S.

Socrate 2013
K. Qian
Loading Conditions on each Section (x)
Applied loading only along the axis (x) of the bar.
The only internal resultant at any sections ┴ x
is the axial force N(x)

Find N(x)along the bar (axial force diagram) by cutting

the bar at each x and imposing x-equilibrium.
For the example shown, equilibrium at x gives:
for x<xB :Σ Fx = 0 = – N(x) +FC +FB à N(x) = FC + FB
for x>xB :Σ Fx = 0 = – N(x)+FC à N(x) = FC

And the entire axial force diagram is:

For distributed loading fx(x) (with fx (x) in N/m

+ along x), obtain the force by integrating fx(x)
along the bar. For the bar shown:
L
N( x ) = ∫ f x ( x)dx
x

The differential relationship between the distributed load fx (x)

and the axial force N(x) is dN( x )
= − f x (x)
dx
This can be directly obtained from
ΣFx=0 on a dx slice of the bar
Kinematics constraint (geometry of deformation)
Cross sections ┴ x : stay flat, translate by ux(x)

Section deformation
Section at x has displacement ux(x)
Section at x+dx has displacement ux(x+dx)= ux+dux
Local measure of deformation at section x : du x
(change in length)/(original length) à
dx
Strain ßà section deformation
cross sections
stay flat à du x
Same εa at all ε a ( x) = ( x)
points of section dx
Structural response
L L
du x
Elongation: δ =∫ dx = ∫ ε a ( x) dx
0
dx 0
x x
du x
Displacement field : u x ( x ) = u x ( x0 ) + ∫x dx dx = u0 + x∫ ε a ( x) dx
0 0

with ux(x0)=u0 determined by Boundary conditions (e.g., u0 =0 at support)

Section equilibrium
The Axial Force N(x) at section x is obtained by
integrating the contributions of each elemental
area dA, which carries a normal stress σn

N(x) = ∫ σ n ( x, y, z ) dA
A

Constitutive Properties
If the material is linear elastic, and the modulus
of elemental area dA is E, the stress can be
obtained as:
σ n ( x, y, z ) = E ( x, y, z) ⋅ ε a ( x)
Section Response Constant over cross
section
du x
N(x) = ∫ σ n ( x, y, z ) dA = ∫ E ( x, y, z ) ε a ( x) dA = ∫ E ( x, y, z ) dA
A A A
dx
du x du x du x N(x)
N(x) = ∫ E ( x , y , z ) dA = ( EA) eff ( x) ←⎯⎯→
invert
( x) =
dx A dx dx ( EA) eff ( x)
Effective Section Stiffness: ( EA) eff ( x) = ∫ E ( x, y, z ) dA
A

If only 1 material, E(x)à (EA)eff=E(x)A(x);

If 2 materials (E1, E2) à (EA)eff= E1 A1 + E2 A2

Special case: homogeneous bar (modulus E) ; constant cross section A ; constant axial force

Equilibrium (x)
0
ΣFx=0 à N =P (constant along bar)

δ = L - L0 : elongation of the bar

N P
K= = : axial stiffness of the bar
δ δ
N
L σ n = : normal stress
A
N δ
ε a = : axial strain
structure L0
K σ
E = n : Young' s Modulus of the material
1 εa
A
δ K= E
σn L0

material , geometry
material L0 A
δ= P ; P=E δ
E EA
 L0
1 1/ K K

εa
Solution Procedures:
1)  Force Method for Statically Indeterminate (SI) Bars in Axial Loading
•  Remove redundant support à Replace with redundant reaction
•  Solve the companion Statically Determinate (SD) problem
•  Obtain the displacement at the redundant support in terms of the redundant reaction
•  Impose zero displacement at the redundant support and obtain the redundant reaction
•  Back-substitute the redundant reaction in the solution to the companion SD probem to find
the solution to the SI problem.
2)  Method of Joints for Statically Determinate trusses
•  Determine the free and constrained DOFs of the joints in the truss
•  Draw FBDs of the joints for the free DOFs. Draw the unknown axial forces, N , positive, i.e.,
coming out of the joints.
•  Impose equilibrium of the joints along the free DOFs (ΣFx=0 and/or ΣFy=0). Obtain all the
axial forces in the bars.
•  Draw FBDs of the joints for the constrained DOFs. Now the axial forces are known: draw
them the way they act (pushing the joint if N is compressive, pulling if N is tensile)
indicating their magnitude in the FBDs. Draw the cartesian components of the unknown
reactions positive ( along x and y)
•  Impose equiibrium of the joints along the constrained DOFs (ΣFx=0 and/or ΣFy=0). Obtain
the cartesian components of the reactions at the supports. Check global equilibrium!
3.  Geometry of deformation in trusses

1.  For displacing joint, J , with displacement vector uJ: {uJx , uJy}, subjected to unknown
load PJ: {PJx ,PJy}:
2.  Draw each bar, e.g., AJ, connected to joint J
•  for each bar obtain the cartesian components of the unit vector along the bar pointing
toward the moving joint, J (e.g., for AJ : rAJ: {r AJx , r AJy})
•  obtain the elongation of each bar by scalar product between the vectors e.g., for AJ :



δAJ=rAJŸuJ=r AJx uJx+ r AJy uJy
•  obtain the axial forces in each bar due to the displacement of joint J , e.g.,

N AJ=KAJδAJ
3.  Draw the FBD of the moving joint. Draw the cartesian components of the unknown
external load PJ and impose equilibrium along x and y à obtain {PJx ,PJy}
4.  Draw FBDs of each support pin (e.g., A) along the constrained DOFs. Draw the cartesian
components of the unknown reactionàobtain {RAx ,RAy}
5.  If more than one joint moves: use SUPERPOSITIONàsolve problem for each moving joint
and superpose the solutions.