Revisiting Addiction Using Depth Psychology:

The Myth of Exodus as a Blueprint for Recovery

by
Gil Simsic

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

Master of Arts in Counseling Psychology

Pacifica Graduate Institute

26 January 2012
 ii

© 2012 Gil Simsic

All rights reserved
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I certify that I have read this paper and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable
standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a
product for the degree of Master of Arts in Counseling Psychology.

____________________________________
Jorge de la O, M.A., L.M.F.T.
Faculty Advisor

On behalf of the thesis committee, I accept this paper as partial fulfillment of the
requirements for Master of Arts in Counseling Psychology.

____________________________________
Avrom Altman, M.A., L.M.F.T., L.P.C.
Research Coordinator

On behalf of the Counseling Psychology program, I accept this paper as partial

fulfillment of the requirements for Master of Arts in Counseling Psychology.

____________________________________
Avrom Altman, M.A., L.M.F.T., L.P.C.
Director of Research
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Abstract

Revisiting Addiction Using Depth Psychology:

The Myth of Exodus as a Blueprint for Recovery

by Gil Simsic

Whereas mainstream psychology perceives addiction principally as a disease of

the brain, depth psychology identifies addiction as an inner psychic process, a call for

uniting soul and ego. Using qualitative, hermeneutic research methodology, this thesis

uses the writings of Carl G. Jung and of neo-Jungians to delve into the understanding of

addiction as a psychic phenomenon. Particular attention is placed on the collective

unconscious and its archetypal content. Using the Bible and the story of Exodus as a

blueprint, the study suggests a path for recovery: a transmutation of the psyche from

enslavement to freedom. This work also explores the possible connection between

addiction behavior and behavioral traits of the community, and posits that addiction is an

individual as well as a societal issue, and that sustainable recovery may be achieved by

reuniting the psyche with the divine.

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Acknowledgements

To my partner, my friend, and wife, Lara Simsic, this thesis, as well as my

schooling would have not happen without your love, encouragement, and support.

To my children, Shaked, Tomer, Ophir, Sean and the little one who is on the way,

for being in my life, and for allowing me to be in your life. I am privileged to have each

one of you.

To my grandparents, parents, my sister, and my extended family, for your

involvement in my life. From birth until these very days, you touched, tendered, and

filled my life with rich spirituality, symbolism, values, and cultural deposits.

To Jorge De La O, M.A., M.F.T., Jungian Analyst, my thesis advisor, and to

Rekha Chakraburtty, Ph.D., my editor, for shaping this work while allowing my voice to

come out.

To the teaching staff of Pacifica Graduate Institute for your dedication in teaching

and tendering the soul of the world as well as my soul.

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Dedication

This thesis is dedicated to my father, Joseph Gafni (nêe Kirshenbaum), who

passed away unexpectedly in June of 2008, I miss you, and I thank you for your love and

guidance.

Moreover, I would like to thank the anima mundi for the privilege of being at its

service.
 Table of Contents

Chapter I Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1  

Area of Interest ....................................................................................................... 1  
Overview of Chapters ............................................................................................. 2  
Rationale ................................................................................................................. 3
General ........................................................................................................ 3
Society, Individuals, and Nature ................................................................. 4
Methodology ........................................................................................................... 8  
Phenomenological Qualitative Approach ................................................... 8
Research Question ...................................................................................... 9
Gathering Data .......................................................................................... 10

Chapter II Literature Review ........................................................................................ 11  

Etymology of the Word Addiction ....................................................................... 12  
Addiction Through History ................................................................................... 12  
Addiction Defined Psychologically ...................................................................... 14
Mainstream Psychology ............................................................................ 14
Depth Psychology ..................................................................................... 17
Statistics on Addiction .......................................................................................... 22
Worldwide................................................................................................. 22
In the United States ................................................................................... 22
Depth Psychology in Service of Addiction ........................................................... 24  
Addiction and the Gods ........................................................................................ 27  
Addiction and Initiation ........................................................................................ 29
Initiation to Addiction ............................................................................... 29
Connecting Addiction With Lack of Initiation ......................................... 30
Initiation in the United States ................................................................... 31
Addiction and Ecstasy........................................................................................... 33  
From Compulsion to Faculty ................................................................................ 35  
Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................. 36  

Chapter III Findings and Clinical Applications ............................................................ 38  

Addiction and the Narrative of Exodus ................................................................ 38
The Israelites Before Migrating to Egypt ................................................. 39
The First Years in Egypt ........................................................................... 40
After the Death of Joseph ......................................................................... 40
From Free to Enslaved People .................................................................. 42
The Need for a Spiritual Leader—Moses ................................................. 44
The 10 Plagues .......................................................................................... 45
Embarking on the Journey—At Night ...................................................... 46
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Crossing the Red Sea ................................................................................ 46

Receiving the Law .................................................................................... 47
Wandering in the Wilderness .................................................................... 48
The End of the Journey—Entering the Promised Land ............................ 50
Exodus as a Blueprint for Recovery ..................................................................... 51
Finding Moses—Spiritual Leadership ...................................................... 52
Going into the Wilderness—Individuation Process .................................. 52
Application ............................................................................................................ 54
The Need for Individuation and Initiation ................................................ 54
12-Step Programs ...................................................................................... 55  
Recovery With Depth Psychology ........................................................................ 56  
Ways to Initiation .................................................................................................. 57  

Chapter IV Closing and Conclusion ............................................................................. 58  

Addiction and the Collective ................................................................................ 58  
Personal Perspective ............................................................................................. 61
Adequate Initiation.................................................................................... 63
Summary ............................................................................................................... 64  
Conclusions ........................................................................................................... 64  
Clinical Implications ............................................................................................. 65  
Suggested Research .............................................................................................. 66

References ......................................................................................................................... 68  
  

Chapter I
Introduction

Area of Interest

This document is the pinnacle and the culmination of a 3 year journey of

following my inner call in pursuit of a master’s degree in counseling psychology. In this

thesis, I will attempt to balance academic writing with reflections of my inner process.

During the course of studies at Pacifica Graduate Institute, students were encouraged to

look into their work, into subjective factors and processes of the psyche, as well as into

the deeper and vaster levels of the soul. Pacifica Graduate Institute has woven into its

logo, as well as into its being and its coursework, an even broader aspect of the soul: the

anima mundi, or the “soul of the world” (Pacifica Graduate Institute, n.d., para. 2). In this

thesis, I will try to follow this tradition and listen to the soul of the individual, as well as

to the soul of the community, the universe, and the world.

Through my research, I followed an inner call to bring such a balanced and well-

adjusted perspective to a phenomenon that is looming to become a pandemic—addiction.

Addiction in its many different and unique manifestations is a growing world issue,

skipping no boundary of ethnicity, or of social or economical class. Resources are

invested by governmental and private organizations for research, treatment, and

prevention, with the aim of preventing more people from joining the destructive

downward spiral of this ailment. This study will explore the psychological aspects of

addiction. The scope of this study is not limited to any specific addiction; rather, it will
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examine the generic factors of dependency, with its many and growing expressions, such

as illicit drugs, alcohol, nicotine, caffeine, gambling, work, sex, and others. This work

will broaden the discussion of addiction beyond the subjective factors that drive an

individual into an addictive behavior, and will look at modern Western society, in

particular here in the United States, and explore the influence of society on the problem.

In my research, I felt compelled to focus on addiction as a major societal problem

that seems to be endemic in the United States. As part of my course work at Pacifica

Graduate Institute, and toward my licensure as a marriage and family therapist, I had to

complete a clinical traineeship. The purpose of the traineeship was to provide firsthand

practice in the clinical aspects of the schooling. My traineeship site was the Salvation

Army rehabilitation center in San Jose, CA. The center offers a 6 month, inpatient

program. During my 10 month tenure at this site, through my work I was exposed to the

issue of addiction, mainly addiction to drugs and alcohol. Following this experience,

through this research and through my clinical work in this field, I hope to help address

the growing issue of addiction in society.

Overview of Chapters

In Chapter II, I will portray addiction and addictive behavior as seen through the

lens of contemporary mainstream psychology and of depth psychology. Though

devastating for individuals as well as their families and friends, this work will attempt to

take a non-judgmental stance. Therefore, it will not look at the addicted individual as a

malevolent, maladapted narcissist, or as a compulsive. I will refrain from labeling the

person, although I will still examine and call on the behaviors of the person with
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addiction problems. The person will be separated from the symptoms, allowing an

objective perspective.

In Chapter III, following the tradition of depth psychology, addiction will be

looked at as a call of the soul, as a multitude of archetypes, and as streams and currents

within the psyche. This work will use the myth and story of Exodus as portrayed in the

Old Testament (New International Version, NIV), or what is known as the book of

Exodus from the Five Books of Moses to tap into the old wisdom of change. I will try to

follow the insights as they are offered in this mythological narrative, and attempt to find a

way to understand and to bring the story to one’s day-to-day life. Moreover, I will

attempt to draw parallels between the people and phases of the Exodus and the processes

of addiction and recovery.

Rationale

General. Psychiatrist and neuropsychoanalysis researcher Edward Khantzian

(2003) wrote, “Substance-use disorders (SUDs) are among the most pervasive and

devastating psychiatric disorders and public health problems of our times. Until recently

they have also been considered refractory to treatment” (p. 5). Therefore, recognizing the

importance of tackling the issue of addictions in modern society, I have decided to take

on the task by approaching addiction from yet another research angle. The compulsion to

use drugs, alcohol, or nicotine, as well as behavioral compulsions such as shopping, sex,

and gambling, can result in the devastation of one’s social life and of one’s physical and

mental health. I experienced this effect directly during my traineeship at the Salvation

Army rehabilitation center where I engaged with clients with alcohol and drug abuse

issues on a daily basis.

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This study draws ideas and inspiration from my own experience, the body of

research in field of addiction, as well as the thesis works of two Pacifica Graduate

Institute graduates, Anna M. McConvile (1990) and Deanna M. Danko (2001). Both

examined addiction from the viewpoint of depth psychology. In this thesis, the discussion

will expand to include the influence, roles, and involvement of broader aspects beyond

the individual with addictive behavior, such as the influence of society on addiction. I

hypothesize that modern Western society drives people toward becoming individuals, but

not necessarily toward individuation, as described by the renowned psychiatrist and

forefather of analytical psychology, Carl G. Jung (1939/1968d).

Interesting insights into the habits of communities can be gleaned by studying the

way communities treat their elders and the dead. In the past, when cities and towns were

smaller, cemeteries were part of the church’s backyard. On Sundays and holidays, when

the whole community were gathered, it was as the present meeting the past in the house

of God. Today, cemeteries are erected out of town, out of sight; modern society does not

want to be reminded of mortality. The same is true for the elders, the sick, and with

anything and everything that does not fit the illusion of staying forever young. To me, it

seems like modern Western society is all about staying young, and about the rejection of

any illness and death. This begs the questions: What is addiction and its growing

pervasiveness telling us as a collective, as a society? What in society needs to be

changed, integrated, or separated?

Society, individuals, and nature. As a society, humans once felt that they were a

part of nature. Nature follows a cyclical rhythm: the sun rises in the east and sets in the

west every day, seasons come and go in a cyclic pattern, the moon revolves around earth,
 5

and the earth revolves around the sun. In the not too distant past, people were closer to

the ground, they broke bread from it, and when it rained, people were glad for the water.

They knew that disasters such as flooding, drought, and earthquakes were part of nature.

Today when it rains, it ruins someone’s plans for a celebration, or someone’s vacation.

Today, people in their 40s and 50s want to look younger, to defy nature, to control and

conquer it. After all, in the past 100 years, humans have managed to achieve so much

through technology: we have appliances that cook, clean, communicate, and entertain us;

we have managed to conquer some major diseases that killed many of our ancestors; we

have sent a man to the moon; and we have sent unmanned vehicles to further stars. The

common feeling is that it is just a matter of time before humans will be able to do

everything and anything. Maybe we are God? That brings the discussion to a core

paradox, which, I conjecture, is propelling society in its current trajectory. The paradox

of, what are we? We are part earthly, part divine, and some individuals would like to

resolve the paradox in a conclusive way. I hold the belief that we are indeed both, and the

solution is a non-duality of the two.

Big corporations tap into the resources of Mother Earth, providing humanity with

the precious resource that is needed to make all of this technology run—energy. People

grow corn, not to feed hungry people in other parts of the world, but to create ethanol.

The United States is still the major consumer of technology, and technology runs on

energy. Now, China and India, each with populations one billion or more strong, are

competing with the United States and want to have the same. Humans are draining all the

energy resources and polluting the air, the rivers, and the seas. After all, we

shortsightedly think it is not our problem, it is the problem of the next generation. In this
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way, the United States as a society can be considered to be behaving like an addict.

Americans consume more than they have, racking up an enormous debt, all because they

have to have that new car, and this new pill, or they have to go on vacation abroad, and

eat a unique food that has to be transported from the other side of the globe. People can

blame the banks in the financial crisis, but we are all the consumers of their products.

Where was logic when we signed on the dotted line? When we decided to buy a new car

after 2 years, and to purchase the $1,000,000 house? People were in denial; many thought

that the United Stated could keep on that trajectory forever. Similarly, every addicted

individual believes that this is the last glass, his or her last shot. They are sure, just as we

as a society are sure, that they can control the outcome.

The prevalence of addictions, and its increasing penetration into younger

populations, can be seen as a direct outcome of what parents, teachers, and community

leaders teach children. As a society, we teach the next generation that old is ugly, and that

we have no compassion for those who are not as well as us, after all it is their fault, they

are probably lazy. Charity, humility, and kindness are considered weaknesses. The media

promotes the bold, the fearless. I was surprised to read Jung’s (1944/1966) description of

the Western man, “Western man is held in thrall by the ‘ten thousand things’; he sees

only particulars, he is ego-bound and thing-bound, and unaware of the deep root of all

being” (p. 8). Almost 70 years ago, Jung pointed out the shallowness of the Western man.

I assume he was referring more generally to people from European cultures. The

collective unconscious of the United States originated in Europe; hence, many Americans

carry part of that shallowness in the collective part of the psyche, presumably it is part of

the collective shadow.

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This summer I took my two older children, Shaked and Tomer, to visit the Statue

of Liberty. Standing there, inside the statue, I read the poet Emma Lazarus’s (2007) The

New Colossus, written in 1883. The lyrics read,

“Give me your tired, your poor,

Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free,

The wretched refuse of your teeming shore.

Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me,

I lift my lamp beside the golden door!” (p. 172).

My kids and I deliberated about the meaning of the lyrics. I told them how they had

become a slogan, a dictum used to express the openness of the United Stated to all

people, to immigrants.

People do not want to hear about misery; it spoils their day. People do not want to

deal with their elderly parents and relatives; they are deposited into nursing homes.

People are too busy to have the flu or a cold; they would rather pop a pill and go to work,

after all, time is money. One cannot watch television for more than a few minutes without

a commercial for this new drug or that new medicine. Life is too short to miss anything,

and the body’s symptoms should not be dismissed. Leading and influential manufacturers

of clothing proliferate the sexualization of young kids. For example, this summer

Abercrombie and Fitch came out with “Ashley,” a push-up bikini swimsuit for girls aged

8 to 14 (McKay, 2011). For these reasons, are we, as parents and as a society, really

surprised that when 8-year-old girls are offered sexy outfits, when they turn 16 they have

to deal with depression? Do we ever spend a minute thinking about a psyche of an 8-

year-old, and what it can process and conceive?

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This thesis will take a bold and unpopular approach, and will look at the pitfalls of

society. Researchers from all schools of thought agree on one thing—addiction is a

complex, multidimensional issue that involves the individual as well as his or her

environment. Addressing only one part of the phenomenon will not solve the problem.

This thesis will discuss the societal issues, a few of which I have touched upon in this

introduction. It is not the goal of this thesis to provide a silver bullet, or a new and

revolutionary method to cure addiction. This work is merely a study that will attempt to

do what is needed, to bring awareness, to shed light on the shadow, and to be brave

enough to call things and issues by their names. It is my hope that in this way, I will

participate in my own process of growing in awareness, as well as contributing to the

awareness of those who will read this work.

Methodology

Phenomenological qualitative approach. This study uses qualitative

methodologies, using descriptive data about human experience in written recorded form.

There is no experimental portion, and no quantitative research is performed, also, no

human participants were used in the research phase of this work. The sources for this

work are descriptive, qualitative data from vast narratives and research studies in the field

of addictions and related subjects.

For this study, I specifically used the qualitative, hermeneutic research

methodology. Depth psychotherapist and lecturer Cynthia Hale (2010, lecture) delineated

qualitative research as research that follows the following keys: open-ended questions, in-

depth detail and distinction, no single truth, validity of different realities, explores and

describes, and can compare and contrast. Hale expanded and added hermeneutic as a
 9

subcategory of qualitative research, having features such as sourcing data from literature

and myth, involving inquiry and reflection, having the latitude to allow dialogue between

concepts, and having meaning and understanding as the reigning goals. I found that

applying such methodology to my research allowed me the desired scope, latitude of

investigation, and the freedom to confer my own understandings and perspectives on the

texts when using the mythologies from the Bible, and the archaic research of depth

psychology, archetypal psychology, and mythology as sources of data.

Research question. The primary research question of this thesis asks, how does

the psyche develop addictions? Being an open-ended question, it allows a multifaceted

research approach. Auxiliary research questions ask, what is addiction according to depth

psychology? What drives a person to fall into addiction? How can depth psychology be at

the service of curing addictions? The research will concentrate on answering these

questions and others that arise through the process of investigation. The investigation will

involve looking at how modern schools of psychology define and treat addictions, with

an emphasis being placed on the depth psychological approach. Using these guiding

questions, this study will use the writings of Jung, as well the relevant literature and

research of prominent scholars of depth psychology, such as Marion Woodman (1982)

and Robert Johnson (1987, 1989, 1993). To ensure that the coverage and the breadth of

this work is sufficient, I will use research and information from mainstream psychology.

The goal is not to contradict its findings, but to offer another perspective. Mainstream

psychology deals with the aware, the symptoms, as well as the mechanisms of the human

body, whereas depth psychology looks into the unaware, the soul, and the

unconsciousness of the human being. Doing and being are combined into one holistic
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approach. Hence, the research question acts not as a guide for a contradictive outcome,

but for a complementary solution.

Gathering data. The main source of data in this study will be articles and

writings of past and current psychology researchers. Emphasis is placed on using peer-

reviewed data, officially released information posted by organizations that have a charter

for research in their fields. Such organizations include the World Health Organization

(WHO), the directing and coordinating authority for health within the United Nations, set

to research and deal with global health concerns; and the National Institute on Drug

Abuse (NIDA), a Federal government institute chartered to initiate, conduct, support, and

publish substance abuse addiction research in the United States.

  

Chapter II
Literature Review

Different models for addiction have been proposed in an attempt to understand,

define, research, and treat addiction. These models can be broadly divided into two main

categories. The first is the disease model, which connects addiction with brain

functioning, neurobiology, and mental illness, all of which are subjective (Brown, 1985;

Hirsh, 1949; Jellinek, 1960; Washton & Zweben, 2006). This is the most accepted model

among researchers, physicians, and others in the field of substance abuse research and

treatment. It is also widely accepted by leading organization, such as the government’s

National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), and Alcoholic Anonymous (AA) to name a

few. Another more recent approach that falls under the disease model is the genetic

approach (Ducci & Goldman, 2008; Nestler, 2001; Spanagel et al., 2010). This approach

is more objective, although until now, it has lacked supportive and accepted research. The

second model is the behavioral model (Brown, 1985; Washton & Zweben, 2006). In this

model, addiction is delineated as a behavioral problem that can be related to an

individual’s morality or other behavioral factors. It can also tie the addiction with habits

and learned behaviors. The model, therefore, connects the addicted individual to his or

her environment.

For the purposes of this thesis, I will examine contemporary research, which

largely follows the disease model. However, the main purpose of this work is to look at
 12

addiction through the lens of depth psychology, from the viewpoint of the soul. Hence,

this work will also cover aspects of the less accepted behavioral model.

Etymology of the Word Addiction

The word addiction emerged from the Latin word addīcō, and is translated as, “of

a judge, especially the praetor, to award a debtor as a slave to his creditor” (“addico,”

1968, p. 11, def. 2a). In a more general sense “to give oneself up too slavishly” (def. 3).

addīcō is a compound build of ad (to, towards, at) and dīcō (say, affirm, tell). According

to the Roman law, an addictio was a person who was enslaved through a judicial

procedure. In the time of the Roman Empire, when a debtor could not repay his or her

debt, creditors could recover their losses using a legal procedure. In that procedure, if

proven that the debtor lacks the means to repay, the praetor, or the justice, could turn the

debtor into a slave. Today the term addict is used to denote a person who is bonded,

enslaved, with a substance or any other activity that is pleasurable. It is notable that the

word addiction, used today to denote repeated consumption of drugs, or obsession with

food, sex, or gambling, for example, is derived from a Latin word which expresses the

slavery or bondage of a person. This connection will be further explored in Chapter III,

where the story of Exodus, a story of breaking out from slavery, is used as an outline or

scheme for recovery from addiction.

Addiction Through History

“The history of alcohol itself, its use and abuse, is as old as the history of man”

(Robertson, 1988, p. 185). Nan Robertson, reporter and author of the book Getting

Better: Inside Alcoholics Anonymous (1988) explained, “The earliest known records of

alcohol consumption date back to the Mesopotamians: Clay tablets from 4,000 years
 13

before Christ chronicle the amount drunk by the populace and record recipes for using

alcohol as a solvent in medicines” (p. 185). Records depicting the limitations on the sale

and use of alcohol date to around 1700 BCE, and they are described in the artifact known

as “The Code of Hammurabi of Babylonia.” Some references to opium addiction can be

traced back to medieval documents (Hollen, 2009).

In a later era, the Greek writer Euripides wrote the play, The Bacchae. The play

tells the story of the city of Thebes and its sovereign, Pentheus, who is punished by the

Greek goddess Dionysus for rejecting his godhood (Bullfinch, 2000). From this tragedy,

one can learn about the misfortunate outcome of excessive use of alcohol, to the degree

of losing one’s senses. The plot tells the story of a mother savagely killing her own son

while intoxicated by excessive alcohol. The mother’s inebriation was so severe that she

could not tell her own child from another, and, in a fit of rage, she tore her son to pieces.

In 1784, Benjamin Rush, a physician from Philadelphia, challenged the accepted

United States norm that drinking was good, and that more of it was even better. He wrote

a contradictory paper in which he identified alcohol as a drug, and delineated that once a

person has become addicted to alcohol, only total and complete abstinence could cure

him or her (as cited in Robertson, 1988, p. 185). Rush was the first contemporary

researcher to write about alcohol addiction. Following him, in 1849 the term alcoholism

was coined by Magnus Huss, a Swedish physician (Robertson, 1988).

In the post-World War I period, addiction to opioids increased and spread

globally with alarming numbers. The severity of the phenomenon was so acute that in

1925, almost all nations of the world attended the Opium Convention in Geneva (Hesse,
 14

1946). This event marked the first time that leaders from all over the globe acknowledged

the need to control and regulate the manufacturing and distribution of drugs (pp. 14-15).

Addiction Defined Psychologically

Mainstream psychology. In past times, addiction was predominantly viewed as a

subjective morality issue of the addicted individuals, and people with addictions were

considered sinners, or morally inept (Hirsh, 1949). The term used for the habitual drinker

was inebriate. Inebriate means, “to exhilarate or stupefy as if by liquor” (“Inebriate,”

2011, def. 2). The terms alcoholism and alcoholic were not mentioned or used before

1849 (Robertson, 1988). It took almost another 100 years until in 1940 a “new approach

to alcoholism” was started among researchers to the effect and realization that

“alcoholism is a disease” (Jellinek, 1960, p. 201). Today, a large body of the modern

literature and research works under the delineation of addiction as a disease. Major

progress in recent years in the fields of neurobiology and genetics has provided further

explanation and support for the disease model (Nestler, 2001).

The term addiction is defined as the “compulsive need for and use of a habit-

forming substance (as heroin, nicotine, or alcohol) characterized by tolerance and by

well-defined physiological symptoms upon withdrawal; broadly persistent compulsive

use of a substance known by the user to be harmful” (“Addiction,” 2011, def. 2). NIDA,

the United States government agency in control of sponsoring, research, and treatment

plans, is part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), a component of the U.S.

Department of Health and Human Services. In one of its publications, addiction is

defined as

a chronic, often relapsing brain disease that causes compulsive drug seeking and
use, despite harmful consequences to the addicted individual and to those around
 15

him or her. Although the initial decision to take drugs is voluntary for most
people, the brain changes that occur over time challenge a person’s self control
and ability to resist intense impulses urging them to take drugs. (NIDA, 2011,
p. 4)

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed., text

revision) (DSM-IV-TR) (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2000), is one of the

most widely used manuals worldwide for the diagnosis of mental disorders. In the

manual, addiction, or substance dependence, is defined as “a cluster of cognitive,

behavioral and physiological symptoms indicating that the individual continues use of the

substance despite significant substance related problems” (p. 192). This definition implies

that the key indicators for dependency are cognitive and behavioral; the tyrant, the drug,

guides thoughts, process, and behavior. This raises the questions, where is the power of

will? What happened to the voice of reason? Research into the use of substances that are

considered illicit drugs show significant evidence of changes in brain functioning that can

create biological dependency (Johnson, 1999, 2003). The most common explanation is

that the prefrontal cortex, the part of the brain that is in charge of answering the question,

“Then what?” is being kidnapped by the substance, and to some extent is being

modified. Yet, the question of what drives a person to commence the use of drugs is not

answered by either of these theories.

Yet another definition of addiction comes from the American Society of

Addiction Medicine (ASAM):

Addiction is a primary, chronic disease of brain reward, motivation, memory, and

related circuitry. Dysfunction in these circuits leads to characteristic biological,
psychological, social and spiritual manifestations. This is reflected in an
individual pathologically pursuing reward and/or relief by substance use and other
behaviors. (2011, p. 1)
 16

This definition also adopts the disease model. It further points towards the role of the

brain’s circuits, in particular those that are related to reward and motivation. Hence, it

delineates that addiction is a pathology that is connected with the body’s systems of

reward or relief.

The aforementioned definitions describe and agree upon the following key

characteristics for addiction: first, that it is a brain disease; second, that it involves the

reward circuits in the brain; and third, that it leads to impairment or distress.

However, all of the definitions appear to rely greatly on the symptoms, such as

compulsiveness, craving, and lack of control, which are all related to the behavioral

aspects. Additionally, these definitions rely upon an understanding of brain functioning

and mechanism, which is science in its early stages. All of the definitions describe the

addiction as a phenomenon that occurs within the person’s physical realm, and miss the

psychic aspect of the human being. Moreover, these suggested definitions for addiction

do not appear to address wider factors such as family or community.

I postulate that the missing part in the above-mentioned delineations is that they

lack the ability to explain what drives a person to start the vicious cycle of addiction,

either in the very first use, or in the case of relapse. One can assume that most users know

the outcome of using drugs or alcohol, either by firsthand experience in the case of

relapse, or by learning about it from the prevalent media depictions, in the case of the

very first use. Some definitions (see APA, 2000; Johnson, 1999, 2003), try to elucidate

the onset of using an illicit substance by connecting it to a prior mental condition such as

depression, stress, anxiety, and so forth. Yet again, none of the researchers provide any
 17

criteria to determine which people, given the same psychological pre-conditions of either

stress or depression, will fall into addiction, and which will not.

Depth psychology. In her book Alcoholism and Women, Jungian analyst Jan

Bauer (1982) researched alcoholism from the perspective of Jungian psychology. She

mentioned how James Hillman, the founder of archetypal psychology, disagreed with the

existing models for suicide. Bauer took Hillman’s viewpoint and applied it to alcoholism:

What Hillman says about existing models for suicide is equally true for those
concerning alcoholism: that they are all basically inadequate because they leave
out the psyche and are therefore bound to define and speaking only in terms of
collectively tolerated standards, such as defined by the medical establishment, the
Law, Church or Society. With them one may find reaction patterns and discover
mechanisms but one loses the soul. (pp. 49-50)

Indeed, defining addiction as a disease is in great service of the medical establishment.

The logical conclusion, then, to defining addiction as a disease or as an illness, is that it

needs to be medicated, monitored, and treated under medical supervision.

Bauer (1982) described addiction as an archetypal struggle or polarization, as

illustrated by the Apollonian–Dionysian opposition. Bauer wrote, “What happens to

alcoholics in archetypal terms, is that under the influence of alcohol they become

possessed by Dionysus” (p. 13). Bauer drew parallels between addiction and being

possessed by an archetype, in her case, the God of ecstasy, Dionysus. To understand what

archetype means in Jungian and depth psychology terminology, one needs to go to the

origin. Jung (1954/1968b) explained archetypes in the following way:

the contents of the personal unconscious are chiefly the feeling-toned complexes,
as they are called; they constitute the personal and private side of psychic life.
The contents of the collective unconscious, on the other hand, are known as
archetypes. (p. 4)
 18

From Jung’s (1954/1968b) description one learns that an archetype is the building

block of the collective unconscious. Jung further explained, “The concept of the

archetype, which is indispensable correlates to the idea of the collective unconscious,

indicates the existence of definite forms in the psyche which seem to present always and

everywhere” (1936-1937/1968c, p. 42). Jung added the ubiquitous aspect of the

archetype; therefore, it is eternal and belongs to the psyche of all humans. The collective

unconscious, as delineated by Jung, is defined as

a more or less superficial layer of the unconscious is undoubtedly personal. I call

it the “personal unconscious”. But this personal layer rests upon a deeper layer,
which does not derive from personal experience and is not a personal acquisition
but is inborn. This deeper layer I call the "collective unconscious". I have chosen
the term “collective” because this part of the unconscious is not individual but
universal; in contrast to the personal psyche, it has contents and modes of
behavior that are more or less the same everywhere and in all individuals. (p. 3)

What are the key features of the Dionysus archetype that led Bauer (1982) to use

the archetype in analogy to intoxication and addiction? Johnson (1987) explained that the

key Dionysian archetypal features are intuition and feeling. Jung (1921/1971) wrote an

essay named “The Apollonian and the Dionysian” (pp. 136-146). In this paper, Jung

paralleled Apollo with introversion and Dionysus with extroversion. Jung cited Nietzsche

who termed the Dionysian, outward streaming of energy as intoxication. I concur that this

is a proper use, to represent the state of being inebriated with the archetypal Dionysus, or

a Dionysian state of mind. I would like to note, however, that a proper alignment with

this god does not result in an addiction; instead, it is more the ecstasy of a numinous

experience, or exhilaration. Addiction is the result of taking on the dark side of the

Dionysian experience.
 19

Hillman (1979) and Bauer (1982) are in agreement that many existing definitions

and treatment approaches are constricted, reductionist, and focused on the symptoms and

physiological aspects of the human body, rather on the totality of the human being as a

living organism. The models disregard a person’s thoughts, process, and the spiritual

aspects. They keep the soul out. I will take the risk of contending that such an approach is

harmful and not productive in the effort to deal with the phenomenon known as

addiction.

Psychoanalyst Luigi Zoja (1989) offered some interesting ideas about addiction

from a depth psychological perspective. For example, he suggested changing the term

drug addiction to drug initiation. By doing so, Zoja proclaimed that addiction and

initiation would become interchangeable terms. He further claimed, “The term ‘drug

initiate’ would thus refer to that hypothetical individual who does not abuse drugs, but

who uses them as a means of satisfying his innate, archetypal, need for initiation” (p. 7).

Zoja connected addiction with initiation. He delineated that addiction is a way for people

person to pursue their need for initiation. I will add that this is not a useful or a healthy

way to pursue one’s initiation.

In his book, The War of the Gods in Addiction, David Schoen (2009), a social

worker and Jungian analyst, used Jungian and depth psychological terminology to

delineate yet another depth perspective on addiction. According to Schoen, addiction has

to satisfy two major criteria. First, “it must take over control of normal ego functioning—

thoughts, emotions, perceptions, motivations, judgments, decisions, actions and

behaviors” (p. 4). He specified that it has to involve total dedication from the point of

view of the addicted individual. The addiction becomes the main activity and the main
 20

goal of the ego; all the energies of consciousness are diverted toward the drug or the

activity. The second parameter, according to Schoen, is that addiction “is a death

sentence to the addict’s career, community, marriage, family, and friends” (p. 4).

In the book, Addiction to Perfection: The Still Unravished Bride, Woodman

(1982) explained addiction as an archetypal struggle between the two goddesses Athena

and Medusa. Very much like the Apollo-Dionysus polarity of Bauer (1982), Woodman

borrowed from Greek mythology yet another dichotomy to explain how when one

develops a wrong relationship with the power of an archetype, one takes on its shadow.

Athena represents the drive for perfection and Medusa represents the repressed greedy

energy. As long as the two goddesses are chained to each other and are in battle,

Andromeda, the unravished bride, remains waiting, chained to the rock (pp. 9-10). In

other words, as long as one does not settle the split in one’s life between the drive to

perfection and the energy of life, creativity, as embodied in Andromeda, will not be

released, as she is chained to the rock. In the myth, Andromeda has to remain still. Any

movement of creativity, or of Andromeda, might lure a dreadful monster from the

unconscious, a monster that will devour and consume her. From an early age, this split

grows in one’s psyche, as soon as parents try to domesticate their children. Children want

to run and scream, but in some cultures it might not be appropriate behavior, so they are

trained to behave.

In 1961, Jung wrote a letter to Bill W., one of the founders of AA, regarding his

past patient, Roland H. In this letter, Jung described the addiction, “His craving for

alcohol was the equivalent, on the low level, of the spiritual thirst of our being for

wholeness; expressed in medieval language: the union with God” (as cited in Bauer,
 21

1982, p. 127). What Jung wrote in the next paragraph of the letter is surprisingly

applicable to current times:

How could one formulate such an insight in a language that is not misunderstood
in our days? The only right and legitimate way to such an experience is that it
happens to you in reality, and it can only happen to you in when you walk on a
path, which leads you to higher understanding. (p. 127)

Jung was explaining the need for individuation as a way to treat addiction. In Jungian

language, the spiritual thirst is the need of human consciousness to unite with the sublime

divine. The high feeling associated with drug use is a false attempt to reach the Gods that

are at Olympus. Instead of trying to reach the Gods in a humble way, it is done in a

grandiose way.

A quote from Sam Naifeh (1995), a psychiatrist and Jungian analyst, is an

appropriate conclusion of the discussion of addiction from a depth psychological

perspective. He wrote, “I hold with Jung that addiction is related to a normal human drive

toward wholeness which has gone awry” (p. 133). One can conclude, then, that in depth

psychological terms, the definition of addiction holds two keys: the first is individuation

process gone astray, and the second is identification with archetype. I postulate that a

defined connection between the individuation process and archetypes conveys key

understandings and explanations for addiction. Using a depth psychology understanding

of the psychic processes, I suggest that when individuals identify with an archetype, their

individuation process goes astray. Addiction is one outcome of the derailment of the

much needed individuation process.

 22

Statistics on Addiction

Worldwide. In 2008, the WHO conducted a worldwide household survey focused

on lifetime use and age of initiation into tobacco, alcohol, cannabis, and cocaine use

(Degenhardt et al., 2008). The results showed the United States to be the leader in each

and every category. To illustrate the magnitude of the phenomenon in the United States

compared to the rest of the world, the following numbers are as given in the report:

Clear differences can be seen in the cumulative (lifetime) incidence of drug use
across countries (Table 2). Lifetime alcohol use was reported by the vast majority
of respondents in the Americas, Europe, Japan, and New-Zealand, while
considerably smaller proportions of respondents ever used alcohol in the Middle
East, Africa, and China. Lifetime tobacco use was most common in the US
(74%), Lebanon (67%), Mexico (60%), and in some European countries
(Netherlands, 58%; Ukraine, 60%), with by far the lowest proportions in the
African countries (South Africa, 32%; Nigeria, 17%). The proportions of
respondents who ever used cannabis were highest in the US (42%) and New
Zealand (42%), whereas lifetime cannabis use was virtually nonexistent in the
Asian countries (Table 2). The US was an outlier in lifetime cocaine use, with
16% of respondents reporting that they had tried cocaine at least once compared
to 4.0%–4.3% in Colombia, Mexico, Spain, and New Zealand, and extremely low
proportions in countries in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia. (p. 1056)

In the United States. The statistics and data presented in the following section

are based on a report released in 2011 by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health

Services Administration (SAMHSA, 2011). The report reflects habits of drug and alcohol

use in the United States, and is based on information gathered during 2010. According to

the report, the number of users of illicit drugs among a United States population aged 12

and older is alarmingly close to 9% (p. 11). According to the same report, the number of

alcohol users is even more disturbing, “Slightly more than half of Americans aged 12 or

older reported being current drinkers of alcohol in the 2010 survey (51.8 percent)”

(p. 27). Furthermore, in the same report, the number of drinkers aged 12 or older who
 23

participated in binge drinking was 23.1%, and the number of heavy drinkers from the

same population was 6.7%.

From the variety of drugs studied, the report claimed that the daily marijuana use

among eighth-, 10th-, and 12th-graders grew in 2010 compared to 2009 (SAMHSA,

2011). Moreover, among high school seniors, marijuana use is at its highest since the

early 1980s, at 6.1%. Beyond marijuana, teenagers are using a variety of prescription and

over-the-counter medications such as vicodin, amphetamines, cough medicine,

oxycontin, ecstasy, and cocaine. From a diversity perspective, the dispersion among the

races for the use of illicit drugs is about the same for White, African-Americans, and

Hispanics, and it stands around 10% of the population. For Asians, the percentage is

considerable lower, around 4%. For alcohol users, White users comprise around 57%,

with all other races comprising around 40%.

One can argue for the correctness of the numbers in the SAMHSA (2011) report,

or for its ability to accurately represent the vast population of the United States. Yet even

if the numbers are inflated, or if they represent a specific class, sector, or region of the

community, they still invoke the question, What else has to happen before we start

listening to the call of the soul? Taking a depth perspective, one might argue that the

increased drug and alcohol use are the result of not listening to the call of the soul.

Increasing numbers of young men and women in 21st century America are trying illicit

drugs, alcohol, and over-the-counter medications in pursuit of an experience of some sort.

The report, 156 pages long, includes many numbers, statistics, and much information.

Above all, the report reflects that addiction in American is a growing problem, both in

numbers of users and in its growing prevalence among younger and younger users.
 24

Depth Psychology in Service of Addiction

What is missing? What is neglected by mainstream psychology, which refers to

addiction as a disease? How can depth psychology supplement it, be of service? To find

what is missing, one can apply the classic question of depth psychology: what does the

soul need or what is the soul missing? The tradition of depth psychology prepares us that

there is no one right answer for such questions, but in the process of asking and

attempting to answer these questions one can gain more visibility and exposure into the

issue of addiction.

As previously stated, in depth psychological terms, addictive behavior is the

manifestation of the individuation process going awry (Naifeh, 1995). Before one can

pursue this idea, one first needs to clarify the meaning of the term individuation. To do

this, one must go back to the origins of the term, to Jung (1939/1968d), who explained

individuation in the following way:

I use the term “individuation” to denote the process by which a person becomes a
psychological “in-dividual,” that is, a separate, indivisible unity or “whole”. It is
generally assumed that consciousness is the whole of the psychological
individual. But knowledge of the phenomena that can only be explained on the
hypothesis of unconscious psychic processes make it doubtful whether the ego
and its contents are in fact identical with the “whole.” (p. 275)

Jung doubted that the ego with its content could constitute wholeness in the

psychological realm; hence, there is a need to integrate the unconscious into what is

conscious. Therefore, becoming whole or one’s own self is the process of bringing

unconsciousness into consciousness, of bringing the shadow into the light. In this

process, one’s ego, which represents the center of one’s awareness, is learning about the

energies and the processes that are happening within parts of the unconscious. The ego

learns about the archetypes, as well as the complexes, which are indivisible and
 25

irreducible parts of the collective and personal unconscious respectively. The ego learns

how to converse and respect archetypes, but also knows how to avoid overly identifying

with them. It is a process of becoming one with the One. In the process of individuation,

the ego becomes a vessel to serve and to follow the soul. This is a painful process, as the

ego needs to learn to humble itself, and to shed off the regressive and infantile beliefs of

being omnipotent. Individuation is a painful process, but comes with a great reward at the

end—when the ego is united and well aligned with the soul, energy flow is unrestricted

and the individual is becoming whole.

Pain and depression are key and essential factors in addiction, and, as explained

previously, the onset of addiction is highly related to the need to alleviate pain. Pain is a

feeling, an energy that drives humans downward, and it is unpleasant. But how can one

learn to deal with and bear with pain? How one can find the needed psychic resources

and guidance to deal with such pain? If one cannot deal with the pain, one will try to

assuage it. This is a vulnerability that can drive the individual to fall into addiction, where

the drug or behavior is used to lessen or avoid the pain.

Unfortunately, most adolescents are surrounded and guided by the media which

denies pain and offers quick fixes for any pain—physical or mental—by means of

medication, or shopping, or false idols. The first class of commercials offers a medication

for almost any issue. If you have a headache, backache, or any other ache, over-the-

counter medication will relieve it instantly and for a long time. If, by eating greasy and

deep fried food, you get heartburn, no problem, just pop a pill before eating and you will

be spared the inconvenience of the indigestion. Depressed? Suffer from anxiety? The

pharmaceutical industry has solutions for that. One just has to walk to any pharmacy and
 26

see the abundance of medications for any problem, most which are sold over the counter.

The second class of commercials alludes to the idea that there is a direct connection

between the consumption of alcohol and beers or buying a new car, or achieving a good

outcome. In these commercials, the participants are depicted as good looking, successful,

and cheerful people. If one watches carefully, one can notice the diversified ethnicity of

the participants, which suggests that this car, or that beer, or this watch, can make people

of all backgrounds happy. I suggest that the vulnerable psyche of an adolescent is prone

to tune in to these hidden and explicit messages.

From my own clinical experience working with individuals with addictions at the

Salvation Army facility, I witnessed many relapses of graduates of the program. After

completing 6 months or more of strict abstinence, they leave the facility and return to

engage with their former lives. One has to bear in mind that most of the participants of

this particular program are court mandated. Hence, most of them are already deeply

invested in their addiction. They have lost their work, and many times also their families

and friends, who have given up hope. Based on my observations, within a week or two,

many relapse. This observation can serve as evidence that even after their bodies, and in

particular their brains, have been freed from any measure of the drugs, something is still

at work. I postulate that neglected inner psychic issues drive the person to relapse. These

are the same issues I have previously touched upon: the lack of spiritual quest and the

possible alignment with the Dionysus archetype. These are the same issues that initiated

the addictive behavior, and, if not treated, will drive the person again and again through

malicious cycles of abstaining and relapsing.

 27

Woodman (1982) explained, “Many people in our society are being driven to

addictions because there is no collective container for their natural spiritual needs”

(p. 29). One can, therefore, conclude that people need spiritual containers. I suggest that

rituals are those spiritual containers. Without proper initiation, one lacks the proper

mental and spiritual tools to deal with archetypal powers, and can fall prey to the powers

of the archetypes within oneself. One can become overwhelmed by depression since one

does not know how to deal with the inner pain of the soul. Looking around for answers,

individuals find them in drugs and other behaviors that preoccupy them so they can forget

about the pain. People run away from the pain. Jung (1928) claimed, “there is no coming

to consciousness without pain” (p. 193). It is notable that the pain Jung was referring to is

the transmuting pain that transforms us.

Addiction and the Gods

Jung’s work is characterized by a positive attitude toward religion and spirituality.

Jung believed in the creation of humans by a supreme being, or what many refer to as

God. Jung did not subscribe to the dogma in religion. Rather, he viewed religion as a

vessel for the human need to connect with the archetypes, or God. Jung realized that

modern Western society is walking away from religion and God. He wrote,

Modern man may assert that he can dispense with them, and he may bolster his
opinion by insisting that there is no scientific evidence of their truth. But since we
are dealing with invisible and unknowable things (for God is beyond human
understanding, and there is no mean of proving immortality), why should we
bother with evidence? (Jung, 1968a, p. 76)

For Jung, the movement of Western society away from God is rooted in the

development of science. Modern people want proof of the existence of God, much as

science can prove or refute other aspects of life. Jung (1957/1970a) explained the
 28

cataclysmic result of turning one’s back on the Gods. He believed that by denying God,

humans deny part of their own psyche, and he maintained that many of the contemporary

neuroses and psychoses are the result of this denial.

We think we can congratulate ourselves on having already reached such a

pinnacle of clarity, imagining that we have left all these phantasmal gods far
behind. But what we have left behind are only verbal spectres, not the psychic
facts that were responsible for the birth of the gods. We are still as much
possessed by autonomous psychic contents as if they were Olympians. Today they
are called phobias, obsessions, and so forth; in a word, neurotic symptoms. The
gods have become diseases; Zeus no longer rules Olympus but rather the solar
plexus, and produces curious specimens for the doctor’s consulting room, or
disorders of the brains of politicians and journalists who unwillingly let loose
psychic epidemics on the world. (p. 37)

In this eloquent paragraph, Jung connected the increase in mental diseases to the

abolishment of godhood. If one applies Jung’s words from 50 years ago to the United

States today, one can see the validity of his position. One can also find a deeper

explanation for the prevalence and increase on addiction. Television shows such as

American Idol (Fuller & Frot-Coutaz, 2011) turn human to idol. It is interesting to look at

the definition of idol, Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary defined it as, “a

representation or symbol of an object of worship; broadly: a false god” (“Idol,” 2011,

def. 1). One can wonder if any of the avid followers of the show know they are following

a false god.

Wayne Rollins (1983), a professor of divinity, wrote the book, Jung and the

Bible, about the relationship between Jung and the New and Old Testaments. In his book,

he mentioned that Jung used an old Latin inscription above the front door of his house, on

his bookplate, and later on his headstone. The Latin inscription said, “Vocatusatque non

vocatus, deuisaderit” (p. 127). He translated the words to English as, “Summoned or not

summoned the gods will be present” (p. 127). Jung’s message is that one cannot avoid the
 29

Gods as they are the real rulers of life. Any attempt to deny their existence will come

back as a neurosis or psychosis, which is the work of the gods. In conclusion, as long as

society neglects or outcasts God, we run the risk of invoking the gods to come and show

us that change is imminent. We will face the Gods that we dismissed; they are real, as

they are nature in its beauty and ferocity.

I suggest that we, as humans, have to live with a dreadful paradox. Sadly, most of

us are not even aware of it. We are part earthly; this is our body, our organic portion, the

part that gets sick, that grows old, that tends to malfunction. It is mortal, and hence it will

die one day. The other part is non organic, and no research to this day can use any

language to explain it. This part is our soul. I believe that this is our divine part, the part

we received from God. This part is immortal, it is powerful, and is connected to God. The

paradox, then, is how to resolve the question, If we are made of both mortal and immortal

parts, what are we really?

Addiction and Initiation

Initiation to addiction. An initiation process or rite of passage includes several

components (Salamone, 2004). First, there is the initiated person, the apprentice, the one

who goes through the process of being initiated with the goal of transmuting the

individual from one phase of life to the next. Second, there is the rite, the ritual, which is

container, analogous to the cocoon. It provides the boundaries and a container for the

transmutation processes to take place. The transformation cannot happen in a vacuum, or

in any undefined boundaries. As in alchemy, one needs a vessel for the alchemical

process to take place. Third, and lastly, there are those who perform the initiation, usually

the elders and the community. Their role is twofold. First they denote the outcome, as
 30

they are the final goal—the initiated person wants to join them on the other side of the

ceremony, after he or she is transmuted. Second, they also act as a guide, a companion, so

that the apprentices know they are not alone and that they are walking a well-trodden

path.

One of the contemporary researchers of world religion, symbols, and rituals,

Mircea Eliade (2009), delineated the basic outline of initiation: puberty rites, entrance

into secret societies, and heroic rites of passage. Eliade affirmed the greater experience in

all initiation, which is the unbreakable connection between humans and the gods, spirits,

animals, and ancestors—in other words, with nature. His book, Rites and Symbols of

Initiation: The Mysteries of Birth and Rebirth (2009), depicted ceremonies around the

globe, and laid the framework for understanding the need of the human psyche for

initiation for the sake of the stability and the wholeness of the psyche. Eliade postulated

that initiation is to the human psyche and soul as food and air are to the human body.

Without proper initiation the psyche will be deprived of a key nutrient that it needs in

order to develop and thrive.

Connecting addiction with lack of initiation. A great body of literature supports

the probable connection between addiction and initiation, or rather lack of it. Many

theorists have drawn the connection between addiction in modern times and the lack of

proper initiation (see Moore, 2004; Woodman, 1982; Zoja, 1989). By examining the

rituals of indigenous cultures all over the globe, one can learn about the richness of the

rituals of initiation. The necessity for a rite of passage from one phase of life to another is

even more acute and important through puberty, when bodily physiological changes

happen to the young person. Parents and teachers are often heard to dismiss the behavior
 31

of teenagers as related to hormones. Perhaps they have forgotten their own experiences?

It is true that hormones can create either exhilarated or depressed behavior, but we, as

adults, should be there to usher young people into the next phase of their lives. One

should empower the youth, so that they can become stable and healthier adults. The

causality between today’s teenagers and tomorrow’s adults is often forgotten; they are the

future doctors, police officers, teachers, and researchers.

By applying the theories and practices of depth psychology, one can broaden

one’s own perspective, and can come to realize that nature is providing telltale signs of

the changes that are taking place in the body and soul of a teenager. Besides the visible

and logical changes that are indeed related to hormones, there is a need for spiritual

growth. As observed in tribal cultures, the initiation rituals of young people into

adulthood are communal (Mahdi, Christopher, & Meade, 1996). The whole village, tribe,

the whole community takes part. It is not just a personal journey, but a collective one as

well—from the oldest, who take the role as the initiators, to the young ones, the future

initiates. As much as the individual benefits from such a ceremony, the collective benefits

too. Soul is being attended to, by the one and by the many. For the individual, the one, it

is the acceptance into the whole. The young man or woman now has rights.

Initiation in the United States. Getting one’s driver license or reaching the age

where one can drink are not true initiations. For many young adults in the United States

today, obtaining their driver license is indeed a major milestone. Their mobility improves

overnight. Now they can drive themselves to the movies, to school, to a friend, or to the

shopping mall. However, only a few of these young adults can pay for their own cars, or
 32

maintain them on their own. They still rely on their parents, in particular if they intend to

further their education.

As for the eligible age for drinking, the ability to consume what is considered a

drug and is widely accepted to have addictive capabilities, does not constitute initiation.

For many young Americans, going to college and away from parental supervision is

considered an initiation into adult life. In his book, College Drinking: Reframing a Social

Problem, George W. Dowdall (2009), a professor of sociology, and an author of

publications commissioned by the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism’s

Task Force on College Drinking, explained that lacking any other initiation processes,

young adults perceive reaching the age of 21 years old, the legal age for drinking in the

United States, as a rite of passage. They are initiated by peers, and are drawn into binge

drinking by peer pressure. Another looming problem may be the growing tendency of

many American families to live secular lives, and the declining attendance by families to

religion ceremonies and services. These trends suggest that the youth are being deprived

of the spiritual aspect of life and their last chance for initiation.

Poet Robert Bly (1992) dedicated a whole book, Iron John, to discussing this

growing phenomenon of the lack of initiation. Bly based the book on an old fairy tale. In

it, he elaborated eloquently about the lack of initiation in present day American society,

and the dire consequences. He linked drug abuse and gang affiliation to the decrease in

spirituality and to the loss of symbolism and rituals for rites of passage. In another book,

The Maiden King: The Reunion of Masculine and Feminine, Bly and Woodman (1998)

took an old Russian fairy tale and used it to illustrate the need for a spiritual inner

marriage, where the inner marriage symbolizes the unification of the feminine and
 33

masculine in one’s soul. The inner marriage of the feminine and masculine to become

one is the ultimate representation of the Jungian process of individuation.

Addiction and Ecstasy

Johnson (1987) dedicated a whole book, Ecstasy: Understanding the Psychology

of Joy, to exploring the need for ecstasy in one’s life, and the price one pays when one

does not allow oneself to fully engage in ecstatic behavior.

Craving spiritual ecstasy, we mistakenly seek material fulfillment. We chase after

a phantom, and when see catch it—in the form of more money, more food, more
sex, more drugs, more oblivion—we find that we been chasing ephemeral
happiness when we should have invited lasting joy. (p. 20)

In a couple of sentences, Johnson explained how addiction stems from false spiritual

ecstasy, and how one only gains momentary experiences. Society has traded a lasting

experience of love, commitment, and joy for a series of temporary and passing

experiences. The rhythm of life has changed from moderate and slow to intense. Yet if

one watches nature, one learns that the intense is the tempo of destruction, like an

earthquake or a hurricane, which are fast and furious. The calming things in nature are

mellow and slow, like a creek flowing slowly or the wind playing joyfully in a field.

Using cognition as our prime faculty, we, as a modern society, reject feeling and

intuition, and are always looking for an answer to the question: what should we do next?

Yet even the might of cognition cannot get us to the result we want. Johnson suggested,

“the answer can be found only in the sensuous world of Dionysus” (p. 21).

Once again, the answer is within the realm of the Gods, in this case Dionysus. As

explained previously, Dionysus is the God of ecstasy (Kerényi, 1980), and not as

frequently believed, the God of wine. Dionysus was the God in charge of taking the souls

of humans to Hades, the God of the dead. Dionysus could roam and travel into Hades’
 34

world and leave at his own will. Dionysus is a mighty archetype that is comparable to the

energy of life. Johnson (1987) recommended,

We must seek, then, not to refuse the ecstatic experience but to welcome it.We
may be uneasy about this welcome, because we are inviting something we do not
fully comprehend and over which we have the least control. This part of us that is
least in control Jung called the inferior function, and it is here we will finally
contact our untapped Dionysian energy. (p. 53)

One can postulate, therefore, that addiction is the outcome of a denied proper connection

with the archetypal Dionysus, and a search for false ecstasy. It is interesting that one of

the most frequently used drugs bears the street name ecstasy, as if it promises to give the

user a real and ultimate experience of ecstasy.

Johnson (1987) also presented the Jungian term the inferior function. Jung

(1921/1990) postulated that the psyche is comprised of four nucleus functions: thinking,

feeling, sensation, and intuition. The four actually form two polarized pairs, where

thinking is always paired with feeling, and sensation is paired with intuition. Humans

possess all of the four functions, though individuals have a preferred function that they

primarily use. This is the primary function and is in a dyadic relationship to the inferior

function. As explained by Johnson, through the inferior function humans are ushered into

the realm of the gods. In layperson terms, if one’s primary function is thinking, and one

primarily uses cognition, one ought to use feeling to access God. Moreover, Johnson

claimed, “Our society esteems thinking and doing, progress and success, above all else”

(Johnson, 1987, p. 20)

The denial of the gods or the archetypes within the collective unconscious, and

the glorification of thinking above feelings, placed modern humans in a vulnerable

position. Lacking connection to the other parts of the psyche, they fall prey to compulsion
 35

and to other pathological behaviors. The relationship between humanity and addiction is,

therefore, a direct result not only of the individual but also of the society that stripped the

individual from his or her ability to deal with nature.

From Compulsion to Faculty

Most people with addictions at some point reach the desire to recover. This desire

is often related to loss; for example, when the individuals lose their family, friends,

money, or health. Paradoxically, people with addictive behaviors are trying to reach an

exhilarated experience of what is called feeling “high.” However, in reality, they are on a

journey downward. They lose touch with reality as well as with people and resources.

They can become homeless, beggars and panhandlers. Nonetheless, inside what looks

like insanity is a voice of sanity. If they do not die first, if they are given the right

treatment, they can recover.

Johnson (1993) summarized mental illness and recovery:

To dethrone anything from consciousness to unconsciousness is to diminish it in

stature to a symptom. It follows directly from this that the cure of any
psychological symptom requires that we make that content conscious again and
restore it from compulsion to faculty. (pp. 32-33)

Johnson offered a very constructive solution: bringing psychic fragments to

consciousness. By reclaiming those parts of the psyche that are cast out to the oblivion of

the unconscious, one can transmute them from a malady to a faculty, where faculty

denotes ability or capability. One can heal and gain something. In Iron John, Bly (1992),

used an old myth to introduce the archetypal wild man, who represents human intuition

and the connection to the powers of nature. In the story, the wild man possesses much

wealth and power, and he resides at the bottom of a lake, in the depth of a thick forest.

One might conclude that the wild man is analogous to the godly powers one can use if
 36

one learns how to relate to the archetype. Iron John is the wild man who can bring the

resources needed for healing. Bly adds to Johnson’s (1989) proposition that inner work

can bring treasure. Finding treasure also parallels comparative mythologist Joseph

Campbell’s (2008) representation of finding of a boon in the hero’s journey, where in the

penultimate step, the hero finds a prize.

As previously described, mainstream psychology and medicine treat addiction as

a disease; hence, recovery is measured by means of remission, abstinence. Recovery is

achieved when the behavior changes in terms of avoidance of the substance. Recovery, in

mainstream psychological terms, does not guarantee a relapse will not occur, nor does it

guarantee that the substance addiction will not transmute to another erratic behavior. In

my clinical experience, for example, I observed a great number of addicted individuals in

recovery substituting compulsion to a substance for compulsion to religion. Notably, the

religious zeal is not spiritually rooted. In contrast, depth psychology aims to eliminate

addiction and support the reaching of recovery by means of resolving the inner psychic

conflict. Whether it is an Apollonian-Dionysian conflict (Jung, 1921/1971), or any other

conflict, recovery, in depth psychological terms, can almost guarantee that a relapse will

not occur, and that one inconsistent behavior will not be replaced with another.

Concluding Remarks

In this literature review, aspects of addiction and recovery as delineated by a

multitude of schools of psychology were presented. With an emphasis on depth

psychology, addiction was postulated to be the result of archetypal identification and the

calamitous result of false individuation (Naifeh, 1995). The probable cause was also

reviewed, which was connected to the denial of symbols and proper initiation by modern
 37

society (Jung, 1968a; Woodman, 1982). In the next chapter, applicable ways of recovery

will be investigated. Using the narrative of the biblical story of Exodus, a suggested

multiphase recovery program will be delineated that follows the phases in the story of

Exodus.
  

Chapter III
Findings and Clinical Applications

Addiction and the Narrative of Exodus

The story of Exodus, as depicted in the Old Testament book of Exodus (New

International Version, NIV), details the journey of a group of people known as the

Hebrews or Israelites from Egypt, where they were slaves and governed by a foreign

sovereign, to the Promised Land, a place where they could be free and could create a

sovereign state governed by God. The scriptures, thousands of years old, tell the story of

Yahweh, the God of the Israelites, who devised and implemented the freeing of his

people.

I have been inspired by this story for many years. Being of Jewish origin, I recited

the story every year during the Passover Seder, which is the dinner feast held at the eve of

the Jewish holiday known in Hebrew as Pesach, or in English as Passover. I firmly

believe that during times of turbulence and difficulty in my life, this myth helped me to

believe in two basic truths. First, that there is always a passage to the Promised Land, and

it is always through the wilderness. Second, that any such journey has to be guided by

God; hence, it is more than acceptable to get on one’s knees and ask the divine for

guidance. Based on these personal truths and on my past experiences, I decided to

explore whether the same insights could be applicable to a wider population, and, more

specifically, to the issue of addiction. In this chapter, the details of the story of Exodus
 39

are described and the parallels between the narrative and the process of addiction and

recovery are discussed.

The Israelites before migrating to Egypt. In the Old Testament, the narrative of

the period preceding the move of the Israelites to Egypt tells the story of the three fathers,

Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. The testament between God and the three fathers of the

Hebrew nation is described. According to the book of Genesis, the Israelites went to

Egypt due to a famine, to buy grain: “So Israel’s sons were among those who went to buy

grain, for the famine was in the land of Canaan also” (Genesis 42:5). The decision to go

south was determined by the fact that only Egypt had grain. Egypt was well prepared for

the famine since Joseph, one of Jacob’s sons, was there and he had deciphered messages

to the Pharaoh, the ruler of Egypt. The Israelites, hearing that there was grain in Egypt,

decided to try and get some. When they arrived, they united with their brother Joseph and

decided to stay in Egypt, in a place called Goshen.

One also learns from the narrative that God presented himself in a direct, personal

way to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. He did not do so with the following generations. To

these others, God revealed himself only in an indirect way, in dreams or in other

miraculous manifestation, as in the case of Moses, where God appeared as the burning

bush (Exodus 3:2), or in the case of Joseph, where God appeared or revealed information

through dreams.

From a phenomenological perspective, this period was signified by abundance of

spirituality and of direct spiritual experiences by the Israelites. God and the three fathers

interacted in a direct way. I propose that the famine that drove the Israelites south was not

just a famine in the literal, material sense. I assume that it was also a spiritual famine or
 40

shortage. The famine, in essence, was a representation of diminishing or lack of

connection and communication with the divine, the creator.

The first years in Egypt. The first years in Egypt are marked by prosperity for

the Israelites. They establish themselves in Goshen and they multiply (Exodus 1:7).

During this period, the scripts divulge nothing about spirituality or the connection

between the Israelites and their God. The only mention of any connection to God during

this period is through Joseph and his dream work. Before his death, Joseph asked the

leaders of the Hebrew community to remain in Egypt until God wills them to leave. Only

God would guide them, “Then Joseph said to his brothers, I am about to die. But God will

surely come to your aid and take you up out of this land to the land he promised on oath

to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob” (Genesis 50:24).

After the death of Joseph. The era past the death of Joseph is characterized by a

major change, a change that sent the Israelites into slavery. After the death of Joseph, the

patron of the Israelites in Goshen, a new Pharaoh takes over the throne. The scripture

describes the new Pharaoh as, “who did not know about Joseph” (Exodus 1:8). The new

ruler feared the Israelites and was concerned that they would outnumber the Egyptians.

He started to plot about what to do with the Israelites, and the idea to enslave the

Israelites arose. The Pharaoh justified the slavery by claiming that the Israelites could not

be trusted, and that if a war started between Egypt and another empire, the Israelites

might fight along with the enemy.

Then a new king, who did not know about Joseph, came to power in Egypt. Look,
he said to his people, the Israelites have become much too numerous for us.
Come, we must deal shrewdly with them or they will become even more
numerous and, if war breaks out, will join our enemies, fight against us and leave
the country. (Exodus 3:8-10)
 41

I suggest that this portion of Exodus, which talks about a change in the rulers, can

correspond to any major change or shift in one’s life. Perhaps it is the affluent

businessman who has lost his success, or a person going through a divorce or the death of

a loved one. It can also be a change from one phase of life to the other. For example, it

can be a young child becoming a teenager, or a teenager becoming a young adult, or a

maturing man or woman reaching advanced age.

The change in the Israelites status from free to bondage can, I suggest, also be

correlated to major changes in human physiology, in particular the brain, and the

prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is the part of the brain that modulates emotion,

behavior, and body physiology (Pally, 1997). It is also the part the brain that enables the

capacity for self-reflective consciousness (Pally & Olds, 1998). I, therefore, hypothesize

that changes in the prefrontal cortex occurring in a person’s brain can correspond to a

change in consciousness. Furthermore, this change in consciousness can be considered

analogous to the new Pharaoh who did not know Joseph. I also hypothesized a probable

connection between the myth of Exodus, the functionality of the brain, and the change in

one’s consciousness. As a next step we will investigate a possible connection between the

brain functionality, and the change in awareness, with addiction. Research has shown the

relationship between the use of illicit drugs and the functionality of the prefrontal cortex

(Muhammad, Hossain, Pellis, & Kolb, 2011), and in particular the development of

dependence in the brain. I surmise, therefore, a possible parallelism between the Israelites

becoming slaves and the pre-frontal cortex being enslaved to the drug. Hence, one can

draw the conclusion that other parts of the story, which elucidate the way to break out of

bondage, might be clinically applicable to recovery from addiction.

 42

In my clinical work with people with addictions to drugs and alcohol, I noticed a

silver thread that connected them all: they all started to use in their mid to late teens.

Although they might not come from broken homes, something appeared to be missing

during that period—they lacked the proper initiation and guidance to switch from a child

to an adolescent. In many indigenous cultures, the passage from a child to a young man

or a young woman is facilitated through a rite of passage (Mahdi et al., 1996). Many

Western cultures lack such an initiation. Bly (1992) elaborated upon this point in his

book Iron John, where he described the effects of lack of proper initiation rites on young

people today. Therefore, the death of Joseph denotes a shift, a change, the outcome of

which cannot be predicted or controlled. The following section discusses the

consequences of that change.

From free to enslaved people. The course of events, which was thus far positive

for the Israelites, changed. With the death of Joseph and the appointment of the new

Pharaoh, a new era dawned, and it was not in the Israelites’ favor. The new rulers of

Egypt decided to enslave the Israelites and to used them as cheap labor to build their

pyramids (Exodus 1:11-15).

Once again, one can draw parallels between this phase and the evolution of

addiction. The person who has recently experienced a major life-changing event and the

adolescent who has just been ushered into puberty both lack proper guidance. Moreover,

I hypothesize that their ego and soul are not well aligned, and, therefore, they lack the

proper centering and grounding that is needed to endure the passage through the dark

times. In The Dark Night of the Soul, Thomas Moore (2004), a Jungian psychotherapist,

discussed the archetypal aspect of the dark passage. He mentioned Hecate the Greek
 43

goddess of the crossroads, who is needed for a successful passage through the dark night.

Moore further suggested that every human needs the dark time, as it is a soul call. Hence,

the story of the Israelites and their apparent bad shift of fortunes can be considered a

much needed event in a course of the evolution of the individual, as well as of the nation.

As previously described, up until this point, before the death of Joseph, things had

worked out favorably for the Israelites. Perhaps it is only natural that the next phase in

the cycle will be different? Nature constantly moves through change and through phases.

Night follows day, seasons change, the tides change. The moon’s appearance keeps

changing in a rhythmic, monthly cycle. If one observes the big picture of the cosmos, one

can see that the rhythm of change is inevitable.

Some people are better prepared to endure change and weather it, some are not.

When the waves are breaking on their shores on a stormy and dark night, some people

give in and collapse. It is important to note that from a soul perspective, both responses

are good and are acceptable. Both are needed, and one should not make the judgment that

enduring is better than letting go. It is highly advisable to trust nature, the divine, the

forces of life, to trust that their schema is the right one, and to embrace one as one

embraces the other.

To conclude, addiction might start when a person experiences a major change in

the course of his or her life, and the person’s psyche is not prepared to endure the

magnitude or the consequences of the change. Addiction is one possibility for a descent

that has the potential to lead to a more aligned psyche. Conceivably, something has to be

eliminated or to die to free room and to allow the new to be born. It is conceivable that

the change in the outside world that triggered the addiction is not random, nor is it a
 44

retribution. It is a setup for the change needed in the inner world. Depth psychologists

trust the wisdom of the soul to take individuals through what they need, which is not

necessarily what they want, “They will make war against the Lamb, but the Lamb will

overcome them because he is Lord of lords and King of kings--and with him will be his

called, chosen and faithful followers” (Revelation 17:14).

The need for a spiritual leader—Moses. In the narrative of the Exodus, when

God’s people are in a crisis, he does not communicate with them. Metaphorically, this

lack of communication can be considered a lack of energy flow between soul and ego.

God lets the Israelites suffer, not for the sake of suffering, but for the sake of

preparedness to change. A butterfly cannot be born if the caterpillar will not become a

cocoon and change through the pain of metamorphosis. Addiction takes the individual

through pain, but this is not the right kind of pain. A different kind of pain is needed to

transmute so that a beautiful thing can come to life. One needs a guide, someone who can

take the people through the desert, without them running back to Egypt or dying. That

leader is one’s metaphorical Moses, and he can be found in one’s inner world. That

leader might, however, need some convincing, as God had to convince Moses.

It took a while before God started the process of taking his people out of Egypt.

The people needed to go through an initiation, they needed to witness and experience it

before they were ready. Any other way would be too regressive. From the perspective of

addiction, one can postulate that the enslavement to drugs, alcohol, sex, or gambling is

needed. Moreover, one can find a striking analogy between the much-needed direct

connection between infants and toddlers and their parents. Only when the individual

moves to his or her early teens, and then to adolescence, does he or she becomes more
 45

integrated (Kohut, 1977; Mahler, Pine, & Bergman, 1975). Individuals need less and less

direct connection with their parents as they mature to adulthood.

In the narrative of the Exodus, the Israelites are now in their adolescence phase as

a nation. Their collective psyche, as well as their individual psyches, are ready to

transform to a mature form. If the Israelites were exposed to the divine too early, the

experience could have been devastating. Johnson (1993) used the Grail myth to portray

the wounding of the psyche. He delineated what happens when the youth meet the divine

too early in life, unprepared. For example, in The Fisher King story, the young king was

wounded in his thigh, representing an injury to his masculinity.

The 10 plagues. What does the Pharaoh represent? I postulate that the Pharaoh

represents the false self and the part that denies the existence of the divine or of the soul.

It could be a complex, or an archetype of the bad or malevolent king. Only God can fight

him, but God wanted to prepare the Israelites. Nature has two rhythms. One rhythm is for

devastation, and is fast and furious, like a storm, an avalanche, an earthquake, or the

eruption of a volcano. The second rhythm is of evolution, of progress, of growth. This

one is slow, mellow, almost unnoticeable. This is nature’s preferred rhythm. Over the

many years of human existence, fierce and abrupt events have caused devastation but

have also caused a much needed cleansing of the old so that something new and better

could come. In a wild fire, many acres of wood and wildlife can be consumed in a matter

of hours. The new forest and new life will come, but it will happen gradually, over many

years or decades.

God wanted to prepare the Israelites for the coming change. It could not happen

too quickly, and so he decided to send the 10 plagues. Over time, in an escalating
 46

manner, the Israelites learned about the power of God and about his determination to help

them. I assume that God wanted the Israelites to trust him and follow his appointed

leader, Moses. If Moses had succeeded too quickly in releasing the Israelites, the people

may have become suspicious of him and may have wondered if there was a catch. Under

these circumstances, many of the Israelites may perhaps have decided to stay, fearing that

by following Moses they would be led into a trap.

Why 10 plagues? The number 10 is a key number in Jewish scripts and theology.

It is the number of commandments given by God to Moses, it is the number of God’s

spheres according to the Kabbalah, and it is also a key measurement of the tabernacle.

Jungian analyst Edward Edinger (1986) explained, “The Pythagorean Tetractys (10 = 1 +

2 + 3 + 4) was a most sacred amulet” (p. 58).

Embarking on the journey—at night. At night, when one sleeps and dreams,

one crosses from the everyday secular world into the numinous and divine. Any

significant change needs to happen in liminal space; hence, it needs to happen at night.

Night denotes the end of the day, the time of the reign of consciousness, and the

movement toward the realm of the inner world. When walking in the dark, one needs to

rely on more than one’s senses—one’s intuition and inner compass must also be used.

Moore (2004) elaborated on the night passage and the need for the darkness. Night is the

time when the ego is about to go to sleep, allowing the soul to come in.

Crossing the Red Sea. No one can enter the liminal space, the secret land of the

wilderness, without an initiation. The need for initiation, to be welcomed into the liminal

space and to have a host and a leader, was previously described. Something magical has

to take place in order to gain access. For the Israelites, it was the opening of the Red Sea.
 47

The Red Sea is a body of water. According to Hillman (1979), a body of water represents

the soul (pp. 151-153). At the crossing of the Red Sea, two events happen at the same

time and at the same place. The first is that the Israelites are crossing from Egypt, a

falsified reality, into the liminal space of the divine, the wilderness. They have to be

granted access, and only God can grant it. In addition, like the mighty king of all, God

does it with a mighty miracle of breaking the sea open. The second event is the

elimination of the malevolent king, the false self, the Pharaoh, who is drowned by God.

The water, which represents the soul, the totality, consumes the archetype back into itself.

One should not view this as a literal death, as archetypes neither live nor die. Archetypes

are organizing principles of the collective unconscious (Singer, 1994, p. 133). In the

crossing of the Red Sea, and the giving up of the identification with the archetypal

Pharaoh, the Israelites are starting their individuation process. They are on the way to

becoming whole.

Receiving the law. Once in the liminal space of the wilderness, the Israelites need

to have new rules to live by. They are no longer slaves, but not yet free. God guides them

to Mount Sinai, and gives them the law. This set of rules gives them the boundaries that

they need in order to pursue the next step: living as a free people. Some get confused with

the notion of being free. Being free does not constitute a lack of boundaries. On the

contrary, the mature adult, the one who is successfully navigating the challenges of day-

to-day life, lives by many laws and rules. The individual goes to work, pays taxes, saves

for a rainy day. Probably the best way to phrase it is that mature adults know how to

defer their need for immediate gratification.

 48

For addicted individuals, the equivalent of the law is the contract they have to

make with their higher power, as well as the rules they need to incorporate into their

lives. They need to start living within a framework of rules. One key issue for many

people with addictions is the lack of ability to defer immediate gratification. They need it,

and they need it now. The purpose of the rules is not to limit free life, but to provide

proper boundaries. Without proper boundaries, one runs the risk of being inflated, and it

is probable that addiction is indeed a manifestation of such inflation. Jung (1944/1966)

explained inflation as a regression, and his words accurately fit the behavior of a person

with addictive behaviors:

An inflated consciousness is always egocentric and conscious of nothing but its

own existence. It is incapable of learning from the past, incapable of
understanding contemporary events, and incapable of drawing right conclusions
about the future. It is hypnotized by itself and therefore cannot be argued with. It
inevitably dooms itself to calamities that must strike it dead. Paradoxically
enough, inflation is a regression of consciousness into unconsciousness. This
always happens when consciousness takes too many unconscious contents upon
itself and loses the faculty of discrimination, the sine qua non of all
consciousness. (p. 461)

Receiving the law is a binding agreement between the ego and the soul. In the

individuation process it sets forth the correct relationship between the two. The ego walks

on earth, immersed in consciousness and awareness, and is willfully in service of the

soul, which is in heaven, immersed in the unconsciousness.

Wandering in the wilderness. Johnson (1993) discussed the inner wound and the

process of transformation in his book, The Fisher King. He used the Grail myth to

delineate wounds that occur to the psyche when it is not yet ready to meet the divine. In

the Grail myth, the Fisher King represents the inner wound and Parsifal is the key for the

healing. The name Parsifal means the young fool: fool in terms of naivety. Parsifal had to
 49

wonder for years, fighting and suffering. Only after many years could he return to the

Grail castle to fulfill his destiny. Much like the wandering of the Israelites in the desert

wilderness, for both Parsifal and the Israelites, wandering was part of the transformation.

Again, one can draw parallels to the wandering of an addicted individual as a young fool,

fighting worthless fights. The addicted person keeps fighting the inevitable, the need for

surrender.

It took 40 years of wandering for Parsifal to reach fulfillment (Johnson, 1993). It

was only when Parsifal asked, “Whom does the Grail serve?” (p. 42) that the dark time

ended. The end of the dark time was signified by the death of the Fisher King, or the

inner wound, and the rise of the Grail King, or God. For the addicted individual, this is

the surrender to the divine, the acknowledgment that he or she needs help, and is seeking

help. In the 12-step program of AA, the first step is “We admitted we were powerless

over alcohol—that our lives had become unmanageable” (Alcoholics Anonymous [AA],

1955, p. 59). This first step, the surrender of the ego, is the last step in the wandering in

the desert. It is the key to the new phase.

One can also see the wandering in the wilderness as part of the transmutation that

is taking place in the individual. When the ego accepts the law, and is bound to the soul,

the individual still needs to go through the transmutation. It took the Israelites 40 years to

cross the dessert. In fact, they could have entered the Promised Land earlier, but God

banned them from doing so. God’s punishment was due to the fact that the Israelites

feared fighting the inhabitants of the Promised Land. As the story goes, the Israelites sent

scouts to the Promised land and when the scouts returned they reported that the land was
 50

inhabited by giants. This discouraged them from fighting. In the language of depth

psychology, the ego did not trust that the soul could conquer the obstacle.

The end of the journey—entering the Promised Land. After wandering in the

wilderness for 40 years, the Israelites were ready for the next phase—to conquer the

Promised Land back from those who unrightfully took it. This is also the end of the

journey for Moses. The spiritual leader has accomplished his part. God forbids him to

enter the Promised Land. He gets to see it but not to enter it.

The journey’s end is analogous to the stage where the addicted individuals are

ready to enter life again. They have finished their wilderness wanderings, have

transmuted, the ego is better aligned with the soul, and it is time to face life again. In the

real world, when the addicted individuals return to everyday life, they need a new leader,

as they will need to fight rightful wars. They will need general, a colonel, a military

leader, who can help enforce the tight regimen that the addicted individuals needs to

follow as they reenter reality and face day-to-day challenges.

The Promised Land is not a place, it is not a destination, even though the narrative

describes it as so. It is the next step in the individuation process (Jung, 1939/1968d). The

Israelites, emerging from the wilderness, are now allowed to enter the Promised Land.

From the individuation process perspective, reaching and entering the Promised Land

correlates to the state of the ego being the center of consciousness, entering, with rights,

into the realm of the unconsciousness. Hence, the ego is becoming aligned with the soul,

and the person is becoming whole. Entering the Promised Land is also an indication of

the individuation process at its peak, where an additional responsibility is introduced. For
 51

the Israelites it is the responsibility of governing a country with all the aspects of ruling

and taking care of citizens.

Exodus as a Blueprint for Recovery

From the story of Exodus, one learns how the Israelites elevated their spirituality

by taking on the passage through the wilderness. The story reveals what is a key truth for

each contemporary person—the need to elevate one’s spirituality to achieve a higher

inner level of living. This does not refer to an earthly elevation that is quantified by more

materialistic possessions; rather, it refers to the individuation process, the relationship

between one’s consciousness, or one’s ego, and one’s unconsciousness, or one’s soul. In

this, one follows a core aspect of Jung’s psychological theory, that is, the process of

individuation (Jung, 1939/1968d). In the process of individuation, the ego, which masters

one’s consciousness, is becoming aware of the unconsciousness, or the soul, which is

one’s connection to the divine. Being aware is more than just a mere acknowledgment

that one has deeper parts, it is the ability of the ego to realize that it can and should rely

on the deeper parts for guidance.

In the story of Exodus, one learns about this process and about the steps that will

allow an individual to reach the Promised Land. I equate the Promised Land to the state

of a fully individuated psyche. In addiction, the addicted individual is guided solely by

consciousness, and by the ideation that he or she needs the addiction for survival. There

is no connection to the soul, though the feeling of being high is a falsified ideation of a

spiritual experience.

To summarize, I hypothesize that addiction is a connection between

consciousness and false unconsciousness. It is a process with a direction opposite to

 52

individuation, or a process where consciousness is getting away from unconsciousness. I

postulate that recovery is a process of correction of the ego-soul axis. Moreover, it

involves redirection of one’s life energy to create a movement toward the soul. This

requires a movement into one’s inner world.

Finding Moses—spiritual leadership. Moses was a person of the wilderness.

After fleeing from Egypt, he shepherded his father in law’s sheep (Exodus 3:1). While

wandering the wilderness with his flock, he met Yahweh. He claimed not to be a good

speaker, “Moses said to the LORD, ‘O Lord, I have never been eloquent, neither in the

past nor since you have spoken to your servant. I am slow of speech and tongue’”

(Exodus 4:10). One can hypothesize that he was more of a spiritual personality. Yahweh

chose Moses to guide the Israelites, for he was knowledgeable of the wilderness ways

and routes. As a shepherd, Moses guided sheep through the desert, finding them food,

water, and shelter. Being a shepherd was Moses’ initiation for his next role, as the guide

of the Israelites through the desert. For an addicted individual, it would be beneficial to

build a relationship with a Moses archetype, the archetype of the guide.

Going into the wilderness—individuation process. The New Testament (New

International Version) teaches that immediately after the baptism of Jesus, without any

hesitation, he was tried by the devil. “Then Jesus was led by the Spirit into the desert to

be tempted by the devil” (Matthew 4:1). Jesus was pure and divine after the Holy Spirit

descended upon him and God himself declared, “This is my Son, whom I love; with him I

am well pleased” (Matthew 3:17). He was so pure and divine, in fact, that he needed to be

initiated. Therefore, he first fasted for 40 days and 40 nights, and then he was tempted

and tested by the Devil. Jesus was wise and knowledgeable and he passed his trials. I
 53

postulate that every individual needs to go to the wilderness to face his or her own

tempter and to be trialed and tested. Going into the wilderness denotes a process of a

spiritual initiation.

How can one have such an experience of wandering into the wilderness in

everyday life? One needs to identify one’s personal wilderness. According to the story of

Exodus, the wilderness is a place where one has no sense of direction, lack of food and

water, and one needs a guide, like Moses. The wilderness is also a place that one needs to

be granted access into, so it is also a liminal space, and not a secular one. A good model

for a personal wilderness is one’s own unconscious, the realm of one’s inner world. Then

how can one access his unconsciousness?

In his book, The Dream and the Underworld, Hillman (1979) discussed the use of

dreams to venture into one’s inner world, the unconscious part of the psyche, or, as

Hillman referred to it, the underworld, the world beyond the literal world. He explained

about dreams, “They are necessary for soul-making. They are necessary for the work of

seeing through, of de-literalizing” (p. 99).

Johnson (1989), in his book, Inner Work: Using Dreams and Active Imagination

for Personal Growth, described how to utilize dreams and active imagination as a way to

access one’s inner world. By following his suggested techniques, we can find our Moses,

cross the threshold, and wander in the wilderness. Jung (1934/1970b) also wrote about

dreams and their connection to God, and described them as a way to communicate with

God:

The dream is the small hidden door in the deepest and most intimate sanctum of
the soul, which opens to that primeval cosmic night that was soul long before
there was conscious ego and will be soul far beyond what a conscious ego could
ever reach. (p. 134)
 54

Application

The purpose of this next section is to devise ways to mitigate for what we

concluded that is missing: the need for individuation and initiation. If society, one’s

parents, or anyone else deprived us of the opportunity to achieve individuation, it is not

acceptable to maintain a regressive stance, claiming that it is not our fault. It is not

anyone’s fault, and it is what it is. Modern humans need to seek their gods, their missing

parts, and strive for becoming whole again. As promised by Johnson (1987) and

Campbell (2008), there is treasure waiting for the seeker.

The need for individuation and initiation. In Chapter II, the connection

between initiation and addiction was discussed. From these discussions, one can conclude

that without proper initiation, Dionysus will come to take an individual to Hades, so he or

she can go through the death-rebirth process. Individuation, the process of aligning the

ego with the soul (Jung, 1939/1968b), is an inevitable process in the life of every human

being. If people are willing to abandon the ego-centered approach and move to a soul-

centric approach, they will humble themselves and realize that they are creatures of

nature, the same as the mountains, the rivers, the birds and everything else in this

universe, animated or not. By accepting this attitude, one can realize that the purpose of

life is to answer the question, “Whom does the Grail serve?” (Johnson, 1993, p. 42) with

the answer, “the Higher King.” Each of us can be the Holy Grail, and can make ourselves

the servants of God. No longer slaves, we accept his law of our own will and accord.

Therefore, one comes to accept that individuation is the main process of one’s life, and

that trying to deny it may lead to addiction.

 55

12-step programs. I hypothesize that the success of any 12-step program,

whether Alcoholics Anonymous, Narcotics Anonymous, or others, is rooted in two

aspects. First, these programs allow individuals to work on their individuation by

separating them from the crowd and allowing them to find their own true self. Second,

they are a container; they provide the rituals, symbols, and milestones that help in the

grounding process of the inflated ego. The steps are like a ladder, allowing the participant

to move further from an ego-based world perspective to a more spiritual realm. For many

novices, it is a hard switch from their old world perspective, but with the support of the

community and the sponsor (a formerly addicted individual who has managed to

successfully climb the steps), apprentices are supported to master their own worlds. The

12-step program takes the addict in recovery through a journey parallel to the hero

journey, as depicted by Campbell (2008) in his book, The Hero With a Thousand Faces.

The first step, “We admitted we were powerless over our addiction—that our

lives had become unmanageable” (AA, 1955, p. 59) represents the barrier crossing. The

ego admits failure, which alludes to an optional victory for soul. The second step states,

“We came to believe that a Power greater than ourselves could restore us to sanity”

(p. 59). If in the first step, the ego declares its defeat, the second step is the admission of

the existence of something else, something vaster than the ego; this is the only way to

restore sanity and peace in the kingdom. The third step is, “We made a decision to turn

our will and our lives over to the care of God as we understood God” (p. 59). The first

two steps are the steps needed to arrive at this one: the naming of God or the divine as the

real force, as the higher king, as oppose to all other kings or Pharaoh that have been
 56

followed thus far, who have sent the person on the way to Hades. The next steps, steps 4

to 11, are ritual sequences that allow soul work. They all lead to the last and final step.

The 12th step states, “Having had a spiritual awakening as the result of these steps, we

tried to carry this message to other addicts, and to practice these principles in all our

affairs,” (p. 59). This is the step where the addicted individual who is in recovery begins

to apply soul work to other aspects of his or her life, not just to the addiction, but also to

his or her personal life.

Recovery With Depth Psychology

Though abstinence is better than using, depth psychology’s goal is to send

individuals to their inner worlds, in the search of their soul. Depth psychology separates

the actions from one’s being. In depth psychological terms, there are no real addicts, only

people with addictive behavior. Emphasis is put on the under layer of energies that cause

the eruption of a neurosis or psychosis.

Simply put, the depth psychological perspective holds the belief that each person

can reach recovery. This thesis taps into the ancient wisdom of the Bible, and in

particular the story of Exodus to reveal the needed steps for recovery. The narrative of the

story of Exodus allows one to follow the Israelites from their bondage to a egocentric

tyrant, to an emancipated collective, one that can gain access to the Promised Land,

conquer it, and rule it. None of this could have been achieved without the power, the will,

and the guidance of the divine.

Hence, recovery is a passage, guided by God, Allah, Yahweh, or any other name

one wants to use in reference to the ultimate, one and only divine. Moreover, it is noted

that recovery can be reached either solely using depth psychological approaches, or by
 57

using depth approaches to supplement any other desired recovery plan. Depth psychology

is merely the way to reach the deepest level of the psyche. Clinicians as well as

individuals are advised to continue any other desired methodology for recovery, and are

only asked to add the depth psychology as yet another avenue for recovery.

Depth psychological methodologies are simple—they use primordial parts of our

being. Using journaling, dream work, and active imagination one is encouraged to sort

one’s psychic elements, and to align with them accordingly. In almost every

consideration, Jung mentioned and used dreams as the major tool to access the

unconscious. Jung used dreams as the door to his own unconscious as well as of his

patients. Many of his followers continue to use dreams as a major tool, as well as adding

other tools. Johnson (1989) described the use of dreams and active imagination as tools to

bring shadow matter into light, and as a way for the ego to venture into the unconscious.

Johnson (1993) explained the power of dreams “we are instructed that the healing vision

of our lives occur every night in our interior Grail castle. It is in the hidden world of

dreams and imagination that the miracle is presented every night” (p. 42).

Ways to Initiation

The initiation process is facilitated by an initiator, though it is also possible for

one to initiate oneself. Mostly the initiator is a wise, older person, and if one lacks that

person in this worldly realm, one can always try to summon an inner initiator. Using

active imagination, with the help of a dream, a client can try and connect with the

archetype of the Senex, and his wisdom, love and compassion will work magic in the

inner realm.
  

Chapter IV
Closing and Conclusion

Addiction and the Collective

This work was written during a time when people are rallying in Arab countries,

demanding to be freed from totalitarians regimes. This reminds me of the story of Exodus

as presented in Chapter III. At the very same time, here in the United States, people are

rallying in front of commercial stores, at the wee hours of night, for the traditional

shopping event known as Black Friday. People are hoping to get a good deal on a new

toy, an electronic gadget, or a new television, and not necessarily because they need a

new one. Some buy these commodities because they are the latest and the greatest, and

they or their kids need to follow what fashion dictates. From the media one learns about

the ferocity, aggressiveness, and sometimes the cruelty of the shoppers toward each other

while trying to secure commodities for gifts for Christmas. From NPR news,

The crowds in Cairo's Tahir Square clamor for democracy and free speech.
Crowds in American shopping malls seem to clamor for Blu-rays, Xboxes and
Wii consoles. There were even a few reported instances of violence on Friday
among unruly shoppers. (Simon, 2011)

A third group of people also draw my attention at this time—the group known as Occupy

Wall Street. This group also calls for equality in society, for the end of greediness, and

for the end of the control of Wall Street over the lives of many people in the United

States. Once again, one hears the call of the soul for freedom, for releasing any shackles

or bonding.
 59

History repeatedly shows that whenever a small group of people takes control

over the majority of the population, sooner or later, God or soul will come to emancipate

the oppressed. In Exodus, God, or Yahweh, represents the soul. The oppressor in Exodus

is the Pharaoh. The oppressor represents the identification of the ego with the superior

function (Edinger, 1986, p. 145). The superior function is the main function of the four

(intuition, sensation, feeling, and thinking) that each human uses. For Westerners, the

most predominant functions are thinking and sensing. Furthermore, in Western schools,

universities, and work places, these functions are praised, they are the most compensated,

whereas feeling and intuition are considered less desirable, or feebler. If one looks at

most universities in the United States to see which schools are the most desired ones, one

will find that medical, engineering, and business schools are much more desired than

psychology, social work, or any other humanitarian disciplines. Preferring a specific

superior function to another is further demonstration that the collective can influence the

individual.

I have always believed that the holidays are a time to slow down. It is the time

when soul comes down to earth. It is a time to be with family, and to appreciate them. It

is a time to show compassion and kindness to each other as well as to the elders, the poor,

and the sick. During winter, which I consider the nicest of seasons, three different groups

of people are driven by different energies. Each collection is driven by some powers, and

they follow some call, whether it is of the soul, the ego, or something else. In the past few

months, while working on this thesis, I have observed these groups, as they represent the

mysterious work of the anima mundi.

 60

Addiction is a call of the individual as well as of his or her family, friends, and

other acquaintances. It calls for the person to change something, and for the family or

friends to change something too. No one becomes addicted in a vacuum or a void.

Furthermore, addiction is a presiding theme in United States society today. We have cast

away ceremonies, the rites of passage that are so needed for the psyche. To cure

addiction, we, as whole, need to live a more grounded life, rooted in soul.

One can achieve this by starting with one’s own body. One can start to eat

healthily, to exercise, and to relax. One could decide to postpone or even turn down a

promotion that would consume more time, though it would bring more money. One

would do this because one appreciates oneself, because one’s soul and body are worthy.

There is no need to enslave oneself for money. Soul does not ask for anything earthly, it

just need attention and one’s awareness. One can become aware by deciding to put away

the laptop, tablet, smartphone, and by talking or playing with each other instead. As

parents, we could be more involved in our children’s lives, for their sakes. One should

not think or assume that it is the school system’s role to take care of their upbringing. We

cannot and should not delegate such a task just so we have more time to build a career.

Instead, we can take our children hiking out in nature so that they can appreciate the soul

of the earth. Perhaps we can decide to volunteer somewhere, to show kindness to the

poor, the sick, and the old. We should exercise our constitutional rights to vote, to

express, to gather in a way that serves not only our own goals, but also the goals of the

broader population of our community, state, or country.

 61

Personal Perspective

In the dawn of 2004, I descended into one of my own dark times. I suffered from

depression, had trouble sleeping, and had difficulty working and being with or around

people. It was shortly after my divorce. Out of choice, I ended up living by myself in a

small apartment in a country I had moved to only 2 years previously. My parents, sister,

relatives, and, most devastatingly, my kids, were thousands of miles away. Anxiety ruled

my days and nights. Though I had the money and the means to fall into any kind of

addiction—I was living in a country, in a region, that offers an abundance of temptations

into any conceivable addiction, whether it be alcohol, drugs, gambling, sex, or any

others—somehow I did not. Somehow, I knew in my inner fabric that I needed to suffer.

Though it was frightening, something bigger than me guided me. In the language of AA

(1955), I submitted myself fully and unconditionally to my higher power. It was the right

kind of suffering, one I had avoided for many years by doing and not being. In the past,

every time I experienced the slightest sign of depression, I would have embarked on an

activity, whether it was to change a job, or to go and do other things. However, in 2004,

instead of falling into any addiction, I decided to start therapy. I also learned sailing and

joined a sailing club. I made new friends, dated, and, more importantly, I kept traveling to

be with my kids. In therapy I learned to journal, to write down my dreams, to converse

with my inner world figures utilizing active imagination. I started doing some art, mainly

painting. I managed to channel pain and other psychic energies that my ego did not like

into what one would say are healthy behaviors. I learned to sublimate, to listen, and to

take care of myself, and my Self. Yet one question keeps arising, why did not I slip into

any addiction?
 62

I am sure that there is no one right answer. It is probably related to my family of

origin as well as to my extended family. It is the influence and tendering of my personal

milieu and family consisting of grandparents, parents, and sibling, my uncles, aunts,

nephews, and cousins. I was raised in a secular family of Eastern European Jewish origin.

Though secular, there was a great welcoming and emphasis on celebrating holidays,

where the whole family would dine together. The attitude of the elders of the family

toward religion, God, and symbolism were always of respect. There was no enforcement

or mandated need to follow any specifics, but just a deep regard to the holidays, to the

Sabbath, to attending synagogue. As a growing teenager, when in need I turned to God in

non-dogmatic prayer. I more conversed with him, asked for his guidance and help. I do

believe that such a connection between my ego and the divine is what helped me and

guided me through the turbulent times in my life.

I also believe that any event that occurred to me was what needed to happen. I am

not the center. Just like every other man, woman, animal, mountain, river, and stone on

this earth, I am just part of this magnificent thing called nature, governed by soul. I

learned to humble myself, since I am just a tool, a vessel, to contain a drop of the divine.

I do not live this life for my own glory, rather to serve God, out of joy and my own will

and accord. I do feel privileged—not only for my own life, or for my wife and children,

or for what I own—I just feel privileged to be chosen to be part of something so big, so

great, this thing called life.

I then ask myself, how can I teach other people to do the same? How can I help

addicted individuals to reach the same awareness? There is no answer to that question,

except that one must try, out of a place of non attachment to any outcome. As a therapist,
 63

I can and should work with addicted individuals and other people who want to use my

services. I do so out of grace, out of the same feeling that I am just privileged to be in the

presence of another person because he or she is like me, part of the big scheme, and we

all serve our part, whether we know it, like it, or not.

Maybe I was spared a harsher outcome because I grew up with some symbolism

and made a place in my life for spirituality? I always knew that there was something

bigger than just me. I believe that I was struggling between the dogmatic God of the

Bible and the God I want to follow, who is ubiquitous, belongs to everyone, and is of

everyone. The institutional religions, such as Judaism that I come from, or any other

established clergy-based faith, offer a structure and symbolism that is so needed for the

thirsty souls of modern people. My God is your God is everyone’s God. He is I and I am

he. He is not a separate entity that is in the sky or anywhere. He is all around, in every

object, animated or not.

Adequate initiation. What can be considered an adequate initiation in the life of

the average Western youth? In my family of origin, being Jewish, I went through the

ceremony of Bar Mitzvah. I was initiated into the crowd of the adults; I assumed the role

of an adult, with all the obligations and rights. At the age of 13, I become eligible to

participate in ceremonies and prayers. Before that, I could only join those prayers as an

observer. From that day, I could join a Minyan, which is a Jewish religion quorum

consisting of at least 10 males age 13 and above who have had their Bar Mitzvah. Some

prayers cannot be performed unless this quorum is met. I do believe that it is a symbolic

initiation ritual; with the caveat that many of my sons’ generation are becoming more and
 64

more secular, and less and less spiritual. I fear that for them it has become no more than a

celebration and an opportunity to get presents.

Summary

I am not a mechanism, an assembly of various sections.

And it is not because the mechanism is working wrongly, that I am ill.
I am ill because of wounds to the soul, to the deep emotional self
and the wounds to the soul take a long, long time, only time can help
and patience, and a certain difficult repentance,
long, difficult repentance, realization of life’s mistake, and the freeing oneself
from the endless repetition of the mistake
which mankind at large has chosen to sanctify

Lawrence, 1992, p. 113

This work followed depth psychology traditions and practices to delve into the

research of addiction. In particular, the aim was to answer the questions: What is

addiction, from a depth psychological perspective? What is the growing prevalence of

addiction telling people, as individuals and as a society? What needs to be changed,

integrated, or separated?

Conclusions

This work suggests supplementary methods to deal with addiction. It points out

that addictive behavior in not the issue at work, but rather an outcome, or a manifestation

of an inner psychic need for action. This work draws a probable connection between the

individual needs of the human psyche and the collective, in particular the needs for

proper initiation and for proper subjects for projections. The work delineated a probable

connection between the lack of spirituality in today’s society and the spread of addiction.

The use of symbols, rituals, and rites of passage, which escorted the human psyche for

thousands of years, is embedded in the soul’s DNA. The factual data, as presented in

Chapter II, showed that the United States is the infamous leader in addictive behaviors.
 65

There is a plausible connection between the loss of spirituality and the turning of the

society to human idols, such as movie actors, politicians, and sport stars.

This work suggests means and ways for individuals to deal with addictions, such

as dream work and active imagination (Johnson, 1989). It also calls for society to act

together as a collective. It calls for more individuation, and less individuality. It asks for

more spiritual consumption, and less spirit, as in alcohol. It suggests the need to recall

symbols that can hold human projections, and not false idols. A widespread discussion is

needed to identify what spirituality in the 21st century looks like, and what is acceptable.

I question whether the dogma and bureaucracy that took over in some religions is

what drives people away from them. If this is true, there is a need to assist people in the

rediscovery of God, as they have turned their back not only on the clergy, who may have

manifested as the archetypal Pharaoh, but also on the real God, the divine soul.

Clinical Implications

Psychotherapists, psychiatrists, social workers, and counselors who work with

people with addictions are encouraged to combine depth psychological approaches with

other modalities. As postulated, depth psychology is merely complementary, and it offers

windows and gateways into the depth of one’s psyche. In this work, inner work is

suggested for assisting, supplementing, or enhancing recovery, with the goal of

unearthing some of the deeper matters in one’s unconsciousness that might be the trigger

to the onset of addiction. Clinicians are advised that even if the clients are refraining from

addictive behavior, or from the subject of their addition, this alone does not guarantee

recovery, but merely abstinence. In the circles of AA, NA and other 12-step programs,

the term white knuckling is used to denote a person that is refraining from using, but
 66

whose inner psychic issues are not yet alleviated. Though some clients can go for a long

time white knuckling, the addiction is just dormant and not cured, as their inner psychic

needs are yet to be resolved. Given the right trigger, the client might fall back into his or

her previous habits of addiction. Having that said, a clinician who works with addicts in

recovery and can guide them toward individuation, in the depth psychology terms, can

substantially increase the client’s chances of gaining full remission and for remedying the

addictive behavior.

Suggested Research

This thesis uses qualitative, hermeneutic research methodologies, relying on text

and myth as the source of data. Hence it is suggestive, open ended, and multifaceted in its

nature. Further research is needed to establish and to support the predicted outcome of the

proposed ways for recovery. A quantitative investigation is desirable, a study that will

include people with addictions who are either in recovery or are trying to reach recovery,

and who have agreed to follow the suggestions of this work as a way to gain a life free of

addictions. Taking a depth approach, the clients selected for such a study could then use

active imagination and dream work (Johnson, 1989), as well as expressive arts to look

into the unconscious parts of their psyche. This will allow them to identify themes and

archetypes that can guide them to freedom. Through this process, they can create their

own exodus from the bondage of addiction to the Promised Land of freedom from

infatuation.

Another possible study could look at individuals that fall into addiction in terms

of their personal typology. For this, the research can use psychological tools such as the

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) (Myers, 1962). The MBTI is a psychological tool
 67

developed by Jungian researchers Isabel Myers and her mother Katharine Briggs. Myers

and Briggs developed the MBTI as a questionnaire. It debuted in 1943, based upon a

modification of the Jungian theory of psychological types (Jung, 1921/1990). The results

of the MBTI questionnaire are four letters, suggesting the person’s unique four

dimensions of the following polarized preferences: Judgment-Perception (JP), Thinking-

Feeling (TF), Sensation-Intuition (SN), Extraversion-Introversion (EI). The MBTI has

been refined and further developed over the past 60 years, and is a broadly adopted tool

for psychological assessment in school as well as in work environments (Carlyn, 1977;

McCaulley & Martin, 1995).

I propose that the MBTI (Myers, 1962) is a tool that can help assess addictive

tendencies. Hence, it can provide clients with insights into what to change in their lives to

prevent addictions from surfacing. A possible research question can be: Is there is a

correlation between the MBTI and the tendency to fall into addiction? Based on such

research, and the hypothesis that there may be a correlation between specific typologies

and tendencies to fall into addiction, parents, and school personnel can help young adults

develop their inferior function. This may prevent these young people from overly

identifying with and using their superior function, which could lead to addiction.

Since one of the conclusions of this work is that there is a viable and plausible

correlation between society and its tendencies, and usage of the major function, there are

other possible research avenues that can help in the assessment and the treatment of

addiction. One should be aware, however, that these studies could expose the need for

society to bring back spirituality and a proper connection with archetypes, such as

Dionysus and others.

  

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