The American Heart Association makes every effort to avoid any actual or potential conflicts of interest that may arise as a result of an outside relationship
or a personal, professional, or business interest of a member of the writing panel. Specifically, all members of the writing group are required to complete
and submit a Disclosure Questionnaire showing all such relationships that might be perceived as real or potential conflicts of interest.
This statement was approved by the American Heart Association Science Advisory and Coordinating Committee on February 1, 2013. A copy of the
document is available at http://my.americanheart.org/statements by selecting either the “By Topic” link or the “By Publication Date” link. To purchase
additional reprints, call 843-216-2533 or e-mail kelle.ramsay@wolterskluwer.com.
The American Heart Association requests that this document be cited as follows: Fletcher GF, Ades PA, Kligfield P, Arena R, Balady GJ, Bittner VA, Coke
LA, Fleg JL, Forman DE, Gerber TC, Gulati M, Madan K, Rhodes J, Thompson PD, Williams MA; on behalf of the American Heart Association Exercise,
Cardiac Rehabilitation, and Prevention Committee of the Council on Clinical Cardiology, Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity and Metabolism, Council
on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing, and Council on Epidemiology and Prevention. Exercise standards for testing and training: a scientific statement from
the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2013;128:873–934.
Expert peer review of AHA Scientific Statements is conducted by the AHA Office of Science Operations. For more on AHA statements and guidelines
development, visit http://my.americanheart.org/statements and select the “Policies and Development” link.
Permissions: Multiple copies, modification, alteration, enhancement, and/or distribution of this document are not permitted without the express
permission of the American Heart Association. Instructions for obtaining permission are located at http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/General/Copyright-
Permission-Guidelines_UCM_300404_Article.jsp. A link to the “Copyright Permissions Request Form” appears on the right side of the page.
(Circulation. 2013;128:873-934.)
© 2013 American Heart Association, Inc.
Circulation is available at http://circ.ahajournals.org DOI: 10.1161/CIR.0b013e31829b5b44
873
874 Circulation August 20, 2013
It is acknowledged that the published evidence for some of the muscle fibers, which is the most common type of muscle
recommendations made herein is limited, but the depth of action) or eccentric (lengthening of the muscle fibers, such as
knowledge and experience of the writing group is believed to might occur when a weight is lowered against gravity). Static
provide justification for certain consensus recommendations (isometric) exercise results in no movement of the limb. The
based on expert opinion. metabolic classification refers primarily to the availability of
With regard to a literature search for this revision, no spe- oxygen for the contraction process and includes aerobic (oxygen
cific strategy or formal data quality assessment was used. Each available) or anaerobic (without oxygen) processes. Most exercise
of the 15 members of the writing group has specific expertise involves both dynamic and static contractions as well as aerobic
in ≥1 sections of the document. Accordingly, references were and anaerobic metabolism, and depending on the contribution
selected by the group on the basis of personal experience or of each, the physiological responses can be significantly
readily available publications and databases. The cited refer- different. Current clinical exercise testing procedures manifest a
ences represent a consensus of the writing group. predominant dynamic–aerobic (endurance) component.
ing this time additional purposes for testing have evolved. ments, cardiac output is increased by an augmentation in
Exercise testing now is used widely for the following: stroke volume (mediated through the Frank-Starling mecha-
●● Detection of coronary artery disease (CAD) in patients with nism) and heart rate (HR), as well as an increasing peripheral
chest pain (chest discomfort) syndromes or potential symp- arteriovenous oxygen difference. However, at moderate- to
tom equivalents high-intensity exercise, the continued rise in cardiac output is
●● Evaluation of the anatomic and functional severity of CAD primarily attributable to an increase in HR, as stroke volume
●● Prediction of cardiovascular events and all-cause death typically reaches a plateau at 50% to 60% of maximal oxy-
●● Evaluation of physical capacity and effort tolerance gen uptake (V̇o2max) except in elite athletes. Thus, maximal
●● Evaluation of exercise-related symptoms cardiac output during exercise is the product of augmentation
●● Assessment of chronotropic competence, arrhythmias, and of both stroke volume and HR. Vȯ 2max is equal to the prod-
uct of maximum cardiac output and maximum arteriovenous
response to implanted device therapy
oxygen difference, and even in the absence or minimization
●● Assessment of the response to medical interventions
of change in cardiac output, an important increase in V̇o2max
Understanding the purpose of the individual exercise test during exercise can result from increased oxygen extraction.
allows the test supervisor to determine appropriate methodol- Maximum arteriovenous oxygen difference has a physiologi-
ogy and to select test end points that maximize test safety and cal limit of 15 to 17 mL O2 per 100 mL blood. As a conse-
obtain needed diagnostic and prognostic information. During quence, if maximum effort is achieved, V̇o2max can be used to
the past several decades, exercise testing has been focused estimate maximum cardiac output.
increasingly on assessment of cardiovascular risk, not sim- At fixed, mild-to-moderate submaximal workloads below
ply detection of coronary obstruction.3 Ultimately, improved anaerobic threshold (the point during progressive exercise
clinical outcome is a major goal of exercise testing. beyond which muscles cannot derive all required energy from
oxygen utilization), steady-state conditions usually are reached
within 3 to 5 minutes after the onset of exercise, and subse-
Physiology of Exercise Testing quently, HR, cardiac output, blood pressure, and pulmonary
Aerobic exercise, progressively increasing to maximal
ventilation are maintained at reasonably constant levels.5 As the
tolerance, is a common physiological stress that can elicit
exercise intensity surpasses anaerobic threshold and progresses
cardiovascular or pulmonary abnormalities not present at rest,
toward a maximum level, sympathetic discharge becomes max-
while aiding in the determination of the adequacy of cardiac
imal and parasympathetic stimulation is inhibited, resulting in
function. However, in addition to exercise, the cardiovascular vasoconstriction in most circulatory body systems, except in
response to physiological stress is also commonly evaluated exercising muscle and in the cerebral and coronary circulations.
through the use of pharmacological stress agents. Thus, As exercise progresses, skeletal muscle blood flow and oxygen
whereas “stress testing” traditionally has referred to “exercise,” extraction increase, the latter as much as 3-fold. Total calculated
this term no longer remains precise. The following section peripheral resistance decreases, while systolic blood pressure,
will focus specifically on exercise as a means to provoke mean arterial pressure, and pulse pressure usually increase.
cardiovascular and pulmonary stress. Diastolic blood pressure can remain unchanged or decrease to
a small degree, each of which is considered a normal response.
Types of Exercise The pulmonary vascular bed can accommodate as much as a
Exercise involves muscle activity that has both mechanical 6-fold increase in cardiac output without a significant increase
(dynamic, static) and metabolic (aerobic, anaerobic) properties. in transpulmonary gradient. In normal subjects, this is not a
Dynamic (isotonic) exercise, which causes movement of the limiting determinant of peak exercise capacity. Cardiac output
limb, is also further classified as either concentric (shortening can increase as much as 4- to 6-fold above basal levels during
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 875
strenuous exertion in the upright position, depending on genetic be heard down to 0 mm Hg in some normal subjects. A nor-
endowment and level of training. mal systolic blood pressure response to progressive exercise is
dependent on both sex (higher in males) and age (higher with
HR Response advancing age).5 The average rise in systolic blood pressure
The immediate response of the cardiovascular system to exer- during a progressive exercise test is about 10 mm Hg/MET.
cise is an increase in HR that is attributable to a decrease in After maximum exercise, systolic blood pressure usu-
vagal tone, followed by an increase in sympathetic outflow.5 ally declines because of the rapid decrease in cardiac output,
During dynamic exercise, HR in sinus rhythm increases lin- normally reaching resting levels or lower within 6 minutes,
early with workload and oxygen demand. In subjects not pre- and even remaining lower than preexercise levels for several
scribed a β-blocking agent, the maximal HR achieved during hours.18 When exercise is terminated abruptly, some healthy
exercise is influenced heavily by age and age-related neural
people have precipitous drops in systolic blood pressure
influences; the expected value can be predicted from one of
because of venous pooling (particularly in the upright posi-
several available equations, some of which are derived sepa-
tion) and a delayed immediate postexercise increase in sys-
rately for men and women.6–8 For one of the commonly used
temic vascular resistance to match the reduction in cardiac
equations (maximum predicted HR=220–age in years), a high
output. This postexercise hemodynamic response highlights
degree of variability exists among subjects of identical age
the importance of an active cool-down period when possible.
(±12 beats per minute [bpm]). Accordingly, the practice of
using achievement of 85% of age-predicted maximal HR to Myocardial Oxygen Uptake
Myocardial oxygen uptake is determined primarily by intramyo-
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
intensity and is below the ventilatory threshold. The ventila- Cardiovascular Clinical Status
tory threshold is another measure of relative work effort and V̇o2max is affected by the degree of impairment caused by
represents the point at which ventilation abruptly increases in disease. In particular, preexisting LV dysfunction or the devel-
response to increasing carbon dioxide production (V̇co2) associ- opment of such with exercise-induced myocardial ischemia
ated with increased work rate, despite increasing oxygen uptake. can greatly affect V̇o2max. In addition, the development of
In most cases, the ventilatory threshold is highly reproducible, signs or symptoms associated with the need for exercise test
although it might not be achieved or readily identified in some termination, such as angina pectoris, hypertension, or cardiac
patients, particularly those with very poor exercise capacity.4 dysrhythmia, can greatly impact V̇o2max. Thus, it is difficult
It is convenient to express oxygen uptake in multiples of to accurately predict V̇o2max from its relation to exercise hab-
resting oxygen requirements—that is, METs, whereby a unit its and age alone because of considerable scatter because of
of sitting/resting oxygen uptake (1 MET) is defined as ≈3.5 mL underlying disease. However, achieved values for V̇o2max can
O2 per kilogram of body weight per minute (mL kg−1 min−1). be compared with average normal values by age and sex.1
For example, an oxygen uptake expressed as a 7-MET level
would equal 24.5 mL kg−1 min−1. V̇o2max is influenced by age, Exercise Testing Procedures
sex,. exercise habits, heredity, and cardiovascular clinical status.
Vo2max is equal to the product of maximum cardiac output Absolute and Relative Contraindications to Exercise
and maximum arteriovenous oxygen difference. V̇o2max divided Testing
by the HR at peak exercise (a quantity defined as the oxygen Absolute and relative contraindications to exercise testing
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
pulse) is therefore equal to the forward stroke volume (ie, cardiac balance the risk of the test with the potential benefit of the
output divided by HR) at peak exercise times the arteriovenous information derived from the test. Assessment of this balance
oxygen difference at peak exercise. Because the arteriovenous requires knowledge of the purpose of the test for the individ-
oxygen difference at peak exercise reaches a physiological limit ual subject or patient and what symptom or sign end points
and usually varies little across a wide spectrum of cardiovascular will be for the individual test.
function, most of the clinical variation in the oxygen pulse at Absolute Contraindications
peak exercise is therefore attributable to variation in the forward
stroke volume at peak exercise. Valid inferences about a patient’s ●● Acute myocardial infarction (MI), within 2 days
forward stroke volume at peak exercise therefore can be made ●● Ongoing unstable angina
from determinations of the oxygen pulse at peak exercise. ●● Uncontrolled cardiac arrhythmia with hemodynamic
Normal values for the oxygen pulse (and stroke volume) at compromise
peak exercise are dependent on a patient’s age, size, and sex. ●● Active endocarditis
Predicted values can be calculated easily, however, by dividing ●● Symptomatic severe aortic stenosis
the patient’s predicted V̇o2max (in milliliters per minute) by the ●● Decompensated heart failure
predicted peak HR.20 The oxygen pulse also is influenced by ●● Acute pulmonary embolism, pulmonary infarction, or deep
hemoglobin levels and the arterial oxygen saturation. Proper vein thrombosis
interpretation of oxygen pulse data therefore should take into ●● Acute myocarditis or pericarditis
account abnormalities in these indices. ●● Acute aortic dissection
Age
●● Physical disability that precludes safe and adequate testing
Maximum values of V̇o2max occur between the ages of 15 and
30 years and decrease progressively with age. At age 60 years, Relative Contraindications
mean V̇o2max in men is approximately two thirds of that at 20
years.1 A longitudinal decline in peak V̇o2max was observed
●● Known obstructive left main coronary artery stenosis
in each of 6 age decades in both sexes; however, the rate of
●● Moderate to severe aortic stenosis with uncertain relation
decline accelerated from 3% to 6% per 10 years in individuals to symptoms
in their 20s and 30s to >20% per 10 years in individuals in
●● Tachyarrhythmias with uncontrolled ventricular rates
their 70s and beyond,21 as seen in Figure 1.
●● Acquired advanced or complete heart block
●● Hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy with severe rest-
Sex ing gradient
Women demonstrate a lower V̇o2max than that of men.22 This ●● Recent stroke or transient ischemic attack
lower V̇o2max in women is attributed to their smaller muscle ●● Mental impairment with limited ability to cooperate
mass, lower hemoglobin and blood volume, and smaller stroke ●● Resting hypertension with systolic or diastolic blood pres-
volume relative to men.1 The rate of decline for each decade is sures >200/110 mm Hg
larger in men than in women from the fourth decade onward.21 ●● Uncorrected medical conditions, such as significant ane-
Exercise Habits mia, important electrolyte imbalance, and hyperthyroidism
Physical activity has an important influence on V̇o2max. In
moderately active young men, V̇o2max is ≈12 METs, whereas Subject Preparation
young men performing aerobic training such as distance run- Preparations for exercise testing include the following:
ning can have a V̇o2max as high as 18 to 24 METs (60 to 85
mL kg−1 min−1).1 A similar relationship was found in active ●● The purpose of the test should be clear in advance to maxi-
versus sedentary women.22 mize diagnostic value and to ensure safety. If the indication
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 877
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
for the test is not clear, the referring provider should be con- be instructed to resume medication if rebound phenomena
tacted for further information. occur. Many exercise test evaluations occur while patients
●● The subject or patient should not eat for 3 hours before the are taking usual medications, which should be recorded for
test. Routine medications may be taken with small amounts correlation with test findings.
of water. Subjects should dress in comfortable clothing and ●● A brief history and physical examination are required to rule
wear comfortable walking shoes or sneakers. out contraindications to testing and to detect important clini-
●● The subject or patient should receive a detailed explanation cal signs, such as cardiac murmur, gallop sounds, pulmonary
of the testing procedure and purpose of the test, including wheezing, or rales. Subjects with a history of worsening
the nature of the progressive exercise, symptom and sign unstable angina or decompensated heart failure should not
end points, and possible complications. undergo exercise testing until their condition stabilizes. Physi-
●● When exercise testing is performed for the diagnosis of cal examination should screen for valvular or congenital heart
ischemia, routine medications may be held because some disease, and abnormal hemodynamic responses to exercise in
drugs (especially β-blockers) attenuate the HR and blood these patients could require early termination of testing.
pressure responses to exercise. If ischemia does not occur, A resting supine standard 12-lead ECG should be obtained
the diagnostic value of the test for detection of CAD is before exercise to compare to previously obtained standard
limited. No formal guidelines for tapering or holding ECGs to determine if changes have occurred over time.
medications exist, but 24 hours or more could be required Subsequently, supine and standing (sitting if cycle ergometry
for sustained-release preparations, and the patient should is used) “torso” ECGs (with the limb electrodes on the trunk
878 Circulation August 20, 2013
of the body to minimize motion and muscle artifact during increasingly popular to use digital conversion boxes that wire-
exercise) should be recorded because these could differ lessly transmit to the recording electrocardiograph.
importantly from the preexercise standard ECG. The torso
Electrocardiographic Leads for Exercise Testing
ECG is not equivalent to a standard ECG because the torso ECG
Because a high-quality standard 12-lead ECG with electrodes
can shift the frontal plane axis to the right, increasing voltage
placed on the limbs cannot be obtained during exercise, elec-
in the inferior leads.23,24 This could cause a disappearance of Q
trode placement on the torso is standard for routine testing.
waves in a patient with a documented previous Q-wave inferior
Multiple leads improve test sensitivity.30 As noted, varied
MI or could produce lead placement–dependent artifactual Q
electrode placement results in varied waveforms.23 Although
waves in some normal subjects. Most of the change between
these do alter QRS and T-wave morphology, they are nonethe-
supine limb-lead standard electrocardiographic recordings and
less valid for interpretation of heart rhythm and are generally
upright torso electrocardiographic recordings is attributable to
similar to the standard ECG for detecting ST-segment devia-
electrode position and not to the positional change.25
tion.24,31,32 Torso electrodes generally are applied under the lat-
Standing control torso-lead ECGs should be recorded before
eral clavicles (for the arm leads) and high under the ribcage
testing to allow direct comparison with exercise tracings. If
(for the leg leads), as shown in Figure 2. Nonstandard elec-
torso-lead tracings will be taken in the supine position during
trode placement should be documented on the tracing.
recovery, a supine torso-lead tracing also should be obtained
in the control period. Blood pressures in the upright position Bipolar CM5. A useful bipolar chest lead, not present in the
should be recorded before beginning exercise. Hyperventilation standard 12-lead ECG, can be constructed by using an elec-
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
at rest could produce nonspecific ST-segment changes in some trode placed over the manubrium just below the sternal notch
otherwise normal subjects, and these also might occur during that is paired with precordial lead V5 in its standard position
exercise as false-positive responses for the identification of midway between V4 and V6 in the anterior axillary line. The
ischemia.26–28 Hyperventilation before testing has been sug- resulting precordial bipolar lead CM5 has been found to have
gested to decrease test specificity, and its routine use has been the highest sensitivity for the detection of exercise-induced
criticized in a recent guideline.29 When electrocardiographic subendocardial ischemia among commonly used single
changes occur with hyperventilation, this should be acknowl- leads.33 This results from the general axis of the lead along
edged in the test interpretation. the LV cavity from base to apex and also from the high lead
strength of the electrode pair in this position.
Electrocardiographic Recording
Skin Preparation Lead –aVR in Exercise Testing. Lead aVR, when inverted,
An important factor governing the recording quality of an takes its place in the frontal plane halfway between standard
exercise ECG is the interface between electrode and skin. bipolar leads I and II. Because this axis also aligns with the
Removal of the superficial oils and layer of skin by gentle general axis of the left ventricle, –aVR (inverted aVR) is
abrasion significantly lowers resistance, thus improving the widely used in routine electrocardiography in other countries
signal-to-noise ratio. The areas for electrode application are and also has been endorsed for routine use in resting elec-
first shaved and then rubbed with alcohol-saturated gauze. trocardiography by AHA/ACCF statements.34 ST-segment
After the skin dries, it is marked with a felt-tipped pen and deviation is opposite in aVR and –aVR, with ST depression
rubbed with fine sandpaper or other rough material. With these attributable to subendocardial ischemia in –aVR showing up
procedures, skin resistance can be reduced to 5000 Ω or less. as ST elevation in standard-lead aVR.35 For many years, aVR
was generally ignored in both routine and exercise electrocar-
Electrodes and Cables
diography. Recognition of ST depression in aVR as a useful
Disposable electrodes used in exercise testing are generally
finding in some cases of ST-elevation infarction has prompted
silver–silver chloride combinations with adherent gel. Contact
its reevaluation in general exercise testing. Several studies
between electrodes and the skin generally improves with sev-
have highlighted its usefulness for the detection of demand
eral minutes of application time and with the moisture that
ischemia during exercise and for the recognition of left main
occurs with sweating during exercise, although excess sweat-
and proximal left anterior descending stenoses.36,37 It is likely
ing can result in loosening of the contact between electrode
that much of this diagnostic value is attributable to the rela-
and skin. Wrapping the torso with a 6-inch elastic bandage or
tionship of the derived lead to the axis of the left ventricle as
with a fitted torso net can reduce noise produced by electrode
a result of torso placement of the electrodes (which actually
and cable movement, especially in obese patients. Electrode
makes a torso-based –aVR somewhat similar to CM5 in axis).
placement for signal stability in large-breasted women can be
It should be noted that the spatial diagnostic information con-
difficult, sometimes requiring tradeoff of variable location and
tained in aVR cannot exceed that of the other routine electro-
motion artifact.
cardiographic leads because it is mathematically dependent on
Hard-wired connecting cables between the electrodes and
(and calculated from) any 2 bipolar limb leads.34 This notwith-
recorder should be light, flexible, and properly shielded.
standing, the clinical value of aVR (–aVR) appears promising.
Most available commercial exercise cables are constructed to
lessen motion artifact by digitizing the electrocardiographic Electrocardiographic Mapping During Exercise. Multiple
waveform at the cable box proximal to the attachment to the electrodes in excess of the standard 10 can be used to derive
electrocardiograph recorder itself. Cables generally have a body surface potential maps at rest and during exercise,
life span of about 1 year and eventually must be replaced to which can provide additional insight into exercise-related
reduce acquired electrical interference and discontinuity. It is ischemia.38–40 Because of complexity, these are not routinely
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 879
used for clinical exercise test purposes. Details are beyond the of the PR segment, as occur when the reliable point is actu-
scope of the present statement. ally on the descending limb of a P wave with a shortened PR
interval during exercise, will confound the baseline used for
Relative Sensitivity of Leads. In general, more electrodes lead
measurement of ST-segment shift and will result in incorrect
to greater test sensitivity.30 The lateral precordial leads (V4
automated ST-segment measurement. Measurement error also
through V6) are capable of detecting 90% of all ST depression
will result from failure of automated detection of the end of
observed in multiple lead systems, and recent studies have
the QRS complex. As is true with automated algorithms for
emphasized the general individual sensitivity of CM5 and
the interpretation of resting ECGs, the computer should be an
(–)aVR, both of which are in the general vector direction
adjunct to, not a substitute for, human interpretation.
of the standard lateral precordial leads. Unlike ST elevation
during acute MI, ST depression during demand-induced Exercise Equipment
subendocardial ischemia during exercise does not localize the Details on exercise testing equipment and exercise testing lab-
area of myocardium that is involved. oratories can be found in the AHA’s “Guidelines for Clinical
Exercise Testing Laboratories.”42,43 Treadmill and cycle ergom-
Computer-Assisted Electrocardiographs
eters are the most commonly used dynamic exercise testing
Because electrocardiographic artifact during exercise is an
devices. Figure 3 illustrates the relation of V̇o2 and METs to
interpretive problem, most digitized resting and exercise
stages in a variety of treadmill protocols and kilopond-meters–
ECGs use averaged updated cardiac cycles to generate rep-
per–minute values for bicycle ergometry. Treadmill testing is
resentative complexes for each lead.34 These can involve
generally favored in the United States, where bicycle riding is
incremental updating or averaging of multiple aligned cycles
less prevalent than in Europe and elsewhere. Having both exer-
to reduce random noise and to reduce beat-to-beat variability
cise modes available is advantageous, given that some individ-
caused by respiration and movement. Automated measure-
uals have difficulty with treadmill ambulation for reasons that
ment of ST-segment shifts based on individual representative
include imbalance and orthopedic limitations, whereas other
complexes has the potential to increase precision of the mag-
individuals develop earlier exercise fatigue using the bicycle.
nitude of repolarization deviation,41 but this is true only when
reliable points determining baseline, QRS onset, and QRS Treadmill
offset (for determining the J-point and ST-segment levels at The treadmill should have front rails, side rails, or both to aid
any specified time after the J point) are selected accurately in subject stability. However, subjects should be encouraged not
by the computer algorithm. At faster HRs, there invariably is to tightly grasp the front or side rails because this action sup-
merging of the end of the T wave with the P wave in patients ports body weight and thus reduces the workload at any given
in sinus rhythm, making the standard T–P baseline unusable stage, leading to the potential for a significant overestimation of
during exercise for most patients. For this reason, the end of oxygen uptake. It can be helpful if subjects remove their hands
the PR segment is used as a compromise isoelectric baseline from the rails, close their fists, and place one finger of each hand
by automated algorithms. Errors in determination of the end on the rails to maintain balance after they are accustomed to
880 Circulation August 20, 2013
walking on the treadmill. The treadmill should have variable period (again at low workload). Several different treadmill pro-
speed and grade capability and must be accurately calibrated. tocols are in general use and are seen in detail in Figure 3.44,45
Most modern computer-driven treadmills can be programmed The test protocol should be selected according to the pur-
to adjust automatically to a wide range of stepped or ramp exer- pose of testing and the individual patient.47 Advantages of the
cise protocols. Standard tables can be used to convert treadmill standard Bruce protocol include its use in many published
grade and speed into estimated MET levels.44,45 studies and its achievement of end-stage equilibrium. A disad-
vantage is the large interstage increments in workload between
Cycle Ergometer
stages that can make estimation of V̇o2max less accurate. Some
Electrically braked cycles vary the resistance to the pedaling
subjects, especially those who are elderly, obese, or have gait
speed (rate-independent ergometers), thereby permitting bet-
difficulties, are forced to stop exercising prematurely because
ter power output control, because it is common for subjects
of musculoskeletal discomfort or an inability to tolerate the
who are fatigued or unable to cooperate to decrease their ped-
high workload increments. Initial zero or one-half stages (1.7
aling speed. The highest values of V̇o2 and HR are obtained
mph at 0% and 5% grades) can be used for subjects with com-
with pedaling speeds of 50 to 80 rpm. Cycle ergometers are
promised exercise capacities. Many protocols have been used
calibrated in kiloponds or watts (W); 1 W is equivalent to ≈6
in place of the Bruce.43 The Cornell protocol reduces the large
kilopond-meters per minute (kpm/min). Because exercise on a
workload changes between stages of the standard Bruce proto-
cycle ergometer is not weight bearing, kiloponds or watts can
col by reducing stage duration to 2 minutes while interpolating
be converted to oxygen uptake in milliliters per minute. METs
additional half stages.48 The Naughton and Balke protocols also
are obtained by dividing V̇o2 in milliliters per minute by the
provide more modest increases in workload between stages and
product of body weight (in kilograms) × 3.5.
are useful choices for elderly, deconditioned patients. A com-
The cycle ergometer is usually less expensive, occupies less
plete set of protocols can be found in the American College of
space, and is less noisy than a treadmill. Upper body motion is
Sports Medicine guide for exercise prescription and testing.44
usually reduced, making it easier to obtain blood pressure mea-
Ramp protocols start the subject at a relatively low treadmill
surements and to record the ECG. Care must be taken to pre-
speed, which is increased gradually until the patient has a good
vent isometric or resistance exercise of the arms while grasping
stride.49 The ramp angle of incline is increased progressively at
the handlebars. However, a major limitation of cycle ergometer
fixed intervals (ie, 10 to 60 seconds, or now even continuously)
testing is discomfort and fatigue of the quadriceps muscles that
starting at 0% grade, with the increase in grade calculated on the
can limit test tolerance. Leg fatigue in an inexperienced sub-
patient’s estimated functional capacity, such that the protocol
ject could cause early test termination before reaching a true
V̇o2max. Thus, V̇o2max is 10% to 20% lower in cycle versus will be completed in 6 to 12 minutes. In this type of protocol,
treadmill testing in those not accustomed to cycling.46 the rate of work increases continuously, and complete steady
states are not reached. Exercise protocols should be individual-
Exercise Protocols ized according to the type of subject being tested. A 9-minute
Protocols for clinical exercise testing generally include an ini- targeted ramp protocol that increases in small steps has many
tial warm-up period (at low workload), followed by progressive advantages, including more accurate estimates of MET level.50
graded exercise with increasing loads and an adequate time For cycle ergometry, the initial power output is usually 10
interval in each level, and a post–maximum effort recovery or 25 W (150 kpm/min), usually followed by increases of 25
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 881
W every 2 or 3 minutes until end points are reached. If arm available during all exercise tests. For additional details about
ergometry is substituted for cycle ergometry, a similar protocol supervision and interpretation of exercise tests, reference is
may be used, except that initial power output and incremental made to the document on clinical competence in stress testing
increases are lower. Two-minute stages are most popular with from the ACCF, AHA, and American College of Physicians.59
arm ergometry.51,52 However, most subjects who are unable Although exercise testing is considered a safe procedure,60
to use their legs for treadmill or bicycle exercise generally acute MI and deaths have been reported during testing. The
undergo pharmacological stress testing with imaging. physician or senior medical (healthcare) professional conduct-
The 6-minute walk test is a functional test that can be used ing the test must be trained in advanced cardiopulmonary resus-
to evaluate submaximal exercise capacity. This assessment citation. A defibrillator and appropriate medications also should
has frequently been used in patients with chronic disease, be immediately available. Surveys suggest that 0 to 6 deaths or
such as heart failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cardiac arrests per 10 000 tests and 2 to 10 MIs per 10 000 tests
and peripheral arterial occlusive disease.53–55 Patients are might be expected, but these estimates will vary markedly with
instructed to walk down a 100-foot corridor at their own pace, the prevalence and severity of underlying heart disease in the
attempting to walk as much distance as possible in 6 minutes. tested population.60,61 Risk is higher in patients being evaluated
At the end of the 6-minute interval, the total distance walked for malignant ventricular arrhythmias and in the unrevascular-
is determined and the symptoms experienced by the patient ized post-MI patient, whereas serious complications are very
recorded. Detailed guidelines describing the administration of rare in clinically normal subjects. Table 1 lists several classes of
the 6-minute walk test are available.56 The intensity of effort complications that can result from exercise tests.
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
Table 2. Borg Scale for Rating Perceived ●● Fatigue, shortness of breath, wheezing, leg cramps, or
Exertion claudication
20-Grade Scale
●● Arrhythmias other than sustained VT, including multifocal
ectopy, ventricular triplets, supraventricular tachycardia,
6
and bradyarrhythmias that have the potential to become
7 Very, very light more complex or to interfere with hemodynamic stability
8 ●● Exaggerated hypertensive response (systolic blood pressure
9 Very light >250 mm Hg or diastolic blood pressure >115 mm Hg)
10 ●● Development of bundle-branch block that cannot immedi-
11 Fairly light ately be distinguished from VT
12 The Postexercise Period
13 Somewhat hard Some abnormal responses occur only in recovery.64 A cool-
14 down period of walking slowly in early recovery is commonly
15 Hard used, although this can delay or eliminate the appearance of
ST-segment depression as compared with abrupt placement in
16
the supine position, which increases cardiac work because of
17 Very hard
increased venous return.65 Monitoring should continue for 6 to
18 8 minutes after exercise, or longer if the patient is symptomatic
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
19 Very, very hard or if blood pressure, HR, and ST segments have not returned
20 to near-baseline values. Even when no abnormalities occur
Reprinted from Borg219 with permission of the at peak exercise, postexercise attention is necessary because
publisher. Copyright ©1982, the American College of an abnormal electrocardiographic response might occur only
Sports Medicine. during the recovery period. Mechanical dysfunction and elec-
trophysiological abnormalities in the ischemic ventricle after
Indications for Termination of Exercise Testing exercise can persist for minutes to hours. Monitoring of blood
The decision to terminate exercise is an important function of pressure should continue during recovery because abnormal
test supervision that is generally determined by the purpose responses could occur, particularly hypotension, and arrhyth-
of testing in individual subjects. Symptom-limited testing is mias also might be present in the recovery period.
desirable for general evaluation, but this recommendation
could be modified in several situations.58 Management of Pacemakers and Implantable Defibrillators
Exercise testing can be used to assess rate responsiveness of
Absolute Indications implanted pacemakers and occasionally reveals abnormalities
of tracking function that can limit effort capacity. In patients
●● ST-segment elevation (>1.0 mm) in leads without preexist-
with implanted defibrillators that are triggered by rapid rate
ing Q waves because of prior MI (other than aVR, aVL,
alone, firing function should be temporarily disabled before
and V1)
maximum testing if the threshold HR might be reached during
●● Drop in systolic blood pressure >10 mm Hg, despite an
exercise. In the presence of a ventricular paced rhythm, the ECG
increase in workload, when accompanied by any other evi-
cannot be evaluated for ischemia, and it should be noted that
dence of ischemia
“pacemaker memory” could produce abnormal repolarization
●● Moderate-to-severe angina
that can mimic ischemia when long-term pacing is discontinued
●● Central nervous system symptoms (eg, ataxia, dizziness,
to examine the underlying electrocardiographic waveform.66
near syncope)
●● Signs of poor perfusion (cyanosis or pallor)
●● Sustained ventricular tachycardia (VT) or other arrhythmia,
Clinical and Cardiopulmonary Responses During
including second- or third-degree atrioventricular (AV)
Exercise
block, that interferes with normal maintenance of cardiac Clinical Responses
output during exercise
Symptoms
●● Technical difficulties in monitoring the ECG or systolic
Assessment of perceived symptoms is an integral component
blood pressure
of the exercise test. Symptom assessment typically includes
●● The subject’s request to stop
separate quantification of dyspnea, angina, and perceived
Relative Indications exertion. Scales for each of these symptoms are provided in
the present statement and other documents.43 Typical anginal
●● Marked ST displacement (horizontal or downsloping of >2 symptoms induced by the exercise test are predictive of CAD
mm, measured 60 to 80 ms after the J point [the end of the and are even more predictive with associated ST-segment
QRS complex]) in a patient with suspected ischemia depression.67 Exercise limited by dyspnea seems to portend
●● Drop in systolic blood pressure >10 mm Hg (persistently a worse prognosis than does angina or leg fatigue.68,69 It is
below baseline) despite an increase in workload, in the important to obtain from the patient a careful description of all
absence of other evidence of ischemia perceived symptoms during exercise and to document what the
●● Increasing chest pain patient considers to be the primary limiting factor. An accurate
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 883
quantification of patient-reported symptoms also can be used patient populations (eg, those with heart failure or pulmonary
to prescribe an appropriate intensity for exercise training. arterial hypertension). Thus, CPX provides the clinician with
Physical Signs a highly accurate, reliable, and comprehensive assessment of
The subject’s general appearance during the exercise test is also all systems involved in the response to aerobic exercise (ie,
of value and should be carefully observed during the exercise cardiac, pulmonary, and skeletal muscle). Currently, CPX is
test. Signs of poor perfusion, such as cyanosis or pallor, and common in clinical practice for patients with heart failure
increasing nervous system symptoms, such as ataxia, dizzi- who are being considered for transplantation and for those
ness, and vertigo, serve as absolute test termination criteria.58 with unexplained exertional dyspnea.58 A detailed description
Although the diagnostic value has not been confirmed, cardiac of CPX can be found in a scientific statement by the AHA.19
auscultation immediately after exercise has been proposed to
The ECG During Exercise
assess cardiac function. “Gallop” sounds, a palpable precordial
bulge, or the development of a mitral regurgitant murmur after Electrocardiographic Findings During Exercise in Normal
exercise could suggest LV dysfunction resulting from exercise.70 Subjects
Exercise Capacity P Wave
Aerobic exercise capacity is one of the single best predictors of During exercise, P-wave magnitude increases significantly in
risk for future adverse events in apparently healthy individuals, the frontal plane inferior leads. P-wave duration is generally
those at increased risk for CVD, and virtually all patient popu- unchanged or is minimally longer.80
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
QT-Interval Dynamics highly selected patients with CAD and in normal subjects,90 it is
As a result of the interval–duration relationship, action poten- generally defined as an “equivocal” test response. Equivocal test
tials shorten as HR increases with exercise, and the resulting responses are a major reason for the reduced sensitivity of the
QT interval of the ECG is further affected by neurohumoral exercise ECG. However, if upsloping ST depression were con-
changes that accompany effort.92 In most normal subjects, the sidered a positive response, it would result in unacceptably low
absolute QT decreases from the onset of effort, although in specificity of the test. Other recognized causes of false negative
some subjects (more commonly women) there can be a para- test responses include inadequate effort and anatomically mild
doxical absolute QT prolongation in the early minutes of the disease; test sensitivity rises markedly with increasing sever-
test.93 When the measured QT interval is corrected for rate by ity of obstruction.90,96,101 Other factors related to the probability
the Bazett formula (corrected QT = measured QT/RR0.5), it and severity of CAD include the degree, time of appearance,
is common for the corrected QT to rise early in exercise and duration, and number of leads with ST-segment depression. The
then decrease as rates increase at higher exercise workloads.94 anatomic and functional severity of CAD also can be related
Abnormal Electrocardiographic Changes During Exercise to the time of appearance of ischemic ST-segment depression.
and Recovery in Ischemia The lower the workload and rate–pressure product at which it
occurs, the worse is the prognosis and the more likely the pres-
ST-Segment Deviation ence of multivessel disease; the duration of ST depression in
Changes in the level of the ST segment comprise the earliest the recovery phase also can be related to the severity of CAD.91
abnormal finding in the history of exercise testing and have
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
been the focus of standard test criteria for the diagnosis of ST-Segment Elevation in Postinfarction Patients With Q
myocardial ischemia for well over half a century. The ST level Waves. Exercise-induced elevation can occur in an infarct area
is measured relative to the end of the PR segment (the P–Q where prior Q waves are present. The development of >0.10 mV
junction) because the T(U)–P segment during exercise is dif- of J-point elevation (>1.0 mm at standard gain) at 60 ms after
ficult or impossible to measure when HRs are fast. Three or the J point is considered an abnormal response. In the presence
more consecutive beats in the same lead with a stable base- of prior Q-wave MI, this could represent reversible ischemia in
line should be identified and the average magnitude and tan- the peri-infarct area or ventricular dyskinesis or akinetic LV seg-
gent direction of displacement at 60 to 80 ms after the J point mental wall motion.102,103 Approximately 30% of subjects with
determined, either manually or by use of computer-averaged anterior infarction and 15% of subjects with inferior infarction
complexes.95 It is essential to visually verify automated mea- demonstrate exercise-induced ST-segment elevation in Q-wave
surements made by computer. leads. The changes could result in reciprocal ST-segment depres-
ST-Segment Depression. ST-segment depression is the tra- sion that simulates myocardial ischemia in other leads. However,
ditional manifestation of exercise-induced myocardial isch- ST-segment elevation and ST-segment depression in the same
emia.91,96 ST-segment depression recorded on the body surface test also could indicate multivessel CAD. Myocardial imaging
represents the magnitude and direction of electrical gradients techniques can help distinguish the concomitant presence of a
generated by ischemic vectors across the endocardium and new myocardial ischemic zone from reciprocal changes induced
epicardium, as well as the location of the recording electrodes. by ST-segment elevation in Q-wave leads.
Upsloping, horizontal, and downsloping types of ST-segment
ST-Segment Elevation in Subjects Without Prior Infarction.
depression are illustrated in Figure 4. Demand ischemia dur-
In subjects without previous infarction (absence of Q waves
ing exercise is limited primarily to the endocardium, with
on the resting ECG), ST-segment elevation during exercise
reductions in phase 2 plateau amplitude and also less nega-
frequently localizes the site of severe transient combined
tive phase 4 resting membrane potentials contributing to ST
endocardial and subepicardial ischemia resulting from sig-
depression on the surface ECG.3 The standard criteria for
nificant subtotal proximal occlusive CAD.104 It also can occur
test positivity include horizontal or downsloping ST depres-
during spasm in otherwise nonobstructed or mildly obstructed
sion ≥1 mm (0.1 mV) at 60 to 80 ms after the J point. When
coronary arteries,105 but this is uncommon.106 Exercise-
modest resting ST depression is present on the upright control
induced ST-segment elevation is more commonly associated
ECG before exercise, only additional ST depression during
with anatomically severe fixed proximal obstruction than with
exercise is measured for analysis. In the presence of resting
coronary spasm in otherwise unobstructed arteries.
ST-segment elevation at 60 to 80 ms after the J point because
of early repolarization, only ST-segment changes below the ST-Segment Normalization
P-Q baseline should be used for analysis.97 Repolarization changes that are present at rest, including
Markedly depressed upsloping ST-depression responses to T-wave inversion and ST-segment depression, have been
exercise (2.0 mm at 80 ms after the J point) could identify under- reported to normalize during clinical episodes of angina and
lying CAD and future adverse events in highly symptomatic during exercise in some subjects with ischemic heart disease.
patients with angina,98 and increased area of the time integral Normalization of the ST segment during exercise might be
of upsloping ST depression might be associated with increased related to cancellation effects of oppositely directed forces
risk of future coronary events in higher-risk men.99 However, from multiple areas of ischemia (ischemic counterpoise),107,108
upsloping ST depression during exercise, whether rapid or slow which could explain false negative test findings in some
in configuration, is not usefully predictive for the presence of patients with multivessel CAD. It is usual for young subjects
myocardial ischemia in general populations.100 Because upslop- with early repolarization to have normalization of resting
ing ST-segment depression is comparably prevalent in less ST-segment elevation during exercise.
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 885
Figure 4. Definition of
ST-segment depression
changes during exercise.
Positive standard test
responses include horizontal
or downsloping depression
≥1.0 mm (0.1 mV), whereas
upsloping ST depression ≥1.0
mm is considered equivocal
(a change that does not
usefully separate normal from
abnormal). All ST depression
<1.0 mm additional from
baseline is defined as negative.
The waveforms depicted are
modified from Tavel610 with
permission of the publisher,
copyright © 2001, American
College of Chest Physicians,
but the classification and
definitions represent the
consensus of the writing group.
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
HR Adjustment of ST-Segment Depression. Peak HR and because ST change is averaged over the entire HR change of
the change in HR during exercise are lower in patients with exercise, with an ST/HR index of >1.6 µV/bpm defined as
ischemic disease than in normal subjects.101 At the same time, abnormal.90,111 Because it is calculated from only upright con-
increasing HR during graded exercise is what influences pro- trol and peak exercise data, the ST/HR index can be derived
gressive ST-segment depression because it is a major deter- from tests that are not gently graded. The ST/HR index has
minant of myocardial oxygen demand.109 As a consequence, been shown in retrospective application to improve prediction
it is physiologically rational to adjust observed ST-segment of coronary events in asymptomatic higher-risk men112 and
depression for the change in HR associated with its produc- also in asymptomatic lower-risk men and women.113 These
tion to derive indices of the presence and extent of obstructive methods require further prospective evaluation.
CAD. HR adjustment of ST-segment depression can improve
Recovery Phase ST/HR Loops and Hysteresis. As the HR
the sensitivity of the exercise test with preservation of test
slows during early recovery from peak exercise, the recovery
specificity, primarily from improved classification of patients
phase behavior of the depressed ST segment as it returns to
with equivocal test responses attributable to upsloping ST
normal differs in normal subjects and patients with ischemia.
segments.90,110 Differences in test performance among studies
ST/HR loops and hysteresis provide alternative criteria for
with these methods could result from population differences
test positivity and negativity. After 1 minute of recovery, ST
and from technical differences in methodology. The methods
depression attributable to ischemia is generally greater than
are not accurate in the early phase after Q-wave infarction in
it was at the same HR during exercise, whereas in normal
patients with resting abnormalities of repolarization, but they
subjects it is less.114 Extension of this principle to encompass
do seem to increase the sensitivity of the exercise ECG in gen-
measurement of the recovery phase area above or below the
eral populations.111 Further prospective evaluation of their val-
ST depression occurring with exercise forms the basis of
ues and limitations for specific purposes of testing is required.
ST/HR hysteresis, where the term hysteresis is used to
The ST/HR Slope and the ST/HR Index. Calculation of max- indicate asymmetry of measured responses with respect to
imal ST-segment (ST)/HR slope in microvolts per beat per another variable occurring during exercise and recovery, such
minute is performed by linear regression analysis relating the as time from peak effort, or in this case to matched HR during
measured amount of ST-segment depression in individual leads exercise and recovery. ST/HR hysteresis appears to provide
to the HR at the end of each stage of exercise, starting at end higher diagnostic and prognostic test accuracy than that found
exercise. An ST/HR slope >2.4 µV/bpm is considered abnor- for simultaneously measured standard ST-segment depression
mal, and values >6 µV/bpm are suggestive of anatomically criteria and for the ST/HR indices.115–117
extensive disease, including 3-vessel or left main CAD.111 The Beyond the ST Segment
practical use of this measurement requires an exercise proto- Because the surface ECG reflects uncancelled summation
col with gradual increments in HR, such as the Cornell Pro- of individual action potentials in the heart, and because
tocol, because large increments in rate between stages of the demand-induced ischemia affects action potentials beyond
Bruce Protocol limit the ability to calculate statistically valid alterations in plateau phase and resting membrane potential,
ST/HR slopes by regression.48 A modification of the ST/HR it is reasonable to expect changes in the exercise ECG that
slope method is the simple ST/HR index calculation, which extend beyond the ST segment, either alone or as modified
represents the average changes of ST-segment depression with for HR behavior.116,118 Several changes in the ECG during
HR throughout the course of the exercise test and requires no exercise-induced ischemia have been proposed as markers
regression calculation. The ST/HR index measurements dur- for obstructive CAD. Even though these findings are not used
ing ischemia are lower than the ST/HR slope measurements in routine test interpretation, they are described briefly in the
886 Circulation August 20, 2013
next sections. It is emphasized that prospective evaluation of infarction has been associated with reversible ischemia during
these criteria in larger, multicenter populations is required dobutamine stress echocardiography135 but also has been asso-
for clarification of their value and limitations.3 Combinations ciated with perfusion of the ischemic area and late recovery of
of criteria have the potential to improve test accuracy,119 but ventricular function after anterior infarction.136
comprehensive prospective evaluation of the value and limi-
tations of combinations of standard and alternative criteria U-Wave Changes. Exercise-induced U-wave inversion in sub-
in relevant populations is needed if further progress is to be jects with a normal resting ECG can be a marker of myocardial
made in exercise ECG. ischemia in up to one quarter of patients with single-vessel left
anterior descending disease.137 Sympathetic stimulation by
P-Wave Abnormalities. Among patients with chest pain both exercise treadmill testing and by isoproterenol infusion,
evaluated by myocardial perfusion imaging, exercise-related but not atrial pacing, was found to prolong the QT interval,
P-wave duration and terminal P-wave amplitude in V1 have with U-wave enlargement in subjects with some types of con-
been reported to be greater in patients with reversible isch- genital long-QT syndrome.138
emia than in patients with normal scans,120–122 a finding that
might be attributed to left atrial pressure overload during isch- QT Interval and QT Hysteresis. Absence of QT interval
emia. An increase in P-wave duration by signal-averaging has shortening at peak exercise (as generally rate-corrected by
also been associated with ischemia.80 the Bazett formula) has been proposed as a marker for induc-
ible ischemia. However, differences in peak HR between
R-Wave Amplitude Changes. The average response in nor- patients with and without ischemia and problems with inac-
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
mal subjects is an increase in R-wave amplitude during sub- curacy of the Bazett correction at the faster rates that occur
maximal exercise, with a decrease at maximum exercise. An during exercise have limited the applicability of peak-
increase in R wave at peak exercise has been associated with exercise QT interval alone as an electrocardiographic cri-
myocardial ischemia,123,124 perhaps as a correlate of LV isch- terion for ischemia.94 The QT interval–HR relationship or
emic dilatation. Exercise-induced changes in R-wave ampli- QT/RR relationship during early stages of exercise can be
tude have not consistently improved diagnostic accuracy of defined by linear regression93; however, greater value for diag-
the exercise ECG, despite use of several lead systems, clini- nosis of CAD appears to result from examination of QT–RR
cal subsets of subjects, and different criteria for an abnormal interval hysteresis during exercise and recovery, for which
response.125 patients with ischemia have greater decrease in recovery QT
intervals than during exercise itself, both relative to cycle
QRS Duration. Careful measurement of QRS duration dur- length rather than time.139
ing the course of exercise has suggested that absence of QRS
shortening at peak exercise can be a marker for underlying Disorders of Impulse Formation. Disorders of impulse for-
CAD, particularly in women and in some situations with oth- mation include supraventricular and ventricular arrhythmias.
erwise false-positive ST-segment responses.85,126–129 Further Exercise can induce cardiac arrhythmias under several con-
exploration of these observations with global measurements ditions, including diuretic and digitalis therapy.140–142 Recent
of QRS duration obtained by digitized simultaneous lead ingestion of alcohol or caffeine can exacerbate arrhythmias.
acquisition of “global” QRS determinations is warranted. Because exercise increases myocardial oxygen demand, in the
presence of CAD, exercise-induced myocardial ischemia could
High-Frequency QRS Fragmentation. Reduction of root
predispose the subject to ectopic activity. It seems that isch-
mean square and peak amplitudes of signal-averaged high-
emia with ST depression is not as arrhythmogenic as ischemia
frequency QRS complexes and occurrence of reduced high-
with ST elevation. Exercise-induced arrhythmias are generated
frequency amplitude zones have been found to have useful test
by enhanced sympathetic tone, increased myocardial oxygen
performance characteristics for the detection of CAD.130,131 demand, or both. The period immediately after exercise is par-
These techniques require special filtering methodology. ticularly dangerous because of the high catecholamine levels
QRS Score. An index based on exercise-induced changes in that are associated with generalized vasodilation. Peripheral
amplitudes of Q, R, and S waves was introduced as the Athens arterial dilation induced by exercise and reduced cardiac out-
QRS score89 and has been related to the extent of CAD and put, resulting from diminished venous return secondary to sud-
to the anatomic extent of myocardial ischemia.118,132 The QRS den termination of muscular activity, can lead to a reduction
score has been separately shown to complement ST-segment in coronary perfusion in early recovery while the HR is still
depression criteria for the detection of CAD.133 elevated. The increased sympathetic tone in the myocardium
can stimulate ectopic Purkinje pacemaker activity by accelerat-
T-Wave Changes. An increase in precordial T-wave amplitude ing phase 4 of the action potential, which provokes spontane-
has been associated with the localized onset of apical asynergy ous discharge and leads to increased automaticity.
during dobutamine stress electrocardiography.134 The morphol- Exercise can suppress cardiac arrhythmias that are present
ogy of the T wave is influenced by body position, respiration, at rest. This phenomenon has been attributed to the overdrive
hyperventilation, drug therapy, and myocardial ischemia/necro- suppression of the ectopic impulse formation by sinus tachy-
sis. In patient populations with a low CAD prevalence, normal- cardia that is caused by exercise-induced vagal withdrawal and
ization of inverted T waves with exercise is a nondiagnostic increased sympathetic stimulation. Exercise-induced sinus
finding. In patients with CAD, findings have varied. Exercise- tachycardia might inhibit automaticity of an ectopic focus
induced normalization of inverted T waves after non–Q-wave because it “overrides” automaticity of the Purkinje tissue.
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 887
Supraventricular Arrhythmias. Sinus arrhythmias with peri- limited to these precordial leads alone is rare in myocardial
ods of sinus bradycardia and wandering atrial pacemaker ischemia, the usual diagnostic criteria can be applied in the
are relatively common during early exercise and the imme- remaining inferolateral leads. The development of right bundle-
diate recovery phase. Atrial ectopic contractions and atrial branch block during exercise is less common than the devel-
“group” beats can occur in either normal or diseased hearts. opment of left bundle-branch block in populations with a high
Exercise-induced transient atrial fibrillation and flutter occur prevalence of underlying heart disease, but whereas left bundle-
in <1% of individuals who undergo exercise testing.143 These branch block occurs commonly in patients with nonischemic
arrhythmias can be induced by exercise in healthy individuals cardiomyopathies, right bundle-branch block has been associ-
or in subjects with rheumatic heart disease, hyperthyroidism, ated with underlying CAD as the origin of disease, particularly
Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) syndrome, or cardiomyopa- with obstructive disease affecting the left anterior descending
thy, and they can be problematic if the ventricular response artery.155 The strength of this association has been questioned by
is rapid. Paroxysmal AV junctional tachycardia is observed a recent study,156 and rate-dependency of the right bundle in less
during exercise only rarely. Exercise-induced supraventricular selected populations could limit predictive value.
arrhythmias alone are not usually related to CAD but are more
AV Conduction. Shortening of the PR interval (by as much
often related to older age, pulmonary disease, recent alcohol
as 0.10 or 0.11 seconds) during exercise as the sinus rate
ingestion, or excessive caffeine intake.
increases is normal, probably because of increased sym-
Ventricular Arrhythmias. Ectopic ventricular beats are the pathetic tone and vagal withdrawal. This usually occurs in
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
most frequent cardiac arrhythmia during exercise. Their prev- young, healthy individuals.81
alence is related directly to age and cardiac abnormalities. In
First-Degree AV Block. First-degree AV block occurs occa-
general, ectopic ventricular beats are of concern in subjects
sionally at the end of exercise or during the recovery phase,
with a family history of sudden death or a personal history
particularly in the presence of occult AV node disease. Medi-
of cardiomyopathy, valvular heart disease, or severe myo-
cations or conditions that can produce prolonged AV conduc-
cardial ischemia. VT can be nonsustained or sustained, and
tion time (eg, digitalis, β-blockers, some calcium channel
exercise-related types include catecholamine-triggered poly-
blockers, inflammatory disorders of the heart) predispose the
morphic VT and right ventricular outflow tract VT associated
individual to lengthening of the PR interval.
with arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia. The diag-
nostic and prognostic values of patterns of ventricular ectopy Second-Degree AV Block. The occurrence of Wenckebach-
during and after exercise have been variable. Recent studies type (Mobitz type I) AV block during exercise is rare because
have suggested that frequent or complex repetitive ventricular vagal tone is reduced during exercise, whereas sympathetic
activity during exercise, and particularly ventricular ectopy in neurohumoral tone increases. The clinical significance of
the recovery period after exercise, can be independent predic- exercise-induced Mobitz type II AV block generally is related
tive markers for death.144,145 to CAD or to aortic valve stenosis and could herald the devel-
opment of permanent block, but type II block also can be a
Disorders of Impulse Conduction. Disorders of impulse con-
rate-related phenomenon that appears as the sinus rate is accel-
duction include abnormalities of normal impulse initiation
erated beyond a critical level.157,158 When second-degree AV
and conduction through the heart.
block develops during exercise, the test should be terminated.
Bundle-Branch and Fascicular Blocks. Intracardiac conduction
Third-Degree (Complete) AV Block. Acquired advanced or
blocks can exist before exercise, develop during exercise, or dis-
complete AV block at rest is a relative contraindication to exer-
appear during exercise. Rate-dependent intraventricular blocks
cise testing because increasing sympathetic drive without effec-
that develop during exercise often precede the appearance of
tive rate increase can result in complex ventricular arrhythmias.
chronic blocks that develop later at rest.146 Both left and right
Exercise testing can be conducted in subjects with congenital
bundle-branch blocks have been reported to occur during exer-
complete AV block if there are no coexisting significant con-
cise.146–148 Diagnosis of myocardial ischemia from the exercise
genital anomalies that reduce test safety. The development of
ECG is usually impossible when left bundle-branch block is
complete block during exercise testing is uncommon, but it can
present. There can be a marked degree of exercise-induced ST-
be related to transient ischemia.159 Development of advanced or
segment depression in addition to that found at rest in normal
complete AV block should prompt termination of the test.
subjects with left bundle-branch block, and there is no clear dif-
ference in ST-segment response to exercise between those with Exercise and Preexcitation Syndromes. Exercise can pro-
and those without myocardial ischemia. Left bundle-branch voke, abolish, or have no effect on ventricular preexcitation
block that develops during exercise might or might not be asso- in individuals with known WPW syndrome.160 When exercise
ciated with CAD,146,147 but it does predict higher risk of death does not interfere with preexisting preexcitation, significant ST
and major cardiac events.149 The disappearance during exercise depression can be observed during exercise testing. In the pres-
of intraventricular blocks that are present at rest is rare.150 ence of WPW syndrome, the ST depression cannot be said to
Preexisting right bundle-branch block148,151–154 does not inval- be attributable to ischemia but instead could be a false-positive
idate interpretation of the exercise ECG, except in the anterior occurrence if the delta wave persists at peak exercise. Although
precordial leads (V1, V2, and V3), where ST depression is fre- exercise has been considered a predisposing factor to initiate
quently present at baseline and increases with exercise even in tachyarrhythmia in WPW syndrome, prevalence of tachyar-
the absence of coronary obstruction. Because ST depression rhythmias during or after exercise is low in WPW subjects, and
888 Circulation August 20, 2013
disappearance of the delta wave during exercise can identify Factors Affecting Test Sensitivity
patients at lower risk for sudden death.161,162 The choice of a discriminant value is further complicated by
the fact that some exercise test responses do not have estab-
Diagnostic Value of the Exercise ECG for Identification of
lished values that separate normal subjects from those with
CAD and for Assessment of Its Severity
disease. Once a discriminant value that determines a test’s
A meta-analysis of 147 studies of the test performance of the
specificity and sensitivity is chosen, the population tested
exercise ECG for the detection of CAD revealed a mean test
must be considered. If the population is skewed toward indi-
sensitivity of 68% and a mean test specificity of 77%, with
viduals with a greater severity of disease, the test will have a
sensitivities ranging from 23% to 100% and specificities rang-
higher sensitivity. For instance, the exercise test has a higher
ing from 17% to 100%.96 Reasons for these extraordinary
sensitivity in individuals with triple-vessel disease than in
ranges of values include marked differences in the character-
those with double-vessel disease, which in turn is higher than
istics of the populations studied, differences in definition of
those with single-vessel disease.90,91 Accordingly, test sensitiv-
the presence and severity of disease, and differences in many
ity in any study population will vary with the extent of disease,
additional factors that govern the diagnostic performance of a
even though all patients will have a diagnosis of CAD.
test, as described in the sections that follow.
Factors Affecting Test Specificity
Sensitivity, Specificity, and Receiver Operating
Characteristic Curves Workup bias, as described previously, reduces exercise test spec-
Sensitivity and specificity define how effectively a test sepa- ificity by including patients with previously positive tests but
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
rates subjects with disease from healthy individuals (ie, how no disease at catheterization in the “normal” population under
well a test diagnoses disease). Sensitivity is the percentage study.164 A test also can have a lower specificity if it is used in
of those individuals with a disease who will have abnormal individuals who are more likely to have false-positive results (eg,
tests. Sensitivity is influenced by disease severity, effort level, those with an abnormal resting ECG, including bundle-branch
and anti-ischemic drugs. Specificity is the percentage of those block, resting ST-T-wave abnormalities, or LV hypertrophy).
without the disease who will have normal test results, and it Positive and Negative Predictive Values
can be affected by drugs such as digoxin, by baseline electro- Predictive values help define the diagnostic value of a test.
cardiographic patterns, and by LV hypertrophy. Sensitivity and The predictive value of a test is greatly influenced by the
specificity are inversely related; when sensitivity is the high- prevalence of disease in the group (or individual) being tested.
est, specificity is lowest, and vice versa. All tests have a range Bayes’ theorem states that “the probability of a person hav-
of inversely related sensitivities and specificities that can be ing the disease after the test is performed is the product of the
selected by specifying a discriminant or diagnostic cut point.163 probability of disease before testing and the probability that the
Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis is used for test provided a true result.” Thus, a test has a higher positive
evaluating the accuracy of a statistical model when cut points predictive value and lower negative predictive value when used
are used to classify patients as diseased or nondiseased. As in a high-prevalence population; conversely, a higher negative
a graphical tool, a receiver operating characteristic plot dis- predictive value and lower positive predictive value occur in a
plays the test sensitivity on the y-axis against 1 minus the test lower-prevalence population. For example, an exercise ECG
specificity on the x-axis for varying values of the diagnostic that demonstrates ST depression in an elderly person with
cut point. The area under the curve provides a summary mea- typical anginal symptoms is most likely a true positive result,
sure that averages the diagnostic accuracy across the range of whereas that in a young asymptomatic person without cardiac
test values. It equals 1.0 for perfect accuracy and 0.5 when the risk factors is most likely a false-positive result.
curve corresponds to random chance. Thus, the closer the area
Pretest and Posttest Probability of Disease
is to 1.0, the more accurate the test.163 From a meta-analysis
Understanding interactions among sensitivity, specificity, and
of multiple studies, the standard exercise test cut point of 0.1
predictive values can help to optimize the use of diagnostic
mV (1 mm) of horizontal or downsloping ST-segment depres-
exercise testing. Several clinical variables affect the likelihood
sion has been selected as the discriminating cut point and has a
of atherosclerotic CAD before the patient undergoes the exer-
sensitivity of 68% and specificity of 77%.58 The sensitivity and
cise test. These include age, sex, symptoms, and the presence
specificity of stress testing are limited by the general use of
and extent of traditional risk factors (eg, hypertension, hyper-
angiographic CAD as the diagnostic “gold standard,” and hence
lipidemia, diabetes mellitus). On the basis of individual like-
most data are derived from studies in which patients under-
lihood of disease and the performance characteristics of the
went both exercise testing and cardiac catheterization. Because
outcome on exercise ECG, the posttest likelihood of obstruc-
patients selected for coronary arteriography are more likely to
tive CAD can be estimated for a given individual.
have obstructive CAD, these data are subject to a workup bias
that inflates the estimated sensitivity and deflates the specific- Assessment of Anatomic and Functional Extent of CAD
ity. The diagnostic accuracy of a test also will be influenced by Exercise-induced ST-segment depression does not provide a
criteria that are used to determine whether an adequate level reliable assessment of the specific coronary vessel(s) involved.
of stress has been achieved. This often is defined as having However, ST-segment elevation in leads without Q waves, though
attained 85% of maximum predicted HR, where maximum an uncommon response, usually reflects transmural ischemia that
predicted HR is estimated as 220 minus age in years. There are can be localized by the leads involved: Leads V2 through V4 reflect
shortcomings to using this calculation for diagnostic purposes, left anterior descending artery disease; lateral leads reflect left
and it should not be used as a sole reason to terminate the test.9 circumflex and diagonal vessel disease; and leads II, III, and aVF
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 889
reflect right CAD (in a right dominant circulation).58 As noted doses that increase every 3 minutes until a maximal dose is
previously, other factors related to the probability and severity reached or an end point has been achieved. ECG, HR, and
of CAD include the degree, time of appearance, duration, and blood pressure are monitored during each stage.
number of leads with ST-segment depression or elevation. It is The primary end point with dobutamine testing is a target
important, however, to realize that prognostically important CAD HR of 85% of the age-predicted maximal value, in the absence
can be present without significant luminal obstructive lesions, of higher-grade arrhythmia, angina, intolerable side effects, and
particularly in the presence of endothelial dysfunction and unsta- significant increase or decrease in blood pressure. Intravenous
ble but nonobstructive plaque.165 Hence, the use of diagnostic atropine may be given if an adequate HR is not achieved with
ST-segment analysis alone during exercise testing is inadequate dobutamine infusion alone. Complications of dobutamine infu-
and should be done with consideration of several non–ST-seg- sion include nausea, headache, tremor, anxiety, angina and
ment variables, as discussed in the later section on prognosis.3 atypical chest pain, atrial and ventricular arrhythmias, and hyper-
tension or hypotension. MI (<0.02%) and death (<0.002%) as
Stress Imaging Modalities and Exercise Testing complications are very rare.167 Side effects or complications can
The addition of various imaging modalities to exercise can be treated by intravenous injection of adrenergic β-receptor–
provide greater diagnostic accuracy than exercise electrocar- blocking agents such as metoprolol or esmolol.
diographic testing alone. Imaging provides information on Selective A2a Adenosine Receptor Agonists and Adenosine
the location and amount of ischemic myocardium and on LV Vasodilators such as adenosine, dipyridamole, and regadenoson
function. Exercise or pharmacological stress imaging stud- cause coronary vasodilation in normal epicardial arteries.168,169
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
ies are useful particularly when the resting ECG has baseline Because of autoregulation, coronary arteries with metabolically
abnormalities (eg, left bundle-branch block or resting ST significant stenoses already recruit vasodilator reserve at rest to
depression >1 mm) that limit the accurate interpretation of maintain coronary flow; therefore, they cannot increase coro-
the exercise ECG or when the results of the exercise ECG are nary flow as much as coronary arteries without stenoses when
equivocal or indeterminate. vasodilators are given. The relative lack of increased perfusion
The Ischemic Cascade during vasodilation can be visualized with nuclear myocardial
The limitation of coronary flow reserve by hemodynamically perfusion agents. Vasodilator stress agents are not commonly
“significant” stenoses leads to a mismatch between myocardial used for stress echocardiography in the United States, where
oxygen supply and demand during stress. The acute metabolic dobutamine may serve as an alternative to exercise.
consequences of this mismatch include decreased production Nuclear perfusion imaging with vasodilator agents is use-
of adenosine triphosphate and increased production of lactate, ful particularly for the diagnosis of CAD in patients with left
and they result in alterations of the electrical properties and bundle-branch block on resting ECG,168 because artifactual
mechanical function of the myocardium. These alterations perfusion defects can occur in patients with normal coronary
occur in rapid succession in a characteristic sequence termed arteries and left bundle-branch block with exercise or dobuta-
ischemic cascade and include, in typical order, reduced LV mine stress. Side effects of vasodilator agents include flush-
compliance, regional wall motion abnormalities attributable ing, chest pain, headache, nausea, dyspnea, and AV block,
to decreased myocardial contractility, increased LV end- which can be reversed with aminophylline.168 Because of the
diastolic pressure, and ST-segment changes exceeding the short half-life of adenosine, side effects usually resolve very
usual threshold of 0.1 mV.166 The clinical symptom of angina shortly after termination of the infusion. Adenosine and dipyr-
pectoris often occurs last, if at all. idamole should not be used in patients with second- or third-
Pharmacological stress imaging identifies the relative lack degree block who do not have permanent pacemakers in place
or in patients with severe asthma or chronic obstructive lung
of increase in perfusion in myocardial territories supplied by a
disease.168 Because caffeine can block the effects of adenosine
stenotic coronary artery relative to perfusion in territories where
and the A2a receptor agonists, patients should refrain from
coronary flow augments normally, as opposed to the metabolic
consuming caffeine for 24 hours before the test.
or functional consequences of the mismatch between oxygen
supply and demand resulting from exercise-induced ischemia. Nuclear Myocardial Perfusion Imaging
Stress myocardial perfusion imaging can be performed as
Pharmacological Stress Testing and Agents
single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)168 or
In patients unable to exercise for reasons such as deconditioning,
positron emission tomography (PET).170 SPECT is currently
peripheral vascular disease, orthopedic disabilities, neurological
more widely available and technically less challenging than
disease, or other concomitant illnesses, several pharmacological
PET, and the diagnostic and prognostic value of SPECT is bet-
agents can be used to induce mismatch of myocardial oxygen
ter established. SPECT uses commercially available tracers
demand and supply in lieu of physical exercise or to unmask
such as technetium (Tc)-99m sestamibi, Tc-99m-tetrofosmin,
locally limited capacity for coronary vasodilatation. Medications
and, less commonly, thallium-201. PET uses myocardial perfu-
used for pharmacological stress testing include dobutamine,
sion imaging agents with very short half-lives, of which rubid-
selective A2a adenosine receptor agonists, and adenosine.
ium (Rb)-82 can be produced with a generator, whereas N-13
Dobutamine ammonia requires a local cyclotron. Compared with SPECT,
Adrenergic agents such as dobutamine increase myocardial PET typically has higher spatial and temporal resolution, has
oxygen demand by increasing myocardial contractility, HR, a lower effective radiation dose, allows quantitative measure-
and blood pressure. Dobutamine is infused intravenously at ment of myocardial perfusion, and can be performed faster.
890 Circulation August 20, 2013
However, recent developments in imaging protocols (stress allowed cardiac magnetic resonance imaging to be used with
only), gamma camera technologies (solid-state cadmium zinc exercise treadmill testing.178
telluride detectors), and raw data processing algorithms (itera- The linear relationship between iodine concentration in tis-
tive reconstruction) have reduced the effective radiation dose sue and image intensity makes computed tomography theo-
and duration of SPECT imaging considerably. Nonetheless, retically ideally suited for quantitative myocardial perfusion
cumulative radiation is a factor in serial perfusion imaging. measurements, but technical limitations, including radiation
SPECT and N-13 ammonia PET can be performed with exer- dose to patients, have limited its development. An increasing
cise and pharmacological stress, whereas R-82 PET imaging can number of clinical reports on vasodilator stress myocardial
be performed only with pharmacological stress because of the perfusion imaging with computed tomography are being pub-
extremely short tracer half-life. The radioisotope is injected, and lished at the time of this writing.179,180
scanning is performed at rest and, depending on the approach,
Guidelines and Appropriate Use Criteria
immediately after exercise or 1 to 2 minutes before the end of
Indications for these tests include establishing a diagnosis of
the stress agent infusion. Myocardial perfusion images at rest
CAD in symptomatic patients with chest pain, determining
and during stress are displayed as tomographic slices in 3 dif-
myocardial viability before revascularization, assessing
ferent views to visualize all myocardial segments without over-
prognosis after MI or in patients with chronic angina, and
lap.168 Perfusion defects that are present during exercise but not
evaluating cardiac risk before noncardiac surgery. Details
at rest indicate myocardial ischemia. Perfusion defects that are
about exercise and stress testing with cardiac imaging
present during exercise and persist at rest suggest previous MI.
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
capacity testing to gauge prognosis.71,74,185 The longer and more of cut points of <5 METs in women and <7 METs in men, it
intensely a patient can exercise during an exercise test, the less is more logical and accurate to assess each individual rela-
likely he or she will die soon from CAD or other causes. tive to age- and sex-based standards. Still, even this stratifica-
Nonetheless, several procedural issues must be addressed tion is only an approximation because differences in height,
in the assessment of maximal exercise capacity. Many regard weight, and mode of exercise all modify exercise potential and
CPX as a superior means to assess exercise performance ideally should be incorporated into stratifications of age and
because gas exchange measurements provide detailed informa- sex standards.3,79,187 Others have demonstrated the differences
tion on maximal oxygen consumption, ventilatory responses, between formulas that have been developed to approximate
and level of effort.19 However, CPX testing requires specialized “normal standards of oxygen utilization” against which peak
equipment to measure concentrations and volumes of expired V̇o2 measured during CPX can be compared188; these so-called
gases. In contrast, standard treadmill or cycle exercise testing is “normal” values vary considerably between well-validated
widely available and relatively inexpensive. An abundant body formulas depending on which patient traits were included or
of literature demonstrates that exercise duration on a standard omitted for each calculated value of V̇o2.
protocol is a powerful predictor of prognosis in patients with
Abnormal Chronotropic Response to Exercise
known or suspected CVD. Nevertheless, there are consider-
Chronotropic incompetence is the inability of the HR to
ations that help optimize the value of standard exercise test-
increase commensurate with increased activity or demand.
ing to assess exercise capacity and prognosis. The widely used
An intact HR response is vital for matching cardiac out-
Bruce protocol was developed as an efficient diagnostic test for
put to metabolic demands during exertion. Investigations in
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
return. Numerous investigations have demonstrated that a predict death than ectopy originating from the right ventricu-
decreased HR recovery is a strong adverse prognostic marker lar outflow tract or other relatively benign variants.201
in both apparently healthy and patient populations, irrespec-
Prognostic Value of Exercise Imaging
tive of differences in patient populations, medications, or
The literature focused on prognostic value of exercise
baseline functional capacity.12–17,194
electrocardiographic testing is evolving in parallel with a
Nonetheless, the magnitude of HR recovery is strongly
separate literature focused on prognostic value of imaging
dependent on the type of recovery protocol used, and incon-
variables during exercise and pharmacological stress testing.
sistencies in the literature have led to some uncertainty about
Advantages of imaging include the opportunity to characterize
this index. Some HR recovery protocols entail active cool-
ejection fraction, extent and distribution of ischemia, presence
down. Initial reports of HR recovery were based on patients
of coronary calcification, and, in some cases, even the intrinsic
who underwent an upright cool-down protocol with a slow
structure of stenoses, all of which are powerful risk predictors
walk for 2 minutes immediately after exercise. With this pro-
for both death and cardiovascular events. These indices
tocol, HR recovery value of ≤12 beats was identified as a best
are generally recommended to complement but not replace
cut point,195 with a 4-fold increase in mortality hazard ratio. In
standard exercise prognostic electrocardiographic testing.181
contrast, some protocols involve stationary standing, sitting,
Exercise capacity remains an important predictor of outcomes
or lying supine after exercise. When different protocols are
even when SPECT imaging is available, and relatively little
used, HR recovery cut points have tended to be higher,196 but
additional prognostic insight is gained by adding SPECT
the implications of attenuated HR deceleration were similar.
imaging findings in those with ≥10 METs of exercise
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
Blood Pressure Abnormalities During Exercise and Recovery capacity.202 In another study, when treadmill test capacity
A decline in systolic blood pressure below resting value exceeded 9 minutes, myocardial perfusion findings added little
and an initial increase during early exercise followed by a to the already favorable determination of risk.203
decrease ≥10 mm Hg are 2 common definitions of exercise- In contrast, imaging204 adds value in patients who cannot
induced hypotension197 that serve as potential indications exercise with sufficient intensity to determine risk by exer-
to terminate exercise, especially in the presence of evident cise alone. Adults who are older, deconditioned, female, or
ischemia or other known heart disease.58 Pathophysiological overweight are among those for whom imaging improves
mechanisms for exercise-induced hypotension include aortic prognostic assessment.205 It remains relatively difficult to
outflow obstruction, severe LV dysfunction, and myocardial determine when pharmacological stress should be substituted
ischemia. Exercise-induced hypotension consistently has been for exercise stress to determine prognosis in situations in
shown to be a marker of increased risk for adverse events.197 which exercise performance might be low.206–209 It would seem
Occasionally, subjects without clinically significant heart physiologically and diagnostically confounding to convert
disease will exhibit exercise-induced hypotension related to exercise to pharmacological stress when angina or potential
dehydration, inappropriate titration of antihypertensive ther- angina equivalent occurs as a limiting symptom in patients
apy, or prolonged strenuous exercise. with subthreshold HR.
An exaggerated systolic blood pressure response to exer-
Prognostic Exercise Test Scores
cise has been defined as a maximal value of ≥210 mm Hg
The Duke Treadmill Score was introduced in 1991 as a set
for men and ≥190 mm Hg for women.197 A rise in diastolic
of treadmill exercise findings that predict individual risk for
blood pressure during exercise of >10 mm Hg above the rest-
death on the basis of a weighted combination of exercise dura-
ing value or an absolute value of 90 mm Hg also is considered
tion, ST-segment depression, and the presence and nature of
abnormal and could predict increased likelihood of CAD.198
angina during testing.210 The score is calculated by subtract-
Recommended relative indications for exercise test termina-
ing 5 times the ST depression (in millimeters) and 4 times
tion are a systolic or diastolic blood pressure of >250 and
the angina score (no angina = 0, nonlimiting angina = 1, and
>115 mm Hg, respectively.58 An exaggerated systolic blood
test-limiting angina = 2) from minutes of exercise duration
pressure response to exercise could indicate an increased risk
on the standard Bruce protocol. The component of the Duke
for future hypertension, LV hypertrophy, and cardiovascular
Treadmill Score that has been consistently validated for inde-
events.197 A failure of systolic blood pressure to fall or a rise in
pendent prognostic utility is exercise capacity; independent
the short-term recovery period, relative to the maximal exer-
prognostic utility of angina and even of exercise-induced
cise value, has been shown to be predictive of an increased
ST-segment changes is less certain.196,211
risk of death.199
The concept of the exercise testing score has evolved
Arrhythmias During Exercise and Recovery through identification, generally by logistic regression, of a
The literature on ventricular ectopy during exercise or in broader spectrum of clinical and exercise testing variables that
recovery has been inconsistent. Some reports indicate that can be used as a multivariate score to predict risk. First devel-
ventricular ectopy during exercise testing heralds increased oped as a score to improve the sensitivity of the exercise test
risk of death,145 whereas others do not. Other studies indicate for the diagnosis of CAD in men212 and later also in women,213
increased risk of death in those demonstrating increased ven- the Morise score was subsequently applied to the prediction
tricular ectopy in recovery.200 One report focuses more spe- of death,214,215 demonstrating greater risk discrimination than
cifically on origin of the ventricular ectopy, indicating that the Duke score in the same population. The concept of the
ectopy with a right bundle-branch block morphology, often multivariate score has continued to evolve by combining exer-
associated with significant LV dysfunction, was more likely to cise capacity with HR dynamics13,196 and also by combining
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 893
exercise capacity, HR dynamics, ventricular ectopy, and other Functional Classification of Disability
clinical variables in a nomogram developed by multivariable Exercise testing is used to determine the degree of disability
Cox proportional-hazards modeling.216 in subjects with various forms of heart and vascular disease,
On the basis of the same prognostic principles, other scores including ischemic heart disease, heart failure, cardiomy-
based on initial risk determined from Framingham assessment opathy, arrhythmias, congenital heart disease, and peripheral
using exercise capacity and HR dynamics have been devel- artery disease (PAD).75 Failure to achieve a 5-MET capacity
oped.217,218 In these studies, initial prognostic risk stratification when aerobic capacity is estimated from workload and failure
was enhanced significantly by the combination of additional to reach 15.0 mL kg−1 min−1 when aerobic capacity is mea-
clinical and exercise variables. sured directly by CPX have been used as criteria for disability
by the Social Security Administration.
Additional Uses of Exercise Testing Evaluation of Perioperative Risk for Noncardiac Surgery
Exercise Prescription In most ambulatory patients, exercise testing with electro
Although the indications for exercise testing are varied, the cardiographic monitoring provides both an estimate of
assessment of exercise response and determination of func- functional capacity and the detection of myocardial ischemia
tional capacity are particularly useful in the development of through changes in the ECG and hemodynamic response.
the exercise plan or prescription. Furthermore, in recording Details on the use of stress testing in the assessment of
the exercise response to various levels of intensity, the exer- perioperative cardiovascular risk during noncardiac surgery are
presented in the “ACC/AHA 2007 Guidelines on Perioperative
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
death from cardiovascular causes; no significant increase in of asymptomatic low-risk younger individuals is not recom-
shorter-term risk was reported.225 In apparently healthy vol- mended,58 but they do recommend exercise testing before
unteers from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging, an starting a vigorous exercise program in asymptomatic people
ischemic ST-segment response to exercise was associated with with diabetes mellitus,58 in men and women >45 and 55 years
≈3-fold higher risk of future CAD than that associated with a of age, respectively,58,239 and in those with “major coronary
normal response. However, the positive predictive value was risk factors.” These standards are in accord with recommenda-
only about 25%. A concomitant abnormal exercise thallium tions based on the following considerations.
scintigraphic response identified a subset of older individuals Exercise testing should not provide an impediment to
with a 48% risk of an event over a mean 4.6-year follow-up.226 routine exercise in normal people with a low likelihood of risk
Exercise-induced frequent or repetitive premature ventricular for exercise-related morbidity or mortality. Most acute cardiac
beats did not have significant prognostic value in this popu- events are attributable to plaque rupture of minor stenoses
lation.227 In retrospective analysis of asymptomatic low-risk that are not likely themselves to be obstructive and therefore
men and women in a large Framingham offspring cohort, would not be directly identified by exercise testing. Although
abnormal HR-adjusted ST-segment findings, but not standard extensive obstruction makes unstable plaque more likely and
ST-depression criteria alone, identified increased 4-year risk might be more readily identified by exercise testing, it is not
of coronary heart disease events.113 highly prevalent in asymptomatic people at low risk for CAD.
With regard to subjects who are asymptomatic but have risk Prediction of exercise-related MI and sudden death by exercise
factors for CAD, exercise testing could have greater predic- testing is therefore limited by the same factors that reduce
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
tive value. In the Seattle Heart Watch Study,223 men with ≥1 exercise test diagnostic performance in asymptomatic adults:
risk factor (positive family history, smoking, hypertension positive predictive value is very low and false-positive tests are
[blood pressure >140/90 mm Hg], and hypercholesterolemia highly prevalent when event rates are low, and test specificity
[total cholesterol >240 mg/dL]) and 2 abnormalities on exer- is imperfect. On the basis of these considerations, the present
cise testing (chest pain, exercise <6 minutes, ST depression standards do not recommend routine exercise testing for
>1.0 mm, or <90% predicted HR) had a 30-fold increase in prediction of infarction or sudden death during exercise in
5-year cardiac risk. Exercise testing was of no predictive value asymptomatic low-risk younger subjects. However, there are
in the group with no risk factors. In the Lipid Research Clinics reasons for exercise testing before starting a vigorous exercise
Coronary Primary Prevention Trial,228 hypercholesterolemic program in selected asymptomatic subjects that are not related
men with >1 mm of ST depression on exercise testing had a to risk prediction for acute infarction or sudden death. A
5.7-times greater risk of death from CAD than those with a positive exercise test might be useful in intensifying risk factor
negative test. Interestingly, a positive test was not significantly management, particularly when functional test findings such
associated with nonfatal MI. In the Multiple Risk Factor as chronotropic incompetence, reduced HR recovery, limited
Intervention Trial,99,229 retrospective analyses using the ST/HR effort capacity, or blood pressure abnormalities suggest
index found a nearly 4-fold increase in the 7-year rate of death increased risk of all-cause death. Furthermore, asymptomatic
from CAD among men with an abnormal test response112 and patients at higher risk for obstructive CAD could benefit
suggested that the exercise ECG might serve to identify high- from the reassurance provided by a normal test, which
risk men who do benefit from interventions targeting risk fac- might facilitate prescription of and compliance with more
tor reduction.230 Therefore, in asymptomatic men >40 years of vigorous exercise. Exercise-related arrhythmias, abnormal
age with ≥1 risk factor, exercise testing could provide useful blood pressure responses, or ischemic electrocardiographic
information as a guide to aggressive risk factor intervention.231 changes in otherwise asymptomatic patients at higher risk can
Recent data suggest that this might be extended to women as provide insight into limited effort capacity. Exercise testing is
well.71,73,232,233 However, prospective evaluation of outcomes is recommended before vigorous exercise or competitive athletics
needed to validate these suggestions. in individuals with chest pain or with dyspnea on exertion,
with or without known CAD, to evaluate whether vigorous
Before Participation in Vigorous Exercise exercise is appropriate for such an individual, to establish
Vigorous physical exertion, usually defined as exercise requir- training limits, and to develop an exercise prescription.
ing an oxygen uptake ≥6 METs or 21 mL kg−1 min−1,234 is Exercise stress testing also can be recommended before
associated with an increased risk of acute MI235,236 and sudden vigorous exercise in high-risk asymptomatic individuals who
cardiac death237,238 compared with less vigorous and sedentary are classified as CAD equivalents by the National Cholesterol
activity. However, individual risk of adverse events is reduced Education Program.240 This includes those with diabetes
in conditioned subjects, and thus routine exercise is strongly mellitus, symptomatic carotid disease, peripheral vascular
encouraged for people with and without established heart dis- disease, and a calculated Framingham 10-year risk (http://
ease. Whether exercise testing should be performed in asymp- www.mdcalc.com/framingham-cardiac-risk-score) of ≥20%.
tomatic adult subjects before beginning vigorous exercise has
been controversial—even more so for routine screening of Exercise Electrocardiographic Testing in Women
young people before engaging in athletics. Exercise testing has similar diagnostic and prognostic value in
Exercise testing before beginning an exercise program has women as it does for men.241 Although ST-segment depression
been addressed in adults by a prior AHA guideline58 and rec- with exercise stress testing often has been thought to be less
ommendation,239 as well as by the prior version of the present accurate in women, the sensitivity and specificity of standard
document.1 These documents specify that routine screening ST-segment depression criteria for significant CAD in women
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 895
have been estimated to be 61% and 70%, respectively.242 test provided significant diagnostic cost savings, it should
These are lower but similar in magnitude to what was found in be considered the initial diagnostic strategy in symptomatic
a meta-analysis of predominately male participants, in whom women with suspected CAD.253
sensitivity and specificity were 68% and 77%, respectively,96 Cardiac syndrome X has been defined as the presence of
and might be explained at least in part by lower electrocardio- chest pain and electrocardiographic changes with exercise
graphic amplitudes in women than in men. Exercise capacity but no evidence of coronary disease on an angiography.254,255
is a powerful diagnostic and prognostic marker.75,211,243–246 In This is seen more frequently in women than in men. Although
a study of 135 women who underwent stress testing and sub- overall prognosis in these women is better than in those with
sequent angiography, exercise capacity was among the best obstructive coronary disease, syndrome X is nonetheless
stress testing variables for predicting the presence of CAD, associated with an increased rate of cardiovascular mortality,
and it improved the sensitivity and specificity of exercise test- including sudden cardiac death, MI, and heart failure.256–259
ing when added to ST-segment depression.246 In another study It is possible that stress tests that are deemed false-positives
of both men and women, the achievement of ≥10 METs was because of subsequent normal coronary angiography actually
associated with a lower prevalence of ischemia as evaluated represent a population of women with cardiac syndrome X.
by SPECT imaging than was the achievement of <7 METs Further studies are needed to evaluate women with a false-
(0.4% versus 7.1%, P<0.001).247 Those who achieved >10 positive exercise ECG but persistent chest pain to pursue the
METs and had no ST-segment depression with exercise had diagnosis of cardiac syndrome X.
no significant ischemia detected.
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
The prognostic value of exercise capacity has been shown in The Pediatric Population
both asymptomatic women73,233 and symptomatic women.248–250 The acquisition of exercise test data in pediatric patients
In a retrospective review in women referred for stress testing, requires special considerations and accommodations.
for every MET increase in exercise capacity, there was a 25% Appropriate-sized or adjustable equipment (eg, cycle ergom-
reduction in the rate of all-cause death.248 In a cohort of 5721 eters, blood pressure cuffs, mouthpieces) are needed. It is also
asymptomatic women, exercise capacity was an independent sometimes necessary to modify protocols. Low ramp rates are
predictor of death as well, where for each additional MET needed for small children performing cycle ergometry. The
achieved, there was a 17% reduction in the rate of all-cause speed required for the higher levels of the Bruce protocol
death.73 From this cohort of women, age-predicted exercise could be too rapid for small patients. In contrast, for many
capacity was lower for women than for men.22 In addition, relatively healthy adolescent subjects, the lower stages of the
inability to achieve 85% of age-predicted exercise capacity Bruce protocol might seem tedious and are unlikely to yield
was associated with at least twice the risk of all-cause death any useful clinical information.260
and cardiac death in asymptomatic women from which the Interpretation of exercise test data in pediatric subjects also
age-predicted levels were derived and also in a symptomatic can be challenging. Peak V̇o2 and related variables vary with
cohort of women when compared with women who achieved age, size, and (especially after puberty) sex. Proper interpreta-
≥85% of their age-predicted fitness level.22 A recent study has tion of data therefore generally relies on prediction equations,
suggested particular prognostic value of chronotropic incom- generated from a population of normal subjects, which take
petence for subsequent MI in women.251 these factors into account. In pediatrics, the most widely used
The use of the Duke Treadmill Score for the diagnosis and prediction equations are the height-based equations (which
prognosis of CAD in women with an intermediate probability rely on height rather than weight to avoid the potential con-
of CAD has been well established, as women were included in founding effects of adiposity/obesity).261 The limitations of
the initial description of this risk scoring system.63 In a series these prediction equations must, however, be considered. They
of 976 symptomatic women referred for exercise testing and tend to generate unrealistically low values for small children,
angiography, the presence of CAD correlated with the Duke especially boys. Hence, for subjects <130 cm tall, it is proba-
Treadmill Score risk: a low-, moderate-, and high-risk Duke bly best to calculate the predicted peak V̇o2 on the basis of data
Treadmill Score was associated with CAD (>75% luminal indicating that the peak V̇o2 of an average prepubescent boy is
narrowing) in 19.1%, 34.9%, and 89.2% of women, respec- 42 mL kg−1 min−1 and that of an average prepubescent girl is 38
tively.252 The frequency of 3-vessel disease or left main CAD mL kg−1 min−1.262 The patient’s ideal weight-for-height should
was 3.5%, 12.4%, and 46%, respectively. In terms of progno- be used in these calculations. For patients with an unusually
sis, the Duke Treadmill Score has been shown to be an excel- tall and thin body habitus (body mass index [BMI] <18 kg/
lent tool in symptomatic women.63,210,252 A low Duke Treadmill m2), the height-based prediction equations generate unphysi-
Score is associated with an annual mortality rate of 0.25%, ologically high values, and the weight-based prediction equa-
in contrast to an annual mortality rate of 5% in those with tions should be used.20 Whichever equations are chosen by a
a high Duke Treadmill Score.210 Overall, survival for women laboratory, the validity of the predictions for the population
appears to be better than that for men at all levels of the Duke served by the laboratory should be established by testing sev-
Treadmill Score.63,252 In the WOMEN (What is the Optimal eral normal subjects and confirming that the predicted values
Method for ischemia Evaluation in Women?) study, exercise agree well with the results of these tests.56
treadmill testing and exercise myocardial perfusion imaging The goals of exercise testing in children also differ sig-
had similar 2-year posttest predictive outcomes in women nificantly from the adult population. Although myocardial
with interpretable ECGs and good effort capacity. These ischemia is rare in the pediatric setting, confounding base-
investigators concluded that because the exercise treadmill line electrocardiographic abnormalities (eg, conduction
896 Circulation August 20, 2013
abnormalities and ST abnormalities) and exercise-induced ST associated with the age-related decline in maximal HR.3 As a
changes unrelated to myocardial ischemia are common among consequence, older adults are often required to exert a higher
pediatric cardiology patients. Even in conditions where there percentage of their maximal capacity at specific submaximal
is a potential for impaired coronary perfusion (eg, congenital exercise loads than that exerted by younger people.271
coronary artery anomalies, heart transplant recipients, and in Systolic blood pressure continues to increase throughout adult
Kawasaki disease and other forms of acquired CAD), baseline life related to progressive arterial stiffening,275 whereas diastolic
abnormalities and other factors compromise the sensitivity pressure plateaus in the sixth decade of life and decreases
and specificity of exercise testing with electrocardiographic thereafter. The systolic blood pressure response to both maximal
monitoring. For patients with known or suspected CAD, stress and submaximal aerobic exercise also is increased with age.276
echocardiography or myocardial perfusion imaging could This age-associated rise in exercise systolic blood pressure is
enhance the diagnostic accuracy of the test.263–265 more pronounced in women than men, paralleling the steeper
Chest pain, however, is quite common in the pediatric years age-associated increase in resting systolic blood pressure in
and is rarely attributable to myocardial ischemia. If, on the women.277,278 Finally, aging is accompanied by a less complete
basis of history or physical examination, an ischemic origin is emptying of the left ventricle during strenuous aerobic exercise,
suspected, an imaging study of the coronary arteries should be as reflected by a blunted increase in LV ejection fraction
the first diagnostic study. Because of its poor diagnostic accu- attributable to LV stiffness and decreased compliance.279–282
racy for myocardial ischemia in children, exercise electrocar- Because the augmentation of plasma catecholamines during
diographic testing has a limited role in this setting.266 Pediatric exercise seems to be preserved or increased in older adults,283,284
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
chest pain is more commonly related to exercise-induced a unifying explanation for the age-associated reduction in HR
asthma. An exercise test with pre- and postexercise spirometry and ejection fraction responses to maximal aerobic exercise is a
might be a worthwhile study if this condition is suspected. decrease in β-adrenergic responsiveness.
For patients with congenital heart defects, the primary Numerous noncardiac conditions that frequently occur in
purpose of an exercise test is usually to assess the patient’s older adults can limit their ability to undergo aerobic exercise
exercise capacity and cardiopulmonary response to exercise. testing. Some disorders, such as PAD and chronic obstruc-
Measurements at peak exercise are particularly helpful in this tive lung disease, frequently coexist with CAD because of
regard. However, for peak exercise data to be reliable and repro- shared risk factors. Degenerative arthritis of weight-bearing
ducible, it is important to ascertain that the patient expends a joints is the most prevalent chronic disorder in older adults.
maximal or near-maximal effort. Exercise laboratory person- Additionally, mental health issues and cognitive impairment285
nel should therefore be familiar with effective techniques for can also affect the ability to perform exercise testing in the
motivating children to expend adequate efforts. During CPX older adult. Moreover, unfamiliarity with vigorous exercise
testing, patients should be encouraged to continue exercising and fear of exercise testing equipment can intimidate older
until the respiratory exchange ratio exceeds 1.09. In prepu- patients, resulting in submaximal test results. When added to
bescent children, anaerobic metabolic pathways might not be the effects of comorbid ailments, the end result could be a
expressed to the extent seen in older individuals, and a respi- symptom-limited test of only a few minutes.
ratory exchange ratio of 1.05 could be sufficient.267 Reliance To understand how age might affect the diagnostic utility of
on the peak HR as a marker of effort expenditure often is not exercise testing, it is essential to recognize how aging affects
possible, as many patients with congenital heart disease have the characteristics of CAD. Large autopsy studies have dem-
chronotropic defects and cannot achieve normal peak HRs.268 onstrated that the prevalence of CAD, as defined by a diam-
Exercise test data also can be helpful in the management of eter stenosis >50% in one or more coronary arteries, increases
pediatric patients with arrhythmias. In general, exacerbation dramatically with age.286–288 In addition, coronary angiographic
or precipitation of arrhythmias during exercise is associated data from the Coronary Artery Surgery Study, the Duke data
with an increased risk for serious adverse events. In patients bank, and other series have documented an age-associated
with structurally normal hearts, the suppression of ectopy increase in CAD severity.289 Because more severe CAD is more
during exercise is associated with a benign prognosis.269 In readily detected by exercise or pharmacological stress testing
patients with structural abnormalities, however, the absence than milder disease, an age-associated increase in the sensi-
or suppression of ectopy during exercise has little prognostic tivity of exercise testing for the prediction of CAD might be
significance.270 expected. Such a finding has been documented for the exercise
ECG, with an increase in sensitivity from 56% in patients <40
The Older Adult years of age to 84% in those >60 years of age. However, the
The optimal use of exercise testing in the older adult (defined specificity of the exercise ECG declined from 84% in patients
as people ≥65 years of age and people with clinically <40 years of age to 70% in those >60 years of age.290
significant conditions or physical limitations that affect The most common modalities used to perform maximal
movement, physical fitness, or physical activity) requires that aerobic exercise testing are the motorized treadmill and the
age-associated changes in the response to aerobic exercise and electronically or mechanically braked cycle ergometer. The
age differences in the prevalence and severity of CAD and treadmill is preferred in older subjects who do not have signif-
comorbid conditions be considered.271–274 icant balance or gait disturbances. Although cycle ergometry
The physiological response to aerobic exercise under- can be used for older patients with gait or balance disorders
goes important changes with aging, even in the absence of and impaired vision, in many instances local muscle fatigue
CVD, including age-related reductions in V̇o2max that are will lead to premature test termination.45
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 897
Regardless of whether treadmill or cycle ergometry is used, disease.295 Ischemic ST-segment depression predicted an
a protocol with modest, equal increments in work rates should increased risk of cardiac death in another study of older patients
be used to achieve an exercise duration of 8 to 12 minutes. with stable CAD.296 Although not recommended for routine
This is often difficult to achieve in the older adult. The use of use in apparently healthy older adults, exercise testing has also
smaller, more frequent increments in work rate is preferable to demonstrated prognostic significance in such a population.297
larger, less frequent increases, both physiologically and psy- Although information about the utility of exercise testing
chologically. Protocols using a constant treadmill speed with among individuals >75 years of age is limited, available data
small changes of grade, such as the Naughton or Balke proto- suggest similar value to that in younger elders, a possible
cols, provide more data points with less need for gait changes exception being concentration of risk by the Duke treadmill
than the simultaneous increases of speed and elevation every score.205 In 5314 male veterans 65 to 92 years of age undergoing
3 minutes during the more commonly used Bruce protocol. clinically indicated exercise testing, each 1-MET greater
Similarly, cycle ergometric exercise tests should start at a exercise capacity was associated with a 12% lower risk of death
low resistance and progress in modest increments. For either over 8 years of median follow-up. In the subset of 2754 men
treadmill or cycle ergometry, some laboratories use a ramp >70 years of age (mean 75.3 years), a similar trend was seen;
protocol with small, almost imperceptible increments of work men achieving 5 to 6 METs had a 45% lower mortality rate
rate every minute or less. Regardless of the exercise modal- than those attaining <4 METs.298 Exercise echocardiography
ity or specific protocol, adequate time should be allowed to in 2159 patients >70 years (mean 75 years) with known or
familiarize the older patient with the testing equipment and suspected CAD showed that the change in LV wall motion
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
to provide a 1- to 2-minute warm-up period. These pretest score (based on a 4-point dyskinesis ranking in each of 16
maneuvers will help alleviate the anxiety of the older patient segments) from rest to peak exercise was a potent independent
and reduce the risk of musculoskeletal injury and falls.45,75 predictor of both death and major cardiac events.206,299 This
Despite the greater prevalence and severity of CAD with confirmed data in a series of 335 octogenarians in whom LV
age, exercise testing remains as safe a procedure in the elderly wall motion score stratified patients into low- and high-risk
as in younger populations with proper techniques and moni- groups with annualized event rates of 1.2% and 5.8% per year,
toring. National surveys of exercise laboratories have docu- respectively,300 and an earlier study of patients whose mean age
mented very low overall risks of MI or cardiac death, and was 72 years.301 Exercise radionuclide imaging has also shown
age has not been identified as a risk factor for these events. prognostic utility in this age group.302 The use of exercise testing
However, age-associated increases in isolated ectopic beats for risk stratification, exercise prescription, and assessment of
and nonsustained supraventricular and ventricular arrhyth- therapeutic intervention in this “older old” population will
mias, even in clinically asymptomatic subjects,227,291 have continue to increase with changing demographics.
been observed. The supervising clinician should be aware that
Hypertension
myocardial ischemia or MI in the older adult can present as
Hypertension per se is not an indication for exercise testing, but
marked dyspnea, extreme fatigue, or chest pressure, rather
it is very often present in individuals who are referred for test-
than as typical chest discomfort or pain.
ing. The test should be postponed if resting systolic blood pres-
Exercise testing is well established as a useful tool for
sure exceeds 200 mm Hg or if diastolic exceeds 115 mm Hg.
assessing the progress of patients with stable CAD and those
Antihypertensive medications generally should not be withheld
who have had MI. Available data in the older adult, although
before testing. Hypertensive individuals often have an exagger-
more limited, suggest similar prognostic value in this age
ated pressure response to exercise even if resting levels are con-
group. As in the general post-MI population, inability to per-
trolled. A systolic pressure >250 mm Hg or a diastolic pressure
form treadmill exercise after MI confers a high risk for future
>115 mm Hg during exercise is an indication for test termina-
death. In 111 infarct survivors >64 years of age, one group
tion, although there is little clinical evidence that this actually
observed a 1-year mortality rate of 37% in the 63 patients not
leads to cerebrovascular events during testing. Several studies
eligible for exercise testing, versus only 4% in those able to
have related impaired diastolic function to reduced aerobic
exercise. In the latter group, 1-year mortality rate was best
capacity in people with hypertension and normal systolic LV
predicted by the magnitude of systolic blood pressure rise dur-
function.303,304 Among 6578 asymptomatic participants in the
ing exercise; the mortality rate was 15% in patients with an
Lipid Research Clinics Prevalence Study, a pressure >180/90
increase <30 mm Hg versus 1.8% in those with an increase
mm Hg during stage 2 of the Bruce exercise protocol was asso-
>30 mm Hg.292 The prognostic importance of systolic blood
ciated with a greater risk of cardiovascular death in normoten-
pressure response to exercise was confirmed in 188 post-MI
sive individuals but not in those with hypertension.305 Maximal
patients >70 years of age.293 In this latter study, peak cycle
exercise blood pressure was not predictive in normotensive or
work rate <60 W, exercise duration <5 minutes, and increase
hypertensive individuals after adjustment for resting pressure.
in rate–pressure product <12 500 also predicted increased
Reduced exercise capacity is a strong predictor of adverse car-
cardiovascular death. In contrast, ST-segment depression and
diovascular outcomes in otherwise healthy people with hyper-
ventricular arrhythmia predicted recurrent MI and need for
tension,306 as is true in normotensive individuals.
coronary revascularization but not death.
In older patients with stable CAD, exercise testing also has Obesity
diagnostic and prognostic utility.211,294 In 419 CAD patients Exercise testing is useful in the clinical evaluation of obese
>65 years of age, one study revealed that severe ST-segment patients with known or suspected CAD. However, obtaining
depression induced by cycle ergometry predicted triple-vessel an accurate assessment of peak cardiopulmonary responses
898 Circulation August 20, 2013
during exercise often poses a challenge in this patient popula- Peripheral Artery Disease
tion. For many obese patients, particularly the morbidly obese, Exercise testing has several potential uses in patients with
this is related to gait instability, low functional capacity, coex- PAD. First, it is the most objective method of quantifying
isting orthopedic impairments, and uneven body weight dis- walking capacity in those with exercise-induced claudication
tribution. In one study, 25 obese women (mean BMI of 40 or suspected PAD. In such patients, walking capacity also
kg/m2) were assigned to various ramp and Bruce or modified serves as the basis for exercise prescription. Given the high
Bruce protocols on the basis of a pretest activity question- prevalence of CAD in patients with PAD, exercise testing is
naire. Despite a longer time to reach fatigue when the ramp also indicated to detect CAD. Finally, exercise capacity is an
protocols were used, mean peak V̇o2 was not significantly important prognostic variable in these patients.
different between tests. In another study, obese subjects with The specific exercise test variables used to assess PAD
CAD were assigned to 2 severe energy-deficient study groups functional severity are distance or time to onset of claudica-
(one with exercise and the other by diet) plus a control group. tion pain and peak exercise distance or time. The test should
All had exercise testing with V̇o2 studies 6 times in a 2-year have small progressive increases in workload, typically with
period with the Weber-Janicki protocol.307 There were no dif- constant speed. One common protocol uses a constant speed
ferences between groups with the testing methodology, and all of 2 mph with 2% increases in grade every 2 minutes.314
completed each test with satisfactory end points. In conclu- Measurement of ankle–brachial index immediately after exer-
sion, these 2 studies and clinical experience reveal that obese cise testing can help diagnose PAD in difficult cases and also
subjects can have exercise tests effectively performed with a can determine the extent of circulatory impairment. Because
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
variety of protocols. Low-impact walking protocols, starting the pressure distal to an obstructive arterial lesion falls during
at low work rates with small increments between stages, are exercise as a result of dilation of distal arterioles, the ankle–
preferred in this patient population. brachial index typically decreases from ≈0.7 at rest to ≈0.3
immediately after exercise. A decline after exercise has a sen-
Diabetes Mellitus
sitivity >95% for detecting significant PAD.315
Because diabetes mellitus is a potent risk factor for CAD,
Treadmill exercise capacity is markedly reduced in patients
exercise testing can be useful both in screening for CAD in
with PAD, with peak V̇o2 typically 12 to 15 mL kg−1 min−1. In
asymptomatic individuals who have diabetes mellitus and in
such patients, both shorter treadmill exercise time and lower
assessing prognosis. Asymptomatic individuals who have dia-
6-minute walk distance have been correlated with greater
betes mellitus generally show reduced aerobic capacity relative
superficial femoral artery plaque burden.316,317 Because exer-
to nondiabetic age-matched peers, as well as a reduced chro-
cise-induced claudication often causes test termination before
notropic response, likely because of autonomic dysfunction.308
an adequate HR is achieved, alternative testing such as arm
Among 1341 patients with diabetes mellitus referred for exer-
ergometry or pharmacological stress testing with dobutamine
cise testing, 36% had an impaired chronotropic response,
or vasodilators is usually required for diagnosis of CAD.
defined by achievement of <80% of predicted HR reserve.
Arm exercise testing often fails to elicit ischemic ST-segment
Such individuals were at increased risk for total mortality, MI,
depression or angina because the patient is limited by fatigue.52
and coronary revascularization procedures, independent of
Exercise performance appears to be a powerful prognostic
conventional risk factors.309 Although a blunted chronotropic
indicator in patients with PAD. In 444 such individuals, those
response to treadmill exercise is observed in patients who have
in the lowest quartile of 6-minute walk distance demonstrated
diabetes mellitus and without evident cardiac autonomic neu-
increased risk of cardiovascular (hazard ratio = 5.6) and total
ropathy, this chronotropic impairment is greater among those
(hazard ratio = 2.4) mortality versus those in the highest quar-
with neuropathy.310 Reduced HR recovery has also been associ-
tile, independent of ankle–brachial index and other important
ated with adverse cardiovascular outcomes and all-cause death
covariates.318
in diabetic populations.311 Multiple studies have reported an
inverse relationship between exercise capacity and mortality The Physically Disabled
rate in individuals who have diabetes mellitus as in individuals Special protocols are available for testing319 subjects with
who do not have diabetes mellitus. In a study of 2867 male vet- musculoskeletal disabilities, especially those with hemiplegia
erans with diabetes mellitus referred for exercise testing, each or paresis after stroke or those with lower-limb amputation
1-MET lower exercise capacity was associated with an 18% or spinal cord injury. Many testing protocols use arm cycle
higher risk of death over a mean follow-up of 7.8 years, inde- ergometry with the subject sitting to optimize the exercise load,
pendent of conventional risk factors.312 Although screening of but some protocols consist of arm-leg or leg cycle ergometry.
asymptomatic patients who have diabetes mellitus with exer- Safe and effective testing can be performed by most of these
cise ECG or pharmacological myocardial perfusion imaging subjects. If arm ergometry is considered, the protocol should
could identify substantial numbers of individuals with induc- begin at a resistance of 20 W and be increased by 10 W per
ible myocardial ischemia, the recent Detection of Ischemia in stage. Electronically braked ergometers allow for constant
Asymptomatic Diabetics (DIAD) and Do You Need to Assess workloads at various cranking revolutions per minute. Each
Myocardial Ischemia in Type-2 diabetes (DYNAMIT) trials stage should last 2 consecutive minutes, with a 1-minute rest
showed no significant benefit of such screening on hard clinical period before beginning the next stage.319,320 Unfortunately,
outcomes.207,313 Routine exercise testing is therefore not recom- exercise capacity can be limited to the degree that such testing
mended in asymptomatic patients who have diabetes mellitus modalities are inadequate to uncover abnormal responses, and
and who wish to begin light to moderate levels of exercise.221 thus pharmacological testing could be preferable.
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 899
Evaluation of Chest Pain in the Emergency Department (<1.0%) of inadvertent exercise testing of patients with evolv-
Detailed recommendations for exercise testing among patients ing, non–ST-elevation MI, but it has been associated with no
who present to the emergency department (ED) or chest pain complications.332 When performed after ruling out MI, early
centers are presented in the AHA science advisory on “Safety exercise testing in the ED or in chest pain units seems to be
and Utility of Exercise Testing in Emergency Room Chest safe, accurate, and cost-effective.
Pain Centers,”321 the “ACC/AHA 2002 Guideline Update SPECT imaging and dobutamine echocardiography have
for Exercise Testing,”58 and the AHA scientific statement on also been used in the ED for the noninvasive identification of
“Testing of Low-Risk Patients Presenting to the Emergency myocardial ischemia and its effects on regional myocardial
Department With Chest Pain.”322 Patients who present to the function.333,334 Direct noninvasive visualization of coronary
ED are a heterogeneous population with a large range of pretest artery stenoses with 64-slice coronary computed tomography
probabilities of CAD. In accord with Bayesian principles, the angiography performed well for predicting absence of acute
greatest incremental diagnostic value occurs in intermediate- coronary syndrome in an observational cohort study and could
risk clinical patient subsets. Exercise treadmill testing should become an important triage alternative to traditional exercise
be considered in patients who present to the ED with symptoms testing in ED patients with acute chest pain syndromes.335,336
such as chest discomfort when they are classified as “low risk,”
which includes the following: Two sets of cardiac enzymes at Known or Suspected Arrhythmias
4-hour intervals are normal; ECG at the time of presentation Comprehensive ACCF/AHA/ European Society of Cardiology
and before the exercise test shows no significant changes; the guidelines for management of patients with ventricular
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
resting ECG has no abnormalities that preclude accurate assess- arrhythmias were published in 2006.337 Class I recommenda-
ment of the exercise ECG; and the patient is asymptomatic or tions for exercise testing include adult patients with ventricular
has minimal atypical chest pain from admission to the time arrhythmias who have an intermediate or greater probability
results are available from the second enzyme set.323 of having coronary disease and patients (regardless of age)
Early exercise testing has been applied in patients with with known or suspected exercise-induced ventricular arrhyth-
chest pain who are identified as low risk by clinical assess- mias, for provocation, to make a diagnosis, and to evaluate the
ment, which has been implemented by using 2 approaches. In response to tachycardia. Exercise testing is considered useful,
most studies, it is performed soon after presentation after an Class IIa, for evaluating the response to medical or ablation
acute coronary syndrome has been excluded. Acute coronary treatment in patients with known exercise-induced ventricu-
syndromes are ruled out by an accelerated diagnostic protocol, lar arrhythmias. Class IIb recommendations include patients
which is usually performed within a 6- to 12-hour interval with with arrhythmias but a low probability of CAD and for the
serial cardiac serum markers and ECGs. In the second, less evaluation of isolated ventricular premature beats in greater
common, strategy, selected low-risk patients undergo “imme- than middle-aged patients without other evidence of CAD. In
diate” exercise testing to stratify the group into those who can a scientific statement on risk for sudden cardiac death, assess-
be discharged directly from the ED and those who require ment of functional capacity by peak oxygen consumption and
admission. Both methods have thus far been shown to be safe, by the 6-minute walk test was considered more accurate than
informative, and cost-effective, although experience with the clinical variables such as functional classification for the pre-
latter is considerably more limited than with the former. diction of death and sudden death in chronic heart failure.338
The feasibility of “early” exercise testing after excluding an The application of other available guidelines to exercise
acute coronary syndrome has been demonstrated by a number testing in patients with known or suspected arrhythmias but
of studies involving 100 to >400 patients presenting with chest nonatherosclerotic heart diseases was recently reviewed by
pain and negative results on an accelerated diagnostic proto- Morise.339 Specifically considered were hypertrophic cardio-
col.324–329 Patients with negative exercise tests were discharged, myopathy (HCM), valvular heart disease, atrial fibrillation,
and those with positive results were admitted. No adverse documented VT, pacemakers, and T-wave alternans. Class
effects of exercise testing were reported. Direct discharge of I indications for exercise testing include the assessment of
patients after a negative exercise test reduced hospital admis- HR-adaptive pacemakers and individuals with congenital
sions for the initial presentation by ≈50%.324,326 A negative complete heart block who are contemplating increased physi-
exercise test was associated with no cardiac events at 30 days325 cal activity or competitive sports. Class IIa indications include
and at 5-month328 follow-up. Compared with patients with a arrhythmia provocation in patients with known or suspected
positive test, those with negative tests had equivalent324,326 or exercise-induced arrhythmias, including evaluation of medi-
fewer readmissions327 at 1 to 6 months. Substantial cost savings cal, surgical, or catheter ablation therapy in such individuals;
also have been demonstrated with an accelerated management evaluation of ventricular rate response and suspected myocar-
protocol that included exercise testing.325,326 dial ischemia in patients with atrial fibrillation; and in combi-
In further studies from one center, exercise testing was used nation with T-wave alternans testing in patients with or at risk
in low-risk ED patients presenting with chest pain who had for life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias.
normal, near-normal, or unchanged ECGs.323,330–332 This pro- In some individuals, arrhythmias can occur primarily in
cedure has been applied in >1000 patients332 with no reported relation to vigorous exercise. The prototype for such arrhyth-
adverse effects of exercise testing. All of those in the group mias is catecholaminergic VT, a disorder first described in
with negative exercise tests were discharged directly from the 1975, which occurs in genetically predisposed people without
ED, and follow-up at 30 days revealed a cardiac event in <1%. structural heart disease. In these individuals, the arrhythmia is
However, this approach has been associated with a small risk often not inducible by programmed electrical stimulation but
900 Circulation August 20, 2013
is nearly always inducible by exercise testing.340 β-Adrenergic These latter variables are particularly important in this
blockade can be lifesaving in these patients. In patients with patient population, given their association with pulmonary
long-QT interval syndrome, exercise testing may elicit QT ventilation–perfusion mismatching, a primary consequence of
prolongation, which can be useful in risk stratification.341 pulmonary arterial hypertension. Initial evidence indicates that
T-wave alternans represents macroscopic or measurable these CPX variables are both prognostic and gauge therapeutic
microscopic alternation in electrocardiographic T-wave ampli- efficacy in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension.348
tudes or morphology that can be related to potential electrical Also, in patient populations in whom pulmonary hypertension
instability. T-wave alternans testing performed in conjunction could become a secondary consequence, such as in heart
with exercise testing can be useful in identifying patients at failure, HCM, chronic obstructive lung disease, and interstitial
risk for developing life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias. lung disease, ventilatory inefficiency (abnormally elevated
Numerous studies and a meta-analysis have shown low posi- V̇e/V̇co2 and abnormally diminished partial pressure of end-
tive predictive value but high negative predictive value for tidal CO2 during exercise) appears to accurately identify an
such testing in predicting these arrhythmias.342–344 Thus, a neg- elevated pulmonary artery pressure.350
ative test is reassuring, whereas a positive test suggests that
Adult Congenital Heart Disease
further risk stratification is needed.
Adults with congenital heart disease usually have cardiovas-
In patients with rate-adaptive pacemakers, exercise testing
cular issues that are distinct from those encountered among
can help to optimize the HR response and increase exercise
other adult cardiology patients. The role of exercise testing in
capacity.58 Such testing can be especially useful in patients
the assessment and management of this unique group there-
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
If a patient with adult congenital heart disease has impaired value of such an exercise response is 95% to 98%, the positive
exercise performance, it is helpful to determine whether the predictive value is only ≈15%. The abnormal pressure
impairment is likely attributable to an impaired chronotropic response appears to be mediated by a decrease in stroke
response, reflected by a depressed peak HR, or an impaired volume attributable to systolic dysfunction.
stroke volume response, reflected by a low oxygen pulse at Although nonsustained VT (NSVT) during ambulatory
peak exercise. It also should be noted that in the presence of electrocardiographic monitoring is associated with increased
significant chronotropic impairment there should be a com- risk of sudden cardiac death in patients with HCM, the role of
pensatory increase in stroke volume and oxygen pulse, solely exercise-induced NSVT in predicting adverse outcomes is less
on the basis of the Frank-Starling mechanism. Under these clear. In a cohort of 1380 such patients referred to a cardiomy-
circumstances, an oxygen pulse at peak exercise that is “only opathy clinic, 27 (2%) developed NSVT (n=24) or ventricular
normal” is, in fact, abnormal.20 fibrillation (n=3) during exercise testing. These individuals
Data acquired at submaximal exercise (eg, the ventilatory had more severe septal hypertrophy and larger left atria than
threshold and the V̇e/V̇co2 slope) have also been found to be those without such arrhythmias. On multivariate analysis,
useful in patients with congenital heart disease. In general, however, the combination of NSVT and ventricular fibrilla-
the prognostic value of ventilatory threshold data is similar tion, but not NSVT alone, was associated with an increased
to but less well established than V̇o2max data. In patients risk of sudden death (hazard ratio = 3.1) over a mean follow-
with repaired tetralogy of Fallot, the V̇e/V̇co2 slope has been up of 54 months.360
found to be a sensitive predictor of death.352 In these patients, Exercise echocardiography can be useful in eliciting a
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
the elevated V̇e/V̇co2 slope is probably due, at least in part, hemodynamically significant LVOT gradient in patients with
to pulmonary blood flow maldistribution secondary to pul- HCM with no or minimal gradient at rest. In 1 study of 256
monary artery stenoses.355 These stenoses can have a particu- patients with resting LVOT gradients <30 mm Hg, 52% devel-
larly deleterious effect on the physiology of the postoperative oped a significant gradient (80±43 mm Hg) with exercise.
tetralogy patient and a strong, negative impact on prognosis. Only 40% of these latter individuals developed a gradient
Effective relief of these stenoses has been found to improve >30 mm Hg with Valsalva.361 Whether these patients with high
exercise capacity and the V̇e/V̇co2 slope.356 An elevated LVOT gradients provocable only with exercise share a similar
V̇e/V̇co2 slope has also been associated with an increased risk increased risk of adverse outcomes as those with resting gra-
of death in patients with atrial repairs of transposition of the dients remains unclear.
great arteries.353 In these patients, the elevated V̇e/V̇co2 slope The safety of exercise testing in patients with HCM has been
can arise (as it does in patients with heart failure) secondary demonstrated in several studies, some of which were discussed
to pulmonary blood flow maldistribution and ventilation– previously in this document. In >3000 such patients tested over
perfusion mismatch, which in turn develop as a result of the 10 years, the only serious event was a single case of sustained
elevated pulmonary capillary wedge pressure associated with VT, successfully terminated by cardioversion.362 In another
the progressive systemic (right) ventricular dysfunction often report, only one episode of sustained VT occurred with exer-
encountered in these patients as they age. cise in 263 patients, and no patients experienced syncope.363
Right-to-left shunting also increases the V̇e/V̇co2 slope, prob- Thus, exercise testing appears safe and might be useful in iden-
ably as a consequence of the shunting of hypercapnic venous tifying HCM patients with no or minor resting LVOT gradients
blood into the systemic circulation. Elimination of a right-to- who could be at higher risk because of a provocable gradient or
left shunt almost invariably reduces the V̇e/V̇co2 slope.357 An ventricular tachyarrhythmia during exercise.
elevated V̇e/V̇co2 slope has also been associated with increased
risk of death in mixed cohorts of patients with a variety of con- Cardiac Transplantation
genital heart diseases.358,359 However, it has not been shown to be During maximal treadmill or cycle ergometer testing, cardiac
associated with increased risk of death in patients with Fontan transplant recipients demonstrate lower-than-predicted peak
circulations. In these patients, in whom V̇e/V̇co2 slope elevation HR, systolic blood pressure, V̇o2, exercise time, stroke vol-
is almost always present, the elevation is probably attributable ume, and cardiac output and increased ventilatory equivalent.
to pulmonary blood flow maldistribution and ventilation– The reduced stroke volume is secondary to blunting of pre-
perfusion mismatch secondary to the absence of a pulmonary load reserve, the end-diastolic volume.364 Cardioacceleration
ventricle, rather than to progression of disease.354 is blunted and delayed because of cardiac denervation but per-
sists longer into recovery because of elevated catecholamine
Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy levels. Peak V̇o2 in untrained transplant recipients is substan-
Although exercise testing is generally contraindicated in tially impaired, averaging ≈20 mL kg−1 min−1.365
patients with HCM who have high resting LV outflow tract A major late complication of heart transplantation is dif-
(LVOT) gradients, such testing could have clinical utility in fuse coronary artery allograft atherosclerosis, which is gener-
identifying higher-risk subsets among those without high ally not accompanied by angina pain attributable to cardiac
resting gradients who develop an abnormal blood pressure denervation. The sensitivity of the exercise ECG for detect-
response to exercise, a provocable LVOT gradient, or exercise- ing myocardial ischemia is also very low in this population.366
induced ventricular tachyarrhythmias.339 Several studies have Radionuclide scintigraphy, echocardiography, and other imag-
shown that a blunted increase in systolic pressure, typically ing techniques performed at rest are also relatively insensitive,
defined by an increase <20 to 25 mm Hg, predicts an increased but their sensitivity could be improved when combined with
risk of sudden cardiac death; although the negative predictive pharmacological stress testing.366
902 Circulation August 20, 2013
include carotid hyperactivity, LV failure, arrhythmia, and LV artery pressure. In such patients, mitral valve surgery should
baroreceptor stimulation. be considered if pulmonary artery systolic pressure exceeds
Exercise testing might be useful, however, in asymptomatic 60 mm Hg during exercise.373
patients with severe aortic stenosis for the purpose of eliciting
symptoms or an abnormal blood pressure response.339 Several Drugs and Electrolytes in Exercise Testing
studies have concluded that exercise testing is safe in both pedi-
atric and adult subjects with aortic stenosis when performed β-Blockers
appropriately. Protocols less intense than the standard Bruce Subjects with angina who receive β-blockers could achieve a
protocol should be used, especially in older or deconditioned higher exercise capacity with less ST-segment depression and
individuals. Attention should focus on the subject’s symptoms, less angina if the drugs prevent them from reaching their isch-
minute-by-minute response of blood pressure, slowing HR, emic rate–pressure product and, therefore, β-blockers could
and ventricular and atrial arrhythmias. Testing should be ter- translate into a reduction in diagnostic accuracy. Maximum
minated if angina, dizziness, decrease in systolic blood pres- HR–systolic blood pressure product likely would be reduced.
sure, complex ventricular arrhythmias, or >2 mm ST-segment The time of ingestion and the dosage of these medications
depression occurs. In the presence of an abnormal blood pres- before testing should be recorded. Whether to discontinue
sure response, the subject with aortic stenosis should take at β-blockers before testing was discussed in the prior section
least a 2-minute cool-down walk at a lower stage of exertion “Subject Preparation.”
to avoid acute LV volume overload, which could occur when Digitalis
the subject lies down. In an analysis of 7 studies encompass- ST-segment depression can be induced or accentuated during
ing 491 patients with severe asymptomatic aortic stenosis, no exercise in individuals who are taking digitalis, including both
sudden death occurred over an average follow-up of ≈1 year in normal subjects and subjects with CAD.376 Low specificity as
people with a normal exercise response, whereas sudden death a result of a high prevalence of false-positive test outcomes is
occurred in 5% of those with abnormal test responses.371 the main reason exercise ECG without imaging is not recom-
Aortic Regurgitation mended for patients taking digitalis. A normal QT interval is
Subjects with aortic regurgitation372 usually maintain a normal associated with digitalis-induced ST changes, whereas pro-
exercise capacity for a longer time than those with aortic ste- longed QT intervals occur with ischemia, other type 1 anti-
nosis. During exercise, the decreases in diastolic duration and arrhythmic drugs, electrolyte imbalance, and other medical
regurgitation volume favor forward output. As the myocardium problems. Exercise-induced ST-segment depression can persist
fails, peak HR tends to slow, and ejection fraction and stroke for 2 weeks after some preparations of digitalis are discontinued.
volume decrease. Exercise testing can be useful in patients with
Diuretics
asymptomatic severe aortic regurgitation to assess functional
Most diuretics have little influence on HR and cardiac perfor-
capacity and symptom response. Surgery is usually indicated if
mance but do decrease plasma volume, peripheral resistance,
unequivocal symptoms are elicited at a low workload.373
and blood pressure. Diuretics can cause hypokalemia, which
Mitral Stenosis can result in muscle fatigue, ventricular ectopy, and, rarely,
Subjects with mitral stenosis374 can show either a normal or ST-segment depression.
an excessive increase in HR during exercise. Because stroke
Hormones
volume cannot be significantly increased, the normal rise of
cardiac output is attenuated, and cardiac output eventually Menstrual Cycle
can fall during exercise; this is frequently accompanied by Research on the impact of the menstrual cycle on various
exercise-induced hypotension. Exercise testing with Doppler physiological indices is complex because of pulsatile secretion
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 903
of sex hormones, large inter- and intra-individual variations in terminating exercise, such as fatigue; more specific symp-
sex hormone levels between and within the various phases of toms like angina, leg pain or dyspnea; or a sign like a drop in
the cycle, variable duration of the follicular phase, and inter- systolic blood pressure or arrhythmia. Resting, exercise, and
mittent anovulatory cycles, which might not be apparent on recovery HRs and blood pressures should be tabulated accord-
the basis of bleeding pattern. The available literature suggests ing to stages, and peak exercise values should be stated. There
that there are probably no major differences in muscle con- should be a specific statement with regard to the presence or
tractile characteristics, maximum oxygen uptake, or substrate absence of chest pain at peak exercise and whether this was the
utilization during exercise between phases of the menstrual reason for termination of the test. Patient effort can be defined
cycle, but it has been suggested that the elevated body temper- by percent maximum predicted HR achieved or by use of a
ature during the luteal phase of the cycle could limit exercise chronotropic index. Additionally, it is useful to describe effort
in hot environments.377 capacity as percent of maximum predicted MET workload
Variable effects of the menstrual cycle on the exercise ECG equivalents, adjusted for age and for sex.22 Peak end-exercise
have been reported among women with normal coronary arter- or recovery-phase ST-segment deviation should be described,
ies. One study reported shorter time to ST-segment depression and the test should be defined as positive, negative, or equivo-
more frequently during the menstrual and preovulatory phases cal according to standard ST-segment criteria.91 Depending on
of the cycle than during the high-progesterone postovulation further experience and validation, additional diagnostic elec-
phase,378 whereas another found more frequent ST-segment trocardiographic findings that extend beyond the ST segment
depression and shorter exercise duration during the luteal phase should be considered for inclusion in the routine report.3 In
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
of the cycle.379 The exercise test findings correlated best with the addition to effort capacity, prognostic information might rou-
estradiol-to-progesterone ratio (r=0.29 for time to ST-segment tinely incorporate the Duke Treadmill Score and information
depression).379 An effect of estrogen on the ST-segment response about chronotropic response to exercise and HR recovery.3
is further suggested by the observation that false-positive stress
tests among young women tend to convert to normal after bilat- Exercise Training
eral hystero-salpingo-oophorectomy, an effect not seen after Exercise and Health
unilateral oophorectomy.380
Recent physical activity recommendations from the Centers
Among women with angina, ischemia might be more eas-
for Disease Control and Prevention,388 the American College
ily inducible (as documented by shorter times to ST-segment
of Sports Medicine,389 and the US Surgeon General390 affirm
depression) in the early follicular phase (a low-estrogen state)
the primary role of exercise in preventing chronic disease and
than in the late follicular phase, mid-cycle, and late luteal
in maintaining health throughout the age span. Several princi-
phase.381 Time to ischemia did not appear to depend on pro-
ples emerge from these statements, including that any exercise
gesterone concentrations.381
is better than none, more exercise is better than less, differ-
Exogenous Sex Hormones ent types of exercise (aerobic versus resistance) yield distinct
In 1977, a study described “worsening” of baseline exercise- favorable outcomes, and activity recommendations should be
induced ST-segment depression among men and women enabling and flexible and avoid setting up barriers.
supplemented with estrogen and amelioration of postexer- The goal of this section on exercise training is to provide an
cise ST-segment depression among men supplemented with evidence base for the medical benefits of long-term physical
testosterone.382,383 In the Lipid Research Clinics Program activity, where exercise can be viewed as a preventive medi-
Prevalence Study, oral contraceptive users were more likely cal treatment, like a “pill” that should be taken on an almost
to have abnormal exercise ECGs, whereas the difference in daily basis. Care is taken to merge the public health benefits
ST-segment depression between postmenopausal women on of exercise with the medical model, such that medical evalu-
and not on hormone replacement did not quite reach statistical ation is not set up as a barrier to exercise, yet selected higher-
significance.384 The proportion of women on estrogen therapy risk individuals are properly evaluated before they initiate an
who demonstrate abnormal exercise electrocardiographic exercise program to avoid an increase in adverse outcomes.
response varies by study but has been reported to be as high In particular, patients with established heart disease or other
as 39% among postmenopausal hormone users with con- selected chronic medical conditions should undergo a medi-
comitant normal myocardial perfusion imaging.385 Specificity cal evaluation to ensure clinical stability, to provide specific
of the exercise ECG might be improved in women taking activity recommendations, and to guide a safe progression
combined estrogen-progestin therapy versus women taking with exercise training.
estrogen monotherapy.386 Abnormal ST-segment responses in Exercise Training Response in Apparently Healthy
response to postural change and hyperventilation have also Individuals
been reported with exogenous estrogen therapy.387 The mecha- Exercise training in apparently healthy people affects several
nism for these estrogen-induced electrocardiographic changes physiological markers of health, including V̇o2max, central
remains unclear. Changes in vasomotor tone, changes in auto- hemodynamic function, autonomic nervous system function,
nomic tone, and a digitalis-like effect have been proposed.387 peripheral vascular and muscular function, and submaximal
exercise capacity. Collectively, these adaptations result in an
The Exercise Electrocardiographic Test Report exercise training effect, which allows an individual to exercise
The exercise test report should describe information relevant longer, to higher peak workloads, with lower HRs at submaxi-
to diagnosis and prognosis. This would include the reason for mal levels of exercise.
904 Circulation August 20, 2013
Maximal Oxygen Uptake Autonomic Nervous System. It is well established that cardiac
Aerobic exercise training increases V̇o2max through an increase autonomic regulation can be altered by exercise conditioning.397
in the capacity of the cardiovascular system to deliver oxygen Blood and urinary catecholamine levels are lower at rest and
to muscles (increased cardiac output) and of the muscles to during submaximal exercise after training, reflecting less sym-
extract and utilize oxygen, as reflected by a greater arteriove- pathetic nervous system activity.398 The arterial baroreflex, the
nous O2 difference [A–V̇o2diff]).4 It has been suggested that afferent fibers of which originate from the carotid sinus and aor-
older people demonstrate primarily an improved A–V̇o2diff.391 tic arch, regulates blood pressure on a beat-to-beat basis by con-
In subjects who achieved a physiological maximal HR at initial tinually adjusting HR, stroke volume, and peripheral resistance.
testing, a higher cardiac output after training is usually brought During exercise, baroreflex function is reset to operate around
about by an increase in stroke volume because maximal HR the higher blood pressures achieved during physical activity.399
does not typically increase after training in normal individuals. Parasympathetic tone also can be increased and, with sympa-
Central Hemodynamic Changes thetic adjustments, could account for the slower HR and lower
Although a greater maximal cardiac output can be achieved as arterial blood pressures seen after training.
a result of exercise training, values at fixed submaximal exter- Preventive Value of Regular Physical Activity
nal workloads are unchanged or slightly diminished. This is in Health and Disease
explained by a combination of reduced submaximal HR with Public health and medical authorities generally agree that
a concomitant increase in stroke volume where unchanged reduced physical activity during leisure time and on the job
submaximal values are reported, and/or a resultant increase in
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
apparent effects of physical activity and cardiorespiratory fit- Adherence to either regimen correlated with improvement in
ness on preventing CAD. These mechanisms are reviewed in lipid levels.422 Another group conducted an 8-month exercise
detail elsewhere405,414,415 and can be classified as the following: training study with different exercise intensities, taking care
not to change body weight.423 They also found little change
●● Antiatherogenic effects in LDL cholesterol levels but observed beneficial changes in
●● Anti-inflammatory effects LDL subfractions, triglyceride levels, and very-low-density
●● Effects on vascular endothelial function lipoprotein concentrations; increases in HDL cholesterol; and
●● Effects on blood clotting improvements in HDL subfractions. They similarly concluded
●● Autonomic functional changes that the amount of exercise, not the intensity of exercise or
●● Anti-ischemic effects change in fitness, best correlated with improvements in these
●● Antiarrhythmic effects lipoproteins.423 A meta-analysis of 25 exercise trials found overall
●● Reduction in age-related disability modest increases in HDL cholesterol of 2.5 mg/dL and suggested
Antiatherogenic Effects of Exercise Training that the minimal exercise volume to achieve improvements in
Antiatherogenic effects of exercise occur primarily through HDL cholesterol was ≈900 kcal of energy expenditure per week
the effects of exercise training on established cardiovascular or 120 minutes of exercise weekly, with significant additional
risk factors. increases in HDL cholesterol for every 10 minutes of exercise
duration.424 Another group investigated the impact of exercise
Exercise Training and Blood Lipid Profiles. Cross-sectional on lipids and lipoproteins in specific populations in a series of
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
studies show that greater physical activity and fitness cor- meta-analyses. Benefits of exercise on lipoproteins extended to
relate with lower total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) older individuals425 and women,426 whereas among overweight
cholesterol levels, higher high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and obese individuals, only decreases in triglycerides reached
cholesterol levels, and lower triglyceride levels throughout statistical significance.427 Whether resistance training can
the lifespan.416–418 Longitudinal changes in lipid profiles as achieve similar benefits as aerobic training is less clear because 2
a function of changing activity and fitness levels are more different meta-analytic approaches by the same authors reached
difficult to demonstrate, in part because of confounding by different conclusions.428,429
changes in body weight and dietary intake. In the Coronary
Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) study, Exercise Training and Hypertension. After early seminal
changes in physical fitness and activity were only weakly cor- observations,430,431 the inverse relationship between physical
related with lipid levels, whereas changes in body weight were activity, physical fitness, and incident hypertension has been
more strongly associated with lipid changes.419 In the ARIC reproduced in a number of population-based cohort studies. In
(Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities) study, increases in the ARIC study, leisure-time physical activity among middle-
physical activity level over 9 years of follow-up were asso- aged adults was strongly associated with incident hyperten-
ciated with increases in HDL cholesterol among white and sion in white males but not in women or in blacks.432 This
black women and men, whereas decreases in triglycerides unexpected finding remains unexplained but could be related
were evident only among white participants and changes in to methodological issues in activity assessment in the latter 2
LDL cholesterol only among women, especially among black groups. Among young adults enrolled in the CARDIA study,
women.420 Whether the heterogeneity of these results reflects both physical fitness and physical activity showed strong
true sex and ethnic differences or residual confounding by inverse and independent relationships to incident hypertension
other lifestyle factors is unclear. among whites and blacks and in both sexes.433 The protective
Clinical trials of exercise training as a means to modify effect of greater physical activity appears to be independent of
blood lipid levels show heterogeneous results, in part dependent body weight in both sexes.434 Even among the very fit, higher
on characteristics of study participants; baseline lipoprotein physical activity level and cardiorespiratory fitness are inde-
profiles; differences in intensity, frequency, duration, and type pendently predictive of lower risk of incident hypertension.435
of the exercise intervention; and any concomitant interventions The odds of developing hypertension were reduced in those
as they occur in more comprehensive risk reduction programs. who remained vigorously active and were increased in those
A meta-analysis of 48 clinical trials of exercise-based cardiac whose vigorous activity declined over time.436
rehabilitation in patients with established CAD421 reported Exercise training lowers resting blood pressure in normo-
a weighted mean difference in total cholesterol of –0.37 tensive and hypertensive individuals and in patients with and
mmol/L [–14.3 mg/dL] (95% confidence interval [CI]: –0.63 without CVD. A meta-analysis of 54 trials of aerobic exercise
to –0.11 mmol/L [–24.3 to –4.2 mg/dL]) and in triglyceride training, which enrolled 2419 participants, reported a signifi-
level of –0.23 mmol/L [–20.4 mg/dL] (95% CI: –0.39 to cant reduction in mean systolic and diastolic blood pressures
–0.07 mmol/L [–34.5 to –6.2 mg/dL]); information on HDL (–3.84 mm Hg [95% CI: –4.97 to –2.72 mm Hg] and –2.58
cholesterol and LDL cholesterol changes was not available in mm Hg [95% CI: –3.35 to –1.81 mm Hg], respectively).437
these trials. In the Training Level Comparison Study, a 1-year Moderate-intensity resistance training leads to blood pres-
randomized trial in men with coronary heart disease that sure reductions of similar magnitude.438 An “optimal” dose of
assessed 2 different intensities of exercise (50% and 85% of exercise for blood pressure lowering has not been defined, but
maximal oxygen consumption, respectively), modest changes in among previously sedentary adults, even modest increases in
triglycerides were observed, but no significant impact on HDL activity, such as walking 30 to 60 minutes per week, have mea-
or LDL cholesterol occurred in either exercise intensity group. surable benefit.439 Among 8940 patients with CAD enrolled in
906 Circulation August 20, 2013
48 trials of exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation, another group Exercise Training and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. In individu-
reported a weighted mean difference in systolic blood pressure als with established type 2 diabetes mellitus, a meta-analysis
of –3.2 mm Hg (95% CI: –5.4 to –0.9 mm Hg).421 of published randomized controlled trials of exercise training
revealed that exercise significantly improves glycemic control
Exercise Training and Obesity. Overweight and obesity and reduces visceral adipose tissue and plasma triglycerides,
have reached epidemic proportions in the United States, with but not plasma cholesterol, in people with type 2 diabetes mel-
recent data from the National Health and Nutrition Exami- litus, even without weight loss.449 A structured exercise pro-
nation Survey documenting a prevalence of overweight gram is more effective than simply providing physical activity
(BMI >25) of 68% and a prevalence of obesity (BMI >30) recommendations.450 In the LookAHEAD (Action for Health
of 34%.440 In that body weight is determined by the balance in Diabetes) trial, a goal of 175 minutes of exercise per week
between energy intake (food) and energy expenditure (resting and behavioral weight loss led to improved fitness and a 6%
metabolic rate, thermic effect of food [digestion], and physical weight loss at 4 years, associated with lower levels of hemo-
activity–related energy expenditure), exercise plays a major globin A1C, lower blood pressure, improved lipid measures,
role in weight management. Current high rates of obesity are and less use of glucose-lowering medications, compared with
determined by both a high rate of physical inactivity and an usual care.451
increase in caloric intake.401,441 Optimally, weight reduction in
overweight/obese individuals is attained by a combination of Anti-inflammatory Effects of Exercise Training
reduced food intake and increased caloric expenditure (physi- Studies of the relationship between inflammation and physi-
cal activity and occasional and ongoing exercise were sum-
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
thickness and large-artery stiffness and greater endothelium- production, thereby enhancing exercise-induced coronary
mediated vasodilator function than their sedentary age peers. vasodilation and myocardial blood flow.474 Consistent with
For example, men 55 to 75 years of age who regularly com- these favorable effects on myocardial oxygen demand and sup-
peted in road races demonstrated ≈30% lower aortofemoral ply, studies have demonstrated training-induced improvements
pulse-wave velocity and carotid augmentation index than in myocardial perfusion and reduction in ischemia in patients
untrained men of similar age.461 As noted previously, aerobic after MI475,476 and those with chronic CAD.477 These beneficial
exercise interventions lower blood pressure significantly; this effects of training on myocardial perfusion are observed in both
reduction is generally greater in hypertensive individuals.437 the infarct zone and remote regions.
Endurance training in adults induces remodeling of conduit
Antiarrhythmic Effects of Exercise Training
arteries, resulting in reduced wall thickness and increased
A risk of ventricular fibrillation or sudden cardiac death during
lumen diameter.463
isolated bouts of strenuous exercise in the presence of CAD
Exercise Training and Blood Clotting is well documented, although the risk in screened patients is
Plasma levels of most coagulation factors increase with age exceedingly low.234 In the long-term setting, exercise training–
in sedentary people, but this increase is attenuated in physi- induced improvements in the myocardial oxygen supply–
cally active individuals. After 16 weeks of aerobic training, demand balance and concomitant reduction in sympathetic
coagulation factor levels were generally decreased, but these tone and catecholamine release are postulated to attenuate the
beneficial changes disappeared after only 2 weeks of “detrain- risk of ventricular fibrillation. The effects of exercise train-
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
ing.”464 In sedentary overweight adults 50 to 75 years of age, ing on heart variability reflect in part decreased sympathetic
favorable effects of endurance training include reduced tissue and increased parasympathetic tone.478,479 This could explain
plasminogen activator antigen levels and plasminogen activa- the lower rate of sudden cardiac death observed in physically
tor inhibitor-1 levels.465 Men with claudication attributable to active individuals with known or suspected CAD or at high
PAD exhibited elevated baseline levels of plasminogen activa- risk of CAD.415,480–482 Studies in animals after MI demonstrate
tor inhibitor-1, which were reduced by 23% after 6 months of an increased threshold for inducible ventricular fibrillation
treadmill exercise training; tissue plasminogen activator activ- after exercise training.483
ity increased 28% over this period.466 Thus, ample evidence Prevention of Aging-Related Disability
indicates that aerobic training has beneficial effects on fibrino- Because regular exercise plays an important role in maintain-
lytic coagulation factors, especially in older adults with CVD. ing mobility, exercise training is a logical intervention to reduce
Exercise Training and Autonomic Function or prevent age-associated disability. In a systematic review
The balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic activ- of exercise interventions, it was found that trials that offered
ity modulates cardiovascular activity. Enhanced sympathetic a multicomponent exercise program involving endurance,
nervous system activity is associated with an increased risk of strength, flexibility, and balance training generally reported
cardiac events, particularly in patients with known heart dis- significant reductions in disability.484 Longer duration of the
ease. A reduction of HR variability (HRV) has been reported intervention and follow-up and interventions in more function-
in several cardiac conditions, such as after MI, in heart failure, ally limited individuals were associated with greater likelihood
and in diabetic neuropathy.467 of benefit.484 Interventions limited to lower-extremity strength
Using measures of HRV, cross-sectional studies of healthy training showed little to no benefit. The ongoing multicenter
men reported higher parasympathetic activity among those Lifestyle Interventions for Independence in Elders (LIFE)
who were physically trained and fit than among those who study will provide additional information on this topic. In the
were not.468 Exercise has been proposed to be an effective and LIFE Pilot Study, a comprehensive physical activity interven-
nonpharmacological way to enhance cardiac electrical stability tion in 424 individuals at risk for disability (70–89 years of
and serve as an antiarrhythmic intervention in humans.469 age) resulted in improved measures of physical performance
Improved measures of HRV and baroreflex sensitivity with and a lower incidence of major mobility disability, as reflected
exercise training have been shown in patients after infarction.470,471 by inability to complete a 400-meter walk.485
It is also evident that exercise training improves the HRV in
patients with chronic heart failure.472 Benefit of exercise training Exercise Prescription for Apparently Healthy
in patients with chronic heart failure is in part mediated by Individuals
significant reduction in central sympathetic outflow.473
Preexercise Screening
Anti-ischemic Effects of Exercise Training The need for formal medical screening before the initiation
Although maximal exercise HR and blood pressure do not usu- of an exercise program depends on several factors, includ-
ally change significantly with aerobic training, HR and systolic ing the intensity of exercise to be undertaken, the age and
blood pressure at fixed submaximal work rates are reduced by cardiac risk factor status of the individual, and the presence
training, as noted earlier. Because the rate–pressure product is a or absence of established CVD. Healthy adults who wish to
major determinant of myocardial oxygen demand, the reduced undertake a low- to moderate-intensity walking program or
rate–pressure product resulting from training will substantially equivalent moderate-intensity exercise generally do not need
lower oxygen demand, mimicking the anti-ischemic effects of a formal medical screening. Indeed, most are primarily for-
β-blockers and nondihydropyridine calcium channel block- malizing a walking program that was already tolerated as a
ers. In addition, exercise training enhances arterial nitric oxide part of daily activities. Requiring a medical evaluation and a
908 Circulation August 20, 2013
stress test before undertaking walking (or equivalent) exercise of risk. If an asymptomatic individual does not undergo an
in broad, healthy populations of adults has not been proven to exercise test before beginning training, he or she should fol-
be useful and could serve as a barrier to undertaking healthful low the activity guidelines outlined in Table 3. If the history or
exercise.486 This is backed by the caveat that if individuals are physical examination indicates significant CVD, the individ-
experiencing chest pain, dyspnea, joint pain, or lightheaded- ual should be treated by using information detailed in the sec-
ness with exercise, they should seek medical attention. tion titled “Evaluation and Exercise Prescription in Patients
With CVD,” with note taken that exercise is an important
Medical Evaluation and Exercise Prescription
component of treatment and secondary prevention in individu-
Individuals who are planning more vigorous physical activ-
als with CAD.
ity than walking (or equivalent) should consider a medical
In the health/fitness facility setting, screening procedures
screening, particularly if they are in an age and cardiac risk
should take place as detailed in the “Recommendations for
factor classification that would indicate a higher risk of exer-
Cardiovascular Screening, Staffing, and Emergency Policies
cise-related adverse events.
at Health/Fitness Facilities.”239 This involves the use of screen-
●● Among men <45 years and women <55 years of age who ing questionnaires such as the Physical Activity Readiness
are asymptomatic without known or suspected CVD, car- Questionnaire (PAR-Q) or AHA/American College of Sports
diovascular work-up is generally not needed unless there Medicine Pre-participation Screening Questionnaire. These
are extenuating circumstances, such as a family history of will prompt referral for medical evaluation by a healthcare
sudden death at a young age, or poorly controlled cardiac professional when indicated.
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
risk factors. The risks of sudden cardiac arrest during intense exercise
●● Among men >45 years and women >55 years of age under- in the general population have been estimated at roughly 1
taking vigorous exercise who have diabetes mellitus or 2 death per 80 000 to 159 000 participants during marathon run-
other risk factors for CVD, a medical evaluation is advised. ning487–489 and at 1 death per 67 000 participants during tri-
This should include a medical history, a physical exami- athlons, with almost all triathlon deaths occurring during the
nation, and a risk factor profile. For most, an electrocar- swim portion.490
diographic stress test is recommended. (“Exercise Testing:
Classification of Cardiovascular Risk
Before Participation in Vigorous Exercise” section.)
Individuals can be classified by risk on the basis of their age
●● The medical history should include the following: a his-
and cardiac risk factor characteristics. This classification is
tory of familial CAD or heart failure; presence of valvular
provided in detail in Tables 3 through 6, which are used to
heart disease, stable or unstable angina, congenital heart
determine the need for subsequent supervision and the level
disease, stroke, sudden death, history of pulmonary disease
of monitoring required.
(ie, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or asthma); pres-
ence of symptoms including chest discomfort, dizziness,
and shortness of breath (at rest or with activities of daily
Exercise Training Techniques
living) and leg discomfort (claudication) suggesting cardio- Elements of an Exercise Training Session
vascular or pulmonary disease; changes in balance or gait; Exercise training sessions are typically arranged with brief
presence of orthopedic problems including joint concerns periods of warm-up and cool-down (low-intensity aerobic and
(swelling), arthritis, or changes in mobility; medication use stretching movements) before and after a more intense and
and use of caffeine or alcohol; and prior exercise habits. Of prolonged phase of conditioning of either endurance or resis-
particular interest are data in the history that indicate that tance training (Table 7491,491a). Often, endurance training is
unsupervised exercise could be hazardous.
Table 3. Risk Classification for Exercise Training: Class A:
The physical examination should include vital signs and Apparently Healthy Individuals
examination of the cardiovascular and pulmonary systems,
including evaluation of abnormal heart sounds or murmurs; This classification includes:
1. A-1: Children, adolescents, men <45 years of age, and premenopausal
presence of wheezes or other adventitious sounds; presence of
women who have no symptoms or known presence of heart disease or
elevated BMI; presence of elevated blood pressure; presence major coronary risk factors
of neuromuscular disease; and presence of joint swelling or
2. A-2: Men ≥45 years of age and postmenopausal women who have no
other orthopedic issues. The risk factor profile should include symptoms or known presence of heart disease and with <2 major
blood work to determine the presence of dyslipidemia, cardiovascular risk factors
anemia, diabetes mellitus, or prediabetes and should use the 3. A-3: Men ≥45 years of age and postmenopausal women who have no
Framingham or other risk factor instrument to determine symptoms or known presence of heart disease and with ≥2 major
global cardiovascular risk. cardiovascular risk factors
●● An exercise test is selectively recommended if vigorous Activity guidelines: No restrictions other than basic guidelines
exercise is planned. (“Exercise Testing: Before Participa- Supervision required: None*
tion in Vigorous Exercise” section.) Electrocardiographic and blood pressure monitoring: Not required
*It is suggested that persons classified as Class A-2 and particularly Class
If the test is normal, no further restrictions are needed from A-3 undergo a medical examination and possibly a medically supervised
a cardiovascular point of view. If the test is abnormal, further exercise test before engaging in vigorous exercise. Reproduced with permission
work-up should follow, according to symptoms and estimates from Fletcher et al.1 © 2001 American Heart Association, Inc.
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 909
Table 4. Risk Classification for Exercise Training: Class flexibility. After the conditioning phase, cool-down facili-
B: Presence of Known, Stable CVD With Low Risk for tates a gradual transition to exercise cessation, modulating
Complications With Vigorous Exercise, But Slightly Greater the effects of vasodilation, high catecholamines, and potential
Than for Apparently Healthy Individuals ischemia. Cool-down helps the HR and blood pressure transi-
This classification includes individuals with any of the following diagnoses: tion to normal levels, reducing the likelihood for hypotension
1. CAD (MI, coronary artery bypass graft, percutaneous transluminal and ventricular ectopy. Body heat, lactic acid, and adrenaline
coronary angioplasty, angina pectoris, abnormal exercise test, are dissipated with gradual restoration to baseline levels.
and abnormal coronary angiograms); includes patients whose
condition is stable and who have the clinical characteristics Flexibility Exercise
outlined below Flexibility training preserves or progressively increases ROM
2. Valvular heart disease, excluding severe valvular stenosis or of joints over time. Flexibility goals usually are tailored to
regurgitation, with the clinical characteristics as outlined below capacities and needs of each patient, but a well-rounded
3. Congenital heart disease; risk stratification for patients with program generally includes at least one stretching exercise
congenital heart disease should be guided by the 27th Bethesda for each major muscle group (ie, lower back, hips, posterior
Conference recommendations145 thighs, and legs). Just as with endurance and resistance train-
4. Cardiomyopathy: ejection fraction ≤30%; includes stable patients ing, flexibility training is generally based on goals to pro-
with heart failure with clinical characteristics as outlined below but gressively enhance performance. In the case of flexibility
not HCM or recent myocarditis exercise, this entails stretching muscle beyond its normal rest-
5. Exercise test abnormalities that do not meet any of the high-risk
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
ing length but not to the point of pain or injury. The American
criteria outlined in Class C (Table 5) College of Sports Medicine recommends ≥4 repetitions for
Clinical characteristics (must include all of the following): each exercise, with the stretching itself lasting about 15 sec-
1. New York Heart Association class I or II onds.45 Flexibility training then progresses to increase the
2. Exercise capacity >6 METs extent of stretching, as well as the duration and the number of
3. No evidence of heart failure stretches to achieve further ROM benefits. Flexibility train-
4. No evidence of myocardial ischemia or angina at rest or on the ing is best performed when preceded by a general warm-up
exercise test at or below 6 METs to prepare the muscles that are to be stretched; therefore, it is
5. Appropriate rise in systolic blood pressure during exercise common to incorporate flexibility training as part of the cool-
6. Absence of sustained or nonsustained VT at rest or with exercise down phase of exercise training.
7. Ability to satisfactorily self-monitor intensity of activity
Traditionally, stretching methods vary between 3 tech-
niques: ballistic stretching, static stretching, and proprioceptive
Activity guidelines: Activity should be individualized, with exercise
prescription provided by qualified individuals and approved by primary
neuromuscular stretching. Whereas ballistic stretching entails
healthcare provider bouncing movements to lengthen the range of muscle stretch,
Supervision required: Medical supervision during initial prescription session
static stretch uses slow, sustained muscle lengthening. During
is beneficial. proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation, the body part is
Supervision by appropriate trained nonmedical personnel for other exercise moved to the end of its ROM, but it is then moved even fur-
sessions should occur until the individual understands how to monitor ther by an assistant. Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation
his or her activity. Medical personnel should be trained and certified in is most common among athletic and rehabilitation programs.
Advanced Cardiac Life Support. Nonmedical personnel should be trained Ballistic and slow static exercises are more widespread, partic-
and certified in Basic Life Support (which includes cardiopulmonary ularly because they do not depend on assistance to achieve the
resuscitation). training benefit. Although both ballistic and slow static tech-
Electrocardiographic and blood pressure monitoring: Useful during the niques are well-established modes to achieve increased ROM,
early prescription phase of training slow stretching is less likely to cause injury or soreness.492
CAD indicates coronary artery disease; HCM, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy;
MET, metabolic equivalent; MI, myocardial infarction; and VT, ventricular Endurance Exercise
tachycardia. Reproduced with permission from Fletcher et al.1 © 2001 American Endurance exercise entails rhythmic motion of large muscle
Heart Association, Inc. groups in aerobic activities such as walking, jogging, cycling,
and rowing (Table 7). Endurance training uses the same pro-
performed on days that alternate with resistance training, but gressive overload principle already described in relation
both modes can be combined into a single session for patients to flexibility training. The overriding goal is to induce pro-
who are sufficiently vigorous and healthy to tolerate the effort. gressive physiological adaptations that facilitate increased
Flexibility training is an additional exercise mode that is often exercise capacity and its related health benefits. Endurance
integrated into the warm-up or cool-down periods to provide training is prescribed in terms of intensity, duration, fre-
still another dimension of benefit. quency, progression, and modality (Table 7). The intensity of
endurance training can range from 40% to 80% of baseline
Warm-Up and Cool-Down exercise capacity, depending on the fitness of an individual,
Both warm-up and cool-down periods entail low-intensity as well as his or her training goals. (“Maximizing Fitness.”)
aerobic exercises usually for 5 to 10 minutes. Warm-up Lower-intensity regimens can constitute an adequate train-
maneuvers stimulate vasodilation and increased local muscle ing stimulus for sedentary adults and those who are older or
perfusion before a more intense conditioning stimulus. This frail. However, for most adults, training intensities of 55% to
activity also increases joint range of motion (ROM) and 80% of the baseline exercise capacity are well tolerated and
910 Circulation August 20, 2013
Table 5. Risk Classification for Exercise Training: Class C: by first subtracting the resting values of V̇o2 and HR from the
Those at Moderate to High Risk for Cardiac Complications maximum level achieved to determine the V̇o2 reserve or HR
During Exercise or Unable to Self-Regulate Activity or to reserve, respectively; training targets are then calculated by
Understand Recommended Activity Level multiplying the desired training percentage with the reserve
This classification includes individuals with any of the following values and adding the product to the baseline V̇o2 and HR val-
diagnoses: ues. For example, if the maximal exercise HR is 180 and the
1. CAD with the clinical characteristics outlined below resting HR is 80, the HR reserve is 100. Training at 50% of
2. Valvular heart disease, excluding severe valvular stenosis or HR reserve would have the individual training at an HR of 130
regurgitation with the clinical characteristics as outlined below bpm (80 + 0.5 × 100). Even with such steps to increase train-
3. Congenital heart disease; risk stratification for patients with ing precision, measures of V̇o2 and HR can vary with exercise
congenital heart disease should be mode as well as with medications, volume status, disease, or
guided by the 27th Bethesda Conference recommendations145 even psychological stress.
4. Cardiomyopathy: ejection fraction ≤30%; includes stable patients A simpler way of gauging exercise intensity is to base a
with heart failure with clinical characteristics as outlined below training target on a subjective assessment of exertion. The
but not HCM or recent myocarditis Borg Perceived Exertion Scale219 provides a well-validated
5. Complex ventricular arrhythmias not well controlled gradation of exercise intensity (relative perceived exertion
Clinical characteristics (any of the following) index of 6 to 20) (Table 2). Training at an RPE level between
1. New York Heart Association class III or IV 12 and 16 is generally consistent with 40% to 80% HR reserve.
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
2. Exercise test results Although exercise training has been consistently demon-
3. Exercise capacity <6 METs strated to be very safe, even in adults with known CVD, exer-
4. Angina or ischemic ST depression at a workload <6 METs cise testing constitutes an important means to formally assess
5. Fall in systolic blood pressure below resting levels during exercise overall clinical stability and to rule out myocardial ischemia,
arrhythmia, or hemodynamic hazards that would otherwise
6. Nonsustained VT with exercise
contribute to exercise-related risks. Although such testing is
7. Previous episode of primary cardiac arrest (ie, cardiac arrest that
often sufficient to assure training safety, monitoring of HR
did not occur in the presence
of an acute myocardial infarction or during a cardiac procedure) and blood pressure over the course of a training program is
still important because the physiological rationale for endur-
8. A medical problem that the physician believes could be
life-threatening ance exercise depends at least in part on safely provoking these
Activity guidelines: Activity should be individualized, with exercise
cardiovascular responses to elicit physiological adaptations.
prescription provided by qualified individuals and approved by One key purpose of cardiac rehabilitation is to provide more
primary healthcare provider stringent surveillance of cardiovascular responses as endur-
Supervision: Medical supervision during all exercise sessions until ance exercise intensity is advanced in patients with known
safety is established CVD. A “talk test” is considered a relatively simple way of
Electrocardiographic and blood pressure monitoring: Continuous during monitoring exercise intensity. Essentially, the ability of some-
exercise sessions until safety is established one to talk comfortably during exercise has been associated
CAD indicates coronary artery disease; HCM, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy; with overall cardiovascular safety.493,494 Safety concerns also
MET, metabolic equivalent; and VT, ventricular tachycardia. relate to the effects of endurance exercise on joints and bones.
*Class C patients who have successfully completed a series of supervised High-impact activities are more likely to result in injury, espe-
exercise sessions may be reclassified to Class B, providing that the safety of cially in overweight or deconditioned adults. Cross-training
exercise at the prescribed intensity is satisfactorily established by appropriate (ie, varying exercise modalities) also helps to avoid excessive
medical personnel and that the patient has demonstrated the ability to self- use of any single joint or bone.
monitor. Reproduced with permission from Fletcher et al.1 © 2001 American
Heart Association, Inc.
Ideal training goals are to exercise ≥5 days a week for
30 to 60 minutes, depending on the training intensity.
Nonetheless, this extent of activity could be overwhelm-
safe and more efficiently lead to improved fitness and health. ing to many, particularly those who are frail or decondi-
Assessments of initial fitness and training intensity are usually tioned at the onset. Therefore, it is important to start with
conceptualized in relation to aerobic performance indices. For modest goals that are realistic and attainable and to slowly
people without known or suspected CVD in whom an exercise advance toward guideline-based training intensity, duration,
test has not been performed, intensity can be estimated from and frequency. Multiple “bouts” of low-intensity physical
the percentage of maximum predicted HR, derived as 220 activity (eg, slow walking) for even 10 minutes each have
minus age in years, assuming that the individual is not taking been shown, for example, to have meaningful physiological
a β-adrenergic–blocking medication. CPX testing19 provides value for adults to yield healthful adaptations and progres-
the most accurate measure of maximal aerobic performance sive improvement in exercise tolerance. Walking is often
during an exercise test (V̇o2max), such that a training intensity regarded as the activity of choice because it is readily acces-
can be established as a percentage of V̇o2max. A percentage of sible, offers a range of intensities amenable to personalized
maximal HR from an exercise test can be used as an alterna- regimens, and is easily regulated. Slow walking at 2 mph
tive means to gauge aerobic capacity. Furthermore, training approximates 2 METs and can constitute sufficient train-
targets based on V̇o2 or HR often are adjusted to account for ing for lower-fitness subjects. Brisk walk training programs
individual differences in V̇o2 and HR at rest. This is achieved (3–4 mph) for longer durations provide high-energy activity
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 911
Table 6. Risk Classification for Exercise Training: Class D: Table 7. General Guidelines for Endurance and Resistance
Unstable Disease With Activity Restriction* Training
This classification includes individuals with any of the following: Endurance training
1. Unstable ischemia Frequency ≥5 d/wk
2. Severe and symptomatic valvular stenosis or regurgitation Intensity 55%–90% maximum predicted HR* or
3. Congenital heart disease; criteria for risk that would prohibit 40%–80% V̇o2max or HR reserve
exercise conditioning in patients with congenital heart RPE 12–16
disease should be guided by the 27th Bethesda Conference Modality Walking, treadmill, cycling, etc
recommendations609 Duration 30–60 min
4. Heart failure that is not compensated
Resistance training
5. Uncontrolled arrhythmias
Frequency 2–3 d/wk
6. Other medical conditions that could be aggravated by exercise
Intensity 50%–80% of 1-RM
Activity guidelines: No activity is recommended for conditioning purposes. or RPE 12–16
Attention should be directed to treating the patient and restoring the 1–3 sets of 8–15 repetitions per exercise
patient to Class C or better. Daily activities must be prescribed on the
basis of individual assessment by the patient’s personal physician. Modality Lower extremity: leg extensions, leg curls,
leg press. Upper extremity: bench press,
*Exercise for conditioning purposes is not recommended. Reproduced with lateral pulldowns, biceps curl, triceps
permission from Fletcher et al.1 ©2001 American Heart Association, Inc.
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
extension
Duration 30–45 min
intensity that increases exercise capacity while decreasing HR indicates heart rate; maximum predicted HR=(220–age); RPE, rating of
body weight and fat stores. As the fitness level of an indi- perceived exertion; and 1-RM, single-repetition maximal lift.
vidual advances, the intensity of exercise training needs to *The HR range recommendation assumes that the individual is not taking
advance; thus, it is important to build in prompts for both β-adrenergic–blocking medications. Modified from Shephard and Balady.491a
the exerciser and for the exercise supervisor to periodically ©1999 American Heart Association, Inc.
reexamine the exercise prescription on the basis of the cur-
rent fitness status of the individual. decrease fall risk (Table 7491,491a). People initiating a resistance
Jogging or brisk walking, on level ground or a treadmill, has training program should be carefully screened for both cardio-
historically been regarded as a primary exercise mode to achieve vascular limitations and preexisting orthopedic and musculoskel-
appropriate levels of energy expenditure and derive cardiovas- etal problems. In addition, individuals should be provided with
cular benefits. Nevertheless, desirable levels of energy expen- careful recommendations with regard to the specific components
diture and cardiovascular benefits can be achieved with other of the resistance training program, including proper technique,
exercise modes, such as cycling, aerobic dance, elliptical train- number and types of exercises, and safety precautions.
ing, and water-based exercise modalities (water-based aerobics Detailed guidelines for resistance training can be found
or walking in waist-deep water). It is particularly important to elsewhere.45,491,497 An outline of progressive resistance training
prescribe exercises that a person enjoys and that he or she toler- programming is presented in Table 7. Programs including a single
ates comfortably to promote long-term compliance. set of 8 to 10 different exercises (eg, chest press, shoulder press,
Aerobic interval training (AIT) is an endurance training triceps extension, biceps curl, pull-down, lower back extension,
strategy that contrasts to the traditional standard of progres- abdominal crunch/curl-up, quadriceps extension or leg press,
sive continuous training modes. Interval training is structured and leg curls/calf raise) that train the major muscle groups, when
as intense exercise periods alternating with relatively lower- performed 2 to 3 days per week, will elicit favorable adaptations
intensity recovery periods. Originally, AIT was used mostly and improvement (or maintenance thereof). Intensity of training
by athletes because it improved exercise performance more (training load) is prescribed relative to the 1-repetition maximum
rapidly than progressive continuous training. However, since (1-RM), which is the highest weight or load an individual can lift
the 1990s, AIT has been applied more frequently to other pop- for a specific exercise only once when using proper technique.
ulations, including adults with heart disease. AIT is discussed To achieve a balanced increase in both muscular strength and
further in a later section495,496 (“Maximizing Fitness”). endurance, a repetition range of 8 to 12 is recommended for
healthy participants <50 to 60 years of age (60%–80% of 1-RM),
Resistance Training and a range of 10 to 15 repetitions at a lower relative resistance
Resistance exercise training, which involves activities that use (40%–60% of 1-RM) is recommended for cardiac patients and
low- or moderate-repetition movements against resistance, has healthy older participants. The reason for the increased repetition
been accepted as a primary component of a comprehensive range at a lower relative effort for older or debilitated subjects is
exercise program, both for apparently healthy individuals and injury prevention. The relative load should be increased when
(with appropriate screening and precautions) for subjects with the individual can comfortably exceed the repetition range.
CVD.491 Although the effect of resistance exercise on CVD risk
factor modification is less than traditional endurance exercise, Behavioral Aspects of Initiating and Sustaining an
the increase in strength and potential for increased muscle mass Exercise Program
could improve the individual’s ability to become more physi- The promotion of physical activity for adults requires some
cally active, raise the basal metabolic rate, and in older people, understanding of the principles of behavior change and of habit
improve the ability to perform activities of daily living and development. Additionally, barriers to physical activity and
912 Circulation August 20, 2013
correlates of success with long-term exercise should be con- clinically stable. Consequently, the history and physical exam-
sidered. An evaluation of an individual’s readiness for change ination should ensure that the patient does not have unstable
is appropriate before considering a major behavior change such ischemic symptoms, uncontrolled heart failure, or poten-
as embarking on an exercise program.498 Five components of tially life-threatening arrhythmias that might be exacerbated
behavior change and self-regulation include: (1) setting of real- by exercise training. In addition, the physical examination
istic and simple goals, (2) self-monitoring of personal behav- should determine if there are orthopedic issues that could be
iors linked to goal attainment, (3) feedback about progress worsened by physical activity. Patients with lower-extremity
toward goals, (4) self-evaluation of progress, and (5) corrective orthopedic problems or neuropathy might benefit from non–
behavior leading to effective movement toward goals.499 These weight-bearing forms of exercise training, such as ergometry
principles are relevant whether an individual is embarking on or swimming. Patients with CAD who have undergone recent
exercise in a home-based or in a group format. In adults >55 cardiac surgery should be examined for wound infections and
years of age, more than two thirds of individuals perceive barri- sternal instability to ensure that they do not engage in physical
ers to physical activity, including weather, neighborhood safety, activities that would hamper healing. For these patients, it is
and quality of sidewalks, in addition to lack of time, energy, and broadly accepted that there should be a delay in the initia-
motivation.500–502 Exercises that are most likely to be successful tion of an upper-extremity resistance training program after
in the long term are moderate in intensity, relatively inexpen- surgery (ie, 4–6 weeks). Similarly, integrity of catheterization
sive, simple, and convenient and include a social component.503 access sites should be examined to rule out fistulae and pseu-
doaneurysms that could be worsened by exercise training. For
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
Evaluation and Exercise Prescription in Patients patients with claudication, the physician should ensure that
With CVD the patient does not have rest pain, skin ulcers of the feet, or an
Exercise training in patients with CVD has been documented extremely limited exercise tolerance because such patients are
to increase exercise capacity,504,505 reduce or eliminate angina unlikely to improve with exercise training alone. The physi-
pectoris,506 and markedly increase walking distance in patients cal examination in patients with peripheral vascular disease
with claudication.507 Meta-analyses suggest that exercise-based should ensure that no skin lesions exist that would be wors-
cardiac rehabilitation reduces total deaths, cardiovascular deaths, ened with exercise or that could be attributable to extremely
and hospital readmissions by roughly 25% in patients after an low perfusion. Such an examination of the lower extremities
MI.421,508 A randomized, controlled clinical trial in patients with and feet is especially important in patients with CVD and dia-
systolic heart failure documented an 11% reduction in total mor- betes mellitus.
tality or hospitalization in patients randomized to exercise training
versus sedentary controls after adjustment for selected baseline Role of Exercise Tolerance Testing
variables.509 Exercise training in patients with CVD has multi- Patients with CVD should generally undergo symptom-
ple other therapeutic benefits.404 Despite such beneficial effects, limited exercise testing before initiating an exercise program
exercise training is not consistently prescribed for patients with in cardiac rehabilitation to establish a baseline fitness level,
CVD, as evidenced by the fact that only 14% to 35% of quali- determine maximal HR, and ascertain the safety of exercise
fied patients are referred to cardiac rehabilitation programs after by assessing symptoms and by observing for severe electro-
MI510–512 and ≈31% after bypass surgery.511 The reasons for such cardiographic ischemia or cardiac arrhythmia that would con-
underutilization are unclear but probably include provider-related traindicate exercise training or require a different therapeutic
factors (eg, lack of training in exercise therapeutics, underestima- approach. This is not an absolute requirement, however, and
tion of therapeutic benefits, lack of time), medical system factors many programs do not require such testing in clinically sta-
(eg, poor hospital-to-outpatient transition, ever-shortening index ble patients with CVD to facilitate initiation of the exercise
hospitalizations), and patient-related factors (eg, depression, regimen. Referral to a cardiac rehabilitation program is often
social isolation, extended travel time, lack of insurance coverage, used as a surrogate for exercise testing in such patients, and
socioeconomic status, a need to return to work). Nevertheless, the initial exercise session is used to benchmark the patient’s
nearly all patients with diagnosed heart disease can benefit from symptom and exercise performance baseline. Exercise test-
an individualized exercise training regimen. Accordingly, there is ing before exercise training is not designed for diagnosis,
a need to design, evaluate, and implement evidence-based alter- and therefore, patients should be tested while on their usual
native approaches to traditional cardiac rehabilitation that help medication to mimic their exercise-training sessions. Patients
provide all appropriate patients affordable access to clinically who did not undergo exercise testing after acute coronary syn-
effective secondary prevention programs.513 drome or surgery and are not referred to a cardiac rehabilita-
tion program should be encouraged to initiate low-intensity
Preexercise Clinical Screening
exercise training, with instructions to report symptoms such as
The clinical evaluation of patients considered for exercise
chest pain or shortness of breath to their physician.
training is designed to identify those in whom exercise train-
ing should be prohibited or delayed and those in whom exer-
Risk of Exercise Training for Patients With CVD
cise training is unlikely to produce benefit and to design an
The risk of a cardiac event during vigorous exercise training
appropriate exercise prescription for participants.
in individuals with established CAD can be estimated from
History and Physical Examination supervised cardiac rehabilitation programs. Studies in this pop-
Patients with CAD can initiate exercise training within a week ulation indicate that there is roughly 1 cardiac arrest for every
after an acute coronary syndrome, provided the patient is 115 000 patient-hours of cardiac rehabilitation and 1 death for
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 913
every 750 000 patient-hours of participation.421,508 The observa- criteria. The program should provide the same basic require-
tion that the incidence of cardiac arrest is 6-fold higher than the ments detailed for high-risk subjects in Table 5.
death rate indicates the value of successful resuscitation dur- All but the highest-risk patients can exercise in nonmedical
ing supervised cardiac rehabilitation but also suggests that the settings, including the home and health/fitness facilities. Such
death rate likely would be higher during unsupervised exercise. patients should be properly instructed by appropriately trained
Because cardiovascular events during supervised exer- healthcare professionals with regard to the exercise prescrip-
cise training are rare, there are no established predictors as tion and self-monitoring techniques. Details on exercise in
to which CVD patients will suffer exercise-related cardiac nonmedical settings are provided in the “Recommendations
events. Prognosis for patients with heart disease generally for Cardiovascular Screening, Staffing, and Emergency
worsens with the extent of disease, reduced LV function, Policies at Health/Fitness Facilities” from the AHA and
inducible ischemia, and the presence of cardiac arrhyth- American College of Sports Medicine.239
mias.514 Consequently, patients with an LV ejection fraction A stable patient can enter cardiac rehabilitation as early as
<50%, exercise-induced ischemia or complex ventricular the first 1 or 2 weeks after discharge from the hospital for a
arrhythmias, or hemodynamically significant residual coro- cardiac event such as MI or stent placement. Before enrolling
nary stenoses are likely to be at increased risk and should be in cardiac rehabilitation, most individuals, with their physician's
considered for supervised exercise training. guidance, may initiate a home walking program at a slow,
regular pace with increasing duration, starting with one to
Supervision and Monitoring of Exercise Training two 5- to 10-minute periods per day and gradually working
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
The level of supervision and monitoring of exercise training up to 30 to 60 minutes per day. Such walking programs need
must be considered on the basis of the type of patient, staff, not be supervised. Unmonitored exercise516 can also be used
facility, and resources. Details on administration and program- for conditioning after the individual has recovered from the
ming of cardiac rehabilitation are provided in the “Guidelines MI (≥2 weeks after hospital discharge) or in other cases of
for Cardiac Rehabilitation and Secondary Prevention stable CAD, although medically supervised and monitored
Programs” from the American Association of Cardiovascular exercise is preferred. It should be noted that recent evidence
and Pulmonary Rehabilitation.515 indicates initiation of structured cardiac rehabilitation shortly
Recommendations for risk stratification are provided in after hospital discharge for a recent MI significantly improves
Tables 3 through 6. For the apparently healthy individual, no program participation.517 Clinicians should therefore strongly
supervision is needed (Table 3). For those with unstable dis- consider facilitation of cardiac rehabilitation as soon as possible
ease, no activity is recommended (Table 6). Additional guide- after hospital discharge. If cardiac rehabilitation facilities
lines are provided for moderate- to high-risk and low-risk are not available, activity guidelines can still be provided to
subjects. cardiac subjects, and they should be encouraged to exercise.
Medically Supervised Exercise If individuals carefully watch for signs of intolerance such as
chest pain or shortness of breath and are attentive to HR and
Moderate- to High-Risk Subjects (Class C). Activity pro- RPE, this activity level is considered safe. Walking is a safe,
grams are needed to provide close medical supervision for low-impact, controllable exercise that, in most cases, generates
individuals who are at moderate to high risk for a complica- an intensity that is 40% to 70% of V̇o2max. ROM exercises and
tion associated with vigorous physical activity. Such individu- light calisthenics can be performed in an unmonitored setting.
als are largely from Class C (Table 5). These patients require Activities are considered safe and appropriate if they meet the
careful medical supervision and surveillance to ensure that the criterion of moderate intensity, as perceived by the physician or
activity is well tolerated. A physician should be immediately judged by an exercise test.
available for these classes, although the presence of a properly
trained and experienced nurse or exercise physiologist in the Electrocardiographic Monitoring During Exercise Training
exercise room is sufficient if a physician is not in the exercise Various recommendations exist with regard to the number of
area. The qualifications of the physician may vary, but experi- electrocardiographic-monitored sessions that are necessary
ence in the treatment of patients with heart disease is required. and reasonable in an exercise training program. No controlled
Training programs should be medically supervised until the clinical trials have specifically evaluated this issue. Some pro-
grams use as few as 6 sessions, with progression in mode and
safety of the prescribed activity has been established.
intensity of the exercise during these periods,518 whereas oth-
Low-Risk Subjects. Low-risk subjects (Class B) benefit from ers have used as many as 36 sessions of electrocardiographic
medically supervised programs because vigorous exercise monitoring. It is recommended that the classifications outlined
can be conducted more safely, and group dynamics often help in Tables 4 and 5 be used as a general guideline. Importantly,
subjects comply with good health behaviors. Medical supervi- the ultimate judgment must remain with the medical super-
sion of low-risk subjects can be provided by a well-trained visor of the cardiac rehabilitation program and must include
nurse or exercise physiologist working under a physician’s consideration of the patient, staff, and exercise setting. Class
standard orders. If direct medical supervision by a physician A (apparently healthy) individuals do not require electrocar-
is not provided, the supervisor should have successfully com- diographic-monitored sessions because the general guide-
pleted an AHA-sponsored course in Advanced Cardiac Life lines are adequate. Class B (low-risk) individuals should be
Support and should be able to administer emergency medica- monitored and supervised until they understand their desirable
tions. Well-trained cardiovascular nurses usually meet these activity levels (usually 6 to 12 sessions). Class C (higher-risk)
914 Circulation August 20, 2013
individuals should be medically supervised with electrocardio- individuals with heart failure, absolute increases in V̇o2max
graphic monitoring until they understand the level of activity with training are somewhat limited, but even these small
that is safe and the medical team determines that the exercise changes have significant impact on the restoration of the
is well tolerated and effective. Usually, 12 sessions are needed. ability to perform daily activities and are correlated with an
Electrocardiographic-Monitored Cardiac Rehabilitation improved prognosis.525–527
Monitoring sessions ideally should be performed with con- Cardiac Output
tinuous electrocardiographic monitoring by either hardwired An increase in peak cardiac output can result from the sub-
apparatus or telemetry. The sessions should be conducted by ject’s ability or willingness to increase peak exercise intensity,
personnel who understand the exercise principles involved including peak HR and perhaps stroke volume, during sub-
and have a working knowledge of electrocardiography and sequent testing as compared with an initial test. In addition,
arrhythmia detection. The sessions should also be supervised exercise training has been suggested to improve vasomotor
by appropriately trained healthcare professionals trained in function (eg, coronary dilation), providing the possibility of
emergency management procedures, including cardiopulmo- increased myocardial oxygen delivery to cardiac muscle and
nary resuscitation. All healthcare professionals involved in the thereby potentially increased stroke volume.528,529 Submaximal
execution of cardiac rehabilitation should at a minimum have cardiac output might be lower at a given workload, primarily
a current certification in basic life support. Standing orders the result of lower HR, with maintenance of V̇o2 provided by
for the management of a complication should be immediately a widening of peripheral arteriovenous V̇o2 difference after
available. Monitored sessions should also include symptom training. This suggests improved overall efficiency for delivery
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
and RPE assessment by the staff, blood pressure recording, of oxygen to the tissues. In studies of high-intensity exercise
and instructions to subjects about selection and proper use of training (≈90% V̇o2max) in patients with heart failure or CAD,
exercise equipment. there are indications that cardiac function, including ejection
Home-Monitored Cardiac Rehabilitation fraction, stroke volume, diastolic function, and wall motion
In a systematic review of data from 12 randomized con- parameters, is also improved.495,530–532
trolled trials (1938 participants) conducted in 6 different
Myocardial Oxygen Demand
countries, the effectiveness of home-based cardiac reha-
Primarily as the result of peripheral metabolic changes,
bilitation was compared with supervised traditional cardiac
exercise training for individuals with CAD promotes lower
rehabilitation; no difference in outcomes was found among
myocardial oxygen demand at any given absolute work-
patients receiving home-based or center-based cardiac reha-
load, resulting in lower HR, systolic blood pressure, and
bilitation either in the short term (3–12 months) or longer
circulating catecholamines. The benefits of these adapta-
term (up to 24 months).519 Most of these studies monitored
tions can be demonstrated by the greater amount of work
home exercise by using measures of perceived exertion to
that can be done before angina or ischemic ST depression
approximate exercise intensity. Transtelephonic electrocar-
occurs. Moreover, several studies suggest that there is an
diographic monitoring at home has been studied as a sub-
improvement in myocardial oxygen supply (ie, coronary
stitute for outpatient visits to the clinic.520,521 Such programs
blood flow) at a given level of myocardial oxygen demand
have the disadvantage of lacking immediate emergency
after training.528,529
medical care but the advantage of not requiring an on-site
clinic visit. These programs can be particularly useful in Autonomic Function
rural settings.522 One program reported using both electro- HR recovery measured at exercise testing is reflective of vagal
cardiographic and voice transtelephonic monitoring, which tone and is an independent marker of overall risk of death. HR
supported both the efficacy and safety of home programs.523 recovery improves after Phase II cardiac rehabilitation and is
The importance of alternative approaches with novel tech- associated with decreased risk of all-cause death.533
nologies is discussed in detail in a recent AHA science advi-
sory on this topic.513 Prognostic Benefits of Exercise in Patients
With CVD
Effects of Exercise Training in Patients With CVD Cardiorespiratory fitness, as measured objectively by the
Exercise capacity and the short-term physiological responses assessment of peak oxygen uptake, is a powerful, indepen-
to exercise improve with training in individuals with estab- dent predictor of death in patients with known cardiac dis-
lished CVD. The increase in peak aerobic capacity is attribit- ease.185,527,534–536 One study of men with a history of heart
able to a combination of central (or cardiac) adaptations and disease demonstrated that a 1-MET increment was related
peripheral adaptations. to age-adjusted decreased risks of 18% and 32% for nonfa-
Peak Oxygen Uptake tal and fatal cardiac events, respectively.535 Other investiga-
Subjects with heart disease frequently demonstrate an tions have shown comparable findings. In patients referred
increase in V̇o2max with aerobic exercise training.4,524 for cardiac rehabilitation, peak V̇o2 cut points of <15, 15 to
Although the absolute magnitude of the change is often 22, and >22 mL kg−1 min−1 were associated with multivari-
less in subjects with CVD than that observed in apparently ate-adjusted hazard ratios of 1.00, 0.62, and 0.39 for cardiac
healthy individuals, the proportional increase is similar deaths and 1.00, 0.66, and 0.45 for all-cause deaths.536 In
and can exceed that seen in normal individuals, favorably patients with heart failure, a meta-analysis revealed a 39%
impacting performance of activities of daily living. In risk reduction for death among exercise-trained patients
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 915
versus controls.537 These results are similar to those of recommended for such patients until further data on safety and
another meta-analysis, in which a 35% reduction in risk of efficacy are available.
death and a 28% reduction in the composite end point of
Reducing Body Weight and Insulin Resistance
death and hospitalization were found with exercise train-
The primary characteristics of an exercise program targeted at
ing.538 More recently, a large multicenter trial demonstrated reducing body weight are that the program should maximize
a multivariate-adjusted reduction of 11% in the combined exercise-related caloric expenditure and should be sustained
end point of all-cause death and hospitalization and a 15% for the long term. Examples of exercise programs that maxi-
reduction in the combined end point of cardiovascular mize caloric expenditure and induce weight loss have been well
death and heart failure hospitalization.509 Furthermore, that described and generally include almost-daily longer-distance
study also demonstrated that the volume of exercise train- walking.442,443 To maximize caloric expenditure, non–weight-
ing affected risk reduction; >4 MET-hours or >6 MET-hours supported exercise should be favored, given that exercises such
per week resulted in an 18% or 26%, respectively, reduction as walking or elliptical trainers will burn more calories than
in the combined end point of all-cause death or hospitaliza- exercises that are weight supported, such as rowing or seated or
tion. Finally, in older adults (≥60 years of age), the highest supine ergometry.544 For patients who have difficulty walking,
level of cardiorespiratory fitness was associated with lower weight-supported exercise can be substituted, at least initially,
all-cause death (hazard ratio = 0.59) and death from CVD and the duration of exercise can be maximized as possible.
(hazard ratio = 0.57).539 The impact of exercise training on Aerobic exercise has both short- and long-term favorable
fitness and ultimately on risk of death appears to be attribut-
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
averaged 19.3 mL kg−1 min−1 in men and 14.5 mL kg−1 min−1 peripheral changes, including those in vascular endothelial
in women.524 Peak V̇o2 declined per age decade by 2.4 mL kg−1 function, lead to improved leg blood flow and reduced arterial
min−1 in men and 1.2 mL kg−1 min−1 in women, thus approaching and venous lactate levels.495,560 Neurohormonal abnormalities
values typical of patients with chronic heart failure, especially in patients with heart failure also improve after training.561
in women. Nevertheless, multiple studies have shown that older Exercise training favorably affects autonomic tone, leading to
adults respond to cardiac rehabilitation with relative improve- enhanced vagal tone as evidenced by overall reductions in HR,
ments in peak V̇o2 and other measures of functional capacity increased HRV, and a decline in sympathetic nervous activ-
similar to those of younger cardiac rehabilitation patients.549–552 ity.562,563 Exercise training also yields important changes in
The exercise prescription will often require modification in skeletal muscle fiber type and function in such patients, lead-
patients >75 years of age, especially those with common age- ing to enhanced oxidative capacity.564
related comorbidities such as arthritis, pulmonary disease, and The exercise prescription for patients with heart failure is
PAD. A common theme in such individuals is to start at very similar to that outlined for patients with CVD. In most clini-
low work levels and advance in small increments, often by cal studies, an intensity range of 70% to 80% of peak HR
using a type of interval training with intermittent rest periods. (determined from a symptom-limited exercise test) for 30 to
Patients with impaired balance or gait often are better suited 60 minutes, 3 times per week, is used. A few studies have
to training on a cycle ergometer than on a treadmill. Strength used high-intensity training,565 and one study used AIT exer-
training is an important component of exercise training in the cise.495 However, at this time, there are not enough data to
elderly, given the decline in muscle mass and strength with recommend the latter. Although endurance exercise remains
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
aging. A growing body of literature supports the use of exer- the focus of clinical training programs, resistance training has
cise interventions to improve function in frail elders.553 In a been shown to increase muscle strength and endurance, to
study of 116 elders of mean age 75 years with 5.5 chronic con- reduce symptoms, and to improve quality of life in patients
ditions on average, increases in leg power after 16 weeks of with heart failure. Hence, resistance training should be incor-
combined aerobic–resistance training was a strong indepen- porated into the training program of these patients.566–569 Data
dent contributor to increased gait speed and enhanced overall from HF-ACTION demonstrated that among 1159 patients
physical performance.554 with stable heart failure who were assigned to supervised
Perhaps the greatest barrier to the benefits of cardiac reha- exercise with subsequent transition to home-based unsuper-
bilitation in older adults with CVD is their very low utilization vised exercise, the adverse event rate was similar to that of
rate of such programs. An analysis of Medicare claims docu- the group assigned usual care. Thus, moderate-intensity exer-
mented use of cardiac rehabilitation in 13.9% of patients hospi- cise in the home setting appears to be safe for patients with
talized for acute MI and 31% of patients after coronary bypass heart failure.509
surgery, with lower rates in very elderly people, women, non- Patients who have undergone cardiac transplantation
whites, and those with comorbidities.511 A major contributor to were often quite inactive before the procedure and remain
the low utilization of cardiac rehabilitation by the elderly is the deconditioned after the operation. The denervated donor heart
reluctance of the provider to refer them to these programs.555 has altered physiological responses to exercise, which include
blunted chronotropic and inotropic responses that tend to limit
Exercise Training for Chronic Heart Failure and After exercise capacity. Nonetheless, several studies have shown that
Heart Transplantation exercise training increases endurance capacity.570,571 Generally,
Exercise training is effective in improving exercise capacity, patients may enter medically supervised outpatient exercise
symptoms, and quality of life in patients with impaired LV programs as soon as they are discharged from the hospital.
systolic function and chronic heart failure.556,557 In an interna- The exercise prescription is similar to that for other patients
tional randomized controlled trial of exercise training for 2331 with CVD. However, prescription of exercise intensity can be
outpatients with stable systolic heart failure (HF-ACTION; more challenging. Because the HR in a denervated heart rises
Heart Failure: A Controlled Trial Investigating Outcomes more slowly in response to exercise and can remain elevated
of Exercise Training), it was found that after adjustment for longer after activity ceases, it is more difficult to use HR to
prognostic baseline characteristics, exercise training was asso- monitor exercise intensity. The RPE in combination with
ciated with an 11% reduction in combined all-cause death or other descriptors of exercise tolerance, such as workload,
hospitalization (P=0.03).509 Similarly, in a meta-analysis of can be particularly helpful with this patient group. Resistance
exercise training trials in patients with chronic heart failure, training can be useful to offset the skeletal muscle loss and
exercise training significantly reduced deaths and hospital weakness because of corticosteroid use.572
admissions.538 Accordingly, exercise training is recommended LV assist devices are used as a bridge to cardiac trans-
as a component of a comprehensive approach to the patient plantation, a bridge to recovery, and, increasingly, as a
with stable chronic heart failure.558 However, only a few exer- destination therapy among patients with end-stage heart
cise training studies have addressed patients with chronic failure who are not eligible for cardiac transplantation.
heart failure and preserved LV ejection fraction.559 Exercise These patients tend to be profoundly deconditioned before
training in patients with chronic heart failure has been shown device implantation and remain so after implantation. Early
to reduce HR at rest and submaximal exercise and to increase mobilization and ambulation are keys to recovery. Exercise
peak aerobic capacity. These favorable changes are attribitable physiology in recipients of LV assist devices is complex
to a broad range of mechanisms. Although central hemody- and depends on the type of device, device settings, func-
namics have not consistently shown improvement, significant tion of the native left and right ventricles, and peripheral
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 917
factors.573,574 Controlled trials of exercise training in the LV over 6 months was superior to primary stenting for aortoiliac
assist device population have not been published. Exercise disease with regard to the primary outcome of peak walking
training featuring gradually increasing intensity (guided by time.583 The topic of exercise training in PAD is discussed in
RPE and symptoms) and including both aerobic and resis- detail elsewhere.515,582
tance exercises appears to be safe and results in improve-
ments in physical function.574,575 Exercise Training in Congenital Heart Disease
In comparison with normal subjects, the exercise function
Exercise Training in Valvular Heart Disease
of patients with congenital heart disease is often decreased,
Depending on the valvular orifice size and the resting gradi-
even after reparative surgery. Although some of this exer-
ent, patients with mild aortic or mitral stenosis can perform
cise dysfunction could be related to residual hemodynamic
isotonic exercises, provided the response to exercise stress
defects, inactivity and deconditioning (often because of
testing is normal. Patients with moderate stenosis can indulge
restrictions inappropriately imposed by family members,
in low- to moderate-intensity isotonic exercises as tolerated.
teachers, coaches, or the patients themselves) undoubtedly
Patients with severe stenosis should be restricted from intense
contribute to this problem.584,585 This component of their dis-
isotonic or isometric exercises but can perform low-level
ability should theoretically respond favorably to exercise
activities as tolerated.576
training programs.
Previous level of training, type of cardiac disease and valve
Several small studies have documented the short-term ben-
replaced, and postoperative functional status can influence the
efits of exercise training programs in children with congenital
exercise recommendations after valve replacement. Patients
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
angioplasty) may participate in all activities. Patients with a of peak exercise capacity, as determined by the exercise test
hemodynamically excellent tetralogy of Fallot repair or arterial and by the RPE. Systolic blood pressure can also be used as a
switch procedure for transposition of the great arteries may measure of exercise intensity.
participate in all activities if they have normal exercise tests
and no evidence of serious rhythm disturbances. Similar criteria Intracardiac Defibrillators
apply to patients with mild Ebstein disease. A variable level of An intracardiac defibrillator (ICD) uses HR as the primary
competitive sports participation is permitted for patients with method of tachycardia detection. Before initiating an exercise
more severe unrepaired congenital anomalies and patients with training program, one should know the programmed device’s
more significant residual lesions, provided they have reassuring cutoff rate. Exercise prescription for patients with defibrilla-
exercise tests and ambulatory electrocardiographic monitoring. tors should be limited to a maximal HR that is at least 10 to
Only patients with the most serious cardiovascular conditions 15 beats lower than the threshold discharge rate for the defi-
(eg, patients with persistent severe pulmonary hypertension, brillator. Baseline functional status and severity of ventricu-
severe aortic stenosis, significant aortic dilation / wall thinning lar dysfunction will have an impact on exercise prescription.
or aneurysm formation, or severe Ebstein anomaly; most Patients with an ICD should undergo a standard graded exer-
patients with severe valvular insufficiency; those with moderate cise tolerance test for devising an individualized exercise
to severe ventricular dysfunction; and those with unrepaired program. Such testing can detect exercise-induced arrhyth-
cyanotic defects) are restricted from all (or virtually all) mias. ICD recipients should generally not participate in
competitive sports. It should be noted, however, that the Bethesda moderate- or high-intensity competitive athletics, although
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
Conference Recommendations apply only to competitive sports. this depends in part on the severity of underlying cardiac
The recommendations do not necessarily apply to exercise or disease and the original indication for implantation. Low-
sports participation in less intense environments and certainly intensity competitive sports that do not constitute a signifi-
do not exclude properly screened patients from participating cant risk of trauma to the defibrillator are permissible if 6
in and deriving benefits from appropriately designed exercise months have passed since the last ventricular arrhythmia
programs. Indeed, there are no reports of serious adverse requiring intervention.601 There is evidence to suggest that
events among the patients with congenital heart disease who exercise training in patients with an ICD increases peak
have participated in the rehabilitation studies published in the V̇o2, similar to control patients.602–604 In a retrospective com-
literature, even though these programs often included patients parative survey, it was shown that patients who participated
with all but the highest-risk conditions. in an exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation program received
fewer total and exercise-related shocks than those who
Atrial Fibrillation did not participate.605 In a prospective cohort study of 118
Light to moderate physical activities, particularly leisure- patients after ICD implantation, a significant increase of exer-
time activity and walking, are associated with a significantly cise capacity was shown, without serious complications.606
lower incidence of atrial fibrillation in older adults.595 It Supervised exercise training for patients with implanted
should be noted that recent evidence indicates that ongo- defibrillators appears to be both safe and effective.604
ing high-intensity/high-volume endurance training could The HF-ACTION study provides the largest single assess-
be associated with an increased incidence of atrial fibrilla- ment of exercise in patients with stable heart failure. Among
tion.596,597 Even so, in view of the multiplicity of benefits of 490 patients with an ICD in the exercise group, only 1 patient
exercise, no current recommendations discourage exercise experienced ICD firing during an exercise session.509
training at a higher level to reduce atrial fibrillation risk.
Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy
For those already diagnosed with atrial fibrillation, regular
In suitable patients with chronic heart failure, cardiac
moderate physical activity is known to increase exercise
resynchronization therapy leads to an improvement in
capacity and control ventricular rate during atrial fibrilla-
exercise capacity, peak V̇o2, and quality of life. A randomized
tion.598 Patients without structural disease and in the absence
controlled study showed that exercise training leads to further
of WPW syndrome can safely perform moderate-intensity
improvements in exercise capacity, hemodynamic measures,
isometric and isotonic exercises, depending in part on the
and quality of life, supplemental to the improvements seen after
presence and severity of underlying CVD. Exercise train-
cardiac resynchronization therapy.565 A study conducted in 52
ing response in patients with chronic atrial fibrillation is not
men with heart failure who received an ICD with or without
impaired, and exercise capacity improves.599
cardiac resynchronization therapy demonstrated that moderate
aerobic exercise training improves functional capacity,
Pacemakers endothelium-dependent vasodilatation, and quality of life.607
Before exercise is prescribed, the presence and severity of The investigators concluded that moderate exercise training is
underlying heart disease should be evaluated, including the safe and has beneficial effects on peak V̇o2 and quality of life
severity of CAD and the adequacy of LV function. Exercise is after ICD, especially when cardiac resynchronization therapy is
prescribed according to the type of pacemaker implanted and present. Another pilot trial of exercise training in resynchronized
the sensor used to detect activity in rate-responsive pacemak- heart failure patients also demonstrated enhanced exercise
ers.600 Physical activity intensities in fixed-rate pacemakers tolerance.608 Thus, for suitable patients, exercise training may
must be gauged by a method other than pulse counting, such be used as an adjunct to cardiac resynchronization therapy for
as defining specific workloads that are initially ≈40% to 60% improving cardiac and peripheral muscle function.
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 919
Disclosures
at Birmingham
Lola A. Coke Rush University None None None None None None None
College of Nursing
Jerome L. Fleg NHLBI/NIH None None None None None None None
Daniel E. Forman Brigham and Women’s None None None None None None None
Hospital
Thomas C. Gerber Mayo Clinic None None None None None None None
Martha Gulati Ohio State University None None None None None None None
Kushal Madan Sir Gangaram Hospital None None None None None None None
Jonathan Rhodes Boston Children’s Actelion† None None None None None None
Heart Foundation/
Children’s Hospital,
Boston
Paul D. Thompson Hartford Hospital NHLBI†; None Abbott†; None 2007–2010 Furiex*; Merck*, None
NIH-NIAMS†; AstraZeneca†; Witness for Regeneron*;
NIH-NCCAM†; GlaxoSmithKline†; Plaintiff, Case of Roche*; Sanofi*;
GlaxoSmithKline†; Kowa†; Merck† cardiomyopathy Takeda*
Roche† resulting in
cardiac transplant
Mark A. Williams Creighton University NIH* None None None None None None
This table represents the relationships of writing group members that may be perceived as actual or reasonably perceived conflicts of interest as reported on the
Disclosure Questionnaire, which all members of the writing group are required to complete and submit. A relationship is considered to be “significant” if (a) the person
receives $10 000 or more during any 12-month period, or 5% or more of the person’s gross income; or (b) the person owns 5% or more of the voting stock or share of the
entity, or owns $10 000 or more of the fair market value of the entity. A relationship is considered to be “modest” if it is less than “significant” under the preceding definition.
*Modest.
†Significant.
Reviewer Disclosures
Other Research Speakers’ Bureau/ Ownership Consultant/
Reviewer Employment Research Grant Support Honoraria Expert Witness Interest Advisory Board Other
Nora Goldschlager UCSF None None None None None None None
Michael Lauer NHLBI None None None None None None None
Todd D. Miller Mayo Clinic None None None None None None None
Roberta Oka VA Palo Alto HCS None None None None None None None
Paolo Raggi University of None None None None None None None
Alberta (CANADA)
Malissa J. Wood Massachusetts None None None None None None None
General Hospital
This table represents the relationships of reviewers that may be perceived as actual or reasonably perceived conflicts of interest as reported on the Disclosure
Questionnaire, which all reviewers are required to complete and submit. A relationship is considered to be “significant” if (a) the person receives $10 000 or more during
any 12-month period, or 5% or more of the person’s gross income; or (b) the person owns 5% or more of the voting stock or share of the entity, or owns $10 000 or more
of the fair market value of the entity. A relationship is considered to be “modest” if it is less than “significant” under the preceding definition.
920 Circulation August 20, 2013
References 23. Pahlm O, Haisty WK Jr, Edenbrandt L, Wagner NB, Sevilla DC, Selvester
RH, Wagner GS. Evaluation of changes in standard electrocardiographic
1. Fletcher GF, Balady GJ, Amsterdam EA, Chaitman B, Eckel R, Fleg
QRS waveforms recorded from activity-compatible proximal limb lead
J, Froelicher VF, Leon AS, Piña IL, Rodney R, Simons-Morton DA,
positions. Am J Cardiol. 1992;69:253–257.
Williams MA, Bazzarre T. Exercise standards for testing and train-
24. Farrell RM, Syed A, Syed A, Gutterman DD. Effects of limb electrode
ing: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart
placement on the 12- and 16-lead electrocardiogram. J Electrocardiol.
Association. Circulation. 2001;104:1694–1740.
2008;41:536–545.
2. Kligfield, P. Historical notes: the early evolution of the exercise electro-
25. Madias JE. Comparability of the standing and supine standard electro-
cardiogram. In: Schalij MJ, Janse MJ, van Oosterom A, van der Wall EE,
cardiograms and standing sitting and supine stress electrocardiograms.
Wellens HJJ, eds. Einthoven 2002: 100 Years of Electrocardiography.
J Electrocardiol. 2006;39:142–149.
Leiden, The Netherlands: The Einthoven Foundation; 2002.
26. McHenry PL, Cogan OJ, Elliott WC, Knoebel SB. False positive ECG
3. Kligfield P, Lauer MS. Exercise electrocardiogram testing: beyond the ST
response to exercise secondary to hyperventilation: cineangiographic cor-
segment. Circulation. 2006;114:2070–2082.
relation. Am Heart J. 1970;79:683–687.
4. Thompson PD. Exercise prescription and proscription for patients with
27. Jacobs WF, Battle WE, Ronan JA Jr. False-positive ST-T-wave changes
coronary artery disease. Circulation. 2005;112:2354–2363.
secondary to hyperventilation and exercise. A cineangiographic correla-
5. McArdle WD, Katch FI, Katch VL. Exercise Physiology: Nutrition,
tion. Ann Intern Med. 1974;81:479–482.
Energy, and Human Performance. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins; 2007. 28. Alexopoulos D, Christodoulou J, Toulgaridis T, Sitafidis G, Manias O,
6. Tanaka H, Monahan KD, Seals DR. Age-predicted maximal heart rate Hahalis G, Vagenakis AG. Repolarization abnormalities with prolonged
revisited. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37:153–156. hyperventilation in apparently healthy subjects: incidence, mechanisms
7. Gellish RL, Goslin BR, Olson RE, McDonald A, Russi GD, Moudgil VK. and affecting factors. Eur Heart J. 1996;17:1432–1437.
Longitudinal modeling of the relationship between age and maximal heart 29. Gibbons RJ, Abrams J, Chatterjee K, Daley J, Deedwania PC, Douglas
rate. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39:822–829. JS, Ferguson TB Jr, Fihn SD, Fraker TD Jr, Gardin JM, O’Rourke
RA, Pasternak RC, Williams SV, Gibbons RJ, Alpert JS, Antman EM,
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
8. Gulati M, Shaw LJ, Thisted RA, Black HR, Bairey Merz CN, Arnsdorf
MF. Heart rate response to exercise stress testing in asymptomatic women: Hiratzka LF, Fuster V, Faxon DP, Gregoratos G, Jacobs AK, Smith SC Jr.
the st. James women take heart project. Circulation. 2010;122:130–137. ACC/AHA 2002 guideline update for the management of patients with
9. Pinkstaff S, Peberdy MA, Kontos MC, Finucane S, Arena R. Quantifying chronic stable angina–summary article: a report of the American College
exertion level during exercise stress testing using percentage of age- of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice
predicted maximal heart rate, rate pressure product, and perceived exer- Guidelines (Committee on the Management of Patients With Chronic
tion. Mayo Clin Proc. 2010;85:1095–1100. Stable Angina). Circulation. 2003;107:149–158.
10. Ranadive SM, Fahs CA, Yan H, Rossow LM, Agiovlasitis S, Agliovlastis 30. Chaitman BR, Bourassa MG, Wagniart P, Corbara F, Ferguson RJ.
S, Fernhall B. Heart rate recovery following maximal arm and leg- Improved efficiency of treadmill exercise testing using a multiple lead
ergometry. Clin Auton Res. 2011;21:117–120. ECG system and basic hemodynamic exercise response. Circulation.
11. Pierpont GL, Voth EJ. Assessing autonomic function by analysis of heart rate 1978;57:71–79.
recovery from exercise in healthy subjects. Am J Cardiol. 2004;94:64–68. 31. Krucoff MW, Loeffler KA, Haisty WK Jr, Pope JE, Sawchak ST, Wagner
12. Gibbons RJ. Abnormal heart-rate recovery after exercise. Lancet.
GS, Pahlm O. Simultaneous ST-segment measurements using standard
2002;359:1536–1537. and monitoring-compatible torso limb lead placements at rest and during
13. Nishime EO, Cole CR, Blackstone EH, Pashkow FJ, Lauer MS. Heart rate coronary occlusion. Am J Cardiol. 1994;74:997–1001.
recovery and treadmill exercise score as predictors of mortality in patients 32. Sheppard JP, Barker TA, Ranasinghe AM, Clutton-Brock TH, Frenneaux
referred for exercise ECG. JAMA. 2000;284:1392–1398. MP, Parkes MJ. Does modifying electrode placement of the 12 lead ECG
14. Lipinski MJ, Vetrovec GW, Froelicher VF. Importance of the first two matter in healthy subjects? Int J Cardiol. 2011;152:184–191.
minutes of heart rate recovery after exercise treadmill testing in predict- 33. Quyyumi AA, Crake T, Mockus LJ, Wright CA, Rickards AF, Fox
ing mortality and the presence of coronary artery disease in men. Am J KM. Value of the bipolar lead CM5 in electrocardiography. Br Heart J.
Cardiol. 2004;93:445–449. 1986;56:372–376.
15. Lauer MS, Froelicher V. Abnormal heart-rate recovery after exercise. 34. Kligfield P, Gettes LS, Bailey JJ, Childers R, Deal BJ, Hancock EW, van
Lancet. 2002;360:1176–1177. Herpen G, Kors JA, Macfarlane P, Mirvis DM, Pahlm O, Rautaharju P,
16. Lauer M, Froelicher ES, Williams M, Kligfield P. Exercise testing in asymp- Wagner GS, Josephson M, Mason JW, Okin P, Surawicz B, Wellens H.
tomatic adults: a statement for professionals from the American Heart Recommendations for the standardization and interpretation of the electro-
Association Council on Clinical Cardiology, Subcommittee on Exercise, cardiogram: part I: the electrocardiogram and its technology: a scientific
Cardiac Rehabilitation, and Prevention. Circulation. 2005;112:771–776. statement from the American Heart Association Electrocardiography and
17. Cheng YJ, Lauer MS, Earnest CP, Church TS, Kampert JB, Gibbons LW, Arrhythmias Committee, Council on Clinical Cardiology; the American
Blair SN. Heart rate recovery following maximal exercise testing as a College of Cardiology Foundation; and the Heart Rhythm Society.
predictor of cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality in men with Circulation. 2007;115:1306–1324.
diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2003;26:2052–2057. 35. Ellestad MH. Unconventional electrocardiographic signs of ischemia dur-
18. Syme AN, Blanchard BE, Guidry MA, Taylor AW, Vanheest JL, Hasson ing exercise testing. Am J Cardiol. 2008;102:949–953.
S, Thompson PD, Pescatello LS. Peak systolic blood pressure on a graded 36. Michaelides AP, Psomadaki ZD, Aigyptiadou MN, Richter DJ,
maximal exercise test and the blood pressure response to an acute bout of Andrikopoulos GK, Dilaveris PE, Tsioufis K, Tousoulis D, Stefanadis C,
submaximal exercise. Am J Cardiol. 2006;98:938–943. Toutouzas PK. Significance of exercise-induced ST changes in leads aVR,
19. Balady GJ, Arena R, Sietsema K, Myers J, Coke L, Fletcher GF, Forman D, V5, and V1. Discrimination of patients with single- or multivessel coro-
Franklin B, Guazzi M, Gulati M, Keteyian SJ, Lavie CJ, Macko R, Mancini nary artery disease. Clin Cardiol. 2003;26:226–230.
D, Milani RV; on behalf of the American Heart Association Exercise, 37. Uthamalingam S, Zheng H, Leavitt M, Pomerantsev E, Ahmado I, Gurm
Cardiac Rehabilitation, and Prevention Committee of the Council on Clinical GS, Gewirtz H. Exercise-induced ST-segment elevation in ECG lead aVR
Cardiology; Council on Epidemiology and Prevention; Council on Peripheral is a useful indicator of significant left main or ostial LAD coronary artery
Vascular Disease; and Interdisciplinary Council on Quality of Care and stenosis. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2011;4:176–186.
Outcomes Research. Clinician’s Guide to cardiopulmonary exercise test- 38. Fox K, Selwyn A, Shillingford J. Precordial electrocardiographic mapping
ing in adults: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. after exercise in the diagnosis of coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol.
Circulation. 2010;122:191–225. 1979;43:541–546.
20. Rhodes J, Ubeda Tikkanen A, Jenkins KJ. Exercise testing and training in 39. McPherson DD, Horacek BM, Sutherland DJ, Armstrong CS, Spencer
children with congenital heart disease. Circulation. 2010;122:1957–1967. CA, Montague TJ. Exercise electrocardiographic mapping in normal sub-
21. Fleg JL, Morrell CH, Bos AG, Brant LJ, Talbot LA, Wright JG, Lakatta jects. J Electrocardiol. 1985;18:351–360.
EG. Accelerated longitudinal decline of aerobic capacity in healthy older 40. Hänninen H, Takala P, Rantonen J, Mäkijärvi M, Virtanen K, Nenonen J,
adults. Circulation. 2005;112:674–682. Katila T, Toivonen L. ST-T integral and T-wave amplitude in detection of
22. Gulati M, Black HR, Shaw LJ, Arnsdorf MF, Merz CN, Lauer MS, exercise-induced myocardial ischemia evaluated with body surface poten-
Marwick TH, Pandey DK, Wicklund RH, Thisted RA. The prognostic tial mapping. J Electrocardiol. 2003;36:89–98.
value of a nomogram for exercise capacity in women. N Engl J Med. 41. Kligfield P, Okin PM. Evolution of the exercise electrocardiogram. Am J
2005;353:468–475. Cardiol. 1994;73:1209–1210.
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 921
42. Pina IL, Balady GJ, Hanson P, Labovitz AJ, Madonna DW, Myers J.
63. Mark DB, Hlatky MA, Harrell FE Jr, Lee KL, Califf RM, Pryor DB.
Guidelines for clinical exercise testing laboratories: a statement for healthcare Exercise treadmill score for predicting prognosis in coronary artery dis-
professionals from the Committee on Exercise and Cardiac Rehabilitation, ease. Ann Intern Med. 1987;106:793–800.
American Heart Association. Circulation. 1995;91:912–921. 64. Akutsu Y, Shinozuka A, Nishimura H, Li HL, Huang TY, Yamanaka H,
43. Myers J, Arena R, Franklin B, Pina I, Kraus WE, McInnis K, Balady GJ; Takenaka H, Munechika H, Katagiri T. Significance of ST-segment mor-
on behalf of the American Heart Association Committee on Exercise, phology noted on electrocardiography during the recovery phase after
Cardiac Rehabilitation, and Prevention of the Council on Clinical exercise in patients with ischemic heart disease as analyzed with simul-
Cardiology, the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism, taneous dual-isotope single photon emission tomography. Am Heart J.
and the Council on Cardiovascular Nursing. Recommendations for clini- 2002;144:335–342.
cal exercise laboratories: a scientific statement from the American Heart 65. Aggarwal SP, Wander GS, Bala K, Kapoor DK. Effect of posture in imme-
Association. Circulation. 2009;119:3144–3161. diate post-exercise period on ischaemic ST-changes during stress electro-
44. American College of Sports Medicine, Franklin BA, Whaley MH, Howley cardiographic testing. Indian Heart J. 1994;46:307–309.
ET, Balady GJ. ACSM’s Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription. 66. Patberg KW, Shvilkin A, Plotnikov AN, Chandra P, Josephson ME, Rosen
6th ed. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2000. MR. Cardiac memory: mechanisms and clinical implications. Heart
45. American College of Sports Medicine. ACSM’s Guidelines for Exercise Rhythm. 2005;2:1376–1382.
67. Weiner DA, McCabe C, Hueter DC, Ryan TJ, Hood WB Jr. The predic-
Testing and Prescription. 8th ed. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams &
tive value of anginal chest pain as an indicator of coronary disease during
Wilkins; 2009.
exercise testing. Am Heart J. 1978;96:458–462.
46. Myers J, Buchanan N, Walsh D, Kraemer M, McAuley P, Hamilton-
68. Abidov A, Rozanski A, Hachamovitch R, Hayes SW, Aboul-Enein F,
Wessler M, Froelicher VF. Comparison of the ramp versus standard exer-
Cohen I, Friedman JD, Germano G, Berman DS. Prognostic significance
cise protocols. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1991;17:1334–1342.
of dyspnea in patients referred for cardiac stress testing. N Engl J Med.
47. Myers J, Froelicher VF. Exercise testing. Procedures and implementation.
2005;353:1889–1898.
Cardiol Clin. 1993;11:199–213. 69. Chase P, Arena R, Myers J, Abella J, Peberdy MA, Guazzi M, Kenjale A,
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
48. Okin PM, Ameisen O, Kligfield P. A modified treadmill exercise protocol Bensimhon D. Prognostic usefulness of dyspnea versus fatigue as reason
for computer-assisted analysis of the ST segment/heart rate slope: meth- for exercise test termination in patients with heart failure. Am J Cardiol.
ods and reproducibility. J Electrocardiol. 1986;19:311–318. 2008;102:879–882.
49. Myers J, Bellin D. Ramp exercise protocols for clinical and cardiopulmo- 70. Tavel ME. The appearance of gallop rhythm after exercise stress testing.
nary exercise testing. Sports Med. 2000;30:23–29. Clin Cardiol. 1996;19:887–891.
50. Kaminsky LA, Whaley MH. Evaluation of a new standardized ramp protocol: 71. Kodama S, Saito K, Tanaka S, Maki M, Yachi Y, Asumi M, Sugawara A,
the BSU/Bruce Ramp protocol. J Cardiopulm Rehabil. 1998;18:438–444. Totsuka K, Shimano H, Ohashi Y, Yamada N, Sone H. Cardiorespiratory fit-
51. Franklin BA. Exercise testing, training and arm ergometry. Sports Med. ness as a quantitative predictor of all-cause mortality and cardiovascular events
1985;2:100–119. in healthy men and women: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2009;301:2024–2035.
52. Balady GJ, Weiner DA, McCabe CH, Ryan TJ. Value of arm exercise test- 72. Arena R, Myers J, Abella J, Pinkstaff S, Brubaker P, Kitzman DW, Peberdy
ing in detecting coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol. 1985;55:37–39. MA, Bensimhon D, Chase P, Guazzi M. Cardiopulmonary exercise testing
53. Bittner V. Six-minute walk test in patients with cardiac dysfunction.
is equally prognostic in young, middle-aged and older individuals diag-
Cardiologia. 1997;42:897–902. nosed with heart failure. Int J Cardiol. 2011;151:278–283.
54. Faggiano P, D’Aloia A, Gualeni A, Brentana L, Dei Cas L. The 6 minute 73. Gulati M, Pandey DK, Arnsdorf MF, Lauderdale DS, Thisted RA,
walking test in chronic heart failure: indications, interpretation and limita- Wicklund RH, Al-Hani AJ, Black HR. Exercise capacity and the risk of
tions from a review of the literature. Eur J Heart Fail. 2004;6:687–691. death in women: the St James Women Take Heart Project. Circulation.
55. Du H, Newton PJ, Salamonson Y, Carrieri-Kohlman VL, Davidson PM. A 2003;108:1554–1559.
review of the six-minute walk test: its implication as a self-administered 74. Gupta S, Rohatgi A, Ayers CR, Willis BL, Haskell WL, Khera A, Drazner
assessment tool. Eur J Cardiovasc Nurs. 2009;8:2–8. MH, de Lemos JA, Berry JD. Cardiorespiratory fitness and classification of
56. ATS Committee on Proficiency Standards for Clinical Pulmonary
risk of cardiovascular disease mortality. Circulation. 2011;123:1377–1383.
Function Laboratories. ATS statement: guidelines for the six-minute walk 75. Arena R, Myers J, Williams MA, Gulati M, Kligfield P, Balady GJ, Collins
test. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;166:111–117. E, Fletcher G. Assessment of functional capacity in clinical and research
57. Bittner V, Weiner DH, Yusuf S, Rogers WJ, McIntyre KM, Bangdiwala SI, settings: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association
Kronenberg MW, Kostis JB, Kohn RM, Guillotte M. Prediction of mortal- Committee on Exercise, Rehabilitation, and Prevention of the Council
ity and morbidity with a 6-minute walk test in patients with left ventricular on Clinical Cardiology and the Council on Cardiovascular Nursing.
dysfunction. SOLVD Investigators. JAMA. 1993;270:1702–1707. Circulation. 2007;116:329–343.
58. Gibbons RJ, Balady GJ, Bricker JT, Chaitman BR, Fletcher GF, Froelicher 76. Jones NL, Makrides L, Hitchcock C, Chypchar T, McCartney N. Normal
VF, Mark DB, McCallister BD, Mooss AN, O’Reilly MG, Winters WL standards for an incremental progressive cycle ergometer test. Am Rev
Jr, Gibbons RJ, Antman EM, Alpert JS, Faxon DP, Fuster V, Gregoratos Respir Dis. 1985;131:700–708.
77. Arena R, Arrowood JA, Fei D, Shelar S, Helm S, Kraft KA. The influence
G, Hiratzka LF, Jacobs AK, Russell RO, Smith SC Jr. ACC/AHA 2002
of sex on the relationship between heart rate recovery and other cardiovas-
guideline update for exercise testing: summary article: a report of the
cular risk factors in apparently healthy subjects. Scand J Med Sci Sports.
American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force
2010;20:291–297.
on Practice Guidelines (Committee to Update the 1997 Exercise Testing
78. Morris CK, Morrow K, Froelicher VF, Hideg A, Hunter D, Kawaguchi
Guidelines). Circulation. 2002;106:1883–1892.
T, Ribisl PM, Ueshima K, Wallis J. Prediction of cardiovascular death by
59. Rodgers GP, Ayanian JZ, Balady G, Beasley JW, Brown KA, Gervino
means of clinical and exercise test variables in patients selected for cardiac
EV, Paridon S, Quinones M, Schlant RC, Winters WL Jr, Achord JL, catheterization. Am Heart J. 1993;125:1717–1726.
Boone AW, Hirshfeld JW Jr, Lorell BH, Rodgers GP, Tracy CM, Weitz 79. Kim ES, Ishwaran H, Blackstone E, Lauer MS. External prognostic vali-
HH. American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association clini- dations and comparisons of age- and gender-adjusted exercise capacity
cal competence statement on stress testing: a report of the American predictions. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;50:1867–1875.
College of Cardiology/American Heart Association/American College of 80. Myrianthefs MM, Ellestad MH, Startt-Selvester RH, Crump R.
Physicians-American Society of Internal Medicine Task Force on Clinical Significance of signal-averaged P-wave changes during exercise in
Competence. Circulation. 2000;102:1726–1738. patients with coronary artery disease and correlation with angiographic
60. Myers J, Voodi L, Umann T, Froelicher VF. A survey of exercise test- findings. Am J Cardiol. 1991;68:1619–1624.
ing: methods, utilization, interpretation, and safety in the VAHCS. J 81. Moleiro F, Misticchio F, Mendoza I, Rodriguez A, Castellanos A,
Cardiopulm Rehabil. 2000;20:251–258. Myerburg RJ. Paradoxical behavior of PR interval dynamics during exer-
61. Kohl HW 3rd, Powell KE, Gordon NF, Blair SN, Paffenbarger RS Jr. cise and recovery and its relationship to cardiac memory at the atrioven-
Physical activity, physical fitness, and sudden cardiac death. Epidemiol tricular node. J Electrocardiol. 2001;34:31–34.
Rev. 1992;14:37–58. 82. Sapin PM, Koch G, Blauwet MB, McCarthy JJ, Hinds SW, Gettes LS.
62. Borg G. Ratings of perceived exertion and heart rates during short-term Identification of false positive exercise tests with use of electrocardio-
cycle exercise and their use in a new cycling strength test. Int J Sports graphic criteria: a possible role for atrial repolarization waves. J Am Coll
Med. 1982;3:153–158. Cardiol. 1991;18:127–135.
922 Circulation August 20, 2013
83. Ellestad MH. Role of atrial repolarization in false positive exercise tests. 106. Castelló R, Alegría E, Merino A, Hidalgo R, Aparici M, Martínez-
J Am Coll Cardiol. 1991;18:136–137. Caro D. Stress testing in patients with coronary spasm: comparison
84. Bhargava V, Goldberger AL. Effect of exercise in healthy men on QRS of those with and without fixed coronary artery disease. Angiology.
power spectrum. Am J Physiol. 1982;243:H964–H969. 1989;40:724–729.
85. Ahnve S, Sullivan M, Myers J, Froelicher V. Computer analysis of exer- 107. Madias JE, Khan M, Manyam B. The role of “ischemic ST-segment
cise-induced changes in QRS duration in patients with angina pectoris counterpoise” in rendering the response of exercise electrocardiogram
and in normal subjects. Am Heart J. 1986;111:903–908. falsely negative. Clin Cardiol. 1997;20:489–492.
86. Morales-Ballejo H, Greenberg PS, Ellestad MH, Bible M. Septal Q 108. Madias JE. Discordance of diagnosis of ventricular aneurysm made by
wave in exercise testing: angiographic correlation. Am J Cardiol. the electrocardiogram and myocardial imaging: “ST-segment counter-
1981;48:247–251. poise” as a hypothetical mechanism. J Electrocardiol. 2006;39:340–341.
87. O’Hara MJ, Subramanian VB, Davies AB, Raftery EB. Changes of Q 109. Mirvis DM, Ramanathan KB. Alterations in transmural blood flow and
wave amplitude during exercise for the prediction of coronary artery dis- body surface ST segment abnormalities produced by ischemia in the cir-
ease. Int J Cardiol. 1984;6:35–45. cumflex and left anterior descending coronary arterial beds of the dog.
88. Wolthuis RA, Froelicher VF, Hopkirk A, Fischer JR, Keiser N. Normal Circulation. 1987;76:697–704.
electrocardiographic waveform characteristics during treadmill exercise 110. Hsu TS, Lee CP, Chern MS, Cheng NJ. Critical appraisal of exercise
testing. Circulation. 1979;60:1028–1035.
variables: a treadmill study. Coron Artery Dis. 1999;10:15–22.
89. Michaelides AP, Triposkiadis FK, Boudoulas H, Spanos AM,
111. Okin PM, Kligfield P. Heart rate adjustment of ST segment depression
Papadopoulos PD, Kourouklis KV, Toutouzas PK. New coronary artery
and performance of the exercise electrocardiogram: a critical evaluation.
disease index based on exercise-induced QRS changes. Am Heart J.
J Am Coll Cardiol. 1995;25:1726–1735.
1990;120:292–302.
112. Okin PM, Grandits G, Rautaharju PM, Prineas RJ, Cohen JD, Crow
90. Kligfield P, Ameisen O, Okin PM. Heart rate adjustment of ST seg-
RS, Kligfield P. Prognostic value of heart rate adjustment of exercise-
ment depression for improved detection of coronary artery disease.
induced ST segment depression in the multiple risk factor intervention
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
Circulation. 1989;79:245–255.
91. Goldschlager N, Selzer A, Cohn K. Treadmill stress tests as indicators trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;27:1437–1443.
of presence and severity of coronary artery disease. Ann Intern Med. 113. Okin PM, Anderson KM, Levy D, Kligfield P. Heart rate adjustment of
1976;85:277–286. exercise-induced ST segment depression. Improved risk stratification in
92. Magnano AR, Holleran S, Ramakrishnan R, Reiffel JA, Bloomfield DM. the Framingham Offspring Study. Circulation. 1991;83:866–874.
Autonomic nervous system influences on QT interval in normal subjects. 114. Okin PM, Ameisen O, Kligfield P. Recovery-phase patterns of ST seg-
J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;39:1820–1826. ment depression in the heart rate domain. Identification of coronary
93. Kligfield P, Lax KG, Okin PM. QT interval-heart rate relation during artery disease by the rate-recovery loop. Circulation. 1989;80:533–541.
exercise in normal men and women: definition by linear regression anal- 115. Lehtinen R, Sievänen H, Viik J, Turjanmaa V, Niemelä K, Malmivuo J.
ysis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;28:1547–1555. Accurate detection of coronary artery disease by integrated analysis of
94. Lax KG, Okin PM, Kligfield P. Electrocardiographic repolarization mea- the ST-segment depression/heart rate patterns during the exercise and
surements at rest and during exercise in normal subjects and in patients recovery phases of the exercise electrocardiography test. Am J Cardiol.
with coronary artery disease. Am Heart J. 1994;128:271–280. 1996;78:1002–1006.
95. Okin PM, Bergman G, Kligfield P. Effect of ST segment measurement 116. Bailón R, Mateo J, Olmos S, Serrano P, García J, del Río A, Ferreira
point on performance of standard and heart rate-adjusted ST segment IJ, Laguna P. Coronary artery disease diagnosis based on exercise elec-
criteria for the identification of coronary artery disease. Circulation. trocardiogram indexes from repolarisation, depolarisation and heart rate
1991;84:57–66. variability. Med Biol Eng Comput. 2003;41:561–571.
96. Gianrossi R, Detrano R, Mulvihill D, Lehmann K, Dubach P, Colombo 117. Kronander H, Hammar N, Fischer-Colbrie W, Nowak J, Brodin LÅ,
A, McArthur D, Froelicher V. Exercise-induced ST depression in the Elmqvist H. Analysis of ST/HR hysteresis improves long-term prognos-
diagnosis of coronary artery disease. A meta-analysis. Circulation. tic value of exercise ECG test. Int J Cardiol. 2011;148:64–69.
1989;80:87–98. 118. Michaelides AP, Tousoulis D, Raftopoulos LG, Antoniades C, Tsiachris
97. Okin PM, Chen J, Kligfield P. Effect of baseline ST segment elevation on D, Stefanadis CI. The impact of novel exercise criteria and indices for
test performance of standard and heart rate-adjusted ST segment depres- the diagnostic and prognostic ability of exercise testing. Int J Cardiol.
sion criteria. Am Heart J. 1990;119:1280–1286. 2010;143:119–123.
98. Stuart RJ, Ellestad MH. Upsloping S-T segments in exercise stress test- 119. Koide Y, Yotsukura M, Yoshino H, Ishikawa K. A new coronary artery
ing. Six year follow-up study of 438 patients and correlation with 248 disease index of treadmill exercise electrocardiograms based on the step-
angiograms. Am J Cardiol. 1976;37:19–22. up diagnostic method. Am J Cardiol. 2001;87:142–147.
99. Rautaharju PM, Prineas RJ, Eifler WJ, Furberg CD, Neaton JD, Crow 120. Pandya A, Ellestad MH, Crump R. Time course of changes in P-wave
RS, Stamler J, Cutler JA. Prognostic value of exercise electrocardiogram duration during exercise. Cardiology. 1996;87:343–346.
in men at high risk of future coronary heart disease: Multiple Risk Factor
121. Dunbar CC, Saul BI, Kassotis J, Badillo L. Usefulness of P-wave mor-
Intervention Trial experience. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1986;8:1–10.
phology during submaximal treadmill exercise to predict coronary artery
100. Desai MY, Crugnale S, Mondeau J, Helin K, Mannting F. Slow upslop-
disease. Am J Cardiol. 2005;96:781–783.
ing ST-segment depression during exercise: does it really signify a posi-
122. Maganis JC, Gupta B, Gamie SH, LaBarbera JJ, Startt-Selvester RH,
tive stress test? Am Heart J. 2002;143:482–487.
Ellestad MH. Usefulness of p-wave duration to identify myocardial isch-
101. Detrano R, Gianrossi R, Mulvihill D, Lehmann K, Dubach P, Colombo
emia during exercise testing. Am J Cardiol. 2010;105:1365–1370.
A, Froelicher V. Exercise-induced ST segment depression in the diagno-
sis of multivessel coronary disease: a meta analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 123. Ellestad MH, Crump R, Surber M. The significance of lead strength
1989;14:1501–1508. on ST changes during treadmill stress tests. J Electrocardiol.
102. Sullivan ID, Davies DW, Sowton E. Submaximal exercise testing early 1992;25(suppl):31–34.
after myocardial infarction. Difficulty of predicting coronary anatomy 124. Michaelides AP, Vyssoulis GP, Paraskevas PG, Skouros CG, Tsiamis
and left ventricular performance. Br Heart J. 1985;53:180–185. EG, Toutouzas PK. Significance of R wave changes in exercise-induced
103. Orsini E, Lattanzi F, Reisenhofer B, Tartarini G. Time-domain analysis supraventricular extrasystoles. Angiographic correlates. J Electrocar-
of exercise-induced ST-segment elevation in Q-wave myocardial infarc- diol. 1993;26:197–206.
tion: a useful tool for the screening of myocardial viability. Ital Heart J. 125. Hopkirk JA, Leader S, Uhl GS, Hickman JR Jr, Fischer J. Limitation of
2001;2:529–538. exercise-induced R wave amplitude changes in detecting coronary artery
104. Beinart R, Matetzky S, Shechter M, Fefer P, Rozen E, Beinart T, Hod disease in asymptomatic men. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1984;3:821–826.
H, Chouraqui P. Stress-induced ST-segment elevation in patients with- 126. Michaelides A, Ryan JM, VanFossen D, Pozderac R, Boudoulas H. Exer-
out prior Q-wave myocardial infarction. J Electrocardiol. 2008;41: cise-induced QRS prolongation in patients with coronary artery disease:
312–317. a marker of myocardial ischemia. Am Heart J. 1993;126:1320–1325.
105. Widlansky S, McHenry PL, Corya BC, Phillips JF. Coronary angiographic, 127. Cantor A, Goldfarb B, Aszodi A, Battler A. QRS prolongation measured
echocardiographic, and electrocardiographic studies on a patient with vari- by a new computerized method: a sensitive marker for detecting exer-
ant angina due to coronary artery spasm. Am Heart J. 1975;90:631–635. cise-induced ischemia. Cardiology. 1997;88:446–452.
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 923
128. Yosefy C, Cantor A, Reisin L, Efrati S, Ilia R. The diagnostic value 149. Grady TA, Chiu AC, Snader CE, Marwick TH, Thomas JD, Pashkow
of QRS changes for prediction of coronary artery disease during FJ, Lauer MS. Prognostic significance of exercise-induced left bundle-
exercise testing in women: false-positive rates. Coron Artery Dis. branch block. JAMA. 1998;279:153–156.
2004;15:147–154. 150. Kligfield P, Hochreiter C, Okin PM, Borer JS. Transient loss of com-
129. Cantor A, Yosefy C, Potekhin M, Ilia R, Keren A. The value of changes plete bundle branch block patterns during exercise. Am J Cardiol.
in QRS width and in ST-T segment during exercise test in hypertrophic 1995;75:523–525.
cardiomyopathy for identification of associated coronary artery disease. 151. Williams MA, Esterbrooks DJ, Nair CK, Sailors MM, Sketch MH. Clini-
Int J Cardiol. 2006;112:99–104. cal significance of exercise-induced bundle branch block. Am J Cardiol.
130. Beker A, Pinchas A, Erel J, Abboud S. Analysis of high frequency 1988;61:346–348.
QRS potential during exercise testing in patients with coronary 152. Wayne V, Bishop R, Cook L, Spodick D. Exercise-induced bundle
artery disease and in healthy subjects. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. branch block. Am J Cardiol. 1983;52:283–286.
1996;19(12 pt 1):2040–2050. 153. Whinnery JE, Froelicher VF. Exercise testing in right bundle-branch
131. Abboud S, Zlochiver S. High-frequency QRS electrocardiogram for block. Chest. 1977;72:684–685.
diagnosing and monitoring ischemic heart disease. J Electrocardiol. 154. Whinnery JE, Froelicher VF. Acquired bundle branch block and its
2006;39:82–86. response to exercise testing in asymptomatic air crewmen: a review with
132. Michaelides A, Ryan JM, Bacon JP, Pozderac R, Toutouzas P, Boudoulas case reports. Aviat Space Environ Med. 1976;46:69–78.
H. Exercise-induced QRS changes (Athens QRS score) in patients with
155. Madias JE, Agarwal H. Unusual ECG responses to exercise stress test-
coronary artery disease: a marker of myocardial ischemia. J Cardiol.
ing. J Electrocardiol. 2001;34:265–269.
1995;26:263–272.
156. Stein R, Nguyen P, Abella J, Olson H, Myers J, Froelicher V. Prevalence
133. van Campen CM, Visser FC, Visser CA. The QRS score: a promising
and prognostic significance of exercise-induced right bundle branch
new exercise score for detecting coronary artery disease based on exer-
block. Am J Cardiol. 2010;105:677–680.
cise-induced changes of Q-, R- and S-waves: a relationship with myocar-
157. Peller OG, Moses JW, Kligfield P. Exercise-induced atrioventricular
dial ischaemia. Eur Heart J. 1996;17:699–708.
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
134. Fantini F, Barletta G, Del Bene R. T-wave alterations at the onset of wall block: report of three cases. Am Heart J. 1988;115:1315–1317.
motion abnormalities during dobutamine echocardiographic stress test. 158. Yuzuki Y, Horie M, Makita T, Watanuki M, Takahashi A, Sasayama
Am J Cardiol. 1997;79:78–81. S. Exercise-induced second-degree atrioventricular block. Jpn Circ J.
135. Elhendy A, Geleijnse L, Salustri A, van Domburg RT, Cornel JH, Arnese 1997;61:268–271.
M, Roelandt JR, Fioretti PM. T wave normalization during dobutamine 159. Coplan NL, Morales MC, Romanello P, Wilentz JR, Moses JW. Exer-
stress testing in patients with non-Q wave myocardial infarction. A cise-related atrioventricular block. Influence of myocardial ischemia.
marker of myocardial ischaemia? Eur Heart J. 1996;17:526–531. Chest. 1991;100:1728–1730.
136. Pizzetti G, Montorfano M, Belotti G, Margonato A, Ballarotto C,
160. Sharma AD, Yee R, Guiraudon G, Klein GJ. Sensitivity and specificity
Chierchia SL. Exercise-induced T-wave normalization predicts recovery of invasive and noninvasive testing for risk of sudden death in Wolff-
of regional contractile function after anterior myocardial infarction. Eur Parkinson-White syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1987;10:373–381.
Heart J. 1998;19:420–428. 161. Jezior MR, Kent SM, Atwood JE. Exercise testing in Wolff-Parkinson-
137. Kodama K, Hiasa G, Ohtsuka T, Ikeda S, Hashida H, Kuwahara T, Hara White syndrome: case report with ECG and literature review. Chest.
Y, Shigematsu Y, Hamada M, Hiwada K. Transient U wave inversion 2005;127:1454–1457.
during treadmill exercise testing in patients with left anterior descending 162. Aleong RG, Singh SM, Levinson JR, Milan DJ. Catecholamine chal-
coronary artery disease. Angiology. 2000;51:581–589. lenge unmasking high-risk features in the Wolff-Parkinson-White syn-
138. Shimizu W, Ohe T, Kurita T, Shimomura K. Differential response of drome. Europace. 2009;11:1396–1398.
QTU interval to exercise, isoproterenol, and atrial pacing in patients 163. Zou KH, O’Malley AJ, Mauri L. Receiver-operating characteristic anal-
with congenital long QT syndrome. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. ysis for evaluating diagnostic tests and predictive models. Circulation.
1991;14(11 pt 2):1966–1970. 2007;115:654–657.
139. Lauer MS, Pothier CE, Chernyak YB, Brunken R, Lieber M, Apperson- 164. Froelicher VF, Lehmann KG, Thomas R, Goldman S, Morrison D,
Hansen C, Starobin JM. Exercise-induced QT/R-R-interval hysteresis as Edson R, Lavori P, Myers J, Dennis C, Shabetai R, Do D, Froning J.
a predictor of myocardial ischemia. J Electrocardiol. 2006;39:315–323. The electrocardiographic exercise test in a population with reduced
140. Allen BJ, Casey TP, Brodsky MA, Luckett CR, Henry WL. Exercise workup bias: diagnostic performance, computerized interpretation, and
testing in patients with life-threatening ventricular tachyarrhythmias: multivariable prediction. Veterans Affairs Cooperative Study in Health
results and correlation with clinical and arrhythmia factors. Am Heart J. Services #016 (QUEXTA) Study Group. Quantitative Exercise Testing
1988;116:997–1002. and Angiography. Ann Intern Med. 1998;128(12 pt 1):965–974.
141. Ryan M, Lown B, Horn H. Comparison of ventricular ectopic activity 165. Epstein SE, Quyymi AA, Bonow RO. Sudden cardiac death without
during 24-hour monitoring and exercise testing in patients with coronary warning. Possible mechanisms and implications for screening asymp-
heart disease. N Engl J Med. 1975;292:224–229. tomatic populations. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:320–324.
142. Sami M, Chaitman B, Fisher L, Holmes D, Fray D, Alderman E. Sig- 166. Nesto RW, Kowalchuk GJ. The ischemic cascade: temporal sequence
nificance of exercise-induced ventricular arrhythmia in stable coronary
of hemodynamic, electrocardiographic and symptomatic expressions of
artery disease: a coronary artery surgery study project. Am J Cardiol.
ischemia. Am J Cardiol. 1987;59:23C–30C.
1984;54:1182–1188.
167. Geleijnse ML, Krenning BJ, Nemes A, van Dalen BM, Soliman OI, Ten
143. Atwood JE, Myers J, Sullivan M, Forbes S, Friis R, Pewen W, Cal-
Cate FJ, Schinkel AF, Boersma E, Simoons ML. Incidence, pathophysi-
laham P, Hall P, Froelicher V. Maximal exercise testing and gas
ology, and treatment of complications during dobutamine-atropine stress
exchange in patients with chronic atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol.
echocardiography. Circulation. 2010;121:1756–1767.
1988;11:508–513.
144. Beckerman J, Mathur A, Stahr S, Myers J, Chun S, Froelicher V. Exer- 168. Klocke FJ, Baird MG, Lorell BH, Bateman TM, Messer JV, Berman DS,
cise-induced ventricular arrhythmias and cardiovascular death. Ann O’Gara PT, Carabello BA, Russell RO Jr, Cerqueira MD, St John Sut-
Noninvasive Electrocardiol. 2005;10:47–52. ton MG, DeMaria AN, Udelson JE, Kennedy JW, Verani MS, Williams
145. Dewey FE, Kapoor JR, Williams RS, Lipinski MJ, Ashley EA, Hadley KA, Antman EM, Smith SC Jr, Alpert JS, Gregoratos G, Anderson JL,
D, Myers J, Froelicher VF. Ventricular arrhythmias during clinical tread- Hiratzka LF, Faxon DP, Hunt SA, Fuster V, Jacobs AK, Gibbons RJ,
mill testing and prognosis. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168:225–234. Russell RO. ACC/AHA/ASNC guidelines for the clinical use of cardiac
146. Heinsimer JA, Irwin JM, Basnight LL. Influence of underlying coronary radionuclide imaging–executive summary: a report of the American Col-
artery disease on the natural history and prognosis of exercise-induced lege of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice
left bundle branch block. Am J Cardiol. 1987;60:1065–1067. Guidelines (ACC/AHA/ASNC Committee to Revise the 1995 Guide-
147. Vasey C, O’Donnell J, Morris S, McHenry P. Exercise-induced left lines for the Clinical Use of Cardiac Radionuclide Imaging). Circula-
bundle branch block and its relation to coronary artery disease. Am J tion. 2003;108:1404–1418.
Cardiol. 1985;56:892–895. 169. Kwon DH, Cerqueira MD, Young R, Houghtaling P, Lieber E, Menon V,
148. Whinnery JE, Froelicher VF Jr, Longo MR Jr, Triebwasser JH. The elec- Brunken RC, Jaber WA. Lessons from regadenoson and low-level tread-
trocardiographic response to maximal treadmill exercise of asymptom- mill/regadenoson myocardial perfusion imaging: initial clinical experi-
atic men with right bundle branch block. Chest. 1977;71:335–340. ence in 1263 patients. J Nucl Cardiol. 2010;17:853–857.
924 Circulation August 20, 2013
170. Dilsizian V, Bacharach SL, Beanlands RS, Bergmann SR, Delbeke D, 185. Myers J, Prakash M, Froelicher V, Do D, Partington S, Atwood JE. Exer-
Gropler RJ, Knuuti J, Schelbert HR, Travin MI. PET myocardial perfu- cise capacity and mortality among men referred for exercise testing. N
sion and metabolism clinical imaging. J Nucl Cardiol. 2009;16:651. Engl J Med. 2002;346:793–801.
171. Di Carli MF, Dorbala S, Meserve J, El Fakhri G, Sitek A, Moore SC. 186. Wackers FJ. Customized exercise testing. J Am Coll Cardiol.
Clinical myocardial perfusion PET/CT. J Nucl Med. 2007;48:783–793. 2009;54:546–548.
172. Pellikka PA, Nagueh SF, Elhendy AA, Kuehl CA, Sawada SG; American 187. Morris CK, Myers J, Froelicher VF, Kawaguchi T, Ueshima K, Hideg A.
Society of Echocardiography. American Society of Echocardiography Nomogram based on metabolic equivalents and age for assessing aerobic
recommendations for performance, interpretation, and application of exercise capacity in men. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1993;22:175–182.
stress echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2007;20:1021–1041. 188. Arena R, Myers J, Abella J, Pinkstaff S, Brubaker P, Moore B, Kitzman
173. Geleijnse ML, Fioretti PM, Roelandt JR. Methodology, feasibility,
D, Peberdy MA, Bensimhon D, Chase P, Forman D, West E, Guazzi
safety and diagnostic accuracy of dobutamine stress echocardiography. J M. Determining the preferred percent-predicted equation for peak
Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;30:595–606. oxygen consumption in patients with heart failure. Circ Heart Fail.
174. Cheitlin MD, Armstrong WF, Aurigemma GP, Beller GA, Bierman FZ, 2009;2:113–120.
Davis JL, Douglas PS, Faxon DP, Gillam LD, Kimball TR, Kussmaul 189. Lauer MS, Francis GS, Okin PM, Pashkow FJ, Snader CE, Marwick TH.
WG, Pearlman AS, Philbrick JT, Rakowski H, Thys DM, Antman EM, Impaired chronotropic response to exercise stress testing as a predictor
Smith SC Jr, Alpert JS, Gregoratos G, Anderson JL, Hiratzka LF, Hunt of mortality. JAMA. 1999;281:524–529.
SA, Fuster V, Jacobs AK, Gibbons RJ, Russell RO. ACC/AHA/ASE 190. Lauer MS, Okin PM, Larson MG, Evans JC, Levy D. Impaired heart
2003 guideline update for the clinical application of echocardiography: rate response to graded exercise. Prognostic implications of chrono-
summary article: a report of the American College of Cardiology/Ameri- tropic incompetence in the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation.
can Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (ACC/AHA/ 1996;93:1520–1526.
ASE Committee to Update the 1997 Guidelines for the Clinical Applica- 191. Brubaker PH, Kitzman DW. Chronotropic incompetence: causes, conse-
tion of Echocardiography). Circulation. 2003;108:1146–1162. quences, and management. Circulation. 2011;123:1010–1020.
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
175. Rieber J, Huber A, Erhard I, Mueller S, Schweyer M, Koenig A, Schiele 192. Brawner CA, Ehrman JK, Schairer JR, Cao JJ, Keteyian SJ. Predicting
TM, Theisen K, Siebert U, Schoenberg SO, Reiser M, Klauss V. Cardiac maximum heart rate among patients with coronary heart disease receiv-
magnetic resonance perfusion imaging for the functional assessment of ing beta-adrenergic blockade therapy. Am Heart J. 2004;148:910–914.
coronary artery disease: a comparison with coronary angiography and 193. Khan MN, Pothier CE, Lauer MS. Chronotropic incompetence as a
fractional flow reserve. Eur Heart J. 2006;27:1465–1471. predictor of death among patients with normal electrograms taking beta
176. Paetsch I, Jahnke C, Wahl A, Gebker R, Neuss M, Fleck E, Nagel E. blockers (metoprolol or atenolol). Am J Cardiol. 2005;96:1328–1333.
Comparison of dobutamine stress magnetic resonance, adenosine stress 194. Jouven X, Empana JP, Schwartz PJ, Desnos M, Courbon D, Ducimetière
magnetic resonance, and adenosine stress magnetic resonance perfusion. P. Heart-rate profile during exercise as a predictor of sudden death. N
Circulation. 2004;110:835–842. Engl J Med. 2005;352:1951–1958.
177. Wahl A, Paetsch I, Gollesch A, Roethemeyer S, Foell D, Gebker R, Lan- 195. Cole CR, Blackstone EH, Pashkow FJ, Snader CE, Lauer MS. Heart-rate
greck H, Klein C, Fleck E, Nagel E. Safety and feasibility of high-dose recovery immediately after exercise as a predictor of mortality. N Engl J
dobutamine-atropine stress cardiovascular magnetic resonance for diag- Med. 1999;341:1351–1357.
nosis of myocardial ischaemia: experience in 1000 consecutive cases. 196. Shetler K, Marcus R, Froelicher VF, Vora S, Kalisetti D, Prakash M, Do
Eur Heart J. 2004;25:1230–1236. D, Myers J. Heart rate recovery: validation and methodologic issues. J
178. Foster EL, Arnold JW, Jekic M, Bender JA, Balasubramanian V, Thaven- Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;38:1980–1987.
diranathan P, Dickerson JA, Raman SV, Simonetti OP. MR-compatible 197. Le VV, Mitiku T, Sungar G, Myers J, Froelicher V. The blood pressure
treadmill for exercise stress cardiac magnetic resonance imaging. Magn response to dynamic exercise testing: a systematic review. Prog Cardio-
Reson Med. 2012;67:880–889. vasc Dis. 2008;51:135–160.
179. Ho KT, Chua KC, Klotz E, Panknin C. Stress and rest dynamic myocar- 198. Ha JW, Juracan EM, Mahoney DW, Oh JK, Shub C, Seward JB, Pellikka
dial perfusion imaging by evaluation of complete time-attenuation curves PA. Hypertensive response to exercise: a potential cause for new wall
with dual-source CT. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2010;3:811–820. motion abnormality in the absence of coronary artery disease. J Am Coll
180. Blankstein R, Shturman LD, Rogers IS, Rocha-Filho JA, Okada DR, Cardiol. 2002;39:323–327.
Sarwar A, Soni AV, Bezerra H, Ghoshhajra BB, Petranovic M, Lou- 199. Huang CL, Su TC, Chen WJ, Lin LY, Wang WL, Feng MH, Liau CS,
reiro R, Feuchtner G, Gewirtz H, Hoffmann U, Mamuya WS, Brady Lee YT, Chen MF. Usefulness of paradoxical systolic blood pressure
TJ, Cury RC. Adenosine-induced stress myocardial perfusion imaging increase after exercise as a predictor of cardiovascular mortality. Am J
using dual-source cardiac computed tomography. J Am Coll Cardiol. Cardiol. 2008;102:518–523.
2009;54:1072–1084. 200. Frolkis JP, Pothier CE, Blackstone EH, Lauer MS. Frequent ven-
181. Hendel RC, Berman DS, Di Carli MF, Heidenreich PA, Henkin RE, Pel- tricular ectopy after exercise as a predictor of death. N Engl J Med.
likka PA, Pohost GM, Williams KA. ACCF/ASNC/ACR/AHA/ASE/ 2003;348:781–790.
SCCT/SCMR/SNM 2009 appropriate use criteria for cardiac radionu- 201. Eckart RE, Field ME, Hruczkowski TW, Forman DE, Dorbala S, Di
clide imaging: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foun- Carli MF, Albert CE, Maisel WH, Epstein LM, Stevenson WG. Associa-
dation Appropriate Use Criteria Task Force, the American Society of tion of electrocardiographic morphology of exercise-induced ventricular
Nuclear Cardiology, the American College of Radiology, the American arrhythmia with mortality. Ann Intern Med. 2008;149:451–60, W82.
Heart Association, the American Society of Echocardiography, the Soci- 202. Bourque JM, Charlton GT, Holland BH, Belyea CM, Watson DD, Beller
ety of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography, the Society for Cardio- GA. Prognosis in patients achieving ≥10 METS on exercise stress test-
vascular Magnetic Resonance, and the Society of Nuclear Medicine. ing: was SPECT imaging useful? J Nucl Cardiol. 2011;18:230–237.
Circulation. 2009;119:e561–e587. 203. Marshall AJ, Hutchings F, James AJ, Kelion AD. Prognostic value of a
182. Douglas PS, Garcia MJ, Haines DE, Lai WW, Manning WJ, Patel AR, nine-minute treadmill test in patients undergoing myocardial perfusion
Picard MH, Polk DM, Ragosta M, Ward RP, Weiner RB. ACCF/ASE/ scintigraphy. Am J Cardiol. 2010;106:1423–1428.
AHA/ASNC/HFSA/HRS/SCAI/SCCM/SCCT/SCMR 2011 appropriate 204. Hachamovitch R. Assessing the prognostic value of cardiovascular
use criteria for echocardiography: a report of the American College of imaging: a statistical exercise or a guide to clinical value and applica-
Cardiology Foundation Appropriate Use Criteria Task Force, American tion? Circulation. 2009;120:1342–1344.
Society of Echocardiography, American Heart Association, American 205. Kwok JM, Miller TD, Hodge DO, Gibbons RJ. Prognostic value of the
Society of Nuclear Cardiology, Heart Failure Society of America, Heart Duke treadmill score in the elderly. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;39:1475–1481.
Rhythm Society, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Inter- 206. Valeti US, Miller TD, Hodge DO, Gibbons RJ. Exercise single-photon
ventions, Society of Critical Care Medicine, Society of Cardiovascular emission computed tomography provides effective risk stratification of
Computed Tomography, and Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Reso- elderly men and elderly women. Circulation. 2005;111:1771–1776.
nance. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011;57:1126–1166. 207. Young LH, Wackers FJ, Chyun DA, Davey JA, Barrett EJ, Taillefer R,
183. Miller TD. Exercise treadmill test: estimating cardiovascular prognosis. Heller GV, Iskandrian AE, Wittlin SD, Filipchuk N, Ratner RE, Inzucchi
Cleve Clin J Med. 2008;75:424–430. SE; DIAD Investigators. Cardiac outcomes after screening for asymp-
184. Mark DB. Risk stratification in patients with chest pain. Prim Care. tomatic coronary artery disease in patients with type 2 diabetes: the
2001;28:99–118, vii. DIAD study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2009;301:1547–1555.
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 925
208. Huggett DL, Connelly DM, Overend TJ. Maximal aerobic capacity test- 226. Fleg JL, Gerstenblith G, Zonderman AB, Becker LC, Weisfeldt ML,
ing of older adults: a critical review. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. Costa PT Jr, Lakatta EG. Prevalence and prognostic significance of exer-
2005;60:57–66. cise-induced silent myocardial ischemia detected by thallium scintigra-
209. Simonsick EM, Fan E, Fleg JL. Estimating cardiorespiratory fitness in phy and electrocardiography in asymptomatic volunteers. Circulation.
well-functioning older adults: treadmill validation of the long distance 1990;81:428–436.
corridor walk. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2006;54:127–132. 227. Busby MJ, Shefrin EA, Fleg JL. Prevalence and long-term significance
210. Mark DB, Shaw L, Harrell FE Jr, Hlatky MA, Lee KL, Bengtson JR, of exercise-induced frequent or repetitive ventricular ectopic beats in
McCants CB, Califf RM, Pryor DB. Prognostic value of a treadmill exer- apparently healthy volunteers. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1989;14:1659–1665.
cise score in outpatients with suspected coronary artery disease. N Engl J 228. Ekelund LG, Suchindran CM, McMahon RP, Heiss G, Leon AS, Rom-
Med. 1991;325:849–853. hilt DW, Rubenstein CL, Probstfield JL, Ruwitch JF. Coronary heart
211. Goraya TY, Jacobsen SJ, Pellikka PA, Miller TD, Khan A, Weston SA, disease morbidity and mortality in hypercholesterolemic men predicted
Gersh BJ, Roger VL. Prognostic value of treadmill exercise testing in from an exercise test: the Lipid Research Clinics Coronary Primary Pre-
elderly persons. Ann Intern Med. 2000;132:862–870. vention Trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1989;14:556–563.
212. Raxwal V, Shetler K, Morise A, Do D, Myers J, Atwood JE, Froeli- 229. Bouchard C, Daw EW, Rice T, Pérusse L, Gagnon J, Province MA,
cher VF. Simple treadmill score to diagnose coronary disease. Chest. Leon AS, Rao DC, Skinner JS, Wilmore JH. Familial resemblance for
2001;119:1933–1940. V̇ O2max in the sedentary state: the HERITAGE family study. Med Sci
213. Morise AP, Lauer MS, Froelicher VF. Development and validation of a Sports Exerc. 1998;30:252–258.
simple exercise test score for use in women with symptoms of suspected 230. Okin PM, Prineas RJ, Grandits G, Rautaharju PM, Cohen JD, Crow
coronary artery disease. Am Heart J. 2002;144:818–825. RS, Kligfield P. Heart rate adjustment of exercise-induced ST-segment
214. Morise AP, Jalisi F. Evaluation of pretest and exercise test scores to depression identifies men who benefit from a risk factor reduction pro-
assess all-cause mortality in unselected patients presenting for exercise gram. Circulation. 1997;96:2899–2904.
testing with symptoms of suspected coronary artery disease. J Am Coll 231. Smith SC Jr, Amsterdam E, Balady GJ, Bonow RO, Fletcher GF, Fro-
Cardiol. 2003;42:842–850. elicher V, Heath G, Limacher MC, Maddahi J, Pryor D, Redberg RF,
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
215. Morise AP, Olson MB, Merz CN, Mankad S, Rogers WJ, Pepine CJ, Reis Roccella E, Ryan T, Smaha L, Wenger NK. Prevention Conference V:
SE, Sharaf BL, Sopko G, Smith K, Pohost GM, Shaw L. Validation of the beyond secondary prevention: identifying the high-risk patient for pri-
accuracy of pretest and exercise test scores in women with a low preva- mary prevention: tests for silent and inducible ischemia. Circulation.
lence of coronary disease: the NHLBI-sponsored Women’s Ischemia 2000;101:E12–E16.
Syndrome Evaluation (WISE) study. Am Heart J. 2004;147:1085–1092. 232. Arena R, Myers J, Guazzi M. The future of aerobic exercise testing in clin-
216. Lauer MS, Pothier CE, Magid DJ, Smith SS, Kattan MW. An externally ical practice: is it the ultimate vital sign? Future Cardiol. 2010;6:325–342.
validated model for predicting long-term survival after exercise treadmill 233. Mora S, Redberg RF, Cui Y, Whiteman MK, Flaws JA, Sharrett AR,
testing in patients with suspected coronary artery disease and a normal Blumenthal RS. Ability of exercise testing to predict cardiovascular and
electrocardiogram. Ann Intern Med. 2007;147:821–828. all-cause death in asymptomatic women: a 20-year follow-up of the lipid
217. Balady GJ, Larson MG, Vasan RS, Leip EP, O’Donnell CJ, Levy D. research clinics prevalence study. JAMA. 2003;290:1600–1607.
234. Thompson PD, Franklin BA, Balady GJ, Blair SN, Corrado D, Estes NA
Usefulness of exercise testing in the prediction of coronary disease risk
3rd, Fulton JE, Gordon NF, Haskell WL, Link MS, Maron BJ, Mittle-
among asymptomatic persons as a function of the Framingham risk
man MA, Pelliccia A, Wenger NK, Willich SN, Costa F. Exercise and
score. Circulation. 2004;110:1920–1925.
acute cardiovascular events: placing the risks into perspective: a scientific
218. Mora S, Redberg RF, Sharrett AR, Blumenthal RS. Enhanced risk
statement from the American Heart Association Council on Nutrition,
assessment in asymptomatic individuals with exercise testing and Fram-
Physical Activity, and Metabolism and the Council on Clinical Cardiol-
ingham risk scores. Circulation. 2005;112:1566–1572.
ogy. Circulation. 2007;115:2358–2368.
219. Borg GA. Psychophysical bases of perceived exertion. Med Sci Sports
235. Mittleman MA, Maclure M, Tofler GH, Sherwood JB, Goldberg RJ,
Exerc. 1982;14:377–381.
Muller JE. Triggering of acute myocardial infarction by heavy physi-
220. Fleisher LA, Beckman JA, Brown KA, Calkins H, Chaikof E, Fleis-
cal exertion. Protection against triggering by regular exertion. Determi-
chmann KE, Freeman WK, Froehlich JB, Kasper EK, Kersten JR, Riegel
nants of Myocardial Infarction Onset Study Investigators. N Engl J Med.
B, Robb JF. ACC/AHA 2007 guidelines on perioperative cardiovascular
1993;329:1677–1683.
evaluation and care for noncardiac surgery: a report of the American
236. Giri S, Thompson PD, Kiernan FJ, Clive J, Fram DB, Mitchel JF,
College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Prac- Hirst JA, McKay RG, Waters DD. Clinical and angiographic char-
tice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Revise the 2002 Guidelines on acteristics of exertion-related acute myocardial infarction. JAMA.
Perioperative Cardiovascular Evaluation for Noncardiac Surgery). Cir- 1999;282:1731–1736.
culation. 2007;116:e418–e499. 237. Siscovick DS, Weiss NS, Fletcher RH, Lasky T. The incidence of primary
221. Marwick TH, Hordern MD, Miller T, Chyun DA, Bertoni AG, Blumen- cardiac arrest during vigorous exercise. N Engl J Med. 1984;311:874–877.
thal RS, Philippides G, Rocchini A; on behalf of the Council on Clinical 238. Thompson PD, Funk EJ, Carleton RA, Sturner WQ. Incidence of
Cardiology, American Heart Association Exercise, Cardiac Rehabilita- death during jogging in Rhode Island from 1975 through 1980. JAMA.
tion, and Prevention Committee; Council on Cardiovascular Disease in 1982;247:2535–2538.
the Young; Council on Cardiovascular Nursing; Council on Nutrition, 239. Balady GJ, Chaitman B, Driscoll D, Foster C, Froelicher E, Gordon
Physical Activity, and Metabolism; and the Interdisciplinary Council on N, Pate R, Rippe J, Bazzarre T. Recommendations for cardiovascular
Quality of Care and Outcomes Research. Exercise training for type 2 dia- screening, staffing, and emergency policies at health/fitness facilities.
betes mellitus: impact on cardiovascular risk: a scientific statement from Circulation. 1998;97:2283–2293.
the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2009;119:3244–3262. 240. Grundy SM. Approach to lipoprotein management in 2001 National
222. Greenland P, Alpert JS, Beller GA, Benjamin EJ, Budoff MJ, Fayad ZA, Cholesterol Guidelines. Am J Cardiol. 2002;90:11i–21i.
Foster E, Hlatky MA, Hodgson JM, Kushner FG, Lauer MS, Shaw LJ, 241. Kohli P, Gulati M. Exercise stress testing in women: going back to the
Smith SC Jr, Taylor AJ, Weintraub WS, Wenger NK, Jacobs AK. 2010 basics. Circulation. 2010;122:2570–2580.
ACCF/AHA guideline for assessment of cardiovascular risk in asymp- 242. Kwok Y, Kim C, Grady D, Segal M, Redberg R. Meta-analysis of exer-
tomatic adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foun- cise testing to detect coronary artery disease in women. Am J Cardiol.
dation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. 1999;83:660–666.
Circulation. 2010;122:e584–e636. 243. McNeer JF, Margolis JR, Lee KL, Kisslo JA, Peter RH, Kong Y, Behar
223. Bruce RA, DeRouen TA, Hossack KF. Value of maximal exercise tests in VS, Wallace AG, McCants CB, Rosati RA. The role of the exercise test
risk assessment of primary coronary heart disease events in healthy men. in the evaluation of patients for ischemic heart disease. Circulation.
Five years’ experience of the Seattle heart watch study. Am J Cardiol. 1978;57:64–70.
1980;46:371–378. 244. Mark DB, Lauer MS. Exercise capacity: the prognostic variable that
224. Allen WH, Aronow WS, Goodman P, Stinson P. Five-year follow-up of doesn’t get enough respect. Circulation. 2003;108:1534–1536.
maximal treadmill stress test in asymptomatic men and women. Circula- 245. Al-Mallah M, Alqaisi F, Arafeh A, Lakhdar R, Al-Tamsheh R, Anan-
tion. 1980;62:522–527. thasubramaniam K. Long term favorable prognostic value of negative
225. Jouven X, Zureik M, Desnos M, Courbon D, Ducimetière P. Long-term treadmill echocardiogram in the setting of abnormal treadmill electro-
outcome in asymptomatic men with exercise-induced premature ven- cardiogram: a 95 month median duration follow-up study. J Am Soc
tricular depolarizations. N Engl J Med. 2000;343:826–833. Echocardiogr. 2008;21:1018–1022.
926 Circulation August 20, 2013
246. Robert AR, Melin JA, Detry JM. Logistic discriminant analysis improves 267. Hansen HS, Froberg K, Nielsen JR, Hyldebrandt N. A new approach to
diagnostic accuracy of exercise testing for coronary artery disease in assessing maximal aerobic power in children: the Odense School Child
women. Circulation. 1991;83:1202–1209. Study. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1989;58:618–624.
247. Bourque JM, Holland BH, Watson DD, Beller GA. Achieving an exer- 268. Reybrouck T, Weymans M, Stijns H, Van der Hauwaert LG. Exercise
cise workload of > or = 10 metabolic equivalents predicts a very low risk testing after correction of tetralogy of Fallot: the fallacy of a reduced
of inducible ischemia: does myocardial perfusion imaging have a role? J heart rate response. Am Heart J. 1986;112:998–1003.
Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;54:538–545. 269. Jacobsen JR, Garson A Jr, Gillette PC, McNamara DG. Premature ven-
248. Roger VL, Jacobsen SJ, Pellikka PA, Miller TD, Bailey KR, Gersh BJ. tricular contractions in normal children. J Pediatr. 1978;92:36–38.
Prognostic value of treadmill exercise testing: a population-based study 270. Wiles HB. Exercise testing for arrhythmia: children and adolescents.
in Olmsted County, Minnesota. Circulation. 1998;98:2836–2841. Prog Pediatr Cardiol. 1993;2:51–60.
249. Weiner DA, Ryan TJ, Parsons L, Fisher LD, Chaitman BR, Sheffield LT, 271. Chodzko-Zajko WJ, Proctor DN, Fiatarone Singh MA, Minson CT, Nigg
Tristani FE. Long-term prognostic value of exercise testing in men and CR, Salem GJ, Skinner JS. American College of Sports Medicine posi-
women from the Coronary Artery Surgery Study (CASS) registry. Am J tion stand. Exercise and physical activity for older adults. Med Sci Sports
Cardiol. 1995;75:865–870. Exerc. 2009;41:1510–1530.
250. Arruda-Olson AM, Juracan EM, Mahoney DW, McCully RB, Roger VL, 272. Fleg JL. Exercise testing of elderly patients. Cardiology. 1989;6:105–109.
Pellikka PA. Prognostic value of exercise echocardiography in 5,798 273. Skinner JS. Aging for exercise testing and prescription. In: Skinner JS,
patients: is there a gender difference? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;39:625–631. ed. Exercise Testing and Exercise Prescription for Special Cases: Theo-
251. Daugherty SL, Magid DJ, Kikla JR, Hokanson JE, Baxter J, Ross CA, retical Basis and Clinical Application. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Wil-
Masoudi FA. Gender differences in the prognostic value of exercise liams & Wilkins; 2005: 85–99.
treadmill test characteristics. Am Heart J. 2011;161:908–914. 274. Singh MA. Exercise and aging. Clin Geriatr Med. 2004;20:201–221.
252. Alexander KP, Shaw LJ, Shaw LK, Delong ER, Mark DB, Peterson 275. Lakatta EG, Levy D. Arterial and cardiac aging: major shareholders in
ED. Value of exercise treadmill testing in women. J Am Coll Cardiol. cardiovascular disease enterprises: Part I: aging arteries: a “set up” for
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
292. Fioretti P, Deckers JW, Brower RW, Simoons ML, Beelen JA, Hugen- 316. Anderson JD, Epstein FH, Meyer CH, Hagspiel KD, Wang H, Berr SS,
holtz PG. Predischarge stress test after myocardial infarction in the old Harthun NL, Weltman A, Dimaria JM, West AM, Kramer CM. Multifac-
age: results and prognostic value. Eur Heart J. 1984;5(suppl E):101–104. torial determinants of functional capacity in peripheral arterial disease:
293. Ciaroni S, Delonca J, Righetti A. Early exercise testing after acute myo- uncoupling of calf muscle perfusion and metabolism. J Am Coll Cardiol.
cardial infarction in the elderly: clinical evaluation and prognostic sig- 2009;54:628–635.
nificance. Am Heart J. 1993;126:304–311. 317. McDermott MM, Liu K, Carroll TJ, Tian L, Ferrucci L, Li D, Carr J,
294. Fleg JL. Stress testing in the elderly. Am J Geriatr Cardiol. 2001;10: Guralnik JM, Kibbe M, Pearce WH, Yuan C, McCarthy W, Kramer CM,
308–313; quiz 313. Tao H, Liao Y, Clark ET, Xu D, Berry J, Orozco J, Sharma L, Criqui
295. Samek L, Betz P, Schnellbacher K. Exercise testing in elderly patients MH. Superficial femoral artery plaque and functional performance in
with coronary artery disease. Eur Heart J. 1984;5(suppl E):69–73. peripheral arterial disease: walking and leg circulation study (WALCS
296. Glover DR, Robinson CS, Murray RG. Diagnostic exercise testing in III). JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2011;4:730–739.
104 patients over 65 years of age. Eur Heart J. 1984;5(suppl E):59–61. 318. McDermott MM, Tian L, Liu K, Guralnik JM, Ferrucci L, Tan J, Pearce
297. Josephson RA, Shefrin E, Lakatta EG, Brant LJ, Fleg JL. Can serial WH, Schneider JR, Criqui MH. Prognostic value of functional perfor-
exercise testing improve the prediction of coronary events in asymptom- mance for mortality in patients with peripheral artery disease. J Am Coll
atic individuals? Circulation. 1990;81:20–24. Cardiol. 2008;51:1482–1489.
298. Kokkinos P, Myers J, Faselis C, Panagiotakos DB, Doumas M, Pittaras 319. Fletcher BJ, Dunbar SB, Felner JM, Jensen BE, Almon L, Cotsonis
A, Manolis A, Kokkinos JP, Karasik P, Greenberg M, Papademetriou G, Fletcher GF. Exercise testing and training in physically disabled
V, Fletcher R. Exercise capacity and mortality in older men: a 20-year men with clinical evidence of coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol.
follow-up study. Circulation. 2010;122:790–797. 1994;73:170–174.
299. Bouzas-Mosquera A, Peteiro J, Broullón FJ, Álvarez-García N, Méndez 320. Schwade J, Blomqvist CG, Shapiro W. A comparison of the response to
E, Pérez A, Mosquera VX, Castro-Beiras A. Value of exercise echocar- arm and leg work in patients with ischemic heart disease. Am Heart J.
diography for predicting mortality in elderly patients. Eur J Clin Invest. 1977;94:203–208.
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
2010;40:1122–1130. 321. Stein RA, Chaitman BR, Balady GJ, Fleg JL, Limacher MC, Pina IL,
300. Chaudhry FA, Qureshi EA, Yao SS, Bangalore S. Risk stratification and Williams MA, Bazzarre T. Safety and utility of exercise testing in emer-
prognosis in octogenarians undergoing stress echocardiographic study. gency room chest pain centers: an advisory from the Committee on
Echocardiography. 2007;24:851–859. Exercise, Rehabilitation, and Prevention, Council on Clinical Cardiol-
301. Arruda AM, Das MK, Roger VL, Klarich KW, Mahoney DW, Pellikka ogy, American Heart Association. Circulation. 2000;102:1463–1467.
PA. Prognostic value of exercise echocardiography in 2,632 patients > or 322. Amsterdam EA, Kirk JD, Bluemke DA, Diercks D, Farkouh ME, Garvey
= 65 years of age. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37:1036–1041. JL, Kontos MC, McCord J, Miller TD, Morise A, Newby LK, Ruberg
302. Steingart RM, Hodnett P, Musso J, Feuerman M. Exercise myocardial FL, Scordo KA, Thompson PD; on behalf of the American Heart Associ-
perfusion imaging in elderly patients. J Nucl Cardiol. 2002;9:573–580. ation Exercise, Cardiac Rehabilitation, and Prevention Committee of the
303. Kim HK, Kim YJ, Cho YS, Sohn DW, Lee MM, Park YB, Choi YS. Deter- Council on Clinical Cardiology, Council on Cardiovascular Nursing, and
minants of exercise capacity in hypertensive patients: new insights from Interdisciplinary Council on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research.
tissue Doppler echocardiography. Am J Hypertens. 2003;16:564–569. Testing of low-risk patients presenting to the emergency department
304. Poirier P, Garneau C, Bogaty P, Nadeau A, Marois L, Brochu C, Gin- with chest pain: a scientific statement from the American Heart Associa-
gras C, Fortin C, Jobin J, Dumesnil JG. Impact of left ventricular dia- tion. Circulation. 2010;122:1756–1776.
stolic dysfunction on maximal treadmill performance in normotensive 323. Lewis WR, Amsterdam EA, Turnipseed S, Kirk JD. Immediate exercise
subjects with well-controlled type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am J Cardiol. testing of low risk patients with known coronary artery disease present-
2000;85:473–477. ing to the emergency department with chest pain. J Am Coll Cardiol.
305. Weiss SA, Blumenthal RS, Sharrett AR, Redberg RF, Mora S. Exercise 1999;33:1843–1847.
blood pressure and future cardiovascular death in asymptomatic indi- 324. Farkouh ME, Smars PA, Reeder GS, Zinsmeister AR, Evans RW, Meloy
viduals. Circulation. 2010;121:2109–2116. TD, Kopecky SL, Allen M, Allison TG, Gibbons RJ, Gabriel SE. A
306. Sui X, LaMonte MJ, Blair SN. Cardiorespiratory fitness and risk of non- clinical trial of a chest-pain observation unit for patients with unstable
fatal cardiovascular disease in women and men with hypertension. Am J angina. Chest Pain Evaluation in the Emergency Room (CHEER) Inves-
Hypertens. 2007;20:608–615. tigators. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:1882–1888.
307. Weber KT, Janicki JS. Equipment and protocol to evaluate the exercise 325. Gomez MA, Anderson JL, Karagounis LA, Muhlestein JB, Mooers FB.
response. In: Weber KT, Janicki JS, eds. Cardiopulmonary Exercise An emergency department-based protocol for rapidly ruling out myocar-
Testing: Physiologic Principles and Clinical Applications. Philadelphia, dial ischemia reduces hospital time and expense: results of a randomized
PA: WB Saunders Co; 1986: 139–150. study (ROMIO). J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;28:25–33.
308. Slavich G, Mapelli P, Fregolent R, Slavich M, Tuniz D. Non ST ergomet- 326. Roberts RR, Zalenski RJ, Mensah EK, Rydman RJ, Ciavarella G, Gus-
ric variables in the diabetic patient and their prognostic significance [in sow L, Das K, Kampe LM, Dickover B, McDermott MF, Hart A, Straus
Italian]. Monaldi Arch Chest Dis. 2010;74:28–35. HE, Murphy DG, Rao R. Costs of an emergency department-based
309. Ho PM, Maddox TM, Ross C, Rumsfeld JS, Magid DJ. Impaired chro- accelerated diagnostic protocol vs hospitalization in patients with chest
notropic response to exercise stress testing in patients with diabetes pre- pain: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 1997;278:1670–1676.
dicts future cardiovascular events. Diabetes Care. 2008;31:1531–1533. 327. Polanczyk CA, Johnson PA, Hartley LH, Walls RM, Shaykevich S, Lee
310. Kahn JK, Zola B, Juni JE, Vinik AI. Decreased exercise heart rate and TH. Clinical correlates and prognostic significance of early negative
blood pressure response in diabetic subjects with cardiac autonomic neu- exercise tolerance test in patients with acute chest pain seen in the hospi-
ropathy. Diabetes Care. 1986;9:389–394. tal emergency department. Am J Cardiol. 1998;81:288–292.
311. Chacko KM, Bauer TA, Dale RA, Dixon JA, Schrier RW, Estacio RO. 328. Mikhail MG, Smith FA, Gray M, Britton C, Frederiksen SM. Cost-effec-
Heart rate recovery predicts mortality and cardiovascular events in tiveness of mandatory stress testing in chest pain center patients. Ann
patients with type 2 diabetes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008;40:288–295. Emerg Med. 1997;29:88–98.
312. Nylen ES, Kokkinos P, Myers J, Faselis C. Prognostic effect of exercise 329. Zalenski RJ, McCarren M, Roberts R, Rydman RJ, Jovanovic B, Das
capacity on mortality in older adults with diabetes mellitus. J Am Geriatr K, Mendez J, el-Khadra M, Fraker L, McDermott M. An evaluation of a
Soc. 2010;58:1850–1854. chest pain diagnostic protocol to exclude acute cardiac ischemia in the
313. Lièvre MM, Moulin P, Thivolet C, Rodier M, Rigalleau V, Penfornis emergency department. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:1085–1091.
A, Pradignac A, Ovize M; DYNAMIT investigators. Detection of silent 330. Lewis WR, Amsterdam EA. Evaluation of the patient with ‘rule out
myocardial ischemia in asymptomatic patients with diabetes: results of myocardial infarction’. Arch Intern Med. 1996;156:41–45.
a randomized trial and meta-analysis assessing the effectiveness of sys- 331. Kirk JD, Turnipseed S, Lewis WR, Amsterdam EA. Evaluation of chest
tematic screening. Trials. 2011;12:23. pain in low-risk patients presenting to the emergency department: the
314. Gardner AW, Afaq A. Management of lower extremity peripheral arterial role of immediate exercise testing. Ann Emerg Med. 1998;32:1–7.
disease. J Cardiopulm Rehabil Prev. 2008;28:349–357. 332. Amsterdam EA, Kirk JD, Diercks DB, Lewis WR, Turnipseed SD.
315. Gardner AW, Skinner JS, Cantwell BW, Smith LK. Progressive vs sin- Immediate exercise testing to evaluate low-risk patients present-
gle-stage treadmill tests for evaluation of claudication. Med Sci Sports ing to the emergency department with chest pain. J Am Coll Cardiol.
Exerc. 1991;23:402–408. 2002;40:251–256.
928 Circulation August 20, 2013
333. Udelson JE, Beshansky JR, Ballin DS, Feldman JA, Griffith JL, Handler 349. Arena R, Guazzi M, Myers J, Grinnen D, Forman DE, Lavie CJ. Car-
J, Heller GV, Hendel RC, Pope JH, Ruthazer R, Spiegler EJ, Woolard diopulmonary exercise testing in the assessment of pulmonary hyperten-
RH, Selker HP. Myocardial perfusion imaging for evaluation and triage sion. Expert Rev Respir Med. 2011;5:281–293.
of patients with suspected acute cardiac ischemia: a randomized con- 350. Arena R. Exercise testing and training in chronic lung disease and pul-
trolled trial. JAMA. 2002;288:2693–2700. monary arterial hypertension. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2011;53:454–463.
334. Bholasingh R, Cornel JH, Kamp O, van Straalen JP, Sanders GT, Tijssen 351. Wasserman K. The Dickinson W. Richards lecture. New concepts in
JG, Umans VA, Visser CA, de Winter RJ. Prognostic value of predis- assessing cardiovascular function. Circulation. 1988;78:1060–1071.
charge dobutamine stress echocardiography in chest pain patients with a 352. Giardini A, Specchia S, Tacy TA, Coutsoumbas G, Gargiulo G, Donti A,
negative cardiac troponin T. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41:596–602. Formigari R, Bonvicini M, Picchio FM. Usefulness of cardiopulmonary
335. Hoffmann U, Bamberg F, Chae CU, Nichols JH, Rogers IS, Seneviratne exercise to predict long-term prognosis in adults with repaired tetralogy
SK, Truong QA, Cury RC, Abbara S, Shapiro MD, Moloo J, Butler J, of Fallot. Am J Cardiol. 2007;99:1462–1467.
Ferencik M, Lee H, Jang IK, Parry BA, Brown DF, Udelson JE, Achen- 353. Giardini A, Hager A, Lammers AE, Derrick G, Müller J, Diller GP,
bach S, Brady TJ, Nagurney JT. Coronary computed tomography angi- Dimopoulos K, Odendaal D, Gargiulo G, Picchio FM, Gatzoulis MA.
ography for early triage of patients with acute chest pain: the ROMICAT Ventilatory efficiency and aerobic capacity predict event-free survival in
(Rule Out Myocardial Infarction using Computer Assisted Tomography) adults with atrial repair for complete transposition of the great arteries. J
trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;53:1642–1650. Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;53:1548–1555.
336. Goldstein JA, Chinnaiyan KM, Abidov A, Achenbach S, Berman DS, 354. Fernandes SM, Alexander ME, Graham DA, Khairy P, Clair M, Rodri-
Hayes SW, Hoffmann U, Lesser JR, Mikati IA, O’Neil BJ, Shaw LJ, guez E, Pearson DD, Landzberg MJ, Rhodes J. Exercise testing iden-
Shen MY, Valeti US, Raff GL; CT-STAT Investigators. The CT-STAT tifies patients at increased risk for morbidity and mortality following
(Coronary Computed Tomographic Angiography for Systematic Tri- Fontan surgery. Congenit Heart Dis. 2011;6:294–303.
age of Acute Chest Pain Patients to Treatment) trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 355. Rhodes J, Dave A, Pulling MC, Geggel RL, Marx GR, Fulton DR,
2011;58:1414–1422. Hijazi ZM. Effect of pulmonary artery stenoses on the cardiopulmonary
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
337. Zipes DP, Camm AJ, Borggrefe M, Buxton AE, Chaitman B, Fromer response to exercise following repair of tetralogy of Fallot. Am J Car-
M, Gregoratos G, Klein G, Moss AJ, Myerburg RJ, Priori SG, Quinones diol. 1998;81:1217–1219.
MA, Roden DM, Silka MJ, Tracy C. ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 guidelines 356. Sutton NJ, Peng L, Lock JE, Lang P, Marx GR, Curran TJ, O’Neill JA,
for management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the preven- Picard ST, Rhodes J. Effect of pulmonary artery angioplasty on exercise
tion of sudden cardiac death: executive summary: a report of the Ameri- function after repair of tetralogy of Fallot. Am Heart J. 2008;155:182–186.
can College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force and 357. Meadows J, Lang P, Marx G, Rhodes J. Fontan fenestration closure has
the European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines no acute effect on exercise capacity but improves ventilatory response to
(Writing Committee to Develop Guidelines for Management of Patients exercise. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;52:108–113.
With Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac 358. Dimopoulos K, Okonko DO, Diller GP, Broberg CS, Salukhe TV, Babu-
Death). Circulation. 2006;114:1088–1132. Narayan SV, Li W, Uebing A, Bayne S, Wensel R, Piepoli MF, Poole-
338. Goldberger JJ, Cain ME, Hohnloser SH, Kadish AH, Knight BP, Lauer Wilson PA, Francis DP, Gatzoulis MA. Abnormal ventilatory response
MS, Maron BJ, Page RL, Passman RS, Siscovick D, Siscovick D, Ste- to exercise in adults with congenital heart disease relates to cyanosis and
venson WG, Zipes DP. American Heart Association/American College predicts survival. Circulation. 2006;113:2796–2802.
of Cardiology Foundation/Heart Rhythm Society scientific statement on 359. Giardini A, Specchia S, Berton E, Sangiorgi D, Coutsoumbas G, Gar-
noninvasive risk stratification techniques for identifying patients at risk giulo G, Oppido G, Bonvicini M, Picchio FM. Strong and independent
for sudden cardiac death: a scientific statement from the American Heart prognostic value of peak circulatory power in adults with congenital
Association Council on Clinical Cardiology Committee on Electrocardi- heart disease. Am Heart J. 2007;154:441–447.
ography and Arrhythmias and Council on Epidemiology and Prevention. 360. Gimeno JR, Tomé-Esteban M, Lofiego C, Hurtado J, Pantazis A, Mist
Circulation. 2008;118:1497–1518. B, Lambiase P, McKenna WJ, Elliott PM. Exercise-induced ventricular
339. Morise AP. Exercise testing in nonatherosclerotic heart disease: hyper- arrhythmias and risk of sudden cardiac death in patients with hypertro-
trophic cardiomyopathy, valvular heart disease, and arrhythmias. Circu- phic cardiomyopathy. Eur Heart J. 2009;30:2599–2605.
lation. 2011;123:216–225. 361. Maron MS, Olivotto I, Zenovich AG, Link MS, Pandian NG, Kuvin JT,
340. Liu N, Ruan Y, Priori SG. Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular Nistri S, Cecchi F, Udelson JE, Maron BJ. Hypertrophic cardiomyopa-
tachycardia. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2008;51:23–30. thy is predominantly a disease of left ventricular outflow tract obstruc-
341. Wong JA, Gula LJ, Klein GJ, Yee R, Skanes AC, Krahn AD. Utility of tion. Circulation. 2006;114:2232–2239.
treadmill testing in identification and genotype prediction in long-QT 362. Sharma S. Value of exercise testing in assessing clinical state and prog-
syndrome. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2010;3:120–125. nosis in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. In: Maron BJ, ed. Diagnosis and
342. Gehi AK, Stein RH, Metz LD, Gomes JA. Microvolt T-wave alternans Management of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy. Malden, MA: Wiley-
for the risk stratification of ventricular tachyarrhythmic events: a meta- Blackwell; 2004:158–171.
analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;46:75–82. 363. Drinko JK, Nash PJ, Lever HM, Asher CR. Safety of stress test-
343. Nieminen T, Lehtimäki T, Viik J, Lehtinen R, Nikus K, Kööbi T, Niemelä ing in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol.
K, Turjanmaa V, Kaiser W, Huhtala H, Verrier RL, Huikuri H, Kähönen 2004;93:1443–1444, A12.
M. T-wave alternans predicts mortality in a population undergoing a 364. Scott JM, Esch BT, Haykowsky MJ, Warburton DE, Toma M, Jelani
clinically indicated exercise test. Eur Heart J. 2007;28:2332–2337. A, Taylor D, Paterson I, Poppe D, Liang Y, Thompson R. Cardio-
344. Costantini O, Hohnloser SH, Kirk MM, Lerman BB, Baker JH 2nd, vascular responses to incremental and sustained submaximal exer-
Sethuraman B, Dettmer MM, Rosenbaum DS; ABCD Trial Investiga- cise in heart transplant recipients. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol.
tors. The ABCD (Alternans Before Cardioverter Defibrillator) Trial: 2009;296:H350–H358.
strategies using T-wave alternans to improve efficiency of sudden car- 365. Roten L, Schmid JP, Merz F, Carrel T, Zwahlen M, Walpoth N, Mohacsi
diac death prevention. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;53:471–479. P, Hullin R. Diastolic dysfunction of the cardiac allograft and maximal
345. Arena R, Myers J, Guazzi M. The clinical and research applications of exercise capacity. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2009;28:434–439.
aerobic capacity and ventilatory efficiency in heart failure: an evidence- 366. Fang JC, Rocco T, Jarcho J, Ganz P, Mudge GH. Noninvasive assess-
based review. Heart Fail Rev. 2008;13:245–269. ment of transplant-associated arteriosclerosis. Am Heart J. 1998;
346. Guazzi M, Myers J, Arena R. Optimizing the clinical application of car- 135(6 pt 1):980–987.
diopulmonary exercise testing in patients with heart failure. Int J Car- 367. Bonow RO, Carabello B, de Leon AC Jr, Edmunds LH Jr, Fedderly
diol. 2009;137:e18–e22. BJ, Freed MD, Gaasch WH, McKay CR, Nishimura RA, O’Gara PT,
347. Myers J, Arena R, Dewey F, Bensimhon D, Abella J, Hsu L, Chase P, O’Rourke RA, Rahimtoola SH. Guidelines for the management of
Guazzi M, Peberdy MA. A cardiopulmonary exercise testing score patients with valvular heart disease: executive summary: a report of the
for predicting outcomes in patients with heart failure. Am Heart J. American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force
2008;156:1177–1183. on Practice Guidelines (Committee on Management of Patients with Val-
348. Arena R, Lavie CJ, Milani RV, Myers J, Guazzi M. Cardiopulmonary vular Heart Disease). Circulation. 1998;98:1949–1984.
exercise testing in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension: an 368. Hochreiter C, Borer JS. Exercise testing in patients with aortic and mitral
evidence-based review. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2010;29:159–173. valve disease: current applications. Cardiovasc Clin. 1983;13:291–300.
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 929
369. Areskog NH. Exercise testing in the evaluation of patients with valvular 391. Murias JM, Kowalchuk JM, Paterson DH. Mechanisms for increases in
aortic stenosis. Clin Physiol. 1984;4:201–208. V˙O2max with endurance training in older and young women. Med Sci
370. Atwood JE, Kawanishi S, Myers J, Froelicher VF. Exercise testing in Sports Exerc. 2010;42:1891–1898.
patients with aortic stenosis. Chest. 1988;93:1083–1087. 392. Mark DB, Naylor CD, Hlatky MA, Califf RM, Topol EJ, Granger CB,
371. Rafique AM, Biner S, Ray I, Forrester JS, Tolstrup K, Siegel RJ. Meta- Knight JD, Nelson CL, Lee KL, Clapp-Channing NE. Use of medical
analysis of prognostic value of stress testing in patients with asymptom- resources and quality of life after acute myocardial infarction in Canada
atic severe aortic stenosis. Am J Cardiol. 2009;104:972–977. and the United States. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:1130–1135.
372. Misra M, Thakur R, Bhandari K, Puri VK. Value of the treadmill exer- 393. Rogers WJ, Bowlby LJ, Chandra NC, French WJ, Gore JM, Lam-
cise test in asymptomatic and minimally symptomatic patients with brew CT, Rubison RM, Tiefenbrunn AJ, Weaver WD. Treatment of
chronic severe aortic regurgitation. Int J Cardiol. 1987;15:309–316. myocardial infarction in the United States (1990 to 1993). Observa-
373. Bonow RO, Carabello BA, Chatterjee K, de Leon AC Jr, Faxon
tions from the National Registry of Myocardial Infarction. Circulation.
DP, Freed MD, Gaasch WH, Lytle BW, Nishimura RA, O’Gara PT, 1994;90:2103–2114.
O’Rourke RA, Otto CM, Shah PM, Shanewise JS. 2008 Focused update 394. Muller DW, Ellis SG, Debowey DL, Topol EJ. Quantitative angiographic
incorporated into the ACC/AHA 2006 guidelines for the management comparison of the immediate success of coronary angioplasty, coronary
of patients with valvular heart disease: a report of the American Col- atherectomy and endoluminal stenting. Am J Cardiol. 1990;66:938–942.
lege of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice 395. Adelman AG, Cohen EA, Kimball BP, Bonan R, Ricci DR, Webb JG,
Guidelines (Writing Committee to Revise the 1998 Guidelines for the Laramee L, Barbeau G, Traboulsi M, Corbett BN. A comparison of
Management of Patients With Valvular Heart Disease). Circulation. directional atherectomy with balloon angioplasty for lesions of the left
2008;118:e523–e661. anterior descending coronary artery. N Engl J Med. 1993;329:228–233.
374. Vacek JL, Valentin-Stone P, Wolfe M, Davis WR. The value of standard- 396. Green DJ. Exercise training as vascular medicine: direct impacts on the
ized exercise testing in the noninvasive evaluation of mitral stenosis. Am vasculature in humans. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2009;37:196–202.
J Med Sci. 1986;292:335–343. 397. Blomqvist CG, Saltin B. Cardiovascular adaptations to physical training.
375. Weber KT, Janicki JS, McElroy PA. Cardio-pulmonary exercise test-
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
419. Sternfeld B, Sidney S, Jacobs DR Jr, Sadler MC, Haskell WL, Schreiner trolled trial. Ann Intern Med. 2000;133:92–103.
PJ. Seven-year changes in physical fitness, physical activity, and lipid 443. Ades PA, Savage PD, Toth MJ, Harvey-Berino J, Schneider DJ, Bunn
profile in the CARDIA study. Coronary Artery Risk Development in JY, Audelin MC, Ludlow M. High-calorie-expenditure exercise: a new
Young Adults. Ann Epidemiol. 1999;9:25–33. approach to cardiac rehabilitation for overweight coronary patients. Cir-
420. Monda KL, Ballantyne CM, North KE. Longitudinal impact of physical culation. 2009;119:2671–2678.
activity on lipid profiles in middle-aged adults: the Atherosclerosis Risk 444. Catenacci VA, Ogden LG, Stuht J, Phelan S, Wing RR, Hill JO, Wyatt
in Communities Study. J Lipid Res. 2009;50:1685–1691. HR. Physical activity patterns in the National Weight Control Registry.
421. Taylor RS, Brown A, Ebrahim S, Jolliffe J, Noorani H, Rees K, Skidmore Obesity (Silver Spring). 2008;16:153–161.
B, Stone JA, Thompson DR, Oldridge N. Exercise-based rehabilitation 445. Schairer JR, Kostelnik T, Proffitt SM, Faitel KI, Windeler S, Rickman
for patients with coronary heart disease: systematic review and meta- LB, Brawner CA, Keteyian SJ. Caloric expenditure during cardiac reha-
analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Med. 2004;116:682–692. bilitation. J Cardiopulm Rehabil. 1998;18:290–294.
422. Kim JR, Oberman A, Fletcher GF, Lee JY. Effect of exercise intensity 446. Ades PA, Savage PD, Lischke S, Toth MJ, Harvey-Berino J, Bunn JY,
and frequency on lipid levels in men with coronary heart disease: Train- Ludlow M, Schneider DJ. The effect of weight loss and exercise train-
ing Level Comparison Trial. Am J Cardiol. 2001;87:942–946; A3. ing on flow-mediated dilatation in coronary heart disease: a randomized
423. Kraus WE, Houmard JA, Duscha BD, Knetzger KJ, Wharton MB,
trial. Chest. 2011;140:1420–1427.
McCartney JS, Bales CW, Henes S, Samsa GP, Otvos JD, Kulkarni KR, 447. Wasserman D, Zinman B. Fuel homeostasis. In: Ruderman N, Devlin JT,
Slentz CA. Effects of the amount and intensity of exercise on plasma eds. The Health Professional’s Guide to Diabetes and Exercise. Alexan-
lipoproteins. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:1483–1492. dria, VA: American Diabetes Association; 1995:29–47.
424. Kodama S, Tanaka S, Saito K, Shu M, Sone Y, Onitake F, Suzuki E, Shi- 448. Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, Hamman RF, Lachin JM,
mano H, Yamamoto S, Kondo K, Ohashi Y, Yamada N, Sone H. Effect Walker EA, Nathan DM; Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group.
of aerobic exercise training on serum levels of high-density lipoprotein Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention
cholesterol: a meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167:999–1008. or metformin. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:393–403.
425. Kelley GA, Kelley KS, Tran ZV. Exercise, lipids, and lipoproteins in 449. Thomas DE, Elliott EJ, Naughton GA. Exercise for type 2 diabetes mel-
older adults: a meta-analysis. Prev Cardiol. 2005;8:206–214. litus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006:CD002968.
426. Kelley GA, Kelley KS, Tran ZV. Aerobic exercise and lipids and lipo- 450. Umpierre D, Ribeiro PA, Kramer CK, Leitão CB, Zucatti AT, Azevedo MJ,
proteins in women: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Gross JL, Ribeiro JP, Schaan BD. Physical activity advice only or struc-
Womens Health (Larchmt). 2004;13:1148–1164. tured exercise training and association with HbA1c levels in type 2 diabe-
427. Kelley GA, Kelley KS, Vu Tran Z. Aerobic exercise, lipids and lipo- tes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2011;305:1790–1799.
proteins in overweight and obese adults: a meta-analysis of randomized 451. Wing RR. Long-term effects of a lifestyle intervention on weight and
controlled trials. Int J Obes (Lond). 2005;29:881–893. cardiovascular risk factors in individuals with type 2 diabetes mel-
428. Kelley GA, Kelley KS. Impact of progressive resistance training on lip- litus: four-year results of the Look AHEAD trial. Arch Intern Med.
ids and lipoproteins in adults: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled 2010;170:1566–1575.
trials. Prev Med. 2009;48:9–19. 452. Kasapis C, Thompson PD. The effects of physical activity on serum
429. Kelley GA, Kelley KS. Impact of progressive resistance training on C-reactive protein and inflammatory markers: a systematic review. J Am
lipids and lipoproteins in adults: another look at a meta-analysis using Coll Cardiol. 2005;45:1563–1569.
prediction intervals. Prev Med. 2009;49:473–475. 453. Tomaszewski M, Charchar FJ, Przybycin M, Crawford L, Wallace AM,
430. Paffenbarger RS Jr, Wing AL, Hyde RT, Jung DL. Physical activ-
Gosek K, Lowe GD, Zukowska-Szczechowska E, Grzeszczak W, Sat-
ity and incidence of hypertension in college alumni. Am J Epidemiol. tar N, Dominiczak AF. Strikingly low circulating CRP concentrations in
1983;117:245–257. ultramarathon runners independent of markers of adiposity: how low can
431. Blair SN, Goodyear NN, Gibbons LW, Cooper KH. Physical fitness and you go? Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2003;23:1640–1644.
incidence of hypertension in healthy normotensive men and women. 454. King DE, Carek P, Mainous AG 3rd, Pearson WS. Inflammatory markers
JAMA. 1984;252:487–490. and exercise: differences related to exercise type. Med Sci Sports Exerc.
432. Pereira MA, Folsom AR, McGovern PG, Carpenter M, Arnett DK, Liao 2003;35:575–581.
D, Szklo M, Hutchinson RG. Physical activity and incident hyperten- 455. Wannamethee SG, Lowe GD, Whincup PH, Rumley A, Walker M, Len-
sion in black and white adults: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities non L. Physical activity and hemostatic and inflammatory variables in
Study. Prev Med. 1999;28:304–312. elderly men. Circulation. 2002;105:1785–1790.
433. Carnethon MR, Evans NS, Church TS, Lewis CE, Schreiner PJ, Jacobs 456. Aronson D, Sheikh-Ahmad M, Avizohar O, Kerner A, Sella R, Bartha P,
DR Jr, Sternfeld B, Sidney S. Joint associations of physical activity and Markiewicz W, Levy Y, Brook GJ. C-Reactive protein is inversely related to
aerobic fitness on the development of incident hypertension: coronary physical fitness in middle-aged subjects. Atherosclerosis. 2004;176:173–179.
artery risk development in young adults. Hypertension. 2010;56:49–55. 457. Martins RA, Neves AP, Coelho-Silva MJ, Veríssimo MT, Teixeira AM.
434. Hu G, Barengo NC, Tuomilehto J, Lakka TA, Nissinen A, Jousi-
The effect of aerobic versus strength-based training on high-sensitivity
lahti P. Relationship of physical activity and body mass index to the C-reactive protein in older adults. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2010;110:161–169.
Fletcher et al Exercise Standards for Testing and Training 931
458. Balducci S, Zanuso S, Nicolucci A, Fernando F, Cavallo S, Cardelli P, 482. Leon AS, Connett J, Jacobs DR Jr, Rauramaa R. Leisure-time physical
Fallucca S, Alessi E, Letizia C, Jimenez A, Fallucca F, Pugliese G. Anti- activity levels and risk of coronary heart disease and death. The Multiple
inflammatory effect of exercise training in subjects with type 2 diabetes Risk Factor Intervention Trial. JAMA. 1987;258:2388–2395.
and the metabolic syndrome is dependent on exercise modalities and inde- 483. Posel D, Noakes T, Kantor P, Lambert M, Opie LH. Exercise training
pendent of weight loss. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2010;20:608–617. after experimental myocardial infarction increases the ventricular fibril-
459. Lavie CJ, Church TS, Milani RV, Earnest CP. Impact of physical activity, lation threshold before and after the onset of reinfarction in the isolated
cardiorespiratory fitness, and exercise training on markers of inflamma- rat heart. Circulation. 1989;80:138–145.
tion. J Cardiopulm Rehabil Prev. 2011;31:137–145. 484. Keysor JJ, Brembs A. Exercise: necessary but not sufficient for improving
460. Nagai Y, Metter EJ, Earley CJ, Kemper MK, Becker LC, Lakatta EG, function and preventing disability? Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2011;23:211–218.
Fleg JL. Increased carotid artery intimal-medial thickness in asymptom- 485. Pahor M, Blair SN, Espeland M, Fielding R, Gill TM, Guralnik JM,
atic older subjects with exercise-induced myocardial ischemia. Circula- Hadley EC, King AC, Kritchevsky SB, Maraldi C, Miller ME, Newman
tion. 1998;98:1504–1509. AB, Rejeski WJ, Romashkan S, Studenski S. Effects of a physical activ-
461. Vaitkevicius PV, Fleg JL, Engel JH, O’Connor FC, Wright JG, Lakatta ity intervention on measures of physical performance: Results of the life-
LE, Yin FC, Lakatta EG. Effects of age and aerobic capacity on arterial style interventions and independence for Elders Pilot (LIFE-P) study. J
stiffness in healthy adults. Circulation. 1993;88(4 pt 1):1456–1462. Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2006;61:1157–1165.
462. Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, Spiegelhalter DJ, Georgakopoulos D, 486. Gill TM, DiPietro L, Krumholz HM. Role of exercise stress testing and
Robinson J, Deanfield JE. Aging is associated with endothelial dysfunc- safety monitoring for older persons starting an exercise program. JAMA.
tion in healthy men years before the age-related decline in women. J Am 2000;284:342–349.
Coll Cardiol. 1994;24:471–476. 487. Tunstall Pedoe DS. Marathon cardiac deaths: the london experience.
463. Green DJ, Spence A, Halliwill JR, Cable NT, Thijssen DH. Exercise and Sports Med. 2007;37:448–450.
vascular adaptation in asymptomatic humans. Exp Physiol. 2011;96:57–70. 488. Maron BJ, Poliac LC, Roberts WO. Risk for sudden cardiac death asso-
464. Sugawara J, Hayashi K, Kurachi S, Tanaka T, Yokoi T, Kurachi K. Age- ciated with marathon running. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;28:428–431.
489. Kim JH, Malhotra R, Chiampas G, d’Hemecourt P, Troyanos C, Cianca J,
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
504. Hambrecht R, Walther C, Möbius-Winkler S, Gielen S, Linke A, Conradi oxygen uptake and other cardiopulmonary exercise parameters: implica-
K, Erbs S, Kluge R, Kendziorra K, Sabri O, Sick P, Schuler G. Percuta- tions for clinical trials and clinical practice. Chest. 2010;138:950–955.
neous coronary angioplasty compared with exercise training in patients 526. Flynn KE, Lin L, Ellis SJ, Russell SD, Spertus JA, Whellan DJ, Piña IL,
with stable coronary artery disease: a randomized trial. Circulation. Fine LJ, Schulman KA, Weinfurt KP; HF-ACTION Investigators. Out-
2004;109:1371–1378. comes, health policy, and managed care: relationships between patient-
505. Belardinelli R, Paolini I, Cianci G, Piva R, Georgiou D, Purcaro A. Exer- reported outcome measures and clinical measures in outpatients with
cise training intervention after coronary angioplasty: the ETICA trial. J heart failure. Am Heart J. 2009;158(4 suppl):S64–S71.
Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37:1891–1900. 527. Vanhees L, Fagard R, Thijs L, Staessen J, Amery A. Prognostic signifi-
506. Ades PA, Grunvald MH, Weiss RM, Hanson JS. Usefulness of myo- cance of peak exercise capacity in patients with coronary artery disease.
cardial ischemia as predictor of training effect in cardiac rehabilitation J Am Coll Cardiol. 1994;23:358–363.
after acute myocardial infarction or coronary artery bypass grafting. Am 528. Erbs S, Höllriegel R, Linke A, Beck EB, Adams V, Gielen S, Möbius-
J Cardiol. 1989;63:1032–1036. Winkler S, Sandri M, Kränkel N, Hambrecht R, Schuler G. Exercise
507. Leng GC, Fowler B, Ernst E. Exercise for intermittent claudication. training in patients with advanced chronic heart failure (NYHA IIIb)
Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000:CD000990. promotes restoration of peripheral vasomotor function, induction of
508. Heran BS, Chen JM, Ebrahim S, Moxham T, Oldridge N, Rees K, endogenous regeneration, and improvement of left ventricular function.
Thompson DR, Taylor RS. Exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation for Circ Heart Fail. 2010;3:486–494.
coronary heart disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011:CD001800. 529. Luk TH, Dai YL, Siu CW, Yiu KH, Chan HT, Fong DY, Lee SW, Li
509. O’Connor CM, Whellan DJ, Lee KL, Keteyian SJ, Cooper LS, Ellis SW, Tam S, Lau CP, Tse HF. Habitual physical activity is associated
SJ, Leifer ES, Kraus WE, Kitzman DW, Blumenthal JA, Rendall DS, with endothelial function and endothelial progenitor cells in patients
Miller NH, Fleg JL, Schulman KA, McKelvie RS, Zannad F, Piña IL; with stable coronary artery disease. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil.
HF-ACTION Investigators. Efficacy and safety of exercise training in 2009;16:464–471.
patients with chronic heart failure: HF-ACTION randomized controlled 530. Amundsen BH, Rognmo Ø, Hatlen-Rebhan G, Slørdahl SA. High-
intensity aerobic exercise improves diastolic function in coronary artery
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
547. Tambalis K, Panagiotakos DB, Kavouras SA, Sidossis LS. Responses of the addition of structured exercise training: a randomized controlled
blood lipids to aerobic, resistance, and combined aerobic with resistance study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;53:2332–2339.
exercise training: a systematic review of current evidence. Angiology. 566. Selig SE, Carey MF, Menzies DG, Patterson J, Geerling RH, Williams
2009;60:614–632. AD, Bamroongsuk V, Toia D, Krum H, Hare DL. Moderate-intensity
548. Tjønna AE, Lee SJ, Rognmo Ø, Stølen TO, Bye A, Haram PM, Loen- resistance exercise training in patients with chronic heart failure
nechen JP, Al-Share QY, Skogvoll E, Slørdahl SA, Kemi OJ, Najjar SM, improves strength, endurance, heart rate variability, and forearm blood
Wisløff U. Aerobic interval training versus continuous moderate exercise flow. J Card Fail. 2004;10:21–30.
as a treatment for the metabolic syndrome: a pilot study. Circulation. 567. Pu CT, Johnson MT, Forman DE, Hausdorff JM, Roubenoff R, Foldvari
2008;118:346–354. M, Fielding RA, Singh MA. Randomized trial of progressive resistance
549. Ades PA, Waldmann ML, Meyer WL, Brown KA, Poehlman ET,
training to counteract the myopathy of chronic heart failure. J Appl
Pendlebury WW, Leslie KO, Gray PR, Lew RR, LeWinter MM. Skeletal Physiol. 2001;90:2341–2350.
muscle and cardiovascular adaptations to exercise conditioning in older 568. Oka RK, De Marco T, Haskell WL, Botvinick E, Dae MW, Bolen K,
coronary patients. Circulation. 1996;94:323–330. Chatterjee K. Impact of a home-based walking and resistance training
550. Williams MA, Maresh CM, Esterbrooks DJ, Harbrecht JJ, Sketch MH. program on quality of life in patients with heart failure. Am J Cardiol.
Early exercise training in patients older than age 65 years compared with 2000;85:365–369.
that in younger patients after acute myocardial infarction or coronary 569. Hare DL, Ryan TM, Selig SE, Pellizzer AM, Wrigley TV, Krum H.
artery bypass grafting. Am J Cardiol. 1985;55:263–266. Resistance exercise training increases muscle strength, endurance,
551. Lavie CJ, Milani RV, Littman AB. Benefits of cardiac rehabilitation and and blood flow in patients with chronic heart failure. Am J Cardiol.
exercise training in secondary coronary prevention in the elderly. J Am 1999;83:1674–1677, A7.
Coll Cardiol. 1993;22:678–683. 570. Haykowsky M, Eves N, Figgures L, McLean A, Koller M, Taylor D,
552. Maniar S, Sanderson BK, Bittner V. Comparison of baseline character- Tymchak W. Effect of exercise training on V̇ O2peak and left ventricular
istics and outcomes in younger and older patients completing cardiac systolic function in recent cardiac transplant recipients. Am J Cardiol.
rehabilitation. J Cardiopulm Rehabil Prev. 2009;29:220–229. 2005;95:1002–1004.
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
artery disease: six-month outcomes from the claudication: exercise 598. Plisiene J, Blumberg A, Haager G, Knackstedt C, Latsch J, Norra C,
versus endoluminal revascularization (CLEVER) study. Circulation. Arndt M, Tuerk S, Heussen N, Kelm M, Predel HG, Schauerte P. Moder-
2012;125:130–139. ate physical exercise: a simplified approach for ventricular rate control in
584. McCrindle BW, Williams RV, Mital S, Clark BJ, Russell JL, Klein G, older patients with atrial fibrillation. Clin Res Cardiol. 2008;97:820–826.
Eisenmann JC. Physical activity levels in children and adolescents are 599. Mertens DJ, Kavanagh T. Exercise training for patients with chronic
reduced after the Fontan procedure, independent of exercise capacity, atrial fibrillation. J Cardiopulm Rehabil. 1996;16:193–196.
and are associated with lower perceived general health. Arch Dis Child. 600. Sharp CT, Busse EF, Burgess JJ, Haennel RG. Exercise prescription for
2007;92:509–514. patients with pacemakers. J Cardiopulm Rehabil. 1998;18:421–431.
585. Falk B, Bar-Mor G, Zigel L, Yaaron M, Beniamini Y, Zeevi B. Daily 601. Zipes DP, Garson A Jr. 26th Bethesda conference: recommendations
physical activity and perception of condition severity among male and for determining eligibility for competition in athletes with cardiovas-
female adolescents with congenital heart malformation. J Pediatr Nurs. cular abnormalities. Task Force 6: arrhythmias. J Am Coll Cardiol.
2006;21:244–249. 1994;24:892–899.
586. Moalla W, Maingourd Y, Gauthier R, Cahalin LP, Tabka Z, Ahmaidi S. 602. Vanhees L, Schepers D, Heidbüchel H, Defoor J, Fagard R. Exer-
Effect of exercise training on respiratory muscle oxygenation in chil- cise performance and training in patients with implantable car-
dren with congenital heart disease. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil. dioverter-defibrillators and coronary heart disease. Am J Cardiol.
2006;13:604–611. 2001;87:712–715.
587. Minamisawa S, Nakazawa M, Momma K, Imai Y, Satomi G. Effect of 603. Vanhees L, Kornaat M, Defoor J, Aufdemkampe G, Schepers D, Stevens
aerobic training on exercise performance in patients after the Fontan A, Van Exel H, Van Den Beld J, Heidbüchel H, Fagard R. Effect of exer-
operation. Am J Cardiol. 2001;88:695–698. cise training in patients with an implantable cardioverter defibrillator.
588. Bradley LM, Galioto FM Jr, Vaccaro P, Hansen DA, Vaccaro J. Effect of Eur Heart J. 2004;25:1120–1126.
intense aerobic training on exercise performance in children after surgi- 604. Fan S, Lyon CE, Savage PD, Ozonoff A, Ades PA, Balady GJ. Outcomes
cal repair of tetralogy of Fallot or complete transposition of the great and adverse events among patients with implantable cardiac defibril-
arteries. Am J Cardiol. 1985;56:816–818. lators in cardiac rehabilitation: a case-controlled study. J Cardiopulm
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
589. Rhodes J, Curran TJ, Camil L, Rabideau N, Fulton DR, Gauthier NS, Rehabil Prev. 2009;29:40–43.
Gauvreau K, Jenkins KJ. Impact of cardiac rehabilitation on the exercise 605. Davids JS, McPherson CA, Earley C, Batsford WP, Lampert R. Benefits
function of children with serious congenital heart disease. Pediatrics. of cardiac rehabilitation in patients with implantable cardioverter-defi-
2005;116:1339–1345. brillators: a patient survey. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2005;86:1924–1928.
590. Rhodes J, Curran TJ, Camil L, Rabideau N, Fulton DR, Gauthier
606. Kamke W, Dovifat C, Schranz M, Behrens S, Moesenthin J, Völler H.
NS, Gauvreau K, Jenkins KJ. Sustained effects of cardiac rehabili- Cardiac rehabilitation in patients with implantable defibrillators. Feasi-
tation in children with serious congenital heart disease. Pediatrics. bility and complications. Z Kardiol. 2003;92:869–875.
2006;118:e586–e593. 607. Belardinelli R, Capestro F, Misiani A, Scipione P, Georgiou D.
591. Therrien J, Fredriksen P, Walker M, Granton J, Reid GJ, Webb G. A pilot Moderate exercise training improves functional capacity, quality of
study of exercise training in adult patients with repaired tetralogy of Fal- life, and endothelium-dependent vasodilation in chronic heart fail-
lot. Can J Cardiol. 2003;19:685–689. ure patients with implantable cardioverter defibrillators and car-
592. Dua JS, Cooper AR, Fox KR, Graham Stuart A. Exercise training in diac resynchronization therapy. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil.
adults with congenital heart disease: feasibility and benefits. Int J Car- 2006;13:818–825.
diol. 2010;138:196–205. 608. Conraads VM, Vanderheyden M, Paelinck B, Verstreken S, Blankoff I,
593. Holloway TM, Chesssex C, Grace SL, Oechslin E, Spriet LL, Kovacs Miljoen H, De Sutter J, Beckers P. The effect of endurance training on
AH. A call for adult congenital heart disease patient participation in car- exercise capacity following cardiac resynchronization therapy in chronic
diac rehabilitation. Int J Cardiol. 2011;150:345–346. heart failure patients: a pilot trial. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil.
594. Graham TP Jr, Driscoll DJ, Gersony WM, Newburger JW, Rocchini A, 2007;14:99–106.
Towbin JA. Task Force 2: congenital heart disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 609. Fuster V, Gotto AM, Libby P, Loscalzo J, McGill HC. 27th Bethesda
2005;45:1326–1333. Conference: matching the intensity of risk factor management with
595. Mozaffarian D, Furberg CD, Psaty BM, Siscovick D. Physical activity the hazard for coronary disease events. Task Force 1. Pathogenesis of
and incidence of atrial fibrillation in older adults: the cardiovascular coronary disease: the biologic role of risk factors. J Am Coll Cardiol.
health study. Circulation. 2008;118:800–807. 1996;27:964–976.
596. Abdulla J, Nielsen JR. Is the risk of atrial fibrillation higher in athletes 610. Tavel ME. Stress testing in cardiac evaluation: current concepts with
than in the general population? A systematic review and meta-analysis. emphasis on the ECG. Chest. 2001;119:907–925.
Europace. 2009;11:1156–1159.
597. Mont L, Elosua R, Brugada J. Endurance sport practice as a risk factor
for atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter. Europace. 2009;11:11–17. Key Words: AHA Scientific Statements ◼ exercise ◼ exercise testing
Exercise Standards for Testing and Training: A Scientific Statement From the American
Heart Association
Gerald F. Fletcher, Philip A. Ades, Paul Kligfield, Ross Arena, Gary J. Balady, Vera A. Bittner,
Lola A. Coke, Jerome L. Fleg, Daniel E. Forman, Thomas C. Gerber, Martha Gulati, Kushal
Madan, Jonathan Rhodes, Paul D. Thompson and Mark A. Williams
on behalf of the American Heart Association Exercise, Cardiac Rehabilitation, and Prevention
Downloaded from http://circ.ahajournals.org/ by guest on September 28, 2016
Committee of the Council on Clinical Cardiology, Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity and
Metabolism, Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing, and Council on Epidemiology and
Prevention
The online version of this article, along with updated information and services, is located on the
World Wide Web at:
http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/128/8/873
Permissions: Requests for permissions to reproduce figures, tables, or portions of articles originally published
in Circulation can be obtained via RightsLink, a service of the Copyright Clearance Center, not the Editorial
Office. Once the online version of the published article for which permission is being requested is located,
click Request Permissions in the middle column of the Web page under Services. Further information about
this process is available in the Permissions and Rights Question and Answer document.
AHA 科学ステートメント
検査とトレーニングの運動基準
AHA 科学ステートメント
Gerald F. Fletcher, MD, FAHA(委員長); Philip A. Ades, MD(副委員長);
Paul Kligfield, MD, FAHA(副委員長); Ross Arena, PhD, PT, FAHA; Gary J. Balady, MD, FAHA;
Vera A. Bittner, MD, MSPH, FAHA; Lola A. Coke, PhD, ACNS, FAHA; Jerome L. Fleg, MD;
Daniel E. Forman, MD, FAHA; Thomas C. Gerber, MD, PhD, FAHA;
Martha Gulati, MD, MS, FAHA; Kushal Madan, PhD, PT; Jonathan Rhodes, MD;
Paul D. Thompson, MD; Mark A. Williams, PhD; on behalf of the American Heart Association
Exercise, Cardiac Rehabilitation, and Prevention Committee of the Council on Clinical Cardiology,
Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity and Metabolism, Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke
Nursing, and Council on Epidemiology and Prevention
予後と診断 51
目 次
運動負荷試験の追加的使用 54
運動負荷試験 26 特定の集団と状況における運動負荷試験の
運動負荷試験の目的 26 解釈 55
運動負荷試験の生理学 26 運動負荷試験における薬剤と電解質 69
運動の種類 26 運動負荷 ECG 検査結果報告 70
正常被験者における運動に対する 運動トレーニング 70
心血管反応 27 運動と健康 70
運動負荷試験の方法 30 健常成人のための運動処方 77
運動時の臨床および心肺応答 39 運動トレーニング法 78
運動時の ECG 40 運動プログラムの開始と持続の行動的側面 83
負荷イメージング法と運動負荷試験 48 CVD 患者における評価と運動処方 83
24
略語表
1-RM:最大負荷 ICD:植込み型除細動器
% GR:% 勾配 kpm:キロポンドメーター
AACVPR:米国心血管・呼吸リハビリテーション協会 LDL:低比重リポ蛋白
ACC(F):American College of Cardiology(Foundation) LIFE:Lifestyle Interventions and Independence for Elders
ACP:米国内科学会 LVOT:左室流出路
ACSM:米国スポーツ医学会 MET:代謝当量
AHA:American Heart Association mph:マイル / 時
AHEAD:Action for Health in Diabetes MRI:磁気共鳴イメージング
AIT:有酸素インターバルトレーニング NHANES:全米健康栄養調査
ARIC:Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities NSVT:非持続性心室頻拍
BMI:肥満指数 NYHA:ニューヨーク心臓協会
bpm:拍 / 分 PAD:末梢動脈疾患
CAD:冠動脈疾患 PAR-Q:身体活動準備質問票
4
ESC:欧州心臓病学会 V E:分時換気量
4
HCM:肥大型心筋症 V O 2:酸素摂取量
4
HDL:高比重リポ蛋白 VO 2 max:最大酸素摂取量
HF-ACTION:Heart Failure:A Contolled Trial Investigating Out- VT:心室頻拍
comes of Exercise Training WOMEN:What Is the Optimal Method for Ischemia Evaluation in
HR:心拍数 Women
HRV:心拍変動 WPW:ウォルフ・パーキンソン・ホワイト症候群
hs-CRP:高感度 C 反応性蛋白
25
26
る)にも分類される。静的(等尺性)運動は,手足 脳循環,冠循環を除いて,人体のほとんどの循環系
の動きを必要としない。代謝性運動は,おもに収縮 で血管収縮が生じる。運動が進むにつれて,骨格筋
過程の酸素利用可能性によって好気性(酸素が利用 血流量と酸素消費量が増加し,後者は 3 倍になる。
可能)または嫌気性(無酸素)過程に分類される。 全末梢血管抵抗算出値は低下するが,通常,収縮期
ほとんどの運動には,動的収縮と静的収縮の両方な 血圧,平均動脈圧,および脈圧は上昇する。拡張期
らびに好気性代謝と嫌気性代謝が関与し,それぞれ 血圧は,変化しないかまたはわずかに低下するが,
の寄与の程度によって,生理学的反応はかなり違う いずれも正常な反応と考えられる。肺血管床は,肺
ものになる。現在の臨床運動負荷試験法は,動的・ 内外圧較差の有意な増加なしに心拍出量の 6 倍の増
好気性(持久性)要素が優勢である。 加に適応することができる。正常対象者では,これ
は最大運動耐容能を制限する決定因子ではない。心
正常被験者における運動に対する心血管反応 拍出量は,遺伝的素質とトレーニングのレベルに
運動が開始され,その強度が増加すると,一般に よって,立位での激しい運動時には基礎値の 4 ∼ 6
身体の酸素需要が増加するが,これはおもに運動時 倍まで増加することがある。
4)
の筋肉によるものである 。この酸素需要の増加を
満たすために,1 回拍出量(Frank-Starling 機序によ HR 応答
る)と心拍数(heart rate, HR)の増大に伴い心拍出 運動に対する心血管系の即時応答は,迷走神経緊
量が増加し,末梢動静脈血酸素較差も同様に増加す 張の低下とそれに続く交感神経系からの刺激の増加
る。しかしながら,中強度∼高強度の運動では,一 に起因する HR の上昇である 5)。動的運動時に,洞
流のスポーツ選手でないかぎり,1 回拍出量は最大 調律での HR は作業負荷と酸素需要量に伴って直線
4
27
い)の両方に左右される 5)。漸増性の運動負荷試験 率 に 対 し て VO 2 が プ ラ ト ー に 達 し た こ と は,
4
28
対照的に,亜最大酸素摂取量は,最大値と安静値 解釈するには,これらの指標の異常を考慮に入れる
のあいだのいずれの酸素摂取量も示す一般的な呼称 ことが必要である。
である。亜最大酸素摂取量は,運動の作業負荷ある
4
29
・
" 年齢・性別補正平均 QFBL70(N-/分)
4000
3500
3000
QFBL70(N-/分)
2500
・
2000
1500
男性
1000 女性
500
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
年齢(歳)
# 年ごとの横断的変化と縦断的変化の比較
10
5
QFBL70(N-/分)の変化()
−5
−10
・
−15
縦断的−男性
縦断的−女性
−20 横断的−男性
横断的−女性 図 1 臨床的に健康な男女における 10 年ごとの
4
30
相対的禁忌 るように指示する。多くの運動負荷試験は患者が
既知の閉塞性左冠動脈主幹部狭窄 通常の投薬を継続中に行われるが,そのような場
症状との関連が不明確な中等度∼重度大動脈弁狭 合は検査所見との相互関係について記録すべきで
窄 ある。
心室レートがコントロール不能の頻脈性不整脈 検査に対する禁忌を除外し,重要な臨床徴候(心
後天性の高度または完全房室ブロック 雑音,奔馬調音,肺の喘鳴音,またはラ音など)
重度の安静時圧較差を伴う閉塞性肥大型心筋症 を検出するために,簡単な既往歴聴取と理学的検
(hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, HCM) 査が必要である。不安定狭心症の悪化あるいは非
最近の脳卒中または一過性脳虚血発作 代償性心不全の既往歴がある被験者は,状態が安
他人と協力する能力に制約がある精神障害 定するまで運動負荷試験を行うべきでない。理学
収縮期または拡張期血圧が 200/110 mmHg を超え 的検査では弁膜症や先天性心疾患をスクリーニン
る安静時高血圧 グして,これらの患者においては運動に対して血
重度の貧血,重大な電解質異常,甲状腺機能亢進 行動態反応に異常がある場合は,試験の早期中止
症など是正されていない医学的状態 を要することがある。
31
32
V4 を第 5 肋間の
鎖骨中線上に置く
右腕と左腕の誘導は肩の外側に
置く(筋肉でなく骨の上に置く
ほうが望ましい)
V1 と V2 は 3" -"
第 4 肋間に置く V3 は V2 と V4 の
前腋窩線
中間に置く
7 7
7
7 7 7
V4,V5,V6 は
水平線上に並べる。
この線は必ずしも
肋間に沿わない
腋窩中線
RL --
右脚誘導(アース線)は 左脚誘導は臍の
臍の下方に置く すぐ下方に置く
33
34
酸素利用量 自転車
心機能分類 臨床状態 (N-/LH/分) .&5T エルゴメータ トレッドミルプロトコル .&5T
修正 #SVDF #SVDF /BVHIUPO
分間の 分間の
ステージ ステージ
1 ワット= NQI(3 NQI(3
6.1 kpm/分
6.0 22 6.0 22
年齢・活動に相応した健康
5.5 20 5.5 20
体重 70 kg
における 5.0 18 5.0 18
56.0 16 kpm/分 16
52.5 15 15
正常/Ⅰ度
49.0 14 14
1500
45.5 13 4.2 16 4.2 16 13
42.0 12 1350 12
分間の
38.5 11 1200 11
3.4 14 3.4 14 ステージ
座りがちだが健康
35.0 10 1050 10
.1)(3
31.5 9 9
900 2 17.5
28.0 8 8
750 2 14.0
24.5 7 2.5 12 2.5 12 7
制限がある
21.0 6 600 6
症状がある
Ⅱ度 2 10.5
17.5 5 450 5
1.7 10 1.7 10 2 7.0
14.0 4 300 4
1.7 5 2 3.5
Ⅲ度 10.5 3 3
150 2 0
7.0 2 1.7 0 2
1 0
Ⅳ度 3.5 1 1
メータはキロポンドまたはワット(W)で測定す 運動プロトコル
る。1 W は毎分およそ 6 kpm(kpm/ 分)に相当す 臨床的な運動負荷試験は一般に,(低作業負荷で
る。自転車エルゴメータでの運動は体重負荷はない の)最初のウォームアップ期,それに続く各レベル
ので,キロポンドまたはワットは mL/ 分の酸素摂 ごとに十分な時間間隔を置いて負荷を増やす漸増性
取量に変換することができる。MET は酸素摂取量 の段階的運動,最大労作後の(再び低作業負荷で
(mL/ 分)を体重(kg)×3.5 の積で割ることにより の)回復期から成る。いくつかのトレッドミルプロ
算出できる。 トコルが一般に用いられているが,その詳細を図 3
自転車エルゴメータは通常,トレッドミルよりも に示す 44,45)。
安価で,占有面積が少なく,騒音も少ない。上体の 検査のプロトコルは,検査の目的と個々の患者に
動きが通常少ないので,血圧の測定と ECG 記録が 合わせて選択すべきである 47)。標準 Bruce プロトコ
容易である。ハンドルバーを握る一方で腕の等尺性 ルの利点は,すでに発表された多くの研究で用いら
運動または抵抗性運動を避けるように注意しなけれ れていることと,最終段階で平衡状態が達成される
ばならない。しかしながら,自転車エルゴメータ試 ことである。不利な点は,ステージ間の作業負荷の
4
35
36
*59)
American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Clini-
cal Competence Statement on Stress Testing(Circulation Vol.102
No.14 ’00 1726─38)は本シリーズ No.26, 2003 に収載
37
狭心症の特性とスケール 合
既知の CAD またはその疑いのある狭心症の不快 胸痛の増悪
感のレベルもまた,優れた主観的エンドポイントで 疲労,息切れ,喘鳴,こむらがえり,または跛行
ある。運動により典型的な狭心症が起こるか,ある 悪化したり,あるいは血行動態の安定性に支障を
いはその狭心症が試験中止の理由かどうかは,運動 きたす可能性のある,持続性 VT 以外の不整脈
負荷試験の評価における重要な観察事項であり, (多源性期外収縮,心室性期外収縮 3 連発,上室
Duke トレッドミルスコアの算出における重要な要 性頻拍,徐脈性不整脈など)
63)
素である 。 過度の高血圧反応(収縮期血圧>250 mmHg また
は拡張期血圧>115 mmHg)
運動負荷試験中止の適応 ただちに VT との鑑別ができない脚ブロックの出
試験の監視の重要な目的として運動中止の決定が 現
あるが,これは一般に,個々の被験者における試験
の目的によって決まる。一般的評価では症候限界性 運動後の期間
の運動負荷試験が望ましいが,この推奨はいくつか 回復期にのみ生じるいくつかの反応の異常があ
58)
の状況では当てはまらない場合がある 。 る 64)。回復早期に緩徐な歩行によるクールダウンが
一般的に取り入れられているが,これは急に仰臥位
絶対的適応 を取る(それにより静脈還流が増加し,心仕事量が
(aVR,aVL,V 1 以外の)心筋梗塞の既往による 増加する)場合と比較して,ST 低下の出現を遅ら
既存の Q 波がない誘導で,ST 上昇(>1.0 mm) せるか ST 低下をもたらさない可能性がある 65)。患
がある 者に症状が認められるか,あるいは血圧,HR,お
作業負荷の増加にもかかわらず,>10 mmHg の よび ST 部がベースライン値近くまで戻っていない
収縮期血圧低下があり,虚血を示す他のエビデン 場合は,モニタリングを運動後 6 ∼ 8 分間あるいは
スを伴っているとき それ以上続けるべきである。ピーク運動時に何ら異
中等度∼重度の狭心症 常が生じない場合でも,ECG 反応の異常が回復期
中枢神経系の症状(運動失調,めまい,失神寸前 にのみ生じることもあるので,運動後も注意が必要
の症状など) である。運動後の虚血をきたした心室における機械
血液灌流不良の徴候(チアノーゼまたは蒼白) 的機能障害と電気生理学的異常は,数分∼数時間持
運動時の心拍出量の正常な維持に支障をきたす持 続する可能性がある。血圧のモニタリングは,反応
続性心室頻拍(ventricular tachycardia, VT)または の異常,とくに低血圧が起こる可能性や回復期には
他の不整脈(2 度または 3 度房室ブロック) 不整脈も存在することがあるので回復期にも継続す
ECG または収縮期血圧のモニタリングの技術的 べきである。
困難
被験者による中止依頼 ペースメーカと植込み型除細動器の管理
運動負荷試験は植込まれたペースメーカの心拍応
相対的適応 答能の評価に用いることができ,労作能力を制約し
虚血の疑いのある患者における著明な ST 偏位[J うるトラッキング機能の異常を検出することがあ
点(QRS 群の終点)から 60 ∼ 80 ms 後で測定し る。速い HR のみがトリガーとなる植込み型除細動
た>2 mm の水平型または下降型の偏位] 器を使用している患者において,運動時に閾値の
作業負荷の増加にもかかわらず,>10 mmHg の HR に達する可能性がある場合,最大運動前に放電
収縮期血圧低下があり(持続的なベースライン以 機能を一時的に無効にすべきである。心室ペーシン
下の低下)
,虚血を示す他のエビデンスがない場 グ調律の存在下では ECG で虚血を評価できず,基
38
る。
“奔馬調”音,触知可能な前胸部膨隆,あるい ピースにより分時換気量(minute ventilation, V E),
4
39
40
図 4 運動時の ST 低下の変化の定義
標準試験の陽性反応は,1.0 mm(0.1 mV)以上の水平型または下降型 ST 低下であるが,1.0 mm 以
上の上降型 ST 低下の意味は明らかでない(正常と異常の鑑別に有用でない) 。ベースラインからの変
化が 1.0 mm 未満の ST 低下は,すべて陰性と定義する。
図中の波形は,Tavel 610)の文献より発行者の許可を得て改変(copyright © 2001, American College of Chest
Physicians)。ただし,分類と定義は,執筆グループの合意を表す。
41
42
43
44
ペースメーカ活動を刺激する可能性があり,これは 性期外収縮は,死亡の独立した予測マーカーとなる
自発放電を誘発し,自動能の増加につながる。 可能性を示唆している 144,145)。
運動は,安静時に存在する不整脈を抑制すること
がある。この現象は,運動誘発性の迷走神経抑制と 興奮伝導障害 興奮伝導の障害には,正常な興奮
交感神経刺激によって生じた洞性頻脈による異所性 発生の異常と心臓を伝わる伝導の異常が含まれる。
活動電位生成のオーバードライブサプレッションに
起因すると報告されている。運動誘発性の洞性頻脈 脚ブロックと束枝ブロック 心臓内伝導ブロック
は,Purkinje 組織の自動性に“優先する”ため,異 は運動前に存在することがあり,運動時に出現した
所性不整脈病巣の自動性を抑制する可能性がある。 り消失したりすることもある。運動時に出現する
HR 依存性の心室内ブロックは,のちの安静時の慢
上室性不整脈 洞性徐脈と移動性心房ペースメー 性的ブロックの出現に先行することが多い 146)。左脚
カの周期を伴った洞性不整脈は,運動早期と回復期 および右脚ブロックのどちらも運動時に起こること
のごく初期に比較的よく認められる。心房性の異所 が報告されている 146─148)。左脚ブロックが存在する
性収縮や“群発”心拍は,正常な心臓でも疾患のあ 場合,運動負荷 ECG から心筋虚血を診断すること
る心臓でも起こりうる。運動誘発性一過性心房細動 は,通常不可能である。左脚ブロックを呈する正常
および粗動は,運動負荷試験を受けた被験者の 1% 被験者では,安静時に認められる ST 部低下に加え
143)
未満に生じる 。これらの不整脈は,健常被験者や て著しい運動誘発性 ST 部低下が起こりうる。ま
リウマチ性心疾患,甲状腺機能亢進症,ウォルフ・ た,運動に対する ST 部の反応には心筋虚血の有無
パ ー キ ン ソ ン・ ホ ワ イ ト(Wolff-Parkinson-White, による明らかな差異はない。運動時に出現する左脚
WPW)症候群,あるいは心筋症の患者において運 ブロックは CAD と関連していることも,していな
動によって誘発される可能性があり,心室応答が速 いこともあるが 146,147),死亡および主要な心イベント
い場合は問題となることがある。運動時に発作性房 の高リスクであることを確実に予測している 149)。安
室接合部性頻拍が観察されることはきわめてまれで 静時に存在する心室内ブロックが運動時に消失する
ある。運動誘発性の上室性不整脈単独では,通常 ことはまれである 150)。
CAD と関連しておらず,むしろ高齢,肺疾患,最 既存の右脚ブロックでは 148,151─154),ST 低下がしば
近のアルコール摂取,または過剰なカフェイン摂取 しばベースラインで存在し,冠動脈閉塞がなくとも
と関連することが多い。 運動によって上昇する前胸部前壁誘導(V 1,V 2,
V 3)を除いて,運動負荷 ECG の解釈が妨げられる
心室性不整脈 異所性心室性心拍は,運動時に最 ことはない。これらの前胸部誘導のみに限定される
も頻繁にみられる不整脈である。その有病率は,年 ST 低下は心筋虚血においてはまれであり,残りの
齢と心臓の異常に直接関係している。一般に,異所 下側壁誘導には通常の診断基準を適用することがで
性心室性心拍は,突然死の家族歴,あるいは心筋 きる。基礎心疾患の有病率が高い集団においては,
症,弁膜症,または重度の心筋虚血の既往歴がある 運動時の右脚ブロックの出現は,左脚ブロックの発
被験者では問題となる。VT には非持続性の場合と 生よりも少ない。しかし,左脚ブロックは非虚血性
持続性の場合があり,運動誘発性 VT には,カテコ 心筋症患者ではよくみられる一方で,右脚ブロック
ラミン誘発性多形性 VT と催不整脈性右室異形成に は,原因となる基礎疾患が CAD の場合,とくに左
関連した右室流出路 VT が含まれる。運動時および 冠動脈前下行枝の閉塞性疾患と関連している 155)。こ
運動後の異所性心室起源パターンの診断的および予 の関連の強さについては最近の試験で疑問が投げか
後判定上の価値はさまざまである。最近の研究で けられており 156),十分選択されていない集団におい
は,運動時の頻繁なあるいは複合反復する心室性期 ては,右脚ブロックの心拍依存度が予測的価値に制
外収縮ならびにとくに運動後の回復期における心室 約を与える可能性がある。
45
46
計学的モデルの正確さを評価するために使われる。 にしても,検査の感度は疾患の程度によって変動す
グラフィカルツールとして,ROC プロットでは, ることになる。
さまざまな診断カットポイントの値に関する検査感
度を y 軸上に,1─検査特異度を x 軸上に表示する。 検査の特異度に影響する因子
曲線下面積は,その検査値範囲全域の診断の正確度 前述のように,精査バイアスでは,試験を受けた
を平均した要約尺度を提供する。曲線下面積は,完 “正常”集団のなかに,以前に検査結果が陽性で
璧に正確な場合では 1.0 に等しく,曲線が偶然に相 あったがカテーテル検査では疾患が検出されなかっ
当する場合は 0.5 である。したがって曲線下面積が た患者が含まれていると,検査の特異度が低下す
163)
1.0 に近いほど,検査は正確になる 。複数の試験 る 164)。検査の特異度は,偽陽性結果を示す可能性が
のメタアナリシスから,標準運動負荷試験における 高い被験者(脚ブロック,安静時 ST-T 波異常,ま
水平型または下降型 ST 低下のカットポイントは 0.1 たは左室肥大などの安静時 ECG 異常のある患者な
mV(1 mm)が,識別カットポイントとして選ば ど)を対象とする場合にも低下する可能性がある。
58)
れ,その感度は 68%,特異度は 77% であった 。
負荷試験の感度と特異度は,診断の“絶対的基準” 陽性および陰性適中率
として血管造影で診断された CAD を一般に使用す 適中率は検査の診断的価値を明らかにするのに役
ることにより制約されるため,ほとんどのデータ 立つ。検査の適中率は,検査されるグループ(ある
は,患者が運動負荷試験と心臓カテーテル検査の両 いは個人)における疾患の有病率によって大きく左
方を受けた臨床試験から得られている。冠動脈造影 右される。ベイズの定理では,“ある人が検査実施
検査に選ばれた患者は閉塞性 CAD を有する可能性 後に疾患をもっている確率は,検査前の疾患の確率
が高いので,これらのデータは,感度を高く見積も と検査が真の結果を出す確率との積である”として
り,特異度を低く見積もることになる精査バイアス いる。したがって,有病率の高い集団が検査された
を受けやすい。検査の診断精度は,十分なレベルの 場合,検査の陽性適中率は高くなり,陰性適中率は
負荷が達成されたかどうかの判定に用いられた基準 低くなる。反対に,有病率の低い集団では,陰性適
によっても影響される。最大予測 HR は 220−年齢 中率が高くなり,陽性適中率が低くなる。たとえ
(歳)で求めるが,これはしばしばその最大予測 ば,定型的な狭心症症状を有する高齢者における
HR の 85% の達成と定義される。診断目的でこの計 ST 低下を示す運動負荷 ECG 所見は真の陽性結果で
算を用いることには欠点があり,これを検査中止の ある可能性が最も高く,心臓の危険因子のない無症
9)
唯一の理由とすべきではない 。 候の若年被験者においては偽陽性結果である可能性
が最も高い。
検査の感度に影響する因子
一部の運動負荷試験における反応には正常被験者 疾患の検査前確率と検査後確率
と罹患被験者を区別する確立した値がないため,判 感度,特異度,および適中率間の相互関係を理解
別値の選択はさらに複雑になる。検査の感度と特異 することは,診断的運動負荷試験の利用を最適化す
度を決定する判別値をいったん選択したら,次は検 る助けとなる。いくつかの臨床的変数が,患者が運
査する集団を考えなければならない。対象集団が重 動負荷試験を受ける前の動脈硬化性 CAD の可能性
度の疾患を有する患者のほうへ傾くと,検査の感度 に影響を及ぼす。それらの変数は,年齢,性別,症
は高くなる。たとえば,運動負荷試験の感度は 3 枝 状,および従来の危険因子(高血圧,高脂血症,糖
病変患者のほうが 2 枝病変患者よりも高く,順に, 尿病など)の存在と程度である。個々の疾患の可能
2 枝病変患者のほうが 1 枝病変患者よりも高 性と運動負荷 ECG 上の結果の能力特性に基づい
90,91)
い 。したがって,いかなる対象集団において て,特定の個人における閉塞性 CAD の検査後確率
も,すべての患者が最終的に CAD の診断を受ける を求めることができる。
47
48
0.02%)と死亡(<0.002%)は,きわめてまれであ 核医学心筋灌流イメージング
167)
る 。副作用や合併症は,メトプロロールまたはエ 負荷心筋灌流イメージングは,単光子放出型コン
スモロールなどのアドレナリン作動性 β 受容体遮 ピュータ断層撮影法(single-photon emission comput-
断薬の静注により治療することができる。 ed tomography, SPECT)168)またはポジトロン放出型
断 層 撮 影 法(positron emission tomography, PET)170)
選択的 A2a アデノシン受容体作動薬とアデノシン により施行可能である。現在,SPECT は PET より
アデノシン,ジピリダモール,regadenoson など も広く普及しており,技術的にもそれほど難しくな
の血管拡張薬は,正常な心外膜冠動脈の拡張をもた い。SPECT の診断・予後判定上の価値は比較的確
168,169)*
らす 。代謝的に有意な狭窄のある冠動脈は, 立している。SPECT には,テクネチウム(Tc)-99m
自己調節により,冠血流を維持するため安静時に血 セスタミビ,Tc-99m テトロフォスミン,または比
管拡張予備能をすでに補填している。そのため,血 較的使用頻度は低いがタリウム -201 などの市販の
管拡張薬が投与された場合に,狭窄のある冠動脈は トレーサーを使用する。PET には,半減期がきわ
狭窄のない冠動脈ほど冠血流を増加させることがで めて短い心筋灌流イメージング薬を使用するが,そ
きない。血管拡張時の血液灌流の相対的な増加不足 れらのうち,ルビジウム(Rb)-82 は発生装置に
は,放射性核種を用いた心筋灌流イメージングによ よって作り出せるが,N-13 アンモニアにはサイク
り描出することができる。米国では血管拡張薬は負 ロトロン設備が必要である。SPECT と比較して,
荷心エコー検査にはあまり使われておらず,運動に PET は一般に空間および時間分解能が高く,有効
代わる手段としてドブタミンが利用されている。 放射線量が低く,心筋灌流の定量的測定が可能であ
血管拡張薬を用いた核医学灌流イメージングは, り,迅速に実施可能である。しかし,イメージング
とくに安静時 ECG 上で左脚ブロックを呈する患者 プロトコル(負荷時のみ),ガンマカメラ技術(ソ
168)
において CAD の診断を行う際に有用であるが , リッドステート・カドミウム・亜鉛・テルル化合物
これは,冠動脈が正常でも左脚ブロックを呈する患 検出器)
,および生データ処理アルゴリズム(反復
者では,運動時またはドブタミン負荷時にアーチ 再構築)の最近の発展により,SPECT イメージン
ファクトの灌流欠損が起こる可能性があることによ グの有効放射線量と所要時間は大幅に減少した。そ
る。血管拡張薬の副作用は,紅潮,胸痛,頭痛,悪 れでもなお,累積放射線量は灌流イメージングの連
心,呼吸困難,房室ブロックなどであり,これらは 続的実施における問題の 1 つである。
168)
アミノフィリンにより改善することができる 。ア SPECT と N-13 アンモニア PET は,運動負荷お
デノシンの半減期は短いため,副作用は通常,静注 よび薬物負荷を用いて実施できるが,Rb-82 PET イ
終了後すぐに消失する。アデノシンおよびジピリダ メージングは,トレーサーの半減期がきわめて短い
モールは,永久ペースメーカ植込みを受けていない ため,薬物負荷でしか行えない。放射性同位体を注
2 度または 3 度房室ブロックの患者,あるいは重度 射して,安静時ならびに方法に応じて運動後ただち
の喘息や慢性閉塞性肺疾患の患者では使用すべきで に,あるいは負荷薬の注入終了 1 ∼ 2 分前にスキャ
168)
ない 。カフェインはアデノシンと A2a 受容体作 ンを施行する。安静時および負荷時の心筋灌流画像
動薬の効果を遮断する作用があるため,患者は検査 を 3 つの異なる面の断層像として表示し,重複しな
前 24 時間はカフェインの摂取を控えるべきである。 いようすべての心筋区域を描出する 168)。運動時に顕
在化するが安静時には不顕化する灌流欠損は,心筋
虚血を示す。運動時に出現し,安静時にも持続する
灌流欠損は,心筋梗塞の既往を示唆する。
核医学心筋灌流イメージングにおける運動負荷
*168)
ACC/AHA/ASNC Guidelines for the Clinical Use of Cardiac Ra-
SPECT, 血 管 拡 張 薬 負 荷 SPECT, お よ び PET の
dionuclide Imaging―Executive Summary(Circulation Vol.108 No.11
’03 1404─18)は本シリーズ No.33, 2005 に収載 50% 以上の冠動脈狭窄検出についての感度は 87 ∼
49
50
査能力,および医療費償還政策に対して影響を及ぼ 動負荷試験の価値を最大限に利用するために考慮す
し,今後の研究を導くことが期待される。心臓の核 べき事項がある。広く用いられている Bruce プロト
医学負荷イメージングおよび負荷心エコー法の適正 コルは,中年男性向けの効率的な診断検査として開
実施基準についての詳細は,参考文献を参照された 発された。しかし,これは,不均一な集団,とくに
181,182)
い 。 高齢者,肥満者,および体力の減退した被験者で
は,運動耐容能を評価する最適なプロトコルではな
予後と診断 いかもしれない。Bruce プロトコルでは,次のス
運動負荷 ECG の予後的価値 テージへ移る際に有酸素活動が大きく増加するた
CAD の 診 断 に お け る 役 割 に 加 え て, 運 動 負 荷 め,これらの集団では生理学的消耗ではなく身体的
ECG 検査は,CAD の有無にかかわらず,予後を判 な制約のために,運動が早期に中止となることが多
定する標準的方法ともなる。実際に,CAD 診断に く,その結果,低運動能力に関する予後判定上の価
おける運動負荷試験への依存度は,代替の診断戦略 値が損なわれる。本ステートメントですでに述べた
(イメージング法,血清学的マーカーなど)により ように,ステージ間のエネルギー必要量の増加を少
次第に減ってきているが,予後評価のための運動負 なくしたさまざまな代替運動負荷試験プロトコルが
3,183)
荷 ECG 検査の適用は増加してきており ,治療方 利用可能であり,それらのほうが高齢者や体力の減
針決定のための補足的な見通しを提供する役目をし 退した被験者の運動耐容能を測定するのに適してい
3,184)
ばしば果たしている 。 ると考えられる。
これに関連して,運動耐容能に基づくルーチンの
運動耐容能の予後的価値 予後評価の制約としては,多くの負荷試験室は運動
運動耐容能,あるいは極度に疲労するまでに達成 を診断的イメージングのための刺激として第一に用
した仕事量は,生存の最も強力な予測因子である。 いていることが挙げられる。すなわち,患者は通
多数の研究が,予後の判定における運動耐容能検査 常,CAD を高感度に診断するのに十分とみなされ
71,74,185)
の有用性を具体的に証明してきた 。運動負荷 る閾値(最大予測 HR の 85%)に到達するまで運動
試験において,患者がより長く,より強い運動を行 するように奨励される。また,イメージング実施が
えるほど,CAD やその他の原因により早く死亡す 優先され,各患者が消耗するまでの運動目標は重視
る可能性は低くなる。 されないことが多い。そのうえ,最大 HR の 85%
しかしながら,最大運動耐容能の評価において が虚血の診断に十分な心仕事量の閾値であるという
は,いくつかの手技上の問題について言及しなけれ 前提には異論が出ている 186)。診断および予後判定の
ばならない。多くの研究者が CPX 検査を運動耐容 どちらにおいても,各患者の“真の”最大運動耐容
能の優れた評価手段であるとみなしているが,それ 能に合わせて調整した検査プロトコルのほうが有用
はガス交換の測定により最大酸素消費量,換気反 であるかもしれない。さらに,運動耐容能はしばし
応,および労作レベルについて詳細な情報が得られ ば持続時間のみが報告されており,運動強度が組み
19)
るからである 。しかし,CPX 検査は,呼気ガスの 込まれていないため,予後判定のツールとしての負
濃度と容積を測定するための特別な装置を必要とす 荷試験の価値を損ねている。推定 MET 値での運動
る。これに対して,標準的なトレッドミルあるいは の定量は,運動耐容能の報告においてより優れた形
自転車運動負荷試験は,広く利用可能であるし,比 式となる。また,同一の運動時間が有意に異なる予
較的安価である。CVD をすでに有している,ある 後判定上の価値をもつような種々のプロトコルや方
いはその疑いのある患者においては,標準プロトコ 法のあいだでの生理学的に意味のある比較が容易と
ルにおける運動持続時間が予後の強力な予測因子で なる。
あることを示す文献が豊富にある。それでもなお, 予後マーカーとしての運動耐容能の定量化におけ
運動耐容能と予後を評価するにあたって標準的な運 るもう 1 つの制約は,各個人の能力を年齢および性
51
52
行った患者に基づいていた。このプロトコルでは, 運動中および回復中の不整脈
HR 回復値 12 拍以下が最良のカットポイントとさ 運動時あるいは回復期の心室性期外収縮に関する
195)
れ ,それに伴う死亡率のハザード比は 4 倍増加し 文献報告は一貫性がない。運動負荷試験時の心室性
た。これに対して,いくつかのプロトコルでは運動 期外収縮は死亡リスクの増加を予測することを示す
後の静止立位,座位,あるいは仰臥位を採用してい 報告もあるが 145),そうでない報告もある。他の試験
る。異なるプロトコルが用いられると,HR 回復の では,回復期に心室性期外収縮の増加を示した被験
196)
カットポイントは高くなる傾向があったが ,HR 者における死亡リスクの増加が示された 200)。1 つの
減少速度の低下の意味は同様であった。 報告は心室性期外収縮の起源に具体的に焦点を合わ
せており,右脚ブロックの形態の期外収縮は,重度
運動中および回復中の血圧異常 の左室機能不全と関係することが多く,右室流出路
収縮期血圧が安静時血圧より低下すること,およ からの期外収縮あるいは他の比較的良性型のものと
び運動早期にまず増加した後 10 mmHg 以上低下す 比較して,死亡を予測する可能性が高いことを示し
ることが,運動誘発性低血圧の 2 つの一般的な定義 た 201)。
であり 197),とくに明らかな虚血や他の心疾患が判明
し て い る 場 合 は, 運 動 を 中 止 す る 目 安 と な り う 運動負荷イメージングの予後的価値
58)
る 。運動誘発性低血圧の病態生理学的機序は,大 運動負荷 ECG 検査の予後的価値に焦点を置いた
動脈流出路閉塞,重度の左室機能不全,および心筋 文献と並行して,運動時および薬物負荷試験時のイ
虚血である。運動誘発性低血圧は,有害事象のリス メージング変数の予後的価値に焦点を合わせた文献
ク増加のマーカーであることが一貫して示されてい も個別に発表されている。イメージングの利点は,
197)
る 。時折,臨床上有意な心疾患のない被験者が, 駆出率,虚血の程度と分布,冠動脈石灰化の存在,
脱水症,降圧治療の不適切な用量設定,または長時 および場合によっては狭窄の内在的構造も描出でき
間の激しい運動に関連して運動誘発性低血圧を呈す ることであり,これらはすべて,死亡と心血管イベ
ることがある。 ント両方の強力なリスク予測因子である。これらの
運動に対する過度の収縮期血圧応答は,男性では 指標は一般に,予後判定を目的とした標準的な運動
最大値≧210 mmHg,女性では≧190 mmHg と定義 負荷 ECG 検査に取って代わるものではなく,補完
197)
されている 。 運 動 時 に 安 静 時 と 比 較 し て 10 するものとして扱うことを推奨する 181)。運動耐容能
mmHg を超える拡張期血圧の上昇が認められるか, は SPECT イメージングが利用可能な場合でさえ
絶対値で 90 mmHg となった場合も異常と考えら も,転帰の重要な予測因子であることに変わりはな
れ,CAD の可能性が高いことを予測する可能性が く,10 METs 以上の運動耐容能のある被験者におい
198)
ある 。運動負荷試験中止の相対的適応として推奨 ては SPECT イメージングを追加しても,予後判定
されるのは,収縮期血圧>250 mmHg と拡張期血圧 にさらなる所見が加わることはほとんどない 202)。
>115 mmHg である 58)。運動に対する過度の収縮期 別の試験で,トレッドミル検査において運動能力が
血圧応答は,将来の高血圧,左室肥大,および心血 9 分間を超えた場合,すでに得られた良好なリスク
管イベントのリスク増加を示している可能性があ 判定に,心筋灌流所見がさらに加えるものはほとん
197)
る 。最大運動値に比較して,収縮期血圧が短時間 どなかった 203)。
で回復期に低下あるいは上昇しないことは,死亡の これに対して,十分な強度の運動を行えないため
リスク増加を予測することが明らかになってい 運動のみではリスクを判定できない患者において
199)
る 。 は,イメージング 204)に付加価値がある。高齢者,
体力の消耗した者,女性,あるいは過体重の者で
は,イメージングにより予後評価が向上する 205)。運
動能力が低い可能性がある状況で,予後判定のため
53
に運動負荷の代わりに薬物負荷を使用すべきタイミ 化が,追加した臨床的変数および運動変数の組み合
206─209)
ングを決めるのは,比較的困難である 。患者 わせにより,大いに強化された。
において閾値下の HR で制約症状として狭心症ある
いは狭心症と同等な症状が生じた場合に,運動負荷 運動負荷試験の追加的使用
を薬物負荷に切り替えるのは生理学的および診断的 運動処方
に混乱を招くように思われる。 運動負荷試験の適応はさまざまであるが,運動応
答の評価と機能的能力の測定は,運動プランあるい
予後予測のための運動負荷試験スコア は処方の作成にとくに有用である。さらに,さまざ
Duke トレッドミルスコアは,運動持続時間,ST まな強度レベルに対する運動応答を記録すること
低下,および負荷試験時の狭心症の存在と性質を加 で,運動負荷試験は,運動プログラミングの安全性
重した組み合わせに基づいた個々の死亡リスクを予 の評価に有用な,不適切あるいは異常な徴候・症状
測する一連のトレッドミル運動負荷検査所見とし の確認にも用いることができる。これらの所見によ
210)
て,1991 年 に 紹 介 さ れ た 。ST 低 下(mm) の 5 り,より高い運動強度あるいは運動プログラミング
倍および狭心症スコア(狭心症なし=0,制約とな の種類に対する制限あるいは禁忌を決定する。ただ
らない狭心症=1,試験の制約となる狭心症=2)の し,これは健常者集団ではなく,主として器質的心
4 倍を,標準 Bruce プロトコルにおける運動持続時 疾患を有する患者に当てはまる。運動負荷試験は,
4
54
投薬に対する反応 ましい。
運動に関連した症状や種々の望ましくない心肺応
答をコントロールするために処方された薬剤の管理 特定の集団と状況における運動負荷試験の解釈
も,運動負荷試験により評価することができる。狭 無症候の被験者
心症などの異常徴候・症状,高血圧,不整脈,なら CAD のリスクの低い無症候の被験者において,
びにこれらの出現にかかわるさまざまなレベルの運 運動負荷試験により虚血のスクリーニングをルーチ
動強度の判定を評価することができる。理想的に ンで行うことは推奨しない。無症候の被験者におけ
は,これらの運動時の指標で予測される改善は以下 る運動負荷試験に関する詳細なガイドラインは,
のものである:異常徴候・症状の消失,徴候・症状 ACCF/AHA の運動負荷試験ガイドライン 58)に示さ
出現までの時間の延長,あるいはこれらの徴候・症 れており,より最近のガイドラインおよびステート
状にかかわる亜最大運動強度の増加など。 メントにも提示されている 221,222)*。無症候の男性に
おいて低作業負荷で虚血性 ECG 反応が出現する
機能的障害の分類 と,狭心症,心筋梗塞,および突然死などの将来の
虚血性心疾患や心不全,心筋症,不整脈,先天性 イベントの相対リスクが高いことを示すエビデンス
心 疾 患, 末 梢 動 脈 疾 患(peripheral artery disease, があるが,これらの集団における心イベントの絶対
PAD)など,種々の心疾患および血管疾患を有する リスクは依然として低い 223)。結果として,低リスク
被験者の機能的障害の程度を評価するために,運動 集団における試験の適中率は低いはずである。ま
75)
負荷試験が用いられる 。有酸素能を作業負荷から た,無症候の被験者において,運動負荷 ECG 検査
推定した場合に 5 METs を達成できないこと,ま 所見のみに基づいたインターベンションが臨床転帰
た,有酸素能を CPX 検査により直接測定した場合 を改善できることを示すプロスペクティブ多施設共
に 15.0 mL/kg/ 分 に 届 か な い こ と が, 社 会 保 障 庁 同試験がないことも認識されている。
(Social Security Administration)により機能的障害の それでも,いくつかの運動負荷 ECG 検査所見は
基準として使用されている。 将来のリスクに関連しており,リスク管理において
潜在的重要性をもっている 16)。CAD の存在が判明
非心臓手術の周術期リスクの評価 している無症候の男性および女性患者において El-
ほとんどの歩行可能な患者では,ECG モニタリ lestad プロトコルを使用した試験 224)では,ECG に
ングを併用した運動負荷試験により,ECG と血行 おける虚血性変化と運動持続時間 5 分以下が,40
動態反応の変化から心筋虚血を検出し機能的能力を 歳超の男性においてその後のイベントと相関してい
推定することができる。非心臓手術中の周術期心血 たが,40 歳以下の男女においては運動負荷 ECG の
管リスクの評価における負荷試験の使用についての 有用性はかぎられていると結論された。臨床的に検
詳細が,“ACC/AHA 2007 Guidelines on Perioperative 出可能な CVD のない 6,100 例の無症候の男性被験
Cardiovascular Evaluation and Care for Noncardiac Sur- 者を対象とした研究において,運動負荷試験時の頻
gery(非心臓手術のための周術期心血管評価とケア 繁な心室性早期脱分極の発生は,心血管系の原因に
に関する 2007 年 ACC/AHA ガイドライン)”に提示 よる死亡の長期(25 年)リスク増加と関連するこ
220)
されている 。安静時 ECG に重要な異常(左脚ブ とが明らかになったが,短期リスクについては有意
ロック,“ストレイン”パターンを伴う左室肥大, な増加は報告されなかった 225)。Baltimore Longitudi-
ジギタリス効果など)がある患者では,運動負荷心 nal Study of Aging(加齢に関するボルチモア縦断研
臓イメージングを考慮すべきである。しかしなが 究)における健常人では,運動に対する虚血性 ST
ら,十分な運動を行えない患者において,とくに跛 部反応は,正常反応と比較して,将来の CAD リス
行による制限のある患者が末梢血管手術のために評 *221)
Exercise Training for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus(Circulation
価を受ける場合には,薬物負荷イメージング法が望 Vol.119 No.25 ’09 3244─62)は本シリーズ No.52, 2011 に収載
55
56
試験の診断能を低下させる因子と同じものによって えられることが多かったが,女性における重度の
制約を受ける。すなわち,イベント発生率が低いと CAD に関する標準的な ST 低下基準の感度と特異
陽性適中率はきわめて低く,偽陽性結果が多くな 度は,それぞれ 61% と 70% と推定されている 242)。
り,試験の特異度は不完全になる。これらの考慮事 これらの値は,男性の被験者を主とするメタアナリ
項に基づいて,本ステートメントは,無症候の低リ シスで認められた値(感度 68%,特異度 77%)96)と
スク若年被験者において運動時の心筋梗塞または突 比較すると低いものの似かよっており,男性よりも
然死の予測のためにルーチンで運動負荷試験を行う 女性のほうが ECG 波形の振幅が低いという理由に
ことを推奨しない。しかしながら,急性心筋梗塞あ より,少なくとも部分的には説明されると考えられ
るいは突然死のリスク予測とは関係なしに特定の無 る。運動耐容能は,強力な診断的および予後的マー
症候性の被験者においては,激しい運動プログラム カーである 75,211,243─246)。運動負荷試験とそれに続いて
を開始する前に運動負荷試験を行う根拠がある。運 血管造影を受けた 135 例の女性を対象とした試験で
動負荷試験の陽性結果は,とくに変時性応答不全, は,運動耐容能は CAD の存在を予測する最良の運
HR 回復の低下,労作能力の制限,または血圧異常 動負荷試験変数の 1 つであり,ST 部低下に追加す
などの機能検査所見が全死亡のリスク増加を示唆す ると,運動負荷試験の感度と特異度を改善した 246)。
る場合には,危険因子の管理の強化のために有用で 男女の両方を対象とした別の試験では,SPECT イ
あるかもしれない。さらに,閉塞性 CAD のリスク メ ー ジ ン グ に よ り 評 価 し た 虚 血 の 有 病 率 は,7
のより高い無症候性患者は,正常検査結果により安 METs 未満を達成した場合よりも 10 METs 以上を達
心が得られるという利益があると考えられ,そのこ 成した場合のほうが低かった(0.4% vs. 7.1%,p<
とでより激しい運動の処方と遵守が促進されるかも 0.001)247)。10 METs 超を達成し,運動に伴う ST 部
しれない。その他のリスクの高い無症候性患者にお 低下のない被験者では,有意な虚血が検出されな
いては,運動関連性の不整脈,異常血圧応答,また かった。
は ECG 上の虚血性変化により労作能力の制約に関 運動耐容能の予後的価値は,無症候性の女性 73,233)
する知見を得ることができる。既知の CAD の有無 と症候性の女性 248─250)のどちらについても示されて
にかかわらず,労作時に胸痛または呼吸困難を呈す いる。運動負荷試験に照会された女性のレトロスペ
る被験者においては,激しい運動または競争運動競 クティブ調査では,運動耐容能が 1 MET 増加する
技を始める前に,激しい運動がそのような患者に適 ごとに,全死亡率の 25% の低下が認められた 248)。
しているか評価し,トレーニングの限界を確立し, 無症候性の女性 5,721 例のコホートでは,運動耐容
および運動処方を作成する目的で,運動負荷試験を 能 は 死 亡 の 独 立 予 測 因 子 で も あ り, 達 成 さ れ る
行うことを推奨する。また,全米コレステロール教 MET が 1 増加するごとに,全死亡率が 17% 低下し
育 プ ロ グ ラ ム(National Cholesterol Education Pro- た 73)。この女性コホートにおいて,年齢別の予測運
gram)により CAD 相当と分類された高リスクの無 動耐容能は,男性よりも女性のほうが低かった 22)。
症候者が,激しい運動を開始する前にも運動負荷試 さらに,年齢別予測運動レベルの 85% 以上を達成
240)
験を推奨する 。これには,糖尿病,症候性頸動 した女性と比較すると,年齢別予測運動レベルを求
脈疾患,末梢血管疾患,Framingham 10 年リスクの めた無症候性の女性において,また症候性の女性コ
計 算 値(http://www.mdcalc.com/framingham-cardiac- ホートにおいて,年齢別予測運動耐容能の 85% が
risk-score)≧20%,が含まれる。 達成できないことは,全死亡と心臓死の少なくとも
2 倍のリスクと関連していた 22)。最近の研究は,女
女性における運動負荷 ECG 検査 性における心筋梗塞後の変時性応答不全の特別な予
運動負荷試験は,女性においても男性と同様の診 後的価値を示唆している 251)。
断的価値と予後的価値をもっている 241)。運動負荷試 Duke トレッドミルスコアを CAD の可能性が中
験における ST 部低下は,女性では精度が低いと考 等度の女性における CAD の診断と予後評価に使用
57
することについて,本リスク評価システムの冒頭に 小児集団
女性に関する記述が含まれており,その適用は十分 小児患者における運動負荷試験データの取得に
63)
に確立されている 。運動負荷試験と血管造影に照 は,特別な考慮と設備が必要である。適切なサイズ
会 さ れ た 一 連 の 症 候 性 の 女 性 976 例 に お い て, あるいは調節可能な機器(自転車エルゴメータ,血
CAD の存在は Duke トレッドミルスコアリスクと 圧カフ,マウスピースなど)を要する。プロトコル
相関していた。女性において,低,中等度,高リス の修飾も必要になることがある。自転車エルゴメー
ク の Duke ト レ ッ ド ミ ル ス コ ア は, そ れ ぞ れ タ検査を行う小児には,ランプ負荷の増加率を低く
19.1%,34.9%,89.2% の CAD( 内 腔 狭 窄>75%) することが必要である。高レベルの Bruce プロトコ
252)
と関連していた 。3 枝病変または左冠動脈主幹部 ルで要するスピードは,小児患者には速すぎる可能
CAD の頻度は,それぞれ 3.5%,12.4%,46% であっ 性がある。その一方,多くの比較的健常な青年期の
た。 予 後 に 関 し て は,Duke ト レ ッ ド ミ ル ス コ ア 被験者には,Bruce プロトコルの低ステージは退屈
は,症候性の女性における優れたツールであること で,有用な臨床情報をもたらす可能性は低い 260)。
が明らかになっている 63,210,252)。Duke トレッドミル 小児の被験者における運動負荷試験データの解釈
4
58
が,心臓病の小児患者では,交絡するベースライン の管理においても有用である。一般に,運動時の不
の ECG 異常(伝導障害や ST 異常など)および心 整脈の悪化あるいは増加は,重篤な有害事象のリス
筋虚血と無関係の運動誘発性 ST 変化がよくみられ ク増加と関連する。構造的に正常な心臓を有する患
る。冠動脈灌流障害の可能性がある病態(先天性冠 者では,運動時の期外収縮の抑制は,良好な予後と
動脈異常,心臓移植レシピエント,川崎病および他 関連する 269)。しかし,構造的異常を有する患者で
の後天性 CAD など)においてさえも,ベースライ は,運動時の期外収縮の消失または抑制には,予後
ンの異常および他の因子が,ECG モニタリングを 上の意義はほとんどない 270)。
併用した運動負荷試験の感度と特異度を損なう。
CAD をすでに有しているかあるいはその疑いがあ 高齢者
る患者では,負荷 ECG 検査または心筋灌流イメー 高齢者(年齢 65 歳以上で,動作,身体的健康,
ジングは検査の診断精度を高める可能性があ あるいは身体活動に影響する臨床的に有意な病態ま
263─265)
る 。 たは身体的制限がある者と定義)における運動負荷
しかし,胸痛は小児期にはよく起こり,心筋虚血 試験の最適利用には,有酸素運動に対する反応の加
に起因することはまれである。既往歴や理学的検査 齢に伴う変化と,CAD および併存疾患の有病率と
から虚血が原因と疑われる場合,最初に行うべき診 重症度の年齢差を考慮することが必要である 271─274)。
断検査は冠動脈のイメージング検査である。小児に 有酸素運動に対する生理学的反応には,たとえ
おける心筋虚血の診断精度は低いため,この状況に CVD が存在しなくとも加齢による重要な変化が起
4
59
がある。危険因子が共通しているため,PAD や慢 間を達成できるよう,仕事量が適度かつ均等に増加
性閉塞性肺疾患など,いくつかの疾患が CAD に併 するプロトコルを用いるべきである。これは高齢者
存することが多い。体重を支える関節の変形性関節 には達成が難しいことが多い。生理学的にも心理学
症は,高齢者に最もよくみられる慢性疾患である。 的にも,仕事量の増加をより少なく頻繁にするほう
285)
さらに,心の健康上の問題や認知機能障害 も, が,増加がより大きく頻度が少ないよりも望まし
高齢者が運動負荷試験を行う能力に影響する。その い。Naughton または Balke プロトコルのような,
うえ,激しい運動に不慣れであることや運動負荷試 一定のトレッドミル速度と小さな勾配変化を用いる
験機器に対する恐れから高齢者がおびえて,結果的 プロトコルは,より一般的な Bruce プロトコルで用
に亜最大検査結果になる場合がある。併存疾患の影 いられる 3 分ごとの速度と傾斜の同時増加と比較し
響が加わると,最終的にはわずか数分で症状による て得られるデータポイントが多く,歩調を変える必
制約で試験が中止となる可能性がある。 要性も少ない。同様に,自転車エルゴメータによる
運動負荷試験の診断的有用性に対する年齢の影響 運動負荷試験においても,低い抵抗から開始して,
を理解するには,加齢が CAD の特性にどのように 徐々に増加すべきである。一部の試験室は,トレッ
影響するかを認識することが必須である。大規模な ドミルまたは自転車エルゴメータにおいて,1 分以
剖検研究の結果,1 枝以上の冠動脈における直径> 下の間隔で,作業負荷の増加率がほとんどわからな
50% の狭窄と定義した場合の CAD の有病率は年齢 いくらいに少ないランププロトコルを用いている。
とともに急激に増加することが明らかになっ 運動負荷の方法や具体的なプロトコルに関係なく,
286─288)
た 。 さ ら に,Coronary Artery Surgery Study, 高齢者が検査機器に慣れ,1 ∼ 2 分のウォームアッ
Duke データバンク,およびその他の試験から得ら プを行えるように,十分な時間を設けるべきであ
れた冠動脈造影データから,CAD の重症度は加齢 る。これらの検査前処置が高齢者の不安を和らげる
289)
に伴って増加することが示された 。軽度の疾患よ 助けとなり,筋骨格系のけがや転倒のリスクを減ら
りも重度の CAD ほど,運動負荷あるいは薬物負荷 すことにつながる 45,75)。
試験によって容易に検出されるため,CAD 予測に CAD の有病率と重症度は加齢により増加するが,
関する運動負荷試験の感度が加齢に伴って上昇する 運動負荷試験は適切な手法とモニタリングをすれ
の は, 予 測 さ れ る こ と か も し れ な い。 運 動 負 荷 ば,若年集団と同様に高齢者においても安全な手段
ECG におけるこうした知見では,40 歳未満の患者 である。運動負荷試験室の全国調査により,心筋梗
における感度は 56% で,60 歳超の患者では 84% に 塞または心臓死の全般的リスクはきわめて低いこと
上昇するといったことが報告されてきている。しか が明らかになっており,年齢はこれらのイベントの
しながら,運動負荷 ECG の特異度は,40 歳未満の 危険因子とはされなかった。しかしながら,臨床的
患者において 84% であったが,60 歳超の患者では に無症候の被験者においても,加齢に伴い単発の期
290)
70% に低下した 。 外収縮と非持続性上室性および心室性不整脈の増加
最大有酸素運動負荷試験に用いられる最も一般的 が観察された 227,291)。監視する臨床医は,高齢者にお
な方法は,電動トレッドミルと電子式あるいは機械 ける心筋虚血あるいは心筋梗塞は,典型的な胸部不
式ブレーキの自転車エルゴメータである。トレッド 快感または胸痛よりもむしろ,著明な呼吸困難,極
ミルは,重度の平衡感覚障害あるいは歩行困難のな 度の疲労,または胸部圧迫感として出現することが
い高齢者に望ましい方法である。自転車エルゴメー あることを承知しているべきである。
タは歩行困難や平衡感覚障害,視力障害を有する高 運動負荷試験は,安定した CAD を有する患者お
齢患者に用いることができるが,多くの場合,局所 よび心筋梗塞の既往歴がある患者の経過を評価する
45)
の筋肉疲労により早期に試験中止となるだろう 。 有用なツールとして確立されている。非常にかぎら
トレッドミルまたは自転車エルゴメータのどちら れているものの,これまでに得られた高齢者のデー
を使用するかにかかわらず,8 ∼ 12 分の運動持続時 タは,この年齢群においても予後的価値が同様であ
60
61
て 306),有害な心血管転帰の強力な予測因子である。 危険因子と無関係に,全死亡率,心筋梗塞,および
冠動脈血行再建術のリスクが増加していた 309)。ト
肥満 レッドミル運動負荷に対する変時性応答の鈍化が,
CAD が存在するかまたはその疑いがある肥満患 明らかな心臓の自律神経障害のない糖尿病患者にも
者の臨床評価において,運動負荷試験は有用であ 観察されたが,この変時性障害は,神経障害患者の
る。しかしながら,この患者集団において運動時の ほうが大きかった 310)。HR 回復の低下も,糖尿病患
ピークの循環呼吸応答を正確に評価するのはしばし 者における有害な心血管転帰および全死亡と関連し
ば困難である。多くの肥満患者にとって,とくに病 ていた 311)。糖尿病を有さない被験者と同様に,糖尿
的肥満者にとって,これは歩行の不安定性,機能的 病患者においても運動耐容能と死亡率のあいだには
能力の低下,整形外科的疾患の合併,体重分布の不 逆相関があることを多数の試験が報告している。運
均一性と関連している。ある試験において,活動性 動負荷試験に照会された男性退役軍人の糖尿病患者
に関する検査前の問診票を基にして 25 例の肥満女 2,867 例を対象とした試験では,平均 7.8 年の追跡
2
性(平均 BMI 40 kg/m )が,種々のランププロトコ で,従来の危険因子とは無関係に,運動耐容能が 1
ル,Bruce プロトコル,または修正 Bruce プロトコ MET 低下するごとに死亡リスクが 18% 高くなっ
ルに割り付けられた。ランププロトコルを使用した た 312)。無症候の糖尿病患者の運動負荷試験あるいは
場合,疲労に至るまでの時間が長かったにもかかわ 薬物負荷心筋灌流イメージングによるスクリーニン
4
62
63
64
65
4 4 4
亜最大運動時に得られたデータ(換気閾値と V E/
4
66
67
VO 2 が 大 き く 損 な わ れ, 平 均 約 20 mL/kg/ 分 で あ HR 低下,および心室性・心房性不整脈に注意を集
365)
る 。 中する必要がある。狭心症,めまい,収縮期血圧の
心臓移植の後期合併症は,びまん性冠動脈同種移 低下,複合的な心室性不整脈,あるいは ST 低下>
植グラフト粥状硬化であるが,これは一般に心臓の 2 mm が生じたら,検査を中止する。血圧応答異常
除神経に起因して狭心痛を伴わない。心筋虚血の検 がある場合,大動脈弁狭窄症を有する被験者は,横
出を目的とした運動負荷 ECG の感度は,この集団 になると急性の左室容量負荷を生じる可能性がある
366)
でも非常に低い 。安静時の放射性核種シンチグラ ため,それを回避するために,低い運動ステージで
フィ,心エコー法,および他のイメージング法も比 2 分間のクールダウン歩行を行う。重度の無症候性
較的感度が低いが,薬物負荷試験を併用すると感度 大動脈狭窄症を有する患者 491 例を対象とした 7 件
366)
が向上する場合があるだろう 。 の試験の分析において,運動応答が正常であった被
験者では平均約 1 年間のフォローアップで突然死が
弁膜症 全くなかったが,異常応答を呈した被験者では 5%
弁膜症患者に関する臨床方針決定における運動負 に突然死が生じた 371)。
荷試験の有用性について,最近のガイドラインで詳
細に検討されている 58,367)。運動負荷試験は,弁膜症 大動脈弁逆流症
患者において,機能障害の定量,運動誘発性の症状 大動脈弁逆流症を有する被験者 372)は通常,大動
の再現,および内科的・外科的介入に対する反応の 脈弁狭窄症患者よりも長時間,正常な運動耐容能を
58,367,368)
評価のために用いられてきた 。運動負荷試験 維持する。運動時,拡張時間および逆流量の減少が
は,併存する CAD の同定のためにも使われてきた 前方への血液拍出を促進させる。心筋の動きが悪く
が,ベースラインの ECG 異常が多く,左室肥大に なると,ピーク HR は遅くなる傾向がみられ,駆出
より偽陽性反応(虚血によらない ST 低下)の発生 率と 1 回拍出量は減少する。無症候の重度の大動脈
率が高い。 弁逆流症患者において,運動負荷試験は機能的能力
68
と症状の反応を評価するのに有用な場合がある。低 は,結果として診断精度を低下させる可能性があ
作業負荷で明確な症状が誘発される場合は,手術の る。最大の HR・収縮期血圧積は,低下する可能性
373)
適応となる 。 が高い。検査前に,これらの薬剤の摂取時間と用量
を記録すべきである。検査前に β 遮断薬を中止す
僧帽弁狭窄症 べきかについては,前出のセクション“被験者の準
374)
僧帽弁狭窄症を有する被験者 では,運動時の 備”にて考察した。
HR は正常であるか,または過度に増加する場合が
ある。1 回拍出量が大きく増加することはないの ジギタリス
で,心拍出量の正常な増加が弱まり,心拍出量は最 ジギタリスを服用している被験者は,正常者でも
終的に運動時に減少する場合がある。これは運動誘 CAD 患者でも,運動時に ST 低下が誘発あるいは
発性の低血圧を伴うことが多い。Doppler 心エコー 増強される場合がある 376)。ジギタリス服用患者にお
法を併用した運動負荷試験は,以下の 2 つの状況で いてイメージング法非併用の運動負荷 ECG を推奨
有用である。被験者が安静時の肺動脈収縮期血圧< しないおもな理由は,偽陽性検査結果の頻度が高い
50 mmHg である中等度∼重度の僧帽弁狭窄症で無 ために特異度が低いからである。ジギタリス誘発性
症候の患者の場合と,軽度の僧帽弁狭窄症で症候性 の ST 変化では QT 間隔が正常であるが,虚血や他
の患者の場合である。どちらの状況においても,運 の I 群抗不整脈薬,電解質バランス異常,および他
動誘発による肺動脈収縮期血圧の増加>60 mmHg の医学的問題では QT 間隔の延長が認められる。一
が認められれば,(施行可能な場合)バルーン切開 部のジギタリス製剤では,中止後 2 週間は運動誘発
373)
術または僧帽弁置換術の適応となるだろう 。 性 ST 低下が持続することがある。
僧帽弁逆流症 利尿薬
375)
軽度∼中等度の僧帽弁逆流症 を有する被験者 大部分の利尿薬は HR と心機能にほとんど影響を
は,運動時に正常な心拍出量を維持する。血圧, 及ぼさないが,血漿量,末梢血管抵抗,および血圧
HR,および ECG 反応は,通常,正常である。重度 を低下させる。利尿薬は低カリウム血症を引き起こ
の僧帽弁逆流症の患者は,必ずしも心拍出量が低下 すことがあり,これは筋肉疲労,心室性期外収縮,
せず,運動耐容能も制限されない。しかしながら低 そしてまれに ST 低下につながることがある。
血圧反応が起こる場合があり,不整脈は頻繁に生じ
る。重度の僧帽弁逆流症があるが左室機能が維持さ ホルモン
れている無症候性患者において,Doppler 心エコー 月経周期
法を併用した運動負荷試験は,運動耐容能と運動が 月経周期が種々の生理学的指標に及ぼす影響に関
肺動脈圧に及ぼす影響を評価するのに妥当な方法で する研究は複雑であるが,その原因は,性ホルモン
ある。このような患者では,肺動脈収縮期血圧が運 の拍動性の分泌,月経周期のさまざまな時期間およ
動時に 60 mmHg を超える場合は,僧帽弁手術を考 び時期内での性ホルモンレベルの個人間および個人
373)
慮すべきである 。 内の大きな差,卵胞期の長さの変動,および(出血
パターンからはわからない可能性があるであろう)
運動負荷試験における薬剤と電解質 間欠的な無排卵周期である。入手可能な文献では,
β 遮断薬 月 経 周 期 の 各 時 期 間 で 運 動 時 の 筋 収 縮 特 性,
4
β 遮断薬を使用している狭心症患者は,薬剤が虚 VO 2 max,あるいは基質利用にはおそらく大きな差が
血をきたす心拍血圧積に達するのを予防すれば, ないことを示唆しているが,黄体期中の体温上昇
ST 低下と狭心症は軽くなり,より高い運動耐容能 は,高温環境での運動の制約となる場合があること
を達成できる可能性がある。したがって,β 遮断薬 が示唆されている 377)。
69
70
動に関する勧告は施行可能であり柔軟性をもつべき 中心血行動態変化
で,障壁の設定は避けるべき,などである。 運動トレーニングの結果として,最大心拍出量を
運動トレーニングに関する本セクションの目的 増加させることは可能であるが,同一の亜最大外部
は,長期的な身体活動の医学的利益について根拠と 作業負荷における心拍出量の値は変わらないか,あ
なるエビデンスを提供することである。ここでは, るいはわずかに減少する。この説明として,亜最大
運動は,ほとんど毎日服用すべき“錠剤”のよう HR の低下と同時に 1 回拍出量の増加が組み合わさ
に,予防的医学治療とみなすことができる。特定の るため(その場合,亜最大値が変化しないことが報
高リスク者は,有害転帰が増加しないよう運動プロ 告されている),および / または動静脈血酸素較差
グラムを開始する前に適切に評価しながらも,医学 が増加する結果,ある与えられた亜最大作業負荷に
的評価が運動の障壁とならないように,医学的モデ おける必要な心拍出量が少なくなるためである。
ルと運動の公衆衛生上の利益を融合するように気を
つける。とくに,確診された心疾患あるいは他の特 末梢筋肉,血管,および自律神経系の変化
定の慢性病態を有する患者は,臨床的な安定性を確 筋肉 運動トレーニング後の骨格筋の変化には,
実にし,活動に関する具体的な勧告を提供し,運動 ミトコンドリアの数と大きさの増大および酸化酵素
トレーニングによる安全な進歩を導くために,医学 活性の増加があり,これにより低い血中乳酸濃度で
的評価を受けるべきである。 もより高レベルの有酸素運動を維持できる 5)。さら
に,トレーニングを行った筋肉は亜最大運動時の脂
健常人における運動トレーニングへの反応 肪酸の利用が増加するので,持久力が増す。筋線維
4
71
は,血管内皮細胞と一酸化窒素依存性のようであ に対して良好な効果を及ぼすことにより,CAD の
る。すなわち,反復した一連の運動とともに動脈壁 リスク低下に対しても依存的に作用している 404)*。
応力が繰り返し増加することにより,動脈血管内皮 40 件以上の疫学研究と観察研究により,身体活
細胞における一酸化窒素合成酵素の発現と活性が増 動と CAD のリスクとの逆相関が主たる根拠として
392,393)
加する 。さらに,トレーニングは循環する血 実証されている。そのような研究からの報告は 100
管内皮前駆細胞数を増加させ,血管内皮細胞の再生 件を超え,そのうちの 75% 近い報告が身体活動ま
394,395)
と血管内皮機能の改善を導く 。これらの知見 たは適応能力と最初の致死性または非致死性心筋梗
が示すことは,高レベルの体力を維持することや運 塞に逆相関があることを支持している 405─407)。対象
動トレーニングを行うことは,血管機能の指標にお となった集団は,当初健康であった中高年の白人男
ける典型的な加齢による低下を予防,あるいは弱め 性が大部分で,女性を含む研究は 10 件未満であっ
396)
るということである 。 た。人種的および民族的に少数グループを含む研究
はほとんどなかった。メタアナリシスにより,これ
自律神経系 心臓の自律神経調節が運動適応によ らの研究に参加した座りがちな生活をしている被験
397)
り変化しうることは十分に確証されている 。安静 者 は, よ り 活 動 的 な 被 験 者 と 比 較 し て, 一 般 に
時と亜最大運動時の血中および尿中カテコラミン濃 CAD による死亡率が約 2 倍であることが明らかと
度は,トレーニング後により低下し,交感神経活動 なった 408,409)。運動負荷試験により心肺適応能力を
が低いことを反映している 398)。動脈圧受容体反射 評価した縦断的研究では,男女どちらにおいても,
(その求心性線維は頸動脈洞と大動脈弓を起源とす 適応能力と CAD のリスクおよび全死亡率とのあい
る)は,HR,1 回拍出量,および末梢抵抗を持続 だに逆相関があることがほぼ一様に示された 410)。適
的に調整することにより,血圧を 1 拍ごとに調節す 応能力が最低レベルの男女は,最高レベルの場合と
る。運動時,圧受容体反射機能は,身体活動中によ 比較して,CAD または CVD による死亡のリスクが
り高い血圧に達したあたりで作用するようにリセッ 5 倍以上高かった 411)。したがって,これらのデータ
トされる 399)。副交感神経緊張も増加する場合があ に基づいて,CAD イベントのリスクを確実に減少
り,交感神経調整とともに,トレーニング後にみら させるには,1 週間のうちほとんどの日(望ましく
れる HR の低下と動脈血圧の低下の説明となりうる。 は毎日)に最低 30 分間の中等度∼高度の身体活動
(連続的な,または 10 分ごとに増強する)が必要で
健康と疾患における定期的身体活動の予防的価 ある,という合意に至った 403,412)。これは,活発な
値 歩行を 1 日におよそ 1.5 マイル(約 2.4 km)行うの
公衆衛生学および医療当局は,余暇と仕事中にお に相当し,平均的体型の場合はエネルギー消費 150
け る 身 体 活 動 の 低 下 が, 致 死 性 お よ び 非 致 死 性 kcal/ 日である。たとえこれよりも少ない量,たと
CAD イベント,肥満および 2 型糖尿病,全死亡の えば 1 日に 15 分,あるいは 1 週間に 90 分でも身体
リスクを増加させるということで合意してい 活動を継続することは,身体活動を行わないことと
388─390,400,401)
る 。したがって,身体的不活動性は,治 比較すると,延命効果があることは注目すべきであ
療可能あるいは是正可能な冠動脈危険因子であると る 413)。
考えられる 400)。過去 10 年間における全国調査では 疫学研究と観察研究により,身体活動と心肺適応
一貫して,米国の 50% を超える成人において,健 能力が CAD の予防に及ぼした目にみえる効果を説
康上の利益を得るための身体活動が不十分であるこ 明するのに役立つ有望な生物学的機序が明らかと
402,403)
とが報告された 。 定 期 的 な 有 酸 素 運 動 は, なっている。これらの機序は,別稿にて詳細に検討
CAD 発症のリスク低下と独立して関連しており,
*404)
Exercise and Physical Activity in the Prevention and Treatment of
また,高血圧,脂質異常症,2 型糖尿病,インスリ
Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease(Circulation Vol.107 No.24 ’03
ン抵抗性,および血栓形成因子など,他の危険因子 3109─16)は本シリーズ No.29, 2004 に収載
72
73
74
75
運動トレーニングと血管機能 運動トレーニングと自律神経機能
多数の観察研究と介入研究により,有酸素運動ト 交感神経活動と副交感神経活動のバランスは,心
レーニングが動脈機能に及ぼす有益な作用が示され 血管活動を調節する。交感神経活動の増加は,とく
ている。健常な成人においても,加齢に伴って血管 に心疾患が判明している患者において,心イベント
460) 461)
内膜─中膜の厚さ と大きな動脈の硬さ が増し, のリスク増加と関連している。心拍変動(heart rate
462)
血管内皮依存性の動脈拡張能が低下する 。持久力 variability, HRV)の減少が,心筋梗塞後や心不全な
を鍛えた人では,同年代の座りがちな人よりも,頸 どのいくつかの心臓の病態と,糖尿病性神経障害に
動脈の内膜─中膜の厚さと大きな動脈の硬さの値が おいて報告されている 467)。
低く,血管内皮依存性血管拡張能が大きい。たとえ 健常男性を対象として HRV の指標を用いた横断
ば,年齢 55 ∼ 75 歳の定期的にロードレースを行う 的研究では,身体を鍛えて壮健な人のほうがそうで
男性は,トレーニングをしていない同年代の男性と ない人よりも副交感神経活動が高いことが報告され
比較して,大動脈─大腿動脈脈波伝播速度と頸動脈 た 468)。運動は,ヒトにおいて,心臓の電気的安定
波増大係数がおよそ 30% 低かった 461)。すでに言及 性を強化する有効な非薬理学的方法であり,抗不整
したように,有酸素運動インターベンションは,血 脈 的 介 入 治 療 の 役 割 を 果 た す こ とが示されてい
圧を有意に低下させる。この低下は一般に,高血圧 る 469)。運動トレーニングによる HRV と圧受容体反
者のほうが大きい 437)。成人における持久性トレーニ 射感受性の指標の改善が,心筋梗塞後の患者で明ら
ングは,導管動脈のリモデリングを誘導し,壁厚の かになっている 470,471)。慢性心不全患者において,運
減少と内径の増加をもたらす 463)。 動トレーニングが HRV を改善することも明らかで
ある 472)。慢性心不全患者における運動トレーニング
運動トレーニングと血液凝固 の有益な作用の一部には,中枢性の交感神経活性の
ほとんどの凝固因子の血漿中濃度は座りがちの生 有意な低下を介する 473)。
活をしている人では年齢とともに上昇するが,よく
身体を動かす人ではこの上昇が弱まる。有酸素運動 運動トレーニングの抗虚血作用
トレーニングを 16 週間行うと,凝固因子濃度は一 最大運動時の HR と血圧は通常,有酸素トレーニ
般的に低下したが,たった 2 週間の“脱トレーニン ングで有意に変化しない。一定の亜最大作業量にお
464)
グ”でこれらの有益な変化は消失した 。座りが ける HR と収縮期血圧は,すでに言及したようにト
ちで過体重の 50 ∼ 75 歳の成人における持久性ト レーニングによって低下する。心拍血圧積は心筋酸
レーニングの良好な作用は,組織プラスミノーゲン 素需要の主要な決定因子であることから,トレーニ
活性化因子抗原濃度とプラスミノーゲン活性化因子 ングがもたらす心拍血圧積の低下は酸素需要を大き
インヒビター 1 濃度の低下である 465)
。PAD による く減らし,β 遮断薬と非ジヒドロピリジン系カルシ
跛行がある男性は,プラスミノーゲン活性化因子イ ウムチャネル遮断薬の抗虚血作用に類似した作用が
ンヒビター 1 のベースライン濃度が高かったが,6 得られる。さらに,運動トレーニングは動脈におけ
カ月のトレッドミル運動トレーニング後は 23% 低 る一酸化窒素産生を増強し,それによって運動によ
下していた。この期間に,組織プラスミノーゲン活 る冠動脈拡張と心筋血流を増強する 474)。心筋酸素需
性化因子の活性は 28% 増加した 466)。このように, 要と供給に対するこれらの良好な効果に一致して,
十分なエビデンスにより,有酸素運動トレーニング 心筋梗塞後の患者 475,476)および慢性 CAD 患者 477)に
は,とくに CVD を有する高齢成人において,線溶 おいて,トレーニングにより心筋灌流の改善と虚血
凝固因子に有益な作用を及ぼすことが示されてい の減少が誘導されることが明らかにされている。ト
る。 レーニングが心筋灌流に及ぼすこれらの有益な作用
は,梗塞領域と離れた領域の両方に観察された。
76
運動トレーニングの抗不整脈作用 健常成人のための運動処方
CAD の存在下において,個々の激しい運動を行っ 運動前スクリーニング
ている最中に生じる心室細動または心臓突然死のリ 運動プログラムの開始前に正式な医学的スクリー
スクは,よく実証されている。ただし,スクリーニ ニングを行う必要性は,運動の強度,対象者の年齢
234)
ング後の患者のリスクはきわめて低い 。長期的状 と心臓危険因子の状態,および既存の CVD の有無
況では,運動トレーニングが誘導する心筋の酸素供 など,いくつかの因子によって左右される。低∼中
給と需要のバランスの改善と,付随する交感神経緊 等度のウォーキングプログラムあるいはそれに相当
張とカテコラミン放出の低下は,心室細動のリスク する中等度の運動を開始しようとする健常成人は,
を低下することが想定される。運動トレーニングが 正式な医学的スクリーニングを受ける必要はない。
心臓の変動性に及ぼす作用は,交感神経緊張の低下 実際に,ほとんどの人は,そもそもウォーキングプ
478,479)
と副交感神経緊張の増加を一部反映する 。これ ログラムを日常生活活動の一部として行っており,
により,既知の CAD またはその疑いがあるか,あ すでに忍容性も得られている。幅広い健常成人集団
るいは CAD のリスクが高い場合,よく身体を動か においてウォーキング(または同等の)運動の開始
す人は心臓突然死の発生率が低いことを説明できる 前に医学的評価と負荷試験を要求することの有用性
415,480 ─482)
であろう 。心筋梗塞後の動物実験では,運 は証明されておらず,健康的な運動を行うことに対
動トレーニング後の心室細動の誘発閾値の上昇が示 する障壁となる可能性がある 486)。それよりもむし
されている 483)。 ろ,運動で胸痛,呼吸困難,関節痛,あるいは頭の
ふらつきが生じたら,医師の診察を受けるべきだと
加齢に伴う機能障害の予防 いう警告により後退させる。
定期的運動は,移動性を維持する重要な役目を果
たすので,運動トレーニングは,加齢に伴う機能障 医学的評価と運動処方
害を減少させるかあるいは予防する論理的介入治療 ウォーキング(または同等の活動)よりも激しい
である。運動介入治療の系統的レビューにおいて, 身体活動を計画している者で,とくに運動による有
持久力,筋力,柔軟性,およびバランストレーニン 害事象のリスクが高い年齢・心臓危険因子に分類さ
グを含む複数の構成要素をもった運動プログラムを れる場合には,医学的評価を考慮すべきである。
提供した試験では,一般に機能障害の有意な減少が
報告された 484)。より長期の介入治療とフォローアッ 既知の CVD あるいはその疑いがない年齢 45 歳
プ,および機能がより制限されている被験者の介入 未満の男性あるいは 55 歳未満の女性では,若年
484)
治療では,利益の可能性が大きくなった 。下肢 での突然死の家族歴あるいはコントロール不良の
の筋力トレーニングに限定した介入治療では,利益 心臓危険因子などの酌量すべき状況がないかぎ
はほとんどないか,全くなかった。現在進行中の多 り,心血管系の精密検査は一般に必要ない。
施 設 共 同 試 験 で あ る LIFE(Lifestyle Interventions 糖尿病または他の CVD 危険因子 2 つを有する 45
and Independence for Elders)試験は,この課題に関 歳超の男性および 55 歳超の女性が激しい運動を
して追加の情報を提供するだろう。LIFE パイロッ 開始する場合は,医学的評価を勧める。これには
ト試験では,機能障害のリスクがある 424 例の被験 既往歴聴取,理学的検査,危険因子のプロフィー
者(70 ∼ 89 歳)における包括的な身体活動介入治 ルを含めるべきである。ほとんどの場合は,負荷
療の結果,身体パフォーマンスの指標が改善し, ECG 検査を推奨する。(“運動負荷試験:激しい
(400 m 歩行を完了できないことに反映される)重 運動への参加前”参照)
485)
大な移動能障害の発生率が低下した 。 既往歴聴取には以下の項目を含むべきである:
CAD または心不全の家族歴;弁膜症の有無,安
定または不安定狭心症,先天性心疾患,脳卒中,
77
イタルサインと,異常心音または心雑音の評価を含
む心血管系および呼吸器系の検査;喘鳴または他の Health/Fitness Facilities(健康 / フィットネス施設に
異常音の有無;BMI 高値の有無;高血圧の有無; おける心血管スクリーニング,スタッフ配置,およ
神経筋疾患の有無;関節腫脹または他の整形外科的 び緊急時対策に関する勧告)”の記載に従うべきで
問題。危険因子プロフィールには,脂質異常症,貧 ある 239)。これには,身体活動準備質問票(Physical
血,糖尿病,あるいは前糖尿病状態の有無を判定す Activity Readiness Questionnaire, PAR-Q) あ る い は
るための血液検査を含めるべきである。また,包括 AHA/ACSM 参加前スクリーニング質問票(AHA/
的な心血管リスクを判定するために Framingham リ ACSM Pre-participation Screening Questionnaire)など
スクスコアやその他の危険因子の判定手段を用いる のスクリーニング質問票の使用が含まれている。こ
べきである。 れにより,適応がある場合は,医療従事者による医
学的評価への照会が促される。
激しい運動を計画している場合は,選択したうえ 一般集団における激しい運動時の突然の心停止の
で運動負荷試験を推奨する。
(“運動負荷試験:激 リスクは,マラソンでは参加者 8 万∼ 159,000 人中
しい運動への参加前”参照) お お よ そ 1 人 487─489), ト ラ イ ア ス ロ ン で は 参 加 者
67,000 人中 1 人と推定されており,トライアスロン
検査結果が正常ならば,心血管系の点からはそれ による死亡例はほとんどすべて水泳中に起こる 490)。
以上の制限は必要ない。検査結果が異常ならば,症
状と推定されるリスクに応じてさらに精密検査をす 心血管リスクの分類
べきである。無症候者がトレーニングを始める前に 個人は,年齢と心臓危険因子の特徴に基づくリス
運動負荷試験を受けない場合は,表 3 に示す運動 クによって分類することができる。この分類法の詳
ガイドラインに従う必要がある。既往歴聴取や理学 細を表 3 ∼ 6 に示すが,これらは,その後の監視の
的検査で重大な CVD が示された場合,その被験者 必要性と必要なモニタリングレベルの判定に使用さ
については,CAD 患者において運動が治療と二次 れている。
予防の重要な要素であることに留意しつつ,
“CVD
患者における評価と運動処方”のセクションに詳述 運動トレーニング法
した情報を用いて治療すべきである。 運動トレーニングセッションの要素
健康 / フィットネス施設の環境においては,スク 運動トレーニングセッションでは通常,持久性あ
リーニング法は,
“Recommendations for Cardiovascu- るいは抵抗性トレーニングのいずれにおいても,よ
lar Screening, Staffing, and Emergency Policies at り強くかつ長いコンディショニング段階の前後に短
78
表 6 運動トレーニングのためのリスク分類:クラス D:運動制
時間のウォームアップとクールダウン(低強度の有 限のある不安定疾患*
酸 素・ ス ト レ ッ チ ン グ 動 作 ) を 入 れ る( 表
この分類は以下のいずれかをもつ対象者が含まれる:
7 491,491a))。持久性トレーニングは抵抗性トレーニン 1.不安定虚血
2.重度および症候性の弁狭窄または逆流
グと交互に日替わりで行うことが多いが,十分に労
3.先天性心疾患。先天性心疾患患者において運動によるコンディ
作を忍容できるほど活発で健常な患者では,両方の ショニングを禁じるリスク基準は,第 27 回ベセスダ会議の勧
79
表 7 持久性および抵抗性トレーニングの一般ガイドライン に,能力を徐々に増強するという目標に基づいてい
持久性トレーニング る。柔軟性運動の場合,筋肉を正常な安静時の長さ
頻度 ≧5 日 / 週
4 を超えて,ただし痛みや傷害を起こさない点まで伸
強度 最 大 予 測 HR* の 55∼90% ま た は VO 2 max
または HR 予備能の 40∼80%,RPE12∼16 ばす必要がある。ACSM は,ストレッチング自体
様式 ウォーキング,トレッドミル,サイクリン
は約 15 秒間続け,各運動を 4 回以上反復すること
グなど
持続時間 30∼60 分 を推奨している 45)。柔軟性トレーニングは,それか
抵抗性トレーニング らさらにストレッチの程度,ならびに持続時間と回
頻度 2∼3 日 / 週
強度 1-RM の 50∼80% ま た は RPE 12∼16,1 数を増加して,さらに ROM の改善を目指す。一般
回の運動につき 1 セット 8∼15 回の反復を 的なウォームアップで伸ばすべき筋肉の準備運動を
1∼3 セット
様式 下肢:レ ッ グ エ ク ス テ ン シ ョ ン, レ ッ グ
先にしておくと,柔軟性トレーニングは最も良好な
カール,レッグプレス 成果が得られる。したがって,運動トレーニングの
上肢:ベ ン チ プ レ ス, ラ テ ラ ル プ ル ダ ウ
クールダウン期の一部として柔軟性トレーニングを
ン,二頭筋カール,三頭筋伸展
持続時間 30∼45 分 組み入れることが一般的である。
*
HR 範囲の勧告は,対象者が β アドレナリン遮断薬を服用していない 伝統的に,ストレッチング法は,バリスティック
と仮定している。
ストレッチング,静的ストレッチング,および固有
Shephard と Balady 491a)より改変。© 1999 American Heart Associa-
tion, Inc. 受容性神経筋促通法ストレッチングの 3 種の手法間
で異なる。バリスティックストレッチングは,筋肉
ウォームアップとクールダウン の伸展範囲を延ばすために反動を付ける動作を必要
ウォームアップ期とクールダウン期の両方とも, とする一方,静的ストレッチングはゆっくりと持続
通常 5 ∼ 10 分の低強度の有酸素運動を行う必要が 的な筋肉の伸長を行う。固有受容性神経筋促通法で
ある。ウォームアップ法は,より強度の高いコン は,体の部位は ROM の端まで移動するが,助手に
ディショニング刺激の前に血管拡張と局所の筋血流 よってさらに動かされる。固有受容性神経筋促通法
の増加を促す。この運動は,関節可動域(range of は,スポーツおよびリハビリテーションプログラム
motion, ROM)と柔軟性も増加させる。コンディ のなかで最もよくみられる。バリスティック運動と
ショニング期のあとのクールダウンは運動終了への 緩徐な静的運動のほうが広く行われているが,それ
緩やかな移行を促し,血管拡張,カテコラミン値の はとくにトレーニング効果を得るために助手を必要
上昇,潜在的な虚血の影響を調節する。クールダウ としないからである。バリスティック運動と緩徐な
ンは,HR と血圧が正常レベルに移行するのを促 静的運動のどちらも ROM の増加を達成するための
し,低血圧と心室性期外収縮の可能性を低下させ よく確立した方法であるが,緩徐なストレッチング
る。体温,乳酸値,およびアドレナリン値は,徐々 のほうが傷害や痛みを生じる可能性が低い 492)。
に回復してベースライン値に戻る。
持久性運動
柔軟性運動 持久性運動は,ウォーキング,ジョギング,サイ
柔軟性トレーニングは,時とともに関節 ROM を クリング,ボート漕ぎなどの有酸素活動にみられる
保護または次第に増加させる。柔軟性トレーニング 大きな筋肉群のリズミカルな動きである(表 7)。
の目標は,通常,各患者の能力と必要性に合わせて 持久性トレーニングでは,柔軟性トレーニングに関
調整されるが,調和のとれたプログラムは一般的 連してすでに述べたものと同じ漸増的な負荷の原則
に,主要な各筋肉群(腰背部,臀部,大腿後部,下 を用いる。最重要の目標は,運動耐容能の増加とそ
肢など)に関して少なくとも 1 種類のストレッチン れに伴う健康上の利益を助長するような漸進性の生
グ運動を組み入れている。持久性および抵抗性ト 理学的適応を誘導することである。持久性トレーニ
レーニングと同様に,柔軟性トレーニングも一般 ングでは,強度,持続時間,頻度,進行,および様
80
81
明らかになっている。ウォーキングは容易に行え, 抵抗性トレーニング
個人別の処方計画に合わせたさまざまな強度が提供 抵抗性運動トレーニングは,抵抗に対する低∼中
でき,調節も容易なため,しばしば第一選択の活動 等度の反復動作をする運動から成るが,健常成人お
とみなされる。2 mph でのゆっくりしたウォーキン よ び( 適 切 な ス ク リ ー ニ ン グ と 注 意 を 払 っ た )
グは約 2 METs であり,適応能力が低い対象者に CVD 患者の両方に対して,包括的な運動プログラ
とって十分なトレーニングになる。持続時間の長い ムの主要な構成要素として受け入れられてきた 491)。
活発な歩行トレーニングプログラム(3 ∼ 4 mph) CVD の危険因子の是正における抵抗性運動の効果
は,体重と脂肪蓄積を減らしながら運動耐容能を増 は従来の持久性運動よりも少ないが,筋力が増加す
加させる高エネルギー活動強度を提供する。個人の ることと筋肉量を増加させる見込みがあることか
適応能力のレベルが向上するにつれて,運動トレー ら,個人の身体を動かす能力を高め,基礎代謝率を
ニングの強度も上げる必要がある。したがって,運 上昇させる可能性がある。さらに,高齢者では,日
動をする人と運動の監視者の両方が個人の最新の適 常生活の活動を行う能力を改善し,転倒のリスクを
応能力の状態に基づいて定期的に運動処方を再検討 減少させると思われる(表 7 491,491a))
。抵抗性トレー
することを促す手段を組み込むことは重要である。 ニングを開始する前に,心血管系の制限および既存
平地であるいはトレッドミルで行うジョギングま の整形外科的問題や筋骨格系の問題について入念な
たは活発なウォーキングは,以前から適切なレベル スクリーニングを行うべきである。さらに,トレー
のエネルギー消費量を達成し,心血管系に対する利 ニング参加者には,抵抗性トレーニングプログラム
益を得るための第一の運動方法とみなされてきた。 の具体的な内容(適切な手技,運動の回数と種類,
しかしながら,望ましいレベルのエネルギー消費量 安全対策など)に関して,注意深い勧告を提供すべ
と心血管系の利益は,サイクリング,エアロビッ きである。
ク・ダンス,エリプティカル・トレーニング,およ 抵抗性トレーニングに関する詳細なガイドライン
び水中の運動様式(水中エアロビクス,または腰ま は,参考文献を参照されたい 45,491,497)。漸進性の抵抗
での深さの水中ウォーキング)など,他の運動方法 性トレーニングプログラムの概略を表 7 に示す。
でも達成可能である。長期的コンプライアンスを促 主要筋肉群を鍛える 8 ∼ 10 種の異なる運動(チェ
進するために,対象者が楽しめ,楽に忍容できる運 ストプレス,ショルダープレス,三頭筋伸展,二頭
動を処方することが,とくに重要である。 筋カール,プルダウン,腰背部伸展,腹部クラン
有酸素インターバルトレーニング(aerobic inter- チ / カールアップ,大腿四頭筋伸展またはレッグプ
val training, AIT)は,漸進性の持続的トレーニング レス,およびレッグカール / カーフレイズ)を 1
方法である従来の標準法と対比をなす持久性トレー セットにまとめたプログラムを毎週 2 ∼ 3 日行う
ニング法である。インターバルトレーニングは,高 と,良好な適応と改善(あるいはそれらの維持)が
い強度の運動期と比較的低い強度の回復期を交互に 得られる。トレーニングの強度(トレーニングの負
繰り返す仕組みになっている。AIT は運動パフォー 荷)は,最大負荷(1-repetition maximum, 1-RM)に
マンスの向上が漸進性の持続的トレーニングよりも 対応して処方される。1-RM は個人が適切な手技を
早く達成されたことから,元々はおもに運動選手に 用いて特定の運動で 1 回のみ上げられる最大重量あ
より用いられていた。しかし,1990 年代から,AIT るいは負荷である。筋力と持久性の両方をバランス
は心疾患の成人患者を含む他の集団に適用されるこ よく増加させるには,50 歳未満∼ 60 歳の健常な参
とが多くなった。AIT については,後のセクション 加者に対しては(1-RM の 60 ∼ 80% で)8 ∼ 12 回
495,496)
でさらに考察する (
“適応能力の最大化”参照)。 の範囲での反復を推奨する。心疾患患者および高齢
者に対しては,より相対的に低い抵抗(1-RM の
40 ∼ 60%)の 10 ∼ 15 回の範囲での反復を推奨す
る。高齢者あるいは衰弱した者において,より低い
82
83
い形式の運動トレーニングが有益であるかもしれな ておらず,心臓リハビリテーションプログラムにも
い。最近心臓手術を受けた CAD 患者においては, 照会されていない患者に対しては,胸痛や息切れな
治療の妨げになるであろう身体活動を行わないこと どの症状を医師に報告するように指示して,低強度
を確実にするために,創感染と胸骨の不安定性につ の運動トレーニングを開始するよう奨励すべきであ
いて検査すべきである。これらの患者については, る。
術後の上肢の抵抗性トレーニングの開始は延期すべ
き(4 ∼ 6 週間)というのが広く受け入れられた見 CVD を有する患者における運動トレーニングの
解である。同様に,運動トレーニングによって悪化 リスク
しうる偽性動脈瘤や瘻孔を除外するために,カテー 既存の CAD を有する患者が激しい運動トレーニ
テルアクセス部位の保全についても検査する。跛行 ング中に心イベントを起こすリスクは,監視下の心
患者では,安静時疼痛,足の皮膚潰瘍,あるいは極 臓リハビリテーションプログラムから推定すること
度の運動耐容能の制約が認められると,運動トレー ができる。この患者集団を対象とした試験では,心
ニングのみでは改善しない可能性が高いため,医師 臓リハビリテーションの 115,000 患者時間当たり約
は患者にこれらの症状がないことを確認する必要が 1 例の心停止,参加者の 75 万患者時間当たり 1 例
ある。末梢血管疾患患者における理学的検査では, の死亡があることが示されている 421,508)。心停止の発
運動で悪化する皮膚病変や極度の循環障害に起因す 生率が死亡よりも 6 倍高いという観察結果は,監視
る皮膚病変が存在しないことを確認する。このよう 下の心臓リハビリテーション中の蘇生術成功を示し
な下肢と足の検査は,CVD と糖尿病を有する患者 ているが,非監視下の運動では死亡率がもっと高く
では,とくに重要である。 なることも示唆している。
監視下の運動トレーニング中の心血管イベントは
運動負荷試験の役割 まれであるため,どの CVD 患者が運動による心イ
CVD 患者は一般に,心臓リハビリテーションに ベントを起こすかに関する確立した予測因子は存在
おける運動プログラムを開始する前に症候限界性運 しない。心疾患患者の予後は一般に,疾患の重症
動負荷試験を受けて症状を評価することにより,ま 度,左室機能の低下,誘発しうる虚血,および不整
た,運動トレーニングの禁忌あるいは別の治療的ア 脈の存在とともに悪化する 514)。結果として,左室駆
プローチを必要とする重度の ECG 上の心筋虚血あ 出率 50% 未満,運動により誘発される心筋虚血ま
るいは不整脈について観察することにより,ベース たは連続性の心室性不整脈,あるいは血行力学的に
ラインの適応能力レベルを確証し,最大 HR を測定 有意な冠動脈狭窄を有する患者は,リスクが増加す
し,運動の安全性の確認を行うべきである。しか る可能性が高く,監視下の運動トレーニングを考慮
し,これは絶対条件ではなく,多くのプログラムが すべきである。
運動処方計画の開始を促進するために,臨床的に安
定している CVD を有する患者にはこのような検査 運動トレーニングの監視とモニタリング
を求めていない。このような患者では,運動負荷試 運動トレーニングの監視レベルとモニタリング
験の代わりとして心臓リハビリテーションプログラ は,患者のタイプ,スタッフ,施設,および資源に
ムに照会されることが多く,初回の運動セッション 基づいて考えるべきである。心臓リハビリテーショ
は,患者の症状と運動パフォーマンスのベースライ ンの管理とプログラム作成については,米国心血
ンを評価するために行われる。運動トレーニング前 管・呼吸リハビリテーション協会(American Asso-
の運動負荷試験は,診断を意図していないため,実 ciation of Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Rehabilitation,
際の運動トレーニングセッションを模するために通 AACVPR)が発行した“Guidelines for Cardiac Reha-
常の薬物療法を続けながら検査をすべきである。急 bilitation and Secondary Prevention Programs(心臓リ
性冠症候群後あるいは手術後に運動負荷試験を受け ハビリテーションと二次予防プログラムに関するガ
84
85
86
87
有益な転帰を標的とする運動処方 体重とインスリン抵抗性の減少
前述のセクションで言及した運動トレーニングに 体重減少を標的とした運動プログラムの主たる特
関する一般的ガイドライン(“運動トレーニング 徴は,そのプログラムが運動関連のカロリー消費量
法”参照)は,一般の成人集団に対して健康と適応 を最大にして,長期間持続すべきであるということ
能力の両方に関する利益をもたらすが,運動処方 である。カロリー消費量を最大にして減量を促進す
は,具体的な健康上の転帰を達成するために,個人 る運動プログラムの例はよく報告されてきており,
のニーズ,状態,および併存疾患に合わせて調整す 一般的にほとんど毎日の長距離ウォーキングが含ま
ることが可能である。 れる 442,443)。カロリー消費量を最大にするためには
体重をかける運動が望ましく,それはウォーキング
適応能力の最大化 やエリプティカル・トレーナーなどの運動が,ボー
運動トレーニングプログラムは,一般に有酸素性 トこぎや座位または仰臥位エルゴメータなどの体重
の適応能力を向上させるようにデザインされてお をかけない運動よりもカロリーを多く燃焼するから
り,前出のセクションで考察し,別稿でも詳細がま である 544)。歩行が困難な患者は,少なくとも最初
とめられているように,強度,持続時間,頻度,進 のうちは体重をかけない運動に替え,運動の持続時
45)
行,および様式の処方要素を含んでいる 。CVD 間をできるだけ長くしてもよい。
患者では,強度は通常,以下のいずれかの方法によ 有酸素運動はインスリン感受性に短期的にも長期
りベースラインの運動負荷試験結果を基にして決め 的にも良好な影響をもっており,一方,抵抗性運動
られる:HR 予備能によるピーク運動耐容能の 40 ∼ (とくに筋肉量の増加を促進するもの)は,おもに
80%; CPX を行った患者では,測定した酸素摂取量 インスリン感受性の長期的改善に関連するとされて
4
連続性の中強度の運動の場合よりも,peak VO 2 の 血圧を良好に改善しうることを支持するエビデンス
495,496)
改善が大きいことが見いだされている 。AIT は が臨床試験により得られている 545)。最近の予備的
運動選手のトレーニングに長く利用されてきてお データでは,収縮期血圧と拡張期血圧の両方に AIT
り,CVD 患者においても有望であると思われるが, が 大 き な 有 益 効 果 を も た ら す こ とを示唆してい
安全性と有効性に関するさらなるデータが得られる る 546)。ただし,後者のアプローチを支持するデー
までは,このような患者に広く AIT を推奨するこ タはまだ十分ではない。抵抗性トレーニングは軽度
とはできない。 の血圧低下をもたらす可能性があるが,特定の抵抗
性トレーニングの処方計画を挙げるにはデータが不
十分である。したがって,高血圧を治療するための
88
運動トレーニングの処方計画の基本は依然として持 いる。筋肉量と筋力は加齢とともに低下するので,
久性運動である。抵抗性トレーニングは,何らかの 筋力トレーニングは高齢者における運動トレーニン
438)
付加的な利益をもたらす可能性はある 。 グの重要な要素である。虚弱な高齢者の機能を改善
減量を伴わなければ,運動トレーニングが脂質に するための運動介入治療の使用を支持する報告が増
及ぼす影響は,よくても軽度である。HDL は,持 えている 553)。平均 5.5 個の慢性病態を有する平均年
久性運動の有益な効果が最もよく現れるリポ蛋白質 齢 75 歳の高齢者 116 例の試験において,有酸素−
である。データでは,HDL の改善を得るには,多 抵抗性併用トレーニングを 16 週間行ったあとの下
423)
く(週に 20 マイル) の高運動強度のトレーニン 肢の筋力の増加は,歩行速度の増加と全般的身体機
4
423,547)
グ(% peak VO 2 の 65 ∼ 80%) が必要であるこ 能の増強に対する強力な独立した寄与因子であっ
とが示唆されている。ある予備的研究では,HDL た 554)。
の増加において AIT が中等度の運動強度のトレー CVD を有する高齢成人における心臓リハビリ
548)
ニングよりも優れていることが示されている 。 テーションの利益に対する最大の障壁はおそらく,
脂質異常の治療において,特定の抵抗性トレーニン この集団ではそのようなプログラムの利用率が非常
グの処方計画を支持するには,まだデータが十分で に低いことである。メディケアの請求の分析から,
ない。 急性心筋梗塞により入院した患者の 13.9%,冠動脈
バイパス術後の患者の 31% が心臓リハビリテー
高齢の CVD 患者における運動耐容能の改善 ションを利用しているが,そのなかで超高齢患者,
心臓リハビリテーションに参加する標準的な高齢 女性,白人以外,および併存疾患を有する患者は利
者において,よく知られた加齢に伴う有酸素運動能 用率が低かった 511)。高齢者における心臓リハビリ
の低下に CVD が加わると,顕著な機能障害につな テーションの利用率が低い主要な原因は,医療提供
がる。最近の冠動脈イベントまたは血行再建術後に 者が彼らをこのようなプログラムに照会することに
心臓リハビリテーションに参加した平均 61 歳の患 消極的なことである 555)。
4
89
90
91
るものの統計学的に有意な増加(7.8%)が認めら 動やスポーツへの参加には必ずしも適用されない
れ,対照群には認められなかったと報告された。別 し,適切なスクリーニングを受けた患者が適切にデ
592)
の試験では ,さまざまな先天性心疾患の成人患者 ザインされた運動プログラムに参加すること,およ
61 例の運動持続時間が,10 週間の在宅運動プログ びその恩恵を受けることを,決して排除するもので
ラム後に改善した。11 例の患者を対象とした別の はない。実際に,文献に発表されたリハビリテー
試験においても,同様の有益な効果が見いだされ ション試験には,しばしば最大リスクの病態以外の
593)
た 。先天性心疾患患者の競技スポーツへの参加に すべての患者が含まれていたが,参加した先天性心
関する勧告が,2005 年ベセスダ会議報告に発表さ 疾患患者に重篤な有害事象は報告されていない。
594)
れた 。血行力学的に軽症で,修復を受けていない
異常(肺高血圧や左室拡大のない中隔欠損症や動脈 心房細動
管開存症など)を有する運動選手には,制限が設け 軽度∼中等度の身体活動,とくに余暇の活動と
られなかった。血行力学的に重大な欠損症の手術あ ウォーキングは,高齢成人における心房細動の発生
るいはカテーテル閉鎖術が成功した患者は,すべて 率の有意な低さと関連する 595)。最近のエビデンスで
の競技スポーツに参加してよい。他の異常がなけれ は,継続的な高強度 / 多くの持久性トレーニング
ば,軽度の半月弁狭窄(ピーク収縮期圧較差<40 は,心房細動の発生率の増加と関連する可能性があ
mmHg)または逆流を有する無症候の患者および 3 ることが示されていることに留意すべきであ
カ月以上前に狭窄の手術またはカテーテル治療が成 る 596,597)。それでも,運動の効果の多様性を考慮し
功した無症候の患者も,制限は必要ない。同様に, て,現在の勧告は,心房細動リスクを軽減するため
他の異常がない場合,軽度の大動脈縮窄症の患者 により高いレベルの運動トレーニングを行うことを
(および手術またはバルーン血管形成術後 1 年以上 禁止してはいない。すでに心房細動と診断された患
経過しており残存する縮窄が軽度の患者)は,すべ 者にとっては,定期的な中等度の身体活動が運動耐
ての活動に参加してよい。Fallot 四徴症の修復術後 容能を増加させ,心房細動中の心室レートを調節す
あるいは大血管転位に対する大血管転換術後の血行 ることが知られている 598)。器質的疾患がなく WPW
動態がきわめて良好な患者は,運動負荷試験結果が 症 候 群 が 存 在 し な い 患 者 は, 一 部 は 基 礎 に あ る
正常で,重篤な調律異常の所見がなければ,すべて CVD の存在と重症度に依存はするが,中強度の等
の活動に参加してよい。同様な基準が,軽度の Eb- 尺性および等張性運動を安全に行うことが可能であ
stein 病患者にも適用される。より重度の修復を受 る。慢性心房細動患者における運動トレーニング反
けていない先天性奇形患者,およびより重大な残存 応は損なわれず,運動耐容能は改善する 599)。
病変を有する患者は,運動負荷試験および 24 時間
ECG モニタリングに問題がなければ,多様なレベ ペースメーカ
ルの競技スポーツへの参加が許可される。最も重篤 運動が処方される前に,CAD の重症度と左室機
な心血管病態の患者(持続性の重度の肺高血圧症, 能の適性を含めた基礎心疾患の存在と重症度を評価
重度の大動脈弁狭窄症,有意な大動脈の拡大 / 大動 すべきである。運動は,植え込まれたペースメーカ
脈壁の菲薄化または動脈瘤の形成,または重度の の型に応じて,また,心拍応答型ペースメーカにお
Ebstein 奇形を有する患者;重度の弁閉鎖不全症の ける活動の検出に用いられるセンサーに応じて,処
ほとんどの患者;中等度∼重度の心室機能障害患 方される 600)。固定レートのペースメーカにおける
者;および修復を受けていないチアノーゼ性欠損症 身体活動強度は,脈拍数の計測以外の方法により測
患者)のみが,すべて(あるいは実質的にすべて) 定しなければならない。たとえば,最初は運動負荷
の競技スポーツをしてはいけない。しかしながら, 試験および RPE により決定されたピーク運動耐容
ベセスダ会議勧告は競技スポーツのみに適用され 能の約 40 ∼ 60% といった具体的な作業負荷を定め
る。勧告は,強度がこれよりも低い環境における運 るなどである。収縮期血圧も運動強度の目安として
92
用いることが可能である。 心臓再同期療法
心臓再同期療法は,慢性心不全の適格患者におい
4
標準的な段階的運動負荷試験を受けるべきである。 くに心臓再同期療法を行っていると,peak VO 2 と
そのような検査では,運動誘発性不整脈を検出可能 QOL に有益な効果を及ぼすと結論した。再同期療
である。ICD 植込み患者は,一般に,中∼高強度の 法を受けた心不全患者における運動トレーニングに
競争競技に参加すべきでない。ただし,これは基礎 関する別のパイロット試験でも,運動耐容能の増加
心疾患の重症度と元々の植込みの適応にある程度左 が示された 608)。したがって,適格患者においては,
右される。除細動器への衝撃のリスクが大きくない 心臓と末梢の筋機能の改善のために,運動トレーニ
低強度の競技スポーツへの参加は,治療介入を必要 ングを心臓再同期療法の補助療法として使用してよ
とした最後の心室性不整脈から 6 カ月が経過した場 い。
601)
合,差しつかえない 。ICD 植込み患者における運
4 情報開示
動トレーニングが,対照患者と同様に,peak VO 2
を増加させることを示唆するエビデンスがあ 執筆グループメンバーならびにレビューアーの
602─ 604)
る 。レトロスペクティブ比較調査において, RWI については,付表(本誌 p177)を参照のこと。
運動を基礎とする心臓リハビリテーションプログラ
ムに参加した患者は,参加しなかった患者よりも,
除細動の総計と運動関連の除細動の回数が少ないこ
とが示された 605)。ICD 植込み後の患者 118 例を対象
としたプロスペクティブコホート研究では,重篤な
合併症なしに運動耐容能の有意な増加が認められ
た 606)。ICD を使用している患者の監視下の運動ト
レーニングは,安全かつ有効と考えられる 604)。
HF-ACTION 試験は,安定した心不全患者におけ
る,最大で単一の評価データを提供している。運動
群の ICD 植込み患者 490 例では,運動セッション
中に ICD のショック通電を経験したのは 1 例のみ
であった 509)。
93
文 献
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
キーワード:AHA 科学ステートメント ■ 運動 ■ 運動
負荷試験
108