CHAPTER 9

10.0 DESIGN OF A WASTE HEAT BOILER

10.1 Introduction

A boiler is a water containing vessel which transfers heat from a fuel source (oil, gas, coal) into

steam at a predetermined temperature which is piped to a point where it can be used to run

production equipment, to sterilize and provide heat.

The role of boilers in the industrial economy has been profound because boilers form the backbone

of power plants, cogeneration systems, and combined cycle plants. They form an inevitable part

of chemical plants, refineries, power plants, and process systems. (Ganapathy, 2003).

Waste heat boilers (WHBs) or Heat Recovery Steam Generators (HRSGs) as they are often called,

are used to recover energy from waste gas streams such as those encountered in sulphuric acid or

hydrogen plants, refineries, solid, liquid and gaseous incineration systems, power plants and in

cogeneration systems using gas turbines and reciprocating engines. (Ganapathy, 1991)

10.2 Classification of boilers

1. According to the contents in the tube; the steam boilers may be classified as;

(a) Fire tube boiler; In the fire tube steam boilers, the flames and hot gases produced

by the combustion of fuel, pass through the tubes (called multi-tubes) which are

surrounded by water. The heat is conducted through the walls of the tube from the

hot gases to surrounding water. Examples of fire tube boilers are Simple vertical

boiler, Cochran boiler, Lancashire boiler, Cornish boiler, Scotch marine boiler,

Locomotive boiler, and Velcon boiler.

 (b) In water tube steam boilers, the water is contained inside the tubes (called water

tubes) which are surrounded by flames and hot gases from outside. Examples of

water tube boilers are; Babcock and Wilcox boiler, Stirling boiler, La-Mont boiler,

Benson boiler, Yarrow boiler and Loeffler boiler.

2. According to the position of the furnace. The steam boilers, according to the position of

the furnace are classified as:

(a) Internally fired boiler; In internally fired steam boilers, the furnace is located inside

the boiler shell. Most of the fire tube steam boilers are internally fired.

(b) Externally fired boiler; In externally fired steam boilers, the furnace is arranged

underneath in a brick-work setting. Water tube steam boilers are always externally

fired.

3. According to the axis of the shell. The steam boilers, according to the axis of the shell,

maybe classified as:

(a) Vertical boilers; In vertical steam boilers, the axis of the shell is vertical. Simple

vertical boiler and Cochran boiler are vertical boilers.

(b) Horizontal boilers; In horizontal steam boilers, the axis of the shell is horizontal.

Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler and Babcock and Wilcox boiler are horizontal

boilers.

4. According to the number of tubes. Boilers may also be classified as;

(a) Single tube boilers; In single tube steam boilers, there is only one water tube or fire

tube. Simple vertical boiler and Cornish boiler are single tube boilers.
 (b) Multi-tubular boilers; In multi-tubular steam boilers, there are two or more fire

tubes or water tubes. Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler, Cochran boiler,

Babcock and Wilcox boiler are multi-tubular boilers.

5. According to the method of circulation of water and steam. The steam boilers according to

the method of circulation of water and steam, may be classified as;

(a) Natural circulation boilers; In natural circulation steam boilers, the circulation of

water is by natural convection currents, which are set up during the heating of

water. In most of the steam boilers, there is a natural circulation of water.

(b) Forced circulation boilers; In forced circulation steam boilers, there is a forced

circulation of water by a centrifugal pump driven by some external power. Use of

forced circulation is made in high pressure boilers such as La-Mont boiler, Benson

boiler, Loeffler and Velcon boiler.

6. According to use. The steam boilers, according to their use, may be classified as

(a) Stationary boilers; The stationary boilers are used in power plants, and industrial

process work. These are called stationary because they do not move from one place

to another.

(b) Mobile boilers; The mobile steam boilers are those which move from one place to

another. Examples of these boilers are locomotive and marine boilers.

7. According to the source of heat. The steam boilers may also be classified according to the

source of heat supplied for producing steam. These sources maybe the combustion of solid,

liquid or gaseous fuel, hot waste gases as by-products of other chemical processes,

electrical energy or nuclear energy, etc. (Khurmi and Gupta, 2011).

Waste heat boilers are classified in several ways; according to the application, the type of boiler

used, whether the flue gas is used for process or mainly for energy recovery, cleanliness of the

gas, and boiler configuration. (Ganathapy, 2003)

Process waste heat boilers are used to cool waste gas streams from a given inlet temperature

to a desired exit temperature for further processing purposes. While energy recovery

applications, on the other hand, the gas is cooled as much as possible while avoiding low

temperature corrosion. The objective here is to maximize energy recovery. (Ganathapy, 2003).

Water tube and fire tube boilers are the widely used boilers in processing industries due to their

high efficiency and proven productivity.

10.2.1 Fire tube and Water-tube Boiler

Fire tube or “fire in tube” boilers; contain long tubes through which the hot gasses from a

furnace pass and around which the water to be converted to steam circulates. They could be of

single or of multi-gas pass design. In single gas pass design, the hot gas stream enters at one

end and leaves at the other. If the boiler length is a concern due to lack of space, the tube length

could be reduced by going in for a two gas pass design. Fire tube boilers are generally less

expensive for low capacity-low pressure steam drop systems. The gas pressure drop with fire

tube boilers is, usually higher compared to water tube type for the same duty, which can be

made compact with extended surfaces. (Ganapathy, 1991).

 Water tube boilers or “water in tube” are boilers in which the conditions are reversed with the

water passing through the tubes and the hot gasses passing outside the tubes. These boilers can

be of single- or multiple-drum type. These boilers can be built to any steam capacities and

pressures, and have higher efficiencies than fire tube boilers.

A comparative study between fire tube and water tube boiler is presented in the table 9.1 that

follows to understand relative the characteristics of fire tube and water tube boilers.

Table 10.1 A comparison between a water tube and a fire tube boiler

Water tube boiler Fire tube boiler

The water circulates inside the tubes which are The hot gases from the furnace pass through

surrounded by hot gases from the furnace. the tubes which are surrounded by water.

It generates steam at a higher pressure up to It can generate steam only up to 24.5 bar.

165 bar.

The rate of generation of steam is high i.e. up The rate of generation of steam is low i.e. up

to 450 tonnes per hour. to 9 tonnes per hour.

For a given power, the floor area required for The floor area required is more, i.e. about 8m2

the generation of steam is less i.e. about per tonne per hour of steam generation.

5m2 per tonne per hour of steam generation.

Overall efficiency with economizer is up to Its overall efficiency is 75%.

90%.

It can be transported and erected easily as its The transportation and erection is difficult.

various parts can be separated.

 It is preferred for widely fluctuating loads. It can also cope with reasonably with sudden

increase in load but for a shorter period.

The direction of water circulation is well The water does not circulate in definite

defined. direction.

The operating cost is high. The operating cost is less.

The bursting chances are more. The bursting chances are less.

The bursting does not produce any destruction The bursting produces greater risk to the

to the whole boiler. damage of the property.

It is used for large power plants. It is not suitable for large plants.

Source: (Khurmi and Gupta, 2011).

10.3 Boiler type and accessories

10.3.1 Type of boiler

Fixed tube sheet boiler (exchanger) is chosen because of the following

 It is cheap and easy to construct (Sinnott, 1999)

 Individual tubes are replaceable.

 There are no practical limitations of the number of pass.

 Expandable joints are provided to take care of differential expansion as result of high

difference in temperature between the fluids.

 Interior tubes are cleanable by both mechanical and chemical means.

10.3.2 Pitch type

Triangular pitch pattern is chosen for this work due to its ability to give a higher heat transfer

coefficient or rate. It also more compact and provide a larger surface area per unit volume of heat

exchanger. (Silla, 2003)

10.3.3 Baffle

Segmented baffle with 25% baffle cut is used because the segmented baffle is the most common

design and also give maximum heat transfer coefficient without exceeding the allowable pressure

drop of the shell-side fluid. (Sinnot, 2008)

10.3.4 Head and closure

Hemispherical head is chosen because of the pressure at which steam is going to be generated.

10.3.5 Fluid location

Water will be located at the tube side because of the tendency of forming scale and flue gas will

located on the shell side.

Raw water from a reservoir, river, lake, and borehole is fed to the steam system. However, it needs

to be treated before it can be used for steam generation to remove: suspended solids, dissolved

solids, dissolved salts, dissolved gases particularly oxygen and carbon dioxide. Raw water entering

may need to be first filtered to remove suspended solids and also dissolved salts need to be

removed principally calcium and magnesium ions that would otherwise cause over fouling on the

steam boiler.

10.4 Pressure and level control

Since the water-tube boiler is a pressure vessel, the maximum allowable working pressure is likely

to be exceeded. And as a result safety valves and pressure relief valves would be installed typically

for boiler overpressure protection and other applications such as downstream of pressure reducing

controls. A pressure relief valve is a valve which is design to relief excess pressure and to reclose

and prevent the flow of fluid after normal conditions have been restored.

Ensuring the right level of steam in the water-tube boiler contributes significantly to enhancing the

overall boiler efficiency hence level controls would be installed to ensure that the maximum and

minimum levels are not exceeded. Alarms for minimum and maximum water levels also would be

in place to ensure combustion of fuel ceases if the water level drops below the temperature required

and also the feed water is closed during higher water levels.

10.5 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The purpose of this work is to design a waste heat boiler to reduce the temperature flue gas from

a temperature of 1482.2 ˚C to 732.2 ˚C and generating steam at a rate of 35956 kg/h with operating

conditions of 90 bar and at 525 ˚C.

10.5.1 Description and Mode of Operation of Chosen Equipment

For this design project which require the generation of steam, a water-tube boiler is chosen. The

following are reasons for the choice of water tube boiler

 Because water-tube boilers operate economically for capacities above 23000 kg/h, it

makes it more preferred to fire-tube boilers

 Water tube boilers can handle high steam pressure and temperature
  It can use extended surfaces to make tube compact if the gas stream is clean

 It has a lower flue gas pressure drop than equivalent fire tube boiler owing to the

compactness of the design.

 Water tube can be smaller and weigh less particularly if the gas flow is large. (Ganapathy,

2003)

The design of water-tube boilers consists of a bundle of water tubes contained in a shell and the

evaporating process takes place inside the water tubes generating steam. Water-tube boilers are

often characterized by their number of passes, referring to the number of times that the water flows

along the length of the pressure vessel transferring heat to the flue gases. Each pass sends the water

through the tubes in the opposite direction. To make another pass, the water turns 180˚ and passes

back through the shell.

Table 10.2 Summary boiler type and accessories

Accessories Types

Boiler type Water tube boiler

Type of shell and tube exchanger Fixed shell tube

Shell Horizontally oriented

Coolant Water

Shell side fluid Flue gas

Tube side fluid Raw river water

Pitch type Triangular

 Number of pass 2

Baffle Segmental

Baffle cut 25%

Head and closure Hemispherical heads

Material of construction Stainless steel (18/8)

10.6 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN

10.6.1 Design procedure and theory

Total energy input.

Figure 10.1

Where;

QT = total energy input into the system.

QU = total useful energy.

QL = total energy loss

10.6.2 Estimation of heat transfer area

The prime objective in the design of an exchanger is to determine the surface area required for the

specified duty (rate of heat transfer), tube size, tube configuration and pressure drop.

The general equation for heat transfer across a water tube waste heat boiler surface area is given

by:

Q
A=
U∆TLM

Where;

U = Overall heat transfer coefficient

Q = quantity of heat

But for one pass and one shell waste heat boiler (heat exchanger) with a co-current flow

(T1 − t1 ) − (T2 − t 2 )
∆TLM = , (Towler and Sinnott, 2008)
T1 − t1
In (T − t )
2 2

Where;

∆TLM = log mean temperature difference

T1 = inlet shell-side fluid temperature

T2 = outlet shell-side fluid temperature

t1 = inlet tube side temperature

t 2 = outlet tube side temperature

10.6.3 Overall heat transfer coefficient

The overall heat transfer coefficient Uo is calculated from

1 1 1 do do do 1 do 1
= + + ln ( ) + ( ) + ( )
Uo hi hod 2K m di di hod di hi

do = Outer diameter tube

di = Inner diameter tube

hi = heat transfer coefficient inside tubes (tube side coefficient)

ho = heat transfer coefficient outside tubes (shell side coefficient)

K m = thermal conductivity of metal

hod = outside dirt coefficient

hid = inside dirt coefficient

10.6.4 Tube dimensions

Number of tubes, Nt is given by

A
Nt =
πdo L
10.6.5 Pitch type

Triangular pitch chosen because they give higher heat transfer rate than square pitch arrangements.

(Sinnott, 1999)

For a triangular pitch arrangement, tube pitch is given by

tube pitch, Pt = 1.25xdo

where, 1.25 is a constant for triangular pitch arrangements in water tube waste heat boilers (Towler

and Sinnott, 2008)

The bundle diameter, Db for a triangular pattern;

1
Nt n 1
Db = do ( )
K1

The diameter of the shell of a water tube, Ds = Db + shell clearance.

Where Db is the bundle diameter of the water tube boiler

10.6.6 Number of baffles

The number of baffle, Nb, require is given as

l
Nb = − 1 (Kakac, 2002)
B

Where
l = length of tube

B = baffle spacing

And Nb + 1 is the number of times the shell fluid passes the tube bundle

10.6.7 Determination of tube side coefficient hi

hi is the inside tube fluid film coefficient (tube side coefficient) for water and is given as;

kf µ
hi = jh RePr 0.33 ( )0.14 (sinnott, 1999)
di µw

ρudi
Re =
µ

Cp µ
Pr =
kf

10.6.8 Determination of shell side coefficient, ho.

The shell side heat transfer coefficient, ho, for the water tube waste boiler is given by

kf 1
ho = jh RePr 3
de

Re = Reynolds number

k f = thermal conductivity of flue gas

Pr = prandtl number

µ = viscosity of flue gas

jh = heat transfer factor

de = equivalent diameter

Baffle spacing of a water tube waste heat boiler Lb is given;

Ds
Lb =
5

The gas mass flow rate of steam Gs is calculated by;

Ws
Gs =
As

Gs
us =
ρs

Where;

Ws = flow rate of flue gas

ρs = density of flue gas

As = shell side area cross flow

(Pt − do )
As = xDs xLb
Pt

Pt = tube pitch

Lb = baffle spacing

Ds = shell inside diameter

The equivalent diameter de for triangular pitch arrangement:

 1.1 2
de = (P − 0.910d2o )
do t

Gs de
Re =
µ

Cp µ
Pr =
k

Cp = specific heat capacity

k = thermal conductivity

µ = viscosity

Table 10.3 Properties of flue gas

Property Flue gas Water

CP 1.324 kJ/kg 3.509 × 103 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

µ 50.87 × 10−6 Pa. s 2.24 × 10−5 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠

ρ 0.2558 kg/m3 37.928 kg/m3

K 0.1182 W/m2 ˚C 0.06485 W/m3

Source: www.pipeflowcalculations.com

10.6.9 Determination of pressure drop

Tube side pressure drop

The pressure drop across the tube side of water tube waste heat boilers is determined by
 L µ −m ρu2t
∆Pt = Np [8jf ( ) ( ) + 2.5] ( Sinnott, 1999)
di µw 2

Np = number of pass

jf = dimensionless fiction factor

L = tube length

μ
= viscosity collection factor
μw

ut = tube linear velocity

ρ = density of water

Shell side pressure drop

The pressure drop across the shell side of water tube waste heat boiler

L D μ −m ρ u2
∆Ps = [8jf (L ) (d s ) (μ ) ] s2 s (Towler and Sinnott, 2008)
b e w

Ds = shell diameter

de =equivalent diameter

Lb = baffle spacing

us =shell side linear velocity

ρs = flue gas density

10.7 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN CALCULATIONS

Energy required to produce steam

The useful energy QU of a boiler (heat duty) is the energy required to produce steam and this is

given by;

QU = MS ( HS − hw )

Where;

QU = total energy output of the steam.

MS =35956 kg/h steam production rate.

HS = 3448.7 kJ/kg, specific enthalpy of steam. (525˚C, 90 bar).

hw = 798.6 kJ/kg specific enthalpy of feed water (188˚C).

QU = 35956 (3448.7 − 334.9)

= 111,959,792.8 kJ/h.

From Ganapathy (1991) heat loss of waste heat boiler is normally estimated at about 2 %.

QT = QU + 0.02QT

Q
U 111959792.8
QT = 0.98 = 0.98

= 97.231,628 kJ/h.

QT = 27008785.6 W.
Water Requirement

Mass of feedwater (MF ) = Mass of Steam (MS ) + Blowdown (MB )

Blowdown is the term used to describe the purposeful discharge of a portion of the boiler water to

remove undesirable sludge and chemical concentrations. Blowdown is taken up to 10% of boiler

feed water flowrate. (EMR,2005).

MF =MS + 0.1MF

M
MF = 0.9s = 39951.111 kg/h.

Estimation of surface area

The overall heat transfer coefficient U0, ranges from 30 W/m2 ºC to 100 W/m2 ºC for heat

exchanger between flue gases and steam. Hence U0 = 85 W/m2 ºC is assumed. (Sinnott and Towler,

2008)

Uo = 85 W⁄m2 ℃

But,
 (1482.2 − 187.96) − (732.2 − 525)
∆Tm = = 668.50 ℃
1482.2 − 187.96
In ( )
732.2 − 525

Therefore, area, A

27008785.6
A= = 475.32 m2
85x 668.50

Tube dimensions

Standard tube outer diameter (OD) of 50 mm with a corresponding tube wall thickness of 2 mm

and a tube length of 3.7 m was chosen for this design. (Sinnott, 1999) These tube dimensions were

chosen to make it easier in cleaning tubes. Therefore, Do = 50 mm, Di = 48 mm and L = 3.7 m

Number of tubes

475
Nt = = 818 tubes
πx50x10−3 x3.70

For a 2-2, triangular pitch, K= 0.249 and n1=2.207 (Sinnott, 1999)

1
818 2.207
Bundle diameter, Db = 0.05 (0.249) = 1.9604 m

Shell diameter, Ds = Db + diametrical clearance (Sinnott, 1999)

For fixed tube heat exchanger, diametrical clearance = 0.0949 m from chart (Towler and

Sinnott, 2003)

Ds = 1.9604 + 0.0949 = 2.0553 m

Heat transfer coefficient calculation

Tube side coefficient

818
Tube per pass = = 409 tubes
2

πd2i
Tube cross sectional area =
4

πx(48x10−3 )2
= = 1.80x10−3 m2
4

Total flow area = 409 x1.80x10−3 m2 = 0.7362 m2

water flow rate 11.0975

Water mass flux = =
total flow area 0.7362 m2

= 15.074 kg⁄m2 s

15.074
linear velocity = = 0.3974 m⁄s
37.928
 37.928 × 0.3974 × 0.05
Re = = 3.4 × 104
2.24 × 10−5

3.5085 × 103 × 2.24 × 10−5

Pr = = 1.21
0.06485

L 3.7
= = 77.1m
di 0.048

jh = 3.5 × 10−3

0.06485
hi = × (3.5 × 10−3 ) × (3.4 × 104 ) × 1.210.33
0.048

hi = 171.2 W⁄m2 ℃

Shell side coefficient

2.0553
Lb = = 0.411 m
5

3.7
Nb = − 1 = 8 baffles
0.411

Therefore, the number times the shell fluid passes the baffles bundle are

8 + 1 = 9 times

Pt = 1.25x50x10−3 = 0.0625 m

(0.0625 − 0.05)x2.0553x0.411
As =
0.0625
 = 0.169 m2

35956 2
Gs = = 59.1 kg⁄m s
3600 × 0.169

1.1
de = (0.06252 − 0.917(0.05)2 )
0.05

= 0.0355 m

59.1x0.0355
Re = = 4.0 × 104
5.087x10−5

1324.2x5.087x10−5
Pr = = 0.57
0.1182

Using the Re calculated, jh is read from chart with 25% baffle cut.

jh = 3x10−3

Shell side coefficient ho

0.1182
ho = x3x10−3 x40000x(0.569)0.33
0.0355

= 331.7 W⁄m2 ℃

Overall coefficient

hod = 2000 W/m2 oC

hid = 3000 W/m2 oC

Thermal conductivity of stainless at 525˚C, kw = 23.5 W/m oC (www.engineeringtoolbox.com)

 50
1 1 1 0.05In (48) 1 50 50 1
= + + + ( )+ ( )
Uo 331.7 2000 2x25 3000 48 48 171.2

Uo = 96.2 W⁄m2 ℃

Uo calculated is well above assumed, so the design has adequate area for the duty required.

A. Tube side pressure drop

Reading jf from chart using Re calculated for tube side.

jf = 3.2x10−3

3.7 37.928x0.39742
∆Pt = 2x [8x3.5x10−3 ( ) + 2.5] ( )
0.048 2

= 27.90 Pa

B. Shell side pressure drop

Using the Re calculated for the shell side with 25 % cut,

jf = 4.0x10−2

59.1
us = = 231.04 m⁄s
0.2258

−2
3.70 2.0553 0.2558x231.042
∆Ps = 8x4.0x10 [( )( )] ( )
0.4111 0.0355 2

= 1138.4 kPa
Table 10.4 Summary of Chemical Engineering design

PARAMETER VALUE

Overall heat transfer coefficient, Uo 96. 2W⁄m2 ℃

Heat surface area, A 475.32 m2

Tube side heat transfer coefficient, hi 171.2 W⁄m2 ℃

Shell side heat transfer coefficient, ho 331.7 W⁄m2 ℃

Water inlet flow rate 39951.11 kg⁄hr

Steam production rate 35956 kg⁄hr

Number of tubes 818 tubes

Tube side pressure drop 27.90 Pa

Shell side pressure drop 1138.4 kPa

Shell diameter 2.0553 m

10.8 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN OF WASTE HEAT BOILER

10.8.1 Material of construction

When selecting engineering materials many factors are considered, but for a chemical process

plant, the overriding consideration is usual the ability to resist corrosion.

Stainless steels are the most frequently used corrosion resistant materials in the chemical industry.

The uniform structure of Austenite (FCC, with the carbides in solution) is the structure desired for

corrosion resistance, and it is these grades that are widely used in the chemical industry. Type

304H (the so-called 18/8 stainless steels - Ti stabilised 321): the most generally used stainless steel

would be considered the best option for this design. It contains the minimum Cr and Ni that give

a stable austenitic structure and ability to resist corrosion.

Design temperature = 525 ˚C

Design stress for stainless steel at 525 ˚C

For steels and alloyed steels, a minimum corrosion allowance of 2.0 mm is used. Taking design

pressure to be 10% above the normal working pressure, to avoid spurious operation during minor

process upsets (Sinnott, 1999).

110
design pressure = x operating presure
100

9.8.2 Shell thickness

For a cylindrical shell the minimum thickness required to resist internal pressure can be determined

from;
 Pi Di
e= + C (Sinnott, 1999)
2fj − Pi

where;

Pi = internal pressure

Di = internal diameter

f = design stress

j = weld joint factor

C = corrosion allowance of the material used

10.8.3 Nozzle thickness

Thickness of the nozzle for the water inlet and steam outlet is given as

PR
th = +C (Sinnott, 1999)
SE − 0.6P

P = design presure

S = allowable stress

E = weld joint efficiency factor

R= radius of nozzle

C= nozzle corrosion allowance

10.8.4 Heads and closure

A hemispherical head was chosen because it is the strongest shape, capable of resisting about twice

the pressure of torispherical head of the same thickness. Hemispherical heads are also used for

high pressures.

PR
tn = (Sinnot, 1999)
4SE − 0.4P

10.8.5 Vessel supports

The method used to support a vessel will depend on the size, shape, and weight of the vessel; the

design temperature and pressure; the vessel location and arrangement; and the internal and external

fittings and attachments. Horizontal vessels are usually mounted on two saddle supports hence for

the purpose of design the horizontal water-tube boiler would also be mounted on two saddle

supports. (Sinnott, 1999)

10.8.6 Flange joints

Flanged joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessels, for manhole covers, and

for removable vessel heads when ease of access is required. Flanges may also be used on the vessel

body, when it is necessary to divide the vessel into sections for transport or maintenance. Flanged

joints are also used to connect pipes to other equipment, such as pumps and valves. Flanges range

in size from a few millimetres diameter for small pipes, to several metres diameter for those used

as body or head flanges on vessels. Several different types of flange are used for various

applications. The principal types used in the process industries are:

1. Welding-neck flanges.

2. Slip-on flanges, hub and plate types.

3. Lap-joint flanges.

4. Screwed flanges.

5. Blank, or blind, flanges. (Sinnott, 1999)

For this of design, standard would be Lap-joint flanges would be used because they economical

(Sinnott, 1999)

10.8.7 ANALYSIS OF WEIGHT

10.8.7.1 Weight of vessel

The approximate weight of a cylindrical vessel made of stainless steel with hemispherical ends,

and uniform wall thickness, can be estimated from the following equation:

WV = 240CV Dm g(HV + 0.8Dm ) t (Sinnott, 1999)

WV = total weight of the shell, excluding internal fittings

ρm = density of vessel material, kg/m3

HV = height or length of the cylindrical section of vessel

Dm = mean diameter of vessel = (Dt + t), m

t = thickness of wall

CV = a factor to account for the weight of nozzles and internal supports which is taken as 1.08
g = acceleration due to gravity,

But

HV = Lv = 2(THi ) + Lt

THi = SF + DH

THi = total internal head height

Lt = length of tubes

SF = straight flange height = 3.5xt

DH = dish of head= (0.1935do − 0.455t)

do = external head diameter

10.8.7.2 Weight of insulation

Material for insulation: mineral wool (Sinnott, 1999)

The volume of the insulation, Vi = πt i Lv Di (Sinnott, 1999)

Weight of insulation Wi = ρi Vi g

Density of mineral wool, ρi = 130 kg/m3

t i = The insulation thickness

g = accelaration due gravity

10.8.7.3 Weight of tubes

The weight of tube is given as

πD2o L
WTU = ρTU x Number of tubes ( )
4

10.8.8 STRESS ANALYSIS

10.8.8.1 Longitudinal stress

Longitudinal stress due to pressure is given as

Pi R
σ2 = σL = (Moss, 2004)
2t

Where

Di
R=
2

t = thickness

Pi = design pressure

10.8.8.2 Circumferential stress

Circumferential stress is given as

Pi R
σ1 = (Moss, 2004)
t

10.8.8.3 Dead weight stress

Dead weight stress of a vessel is given as

 WT
σW = , (Sinnott, 1999)
π(Di + t)t

10.8.8.4 Saddle support stress analysis

A vessel supported on two saddles can be considered as a simply supported beam, with an

essentially uniform load, and the distribution of longitudinal axial bending moment will be as

shown in figure below. Maxima occur at the supports and at mid-span.

Figure 10.2: Horizontal cylindrical vessel on saddle supports

Stress at the saddle is given as

A R2 − H 2
1 − L + 2AL
QA [1 − 4H ]
1 + 3L
S1 = , (Megyesy, 2008)
K1 R2 t s

And the stress at the mid-span is given as

 R2 − H 2
1 + 2 ( )
QL L2
[ 4H ]
4
1 + 3L
S1m = , (Megyesy, 2008)
πR2 t s

Stress due to internal pressure is given as

PR
Sp = , (Megyesy, 2008)
2t s

Where

Q = Load per a saddle

R = radius of shell

A = distance of saddle centre = 0.4R

H = depth of head

L = length of vessel

t s = shell thickness

10.8.9 SIZING OF NOZZLES

The optimum the diameter for a viscous flow is steel pipes is given as

Dopt = 3q0.36 µ0.18 (Peters and Timmerhaus, 1991)

Where q = flow of water

µ = viscosity of water
10.10 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATION

Design temperature = 525 ˚C

The design stress for stainless steel at 525 ˚C = 60 N/mm2 (Sinnott, 1999)

For carbon steels and alloyed steels, a minimum corrosion allowance of 2.0 mm is used. (Sinnott,

1999)

Taking design pressure to be 10% above the normal working pressure, to avoid spurious operation

during minor process upsets (Sinnott, 1999).

Therefore,

110
design pressure = x 90 bar = 99 bar = 9.9 N⁄mm2
100

Shell thickness

f at 525 ˚C = 72.1 N/mm2

Pi = 9.9 N⁄mm2

C = 2 mm

Di = 2055.3 mm

j=1

9.9 × 2055.3
Shell thickness = + 2 = 153.5 mm
2x72.1 − 9.9
Head and closure

For hemispherical head,

9.9 × 2055.3
th = = 71.5 mm
4 × 72.1 × 1 − 0.4 × 9.9

Thickness of nozzle

A radius of 25 mm is assumed.

9.9 × 25
tn = + 2 = 5.74 mm
72.1 × 1 − 0.6 × 9.9

Analysis of weight

Weight of a stainless steel cylindrical vessel, WV ,

WV = CV πρm Dm g(HV + 0.8Dm )t

Dm = 2055.3 + 153.3 = 2209mm

SF = 3.5x153.5 = 537.25 mm

DH = [0.1935(2209) − 0.455(153.5)] = 79.5 mm

THi = 537.3 + 357.6 = 894.9 mm

Lv = 2(0.8949) + 3.70 = 5.49 m

ρm = 8030 kg⁄m3

g = 9.81 m2 ⁄s
 Wv = 240x1.08x 2.209x[5.49 + 0.8(2.209)]x153.5

= 637835 N

Weight of insulation

Asuming a thickness, t i = 40 mm

Vi = πx0.04x5.49x2.209 = 1.52 m3

density of mineral, ρi = 130 kg⁄m3

g = 9.81 m2 ⁄s

Wi = 130x1.52x9.81 = 1938.5 N

Weight of tubes

(πx0.052 x3.7)
VTu = 818x = 5.94 m3
4

Density for a stainles steel tube, ρTu = 8030 kg⁄m3

Weight of tubes, WT = 8030x 5.94x9.81 = 467919 N

Therefore total weight WT = WT + Wi + Wv

= 467919 + 1938.5 + 637835 = 1107692.5 N = 1107.7 kN

STRESS ANALYSIS

Longitudinal stress

9.9x2055.2
σL = = 33.14 N⁄mm2
4x153.5

Circumferential stress

9.9x2055.2
σh = = 66.28 N⁄mm2
2x153.5

Dead-weight stress of the vessel

1107692.5
σw = = 0.972 N⁄mm2
π(2209 + 153.5)x153.5

Saddle support stress analysis

1107692.5
Q= = 553846.25 N
2

L = 5.49 m

Assuming H = 250 mm

2055.3
R= = 1027.65 mm
2

A = 0.4x1027.65 = 411.06 mm

t s = 153.5 mm
Stress at the saddle

0.411 1.032 − 0.252

+1−
1− 5.94 2 × 0.411 × 5.49
4 × 0.25
1+
𝑆1 = 553846.25 × 0.411 × 3 × 5.49 = 18387.3 N⁄m2
0.335 × 1.032 × 0.1535

[ ]

= 0.018 N⁄mm2

Stress at mid span

1.032 − 0.252
1 + 2 ( )
553846.25 × 5.49 5.492 4 × 0.411
( ) −
4 4 × 0.25 5.49
1+
3 × 5.49
𝑆1𝑚 = = 1048644.5 N⁄m2
𝜋 × 1.032 × 0.1535

= 1.05 N⁄mm2

Stress due internal pressure

9.9 × 1027.65
𝑆𝑝 = = 33.14 N⁄mm2
2 × 153.5

The resultant axial stress due to bending and pressure will be given by:

(𝑆1 + 𝑆1𝑚 ) = 1.068 N⁄mm2 , (𝑆1 + 𝑆𝑝 ) = 33.158 N⁄mm2 and ( 𝑆𝑝 + 𝑆1𝑚 ) = 34.19 N⁄mm2

Accessing the stability of the saddle support

For the saddle support to be stable and serve its purpose, the following conditions must be fulfilled.

The combined maximum axial stress and the stress due to internal pressure should not exceed the

allowable tensile stress of the material.

The combined stresses (𝑆1 + 𝑆1𝑚 ), (𝑆1 + 𝑆𝑝 ) and (𝑆𝑝 + 𝑆1𝑚 ) are all less than the allowable tensile

stress of stainless steel of 60 N/mm2

Hence the given parameters can be considered for the design. The Shell-and-tube heat exchanger

with the above specification is designed as:

Figure 10.3 Standard steel saddles

Table 10.5 Saddle design parameter

Specification Dimension

V 1.28 m

Y 0.225 m

C 1.95 m

E 0.89 m

J 0.520 m
G 0.150 m

t2 16 mm

t1 12 mm

Bolt diameter 24 mm

Bolt hole 30 mm

SIZING OF NOZZLES

1. Water inlet nozzle diameter

density of water at 188 ℃, ρw = 884.768 kg⁄m3

water flow water = 11.098 kg⁄s

11.098
Volumetric flow rate, q w = = 0.01254 m3 ⁄s
884.768

Viscosity of water at 188 ℃, µw = 1.461x10−4 Pa. s

Dopt = 3(0.01254)0.36 (0.461x10−4 )0.18 = 0.1265 m

2. Steam outlet diameter

density of steam at 525℃, ρs = 26.07 kg⁄m3

35956
steam flow rate = = 9.987 kg⁄s
3600

9.987
Volumetric flow rate, q 𝑤 = = 0.383 m3 ⁄s
26.07

Viscosity of steam at 525℃, µw = 2.992x10−5 Pa. s

 Dopt = 3(0.383)0.36 (2.992x10−5 )0.18 = 0.326 m

3. Gas nozzle diameter

Density of gas = 0.2558 kg/m3

109487
flow rate of flue gas = = 30.41 kg/s
3600

30.41
Volumetric flow rate, q s = = 118.89 m3 ⁄s
0.2558

Dopt = 3(118.89)0.36 (5.087x10−5 )0.18 = 2.92

Table 10.6 Summary of Mechanical design

Parameter Value

Design temperature 525 ˚C

Design pressure 9.9 N/ mm2

Shell thickness 153.5 mm

Nozzle thickness 5.74 mm

Hemispherical thickness 71.5 mm

Head type Hemispherical

Longitudinal stress 33.14 N/mm2

Circumferential stress 66.28 N/mm2

Vessel length 5.49 m

Total vessel weight 1107.7 kN

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