high clamping forccs during roughing cuts and a
2. Chucks with serrated master jaws for operations requiring
lighter grip during finishing, thus eliminating distortion of
a wide range of jaw capacities. Size changes are achieved
fragile workplaces.
by stepping the top jaws along the master jaws.
In most instances, lever-type chucks are now 01 counter-
3. Chucks with independently adjustable jaws which are
balanced design. Counterweights are affixed to the rears of the
sometimes used for irregularly shaped workplaces.
levers, thus providing a counterbalancing effect on the
Lever-type power chucks. These chucks are similar in centrifugal force exerted by the master and top iaws at high
appearance to wedge-type chucks; however, instead of having speeds. On the typical lever~type chuck shown ii Fig. 8-85, tie
wedges, they have levers which transmit axial motion of the shaded portion at the rear of the lever is the mass that
power cylinder into radial motion of the jaws. As the levers are counterbalances the combined mass of the master and top jaws,
pivoted, eccentrics on their thrust ends force the master jaws bolts, and T-nuts.
toward the centerline of the chuck and cause the top jaws to grip At least one chuck manufacturer uses integral counter-
the workpiece. centrifugal lobes, with the counterweights and levers combined
ock
-w” LARGE THROUGH “––”-tRimHOLE
—-,
--
bushing
sleeve
e
Cent
ring
WI Q.9A 17..,..4 aA...-.....4aA -1....1. ..,k:m. I.... - k..:,. :-. -:_ _..., -J-— .0 . . , ,.. , - . .
CHAPTER 8
Countemveight
Master
lever ia,w
[ [
Fig. 8-85 Lever-type chuck with counterhalarrceweight (shaded area]

attached to rear of lever. (The S-P Marrufacfurirzg Corp.)
in one-piece elements. Another manufacturer of chucks offers a

butterfly dmign. Each jaw has two counterweights pivoting in a
milled pocket in the chuck body (see Fig. 8-86).
Chuck jaws. Withjaw-type chucks, workplaces are generally
secured by replaceable jaws, referred to as top jaws, which
attach to tbe master jaws of the chucks. Dimensions of three-
step, reversible top jaws for Class 1 chucks (see ANSI Standard
B5.8-1972, reaffirmed 1979) are tabulated in Table 8-15. Class I
chucks are for medium-duty use on engine lathes and for
applications inwhich the servicers not severe. Dimensions of
three-step, reversible top jaws for Class 11 chucks are presented
in Table 8-16. Class 11 chuck sarefor heavy -duty useon turret
lathes and for applications in which the service is severe. rig. 8-86 Lever-type chuck with counterweights pivoting in milled
Types o~rnasterjaws. Four types of master jaws in use today pockets. (Cushman Industries, Inc.)
areilltrstrated in Fig, 8-87. With the fine serrated design, which
is more widely used in Europe than in the United States, botb special top jaws, as well as in selecting standard ones, are
the master and top jaws have saw tooth serrations, either 1/ 16° illustrated in Figure 8-88. As shown in view a, top jaws should
(1.6 mm) or 3/32” (2.4 mm) pitch x 90°. The chuck jaws can be not exceed a I: I ratio with respect to length-to-height. Also, the
moved in multiples of either increment. With the American height of the top jaw should not exceed the length of the master
Standard square serrated design, the master jaw is serrated and jaw, Chucking pressure should be reduced about 10YCfor each
the top jaw has a serrated key mounted in it. Adjustment is in inch (25 mm) exceeding 3“ (76 mm) of jaw height to prevent
I /4’’(6.3 mm) increments or, by reversing the key, I / 8“(3.2 mm) breaking master jaws, levers, or wedges.
increments. The square serrations are milled or broached. The gripped diameter should be equal to or larger than the
Tongue-and-groove and Acme serrated jaws are the most diameter being machined (see view b). If the workpiece has
popular designs in the United States. Jaws with the American more than one diameter, the largest diameter should be used for
Standard tongue-and-groove are nonadjustable but are widely chucking. When this is not possible, the feed rate and the depth
used for high-production requirements for which the top jaws of cut should be reduced. W orkpieces should be gripped as close
are machined to hold only one part. The American Standard to the face of the chuck as possible (see view c), and special jaws
Acme serrated design is similar to the square serrated design with a longer grip should be used for larger, longer, or heavier
except that the teeth have a 29° taper. Adjustment is in 1/4” workplaces.
(6.3 mm) increments or, by reversing the key, I/ 8“ (3.2 mm) For rough workpieces, the jaws of self-centering chucks
increments. should be designed, if possible, so that the gripping surfaces
Standard top jaws. Many standard top jaws are available fully contact the workplaces (view d, Fig. 8-88). Standard
from supplier stocks. Standard top jaws supplied with chucks stepped top jaws, however, seldom achieve this goal, and it is
are generally of single-step design and only available in sets. desirable for the center serrations to bite into the workpiece
Work stops are recommended with these jaws. Some standard first. On compensating chucks, the jaws should contact the
top jaws are also available with more than one step, but they workpiece as close to its centerline as possible (see view e); they
have limitations with respect to gripping diameters. should not wrap around the workpiece.
Special fop jaws. When top jaws are designed for special For gripping forgings, castings, or other workplaces having
applications, many design features should be considered. For irregular or tapered surfaces, hardened jaws with inserted pins
example, the location of the bolts that mount the top jaw to the (view a, Fig. 8-89) that can penetrate the material should be
master jaw should be planned so that one bolt is in a position to used. The points of pins generally extend about 1/ 16’’(I.6 mm)
oppose the cantilever action of the clamping force on as long a beyond the serrations. Pivoted rocking-type jaws (view b) are
momentum arm as possible. Jaws should be balanced, as also used for rough castings and forgings, as well as compara-
lightweight as possible, and consistent with strength require- tively fragile parts. Wraparound-type jaws are often used on
ments to minimize centrifugal forces. fragile or thin-walled workplaces to distribute the gripping
Some design rules that should be considered in designing pressure over a larger area and to minimize distortion. These
8-57
CHAPTER 8
TABLE 8-15
Dimensions of Three-Step, Reversible Top Jaws for Class I Chucks*
Size of Chuck
6 18-36
Dimension Designation (152) (2:3) (2’:4) (3’:5) (3’:1) (457-914)
TJ- 1: Length of jaw 2.62 3.12 3.76 4.30 5.00 5.00
(66.5) (79.2) (95.5) (109,2) (127.0) (127.0)
TJ-2: Center-to-center 1.500 1.750 2.125 2.500 3.000 3.000

screw holes** (38.10) (44.45) (53.97) (63.50) (76.20) (76,20)
TJ-3: Cross slot to 1.125 1.375 1.562 1.875 2.250 2.250

long bite end T (28.57) (34.92) (39.67) (47.62) (57.15) (57.15)
TJ-4: Screw center to 0.500 0.625 0.688 0.875 1.125 1.125
edge of key (12.70) (15.87) (17.48) (22,22) (28.57) (28.57)
TJ-5: Width of cross 0.499 0.499 0.749 0.749 0.749 0.749
key ( 12.67) (12.67) ( 19.02) ( 19.02) (19.02) (19.02)
0.498 0.498 0.748 0.748 0.748 0.748

(12.65) (12.65) (19.00) ( 19.00) (19.00) (19.00)
TJ-8: Width of tongue 0.315 0.315 0.503 0.503 0.503 0.503
slot (8,00) (8.00) (12.78) (12.78) ( 12.78) (12.78)
0.313 0.313 0.501 0.501 0.501 0.501

(7.95) (7.95) (12.73) (12.73) (12.73) (12.73)
TJ-9: Depth of tongue 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17
slot (4.3) (4,3) (4.3) (4.3) (4.3) (4,3)
0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15

(3.8) (3.8) (3.8) (3.8) (3.8) (3.8)
TJ-11: Height of cross 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.25 0.25
key (3.0) (3.0) (3.0) (3.0) (6.3) (6.3)
0.10 O.1o 0.10 0.10 0.23 0.23
(2.5) (2.5) (2.5) (2.5) (5.8) (5.8)
TJ-12: Drill size for 0.406 0.406 0.531 0.531 0.656 0.781
screws (10.31) (10.31) (13.49) (13.49) (16.66) (19.84)
TJ-16: Counterbore for 0.609 0.609 0.797 0.797 1.000 1.188
screw head (15.47) (15.47) (20.24) (20.24) (25.40) (30. 18)
* All dimensions are in inches (mm). Unless otherwise specified, tolerance on two-place decimals is *0.02” (0.5 mm).
** HoIes located within 0.006” (O.15 mm) Of true position.
T To be equal in sets within 0.0015” (0.038 mm).
chucks also provide greater drive friction and permit holding not under the master jaws. The ring or plug should be as far as
ID’s to close tolerances with respect to OD’S. Wraparound jaws, possible from the face of the chuck. During boring, the same
however, should not be used in compensating chucks for gripping pressure should be used as expected in production
between-center operations. application of the chuck.
Soft jaws should be qualified to the required size by boring Carburized and hardened jaws are recommended for roughing
with a ring or plug mounted under or in front of the top jaws, operations. For rough surfaces, the jaws are often made from
8-58
CHAPTER 8
TABLE 8-16
Dimensions of Three-Step, Reversible Top Jaws for Chsss 11 Chucks*
Size of Chuck
15-24 28-36
Dimension Designation ( 1:2) (2:3) (2’:4) (3’:5) (381-610) (7 I 1-914)
TJ-1: Length of jaw 2,62 3.12 3.76 4.30 5.00 5.50
(66.5) (79.2) (95.5) (109.2) (127.0) (139.7)
TJ-2: Center-to-center 1.500 1.750 1.125 2.500 3.000 3.000
screw holes** (38.10) (44.45) (53.97) (63.50) (76.20) (76.20)
TJ-3: Cross slot to 1.125 1.375 1.562 1.875 2.250 2.250
long bite end T (28.57) (34.92) (39.67) (47.62) (57.15) (57.15)
TJ-4: Screw center to 0.500 0.625 0.688 0.875 1.125 1.125
edge of key** (12.70) (15.87) (17.48) (22.22) (28.57) (28.57)
TJ-5: Width of cross 0.499 0.499 0.749 0.749 0.749 0.749
key (12.67) ( 12.67) (19.02) (19.02) (19.02) (19.02)
0.498 0.498 0.748 0.748 0.748 0.748
(12.65) (12.65) (19.00) (19.00) (19.00) (19.00)
TJ-8: Width of tongue 0.315 0.315 0.503 0.503 0.503 0.503
slot (8.00) (8.00) (12.78] (12.78) (12.78) (12.78)
0.313 0.313 0.501 0.501 0.501 0.501
(7.95) (7.95) (12.73) (12.73) (12.73) (12.73)
TJ-9: Depth of tongue 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17
slot (4.3) (4.3) (4.3) (4.3) (4.3) (4.3)
0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15
(3.8) (3.8) (3.8) (3.8) (3.8) (3.8)
TJ-I 1: Height of cross 0.12 0,12 0.12 0.12 0.25 0.25
key (3.0) (3.0) (3.0) (3.0) (6.3) (6.3)
0.[0 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.23 0.23
(2.5) (2.5) (2.5) (2.5) (5.8) (5.8)
TJ-12: Drill size for 0.469 0.531 0.656 0.656 0.781 0.906
screws (11.91) (13.49) (16.66) (16.66) (19.84) (23.01)
TJ-16: Counterbore for 0.703 0.797 1.000 I.000 1.188 1,375
screw head (17.86) (20.24) (25.40) (25.40) (30. 18) (34.92)
* All dimensions are in inches (mm). Unless otherwise specified, tolerance on two-place decimals is +0.02” (0.5 mm).
** Holes located within 0.006” (O.15 mm) of true position.
T To be equal in sets within 0.0015” (0.038 mm).
8615 steel to obtain greater core strength and resist fracturing accuracy, they are ground.
under heavy gripping pressures. For second operation work, Whenever possible (when the quality of the workpiece will
jaws are generally made from a medium carbon steel or a not suffer) sharp pointed serrations should be provided on the
chromium-molybdenum steel such as 4140 or 4150. To jaws for maximum penetration of the workpiece. Serrations
strengthen the jaws and resist chipping, the jaws are generally having a I / 8“ (3.2 mm) pitch and 60° included angle are often
heat treated to a hardness of RC28-30. When necessary for used. Carbide gripping pads are sometimes used in the jaws to
8-59
CHAPTER 8
Fine serrated American standa;d

tongueand-groove
I
I I T I I I
I II /
Top ~ I II
Top
law
jaw I ,1 Ill
Master low
law
American standard Amertcan standard
square serrated ACME serrated
‘ig. 8-87 Four types of master jaws currently in use. (Cushman Industries, Inc.)
prevent workpiece slippage. Soft iaws or smooth hard iaws are used for grinding operations (see Cha~ter 1I) than for turning,
commonly used on previously fin-ished surfaces. have jaw; mou~ted on a flexible thin-metal diaphragm. Tie
Installation, operation, and safety of chucks. When a chuck, diaphragm completely covers the chuck face and provides a seal
is installed or removed, the eyebolt hole provided on the chuck over the actuating device. Jaws are generally mounted with
body should always be used for lifting. The mounting bolts dowels or welded to the face of the diaphragm. These chucks
should not be overtightened when the chuck is fastened to the have limited jaw movement, and are more costly than most
spindle, and the tightening torque recommended by the chuck other lathe chucks. The double-diaphragm chuck shown in Fig.
manufacturer should never be exceeded. Care should be taken 8-90 holds a long workpiece in two places, helping to square the
to assure that the chuck rests flat against the locating surface on workpiece with the centerline of rotation.
the lathe spindle, and the mounting bolts should be tightened Spring-jaw chucks. These devices operate in much the same
alternately and evenly. way that diaphragm chucks operate. An air or hydraulic
When a workpiece is loaded into a chuck, one jaw should be cylinder pushes a bar to open the jaws. When pressure is
at the six o’clock position. With this procedure, the workpiece is released, spring pressure causes the jaws to grip the workpiece
lifted to the location center without pinching and provides more (see Fig. 8-9 1). These chucks are widely used to hold gears,
accuracy. The maximum speed rating of the chuck should be because their jaws can be equipped with pins to locate on the
strictly adhered to at all times. pitch diameters of the gears.
Chucks should be cleaned and lubricated regularly, with the Trunnion-type chucks. These devices, also called Garrison
frequency depending on the amount and severity of usage and chucks, are used extensively by the gear-producing industry.
the workplace environment. Any buildup of dirt or other Gripping is achieved by a number of jaws that are rotated into
foreign substance can cause a destructive imbalance. The and out of contact with the workpiece by an internal plate
chucks should also be checked periodically for both static and equipped with a ring gear (see Fig. 8-92). Jaws on these chucks
dynamic grip. A good plan is to measure the jaw forces after have toothed segments that match the tooth forms on the gears
every 200 hours of operation. Appropriate gages are available to be held.
from chuck manufacturers for determining their condition. Indexing chucks. These devices are used for workpieces, such
Should the jaw force become 75% or less of the initial force, the as valve bodies, that have intersecting axes on which operations
chuck should be removed from the machine, completely must be performed on two or more faces or bores (see Fig. 8-93).
disassembled, cleaned, and relubricated according to the manu- They enable several operations to be performed in one chucking.
facturer’s instructions. Air or hydraulic actuation of the indexing cycle can be
controlled manually or automatically. Some indexing chucks
Other Types of Chucks are available with a proximity pickup sensor for electronic
Many other types of chucks are used on lathes. These include interfacing with the machine’s NC unit for a positive interlock
diaphragm, spring-jaw, trunnion-type, indexing, pot, and oval between the indexing and machining functions.
chucks, as well as various proprietary devices. Drill chucks are
discussed in Chapter 9, “Drilling, Reaming, and Related Chucking Fixtures
Processes. ” Chucking fixtures, used extensively for second-operation
Diaphragm chucks. These workholding devices, more widely work, are generally designed to fit specific workplaces or types
CHAPTER 8
1-1-1
Q.
J
Correct
T121 “G Correct -
(a)
—
Incorrecl
(b)
rli!5
—~ Incorreci
(c)
*
Corred for
compensotmg chucks
Incorrect for
Incorrect
compensating chucks
(d)
(e)
~ig. 8-88 Correct and incorrect designs for top jaws. (Cushman industries, Inc.)
_——_—-r -
F
———.—.
L——
---
--
-J--
-——
_,r –
+.- -
I
(a) (b)
Hig. 8-89 Special chuck jaws: (a) hardened jaws with inserted pins and {b) rocking jaws.
8-61
CHAPTER 8
Dlaphrogm Jaw Workpiece
Surfoces
rkplece
Fig. 8-90 Diaphragm chuck which has jaws mounted on a flexible,

thin-metal diaphragm. (Erickson Div., Kennametal Inc.)
~
AIr Spring Iaw
,nlet
Fig. 8-92 Trunnion-type chuck is used extensively for holding gears.
(Erickson Div., Kennametal Inc.)
* \
Chuck body
~ Workplece
w
L ‘“
i“%+..
ig. 8-93 Indexing chuck permits performing several operations in one
chucking. (Erickson Div., Kennametal Inc.)
Fig. 8-91 Spring-jaw chuck operated by air pressures. (Erickson Div., pressure is equalized by means of a floating shoe. With the
Kennametal Inc.)
design shown, the fixture is actuated by a hexagonal clamp nut;
however, the fixture could be designed for drawbar actuation
of workplaces. Workpieces can be located by using a plug to fit a
by means of an air or hydraulic cylinder.
bore or a ring for an OD. Pins that fit small holes in the
A faceplate fixture used to produce a 1.906” (48.41 mm)
workpiece face can also be used for location, When using a solid radius on a sector-shaped workpiece is shown in Fig. 8-95. A
locating phrg or ring, the eccentricity, end to end, will be equal
diamond pin and a plug that enters the bore of the workpiece
to the diameter tolerance on the gripping diameter plus the
are used for locating. A wedge-type clamp is used because of the
tolerance on the locating member and the clearance allowed.
difficulty of holding the workpiece while having the clamp clear
Clamping is done by using power or hand-operated finger the cutting tool.
clamps or a drawrod and C-washer. Care should be taken that
clamping is done through a solid section directly opposite the Magnetic and Vacuum Chucks
back stops to prevent distortion of the workpiece. On fragile While magnetic and vacuum chucks are more commonly
castings, jackscrews to support sections of the casting may be used on machine tables for grinding and milling, they are also
brought out and locked after the part is located and clamped in employed occasionally for light-duty turning operation. These
the fixture. operations are generally of the precision type and involve
A rubber expander-type lathe fixture for holding parts easily shallow cuts. Vacuum or magnetic chucks can be designed to
distorted by chuck jaws is illustrated in Fig. 8-94. Clamping hold many different odd-shaped parts and often eliminate
8-62
CHAPTER 8
WORKHOLDIIIJG FOR TURNING
Fig. 8-94 Rubber expander-type lathe fixture for easily distorted workplaces has a floating shoe to equalize clamping pressure.
0,005” (O.I3 mm)

land
m+-’”-l ,=
3)& (9.5 mm)
Counterbalance
--r-l ? / ~--–””l I !--—----? \

21/8/ I
(54 mm)
---- L.. —.-
fw(
Spmdle
) r“—- “— G—
,,, .,,
I
l-u’ Y
(I9 mm)?
I
Fig. 8-95 Faceplate fixture with wedge-type clamp used to produce a radius on a sector-shaped workpiece.
problems of distortion when fragile thin-walled components are When required, demagnetizers are used to reverse the magnetic
turned. A discussion of these chucks is included in Chapter 11, field and eliminate residual magnetism from the workpieces,
“Grinding.” tools, and machine components.
Magnetic chucks. Permanent magnetic and electromagnetic Vacuum chucks. Rotating faceplate-type vacuum chucks
chucks are used on lathes. They are now available with higher usually require a rotating union to be installed in back of the
holding-power ratings and the capability of providing gripping chuck, extending through the machine spindle and connecting
to all edges of the chucking surface. Controls to vary the to an air exhaust line. In some cases, the connection can be
holding power are available on some electromagnetic units. made to a rotating union mounted through the face or faceplate
Advantages of magnetic chucks include rapid loading and of the chuck. The nondistorting, nondamaging holding force of
unloading, minimum distortion, no marking of the workpiece such chucks makes them suitable for thin or fragile parts,
surfaces, and less chance of interference with the cutting tools. Clamping pressure available with vacuum chucks is generally
8-63
CHAPTER 8
OPERATING PARAMETERS FOR TURNING
about 12 psi (83 kPa). The chucks are built with porous, pin where:
hole, or grooved plates. Portions of the chuck face not covered
hp, ❑ horsepower at the cutting tool, hp
by the workpiece are masked or blocked to eliminate leakage.
P. = power at the cutting tool, kW
Cone-shaped or domed vacuum chucks have been built for
rdrp ❑ unit horsepower
secondary operations on spun parts or workplaces that have
UD❑ unit power
been contour machined.
C = feed correction factor
OPERATING PARAMETERS FOR TURNING V ❑ cutting speed, sfm or m/min
Variables that must be determined for any turning, facing, or f= feed rate, ipr or mmjrev
related operation include machine and tool selection, power d = depth of cut, in. or mm
requirements, and cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut to
Llnit horsepower and unit power. For each different material
be used. Lathe selection is discussed at the beginning of this
to be machined, a mtasure of the power required is the unit
chapter, and details of the wide variety of cutting tools available
horsepower (uhp) and its S1 metric equivalent, the unit power
are presented in a preceding section.
(UP). Unit horsepower, also called specific power consumption,
is defined as the horsepower required to remove a material at a
Tool Selection
rate of one cubic inch per minute. Unit power is the power
As with any machining operation, the selection of proper
required to remove a material at a rate of 1000 cubic millimeters,
tooling for turning is essential for successful production.
or one cubic centimeter, per second.
Normally, the selection of tooling to produce a specific work-
Values of both unit horsepower and unit power for single-
piece is the responsibility of a process planner, tool engineer, or
point tools are determined experimentally by measuring cutting
in the case of NC lathes, the programmer. It is essential that
forces with dynamometers and applying the results to the
these persons have a clear understanding of the best sequence of
following equations:
operations, methods of stock removal, and type of material to
be turned before selecting the specific tooling. For U.S. customary inch units:
Standard tools and toolholders should always be selected
F,
whenever the operating conditions allow. Benefits of this (30)
‘hp = 396,000fd
include reduced costs, the use of proven designs, better
availability, and interchangeability. For S1 metric units:
Standard tooling arrangements, which have been developed
by many manufacturing firms, help to minimize machine set-up (31)
times, These arrangements often make it unnecessary to change
the tooling configurations from job to job; in addition, jobs may where:
be scheduled on the machines that require a minimum of
F, cutting force, lb or kN
❑
tooling changes, Arranging workpiece requirements into
f feed rate, ipr or mm/rev
❑
families of parts (those having the same general geometry, but
d = depth of cut, in. or mm
variations in dimensions) also facilitates the use of common
tooling. Numerous studies have shown that over 85~0 of all Representative values of unit horsepower and unit power for
shafts can be turned between centers on an NC lathe with the turning different materials with single-point tools are presented
same four toolholders mounted on a square turret, since in Table 8-17. Values given are for cutting with sharp tools, and
required geometries are generated by the NC tool path rather results obtained using the values should be increased to reflect
than by the tool form, the increased power needed for cutting with worn tools, The
The types of tool blocks and holders selected must be tool wear allowance should be about 10% for finishing cuts
analyzed to avoid possible interference conditions with the and 30~0 for most roughing cuts. When heavy roughing cuts
workpiece, workholding device, or other machine components. are taken, such as in roll turning for which a large amount of
Multiple tooling slides or turrets mounted on the same slide wear is allowed before the tool is replaced, the power used may
necessarily increase the possibility of interference. increase as much as 100Yocompared with the power required for
While the tooling for NC lathes sometimes differs from that sharp tools.
used on non-NC machines, the actual toolholdcrs, turrets, tool For multiple-tool opel-ations, the power required by each
geometries, and tool selection principles involved are commonly tool must be calculated at the point in the cycle when the most
employed on manually operated engine and turret lathes. power is needed. When tools are removing varying amounts of
material and attachments are operating simultaneously, more
Power Requirements for Turning than one calculation is necessary to determine the maximum
Calculations for determining power requirements in power required.
machining are presented in SME Technical Paper MR77-974. S Feed rate variations. The unit horsepower and unit power
The following equations can be used to calculate the horsepower change with variations in the feed rate. Correction factors to
and power actually required by a single-point cutting tool to compensate for this variation are given in Table 8-18. These
turn a specific material: correction factors should only be used in conjunction with
For U.S. customary units: Table 8-17.
Undeformed chip thickness. As the undeformed chip
hp, = (uhp) 12 CVf d (28) thickness is increased, horsepower required per unit of metal
For S1 metric units: removal is reduced. s Increasing undeformed chip thickness
by increasing the feed rate increases horsepower consumption,
P<= UP*~*Cfd
but the incremental increase in power is proportionally smaller
(29)
than the incremental increase in metal removal rate. This
8-64
CHAPTER 8
TABLE 8-17
Unit Horsepower (uhp) to Remove Various Materials with Single-Point Tools at a Rate of 1 in.3/min
and Unit Power (Up) to Remove Material at 1 c3n3/S
Material Brinell Material Brinell

Machined Hardness uhp (Up) Machined Hardness uhp (Up)
Steels, AISI: 4130-4345 . -,.-,,,.,. . . .. . . .
1IO-WV V.4b (U. 13)
201-250 0.58 (0,16)
1010-1025 150-175 0.58 (O.16)
251-300 0.70 (o. 19)
176-200 0.67 (0. 18)
301-350 0.83 (0.23)
1030-1055 150-175 0.58 (0.16) 351-400 1.0 (0.27)
176-200 0.67 (0. 18)
4615-4820 150-175 0.46 (O.13)
20I -250 0.80 (0.22)
176-200 0.50 (o. 14)
25I -300 0.96 (0.26)
20[-250 0.58 (O.16)
1060-1095 201-250 0,75 (0.20) 251-300 0.70 (0, 19)
251-300 0.88 (0.24) 301-350 0.83 (0.23)
301-350 1.0 (0.27) 35 I-400 0.87 (0.24)
1112-1120 150-175 0.50 (0.14) 5120-5150 150-175 0.46 (O.13)

176-200 0.50 (o. 14)
1314-1340 150-175 0.42 (0.1 1) 201-250 0.62 (O.17)
176-200 0.46 (0.13) 251-300 0.75 (0.20)
201-250 0.50 (0.14) 301-350 0.87 (0.24)
1330-1350 176-200 0.67 (0.18) 351-400 1.0 (0.27)
201-250 0.75 (0.20) 52100 176-200 0,58 (0.16)
25I -300 0.92 (0.25) 201-250 0.67 (O.18)
301-350 1.I (0.30) 251-300 0.83 (0.23)
2015-2115 150-175 0.67 (0.18) 301-350 1.0 (0.27)
2315-2335 150-175 0.54 (0.15) 6115-6140 150-175 0.46 (O.13)

176-200 0.58 (0.16) 176-200 0.54 (0.15)
201-250 0.62 (0.17) 201-250 0.67 (O.18)
251-300 0.75 (0.20) 251-300 0.83 (0.23)
301-350 0.92 (0.25) 301-350 1.0 (0.27)
351-400 1.0 (0.27) 6145-6195 176-200 0.70 (o. 19)
2340-2350 176-200 0.50 (0.14) 201-250 0.83 (0.23)
20I -250 0.58 (0.16) 251-300 1.0 (0.27)
251-300 0.70 (o.[9) 301-350 1.2 (0.33)
301-350 0,83 (0.23) 351-400 1.3 (0.36)
150-175 Plain cast iron 150-175 0.30 (0.08)

2512-2515 0.50 (o.14)
176-200 0.58 (0.16) 176-200 0.33 (0.09)
201-250 0.67 (0.18) 201-250 0.42 (O.11)
251-300 0.80 (0.22) 251-300 0.50 (o. 14)
30I -350 0.92 (0.25) Alloy cast iron I50-175 0.30 (0.08)
3115-3130 150-175 0.50 (o.14) 176-200 0.42 (O.11)
176-200 0.58 (0.16) 20 I-250 0.54 (o. 15)
201-250 0.70 (0.19) Malleable iron 150-175 0.42 (0.1 1)
251-300 0.83 (0.23)
301-350 1.0 (0.27) Cast steel 150-175 0.62 (O.17)
351-400 1.0 (0.27) 176-200 0.67 (O.18)
201-250 0.80 (0.22)
3160-3450 176-200 0.50 (0.14)
201-250 0,62 (0.17)
251-300 0.75 (0.20)
30I -350 0.87 (0.24)
351-400 I.O (0.27)
8-65
CHAPTER 8
TABLE 8-17-Continued
Material Brinell Material Brinell

Machined Hardness uhp (Up) Machined Hardness uhp (Up)
High-temperature Brass:
alloys: ---
Hard 0.83 (0.22)
A286 165 0.82 (0.22) ---
Medium 0.50 (o. 14)
285 0.93 (0.25)
soft --- 0.33 (0.09)
Chromoloy 200 0.78 (0.21)
310 1.18 (0.32) Free-machining --- 0.25 (0.07)
Hastelloy-B 230 1.10 (0.30) Bronze
Into 700 330 1.12 (0.31) Hard --- 0.83 (0.22)
Into 702 230 1.10 (0.30) Medium --- 0.50 (o. 14)
M-252 230 1.10 (0.30) soft --- 0.33 (0.09)
M-252 310 1.20 (0.33) Copper (pure) --- 0.90 (0.25)
TI- 150A 340 0.65 (0.18) Aluminum:
U-500 375 1.10 (0.30) Cast --- 0.25 (0.07)
4340 200 0.78 (0.21) Hard (rolled) --- 0.33 (0.09)
340 0.93 (0.25)
Monel (rolled) --- 1.0 (0.27)
Zinc alloy --- 0.25 (0.07)

(diecast)
(Carboloy Systems Dept., General Electric Co.)
is because extra power is required to deform the metal in the to have little or no effect on the values of unit horsepower and
chip that passes over the tool. As chip thickness is increased, unit power. Tool geometry, however, particularly the true rake
this extra power becomes smaller in comparison to the total angle, does affect these values. Increasing the rake angle in a
power required. positive direction results in a reduction of the unit horsepower
Undeformed chip thickness depends upon the feed per and unit power by about 1TO per degree of change. Conversely,
revolution and the lead angle of the tool or toolholder. In a decreasing the rake angle increases these values.
single-point tool operation with no lead angle, the undeformed Utilization of a positive rake angle with positive or
chip thickness equals the feed rate. With a lead angle and a given positive/ negative-rake inserts can result in reductions to 10% of
feed, the undeformed chip thickness is reduced (see Fig. 8-96). calculated power requirements, As the rake angle is increased,
When a lead angle is used, the undeformed chip thickness can be however, support for the cutting edge of the insert becomes
determined by the following formula: weaker and the number of available cutting edges may be
reduced. Molded-in chipbreakers on the inserts also tend to
t =f, Cos c (32)
where:
t ❑ undeformed chip thickness, in. or mm
f,= feed rate, ipr or mm/ rev
c = lead angle, degrees
Undeformed
Effect of rake angle. Within practical limits, the cutting chip
speed, cutting tool material, and depth of cut can be considered th,ckness (t)
TABLE 8-18
Feed Correction Factors for Determining Power leod
Requirements in Single-Point Turning angle (c)-“
Feed Rate, Correction Feed Rate, Correction

ipr (mm/rev) Factor, C ipr (mm/rev) Factor, C
0.003 (0.08) 1.32 0.015 (0.38) 0.96
0.005 (o.13) 1.16 0.021 (0.53) 0.89
0.010 (0.25) 1.04 0.030 (0.76) 0.83
0.012 (0.30) 1.00 0.040 (1.02j 0.79 Fig. 8-96 Undeformed chip thickness varies with the feed rate and lead
angle. (Carboloy Systems Dept., General Electric Co.)
8-66
CHAPTER 8
reduce power requirements. Coated inserts can also reduce amount of stock to be removed, power capability of the
cutting forces and horsepower consumption. machine, rigidity of the setup, tooling capability, surface finish
Mechanical efficiency of lathe. Additional power is required and accuracy requirements, and sometimes by the shape of the
to overcome the resistance of the bearings, gears, slides, and workpiece. Also, it is generally recommended that only SO-7X70
other components of the lathe used. A measurement of this of the cutting edge should be engaged with the workpiece.
power requirement is called the mechanical efficiency-a ratio Feed rate. Changes in the feed rate have a greater effect on
obtained by dividing the power delivered to the cutting tool by tool life than changes in the depth of cut, but a lesser effect than
the power supplied to the machine. Most machine tool builders changes in the cutting speed. The same investigations cited
do not provide information on the mechanical efficiency of previously found that a 50% increase in feed rate results in
their machines. Estimates for single-point lathes are 90% or less about a 60976decrease in tool life.
for direct spindle drives, 85% or less for one-belt drives, and Despite the sacrifice in tool life, it is generally recommended
70970or less for two-belt drives and geared heads. that the largest possible feed rate be used to obtain a higher
production rate and a lower power requirement per volume of
Speed, Feed, and Depth of Cut stock removed. Increases in feed rates, however, are limited by
The parameters of cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut the ability of the machine tool, cutting tool, workpiece, and
control both the metal removal rate and tool life in turning. Any setup to withstand the cutting forces, as well as by the surface
increase in these operating parameters increases the metal finish required on the workpiece.
removal rate, but decreases tool life. A change in any one of the Surface finish. The feed rate used and the nose radius on the
three parameters has an equal effect on the metal removal rate; cutting tool have the greatest impact on the surface finish
however, each parameter has a different effect on tool life. produced in turning, Increasing the nose radius or reducing the
Depth of cut. Tool life is less affected by changes in the depth feed rate improves the surface finish. The feed rate should be
of cut than by changes in either feed rate or cutting speed, In selected first, based on its effect on productivity and tool life.
fact, there is little effect on tool life except when the depth of cut Then the nose radius can be selected to produce the desired
is less than 10 times the feed rate. Investigations by the finish by using the nomograph in Fig. 8-97.
Carboloy Systems Department of General Electric Co. showed Cutting speed. The cutting speed used for turning has a
that a 50% increase in depth of cut results in only a 15~o greater effect on tool life than either depth of cut or feed rate,
reduction in tool life.7 and speed selection is most critical. The Carboloy investigations
The consensus of most authorities in metalcutting is that the discussed previously (see “Depth of cut” and “Feed rate”)
best method of increasing the metal removal rate is to use the showed that a 5090 increase in cutting speed commonly results
deepest cut possible. Depth of cut, however, is limited by the in about a 90Yc loss in tool life as measured on the flank or
1I1O I 25
20
666 15
444 10
8
333
g 6
~ 222 !
999
88.8
77.7
666
555
44.4
1
::1‘ :Is$51L?..
075
05
11.1 10 025
I
1364 1/32 3:64 1:16 1(e 3!16 1,4 3:6 12 5;mn

Nose rchs
I I I I 1 1 1 I 1 I
05 1 15 2 34 681014mm
Fig. 8-97 Recommended nose radii to obtain required finish with different feed rates. (Carboloy ,Syszenrs Dep/,, General Electric Co.)
8-67
CHAPTER 8
clearance face of the tool, depending on the initial speed and use
of the same grade of carbide.
l-!!
The use of higher cutting speeds to obtain increased metal
removal rates can result in costly penalties with respect to tool
life and may be the least desirable means of improving g Minimum
productivity, Newer cutting tool materials, such as coated v cost
carbides, ceramics, polycrystalline diamond, and cubic boron
nitride, however, can provide benefits because of their higher Maximum
cutting speed capability. Higher speeds may also create - produdfon
problems with respect to vibration, the life of machine
components
consideration
such as bearings, and reduced safety. Careful
must be given to balancing increased production
1 L4-
and cost per part machined.
Total cost per workpiece machined is at a minimum at a
cutting speed which best balances the metal removal rate and
tool life for lowest cost. This is when the sum of machining cost,
cutting tool cost, and toolchanging cost is minimized (see Fig.
8-98).8 Similar curves can be developed with time as the
ordinate to determine maximum production rate, which is
when the sum of machining time and toolchanging time per lot CuHlng speec (,frnl
is at a minimum.
Figure 8-99 shows both cost per piece and production rate Fig. 8-99 Most efficient cutting speed is in the HI-E range between
plotted against cutting speed. The cutting speed for maximum minimum cost and maximum production. (Carboloy Sysrenrs Dept.,
production rate is always higher than the speed for minimum General Electric Co.)
cost. Selecting a cutting speed between these two points, which
Carboloy calls the High Efficiency (HI-E) range, assures an with respect to tool life, production rate, and economic factors
efficient turning operation can be introduced into the program to obtain optimum
recommendations.
Nominal recommendations for cutting speeds and feed rates
that can be considered as good starting points for turning a wide
variety of materials with high-speed steel, coated and uncoated
carbide, ceramic, and diamond cutting tools are presented in
the Machining Data Handbook.g These recommendations are
Moch,n,ng
based on a tool life of about 1-2 hours of cutting time for most of
cost the common alloys when high-speed steel or brazed carbide
tools are used. For indexable carbide inserts, a tool life of 30-60
minutes is applicable.
Suggested speeds and feeds for turning various materials
I
with cast cobalt-based alloy cutting tools are presented in Table
Nonp,odLctve cost
I 3-8. Operating parameters for machining different materials
with tungsten carbide tools are given in Table 3-12; with
titanium carbide tools, Tables 3-15 and 3-16; with ceramic
tools, Fig. 3-17; with polycrystalline diamond tools, Table 3-23;
C.tilng speed (s%)
7 and with cubic boron nitride tools, Tables 3-24 and 3-25,
Cuthng ‘speed
for mlmmum
cost per ptece Cutting Fluids for Turning
A few turning operations, such as machining cast iron parts
Fig. 8-98 Effect of cutting speed on cost per piece machined. (Carboloy and some short-run applications, do not require the use of
Systems Dept., General Electric Co.) cutting fluids. Cutting fluid requirements also vary with the
cutting tool material. When they are used, cutting fluids serve
Recommended Parameters one or more of the following functions: cooling, lubricating,
On the basis of the data just discussed, it is generally controlling or preventing a built-up edge on the tool, flushing
recommended that the greatest depth of cut possible and the away chips, and preventing rust.
highest feed rate practical should be used for most turning When the metal to be machined is free cutting, permitting the
operations. Then, the cutting speed is selected on the basis of use of higher cutting speeds, the most important consideration
balancing production rate against tool life. in selecting a cutting fluid is its cooling properties. When the
Specific recommendations for operating parameters must be metal characteristics require that low cutting speeds must be
based on the cutting tool material and the material to be employed, lubricity and antiweld properties of the cutting fluid
machined. These recommendations and machinability data are become most important,
available from raw material and cutting tool producers, machine As a general rule, the use of a water-based fluid is rec-
tool builders, and handbooks (see Chapter 1, “Principles of ommended when cutting speeds exceed about 100 sfm (30.5
Metalcutting and Machinability”). Some firms have developed m/ rein). A compounded cutting oil is used for lower speeds.
computer programs based on machinability data. Variables Taking into account all the requirements and variables of a
8-68
CHAPTER 8
specific turning operation, there will usually be more than one Grinding wheels made from cubic boron nitride (CBN)
type of fluid that gives satisfactory performance. A compre- abrasives are often used to sharpen HSS tools that are difficult
hensive discussion of cutting fluids is presented in Chapter 4 of to grind, such as those made from M2, M3, M4, and T15 HSS.
this volume, “Cutting Fluids and Industrial Lubricants. ” Because of the hardness of CBN, it cuts faster with less wheel
For cutting tools made of high-speed steels or cast cobalt- wear, less heat generation, and less metallurgical damage to the
based alloys, good results are obtained with either soluble oil tools. Proper tool geometry is easily maintained, and little
(dihrted 10 to 15 parts water to 1 part oil) or sulfurized oil. Some dressing is required.
heavy turning operations, however, are performed successfully Grinding cast cobalt-based alloys. Simple tools made from
with no cutting fluid. cast cobalt-based alloys are often ground by hand, but machine
A difference of opinion exists about the value of cutting grinding is preferred, especially for form tools and when a high
fluids for turning with carbides. Most authorities recommend degree of accuracy is required. Whenever possible, grinding
their use to reduce tool wear and friction. If a fluid is used. should be done on only the end and side faces of the tool, not on
proper application is essential to assure flooding the tool and the top face.
workpiece with a continuous, copious flow. Too little fluid can Aluminum oxide is the predominant abrasive used for
cause chipping, cracking, or failure of the tool due to thermal grinding tools made from these materials. Recommended
cycling stress. wheels and grinding speeds are presented in Chapter 3, Table
Coated carbide tools can generally be used without a cutting 3-9. It is advantageous to use wheels of slightly softer grades
fluid, but one is sometimes used to cool the workpiece and/or than would be used for HSS tools. In addition, pressure of the
remove chips. Cutting fluids are generally not recommended or tool against the wheel should be light.
needed when using ceramic tools. This is because the tools Sharpening carbide tools. Solid and tipped single-point
remain relatively cool because of the low thermal conductivity carbide tools are ground with silicon carbide or diamond
of the ceramics and most of the heat generated is carried away in abrasive wheels. In general two types of carbide grinding
the chips. When ceramic tools are used to machine materials operations exist—offhand and fixed-feed, or precision, grind-
having a low thermal conductivity, such as stainless steel, a ing. Offhand grinding of single-point tools, from a standpoint
cutting fluid is sometimes used to reduce the temperature at the of grinding procedures, may be classified into three groups: (1)
cutting edge. Cutting fluids, however, may cause thermal cracks ordinary dull tools (requiring touch-up to restore cutting
when took made of ceramics, as well as some carbides, are used, edges), (2) chipped tools or tools which have met with an
Single-crystal diamond tools generally require an abundant accident requiring more extensive grinding, and (3) newly
and continuous flow of cutting fluid because excessive heat will brazed tools which require complete rough and finish grinding.
burn or crack the tools. Cooling is also important when Usually tools which show about a 0.030” (0.76 mm) wear
polycrystalline diamond tools are used, and good results are beyond the cutting edge require resharpening. As dulling of
obtained with a soluble oil diluted to 15 parts water to 1 part oil. carbide tools proceeds beyond this point, tool pressures increase
There are successful applications, however, using single-crystal rapidly, power consumption becomes greater, tool wear is
and polycrystalline diamond tools without a cutting fluid. faster, accuracy is reduced, and the work, if fragile, may be
For cubic boron nitride tools, soluble oil (diluted 20: 1) is sprung and cause chipping of the cutting edge. Restoring edges
generally recommended, but there are applications in which of ordinary dull took may be accomplished on carbide tool
machining is done dry. grinders designed to use diamond wheels. A D220-P50-V I /16
cup-type finishing wheel is capable of producing very fine edges.
Sharpening Turning Tools Vitrified-bond ensures a fast rate of cut and long life. A D 100-
Properly sharpened tools provide a freer cutting action, P50-V I /16 wheel is generally standard for roughing carbide.
minimize power requirements, generate less heat, produce When larger amounts of stock must be removed, such as in
better finishes, reduce the frequency of regrinding, and lengthen the case of chipped tools, silicon carbide (green-type) abrasive is
tool life, While inserts, especially ceramic inserts, are seldom used for hogging. A plate-mounted type of wheel offers the
resharpened, solid and tipped single-point cutting tools are advantage of uniform peripheral speeds. Therefore, regardless
often formed to the required geometry and resharpened by of wheel size, a C-60-I-8-V wheel is generally suitable for most
grinding. roughing operations. When a more porous (more open structure)
Grinding machines used for sharpening. Machines used for wheel is required, a C-60-G-8-V wheel has proved successful.
grinding tools and cutters are discussed in Chapter 11 of this Finishing of single-point tools is sometimes accomplished with
volume, “Grinding Machines. ” Solid and tipped single-point a silicon-carbide wheel such as C-100-I-8-V.
cutting tools, however, are often ground by hand on pedestal or Soft-grade wheels are needed because carbide is hard. The
bench grinding machines equipped with a table that can be pressure of grinding helps to keep the wheel face free cutting,
adjusted to various angles. Tipped tools are generally ground harder grade wheels only result in heat generation, which
against the side of the abrasive wheel, while tool bits are often necessitates frequent dressing. Movement of the tool across the
ground offhand against the periphery of the wheel. face of the wheel should be continuous, and a generous flow of
Grinding high-speed steel tools. Proper selection of the coolant should be directed at the point of contact. Intermittent
abrasive wheel is critical for grinding any cutting tool. A coolant may result in thermal cracks.
discussion of various types of abrasives and wheels is included Diamond vitrified wheels (220-400 grit) are more widely used
in Chapter 11. Aluminum oxide wheels have been found to be for finishing carbide single-point tools. Periodic dressing of the
best for grinding tools made from most HSS’S, and vitrified- diamond wheel with a soft silicon stick keeps the face open and free
bond, softer grade (J or K) aluminum oxide wheels are cutting. Chipbreakers are ground with either resinoid or vitrified-
generally most suitable. Sharpening of single-point tools is bond wheels. Typical specifications are D 150-N 100-B 1/8 in
usually done dry. When a cutting fluid is used, a slightly harder resinoid bond and D 150-N 100-V 1/ 8 in vitrified bond. Honing
grade wheel is recommended. of the cutting edge removes any microscopic, ragged edges left
8-69
CHAPTER 8
by the grinding wheel and permits the tool to stand up longer. the alloy sets. The tool is then alIowed to cool slowly in air(it is
Hand honing stones such as C-280-N-V or D320-V I /16 maybe never quenched), the flux is washed off in hot water, and any
used for this purpose. surface scale is removed with a wire brush.
The steel shanks of carbide tipped tools should ot be ground Induction brazing. Induction brazing is generally faster than
at the same time as the carbide. Steel will load the diamond torch brazing and requires less skill to obtain uniform results.
wheel rapidly, resulting in higher grinding temperatures and One disadvantage of this brazing method is the cost of the
possible damage to the carbide. The steel shank should be induction heating equipment. The same techniques used in
ground separately with an aluminum oxide wheel. torch brazing for cleaning, fluxing, assembling, setting, and
Wheels made from synthetic diamonds are generally more cooling are employed for induction brazing.
efficient than those made from natural diamonds. Metallic Tips are removed from tools by cleaning the joint area,
coating of the diamond particles has significantly extended the applying flux, heating the joint until the alloy becomes molten,
time diamond grains can be held in a resinoid bond. The and sliding the tip loose.
coatings, commonly nickel or copper, conduct heat away from Cracks resulting from brazing. Cracks resulting from brazing
the tool, providing more efficient grinding. are caused by the different linear thermal expansion rates of
Since carbide is a relatively poor conductor of heat, the heat carbide and steel. These cracks are more likely to occur if the
generated in grinding tends to bc concentrated on the surface, tips are large or irregularly shaped or if they are made from
resulting in expansion and, consequently, stress which can material grades having a low cobalt content or grades containing
cause hairline cracks. The occurrence of these cracks can be titanium carbide. The thicker the braze layer, the more readily it
minimized by: can absorb thermal strain. Too thick a braze, however, may not
adequately support the tip during cutting. For most appli-
1. Dressing the wheel to a crown for offhand grinding to
cations, a braze thickness of about 0.005” ( 1.27 mm) is ideal.
minimize contact area.
Slower cooling, accomplished by letting the tool set for a while
2. Grinding the steel shank before the carbide.
then placing it in flaked mica, sand, or other appropriate
3. Minimizing heat generation by maintaining ample
insulating material, can reduce the occurrence of cracks
coolant flow and moderate feed rates.
following brazing.
4, Grinding with a proper wheel. Aluminum oxide or low-
Sandwich brazing, Another effective way of reducing the
concentration diamond wheels should not be used. Softer
possibility of cracks resulting from brazing is called sandwich
wheels are less likely to crack the carbide.
brazing. This consists of brazing with a three-laver comr)osite—
5. Allowing the ground carbide to cool slowly in air—it
a copp~r core faced on each side with a brazing allo~ (see Fig. 8-100).
should never be quenched.
Malleability of the copper core permits it to deform and absorb
brazing strains without losing its bond to the steel or carbide.
Grinding diamond tools. Single-crystal and polycrystalline For most applications, the sandwich braze consists of a copper
diamond tools are often returned to the manufacturer for shim 0.005-0.0 10“(0. 13-0.25 mm) thick, coupled with two zones
resharpening or resetting because of the highly specialized of brazing alloy about 0,0025” (0.063 mm) thick on each side.
nature of the processes. If not, resharpening must be done
carefully on rigid machines with proper wheels to avoid edge
chipping and scratching of the surfaces. Rough grinding can be
done with resin-bonded wheels containing 325 to 400-mesh or
finer diamond grits. Wheel speed should be in the range of
3600-5400 sfm ( 18.3-27.4 m/ s), ample cutting fluid should be
continuously applied, and glazing of the wheel should be
avoided by frequent dressing.
Brazing of Tipped Tools

While brazed took are used much less frequently than
indexable inserts, there are machining operations for which
they are more efficient. One advantage of these tools is that they
can easily be ground into special configurations to produce
parts with special forms.
Tips are generally applied to steel shanks by torch or
induction brazing. Before either method of application, tips and
recesses in the shanks must be blasted and cleaned prior to mm)
brazing. 1°Flux is then coated on the tip, braze alloy, and recess
to aid the wetting action of the braze alloy by preventing oxides
from forming.
Torch brazing. For torch brazing, an oxygen-acetylene torch
with a soft, reducing flame is used to heat the shank first. Then
the flame is directed onto the tip and kept continuously moving
to avoid damaging the tip or overheating the shank.
When the brazing alloy is completely molten, the flame is
removed and the tip is wiped-in by moving it slightly or tapping Shank
it gently with a holding rod. The holding rod is then used to ig. 8-100 Sandwich brazing which reduces the possibility of producing
position the tip exactly, and light pressure is maintained until razing cracks. (Carboloy Systems Dept., General E[ectric Co.)
8-70
CHAPTER 8
Tool design. The design of tipped tools can also reduce the 5. If possible, a single brazed surface should always be used.
possibility of brazing failures. Recommendations for the design
of such tools include the following:
Turning Applications
1. Vertical pocket walls should be relieved, and small steps Applications of turning and related operations are so varied
provided to position the tips. that it would be impractical to try to discuss them all in the
2. Each corner to the tip that contacts the pocket should be limited space available in this volume, Instead, some general
chamfered. recommendations for process planning and details of a few
3. If the cutting edge is long, using several shorter tips on a applications are presented.
single shank with joints at noncritical points should be The checklist presented in Table 8-19 can be used in the
considered. initial steps of planning a turning process. Recommendations
4. Brazing should be avoided when two surfaces are parallel may have to be modified, rejected, or supplemented to suit the
to each other but not on the same plane. requirements for a specific application.
TABLE 8-19
Suggested Guidelines for Initial Planning of a Turning Process
● The Workpiecc:
1. Be sure that workpiece specification factors, such as size, tolerance, finish, shape, and radii, are required for the end use of the
product.
2. When possible, try to have machining requirements allow for the use of standard tooling.
● The Machine and Setup:
1. Select a machine with adequate power, capacity, and rigidity to satisfy requirements.
2. Use toolholders and workholders of sufficient size and strength to assure rigidity. Keep tool overhang as short as possible to
minimize deflection and chatter.
● Tool Design and Material:
1. Use standard tooling when possible, Special grinds, sizes, or geometries are often less cost effective than the use of standard
designs.
2. Use tool designs which are simple in concept, having few component pieces, and that can be quickly changed and adjusted. Ease
of replacement and required inventory of components are important considerations.
3. Select a cutting tool material best suited for the specific application, based on the type of wear expected. A discussion of the
advantages, limitations, and recommended applications for various cutting tool materials is presented in Chapter 3, “Cutting
Tool Materials. ”
4. When selecting a grade of tool material, pick the hardest standard grade possible first. If chipping occurs, change to a softer and
tougher grade.
Indexable Inserts:
1. Thicker indexable inserts are stronger mechanically than thinner inserts and can absorb higher cutting forces and impact
loading, as well as dissipate heat better.
2. When using indexable inserts, be sure that the pockets in the holders are always free of chips, fragments, and debris and that
insert seats are tight, flat, and not broken.
Tool Geometry:
1. Use negative rake tool geometry whenever possible since this design is stronger mechanically and may dissipate more heat from
the cutting zone than tools with positive rake geometry. Also, in the case of indexable inserts, this design provides more cutting
edges.
2. Use a lead (side cutting edge) angle when possible to reduce impact loading when the tool enters the cut. This design also permits
a gradual reduction in load as the tool leaves the cut and produces a better surface finish, compared to a tool with a zero lead
angle. Use of a lead angle, however, produces slightly higher cutting forces and may cause a chip control problem when ductile
materials are machined. Tools with high lead angles may cause chatter because of the direction of the cutting forces.
3. Reducing the end cutting edge angle produces a better surface finish, but may increase heat generation because of rubbing.
4. Use as large a nose radius or corner radius as possible. This design strengthens the tool and improves the surface finish
produced, Large radii, however, may cause chatter, deflection from chip size effect, and chip control problems when ductile
materials are machined.
5. Chip control maybe obtained by using mechanical chipbreakers, pressed grooves, and ground steps; by changing the rake angle,
side cutting edge angle, or nose radius; and by varying the cutting speed and/or feed rate.
● Operating Parameters:
1, Use the greatest depth of cut possible and the highest feed rate practical.
2. Then select the highest cutting speed commensurate with balancing production rate against tool life
● Cutting Fluid:
1. Check for thermal shock and cracking of a tool which may be caused by an intermittent flow of cutting fluid.
2. If necessary, filter the fluid to remove particles that can cause accelerated tool wear.
8-71
CHAPTER 8
Production applications. While several setups are generally operations in the production of a grinding-wheel adapter from
required for toolroom and short-run operations, production soIid stock, with three chuckings. The end that is to be shaped
applications demand using the least number of setups that will into a threaded stud should be rough and finish-turned, rough
accomplish the largest number of operations. and finish-faced, and center-drilled so that, when the workpiece
The following data pertains primarily to production setups is reversed, it can be mounted true for drilling, boring,
and operations with or without the use of attachments recessing, taper boring, and internal threading. All the internal
specifically designed for repetitive production. On any pro- operations are completed in the second chucking, after which
duction job, the following points should be considered: the workpiece is mounted between centers in reversed position
to permit the maximum number of right-hand cuts.
1. When more than four tools are required, the use of
Turret lathe operations. Considerable time can be saved
attachments or accessories should be considered. For
during setup and machining on turret lathes by furnishing the
fewer tools, a turret tool post speeds production. The
operator with a tooling layout identifying tools to be used,
turret lathe or automatic screw machine should also be
arrangement of the tools on the machine, and the sequence of
considered.
their use. These layouts should also contain information on
2. An engine lathe is used most efficiently when a number of
speeds and feeds for the various cuts. They should be made up in
operations can be performed with a single setup.
a manner that permits easy changes, as the value is lost if they
3. Whenever possible, manual setting should be eliminated
are not kept up to date, incorporating changes and improve-
using multiple stops.
ments as provided by experience.
4. First-operation work (roughing only), or small work for
The analysis of a workpiece made for the preparation of the
which the object is the removal of the maximum amount
tooling layout should take into consideration the following
of metal and the establishing of points of operations, may
basic factors: number of chuckings required and the sequence of
be performed on an engine lathe or a turret lathe. Second-
chuckings; accuracy required on sizes as well as concentricities
operation work (finishing), for which accuracy is impor-
and squareness; and number of pieces to be produced,
tant, is generally performed on an engine lathe.
considering both total production and individual lot size.
5. In all production work it is important to determine center
The number of chuckings required and the sequence of these
locations (“qualify”) accurately.
chuckings should be determined, based on the following known
Multiple turning operations. Figure 8-101 illustrates 13 factors pertaining to production requirements and accuracies:
u
U I— Rough and f,msh turn, fOCe.
8— Rough turn stud 9— Ftnish face small
and center drill taper end
%
l--L.-
o
2— Chuck, mdca,e OD, rouah cut

n OD on straight end -
10— Fnlsh OD strcxght end 11 — Face Iargetaper end
P’
0
I-P3— Drtll lead hole, then dd size hole
u
12— Rough and fin[sh-cut taper
d[om 5— Recessthread en,
Y
u
6— Rough and f!msh 7— Cut internal 13— Thread stud end
taper bore thread
ig. 8-101 Machining an adapter from solid stock in 13 operations with 3 chuckings.
8-72
CHAPTER 8
1. If excessive stock is present, it maybe necessary to break tools available for chucking work. Proper use of these tools
the work down into roughing and finishing chuckings so provides timesaving combinations of cuts and eliminates the
that heat from metal removal, stresses set up by removal need for special tools in many cases.
of casting or forging skin, and gripping pressures required The adjustable single turning heads in stations 1 and 4
for heavy cuts do not produce distortion problems when provide overhead turning stations for heavy roughing, because
the part is being finished to close tolerances. the overhead pilot bar adds support. Accurate finish turning
2. Unfinished casting or forging surfaces may dictate cuts also are best obtained by using the overhead positions,
additional chuckings to allow cuts to be taken to establish because the size is preset in setup. Tbe cutters for these
starting dimensions. overhead cuts are held in shank-type holders; solid holders are
3. Concentricity and squareness requirements at times may used for roughing.-. and adjustable holders for finishing cuts. It is
necessitate going to a final finishing chucking. Thi_s also possible to use boring bars, drills, or core drills in the center
allows finishing cuts on a maximum number of surfaces hole of these turning heads working with the overhead cutters.
thatrequire special consideration. The vertical slide tools in stations 2 and 5 are used for quick
adjustment when a wide range of sizes are to be bored using
The general guidelines presented in the following list pertain standard bars and keeping cutter overhang to a minimum.
to basic turret-lathe tooling procedures and should facilitate Accurate size adjustment is easily obtained using the graduated
the process of preparing a tooling layout. dial. Recessing back facing and chamfering from the hexagon
turret are also made possible by hand feeding this tool.
1. Take the maximum number of cuts possible with one
The flanged toolholders (stations 3 and 6) provide positions
handling.
for shank-type holders for drills, taps, reamers, etc., that can
2. Combine as many cuts as possible, attempting to work
quickly be inserted during setup to meet the needs of the part.
with diameters that are close enough in size to allow
A large variety of special tools mount on the hexagon turret.
running maximum surface speed on all cuts. A bad
Cam-operated slide tools for turning and boring tapers and
selection of cuts to be taken at one time can actually result
contours, as well as rack-operated tools for spherical and taper
in a time loss when a speed or feed limitation of one cut
work, are the most common special tools used.
holds back all cuts. An example of this would be a small
Bar work The universal-hexagon-turret tooling arrangement
drill used in a multiple turning head with a turning cutter in Fig. 8-103 is the permanent setup used for bar work. Again,
on a large diameter. The drill limits the feed, and the
mounting the basic tools permanently and providing flanged
turning operation limits the speed; as a result, the two
toolholders (not required on ram-type machines) for inserting a
cuts could be taken separately in less time than if they
variety of shank-type tools provide a good production potential
were combined.
with a minimum of setup time.
3. Take as many cuts as possible from tbe hexagon turret,
The single cutter turners in stations 2 and 3 remove metal at a
reducing handling time through the use of preset cutters.
maximum rate, while the rolls support the work at the point of
4. When fine finishes are required, take the cut by itself.
cut. Working behind the cutter, the support rolls burnish the
5. Take single-point sizing cuts from the hexagon turret in a
work to a fine finish and aid in holding accurate sizes. The rolls
vertical plane for maximum accuracy.
are also used ahead of the cut if the surface has already been
Chucking work. The universal-hexagon-turret tooling machined. When used ahead of the cut, the rolls give a turned
arrangement shown in Fig. 8-102 illustrates the variety of basic diameter concentric to the rolling diameter, but also result in a
long flanged > SJde tool Angular slot

Adpstable single !OO1~older . , ,,
turning heed \ ./W stub boring bar
@
~“veq:%~~ @“ver,eadpi,o+
1.
Spindle
,, 4 ~e~~~’~~~a’ lk=
bush!ng u
rk, ,CL
‘ ‘yied
tool balder B
u
(
“v G
Plated --.=-
horina hrars
‘D
“&r ‘e”%
Q===%~
Str. slat stub boring bar>
Fig. 8-102 A typical permanent setup of universal chucking equipment on a turret lathe.
8-73
CHAPTER 8
size tolerance which is only as good as that on the rolling was decreased from 5 to 3 minutes in machining aluminum
diameter. Lighter feeds must be used for finishes when support wheel hubs on a column-type, CNC turning machine. With the
rolls are used ahead of the cut, because there is no burnishing. tooling arrangement on the 12-station turret of this machine, a
The revolving stock stop (station 1) can be replaced with a family of these hubs can be produced with only a few minor
combination stock stop and start drill or any other shank-type tooling changes.
tool as required. Application 5: Forged steel wormshafts for winch assemblies,
Stations 5 and 6 can quickly be put to use with any of the originally produced on four machines, are now completed on
shank-type tools, as illustrated on the right-hand side of Fig. one CNC turning center in 32 minutes. This is a reduction of
8-103. The end turner, as shown in station 4, is used on nearly 40% in machining time, a production increase of 30%, and a
every setup and could be listed as a semipermanent tool. .50% reduction in setup time. Also, part cost was reduced 35%
NC lathe applications. Equipped with NC or CNC, lathes by eliminating thread milling and other operations. A con-
and turning machines are being increasingly applied because of siderable labor savings resulted because only one operator was
their capabilities for greater productivity, improved quality needed instead of five.
parts, cost savings, and increased versatility. The following Application 6: Lens mounts are being completely machined
production applications illustrate these advantages. from solid sawed blanks of 2011 aluminum in one chucking on a
Application 1: Cycle time has been reduced from 20 to 5.5 CNC bar and chucking machine in a cycle time of 4 minutes, 23
minutes by switching from a manual turret lathe to a two-axis, seconds. Previously, two separate chuckings were required,
CNC turning machine. The operation involves facing and with a machining time of 12-15 minutes. Operations performed
boring two internal bearing seats in gray iron frames having a include through drilling, ID profiling, turning, chamfering, and
hardness to 200 Brinell. Bore sizes are held to ?cO.0005” (0.013 both internal and external threading. Cutoff is done from the
mm). Using coated carbide tools, rough boring is done at 400 inside, with the workpiece dropping onto the shank of the cutoff
sfm (122 m/min) and 0.012 ipr (0.30 mm/rev), and finishing is tool. A nylon sleeve on the tool shank prevents damage to the
done at 500 sfm (152 m/min) and 0.015 ipr (0.38 mm/rev). threads or finish.
Application 2: Setup timesaving to 50% on a family of four Application 7: Large parts for submersible pumps, previously
parts, and cycle time reductions to 40% have been realized by machined on an older vertical turret lathe, are now being
switching the machining of small gear blanks to a four-axis, processed on a CNC chucking lathe. With preset tools, the
CNC turning center. Two turrets moving on independent slides average setup time has been reduced from about 4 hours to 30
permit OD tools in the lower turret and a boring bar in the upper minutes. Constant surface speed operation has improved finish
turret to cut the workpiece simultaneously. Just before cutoff, and tool life. Production of an 18” (457 mm) diam diffuser,
the base of the bored hole is grooved and chamfered, eliminating made from ductile cast iron, has been increased from 2 to 3 an
a previously required operation on a second machine. This hour for roughing and from 2 to 4 an hour for finishing.
turning center is equipped with a tape-controlled bar feed. Tolerances are held to +0.0005” (0.013 mm).
Application 3: Grooving and chamfering of a 1144 steel part Application 8: Forged steel rolls 36”(914 mm) in diameter by
is now completed in 6 seconds on a CNC chucker, compared to 18 ft (5.5 m) long previously required 25 hours for machining.
21 seconds previously. A 25 hp (18.6 k W) drive motor rotates Now they are completely turned in only 5 hours on a CNC lathe.
the workpiece at 2500 rpm for a cutting speed of 3000sfm(914 Also, accuracy and finish have been improved, and positioning
m/min). The OD turret on this machine holds eight tools, and and gaging times have been reduced. These special heavy-duty
an ID turret, mounted on the same slide, holds six tools for lathes have drive motors to 250 hp ( 187 kW).
drilling, boring, and other internal machining operations. Application 9: Gearshafts, 8 1/4” (210 mm) long and
Application 4: Scrap and rework was reduced about 30-40%, machined from 1 I /2” (38 mm) diam, C1213 steel bar stock,
ietup time went from 8 hours to only I /2 hour, and cycle time have a flange at one end, three surfaces with different diameters,
Stating drd Dle head
Drill chJck
“b
@
Combination
Adl. knee tool stOck stOP Ond
stamg drill
.- .- -
.. ..
&
Center
Clutch tap and ‘;&
die holder
@@
Floating Revolving
u and turner tool holder center
mm
ig. 8-103 A typical permanent setup of universal bar equipment on a turret lathe.
8-74
CHAPTER 8
and threads at the other end–- each requiring a tolerance of machine hard, tough metals. One system of heating, plasma-
+0.0005” (0.01 3 mm) and a finish of 32 p in. (0,81 p m). With assisted machining, has been shown to reduce machining time
conventional equipment, 9 separate operations, including OD on these metals up to 40~0 over conventional turning operations.
grinding, were required. Now, the parts are completed in one Improvements in metal removal rates to 300~0 have been
operation on a CNC turning center. Ceramic inserts and spindle reported.
speeds to 6000 rpm have eliminated the need for grinding. A lot As illustrated in Fig. 8-104, in hot machining, an intense
of 150 shafts is completed in 19.5 hours, compared to 38.8 hours argon flame is directed onto the workpiece just ahead of the
previously. cutting tool. This softens the material enough to significantly
Application 10: The production rate for rotating connectors reduce torques and shear forces, thus permitting an increase in
has been increased from about 9 parts on a turret lathe to 60 allowable speeds and/ or feeds. Although the hottest part of the
parts per 8-hour shift on a CNC lathe. Operations on the 41 /2” plasma arc reaches close to 15,00@ C (27,032° F), the temperature
(114 mm) diam by 3 I / 8“ (79 mm) long, SAE 1045 steel blanks at the workpiece surface is only on the order of several hundred
include drilling, turning, boring, contouring, and both internal degrees. The workpiece substrate and its crystalline structure
and external threading. A tolerance of 0.0005” (0.013 mm) is are not disturbed, and the warm machined part can usually be
maintained, and a surface finish of 25 p in. (0.63 p m) is handled readily.
produced on the bearing surfaces. Six OD tools are carried on Roll materials with a hardness of 450-500 Bhn have been
the rear turret, and four ID tools are carried on the front turret turned at a cutting speed of 150-200 sfm (45.7-6 1 m/rein); hard
of this machine. surfaced materials, at 300-400 sfm (91.4-122 m/ rein); and
High-speed turning. There has been a continuing trend hardened alloy steels, at 1000-1500 sfm (305-457 m/min). In
toward the use of higher cutting speeds in turning, A number of some applications, the plasma assist facilitates the use of
production applications exist in which cast iron workplaces are ceramic inserts, Although feed rates may have to be reduced,
turned at speeds to 4000 sfm ( 1219 m/ rein). With feed rates to compared to those for carbide tools, the higher speeds provide a
0.020 ipr (0.5 1 mm/rev) and depts of cut to 0.188° (4.78 mm), substantial net increase in metal removal rates.
metal removal rates exceed 100 in.3/min ( 1639 cmJ/min), Equipment used in the Cutfast process developed by the
As previously discussed, the use of higher cutting speeds can Production Engineering Research Assn.(PERA) inchsdes a
result in costly penalties with respect to tool life. Speed has a mobile master process unit, an operator control module, and a
greater effect on tool life than either depth of cut or feed rate. plasma heating torch in a mounting fixture. On a horizontal
Higher speeds may also create problems with respect to lathe, the torch is normally mounted on the saddle just ahead of
vibration, the life of machine components, and reduced safety. the toolholder. Low-voltage current passes from the torch
Chip formation and handling are also problems, but less of a through the plasma arc and back to the main power unit via a
problem with cast iron than with steel. Proper spindle bearings brush gear and cables.
and adequate guarding are essential, and a regenerative braking The main process unit contains the power supply and
system is desirable for fast stopping. controls, argon gas, and torch coolant. The operator’s control
Proper workholding is also necessary for high-speed turning module can be mounted on the machine, a pendant, or a
to maintain adequate gripping. Countercentrifugal chucks or pedestal, Controls include start/ stop buttons, a heat level
chucks with a locking mechanism, discussed in the preceding adjustment control, and an emergency stop. A selector switch
section of this chapter, are used for this purpose. Best results in enables the machine to be used for either plasma-assist or
high-speed turning applications have been obtained with conventional machining.
ceramic-insert cutting tools. Ultraprecision machining. The continuing demand for
Hot machining. Heating of the workpiece is a method used to greater accuracies and smoother finishes has led to the
increase metal removal rates and reduce the time required to development of very precise turning machines. There is no
Work piece
/ Argon gas supply
‘ig. 8-104 Components of a hot machining system. (Morey Machinery, Inc.)
8-75
CHAPTER 8
generally accepted definition for ultraprecision (levels of normal flank wear. The possibility of chipping can be reduced
precision in machining usually vary with the size and complexity by minimizing deflection of machine components, workholding
of the workpiece), but it can be considered as the requirement devices, toolholders, and tools. Chamfered or rounded edges on
for tolerances to less than 30 p in. (0.76p m). the tools and inserts, as well as tools or inserts with stronger
Factors that influence the control of close tolerances include geometries, also help withstand shock loads that cause
transient temperatures, measuring capability, contamination chipping. More shock-resistant grades of cutting tool materials
control, personnel skill, and the equipment used and its should be used when needed, but this may require reducing the
maintenance, II Custom-made machines have been built with cutting speed.
air-bearing slide ways and spindles that can maintain ultra- Thermal cracks. These are caused by large, rapid temperature
precise tolerances. changes at the cutting edge. They often occur in interrupted
cutting or during the machining of hardened workplaces on
Troubleshooting in Turning which cutting fluid is applied intermittently. If cutting fluid
Many problems can occur in single-point turning. Possible cannot be applied correctly, it should not be used. A more
causes and suggested remedies of some of the more common shock-resistant grade of cutting tool material may be needed,
problems—tool failure, chatter, improper setup, and incorrect and as a result, the cutting speed might have to be reduced.
tooling—are discussed in this section. Deformation. Plastic deformation of the cutting edges of
Tool failure. Common causes of cutting tool failure are flank carbide tools or inserts occurs when the temperature of the
wear, cratering, built-up edge, chipping, thermal cracking, tool/ chip interface rises to the point at which the cobalt binder
deformation, notching, and fracturing. 12 softens. It is most common when operating conditions are
Flank wear. Normal flank wear is the most desirable cause of severe enough to generate intense heat and is normally associated
tool failure because it makes tool life predictable. It is identified with the machining of hardened materials. The proper appli-
by a wear land on the flank of the tool (or insert) directly cation of cutting fluid, a cutting tool material with higher wear
adjacent to the rake face. The amount of wear allowable for a resistance, and/ or a reduction in cutting speed or feed rate can
specific operation depends upon the material being machined, minimize deformation.
depth of cut, tolerance and finish requirements, edge strength of Notching. Edge notching consists of a high degree of
the tool, and rigidity of the machine and setup. Generally, the localized wear on both the rake face and flank at the depth of
tool should be removed or the insert indexed when the rate of cut line. It is common when high-temperature alloys are
flank wear begins to increase substantially. machined and becomes less of a problem when the lead angle of
Excessive flank wear can result from using the improper the cutting tool is increased. Additional honing in the area of
grade of cutting tool material, and it may be necessary to use a the depth of cut line will help, and if necessary, the feed rate
harder grade, coated inserts, or ceramics. Changes in tool should be reduced.
geometry that might help reduce flank wear include increasing Fracture. This is the breaking off of a large section of the tool
the relief angle and decreasing the nose radius. Increasing the or insert and generally results in immediate failure of the cutting
feed rate and/ or depth of cut and decreasing the cutting speed edge. Most of the failure mechanisms previously mentioned
may also reduce flank wear, eventually lead to fracture if they are not controlled. Tools
Crater-ing. This is identified by a relatively smooth and should be changed or inserts should be indexed before normal
regular depression on the rake face of the tool or insert. If flank wear becomes excessive. Using a more shock-resistant
unchecked, this erosion can continue until a breakthrough grade of cutting tool material, tools or inserts having stronger
occurs at the cutting edge. The elimination of cratering is not geometries and thicker inserts can help prevent fracture. As a
always possible, but good results can often be obtained if crater last resort, it maybe necessary to reduce the feed rate and/or the
growth is limited so that the maximum allowable flank wear is depth of cut.
reached before crater breakthrough occurs. Chatter. Chatter or vibration in a turning or boring operation
Some tungsten carbide grades containing titanium carbide can make it impossible to meet surface finish requirements, can
and/ or tantalum carbide resist cratering better than other generate excessive amounts of noise, and can lead to premature
grades. Coated carbide inserts, especially those with titanium tool failure through edge chipping. There are two basic types of
carbide, titanium nitride, or aluminum oxide coatings, and chatter—forced vibration and self-excited vibration—and each
ceramic inserts provide good crater resistance. A copious and has a different cause and cure.
continuous flow of cutting fluid and an improved chipbreaker To eliminate chatter, it is necessary to determine which type
means can often help to reduce cratering. In some cases, it may is present. This can be done by measuring the wavelength of the
be necessary to reduce the cutting speed, the operating parameter chatter marks on the surface of the workpiece and calculating
which has the greatest effect on cratering, or the feed rate. the frequency of vibration. If the frequency is equal to (or a
Built-up edge. This is identified by deposits of workpiece multiple of) the frequency of the source of vibrations, the
material on the rake face of the tool or insert. The deposits chatter is caused by forced vibration. If not, the cause is self-
periodically break free leaving irregularly shaped depressions excited vibration.
along the cutting edge and extending into the crater region. Forcecivibration. This cause of chatter generally resuks from
Faster cutting speeds and/ or feed rates, the application of the continuing application of an external periodic force.
cutting fluid, proper chip control geometries, and positive-rake Sources of these forces include spindle imbalance, gear drive
tools or inserts often help reduce built-up edges. Coated inserts, irregularities, other machines operating in the area, electric
particularly those with aluminum oxide, titanium carbide, or motors, oil pumps, and the impacts of interrupted cuts. This
titanium nitride coatings, and ceramic inserts also resist the condition often requires consultation with the builder of the
formation of built-up edges. machine for corrective measures.
Chipping. This occurs when the cutting edge is broken off in Other possible remedies for forced vibration is an increase in
small fragments rather than being worn away, as is the case with the feed rate or the radial cutting forces. Radial force can be
8-76
CHAPTER 8
increased by increasing the lead angle on the tool or insert, the tool will not be as specified and problems will occur. If the
changing from positive to negative-rake geometry, providing a cutting edge is above the workpiece centerline in an OD turning
larger nose radius, or using a tool or insert with a rounded or operation, the effective clearance angle will be reduced and can
chamfered cutting edge. result in poor tool life and surface finish, If the cutting edge is
Se~-excited vibration. This cause of chatter results from the below the centerline, the effective rake angle becomes more
instability of the machining operation. Instability is caused by negative, high forces are generated, chips form into tight curls,
the interaction of the structural dynamics of the machine and and tool fracture may occur.
the forces generated in chip removal. Self-excited chatter only Care is also necessary when a toolholder is positioned to
occurs if depth of cut exceeds a certain value. It typically begins assure that the cutting point of a sharp-cornered insert is on the
when some small disturbance, such as a sand inclusion or hard centerline. If an insert with a nose radius instead of a sharp
spot in the work material, causes the tool to jump slightly. corner is used, the cutting point will not be exactly on
Self-excited vibration can sometimes be reduced by adjusting centerline. As a rule of thumb, an insert with a I / 16” (1.6 mm)
the cutting speed to operate at a frequency at which the machine nose radius will be 0.005” (O.13 mm) above the centerline for
is stiffer. An increase in feed rate may also help control chatter if every degree of negative rake and the same distance below the
W lead-angle tooling is used. For tools with a substantial lead centerline for every degree of positive rake. This generally is not
angle, reducing the feed may help. Self-excited vibration can enough to present a problem, but should be considered if poor
also often be controlled by reducing the radial forces that cause tool life or chatter exists.
tool or workpiece deflection. This can be accomplished by Moving the cutting point off centerline can occasionally
reducing the lead angle on the tool or insert, changing from solve some problems. For example, when flimsy parts are
negative to positive-rake geometry, providing a smaller nose machined or deep grooving cuts are made, chatter is often a
radius, changing froma round insert to another shape, or using problem, even with positive-rake tool geometry. Moving the
atool witha sharp cutting edge. tool slightly above centerline (2-4Y0 of the workpiece diameter)
Sfrjj’jnes.s of setup. Looseness or lack of stiffness in the changes the rake angle slightly, thus reducing the cutting forces
machine, workholdingdevice, and workpiece can contribute to and minimiT.ing the possibility of chatter. This will, however,
both types of chatter, Periodic checks should be made, and cause a reduction of the clearance angle.
adjustments or repairs should be performed to eliminate Interrupted cuts also present special problems. Sometimes,
looseness. Workholders may require additional supports. If the particularly when large-diameter workplaces are machined, it is
workpiece is unstable, it may be possible to dampen itor use a best to position the cutting point slightly below the centerline.
filler material to increase stability. This presents the tool in a stronger cutting attitude and
Cutting tool problems. Common problems that occur when minimizes the effect of impact forces. A lead angle should also
using indexable inserts involve the shim seat, pins and clamps, be used for interrupted cuts whenever possible.
pockets in the holders, and the shanks of the holders.
Shim seats. When aninsert breaks, theshim seat should be Safety in Turning
carefully examined for possible damage or the accumulation of Safety requirements for the construction, care, and use of
v,orkpiece material and should be indexed if necessary. After all lathes are specified in ANSI Standard BI 1.6-1975. Common
corners of a seat have been used, the seat should be replaced. sense, good judgement, and safe work practices are required at
While steel shim seats are satisfactory for light-duty operations, all times because every dangerous condition or situation cannot
carbide seats are recommended for heavy-duty applications. be completely covered in any standard.
Pins arrd clamps. With pin-type locking arrangements for The possibility of tool failure and fragmentation is a major
indexable inserts, the pins may wear or deform sufficiently to concern with respect to safety in machining. Tool fragments can
provide inadequate locking power. This may elevate the insert attain high velocities, so protection of personnel and equipment
at the cutting point or may make it loose enough to move in the is essential. This can be accomplished by the use of safety glasses
pocket. In either case, insert breakage is likely and the pin and the installation of safety dcviccs and protective shields or
should be replaced. Care should be exercised to never lock the screens. Most modern automatic lathes have the tooling area
pins with excessive torque since this contributes to wear and completely enclosed by guards with access for loading and
may create problems in unlocking. unloading by means of an interlocked door. Operation can only
Pockets. If an insert breaks and is indexed to a new corner, take place when the door is closed.
the broken end may penetrate the pocket wall and may reduce The tooling itself, the insert thickness, and the holders must
indexing accuracy. Damage may also result from the heat and be sufficiently strong to withstand the cutting loads imposed.
forces of heavy cuts. Holders, bars, and cartridges with Tool overhang should be kept to a minimum to limit deflection
damaged pockets should be repaired or replaced immediately. and chatter. Excessive overhang deflection and/ or chatter can
Thorough cleaning of the pocket before indexing the insert is cause tool breakage.
important because any accumulation of dirt and/or chips can Chip control, previously discussed, is also essential to safety.
decrease the indexing accuracy. The possibility of hot, high-velocity chips being projected from
Shanks. Cutting pressure and some of the heat generated in the workpiece makes machine guarding and personal protective
machining can occasionally deform the nose of the toolholder. equipment mandatory. Chips should never be handled by hand,
This deformation alters the cutting geometry, reduces support and an air hose should not be used to blow chips from a
of the insert, shortens tool life, and may result in insert machine. It is extremely important that the machine always be
breakage. Deformed toolholders should be replaced immediately. stopped prior to chip removal.
Tooling setups. All standard toolholders and boring bars are Cutting fluids should be kept as clean as possible, and chips
designed to machine with the cutting point of the tool at the removed from the fluids as discussed in Chapter 4 of this
same height as the longitudinal axis of the workpiece. If the volume, “Cutting Fluids and Industrial Lubricants. ” The use of
point is not on the centerline, the rake and clearance angles of oils presents a potential fire hazard. Machine surfaces and chip
8-77
CHAPTER 8
ACCURACY IN PRECISION BORING
pans should be kept free of flammable material. also recommended when cast iron is machined.
Adequate means should also be provided to collect and General recommendations with respect to safety include
dispose of dust, mist, and sludge produced in tool grinding. The keeping the machine and work area clean, avoiding overloading,
inhalation of mist containing metallic particles can be assuring proper maintenance, and staying clear of moving parts
hazardous, especially over extended periods of time. An of the machine (pinch points).
exhaust system capable of keeping dust to a tolerable level is
THE BORING PROCESS

Boring is a precision machining process for generating values can only be obtained when all the factors involved are
internal cylindrical forms by removing metal with single-point reasonably favorable to the operation. Adequate maintenance
tools or tools with multiple cutting edges. This process is most of the machine and cutting tools is essential. Under certain
commonly performed with the workpiece held stationary and conditions, it may be impossible to maintain the tolerances
the cutting tool both rotating and advancing into the work. given. Under particularly favorable conditions and when
Boring is also done, however, with the cutting tool stationary special care is taken, it is sometimes possible to further improve
and the workpiece rotating. these tolerances with temperature control, special spindles,
Common applications for boring include the enlarging or special slide stops. and other precision adaptations.
finishing of cored, pierced, or drilled holes and contoured
internal surfaces. Related operations sometimes performed
simultaneously with boring include turning, facing, chamfering,
PRECISION-BORING MACHINES
Precision-boring machines are available in a wide variety of
grooving, and threading.
types to suit many different applications. Configurations
Boring can be done on horizontal, vertical, or angular
include single or multiple spindles arranged horizontally,
machines as long as the machine design provides the inherent
vertically, or at any required angle. Selection of the type to be
rigidity and accuracy to produce the tolerances required.
used depends primarily upon the size and configuration of the
Considerable boring is done on the various types of lathes
previously discussed in this chapter. It is also performed on workpieces, operations to be performed, and production
requirements.
some drilling machines, particularly radial drills. described in
Cutting tool or workpiece rotation for precision boring
Chapter 9 of this volume, “Drilling, Reaming, and Related
depends upon the specific application and the size, shape, and
Processes. ”
Applications of boring can be divided into heavy cutting and balance of the workpiece. The ability to rotate workplaces or
precision operations. Heavy boring is generally done on large tooling makes it possible to perform many difficult operations
simultaneously or in sequence. It also assures concentric
horizontal and vertical boring machines, including vertical
diameters and square faces, which are difficult to obtain when a
turret lathes and boring, drilling, and milling machines, These
workpiece is relocated for separate operations. Irregularly
machines and other machines also used for boring—such as
shaped and/ or unbalanced workplaces are generally bored with
automatic lathes, mukispindle bar and chucking machines,
rotating tools. Rotating tools and multiple spindles are also
machining centers, and transfer machines—are discussed in
often used when several holes have to be bored in the same
Chapter 15 of this volume, “Multifunction Machines. ” The
remainder of this chapter is confined to precision boring workpiece. Rotation of the workpiece is sometimes preferred
for more complex operations.
applications.
Precision boring is performed on machines specifically
designed for this purpose. These machines generally take Operational Methods
relatively light cuts, maintain close tolerances, and are often Methods of operating the slides on precision-boring machines
capable of high production rates. are divided into three major types: hydraulic, cam, and
ballscrew.
ACCURACY IN PRECISION BORING Hydraulic operation. The most common method of operation
Accuracies that can be maintained in precision boring for precision-boring machines has been with hydraulic cylinders.
operations depend upon many factors. These include the design This method has the advantage of providing considerable
and condition of the boring machine and spindles used, proper flexibility in slide control. Infinite variation in feed rates is
workholding equipment, the correct cutting tool material and possible by adjusting control orifices, and one or two feed rates
geometry, and optimum cutting speeds and feed rates. The can usually be readily set for each direction of travel. Relatively
design of the machine tool is one of the most important factors high rapid-traverse rates are also available with hydraulic
in the economic achievement of desired results. operation.
For very close tolerance requirements, temperature is an Advances in servo controls have virtually eliminated the
important factor. Heat generated during the cutting process previous disadvantage of possible erratic feed rates. Independent
may have to be dissipated by the flow of cutting fluid, and the temperature-controlled hydraulic units, coupled with advanced
fluid itself may have to be temperature controlled to obtain tbe design, silent-vane, hydraulic pumps help minimize heat
necessary tolerances. In some cases, it may be necessary to use generation which could affect accuracy. External mounting of
thermal-controlled machine components or to install the boring the hydraulic manifolds, valves, and piping ako tend to reduce
machine in a temperature-controlled room. heat. Noise levels have been reduced too. Programmable
Some minimum tolerances that can normally be obtained on controllers can provide sequenced cycle capability to suit
precision-boring machines are presented in Table 8-20. These various requirements.
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CHAPTER 8
ACCURACY IN PRECISION BORING
TABLE 8-20
Accuracies Normally Attainable in Precision Boring
Normal Minimum
Measurement Tolerance, in. (mm) Factors
Diameter:
Boring quill: 1. Workpiece material, including its hardness and condition.
with rotating tool +0.000 1 (0.003) 2. Stock removal which should be light and uniform. If
excessive, multiple passes should be taken.
with rotating +0.0003 (0.008) 3. Cutting tool material and geometry.
workpiece
Facing head with +0.0003 (0.008)
rotating tool
Cross slide for tool +0.0004 (0.010)

mountingwith
rotating workpiece
Roundness:
of bore 0.0001 (0.003) 1. Accuracy of spindle.
2. Workpiece design. Frail parts can distort from tool and
of spindle 0.000050 (0.00 127) clamping pressure.
TIR 3. Tool geometry which affects pressure.
4. Unbalance which affects spindle accuracy.
Taper (tracking):
Main and cross 0.000050 (0.001 27) 1. Alignment of spindle.
slides per 6“ (152 mm) of 2. Machine table tracking.
working stroke 3. Tool wear.
4. Temperature of workpiece due to cutting.
Concentricity:
Rotating workpiece, 0.0002 (0.005) TIR 1. Accuracy of locating diameter.
boring from one side 2. Accuracy of chuck.
3. Workpiece design. Deflection of weak parts.
Stationary workpiece, 0.0005 (0.013) TIR 1. Alignment of opposed spindles.

boring from both sides 2. Tracking of machine table.
3. Growth due to heat.
Hole location +0.0002 (0.005) 1. Position of spindles.
2. Accuracy of cross slide.
3. Tracking of table.
4. Rigidity of workpiece and fixture.
5. Growth of machine components due to heat from any source.
Squareness O.0001 (0.003) per 1. Locating surface on workpiece.
in. (25.4 mm) 2. Alignment of workpiece and spindle.
3. Tracking of machine table and cross slide.
4. Accuracy of facing head.
Surface finish: 1. Workpiece material, including its hardness and condition.
for nonferrous materials 6 p in. (0.15 p m) 2. Cutting speed and feed rate.
rms 3. Tool geometry.
for cast irons and steels 25 p in. (0.63 p m) 4. Rigidity of machine.
rms 5. Dvnamic balance.
Chuck 0.000050 (0.001 27) Accuracy of chuck.
TIR
Turret indexing 0.000010 (0.000254) 1. Repetitive accuracy.
at 6“ (152 mm) 2. Ratio from center of radial locating means to tool tip.
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CHAPTER 8
Cssmoperation. Cam-operated machines have become illustrated in Fig. 8-105.

increasingly popular because they offer more accurate and The most recent development in spindles is in the application
consistent control of feed rates. Two cams (one for each axis of of hydrostatic and air bearings. These employ a separation of
motion) are mechanically connected to provide precise timing the rotating shafts and, essentially, provide a bearing of high-
and cycle control so that operations can be sequenced without -pressure oil or air film. The bearings have a higher potential for
complicated controls. Rapid traverse is usually obtained by the accuracy and for maintaining accuracy over a long period of
operation of pneumatic cylinders. time. Air-bearing spindles also are ideal for high-speed appli-
More recently, the disadvantage of having to change cams to cation, particularly when high accuracies are required because
vary the feed rate has been eliminated with the introduction of of the relatively low heat generated at the spindle bearings.
silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) controlled, variable-speed,
d-c feed motors that are directly coupled to the cams.
Ballscrew operation. The operation of slides on precision-
boring machines with screws having Acme threads is virtually
obsolete. The use of precision ballscrews for slide operation,
however, is increasing because of the more widespread use of
numerical control for these machines.
Ballscrew operation provides a more reliable and consistent
feed than hydraulic cylinders and is particularly advantageous
for very low feed rates. Operation with ballscrews, however,
tends to be more expensive and is less flexible than hydraulic
operation for selecting and changing feed rates unless NC is
employed.
Precision Boring Spindles

The success of any precision boring machine depends largely Fig. 8-105 Standard precision ball-besring spindle with flange-type
upon the precision characteristics of the spindle. Selection of a mounting face.
spindle requires careful consideration because a wide variety of
sizes and types is available to suit specific applications. Spindles Types of Precision Boring Machines
may be broadly divided into the following basic types: (l) ball Many types of precision-boring machines are available.
and roller-bearing spindles, (2) high-precision heated or cooled Major types include horizontal single and double-end machines,
spindles, (3) cluster spindles, (4) motorized spindles, (5) hydro- center-drive machines, vertical machines, way-type machines,
static spindles, (6) air-bearing spindles, (7) permanently and NC machines.
lubricated bearing spindles, and (8) forced-air or mist-lubricated Since heat and vibration are major deterrents to the
spindles. Configuration of the spindle nose also varies con- accuracies and finishes required in precision boring, heavy-duty
siderably according to the requirements of the job. The most rigid bases are required for the machines to minimize problems
common flange type has an accurate register diameter and a of chatter and vibration. Also, to isolate vibrations and avoid
number of holes for retaining boring bars, rotating tools, heat distortion of machine components, all electrical, hydraulic,
chucks, arbors, or fixtures for rotating parts. Spindles are often and drive equipment is generally located external to the base.
hollow to allow for a rod to pass through the spindle to operate Horizontal single-end machines. A typical horizontal
chucks, arbors, facing heads, or size-control units. Operation is precision-boring machine arranged for single-end operation is
usually performed by a hydraulically or pneumatically operated illustrated in Fig. 8-106. The single spindle is mounted on a
cylinder mounted on, and rotating with, the spindle at the rear bridge over the table at the left-hand end of this hydraulically
or drive end, operated machine. These single-end machines can be provided
Spindles are most commonly belt-driven, but for large heavy- with two or more spindles depending upon the size of the
duty spindles, worm, helical, or spur gear-boxes maybe used to workpieces, operation to be performed, and production
obtain speed reduction. High-speed spindles may be conveniently
driven by motors mounted directly on the spindle shaft.
The selection of spindles is influenced by many consider-
ations, including (1) speed of rotation, (2) direction and
magnitude of loads, (3) accuracy, (4) surface finish, (5) mounting
requirements, (6) drive requirements, and (7) dimensional
limitations, such as overhang and center distance.
Special spindle designs may be necessary to suit certain
requirements, particularly in the case of multiple-spindle setups
in which a cluster of spindles assembled into one housing may
be necessary because of a requirement for close centers.
Most spindles used today employ ball or roller bearings, and
a high degree of accuracy and reliability is possible with these
bearings. Interchangeability of bearings makes it possible to
maintain performance within certain limits of accuracy over a
considerable period of time, with proper maintenance and
bearing-replacement procedures. A typical standard precision
ball-bearing spindle with a flange-type spindle-mounting face is rig. 8-106 Horizontal, single-spindle, precision-boring machine.
8-80
CHAPTER 8
requirements. Spindle noses and tool shanks for horizontal contouring can be performed on both ends of the workplaces
boring machines are specified in ANSI Standard B5.40- 1977. simultaneously, thus assuring concentricity of opposing bores.
Single-end boring machines can also be arranged with cross On these center-drive machines, workplaces must be held on
slides to provide either linear motion or feed motions in a their outside surfaces by collet or diaphragm chucks mounted
direction at a right angle to the direction of slide travel. In within hollow spindle shafts. The angular configuration of the
addition, the cross slide can be fitted with a manual or frame on the machine shown in Fig. 8-108 is used to minimize
automatically operated, indexing or rotary table for mounting the loading reach to the rear spindle and to provide adequate
workholding fixtures. Tailstocks can also be mounted on the slope for chip disposal.
machines for between-center operations.
Additional buildup can be made on this type of boring
machine by adding a toolholding turret to an indexing table
located on the cross slide. This configuration permits multiple
turning and facing-type operations to be performed when the
spindle(s) is equipped with a chuck for rotating the workpiece.
The machines are also often arranged with automatic loading
and unloading equipment to shorten the cycle time.
Double-end machines. Horizontal precision-boring machines
can also be arranged for double-end operation (see Fig. 8-107).
This is accomplished by also mounting a bridge and spindle(s)
at the right-hand end of the machine. One or more spindles can
be provided at each end; the machine shown in Fig. 8-107 has a
total of four spindles.
On double-end machines, an operator often loads workplaces
on or unloads them from one end while parts on the other end
are being machined, thereby saving what otherwise would be
downtime for loading and unloading workplaces. As is the case
with single-end machines, various attachments are available to
improve production.
Workpieces are generally rotated by chucks or fixtures on 1
the spindles for turning-type operations; tools are mounted on ‘ig. 8-108 Cam-operated, center-drive, precision-boring machine with
the cross slide. For boring, tools are mounted on the spindle wo spindles.
quills and rotated, and the workplaces are mounted on the cross
slide. Automatic cycling, tool-wear adjustment, gaging, and Vertical machines. Precision-boring machines with vertical
workpiece locating and clamping are available. sDindies and tools fed from above are often ureferred for
Center-drive machines. A double-end, cam-controlled, heavier workpieces, This design facilitates loading and
center-drive boring and contouring machine is illustrated in unloading, makes it easier to adjust and change tools, and
Fig. 8-108. Contouring slides at each end of the center-driven requires less floor space. Like most other precision-boring
spindles have cam-controlled strokes. Boring, facing, and machines, these machines can be supplied for completely
automatic cycling, controlled by hard-wired relay logic or a
programmable controller.
A typical precision-boring machine arranged with two
vertical spindles is shown in Fig. 8-109, Turning, facing,
contouring, and bo]-ing-type operations are performed by
means of a compound slide on which the cutting tools are
mounted. The machine illustrated is cam operated, but a
hydraulic machine would look essentially the same. The
cylinder shown in Fig. 8-109 holds the cam followers against the
cam and retracts the vertical slide to its uppermost position for
easier loading and unloading.
Way-type machines, A way-type precision-boring machine,
in its simplest configuration, can be essentially the same as a
single-end boring machine, with one exception. Instead of the
spindle and motor being stationary on a bridge at one end of the
machine, with a hydraulically operated table on a slide in the
middle of the machine, the design is reversed. With a way-type
machine, the table becomes the stationary section and the
spindle and motor are mounted on a hydraulically operated
table and slide unit, complete with a self-contained motor-
spindle drive system. This permits the self-contained spindle-
slide unit, with its spindle-mounted tool, to traverse toward the
stationary machine table holding a fixture-mounted workpiece.
rig. 8-107 Horizontal, double-end, precision-boring machine with four This same feature can be used by configuring the machine
spindles. with two self-contained slide units adjacent to one another.
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CHAPTER 8
JTl
Fig. 8-110 Horizontal, way-type, precision-boring machine with three

slide wings.
horizontal, ballscrew-actuated, CNC machine has three spindles

for high-volume production. These machines are also available
with one, two, or four spindles and can operate at high metal
removal rates with close tolerance capabilities. They also offer
the flexibility necessary for high-volume production. Electric
servo axes and variable-speed spindle drives allow infinitely
programmable variations of spindle speeds, feed rates, and
tooling-path control.
A versatile CNC boring machine (see Fig. 8-1 13) for
machining odd-shaped workplaces consists basically of a
Fig. 8-109 Cam-operated precision-boring machine with two vertical rotating head with a feed-out slide on which various tools can be
spindles. mounted, The workplaces are held stationary, The machine has
two axes of CNC motion. The first axis is the slide that moves
With this design, two parts can be machined at a time when the radially on the rotating head to control bore sizes and facing
stationary table is equipped with two workholding fixtures. feed rates. The second axis is the entire headstock moving
Another version, depending upon the type of workplaces and relative to the workpiece or the workpiece moving relative to
production requirements, is an end-loading way-type machine the tool. This provides axial motion for boring feed rates and
with workholding fixture(s) at that same end and self-contained controlling the depths on flanges, faces, etc. The combination of
spindle-slide units traversing toward the operator and fixtures, both motions can produce tapers or contours.
These way-type machine tools are quite versatile, permitting Modular design allows the machine to be built with a
spindle-slide units to operate individually, simultaneously, stationary head and rotary table on a slide; the head movable on
and/ or sequentially. A horizontal, way-type, precision-boring a slide and the rotary table stationary; the head movable on a
machine is shown in Fig. 8-110. This machine has three slide and the rotary table mounted on a cross slide; dual heads
precision slide wings mounted around an index table. to machine both ends ofa workpiece simultaneously; and other
Dial-type machines. Precision-boring machines can also be configurations.
set up as way-type machines. These concepts lead to dial-type
configurations in which all the self-contained spindle-slide units BORING TOOLS
are in a circle, mounted on slide wings, and simultaneously Boring operations are usually harder on cutting tools than
traversing toward the center. The center portion of these turning operations because of the confined machining area,
machines is usually equipped with a large indexing table and which can cause chip removal problems, especially from deeper
subplate containing several workholding chucks or fixtures, and smaller diameter bores. As a result, the size, strength, and
The indexing table automatically positions at each station (or stiffness of boring tools are often limited by hole size and length
wing) having a self-contained spindle-slide unit with its tooling. of cut. If the chips nest or pack, the cutting tools take
Dial-type machines are fully automatic; the operator simply considerable abuse.
loads and unloads parts as the machine indexes and the slide Despite these limitations, normal cutting-tool theory (see
units traverse in and out (see Fig. 8-1 I l). These machines are Chapter 1, “Principles of Metalcutting and Machinability”) and
usually designed for high production requirements, They can the preceding discussion of turning tools in this chapter apply to
also be equipped with tool-mounted vertical slide units and/or tools used for precision boring. Owing to the special nature of
hopper feeding for bushing or bearing insertions during the boring operations, however, some design considerations tend to
automatic cycle. be more critical. Boring tools are available as solid tools, with
NC boring machines. One type of numerically controlled tips brazed to holders, and as indexable inserts. Tooling with
precision-boring machine is illustrated in Fig. 8-112. This indexable inserts is used most extensively for boring.
8-82
CHAPTER 8
n6
ation 7
ig. 8-111 Dial-type precision-boring machine having eight stations. ( Wade// Equipment Co., Inc.)
:.. 0 .,* /.m,fi -.--:., -- L--, _- —.. L,-- L- ..,-- .- —----, ->,.- c-_ L,-L —–.J.. _.*__ ,.7.,.. fi r-l-..... P---- ,
Materials for Boring Tools materials are only used to a very limited extent for precision
Various materials used for boring tools are discussed in boring—one application is when low cutting speeds are
Chapter 3, “Cutting Tool Materials. ” Selection of a particular required, Occasionally tools made from these materials are used
material depends upon variables such as the workpiece material, for boring difficult-to-machine materials, for interrupted cuts,
amount of stock to be removed, production requirements, and for special forms.
machine to be used, rigidity of the setup, operating parameters, Carbides. Various grades of carbides (see Chapter 3) are the
and tool cost per part machined. most commonly used cutting-tool material for precision boring.
High-speed steels and cast cobalt-based alloys. These They are used as solid, brazed tip, and indexable insert (both
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CHAPTER 8
BORING TOOLS
Advantages of diamond tools include long edge life, with

resulting dimensional stability. The high cost of these tools
limits their applications to those that can be economically
justified. In some applications, however, they are the only
cutting tool materials that can be used successfully.
Cubic boron nitride. Boring tools compacted from cubic
boron nitride (CBN) crystals have greater heat resistance and
bigher chemical inertness than diamond tools; this makes them
suitable for boring ferrous metals. Advantages of CBN tools
include high wear resistance and the ability to cut tool and alloy
steels with harnesses to RC70 at high speeds. Applications,
however, are generally limited to hard-to-machine materials
because of the high cost of these tools.
Solid and Tipped Boring Tools

While indexable inserts are used most extensively for boring
tools, solid and tipped tools are employed for certain
applications, Sometimes, because of the critical nature of the
operation, space limitations, or other factors, it is necessary to
use solid or tipped tools ground to the exact geometry required
instead of indexable inserts.
Solid boring tools are generally made from carbides and
occasionally from high-speed steels or cast cobalt-based alloys.
Tipped tools are made from these same materials, as well as
ig. 8-113 CNC boring machine has two axes of motion: a slide that diamonds (either single-crystal or polycrystalline) and CBN,
moves radially on the rotating head and the entire headstock. (Davis
with carbide-tipped tools being predominant.
Tool Co.)
Standard carbide boring tools. Standard sizes, styles, and
uncoated and coated) tools, with their use as inserts predom- designations of carbide boring tools (solid and tipped, round
inant. Advantages include increased cutting speed capability and square tools, and unground tool bits) are given in ANSI
(compared to H SS’s and cast cobalt-based alloys) and the Standard B94.5-1974, published by AS ME. Four basic styles of
ability to bore harder materials with improved efficiency. these boring tools exist and are designated as SS, TS, SR, and
Ceramics. Indexable inserts made from ceramic materials TR. The first letter denotes solid (S) or tipped (T); the second
are being increasingly applied for precision boring applications. letter denotes square (S) or round (R). The side cutting edge
Advantages of ceramic inserts include the capability of angle is denoted by a third letter, A through H, indicating the
operating at higher cutting speeds than carbide inserts. reduced degrees of this angle (see Table 8-21). Tool bits with
tool wear, better size control, production of smoother surface unsharpened cutting edges are designated by the same system
finishes, and the ability to bore hard materials. Only the newest except that they have no letter to indicate side cutting edge
precision-boring machines are capable of operating at tbe high angle. These tools are used to cut to shoulders in bars having
speeds for which ceramic inserts are best suited. angular slots that offset the side cutting edge angles.
Ceramic inserts have proven to be ideal for the accurate Some standard solid square and round carbide boring tools
boring of cast iron parts. Tool life of up to four times that and tool bits are illustrated in Fig. 8-114. Standard carbide-
possible by using carbide tools, even at speeds four times greater tipped boring tools are shown in Fig. 8-115. Specific sizes are
than for carbide, has been obtained. These tools have also been identified by the addition of numbers after the style designation.
found to be good for precision boring steel parts having a The first number denotes the diameter or square size in l/32
hardness of RC60-62, sometimes eliminating the need for inch (0.8 mm) for styles SS and SR, and in I/ 16 inch (1.6 mm)
subsequent grinding. for styles TS and TR. The second number denotes the length in
Care is essential in the application of ceramic inserts because l/8 inch (3,2 mm),
they are more brittle than carbide tools. Mechanical and Boring tool geometry. Tools for boring require a geometry
thermal shock must be avoided, and rigid machines and setups differing from that of general-purpose, single-point tools used
are necessary. Ceramic inserts are generally not recommended for turning. The geometry to be used for a specific boring
for heavy, interrupted cuts or for boring refractory metals and application depends upon many variables, including work-
certain aluminum alloys because they develop built-up edges. piece and cutting tool materials, workpiece shape, the machine
Diamond tools. Boring tools made from single-crystal or to be used, operations to be performed, and toolholder
polycrystalline diamonds are best suited for boring abrasive mounting angles. Some recommended geometries for boring
nonmetallic materials and nonferrous metals. They are not various materials with carbide-tipped tools are presented in
suitable for boring ferrous metals due to’tool edge breakdown Table 8-22.
caused by chemical reactivity of the carbon when it is subjected Typical geometry for a single-crystal diamond boring tool is
to the high temperatures of machining. Single-crystal diamonds illustrated ifl Chapter 3, Fig. 3-19. Positive-rake geometry is
are used primarily for ultraprecision dimensional and finish widely used for these tools to reduce cutting forces, but
requirements. Polycrystalline diamonds do not produce as negative-rake geometries are being used successfully for some
smooth a finish as single-crystal diamonds, but they are often applications. Geometries for polycrystalline diamond tools are
superior to them in other respects (see Chapter 3, “Cutting also basically positive and similar to those for carbide tools (see
Tool Materials”). Chapter 3 of this volume). Some geometries for boring various
8-84
CHAPTER 8
BORING TOOLS
TABLE 8-21
Side Cutting Edge Angles for Various Styles of
Solid and Tipped Carbide Boring Tools
Side Cutting Boring Tool Styles

Edge Angl~ Solid Tipped Solid Tipped
Square Square Round Round
Designation Degrees (ss) (TS) (SR) (TR)
A o ..- TSA --- ---
B 10 --- TSB --- ---
c 30 Ssc TSC SRC TRC
D 40 ___ TSD --- ---
E 45 SSE TSE SRE TRE
F 55 --- TSF --- ---
G 90 (0° rake) --- --- --- TRG
H 90 ~lW rake) --- --- --- TRH
(ANSI Standard B94.5-1974, published by ASME.)
‘Z”
& %
38>\
Style TSA
~qu
Style SS Style SSC ~ol
\
T‘%q-
S+YIS
clr+s)o~ Uciio
‘/
45”
Style ‘4
55°
TSF 53.
Style SSE Style SR r
@lq
45”
\
3& \ 7 Style TRE
0 & O* B-
30=
Style SRC
4 Style SRE
45”
d
Style TRG
Fig. 8-114 Standard solid square and round carbide boring tools and
tool bits.
TRH
materials with polycrystalline diamond tools are presented in Fig. 8-115 Standard carbide tipped boring tools.
Table 3-23, Tool geometries for most CBN tools are -5° for both
back and side rake angles and 5° for the relief angles. tools also vary with the material being machined, bore
Rake angles. Tbe rake angles used for boring tools vary with diameters, and the height of the tool point above the center of
the kind of material being cut, the hardness of the material, and rotation. Too great a relief angle below the cutting edge causes
the cutting conditions. In general, with increasing speeds, rapid tool wear and chatter, and too small an angle results in
positive rakes are reduced and negative rakes are increased. rubbing, vibration, and poor surface finish.
With increasing feed rates and depths of cut, positive rakes are Lead and end clearance angles are in many cases dictated by
generally increased and negative rakes are decreased, provided workpiece shape and toolholder mounting angle. When a
the strength of the cutting point is not jeopardized. choice is possible, a larger lead angle and a smaller end
High positive rake angles reduce cutting edge strength; clearance angle will usually decrease surface roughness and
therefore, it is generally better to use negative-rake geometry reduce the tendency to chatter. A secondary angle under the
whenever boring conditions permit. If the tool is set slightly relief angle is often used for boring tools to provide adequate
above the centerline of the workpiece, the effective rake of stool clearance between the heel of the tool and the workplaces.
ground to a neutral rake will be negative. To counteract this Nose radius. The nose radius used on a boring tool is
effect, tools are often ground to a positive rake. established on the basis of the feed rate to be used and the
Relief and clearance angles. The relief angles used on boring surface finish required. If the nose radius is restricted or fixed,
8-85
CHAPTER 8
BORING TOOLS
Side rellef
Side or axial rake
@r
+
lead angle
Back or radial rake
or side cufllng
edge angle
Ir T
End clearance End or peripheral relief
Note. All rake and rel[efangles

Mounting
are measured in normal
angle
dlrectlon 10 the lend
angles or perpendicular
ta centerline af work.
piece (cuthng 0xIs)
Z!YI’ 1
TABLE 8-22
Recommended Geometries for Boring Various Material with Carbide-Tipped Tools*
.
End or
Back or Side or Peripheral Side
Radial Rake Axial Rake Relief Relief
Hardness, Angle,** Angle, Angle, 1’ Angle,
Material Bhn degrees degrees degrees degrees
Free-Machining Carbon Steels, wrought 100-425 -3 to-lo Oto 15 5 to 10 2t03
Carbon Steels, wrought and cast 85-425 -3to-Io Oto 15 5 to 10 2t03
Free-Machining Alloy Steels, wrought 150-425 -3 to-lo Oto 15 5 to 10 2t03
Alloy Steels, wrought and cast 125-425 0 to -6 -3 to -8 5 to 10 2t03
High-Strength Steels and Maraging
Steels. wrought I 75-375 0 to -6 -3 to -8 5to 10 2t03
Tool Steels, wrought 100-375 0 to -6 -3 to -8 5to 10 2t03
Nitriding Steels, wrought 200-350 0 to -6 -3 to -8 5 to 10 2t03
Armor Plate, wrought 250-320 -5 to -35 15t035 5 to 10 2t03
Structural Steels, wrought 100-350 -3 to-lo Oto 15 5 to lo 2t03
350-500 0 to -6 -3 to -8 5 to 10 2t03
Free-Machining Stainless Steels, wrought 135-425 3 to 10 Oto [5 5 to 10 2t03
Ferritic Stainless Steels, wrought
and cast 135-185 3 to 10 Oto 15 5 to lo 2t03
Austenitic Stainless Steels, wrought
and cast 135-275 3 to 10 Oto 15 5to 10 2t03
Martensitic Stainless Steels, wrought
and cast 135-425 3 to lo Oto 15 5 to 10 2t03
Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels,
wrought and cast 150-440 3 to 10 Oto 15 5to 10 2t03
Carbon and Alloy Steels, cast 120-400 0 to -6 -3 to -8 5 to 10 2t03
Gray Cast Irons 110-320 0 0 5 to 10 5t08
Ductile Cast Irons 140-400 0 0 5to 10 5t08
8-86
CHAPTER 8
BORING TOOLS
End or
Back or Side or Peripheral Side
Radial Rake Axial Rake Relief Relief
Hardness, Angle,** Angle, Angle, ~ Angle,
Material Bhn degrees degrees degrees degrees
Malleable Cast Irons 110-280 0 0 5 to 10 5t08
Aluminum Alloys, wrought and cast 30- I50
(500 kg) o to 15 5to 15 8 to 13 5t08
Magnesium Alloys, wrought and cast 40-90
(500 kg) oto15 5to15 8to13 5t08
Titanium Alloys, wrought [ 10-440 -3 to-lo -3 to -8 8 to 12 3t05
Copper Alloys, wrought and cast 40-200
(500 kd o to 10 5 to 20 8to13 5t08
Nickel Allovs. wrormht and cast 80-360 3 to 10 Oto 15 5 to 10 2t03
High-Temperature Alloys, wrought
and cast 140-475 3 to 10 oto15 5 to 10 2t05
Columbium, Molybdenum and Tantalum
Alloys, wrought, cast, P/M 170-290 0 20 8to12 3t05
Tunmten Allovs. wrouzht. cast. PI M 180-320 -15 0 5 5
Zinc Allovs. cast 80-100 oto15 5 to 10 8 to 13 5t08
* Reprinted from Machining Data Handbook, 3rd cd., by permission of the Machinability Data Center, copyright 1980 by Metcut
Research Associates, Inc.
** These values are based on the boring tool being set on the centerline. If the tool is set above the centerline, the radial rake angle
should be increased and the end relief angle decreased by a value of
@ ❑ arc tan;
where: H = height above centerline; R = radius of the bored hole.
I These end relief angles apply to bores %“ ( 12.7 mm) diam and larger. Smaller bores require greater relief angles.
the feed rate may be adjusted accordingly, Tool life is generally polycrystalline diamond, and cubic boron nitride. Carbide
improved with large nose radii, but a tool with a large nose inserts are the most widely used, but applications of ceramic
radius creates a higher than normal force on the tool and may inserts are increasing. Coated carbide and ceramic inserts are
produce a tendency to chatter when the setup lacks rigidity. generally suitable for light finishing cuts, with the possible
exception of trltraprecise boring of thin-walled workpieces,
Indexable Inserts for Boring which usually requires tools with sharp cutting edges.
By far the greater number of tools used for precision boring Selection of an insert material, as well as a type and grade,
now employ indexable inserts, The use of these inserts affords depends on many factors, as discussed previously for turning
a reduced cost per cutting edge, and they can normally be tools. Details on the classifications, advantages, limitations,
obtained as stock items. They eliminate the cost of regrinding, and applications of the various materials are presented in
reduce toolchanging time, and assure that tool geometry Chapter 3, “Cutting Tool Materials. ”
remains constant. Types of inserts. The identification system, dimensional
With proper application, indexable inserts can be used for specifications, styles, shapes, geometries, sizes, thicknesses,
most boring applications formerly done with solid and tipped nose radii, and tolerances for indexable inserts are discussed
tools. Inserts, however, limit to some extent the variations in under turning tools in a preceding section of this chapter.
tool design that can be considered for a specific operation. To
use inserts, it is sometimes necessary to forsake the ideal rake or TOOLHOLDERS FOR PRECISION BORING
clearance angles in favor of the many advantages of this type of Boring tools can be divided into two main categories:
tooling. Once the proper tool geometry has been established for rotating and fixed (nonrotating). Rotating tools are tools
a specific application, it is generally possible to select a standard mounted in rotating spindles to perform various boring, facing,
insert that very closely simulates the desired geometry. When and related operations with the bore and toolholder on the same
space is Iirnited because of bore size, it may not be possible to centerline. Nonrotating tools are of various arrangements and
use inserts. are mounted to the table or cross slide of the machine to
Insert materials. Indexable inserts are available made from perform operations on rotating workpieces, generally not on
high-speed steels, uncoated and coated carbides, ceramics, the same centerline as the toolholder.
8-87
CHAPTER 8
BORING TOOLS
Boring Bars
The most common type of rotating tool is a round boring bar 7/8” (22mm) min.
with one cutting edge mounted at the end of the bar to perform a
%
single-diameter boring operation. This type of bar is shown in
Fig. 8-116. Table 8-23 gives useful data that can be used as a
starting point for boring-bar design. Chip clearance between
bar and bore is a very important consideration, but it is also
extremely important in many cases to keep the diameter of the
bar as large as and the length as short as possible. For fine-
finishing operations, it may therefore be desirable to reduce
dimension C in order to favor diameter A. Boring bars are
usually balanced when they are to operate at high speeds.
Multiple-tool bars. Many boring bars are designed with
several cutting edges to produce bores of various diameters in
one pass. Also, a bar may be arranged with a roughing or
semifinishingtool ahead of a finishing tool so that a bore can be Provide suitable
roughed and finished in one pass. In this case, it isusualto space adjustment
the tools so that tbe first tool finishes its cut before the second
tool enters the bore. 7/s. (22mm) mm,
Multiple-tool boring bars can become very complex, and a for gage
great deal of attention must be given to their design, It becomes P

increasingly important to give consideration to adequate
machine power, chip clearances, the strength and proportion of
the bar, and proper individual tool adjustments. An adjusting
backup screw such as that shown in Fig. 8-116, although still
extensively used, is increasingly being replaced by finer and
more positive means. Various micrometer-adjustable boring
tools are available, such as the one shown in Fig. 8-117. Another
method of obtaining fine adjustment in a boring tool is shown in
Fig. 8-118. This method employs a boring-bar holder which has
a built-in adjusting feature in the main body of the holder. This
feature is particularly useful for small-diameter bars for which it
may be difficult to provide a fine adjustment at the tool point;
Provide suitable
however, it is normally applicable only when one diameter is
ad@stment
involved because it does not provide indi~idual adjustment to
the tools.
TABLE 8-23
Adjustable beads. Rotating toolholders based on the Boring Bar Dimensions Based on Bar Diameter Equaling
principle of an involute coupling provide a baseplate
0.7071 Times the Bore Diameter
permanently mounted on the spindle nose of the machine and a
mating top plate fitted with a boring bar (see Fig. 8-1 19). This
Bore Bar Chip Tool
concept allows several top plates, each with a different boring clearance, C,
diam, diam, A, diam,
bar, to be used with one baseplate. For example, if one had to in. (mm)
in. (mm) in, (mm) in. (mm)
rough bore, finish bore, and counterbore, the tooling require-
ments would be one complete unit (baseplate and top plate) and 1 1/4 (32) 0.884 (22.45) 0.183 (4.65) 5/16 (8)
1 1/2 (38) 1.061 (26.95) 0.220 (5.59) 5/16 (8)
1 5/8 (41) 1.149 (29.18) 0.238 (6.05) 5/16 (8)
Flonge dimensions to 1 3/4 (44) 1.237 (31.42) 0.256 (6.50) 1/2 (13)
7 suit machine spindle
1 7/8 (48) 1.326 (33.68) 0.275 (6.98) 1/2 (13)
2 (51) 1.414 (35.92) 0.293 (7.44) 1/2 (13)
2 1/4 (57) 1.591 (40.41) 0.330 (8.38) 1/2 (13)
-t-{I
nt i T----bam’
‘crew
2 1/2 (63) 1.768 (44.91) 0.366 (9.30) 1/2 (13)
A 2 3/4 (70) 1.944 (49.38) 0.403 (10.24) 1/2 (13)
3 (76) 2.131 (54.13) 0.439 (11.15j )2 ~13j
Jiffl
~~” “,~ -
Diem to
be bored 3
3
3
4
1/4 (83)
1/2 (89)
3/4 (95)
(102)
2.298 (58.37)
2.475 (62.86)
2.652 (67.36)
2.828 (71.83)
0.476 ( 12.09)
0.513 (13.03)
0.549 (13.94)
0.586 (14.88)
/2
/2
/2
/2
(13)
(13)
(13)
(13)
1 I Adjusting screw-1 4
5
i/2 (114) 3.182 (80.82)
(127) 3.536 (89.81)
0.659 (16.74)
0.732 (18.59)
/4
3/4
(19)
(19)
Fig. 8-116 Boring bar of simple design having one single-point tool 5 1/2 (140) 3.889 (98.7i) 0.805 (20.45) 3/4 (19)
mounted at its end.
6 (152) 4.243 (107.77) 0.879 (22.33j 3;4 (19j
8-88
CHAPTER 8
BORING TOOLS
deflection and the effect of tool wear. Tools are available as

micrometer-adjustable, single-cutter blocks for short runs;
Corblde insert
“&---’ micrometer-adjustable blocks with indexable carbide inserts;
Tool carmdge
solid block cutters for maximum face widths in boring and
facing; and multicutter blocks with expandable cutters for
~ ~—------ Dfferentml adlustlng sleeve
combined operations.
Mounttng d(ol Minimizing chatter, Although it is important to design
boring bars with a minimum amount of overhang, sometimes,
lockr[ng
because of part limitations, it is necessary to have a boring bar
lockscrew with a length-to-diameter ratio that exceeds the desirable limit
of 3 or 4:1. In cases such as these, to avoid possible problems
I with chatter, special provisions must be made, Preferably, an
‘ig. 8-117 Micrometer-adjustable toolholder for boring operations. outboard support bearing should be provided to reduce the
deflection of the bar. On longer bars, other intermediate
bearings may also be requirtd. Bars can also be made from
Graauated da for materials such as carbide or other high-density materials, which
dtom adjustment have a high rigidity, or they may have special built-in dampers.
With special provisions such as these, unsupported bars with
length-to-diameter ratios up to 8: I or more can be employed.
However, the critical ratio is highly variable and is influencedby
the actual diameter of the bar. size of the spindle, material to be
bored, character of the hole, tolerance required, cutting tool
geometries, and many other considerations. Solid carbide bars
with replaceable carbide tips are available for deep-hole boring.
To reduce the cost of using boring bars made from solid
tungsten carbide, bars of other designs have been developed,
One, illustrated in Fig, 8-120, consists of several spring-loaded
discs, made from a heavy tungsten alloy, loosely housed within
a cylindrical cavity near the cutting tool of the boring bar. This
1
bar is available with either steel or carbide shanks and
Fig. 8-118 Boring-bar holder with built-inmicrometer
adjustment.
interchangeable heads which provide an economical method of
replacing worn heads or changing the cutting geometry. Special
tapered bars are also available for straight contouring or
tapered work.
Chatter-free bores at depth-to-diameter ratios of 12:1,
improved surface finishes, and faster cutting speeds are claimed
for the boring bar design shown in Fig. 8-121. This design
~ ~ lncre~ent s
II / consists of a brass insert and lead mass held in contact with an
end piece by spring pressure. A stabilizing pin prevents the lead
mass from contacting the sides of the bar.
\
Bose date
Bormi tool v
Fig. 8-119 Rotating boring head permits precise adjustments. Top

plates can be quickly changed. (Wadell .@uipnreru Co., Jnc.)
two additional top plates, each with its respective boring bar. ?ig. 8-120 Boring bar with spring-loaded discs made from a heavy
Once all adjustments had been made for each of the dimensions tungsten alloy to minimize chatter. (Kenrsametal inc.)
involved, the three top plates could be removed and reinstalled
repetitively to close tolerances. The tool tips would not be Cartridges for Boring Bars
touched, because all precise adjustments are made by rotating The extensive use of indexable insert tools has brought about
the involute-coupling top plate on its baseplate. the increased application of cartridge-type boring bars (see Fig.
Block-type system. With this system, chip load is balanced 8- 122). Instead of pockets being machined into a bar for holding
between two cutters. The opposed cutting action minimizes bar inserts, the bar is provided with one or more slots to mount
8-89
CHAPTER 8
BORING TOOLS
, \ 1
1’:’
\ \
\ J
~
I
Erid Br&s \
\
\
piece insert Lead Stobiizing
mass p[n
----- .-. . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . .. . . . . ,,--- ,., -.,.-,

Elg. X-121 Sprmg-loaaea Ieaa mass Is moumea m.wae trus csrmter-mee Dormg mm. f c.rvzerzon mracnme w orK>]
code letters and numbers specifying the design and dimensions

of the tools. These positions are:
1. Position 1: A letter designating the method of holding
the horizontally mounted insert (top, top and hole, or
hole clamping, or with screw through hole).
2, Position 2: A letter designating the shape of the insert
(round, square, or triangular, or rhombic or
parallelogram-shaped with different corner angles).
3. Position 3: A letter designating the style of the cartridge
@
(straight or offset shanks with different side and end
cutting edge angles).
4. Position 4: A letter designating the insert clearance
angle (negative or positive rake, or neutral).
5. Position 5: A letter designating whether it is a right or
left-hand tool.
6. Positions 6 and 7: A number designating the height of
the shank or cutting edge in millimeters, with one-digit
values preceded by zero.
rig. 8-122 Boring bar with cartridges that hold indexable inserts. 7. Positions 8 and 9: A number and/or letters indicating
shank width and cartridge style. For cartridges with a
small insert-holding cartridges. Inserts are mechanically held in rectangular cross section and cutting edge height equal
place in the cartridges, which can have square, rectangular, or to the shank height, the shank width is given in
cylindrical-shaped shanks and cari be provided with or without millimeters. For cartridges on which the cutting edge
adjusting features. height does not equal the shank height, no indication of
Cartridges are available in a wide variety of standard styles shank width is given. Instead, the number in the eighth
and sizes. Some standard cartridge designs for indexable inserts position is replaced by the letter C, indicating cartridge,
are shown in Table 8-24. Clearance angles on the negative-rake A letter in the ninth position designates the style or
inserts are the same as the rake angles. For positive-rake inserts, mounting of the cartridge; for example, A indicates
the clearance angle is 11° minus the positive rake angle. angular.
Normally, cartridges are used for bars 1 1/2” (38 mm) or more 8. Position 10: A letter, preceded by a dash, designating
in diameter. the length of the cartridge in millimeters,
While cartridge-type bars can be more expensive than plain 9. Positions 1I and 12: A number indicating the size of the
or fixed-pocket boring bars, they are more versatile and indexable insert. Depending upon the shape of the
minimize replacement costs in case of damage. By switching insert, the number designates the value for the side
cartridges, one bar can be used for a number of different length (diameter in the case of round inserts), length of
operations. Also, the bars can be designed to carry several the main cutting edge, or the length of the longer cutting
cartridges for multiple operations. edge, in milIimeters, disregarding decimals.
10. Positions 13 and 14: These two surmlementarv
.. . .Dositions
Standard cartridges. Standard sizes, styles, and designations
may be used at the option of the tool manufacturer for
of cartridges are presented in ANSI Standard B94.48- 1976,
“Precision Indexable Insert Cartridges. ” This standardization the designation of proprietary types of cartridges.
includes metric threads for axial and radial adjusting screws, Replaceable cartridges. Several tool manufacturers offer
clamp screws, and all other threads on the cartridges. lines of boring bars with replaceable cartridges that reduce
The cartridge identification system of ANSI Standard tooling requirements and costs. One line has eight bars
B94.48-1976, published by AS ME, consists of 14 positions of measuring from 0.999-2.499” (25.37-63.47 mm) in diameter and
8-90
CHAPTER 8
BORING TOOLS
from 12-16” (305-406 mm) in length. Each bar is available with (O. 15 mm) before withdrawal to avoid draglines.
five or six different and replaceable cartridges for holding Automatic size control of multiple tools can be performed
square, triangular, and diamond-shaped indtxable inserts. One with just one compensator. In one application involving the
bar and its cartridges are illustrated in Fig. 8-123. boring of crankshafts, one compensating module automatically
A pin holds an insert in each cartridge rather than a clamp. controls two cartridges in a single boring bar independent of
One bolt attaches the cartridge to the boring bar, with the each other. In addition to maintaining accurate tolerances, data
cartridge fitting into a gullet machined into the end of the bar. accumulated by the gages and compensators can be monitored
Width and length of every cartridge is qualified to *0.001 “(0.03 to indicate machining trends such as tool dulling.
mm), thus minimizing setup time. Radial adjustment can be
effected with a screw in the bar, and axial length is set with an Generating-Type Heads
adjustable collar on the bar. The bars are equipped to transmit Generating-type heads are used when surfaces other than
cutting fluid, and a part can be adjusted to direct the fluid to the cylindrical surfaces are to be produced. The most common type
point required. is a facing head that produces a surface at right angles to the
bore. Special means are provided for operating the facing heads
Retracting Boring Tools while the spindle is rotating, by means of a drawbar through the
Draglines (withdrawal marks) caused by retraction of boring spindle and a rotating cylinder at the rear end of the spindle.
tools at the completion of their cuts can be a troublesome Control of the cylinder operating speed provides the desired
problem in precision boring. A number of methods have been feed rate for the facing slide; facing head stops control the”
developed to avoid this problem. One method involves the use diameter of the surface being generated. One such setup is seen
of a device with a cartridge that contains a cam which adjusts in Fig. 8-126.
the tool position when it is rotated manually or automatically. Other types of generating heads are available to provide
Once the cut is complete, axial movement of the cone-shaped various angular surfaces when required, and bores with recesses
cam in the cartridge causes the tool to move away from the and various contoured shapes can be produced by means of
workpiece so it can be withdrawn without marring the finished cams or numerical control, Generating-type heads often have
surface, provision for compensating balance so that tools are in
Another method involves mounting the boring bar on a approximate balance at all positions in the stroke of the head.
special retracting head that moves the bar eccentrically or The higher the speed of operation, the more critical the
radially for clearance at the end of the cut. Other methods of accuracy of dynamic balance becomes.
withdrawing the tool from the bore make use of hydraulic
cylinders, slides, and limit switches.
A comparatively low-cost method of automatic tool retrac- Combining Operations
tion is illustrated in Fig. 8-124. The tool has a pivoting cutter By effectively combining numerous cutting operations into
head mounted on an angular plane. When not in a cut, the tool one head, required machining cycle time can be achieved with
point is at its minimum radial and axial locations—held away conventional cutting speeds and feed rates that are conducive 10
from a solid stop by a spring plunger. When the tool is fed into good tool life. A standard 15” (38 I mm) dual-slide crossfeed
the workpiece, the tangential cutting force overcomes the spring facing head was combined with a special bridge-mounted
pressure, causing the cutter head to pivot. boring head, as shown in Fig. 8-127.
During pivoting, the radial and axial locations change until The application involves machining three different bore
the tool tip reaches the preset diameter, with the head held diameters, a face groove, and a face in one pass. In addition,
against the solid stop by the cutting forces. When the cutting boring tools for two of the diameters are automatically
forces are removed, the spring pivots the tool point away from retracted during the facing operation.
the bored surface. In addition to boring. the tool can be used for With the dual-slide head mounted to the spindle of the
facing and turning. It is also suitable for use with boring bars machine, the spindle slide rapidly traverses to the smallest bore.
having multiple tools. The slide then feeds, and each boring tool progressively picks up
its chip load. The slide continues to feed the tool until all boring
Automatic Boring Tool Adjustment tools ( 1 through 6 in the drawing) and the face grooving tool (7)
Automatic size control systems for repositioning the tools reach final position.
are available for precision boring. One such system that can be At this point, the machine spindle slide unit retracts to clear
used on any machine that has a hollow spindle is illustrated the face grooving tool from the cut and prevent dwelling during
schematically in Fig. 8-125. Measuring probes gage the bore, the crossfacing operation with tool number 8. The crossfeed-
and signals are sent to an amplifier where the dimension is slide operating unit is then actuated to retract the slides for
compared to the preset required size. If adjustments are boring tools 1, 2, 5, and 6. As the internal actuating rod
required in the tool position, they can be made manually, continues to feed, the dual-slide’s spline-driven assembly causes
semiautomatically, or automatically. the slide-mounted facing tool to start the crossfeed facing
For automatic adjustment, a signal is sent from an electronic operation. When this tool completes its pass, the spindle slide
compensator panel to a stepper motor. The motor adjusts a retracts at rapid traverse rate to home position, The actuating
micrometer stop assembly which controls the motion of a rod also returns to home position, resetting all tool slides for the
drawbar. The drawbar extends through the hollow spindle and next part.
adjusts the setting of the tool. Outward or inward adjustments When two tooling slides are used, two cutting tools located
of the cutting edges, which can be made while the spindle is 180° apart can be applied to increase the metal removal rate.
rotating or stationary, are made in any increment from Also, the second slide and its tool balance the head so that it can
0.000020-0.002” (0.00051-0,05 mm). When a boring operation operate at higher rotational speeds. When only one tool is
has been completed, the cutting tools are retracted about 0.006” needed, a counterweight is used for balancing.
8-91
CHAPTER 8
BORING TOOLS
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CHAPTER 8
BORING TOOLS
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8-93
CHAPTER 8
BORING TOOLS
0.875” (22.22 mm)

+0.001” (0.03 d
(typical)
..
~’y;!j[37~m) Am Q P 0:
t
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0.700” (17.78 mm)
0,003” (O 08 mm) *
1.500” (38. 10 mm)
O.001’( (0,03 mm)
P
‘-4’-’ Y
1 (typical) (typical)
Coolant
e@
table collar
Cadant pad
rig. 8-123 Boring bar with six replaceable cartridges that bold different-shaped indexahle inserts. (Car boloy Systems Depr., General Elecfric Co.)
Electromc controller
Cross Dual-sl[de crossfeed facing head
sfide
Cross shale mounted facing ioal block
Mactine ~
spindle
face
Bomg bar
Mdge mount-type boring head
.—.
ig.
[
F
8-124 Automatic retracting tool. Cutting force pushes tool against
anvil pin during boring. When force is removed, spring plunger forces
Stejper
ig. 8-125
motar
Automatic
(Valenite Div., Valeron Corp.)
size-control
I
Drawbr
system for precision

G~ge
boring.
tool away from bore. (De V[ieg Microbore Tooling Systems Div.) boring bar configurations and cause balancing problems if the
tools were rotated. The ability to rotate the workpiece not only
Fixed Toolholders simplifies toolholder design, but also allows higher spindle
Fixed toolholders are mounted on the main slide or the cross speeds because the tooling is fixed.
slide of the boring machine in such a manneras to approach the Various types of toolblock design are possible, from simple
rotating part and perform a variety of machining operations, blocks with a single tool to multiple tool designs involving
Most of the considerations that apply to rotating-type bars also numerous adjusting and gaging features. As with rotating
apply to fixed boring bars. One advantage of nonrotating tooling, micrometer-adjustable tools are frequently used, and
tooling is that it does not have to be balanced. Also, fixed cartridges for indcxablc tools with two-way adjustment provide
tooling can often be more rigidly constructed and supported. an excellent arrangement. The multiple-toolblock assembly on
Workpieces requiring boring and facing operations to be a vertical two-spindle machine shown in Fig. 8-128 illustrates
performed simultaneously would necessitate complicated this type of tooling.
8-94
CHAPTER 8
BORING TOOLS
Fig. 8-128 Fixed tooling arrangement on a vertical, two-spindle

machine.
, Diameter adjustment d!a
‘ig. 8-126 Facing heads mounted on a double-end precision-boring

machine.
Radial cutting force

I Ce.terllne af mvot
Tangentia
cutting
force
T
Fig. 8-129 Toolblock with micrometer adjustments for both diameter
and depth.
Sp
ig. 8-127 Combined dual-slide crossfeed facing head and bridge-

mounted boring head. (De Vlieg Microbore Tooling Systems Div.)
Other types of tooling provide for convenient adjustment by

means of standard toolblocks that are available, Some give
clear indication of tool adjustment amounts by means of
graduated dials (see Fig. 8-129) or bymeans ofdial indicator
gages (see Fig. 8-130).
Fixed tooling can also be arranged with automatic
incremental adjustment. Adjustments can be made by the
operator with pushbutton control for size compensation, or
Fig. 8-130 Dial-indicator type of toolholders arranged for multiple
they can be automatically performed by suitable feedback from operations on workplaces at three stations.
an automatic gage. Tooling can also be arranged with automatic
retraction features to avoid drawback lines.
Fixturing of workplaces for precision-boring operations is
WORKHOLDING FOR BORING an extremely important and critical matter. When the high
Many of the various types of chucks and collets discussed degree of accuracy usually demanded of the operation
under turning in a preceding section of this chapter are also performed by the machine is considered, holding the part
used for precision boring, as well as for combination ma- during the operation demands careful consideration of the
chining operations. Fixtures are also used extensively for correct locating surfaces and clamping must minimize
precision boring. distortions, which influence accuracy. The compromise between
8-95
CHAPTER 8
WORKHOLDING FOR BORING
adequate, rigid clamping and small distortions can present a certain operations are performed and after which the part is
challenge in ingenuity of fixture design. reloaded into another section for further operations. This can
Design of the part itself can be an extremely important be a useful and economic device for approaching a part in
factor. Special provisions for locating and clamping made different directions with only one motion of the table or spindle
during part design can often prevent many problems and reduce slide or for performing multiple machining operations involving
fixture cost considerably. Adequate preparation of the part in different spindles without the need for an indexing mechanism.
processing prior to precision boring can also help considerably With the need for accuracy, an inherent I-equirement of
in overcoming problems in fixturing. fixturing for precision boring, good fixture design is extremely
Fixtures can be extremely simple or complex, depending important. Rigid structures must be employed, overhangs must
upon various factors. Low production requirements may only be reduced to an absolute minimum, and adequate non-
justify a simple approach with manual clamping. However, distorting clamps should be used. The use of contact jacks, which
some low-production fixtures may demand power clamping. support the part against the cutting forces of the tool without
High production may demand a highly sophisticated, automatic exerting distorting forces on the part, may often be required.
clamping fixture. Regardless, fixtures should be designed with For heavy parts, it is often necessary to provide guide rails to
ease of loading in mind, and always with careful attention given support the part during the loading operation and also to have
to proper clearance for the boring bar and the removal of the retracting locators for the part that will accurately locate the
chips made by the process. part from a rough position. For high-production work and
Fixtures can be divided into three main categories: when it is necessary to minimize operator attendance, the
stationary, indexing, and rotating. machine may be automatically loaded and unloaded. For heavy
parts, power loading can also be employed to assist the
Stationary Fixtures operator.
Fixtures that do not index or revolve are considered to be Examples of simple manual-clamp fixtures are shown in Fig.
stationary fixtures. The fixture may be mounted on the table of 8-131. The fixture seen in view a is for precision boring a cast
the machine so that it moves to the left or right to approach the iron planet-pinion carrier. The fixture employs a gate-type
tools for the operation, or it may be mounted fixed to the base clamp with a three-point equalizing clamp plate. The part is
of the machine so that operations are performed by spindles located by the two top pins, and the lower pin acts as a rough
mounted on slides which approach the fixture. These fixtures locator to facilitate loading. The simple fixture in view b is for
may be of the load and reload type. This means that the part is boring the crank end of a connecting rod and is mounted on a
loaded into one section of the fixture, a position at which standard universal fixture to facilitate setup. Shown in viewc is
.4
\’——b——————
R
(0)
(b) (c)
Fig. 8-131 Simple stationary, manually-clamped fixtures for precision boring. The fixture in (a) k for planet-pinion carrier%the fixture in (b) is for
connecting rod% the tixture in (c) bss swing clamps.
8-96
CHAPTER 8
a typical boring fixture that employs manual swing clamps. performed on the part in another plane. Two parts are always in
Accurate positioning of a stationary fixture is of prime the machine during the machine cycle, and thus a finished part
importance for precise results since the part to be bored must be is obtained from the machine al each cycle.
positioned accurately with reference to the boring-head spindle
and the direction of table travel. Although the fixture base may Indexing Fixtures
be scraped to exact height and positioning keys locating the An indexing fixture is necessary to move the part, while
table slots may also be scraped, precise corrections and located and clamped. between two or more positions on the
adjustments are far more easily made when the fixture-locating machine in order to complete all the operations to be performed.
plate is supplied with jackscrews, as illustrated in Fig, 8-132, to Indexing mechanisms may be part of the fixture itself, or
permit adjustment of the plate itself, fixtures may be mounted on standard indexing slides or rotary
Figure 8-133 shows a two-part fixture for loading and tables. A common type of index motion employed on precision-
reloading a part. The part is first loaded in the front position, boring machines is a cross slide, which indexes the part at right
and then reloaded in the rear position so that operations can be angles to the table feed motion, An arrangement such as this
permits operations to be performed on a bore by two or more
spindles, sequentially. This allows a rough or semifinish boring
operation to be made on the part immediately prior to the finish
pass, An advantage of this arrangement from an accuracy
standpoint is that consistent stock removal during finishing can
be reasonably assured.
Rotary index tables can be employed to rotate the part so
that it is presented at different angles to the spindles. They can
also provide a means of moving between different spindles. In
the case of way-type machines, spindles may be mounted
around the table so that the part is approached at each index
position,
A shuttle-type fixture is shown in Fig. 8-134. Two pump
bodies are loaded in a pair of chuck-type fixtures in front of
three equally spaced spindles. When the spindle slide moves in,
the center spindle bores and counterbores the central hole in
one casting, At the same time, one of the outer spindles trepans
the groove eccentric to the central hole in the other casting. A
I lateral movement of the fixture then brings the two parts into a
Fig. 8-132 Stationary fixture with iackscrew provision for easY second position. When the spindle slide again moves in, the
adjustment. counterbore is formed in the part that was previously trepanned
Fig. 8-133 Two-part fixture for loading and reloading workplaces.
8-97
CHAPTER 8
ig. 8-134 Shuttle-type fixture for precision-boring operations.

rig. 8-136 Special gear chucks and retracting toolblocks for precision
boring.
boring operation is performed on the ID of the part. The gears

are located on the pitch diameter of their teeth to obtain
concentricity.
The fixture illustrated in Fig. 8-137 is designed to machine
concentric bores in both ends of a cast workpiece on which there
are no other concentric surfaces. Three clamping fingers (only
one is shown) are mounted on the master jaws of a standard
air-operated chuck. A floating ring equalizes the finger action,
compensating for casting distortion or mismatch.
Precision-boring machines, particularly those that also
perform turning-type operations, are often fully automated by
means of various types of loading and unloading mechanisms.
Sometimes a finished part may be ejected automatically from
the chuck and removed from the machine by a conveyor or
gravity chute. At other times, it is more convenient mechanically
to remove the part with an unloading device. Parts are usually
loaded by some type of loading device that picks the part froma
. . . . .. .
ig. &135 Special indexing-type fixture for successive boring of holes magazine in which it has been loaded, either by an operator or
on an angle. automatically from a conveyor. Figure 8-[38 illustrates a slant-
bed, two-spindle, cam-controlled, precision-boring machine
and the eccentric groove is trepanned in the part that was bored equipped with an indexing-type loading and unloading
and counterbored. mechanism. Work changers and industrial robots are used to
A special indexing-type fixture is shown in Fig. 8-135. Here a load and unload machines, as well as to transfer workplaces to
number of bores are produced on a part at an angle by indexing other machines.
the part (held at an angle) between successive boring operations.
OPERATING PARAMETERS FOR
Rotating Fixtures PRECISION BORING
Fixtures or chucks that are mounted on spindles so that the Variables such as tool selection, power requirements, and
part itself is rotated about the axis of the spindle are called cutting fluids, as well as the subjects of tool sharpening,
rotating fixtures, Various surfaces of revolution can thus be troubleshooting, and safety, are essentially the same for boring
generated by tools mounted on the feed slides. The most tools as for turning tools, which were discussed in preceding
common is the standard chuck, such as a centralizing jaw or sections of this chapter. Because of this, only recommendations
diaphragm type, discussed earlier in this chapter under the that differ from turning are presented in this section.
subject of chucks for turning. These are usually power operated
by cylinders at the rear of the spindle, and the chucks are usually Cutting Speeds and Feed Rates
precision type to achieve the accuracy desired. Many special Specific recommendations for the cutting speeds and feed
rotating fixtures and chucks are designed to suit a variety of rates to be used in boring operations can vary considerably
applications. depending upon the machine used and its condition, the cutting
One of the disadvantages of rotating the workpiece, tool material, the workpiece material and configuration,
particularly if the part is not symmetrical, is the out-of-balance methods of holding the workpiece and tools, and tolerance and
forces that may be involved. It is extremely important, finish requirements.
particularly when high rotational speeds are involved, that the Nominal recommendations for speeds and feeds that can be
rotating fixture or chuck be accurately balanced with the considered as good starting points for boring a wide variety of
workpiece in place. Figure 8-136 shows two special rotating materials with high-speed steel, coated and uncoated carbide,
fixtures (or chucks) arranged to hold various size gears while a ceramic, and diamond cutting tools are presented in the
8-98
CHAPTER 8
OPERATING PARAMETERS FOR PRECISION BORING
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m nom en as 01 casmngs.
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Boring Tool Setups

All s~andard boring ‘bars are designed to machine with the
cutting point of the tool on the centerline of spindle rotation or
slightly above center. If the cutting edge is above the centerline
of spindle rotation, the negative rake angle of the tool is
increased; if below, the clearance angle is reduced.
On-center tooling is recommended for certain applications,
but above centerline positioning of the tool is better than below
centerline positioning for most boring operations. With boring
operations, insufficient clearance can be a problem; raising the
cutting point slightly above the centerline provides additional
clearance. Even though a cutting tool is supposed to be on
centerline, it may actually be high or low due to machine tool or
setting inaccuracies, The tool position should be accurately
gaged, especially whenever tool performance is poor,
In use, boring bars are frequently tilted because they are
round and easily rotated. If a boring bar is rotated to bring the
insert edge on the centerline. the rake and clearance angles will
be other than specified. To avoid this, flats, parallel to the
Fig. 8-138 Indexing-type loading and unloading mechanism on a two- workpiece centerline and on the same plane as the tool infeed,
spindle precision-boring machine. (Olofsson Corp.) are generally provided on boring bars. The use of setscrews
aligned with the flats minimizes the problem.
Machining Data Handbook. 13 These recommendations are Some boring bars slotted to accept tipped tools are designed
based on a tool life of about I-2 hours of cutting time for boring so that the slot goes through the center of the bar, This results in
most of the common alloys when high-speed steel or brazed the cutting point being considerably above centerline. To
carbide tools are used. For indexable carbide inserts, a tool life compensate for this, the bars should be used with tools having
of 30-60 minutes is applicable. high positive rake angles, or the bars should be positioned
Suggested speeds and feeds-for boring various materials with below the centerline so that the cutting edge of the tool is on
cast cobalt-based alloy cutting tools are presented in Chapter the centerline.
3, Table 3-8. Operating parameters for tungsten carbide tools
are given in Table 3-12; for titanium carbide tools, Table 3-16; Qualified and Preset Tooling
for ceramic tools, Table 3-18; for polycrystalline diamond To achieve the close tolerances required in precision-boring
tools, Table 3-23; and for cubic boron nitride tools, Tables operations, qualified holders and precision inserts are used
3-24 and 3-25. extensively. Presetting of the tools is also generally recom-
8-99
CHAPTER 8
mended to minimize the need for trial cuts and tool adjustments TABLE 8-25
on the machine. Means of presetting can vary from relatively Common Problems in Precison Borfng and Suggested Solutions
simple, less-costly, dial-indicator gages (see Fig. 8-1 39) to
expensive presetting machines. The setting gage illustrated in Problem Suggested Solutions
Fig. 8-139 requires the use of a master; the V-block locates on Chatter Decrease speed and/ or increase feed.
the OD of the boring bar, adjacent to the tool. Automatic tool Change tool geometry; decrease nose
presetting with in-process gaging, as discussed previously, is radius.
also used. Pilot the tool.
Check machine spindle bearings.
Dampen workpiece to minimize vibration.
Size control Use floating tools.

Reduce stock removal.
Check machine for wear of ways, spindle
runout, centerline of tool carrier, and
indexing errors; repair if necessary.
Taper Reduce feed rate and/ or chip load.

Use positive geometry and block tooling.
Pilot and support tool to reduce unsup-
ported length.
Check machine ways for wear.
True position Use balanced block or hollow-mill type of

tools.
Reduce core shift or drill wander.
Use multiple roughing passes.
Pilot tool in fixture.
I I Check machine for positioning and spindle
alignment.
I Out-of-round Use positive geometry, floating reamers,
Fig. 8-139 Dial-indicator sofid carbide boring-tools, and decreased
.gage
. is used with a master to set boring bar
di;meters. nose radius.
Reduce chip load.
Troubleshooting in Precision Boring Reduce core shift or drill wander.
Many of the possible causes and suggested remedies for Check for spindle runout.
problems commonly encountered in turning, discussed
previously in this chapter, also apply to boring operations. sometimes arranged for accurate milling operations, such as
More specific recommendations with respect to precision face milling with a flycutter or slot milling with an end mill. The
boring are presented in Table 8-25. applications are so varied that it would be impractical to try to
discuss them all in the limited space available in this volume,
Safety in Precision Boring Instead, details of a few typical applications are presented.
Safety requirements are specified in ANSI Standard Boring cylinder heads. Cast iron cylinder heads are
B 11.8-1974, “Construction, Care, and Use of Drilling, Milling, machined on a standard, double-end, precision-boring machine
and Boring Machines. ” Other recommendations presented in equipped with three spindles at each end. Spindles on the left-
the preceding section “Safety in Turning” also apply to boring hand end of the machine carry tools that finish bore the valve-
operations, insert counterbores and semifinish bore the valve-guide
Extra caution should be exercised in boring when checking bushings. Tools on the right-hand spindles finish the cam-
the cutting action of the tool because the nature of the operation follower bores (see Fig. 8-140).
tempts the operator to lean over the rotating workpiece. Care is Stock removal in this operation is about 0.030” (0.76 mm),
also necessary to assure proper chip control within the bore. on diameters. A cutting speed of 290-400 sfm (88.4-122 m/min)
Long, stringy chips can accumulate within the bore, creating a is used, and the production rate is 8 heads per hour.
hazard because of the possibility that they may whip from the Machining fuel nozzles. A standard, cam-operated,
hole. With workpieces, having through holes and held-in precision-boring machine is used to machine diesel-engine fuel
chucks, chips forced out the back of the hole may be propelled nozzles made from stainless steel, The nozzles are automatically
radially outward at high speed by the chuck jaws. loaded and unloaded two at a time, providing a production rate
of 130 parts per hours.
Precision-Boring Applications Operations performed (see Fig. 8-141) are turning the OD,
Many different operations can be performed on precision- drilling and rough counterboring (view a), taper boring
boring machines. With high production requirements, special (view b), facing two surfaces and boring by feeding outward
tooling and setups can be used to perform a wide variety of (view c), and finish taper boring (view d). Cam control of the
work. Operations often performed with precision boring in the machine assures close tolerances and consistent repeatability,
same cycle include facing, turning, and grooving. Machines arc including the contour of the internal taper.
8-100
CHAPTER 8
Fig. 8-140 Operations performed on cylinder head with double-end precision-boring machine having three spindles at each end.
JIG BORING
The term jig borer originally pertained to tool (jig and
fixture) manufacturing, but the continually increasing demands
for accuracy within many branches of metalworking has
extended the application possibilities for jig-boring machines,
The importance of thejig-boring machine in manufacturing has
been firmly established. Without its aid, the present day state of
the art in precision metalworking could never have been
achieved. The modern jig-boring machine brings into close
agreement the professional disciplines of the machinist and
the metrologist.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Applications of Jig Boring
Jig-boring machines are used for a wide range of applications.
ig. 8-141 Cam-operated precision-boring machine performs several
operations on fuel nozzles. The locating and measuring features of the machine are
employed for establishing the dimensional detail of workpieces,
including:
Producing transmission components, Automotive trans-
mission components, made from steel weldments, are faced, 1. Jigs used for the production machining of multiple parts.
bored, turned, and chamfered at the rate of 144 parts per hour 2. Press tools such as the lamination die seen in Fig. 8-143.
on a vertical, duplex, precision-boring machine. Identical 3. Gages used to qualify parts produced on other machines.
tooling on this double setup performs 13 machining operations
These machines are also used for the production of
on each of two parts in one cycle (see Fig. 8-142).
The cycle begins with the compound slide rapidly advancing 1. Prototype parts needed before custom tooling can be
vertically, then feeding to a stop. The tools on an extended designed and manufactured.
auxiliary slide turn and chamfer the OD of the hub, and bore 2. Parts for which the required accuracy of hole location
and face a flange. In a subsequent horizontal movement, a and surfaces. as well as the quality of the surface finish,
bearing area at the hub OD is faced, The auxiliary slide then cannot be otherwise obtained.
retracts, and the main vertical slide is again fed downward. The 3. Parts calling for the ultimate in dimensional integrity,
ID of the outer rim is bored, and a step diameter and an such as mating components in an assembly.
adjacent flange are plunge faced. In a following horizontal 4. Delicate or complex parts with a minimum of distortion.
movement, the ram is rough, semif[nish, and finish faced and is 5. Parts. includinsz die components. machined mior to
chamfered on both the inside and outside. hardening to al~ow for the-more efficient appli~ation of
jig grinding for finishing.
Jig-Boring Machines
In general terms, thejig-boring machine employs a precision
spindle to drive the cutting tool and a table to support the
workpiece. The table and spindle are movable and are fitted
with built-in measuring devices that provide means for estab-
lishing X, Y, Z, and A coordinate positions. The machine is
1 designed to locate and bore holes and to generate surfaces to the
highest level of accuracy. Three basic designs of jig-boring
Fig. 8-142 Transmission components are faced, bored, turned, and machines in common use are open-sided (C-f’rame), adjustable-
chamfered on this vertical precision-boring machine. rail, and fixed-bridge construction.
8-101
CHAPTER 8
JIG BORING
● ✌ ✎✎
“*O O.*O
I .. .“
F “.0
.*. *
o“*oa”o*
●
O”.
.
b--(@~&)-=A
\
Fig. 8-143 Lamination die illustrates the precise requirements for locational accuracies afforded by the jig borer.
Open-sided construction. Jig-boring machines of this C-

frame design employ a single column for supporting the
machine’s vertical spindle and housing assembly (see Fig.
8-144). Guideways in the column control the perpen-
dicular alignment of the spindle centerline throughout the full
range of its adjustment along the Z axis.
The machine table is supported on a compound slide and is
movable along the X axis. The compound itself is supported on
the machine base and is movable along the Y axis. Coordinate
settings locating the table under the spindle’s vertical centerline
are controlled by the linear positioning system for each axis.
Adjustable-rail construction. On planer-type jig-boring
machines (see Fig. 8-145), the crossrail is supported and
adjusted vertically on two columns. The rail serves to carry the
vertical spindle in its housing along the Y axis. The table is
supported on the base of the machine and is movable along the
Y axis.
Fixed-bridge construction. On jig-boring machines of this
design, as illustrated in Fig. 8-146, the worktable is mounted on
the base guideways and traverses in the longitudinal (X-axis)
direction. The spindle is supported on the cross-slide carriage
and travels with it in the transverse (Y-axis) direction on the
guideways of the fixed bridge. Vertical guideways, an integral
part of the cross-slide carriage, support the spindle housing and
guide its vertical adjustment.
NC/CNC jig-boring machines. Jig-boring machines equipped
with numerical or computer numerical control systems (see Fig.
w
8-147) are effectively employed when the job process can be
preplanned. Machine functions for coordinate positioning and
contouring operations are automatically controlled, thus
relieving the operator of the need to attend to the tedious,
repetitive setting of machine dials and other control devices.
Production output of NC machines can be predicted with
greater certainty since their operation is less dependent upon the
operator. The precision machining of curvilinear details in cams, Fig. 8-144 Jig-boring machine of open-sided construction.
8-102
CHAPTER 8
JIG BORING
ig. 8-147 Numerically controlled jig-boring machine of the open-side

type.
Fig. 8-145 Adjustable-rail or planer-type jig-boring machine equipped measures, graduated or lnductosyn scales, and micrometer
with graduated-scale measuring system. leadscrews,
End measures. These are accurate end standards used in
combination with micrometers. The basic end standard
h
measures in one inch or one centimeter increments, while the
micrometer subdivides these increments. A selection of end
measures and micrometer settings are used when establishing
the datum and related coordinate positions.
Graduated scales. The graduated scale employs an optical or
electronic system for reading and establishing the measured
position. Provisions are made for subdividing the graduated
increment on the precision scale. Electro-optical or electronic
feedback systems are used for machines equipped with a
readout or automatic positioning control system using
Inductosyn scales.
Micrometer leadscrews. The micrometer leadscrew provides
the means fordisplacingthe machine slide while establishing its
coordinate position. The leadscrew measuring system is used
directly with its micrometer dial or with an electronic feedback
system for coordinate positioning control and/or display.
Machine accessories. A wide selection of accessories are
available for jig-boring machines, making them conveniently
adaptable to a variety of precision machining operations. They
fall into two groups: setup and spindle accessories.
Fig. 8-146 Fixed-bridge design of jig-boring machine on which the Setup accessories. This group includes parallel setup blocks,
worktable traverses in the longitudinal direction. precision vises, angle irons, microsine plates, rotary and
rotary~ tilting tables, and matching V-blocks. Their use is
templates, and press tool components can be developed effi- discussed in the subsequent section on workholding.
ciently. Many jobs exist that would be impractical to process on Spindle accessories. This group includes indicators, line
a manually operated jig-boring machine. One job, for example, finders, and microscopes for use in orientating the workpiece
permits precise, irregularly curved forms to be generated on datum with the machine spindle centerline. The toolmaker’s
cams or master templates without operator involvement. indicator (see Fig. 8-148) is most frequently used for picking up
Measuring systems. Three types of rectilinear coordinate holes, edges, pins, or bosses, and when aligning reference
measuring systems employed on jig-boring machines are end surfaces with the machine slide motion. An electronic indicator
8-103
CHAPTER 8
1
I
“ig. 8-148 Picking up edge with toolmaker’s indicator. Indicator is set
against edge of work piece, raised, and rotated 180° to touch gage block
held against edge.
may be employed for these purposes if higher accuracy for the

pickup is required.
Line finders, consisting of an accurately centered point for
aligning the spindle centerline with datum lines or points
scribed on the workpiece, can be used when the detail to be
machined does not require a precise dimensional relationship
with existing features. The microscope with its reference reticle Fig. 8-149 Microsine plate on which angle is set by inserting gage
centered on the machine spindle centerline is used when the blocks between the gage pins.
datum feature cannot be fixed using the toolmaker’s indicator.
Workholding Methods
A workpiece must be fixed to the machine table with its
datum and geometric features related to the measuring system
and the machine spindle centerline. If generating angular
features or establishing details having angular dimensions is
required, a precision rotary table is used. Angular inclination of
the workpiece relatiw to the horizontal plane of the machine
table may be necessary when setting up the workpiece. A
microsine table, Fig. 8-149, or an inclinable rotary table,
Fig. 8-150, can be used for this purpose.
To prevent the machine table itself from being cut, the
workpiece is supported on parallel setup blocks or in a specially
designed fixture, The setup blocks or fixture must be accurately
made and arranged to provide adequate and stress-free support
for the workpiece.
Preparation of the reference and/ or mounting surfaces of the
workpiece is critical. Flatness and the geometric relationship of 1
these surfaces must be established to conform to the setup rig. 8-150 Irsclinable rotary table combines angular movement in two
equipment. This should be done before the workpiece is planes.
fastened to the machine table so that these surfaces may, in turn,
be related to the machine’s rectilinear system. It may be Alignment of the workpiece with the machine slides is set by
necessary to machine, hand scrape, or lap these surfaces even positioning the workpiece against the machine’s straightedge or
though they are not functional. a locator on the fixture. This parallel alignment can be
Clamping arrangement and pressure applied must be confirmed bytraversing thereference edge against an indicator
sufficient to prevent any movement of the workpiece during probe. Adjustments are made by tapping the workpiece or
machining, Clamping points should be as close as possible to fixture into aligned position before setting the clamps.
the best supported areas of the workpiece to prevent distortion Cylindrical work is supported and aligned by using V-blocks
of the table, the workpiece, or both (see Fig. 8-151). For or by mounting it between centers of an indexing device such as
repetitive work, time may be saved by using simple nests a rotary table. The rotary table is set up with its axis horizontal
assembled from parallel setup blocks and arranged to function and arranged with a tailstock to support the outboard end of the
as both supports andlocators, asillustrated in Fig. 8-152. workpiece, (see Fig. 8-153).
8-104
CHAPTER 8
Dstoriionof both DiitOdiOn of No distorton of

toble and workpiece the toble only either table or
workpiece
I ncorre& damping Correct &rmping
g. 8-151 Improper arrangement of clamps and supports can result in nonparallel holes.
Fig. 8-152 Nests assembled from parallel blocks serve to support am Fig. 8-153 Rotary table mounted with its axis of rotation borizonta
locate workplaces. and arranged with a tailstock center to support a long workpiece.
8-105
CHAPTER 8
JIG BORING
Angular inclination of the workpiece relative to the X and When dealing with close tolerances for size control and
Y-axis slide motion is set up using a microsine plate and gage locational accuracies, it is important that all workpiece details
blocks or a rotary/tilting table. The horizontal tilt axis of the be rough machined first. Then the temperature should be
sine plate and the reference edge of the workpiece are aligned allowed to return to normal, and the workpiece may have to be
with the table travel. stress relieved before finish machining. A discussion of
Workpieces requiring the machining of compound angles environmental control for jig-boring machines is presented in
can be accommodated using a rotary table mounted on a the subsequent section on operating parameters.
microsine plate (see Fig. 8-154) or an inclinable rotary table. When working to close tolerances in repeating hole sizes on a
Any compound angle can be attained by setting up the required number of workpieces, uniform conditions for stock removal in
angles using the rotary and tilt axes. the finish operation must be maintained. Close attention must
When machining a number of angularly spaced holes, the also be paid to the preparation of the hole before finishing.
operator has the option of using rectangular coordinates The increasing use of NCjig-boring machines has diminished
(converted from angular values by trigonometry) or using the requirement for the operator to attend to machine functions,
polar coordinates for setting angular values with the rotary while enlarging the requirements for organizing the job process
~able directly. through part programming, tool preparation, and process
planning.
Single-point boring. The importance of single-point boring
as the most reliable method of attaining locational accuracy
with jig-boring machines justifies the wide range of boring tools
available for use specifically with these machines. Machine
manufacturers have designed the spindle and tool adapter with
accuracies and design features consistent with the quality of the
machine itself. However, attention to the requirements for care
and handling of the tool by the operator, as prescribed by the
manufacturer, is of utmost importance.
Solid boring bars. These tools, such as the one illustrated in
view a of Fig. 8-155, are designed with micrometer-type tool
offset adjustment and provide maximum rigidity for the cutting
tool. Although the adjustment range with respect to length and
diameter for each individual bar is limited, the bars are avail-
able in sets sized to cover the full range of the machine’s
capacity.
Muhicutter tools. Tools with two or more cutters (view b in
Fig. 8-1 55) can be used for faster machining.
Adjustable offset boring chucks. These tools provide a wider
range for adjustment with some compromise in rigidity.
Universal boring andfacing head. This tool (see Fig. 8-156) is
used to face surfaces perpendicular to the spindle centerline.
Fig. 8-154 Rotary table set up on a microsine table for machining

compound angles.
Cutting Tools and Operations Performed

A wide variety of cutting tools is used onjig-boring machines
to perform many different precision operations. The usual
practice in starting a hole (roughing out) is to use a spotting tool
or center drill. The hole is then enlarged using a succession of
drills to bring it close to finish dimension in preparation for
final sizing with a single-point boring tool or reamer.
Intermediate and finish cuts generally account for most of
the time required, so it is advisable to rough-cut as close to
finish size as practical. Allowances of 0.005 -O.010”
(0.13 -O.25 mm) forholes under l/2’’(12.7 mm)diamand
0.030” (0.38-0.76 mm) for holes from I /2” to the maximum
O.Ol5-
(o) (b)
I
‘ig. 8-155 (a) Solid boring bar with micrometer-type tool offset
capacity of the machine are generally recommended. adjustment for diameter cut and (b) mrrlticutter tool.
8-106
CHAPTER 8
JIG BORING
.-.B
H I
T
I
—
Fig. 8-157 Precision end-cutting reamers used to finish holes to size on

jig-boring machines.
Fig. 8-156 Universal boring and facing head is used to face surfaces
perpendicular to the spindl;centerline.-
The boring tool is radially fed, as controlled by the operator. It

is effective for operations such as facing, boring, turning outside
diameters, recessing, and undercutting.
Finishing holes by reaming. Reamers are also used extensively
on jig-boring machines for finishing holes.
Jig-boring and end reamers. These tools (see Fig. 8-1 57) are
used to finish machine holes to size. Held rigid and true with the
spindle, they act as multiple-tooth boring tools. They provide a
favorable compromise between saving time with only a minor
sacrifice in accuracy.
Machine or chucking reamers. These tools may be used for
finishing holes if carefully handled. They produce some-
what better diametrical accuracy than the end reamers, but will
not serve to locate the hole as well. Machine reamers can be
effectively used when a large number of holes are to be finish
sized. When used, the hole should be prepared by single-point
boring on location, leaving between 0.001-0.003” (0.03-0.08
mm) for reaming. Their use is particularly effective on NC jig-
boring machines.
Flycutting and milling. Plane surfaces parallel to the slide
motion can be generated using a single-point tool arranged in a
suitable holder, as illustrated in Fig. 8-158. Since a minimum of
stress is introduced into the workpiece by single-point Fig. 8-158 Flycutting a plane surface parallel to the slide motion on a
machining, the geometric accuracy of the slide motion is jig-boring machine.
faithfully reproduced in the workpiece. Conventional side-
cutting end mills may be used to machine vertical surfaces. interest of economical machine utilization, large amounts of
The use of fly-cutting and milling cutters on jig-boring material should be roughed out on equipment designed for that
machines requires common sense on the part of the operator purpose. Only enough material for finishing to final dimensions
and the process planner. The precision machining system should be left for thejig-boring machine. This recommendation
should not be abused with unnecessarily heavy cuts, but heavier applies equally to manually operated or numerically controlled
milling cuts can be taken on some larger machines. In the jig-boring machines.
8-107
CHAPTER 8
JIG BORING
Jobs that would be impractical for machining on a standard 5. Clamps must be loosened to relieve strains and reclamped
jig-boring machine, such as accurate cams and templates, can using only enough pressure to support the finish cut.
be handled efficiently on an NC machine. A cam being 6. Finish machining should be done at a constant
generated by numerically controlling angular and linear temperature.
dimensions is illustrated in Fig. 8-159. X and Y-axis or polar 7. Cutting tools having maximum rigidity should be
coordinates are programmed in very close increments along a employed,
path represented by the cutter centerline. The contour is Environment for the machine. A large percentage of jig-
developed automatically and is not dependent upon the
boring machines are operated in areas without temperature
operator’s making numerous settings manually.
controL When used for the production of close tolerance parts,
however, these machines must be placed in temperature-
controlled areas. Of prime concern is that the measuring
element and the workpiece have the same temperature. If,
however, they are made of dissimilar materials, their dimensions
will disagree as their temperature changes.
Table 8-26 shows that engineering materials in common use
do not expand equally in response to changes in temperature. For
example, a 20” dimension on an ahrminum workpiece—
machined while the workpiece and the machine are at a temper-
ature of 78° F, and in a machine equipped with a measuring
element of steel—would be 0.00122” short when measured at
68° F. In a similar example employing metric values, a 500 mm
dimension on an aluminum workpiece machined at 25° C would
be 0.0273 mm short when measured at 20° C.
TABLE 8-26
Change In Length of Various Materials
with Temperature Changes
Linear Expansion in in. (mm) per inch (25.4

mm) of Length per Degree Increase in
Temperature
Material “F “c
Aluminum 0.0000123 (0.0003 12) 0.0000221 (0.00056 I)
Bronze 0.0000099 (0.00025 1) 0.0000178 (0.000452)
Steel 0.0000062 (0.000 157) 0.0000 I I2 (0.000284)
Cast Iron 0.000006 (0.0001 5) 0.0000108 (0.000274)

Tungsten 0.0000033 (0.000084) 0.000006 (0.000 15)
Fig. 8-159 Cam being generated by controlling angular and linear Carbide
dimensions with numerical control.
It should be noted that if the workpiece were made of a

Operating Parameters material having the same thermal expansion characteristics as
The universal nature of applications on jig-boring machines the measuring element, this large disparity would not occur.
suggests that it may be impractical to follow any prescribed set Dimensional compensation for variations caused by thermal
of operating rules. The following recommendations, however, expansion can be made. However, since a wide variety of
should be observed: materials are machined on jig-boring machines, such compen-
sations should not be considered as a substitute for suitable
1. Mounting surfaces of the workpiece must be flat and
temperature control.
supported uniformly, without distortion, on accurate
Variations in temperature within the shop area may cause
parallels or by a fixture.
similar variations or differences in the machine itself. These
2. Clamps must be firmly set directly over the supporting
conditions will directly affect the geometric accuracy, as well as
surface.
the displacement accuracy, of the machine. Problems of this
3. The dimensional relationship between the spindle axis
sort can be caused by the following:
and the workpiece datum should be established with
respect to the machine’s coordinate measuring system. [. Stratification (temperature variations at different heights)
The operator then sets the control and/ or measuring resulting from the tendency of warm air to rise. While it
system at zero. may not be possible to overcome this condition entirely,
4. All details should be rough machined to relieve stresses. it can be dealt with by reversing the flow of temperature
Heat developed by heavy roughing cuts must be allowed controlled air and/ or increasing the volume of air
to dissipate before finishing. circulating in and through the room. Machines of the
8-108
CHAPTER 8
JIG BORING
fixed-bridge or rail type, in particular, are subject to without reference to nonfunctional surfaces, which is
problems with displacement accuracy if the temperature usually required when measuring on a surface plate.
differs between the X and Y-axis measuring systems, 4. Coordinate locations can be determined showing dimen-
2. Heat from motors, light, windows, and other equipment sions for the X and Y axes simultaneously. If the jig-
operating in the area can cause localized temperature boring machine is equipped with a digital reader and
differences in the machine. If this occurs, shields or printer, these dimensions can be recorded.
baffles should be arranged to isolate the cause. 5. Angular values for surfaces and/ or hole patterns can be
3. Heat radiating through walls, floor, piping, heat ducts, or determined by trigonometric calculations from rectangular
exterior sources requires providing adequate insulation. coordinate factors, or they can be determined directly
from the precision rotary table used in the setup.
Other conditions in the shop area must be dealt with if the
6. If the part has been machined on an NC .- iig-boring
full accuracy and production capability of the jig-boring
machine, first-piece inspection for confirming coordinate
machine are to be realized. These conditions include humidity,
dimensions is usually all that is required. Those
cleanliness, and vibration.
dimensions subject to change resulting from tool wear or
Humidity. Relative humidity should be maintained at a
adjustment must be inspected accordingly.
sufficiently low level to prevent corrosion of equipment in the
area. Operator comfort need not be compromised to maintain a
Use of cutting fluids. The open construction and universal
satisfactory relative humidity level of 45-55%. Temperature
application of jig-boring machines, as well as a concern for
conditions must not be degraded to facilitate humidity control.
avoiding contamination of their vital elements, requires that
Cleanliness. The air in the jig-boring room, circulating
cutting fluids (particularly flood application) be used with
through the temperature control system and air filters, will
discretion, and only with machines that are suitably equipped
normally remain sufficiently clean. While it is not practical to
with coolant channels, sealed protection covers, and guards.
attempt to provide laboratory or clean-room conditions in an
NC jig-boring machines are usually provided with automatic
area in which metalworking machines are operating, the
on/off control for cutting fluid systems. These machines are
importance of instituting good housekeeping practices on and
equipped with baffles and guards designed to contain the
around the jig-boring machine cannot be overemphasized.
cutting fluid, thus protecting the machine itself from contami-
Lack of attention to proper cleanliness can contribute to
nation. It is recommended that the use of water-soluble cutting
premature deterioration of accuracy in the machine.
fluids be avoided.
Vibrarion. Standard vibration-isolation pads for machine
Maintenance of machines. Probably no other shop equipment
tool installation will accommodate most installations. If extreme
is more carefully scrutinized for accuracy than jig-boring
conditions of vibration exist in the installation area, special
machines. Efficiency of production and product quality are
attention to the problem may be required. Manufacturers of
often keyed directly to these work centers. The manufacturer of
vibration-isolation material and systems can provide assistance
the machine is usually called upon by the user to perform
by recommending the appropriate equipment or material for
maintenance tasks required as the result of wear and tear or
controlling vibration.
breakdown. The failure of the machine to operate as required is
In-process measurements. Measurement of hole diameters
obvious, but the causes of its failure to perform accurately may
can be made using a variety of instruments or tools readily
be less evident.
available. These include inside calipers, plug gages (including
Although the measuring element itself has the prime responsi-
Go/ Not-go cylindrical, taper, and internal air gages), telescopic
bility for the accuracy of the coordinate system, it is least
gages, flat-leaf taper gages, micrometer plug gages, and dial
susceptible to inaccuracies resulting from use, because of the
bore gages. The gage is selected to suit the nature of the
following reasons:
workpiece and to satisfy the tolerances required. This equipment
should be readily available to the operator and enable the 1. The scales used in the measuring systems are not subject
operator to quickly verify hole size. Measurement of other to wear through use.
details, such as the distance between vertical surfaces and the 2. End measures require only normal care to preserve their
coordinate location of holes, can be accomplished using the accuracy, provided they are adequately protected from
machine’s measuring system and a toolmaker’s electronic chips, cutting fluid, dust, and dirt,
indicator mounted in the machine spindle. 3. Leadscrew measuring systems are manufactured using
Verification of the accuracy of the workpiece, before it is proven wear-resistant materials, or they are fitted with a
removed from the machine, is practical and effective for the lead-error compensating device that can be adjusted for
following reasons: wear using routine procedures usually performed by the
manufacturer’s service representative.
1. The workpiece is already oriented with the precision
measuring system of the machine and any attempt to Machine geometry. A common cause of inaccuracy in the
reorient it for inspection on other equipment could coordinate system results from worn guideways. This wear
introduce errors as great, or greater, than those being affects both the geometric and linear accuracy of the workpiece.
sought. The geometric accuracy is affected directly as the machine slide
2. The measuring system in the jig-boring machine is at least motion deviates from a true straight line and/or its 90°
as accurate as any shop standard which might otherwise relationship with other slide motions, Uneven and localized
be used for inspection purposes. A jig-borer type of wear can result in troublesome sag in slide members deprived of
universal measuring machine is the only inspection adequate bearing support.
system capable of verifying dimensions to a higher degree Accuracy in squareness of thehorizontal and vertical slide
of accuracy than a jig-boring machine. members can be determined by checking their relative motions
3. Dimensional and geometric values can be determined against a master square. Since the errors sought may be less
8-109
CHAPTER 8
JIG BORING
than the accuracy of the square itself, it is recommended that the 2. The master step gage. A solid bar of suitable material
square be reversed and checked against itself. with vertical faces spaced at even 1” or 30 mm increments.
An alternative method for checking the squareness (90° ) Comparison of the slide displacement as measured with
relationship of the X and Y slides would be to bore a pattern of the machine and the step spacing is made using a
three holes in a test piece, using the normal full-range travel of toolmaker’s sensitive indicator or an electronic indicator
each slide set to fixed coordinates, then to invert the test piece showing the magnitude of the deviation.
over one axis, align two of the holes, and check the coordinate 3. The laser interferometer. Deviations are recorded in
position of the hole pattern. Any deviation shown will be graph form or digital printout using the lightwave as a
double the error in the machine. length standard. A careful analysis of the cause of errors
Precise straight-line slide motion cannot be compromised in in measurement is required before corrective action is
a coordinate measuring system. Wear in the slideways usually taken. Responsibility for the accuracy of the coordinate
results in a curving motion and can occur in any or a system is shared by the geometric accuracy of slide
combination of directions. If this condition exists, the measured motion and the accuracy of the measuring system.
displacement of the workpiece will vary at different locations
Spindle and quill housing accuracy. The 90° relationship of
within the working range of the machine. An example of the
the machine spindle with the X and Y axes of the jig-boring
effect of this condition is shown in Fig. 8-160. It is evident from
machine is dependent upon the squareness of the column
this example that an adjustment or correction of just the
guideways, together with the spindle. A cylindrical square,
measuring system could only be effective at one level. Measures
because of its inherent stability, is best suited for checking 90°
must be taken to correct the straight-line geometry of the slide
vertical accuracy.
motion that causes multidirectional curving motion.
When checking to determine the source of errors, the 90°
Straight-line slide motion can be determined by checking
accuracy of the quill movement in its housing and the squareness
the slide motion with an autocollimator or laser interfero-
of the column guideways must be considered separately. An
meter, Deviation of more than one arc second would indicate
indicator fixed in the spindle and registered against the master
the need for correcting the guideway geometry. A comparison
square is used when making each check.
of linear measurements made at various positions in the vertical
Parallelism of the quill travel in its housing with the column
or horizontal plane, and along the same axis, will show the
guideways can be made by first centerings hole with the spindle
effects of straight-line motion, but will not pinpoint the source
axis, using an indicator mounted in the spindle while the quill is
of deviation,
retracted within its housing, The quill housing is then raised on
its guideways and the quill lowered, repositioning the indicator
in the reference hole. Readings taken at each quadrant show the
direction and magnitude of the alignment error between the
quill and the column guideways.
Checks made by setting up an indicator in the machine
spindle, at a distance away from the spindle centerline,
and readings taken against the horizontal surface of the
machine table at selected points (usually 90° intervals) will
show errors resulting from any, or a combination, of the
following conditions:
1. Squareness of the spindle centerline.
2. Squareness of the column guideways.
3. Parallelism of the centerlines of the spindle and the quill
to each other.
0.0001“ (0.0;3 mm)
cwvstwe 4. Squareness of the spindle bearing race to the spindle axis.
5, Parallelism of the table surface to the X and Y planes of
traverse.
ig.
.. 8-160 Deviation from straight-line traverse of the sliding member
will affect the accuracy of hole location. This sweep check will serve to indicate the existence of a
problem; it cannot, however, identify its source. Each feature
must be inspected individually, as described previously, in order
Displacement accuracy, The linear displacement accuracy of
to pinpoint the cause.
each slide on a jig-boring machine is determined by direct
Routine maintenance. Lubrication procedures as recom-
comparison of the slide displacement as measured by the
mended by the manufacturer must be strictly followed, The
machine, with a certified master length standard. Masters
machine should be cleaned by wiping or by using a vacuum to
commonly used for this purpose are:
remove dust and other machining residue. Wipers and protective
1, The precision scale or line standard. A bar of suitable covers should be maintained and replaced as recommended by
length having accurately spaced lines scribed on a the manufacturer. The accumulation of oxidized oil on the
polished surface is observed through a photoelectric exposed surfaces of sliding machine members can seriously
microscope. The dimensional value of the line spacing is affect the accuracy of the machine. These surfaces should retain
compared directly with slide displacement as measured a film of fresh, clean oil, especially during periods when the
by the machine. machine is idle.
8-110
CHAPTER 8
BIBLIOGRAPHY
References
1. Theodore W. Judson, Product Design for Turning and

Milling, SME Technical Paper MR76-902, 1976.
2. Metalcutting: Toda y’s Techniques for Engineers and Shop
Personnel. the editors of American Machinist (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1979), .o, 82.
3. Ibid.
4, Thomas C. Doud, “’Collets: An Effective Slant on Work-
holding,” Machine and Too/ Blue Book (November 1980).
5. Karl K. Moltrecht, Ca/cu/sting Machining Power, SME
Technical PaDer MR77-974, 1977.
6. Carboloy Sysiems Dept., Turning Handbook of High-Efficiency
Mets/ Cutting (Detroit: General Electric Co., 1980).
7. Ibid.
8. Carboloy Systems Dept., op. cit.
9. Machinability Data Center, Machining Data Handbook,
Volume 1, 3rd ed. (Cincinnati: Metcut Research Associates
inc., 1980).
10, Carboloy Systems Dept., op. cit.
11, J. Llewell Jessup, What Price U/tra-Precision Machining?
12, Carboloy Systems Dept., op. cit.
13, Machinability Data Center, op. cit.
Bibliography
Alev, Ali R., and Eversole, William C. Design and Devices for
Chatter-Free Boring Bars. SME Technical Paper MR69-266,
-----
196!2
Aviv, Israel. “Innovations in Parting Tools. ” Manufacturing
Engineering (January 1979), pp. 48-51.
Dallas, Daniel B. “Chatter Free Boring. .at ratios of 12:1 .“
Manufacturing Engineering (January 1977), p. 35.
“The OD Collet Fixture. ” Manufacturing Engineering
(May 1977), pp. 46-47.
Hatschek, R. L. “Workholding.” American Machinist (Ju IY 1977),
PP. .SR-l to SR-12. -
Mansperger, J. Robert, New Metal-Removal Rates for Turning
Machines. SME Technical Paper MR79-322, 1979.
Mueller, Gerald E. Evacuation of Chucking System Needs forHigh-
Speed Turning. SME Technical Paper TE77-550, 1977.
Schultz, Roger O. New MetalRemovalRates for Turning Machines.
Stauffer, Robert N. “Breakthrough in Hot Machining. ” Manu-
facturing Engineering (October 1977), pp. 60-61.
“Chucks for High-Speed Turning. ” Manufacturing
Engineering (March 1977), pp. 32-34.
“Face Drivers and NC Lathes. ” Manufacturing Engi-
neering (March 1978), p. 44.
Vasilash, Gary S. “Accurate Bores from Automatic Adjustment. ”
Manufacturing Engineering (April 1980), pp. 106-107.
“Boring Bar Developments Provide Increased Machining
Flexibility.” Manufacturing Engineering (January 1980),
pp. 48-50.
“Retracting Boring Tools Without Draglines. ” Marru-
factur~ng Engineering ( March 1980), pp. 94-95.
Wick, Charles. “Advances in NC Turning. ” Manufacturing
Engineering (September 1978), pp. 40-55.
_. “Increasing Productivity with NC Lathes. ” Manufacturing
Engineering (March 1980), Pp. 54-64.
8-111
CHAPTER 9
DRILLING, REAMING AND

REIATED PROCESSES
DRILLING
The production of holes by drilling is one of the transfer machines; and on machining centers, as CHAPTER
oldest and the most widely used of all machining discussed in Chapter 15, “Multifunction Machines. ” CONTENTS:
processes. Holes are also produced by many other When machining centers were first developed,
processes, including forging, casting, extruding, many experts thought that drilling machines would DRILLING
molding, and punching/ piercing, as discussed in become obsolete. Since then, however, it has been Process 9-1
Accuracy 9-2
Volume II of this Handbook series; electrical found that many hole-producing operations can Machines 9-4
discharge, electrochemical, laser, and electron still be done better and more economically on ~~~;t Drills 9-14
beam machining, and other nontraditional pro- drilling machines, releasing machining centers for
Geometries 9-40
cesses, as discussed in Chapter 14, “Nontraditional applications more suited to their capabilities (see lndexable-
Machining”; and flame cutting. Coverage in this Chapter 15). Insert Drills 9-48
section is confined to the production of holes by Spade Drills 9-51
Coolant Drills 9-53
drilling. Tools Used for Drilling Toolholders 9-67
Cutting tools for drilling—drills—are rotary Workholders 9-69
THE DRILLING PROCESS end-cutting tools having one or more cutting lips, Power 9-78
Speeds &
Drilling is basically the production or enlarging and one or more helical or straight flutes for the Feeds 9-84
of holes by the relative motion of a cutting tool and passage of chips and the admission of a cutting Cutting Fluids 9-89
the workpiece, which produces chips. The cutting fluid. They are available in a wide variety of types Drill Recon-
ditioning 9-93
tool, the workpiece, or both may rotate, with the and geometries, as discussed later in this chapter. Applications 9-102
tool generally being fed. Several different methods The most common are helically fluted twist drills
of drilling exist, including conventional, deep- with various shanks and tip geometries. Other REAMING
Reamers 9-107
hole, and small-hole drilling. The choice of a types of drills include half-round, coolant-hole, Holders/
method depends upon the size, depth, tolerance, spade, and indexable-insert drills. Gundrills, Drivers 9-123
and finish needed; production requirements; and pressure-coolant drills, and trepanning tools are Workholding 9-125
Speeds &
the machines available to perform the operations. used extensively for precision and deep-hole Feeds 9-127
While drilling is fast and economical, its cutting operations. So-called pivot drills are used for small
action is difficult and inefficient. Cutting speed holes. COUNTER-
BORES 9-134
varies from a maximum at the periphery of the tool
to zero at the center of the tool, thus varying the Cutting Action SPOT-
load on the cutting edges. Both chip ejection and Drilling is a complex three-dimensional cutting FACERS 9-139
flow of the cutting fluid are restricted in drilling. In operation with conditions varying along the entire COUNTER-
addition, the production of small, deep holes can cutting edge. With twist drills, the rake angle SINKS 9-139
create problems with respect to necessary rigidity normal to the cutting lip decreases from the
of the tools. periphery toward the drill center and cutting action
improves along the cutting edge from the axis to
Machines Used for Drilling the periphery of the drill. While the outer edge of
Holes are often produced using a variety of the drill produces chips by shearing, workpiece
drilling machines, as discussed later in this chapter. material under the chisel edge of the tool is subject
Considerable drilling, however, is also done on to more severe deformation, thus requiring greater
lathes and boring machines, discussed in Chapter 8, thrust forces.
“Turning and Boring”; on automatics; on boring, The limited chip space provided by a drill makes
drilling, and milling machines; on special and it desirable to have the chips produced in small
Contributors of sections of this chapter are: Robert H. Allen, Chief Engineer, Charles G. Allen Co.; Paul D.
Bober, Sales Service Representative, Chicago -Latrobe Div. , TR W, Inc.; Sebastian Ebenhoch, Supervisor—New
Product Development, Waukesha Cutting Tools, Inc.; Geoffrey Y. Gill, Vice President, Muskegon Tool Industries;
De Witt F. Goodemote, CMfgE, P. E. , Senior Manufacturing Engineer—Group Leader, A erospace Div. , Moog
Inc.; Edward G. Hoffman, Technical Writer/Consultant, E. G. Hoffman Co.; Michael J, McGinty, Manager,
Product Design & Application—Cutting Tools, Cleveland Twist Drill Co. , Div. of Acme-Cleveland Corp.; Donald C.
Noble. Senior Project Engineer, The Weldon Tool Co.; Roger J. Reddin, Burgmaster Div. , Houdaille Industries.
inc.; A. J. Reitenbach, Supervisor, Metallurgical Quality Control, Cleveland Twist Drill Co.; J. K. Scholz, Vice
President, Cleereman Machine Tool Div. , Appleton Machine Co,; Ernest E. Torkilsen, Sales and Marketing
Manager, Industrial Products Div. , Dumore Corp.; Cherles J. Trost, President, C.J, T. Industries, Inc.; Cyrus T.
Wax, Manager, Engineering, Industrial Tools Div. , The Bendix Corp.; Howard Whalle y, Sales Manager, The
George Whalley Co.; Jon A. Wolfe, Manager, Drilling Systems, Coromant Div. , Sandvik Inc.; Lou Yane, Master
Mechanic, Zagar, Inc.
9-1
CHAPTER 9
THE DRILLING PROCESS
pieces. Coiling of the chips, especially in deep holes, causes critical part in drill performance. Also important is the cutting
packing of the drill flutes, interferes with chip ejection, and fluid employed, including the type, rate of flow, temperature,
reduces the flow of cutting fluid to the drill tip. This causes method of application, and means for chip removal.
excessive heat generation and premature dulling of the tool.
Effect of workpiece material. Ductility of the material to be Accuracies and Finishes Attainable in Drilling
drilled is a major factor in chip formation. When less ductile The accuracy of any hole produced by drilling depends upon
materials are being drilled, the chips tend to break into pieces; many factors, including the type of drilling process, the
this is desirable and generally permits the use of lower cost, workpiece, the tool and machine used, operating parameters,
standard drills. When more ductile materials are being drilled, and rigidity of the setup. Accuracy is also largely dependent
the chips tend to bend and coil and special tool designs and upon the sharpness and geometry of the drill point.
geometries must be employed to minimize this action. The accuracy of the drill itself, with respect to diameter and
Effect of feed rate. Chip thickness, which varies with the feed runout, is not too critical on machines on which drill bushings
rate, also has a major influence on chip formation. Increasing are used, but it is extremely important when the drills are to be
the feed, which increases the chip thickness, minimizes the used on numerically controlled and other precision machines.
possibility of the flute clogging from coiled chips. Maximum Standard, off-the-shelf drills may need regrinding for precision
feed, however, is limited by the structural strength of the drill operations. Inaccurate grinding can produce unbalanced forces
and the capability of the machine. A woodpeckering or step- that may deflect the drill and result in hole errors.
drilling technique—periodic withdrawal of the drill from the Average accuracies. Because of the many variables, hole
hole—may be required to remove chips when deep holes are accuracies are almost impossible to specify precisely. The
being drilled, but this practice is not recommended for work- average accuracy of holes produced with twist drills are
hardening materials. presented in Table 9-1. Closer tolerances than those listed can
be maintained, but this generally means higher cost per
hole produced.
SELECTION AND PERFORMANCE OF
One method of obtaining closer tolerances is to use drills with
DRILLS
special tip geometries such as a four-facet grind. Another
Selection of the type of drill to be used for a specific
method is to use a starting hole (not center drilled) made with a
application depends upon many factors. The performance of a
stub-length drill of the same diameter as the follower drill and
drill can be judged on the basis of efficiency (rate of penetration),
having a self-centering point. The starter hole should be deep
accuracy maintained, surface finish produced, drill life, and
enough so that the OD of the follower drill enters the hole
most importantly, the cost per hole produced. These criteria
before it begins to cut. Double-margin drills can also produce
vary with the type of drill used, the workpiece, the machine
closer tolerances.
employed, the rigidity of the setup, the operating parameters,
Common errors in hole geometry. Certain errors or imper-
and the cutting fluid used.
fections can occur to various degrees in any drilling process
Important variables that influence the selection and per-
because of common conditions (see Fig. 9-l). These include:
formance of drills are the material from which they are made
and their physical properties. sizes, and geometries. Workpiece 1. Errors in shape. This condition exists when the hole
criteria include the material from which the workpiece is made, diameter is not uniform throughout the depth of the hole.
its physical properties and surface condition, the type of holes Examples include bell-mouthed, ball-shaped, and con-
(diameter, depth, through or blind, etc.) to be drilled, cave holes, as well as crooked holes having inclined axes.
production requirements (lot size, accuracy, and finish), and the Without special precautions and preparations, drilling
rigidity of the setup. can produce objectionable results such as these. The
Factors that should be considered with respect to the magnitude of the error often depends primarily on the
machine used include its design, condition, and accuracy, The diameter and length-to-diameter (L/ d) ratio of the drill.
operating parameters of cutting speed and feed rate play a 2. Burrs. A burr can form on the circumference of the
Reviewers of sections of this chapter are: Robert H. Allen, Chief Engineer, Chas, G, Allen Co,; Ronald C. Allen, Marketing Technician,
Kennametal Inc.; James J. Arn, Domestic Sales Manager, Burgmaster Div. , Houdaille industries; Peter R. Arzt, Branch Manager,
Manufacturing Research, McDonnell Douglas Corp.; Robert W, Berry, Chief Engineer, VR/ Wesson Div. , Fansteel, Inc.; PaulD. Bober, Sales
Service Representative, Chicago-Latrobe Div., TRW. Inc.; D. J. Bohac, Sales Manager, Madison Industries, A Div. of Sandvik Inc.; William
Breuning, President, R. B. Tool Co. . Inc.; Clyde Brisk, Sales Engineer, Waukesha Cutting Tools. Inc.; Charles P. Brumder, Vice President-
Marketing, Waukesha Cutting Tools, Inc.; Dr. Marvin 8urnham, Associate Scientist, Research & Development, Rockwell International;
George A. Clement, President, Walch Drill Bushing Co.; George Cleverly, Chief Engineer, DeHoff Div., W. H, Nichols Co.; John A, Cmar,
Marketing Engineer. Erickson Tool Co. , Subs. of Kennametal Inc.; Harry N. Cobb, General Manager, General Chipbreaker Drill Co.; J. A.
Cupler, 11, President, National Jet Sales Corp.; Ralph J. Dalusio, Service Manager - Research & Development, Eldorado Tool &
Manufacturing Corp.; Douglas Doeden, President, Doter, Inc.; Colin Donaldson, Research& Development Manager. Mohawk Tools, Inc.;
Richard Donarski, Product Sales Managar, Winslow Products, Giddings & Lewis—BickfordMa chine Co.; Sebastian Ebenhock, Supervisor—
New Product Development, Waukesha Cutting Tools, Inc.; Jack Fickers, Assistant Department Head, Shop Department, LOS Alamos
Scientific Laboratory; Dan Fogarty, Aro Corp.; Geoffrey Y. Gill, Vice President, Muskegon Tool Industries; De Witt F. Goodemote, CMfgE,
P. E. , Senior Manufacturing Engineer-Group Leader, A erospace Division-Manufacturing Engineering Dept. , Moog Inc.; Herbert V. Gregg.
Director of Engineering. Star Cutter Co.; Robert W. Hahn, Manager—Drilling Systems, The Valeron Corp.; Sazzadul Haque, Research
Engineer, Carboloy Systems Dept. , General Electric Co.; Edward G, Hoffman, Technical Writer/Consultant, E, G, Hoffman Co,; Werner K,
Hell, Product Engineering Supervisor, Drill & End Mill Div. , TRW inc.; Thomas Hollis. Jr., President, The O.K. Tool Co. , Inc.; Don Holt,
President, Inmotion Quickchange Div. , Diamond TOOI & Die, Inc.; James N. Hood, Sales Manager, General Chipbreakar Drill Co.; Phillip
Ireland, Application Engineer. Cutting ToolDiv. , The Ingersoll Milling Machine CO.; Charles A. Jorgensen, Chief Tool Engineer, Everede Tool
Co.; Professor Ted Judson, General Motors Institute; Dr. Charles Katmg, Pro fessor-Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado;
Ray Kennedy, Tool Engineer, Cross -Frasar Div. , The Cross CO,; Brian Kent, Vice President and General Manager, Radial Lip Machine, Inc.;
9-2
CHAPTER 9
SELECTION AND PERFORMANCE OF DRILLS
TABLE 9-1
Average Accuracy of Holes Produced with Twist Drills
Diameter, in. (mm)

1/8-1/4 1/4-3/4 3/4-1 1/2
(3-6) (6-19) (19-38)
Drilling Oversize, Location, Oversize, Location, Oversize, Location,
Condition in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm)
No center-drilled 0.003 *0.007 0.006 +0.008 0.008 +0.009
hole or bushing (0.08) (0.18) (0.15) (0.20) (0.20) (0.23)
Center-drilled hole, 0.003 *0.004 0.003 *0.004 0.004 *0.005
no bushing (0.08) (o. 10) (0.08) (o. 10) (0.10) (0.13)
With drill bushing 0.002 +0.002 0.003 *0.002 0.004 +0.003
(0.05) (0.05) (0.08) (0.05) (0.10) (0.08)
(lfetcut Research Associates, Inc.)
drilled hole at both the entrance to and the exit from the
workpiece. Whether or not a burr forms and the height of
the burr depends upon the workpiece and tool materials,
their properties, the condition of the tools, and the
cutting speed and feed rate used.
3, Errors in hole locations. These occur when the centers of
the drilled holes are not where they are supposed to be. Eel I mouth Boll-shaped Concave Inclined
The exactness of hole locations depend primarily upon
the condition of the machines, tools, and cutting points,
Approximate errors in location for various sizes of twist
drills are given in Table 9-1.
4, Errors in roundness. These errors occur when the 1 I I
Oversize Burr occurence Bent
roundness of a hole is distorted in comparison to its ideal
form. Triangular, irregular, or oval-shaped forms are --- True hole
I I — Actual hole
commonly observed when drilling. Accuracy of the
spindle bearings on the machine, precise drill grinding,
and rigidity of the setup (bushings, fixtures, etc.) are all
critical factors if roundness errors are to be minimized.
The roundness error may also be reduced by increasing
the feed rate and using tools having a more rigid body. Undersize location error Roundness error DlmensKx error
Ir\ongle
5. Errors in size. In most instances, the diameter of the hole (thn stock)
produced is larger than the diameter of the drill. The
approximate amounts of diameter oversize for twist drills
of various sizes are presented in Table 9-1. Fig. 9-1 Common errors in hole geometry experienced in drilling.
Reviewers, cont.: Edwin A. Klockowski, Senior Designer, Industrial Tools Div. , The Bendix Corp.; Robert Koblesky, Technical Director,
Cutting ToolDiv., The Ingersoll Milling Machine Div.; PorterL. Laughlin, Supervisory Engineer, Industrial Tools Div., The Bendix Corp.; Robert S.
Levin, Chairman of the Board, Louis Levin & Son. Inc.; Joseph J. Ley. Manager Technical Services, TRW Carbide Tools Div. , TR Wlnc.; Donald
M. MacKay, Director of Research & Development, Union/Butterfield Div , Litton Industrial Products; Joe Martin. Assistant Manager, Sales
Service Engineering, Morsa Cutting Tools Div., Gulf& Western Manufacturing Co.; Mel Matusz, Project Engineer, Cross-Fraser Div. , The
Cross Co.; DonaldJ. McCarthy, Senior Product Enginaer, The Jacobs Manufacturing Co.; Michael J. McGinty, Manager, Product Dasign and
Application-Cutting Tools, Cleveland Twist Drill Co. , Div. of Acme -ClevalandCorp.; Jan F. Miller, President, Miller Precision Jet Co., Inc.; J. H.
Nymberg, Jr. . Vice Presidarrt and General Manager, United Stares Drill Head Co.; Donald C. Noble, Senior Project Engineer; Engineering
Department, Weldon Tool Co., Gene Orth, Director of Engineering, Waukesha Cutting Tools, Inc..’ Carl J. Oxford, Jr. , Vice President
-Technology, National Twist Drill and ToolDiv. , Lear Siegler. inc.; Ed Phillips, Jr. , Plant Manager, National Jet Companies; Lee S. Pinkard. Jr..
Product Marketing Manager, Power Tool Div., Ingersoll-Rand Co,; Donald Pratt, Plant Manager, Muskegon Tool Industries; Guy Priest, Vice
President, Mohawk Tools, Inc.; Heinz Reich, President, Micro Technology Dept.; Minitool, Inc.; James Rozell, Sales Manager, American
Heller Corp.; Pater S. Rudd, Vice Prasident-Sales, Eldorado Tool & Manufacturing Corp.; J. K, Scholz, Vice President, Cleereman Machine Tool
Div. , Appleton Machine Co.; James W. Seppala, Supervisor, Process Engineering, Detroit Diesel Allison Div. , General Motors Corp.; Patrick J.
Shark us. Sales Engineer, Davis Tool Compan y, A Division of Giddings &Lewis, Inc.; Keith H. Smith, Marketing Manager. Greenleaf Corp.;
Richard Sollich, Vice President. American Heller Corp.; John A. Stamback, Sales Engineering, National A utomatic Tool Co.; Thomas C.
Stokes, Chief Engineer, Star Cutter Co.; James Strolberg, Manager, Product Applications, Cutting Tool Div. , The Ingersoll Milling Machine
Co.; Robert E. Thaxton, Supervisor, Tool Design, Detroit Diesal Allison Div., Genaral Motors Corp.; Charlas J. Trost, President, C.J. T.
Industries, Inc.; John W. Turton, Manager, Research & Development, Industrial Tools Division, The Bendix Corporation; John Von Hollen,
President, Von Hollen Tool Co. , Cyrus T. Wax, Manager, Engineering. Industrial Tools Div. , The Bendix Corp.; Charles Wells, Manufacturing
Engineering Supervisor, Drill & End Mill Div.. TRW Inc.; Matthew J. Wilding, Product Designer, Cleveland Twist Drill Co.; Jon A. Wolfe,
Manager, Drilling Systems, Coromant Div. , Sandvik Inc.; Louis Yane, Master Mechanic, Zagar, Inc.; Frank G. Zagar, President, Zagar, Inc.
9-3
CHAPTER 9
DRILLING MACHINES
Surface finishes produced. The surface finishes produced by rear of the table is sometimes desirable to help control the
drilling generally range from about 100-250 p in. (2.54-6.35 workplaces. Wear plates, generally a machined cast-iron plate
p m) or more. The many variables, similar to those previously the size of the table and bolted to it, are sometimes provided on
discussed for accuracies, make it impractical to predict the machines subject to rough usage. These removable plates can be
actual finish attainable in different applications. The surface easily restored to their original accuracy when necessary.
finish of many drilled holes is often improved by subsequent Cutting fluid systems may be required, depending upon the
reaming, boring, grinding, honing, or roller burnishing. applications for which the machine is intended.
Effect of Drilling on Workpieces Control Systems

Drilling has little effect on the physical properties of the Drilling machines are available for manual, semiautomatic,
workpiece. There is, however, a thin layer of highly stressed and automatic operation. NC and CNC are used on many
material around the drilled hole, which is often removed by drilling machines, and these types of control are particularly
subsequent machining. If this material is not removed, the suitable for producing patterns of holes in various workplaces.
surfaces may be more susceptible to corrosion. Clamping of NC or CNC is usually standard on circuit board, tube sheet, and
workplaces for dri[ling may also resuIt in distortion, other special-purpose drilling machines. Programmable con-
trollers are also used on some drilling machines and drillheads.
NC/ CNC requirements for drilling machines vary, depending
DRILLING MACHINES upon the application. Simple two-axis (X and Y) positioning
Machines designed specifically for drilling are available in systems are used only for table movement on some machines,
many different types, sizes, and capacities. The types include with the drilling depth [Z axis) controlled manually, electrically,
light-duty (sensitive), heavy-duty upright, radial, gang, multi- electromechanically, or mechanically. Many drilling machines
spindle, turret, deep-hole, small-hole, and special purpose are equipped with more complex systems that can control table
machines. In addition to drilling, many of these machines can positioning, drilling depths, spindle speeds, feed rates, and
also perform related operations, such as reaming, facing, other functions. Some systems provide for the compensation of
chamfering, counterboring, countersinking, undercutting/re- varying tool lengths. A comprehensive discussion of NC/ CNC
cessing, roller burnishing, and tapping. In some cases, systems is presented in Chapter 5, “Machine Controls. ”
depending upon the design and rigidity, the machines are used Cincinnati Milacron offers a continuous monitoring control
for boring and milling operations. system for its NC machining centers and special drilling
machines. This system automatically lowers the feed rate
Machine Requirements whenever torque on the drill reaches a preset limit or motor
Selection of a type of drilling machine for a specific power exceeds the rated amount. Advantages include faster
application depends on many variables. Workpiece size, hole production with the same tool life, reduced tool breakage,
geometry, and material; production requirements (quantity, improved chip-breaking action, and protection of the motor
accuracy, and finish); and economic factors are major from overloads.
considerations. This closed-loop control system continually derives torque at
The spindle, which holds the cutting tool, is probably the the driII from measured horsepower and spindle speed. The
most important single component of a drilling machine. High- calculated cutting torque is compared to the breaking torque
quality, rigid, accurate spindles are essential, especially for punched into the NC tape. Whenever the cutting torque exceeds
precision drilling. The spindle axis must be parallel to the one-half the preset limit, the feed rate is automatically reduced.
machine ways (the direction of feed travel); any misalignment The feed rate is also lowered whenever the horsepower required
multiplies errors with increasing stroke length. Accuracy, exceeds the rated motor capacity.
along with a minimum of vibration, is also essential for the Macotech Corp. offers a retrofittable adaptive control for
entire machine. NC drilling machines and machining centers. This is a
Power requirements for drilling machines depend primarily microprocessor-based system with the capability for combining
upon the diameters and depths of the holes to be produced, as soft-wired modules for drilling, milling, boring, and tapping in
welI as the material to be drilled. Electric motors on these the same unit. The drilling unit uses torque as a feedback.
machines range from fractional horsepower to 75 hp (56 kW) or
more, Details of the power required for drilling are discussed in Light-Duty, Sensitive Drilling Machines
the section on operating parameters later in this chapter. Machines of this type are the most common of all drilling
A positive-feed mechanism (using a leadscrew, ballscrew, machines. These general-purpose machines are most often used
cam, rack, hydraulic cylinder, or other device) is recommended for drilling one hole at a time in small workpieces, with hole
to provide consistently steady advancement of the cutting tool. diameters to about 1” (25 mm) diam. They are often referred to
This is especially critical when small diameter or deep holes are as drill presses and are employed extensively for many
being drilled. Any surge or jump may break the tool because of toolroom, machine shop, and maintenance applications, as well
too heavy a chip load. Hand feeding is used for most light-duty as for some production operations.
sensitive machines, but power feeding is employed for most The typical light-duty drilling machine (see Fig. 9-2) has a
other drilling machines. vertical, base-mounted, round column; a table that can be
Machines with high-production capabilities are desirable for adjusted vertically and tilted; and a powered spindle that holds
many applications. Versatility, however, can be equally the cutting tool. The round column allows the table to be swung
important when the requirements are for a wide variety of aside when not required. These machines are available in both
workplaces and hole sizes. floor and bench models.
The tables on drilling machines should be large and sturdy to Most light-duty drilling machines are manually fed with a
avoid deflection under cutting pressures. A backup bar at the rack-and-pinion mechanism and a hand-operated lever, but
9-4
CHAPTER 9
DRILLING MACHINES
equipped with square tables, some of which have knee-type

supporting members and one or two screws for positioning the
~eed lever
tables vertically. Power elevating systems are available on some
machines. Most tables are furnished with T-slots for clamping
drilling fixtures or workplaces.
Cross compound tables are also available with scales and/ or
dials to facilitate drilling holes in various locations. More
sophisticated versions, sometimes called layout drilling
machines (see Fig. 9-4), are equipped with precision slides for
the saddle and table, and digital readout systems. These
machines can also be used for precision boring and milling.
Most box-column upright machines are designed so that
their upper halves can be removed for shipping and alignment
purposes. These units above the base assemblies are called top
I
Motor
columns and carry the spindle drive and some of the feed
gearing. A counterbalanced sliding-head assembly, which
carries the spindle and feed mechanism, is clamped to dovetail
ways on the top column.
Types of spindle drives. Various spindle-drive systems, all
suitable for drilling, are used on upright machines. These
systems include the following:
1. Four-speed motor drive. The motor is mounted above
Toble and in line with the spindle or is belted to the spindle.
Speeds are quickly and easily changed by the operator
who can stand at floor level. This is a good system for a
tapping or reversing drive, using the lower motor speeds,
and is suitable for toolroom or medium-duty manu-
facturing. Horsepower available, however, is limited for
heavy-d~ty drilling.
-i
Fig. 9-2 Light-duty, sensitive-type drilfbrg machine with hand feed.
automatic feeds are available on some models. Hand feeding is the

reason these machines are often referred to as sensitive ty-pes; it
permits the operators to change feed rates as they sense soft or
hard spots in the workplaces from the feel of the cutting action.
The spindles on these machines are generally belt driven, with
either stepped or variable-pitch pulleys for speed changes, but
geared-head machines are also available. Multispindle attach-
ments, usually with up to about 12 spindles, can be used on
these machines for increased production requirements. Spindle
noses and adjustable adapters for multispindle drilling heads
are specified in ANSI Standard B5. 11-1954 (reaffirmed 1973),
published by ASME.
Upright (Vertical) Drilling Machines

Upright or vertical drilling machines, such as the one
illustrated in Fig. 9-3, are similar to the light-duty machines just
discussed, but differ in that they are more massive for heavy-
duty applications. They permit the production of larger
diameter and deeper holes with improved accuracy and quality.
Practically all upright drilling machines are equipped with
power feed. They are most suitable for workplaces that can be
quickly positioned under the tool, require short cycle times, or
need only a few holes per part.
Some upright drilling machines have a round column, while
others (see Fig. 9-3) have a box column for increased rigidity.
Machines with round columns generally have circular tables
that can be rotated about the columns and their own centers, as ‘ig. 9-3 Upright (vertical) drilling and tapping machine with power
well as raised and lowered. Most box-column machines are :ed and power traverse. ( Chus. G. Al/en Co.)
9-5
CHAPTER 9
DRILLING MACHINES
2. Multiple V-belt drive. This is a single-speed drive, Power-feed systems. Power-feed sliding heads for upright
generally used on single-purpose machines. It is a good drilling machines are practically all the mechanical type, which
reversing drive and can transmit high horsepower. provides a constant feed rate. This type of head can be quickly
3. Step-pulley V-belt drive. Speed changes with this drive changed for various applications with no modification in the
are slow because the operator has to climb a ladder to structure of the head or the gearing. The heads should provide
make a change. It is, however, a good general-purpose at least three different feed rates, and more feeds are often
and reversing drive, and can transmit high horsepower. desirable.
4, Ten-step, quick-change V-belt drive, This drive system With a semiautomatic feed mode, the spindle is usually fed
provides ten speeds, arranged in a geometric progression, manually to within close proximity of the workpiece, Then, the
that can be quickly and easily changed from floor level. It power feed is engaged manually or by means of a trip
is a good general-purpose drive for drilling and tapping mechanism. The tool continues feeding into the workpiece until
and can transmit high horsepower. a depth trip or stop is contacted, at which point the power feed is
5. Variable-speed drive. With this drive system, speeds are disengaged and a counterweight returns the spindle to its
quickly and easily changed at floor level. This system starting position.
provides a good general-purpose drive for drilling, It is For automatic operation, power traverse can be provided by
not, however, a good reversing drive because of the mounting an electric motor on the sliding head and gearing it to
inertia of the belts and pulleys and because only moderate the power-feed mechanism. When the cycle-start pushbutton is
horsepowers can be transmitted. pressed, this motor rapidly traverses the spindle until an
6. Gearbox drive. With this general-purpose drive, four or adjustable limit switch is tripped, At this point, the traverse
more speeds can be belted or geared to the spindle and motor stops and the power-feed mechanism carries the tool to
speed changes can be made at floor level. Low-speed the required depth. At this point, the power feed is disengaged
torque is excellent, high horsepowers can be transmitted, and the spindle is rapidly returned to its starting position. The
and it can be used for moderate-duty reversing. rate of power rapid traverse is about 200 ipm (5080 mm/ rein),
7. Back-gear drive. This system, usually with a reduction Remote control of power feed and traverse is possible for
from 4:1 to 6:1, doubles the number of speeds available increased operator safety, with initiation on the closing of a jig,
from the various spindle drives. It also extends their seating of a pin, or from a cycle-start button. When the power
range to lower speeds for large slow-running tools that traverse and an adjustable timer with suitable controls are used,
require increased torque. the woodpeckering technique (periodic withdrawal of the tool)
can be employed. The distance drilled (step) before withdrawal
is a function of the timer setting.
Also available is an automatic adjustable dwell device that
keeps the tool from advancing at the end of the preset feed
stroke for a length of time set on a dwell timer. This eliminates
feed marks when counterboring or spotfacing is being done, and
provides precision depth control within +0.0005” (0,0 13 mm),
Other attachments. A lathe-type feed or lead gearbox can be
mounted on the feed shaft entering the power-feed head. This
attachment provides a selection of up to 48 feed rates. Used in
conjunction with tapping controls, it establishes the lead of the
tap and is helpful on materials in which taps are hard to get
started, as well as to the operators who are inexperienced.
Tapping controls can be used with either hand or power-feed
sliding heads,
Cam-feed sliding heads are used for high-production appli-
cations in which each. cycle must be exactly the same. All
characteristics of the cycle are incorporated in the cam profile,
which guides the spindle. A different cam and possibly a gearing
change are required for each application, resulting in added
costs which prohibit the use of these heads for general-purpose
applications.
When multispindle drillheads or bushing plates are used on
upright machines, their weight may exceed the lifting capacity
of the spindle counterweight system. Air-actuated counter-
balance units are available to provide additional lift. With these
units, the lifting capacity of the machine can be varied by
adjusting the air supply pressure.
Gang Drilling Machines

A gang drilling machine consists of two or more independent,
light-duty or upright drilling machines mounted on a common
base or table. One machine with six upright spindles is
Fig. 9-4 Bed-type layout drilling machine with digital readout system. illustrated in Fig. 9-5, The table on this unit is power elevated by
(Cleereman Machine Tool Div., Appleton Machine Co. ) two screws.
9-6
CHAPTER 9
DRILLING MACHINES
the application, one operator can handle operations using

several spindles or individual operators can be employed for
each spindle.
The individual top columns on a gang drilling setup do not
have to be the same. Some might be mounted on risers to
provide more room under their spindles; some may be hand fed;
and others may be power fed. The right-hand top column in the
gang is often a hand-feed type and provided with tapping
controls, Individual top columns may have fixed center-to-
center locations or the design may allow for repositioning the
top columns on a slide. Multispindle drillheads can also be
mounted on any of the spindles.
Radial Drilling Machines

Excellent versatility is an important advantage of radial
drilling machines. These machines are used extensively for
drilling holes in large and irregularly shaped workplaces that
cannot be easily positioned or repositioned. A number of
smaller workplaces can also be clamped to the base or floor
.’ig. 9-5 Gang-typ6, slx.spindle drilling machine with both bend an plate. Flexibility of these machines permits drilling holes in
power-feed top columne equipped with power elevating table. (Chas. 6 workpiece surfaces that cannot be reached with other drilling
Allen Co.) machines. Time is saved by repositioning the drill instead of the
workpiece for each operation.
Gang drilling machines r)ermit hi~her-. production rates on A radial drilling machine (see Fig. 9-6) consists of a
workplaces wh~ch have multiple holes or require multiple horizontal arm, from 2-12 ft (0.6-3.7 m) or more in length,
operations by saving time that would be required to change supported by a round, vertical column. The arm can be raised,
tools on single-spindle machines. Each spindle on a gang lowered, and rotated around the column axis, The drillhead
drilling machine can hold the same tools for simultaneous mounted on the arm contains the speed-changing and power-
operations on a number of workpieces, More often, however, a feed mechanisms, as well as the spindle, and can be reposi-
different size or type of cutting tool is mounted in each spindle tioned along the arm and clamped in any desired location.
for sequential operations. In these cases, the workplaces are Some machine designs permit tilting the head to produce
manually moved from one spindle to the next. Depending upon angular holes.
Column
Drive motor, -iii-l
Arm
moves
H-i
up or
down
Column
clomps --&
‘ig.9-6 Radial drilling machine. Arm which carries adjustable-position drillbead can be raised, lowered, and pivoted around column.
9-7
CHAPTER 9
DRILLING MACHINES
Multispindle Drilling Machines and Heads

In addition to multispindIe drillheads for use on single-
spindle machines, multispindle drilling machines are available
for high-production requirements. Major time savings can be
realized with both heads and machines having multiple spindles
by performing a number of machining operations simultan-
eously and minimizing the need for toolchanging. Multispindle
machines are used primarily for three general types of
production operations:
1. Multiple operations (drilling, reaming, chamfering, spot-
facing, etc.) in a single hole. Machines used for these
applications are often equipped with hand-positioned
tables, shuttle tables, or rotary indexing tables.
2. One operation in multiple holes which are the same size
or different sizes and on the same or different planes.
Machines used for these operations may require a rotary
indexing table if hole center distances are close. Multiple-
plane operations are often performed with multiple-
position workholding fixtures.
3. Multiple operations in multiple holes which generally
requi~e that the machine be equipped with a rotary
indexing table or other type of table, especially when
tapping is one of the operations to be performed.
Multispindle machines. While some of these machines are
sold as standard models, many are designed for a specific
workpiece or family of parts. They are built with from 2-100 or
more spindles on one head, all powered from a single drive
which is usually an electric motor. Hydraulic motors are used
on some machines. Power is distributed to the individual
spindles through gears or a gearless crank drive, discussed in the
next section on drillheads.
MuItispindIe machines are made in various types, including
an open-side type with way or quill design and a four-post type Fig. 9-7 Multispindle drilling machine of the open-side type with way
with vertical, horizontal, and angular construction. An open- design. (Zagar, Inc.)
side machine with way design is illustrated in Fig. 9-7. Machines
of way or four-post design, with drive motors to 100 hp with universal-joint heads having a high, neutral, and
(74.6 kW), are suitable for heavy-duty drilling. The way and low-speed shifter range for each spindle. Special heads
four-post machines may have the drillhead movable and the can be designed to incorporate this speed selector feature.
workholding fixture stationary, or they may have the fixture 2. Slip-plate drillheads which are often used for repetitive
movable and the drillhead stationary. Multispindle drilling hole patterns and longer production runs. The same type
generally requires slightly greater hole tolerances than can be of universal rods as those used on adjustable-arm heads
obtained with single-spindle machines . drive slip spindles mounted in a slip plate that can be
Multispindle drillheads. These units are designed for various changed for different hole patterns. The capability of
applications and have geared or gearless (crank-type) drives. producing various hole patterns on fixed centers can
All tools on a head are fed into the workpiece together, but tool make slip-plate heads more desirable than fixed-center
lengths are sometimes staggered so that cutting loads are heads (discussed next), but greater center distances are
applied progressively. sometimes required between spindles and locational
Three major types of geared drillheads exist. These are as accuracy of the spindles is not as close. The spindles
follows: normally rotate at the same speed unless the head is of
special design. These heads are generally used for drilling
1. Adjustable-arm, universal-joint drillheads which are gen- holes 1/16 to 21 /4” (1.6-57 mm) or more in diameter in
erally used for frequent changeover or limited production cast irons and steek.
requirements. They provide maximum flexibility because 3. Fixed-center drillheads which are used for dedicated,
the spindles can be adjusted to any desired location high-production machines. The number of spindles can
within the head housing. Spindles can be removed or vary from 2-2000 or more, depending upon the number of
added, up to the capacity of the head. The adjustable-arm holes required in the workplaces or the ease with which
spindles are rotated by universally jointed connecting the workplaces can be handled. Gearless heads are
rods that transmit power from a fixed-center, gear or required for large numbers of spindles, and all spindles
crank-driven head. All spindles rotate at the same speed, operate at the same speed for light-duty operations.
which is normally limited to a maximum of 2000 rpm These heads are stronger and more rigid than either the
primarily because of joint wear problems and the method adjustable-arm or slip-plate head because the spindles are
of Lubrication. Some standard machines come equipped permanently fixed for required hole patterns.
9-8
CHAPTER 9
DRILLING MACHINES
Gearless, fixed-center, crank-driven drillheads are used when

the need for close-center holes makes the use of gears and
universal joints impractical or impossible. Some heads of this
type are capable of drilling holes with center distances as close
as O.19“ (4.8 mm) and diameters generally ranging from 0.020-
0.750” (0.5 1-19.05 mm). In one interesting application, a
gearless drillhead having 1800 spindles is mounted on the ram
of a punch press to drill acoustical tiles. A 50 hp (37.3 kW)
electric drive motor is mounted on top of the press.
One design of a gearless drillhead is illustrated in Fig. 9-8.
The driver, ,4, in the drilling machine spindle rotates the drive
crank, B, in the drillhead. This crank moves the oscillator, C, in
a short oscillating motion. The oscillating motion rotates the
individual drill spindles, D, in the same direction and at the
same speed as the drive crank, B,
Fig. 9-9 Solid-bed, sliding-head drilling machine with eight-station

tooling turret and two/three-axis NC (BurgnursferDiv., Houdaille
Industries)
drilling machines are suitable for heavier workplaces that can

remain stationary, as well as for operations in which quick-
change tooling is not practical. The capability of these machines can
be expanded by adding indexing, rotating, or shuttling fixtures.
These machines are also made with dual (pancaked) turret
heads for small workplaces having many multiple-operation
holes. This arrangement reduces the need for toolchanging and
two symmetrical workplaces can be machined simultaneously;
thus, cycle time is cut in half. Drilling capacity per head,
however. is reduced to half that when a single head is used
because the spindle drive is not increased.
A manually fed, bench-type drilling machine of tubular
column construction, with a six-station turret, is illustrated in
Fig. 9-10. Spindles in the turret head of this machine are driven
by helical gears through a clutch and variable pulley drive
transmission from a two-speed a-c motor supplying four speeds
Fig. 9-8 Gearless drillhead in which an oscillator, C, rotates drill in three ranges. Turret head indexing is accomplished by a
sphrdles, D. (Zagar, inc. ) Geneva mechanism mounted on the back of the head, which is
actuated at the top of its stroke by a tripper pin engaging a drive
Turret Drilling Machines dog in the camshaft. A counterbalanced, manual-feed lever is
Upright drilling machines, both bench and floor types as well provided on the side of the turret head,
as hand and power-feed types, are available with indexing Automatic models are essentially the same except for the
drums or turrets. The turret typically has six or eight faces, addition of power-feed mechanisms and control stations. On
although machines are available with turrets having four and heavy-duty machines with higher horsepower motors, cast iron
ten faces, Each face has a spindle for holding a drill or other columns are used instead of tubes and the carriages slide on
cutting tool. The turrets can be indexed manually or auto- fully engaged ways. Manual or power-operated movement of
matically to bring the spindles into operating position with the carriage is available. NC machines have various size,
respect to the workpiece. A solid-bed, sliding-head drilling automatically controlled, positioning tables and can have two
machine with a turret having eight tooling faces and two/three- or three-axis control. Traveling-column versions, with the
axis NC is shown in Fig. 9-9. Some NC turret machines are column moving along ways in the X axis, are built for handling
classified as machining centers, discussed in Chapter 15, long workpieces,
“Multifunction Machines. ”
Turret drilling machines permit performing a number of Deep-Hole Drilling Machines
operations in a hole or group of holes without the need for Deep-hole drilling with gundrilling, gunboring, trepanning,
changing tools. Various tools on the turret are sequenced into and other self-guided tools using high-pressure cutting fluids is
cutting position with every feed stroke of the machine. Turret sometimes done by converting conventional machines such as
9-9
CHAPTER 9
DRILLING MACHINES
suitably designed lathes and drilling, boring, and milling Most deep-hole drilling machines have a rotating tool that is
machines. Most applications, however, are performed on fed into a workpiece mounted on a table at one end of the
machines specifically designed for deep-hole drilling. These machine (see top view in Fig. 9-1 1). Some machines, used to
machines are generally horizontal, but some, used for shorter drill long slender parts, rotate the workpiece while a nonrotating
operations on smaller workpieces, have vertical or angular drill is fed into it (bottom view, Fig. 9-11), For some precision
spindles. applications, both the workpiece and tool rotate, but in
opposite directions.
Deep-hole drilling machines have several basic requirements
which are not necessary on machines used for the more
conventional hole-making processes. For optimum tool per-
formance, the machine must:
1. Be sufficiently rigid so that moving parts which affect
alignment do not deviate from their true path as the
Y
Sptndle
machine operates at its designated capabilities and
capacity.
2, Have ample power, especially in view of the relatively
high penetration rates associated with these tools.
Turret —.
3. Have a system of controls that make precision work
feasib/e, The most desirable controls include a spindle-
load meter, a feed-rate meter, a fluid-pressure gage or
pressure switch, and a fluid-flow-control meter.
4. Have aprecision spindle. The spindle must be designed to
operate at the highest speed anticipated in use with an
absolute minimum of end play. These machines are
available with spindle speeds up to 20,000 rpm. Since
very fine feed graduations are characteristic of pressure-
coolant tools, spindle end play can result in the tool
cutting too deep in one revolution, and then not cutting
for the next several revolutions.
5. Have afeed mechanism that is constant, finely enough
controlled to accommodate the expected range of
conditions, and readily adjustable.
ig. 9-10 Manually fed, bench-type turret drilling machine of tubular 6. Have a start bushing setup that allows near-perfect
column construction, (Burgrmsrer Div., HoudQiIie Industries) alignment.
Alternate
plocement of
cuthng fluld tram
to feed through sp
+8
ii-l
:- l.-
1
I l.-
L- _--J
(0)
ge
(h)
,-,
ig. 9-11 TWOmethods of gundrilling: (a) tool rotating and workpiece stationary; and (b) work piece rotating, tool nmrrotating. (EJdorado 1’oo1 &
~g. Corp.)
9-1o
CHAPTER 9
DRILLING MACHINES
7. Be capable of close-tolerance alignment (hat can be easily variable volume, The fixed type costs less initially, but is
set up and then maintained. Shops doing precise gun- economical only for long-run high-production situations in
drilling may require a maximum of 0.0002” (O.OO5mm) which fluid-volume requirements are relatively unvaried. Using
eccentricity per foot, measured from the spindle. a fixed-volume pump, for example, on a job requiring a volume
8. Have a cutting fluid and fine filtration system. below capacity would require that the excess volume be
dumped through a bypass valve. This in turn would require a
Machine motions. The simplest type of machine, the fixed- very high horsepower motor that would overheat the fluid and
table, advancing-spindle machine (see Fig, 9-1 2), is generally would certainly require a refrigeration system.
used for general-purpose applications. The fixed table requires Because the coolant collects and circulates considerable
a fixture to hold and position the workpiece, quantities of both coarse and fine chips, it must be very carefully
Advancing-spindle machines are also available with two-axis filtered in the interest of quality finish, increased tool life,
tables, which travel vertically and horizontally, perpendicular reduced machine downtime, constant hole size, and minimum
to the tool, and with three-axis tables, which travel vertically wear of the pump and the coolant-transfer unit. Depending
and horizontally, both parallel and perpendicular to the tool. largely upon long-run production needs, coolant-filtration
The way-type, advancing-spindle machine has the spindle systems vary considerably in fluid capacity and filtering devices.
mounted on a column for vertical positioning. The table Manufacturers offer a wide range of coolant systems with
positions horizontally, parallel, and perpendicular to the tool, varying filtering capacities. Detailed information on cutting
Machines are also available with a fixed spindle and a table that fluids and an applications chart may be found in Chapter 4,
advances toward the tool on ways. This type of machine is “Cutting Fluids and Industrial Lubricants. ”
economical when loading time is short relative to cutting time.
The basic machines are also available with automatic-control Small-Hole Drilling Machines
equipment for high production and more than one spindle. Major problems in the mechanical drilling of small holes
Trepanning machines. Since trepanning starts at hole include compensating for the decreased rigidity of the delicate
diameters where the high-pressure coolant drills leave off, tools required, controlling chip removal, minimizing runout,
trepanning usually requires a larger machine. Trepanning may and maintaining a uniform feed rate. This type of drilling can
be done on any one of several types of machines modified in often be done on conventional machine tools such as lathes,
varying degrees to suit the process. For relatively shallow holes, drilling and boring machines. machining and turning centers,
engine or turret lathes, horizontal or vertical boring mills, or and transfer machines. Sensitive drill presses are used exten-
heavy-duty drill presses are used. For deeper holes, engine sively for drilling small holes. They are almost always hand fed,
lathes and some deep-hole drilling machines are suitable. with either a sliding quill to advance the rotating drill or an
Whatever type of machine is used, it must be extremely rigid elevating table to force the work into the drill.
and should have infinitely variable and independent feed Automatic screw machines, especially Swiss types, discussed
control. in Chapter 15, “Multifunction Machines, ” are used for small-
Coolant systems. Gundrilling, trepanning, and other hole drilling, often with both the workpiece and drill rotating.
pressure-coolant tools for deep-hole drilling require a coolant These machines, as well as small turret lathes, permit using
system with the machine which includes a pump, a filtering unit, several tools to produce the holes. For example, a center drill
and sometimes a water chilling or refrigeration system. can be used to start the hole, then a pivot drill to enlarge and
Two general types of pumps are used with high pressure deepen the hole, and finally a straight-shank drill to enlarge the
coolant tool systems: those with a fixed volume and those with a hole further and finish it to final depth.
-. ,. .- -. . . ...
F lg. Y-lz r lxea-tame,
–J- –..-,—— -—, –.J. . ..––-. –.–
aavsurcmg-spmme msrcrune Irrrseep-nme arunng.
m-. . . . .. L-, . J.,,,, –.-
9-11
CHAPTER 9
DRILLING MACHINES
Small holes with close tolerances, however, may require shuttle transfer, dial index, ring index, trunnion index, and
special machines with increased rigidity, more accurate spindles, in-line transfer machines, discussed in Chapter 15, “Muhi-
and sensitive feeding arrangements. Microdrilling machines are function Machines. ”
available that rotate both the workpiece and the tool and can Special-purpose machines for drilling of pilot holes in tubes
produce holes of less than 0,001” (0.03 mm) diam, An and pipes and for forming of 9fP branch collars or bosses, all in
independently driven, rotating spindle for the drill is mounted one cycle, are built by T-Drill, Inc. This method eliminates the
in a tailstock on these machines. This rotating, collet-holding need for tube or pipe cutting and end preparation for welding
spindle assembly is supported on a pair of dovetail slides T-fittings. As soon as the cutting tool penetrates the wall of the
equipped with micrometer adjustments for precise alignment of workpiece, during the downfeed stroke, two formation pins are
the tool centerline with the rotational axis of the workpiece. extended. Then, with the feed reversed, the collar is formed as
Sensitive feeding is accomplished by rotating a handwheel on the rotating pins are withdrawn from the hole. Extension and
the feedscrew while maintaining pressure on the slide handle. retraction of the formation pins are accomplished by cam
The ultrasensitive, precision drilling machine illustrated in action, with lugs on the upper ends of the pins traveling in spiral
Fig. 9-13 can be used with various accessories, including a grooves in an adjustment cone.
digital readout system and a binocular-type stereoscopic
microscope as shown. A pivot-mounted drill-feed mechanism Portable Drilling Units
minimizes friction and lost motion and amplifies the operator’s Considerable drilling is done with portable tools that are
sensitivity of touch by 20 times. The spindle is automatically powered pneumatically, electrically, or hydraulically. Such
retracted by a calibrated spring when the operator releases the tools are used extensively, particularly in the aircraft/aerospace
feed lever. and automotive industries, when workplaces cannot be easily
Tool flexing and breakage due to eccentric rotation are taken to drilling machines, Drilling of fastener holes in
minimized on these machines by mounting the drills in mandrels airframes with portable tools is probably the most common
which rotate on two in-line diamond V-bearings. A small collet- manufacturing operation required in the aircraft industry, with
type pulley is fitted over the mandrel and connected by an millions of holes drilled each month.
endless belt to the pulley of an isolated vibration-dampened Some portable took are available with magnetic bases or
motor, Pull of the belt holds the mandrel firmly against the other devices for mounting or clamping to the work. In addition
V-bearings for continuous contact, as shown in the view at the to being used for drilling, portable tools are also employed for
right of Fig. 9-13. screwdrivers, nutrunners, impact wrenches, hammers, routers,
Cam-controlled and CNC models of precision, small-hole and grinders, as well as for tapping, nibbling, shearing, sanding,
drilling machines are also available. scraping, filing, sawing, and broaching operations.
Tool selection. Selecting a type of portable power tool for
Special-Purpose Drilling Machines drilling depends upon many factors, the most important of
Many drilling machines are built in a wide variety of designs which include the following:
and configurations for special-purpose applications. Special-
purpose dedicated machines are often used when large 1. Power source existing in the plant. When sufficient
quantities of parts require multiple operations. These include compressed air capacity is available, pneumatically
Digiiol
.
Pull of belt holds
drill mandrel
Drill mondrel 11
Counterbalance
and mondrel
Drill ‘“’’’’+=%
K#i Motor hose
‘if’ IAondrel
ond drill,
ground and
Two- way /
compound
- \ ~o~e
reoscopic
croscope [ polished
concentric
(b)
(o)
Fig. 9-13 LJltrrssensitive drilting machine for producing small holes can be used with digital readout and microscope. Tool breakage is minimized by
mounting shown in view at right.
9-12
CHAPTER 9
DRILLING MACHINES
powered tools are often preferred. Air capacity refers to

adequate pressure and flow while the tools are running.
2. Type of operation to be performed. Power requirements
and whether the operation is continuous or intermittent
are important considerations. In some applications in
which safety is critical, such as drilling in hazardous
locations, air tools are preferable to electric tools to
eliminate any danger of explosion or fire, Speed/torque
relationships are critical—the tool must be powerful
enough for the drill employed and the material to be
drilled.
3. Size, power/ weight ratio, and the speed/ feed ranges are
critical factors.
4. Ease and cost of servicing and maintenance must also be
considered.
Air drills. Portable drills powered by air are the most widely
used. Advantages . . include liehter
-- weieht. smaller size. less
–”-,
vibration, cooler operation, variable speeds, no shock hazard,

good torque characteristics, instant reversibility, and in general,
lower maintenance costs. Possible limitations include higher
initial cost, speed decreasing under load, air exhaust problems,
and in some cases, higher operating costs. It is recommended
that these tools be operated with clean, dry, and lubricated air, Fig. 9-14 Automatic self-feeding drill unit. (Durrrore Corp.)
generally at a pressure of about 90 psi (621 kPa), with an air
consumption varying from 10-70 cfm (0.3-2 m3/ rein). Other advantages include higher production, increased
Electric drills. These portable tools are available for opera- drilling consistency, fewer scrapped parts, and less tool wear
tion on normal (60 Hz) or high-frequency (120, 360, or 400 Hz) and breakage. Automatic drills can be used for drilling,
current. Advantages of tools that operate on normal frequency tapping, reaming, boring, spotfacing, chamfering, counter-
current include lower initial cost, readily available power boring, and countersinking. Self-feeding drilling and tapping
supply, and high efficiency. Disadvantages include a higher units are available in several types, including electromechanical
weight/ power ratio, speed decreasing under load, limited with air feed, air powered, mechanical, and hydraulic.
torque characteristics, and possible shock hazard. Many electric Electromechanical units with air feed. Electrically driven,
drills are now available with electronically controlled, infinitely air-controlled units provide the most drilling flexibility by
variable speeds, and tool weights have been reduced. Advantages combining the advantages of electric power with the benefits of
of tools that operate on high-frequency current include lighter economical air feed, Electric drive provides high drilling speeds,
weight, faster speeds, and the ability to maintain speed under and good accuracy and productivity. Air used for thrust and
load. Disadvantages inch.rde the need for a special power source feed results in low installation costs, minimal maintenance,
(frequency changer or motor-generator set) and special wiring. fewer components to wear out, no contamination of parts, and
Hydraulic drills. Portable tools with hydraulic motors less drill breakage.
provide variable speed and feed control. They generally operate Unlike air-powered units, the air-feed, electric-powered types
at pressures to 1500 psi (10 342 kPa) and require special are not affected by line pressure drops and they do not require a
hydraulic power units. large compressor. Lightweight and portable, they can easily be
Hand-feed portable drills. These tools are generally used only moved from one setup to another. Most units accept multi-
for producing small diameter holes in thin materials when spindle drillheads for even greater efficiency and cost savings.
accuracy is not critical. They can be equipped with self-locking While they have a more limited stroke and offer limited spindle
nosepieces and used in conjunction with sliding racks to allow the options, they are generally the most cost effective approach to
operator to keep the drill at any desired angle to the workpiece. self-feeding drilling and tapping.
Self-feeding units. Self-feeding or automatic drill units (see Air powered uni[s. These units are generally smaller and
Fig. 9-14) can be mounted on drill stands or fixtures at any lighter than other types, and they are lower in initial cost, Closer
angle and are light enough to be carried from one job to center distances can be obtained with air units. There are,
another. Several units can be mounted at different angles to however, several disadvantages. They are more costly to
drill multiple holes on two or more planes in sequence operate and maintain, and they have a high noise level. Since a
or simultaneously. 7 hp (5.2 kW) electric motor is needed to power the compressor
Automatic drilling units have several advantages over for each horsepower (0.746 kW) drilling ability, air-powered
traditional drill presses. Unlike the drill press operated by hand, units are inefficient. A larger compressor may be needed
self-feeding units reduce labor costs because they do not require because heavy demand on the air supply may cause a drop in
a skilled operator. Once the stroke, speed, thrust, and feed have line pressure. Air motors require more frequent lubrication and
been set, the entire drilling or tapping operation is automatic maintenance, and the y tend to wear faster than electric units.
and repetitive. This means that one operator can manage Portable pneumatic drills with a positive screw-feed spindle
several machines or stations. Multispindle drillheads can be and wormgear mechanism are sometimes used for producing
attached to automatic drilling equipment to produce two or large holes in thick or work-hardening materials. With such
more holes simultaneously with precise hole-to-hole accuracy units, the feed rate cannot be changed unless the tools are
and even greater cost savings. disassembled and the drive gears replaced.
9-13
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
Mechanical units. Drilling units with mechanical feed have Nomenclature

greater thrust and stroke capability, and they can drill larger The following terminology is extracted from ANSI B94. 11-
holes—3/ 4“ (19 mm) and more in diameter. Their disadvantages M-1979, “Twist Drills—Straight Shank and Taper Shank,
are that they are more complex and, hence, more costly. There Combined Drills and Countersinks,” with the permission of the
are more components, some units require two electric motors, publisher, AS ME (see Fig. 9-15). Many of these terms also
and they are less portable. apply to other types of drills,
Hydraulic units. Hydraulic drilling units are the most
expensive, but they are capabIe of even greater thrust than axis The imaginary straight line which forms the longitudinal
mechanical systems. They are also more compact and have a centerline of the drill.
higher cycle rate. Their disadvantages include increased noise, back taper A slight decrease in diameter from point to back in
susceptibility to lqaks and contamination, higher maintenance the body of the drill.
costs, higher installation costs, and less portability. An electric body The portion of the drill extending from the shank or
motor is required to drive the hydraulic pump, and a hydraulic neck to the outer corners of the cutting lips.
motor to drive the spindle. body-diameter clearance That portion of the land that has
been cut away so it will not rub against the walls of the hole.
chisel edge The edge at the end of the web that connects the
TWIST DRILLS
cutting lips.
Drills are defined as rotary end-cutting tools having one or
chisel edge angle The angle included between the chisel edge
more cutting lips and one or more helical or straight flutes for
and the cutting lip as viewed from the end of the drill.
the passage of chips and the admission of a cutting fluid. These
clearance diameter The diameter over the cutaway portion of
cutting took are made in a wide variety of types with many
the drill lands.
different forms, dimensions, and tolerances.
drill diameter The diameter over the margins of the drill
Twist drills are not considered to be precision cutting tools;
measured at the point.
rather, they are tools designed to produce holes rapidly and
flutes Helical or straight grooves cut or formed in the body of
economically. When precision is required, subsequent oper-
the drill to provide cutting lips, to permit removal of chips,
ations such as boring or reaming are generally required.
and to allow cutting fluid to reach the cutting lips.
Drilling, using twist drills having tapered webs, is also generally
flute length The length from the outer corners of the cutting
limited to hole depths of about three to five times the hole
lip to the extreme back end of the flutes. It includes the sweep
diameter unless the woodpeckering technique of periodic tool
of the tool used to generate the flutes and therefore does not
withdrawal is employed or coolant-fed twist drills (discussed
indicate the useable length of the flutes.
later in this chapter) are used.
helix angle The angle made by the leading edge of the land
with a plane containing the axis of the drill.
Classification of Twist Drills land The peripheral portion of the drill body between
Twist drills can be classified by the material from which they
adjacent flutes.
are made, kinds of shank, number of flutes, hand of cut, length,
land width The distance between the leading edge and the
diameter, and point geometry.
heel of the land measured at a right angle to the leading edge.
Based on the kind of shank, twist drills can be classified as:
lips The cutting edges of a two-flute drill extending from the
1. Straight-shank drills. Those having cylindrical shanks chisel edge to the periphery. On core drills, the lips are the
which may be the same or different diameter than the cutting edges extending from the bottom of the chamfer to
body of the drill. The shanks may be provided with or the periphery.
without driving flats, tangs, grooves, or threads. lip relief The axial relief on the drill point.
2. Taper-shank drills. Those having conical shanks suitable lip relief angle The axial relief angle at the outer corner of the
for direct fitting into tapered holes in machine spindles, lip. It is measured by projection into a plane tangent to the
driving sleeves, or sockets. Taper-shank drills generally periphery at the outer corner of the lip. Lip relief angle is
have a tang to assist in driving and to permit removing the usually measured across the margin of the twist drill.
drill from the spindle or holder, margin The cylindrical portion of the land which is not cut
away to provide clearance.
Based on the number of flutes, twist drills can be classified as:
neck The section of reduced diameter between the body and
1, Single-jlute drills. These took, having only one flute, are the shank of a drill.
used for originating holes and for drilling plastics. overall length The length from the extreme end of the shank
2. Twoji’ute drills. These are the conventional type drills to the outer corners of the cutting lips. It does not include the
also used for originating holes. conical shank end often used on straight-shank drills, nor
3. Three or four-flute drills (core drills). These are does it include the conical cutting point used on both straight
commonly used for enlarging and finishing drilled, cast, and taper-shank drills. For core drills with an external center
or punched holes. They do not produce original holes, on the cutting end, overall length is the same as for two-flute
Based on hand of cut, twist drills can be classified as: drills. For core drills with internal centers on the cutting end,
the overall length is to the extreme ends of the tool.
1. Right-hand cut. As viewed when looking toward the point The cutting end of the drill, made up of the ends of the
point of these drills, with their shanks extending away, lands, the web, and the lips. In form, it resembles a cone, but
they must be rotated in a counterclockwise direction in it departs from a true cone to furnish clearance behind the
order to cut. Most drills are made for right-hand cutting lips.
rotation. point angle The angle included between the lips projected
2. Lef~-hand cut. When viewed from the cutting point, upon a plane parallel to the drill axis and parallel to the
clockwise rotation is necessary for cutting. cutting lips.
9-14
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
Land width
A
Drill
diameter
Point e angle 7
@ g~~
Clearance diameier.
To
~ Overall length “ J
Fig. 9-15 Standard terms used to describe elements of twist drills.
shank The part of the drill by which it is held and driven. include nickel-based alloys, titanium alloys, and steels having a
tang The flattened end of a taper shank, intended to fit into a hardness over R&O.
driving slot in the socket. High-speed steels containing cobalt are, more expensive. As a
tang drive Two opposite and parallel driving flats on the result, they are generally only employed when productivity can
extreme end ofa straight shank. be improved, or when necessary. HSS’S now being made by
web Thecentral portion of the body thatjoins the lands. The powder metallurgy (PM) processes have superior grindability,
extreme end of the web forms the chisel edge on a two-flute as well as other advantages (see Chapter 3). Powder metallurgy
drill. HSS’S, however, are not normally used for standard twist drills,
web thickness The thickness of the web at the point unless but they are employed for some special twist drills and spade
another specific location is indicated. drills (discussed later in this section).
web thinning The operation of reducing the web thickness at Heat treatment. The heat treatment (hardening, quenching,
the point to reduce drilling thrust. and tempering) of HSS’S (see Chapter 3) is critical to the quality
and performance of twist drills, A particular HSS of the same
Materials and Surface Treatments analysis may be heat treated differently by different manu-
for Twist Drills facturers to develop desired properties for the specific appli-
Desirable characteristics for materials used for manufac- cation of a certain style of drill.
turing twist drills include good wear resistance, toughness, and Twist drills made from general-purpose HSS’S such as M 1
hot hardness, as discussed in Chapter 3, “Cutting Tool and M7 are usually heat treated to a hardness range of RC64-66.
Materials. ” Two basic groups of cutting tool materials that Drills made of HSS’S containing cobalt generally have a
meet these criteria are high-speed steels and sintered tungsten hardness range of Rc 65-67, with a higher hardness sometimes
carbides. High-speed steel is the most common material used for unusual applications.
for drills, but carbide drills, both tipped and solid, are employed .S@ace treatments. Various surface treatments (see Chapter
for many applications. 3) are applied to HSS drills to either increase the hardness of the
Carbon and low-alloy tool steels. These materials, used for outer layer of material or reduce the friction between the drill
practically all cutting tools prior to 1900, are no longer and the workpiece or chips in the flute. These treatments are
employed for production metalcutting, primarily because of normally applied after the drills have been finish ground. The
their low hot hardness. Applications for drills made from these category of treatments that produces a thin hard layer in the
materials are limited to nonproduction applications and the outer layers includes nitriding, cyaniding, and, less frequently,
drilling of wood and some soft, nonferrous metals. carbonitriding and carburizing. These processes are carried out
High-speed steels. A comprehensive discussion of the in either a liquid or gaseous media at elevated temperatures to
compositions and heat treatment of the various high-speed accelerate the absorption of the element(s) into the outer layers.
steels is presented in Chapter 3, Twist drills for general These layers, while being hard, are also brittle, so they are kept
industrial applications are most commonly made from one of thin to reduce the probability of chipping. Nitride layers range
four molybdenum-based high-speed steels: M 1, M2, M7, and from 0.0005-0.002” (0,0 13-0.05 mm) thick, whereas carburized
M 10. Drills made from these materials are effective in drilling a layers are several times that thickness. Carburizing and
majority of materials. carbonitriding usually require temperatures above the tem-
For more difficult operations in which increased hot pering range, while gas nitriding or cyaniding can be done at
harnesses are required because of the higher heat generated, about 100W F (538° C).
HSS’S containing cobalt, such as types M33, M35, M36, M42, in addition to the hard surfaces produced in the outer layers
and T15, are often employed. Cobalt-containing HSS drills of the drill material by the processes described, there is some
allow faster operation compared with regular HSS drills. small usage of the processes for producing surfaces on the
Typical applications for tools made from these materials exterior of drills for the same purpose. These surfaces are
9-15
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
applied by electroplating, chemical plating, vapor deposition, the tipped tools can be used with less-rigid setups since the tool
and flame or arc deposition. Inch.rded in such platings are hard bodies absorb some deflection without fracturing. While tipped
chromium, nickel, tungsten, tungsten carbide, titanium nitride, drills are less costly than solid carbide drills in larger diameters,
and various other wear-resistant compounds. Considerable solid drills cost less than tipped tools in the small-diameter
care is required during the processing to assure that the range, Solid carbide drills provide more rigidity and stiffness
deposition is uniform, continuous, and tightly adhering and than tipped drills for a given size. This is important in smaller-
that thetempering temperature of the HSS is not exceeded. diameter sizes or other sizes which must be operated without
Surface treatments for reducing friction or improving a bushing.
lubrication include the limited penetration of oxygen or sulfur Standard solid carbide drills are normally much shorter than
into tool surfaces in a controlled-atmosphere furnace at an a comparable-size tipped drill because the flexing capability of
elevated temperature, andvapor or liquid processing. solid carbide is lower than that of the steel body of a tipped drill.
The most widely used surface treatment on drills consists of Useable regrind lengths of tipped drills are approximately equal
the development of a thin surface oxide which has been found to to the drill diameters.
act as a solid lnbricant and to prevent weIding of chips to the
drill. While various oxide films can be produced in air at Types of Twist Drills
temperatures above 40tY (204” C), oxide films most advan- Twist drills are manufactured in a wide variety of types, some
tageous for improved performance are formed in a dry or of which are illustrated in Fig. 9-16, and in many different sizes.
superheated steam atmosphere at temperatures of 8OO-105W F To produce a hole of any given diameter, twist drills are
(427-566° C). Oxides created in salt baths are not as effective as commercially available with variations in length, flute and
those produced bysteam. Tools having thedarkgray to blue- shank configuration, point geometry, and web thickness. In
black surface oxide layers produced in this way are often used some cases, a dozen or more drills may be available to produce
for drilling ferrous materials. the same size hole.
Although surface treatments have been discussed as separate Drills are made in many different diameter sizes—fractional,
entities, they are often used incombinatiorr. The most widely number (wire gage), letter, and metric—ranging from 0.0059”
used combination treatment for drills is a surface oxide over a (O.150 mm) to 3 1/2” (89 mm). However, data compiled by
nitride layer. A general discussion of surface treatments and National Twist Drill, based on sales of more than 50-million
coatings is presented in Volume III of this Handbook series, standard twist drills, showed that a median 90% of alI sales (5%
“Materials and Finishing. ” were for larger sizes, and 570 for smaller) fall between 0.050 and
Cast cobalt-based alloys, These materials (see Chapter 3) are 0.400” (1.27 and 10.16 mm) diam. The most common drill size,
used only occasionally for special drills to produce holes in
case-hardened steels, manganese steels, chilled irons, and tool
steels having a hardness over Rc50.
Carbide drills. Cemented carbides have a much higher
hardness and greater resistance to abrasive wear than hardened Taper-shark twist drill
HSS’S. As a result, drills (both solid and tipped) are commonly

used for producing holes in cast irons, aluminum and other soft
nonferrous metals, highly abrasive materials such as reinforced Straight-shank lobbers-length drill
plastics, and steels harder than RC48. Drilling of steels in the

soft annealed condition or in a heat-treated condition with moderate
High-hellx strmght-shank drill
hardness levels is not successful with carbide tools.
Advantages of using carbide drills, when applicable, include
longer tool life (up to 10 times that of HSS drills), higher speed SJow-hehx stra(ght-shank drtll
capabilities (about 2 1/2 times HSS drills), and faster
penetration rates (to 100$%faster) .Limiting characteristics are
brittleness, which requires rigid and accurate setups and
machines. Pointing of the drills is critical, especially for drilling Saew-mochne length strolght-shank ddl
very hard materials.
Although there are many types of carbide materials, the
straight tungsten carbide types, C-1 and C-2 classifications,
Three+ted core drd
have been found to be most applicable for drills. Coated
Straight shonk
carbides, as well as classifications C-5 through C-8, have not
proved advantageous. Solid carbide drills, normally made from
C-2 carbide, are available from 0.0135 to 1/2” (0.343 to
12.7 mm) diam, Four-fluted core drill
Carbide-tipped drills, made from C-1 or C-2 carbide, are Toper shank
available from 3/32 to 1 1/2” (2.4-38 mm) diam. The C-1 -..
carbide is generally employed for tipped drills for which greater
resistance tochipping, particularly inhandling, is required. In Subland drll
making tipped twist drills, formed tips conforming to ANSI

—--- ---
Standard B94.20-1977 are brazed to bodies of hardened HSS or
alloy steel ofhigh strength and hardness. Step dtill
Carbide-tipped drills are used more extensively than solid

carbide dril[s due to economic considerations and the fact that ‘ig. 9-16 Some conventional and speeial-purpose twist drills.
9-16
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
especially for rivet holes in the aircraft/aerospace industry, is a enlarging cored, punched, or drilled holes or increasing the ID’s
No. 30 (O.1285”,3.264 mm), with a 1/ 8“ (3.2 mm) diam a close of short lengths of metal tubing or pipe. With proper flute
second. Only about 19Z0of all twist drills sold exceed 3/ 4“ construction, core drills are capable of enlarging holes which
(19 mm) diam. are only two-thirds of their final desired size. They will not cut
For simplification purposes, many styles of drills can be holes in solid material because the cutting edges do not extend
classified separated into general-purpose and heavy-duty to the center of the drill. Cutting is accomplished by a
categories. General-purpose drills are the most widely used. chamfered edge at the end of each flute.
Slight alterations of the original point angles sometimes Core drills produce more finished holes with better quality
improve performance for given speeds and feeds. Heavy-duty than those cut by ordinary two-flute twist drills when all cutting
drills are designed to provide greater torsional strength and edges of the core drill are sharp and have the same length and
rigidity than general-purpose drills. They can be used to drill point angle. They are very rigid, and because of the greater
steel forgings, hard castings, and high-hardness ferrous alloys. number of flutes (three or four), can be used at higher feed rates
Dimensional tolerances for drill diameters at their points, than normal. Diameters, flute lengths, and overall lengths of
shank diameters (for straight-shank drills), back tapers, flute some three and four-flute core drills are presented in Table 9-7.
lengths, and overall lengths for HSS general-purpose twist The cutting action of core drills is much the same as that of
drills with two, three, and four flutes are presented in Table 9-2. rose reamers, which are practically obsolete. As a result, it is
Tolerances on elements—the included angles of their points, lip often practical to use core drills as roughing reamers or to
heights, centrality of their webs, and flute spacings—for HSS, correct the location of previously produced holes. In correcting
general-purpose, two-flute, twist drills are given in Table 9-3. hole locations, rigid machines and fixtures with drill bushings
The tolerances in both of these tables are extracted from ANSI are required to guide the tools. When used for this purpose, it is
B94. 11M-1979 with the permission of the publisher, AS ME. recommended that the drills be ground to a flat ( 18fP ) point,
Taper-shank twist drills. These tools are used for general- similar to that of an end mill. The core drills should be kept very
purpose drilling in all kinds of machines for which an ANSI sharp and have little or no chamfer on the corners of the point.
taper shank is required. Diameters, flute lengths, and overall This reduces the tendency to follow incorrectly located holes.
lengths of some standard taper-shank twist drills are presented Core drills normally have a fairly heavy web (up to 50% of the
in Table 9-4. Some sizes of these drills are available with diameter) since they are not designed for center cutting. They
shorter and longer shanks than standard, which decreases and are available with three or four flutes, straight or taper shanks,
increases their overall lengths. Amount of the shank taper, and in fractional sizes only. Straight-shank core drills are made
which varies with the drill diameter, and detail dimensions are with diameters from 1/4 to 1 1/4” (6.35 to 31.75 mm), flute
given in Table 9-5. The HSS drill body and the alloy steel shank lengths from 3 3/4to77/ 8“ (95 to 200 mm), and overall lengths
(when used) on these drills are usually joined by electrical butt from 6 1/8 to 121 /2” (156 to 317 mm). Taper-shank core drills
or friction welding. are made with diameters from 1/4 to 2 1/2” (6.35 to 63.5 mm),
Straight-shank twist drills. These tools are made in three flute lengths from 2 7/8 to 1I 1/4” (73 to 286 mm), and overall
series, based on their range of lengths: jobbers length (a lengths from 6 I/8 to 18 3/4” (156 to 476 mm).
medium-length range), taper length (a long-length range), and Larger diameter core drills usually embody a fluted cutter
screw-machine length (a short-length range). Diameters, flute interchangeably mounted on the end of a fluted body. Such
lengths, and overall lengths of some standard straight-shank drills often incorporate pilots to assure accuracy of hole
twist drills in all three length series are presented in Table 9-6. alignment. Four-flute core drills are generally preferred unless
Heavy-duty drills are also available in screw-machine lengths the greater chip room of a three-flute tool is needed.
with 135° split points. Multidiameter drills. Many manufactured parts require
The screw-machine length series of straight-shank twist drills concentric holes having different diameters over portions of
are used in screw machines of all types when conditions require their lengths, In such cases, significant reductions in machining
the use of short drills for maximum rigidity. Other applications costs are often possible by using multidiameter drills instead of
for these short drills include portable and sheet-metal drilling, a succession of various diameter drills, Multidiameter tools are
body work, and the drilling of tougher, harder steels such as also used to perform two or more operations in a single feed
stainless and high-manganese steels. stroke—for example, drilling combined with countersinking,
High-helix (fast-spiral) twist drills. These tools have higher counterboring, reaming, and tapping.
helix angles (35-4W ) than conventional drills (25-33° ). These There are two different types of construction used in
two-flute twist drills are designed for drilling deep holes in multidiameter tools—step and subland (see Fig. 9-17). These
materials having low tensile strengths, such as aluminum, types are often confused both as to nomenclature and
magnesium, copper, diecast metals, and some plastics, and are application. The type of construction used relates to the effect
also used successfully for producing holes in soft steels and of the regrinding process and the desire to maximize useable
free-machining brasses and bronzes. The wide, ground, and/ or tool life rather than to the material being machined. Step
polished flutes assist in clearing chips from the holes. The drills construction is the simpler type and generally less expensive;
are available in fractional, number, letter, and metric sizes. subland construction is more difficult and costly to
Low-helix (slow-spiral) twist drills. These two-flute tools manufacture.
have lower helix angles (15-2fY’) than conventional tools. They The ratio of step length to resharpening allowance is a major
are made in two types: (1) for drilling plastics and (2) for drilling factor in determining whether step or subland construction
brass. Low-helix drills are also successful in applications for should be used. If the step length (length of small diameter) is
shallow drilling of some aluminum and magnesium alloys. This fairly long, it is practically as easy to resharpen a step tool as a
type of twist drill is also available in solid or tipped carbide, subland tool and there is no advantage to the use of subland
heavy-duty design for producing holes in cast iron. construction. However, tools with relatively short steps and
Core drills. These three or four-flute tools are intended for with step diameters considerably smaller than the large
9-17
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
diameters can be expensive to regrind. This, coupled with the Resharpening the cutting angle or shouider of step drills
excessive loss of length in resharpening, can make the more results in a slight undercutting or nicking of the smaller
costly subland tools preferable. diameter at that point. Eventually the reground point of the
Wep drills. Step drills have two or more diameters ground small diameter will begin to approach this nicked area, and it
into the lands of the drill. Normally, the drill will be of the becomes the limit as to the number of regrinds possible.
two-flute style, although it is possibIe to have a three or four- Obviously, when the step length is small, the regrinds available
flute step drill. These various diameters or steps are separated are limited.
from each other by angular cutting edges which conform to the Step drills are often used to drill holes to close tolerances,
shape desired in the part. Optimum tool performance of step or sometimes eliminating the need for subsequent reaming
combination drills is obtained when the tool is manufactured to operations, When the smaller diameter pilot portion of a step
provide for proper balance of web thickness and chip room, drill enters the workpiece, it may produce a hole that is larger
even with the various diameters present. Step drills can than its diameter, as illustrated at the left in Fig. 9-18. When the
frequently be made by grinding down and stepping conventional larger-diameter body portion of the step drill begins to cut, it
drills. Some thinning of the web is usually required. centers the pilot, shown at the right, thus producing a hole to
As a general rule, multiple-diameter drills can be manu- close tolerances. For such applications, the pilot and body
factured in the step drill style as long as the ratio between portions of the step drill must be concentric and the pilot should
diameters does not exceed 4:1. A higher ratio between diameters have a diameter three-fourths that of the body and a length
presents problems in achieving good mechanical strength, and about two-thirds of the body diameter. For some applications,
the tool often fails due to breakage. Such applications should be the body portion of the step drill is carbide tipped.
approached with caution. Subkznd drills. Subland-type construction of a multidiameter
TABLE 9-2
Dimensional Tolerances for HSS General-Purpose Twist Drills with Two, Three, and Four Flutes
DRILL DIAMETER AT POINT

Tolerance
Diameter of Drill Inches Millimeters
Inches Millimeters Plus (+) Minus (-) Plus (+) Minus (-)
From No. 97 thru No. 81 From 0.15 thru 0.33 0.0002 0.0002 0.005 0.005
Over No, 81 thru 1/8 Over 0.33 thru 3.18 0.0000 0.0005 0.000 0.013
Over 1/8 thru 1/4 Over 3.18 thru 6.35 0.0000 0.0007 0.000 0.018
Over 1/2 thru 1 Over 12.70 thru 25.40 0.0000 0.0012 0.000 0.030
Over 1 thru 2 Over 25.40 thru 50.80 0.0000 0.0015 0.000 0.038
Over 2 thru 3 1/2 Over 50.80 thru 88.90 0.0000 0.0020 0.000 0.051
SHANK DIAMETER (STRAIGHT-SHANK DRILLS)

Tolerance
From No. 97 thru No. 81 From 0.15 thru 0.33 0.0002 0.0002 0.005 0.005
Minus (-) Minus (-) Minus (-) Minus (-)
Over No. 81 thru 1/8 Over 0.33 thru 3.18 0.0000 0.0025 0.000 0.064
BACK TAPER
Diameter of Drill Allowance
Inches Millimeters Per Unit of Length
From No. 97 thru No. 81 From 0.15 thru 0.33 None
Over No. 81 thru 1/8 Over 0.33 thru 3.18 0.0000 to 0.0008
Over 1/8 thru 1/4 Over 3.18 thru 6.35 0.0002 to 0.0008
Over 1/4 thru 1/2 Over 6.35 thru 12.70 0.0002 to 0.0009
Over 1/2 thru 1 Over 12.70 thru 25.40 0.0003 to 0.0011
Over 1 thru 3 1/2 Over 25.40 thru 88.90 0.0004 to 0.0015
9-18
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
FLUTE LENGTH
Tolerance
From No. 97 thru No. 81 From 0.15 thru 0.33 1/64 1/64 .4 .4
Over No. 81 thru 1/8 Over 0.33 thru 3.18 1/8 1/16 3.2 1.6
Over 1/8 thru 1/2 Over 3.18 thru 12.70 1/8 1/8 3.2 3.2
Over 1/2 thru 1 Over 12.70 thru 25.40 l/i4 1/8 6.4 3.2
Over 1 thru 2 Over 25.40 thru 50.80 1/4 1/4 6.4 6.4
Over 2 thru 3 1/2 Over 50.80 thru 88.90 3/8 3/8 9.5 9.5
OVERALL LENGTH
Tolerance
From No. 97 thru No. 81 From 0.15 thru 0.33 1/32 1/32 0.8 0.8
Over No. 81 thru 1/8 Over 0.33 thru 3.18 1/8 1/16 3.2 1.6
Over 1/8 thru 1/2 Over 3.18 thru 12.70 1/8 1/8 3.2 3.2
Over 1/2 thru 1 Over 12.70 thru 25.40 1/4 1/8 6.4 3.2
Over 1 thru 2 Over 25.40 thru 50.80 1/4 1/4 6.4 6.4
Over 2 thru 3 1/2 Over 50.80 thru 88.90 3/8 3/8 9.5 9.5
(ANSI Standard B94. lIM-1979, published by ASME)
drill is specifically intended to overcome resharpening problems. instances in which accuracy is important or in which the centers
The subland drill performs the same type of drilling operations will be used for several machining operations, it is important to
as step drills, but the construction of the drill has been changed retain a good, smooth bearing surface. This is often done by
to prevent nicking of the small diameter. On the step drill, the using a bell-type center, which provides an additional 12P
various diameters are on the same set of lands. With subland angle to protect the 6W bearing surface. Plain and bell-type,
drills, an independent set of lands is provided down the entire combined drills and countersinks are illustrated in Fig. 9-19.
flute length for each diameter present in the form. Thus, in One drill manufacturer offers a two-piece step drill consisting
regrinding the shoulder angle to the largest diameter, it is not of a countersink sleeve made of high-speed steel that can be
necessary to come into contact with lands associated with the combined with a standard general-purpose drill (see Fig. 9-20).
other diameter(s). A setting device with a clamping stop-nut permits varying the
Although the subland drill is initially more expensive to step lengths. This design can reduce resharpening costs since the
produce, an advantage of this construction is that the number of drill usually becomes dull before the countersink section, and
potential regrinds is increased when the step length is relatively can be resharpened separately. The two-piece step drills are
short. A drill of subland construction, however, tends to be particularly suitable for drilling materials that form short chips,
weaker than the same drill of step construction. For this reason, such as cast irons.
subland construction is generally not used when the ratio of the Other multidiameter tools. Multidiameter tools are also
largest to smallest diameter exceeds 2:1. Given an acceptable available to combine drilling with counterboring, reaming, and
relationship between the largest and smallest diameters, the tapping. One type of combined drill and tap, made by Regal-
decision as to whether to use a subland drill is related to the Beloit Corp., consists of a twist drill with a 25° helix angle
length of the smaller diameters. If the length of the smaller followed by a helical-fluted, self-leading tap. Through holes up
diameters of a step drill will not give acceptable regrind life, to two times the diameter can be drilled and tapped in a single
then a subland drill should be used. pass. Length of the drill section is sufficient to assure that it
Subland construction is of limited value for carbide-tipped passes through the workpiece before tapping begins, and to
drills because tool life is normally restricted to the useable provide stock for resharpening. Machines used for these tools
carbide length (about equal to one diameter) of the smaller must be capable of reversing to withdraw the tap. Standard
diameter of the drill. Step drills, however, are often made with tools have straight shanks with a square tap drive for use with
carbide tips on one or more of the diameters, depending upon straight toolholders without float.
the application. Other twist drill types. There are many other types of twist
Combined drills and countersinks. These step tools probably drills available, most developed for special-purpose appli-
represent the most common type of multidiameter drills. They cations. Only the more common types are discussed in this
are used to form the seats or bearings in the ends of workplaces section.
which will be machined between centers. The regular drill and Cenrer drills. These straight-shank twist drills are often used
countersink consists of a single drill diameter, followed by a 6@ to center the ends of shaft-type workplaces. Their short flute
included angle which forms the bearing surface. In those and overall lengths as well as oversize shank diameters provide
9-19
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
TABLE 9-3
Tolerances on Elements for HSS General-Purpose Two-Flute Twist Drills*
INCLUDED ANGLE OF POINT

Diameter of Drill
Inches Millimeters Included Angle Tolerance
From 1/16 thru 1/2 From 1.59 thrrr 12.70 118° * 5°
Over 1/2 thru 1 1/2 Over 12.70 thru 38.10 118° * 3°
Over 1 1/2 thru 3 1/2 Over 38.10 thru 88.90 118° *2°
LIP HEIGHT
Tolerance
Diameter of Drill Total Indicator Variation (TIV)
Inches Millimeters Inches Millimeters
From 1/16 thru 1/8 From 1.59 thru 3.18 0.0020 0.051
Over 1/8 thru 1/4 Over 3.18 thru 6.35 0.0030 0.076
Over 1/2 thru 1 Over 12.70 thru 25.40 0.0050 0.127
Over 1 thru 3 1/2 Over 25.40 thru 88.90 0.0060 0.152
Method of Measurement: Rotate the drill in a V-block against a back end stop. Measure the cutting lip height variation on a
comparator, or with an indicator at a location approximately 75% of the distance from the center to the periphery of the drill.
CENTRALITY OF WEB
Tolerance
Diameter of Drill Total Indicator Variation (TIV)
Inches Millimeters Inches Millimeters
From 1/16 thru 1/8 From 1.59 thru 3.18 0.0030 0.076
Over 1/2 thru 1 Over 12.70 thru 25.40 0.0070 0.178
Over 1 thru 3 1/2 Over 25.40 thru 88.90 0.0100 0.254
Method of Measurement: Rotate the drill in a close-fitting bushing. Record the difference in indicator readings of the web at the
point as the drill is indexed 180’.
FLUTE SPACING
Tolerance
Total Indicator Variation
Diameter of Drill (TIV) Actual Deviation
From 1/16 thru 1/8 From 1.59 thru 3.18 0.0030 0.076 0.0015 0.038
Over 1 thru 3 1/2 Over 25.40 thru 88.90 0.0260 0.660 0.0130 0.330
Method of Measurement: Place the drill in a V-block against a back end stop, and rotate it against a radial finger stop. Take an
indicator reading at the leading edge of the margin on the opposite flute. Repeat for the other flute and note the difference between
the two readings. The deviation in flute spacing is equal to one-half the difference between the two readings.
(ANSI Standard B94. II M-1979, published by ASME)
* In any one lot, 95T0 of the drills fall within the given tolerances.
9-20
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
TABLE 9-4
General Dimensions of Taper-Shank Twist Drills, Regular Shank, Fractional and Metric Sizes
Morse Flute Overall

Drill Diameter Taper Length Length
Fraction mm in. mm No. in. mm in. mm
3.00 0.1181 3.000 1 1 7/8 48 5 1/8 130
1/8 0.1250 3.175 1 1 7/8 48 51/8 130
3.20 0.1260 3.200 1 21/8 54 53/8 137
3.50 0.1378 3.500 1 2 1/8 54 53/8 137
9/64 0.1406 3.571 1 2 1/8 54 53/8 137
3.80 0.1496 3.800 1 21/8 54 53/8 137
5/32 0.1562 3.967 1 21/8 54 53/8 137
4.00 0.1575 4.000 1 2 1/2 64 53/4 146
4.20 0.1654 4.200 1 2 1/2 64 53/4 146
11/64 0.1719 4.366 1 2 1/2 64 5 3/4 146
4.50 0.1772 4.500 I 21/2 64 5 3/4 146
3/16 0.1875 4.762 1 21/2 64 5 3/4 146
4.80 0.1890 4.800 1 2 3/4 70 6 152
5.00 0.1969 5.000 1 2 3/4 70 6 152
13/64 0.2031 5.159 1 23/4 70 6 152
5.20 0.2047 5.200 1 2 3/4 70 6 152
5.50 0.2165 5.500 1 2 3/4 70 6 152
7/32 0.2183 5.558 1 23/4 70 6 152
5.80 0.2223 5.800 1 27/8 73 61/8 156
15/64 0.2344 5.954 1 27/8 73 61/8 156
6.00 0.2362 6.000 1 27/8 73 61/8 156
6.20 0.2441 6.200 1 27/8 73 61/8 156
1/4 0.2500 6.350 1 27/8 73 61/8 156
6.50 0.2559 6.500 1 3 76 6 1/4 159
17/64 0.2656 6.746 1 3 76 6 1/4 159
6.80 0.2677 6.800 1 3 76 61/4 159
7.00 0.2756 7.000 1 3 76 6 1/4 159
9/32 0.2812 7.142 1 3 76 6 1/4 159
7.20 0.2835 7.200 1 3 1/8 79 63/8 162
7.50 0.2953 7.500 I 3 1/8 79 63/8 162
19/64 0.2969 7.541 1 3 1/8 79 63/8 162
7.80 0.3071 7.800 1 3 1/8 79 63/8 162
5/16 0.3125 7.938 1 3 1/8 79 63/8 162
8.00 0.3150 8.000 1 3 1/4 83 6 1/2 165
8.20 0.3228 8.200 1 3 1/4 83 61/2 165
21/64 0.3281 8.334 1 3 1/4 83 6 1/2 165
8.50 0.3346 8.500 1 3 1/4 83 6 1/2 165
11/32 0.3438 8.733 1 31/4 83 6 1/2 165
8.80 0.3465 8.800 1 3 1/2 89 6 3/4 171
9.00 0.3543 9.000 1 3 1/2 89 6 3/4 171
23/64 0.3594 9.129 1 3 1/2 89 6 3/4 171
9.20 0.3622 9.200 1 3 1/2 89 6 3/4 171
9.50 0.3740 9.500 1 3112 89 6 3/4 171
3/8 0.3750 9.525 1 3 lj2 89 6 3/4 171
9.80 0.3858 9.800 1 35/8 92 7 178
9-21
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
b
Flute Overall
Morse
25)64 0.3906 9.921 1 3 5/8 92 7 178
10.00 0.3937 10.000 1 3 5/8 92 7 178
10.20 0.4016 10.200 1 3 5/8 92 7 178
13/32 0.4062 10.320 I 3 5/8 92 7 178
10.50 0.4134 10.500 1 3 7/8 98 71/4 184
27/64 0.4219 10.716 1 3 7/8 98 71/4 184
10.80 0.4252 10.800 1 3 7/8 98 71/4 184
11.00 0.4331 11.000 1 3 7/8 98 7 1/4 184
7/16 0.4375 11.112 1 3 7/8 98 7 1/4 184
11.20 0.4409 11.200 1 4 1/8 105 71/2 190
11.50 0.4528 11.500 1 4 1/8 105 71/2 190
29/64 0.4531 11.509 1 41/8 105 71/2 190
11.80 0.4646 11.800 1 41/8 105 7 1/2 190
15/32 0.4688 11.900 1 4 1/8 105 7 1)2 190
12.00 0.4724 12.000 2 4 3/8 111 81/4 210
12.20 0.4803 12.200 2 4 3/8 111 81/4 210
31/64 0.4844 12.304 2 4 3/8 111 8 1/4 210
12.50 0.4921 12.500 2 4 3/8 111 8 1/4 210
1/2 0.5000 12.700 2 4 3/8 111 8 1/4 210
12.80 0.5034 12.800 2 4 5/8 117 8 1/2 216
13.00 0.5118 13.000 2 45/8 117 81/2 216
33/64 0.5156 13.096 2 45/8 117 8 1/2 216
13.20 0.5197 13.200 2 45/8 117 8 1/2 216
17/32 0.5312 13.492 2 4 5/8 117 8 1)2 216
13.50 0.5315 13.500 2 4 5/8 117 8 1/2 216
13.80 0.5433 13.800 2 47/8 124 8 3/4 222
35/64 0.5469 13.891 2 4 7/8 124 8 3/4 222
14.00 0.5572 14.000 2 4 7/8 124 8 3/4 222
14.25 0.5610 14.250 2 4 7/8 124 83/4 222
9/16 0.5625 14.288 2 4 7/8 124 8 3/4 222
14.50 0.5709 14.500 2 4 7/8 124 8 3/4 222
37/64 0.5781 14.684 2 4 7/8 124 8 3/4 222
14.75 0.5807 14.750 2 4 7/8 124 8 3/4 222
15.00 0.5906 15.000 2 4 7/8 124 83]4 222
19/32 0.5938 15.083 2 4 7)8 124 8 3/4 222
15.25 0.6004 15.250 2 47/8 124 8 3/4 222
39/64 0.6094 15.479 2 47/8 124 8 3/4 222
15.50 0.6102 15.500 2 4 7/8 124 83/4 222
15.75 0.6201 15.750 2 4 7/8 124 8 3)4 222
5/8 0.6250 15.815 2 47/8 124 8 3/4 222
16.00 0.6299 16.000 2 5 1/8 130 9 229
16.25 0.6398 16.250 2 5 1/8 130 9 229
41164 0.6406 16.271 2 5 1/8 130 9 229
16.50 0.6496 16.500 2 5 1/8 130 9 229
21/32 . Q
0.6562 16.667 ‘z 51;8 130 . 229
9-22
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
Flute Overall
Morse
16.75 0.6594 16.750 2 5 3/8 137 9 1/4 235
17.00 0.6693 17.000 2 5 3/8 137 9 1/4 235
43/64 0.6719 17.066 2 5 3/8 137 91/4 235
17.25 0.6791 17.250 2 53/8 137 91/4 235
11/16 0.6875 17.462 2 5 3/8 137 91/4 235
17.50 0.6880 17,500 2 5 5/8 143 9 1/2 241
45/64 0.7031 17.859 2 5 5/8 143 9 1/2 241
18.00 0.7087 18.000 2 55/8 143 91/2 241
23/32 0.7188 18.258 2 5 5/8 143 91/2 241
18.50 0.7283 18.500 2 5 7/8 149 93/4 248
47/ 64 0.7344 18.654 2 5 7/8 149 93/4 248
19,00 0.7480 19.000 2 57/8 149 9 3/4 248
3/4 0.7500 19.050 2 5 7/8 149 9 3/4 248
49/ 64 0.7656 19.446 2 6 152 97/8 251
19.50 0.7677 19.500 2 6 152 9 7j8 251
25]32 0.7812 19.843 2 6 152 9 7/8 251
20.00 0.7821 20.000 3 6 1/8 156 10 3/4 273
51/64 0.7969 20.241 3 6 1/8 156 10 3]4 273
20.50 0.8071 20.500 3 61/8 156 10 3/4 273
13/16 0.8125 20.638 3 6 1/8 156 10 3/4 273
21.00 0.8268 21.000 3 6 1/8 156 10 3)4 273
53/64 0.8281 21.034 3 61/8 156 10 3/4 273
27/32 0.8438 21.433 3 6 1/8 156 10 3/4 273
21.50 0.8465 21.500 3 6 1/8 156 10 3/4 273
55/64 0.8594 21.829 3 61/8 156 10 3/4 273
22.00 0.8661 22.000 3 6 1/8 156 10 3/4 273
7/8 0.8750 22.225 3 6 1/8 156 10 3)4 273
22.50 0.8858 22.500 3 6 1/8 156 10 3/4 273
57/64 0.8906 22.621 3 61/8 156 10 3/4 273
23.00 0.9055 23.000 3 6 1/8 156 10 3/4 273
29/32 0.9062 23.017 3 6 1/8 156 10 3/4 273
59/64 0.9219 23.416 3 6 1/8 156 10 3/4 273
23.50 0.9252 23.500 3 61/8 156 10 3/4 273
15/16 0.9375 23.862 3 61/8 156 10 3/4 273
24.00 0.9449 24.000 3 6 3/8 162 11 279
61/64 0.9531 24.209 3 6 3/8 162 11 279
24.50 0.9646 24.500 3 63/8 162 11 279
31/32 0.9688 24.608 3 63/8 162 11 279
25.00 0.9843 25.000 3 6 3/8 162 11 279
63/64 0.9844 25.004 3 6 3/8 162 11 279
1 1.0000 25.400 3 63/8 162 11 279
25.50 1.0039 25.500 3 6 1/2 165 11 1/8 283
1 1/64 1.0156 25.796 3 61/2 165 11 1/8 283
26.00 1.0236 26.000 3 6 1/2 165{’ 11 1/8 283
1 1/32 1.0312 26.192 3 6 1/2 165 11 1/8 283
9-23
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
TABLE 9-4–Continued
Flute Overall
Morse
Drill Diameter Length Length
Taper
26.50 1.0433 26.500 3 65/8 168 11 1/4 286
1 3/64 1.0469 26.591 3 65/8 168 11 1/4 286
1 1/16 1.0625 26.988 3 65/8 168 11 1/4 286
27.00 1.0630 27.000 3 65/8 168 11 1/4 286
1 5/64 1.0781 27.384 4 67]8 175 12 1/2 318
27.50 1.0827 27.500 4 67/8 175 12 1/2 318
1 3]32 1.0938 27.783 4 67/8 175 12 1/2 318
28.00 1.1024 28.000 4 7 1/8 181 12 3/4 324
1 7/64 1.1094 28.179 4 7 1/8 181 12 3/4 324
28.50 1.1220 28.500 4 7 1/8 181 12 3/4 324
1 1/8 1.1250 28.575 4 71/8 181 12 3/4 324
1 9/64 1.1406 28.971 4 71/4 184 127/8 327
29.00 1.1417 29.000 4 71/4 184 12 7/8 327
1 5/32 1.1562 29.367 4 7 1/4 184 12 7/8 327
29.50 1.1614 29.500 4 7 3/8 187 13 330
1 1/64 1.1719 29.766 4 73/8 187 13 330
30.00 1.1811 30.000 4 73/8 187 13 330
1 3/16 1.1875 30.162 4 73/8 187 13 330
30.50 1.2008 30.500 4 71/2 190 13 1/8 333
1 13/64 1.2031 30.559 4 71/2 190 13 1/8 333
1 7’/32 1.2188 30.958 4 7 1/2 190 13 1/8 333
31.00 1.2205 31.000 4 77/8 200 13 1/2 343
1 15/64 1.2344 31.354 4 77/8 200 13 1/2 343
31.50 1.2402 31.500 4 77/8 200 13 1/2 343
1 1/4 1.2500 31.750 4 77/8 200 13 1/2 343
32.00 1.2598 32.000 4 8 1/2 216 14 1/8 359
1 17/64 1.2656 32.146 4 8 1/2 216 14 1/8 359
32.50 1.2795 32.500 4 81/2 216 14 1/8 359
1 9/32 1.2812 32.542 4 81/2 216 14 1/8 359
1 19/64 1.2969 32.941 4 85/8 219 14 1/4 362
33.00 1.2992 33.000 4 8 5/8 219 14 1/4 362
1 5/16 1.3125 33.338 4 85/8 219 14 1/4 362
33.50 1.3189 33.500 4 8 3/4 222 14 3/8 365
1 21/64 1.3281 33.734 4 8 3/4 222 14 3/8 365
34.00 1.3386 34.000 4 8 3/4 222 14 3/8 365
1 11/32 1.3438 34.133 4 8 3/4 222 14 3/8 365
34.50 1.3583 34.500 4 8 7/8 225 14 1/2 368
1 23/64 1.3594 34.529 4 87/8 225 14 1/2 368
1 3/8 1.3750 34.925 4 87/8 225 14 1/2 368
35.00 1.3780 35.000 4 9 229 14 5/8 371
1 25/64 1.3906 35.321 4 9 229 14 5/8 371
35.50 1.3976 35.500 4 9 229 14 5/8 371
1 13/32 1.4062 35.717 4 9 229 14 5/8 371
36.00 1.4173 36.000 4 91/8 232 14 3/4 375
127164 1.4219 36.116 4 91j8 232 14314
–, 375
9-24
CH PTE R9
TWIST DRILLS
TABLE 9-4-Continued
Flute Overall
Morse
Taper
36.50 1.4370 36.500 4 9 1/8 232 14 3/4 375
1 7/16 1.4375 36.512 4 9 1/8 232 14 3/4 375
1 29/64 1.4531 36.909 4 9 1/4 235 14 7/8 378
37.00 1.4567 37.000 4 9 1/4 235 14 7/8 378
1 15/32 1.4688 37.308 4 9 1/4 235 14 7/8 378
37.50 1.4764 37.500 4 9 3/8 238 15 381
1 31/64 1.4844 37.704 4 93/8 238 15 381
38.00 1.4961 38.000 4 9 3/8 238 15 381
1 1/2 1.5000 38.100 4 9 3/8 238 15 381
1 33/64 1.5156 38.496 ... --- --- --- ---
1 17/32 1.5312 38.892 5 93/8 238 16 3/8 416
39.00 1.5354 39.000 5 9 5/8 244 16 5/8 422
1 35/64 1,5469 39.291 --- --- --- --- ---
1 9/16 1.5625 39.688 5 9 5/8 244 16 5/8 422
40.00 1.5748 40.000 5 9 7/8 25 I 16 7/8 429
1 37/64 1.5781 40.084 --- --- --- --- ---
1 19/32 1.5938 40.483 5 97/8 251 16 7/8 429
1 39/64 1.6094 40.879 --- --- --- --- ---
41.00 1.6142 41.000 5 10 254 17 432
1 5/8 1.6250 41.275 5 10 254 17 432
1 41/64 1.6406 41.671 --- --- --- --- ---
42,00 1.6535 42.000 5 10 1/8 257 17 1/8 435
1 21/32 1.6562 42.067 5 10 1)8 257 17 1/8 435
1 43/64 1.6719 42.466 --- --- ___ --- ---
1 11/16 1.6875 42.862 5 10 1/8 257 17 1/8 435
43.00 1.6929 43.000 5 10 1/8 257 17 1/8 435
1 45/64 1.7031 43.259 --- —- ___ --- ---
1 23/32 1.7188 43.658 5 10 1)8 257 17 1/8 435
44.00 1.7323 44.000 5 10 1/8 257 17 1/8 435
1 47/64 1.7344 44.054 --- --- --- --- ---
1314 1.7500 44,450 5 10 1/8 257 17 1/8 435
45,00 1.7717 45.000 5 10 1/8 257 17 1/8 435
1 25/32 1.7812 45.242 5 10 1)8 257 17 1/8 435
46.00 1.8110 46.000 5 101/8 257 17 1/8 435
1 13/16 1.8125 46.038 5 10 1/8 257 17 1/8 435
1 27/32 1.8438 46.833 5 10 1/8 257 17 1/8 435
47.00 1.8504 47.000 5 10 3/8 264 17 3/8 441
1 7/8 1.8750 47.625 5 10 3/8 264 17 3/8 441
48.00 1.8898 48.000 5 10 3/8 264 17 3/8 441
1 29/32 1.9062 48.417 5 10 3/8 264 17 3/8 441
49.00 1.9291 49.000 5 10 3/8 264 17 3/8 441
1 15/16 1.9375 49,212 5 10 3/8 264 17 3/8 441
50.00 1.9625 50.000 5 10 3]8 264 17 3/8 441
1 32]32 1.9688 50.008 5 10 3/8 264 17 3/8 441
2 2.0000 50.800 c
.J 103/8 264 173;8 441
9-25
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
Flute Overall
Morse
Taper
51.00 2.0079 51.000 5 10 3/8 264 17 3/8 441
2 1/32 2.0312 51.592 5 103/8 264 173/8 441
52.00 2.0472 52.000 5 101/4 260 17 3/8 441
21/16 2.0625 52.388 5 101/4 260 17 3/8 441
53.00 2.0866 53.000 5 101/4 260 17 3/8 441
2 3/32 2.0938 53.183 5 101/4 260 17 3/8 441
2 1/8 2.1250 53.975 5 101/4 260 173/8 441
54.00 2.1260 54.000 5 101)4 260 17 3/8 441
25[32 2.1562 54.767 5 101/4 260 17 3/8 441
55.00 2.1654 55.000 5 101/4 260 17 3/8 441
23/16 2.1875 55.512 5 101/4 260 17 3/8 441
56.00 2.2000 56.000 5 101/8 257 173/8 441
2 7/32 2.2188 56.358 5 101/8 257 173/8 441
57.00 2.2441 57.000 5 101/8 257 17 3/8 441
2 1/4 2.2500 57.150 5 101/8 257 17 3/8 441
58.00 2.2835 58.000 5 101/8 257 17 3/8 441
25/16 2.3125 58.738 5 10 1/8 257 173/8 441
59.00 2.3228 59.000 5 101/8 257 173/8 441
60.00 2.3622 60.000 5 101/8 257 17 3/8 441
2318 2.3750 60.325 5 101/8 257 17 3/8 441
61.00 2.4016 61.000 5 111/4 286 18 3/4 476
27/16 2.4375 61.912 5 111/4 286 18 3/4 476
62.00 2.4409 62.000 5 111/4 286 18 3/4 476
63.00 2.4803 63.000 5 111/4 286 18 3/4 476
21/2 2.5000 63.500 5 111/4 286 18 3]4 476
64.00 2.5197 64.000 5 117/8 302 19 1/2 495
65.00 2.5591 65.000 5 117/8 302 19 1/2 495
2 9/16 2.5625 65.088 5 117/8 302 19 1/2 495
66.00 2.5984 66.000 5 117/8 302 19 1/2 495
25/8 2.6250 66.675 5 117/8 302 19 1/2 495
67.00 5.6378 67.000 5 123/4 324 20 3/8 518
68.00 2.6772 68.000 5 123/4 324 20 3/8 518
211/16 2.6875 68.262 5 123/4 324 20 3/8 518
69.00 2.7165 69.000 5 123/4 324 203]8 518
2 3/4 2.7500 69.850 5 123/4 324 20 3/8 518
70.00 2.7559 70.000 5 133/8 340 21 1/8 537
71.00 2.7953 71.000 5 133/8 340 21 1/8 537
213116 2.8125 71.438 5 133/8 340 21 1/8 537
72.00 2,8346 72.000 5 133/8 340 21 1/8 537
73.00 2.8740 73.000 5 133/8 340 21 1/8 537
27]8 2.8750 73.025 5 133/8 340 21 1/8 537
74.00 2.9134 74.000 5 14 356 21 3/4 552
2 15/16 2.9375 74.612 5 14 356 21 3/4 552
75.00 2.9528 75.000 5 14 356 21 3/4 552
76.00 2.9921 76.000 5 14 356 21 3/4 552
3 3.0000 76.200 5 14 356 21 3/4 552
77.00 3.0315 77.000 6 145/8 371 24 1/2 622
78.00 3.0709 78.000 6 145/8 371 24 1/2 622
3 1/8 3.1250 79.375 6 145/8 371 24 1/2 622
3 1]4 3.2500 82.550 6 151/2 394 25 1/2 648
(ANSI Standard B94. llM-1979, published by ASME)
9-26
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
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9-27
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
TABLE 9-6
Dimensions of Straight-Shank Twist Drills
Diameter Screw-Machine
Jobbers Length Length Taper Length
Fractional, Decimal
Number (wire gage), Metric, equivalent, Flute Overall Flute Overall Flute Overall
& Letter mm inches length length length length length length
YI 0.0059 3/64” 3/4”
0.15 0.0059 1.25mm 19mm
96 0.0063 3/64” 3/4”
0.16 0.0063 1.25mm 19mm Note: Standard screw-machine and taper-
95 0.0067 1/16” 3/ 4“ length straight-shank twist drills start with
0.17 0.0067 1.25mm 19mm 1 mm diam sizes.
94 0.0071 1/16” 3/4”
0.18 0.0071 1.50mm 19mm
93 0.0075 1/16” 3/4”
0.19 0.0075 1.50mm 19mm
92 0.0079 1/16” 3/4”
0.20 0.0079 1.50mm 19mm
91 0.0083 1/16” 3/4”
90 0.0087 1/16” 3]4”
0.22 0.0087 1.75mm 19mm
89 0.0091 1/16” 3]4”
88 0,0095 5/64” 3/4”
0.25 0.0098 2.00mm 19mm
87 0.0100 5/64” 3]4”
86 0.0105 5/ 64” 3/4”
85 0.0110 5/64” 3/4”
0.28 0.0110 2.25mm 19mm
84 0.0115 3/32” 3/4”
0.30 0.0118 2.50mm 19mm
83 0.0120 3/32” 3/4”
82 0.0125 3]32” 3]4”
0.32 0.0126 2.50mm 19mm
81 0.0130 3/32” 3/4”
80 0.0135 1/8” 3/4”
0.35 0.0138 3.00mm 19mm
79 0.0145 1/8” 3/4”
0.38 0.0150 5.00mm 19mm
1/ 64” 0.0156 3] 16” 3/4”
0.40 0.0157 5.00mm 22mm
78 0.0160 3/ 16” 7/8”
0.42 0.0165 5.00mm 22mm
0.45 0.0177 5.00mm 22mm
77 0.0180 3/ 16” 7/8”
0.48 0.0189 5.00mm 22mm
0.50 0.0197 5.00mm 22mm
76 0.0200 3] 16n 7/ 8“
75 0.0210 1/ 4“ ~,,
0.55 0.0217 6.00mm 25mm
74 0.0225 1/ 4“ ~P,
0.60 0.0236 8mm 29mm
73 0.0240 5/ 16” 1 1/8”
72 0.0250 5/ 16” 1 1/8”
0.65 0.0256 10mm 32mm
71 0.0260 3/8” 1 1/4”
0.70 0.0276 10mm 32mm
70 0.0280 3/8” 1 1/4”
69 0.0292 1I 2“ 1 3/8”
0.0295 1imm 35mm
9-28
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
TABLE 9-6-Continued
Fractional. Decimal Jobbers Length Length Taper Length
68 0.0310 1/2” 1 3/8”
1/32” 0.0312 1/ 2“ 1 3/8
0.80 0.0315 13mm 35mm
67 0.0320 1/ 2“ 1 3/8”
66 0.0330 1/ 2“ 1 3/8”
0.85 0.0335 16mm 38mm
65 0.0350 5/8” 1 I/r
0.90 0.0354 16mm 38mm
64 0.0360 5/8” 1 1/2”
63 0,0370 5/8” 1 1/2”
0.95 0.0374 16mm 38mm
62 0.0380 5/8” 1 l/Y
61 0.0390 11/16” 1 5/tV
1.00 0.0394 18mm 41mm 13mm 35mm 29mm 76mm
60 0.0400 11/16” 1 5/8” 1/2” 1 3/8” 1 1/8” 2 1/4”
59 0.0410 11/16” 1 5/8” 1/ 2“ 1 3/8” 1 1/8” 2 1/4”
1.05 0.0413 18mm 41mm 13mm 35mm 29mm 76mm
58 0.0420 11/16° 1 5/8 1/ 2“ 1 3/8” 1 1/8” 2 1/4”
57 0.0430 3/4” 1 3/4” 1/ 2“ 1 3/8” 1 1/8” 2 1/4”
1.10 0.0433 19mm 44mm 13mm 35mm 29mm 76mm
1.15 0.0453 19mm 44mm 13mm 35mm 29mm 76mm
56 0.0465 3/4” 1 3/4” 1/ 2“ 1 3/8” 1 1/8” 2 1/4”
3/64” 0.0469 3/4” 1 3/w 1/2” 1 3/8” 1 1/8” 2 1/4”
1.20 0.0472 22mm 48mm 16mm 41mm 29mm 76mm
1.25 0.0492 22mm 48mm 16mm 41mm 29mm 76mm
1.30 0.0512 22mm 48mm 16mm 41mm 29mm 76mm
55 0.0520 7/8” 1 7/8” 5/ 8“ 1 5/8” 1 3/4” 3“
1.35 0.0531 22mm 48mm 16mm 41mm 29mm 76mm
54 0.0550 7/ 8“ 1 7/8 5/8” 1 5/8” 1 3/4” 3“
1.40 0.0551 22mm 48mm 16mm 41mm 29mm 76mm
1.45 0.0571 22mm 48mm 16mm 41mm 29mm 76mm
1.50 0.0591 22mm 48mm 16mm 41mm 29mm 76mm
53 0.0595 7/8” 1 7/8” 5/8” 1 5/8” 1 3/4” 3“
1.55 0.0610 22mm 48mm 16mm 41mm 29mm 76mm
3,,
1/16” 0.0625 7/8” 1 7/8” 5/8” 1 5/8” 1 3]4”
1.60 0.0630 22mm 48mm 18mm 43mm 51mm 95mm
.2,,
52 0.0635 7/8” 1 7/8” 11/16” 1 11/16” 3 3/4”
1.65 0.0650 25mm 51mm 18mm 43mm 51mm 95mm
1.70 0.0669 25mm 51mm 18mm 43mm 51mm 95mm
~U y 2,,
51 0.0670 11/16” 1 11)16” 3 3]4”
1.75 0.0689 25mm 51mm 18mm 43mm 51mm 95mm
50 0.0700 ~,, 2“ 11/16” 1 11/16” 2“ 3 3/4”
1.80 0.0709 25mm 51mm 18mm 43mm 51mm 95mm
1.85 0.0728 25mm 51mm 18mm 43mm 51mm
~,, .2,, 2,,
49 0.0730 11/16” 111/16” 3 3/4”
1.90 0.0748 25mm 51mm 18mm 43mm 51mm 95mm
48 0.0760 ~,, 2“ 11/16” 1 11/16” 2“ 3 3/4”
1.95 0.0768 25mm 51mm 18mm 43mm 51mm 95mm
5/64” 0.0781 1“ y 11/16” 1 11/16” 2“ 3 3]4”
47 0.0785 ~,! 2“ 11/16” 1 11/16” 2 1/4” 4 1/4”
2.00 0.0787 29mm 54mm 18mm 43mm 57mm 108mm
2.05 0.0807 54mm 19mm 44mm 57mm 108mm
46 0.0810 1 1/8” 2 1/8” 3/ 4“ 1 3/4” 2 1/4” 4 1/4”
9-29
CHAPTE R9
TWIST DRILLS
TABLE 9-6-Continued
Fractional, Decimal Jobbers Length Length Taper Length
45 0.0820 1 1/8” 2 1/8” 3/4” 1 3/4” 2 1/4” 4 1/4”
2.10 0.0827 29mm 54mm 19mm 44mm 57mm 108mm
2.15 0.0846 29mm 54mm 19mm 44mm 57mm 108mm
44 0.0860 1 1/8” 2 1/8” 3/4” 1 3)4” 2 1/4” 4 1/4”
2.20 0.0866 32mm 57mm 19mm 44mm 57mm 108mm
2.25 0.0886 32mm 57mm 19mm 44mm 57mm 108mm
43 0.0890 1 1/4” 2 1/4” 3/4” 1 3/4” 2 1/4” 4 1/4”
2.30 0.0906 32mm 57mm 19mm 44mm 57mm 108mm
2.35 0.0925 32mm 57mm 19mm 44mm 57mm 108mm
42 0.0935 1 1/4” 2 1/4” 3]4” 1 3/4” 2 1/4” 4 1/4”
3/32” 0.0938 1 1/4” 2 1/4” 3/4” 1 3/4” 2 1/4” 4 1/4”
2.40 0.0945 35mm 60mm 21mm 46mm 64mm l17mm
0.0960 1 3/8” 2 3/8” 13/ 16” 1 13/16” 2 1/2” 4 5/8”
2.45 0.0965 35mm 60mm 21mm 46mm 64mm 117mm
40 0.0980 1 3/8” 2 3/8” 13/ 16” 1 13/16” 2 1/2” 4 5/8”
2.50 0.0984 35mm 60mm 21mm 46mm 64mm l17mm
39 0.0995 1 3/8” 2 3/8” 13/16” 1 13/16” 2 1/2” 4 3/8”
38 0.1015 1 7/ 16” 2 1/2” 13/ 16” 1 13/16” 2 1/2” 4 5]8”
2.60 0.1024 37mm 64mm 21mm 46mm 64mm l17mm
37 0.1040 1 7/ 16” 21/2” 13/ 16” 1 13/16 2 1/2” 4 5/8”
2.70 0,1063 37mm 64mm 21mm 46mm 64mm 117mm
36 0.1065 1 7/16” 2 1/2” 13/ 16” 1 13/16” 2 1/2” 4 5/8”
7/64” 0.1094 1 1/2” 2 5/8” 13/16” 1 13/16” 2 1/2” 4 5/8”
35 0.1100 1 1/2” 2 5/8” 7) 8“ 1 7/8” 2 3/4” 5 1/8”
2.80 0.1102 38mm 22mm 48mm 70mm 130mm
34 0.1110 1 1/2” 2 5/8” 7/8” 1 7]8” 2 3/4” 5 1/8”
33 0.1130 1 1/2” 2 5/8” 7/8” 1 7/8” 2 3/4” 5 1/8”
2.90 0.1142 41mm 70mm 22mm 48mm 70mm 130mm
32 0.1160 1 5/8” 23/# 7]8” 1 7/8” 2 3/4” 5 1/8”
3.00 0.1181 41mm 70mm 22mm 48mm 70mm 130mm
31 0.1200 1 5/8” 2314 7/ 8“ 1 7/8n 2 3/4” 5 1/8”
3.10 0.1220 41mm 22mm 48mm 70mm 130mm
l/ 8“ 0.1250 1 5/8” 2 3/4” 7/8” 1 7/8” 2 3/4” 5 1/8”
3.20 0.1260 41mm 70mm 24mm 49mm 76mm 137mm
30 0.1285 1 5/8” 23/4” 15/16” 1 15/16” 3“ 5 3/8”
3.30 0.1299 45mm 73mm 24mm 49mm 76mm 137mm
3.40 0.1339 45mm 73mm 24mm 49mm 76mm 137mm
29 0.1360 1 3/4” 2 7/8” 15/16” 1 15/ 16” 3“ 5 3/8”
3.50 0,1378 45mm 73mm 24mm 49mm 76mm 137mm
28 0.1405 1 3/4” 2 7/8” 3,,
15/16” 1 15/16” 5 3/8”
9164” 0.1406 1 3)4” 2 7/8” 15/16” 1 15/16” 3“ 5 3/8”
3.60 0.1417 48mm 76mm 25mm 52mm 76mm 137mm
27 0,1440 1 7/8” 3“ 1“ 2 1/16” 3“ 5 3/8”
3.70 0.1457 48mm 76mm 25mm 52mm 76mm 137mm
26 0,1470 1 7/8” ,,, 2 1/16” 5 3/8”
3“ 3“
25 0.1495 1 7/8” 3,, ~,, 2 1/16” 3“ 5 3/8”
3.80 0.1496 51mm 79mm 25mm 52mm 76mm 137mm
24 0.1520 .2,, 3 1/8” , ,! 2 1/16” 3“ 5 3/8”
3.90 0,1535 51mm 79mm 25mm 52mm 76mm 137mm
0,1540 2“ 3 1/8” 1,, 2 1/16” 3“ 5 3/8”
5/2;2” 0,1562 2,, 3 1/8” ,,, 2 1/16” /,
5 3/8”
22 0.1570 2,, 3 1/8” 1 1/16” 2 1/8” 3 ;/8” 5 314p’
4.00 0.1575 54mm 83mm 27mm 54mm 86mm 146rnm
9-30
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
TABLE 9-6-Continued
Number (wire gage), Metric. equivalent, Flute Overall Flute Overall Fhrte Overall
21 0.1590 2 1/8” 3 lIW 1 1/16” 2?1/8” 3 3/ 8“ 5 3/4”
20 0.1610 2 1/8” 3 1/4” 1 1116” 2 1/8” 3 3/8” 5 3/Y
4.10 0.1614 54mm 83mm 27mm 54mm 86mm 146mm
4.20 0.1654 54mm 83mm 27mm 54mm 86mm 146mm
19 0.1660 2 1/8” 3 1/4” 1 1/16” 2 1/8” 3 3/8” 5 3/4”
4.30 0.1693 54mm 83mm 27mm 54mm 86mm 146mm
18 0.1695 2 1/8” 3 1/4” 1 1/16” 2 1/8” 3 3/8” 53]4”
11/6# 0.1719 2 1/8” 3 1/4” 1 1/16” 2 1/8” 3 3/8” 53/4”
17 0,1730 2 3/ 16” 3 3/8” 1 1/8” 2 3/ 16” 3 3/8” 5 3/4”
4.40 0.1732 56mm 86mm 29mm 56mm 86mm 146mm
16 0.1770 23/16” 3 3/8” 1 1/8” 23/ 16” 3 3/8” 5 3/4”
4.50 0.1772 56mm 86mm 29mm 56mm 86mm 146mm
15 0.1800 2 3/ 16” 3 3/8” 1 1/8” 2 3] 16” 3 3/8” 5 3/4”
4.60 0.1811 56mm 86mm 29mm 56mm 86mm 146mm
14 0.1820 2 3/ 16” 3 3/8” 1 1/8” 2 3/ 16” 3 3/8” 53/4”
13 0.1850 2 5/ 16” 3 1/2” 1 1/8” 23/16” 3 3/8” 5 3/4”
4.70 0.1850 59mm 89mm 29mm 56mm 86mm 146mm
3] 16” 0.1875 25/16” 3 1/2” 1 1/8” 2 3/ 16” 3 3] 8“ 5 3]4”
6,,
12 0.1890 2 5/ 16” 3 1/2” 1 3/ 16” 2 1/4” 3 5/8”
4.80 0.1890 59mm 89mm 30mm 57mm 92mm 152mm
6,,
11 0.1910 25/16” 3 1/2” 1 3/16” 2 1/4” 3 5/8”
4.90 0.1929 62mm 92mm 30mm 57mm 92mm 152mm
10 0.1935 27/16” 3 5/8” 1 3/ 16” 2 1/4” 3 5/8” 6“
&l
9 0.1960 27/ 16” 3 5/8” 1 3/16” 2 1/4” 3 5/8”
5.00 0.1969 62mm 92mm 57mm 92mm 152mm
6,,
8 0.1990 2 7/ 16” 3 5/8” 1 3/16” 2 1/4” 3 5/8”
5.10 0.2008 62mm 92mm 30mm 57mm 92mm 152mm
6,?
7 0.2010 27/16” 3 5/8” 1 3/16” 2 1/4” 3 5/8”
6)!
13/6V 0.2031 27/ 16” 3 5/8” 1 3/16 2 1/4” 3 5/ 8“
6,,
6 0.2040 2 1/2” 3 3/4” 1 1/4” 2 3/8” 3 5/8”
5.20 0.2047 64mm 95mm 32mm 60mm 92mm 152mm
5 0.2055 2 1/2” 3 3/4” 1 1/4” 2 3/8” 3 5/8” 6“
5.30 0.2087 64mm 95mm 32mm 60mm 92mm 152mm
&
4 0.2090 2 1/2” 3 3/4” 1 1/4” 2 3/8” 3 5/ 8“
5.40 0.2126 64mm 95mm 32mm 60mm 92mm 152mm
6,,
3 0.2130 2 1/2” 3 3/4” 1 l/4v 2 3/8” 3 5/8”
5.50 0.2165 95mm 32mm 60mm 92mm 152mm
6,/
7/ 32” 0.2188 2112” 3 31P 1 1/4” 2 3/8” 3 5/8”
5.60 0.2205 98mm 33mm 62mm 95mm 156mm
2 0.2210 2 5/8” 3 7/8” 1 5/16” 2 7/ 16” 3 3/u 6 1/8”
5.70 0.2244 67mm 98mm 33mm 62mm 95mm 156mm
1 0.2280 2 5/8” 3 7/ 8“ 1 5/16” 27/16” 3 3/4” 61/8”
5.80 0.2283 67mm 98mm 33mm 62mm 95mm 156mm
5.90 0.2323 67mm 98mm 33mm 62mm 95mm 156mm
A 0.2340 2 5/8” 3 7/8” 1 5/16” 2 7/ 16” 3 3/4” 6 1/8”
15/64” 0.2344 2 5/8” 3 7/8” 1 5/16” 2 7/ 16” 3 3/4” 61/8”
6.00 0.2362 70mm 102mm 35mm 64mm 95mm 156mm
~
B 0.2380 2314” 1 3/8” 2 1/2” 3 3/4” 6 1/8”
6.10 0.2402 102mm 35mm 64mm 95mm 156mm
4,,
c 0.2420 23/LV 1 3/8” 2 1/2” 3 3/w 6 1/8”
6.20 0.2441 70mm 102mm 35mm 64mm 95mm 156mm
4,,
D 0.2460 2 3/4” 1 3/8” 3 3/4” 6 1/8”
6.30 0.2480 70mm 102mm 35mm 64mm 95mm 156mm
9-31
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
TABLE 9-6-Continued
Jobbers Length Length Taper Length
Fractional, Decimal
1/4”/E 0.2500 2 3/4” 4“ 1 3/8” 2 1/2” 3 3/4” 6 1/8”
6.40 0.2520 73mm 105mm 37mm 67mm 98mm 159mm
6.50 0.2559 73mm 105mm 37mm 67mm 98mm 159mm
F 0.2570 2 7/8” 4 1/8” 1 7/16” 2 5/8” 3 7/8” 6 1/4”
6.60 0.2598 73mm 105mm 37mm 67mm
G 0.2610 2 7/8” 4 1/8” 1 7/ 16” 2 5/8” 3 7/8” 6 1/4”
6.70 0.2638 73mm 105mm 37mm 67mm
17/ 64” 0.2656 27]8” 41/8” 1 7/ 16” 2 5/8” 3 7/8” 6 1/4”
H 0.2660 2 7/ 8“ 41/8” 1 1/2” 2 11/16” 3 7/8” 6 1/4”
6.80 0.2677 73mm 105mm 38mm 68mm 98mm 159mm
6.90 0.2717 73mm 105mm 38mm 68mm
I 0.2720 2 7/8” 4 1/8” 1 1/2” 211/16” 3 7/8” 6 1/4”
7.00 0.2756 73mm 105mm 38mm 68mm 98mm 159mm
J 0.2770 2 7/8” 4 1/8” 1 1/2” 2 11/16” 3 7/8” 6 1/4”
7.10 0.2795 75mm 108mm 38mm 68mm
0.2810 2 15/16” 4 1/4” 1 1/2” 211/16” 3 7/8” 6 1/4”
9/;2” 0.2812 2 15/ 16” 4 1/4” 1 1/2” 2 11/16” 3 7/8” 6 1/4”
7.20 0.2835 75mm 108mm 40mm 70mm 102mm 162mm
7.30 0.2874 75mm 108mm 40mm 70mm
2 15/16” 4 1/4” 1 9/16” 2 3/4” 4,/ 6 3/8”
L 0.2900
7.40 0.2913 78mm lllmm 40mm 70mm
1 9/ 16” 2 3/4” 4,, 6 3/8”
M 0.2950 3 1/16” 4 3/8”
7.50 0.2953 78mm lllmm 40mm 70mm 102mm 162mm
19/64” 0.2969 3 1/16” 4 3/8” 1 9/ 16” 2 3/4” 4“ 6 3/8”
7.60 0.2992 78mm lllmm 41mm 71mm
N 0.3020 3 1/16” 4 3/8” 1 5/8” 2 13/16” 4“ 6 3/8”
7.70 0.3031 81mm 114mm 41mm 71mm
7.80 0.3071 81mm 114mm 41mm 71mm I02mm 162mm
7.90 0.3110 81mm 114mm 41mm 71mm
5/ 16” 0.3125 3 3/16” 4 1/2” 1 5/8” 2 13/16” 4,, 6 3/8”
8.00 0.3150 3 3/16” 114mm 43mm 75mm 105mm 165mm
0 0.3160 3 3/16” 4 1/2” 1 11/16” 215/16” 4 1/8” 6 1/2”
8.10 0.3189 81mm 114mm 43mm 75mm
8.20 0.3228 81mm 114mm 43mm 75mm 105mm 165mm
P 0.3230 3 5/16” 4 5/8” 1 11/16” 215/16” 4 1/8” 6 1/2”
8.30 0.3268 81mm 114mm 43mm 75mm
21/ 64” 0.3281 3 5/16” 4 5/8” 1 11/16” 215/16” 4 1/8” 6 l/2n
8.40 0.3307 87mm 121mm 43mm 76mm
Q 0.3320 37/ 16” 4 3/4” 1 11/16” 3“ 4 1/8” 6 1/2”
8.50 0.3346 87mm 121mm 43mm 76mm 105mm 165mm
8.60 0.3386 87mm 121mm 43mm 76mm
3,,
R 0.3390 3 7/16” 4 3/4” 1 11/16” 4 1/8” 6 1/2”
8.70 0.3425 87mm 121mm 43mm 76mm
11/32” 0.3438 3 7/16” 4 3/4” 1 11/16” 3“ 4 1/8” 6 1/2”
8.80 0.3465 89mm 124mm 44mm 78mm 108mm 171mm
s 0.3480 3 1/2” 4 7/8” 1 3/4” 3 1/16” 4 1/4” 6 3/4”
8.90 0.3504 89mm 124mm 44mm 78mm
9.00 0.3543 89mm 124mm 44mm 78mm 108mm 171mm
T 0.3580 3 1/2” 4 7/8” 1 3/4 3 1/16 4 I/u 63/4”
9.10 0.3583 89mm 124mm 44mm 78mm
23/64” 0.3594 3 1/2” 4 7/8” 1 3/4” 3 1/16” 4 1/4” 63/4”
9.20 0.3622 92mm 127mm 46mm 79mm 108mm 171mm
9.30 0.3661 92mm 127mm 46mm 79mm
9-32
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
TABLE 9-6-Continued
Fractional, Jobbers Length Length Taper Length
Decimal
. . . . . . .. . .,-”
4 1/4”
u 0.3680 3 5/8” 5“ 1 Ij/ltl” .I 1/5” 6 3/4”
9.40 0.3701 92mm 127mm 46mm 79mm
9.50 0.3740 92mm 127mm 46mm 79mm 108mm 171mm
3/8” 0.3750 3 5/8” 5“ 1 13/16” 3 1/8” 4 l//4f7 6 3/4”
v 0.3770 3 5/8” 5“ 1 7/8” 3 1/4” 4 3/8~~ 7“
9.60 0.3780 95mm 130mm 48mm 83mm
9.70 0.3819 95mm 130mm 48mm 83mm
9.80 0.3858 95mm 130mm 48mm 83mm lllmm 178mm
w 5 1/8” 1 7/8” 4 3/8” .7,,
0.3860 3 3/4” 3 1/4”
9.90 0.3898 95mm 130mm 48mm 83mm
25/64” 0.3906 1 7/8” 3 1/4” 4 3/8” 7,,
3 3/4” 5 1/8”
x 5 1/8” 1 15/16” 35/16” 4 3/8” .7,,
0.3970 3 3/4”
5 1/4 4 3/8” 7,,
Y 0.4040 3 7/8” 1 15/16” 3 5] 16”
10.30 0.4055 98mm 133mm lllmm 178mm
13/32” 0.4062 3 7/8” 5 1/4” 1 15/16” 35/16” 4 3/8” 7“
z 0.4130 5 1/4” 2,) 3 3/8” 4 5/8” 7 1/4”
3 7/8”
10.50 0.4134 100mm 137mm 51mm 86mm 117mm 184mm
27/ 64” 0.4219 3 15/16” 5 3/8” 2“ 3 3/8” 4 5/8” 7 l/&
10.80 0.4252 103mm 140mm 52mm 87mm 117mm 184mm
11.00 0.4331 103mm 140mm 52mm 87mm 117mm 184mm
7/ 16” 0.4375 4 1/16” 5 1/2” 2 1/16” 3 7/ 16” 4 5/8” 7 1/4”
11.20 0.4409 106mm 143mm 54mm 90mm 121mm 190mm
11.50 0.4528 106mm 143mm 54mm 90mm 121mm 190mm
29/ 64 0.4531 4 3/ 16” 5 5/8” 2 1/8” 3 9/ 16” 4 3/4” 7 1/2”
11.80 0.4646 110mm 146mm 54mm 92mm 121mm 190mm
15/32” 0.4688 55/16” 5 3/4” 2 1/8” 3 5/8” 4 3/4” 7 1/2”
12.00 0.4724 lllmm 150mm 56mm 94mm 121mm 197mm
12.20 0.4803 lllmm 150mm 94mm 121mm 197mm
31 / 64” 0.4844 43] 8“ 5 7/8” 23/16” 3 11/16” 4 3/4” 7 3/4”
12.50 0.4921 114mm 152mm 57mm 95mm 121mm 197mm
I / 2“ 0.5000 4 1/2” 6“ 2 1/4” 3 3/4” 43/4” 7 3/4”
13.00 0.5118 122mm 168mm 60mm 98mm 121mm 203mm
33/64” 0.5156 4 13/16” 6 5/8” 2 3/8” 3 7/’8” 4 3/4” 8“
17/ 32” 0.5312 4 13/16” 6 5/8” 2 3/8” 3 7]8” 4 3/4” 8“
13.50 0.5315 122mm 168mm 124mm 210mm
2 1/2” 4,, 4 7/8” 8 1/4”
35/64” 0.5469 4 13/16” 6 5/8”
14.00 0.5512 122mm 168mm 124mm 210mm
9/ 16” 0.5625 4 13/16” 6 5/8” 2 1/2” 4“ 4 7/8” 8 1/4”
14.50 0.5709 122mm 168mm 124mm 222mm
37/64” 0.5781 4 13/16” 6 5/8” 2 5/8” 4118” 4 7/8” 8 3/V
15.00 0.5906 132mm 181mm 124mm 222mm
19/32” 0.5938 53/16” 7 1/8” 2 5/8” 4 1/8” 4 7/8” 8 3/4”
39/64” 0.6094 5 3/16” 7 1/8” 2 3/u 4 1/4” 4 7/8” 8 3/4”
15.50 0.6102 132mm 181mm 124mm 222mm
5/ 8“ 0.6250 53/16 7118° 2 3/4” 4 1/4” 4 7/8” 8 3/4”
16.00 0.6299 132mm 181mm I30mm 229mm
41/64” 0.6406 5 3/ 16,, 7 1/8” 2 7/8” 4 1/2” 5 1/8” 9“
16.50 0.6496 132mm 181mm 130mm 229mm
2 7/8” 4 1/2” 5 1/8” 9,?
21/32” 0.6562 53/16” 7118°
17.00 0.6693 143mm 194mm 137mm 235mm
43164” 0.6719 5 5/8” 7 5/8” 2 7/8” 4 5/8” 5 -r-
3/8” 9 1/4”
9-33
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
Decimal Jobbers Length Length Taper Length
Fractional,
11/16” 0.6875 5 5/8” 7 5/8” 2 7/8” 4 5/8” 5 3/8” 9 1/4”
17.50 0.6890 143mm 194mm 143mm 241mm
45] 64” 0.7031 y 4 3/4” 5 5/8” 9 1/2”
18.00 0.7087 143mm 241mm
.3,,
23/32” 0.7188 4 3/4” 5 5/8” 9 1/2”
18.50 0.7283 149mm 248mm
47/64” 3 1/8” 5,, 5 7/8” 9 3/4”
0.7344
19.00 0.7480 149mm 248mm
3 1/8” 5,) 5 7/8” 9 3/4”
3/4” 0.7500
49/ 64” 0.7656 3 1/4” 5 1/8” 6,, 97/ 8“
19.50 0.7677 152mm 251 mm
25/32” 0.7812 3 1/4” 5 1/8” 6“ 9 7/8”
20.00 0.7874 156mm 254mm
51/ 64” 0.7969 3 3/8” 5 1/4” 6 1/8” 10”
20.50 0.8071 156mm 254mm
13/16” 0.8125 3 3/8” 5 1/4” 6 1/8” ,0
21.00 0.8268 156mm 254mm
53/64” 0.8281 3 1/2” 5 3/8” 6 1/8” lo”
27/ 32” 0.8438 3 1/2” 5 3/8” 6 1/8”
~o,,
21.50 0.8465 156mm 254mm
55/64” 0.8594 3 1/2” 5 1/2” 6 1/8” 10”
22.00 0.8661 156mm 254mm
7/ 8“ 0.8750 3 1/2” 5 1/2” 6 1/8” ~0,,
22.50 0.8858 156mm 254mm
57/64” 0.8906 5 5/8” 6 1/8” , 0?/
3 5/8”
23.00 0.9055 156mm 254mm
29] 32” 0.9062 3 5/8” 5 5/8” 6 1/8” 10”
59/ 64” 0.9219 3 3/4” 5 3/w 6 1/8” 103/4”
23.50 0.9252 156mm 273mm
15/ 16” 0.9375 3 3/4” 5 3/4” 6 1/8” 103/4”
24.00 0.9449 162mm 279mm
61/ 64” 0.9531 3 7/8” 5 7]8” 6 3/8” ~~,,
24.50 0.9646 162mm 279mm
31/32” 0.9688 3 7/8” 5 7/8” 6 3/8” 11”
25.00 0.9843 162mm 279mm
63/64” 0.9844 4,, 6“ 6 3/8” ,,,,
~,, 1.0000 &
6“ 6 3/8” 11”
25.50 1.0039 165mm 283mm
1 1/64” 1.0156 6 1/2” 11 1/8”
26.00 1.0236 165mm 283mm
1 1/32” 1.0312 6 1/2” 11 1/8”
26.50 1.0433 168mm 286mm
1 3/64” 1.0469 6 5/8” 11 1/4”
1 1/16” 1.0625 6 1/4” 6 5/8” 11 1/4”
27.00 1.0630 175mm 292mm
1 5/ 64” 1.0781 6 7] 8“ 11 1/2”
27.50 1.0827 175mm 292mm
1 3/32” 1.0938 67/ 8“ 11 1/2”
28.00 1.1024 181mm 298mm
1 7/64” 1.1094 7 1/8” 11 3/4”
28.50 1.1220 181mm 298mm
1 1/8” 1.1250 4 6 3/8” 7 1/8” 11 3/4”
1 9/64” 1.1406 7 1/4” 11 7/8”
1 IA17 184mm 302mm
9-34
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
1 5/32” 1.1562 7 1/4” 11 7/8”
29.50 1.1614 187mm 305mm
1 11/64” 1.1719 7 3/8” ~2,,
30.00 1.1811 187mm 305mm
13/16” 1.1875 4 1/4” 6 5/8” 7 3/8” 12”
30.50 1.2008 190mm 308mm
1 13/6Y 1.2031 7 1/2” 12 1/8”
17/32” 1.2188 7 1/2” 12 1/8”
31.00 1,2205 200mm 318mm
1 15/64” 1.2344 7 7/8” 12 1/2”
31.50 1.2402 200mm 318mm
11/4” 1.2500 4 3/8” 6 3/4” 7 7/8” 12 1/2”
32.00 1.2598 216mm 359mm
32.50 ,2795 216mm 359mm
19/32” .2812 8 1/2” 14 1/8”
33.00 .2992 219mm 362mm
15/16” .3125 4 3/8” 7,, 8 5/8” 14 1/4”
33.50 .3189 222mm 365mm
34.00 .3386 222mm 365mm
1 11/32” .3438 8 3/4” 14 3/8”
34.50 1.3583 225mm 368mm
13/8” 1,3750 4 1/2” 7 l/8~J 8 7/8” 14 1/2”
35.00 1.3780 229mm 371mm
35.50 1.3976 229mm 371mm
1 13/32” 1.4062 9“ 14 5/8”
36.00 1.4173 232mm 375mm
36.50 1,4370 232mm 375mm
17/16” 1.4375 4 3/4” 7 3/8” 9 1/8” 14 3/4”
37.00 1,4567 235mm 378mm
I 15/32” 1.4688 9 1/4” 14 7/8”
37.50 1.4764 238mm 381mm
38.00 1.4961 238mm 381mm
,5,,
1 1/2” 1,5000 4 7/8” 7 1/2” 9 3/8”
19/16 1,5625 4 7/8” 7 3/4” 9 5/8” 15 1/4”
15/8” 1.6250 4 7/8” 7 3/4” 97/ 8“ 15 5/8”
1 11/16” 1.6875 5 1/8” 8/,
8,)
13/4” 1.7500 5 1/8” 10 1/2” 16 1/4”
1 13/16° 1,8125 5 3/8” 8 1/4”
17/8” 1.8750 5 3/8” 8 1/4”
115/16” 1.9375 5 5/8” 8 1/2”
2“ 2.0000 5 5/8” 8 1/2”
(Cleveland Twist Drill Co,}
good rigidity, thus reducing runout. Larger size center drills are accurate hole starting or workpiece centering. A constant web
sometimes used for starting operations when drilling is done on thickness eliminates the need for thinning these drills when
screw machines and other machine tools to increase the location repainting.
accuracies of holes to be produced. Holes that are to be drilled and chamfered in workplaces
When the design of the workpiece permits, the countersink having a hard or scaled surface can be produced more
portion of the center-drilled hole should be 0.003-0.006” (0.08- economically by spot drilling (to form the chamfer) prior to
0.15 mm) larger in diameter than the finished hole size. The drilling. With this method, the spot drill cuts only a short time
included angle of the center drill is sometimes made less than the through stock that has a detrimental effect on tool life, while the
included angle of the drill that follows. hole drill cuts for a longer -time through easier-to-machine
Spotting and centering drills. These straight-shank twist material. Processing in this way allows the drills to be rapidly
drills are designed to produce accurate and true centers. They advanced closer to the workpiece, thus decreasing the feed
have short flute and overall lengths, and no body clearance, stroke and allowing a decrease in the feed rate to increase tool
which allows them to be chucked close to the cutting point for life.
9-35
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
Left-hand drills. These tools are of the same basic design as smallness of the hole sizes, and high-speed operation of the
general-purpose drills, but they are made for left-hand cutting. machines used make carbide drills essential. Most circuit-board
They are commonly used in screw machines in which tapping drills have a 35° helix angle, four-facet point, tapered web, and
operations require left-hand cutting tools. back taper. They are available in fractional, number, and metric
DoubIe-margin drills. These tools are often used when holes sizes, with 1/ 8“ (3.2 mm) diam straight shanks and 1 1/ 2“ (38
must be straighter and to closer tolerances with respect to size. mm) overall Iengths.
They have a second pair of margins at the trailing edges of the Ct’zipbreaker drills. These tools have flute modifications or
lands, about midway between the primary margins (see Fig. other design features to curl and break the chips produced in
9-21), thus providing added bearing in bushings and holes with most materials in which long stringy chips are normally
four guide surfaces. This construction also helps to eliminate produced, thus minimizing clogging problems. Most of various
the effects of errors in point grinding. Double margins are also chipbreaker designs involve a flute configuration that forces
used on some step drills for producing accurate holes when long chips to curl and bend sufficiently so that small broken
guide bushings cannot be used. chips are produced.
Circuit-board drills. These solid carbide tools are used Transverse sections through several chipbreaker drills are
extensively to drill numerous small-diameter holes in printed illustrated in Fig. 9-22. Such flute designs are built into the drills
circuit boards. The boards generally consist of an insulating and no additional notches or grooves are required when
epoxy-resin, glass-based material coated with a thin layer of regrinding. For some applications, particularly with larger size
conductive copper. The abrasive nature of the material drilled, twist drills, chip curling grooves are ground in the rake faces of
TABLE 9-7
General Dimensions of Three and Four-Flute Core Drills,
Fractional Sizes Only
Straight Shank
Three Flute Four Flute
Flute Overall Flute Overall
Drill Diameter Length Length Length Length
Fraction in. mm in. mm in. mm in. mm in, mm
1/4 0.2500 6.350 3 3/4 95 6 1/8 156 --- --- ___ ---
9/32 0.2812 7.142 3 7!8 98 6 1/4 159 --- --- --- ---
5/16 0.3125 7.938 4 102 6 3/’8 162 ___ --- --- ---
11/32 0.3438 8.733 4 1/8 105 6 1/2 165 --- --- --- ---
3/8 0.3750 9.525 4 1/8 105 6 3/4 171 --- --- --- ---
13/32 0.4062 10.317 43/8 111 7 178 --- --- --- ---
7/16 0.4375 11.112 4 5,/8 117 7 1/4 184 ___ --- ___ ---
15/32 0.4688 11.908 4 3/4 121 71/2 190 --- --- --- ---
1/2 0.5000 12.700 4 3/4 121 7 3/4 197 43]4 121 7 3/4 197
17/32 0.5312 13.492 4 3/4 121 8 203 4 3)4 121 8 203
9/16 0.5625 14.288 4 7/8 124 8 1/4 210 4 7/8 124 8 1/4 210
19/32 0.5938 15.083 47/8 124 8 3/4 222 47I8 124 8 3/4 222
5/8 0.6250 15.875 47/8 124 8 3/4 222 47/8 124 8 3/4 222
21/32 0,6562 16.667 5 1/8 130 9 229 5 1/8 130 9 229
11/16 0.6875 17.462 5 3/8 137 9 1/4 235 5 3/8 137 9 1/4 235
23)32 0.7188 18.258 --- --- --- --- 5 5/8 143 9 1/2 241
3/4 0.7500 19.050 5 7/8 149 9 3/4 248 5 7/8 149 93]4 248
25/32 0.7812 19.842 --- --- --- --- 6 152 97/8 251
13/16 0.8125 20.638 --- --- ___ --- 61/8 156 10 254
27/32 0.8438 21.433 --- --- --- --- 6 1/8 156 10 254
7/8 0.8750 22.225 --- --- --- --- 6 1/8 156 10 254
29/32 0.9062 23.017 --- --- --- --- 6 1/8 156 10 254
15/16 0.9375 23.812 --- --- --- --- 61/8 156 10 3/4 273
31/32 0.9688 24.608 --- --- --- --- 6 3/8 162 11 279
1 1.0000 25.400 --- --- --- --- 63/8 162 11 279
1 1/32 1.0312 26.192 --- ___ --- ___ 6 1/2 165 11 1/8 283
1 1/16 1.0625 26.988 --- --- --- --- 6 5/8 168 11 1/4 286
1 3/32 1.0938 27.783 --- --- --- --- 67/8 175 11 1/2 292
1 1/8 1.1250 28.575 --- --- --- --- 7 1/8 181 11 3/4 298
1 1/4 1.2500 31.750 --- --- --- --- 7718 200 12 1/2 318
9-36
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
Straieht Shank
Morse Flute Overall Morse Flute Overall
Drill Diameter
Taper Length Length Taper Length Length
Fraction in. mm No. in. mm in. mm No. in. mm in. mm
1/4 0.2500 6.350 1 27/8 73 6 1/8 156 --- --- --- --- ---
9/32 0.2812 7.142 1 3 76 61/4 159 --- --- --- --- ---
5/16 0.3175 7.938 1 3 1/8 79 63/8 162 --- --- --- --- ---
11/32 0.3438 8.733 1 31/4 83 6 1/2 165 --- --- --- --- ---
3/8 0.3750 9.525 1 3 1/2 89 6 3/4 171 --- ___ --- ---
13/32 0.4062 10.217 1 35/8 92 7 178 --- --- --- --- ---
7/16 0.4375 11.112 1 3 7/8 98 7 1/4 184 --- --- --- ..- ---
15/32 0.4688 11.908 1 41/8 105 7 1/2 190 --- --- --- --- ---
1/2 0.5000 12.700 2 43/8 111 8 1/4 210 2 43,/8 111 81/4 210
17/32 0.5312 13.492 2 45/8 117 8 1/2 216 2 45/8 117 8 1/2 216
9/16 0.5625 14.288 2 47/8 124 8 3/4 222 2 47/8 124 83/4 222
19/32 0.5938 15.083 2 47/8 124 83/4 222 2 47/8 124 8 3/4 222
5/8 0.6250 15.815 2 47/8 124 8 3/4 222 2 47/8 124 8 3/4 222
21/32 0.6562 16.668 2 5 1/8 130 9 229 2 5 1/8 130 9 229
11/16 0.6875 17.462 2 5 3/8 137 9 1/4 235 2 53/8 137 91/4 235
23/32 0.7188 18.258 2 55/8 143 91/2 241 2 5 5/8 143 91/2 241
3/4 0.7500 19.050 2 57/8 149 93/4 248 2 5 7/8 149 9 3/4 248
25/32 0.7812 19.842 2 6 152 97/8 251 2 6 152 97/8 251
13/16 0.8125 20,638 3 61/8 156 10 3/4 273 3 61/8 156 10 3/4 273
27/32 0.8438 21.433 3 61/8 156 10 3/4 273 3 61/8 156 10 3/4 273
7/8 0.8750 22.225 3 61/8 156 10 3/4 273 3 61/8 156 10 3/4 273
29/32 0.9062 23.000 3 6 1/8 156 10 3/4 273 3 61/8 156 103/4 273
15/16 0.9375 23.812 3 61/8 156 10 3/4 273 3 61/8 156 10 3/4 273
31/32 0.9688 24.608 3 63/8 162 11 279 3 63/8 162 11 279
1 1.0000 25.400 3 63/8 162 11 279 3 63/8 162 11 279
1 1/32 1.0312 26.192 3 6 1/2 165 11 1/8 283 3 6 1/2 165 11 1/8 283
1 1/16 1,0625 26.988 3 65/8 168 11 1/4 286 3 6 5/8 168 11 1/4 286
1 3/32 1.0938 27.783 4 67/8 175 12 1/2 318 4 67/8 175 12 1/2 318
1 1/8 1.1250 28.575 4 71/8 181 12 3/4 324 4 71/8 181 12 3/4 324
1 5/32 1.1562 29.367 4 7 1/4 184 12 7/8 327 4 7 1/4 184 127/8 327
1 3/16 1.1875 30.162 4 73/8 187 13 330 4 73/8 187 13 330
1 7/32 1.2188 30.958 4 7 1/2 190 13 1/8 333 4 71/2 190 13 1/8 333
1 1/4 1.2500 31.750 4 77/8 200 13 1/2 343 4 77/8 200 13 1/2 343
1 9/32 1.2812 32.542 ..- --- --- —- --- 4 8 1/2 216 14 1/8 359
1 5/16 1.3125 33.338 ___ --- --- --- --- 4 8 5/8 219 14 1/4 362
1 11/32 1.3438 34.133 --- --- —- --- --- 4 8 3/4 222 143/8 365
1 3/8 1.3750 34.925 --- --- --- --- —- 4 87/8 225 14 1/2 368
1 13/32 1.4062 35.717 --- --- --- --- --- 4 9 229 14 5/8 371
1 7/16 1.4375 36.512 --- --- --- --- --- 4 9 1/8 232 14 3/4 375
1 15/32 1.4683 37.300 --- --- --- --- --- 4 9 1/4 235 14 7/8 378
1 1/2 1.5000 38.100 --- --- --- --- ___ 4 9 3/8 238 15 381
1 17/32 1.5312 38.892 --- --- --- --- --- 5 93/8 238 163/8 416
1 9/16 1.5675 39.688 --- --- --- --- --- 5 95/8 244 16 5/8 422
1 19/32 1.5938 40.483 --- --- --- --- --- 5 97]8 251 16 7/8 429
15/8 1.6250 41.275 --- --- --- -- --- 5 10 254 17 432
1 21/32 1.6562 42.067 —- --- --- --- ___ 5 10 1/8 257 17 1/8 435
1 11/16 1.6875 42.862 --- --- --- --- --- 5 10 1/8 257 17 1/8 435
1 23/32 1.7188 43.658 --- -- --- --- —- 5 10 1/8 257 17 1/8 435
1 3/4 1.7500 44.450 --- --- --- --- --- ‘i 101/8 257 171/8 435
9-37
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
Straight Shank
Morse Flute Overall Morse Flute Overall
Drill Diameter Taper Length Length Taper Length Length
Fraction in. mm No. in. mm in. mm No. in. mm in. mm
1 25/32 1.7812 45.262 --- --- --- --- --- 5 10 1/8 257 17 1/8 435
1 13/16 1.8125 46.038 --- --- --- --- --- 5 10 1/8 257 17 1/8 435
1 27/32 1.0000 46.833 ..- --- --- --- --- 5 10 1/8 257 17 1/8 435
1 7’/8 1.8750 47.625 --- --- --- --- --- 5 10 3/8 264 173/8 441
1 29/32 1.9062 48,417 --- --- --- --- --- 5 10 3/8 264 17 3/8 441
1 15/16 1.9375 49.212 --- --- --- --- --- 5 10 3/8 264 17 3/8 441
1 31,/32 1.9688 50.008 --- --- --- --- --- 5 10 3)8 264 173/8 441
2 2.0000 50.800 --- --- --- --- --- 5 103/8 264 173/8 441
2 1/8 2.1250 53.975 --- --- --- --- --- 5 10 1/4 260 173/8 441
2 1/4 2.2500 57.150 --- --- --- --- --- 5 10 1/8 257 17 3/8 441
23/8 2.3750 60.325 --- --- --- --- --- 5 10 1/8 257 17 3/8 441
2112 2.5000 63.500 --- --- --- --- --- 5 11 1/4 286 183/4 476
(ANSI Standard B94.IIM-1979, published by ASME)
the cutting lips, or chip splitting grooves are ground in either the
clearance or rake faces. Chipbreaker drills sometimes require
more torque than standard drills, and there is a minimum feed
rate below which they do not operate effectively.
Automotive series drills. These tools are straight-shank twist
drills of general-purpose construction. They have the same flute
and overall lengths as regular jobbers-length drills and are
1 furnished with tang drive. They are also available in a long
I Step construction
series with taper lengths and tang drive.
-___JfL+=7
Crankshaft drills. These tools are designed for drilling holes
in crankshafts, but are also used to produce holes deeper than
five or six times the drill diameter in any tough or hard material.
They have heavy webs, a higher than normal helix angle, a split
or crankshaft point, and a surface treatment for increased
abrasion resistance.
Cotter-pin drills. These are heavy-duty jobbers-length drills
Sublond corstructlon
designed for drilling cotter-pin holes in bolts, steering knuckles,
pins, and similar parts, as well as cross holes in the heads of
i% 9-17 Two types of construction used for multidiameter drills. bolts. Heavy construction resists the high strains from
(N;tional Twist b;il~
applications such as these and makes them suitable for drilling
some of the hard alloy steels, including the harder stainless
steels. Such drills are generally surface treated.
dtill Rail drills. These heavy-duty tools, originally designed for
drilling high-manganese railroad rails, are now being used to
drill a variety of hard, tough, high tensile strength and high
temperature resistant materials. They are made with a low helix
angle, heavy web, special web thinning for ease of penetration,
and short flute and overall lengths, and are surface treated.
Pipe-jlange ~wis~ drills. These tools, with special geometry
and surface treatment, are designed to produce accurate holes
in pipe flanges, valves, and fittings made from iron castings.
Drills for plastics. These tools are designed with wide flutes
and a low helix angle for use in drilling many plastics, fibrous
materials, asbestos, and hard rubber. They have a special
surface treatment to resist the abrasive action of these materials.
ig. 9-18 When the smaller diameter pilot of a step drill enters a hole, it Aircraft drills. Tools used extensively by the aircraft and
may drill oversize (left). When a larger diameter drill body enters the aerospace industries include extension drills. These tools have a
hole, it centers the pilot and produces a hole to close tolerance, fll:te construction conforming to National Aerospace Standard
9-38
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
Helx angle
Counleslnk angle .I
., ..,,
‘I CI>IIIK
-1 -.-1.
8C18CI “1 Igle
1
P04nt angle
D,D,er=j%=3=7-Ax’’T-spre’’””g”e’e
-...eh~DrldOmeier:;f
Dr;ll length
’;fiche Plmn Type i%
edge
Chisel edge o
Bell angle
Po[nt angle
w
I CuRlng foce
Dr,ll
~lo~~te, (R H ,otaton)
U[ometer
Body
Drill length o,ometer
Bell type
Ug, 9.19 Identifying features of plahr and bell typee of combined drill and countersink. (ANSI B94.1Ih4-1979, published by ASME)
magnesium, and other soft materials. Type B drills, with 135°

split points, are of heavier design and are surface treated for
drilling hard steels, stainless steels, titanium, and other hard
materials.
Short-flute aircraft drills with 118° points are desirable for
Machine tough, portable applications in titanium, heat-treated steels,
sptnule and aluminum. These drills are surface treated and have no
body clearance. Type C drills, with 135° split points, are made
in screw-machine lengths for use in machines or portable units
to drill hard, tough sheet metals of the heat-resistant stainless
l~Twlst drll
md titanium alloy types.
Clampmg stop-nti<
mcxg,n I
11- lard
fi,ng length
.3
Morg,n 2
(0) (b)
Work’piece
rig. 9-21 (a) Conventional twist drill; (b) double-margin drill. (Nurio?rQ
fwisf Drill)
ig. 9-20 Two-piece step drill consisting of a separate countersink
eeve and a standard drill. ( Guhring, Inc. )
(NAS) 907 prepared by the Aerospace Industries Association,

spring-tempered shanks to prevent permanent bending, and
overall lengths of 6 or 12” ( 152 or 305 mm). They are available
with either 118° or 135° split or offset drill points. These drills
are used principally for drilling holes in inaccessible places that
cannot be reached with regular length drills; they are generally
operated in portable drilling units.
Straight-shank, jobbers-length aircraft drills conforming to
NAS 907 are available in two types. Type A drills, with 118“
I
Fig. 9-22 Transverse seetions through several types of chipbreaker
split points, are used for drilling aluminum, mild steels, drills. (National Twist Dril~
9-39
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
Tools for portable drilling. These drills, which can be held in

the chucks of portable electric or air drilling units, are available Stro[ght-shank drills
with 1/4” (6.35 mm) or 1/ 2“ ( 12.7 mm) diam shanks. Flute and
overall lengths are shorter than those for general-purpose drills *
to provide increased rigidity. Body or skin drills, also often used
in portable drilling units for producing holes in sheet metal, are
of similar construction.
Sheeters drills are also of similar design, but they have
heavier webs, 135° offset points, and shanks of the same D = Dlometer of fluted sectton B = Body le~gth
diameters as the fluted portions of the drills. They are used to A = Shank dnmeter S = Shank length
drill holes in corrugated or flat metal sheeting or panels for 1 = Overall length N = Neck length
F = Flute length
building erection, for drilling truck and automobile bodies, and
for other general-purpose portable drilling. Toper-shank drills
Threaded-shank drills. These tools are used with angular
drives and flexible shafts for working in close quarters in which
+
conventional types of portable drills would be too bulky.
Rotabroach cutters. These tools (see Fig. 9-23), made by [)
Hougen Manufacturing Co., are difficult to classify, but they do
compete with conventional twist drills except in the production
of blind holes. They resemble heavy-duty hole saws, as well as D = Diameter of fluted section For d[menslons of American
trepanning tools, in that they produce slugs of solid material Shank Sze. If standard shank Notional S.andord Taper
rather than just chips. Standard tools are available to produce A IS ordered, specify as NO 2 Shonks see Table 9-5.
= Amer,con Natlonol Standard
through holes to 3“ (76 mm) diam in materials to 3“ thick, and L = Overall lengti-
S (Morse) Taper, No. 3 American
each cutter has from 7 to 22 teeth, depending upon diameter. I F = Flute Length
Na,lonal Standard (Morse)
B = Body length
Special tools have been built that are 7“(178 mm) diam and cut Taper, etc.
N= Neck length
through holes 10” (254 mm) deep. The introduction of a cutting For speclo Toper Shanks,
furmsh drowmg or gage.
fluid through the machine spindle or an inducer, a slug ejection
system, and a rigid setup are recommended when using these
tools. Multtpledometer dr,lls
An important advantage of Rotabroach cutters is that they
require less thrust force (only about 10% for smaller diameter
!L
tools) and power than twist drills of comparable size when
operated at the same feed rate. This is because there is no
dead-center area like the chisel edge region of a twist drill. The :
cutters can be operated at higher feed rates, thus increasing
metal removal rates, when using the same horsepower required Specify whether construction IS to T = Length of smull dtameter,
for twist drilling. Other advantages include close tolerances and be step or sublond ‘ype (Note that ths IS meos.red from
D = Diameter of flLted sect!on the outer corner of the point to
smooth finishes. P = Dfameter of small, fluted sect(o” the bonom or inner corner of
A = Shank dlan-eter +he cutitog shoulder.)
1 = O.eroll length R = Included angle of cuti[ng
ma
F = Flute Ieng*h shoulder. Note thot this IS
B = Body length measured as on angle between
S = .Wo?k length the two cuttng edges (Included
N = Neck length angle) ond not as an angle
with the center Ikne
. ~ig. 9-24 Detailed information that should be supplied when orderinl

sp;ciai twist drills. (Cleveland Twist Drill Co. ) --
having the required flute style. If the tang of the required drill is
Fig. 9-23 Rotabroach cutter which requires less thrust force than twist special, the thickness and length should be stated,
drill. Slug produced is seen at right. (Hougen Marru@clurirrg Co.) When extra-length drills are to be ordered, the type of
material to be drilled, depth of hole, whether drilling is to be
Special twist drills. It is always good practice, in the interest done in a vertical or horizontal position, and whether the
of economy, to use standard twist drills whenever possible. feed will be intermittent or with only occasional withdrawals
However, despite the wide variety of types and sizes com- should be specified. Drills should be as short as possible for
mercially available, special twist drills are often needed for maximum life.
many applications.
When special drills are to be specified, information covering Twist Drill Geometries
the details shown in Fig. 9-24 should be supplied to the drill Efficient drilling of the wide variety of materials encountered
manufacturers. Suitable allowance should be specified for in industry today requires many different drill designs and
resharpening purposes and also for clearance for the spindle geometries. Many holes can be drilled satisfactorily with
above the drill bushings. If a particular style of flute construction standard off-the-shelf twist drills, but no one drill is best for all
is desired, it should be specified by reference to a standard drill applications. Variations in drills being used, while maintaining
9-40
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
required strength and sufficient room for easy chip ejection, producing holes in soft plastics and nonferrous materials. Drills
include different drill points, lip relief and clearance angles, and having points with a 90° included angle are also used
flute construction (helix angle, web thickness, and web occasionally for drilling soft cast irons and certain woods.
thinning). Similarly, as the hardness of the workpiece material or depth
Various degrees of included-point angle, with proper lip of hole increases, the included angle of the drill point is
relief, and specific types of web thinning are used to perform the increased to 135-14W. These larger point angles produce
following: thicker and narrower chips for a given feed rate. Drills with
these flatter points are generally used to produce holes in
1. Control the formation of the chips produced.
harder, tougher materials, and they usualIy minimize burring, It
2. Control the size and shape of the chips.
is especially important to use guide bushings with drill points
3. Control chip flow along the flutes.
having higher angles because there is a tendency for the points
4. Increase the strength of the cutting lips.
to skid or walk on the workpiece surfaces when starting holes.
5. Reduce the rate of cutting lip wear.
Double-angle poin~s. Twist drills with double-angle points
6. Reduce the thrust required for drilling.
(see Fig. 9-25, b) are generated by first grinding a larger
i’. Control the hole size and quality.
included angle (11 8 or 135° ) and then a smaller included angle
8. Control the size and amount of burrs produced.
(typically 90° ) on the corners. This provides the effect of
9. Reduce the amount of heat generated.
chamfers and reduces abrasive wear on the corners.
10. Permit variations in cutting -. speed and feed rate for more
Initial applications for this style point were in drilling
efficient drilling.
medium and hard cast irons as well as other very abrasive
Drill points. Since drill points form the cutting edges, their materials to reduce corner wear on the drills. More recent
geometries are critical to tool performance. There is a variety of applications include improving hole sizes and finishes and
point styles being used today; some of the more common ones drilling very hard materials to reduce chipping of the corners of
are described in this section, Proper selection, control, and use the lips. Twist drills with double-angle points are often used for
of drill points can result in substantial savings in drilling costs. the same applications as drills with rounded-edge (radiused lip)
Single-arrglepoirr?s. Standard twist drills having conventional points, discussed later in this section.
points with a 118° included angle are the most commonly used Reduced-rake poinz.s. A common and easily applied point
because they provide satisfactory results in drilling a wide variation is the flatted cutting lip. Both cutting edges are flatted
variety of materials. The cutting lips on these drills are on their flute faces, called dubbing, from the cutting lip corners
essentially straight lines, with the heel side of each land a to the chisel edge, as illustrated in Fig, 9-25, c. This type of point
smooth curve (see Fig. 9-25, a). reduces the effective axial rake to 0-5° positive, causing a
A possible limitation to the use of this conventional point is pushing or plowing of metal rather than a shearing action.
that its straight chisel edge contributes to wandering of the Reduced shearing action is an effective method of preventing
point, often making it necessary to first use a center drill for the tools from digging in when drilling is performed on
improved hole accuracy. Also, the sharp corners tend to break materials with low tensile strengths such as many types of brass,
down more rapidly than some other geometries available, and bronze, and some of the harder acrylic plastics such as
there is more of a tendency to produce burrs on breakthrough. Plexiglas. Reducing the rake also strengthens the cutting lips,
As a result, drills with this type point are generally best suited and this type of point is often used in operations in which
for applications for which close tolerances are not required. chipping of the lips has been a problem.
As the hardness of the workpiece material decreases, Four andsix-facetpoints. The geometry of a four-facet point
improved drill performance can be achieved by reducing the (see Fig. 9-25, d) is generated by grinding flat primary relief
included angle of the drill point to 60-9W. Drills having these (10-1 8° ) and secondary clearance angles (25-35° ) on the end of
more acute point angles produce thinner chips for a given feed each flute. The width of the primary relief flat is equal to
rate and are commonly used, with low-helix flutes, for one-half the web thickness, resulting in four facets on the end of
@ @ @tih.ffl.+prmarycleo.nce
equals 1/2 web thickness at point
I/3 11P Ig!h. 31Y Approx. notch ang.
& parallel to cutting edge
~ 0.5° PO, roke
~<,”pp~ l&% , , ~ ~ ,“c,, ~ng J% llEP or 13m’
;~@%l”cl”GpoD
Q 118°
(c) S,ngle angle (b) Double angle (c) Reduced Rake (d) Four facet
ig. 9-25 Four tYPes of drill point geometries used for different applications. (Cleveland Twtsr Drill CO.)
9-41
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
the drill which subtend at a point on the drill axis and entirely HeIical (spiral) points. This type of point is generated by
remove the chisel edge. Six-facet points are produced by adding reducing the drill point from a chisel edge to a helicaI (spiral)
two cutting edges at the web of four-facet points. point, asillustrated in Fig, 9-27. This produces an S-shaped
Since these points are exactly in the middle of the drills, the chisel with a radiused crown effect which has its highest point at
tools are self-centering and accurate and straight holes can be the center of the drill axis. This S-shaped chisel creates a
produced. They also require less power and thrust and permit continuous cutting edge extending from margin to margin
increased feed rates Drills with these points, however, are across the web.
subject to more wear on their margins, and they cannot be Advantages of drills with a helical point include a self-
modified to suit drilling of various materials. Another dis- centering capability and some reduction of thrust. Their use
advantage is the cost of resharpening with a special machine. also results in better hole geometry and improved hole size.
Four and six-facet points have found their greatest use for A possible disadvantage of this type of point is that burrs are
solid carbide drills used to produce holes in printed circuit sometimes produced at hole breakthrough. Also, the S-shaped
board materials such as fiberglass-epoxy. The points may also chisel is weaker than straight chisel points, resulting in faster
be used on small-diameter HSS drills that do not lend dulling when hard materials are drilled. Special machines are
themselves to normal point-splitting techniques. required to grind these points,
Split-points. This type of point, also called a crankshaft Rounded-edge (radiused-lip) points. These points are gen-
point, was originally developed for use on drills designed for erated by grinding a blended, rounded edge (radiused corner or
producing small-diameter, deep holes in automotive crank- lip) on conventional points (see Fig. 9-28). Points such as these
shafts. Since then it has gained widespread use for drilling a provide a continuously varying point angle, with the lips and
wide variety of hard and soft materials. Heavy-duty types with margins blended bya smooth curve. Because thedrill cutson
thicker webs are used for drilling stainless steels, titanium, long, curved lips, there is less load per unit area and less heat
tough alloys, and high temperature resistant alloys. Drills with generated. Since the corner is eliminated, margin wear is
this type of point are also employed extensively for applications reduced. Breakthrough burrs are eliminated, and tool life can
in which guide bushings cannot be used, as well as for portable be lengthened compared to conventionally pointed drills when
drilling applications. cast iron is drilled. Feed rates canalso beincreased because of
In generating split points on drills, the clearance face of each the improved heat dissipation.
cutting edgeisgiven asharp(55° typical) secondary relief tothe Twist drills with rounded-edge points are used when drill life
center of the chisel edge (see Fig. 9-26), thus creating a is most important. Drills with these points are not self-centering
secondary cutting lip ontheopposite cutting edge. The angle and are best applied where guide bushings are used. When used
between these lip segments acts as a chipbreaker when drilling is on NC machines, prior center drilling is required. The time
done on many materials, producing smaller chips that are required for center drilling, however, may bemore than offset
readily ejected through the flutes. More importantly, however, by longer tool life. A possible limitation is that special grinding
the additional cutting edges produced and the reduction in machines are required to produce these points. Also, when steel
width of the original chisel edge reduces thrust requirements is drilled, these points cut closer to size, which may reduce drill
(typically 25-30% compared toconventional118° points) and life compared to that possible with conventional points because
improves the centering capability. Adisadvantage is the need of greater corner and margin wear.
for a point-splitting grinding machine, Combined he[ical/rounded-edge points. Drill grinding
Notch roke angle

Ie
thickness
int below
dory
9
A
k
Angle of notch
liplitting ongle
?ig. 9-26 Geometry of split-point twist drill.
.
9-42
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
s
Fig. 9-27 Helical (spiral) point which has an S-shaped point rather than
I straight-line chisel edge.
I
I
Fig. 9-29 Twist drill point combines features of heticscl and rounded-
edge points. ( Giddings & Lewis- Bickford Machine Co. )
Fig. 9-28 Rounded-edge point which has lips and margins hIended TABLE 9-8
smooth curves.
Suggested Lip Clearance Angles on Points for
General-Purpose Twist Drills with 118° Included Angle Points
machines are available that combine features of both the helical
and rounded-edge points, The point produced (see Fig. 9-29) Lip Relief
provides the self-centering capability of helical points and the Drill Diam Range Angle, degrees
long life, burr-free breakthrough, and higher feed capacity of
rounded-edge points. These features make the drills capable of Nos. 80 to 75 (0.0135-0.0210”) 25-29
0.55 to 0.8 mm 24-28
producing accurate holes on NC machines without the need for
No. 67 (0.0320’’)-1.55 mm 22-26
prior center drilling.
Lip relief, The lip relief angle used on a drill is also important.
1/ 16” to No. 48 (0.0625-0.0760”) 21-25
5/64” to No. 42 (0.0781-0.0935”) 20-24
With inadequate lip relief, a drill will not cut freely; excessive
3/ 32” to No. 36 (0.0938-0. 1065”) 18-22
relief will shorten the drill life. It is even more important that
7/64” to No. 31 (O.1094-0.1200”) 17-21
the relief angle on each lip be equal and that the relief surfaces
be in close axial relationship to each other. The amount of hole 1/8” to No. 13 (O.1250-0.1850”) 15-19
3/ 16” to D (0, 1875-0.246”) 14-18
oversize produced increases with an increase in relative
1/4” to M (0.2500-0.295”) 13-17
lip height.
19/64 to 11/32” (0.2969-0.3438”) 12-16
The amount of relief depends primarily upon the drill
S to W (0.348-0.386”) 11-15
diameter, cutting edge strength, and the material to be drilled.
25/ 64 to 29/ 64” (0.3906-0.4531 “) 10-14
Suggested lip clearance angles at the peripheries of general-
15/32 to 3/4” (0.4688-0.7500”) 9-13
purpose drills with 118° included angle points are presented in
Table 9-8. For drilling harder materials, the angle is often 49/64 to 1“ (0.7656-1 .0000”) 7-11
reduced; for softer and nonferrous materials, it is generally Over 1” (1.0000”) 6-8
increased.
Higher relief angles generally provide best results with light
TABLE 9-9
feeds and low-strength, nonferrous materials. Some of the
Approximate Web Thickness of Standard
plastics and cast irons also require higher relief angles because
Twist Drills, Percentage of Drill Diameter
of their abrasiveness. With heavy feeds, as well as harder
workpiece materials, reduced relief angles provide cutting edges
Web Thickness
with additional support to withstand the higher cutting loads. Percentage of
Drill Size, Number and
Web thickness. Because the chisel edges are noncutting Fractional. Inches Drill Diameter
portions of drill points, the webs of twist drills are made as thin
NOS. 80 to 66 (0.0135-0.0330) 30
as possible, consistent with adequate structural strength. The
Nos. 65 to 56 (0.0350-0.0465) 25
approximate web thicknesses near the points of standard drills,
No. 55 to 3/16 (0.0520-0. 1875) 20
expressed as a percentage of the drill diameters, are presented in
3/16to 1/4 (0.1875-0.2500) 17
Table 9-9. Heavy-duty drills have thicker webs (about twice the
l/4t05/8 (0.2500-0.6250) 15
thickness of standard general-purpose drills) and often have
5/8 to 1 3/8 (0.6250-1.3750) 13
narrower flutes to increase torsional stiffness.
1 3/8 to 2 3/8 (1.3750-2.3750) 12
Most drills are manufactured with webs which increase in
0ver23/8 (2.3750) 11
thickness toward their shanks. Resharpening of a worn drill
9-43
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
shortens the drill and increases the web thickness and chisel
edge length (see Fig. 9-30). This results in increased thrust
requirements, additional heat generation, and shorter drill life In.-lb
unless the web is thinned to its original thickness. Heavy-duty N.m 400
, ,
drills generally require thinning before they are used. The web Torque
thickness on some deep-hole drills, however, does not increase; 40

r -t
the thickness is the same at the chisel end as it is at the end of the 300 Total drtll torque
I-1=
flutes and is called a parallel web. 30
Regular drill
Thrust force on a twist drill is more sensitive to changes in

““”””q
web thickness than is the drill torque, as can be seen by
200 LIP torque
comparing the two graphs in Fig. 9-31. These graphs show how 20
drill torque and thrust are influenced by changes in chisel edge
length, which is proportional to web thickness. They were /
00
calculated from test results with 1/ 2“ (12.7 mm) diam drills fed 10
-F
at the rate of 0.010 ipr (0.25 mm/rev) in SAE 3245 steel having a //
,~’web ,Orque
hardness of 200 BrineIl. In addition to total torque and thrust --
requirements, these graphs also show the approximate contri- .
n 0 ~
in. 0 0050 0. I 00 0. I 50 0200 0.250
butions of drill web and lip regions to the total. , I
1
Most of the drill torque results from the outer portions of the mm 0123456
drill lips because this is where most of the material removal Drill chisel edge Icngih
occurs. For a drill of regular proportions, only about 1590 of the
torque comes from the web. With a drill of regular design, about lb
50% of the total thrust force is caused by the web. If the web 2000 r I c 1 1 , I I
thickness is doubled, the thrust force is increased by more than
N Thrust force Total drill
8000 1750
60%; then, about 75% of the total thrust is caused by the web. It ‘ thrust /
Web thinning. Several types of web thinning are commonly I ~oo -
Regular drtll
used. The type shown in Fig. 9-32, a, is perhaps the most 6000 proporhons
common. Length A is usually one-half to three-fourths the 1250 -
\
length of the cutting lip. In this type of thinning, as well as in all
I 000 -
others, it is important that the thinning cut extend far enough 4000
up the flute so that an abrupt wedge is not formed at the extreme 750 -
point. The distance of the thinned cut varies with the amount of
thinning required, but an average of one-fourth to one-half the 2000
500-
drill diameter is usually satisfactory. 250-
Sometimes it is advisable to extend the thinning out to the 0 <’ 1 t , , , 1
extreme edge in order to change the shape of the chip. In this 0
In. O 0050 0.100 0150 0.200 0250
type of thinning (see Fig. 9-32, b), a positive effective rake is ,
t 1 , 1 1
mm 0 I 23456
Dr,ll chisel edge length
I Secilon A-A
Fig. 9-31 (a) Effect of chisel edge length on torque; (b) thrust force
(bottom graph). (National Twist DriIl)
Sechon B-B
M Web
thickness Ch~@@e
J
~ig. 9-30 Resharpening of twist drill progressively increases the web Fig. 9-32 Two types of web thinning: (a)
~al (b)
atchisel edge and(b) undercut

hickness and chisel edge length. thinned point.
9-44
CHAPTER 9
TWIST DRILLS
maintained the full length of the cutting edge. A third type of COOLANT-FED TWIST DRILLS
thinning often used results in the split or crankshaft point Coolant-fed twist drills having means for directing coolant
described previously. (fluid, gas, or mist) to the cutting edges offer many advantages
Some manufacturers offer self-thinned webs on jobbers- for certain drilling applications. Oil-hole drills have been used
length twist drills. These drills have a web which is straight for many years to produce deep holes. They were originally
(uniformly thick) for one-third or more of the flute lengths and developed for applications such as horizontal or inverted drilling
then tapers toward the shank. in which point cooling and/or chip ejection presented problems.
Helix angles. The helix angle on standard twist drills Now, improved types of coolant-fed twist drills are being
generally ranges from 25-33°. High-helix (fast-spiral) drills with used increasingly for a wide variety of more common drilling
helix angles of 35-40° and low-helix (slow-spiral) drills with applications, including shallow holes, in which higher pene-
helix angles of 15-20° are also commercially available for tration rates or longer tool life are desired. They are employed
drilling certain materials and special applications, as discussed extensively in machining centers, multispindle bar and chucking
previously in the section on types of drills. machines, screw machines, turret lathes, and other machine tools
Although used in Europe for many years, a relatively recent for producing holes shallower than those that are usually drilled
introduction to the United States is the parabolic flute twist drill by self-guiding deep-hole drills (discussed later in this chapter).
that provides more open flutes for improved chip removal and Small-diameter, coolant-fed twist drills are also used extensively
cutting fluid flow while permitting heavy webs for high for portable drilling applications in the aircraft industry.
torsional strength. Combined with webs of constant thickness,
they have proven to be ideal for deep-hole drilling in cast irons,
mild steels, and aluminum alloys. A twist drill with parabolic Advantages of Coolant-Fed Tooling
flutes and a split point is illustrated in Fig. 9-33. For some In many drilling applications, coolant is misdirected and
deep-hole applications (with depth-to-diameter ratios to 12:1 or wasted. As a result, benefits are minimal. With coolant-fed
more), speeds and feeds to 100~o greater than conventional tooling, however, the coolant is directed close to the cutting
drills have been reported, often eliminating the need for edge, thereby substantially reducing friction and temperatures
woodpeckering. at the drill/ workpiece interface. This reduces wear and
Fig. 9-33 Twist drill with parabolic flutes and a split point. (Bendix Industrial Tools Div. )
9-45
CHAPTER 9
COOLANT-FED TWIST DRILLS
lengthens drill life, resulting in reduced costs per hole drilled flood coolant. By nature of comparison, coolant-fed drill D
because of less downtime for tool changes and regrinds. produced over 400” (10 160 mm) at a penetration rate of 11 ipm
Depending upon the application, faster cutting speeds and (279 mm/min), and coolant-fed drill C, more than 400” at 23
feed rates can generally be used, thus increasing the metal ipm (584 mm/min).
removal rate and productivity. Results of one drilling study The high-helix, coolant-fed drill, C, is clearly the best style for
using two solid and two coolant-fed drills showed that the use in this rather mild, normally stringy chip material and
coolant-fed drills were capable of considerably higher pene- effectively more than triples the penetration rate for this
tration rates (see Fig. 9-34). This plot of drill life as a function of application. A coolant flow of 2.5 gpm (9.5 L/ rein) was
penetration rate was made for drilling 4“ (102 mm) deep provided through these drills, obtained by using a pressure
through holes in SAE 1018 steel, having a hardness of 127 Bhn, pump operating at 70 psi (483 kPa). For setting up any coolant-
for two varieties of solid 7/ 8“ (22 mm) diam twist drills and two fed drill applications, common practice is to start with speeds
varieties of 7/ 8“ coolant-fed twist drills. The life of the solid 10% higher and feeds 25% higher than those established for
drills for this single test ranged from over 350” (8890 mm) when solid twist drills.
drilled at a penetration rate of 6 ipm (152 mm/min) to less than Productivity is also improved by eliminating the need for
50” (1270 mm) when drilled at 12 ipm (305 mm/min), using interrupting the drilling cycle to withdraw the tool to clear chips
General-purpose Heavy-duty High-hellx, heavY- lov+hellx, heavY-

drld dr,ll duty, coolant-fed duty, coolant-fed
dr[ll feeding mill
(a)
c
mm m It Drill Ife
I
500 B
I 2,000 c
400
D
9000
300
6000
200
A
3000
100
00
05101520253035 40 w
mmjnm
o 250 500 750 I 000
Penetration rote
(b)
g. 9-34 (a) Two solid and two coolant-fed drills used in study to show (b) increased penetration rates possible with coolant-fed drills.
9-46
CHAPTER 9
COOLANT-FED TWIST DRILLS
(woodpeckering). Coolant-fed drills generally improve chip drilling applications. Carbide-tipped drills are generally more
removal. Consequently, heat transfer to the chips, tool, and economical for producing a large number of holes in cast iron or
workpiece is minimized; buildup on the drill cutting edges is other abrasive materials and often provide longer life when
reduced; and holes with improved accuracy and smoother hard or tough materials are being drilled.
finishes are produced. Air pollution from smoke or mist may
also be minimized because of reduced heat and friction. Coolant Supply
For some applications in the aircraft, aerospace, and nuclear Straight-shank, coolant-fed twist drills, normally used in
industries, the use of coolant-fed drills has improved surface horizontal, nonrotating applications, are held in either a solid
integrity by eliminating tearing, checking, and cracking of toolholder or a collet-style drillholder. Drill sizes over 1/ 2“
workpiece materials. (12,7 mm) diam have the end of the shank drilled and tapped for
use with a coolant inlet hose fitting when applicable. Sizes
Limitations of Coolant-Fed Twist Drills below 1/2” generally have a shallow counterbored hole
The higher initial cost of coolant-fed drills and related encompassing the two coolant holes for ease of entry. In many
equipment is often an unjustified deterrent to the more holders, this end face of the drill shank is used for coolant
extensive use of these tools. Comparative studies frequently sealing. The ends of straight-shank drills should be squared
show that increased productivity, longer tool life, and other accurately for proper sealing,
advantages often make these tools economically desirable. It is Taper-shank drills, normally used in rotating spindle
the cost per hole, not the tool cost, that is most important. applications, are furnished with a midshank crosshole feed, or
Longer setup time may be a problem in justifying coolant-fed an inducer feed, or they are end feeding, The standard crosshole
tools for some short-run applications, While some machines are feed is used in conjunction with a coolant-inducer, socket-style
equipped with hollow spindles to supply coolant to these tools, holder similar to the one shown in Fig. 9-35, or with a machine
other machines may require some alteration to provide coolant toolholder which has internal coolant passages. For machines
piping, splash shielding, and other accessories. Another possible which can supply coolant through their hollow spindles, the
limitation is that the machine to be used may not have adequate drills have the coolant holes extending through them tang ends.
power to take advantage of the higher feeds and speeds possible Inducer-type, coolant-fed twist drills incorporate coolant
with coolant-fed drills. inlets on the neck portion of the drill, ahead of the shank. A feed
gland, held in place by retaining rings, eliminates the need for a
Types of Coolant-Fed Drills coolant-inducer/ socket component. This decreases the pro-
There are several styles of coolant-fed twist drills. One style jection length of the drill point from the machine spindle, and
has a tube secured in a groove machined in each land to deliver thus increases setup rigidity and tool life,
coolant to the cutting lips. Another, more common, type has Depending upon the material to be drilled, the drill diameter,
holes extending internally through each of the two lands. hole depth, and other factors, it is preferable to use coolant
Coolant-fed twist drills are available with either straight or volumes from 3-10 or more gpm (1 1-38 L/ rein), with pressures
taper shanks, in a wide range of sizes, 1/8 to 3“ (3.2 to 76 mm) from 50-300 psi (345-2068 kPa), for coolant-fed drills. In some
diam, and in extra-long lengths. Medium to heavy-duty drills instances, however, lower pressure sump pumps may provide
with constant (parallel) web construction are generally best for suitable performance. Good results are being obtained with
most applications. A fairly heavy web construction, about 309Z both constant pressure and pulsating coolant systems, discussed
of the drill diameter, is generally needed for strength because of later in this chapter under the subject of “Operating
the increased feed rates often used with these tools. Parameters.”
Drills with a low helix angle of about 14-22° are widely used
for stationary tooling, horizontal drilling applications, and cast
iron drilling. The low helix angle provides shorter paths for the
coolant and chips, but requires higher torque and thrust forces. Machine spindle
Drills with a medium-high helix angle of about 30-34° are
generally recommended for vertical drilling. They usually
outperform low-helix drills in soft materials and in most
applications when the tools are rotating.
The points of coolant-fed twist drills, generally having a
standard 118° included angle, should be notch thinned to the portion of coupllng
Rotary c
proper geometry for the material to be drilled so that thrust (revolves]
coupling
requirements can be minimized. A web thickness at the chisel
point of 5- 10% of the drill diameter, depending upon drill size, is
s in coupllng which
generally recommended. Threaded rod
with recess on
Slight modifications of the point geometry may be necessary coupling from
of oil feeding drill
in drilling some materials to ensure the formation of short,
tightly curled, figure six shaped chips that will flow easily
through the drill flutes. Chip width can be reduced and
oolant inlet
thickness increased by using a higher included-point angle (such
as 135”), which produces shorter cutting lips and more desirable
exits through two
chips. A corner chamfer may be helpful for some applications.
drill
The shortest possible drill should always be used for the hole
depth required to increase rigidity and improve accuracy.
High-speed steel drills are satisfactory for most coolant-fed ig. 9-35 Coolant-inducer, socket-style holder for coolant-fed twist drills.
9-47
CHAPTER 9
FLAT, HALF-ROUND, AND STRAIGHT-FLUTE DRILLS
FLAT, HALF-ROUND, AND

STRAIGHT-FLUTE DRILLS 0.001-0002” (0.03-0 05 mm)
--D& ~ Qlght back-iapei
All holes produced by the drilling process are not cut with above @
twist drills. For example, the flat, half-round, and straight-flute

drills discussed in this section, while not used as extensively as
twist drills, have definite advantages for certain applications.
Other nontwist drills discussed in subsequent sections of
this chapter are indexable-insert, spade, and deep and small-
hole drills.
Flat Drills
These tools derive their name from the shape of the drill
body, which is flat rather than the normal round configuration
(see Fig. 9-36). They are produced by grinding tapered opposite
flats on the drill body. The flats are usually not parallel, which
-& Cleorcmce (rodlal rellef) 8-2@
creates a web that is thicker at the shank. A slight back taper of ‘ig. 9-37 Half-round drill which has a conical point that is offset to
provide radial relief for the single cutting lip.]
0.001” (0.03 mm) or less is ground on the body,
Flat drills halve a low productive capacity, but because of
their simple design and low cost, they are occasionally used for Straight-Flute Drills
low-volume applications in drilling hard forgings and castings. These tools are designed to produce short chips and have
With spear points, flat drills are also used to produce holes in limited applications for drilling brass, copper alloys, and other
glass and tile. Standard flat drills, made from high-speed steel soft, nonferrous materials, particularly in horizontal drilling
or carbide, are available from 3/32 to 1/2” (2.4 to 13 mm) diam. applications. The straight flutes eliminate the tendency for the
For small-hole drilling, they are generally made from carbide drills to run ahead and grab or pull in the material; because of
only in diameters from 0.001 to 3/32” (0.03 to 2.4 mm). this, they are desirable for thin sheet metal work. The drills are
commercially available in fractional and number sizes with
short (jobbers) lengths and straight or taper shanks.
Heavy duty, carbide-tipped, straight-flute drills are spec-
ifically made for drilling steels having a hardness over RC50 and
for producing shallow holes in brittle materials. These tools,
sometimes called die drills, have heavy lands and shallow flutes.
They are not suitable for drilling soft steels from which long
chips are produced.
Coolant-fed, carbide-tipped drills with two straight flutes are
Fig. 9-36 Flat drill of the type sometimes used to produce holes in also available. Some are made from crimped tubing and others
ha;dened steel, glass, and tile. are made from solid HSS bars. Some drill manufacturers offer
replaceable tip tools having two straight flutes with HSS or
Half-Round Drills carbide bits being held in place with retaining screws instead of
Half-round drills are round rods with about half of their being brazed. Coolant is supplied by tubes brazed into grooves
diameters machined or ground away to form the drill bodies along the lands or through holes in the drill body.
(see Fig. 9-37), The drills have a conical point that is offset to
provide radial relief for a single cutting lip. The points can be INDEXABLE-INSERT DRILLS
ground either like a conventional twist drill with radial relief or The most important recent advance in drilling technology
a gundrill (discussed later in this section), depending upon the was the development during the early 1970’s of drills with
rigidity of the setup. It is important that the apex of the cone be indexable carbide inserts. These tools can produce relatively
exactly on the centerline of the drill. Half-round drills are shallow holes from the solid at faster rates and lower cost than
available in fractional, number (wire gage), letter, and metric HSS twist drills in many applications.
sizes from about 0.003-1” (0.08 -25.4 mm) diam and are made of Studies have shown that about 60% of all drilling applications
high-speed steel, of carbide, or with carbide tips. in industry are considered to be short holes having depths up to
Half-round drilIs with precise conical points can sometimes about three times their diameters. Many of these holes can be
start holes accurately without the use of guide bushings, drilled with indexable-insert drills. Others are not practical to
especially when the tools are short and rigid, and have little produce with these tools because the holes are too small in
tendency to wander. As a result, they are used extensively for diameter or because inadequate machines (with respect to
screw machine applications and on some NC machines. For speed, power, and rigidity) are employed.
some applications, holes are started with short, rigid center
drills and completed with half-round drills. These drills are Advantages of Insert Drills
particularly suitable for use in brass and, in some cases, Major advantages of indexable-insert drills are increased
aluminum alloys and diecast materials. Because of the support productivity, reduced costs, and better versatility.
they provide in the holes being drilled, they are capable of Increased productivity. The use of carbide inserts brings
maintaining close tolerances and producing smooth finishes, drilling close to the machining rates possible with turning and
sometimes eliminating the need for subsequent reaming, Chip- milling. The higher cutting speeds possible permit holes to be
ejection limitations, however, restrict their deep-hole drilling drilled substantially faster than HSS twist drills and even faster
capabilities. than carbide spade drills (discussed next in this section). The
9-48
CHAPTER 9
INDEXABLE-INSERT DRILLS
cycle time on transfer machines and other high-production times the hole diameter; some tools, however, are drilling to
applications is often determined by the capabilities of the HSS four times the diameter, and a few specials to depths over five
drills used. Now, with the faster penetration rates of indexable- times the diameter. Indexable-insert drills are not precision hole
insert drills often matching the rates of other operations, cycle producing tools, and subsequent operations may be required
times can generally be reduced. Potential productivity is also for improved accuracies and smoother finishes. Small pilot
increased because the almost flat lead angle of indexable-insert holes are not useful and can be detrimental, and the tools
drills results in a shorter feed stroke before cutting, compared to cannot be used to enlarge existing holes.
twist or spade drills that have point angles. While indexable-insert drills require less thrust than twist
Reduced costs. The use of low-cost inserts with multiple drills because they have no webs or chisel edges, they do require
cutting edges eliminates regrinding costs. The multiple cutting more power because of increased metal removal rates. Rigid
edges available provide savings from not having to replace the machines in good condition, with adequate speed and power
entire tool. Indexing the inserts does not change their positions capabilities, and cutting fluid under pressure are necessary to
and the tool length, thus any tool resetting costs are eliminated. take full advantage of the productive capabilities of these tools.
Vers~tilit y. Indexable-insert drills can be used as nonrotating Horsepower requirements increase proportionately with the
tools for applications on lathes or other machines or as rotating drill diameter. Bench, upright, and radial drilling machines are
tools on drilling machines, machining centers, and other generally not suitable for use with these tools because they lack
machine tools. The machines used, however, must be rigid, be in sufficient speed, power, or rigidity, Safety guards are required
good condition, and have ample speed and power capabilities. on any machine used for drilling through holes with the
Some of the tools have the capability, when used on suitable workpiece rotating and the drill stationary because slugs
machines, to perform boring as well as drilling operations. For produced can be thrown outward at high velocity.
example, mounted on the cross slide of an NC lathe, some tools Indexable-insert drills can be used to drill many materials, as
can be moved radially outward to drill holes larger than the tool is discussed later in this section, but most are not suitable for
diameter or make a boring pass, thus improving the accuracy laminated or stacked materials. This is because the discs or slugs
and finish of the hole. produced would be pressed into or welded to the next layer of
Other tools can perform turning, contouring, and facing material and because increased pressures can damage the
operations, as well as multiple operations such as drilling, inserts and possibly the drill body. The surfaces of workplaces
chamfering, and spotfacing. Figure 9-38 illustrates the drilling, to be drilled should preferably be flat. When using negative-
boring, facing, and turning operations performed in producing rake inserts, convex surfaces can present problems and concave
bushings, 4.331” (1 11.01 mm) diam x 2.756” (70.00 mm) long, surfaces are not generally recommended because they might
from solid (no prehole) 1021 steel. throw the drill out of balance. Angular surfaces rising more
than 0.040” (1 mm)ina2“(51 mm) distance and interrupted cuts
Limitations of Indexable-lnsert Drills are also generally not recommended for use with most of these
The smallest diameter hole that can be produced with tools; there are, however, successful applications with angular
indexable-insert drills now commercially available is 5 / 8“ starting surfaces and interrupted cuts when positive-rake inserts
(16 mm). Maximum drilling depth is generally two to three are used.
5th Operation
Turmng
to rpm 450
4134” (105.00 mm) dla.1 Speed 466 sfm (142 m/ml.)
% - feed 0.010 lpr (0.25 mm/rev)
depth of cut 0.098” [2.49 mm)
k
Fig. 9-38 Versatilityy of some indexable-insert tools permit drilling, boring, !acmg, ana turrrmg. (K. H. 1001 co., mc. j
9-49
CHAPTER 9
INDEXABLE-INSERT DRILLS
Tool Designs Size Range of Indexable-lnsert Drills

Indexable-insert drills of slightIy different design are available Hole diameters that can be produced with indexable-insert
from various tool manufacturers, Most consist of a hardened drills vary with the tools available from different manufacturers.
alloy steel body, with straight or taper shank, which is held by A common range offered by some is 3/4 to 3“ (19 to 76 mm)
an adapter attached to the machine spindle, Some tools are of diam. The smallest tool commercially available drills holes 5/ 8“
one-piece construction and others two-piece, with one of the (16 mm) diam, and the largest, 5“ (127 mm) diam.
two pieces being an interchangeable cutting head or nosepiece.
The drills have straight or helical flutes or grooves, and Inserts Used
internal coolant holes. Flute or groove design is critical— Round, square, triangular, diamond, trigon, parallelogram,
sufficient space must be provided for the rapid removal of a hexagon, and octagon-shaped carbide inserts are used by
large volume of chips, but an adequate body cross section must different tool manufacturers. The geometry of a typical trigon
be maintained for strength and rigidity. Coolant enters the insert used for indexable-insert drills is illustrate in Fig. 9-40.
tools, usually through tapped openings, and reaches the cutting The 84° included angle provides high strength, the 156° V-angle
zones from orifices near the inserts. Chips and coolant exit between adjacent cutting edges eliminates the need for
through the external flutes or grooves on the tools. In precentering nonflat surfaces, and the 12° positive rake angle
applications in which the tool rotates, an inducer or coolant contributes to long life. The inserts may or may not be the same
collar (as with other coolant-fed took) is required unless size, depending upon the drill design and diameter. Some
coolant is supplied through a hollow spindle on the machine. inserts have dimples, grooves, or special geometries for
At the cutting end of each flute or groove, recessed pockets chipbreaking purposes.
are provided to locate the indexable inserts. Depending upon Geometry and positioning of the inserts are important to the
the drill diameter and design of the tool, one to four inserts are performance and efficiency of the drills. Continuing improve-
generally used. A few drills, using toolholding cartridges, hold ments are being made in insert geometries to assure constant
as many as six inserts. Some have a centrally located insert, chip control. Depending upon the insert shape and application,
positioned slightly ahead of the others, for self-centering some drills are equipped with negative-rake inserts, requiring
purposes. The inserts are mounted in positions and at attitudes negative-rake placement. Others are designed for positive-rake
to counteract each other’s lateral cutting forces, thus minimizing inserts that are placed to provide either a neutral or positive
side loads. This is necessary because the tools are not guided by axial rake angle, Positive geometries generally develop less
the holes being drilled and guide bushings are not used. Several cutting and axial thrust forces and require less horsepower than
designs of indexable-insert drills are illustrated in Fig. 9-39 negative geometries. Effective rake in a negative insert, however,
can be higher and can develop lower forces than a positive-rake
insert. Replaceable anvils under the inserts can help prevent
damage to the tools in case of insert breakage,
The grade of carbide used for the inserts varies with the
application. Classification C-5 is used extensively for drilling
many steels; C-2 is used for cast irons and nonferrous metals.
Coated inserts are also being widely employed because they
permit higher cutting speeds, to 1000 sfm (305 ml rein) or more,
and are less prone to the forming of built-up edges. Inserts made
(a) from different grades of carbide are sometimes used in the same
tool, depending upon insert position and cutting speed.
Inserts are held in the drill pockets by screws or cam locking
pins, eliminating the need for clamps which would obstruct chip
flow. It is important that the screws or pins be securely
tightened, but not overtightened. Loose inserts will cause
chatter and possible tool breakage. Some indexable-insert
(b)
(c)
ig. 9-39 Several designs of indexable.-inse~t drills using carbide

serts: (a) TRW Tools Div.; (b) Valenrte DIV., Valeron Corp.; (c) Fig. 9-40 Geometry of a trigon insert used for indexable-insert drills.
utting Tool Div., Ingersoll Milling Machine Co. (Cutting Tool Div., Ingersoll Milling Machine Co.)
9-50
CHAPTER 9
SPADE DRILLS
drills, especially larger diameter tools, are equipped with required. Multidiameter blades, however, provide close tol-
cartridges that reduce costs in case of insert failures because erances with respect to the concentricity of different diameters
they provide protection for the main body of the tool. and radii or chamfers.
The production of holes with spade drills requires high
Materials Drilled and Applications torque and thrust forces, as discussed later in this chapter under
Indexable-insert drills are being used primarily for producing “Operating Parameters.” Thrust requirements are sometimes
holes in steels and irons. More ductile materials like aluminum more than for comparable sizes of twist drills. As a result, rigid
and copper are also drilled with these tools, but chip ejection and powerful machines are required for spade drilling.
may be a problem for some applications. When soft, ductile and Work surfaces that are cylindrical, spherical, or sloping and
gummy materials are being drilled, chip control can be a that have rough surfaces can create problems when spade drills
problem. The thicker chips produced with neutral or negative- are used, as can be the case with twist drills. Fragile workplaces
rake inserts tend to pack in the flutes or grooves. The tools are also generally difficult to drill with these tools.
are not suitable for drilling soft materials such as rubber
and plastics. Applications of Spade Drills
These tools are especially advantageous for medium and The majority of spade drills are used for drilling from the
high-production applications on NC and transfer machines. solid. Blades for core drilling, counterboring, flat bottoming,
They are also being used, however, for many low-production and special second-operation work are available for the same
applications on manual machines, lathes, and other machine holders (see Fig. 9-4 1). They are generally employed for holes 1”
took, providing the machines have the required power, speed, (25 mm) or more in diameter.
and rigidity. Spade drills are popular for toolmom and low-production
In one low-volume application involving the production of 5“ operations because of the low initial investment required for
(127 mm) diam x 26” (660 mm) deep holes in large forgings, obtaining a wide range of sizes. For medium or high-production
cycle time was reduced from 2 hours and 10 minutes with HSS requirements, their primary advantages are the ease with which
twist drills to 18 minutes with indexable-insert drills. This large dull tools can be changed without disturbing the setup, and
indexable-insert drill was designed with cartridges holding their rigidity, which permits high feed rates.
six inserts.
SPADE DRILLS
Spade drills consist of a toolholder and an interchangeable
blade. A dull blade can be replaced on the machine, as on
indexable throwaway tools, without the necessity of refinding
size, resetting stops, breaking down setups, and increasing or
decreasing the length of a drilling setup. Because of this feature, Stofidord Spur-core Foe,ng [ flat Regular
spade drills can easily be preset for use on automatic and NC core blode blode bottom) blade blade
machine tools. These inserted-blade tools, also now available
with indexable double-edge blades, area type of flat end-cutting
drill used to produce large diameter holes. Spade drilling is
done with either the tool or workpiece rotating.
Advantages of Spade Drills

The primary advantage of spade drills lies in the diameter Regulor Stondord corblde Core blade wlfh Counterbore
range of standard stocked tools. A few manufacturers stock corblde blade core blode Iongitudlnol corblde
blades below 1“ (25 mm) diam, usually down to 5/8” (16 mm), .. –,....,, –.- maae
. . snapes
..— .... –--... ,,,
r lg. Y-* I v smous uses on spaae anus.
but the standard range of stocked tooling is 1-6” (25-152 mm),
with some manufacturers listing standard blades to 15“ (381
mm) or more in diameter. When compared with twist drills of Blades for Spade Drills
comparable diameters, spade drills offer greater rigidity and Standards for spade drill blades and holders are specified in
lower initial cost, but chip removal is more troublesome on ANSI Standard B94.49-1975, published by ASME. Nomen-
vertical applications. Spade drills of large diameters can be used clature for spade drill blades is presented in Fig. 9-42, Chip
when trepanning is impractical because of a blind hole or lack of splitters, sometimes called chipbreaker grooves, are notches or
high-pressure coolant equipment. grooves on the front lip relief surface for splitting the chips into
Another advantage is that they are available in larger segments for easier removal from the workpiece. They are
diameters than twist drills and can drill deeper holes. Depth-to- always staggered in location from one lip to the other. Locating
diameter ratios have exceeded 120:1 in some horizontal ears are projections on the back of the spade drill blade, beyond
applications of spade drills before the drills needed to be the seating pads, which locate and center tbe blade in the holder.
reground. For vertical drilling, however, the depth-to-diameter The locating slot is the space between the locating ears that
ratio can seldom exceed 10:1 and is even less for smaller centralizes the blade in the holder.
diameter tools because of chip ejection problems. Types of blades. Spade drill blades have been accepted by
industry manufactured to two different types, the two basically
Limitations of the Tools differing from each other with respect to hole location and size.
Spade drills are not precision tools and should not be used for Some suppliers of spade drill blades manufacture them with a
finishing operations requiring tolerances less than about keyhole design to encompass both types. Others furnish them
+0.0 10” (0.25 mm); subsequent finishing of the holes may be with one large hole to encompass both hole locations.
9-51
CHAPTER 9
SPADE DRILLS
length-to-diameter ratios, as in piloted multidiameter blades,

often have two holes and are used in special holders having
two screws.
Blade materials. A comprehensive discussion of various
cutting tool materials is presented in Chapter 3, “Cutting Tool
Materials.” The most common cutting tool materials used in
spade drill blades are Types M2, M3, and M4 high-speed steels.
Toughness is an important factor in selecting the blade
material, but a compromise between toughness and abrasion
resistance generally gives the best results. Premium grades of
HSS such as T15 are also employed extensively.
High-speed steels made by powder metallurgy processes are
being increasingly applied for spade drill blades. Advantages of
these materials include a uniform structure with fine carbide
particles and no segregation, faster and more uniform response
to heat treatment, improved toughness and tool life, and
superior grindability.
Blades for spade drills are also available made from cast
cobalt-based alloys and carbides. Both solid carbide and
C.tnng edge ongle
carbide-tipped blades are used. Carbide-tipped blades must be
operated at high cutting speeds and with light feed rates to avoid
premature wear and crushing at the chisel edge. Solid carbide
Wedge angle blades permit faster penetration rates, provide longer life, and
(opt,oncd)
are often preferred for drilling very hard or abrasive materials,
as well as for some soft materials (except aluminum and
ig. 9-42 Standard nomenclature for spade drill blades. magnesium) and for low-carbon or low-alloy steels, Rigid setup
(ANSI Standard B94.49-1975, published by ASIU.E) conditions are essential for the use of carbide blades.
Blade geometry. The geometry of blades for spade drills
Blade sizes. Standard spade drill blades are m-ou~ed into resemble that of the cutting ends for twist drills with several
exceptions.
eight series, designated by letters A through H, having ~ifferent
widths, lengths, hole sizes and diameters, and locator dimen- Point angle. The included angle of points on spade drills
sions for each series. Blade diameter ranges for the eight series generally varies from 118-135°, with 13~ being standard. The
point angle cannot be changed to any significant degree without
are:
losing much of the blade length. As compared with the 118°
1. Series A: 1 to 1 1/4” (25 to 32 mm). point angle of a twist drill, the larger angle shortens the cutting
2. Series B: 1 17/64 to 1 1/2” (32 to 38 mm). edge, which increases the depth of cut and chip thickness, as
3. Series C: 1 33/64 to 2“ (38.5 to 51 mm). well as the cutting force for a given feed. This seeming
4. Series D: 2 1/64 to 2 1/2” (51 to 63.5 mm). disadvantage is negated by the lower speeds at which spade
5. Series E: 2 3/64 to 3“ (65 to 76 mm). drills are operated.
6. Series F: 3 1/64 to 3 I /2” (77 to 89 mm). Thicker chips are necessary in spade drilling to create positive
7. Series G: 3 33/64 to 4“ (89 to 102 mm). curling and breaking. Long stringy chips do not flush from the
8. Series H: 4 1/64 to 6“(102 to 152 mm). hole, and they cause packing and breakage. Smaller included
Many other standard sizes are available from manufacturers angles, 75-9fF, however, are sometimes used for drilling certain
of spade drill blades. materials. Split or four-facet points can be ground on the spade
Special blades are also built to specifications. Important drill points to minimize wandering. A secondary point angle or
dimensions that should be included on blade specifications are corner chamfer is also used sometimes to lengthen life and
permit the use of faster cutting speeds.
shown in Fig. 9-43. Specifying further details usually results in
higher costs and delayed deliveries. Special blades with greater Clearance (relief) fuce. The clearance or relief face, which is
generally notched for chip splitting and breaking, is typically
ground with a lip relief angle of 6-8°. This angle is increased to
a
To clear screw diameter
10-12° on core drills, on drills with point angles under 9(Y’,and
—not more than 118< (3.2 mm) overs[ze
on drills used for drilling ahsminum and other easily machined
materials. The thrust requirements on large-diameter drills can
Tlocotlng
also be reduced by increasing the clearance angle and/or by
relieving the point. Angles that are more than 1Y, however,
slot create a weak cutting edge and should only be used to drill very
soft metals, AngIes less than 5° generally cause higher thrust require-
#_
ments and generate excessive heat, thus shortening tool life.
Hole
Rake angles. The rake angle on blades ground with a flat
* Iocotlon top-rake surface is 12°; on those ground with a cylindrical chip
curler, it ranges from 12 to nearly 3@ at the outer corner and
Fig. 9-43 Important dimensions that should be specified for special from nearly zero to about 10° adjacent to the chisel edge. Since
blades. it is sometimes difficult to duplicate in regrinding, the rake
9-52
CHAPTER 9
SPADE DRILLS
angle must be considered a variable except on blades with a flat

top rake surface. With these, rake angles are sometimes reduced
for maximum heat dissipation, for abnormally high feed rates,
for hard or brittle-abrasive materials, for materials which
1= W4-=T----I
produce stringy chips, and for carbide blades. Rake angles
higher than 12° are sometimes useful for applications with very
kz- Slot depth
Screw Iocatlon I Coolant Inlet
place and
I
light feed rates, softer materials, and materials which give a
brittle-stiff or tightly curled chip. Higher rake angles reduce
cutting forces and produce less heat from chip-tool friction, but
\
the overriding consideration must always be the achieving of a
well-curled chip that flushes readily from the hole. I \ ?/
I \\
Indexable blades. Double-edge blades of the throwaway type Seat,ng surface r Shank
Coolant mducfor shape to machine
eliminate the need for regrinding. When one edge becomes dull, Locat[ng flats optonol reawemenfs
the blade is indexed 18(T so that the second edge can be used.
When the second edge becomes dull, the blade is discarded since
regrinding it is uneconomical. It is claimed that these blades can
L Blade” retammg screw
Body dlamefer
(tape’ ;honk shown)
Coolant holes
be operated with an increase in feed rate of 15-207., compared opt[onal
to single-edge blades. Cutting-edge geometry is similar to that 0 Flute

of conventional spade drill blades except for the two cutting (opt,onal)
F*
edges (see Fig. 9-44). The V-shape of the two cutting lips serves Distance across
& Blade slot wdth
Iocat,ng flats
as a locator for seating the blade.
+
ig. 9-45 Standard nomenclature for spade drill holders.
Chip spllfter (ANSI Standard B94.49-1975, published by ASM~
groove
ejection and require frequent regrinding, so they should be
Ili
avoided unless necessary. The use of wear strips limits the use of
the holder to the diameter at which the wear strips are ground,
but in most cases the holder can be used without wear strips for
other applications. Holder strength is usually not reduced
13
enough to limit such applications. A spade drill holder with
wear strips is shown in view a of Fig. 9-46, with other styles of
spade drills in view b.
One tool manufacturer uses wear studs instead of wear strips
Chip $pllff
to provide a four-point contact during the drilling operation
notches (see Fig. 9-47). The wear studs are interchangeable for each
L I
blade size within the holder range. Chip flow is not impeded by
Fig. 9-44
Indexable blade for spade drill which has chip splitter grooves the use of wear studs. Blade holders provided with pockets for
and notches. wear studs can be used without the studs for normal drilling
applications when breakthrough and rigidity are not a problem.
Holders for Spade Drills Holders can be altered for special applications and to
The nomenclature for spade drill holders is presented in Fig. perform multiple operations at a single machining position.
9-45. As with the blades, holders have been standardized in two Figure 9-48 illustrates an indexable-insert cartridge bolted to a
types and grouped into eight series, designated by letters A pocket in a holder to perform drilling and chamfering in the
through H, to accept blades of different widths and diameter same operation.
ranges. Only eight holders are necessary for the nominal range
of 1-6” (25- 152 mm) diam. Other holders are available to hold HIGH-PRESSURE COOLANT DRILLS
larger diameter and wider blades. High-pressure coolant drills are used to produce deeper
Standard holders are available with straight or taper shanks. and/ or more precise holes, as well as shallow holes to close
Four lengths are standard with most manufacturers: stub for tolerances in one pass. They differ from the coolant-fed drills
starting and spotting; short for shallow holes; long (or previously discussed in that they are self-guiding, more costly,
conventional length), which are roughly equivalent to taper- operate with higher pressure cutting fluids, and are generally
length twist drills; and extra long. Special holders can be made used in specialized machines. They can drill much deeper holes
to any length required. Many holders have internal holes for than the high-helix, crankshaft, parabolic flute, coolant-hole,
delivery of cutting fluid to the cutting edges. and spade drills already described. The major types of high-
When support is essential for a long, relatively flexible -pressure coolant drills are gundrills, multiple-fip drills, and
holder, such as during operations involving locating by a trepanning tools.
bushing remote from the work surface, breaking through a
series of ribs, or line-drilling walls of a box casting or weldment, Gundrills
wear strips on the holder body that have been ground to about Gun-type tools, or gundrills and gunbores, are single-lip,
0.005” (O.13 mm) under the blade diameter should be used. self-guiding, pressure-coolant tools. Gun-type tools are class-
Wear strips are usually made from tool steel, nonferrous ified in two basic categories: (1) external chip removal and (2)
bearing material, or cast alloy. Wear strips interfere with chip internal chip removal.
9-53
CHAPTER 9
HIGH-PRESSURE COOLANT DRILLS
L/Jweor
“’”s
““*C‘
/0
= :-– -—
_n$=7< Q e . J ——— ———. —
———
‘4 by_–=––––––––––––––––-––
0.; .— ._. _
,,
!fl
(b)
Fig. 9-46 (a) spade drill with wear strips; and (b) other styles of spade drills.
Cartr,dge for lndexoble ns~

bolted to pocket In holder
Fig. 9-48 Indexable insert cartridge mounted in bolder to perform

drilling and chamfering in same operation. ( Union/Bu[terjeld Div.,
l.itton Industrial Products)
External-chip-removal gundrill. An external-chip-removal

gundrill (see Fig. 9-49) includes a tip with a single V-shaped
cutting edge and a coolant hole, a single-fluted tubular shank,
and a driver suitably designed for either a spindle socket or a
stationary socket. The cutting edge usually cuts through center
on one side of the hole, leaving no materiaI to be extruded as
e with the web of a twist drill. The seldom-used pin-cutting

gundrill does not cut to center, but leaves a central pin. This
type is Iimited to use in through holes because it is difficult to
remove the pin from a bIind hole.
The tip of a gundrill is solid carbide or a carbide insert in a
steel body. Solid carbide tips are preferred to eliminate thermal-
expansion differences and possible cracking of carbide, but
they are generally available only up to 1,500” (38.10 mm) diam.
F]g. 9-47 Use of wear studs instead of wear strips, providing four-point
contact during drilling, as shown at right. (Erickson Div., Kennametal
The oil hole through the tip is approximately one-fourth the tip
Inc. ) diameter, The tip is attached to a steel shank by brazing or by
9-54
CHAPTER 9
some detachable method. The shank, with the cross section They are economically used for any length hole, from less than 2
shown in Fig. 9-49, channels high-pressure coolant through the to more than 125 diameters deep. The selection of gundrilling
inside, and the chips and coolant exit through the V-flute. over more conventional drilling methods should be made on an
The drill is held in the spindle by a cylindrical driver and is economic basis, taking due consideration of eliminated or
usually retained by setscrews, Other means of retaining the reduced finishing, handling, or inspection operations.
gundrill are used to accomplish quick change and length Gundrills are available from 0,0750-2.0000” (1 .905 -50.800
presetting. Recommended driver sizes and overall lengths are mm) diam and larger and in lengths to beyond” (3810 mm).
given in Table 9-10. Of course, any length or driver size is Holes produced by gundrilling are generally within 0.0005”
available, but it is most economical to stay with standards. (0.0 13 mm), while in production a total diametral tolerance of
Gundrills are manufactured to a diameter +0.0000 to 0.0002” 0.001” (0.03 mm) is normal over full tool life. The holes are
(0.005 mm) with back-taper of 0.0006-0.0008 in. /in, (or round and have a good finish, generally better than 80 yin.
mm/ mm) of tip. This combination of back-taper and diametral (2 pm) and frequently better than 30 pin. (0.76 pm). Although
tolerance may produce a 0.001” (0.03 mm) reduction in hole size the location of a hole at entry is dependent upon fixturing and
over the life of the tool as it is resharpened depending upon how part condition, it is usually within 0.001” (0.03 mm). Except
it is pointed. when drilled too near a thin section on one side, a gundrilled
Gundrills are manufactured with different contours (see Fig. hole is straight with runout not exceeding 0.001 in. in. /in. (or
9-50) for application to various materials. The standard contour mm/ mm) of depth for the smaller tools. With proper fixturing
can be applied to all materials, with special contours required practices and well-maintained equipment, runout has been held
only for precision (under 0,001”,0.03 mm) in soft materials such to less than 0.0002 in. / in. (0.005 mm/ mm) in production
as aluminum or for use of the gundrill as a gunbore. situations, Depth of hole is limited only by the equipment and
Gundrills are applied when other hole-making tools would gundrills available. By taking advantage of the low runout,
require special handling (i.e., woodpeckering feed) or secondary twice the hole depth is possible when the part is drilled from
qualifying operations (i.e., reaming, honing, straightening). both ends. With gundrilling, one can produce intersecting,
Corbi~e tIp Shynk Drjver
Fig. 9-49 Conventional external-chip-removal gundrill.
TABLE 9-10
Recommended Gundrill Drive Sizes and Overall Lengths*
Drill diam, in. Driver size, in.

+0.0000,
-0,0002 diam x length Suggested overall lengths, in.
0.0781-0,0882 0.50x 1.50 6-10-16-22
0.0883-0.1086 0.50 x 1.50 6-10-16-22-28
0.1087-0.1249 0,50x 1.50 6-10-16-22-28-36
0.1250-0.1350 0,75 X 2.75 10-16-22-28-36
0.1351-0.1561 0.75 x 2.75 10-16-22-28-36-42
0.1562-0.1771 0.75 X 2.75 10-16-22-28-36-42-48
0.1772-0.1999 0.75 x 2.75 10-16-22-28-36-42-48-54
0.2000-0.2199 0.75 X 2.75 10-16-22-28-36-42-48-54-60
0.2200-0.2399 075 X 2.75 10- 16-22-28-36-42-48-54-60-66
0.2400-0.2599 0.75 X 2.75 10-16-22 -28-36 -42-48-54-60-66-72
0.2600-0.2799 0.75 X 2.75 10- 16-22-28 -36-42-48 -54-60 -66-72-78
0.2800-0.5000 0.75 X 2.75 10-16-22-28
-36-42-48
-54-60-66-72-78-84
0.5001-0.6399 1.00X 2.75 16-22-28 -36-42 -48-54-60-66-72-78 -84
0.6400-0.7500 1,00 X 2.75 16-22-28 -36-42-48-54-60-66-72-78-84-96-108-120-1 32-144-150
0.7501-1.0000 1,25 X 2.75 22-28 -36-42-48 -54-60-66-72-78 -84-96 -l O8-l2O-l32-l44-l5O
1.0001-1.2500 1.50 X 2.75 36-42-48 -54-60-66-72-78 -84-96- 108-120-132-144- l5O
1.2501-2.0000 2.00 X 2.75 36-42-48 -54-60-66-72-78-84-96-108-1 20-132-144-150
* Special lengths and drives available as required.
9-55
CHAPTER 9
optimum results. High-pressure coolant-supply systems, also

discussed later, are required.
A As the gundrill enters the workpiece, it must be guided by a
bushing which is in intimate, rigid contact with the work. This
L_
Below center
bushing is mounted to the gundrilling head, usually in the front
wall of a chip box which is used to collect coolant and chips
Margin
exiting from the hole being drilled. The lineup of this bushing
and the machine’s spindle nose must be maintained accurately
K
ti over the full range of travel in order to ensure proper results.
Intimate bushing contact can be assured only if the workpiece is
‘e”r’ngpow clamped against it, For moderate-sized parts, yoke clamping
direct to the chip box is best (see Fig. 9-54). When gundrilling
Standard
(o)
through holes, the exit should be blocked so that all the coolant
and chips continue to go back through the hole into the chip
box after breakout.
Top wear strip Holes concentric to each other maybe produced through a
sequence of gundrilling operations, taking advantage of the
~Y
starting bushing as a concentricity register. First, the largest
Above center hole is gundrilled. Then an extended bushing is inserted which
locates at the bottom of the hole (see Fig. 9-55) on the cone
generated by the outer cutting edge. This bushing guides the
second gundrill, producing holes concentric at their interface.
Margin
Gundrilling has been incorporated into high-production
+&
Becmng pad transfer equipment in many industries. Automatic equipment,
with up to 352 gundrilling spindles on one machine, is being
used in production. Numerically controlled gundrilling consis-
b tently produces tube sheets with up to 17,000 holes per part,
Internal-chip. removal gundrill, Internal-chip-removal gun-
Special
(b)
drills, Fig. 9-56, are single-lip, self-guiding, pressure-coolant
tools and are applied for the same purposes as externaLchip-
removal gundrills, They are sometimes referred to as hollow
fig. 9-50 (a) Standard contour and (b) special contour for gundrills. gundrilk or drillheads and are available from 0.24-4.0” (6. 1-102
mm) diam. Depth is limited only by equipment and tools
crossing, and overlapping holes, as illustrated in Fig. 9-51. available. The holes produced are round and have good finish
Almost any material can be drilled economically. . . from wood or with a diametral tolerance from 0.002-0.004” (0.05-0.10 mm).
plastic to ~itanium or Inconel. As with other types of gundrills, runout is low and the hole
Table 9-11 indicates the maximum unsupported length, is straight.
which is commonly called the whip length, for gundrilling Internal-chip-removal tools (or ID exhaust took) are
various materiak. This is the maximum length of shank that can mounted on a tubular steel shank. The coolant is introduced
be run without support at the indicated speed. Any longer between the outside of the boring bar and the ID of the hole
unsupported length will result in ballooning or whip of the being produced. Then, the coolant moves past the cutting edges
shank, which causes poor hole quality or gundrill failure. of the tool and discharges with the chips through the ID of the
Many nose geometries have been developed over the years, tubular shank. This arrangement of drilling can also be used for
but the most common is the general-purpose geometry shown in ID exhaust trepanning and gun-reaming (counterboring), as
Fig. 9-52, a. Another common geometry used on soft materials, illustrated in Fig. 9-57.
such as aluminum and brass, is shown in Fig. 9-52, b. The A fluid transfer unit (pressure head) is essential for ID
geometry in Fig. 9-52, c, was developed for gundrilling stacked exhaust tools to introduce the coolant to the tool, to seal against
parts but also yields good results on a variety of other the workpiece face to contain the coolant, to guide the tool into
applications. With gundrilling it is possible, depending upon the work, and to seal the OD of the tubular shank (boring bar)
material and diameter, to produce holes directly with radius to contain the coolant (see Fig. 9-58). Internal diameter exhaust
and spherical bottom forms by using a suitable nose grind. tools require that the cutting fluid be at high pressure and/or
Gundrills can be manufactured to produce two diameters high volume. Normally, coolant induction is near the starting
simultaneously. face of the workpiece, directly behind the starting bushing. This
Gundrills maybe used horizontally or vertically with the tool requires that the bushing and the machine spindle be perfectly
or the work, or both, rotating. For fixturing and economic concentric. In addition, the bushing ID must be held to close
considerations, most modern gundrilling equipment is hori- tolerance, as indicated in Table 9-12.
zontal with the tool rotating and advancing (see Fig. 9-53). The tip of the internal-chip-removal gundrill consists of a
Because high speeds are used with light feeds on carbide cutting hollow steel body with an inserted carbide cutting edge and
edges, discussed later in this chapter under the subject of carbide bearing strips. The cutting edge and bearing strips are
“Operating Parameters, ” it is important that gundrilling brazed to the steel body, then ground cylindrically to form the
machinery be rigid and have uniform feed rates. The combi- tool diameter. The diameter of the body must be slightly smaller
nation of feeds and speeds is usually such that equipment than that of the complete tool to allow passage of the coolant
specifically designed for gundrilling is necessary to derive around the tool.
9-56
CHAPTER 9
fq?J@E Stacked ports
~~es Lock pm
hole Angulor
hole
Port,ol holes Overlap holes
o 000
00
000
000
Bolt c[rcles & tube sheets
3000 radm holes
c1 000 ~
Platens—parallel holes
Steo holes—conce-trlc
Hinges—mterrupted holes
r.— ,, e. ., ..,- .–— . . -, –.–. -.. L-. _––— J—,,,, ——

rig. Y-31 v anous rypes 01 noles proaucea ny gummumg.
When the drilling operation begins, the tool (guided by the Generally, the smaller the tool, the more significant the tool
boring bushing) is aligned centrally by the tool bit and the two geometry becomes because of the diminished space available
carbide guide pads. The guide pads, often of a different carbide for chip ejection.
grade than the cutting edge, are usually located 18(T opposed to The nose is designed so that the tool point is offset from the
the cutting plane and 9(T from the cutting edge. The pads may axis of the cutter head (see Fig. 9-59). Near the center cut of the
be positioned within a range of a few degrees of these locations, inner angle, a 31Y back rake angle is introduced to strengthen
according to the cutting characteristics of the work material and the cutting edge in that area. To obtain narrower chips, the
the hole diameter. The 9W pad absorbs most of the cutting cutting edge must be divided into two or three steps (chip
force; the 180° pad acts as a gage reference and helps establish separators) depending upon hole diameter and the chipforming
the size of the hole. characteristics of the work material. A single cutting edge is
The carbide pads size and burnish the hole and then utilize it normally used for drills not exceeding 3/ 8“ (9.5 mm) diam, a
as a pilot bushing for continued penetration. This self-piloting two-step edge for drills 3/8 to 1 1/4’’(9.5 to 32 mm) diam, and a
action, using the machined bore for support to oppose the three-step edge for drills over 1 1/ 4“ (32 mm) diam. Chip-
forces generated by the cutting action, continues for the entire breakers are required to form C-shaped chips that must be small
hole depth. This prevents deflection of the tool, giving a more enough to exit freely through the very restrictive chip mouth
accurate diameter and straighter path, and allows the tool to be and throat. With poor chip-forming materials, a chipbreaker
used at higher feeds and speeds because of the greater rigidity with a small positive rake may be used.
and resistance to chatter or vibration. It should be noted that The shanks used for internal-chip-removal gundrills are of
this principle of machining is also true for ID exhaust tubular construction and hardened to provide wear resistance
trepanning and gun-reaming tools. and strength. Outside diameter tolerance and finish, as well as
The external profile geometry of the guide pads is important, straightness, are critical factors in the protection of fluid seals
with the leading and trailing ramps always relieved to specific and vibration dampeners. Tips under 0.790” (20 mm) diam are
angles. The normally specified 18° angle of the leading ramp sometimes brazed onto the shank; larger sizes are generally
serves to trap and force the fluid onto and over the bearing face mechanically attached.
of the pad; a continuous fluid film is thus maintained between
the pad and the wall of the bore being produced. Because this Multiple-Lip Pressure-Coolant Drills
fluid film is important to the operation of the tool, the filtration Multiple-lip pressure-coolant drills are self-piloting tools
system must remove all particles which might interfere with the available as both external and internal-chip-removal types, (see
continued coating of the bore with the film. Fig. 9-60). External-chip-removal drills are generally available
Cutter geometry is very important, because it pertains to both from 1/4 to 1 3/ 4“ (6.35 to 44.45 mm) diam, while internal-chip-
the actual cutting process and the chipbreaking operation. removal types are generally not available below 5/ 8“ ( 16 mm).
9-57
CHAPTER 9
9-58
CHAPTER 9
0 0 0000 0 0
0 m oo - m t--l
0- mco r--w In co
0
z ----
9-59
CHAPTER 9
“gr--&300qv ++ Dlam
z-
(Q) (b) (c)
Fig. 9-52 Common nose grinds used for gundriils.

C7 o
Chip box
Coolont entry Spindle housing
\ r
Whip guide
. .. J., ,,— 7
r
[r L /d’
Starting
r_
bushing
Work Diece
Q
+.
AK
w———l
WI
*
Rotory oil union ~ AA
Feed
I - T?
Woy hose . ,
I Machine table Returnin~

ond coolont
chips
I
through chute
Fig. 9-53 Setup for gundrilling with the tool fed horizontally.
II /shown in load position
I 17TTIY /
Chip box
‘wRFxiurehOus
‘Locating sleeve
Fig. 9-54 Fixture with yoke-type end clamp, mounted on chip box, can be used for any shape workpiece with appropriate locating sleeve.
9-60
CHAPTER 9
End clomp Solld boring (dr!lllng)
Fist hole /
w,th cup
Second hole
Fig. 9-55 Application of extended bushing to produce concentric holes

in gundrilling.
Counterborng
‘ig. 9-57 Simplified diagram of pressure head and tool showing

coolant and chip path.
I Guide bushlnq
Fig. 9-56 Internal-chip-removal gundrill tip.
Depth of hole is limited only by the equipment and tools

available; however, the asymmetrical shank of the external-type
drill does not allow for high feed rates in hole depths exceeding
10 x drill diameter. This is because of the low torsional
resistance and resulting windup of the shank.
\ Drill
(sold Immg) head Boring bar S{uff,ng box
Multiple cutting edges are used to provide higher penetration Wcrkptece
rates as compared to those possible with single-lip gundrills.

Recommended feeds and speeds, as well as pressurized coolant Fig. 9-58 Fluid transfer unit showing path of coolant.
requirements for both types of tools are discussed later in this
chapter under “Operating Parameters. ” Initial cost and of the cutting edges, resulting in poor hole quality and high tool
regrinding cost for external-chip-removal gundrills are about mortality due to the imbalance of the cutting forces. Both
double that of single-lip, external-chip-removal gundrills. The internal and external-chip-removal drills have limited areas for
cutting forces on the multiple lips tend to counteract (balance) chip removal. Therefore, these tools nearly always require
each other, leaving only relatively small forces to be taken by chipbreakers and separators, along with precise control of nose
the support pads, Cutting-edge and support-pad life, therefore, geometery. Figure 9-61 illustrates features of the multiple-lip
tend to be greater than that obtainable with single-lip gundrills. internal-chip-removal drill which affect efficiency and hole
Nose grinding must be precise for regrindable types of drills, quality. Some exotic and extremely low-carbon steels cannot be
and brazing assembly must be extremely accurate for throw- successfully drilled with these tools because proper chip control
away type tools. Critical geometric errors can cause mismatch cannot be attained even with special complex geometry.
9-61
CHAPTER 9
TABLE 9-12 of indexable inserts and reversible pads can provide a

Bushing Wear-Limit Ranges for substantial reduction in machining costs. They also allow for
Internal-Chip-Removal Gundrills rapid insert replacement and a selection of a variety of carbide
grades. The number of inserts in any drill is always uneven to
Tool diam, Wear-Limit create a resultant cutting force against the support pads. Chip
in. (mm) Oversize, in. (mm) control can be further enhanced through the use of mechanical
chipbreakers and the ability to adapt each insert for a specific
3/4 to 2 (19-51) 0.0002-0.0004
chipbreaking role.
(0.005-0.010)
Insert cartridges are replaceable and are positioned on
2 to 8 (5 1-203) 0.0003-0.0006 opposite sides of the tool centerline to create balanced cutting
(0.008-0.0 15) forces. A feature of one type of these drills is support pads
shaped as cylindrical segments and bearing against corre-
8 (203) and larger 0.0004-0.0008 sponding pockets located about 90° and 180” from the
(0.010-0.020) peripheral insert. The pads are mounted using a setscrew and
coil spring, which allow the pads to move in the pocket under
Multiple-1ip tools are available using both HSS and carbide pressure and friction forces and thereby assure maximum
cutting edges and wear pads. A good starting point when using contact against the wall of the hole being produced.
multiple-lip external-chip-removal drills with carbide tips is to These drills are generally available in diameters of about
use a speed two and one-half times that found best for HSS 2 1/ 2“ (63.5 mm) and are available in lengths suitable for
drills on the same operation, and about three-fourths of the feed short-hole and deep-hole drilling up to 100 x drill diameter.
per revolution. The reduction in feed and increase in speed, Tool diameters from 2 1/2 to 71 /4” (63.5 to 184 mm) can be
compared to HSS drills, will yield about twice the penetration used with a double-tube coolant-feed and chip-exhaust arrange-
rate, but it is not uncommon to be able to achieve penetration ment as shown in Fig. 9-63. Tool diameters above 7 1/4”
rates up to five times those of HSS drills. (184 mm) must be used with a single tube and oil pressure head
External-chip-removal multiple-lip drills do not require (see Fig. 9-57). Coolant pressure, volume, horsepower, thrust,
starter drill bushings if the length-to-diameter ratio of the hole and torque requirements for these center-cutting tools are
does not exceed 4:1. Length-to-diameter ratios greater than 6:1 discussed later in this chapter. Rigid machines and workholding
require the use of a close-tolerance drill bushing or pilot hole in means are essential to withstand the higher overall power
the workpiece to start the drill. Drill bushings are generally requirements. Guide bushings are required to start the tools
always used with multiple-lip internal-chip-removal drills. into the work.
For drilling holes larger than 21 / 2“ (63.5 mm) multir)le-liu
internal-chip<emoval d~lls have been developed w’ith ind~xab~e Trepanning Tools
inserts and reversible carbide support pads (see Fig. 9-62). Use Trepanning tools are self-guiding pressure-coolant tools
0,024” (0,61 mm)

+0 oo47~ (0 ]0 mm) + u 003 I“ (0,79 mm)
(+y)
‘“
tO.008° (0.20 mm;
A ~- —I-P-+4-
“+’T.!.,*.-% t
1A
0102” (259 mm)
47 ‘-”
11 ,,
-
0028” (O7 I mm)
“T!!!!if!sfj .l I -.- n nnnv
.“.. ~/0005 mm) Below
n n~c .-..>
0.0010” (L,”L.I 1!11,1, ~en+er
!hffd
*0.005° +0,004” “.-, n ,,
(O.13 mm) (00 mm) ~ ~}~$[]:~~# d *0.020(051 mm) land
18°
,yq 2@
Zcf’ 4
/
(05 I ~m)
V’m Sect[on C-C

1
SectIon A-A Secnon B-B
:“ 0-=0 7’.,..; ”.,1 “o,.....’-., ~-. :“.”.”-I--L:--.-M”..”I - .. . ..4... II ( A-m.:.. - “.71-- P,.-.. \
9-62
CHAPTER 9
Insert
(a) External chfp removal
mouth
Inserts
W--wC
(b) Internal chp removol
Fig. 9-60 (a) External-chip-removal and (b) internal-chip-removal,

79
multiple-lip, pressure-coolant drills. Support
m“Ac (~1
G.tde
P
a
Supp
P w
;. 9-62 Multiple-lip, pressure-coolant
:rnal chip removal. (Sandvik Inc.)
Connecting
threod
drill with indexable inserts f(
+Crc.lar
land
v Cleoronce
Enter,ng
ungles
Ch!pbreoker
k. -.
angle
Fig. 9-63 Double-tube coolant-feeding and chip-exhaust drill: (1) inner

depth Ch[pbreaker
tube; (2) outer tube; (3) chips and coolant exit, through inner tube; (4)
% w!dth
b annular nozzle; (5) oil passages to drill point; and (6) chip passages.
(Sandvik h.,)
Fig. 9-61 Features of multiple-lip, internal-chip-removal drill that
influence eftlciency and hole quality. (Sandvik inc. ) styles, Single-insert designs require support pads and starting
bushings, while some multiple-insert styles can be used without
available in both internal and external-chip-removal types. support pads and starting bushings.
They cut an annular groove leaving a central core (see Fig. Trepanning tools as small as 1 1/ 2“ (38 mm) diam are
9-64). The most important reason for selecting trepanning tools available, although their most common usage is 2“ (51 mm)
over center-cutting drills is their reduced power requirements. diam and larger. Trepanning tools which do not have support
The solid core is also more desirable than chips from the pads, but depend upon balanced cutting forces provided by
standpoint of salvage value, which can be extremely important multiple inserts, are used for hole depths up to five diameters.
for exotic and precious metals. The cores can be used for Trepanning tools using support pads and started with bushings
metallurgical analysis and test specimens, and in large di- can be used successfully for depths up to 100 diameters.
ameters, can be sold or remachined as bar stock for other jobs. Diametral accuracy can be *0.005” (O.13 mm) for tools with
A variety of designs are available in trepanning tools, support pads and *0.O 10” (0,25 mm) for tools without support
including brazed and indexable single and multiple-insert pads, depending upon tool and machine setup and tool wear.
CHAPTER 9
Trepanning tools are generally applied to through holes Single-cutter trepanning heads commonly use a cutter 3/4”
because of problems with core removal. Special tools have been (19 mm) wide, which is separated into three cutting edges to
designed to cut off the core in large blind holes, but their success produce three independent chips. Each cutting edge has a
depends almost entirely upon operator skill. With few ex- preformed or ground chipbreaker, as shown in Fig. 9-67.
ceptions, they have not proven to be cost effective. Throwaway-type cutters have generally been found to be more
The trepanning tool is available with HSS, carbide, and cost effective than regrindable types due to their rather complex
coated carbide cutters. Recommended feeds and speeds, as well cutting geometry.
as coolant volume and pressure requirements, are discussed Multiple-cutter indexable-insert trepanning tools (Fig. 9-68)
later in this chapter. Multiple-insert took with guide pads (see offer several advantages over single cutter tools. The indexable
Fig. 9-65), and an internal-chip-removal capability, can be used inserts allow choosing from an extensive assortment of carbide
at the same starting surface velocity with up to twice the feed per grades with either preformed chipbreakers or mechanical
revolution, resulting in a higher effective penetration rate. chipbreakers for better chip control. Multiple-cutter designs
Internal-chip-removal tools are preferred whenever the create more balanced cutting forces than single-cutter designs
depth-to-diameter ratio exceeds 5:1 due to the resulting higher and correspondingly higher metal removal rates with longer
torsional resistance of the symmetrical, tubular shank. Internal insert and support pad life. Typical insert cartridges are shown
chip removal necessitates the use of an oil pressure head such as in Fig. 9-69. A cylindrically segmented carbide support pad fits
the one shown in Fig. 9-66. Internal-chip-removal tools into a mating pocket in the trepanning head. The support pad is
.lerally produce smoother surface finishes than external-chip- fixed in the pocket with a setscrew and coil spring to allow the
noval trepanning tools. Both internal and external-chip- pad to pivot and make maximum contact against the hole wall
,-moval designs require close control of chip size so that chip under friction and cutting forces.
evacuation is not interrupted. Some external-chip-removal trepanning tools are designed
T
Dlometer over pot
to be 0008”
(0.20 mm
smaller than
l&ct lips cufl, ngcimmetp,
tlet
I inlet
blade
/ “.SO taper on I,w (3 2 mm) strcnght porhon tube
Carbide tlp
cvlmdr[callv top face ~ .,-”-<-.--:-
I
g’round
ig. 9-64 Trepanning tool cuts an annular groove and leaves a central core.
Guide pads Setscrew

& coil spring
I Core relief
mouth
, -- ..
I Insert’ \ Connecting
Cartrldqe thread
ig. 9-65 Multiple-insert trepanning tool with guide pads for internal chip removal. (Sandvik Inc. )
9-64
CHAPTER 9
Ch,ps
and
coolon
O“t
Fig. 9-66 Oil pressure head for internal-chip-removal trepanning tool. (Sarrdvik Inc. )
5/64”(2 mm)
Grind lnpos[tlon
-11-- 5“
l---=
9(P
lCP
~ t
1
7
Flat
5“
0,755” (19.1 8 mm)
0266”
C’”””’
(68 mm)
/d~~(3~mm.,hPO.n
5\IW (8 mm) dlam +&
+
J
+ l.ww+tm.
)
/“”-’
9/16 (14.3 mm)
. HF3’4° “ 2“”
3 chip arooves I I II 3/16 (48 ~m)
0040’’ (l 02mm)wde; 0012’’(30mm) dee pep ~ I II
outer grooves to fln{sh
os shown
3/S’’ (9.5 mm) A
-0.000.5’’(O013mm)-0.001 5’’(OO38mm)d Y
central w!th Jmnk 5“
‘ig. 9-67 Preformed orground chipbreakem are provided oneach cutting edge oftrepanning tool.
for length-to-diameter ratios not exceeding 5:1. They utilize tools have been designed to feed coolant through their main
multip~ indexable inserts positioned to provide balanced spindle, so that rotary coolant adapters are unnecessary for
cutting forces. Therefore, they can be used without support rotating tool applications.
pads and starting bushings. The obvious advantage of these Core retention and core extraction devices have been designed
tools is that they can be used on conventional, standard for these types of trepanning tools to obtain higher production
machine tools, as well as on advanced special-purpose and rates on numerically controlled and other types of automated
automated machines. The balanced cutting forces allow machine tools.
trepanning into irregular surfaces. These trepanning heads can Thrust forces, horsepower, and coolant volume and pressure,
be used as both stationary and rotating tools. as discussed later, are all relatively low for multiple-cutter
Coolant can be fed to the tool through an adapter (see Fig. trepanning tools with balanced cutting forces. Penetration
9-70) on rotating tool applications or through the rear of the rates, however, are relatively high due to the constant width of
shank of the tool in the case of stationary tools. Some machine cut that istakenfor all sizes oftrepanning heads of this type.
9-65
CHAPTER 9
SMALL-HOLE DRILLS
, Cooloni
I+tt5r”n
~g. 9-70 R_otat@ coolant adapter for external-chip-removal trepan-

mrrg tool. (SarrdvUc ore. )
machinability of the material does not improve with decreasing

Cor;idges
hole sizes, In fact, the material can be less homogeneous and
machinable in the area being drilled because of unalloyed
Fig. 9-68 Multiple-insert trepanning tool with external chip removal.
portions, foreign inclusions, work hardening, or other reasons.
(Sandvik Inc.)
Drills Used for Small Holes

The three types of drills used predominately for producing
Insel
small holes are center, pivot, and straight-shank drills. Others
also used include step drills, drills with long shanks, and drills
designed for special applications (see Fig. 9-7 1).
Center drills are the most rigid in common use because of
their short flute lengths (usually about four times the diameter)
and oversize shank diameters. They should be used whenever
the flute length is adequate or when holes are to be started or
centered. When used as a hole starter, the diameter of a center
drill should be at least as large as the web thickness of the
following drill for guidance and minimum deflection.
Pivot drills are probably the most widely used type for
producing small holes. They normally have flute lengths from
Fig. 9-69 Typical cartridge for indexable-insert-type trepanning tool. five to seven times their diameters and shanks larger in diameter
(Sandvik Inc.)
than their fluted portions. They are available with spiral
flutes having I@, 20°, or 30” helix angles; in flat (spade)
SMALL-HOLE DRILLS versions; in D-flute (half round) styles; and for both left and
A major problem in drilling small holes mechanically (with right-hand cutting,
the production of chips), as compared to nontraditional Straight-shank drills, with flute lengths of about 12 diameters
methods, is compensating for the decreased rigidity of the are available in three flute styles: a spiral flute style with helix
delicate tools required. Drill rigidity is roughly inversely angles of Iv, 2tY, or 30’; a flat or spade flute, two-lip style with
proportional to the fourth power of the diameter and the force a zero helix angle; and a D-flute or half-round style. Since these
required to deflect the drill is approximately proportional to the tools are less rigid than center or pivot drills, they are used
cube of the unsupported drill length. Other problems include primarily to enlarge and increase the depths of holes started
chip removal, minimizing runout,impact of the drill with the with other types of drills. They should generally not be used to
workpiece, and maintaining a uniform feed rate. Also, start holes.
9-66
CHAPTER 9
SMALL-HOLE DRILLS
o 0
Drill and rodius Reomer ond countersink Dr)ll, counterbore, ond countersink
o (1
Drill and countersink Reamer and rodhus Drill, rodlus, ond countersink
o (1 6
Removable pilot ond counterbore
Drill and counterbore Drill, counterbore, ond rodlus
Fig. 9-71 Various tools used to produce small holes.
The webs or center sections of small-diameter drills are treated to a hardness of RC65-68. Carbide drills permit higher
proportionately thicker than those of larger diameter drills stock removal rates and remain sharper longer, but they have
because it is not practical to manufacture them with the same lower transverse strength. They are recommended for drilling
percentage of web. These thicker webs increase the rigidity of harder materials, softer grades of ceramic, and production
the drills, but they also decrease the length of the cutting lips. applications.
Also, thicker webs at the points increase the end pressures
required to force the drills into the workplaces.
TOOLHOLDERS FOR DRILLING
Materials for Small-Hole Drills Marry different devices are used to hold drills and provide the
Small drills are available made from carbon and high-speed driving connection between the machine spindle and the drill.
steels, from solid carbide, and with carbide or diamond inserts. These include sockets, sleeves, chucks, collets, and other
Diamond drills are sometimes preferable for drilling ceramics arrangements. Selection of the proper device is critical because
and refractories. The use of carbide improves the rigidity, and drills not properly gripped can be pulled from the driver by
there has been a substantial growth in the use of these drills for friction between the drill and workpiece when the drill is
small-hole drilling, particularly for printed circuit boards. retracted.
Small drills of bimetal construction are available from Von
Hollen Tool Co. These tools have a shank extruded from a Taper-Shank Drills
low-modulus brass, which serves as a torsion bar to absorb Drills with taper shanks fit directly into the spindles of
shock and torque and as a heat sink and floating holder. An M2 drilling machines that have the same size taper as the drills.
high-speed steel cutting section provides hardness and wear When the hole in the spindle is larger, a reducing socket or
resistance, The fluted HSS portion is adhesively bonded into a sleeve is used. Short sleeves are preferable to fitted sockets
hole in the end of the cold-drawn brass shank. Back-tapered because of the increased rigidity they provide. Drifts are used to
flutes minimize heat and wear caused by friction and provide remove taper-shank drills from the sockets or sleeves.
more chip clearance. These drills are available from 0.0075- Variations of the taper shank are sometimes used for heavy-
0.0587” (0.190-1.491 mm) diam, in 0.0004” (0.010 mm) duty operations. The most common of these is the flatted shank.
increments, with a size tolerance of* 0.0002” (0,005 mm) and The socket has a flat in its bore to match that on the drill shank,
flute lengths of seven times the diameters. All shanks are 3/ 32” thus providing a positive drive. For larger diameter drills, a pair
(2.4 mm) diameter by 1 1/ 2“ (38 mm) long. of flats is sometimes used. Other special variations employed
High-speed steel pivot drills are available from one supplier occasionally include half tangs, squares, keyseats, keyways,
in 0.01 mm increments from 0,05-3 mm, with flute lengths of grooves, notches, slots, threads, and knurls.
0.40-20 mm and shank diameters from 1-3 mm. High-speed
steel flat drills are available from 0.04- 1.0 mm diam with flute Straight-Shank Drills
lengths from 0,30-0.70 mm and with 1 mm diameter shanks, Drills with straight shanks are held in several ways, including
Two-flute pivot drills are available from another firm with an chucks, sleeves, bushings, and collet-type holders.
8° rake angle and 135° point angle for steel and general-purpose Chucks. Three-jaw chucks are the most common holders and
drilling, and 15° rake angle and 118° point angle for soft drivers for small-diameter, straight-shank drills. They are
materials. Standard cutting lengths are seven times the diameter, available in wrench, or key-tightening, and wrenchless (keyless)
but lengths up to 20 times the diameter are made to special styles (see Fig. 9-72). These chucks are made with plain or ball
order. While drills with a diameter of 0.0001” (0.003 mm), flute bearing construction, and for taper or threaded mounting.
length of 0.0003” (0.008 mm), and shank diameter of 0.040” Each chuck holds a range of drill sizes within its capacity.
(1.02 mm) are the smallest standard size, this firm has drilled Typical ranges for various chucks are Oto 1/4”,0 to 3/ 8“, and O
holes 0.000025” (0,00064 mm) diam. to 1/2’’ (6.4, 10, and 13 mm); l/8t05/8”or l/8t03/4’’(3to 16
Drills made by this firm are produced from both tool steels or 19 mm); and 3 / 8 to 1“ (10 to 25 mm). Small-size keyless
and sintered tungsten carbide. Various grades of tool steel are chucks have a micrometer graduation on their sleeves to
used for different applications. The most common are AISI facilitate changing drill sizes. These chucks depend upon
Types M33 and 07, with enhanced micrograin structur friction between the jaws and drill shank for gripping. Care is
9-67
CHAPTER 9
TOOLHOLDERS FOR DRILLING
ends. Both styles maintain concentricity of 0.0005” (0.013 mm)

TIR, measured at the collet face, when assembled in the chuck.
With a double angle collet mounted in a chuck (see Fig. 9-73),
the collet can flex both transversely and axially to grip the drill
margins as well as the back-taper of the drill. A 1/32” (0.8 mm)
collapse permits one collet to replace six or seven single-
purpose split sleeves. A left-hand backup screw (shown in Fig.
9-73) permits positive tool presetting. Chucks for these collets
are available in stub-nose, extended-nose, and close-center
types, as well as types suitabIe for faceplate mounting. Collet-
(0)
type, full-floating holders are also available. Single angle collets
produce high gripping forces to better utilize the power
available with modern machines. A slow taper in the body of the
chuck, which matches the collet, produces a wedge action as the
collet is forced back into the chuck.
Rubber-Flex collets made by the Jacobs Manufacturing Co.
consist of hardened steel inserts molded into a synthetic rubber
compound. Flexibility of the rubber matrix gives each collet a
gripping range of 1/ 8“ (3.2 mm); 11 collets can handle drills
from 1/16 to 1 3/8” (1.6 to 35 mm). When mounted on a true
spindle, runout measured at the nose of the chuck does not
exceed 0.0007” (0.0 18 mm).
Quick-Change Tooling
(b) Many types of quick-change tooling devices are available to
permit changing tools in a few seconds. With the Inmotion
Fig. 9-72 Drill chucks of the (u) key-tightening type and (b) keyless system made by Diamond Tool and Die, Inc., the need for
style. (Jacobs Manufacturing Co. )
auxiliary tools is eliminated and spindle rotation does not have
to be stopped. The operator grasps a knurled outer sleeve
necessary to assure sufficient tightening to prevent drill slippage with one hand and slides it upward to instantly release the
and excessive wear. tool. When a new tool is inserted and the sleeve is pulled down,
Sleeves and bushings. Tapered split sleeves are sometimes the tool is firmly gripped by a toggle-type system with a self-
used to drive small-diameter, straight-shank drills for certain locking taper.
production applications, These sleeves have a taper on their OD
to fit the machine spindle or socket and a straight bore to fit the
drill shank. Flats or squares on the drill shanks and driving slots
in the sleeves are used occasionally, particularly on multispindle
machines with close centers.
A disadvantage of these drivers is that a separate sleeve
is required for each size drill. Specifications for split sleeve,
collet-type drivers for straight-shank drills, reamers, and similar
took are presented in ANSI Standard B94.35-1972, published
by ASME.
Straight sleeves are sometimes used to hold larger diameter,
straight-shank drills in machines such as turret lathes. Setscrews
extending through the sleeves are generally used to hold the
drills in place, These devices also have the disadvantage of
requiring a different size sleeve for each drill size. The sleeves
must fit the drill shanks closely to avoid misalignment when
clamping, and the setscrews used often mar the drill shanks.
Collet-type holders. A major advantage of collet-t ype holders
is their capability of gripping drills on their margins or straight
shanks. In doing this, the length of the drill projecting from the
collet can be varied and kept to a minimum to suit requirements
for short-hole, deep-hole, or other drilling applications. Called
stubbing, this method increases rigidity by decreasing the
length-to-diameter ratios. Resulting benefits can include longer
drill life, the capability of using higher feed rates and cutting
speeds, reduction in the need for jigs and bushings, possible
elimination of center drilling or spotfacing, shorter cycle times,
and the ability to use broken drills.
Collets made by Erickson Tool Co., available in both single Fig. 9-73 Collet, alternately slotted from opposite ends, which grips
and double angle designs, are alternately slotted from opposite drill on its margins. (Eickson Div., Kennametal Inc. )
9-68
CHAPTER 9
WORKHOLDING DEVICES FOR DRILLING
Boeing Co. has developed a quick-change chuck system to

reduce the time required to change drills in hand-held drill Retcxning
L2-
ring
motors, the term commonly used by the aircraft industry for .
portable power tools. Use of the chucks for pistol grip and angle .
Spring
motors has resulted in an estimated cost savings of over
$500,000 per year at Boeing. 3 \
Collar
The pistol grip quick-change chuck (see Fig. 9-74) is a direct
replacement for the conventional 1/ 4 (6.4 mm) three-jaw \ 9
chuck. It is operated by extending a spring-loaded sleeve and @!
inserting a drill with an integral quick-change adapter. The
chuck contains three retaining balls which engage in the detent Body
holes of the drill adapter when the sleeve is released. These three e
balls provide the torque driving mechanism and serve to retain Retcmng ball% ‘
the drill in the chuck. The quick-change adapter is joined to the
drill shank by either silver brazing or interference fit.
Drill-ndnpter
comhnatlon
+ F?etaninq
‘%
Fig. 9-75 Quick-change chuck for angle drill motors.
controlling the position and alignment of the cutting tools.

Good jig and fixture design can minimize tool breakage and the
production of unsatisfactory workplaces.
The principle difference between a jig and fixture is the
method used to position the cutting tool. Jigs securely hold and
locate the workpiece while guiding the cutting tool by means of
a bushing or similar device. Fixtures securely hold and locate
the workpiece while referencing the position of the cutting tool
by means of set blocks and feeler gages.
Although both jigs and fixtures are used for a wide variety of
machining operations, the jig is by far the most common type of
device for drilling, reaming, and related operations. Regardless
of the machining operation, the basic construction and function
of a jig are the same for drilling and reaming.
Jigs can be divided into two broad categories: open and
closed. Open jigs are generally used for machining parts on a
single surface, while closed jigs are used for parts that require
machining on two or more surfaces. The terms used to identify
ig. 9-74 Quick-change chuck for pistol grip drill motors. these jigs are normally directly related to the basic construction
of the tool itself. Typical examples of open and closed jigs are
shown in Fig. 9-76.
Drills can be changed 7 seconds faster with the quick-change
The specific size, shape, and construction details of any jig are
chuck than with a conventional kev-twe chuck. Other
normally determined by the workpiece to be machined. To
advantages include lighter weight, lower_co~t: the ability to drill
perform their basic function, however, all jigs must adhere to
in closer quarters, and elimination of damage to drills and
certain design principles and must include the following
workplaces.
elements:
The quick-change chuck system for angle drill motors
eliminates the need for threaded-shank drills used previously. 1. Locating devices and work supports.
The operating principle of the angle motor chuck (see Fig. 9-75) 2. Clamping devices.
is similar to the pistol grip chuck except that the chuck collar is 3. Tool guidance devices.
rotated, rather than extended, to open the chuck. The ball
detent is identical to the pistol grip version. Locating and Supporting Principles
This system eliminates the need for wrenches required for To ensure the desired precision in any machining operation,
threaded-shank drills and, consequently, reduces adapter the workpiece must be properly located and supported
damage and tool distortion. The use of the angle motor, quick- throughout the entire machining cycle. The terms locating and
change chuck saves over 8 seconds per drill change. Lower cost supporting, as used here, refer to the establishment of the
and extended drill life are additional advantages. proper relationship between the workpiece and the jig. In most
cases, locators and supports serve the same purpose: to
WORKHOLDING DEVICES FOR DRILLING establish the desired reference location. Supports are simple
Jigs and fixtures are precision devices used to accurately locators which are positioned beneath the workpiece to establish
machine duplicate parts. As a general rule, jigs and fixtures are the reference position on the vertical axis. Locators, likewise,
designed to hold, support, and locate a workpiece while set the position of the workpiece on both horizontal axes.
9-69
CHAPTER 9
I 1 I
~ Workptece A39
4
Y
(o) opened \
\
II y
x 6
7
+,2
z
1
I I ---
-.
0
--
;1 ,1;
1
, I
--
.0.- ) Fig. 9-77 Unrestricted workplaces are free to move in any of 12
di~ections.z
Workp[ec~ :
-Q.
--
n 5. Duplicate locators should always be avoided. Once the
---
reference surface is determined, only that surface should
—--
— I be used to locate the workpiece. Using more than one
reference surface to establish the location of the work-
piece often results in excessive tolerance stack-up.
(b) Closed
6. The location of any workpiece should always be
Fig. 9-76 (a) Opened and to) closed types of jigs.z foolproof that is, the workpiece should only be capable
of being loaded into the jig in the correct position. Using a
foolproofing pin is one method to prevent improper
Any unrestricted object is free to move in any of 12 directions
loading.
(see Fig. 9-77). These movements are called degrees of freedom.
7. Locational tolerance should be as liberal as possible. A
To completely locate any workpiece, these degrees of freedom
range of 20-3090 of the workpiece tolerance is normally
must be restricted. This is normally done with a combination of
acceptable, and to 5070 in some cases. Overly tight
locators and clamps.
tolerance requirements only serve to increase the cost in a
The most basic form of workpiece location is the six-point or
disproportionate relationship to the part accuracy.
three-two-one method. In this method, the vertical Z-axis
8. Work supports should always be positioned beneath the
position is established by locating the workpiece on three points
area at w-h-ichthe workpiece- is to be clamped. Clamping
(Fig. 9-78, a). The horizontal axes are then located by three
between supports or over an unsupported area can
more points, two on one plane (Fig. 9-78, b) and one on the
distort or bend the workpiece and may change the
other plane (Fig, 9-78, c). This method restricts nine of the
location.
twelve degrees of freedom. The remaining three degrees are
restricted by the clamping device.
Locating Methods
When any locating system is designed for a jig, the following
The exact methods selected to locate a part must be
points must be considered to prevent inaccuracies and to assure
determined by several factors. Part size, shape, reference
proper location:
surfaces, and prior machining are all important elements in
1. All locators should contact the workpiece on a machined deciding the methods and locators to be used to position a part.
surface or designated locating area. Locating from a flat surface. There are three types of
2, The reference surfaces, when not specifically indicated on supports commonly used to locate a flat surface: solid supports,
the print, should be those which are used to dimension adjustable supports, and equalizing supports (see Fig. 9-80).
the part. Solid supports are the least expensive and easiest to use. These
3. Locators should always be positioned as far apart as locators are normally used when the reference point or datum is
practical to ensure stability and accuracy. a machined surface. Adjustable and equalizing supports are
4. Locators should be positioned to avoid chips and foreign used on rough or uneven surfaces such as a casting. In most
matter. When this is not possible the locators should be cases, adjustable and equalizing supports are used in con-
relieved to prevent interference when the workpiece is junction with solid supports to compensate for part irreg-
loaded or unloaded (see Fig. 9-79). ularities. The principle differences between adjustable and
9-70
CHAPTER 9
,/-.
E
..,’
Workp[ece
,- ‘)
L.
z
,,-,
.J
z
lliii2ilLk
Work piece
‘“*-X‘e’
.
,,.,
.
m::)
n
6
L
3 (’)
(a)
Workpece
L !wll
,tA m
Fig. 9-79 Methods of relieving locators to prevent interference.z
When pin locators are used to directly locate a workpiece, the

area of contact is very important. Too much contact causes a
part to jam, while too little results in inaccurate location. A
range of one-fourth to one-half of the part thickness is generally
sufficient to prevent jamming and to ensure proper location.
,-.
Another style of locating pin commonly used for jigs is the
~.
(b) diamond or relieved pin. These pins are generally used with
round locators to prevent radial movement of the workpiece
about the round locator. Diamond pins may also be used in
D
,J
pairs to locate a workpiece. Regardless of their configuration,
7 relieved locators all serve the same purpose—to prevent
Workplece
jamming and to speed the loading/unloading of parts.
(:) ::]
-t Locating from an external profile. External profile location is
the most common method used to locate workplaces. With this
method, the workpiece is located with reference to its outside
W==lm (c)
edges. As with other locators, there are several forms of external
profile locators.
The most common type of external profile locator is the
fixed-stop locator. These locators are made in many forms and
can either be machined into the tool body or installed. One of
Fig. 9-78 Six-point method of location: (a) 2-axis, (b) horizontal Y- the more popular types of installed fixed-stop locators is the rest
axis, and (c) horizontal X-axis.z button. The principle advantage of installed locators is their
ease of replacement. Unlike machined locators that must be
equalizing supports is the number of contact points and the built-up and remachined to correct for wear, installed locators
method of adjusting. Adjustable supports normally have a only need to be pressed out and a new locator pressed in when
single contact that is manually adjusted, while equalizing they begin to wear.
supports have two contacts that are adjusted automatically to Another variation of the fixed-stop locator is the adjustable
compensate for part irregularities. locator (see Fig. 9-82). An advantage of this type of locator over
Locating from an internal diameter. Locating from a hole or the fixed-stop type is that since it is adjustable, the position of
hole pattern is generally the most efficient and accurate way to the locator does not have to be as closely controlled. Any
locate any workpiece. Several types of locators are specifically variation in position can be compensated for by the adjustment.
designed for this type of part positioning. In cases in which the relationship between the hole pattern
When large holes or bores are used, the locator is normally and the outside edges of the part are not as critical as they are
fastened by either screws and dowels or by a mounting shank. with some castings, sight locators can be used. These locators
Shank-mounted locators are made with either a press fit or align the workpiece in an approximate position in the jig. The
threaded shanks. In most cases, the press-fit locators should be principle forms of sight locators use scribed lines or milled slots
used rather than the threaded type. Threaded shank locators are (see Fig. 9-83). A disadvantage of sight locators is that
useful in areas in which, because of the construction of the jig, maintaining alignment is difficult when clamping.
the press-fit type cannot be easily removed. The most complete method of locating a workpiece is by
Pin-type locators and bushings (Fig. 9-8 1) are used for nesting (see Fig. 9-84), Nesting locators locate a workpiece by
locating small holes and for aligning tool members. When pin enclosing it in a recess or depression of the exact shape of the
locators are used to align tool members, special alignment part. Since the nest must conform to the exact shape of the
bushings are also used. These permit both parts to be replaced workpiece, nesting is also the most expensive method of
when they become worn, locating an external profile. In those cases in which the
9-71
CHAPTER 9
locknut
Swivel Vambletorque
Setscrew pad screw
(0) Solld SUppOiiS
locknut Locknut
i-l
Fig. 9-82 Various types of adjustable locators used on jigs.z
workpiece form cannot be readily machined into the jig to form

the nest, cast materials of epoxy or hard urethane resin or
low-melt alloys are used to form the nest. Another variation of
the nest-type locator is the partial nest. This locator has most of
the advantages of the full nest; however, since the area of
contact with the workpiece is reduced, the workpiece is easier to
load and unload. In either case, when a nest-type locator is used,
the outside form of the workpiece must be relatively constant.
These locators are normally used on parts that have been
machined to their correct outside dimensions.
Burr Clearance and Part Ejection

Any drilling operation produces burrs. To properly perform
its design function, a jig must allow clearance for these burrs to
prevent the part from jamming in the jig. Two burrs are formed
(b) Adpstoble supports in a drilling operation—the primary burr on the exit side and
the secondary burr on the entry side. The secondary burr is
normally taken care of by the bushing clearance. The primary
burr, however, can sometimes cause problems. In cases in which
the workpiece must slide on or off a locator, or in and out of the
jig, there must be a burr clearance groove. A burr clearance
groove is simply a milled groove slightly deeper than the height
of the burr in the area of the jig in which the burr could jam.
Burr interference must always be considered, and clearance
planned into the jig design.
(c) Equollzmg supports
Part ejection is also an area which must be considered in the
design of a jig. Several very simple methods are commonly used
Fig. 9-80 Three types of supports for locating flat surfaces: (a)solid, (b) to eject parts. While elaborate power ejection methods can be
adjustable, and (c) equalizing.z used, a simple lever or spring ejector often performs as well and
Round Bullet Plom Concal Dowel
Regulor Conm
Fig. 9-81 Pin-type locators and bushings for small holes and tool alignments.z
9-72
CHAPTER 9
costs a fraction of the power system. When designing an Workholding and Clamping Principles
ejection system, the only thought should be the removal of the Workholding and clamping devices serve only one purpose in
workpiece from the jig. Overly elaborate or complicated anyjig—to hold the workpiece securely against the locators and
ejection systems often cost more and are more likely to prevent it from being pulled from the jig by the cutting tool
malfunction than the simple designs, during the machining operation. Many times, the clamps that
are selected for a particular jig are actually larger than required.
To prevent this, and to help select the proper size and type of
clamp, an understanding of the tool forces is important.
-—-i—l————— —l-—l---
Forces are generated by the cutting action of the tool. In
drilling, these forces originate at the cutting edge of the drill and
are dispersed throughout the workpiece in two general
directions—downward and radially. In most jig designs, the
locators and the tool body resist these forces without any
assistance from the clamps. However, once the cutting tool is
through the workpiece, another force must be controlled—
h /--4 the natural tendency of the workpiece to climb the flutes of the
drill. This is the force that must be restricted or controlled by
\Slght Ihnes
(0) the clamps. This force represents only a fraction of the
force required to drill the hole and should be treated as such
when clamping.
In addition to tool forces, the following factors must also be
considered when designing or specifying a workholding system:
II
I-i
L
1, l!
Slghtlng
locator i
1. Clamps should always contact the workpiece at its most
slots )
rigid point. When this is not possible, supports must be
II provided to prevent the part from bending or distorting.
2. The jig must be designed so that all the cutting forces are
Work p,ece 0! !0
directed toward the locators or the tool body. The
clamping devices should not be expected to absorb the
+
m
cutting forces,
Section A-A
3. The workholding device must be positioned so that it
,1 II
does not interfere with the operation of the machine tool
or the operation of the jig. Clamps should be accessible so
Workpwce that the operator can use them safely and efficiently.
4. The direction of the clam~ing
.- force must also be
considered with reference to the effect on the workpiece.
,- , The clamping force should be directed toward the solid
0 I :-j
( I
locators and in a manner to keep the workpiece in the jig.
II II
(b) Clamping Methods

Clamping devices are commonly available in a wide range of
Fig. 9-83 Two types of sight locators: (a) with scribed lines, and (b) with types. When a clamp is selected for any jib, the workpiece size,
milled slots.z shape, and machining operations must be considered. Clamping
t t
o
Workp,ece
, ~.-——___——
<
<r’’’’”
Full nest Portal nest Ring nest
Fig. 9-84 Nesting locators can be of the full, partial, or ring type.z
9-73
CHAPTER 9
speed and force are also important factors in selecting the

correct workholder.
Clamping devices normally fall into two general catagories—
II ,
direct and indirect. Direct clamps are those which act directly 7,-
I II II I
on the surface of the workpiece to hold it in place. Indirect
clamps are those that transfer the holding force through levers
or similar devices to apply the required clamping force. Much
can be said for both styles of clamps, but the following area few * F1
general principles to consider when selecting either a direct or
indirect clamping arrangement:
1. Indirect clamps can generate more force on the workpiece
than that exerted by the clamp actuator by simply
shifting the fulcrum.
2. Indirect clamps are less affected by the vibration of the Strop clomp
machining operation.
3. Indirect clamps can be used to move the position of the
clamp actuator away from the machining area, thus
allowing safer operation.
4. Direct clamps have fewer parts and simpler operation.
5. Direct clamps normally require less space than indirect
clamps.
6. Direct clamps are generally more sensitive to the human
touch than indirect clamps.
Regardless of the clamp selected, the major criterion for Swing clamp
choosing any clamp should be safety, efficiency, simplicity,
speed, ease of operation, and holding force. There are many
ways a clamping device can be actuated. Among the most
commonly used for~igs are screw threads, cam action, wedges,
toggle action, and air or hydraulic cylinders.
Threaded clamps. Screw threads are the least expensive and
most widely used type of clamp actuator. The most common
variations include strap, swing, and hook clamps (see Fig. 9-85).
Cam action. Cam action clamps are fast acting and available
in many different forms, The three most commonly used
variations for workholders are the flat eccentric, flat spiral, and
cylindrical cam (see Fig. 9-86). Of these, the flat spiral cam is
generally the most popular. One note of caution when flat cams Hook clomp
are to be used is that they can sometimes be vibrated loose when ‘ig. 9-85 Strap, swing, and hook types of threaded clamps for jigs.z
clamped directly to a workpiece, So, as a general rule of safety,
flat cam clamps should only be used with indirect clamping
parts of a clamu, and faster operating cycles. Most power
arrangement when heavy vibration is present.
clamping systems operate unde~ hydraulic power, pneumatic
Wedges. Wedge-type workholders use the principle of the
power, or combination of pneumatic and hydraulic power.
inclined plane to exert clamping pressure. The two basic forms
While power clamping systems are more expensive than manual
of wedges used for workholding devices are the flat wedge and
systems. their versatility, speed, and reliability often outweigh
the conical wedge (see Fig. 9-87). Wedges can be made in either
their higher initial cost. Typical applications of power clamping
self-holding or self-releasing styles. Self-holding wedges nor-
devices are shown in Fig. 9-89.
mally have an angle of 1-70°, while the self-releasing wedges
have an angle over 8°. Conical wedges are normally used in the
Tool Guiding Principles
form of mandrels. The two most commonly used mandrel forms
The principle method used to guide cutting tools in a jig is the
are the solid and the expansion. Solid mandrels have a fixed size
drill bushing. These bushings are commonly used to locate and
and are limited to a specific hole size, while the expansion
guide drills and reamers to produce or modify a hole.
mandrels are used for a range of hole sizes.
A few- basic rules which should be followed when the proper
Toggle action. Toggle action clamps are generally available
drill bushings are to be selected are as follows:
with four basic clamping actions: hold down, pull, squeeze, and
straight line (see Fig. 9-88). These clamps are fast acting and 1. The length of the drill bushing must be sufficient to
have a high ratio of holding force to application force. Due to support and guide the drill. Too short a bushing permits
their construction, toggle action clamps are relatively small and the drill to bend, producing out-of-line and oversize
lightweight and should be used only when small loads are to be holes. Too long a bushing reduces the effective length of
applied to the workpiece by the cutter. the drill and may require the use of a more costly extra-
Power devices. Power clamping devices provide an alternative length drill. For drills having a normal helix angle, the
to manual clamping methods. In general, power clamps offer length of the bushing should be from one and one-half to
better control of clamping pressure, less wear on the moving two and one-half times the diameter of the drill.
9-74
CHAPTER 9
@Qockng!!!
Workplece
Self-releaslng wedge clamp
(cI) Flat eccentric (b) Flat sptral
I
(9L!!!EYl
up
posltlon
+
‘– Down posltlon
Work piece
2 ‘
---
-—— P=
,.
Sol[d mandrel
Tapered angle
opproxlmately
2 mmutes
D
slot
+F
Concal wedge clomps
Unlock
k
[! @17t J I -4”
(c) Cvllndr,cal
Fig. 9-86 Cam action clamps include (a) flat

eccentric, (b) flat spiral, .
and (c) cylindrical types.z
2. Sufficient clearance should be provided between the

Workptece (end vlevv)
bottom of the bushing and the top surface of the
Self-holding wedge clamp
workpiece for the removal of chips and to minimize
bushing wear (see Fig. 9-90). The recommended clearance
for drilling metals such as cast iron, which produce small ig. 9-87 Various types of wedge clamps often used on jigs.
chips, is one-half the bushing ID. For other metals such
as steel, which produce long stringy chips, the clearance Tool Guidirm Methods
should not exceed one and one-half times the bushing ID. To meet their~ide and varied applications, drill bushings are
An exception to these recommendations is applications available in a range of styles and types. Sizes, types, tolerances,
requiring maximum precision, in which the bushing is and identification of jig bushings and locking devices used for
sometimes placed in direct contact with the workpiece. securing the bushings in the jig or bushing plate are specified in
Also, when drilling is performed at an angle relative to ANSI Standard B94.33-I 974, published by AS ME.
the surface of the workpiece, the bushing should be very Press-fit bushings. Press-fit bushings are available in two
close to the workpiece. Then, when the drill has pene- styles—headed or headless. Two advantages that headless
trated to a depth of about half the drill diameter, the press-fit types offer over headed types are that (1) they can be
bushing should be retracted to allow chips to escape. installed flush with the jig plate surface without the need for
3. The diameters of the bushing bores should provide a counterboring a mounting hole and (2) they can be installed
minimum clearance of from 0.0005-0.001” (0.013-0.03 closer together because there is no interference from heads. On
mm) for the drills, The larger the bushing diameter, the other hand, if space between holes allows, headed bushings
however, the greater the tolerance on its bore. offer more resistance to heavy axial loads, which may eventually
4. The jig plate should be thick enough to properly hold and force a headless bushing out of the jig plate.
support the bushing. In cases in which averythinjigplate Press-fit bushings are designed to be used in applications in
must be used, template bushings can be used to ensure the which repeated bushing changes are not required. Press-fit
proper tool support. In cases in which a very thick plate is bushings are pressed directly into the jig plate and are not
used, an extended length bushing should be used. normally changed until they wear out. Repeated changes of
Extended length bushings are relieved to maintain the press-fit bushings can wear the mounting hole and cause
proper contact length. inaccuracies.
5. When irregular surfaces must be drilled with close Liners. Liners are available in either headed or headless
location tolerances, the bushing should conform to the styles. Except for their larger, ID tolerances, liners closely
shape of the surface (see Fig. 9-91). resemble press-fit bushings and are used primarily to provide a
9-75
CHAPTER 9
No clearance
(max,mum preclslon
drlllmg only) z
Hold-down action
Normal chfp clearonce
Equal to:
1/2 ID (small chps)
I to 11,/2 ID
(lo”g, stn”gy ch,ps) fl
I//&~yfll
.
Saueeze act[on
CutWkg tool
w!th normal
w
back taper
Pull action
‘X7
clearance
‘a 4
Straight-ltne action VW”;kp” ,ce
rig. 9-88 Toggle clamps that provide hold-down, pull, squeeze, and ig. 9-90 Clearances between bushing and workpiece. Recommended
straight-line action.z clearance is illustrated in center. ( Welch Drill Bushing Co.)
Fig. 9-89 Applications of power clamping devices for workholding jigs.z
hardened surface in the jig plate for repeated changes of the jig plate). Fixed renewable bushings are used when the
renewable bushings. bushings are changed infrequently. These bushings are held in
Renewable bushings. Renewable bushings (Fig, 9-92), are place by a small clamp that must be removed when the bushing
used when the bushings have to be changed frequently because is changed. Slip renewable bushings are used when bushing
of wear or different-size holes. The two principle types of changes are frequent. These bushings are made with a quick-
renewable bushings are fixed and slip, and both are designed to change arrangement that permits them to be changed in a
be a slip fit in a liner bushing (installed in the mounting hole in matter of seconds. Slip renewable bushings are mainly used
9-76
CHAPTER 9
Fixed
P?
renewable
bJshlng
ew
51P renewoble
bushing
locked
Pressflt bushing
/ for short run
/’ producf,on
Unlocked
Work prece
\
Shaped to suit contour
Bo
wlen necessary
Fig. 9-91 When irregular surfaces are being drilled, the bushing should
conform to the surface shape.~
0
when several operations are to be performed in the same hole,
such as drilling and reaming. In this case, the drill bushing
Fixed
would be used to drill the hole, then the bushing would be renewable
removed and the reaming bushing installed. After reaming, tbe bushing
drill bushing would be reinstalled for the next hole.
Special purpose bushings. In addition to the standard drill Fig. 9-92 Renewable bushings of the slip and fixed types.z
bushings already discussed, several different special-purpose
bushings are commonly used for jigs. These include oil-groove capable of handling high thrust and radial loads. They maintain
bushings, serrated and knurled bushings, and carbide bushings. close tolerances for long runs and minimize wear. Coolant-fed
Oil-groove bushings, having grooves in their bores to distribute bushings are sometimes used to facilitate the flow of cutting
cutting fluid, are used for high-speed, continuous machining fluid to the cutting edges for longer tool life.
operations. Traveling bushing plates are often used for multispindle
Bushings having serrations or knurls on their OD’S are used operations. With this arrangement, the bushing plate is attached
for applications in which the bushing is cast into the jig plate. to the drillhead rather than the workholding fixture and is
The most common materials used for this purpose are low-melt spring loaded so that the drills can continue to advance after
alloys and epoxy resins. In addition, some serrated bushings are initial contact has been made with the jig or workpiece.
designed to be pressed into jig plates made from composition Locating pins are generally used to ensure proper alignment of
board or plywood. the bushing plate on the workholding fixture.
Carbide bushings are available in almost any type and are
used for applications in which either long production runs are Check List for Jig Design
expected or very abrasive materials are to be machined. These The questions raised in Table 9-13 should be carefully con-
bushings cost more than their high-speed steel counterparts, but sidered in designing any jig. Careful attention to these details
often more than make up for this added cost by the extended life will result in economical designs with a minimum of problems.
they provide.
Bushings are also available with threaded ends for use with OPERATING PARAMETERS FOR DRILLING
portable drilling applications. The threaded end of the bushing Obtaining maximum economy in the use of drills requires
is screwed into the nose end of the power tool. Tapered flanges consideration of many factors. One important factor is selecting
on the tip of the bushing fit under the shoulders of clamps, the proper drill for a specific application. The wide variety
lockscrews, or lock strips on the jig. This arrangement effectively of drills available, many of which have been discussed in
holds the power tool in proper position and absorbs the thrust the preceding sections of this chapter, makes this selection
and torque of the operation, process difficult.
Roller and ball bearing, rotary-type, pilot bushings are While a drill of almost any design can be used to produce a
9-77
CHAPTER 9
OPERATING PARAMETERS FOR DRILLING
TABLE 9-13
Check List for Jig Design2
Locating and Supporting

Is the workpiece properly located? Are machined surfaces used for locating surfaces when
Is the workpiece properly supported? possible?
Will locators allow for tolerance variations in workpieces? Can locators be replaced easily?
Are locators properly related to each other? Are adjustable locators used for irregular surfaces?
Have the most practical locators been used? Has locator contact been kept to a recommended minimum?
Are the locators positioned as far apart as practical? Do locators and supports clear the cutting tool?
Have relieved (diamond) locators been used where Has the proper tolerance been applied to the locators?
appropriate? Will ejectors, if used, interfere with the locators?
Are locators positioned or relieved to avoid burrs or chips? Have locators been designed to allow easy loading and
Has a foolproofing device been employed? unloading?
Are any locators unnecessary?
Clamping and Workholding

Will the clamp securely hold the workpiece? Can the clamps be operated safely within easy reach of the
Could the clamp bend or distort the workpiece? operator?
Are clamps located over supports? Are the clamps self-contained or must wrenches be used?
Does the clamp hold the workpiece against the locators? Are the clamps easy to operate?
Is the tool thrust directed away from the clamps? Can the clamp compensate for tolerance variations in part
Does the clamp operate quickly? size?
Is the clamp solid? Has an equalizing device been used for multiple-clamping
Will the clamp damage the workpiece surface? tools?
Could the clamp loosen during use? Can clamp parts be easily replaced when worn?
Are the optimum number of clamps used? If a wrench must be used, will one wrench fit all the clamps?
Will the clamp location interfere with cutters, loading, or
unloading?
Tooling
Will drills, cutters, etc., clear the jig while in use? Can bushings (fixed) be easily replaced when worn?
Will the jig clear the cutter when loading or unloading? Are bushings used which are of proper size and length?
Have the cutter sizes been specified? Are bushings properly relieved to avoid fouling with chips?
Are bushings easily removed and replaced for different Are standard bushings used wherever possible?
operations?
General Design Considerations and Safety

Will the jig perform with an acceptable degree of Are coolant flow and chips directed away from the operator?
repeatability? Are all sharp edges removed?
Is the jig easy and safe to load and unload? Does the design require the operator to work too closely to
Has the human element been considered in the design? revolving tools?
Does the jig require a means to secure it to the machine Is enough leverage allowed for hand-held jigs?
table? Is there any chance of the clamp loosening or the workpiece
Is the jig easy to clean? being pulled from the jig?
Will coolant freely drain from the jig? Has every possible detail been studied to protect the
Are loose parts attached with a cable? operator from injury?
hole in almost any material, lower costs for production important considerations are regrinding, troubleshooting,
applications necessitate use of the correct drill. Variables and safety,
influencing the selection of the proper drill include the
composition, hardness, and surface condition of the material to Power Requirements
be drilled; the diameter and depth of the holes to be produced; In order to provide suitable equipment for any drilling
the accuracy, surface finish, and production requirements; the operation, it is necessary to determine the torque and thrust
type and condition of the machine to be used; and the rigidity of required to rotate and feed the drill at the desired rate. Torque
the setup. Standard drills should be used whenever possible and speed set the power requirements; thrust determines the
because of reduced costs, interchangeability, better availability, machine rigidity and strength requirements.
and proven designs. Twist drills. With twist drills, thrust force is very sensitive to
Once a drill has been selected, many operating parameters variations in chisel edge length or web thickness. Web thinning
must be established. These include power requirements, cutting reduces thrust requirements, decreases the cutting temperature,
speeds and feed rates, and the cutting fluid to be used. Other increases drill life, and improves hole geometry.
9-78
CHAPTER 9
Research and analysis indicate that drill torque and thrust are TABLE 9-15
functions of the drill diameter, drill chisel edge length, feed per Torque and Thrust Constants Based upon Ratios c/d or w/d
revolution, and workpiece material. The effects of cutting fluids
and drill helix angle are relatively minor unless difficulty with Torque Thrust Thrust
chip ejection is encountered. Approx. constant constant constant
Reasonable estimates of torque and thrust requirements of c/d wld A B E
sharp twist drills of various sizes and designs can be made from 0.03 0.025 1.000 1.100 0.001
the following formulas: 0.05 0.045 1.005 1.140 0.003
For torque: 0.08 0.070 1.015 1.200 0.006
J,f= #.8dI.8A 0.10 0.085 1.020 1,235 0.010
(1) 0.13 0.110 1.040 1.270 0.017
For thrust: 1.080
0.15 0.130 1.310 0.022
T= 2K~8d0”8B + Kd2E (2) 0.18 0.155 1.085 1.355 0.030
0.20 0.175 1.105 1.380 0.040
where: 1.155
0.25 0.220 1.445 0.065
M ❑ torque, in.-lbf 0.30 0.260 1.235 1.500 0.090
T ❑ thrust force, lb
0.35 0.300 1.310 1,575 0.120
K = work-material constant (see Table 9-14)
0.40 0.350 1.395 1.620 0.160
f ❑ drill feed, ipr
d ❑ drill diameter, in. (National Twist Drill)
,4, B, E = Drill design constants (Seethe following text and * c = chisel edge length, in.
Table 9-15.) d = drill diam, in.
w ❑ web thickness, in.
For metric usage, the torque in N-m can be obtained by
multiplying in. -lbf by O.113. Thrust force in newtons is
TABLE 9-16
determined by multiplying the force in pounds by 4.448.
Torque and Thrust Terms Based upon Feed
TABLE 9-14 Feed, Feed,

Work-Material Constants for f,ipr @,8 f,ipr p.s
Calculating Torque and Thrust
0.0005 0.0025 0.012 0.030
0.001 0.004 0.015 0.035
Work Material K
0.002 0.007 0.020 0.045
Steel, 200 Bhn 24,000 0.003 0,010 0.025 0.055
Steel, 300 Bhn 31,000 0.004 0.012 0.030 0.060
Steel, 400 Bhn 34,000 0.005 0.014 0.035 0.070
Most aluminum alloys 7000 0.006 0.017 0.040 0.075
Most magnesium alloys 4000 0,008 0.020 0.050 0.090
Most brasses 14,000 0.010 0.025
Leaded brass 7000
(National Twisr Drill)
Cast iron, 165 Bhn 15,000
Free-machining mild steel, 18,000
resulfurized If the operating speed is known, the torque can be converted
Austenitic stainless steel 34,000 to approximate horsepower requirements by means of the
(Type 3 16) following formula:
(National Twist Drill) (3)

where:
The most important drill design feature affecting torque and
hp ❑ approximate horsepower required
thrust is the ratio of the chisel edge length, c, to the drill
M = torque, in.-lbf
diameter, d. The torque and thrust constants, ,4, B, and E, in
S ❑ drill speed, rpm
Table 9-15 are based upon the ratio c/d. Because it is often
easier to measure the web thickness at the point w, the table also or:
includes approximate values of the ratio w/d. For drills of MS
(4)
standard design, c/d ❑ 0.18 can be used, and for drills with split k w ‘ 9524
points, c/d = 0,03 gives a reasonable estimate. To simplify where:
raising the feed,~, and diameter, d, to the powe’ls required in the
M = torque, N.m
formulas, values are given in Tables 9-16 and 9-17. If exact
values are not found in the tables, the use of the next larger To allow for machine transmission losses, the power (based
value in the tables give conservative results. interpolation, on dull drills) should be multiplied by about 1.25. Alternatively,
however, gives more accurate results, The formulas yield torque power requirements for sharp drills could be multiplied by
and thrust requirements for sharp drills. An extra 30-50% about 1.7, thus allowing for both dulling and machine losses.
should be provided to allow for dulling. Somewhat quicker calculations of power and thrust require-
9-79
CHAPTE R9
TABLE 9-17
Torque and Thrust Terms
Based Upon Diameter
Diam,
d, in. dO.8 dl.8 d, 3
0.063 0.110 0.007 0.004

0.094 0.150 0.014 0.009
0.125 0.190 0.025 0.016
0.156 0.225 0.035 0.025 2 1/2
0.188 0.260 0.050 0.035

0.218 0.295 0.065 0.050
0.250 0.330 0.082 0.065
0.281 0.365 0.105 0.080
2
0.313 0.395 0.125 0.105
0.344 0.425 0.145 0.120
$ I 3;4
0.375 0.455 0.170 0.140 5
0.438 0.515 0.225 0.190
0.500 0.575 0.285 0.250 s I 1/2
.
0.563 0.630 0.355 0.315 3
0.625 0.685 0.430 0.390 I 1,4
0.688 0.740 0.510 0.470
0.750 0.795 0.595 0.565 I
0.875 0.900 0.785 0.765
1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
3!4
1.125 1.010 1.235 1.270
1.250 1.195 1.495 1.565
1/2
1.375 1.290 1.775 1.890
1.500 1.385 2.075 2.250 3/8
1.625 1.475 2.400 2.640 1/’4
1.750 1.565 2.740 3.060 1,8

1.875 1.655 3.100 3.520
2.000 1.740 3.480 4.000 0.002 0005 001 002 005 01 02030,5 10 203050 1015
003 h~
2.250 1.915 4.300 5.070
2.500 2.080 5.200 6.250 ,!
2.750 2.250 6.190 7.560 0004 0010 0050 oi50 04’00”00 360 1000
3.000 kW
2.410 7.240 9.000 Power req.lred
3.500 2.720 9.500 12.250
4.000 3.030 12.100 16.000
ig. 9-93 Horsepower required to drill AISI 1112 steel at 100 rpm.$
(National Twist DrilI)
a cutting speed of 330 sfm ( 100 m/ rein), are plotted in Fig. 9-95.
ments can be made for drills of standard design through the use Because-p~wer ‘requirements increase with-cutting edge wear,
of graphs (Fig. 9-93 and 9-94). These show power and thrust the use of load meters or power monitors is recommended,
requirements for drills of various sizes operating at various especially for high-production applications. This can prevent
feeds in AIS1 1112 steel at 100 rpm. For speeds other than 100 damage to the tool, workpiece, and machine.
rpm, the power varies in direct proportion to the speed, while Thrust requirements for indexable-insert drills are less—by
thrust force is substantially independent of speed. These values 30% or more—than HSS twist drills. Indexable-insert drills
are for sharp drills; extra allowances must be made for drill- with a positive geometry require less axial thrust forces than
dulling and machine-transmission losses. The value given for drills with negative geometry. Test results indicating thrust
AISI 1112 steel can be converted to other materials with forces with relation to various feed rates and drill diameters
reasonable accuracy through the use of the conversion factors when holes were produced in steel having a tensile strength of
in Table 9-14. 150,000 psi (1035 MPa), with a cutting speed of 330 sfm (100
Indexable-insert drills. Because drills with indexable carbide m/ rein), are plotted in Fig. 9-96. Thrust requirements increase
inserts operate at substantially higher cutting speeds than HSS with increases in drill diameter, feed rate, and tensile strength
twist drills, they require more power, Required power depends of the material being drilled, but decrease with increases in
upon the material to be drilled and increases proportionately cutting speed.
with increases in cutting speed, feed rate, and tool diameter. Spade drills. Higher thrust forces are required when spade
Approximate motor power requirements for indexable-insert drills are used than when twist drills or certain indexable-insert
drills made by one firm are presented in Table 9-18. drills are used. The thrust force for spade drills can be calculated
Test results indicating power requirements with relation to by using the formula:
various feed rates and drill diameters when holes were produced
in steel having a tensile strength of 140,000 psi (966 MPa), with (5)
9-80
CHAPTER 9
1 I I 1 ,
I
I I
010 050 I 00 5 10 20 30 40 50 kN
Fig. 9-94 Thrust developed to drill AIS1 1112 steel at 100 rpm.3
where: or:
F, ❑ thrust force, lb M ❑ 7.5D~,P (8)
M ❑ torque, in.-lbf
where:
D ❑ spade drill diameter, in.
lf ❑ torque, N. m
or:
D ❑ drill diameter, mm
~, . 3000M
(6) j’, = feed rate, mm/rev
D
P = unit power (power per cms of metal removed per
where: minute), kW
F, = thrust force, N These formulas for torque are based only on volumetric
M ❑ torque, N.m considerations and do not consider the size effect, which would
D ❑ spade drill diameter, mm entail the use of different exponents and constants.
Approximate power requirements for spade drills can be
Torque can be calculated as follows:
determined by using formulas (3) and (4) for twist drills.
M ❑ 49,500 D2f,P (7) Unit power, torque, and thrust for producing holes in various
materials with spade drills of different diameters, using several
where:
feed rates, are presented in Table 9-19. The unit powers, P,
M ❑ torque, in.-lbf listed include allowances for a 2570 dulling of the drills and a
D = spade drill diameter, in. spindle drive efficiency of 90Y0. For feed rates below 0.010 ipr
y, = feed rate, ipr (0.25 mm/ rev), the unit power, P, should be increased by 10%;
P ❑ unit power (power per in.j of metal removed per below 0.0008 ipr (0.20 mm/rev), 20%; and below O.OO6ipr (O.15
minute), hp mm/ rev), 4090.
9-81
CHAPTER 9
(M.I /uIus) .sd!
‘W2J pas~
(M7) dq
‘paqnba~ .SaMOd
(Up.u/Lu) UIJS
‘paads lhsp~n~
(MX) dq
‘pa.syba~ .IaMod
(uyu/uJ) S,uJs
‘paads %g~n~
(MT) dq
‘pal!nba~ JaMOd
(Up.u/us) USJS
‘paads ~uq~n~
(MX) dq
‘pa.s!nba~ .saMod
.-E
(U!lu /w) USJS
‘paads ihs~~]n~
(Ml) dq
‘paqnba~ laMOd
9-82
CHAPTER 9
(up /tII) LUJS
‘prods %tgmo
(M3) dq
‘pa~!nbm .IaMod
(Uyl /uI) I.q!
‘paads %.qln=
(MT) dL
‘pa~!nbw .IaMod
(Uyu /m) UIy
‘paads ih.qlm~
9-83
CHAPTER 9
High-pressure coolant drills. The power required to produce

holes in carbon and alloy steels having a hardness of 200-275
Drill Bhn and tensile strengths from 92,000-135,000 psi (634-931
d,ometer
MPa), using multiple-lip, high-pressure coolant drills with
internal chip removal, is shown in Fig. 9-97. Thrust and torque
requirements for the same tools and workpiece materials are
presented in Figs. 9-98 and 9-99.
Power requirements for several applications of multiple-
cutter trepanning tools with external chip removal are plotted
in Fig. 9-100. The curves in this graph level out for larger
diameter tools because a constant depth of cut, 18 mm (0.709”),
was used for all tool diameters.
Drilling Speeds and Feeds

Drill speed refers to a drill’s peripheral or surface speed in feet
per minute (sfm) or meters per minute (m/ rein). Drill speed is
related to spindle speed (rpm) as follows:
sfm ❑ 0.0262 d x rpm (9)
where:
~
0010 0012 Ipr @7 = drill surface speed, fpm
d ❑ drill diameter, in.
0,”10 0.125 015 020 025 0.30 mmire
Feeo :ote or:
n?/ min = 0.00314 d x rpm (lo)
‘ig.9-95 Test results show power requirements using various feed rates
and indexable-insert drills of different diameter to produce holes in steel where:
having a tensile strength of 140,000 psi (966 MPa). The cutting speed
was 330 sfm (100 m/rein). ( Waukedra Cuffing Tools, Inc.) m/min ❑ drill surface speed, m/min
d = drill diameter, millimeters
or:
Drtll
,Pm, . M.2p?L (11)
diameter
2750 — where:
d = drill diameter, in,
2200- -
3.1831 xm/min
1760- - rpm = (12)
d
i390- - where:
& a’= drill diameter, mm
!jlloo- -
< Feed rate is expressed as inches per revolution (ipr) or
millimeters per revolution (mm/ rev), as well as inches per
$ 880- - minute (ipm) or millimeters per minute (mm/rein).
—~
The parameters of cutting speed and feed rate control metal
< 700- - removal rate, hole quality, and drill life. Any increase in these
parameters generally increases metal removal rate, but decreases
550- - tool life. While an increase in either speed or feed has an equal
effect on metal removal rate, an increase in speed usually has a
440- -
larger effect in reducing drill life than an increase in feed rate.
As a result, the highest possible feed rate should be used for
sso~ ,,, drilling, with moderate cutting speeds to provide satisfactory

holes and economical tool life, balanced against production
requirements. Feed and speed selection depend upon many
~ .m,rev
variables, including the composition and hardness of the
material to be drilled, depth and diameter of hole, type and
Feed ra+e
condition of the drilling machine, rigidity of the setup, efficiency
of the cutting fluid, and requirements for accuracy, surface
Fig. 9-96 Thrust requirements for indexable-insert drills of different finish, and production rates.
diameters, using various feed rates and a cutting speed of 330 sfm (100
m/min), when producing holes in steel having a tensile strength of Twist drills. Specific recommendations for operating para-
150,000 psi (1035 MPa). ( Waukesha Cuffing Tools, Inc.) meters must be based on the cutting tool material and the
9-84
CHAPTER 9
TABLE 9-19
Unit Power, Torque, and Thrust Values for Spade Drilling Various Materials
Unit
Condition Drill Feed Rate, Power, P, Torque, M, Thrust, Ft,
of Hardness, Diam, f,, ipr hp/in.l/min lb force x in.
Material Bhn in. (mm/rev) (kW/ cml/ rein) (N. m) (~N)
Ductile Irons
Ferritic, 140 I 0.014 (0.36) 0.7 485 (54.8) 1455 (6.47)
annealed 2 0.016 (0.41) (0.03) 2218 (250.6) 3326 (14.79)
;;0 3 0.018 (0.46) 5613 (634.3) 5613 (24.97)
4 0.020 (0.51) 11,088 (1253) 8316 (36.99)
5 0.022 (0.56) 19,058 (2154) 11,435 (50.86)
Ferritic and 190 1 0.012 (0.30) 1.2 713 (80.6) 2138 (9.51)
Pearlitic, 2 0.014 (0.36) (0.05) 3326 (375.8) 4990 (22.20)
as cast 2!;5 3 0.016 (0.41) 8554 (966.6) 8554 (38.05)
4 0.018 (0.46) 17,107 (1933) 12,830 (57.07)
5 0.018 (0.46) 26,730 (3020) 16,038 (71 .34)
1 0.012 (0.30) 1.5 891 (100.7) 2673 (11.89)
2 0.014 (0.36) (0.07) 4158 (469.9) 6237 (27.74)
3 0.016 (0.41) 10,692 (1208) 10,692 (47.56)
4 0.018 (0.46) 21,384 (2416) 16,038 (71.34)
5 0.018 (0.46) 33,413 (3776) 20,048 (89. 17)
Pearlitic and 240 1 0.011 (0.28) 1.5 817 (92.3) 2450 (10.90)
Martensitic, 2 0.014 (0.36) (0.07) 4158 (469.9) 6237 (27.74)
normalized 3%0 3 0.016 (0.41) 10,692 ( 1208) 10,692 (47.56)
and tempered 4 0.018 (0.46) 21,384 (2416) 16,038 (71 .34)
5 0.019 (0.48) 35,269 (3985) 21,161 (94.12)
Martensitic, 270 1 0.008 (0.20) 1.7 713 (80.6) 2138 (9.51)
quenched and 2 0.009 (0.23) (0.08) 3208 (362.5) 4811 (21 .40)
tempered 3!;0 3 0.010 (0.25) 7574 (855.9) 7574 (33.69)
4 0.012 (0.30) 16,157 ( 1826) 12,118 (53.90)
5 0.014 (0.36) 29.453 (3328) 17,672 (78.60)
Plain Carbon Steels: 1006-1026
Hot rolled, 85 1 0.012 (0.30) 653 (73.8) 1960 (8.72)

normalized to 2 0.015 (0.38) (;.:5) 3267 (369.2) 4900 (21.79)
175 3 0.018 (0.46) 8820 (996.7) 8820 (39.23]
4 0.022 (0.56) 19,166 (2166) 14,375 (63.94)
5 0.025 (0.63) 34,031 (3845) 20,419 (90.82)
Hot rolled, 125 1 0.012 (0.30) 1.1 653 (73.8) 1960 (8.72)
annealed to 2 0.015 (0.38) (0.05) 3267 (369.2) 4900 (21.79)
Cold drawn 175 3 0.018 (0.46) 8820 (996.7) 8820 (39.23)
4 0.022 (0.56) 19,166 (2166) 14,375 (63.94)
5 0.025 (0.63) 34,031 (3845) 20,419 (90.82)
1 0.012 (0.30) 713 (80.6) 2138 (9.51)

2 0.015 (0.38) (;.$5) 3564 (402.7) 5346 (23.78)
3 0.018 (0.46) 9623 (1087.4) 9623 (42.80)
4 0.022 (0.56) 20,909 (2363) 15,682 (69.75)
5 0.025 (0.63) 37,125 (4195) 22,275 (99.08)
225 1 0.010 (0.25) 1.3 643 (72.7) 1930 (8.58)

2 0.014 (0.36) (0.06) 3604 (407.3) 5405 (24.04)
2!;5 3 0.016 (0.41) 9266 (1047) 9266 (41 .22)
4 0.020 (0.51) 20,592 (2327) 20,592 (91.59)
5 0.022 (0.56) 35,393 (3999) 35,393 (157.43)
9-85
CHAPTER 9
Unit
of Hardness, Diam, f,, ipr hp/in.s/min lb force x in.
Material Bhn in. (mm/ rev) (kW/ cm3/ rein) (N. m) (~N)
Plain carbon steels: 1027, 1030, 1033-1046, 1049, 1050, 1052, 1055, 1060, 1062, 1064-1066, 1070, 1074, 1078, 1080,
1085, 1088, 1090, and 1095
Hot rolled, 125 1 0.012 (0.30) 1.1 653 (73.8) 1960 (8.72)
normalized 2 0.015 (0.38) (0.05) 3267 (369.2) 4900 (21.80)
or annealed ;;5 3 0.018 (0.46) 8820 (996.7) 8820 (39.23)
Cold drawn 4 0,022 (0.56) 19,166 (2166) 14,375 (63.94)
5 0.025 (0.63) 34,031 (3845) 20,419 (90.82)
175 1 0.012 (0.30) 713 (80.6) 2138 (9.51)

to 2 0.015 (0.38) (0%5) 3564 (402.7) 5346 (23.78)
225 3 0.018 (0.46) 9623 (1087.4) 9623 (42.80)
4 0.022 (0.56) 20,909 (2363) 15,682 (69.75)
5 0.025 (0.63) 37,125 (4195) 22,275 (99.08)
Hot rolled, 225 1 0.010 (0.25) 1.3 643 (72.7) 1930 (8.58)
normalized to 2 0.014 (0.36) (0.06) 3604 (407,3) 5405 (24.04)
or annealed 275 3 0.016 (0.41) 9266 (1 047) 9266 (41.22)
Hot rolled, 4 0.020 (0.51) 20,592 (2327) 15,444 (68.69)
quenched and 5 0.022 (0.56) 35,393 (3999) 21,236 (94.46)
tempered
Cold drawn 275 1 0.009 (0.23) 668 (75.5) 2005 (8.92)
2 0.012 (0.30) (;.;6) 3326 (375.8) 4990 (22.20)
;;5 3 0.014 (0.36) 8732 (986.7) 8732 (38.84)
4 0.016 (0.41) 17,741 (2005) 13,306 (59.19)
5 0.018 (0.46) 31,185 (3524) 18.711 (83.23)
Hot rolled, 325 1 0.008 (0.20) 1.4 594 (67, 1) 1782 (7,93)
quenched and to 2 0.010 (0.25) (0.06) 2772 (3 13,2) 4158 (18,49)
tempered 375 3 0.012 (0.30) 7484 (845.7) 7484 (32.29)
4 0.014 (o,36j 15,523 (1 754) 11,642 (5 1.78)
5 0.016 (0.41) 27,720 (3132) 16,632 (73.98)
375 1 0.007 (O.18) 1.5 624 (70.5) 1871 (8.32)
to 2 0.009 (0.23) (0.07) 3029 (342.3) 4544 (20.21)
425 3 0.010 (0.25) 7128 (805.5) 7128 (31.71)
4 0.012 (0.30) 15,206 (1718) 11,406 (50.73)
5 0.014 (0.36) 27,720 (3132) 16,632 (73.98)
Free-machining alloy steels, resulfurized: 3140, 4140, 4150, and 8640

Hot rolled, 150 1 0.014 (0.36) 762 (86.1) 2287 (10.17)
normalized to 2 0.016 (0.41) (:.;5) 3485 (393.8) 5227 (23.25)
or annealed 200 3 0.018 (0.46) 8821 (996.8) 8821 (39.24)
Cold drawn 4 0.022 (0.56) 19,166 (21 66) 14,375 (63.94)
5 0.025 (0.63) 34,031 (3846) 20,419 (90.82)
200 1 0.014 (0.36) 901 (101.8) 2703 (12.02)
2 0.016 (0.41) (:.;6) 3194 (360.9) 479 I (21.31)
;;0 3 0.018 (0.46) 10,425 (1178) 10,425 (46.37)
4 0.022 (0.56) 22,651 (2560) 16,988 (75.56)
5 0.025 (0.63) 40,219 (4546) 24,131 (107.33)
9-86
CHAPTER 9
TABLE 9-19- Confirmed
Unit
of Hardness, Diam, f,, ipr hp/inx/min lb force x in. lb
Material Bhn in. (mm/rev) (kW/ ems/rein) (N. m) (kN)
Hot rolled, 275 1 0.012 (0.30) 1.4 832 (94.0) 2495 (11.10)
quenched and to 2 0.014 (0.36) (0.06) 3881 (438.6) 5821 (25.89)
tempered 325 3 0.016 (0.41) 9979 (1 128) 9979 (44.39)
4 0.018 (0.46) 19,958 (2255) 14,969 (66.58)
5 0.020 (0.51) 34,650 (3915) 20,790 (92.47)
325 1 0.010 (0.25) 1.4 693 (78.3) 2079 (9.25)

2 0.012 (0.30) (0.06) 3326 (375.8) 4990 (22.20)
;;5 3 0.014 (0.36) 8732 (986.7) 8732 (38.84)
4 0.016 (0.41) 17,741 (2005) 13,306 (59.19)
5 0.018 (0.46) 31,185 (3524) 18,711 (83.23)
375 1 0.008 (0.20) 673 (76.0) 2020 (8.98)

to 2 0.010 (0.25) (:.;7) 3168 (358.0) 4752 (21. 14)
425 3 0.012 (0.30) 8554 (966.6) 8554 (38.05)
4 0.014 (0.36) 17,741 (2005) 13,306 (59.19)
5 0.015 (0.38) 29,700 (3356) 17,820 (79.26)
Aluminum alloys, wrought, heat treated: 2011,2014,2017,2018, 2024,2025,2117,2218, 4032,6053,6061,6062, 6063,
6151, 6262, 6464, 7075, 7079, and 7178
Solution 75 1 0.024 (0.61) 356 (40.2) 1069 (4.75)

treated to 2 0.028 (0.71) (0!:1) 1663 (187.9) 2495 (11,10)
and aged 150 3 0.032 (0.81) 4277 (483.3) 4277 ( 19.02)
(500 kg) 4 0.036 (0.91) 8554 (966.6) 6415 (28.53)
5 0.040 (1.02) 14,850 (1678) 8910 (39.63)
(Madison Industries)
material to be drilled. Suggested speeds and feeds that can be Coolant-fed twist drills. A fairly safe starting point for
used as starting points for producing holes in various materials coolant-fed twist drills is an increase of 10Toin speed and 25% in
with twist drills are presented in Table 9-20. Some aircraft feed rate over that recommended for solid twist drills. In many
manufacturers are performing high-speed drilling at 20,000 rpm cases, higher increases are possible. As the feed is increased,
(vs. the conventional speed of 6000 rpm) on 7075-T651 however, the speed should be increased proportionately less in
aluminum alloy with hand-held, air-driven drilling units. order not to burn or dull the drill prematurely.
The method of power feeding must be taken into consider- While coolant-fed twist drills are capable of producing holes
ation. A mechanical power feed is the most effective method to depths greater than six diameters, some reduction of feed and
because it maintains a constant feed per revolution. Non- speed is generally necessary in deep holes (when hole depth to
mechanical power feeds are less effective because they tend to drill diameter ratios exceeds 4:1). A 1O-2O% reduction is
reduce the feed as the thrust increases with drill wear. recommended for ratios of 6:1 to 10:1. Ratios beyond 10:1 may
Multidiameter drills. Proper speed and feed selection for require partial or full retraction of the drill to relieve chips.
multiple diameter drills is vital to good performance. The Indexable-insert drills. Drills with indexable carbide inserts
surface speed used should be based upon the largest drill can generally be operated at higher speeds and feeds than twist
diameter, while the feed rate must be selected based on the drills. Recommended starting points for indexable-insert drills
smallest drill diameter. This consideration is often ignored in made by one manufacturer are presented in Table 9-22.
setting job conditions until failure occurs. The same consider- Optimum speeds and feeds vary depending upon the material to
ation should also be applied to multiple-spindle drilling in be drilled, rigidity of the machine and setup, and available
which the spindle speeds are all the same. power.
Core drills. Multiple-flute (three or four-flute) core drills are For applications in which the workpiece surfaces are not
generally operated at about two-thirds the surface speed of perpendicular to the drill axes, it is recommended that a lower
two-flute twist drills in a given material. The feed used is the starting feed rate be used until the full diameter of the drill is in
same per cutting edge as for a conventional two-flute drill. A the cut. The same should be done for interrupted cuts, such as
four-flute core drill would therefore have a feed per revolution drilling through crossholes or curved surfaces.
twice that of a standard two-flute twist drill. Spade drills. When spade drills are used, the speed is often
Producing deep holes with twist drills. When producing holes reduced slightly and the feed increased over that used for the
having depths more than about three to four times the same size twist drill. For deep holes, both the speed and feed
diameters of twist drills, the speeds and feeds should be reduced. should be reduced as the depth increases. Many problems in
Suggested reductions are given in Table 9-21. spade drilling can be traced to insufficient feed. This causes
9-87
CHAPTER 9
lb force
hp kw ~fi kN. m
t
2900. 400
9@
70-
65-
1:
2170. 300
8 0- 60-
1:
55- $ I 450- 200
>
g
6
E 6(7 45- 72> 100
2
g 4f3-
; 50-
% 35-
0
lN
, 20 40 60 80 100120 140 160 180 200220 24[
1 1 1 1 1 I 1 I 1
12345678 9 In.
25-
Fig. 9-99 Torque requirements for multiple-lip, high-pressure coolarr[

2i3- 15-
drills with internal chip removal. (Sarrdvik Inc.)
10 -
hp kW
20 40 60 80 100’ 120 140 160 180 200 22024 n

50- 40
03 mm/rev (0 012 lpr)
i;34i678 9’n 35- AISI 1040 steel
Drill dlometer g 40- 3(3-
200 m/m,n\
? (656sfm) .
25-
015 mm/rev (0.006 Ipr)
‘ig. 9-97 Power requirements for multiple-lip, high-pressure coolant $ 30- Z. AIS 1060 stee
rills with internal chip removal. (Sarrdvik Inc.) 6
@ I 00 m/m[n. 03 mmlrev (0012 lpr)
2~ 20- 15-
I o-
lo- -;;;;:,00,
5-
Ih N L 4
50 100 150 200 250 mm
‘000@J4~ 2468 10 in.
Tool dam
Fig. 9-100 Power requirements for balanced-force, multiple-cutter

trepanning tools. (Sandvik Inc.)
vibration and edge chipping, chips which do not flush readily

from the hole, and work hardening when drilling some materials.
Some average feeds and speeds for various materials
recommended by one manufacturer of spade drills are presented
in Table 9-23. The values shown can generally be increased
15-20% when indexable blades are used. For intermediate size
drills, the values can be interpolated.
-1 + Actual feeds and speeds used depend upon the condition of
1 I 1 I I 1 1 I r ! 1 the material to be drilled and the many variables in the setup.
20 40 60 80 100120 140 160 180 200220 24I
Im For annealed material, it is suggested that the lowest feed and
, 1 1
1 I I I 1 I 1 speed listed be used for initial startup and that first feed, then
12345678 9 r
speed, be increased in increments of about 20970as conditions
Drill dometer
allow. Hard or very tough materials should be drilled initially
with feeds and speeds 30% below those listed; the same method
Fig. 9-98 Thrust requirements for multiple-lip, high-pressure coolant of progressive increase should be used.
drills with internal chip removal. (Sarrdvik [rrc.) Excessive feeds as well as too low a feed rate, can cause undue
CHAPTER 9
chipping near the center and perhaps total failure by breakage. necessary to prevent burrs, For these reasons, a controlled, but
Excessive speeds can be recognized by the temper color. Blue or adjustable, sensitive feed mechanism may be preferable to a
black temper colors appear at the outside corners and indicate positive feed system.
excessive heat, which softens the edge and allows premature Maximum depths in drilling small holes are generally limited
flank wear. Flank wear may be allowed to progress to a width of to about three times the hole diameter when the holes are less
0.030-0.040” (0.76-1 .02 mm) before regrinding. than 0.0001” (0.003 mm) diam, and range up to 20 or more times
High-pressure coolant drills. Since the cutting edges of the diameter for holes larger than 0.004” (O.10 mm) diam.
gundrills are carbide, high surface speeds with light feed rates Deep-hole drilling of small holes generally requires slower
are recommended. Conservative starting conditions that can be speeds and is usually accomplished by gradually increasing the
used as a guide are presented in Table 9-11. Adjustments of the hole diameter and depth, using the most rigid drills possible.
speed and feed values given should be made after the first few
holes are drilled, based on results. This is necessary due to the Cutting Fluids for Drilling
variables of the material drilled, tools and machine used, As with most other machining operations, the most important
rigidity of the setup, and quality of hole desired. characteristics for drilling are the ability of the cutting fluid to
If the hardness of the material to be gundrillcd is much higher cool and lubricate. Lubrication reduces friction between the
than the values shown in Table 9-11, only three-fourths of the sliding chips and the drill and also minimizes heat caused by
speed and feed given should be used to start. Allowable whip friction between the drill and workpiece. Many drill failures are
length may then be increased 10% over the table value. If the the result of excessive heat.
unsupported shank length of the gundrill is greater than Cutting fluids have a direct influence on tool life, built-up
allowable whip length, whip guides must be used. If whip guides edge, and hole finish. Water-based emulsified oil is the most
are not available, the drill speed must be reduced or a shorter commonly used coolant today for drilling operations. It is
gundrill used. suitable for a wide variety of steels and some of the nonferrous
Recommended feeds and speeds for multiple-lip, internal- materials.
chip-removal gundrilk are presented in Table 9-24. The same Some firms specializing in drilling small holes have reported
data for multiple-lip, external-chip-removal drills is given in good results from using water-soluble oils in conjunction with a
Table 9-25, and for trepanning tools with internal chip removal, mist sprayer operating at a pressure of 25-35 psi (172-241 kPa).
Table 9-26. The pressurized air serves to remove chips and, together with
Small-hole drills. Perhaps the most significant item con- the cutting fluid, effectively cools the drill.
cerning operating conditions for small-diameter drills is speed When drilling high temperature resistant alloys and work
and feed selection. Normally, the conditions existing when hardening grades of stainless steel, tool life can be enhanced with
problems develop are overspeeding and underfeeding. In too a lubricant of sulfur-based oil or sulfo-chlorinated mineral oil.
many instances, a job is set up to operate at a given speed, and A detailed discussion of cutting fluids is presented in Chapter
the feed is then set so that the drill does not fracture. This 4 of this volume, “Cutting Fluids and Industrial Lubricants. ”
generally results in definite underfeeding, This discussion includes types of cutting fluids available,
Successful drilling with small-diameter drills requires selec- selection parameters for various operations, application and
tion of feeds that produce free-flowing chips and not a powder. filtration methods, and maintenance requirements.
If a powder is produced, the tool is almost wearing itself Most abrasive nonmetallic materials such as fiberglass,
through instead of cutting and there is a tendency for the ceramics, etc., are drilled without a liquid coolant. Two
powder to pack and clog, Thus, feed selection for small- methods for removing the abrasive powdered chips from the
diameter drills must be based on chip thickness, not on inches hole are a jet of air, or preferably a vacuum.
per minute. Selection of a speed based upon the strength and Coolant-fed twist drills. Coolant pumps on some drilling
load-carrying capacity of the drill using that feed then results in machines are not satisfactory for the use of coolant-fed tools
a successful production operation. because they deliver inadequate pressures and flow rates.
A common misconception is that the cutting speed should Depending upon the material to be drilled, the drill diameter,
remain constant regardless of the drill diameter. One firm hole depth, and other factors, coolant-fed drills may require
specializing in small-hole drilling generally recommends a volumes from 3-10 or more gpm (1 1-38 L/rein), with pressures
speed of approximately 2900 rpm for drilling with about 0.020” from 50-300 psi (345-2068 kPa).
(0.5 1 mm) diameter drills, and decreasing speeds for reduced Good results are being obtained with both constant high
diameter drills. A speed of only 50 rpm was used by this firm to pressure and pulsating coolant systems. Advocates of pulsating
drill holes 0.000025” (0.00064 mm) diameter in Zircaloy tubing. coolant (100-250 pulses per minute) claim that it breaks a vapor
Slower feed rates and higher drill speeds can help minimize barrier (fluid at the hot cutting edges that has vaporized and
buckling and point walking; however, if the material is abrasive remains there to block additional fluid from entering), thus
and/ or subject to work hardening, these conditions can increase permitting fresh coolant to reach the cutting edges. In addition,
tool wear and may cause breakage. Soft and nonferrous the pulsating coolant acts as a hydraulic ram to remove chips.
materials can often be drilled at higher speeds. For example, Loss of fluid can be a problem with coolant-fed drills when
plastics and printed circuit boards (such as copper cladding on the drills break out of the holes. The fluid escapes through the
glass epoxy) are being drilled at speeds up to 50,000 rpm initial exit hole, leaving the drill corners uncooled. This can be
or more. minimized by supplementing through-the-drill cooling with
Depending upon the material, the feed rate required to start flood cooling. Flood cooling can be controlled so that it is only
drilling may be more, and is often less, than needed to continue. actuated just before breakthrough.
This may require slight changes in the feed rate during drilling Indexable-insert drills. Coolant is particularly critical when
to maintain good chip flow. Also, when a drill breaks through a using indexable-insert drills because of the high volume of chips
surface in drilling through holes, a reduction in feed rate is often produced. Pressure and volume requirements depend upon drill
9-89
CHAPTER 9
TABLE 9-20
Suggested Operating Conditions for Producing Holes
in Various Materials with Twist Drills
Cutting Peripheral Helix Point

Hardness Feed Angle, Point
Material Tool Speed, sfm Angle,
Drilled Brinell Rockwell Material* (m/ rein) Rate** degrees degrees Style
Aluminum and its 45-105 to RB62 HSS 350 z 32-42 90-118 ---
alloys (107)
Asbestos --- --- Wc Y 17-20 90 ---
(;;)
Bakelite --- --- Wc Y 30-40 90-118 ---
$)
Carbon -— --- HSS 60-70 w 25-35 90-118 ---
(18-21)
Copper and its alloys
High machinability to 124 RB10-70 HSS 200 z 15-40 118 ---
(61)
Low machinability to 124 RB10-70 HSS z 0-25 118 ---
(H)
Fiberglass-epoxy --- --- Wc 650 0.0025- 35-40 118-130 4 facet
(198) 0.0050”
(0.063-
0.127 mm)
Glass --- —. Wc 15-25 Light 0 --- Spear
(4.6-7.6) hand
High-temperature
alloys
Cobalt based 180-230 RB89-99 HSS-CO w 28-35 118-135 Split
(:;)
Iron based 180-230 RB89-99 HSS-CO x 28-35 118-135 Split
(;;)
Nickel based 150-300 to RC32 HSS-CO w 28-35 118-135 Split
(::)
Iron
Cast (soft) 120-150 to R~80 HSS 140-150 z 20-30 90-118 ---
(43-46)
Wc 90-165 Y 14-25 90-118 ---
(27-50)
Cast (med. hard) 160-220 RB80-97 HSS 80-110 Y 20-30 90-118 ---
(24-34)
Wc 90-165 x 14-25 90-118 ---
(27-50)
Hard chilled 400 R&l Wc x 0-25 130-140 Notched
;;
Malleable 112-126 to RB71 HSS 90-120 Y 20-30 90-118 ---
(27-37)
Wc 100-150 x 14-25 118 ---
(30-46)
Ductile 190-225 to RB98 HSS Y 20-30 118 ---
(R)
Wc 80-100 x 14-25 118 ---
(24-30)
Magnesium and its 50-90 to RB52 HSS 150-400 z 25-35 118 ---
alloys (46-122)
Marble --- --- Wc 15-25 Light 0-1o 90-130 ---
(4.6-7.6)
Plastics --- --- HSS 100 Y 15-25 118 ---
(30)
Wc 100-200 x 15-25 118 —-
(30-6 11
9-90
CHAPTER 9
Cutting Peripheral Helix Point

Material Hardness
Tool Speed, sfm Feed Angle, Angle, Point
Drilled Brinell Rockwell Material* (m/ rein) Rate** degrees degrees Style
Rubber (hard) --- --- HSS Iuu-wu A 10-20 90-118 ---
(30-91)
Wc 200-300 w 15-25 118 ---
(61-91)
Steel
Plain carbon
to .25 C 125-175 R~71-88 HSS Y 25-35 118 ---
(})
to .50 c 175-225 RB88-98 HSS Y 25-35 118 ---
(;:)
to .90 c 175-225 R~88-98 HSS Y 25-35 118 ---
:;)
Alloy steel
LOWC(. 12to .25) 175-225 RB88-98 HSS z 25-35 118 ---
(;)
Med C(.30 to .65) 175-225 RB88-98 HSS 50-60 x 25-35 118 ---
(15-18)
488+ RC50+ Wc 75-1oo o.ooo5- 25-35 135 Notched
(23-30) 0.0015”
(o.o13-
0.038 mm)
Maraging 275-325 RC28-35 HSS Y 25-32 118-135 Split
(:$)
Stainless
Austenitic 135-185 RB75-90 HSS-CO x 25-35 118-135 Split
(:;)
Ferritic 135-185 RB75-90 HSS x 25-35 118-135 Split
(x)
Martensitic 135-175 RB75-88 HSS-CO z 25-35 118-135 Split
(:)
Precipitation 150-200 RB82-94 HSS-CO x 25-35 118-135 Split
hardened (i!)
Tool 196 RB94 HSS Y 25-35 118 ---
(n)
241 RC24 HSS Y 25-35 118 ---
(?!)
Titanium
Pure 110-200 to RB94 HSS 100 x 30-38 135 Split
(30)
Alpha and 300-360 RC31-39 HSS-CO Y 30-38 135 Split
alpha beta J!)
Beta 275-350 RC29-38 HSS-CO w 30-38 135 Split
(:6)
Zinc alloys 80-100 RB41-62 HSS 250 z 32-42 118 ---
* HSS—High-speed steel; HSS-Co—High-speed steel with cobalt; WC—Tungsten carbide
** Feed Rate, Drill Diameter

ipr (mm/rev) 1/8’’ (3.2) 1/4” (6.4) 1/2’’ (12.7) 3/4’’ (19.1) 1“ (25.4)
w 0.0015 0.003 0.0035 0.0045 0.005
(0.038) (0.08) (0.089) (o. I 14) (0.13)
x (0.002 0.0035 0.006 0.085 0.0105
(0.05) (0.089) (0.015) (0.216) (0.267)
Y 0.003 0.005 0.008 0.0105 0.0125
(0.08) (0.13) (0.20) (0.267) (0.3 17)
z 0.003 0.006 0.010 0.0155 0.0190
(0.08) (o. 15) (0.25) (0.394) (0.483) (Cleveland Twist Drill Co. ]
9-91
CHAPTER 9
TABLE 9-21 diameter and hole depth. Large drills require more volume, and
Recommended Reductions in Speeds and Feeds deeper holes necessitate higher pressure. General recommen-
for Producing Deep Holes with Twist Drills dations are in the range of 30-60 psi (207-444 kPa) for pressure
and 2-6 gpm (7.6-23 L/rein) for volume. Some tool manu-
Hole Depth facturers recommend even higher pressures, to 130 psi (896 kPa).
Reduction, Percent
(multiple of Flood application ofcutting fluid should only be used for
drill diam) Speed Feed short-hole applications with depth-to-diameter ratios of less
3 10 10 than 1:1. When cast iron is drilled, compressed air, or preferably
4 20 10 a vacuum, is sometimes used instead of a cutting fluid. If air is
5 30 20 used, adequate guarding is essential for protection against
6-8 ‘ 35-40 20 flying chips.
8-30 40-60 20-60 Spade drills. Cutting fluid for spade drilling is supplied
30-80 60-80 60-90 through the drill holder or by flood application. Volume
TABLE 9-22
Recommended Starting Speeds and Feeds
for Drills with Indexable Carbide Inserts
Material Drill Cutting Speed, Feed Rate,

Drilled Diam, in. sfm (m/rein) ipr (mm/rev)
Cast irons: nodular, 13/16to 1 1/8 165-300 0.004-0.008
ductile, or malleable (50-91) (o.10-0.20)
1 to 1 3/8 165-300 0.005-0.010
(50-91) (0.13-0.25)
1 l/4to 1 5/8 165-300 0.006-0.012
(50-91) (o.15-0.30)
1 l/2t02 1/2 165-300 0.008-0.014
(50-91) (0.20-0.36)
23/8t03 1/2 165-300 0.010-0.015
(50-91) (0.25-0.38)
Steels: 1000 series, 13/16to 1 1/8 300-400 0.003-0.005
such as 1018, 1020, etc. (91-122) (0.08-0.13)
I to 1 3/8 350-450 0.003-0,006
(107-137) (0.08-0.15)
1 l/4to 1 5/8 400-500 0.004-0.007
( 122-168) (0.10-0.18)
1 l/2t021/2 450-600 0.004-0.007
(137-183) (O.10-0.18)
23/8t03 1/2 500-700 0.005-0.009
(152-213) (O.13-0.23)
Steels: case hardened 13/16to 1 1/8 200-300 0.003-0.005
unalloyed, low carbon (61-91) (0.08-0.13)
1 to 1 3/8 250-350 0.004-0.006
(76-107) (0.10-0.15)
1 l/4to 1 5/8 300-425 0.005-0.007
(91-130) (O.13-0.18)
1 l/2t021/2 330-490 0.005-0.008
(101-149) (O.13-0.20)
23/8t03 1/2 350-550 0.006-0.010
(107-168) (0.15-0.25)
Steels: high carbon, 13/16to 1 1/8 200-300 0.003-0.005
alloyed, heat treated (61-91) (0.08-0.13)
lto 1 3/8 250-325 0.004-0.006
(76-99) (o.10-0.15)
11/4 to 15/8 300-400 0.005-0.008
(91-122) (O.13-0.20)
1 l/2t021/2 325-450 0.005-0.008
(99-137) (O.13-0.20)
23/8t03 1/2 350-500 0.006-0.010
(107-152) (O.15-0.25)
9-92
CHAPTER 9
Material Drill Cutting Speed, Feed Rate,

Drilled Diam, in. sfm (m/rein) ipr (mm/rev)
Steels: high tensile 13/16to 1 1/8 165-250 0.004-0.005
strength (50-76) (0.10-0.13)
lto 13/8 195-300 0.004-0.005
(59-91) (0.10-0.13)
1 l/4to 15/8 230-330 0.005-0.007
(70-101) (O.13-0.18)
1 l/2t021/2 265-390 0.006-0.008
(81-119) (O.15-0.20)
23/8 t031/2 265-425 0.006-0.009
(81-130) (O.15-0.23)
Stainless steels 13/16to 1 1/8 230-280 0.003-0.004

(70-85) (0.08-0.10)
lto 13/8 265-300 0.004-0.005
(81-91) (o. 10-0.13)
1 l/4to 15/8 280-345 0.004-0.005
(85-105) (0.10-0.13)
1 l/2t021/2 295-395 0.004-0.005
(90-120) (o. 10-0.13)
23/8t031/2 300-400 0.004-0.006
(91-122) (o. 10-0.15)
Titanium alloys 13/16to 1 1/8 100-135 0.003-0.004

(30-41) (0.08-0.10)
1 to 1 3/8 100-150 0.004-0.007
(30-46) (0.10-0.18)
1 l/4to 15/8 115-165 0.005-0.008
(35-50) (O.13-0.20)
1 l/2t02 1/2 130-175 0.006-0.009
(40-53) (O.15-0.23)
23/8t031/2 135-190 0.006-0.010
[41-58) (0.15-0.25)
( Waukesha Cutting Tools, Inc. )
requirements vary from about 9 gpm (34 L/ rein) for small- Drill Reconditioning
diameter drills to 80 gpm (303 L/rein) for large drills. Pressures Avoiding excessive dulling and proper drill reconditioning
generally vary from 20-200 psi (138-1 379 kPa). Deeper holes or are important factors influencing drilling economy, accuracy,
vertical bores may require higher volumes and pressures. and quality.
If the coolant pressure is not adequate to clear chips from the Drill wear. A drill starts to wear as soon as it is placed in
bores, compressed air can be introduced into the coolant operation. This wear is of several types, each of which has an
system. By regulating the air pressure or occasionally intro- effect upon drill life. Twist drill wear usually starts as a slight
ducing air into the coolant supply, chips can be cleared from the rounding on the cutting lip corners. At the same time, the
bore to keep the blade clear. The use of air can be employed for cutting lips, as well as the chisel edge, begin to wear and form a
horizontal operations, but is especially helpful for vertical truly conical surface of narrow width adjacent to these edges.
spade drilling applications. This conical surface has no clearance and tends to rub in the
High-pressure coolant drills. Coolant pressures recommended hole rather than cut.
by one gundrill manufacturer for producing holes in various The power and thrust required to force these slightly dulled
materials are presented in Table 9-11. Pressure and volume edges to penetrate the material being cut results in increased
requirements for multiple-lip external-chip-removal gundrills heat generation, which in turn causes the cutting edges to wear
are given in Fig. 9-101. The two graphs at the top of this at an accelerated rate. The increase in wear at the cutting lip
illustration are for deep-hole drilling—producing holes having corners travels back along the margins, resulting in loss in size.
depth-to-diameter ratios greater than 6:1; the two at the bottom This wear is usually accompanied by some degree of material
are for short-hole drilling—producing holes with depth-to- buildup, also found on the margins.
diameter ratios less than 6:1. Minimizing wear. Wear on a drill is not proportional to the
Pressure and volume requirements for multiple-lip internal- number of holes or pieces produced between grinds. After the
chip-removal drills with single or double tubes are presented in drill wears to a given level, additional wear occurs at an
Fig. 9-102. The same requirements for multiple-cutter internal- accelerated rate. Excessive margin wear requires additional
chip-removal trepanning tools are given in Fig. 9-103. shortening of the drill to remove the entire worn section,
9-93
CHAPTER 9
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9-94
CHAPTER 9
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9-95
CHAPTER 9
TABLE 9-24 properly due to loss of back-taper and will cause a reduction in
Recommended Speeds and Feeds for Multiple-Lip, tool life. Margin buildup causes binding between the margins
Internal-Chip-Removal Gundrills and the ID of the hole.
There are no specific drill-life criteria. Three wear areas—lip,
Material Hardness, Cutting Speed, Feed Rate, chisel edge, and margin—can be observed on twist drills,
Drilled Brinell sfm (m/ rein) ipr (mm/rev) independently or in combination (see Fig. 9-104), to establish a
,-.,.. .. . . drill-life criterion. Variations in drill life, however, can be large
XeelS, AIM series:
because of the wide range of operating conditions and
1000 150-225 250-300 0.004-0.015
differences in the accuracy with which the drills are ground.
(76-91) (0.10-0.38)
1100 Generally. the maximum wear land on the lip is about 0.010”
175-250 250-300 0.004-0.015
(0.25 mm). In order to remove worn, chipped, and burned
(76-91) (O.10-0.38)
portions on the ends of twist drills, the minimum recommended
I 300 175-250 250-300 0.004-0.015
amounts to be removed are given in Table 9-27.
(76-91) (0.10-0.38)
2000 135-275 Regrinding drill points. After removing the worn portion of
250-300 0.004-0.015
the twist drill, it is necessary to regrind the surfaces of the point.
(76-91) (0.10-0.38)
These two approximately conical surfaces intersect with the
3000 150-250 250-300 0.004-0.012
faces of the flutes to form the cutting lips. They also intersect
(76-91) (0.10-0.30)
4000 with each other to form the chisel edge.
150-225 150-300 0.004-0.012
The surface back of these cutting lips must not rub on the
(46-91) (0.10-0.30)
150-300 work, but must be relieved to permit the edge to penetrate.
5000 150-250 0.004-0.012
Without this relief, the drill could not penetrate the metal.
(46-91) (o.10-0.30)
8000, 9000 175-275 150-300 0.004-0.012 The clearance on the cutting lips of a drill is called lip relief
angle and varies with drill size and feed rate. Smaller drills
(46-91) (0.10-0.30)
Stainless steels: require a larger lip angle, while larger drills utilize smaller
300 series 135-275 150-300 angles (see Table 9-8) at the normal feed rates used. In order to
0.004-0.012
maintain maximum strength of the cutting edge, the lip-relief
(46-91) (o. 10-0.30)
angle should be as small as practical. For maximum drill life,
400 series 135-225 150-300 0.004-0.012
however, the angle should be as high as possible while adequate
(46-91) (0.10-0.30)
Cast iron 140-220 150-300 cutting edge strength is maintained. The optimum angle will
0.004-0.012
also vary with the application. For exampIe, smaI1er angles may
(46-91) (o. 10-0.30)
Malleable iron be required to control chatter in some operations,
135-250 250-400 0.006-0.020
(76-122) (o. 15-0.51) Lip relief angles between the two cutting edges of ground
Brass and bronze 75-240 250-400 0.006-0.020 twist driIls may occasionally vary. These variations can cause
(76-122) (o. 15-0.51) the side with the larger relief angle to wear faster and to
Aluminum alloys 300-600 0.006-0.020 produce a nonconcentric drill loading which increases with drill
(91-183) (0.15-0.51) wear or time.
Monel metals 200-300 150-300 0.002-0.010 Point angles for producing holes in various materials are
(46-9 1) (0.05-0.25) discussed earlier in this chapter under the subject of twist drill
geometry. The two cutting lips of a drill should be accurately
(Sandvik Inc. ) ground. Regardless of the point angle, the angles of the two
cutting lips AL and AZ (Fig. 9-105, a) must be equal. Similarly,
resulting in fewer holes per drill. Removal ofa worn portion by the length of the two lips L] and Lz should be equal. The point
cutting off the drill end can be eliminated when the drills are should be symmetrical, and the difference in relative lip height
resharpened in time. should be kept to an absolute minimum.
One approach to minimizing excessive wear is to set up a The error in centrality of web (Fig. 9-105, b) and relative lip
resharpening program to recondition a drill after it has been run height (views b and c) may cause a decrease in drill performance.
a given length of time or has produced a given number of holes. The acceptable tolerances in web centrality and relative lip
As an example, under certain conditions a 1“(25 mm) diam drill height are presented in Tables 9-28 and 9-29, respectively.
may be able to drill 1000 holes before it is completely dull. At If lips are not ground at the same angle with the drill axis, the
this time, the margins may be worn undersize for a distance of 1” drill will be subjected to an abnormal torsional strain because
back from the point and the drill must be shortened only one lip comes in contact with the workpiece (see Fig. 9-106,
this amount. a). This will cause the drill to dull quickly, may result in
If the drill bad been removed from the machine after 750 breakage, and may produce oversized holes. When the point is
holes, however, this wear might have been only 1/ 3“ (8.5 mm) ground with equal angles, but has lips of different lengths, the
and the drill would only need shortening by this amount, In this condition shown in Fig. 9-106, b, is produced. A drill having
case, the user could produce 2250 holes per inch of drill. cutting lips of different angles and unequal lengths will cause
Three separate steps are required to recondition a dull or severe operating conditions (Fig. 9-106, c).
worn drill. These are: (1) removal of the worn section, (2) When several drills of different lengths are used to complete a
thinning the web, and (3) regrinding the point surfaces, hole, each successive drill should be ground with a slightly
Removal of worn section. The first principle of proper flatter point angle (see Fig. 9-107).
reconditioning is to remove all of the worn section and the Lengths of the points on twist drills for various point angles
greatest majority of margin buildup. Faihrre to remove the can be calculated from the formula given in Table 9-30.
entire worn section will result in a drill which will not cut Web thinning. The need for web thinning (on most standard
9-96
CHAPTER 9
TABLE 9-25
Recommended Speeds and Feeds for Multiple-Lip, External-Chip-Removal, High-Pressure Coolant Drills
Drill diam, in, (mm)
Material Cutting Speed, l/64to 1/4 (4-6,3) l/4to 1/2(6.3-12.5) l/2to 7/8 (12.5-20)
Drilled sfm (mm/rein) Feed Rate, ipr (mm/rev)
Steels:
carbon 262-410 (80- 125) 0.0004-0.0016 0.0008-0,005 0.002-0.008
(0.010-0.041) (0.020-0. 13) (0.06-0.20)
alloyed 230-328 (70-100) 0.0004-0.0016 0.0008-0.004 0.002-0.008
(0.010-0.041) (0.020-0.10) (0.06-0.20)
case hardened 164-262 (50-80) 0.0008-0.0016 0.0008-0.002 0.002-0.008
(0.020-0.041) (0.020-0.05) (0.06-0.20)
tool 131-207 (40-63) 0.0004-0.0016 0.0008-0.002 0.002-0.008
(0.010-0.041) (0.020-0.05) (0.06-0.20)
stainless:
ferritic 164-295 (50-90) 0.0004-0.0016 0.0008-0.004 0.0016-0.008
(0.010-0.041) (0.020-0.10) (0.041-0.20)
austenitic 164-410 (50- 125) 0.0008-0.0016 0.0008-0.004 0.0016-0,008
(0.020-0.041) (0.020-0.10) (0.041-0.20)
Cast irons:
unalloyed and alloyed:
less than 250 Bhn 207-328 (63- 100) 0.004-0.008 0.004-0.009 0.005-0.016
(0,10-0,20) (0,10-0,24) (O.12-0.40)
250-450 Bhn 102-207 (3 1-63) 0.004-0.008 0,004-0.009 0.005-0.016
(0.10-0.20) (O.10-0.24) (O.12-0.40)
malleable:
less than 220 Bhn 207-328 (63-100) 0.0004-0.008 0.0016-0.009 0.005-0.016
(0.010-0.20) (0.041-0.24) (O.12-0.40)
220-320 Bhn 102-207 (3 1-63) 0.0004-0.008 0.0008-0.006 0.004-0.009
(0.010-0.20) (0.020-0. 16) (O.10-0.24)
Copper 207-328 (63- 100) 0.0004 (0.0 10) 0.009 (0.24) 0.006-0.024
(0.16-0,62)
Brass 230-427 (70- 130) 0.0016 (0.041) 0,009 (0.24) 0.004-0.009
(0.10-0.24)
Aluminum alloys:
not hard 4 10-656( 125-200) 0.0004 (0.010) 0.0008-0.012 0.004-0.020
(0.020-0.30) (o. 10-0.50)
cast 262-525 (80-1 60) 0.0004 (0,010) 0,0008-0.012 0.004-0.020
(0.020-0.30) (o. 10-0.50)
(Sandvik inc.)
twist drills on which the web thickness increases toward their the flutes and that the shape of the thinning should be such that
shanks) as the drills are shortened by removal of their worn it does not interfere with the chip flow.
sections is discussed in a previous section of this chapter under Machines for grinding drills. Some drills, particularly smaller
the subject of twist drill geometries. This discussion includes sizes, are reground by hand (called offhand grinding). This
data on web thicknesses (as a percentage of drill diameters) and requires considerable experience and skill and never produces
on types of web thinning to reduce thrust requirements and heat consistent accuracy. As a result, machine grinding is recom-
generation, as well as to increase drill life. mended whenever practical.
Thinning of webs can be done in a special web-thinning Many grinding machines and fixtures designed specifically
grinder, in a conventional tool-and-cutter grinder, or as a for regrinding drills are commercially available. Some of these
freehand grinding operation. Machine grinding is preferred are discussed in Chapter 11, “Grinding.” Special machines with
over hand grinding because of its greater accuracy and automatic grinding cycles, however, are required to produce
reliability. A brief discussion of web thinning grinders is helical (spiral) and rounded-edge (radiused lip) points, as well
presented in Chapter 11 of this volume, “Grinding.” However, as combination helical/rounded edge points. Some of these
regardless of the type of web thinning employed, it is important machines are cam controlled to produce simultaneous three-
that it be done evenly with the same amount of stock removed axis motion at the drill point for precise generative grinding.
from each cutting edge to ensure web centrality. The grinding Precision machines and sharp wheels should be used for drill
wheel should be soft enough to remove this stock without grinding to maintain the required geometry and precision.
danger of burning the cutting edges. It should always be Some drill grinding machines require the use of cutting fluid;
remembered that chips must form on the drill lips and flow into others do not. When cutting fluid is used, an ample and
9-97
CHAPTER 9
gpm l/m,n
900 6000 33 150 –
29 132 -
750 5000
25 112 -
600
4000 0 21 94 -
L
450 75 -
3000 $
f
56 -
300 2000 ~
38 -
I 50
I 000
4 18 -
1%1’
I I I I 1 1 1 1 I 1 I 1
,4689101214161820 mm , 4 68101214161820 mm
1/8 1/4 3/’8 1/’2 5,8 3/4 m.

Drill diameter Drill dtameter
Deep hole Mng
gpm L/m,n
1560
200
0
& 1040
m’
% E
>
:
I 00 ~9 >0
5 20
[/
~ -
20 mm 20 ‘m
I I
1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 I f [ I
1/8 l/’4 3/8 1/2 5/8 3[4 In 1/8 1/4 3,/8 1/2 5/8 3/4
In
Drll dmmeter DfIll d+ameter

She+ hole drtlhng
Fig. 9-101 Pressures and volumes for multiple-lip external-chip-removal gundrills. (Samfwk Inc.)
gpm l/mfn
198 900
/’
176 800
I 54 700 Single
tube system
132 600
1/
Q 11o- 500
:.
/
J? 99- 400 /
0
0
:!
66- 300
,* Double tube system
0
44- 200 0
/
/
22- 100
: / # 0 ~: .*
Double tube sysietm 500
oQ_ ‘ 0
50 I 00 150 200 250 ‘m 50 I 00 I 50 200 250 mm
2 4 6 8 Ifj tn. 2 4 6 8 IO n
Dr,ll diameter Drfll d,ameter
Fig. 9-102 Pressures and volumes for multiple-lip internal-chip- removal drills with single or double tubes. (Sarrdvik hzc.)
9-98
CHAPTER 9
TABLE 9-26 possible. A stream or mist coolant is better than a felt wick. A very
Recommended Speeds and Feeds for Trepanning Tools satisfactory all-round cutting fluid that keeps the wheel clean
with Internal Chip Removal and the work cool as well as gives a good finish is a thin solution
of soluble oil and water (about 80: 1). The diamond resinoid
Speed, rpm, wheel should be dressed occasionally with a piece of lump
to Provide a pumice or a very fine-grit and soft-grade silicon-carbide stick.
Cutting Speed Special care is required when grinding carbide tipped drills
Tool diam, of 300 sfm Feed Rate, because the carbide tip and steel shank should be the same
in. (91 m/min)* ipr (mm/ rev) diameter and have the same back-taper. The grinding wheel
tends to remove more steel than carbide, which can result in
1.75 650 0.003-0.005 (0.08-0, 13)
the drill’s having two diameters and can cause seizing in the
2.00 575 0,003-0.005 (0.08-0, 13)
drill bushing.
2.50 460 0,004-0.005 (o. 10-0, 13)
3.00 380 0.004-0.006 (O.10-0. 15) Regrinding spade drill blades, Regrinding the blade of a
3.50 325 0.005-0.007 (O.13-0. 18) spade drill is relatively easy when only the clearance face is to be
4.00 285 0.005-0.007 (0, 13-0. 18) reground. No special machines are necessary to regrind spade
4.50 250 0.005-0.007 (0, 13-0. 18) drill blades; most regrinding is done on tool and cutter grinders
5.00 230 0.005-0.007 (0.13-0. 18) or surface grinders. Fixtures are available from spade drill
5.50 210 0.005-0.007 (0.13-0. 18) manufacturers for regrinding operations such as face or end
6.00 180 0.005-0.007 (O.13-O.18) clearance grinding, hook or lip face grinding, and chipbreaker
6.50 170 0.0055-0.0075 (o. 140-0. 190) groove grinding. Blades ground with a cylindrical chip curler
7.00 160 0.006-0.008 (O.15-0.20) must have this surface reground at each sharpening to preserve
7.50 150 0.006-0.008 (O.15-0.20) edge geometry. Those ground with a flat top rake need to have
8.00 140 0.006-0.008 (O.15-0.20) this surface reground only after 1/32 to 1/ 16” (0.8 to 1.6 mm)
8.50 132 0.006-0.0085 (O.15-0.216) has been removed from the clearance.
9.00 126 0.006-0.009 (O.15-0.23)
9.50 120 0.006-0.009 (O.15-0.23)
210 1250
10.00 112 0.006-0.009 (O.15-0.23)
10,50 108 0.006-0.009 (O.15-0.23)
1I .00 102 0.006-0,009 (O.15-0.23) I 000
100 ~ 140- 0
11.50 0.006-0.009 (O.15-0.23)
p- 750 ;.
12.00 95 0.006-0.010 (O.15-0.25) 3
90 ~
12.50 0.006-0.010 (O.15-0.25) 500 ~
& 70-
13.00 88 0.006-0.010 (O.15-0.25) &
250
13.50 85 0.006-0.010 (O.15-0.25) //// -
(American Heller Corp. ) I

* When drilling the following materials, the cutting speed 4724 6250 8000 9500 I 1000 12.500 14000 15500 lrl
I
1 1 I 1 I
should be changed as follows: I 20 200 250 300 350 ‘m
Cold-rolled and mild steels, increase speed 10%. Drill dame!er
Heat-treated steels, RC 30-35, decrease speed 5%.
Heat-treated steels, RC 35-40, decrease speed 10-1 5%.
Stainless steels, 400 series, decrease speed 10!ZO. 410-
Stainless steels, 300 series, decrease speed 15%.
Exotic metal alloys, decrease speed 30-50Y0. 370-
330-
continuous flow should be directed at the tool/ wheel interface.
Metallurgical damage from grinding must be avoided. Lack of ~ 290.
proper control can produce surface damage of high-speed steel
drills and can result in poor tool life as well as in tool failure. $ 250-
0
Overheating is a prime cause for damage to the cutting edges. If
>210-
the surfaces of high-speed steel drills are discolored as the result
of grinding, the steel is annealed to a depth of about 0.0002” 170-
(0.005 mm), resulting in a reduction of hardness. Drills heated
by grinding should be cooled in air and never dipped in a liquid, 130-
which can cause cracking.
Grinding wheels used. Vitrified-bond, aluminum oxide 90-
wheels of medium hardness (1 to P grades) and structure (No,

I
6250 I ? 500 I 12.500 I I 5500
5), with grit sizes of 36-100, are widely used for machine 4.724 8000 I I 003 I 4.000 In
I r 1 I I
grinding of high-speed steel drills. For carbide drills, diamond I 20 200 250 300 350 400 mm
wheels ( 120-180 grit size) or vitrified-bond, silicon-carbide Drill dmme.er
wheels (70- 100 grit size, 1 to L grade, and 8-12 structure) are
commonly employed. Fig. 9-103 Pressures and volumes for multiple-cutter internal-chip-
Diamond wheels should be used with a cutting fluid if at all removal trepanning tools. (Sarrdvik inc.)
9-99
CHAPTER 9
TABLE 9-27
Recommended Minimum Amount to be
. ..— .—. ..
Removed irom “Iwist Drills
Before Resharpening
Minimum Amount
of Drill to be
Drill diam, in. Removed, in. (mm)
0.062-0.125 0.040(1.02)
0.125-0.219 0.050(1.27)
0.200-0,562 0.060(1.52)
0.563 and over 0.100 (2.54)
(a)
I
L,+ *12
f)
P 7
A, AZ
L, = 12 (a) Accumtely ground
[A, = LAY
n
Error of web centroltty
1P %
/’
(b)
L, = 1P (b) Ground wlfh pant
eccentricity and
1A, # LAZ
unequol angles
Relatlve lIp height
1,+ Alz
I!_ /, +
(c) Ground with relat,ve

L, # 12
lIp height
LA, # LAP (c)
n
‘ig. 9-106 Cutting conditions caused by drills having: (n) lips not
ground at the same angle, (b) lips of different length, and (c) lips of
Fig. 9-105 Accurate and inaccurate grind]ng of points on twist arms. different angles and unequal lengths. (Nafionul Twisf Drill)
Wear land }
on lip It-- .\,. A
u TO be
removed
8
J
Fig. 9-104 Wear on lip, chisel edge, and margin of a twist drill.
9-1oo
CHAPTER 9
TABLE 9-28 Wrong Rght

Tolerance Ranges for Web Centrality of Twist Drills*
Tolerance Range for Web

Centrality, Total Indicator
Drill Diam Range, in. Variation, in. (mm) W-
1/16 to 1/8 (0.0625-0.1250)

No. 30 to 1/4 (0.1285-0.2500)
0.002-0.003
0.0034.005
(0.05-0.08)
(0.08-0.13) I Dr[ll picks up
on center first
Drill pIc’ks up on
edqe of hole f[rst
F to 1/2 (0.2570-0.5000) 0.004-0.007 (O.10-0. 18) Fig. 9-107 When using more than one drill to complete a hole,
33/64 to 3/4 (0.5156-0.7500) 0.005-0.009 (O.13-0.23) successive drills should have a slightly flatter point angle. (Republic
Steel Corp. )
49/ 64 to 1 (0.7656-1 .000) 0.006-0.012 (0.15-0.30)
1 1/64 to 1 1/2 (1.0156-1.500) 0.008-0.015 (0.20-0.38)
splitter notch or should be made wide enough to remove the
1 33/64 to 3 1/2 (1.5156-3.500) 0.010-0.018 (0.25-0.46)
notch. No chip splitter notches should be used on the corners
* Method of measurement: Rotate the drill in a close-fitting unless their widths exceed about 1/ 2“ (12.7 mm).
bushing. Record the difference in indicator readings of the Regrinding bigh-pressure coolant drills. With a suitable fix-
web at the point as the drill is indexed 18W. ture, conventional nose geometries can be ground on
gundrills using conventional tool and cutter grinders or surface
Suggested dimensions for grinding blades made by one
grinding machines. In regrinding, only enough carbide is
manufacturer of spade drills are presented in Table 9-31. These
removed to eliminate any evidence of wear. This is typically
dimensions have been found compatible with a wide variety of
0.005” (O.13 mm) for small tools and 0.010” (0.25 mm) for larger
materials and conditions, but some modifications may be
tools, providing about 100 sharpening per gundrill.
necessary for certain applications. For example, if the machine
The amount of stock removed from a gundrill per regrind
lacks sufficient thrust to allow suitable feeds on large spade drill
varies, of course, with the material drilled, hole size, and
blades, thrust requirements can be reduced by increasing the
operating parameters. For the workpiece materials indicated in
clearance angle and/ or relieving the point. Clearance angles
Table 9-11, an average of 1500” (38 100 mm) per grind can be
above 12°, however, create a weak cutting edge and should only
assumed, giving 150,000” (3 810000 mm) per tool. When tool
be used on very soft metals. Point thinning is usually limited to two-
layouts are made, allowances must be made for lost lengths due
thirds of the original point width and never more than one half.
to resharpenings. This is typically 3/8 to 1/ 2“ (9.5 to 12.7 mm)
When very ductile materials are drilled, chips sometimes tend
for small tools and 3/4 to 1 (19 to 25 mm) for larger tools.
to pack into the chip splitter notches. This probIem can some-
Resharpening of internal-chip-removal gundrills is more
times be overcome by regrinding the notches to a shape that
critical, requiring close attention to the many details shown in
may resist packing. Variations of rake angle are also commonly
used on spade drills. When very tough or hard materials are
drilled, a flat rake angle is sometimes found to improve tool life
due to reduced chipping and heat damage to the cutting edge.
The deepest portion of the rake angle should never exceed
two-thirds of the land width.
When the blades of spade drills are subject to heat damage,
the corners of the blades are often clipped by chamfering. This
results in thinner chips being produced in the corner areas and
in the heat generated being spread over a larger area. The
corners are usually ground to an angle of 45°. The chamfer
should be kept at least 3/32” (2.4 mm) from the nearest chip
Tolerance
TABLE 9-29
Ranges for Relative Lip Heights of Twist Drills* “’-#’”
Tolerance Range for Relative TABLE 9-30
Lip Height, Total Indicator Point Lengths for Various
Drill Diam Range, in. Variation, in. (mm) Point Angles on Twist Drills
1/16 to 1/8 (0.0625-0.1250) 0.001-0.003 (0.03-0.08)
Included Angle of
No. 30 to 1/4 (0.1285-0.2500) 0.002-0.004 (0.05-0. 10)
Drill Point, A, degrees c
F to 1/2 (0.2570-0.5000) 0.002-0.005 (0.05-0. 13)
33/64 to 3/4 (0.5156-0.7500) 0.003-0.006 (0.08-0. 15) 90 0.5
49/64 to 1 (0.7656-1.000) 0.003-0.007 (0.08-0. 18) 118 0.3
1 1/64 to 1 1/2 (1.0156-1.500) 0.005-0.008 (O.13-0.20) 125 0.26
1 33/64 to 3 1/2 (1.5156-3.500) 0.005-0.009 (O.13-0.23) 130 0.23
* Method of measurement: Rotate the drill in a V-block
135 0.21
140 0.18
against a back end stop. Measure the cutting lip height
145 0.16
variation on a comparator or with an indicator set at a
150 0.13
location about 7570 of the distance from the center to the
periphery of the drill. (L.u Salle Steel Co. )
9-101
CHAPTER 9
9
Front cleorance angle &
0.03 I” (0.79 mm) R

(
‘+J 0002” (O05 mm) taper
r
la, nd
0030” (0.76 mm) per ,nch
/
II // on side
~+ Enlarged v,ew of
Web
—.
Start of rake
angle 0.03 I” (0.79 mm)
bock of cunlng edge
H
41-
Cufil.g edges
equal and central
D wtthln O 0015“
(0.038 mm)
Radws R
TABLE 9-31
Grinding Dimensions for Spade Drill Blades
Spade Drill Radius R, Web Thickness Land Width, Blade Width

Diam Range, in. in. (mm) B, in. (mm) C, in. (mm) D, in. (mm)
1.0000-1.2500 0.25 (6.3) 0.06 (1.5) 0.06 (1.5) 0.25 (6.3)
1.2501-1.5000 0.31 (7.9) 0.06 (1.5) 0.06 (1.5) 0.28(7.1)
1.5001-2.0000 0.31 (7.9) 0.08 (2.0) 0.06(1.5) 0.31(7.9)
2.0001-2.5000 0.38 (9.7) 0.11 (2.8) 0.09 (2.3) 0.38(9.7)
2,5001-3.0000 0.38 (9.7) 0.12 (3.0) 0.09(2.3) 0.44(11.2)
3.0001-3.5000 0.38 (9.7) 0.16 (4.1) 0.12 (3.0) 0.50 (12.7)
3.5001-4.0000 0.38 (9.7) 0.19 (4.8) 0.12 (3.0) 0.62 (15.7)
4.0001-6.0000 0.50 (12.7) 0.22 (5.6j 0.12 (3.oj 0.69 (17.5j
(Madison Industries)
Fig. 9-108. A single overlarge chip can jam the chip mouth and Drilling hard materials. Holes can be drilled in limited
throat of these tools. Drill life between resharpening depends quantities in many hard, high-strength materials with certain
largely upon the condition of the chipbreakers, and the reported procedures. Workpieces must be held rigidly in place and be
life of these tools is usually five to seven resharpenings. well supported directly under the drill point. Short drills with
their webs not thinned excessively and medium lip clearance
Drilling Applications angles (7-9° ) are recommended. Machines used must have
With the wide variety of materials in which holes must be ample power and be in good condition. Cutting speeds should
produced, there are many challenges to the use of drills. There is be low (20-30 sfm; 6.1-9.1 m/minor less), with medium to heavy
a practical limit of material hardness and strength beyond feed rates, preferably using a mechanical power feed unit.
which drills are not practical for production applications. Starting holes with carbide drills. Special care should be
Minimizing chatter. As with all other machining operations, given to starting holes in any material when using carbide and
chatter can cause poor performance in drilling. Excessive carbide-tipped drills. Little difficulty is encountered in starting
chatter causes rapid deterioration of drills and reduces hole and getting straight holes with these drills when close-fitting,
accuracy and quality. well-aligned guide bushings are used. If bushings are not used,
Chatter can be defined as synchronized vibrations that are set however, guide holes should be produced first, using stub
up in the tool, workpiece, machine or as a combination of (screw) length drills having a 135-14W, four-facet or split, self-
vibrations in all these elements. The cause is usually lack of centering point. This allows the OD of the following carbide drill
rigidity. Chatter can be minimized by using: to become secured before cutting starts and can extend tool life.
1. Rigid machines in good condition having accurate Drilling stainless steels. Most stainless steels, except the free-
spindles and no worn bearings or loose moving parts. machining grades, are generally more difficult to drill than
2. Substantial fixtures that securely clamp and adequately carbon steels and most alloy steels. Work-hardening grades in
support the workplaces. particular should be drilled continuously with a fairIy heavy,
3. Properly designed drills. Drill chatter is usually caused by uniform feed and moderate speed. Accurate sharpening, with
torsional deflection-the longer the drill in proportion to an included point angle of 135-140”, a clearance angle of 6-8°,
its diameter, the greater the danger of deflection and on larger size drills, and smooth finishes on the cutting edges, is
chatter. recommended.
9-102
CHAPTER 9
+0 0000
lv~~ se.+.. C-C

ml
4“
(0
/
c’,
1
/
‘N clrculor
land
tapered
‘\ to 0.008-
0.0 16“
_r--~_. y––-*
-—-—- (0.20-0.4 4 mm)
–-r II
---—- 71 i i~j
‘B
,1. - 1 --- ‘ IL
I
—
I
I II
‘o- 17
-D ,
1/32
(08 mm) Secllon AA
+Y-
002.:51 *qv
0.0004- ‘G,
000 I 2“ “e 1,’32 (0 8 mm) R
(O 010-0030 n-m) Belo~–~ 1~
SectIon B.B
‘ig. 9-108 Critical angles and dimensions in resharpening an internal-chip-removal gundrill. (American Heller Corp. )
Drilling armor plate. While this material is hard and tough, it having polished flutes to prevent chip packing and material
can generally be drilled satisfactorily with standard HSS drills. buildup. For deeper holes, twist drills with high helix angles are
If the material has been flame cut, areas adjoining the cut are recommended to minimize chip packing. Thin webs and high lip
hardened and drilling is difficult. Annealing of these areas is relief angles should be provided on the drills, and high
recommended, if possible, before drilling. When this is not penetration rates are possible in drilling these materials.
practical, low cutting speeds may be necessary. A positive Drilling magnesium and zinc alloys. Fairly high speeds and
power feed at a medium to heavy, uniform rate is recommended heavy feeds should be used to drill magnesium and its alloys.
for continuous cutting to prevent work hardening. These parameters produce large, thick chips, which reduces the
Twist drills for producing holes in armor plate should be fire hazard. The drills must have ample chip space to
sharpened with an included point angle of 135-14~, a clearance accommodate the high penetration rates.
angle of 6-8° at the periphery, and a chisel point angle of Drilling of zinc alloys can cause clogging of the drill flutes
115-125°. Cutting edges should have as smooth a surface finish because the materials are soft and gummy. Their relatively low
as possible and should be free from any grinding wheel burn. melting point and the heat generated in drilling them can also
Drilling copper. Problems encountered in drilling copper and result in welding of the material to the drill flutes. These
its alloys are the long, stringy chips produced because of the problems can be minimized by using drills with wide polished
gummy nature of the material and the tendency for drills to bind flutes, high lip relief angles, thin webs, and narrow margins.
or freeze in the workplaces because of the high coefficient of Drilling speeds should be conservative and feeds determined by
expansion of the material. These problems can be minimized by the size and shape of the chips produced and the ease with which
using drills of proper design, slower cutting speeds, and higher they can be ejected.
feed rates. Drills with thin webs, narrow margin widths, Drilling titanium. Problems in drilling titanium and titanium
increased back-taper, and high relief angles on their points alloys can result from the long, thin, curly chips produced.
reduce the heat generated in drilling. These chips, plus the poor heat conduction of the materials and
Drilling aluminum. Drilling of aluminum and aluminum the heat generated in drilling, tend to cause excessive chip
alloys seldom presents any problems, with the possible packing and welding to the cutting edges, Successful drilling
exception of some cast alloys and those having a high silicon requires a reduction in the amount of heat generated by using
content. Aluminum alloys having a high silicon content are very slower speeds, moderate feeds, adequate cutting fluid, sharp
abrasive, resulting in rapid tool wear. Soft alloys require drills and sturdy drills, well-supported workpieces, and rigid machines.
9-103
CHAPTER 9
TABLE 9-32
Problems, Causes, and Solutions When Using Twist Drills
Problem Probable Causes Possible Solutions

Oversize holes Dull drill or unequal lip angles and/or lengths Regrind or replace drill.
Excessive thrust - - - Reduce feed rate and/ or drill length.
Misalignment Realign setup and /or replace worn bushing.
Vibration Secure setup.
Loose spindle on drilling machine Repair or change machine.
Excessive heat Increase drill clearance angle. Use cutting fluid, making
sure it reaches drill point. Improve cutting fluid being
used. Use coolant-fed drill. Withdraw drill periodically
to clear chips.
Hole not Misalignment Realign and secure fixture. Use drill bushing. Use
straight shorter or self-centering drill to start hole. Repair or
change drilling machine. Reduce feed rate. Change
speed.
Rough finish DuII drill or incorrect geometry Regrind or replace drill.

in hole Excessive thrust Reduce feed rate. Increase drill clearance angle.
Excessive heat Reduce feed rate and/ or speed. Increase drill clearance
angle, Use cutting fluid, making sure it reaches drill
point. Improve cutting fluid being used. Use coolant-
fed drill.
Vibration/ chatter Secure setup. Repair or change machine.
Burr at entry Dull drill Regrind or replace drill.
Burr at exit Too high a helix angle or too low an included Change drill or regrind. Use of a backing material is
point angle the most effective method of eliminating burrs at
breakthrough. Two-diameter step drills usually
minimize burring.
Drill will not Dull drill Regrind or replace drill.
penetrate Web too thick Thin web or use drill with split or crankshaft point.
workpiece Insufficient lip clearance Regrind or replace drill.
Work too hard Use cutting fluid, making sure it reaches drill point.
Improve cutting fluid being used. Improve drill material.
Excessive drill Excessive speed or feed Reduce speed first, then feed rate if required.
wear, break- Excessive heat Use cutting fluid, making sure it reaches drill point.
down of outer Improve cutting fluid being used. Use coolant-fed drill,
corners, andj or Improve alignment and bushing fit.
chipping of Flute packing Change drill helix angle. Use chipbreaker drill. With-
cutting lips draw drill from hole periodically. Use coolant-fed drill.
Workpiece material has hard spots or poor Improve drill material. Increase included angle of drill
machinability point.
Vibration/ chatter Secure setup. Reduce drill length. Repair or change
machine.
Broken drills Misalignment Realign and secure fixture. Use drill bushing.
Dull drill or incorrect geometry Regrind or replace drill.
Worn drill margins Replace drill.
Flute packing Change drill helix angle. Use chipbreaker drill. Polish
drill flutes. Withdraw drill from hole periodically. Use
coolant-fed drill.
Excessive feed Reduce feed rate.
Loss of feed control at breakthrough Repair or change drilling machine.
Drill slippage in holder Secure drill or change holder.
Drill or flutes too long Reduce drill or flute length.
Incorrect sr)eed Increase or decrease speed.
9-104
CHAPTER 9
TABLE 9-33
Troubleshooting Chart for Indexable-Insert Drills
Trouble Source Solution

Insert chipping or breakage* Off-center drill due to misalignment Maintain proper alignment,
concentricity, and angularity.
improper seating of tool in Check tool shank and socket for
toolholder or spindle nicks and dirt. Check parting line
between tool shank and socket with
feeler gage. Check if tool is locked
tight,
Deflection due to too much Check with indicator if tool can be

overhang and lack of rigidity moved by hand. Check if tool can be
held shorter.
Improper seating of inserts in pocket Clean pockets whenever indexing or

changing inserts. Check pockets for
nicks and burrs. Check if inserts rest
completely on pocket bottoms.
Damaged locking screws or pins Check head and thread of screws or

pins for nicks or burrs. Do not
overtighten.
Improper speeds and feeds Check recommended rates.
Insufficient coolant supply Check coolant flow.
Grooving on back stroke, Off-center drill Maintain proper alignment,

drill body rubs hole wall, concentricity, and angularity. Check
over or undersized holes slug or bottom of hole for
center stub.
Deflection due to lack of rigidity, (Same as above under improper

improper toolholder, or too much seating and deflection. )
overhang
Poor surface finish Vibrations Check if tool can be held shorter

(rigidity). Check machine and setup
rigidity. Check seat in spindle or
toolholder. Check speeds and feeds.
Insufficient coolant supply Increase coolant pressure and flow;

is it constant? If flood coolant, make
sure coolant reaches inserts at
all times.
Rough cutting action (tool Too much thrust; feed rate too high Lower feed rate or (and) increase
rumbles and deflects) speed.
Very short, thick, corrugated Feed rate too high in relation Lower feed rate or (and) increase
chips to cutting speed speed.
Long and stringy chips Feed rate too low in relation Increase feed rate or (and) decrease
to cutting speed speed. If available, use inserts with
narrow chipbreaker.
Unable to loosen insert Seized threads due to coolant or heat Apply water and heat-resistant
locking screws or pins lubricant to threads of screw or pins.
( Waukesha Cutting Tools, Inc. )
* If constant chipping occurs, especially on inner insert, and conditions are at optimum, try an uncoated carbide insert or a grade
with higher transverse rupture strength.
9-105
CHAPTER 9
Softer titanium alloys may be drilled at speeds in the range of ness, and diameters must be maintained to close tolerances.
40-60 sfm (12.2 -18.3 m/rein), but harder alloys may require Loose shanks will create chatter and cause insert damage.
speeds as low as 10-15 sfm (3-4.6 m/rein). Drills should be When indexable-insert drills are set up, insert pockets should
sharpened with an included angle of 118-135°, lip relief angles be cleaned and the inserts properly positioned and securely
of 8-10° at the periphery, and a chisel edge angle of 125-135°. locked. Alignment, angularity, and runout must be carefully
Smaller drills generally require flatter points. Larger drills are checked to prevent deflection, chatter, and the production of
often chamfered at the cutting corners to an included angle of oversized, undersized, or tapered holes.
90-105°, depending upon the point angle.
Drilling plastics. Molded plastics present no drilling problems Troubleshooting Drilling Operations
as long as the drills provide for the good ejection of chips. For Possible solutions to problems that occur when twist drills
drilling small holes, special drills for plastics are available. are used are presented in Table 9-32. Table 9-33 is a
These drills have wide polished flutes, a thin web, a low helix troubleshooting chart specifically for indexable-insert drills.
angle, an included point angle of 60-90°, and a clearance angle Table 9-34 can be used as a general guide for improvements in
at the periphery of about 12°. Drills with high helix angles, gundrilling results. Only one adjustment should be made at one
however, are better for producing holes in some plastics. For time to ensure a proper understanding of the results obtained.
larger holes, a point with a larger included angle (90- 12fP ) can
be used and the heel behind the cutting edge may be ground Safety in Drilling
away, leaving a land about 1/ 16“ (1.6 mm) wide, to reduce Safety requirements for the construction, care, and use of
friction and provide more chip clearance. Drilling of some drilling, milling, and boring machines are presented in ANSI
plastics results in undersize holes, and slightly oversize drills Standard B 11.8-1974. Most modern machines used for drilling
should be used. When a cutting fluid is used, tests should be have guards, as well as emergency stop buttons, to protect the
made to ensure that the plastic will not react with the fluid. operators from rotating or sliding machine components, tools,
Drilling composites. Composite materials consisting of high- and workplaces.
strength fibers (glass, graphite, etc.) in a plastic matrix are very Chip wraparound or birdnesting can be a danger in drilling,
hard and abrasive, and conventional HSS drills are generally especially on multispindle machines, The use of chipbreaker
not satisfactory. For small holes, solid carbide drills are being drills and increased feed rates may eliminate this problem.
used, For larger holes, diamond-impregnated core drills, Indexable-insert drills in particular require special attention to
operated at high speeds, have been found satisfactory. adequate guards, such as safety shields, because the high cutting
Drilling miniature holes. Conventional drills and drilling speeds can eject chips, cutting fluid, and slugs produced from
practices, except for slower speeds, are regularly used to the work area with high velocities. Also, if the setup is not rigid,
produce holes down to 0.015” (0.38 mm) diam or less. When the high thrusts developed will create side loading and chatter,
smaller holes are drilled, however, common practice is to start which could break the inserts and send fragments flying.
with a center or pivot drill having a flute length not exceeding
four times the drill diameter and a diameter at least as large as TABLE 9-34
the web thickness of the following drill. The second tool is Guide for Improving Gundrilling Results
usually a pivot drill having a flute length of five to seven times its
diameter and a diameter at least equal to the web thickness but Chip wrap or packing: Hole oversize:
somewhat smaller in diameter than the straight-shank drill used Increase coolant pressure Increase feed rate
to produce the required diameter and depth. Increase outer angle Decrease coolant pressure
In some cases, the holes are larger than the diameters of the Increase point location Increase outer angle
drills because of tool shape, web thickness, and rake and point Reduce feed rate Increase point location
angles. The longer the chisel edge between the two cutting Decrease cutting speed
edges, the larger the hole is in relation to the diameter of the Corner rounding: Use different tool contour
drill. The use of drill guide bushings is controversial. Some Decrease cutting speed
authorities recommend proper-fitting bushings to minimize Hole undersize:
deflection and help prevent walking; others argue that they Built-up edge or crater: Increase speed and coolant
should be avoided whenever possible because they generally Increase cutting speed pressure
require the use of straight-shank drills, which are the least rigid Increase outer angle Decrease outer angle
for starting, and that clearance between the drill and bushing is Increase dub-off Decrease point location
usually sufficient to permit some buckling. Increase coolant pressure Cool cutting oil
Step or peck drilling (frequent tool withdrawal) is generally Decrease feed rate
required to clear chips and prevent packing, and to apply Poor tool life:
lubricant. Some authorities recommend retraction after feeding Decrease speed and feed Poor surface finish:
the drill into the work from about 1/ 2 to 1 1/2 times the drill Increase feed (for abrasive Increase speed and coolant
diameter, depending upon the chip formation and rate of drill materials) pressure
breakage encountered. Increase coolant pressure Increase outer angle
Using indexable-insert drills. Proper toolholders are critical for Change nose grind Increase point location
optimum performance of indexable-insert drills. They should Use different tool contour
be as short as possible to minimize overhang, and the shank and Decrease feed rate
socket must be clean and free of nicks, Concentricity, straight- (Eldorado Tool& Manufacturing Corp. )
9-106
CHAPTER 9
REAMING
REAMING
Reaming is a machining process for enlarging, smoothing, Table 9-35 presents suggested amounts of stock removal that
and/ or accurately sizing existing holes by means of multiedge can be used as a guide for machine reaming various sizes of
fluted cutting tools (reamers). As the reamer and/or workpiece holes with HSS reamers. More stock generally has to be
are rotated and advanced relative to each other, chips are removed from rough or torn surfaces, or irregularly shaped
produced to remove relatively small amounts of material from holes. Much less stock—O.00 1-0.003” (0.003-0.08 mm)—is
the hole wall. Reaming may be performed on the same type of removed in hand reaming.
machines used for drilling. The machines used for drilling are The amount of material left in a hole for a carbide-tipped
discussed earlier in this chapter. reamer is very important, Insufficient stock removal will result
Accuracy of the hole and quality of finish produced by in excessive wear; too much will cause excessive cutting
reaming depends primarily upon the condition of the starting pressures and may result in tool breakage, About 3% of the
hole, rigidity of the machine and fixture, correct speeds and reamer diameter should be left in the hole for proper results
feeds, a suitable and properly applied cutting fluid, and precise with carbide-tipped reamers.
resharpening of dull tools. The amount of stock left for finish reaming with block-type
Since stock removal is small and must be uniform in reaming, reamers (discussed later in this section) should seldom exceed
the starting holes (drilled or otherwise produced) must have 0.015” (0.38 mm) on the diameter. More stock can be removed
relatively good roundness, straightness, and finish. Reamers in roughing operations as long as it is not beyond the capacity of
tend to follow the existing centerline of the hole being reamed, the block. Because of their built-up construction, block reamers
and in limited instances it may be necessary to bore the holes are necessarily more fragile than solid reamers. (A general
prior to reaming to maintain required tolerances. With the discussion of stock removal allowance and positioning accuracy
proper conditions and operating parameters, reaming can required in machining operations is presented in Chapter 2 of
produce close tolerances and smooth finishes. this volume, “Tolerance Control.”)
Stock removal for adjustable floating reamers (also discussed
PRODUCT DESIGN FOR REAMING later in this section) should be limited to those shown for
Better reaming usually results when the product is designed finishing in Table 9-35. The stock to be removed from holes
to facilitate that operation. When possible, provision should be having diameters larger than 1“(25.4 mm) should be limited to a
made for the reamer to pass through the workpiece (Fig. 9-109, a). maximum of 0.015” (0.38 mm). Due to the adjustable
This eliminates the necessity to ream a blind hole. When construction of these tools, excessive stock removal may result
reaming a blind hole is unavoidable, the depth of cut should be in poor performance and possible tool breakage.
controlled to prevent bottoming, cutting oversize holes, and
possibly damaging the reamer (view b). It is advisable to avoid
SELECTING A REAMER
operations requiring multidiameter reamers when the diameters
Proper selection of a reamer for a specific application from
are substantially different because the normally different cutting
the wide variety of reamers available depends primarily upon
speeds of the different diameters (view c) make it difficult to
the composition and hardness of the workpiece material; hole
produce true holes and good surfaces. A reamer should enter a
diameter, configuration, and depth; amount of stock to be
hole at right angles to the work surface to permit all teeth to
removed; product quantity, accuracy, and finish requirements;
engage for a good start. This is because reaming at an angle
and cost (initial, maintenance, and salvage value).
makes it difficult and sometimes impossible to turn out good
Reamers are available for holes as small as 0.005” (O.13 mm)
work (~iew d). Plain reaming should not be depended upon to
and as large as 6“ (152 mm) diam. A few tool manufacturers
align a series of holes and center them on a common axis.
offer metric reamers as standard.
Concentricity and alignment require line reaming (Fig. 9-109,
view e), which requires that the holes be of equal or progressively
smaller diameters to permit entrance and withdrawal of the REAMERS
reamers. Provision must be made for guiding the reamer bar or A reamer is a rotary cutting tool, generally of cylindrical or
arbor at both ends. conical shape, intended for enlarging and finishing holes to
accurate dimensions. It is usually equipped with two or more
STOCK REMOVAL ALLOWANCE peripheral channels or flutes, either parallel to its axis or in a
In reaming, the tool normally cuts slightly larger than its own right or left-hand helix as required. Those with helical flutes
diameter, usually in direct proportion to the amount of stock to provide smooth shear cutting, are less subject to chatter, and
be removed. For efficient operation, the amount of stock left in produce a better finish. The flutes form cutting teeth and
the hole for reaming must be sufficient to permit the reamer to provide channels for removing the chips.
cut at all times rather than to burnish the surface. Variations in
the amount of stock to be removed can affect the finish size of Terminology and Definitions
the hole reamed. Nomenclature, definitions, types, sizes, and tolerances for
Removal of too much stock by reaming often causes oversize reamers are presented in ANSI Standard B94.2-1977, published
and rough holes. Oversize holes, walls of holes roughened with by AS ME. Some of the definitions in this standard (see also Fig.
grooves at or beyond the finished diameter, bellmouthed holes, 9-1 10) are as follows:
or out-of-round holes are common causes of reamer failure. In reamer A rotary cutting tool with one or more cutting elements
improperly prepared holes the reamer has a tendency to wedge used for enlarging to size and contour a previously formed
in the hole rather than machine it. The result can be severe hole, Its principal support during the cutting action is
reamer wear and possible breakage. obtained from the workpiece.
9-107
CHAPTER 9
(b)
Control depth of ream
m bltnd holes
(c)
Two or more d,ometers
requmng concen?,lclty must
hove specm multldlameter
reamer. Avoid f possible
. Reamer :.. & Work
- + !
... ... . . .. . . .. .. . . . . . .. . .. . .
I
(e)
lne reom for concentrlc,ty o?d alignment 01
holes, plom reoml~g only trues darneter (d)
Holes must oe some sze, or peg. ess,vely Holes reamed o<cm angle ,are bad for production
smaller (I e not alternately Iorge, smell, Dffc.lt depth control, apt to hove shculders at
large, etc ) for Ikne reomlng corner, th[n wall
._ . . . . . . . . . . .. . ...... . .
lg. Y-IVYrroauct aeslgn mcurrs remnng to reammg.
. .
actual size The actual measured diameter of a reamer, usually TABLE 9-35
slightly larger than the nominal size to allow for wear (see Suggested Stock Removal for Machine Reaming
Table 9-36).
angle of taper The included angle of taper on a taper tool or Reamer
Stock Removal, in. (mm)
taper shank. Diam,
arbor hole The central mounting hole in a shell reamer. in. Rouchin~ Finishing
axis The imaginary straight line which forms the longitudinal to 1/16 0.003-0.005 (0.08-0.13) 0.002-0.004 (0.05-0. 10)
centerline of a reamer, usually established by rotating the 0.002-0.004 (0.05-0. 10)
l/16to l/8 0.004-0.008 (O.10-0.20)
reamer between centers, 1/8 to 1/4 0.006-0.012 (0.15-0.30) 0.003-0.005 (0.08-0. 13)
back taper A slight decrease in diameter, from front to back 1/4 to 3/8 0.008-0.014 (0.20-0.36) 0.004-0.006 (O.10-0. 15)
in the flute length of reamers. 0.005-0.007 (O.13-0. 18)
3/8 to 1/2 0.010-0.015 (0.25-0.38)
bevel An unrelieved angular surface of revolution (not to be 1/2 to 3/4 0.012-0.018 (0.30-0.46) 0,0064.008 (O.15-0.20)
confused with chamfer). 3]4 to 1 0.014-0.020 (0.36-0.51) 0.008-0.014 (0.20-0.36)
body The fluted full-diameter portion of a reamer, inclusive 1 to 1 1/2 0.018-0.025 (0.46-0.63) 0.014-0.020 (0.36-0.51)
of the chamfer, starting taper, and bevel.
chamfer The angular cutting portion at the entering end of a
reamer. See also secondary chamfer. cutting face The leading side of the land in the direction of
chamfer angle The angle between the axis and the cutting rotation for cutting on which the chip impinges.
edge of the chamfer measured in an axial plane at the cutting external center The pointed end of a reamer. The included
edge. angle varies with manufacturing practice.
chamfer length The length of the chamfer measured parallel flutes Longitudinal channels formed in the body of the
to the axis at the cutting edge. reamer to provide cutting edges, permit passage of chips,
cbipbreakers Notches or grooves in the cutting edges of some and allow cutting fluid to reach the cutting edges.
taper reamers designed to break the continuity of the chips. angular flute A flute which forms a cutting face lying in a
clearance The space created by the relief behind the cutting plane intersecting the reamer axis at an angle. It is unlike
edge or margin of a reamer. a helical flute in that it forms a cutting face which lies in a
core The central portion of a reamer below the flutes which single plane.
joins the lands. helica[flute A flute which is formed in a helical path around
core diameter The diameter at a given point along the axis of the axis of a reamer. Also referred to as spiral flute.
the largest circle which does not project into the flutes. spiral flure On a taper reamer a flute of constant lead. In
cutter sweep The section removed by the milling cutter or reference to a straight reamer, see the preferred term
grinding wheel in entering or leaving a flute. helical flute.
cutting edge The leading edge of the land in the direction of straightjhte A flute which forms a cutting edge lying in an
rotation for cutting. axial plane.
9-108
CHAPTER 9
~PgrZF~.h..e
~zze Ch.cklng
rtght-hand hel[x showo
reamer, straight and toper shonk
~mdaN~R!;l~;;:f117=
\ 2 I AxIs
P
\ Cutter sweep ‘“ Actuol s[ze Cutter sweep
Squared shank strcmgfl f utes
Hand reomer, PIIOI and gu[de
Chamfer
::;~?&;jre’’:;p~$:
I
hellcol flutes, Straight flutes Poslhve rcdal rake angle
Zero degrees rodol,
Ieh-bond roke angle and rlght- shown and right-hand rototlon
hellx shown shown
bond rotat,on shown
Hond reamer Machine reamer
:“ 0–1 1 n ‘l-a..”. “....1.,:”” +,, ..”-,...
flute length The length of the flute not including the cutter TABLE 9-36
sweep. Tolerances on Cutting Diameters for Reamers*
guide A cylindrical portion following the flute of a reamer to
maintain alignment. Nominal Reamer Tolerance on Cutting
helix angle The angle which a helical cutting edge at a given Diameter, inch Diameter. inch
point makes with an axial plane through the same point.
to 1/4 +0.0001 to 0.0004
internal center A 60° countersink with clearance at the
17/64 to 1 +0.000 1 to 0.0005
bottom, in one or both ends of a tool, which establishes the
over 1 +0.0002 to 0,0006
tool axis.
irregular spacing A deliberate variation from uniform spacing * These tolerances apply to standard stock
of the reamer cutting edges. reamers and to special reamers where a specific
land The section of the reamer between adjacent flutes. tolerance is not stated.
land width The distance between the leading edge of the land
and the heel measured at a right angle to the leading edge. neck The section of reduced diameter connecting shank to
lead of flute The axial advance of a helical or spiral cutting body, or connecting other portions of the reamer.
edge in one turn around the reamer axis. nominal size The designated basic size of a reamer.
length The dimension of any reamer element measured overall length The extreme length of the complete reamer from
parallel to the reamer axis. end to end, but not including external centers or expansion
limits The maximum and minimum values designated for a screws.
specific element. periphery The outside circumference of a reamer.
margin The unrelieved part of the periphery of the land adjacent pilot A cylindrical portion preceding the entering end of the
to the cutting edge. reamer body to maintain alignment.
9-109
CHAPTER 9
REAMERS
rake The angular relationship between the cutting face, or a Clearance and Blade Angles
tangent to the cutting face at a given point and a given Cutting done by a reamer (except a hand reamer or taper
reference plane or line. reamer) is accomplished by the chamfer, which forms a
axial rake Applies to angular (not helical or spiral) cutting truncated cone on the end of the reamer and carries the cutting
faces. The angle between a plane containing the cutting edges. The chamfer is shaped so that the reamer will start
face, or tangent to the cutting face at a given point, and the properly in the hole and the major portion of the cutting is done
reamer axis. by the chamfer length. The longitudinal cutting edges should do
helical rake Applies to helical cutting faces only (not little or no cutting. The clearance angles in the cutting portions
angular). The angle between a plane tangent to the cutting of the reamer are employed to obtain cutting action in the
face at a given point on the cutting edge and the reamer proper places, prevent friction, and clear the chips. Reamers
axis. usually embody three types of clearance: chamfer relief,
hook A concave condition of a cutting face. The rake of a peripheral relief, and longitudinal relief.
hooked cutting face must be determined at a given point. Chamfer relief. Chamfer relief is obtained by the clearance
negative rake Describes a cutting face in rotation whose angle ground on the cutting ends of the reamer to enable them
cutting edge lags the surface of the cutting face. to penetrate more easily beneath the workpiece surface and
positive rake Describes a cutting face in rotation whose produce chips.
cutting edge leads the surface of the cutting face. Peripheral relief. Peripheral relief is obtained by the clearance
radial rake angle The angle in a transverse plane between a angle ground on the lands back of the flute edges to relieve the
straight cutting face and a radial line passing through the radial pressure of the reamer flutes against the walls of the hole.
cutting edge. Longitudinal relief. Longitudinal relief or back-taper is the
relief The result of the removal of tool material behind or slight taper embodied in standard reamers, which results in a
adjacent to the cutting edge to provide clearance and prevent smaller diameter at the shank end than at the cutting end, to
rubbing (heel drag). prevent the reamer blade from causing side-cutting action due
axial relief The relief measured in the axial direction between to lack of proper alignment or to dullness of the reamer caused
a plane perpendicular to the axis and the relieved surface. by wear. It is important that reamers used in angular floating
It can be measured by the amount of indicator drop at a holders should embody enough back-taper to prevent inter-
given radius in a given amount of angular rotation. ference resulting from improper alignment caused by these
cam relief The relief from the cutting edge to the heel of the types of holders.
land produced by a cam action. Chamfer angle. A chamfer angle usually has a magnitude of
chamfer relief The axial relief on the chamfer of the reamer. about 45°, but it can range from 40-50°. Because most of the
chamfer relief angle The axial relief angle at the outer corner dulling of reamer blades occurs at the peripheral corners of the
of the chamfer. It is measured by projection into a plane chamfer, the maximum effective cutting action continues only
tangent to the periphery at the outer corner of the as long as the original sharp chamfer angle is maintained. The
chamfer. chamfer must be uniform and concentric with the cutting
eccentric relief A convex relieved surface behind the cutting diameter of the reamer.
edge. Secondary chamfer. Secondary chamfer (Fig. 9-11 1) some-
ji’at relief A relieved surface behind the cutting edge which is times referred to as starting taper or lead, is provided on some
essentially flat. reamers. It consists of a chamfer ranging from 1-10° which may
primary relief The relief immediately behind the cutting edge be located immediately behind the first chamfer. Clearance
or margin. Properly called relief. should be provided for this second taper in a manner that
radial relief Relief in a radial direction measured in the plane enables it to be brought to a sharp edge. It should not be
of rotation. It can be measured by the amount of indicator confused either with the primary chamfer-relief angle or with a
drop at a given radius in a given amount of angular similar expression that refers to the starting taper or lead of a
rotation. hand reamer. The secondary chamfer functions to effect a
relief angle The angle, measured in a transverse plane, scraping cut that helps to size and smooth the walls of the hole.
between the relieved surface and a plane tangent to the Chamfer on hand reamers for light cutting should be
periphery at the cutting edge. approximately 45° on the entering teeth. This chamfer, in the
secondary relief An additional relief behind the primary case of a hand reamer, does practically no cutting and is utilized
relief. more as a guide to assist the reamer to enter the hole more
secondary chamfer A slight relieved chamfer adjacent to and readily. A hand reamer should cut on the relieved lead or
following the initial chamfer on a reamer. See also chamfer. starting taper located behind the chamfer. The length of the
shank The portion of the reamer by which it is held and driven.
squared shank A cylindrical shank having a driving square on
the back end.
starting radius A relieved radius at the entering end of a reamer
in place of a chamfer.
starting taper A slight relieved taper on the front end of a
reamer.
straight shank A cylindrical shank.
tang The flatted end of a taper shank which fits a slot in the
socket.
taper shank A shank made to fit a specified (conical) taper
socket. Fig. 9-111 Secondary chamfer is provided on some reamers.
9-110
CHAPTER 9
REAMERS
hand-reamer lead section or starting taper customarily is equal

to approximately the reamer diameter for sizes of 3/ 4“ ( 19 mm)
Zero oxIal roke
and smaller; it decreases to approximately one-half the reamer
diameter for sizes ranging from 3/4 to 3“ (19 to 76 mm) diam. I I I
The diameter of the lead section of the entering end should
range from 0.010-0.01 5“ (0.25-0.38 mm) under the nominal
reamer diameter.
I I I
Hand of Helix and Hand of Cut
The hand of a reamer cut refers to the direction of rotation
(right or left) and may be determined by inspection of the
chamfer end of the reamer when mounted to make a cut. If the
rotary motion of the reamer is counterclockwise, cut is left-
hand; if the rotary motion is clockwise, cut is right-hand.
The hand of the helical reamer maybe determined by viewing Posltve Negative Zero
radml rake radlol rake
the reamer from either end. If the flutes twist away from the radml rake
No axial rake,
observer in a clockwise direction, the helix is right-hand; if the
strolght flJ+es
flutes twist away from the observer in a counterclockwise
(o) Straght-ffute reamers, right-hand cut
direction, the helix is left-hand.
Most reamers (Fig. 9-11 2) are right-hand cutting and may
have straight flutes (a), left-hand helix flutes (b), or right-hand
helix flutes (c). Straight flutes cost less originally and are easiest
to sharpen or recondition. This type of reamer has proved
satisfactory for a great many applications. When reamers are
being selected for machine tools with play in the gears or with
spindles not in the best of condition, it is usually advisable to
choose those with left-hand helical flutes. This type of reamer
has a negative axial rake and therefore requires more pressure
to feed the tool into the work. The additional pressure and the
hand of the helix opposite to the hand of the cut reduce the
tendency for the reamer to jump ahead when easier cutting is
encountered. For machine tools in very good condition, right-
hand fluted reamers are satisfactory. They are inherently free
cutting and require less power; however, when used on a worn
machine, they tend to dig into the workpiece, cause chatter, and
Poslttve Negotlve Zero
produce a rough hole.
radial ,ake rodlol rake rada rake
Negcmve OXIOI rake,
Marginal Widths as Related to Ieh.hcnd hellx
Peripheral Relief Angles (b) Leb-hand helx reamers, rgh-bond c.t
The purpose of the margin of a reamer land is to size the hole
by smoothing the roughness caused by the chamfer and to
reduce friction caused by the reamer’s rotating in the hole.
When a reamer is ground down to a diameter smaller than the
original size, the width of the land should be reduced, This will
decrease friction and prevent heat buildup and eventual galling.
The marginal width and magnitude of a relief angle vary
somewhat for particular applications, but the values in Table
9-37 may be used as a basis from which to determine by actual
trial the correct values to be used. By properly changing the
relief angle, a reamer may be made suitable for use under a great
variety of operating conditions.
Kinds of Reamers
Reamers are made in many different forms (Fig. 9-1 13),
including solid and inserted-blade types, adjustable and non-
adjustable; they are available for either manual operation (hand Positive Ne@ve Zero
reamers) or for machine use (chucking reamers). Materials radm rake rodm roke rodlal rake
from which cutting elements of most production reamers are Post,ve axial rake
r,ghr-hmd hel,x
made include high-speed steel and cemented carbides. A
comprehensive discussion of cutting tool materials is presented (c) Right-bond hell. reamers, r[ght-bond cut
in Chapter 3 of this volume, “Cutting Tool Materials.”
Carbide reamers, These tools are being used increasingly
because of their longer life, improved accuracy, and resistance ig. 9-112 Reamers for right-hand rotation.
9-111
CHAPTER 9
REAMERS
TABLE 9-37 to galling (adherence of metal to the cutting edges), which can
Suggested Widths of Margins and Magnitude of cause oversize holes and poor finishes. They are available as
Relief Angles for Various Sizes of Reamers solid carbide tools, tipped with carbide on their ends only, and
tipped for the full flute lengths. Solid carbide reamers are made
Magnitude of in smaller sizes, generally from 1/ 16 to 3/8” (1.6 to 9.5 mm)
Width of Relief Angle, diam and in larger sizes on special order.
Diam of Reamer, in. Margin, in. (mm)* degrees Carbide-tipped reamers are basically the same in design as
HSS reamers. The reamer body, blades or flutes, and tips,
Under l/8** 0.004 -O.006** 20-25
however, must be shaped and dimensioned to resist deflection
(o. 10-0. 15)
because of the brittleness of the carbide. Practically all carbide-
1/8 to 1/4 0.006-0.008 15-20
tipped reamers are intended for machine reaming.
(O.15-0.20) Certain angles and clearances are embodied in the cutting
1/4 to 1/2 0.008-0.010 11-14
elements of carbide-tipped reamers to obtain cutting action in
(0.20-0.25)
the proper places, prevent friction, and clear the chips.
1/2 to 3/4 0.010-0.15 9-1o Practically all the cutting is done on the relieved chamfer, which
(0.25-0.38) is in the form of a truncated cone on the entering end of the
3)4 to 1 0.012-0.017 8-9
reamer. This chamfer is shaped to start the reamer properly in
(0.30-0.43) the hole.
1 to 1 1/2 0.014-0.018 7-8
A clearance on the chamfer of 6-8° on the carbide tip and a
(0.36-0.46)
secondary clearance of 10-15° on the steel body have proved to
1 1/2 to 2 0.016-0.022 7-8
be satisfactory for most workpiece materials. Under good work
(0.41-0.56)
conditions and proper alignment of the reamer and the work, a
Larger than 2 0.018-0.025 7-8
back-taper of 0.0003 in. /in. (or mm) mm) of flute length is
(0.46-0.63)
adequate. Back-taper should be increased to prevent binding of
* Margin width depends upon material to be reamed. only slightly dull tools when very abrasive materials are being
** The relief angle that must be ground on reamers of very reamed. In general, circular widths may range from 0.007-
small diameters often depends upon the width of the 0.020” (O.18-0.51 mm) depending primarily upon the material to
land, because the heel of the land must always be under be reamed. Primary relief angles on the carbide tips range from 15°
the leading edge of the relief angle. on 1/ 4“ diam tools to T’ on 1 1/ 2“ diam reamers (see Fig. 9-1 14).
TABLE 9-38
Standard Reamer Dimensions and Number of Flutes for Carbide-tipped Reamers*
Nominal Overall Flute Shank Morse Chamfer No. of Flutes

Reamer Length, Length, Diam, Ta~er Aruzle.
Size, in. in1 in. in. N;. Length de~. Roughing Standard Finishing
3/16 4 1/2 1 1/8 11/64 1 lj32 45 3 4 4
1/4 6 1 1/2 15/64 1 1/32 45 3 4 4
5/16 6 1 1/2 9/32 1 1/32 45 3 4 4
3/8 7 1 3/4 5/16 1 1/32 45 3 4 4
7/16 7 1 3/4 3/8 1 1/32 45 3 4 4
1/2 8 2 7/16 1 1/32 45 4 6 6
9/16 8 2 7)16 1 1/32 45 4 6 6
5/8 9 2 1/4 9/16 2 1/32 45 4 6 6
11/16 9 2 1)4 9/16 2 1]32 45 4 6 6
3/4 9 1/2 2 1/2 5/8 2 3/64 45 4 6 6
13/16 9 1/2 2 1/2 5/8 2 3]64 45 4 6 6
7/8 10 2 5/8 3/4 2 3/64 45 4 6 6
15/16 10 2 5/8 3/4 3 3/64 45 4 6 8
1 10 2 3]4 7/8 3 1/16 45 4 8 8
1 1/16 10 1/2 2 3/4 7/8 3 1/16 45 4 8 8
1 l/8 11 2 7/8 7)8 3 1/16 45 4 8 8
1 3/16 11 2 7/8 1 3 1/16 45 4 8 8
1 1/4 11 1/2 3 1 4 1/16 45 6 8 8
1 5/16 11 1/2 3 1 4 1/16 45 6 8 8
1 3/8 12 3 1/4 1 4 5/64 45 6 8 8
1 7/16 12 3 1/4 1 1/4 4 3132 45 6 8 8
1 1/2 12 1/2 3 1/2 1 1/4 4 3j32 45 6 8 8
* It is always advisable to use standard tools whenever possible, as special tools are manufactured in small
quantities, cost more, and are not as readily obtainable.
9-112
CHAPTER 9
REAMERS
Hand reamer with Ieti-hand

Taper shank lobbers reamer
heltcol flutes and squared shank
wl!h strrmght flutes
Chcrrfe[
optlonol
Exponston hand reamer Vvttl straight

flutes cnd squared shork
roper fmshlnq reomer wth rrmght
flutes cmd squored shank
.— -—.
Stroaht shank chuckma reomer

with hellcol flutes
ToDer Dn reamer w[th hellcal
._la
Exparwon ckucklng :eamer <w+ stralgh
+. ‘:=:;:::h manufacturer
Taper pln reamer with hlgtlsplral flutes

flutes ond .aper shank
Taper shonk bridge reamer

with strolght flutes
Stub screw mochlne reamer

Dlemakers reamer w[th high-splrol flutes
with hellcal flutes
=5z5
Taper pjpe reamer with
<. \
hellcal flutes and squared shank Taper shank comb not on drtll ~n[~ reamer
+!Ei!a~ Shell reamer wth

hellcol flJtes
Toper sbn< subland type combl~atlon drlU and reamer
Fig. 9-113 Commercial types of reamers.
I 1 Carbide-tipped reamers used for roughing operations are

Prrnary reltef angle
I generally special. They may have either an even or an odd
number of flutes, depending upon the reamer size and the
application (Table 9-38). Standard and finishing types usually
‘“’9’”41 t-
have an even number of flutes. The spacing of the flutes around
- %condory relfef the reamer body is sometimes uneven to minimize the possibility
angle of chatter. Tools with an uneven number of flutes, however, are
difficult to measure. Carbide-tipped reamers maybe made with
either right or left-hand flutes, or with straight flutes, and may
& incorporate one, two, or more sections of different diameters
for cutting two or more diameters in one operation.
1
Fig. 9-114 Primary and secondary relief angles for carbide-tipped Carbide-tipped reamers in straight-flute design, with strips of
reamers. tungsten carbide the full length of the flutes, are ideal for
9-113
CHAPTER 9
9-114
CHAPTER 9
REAMERS
precision reaming to close tolerances. The wear on the diameter

from bushings is minimized, and back-taper can be reduced to a
End cut Relleved
minimum because the danger of pickup on the diameter
is reduced.
For best efficiency, carbide-tipped reamers should be used
only on machines that are in good condition. Loose or
misaligned spindles can cause serious damage to a reamer, and
the resulting cut will not conform to the desired size or finish.
The magnitude of lead and rake angles, width of land, amount
of clearance, and whether straight or spiral flutes should be
employed are all related to the kind and characteristics of the (a) Fluted chucking type
material from which the workpiece is made (Table 9-39).
Hand reamers. A hand reamer is generally used to finish or
accurately size a previously reamed or bored hole, or it is used
for fitting bushings or bearings when only a small amount of
El
metal is removed during the finishing process. Hand reamers
are available in either the solid or the expansion type and may
have either straight or left-hand helix flutes. The solid type is
made from either carbon or high-speed tool steel. Hand reamer
blades are usually spaced irregularly around the reamer body.
The amount of expansion possible in an expansion reamer is
rather limited and varies with different makes, Breakage of (b) Rose ch.ckng type
these tools usually is caused by the user’s attempting to expand

them beyond the intended limits. One reamer manufacturer Fig. 9-115 Reamer ends for end cutting (left-hand helix, right-hand
suggests the limits of expansion in Table 9-40. cut).
TABLE 9-40 reamers with right-hand helix flutes are considered special
Recommended Expansion Limits types. Stub screw-machine reamers are available in numbered
for Expansion Reamers series in consecutive diameter ranges (Table 9-41).
End-cutting reamers. All reamers are considered to be end
Size Range, Limit of cutting, but it is often necessary to produce a special angle in a
in. Exoansion. in. [mm) hole or to use the reamer as a counterbore or as a seating tool in
a blind hole. In these and similar cases, the reamer end must be
l/4to 15/32 0.006 (O.15) shaped to accomplish the purpose (Fig. 9-1 16).
l/2t031/32 0.010 (0.25) When reamers are cut to center (second rightmost view, Fig.
1 to I 1/2 0.013(0.33) 9-1 16), care should be taken to avoid zero flute depth at center,
19/16t02 0.015(0.38) in which case no chips could be removed at or near center. This
condition is avoided, in the design shown, by having one land
Chucking reamers. Chucking reamers are designed primarily extend about 1/ 64” (0.4 mm) past center, with sufficient depth
for application in turret lathes and screw machines in which in of flute to permit chip escape at center. The mating land is
many instances the tool is stationary and the work revolves, but thereby automatically shortened, as indicated in section A-A.
the tools are rotated for some applications. They are available The 18W end cutting grind (right view) is often preferred.
in either straight-flute, right or left-hand, helix-flute forms and Jobber’s reamers. Taper-shank machine or jobber’s reamers
may be either of the fluted chucking type or of the rose chucking usually have straight flutes; their lengths are approximately the
type (see Fig. 9-11 5). The essential difference between the rose same as hand reamers. Some applications require right or left-
chucking reamer and the fluted chucking reamer is that the rose type hand helix styles, but these are considered to be special and
is not relieved on the periphery. Rose reamers also have deeper manufacturers do not ordinarily stock them.
flutes for increased chip space, permitting greater stock removal. Shell reamers. Shell reamers, sometimes referred to as hollow
Straight-flute reamers can embody staggered flutes; i.e., the reamers, are available with straight or helical flutes and are used
flutes are irregularly spaced around the circumference of the on arbors with driving lugs. The holes in shell reamers are
reamer body. This is no longer standard industry practice, but is ground with a taper to assist in firmly seating the tool on the
sometimes done on coarse-pitch and large-diameter tools to arbor, Usually, sufficient space is left between the end of the
reduce the reamer’s tendency to chatter because of slippage or reamer and the shoulder on the arbor so the reamer can be
torsional deflection. Chatter may sometimes be minimized by removed without damaging it. Shell reamers are used in turret
using a reamer having a hand of helix opposed to the hand of machines for line reaming of bearings and other similar
cut. Special oversize and undersize reamers are available for applications.
press fit and clearance applications by toolmakers. Shell reamers are used when the tool is held stationary as the
Stub screw-machine reamers. Reamers used in automatic work rotates, when the work is stationary and the tool rotates,
screw machines are required to function in a limited space, when the work is stationary and the tool rotates, and when both tool
hence their short length. Stub screw-machine reamers are and work are in motion. Because shell reamers are two-piece
particularly adapted to use in floating holders. Left-hand helix assemblies, they lack the rigidity of excessive amounts of stock.
flutes and right-hand rotation for cutting are considered Dimensions of driving slots and lugs for straight or taper-shank
standard; reamers requiring left-hand rotation for cutting and arbors used with shell reamers are presented in Table 9-42. The
9-115
CHAPTER 9
REAMERS
TABLE 9-41
Series Numbers, Dimensions, and Number of Flutes for
Stub Screw Machine Reamers with Helical Flutes*
Dimensions
Length Diameter Size
Length of of of Number
Series Diameter Overall Flute Shank Hole of
Number Range A B D H Flutes
00 0.0600 to 0.066 incl. 1 3/4 1/2 1/8 1/16 4
0 0.0661 to 0.074 incl. 1 3/4 1/2 1/8 1/16 4
1 0.0741 to 0.084 incl. 1 3/4 l/2 1/8 1/16 4
2 0.0841 to 0.096 incl. 1 3/4 1/2 1/8 1/16 4
3 0.0961 to 0.126 incl. 2 3/4 1/8 1/16 4

4 0.1261 to 0.158 incl. 2 1/4 1 1/4 3/32 4
5 0.1581 to 0.188 incl. 2 1/4 1 1)4 3/32 4
6 0.1881 to 0.219 incl. 2 1/4 1 1/4 3/32 6
7 0.2191 to 0.251 incl. 2 1/4 1 1/’4 3/32 6

8 0.2511 to 0.282 incl. 2 1/4 1 3/8 1/8 6
9 0.2821 to 0.313 incl. 2 1/4 1 3/8 1/8 6
10 0.3131 to 0.344 incl. 2 1/2 1 1/4 3/8 1/8 6
11 0.3441 to 0.376 incl. 2 1/2 I 1/4 3/8 1/8 6
12 0.3761 to 0.407 incl. 2 1/2 1 1/4 1/2 3//16 6
13 0,4071 to 0.439 incl. 2 1/2 1 1/4 1/2 3/16 6
14 0.4391 to 0.470 incl. 2 1/2 1 1’/4 1/2 3/16 6
15 0.4701 to 0.505 incl. 2 1/2 1 1)4 1/2 3/16 6
16 0.5051 to 0.567 incl. 3 1 1/2 5/8 1/4 6
17 0.5671 to 0.630 incl. 3 1 1/2 5/8 1/4 6
18 0.6301 to 0.692 incl. 3 1 1/2 5/8 1/4 6
19 0.6921 to 0.755 incl. 3 1 1/2 3/4 5/16 6
20 0.7551to 0.817incl, 3 1 1/2 3/4 5/16 8
21 0.8171to 0.880 incl. 3 1 1/2 3/4 5/16 8
22 0.8801 to 0.942 incl. 3 1 1/2 3/4 5/16 8
23 0.9421to 1.010incl. 3 1 1/2 3/4 5/16 8
(ANSI Standard B94.2-1977, published by ASME, )
* All dimensions are given in inches. Tolerances on reamer diameter are +0.0001 to 0.0004 for series 00 to 7
incl. and +0.0001 to 0.0005 for series 8 to 23 incl.; on overall length and length of flute, f 1/ 16; and on shank
length, -0.0005 to 0.002.
six sizes of arbors accommodate all shell reamers in diameters must be used accordingly; removal of excessive amounts of
of 3/4 to 21 /2” (19 to 63.5 mm). Where applicable, the use of stock with them results in poorly finished holes.
one arbor with several shell reamers may provide economy over Adjustable floating reamers. These tools, having spring-
the use of individual sizes of standard reamers. loaded adjustment dials (see Fig. 9-11 8), are available for
Adjustable reamers. An adjustable reamer (Fig, 9-1 17) may setting size on the machine. The direct-reading, adjustable dial
be used to obtain holes of varying diameters over a limited permits setting size in increments of 0.0001” (0.003 mm) on
range. The adjustment must be enough to compensate for wear diameter. A radial float of 0.020-0.030” (0.5 1-0.76 mm) is
or to allow the reamer to be reground to its original size. These provided for the HSS or carbide-tipped blades. The blades can
reamers lack the rigidity of the conventional solid types and be changed without removing the holder from the machine,
9-116
CHAPTER 9
REAMERS
Regular standard reamer—

A IS stondard
End c.fllng stvle—
B IS same os A
End cuthng style—
spec[fy dmmeie, C
End cutting style—
cut to center
l!!!!!!
SeC
A-A
180’ end cuHlng—
two flutes cuttng
Qcross cen+er
1
Fig. 9-116 Comparison of regular reamer end with end-cutting types of reamers.
TABLE 9-42
‘+-
Driving Slots and Lugs for Shell Reamers and Arbors*
Dimensions
Diameter Hole Number Driving Slot Lug on Arbor

in Reamer at of Fitting Reamer Width Depth Width Depth
Large End Arbor Sizes, in. w J L M
0.375 4 3/4 5/32 3/16 9/64 5/32
0.500 5 13/16to 1 3/16 1/4 11/64 7/32
0.625 6 1 l/16to 1 1/4 3/16 1/4 11/64 7/32
0.750 7 1 5/16to 1 5/8 1/4 5/16 15/64 9/32
1.000 8 111/ 16t02 1/4 5/16 15/64 9/32
1.250 9 21/16 t021/2 5/16 3/8 19/64 11/32
(ANSI Standard B94.2-1977, published by ASME)
* All dimensions are given in inches. Shell reamer arbor tapers are made to permit a
driving fit with the reamer
This type of reamer is recommended only for use in stationary

applications.
Combined drills and reamers. Drilling and reaming are
usually considered to be separate operations, but in certain
applications they may be combined and performed with a single
tool with accompanying savings in time and labor. The
combined drill and reamer is particularly adapted to drilling
and reaming through holes. In order for the reamer to perform
properly, the drill must pass completely through the work
before the reamer flutes engage the hole. The length of these
holes should not exceed the diameter of the drill. Blind holes Fig. 9-117 Sectional view of a typical adjustable sotid reamer.
cannot be satisfactorily processed with this type of tool for two
reasons: ( I) the reamer should feed faster tha-n-the drill feed will in a number of combinations of hand and flute types for both
permit and (2) the action of the drill may destroy the accuracy of the drill and reamer sections. If a combined drill and reamer is
the reamed hole. The drill portion is made from 1 1/2 to 2 times made so that the drill portion is concentric with the reamer
as long as its diameter. The guide bushing should be of proper portion within very close tolerances, it is not always necessary
size to fit the reamer portion and long enough to guide the tool to drill through and it is possible to drill and ream blind holes to
properly when the drill begins to cut. These tools are available a limited degree.
9-117
CHAPTER 9
r --
Graduoted
Sllde
! Wedge Body dlol
., It
octuator
! 1#1 ~--.
~%...
r
4- - *
L’.,y .
/ .,
\ d
--- —_-
r Y
1
Roll
&-
pn
Pn
Set
screw J
Fig. 9-118 Adjustable floating reamer with micrometer adjusting dial for setting size on machine. (Erickson Div., Kerrmrme(alinc. )
The most common combined drill and reamer is made with with the axis is the most practical. The number of flutes may
the margins of the flutes of the drill section and reamer section vary from two to five in the ordinary range of reamer sizes. The
coinciding, making it necessary to regrind the tool completely left-hand helix should be at an angle of approximately 45°. A
or discard it when the original length of the drill section has helix angle of greater magnitude than this tends not to improve
been ground away. the quality of the cut but to materially increase the end pressure
The subland combined drill and reamer has a constant- required to feed the reamer into the work.
diameter drill margin for the full length of the flute. The reamer Stepped reamer sets may be required for severely tapered
flutes, larger in diameter than the drill, are positioned behind holes. A left-hand helix angle reduces the tendency for taper
the drill margin. When the reamer flutes are reground, the drill reamers to wedge or lock in the workpiece.
margins are not touched. This tool is more expensive to make Taper reamers with steep helical angles cannot be used
than the more common combined drill and reamers, but it has successfully for hand operations because of the end thrust
much longer life and, in the larger sizes, is more suitable for required; but the smoothness of operation in machine reaming
production work. outweighs the disadvantages of the necessary end force; the
A right-hand fluted drill and a straight-fluted reamer are quality of the work is better and longer reamer life is obtained.
sometimes combined to form a tool that will work to greater For hand operation, taper reamers with straight flutes or with
precision than other forms of these tools. These tools require a not more than 10° of left-hand helix angle have proved to be
neck between the drill and the reamer sections. For clearing best under most circumstances. It is important that a taper
holes with large obstructions in castings, a combination of a reamer have sharp edges if it is to cut with the least resistance,
right-hand cutting-drilling section with a right-hand flute core- even at a slight sacrifice of the taper accuracy. However, a
drill section is sometimes used. 0.002-0.01 O“ (0.05-0.25 mm) circular land or margin is some-
Regardless of the type of combined drill and reamer used, it is times beneficial for accuracy and finish, even though higher
important to provide enough chip space or chip clearing thrust forces are required.
capability; jammed flutes can be disastrous. Taper-pin reamers. Reaming holes for taper pins presents
Reamers for tapered holes. The taper reamer, besides being a special problems because the holes usually are of small
finishing tool, is a tool for heavy stock removal. At the end of diameters and are comparatively deep. For hand reaming of
the operation, the cutting edges are engaged in the cut through taper-pin holes, the straight-flute or low-helix-flute type of
most of their length. Taper reamers must therefore be reamer has found wide acceptance. For machine reaming of
constructed as sturdily as possible, cutting edges must be taper-pin holes, the helical type of reamer has proved to be more
adequately backed up, and flutes must be sufficiently large and successful than other types; it k more substantial and provides
have well-rounded bottoms to facilitate chip removal. For an advantageous cutting action. These reamers are made with
machine reaming it has been found that a reamer with few flutes left-hand helix of approximately 45° with the axis. The helix is
and with cutting edges forming a steep left-hand helix angle of the opposite hand to the direction of rotation for cutting, and
9-118
CHAPTER 9
REAMERS
as a result, the rotary effort (torque) is less, although more end An inserted-blade hand reamer ordinarily has a square shank
thrust is required. The cutting action somewhat resembles that and a pilot sleeve following the blades. Blades in inserted-blade
of a conventional reamer combined with that of a broach. The hand reamers usually are furnished without a helix.
steep spiral of the helical-type reamer renders it unsuitable for Chucking reamers and hand reamers are available in both
hand operations because of the required high end thrust. right and left-hand helix. As a general rule, with conventional
Structural reamers. Structural reamers are frequently referred right-hand cutting, right-hand helix blades are preferred for
to by the names of their particular applications; for example, roughing and left-hand helix blades for finishing. However,
bridge or car reamers. The holes for rivets and bolts in each of these generalities is subject to modification and depends
structural steel members, such as I-beams, angles, channels, and to a great extent upon the conditions prevailing during use.
plates are usually punched or drilled before the material leaves Right-hand helix blades have more of a tendency to dig and pull
the shop, and a certain amount of incorrect alignment is usually into the work, especially if conditions are not favorable to
encountered when the holes are matched up to insert rivets and extreme rigidity, but they may cut more freely and provide a
bolts as the structure is being erected. better finish if conditions are favorable. Left-hand helix blades
The structural or bridge reamer has a sharp taper at the front tend to act as a brake on the reamer and often allow work to be
or entering end to enable it to enter the holes that are not fully satisfactorily completed on setups which would ordinarily be
aligned. The tapered portion functions to enlarge the holes until considered impractical.
the entire body of the reamer can enter and enlarge them to the The conventional construction of an inserted-blade reamer
required size. Although some of this work is accomplished by consists of a body of comparatively soft, tough, workable steel
drill presses in the shop, it more often is done with electric or in which blades of a hardened material are positioned. Inserted-
pneumatic drilling machines at the erection site. This a is very blade reamers are comparatively expensive, but cut efficiently.
severe operation, as the reamer must perform the combined The body is usually constructed from an alloy steel, heat treated
functions of a reamer and crowbar. Several types of structural to the optimum of hardness, toughness, machinability, and
reamers of straight and flute styles are in use, each suited to a strength necessary to resist both the stresses generated by the
particular kind of work. cutting action and forces necessary to lock the blades in the
Inserted-blade reamers. Inserted-blade reamers have been body. Blade seats are generally tapered to permit adjustments
developed primarily because of economic considerations. for wear.
Probably no inserted-blade tool can be quite so rigid, accurate, Reamer blades are available in carbon tool steel, high-speed
and dependable as one constructed from a single piece of metal. steel, cast alloy, and the various cemented carbides, the latter
However, the advantages inherent in solid construction soon being furnished either solid or brazed onto steel bodies. Carbon
are outweighed by the costs involved as sizes increase, and a tool steels are nearly obsolete, but are sometimes used in
point is eventually reached at which the construction and use of specialized cases, usually in hand or line reamers on soft but
solid tools are economically prohibitive and built-up con- greasy metals, such as some of the bronzes and babbitts. In this
struction is required. case the extreme sharpness to which a carbon steel may be
Figure 9-119 shows the essential cutting elements of an ground and honed is the determining factor in its selection.
inserted-blade reamer. The chamfer, A, sometimes referred to The majority of reamer blades are made from high-speed
as the lead, removes excess stock from the walls of the hole, and steel. The cast alloys are used when a material with a greater
the cutting point, B, sizes the hole to the desired diameter. To production potential than the high-speed steels is required.
prevent the blade from binding or seizing in the hole, clearance, They are usually classified midway between the high-speed
C, is provided by tapering the blade behind the cutting point to steels and the carbides. The carbides are commonly used for the
provide back-taper. long-run machining of nonferrous and cast-iron materials.
Methods for holding blades. The assembly must be rigidly
locked in place because any displacement of the blade would
spoil the work. Of the various locking devices which have been
c BA developed, most are modifications of the wedge or screw
principle; a number of them are illustrated in Fig. 9-120.
Block reamers. Adjustable block reamers are flat blocks that
carry two or more cutting blades and are fitted to slots in
suitable bars (see Fig. 9-12 1). The blades may be made of
high-speed steel, cast alloy, or cemented carbide. Block-type
equipment may be used generally in the field covered by
Fig. 9-119 Essential cutting elements of an inserted-blade reamer. ordinary reamers and in addition is frequently used to rough
bore, semifinish bore, and even face when conditions are
Types and construction. Inserted-blade reamers are com- favorable. Boring tools are discussed in Chapter 8 of this
mercially available in chucking reamers, shell reamers, and volume, “Turning and Boring. ”
hand reamers. Chucking reamers are regularly furnished in For general-purpose use, taper-shank bars for drill presses
sizes from 5/8 to 3“ (16 to 76 mm) diam, shell reamers from 1 1/4 and straight-shank bars for turret lathes are commercially
to 6“(32 to 152 mm) diam, and hand reamers from 1 to 3“(25 to available. A series of bars may be used in the stations of a turret
76 mm) diam. Arbors maybe furnished with either straight or lathe as needed to perform the required operations on a
taper shanks for use with shell reamers, which are available with workpiece. For example, a hole in a cored casting may be
either straight or taper holes. Straight-hole shell reamers rough-bored, semifhish-bored, and reamed, using three bars in
usually are employed for reaming a series of holes in line, for three stations of the lathe turret. When not enough stations are
which purpose they are mounted in tandem on a bar. An available, it is possible to change blocks in one or more of the
example is the line reaming of bearings. bars between cuts.
9-119
CHAPTER 9
lade lock
He Inseried
blades
.—
9
(b)
(0)
Blade lock
—,—
Inseried
blades
(c) (d)
lode lock ,.
Sl!!#37
Wedges
(f)
(e)
Fig. 9-120 Various methods of holding inserted reamer blades in position in shell reamers: (a) serrated blade wedged in body, (b) pin and screw lock, (c)
reversed screw lock, (d) serrated blade and cam lock, (e) wedge and pin lock, and ~ serrated blade and jackscrew lock.
m
diam. Larger tools may be constructed on special order. The
Inserted cutters
blocks range in thickness from 5/ 16 to 11 / 4“ (8 to 32 mm), Each
range of blocks considerably overlaps the sizes of those
immediately preceding and following it. The thinner blocks are
43 intended for the smaller bore sizes and are mounted on small-
diameter bars; larger bars are employed for the thicker blocks.
Block-reamer construction. The block bodies are usually
Block made of alloy steel, heat treated for strength and wearing
Inserted cutter qualities. Blades incorporate substantially dovetail cross
(a) I
sections and are retained by locking devices similar to those
Block
\l used for inserted-blade machine reamers. Several methods are
, I illustrated in Fig. 9-122. Adjustment screws are provided for
BOI
[} 1 advancing the blades for resharpening and for taking the thrust
.—-— .—-— when the reamer is cutting, A key or locking member intended
to hold the block in position may also serve to centralize the
cutting edges of the blade and hold them equidistant from the
(b)
bar axis so that both blades will cut equally and produce an
accurate bore diameter. Some of the methods used to lock the
Inserted cutter
block in the bar are shown in Fig. 9-123.
Fig. 9-121 Typical block reamer and bar: (a) block carrying inserted A thrust member behind the block, normally retained by a
blades; (b) bar with block in place. ball-and-spring detent as shown in view a, Fig. 9-123, may be
pushed out of the bar by finger pressure when the lock key is
Block boring and reaming are particularly adaptable to loosened slightly. This allows sufficient block movement to
special bar constructions for use on horizontal b-oring mills. The clear the lock key for removal from the bar slot. The V-shaped
inserted-blade block construction adapts itself to all sorts of wedge portion of the key enables accurate centralizing when
multiple-diameter in-line boring, counterboring, reaming, and one side of the vee is precision ground until a master block
facing operations. Large complicated castings with numerous indicates dead central when locked in the bar and is dial
bores may be handled efficiently with this type of equipment. indicated on centers.
5’ize of blocks. Inserted-blade boring and reaming blocks are Withdrawing or loosening the key slightly permits the block
commercially available for machining holes from 1-24’’(25-610 mm) to float. This is desirable in most finish-reaming operations with
9-120
CHAPTER 9
this type of reamer. It assists in causing the block to cut to exact

cutting diameter. However, the block should never float when
there are ports or other irregular openings in the bore. Both
cutting blades of a floated-block reamer must cut simul-
taneously; this simultaneous cutting cannot occur when
irregular openings are present in the bore. For roughing and
semifinishing cuts, the block should be firmly locked in
position. A block with centralizing ledges and spring retainers is
shown in view c, Fig. 9-123. Another method of holding the
block in the bar (view b) utilizes a tapered hole through which a
cone-shaped locking key threaded on the large end is passed.
The key is screwed into a locking engagement.
This device provides for contact of the key on one side of the
tapered hole in the block, forcing the block into engagement
with the thrust plates fastened to each side of the bar at the back
end of the slot. The block maybe removed from the bar by first
removing the key.
Gunbores. These tools, sometimes called gun reamers, were
discussed briefly in the preceding section of this chapter on
high-pressure coolant drills. Gunbores are related to both
boring and reaming because they can be used to remove 0.0 15“
(0.38 mm) or more of material while straightening the hole and
improving the surface finish. Gunbores, like gundrills, are
single-lip, self-guiding, pressure-coolant tools; they generally
follow their own centerline, not the hole being enlarged.
Therefore, this tool will not duplicate errors present in the
original hole. It is applied in place of more conventional tooling
when the replaced process would require peck feed or secondary
finishing operations to produce the desired results.
Gunbore designs are based on both external and internal-
chip-removal gundrills (see Fig. 9-124). In both categories,
there are also designs which flush the chips ahead of the tool,
but these designs are limited to use in through holes.
External-chip-removal gurrbores. External-chip-removal
gunbores, and the related chips-ahead designs, are available in
the same sizes and lengths as external-chip-removal gundrills,
and the resulting holes have the same characteristics. The (b)
external-chip-removal types, under certain conditions, can also
remove material to center to form the bottom of a hole. They
can also operate as both core drills and counterbores.
Nose grinds are selected for best chip control or to attain a
specified bottom form or chamfer. Gunbores can be manu-
factured to produce two diameters simultaneously. The
resulting holes, however, will not be as precise as holes
produced in two operations, and the maintenance and tool cost
per hole produced is more than double because of the difficulty
of regrinding two cutting edges relative to each other.
External-chip-removal gunbores are manufactured in exactly
the same way external-chip-removal gundrills are manufactured
(see Fig. 9-49; with a special contour, see Fig. 9-50, b).
Gunbores in a chips-ahead style are manufactured with a
ground shank to provide maximum rigidity. The tip is made
with only a small flute to provide room for the more complete
contour as shown in Fig. 9-125, The gunbore is manufactured
with a back-taper with from 0.0004-0.0006 in. / in. (or mm/mm)
of tip. With a -0.0002” (0.005 mm) manufacturing tolerance, a
0.0008” (0.020 mm) diametral tolerance over the life of the tool
can be expected.
The equipment and fixturing required for gunboring are the
same as required for gundrilling, except that with gunbores in
chips-ahead style, provisions must be made to contain the
ig. 9-122 Methods of holding inserted blades in block reamers: (a)
coolant and chips exiting from the end of the hole (Fig. 9-126). screw and pin lock; (b) circular wedge and screw; (c) setscrew lock and
Internal-chip-removal gurrbores, The internal-chip-removal adjustment.
9-121
CHAPTER 9
REAMERS
(I 1
II
I
\
u I
J
1
(o) (b)
(c)
ig. 9-123 Block-to-bar locking methods: (a) lock with straight-sided wedge and thrust block; (b) block with tapered bole for tapered pin; (c) block
with centralizing wedges and spring retainers.
Q
Pocket for
Externol chip removol @

“V” type Sets
hole
We
str
Restricted@
replaceable
Internal chip removal flute Adjustable cutter
Gunbores, Chips-bock Style Gunbores, Chips-oheod Style
Fig. 9-124 Various designs of gunbores.
9-122
CHAPTER 9
REAMERS
increased productivity and improved quality often make them

economically desirable.
Special reamers. It is generally more economical to use
.
standard reamers. There are applications, however, for which
special reamers are needed. Figure 9-127 presents suggestions
Above center for specifying special reamers to tool manufacturers. Suitable
ni allowances should be specified for resharpening purposes and
for clearance of the spindle above the guide bushings.
Marg[n
7
REAMER HOLDERS/DRIVERS
+& Reamers are commonly held and driven by three-jaw chucks,
Becmng pod straight sleeves and setscrews, and for taper shanks, sleeves or
\l\ sockets. Reamers with adapters for quick-change chucks are
used for production applications.
When reamers must guide themselves into previously made
holes, they require floating holders to maintain alignment.
Fig. 9-125 Typical lip contour for chips-ahead gunhore. There are several types of floating holders. Some permit
angular float, others permit a parallel (axial) float, and still
others permit both angular and parallel float (see Fig. 9-1 28).
Floating holders have some limitations. If the reamer axis is
vertical, floating reamer drives often do a good job of correcting
for small amounts of misalignment, When the workplaces
rotate, however, as is the case on screw machines, lathes, and
some other machine tools, floating holders are sometimes
inadequate. This is because relatively large amounts of
misalignment are often found on these machines and because
the weight of the reamer and holder tend to push the tool into an
off-center position.
Sweep grind Step grind
Some full floating holders, which compensate for both
angular and parallel misalignment, are equipped with springs or
other components to counterbalance the mass of the holder. A
@cb
floating holder cannot generally operate both vertically and
horizontally and still correct for both angular and parallel
misalignment. Application details (vertical or horizontal
operation and rotating or stationary tool) should be specified
when a floating holder is ordered.
Holder Requirements
Ideally, a floating holder should:
1. Grip the cutting tool reliably at the working end and
‘ig. 9-126 Typical chips-ahead gunbore setups. mount securely and easily into the machine spindle at the
opposite end.
gunbore sizes and straightens existing holes, but does not cut to 2. Transmit cutting torque and shock loads through its
~enter. The carbide cu~ting edge may be brazed to the body or mechanism to the machine spindle without damage.
may be adjustable for wear. Generally, the tool construction, 3. Float while cutting forces are present, thus accommo-
maintenance, and operation are similar to the internal-chip- dating parallel or angular misalignment, or both.
removal gundrills described earlier. Misalignments of 0.025” (0.63 mm) from the spindle
Bore reamers. These tools combine boring and reaming in a centerline should be allowable.
single operation to minimize problems with respect to hole size, 4. Be durably constructed to withstand normal use (with
straightness, and finish. Single-point bore reamers, for use in occasional abuse), while retaining a large percentage of
applications for which guide bushings can be used, have a its original efficiency.
single-point cutting edge on the end of the tool, followed by a 5. Have seals and shields to keep cutting fluids and/or chips
reaming section. Multipoint bore reamers are available for out of the internal parts, while keeping lubricants inside.
applications for which bushings cannot be used. 6. Be readily maintainable without the need for special tools
Coolant-fed reamers. These tools, having means (usually or gages for correct reassembly.
internal passages) for directing coolant to the cutting edges, 7. Be sufficiently low in cost to pay back the purchase price
offer advantages for some applications, particularly when in a year or less of use. Savings are based on reduced
reaming blind holes. In such applications, reduced friction and setup time, replacement cutters, machine downtime, and
temperatures at the reamer/ workpiece interface decrease wear rework.
and lengthen tool life. In some cases, feeds and speeds can be 8. Be small in diameter to allow use for close hole spacing
increased and improved accuracies and smoother finishes requirements.
obtained. The initial cost of coolant-fed reamers is higher, but 9. Be short in length to occupy minimum space.
9-123
CHAPTER 9
Straight shank, stratght flute Stratght shank, tapered flute
+
t=- 7
.—.
. 3
Q!+
:3-: 1
Taper shank, straight flute Taper shank, tapered flute
-
L, \
.— ?1 r 1 -—
) < J
F _s2cLF:j- ; ~eg+
1
D = D[ameter of fluted section (with tolerances) Always specffy m decimals.
B = Diameter of shank [with tolerances) If standard toper shonk is wonted, specify os
No. I Morse, No, 2 Morse, etc. For specal shonks, send aetalled drowlngs,
T = D[mensons of tang (If special)
1 = length overall.
F = length af flute
S = length of shank
Dlmerwons OJ squwe or other drlvtng means.

71=
C = Neck le~gih
N= Dlame,er (reference) at end of taper.
A = Included angle of toper
Specfy strolght or hellcol Flutes, hand of hell., and Included angle of chamfer.
— .-
ig. 9-127 Suggested specifications for special reamers. (National Twist Drill)
Various Holder Designs

Holders of many different designs are available, but all have
internal mechanisms which are essentially specialized couplings.
Each design offers certain advantages over the others.
Plain Oldham coupling. The coupling shown in Fig. 9-129,
view a, is outstanding in terms of low cost, simplicity, and
P Floatlng impact load bearing capacity. Its major drawback is the dead
spot which occurs for about 17° around each 9W of rotation.
This is caused by steel-on-steel frictional characteristics, which
can be modified with lubricants or made negligible by the
addition of balls or rollers. This, however, increases unit
loading which decreases impact loading capacity and durability.
Views b and c of Fig. 9-129 illustrate variations of the basic
Oldham coupling which are intended to reduce friction. This is
usually accomplished by the inclusion of antifriction elements
II (not shown) between the load-bearing components.
Another common variation of the basic four-point coupling
(see view d) works well until the oscillating balk (which travel
only half the misalignment capacity of the holder) wear V-
grooves in their travel zone. This results in frictional forces
greater than those found in Oldham couplings.
Holders of this type are also available with rollers, but they
cannot correct both angular and parallel misalignment. They
are primarily designed to correct parallel misalignment.
Gear couplings. As illustrated in Fig. 9-129, view e, gear
coupling systems distribute driving torque over several teeth in
any condition of misalignment. Dead spots are eliminated in
this design. Driving torque is not as high as with an Oldham
g. 9-128 Angular and parallel (axial) float obtained with floating coupling of the same size, but high shock loads are readily
lder/driver for reamers. ( Cleveland Twisr Drill) absorbed. Long life can be expected due to the multitude of
9-124
CHAPTER 9
,. [a) Plan oldhom co.plhg
N (b) Rodol pln drive

(e) Geardrtve couplng
R (c) AxIcl pln dwe

‘ (f) Hexogmol-drive couplhg
Fig. 9-129 Various types of internal coupling mechanisms used for floating holders. (Industrial Tools Div., Bendix Corp. )
driving elements which provide positive lubrication. Clearances of the tools. A difference for reaming is that closer tolerances
between the telescoping tubular elements may be designed to are generally required on both the jigs and bushings.
limit the allowable misalignment. The primary disadvantage of
this design is its higher cost. Alignment
Hexagonal-drive couplings, A somewhat lower cost design Close-tolerance reaming requires accurate alignment of the
utilizes hexagonal driving and driven members in a telescoping machine spindle with the guide bushing. Using the reamer as a
package (see view~, Fig. 9-129), similar to the gear drive design. locating device to force the workpiece into alignment is poor
Wear life is usually reduced because the greater clearances practice and can result in excessive wear, chipping, or breakage
required by straight hexagonal splines reduce the ability of the of the reamer.
coupling to absorb shock loads. If the hexagonal surfaces are When misalignment between the reamer and the hole to be
curved longitudinally to minimize clearances, the cost of machined amounts to about 3096 or more of the stock to be
manufacturing is almost as much as for gear couplings. removed, there is often wear on the reamer in the form of a
thread. The lead of the thread is equal to the feed rate, and depth
Holder Types is equal to the misalignment. These threads appear to be more
Full-floating holders are available in collet, bushing, and readily produced when tough and abrasive materials are
adjustable-flange types. Quick-change floating holders consist reamed. When other materials are reamed, only excessive
of a holder and a cartridge which holds the reamer. With the marginal wear may be noticed.
spindle stopped, the cartridge is lifted to remove the tool. For precise hole locations, reaming jigs are essential. An ideal
arrangement, especially for long holes is to guide the reamer on
WORKHOLDING FOR REAMING both sides of the workpiece as illustrated in Fig. 9-130, view a.
Jig design and the use of bushings for reaming are essentially Special piloted reamers are required for this purpose, with the
the same as for drilling, discussed previously in this chapter. pilots having grooves on their OD’S to permit cutting fluid to
Major functions of the jigs and bushings are accurate locating, lubricate the pilots and to assist in chip removal. The jig should
supporting, and securing of the workpieces, and precise guiding be designed so that the pilot enters the bushing before the
9-125
CHAPTER 9
WORKHOLDING FOR REAMING
T
!_
Spindle
, Bushing
D-
Scrdle
Bdng
1111 F xwre
- Pilot
Fig. 9-130 Fixtures for guiding reamers through (a) long holes and (b) short holes.
TABLE 9-43
Tolerance Requirements for Reaming
Tolerance
requirement
for hole to Tolerance
be reamed, Reamer OD, Bushing ID,*
in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) Remarks
0.0005 0.0002-0.0003 0.0002-0.0003 Carbide reamers
(0.013) (0.005-0.008) (0.005-0.008) and bushings
under high under high necessary
limit of hole limit of hole
0.001 0.0005-0,0006 0.0003-0.0005 Carbide reamers

(0.03) (0.01 3-0.01 5) (0.005-0.013) and bushings
under high under high generally
limit of hole limit of hole necessary
0,002 To mean tolerance 0.0005 (0.013) HSS reamers and

(0.05) of hole to be under high bushings generally
reamed limit of hole satisfactory
(Zagar, Inc. )
* Light lapping of bushing bore to a maximum of 0.0001” (0.003 mm) and selective matching
with reamers to be used may be required.
reamer enters the workpiece, and the reamer should remain Bushing bores must be held to close tolerances for precise
piloted until the tool finishes its cut. For short holes, the reamer reaming. Too small a bushing can result in tool seizure and
can be guided only at the entry side of the hole (view b), with the possible breakage; too large an ID will result in out-of-round or
bushing made to fit the OD of the reamer flutes. bellmouthed holes. Tolerances that should be maintained on
the bushing bores depend upon the tolerances required for the
Bushings for Reaming holes to be reamed. The data in Table 9-43 can be used as a
Bushings for reaming are generally longer than for drilling, guide. The larger the bushing diameter, the greater the tolerance
usually having a length equal to 3-4 times the reamer diameter. on the bushing bore.
Chip clearance—the distance from the bottom of the bushing to Carbide bushings offer the advantages of minimum wear and
the top of the workpiece—must be sufficient to permit chip maintaining close tolerances. They are widely used for long
ejection and minimize bushing wear, but it is generally less for production runs and for operations in which abrasive materials
reaming than for drilling. Many reaming experts recommend are being reamed; they eliminate galling in many applications.
that the clearance distance be limited to one-fourth to one-half Roller or ball bearing, rotary-type pilot bushings also offer the
the tool diameter. Others suggest even less clearance—a advantages of minimum wear and maintaining close tolerances,
maximum of 1/8 to 1/4” (3.2 to 6.3 mm), regardless of the plus they offer the capability of withstanding high loads.
reamer diameter.
9-126
CHAPTER 9
OPERATING PARAMETERS FOR REAMING
OPERATING PARAMETERS FOR REAMING should be increased until it is the maximum obtainable without
Factors that must be established for efficient and economical sacrificing any desirable results.
reaming include the proper cutting speed, feed rate, and cutting The conditions required for the best performance of the cast
fluid to be used. Other important considerations are resharp- alloy and carbide block reamers vary too much to permit
ening the reamers and troubleshooting the operation. recommendations similar to those given for HSS and carbide
reamers. Each individual job and the conditions it presents
require individual study and planning.
Speeds and Feeds for Machine Reaming Gun reamers. Speeds and feeds for gun reamers (gunbores)
Reamers are operated at slower speeds and higher feed rates are basically the same as for gundrills (see Table 9-1 1). Gun
than twist drills of the same diameter. In general, the speeds of reamers of the chips-back type require the same coolant
reamers may be 65-75~o of those for drilling the same material, pressure as gundrills, while gun reamers of the chips-ahead type
and the feeds are often two to three times thow for drilling. require pressures of only 100-200 psi (690-1380 kPa). Whip
High feed rates are required so that each flute has an adequate limitations previously discussed (Table 9-1 1) do not apply to gun
chip load. reamers of the chips-ahead type because of their round shanks.
Reamer feeds depend upon the type of material being reamed Coolant-fed reamers. These tools can often be operated at
and the size or strength of the reamer. When soft materials such higher speeds and feeds because of reduced friction and
as aluminum or brass are being reamed, the feeds may vary temperatures at the reamer/ workpiece interface. Improved
from 0,001” (0.03 mm) per flute per revolution for small reamers accuracies and smoother finishes are obtained in some
to 0.005” (O.13 mm) per flute per revolution for large reamers. applications.
For hard materials such as hard cast irons and steels with a
hardness of 330 Bhn or more, the feed per flute per revolution Cutting Fluids for Reaming
ranges from 0.0004-0.00 15“ (0.0 10-0.038 mm). For reaming operations, emphasis in the selection of a cutting
Table 9-44 presents some conservative recommendations fluid is usually based on the finish produced rather than the
with respect to speeds and feeds that can be used as starting cooling properties of the fluid. Lubricating properties of the
points for reaming various materials with HSS reamers. Solid fluid, however, are also important to reduce frictional heat,
and carbide-tipped reamers can generally be operated at higher improve the finish obtained, and reduce power requirements. In
speeds and feeds (see Table 9-45). general, cutting fluids used for drilling are usually satisfactory
Speeds and feeds for machine reaming vary, sometimes for reaming. The properties of various cutting fluids and
slightly and occasionally a great deal, although the same recommendations for their application, filtration, and mainte-
material is being reamed. These variations may be due to the nance are discussed in Chapter 4 of this volume, “Cutting Fluids
finish and/ or accuracy required, differences in the machine and Industrial Lubricants. ” Filtering of the cutting fluids is
setup, or the design of the workplaces. important, especially when reaming cast irons and performing
Speeds that are too low adversely affect the productivity gunreaming.
obtainable with reamers without offering any substantial Practically all materials require a cutting fluid for reaming,
increase in tool life. Speeds that are too high may cause the but cast irons are being reamed successfully dry. A vacuum or
workpiece material to cling to the edges and lands of the reamer, air blast is often used to remove the dry chips, but the use of air
resulting in premature dulling of the cutting edges and the blasts requires guarding to protect the operator, In some
production of rough holes. In reaming hard materials, a reamer applications, however, the cutting edges and margins pick Up the
can be quickly ruined if operated at too high a speed. In all cast iron and produce poor quality holes. In cases such as these,
cases, the cutting speed should be adjusted to eliminate any good results are being obtained by using a coolant-air mist.
chatter. One common method of selecting a reaming speed for a
given job on a specific machine is to increase the speed until Regrinding Reamers
chatter occurs and then reduce the speed slightly. Lack of Great care must be taken when reamers are being sharpened
rigidity in the setup may necessitate lower speeds. When close because of the accuracy required. Most finishing reamers must
tolerances and a fine finish are required, it is usually necessary be sharpened to an accuracy of 0.0002” (0.005 mm) on the
to finish ream at considerably lower speeds. diameter, since they are used for sizing holes. In measuring a
Reamer feeds depend primarily on the type of reamer used, reamer, every set of opposing blades should be checked. Blades
the amount of material to be removed, and the finish required. may be unevenly spaced to reduce chatter and to produce a
The more stock to be removed, the lower the feeds should be. better surface finish. Adjustable-style reamers must be set
Too high a feed tends to produce spiral marks or a wavy finish several thousandths of an inch oversize before grinding.
and may reduce the accuracy of the hole. Too fine a feed allows Reamers should be resharpened before they become too dull.
the reamer to idle in the cut and cause excessive wear and This minimizes the amount of stock that has to be removed
glazing of the hole, At all times the feed must be high enough to during regrinding and prolongs the useful life of the tool. In
permit the reamer to cut rather than rub or burnish. adhering to this policy, sharpening should be limited to the
Block-type reamers. Cutting speeds for block reamers should entering taper or chamfer on the reamer. The chamfer must be
be relatively low. When attempting to establish the proper ground concentric with the OD of the reamer. When sharpening
operating parameters for a specific application, it is safer to the chamfer only, it is important that enough stock be ground to
increase the feed than the speed. remove all traces of OD wear. Clearance on the chamfers of
For reaming with HSS block tools, a safe starting speed of reamers varies with the job, with an angle of 7-12° being
25-50 sfm (7.6-15 m/ rein) should be used, keeping the speed low common. A secondary chamfer relief angle may be necessary if
for the harder materials. A safe starting feed is 0.008-0.012 ipr the flutes are relatively wide, as is common on expansion and
(0.20-0.30 mm/ rev). If satisfactory size and finish are obtained carbide-tipped reamers, but is not normally required on solid-
with no apparent overloading of the tools or machine, the feed type HSS reamers, If it is necessary to regrind the periphery of
9-127
CHAPTER 9
TABLE 9-44
Recommended Speeds and Feeds for High-Speed Steel Reamers
Reamer Speed, Feed Rate, Speed, Feed Rate, Speed, Feed Rate, Speed, Feed Rate,
Diam, sfm ipr sfm ipr sfm ipr sfm ipr
in. (mm/ rein) (mm/rev) (mm/ rein) (mm/ rev) (mm/min) (mm/rev) (mm/ rein) (mm/rev)
Low-Carbon Steels, Low-Alloy Steels, High-Alloy Steels, Soft Cast Irons,
120-200 Bhn 200-300 Bhn 300-400 Bhn 130 Bhn
1/4 0.005 0.004 0.004 100 0.006
(2!; (0.13) (R) (o. 10) (;:) (0.10) (30.5) (0.15)
3/8 0.007 0.007 0.006 100 0.008
(;; (0.18) (R) (O.18) (;:) (0.15) (30.5) (0.20)
1/2 0.008 0.008 0.007 120 0.010
(2?; (0.20) (H) (0.20) :; (0.18) (36.6) (0.25)
5/8 0.010 0.010 0.008 120 0.012
(;; (0.25) (1) (0.25) :; (0.20) (36.6) (0.30)
3/4 0.012 70 0.012 0.010 120 0.015
(;; (0.30) (21) (0.30) ;; (0.25) (36.6) (0.38)
7/8 0.013 0.013 0.010 120 0.017
(2?; (0.33) (N) (0.33) (& (0.25) (36.6) (0.43)
1 and 0.020 0.015 0.012 120 0.020
over (;; (0.51) (N) (0.38) :; (0.30) (36.6) (0.51)
Medium Cast Hard Cast MalIeable Cast Cast Brasses
Irons, 175 Bhn Irons, 230 Bhn Irons and Bronzes
1/4 0.006 0.006 0.004 150 0.005
(;; (0.15) (N) (o.15) (?;) (0.10) (46) (0.13)
3/8 0.008 0.008 0.007 150 0.007
(:; (0.20) (N) (0.20) (;:) (O.18) (46) (0.18)
1/2 0.10 0.010 0.008 170 0.009
(;; (0.25) (n) (0.25) (:) (0.20) (52) (0.23)
5/8 0.012 0.012 0.010 170 0.012
(;; (0.30) (M) (0.30) (::) (0.25) (52) (0.30)
3/4 0.015 0.014 0.012 170 0.016
(:; (0.38) (x) (0.36) (%) (0.30) (52) (0.41)
7/8 0.017 0.016 0.013 170 0.017
(2?; (0.43) (H) (0.41) (:) (0.33) (52) (0.43)
1 and 0.020 0.016 0.015 170 0.020
over (2?; (0.51) (N) (0.41) (X) (0.38) (52) (0.51)
Cast Aluminum
and Zinc Alloys Plastics Stainless Steels Titanium Alloys
1]4 140 0.006 0.005 0.002 0.006
(43) (0.15) (1) (o.13) (;:) (0.05) :; (o.15)
3/8 140 0.008 0.007 0.004 0.008
(43) (0.20) (N) (0.18) (;:) (0.10) :; (0.20)
1/2 160 0.010 0.008 0.006 0.010
(49) (0.25) (n) (0.20) ;; (o. 15) (’H) (0.25)
5/8 160 0.012 0.010 0.008 0.010
(49) (0.30) (U) (0.25) :; (0.20) (:) (0.25)
3/4 160 0.015 0.012 0.010 0.012
(49) (0.38) (::) (0.30) (::) (0.25) (:) (0.30)
7/8 160 0.017 0.013 0.012 0.015
(49) (0.43) (H) (0.33) & (0.30) (n) (0.38)
1 and 160 0.020 0.020 0.014 0.020
over (49) (0.51) (::) (0.51) (;:) (0.36) (!$ (0.51)
(TRW TOOISDiv.)
9-128
CHAPTER 9
TABLE 9-45
Suggested Speeds and Feeds for Carbide Reamers
Material to Cutting Speed,* Feed Rate,

be Reamed sfm (m/rein) im. (mm/rev)
Steels, all types:
250 Bhn or less 65-400 0.005-0.010

(19.8-122) (O.13-0.25)
250-400 Bhn 45-150 0.004-0.006
(13.7-45.7) (o.1o-o.15) I
400 Bhn or more 35-85 0.002-0.004 Fig. 9-131 Proper rotation of grinding wheel in relation to carbide tips
(10.7-25.9) (0.05-0.10) on a reamer.
Castirons:
during grinding lengthens grinding-wheel life and lessens the
Malleable and cast 60-190 0.006-0.012 danger of cracking a surface or crazing the carbide from
(18.3-57.9) (o. 15-0.30) overheating. Carbide tools should never be quenched in water
after grinding.
Nonferrous metals and 100-300 0.005-0.015
In general, cylindrical regrinding of carbide reamers should
nonmetallic materials (30.5-91.4) (O.13-0.38)
be done only when absolutely necessary. Usually only the
(TRW Tools Div.) chamfer will need regrinding. Occasionally, the face of the tips
* When using reamers 1/ 4“ or less diam, it is advisable to reduce will need a light polishing to remove any rounded edges or
speeds shown by about 25Y0. With reamers 3/ 4“ or more diam, built-up portions.
speeds can be increased about 25Y0. Clearance on the chamfers of carbide reamers is usually less
than that used on HSS reamers. A clearance angle of 5-8° is
normal practice.
the reamer, the correct circular land width must be maintained,
For very small diameter reductions (up to about 0.0005”,
as well as the correct back-taper.
0.013 mm), when it is not practical to remove such a small
Reamers can be mounted on centers or supported in close-
amount with a tool and cutter grinder, it is necessary to lap the
fitting, concentric bushings on conventional tool and cutter
reamer. The lapping procedure is as follows:
grinders. Care is necessary to ensure that the chamfered front
cutting edges are sharpened to equal height and with the same 1. Drill and ream a piece of cast iron or mild steel slightly
amount of relief. Grinding wheels used should be of fine grit and deeper than the length of the carbide insert. The reamer
free cutting to produce keen, smooth cutting edges. Flaring-cup to be lapped should be used to ream the hole.
type grinding wheels are generally used. 2. Mix 180 or 240-grit diamond dust with a fine lightweight
On left-hand helix tools, it is important that the reamer be oil to forma paste solution. Apply this to the cylindrical
ground to leave a positive effective rake angle. This can best be land of the carbide inserts only. Insert the reamer in the
done by reducing the 45° chamfer to about 30° or less. If the hole and rotate it backward for 10-12 complete revo-
reamer has a very high left-hand helix angle (20° or more), a lutions.
grind similar to the one shown in Fig. 9-111 is generally used, 3. Remove the reamer, wipe two opposite flutes, and check
It is occasionally desirable to eliminate the chamfer and to for size. If necessary, repeat the lapping operation,
grind the reamer to cut square across the end. Reamers adding diamond paste only when necessary until size is
sharpened in this manner (see Fig. 9-1 16) have a cutting action achieved.
much like that of end mills, discussed in Chapter 10, “Milling.”
Sharpening inserted-blade reamers, Three distinct grinding
Reamers ground with a square end-cut are sometimes required
operations are involved when an inserted-blade reamer is
to correct a bent or misaligned hole, to bottom a hole, or to
sharpened: (1) circular grinding, (2) backing off, and (3)
produce a square shoulder.
grinding the chamfer. The reamer should be mounted on
Grinds which cut only to the bottom of the flutes are
centers so that the grinding wheel will revolve against the
relatively simple to produce. Grinding of reamers to end cut to
cutting edge (not with it) to avoid burning and featheredging. A
smaller diameters or to the centers of the tools, however, is more
cup or disc wheel shouId be employed to avoid hollow grinding.
complicated and requires notching of the reamer ends.
To obtain accurately reamed holes within close limits, the
Only the rake surfaces of blades for adjustable floating
reamer must be resharpened following any change in blade
reamers must be ground. The blades are sharpened in sets, using
position (adjustment). This is because inserted-blade reamers
a fixture that holds the worn blades in position for resharpening.
are not considered adjustable within the meaning usually
The fixture has a built-in positive rake (3 1/ 2° ) and may be
applied to hand tools. Leads maybe reground without changing
mounted on the table of a grinding machine parallel to the
blade position at more frequent intervals than radial grinding.
wheel centerline.
For average work conditions and also for rough reaming of
Sharpening carbide-tipped reamers. Carbide-tipped reamers
steel and tough bronze, the reamer should be ground as follows
may be reground on a standard cutter grinder with a 200-300
(Fig. 9-132):
grit resinoid-bonded diamond cup wheel. The grinding wheel
should be rotated in a direction to cut from the face of the tip 1. Back-taper diameter at D should be 0.001 in. /in. (or
toward its back to minimize the possibility of chipping or m/m) less than the cutting diameter at the end of the
flaking the carbide (see Fig. 9-13 1). The use of a cutting fluid blade length.
9-129
CHAPTER 9
T
I r“
[IF I 7- Y
Fig. 9-132 General-purpose grind applied to an inserted-blade reamer.
2. Diameter across the heel of blade, Y, should be 0.003-

@
—-— -—
/
0.005” (0.08-0. 13 mm) less than the minimum cutting

Fig. 9-134 Rake angle and radius applied to a reamer blade.
diameter.
3. Length of lead, C, should be about 1/ 16” (1.6 mm),
depending on reamer size. Sharpening block reamers. Although some manufacturers
4. Angle of lead, A, should be 45” and backed off with provide centers in blocks for regrinding and checking, it is
clearance. customary to regrind most blocks in fixtures specifically
5. The ueri~heral cutting edge should be backed off close to designed for the purpose. As a general rule, the fixture
the ~dg~ at Z, leavi~g ~ 0.005-0.015”(0.13-0.38 mm) corresponds to a short section of the bar in which the block is to
cylindrical land. be used; has hardened, ground, and lapped centers; and
provides means for holding the blocks by the same surfaces as
When a reamer with two lead angles is ground, the main lead when the blocks are in use FFig. 9-135). After circular grinding,
angle, A, as shown in Fig. 9-133 remains constant at 45°, as in the blades may be backed off in a manner similar to that for
the general-purpose grind, but it is necessary to vary the second multiple-tooth cutter or reamer. Fixtures are available with
lead angle, B, to obtain the best cutting conditions in various additional eccentric centers to enable erindirw of a curved or
metals. For cast iron, bronze, aluminum, and most nonferrous eccentric relief instead of a straight clearance.
alloys, angle, B, should be 3° and its length, C, should be from
3/16 to 5/ 16” (4.8 to 7.9 mm). For steel, semisteel, and
malleable iron, angle B should be 5° and its length C from 1/32
to 3/32” (0.8-2.4 mm).
For free cutting, both lead angles should be backed off.
Back-taper, diameter across heel, and width of land should be
a
nearly the same as used in the general-purpose grind, with the
elements varying as conditions indicate. A maximum of back-
taper should accompany a relatively wide land to assure o
sufficient hole clearance. When chips adhere to the land and \
cause a rough hole to be produced, it is an indication that the
land is too wide.
A positive rake assists in reaming soft, stringy materials such
as steel tubing and pipe, copper, soft aluminum, and the more
stringy of the nonferrous alloys. One side of the rake angle, X, in I
Fig. 9-134 should blend into a radius at the body of the reamer Fig. 9-135 Typical grinding fixture with block reamer in place.
to force the chip to curl. The rake angle should increase directly
as the softness of the material to be reamed increases, For steel The following general-purpose grinds have been found to be
tubing and pipe, angle X should be about 5°, varying to as much practical in establishing a starting point from which specific
as 10’ for copper and aluminum. grinds may be developed to suit definite applications (Fig.
When the cutting edge of the reamer blade picks up material, 9-136):
or when the hole produced is torn and rough, it may be
advisable to increase the rake angle. Careful experimentation is 1. Circular grind to full diameter with 0.0005-0.001” (0.013-
sometimes necessary to develop the rake angle best suited to a 0.03 mm) back-taper.
particular application. 2. Back off in general to the same specifications as those
used for regular reamers. The heel of the blade, A, should
be 0.003 -0.006’’ (0.08-0. 15 mm) less than the full diameter,
z keeping the land 0.005-0.015” (O.13-0.38 mm) wide for
T cast iron and bronze, and from 0.020-0,030” (0.5 I-0.76
mm) for steel and copper. Increase the back-taper slightly
when wide lands are used.
3. Grind a 1/32 to 1/ 16’’(O.8 to 1.6 mm) wide x 45° lead at
—- the cutting point.
4. If the block is used for roughing and the depth of cut is
greater than the lead (ground in step 3), grind a 3-5° face
g. 9-133 Application of two lead angles to a reamer blade. clearance angle at E.
9-130
CHAPTER 9
When the holes are short, fairly large in diameter, and readily
accessible, short reamers of comparatively large cross section
IL
can be used, thereby minimizing the chances of chatter. When
holes are long, small in diameter, or relatively inaccessible, the
avoidance of chatter is more difficult. The usual remedy is to use
-E a reamer having helical flutes or pilots for supporting one or
L c
0.0005-000
(0 0130.03
I“
mm) back
both ends of the flutes, or to change the speed/ feed combination.
Sometimes a combination of these remedies maybe necessary.
Helical flutes are sometimes effective in reducing chatter. If
B—lIp to ~ D-
possible, sufficient helix should be provided so that two or more
flutes overlap in the length of the hole being reamed. When the
(“%%1
helix angle is opposite the hand of cut, however, it should not be
more than necessary, because the steeper the angle the more end
P..’l l\l /“\

pressure required to feed the reamer through the workpiece. An
exception to this is in reaming tapered holes, because best
results are obtained with a steep helix angle. The direction of
helix should be opposite that of the cut to prevent the reamer
-Q-:-l
from pulling itself through the hole ahead of the feed.
Pilots on reamers, supported by bushings in the fixtures, can
improve alignment and minimize chatter. Diameters of the
pilots should be as large as possible to provide maximum
rigidity to the reamers and prevent torsional deflection and
chatter.
Other methods of minimizing chatter include reducing the
overhang of the reamer or spindle and using smaller lead-angle
clearances on the reamer. For carbide-tipped reamers, chatter
Fig. 9-136 General-purpose method forgrinding block reamers.
can often be reduced or eliminated by grinding a secondary lead
on the carbide tips, as shown in Fig. 9-137. Reamer chatter can
Applying Reamers be eliminated in some applications by changing from a straight-
Of major importance for successful and economical reaming fluted to a helically-fluted tool.
is the selecting of the proper tools, machines, fixtures, and
operating parameters. Selection depends primarily upon the
following:
1. Material to be reamed, including
hardness, and surface condition.
its composition,
I
Shcvpe. to shorp edge
k’+ I
2. Holes to be reamed, including diameter, depth, accuracy,
surface finish, and production requirements.
3. Machine and setup used, including type, condition, and
I I
rigidity.
Minimizing chatter. As is the case with other cutting tools,
-- –* I
reamers do not work well when they chatter and can cause poor
finishes and uneconomical operation. Carbide-tipped reamers I leng!h = I 4 diameter of tool 100
engtb of 14’ (6 35 mm)
maxlm~m
I
in particular cannot withstand even momentary chatter at the
start of the hole as this can result in chipping of the cutting IFig. 9-137 Grinding a secondary lead on carbide tips of reamers may
I
corners. Major causes of chatter are lack of rigidity in the reduce or eliminate chatter. (TRW’ Tools Div. )
machine, the fixture, or the workpiece or improper design of
the reamer.
Effect of material reamed. The physical characteristics of the
Chatter may be reduced in several ways, including the
workpiece must be considered when a reamer is chosen for a
following:
particular application. Reamers for nonferrous metals, such as
1. Improving machine rigidity by removing any looseness, brass and aluminum, are cleared to a sharp edge or provided
eliminating backlash, replacing bearings, etc. with a wider cyfindical margin than for steel; reamers for steel
2. Increasing jig or fixture rigidity. The use of close fitting are cleared to within 0.008-0.0 15“ (0.20-0.38 mm) of the cutting
bushings, 0.0002-0.0003” (0.005-0.008 mm) over maxi- edge, leaving a cylindrical surface that aids materially in
mum reamer diameter, is helpful, prolonging the life of the reamer.
3. Increasing rigidity of the toolholder by eliminating Reamers for magnesium alloys, die-cast meials, and alu-
looseness and reducing or removing float. minum alloys. For these metals, reamers with left-hand helical
4. Reducing the cutting speed and/ or increasing the feed flutes with little or no cylindrical margins and radial relief of
rate. 5-6° promotes shear cutting, which is desirable for aluminum
5. Using power feed instead of hand feed. alloys. Cylindrical margins are necessary for accurate reaming,
6. Providing a small chamfer at the start of the hole before but they should be reduced to 50% or less of normal width.
reaming. Reamers for Monel metal, nickel-chromium alloys, and
7. Changing or modifying the design of the reamer. stainless steels. For these materials, reamers with right-hand
9-131
CHAPTER 9
helical flutes, radial cutting face, and narrow margins have

proved most successful.
For all applications it is essential that reamers be kept sharp. F-’’’’e’en’’h-i
Full dlometer
Use of hand reamers. When the workpiece is reasonably rigid 1/8.1,’2,
and stock removal small. hand reaming can be performed by Chamfer (321 2.7 mm) long
rotating the reamer by means of a double-end tap wrench
applied to the driving square of the reamer. This type of wrench
permits a balanced drive and is preferred to a single-end
wrench, which can cause misalignment between reamer and
hole axes.
Hand reamers should be rotated slowly and evenly, allowing
alignment with the holes to be reamed. Wrenches should be ‘& Grind unders[ze to prevent
large enough to permit a steady torque which will help to L contoc with hole walls
control vibration and chatter. The feed should be steady and (*)
large compared to that used in machine reaming. Feeds to ~Flute lenglh~
w
one-fourth of the reamer diameter per revolution are
Full dlcmeier
not unusual, I {8,., :2,,
When workplaces are small enough to be handled with ease, it Chcm+er (3 2- I 27 mm) long
is often advisable to place the reamer vertically in a vise and
rotate the work down over the reamer by hand. If the workpiece
is very light, a workholding device may be required to provide
enough mass to dampen vibrations. The holding device should
have two opposed handles, large enough in diameter to permit a
steady, controlled torque.
Hand reamers should never be rotated backwards to remove Grnd heavy back +aper
00080015 m /ln (or mm/mm) on dmmeier
them from the holes because this causes premature dulling of
(b)
the tools. If possible, the reamers should be passed through the
holes and removed from the opposite sides of the workplaces Fig. 9-138 Two methods of decreasingthe hearinglengths of the cutting
without stopping rotation. If this is not possible, the reamers ]ortions on reamers to reduce bellmouthing. (National Twist DrilI)
should be withdrawn without stopping forward rotation.
Machine reaming with stationary tools. When reamers are reduce clearances in the bushings in which they are piloted. If a
used in lathes, screw machines, and other machine tools in further reduction in clearance is required, rotary bushings can
which they are stationary and the workplaces revolve, mis- be employed. The end-cutting reaming operation is u~ually’
alignment between the reamer and workpiece/ machine spindle setup to ‘cut 0.030-0.060” (0~76-1 .52 rnmj deeper than the
axes is a common problem. Misalignment can result from many finishing cut. This prevents the finishing reamer from bottoming
causes, inchrding improper machine leveling, incorrect location out in the end-cut hole, which could cause the reamer to wander
or adjustment of tool slides, errors in the indexing mechanism, or chatter.
worn ways on the machine, and worn or dirty holes or sleeves in Improving finishes produced. To obtain smooth hole finishes
the toolholder. The misalignment can be minimized by reamers must operate smoothly without chatter or instability.
correcting these causes or by using floating holders, discussed With smooth operation, the finish attainable depends primarily
previously. upon the reamer design and operating conditions. It is difficult
Redueing bellmouthing, A common problem in reaming is to produce smooth finishes that are less than about 120 p in.
bellmouthing—holes being oversize at their entry ends. ‘l’his (3.05 p m) in soft mild steels because these materials tend to
condition always reflects misalignment and can be minimized yield machined surfaces with a rough torn appearance.
by improved guiding by means of accurate bushings and pilot One method of producing smoother finishes is to reduce the
surfaces or by using floating holders. Bellmouthing can also be reamer feed per revolution. This places the helical paths of the
reduced by decreasing the bearing length of the cutting portion several reamer flutes closer together. Feed rates as low as
of the reamer. 0.0002-0.0005 ipr (0.005-0.013 mm/rev) per flute are used.
Two ways of doing this are illustrated in Fig. 9-138. The Reamer life, however, will be longer if the maximum feasible
method shown in view a involves reducing the diameter of the feeds are used. Carbide reamers with honed edges are often used
reamer 0.010-0.030” (0.25-0.76 mm), depending upon size and when fine finishes are required.
length, behind a short full-diameter section following the Removing the minimum practical amount of reaming stock
chamfer. The length of the full diameter section may range allowance (see Table 9-35) often improves the finish by reducing
from 1/ 8 to 1/2” (3.2 to 12.7 mm) according to size and length, the volume of chips and the resulting heat generation. Too little
The second method, view b, involves grinding a back-taper reaming stock, however, can cause problems because the
of 0.008-0.015” per in. (or mm/mm) behind the short full- reamer may not cut freely and can deflect the workpiece
diameter section. material rather than cut it. This can result in excessive heat,
Improving accuracy. Holes that are critical with respect to poor finish, and rapid reamer wear.
both location and size are often reamed with two passes. The Troubleshooting reaming operations. Probable causes of
first pass is an end-cutting operation for accurate hole location, reaming problems and possible solutions are tabulated in the
and the second, a finishing pass for size and finish. Step reamers troubleshooting chart presented in Table 9-46. Only one of the
are often used for these operations, with the large diameters of solutions listed should be tried at any one time to help
the reamers ground without any or a minimum of back-taper to determine the cause of the specific problem.
9-132
CHAPTER 9
TABLE 9-46
Problems, Causes, and Solutions When using Reamers
Problems Probable Causes Possible Solutions

Oversize holes Misalignment and/ or vibration/chatter Repair or change machine to increase rigidity.
Realign and secure fixture and toolholder. Use
floating or adjustable holder. Use close-fitting
bushings. Reduce cutting speed first, and then feed
rate if required. Use piloted and/or staggered-flute
reamer.
Excessive clearance in bushing Replace bushing or tighten.

or loose bushing
Runout of reamer chamfer Regrind or replace reamer.
Poor hole preparation Improve hole prior to reaming.
Excessive stock removal Increase drill size, use core drill, or preream.
Reamer hitting bottom in blind hole Increase depth of drilled blind hole. Decrease depth
of reamed hole.
Galling Use carbide reamer and bushing. Increase flow of

cutting fluid.
Dull reamer Resharpen or replace reamer.
Incorrect or damaged reamer Change reamer.
Undersize holes Excessive heat Use cutting fluid, making sure it reaches cutting
zone. Change cutting fluid being used. Increase flow
of cutting fluid. Reduce feed rate and/or speed.
Improper reamer size Change reamer.
Improperly sharpened reamer Regrind or replace reamer.
Bellmouthed holes Misalignment and/ or vibration/chatter (See solutions under oversize holes.)
Inadequate feed Increase feed rate.
Bent reamer shank Replace reamer.
Excessive tool overhang Use shorter reamer if possible. Use piloted reamer
or bushing.
Excessive flute engagement Shorten flute length. Grind relief on backs of flutes.
Grind back taper on flutes.
Poor finish in holes Dull or damaged reamer Regrind or replace reamer.

Incorrect reamer Change reamer type.
Misalignment and/ or vibration/chatter (See solutions under oversize holes.)
Excessive stock removal Increase drill size, use core drill, or preream.
Poor machinability of material being reamed Change reamer material—try cobalt-containing

HSS or carbide. Change cutting fluid being used.
of reamed hole.
Excessive speed Reduce cutting speed. Change reamer material.

Excessive heat (See solutions under undersize holes.)
Tool marks Stop reamer rotation before withdrawing.
Galling Use carbide reamers and bushings.
9-133
CHAPTER 9
COUNTERBORES
Problems Probable Causes Possible Solutions

Excessive reamer wear Misalignment and/ or vibration/chatter (See solutions under oversize holes.)
or breakage
Incorrect operating parameters Reduce cutting speed first, and then feed rate if
required.
Dirty or burred toolholder Clean holder and remove burrs.

Flute packing Change setup and/or reamer to provide more flute
space for chips.
Excessive heat (See solutions under undersize holes.)
Dull or improperly sharpened reamer Regrind or change grinding procedure.

of reamed hole.
Improper stock allowance Increase or decrease as required.
Poor hole preparation Change hole production method. Avoid rough,
bellmouthed, or tapered holes.
COUNTERBORING, SPOTFACING AND

COUNTERSINKING
Counterboring, spotfacing, and countersinking are secondary while retaining the advantage of an unbroken surface on
operations performed with end-cutting tools. Enlarging a hole the pilot.
for a limited depth is called counterboring. If the cut is shallow 2. Counterbores with interchangeable pilot~. These are
so that it leaves only a finished face around the original hole, it is counterbores having removable, mechanically held pilots.
called spotfacing. The cutting of an angular opening into the 3. Interchangeable counterbores. These are counterbores
end of a hole is countersinking, sometimes referred to as having end-cutting portions as well as pilots that are
chamfering. Tools of this type often present difficulty because removable and interchangeable so that a series of cutters
they are among the most inefficient of cutting tools due to the fit the same holder and a series of pilots fit the same
distance of the cutting edge from the support. cutter. These types of counterbores are generally available
The counterbore is defined as a rotary, pilot-guided, end- in standard sizes from 1/ 4 to 5“ (6.3 to 127 mm) diam
cutting tool, having one or more cutting lips and usually having (Fig. 9-140).
straight or helical flutes for the passage of chips and the 4. Inserted-blade counterbores. These are counterbores
admission of cutting fluid. A spotfacer is defined as a rotary, which have replaceable, mechanically held blades. The
pilot-guided, end-cutting tool, having teeth on one or both blades may be either solid or tipped (Fig. 9-141).
ends. Spotfacers are mounted on either straight or taper-shank 5. indexable-insert counterbores. These are counterbores
pilots (drive bars) and are used to produce flat surfaces normal with indexable-insert tips. They may be used in the same
to their axes of rotation. Spotfacers are designed as a variation manner as interchangeable counterbores; however, they
of the counterbore to reach inaccessible areas. The drive bar are more limited in application than other types (Fig.
acts as the pilot. A countersink is a rotary, end-cutting tool 9-142).
which may or may not be piloted for the purpose of beveling or 6. Disposable-inserl counterbores. These counterbores or
tapering the work material around the periphery of a hole. The spotfacers have disposable inserts and removable pilots
surface cut by the conical tool is concentric with and at an angle or pilot drills. The inserts may also be designed to
of less than 9W to the centerline of the hole. chamfer the holes; depth setting remains constant when
the inserts are changed.
COUNTER BORES
Counterbores of the interchangeable type maybe solid high-
Six types of counterbores are in general use. They are:
speed steel, or the body maybe tipped with another type of tool
1. Solid counterbores, These are made of one piece of tool material such as tungsten carbide (see Chapter 3, “Cutting
material, including the pilot (Fig. 9-139, views). One tool Tool Materials”).
manufacturer brazes a pilot sleeve on the solid body (view Counterbores are frequently used in conjunction with a pilot
b). The two-lip construction provides good chip space that guides the tool in a previously prepared hole. Two types of
9-134
CHAPTER 9
COUNTERBORES
(a) SectIon A-A
(b)
rig. 9-139 Solid counterbore (u) is of one-piece construction. Counter bore (b) has pilot sleeve brazed to body. ( WekiorI Tool Co. )
interchangeable uilots are Renerallv used—the solid ~ilot and

the rolle~ pilot: Solid pi~ots are” from 0,002-0.00;” (0.05-
0.18 mm) diam under nominal size of hole, dependent upon
size—less undersize for smaller counterbores.
The hole must be reasonably straight and have a finish of 125 pin.
(3.2 pm) or better. Roller pilots (Fig. 9-143) will improve
counterbore performance if the hole is properly prepared. The
pilot has 0.0005-0.001” (0,0 13-0.03 mm) clearance between stem
Fig. 9-140 Interchangeable counterbore with removable pilot and end- and roller and 0.0005-0.001” clearance between pilot and hole.
cutting portion. The hole must be straight and requires a finish of 64 Kin. (1.6
pm) or better,
Fig. 9-141 Inserted-blade counterbore. Fig. 9-143 Roller pilot for use with a counterbore.
Deep-hole counterboring is defined as a depth of counterbor-

ing greater than one-fourth the diameter of the cutter. This maybe
greater on some materials and also depends upon the pilot size
in relation to the cutter diameter. The pilot size must be equal to
or greater than the cutter-root diameter because chips can clog
in the flutes if the area of the cut is too great for the chips to flow
properly up the flutes. Chips can also clog if the cutting depth is
too great. Too long a pilot tends to bind in the hole and may hit
the bottom of the hole, the fixturing, or the work table. Roller
pilots should be used if the hole finish is maintained. Holes
should be rough reamed prior to counterboring.
Counterbores come with from one to seven flutes. Flutes may
Fig. 9-142 Counterbore equipped with indexable inserts. be odd or even. An odd number of flutes can in some cases
9-135
CHAPTER 9
COUNTERBORES
reduce the tendency to chatter. The right-hand helical flutes of Among the most common applications for counterbores is
the counterbore give a positive axial rake to the cutter. producing the recesses for various types of cap screws and
Generally the cutting edge is slightly ahead of center, giving a machine screws. Table 9-48 lists sizes of counterbores and pilots
negative radial rake. This may reduce chatter and directs the for standard socket-head cap screws. Table 9-49 lists sizes for
chips away from the center of the cutter toward the periphery machine screws and hexagon-head and fillister-head cap screws.
and flute. Chatter can occur on a counterbore largely because of Several types of holding mechanisms are available for
the distance from the tool support to the cutting edge and the high interchangeable-type counterbores (Fig. 9-144). The holder
torque acting on the cutter. Usually counterboring is done with may have positive stops to control counterboring depth
a very light chip load, which again can cause chatter problems. accurately. Figure 9-144, viewb, illustrates a threaded-stop-nut
Carbide-tipped counterbores work successfully on cast iron holder. The ball-bearing stop nut (view c)indicates depth of
and, with a rigid setup, on steel or similar workpiece materials. counterboring when the stop nut begins to rotate.
Carbide-tipped counterbores require sufficient feed to obtain There are many variations of counterbore-type tools used for
chip loads of not less than 0.004” (O.10 mm) per tooth. The pilot special applications. Figure 9-145 illustrates a multiple-diameter
must not touch the carbide tips; therefore, a setscrew should counterbore, a multiple-diameter subland counterbore, and a
be used, entering the side of the bore and holding the shank of port-contour cutter used specifically for hydraulic applications.
the pilot. Counterbores, as well as spotfaces, can usually be machined
Speeds and feeds for countersinking are generally slower with three or four-flute core drills sharpened to an included
than fordrilk of the same diameter. Thedata given in Table point angle of 180°. One or two flutes are usually sharpened to
9-47 can be used as a guide. Counterbores require more torque, center when spotfacing is done without the benefit of a
but are generally more economical to or)erate than twist drills. !xeviouslv drilled hole. The other flutes urovide additional
especially when carbide counterbores with multiple cutting support in the bushing, as well as balanced cutting action.
edges are operated at high cutting speeds.i
(b)
(c)
---- .. . . .. .. . . . ..
~ lg. Y-144 several types 01 nolaers lor mtercnangeame-type counter bores.
9-136
CHAPT ER 9
COUNTERBORES
TABLE9-47
Speeds and Feeds for HSS and Carbide Counterbores
HSS Counterbores Carbide-tipped Counterbores

Material Speed, Feed Speed, Feed
Machined sfm (m/rein) ipr (mm/rev) sfm (m/ rein) ipr (mm/rev)
Steels, soft 75-85 0.003-0.005 250-300 0.004-0.008
(23-26) (0.08-0.13) (76-91) (o. 10-0.20)
Alloy and 40-80 0.003-0.005 180-200 0.004-0.008
tool steels ( 12-24) (0.08-0.13) (55-61) (0.10-0.20)
Cast irons, 120-140 0.005-0.007 300-350 0.006-0.012
soft (37-43) (O.13-0.18) (91-107) (0.15-0.30)
Brass 150-300 0.005-0.010 400-700 0.006-0.012
(46-91) (O.13-0.25) ( 122-213) (o.15-0.30)
Aluminum 400-800 0.005-0.015 500-800 0.006-0.012
(122-244) (O.13-0.38) (152-244) (0.15-0.30)
TABLE 9-48
Counterbore and Pilot Sizes for Standard Socket-Head Cap Screws*
Pilot Diam Pilot Diam

Max Head Tap Drill Clearance
Nominal Max Bodv Counterbore
Size Diam “ Diam Diam UNC UNF Drill
6 0.1380 0.226 0.266 0.1094 0.113 9/64
8 0.1640 0.270 0.313 0.136 0.136 11/64
10 0.1900 5/16 0.359 0.1495 0.159 13/64
1/4 0.2500 3/8 0.406 0.201 0.213 9/32
5/16 0.3125 15/32 0.500 0.261 0.272 11/32
3/8 0.3750 9/16 0.594 0.316 0.332 13/32
7/16 0.4375 21/32 0.688 0.368 25/64 15/32
1/2 0.5000 3/4 0.781 27/64 29]64 17/32
5/8 0.6250 15/16 1.000 17/32 37/64 21/32
3/4 0.7500 1 1/8 1.188 21/32 11/16 25/32
7/8 0.8750 1 5/16 1.375 49/ 64 13/16 29/32
1 1.0000 1 1/2 1.563 7/8 59/64 1 1/32
1 1/8 1.1250 1 11/16 1.718 63/64 1 3/64 1 5/32
1 1/4 1.2500 1 7/8 2.000 1 7/64 1 11/64 19/32
1 3/8 1.3750 2 1/16 2.375 1 7/32 1 19/64 1 13/32
1 1/2 1.5000 2 1/4 2.281 1 11/32 1 27/64 1 17]32
1 3/4 1.7500 2 5/8 2.656 1 9/16 125/32
2 2,0000 3 3.032 1 25/32 2 1/32
21/4 2.2500 3 3/8 3.407 2 1/32 2 9/32
21/2 2.5000 3 3/4 3.782 2 1/4 2 17]32
2 3/4 2.7500 4 1/8 4.157 2 25/32
3 3.0000 4 1/2 4.532 3 1/32
3 1/4 3.2500 4 7/8 4.902 3 9]32
3 1/2 3.5000 5 1/4 5.282 3 17/32
3 3/4 3.7500 5 5/8 5.675 3 25/32
4 4.0000 6 6.032 4 1/32
* All dimensions in inches.
9-137
CHAPTE R9
COUNTERBORES
TABLE9-49
Some Commercially Available Sizes of Counterbores for Cap Screws and Machine Screws*
Round or Round or
Hexagon-Head Fillister-Head Hexagon-Head
Fillister-Head Cap Screw Cap Screw Machine Screw Machine Screw
Cutter Pilot Pilot Cutter Pilot Cutter Pilot Cutter Pilot
Size thread for for for for for for for for for
NF and NC Head Body Taphole Head Body Head Body Head Body
,1/4-28 3/8 1/4 0.213 1/2 1/4 7/16 1/4 1/2 1/4
1/ 4-20 3/8 1/4 0.201 1/2 1/4 7/16 1/4 1/2 1/4
5/ 16-24 7/16 5/16 0.272 5/8 5/16 17/32 5/16 5/8 5/16
5/16-18 7/16 5/16 0.257 5/8 5/16 17/32 5/16 5/8 5/16
3/8-24 9/16 3/8 0.332 11/16 3/8 5/8 3/8 3/4 3/8
3/8-16 9/16 3/8 5/16 11/16 3/8 5/8 3/8 3/4 3/8
7/ 16-20 5/8 7/16 25/64 13/16 7/16 23/32 7116 7/8 7/16
7] 16-14 5/8 7/16 0.368 13/16 7/16 23/32 7;16 7]8 7;16
1/ 2-20 3/4 1/2 29/ 64 7/8 1/2 27/32 1/2 1 1/2
1/2-13 3/4 1/2 27/64 7/8 1/2 27/32 1/2 1 1/2
9/16-18 13/16 9/16 3 3/64 1 9/16

9/16-12 13/16 9/16 31/64 1 9/16
5/8-18 7/8 5/8 37/64 1 1/8 5/8
5/8-11 7/8 5/8 17/32 1 1/8 5/8
3/4-16 1 3/4 11/16 1 3/8 3/4
3/4-10 1 3/4 21/32 1 3/8 3/4

7/8-14 1 1/8 7/8 13/16 1 5/8 7/8
7/8-9 1 1/8 7/8 49] 64 1 5/8 7/8
1-14 15/16 1 15/16 1 3/4 1
1-8 15/16 1 7/8 1 3/4 .I
*All dimensions in inches.
(o)
1 /
(b)
‘) J
[c)
Fig. 9-145 Counterbore-type tools forspecial applications: (a)multidiameter counterbore, (b)multidiameter subland counterbore, and(c) port-
contour cutter.
9-138
CHAPTER 9
SPOTFACERS
SPOTFACERS
A spotfacer, as its name implies, is designed for shallow
machining of a surface for applications such as washers and bolt
and nut heads. Figure 9-146 showsa standard back spot facer
with drive bar. These tools are designed to reach inaccessible
spots in castings orsimilar workpieces. The body of the drive
bar acts as a pilot, and the tool is generally run in reverse with
the spindle moving toward the machine to produce the desired
surface. Because of this, the standard single right-hand cutter Fig. 9-147 Automatic back spotfacer. Cutter folds into recess when
cutter enters hole. (Davis Tool Co. )
actually appears to be a left-hand cutter when viewed in a
normal manner. If the cutter is designed to spotface with a
spindle feed awav from the machine face, a left-hand cutter Table 9-47). As a rule of thumb the speed should be
should be used. Cutters also come in double right-hand or approximately three-fourths that used in drilling with feed the
double right-hand and left-hand types. same penetration rate as for drilling; however, the load per
tooth is less than in drilling because of the larger number of
teeth used in a counterbore or similar type of tool. Because of
the variations in the many jobs using this type of tooling, no
hard-and-fast rules can be given for exact speeds and feeds to be
used. If a hand feed is used, it is important to start the cut very
carefully so that hogging does not occur with resultant breakage
of the tool. It is also important to minimize backlash in the
feeding mechanism of the machine.
COUNTERSINKS
Countersinks are generally classified in two general cate-
gories: (1) shank-type countersinks and (2) combined drills and
countersinks. Commercially available combined drills and
countersinks were discussed previously in this chapter under the
subject of types of twist drills.
The types of countersinks shown in Fig. 9-148 may be
broadly classified as machine countersinks. These are used
mostly to produce countersunk holes for screw and rivet heads,
as well as to chamfer and deburr holes. They are available with
included point angles of 60°, 72°, 82°, and 9LP.
View a of Fig. 9-149 illustrates a 100° aircraft countersink
with disposable carbide insert. It has a one-piece body, pilot,
and threaded shank, and is available in 90° and 82° designs and
with a straight shank. View b shows a front and side view of a
three-flute countersink large hole. This tool has removable HSS
inserts and shanks.
— Ship-plate countersinks are designed primarily for use in
countersinking holes for rivet heads. They are made of high-
speed steel only, with various point angles. Tables 9-50 and 9-51
give dimensions for commercially available ship-plate counter-
sinks. Various countersinks are made to fit the same holders as
Fig. 9-146 Back spotface cutter and drive-bar assembly, used for holder-type counterbores. These are generally in two
types: pilot-type countersinks and self-centering countersinks
Automatic back spotfacing, counterboring, or back cham- (Fig. 9-150).
fering tools are also available. These tools consist of a spindle Various designs of countersinks are available to minimize
with a recess into which the cutter, called a wing, folds when the
TABLE 9-50
spindle enters the hole in the workpiece (see Fig. 9-147). When
Some Commercially Available Sizes of Three-
the cutter (wing) leaves the hole, it automatically extends due to
Flute Ship-Plate Countersinks
centrifugal force. Then when the direction of spindle rotation is
reversed and feed applied, the required operation is performed.
Overall
With the exception of the smallest size tools, which use HSS
Length, in.
cutters, the wings are provided with clamped carbide inserts.
The same rules apply for back spotfacing as for counter- Flute Taper Shank Point
boring; however, most back spotface cutters are designed Diam. in. Length, in. No. 3 No. 4 Diam, in.
without deep flutes on the periphery and therefore are intended
only for very shallow work. Designs are also available for 1 1/2 53/8 10 11 1/8 1/2
deeper work and heavy-duty drives. 1 3/4 53/8 10 11 1/8 9/16
As with counterbores and countersinks, speeds and feeds for 2 53/8 10 11 1/8 5/8
spotfacers are generally lower than those used for drilling (see 2 1]4 5 3/8 --- 11 1/8 11/16
9-139
CHAPTER 9
COUNTERSINKS
Types of countersinks
~~ Mijchine countersink – 3 flute

Ship plate countersink – 3 flute
I
Standard chatterless
countersink
m
Chafterless countersink
4 flute
pilot counler~ink Ship plate countersink– 3 flute

for special holder
(3
Back countersink- Heovy-dufy-type chatterless countersink
aircrofl
II
Carbide type
center reamer
Pilot countersink Aircraft-type countersinks

for pin drive holder with adjustable stop unif
g. 9-148 Various types ofcountersinks broadly classified as machine countersinks.
9-140
CHAPTER 9
COUNTERSINKS
Threaded
5@
Carb~de
mserl
\
HSS mserm
(b)
Fig. 9-149 Countersink=(a) 100° type with disposable carbide insert foraircraft fasteners, (b)three-flute tool with HSSinaerts for large holes.
(Everede Tool Co.)
/
L_ T____
3 — —-. — )
I ———— —
?
(a)
-h
(b]
Fig. 9-150 (a) Pilot-type countersink and @) self-centering type countersink.
9-141
CHAPTER 9
COUNTERSINKS
chatter. The self-centering countersink in Fig. 9-150, view b, TABLE 9-51

uses an odd number of flutes to help reduce chatter. Some Countersink Sizes Required for Various Rivet Sizes
countersinks are produced with radial flutes, which also reduce
chatter. One design of chatterless countersink incorporates Rivet Hole Countersink Countersink
three main flutes with three intermediate flutes (Fig. 9-15 1). The Size, in. Size, in. Face Diam, in. Required, in.
same general rules for counterboring also apply when coun- 5/8 11/16 1 1 l/2orl 3/4
tersinking (see Table 9-47). 3/4 13/16 1 3/16 1 l/2orl 3/4
Another type of countersink features a single cutting edge for 7/8 15/16 1 3/8 1 3/4
free-cutting action and minimum chatter. Chips produced by 1 1 1/16 1 9/16 1 3/4
the edge of the hole in the tool pass through the hole and are 1 1/8 1 3/16 1 3/4 2or21/4
ejected. These countersinks are available in pilotless, piloted 1 1/4 1 5/16 1 15/16 2or21/4
(see Fig. 9-152, view a), and double-end styles with integral
shanks, as well as in removable shank style (view b) with
straight or taper shank.
Countersinks are available with tool steel bodies with
disposable HSS or carbide inserts. Aircraft-type countersinks
normally have an included point angle of 100° and frequently
include a cutting radius at the junction of the conical and
cylindrical surfaces. These cutters are made to rigid dimen-
sional and quality standards because they must produce
fastener holes in aircraft assemblies to close tolerances. They
are frequently used in portable tools equipped with precise
depth controi devices.
(cl;
Fig. 9-151 Three main flutes and three intermediate flutes are used on Fig. 9-152 Countersinks with single cutting edges: (a) piloted style with
this countersink to minimize chatter. integral shank and (b) removable shank style. ( Wekh Tool Co. )
9-142
CHAPTER 9
BIBLIOGRAPHY
References
1. R. L. Hatschek. “Fundamentals of Drill ing.’’Arnerjcar? A4acfrirr-

ist(February 1979) pp. 108-130.
2. E. G, Hoffman. Jig and Fixture Design (Albany, NY: Delmar
Publishers, 1980),
3. Metal Cutting Tool Handbook, (Cleveland: Metal Cutting Tool
Institute, 1 954).
4, C. H. Kahng and K. P. Rajurkar. Fundamental Study on
Courrterboring. SME Technical Paper MR77-349, 1977.
Bibliography
Block, Fredericks. Gundri//ing, The Eldorado Tool & Manufacturing

Corp.
Burant, Robert O.and McGinty, Michael J. “CuttingTools/Dril ls-
High-Speed Steel. ” Manufacturing ,Errgineering (April 1979),
DD. 65 & 66.
“Cutting Tools/ DriIls—Carbida, ” Manufacturing Engi-
neering (May 1979), p. 65.
Butrick, Frank M. Engineering and Trouble Shooting of Spade Drill
Applications, SME Technical Paper MR76-353, 1976,
Cannon, Michael R. The Quick Change Chuck System. SME
Technical Paper MR81 -976, 1981.
G illaspie, LaRoux K. An Overview of Dri//ing Approaches for Ho/as
Smaller Than One Millimeter. SME Technical Report MRR79-
06, 1979.
Drill Geometries for Miniature Holes. SM E Technical
,. MRR81 -08. 1981.
ReDort
Levi n, Robert S.-Equ;pment and Techniques for Drilling Miniature
Ho/es. SME Technical Papar MR79-498, 1979.
Mets/ Cuttings. National Twist Drill, A Div. of Lear Siagler, Inc.
Use and Care of Reamers. The Cleveland Twist Drill Co.
Use and Care of Twist Drills. The Cleveland Twist Drill Co.
Trost, Charles J, Deep Ho/e Dri//ing, SME Technical Paper MR78-
133, 1978.
Whalley, Howard M. Advancements in Coolant Feeding Tech-
niques. SME Technical Paper MR76-352, 1976.
Wick, Charles, “Automatic Adaptive Control of Machine Tools. ”
Manufacturing Engineering (September 1977), pp. 38-45.
“The Advancing Technology of Small Hole Drill ing, ”
Manufacturing Engineering (October 1980), pp. 81-85.
“Advances in Coolant-fed Tooling, ” Manufacturing
Engineering (November 1978), pp. 44-51.
9-143
CHAPTER 10
MILLING
Milling is a machining process for removing Since both the workpiece and cutter can be CHAPTER
material by relative motion between a workpiece moved relative to one another, independently or in CONTENTS:
and a rotating cutter having multiple cutting combination, a wide variety of operations can be
edges. In some applications, the workpiece is held performed by milling. Applications include the Methods 1o-1
stationary while the rotating cutter is moved past production of flat or contoured surfaces, slots,
Machines 10-8
it at a given feed rate (traversed), In other grooves, recesses, threads, and other configurations.
applications, both the workpiece and cutter are Milling is one of the most universal, yet Attachments 10-21
moved in relation to each other and in relation to complicated machining methods. The process has
Cutters 10-24
the milling machine. More frequently, however, more variations in the kinds of machines used,
the workpiece is advanced at a relatively low rate of workpiece movements, and types of tooling than Geometries 10-33
movement or feed to a milling cutter rotating at any other basic machining method. Important
Tool
comparatively high speed, with the cutter axis advantages of removing material by means of Materials 10-37
remaining in a fixed position. A characteristic milling include high stock removal rates, the
feature of the milling process is that each milling capability of producing relatively smooth surface End Mills 10-38
cutter tooth takes its share of the stock in the form finishes, and the wide variety of cutting tools that Mounting 10-40
of small individual chips. Milling operations are are available. Cutting edges of the tools can be
performed on many different machines. shaped to form any complex surface. Workholding 10-44
Power
Needs 10-50
MILLING METHODS Feeds &

Speeds 10-53
Cutting
The major milling methods are peripheral and resulting from the combined action of cutting Fluids 10-60
face milling; in addition, a number of related edges located on the periphery and face of the
Sharpening 10-62
methods exist that are variations of these two cutter is generally at right angles to the cutter axis,
methods, depending upon the type of workpiece or The milled surface is flat, with no relation to the Applications 10-68
cutter. contour of the teeth, except when milling is done to
High-Speed 10-70
a shoulder. Generally, face milling should be
PERIPHERAL MILLING applied wherever and whenever possible. Cutter Lifa 10-72
In peripheral milling, sometimes called slab Chip thickness in conventional (up) face milling
Trouble-
milling, the milled surface generated by teeth or varies from a minimum at the erttrance and exit of shooting 10-74
inserts located on the periphery of the cutter body the cutter tooth to a maximum along the horizontal
is generally in a plane parallel to the cutter axis, diameter. The milled surface is characterized by Safety 10-74
Milling operations with form-relieved and formed tooth and revolution marks, as in the case of
profile cutters are included in this class. The cross peripheral milling cutters. The prominence of these
section of the milled surface corresponds to the marks is controlled by the accuracy of grinding the
outline or contour of the milling cutter or combi- face cutting edge of the teeth, or by the accuracy of
nation of cutters used. the body/ insert combination in indexable cutters
Peripheral milling operations are usually per- and of mounting the cutter so that it runs true on
formed on milling machines with the spindle the machine spindle. It is also controlled by the
positioned horizontally; however, they can also be rigidity of the machine and workpiece itself. When
performed with end mills on vertical-spindle the length of the face cutting edge is less than the
machines. The milling cutters are mounted on an feed per revolution (or the amount the work has
arbor which is generally supported at the outer end moved in one revolution of the cutter), a series of
for increased rigidity, particularly when, because roughly circular grooves or ridges results on the
of the conditions of the setup, the cutter or cutters milled surface. Similar marking is produced by the
are located at some distance from the nose of the trailing teeth when they drag on the milled surface
spindle. Peripheral milling should generally not be of the work. This is known as heel drag.
done if the part can be face milled. It is considered good practice to tilt the milling
machine spindle slightly in a direction so that the trail-
FACE MILLING ing part of the face milling cutter does not dragon the
Face milling is done on both horizontal and finish-milled surface. This angle of tilt should be
vertical milling machines. The milled surface from 0.001 -0.002’’ (0.03-0 .05 mm) in 12’’(305 mm).
Contributors of sections of this chapter are: Henry Gill. Supervisor of Engineering, Special Design and
Application Engineering, Cincinnati Milacron Inc.; William R. Jahnke, P.E. , Vice President, Engineering,
Bridgeport Machines Div. , Textron Inc.; Ralph Lacey, Manager— Technical Marketing, Carboloy Systems Dept. ,
General Electric Co.; John Mitchell, Manager—Milling Products, Carbolo y Systems Dept. . General Electric Co.:
David J. Rivard, Engineering Manager, Valenite Metals Milling Div. , Valeron Corp.
Reviewers of sections of this chapter are: Robert W. Berry, Chief Engineer, VR/ Wesson Div. , Fansteel,
Inc.; Roger D. Bonier, VP—GM, Niagara Cutter, Inc.; William J. Bowman, General Manufacturing
Manager, Valenite Metals Milling Div. , Valeron Corp.; Jack Fickers, Asst. Dept. Head—Shop Dept. , Los
Alamos Scientific Laboratory; Edward G Hoffman. Technical Writer and Consultant. E.G. Hoffman Co.;
1o-1
CHAPTER 10
MILLING METHODS
When finish milling is performed, the front face of the cutter is brought in contact with the work for slot milling, the
wiper blade or blades should be set or ground so that hand of rotation and the hand of the helix should be the same
it is exactly parallel to the travel of the workpiece. In (right-hand cut and right-hand helix; left-hand cut and left-
other words, the blades should have a reverse dish. hand helix). The combined effect of the axial, radial, and
The forces produced on the work are usually directed in the tangential force components on the cutter may be a deflection
same manner asin peripheral milling. When the cutter engages either toward or away from the work, depending upon the
the work, the tangential force is generally longitudinal and respective intensities of these forces, The axial force, however,
similar in action to up milling. When the cutting tooth passes tends to pull the cutter away from the spindle, and positive
the center of the cutter, the action obtained is similar to down means must be provided to hold it in position. When milling is
milling. When the cutter is fully engaged and centered on the done on the front face, as well as the periphery, of end mills, it
work, the sum total of the tangential forces results in a force may be dangerous to cut a long surface on the periphery
lateral to the motion of the table. The magnitude and direction of simultaneously with right-hand rotation and right-hand helix.
force depend upon the amount of the cutter width engaged on the This is because the hand of helix forces the cutter into the
workpiece. To ensure safe and proper operation, it is necessary to workpiece and causes serious damage to the machine, cutter,
study these conditions in relation to the operation to be per- and workpiece. Secure holding of the cutter can minimize
formed and the fixture design so that the work can be properly possible danger.
held and supported against the forces produced by the cutter. When the end mill is used for profiling and the end of the tool
In face milling, it is important to select a cutter with a is not in use, the hand of rotation and the hand of helix should
diameter suited to the proposed width of cut if best results are to be opposite (right-hand cut and left-hand helix; left-hand cut
be obtained. Cuts equal in width to the full cutter diameter and right-hand helix). The axial force acts against the spindle,
should be avoided, if possible, since the thin chip section at providing additional means to hold the cutter in position.
entry of the teeth results in accelerated tooth wear from
abrasion plus a tendency for the chip to weld or stick to the Side and Straddle Milling
tooth or insert and be carried around and recut. This is Side milling consists of machining a plane surface perpen-
detrimental to surface finish. A good ratio of cutter diameter to dicular to the milling machine arbor with an arbor-mounted
thewidth of theworkpiece or proposed path ofcutis 5:3. tool called a side milling cutter. Straddle milling entails
Angle of entry is controlled by the relationship of the cutter machining two or more parallel surfaces using two or more side
centerline to the edge of the workpiece. High positive entry milling cutters spaced apart on the machine arbor,
angles tend to place initial cutter /workpiece contact at the
extreme point of the tooth or cutting edge. This can result in Gang Milling
chipping or breakage with carbide inserts. Negative entry angle This method consists of using two or more cutters, mounted
is a more desirable condition. It should be noted that entry can on the machine arbor, to mill multiple surfaces simultaneously.
be a variable when parts with slots, holes, or other interruptions The cutters can be of various types. Care must be exercised in
are machined. This is true also when feed is into the part at cutter selection to control cutting speeds within an acceptable
commencement of the cut. The latter is a good reason to range. Cutters made from different tool materials are sometimes
decrease the feed rate at entry into the cut in some operations. used to help maintain effective cutting speeds when different
diameters are being milled.
RELATED MILLING METHODS
Many other milling methods can be classified as either Gear Milling
peripheral or face milling operations, Because of the type of Although most gears are now produced on gear cutting
workpiece being machined and/or the specific type of cutter machines (discussed in Chapter 13 of this volume, “Gear and
used, however, these methods are often referred to as end, side, Spline Production”). some spur gears are made in small quan-
straddle, gang, gear, cam, or other types of milling. tities on milling machines, The machines must be equipped with
dividing heads, and standard gear tooth cutters are used. Worm
End Milling gears can be made on universal milling machines that cut gashes
End mills have cutting edges on both their end faces and their first and then finish the gear teeth to size with bobbing cutters.
peripheries. When used in face milling operations, the diameter
of the cutter determines the maximum width of cut. In Cam Milling
peripheral milling, the axial length of the teeth determines the Cams, worm threads, and other helical surfaces are produced
maximum depth of cut. on milling machines equipped with universal dividing heads.
The combinations of cuts possible with end mills are This is accomplished by rotating the workpiece while it is fed in
numerous. Experience has shown that, when the end of the the direction of the rotational axis.
Reviewers. cont.: Thomas Hollis. Jr. , President, The O.K. Tool Co. , Inc.; William R. Jahnke, P. E. , Vice President—Engineering,
Bridgeport Machines Div. , Textron Inc.; Herbert S. Kalish, Vice President, A damas Carbide Corp.; Steve Kashi, Carboloy Systems Dept. ,
General Electric Co.; Richard Kienzle, Product Design Engineer, Cleveland Twist Drill Co,; Robert T. Koblesky, Technical Director, Cutting
Tool Div. . Ingersoll Milling Machine Co.: Ralph Lace y, Manager—Application Technology, Carboloy Systems Dept., General Electric
Co.; G LeFebre, General Manager, Milling Specialties, Inc.; Thomas D. Linn, E~ecutive Vice President, Boston Digital Corp.; Rod
Luke, Tooling Applications Specialist, DoALL Co.; MichaelJ. McGint y, Manager, Product Design & Application—Cutting Tools, Cleveland
Twist Drill Co. , Div. of Acme-Cleveland Corp.; Melvin G, Mesley, Sales Project Engineer, Milling/Machining Center Div. , Cincinnati
Milacron inc.; Art Meyers. Director of Training, DoALL Co.; Ed Michalski, Project Coordinator, Standard Products Div. , Kearney & Trecker
Corp.; Rick Miller, Product Manager—Cutting Tools, DoALL Co.; Bob Mitchell, Supervisor—Milling Cutter Design, Kennametal, Inc.;
10-2
CHAPTER 10
MILLING METHODS
Thread Milling CHIP FORMATION IN MILLING

With the availability of NC/ CNC machines having three-axis The basic process of chip formation in milling is the same as
contouring capability and advanced controls, thread milling is for all other metalcutting operations—a wedge-shaped cutting
undergoing a resurgence in popularity. Ease of programming tool engages the workpiece to remove a layer of material in the
with canned routines, long cutter life, and high-quality threads form of a chip. Details of the cutting process, plastic deforma-
are among the advantages of this milling method. Threading is tion, and shear are discussed in Chapter 1 of this volume,
discussed in detail in Chapter 12 of this volume, “Threading.” “Principles of Metalcutting and Machinability. ”
Chip formation in milling differs from single-point metal-
cutting, however, in several respects. Practically every milling
Plunge Milling
operation consists of an interrupted cut, with each tooth or
Plunge milling with multipoint tooling is an alternative to the
insert generally in the cut less than half the total machining time
use of single-point turning took for facing operations. The
per cutter revolution. While the tooth or insert is in the cut, the
rotating multipoint facing head used for this method has a
thickness of the chip being formed constantly changes because
sufficient number of inserts to completely cover the area to be
of the dual motion—cutter rotation and workpiece feed—
machined. Cutting edges of the inserts are set parallel to the
which is characteristic of the milling process.
workpiece surface, and as the head is advanced axially, all
cutting edges simultaneously engage the face to be milled, Metal
removal rates are greater than those possible with single- CUTTING CONDITIONS IN MILLING
point tooling. As each tooth or insert of a milling cutter enters a cut, it is
subjected to a mechanical shock load. The magnitude of this
Planetary Milling load depends upon the workpiece material, cutter position,
Circular forms can be cut on planetary milling machines with operating conditions, and cutter geometry. Cutting forces in
the workplaces held stationary and motion confined to the milling are cyclical, being roughly proportional at any position
milling cutter. Machines for this method are similar to planetary in the cut to the undeformed chip thickness at that position.
thread milling machines (see Chapter 12) except that a no-lead Heat generated in the milling operation is also roughly pro-
master is used or a no-lead attachment is provided for use with portional to the undeformed chip thickness and cutting forces.
the universal master. Rapid changes in generated heat place a severe strain upon the
cutter material and can lead to thermal cracking.
Crankshaft Milling UP AND DOWN MILLING

Milling of crankshafts, camshafts, and other unbalanced If the rotation of the milling cutter is such that the tangential
shafts has replaced the traditional turning process in some plants. cutting force is generally opposed to the direction of workpiece
Advantages of this milling method include faster production, feed and the axis of the cutter does not intersect the workpiece,
closer tolerances, lower tooling costs, and more rapid change- the undeformed chip thickness constantly increases during the
over. Milling machines for both external and internal cutting of cut. Thk is called up milling or sometimes conventional milling
unbalanced shafts are described later in this chapter. (see Fig. 10-1, view a). If the rotation of the cutter is such that
the tangential cutting force is generally in the same direction as
Diesinking the workpiece feed and the cutter axis does not intersect the
Machining of three-dimensional contoured cavities in dies workpiece (view b), the undeformed chip thickness constantly
and molds, commonly called diesinking, is done by electrical decreases during the cut. This is down milling, also known as
discharge machining (discussed in Chapter 14 of this volume, climb milling.
“Nontraditional Machining”), or by milling. Diesinking is still Up and down milling exist in their pure form only when the
being done on conventional milling machines, but this process cutter spindle centerline does not intersect the workpiece. This
is relatively slow. Conventional milling machines for diesinking includes all slotting and side milling, and some face milling and
must have heads that can be set at various angles and/or end milling. In these operations, either up milling or down
attachments such as rotating angular and extension heads, sine milling may be selected by proper selection of the direction of
tables, and rotary indexing tables. the machine table feed, cutter position, and direction of cutter
Most diesinking by the milling process is now done on rotation.
machines with CNC or tracer control. Milling machines for One of the most significant differences between up and down
copying are available with tracers operated by mechanical milling is the direction of the cutting forces generated. In up
pantograph, air, hydraulic, electric, or combinations of these. milling, the tangential force opposes the thrust force—the force
At least one machine builder offers a copy mill having both attempting to push an individual tooth or insert out of the cut.
tracer control and CNC. As a result, the feed force must be high for the cut to be made. In
Reviewers, cont.: John E. Mitchell, Manager—Milling Products, Carboloy Systems Dept. , General Electric Co.; Minoru Mochizuki,
Product Manager—Metal Cutting Equipment, Hurco Manufacturing Co.; Don Mueller, Group Product Manager—Cutting Tools, DoALL Co.;
Ronald Oaks, Vice President—Engineering, Niagara Cutter, Inc.; CarlJ. Oxford, Jr., Vice President— Technology, National Twist DrillDiv. ,
Lear Siegler, Inc.; Robert W. Peters, Manager of Tooling Product Development, Greenleaf Corp.; Ray A, Pullis, General Sales Manager,
Atlantic Machine Tool Operations, Ex-Cell-O Corp.; DavidJ. Rivard, Engineering Manager, Valenite Metals Milling Div. , Valeron Corp.. T. J.
Smith, President. Milling Specialties, lrrc,; Robert E. Thaxton, Chief Draftsman, Detroit DieselA Ilison Div. , General Motors Corp.; Darrel
Wecker, Industry Specialist, Sales Engineering, Heavy Machinery Div. , The Ingersoll Milling Machine Co.; M. L. Williams, Product
Manager—Milling Cutters, Kennametal Inc.
10-3
CHAPTER 10
MILLING METHODS
I —
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 10-1 (a) Up or conventional milling, (b) down or climb milling and (c) combined up and down milling.1
down milling, however, tangential and thrust forces generally Workptece

act in the same direction and the feed force can be low or even
negative. R
Whenever the cutter axis intersects the workpiece, up and
down milling occur sequentially during each cutter revolution
(see view c, Fig. 10-1), The switch from up to down milling
occurs as each tooth or insert crosses the feed axis of the cutter.
Combined up and down milling occurs in most face milling and M
/
end milling operations. It generally alters the direction of
cutting forces so that feed and tangential cutting force, instead
of aiding or opposing each other, act approximately at right
angles to each other. When up and down milling are combined,
~7~
>/ — .
chip thickness, as the teeth or inserts enter and leave the cut,
depends upon the tooth or insert entry and exit angles. These
angles depend upon the amount that the cutter overhangs the
..%
workpiece on the entry and exit sides.
on Down millknq
-r- m,llinnJ
Chtp lammed between Insert Chip harmle&ly cut n half
Advantages of Down Milling and workplece, may break
Down or climb milling is preferred for several reasons tooth or mseri
I
wherever the machine tool and workpiece allow. With up or
Fig. 10-2 Chips welded to teeth or inserts are generally cut in ‘r
hall
conventional milling, the undeformed chip thickness at tooth or during down milling.
insert entry is theoretically zero. As a result, the tooth or insert
has to work its way gradually into a layer of material that has
usually been work hardened by the previous tooth or insert, and
tool life may be poor, With down milling, however, chip
thickness at entry is at a maximum and any work-hardened
layer is avoided. The thicker chips produced by the more
efficient cutting action of down milling carry more heat away,
which may lengthen cutter life.
In many milling operations, a chip occasionally welds to the
tooth or insert and is carried around the cutter to the beginning
of the cut. When up milling is used, the chip can be easily
wedged between the cutting edge and the workpiece (see Fig. 10-2)
Tangential
and may break the tool. When down milling is used, however, force
such welded chips are generally cut in half and rendered ads clomplng
harmless as the tooth or insert enters the cut. *
Cutting forces, when down milling is performed on a Wcrkplece
horizontal spindle machine, press the workpiece down against

the fixture, the fixture against the table, and the table against its
supports (see Fig. 10-3), thus minimizing the possibility of I Table
I
vibration. When up milling is performed, however, the cutting Fig. 10-3 During down milling, cutting forces press workpiece against
forces tend to lift the workpiece from the table. table.
10-4
CHAPTER 10
MILLING METHODS
Other advantages of down milling include the following:

Cutter
1. Feed drive power consumption is much lower, which
%$
Stock to be
slightly lowers the total power consumed by the operation. Workplece removed
2. The path described by each tooth or insert in the cut is
Mach[ne
about 3% shorter than the path in up milling. Since tool Start
toble
z
life in milling is inversely proportional to the length of Dlredlon
t of travel
cut, tool life when down milling is used is slightly better.
3. With the conventional cutter/ workpiece orientation used
on horizontal spindle machines, down milling tends to Rapid advance
throw the chips downward, thus presenting less hazard to
+
the operator and simplifying chip disposal.
4. Slotting cutters or slitting saws have less tendency to run
out or deflect sideways when used for down milling; for
Feed—ovetirovel
many workpiece materials, it is often possible to use (Storl of cut)
+
higher feed rates, increasing production.
Up Milling Applications Feed

Despite the many advantages of down milling, there are some (cutter approach)
,
applications in which it should not be used. For example, on
machines on which there is backlash in the spindle or feed
w
7
drives, the cutter in down milling may bite into the workpiece Feed
and pull it further than the intended feed advance. This Oveflravel
(length of cut)
momentarily increases the undeformed chip thickness and may (end of cut) ~ ‘
break the teeth or inserts. Cutting forces in up milling oppose
the feed force and tighten less rigid feed systems. Feed
Up milling is generally preferred for machining sandy, scaly, (total travel)
@
or flame cut surfaces because the cutter enters below the
undesirable surfaces and thus avoids their harmful effect on
LA3Y:p’et”r”
tool life. Up milling may also be desirable if large variations
exist in the amount of stock to be removed. D,recton of travel ~
I
PRODUCTION MILLING METHODS Fig. 10-4 Successive relationships between the cutter and workpiece in
Toolroom milling usually requires cutting only a single single-piece milling.
workpiece at one time. As a result, there is generally no problem
with respect to the manner in which the part to be milled is operator to unload and load without danger of touching the
located relative to the cutter. Production milling requirements, cutter, which should be stopped during the unload/load
however, permit several choices, and these should be analyzed portion of the process cycle.
carefully to ensure optimum performance. Some of the more
generally used methods of milling are single-piece, string, String, Multiple-Part Milling
abreast, progressive, box, reciprocal, transfer-base, index, and To effect a saving in handling time, two or more parts maybe
rotary milling, as well as combinations of these methods. placed in a row in the direction of the feeding movement of the
table so that they are milled in consecutive order as the machine
Single-Piece Milling is operated through the cycle. This method is known as string,
The simplest and most easily applied method of milling is that multiple-part milling.
in which one workpiece is held in a fixture or directly on the Several variations of string milling are used in practice. The
machine table and is milled during each machine cycle. This difference between the various applications results from the
method is known as single-piece milling, manner in which the parts are placed in the fixture.
The machine operator places the part in the fixture or on the The ideal conditions are those shown in view a of Fig. 10-5, in
machine table and clamps it in place. The table is then advanced which the parts are placed close together. This version of string
at a rapid rate to quickly locate the workpiece in position for milling is equivalent to single-piece milling except that, instead
milling. At this point in the cycle, the rate of table travel is of one part being milled per pass, as many parts are milled per
usually changed automatically to the feeding rate by means of cycle as can be stacked on the table.
trip dogs. When milling is completed, the workpiece is returned to Parts are sometimes spaced apart in the fixture and
the starting position, where it is removed and a new piece is put in individually clamped, but with the spaces between them so
its place. The cycle is then repeated. Hence, loading and unload- narrow that they can be traversed only at the feed rate of the
ing of the workpiece are done on the same side of the machine. table (see Fig. 10-5, view b). Other variations of string milling
The successive relationships between the cutter and workpiece are shown in view c and d.
during a cycle are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 10-4, which
illustrates peripheral milling. A similar relationship exists in Abreast, Multiple-Part Milling
face milling. In some milling applications, savings in the cycle time can be
The loading and unloading position of the fixture is usually obtained by using the method known as abreast, multiple-part
located a minimum safe distance from the cutter to allow the milling. With this method (see Fig. 10-6), two or more pieces are
10-5
CHAPTER 10
MILLING METHODS
between centers to prevent arbor deflection. Provision of a

flywheel on the end of the arbor maybe necessary for heavy cuts
to counteract arbor windup.
More cutters are needed with abreast milling as compared
q-,
with string milling when a number of pieces are milled
(0) simultaneously. To ensure close dimensional accuracy when
abreast milling is used, the cutter spacing and the positioning of
the workpiece require more than ordinary attention.
Progressive Milling
Progressive milling is a method used when two or more
(b) similar or different operations are performed either simul-
taneously or successively on separate identical parts on the
same machine. This method saves costs of equipment and setup
time and is especially useful when production runs are short.
In the cycle of operation, a workpiece is milled in the first
station and is subsequently placed in the second station so that
its opposite end can be milled. The two operations are
[c)
performed with only one setup rather than the two setups
normally required. Substantial savings are obtained not only in
qr’iecel ‘Table e
III
Feed
I
the time required for the operation, but also in equipment and
cost of the operation.
Box or Frame Milling

Box or frame milling is a method of milling in which the
(d) motions of two slides at right angles to each other are
. automatically coordinated to mill the four sides of a sauare
Fig. 10-5 Variations possible in applications of the string milling opening, eith’er internally or externally (see Fig. 10-7). ‘
method.
Toble&ed
I I
Cutter - ~“
-r
Lz5
fLLVv.kpiece
Rotation
Lv Feed Cutter
Table
ig. 10-7 Relationship het we en the cutter and the square opening in a
workpiece during hox milling.
Fig. 10-6 Abreast milling method of machining two parts simrd-
taneously.
Reciprocal Milling
aligned in a row at right angles to the direction of table feed. To reduce handling time, a method known as reciprocal
Thus, the pieces are ‘milled-simultaneously rather than con- milling is sometimes used in production work. In this method,
secutively as in string milling. This method offers the advantage both the right and left-hand ends of the table are equipped with
of performing either the same or different milling operations on fixtures. While the part in one fixture is being milled, the
the various pieces. The table travel is the same as that required operator unloads and reloads the other fixture. Thus, loading
to mill one piece. and unloading time is not charged to the operation, because the
Abreast milling can be more efficient than string milling in machine is productive at all times.
some instances because it permits effective time savings, not Proper safety precautions are essential when reciprocal
only in hand Iing and idle cycle time, but also in milling time. milling is used. Length of table travel must be sufficient to place
Abreast milling is particularly advantageous in reducing milling the operator a safe distance from the cutting action while
time when the length of cut is relatively large and the milling unloading and reloading the second fixture. The milling cycle is
time is a substantial part of the cycle time. In some cases, often arranged so that the machine table stops after cutting is
however, production may be decreased because of greater arbor complete unless the second fixture is fully clamped and limit
windup and 10SSof rigidity. Arbor supports can be provided switch contacts have been made.
10-6
CHAPTER 10
MILLING METHODS
The arrangement of the cutter and work in reciprocal milling Transfer milling is similar to reciprocal milling if the transfer
is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 10-8, with the workplaces base can be indexed while rapidly returning to the starting
located symmetrically with respect to the cutter when the table position. In transfer-base milling, however, the setup can be
is in the stop and start position. The complete cycle is obtained arranged so that the workpiece is close to the cutter, thus
by duplicating, on each side of the table, the cycle which would permitting a reduction in the time required to advance the
be obtained in single-piece milling. In Fig. 10-8, half of the cycle workpiece rapidly to the feeding position. In addition, the
is shown sequentially for the different positions taken up by the fixtures are identical, allowing a saving in the cost of the
workpiece after the motion of the table is started. This same equipment. As with other methods, transfer-base milling can be
cycle is then repeated when the workpiece is milled at the used in combination with other milling methods.
left-hand side of the table. Of course, one piece undergoes climb
milling, and the other conventional milling. Index Milling
Index milling is the method used when identical multiple
Transfer-Base Milling operations are performed on one or more pieces, usually on
Transfer-base and index milling include all methods in which work mounted between centers or in a chuck-type fixture.
the workpiece is either indexed into the next position or Automatic indexing of the work occurs after each cut is made
transferred from one position to the next in the operation cycle and is followed by a final stop after the last cut is machined,
of the machine. A number of different combinations are used
in practice. Rotary Milling
In one method, two fixtures are located at opposite ends of a In this method of milling, the parts to be milled are held on a
two-station index base, which is clamped to one end of the rotary table which either revolves continuously at the feed rate
machine table. While a workpiece in one fixture is being milled, or is set through a cycle of alternate rapid rotation and feeding
the other fixture is unloaded and reloaded. This decreases the to bridge the spacing between parts. The principle of operation
loading and unloading time, but adds to the time required to is shown in Fig. 10-9.
index the base. Loading and unloading of the fixtures are
always done at one end of the machine, reducing operator
fatigue by eliminating the need for the operator to change his /Mi[ling wtter
pos~ion ~rom one en~ of the machine to ~he other.
/,/- ~’rworktiece
Creel
.Jf4?4x0’Ory’O
6$’
Stock to be
Work piece removed
Machine
slat
table
+ m %:flon “f
w
ii?i!!!
Rap[d ndvance ===4 -=%-4- !;
Feed—overtra\e
(Stm+of cut)
Fig. 10.9 In rotary milling, multiple workplaces are held on a rotary

table.
Feed
% ““”=0”’’0”’”) ACCURACIES AND FINISHES

ATTAINABLE IN MILLING
Accuracies attainable with the milling process depend on
Fed
(Ieng+h of c,t) many factors. These include the milling method, workpiece,
-Overtrovel A machine and cutter used, operating parameters, and rigidity of
(end of C.f)a
the setup. The influence of these factors on accuracy are
%’
Feed discussed in subsequent sections of this chapter. [n general,
(Tots tolerances range from *0,002’’ (O.O5mm) totO.005”(0.13 mm),
travel)
with *0.00 1” (0.03 mm) usually the best obtainable tolerance.
Q/ Ropld return Surface finishes produced in milling are determined by tooth
stop or insert and revolution marks and by plastic flow of the
material removed from the workpiece in the form of chips. The
D[recilon of travel ~ finish varies with the material milled, the milling method, the
cutter (size, geometry, and number of cutting edges), the feed
Fig. 10-8 Successive relationships between cutter and workplaces in rate, whether the cutters have built-up edges, the spindle and
reciprocal milling. cutter runout, and the rigidity of the setup. Finishes as smooth
10-7
CHAPTER 10
MILLING MACHINES
as 10 p in. (0.25 p m) or less have been produced on some stresses. The presence of built-up edges on the cutter can result
steels, and 60 p in. (1.5 p m) or less on cast irons. For some in microcracks, as well as rough surfaces. If the undeformed
applications, however, surface roughness may range to 500p in. chip thickness (effective feed rate) is low, normally below 0.004”
(12.7 p m) or more. Flatness maintained in milling depends (0. 10 mm), the surface of the workpiece maybe cold formed or
primarily on the rigidity of the machine, cutter, and workpiece. smeared rather than cut. When heat-treated alloy steels are
Milling with sharp cutters has Mtle effect on the mechanical milled, an untempered martensitic layer, about 0.001” (0.03 mm)
and physical properties of the workpiece material. Dull tools, thick, may be produced.
however, can produce severe surface damage and high residual
MILLING MACHINES
Machines designed specifically for milling are available in require a horizontal-spindle machine. Horizontal machines are
many different types, sizes, and capacities to suit specific also generally used for slotting, side milling, and similar
requirements. Types of milling machines include knee, bed, operations.
tracer, programmable, computer numerical control (CNC), and On horizontal-spindle machines, an arbor holding the
special machines. They range from versatile machines that can cutter(s) is mounted horizontally on an axis parallel to the
perform many different operations to dedicated designs for machine table. On vertical-spindle machines, the cutter axis is
production applications. normally perpendicular to the machine table, but can often be
Many operations previously done on milling machines are tilted to perform angular cutting.
now being performed on machining centers, as well as on other Dimensions, areas, and general features of horizontal and
multifunction machines such as automatics and boring, drilling, vertical knee-type milling machines and horizontal bed-type
and milling machines, as discussed in Chapter 15 of this volume, milling machines are presented in ANSI Standard B5.45-1 972,
“Multifunction Machines. ” Some milling is also done on lathes published by ASME. The purpose of this standard is to
with attachments (see Chapter 8, “Turning and Boring”) and facilitate the interchange of tooling and fixturing between
heavy-duty drilling machines (see Chapter 9, “Drilling, Reaming machines. This interchange results in increased flexibility, more
and Related Processes”). rapid changeover with minimum tooling modifications, and
reduced obsolescence. Dimensions of spindle noses and tool
MACHINE REQUIREMENTS shanks for milling machines are tabulated in ANSI Standard
Selection of a milling machine for a specific application B5. 18-1972, also published by ASME.
depends on many variables. Workpiece size, geometry, and
material; production requirements (quantity, accuracy, and Hand-Fed Milling Machines
finish); and economic factors are major considerations, These small milling machines, mounted on pedestals or
Regardless of tbe type of machine selected, rigidity is of benches, are still employed for some toolroom or light-duty
critical importance. Any looseness adversely affects accuracy operations. Such machines are desirable for milling workplaces
and finish of the work and shortens cutter life. Accurate, tight having large variations in stock removal requirements because
bearings and a positive feed mechanism are essential. Power necessary changes in feed rate can be sensed by hand pressure.
requirements, discussed in the section on operating parameters Their application, however, appears to be declining.
later in this chapter, depend primarily upon the material to be Hand-fed milling machines generally have a rotating cutter
milled and the amount of stock to be removed. mounted on a horizontal spindle. Feed is generally by means of
a hand lever, but power feed can be applied to these machines.
MACHINE CONTROL SYSTEMS
Milling machines are available for manual, semiautomatic, Knee-and-Column-Type Milling Machines
and automatic operation. Numerical and computer numerical Knee-and-column-type machines, in the horizontal version,
control (NC and CNC) are used on general-purpose machines have the spindle mounted in the column at a fixed height and
for milling dies and molds; on dedicated machines such as skin have the capability of positioning three sliding motions.
and spar mills, described later in this section; and even more Vertical motion is obtained by sliding the knee member up and
extensively on horizontal boring mills, machining centers, and down on the central stationary column. Cross motion is
other machine tools, discussed in Chapter 15 of this volume, generally obtained by sliding a saddle member in and out across
“Multifunction Machines. ” Details of NC and CNC systems are the top of the knee. Longitudinal motion (right or left) is
presented in Chapter 5 of this volume, “Machine Controls, ” obtained by sliding the workholding table on the saddle at a
right angle to the cross motion. Machines with a vertically
TYPES OF MILLING MACHINES mounted spindle generally have a fourth sliding motion which is
Because of the wide variety of milling machines available, up and down in the same direction as the knee.
only the more common types are discussed in this section. These On most machines, all three or four motions can be used to
include hand, knee, bed, tracer, programmable, NC/ CNC, and feed the workpiece during a cut; however, table motion is
special milling machines, Most types are available with hori- usually preferred. Basically, knee-and-column machines are
zontal or vertical spindles. The choice between a horizontal or numbered or sized from 1 through 6 in accordance with the
vertical machine depends primarily upon the workplaces to be table travel: No. 1, 22” (559 mm); No. 2, 28” (711 mm); No. 3,
milled. Relatively flat workplaces are generally milled on 34 (864 mm); No. 4, 42”( 1067 mm); No. 5, 50’’(1270 mm); and
vertical-spindle machines. Cubic or odd-shaped parts usually No. 6, 60” (1524 mm). Other travels, table widths and lengths,
10-8
CHAPTER 10
MILLING MACHINES
motor horsepowers, and locations of table T-bolt slots vary Universal machines. The universal machine (see Fig, 10-1 1)
with the manufacturer. is similar to the plain machine, but has one additional
Variations of basic form. Manufacturers of milling machines movement which permits the table to be swiveled manually with
often deviate from the basic knee-and-column structure to build respect to the saddle. Angular surfaces can thus be cut without
features they believe will make their machines more useful. moving the workpiece. The greatest use for a universal machine
Machines are available without a saddle member; cross motion is in conjunction with a dividing head to mill helixes in gears,
or adjustment is obtained by means of a quilI-type spindle milling cutters, drills, and end mills. Dividing heads and other
which may be moved by hand or power. Some machines have milling machine attachments are discussed later in this section.
power drive to the table only and manual adjustments for other
slides. Automatic cycles are often applied to the table movement
for repetitive milling.
Plain machines, On plain machines (see Fig. 10-10), the
horizontal spindle is fixed in the column structure and is
generally not movable axially, Cutters may be mounted directly
on the spindle nose for face mills, on stub arbors for shell-end
mills, and on long arbors supported on their outer extremity for
slab and gang milling. Plain machines have three movements
afforded by the knee, saddle, and table and are the most
commonly used type of milling machine.
tw
Fig. 10-11 Universal milling machine is similar to the plain type (Fig.
Fie. 10-10 Plain millirre machine havine three motions mwvided bv tbe 10-10), but has one additional movement which permits the table to be
(aftable, (b) saddle, anfi (c) knee. - swiveled with respect to the ssddle.
10-9
CHAPTER 10
MILLING MACHINES
Vertical machines. All the sliding motions used in a plain Other variations. Ram-type or ram-head machines (see Fig.
machine are present in a vertical machine with one addition. IO-13) have (atop the column) a ram that is movable by hand
The vertical spindle is generally movable toward and away from crank or power in a direction parallel to the saddle movement.
the table top by manual effort or by power (see Fig. 10-12). No At or near the front end of the ram is a single or double-swivel-
provision is made for support of an arbor-mounted cutter mounted spindle in fixed or quill mounting. The ram spindle
assembly other than at the spindle nose. Vertical machines are axis can be disposed horizontally, vertically, or angularly.
grouped as quill head, quill plus swivel head, sliding head, or When the machine is a basic plain machine with a horizontal
fixed head, spindle and the additional ram head is supplied (as either an
attachment or an integral part of the machine), two spindles can
be used simultaneously.
Turret-ram machines have a movable ram mounted on a
swivel base (turret) atop the column (see Fig. 10-14). The entire
ram assembly can thus be swiveled about a vertical axis. A
variable high-speed belt-driven milling head with attached
motor is usually mounted at the end of the ram on a graduated
swivel base. The base is pivoted on an axis parallel to the
direction of ram movement, and the quill-mounted cutting-
spindle axis is normal to it.
Compound universal machines have a knee which can be
swiveled about a horizontal axis. The knee can also be moved
longitudinally in addition to the four movements normally
associated with the knee, universal saddle, and table of
universal knee-type machines.
High-speed machines, either horizontal or vertical styles,
Motot
have a driving motor as an integral part of the cutting spindle.
Base
The few spindle-speed changes available are effected by changes
in motor speed. These machines with high feeds and spindle
speeds are &ed primarily to machine light alloys.
1
II
/
-t A
ig. 10-13 On ram-type or ram-head milling machines, the ram is

Fig. 10-12 SpindIe on vertical milling machine is movable toward and movable by hand or power in a direction parallel to the saddle
away from the table, either manually or by power.
1o-1o
CHAPTER 10
MILLING MACHINES
majority of cutting requirements and permit correct chip-per-

Variable
tooth loads for all types of cutters and work materials.
speed head ~ Physical size of these machines, along with the available
travel for each axis, is also quite varied. Machines and special
attachments are made in a wide range of combinations to suit
almost any situation or requirement that can be anticipated.
Electric components are usually to Joint Industry Conference
(JIC) specifications, or they can be made to suit customer
requirements. Indicator lights, safety devices, and controls are
all arranged for the convenience and safety of the operator and
are easily accessible for maintaining and servicing. Pushbutton
control to all elements is usually provided in the most con-
venient area for operator use. This control station can be a fixed
unit fastened to or integral with the machine element, or it can
be a pendant-type unit that can be positioned by the machine
operator. Usually these machines are supplied with automatic
lubrication to all moving elements; on models on which manual
lubrication is required, the points to be lubricated and frequency
of lubrication are clearly labeled.
Very close machining tolerances can be obtained on fixed-
bed machines, and milling cuts to within 0.0005” (0.013 mm)
can be realized in many cases if cutter and workholding devices
are made accordingly. These machines are generally equipped
with readout systems to locate the cutters in all directions, and
these systems are very useful in increasing machine efficiency
and reducing floor-to-floor time to a minimum. Finishes well
below 100 p in. (2.54pm) are quite common when feed rates as
Fig. 10-14 Turret-ram milling machine has a movable ram mounted on fast as 100 ipm (2540 mm/ rein) are used on modern machines
a swivel base atop the column. (Bridgeport Machines Div., Textron Inc. ) equipped with vibration dampeners and antichatter devices.
Noise levels are also an important consideration in the design of
Bed-Type Milling Machines machines today, with all precautions and safeguards being
Bed-type machines, more commonly called fixed-bed-type taken to keep the noise below required maximums.
machines, are characterized by the extremely rigid construction Horizontal machines. The horizontal machine (see Fig. 10-15)
afforded by a rectangular-shaped bed casting or weldment. consists basically of a headstock or column bolted to or integral
These units are supported and leveled along their entire length, with a fixed bed. On this member, a spindle carrier, head, or
which can vary from 3-30 ft (0.9-9 m) or more. block is mounted, carrying a spindle that is horizontally
For the larger bed sizes, the unit is usually secured to the floor positioned. The axis of this spindle is parallel to the table
with anchor bolts to ensure even greater stability. The bed
supports and guides a work-carrying table which is moved in a
longitudinal direction only (right to left) by various means such
as a rack and pinion, Acme screw and nut, ball screw and nut, or
hydraulic cylinder.
This type of bed permits heavy cutting loads on large or heavy
workplaces and can be used with various other machine
elements to forma wide variety of fixed-bed machines, some of
which are referred to as manufacturing types. Machines of this
type can be further classified as horizontal, vertical, or planer
types or as boring, drilling, and milling machines. (Boring,
drilling, and milling machines are discussed in Chapter 15 of
this volume, “Multifunction Machines.”) Beds on these
machines provide space for a self-contained cutting fluid
reservoir and usually have adequate space for collection of the
major portion of chips formed during cutting cycles.
The fixed-bed-type milling machine, whether having a hori-
zontal or vertical spindle, has many features that benefit the
user. Machine size is usually governed by the horsepower rating
of the spindle carrier, which in most cases can be anywhere from
1-50 hp (0.7-37 kW) or more, depending upon the machine type
and the manufacturer. The range of machine sizes available
permits light to heavy cutting and either up (conventional) or
down (climb) milling with high-speed steel, carbide, ceramic, or
diamond cutters. Most manufacturers offer wide ranges of Fig. 10-15 Horizontal milling machine having column bolted to or
spindle speeds and table feed rates that accommodate the integral with fixed bed.
10-11
CHAPTER 10
MILLING MACHINES
surface and at right angles to the axis of table movement. The separate parts that are mounted properly on the table may be
carrier usually moves (manually or automatically) in a vertical machined simultaneously with one pass of the table. The duplex
direction on the headstock, and the spindle is adjustable axially machine has a more limited use than the plain machine.
(in and out) through a spindle quill or ram. The spindle drive is However, when workpiece configuration warrants its use, the
obtained through an electric motor mounted directly to the value of this arrangement in time savings and increased
carrier, or through a spline shaft or similar transmission, with production is often worth the extra cost.
the motor fastened to a stationary mounting on the headstock. Vertical machines. The vertical fixed-bed milling machine
Because of the more rugged construction of this type of (see Fig. 10-1 7) differs from the horizontal machine principally
machine, high-power cuts are made more easily. In addition, by the position of the carrier and spindle axis. A ram or spindle
better surface finishes and closer machining tolerances can carrier is mounted on a rear base, which is normally fastened to
generally be obtained than are possible with knee-type machines. the fixed bed. This carrier houses the vertical spindle, whose
Horizontal-bed-type machines are also available with tracer axis is perpendicular to the top of the table and is adjustable
control to the vertical axis, permitting various shapes and vertically along its own axis through a quill. The carrier
contours to be generated by causing the spindle carrier or head assembly is sometimes fixed (with no movement) and in some
to raise or lower at a specified time, as dictated by a cam or cases is adjustable manually or by power to travel laterally so
template mounted to the table of the machine. These are that the spindle can be positioned crosswise to the table
commonly called rise-and-fall milling machines. Tracer- (forward or to the rear of the table centerline).
controlled machines are discussed in more detail in a subsequent This vertical-type machine is well suited to face milling opera-
part of this section. tions and can handle heavy cuts with close tolerance and finish
Machining cycles can be manual or automatic and are requirements. Although face milling and end milling are the
actuated by preset dogs and electric switches or hydraulic most common operations performed on this type of machine,
plungers. Numerical control systems and similar systems are arbor-mounted cuts can also be made; however, these are the
also used quite frequently, with all machine functions being exception rather than the rule. As a result, the vertical machine
programmed, as described later. is more limited and less versatile than the horizontal machine.
Two-spindle machines. Single-spindle machines (as just For close tolerances, good finish requirements, and large-lot
described) are called plain or simplex machines. If two spindles production with minimum time per part, the vertical milling
are required, one on each side of the table and opposed to each machine, properly tooled, is a valuable asset. Tracer and
other, the assembly is called a duplex milling machine (see Fig. numerical control (discussed later in this section) are quite
10-16). The bed-table unit on the duplex machine is the same as adaptable to vertical machines. These machines, like the
that on the plain machine, but a second headstock and spindle horizontal types, are available in a wide assortment of sizes and
carrier are provided. All carrier features, speeds, feeds, and variations. Automatic cycles and numerous accessories are
ranges are duplicated. With a duplex machine, two opposing offered as options.
sides of a workpiece may be machined at the same time or two
g. 10-16 Duplex milling machine has two oppnsed spindles, one on each side of the table.
10-12
CHAPTER 10
MILLING MACHINES
L--l-NJ
Fig. 10-17 Vertical fixed-bed milling machine has a ram or spindle carrier mounted on a rear base.
Fixed-Bed Saddle-Type Machines

Fixed-bed saddle-type milling machines with vertical spindles
(see Fig, 10- 18) provide greater rigidity than knee-and-column-
Al 1
I
type machines. As a result, higher power cuts can be taken with
more accuracy for a given size machine. Another advantage of
machines of this design is the ability to counterbalance the
vertical slide, thus providing sensitive vertical motions.
Tracer-Controlled Milling Machines

Milling machines with tracing capabilities are used to
produce parts with complex shapes economically, for either
single-piece or mass-production requirements as well as for
diesinking operations. One or more types of tracing functions
may be used simultaneously to generate the desired complex
surfaces. By coordinating the paths of the milling cutter and
tracing element, as determined by the master or model, a milling
machine which is tracer-controlled may operate under one of
the following systems: mechanical, manual hydraulic, manual
I
electric, automatic hydraulic, automatic electric, electric-spark
contact, or optical (light-beam, with electric-eye sensor) contact.
Nomenclature given to various types of tracing functions is
illustrated in Fig. 10-19. With depth tracing, the depth of the rig. 10-18 Fixed-bed saddle-type milling machine with vertical spindle
and CNC system. (Boston Digital Corp. )
entire shape to be duplicated in the workpiece may be varied
relative to the master or model. Depth tracing positions only
machines with depth-tracing functions are known as diesinkers
one machine slide or axis, which is controlled from the tracing
and may have the following variations:
follower, while one or more of the machine slides or axes are fed
by hand or automatically, In the diesinking field, depth tracing 1, Power and hand feed to the machine slides, without
generally uses ball-nose end mills which require the use of a feed-rate modifications to the feeding slides. The operator
follower of the same shape. The amount of finishing stock left varies the feed rate by hand according to the contour of
on the workpiece can be varied by changing the size of the the master or model. These machines are known as hand
follower in relation to that of the milling cutter used. Milling diesinkers.
10-13
CHAPTER 10
MILLING MACHINES
with a rotating axis makes it possible to machine airfoil blades

for gas turbines and grooves in drum cams.
.ep&J1 Combination tracing (Fig. 10-19) is also known as three-

dimensional tracing. Three axes of the machine are controlled
simultaneously from a single follower. Combination tracing is
available with either automatic or hand feed. For the automatic
combination tracer, a limitation exists on the ability of the
tracer to follow the model when the angle for the depth function
exceeds 35°. No such limitation exists for the hand combination
tracer. Both automatic and hand combination tracers have the
flexibility that permits them to be used only as a depth tracer or
360° tracer, Machines equipped with the combination tracer,
together with servocontrol to the three axes, are very versatile.
Depth control and 36fP tracing, as seen in Fig, 10-19, require
two separate models in many applications. However, making
these models is greatly simplified compared with making the
complex three-dimensional models required in combination
tracing.
Electric-trace milling machines can be used as scanners for
generating NC tapes. Frequently, it is not practical to consider
an application of NC milling because of the programming cost
and long lead time involved. However, tapes produced by the
scanner require no further processing and are ready to place in
the tape reader of an NC machine for production, thereby
Combination reducing the lead time to near zero. Numerical control milling
machines are discussed in a subsequent section of this chapter.
Programmable Milling Machines
Programmable milling machines feature pushbutton pro-
gramming by means of manual data input (MDI). These
machines bridge the gap between standard and NC milling
machines. They provide the flexibility of many standard
machines with the production capabilities of NC machines,
without the need for NC coded part programming. MajW
applications of these machines include tool and die, prototype,
and short-run operations, but they are used less frequently in
shops that have programming capability for other machines.
Depth control and 360° Programmable milling machines are available in horizontal and
vertical-spindle models.
Fig. 10-19 Four types of functions performed on tracer-controlle The horizontal-spindle model illustrated in Fig. 10-20 has an
milling machines. electronic control system that includes an MDI panel and a
portable control box. Programming is done by the machine
2. Power and hand feed to the machine slides, with feed-rate operator in shop language. As the operator machines the first
modification, automatic feed reversal, and pick feed or workpiece, each move, with its corresponding speed, feed,
progression. Automatic feed-rate modification produces dwell, etc., is entered into the system memory by pushbuttons.
a constant feed rate between the cutter and the surface An alphanumeric screen displays the events for checking. Then,
being generated. Machines with these features are known subsequent workplaces can be machined without any settings.
as automatic diesinkers. These machines may also be These machines can be equipped with CNC for three-axis
operated as hand diesinkers, making it possible to remove contouring operations.
large amounts of material quickly when the workpiece is
being roughed out.
NC/CNC Milling Machines
In addition to mechanical-electrical, mechanical-hydraulic,
3. Depth-tracing functions may also be arranged to use a
and mechanical-electrical-hydraulic controls, numerical control
roller following a template as the model. Feed rate to the
and computer numerical control (NC/ CNC) are being applied
table is automatically modified to maintain a constant
to milling and other machine tools requiring complex cycles. In
feed rate between the cutter and the surface being
some cases, both tracer and numerical control are provided on
generated. A variable-feed-rate attachment is also
the same machine, and some machines are provided with the
available for high-production jobs in which a great
option for NC or CNC retrofit at a later date. Automatic
variation of stock is to be removed,
toolchangers are also available on some NC machines
Another type of tracing is 36(F’ or two-axis tracing. Most (particularly machining centers), with a punched tape estab-
frequent applications of this function use mills for machining lishing the programming, selecting cutters from the changer,
workplaces on which flat templates are used. Not uncommon and determining milling speed and feed. Machining centers are
are applications on which form cutters are used to great discussed in Chapter 15 of this volume, “Multifunction
advantage. Substituting one of the two machine sliding axes Machines. ”
10-14
CHAPTER 10
MILLING MACHINES
Fig. 10-20 Horizontal-spindle model of a programmable milling machine. (Kearrrey & Trecker Corp.)
An NC/ CNC milling machine provides control for at least 2. The Y axis, in this case, is the vertical or up and down
two axes of simultaneous motion, with three or four axes under travel of the spindle carrier, or milling-head carrier, on
tape control being quite common. Some machines are provided the column (the rise-and-fall movement).
with five or more axes under NC. In addition to the conventional 3. The Z axis is the cross or transverse motion represented
longitudinal, transverse, and vertical movements, some by the extension and retraction of the spindle carrier.
machines have the column and spindle carrier mounted in 4. The A axis is a rotary motion of the spindle carrier in the
circular swivel ways to permit the spindle to swivel in the vertieal plane.
horizontal and vertical planes, An NC/ CNC system with 5. The B axis is a rotary motion of the column (on its base)
continuous-path capabilities is desirable for most applications, in the horizontal plane.
and circular interpolation is frequently used when curved
surfaces and contours are to be milled.
A CNC milling machine for automatic three-axis operation
with full contouring capability is illustrated in Fig. 10-21. This
machine has a power-operated spindle-speed changer with a
variable range of 60-4200 rpm. Traverse rates for all three axes
are 120 ipm (3048 mm/min), repeatability is +0.0005” (0.013
mm), and positioning accuracy is +0.001” (0.03 mm), The
machine can be programmed while producing the first work-
piece, and the program can be stored in memory for subsequent
requirements,
Universal milling machines (see Fig. 10-22), available with or
without NC or CNC, have a vertical milling head that can be
swung to a position alongside the ram to permit horizontal-
spindle operation. Rotary and tilt tables permit five-sided
machining of a workpiece at virtually any angle. Pendant
control offers digital readout in all three axes, and programs
can be transferred to cassettes for storage.
An NC and CNC system can be designed for as many axes of
motion as desired. A milling machine with five-axis control is
shown in Fig. 10-23. A major advantage of such machines is
that very complex workplaces can frequently be completely
machined with one setup. Multiple-spindle machines are also
available for increased productivity by simultaneously machin-
ing identical workplaces. Figure 10-24 illustrates a four-spindle
CNC milling machine.
Figure 10-25 illustrates the application of NC to a five-axis
profile miller with a horizontal spindle. This machine can cut in
five directions simultaneously. The axes are as follows:
1. The X axis is the longitudinal travel of the table on its Fig. 10-21 CNC milling machine with three-axis full contouring
bed. capahilit y. (Bridgeport Machine Div., Texrrorr Inc. )
10-15
CHAPTER 10
MILLING MACHINES
-
I
Fig. 10-24 Four-spindle CNC milling machine for simultaneously

machining identical parts. (Boston Digi?al Corp. )
rig. 10-22 Universal milling machine has horizontal and vertical

spindles, and a tilt tahie. (Maho Machine Too/ Corp. )
Fig. 10-23 Milling machine having five axes of motion that are tape Fig. 10-25 Schematic drawing showing the five axes of motion for a
controlled. typical profile milling machine.
Milling an elliptical part with sloping walls, using five axes of machine designed and built to machine a specific part or family
the machine at once, and machining complex dies are examples of parts. Usually a basic standard machine that is specially
of operations the machine can perform automatically under NC modified is considered a special milling machine if the modi-
or CNC. An important fact is that the number of axes used to fication results in approximately 509% or more change in the
designate a particular system for NC or CNC does not refer to basic design.
the number of functions that can be programmed, as these can Special milling machines can take the form of any of the
be numerous. standard milling machines, such as horizontal or vertical
A detailed discussion of NC and CNC is presented in Chapter spindle, fixed bed, knee type, fixed or moving table, fixed or
5 of this volume, “Machine Controls. ” traveling column, ram type, or almost any other conceivable
configuration. The type of machine control can also be highly
Special Milling Machines varied. Controls from straight manual to direct computer
In a general sense, a special milling machine is any milling control are available for special machines. Although special
10-16
CHAPTER 10
MILLING MACHINES
milling machine configurations can vary considerably, depend- machining parts that require mostly heavy flat-surface milling,
ing upon the job for which the machine was designed, several especially when extended reach is of secondary importance.
basic styles are predominant, Quill-type heads are capable of producing high-power roughing
Planer, adjustable-rail, or fixed-bridge-type milling machine. cuts as well as smooth, accurate, finishing cuts. The side head
The major construction features of this type of machine are has the advantage of delivering high-power cutting at extended
shown in Fig. 1()-26, These features include a rigid crossrail reaches. The bar head is best for workplaces that require
mounted on uprights that are floor-mounted on each side of the considerable drilling and tapping and for applications requiring
bed-table unit or that are floor-mounted and also attached to flexibility. Bar heads require less frequent use of long-reach tool
the bed. The table, which is the work surface, rides on the extensions.
bedways and is powered in the longitudinal or X-axis direction Vertical motion of the spindles is accomplished either by
by a hydraulic cylinder, screw, or rack-and-pinion drive system. having the individual spindle carriers move in the Z-axis or
The table usually has a T-slot arrangement for holding work vertical direction or by having the carriers mounted to a saddle
fixtures, but sometimes a bolt-hole pattern is supplied in the that moves in the Z axis. An auxiliary Z-axis positioning
tabletop for this purpose. motion that would raise or lower the entire crossrail for addi-
The spindle carrier or carriers are mounted to a cross saddle tional part clearance may be provided. Most designs allow for
and are powered in the Y-axis or cross direction on ways the addition of upright riser blocks.
mounted on the crossrail. An alternative to this is driving the A fourth or a fifth axis of motion may be incorporated into
entire crossrail in the Y-axis direction. Often, spindle carriers the planer or bridge-type design. These motions are usually
are mounted on both the front and rear faces of the crossrail. swivel motions—one being a swivel in the YZ plane, and the
One machine tool builder offers a choice of three machining other a swivel in the XZ plane. In addition. they may be
heads (see Fig. 10-27). The quill head is best suited for continuous contouring motions or just positioning motions.
This type of design may also be equipped with horizontal
Spindle Vefl,col CrOss- spindle carriers mounted on the side uprights. This configuration
Crossrall
carrier saddle saddle is used to mill two or three sides of a part simukaneously.
The greatest advantage to this type of closed machine
structure is its inherent rigidity, allowing for heavy cuts with
minimum structural deflections. The horizontal bed facilitates
the loading of workplaces. One obvious disadvantage of this
I /
type of machine is that chip removal from the work surface and
fixtures offers some difficulty, Some users have developed
% 11’11 elaborate vacuum chip disposal systems, whereas other users

rely on air blasts and manual removal of chips.
Moving-bridge or gantry-type machine. The major construc-
tion features of this style of machine are shown in Fig. 10-28.
/ —
I h -1 Machine configuration is very similar to a planer or bridge-type
x’-’ machine except that the entire gantry, consisting of a crossrail
mounted on its uprights and supporting the cross saddle and
spindle carriers, moves in the longitudinal or X-axis direction.
The work surface is usually integral with the bed and remains
stationary. The gantry is driven by a ballscrew or a rack-and-
Fig. 10-26 Planer or fixed-bridge type of milling machine. pinion drive system. Except on very narrow machines, the
Quill head
Eli Sl[de head
Fig. 10-27 Three machining heads available for use on planer-type milling machines.
Bar head
10-17
CHAPTER 10
.,
MILLING MACHINES
a swivel motion. This swivel motion is essential because of the

Verlicol Crossrall
warps inherent in aircraft spars. Recent spar mills have been
Cross-saddle
designed to mill aluminum, steel, or titanium spars. Some
seven-axis CNC spar mills are capable of milling workplaces
that are 108 ft (33 m) long, and they can machine a pair of
opposite-hand (mirror-image) workplaces simultaneously with
two spindles,
The gantry or moving-bridge-type machine offers several
advantages over the planer or fixed-bridge-type construction.
The gantry-type machines maintain the inherent stiffness of the
closed-type construction of a bridge machine, thus allowing for
heavy cuts with minimum deflection. With X-axis travels
exceeding the upright length, the gantry machine offers floor-
space savings over a similar bridge type. The gantry machine
also presents a stationary work surface that facilitates double
loading and offers the option for extending the beds for
additional X-axis travel. This adding of bed sections can take
place at a later date if desired, Many installations of gantry
surface Bed machines have several gantrys with overlapping travels on one
long continuous bed.
Fig. 10-28 Moving-bridge or gantry-type milling machine. Chip-removal and coolant problems are similar to those of
the fixed-bridge-type machines. However, since the gantry-style
longitudinal drives act on each gantry upright and are machines are usually longer and have a way system running
synchronized mechanically, electrically, or by both methods— along each side of the bed, the problems are somewhat
one being a backup or safety protection for the other. The work magnified. Again, as with the fixed-bridge machines, the
surface is usually supplied with T slots ora bolt-hole pattern for operator must be positioned on the work surface or the spindles
holding the work or work fixtures. must be moved to an extreme Y-axis position to replace or
The spindle carriers mount to a saddle that travels in the cross exchange cutters.
or Y-axis direction on a way system. They can also be moved in Ram-type milling machine. This style of machine (Fig. 10-29)
the Z-axis or vertical direction either independently or by is similar to many standard milling machines, However, special
means of a saddle that rides on a set of vertical ways. As is true size, ranges, torque rating, number of spindles, or center
with planer or bridge-type machines, the number of spindle distances that may be required often place this style of machine
carriers is optional and they may be mounted on either side of in the special-milling-machine category.
the crossrail, Additional axes of motions are available if Major construction details of ram-type machines include a
required—one usually being a swivel motion in the YZ plane, bed containing a way system on which a table moves in the
and the other a swivel motion in the XZ plane. These motions longitudinal or X-axis direction. A rear base mounts against
can be either full contouring or positioning only. The crossrail is this bed and contains a way stem on which the ram moves in the
usually designed so that it can be raised for additional clearance cross or Y-axis direction. A vertical saddle mounts on this ram
over the work surface. and moves in the Z-axis or vertical direction on a way system. A
Gantry-type machines are a common style of structure for a spindle carrier or carriers are mounted on this vertical saddle. In
variety of special machines used by the aerospace industry. Skin some designs, the carrier itself contains the vertical ways, thus
milk or vertical profilers are usually gantry machines. These
machines are used to manufacture large wing, missile, and
rocket skins. The increased size of aircraft and missiles today
has dictated machine sizes with up to 20 ft (6.1 m) or more of
work width and with up to several hundred feet (about 60 m) of
longitudinal travel. Most skins are aluminum; however, in
recent years skins of steel and titanium, as well as aluminum,
have been manufactured by these machines.
Some three-spindle five-axis CNC profilers with adjustable
height rails can be supplied with toolchangers for automatic
random selection of tools from storage matrices.
Template and honeycomb mills are another common gantry-
style machine. These machines are usually smaller than a skin
mill and of much lighter construction since template and
honeycomb work requires high-speed and low-torque spindle
carriers, Honeycomb milling often requires that the machine be
multiaxis. In addition to the usual three axes (X, Y, and Z), one
or two swivel axes are generally supplied.
A spar mill is also a gantry-type machine, usually with a long
longitudinal travel, but with a very narrow work surface (24-
36”, 610-914 mm). Spar mills usually have horizontal spindles
with a swivel axis of motion and/or a vertical spindle, also with
.- ....
Fig. 10-29 Special ram-type millmg machine,
10-18
CHAPTER 10
MILLING MACHINES
eliminating the vertical saddle. The spindle carriers are mounted A common variation of this design is that, instead of the
either in a plane along the X axis (as shown in Fig. 10-27) or in a carrier moving in the Z-axis direction, a spindle bar (which may
plane across the worktable. or may not be supported by a quill) extends in the Z-axis
Variations in this basic configuration allow for a compound direction. This feature allows for deep-pocket milling and gives
vertical and swivel saddle that produces a fourth axis of motion. the machine a boring capability. This configuration is commonly
This axis is usually a swivel motion in the YZ plane. Another called a bar mill or bar machine.
fairly common variation in the basic ram-type machine is the The machine shown schematically in Fig. 10-30 has an
elimination of the X axis of travel and the addition of one or advantage over other styles of traveling-column milling
more rotary tables. This variation is useful if the family of parts machines in that the extended spindle presents the least
passing through this machine is basically round. workpiece interference with the column. However, this very
Because ram-type construction allows the operator to be advantage of spindle carrier or bar extension results in less
positioned directly in front of the work and spindles, the milling capacity and in spindle droop. This reduced milling
greatest advantage to this style of machine is ease of loading and capacity is relative, however, and many designs of this nature
unloading workplaces and changing cutters. This design also are extremely rigid and capable of high-torque cuts.
facilitates double loading of workplaces. Such machines are Figure 10-31 shows the major design features of a traveling-
basically rigid and are capable of heavy milling with minimal column milling machine with both X-axis and Z-axis motions
deflections as long as the ram extension (Y-axis travel) is not under the column. These motions are accomplished by means of
excessive. Therefore, this machine lends itself well to operations a compound saddle. This design eliminates the reduced cutting
that require short Y-axis traveling and long X-axis traveling, or capacity and spindle droop of the design shown in Fig. 10-30.
to operations that involve families of relatively small parts. If However, part geometry may cause interference with the
part geometry fits these conditions, there are few disadvantages column because of the fixed relationship between the spindle
to this design, except the problems of deep-pocket visibility and nose and the column wall. To support the column properly,
of chip and coolant removal, which are common to any vertical- especially if the Z-axis is relatively long, the machine bed is
spindle machine. usually much wider than that of other traveling-column designs
Tra~eling-column milling machine. Figure 10-30 shows the and usually has three or more longitudinal ways.
major design features of one style of traveling-column machine. Figure 10-32 shows a table-type or traveling-table machine.
The column rides on a way system supported by the machine This design consists of a base on which the column moves in the
bed. This motion is in the X-axis or longitudinal direction. The Z-axis direction. The machine bed supports the angle plate that
column contains a vertical way system on which a vertical moves in the X-axis direction. In some designs, a table rides on
saddle travels in the Y-axis direction. A spindle carrier or the bed. Angle plates may not be necessary if the work to be
spindle carriers move in the Z-axis direction on this saddle. The machined is large and boxy.
work is held in place on an angle plate that mounts on a work There are two outstanding advantages to traveling-column
base. Usua~ly this work base has a series of angle-plate locating milling machines. One advantage is that the cutting fluid and
slots, that allows the angle plate to be positioned farther away chips fall clear of the work and can easily be carried away by a
or closer to the spindle carrier or carriers.
Verhcd Column
olumn
A 5P ndle
pl comer
CrOss-
saddle
hose
) saddle
Fig. 10-30 Traveling-column milling machine with X axis under Fig. 10-31 Traveling-column milling machine with both X and Z axes
under column.
10-19
CHAPTER 10
MILLING MACHINES
Spindle
Angle
carrier
plote
Fig. 10-32 Traveling-table milling machine with Z axis under column.
chip conveyor located between the work base and machine As many as seven cutters can be mounted on a single slide to
column. The other major advantage is that the operator has an simultaneously mill journals, thus providing short floor-to-
unobstructed view of the cutter and work, even in deep pockets, floor times. This type of machine is also required to mill square
The greatest disadvantage of these machines is the difficulty of or rectangular surfaces on shafts. Other advantages of milling
positioning and mounting the work on a vertical surface. Some
users reduce this difficulty by removing the entire angle plate or
subplate and positioning it horizontally for part loading, [
Another disadvantage to this type of machine is that the
workpiece, when clamped against an angle plate, is generally
not set in its natural position. When ultraprecision machining is
required, such as milling tight joints on generator and steam-
turbine shells, a fixed-bridge-type machine, such as the one
shown in Fig. 10-26, or a machine with an adjustable bridge
may be best.
Crankshaft milling machines. Milling of crankshafts, cam-
shafts, and other unbalanced shafts is replacing the traditional
turning process in some plants. Advantages claimed for this
process include faster production, closer tolerances, lower
tooling costs, and more rapid changeover. Milling machines are
available for internal or external cutting.
Milling machines designed for external cutting (see Fig. 10-33)
were developed first and are still widely used, depending
primarily upon the shaft configuration and production require-
ments. They are preferred for milling all camshafts because of
the lobe configurations of the camshafts; they are also preferred
J
for meeting the high production requirements for large crank- Fie. 10-33 External cutting machine for milling unhahmsced shafts.
shafts and crankshafts having journals with different profiles. (Aherican GFM) -
10-20
CHAPTER 10
MILLING MACHINES
machines used for external cutting include easier cutter changing of the shaft is not required when milling is done with NC since
and better visibility for the operator. the cutting head orbits as a result of a controlled combination
In external cutting, standard sizes and shapes of carbide motion in both the X and Y axes.
inserts are held on the peripheries of the cutters by clamps and Planetary milling machines. On these machines, workplaces
wedges, The shaft to be milled is clamped at both ends by a are held stationary and motion is confined to the cutter. They
driven, power-operated chuck, and a variable speed d-c motor perform many operations that are normally done on lathes, but
is used to control the speed of workpiece rotation, Copying for which it is not feasible to rotate the workplaces because of
movement of the milling slide is actuated mechanically. An their mass, unbalance, delicateness, or difficulty in machining.
interchangeable double eccentric, with the throw radius of the Operations performed on these versatile machines include
shaft to be milled, is fastened to the workpiece spindle. Rollers facing: milling circular forms, elongated slots, and radial
on the milling slide hydraulically press the slide against the crankcase bores in aircraft engines; and threading, both internal
rotating eccentric. The rollers are adjustable to allow changes to and external.
be made in the diameter milled. One or more cutters maybe held in vertical and/or horizontal
Milling cutters are mounted on arbors that are held in spindles on planetary milling machines. Operations can be
position by chucks on the milling spindles. The cutters first performed on the ID or OD of a workpiece, or on both internal
make a plunge cut to face the webs while the workpiece is and external surfaces simultaneously. Planetary thread milling
stationary. When the cutters reach the preset bearing diameter, machines are discussed in Chapter 12 of this volume,
the workpiece is rotated slowly. In one full revolution, the “Threading.”
bearing surfaces are milled to grinding size and the cheek Rotary milling machines. On these machines, workplaces are
surfaces are finished to size, held in fixtures attached to a rotary table that carries the
For most applications, the more recently developed internal workplaces under facing cutters mounted on one or more
milling cutters are generally far superior. These circular cutters, vertical spindles. These arc considered production machines
which completely enclose the workpiece and have bores larger and are generally used for workplaces such as cylinder heads
than the swing diameter of the shaft, have standard carbide having large flat surfaces to be milled.
indexable inserts held in their bores by clamps and wedges. The Milling on transfer machines. Considerable milling, as well as
cutters are held on the front faces of drive drums which are other operations, is done on transfer machines which are
mounted on the milling slides. This milling method, often called dcscribcd in Chapter 15 of this volume, “Multifunction
whirling, offers several advantages. The most important benefit Machines.”
is higher metal removal rates and, therefore, reduced machining
time and increased productivity. ATTACHMENTS FOR MILLING MACHINES
While maintaining tool life, internal cutters permit improved Many different attachments are available for milling
metal removal rates as a consequence of their tooling geometry machines. Attachments arc standard or special auxiliary devices
and their cutter drive mechanism. To remove an identical chip. intended to be fastened to or joined with one or more
internal cutters need move only a fraction of the distance that components of a milling machine to augment the range,
external cutters must move. Thus, for the same chip depth per versatility, productivity, or accuracy of operation. Some attach-
insert, a much faster feed rate can be used. Also, the circum- ments are required to perform certain operations. These
ferential force on the inserts of internal cutters is not as great as accessories may be cutter or workpiece holding and driving
that on the inserts of external cutters. As a result, the tendency mechanisms. Attachments enable the cutting axis or the work-
to chatter is reduced, permitting higher cutting speeds—up to piece to be oriented differently or to be moved along specific
525 sfm (160 m/min)—and extending tool life. geometric paths. Also, they may be precision measuring
Operation of internal cutter milling machines is similar to devices. The cutter holding and driving attachments are usually
that of external cutting models, with the exception that the made to be used on standard horizontal knee-type machines.
cutter is retracted over the protruding end of a fixed support on Many attachments are built and offered by milling machine
one end of the machine to allow overhead loading/ unloading. builders. However, the long existence and general acceptance of
The cutter is then repositioned to perform the first operation. knee-and-column machines have made it possible for other
Again, the crankshaft remains stationary while the plunge cut is suppliers to market attachable items for every well-known
being made between the webs for checking and then rotates to milling machine,
provide the feed for milling the bearing surface. The cutter is
then retracted and repositioned along the Z axis to perform the Vertical Milling Attachments
second operation. As with the external type, internal milling These attachments are used to convert horizontal machines
machines can perform all operations required in one setup, with to swivel-head vertical types. They permit the cutting-spindle
the cutter head being changed when switching from journal to axis to be oriented with reference to a graduated circular base and
pin milling. to be held in any angular position in the vertical plane parallel to
Internal milling machines with two cutter slides are available the column face. One such attachment (see Fig. 10-34) is
to reduce production time by performing two operations mounted against the column face and driven by the machine
simultaneously. Machines are also available with mechanical or spindle. Quill-type and fixed spindles are available. Speeds are
electronic copying control, as well as numerical control. the same as the machine speeds or at some ratio to them,
Numerical control models are ideal for variable short-run
product requirements because they necessitate fewer setup and Universal Milling Attachments
changeover times. One machine builder uses a microprocessor Similar to a swivel-head vertical attachment but having two
to control the cross-slide system, with design details (radii, swivel axes and associated graduated circular bases at right
angular positions, throws, etc.) of the shaft to be milled being angles to one another, a universal milling attachment permits
received from pushbuttons, punched tape, or memory. Rotation the cutting-spindle axis to be held at practically any angle.
10-21
CHAPTER 10
MILLING MACHINES
Slotting Attachments
This equipment, mounted on the machine column and driven
Arbordraw-in
rod
+
by the machine spindle, converts rotary motion into recipro-
cating motion of adjustable stroke length. The mechanism is
mounted on a graduated circular swivel base, permitting
reciprocating motion at any angIe in the vertical plane parallel
to the column face. One end of the sliding ram accepts single-
point slotting tools of any practical form. Among other things,
this attachment is used for cutting internal or external keyways,
splines, serrations, blind holes, cavities, or gears, particularly in
inaccessible locations such as those adjacent to large-diameter
shoulders.
Crane and Parking Attachments

Much of the previously mentioned equipment is too heavy
for a person to lift easily, or it creates a storage problem. To
alleviate this situation, various parking attachments, attachment
cranes, and parking brackets, which can be fastened to a
machine either permanently or temporarily, are available. They
facilitate the mounting or dismounting of a heavy attachment;
or when the attachment is not in use, they store or park it
someplace on the machine.
Rotary Tables
Rotary tables or circular-milling attachments, capable of
‘ig. 10-34 Swivel-head vertical milling attachment. rotary movement about a vertical axis, are made in a variety of
diameters and may be manually or power driven. Manual drive
These attachments are made in a variety of sizes, spindle-speed with a handwheel and a graduated dial or an indexing unit
ratios, spindle-nose tapers, and work capacities, with or with- enables an operator to position a workpiece for cuts at various
out axially adjustable spindle quills. angles or to index equal or unequal divisions of a circle in
spacing or slotting operations. A rotary table, by virtue of its
High-Speed Milling Attachments design, is rigid and can accommodate large workplaces. Power
Such attachments are driven from the horizontal machine can be applied through a lead attachment in cutting a continuous
spindle with a speed ratio greater than 1:1, which makes it spiral scroll or through a power-drive unit (which rotates the
possible to operate small-diameter cutters at high speeds. rotary table at various rates while the machine table remains
Generally, the spindle head is extendable some distance across stationary) in radii milling or continuous rotary milling. On
the table and may contain one or two swivel arrangements for CNC machines these attachments can often be controlled by a
angular milling. fourth axis or a shared third axis drive.
Rack-Milling Attachments Arbors

This type of attachment is mounted on the machine column, Some cutters can be centered on and bolted directly to the
is driven through gears by the machine spindle, and has a spindle nose or if equipped with an integral tapered shank
horizontal cutting-spindle axis at right angles to that of the centered in the spindle-nose taper and held in place by a draw-in
machine. In conjunction with appropriate form cutters and bolt. Cutter holders are discussed in a subsequent section of this
workholding means (usually a rack-milling vise and a rack- chapter. However, many cutters (especially the peripheral-
indexing attachment), this equipment permits racks or cross- milling variety) cannot be held in this way and must be mounted
slotted pieces of considerable length to be cut. A plain knee-type on or in intermediate holding, locating, or adapting devices or
machine is used for straight racks, and a universal machine for arbors (see Fig. 10-35). Arbors are available in many diameters,
slanted or skew racks, lengths, styles, and standard spindle-nose tapers, the most
commonly used being Nos. 40 and 50.
Thread-Milling Attachments The three most popular styles of shaft-type arbors driven by
This type of mechanism is similar to the rack-milling spindle-nose keys are ( 1) the style A arbor having spacing
attachment, but it projects an adjustable distance from the collars and a small-diameter end bearing to be used for light
column face so that the cutter is normally directly above the cuts or maximum clearance between arbor support and work-
center of the swivel saddle of a universal knee-type machine. It piece for fixture, (2) the style B arbor having spacing collars and
uses thread-milling cutters in conjunction with a dividing head large-diameter bearings to be used in heavy cuts with one or
and lead attachment to produce any of the regular forms of more arbor supports, and (3) the style C arbor used to hold shell
external straight, tapered, or worm threads and many special (face) mills. For most cutters of 8“ (203 mm) diam and larger,
threads, including internal threads when size limitations permit. the plain-type centering plug should be used, Styles A and Bare
An adjustable follower rest can be used when necessary on long not suitable for vertical machines when outer supports are not
workplaces. A universal milling attachment having sufficient practical. Quick-change arbors to facilitate changing cutters on
clearance for this kind of work can also be used for milling jobs when this is advantageous, adapters permitting the use of
threads on a plain knee-type machine, shank tapers different from the spindle-nose taper, reducing
10-22
CHAPTER 10
MILLING MACHINES
) ))))~
@o
St/le B arbor Collet holder
o
0
(
0
Qu,ck-chonge odOpt~
St<le A arbor
Style C aroor
J )))))) ))11
Flange tioe arbor
Spindle c,ciapw
Center og PI s
g. 10-35 Arbors and adapters used on milling machines.
collets, straight-shank toolhrrlders, chuck ada~ters, and

spindle-nose e~tensions are also available.
Essential dimensions and additional information on milling
machine arbor assemblies are presented in ANSI Standard
B5.47-1972, published by ASME.
Vises
Milling-machine vises (Fig. 10-36), keyed and bolted to the
table, provide a convenient method of securely holding and
Ploln wse
accurately orienting a workpiece. Plain and swivel-type vises
are commonly obtainable in 5,6.7, 8, and 9“(127, 152, 178,203,
and 229 mm) nominal sizes, specified according to jaw length.
Plain vises adapted for attachment to platens or for use as
fixture parts are available, as well as cam-clamping vises.
Universal or toolmaker’s vises are made with either two or three
swivel settings, permitting a workpiece to be set at any desired
angle, Rack-milling vises are used to hold relatively long slender
workplaces and are usually used in conjunction with a rack-
milling attachment for cutting racks or cross slots. Many simple
workholding devices can be made by removing the vise jaws and Swwelvise
modifying the flat surfaces to any desired shape for gripping or
part orientation. Workholding fixtures for milling are discussed
in a subsequent section of this chapter.
Index Bases
For production milling, an index base placed on the machine
table can accommodate duplicate or progressive fixtures at
each end, One fixture can be unloaded and reloaded during the
cutting cycle. The index table is unclamped, pivoted 180°, and
clamped in position by manual means or by power from
electric, pneumatic, or hydraulic sources.
Chucks
Chucks in many styles and with various numbers of jaws are
used to hold workplaces by gripping either an external or an
internal cylindrical surface. They are mounted directly on the
machine table, a rotary table, or a dividing head. Chucks also Too Imoke;s vise
may be mounted with an adapter on a machine-spindle nose, for
use in holding and rotating a workpiece which is to be turned or ‘ig. 10-36 Common types of vises used on milling machines.
10-23
CHAPTER 10
MILLING MACHINES
bored with single-point tools that are mounted on the machine

table to simulate a chucking lathe. By inserting drills in a
spindle-mounted chuck and using saddle travel, drilling and
boring operations are possible.
Dividing Heads
Dividing heads (see Fig, 10-37) or index centers are precision
measuring devices for accurate workpiece indexing or for
positioning from a reference through any desired sector of a
circle. They may be manually or power operated, plain with a
fixed spindle axis, or universal with a spindle axis that can be
located at any angle from horizontal to vertical. They can be
equipped with a dog and centers, an arbor or mandrel with or
without a center, or a chuck to hold the workpiece.
Indexing equipment, when manually operated, is used for
angular spacing operations such as those necessary in milling
equally spaced gear teeth, spline keys, serrations, clutch teeth, Workpece Index,ng Icvcr
or slots, as well as unequally but accurately spaced flat or
formed surfaces. When operated under power in conjunction Fig. 10-37 Dividing head mounted on the table of a knee-type milling
with lead attachments, this equipment is used in operations machine.
such as milling helical gears, helical flutes in cutters and drills,
threads, form tracks, and similar forms. With various index used for positioning and measuring includes incremental
plates, differential indexing attachments, indexing computers, measuring rods with dial indicators, magnified precision scales,
or compound or special indexing arrangements, it is possible to electronic display panels actuated by lead-screw rotation or
index practically any number of divisions of a circle up to one potentiometer scales between a fixed reader and movable
billion or more. member, and digital readouts. Position indicators are also
available ranging from mechanical counters and friction wheels
Lead Attachments geared to graduated dials, to the aforementioned electronic
These attachments transmit power through gearing arrange-
display panels, Laser beams are also being used for some
ments from a machine-table drive to a dividing head or rotary
positioning and measuring.
table, the rotation of either of these being synchronized with the
feed or traverse movement of the machine table, The lead, or
Multiple-Spindle Attachments
ratio of machine-table movement per revolution of the dividing
The multiple-spindle attachment mounts to the main spindle-
head or rotary table, is varied with change gears.
carrier housing. Torque from the main spindle is transmitted
Several ranges of leads are available. Generally, a range from
through belts or gears to two or more attachment spindles.
a few inches to over a hundred inches (about 2-2540 mm) of
Primary uses of this attachment are to increase the machine pro-
table advance per turn of the dividing head is standard.
ductivity when a number of small identical parts are being
Optional lead equipment ranging from about 0.002-3000” (0.05-
milled and to obtain a specific spindle center distance other
76200 mm) is available.
than the center distances supplied with the machine. As with
Precision Measuring and Position Readout some other attachments, the original torque rating of the
For accurate spacing of milled surfaces, or of drilled and machine must be downgraded because of the added joints,
bored holes, a number of methods are available. Equipment gears, and bearings.
MILLING CUTTERS
A milling cutter is a rotary tool provided with one or more milling cutters, shaped profile cutters, and face or end mills.
cutting edges which intermittently engage the workpiecc and Plain (peripheral or slab) milling cutters. These took are
remove material by relative movement of the workpiece and cylindrical in shape and have straight or helical cutting edges
cutter. Milling cutters can be classified by styles or uses, only on their circumferences. They are used for peripheral
construction characteristics, and methods of mounting. :utting of straight surfaces.
Methods of mounting cutters are discussed in a subsequent Form milling cutters. These are modifications of plain
section of this chapter. milling cutters that have cutting edges shaped to perform
specific applications. They include convex, concave, corner
CUTTER STYLES AND USES rounding, chain sprocket, gear, and many special cutters.
Many different milling cutters are available for various Side milling cutters. These tools have cutting edges on their
applications. They are sometimes classified or described by peripheries and on one or both faces. Those with cutting edges
terms which refer to their use, purpose for which they are made, on only one face are called half-side milling cutters. Those
shape or position of their cutting edges, or shape of the having alternate cutting edges aligned in different directions are
workpiece produced. Some of the most common types of called staggered-tooth side milling cutters. Side milling cutters
milling cutters, illustrated in Fig. 10-38, are plain, form, or side are also available in shell mill types
10-24
CHAPTER 10
MILLING CUTTERS
@mm
Straight tooth Hellcol mill-kght duty Hellcal m[ll-heavy duty
Hel,cvl mill->tkmk type
Plain Milling Cutters Inseried blade Indexable insert
@
Face Milling Cutters
#iH!lMF
Integral-tooth Indexable Imseri
Staggered-tooth side mills
Herringbone type @
Integrol-tooth Indexable ,nsert slotter
Side Milling Cutterr

o
Insetied blade
Soec[ol shell end ml Solld rmofie cutter
Smgleangle Do. bleonglc Thread cutter
Standard Shaped Profile Cutters

Proftle type form cutter Inserted-blade slngl~ongle cutter
Shaped Profile Cutters for Special Jobs
@f!!!?
Convex cutter Corner-rounding
:utter
Involuted gear cutter
gang type
Common
Gear ooth cutter
Types of Formed
8
Roller than
sprocket cutter
Cutters
Arbor.type
multlple threod milllng cutter Gear hob
End mill —indexable insert

-a Doubleend end mill adapter TwcAp mtll
End Milk
Shell type on adopter
with Integral Teeth

Hellcal end mill
Ball
a
Plcw sl thng sow
Radius
=@~
Taper flute dlesmk ng cutter
~c
Square @=’ o
~e
Standard dleslnk,ng cutters
D[amond point engrovlng cutter
Woodrufl keyseat cutter Formed tooth
Dlesmkmg and Engraving Cutters
Fig. 10-38 Common types of milling cutters,
10-25
CHAPTER 10
MILLING CUTTERS
TABLE 10-1
Tolerances on Standard Milling Cutters (Not Including Indexable Cutters)z
Tolerance, in. (mm)

Dimension Plus Minus
Diameter of Mounting Hole:
All cutters, except shell end mills and
screw-slotting cutters:
Up to 1“ diam hole, if not over 3“ long 0.00075 (0.0190) 0.0000
Up to 1“ diam hole, if over 3“ long 0.0010 (0.025) 0.0000
Over 1” through diam hole 0.0010 (0.025) 0.0000
Shell end mills 0.0005
(0.013) 0.0000
Screw-slotting cutters 0.0010 (0.025) 0.0000
Outside Diameter:
Plain milling cutters (all types), side 0.015 (0.38) 0.015 (0.38)
milling cutters, staggered-tooth side
milling cutters, half-side milling
cutters, plain metal-slitting saws,
metal-slitting saws with side chip
clearance, metal-slitting saws (with
staggered teeth and side chip
clearance), screw-slotting cutters,
single and double-angle cutters
Concave and convex cutters, corner 1/16(1.6) 1/16(1.6)
rounding cutters (arbor type), gear
and sprocket cutters
Shell end mills 1/64 (0.4) o

T-slot cutters 0.000 0.010
Corner rounding cutters, shank type 0.010 (0.25) 0.010 (0.25)

Woodruff keyseat cutters, shank-type:
1/4 to 3/4”, inclusive 0.010-0.015 0.0000
(0.25-0.38)
7/8 to 1 I / 8“, inchrsive 0.012-0.017 0.0000
(0.30-0.43)
1 1/4 to 1 1/2”. inclusive 0.015-0.020 0.0000
(0,38-0.51)
Woodruff keyseat cutters, arbor-type 0.002 (0.05) 0,002 (0.05)
End mills, shank-type (2 flutes) 0.0000 0.0015 (0.038)

End mills, shank-type (4 or more flutes)* 0.005 (0, 13) 0.000
Shank Diameter:
All cutters with straight shanks 0.0000 0,0005 (0,013)

Width of Cutting Face:
Plain milling cutters:
Up to 1“ face 0.001 (0.03) 0.001 (0.03)
Over 1 to 2“, inclusive 0.010 (0.25) 0.000
Over 2 to 4“, inclusive 0.020 (0.5 1) 0.000
Side milling cutters 0.002 (0.05) 0.001 (0.03)
Staggered-tooth side milling cutters:
Up to 3/4” face, inclusive 0.0000 0.0005 (0.01 3)
Over 3/4 to 1”, inclusive 0.0000 0.0010 (0.025)
10-26
CHAPTER 10
MILLING CUTTERS
TABLE 10-1 —Continued
Tolerance, in. (mm)

Dimension Plus Minus
Half-side milling cutters 0.015 (0.38) 0.000
Metal-slitting saws and screw- 0.001 (0.03) 0.001 (0.03)
slotting cutters
Single and double-angle cutters 0.015 (0.38) 0.015 (0,38)
Shell end mills 1/64 (0.4) 1/64 (0.4)
End mills, shank-type 1/32 (0.8) 1/32(0.8)

(except heavy duty)
T-slot cutters 0.000 0.005 (o. 13)
Woodruff keyseat cutters, shank-type:
1/16 to 5/ 32” face, inclusive 0.0000 0.0005 (0.ol 3)
3/16 to 7/32” face, inclusive 0.0000 0.0002-0.0007
(0.005-0.0 18)
1/4” face 0.0000 0.0003-0.0008
(0.008-0.020)
5/ 16” face 0.0000 0.0004-0.0009
(0.010-0.023)
3/ 8“ face 0.0000 0.0005-0.0010
(0.013 -O.025)
Woodruff keyseat cutters, arbor-type:

3/ 16” face 0.0000 0.0002-0.0007
(0.005-0.018)
1I 4“ face 0.0000 0.0003-0.0008
(0.008-0.020)
5/ 16“ face 0.0000 0.0004-0.0009
(0.010-0.023)
3/ 8“ face and over 0.0000 0.0005-0.0010
(0.013-0.025)
Sprocket wheel cutters 0.010 (0.25) 0.000
Concave and corner rounding 0.010 (0.25) 0.010 (0.25)

Diameter of Circle:
Convex cutters 0.002 (0.05) 0.002 (0.05)
Concave cutters:
Up to 7/ 16” circle, inclusive 0.002 (0,05) 0.001 (0.03)
Over 7/ 16“ circle 0.004 (o. 10) 0.002 (0.05)
Corner rounding cutters:
Up to 1/ 8“ circle, inclusive 0.001 (0.03) 0.001 (0.03)
Over 1/ 8“ circle 0.002 (0.05) 0.001 (0,03)
Angle, minutes:
Single-angle cutters 10 10
Double-angle cutters, half-angle 10 10
Overall Length:
All shank-type cutters 1/16(1,6) 1/16(1.6)
* If the shank is the same diameter as the cutting portion of double-end end mills, the tolerance
on the cutting diameter is +0.0000”, -0.0025” (0.063 mm).
10-27
CHAPTER 10
MILLING CUTTERS
Shaped profile cutters. These are similar to form milling

cutters and are available in various styles including single angle,
double angle, thread, T-slot, dovetail, keyseat, and special forms.
Center of
Face mills. These tools are designed to machine surfaces cutter
parallel to the face of the cutter. They have teeth that cut on the \
circumferential surface and on one side in much the same way
that a half-side milling cutter cuts. The maximum width of cut Radial
roke
on which a plane surface can be produced by a face mill is ‘@ angle
determined by the effective cutting diameter, although full
Lip ongle
width of cut is seldom recommended. Step cutters, having a tier
of inserts stepped both radially and axially in a single body,
permit deep cuts without the long engagement length normally
2nd cleoronce
involved when deep cuts are taken.
ongle
End mills. These are a variety of shank-type side milling
cutters. They are used for facing, slotting, profiling, diesinking,
and engraving operations.
Fig. 10-40 Angles of the teeth on a solid plain milling cutter.
Dimensions and tolerances of various types and sizes of
milling cutters and end mills are presented in ANSI Standard
B94. 19-1977, published by AS ME, A summary of the tolerances
on standard milling cutters is given in Table 10-1.
M foce
CONSTRUCTION OF MILLING CUTTERS 2nd peripheral 1st peripheral clearance
clearonce cleorance ongle /’ angle
Three basic types of construction exist for milling cutters:
ongle
solid, inserted or brazed blade, and mechanically clamped, 2 Face relief angle
Peripheral
indexable insert. Both the solid and blade types can be %
relief angle
resharpened and are often referred to as grind-type cutters. \\
Yi
While indexable-insert cutters are widely used, grind-type
Land
cutters are still required by some companies for certain
——.
applications. One advantage of grind-type cutters is that their
Peripheral 7
geometry can be tailored to suit a wide variety of milling
+ cutting
applications; in addition, runout can be controlled more closely @Lg edge A“
Tooth
than with other types of cutters, face
\
Radiol
Face cutting= ;:::h
rake
Solid Milling Cutters edge
Solid milling cutters are made from one piece of steel (usually ?p’$$ive)
R
high-speed steel) or carbide by machining the required shape
and number of teeth, with the specified cutting and relief angles
ground on the teeth. The cutters maybe tipped with cast alloy or
carbide cutting-tool materials if this is warranted by either the
nature of the work material or the production requirements.
Solid cutters are usually the lowest in initial cost. depending ig. 10-41 Nomenclature of teeth on solid-type side milling cutter.
upon size, and therefore may be best for short runs or general
toolroom use, and stronger teeth than corresponding-diameter, light-duty
Plain and side milling cutters of one-piece HSS construction cutters and are used when a considerable amount of stock is to
(see Figs. 10-39, 10-40, and 10-41 ) are generally classified as be removed.
light and heavy-duty cutters. The heavy-duty cutters have fewer Plain mills. Plain mills of the light-duty type less than 3/ 4“
(19 mm) wide have straight teeth (parallel to the axis of
rotation) and undercut sides. Larger sizes have helical teeth
with a helix angIe not less than 15° or greater than 25°. The
radial rake angle is generally 10-20°,
Heavy-duty plain mills are over 2“ (5 I mm) wide, with helical
teeth to utilize the thrust of the cut to keep the machine spindle
tight and to reduce chatter. Standard cutters have about a 12°
rake angle and 25° helix angle. Cutters with a higher helix angle
(greater than 45° ) are called plain helical mills.
Side mills. Standard side mills, half-side mills, staggered-
tooth side mills, and interlocking side mills are designed for
mounting on arbors to be used in slotting or shoulder milling
operations.
Slitting saws. Plain metal slitting saws of one-piece HSS or
carbide construction are available with or without hubs. Sides
of the saws are concaved to the arbor hole or hub, but screw
Fig. 10-39 Parts of teeth of a solid plain milling cutter. slotting cutters are available with straight or concave sides.
10-28
CHAPTER 10
MILLING CUTTERS
Metal slitting saws are also made with side teeth and with Indexable-lnsert Cutters
staggered peripheral and side teeth. A more recently introduced style of construction for milling
End mills. Shank-type and shell end mills are generally cutters, which is being used extensively today, is the indexable-
furnished for right-hand cutting with right or left-hand helical insert type (see Fig. 10-42). These cutters use a small cutting
flutes. Two-lipped end mills are furnished either for right or insert, normally made of carbide, coated carbide, ceramic, or
left-hand cutting, with straight or helical flutes. The helix of the diamond implanted on a carbide substrate. Cutting tool
flute usually corresponds to the cutting direction. The design of materials for inserts are discussed at the end of this section on
these tools permits them to beplunged directly into the metal milling cutters. The insert has one or more cutting edges located
without a prior drilling operation. A detailed discussion of end at various corners and often on both sides of the insert, or
mills is presented later in this section, around the circumference in the case of round inserts. The
Cutting edge relief. There are two methods of providing relief
inserts are locked into place with mechanical clamping devices
for the cutting edges on solid-type cutters: profile relieving and such as wedges or clamps. When they become dull, the inserts
form relieving. Profile-relieved cutters are those in which relief are indexed or repositioned so that new cutting edges contact
is obtained and sharpening is done by grinding in back of the the workpiece.
cutting edges. In a form-relieved cutter, relief is provided by a Advantages of this style of cutter include elimination of
curved surface, also called a cam drop, on the back of the teeth. regrinding, low cost per cutting edge, and availability of inserts
The most important difference between these two types of in a wide variety of cutting materials and geometries. Disadvan-
cutters is the complexity of the regrinding operation. The tages include higher cutting forces and the possibility of rougher
profile of the milled surface must be reproduced on the teeth of surface finishes being produced. IndexabIe inserts for milling
a profile-relieved cutter each time it is reground, while a form- cutters can be held a number of ways. They can be located or
relieved cutter can be reground in a simple face grinding clamped by use of nonadjustable insert pockets, adjustable
operation. Form-relieved cutters generally have a higher pockets, open slots and rails, and cartridges.
initial cost. Nonadjustable insert pockets. The nonadjustable insert
Applications of solid and brazed-tip cutters. Solid and pocket design (see Fig. 10-43) locates the insert axially and
brazed-tip cutters are used less frequently today for the radially on two locating rails which are an integral part of the
production of simple flat surfaces because of the production cutter body. This pocket design is strong and allows the cutter
economies offered by indexable-insert cutters. However, to be indexed without a setting fixture. One disadvantage of the
because they can be produced relatively inexpensively in a wide design is that the pockets may, over extended lengths of time,
variety of configurations, they are still commonly used for lose their accuracy and require costly refurbishment. In some
many more complex shapes, such as gear teeth, concave or welded anvil designs, the anvil seat can be replaced.
convex surfaces, radiused corners, keyways, and especially A recent variation of the nonadjustable pocket design
small-diameter end milled surfaces. overcomes this problem by using a small threaded button
within the pocket to provide axial location. By using a button of
a different thickness, axial insert location can be changed
Inserted-Blade Cutters whenever necessary. Another method of providing axial loca-
Many milling operations are performed with cutters that use tion is to use rest pads under the inserts.
a HSS or carbide cutting material locked by mechanical means
in a steel body. Some cutters have the material brazed to the
body. An advantage of cutters that use a mechanically locked
cutting material is that the body of the cutter does not have
to be replaced every time the cutting material wears out.
These cutters are normally higher in initial cost than solid
cutters, but generally prove to be lowest in unit cost per piece on
I
production runs.
The first milling cutter to use nonintegral cutting edges was
called an inserted-blade cutter. The bodies of inserted-blade
milling cutters are generally made of carbon steel, forged alloy
length
steel, or cast steel, depending upon the strength and hardness
required. Dimensions for inserted-blade milling cutter bodies
are presented in ANSI Standard B94.8-1967 (reaffirmed 1980),
published by AS ME, Small cutters with brazed tips are
frequently made of high-strength cast iron. When a hard cutter
body is desired, a carbon steel such as SAE 1095,4140, or other
suitable steel, heat treated to RC42-48, may be used. / .wk \/’ ~ clearance
AXIOI rake
Blades for inserted-blade cutters are usually made of HSS, 1/8 (3.2mm) Wlplng flat
I
solid carbide, carbide-tipped material, or cast alloy, and they
are brazed or wedged into place. A comprehensive discussion of
various cutting tool materials is presented in Chapter 3 of this
volume, “Cutting Tool Materials. ” These cutters are ideal for
close tolerance finishing operations because the blades can be
reground while in the cutter body, thereby eliminating
cumulative tolerance error associated with some types of ig. 10-42 lndexable-insert milling cutter. (Crzrbolo.P Systems Dept.,
indexable-insert cutters. eneral Electric Co. )
10-29
CHAPTER 10
MILLING CUTTERS
used exclusively for milling cutters. The inserts are arranged in

the cutter so that each insert removes the ridges left on the
workpiece by the preceding insert (see Fig. 10-46). Two-phase
square inserts break the cut into two smaller cuts; three-phase
triangular inserts break it into three cuts; and four-phase square
or rectangular inserts break it into four cuts.
Each insert edge cuts a chip that has a thickness equal to P
times the advance per tooth thickness, where P equals the
number of phases. Scalloped-edge inserts reduce cutting forces.
thus allowing deeper and- faster-milling.
1-
‘ig. 10-43 Nonadjustable pocket design for indexable inserts. Locating

surfaces are shown shaded.l
Adjustable insert pockets. The adjustable-pocket type of

cutter body design (see Fig. 10-44) uses an adjustable locating
support that allows variable positioning of the insert axially
with respect to the cutter body. Face runout due to body
inaccuracy is largely eliminated by this design, at a cost of some
reduction in strength. Inserts in a cutter with this style of pocket
may be indexed on the machine, although occasional pocket
Fig. 10-44 Adjustable pocket design for indexable inserts. Locating
adjustment onasetting fixture is required. surfaces are shown shaded.1
Open slot and rail design. Tbe third basic design for cutter
body pockets is called theopen slot and rail design (see Fig.
10-45). Strictly speaking, there is no pocket; the insert is radially
located in a precision rail and is wedge locked. A setting fixture
is required to locate the insert axially during indexing. This
design provides the possibility of minimizing face runout since
the inserts are set to a common face plane.
Cartridge style. The cartridge style of holding indexable
inserts allows axial adjustment and changes in geometries
and lead angles. In the event of damage, the cartridges are
easilv replaced.
M;lling inserts. Inserts used formilling are usually different
from those employed for turning. Heavier duty inserts of
different grades, precision ground and having distinct corner
geometries and edge preparation, are generally used for milling,
and chipbreakers are seldom required. Details of insert shapes,
geometries, sizes, tolerances, and materials are discussed in
Chapter 8 of this volume, “Turning and Boring. ”
An identification system for indexable inserts for cutting
tools is presented in ANSI Standard B94.4, published by
AS ME. Dimensional specifications and styles of these inserts
are presented in ANSI Standards B94.24 and B94.25, also
published by AS ME. Abstracts of these standards appear in
Chapter 8.
inserts with scal[oped cutting edges. Square, rectangular, and ig. 10-45 Open slot and rail design for indexable inserts. Locating
round inserts having scalloped or serrated cutting edges are surface is shown shaded.1
10-30
CHAPTER 10
MILLING CUTTERS
+=+ , -t = 2f,
Cuthng forces ore
transferred through
thin section of
corb,de fnsefl
) Matera
~ removed‘)
./
“1
Ist mseri
4
,1
Followlng
Wmrk. 1 nseris
&
Cutting
—.
<
Workpiece
force
reoct!on
(a)
CuPlng forces ore

trcmsmtted through
heavy section of
m
carbide Insert
L_Lu “\
o ‘@ All inserts
‘ig. 10-46 Scalloped-edge square inserts do sequential cutting—every

other insert removes material left by preceding insert.1
E-P
force
(b)
Work p,ece
reoctlon
Fig. 10-47 (a) Conventional insert mounting and (b) on-edge mounting.
(Cutting Tool Div., Ingersoll Milling Machine Co. )
entrance angle The angle formed between a centerline on the

On-edge inserts. Larger milling cutters with the inserts cutter which is perpendicular to the direction of feed and a
mounted for edge cutting are available (see Fig. 10-47). For radial line through a point on the cutting edge at which the
some applications, faster stock removal rates and longer cutter tooth first contacts the workpiece,
life are obtained. With the on-edge design, the maximum cross heel 1. The back edge of the relieved land; 2. the inner end of a
section of each insert is behind its cutting edge, thereby facing cutting edge,
increasing rigidity. Tangential cutting forces, the key factor in helix angle The cutting edge angle which a helical cutting edge
power consumption, are directed along the plane of each insert makes with a plane containing the axis of a cylindrical cutter,
to make optimum use of the high transverse rupture strength of land The narrow surface of a profile-sharpened cutter tooth
the carbide, and bending loads are reduced. immediately behind the cutting edge.
lip angle The included angle between a tooth and a relieved
MILLING CUTTER NOMENCLATURE land,
Full nomenclature for milling cutter teeth is given in ANSI rake The angular relationship between the tooth face, or a
Standard B94. 19-1977, published by AS ME. Figures 10-39 to tangent to the tooth face at a given point and a given reference
10-41 generally illustrate most standard terms; additional terms plane or line. Various rake angles are illustrated in Fig. 10-48,
that are frequently used are as follows: helical rake Applies to helical teeth only (not angular). The
clearance The additional space provided behind the relieved helical rake at a given point on the flute face is the angle
land of a cutter tooth to eliminate undesirable contact between the tool axis and a tangent plane at the given
between the cutter and workpiece. point.
cutting edge The leading edge of the cutter tooth. hook A concave condition of a tooth face. The rake of a
cutting edge angle The angle which a cutting edge makes with an hooked tooth face must be determined at a given point.
axial plane at any given point. A constant lead produces a posifive rake Describes a tooth face in rotation whose cutting
constant cutting edge angle on a cylindrical cutter and a edge leads the surface of the tooth face.
varying cutting edge angle on a tapered cutter, A varying lead radial rake The angle between the tooth face and a radial line
can be used to produce a constant cutting edge angle on a passing through the cutting edge in a plane perpendicular
tapered cutter. to the cutter axis.
10-31
CHAPTER 10
MILLING CUTTERS
/,
,,/
Axial
rake angle
~ ,fl~$,~~
--
------- m
True
rake cmgle
\
Radial
rake angle
\
>.
L&k Complement of
lead angle
Left-hand helix
Right-hand cut
Right-hand helix
Right-handcut
Left-hand
Fig, 10-48 Relationship between various angles of milling cutter
resultant rake The angle between a tangent to the tooth face

at a given point on the cutting edge and a radial line to this @
point measured in a plane perpendicular to the cutting Left-hand cut
edge. Descriptive of cutter geometry alone, it is the (Cutting end af mill)
resultant rake contained on a cutter due to the combination
of radial rake or hook, axial or helical rake, and a corner
angle or corner radius.
relief The result of the removal of tool material behind or
adjacent to the cutting edge to provide clearance and prevent
@
Right-hand cut
rubbing (heel drag), (Cutting end af mill) Right-hand
axial relie~The relief measured in the axial direction between
a plane perpendicular to the axis and the relieved surface.
It can be measured by the amount of indicator drop at a Fig. 10-49 Hand of rotation and helix for milling cutters.
given radius in a given amount of angular rotation. (Axial
relief is preferred to the term end relie~. clamp bolts. The same arrangement generally directs chips onto
concave relief A relieved surface behind the cutting edge the floor rather than up in the air where they could be hazardous
which is concave. to the machinist. On horizontal duplex (two-opposing spindle)
eccentric relief A relieved surface behind the cutting edge machines, one right-hand cutter and one left-hand cutter should
which is essentially convex. generally be used.
j7at relief A relieved surface behind the cutting edge which is On vertical-spindle machines, the direction of the cutting
essentially flat. forces is often less critical because the part is usually equally
primary relief The relief immediately behind the cutting edge. supported on either side. If a fixed stop is employed, however,
reliefangle The angle formed between a relieved surface and a hand and rotation should be selected to direct the tangential
given plane tangent to a cutting edge or to a point on the force against the fixed stop. (See the preceding discussion of up
cutting edge. and down milling in this chapter.)
radial relief Relief in a radial direction measured in the plane
of rotation. It can be measured by the amount of indicator MILLING CUTTER DIAMETERS
drop at a given radius in a given amount of angular AND POSITIONING
rotation. Two methods exist for measuring the diameter of a face
secondary relief See preferred term “clearance.” milling cutter. The most important method involves determining
side relief See preferred term “axial relief. ” the effective diameter (see Fig. 10-50), This refers to the
maximum width of the flat surface machined by the cutter. It is
HAND OF ROTATION OF measured between the points at which the face cutting edges of
MILLING CUTTERS opposite inserts are tangent to the nose radius or between the
Milling cutters are classified as left and right-hand according highest cutting points of the opposite inserts if inserts with
to their direction of rotation (see Fig. 10-49). To determine if a corner chamfers are used.
milling cutter is left or right-hand, the user should hold the The other common method of diameter measurement involves
cutter from behind with the arm serving as the spindle. If the top determining the maximum diameter. This is the diameter of the
of the tool cuts by rotating to the left (counterclockwise), it is a cutter body as measured between the parts of the body or inserts
left-hand cutter, If the top of the tool cuts by rotating to the on opposite sides that extend furthest in the radial direction.
right (clockwise), it is a right-hand cutter. A good general rule to remember is that the cutter should
On horizontal-spindle machines, the direction of rotation have an effective diameter at least 1 1/2 times the width of cut
should be selected so that the tangential cutting forces press the and should overhang the part 1/4 to 1/ 3 of the cutter diameter
workpiece down against the table rather than up against the (see Fig. 10-5 1). If this rule is followed, chip thickness at insert
10-32
CHAPTER 10
MILLING CUTTERS
entry will be equal to or greater than 80% of the feed per insert
and the insert will enter the cut away from the vulnerable edge. Less Iavoroble More favorable
Milling cutters having diameters larger than the width of the Int[al Impoct Infhal mpoct
workpiece or larger than necessary for adequate overhang on absorbed by Wo,kplece absorbed b, Workpece
curing edge Inser+ foce
the entry side are generally uneconomical and inefficient.
1ooslt,ve entrv ~ (negatve entry
Advantages of using smaller diameter cutters when feasible angle) m
include lower initial cost, the capability of using higher speeds,
and reduced torque, deflection, and vibration.
Size and position of the milling cutter are both important
factors in achieving optimum tool life. One reason is that these
two factors determine undeformed chip thickness at insert
entry. Undeformed chip thickness at insert entry should be high
— I 1
r% /-+ Fig. 10-52 Less favorable and more favorable entry angles for milling
cutters.1
r
Effective dlamctcr
4
(Nose radws ,nserts) enough that the insert avoids the surface layer left by the
previous insert because it may be work hardened, High
undeformed chip thickness prevents chips from jamming
between the insert and workpiece.
Cutter positioning also affects insert entry angle, which helps
determine whether the shock of entering the cut is absorbed by a
strong or weak section of the insert (see Fig. 10-52). The weakest
section of the insert is the cutting edge, so the cutter and
workpiece should be arranged so that the initial impact is
absorbed on the face of the insert—a much stronger section.
Positive entry angles, however, are sometimes required.
EPectve cmmeter
L (CurrIeI chomfer [nserts)
4
When milling cutters are centrally positioned relative to the
workpiecc, their teeth, blades, or inserts engage the material
duringa shorter portion of the cycle than if they were positioned
toward either side of the workpiece. As a result, centrally
Fig. 10-50 Effective diameters of milling cutters.L located cutters generally provide longer life for a given width of
cut, assuming that at least one tooth, blade, or insert is in the cut
t at all times. Positioning the cutter directly at the center of the
Worko(ece workpiece, however, may cause vibration due to changes in the
direction of the cutting forces.
I
m
GEOMETRIES OF IN DEXABLE
INSERT MILLING CUTTERS
The geometry of a milling cutter depends primarily upon the
material to be machined, chip disposal, and rigidity of the
machine, workpiecc, and setup. Important geometrical elements
that must be considered in selecting any indexable-insert
milling cutter include the rake and lead angles, pitch, and corner
geometry of the insert.
NJ
l/4t0 1/3
of cutler
dlometer
overhang
Rake Angles
The attitude of the cutting tool, as it is presented to the
workpiece, has a significant effect on horsepower consumption,
tool life, cost per cutting edge, direction of chip flow, and the
manner in which the cutting forces are absorbed. The standard
angles used to specify milling cutter geometry are radial rake
angle and axial rake angle.
1- Most HSS milling cutters arc made with sharp cutting edges
and appreciable positive radial and axial rake angles, which are
~~e--w~ desirable to separate chips from the workpiece with less effort
Fig. 10-51 Proper cutter positioning affects insert entry angle.1 or force. A high helix angle reduces impact and provides a
10-33
CHAPTER 10
MILLING CUTTERS
smooth cutting action, but is not necessarily most efficient with Standard milling cutters with indexable inserts are offered in
respect to power consumption and heat generation. Cast-alloy the following four geometries:
milling cutters are generally designed with moderate radial and
1. Cutters with negative radial and negative axial rake
axial rakes because of their lower edge strength and greater heat
angles, as illustrated in Fig. 10-53. These are called
resistance as compared with HSS.
double-negative cutters.
Softer workpiece materials permit the use of higher radial
2. Cutters with positive radial and positive axial rake angles
rake angles; harder materials require the use of lower radial
(see Fig. 10-54). These are called double-positive cutters.
rake angles. The diameter of the tool also determines the relief
3. Cutters with negative radial and positive axial rake
angle; small-diameter cutters require higher relief angles than
angles (see Fig. 10-55). These are called negative-positive
large-diameter cutters. Excessive wear and heat may indicate
or shear angle cutters.
too small a relief angle, and chatter may indicate too large a
4. Cutters with high-positive radial and high-positive axial
relief angle.
rake angles (see Fig. 10-56). These are called high-
positive cutters
Negative
q=
j- axialrake
,,- Negative
md!al rake
1!
~ig. 10-53 Double-negative milling cutter.]

Fig. 10-55 Negative-positive (shear angle) milling cutter.1
qp ,’ HI h positive
, Oxlo
7’,
Fig. 10-54 Double-positive milling cutter.1 Fig. 10-56 High-positive milling cutter.]
10-34
CHAPTER 10
MILLING CUTTERS
---
--- ..- .mmm
10-35
CHAPTER 10
MILLING CUTTERS
Double-negative cutters should be considered for many

milling operations, mainly because they use inserts that have
c“ner$%
twice as many cutting edges as the inserts used in double-
G
positivc, negative-positive, or high-positive cutters. The relief
under the edge on negative-rake inserts results from insert
orientation; both sides of the insert can be used for cutting.
Another advantage of double-negative cutters is that they
++
alter the direction in a way that places carbide under com-
pression and thus makes it able to withstand higher cutting
forces. Negative-rake cutters are suitable for milling most steels
and some cast irons, but are generally not recommended for
use on nonferrous or work-hardening materials or on heat-
resistant alloys.
Despite the significant advantages of double-negative cutters, =“-+
cutters with other geometries are preferred for many appli-
cations (see Table 10-2). One reason is that cutters with other
geometries generate somewhat lower cutting forces and consume ~ Workp,ece
less horsepower than double-negative cutters, Step cutters,

having each insert positioned on a separate plane (both axially
and radially) as illustrated in Fig. IO-57, are effective for use on Fig. 10-58 Increasing the lead angle (right) reduces the undeformed
low-powered machines and for applications requiring spindle chip thickness.1
extensions. Positive cutting geometries make step cutters
suitable for milling all types of steels, as well as cast irons. increasing the load on the cutting edge. Too large a lead angle,
Another advantage of negative-positive, double-positive, however, causes high axial cutting loads.
and high-positive cutters is that they tend to direct chips up and Milling cutter styles with larger lead angles also have more
away from the workpiece, unlike double-negative cutters which heat-dissipating capability than those with smaller angles. The
tend to direct chips down toward the workpiece. When steel result is longer tool life when the lead angle is increased. The
requiring large widths and depths of cut, or soft, ductile lead angle also protects the nose of the insert by allowing the
nonferrous metals and high-temperature alloys is milled under insert to enter the cut on a more supported part of the edge. A
any conditions, chips tend to jam in the slots of double-negative problem associated with cutters having large lead angles,
cutters. Consequently, the geometries with positive axial rake is however, is that the direction of the cutting force no longer
recommended. directly opposes the feed, which sometimes causes thin-walled
workplaces to deflect.
Milling Cutter Pitch

Pitch of a milling cutter refers to the distance between cutting
edges, or to insert or tooth density –the number of cutting
edges in the milling cutter. When a milling cutter with a larger
number of cutting edges is used, production rate generally is
increased and cost per piece is reduced, assuming the cutting
speed, feed per insert, and depth of cut are all maintained at
previous levels, When a high feed rate is required, a cutter with a
large number of cutting edges should be selected.
There are several limitations, however, to the use of fine pitch
cutters, If machine horsepower is limited; if the machine tool,
workpiece, or cutting tool lack rigidity; or if increased chip
I gullet capacity is required, it is often necessary to use a coarse to
medium pitch cutter to avoid exceeding horsepower limitations
or generating cutting forces high enough to cause chatter. For
g. 10-57 Step cutters have each insert positioned on a separate plane,
both axially and radially. (Carboiov Systems Dept., General Electric such situations, the relationship between the number of inserts,
co. ) feed, and speed is as follows:
J.
(1)
Lead Angles ‘V’ Jxrpm
The lead–angle, sometimes called the bevel complementary
where:
angle or the cut-entering angle, is the angle formed by the
cutting edge and a line parallel to the cutter axis that passes N ❑ maximum recommended number of inserts
through the theoretical cutting point. This is the cutting point if y~ = feed rate of machine table, ipm or mm/min
the insert has a sharp corner. A ❑ feed per insert, ipr or mm/rev
Generally, the milling cutter with the largest lead angle that rpm ❑ spindle speed, rpm
allows generation of the required part shape should be selected.
A larger lead angle spreads the cut over a broader section of the Corner Geometries
cutting edge, reduces the undeformed chip thickness (see Fig. Selection of the proper corner geometry is one of the most
IO-58), and thus allows a higher feed per insert without critical elements of insert or inserted blade selection for milling
10-36
CHAPTER 10
MILLING CUTTERS
cutters. The types of corner geometry used most frequently are

nose radius, chamfer, double chamfer, and wiper.
Nose radius geometry. An insert with a nose radius is
generally less expensive than a similar insert with any other
corner geometry. A nose radius is also the strongest possible
corner geometry because it lacks the weakness which exists at
the vertex of any finite included angle. The major disadvantage
of an insert with a nose radius is that the surface finish it
produces is generally not as good as the finishes produced by
inserts with other common corner geometries. For this reason,
inserts with nose radii are generally limited to roughing
applications and applications for which a sweep wiper insert
forms the surface, Large nose radii may cause problems with
respect to chatter because of increased cutting pressures.
Corner chamfer geometry. There are two basic methods by
which inserts with a corner chamfer can be applied. Depending
both upon the chamfer angle and the lead angle of the cutter
body in which the insert is used, the land of the chamfer is either
parallel or angular to the direction of feed (see Fig. 10-59).
Inserts that are applied with the chamfer angular to the
direction of feed generally have only a single chamfer. Inserts
that are applied with the chamfer parallel to the direction of
feed may have a single chamfer, a single chamfer and a corner
break, or two chamfers and a corner break. In ANSI
L L (Corner breok)
(RH wpng flat)
terminology, the large lands are referred to as primary facets

Fig. 10-60 Standard terminology for insert chamfers.1
and the smaller lands as secondary facets (see Fig. 10-60).
The greatest advantage of using inserts with the land parallel
to the direction of feed is that, when used correctly, they roughing inserts. The sweep wiper insert should be set higher
generate an excellent surface finish. When inserts with a land at than the other inserts, so that it alone forms the finished surface.
least 0.030” (0.76 mm) wider than the cutter advance per Finishes attained with a wiper insert are even better than
revolution are used and set parallel to the direction of feed, the those possible with a parallel-land chamfer insert. Furthermore,
surface is formed by the land of a single insert and the since the edge of a wiper insert is long, a greater advance per
theoretical roughness height is zero. Actual roughness height revolution may be used, The feed rate, however, should not
may be as low as 20-50 Min. (0.5 1-1.27 pm). exceed the width of the wiper flat. The wiper insert also offers
Parallel-land inserts also make excellent roughing and the same easy setup as the parallel-land chamfer insert.
general-purpose inserts. When a parallel-land insert is used for
roughing, the land width should be as small as possible to Tool Materials for Indexable-lnsert
reduce friction and axial cutting loads. Milling Cutters
Sweep wiper geometry. The sweep wiper type of milling insert Four types of tool materials are used for the vast majority of
differs both in appearance and application. These inserts indexable-insert milling cutters. They are cemented carbide,
usually have only one or two long wiping lands, but can have as coated carbide, ceramic, and diamond. A description of the
many as six on hexagonal shapes. They are used in one or more basic properties of each of these materials as they relate to
pockets of a cutter body filled with other inserts—usually milling operations is presented in this section. A more detailed
discussion of these and other cutting tool materials appears in
a
Chapter 3 of this volume, “Cutting Tool Materials. ”
r
Carbide. Cemented tungsten carbide is the most popular
Cutter cutting tool material for milling operations, but some tougher
grades of cemented titanium carbide are also used, The basic
reason for the popularity of these materials is that they are
Q
capable of operating at much higher cutting speeds than those
of high-speed steel tooling, yet they also have excellent strength.
Different grades of cemented carbide are available (see Chapter
3) to handle the varying demands of roughing and finishing
operations, Generally, roughing-grade inserts are used for
milling because they are stronger and thus bettcrablc to handle
Angular-land Parallel-land 1 variable shock loads. These grades generally contain 6-8%
chomfef chamfer
cobalt, phrs titanium carbide and tantalum carbide; this enables
* them to better handle thermal gradients and internal stresses,
Workplece thus reducing the chances of thermal cracking.
* I Coated carbide. When coated carbide inserts were first
J introduced, they were used almost exclusively for turning and
Fig. 10-59 Inserts with chamfer lands angular and parallel to the boring operations. This was because they were not strong
direction of feed.] enough for most other milling operations. Now, however, the
10-37
CHAPTER 10
MILLING CUTTERS
stronger coated grades that are available are suitable for some made for either right or left-hand cutting. Straight-fluted end
milling operations, mills are not as common or efficient in cutting, but they are used
Sharp cutting edges are desirable on carbide inserts used for on tapered tools and for sizing parallel-sided keyways and slots.
milling to reduce the high cutting forces encountered. While The question of whether to use a two-flute or a multiple-flute
coatings may be applied to sharp insert edges, they are more end mill must be decided on the basis of the type of cut to be
successful on edges that are chamfered and/or honed to a small made, chip space needs, and the production rate and surface
radius. Such treatment strengthens the cutting edges and finish requirements.
reduces the possibility of the coating’s chipping. As a result, Two-flute end mills have greater chip space and are often
some compromise in the form of a small chamfer and/or light used in cutting heavier cuts and in milling to greater depths. End
hone is generally required for the cutting edges of coated mills with more than two flutes, when operated at the same
carbide inserts to be used for milling. cutting speed and feed rate, provide smoother finishes because
The two most popular coatings used today are titanium of their lower chip load per tooth. Production rate for a given
carbide and ceramic (aluminum oxide). Titanium carbide feed per tooth is directly proportional to the number of flutes.
coated inserts offer the best resistance to abrasive wear, which is Cutting ends. End mills are also made with either ball or
the most prevalent failure mode at cutting speeds below 500 sfm square ends. Most square-ended tools, generally having two or
(150 m/rein). Ceramic coated inserts are best at resisting three flutes, have their end teeth cutting to the center for axial or
chemical reaction between tool and workpiece, which is the plunge cutting. End mills with more flutes are available with or
most common failure mode at higher cutting speeds. without center-cutting teeth. Tools without center-cutting teeth
Ceramic. Solid ceramic inserts permit high cutting speeds are made with a counterbore or center hole and are not capable
without loss in tool life. Since they maintain a keen edge longer of plunge cutting. Shell-type end mills, available from a few
than carbide inserts, they generally produce superior surface manufacturers as standard in either inch or metric sizes, are
finishes. The disadvantage of ceramics is that they are much used more extensively in Europe than in the United States.
weaker than either cemented carbides or coated carbides. As a Deflection of end mills. Loss of accuracy and possible chatter
result, they can generally only be used in milling applications in resulting from deflection is a common problem with end mills.
which the interrupted impact loading is quite low (operations in A tool having the largest diameter and shortest extension length
which feed per insert is low to medium and the setup is (from the holder) possible should always be used to increase
exceptionally rigid). Ceramic inserts have been most successful rigidity and minimize deflection. Deflection is directly propor-
in milling cast irons. tional to the cube of the tool overhang and inversely propor-
Diamond. Diamond tools are being used increasingly in their tional to the fourth power of the diameter. Deflection is also
primary application area—machining of abrasive nonferrous affected by the number of teeth engaged in the workpiece.
metals and nonmetallics—as the requirements for increased End mills with heavier webs and reduced flute widths can be
productivity becomes a critical factor. used to minimize deflection, but they reduce chip space. Some
Polycrystalline diamond tooling, consisting of tiny synthetic heavy-duty end mills are made with tapered cores.
diamond crystals fused together in a high-temperature, high-
-pressure process and bonded to a carbide substrate, is widely Construction of End Mills
used. The advantage of this type of tooling is that the carbide End mills are available with solid, tipped (brazed), insertable-
substrate and diamond surface crystal structure give it good blade, and indexable-insert construction.
resistance to shock loading. In finish milling silicon-aluminum Solid end mills. These too[s are made from high-speed steels
cylinder heads, this type of tooling has achieved 100 times better or carbides. The choice between these two materials depends
tool life than tungsten carbide at substantially higher operating primarily upon the machinability, hardness, and structure of
conditions. the workpiece material; the shape of the workpiece; and the type
of milling operation. A detailed discussion of cutting tool
SELECTING END MILLS materials is presented in Chapter 3 of this volume, “Cutting
End milk are the most common and widely used type of Tool Materials. ”
milling cutter. These versatile tools are also available in more Solid HSS end milIs. These took cost less than solid carbide
standard styles, shapes, and sizes than any other milling cutter. or carbide-tipped end mills and are available from stock in a
Major applications include facing (generally for wide cuts of much greater variety of sizes (including small diameters) and
relatively shallow depth), slotting (including keyways, T-slots, styles. Solid HSS end mills are suitable for most applications,
dovetails, etc.), profiling (both internal and external), plunge with the possible exception of milling difficult-to-machine
cutting and diesinking, and cavity cutting. materials. They are generally best for small-diameter, one-of-a-
kind, job-shop, or short-run applications. One disadvantage of
Types of End Mills these tools is the decrease in hardness of the cutting edges as the
End mills are made with both single and double ends, with temperature increases during milling. This makes such tools less
straight and taper shanks, and in various diameters and lengths effective for cutting hard and abrasive materials.
(stub, regular, long, and extra long). Single-end tools are Solid end mills made from HSS’S containing cobalt (so-called
usually preferred for general-purpose work that does not entail premium grades) have increased red hardness and resistance to
long production runs, but indexable-insert, single-end tools are abrasion. They can be operated at cutting speeds about 10~0
used for production applications. higher than those of conventional HSS tools and generally stay
Number of flutes. End mills are available with two, three, sharp for longer periods. Such end mills, however, are more
four, six, or more flutes. Most end mills have helical flutes, but expensive and their increased brittleness requires rugged con-
some have straight flutes. End mills are made with helix angles struction and rigid setups. Some soIid end mills are being made
from W (straight-fluted tools) to 50° or more, with 27° to 3(P from HSS’S produced by powder metallurgy processes (see
being about average for general-purpose milling. They are also Chapter 3).
10-38
CHAPTER 10
MILLING CUTTERS
Solid carbide end mills. These tools are harder, more Carbide-tipped end mills. These tools, having brazed carbide
abrasion resistant, and less affected by high operating tempera- tips, offer many of the advantages of solid carbide end mills.
tures than HSS end mills. They can often be operated 3-10 times Additional advantages include lower cost and availability in
faster and generally have a longer life. Consequently, they larger sizes—2” (51 mm) diam and more.
should be considered for high production milling when Insertable-blade end mills. These tools, having clamped and
adequately powered machines and rigid setups are used. replaceable blades made from HSS, solid carbide, or carbide-
Solid carbide end mills are particularly well suited for cutting tipped material also offer many of the advantages of solid end
nonferrous, nonmetallic, and highly abrasive materials having mills and cost less.
low tensile strengths, such as aluminum and zinc alloys and Indexable-insert end mills. These tools, with mechanically
plastics, They are also used for milling most cast irons and steels clamped, indexable carbide inserts, are being used extensively
for which high rigidity requirements are met. Such tools are for many production applications. Advantages of these tools
generally notrecommended for plunge cutting. Limitations of include their capability of operating at higher speeds and feeds
solid carbide end mills include higher cost and availability in and the availability of multiple cutting edges without the need
only smaller sizes, generally to3/4’’(l9 mm)diam. for regrinding. Possible limitations include their unavailability
I Radial spacing per each axial spacing

/
-1-
II
Axial spacing between inserts #l ond #2 IS one half the
OXIOI spacing between inserts #2 and #3, #3 and #4, etc. I
#2 msefi
‘ “-.-~‘
#5 mseri
# I Insert
@-
~~ g&-: ~ -
#3 insert Neg Neg ~

@
IX radial Oxlol
#5 Al #4 insert rake rake III
p L 50 MIII shank acme
.s fine
Typical all inserts
L I
Fig. 10-61 Roughing end mill with inserts spaced axially and radially for sequential cutting. ( Valeni/e Div., Va/eron Corp. )
PrmOry
rellef \
JII
I
w~c”rner
“e0r:zz55!?
/
~ Rake offset
“ew /
End
‘& Flat
concave
L
gash
hma Heel
land O{
\~ % enlarged V(.W
f per{pherol tooth
/P
Le:::” edge
‘1
‘ , 4--
End tooth
tace
“-‘ L@_
E“”’e
=47= “’kKm
‘“tr’cre”ef :; -k
mru
Flat
‘ ‘y-
\ \
:.::::, v\ End
cufllng
edge
\
,.--.,., ,-) \ End view
I I
\
Fig. 10-62 Nomenclature
... . ..—
and geometry tor solid end mills. (D0,4LL
..- CO.).
10-39
CHAPTER 10
MILLING CUTTERS
in smaller sizes and the fact that finishes produced are not end mills is shown in Fig. 10-62. A rake angle of 15° is common
generally as smooth. While the initial cost of these tools is for general-purpose applications of HSS tools. A smaller rake
higher than that of solid HSS end mills, the cost per piece milled angle, about 8° or IW, is generally provided on solid end mills
is often lower. made from HSS’S containing cobalt.
Some ball-nose end mills with brazed carbide tips have a Most solid end mills are designed with tooth forms having a
convex, radiating, spiral cutting edge with which the cut starts narrow land on their peripheries adjacent to the tooth faces.
at the center and constantly moves outward. As a result, the The land projects above the basic tooth form to permit
chips are directed away from the center of the tool to avoid peripheral cutting edge relief and clearance angle grinding, thus
chipping the carbide. preventing drag. Some tool manufacturers use a flat grind for
One type of indexable-insert, roughing end mill (see Fig. these angles, others generate an eccentric primary land, and a
10-61 ) has round inserts spaced axially and radially around the few produce a concave land. Higher relief angles provide longer
periphery of the cutter body, with only one insert in each cutting tool life, but the milling of hard and tough materials requires the
plane. With this design, entry into the cut is staggered, with each use of lower relief angles to maintain cutting edge strength and
insert cutting its own path. This results in reduced chip loads minimize chipping.
and in the chips’ being broken into small segments. Such Solid end mills for roughing operations, sometimes called
sequential cutting permits heavier cuts with less horsepower corn cob cutters, have various designs of sinusoidal-shaped
and higher metal removal rates. End mills of this type are also cutting edges that split the chips into thick narrow shapes, This
available with other inserts, including serrated-edge inserts. design reduces pressure at the rake/chip interface and results in
more efficient, cooler metal removal. These tools are also
Geometry of Solid End Mills available as roughing/finishing end mills that have flat crests so
Common nomenclature for the geometric elements of solid that a somewhat better finish is produced.
MOUIUTING OF MILLING CUTTERS

Milling cutters are mounted on arbors, in the machine Holding straight-shank cutters in a collet is generally feasible
spindle, or on the spindle nose, often with the use of adapters. only for shanks to 3/4” (19 mm) diam for roughing cuts and to
Regardless of the mounting method, the cutters must be rigidly 11 / 4“ (32 mm) for finishing. Beyond these cutter sizes, adapter-
held to withstand the high interrupted forces of milling and to style holders with setscrew clamping are usually recommended
run true both radially and axially, for increased resistance to high cutting forces.
To facilitate accurate mounting of cutters, most milling
machine spindles are provided with a tapered bore, an OD, and Tapered-Shank Cutters
a face perpendicular to the spindle axis, all precisely ground. These tools are often made with a self-locking taper. In some
The spindles usually have four threaded holes for holding cases, however, a steep taper is used, requiring a drawbar or
clamping screws and two keys for driving cutters, adapters, or some type of quick locking device. Adapters for tapered-shank
arbors. Essential spindle dimensions, tool shanks, and draw-in cutters have a socket that matches the self-locking taper angle of
bolt ends for milling machines are presented in ANSI Standard the cutter shank.
B5. 18-1972, published by AS ME.
MOUNTING SHANK-TYPE CUTTERS

Small-diameter face milling cutters, generally with a diameter
of 2“(51 mm) or less, and almost all end mills have a straight or
tapered integral shank to fit an adapter or the spindle bore.
Common styles of integral shanks used on such cutters are
illustrated in Fig, 10-63.
m Weldon
2-screw dwe
-al Morse taper
(with keeper key slot)
Straight-Shank Cutters
These tools are often mounted in an adapter-style holder that
fits the spindle bore. The holder has a straight bore with the
same diameter as the cutter shank and generally one or more
(
screws that contact flats on the cutter shank for axial retention
Bridgeport R8 8rown & Sharpe
and radial drive. Holders are also available with cam and shank size taper
bayonet-type locking mechanisms, but the cutter shank must
m
correspond with the holder design.
Because of clearance required between the holder bore and
the OD of the cutter shank, the clamping screws can force the
cutter off center and result in runout. Runout can be minimized
o
and accuracy improved by using collet-type holders/adapters Putnam Strolght shank
for straight-shank cutters. With such devices, drive is accom- Postv-Lok
plished by frictional grip on the cutter shank. Some types also shank
have a key that sets axial location and engages the flat on the
cutter shank for drive in the case of heavy loads. Fig. 10-63 Common shank styles used on end mills.’
10-40
CHAPTER 10
MOUNTING OF MILLING CUTTERS
MOUNTING SHELL MILLS MOUNTING LARGER FACE MILLS

A wide range of small-diameter face milling cutters are Face milling cutters larger than about 8“ (200 mm) diam are
available as shell mills. Shell mills are identical in function to available for either of two popular mounting methods: the
face milling cutters, but have hollow bodies. They are mounted flat-back drive and the National Standard drive, also called the
on C-style arbor adapters (see Fig. 10-64). The adapter is National Machine Tool Builders (NMTB) drive.
centered by the internal taper of the machine spindle and is
retained by a drawbar. Precision drive keys on the spindle face Flat-Back Drive
engage keyslots in the arbor which in turn has drive keys that With the flat-back drive (see Fig. 10-65), the face milling
engage the cutter body. The shell mill is positioned by the pilot cutter is located on the pilot diameter of a centering plug that is
diameter on the end of the arbor and held in place by a single mounted in the spindle nose of the machine. Drive keys on the
lockscrew. spindle nose fit into keyways (slots) in the back face of the cutter
C-style arbors are available to fit most machine spindle noses. body. Four bolts hold the cutter against the spindle face.
They are also made with special shank designs for NC/ CNC In general, the flat-back drive is preferred to the National
machines with quick-change tooling systems and for machining Standard drive because (1) it does not weaken the cutter body,
centers with automatic toolchangers. Machining centers are (2) location is set from the accurate spindle bore, and (3) it
discussed in Chapter 15 of this volume, “Multifunction provides a clear view of the cutter/ spindle interface. A possible
Machines. ” disadvantage of this drive is that a suitable centering plug must
be provided. Flat-back drives are required on machines having
spindle tapers that are not National Standard.
When the flat-back drive is used, it is important to ensure that
the centering plug is securely seated in the taper of the spindle
‘he”
millin~ /’77 bore. Otherwise, excessive cutter runout results. For the most
accurate and rigid mounting, the centering plug should first be
secured in the spindle bore using the drawbar. Then the cutter
should be mounted on the pilot of the centering plug and
secured against the spindle face by tightening the four bolts
Centering Flat-back
Hole for center;g
plug face
and mount[ng v kw
milling
Mounts drectly to spindle
cutter
P\lotd,ameter oncentering plug
~ Slots for Bore for
adapter dwe keys slots for centering plug
sp[ndle drive k
C-style
Arbor
Q
rhreaded hole
for drawbar
Elongated holes
1 for different
Shank with sp[ndle bolt circles
Slots for spindle
#50 taper
dwe kevs Threaded hole
o
- \’ for drowbar
Fig. 10-65 Flat-back mounting for face milling cutters 8“ diam or

larger.]
Cutter
drwe keys
National Standard Drive
The National Standard (#40, 50, or 60 NMTB) drive (see Fig.
10-66) is similar to the flat-back drive in that the cutter is bolted
* Boll hole
directly to the spindle face and driven by keys on the spindle
d~ for cutter
01,., .J”m,.,o, retention nose. The difference between the two lies in the method of
centering the cutter. The National Standard mounting does not
use a centering plug; instead, there is a precision, counterbored,
rig. 10-64 Shell milling cutters 3-6” diam are mounted on C-styl locating diameter on the back of the cutter body that locates on
arbors.l the OD of the spindle flange.
10-41
CHAPTER 10
MILLING CUTTERS
N:
-w
-m
n.
r4-
~y
‘-o
-w
vlsm G
r--wo
Oq ~m
?0
ON-- Oz
–!
t
.as-G-. . .
-C -- O-Q
10-42
CHAPTER 10
MILLING CUTTERS
.1
10-43
CHAPTER 10
MILLING CUTTERS
When arbor-type cutters are mounted, the end faces of the

#50 NMTB /
Face /—
spacers must be square to the arbor axis or the arbor may bend
when the nut is tightened. Keys used must be long enough to fit
through any shims or spacers on both sides of the cutter. The
cutters, collars, shims, machine spindle. keys, and arbors must
all be clean and free of burrs. Quick-change arbors to facilitate
Spindle drive keys e QuIII changing cutters are available for jobs for which cutter changing
s
/ .
Spindle nose
Th,s counterbore (pilot dameter)
fll
matches the
~+,’
sptndle nose
diometer #50 topered hole
Cutter
Jii!i!!ii!i!!! Q slots for diameter
/ spindle dwe ([ )
d
b
, /
keys
b!? 7Spacer
dmmeter
Bolt; ior
(D,)
cutier retention
Fig. 10-66 National Standard drive for face milling cutters 8“ diam or [
J
laiger.l
.,er Spocer
MOUNTING CUTTERS ON 0.010“ Maximum
SHAFT-TYPE ARBORS (0.25 mm) depth
0%cut
Plain, side, slotting, and formed milling cutters have keyways
(d)
in their bores for positive radial drive and have precision-
ground center holes for mounting on shaft-type arbors. The
Iieyways extend through the entire lengths of the arbors. One
L n 1 —
end of each arbor is tapered to fit into the tapered bore of the
DZ = 2(d) + D, + 0.020” (0.5 I mm)
machine spindle; the opposite end fits into a rotary bearing and
is supported by an outboard bracket on the overarm of the
Fig. 10-67 Method of determining maximum depth for mounting on
milling machine. arbor.J
Arbor Styles
The two most popular styles of shaft-type arbors for appli- e arbor
cations on horizontal-spindle milling machines are Styles A and nted dotter
B. These arbors are discussed earlier in this chapter under

“Attachments for Milling Machines” (see Fig. 10-35).
Dimensions of Styles A and B arbor shafts, keyseats, keys,
bearing sleeves, shoulder collars, spacing collars, and arbor
nuts are presented in ANSI Standard B5.47-1972, published by
AS ME. Style A arbors have a smaller diameter end bearing and
are generally used for light milling cuts or maximum clearance
between the arbor support and the workpiece. Style B arbors
are designed for heavier cuts with one or more arbor supports.
eaded hole
. for drowbor
Cutter Sizes
The diameter of a cutter that should be mounted on an arbor
can be determined by multiplying the maximum depth of cut by
two, adding the OD of the spacer, and then adding 0.020”
(0.51 mm) for clearance between the spacer and the workpiece
(see Fig. 10-67). r
Use of Arbors
Precision spacing collars with either adjustable or different
widths are used to position milling cutters along the lengths of
the arbors (see Fig, IO-68). Half-side milling cutters are
mounted on such arbors for straddle milling and for machining outboard support Dr(.e
surfaces when conventional face milling is impractical. Double kev
side mills are normally used to machine both sides of a slot. Fig. 10-68 Slotting cutter mounted on a Style B Ssrbor.1
10-44
CHAPTER 10
WORKHOLDING FOR MILLING
is advantageous. Suggested dimensions and tolerances for For a given flywheel weight, the benefits increase when as
arbors, keys, and spacers al-e presented in Table 10-3. large an OD as possible is used. Space for a flywheel, however,
is often limited, and if necessary, the weight can be distributed
Use of Flywheels by using several wheels. Flywheels should be placed as close as
When face, side, and end mills are used, especially coarse- possible to the cutters. The flywheels can be made from a
pitch carbide cutters on low-powered machines, a flywheel is number of discs, each having a center hole and keyway to fit the
sometimes added to the arbor or spindle to reduce torsional arbor. Balancing of flywheels is often necessary.
vibrations caused by intermittent cutting forces.
WORKHOLDIIUG FOR MILLING

Most of the basics of jig and fixture design—including fairly simple device that is manually loaded, clamped, and
locating and supporting principles and clamping methods unloaded. In other cases, it can be a complexly designed device
(screw thread, cam action, wedge, toggle action, and power that may be completely automatic, with locating sensors, fail-
devices)—are discussed in Chapter 9, “Drilling, Reaming and safe clamping, and electrical interlocks that protect the machine,
Related Processes. ” This section is confined primarily to cutter, and operator from damage or injury due to a dislocated
workholding devices for medium to high production require- or improperly clamped workpiece.
ments in milling. Regardless of how well the milling machine is designed and
Proper supporting, locating, and clamping of workplaces are built or how good the cutting tool is, in most cases proper
essential to all machining applications. Good workholding fixturing determines the success of the milling operation. It can
equipment saves time by facilitating loading, clamping, and mean the difference between producing good or bad parts or
unloading and improves safety. Also, when rigid setups are achieving high or low production.
provided, higher and more efficient cutting speeds and feed
rates can be used without causing chatter. The intermittent
cutting action in milling often generates high forces which LOCATING WORKPIECES IN FIXTURES
require strong workholding devices. The most important function of any fixtore is to locate the
One-of-a-kind jobs or jobs with low production requirements workpiece so that the surface to be machined is presented to the
that do not warrant special tooling can employ several cutting tool properly while, at the same time, the surface is kept
inexpensive means of holding workplaces during milling. In in a definite dimensional relationship to other surfaces as
some cases, workplaces can be clamped or bolted directly to dictated by the part drawing. 1n situations in which no previous
the machine table, often using parallels or angle plates (see machining has been done on the workpiece, the location for the
Fig. 10-69). first operation can sometimes be difficult. A thorough analysis
Relatively small and simple workplaces are often held, even of the part drawing, however, combined with good practical
for medium to high production requirements, in vises, chucks, logic, can result in a properly located workpiece regardless of
and similar devices. Such devices are discussed earlier in this its size or shape (see “Tolerance Control, ” Chapter 2 in
chapter under “Attachments for Milling Machines. ” A vise with this volume).
special jaws to clamp a workpiece is shown in Fig. 10-70. One In such cases, a three-plane, six-point location must be
jaw has a gaging surface which is used for setting the cutters determined for initial positioning and to serve as the resting
with a feeler gage. points for the workpiece. These points should be chosen in areas
For many milling applications, however, special workholding that have a definite dimensional relationship to the surface to be
fixtures are required, Depending upon the workpiece shape and machined, They should also be spaced so that the center of
mass, as well as production requirements, the fixture can be a gravity of the workpiece permits it to rest securely until
additional supports, jacks, and clamps can be moved into
position.
A workpiece must logically be located in three basic planes or
directions. The rest points usually provide the first or vertical
plane. Once these are established, the workpiece must then be
positioned laterally in the second plane. In this instance, when
rough surfaces are the only ones available, two points must be
chosen to square the workpiece in this plane. Again, they must
be dimensionally related to the surface to be machined. With
the workpiece located against these points, it is then located in
the third plane. This can be a single point so that it does not
conflict with or disturb the locations already obtained.
A simplified rectangular object is illustrated in Fig. 10-71,
with six locating points shown. In the absence of machined
/ wo;k / pOrallels V surfaces or holes that might be used, these six points should be
Cutter Table T-bolts used for locating workplaces of this type.
If the operation to be done is not the first and if previously
Fig. 10-69 Workpiece mounted on parallels and clamped to table of machined surfaces do exist, location is taken from these
milling machine with T-bolts. surfaces when possible. When accurately machined holes are
10-45
CHAPTER 10
--+-
n
;, L-l-J
, .’+
‘t’
4’+
L-u
./ L —
1 PlOne 2
~-1- Feeler
I
4.+. ,
gage Plane 2
/ Plane 3
d q
LL4 -.
1
~ig. 10-71 Six points are used for locating this rectangular workpiece.
(Cincinnati Milacron Inc. )
While manually operated clamps are suitable for many appli-

cations, quick-acting hydraulic or pneumatic clamping devices
‘T facilitate workpiece loading and unloading. Each clamp must
be chosen or tailored to suit the existing conditions. Heavy or
high-power cuts require stronger clamps and a multiplication of
\ applied fc~ce to securely hold the workpiece.
,#LJ-_ --—---l The mechanical advantage of screw threads, wedge angles,
cam and lever systems, and similar devices must sometimes be
used to produce the needed holding power for the clamp. This is
Diredon of feed
< often the case with manual clamping, when the initial clamping
Front view is governed by the strength or effort of the operator. One
desirable feature of a well-designed fixture is that it allows the
Cutters operator to produce ample clamping pressures without demand-
ing undue effort, causing fatigue.
Automatic clamping with hydraulic cylinders as the actuators
has the advantage of producing a high clamping pressure with
only ounces of force needed to operate a control valve. High-
power cuts, however, often require such fixtures to be built with
wedge devices and levers to multiply the forces of the initial
cylinder pressure.
Power required for the milling operation and the cutting
forces produced, as well as the direction of these cutting forces
relative to the workpiece, are important factors in the type and
placement of clamps.
Some long, gantry-type, CNC spar milling machines are
equipped with toggle-type workholding clamps that are cam
actuated to open as the gantry and cutters approach and then
close as the gantry passes. During loading and unloading, all the
L .-
—..— ..—
-—
-1
Side v[ew
hydraulically operated clamps are controlled by a single valve.
TYPES OF FIXTURES
Fig.10-70 Visewithspecial jaws forclamping workpiece. Onejawhasa Milling fixtures can generally be classified in one of five
setting-gage surface foruseof a feeler gage.
classifications, depending upon their application. These classi-
fications are:
available, these too are sometimes used with dowels or locating
pins. For shafts or parts with turned and ground diameters, 1. Low production fixtures. These are simple manually
when centers and axial centrality are important factors, V- loaded, hand-clamped fixtures. They are often suitable
blocks or other types of locators are used that permit orientation and most economical for small job-lot quantities of
of the workplace to the centerline. workplaces. A simple fixture for milling the sides and
center surface of a workpiece is illustrated in Fig. 10-72.
TYPES OF CLAMPS The workpiece is centered on the fixture by hand based
Many different types of clamps are used for fixtures, on the operator’s judgment or on sight locator lines
depending upon the space available and the pressures required. scribed on the mounting surface.
10-46
CHAPTER 10
2. Medium to high production fixtures. These are generally specific operations. Hopper-loaded fixtures for small-
manually loaded, with either hand or automatic clamping. part production can be included in this class,
Multistation fixtures, used when more than one part is 4. Numerical control,l computer numerical control machine
processed at the same time, can be included in this and machining center fixtures. These are usually manually
classification. ‘l’his type of fixture is generally the most loaded and clamped. While not complex, these fixtures
popular. can be quite a challenge to design because the machining
3. High production and transfer machine fixtures. These of much of the workpiece must be done in one setup. The
fixtures are almost always automatically loaded and space allotted for the placement of clamps and jacks is
unloaded and are automatically clamped. They can be also generally limited.
made to suit standard milling machines, transfer lines 5. Pallet-type fixtures, These are used in manufacturing
(see Fig. 10-73). or special tailor-made machines for systems for large workplaces in which the pallet (with
Gaging
Workplece
surface Feeler gage
i
[-” -- --~ --—.-.- t
I 1
1 8,,
II 1;, , /
11,1,1 1
‘~::’t i
II
;I
‘i I II
?4
,,1 “1. s
J b“::-.
@ 1
1 1
Fig. 10-72 Simple milling fixture in which the workpiece is centered by hand.
I
Table feeds to cut Transfer
4 hcx
Fig. 10-73 Automatic locating and clamping fixture for transfer line, viewed in the direction of workpiece transfer. (Cirrcirrrrafi Milacron Inc. )
10-47
CHAPTER 10
fixture) must be transported from one machine to production-type fixtures, but a large portion of the fixtures are
another automatically without relocating or reclamping purchased together with the machine tool. Machine tool
of the workpiece. They usually have to hold large builders tailor the fixtures to suit a particular machining
awkward workplaces that must be hoist loaded to and operation or system,
from the fixture, which is permanently attached to the
FIXTURE CAPACITIES
pallet. Clamping can be manual or automatic, and the
Fixtures are made to accommodate one or more workplaces
pallet is designed for transporting and for being located
per machining cycle, as the production rate demands. For
and clamped automatically in any or all of the machining
milling operations in which arbor-mounted cutters are used,
stations. A load/unload area is designated along the
sometimes three or more workplaces can be placed side by side
route of the system. Machining centers and manufac-
in the same fixture. When additional cutters are placed on the
turing systems are discussed in Chapter 15 of this volume,
arbor, a number of duplicate cuts can be made, thereby
“Multifunction Machines, ”
increasing the output. An end view of a six-station hydraulic
fixture is shown in Fig. 10-74. Slotting cuts are made in the
SELECTING A FIXTURE workpieces, and a high production rate is obtained.
The fixture to be used for a specific application depends Reciprocal milling requires the use of two fixtures, one at the
primarily upon production requirements, including the cycle right-hand end of the table and one at the left-hand end. With
time and the total number of workplaces to be produced. Cycle appropriate safety features (discussed previously in this chapter
time for a given machining operation includes the loading and under “Production Milling Methods”), one fixture can be
unloading time and the cutting time. More often than not, the unloaded and reloaded by the operator while the other loaded
cutting time is usually the shortest portion of the cycle time; fixture is being moved through the cutting cycle. This method
loading and unloading of the fixture is generally the longest part eliminates the loading time that would be needed with the use of
of the cycle (see “Machine Loading and Unloading, ” Chapter 16 a single fixture.
in this volume). For this reason fixtures must be made to be
loaded and unloaded as quickly as possible. The type of FIXTURE DETAILS
clamping to be used is determined by the production rate Many variations are available with respect to sizes and types
required. of clamps to suit a given situation, A typical wedge-type clamp
Production-type fixtures are designed with the production that has great mechanical advantage for clamping pressure is
rate given first consideration. Cost can be high due to the illustrated in Fig. 10-75. The wedge angle can be any workable
requirements of the fixture. Life span is not expected to be long angle less than 45°; the smaller the angle, the greater the force
because of the heavy usage the fixture receives, but many such ratio. When powered by a hydraulic cylinder, a small angle can
fixtures have a lon~ life. be a fail-safe feature meventin~ clamrr release—even if the
Many manufa~turing companies produce their own hydraulic pressure wer~ to fail o~drop ~trring milling,
Slofllng cutters
L‘i- -<-1 1-“{--1‘-J h‘!i--?-J

+ —+— — —+— - $table
—t’— -
I
, ?
.. — —1. ..- — ..- —.l- ,-
/’ I 0“ \ I
1 ,
,
1 1 I I r
,
Machine table + )
g. 10-74 End view of a hydraulic fixture for slotting six workplaces at a time. (Cincinnati Milacron inc. )
10-48
CHAPTER 10
heat treatment for various fixture details, precision fits for
+7’m&
Workplece
.— -.G _
●
___
moving parts, good lubrication, and seals when the fixture is to
be used under a flood of coolant
considerations.
are also important
Many fixtures are designed to index, rotate, or move in

various directions. As with automatic clamping, the required
Pivot
sequence of movements can be extremely important and must
Type be controlled through proper sequence valves or solenoids.
For applications in which the workpiece to be machined has
large smooth or machined surfaces on which to locate and rest,
but for which pressure clamping is not possible or presents
problems, a magnetic or vacuum type of plate or fixture can be
the answer, These are available commercially in many types and
sizes. Magnetic and vacuum chucks are discussed in Chapter 11
of this volume, “Grinding.”
Basic recommendations that should be followed in the design
of any fixture are as follows:
Secto. AA
1. Solid, heavy-duty components should be used. Fixture
bases are generally made of cast iron or welded steel
construction, with heavy ribbing for stability under
clamping and cutting forces. Construction and strength
of the fixture has a definite effect on the tolerances that
ig.10-75 Wedge-type clamp provides good mechanical advantage for
creasing pressure. (Cincinnati Milacron Inc. ) can be held.
2. Cutting forces should be applied against positive stops or
backups, not a~dinst clamps.
3, Support for the workpiece should be provided directly
under or opposite the clamping force (see Fig. IO-77).
Workplece
4. Clamm and other fixture components should be checked
to en~ure that they are not in ~he paths of the cutters.
Clamplng
Clamplng
Force
B?!!!5
Force
Rlgk Wrong Wrong

& k
Clamp studs should be placed new the workplece cmd
I not the clomp por
Fig. 10-76 Typical wedge-type support jack equipped with a spring to . -4 — Tl-
move the wedge. (Cirscirwrafi Milacron Inc.)
8 ,8,
In the case of low production fixtures, screw-type jacks are u, \ . .....
often sufficient to support frail or overhung portions of
workplaces. If loading time must be fast, however, a wedge-type ~~
Workplece should be suppoded directly beneath clamps
support jack (see Fig. 10-76) can be made to operate quickly and to prevent dlstofllon
do the job as well or better. Using spring pressure to move the
wedge allows the jack to move until the workpiece is contacted,
and the jack remains there due to the small angle of wedge.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Many conditions must be considered in fixture design. One
important consideration is safety devices, mechanical and/or
electrical, enabling accidents and scrapped parts to be kept to a
minimum. Chips from the milling cuts are a constant problem.
Workplece should be blocked directly opposite the Ih, ust
Sloped surfaces in the fixtures, where possible, and air jets built blocks to prevent dlstorhon.
into the locators can help alleviate this problem.
The calculation of cutting forces is sometimes necessary and
the direction in which the forces are exerted is always required Fig. 10-77 Examples of correct and incorrect setups for milling.
for any successful fixture design. Proper material selection and (Cutting Tool Div., Ingersoll Milling Machine Co. )
10-49
CHAPTER 10
OPERATING PARAMETERS FOR MILLING

There are so many variables influencing milling that it is formula are approximate, other factors must be considered if
difficult to predict results reliably. These variables include the more accurate estimates are needed. Factors that influence
size and shape of the workpiece; the material from which it is power requirements include cutting speed, undeformed chip
made (its machinability, physical properties, and condition); thickness, cutter geometry, and machine efficiency.
the kind of milling operation to be performed; the type of cutter Cutting speed. When most common materials are milled, the
used (its material and geometry); the machine employed power requirement per unit of material removed decreases as
(including its condition); the rigidity of the setup; and the the cutting speed increases up to a critical value, which varies
production rate, tolerance, and surface finish requirements. for different materials. Further increases above the critical
Width and depth of cut, as well as the tooth entrance angle, also value do not significantly affect power requirements.
have a profound effect. Chip thickness. Increasing the undeformed chip thickness by
All these variables, notwithstanding, an attempt must be increasing the feed per tooth or insert results in an increase in
made to establish at least initial parameters for any milling power consumption. The increase in power consumption,
operation. These parameters include power and force require- however, is proportionately smaller than the increase in metal
ments, cutting speed, feed rate, depth of cut, and cutting fluid to removal rate.
be used. Optimum parameters cannot be established, however, Since the undeformed chip thickness is constantly changing
and truly reliable predictions of results cannot be obtained until in a milling operation, the position of the milling cutter (see
the milling operation is actually performed and trial parameters Figs. 10-51 and 10-52) must be considered in determining
are tested. Other important factors that must be considered are average undeformed chip thickness. When the cutter axis
sharpening practices (if grind-type cutters are used), setup and intersects the workpiece, the maximum undeformed chip
application methods, troubleshooting, and safety. thickness equals the feed per tooth or insert. Whenever the
cutter axis overhangs the workpiece, the undeformed chip
POWER REQUIREMENTS thickness during milling is always smaller than the feed per
Two power requirements exist for any milling application. tooth or insert.
The first, by far the greater in magnitude, is tbe power required Cutter geometry. The element of milling cutter geometry that
at the machine spindle to rotate the cutter through the has the greatest effect on power consumption is tbe true rake
workpiece. The second, lesser in value, is tbe power required to angle (see Fig. IO-48). As the true rake angle is increased (made
feed the workpiece into the cutter or the cutter into the more positive or less negative), cutting forces are reduced and
workpiece. power consumption is decreased. Increasing the true rake angle,
however, causes each tooth or insert to be placed in a weaker
Spindle Power cutting position. When negative cutting rakes are used, up to
Several methods have been developed for calculating the 30% more power may be required.
power required at the machine spindle for milling. One formula, Machine efficiency. The simplified formula (2) is for
widely accepted throughout the machine tool industry as well as calculating power required at the milling machine spindle, It
by milling cutter users, is as follows: does not take into account the power required to overcome
hp . friction and inertia within the machine. Theefficiencyvalue of a
KST [0.00549( 1000/4 )’] (2)
machine tool is equal to the percentage of rated motor power
where: that is available at the spindle. Available power varies with
hP machine types and construction and between different machine
❑ the approximate horsepower required at the machine
manufacturers. This efficiency depends primarily upon its
spindle for milling, including a 30qo ~ull tool
construction; type of bearings; number of belts or gears driving
allowance and a 20T0 machine friction allowance
tbe spindle, carriage, or table; and other moving parts. Typical
K= a machinability factor for milling different materials
overall efficiency values for milling machines having different
(see Table 10-4)
rated powers are presented in Table 10-6.
s= peripheral speed of cutter, sfm
T= average number of cutter teeth in contact with the
Determining Power More Accurately
workpiece
A= Taking these factors (speed, chip thickness, cutter geometry,
cross-sectional area of workpiece material removed
and machine efficiency) into consideration, a detailed discussion
by one cutter tooth, in.2
yz of determining a reasonably accurate estimate of power required
a machining exponent for different workpiece
at the motor and spindle, or the maximum metal removal rate
materials (se; Table 10-4)
possible with a certain size of motor, is presented in the Milling
For metric usage, the horsepower (hp) should be multiplied Handbook of High-E f17cicncy Metal Cutting. I An accurate
by 0.746 to obtain the kilowatt (kW) requirements. power monitor on the machine is the best method of determining
Table 10-5 shows the metal removal rates for average milling actual power consumed,
conditions, using carbide cutters and a feed rate of 0,010 ipr
Tangential Load
(0.25 mm/rev) per tooth, with milling machines of different
The tangential load is a force which serves as a basis for
horsepower ratings. Values given vary with the geometries of
making several design decisions in milling applications. This
the cutters.
force is tangent to the effective cutting radius of the cutter, as
Factors Affecting Power Requirements illustrated in Fig. 10-78. Direction of the force can be derived by
Since the spindle power requirements calculated with this a simple graphic vector summation of the individual cutting
10-50
CHAPTER 10
TABLE 10-4
Values and Factors Used to Calculate Power Requirements
for Milling Various Materials
Values of [0.00549 (1000A)’] for milling:

A, Steel Cast Iron Cast Steel Aluminum
in.2 (r ❑0.803) (r ❑ 0.865) (r ❑ 0.850) (r= 0.940)
0.0001 0.000862 0.000746 0.000774 0.000631
0.0002 0.00150 0.00136 0.00139 0.00121
0.0003 0,00209 0.00194 0.00198 0.00177
0.0004 0.00262 0.00249 0.00251 0.00232
0.0005 0.00315 0.00301 0.00305 0.00287
0.0006 0.00365 0.00353 0.00356 0.00340
0.0007 0.00413 0.00404 0.00406 0.00393
0.0008 0.00459 0.00453 0.00454 0.00445
0.0009 0.00505 0.00501 0.00502 0.00497
0.001 0,00549 0.00549 0.00549 0.00549
0.002 0,00966 0.0100 0.00988 0.0105
0.003 0.0133 0.0142 0.0139 0.0154
0.004 0.0167 0.0182 0.0178 0.0202
0.005 0.0200 0.0202 0.0218 0.0249
Material Material
Factor, Factor,
Material Milled K Material Milled K
Cast irons, Aluminum,
with Bhn of with Bhn of
140-190 0.83 50-75 0.42
190-230 1.3 110-145 0.67
230-320 1.7
Bearing babbitt and bronze 0.72
Nodular irons,
Steels:
with Bhn of
200-270 0.83 AISI No. Bhn
240-300 1.3 1010 110-130 1.5
270-350 1.7 1020 140-160 1.6
1045 220-235 2.5
Malleable irons,
1137 180-190 1.7
with Bhn ofi
3140 220-240 2.7
110-145 0.56
4140 190-230 2.2
150-200 0.74
4820 100-230 2,7
200-240 0.83
5140 175-230 2.3
8620 170-220 2.1
6140 190-230 2.8
forces of each tooth or insert engaged in the workpiece. For I
continuous cuts, the direction of force lies on a line between the Rotation
point of tooth entry and the point of tooth exit.
7
Once the cutter power has been calculated, the tangential
load can be derived from it with the formula:
~ . 126,000 X/lP
(3)
D x rpm
Work
where:
Feed
T ❑ tangential load, lb
hp z horsepower required at the cutter
D= cutter diameter, in.
rprn = rotational speed of the cutter L ,
/
This formula for tangential load assumes constant load on Dlred(on of
tangential load
the cutter, which may not be the case. For metric usage, pounds
(lb) should be multiplied by4.448 to obtain the tangential force
in newtons (N). ‘ig. 10-78 Tangential load for face milling cutter.
CHAPTER 10
TABLE 10-5
Metal Removal Rates Possible with Milling Machines Having Different Power Capacity Ratings
Rated Power Capacity of Machine Spindle, hp (kW)

5 7.5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 75 100
(3.7) (5.6) (7.5) (1 1.2) (14.9) (18,6) (22.4) (29.8) (37.3) (56) (74.6)
Material Milled Metal Removal Rate, in, s/ min (cmq/ rein)
Aluminum alloys 35 1Uu 1Lu ,zLu
(;:1
1 Iu 3XJ 4>(J
(42:0) (574) ) (1639) ( 1966) (2786) (3605) (5408) (7374)
Brass 6.5 120 170

(107) ( /:4) (2’;9) (::1
) (::2) (::3) (;;7) ( 186) (1!!1) ( 1966) (2786)
Bronze 5.5 8.6 32 110 150
(90) (141) (3’:1) (524) (::0) (;5;) (185) (1803) (2458)
Cast irons:
soft, 150-180 36 142 200
Brinell (E) (;:3) (295) (:?5) (490) ($:7) (/:5) ( 11:0) (2327) (3277)
medium-hard, 5.5 8.6 12 25 52 110 150
180-225 Brinell (90) (141) (1 97) (3’191
) (41 o) (::4) (5%0) (852) (1803) (2458)
malleable, 5.5 110 150
soft to hard (90) ( :4!) ( lf7) (3?1) (::0) (5%4) (5YO) (:;2) (1803) (2458)
hard, 225-350 3.5 130
Brinell (57) (;8) (1:7) (2?6) (::8) (;:0) (:;2) (::5) (lfi5) (2 I30)
Cast steels, 3.2
soft to hard (52) (1’;7) (2’:2) (;;8) (:;3) (::4) (1!!4) (1::7)
Steels:
100-150 Brinell 6 9 J30
150-250 Brinell
(g) (98) (147) (2’:6) (:;8) (::0) (;;2) (;;5) (;:1
) (lf15) (2130)
5.2 7.5
250-350 Brinell
&
2.8
(85) ( 123) ( :;7) (;:2) (;;8) (:;3) (524) (7%5) (1:!4) (1:;7)
4.5 6.5 37
(46) (74) (107) ( f’:4) (2’:9) (2’;9) (:;4) (::9) (606) (;:3) (1!;3)
350-450 Brinell 2.5 5.5
(41) (:6) (90) ( 1:7) (1Y7) (2!6) (2’:5) (:9$ (;:1 ) (8?5) (1:!1)
(Valenite Div., Valeron Corp. ]
exceed any other allowances required for table and feed drive-
Feed Force
train friction.
The tangential load has a direct relationship to the force
Face milling applications can be analyzed in much the same
required to feed the work into the cutter or vice versa. The
manner, Depending upon the direction of cutter rotation in
tangential load for a plain milling cutter used in a climb or down
relation to the direction of feed, as well as the location of the
milling application tends to pull the workpiece into the cutter.
area being milled, such applications produce either positive or
This results in a small feed load. The action also produces a
negative-feed loads. However, since climb milling is almost
downward force which increases the load on the table ways of a
always preferred. the tendency is to pull the work into the
horizontal milling machine. This increased frictional load.
cutter. As is the case with the previously explained plain milling
however, is usually minimal, and its effects are more than offset
by the pulling action. For such applications, the force required applications, this results in minimal or negative loads.
Resultant components of the tangential force can be
to feed the work into the cutter can be low and may represent
calculated from the formulas:
only that force necessary to overcome the weight of the
workpiece, fixture. and table, plus the friction of the table ways ,4 ❑ Tcosa (4)
and the feed drive train. In some cases, the cutter may overcome and
the resistance and pull the workpiece into itself with possible (5)
,S= Tsina
disastrous results.
Conventional or up milling with a plain milling cutter tends where:
to lift the workpiece off the table of a horizontal milling ,4 ❑ resultant force along feed axis, Ibf
machine; the tangential load directly opposes the direction of S ❑ resultant force at 9@ to feed axis, Ibf
table feed. For such applications, it is usually safe to assume T ❑ tangential force produced by cutter, Ibf
that the force required to feed the table will not exceed the a = angle between tangential force line and feed axis,
value of the tangential force created by the cutter, nor will it degrees
10-52
CHAPTER 10
TABLE 10-6
(9)
Overall Efficiencies of Milling Machines
Having Different Power Capacity Ratings
Changing the machine spindle speed while the table feed rate
is held constant causes the feed per tooth to change. If the feed
Rated Power
per tooth is considered optimum, any change in cutting speed
Capacity of Overall Rated Power
should be accompanied by a change in table feed rate.
Milling Machine, Efficiency, x Efficiency,
Chip thickness or load per tooth varies depending upon the
hp (kW) Percent hv (kW)
lead angle and the relationship of the tooth to the centerline of
3 (2.2) 40 1.2 (0.9) the cutter.
5 (3.7) 48 2.4 (1.8)
7.5 (5.6) 52 3,9 (2.9) Cutting Speeds
10 (7.5) 52 5.2 (3.9) Milling cutter speed refers to its peripheral or surface speed
15 (11.2) 52 7.8 (5.8) expressed in feet per minute (sfm) or meters per minute
20 (14.9) 60 12.0 (8.9) (m/ rein). It is the straight-line distance that a point on tbecutter
25 (18.6) 65 16.2(12.1) OD would travel in one minute at a specified rotary speed
30 (22.4) 70 21.0 (15.7) (rpm). The cutter speed is related to machine spindle speed
40 (29.8) 75 30.0 (22.3) (rpm) as follows:
50 (37,3) 80 40.0 (29.8)
sfm = 0.262d x rpm (lo)
(Kearney & Trecker Corp.)
where:
Angle a is difficult to estimate because it varies with the sfm ❑ milling cutter surface speed, ft/ min
workpiece material, cutter design, cutting fluid, and operating d ❑ cutter diameter, in.
parameters. or:
For metric usage, pound-force (lbf) should be multiplied by
4.448 to obtain force in newtons (N). m/min = 0.00314d x rpm (11)
where:
FEEDS AND SPEEDS FOR MILLING
The two factors, in addition to depth and width of cut, that m/min = milling cutter surface speed
have the greatest effect on productivity and forces acting upon d = cutter diameter. mm
the cutter, machine. workpiece. and fixture in milling are the or:
feed rate and cutting speed. Together, these [actors determine 3.82 xsfm (12)
the stock removal rate, which provides the basis for the power rprn =
d
and force calculations just discussed. where:
d = cutter diameter, in.
Milling Feed Rates
The feed rate for milling cutters is generally expressed in or:
inches per minute (ipm) or millimeters per minute (mm/min) 318.31 xmjmin
and is normally established by selecting an appropriate feed per rpm = (13)
d
tooth (fpt), blade, or insert. In selecting feed per tooth, it should
be noted that there is a minimum chip thickness, which varies where:
for different materials, that must be maintained in order to d = cutter diameter. mm
produce good cutter life. At the other extreme, the maximum
chip thickness is usually limited by the power available: the
strengths of the cutting teeth, workpiece, and fixture; and other Relationship Between Speed and Feed
factors such as available chip space between the cutter teeth and Whenever any one of the variables–-the cutting speed, feed
finish desired. per tooth or insert, or width or depth of cut—is increased while
Chip thickness varies from zero to the same as the feed the others are held constant, the metal removal rate increases. A
per tooth with deep peripheral cuts, while the maximum change in any of these operating parameters has an equal effect
chip thickness is less than the feed per tooth with shallow on the metal removal rate.
peripheral cuts. Feed per tooth (fpt) in inches or millimeters, Increasing tbe speed, feed, or cutting depth reduces cutter
inches per revolution (ipr). or millimeters per revolution life, but the amount that cutter life is reduced depends upon
(mm/ rev), and feed rate in inches per minute (ipm) or milli- which operating parameter is increased. In general, cutter life is
meters per minute (mm/min) are all interrelated. Selection less affected by changes in depth of cut than by changes in either
starts with the feed per tooth, Formulas for calculating ipr, ipm, speed or feed. As a result, the depth of cut should be as high as
and fpt are: possible for the most favorable compromise between cutter life
and metal removal rate.
ipm (or rnm/min)
ipr (or rrrnr/rev) ❑ (6) Feed per tooth has a greater effect on cutter life than the
rpm
depth of cut, but the change in cutter life is much smaller than
or: would result from an equal increase in cutting speed. Con-
sequently, most experts recommend using the highest feasible
ipr (or mmjrev) z fpi (in, or mm) x number of teeth (7) feed per tooth to optimize the trade-off between machining time
ipr (ormmjmin) = ipr (or mm/rev) xrpm (8) and cutter life.
10-53
CHAPTER 10
TABLE 10-7
Suggested Starting Speeds and Feeds for Milling Various Materials
High-Speed Steel Cutters

Material Full and
Milled Feed and Sueed Face Mills Slab Mills Half-Side Mills Saws Form Mills
Aluminum Feed per tooth, 0.010-0.025 0.015-0.025 0.010-0.020 0.004-0.008 0.010-0.020
alloys in. (mm) (0.25-0.63) (0.38-0.63) (0.25-0.51) (0.10-0.20) (0.25-0.51)
Cutting speed, 300-1200 300-1200 300-1200 300-1000 300-1200
sfm (m/ rein) (91 -366) (91-366) (91-366) (91-305) (91-366)
Brass Feed per tooth, 0.010-0.025 0.008-0,020 0.008-0.015 0.003-0.005 0.008-0.015
in. (mm) (0.25-0.63) (0.20-0.51) (0.20-0.38) (0.08-0. 13) (0.20-0,38)
Cutting speed, 150-300 100-300 150-350 150-300 100-300
sfm (m/min) (46-9 1) (30-91) (46-107) (46-9 1) (30-91)
Bronze Feed per tooth, 0.010-0.025 0.008-0.020 0.008-0.015 0.003-0.005 0.008-0.015
in. (mm) (0.25-0.63) (0.20-0.51) (0.20-0.38) (0.08-0.13) (0.20-0.38)
Cutting speed, 50-225 50-200 50-225 50-250 50-200
sfm (m/ rein) ( 15-69) (15-61) (15-69) (1 5-76) (15-61)
Cast irons:
soft, Feed per tooth, 0.010-0.025 0.010-0.025 0.010-0.020 0.002-0.005 0.010-0.015
150-180 in. (mm) (0.25-0.63) (0.25-0.63) (0.25-0.51) (0.05-0. 13) (0.25-0.38)
Brinell Cutting speed, 80-120 70-110 80-120 70-110 60-80
sfm (m/ rein) (24-37) (21-34) (24-37) (21-34) (18-24)
medium-hard, Feed per tooth, 0.010-0.020 0.008-0.015 0.008-0.015 0.003-0.005 0.008-0.012
180-225 in. (mm) (0.25-0.51) (0.20-0.38) (0.20-0.38) (0.08-0.13) (0.20-0.30)
sfm (m/ rein) (18-24) (15-21) (18-24) (18-21) (15-18)
malleable, Feed per tooth, 0.005-0.015 0.005-0.015 0.006-0.012 0.003-0.006 0.005-0.010
soft to in. (mm) (0.13-0.38) (0.13-0.38) (0.15-0.30) (0.08-0.15) (0.13-0.25)
hard Cutting speed, 60-100 60-90 60-100 60-100 60-80
sfm (m/ rein) (18-30) (18-27) ( 18-30) ( 18-30) ( 18-24)
hard, Feed per tooth, 0.005-0.012 0.005-0.010 0,005-0.010 0.002-0.004 0.005-0.010
225-350 in. (mm) (0,13-0.30) (0.13-0.25) (0.13-0.25) (0.05-0.10) (O.13-0.25)
sfm (m/min) (12-18) (11-15) (12-18) (11-18) (11-15)
Cast steels, Feed per tooth, 0.010-0.015 0.010-0.015 0.005-0.010 0.002-0.005 0.008-0.012
soft to hard in. (mm) (0.25-0.38) (0.25-0.38) (0.13-0.25) (0.05-0. 13) (0.20-0.30)
Cutting speed, 40-60 40-60 40-60 40-60 40-60
sfm (m/ rein) (12-18) (12-18) (12-18) (12-18) (12-18)
Steels:
100-150 Feed per tooth, 0.015-0.020 0.008-0.015 0.010-0.020 0.003-0.006 0.008-0.010
Brinell in. (mm) (0.38-0.51) (0.20-0.38) (0.25-0.51) (0.084.15) (0.20-0.25)
Cutting speed, 80-130 80-130 80-130 70-100 70-100
sfm (m/ rein) (24-40) (24-40) (24-40) (21-30) (21-30)
150-250 Feed per tooth, 0.010-0.020 0.008-0.015 0.010-0.015 0.003-0.006 0.006-0.010
Brinell in. (mm) (0.25-0.51) (0.20-0.38) (0.25-0.38) (0.08-0. 15) (0.15-0.25)
Cutting speed, 50-70 50-70 50-70 50-70 50-70
sfm (m/ rein) (15-21) (15-21) (15-21) (15-21) (15-21)
250-350 Feed per tooth, 0.005-0.010 0.0054.010 0.005-0.010 0.002-0.005 0.005-0.010
Brinell in. (mm) (O.13-0.25) (0.13-0.25) (0.13-0.25) (0.05-0.13) (O.13-0.25)
Cutting speed, 35-60 35-50 35-50 35-50 35-50
sfm (m/ rein) (11-18) (11-15) (11-15) (11-15) (11-15)
350-450 Feed per tooth, 0.003-0.008 0.005-0.008 0.003-0.008 0.001-0.004 0.003-0.008
BrinelI in. (mm) (0.08-0.20) (O.13-0.20) (0.08-0.20) (0.03-0.10) (0.08-0.20)
Cutting speed, 20-35 20-35 20-35 20-35 20-35
sfm (m/ rein) (6-11) (6-1
., 1) (6-11)
. . (6-1 1) (6-1 1)
* Coated carbides can generally be applied at the higher speeds in the ranges given.
** PolYcrYstalline diamond cutters can sometimes be applied at the higher speeds in the ranges given.
10-54
CHAPTER 10
Carbide Cutters, Coated and Uncoated*

Full and
Face Mills Slab Mills Half-Side Mills Saws Form Mills
0.010-0.020 0.010-0.020 0.008-0.020 0.003-0.006 0.008-0.015
(0.25-0.51) (0.25-0.51) (0.20-0.51) (0.08-0.15) (0.20-0.38)
2000-6000** 2000-6000** 2000-6000** 2000-6000** 2000-6000$”
(610-1829) (610-1829) (610-1829) (610-1829) (610-1829)
0.010-0.020 0.010-0.020 0.008-0.017 0.003-0.004 0.0084).015
(0,25-0.51) (0.25-0.51) (0,20-0.43) (0.08-0.
10) (0.20-0.38)
500-3000** 500-3000** 500-3000”” 500-3000** 500-3000”’
(152-914) (152-9
14) (1 52-9 14) (152-914) (152-914)
0.010-0.020 0.010-0.020 0.008-0.012 0.003-0.004 0.008-0.015

(0.25-0.51) (0.25-0.51) (0.20-0.30) (0.08-0.
10) (0.20-0.38)
300-2700** 300-2500** 300-2700** 300-2700** 200-2500**
(91-823) (91-762) (91-823) (91-823) (61 -762)
0.010-0.016 0.010-0.020 0.008-0.015 0.003-0.004 0.008-0.015

(0.25-0.41) (0.25-0.51) (0.20-0.38) (0.08-0.
10) (0.20-0.38)
275-1200*T 250-1 IOO*T 275- 1200*T 250-1
100*t 250-1 100*T
(84-366) (76-335) (84-366) (76-335) (76-335)
0.008-0.015 0.008-0.015 0.005-0.012 0.003-0.004 0.006-0.012
(0.20-0.38) (0.20-0.38) (0.13-0.30) (0,08-0.10) (0.15-0.30)
250-8oo*t 225-750*~ 225-800”+ 2oo-750*t 225-750*T
(76-244) (69-229) (69-244) (61-229) (69-229)
0.005-0.015 0.005-0.015 0.005-0,010 0.003-0.004 0.0054.010
(0.13-0.38) (0.13-O.38) (0,13J3.25) (0.08-0.10) (0.13-0.25)
250-9oo*t 225-9oo*t 225-9oo*t 250-1
100*~ 175-800*T
(76-274) (69-274) (69-274) (76-335) (53-244)
0.005-0.010 0.005-0.010 0.003-0.010 0.002-0.003 0.005-0.010
(0.13 -O.25) (0.13 -O.25) (0.084).25) (0,05-0.08) (0.13-0.25)
200-600*+ 200-600”+ 200-600*~ 200-600*t 200-600”1
(61-183) (61-183) (61-183) (61-183) (61-183)
0.008-0.015 0.005-0.015 0.005-0.010 0.002-0.004 0.005-0.010

(0.20-0.38) (0.13-0.38) (0.13-0.25) (0.05-0.10) (0.13-0.25)
225-800*T 200-800”1 200-800*T 200-800”1 200-800*T
(69-244) (61-244) (61-244) (61-244) (61-244)
0.010-0.018 0.008-0.015 0.0084.012 0.003-0.006 0.004-0.010

(0.25-0.46) (0.20-0.38) (0.20-0.30) (0,08-0.15) (0.10-0.25)
400- 1500”1 350-1300’1 350-1500*t 350-1300*t 350- 1300*t
( 122-457) (107-396) (107-457) (107-396) (107-396)
0.010-0.015 0.008-0.015 0.007-0.012 0.003-0.006 0.004-0.010
(0.25-0.38) (0.20-0.38) (0.18-0.30) (0.08-0.15) (0.10-0.25)
3oo-1200*t 300-1200”1 3oo-1200*t 3oo-1200*t 300- 12oo*t
(91-366) (9 1-366) (9 1-366) (91-366) (91-366)
0.008-0.015 0.007-0.012 0.005-0.012 0.002-0.005 0.003-0.008
(0.20-0.38) (0.18-0.30) (0.13-0.30) (0,05-0.13) (0.08-0.20)
225-1 OOO*T 2OO-1OOO*T 200- 1000”1 2OO-1OOO*T 200- 1000*T
(69-305) (61-305) (61-305) (61-305) (61-305)
0.005-0.012 0.007-0.012 0.005-0.012 0.001-0.004 0.003-0.008
(o. 13-0.30) (0.18-0.30) (0.13-0.30) (0.03-0.10) (0.08-0.20)
180-600*t 150-600W 150-600*t 150-600*t 150-600*T
(55-183)’ (46-183) (46-183)’ (46-183) (46-183)
T Milling cutters with ceramic inserts can often be applied at speeds 50-100% faster than the higher speeds in the ranges given for
coated carbides.
10-55
CHAPTER 10
10-56
CHAPTER 10
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10-57
CHAPTER 10
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CHAPTER 10
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10-59
CHAPTER 10
Cutting speed has a much greater effect on cutter life than carbide inserts is presented in Table 10-9, In comparison with
either depth of cut or feed per tooth. As a result, selecting a HSS end mills, tools with carbide inserts are generally operated
speed is the most critical variable when operating parameters at much higher cutting speeds with lower feeds per tooth. A
are being established. Since most workpiece materials can be frequent cause of rapid wear with carbide end mills, however, is
successfully machined within a broad range of cutting speeds, insufficient feed. In general, larger tools require higher feeds,
the speed should be selected to maximize the production rate or and lower feeds are needed for cutting harder materials and for
minimize the total cost per piece milled for the specific setups that are not rigid, End mills with neutral and negative
operation. rake angles require more power than tools with positive rake
Available machine power sometimes limits the metal removal angles for cuts of equivalent size.
rate that can be achieved in a milling operation. For such More detailed recommendations for a wider variety of
limited power applications, the depth of cut and feed rate workpiece materials are presented in the Machining Data
should still be as high as possible, with the cutting speed set so Handbook.3 These recommendations are based on a cutter life
that power requirements are within the limits of the machine. of about 1-2 hours of cutting time for milling most of the
The cutting speed, however, should never be set so low that chip common alloys when HSS cutters are used. For indexable
welding to the cutter teeth occurs. Some experts feel that the carbide inserts. a tool life of 30-60 minutes is applicable.
best way to compensate for lack of power is to change the width Cutting speeds are normally reduced from suggested values
of cut. keeping the cutting speed in the most efficient range for when milling is done on hard or abrasive materials, castings
the cutting tool material used. having surfaces with sand inclusions, workplaces requiring
Limitations with respect to feed per tooth and depth of cut in heavy stock removal. and steels having a high nickel or
milling include surface finish requirements (see Chapter 1 of manganese content, or when excessive land wear occurs on the
this volume, “Principles of Metalcutting and Machinability”); cutter. Speeds are generally increased for softer materials,
the ability of the teeth, blades, or inserts to withstand the cutting smoother finish requirements, light cuts, thread milling, and
forces; the ability of the machine, workpiece, and fixture to slotting or sawing applications, or when excessive chipping of
resist the cutting forces; and the amount of stock which has to the cutter occurs.
be removed. Feed rates are normally increased from suggested values
Forces which must be absorbed by the cutter are dependent when metals that are easy to machine, abrasive materials, and
upon other factors besides the feed per tooth. One factor is the metals with scaly surfaces are milled; when light slabbing cuts or
undeformed chip thickness previously discussed (see Fig. 10- heavy cuts with rigid setups are made; or when chatter or
58). Increasing the feed per tooth causes an increase in the excessive land wear occurs. The highest possible feed rates
maximum undeformed chip thickness; however, the thickness is should also be used for strain-hardening materials such as
also affected by changes in the lead angle, the relationship of the austenitic stainless steels and tough, high-temperature alloys.
cutter diameter to the depth of cut (in slot milling) or width of The feeds are generally decreased for frail cutters, workpieces,
cut (in face milling), the relative positions of the cutter and or setups; for deep slotting cuts: to obtain smoother finishes;
workpiece, and the flute helix angle in peripheral milling when chips are unusually long and continuous; and when
(including end milling). chipping of the cutting edges occurs.
Cutter positioning is discussed earlier in this chapter (see
Figs. 10-51 and 10-52). If the cutter axis intersects the workpiece, CUTTING FLUIDS FOR MILLING
the maximum undeformed chip thickness depends only upon Cutting fluids serve the same functions for milling operations
the lead angle and the feed per tooth. Whenever feed per tooth is as for other machining applications: cooling and lubricating
limited by the strength of the cutting edge, it can be increased if the tool/ workpiece, controlling or preventing built-up edges on
the lead angle is increased and the maximum undeformed chip the tools, flushing away chips, and preventing corrosion. The
thickness is maintained the same. problems with effective use of cutting fluids in milling, however,
If the cutter axis does not intersect the workpiece, maximum are the intermittent nature of the cutting process, the variations
undeformed chip thickness is influenced by the lead angle and in chip thickness during cutting (which change the load on the
the relative size and position of the cutter and workpiece. Depth cutting edges), and the fanning action of the cutters, These
of cut is important in determining feed per tooth for slot milling factors make it difficult to apply fluid without causing thermal
operations, When the depth of cut is a smaller percentage of the shock, which is particularly detrimental to carbide cutters,
cutter diameter, maximum undeformed chip thickness is a
smaller percentage of the feed per tooth. As a result, the feed per Where Fluids are Used
tooth can be higher without increasing the unit loading of the Cutting fluids are generally not recommended for milling cast
cutting edge, irons or steels with carbide cutters, This is because of the
tendency of carbide to crack, chip, or fail due to thermal shock
Suggested Speeds and Feeds from intermittent cooling. Fluids, however, are often beneficial
Cutting speeds and feed rates suggested as starting points for for milling aluminum alloys, brass, and other soft materials.
milling various materials with HSS, carbide, ceramic, and When such materials are milled, the cutting temperatures are
diamond cutters are presented in Table 10-7. These parameters generally low enough that thermal cracking of carbide is not a
may have to be increased or decreased, depending upon such serious problem and the fluid helps clear chips and produce
variables as stock removal and finish requirements, condition smoother finishes,
of the milling machine, rigidity of the setup, cutting fluid, and Cutting fluids are not recommended or needed when ceramic
other factors. milling cutters are used. This is because the ceramic remains
Suggested starting speeds and feeds for high-speed steel end relatively cool due to the low thermal conductivity of the
mills of va rious diameter when different materials are to be cut material and most of the heat generated in milling is carried
are given in Table 10-8. Similar data for end mills having away in the chips. When diamond milling cutters are used, a
10-60
CHAPTER 10
TABLE 10-9
Suggested Starting Speeds for Milling Various Materials with Two-Flute
End Mills Having Indexable Carbide Inserts
Material to be Milled
Aluminum Brass Steel Cast Iron
Feed, Feed, Feed, Feed,
Diameter of Speed, ipm Speed, ipm Speed, ipm Speed, ipm
End Mill, in. rpm (mm/min) rpm (mm/min) rpm (mm/min) rpm (mm/ rein)
Positive-Rake Cutting
3/4 5000 3600 2300 1800
(::) (:5:) (3’:5) (2;9)
7/8 4200 3000 2000 1500
(::0) (4T7) (3’:5) (2~9)
1 3800 2700 1700 1350
(:2) (4’:7) (3’:5) (2j9)
1 1/8 3400 2400 1500 1200
(?:2) (::9) (3’$6) (21719)
1 1/4 3000 2100 1350 1100
(;:2) (:;9) (3’;6) (;;9)
1 1/2 2500 30 1800 22 1150 14 900 11
(762) (559) (356) (279)
Negative-Rake Cutting
2 — --- --- --- 500-800 8-12 800-1000 15-25
(203-305) (381-635)
21/2 --- -— --- --- 400-600 7-10 600-800 12-20
(178-254) (305-508)
Neutral-Rake Cuttine
3j4and 13/16 --- --- ..- --- 1400 1400
(1:7) (1~8)
7/8 and 15/16 --- -— --- --- 1400 1400
(1~8) (21$4)
1 and 1/16 --- _— --- --- 1400 i 400
(;:4) (2:4)
1 l/8 and 1 3/16 --- --- --- --- 1200 1200
(2’5$ (2’:4)
1 l/4and 1 5/16 --- ... --- 1200 1200
(;51) (/;5)
1 l/2 and 1 9/16 --- -- --- --- 1200 1200
(2’:4) (3’:5)
(DOALL co. )
cutting fluid is generally recommended because excessive heat the finely divided cutting fluid cools the cutter and workpiece,
can burn or crack the tool material; however, there are often by evaporation. In some cases, especially slotting opera-
successful applications that are performed dry. tions, blasts of compressed air (without any cutting fluid) are
used to clear chips. Both mist spray and air blasts require the use
Application Methods
of adequate guarding to protect the operator. Suction by
When a cutting fluid is used for milling, flooding with a
vacuum is also used for chip removal in some applications.
continuous, copious flow is recommended. Milling dry is
generally preferable to milling with too little fluid, particularly
Types of Cutting Fluids
for carbide cutters. Flooding is best accomplished with one or
A mixture of soluble oil and water is a common cutting fluid
more low-pressure nozzle streams directed at the point of
used for milling, but various mineral and sulfur-based oils are
cutting and on each side of the cutter, as seen with nozzles
ako popular. Water-based solutions provide better cooling
positioned at A, B, C, and D in Fig. 10-79. If only one nozzle
properties; oils provide better lubricity and generally produce
is used, positions A and D are preferred. Sometimes flat
smoother surface finishes. A comprehensive discussion of the
nozzles are used to give better distribution when wide cutters
types of cutting fluids, selection parameters, application and
are employed.
filtration methods, and maintenance requirements is presented
Mist spray application of cutting fluid is sometimes beneficial
in Chapter 4 of this volume, “Cutting Fluids and Industrial
and is being used successfully for some cast iron milling
Lubricants. ”
applications. The pressurized air serves to remove chips, while
10-61
CHAPTER 10
Sharpening New Cutters

-Mill Standard milling cutters, as ground by the manufacturer,
may or may not be suitable for the particular milling operation
in which the cutter is being used. New cutters should be
inspected and may have to be resharpened so that the clearance
angle meets the requirements of the type of work being
performed. One method sometimes used to measure the
clearance or peripheral relief angle is to mount the cutter on
centers or by its shank so that it is not free to rotate. An
indicator point can then be adjusted to bear on the very tip of
the cutting edge, pointing directly to the center. The cutter is
moved a known distance, about equal to the width of the land.
This procedure registers the amount of drop. The angle maybe
calculated by the following equation:
~ . 57.3 D
(14)
I I M
(a)
where:
A ❑ peripheral relief (clearance) angle, degrees
D = amount of drop, in, or mm
M ❑ distance cutter is moved, in. or mm
A more common method of checking clearance is to measure
the drop-off behind the edge with an indicator while the cutter
is rotated.
Sharpening Peripheral Cutters
I Feed ~ I
The original relief on peripheral cutters can be restored by the
use of either a straight or cup wheel. With a straight wheel the
relief is obtained by setting the wheel center above the cutter
Fig. 10-79 Methods of applying cutting fluids to milling operations:
center, as in viewa in Fig. 10-80, or below the cutter center, as in
(a) side milling, (b) face milling. view b; or, relief may be obtained with the wheel and cutter
centers in line, but with the tooth rest lowered, as in view c.
Although it is more difficult to maintain contact between the
SHARPENING MILLING CUTTERS cutter and tooth rest, less burning and burring occurs if the
Carbide and ceramic inserts are seldom resharpened, but
direction of wheel rotation is toward the cutting edge (view b).
grind-type (solid, tipped, and inserted-blade) milling cutters are
With a cup wheel, the relief is obtained by lowering or raising
often ground periodically to the required geometry and tol-
the tooth rest so that the tooth to be ground is turned from the
erances. Properly sharpened milling cutters provide better
horizontal by an amount sufficient to produce the desired relief
cutting action, require less power, generate less heat, produce
angle (Fig. 10-8 1). The cup wheel produces a flat land bebind
closer tolerances and smoother finishes, reduce the frequency of
the cutting edge, while the straight wheel produces a concave
regrinding, and lengthen cutter life, Keen cutting edges and a
land. If the diameter of the straight wheel is large enough, the
minimum of both diametral and face runout are essential for
concavity may be so slight that it is not objectionable.
sharpened cutters. Some carbide and ceramic inserts, however,
A disc wheel is used to resharpen form-relieved cutters. This
are honed (chamfered and/ or rounded) slightly to blunt the edges.
type of cutter should be sharpened by mechanical means to
produce the specified lead and amount of radial rake marked on
When to Sharpen Cutters
the cutter, If an automatic sharpening machine is not available,
Maximum economy, accuracy, and quality are attained by
a sharpening former with the same lead as the cutter should be
avoiding excessive dulling of milling cutters. Excessive dulling
mounted on the arbor and used as a guide rather than the backs
can be detected by an increase in power requirements or the
of the teeth as in the case of straight-flute cutters. Additional
production of workplaces that are unsatisfactory with respect to
data on cutter grinding is presented in Chapter 11 of this
accuracy or finish.
volume, “Grinding,”
For one-of-a-kind jobs or small-lot production, when uneven
amounts of stock must be removed or the workpiece material
Sharpening Staggered-Tooth Cutters
varies in machinability, sharpening is generally performed as
To grind the primary clearance on a staggered-tooth cutter,
soon as the wear lands on the cutter teeth reach a predetermined
the following procedures are recommended:
width. This width, which should permit sharpening without
excessive loss of overall cutter life, can vary from 0.002” (0.05 1. Shape an offset tooth rest with the top of the blade to be
mm) to 1/ 16” (1.6 mm) or more, depending upon the type of an inverted V. The angle of the V should be approximately
cutter and finish required. lfP less than the V formed by the combination of rake
For most production applications, a specific schedule is angles of two alternate teeth.
recommended for resharpening milling cutters. Sharpening can 2. Mount the tooth rest on the wheelhead of the machine
be done after milling for a certain period of time oraftera given with the apex of the V at approximately center height and
number of workplaces are milled. directly in front of the cutting face, or edge, of the wheel.
10-62
CHAPTER 10
Fig. 10-81 Relief grinding with a cup wheel.
operation and is mounted on the same machine member as the

cutter, with the tip of the blade being located at the side and
under the tooth to be ground. The following procedures are
then recommended:
1. Unclamp the swivel table and swivel it 7°. The end of the
table toward the series of teeth to be ground must be
Fig. 10-80 Relief grinding with a straight wheel.
moved inward toward the grinding wheel.
2. Make a vertical adjustment so that the grinding wheel
clears all teeth other than the one to be ground. The
3. Adjust the machine vertically to locate the apex of the
setting of table traverse dogs prevents excessive travel.
tooth rest on the same horizontal plane as the cutter axis.
3. Take a light grinding pass on all teeth of the series and
Readjust vertically for desired clearance. check the land width for parallelism. It may be necessary
4. Move the cutter up to, but not touching, the grinding to make adjustment to the swivel table to get the land to
wheel. the same width on both ends of the tooth.
5. By use of red lead, or a similar method, locate points on 4. Follow this same procedure (setting the tooth rest, rolling
each side of the tooth rest that indicate the main bearing for clearance, swiveling the table, etc.) to sharpen the
location for the alternating teeth. The grinding wheel other series of teeth.
should pass between the two bearing points and approxi-
mately 0.004” (O.10 mm) away from the tooth rest. If Sharpening Form-Relieved Cutters
insufficient clearance exists for the tooth rest to pass
Formed cutters are sharpened only on the cutting face, thus
between adjacent teeth, it will be necessary to cut away preserving the form throughout the life of the cutter. The
the bottom of the bIadc. important principle in regrinding formed cutters is to duplicate
6. Advance the cutter to the grinding wheel and take a light the original grind. If the cutter was originally gashed radially,
skim cut on all teeth by grinding them alternately with the radial face should be preserved during regrinding. The same
each stroke past the wheel, principle is true in the case of original positive or negative
7. Set up an indicator so that the stem comes in contact with radial-rake grinds: The original grind should always be pre-
the cutter diameter and touches every tooth as the cutter served; otherwise, the form will be distorted. Form-relieved
is rotated. If the right-hand series of teeth are higher or
cutters are marked by the manufacturers for exact duplication
lower than the left-hand series of teeth, it will be of the initial sharpening.
necessary to move the tooth rest slightly toward the high There is sometimes a tendency, when the form is unusually
side, regrind the teeth, then recheck them until both series deep, to shorten the time of grinding by not grinding to the
are the same height. bottom of the gash. This practice should be avoided, because
The secondary clearance of each series of teeth on a with repeated grindings a shoulder is formed against which the
staggered-tooth cutter requires a separate setup. To provide chip impacts causing the cutter to clog increasingly. In contrast,
adequate chip space, the secondary clearance is normally with full face regrinding the chip space is progressively
between 20 and 25°. A spring-loaded tooth rest is used for this enlarged.
10-63
CHAPTER 10
A bevel or dish wheel is commonly used for sharpening

form-relieved cutters. The angle or bevel side of the wheel is
used for sharpening helical-fluted cutters because the flat side of
the wheel would cause an interference to produce an objectional
curve on the fluted side. If the flat side of the wheel is used to
sharpen straight-fluted cutters, an undercut should be dressed
into the wheel so that only a narrow rim at the periphery contacts
the work. This prevents excessive heating and allows the wheel
to cut faster, with a better finish and a more accurate job.
Depending upon the tooth rake, various methods may be
employed for sharpening with or without offset (see Fig. 10-82).
First, the wheel face and the center of the radial face cutter
should be brought into the same vertical plane, then the cutter
should be revolved until the tooth just touches the flat wheel
face, and then the tooth rest should be adjusted against the back
of the tooth to be sharpened.
When grinding is performed, the crossfeed must not be
altered, as this would change the radial line of the tooth face.
Instead, the cutter should be given a slight forward rotation
toward the wheel by advancing the microadjusting tooth rest. If
the cutter does not have a manufacturer’s indexing spot on the Fig. 10-83 Setup for grinding peripheral relief of a face-milling cutter
back of the tooth for tooth-rest support, the back should be spot on a grinder having a straight wheel. The cutter is mounted on a vertical
ground to ensure correct spacing of the teeth. Form-relieved
cutters made with a forward rake angle usually have the amount
of offset stamped on the cutter in thousandths of an inch. relief and clearance, face relief, and clearance along the face
cutting edge angle; sharpening also includes corner chamfering
Sharpening Face-Milling Cutters or radiusing.
Face cutters having solid teeth, brazed teeth, or inserted The face of the cutter should first be surface ground to
blades are sharpened in cutter grinders. One setup for grinding provide a narrow flat land on the face cutting edges, and then a
is shown in Fig. 10-83. Areas sharpened include the peripheral narrow circular land should be ground on the periphery so that
the teeth in the cutter run true with respect to the axis of
rotation. This land is reduced to 0.002-0.003” (0.05-0.08 mm)
when the clearance or relief is ground on each tooth. The
chamfer is provided with a small land to true the cutter; then the
relief is ground to reduce the circular land to 0.002-0.003”
(0.05-0.08 mm).
Sharpening End Mills

End mills can be sharpened with three different types of relief
Trothwidth on the diameter: A concave, almost flat surface is produced with
Cuttinqedge Goshangle
the face of a plain wheel; a flat relief surface is produced with a
Depthof fwm cup wheel; and an eccentric, or radial relief, is produced by
,,% +% Mpth of gosh
presenting the face of a plain wheel at an angle to the cutting
Shortenings I
,,,? J%’o&~i/!J axis of a helical-fluted end mill or by dressing an angle on the
‘ Worn:wt face of a wheel rotating on a parallel axis.
—- . ~ndltlon Figure 10-84 shows the manner in which the grinding wheel is
% i
set up in relation to the end mill to produce eccentric relief. The
angle of the grinding wheel can be calculated from the formula
(o) given. Action of the grinding wheel when generating eccentric
relief on end mill teeth is such that excellent finishes are
produced. Cutting edges are free from minute nicks and, as a
result, are stronger than those produced by other methods.
Another benefit of this method of regrinding is that a
secondary clearance is not needed. If the grinding wheel face
width is maintained so that it is wider than the relieved land,
Rake
measured in an axial direction, wide primary lands are possible
without danger of heeling when the end mill is cutting. This is
because the clearance angle formed by the curve increases as it
progresses from the cutting edge. Many firms, however,
consider it good practice to provide a secondary clearance on
(b)
end mill teeth, except on the smallest size cutters. One caution
Fig. 10-82 Setups for sharpening form-relieved cutters: (a) without that should be observed if single clearance is used is that a very
offset and (b) with offset. light finishing grind must be taken because of the longer line of
10-64
CHAPTER 10
C = Rellef angle
H = Heilx angle
F = Form or swing angle
Y1
Sect,on
I
—..
+I
A
I
—
Eccentric
Prlmory
Rellef
c
Fig. 10-85 Positive radial rake angle.
TABLE 10-10
Minimum Diameters to which End Mills Can Be
&
Reground with Little Effect on Cutting Efficiency
h’ominal Nominal
Tan F= Ton CxTan H
Diameter Minimum Diameter Minimum
of End Diameter, of End Diameter,
Fig. 10-84 Sharpening end mills with eccentric relief. (DoALL Co. ) Mill, in. in. Mill, in. in.
1/8 0.110 7/8 0.740
contact between the wheel and the end mill. Heavy finishing
cuts invite tool burning, cause accuracy to be sacrificed, and can 3/16 0.160 15/]6 0.800
cause the diameter to be reduced more than necessary. 1/4 0.210 1 0.850
Radial rake angles. End mill manufacturers help to offset the
deflection of end mills by designing teeth with positive, free- 5/’16 0.265 1 l/8 0.970
cutting rake angles. Positive rake tends to pull the cutter axis
3/8 0,320 1 1/4 .060
toward the cut, decrease cutting forces, and reduce deflection of
the mill, but deflection is always present. 7/16 0.370 13/8 .170
Radial rake is the angle that the tooth face makes with a
1/2 0.425 11/2 .270
radial line through the center of the end mill (see Fig. 10-85). If
radial rake is in the form of a hook, or curve, regrinding or 9/16 0.480 15/8 .380
resharpening tends to reduce the rake angle every time the tool
is resharpened. Straight-faced, positive-rake, end mill teeth 5/8 0.530 13/4 .490
permit several regrinds without changing the rake angle
11/16 0,580 1 7/8 1.600
appreciably.
The limiting factor in designing end mills to permit the 3/4 0.635 2 1.700
maximum number of regrinds without changing rake angles is
13/16 0.690 --- ---
the core diameter. If the length of the rake face is increased, the
core diameter must be smaller, sacrificing beam strength. For (DOALL co. )
this reason, a limit exists as to the amount of material that can
be removed by sharpening the cutting diameter of end mills In the horizontal plane, the work head is swiveled from 1-3° to
without drastically altering the rake angles. produce a dish in the end teeth.
Table 10-10 shows the diameters to which most end mills can End mills that are not used for end cutting do not need
be reground with little or no effect on cutting efficiency. Beyond clearance (secondary relief). Clearance is necessary only to
the minimum diameters shown, reduction of rake angle and make space for chips that are produced by plunging or drilling
chip clearance in the flute begin to make a marked difference in operations; it is without significance when side milling alone is
the cutting efficiency of the mill. done. However, if a series of regrinds causes the relief land to
End tooth sharpening. Keeping end teeth sharp is important become too wide, it is more difficult to produce a tool that has
in end milling, even though no plunge cuts are made. The reason all teeth in exactly the same plane, at 90° to the axis. If the
for this is that the tooth corners where end and peripheral corners of the end teeth are not all in the same plane, some teeth
teeth meet tend to be dulled by rubbing action. Sharpness of make larger chips than others, and poor finishes and short tool
the corners depends upon both peripheral and end tooth life result.
cutting edges. When tools that are not end cutting are reground, the notch
A tooth is placed on the tooth rest and adjusted to make the (gash) and the clearance can be re-established by hand. When
end tooth parallel to the table movement in the horizontal end cutting or plunging tools are resharpened, it is much better
plane. The work head is tilted to provide the desired relief angle. to use the grinding machine with the tooth rest properly set.
10-65
CHAPTER 10
This assures that all teeth can be equally loaded and that space is When the tooth face is to be ground, a dish wheel should be
provided for the chips to move away from the cutting zone. used, swiveled a degree or two more than the helix angle of the
Cut-to-center end teeth. Particular attention must be paid to end milk. This is done so that the grinding action is toward the
the center section of the cutting edges at the center of mukiple- cutting edge and rubbing by the back of the wheel is prevented,
flute end-cutting tools when they are resharpened. The width of Sharpening is accomplished by passing the end mill back and
the chisel edge at this point should not be greater than about forth against the wheel while maintaining a steady, light
0.010 ”(0.25 mm), The wheel that produces the notch must go to pressure. Grinding is continued until all of the circular land
center on two opposite flutes and stop short of center on all from the cylindrical grind is removed from each tooth. A slight
other flutes. error in removal of the circular land results in an error on the
Three-flute end mills have only one flute cutting to center. diameter that is insignificant, especially since a roughing cutter
The other two flutes are finished very close to center so that very is being sharpened.
little stock is removed by the single, center-cutting flute. Only After each flute is ground, the end mill tooth indexing is
minor deflection occurs from this single cutting edge action. renewed, runout is sometimes less than that of a new tool, all
End teeth must be ground to take equal, balanced chips when cutting angles are maintained, and chip space is enlarged.
plunging. Any condition that tends to force the tool to one side Hook or rake angle can be changed during resharpening for
results in a large dislocated hole and sometimes in movement of use on various work materials. One of the best aluminum
the table or saddle, often resulting in broken tools. roughing end mills is made by grinding more hook or rake into a
Formed end teeth. When ball or radius end mills are tool that has been reground several times, Since chip space
sharpened, the notch must first be reground so that a uniform increases with each regrind and rapid removal of aluminum
radius can be produced. After the cnd mill is renotched the requires a great amount of room for chips, a very successful end
clearance can be ground by hand, but great care is required in mill is produced. The drawing in Fig. 10-87 indicates how
hand grinding. This operation can be continued close to the increasing the offset causes the hook or rake angle of the end
cutting edge, using the worn edge on the radius as a guide. mill to be increased. When the offset is decreased, the rake angle
After being renotched and cleared, the end mill is set up in a becomes smaller and a stronger cutting edge is produced for use
radius attachment. The relief angle for radius regrinding is in rougher, harder materials.
obtained by setting the radius fixture to the desired angle,
setting and dressing the cup wheel to avoid interference, and
swinging the fixture. Infeed must be done by moving the entire
fixture toward the wheel.
It is important that a narrow cup wheel be used, with the
radius set 0.001-0.003” (0.03-0.08 mm) larger than half the end
mill diameter. This prevents nicking of the tool at the intersecting
point of the radius and the outer diameter.
Roughing mill sharpening. Sharpening roughing end mills is
simpler than regrinding conventional end mills because of the
formed-tooth configuration of these cutters. Regrinding in the
flute produces a new cutting edge, without concern for relief
and clearance-angle grinding.
The first operation in sharpening rou.ghingend mills is to spin
grind the OD until the wear land diameter is just barely reached.
This initial cylindrical grind is done only to provide a guide to
be used when flute grinding is to be done. The circular grind
provides an exactly uniform diameter guideline. As a result,
grinding the face of the successive teeth can be done accurately
to barely remove the circular land and secure a sharpened
roughing mill capable of taking the same cut with every tooth
(see-Fig.- 10-86).
Fig. 10-87 Increasing the offset results in an increase in the rake angle
on roughing end miIls.
Machines for Sharpening

Sharpening of milling cutters can be done on conventional
cutter and tool grinders, as well as on special milling cutter
grinders, as discussed in Chapter 11 of this volume, “Grinding.”
Automatic models of special machines are available with cam-
making attachments with which the machine generates its own
cam by duplicating the form from a finish-ground cutter or
template. Cams can be modified easily to include changes such
as new cutting angles, corner radii, and lead angles.
Modern tool-and-cutter grinding machines are equipped
with universal or tilting wheelheads which simplify setting of
-. ..
rig. lu-~o
“.
mrarpemnga rougnnsg ena mm.

-. . . . . . . .
exact clearance angles. If the machine is not equipped with these
10-66
CHAPTER 10
devices, tooth-rest settings may be obtained from clearance Carbide tipped and solid carbide milling cutters are usually
tables or by calculation. To determine the distance, C, sharpened with silicon carbide wheels for roughing and with
(Fig, 10-88, views) to raise or lower the wheelhead for a T relief diamond wheels for finishing. Diamond wheels of 100-220 grit
angle, using a straight wheel 6“ diam: size and J-L hardness are commonly employed, the grit size
varying with the finish desired on the cutting edges. The steel
C = 7 x 6 x 0.0087 (a constant) ❑ 0.365” (9.27 mm)
bodies of tipped cutters should not be ground at the same time
To determine the distance, C, (Fig. 10-88, view b) to raise or as the carbide because the steel loads the wheel rapidly. An
lower the wheelhead beyond the center of a cutter 3“ diam to aluminum oxide wheel is recommended for grinding the steel
produce a relief angle of 5° using a cup wheel: separately.
Sharpening of diamond tools requires special care, and the
C = 5 x 3 x 0.0087= 0.130” (3.30 mm)
cutters are often returned to the manufacturer for recon-
For detailed information on setups for sharpening various ditioning. Diamond milling cutters can, however, be sharpened
types of cutters, the instruction manual supplied by the machine by experienced personnel, using careful grinding practices and
manufacturer should be consulted. rigid machines equipped with diamond wheels.
Some tool-and-cutter sharpening machines are designed also Most milling cutter sharpening is performed dry, without a
to grind radii without the use of additional equipment. Radius- cutting fluid. Wet grinding, however, often with a mist spray, is
grinding attachments are available for almost any machine not popular for sharpening some HSS cutters and is recommended
having this feature built into the basic design. When a radius is for sharpening carbide cutters with diamond wheels.
to be generated on any cutting tool, it is first necessary to know
its relative position and whether the radius is convex or Inspecting Sharpened Cutters
concave. Thecenter of thedesired radius must beset directly Good inspection practice for milling cutters embraces the
over the axis of swivel. To accomplish this, the workpiece must following guidelines:
be moved by the use of slides above the swivel member. The 1. Check for cutter runout along peripheral cutting edges
distance from the center point of the radius to the axis of the and side cutting edges. On the cutter OD, no consecutive
cutter is called offset. The amount of offset for a convex radius tooth should have a variation greater than one-half of the
may be established by using the formula: total runout (see Table 10-1 I).
of cutler - desired radius
diameter 2. Check for burrs around holes, bearing surfaces, drive
Offset = (15) slots, drive keys, or anything that might cause cutter
2
CNC grinders with four to eight numerically controlled axes runout.
are available to automatically perform all grinding operations 3. Check relief angles.
on end mills and other shank-type cutters in one setup with a 4. Check to eliminate drag on the cut bv the intersection
single wheel.4 Quick-change toolholders and off-machine load- between the relief and tie clearance arigle portion.
ing are used to minimize toolchanging time. Cubic boron When formed cutters are inspected, in addition to the above
nitride grinding wheels and flood application of pressurized practices, templates of the work shape produced by the cutter
cutting fluid are used on these machines. should be milled and inspected for accuracy. For a given tool,
one template is retained by the cutter manufacturer and a
I I duplicate template is delivered with the cutter when specified by
the purchaser. This template indicates the shape the cutter will
produce when properly operated; it should therefore be critically
inspected. The angle of the face on tbe form cutters should be
carefully noted so that it may be maintained in regrinding.
Aside from such fundamental inspection items as dimen-
sions, angles, and specified tolerances on hole, diameter, face,
TABLE 10-11
Permissible Runout for Face Mills
Fig. 10-88 Developing the relief angle when using (a) a straight wheel
and (b) a cup wheel. Roughing Cuts, in. Finishing Cuts, in.
Cutter OD and OD and
Grinding Wheels Diameter. in. Face* Chamfer Face Chamfer
A comprehensive discussion of abrasives and wheels is up to 12 0.0010 0.002 0.00050 0.0015
presented in Chapter 11 of this volume, “Grinding.” Milling (0.025) (0.05) (0.0127) (0.038)
cutters made from high-speed steels and cast cobalt-based
alloys are most commonly ground with vitrified-bond aluminum 12-16 0.0015 0.003 0.00075 0.0020
oxide wheels. Softer grade (H-K) and open structure (8-13) (0.038) (0.08) (0.0190) (0,051)
wheels are used, with grit sizes of 46-100 for roughing and
Over 16 0.0020 0.004 0.00100 0.0025
grinding clearances (the coarser grits for larger tools and heat-
(0.051) (0.10) (0.0254) (0.063)
sensitive steels) and with finer grit sizes for finishing. Cutters
made from HSS’S that are harder to grind are sometimes Tolerances given are for runout of grind-type cutters. For
sharpened with wheels made from cubic boron nitride abrasive. indexable-insert cutters with fixed locators, a higher runout
CBN wheels stay sharp longer, produce better finishes and less (0.003-0.004”; 0.08-0.10 mm) is generally acceptable without
surface damage, and minimize cutter runout due to wheel wear. any performance disadvantages.
CHAPTER 10
or keyway, critical inspection should be made for cracks and In peripheral milling (Fig. 10-89, view u), the cutter approach
wheel burns. may be determined by:
Occasionally, inspection of a cutter after delivery to the user (17)
reveals a crack from the root of the gash toward the cutter
center; sometimes a crack extends outward from a keyway. “where:
Such cracks can occur despite careful production and finish
A ❑ cutter approach, in. or mm
inspection by the cutter manufacturer. They may be due to an
H = depth of cut, in. or mm
incipient weakness in structure of the bar or forging from which
D = diameter of cutter, in. or mm
the cutter blank was produced. While the cracks are invisible
during manufacturing, they spread after hardening and a period In face milling with the cutter centered on the centerline of the
of seasoning. workpiece (Fig. 10-89, view b):
Cutters should also be carefully inspected for incipient cracks
resulting from wheel burns. These cracks may be visible only (18)
under a glass of IOX or stronger magnification. A cutter with
such cracks may do good work for some time, but cutting
stresses and operating vibration may cause them to lengthen For a face milling cutter off center an amount M, the cutter
and deepen and prematurely destroy the tool. Wheel burns can approach is:
occur during any regrinding by the user.
After being sharpened, a cutter should be inspected and (19)
stored in such a manner that the cutting edges do not become
nicked. Wooden boxes, wooden shelf liners, and plastic coatings
on the cutters maybe used to protect the cutters during storage. To reduce milling time, or table travel, the approach must be
The backs of finishing-type face mills should be cleaned and as small as possible. In peripheral milling, the approach is
lapped on a lapping plate before every regrind. reduced by reducing the cutter diameter. Increasing the diameter
of a face mill causes the approach to be reduced; offsetting the
cutter with respect to the workpiece centerline causes an
MILLING APPLICATIONS increase in the approach.
Milling is used for a wide variety of metal removal appli- Pretravel and overtravel are allowances for possible variations
cations. Because of space limitations, this discussion is limited in length and thickness of stock to be removed from the
to some general recommendations for a few of the more workpiece; these allowances are usually 3/32 to 1/8” (2,4 to 3.2
common applications. mm) for each end.
Production Milling Process Planning for Milling

Production milling is the application of milling equipment to Processing is an engineering analysis of machining problems
the manufacturing of both large and small quantities of parts in for the purpose of selecting the correct method, machine, and
such a manner as to obtain a high rate of production and high tooling to produce parts at the lowest net cost. To make an
dimensional accuracy to permit interchangeability of parts at a intelligent choice, a preliminary study must be made of the
minimum cost. The time in minutes per piece maybe determined various methods and machines that can be used for the job.
by the sum of the cycle time between the machining of two For each method a time-study analysis is made, from which
consecutive pieces, the machine setup time, the machine estimated values of time per piece and production rate are
downtime, and the allowance in minutes per piece. Machine obtained. The cost per piece, prorated on the basis of the
cycle time includes milling time, idle cycle time, and handling number of pieces milled per year at the estimated rate, is
time. Idle cycle time is the time used in placing the workpiece determined from the total cost for each method analyzed. A
near the cutter and, after milling, returning it to the starting comparison of these figures is usually instrumental in deter-
position. This is usually done by rapid traversing of the machine mining the best method to use. (A comprehensive discussion of
table. Handling time consists of the time required to load and process planning is presented in Volume V of this Handbook
unload the fixture and handle the parts to be milled. series, “Manufacturing Engineering Management.”)
Milling time can be calculated from the following formula: An analysis for milling the flats on a hexagon nut, illustrated
in Fig. 10-90, would show that the six surfaces on each nut can
be milled in three steps by a combination of straddle milling and
TM . indexing. An indexing fixture is designed to rotate6V at a time
(16)
to bringa new pair of surfaces into position, Depth, width, and
length of cut is 5/32x 1 I/4x 1 1/ 16’’(4x 32x27 mm); required
rate of production is 75 nuts per hour.
where:
The plain manufacturing-type milling machine used in this
z. = milling time, min analysis has an automatic cycle, a table rapid traverse rate of
L= length of cut, in. or mm 300 ipm (7620 mm/min), a variable feed rate of 0-40 ipm (1OI6
A= cutter approach, in. or mm (see Fig. 10-89) mm/min), and a power rating of 15 hp (1 1.2 kW). Milling
0, . pretravel (travel at feed rate before cutter engagement cutters employed are 8“ diam. To determine the amount of table
with workpiece), in. or mm travel (see Fig. 10-91), 12“(305 mm) is allowed between the face
02, overtravel (travel at feed rate after cutter engagement of the nut and the cutter for unloading and loading the fixture.
with workpiece), in. or mm To establish the most desirable method of milling, a pre-
F= feed rate, ipm or mm/min liminary study had to be made to investigate the production
10-68
CHAPTER 10
Plan cutter at end Plan cutter at stort of feed

of feed /
D
4
Approach
1 i+.4?
A
13L(overtravel end of cut) OI (pretravel at start af cut)
(o)
Face m,ll at stori of feed

\ Face mill at end of feed
@ ~mpf’
/“ ~
1
Approach
OZ (overtravel end of cut)
OI (pretrovel at stat of cut)
Fig. 10-89 Cutter approach, pretravel, and overtravel in (a) peripheral milling and (b) face milling.
rates obtainable by single-piece, reciprocal, two-abreast, three- necessary for milling chilled or very hard cast irons. Diamond
abreast, and progressive milling. The various methods and milling cutters are being used with good results for cutting very
relative cycle diagrams are graphically illustrated in Fig. 10-92, abrasive aluminum alloys, and ceramic cutters are being used
In every case, the workpiece is 12“ (305 mm) from the cutter at for high-speed milling,
the beginning of the cycle, or loading and unloading position, Carbon and alloy steels, Hardness of the steel is generally the
except when progressive milling is used. In the latter case, the determining factor in selection of a cutting tool materia~. HSS
unloading and loading take place at a position not in line with cutters are often used to mill steels having a hardness less than
the cutter: 6“ ( 152 mm) is considered a sufficient clearance for
loading and unloading the fixture. The progressive milling
operation was planned for a semispecial two-spindle horizontal
manufacturing-type milling machine with the indexing fixture
mounted vertically on the table,
A time-study analysis for the nut is given in Table 10-12. The
two-abreast milling method appears to be the most efficient for
r
1812”
(46 02mm)
-- +. -.
milling the nut. The single-piece and reciprocal methods do not

produce the required 75 nuts per hour, and the other two I!__
methods require more than the available 15 hp ( 11.2 kW) on @
the machine.
Milling Various Materials

I h- I 25”~
(31.7mrn) ~b”~
Workpiece material, including its condition and hardness,

has a major influence on the cutting tool material, geometry of
the cutter, and operating parameters.
Cast irons. Because of the abrasive nature of cast irons,
carbide milling cutters are generally the most economical, Fig. 10-90 Dimensions of a hexagon nut used in the analysis ot’milting
especially for production applications, and they may be operations.
10-69
CHAPTER 10
Slotting Operations
Cutting of slots is done with both slotting cutters and end
mills. The choice between these tools depends primarily upon
the width and depth of the slot; workpiece material; and
production volume, tolerance, and finish requirements. Slotting
cutters are capable of higher metal removal rates and are
generally employed for production applications. End mills are
easier to set up and change and are used extensively for die and
mold making and small-lot production. The deflection of end
mills, however, may cause problems and limit production rates
if close tolerances must be maintained. Very narrow slots are
generally cut with solid HSS cutters. Slots that are deep in
relation to their width are also usually machined with slotting
cutters rather than end mills.
Milling Helical Surfaces and Contours

Cams, worm threads, and other helical surfaces are often
produced on milling machines by rotating the workpiece with a
universal dividing head, which is driven from the table feedscrew
through gears. Simultaneously, the workpiece is fed by the
machine table in the direction of the axis of rotation.
Contour milling, involving the simultaneous feeding of the
cutter in two or more axes of motion, is frequently done on
NC/ CNC or tracer-controlled machines. For such applications,
the feed must be based on the circumference of the milling
cutter, not its centerline as is the case in straight-line milling.
When contouring is being done, chip thickness for a given depth
of cut can vary within the cut and must be calculated differently
than it would be for a straight-line cut, Conventional milling
ig. 10-91 Relationship between tbe milling cutter and tbe hexagon nut (instead of climb milling) with positive-rake cutters usually
(Fig. 10-90). helps avoid the overloading and chatter often experienced when
contour milling is done.
about 300 Brinell, but carbide cutters are also used for milling
these steels. For steels with harnesses from 300-500 Brinell, Thread Milling
cutters made from higher alloy or premium grades of HSS are This old process once required special-purpose, manually
generally satisfactory, but carbide cutters are usually preferred, operated machines, but it is now being done on three-axis NC
especially for production applications. Carbide cutters are contouring machines. Threads produced on the NC machines
generally necessary for milling steels harder than 500 Brinell. are smooth, accurate, and relatively inexpensive, and the
Soft, gummy steels such as SAE 1010 require high cutting milling cutters used have a long life.
speeds. Steels hardened to over 450 Brinell generally require Each tooth of a multiple-thread milling cutter is shaped like
lower speeds. Titanium carbide cutters are being used success- the thread form it produces. The teeth are arranged in parallel
fully for lighter milling operations and ceramic cutters for many rows without any spiral lead. The cutter rotates at high speed
high-speed milling operations. A comprehensive discussion of while its axis slowly moves around the workpiece in a planetary
various cutting tool materials is presented in Chapter 3 of this arc of just over 36 LT. As the spindle axis moves around the
volume, “Cutting Tool Materials. ” workpiece, it advances one pitch in the axial direction.
Stainless steels, heat-resistant alloys, and titanium. HSS Threads and various thread making processes are discussed
cutters are sometimes preferred for milling these materials in detail in Chapter 12 of this volume, “Threading.”
because the materials tend to weld to the cutting edges of
carbide cutters. Good results, however, are being obtained in High-Speed Milling
many applications with carbide cutters. Milling of these Considerable development work has been performed and is
materials generally requires using lower speeds and feeds than continuing toward the increased use of higher speed milling.
those used for cutting carbon and other alloy steels. Adequately Since high-speed machining has not been officially defined,
powered machines are essential because of the greater cutting there is a wide range of opinions as to the parameters involved.
forces resulting from the high tensile strengths of these materials. Many prefer the definition: milling at elevated speeds, feeds,
Nonferrous materials. When these materials are milled, HSS and depths of cut.
cutters are generally more economical for short runs and Advantages. A major advantage of high-speed milling is
carbide cutters for longer runs. For very abrasive materials, increased productivity. Investigations have shown that the rate
such as some high-silicon aluminum alloys, diamond cutters are of temperature increase tends to decrease at higher cutting
being used. speeds. There is no detrimental effect on the finishes pro-
Nonmetallic materials. Carbide cutters are usually best for duced; in fact, in most instances, smoother surface finishes
milling these materials because most nonmetallic materials are are obtained,
very abrasive. Diamond cutters are also being used to mill some Limitations. A possible limitation to high-speed milling is the
of the more abrasive nonmetallic materials. need for rigid, adequately powered machines with high speed
10-70
CHAPTER 10
Cycle diagram
r
Milling method:
I 2’< I 5/w Feed R.A.
(305 mm) (33mm), Stclrl
RR.
Feed R.A. ]
R.R
Single p,ece
# IIG-cj Feed RA
~:r R.R
stop
(203mm)
teed R.L
w R.R. ‘-d
Feed R.LW
I
R R Feed
Feed R,L~
1
,.. .
Feed RA
Starl
Iw RR
Feed RA ~
RR
Two abeast
Feed RA ~
%lFj RR :
stop
8
illii9
Feed RA
Stml
I R.R
‘eed RA ~
R.R
Three abreasl I
Feed R.A, I
I RR
. stor’1
StOtlOn or progressive
Feed R,A ~
w RR
(
.... . . . . . .. . .... .. .. ..
Fig, 10-92 Diagram showing dlllerent metnods and cycles 01 operanon tor mmmg me slaes 01 nexagon nuts.
and feed capabilities, strong fixturing, secure workholding, and was found that a cutting speed increase of 500% resulted in a
ample guarding, which add to capital equipment costs. Also, 30070 improvement in cutter efficiency (cubic inches of metal
since machining time is only a very small percentage of tbe removed per minute per horsepower). This firm is milling 7075
total production time for any workpiece, the added cost for aluminum alloy at cutting speeds to 18,000 sfm (5486 m/min)
high-speed milling may not be economically feasible. Work is with feeds to 180 ipm (4572 mm/ rein), using solid carbide,
being done with gas hydrodynamic, hydrostatic, and active two-flute end mills.
magnetic bearings to increase the high-speed capabilities of During tests at Vought Corp., 1” (25.4 mm) diam, two-flute
milling machines. end mills (both H SS and carbide) were operated at 20,000 rpm
Applications. Much of the work in high-speed milling has and feed rates of 200 ipm (5080 mm/ rein) or more with good
been done with small end mills for cutting ahrminum alloys and cutter Iifc. Axial depths of cut were 0.250” (6.35 mm) and radial
honeycomb materials that are easy to machine. At Lockheed, it depths, 0.550” (13,97 mm). The optimum feed was 0.008-0.010”
10-71
CHAPTER 10
(0.20-0.25 mm) per tooth, depending upon the aluminum alloy feed rate, cutting edge strength, machine and setup rigidity, and
being milled. tolerance and finish requirements. In general, inserts should be
At the International Machine Tool Show in Chicago in 1980, indexed when the rate of wear begins to increase substantially.
Ex-Cell-O Corp. demonstrated the cutting of aluminum alloy This can be determined by plotting the wear land size as a
with a 1” (25.4 mm) diam, two-flute end mill rotating at 40,000 function of time for a given operation. When this determina-
rpm and fed at the rate of 300 ipm (7620 mm/min). At the same tion is not practical, estimated maximum allowable values
Show, Turchan, Inc., demonstrated milling of an aluminum for flank wear should be specified, then the number of
alloy with a I“diam end mill rotating at 60,000rpm (15,700 sfm; workplaces that can be milled should be determined before
4785 m/rein), with feed rates to 1000 ipm (25 400 mm/ rein). The these values are generated.
spindle was rotated in magnetically levitated bearings, and the
machine was equipped with air bearing slides. Cratering of Inserts
Valenite Div., Valeron Corp., is doing research with high- Cratering is identified by a relatively smooth and regular
speed face milling using large cutters [to 12“ (305 mm) diam]. depression on the rake face of the insert. It is caused by a
They are using a 100 hp (74.6 kW), bed-type milling machine combination of welding and galling between the chip and the
having a tapered roller bearing spindle capable of speeds to rake face of the insert. Complete elimination of cratering is not
7000 rpm, with feed rates to 650 ipm (16 510 mm/min). One test always possible; however, good results can be obtained in most
involved the use of an 8“ (203 mm) diam face milling cutter with cases if crater growth is limited to a degree that permits
20 ceramic inserts having double-negative geometry and a 15° maximum allowable flank wear to be reached before crater
lead angle. With the cutter rotating at 7000 rpm (14 650 sfm; breakthrough occurs.
4465 m/min) and being fed at the rate of 650 ipm, with a I / 16” Cratering can often be controlled by using inserts made from
(1.6 mm) depth of cut and 0.0093” (0.236 mm) chip load per uncoated carbide grades having high crater resistance, such as
tooth, 116 in.3(1 900 cm3) of cast iron was removed per minute. those containing titanium carbide. The use of carbide inserts
The cast iron had a tensile strength of 35 ksi (241 MPa). coated with aluminum oxide or titanium carbide have also been
found to be helpful in controlling cratering. A discussion of
CUTTER LIFE AND FAILURE uncoated and coated inserts is presented in Chapter 3 of this
Common causes of carbide insert failure include flank wear, volume, “Cutting Tool Materials. ” If cratering cannot be
cratering, built-up edges (chip welding), chipping, thermal controlled by changing the inserts, it maybe necessary to reduce
cracking, deformation, notching, and fracture. Several of these the cutting speed (the operating parameter which has the
causes may be present in the same milling operation. An greatest effect on catering). Cratering can sometimes be
attempt should be made to identify and correct these causes by controlled by increasing the feed per tooth. This causes the
careful examination of the cutting edges at frequent intervals. crater to be produced farther from the cutting edges, thus
lengthening the time before breakthrough.
Flank Wear
Normal flank wear is the most desirable cause of tool failure Built-Up Edges and Chip Welding
because it permits tool life to be predicted and provides longer Common causes of insert failure in milling are built-up edges
life than that possible if failure were to result from some other and chip welding, These conditions, caused by the forces and
cause at the same operating conditions. On insert-type milling temperature of cutting, are similar to those occurring in
cutters, flank wear is identified by a wear land on the flank of turning, but because of the discontinuous cutting action in
the insert directly adjacent to the rake face (see Fig. 10-93), milling. entire chips may be welded to the cutting edges.
Major causes of flank wear include abrasive action of the Faster cutting speeds normally eliminate chip welding when
workpiece against tbe cutting edge, mechanical shock of the softer materials (below RC34-38) are being milled because they
operation, and chemical reaction between the tool and work- allow less time for pressure welds to form. On very hard
piece. A comprehensive discussion of wear mechanisms is materials, chip welding can usually be eliminated by decreasing
presented in Chapter 1 of this volume, “Principles of Metal- the cutting speed. Milling cutters with negative-positive and
cutting and Machinability. ” double-positive geometry generate less cutting pressure and
The amount of wear that should he allowed for a specific thus help control pressure welding. Carbide inserts coated with
operation depends upon the workpiece material, depth of cut, aluminum oxide or titanium carbide resist pressure welding
because of the hardness and antiweld properties of the coatings.
These coated inserts can also be operated at higher cutting
speeds, which further counteract chip welding.
Chipping of Cutting Edges

Chipping differs from normal flank wear in that it produces a
rough uneven surface, It occurs when the cutting edge is broken
off in small fragments rather than being worn away and is
common in milling because of the variable shock loads
involved. This condition increases cutting forces and tempera-
ture and can cause rapid failure.
Chipping can often be controlled by minimizing deflection in
the machine and setup, thus reducing variable shock loading of
the cutting edges. Inserts with honed (chamfered or rounded)
‘ig. 10-93 Flank wear is the wear land on the flank of an insert adjacent edges provide more strength at the cutting edges, thus decreasing
to the rake face. the possibility of chipping. Other means of controlling chipping
10-72
CHAPTER 10
include using inserts with stronger geometries and/ or made Edge Deformation
from a more shock-resistant grade of carbide, and reducing the Plastic deformation of the cutting edge occurs when the
feed per insert. temperature of the tool/ chip interface rises to the point at which
the cobalt binder of the carbide insert softens. Part of the rake
Thermal Cracking
face is generally depressed, while the flank and/or face of the
Cracks that form in the crater area of the rake surface and
insert is mushroomed outward. Deformation is most common
migrate toward tbe cutting edge are caused by large and rapid
when operating conditions are severe enough to generate high
temperature changes at the cutting edge. These cracks are
heat and is normally associated with the milling of hardened
usually perpendicular to the cutting edge, but occasionally form
materials. Actions that can be taken to control deformation
parallel to the cutting edge or in a random direction. Small
include using inserts made from carbide grades having higher
areas of tool material are isolated by such cracks and can
resistance to wear and deformation, properly applying a cutting
become dislodged by the cutting forces.
Inserts made from a more shock-resistant grade of carbide fluid, and reducing the cutting speed and feed per insert.
have a higher tolerance for rapid temperature changes, but they
generally require operation at a lower cutting speed. Cutting Edge Notching
fluid applied intermittently or in insufficient volume can A high degree of localized wear on both the rake face and
increase the possibility of thermal cracking. If cutting fluid flank of the insert at the depth-of-cut line is called edge
cannot be applied correctly, the milling operation should be notching. This condition is particularly common when high-
performed dry.
TABLE 10-12
Time-Study Analysis and Production Rates for Various Milling Methods Shown in Fig. 10-92
Three-
Cycle Elements Single-Piece Reciprocal* Two-Abreast Three-Abreast Progressive**
Unload and load, min 0.20 While milling 0.40 0.60 While milling
+0.08
Start or restart, min 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
Rapid advance 12“ (305 mm) 0.04 0.05left 0.04 0.04 0.02
at 300 ipm (7620 mm)min), min
Mill I 5/ 16° (33 mm) at 9 ipm 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.20
(229 mm/min), min
Rapid return 13 5/ 16° 0.05 ___ 0.05 0.05 0,025
(3.38 mm) at 300 ipm
(7620 mm/ rein), min
Index by single turn of crank While rapid While milling While rapid While rdpid 0.06
return and other nut return and return and
rapid advance rapid advance rapid advance
Rapid advance 12“ (305 mm) 0.04 0.05 left 0.04 0.04 ---
at 300 ipm (7620 mm/ rein) min
Mill I 5/ 16” (33 mm) at 9 ipm 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 ---
(229 mm/min), min
Rapid return 13 5/ 16° 0,05 --- 0.05 0.05 ___
(338 mm) at 300 ipm
(7620 mm/ rein), min
Index by single turn of crank While rapid While milling While rapid While rapid ---
return and other nut return and return and
rapid advance rapid advance rapid advance
Rapid advance 12“ (3o5 mm) 0.04 0.05 left 0.04 0.04
at 300 ipm (7620 mm/ rein), min
Mill 1 5/ 16° (33 mm) at 9 ipm 0.[5 0.15 0.15 0.1s ---
(229 mm/ rein), min
Rapid return 13 5/ 16” 0.05 --- 0.05 0.05 ---
(338 mm) at 300 ipm
(7620 mm/ rein) and stop, min
Total time, min 0.84 0.70 1.14 1.34 0.31
Time per piece, min 0.84 0.70 1.14/2 ❑ 0.57 1.34/3 = 0.47 0.31
Production rate per 5 I min hr. 51/0.84=61 51/0.70= 73 51/0.57= 90 51/0.47= 118 51/0.31 ❑ 165
Power at the cutter, hp (kW) 5 1/2 51/2 11,0 16 1/2 16 1/2
(4,1) (4. i) (8.2) [12.3)
., (12.3)
* Time study is for half a cycle; rapid advance is 13.312” (338.12 mm), Fig, 10-91.
** Calculated with the following values: rapid advance 6“ ( 152 mm); feed rate 6.6 ipm (1 68 mm/ rein); and rapid return 7.312” ( 185.72
mm).
10-73
CHAPTER 10
temperature alloys are milled. It is usually caused by a Surface Finish

combination of the following factors: A comprehensive discussion of surface finish is presented in
Chapter 1 of this volume, “Principles of Metalcutting and
1. Changes in forces, compression and tension, at and near Machinability. ” Surface finishes produced in milling vary
the depth-of-cut line. widely depending primarily upon the rigidity of the machine
2. Milling materials having hard outer layers, and setup, the cutter geometry, workpiece material, and
3. Oxidation of the tool material. operating parameters.
Roughness of a milled surface is generally reduced as the
Notching becomes less of a problem as the lead angle of the cutting speed is increased. For a given cutting speed, the surface
milling cutter is increased. This is because a high lead angle becomes rougher as the feed per tooth is increased. Waviness of
distributes the cutting forces more uniformly over a larger part the surface also increases with higher feeds per tooth. Face
of the edge. Additional honing in the depth-of-cut line area milling produces a smoother surface than either up or down
strengthens the cutting edge and improves its resistance to milling with peripheral (plain or slab) cutters. A face milling
abrasive action. A reduction in feed per insert, with a corres- cutter with more teeth also produces a better finish.
ponding decrease in productivity, may also be necessary. Climb (down) milling is generally best for finishing cuts, and
cutting with the full diameter of the cutter should be avoided.
Insert Fracture When multiple passes are needed, milling should always be
Fracture occurs when a section of the insert breaks off, with done in the same direction. Depths of cut should be kept as
the broken section large enough to cause failure of the cutting small as possible to produce the smoothest finishes. Proper
edge. It occurs when the cutting forces overcome the mechanical application of cutting fluid, with a copious flow, may be
strength of the insert. Fracture is the least desirable cause of beneficial for some applications.
failure because it can be dangerous to the operator; it may AS discussed previously in this chapter under the subject of
damage the machine, cutter, or workpiece; and it can prevent milling methods (face milling), tilting the machine spindle
use of the remaining edges of the insert. slightly (when possible) toward the direction of feed prevents
Most of the causes of failure previously discussed can the back of the cutter from dragging across the previously
eventually lead to fracture, so they should be detected and machined workpiece face, and thus from damaging the surface
controlled. Failure causes other than flank wear result in an finish. Too much tilting, however, can result in a dished or
unpredictable tool life, and fracture may occur before the scalloped surface rather than a flat one.
operator notices the tool is worn. Actions that can be taken to
minimize the possibility of fracture include using inserts that are Deflection of End Mills
made from more shock-resistant grades of carbide and have Deflection of the cutters is a common problem when end
stronger geometries and greater thicknesses. Reducing the feed mills are used; therefore, the shortest and largest diameter tool
rate and/ or depth of cut also decreases the shock load on possible should be used. The higher the feed, the deeper and
the insert. wider the cut; and the smaller the tool, the greater the
deflection, When climb milling, deflection is comparatively
TROUBLESHOOTING IN MILLING uniform if the end mill is making chips directly on the centerline
Common problems encountered with cutters (just discussed) of the cutter. To prevent possible cutter breakage at the end of a
and milling operations, their probable causes, and possible climb milling operation, the feed rate should be reduced.
solutions are summarized in Table 10-13.
SAFETY IN MILLING
Chatter in Milling As is the case with other machining operations, personal
Chatter or vibration in a milling operation is similar to that protective equipment, machine safeguarding, and proper
occurring in turning, discussed in Chapter 8 of this volume, operating procedures are essential for safe milling. Safety
“Turning and Boring,” but it can be more severe because of the requirements for the construction, care, and use of drilling,
intermittent cutting nature of milling. The type of chatter— milling, and boring machines are presented in ANSI Standard
forced or self-excited vibration—must be determined before it B 11.8-1974, A general discussion of safety in machining is
can be eliminated or minimized. Chatter can often be reduced presented in Chapter 18 of this volume, “Safety and Noise
by changing or adjusting the operating parameters, cutter, Control.” Specific recommendations with respect to safety in
machine, workpiece, and/or fixture. Machine tables should be milling can be divided into four basic areas: dressing for safety,
kept as close as possible to the spindles, and spindle overhangs machine safeguarding, instructions, and operating procedures.
should be kept to a minimum. If a large spindle overhang is
required, positive-rake cutters should be used if possible to Dressing for Safety
reduce cutting forces. Standard inserts are available with Operators should wear safety glasses with side shields and
molded-in chip splitters to further reduce chatter. safety shoes. They should remove rings, watches, jewelry,
By changing the cutting speed, insert impacts can be set at a neckties, and other loose fitting items. Sleeves should be rolled
frequency at which chatter is diminished. Shock of the insert above the elbow, and long hair should be tied back and up.
impacts, and thus the magnitude of the vibrations, can usually Gloves should be removed before the machine is turned on.
be decreased by reducing the feed per insert or depth of cut. An
increase in feed per insert, however, increases the preload on Machine Safeguarding
machine members and thus tends to dampen forced vibration. Rotating or moving machine components, cutters, and
Looseness or lack of stiffness in the machine can be a significant workplaces represent a potential safety hazard and should be
contributing factor to chatter. Machines should be kept in good guarded. The high energy, cutting speeds, temperatures, and
condition by programmed maintenance. forces in milling can project hot flying chips and possibly tool
10-74
CHAPTERlO
TABLE 10-13
Problems, Causes, and Solutions When Milling
Problem Probable Causes Possible Solutions

Cratering Welding and galling between Use uncoated carbide grades having higher crater
chip and insert resistance. Use coated carbide inserts, Reduce cutting
speed and/ or chip load. Use higher positive-rake angles.
Built-up edges High cutting forces and Increase cutting speed when milling soft materials
(chip welding) temperatures (below RC 34-38). Decrease cutting speed when milling
hard materials. Use cutters with negative-positive or
double-positive geometry. Use coated carbide inserts.
Chipping of Variable shock loads that Reduce deflection (increase rigidity) of machine and
cutting edges increase forces and setup. Use inserts with honed (chamfered or rounded)
temperature edges. Use carbide grades having higher shock
resistance. Use inserts having stronger geometries.
Reduce feed per insert. Reduce speed when milling
hard materials.
Thermal cracking High temperatures and rapid Use carbide grades having higher shock resistance.
temperature changes Reduce cutting speed. Apply cutting fluid properly.
Edge deformation Excessive cutting temperature Use carbide grades having higher resistance to wear
and deformation. Apply cutting fluids properly.
Reduce cutting speed and feed per insert.
Edge notching Changes in tensile and Increase lead angle of cutter. Hone insert in depth-of-
compressive forces; milling cut line area. Reduce feed per insert.
materials with hard surfaces;
oxidation of tool material
Insert fracture or Excessive cutting forces Use carbide grades having higher shock resistance. Use
blade breakage inserts having stronger geometries. Use thicker inserts.
Reduce the feed rate and/ or depth of cut. Reduce
deflection (increase rigidity) of machine and setup. Use
machine with more power. Inspect insert seats.
Excessive flank Abrasive action, mechanical Use carbide grade having higher abrasive resistance.
or edge wear shock, and chemical reaction Reduce cutting speed, Increase feed rate. Sharpen
cutter or index inserts.
Work hardening Dull cutter; Sharpen cutter. Increase chip load per tooth. Try climb
too light a cut milling. Use more cutting edge clearance and positive
geometry.
Clogging of flutes Improper chips; Provide chip guides. Increase the chip space. Polish
too little chip space flutes when cutting aluminum.
Chatter and Vibration Reduce deflection (increase rigidity) of machine and
poor finishes setup. Reduce the feed rate and/ or depth of cut.
Change the cutting speed. Reduce cutter overhang.
Increase chip space.
Deflection of Structural weakness of cutter Use shortest and largest diameter cutter possible.
end mills Reduce feed and depth of cut. Take rough and finish
cuts.
and workpiece particles; because of this, the use of guards is . Size, shape, and type of workpiece, cutting tool, and
recommended. fixture.
One of the most difficult areas to guard on a milling machine . Cutter path and relationship of the cutter to the workpiece.
is the cutting zone or point of operation. Because of the wide ● Complete process to be used on the workpiece and
variety of milling operations, general-purpose guards may not required operator involvement.
be suitable for a particular application and special guards must
be installed in such cases, An effective guard should prevent access to the cutting zone
When a guard is being designed or selected, variables that when the machine spindle is rotating and should be capable of
should be considered include the following: withstanding impact and confining chips and cutting fluid. The
10-75
CHAPTER 10
REFERENCES
guard must not create a hazard in and of itselfi nor should it

interfere with the efficient operation of the machine,
Operator Instructions
Operators should read all instruction manuals and warning
signs provided by the machine builder before operating the
machine, and manuals should be kept within easy access of’the
operator. Operators should be familiar with all critical controls
(including on/ off switches, emergency stop buttons, etc.) before
starting the machine.
Safe Operating Procedures

The machine should be shut off and spindle rotation stopped
before cutters are changed, inserts are indexed or changed,
chips are removed, workplaces are loaded or unloaded, measure-
ments are made, or hands are placed near the cutting zone for
any reason. The work area should be kept clean and free of
obstacles, and flammable materials should be removed from the
area before beginning a milling operation.
Cutting fluids, if used for milling or cutter grinding. should be
kept as clean as possible, and the chance of fire must be con-
sidered if oils are used. Adequate ventilation is also important.
References
1. Carboloy Systems Dept,, General Electric Co., Mil/ing Handbook

of High-E fficIenc y Metal Cutting, Det ro it, 1980.
2. Metal Cutting Tool Institute, Metal Cutfing Tool Handbook,
Cleveland, 1969.
3. Machinability Data Center, Machining Data Handbook, Volume
1, 3rd ed. [Cincinnati: Metcut Research Associates Inc.. 1980).
4. Robert N’. Stauffer, “Breakthrough in End Mill Grinding,;’
Manufacturing Engineering (July 1978) pp. 30-31.
Bibliography
DoALL Co, End Milling Handbook. Des Plaines, IL, 1977.

Donahue, Harvey. “The Essentials of Thread Milling, ” Modern
Machine Shop (February 1981 ), pp. 106-113.
Gettelman, Ken. “High-Speed Milling: Where Do We Stand?”
Modern Machine Shop (February 1981 ), pp. 89-97.
Jablonowski, Joseph. “Fundamentals of Milling. ” American
Machinist (February 1978), pp. SR-1 to SR-24.
10-76
CHAPTER 11
GRINDING
Grinding is the most widely used single method adaptability, the often superior quality of the CHAPTER
of all the different categories of metalworking produced work surfaces, and several other CONTENTS:
processes, when basing the comparison on the properties of ground parts have significant positive
number of machine tools in use. in this respect, merit in many applications. The manufacturing Glossary 11-4
grinding exceeds even such basic processes as engineer should consider abrasive methods as a
Principles 11-8
turning or drilling. potentially promising alternative to other methods.
Grinding is an abrasive process, thereby distin- This is true even in applications beyond those for Wheels &
guished from most other metalworking processes. which grinding and other abrasive methods are Discs 11-15
These latter processes are considered metalcutting now recognized as the proper or only feasible Coated
because they operate by removing chips from the metalworking procedure. Abrasives 11-40
worked metallic part by means of distinctly shaped
Grinding
cutting edges of the tool. Grinding, however, ADVANTAGES OF GRINDING Fluids 11-44
removes the work material by means of abrasive AND OTHER ABRASIVE METHODS
grains. These grains, although not having distinct Surf ace
Working hard materials. Grinding facilitates
Grinding
edge forms, also penetrate into and remove the machining of hardened steel, which is the work Machines 11-50
workpiece material elements that, while irregular material of practically all precision parts used in Fixtures 11-60
in size, resemble in their shapes the chips produced machinery production. Considering the unavoid-
Cylindrical
by metalcutting operations. able distortions, surface damage, and dimensional Grinding
Abrasives as tools of metalworking have wide variations resulting from heat treatment during the Machines 11-65
applications in other processes. All metalworking Fixtures 11-87
hardening process, without the availability of a
processes which operate with abrasives as a tool means for correcting these deteriorations, the Center Hole
material are designated “abrasive methods. ” Under production of tightly tolerance parts with increased Grinding 11-90
the broad designation of abrasive methods, grind- strength and wear resistance would not be feasible.
Tool
ing processes, per se, are covered in this chapter. Wide range of stock removal rates. Metal- Grinding 11-91
Abrasive methods used primarily for surface-finish working by means of abrasives offers an extensive
refinement such as lapping, super finishing, etc., Jig Grinding 11-96
range of rates at which stock can be removed for
are covered in Volume 111of this series, “Materials widely different purposes. Grinding and related High-Speed
and Finishing. ” abrasive methods, as a category of metalworking Grinding 11-100
Shaping work materials with abrasives such as processes, are well adapted for operations varying
Creep-Feed
hard natural minerals is probably the oldest from grinding delicate sizes, forms, or surface- Grinding 11-103
method by which specific forms have been given to texture corrections, which require the removal of
nonplastic materials, first to stone, then to metals. Gaging 11-105
work surface material to a depth of about O.001”
With primative abrasive methods, weapons were (0.03 mm) or less (for example, by means of fine Trouble-
made in ancient times, even in prehistoric ages. grinding or lapping), to abrasive machining, which shooting 11-109
The fact that abrasive methods in general and provides stock removal rates comparable to those
Abrasive-Belt
grinding, more particularly, occupy a prominent of any other metalworking method. Machining 11-118
position in modern metalworking is due to the Size control significantly superior to other
important and, in some respects, unique advan- Abresive
metalworking processes. Grinding can be carried 11-121
cutoff
tages which these methods of metalworking out in a continuous, fully automated process with a
provide in many areas of industrial production. consistent size-holding accuracy exceeding by far Honing for
The more important advantages of abrasive the level accomplished by any other system of Heavy Stock
Removal 11-125
methods for metalworking applications are pointed metalworking, with the possible exception of
out in the following text in a sequence which is not diamond turning, which is applied very rarely. One
intended to represent an order of importance. reason for the high degree of dimensional and form
Every listed advantage does not benefit all the accuracy maintained by grinding is the easily
applications of abrasives as means of metal- ensured uniform cutting capacity of the grinding
working. Nevertheless the savings in cost and wheel by trueing and dressing. Trueing and dressing
operation time, the high level of the methods’ are often performed in an automatic process; the
Contributors of sections of this chapter are: John G, Burgess, Technical Sales Manager, Grinding
Machines, Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co,; Gerald C. Cotter, Managar of Test, Service and Quality Control, Machine
Tool Operations, Bendix Corp. —lrrdustrial Tools Div.; PaulH. DeRamo, Hill Division Manager, The HillA cme Co,;
Everett W. Emery, Sales Engineer, Cone-Blanchard Machine Co.; Dr. Francis T, Farago, CMfgE, Author:
Abrasive Methods Engineering I & II, Senior Research Engineer, General Motors Corp. (Retired); Robert M.
Gauvreau. Supervisor, Technical Services, Coated Abrasives Div., Norton Co.; Don Greenburg, Vice President,
Engineering, Barnes Drill Co.; Robert S, Hahn, DSC, , P. E., CMfgE, Consulting Engineer, Hahn Associates;
Edward G. Hoffman, Technical Writer/Consultant, E, G. Hoffman Co.; Burton R. Leathley, Vice President, Oliver
Instrument Co.: Dr. Richard Lindsay, Research Associate, Norton Co.: Robert M. Perry, Product Research
Engineer, Moore Special Tool Co. , Inc.;

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TOOL AND MANUFACTURING

President Nathan A. Chiantella, CMfgE John E. Mayer, Jr., CMfgE

Thomas J. Drozda, PE, CMfgE

Charles Wick, CMfgE

Revised under the supervision of

Society of Manufacturing Engineers

Library of Congress Catalog No. 82-060312

Copyright @ 1983, 1976, 1959, 1949 by Society of Manufacturing Engineers. One S M E

Printed in the United States of America

Although greatly expanded and updated to reflect the latest in manufac-

The scope of this edition is multifaceted, offering a ready-reference source

The scope of this volume encompasses the universe of conventional and

Every aspect of machining technology is provided in-depth coverage in

Further recognition is due the members of the SME Publications

EDITORIAL TYPESETTING GRAPHICS

The Society was founded in 1932 as the American Society of Tool

The changes in name reflect the evolution of the manufacturing engineering

As a member of the World Federation of Engineering Organizations,

Symbols and Abbreviations ............................................................ xi

Principles of Metalcutting and Machinability .......................................... 1-1

Index ................................................................................... 1-1

A Ampere c Coulomb, Celsius or carbon

GEOMETRY OF CHIP FORMATION FORCES

In orthogonal cutting, the width of the chip, b,, equals the

Fig. 1-2 Drawing of a photomicrograph of continuous chip.

GEOMETRY OF CHIP FORMATION

STRAIN AND STRAIN RATE

Fig. 1-4 Velocity diagram for orthogonal cutting.

SINGLE POINT TURNING

Continuous Chips with Built-Up Edge

Extensive Shear Zone

GEOMETRY OF CHIP FORMATION

Cutting with chip curlers (chip breakers), as illustrated in Fig.

Cutting with adiabatic shear occurs when a material that has

is more accurately called the velocity rake angle, a,, since it is

The inclination angle, i, is the distinguishing feature between

Fig. 1-13 Chip formation with chip breaker.

The effective rake angle, a,, is measured in the plane of V and V,

GEOMETRY OF CHIP FORMATION

and hence with a tool tip of given strength and heat

back to produce a spiral with a helix angle. This is

Chip control is an important element of safety and produc-

FORCES AT THE CUTTING TOOL

Normal clearance angle (deg)

For over 100 years metalcutting researchers, attempting to

FORCES AT THE CUTTING TOOL

ORTHOGONAL CUTTING MODELS ~shi F ❑ COS (01 + ~. - Yn) (15)

Fig. 1-19 (a) Orthogonal cutting, (b) Nonorthogonal (oblique) cutting.

FORCES AT THE CUTTING TOOL

-Yrl normal rake angle of tool as measured in a

(lb.) (GJ/m3) (hp/n.3/mn)

. . . . . .. —---- C.. .I ---- ,-

(N/mm2) (PSI) (GJ/m3) (hp/m.3/mn)

. ---- ,—.—. I-- —— --, . . . . ----

FORCES AT THE CUTTING TOOL

Figure 1-27 shows a cross section of the tool perpendicular to

F, = Fq’eq’+ FPreP’ (33]

F, = F,i + F,,j + F,k (34)

Also, F can be written as follows:

The predicted orthogonal forces can be related to q’-p’,

WORK DONE IN CUTTING

A matrix model of three-dimensional metalcutting, based on

POWER The Specific (or Unit) Power