Organic molecules in the human body

1. Carbohydrates (1-2%)

- energy source for most cells, used to make nucleic acids, serve as markers on surface of cells
- with the empirical formula C m (H2O) n

Roles :

- storage of energy (e.g. starch and glycogen)

- structural components (e.g. cellulose in plants and chitin in arthropods)
- ribose is an important component of coenzymes (e.g. ATP, FAD and NAD) and the backbone of the RNA
- deoxyribose is a component of DNA
- immune system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development.

Carbohydrates are sugars. Saccharide means sugar. We commonly divide carbs into three classes:

1. Monosaccharides (means one sugar)

2. Disaccharides (made of two single sugars, snapped together)
3. Oligosaccharides
4. Polysaccharides (many sugars snapped together)

Five examples of Monosaccharides

Cannot be hydrolyzed to smaller carbohydrates. The first two examples are 5-carbon atoms long: Ribose and
Deoxyribose. Ribose is found in RNA. Deoxyribose is found in DNA. A deoxyribose is missing one oxygen,
which is why it’s called “de-oxy

The next three examples are 6-carbon atoms long: Glucose, Fructose and Galactose. What’s interesting about
these are that all three of them are 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms and 6 oxygen atoms. The molecular
formula for all three of them is C6H12O6. They are isomers. The term we use when the atoms are the same
molecular formula but arranged differently are chemical isomers.

These three monosaccharides are mostly used as sources of energy by living cells, including ours. What’s also
shown above is that these sugars are not a straight chain of carbon atoms. They are actually looped together as
a ring-shape. This is known as a cyclic shape which refers to the ring shape. When you see pictures that look
like this, recognize them as sugars.

Three examples of Disaccharides (“double” sugars)

1. Sucrose aka cane sugar is made of glucose + fructose snapping together to form a disaccharide.

Hydrogen from one and an OH from another are removed and that’s where they attach together and water is
produced as a result.

The name for this type of reaction is a dehydration synthesis reaction. This is how most organic molecules are
snapped together. Synthesis means to join together. Note also that “syn-” and “sym-” both mean together. For
example, in anatomy, you learned that the part where the two pubic bones join is called the pubic symphysis.

This reaction is reversible. When water is added to break them apart, it’s called hydrolysis. “Hydro-” means
water and “-lysis” means to break apart.
2. Lactose. “Lacto-” means milk and it’s found in all milk. Milk doesn’t taste sweet but that’s because not all
sugars taste sweet. Lactose is actually made of glucose + galactose. People who are said to be lactose-
intolerant means they can’t digest lactose apart into glucose and galactose and if they drink it, they get diarrhea
and cramps. Lactaid milk has the lactase-enzyme added to it has already broken down the lactose for you, which
is why it tastes slightly sweeter.

3. Maltose is found in all grains and commonly called grain sugar. It’s made up of two glucose’s joined together.

Disaccharides can be classified into two types: reducing and non-reducing disaccharides. If the functional group is
present in bonding with another sugar unit, it is called a reducing disaccharide or biose.

Three examples of Polysaccharides (“complex carbohydrates”)

1. Amylose, commonly known as “starch” is the way many plants store sugars. Plants and other photosynthetic
organisms join glucose sugars made from photosynthesis into a big chain called amylose. They could be
hundreds of glucose sugars joined together. This is found in rice, potatoes, corn, bread & pasta (from wheat),
beans and so forth. Notice these are foods that are plants or come from them. There are no starches in meat,
fish, eggs and none in your own body. So what happens if you eat starch? Starch gets digested and broken
down into their individual glucose molecules and that’s what you absorb.

Plant cell walls are made of cellulose.

2. Cellulose. Cellulose is made up of a bunch of glucoses, just like starch, however the way they are joined
together forms a branching pattern, unlike starch. We as humans cannot digest or break apart these sugar
molecules. which is why it is also known as “indigestible fiber,” “roughage,” or “insoluble fiber.” Whether you’re
eating grains, celery, carrots, or anything made of plants, the outer plant cell walls are crushed by our teeth and
the contents of the cells are digested. The cellulose though, will remain unchanged and exit out of our stool. This
is especially noticeable in kids. When kids eat corn or raisins, you’ll see the outer skin of a corn kernel or raisin in
the stool. It seems that our digestive tract needs a certain amount of this indigestible fiber to keep it healthy.
When we don’t have enough of this, it makes our digestive tract thin and weak. Remember that cellulose (just like
starch) exists only in plants.

3. Glycogen is sometimes called “animal starch” because what starch is to plants, glycogen is to animals. In
other words, the same way plants store sugar by creating starch, animals store sugar by creating glycogen. This
is primarily stored in our liver and muscles. Any athlete that does something that requires endurance, such as
long distance runners or cyclists, will do something called carb-loading. Before they are going to run a marathon
race, they eat lots and lots of carbs. If you keep carb-loading, however, and don’t expend the energy within the
next couple days, it will be turned into fat.
2. Lipids (14 - 20%)

- store excess energy in cells, insulation from cold, electrical insulation around nerve cells, found in cell
membranes, used to make some hormones, facilitate digestion

The most important characteristic of them is that they are insoluble in water. Think of butter or vegetable oil. The
oil or fat will float to the surface of water. Fats contain more calories of energy than any other molecule. Each
gram of fat contains 9 kcals while a gram of carbohydrates contain 4 kcal’s. The simplest of the fats are called
fatty acids.

Saturated Fatty Acid

Saturdated FA looks like a long chain of carbons with hydrogen’s, it gets the name “fatty acid” because it has this
carboxylic acid group. This is called a saturated fatty acid. Note that a saturated fat has no double bonds.

Monounsaturated fat

Monounsaturated fat looks like a saturated FA but you’ll notice between two of the carbons there’s a double
covalent bond. Unsaturated fatty acids have less calories of energy than saturated. Monounsaturated fats have
ONE double bond.

Polyunsaturated fat

This third fatty acid is simply an unsaturated FA, except hydrogen’s are missing in more than one place. That’s
why it’s called polyunsaturated fatty acids. Polyunsaturated fat has more than one double bond.

SATURATED FA UNSATURATED FA

1. more C-H bonds (more calories) Less C-H bonds (less calories)

2. usually solid at room temperature Usually liquid at room temp

3. Synthesized in animals. Synthesized in plants

4. Saturated fats and cholesterol increase our risk

for atherosclerosis (fat build up on inner walls
of arteries). This is the number one cause of death
in western countries. Also for that reason, the number
one most prescribed drug in the world is Lipitor. Fats in plants don’t increase our risk of atherosclerosis.

Prostaglandins

A prostaglandin is simply two long chains of fatty acids joined with a loop of carbons at the end.

They got that name because they were first identified in the prostates of males but these are actually fats that are
associated with every fat tissue cell of the body. Prostaglandins belong to a larger group called eicosanoids.

When any cell is injured or suffers trauma, it disrupts the cell membrane. When this phospholipid membrane gets
damaged, a chemical process converts some of these phospholipids into prostaglandins. Prostoglandin’s are one
of the many chemicals that cause inflammation.

What is inflammation? Inflammation is characterized by four signs: Redness. Warmth. Swelling. Pain. Whenever
there’s a disease associated with inflammation, the ending is “-itis.” The inflammatory response is part of the
healing process and is known as the non-specific-immune response.

Two examples:
(1) Imagine you are hammering a nail and it accidentally hits your thumb. Cells get damaged in this case. Your
thumb will get red, warm, swell and hurt.
(2) If you have strep throat that means streptococcus bacteria are eating you up. Bacteria are living things that
need food. They are looking at your throat and eating parts of your cells. As they start injuring your cells,
prostaglandin’s get released and your throat experiences inflammation.

NSAIDs: Non-Steroidal-Anti-Inflammatory Drugs

The typical NSAID is aspirin, ibuprofen (advil, motrin), or naproxen (aleve). These are enzyme inhibitors that
reduce inflammation
GLYCEROLIPIDS: Monoglycerides. Diglycerides. Triglycerides.

The simplified structures of these consists of a three-carbon-molecule known as glycerol. If there is one FA
attached to a glycerol, that’s known as a monoglyceride. If there are two FA attached to glycerol, then it’s called a
diglyceride. If there’s a third FA attached, it’s called triglyceride. The way they attach is just like how the sugars
did: it’s another example of a dehydration synthesis reaction (or hydrolysis if the reverse).

Where the OH’s meet is where the fatty acids meet. When two OH’s are removed, it forms water.

Fat cells, more properly called adipocytes, have a large vacuole where fatty acids from the food we eat are
joined with glycerol and are stored as triglycerides. The process is reversible in case we need to use the fat too.
If you go to have blood work done, they will check not only your cholesterol but your fat content, known as your
lipid panel.

Phospholipids are schizophrenic molecules.

Phospholipids begin with a glycerol molecule and as in the case of a triglyceride, we have fatty acids attached
but in place of the 3rd FA is a Phosphate group (PO4).

A phosphate group is polar, which means it tends to have a charge and polar constituents dissolve in water. The
PO4 head of the molecule is hydrophilic (it likes water!). Fats are hydrophobic. So what we have in this case is a
schizophrenic molecule (hydrophobic or amphiphilic). One part of it likes water and the rest of it hates water.
As shown below the top part represents the phosphate (hydrophilic) part and the two strings are the fatty acids
which are hydrophobic.

A cell membrane is made up of a double layer of these phopholipids with the phosphate heads facing in and out.
Neural tissue (including the brain) contains relatively high amounts of glycerophospholipids.

Sphingolipids

Sphingolipids are a complicated family of compounds that share a common structural feature, a sphingoid base
backbone that is synthesized de novo from the amino acid serine and a long-chain fatty acyl CoA.

Steroid Hormones (androgens, female sex hormones, mineralcorticoids, glucocorticoids)

Cholesterol is made up of 4 rings of carbon joined together with hydrogen’s attached. Cholesterol, which is
synthesized in the liver, is the starting material for synthesis of other steroids in the body

We get cholesterol in two ways:

(1) Anything from animals contain cholesterol. Egg yolks are considered the highest containing cholesterol’s.
(2) Our livers are able to convert saturated fats into cholesterol. In other words if we have a long chain of carbon
atoms (saturated fats), they can be folded and joined together into rings to become cholesterol. So if you want to
reduce the amount of cholesterol you have in your body, you have to reduce saturated fats as well.

The way that lipitor and the other statin drugs work (the reason it’s called statins is because the generic names
of all these drugs end with -statin) is they inhibit the enzyme that turns saturated fat into cholesterol.

(A) Androgens are steroids.

Androse means male. An android means a male-looking robot. These are masculanizing hormones. The first
one is testosterone. The second is adrenalandrogen.

1) Testosterone actually increases anabolic reactions. Anabolic biologic reactions are growth reactions.
You’ve heard of anabolic steroids, right? Androgens promote growth and promote muscles. Males are taller and
more muscular because of testosterone. Testosterone also increases catabolic reactions which is for energy
production. As a result, males metabolize food faster than a female. This is also why a male runs faster and
jumps higher. Another effect is that it increases hair growth. The only place it doesn’t increase it on the top of the
head. Another thing it increases is libido.

2) Adrenoandrogen’s are produced from the adrenal glands which are located above the kidney. This is just
one of them. This hormone is produced not only in men but women and is a much weaker drug than testosterone
and doesn’t affect men that much because they have so much testosterone. The main effect this has on women
is that it increases hair growth and libido.
(B) Female Sex Hormones are steroids.

1) Estrogen is created in the ovaries. Estrogen is to females as testosterone is to males. Estrogen promotes the
increase of breast size and deposition of fats in the hips.

2) Progesterone is also produced in the ovaries: “pro-” means to prepare and “gest” means pregnancy
(gestation). It is secreted every month in the woman and prepares a woman’s month for pregnancy. It increases
vascularization (growth of blood vessels) of the endometrium of the uterus. If an egg is fertilized, then this egg
will implant in the uterus. If she doesn’t get pregnant or is not even sexually active then those blood vessels are
shed. That shedding of blood vessels is called “having a period” or menstruation.

(C) Mineralcorticosteroids are steroids.

Mineralcorticosteroids are created in the cortex of the adrenal gland. These control the mineral balance
(Na+ & K+) in the body.

(D) Glucocorticosteroids are steroids.

Gluco means glucose. Cortico means cortex. These raise the blood glucose level most especially during
stress.

(E) Cholecalciferol aka Calciferol aka Vitamin D, is a steroid.

Cholecalciferol is also known as Vitamin D that is made in your skin. Chole means cholesterol and is created
when UVB sun rays hit cholesterol to change the molecule into cholecalciferol. Vitamin D helps aid in the
absorption of calcium in the small intestine (which is why the word calci is in the name).

Let’s pretend you pour yourself a glass of milk. Milk is especially high in calcium. However you won’t be able to
absorb this hormone if you don’t have this Vitamin D hormone. There’s not a lot of farmers or carpenters these
days; Most people work indoors, including kids who used to play baseball are now playing video games inside.
People are increasingly spending less time in the sun. We are not getting enough of this hormone so that people
will be able to absorb the milk. This is why they add Vitamin D3 is added in milk. If you read on every milk carton
it says Vitamin D is added. If they called this a steroid hormone, nobody would give this milk to their kids, so it’s
called “Vitamin D.” New studies show that we need this not only for calcium absorption but also DNA synthesis
and to reduce cancer rates.

Prenol lipids

Prenol lipids are synthesized from the five-carbon-unit precursors isopentenyl diphosphate and dimethylallyl
diphosphate. The simple isoprenoids are formed by the successive addition of C5 units, and are classified
according to number of these terpene units. Structures containing greater than 40 carbons are known as
polyterpenes.

Carotenoids are important simple isoprenoids that function as antioxidants and as precursors of vitamin A.
Vitamin E and vitamin K, as well as the ubiquinones, are examples of this class.
3. Proteins (15-18%)

- structural elements in many tissues, used to make hormones, transport, enzymes, membrane carriers,
antibodies, clotting, buffers, regulate salt and water balance, blood clotting

(A) The folding of the polypeptide chain typically creates a crevice or cavity on the protein surface.
This crevice contains a set of amino acid side chains disposed in such a way that they can make
noncovalent bonds only with certain ligands.
(B) A close-up of an actual binding site showing the hydrogen bonds and ionic interactions formed
between a protein and its ligand (in this example, cyclic AMP is the bound ligand).

4.Nucleic Acids (<1%)

- stores genetic code, controls cell division, regulates metabolism ATP - ATP is a special energy transfer molecule

5. Vitamins (trace)

- their presence affects health and functions of eyes, skin, GI tract, lungs, bones and teeth, nervous system,
blood; used as coenzymes for many enzymes