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cJ CHAPTER - 10

DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS

10.1 GENERAL

10.1 .1 Foundation of any structure plays an important role in safety and satisfactory performance of
the structure as it trrlnsmits the loads from structure to earth. Without having a sound and safe
foundation, structure can not perform the functions for which it has been designed. Therefore, the
importance of foundation need not be over-emphasized.

The sizes of transmission line towers are increasing because of the present day high, extra high and ultra
high voltage transmission, resulting in heavier load~ and as such requiring bigger and heavier
foundations. A large number of foundations are normally required in any transmission line project. Thus,
the total cost of foundations in a transmission line project becomes quite substantial. Apart from the
financial aspects, past records show that failures of tower foundations have also been responsible for
collapse of towers. These failures have usually been associated with certain deficiencies either in the
design or classification or construction of foundations. Many times, foundations cast are over safe
because of inappropriate classification. resulting in wastage of resources .. From engineering point of
view, the task of design and selection of most suitable type of tower foundation is challenging because
of the variety of soil conditions encountered enroute the transmission line and remoteness of
construction sites. The foundations in various types of soils have to be designed to suit the· soil
conditions of particular type.

In addition to foundations of normal tow~JP#~9~~J~!tlJgJioQ~,;.wh.~!.,~ 9foE1- .Q.g§;J,o,.de,;Cide the most

suitable type of foundation system consider.ng techno-economical aspecrs for special fowers required
for river crossing which may be located either on the bank of the river or in the mid stream or both.
This is generally. decided based on the actual river crossing requirements; and thei choice of type of
foundation and it's design would be based on actual soil exploration data, high flood level. velocity
of water, scour depth etc. However, the design of special foundations is not covered in this manual
and would be dealt with seperately.

10.1.2 As the concept of safe value for properties of soil has been dispensed with in the design of
foundation. limit value of properties of soil should be obtained from soil investigation report.

10.1.3 This chapter does not cover the monoblock foundation.

10.2 TYPES OF LOADS ON FOUNDATIONS

The foundations of towers are normally subjected to three types of forces. These are :

(a)· the compression or downward thrust;

(b) the tension or uplift; and
. (c) the lateral forces or side thrusts in both transverse and longitudinal directions.

The magnitudes of each of these forces depend on the types of tower and the transmission capacity
of lines. The method of calculating above loads is described in detail in Chapter-6 - Looc~'~ '''C\~! in
~~ood. ~

The magnitudes of limit loads for foundations should be taken 10% higher than those for the
, corresponding towers.
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10.3 BASIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

To meet the varying needs in respect of soil conditions and loading quantum, several types of tower
foundations have been used for the transmission line towers. Design philosophy of tower foundation
should be closely related to the principles adopted for the design of the tower which the foundation
has to support. A weak or unsound foundation can make a good tower design useless while a very
strong foundation for a weak tower means a wasteful expenditure. Functionally, the foundation should
be strong and stable. It should take care of all the loads such as dead loads, live loads, wind loads,
seismic loads, erection loads etc. causing vertical thrust, uplift as well as horizontal reactions. For
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satisfactory performance, it should be stable and structurally adequate and be able to transmit these
forces to the soil such that the limit soil bearing capacities are not exceeded.

10.4 SOIL PARAMETERS

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Fer designing the foundati )ns, following parameters are required:
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(a) Umit bearing capacity of Soil; .til!
(b) Density of soil; and ,J
(c) Angle of Earth frustum.
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These soil properties are normally obtained either by conducting in-situ or laboratory tests on soil
samples collected from the field during Soil Investigation or from available testing record of the area.
The importance of abov'3 soil parameters in foundation design is discussed below in brief.

Umit Bearing capacity

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This parameter is vital from the point of view of establishing the stability of foundation against shear
failure of soil and excessive settlement of foundation when foundation is subjected to total downward 1
loads and moments due to horizontal shears and/or eccentricities as applicable.
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Recommended limit bearing capacities of various types of soil are given in Annexure - I for guidance.
These will be reviewed when more reliable data are available. Ii
Density of Soli
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This parameter is required to calculate the uplift resistance of foundation. Recommended unit weights
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of various types of soil are given in Annexure - I.
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Angle of Earth Frustum
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This parameter is required for finding out the uplift resistance of the foundation. Recommended values
of angle of earth frustum for different types of soils/rocks are given in Annexure - I. CI
10.5 SOIL INVESTIGATION
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The design of the tower foundation Is fully dependent upon conditions of the soil that will support the'

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foundation and the nature of loadings. It is, therefore, necessary to investigate the soil for it's
engineering properties. I
There are number of procedures for collection of soil data covered in various Indian Standard Codes
of Practice like IS:1892, IS:1888. IS:2131. etc. and standard books on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering; Selection of anyone of these depends on the suitability and merits of the procedure for
a given soil condition as well as it's relative cost compared to the cost of the proposed structure.
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 It is desirable to carry out detailed soli Investigation on the Railway crossing locations, heavy angle
tower locations. at an inteNal of 15 locations along the (oute and also where soil strata changes. at
the descretion of Engineer-in-charge. The detailed soil investigation for special river crossing tower
location Is a must.

In areas which have already been developed. advanfage should be taken of the existing local
knowledge. records of trial pits. bore-holes. etc. In the vicinity. If the existing information Is not sufficient.
It is necessary to explore the site to obtain details of the type. uniformity. consistency, thickness. depth
of the strata and the ground water conditions. In many cases of transmission line works. the soil
investigation may consist of only exploratory test pits and laboratory testing of some selected soil
samples.

The details of soil investigation are not covered in this chapter and may be referred to in the relevant
text books and Indian standards available for the purpose. However. the list of the tests to be carried
out Is given in Annexure -II. These tests are aimed at finding out type of soU. density. Umlt bearing
capacity. angle of earth frustum. water table. etc.

During execution. trial pits upto a minimum depth of 3.0 m (except for hard rock locations) shall be
excavated at each and every tower locations (at all four legs) to obtain following details in order to
classify the type of foundation to be adopted:

(I) Type of soil encountered

(Ii) Ground water table.

10.6 TYPES OF SOIL AND ROCK

Soils and rocks. based on their engineering and physical properties. can be'brOOdlyctassffied as under:

Types of Soil

(a) Non-cohesive Soils

This group of soils include gravel and sands which are composed mainly of larger sized grains resulting
from weathering of rocks. The engineering behaviour of these soils under loading depends primarily
on their friction qualities which vary with their density. degree of lateral confinement. ground water level
and flow of water through them.

The non-cohesive soils do not get unified with the parent soil after back filling with the passage of time.
The following type of soils come under this category :

(I) Sandy Soils which have no clay/silt or have very little clay/silt

(Ii) Soft and hard murrum. These can be excavated using normal tools and these get diSintegrated
into pieces .

(b) CoheSive Soils

These comprise clays. silts and soft shales. etc. having comparatively fine grain sIze particles. The
strength of this group of soils Is derived primarily from cohesion between their particles. The most
important characteristic of cohesive soils from engineering point of view is their susceptibility for slow
volume changes due to their low permeability. When this type of solis are subjected to loads. the
contained water in the voids is expelled very slowly with consequent diminution of volume resulting in
consolidation settlement. Unlike settlement in non-cohesive soils which is immediate. the settlement in
cohesive soils may take many years to reach it's final value. In cohesive soils. SPT test does not always

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give dependable results, particularly In sensitive clays; and undisturbed soil samples are required to be
tested In the laboratory for It's unit weight moisture content confined and unconfined compressive
strengths and settlement characteristics.

The cohesive soils get unified with the parent soil after back filling with the passage of time. The
following soils come under this category: .

(i) Normal soil having mixture of silt and clay (clay not exceeding 15%). When this type of soil is
made wet and rolled between the palms, only short threads can be made.
(ii) Clayae solis having high percentage of clay (more than 15%) e.g. Black Cotton Soil (Black or
yellow in colour). When this type of soil is made wet and rolled between the palms, long
threads can be made.
(iii) Marshy soil having sea mud (marine soil) which is very sticky in nature.

Types of Rocks

Rocks derive their strength from permanent bond of cohesive forces among their particles. They are
usually classified as hard, and soft. Rocks have high bearing capacity except when decomposed,
heavily shattered or stratified. On uneven site, however, dangerous conditions may develop with rocks
if they dip towards cuttings. Tower foundations are usually built on the upper area of the rock
formations which are often found to be weathered and disintegrated.

The rocks are broadly classif!ed as follows:

(a) Soft Rock/Fissured Rock

The rocks which can be excavated using normal tools without blasting are classified as soft rock. These
include decomposed or fissured rock, hard gravel. kankar, lime stone. laterite or any other soli of similar
nature.

(b) Hard Rock

The rocks which cannot be excavated using normal tools and require chiseling. drilling and blasting are
classified as Hard Rock. These include hard sand stone, quartzite. granite. basalt, hard marble. etc.

Comblnatfons of SoIls

During execution for any transmission line project it is possible that combination of two or more than
two types of solis may also occur, while .excavating the soil upto founding level. Different combinations
of soils a.nd the types of fOuCldations to be adopted are given in annexure - III.

10.7 TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

Depending upon the ground water table and type of soil and rock. the foundations can be classified
as follows:

(a) Normal Dry Soil Foundations

When water table is below foundation level and when soil is cohesive and homogeneous up to the full
depth having clay content of 10-15% .

(b) Wet Soli Foundations

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When water table is above foundation level and up to 1.5 m below ground level. The foundations in

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1.0 m below ground level (e.g. paddy fields) are also classified as wet foundations.

(c) Partially Submerged Foundations

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When water table is at a depth between 1.5 m and 0.75 m below ground 113vel and when the soil is
normal and cohesive .
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':) (d) Fully Submerged Foundations

U When watE:ir table is within 0.75m below ground and the soil is normal and cohesive.
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(e) Black Cofton Soil Foundations

When the soil i::: cohesive having inorganic clay exce.eding 15% and characterised by high shrinkage
and swelling property (need not be always black in colour).

(f) Partial Black Cotton Foundations

When the top layer of soil up to 1.5 m is Black Cotton and thereafter it is normal dry cohesive soil.

(g) Soft Rock/Fissured Rock Foundations

When decomposed or fissured rock. hard gravel or any other soil of similar nature is met which can be
executed without blasting. Under cut foundation is to be used at these locqtions.

(h) Hard Rock Foundations

Where chiseling. drilling and blasting is required for excavation.

(i) Sandy Soil Foundations

Soil with negligible cohesion because of it's low clay content (0-10%).

The above c:ategorization of foundations has been done for economising the foundations. as uplift
resistance of foundation is a critical design factor which is greatly affected by the location of water
table and the soil surrounding the foundation.

10.7.1 Structural Arrangement of FoundaHons

7
'J Based on structural arrangement of foundations. the various types of foundations are possible;. The
/~; necessity of erecting towers on a variety of soils has made it possible and necessary for the de:signers
to adopt new innovations and techniques. As a result several types of tower foundations hovH been
devised and successfully used. Some of the more common types of foundations are described below:
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(a) P.c.c. Type
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This type of foundation is shown in Figure I. This is the most common type of footing used in India and
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in some countries of the continent. It consists of a plain concrete footing pad with reinforced chimney .
In this type of foundation. the stub angle is taken inside and effectively anchored to the bottom pad
by cleat angles and!or keying rods. and the chimney with reinforcement & stub Qngle inside worJ<s as
a composite mamber. The pad may be either pyramidal in shape as shown In Figure 1(a) or stepped
as shown in Figure 1(b). Stepped footings will require less shuttering materials but need more ¢tention
during construction to avoid cold-joints between the steps. The pyramidal footings. on the otner hand.

5
will require somewhat costlier form work. In this pad and chimney type footing, where the chimney is
comparatively slender, the lateral load acting at the top of the chimney will cause bending moment
and. therefore. the chimney should be checked for combined stresses due to direct pull/thrust and
bending.

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Figure. I (a) : Pyramid Chimney Type Foundation
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Figu're I (b): P. C.C. Type Stepped Foundation

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If the soil is very hard, conglomerate of soil, containing stones, rubbles, Kankar which can be loosened
with the help of pick-axe or if the soil is of-composite nature i.e., combination of normal dry soil. hard
murrum, fissured rock which will not get unified easily with the parent soil after back filling, pyramid
chimney type foundations having 150 mm side clearance are not advisable and in such cases
undercut/stepped footings without side clearance should be adopted.
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(b) R.C.C. Spread Type

Typical types of R.C.C. Spread Footings are shown in Figure 2. It consists of a R.C.C. base slab or mat
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and a square chimney.

There are several types of R.C.C. spread footings which can be designed for tower foundations. The
three most common types of these are shown in Figures 2 (a). (b) & (c). As shown in the figures. this
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type of foundation can be either single step type or multiple step typeandJor chamfered step type.

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Figure 2(0): R.C.C. Spread Type Foundotion(Chomfered Type)

with 150 mm working Clearance

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Figure 2(b): R.c.c.Spread Type Foundation (Step) with 1S·0mm

Working Clearance

The R.C.C. spread type footings can be suitably designed for variety of soil conditions. R.C.C. footings,
in some situations may be higher in cost although structurally these are the best.

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When loads on foundations are heavy and/or soil is poor. the pyramid type foundations may not be
feasible from techno-economical considerations and under such situations, R.C.C. spread type footings
are technically superior and also economical. R.C.C. spread footing with bottom step/slab when cast
in contact with inner surface of excavated soil will offer higher uplift resistance as compared to the
footing having 150 mm side clearance as shown in Figure 2(c).
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Figure 2(c): R.LL Spread Type Foundation (Step) Cast

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 (c) /31:-ck Typ'::'

This type of foundation is shown in Figures 3 & 5 (a). It consists of a chimney and block of concrete.
This type of foundation is usually provided where soft rock and hard rock strata are encountered at the

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tower location. In this type of foundation, concrete is poured in direct contact with the inner surfaces
of the excavated rock so that concrete develops bond with rock. The uplift resistance in this type of
footing is provided by the bond between concrete and. rock. The thickness and size of the block is
decided based on uplift capacity of foundation and bearing area required.
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this foundation for the failure of bond between rock and concrete. The values of ultimate bond stress
I~ between the rock and the concrete to be considered for various types of rocks are given in
J Annexure-IV for guidance. However, the actual bond stress between rock and concrete can be
C':'1J decided by tests.

Block type foundations are being provided by some power utilities for soft and hard rock strata.
However, under cut type of foundations for soft rock and rock anchor type of foundations for hard rock
are sometimes preferred by some power utilities because of their soundness even though these may
be more costly in comparison with Block type foundations.

(d) Under-Cut Type

These type of foundations are shown in Figures 4 (a),(b) & (c). These are constructed by making·
under-cut in soil/rock at foundation leVel. This type.of foundation is very useful in normal dry cohesive
soil, hard murrum, fissured/soft rock. soils mixed with clinker, where soil is not collapsible type i.e.. it can
stand by itself. A footing with an under-cut generally develops higher uplift resistance as compared
to th?t of an i~;ntl~531 t,q9Jjn~"withol,lt 4nq~r-cut. This is dl!.~~Q.Gb.Pmgg,.iGl.~jsturbed virgin soil.
The size of under-cut snail not be less than 150 mm. At the dsscret!on of power utility and based on the
cohesiveness of the normal dry soil, the owner may permit undercut type of foundation for normal dry
cohesive soil. .

(e) Grouted Rock and Rock Anchor Type

Typical Grouted Rock and Rock Anchor type footing is shown in Figure 5(b). This type of footing is
suitable when the rock is very hard. It consists of two ports viz. block of small depth followed by anchor
bars embeded in the Grouted Anchor Holes. The top part of the bar is embeded in the concrete of
the shallow block. The depth of embedment diameter and number of anchor bars will depend upon
the uplift force on the footing. The diameter shall not be less than 12 mm. The grouting hole shall
normally be 20 mm more than the diameter of the bar.

The determination of whether a rock formation is suitable for installation of rock anchors is an
engineering judgement based on rock quality. Since, the bearing capacity of rock is usually much
greater, care must be exercised in deSigning for uplift. The rock surfaces may be roughened. grooved.
or shaped to increase the uplift capacity.

The uplift resistance will be determined by considering the bond between reinforcement bar and
grout/concrete. However, an independent check for uplift resistance should be carried out by
considering the bond between rock & concrete block which in turn will determine the min. depth of
concrete block to be provided in hard rock. Anchor strength can be substantially increased by
provision of mechanical anchorages. such as use of eye- bolt, fox bolt or threaded rods as anchoring
bars or use of keying rods in case of stub angle anchoring. The effective anchoring strength should
preferably be determined by testing.

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Figure 4 (a) Pyramid Type Foundation

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foundation is not practicable. open cast rock type foundation may be adopted as a special case.

(f) Augur Type/Under Reamed Pile Type

Typical types of foundations are shown In Figure 6(a). The cast-In-situ reinforced concrete augured
footings have been extensively used in some western countries like USA. Canada and many countries
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in our continent. The primary benefits derived from this type of foundations are thRsaving intime and
man-power. Usually a truck mounted power augur is utilised to drill a circular hole of required diameter,
the lower portion of this may be belled, if required. to a larger diameter to Increase the uplift resistance
of the footing. Holes can be driven upto one metre in diameter and six metre deep. Since, the
excavated hole has to stand for some time before reinforcing bars and cage can be placed in position "i
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and concrete poured, all kinds of soils are not suitable for augured footing. Usually. stiff clays and
dense sands are capable of being drilled and standing up sufficiently long for concreting works and (
installation of stub angle or anchor bolts. whereas loose granular materials may give trouble during
construction of these footings. Bentonite slurry or similar material is used to stabilise the drilled hole. In
soft soils. a steel casing can also be lowered into the hole as the excavation proceeds. to hold the hole
open. (

Uplift resistance of augured footing without bell Is provided by the friction along the surface of the shaft
alone and hence it·s capacity to resist uplift is limited. Augured footing can be constructed according
to the requirement. vertical or battered and with or without expanded base. (
(g) Under-Reamed Pile Type (

The under-reamed piles are more or less similar to augured footings except that they have under (
reaming above bottom of shaft. These can be generally constructed with hand augur. The bore is
drilled vertically or at a batter with the augur. having an arrangement of cutting flanges (edges) to be
opened by the lever. This arrangement makes it possible to make under-reams at various level of bores
as shown in Figure 6(b). The advantage of this foundation is faster construction. ,

The load carrying capacity of these footings. both for downward and uplift forces should be established r
by tests. The safe loads allowed on under-reamed piles of length 3.50 m and under reamed to 2.5
times the shaft diameter in clayey. black cotton and medium dense sandy soils may be taken from IS: f
4091 for guidance.
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These types of foundation are useful in case of expansive type of black cotton soils.
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(h) Steel Grillage Type ..• -,.
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These types of foundation are shown in Figures 7(a)&(b). These dre made of structural steel sections:
Steel grillages can be of various designs. Generally. it consists of a layer of steel beams as pad for the ~
bearing area. The footing reaction is transmitted to the pad by means of heavier joists or channels
resting cross-ways on the bearing beams. For smaller towers. the horizontal shears at foundation from
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the component of force in the diagonal members is transferred to the adjoining soil by shear plates of
adequate size proyided at the point where the bottom most diagonal bracings intersect the main tr
leg/stub usually about a metre below the ground surface as shown in Figure 7 (0). In case of heavy
towers like angle or dead end. the lateral force is taken up by addition of suitable bracing members "
shown in Figure 7 (b) which transfer the shear down to the grillage beams. (r
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(~~,

\ ~Y)
()~
......
~

.•
/)1:"~

ELEVATION
. ";?
.~)J

- - t - - - - - \ r tltl~~:t:tIttr-t·--·

PLAN 'A-A'

Figure 7(a): Steel Grillage Type Foundation

'.'"'t..

21
 ,
'. \

A
t A

ELEVATION

~... \V'//

I I
I

rrTrr~
-
.~ ~ I I I ~
I
I
J.
I
II
l-
I . I ,...
I I

- .
tI
iI I . I I' I
I , I
I I I
~ J U I.J. I U ~ lJ. d
_J

1 J
.". . ...
PLAN 'A-A'

Figure 7 ( b) : Steel Grillage Type Foundation

22
.-.
 The grillage is designed to resist the down thrust and uplift. The angle of earth frustum is developed
from the bottom of the footing. In this type of foundations, there Is no solid slab as compared to
concrete foundations. However, if the distance between the grillage members is not greater than the
·1 width of members, the gross area of grillage can be utiiised in calculating bearing pressure. If the

distance between members is large, only the net area of grilJage can be taken into account for
calculating the bearing pressure on the soil. The placement and compaction of the backfill is very
critical to the actual load carrying capacity of this type of foundations.

As a precaution against corrosion, a coat of bituminous pair It is usually applied to the footing. When
backfill is well compacted to eliminate air pockets, the lower portion of the footing may not suffer any
appreciable corrosion of steel. Weathering steel orgalvanised steel can also reduce the chances of
corrosion, but none of these can prevent corrosion when the soil at the tower location is unfavourable
. and chemically aggressive. When doubt arises, it may be necel''iary to test the soil and sub-soil water
samples to ascertain their corrosiveness before using a steel grillage footing.

Grillage footings require much more steel than a comparable concrete footing, but erection cost is
small in comparison to that of the concrete footing resuHing in often economical and always quicker
construction. Other advantages include their Simplicity in construction procurement of complete
foundation with tower parts from the manufacturer of towers and elimination of concrete work at site.
These foundations are also very helpful in restoring the collapsed transmission lines because of quicker
construction.

The disadvantage of this type of foundation is that these foundations have to be designed before any
soil borings are made and may have to be enlarged and require a concrete base if actual soil
conditions are not as good as those assumed in the original design.

These types of foundation are generally provided in case of firm soils and are usually adopted for
locations where concreting is not possible and head loading is difficult. This type Of foundation is not
popular in our country. .

(i) Steel Plated Type

.,~\
'~l
( }
A typical pressed steel plate foundation is shown in Figure 8. This arrangement is ~imilar to the steel
,)) griIJ foundation shown in Figure 8 except that the base grillage has been replaced by a pressed steel
plate. This type of foundation is usually adopted for locations where concreting work is not possible
and. head loading is difficult. This type of foundation is suitable only in case of good, cohesive and
rl firm soil. The size of plate is decided based on uplift capacity required and also based on footing
area necessary from bearing capacity consideration. The net horizontal force at the level where
() bottom most diagonal bracing is attached to the stub is resisted by the passive pressure of the soil.
() The advantage of this type of foundation is it's simplicity. However, one has to be careful in excavation
at the bottom .. The plate must rest firmly in contact with the surrounding soil. The disadvantage of this
(~ type of foundation is possibility of corrosion of steel and large settlement because of loose sand under
the plate. This type of foundation is not popular in our country.
("J
(:1",
CD Pile Type
' .,.'
.

A typical pile type foundation is shown in Figure 9. This type of foundation is usually adopted when soil
~
C;
- is very weak and has very poor bearing capacity or foundation has to be located in fi/led-up soil or sea
mud to a large depth or where tower location fa/ls within river bed and creek bed which are likely to
C ~"
(')
get scourea during floods.

::~

23
()

o
o
()
()
G.l. GL

I: ,• I

VII
.11/'
r-
A
+ A

;;0{IK ~

ELEVATION
r
f>
(?
(t
(~

,1'
.,.
.-t

I,.\'
\.
PLAN A-A
•
Figure 8: Steel Plate Type Foundation •
24
•"
 'iIIJP
t)
~

o
(':J

r
A
, A

HFL HFL
Water flow
-

SfCTlON

PLAN 'A-A'

Figure 9: Pile Type Foundation

25
 . ~.~
,
The pile foundations are designed based on the data of soli exploration at the tower locatlqn. The
1mportant parameters for design of pile· tounaation are the type of soil angle of Intemal friction,
cohesion and unit weight of soiL at various depths along the shaft of pile, maximum discharge of the
river, maximum velocity of water, high flood leveL scour depth etc.
,,
<

Pile foundation usually costs more and maY be adopted only after detailed examination of the site
.~
condition and soil data. The downward verticOUoad on the foundation is carried by the plies through
---Sldnfrictioo_orby point bearing or both; while the upUft is resisted by the, dead weight of the concrete'
In plies and pile caps and frictional reslstance~tween p1Ie-and soli surrounding the pIIe~ For carrying
heavy lateralloads.battered piles may be advantageously used. Piles are of different types such .OS
--t,,
,
drfvenpre-cast piles. cast-lo-situ concrete bored plIeS and cast~sItu concrete driven piles.. Concrete
driven. piles whether pre-cast or cast-in-sitti teqU!re he<lvy ffiQChlnery for their construction and as such
may not be possible to use for transmlsslorlllnefoundatlons because of remoteness of the sites and
small vOlume of work. Mostly, casHn-SttucOnCretebored PItaS are provided in transmission line projects
since, they do not require heavy machinerY for their cons1n,Jction; , '

... load carrying capacItY of different types of p1~ Should ~lIybe established by load tests. When
. _. -ItlSoot possible to carry out load tests, the capacity of pile can be determined by static formula os
I glventn 15: 2911 using soil propertIeS obtained froin soli Investigation of tower location where pile
~
foundation Is proposed to be provided. l
(Ie) Well Type. l
A typicOf weD type offOl1ndation for 1rqnsmlssion Ina tower is shoWn in figure 10. This type of
foundation Is usuaRy provided where tower location falls wtthIn the course of major river having larger
discharge, heavy floods during mohSOOn and large sCourIng of river bed during floods. The cast-in-sltu
'r(
wellS of R.C.C. or brick masonaryare sunk by continuous excavation from within the wells. The basic
parameters required for the design of well are soil properties like angle of intemal friction, cohesion. ('
and density at various levels along the depth of well maximum flood discharge, maximum velocity
of water, the scour depth. etc. . , (
The wetl hos to be taken below the estimated scour level to a sufficient depth·for obtaining desired
load carrying capacity of the well. Kentel edge may have to be used during sinking of the well for .
c
penetrating the hard strata and also to prevent it's tilting during sinI<lng operation. The top of the wells «
is norma!ly kept above the high flood leve\. After the well has been sunk to It's design depth. the well
Is filled up with sand and suitable well cap Is eonstrucfed on the top of the well to accommodate the
- --tower and It's anchor bolts/stubs. The flDed up well acts.as sofid pier. .
. J

,
;. "J';.
Well type foundations are very costly and require more time for their construction and may be adopted
«
,.i.

only after detailed examination of the site C9i'\ditionand soli. data.

10.8 REVETMENT ON FOUNDATION

The revetment on foundation is usually required when the tower Is to be founded on a slope of hili or cr
"'~,':.t;
in deserts where there is possibility of soil flying away during dust storm. The typical details of revetment.,.
for hOly location are shown in Figure 11. The bench cutting Is first done to level the slope. The'
foundation Is cast with shorter and longer stubs If It Is not possible to fully level the slope. Revetment
Is nec:;essary to prevent,.erosion of soil due ·to water flowfrorn uphill and also to ensure proper
, anc~age against uplift." ; ....... " . ,

10.9 . SOIL RESISTANCES FOR DESIGNING FOUNDATION

i . ' . '~ '. ,:-~>~._

As crasbussed.iO'pard lo.ithe fourtdations oflransmtsSlon line towers are subjected to three types of
loads viz. the downward thrust (CbnlpresslOn)~theupUft (tension) and the side thrust (hOrizontal shear).

"
26
 ()
()
';\ Tower leg

-.
(
T,.g
C',)
~.Y

r-
A A

H.F.l.

Water flow
. U Scouring
U action
.~
~
(
~ I

--+~- Sand filling

Cutting edge

ELEVATION

PLAN A-A

Figure 10: Well Type Foundation

'f 27
~
;if
~
r)
t)
()
 Tower foundation

ELEVATION

Figure 11: Rivetment on Foundation

The soil resistances available for transferring the above forces to earth are described below: t1
(a) Uplift Resistance
a.-
The soil surrounding a tower foundation has to resist a considerable amount of upward force (tension).
r-
In fact in the case of self-supporting towers: the available uplift resistance of the soli becomes the most
decisive factor for selection of the type of footing for a particular location.
'r-
,(-
It is generally considered that the resistance to uplift· is provided by the shear strength of the
surrounding soil and the weight of the foundation. Various empirical relationships linking ultimate up-lift
capacity of foundation to the physical properties of soil like angle of internal friction (0) and cohesion
Ir-
(C) as well as to the dimensions and depth of the footing have been proposed on the basis of t
experimental results. However. the angle of earth frustum is considered for calculating the uplift
resistance of soii. Typical values of angle of earth frustum are given In Annexure - I for guidance. The .
angle of earth frustum is taken as 2/3 of angle of internal friction (0 ) or the value given in Annexure I
r-
whichever is smaller for the type of soil under consideration. ~.

28
.-.-
ft-

r~"' ",
••.-
.-
c~'

The upiift rei>lslance Ii> E:;slImared oy computing the weight ot the earth contained in an inverted frustum
of cone whose sides make an angle (¢ ) with the vertical equal to the angle of earth frustum. The
formula for calculating volume covered under inverted frustum of a cone is given in Annexure-V.

It should, however, be noted that effective uplift resistance, apart from being a function of the
properties of soil like angle of internal friction (¢) and cohesion (C) is greatly affected by the degree
of compaction and the ground water table. When the back fill is less consolidated with non-cohesive
material, the effective uplift resistance will be greatly reduced. In case of foundation under water
table, the buoyant weights of concrete and back fill are only considered to be effective.

The uplift resistance of footing with undercut projections within undisturbed soils in firm non-cohesive
soils and fissured/soft rock shall generally be larger. than that of conventional footings.

(b) Lateral Soil Resistance

In foundation design of towers, the side thrusts (horizontal shears) on the foundation are considered
to be resisted by the passive earth pressure mobilized in the adjoining sOils due to rotation of the
footing. Passive pressure/resistance of soil is calculated based on Rankine's formula for frictional soils
and unconfined compressive strength for cohesive soils.

Bearing Capacity
fj (c)

The downward compressive loads acting on the foundation including moments due to horizontal shears
" and/or eccentricities, wherever existing, are transferred from the foundation to earth through bearing
capacity of the soil. The limit bearing capacity of soil is the maximum downward intensity of load
(51 which the soil can resist without shear failure or excessive settlement.

,.,
~)
10.10 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR FOUNDATION

The design of any foundation consists of following tWo parts:

(1) Stability Analysis

Stability analysis aims at removing the possibility of failure of foundation by tilting, overturning, uprooting,
and sliding due to load intensity imposed on soil by foundation being in excess 6f the ultimate capacity
of the soil.

The most important aspect of the foundation design is the necessary check for the stability of
foundation under various loads ImpQsed on it by the tower which it supports. The foundation should
remdln stable under all the possible combinations of loadings, to which it is likely to be subjected under
the most stringent conditions. The stability of foundation should be checked for the following aspects:

(a) Check for Bearing Capacity

The total downward load at the base of footing consists of compression per leg derived from the tower
design, buoyant weight of concrete below ground level (i.e" difference in the weight of concrete and
soil) and weight of concrete above ground level.

While calculating over weight of concrete for checking bearing capacity of soil, the position of water
table should be considered at critical location i.e" which would give maximum over weight of
concrete. In cme of foundation with chimney battered along the slope of leg, the centre line of
chimney may not coincide with the C.G. of the base slabs! pyramid! block. Under such situation, axial
load in the chimney can be resolved into vertical and horizontal components at the top of base

29
slab/pyramid/block. The additional moments due to the above horizontal loads should be considered
while checking the bearing capacity of soil.

Further. even in cases where full horizontal shear is balanced by the passive pressure of soil. the
horizontal shears would cause moment at the base of footing as the line of action of side thrusts
(horizontalshears) and resultant of passive pressure of soil are not in the same line. It may be noted
that passive pressure of soil is reactive force from the soil for balancing the extemal horizontal forces
and as such mobilized passive pressure in soil adjoining the footing can not be more than the external
horizontal shear.

Thus. the maximum soil pressure below the base of the foundation (Toe pressure) will depend upon the
vertical thrust (compression load) on the footing and the moments at the base leve! due to the
horizontal shears and other eccentric loadings. Under the action of down thrust and moments. the soil
pressure below the footing will not be uniform and the maximum toe pressure 'p' on the soil can be
determined from the equation:

Where.
W MT
P=---+ ---+
BxB ZT
ML

ZL

'W' is the total vertical down thrust including over weight of the footing;
,,"
/

'B' is dimension of the footing base;

MT & ML are. moments at the base of footing about transverse and longitudinal axes of fooling: and
ZT & ZL are the section modulii of footing which are equal to (1/6) B3 for a sqlJare footing.

The above equation is not valid when minimum pressure under the footing becomes negative. The
maximum pressure on the soil so obtained should not exceed the limit bearing capacity of the soil.

(b) Check for Uplift Resistance

In the case of spread foundations. the rE!sistance to uplift is considered to be provided by the buoyant
weight of the foundation and the weight of the soli volume contained in the inverted frustum of cone
on the base of the footing with sides making an angle equal to the angle of earth frustum applicable
for a particular type of the soil. Referring to 'Figure 13. the ultimate resistance to uplift is given by :

UP = Ws + Wf

where
'Ws' is the weight of soil in the frustum of cone; (The method of calculation of Ws is given in
Annexure-V).
'Wf is the buoyant weight/overload of the foundation (Refer Figures 13 & 14).

Depending upon the type of foundation i.e .. whether dry or wet or partially submerged or fully
submerged. the weights 'Ws' and 'Wf' should be calculated taking into account.the location of ground
water table.

Under-cut type of foundation offers greater resistance to uplift than an identical footing without
under-cut. This is for the simple reason that the angle of earth frustum originates from the toe of the
under-cut and there is perfect bond between concrete and the soil ~\Jrrounding it o'1ci there is no need
to depend on the behaviour of backfilled earth. Substantial additional uplift !es!stanG9 is developed
due to use of under-cut type of foundation. However. to refled advantage of 'Jdditional uplift
resistance in the design the density of soil for under-cut foundation has bee..-) inc!eoS$o as given ii"!
Anne~ure -I.

30
In cases where frustum of earth pyrarnid of iWO UGJv;iiiilQ legs sup0.irTip058 BGch oth~r, the earth
frustum is assumed truncated by a vertical plane passing through the centre line of the tower base.

(c) Check for Side Thrust

In towers with inclined stub angles and having diagonal bracing at the lowest panel point. the net
shearing force of the footing is equal to the horizontal component of the force in the diagonal bracing
whereas in towers with vertical footings, the total horizontal load on the tower is divided equally
between the number 9f legs. The shear force causes bending stresses in the unsupported length of
the stub angle as well as in the chimney and tends to overturn the foundation.

When acted upon by a lateral load, the chimney will act as a cantilever beam free at the top and
fixed at the base anq supported by the soil along it's height. Analysis of such foundations and design
of the chimney for bending moments combined with down thrust/uplift is very important.
Stability of a footing under a lateral load depends on the amount of passive pressure mobilized in the
adjoining soil as well as the structural strength of the footing in transmitting the load to the soil (Refer
Figure 12).

r-----7
I I

I
,
p
J
I
I I
I I
I
I
I I
I
I
I

I
/
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

kp. -yh.~ 3.0Cu&

Passive Pressure in Passive Pressure in I
Non Cohesive Soil Cohesive Soil

Cu = Undrained Cohesion of Soil

Kp =
Coefficient of passive earth pressure
K =1 + Sin ~
p l-.Sin ~

l = Unit \lit. of Soil (kg.lm')

Figure - 12
31
 s-~·-

,
~-~rr---~~~~
I
\ I
\ I
\
, I
\
\
\
\
\
,,
I
I
I

. (

\
\ ,
I
I £D

r'f It 4.
(

8
I
ELEV~TION
.,
Figure. 13
A

PLAN
,,"
s -
, (

(
G,l.
'" (
\ I

,,
\ 83 I (
\
\ (
\ I
\ / C
\
\
\ /
,
/
L:
((
\

\fjw \A

~
-

2
-.t;J'
A
,
I
, I
£D
([
(t-
el'
I (f
1['
I· 8
-I
ELEVATION
Figure.14 .
if

32 .-•
e'
.-
.••• '
 Cd) Check for Over-Turning

Stability of the foundation against overturning under the combined action of uplift and horizontal shears
may be checked by the following criteria as shown in Figure 14 :

(i) The foundation over-turns at the toe.

(ii) The weight of the footing acts at the centre of the base; and
(iii) Mainly that part of the earth cone which stands over the heel causes the stabilising moment.
However, for design purpose, this may be taken equal to half the weight of the cone of earth
acting on the base, It is assumed to act through the tip of the heel.

For stability of foundation against overturning, stabilising moment should be more than overturning
moment.

(e) Check for Sliding

In the foundations of transmission towers, the horizontal shear is comparatively small and possibility of
sliding is generally negligible. However, resistance to sliding is evaluated assuming that passive earth
pressure conditions are developed on a vertical projections above the toe of foundation. The friction
between bottom of the footing and soil also resist the sliding of footing and can be considered in the
stability of foundation against sliding. The coefficient of friction between' concrete and soil can be
considered between 0.2 to 0.3. However, the frictional force is directly proportional to vertical
downward load and as such may not exist under uplift conditi')r1. For cohesiVE:; soil the following'
formula can be applied for calculating the passive pressure to resist sliding:

P = 2 C tone + rh Tan2e

Where
C = Cohesion (2t/m2 min.)
e 45° + 1/2 of angle of earth frustum
h Height of foundation
y Unit Wt.of soil

(2) Structural Design of Foundation

Structural design of concrete foundation comprises the design of chimney and the design of base
slab/pyramid/block. The structural design of different elements of ~oncrete foundation is discussed in
the following paras: .

• (0) Structural Design of Chimney

The chimney should be designed for maximum bending moments, due to side thrust in both transverse
and 10ngitudinOi direction combined with direct pull (Tension) / direct down thrust (Compression).

Usually, combined uplift and bending will determine the requirement of longitudinal reinforcement in
the chimney. When stub angle is embedded in the chimney to its full depth and anchored to the
bottom slab/pyramid/block, the chimney is designed. Considering paSSive resistance of soil leaving 500
. milimetres from ground level. This IS applicable for all soils - cohesive, non-cohesive and mixture of
cohesive and non-cohesive soils. In hilly areas and for fissured rock passive resistance of soils will not
be considered. Stub angle will not be considered to provide any reinforcement.

In certain cases, when stub is embedded in the chimney for the required development length alone
and same is not taken upto the bottom of foundation or leg of the tower is fixed at the top of the
chimney /pedestal by anchor bolts, chimney should be designed by providing "reinforcement to

33

()
withstand combined stresses due to direct tension (tension)/down thrust (compression) and bending
moments, due to side thrust in both transverse and longitudinal direction.

The structural design of chimney for the above cases should comply with the procedures given in IS:
456-1978 and SP: 16 using limit state method of design except as specifically provided in this document.

CASE-I: WHEN STUB ANGLE IS ANCHORED IN BASE SLAB/PYRAMID/BLOCK

When the stub is anchored in base slab/pyramid/block reinforcement shall be provided in chimney for
structural safety on the sides ')f the chimney at the periphery.

From the equilibrium of internal and external forces on the chimney section and using stress and strains
of concrete and steel as per IS:456, the following equations as given in SP: 16 are applicable.
n
Pu 2 = a . 36k + L (pi/laC» (Fsi -Fci) + (PSI 100) (Fss-Fcs) / Fck ... (1) "
FckB3 dula ,.....; (
i=1 c--
m cbc m =rno r 'ClUO .
C cbc =permissible bending compress stress In concrete
M
K= c-- c:--
st+mcbc'r'l
csr- = permissible tenSile stress in steel (
---2
FckB3
=0.36k(O.5 -0.416k) +1:
(pi/lOa) (Fsi-Fci)/Fck) (Yi/D)
izl
... (:2)
(

0= Total depth of stub

Where
Asi = Cross-sectional area of reinforcement in ith row
pi 100 Asi/B3 2
Fci Stress in concrete at the level of ith row of reinforcement
Fsi Stress in the ith 'row of reinforcement., Compression being positive and tension being
negative ,
Vi = distance from the centroid of the section to the ith row of reinforcement; positive
towards the· highly compressed edge and negative towards the least compressed
edge
n Number of rows of reinforcement
Fss Stress in stubs
Fcs = Stress in concrete
Fck Characteristic compressive strength of concrete

CASE-II: WHEN STUB IS PROVIDED IN CHIMNEY ONLY FOR ITS DEVELOPMENT LENGTH

When stub is provided in chimney only for it's development length, chimney has to be designed for and
reinforcement provided for combined stresses due to direct pull(tension)lThrust (compression) and
bending moments. The requirement of longitudinal reinforcement should be calculated in accordance
with IS: 456 and SP: 16 as an independent concrete column.

In this case. from the equilibrium of internal and external forces on the chimney section and using stress
and strains· of concrete and steel as per IS:456. the following equations as given in SP: 16 are applicable.

Pu =0.36k(0.5-0.416k) <E n
(pi/lOa) (Fsi-FCi)/FCk) .. , (:~)
•
2
FckB3 i-I

•
In each of the above cases. for a given axial force. compression or tension. and for area of

34
••
..-
•• -

.-
•
 n
Mu =O.36k(O.5-0.416K) +L (pi/lOa) (Fsi-Fci)/Fck) (Yi/D) .;. (YJ
PekE3 2 i=l

reinforcement the depth of neutral axis Xu=kB3 can be calculated from equation (l) or (3) using stress
I.~I strain relationship for concrete and steel as given in IS: 456-1978. After finding out the value of 'k' the

~. J
bending capacity of the chimney section can be worked out using equation (2) or (4). The.bending
"
capacity of the chimney section should be more than the maximum moment caused in the chimney
to by side .thrust (horizontal shear). Chimney is subjected to biaxial moments Le., both longitudinal and
(

.J
1

transverse. The structured adequacy of the chimney in combined stresses due to axial force
~ (tension/compression) and bending should be checked from the following equation:
/
\

r~JC!n < 1.0

LMuL
Where,
() ./ MT and ML are the moments about transverse and longitudinal axis of the chimney;

) Mut and Mul are the respective moment of Resistance with axial loads of Pu about transverse and
longitudinal axes of chimney which would be equal in case of square chimney with uniform distribution
J of reinforcement on all four faces;

)' c6n is an exponent whose value would be 1.0 when axial force is tensile and depends on the value of .
Pu/Puz when axial force is compressive where:
I.j
Puz = 0.45 Fck Ac + 0.75 Fy As + 0.75 Fys Ass

In the above equation,

Ac is the area of concrete;

;' ) As is the area of reinforcement steel;
W
Ass is the cross sectional area of stub, to be taken as zero;
Fy is the yield stress of reinforcement steel; and
Fys is the yield stress of stub steel, to be taken as zero.

Pu/Puz n

0.2 1.0
0,8 2.0
( ) For intermediate values, linear interpolation may be done.
"

/) The solution of equations (3) & (4) for case-2 is given in SP-16 in the form of graphs for various grades
~~

., )
of concrete and steel and these can be readily used.

') IMPORTANT CODAL STiPULATIONS FOR StRUCTURAL DETAILING OF CHIMNEY

,\1
( ') While designing the chimney, the important codal provisions as given below should be followed:
(y
(~f;
"" (a) In any chimney that has a larger cross-sectional area than that required to support the load,
the minimum percentage of steel shall be based on the area of concrete required to resist the

I-}' 35
(~r'

IC-''ji
(i)

I)
 direct stress and not on the actual area.

(b) The minimum number of longitudinal bars provided in a column shall be four in square chimney
and six in a circular chimney.

(c) The bars shall not be less than 12 mm in diameter.

(d) In case of a chimney in which the longitudinal reinforcement is not required in strength
calculations, nominal longitudinal reinforcement not less than 0.15% of the cross sectional area
shall be provided.

(e) The spacing of stirrups/lateral ties shall be not more than the least of the following distances:

(1) The least lateral dimension of the chimney

(2) Sixteen times the smallest diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement bar to be tied
(3) Forty-eight times the diameter of the transverse stirrups/lateral ties.

(f) The diameter of the polygonal links or lateral. ties shall be not less than one-fourth of the
diameter of the largest longitudinal bar, and in no case less than 6 mm.

(g) Structural Design of Base Slab

The base slab in R.C.C. Spread foundations could be single stepped or multi stepped. The design of
concrete foundations shall be done as per limit state method of design given in IS : 456 - 1978.

IMPORTANT CODAL STIPULATIONS FOR R.C.C. FOUNDATIONS

The important provisions applicable for concrete foundations which are necessary and should be
considered in the design are explained below:

(a) Footings shall be designed to sustain the applied loads, moments and forces'and the induced
reactions and to ensure that any settlement which may occur shall be as nearly uniform
possible, and the bearing capacity of the soil is not exceeded.

(b) Thickness at the edge of footing in reinforced concrete footings shall be not less than 15 cm
(5 cm lean concrete plus 10 cm structural concrete). In case of plain concrete footing,
thickness at the edge shall not be less than 5 cm).

(c) Bending Moment

(i) The bending moment at any section shall be determined by passing through the
section of a vertical plane which extends completely across the footing, and
computing the moment of the forces acting over the entire area of the footing on the
side of the said piane.

(ii) The greatest bending moment to be used in the design of an isolated concrete footing
which supports a column/pedestal shall be the moment computed in the manner
prescribed in c(i) above at sections located as follows :

(1) At the face of the chimney;

(2) At sections where width/thickness of the footing changes.

(d) Shear and Bond

36
()
(:)
"J The shear strength of footing is governed by the more severe of the following two conditions :

I~JJj (1) The footing acting essentially as a wide beam, with a potential diagonal crack
extending in a place across the entire width; the critical section for this condition shall
be assumed as a vertical section located from the face of the chimney at a distance
equal to the effective depth of the footing in case of footings on soils;

(2) Two-way action of the footing, with potential diagonal cracking along the surface of
truncated cone or pyramid around the concentrated load;

(e) Critical Section

The critical section for checking the development length in a footing shall be assumed at the same
planes as those described for bending moment in para (c) above and also at all other vertical plarles
where abrupt changes of section occur.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF BASE SLAB SHALL BE DONE AS PER THE PROVISION OF E-l OF APPENDIX-E OF
IS: 456-1978.

When a plain concrete pyramid and chimney type footing is provided and pyramid slopes out from
the chimney at an angle less than 45° from vertical, the pyramid is not required to be checked for
bending stresses. Thus, in such cases, the footing is designed to restrict the spread of concrete pyramid
of slab block to 45° with respect to vertical.

10.11 CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY FOR TOWER FOUNDATION DESIGNS

While designing the various types of concrete footings, it is better to know about certain aspects of
concrete technology which are given'. below:

(a) Properties of Concrete

The grade of the structural concrete used for tower foundations should not be leaner than M- 15 (1 :2:4)
having a 28-dfJY cube strength of not less than 15 N/mm2 and concrete shall confolm to IS: 456. For
special foundations like pile foundations, richer concrete of grade of M 20 (1: 1.5:3) having a 28-day
cube strength of not less than 20 N/mm2 should be used. M-15 grade concrete shall have the nominal
(~ strength of not less than 15 N/mm2 at the end of 28 days as ascertained form the cube test. Such
strength at the end of 7 days shall not be less than 10 N/mm2 .
.','j The density of the concrete will be 2300 kg/m 3 for plain concrete and 2400 kg/m 3 for R.C.C. Other
r'J} properties of concrete are given in IS: 456.

(b)
() Properties of Steel

The high yield stress cold deformed reinforcement bars used in the R.C.C. shall conform to IS: 1786-1979
;~
and shall have yield ::';f2.SS of not less than 415 N/mm2. When mild steel reinforcement bars are used
, i, in R.C.C" they shall conform to IS: 432 (Part - I) and shall have yield stress of not less 26 N/mm2 for bars
,ill of size upto 20 mm diameter and 24 N/mm2 for bars above 20 mm diameter.
'~ 10.12 PULL-OUT TESTS ON TOWER FOUNDATION
/~
The pull-out tests conducted on foundations help in determining the behaviour of the soil while resisting
. the up-lift forces.

The feed back from this pUll-out test results, in a particular type of soil, can be conveniently used in the

37
 ~l

("
designs of foundations. The procedure of pull-out tests. equipments and results are discussed in deta"
below:
\f'-
~~
(a) Selection of Site
~ ...
Trial pits of size 1.Oxl.0x3.0(d) metre are made and the strata of the soil is obseNed. It is ascertained
that the strata available at the location is one in which we are interested (i.e .. a particular type of soil ~l
or combination of soils is available). Soil samples are taken from and around the site and subjected
~
to various tests. particularly relating to the density of soil. bearing capacity of soil. cohesion and angle
of internal friction etc.

(b) DeSign of Foundation for Pull-Out Test

..
~
~:
Design of foundations for pull-out test is carried out with a different view point as compared to the
design of actual fOL''")dations for tower. This is due to the fact that the pull-out tests are conducted
to measure the pull-out resistance of the soils and therefore all the other parts of the foundation viz
t
concrete. reinforcement and the pull-out bars should be strong so that these do not fail before the
soil/rock fails.
t
Based on the actual tower foundation loadings (down thrust. uplift and side thrust) and the soil
parameters obtained from the tests. a foundation design is developed. The design has a central rod
£'" (

"
running from the bottom of the footing upto a height of about 1.5 m to 2.0 m above ground.
depending on the iacking requirements. The central rod is surrounded by a cage of reinforcement
bars. l I
A typical design developed for the pUll-out test is shown in Figure 15. (.

<:
t
(

('"
Pull-out bar (
G.l.
-r-_ _3_OO
300
_=± :i (
G.L.
(
C>
C>
(
VI
~

f"
<C
(f
If
~ lS.2i I.. 1100
ELEVATION
~
Figure - 15
~

38
.•
••
•
•
 (c) Casting of Foundation

The pits are excavated accurately. The concrete mix, reinforcement form boxes etc., are exactly as
per the design. The pouring of the concrete is done such that voids are minimised. The back filling of
{ ,i
the soil should be carried out using sufficient water to eliminate voids and loose pockets. The
foundation should be cured for 14 days (minimum) and thereafter left undisturbed for a period not less
than 30 days.
(.~
(d) Pull-Out Test Set-Up

,,-,
-.J
~.
\J As indicated earlier, the pull-out is done with the help of central hole jacks of different capacities (10
M.T. to 100 M.T.). Each & every test foundation, therefore, has a central pulling bar. The schematic
,__ diagram of the test set up is shown in Figure 16.

J
i j~
J)

iJ) --
. ,~

. ,"'
.J)
;\~

(~

••
r.(.
('
~
,
\
\
:~
I:
11\' U /
:J i: ~'
\,',,,J.?,
)"1
LI
r'1 I
I
G.L.

') I "-
9
f(~ / ......, I "

,~.
r "'----"+---
'"
L---i----
L .... "

l Figure - 16
r1
,~.

(~""
.,"' 39

~
.,.
(~

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n
 ,
,
The foundation under test (1) is below the ground level. The central pulling rod (12) is projecting out of
the ground to the specified height. Sets of sleepers (2) are placed on either side, away from the likely
"
~
pull-out region through angle (9) A set of two girders (8) is placed on the sleepers. ...
The central hole jack (4) is kept on these girders covering the pull-out bar in it's hollow. Two dial gauges ~
(3) capable of sensing a movement of 1/100th of.mm are used to record movements of the jacks and
the soil. The dial gauge to measure movement of the jack is kept just touching the top of the pull-out ...
bar by means of a pair of stands (10) and a datum bar (11). The dial gauge on the ground is kept just
touching the soil surrounding the top of the foundation by means of a stand (14). Hydraulic oil is
pumped in to the jack by a hydraulic pump (5) by moving the handle (13). The ::>ressure built up in the
jack is recorded by the dynamometer, (6) on the top of the pump.
.,
The upward movement of the jack is prevented by two nuts (7) on the top of the threaded portion of .
,.
the central pulling bar. This develops upward load on the foundation.

The oil is pumped gradually in10 the jack and readings of the pressure gauge and dial gauges are
taken at intervals of 500 Kg to 10Cl0 Kg depending upon the estimated uplift resistances. In the
beginning, the dial gauges will not have appreciable movement but as the load increases, movement
will be significant. The movement of the soil surrrounding the foundation will be visible as soon as the
foundation starts yielding. At a particular juncture, the load will not show any increment and instead ,
~

undergo a decrement. This juncture will be the final yield load of the soil surrounding the foundation.
The jack can be unloaded by opening the outlet in the pump and operating the lever so that the
pressure is released gradually. The curves of load versus dial gauge movements are plotted. and the
size and the shapes of crack developed at the top of the soil are also recorded as shown in Figure 17.
.
60

50
"
.'-
~
40

--- - -
> (;
..:r. A
C 30

V &.
-g 20
o
-1
10
V l.
o V i'B l.
o 234567
(
Deformation in mm
~
fl
([
Pulling bar 'I
(r
Crocks on the soil
~
PLAN
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Figure.l?

40
.:
~.

e'
.,
•
.,.,
•
e'
fi.
c;
( I)

("'~}f'
It may' be noted that the deformation ot foundation is recorded by the dial gauge kept on the jop of
- j the pull out bar. where as the deformation of ground is recorded by the dial gauge kept on the
ground.

(e) Comparison of Design and Pull-Out Test Results

The ultimate pUll-out resistance offered by the foundation is later compared with the parameter
assumed in the design. proper analysis of the test is done and inference drawn regarding the actual
soil parameters.

10.13 SKIN FRICTION TESTS

: )
'/i To determine the contact skin friction of soil and the concrete. this test is very important. Small pits in
the undisturbed layers of soil are made. The dimensions generally used are 300x3OOx3OO MM.
300x300x600 M'~. 300 (dia)x3oo MM (depth). 300 MM (dia)x600 MM (depth). These configurations are
shown in Figure 18.

The concrete is poured directly in contact with the soil. For pulling. a central rod and a cage is
provided. The pull-out tests are done just as described in 10.12. The ultimate failure load (in kg) after
deducting the self weight of the foundation is divided by the area of surfaces in contact with the soil
(in sq cm). This result is the ultimate skin friction in kg/cm 2. The data obtained from the skin friction tests
have been found very reliable and have also been covered in the recommended parameters by some
utilities. The sldn friction test results are very useful in designing foundations for rocky and non-cohesive
soils (like soft and hard murrum) The average skin friction value recorded during test on some of th soils
are given below: .

(i) Normal yellow dry soil 0.3 kg/cm 2 (ultimate)

(ii) Black cotton dry soli 0.1 k'g!cm2
(iii) Soft murrum soil 1.0 kg/cm2
(iv) Hard murrum soil 2.0 kg/cm2
(v) Soft rock 3.0 kg/cm2

,).
,)~ (vi) Hard rock 4.5 kg/cm2

It should be noted with care that the skin friction values are applicable only in cases where foundation

--),
.
concrete is poured directly in contact with soil or rock .

10.14 SCALE DOWN MODELS OF FOUNDAnON

')t
The pull-out tests can also be done on various scale down configuration in different ty~s of soils.
(-)) These are shown in Figure 19.

The advantages of this type of pull-out test are low cost and less time per test and quick comparison
between the models. The disadvantage is that the exact behaviour of the soil can not be determined
if the exploration is carried out in the top layers of soil upto a depth less than 1500 mm.

The pull-out tests done with these configuration under dry and wet conditions have revealed that the
stumps driven foundation offer extra 15% uplift resistance. and undercut type foundation offer extra
50% up-lift resistance. as compared to the friction type foundation. In case of stumps driven
foundations. the stumps of steel rods in contact with the soil may get corroded In the long run and the
advantage of 15% may not be available. However. these will be able to contribute In counteracting
the stringing/construction load on foundations and thus may afford early tower erection and stringing.

41

OJ
i)
 PLAN

G.L.

o
of'I')

\_ 3000 .1 ~ 300 .\

ELEVATION

PLAN
Dl
o
o{()

10.15 TESTS ON SUBMERGED SOILS

It is very difficult to carry out pull-out tests on naturally submerged soil as the testing gadgets are likely
to sink in the mud when pressure is increased in the hydraulic jack. Besides, it is also difficult to regulate
the sub-soil water.

The tests on these types of soils can be conducted by creating similar conditions in an underground
open sump (Made of brick masonry duly plastered form inside). The soil to be tested (Le., normal, black

42
c)
( I
'J

300
\) ~

G.l.
i)
()
~.-.~
o
o
o
~

I.)
C>
Lfl
N
i.)
.,
1000
( I

i PLAN ELEVA TlON

( I
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"
( )
-<
I)

i)
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),
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1

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)
PLAN ELEVATION
)

i)

~,,------
150 ,
-------]1
' t G.l.
I
II

1&
• C>
C>
C> o
~

I
,..,
Lfl

I
,I
T~/-)£-----------------.:-...~J 1501 •• 1. 1000
PLAN ELEVATION

Figure - 19

I)
43
()

!)
cotton~ marshy etc.) is borrowed form elsewhere and dumped in the part of the sump/tank and is well l
compacted. Three to four cycles of dry and wet spells are given to the soil till it attains the density of
the dry parent soil. The typical arrangement of this test is shown in Figure 20. \..

\.
Pull-out Set-u t.

"
" ~
oundotion under test ...
orrowed soil
l
~
asonary tank
'{
L..--t'f"T"D a r ri e r
l.
Figure. 20 (
Four 50 mm dia pipes are placed in the four corners of the tank vertically before dumping the parent
soil, in such a way that their both ends remain open for the passage of water. The foundation is cast (
on the partially filled soil. The remainder of the tank is then fully filled with the same type of borrowed
soil. This soil is again well compacted and three to four cycles of wet and dry spell are given.The (
wetness is created using the pipes.
(
The pull-out tests is conducted by keeping the gadgets on the ground level with the same process as
indicated in 10.12 under the presence of sub-soil ·.vater pressure created through the external watering
C'
of the tanks using the pipes.
(
10.16 INVESTIGATION OF FOUNDATION OF TOWERS
('
Normally it is believed that once the foundation is cast and the tower is erected, the foundations ccn
not be re-opene.d for investigation or repairing. However, on the basis of investigation and rectification C
work carried out on some major 220 kV and 400 kV lines, it is now considered to be viable to carry out
this type of exercise even after the line is strung and energised.
(
(t
If the foundations on the line have to be investigated, certain locations are selected at randum in such
a fashion that foundations for various types of soils are covered one by one. One or two locations for if
every ten km may be sufficient for preliminary investigations. Out of the four individual footings of
selected tower, two diagonally opposite foundations are selected and one of the four faces of each If
of these two foundations is excavated in slanting direction from top to bottom. This is shown in
Figure 21. ,p
After the investigation is over and corrective measures have been chalked out it is advisable to backfill
the excavation mixing earth with light cement slurry, particularly when the soil is non-cohesive such as
soft murrum/hard murrum, sottrock/hard rock etc" (say one cement bag for every three to four cu m
of earth). This will ensure good bond and safeguard the foundation against uplift forces. even if
•.
corrective repairs of the foundations are delayed,
•
44 •
•
•
•
••
 Direction of Tr. Line

~
._._tl· '-' L.J
rTl
A.B.C.D. Footin9s
of Tower

pen'ed face I
_ _ .~.L. ofITOW~~. _ _

I ~ned face

1.~
[9-'-'-j_.£J
PLAN Stub
.)' G.L. G.L
~
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j)

,"
(1)
(Y)
.~
Bottom of foundation
(J Figure. 21
SECTION
(j3 10.17 INVESTIGATION OF FOUNDATION OF A TOWER UNE IN SERVICE

!9 For the investigation of failures of foundations or for the investigation of reported unhealthy foundations.
i& with line in service. the excavation at the selected location is carried out in the same fashion as
described in 10.16. However. the line being In service. it will be better to guy the comer leg/legs of
') the tower (on which the Investigation is being carried out) at 45° diagonally from top. away from the
'\) induction zone. The investigation and the back filling should be done exactly as detailed In 10.16.

f)
'b 10.18 REPAIRS OF FOUNDATIONS OF A TOWER UNE IN SERVICE
.
After it is establised that the foundation is unhealthy. it is better to take the corrective steps as early as
9· possible. The methods would be different for rectifying Isolated location/locations {Or:le to two) and
"j
fit, for rectifying complete line/line sections including a number of towers. These are discussed below:
n (a) Rectification of isolated locations (one or two) is done on individual basis. Anyone of the four
()9 footings is taken up first. It is opened up from all the four sides. The tower legs connected to

f"~~ ":fI\
45
,;",)0

(lW
I)

')

)
 this footing are guyed as described in 10.17. After rectifying the foundation backfilling is done
as described in 10.16. A minimum of seven-days' time is allowed for curing of the repaired
foundation before excavating the second leg for repairs. All the four legs are repaired thus
without any outage on the line.

(b) When foundation rectification work is required to be done on a complete line or line section
without any outage, a section from cut point to cut point is selected. The four footings of each
tower in the section are named 'A', '6', 'C' and 'D' clock-wise as shown Figure 22.

%._. ·-·~,B.C.D, Tower legs

Direction of line

--r!r
~-.-.
J}L,
·__ ·_--LTJ
Figure. 22
The excavation of leg 'A' in first location, '6' in second location, 'C' in third location and '0' in fourth
location can be taken up first. This order can be continued for each group of four towers in the
section. After excavation, rectification and backfilling, seven days curing time is be all.owed. Again
from location 1 to 4, the excavation rectification and backfilling is done in the sequence leg 'C', 'D',
'A' & '6'. This is repeated for each group of four towers of the line section under repairs. After passage
of 7 days again the sequence '6', 'C', '0' & 'A' and again after 7 days the sequence '0', 'A', '6' &
'C' are repeated for each group of four towers. This exercise can be repeated for each group of four
towers for the remainder of the line section. All the precautions described earlier should be taken during
this exercise. It Is advisable to avoid this exercise during abnormal wind conditions/active monsoon/ f'
flood etc. If the work is to be completed early, two diagonally opposite footing of each towers can
be opened and repaired simultaneously. The second pair of diagonally opposite footings can be
opened and repaired simultaneously after a passage of seven days.

10.19 FOUNDATION DEFECTS AND THEIR REPAIRS

The main possible defects in the cast concrete can be as follows :

(a) Under sizing of foundation due to wrong classification of soil : For example, the soil may be dry
black cotton but the foundation cast may be that for normal dry soil. If the corrective measures

'•.
are not taken, the foundation can fail. An R. C.c. collar is designed for the type of soil and "
tower loadings to remedy such a defect. The details are shown in Figure 23.

(b) Improper formation of pyramid/chimney etc. due to improper concrete laying: If the concrete
Is simply poured from the top of the form box. without taking care to fill the voids (using crow
bar, vibrator etc.) the concrete does not reach to the comers of the form and thus the
foundation is not completely formed. It will develop the defects described below.
•
46 ••
••
•
••
 ( .
,-/

(
.:./
" G.L.
I
I Existing under size
I : foundation
() I I
I I
) I
I
,I
I I
r-J L _ - - . - - Proposed R.c.c. collar in
I I
I
steps for reinforcement
.
( - I

Figure - 23
As seen in Figure 24, the foundations have not attained the required shapes in the pyramid,
undercut and chimney portions. These defects can be rectified with R.C.C. collars. The design
) of the collars will depend upon the requirement of the load transfer (i.e., thrust, uplift and side
thrust) and extent of deformation of. the foundation. '
, )

r)

Stub

) G.... G.L.
, r/, ,
,,I·''I' ,,
,,'~' :
./ ,'
, I.,
, ,
.~,
, ., I
, I' ,
,/
..J,/, Actual shape
•. 'V
Oesigned shape
of pyramid
--r . . ct-:J of pyramid

Figure - 24
Stub -;:!U0ama.ge to stub
, & chImney top
G.L. , .6.;'
I vll " ~
: !J~-: I :
AJ.)(W

, "I ,
, ~,
, :., I

,: :.,
il' ,
)
:1/ I
~
" ........ ~., "
.... "," '-4 -, " ,
).'
"
t::- ===-:.::====::.:.-:.-),
Figure - 25
;
)
47

~5

/-~:

')
-y
(c) Damage to stub top and top part of the chimney: Due to ingress of saline water or other
chemical pollutants etc. the stub top part of the steel in the chimney gets corroded. Repairing
can be done by welding the damged portion of the stub and providing R.C.C. collar to the
damaged chimney top as shown in Figure 25. For providing a welded joint the part of the cast
concrete in the top part of the chimney is broken. All the precautions indicated in 10.16 must
be taken to safeguard the line in service.
(

l~

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(
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(

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f'
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Ir
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••
•
48
••
••
,

•
"
(j \ ANNEXURE - I

(J Soil Properties to be considered in Foundation Designs for various types of Soil

SI. Type of Soil Angle of Unit Wt. of limit bearing

No. Earth frustum Soil (kg/cu capacity
(Degree)s) m) (\<g/sq m)

(J L Normal Dry Soil

(a) Without Undercut 30 1440 / 25,(X)() ./
(, ') (b) With undercut 30 1600 25,(X)() , /

2. Wet Soil due to presence 15 940 12,500

(J of sub soil water/surface
water
3. Black Cotton Soil
(a) In Dry Portion 0 / 1440/ 12,500 / '
(b) In Wet Portion 0 940 12,500
(j
4. Sandy Soil
(j (a) With Clay Content 10 1440 25,000
0-5%
(b) With Clay Content 20 1440 25,(X)()
5-1 (JOk,

5. Fissured Rock/Soft Rock

fj
/
(With Undercut)
(a) In Dry Portion 20 17001& ::,
62:~'
/) (b) In Wet Portion '(10) 940 6Z5OO
6. Hard Rock --- --- 1,25,CXX)

7. Normal Hard Dry Soil 30 1600 40,000

Ij
(Murrum) with Undercut

Note:
.r; 1. limit bearing capacity of soil has been arrived at taking FOS 2.5 over the safe bearing capacity
values. Soil research institutes will be approached to furnish the limit bearing capacities of soil.
If and when such data are available the above values can be reviewed.
') 2. Where clay content is more than 10% but less than 15%, the soil will be classified as Normal Dry
ij Soil.
3. A.ngle of Earth Frustum shall be taken with respect to vertical.
(J
()
OJ
')

')

')

.')
49
()
f)

\')

(-j

Ij
()
()
 '.1
'\

,,~

ANNEXURE - II

Ust of Solis Tests

(A) To find out the soil properties, the following laboratory tests shall be carried out :

(1) Grain size distribution/sieve analysis to identify the type of soil

(2) Atterburg limits (liquid and plastic limits only)
(3) Specific gravity, bulk unit weight moisture content
(4) Triaxial shear test for cohesion(c) and angle of internal friction ($)
(5) Consolidation test
(6) Standard penetration test
(7) Chemical test on soil and water (only at special locations such as marshy soils,
chemically active soils etc.) to determine the carbonates, sulphates, nitrates, organic
. matters and any other chemicals harmful to the concrete foundations.

(B) The above tests shall be useful in determining the types of soil. density, limit bearing capacity
etc. For determining the angle of earth frustum 2/3rd value of angle of internal friction ($) or
the values given in Annexure-I whichever is smaller shall be taken.

(C) Standard penetration tests shall be conducted at depths as follows:

Location Depth (m)

(i) Normal Locations 1.5, 3.0, 4.5, 7.00

(ii) River crossing & special Locations 1.5, 3.0, 4.5, 7.00, 10.00 &
thereafter at the rate of 3 M
intervals upto 40 M.

Bore hole logs shall be prepared for the locations where above tests have been conducted.

(D) During execution, trial pits upto a minimum depth of 3.0 m (except rocky locations) shall be
excavated at each and every tower locations ( at all four legs) to obtain following details in
order to classify the type of foundation to be adopted :

1) Type of soil encountered

2) Ground Water table.

'•.
so
••
••
.-•
••
 ()
C) ~

() ANNEXURE -III

Guidelines for classification of Foundations In different Solis

SI. No. Type of soil encountered Type of foundation to be

adopted
1 In good soil ( silty sand mixed with clay) Normal Dry
2 Where top layer of Black Cotton soil extends upto Partial Black Cotton
50% of the depth with good soil there after
3 Where top layer of black cotton soil exceeds 50% Black Cotton
.-. and extends ur:; 4 0 full depth or is followed by
'J good soil .
4, Where top layer is good soil upfo 50% of the Black Cotton
depth but the lower layer is a black cotton soil.
)
5 Where subsoil water is met at 1.5 m or more Wet
f) below the ground level in good soil
6 Good soil locations which are in surface water for Wet
) long period with water penetration not
exceeding 1.0 m below ground level (e.g .. paddy
I) fields)
.,,;'Ii/'jf' ";. ..
( ) 7 In good soil where subsoil water Is encountered' r'Pomollv submer@ed ,".
between 0.75 m and 1.5 m depth from ground
!) . level

( ) 8 In good soil where subsoil water is encountered Fully Submerged

f" within 0.75 m depth from ground level
9 Where top layer of normal dry soil extends upto Dry Fissured Rock
85% of the depth followed by fissured rock
without presence of water
10 Where top layer is fissured rock followed by good Special foundation
soil/sandy soil with/without presence of water
11 Where normal soil/fissured rock extends upto 85% Dry fissured Rock with
of the depth followed by hard rock under cut in Fissured Rock
combined with anchor
bar for hardJock design .
.)
12 Where fissured rock is encountered with subsoil Submerged Fissured Rock
water within 0.75 m or below 0.75 m from G.L.
(Top layer may be either a good soil or black
cotton soil)
13 Where Hard Rock is encountered at 1.5 m or less Hard Rock
below ground level
14 Where Hard Rock is encountered from 1.5 m to Hard Rock Foundation
2.5 m below G.L. (Top layer being good soil) with chimney for Normal
Soil
--

51
!)
 15 Where hard rock is encountered from 1.5 m to Hard Rock Foundation
2.5 m below G.l. (Top layer either in Black cotton design with chimneys I.: c"j,

soil or fissured Rock) designed for wet black

cotton soil
16 Where fissured rock is encountered at the bottom Composite Foundation
of pit (with black cotton soil at top)
17 Where hard rock is encountered at bottom with Hard Rock
(
water and black cotton soil at top and hard rock ~..
layer depth is less than 1.5 m
18 Sandy soil with clay content not exceeding 10% Dry Sandy soil foundation
'9 Sandy soil with water table in the pits Wet sandy soli design to
be developed
considering the depth of
water
20 Where top layer upto 1.5 m below G.l. is normal Normal dry with undercut
dry soil and thereafter hard soil/murrum
21 Where bottom layer is marshy soH with top layer Soil investigation Is to be
of good soil/fissured rock/ black cotton carried out and special
foundation design to be
developed
22 Where the top layers are a combination of clinker Normal dry with undercut
mixed with firm soil. gravel and stone chips upto
60% of foundation depth from ground level
followed by Hard murrum
23 Where top layers are combination of hard Special foundation design
murrum. soft rock etc. followed by yellow/black is to be developed after
c1ayee soil carrying out soil
investigation

Any other combination of soil not covered above shall require development of special foundation
design.

.'•
52

.'
.~

•
\1 ANNEXURE - IV

Bond Stresses

(J
(1) limit Bond Stress between Concrete and reinforcement steel deformed bars in tension of grade
Fe: 415

Conforming to IS: 1786-1985 or IS: 1139-1966

As per IS: 456

2
(a) With M:15 Mix 16 kg/cm
2
(b) With M:20 Mix 19.5 kg/cm

Note: For bars in compression the above values shall be increased by 25%

(2) limit Bond Stress between Concrete and Stubs in Tension with

(a) M:15 Mix 10 kg/cm 2

(b) M:20 Mix 12 kg/cm 2

For compression the above values will be increased by 25%

l,.
( )
(3) limit band stress between Rock and Concrete
()
(a) In Fissured Rock 1.ptl~gLcr;n2l
(b) In Hard Rock 4.0 kg/cm~

(4) limit bond stress between hard rock and grout 2.0 kg/cm 2

()

()

I)

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•

n,.
(J

53

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n
()
()
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