Hydrocarbon Processing August 2018

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AUGUST 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
FLUID FLOW AND

ROTATING EQUIPMENT
Six considerations for turbomachinery control upgrades
A case study on HP water pump mechanical seal failures
Is your relief valve sizing method truly rigorous?
ENVIRONMENT AND SAFETY

Selecting a flare gas recovery system
for a greenfield refinery
ADVANCED CATALYSIS TECHNOLOGY

Next-generation technology
for diesel dewaxing
VIEWPOINT
Why the industry is looking at
crude-to-chemicals
HP AWARDS
A preview of the
2018 finalists
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AUGUST 2018 | Volume 97 Number 8
HydrocarbonProcessing.com
C-73
34
SPECIAL FOCUS: FLUID FLOW AND ROTATING EQUIPMENT DEPARTMENTS

35 High-pressure water pump mechanical seal failure investigation 4 Industry Perspectives
W. K. Allah and F. Ballard
8 Business Trends
39 Six considerations for turbomachinery control upgrades
15 Industry Metrics
C. Egbuna
17 Global Project Data
41 Ensure a truly rigorous relief valve sizing method
U. Guner 95 Innovations
96 Crossword
PROCESS OPTIMIZATION 97 People
47 Stability analysis of debutanizer columns with hot-vap 98 Onsite
or bypass pressure control
S. Nagpal 100 Advertiser Index
101 Marketplace
HYDROCARBON PROCESSING AWARDS
102 Events
51 This special section details all of the finalists within each category for the
second annual HP Awards. The winners will be announced August 30. COLUMNS
PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION 7 Editorial Comment
57 Online monitoring of H2O using tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy Celebrating the latest advancements
in HPI technology
G. Engelhart, B. Spencer and D. Beitel
63 Adapting instrumentation to the needs of refineries
19 Reliability
Better pumps and seals
D. Carlson and D. Cychosz for HF service
ENVIRONMENT AND SAFETY 23 Engineering Case Histories

Case 102: Use caution when specifying
67 Selecting flare gas recovery system for a greenfield refinery a safe hydrotesting distance
S. Chaudhuri and S. Sengupta
25 Digital
ADVANCED CATALYSIS TECHNOLOGY Improve chemical production
with the IoT
C-74 Next-generation technology for diesel dewaxing
and economic benefits of advanced cold flow treatment 29 Industry Forecast
D. M. Himsl, H.-C. Schwarzer, W. Reimann, G. Mueller and R. A. Rakoczy MCAA market forecast projects
industry to hit $16 B by 2022
MAINTENANCE AND RELIABILITY
31 Viewpoint
83 Attaining TCO nirvana with outcome-based services The need for change—Why the industry
S. Linton is looking at crude-to-chemicals
WATER MANAGEMENT
85 Impact of opportunity crudes on refinery desalter
and wastewater treatment performance—Part 1
S. Basu
91 Options for meeting wastewater effluent selenium limits
M. B. Gerhardt and T. R. Steinwinder
GAS PROCESSING SUPPLEMENT

GP-1 Technology and Business Information for the Global Gas Processing Industry
Cover Image: A large steam turbine representing MAN’s high competence in providing technology solutions
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PUBLISHER Catherine Watkins
Industry Perspectives EDITOR/ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER

EDITORIAL
Lee Nichols
Executive Editor Adrienne Blume

The latest advancements Managing Editor
Digital Editor
Mike Rhodes
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in refining/petrochemical Technical Editor
Reliability/Equipment Editor
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ARC Advisory Group
Contributing Editor Anthony Sofronas
From September 25–26, Hydrocarbon Processing will bring its
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4!AUGUST 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
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Editorial LEE NICHOLS, EDITOR/ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER
Comment Lee.Nichols@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Celebrating the latest advancements

in HPI technology
At the end of this month, Hydrocar- of operating firms and major engineering INSIDE THIS ISSUE
bon Processing will honor the latest tech- and construction companies.
nological advances in the hydrocarbon
processing industry (HPI) at an awards
The awards cover 12 key categories in
the HPI, including 10 technical catego-
34 Special Focus. The basic
functions of a refinery and/
or petrochemical plant would not be
gala. The second annual HP Awards will ries and two personnel categories. A list possible without the equipment that
be held in Houston, Texas, to recognize of all nominees and a summary of each maintains fluid flow. Properly maintaining
innovative technologies and people that product/technology can be found on pg. these crucial assets enables downstream
have been instrumental in improving fa- 51. The winners will be announced at the processing facilities to maximize
cility operations over the past year. August 30 evening event. To learn the re- reliability, safety and efficiency.
63 Instrumentation.
sults in real time, follow any of Hydrocar-
Background. The first HP Awards bon Processing’s social media feeds. Follow This article details an in-field
event was held in 2017 following Hy- us on Facebook (@HydrocarbonProc), evaluation at the Enterprise Products
drocarbon Processing’s International Re- LinkedIn (@Hydrocarbon Processing) Meeker plant, which demonstrated
fining and Petrochemical Conference and Twitter (@HydrocarbonProc) using that data from a tunable diode laser
(IRPC) in Vienna, Austria. Readers of #HPAwards for live updates, winners and absorption spectroscopy (TDLAS)
Hydrocarbon Processing understand that highlights from the 2018 HP Awards. analyzer, used in conjunction with
an online molecular sieve process
the publication’s primary goal is to edu- The following categories will be fea- optimization software program, can
cate HPI personnel in how to optimize tured during the event: improve process efficiency, resulting
their work, and to guide the downstream • Best Digitalization Technology in significantly lower operating costs.
processing industry toward safer, more • Best Analyzer Technology
reliable and more efficient operations.
This has been the publication’s guiding
• Best Asset Integrity Technology
• Best Automation Technology 73 Catalysts.
Smart combinations of
hydrodesulfurization catalysts, dewaxing
principle for more than 96 yr, and will • Best Catalyst Technology catalysts and cold flow-improving
continue to be in the future. • Best Gas Processing Technology additives enable refiners to optimize
The reason Hydrocarbon Processing • Best Health, Safety and their margins and produce fuels that
can provide in-depth and insightful tech- Environment (HSE) meet stringent specification standards.
nical know-how is because of you the Implementation This article features a novel catalyst
reader. More than 65% of the material in • Best Instrument Technology technology that optimizes diesel yield
each month’s issue is provided by indus- • Best Modeling Technology from high-sulfur and heavy-crude
feedstocks, while mitigating much of
try professionals from around the world. • Best Refining Technology
the damaging byproduct formation.
The knowledge contained in the pages of • Lifetime Achievement
Hydrocarbon Processing is a testament to
the hard work and ingenuity of the global
downstream processing industries, and
• Most Promising Engineer.
Hydrocarbon Processing wishes to con-
gratulate all the finalists for this year’s
85 Water Management.
Although opportunity crudes
offer refiners the ability to increase
our organization feels that these individ- awards. Your commitment to revolu- refining margins, their compositions
make them difficult to process. Refiners
uals, groups and/or companies should tionizing the downstream industry with
are compelled to take special measures
be rewarded for their tireless work to cutting-edge technologies and innovative to overcome these difficulties, which
make the world a better place. ideas will continue to inspire your peers include blending these opportunity
and the next generation of leaders. crudes with traditional crudes to balance
The finalists. This year, the Editors of the properties. However, in many cases,
Hydrocarbon Processing received more such crudes are incompatible and lead
than 80 abstract nominations from com- to the formation of solid or semi-solid,
panies around the world for award con- asphalt-like materials that tend to
precipitate in the process equipment,
sideration. An outside advisory board of particularly desalters. Analysis of these
industry professionals voted on the ab- challenges, along with remedies
stracts. Most of this voting bloc consisted for reliable operations, are provided.
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2018 7

| Business Trends
A refinery contains multiple units to process crude oil
into products such as gasoline, diesel and jet fuel. At
the heart of this process is distillation. New regulations
are forcing refiners around the world to adhere to new
standards and specifications for transportation fuels.
These standards include decreasing the amount of
sulfur within fuels. Refiners have—and will continue—to
invest billions of dollars to reduce the amount of sulfur
in their fuels. This month’s Business Trends details a
novel technology that converts heavy refining residues
into valuable light products, power and steam.
R. GIGLIO, Sumitomo Heavy Industries Ltd.–Foster Wheeler,
Hampton, New Jersey
Business Trends
A strategic energy solution

Refining is the process of separat- to an imminent global drop in demand The petcoke produced by the delayed
ing crude oil into different hydrocarbon for HSFO as ships move to gasoil, diesel coking units (DCUs) is an attractive source
groups through distillation. Atmospheric or LNG. Perceptive refiners will find op- of energy due to its high heating value
distillation is used to produce fuels such portunities in a disruption in the HSFO (more than 8,500 kcal/kg) that stems from
as propane, gasoline and diesel, based on market. By eliminating the blending step its high carbon content (75 wt%–80 wt%)
market demand. The heavy crude residu- required to produce HSFO, the higher and low ash content (less than 1%). How-
al or “bottoms” produced by atmospheric margin yield from the crude can be greatly ever, extracting its energy is no simple task
distillation are further separated into light increased. Refiners with DC capability due to its low-volatility matter (less than
fractions using vacuum (low-pressure) will have an added market opportunity. 15%), high sulfur (more than 5%) and high
distillation. metal content (2,000 ppm–3,000 ppm to-
The vacuum residual produced by A new way to convert heavy resi- tal for vanadium, nickel, sodium and iron).
vacuum distillation is long-carbon-chain due into light products. According to CFB power plants are ideally suited to
residual oil that is thermally heated or IHS Markit, in 2015, DC technology was burn the petcoke byproduct to produce
“cracked” to produce short-chain molec- used in 41% of the world’s refineries, with power and steam. Many DC-CFB config-
ular-weight hydrocarbon gases, naphtha Asia, Latin America and the US having urations exist. For example, a CFB power
and light oils products, as well as a residual the greatest percentage of coking capacity. plant can be close-coupled with the refin-
solid product known as petroleum coke. Many refiners with existing DC capabil- ery where the refinery uses all of the steam
Refineries configured with a delayed cok- ity are in the position to move away from and power, or it can take an open-market
ing (DC) system can generally produce the volatile HSFO market and into the approach where the refinery and power
20 wt%–30 wt% of entering residual oil as more stable power and steam markets. A plant are separate and the petcoke is trans-
solid petroleum coke. Petcoke is used for novel technology couples DC technol- ported by barge or rail. Since petcoke is
steam and power generation. ogy with circulating fluidized bed (CFB) traded globally, the CFB power plant can
Refineries also blend the products of combustion technology to fully convert be located closer to large power consum-
vacuum distillation with lighter petroleum heavy refinery residues into valuable light ers to reduce power transmission loss.
liquids (e.g., kerosine, diesel, gasoil) to pro- products, power and steam. This DC-CFB In some locations, excess power and
duce high-sulfur fuel oil (HSFO)—with a technologya eliminates the value-losing, steam can be exported to adjacent indus-
typical sulfur content of 1 wt%–4 wt% by vacuum residue blend step common in trial facilities and local power grids. The
weight—for the maritime and power gen- many refineries that produce HSFO for open-market concept can be expanded
eration industries in developing countries maritime use (FIG. 1). with multiple refineries selling petcoke
and in the Middle East. This blending step
decreases the value yield from the crude Crude oil DC-CFBa
feed, since it uses higher-value liquids to
produce a lower-value product. DC-CFBa technology Vacuum residue
Why is this important? The Interna- Increases refinery yields by 25%–30% Delayed
C1–C2 gas LPG coking unit
tional Maritime Organization (IMO), Produces power and steam for refinery
which is responsible for the prevention and grid Naphtha gasoil
of marine pollution by ships, is in the No refinery residues Refinery Petcoke
Utilizes proven technology
process of reducing allowable fuel sulfur Can be independently developed, Steam
content and increasing engine efficiency owned and operated CFB
standards for ships (MARPOL 73/76, Power cogen plant
Annex VI Amendments). In 2020, the al-
lowable fuel sulfur content limit will drop
from 3.6% to 0.5%. The new regulations
are expected to reduce demand for HSFO +25%–30% Power grid
maritime fuels. refined product
The shipping industry consumes ap-
proximately 75% of the world’s production FIG. 1. DC-CFB technology extracts the maximum value from crude oil by closely coupling
refining to power and steam production.
of HSFO, so refiners must soon respond
Business Trends
to multiple power plants, and perhaps ue for its suite of light products and gases be sold to the local electricity market or
establishing regional petcoke pricing (gasoline, diesel, gasoil, kerosine, LPG, used to reduce the power purchased by a
hubs, as is common with coal-fired power etc.) is $80/bbl and the HSFO is $40/ nearby refinery. If the price paid for power
plants. First adopters will have enormous bbl, then the simple refinery total product by the local electricity market is a conser-
market power when establishing regional sales would be $27.2 MM/d. vative $60/MWh, the DC-CFB plant
petcoke pricing hubs. If the refiner institutes DC-CFB tech- would generate $1.3 MM/d in power
nology to shift production away from sales for the refinery, a net increase of $3.5
Economics of DC-CFB technology. HSFO to produce petcoke fuel, the refiner MM/d in revenue.
The economic attractiveness of the DC- will eliminate the loss of 20 Mbpd of light A reasonable estimate of the construc-
CFB technology is site specific, but a case product—due to the HSFO blend step— tion cost of the DC process and CFB pow-
study will serve to illustrate the value and will yield an additional 67 Mbpd of er plant is $2.9 B. Therefore, the invest-
proposition. Consider a large refinery light products from its DCU. This would ment in DC-CFB technology produces a
that processes a medium to heavy sour boost the output of refined products by 87 3.1-yr simple payback, $11 B net present
crude (FIG. 2). The simple refinery pro- Mbpd, producing an additional $7 MM/d value and an internal rate of return (IRR)
duces 400 Mbpd from the atmospheric of revenue, offset by the loss of $4.8 MM/d of 32% (TABLE 1). The economics would
and vacuum towers, but loses 20 Mbpd for the HSFO produced by the refinery. be further improved if refinery electricity
to blend its vacuum residue to produce Furthermore, the DC-CFB plant will purchases were offset by DC-CFB genera-
HSFO. Assuming the average market val- produce 910 MW of electricity that may tion (net metering) rather than sold direct-
ly to the local utility grid. For this example,
TABLE 1. An economic analysis of the addition of a DC-CFB plant at a 400-Mbpd simple a $60/bbl crude price was assumed, and
refinery. The analysis is based on a $1,800/kWe CFB plant installed cost, 90% refinery and every $10/bbl increase above this shows
power plant capacity factor, 30-yr term and a 5% discount rate. The $2.9-B investment that the IRR would increase by about 4%.
in the DC and DC-CFB installation will have an approximate 3.1-yr simple payback. Another intangible factor to consider
Simple DC-CFBa (revenue/ DC-CFBa is that the DC-CFB plant has traded its
Financial parameters refinery investment) value HSFO market volatility risk for the low-
Refined product sales ($ x 109/yr) 7.4 9.6 2.3 risk and predictable power market, while
HSFO sales ($ x 109/yr) 1.6 0 –1.6 also diversifying its product portfolio.
Power sales ($ x 109/yr) 0 0.4 0.4
Commodity prices have a strong in-
fluence on project economics. For this
Operations/maintenance NA –0.2 -0.2
of DC-CFB plant ($ x 109/yr)
case study, $60/bbl was assumed as the
average crude oil price, $80/bbl for the
Net income increase ($ x 109/yr) 0.9
refined products, $40/bbl for the HSFO,
DC investment ($ x 109) NA 1 $50/t for the petcoke and $60/MWh for
Power plant investment ($ x 109) NA 1.9 the power sale revenue.
Total investment ($ x 109) NA 2.9 The economics of the DC-CFB plant
surpass other generation alternatives. For
Simple payback (yr) 3.1
example, if a simple refinery installed a
Net present value ($ x 109) 11 conventional power plant to burn HSFO
IRR (%) 32 to produce power and steam based on
$40/bbl HSFO and $1,500/kWe plant
Simple refinery Refinery with DC-CFBa technology first cost, then the levelized cost of elec-
Crude oil Crude oil tricity (LCOE) over 30 yr, including fixed
400 Mbpd 400 Mbpd
and variable operations and maintenance
Crude 250 Refined products Crude 250 Refined products (O&M), 80%/20% debt-equity invest-
distillation tower 280 Mbpd distillation tower 367 Mbpd
$22.4 MM/d $29.4 MM/d
ment and 90% capacity factor, would be
Atm resid 150 150 approximately $77/MWh. The LCOE for
50 50 67
Vacuum unit Vacuum unit a $1,000/kWe natural gas-fired combined-
20 DC-CFB provides: cycle plant using $7/MMBtu natural gas
VR 100 VR 100 $7 MM/d ($2.3 B/yr) in under the same assumptions is approxi-
Diesel additional refined product sales
Blend Delayed mately $60/MWh. The DC-CFB option
Kerosine $1.3 MM/d ($400 MM/yr)
coking unit
in power sales
at $1,800/kWe, under the same operating
HSFO 120 assumptions and $50/t for petcoke, would
DC-CFB
Petcoke 6 Mtpd $3.5 MM/d ($1.1 B/yr) in total

HSFO CFB power net product sales produce the lowest LCOE of $43/MWh.
$4.8 MM/d plant Eliminates exposure to HSFO
market CFB and petcoke: A perfect match.
Note: Based on average $60/bbl for crude oil, $80/bbl
for refined products, $40/bbl for HSFO, $60/MWh power price, 910 MWe power
90% refinery and power plant capacity factors $1.3 MM/d Specially designed arch-fired pulver-
ized fuel boilers have been used to burn
FIG. 2. Mass and financial balance of a 400-Mbpd refinery with and without DC-CFB technology. low-volatility solid fuels like petcoke and
The DC-CFB technology option increases net product sales by $3.5 MM/d.
anthracite coals for many years. A ther-
10 AUGUST 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Business Trends
mograph of an arch-fired, pulverized coal tremendous thermal inertia to the CFB’s tions and maintenance costs required with
(PC) furnace is shown in FIG. 3. The burn- combustion process, making it very stable fuel pulverizing and drying equipment.
ers are pointed downward to form a high- and even-tempered. The temperature of Several significant benefits exist with
temperature, refractory-lined combustion the solids is stable (+/– 25°C) within the the low-temperature CFB process. First,
zone below the boiler so that the slow- hot loop and with changing fuel proper- limestone may be injected directly into
burning petcoke reaches a temperature ties. This means that petcoke can be fed to the furnace to capture most of the pet-
and burning time high enough to crack the CFB without drying or milling, there- coke’s sulfur at its point of release. This
and burn out the high level of fixed car- by eliminating the first and ongoing opera- minimizes corrosion and fouling through-
bon in the petcoke. However, these types
of boilers achieve only mediocre combus-
tion efficiency and struggle with ash dis-
posal issues due to high levels of unburned
carbon remaining in the boiler ash.
Several other drawbacks to these open-
flame boilers exist, such as high nitrogen
oxides (NOx ) and sulfur oxides (SOx )
emissions due to high combustion tem-
perature and sulfur levels in the petcoke.
For example, the arch-fired boiler design
produces increased boiler corrosion and
fouling due to the high sulfur and metal
content in the fuel, requiring costly fuel
additives to control to reasonable levels.
The conventional design also requires a
large selective catalytic reduction (SCR) FIG. 3. Thermal graph comparisons of an arch-fired, pulverized fuel furnace burning
system and flue gas desulfurization (FGD) petcoke (left) compared to the CFB combustion process (right) when burning the same fuel.
The lower combustion and gas temperature produce fewer flue gas emissions and significantly
system to clean the flue gas. Each of these
less furnace and steam generator corrosion.
issues contribute to higher operating costs
and lower reliability for the arch-fired PC
boiler when burning petcoke.
The thermograph in FIG. 3 illustrates ws
n Flo
the radically different combustion pro- atio
cess that is characteristic of the CFB. No ov
open flame exists in the CFB furnace, and ere
Inn
Designed For
the gas temperature is low and uniform
throughout the combustion process. The
CFB repeatedly recycles the fuel particles,
Wh
Reliability
greatly increasing the time available to
completely combust the low-volatility
petcoke. Some petcoke particles can re-
main in the hot loop (furnace, separator,
return leg) for as long as 30 min., com-
pared to the 4 sec–5 sec furnace resident
time in the arch-fired design boiler.
The combustion temperature can be
lowered well below the ash-softening tem-
perature of the fuel, since the combustion
FINDER
time is greatly increased in the CFB. This
eliminates the ash slagging and fouling FINDER’s robust lines of API 610
centrifugal pumps, API 674 triplex plunger
problems found in all open-flame boiler
pumps and API 676 twin screw pumps are
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particles, along with limestone particles, for your application.
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problems experienced in arch-fired boilers.
The large volume of solids also adds
11
18-FIND-0039 Hydrocarbon Processing Magazine JUN18_v2.indd 1 7/12/18 9:39 AM
Business Trends
out the entire gas pass, including the bark, waste wood, plastics, cardboard,
boiler, air heater, ducting and ESP. The paper and sludges. The use of CFBs in
lower sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) concentration large central station power generation has
in the flue gas allows the use of a lower- grown rapidly over the past 10 yr.
cost semi-dry “polishing” FGD system. A view of the longest-running DB-
Since the CFB sulfur capture process is CFB plant is shown in FIG. 4. This plant
completely dry, water cost and supply is- is located in Talcahuano, Chile, where the
sues are minimal compared to the arch- company built a 12-Mbpd DC facility that
fired PC option. Finally, low combustion is coupled with a 74-MWe CFB cogenera-
temperatures result in low thermal NOx tion plant. The plant provides both steam
formation, so the CFB can accommodate and power to a refinery owned by Chile’s
ammonia injection into the solids separa- national oil company, Empresa Nacional
tor for effective NOx reduction without del Petróleo (ENAP).
the need for an expensive SCR system. The DC-CFB plant has been in opera-
tion since November 1998, with an average
DC-CFB in action. CFB boilers have availability exceeding 95%. In 2011 and
been in service around the world for more 2012, the cogeneration plant set a plant
than 40 yr, starting out as a solution for in- record for running continuously for 467 d.
dustrial facilities with a need for steam and Jacksonville Electric Authority’s
power combined with sources of waste ( JEA’s) Northside Generating Station is
byproducts, such as petcoke, waste coal, another example of an open-market DC-
CFB plant (FIG. 5). The 600-MWe pet-
FIRE- coke and coal-fired CFB plant is located

in Jacksonville, Florida. The plant con-
sists of two 300-MWe CFBs with SDA
PROOF
polishing scrubbers. The plant began
commercial operations in 2001 and has
achieved forced outage rates below 1%
over the past 5 yr.
FIG. 4. A view of the longest-running DC-CFB JEA buys petcoke primarily from near-
Electric actuators for industrial plant, which is located in Talcahuano, Chile. by refineries located along the US Gulf
valves in areas subject to fire The plant entered service in 1998. Coast and coal from both US and inter-
national suppliers. JEA procures petcoke
hazards
and coal, both on spot cargo and short-
■ Fully operational at to mid-term fixed-price basis, taking full
temperatures up to 2,012 °F advantage of market arbitrage to reduce
for minimum 30 minutes operating costs.
Cleco Power’s Brame Energy Center’s
In the event of a fire, the prime Madison Unit 3, located in Boyce, Louisi-
objective is to save life first, ana, is another example of an open-market
followed by minimizing material DC-CFB plant (FIG. 6). The 660-MWe
damage.
plant consists of two 330-MWe CFBs cou-
pled to a single 660-MWe steam turbine
Fire-proof AUMA actuators FIG. 5. JEA’s 600-MWe CFB power plant
generator that is connected to the Entergy
function perfectly at the fire firing petcoke and coal at its Northside
generating station in Jacksonville, Florida.
power grid. Behind each CFB boiler is a
source and help to minimize fire CFB polishing scrubber that produces very
damage. low acid gas and metal stack emissions.
This multi-fuel plant burns primarily
Find out more on our petcoke (80%), but also has the capabil-
automation solutions ity to fire bituminous and sub-bitumi-
www.auma.com nous coals, lignite, wood waste and paper
Phone: +1 724-743-2862 sludge, which demonstrates the flue flex-
mailbox@auma-usa.com
ibility of CFB technology. Madison Unit
3 entered commercial service in 2010 and
FIG. 6. Cleco’s 660-MWe Madison Unit 3 remains Cleco’s most dispatched unit due
is a multi-fuel CFB power plant that to its low operating cost.
typically burns a 80% petcoke/20% coal
NOTES
mix. The unit is located at the utility’s
Brame Energy Center in Boyce, Louisiana.
a
Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Ltd.–Foster Wheeler’s
PetroPower technology.
anzeige_drittel_seite_hydrocarbon_processing_auma_usa.indd
03.07.2018
1 08:50:14
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Industry Metrics
With the exception of fuel oil, US product markets showed losses Global refining margins, 2017–2018*
against pressure from across the barrel and high crude oil prices. In 20
Europe, product markets lost ground, due to an arbitrage opening for
diesel deliveries to Asia and continued seasonal pickup in fuel oil demand. 15
Margins, US$/bbl
In Asia, a strong gasoline surplus, slower gasoline demand from the Middle
10
East and high product output led to severe product market weakening.
WTI, US Gulf
5 Brent, Rotterdam
An expanded version of Industry Metrics can be found Oman, Singapore
online at HydrocarbonProcessing.com. 0
June-17
July-17
Aug.-17
Sept.-17
Oct.-17
Nov.-17
Dec.-17
Jan.-18
Feb.-18
Mar.-18
April-18
May-18
June-18
US gas production (Bft3d) and prices (US$/Mft3)
100 7 Global refining utilization rates, 2017–2018*
6 100
80
5
Gas prices, US $/Mcf
95
Production, Bft3
Utilization rates, %
60 4 90
40 3 85
Monthly price (Henry Hub) 2 80 US Japan
20 12-month price avg. EU 16 Singapore
Production 1 75
0 0 70
F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J
June-17
July-17
Aug.-17
Sept.-17
Oct.-17
Nov.-17
Dec.-17
Jan.-18
Feb.-18
Mar.-18
April-18
May-18
June-18
2016 2017 2018
Production equals U.S. marketed production, wet gas. Source: EIA.
Selected world oil prices, US$/bbl US Gulf cracking spread vs. WTI, 2017–2018*
80 50
40 Prem. gasoline Diesel
W. Texas Inter. Jet/kero Fuel oil
Cracking spread, US$/bbl
70
Brent Blend 30
Oil prices, US$/bbl
60 Dubai Fateh 20
Source: DOE
50 10
40 0
-10
30
-20
20
June-17
July-17
Aug.-17
Sept.-17
Oct.-17
Nov.-17
Dec.-17
Jan.-18
Feb.-18
Mar.-18
April-18
May-18
June-18
July-18
J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J
2016 2017 2018
World liquid fuel supply and demand, MMbpd Rotterdam cracking spread vs. Brent, 2017–2018*
106 7 30
104 Implied stock build 6
Stock change and balance, MMbpd
102 Implied stock draw 5 15

Supply and demand, MMbpd
World supply
100 World demand 4
98 3 Prem. gasoline Gasoil
96 2 0 Jet/kero Fuel oil
94 1
92 0 -15
90 -1
June-17
July-17
Aug.-17
Sept.-17
Oct.-17
Nov.-17
Dec.-17
Jan.-18
Feb.-18
Mar.-18
April-18
May-18
June-18
July-18
88 -2
2013-Q1 2014-Q1 2015-Q1 2016-Q1 2017-Q1 2018-Q1 2019-Q1
Source: EIA Short-Term Energy Outlook, July 2018 Singapore cracking spread vs. Oman, 2017–2018*
Brent dated vs. sour grades 20
(Urals and Dubai) spread, 2017–2018*
6 10
Dubai
Light sweet/medium sour
crude spread, US$/bbl
4 Urals Prem. gasoline Gasoil

0 Jet/kero Fuel oil
2
-10
0
June-17
July-17
Aug.-17
Sept.-17
Oct.-17
Nov.-17
Dec.-17
Jan.-18
Feb.-18
Mar.-18
April-18
May-18
June-18
July-18
-2
June-17
July-17
Aug.-17
Sept.-17
Oct.-17
Nov.-17
Dec.-17
Jan.-18
Feb.-18
Mar.-18
April-18
May-18
June-18
July-18
* Material published permission of the OPEC Secretariat; copyright 2018;

all rights reserved; OPEC Monthly Oil Market Report, July 2018.

LEE NICHOLS, EDITOR/ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER
Lee.Nichols@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Global Project Data
According to Hydrocarbon Processing’s Construction Boxscore US and Middle East regions represent 24% and 14%, respectively.
Database, nearly 150 new projects have been announced in the In total, the Asia-Pacific, Middle East and US regions represent
downstream processing industries this year. The majority of new approximately 75% of all new projects announced this year. Within
project announcements have occurred in the Asia-Pacific region. these three regions, the bulk of new downstream capacity is within
This region represents 37% of all new projects announced. The the petrochemical and gas processing/LNG sectors.
200
180
160
140
120
100
35
6 11
Canada 99
58 67
115
94
52 Europe
137
101
US 63 196
165
39 110
26 32 Middle East
Refining 56
Petrochemicals 22 35 Africa
Gas processing/LNG Latin America Asia-Pacific
Total active projects by region and sector
32
30 30
29 29 6% Africa
25 25 24 25
23 17% US
21
20 19 32% Asia-Pacific
16
15 20% Middle East
7% Latin America
3% Canada
May- June- July- Aug.- Sept.- Oct.- Nov.- Dec.- Jan.- Feb.- Mar.- April- May- June- July-
15% Europe
17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
Boxscore new project announcements,

Active project market share by region
May 2017–present
Detailed and up-to-date information for active construction projects in the refining,
gas processing and petrochemical industries across the globe | ConstructionBoxscore.com

HEINZ P. BLOCH, RELIABILITY/EQUIPMENT EDITOR
Reliability Heinz.Bloch@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Better pumps and seals for HF service

In mid-2017, we received a well-written request from a young are suggesting ANSI pumps. I have been told that chemical
reliability engineer. We, meaning my colleagues and I, will call plants processing HF are primarily using ANSI-dimensioned
him “YRE.” The fact that this engineer was concerned over the magnetic drive pumps. Thank you for your time; any advice
seriousness of hydrofluoric acid (HF) releases and had collected would be greatly appreciated.”
data impressed us. Chances are that he was not inclined to be-
come just another trial-and-error person. We consider him an Understanding the dilemma. As will be seen, our pump rec-
individual with potential and are pleased to share with you what ommendation differed from what YRE had probably expected.
he wrote. Thereafter, we will explain our reply and recommen- Our initial reply relating to seals was accurate and quickly sup-
dations. YRE wrote: ported by seal manufacturer “C” after sharing its seal experience
data. (We would like to acknowledge Richard Smith, a seal vet-
“I have a particular sealing challenge and was hoping to eran with 35 yr of experience and a frequent co-author of ours).
explore your expertise on the matter. It deals with a situation In both the pump and seal-related questions posed by YRE,
that I recently inherited here at MyOilRefinery” (which we we readily understood his dilemma. Weighing several pros and
will here call ‘MOR’). Says YRE: “Actually, it has been a topic cons, we answered: “Consider staying with an API pump and do
at MOR for quite a few years.” not buy an ANSI pump for this potentially hazardous service. If
YRE continued: “We have an HF alkylation unit in our re- anything goes wrong, you will lose your reputation over it.”
finery, and the depropanizer charge pumps are a bit of a night-
mare, to put it mildly. They are moving 75 gpm of 165-psi Seal-less pumps. Overall, there are relatively few issues with
propane with up to 25% HF acid (SG 0.534) to a discharge properly designed and manufactured seal-less process pumps.
pressure of 365 psi (865 ft TDH, total dynamic head). The However, MOR is an existing refiner with an existing workforce.
current pumps are Pacific RVC two-stage overhung center- Unless no other reasonable options existed, a seal-less pump
line-mounted API-compliant pumps with a BEP (best effi- would probably not be the best solution for MOR. Every seal-
ciency point) at 230 gpm. These pumps were upgraded with less pump has its own issues, and getting adequate lubricity from
Flowserve RV9 power ends (bearing frames, shafts and back a liquid with an SG of 0.534 will not allow compromises in bear-
covers) in 2008. My predecessors also changed the seals from ing quality and design. The rotor-to-can clearances are small,
‘Vendor A’s’ flush plan 32/54 (alkylate/isobutane flush) to and if the pump is subjected to excessive pipe stress, internal rub-
mechanical seals from ‘Vendor B,’ with a composite flush plan bing will occur. Internal rubbing contact can have serious and
11/72/76—obviously including an inert gas flush. near-instantaneous consequences.
The charge pumps are made of Monel (a nickel-copper al- Nevertheless, German pump manufacturer Hermetic Inc.
loy) to resist HF acid attack. In the last 3 yr, we have had many has produced excellent API-compliant canned motor pumps for
issues with these pumps; distress events included case gasket many decades. YRE might contact Hermetic, but should be pre-
crush, shaft bushing materials and seal failures, to name but pared to pay for the kind of quality that is in Hermetic’s DNA.
a few. We have resolved most of the problems with valuable The company was founded in 1866 and has been in the canned
help from the pump upgrade provider. However, we continue motor pump business for the past 67 yr.
to spend lots of money on mechanical seals. In fact, we have re- MOR could spend less for someone else’s products, but it
cently had really bad luck with our seals. Vendor quality seems might not get the same built-in strength. MOR and other po-
to have gone down and repair times are never fast enough. tential user-purchasers must ask if they are willing to do battle
My questions are two-pronged. First, what would you con- with millwrights who are in the habit of pulling piping into place.
sider the best pumps for this application? Please note that the Field personnel would not get away with using much force on
current pumps’ hydraulics have been quite satisfactory. They “average” canned motor pumps.
have been in operation since the 1960s and have done well Although we would continue to use the present pump un-
even while running relatively far from BEP. Next, we would til we had fully implemented the best available mechanical seal
like to find a seal that is more reliable than the one using ni- option, we find it noteworthy that two-stage overhung pumps
trogen backup, but plans 52/53A/53B/54 all have their own are no longer used at experienced best-of-class user companies.
disadvantages. Ideally, we would like to find a seal-less option. Therefore, YRE’s backup plan should be a two-stage between-
For now, we want to stay in compliance with API 610, bearing pump with a BEP at flows much closer to its normal pro-
675 and 685. I am looking at positive displacement pumps, cess demand—apparently 75 gpm. If he can find one with the
mag-drives and canned motor pumps, but most vendors right material in the used equipment market, he should buy it.
seem unable to come up with an API option and, at best, With the right seals, between-bearing pumps will outlast all of us.
Reliability
YRE stated that the pump is made with the right material Two-stage overhung pumps and shaft deflection. Two-
and is hydraulically sound—as we would expect from the old stage overhung pumps often have excessive shaft deflection.
Pacific legacy brand. That is a powerful reason for YRE to stay Shaft deflections also become greater as the flow moves away
with these pumps, and it allows us to now shift our emphasis to from BEP and closer to shutoff. As these two negatives com-
recommending a few seal details. bine, it is very important to select seals where the axially flexible
face is part of the non-rotating assembly (FIG. 1).
If the back-and-forth flexing seal faces are part of the rotat-
ing assembly, then the seal will not be representative of the
best available technology demanded by YRE’s HF pumps. The
springs of flexing rotating faces cycle back and forth once per
revolution. Seals where the stationary face is spring-loaded will
see spring compression only as the shaft (with its clamped-on
rotating face) deflects initially. The greater-than-average shaft
deflection found in twin-overhung impeller models is further
amplified in pumps operating far away from BEP.
Taking a closer look at FIG. 1, we also see a highly effective de-
vice (pumping impeller) for barrier fluid pumparound. We rec-
ommend becoming familiar with the merits of this bidirectional
tapered pumping device and comparing its efficiency and head
flow characteristics with the pumping rings offered by others.1
Pick the right seal and flush plan. A good seal manufac-
turer will impress us with their candor and honesty. That man-
FIG. 1. Generic view of a dual mechanical seal suitable for depropanizer ufacturer will even explain where the competition might excel.
pumps. An advantageous tapered pumping impeller is located between So, YRE should work with a seal manufacturer that is loath to
the two seals (moving barrier fluid from the inboard seal on the left to do experiments with MOR “holding the bag,” so to speak. YRE
the outboard seal on the right). The stationary faces (blue) are should verify that other refineries also have the same depro-
spring-loaded. A modern bearing housing protector seal is shown
panizer charge pump service (flow, pressure, product proper-
to the left of the pump’s radial bearing. Source: AESSEAL Inc.
ties) as MOR has in its alkylation unit.2
We have identified at least two refineries, one in the US and
one in South Africa, where manufacturer “C” has applied many
pressurized dual seals. In old legacy machines with restricted
seal chamber dimensions, seals of the type generally known as
pressurized tandem 3CW-FB (contact wet, face-to-back) were
used. For pumps manufactured after 1994, face-to-face designs
(3CW-FF) were provided; both types incorporated stationary-
mounted flexible elements. These seals generally used a flush
plan that varied slightly from Plan 53B; no nitrogen connec-
tion was used. Essential features of Plan 53B are those of a du-
al-seal assembly with pressurized buffer fluid circulation. The
fluid circulation loop has a bladder-type accumulator (FIG. 2).
But should one of the seals in the dual arrangement have its
inside or its outside diameter contacted by the buffer fluid? Or
should both of the dual-face pairs be contacted by the buffer
fluid on their respective insides or outsides? An inexperienced
seal vendor may not be able to say or explain; therefore, it is
recommended to rule out the inexperienced. A seal specialist
intent on making a sale may hesitate to tell clients that their
offer is less than ideal; so, rule them out. You are left with
learning to recognize a highly principled and experienced seal
person: They desire to divulge all of the pluses and minuses
of the many different available configurations and styles. It is
impossible to overstate the importance of carefully choosing
one’s information sources. Facts will forever trump opinions,
and forever is a very long time.
After changes are made to an API flush plan, it becomes a
Plan 99. A modified Plan 53B is the system most likely to pro-
FIG. 2. Plan 53B seal support system for a depropanizer pump. vide the highest level of integrity while continuously monitor-
Source: AESSEAL Inc.
ing both primary and secondary seal condition. In any event,
Reliability
Put the Solution
YRE must have access to a solid, smart, customer-oriented
seal manufacturer that has provided the appropriately modi-
fied Plan 53B—now Plan 99—beforehand.
Before the Problem
Establish for yourself that manufacturer “C” has refinery
customers that are believed to have exceeded a 5-yr seal life on
their less-than-perfect depropanizer pumps. Prove to yourself When you’re measuring pressure,
that Vendor “C” is able to explain and provide a pressurized inaccuracies or instrument failures will
Plan 99 dual seal for this very critical service. As Vendor “C’s”
Plan 99 offer will duplicate the geometry, dimensions and op- compromise production and safety.
erating conditions in satisfactory, safe, identical HF-services
elsewhere, a run length of 10 yr is not out of reach with better-
You can avoid these problems by
than-average pumps. designing-in our expert solutions.
The best seal is worth paying for. Since YRE and his
employer, MOR, will want top reliability with HF, they
should strongly discourage experimentation. YRE should be Gauges with
prepared for opposition from staffers who, conceivably, will the PLUS! ™
cite partnership agreements that MOR might have with seal performance
vendors “A,” “B” or “D.” Our recommendation is for YRE to option dampen
tactfully prove to his managers that even the most expensive
pulse & vibration
experience-backed mechanical seal is cheap compared to the
many risk-prone scenarios that range from highly unpleasant for easier reading
to absolutely disastrous. and longer life.
We know that working exclusively with “A,” “B” or “D” can
be fraught with compromises, and the experience related to us
by YRE again confirms that view. Moreover, there is consen-
sus that no oil refinery has ever reached true “best-of-class”
performance, safety and profitability by single-sourcing me-
chanical seals. So, MOR should consider adding vendor “C” to
its list of technology providers. Management at MOR should The 2198 MicroTube™
encourage YRE to engage in discourse with this potential pro- siphon dissipates
vider. However, even when negotiating with a principled and heat to avoid damage.
experienced vendor, configurational and instrument-related
details need to be fully confirmed by the user.
In closing, MOR should disallow “reinventing the wheel”
where such reinventing is simply not needed. MOR should
join other user companies that place reliability focus ahead of
all other considerations. Reliability focus starts by specifying Diaphragm seals isolate
and purchasing products that are backed by verifiable operat- and protect your valuable
ing experience. The long-term safety and reliability record of assets from corrosive
these user companies is proof that buying the right products
media.
and making relevant pre-procurement experience checks con-
stitutes the best available strategy.
LITERATURE CITED
1
Bloch, H. P., Petrochemical Machinery Insights, 1st Ed., Elsevier Publishing, Oxford,
UK, and Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2016.
2
Bloch, H. P. and R. Smith, “API 682 dual seal design configurations—
Developments in pusher seal technology, Part 1,” Pump Industry, April 2014; “API
682 dual seal design configurations—Developments in pusher seal technology,
Part 2,” Pump Industry, November 2014.
We’d like to help you.
HEINZ P. BLOCH resides in Montgomery, Texas. Please contact us at (203) 385-0635 or
His professional career commenced in 1962 and
included long-term assignments as Exxon Chemical’s visit our website at www.ashcroft.com
Regional Machinery Specialist for the US. He has
authored or co-written more than 700 publications,
among them 20 books. Mr. Bloch holds BS and MS
degrees (cum laude) in mechanical engineering.
He is an ASME Life Fellow and was awarded lifetime
registration as a Professional Engineer in New Jersey.

21
18_July_Hydro_Proc_015-5806 Rev #2.indd 3 7/17/18 8:22 AM

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Case 102: Use caution when specifying

a safe hydrotesting distance
Hydrotesting is performed on piping and vessels to verify
their integrity. These tests provide leak detection and strength
verification. Pressurized water up to 50% above the maximum
working pressure is usually used.
Hydrotests can be safely conducted when proper pro-
cedures are followed. The failure shown in FIG. 1 is a ductile
failure due to a defective attachment weld. The test was per-
formed appropriately.
FIG. 2 shows a brittle fracture of a heat exchanger due to
improper procedures and water temperature. During a low-
pressure (50-lb/in.2), low-volume (25-ft3) test, the circumfer-
ential weld failed. Small pieces were found 15 ft away. The test
technician reported hearing a loud bang.
Failures can come from poor designs, welds, materials or
procedures. Safe distances from the test site—e.g., 100 ft—are
occasionally mentioned in literature; however, a safe distance
is difficult to estimate due to flying fragments. The following
theoretical analysis is used to justify this statement. FIG. 1. Ductile failure during a hydrotest.
Determining fragment distance and velocity. To deter-

mine fragment distance and velocity, the hydrostatic potential
energy (PE) in a water-pressurized vessel must first be deter-
mined, using Eqs. 1 and 2:
p = F ÷ A = F × s ÷ (A × s) = Work ÷ v (1)
Work = PE = p × v (2)
The bulk modulus (K), or how much the water volume is

resistant to being compressed, is defined as shown in Eq. 3: FIG. 2. Brittle failure during a hydrotest.
K = –Δp ÷ [Δv ÷ v] = 316,000 lb/in.2 (3) Vf = (1/12) × [2 × g × PEfrag ÷ W] ⁄ ft/sec

1
2
(6)
When the container ruptures, all of the volume (v) is not Using (Vf ) and trajectory calculations of a horizontal launch,
involved in propelling the fragment, but only the compressed with no drag, the approximate range of the fragment (W) will
volume Δv. Test results1 suggest that approximately 50% of the travel from an initial height (h), as shown in Eq. 7:
energy of Δv is spent on fragment propulsion, and the rest is
spent on shearing out the piece, as shown in Eq. 4: Range = (1/12) × Vf × [2 × h ÷ g] ⁄ ft
1
2
(7)
PEfrag = 0.5 × p2 × v ÷ K in.-lb (4) These equations reinforce why numerical safe distances can-
not be predicted. Too many unknowns exist, such as fragment
The kinetic energy (KE) of a flying fragment is shown in Eq. 5: size, distance and direction.
KEfrag = 1⁄2 W ÷ g × Vf2 in.-lb (5) Sample calculations. In TABLE 1, these equations are used for
evaluating the blowout of a 1-lb fragment, such as a gauge with
Equating PEfrag = KEfrag results in the fragment velocity (Vf ), corroded threads. Here, fragment W = 1 lb, height above ground
as shown in Eq. 6: (h) = 120 in., g = 386 ft/sec2, and volume (ft3) = v in.3 ÷ 1,728.
Engineering Case Histories
TABLE 1. One-pound fragment range and velocity

Volume, Range, Initial velocity,
p, lb/in.2 ft3 ft ft/sec
50 hydro 25 25 30
150 hydro 25 72 90
150 hydro 100 142 183
300 hydro 100 286 363
1,250 hydro 300 (pipeline section) 2,100 2,600
TABLE 1 shows the large variation in a 1-lb fragment’s range

and initial velocity. These are not safe distances—only theo-
retical examples to show the danger of a projectile. A high-pres-
sure, large-volume hydrotest contains enough energy to propel
small fragments faster than a rife bullet.
General precautions. Considering the many unknowns in

hydrotesting scenarios, conventional wisdom has been to clear
non-essential personnel from the hydrotesting area. Those in
the vicinity should stay behind a suitable concrete barrier to
shield them from projectiles during the test.
Testing smaller volumes at lower pressures is a reasonable
precaution. On pipelines and pressure vessels, blinds can be
High Performance Disc Coupling used to reduce large volumes. However, it is important to en-
sure that no phantom connections have been missed. If one is
• Scalloped profile disc pack optimized for not an expert on hydrotesting, it is recommended to ask some-
high speed compressor applications one who specializes in hydrotesting to review the contractor’s
plan when high pressures and large volumes are involved. It is
• Cost reduced, economical solution for
always smart to be aware of one’s own limitations. Also, per-
today’s turbomachinery market
sonnel should not tighten leaking fittings during testing, as the
• Fully compliant to API-671/ISO10441 threads may be corroded. Personnel should also ensure that all
• Disc material – 300 series stainless, air has been removed before the hydrotest is conducted, since a
Inconel option pneumatic hydrotest can contain much more energy.2
• Coated or uncoated discs It is also recommended to follow a well-thought-out safety
• Phosphate coating standard on components test plan checklist. For liability reasons, it is unlikely that any
responsible party would specify a numerical safe distance be-
• Shrouded fasteners for reduced windage
cause of possible projectile injuries. It is up to hydrotesting
• Optional fail-safe designs companies to use their historical experience and provide test-
ing plans with the necessary precautions for each job.
www.Ameridrives.com/HP
LITERATURE CITED
1
Storhaug, E., “Optimal design for projectile and blast protection during pressure
Scan to watch the Turboflex Plus High testing,” Master’s thesis, University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway, 2016.
Performance Disc Couplings video 2
Sofronas, A., Survival Techniques for the Practicing Engineer, J. Wiley and Sons,
Hoboken, New Jersey, 2016.
NOTE
Case 101 was published in HP in June. For past cases, please visit
Visit us at the Turbomachinery & HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
Pump Symposium, Booth 2517
Sept. 18-20, 2018 in Houston, TX TONY SOFRONAS, D. Eng, was the worldwide
lead mechanical engineer for ExxonMobil Chemicals
before retiring. He now owns Engineered Products,
which provides consulting and engineering seminars
on machinery and pressure vessels. Dr. Sofronas
has authored several engineering books and
numerous technical articles on analytical methods.

24
S. GUERTZGEN
Digital SAP, Walldorf, Germany
Improve chemical production with the IoT

If chemical companies want to re- addition, advanced analytics and machine equipment manufacturers (OEMs), op-
main competitive and move forward in a learning can drive the allocation of best erators and service providers together
changing world, they must rapidly adopt available resources to research projects in on a single platform, with the goal to
innovative technologies. Incorporating line with portfolio priorities. Screening of facilitate collaboration on common
the Internet of Things (IoT) within these internal knowledge and patent data bases standards and increase the efficiency of
companies can provide important ben- becomes possible to maximize the use of operations and maintenance.
efits. Combining the IoT with machine intellectual property and fill gaps therein. In this context, digital twins play a ma-
learning can move the chemical industry Machine learning can also help chemi- jor role in managing asset performance
forward to work more efficiently and cre- cal manufacturers run simulations on and maintenance. Once plants and pro-
ate better results. sustainability and environmental impact cesses have been designed and engi-
How can the IoT improve chemical across a product’s lifecycle. neered, digital twins can be used to train
production? How can chemical compa- operators by simulating special plant and
nies use the IoT and machine learning Changing the game in plant opera- process conditions related to safety and/
with their processes? tions. The IoT builds the foundation for or performance—much like how flight
machine learning in manufacturing and simulators are used to train pilots. Digital
Improve chemical production with asset management. It can capture real- asset twins can be used in maintenance
the IoT. While many industries are em- time data on an asset’s status and per- to predict the impact of certain process
bracing the IoT, it might not seem clear formance, process parameters, product parameters on asset performance, asset
how it relates to the chemicals business. quality, production costs, storage capac- lifecycle and maintenance needs.
In his keynote presentation at the ARC ity and inventory (telemetry), inbound/ A 2016 industry report explains the
Advisory Group Industry Forum, Andy outbound logistics, worker safety, pair- concept of digital twins in such a way that
Chatha, President and CEO of ARC, ex- ing products with services, etc. organizations create value from informa-
plained that the IoT can streamline many With advanced capabilities in captur- tion via the movement from physical to
parts of industrial companies, including, storing, processing and analyzing digital and then back to physical.1 Another
ing providing smart machines, offering data, a vast amount of plant, asset and industry report notes that a petrochemi-
better capacity for big data storage, and operational data can be used in conjunc- cal company that used a digital twin mod-
helping optimize systems and assets. The tion with advanced algorithms to simu- el created a 20% improvement in product
benefits of the IoT within this industry late, predict and prescribe maintenance transitions. Even networks of digital twins
are far-reaching. They include better pro- needs for assets. This benefit increases (FIG. 1) are proposed to increase interop-
ductivity, improved asset utilization and availability, optimizes uptime, improves erability along the entire asset lifecycle, ul-
higher revenue. operational performance and extends timately maximizing asset performance.2
the asset’s lifetime. Digital asset net- Completely new opportunities for the
Fostering innovation. Significant op- works start to emerge and bring original chemical industry arise from distributed
portunities exist in research and develop-
ment to create higher-value, higher-mar-
gin products at a faster pace, particularly in
specialty and crop protection chemicals.
Advanced analytics and machine learn-
ing enable high-throughput optimization
of molecules, as well as simulation of lab
tests and experiments for systematic opti-
mization of formulations for performance
and costs from test tube to tablet.
For example, BASF worked with
Hewlett Packard to develop a super com-
puter that can run simulations on and
predict properties and performance of
new industrial catalysts, crop protection
FIG. 1. Digital twins play a major role in managing asset performance.
products, materials and formulations. In
Digital
manufacturing/3D printing in terms of erations planning process and related key innovative, customer-centric business
developing innovative feedstock and performance indicators. models and services. The following are ex-
driving new revenue streams. While more Advanced analytics and machine learn- amples of how chemical companies could
than 3,000 materials are used in conven- ing can be used for mitigating risks of benefit from leveraging the IoT and ma-
tional component manufacturing, only supply chain disruptions. For example, chine learning at the customer front end:
about 30 are available for 3D printing. To shipments can be automatically rerouted • Utilize sensors and telemetry
put this into perspective, the market for during natural disasters to meet on-time to implement vendor/supplier-
chemical powder materials is predicted to delivery goals and customer commit- managed inventory concepts
be more than $630 MM/yr by 2020. ments at minimum costs. and completely automate the
Worker safety can be enhanced by the An additional opportunity resides in replenishment process (“no” or
addition of smart tags on wearables, which optimizing the use of transportation assets “low touch” order to delivery)
can help alert workers of exposure to dan- and related costs. Transporting chemicals • Monitor customers’ manufacturing
gerous substances (e.g., toxic gases), up- means considering special equipment and process parameters in real time
coming fatigues, as well as help locate em- complex compliance requirements so that via sensor technology, leveraging
ployees and contractual workers in case empty backhauls are the norm rather than advanced algorithms to correlate
of emergencies. Moreover, alerts could be the exception. This results in increased process parameters with quality of
triggered if employees work out of their costs and suboptimal asset utilization. (semi-) finished products, selling
designated or authorized working areas Machine learning can better leverage first-pass quality as a business
(e.g., connected worker). transportation assets and drive waste out outcome rather than selling
of the logistics function. products, and offering benchmark
Taking your supply chain to another data as a service
level. Many untapped and potential IoT Innovate by getting closer to your • Use advanced algorithms to better
and machine learning technologies exist customer. Over the past several years, the understand customer buying
in the area of supply chain management. chemical industry, as an asset-intensive in- behavior/patterns and adjust
For example, using advanced analytics to dustry, has been focusing its efforts on op- product and service portfolios
increase forecast accuracy can lead to im- timizing plant and asset operations. How- correspondingly, as well as to
provements along the entire sales and op- ever, untapped potential exists to develop identify cross-selling opportunities
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26AUGUST 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Digital
to increase customer loyalty and capabilities. They operate with: LITERATURE CITED
share of wallet • Visibility—The ability to 1
Deloitte Insights, “Industry 4.0 and the chemicals
industry,” Deloitte, June 2016.
• Increase visibility into customer/ collect and connect data that was 2
International Data Corp. (IDC), “The IoT impera-
market sentiment via capturing and previously siloed and recognize tive for energy and natural resources companies,”
processing unstructured data from unseen patterns 2017.
social media, then respond with • Focus—The ability to simulate
appropriate marketing campaigns the impact of potential options and STEFAN GUERTZGEN has
been working for 10 yr as
and innovative service offerings. direct scarce resources to the areas Senior Director for
of maximum impact Industry Solution
Moving forward with the IoT. By com- • Agility—The ability to respond Marketing Chemicals at
SAP. He is responsible for
bining the IoT with machine learning, faster to changes in the marketplace driving industry thought
chemical companies can move forward or the business and pivot business leadership, strategic
and gain positive business results. How do processes towards the right portfolio decisions, and
chemical companies use IoT technology? customer outcomes. overall positioning and
messaging, as well as
Industrial businesses already have built, Overall, the IoT can act as a solution executive relationships
or are just building, the foundations for that helps the chemical industry keep up and messaging programs for key stakeholders
incorporating the IoT and machine learn- with changing times and better meet the along SAP’s entire chemical solutions portfolio.
needs of shareholders and customers. Prior to SAP, he worked for 11 yr at Chemtura (now
ing to become an intelligent enterprise.
Lanxess, formerly Witco) in various positions
In general, intelligent enterprises However, having clean and abundant data comprising research and development, global
drive game-changing outcomes. They do available to train algorithms and build business development, business process
more with less and empower employees high-quality models that predict high- management, and sales and operations planning.
He has also held various positions at AspenTech,
through process automation. They de- quality results is pivotal to success. Anoth- AT Kearney and SAP Business Transformation
liver a best-in-class customer experience er critical success factor is highly skilled Consulting. Dr. Guertzgen holds a PhD degree in
by proactively responding to customer data scientists. The lack of these types of chemicals from the Max-Planck-Institute for Coal
expectations. They invent new business professionals can be a severe constraint Research at Mülheim, Germany and has been
granted a 1-yr post-doctoral fellowship for the
models and revenue streams. Intelligent for rapid adoption of the IoT and machine University of California, Berkeley, from the
enterprises differentiate with three key learning in the chemical industry. Alexander von Humboldt Foundation.
KEEP UP WITH THE LATEST STANDARDS ON

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HydrocarbonProcessing_Aug2018_Compass.indd 1 6/28/18 2018
Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 8:44
AM27
IS WHO WE ARE
Ariel’s expert training
workforce is what makes us
the number one authority in
natural gas compression.
Industry P. RASMUSSON, PRESIDENT
Forecast Global Automation Research LLC, Minneapolis, Minnesota
MCAA market forecast projects industry

to hit $16 B by 2022
The 2017 process instrumentation and automation (PI&A) With ethylene prices at all-time lows, combined with major
market in the US, valued at $13.4 B, is projected to grow 3.7% capacity additions in China and the Middle East, it is possible
by 2022 to a total of $16 B. that some of the projects now under consideration may be de-
The Measurement, Control & Automation Association layed or canceled, as the global ethylene/polyethylene mar-
(MCAA) has published its Annual Market Forecast for 2018. kets play out over the forecast period.
The report, prepared by analysts at Global Automation Re- Process control systems and process control valves continue
search LLC, focuses on the PI&A markets in both the US and to dominate the market value, accounting for 60% of the total
Canada. Twelve industry segments and product categories are for 2017. These two product categories will gain $1.4 B in mar-
examined in depth, with a forecast timeline extending to the ket value over the forecast period. The fastest-growing product
year 2022. categories are electronic flow, electronic level and remote I/O.
Growth will be concentrated in five industries: Chemicals, The Market Forecast also includes information for the Ca-
oil refining, electric utilities, food and beverage, and pharma- nadian PI&A market, which is valued at $1.2 B and forecast to
ceuticals. The cumulative market gain will be $2.7 B over the grow to almost $1.5 B by 2022, a 5-yr CAGR of 3.3%. Oil and
forecast period. The chemicals industry market gain will be gas spending has recovered, along with growth in the Cana-
the largest. The market gain of the remaining slow-growing dian chemical industry (FIG. 2).
industries will equal about $484 MM.
According to Global Automation Research, the drop in US PAUL RASMUSSON is the President of Global
and Canadian spending in the oil and gas industry has ended, Automation Research LLC. He has more than 30 yr
of experience in industrial marketing management,
with a small positive recovery in 2017. Growth will gradually strategic planning, market research and forecasting,
increase over the next 5 yr (FIG. 1), bringing process automa- and acquisitions. He acquired his experience through
tion spending to 2010 levels. corporate and line management positions with
The chemical industry is experiencing exceptional growth, Westinghouse, Rosemount Inc. and CyberOptics.
Prior to forming Global Automation Research LLC,
driven largely by investments in ethylene/propylene and Paul was President of DMCW Associates. He holds
polyethylene/polypropylene new plant construction or major a BS degree in electrical engineering from the
plant expansions. However, we are forecasting nearly 5%/yr University of Minnesota.
growth in the US chemicals process automation spending.
30 6
2017
Chemicals 2022
5-yr CAGR
25 5
Food and beverage
20 4
Distribution, %
5-yr CAGR, %
All others
5-yr CAGR
15 3
Pharmaceutical
Oil and gas 10 2
Pulp and paper Total market CAGR = 3.7%

Oil refining 5 1
Materials 0 0
beverage
Chemical
Pharmaceutical
utilities
Ref
wastewater
Oil and
Materials
Other
Pulp and
Market total
Food and
Electric
Water and
paper
gas
Water and wastewater Electric utilities
FIG. 1. Annual MCAA process automation market 5-yr CAGR,

2018–2022. Source: Global Automation Research LLC. FIG. 2. All products by industry.

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CHRIS BIRDSALL, PRESIDENT
Viewpoint ExxonMobil Catalysts and Licensing
The need for change—Why the industry

is looking at crude-to-chemicals
The increase in the middle class popu- which will help substantially moderate
lation will mostly occur in Asia and global emissions.
other developing regions. Just as we saw While the world’s economy is expect-
in developed nations during the previ- ed to double by 2040, CO2 emissions are
ous century, the rise of a global middle projected to increase by a modest 10%
class will create new demands for prod- during this period, reflecting the expec-
ucts made from chemicals—everything tation of more sustainable economic
from appliances to homebuilding mate- growth (FIG. 3).
rials to vehicles.
Similar to chemicals, demand for en- Demand for crude-to-chemicals
ergy and fuels products is increasing, as technology. As a result of these trends
well. However, growth rates are limited toward more sustainable growth, refiners
due to large efficiency improvements. have continued to focus on reducing ener-
Energy demand in commercial transpor- gy consumption and their emissions foot-
tation continues to increase as growing print, and are beginning to explore options
economic activity and personal income to invest in higher-value chemicals.
drive more trade of goods and services. Options range from upgrading exist-
C H R I S B I R D S A L L i s t h e P re s i d e n t o f For light duty vehicles (LDV), personal ing refineries with state-of-the-art process
ExxonMobil’s Catalysts and Licensing Business. mobility and consumer choices continue technologies, to building new, large, inte-
He leads a global team helping customers to change the fleet mix toward more effi- grated refinery/chemical grassroots com-
generate superior value through high- cient vehicles, including hybrids and elec- plexes with technologies and configura-
performance catalysts, advantaged process
tric vehicles. With efficiency improve- tions that allow them to maximize yields
technology and industry-leading operations
expertise. Mr. Birdsall has a degree in chemical ments and shifts away from liquid fuels, from crude to chemicals.
engineering from the University of Florida. He energy demand in the LDV sector is fore- Many factors influence refiners’ ap-
joined ExxonMobil as a polymers manufacturing cast to peak in the 2020s, before trending proach and investment objectives, in-
engineer in 1996, and has progressed through back down to current levels by 2040. cluding desired product slates/market,
a number of manufacturing, technology and Efficiency gains, along with shifting to feedstock choices, energy/utility bal-
commercial roles over the last 20 yr. He has
held management positions in ExxonMobil’s less carbon dioxide (CO2)-intensive en- ances, capital/operating efficiency and
polymers, basic chemicals, lubricant basestocks ergy, are not limited to the LDV segment, safety, health and environmental (HSE)
and refining business units. but are trending across all energy sectors, performance.
300
As the world’s population increases AAGR%, 2016-2025
Chemical 3.6%
Global demand growth index
and living standards continue to improve,

the demand for energy and chemicals is GDP 3%
Energy 1.2%
stronger than ever before. Global demand
for chemicals is expected to outpace 200
global gross domestic product (GDP) by
nearly 40% over the next 10 yr (FIG. 1).
The surge in global chemical demand
is driven by the increase in the middle
class population. According to The 100
Brookings Institution, the number of 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025
people who earn enough to be consid-
ered middle class will increase by more FIG. 1. Global chemical demand growth is forecast to outpace GDP and energy demand.
Source: IHS, ExxonMobil 2018 Outlook for Energy, ExxonMobil estimates.
than 2.5 B from 2015–2030 (FIG. 2).
Viewpoint
The time is now. From the early days the product slate from refining crude oil supply and demand, with higher-margin
of lamp oil and kerosine production, has evolved over time to modern trans- chemicals/derivatives yielding improved
portation fuels such as gasoline, diesel profitability for producers compared to
6
and jet fuel. traditional transportation fuel refineries.
The product slate has further evolved As a result, the challenge for refiners is
5
to producing higher-value chemical to upgrade their technology and process
products. The crude-to-chemicals trend configurations to meet the emerging de-
is a reality driven by the shift in market mands of the rising chemicals market.
Global middle class, billion people
4
70
3 60
Energy-related CO2 emissions, B t

50
2
40
1 30
20
0
2015 2030 10
Africa/Middle East Europe
Asia-Pacific North America 0
Latin America 2000 GDP CO2 Energy 2016 GDP CO2 Energy 2040
growth intensity efficiency growth intensity efficiency
FIG. 2. A growing middle class is creating
new demand for products made with FIG. 3. Energy efficiency gains are expected to nearly double by 2040, while carbon emissions
chemicals. Source: The Brookings Institution. are projected to increase by a modest 10%. Source: ExxonMobil 2018 Outlook for Energy.
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In some cases, the difference between

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| Special Focus
FLUID FLOW AND ROTATING EQUIPMENT
Most HPI facilities comprise continuous processes, so any problems, disruptions
or failures in the fluid flow systems will impact the entire plant’s operation
and the company’s profitability. Considerable effort is directed to the proper
design, installation, operation and maintenance of fluid handling systems.
Compressors and pumps provide the force to convey various process liquids
and gases. Equally important are the support equipment systems, such as
valves, piping and instrumentation, as part of the infrastructure to manage
products and intermediate streams.
This month’s Special Focus section investigates the numerous issues around
maximizing plant/process unit uptime and reliability, as well as solutions to
maintain and increase efficiency.
Photo: Field services work on a 7FA gas turbine rotor executed by Sulzer experts.
Special Focus Fluid Flow and Rotating Equipment
W. K. ALLAH, F. BALLARD and A. AL-DHAFIRI,
Saudi Aramco, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
High-pressure water pump mechanical

seal failure investigation
To mitigate leakage, mechanical seals are one of the most utility water, was rated for a maximum of only 180 psig (FIG. 1).
critical components for centrifugal pumps. The typical design For the mechanical seals to perform adequately, Plan 32 utility
life for a mechanical seal is 3 yr. As such, premature failures water pressure needed to be sufficiently high to work on both
need to be analyzed to identify the causes of the failure. The the drive-end (DE) and NDE seals, as per the following design
following is a case history of a mechanical seal failure for the parameters:
non-drive-end (NDE) seal of a high-pressure water pump. • DE seal chamber pressure range: 81 psi–131 psi
Three 200-hp, high-pressure (HP) water pumps had pres- • NDE seal chamber pressure range: 381 psi–431 psi.
sure fluctuations in the seal chamber on the NDE mechani- Due to the utility water supply pressure limitation, Plan 32
cal seal during commissioning. The first-pass reverse-osmosis was inadequate for NDE seal chamber pressure.
(RO) HP water pumps are six-stage centrifugal pumps. The
pumps’ parameters are detailed in TABLE 1. Temporary solution for commissioning. For a temporary
solution, seal Plan 32 for the NDE seal was replaced by seal Plan
Background. These pumps were commissioned in July 2015. 13 without a recirculation line to the pump suction (FIGS. 2A
The pumps were in operation with a temporary seal plan modifi- and 2B). To accomplish this, the following was implemented:
cation on the NDE mechanical seal until June 2016. The tempo-
rary modification is explained in detail in the Findings section.
NDE Pump DE needs 81 psi
needs
Findings. During the commissioning of these pumps, it was 381 psi
noticed that the seal flushing line pressure was fluctuating on
the NDE mechanical seal, as the seal flushing supply source,
Seal will be Seal flushing line
TABLE 1. Operating conditions of the water pumps flushed and
flow will adjust
Size Six-stage the valve to Drain Maximum pressure is 180 psi
3 lpm
Pumped fluid Raw water
Flowrate (rated) 320 gpm FIG. 2A. Seal plan piping configuration with temporary modification.
Discharge pressure 650 psig
Suction pressure 50 psig
Power 200 hp
NDE Pump DE needs 81 psi

needs
381 psi
Seal flushing line
Maximum pressure is 180 psi
FIG. 1. Original seal piping plan configuration (Plan 32). FIG. 2B. View of the temporary modification.

Fluid Flow and Rotating Equipment
1. The block valve was opened and the pressure from

the mechanical seal chamber was released by allowing
free drainage of water to the atmosphere.
2. Temporary hoses were installed to direct the drained
water to the sump (modified Plan 13).
3. The flow of the water being drained was throttled
by using a valve to maintain a drain/flush flowrate
of 3 liters per minute (l/min).
Observations. Based on the findings, the following was ob-

served:
1. The NDE seal plan selection was inadequate and
not designed for a 381 psi–431 psi pressure rating.
The flush pressure was not thought out
for this application. This was due either to
a pump manufacturer error, an engineering
contractor error, or both.
2. This is a six-stage pump with back-to-back design
and with no balance line. This means that the
pressure in the NDE seal chamber is equivalent to
FIG. 3. Plan 11 modification on the discharge line. the third-stage discharge pressure.
3. The external water seal flush (Plan 32) going to
the HP pumps is clean and free of suspended solids
(greater than 5 microns).
Permanent modification. To determine the best permanent

solution, several conference calls were held by all concerned
parties. Based on the water analysis and seal chamber pressure,
it was agreed that API Plan 11 should be implemented for the
NDE seal (FIG. 3). For the DE seal, Plan 32 was suitable, since
the seal chamber (80 psig) is less than Plan 32’s supply pressure
(180 psig). Thus, there would not be any flow between the seal
to suction. As a result, Plan 32 was maintained for the DE.
To ascertain that Plan 11 would work, it was confirmed
FIG. 4. View of Plan 62. FIG. 5A. The incorrect orientation.
that no suspended solids were in the fluid stream. It was deter- WESAM KHALAF ALLAH has 6 yr of experience with Saudi Aramco. His expertise
is in pumps and mechanical seals. He was involved in the investigation described
mined that any TSS (greater than 5 microns) will be captured in this article.
by the upstream cartridge filters. The external seal flush water
to the HP pumps will be clean and free from any TSS (greater FERNANDO BALLARD has 13 yr of experience. He holds a professional
than 5 microns). engineering license in the state of Texas. He led the full investigation of this
report and reviewed it.
In addition to API Plan 11, API Plan 62 (FIG. 4) was added
and will be used to prevent the formation of solids from the AMER AL-DHAFIRI has 17 yr of experience and contributed in this article,
raw water. Plan 62 pressure should be limited to a range of as well as revised it to ensure accuracy.
3 psi–5 psi. To achieve this, a pressure control valve (PCV) was
installed to drop the pressure of the utility water from 85 psig
to 5 psig. Flow direction
Pump B was successfully started with normal vibration
readings and normal parameters. However, a high whistling
noise was coming from Plan 11 orifices. This noise was found
to be caused by installing the orifices in the wrong direction.
An illustration of the incorrect orientation and the correct ori-
entation are shown in FIGS. 5A and 5B, respectively.
One of the issues faced during the addition of piping Plan 62 In Vena contracta Out
was that the drain hole on the pump casing did not align with Orifice diameter
diameter
the seal drain port. To correct this situation, a new hole was
drilled in all three pumps to proceed with the modifications.
Recommendations. The following actions are modifications

that were implemented to resolve the seal failure for the HP
water pump mechanical seal failures:
Orifice plate
• Choose the correct piping plan.
• Monitor both the DE and NDE seal plan pressures. FIG. 5B. The correct orientation.
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Hyrdrocarbon Processing August Issue 6.27.2018.indd 1 7/9/2018 10:25:12
AM
Innovation Honeywell UOP develops and delivers
real-world technologies and processes
In Action
that help you get more from your operation.
Backed by an expert team and more than
a century of innovation, UOP products and
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© 2018 Honeywell International. All rights reserved.

C. EGBUNA, Rockwell Automation,
Houston, Texas
Six considerations for turbomachinery

control upgrades
Increasing competitive pressures in
process industries, including oil and gas,
are driving dramatic changes in the op-
erational needs of process plants, utilities
and pipelines. Facing the ongoing need to
reduce startup time, increase turboma-
chinery availability and get the most out
of assets, while also dealing with smaller
workforces and lower budgets, can be an
overwhelming challenge.
The need for control reliability is criti-
cal. Hence, for many producers, the need
to upgrade their control platforms is of
utmost importance. Specifically, when it
comes to upgrading rotating equipment
(FIG. 1), producers ask: How do I control
my equipment in the safest and most effi-
cient way possible, while also maintaining
OEM-recommended operating param-
FIG. 1. The reliability of rotating equipment is a key concern in the successful operation of a system.
eters? The successful operation of a sys-
tem typically encompasses two concerns:
the reliability of the machinery, and the users know that new technologies 2. Open architectures. Open and
control of the equipment to meet recom- should be introduced at a low expandable system architectures
mended operating ranges. risk level. Any upgrade to the are ideal for oil and gas control
As rotating machinery begins to oper- existing control system should solutions. They provide end
ate beyond its life expectancy, it is impor- provide better performance and users with the flexibility to
tant to have an optimized control system. increase the uptime of rotating combine software and hardware
These systems tend to age faster than the equipment. A general rule is that to meet their unique needs and
rotating equipment they are controlling; the net present value (NPV) of system requirements. An open
therefore, continuous upgrades are re- any investment should be greater architecture enables the collection
quired. A myth exists in the market that than zero. With a new control of system data for use in multiple
OEM rotating equipment should be con- system, the rotating machines functions, through multiple
trolled only by OEM control systems. should continue to perform their communication protocols.
This is not the case. intended functions. The machines With varying system operating
Although OEMs provide best-in-class should always be in an operable dynamics, end users can easily add,
support for their rotating machines, the state, regardless of the operating upgrade or even swap components.
control platform for the equipment can conditions of the rest of the plant. 3. Ease of integration. Rotating
be handled by a well-qualified control Therefore, the application and equipment does not run in
and automation vendor. When selecting equipment knowledge of the isolation. These machines are
a machine control system from a third- control vendors should be carefully typically part of a larger process
party automation vendor, the following evaluated, and only providers with or plant, so the control platform
considerations are recommended: demonstrated domain expertise should easily integrate into other
1. High reliability and availability. should be on a producer’s shortlist balance-of-plant equipment and
To maintain competitiveness, end for a new control solution. auxiliary systems. A uniform
platform is key to helping maintain preventive maintenance strategy when upgrading a control system—how-
reliability and decrease downtime. to a predictive maintenance ever, basing a decision on the need to main-
Additionally, a turbomachinery approach. Today, new technologies tain an OEM presence onsite is not one of
architecture requires a significant and analytics tools enable them. Although certain limitations may ex-
amount of hard-wiring and comprehensive predictive ist to duplicating OEM functionality and
communications networks to maintenance programs that help protective schemes, there should always
aggregate control functions. optimize the cost and increase be a fair comparison when deciding which
These interactions must be machinery uptime and yield, company should perform an upgrade.
carefully designed to help verify while positively impacting Many will claim to execute projects “at a
a communication fault from overall equipment effectiveness. fraction of the cost.” The correct responses
an auxiliary system so that it Rotating equipment is more should be: A fraction of what cost? Hard-
does not, for example, lead to a susceptible to mechanical failure ware, software, commissioning or all of the
shutdown of the entire system. than non-rotating equipment, above? A scope of work should always be
4. Scalability. End users are often requiring continuous monitoring segmented, and control system features
challenged with adding I/O to to help improve productivity compared holistically, to find the right au-
meet specific functionalities. and extend its useful life. tomation and control system provider.
Due to constant changes in 6. Analytics capabilities.
CHIDI EGBUNA is the Global
requirements and operability, Analytics allows producers to Turbomachinery Controls (TMC)
scalability should also be view operations differently, and Leader for Rockwell Automation,
considered when selecting a control provides the ability to capture where he is responsible for
platform. It is more cost-effective to data patterns to help understand developing and implementing
an overall TMC strategy for the
have a system that supports these historic trends, predict future global technology team. He began
changes without changing the occurrences and help operators his career with GE in 2006, where he held roles of
overall system architecture. make more informed decisions— increasing responsibility in the turbomachinery
and process solutions business before joining
5. Continuous monitoring. Many many of which involve changing Rockwell in 2014. Mr. Egbuna holds a BS degree
oil and gas producers are looking the way equipment is operated. from the University of Houston and is now pursuing
for ways to transition from a Many factors should be considered an MBA from the IESE Business School.
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U. GUNER, Bryan Research & Engineering Inc.,
Bryan, Texas
Ensure a truly rigorous relief valve sizing method

Pressure relief valves (PRVs) protect equipment from exces- applying Eq. 1 for flow in an isentropic nozzle.5,6 The required
sive overpressure and, in case of emergency situations, they orifice area for a relief valve is:
should ensure a sufficient discharge of mass to reduce the pres- m!
sure below the recommended pressure limits. The purpose of A= (1)
K D × Gn
relief sizing is to determine the area needed to hold the required
mass discharge from the valve under different overpressure sce- where A is the area of the valve, ṁ is the mass flowrate through
narios. The discharged mass can be vapor, liquid, supercritical flu- the valve, Gn is the mass flux and KD is the discharge coefficient.
ids or two-phase fluids. This article focuses on relief valve sizing The value of mass flowrate, ṁ, is determined by energy and
methods for vapor phase and supercritical fluids at choked flow. mass balances on the vessel under the conditions of a specific
The American Petroleum Institute (API Standard 520)1,2 relief scenario: a run-away reaction, an external fire, loss of cool-
recommends basing vapor-phase sizing methods on an ideal gas ing, thermal expansion of a liquid, control valve failure, etc. Cal-
flow assumption.1 This assumption has been addressed by sev- culation of mass flowrate discharged through the relief system is
eral industry groups, and may lead to high levels of deviation in not within the scope of this article.
cases of near-critical and supercritical fluids.3,4 In the most recent The mass flux, Gn , is calculated from either an appropriate
version of API 520, a rigorous approach for calculating mass flux theoretical model or numerically. The discharge coefficient KD
through the valves is introduced, in addition to the existing, ideal accounts for the difference between the predicted ideal nozzle
gas-based models.2 Furthermore, API Standard 520 suggests us- and the actual mass flux in the valve. It is available from the
ing a real gas isentropic coefficient calculation method as an al- valve vendors.
ternative to the ideal gas-specific heat ratio for sizing relief valves. It is important that the relief area be neither too large nor too
Different vapor and supercritical vapor vent sizing approaches small. An undersized valve will not provide the required over-
and their performance against a rigorous model are compared pressure protection, whereas an oversized valve will result in ex-
here. The rigorous model performs many isentropic flashes cessive flow. This can adversely affect the opening and closing
using appropriate thermodynamic packages offered.a The per- characteristics of the relief valve, resulting in possible damage to
formance of each method is assessed through both pure com- the valve. Unexpected high flow due to oversizing also results
ponent and mixture examples. A rigorous sizing method can be in undersized discharge piping and effluent handling systems
conveniently applied, along with other alternative methods, for downstream of the valve. In addition, the cost of an oversized
API 520 sizing calculations.a relief valve will be higher. Over-predicted mass flux leads to an
undersized valve, while under-predicted mass flux results in an
Design and sizing. PRVs are the primary means of excessive oversized valve. Therefore, it is crucial to calculate mass flux
overpressure protection. A pressure relief device is designed correctly. The next section will investigate theoretical models
to open, relieve excessive pressure, reclose and prevent further for mass flux through relief valves.
flow of fluid after normal conditions have been restored. PRVs
consist of an inlet nozzle connected to the vessel, a movable METHODOLOGIES
disc that controls the flow through the nozzle and a spring that Mass flux in PRVs is modeled using an isentropic nozzle
controls the position of the disc. The operation of conventional equation. The expression (Eq. 2) for the mass flux (G) in an
spring-loaded PRVs is based on a force balance. The spring load ideal (isentropic) nozzle is obtained directly from an energy
is preset to apply a force that is opposite to the pressure force balance in the nozzle.2,5,6
exerted by the fluid on the other side when it is at the set pres- ⎛ Pn dP ⎞
sure. When the pressure at the inlet of the valve is below the set G = ρnun = ρn ⎜ −2 ∫ (2)
⎝ P1 ρ ⎟ ⎠
pressure of the valve, the disc is seated on the nozzle to prevent
flow through the nozzle. where P1 is the pressure at the valve entrance, P is the fluid pres-
The purpose of relief valve sizing is to determine the proper sure, Pn is the downstream pressure (pressure at the nozzle exit
discharge area of the relief device and the diameter of the asso- or nozzle throat), ρn is the density at the nozzle exit (throat),
ciated inlet and outlet piping. Although an orifice is commonly and un is the velocity at the exit.
used to describe the minimum flow area constricted in the valve, When a compressible fluid moves from a high-pressure up-
the geometry resembles a nozzle and the area is determined by stream condition to a low downstream pressure across a nozzle,
orifice or pipe, it expands. As a result, its density decreases and It can be seen from Eq. 7 that the ideal gas isentropic coef-
velocity increases. For a given inlet condition and with decreas- ficient is simply equal to the ideal gas-specific heat ratio. Similar
ing downstream pressure, the mass flux in the nozzle increases to Eq. 4, the derivation of mass flux in Eq. 6 is based on the as-
due to the expansion and flow area reduction, until a limiting sumption that the ideal gas-specific heat ratio is constant along
velocity is reached in the nozzle. This is called choked or criti- the isentropic path. Therefore, the ideal gas-specific heat ratio
cal flow. The limiting velocity is the sonic velocity of the fluid at the valve inlet conditions can be used.
at the throat condition. The mass flux that corresponds to the
sonic velocity is known as the critical mass flux. The pressure at Real gas-specific heat ratio. API 520 stresses that most
which critical mass flux occurs is called the critical flow pressure. simulators will provide the real gas-specific heat ratio, and that
When the downstream pressure is lower than the critical flow using the real gas-specific heat ratio may lead to undersized
pressure, mass flux will remain constant at the maximum value. valves.2 The proprietary process simulation softwarea reports
To solve Eq. 2 analytically, a relationship between pressure both ideal gas and real gas-specific heat ratios. To test the im-
and density (or specific volume) is needed. For vapors and gas- pact of using real gas-specific heat ratio instead of ideal gas-spe-
es with a constant isentropic expansion coefficient, the expres- cific heat ratio on PRV sizing, the critical mass flux based on the
sion for the pressure and specific volume relationship along an real gas-specific heat ratio can be written:
isentropic path can be shown in Eq. 3:2,7 n*+1
n ⎛ 2 ⎞ n*−1 (8)
Pv = P1v1n (3) G = n * P1 ρ1
⎝ n * +1 ⎠
where P1 is the pressure at the inlet, v1 is the specific volume at
the inlet, and n is the isentropic expansion coefficient. P and v Eq. 8 is simply obtained by replacing ĸ in Eq. 6 with n*. The
are the pressure and specific volume within the isentropic path. term n* is the real gas-specific heat ratio and is shown in Eq. 9 as
The major assumptions in the derivation of Eq. 3 are that the Cp
gas follows an isentropic path, and the isentropic coefficient is n* = (9)
constant along this path. Cv
Combining Eqs. 2 and 3 and the definition of sonic velocity, where Cp and Cv are the real gas-specific heat at constant pres-
the mass flux relation for choked flow can be obtained, using sure and volume, respectively.
Eq. 4:
Real gas isentropic coefficient. Another approach for cal-
n+1
⎛ 2 ⎞ n−1 (4) culating mass flux is to calculate the isentropic expansion coef-
G = nP1 ρ1 ficient for real gases. The analytical derivation for the real gas
⎝ n +1 ⎠
isentropic coefficient requires a valid thermodynamic model
In this equation, P1 and ρ1 are the inlet gas pressure and den- that describes the pressure-volume relationship. The analytical
sity, and n is the isentropic expansion coefficient. The expan- derivation can get complicated, and the coefficient may change
sion coefficient is assumed to be constant along the isentropic along the isentropic path. In the event of a constant isentropic
nozzle path. coefficient, an expression (Eq. 10) for the isentropic coefficient
For gases, the density at the valve inlet can be calculated with can be derived as:2,4
Eq. 5:7 v ⎛ ∂P ⎞ C p
n=− ⎜ ⎟ (10)
ZP1 M w P ⎝ ∂v ⎠ T C v
ρ1 = (5)
RT1 Since the isentropic coefficient is assumed constant along
where Z is the compressibility, Mw is the molecular weight, T1 is the isentropic path, the expression in Eq. 10 can be calculated at
the temperature at the inlet, P1 is the pressure at the inlet, and R the valve inlet conditions. However, it is still a complex task to
is the gas constant. get an analytical expression for the derivative term at the right-
hand side of Eq. 10. It can be calculated in Eq. 11 numerically as:
Calculating isentropic expansion coefficients. In the v ΔP ⎞ C p
derivation of relief valve sizing equations, the common assump- n ≈ − 1 ⎛⎜ ⎟ (11)
tion is that the gas behaves ideally when following the isentro- P1 ⎝ Δv ⎠ T C v
pic path between upstream and downstream valve conditions. where ΔP is the change in pressure and Δv is the change in spe-
However, the inlet gas density is calculated using the real gas cific volume.
equation (Eq. 5). An ideal gas flow assumption leads to Eq. 6 for The derivative (ΔP ⁄ Δv)T is calculated at inlet conditions
the critical mass flux: using the process simulation software. The gas at the inlet pres-
κ +1
sure (relief pressure) P1 is expanded to a pressure: P1 − ΔP. The
⎛ 2 ⎞ κ −1 (6) change in pressure ΔP is set to a small value (10 psi used in calcu-
G = κ P1 ρ1 lations). The temperature at the outlet of the expansion process is
⎝ κ +1 ⎠
set equal to the inlet temperature (relief temperature), T1. Upon
where ĸ is the ideal gas isentropic coefficient and choosing an appropriate thermodynamic package using the pro-
C op cess simulation software, flashes are performed both at the inlet
κ= (7) (P1, T1) and outlet conditions [(P1 − ΔP), T1)] to obtain a spe-
Cvo cific volume change Δv. The real gas-specific heat ratio, Cp ⁄ Cv,
is calculated at the inlet flash. The calculated real gas isentropic benchmarked against the direct integration method in different
coefficient can be plugged into Eq. 4 to obtain critical mass flux. case studies to assess the validity of assumptions in these models.
The methods are compared based on the percent deviation
Direct integration method. The energy balance for an is- of the calculated mass flux from the rigorous direct integration
entropic nozzle path that is given in Eq. 2 is valid irrespective method mass flux calculation for different systems at various in-
of non-ideality or compressibility for any homogenous fluid. let reduced pressures.
Therefore, it can be taken as the reference model for calculat- Inlet reduced pressure is the ratio of inlet pressure to the
ing valve mass flux. This general expression can be used when critical pressure of the gas. Critical pressure is the pressure at
the pressure-density relationship at constant entropy is avail- the thermodynamic critical point of the substances above which
able. This relationship is not available analytically for most substances cannot be liquefied. Critical pressure should not be
thermodynamic models. However, the integral in Eq. 2 can be confused with the critical flow pressure that defines the down-
evaluated numerically by direct summation over small pressure stream pressure at which flow becomes choked. Inlet reduced
intervals. Eq. 2 can be discretized as Eq. 12: critical flow ratio is defined in Eq. 18 as:
⎛ Pn P(i+1) − P(i ) ⎞
1/2 P
(12) r= 1 (18)
G ≈ ρn ⎜ −2∑ ⎟ PC
⎝ P1 ρi ⎠
where PC is the critical pressure determined using process simu-
where P(i + 1) and P(i) are the consecutive pressures at a pres- lation software. The percent deviation of the mass flux is de-
sure increment, ρ̄i is the average density in the isentropic path fined in Eq. 19 as:
between pressures: P(i) and P(i + 1), ρn is the density at the down- G −G *
stream conditions and Pn is the downstream pressure. The pres- e = 100 × (19)
sure domain between the valve upstream pressure, P1, and valve G*
downstream pressure, P2, is divided into m pressure steps. The where e is the percent mass flux deviation of a method from the
step size is shown in Eqs. 13, 14 and 15: direct integration method. The term G* is the mass flux calcu-
lated using the direct integration method, and G is the mass flux
ΔP(i) = P(i) – P(i + 1) (13)
calculation in question.
for i = 0, . . , m, where The mass flux calculation methods have been compared
with the direct integration method for the following three cases
P(0) = P1 (14)
at different inlet reduced pressures. All thermos-physical prop-
and erties are calculated using the Peng-Robison equation of state in
process simulation software.
P(m) = Pn (15)
The step size, s, in each increment is equal to a fraction of the Case Study 1—Air at 250 K. This case involves air venting at
pressure at that step (Eq. 16): 250 K at different inlet reduced pressures. FIG. 1 shows the mass
flux deviations for all three methods. Mass flux that is calculated
ΔP = sP
(i) (i)
(16)
using the ideal gas isentropic coefficient (Eq. 6) under-predicts
In this equation, s is set to 0.05. Average density is taken as the mass flux at all reduced pressures. This leads to an oversized
the arithmetic average of the two densities (Eq. 17): valve (Eq. 1). The results are satisfactory for low pressures;
however, the deviation increases to 15% at very high pressures.
ρi + ρi +1 (17) Using the real gas-specific heat ratio (Eq. 8) over-predicts the
ρi =
2 mass flux; therefore, it under-sizes the valve. This is in accor-
These calculations are performed in process simulation soft- dance with API’s comment on the possibility of under-sizing
ware. First, a valid thermodynamic package for the system is
chosen. Then, fluid is flashed at each pressure increment and 4.0
inlet entropy using the chosen thermodynamic environment.
Pressure, average density and outlet density resulting from the 0.0
flash calculations at each increment are plugged into Eq. 12 and
Percent mass flux deviation
summed over all m steps to evaluate integration. The only er- -4.1
ror associated with this technique is related to the numerical
-8.0
error that is introduced due to the discretization. Error can be
reduced by choosing a smaller step size (by decreasing the pa- -12.0
rameter, s) at the expense of increased computation load. Ideal gas CpCv ratio real gas
-16.0 Real gas CpCv ratio
Comparison. In the previous section, different theoretical mod- Real gas isentropic coeff
els for evaluating mass flux for relief valves are presented. Direct -20.0
0.1 1.1 2.1 3.1 4.1 5.1 6.1 7.1 8.1 9.1
integration is the most general, rigorous and accurate method, as Inlet reduced pressure
it deals with real gasses and does not require an assumption of
a constant isentropic coefficient. Therefore, it can be used as a FIG. 1. Percent mass flux deviation from the direct integration method
for air at 250 K for different reduced pressures (Case 1).
reference model for mass flux calculations. The other models are
65 (90 mol%), C2 (5 mol%), C3 (3 mol%) and C4 (2 mol%). FIG. 3

Ideal gas CpCv ratio shows the change in mass flux deviation for this mixture at 93°C
55 Real gas CpCv ratio (200°F) with reduced pressure. For all inlet reduced pressures,
Real gas isentropic coeff
45 the ideal gas-specific heat ratio method slightly under-predicts
the flux (over-sizing the valve) with the error increasing as re-
35 duced pressure increases. The real gas-specific heat ratio meth-
od over-predicts the mass flux by up to 3% from reduced pres-
25
sures from 0.2–2.7. This trend is reversed at higher pressure.
15 The ideal gas method under-predicts the flux up to 18%. The
deviation for the real gas-specific heat ratio method remains
5 less compared to the ideal gas case at high pressures. The real
-5
gas isentropic coefficient method, on the other hand, slightly
0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 under-predicts at low pressures (inlet reduced pressures from
Inlet reduced pressure 0.2–1). It over-predicts the flux at the supercritical region, and
FIG. 2. Percent mass flux deviation from the direct integration method
errors remain within the 3% range.
for saturated n-butane (Case 2).
Takeaways. Different mass flux calculation methods for relief
valve sizing have been examined here: the ideal gas-specific heat
5 ratio, the real gas-specific heat ratio and the real gas isentropic
coefficient method. All methods were benchmarked against
0 the rigorous direct integration method using percent mass flux
deviation criteria. The results show that using the ideal gas is-
-5 entropic coefficient can lead to errors up to 20%. This method
under-predicts the mass flux for most cases, but also can over
-10
predict the flux as in the saturated n-butane case. The real gas-
specific heat ratio method follows a similar trend but remains
Ideal gas CpCv ratio slightly over the ideal gas-specific heat ratio curve. The real gas
-15 Real gas CpCv ratio
Real gas isentropic coeff
isentropic coefficient method compared closely and consis-
tently against the benchmark direct integration method in most
-20
0.2 1.2 2.2 3.2 4.2 5.2 6.2
cases, with errors generally below 5%.
Inlet reduce pressure The results reveal that of the assumptions, the most consis-
tent as compared to direct integration was the use of real gas
FIG. 3. Percent mass flux deviation from the direct integration method isentropic coefficients. Still, with modern simulators capable of
for vapor mixture at 93°C (200°F) (Case 3).
rigorously calculating the integral for mass flux, the best choice
may be to avoid these assumptions altogether, and instead simply
valves when a real gas-specific heat ratio is used. At very high use the direct integration method for calculating mass flux.
pressures, however, this method under-predicts the flux and
gives a lower percent deviation than the ideal gas-specific heat NOTES
a
ProMax Process Simulation Software, Bryan Research & Engineering Inc.
ratio method. Mass flux calculation using the real gas isentropic
coefficient outperforms other methods and results in a devia- LITERATURE CITED
tion within 2% for all inlet reduced pressures. 1
American Petroleum Institute (API) Recommended Practice 520, “Sizing, selec-
tion and installation of pressure-relieving devices in refineries,” 7th Ed., 2000.
2
American Petroleum Institute (API) Recommended Practice 520, “Sizing, selec-
Case Study 2—Saturated n-butane. This case evaluates tion and installation of pressure-relieving devices in refineries,” 9th Ed., 2014.
the discharge of saturated n-butane at five different inlet re- 3
Kim, J. S., H. J. Dunsheath and N. R. Singh, “Proper relief-valve sizing requires
duced pressures from 0.2–0.9. The results are plotted in FIG. 2. equation mastery,” Hydrocarbon Processing, December 2011.
The ideal gas-specific heat ratio method over-predicts the flux,
4
Shackelford, A., “Using the ideal gas-specific heat ratio for relief-valve sizing,”
Chemical Engineering, November 2003.
which results in an undersized valve. The degree of over-predic- 5
Darby, R., F. E. Self and V. H. Edwards, “Properly size pressure-relief valves for
tion increases up to 20% as the thermodynamic critical point is two-phase flow,” Chemical Engineering, June 2002.
approached. This is opposite to the trend observed in the first 6
Darby, R., P. R. Meiller and J. R. Stockton, “Select the best model for two-phase
relief sizing,” Chemical Engineering Progress, 2001.
case study for this method. 7
Smith, J. M., H. C. Van Ness and M. M. Abbott, “Introduction chemical engineer-
The real gas-specific heat ratio method also over-predicts ing thermodynamics,” McGraw-Hill Chemical Engineering Series, 6th Ed., 2001.
the mass flux and under-sizes the valve. The deviation for this
method increases to more than 50% with increasing inlet re- NOMENCLATURE
A m2 Area of the valve
duced pressure. The real gas isentropic coefficient method, on Cop J/mole-K Ideal gas-specific heat at constant pressure
the other hand, slightly under-predicts the mass flux. The mass Cov J/mole-K Ideal gas-specific heat at constant volume
flux deviation remains within –5% at all inlet reduced pressures. CP J/mole-K Real gas-specific heat at constant pressure
Cv J/mole-K Real gas-specific heat at constant volume
e % Percent deviation of mass flux calculation methods
Case Study 3—Hydrocarbon mixture at 93°C (200°F). from the direct integration method
This case study considers a gas mixture that consists of C1 Complete nomenclature available online at HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
DEMAND:
MEET
SUPPLY.
Solve. Respond. Deliver. It’s not just a slogan.
It’s the bedrock we’ve built our business on
since 1954 – delivering standard-setting cooling
solutions for gas compression and processing,
refineries, lube oil cooling and more.
harscoAXC.com 918.619.8000 (USA)

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Process
Optimization
S. NAGPAL, IHS Markit, New Delhi, India
Stability analysis of debutanizer columns

with hot-vapor bypass pressure control
A debutanizer column was experiencing unstable operation, tom section (not shown in FIG. 1) has kettle reboiler heat input
with frequent pressure swings and product composition fluc- with bottom product outflow on the kettle sump level control,
tuations from the column overheads system. A study was per- as well as column bottom temperature control using kettle re-
formed to review the column design and provide recommenda- boiler heating media flow control.
tions to improve column operation so that the downstream unit In conjunction with the gas plant’s distributed control sys-
feed composition could be stabilized. The column operates in tem (DCS), the study looked at the following aspects of the sys-
total condensing mode, with flooded condenser hot vapor by- tem design to identify the cause of the instability:
pass (HVBP) pressure control.
Plant operating data was collected and evaluated. The plant Debutanizer PC FI To fuel gas
column header
data showed that the pressure surges were typically encoun- 40
tered at midday and more likely to occur in the summer when HVBP Vent
Condenser valve valve
the ambient temperatures are high. The column overheads con- (multiple shells LC
denser operated near or over capacity at the required feedrate. Feed 26 in series and
Reflux
parallel) 30 ft
Corresponding to higher, midday ambient temperatures, the drum
condenser capacity was lessened due to increased condenser Cooling
water supply (CWS) temperature. This led to the observed col- water 4 ft
umn overhead and reflux drum pressure surges.
Flooded condenser, hot-gas bypass column pressure control FC FC Overhead
is common in refineries; the systems are notorious troublemak- product
ers for refinery operators.1,2 The following presents a methodol-
ogy for troubleshooting such columns. Hydraulic analysis, along Reflux pumps Overhead product pumps
with steady-state and dynamic simulation evaluation of the trou- FIG. 1. Process flow diagram of the gas plant’s debutanizer
blesome hot-gas bypass pressure control scheme, are presented. column overheads.
These analyses provide valuable insight on this pressure control
method and can help refinery operators stabilize column opera- 140 10
tions and reduce frequent gas venting and loss of product quality.
139 9
Process configuration and analysis methodology. A gas 138 8
plant’s debutanizer column with feed comprising C3 to light
Column differential pressure, psi
137 7
Reflux drum pressure, psig
naphtha-range material (38.5 wt% C4–, 9.7% i-C5, 11.1% n-C5

and 40.7% C6+) is used to separate the C4– components from 136 6
the heavier material. A part of the C5 components in the feed 135 5
are left in the column overhead products, as well. FIG. 1 shows 134 4
the column overhead system process flow diagram (PFD) with
control loops. Column overhead pressure control is based on 133 3
hot-vapor bypass vapor flow to the reflux drum, with reflux 132 Reflux drum pressure 2
drum pressure sensing. The condensers are elevated 4 ft above 131
Column DP
1
grade level and are partially flooded. The reflux drum is elevated
130 0
30 ft above grade. This configuration is generally referred to as 11-Sept. 12-Sept. 13-Sept. 14-Sept. 15-Sept. 16-Sept. 17-Sept.
a submerged (or flooded) condenser pressure control scheme.
Column reflux flow is on flow control. Overhead product FIG. 2. Plant DCS data showing column overheads pressure surges,
along with column pressure drop.
flow control is cascaded to reflux drum level control. The bot-
Process Optimization
• Column tray hydraulic capacity the column have adequate capacity. Plant data for column differ-
• Overheads piping flow maldistribution ential pressure change during the periods of pressure instability
• Reflux drum internal piping configuration were examined and showed no correlation with column pressure
• Overheads condenser capacity spikes (FIG. 2). This argues against column hydraulic limitation
• HVBP valve sizing as the cause of pressure instability. The magnitude of the pres-
• Dynamic simulation analysis. sure spikes are 2 psi–4 psi, whereas the column differential pres-
sure was approximately 4 psi.
Column tray capacity. Indicators of column flooding in-
clude excessive column pressure differential or a sharp increase Overhead hydraulic analysis. Flow maldistribution to mul-
in column pressure drop with vapor rate. A column tray rating tiple condenser shells can lead to column overhead pressure
was performed to check for jet/downcomer flooding. A tray hy- instability. Using a network hydraulics simulation program, a
draulic analysis showed that both the top and bottom sections of detailed hydraulics analysis of the column overhead system was
performed to check for maldistribution. The lines from the col-
210 1,600 umn overhead nozzle to the reflux drum top inlet nozzle via the
Reflux flow condensers were modeled as per as-built isometrics. Pressure
190 1,400 drop in each of the condenser shells was estimated using heat
exchanger rating software. Cooling water flow distribution was
checked using flow and inlet/outlet temperature data, and was
170 1,200 seen to be uniform. The hydraulic analysis indicated only minor
flow maldistribution, ruling it out as the source of instability.
Flow, BPH/Msft3, concentrate, wt%
Temperature, °F, pressure, psig
150 1,000
Reflux drum pressure Reflux drum internal piping configuration. The recom-
mended practice for an HVBP design is to feed the condenser
130 800 liquids near the bottom through a stilling well, keeping the liq-
uid inlet velocity below 3.3 ft/s. The vapors from the HVBP line
110 600 should be to the top of the drum, with a horizontal deflector plate
to minimize direct vapor impingement on the liquid surface. Re-
ducing the mixing of hot vapors with subcooled condensed liq-
90 400 uid helps maintain a temperature/vapor pressure gradient in the
drum and improves the efficiency of the condenser operation.
70 200 The literature provides a detailed discussion on configuring
condenser HVBP controls, and notes that not adhering to the
recommendations can lead to pressure instability and unstable
50 0
13-Sept. 14-Sept. 15-Sept. 16-Sept. operations.2 The debutanizer’s piping system was checked, and
the inlet piping and distributor configuration was as per the
Tray 35 temperature Flow DeC4 bottoms
Column overhead pressure Flow reflux above guidelines, which ruled it out as a cause for the instability.
Reflux drum pressure Flow overhead product
Reflux drum temperature Flow vent gas *10
CWS temperature iC5 in overhead product, % *5 Overhead condenser capacity. A steady-state simulation
and exchanger rating analysis of the condenser indicated that
FIG. 3. Plant DCS data showing column pressure, temperature and the exchanger is undersized for the operating overhead vapor
flow/composition transients for a 3-d period. and reflux flows by about 10%. Operating at reduced reboiler
duty was indicated to allow operating within the condenser
120 capacity without a significant increase in the column bottom
product’s Reid vapor pressure (RVP). However, this would re-
115
sult in some increases in C5 to the column overhead and down-
110 stream depropanizer.
105
100 HVBP valve sizing. The HVBP control valve should be sized
Temperature, °F
95
for the required HVBP flow and the pressure drop resulting
from flow in the main line to the reflux drum via the condenser
90 Reflux drum pressure and any control valves. Estimating the required HVBP flow is a
Column DP
85 challenge. Two approaches are discussed in the literature. The
80 first method is based on minimum disturbance or mixing in the
75 drum between subcooled liquids in the drum with the hotter
70 saturated liquid at the liquid surface of the drum. The second
2-Sept. 4-Sept. 6-Sept. 8-Sept. 10-Sept. 12-Sept. 14-Sept. 16-Sept. 18-Sept. method considers the complete loss of subcooling, which is not
desirable and should not happen in a properly designed system.
FIG. 4. Plant DCS data showing the correlation between CWS Method 1: Minimum disturbance in the drum. This
temperature and reflux drum temperature.
method considers hot-vapor flow resulting from condensation
of vapors on the liquid surface in the reflux drum. For uninsulat- 140 220
ed drums, condensation occurring on the drum metal surfaces 139 200
above the liquid level is considered, as well. Based on the above
effects, an HVBP flow estimate can be obtained by using Eq. 1: 138 180
Temperature °F, iC5 wt%, x5

Reflux drum pressure, psig
137 160
HVBP flow = ALS × H1 × (TS – TSC) ÷
(1) 136 140
λ + ADS × H2 × (TSC – TAmb) ÷ λ
135 120
where:
ALS = Drum liquid 134 100
ADS = Unsubmerged wall surface areas Reflux drum pressure
133 i-C5 in overhead production *5, wt% 80
TS = Temperature of the liquids surface/vapor 132 Reflux drum temperature 60
TSC = Temperature of the subcooled liquid Tray 35 temperature
131 40
TAmb = Ambient temperature 10-Sept. 11-Sept. 12-Sept. 13-Sept. 14-Sept. 15-Sept. 16-Sept.
λ = Heat of condensation of the overheads vapors
H1 = Typical direct condensation of overall heat transfer FIG. 5. Plant DCS data showing the correlation between reflux drum
coefficient into the drum liquid surface (typically, 2 Btu/hr/ pressure surge, Tray 35 temperature and top product i-C5 content.
ft2/°F–10 Btu/hr/ft2/°F)
H2 = Typical overall heat transfer coefficient for heat loss to sure surges in the reflux drum lead to the vent gas valve releasing
atmosphere (radiation and convection) through the upper half vapors to the refinery fuel gas header.
of the accumulator (typically, 2 Btu/hr/ft2/°F–3 Btu/hr/ft2/°F FIG. 5 shows that top product i-C5 content fluctuates with col-
in still air). umn Tray 35 temperature (the sixth tray from the top), and a drop
For the described case, if H1 = 3 Btu/hr/ft2/°F and H2 = 2.0 in Tray 35 temperature leads to a sharp drop in top product i-C5
Btu/hr/ft2/°F, this results in a required HVBP flow estimate of concentration. While the reflux drum temperature shows daily
800 lb/hr. fluctuations with CWS temperature, the temperature of Tray 35
Method 2: Complete loss of subcooling (high level of is generally stable except during the pressure surges. During the
mixing in drum). This method considers increasing the entire pressure surges, the temperature of Tray 35 shows an opposite
subcooled liquid to its bubble point in the drum. Depending on trend to the column overheads and reflux drum temperature.
the level of subcooling considered for the design, this method This supports the hypothesis that the observed decrease in the
requires a significantly higher hot vapor flow. Tray 35 temperature, simultaneously with the pressure surges, is
due to a reduced vapor flow to the top section of the column, re-
HVBP flow = M.Cp.∆s ÷ λ sulting from condenser capacity limitation. This would also lead
where: to reduced reflux drum level and top product flow, and increased
M = Subcooled liquid flowrate into the drum bottom product flow. Plant data for other periods showed in-
Cp = Liquid heat capacity creasing reflux flow that did not allow column stabilization.
∆s = Degrees subcooling.
Sensible vapor heat can be ignored, as it is relatively small. Dynamic simulation analysis. The use of dynamic simula-
For the described case, a design with 6°F subcooling would re- tion for accurate distillation column relief load estimation is
quire a hot vapor flow of approximately 15 Mlb/hr. commonly utilized. This approach can be used for the analysis
The debutanizer’s HVBP valve is an 8-in. equal-percent globe of flooded condenser HVBP pressure control, as well. The lit-
valve, which is somewhat oversized for the mentioned range of erature provides a flooded condenser dynamic simulation study
HVBP flows, and, considering well-configured drum internals, that evaluated the impact of variation in column feed flow and
would typically operate near the bottom of the control range CWS temperature, using two control methods, such as coolant
(e.g., 10%–70% opening). The valve allows good control except flow control and a condenser outlet valve control.4
during periods of high CWS/reflux drum temperatures, and is However, this study did not consider the impact of HVBP
not the cause of the instability. flow and static head variations on the system. The author has
Plant data. Plant DCS data was obtained for 1 yr and exam- discussed the results of a dynamic simulation evaluation of three
ined to try to identify a cause of the instability. FIG. 3 shows data common flooded condenser HVBP pressure control schemes for
for a 3-d period during which feed flow is fairly steady (approxi- a debutanizer column. The stability of these control methods on
mately 2,270 bph), and reflux flows were held constant during step changes in feed flow and cooling water temperature and sen-
most of the period. It can be observed that the column overhead sitivity to controller tuning is examined. A comparison of elevat-
and reflux drum pressure surge typically occurred at midday, be- ed condenser designs with a condenser located at grade is made.
tween 10 a.m. and 5 p.m. This is a general observation seen at oth- The impacts of HVBP valve sizing, inadequate subcooling and
er times during the year. Reflux drum temperature increases in required excess condenser area are discussed. While a dynamic
the daytime and precedes the pressure surges in the reflux drum. simulation study typically requires more time to perform than
FIG. 4 shows a clear correlation between the reflux drum fluid steady-state methods, it has the potential to lead to significant
temperature and the CWS temperature. This correlation indi- savings for refinery and gas plant operations by reducing frequent
cates that the CWS temperature fluctuation drives the reflux tower instability, gas venting and loss of product specifications.
drum temperature fluctuation and the column pressure surges, A dynamic simulation model of a refinery debutanizer col-
both of which result from condenser capacity limitation. Pres- umn similar to the debutanizer analyzed previously was avail-
160 70 160 900

Overhead
pressure
69
140 140
Bottom product flow 850
Reflux drum temperature 68
Column overhead temperature Top product i-pentane wt%
120 120 Vent flow Reflux drum pressure
67 CWS temperature Bottom product flow
Reflex drum temperature Column overhead pressure Top product flow 800
100 CWS temperature Reflux drum pressure
HVBP valve % open 100 Top product flow
Bottom product flow, BPH

66
Temperature, °F
Temperature, °F
Pressure psig
80 65 80 750
CWS temperature CWS temperature
64
60 60
Reflux drum
pressure 700
63
40 Drum pressure 40
62 Top product
i-C5 wt% 650
20 HGBP valve % open 200
61
Vent flow
0 60 0 600
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time, hr Time, hr
FIG. 6. Dynamic simulation on the impact of increasing the CWS temperature in a refinery debutanizer with flooded condenser overhead
pressure control.
able for evaluating the impact of CWS temperature variations. The simulated trends are very similar to those observed in the
This model simulates a debutanizer with a relatively higher pro- plant data (FIG. 3) and support the previously described analysis.
portion of C6+ components in its feed (e.g., 7 wt% C4–27% C5
and 66% C6+) than the gas plant debutanizer, and operates at Takeaway. This work presents a methodology for trouble-
a slightly lower pressure and higher temperature. However, the shooting flooded condenser HVBP column pressure control.
process configuration is identical to that of the gas plant debu- This analysis should include checks for column tray hydrau-
tanizer shown in FIG. 1. The 60-tray column has a water-cooled lic capacity, proper overheads piping flow distribution in the
submerged overhead condenser, with reflux on flow control process and cooling water side, reflux drum internal piping
and reflux drum level control cascaded to top product outflow. configuration, condenser capacity limitations and HVBP
The column has kettle reboiler heating with kettle sump level valve size adequacy. Plant DCS data should be used in con-
control cascaded to the bottom product outflow, and bottoms junction with such an analysis to identify the causes of insta-
temperature control based on kettle heating media flow control. bility. Dynamic simulation analysis can be used to validate the
The available dynamic model can be used to provide insight for analysis conclusion.
the tower instability case. The study concluded that the primary cause for the debu-
The scenario was simulated by considering a sinusoidal vari- tanizer column pressure instability was an undersized over-
ation of the condenser CWS temperature over the range 73°F– head condenser. Plant data showed that these pressure surges
80°F, with the condenser operating close to its available capac- are typically encountered at midday and are more likely to
ity and the CWS temperature at 73°F. The period of the CWS occur on hot summer days. The condenser operates near or
temperature fluctuation was shortened to 2 hr, instead of the over capacity at the required feedrate, and capacity limitation
24-hr ambient temperature cycle, to reduce computation time. is triggered by increased CWS temperature in summer midday
FIG. 6 shows a simulation of the transient trends. operation. The conclusions are supported by dynamic analy-
A rise in CWS temperature leads to a rise in reflux drum, sis of a similarly configured debutanizer column.
condenser and column overhead pressures and temperatures.
The HVBP valve’s normal opening is at 20% (the valve opening LITERATURE CITED
can be expected to be in the low range when operating close to Complete literature cited is available online at HydrocarbonProcesing.com.
condenser capacity with reduced subcooling) and closes as the
drum pressure rises. When the valve fully closes, it leads to a loss SOUMITRO NAGPAL is a Technical Director for the Process Economics Program
(PEP) at IHS Markit. He has 26 yr of experience in process technology evaluation and
of control and a rapid rise in drum pressure. When drum pres- development, as well as process design and engineering for the petroleum refining,
sure exceeds 63 psig, the vent valve opens to capture pressure gas processing, chemicals, mining and metals industries. He previously worked
rise. Subsequently, as the CWS temperature drops, pressures at Fluor, where he was a global subject matter expert (SME) for process dynamic
simulation; and at Engineers India, where he developed gas treating unit design
drop, the HVBP valve reopens and the vent valve closes. The top capability using selective amines. He has published more than 30 articles in reputed
product flow and i-C5 concentration decrease during the periods journals and conferences. Dr. Soumitro is a chemical engineering graduate of BITS,
of high CWS temperature, while the bottom product flow rises. Pilani (BEng) and received his PhD from the University of Utah.
Hydrocarbon Processing, the downstream processing sector’s leading technical
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3:04 PM Page 2
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The SimCentral simulation platform incorporates all of a
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This integrated offering is available as a modular option,
PROCESS SYSTEM ENTERPRISE, which provides refiners a reliable and cost-effective solution
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SIEMENS, SIMIT Simulation Platform SINOPEC, LTAG

The SIMIT simulation platform enables comprehensive testing Light cycle oil (LCO) is an important byproduct of the FCC
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on process simulation software from AspenTech.
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This technology converts existing HF alkylation production
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which was being operated at a high recycle ratio for producing
55
LCO with a higher aromatic content and lower cetane number Mr. Duhon has received several Dow Technology awards over
is no longer appropriate as a blending component for clean the course of his career.
diesel, even after being hydrogenated. To meet the urgent
requirements for gasoline consumption and diesel quality, BOB HALGREN, Emerson
LTAG converts inferior LCO into gasoline with a high RON. Mr. Halgren led the effort within Emerson to discover a better
way to integrate, automate and control skid-based processes
to reduce project capital expenses and provide performance
LIFETIME ACHIEVEMENT
gains over the life of a refining or petrochemical facility.
DR. MADHUKAR GARG, His research led to two significant innovations: the
Reliance Industries Ltd. development of an easier way to configure control strategies
Dr. Garg is the President of Refining and Petrochemicals and the building of advanced control capabilities into the
Research and Development for Reliance Industries Ltd. product. His analysis, engineering expertise and relevant
He began his career with Engineers India Ltd., and has held work experience led to the development of Emerson’s
senior positions at several Indian companies. His areas of DeltaV PK controller.
expertise include liquid-liquid extraction, pinch technology
and process integration, advanced process control and SABRINA HERMANN, Siemens
optimization, among others. He has authored more than 200 Ms. Hermann is the first woman appointed to the head
technical/conference articles and has 40 patents to his name. of Siemens’ regional office in Dusseldorf, Germany.
She began her career with Siemens in 2008 and has held
DR. PAT KENNEDY, OSIsoft various international sales and marketing functions for the
Dr. Kennedy is the founder and CEO of OSIsoft, a global company’s oil and gas business units, including head of sales
software corporation. Prior to founding the company, for the Southeast Asia downstream market, Vice President of
Dr. Kennedy worked as a research engineer for Shell sales management for new equipment (Dresser-Rand) and
Development Co. and as an applications consultant for Taylor head of Siemens’ Building Technologies business in Western
Instrument Co. He has authored numerous technical papers Germany. She was also instrumental in leading the integration
and has been the recipient of several awards, including the efforts of the Dresser-Rand and Siemens organizations.
prestigious Silicon Valley Engineering Council Hall of Fame.
BALIVADA RAVI KUMAR, Indian Oil Corp. Ltd. (IOCL)
NORMAN LIEBERMAN, Mr. Kumar is a key member of IOCL’s units, including
Process Improvement Engineering coprocessing, INDAdeptG, INDSelectG and INDSN
Mr. Lieberman began his career in 1965 with Amoco Oil, technologies. He has been granted six patents (with one
where he designed the first complex fractionator using a pending), and has authored dozens of technical articles,
computer simulation. He has authored more than 100 articles, conference papers, lectures and internal reports. He has
as well as 11 technical engineering books that are focused received four national awards from the Indian government
on solving processing problems. His continuing education and two international awards.
courses on troubleshooting process operations have been
attended by more than 18,000 engineers and technicians BRYANT LYNCH, Fluor
since 1983. Mr. Lieberman specializes in the retrofit design With two pending patents and 12 projects, Mr. Lynch has
of crude units, FCU fractionators, delayed cokers, sulfuric become one of Fluor’s go-to specialists for gas processing
acid and alkylation plants, and sulfur recovery units. simulations and conceptual designs. He was instrumental
in the development of the company’s ultra-sour gas
LEE SOLOMON, Solomon Associates processing solution, which has the potential to increase
Mr. Solomon is the founder of Solomon Associates, a company the supply of clean natural gas to power the world’s energy
that benchmarks 95% of the world’s petroleum refineries. needs. With a little more than 5 yr of experience, Mr. Lynch
His ideas and methods have been expanded to provide leads studies and simulations for gas processing projects
benchmarking of not only refinery operations, but also lube around the world.
refinery operations, aromatics and olefins facilities, power
plants, terminals, natural gas processing plants, and offshore AHMED AL OWN,
and onshore production facilities. Kuwait National Petroleum Co. (KNPC)
Mr. Own leads a team of engineers to support KNPC’s
MOST PROMISING ENGINEER gas processing facilities. He began his career as a process
engineer for KNPC’s 1.5-Bcfd gas processing complex, and
PAUL DUHON, Dow Chemical actively participated in various stages of the company’s
Mr. Duhon is the unit leader and hydrocarbon raw material ethane recovery project. He has presented more than
center leader for Dow Chemical’s propylene dehydrogenation 10 technical papers for industry conferences, and is a member
(PDH) facility in Freeport, Texas, where he is the most senior of several professional organizations, such as the Kuwait
production engineer and is responsible for all production Society of Engineers and the Gas Processors Association–
planning. He joined Dow in 2009 and made an immediate Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). He is also a member of
impact by managing maintenance for large rotating the Strategy 2040 team, which plans the path forward for
equipment at the company’s refinery in St. Charles, Louisiana. Kuwait’s gas processing capability.
Process Control
and Instrumentation
G. ENGELHART, SpectraSensors Inc., an Endress
& Hauser company, Houston, Texas; B. SPENCER,
Enterprise Products Co., Denver, Colorado;
and D. BEITEL, Davis & Davis Co., Denver, Colorado
Online monitoring of H2O using tunable

diode laser absorption spectroscopy
Raw wellhead natural gas is a com- parallel with a piping system that allows a of the bed, causing ‘breakthrough.’ At
plex mixture of methane (CH4), hydro- saturated adsorbent bed to be taken off- breakthrough, the water content of the
carbon condensates, natural gas liquids line for regeneration with heated gas, as outlet gas begins to increase…”3
(NGL), water, contaminants, hydrogen shown in FIG. 1. Wet feed gas flows down Monitoring the H2O concentration
sulfide (H2S), carbon dioxide (CO2), ni- through the adsorbent bed, where mass in the outlet gas from each dryer vessel
trogen, mercury and other compounds. transfer and adsorption occurs. enables the operator to rapidly detect
Natural gas processing involves separat- An adsorbent bed has three operating H2O breakthrough in an adsorbent bed,
ing CH4 from NGL and removing en- zones: “The top zone is called the satu- and to switch gas flow to a dryer vessel
trained contaminants. ration or equilibrium zone. The desic- with a freshly regenerated adsorbent
The design and complexity of natural cant in this zone is in equilibrium with bed. Rapid detection of H2O break-
gas processing plants varies based on the the wet inlet gas. The middle or mass through helps prevent gas with elevated
end products being recovered and on the transfer zone (MTZ) is where the water levels of H2O from entering downstream
entrained contaminants being removed. content is reduced from its inlet concen- cryogenic equipment used to separate
Plants designed to recover C2+ NGL uti- tration to < 1 ppm. The bottom zone and recover NGL.
lize cryogenic processing.1 The operation is unused desiccant and is often called In theory, molecular sieve dryers can
and control of molecular sieve dehydra- the active zone. If the bed operates too be run until breakthrough is detected to
tion dryer vessels have a direct impact on long in adsorption, then the mass trans- maximize cycle time and to extend the
cryogenic processing equipment in NGL fer zone begins to move out the bottom life of the adsorbent bed by reducing the
recovery plants.
Molecular sieve dehydration. Mo-

lecular sieve dehydration must be used
to obtain the very low H2O concentra-
tion (< 0.1 ppmv) required in low-tem-
perature and cryogenic processes for
NGL extraction and liquefied natural
gas (LNG) production.1,2 The Gas Pro-
cessors Suppliers Association (GPSA)
Engineering Data Book states, “Molecular
sieve dehydrators are commonly used
ahead of NGL recovery plants designed
to recover ethane. These plants operate
at very cold temperatures and require
very dry feed gas to prevent formation
of hydrates. Dehydration to a –101.11°C
(–150°F) dewpoint is possible with mo-
lecular sieves.”3
Three or four dryer vessels containing
FIG. 1. Molecular sieve dehydration system with three dryer vessels.
molecular sieves are typically operated in
Process Control and Instrumentation
frequency of bed regeneration, which is prise Products’ Meeker plant in western measurements in natural gas streams.
a major factor in bed degradation. Most Colorado. The Meeker plant processes These electrochemical sensors operate
plants operate their molecular sieve dry- approximately 0.9 Bft3d of natural gas on the capacitance principle with H2O
ers on a timed cycle rather than on detec- supplied primarily by Encana, Williams molecules diffusing through a micro-
tion of bed breakthrough. and XTO. The plant has two processing scopically porous layer and contacting
The water capacity and adsorption trains, each equipped with three molecu- the surface of the sensor element. H2O
rate of molecular sieves decline as the lar sieve dehydration vessels (FIG. 2). and other polar compounds in contact
material ages. A common estimate for Raw natural gas is processed to sepa- with the sensor change the capacitance in
this decline in capacity is a loss of 35% rate and recover NGL from the natural proportion to the concentration of H2O.
capacity over a 3 yr–5 yr period, or a gas using a demethanizer. The residue Because electrochemical sensors de-
loss of 50% capacity after approximately natural gas product is returned to the pend upon physical diffusion and contact
1,600 regeneration cycles.1 suppliers of the gas. The NGL output, of H2O vapor with the sensor element,
approximately 50 Mbpd, is transported the speed of response can be rather slow.
TDLAS analyzer evaluation. An eval- via the Mid-America Pipeline (MAPL) Lag time is most pronounced when the
uation of a proprietary tunable diode la- to New Mexico, where additional NGL gas stream experiences increases or de-
ser absorption spectroscopy (TDLAS) product is introduced. The NGL stream creases in H2O concentration. Recom-
H2O analyzera was conducted at Enter- is then sent to the Seminole Pipeline in mended practice calls for electrochemi-
West Texas for transport to Enterprise’s cal sensors to be removed from service
storage and fractionation facilities in for factory calibration on an annual ba-
Mont Belvieu, Texas. sis. New or recalibrated sensors require
The process engineering and manage- hours or days to dry down and stabilize
ment team agreed to evaluate a TDLAS for trace-level H2O measurement.
analyzer installed in the common outlet There is a further complication to
of the molecular sieve dryer vessels in the using Al2O3 sensors for low-level H2O
Meeker 2 process train. measurements in natural gas. When po-
The Meeker plant has used aluminum lar compounds [methanol (CH3OH)]
oxide (Al2O3) electrochemical sensors to injected upstream to inhibit hydrate for-
measure H2O on the outlets of their mo- mation (or ethylene glycol) carried over
lecular sieve dryer vessels. The molecular in gas exiting a field glycol dehydration
sieve adsorbent beds are regenerated on unit come in contact with the sensor ele-
a time basis, with the sensors being used ment, they cause a change in capacitance
for trending measurements rather than that is indistinguishable from the sensor
FIG. 2. Process train with three molecular for process control. response to water molecules.
sieve dehydration vessels and demethanizer This measurement bias will falsely
at the Enterprise Products’ Meeker plant Challenges with aluminum oxide indicate a higher concentration of H2O
in Colorado. H2O sensors. While Al2O3 sensors are than is actually present. An electrochemi-
relatively simple instruments, they have cal sensor’s non-specific response to both
some limitations for trace-level H2O H2O and polar compounds makes its use
for trace-level H2O measurement highly
questionable. Gas processing plants typi-
cally use a 3A molecular sieve adsorbent.
CH3OH will pass through a 3A bed be-
cause it does not fit into the pores of the
molecular sieves.4 Consequently, gas ex-
iting a molecular sieve dryer vessel and
reaching an Al2O3 electrochemical sensor
will contain CH3OH.
These technical issues have been
known and documented by molecu-
lar sieve manufacturers for more than
20 yr. A 1996 guidance booklet by one
manufacturer states, “Probe-type mois-
ture analyzers…are often satisfactory
FIG. 4. Spectrum of 164 ppmv H2O in natural for detecting water breakthrough. How-
gas overlaid with a spectrum of 164 ppmv ever, readings tend to drift with time and
H2O and 4,000 ppmv CH3OH in natural gas, temperature, so that absolute dewpoint
demonstrating that the TDLAS analyzer numbers may not be correct. The probes
FIG. 3. The measurement cell response to H2O is unaffected by the presence should be replaced and/or recalibrated
in a TDLAS analyzer. of CH3OH.
on a regular basis. CH3OH, being a po-
lar compound, will also register on these from CH3OH. Therefore, CH3OH pres- trum that are used to calculate analyte
moisture analyzers. As the molecular ent in gas exiting a molecular sieve dryer concentration by spectral subtraction, as
sieve dryers are sized to remove water, vessel does not affect the H2O concentra- depicted in FIG. 5.
large concentrations of CH3OH in the tion measurement. FIG. 4 shows the spec-
feed gas will cause CH3OH breakthrough trum of 164 ppmv of H2O in natural gas Factory calibration and field valida-
in the dryer product gas. CH3OH will overlaid with the spectrum of 164 ppmv tion. The TDLAS analyzers are factory
register on a probe-type moisture ana- of H2O and 4,000 ppmv of CH3OH in tested and calibrated using a test mixture
lyzer as a lower concentration of water.”5 natural gas. The 164 ppmv of H2O mea- blended to simulate the customer’s process
surement is unaffected by the presence of gas stream. The dilution ratio of the stan-
Tunable diode laser absorption 4,000 ppmv of CH3OH in the natural gas dard and mixing ratio of the background
spectroscopy. Many natural gas pro- sample stream. stream gases are controlled by digital mass
cessing plants have transitioned from flow controllers with NIST certifications.
older, direct-contact H2O measurement Differential spectroscopy for trace- The solid-state laser and detector
technologies to TDLAS analyzers. TD- level H2O measurements. Molecular components used in the proprietary TD-
LAS analyzers are designed to selectively sieve dehydration is a highly efficient LAS analyzers are intrinsically stable, so
and specifically measure H2O and other means of removing H2O from natural gas. no field calibration is required over the
analytes [H2S, CO2 , acetylene (C2H2) Under normal operating conditions, gas lifetime of the analyzer. Users perform
and ammonia (NH3)] in hydrocarbon exiting a molecular sieve dryer vessel has periodic validation checks to verify the
process streams. only trace-level (sub-ppm) concentra- analyzer is operating properly within its
The basic design of a measurement tions of H2O. factory-certified calibration range, and
cell in a TDLAS analyzer is depicted in Natural gas streams contain different to ensure that measurements are accurate
FIG. 3. The principal components of the amounts of NGL [ethane (C2H6), pro- for process control.
cell include: pane (C3H8), butane (C4H10)] in addi- Validation of analyzers for trace-level
• An optical head housing the laser tion to CH4. These compounds absorb measurements (0 ppmv–10 ppmv) is
and thermo-electric cooler (TEC), some NIR energy at or near the wave- particularly important because the ana-
and a solid-state detector length used to measure H2O. In some lyte (H2O in this case) being measured
• The cell body with a mirror cases, the light energy measured by the will not be present for extended periods
positioned at the end opposite TDLAS analyzer is attenuated by this of time under normal process operating
the laser background absorption effect. conditions. The analyzer will read 0 ppm.
• Gas inlet and outlet connections A spectral subtraction technique has Unfortunately, cylinders of NIST-
• Temperature and pressure sensors. been developed and patented that enables traceable certified reference gases are
In operation, process gas from a sam- trace-level (sub-ppm) measurements of not commercially available for trace-level
pling probe is introduced to the sample H2O (and H2S or NH3) to be made when (low-ppm to sub-ppm) concentrations
cell of the TDLAS analyzer. A tunable a process gas sample contains very low of certain analytes, such as H2O, NH3,
diode laser emits a wavelength of near- levels of an analyte and background gas C2H2, etc. To address this situation, the
infrared (NIR) light that is selective and interferences. proprietary TDLAS analyzers for trace-
specific for the target analyte into the In operation, the TDLAS analyzer level measurements are equipped with a
sample cell, where it passes through the performs a sequence of steps to obtain permeation system to perform automated
gas and is reflected back by the mirror to a “zero” spectrum and “process” spec- validation checks at user-designated time
a solid-state detector. A window isolates
the laser source and solid-state detector
components from the process gas.
This design allows measurements to
be performed with absolutely no contact
between the process gas (and entrained
contaminants) and critical analyzer
components. Analyte molecules present
in the gas sample absorb and reduce the
intensity of light energy in direct propor-
tion to their concentration, according
to the Lambert-Beer law. The differ-
ence in light intensity is measured by
the solid-state detector, and this signal
is processed using advanced algorithms
to calculate analyte concentration in the
process gas.
The laser wavelength used in TDLAS
analyzers to measure H2O in natural gas
FIG. 5. Differential spectroscopy using spectral subtraction.
does not have an absorbance interference
intervals. This enables users to verify ana- over a 6-mos period by the two analyz- gas pressure, temperature, flowrate and
lyzer performance and accuracy in the ers. The data plotted in green is from the H2O concentration.
field when certified reference gas stan- Al2O3 sensor, and the data plotted in blue By using this process optimization
dards are unobtainable. is from the proprietary TDLAS analyzer. software and data from the TDLAS ana-
The interior of a TDLAS analyzer con- Some noteworthy differences can be lyzer, the Meeker plant expects to extend
figured for trace-level H2O measurement observed between the two data plots. In the operating (drying) time of each mo-
in natural gas exiting a molecular sieve the center of the graph, a major spike (in lecular sieve dryer bed from 34 hr to 48
dryer vessel is shown in FIG. 6. This ana- green) of the H2O concentration was hr before regeneration. Operating on this
lyzer is equipped with a permeation tube measured by the Al2O3 sensor. This spike basis will extend the life of the adsorbent
to perform automated validation checks. (circled in red) followed preventive main- by 40%. This translates into an annual
tenance to replace the Al2O3 sensor. The savings of $70,000 for a three-bed dryer
Evaluation at the Enterprise Prod- response of this new sensor incorrectly in- system, based on an estimated adsorbent
ucts Meeker plant. Performance of the dicated that a high level of H2O was present replacement cost of $500,000/dryer and
TDLAS analyzer was evaluated in side- and remained present for several days until the present 6-yr replacement cycle.
by-side testing with an existing Al2O3 the sensor element dried out. During the Extending the operating time of each
sensor at the common outlet of a three- same time period, the TDLAS analyzer did molecular sieve dryer from 34 hr to 48 hr
bed molecular sieve drying system. FIG. 7 not show any excursion in the H2O con- decreases the regeneration time to dry the
shows the H2O concentration measured centration, providing a more accurate in- adsorbent by 40%. This results in an esti-
dication of the actual H2O concentration. mated annual fuel consumption reduction
The graph also shows two time periods of 9,332 MMBtu/yr. Using an estimated
(circled in yellow) where no H2O concen- fuel cost of $4/MMft3 discounted 30%
tration was registered by the Al2O3 sensor. (because Enterprise is using its own fuel),
It is not immediately clear why H2O was the estimated annual savings from reduced
not being detected and reported. fuel usage for bed regeneration is $11,200.
Conducting the evaluation enabled
process engineering personnel to calcu- Avoiding freeze-up events in cryo-
late the attainable projected cost savings genic equipment. An undetected H2O
by installing TDLAS H2O analyzers at the breakthrough from a molecular sieve dry-
Meeker plant. The projected cost savings er will introduce elevated levels of H2O
are derived from gains in operational ef- to cryogenic equipment and can cause
ficiency in several aspects of molecular freeze-up and interrupt process opera-
sieve dryer operation. tion. Based on historical operating data
for this plant, a breakthrough event can
Increased adsorbent life. The adsor- be expected to occur and cause the plant
bent in the Meeker plant’s molecular sieve to operate in a dewpoint mode an average
dryers was replaced shortly before the of 19 hr/yr. Operating a plant with a ca-
TDLAS analyzer evaluation was conduct- pacity of 700 MMsft3d in dewpoint mode
ed. The adsorbent supplier has an online rather than normal cryogenic recovery
software tool to help plants assess and op- mode for a period of 2 d incurs extra costs
FIG. 6. Interior view of a TDLAS analyzer timize adsorbent performance and life by of approximately $150,000.
for trace-level H2O measurement. monitoring process parameters, including The evaluation conducted at the
Meeker plant demonstrated that the more
accurate and reliable data obtained from
a TDLAS analyzer, used in conjunction
with an online molecular sieve optimiza-
tion software program, can deliver signifi-
cant operational cost savings. In this case,
the combined annual cost savings are esti-
mated to be more than $230,000.
Next steps. Both gas processing trains

at the Meeker plant have three molecular
sieve dryer systems. The recommenda-
tion is to install two TDLAS analyzers in
each train: one analyzer will be installed
on the common outlet of the molecu-
lar sieve dryer system; and the second
FIG. 7. H2O concentration in gas at common outlet of Meeker 2 molecular sieve dryers measured analyzer, equipped with a three-stream
over a 6-mos period by Al2O3 sensor (in green) and the proprietary TDLAS analyzera (in blue).
sample switching system, will be installed
and programmed to switch between the is an important performance character- Engineering Design, Elsevier, 2014.
3
“Engineering Data Book,” Gas Processors Suppliers
outlets of the three dryer vessels. Both istic for detecting breakthrough in mo- Association (GPSA), Engineerig Data Book, 13th
analyzers will be installed inside heat- lecular sieve dryer beds. TDLAS analyz- Ed., 2012.
ed cabinets for protection from winter ers selectively and specifically measure 4
Herold, R. H. M. and S. Mokhatab, “Optimal design
weather conditions that can reach –40°C the molar absorptivity of H2O in natural and operation of molecular sieve dehydration
units—Part 1,” Gas Processing, July/August 2017.
(–40°F) at the plant site in Colorado. gas, and are unaffected by the presence of 5
“Operating a cryogenic molecular sieves dryer,”
Based on the results of their evalua- CH3OH and glycol. Consequently, trace- Booklet 3, UOP, 1996.
tion, process engineering and manage- level H2O measurements from TDLAS
ment personnel at the Meeker plant analyzers are more accurate than those GARY ENGELHART is the Product
Line Marketing Manager for
have also recommended the proprietary obtained from analyzers with sensing ele- SpectraSensors. He is responsible
TDLAS H2O analyzers to the Enter- ments in direct contact with natural gas for TDLAS analyzer applications in
prise Products Pioneer plant in Opal, and entrained contaminants. the hydrocarbon processing
Wyoming. In February 2018, Enterprise An in-field evaluation at the Enterprise industries, including natural gas
processing, LNG, refining and
Products placed an order for two TD- Products Meeker plant demonstrated that petrochemicals. He has 25 yr of experience in analytical
LAS analyzers, heated cabinets, a stream data from a TDLAS analyzer, used in con- instrumentation and chemical process equipment.
switching system, sample probes and junction with an online molecular sieve
heated sample transfer tubing lines. process optimization software program, BRIAN SPENCER is a Staff Engineer at Enterprise
Products responsible for Colorado and Wyoming
can improve process efficiency, resulting assets, including three cryogenic gas processing
Takeaways. Online monitoring of the in significantly lower operating costs. plants. He has 26 yr of experience in the
H2O concentration in gas exiting mo- NOTES
petrochemical industry.
lecular sieve dryer vessels helps detect SpectraSensors tunable diode laser absorption
a
DAVID BEITEL is a Sales Engineer
moisture breakthrough and prevent gas spectroscopy (TDLAS) H2O analyzer
for Davis & Davis, and has
with elevated levels of H2O from entering responsibility for providing
cryogenic equipment used for separation LITERATURE CITED customer solutions for all aspects of
and recovery of NGL. 1
Kidnay, A. J. and W. R. Parrish, Fundamentals of custody transfer measurement and
Natural Gas Processing, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis analytic instrumentation. He has
The fast response time of TDLAS an- Group, 2006. worked for 30 yr with Davis & Davis,
alyzers to changes in H2O concentration 2
Bahadori, A., Natural Gas Processing: Technology and and has 38 yr of experience in the oil and gas industry.
LIVE WEBCAST: August 30, 2018

10 a.m. CDT / 3 p.m. UTC
Asset Excellence in Oil & Gas:

Customer Success Story with Predictive Analytics
Digital Transformation empowers organizations to shift from reactive maintenance
Ann Attaway to predictive maintenance (PdM) strategies. This enables front-line personnel to
Program Manager, SIO-Predict act before costly failures occur and maximizes value throughout the entire asset
Air Liquide lifecycle. Improving reliability, performance and safety are among the top priorities for
industrial organizations and businesses which are focusing efforts and resources on
controlling costs and maximizing value from existing investments. PRiSM Predictive
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predictive maintenance (PdM) programs. The PRiSM Predictive Asset Analytics solution
provides early warning notification and diagnosis of equipment issues days, weeks
or months before failure. This helps asset-intensive organizations reduce equipment
downtime, increase reliability and improve performance while reducing operations and
maintenance expenditures. During this webinar, Ann Attaway, Program Manager at
Air Liquide, will provide an overview of the PRiSM implementation process, successes
Mike Rhodes and lessons learned at Air Liquide.
Managing Editor
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Process Control
and Instrumentation
D. CARLSON, Emerson Automation Solutions,
Shakopee, Minnesota; and D. CYCHOSZ,
Emerson Automation Solutions, Boulder, Colorado
Adapting instrumentation to the needs of refineries

Oil refineries provide a smorgasbord of challenging applica- viscosity of the fluid in the impulse line gets to be too high, its
tions for instrumentation engineers and technicians. Safety is ability to transmit pressure to the transmitter slows or can stop
always at the forefront of every activity in a refinery due to these entirely. This is particularly troublesome during times when a
potentially hazardous conditions: cold front may move into an area, bringing ice and snow, no
• Flammable and explosive—The very nature of matter how briefly.
hydrocarbons This problem can be solved by using two fill fluids (FIG. 2).
• Hot—Converting oil into higher-value products takes heat The high-temperature fluid is used in the part exposed to the
• Corrosive—High total acid number (TAN) crude oils, process. It bears the brunt of the heat and stays warm enough to
hydrogen sulfide (H2S), alkylation acids, etc. avoid thickening. It sends the pressure value via an intermedi-
• Viscous—Crude oil can contain residual content with ate diaphragm to a second fluid designed for lower-temperature
very high boiling points. operation. This second and less-viscous fluid spans the remain-
Every type of challenge is not present in every unit, but they ing distance to the transmitter, and is unaffected by lower tem-
emerge in different places and in different combinations. Due to peratures, even below freezing. This extends the temperature
the sheer scale of the oil and gas industry, instrumentation sup- range of a DP transmitter without the need for heat tracing, and
pliers work hard to develop solutions to these problems. Solving also greatly reduces the lag time in pressure readings as com-
a critical problem can translate into widespread end-user ben- pared to other approaches.
efits, since a given solution often works in many locations with
today’s commonality of applications.
Due to the efforts of instrumentation engineers working in-
novatively with responsive automation solution providers, the
toolbox for solving measurement problems is constantly grow-
ing. One of the sectors that has witnessed a significant improve-
ment is differential pressure (DP) transmitters.
The basic DP transmitter (FIG. 1) is the “Swiss army knife” of
instruments. It can be used for simple pressure measurements,
along with DP, but it is also the most common way of measur-
ing flow and is a frequent choice for level. This is especially the
case in refinery environments, as using a few simple but clever
accessories can extend the capabilities of a basic DP transmitter
to handle the toughest challenges.
Too hot to handle. Within a refinery, high-temperature pro-

cesses are basic to cracking and distillation, with operating tem-
peratures in the 315°C–375°C (600°F–700°F) range being very
common. Pressure instruments cannot withstand such heat
with direct contact to process fluids, so ways must be found to
transmit pressure without also transmitting heat. Uncompress-
ible fluids with very high boiling points make this practical,
since they can send pressure down an impulse line or capillary
tube to the DP transmitter at a safe distance. This approach
works, but is often defeated not by heat, but by cold. FIG. 1. A basic DP transmitter is one of the most versatile
A fill fluid that is incapable of boiling at 400°C (750°F) field instruments, and a mid-size refinery can have hundreds
of them installed.
tends to thicken at more typical ambient temperatures. If the
This temperature range capability can be useful for any DP to the volume of fluid moving past the obstruction. Using a
application—pressure, level or flow. DP transmitter to measure the pressure drop can provide data
from which the volumetric flow can be calculated. Adding a
Calculating flow from pressure. Placing an obstruction, temperature and static pressure reading and known density
such as an orifice plate, in the path of fluid flow in a pipe causes characteristics can help convert a volume reading to mass flow.
a pressure differential in which the square root is proportional This capability has been recognized and utilized for many de-
cades, and its ability to be used on a practical basis makes it
the most popular method for measuring flow, particularly in
refinery applications.
This fact still leaves the question: How well does DP for flow
work in more extreme applications? We must first examine two
long-standing problems: hot and clog-prone product flows, as
often experienced in a crude oil distillation unit. In this unit,
the crude is heated to a temperature around 345°C (650°F)
and is then sent into the atmospheric fractionator column to
separate it into its various fractions. These are heavy flows, usu-
ally requiring a pipe diameter of 12 in. or larger. Crude oil at
this stage of its processing tends to carry impurities capable of
clogging equipment.
With all these elements in mind, a reliable solution is a
wedge primary element with remote seals (FIG. 3), which cre-
ates a reliable DP flow reading while being resistant to wear
or plugging and reducing pressure loss. When mounted in a
horizontal pipe run, the wedge cuts in from the side to keep
an unobstructed flow path on the top and bottom, so there are
no places for particulates or entrained gases to accumulate and
impact measurement reliability.
FIG. 2. Using two fill fluids optimized for different temperatures Typical configurations place flanged taps on either side of
can extend the temperature range of a DP transmitter in a variety the wedge element, although multiple sets of taps can be fit-
of applications. The cut-away section on the right uses the ted for safety applications requiring redundant measurements.
high-temperature fill fluid in the capillary tube. It pressurizes Since crude oil distillation is a high-temperature application,
the intermediate diaphragm, which captures the low-temperature the impulse lines running to the DP transmitter often use a
fill fluid that extends to the actual sensor diaphragm.
sealed system with multiple fill fluids to allow measurement of
the high-temperature fluid, while avoiding the cost and main-
tenance challenges that are present with heat tracing.
DP for level on the distillation tower. Remaining with the

distillation column example for a moment, think about anoth-
er serious safety-related concern: flooding. There have been
numerous safety incidents in refineries where a distillation col-
umn was unable to perform its function of separating vapors
and, instead, filled with liquid, sometimes with catastrophic re-
sults. A very reliable level measurement is paramount to detect
when this is happening.
Using a DP transmitter is an excellent choice, since it can be
outfitted with a multiple-fluid temperature extender. To com-
pensate for pressure inside the column, the low side of the DP
transmitter can connect to a tap from the headspace at the top
of the column. This creates a new set of challenges related to
the best method for this connection, which has been treated as
its own topic in many articles.
One approach growing in popularity is the idea of using
a second pressure transmitter (FIG. 4) to read the headspace
pressure, and then sending the reading to the transmitter at
the bottom electronically. This action eliminates the long im-
pulse line and can provide more information about the pro-
FIG. 3. A wedge flow metering sensor, as shown in this cutaway, cess, namely the headspace pressure. It also eliminates all the
provides the necessary pressure drop and is both wear- and problems and expenses associated with impulse lines, includ-
clog-resistant.
ing heat tracing.
Since level in this context is very much a safety issue, DP trans- • Impulse lines—Using DP to measure flow requires
mitters normally become part of the larger safety instrumented impulse lines between the transmitter and both sides of
system (SIS), and three units are frequently installed to provide the primary element. The design and construction of
a two-out-of-three voting scheme. Typically, each of these units the impulse lines have a major influence on the success
uses an identical configuration, and each can be outfitted with a of the installation. If poorly executed, they can be prone
multiple-fluid temperature extender.
Larger questions of DP flow. While DP flow metering appli-

cations are very common, the technique is not without its draw-
backs. Examining them individually, we can see how vendors
have found ways to mitigate problems:
• Pressure drop—This basic measurement concept
requires creating a pressure drop in the line, thus restricting
flow, reducing available process pressure and creating a
potential place for clogging. Traditional wisdom dictates
that achieving the maximum accuracy and turndown range
means creating the largest pressure drop. Fortunately, the
accuracy of today’s DP transmitters is better than in years
past, making it possible to get good flow readings with less
pressure loss. The basic problem remains, but technology
has mitigated the effect to a large extent.
• Long, straight pipe sections—DP flow meters are
affected by upstream flow disturbances, and therefore
often require relatively long, straight and smooth pipe
sections upstream and downstream from the primary FIG. 5. The presence of four holes in the primary element, rather than
element. Standards specify as many as 44 different just one, changes the turbulence characteristics, reducing the need
pipe diameters upstream and five different diameters for a long, straight pipe section.
downstream to achieve maximum accuracy. This
can make mounting a DP flowmeter in complex and
congested piping a challenge. On new installations,
additional cost can be incurred when piping runs are Idrojet s.r.l. & Idrokid s.r.l.
specified only to ensure accurate measurement. proudly presents...
The design of the primary element is the main ...your full line of heat exchangers maintenance product
concern. The traditional round-hole-in-a-disk orifice
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also one of the most common designs. In many respects,
the requirement for straight piping relates more to the
diameter of the restricting orifice than the pipe diameter. AERIAL BUNDLE EXTRACTOR
Using multiple holes (FIG. 5) rather than just one can

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accuracy and repeatability.
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reading, instead of using an impulse line, avoids many potential email:info@idrojet.com email:info@idrokid.com
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level measurement challenges.

65
• A basic multivariable DP transmitter is combined

with a preassembled spool section ready to mount
in the application.
• The impulse lines are kept short, and the DP transmitter
is close-coupled to minimize the potential for plugging.
• The primary element uses four holes instead of one to
reduce the overall length between flanges, making it
easier to fit into existing piping.
• The overall construction is welded stainless steel,
in keeping with piping requirements, and the entire
unit has been leak-tested.
• The gate-type isolation valves are also selected and
welded according to piping requirements.
• Threaded clean-out ports align with the impulse lines,
so they can be rodded out while the unit is in operation.
• Smaller isolation and bypass valves are built into the
manifold, along with impulse-line bleeding ports.
• The temperature sensor/transmitter assembly sends
its information to the main DP transmitter,
which can report the value to the automation host
system. When the fluid temperature is combined
with the DP volumetric flowrate and the known
fluid density, the transmitter can also provide
a mass flow measurement.
• The DP transmitter can also provide static line
pressure values to enhance the mass flow measurement
without an additional pipe penetration.
• Smart-instrument functions built into the transmitter
provide a wide range of basic and advanced diagnostic
information.
• Although not designed specifically for high-temperature
FIG. 6. This flowmeter assembly is designed for difficult refinery
operations, while providing a high degree of precision and reliability.
applications, a setup such as this can typically handle
fluids up to 315°C (600°F) or higher, depending on the
application and installation.
to many types of problems, including clogging, freezing, This product represents a combination of proven technolo-
and slugs of gas or liquid. In refinery contexts, they are gies optimized for the expected environment. It is built to pro-
governed by strict piping requirements that specify vide a long and reliable life in refining environments, and the
welding techniques, shutoff valves, etc. electronic components can be replaced on the fly without shut-
In critical applications, impulse lines are normally all welded ting down the line, if needed.
and include gate valves on the high and low sides to isolate the
transmitter. These allow the transmitter to be removed without Instrumentation is key for control. Effective process con-
shutting down the process. Bleeding ports are also included to trol and safety in a refinery or petrochemical plant depend on
clear gas slugs trapped in the lines. effective instrumentation. This instrumentation provides the
Ports are placed close to the transmitter that can be opened eyes and ears into a process, letting operators know what is hap-
to allow mounting of line rodding devices. These devices are pening inside the pipes and vessels. DP transmitters capture
mounted while the isolation valves are closed. Once the valves much of the data necessary to keep production units working
are reopened, the cleanout tool can be extended through the efficiently and safely.
valve and all the way into the main pipe. This permits com-
plete clearing of the impulse lines without any operational DOUGLAS CARLSON is a Global Pressure Product Manager
for Emerson Automation Solutions in Shakopee, Minnesota.
interruption. He is responsible for Rosemount DP level solutions. Mr. Carlson
earned a BS degree in mechanical engineering and an MBA
Combining design developments. Various instrumentation from the University of Minnesota–Twin Cities. He has worked
with multiple Emerson technologies in various product
vendors have put together different DP flowmeter designs in management roles.
an effort to solve specific application challenges. Those aim-
ing particularly at refinery environments fulfill piping require- DAN CYCHOSZ is a Global DP Flow Product Manager
ments for design and construction, while providing sizes and for Emerson Automation Solutions in Boulder, Colorado.
He is responsible for Rosemount DP flowmeters. Mr. Cychosz
configurations for the types of equipment found in refinery and has a BS degree in chemical engineering from Iowa State
petrochemical production units. For example, the DP flowme- University. Prior to joining Emerson, he spent time in the
ter shown in FIG. 6 was assembled using the following elements: chemical industry in a technical sales role.
Environment
and Safety
S. CHAUDHURI and S. SENGUPTA,
Process Technology, Fluor Daniel India Pvt. Ltd.,
Gurgaon, India
Selecting flare gas recovery system

for a greenfield refinery
Overall energy management and op- relief valves, continuous/intermittent/ compressed flare gas is then routed to an
erational conservation have become machinery vents, piping systems, etc., appropriate treating system to be compat-
crucial factors for profitability in today’s connected to the flare are identified. ible to blend in the refinery fuel gas sys-
refining segment. Many existing and new A major refiner in North America tem. Flare gases can have widely varying
refineries are initiating programs to save (NA) designed a plan to build a 12-MMt- compositions that must be evaluated in
energy and reduce emissions as a part of py grassroots refinery using indigenous the design of the recovery system.
an energy management initiative (EMI). crude oil. In alignment with global flare Streams with the potential for contain-
Losses from flaring, including process reduction initiatives, the refiner intended ing materials that are incompatible with
gas and fuel gas, collectively account for to evaluate the feasibility of an FGRS for the FGRSs and refinery fuel gas system
one of the largest shares of a facility’s to- this greenfield facility. Useful insights must be evaluated to determine if they
tal energy loss. Flare gas recovery systems concerning the requirements and con- should be designed to bypass the recovery
(FGRSs) help achieve the economic and figuration of an FGRS for a grassroots system. Typically, an acid flare system is
environmental benefits of near-zero flar- refinery based on technical and economic not considered to be hooked to an FGRS,
ing. Recovered gas is reused as a fuel or evaluations are provided here. owing to high sour gas content.
feedstock, leading to cost savings and an A case study is highlighted that dis- Flare systems are used for both occa-
improvement in overall energy efficiency. cusses the design and requirements of a sional normal process releases and emer-
A properly designed FGRS is capable of system to recover the flared gases from gency releases. An FGRS is not sized for
handling any continuous process gas vent hydrocarbon flare headers of a new re- design flare loads. An analysis is made to
connected to a flare system, limiting flaring finery complex. The study also discusses determine an economically optimum size
to upset/emergency releases and sched- strategies to arrive at a technically and based on flare gas rate, frequency and du-
uled maintenance. economically viable FGRS capacity for a ration. Flare loads vary widely over time,
In a real-time situation, an FGRS is new refinery with a payback period that and the “normal” rate may represent some
economically viable in existing facilities coincides with the first scheduled mainte- average flare load, or a frequently en-
where the losses to flare are significant nance of the refinery (normally 5 yr). countered maximum load. Actual loads
(approximately 0.1 wt% of the refinery on these systems will vary widely, and an
throughput). Normally, in such cases, FGRS overview. An FGRS consists of FGRS must be designed to operate over
the capacity of the FGRS is selected by a compressor(s) with suction that is di- a wide range of dynamically changing
measuring and monitoring the overall rectly connected to the flare header. The loads. In the phases of front-end design,
flare gas losses in the facility over a pe-
riod of time.
For an initial estimate of a greenfield TABLE 1. FGRS capacity information as installed in different refineries
facility, the data to calculate the potential Capacity, Yr in operation when Installed FGRS Wt% of refinery Compressor
flare gas loss figure is limited or nonex- Refinery MMtpy FGRS installed capacity, tpd throughput sparing
istent. In such cases, historical data and Refinery 1 27 4 (*) 52 0.07 2 × 100%
prevalent practices in operating refineries
Refinery 2 6 42 (**) 10 0.06 2 × 100%
can be utilized to define FGRS capacity.
However, a more accurate estimate of to- Refinery 3 13 FEED (***) 36.7 0.1 2 × 100%
tal leakage in a flare system can be con- Note:
* Refinery commissioned in April 1999. FGRS installed in November 2003. Capacity reported as in 2003.
ducted during the detailed engineering ** Refinery commissioned in 1964. Refinery expansion in 2002. FGRS installed in 2006.
phase, as leakages from the control valves, *** FGRS included during front-end engineering design (FEED) phase.

Environment and Safety
it is not practically possible to calculate capability, which often makes them un- • Ability to handle gas containing
the normal flaring rate for the sizing of acceptable for an FGRS. A sliding vane condensate and particulates,
an FGRS. The capacities of the FGRS compressor can also be an option for flare as well as toxic and corrosive gases
in such cases are primarily determined gas application, if the pressure is too high • Works without lubricants
based on the FGRS capacities of existing for a roots blower but too low to justify a • System is significantly
refineries of similar scale under operation. reciprocating compressor. tolerant for sudden gas
If the gas is always dry (which is sel- and condensate surges
Compressor selection. Insights into dom the case for a refinery flare), then • The intensive contact between
optimum compressor type selection a screw compressor is another choice. It the gas being conveyed and the
and sparing, as well as positive pressure caters to higher turndown, lower power operating fluid leads to only
requirements in the flare header, are dis- draw and low cooling water consumption, a slight rise in the temperature
cussed here. The selection of compres- and has no need for water makeup and a of the gas being conveyed
sor for an FGRS is a critical decision, as discharge separator/cooler, such as a liq- • Since the compression is
its service involves long stretches of con- uid ring compressor. However, a screw- achieved with contact-free
tinuous operation, variable flowrates, a type compressor is not really tolerant for components, any local rise in
range of molecular weight of gases to be liquid and particulate carryover and the temperature is eliminated
handled, potential liquid carryover and handling of corrosive gases. • No metal parts that move
the existence of corrosive components in Considering all operating variables, against each other; therefore,
the recovered gas. a liquid ring compressor is the popular a high level of reliability in
A roots-type blower is the simplest, choice for this service, as it can handle service exists with a minimum
least expensive option for compression. the variable molecular weights and liq- of required maintenance.
However, the use of these blowers is uid carryover, in addition to the follow- The FGRS design using a liquid ring
constrained by limited casing pressure ing advantages: compressor was selected for the case study.
MP steam FGRS simplified schematic

Option 1:
FC
• Liquid ring compressors (1 operating + 1 spare): 2 × 1 5 tpd
HP flare • Flare gas recovery compressor knockout drums (1 operating + 1 spare): 2 × 15 tpd
Emergency LC • Flare gas recovery compressor knockout drum pumps (1 operating + 1 spare): 2 × 15 tpd
purge Utility • Seal water coolers (1 operating + 1 spare): 2 × 15 tpd
water To seal overflow
From HP PC
H
L
TC HP seal drum collection drum • Separator drum: 1 × 30 tpd
flare header
Option 2:
MP steam • Liquid ring compressors (1 operating + 1 spare): 2 × 30 tpd
HP flare • Flare gas recovery compressor knockout drums (1 operating + 1 spare): 2 × 30 tpd
KO drum • Flare gas recovery compressor knockout drum pumps (1 operating + 1 spare): 2 × 30 tpd
• Seal water coolers (1 operating + 1 spare): 2 × 30 tpd
FC • Separator drum: 1 × 30 tpd
Emergency Alky flare
LC
purge Utility
H water To seal overflow
From alky PC L TC Alky seal drum collection drum
flare header Flare gas recovery package
H2S To gas
Al
treatment
Alky flare MP steam and recovery
KO drum PY unit for amine
treatment
N2
FC O2
Emergency LP flare Al PC
purge Utility LC Liquid ring
H water To seal overflow compressor Stripped
From LP PC L TC LP seal drum collection drum
flare header sour water
makeup
LC
Seal water cooler Separator drum
LP flare
KO drum MP steam
To sour water
stripper
(non-phenolic)
FC Coker flare CWS CWR
Emergency
purge Utility LC
From cooker H water To seal overflow

flare header
PC L TC Coker seal drum collection drum
Cooker flare
KO drum
FIG. 1. A simplified FGRS schematic.
Positive pressure requirements. stallation of a water seal between the flare be accepted, alternate methods are
Introducing a compressor into a flare knockout drum and the flare tip. The seal implemented using a fail-open pressure
collection network always poses the risk provides a relatively constant, low back- control valve and a high-capacity, pilot-
of sucking in air from the atmosphere, pressure on the flare header and a narrow, operated pressure relief valve, rupture
and the formation of an explosive but usually adequate, control range (ap- disk or buckling pin around the control
mixture within the flare network. proximately 1,000-mm water column) for valve. This is illustrated in Figure 14 of
Provisions must be made to prevent the the flare gas recovery control system. The API Standard 521.1 However, this option
backflow of air from the flare into the water seal should be designed to func- is not considered for the purpose of this
flare gas recovery system. tion over the pressure range in which the case study, as conventional water seal-
All compressors should be equipped FGRS is designed to operate. At higher based systems are proven to function
with a highly reliable, low-suction pres- release rates, flare gas flows through the adequately for refining applications.
sure shutdown system. water seal and to the flare.
The most positive and preferred meth- Where process requirements Case study system configuration. The
od for preventing air ingress from the flare dictate that the narrow operating refining complex under study had four in-
back into the collection system is the in- ranges afforded by water seals cannot dependent hydrocarbon flare systems.
TABLE 2. Indicative equipment list for CAPEX estimation
Option 1
Design press: kg/cm2g/ Material
Equipment item Capacity/size Temp, °C of construction
Flare gas recovery compressor, liquid ring— Capacity: 15 tpd; Differential pressure, Casing: SS;
2 × 50% kg/cm2: 7.4; mol wt: 19.3; power: 92.3 kW Rotor: SS
Separator (two phases, 1 × 100%) Diameter × T/T length, mm: 1,900 x 4,600 9/70 Killed CS
Cooler: Shell and tube, 2 × 50% Duty: 33 kW; area: 6 m2 Shell: 9/70 Shell: KCS;
Tube: 10/80 Tube: CS
Line from FGRS to sat gas plant Nominal pipe size = 6 in.; length = 1,360 m 9/70 CS
Line from HP flare header to FGRS Nominal pipe size = 12 in.; length = 70 m 3.5/400 KCS
Line from LP flare header to FGRS Nominal pipe size = 20 in.; length = 70 m 3.5/400 KCS
Line from COK flare header to FGRS Nominal pipe size = 20 in.; length = 70 m 3.5/400 KCS
Line from ALK flare header to FGRS Nominal pipe size = 12 in.; length = 70 m 3.5/400 KCS
Flare header take-off line control valve 2 × 20 in.
2 × 12 in.
Control valve in the line from FGRS 6 in.
to sat gas plant
Analyzer O2, N2
Option 2
Design press: kg/cm2g/ Material
Equipment item Capacity/size Temp, °C of construction
Flare gas recovery compressor, Capacity: 30 tpd; differential pressure, Casing: SS;
liquid ring—2 × 100% kg/cm2: 7.4; mol wt: 19.3; power: 178 kW Rotor: SS
Separator (two phases, 1 × 100%) Diameter × T/T length, mm: 1,900 × 4,600 9/70 Killed CS
Cooler: Shell and tube, 2 × 100% Duty: 62.3 kW; area: 11 m2 Shell: 9/70 Shell: KCS;
Tube: 10/80 tube: CS
Line from FGRS to sat gas plant Nominal pipe size: 6 in.; length: 1,360 m 9/70 CS
Line from HP flare header to FGRS Nominal pipe size: 12 in.; length: 70 m 3.5/400 KCS
Line from LP flare header to FGRS Nominal pipe size: 20 in.; length: 70 m 3.5/400 KCS
Line from COK flare header to FGRS Nominal pipe size: 20 in.; length: 70 m 3.5/400 KCS
Line from ALK flare header to FGRS Nominal pipe size: 12 in.; length: 70 m 3.5/400 KCS
Flare header take-off line 2 × 20 in.
control valve 2 × 12 in.
Control valve in the line from FGRS 6 in.
to sat gas plant
Analyzer O2, N2

In addition to the high-pressure [(HP), The compressed gas is separated from • High nitrogen content in
catering to relief from sources with a set the liquid in the separator. The liquid flare header (measured by
pressure of 7 kg/cm2g and higher)] and from the separator is cooled in a cooler to an N2 analyzer at FGRS inlet)
low-pressure [(LP), catering to relief from remove the heat absorbed by the motive • High temperature in flare header.
sources with a set pressure of 3.5 kg/cm2g– fluid, and then recycled back to the liquid Considering the composition of the
7 kg/cm2g] systems, there were dedicated ring compressor. gases to be handled, the refinery operating
flare systems for the delayed coker unit The seal liquid is considered to have philosophy and capital/operating costs,
(DCU) and alkylation (ALK) unit due to enough pressure head for circulation and the decision was made to have 2 × 100%
high governing relief rates. transfer to an SWS unit in case of turn- or 2 × 50% spare for the FGRS compres-
The FGRS for the case study was de- around operation. For the purpose of this sor and other associated equipment. The
signed to recover gases from all four flare case study, the seal liquid recycle pumps study covers both of these options to pro-
headers. The flare gases withdrawn from and seal liquid transfer pumps to the SWS vide high-level guidance (FIG. 1).
the HP, LP, coker (COK) and ALK flare unit were not considered.
headers under pressure control are routed The compressed gas, free from liquid, Arriving at the sizing basis. An FGRS
to a set of liquid ring compressors. is routed to a gas treatment and recovery is economically viable in existing refiner-
Stripped phenolic sour water from a system (sat gas) for amine treatment to ies, and the implementation decision is
sour water stripper (SWS) unit is used as remove sour impurities, if any. The gas made after executing an economic viability
the motive liquid for liquid ring compres- is then finally routed to the refinery fuel study. FGRS capacity is selected by con-
sors. Alternatively, service water can be gas system. tinuously measuring and monitoring the
used as motive fluid. The liquid is routed The compressor train is provided with overall flare gas loss in the refinery for a
to an SWS (phenolic) unit under level 100% recycle. Safety interlocks are pro- considerable period of time.
control while emptying the separator dur- vided to isolate the FGRS from the flare As no method exists to calculate this
ing maintenance. header and trip compressor on the follow- potential flare gas loss figure for a green-
Liquid levels in the seal drums of the ing conditions: field refinery during the basic engineer-
HP, LP, COK and ALK flares are suitably • Low flare header pressure ing phase, historical data and the preva-
selected to maintain a constant pressure • High flare header velocity lent practices in operating refineries are
of 1.1 kg/cm2 (abs) in the flare headers, (high flow) utilized to determine FGRS capacity
thereby ensuring a constant suction pres- • High oxygen content in flare (TABLE 1).
sure for the compressor system in absence header (measured by an O2 During the engineering phase, a rea-
of significant relief. analyzer at FGRS inlet) sonable estimate of total flare system leak-
age can be achieved by assuming a per-
centage of leakage for the control/relief
TABLE 3. Economic evaluation—the CAPEX/OPEX values presented valves once all relief valves, control valves
are for comparison only1 and continuous/intermittent/machinery
Option 1 Option 2 Differential vents connected to the flare system are
CAPEX, $MM/yr 2.64 2.76 0.12 identified. Conservative leakage values
for pressure relief devices can be obtained
Product, utility and power load
from API Standard 527. The total fuel
Service Units Option 1 Option 2 Differential gas purge quantity can be accurately cal-
Recovered fuel gas Tpd 10 10 0 culated based on an estimated velocity of
Seal water cooler MMkCal/hr 0.0284 0.0536 0.252 purge gas through the flare header that is
OPEX estimation
approximately 0.03 ft/sec. (0.01 m/sec).

FGRS compressor kW 92.3 178 85.7
The flare header sizes are finalized based
Utility consumption and maintenance, $MM/yr on the design flare loads for the facility.
Item Unit cost Option 1 Option 2 Differential Components of the preliminary
Power $120/MWhr 0.092 0.178 0.086 capacity calculation include:
Refinery throughput: 250 Mbpd
Cooling water $0.049/m 3
0.002 0.003 0.001
Onstream factor: 95%
Maintenance 0.5 % of CAPEX/yr 0.0132 0.0138 0.0006 Operating hr: 365 × 24 × 0.95
Total OPEX, $MM/yr 0.1076 0.1942 0.0866 = 8,322 hr
Product cost, $MM/yr Crude oil density: 924 kg/m3
Refinery throughput: 36,729 tpd
Item Unit cost Option 1 Option 2 Differential
Weighted average of refinery capacity
Recovered fuel gas $6/MMBtu 0.878 0.878 0 (i.e., FGRS capacity for all refineries
Profit/yr (Product cost – OPEX), $MM/yr Option 1 Option 2 Differential listed in TABLE 2 is 0.074%)
0.7702 0.6838 0.0864 Estimated FGRS capacity: 0.074 ×
36,729/100 = 27.3 tpd
Payout period (CAPEX ÷ profit) Option 1 Option 2 Differential
Taking a 10% margin, FGRS capacity:
3.4 4 0.6 27.3 × 1.1 = 30 tpd
The amount of purge gas used for thereby ensuring high availability and re- a strong function of refinery housekeeping
purging the hydrocarbon flare headers is liability of the FGRS (TABLE 3). practices, the outcome of the techno-eco-
estimated as 10 tpd. nomic analysis was positive.
Takeaway. For the case study, FGRS
Installation options. For installation installation (both Options 1 and 2) are NOTE
Option 1, 30 tpd of compression capac- observed to recoup their capital cost The conclusions presented here are solely those of
ity is installed in two trains of 15 tpd around the first planned refinery-wide the authors and cannot be ascribed to Fluor Corp., nor
to any of its subsidiaries.
each. It is assumed that for the first 4 yr, maintenance operation, which is typically
flare loss gases are essentially only purge in the first 4 yr of production. This is very LITERATURE CITED
gases; therefore, one of the 15-tpd com- encouraging in view of an overall refinery 1
API Standard 521, “Pressure relieving and depres-
pressors will operate while the other acts design life of 20 yr. suring systems,” 6th Ed., 2014.
as a standby. After 4 yr, when leakages Between the two options presented,
from relief and control valves increase, it is observed that the capital investment, SUSHREE CHAUDHURI is a
the second 15-tpd compressor will also as well as variable costs, are higher in the Process Engineer with Fluor
New Delhi. She has 17 yr of
start operating continuously. case of Option 2, with only a 0.6-yr incre- experience in petroleum refining,
For this installation option, it is as- mental payback period. The incremental petrochemicals, offshore oil and gas
sumed that the refinery can sustain op- capital cost and payback period for Op- and flare systems, and front-end
and detailed design. Ms. Chaudhuri
eration without the FGRS for a limited tion 2 are offset by the increased operat- earned BS degrees in chemistry and chemical
period of time without any significant ing flexibility and reliability in terms of engineering from the University of Calcutta.
impact. In Option 1, the FGRS operates 100% sparing capacity.
without a spare after the first 4 yr of refin- As an outcome of the case study, the in- SAUMYA SENGUPTA is a Principal
Specialty Engineer with Fluor New
ery operation. stallation of an FGRS was recommended Delhi. He has 25 yr of experience in
For installation Option 2, it is sug- for the new NA refinery. While it is dif- petroleum refining, petrochemical
gested to install 30 tpd of compressing ficult to quantify the economic viability complex and utilities/offsites, and
front-end and detailed design.
capacity with 100% spare. The FGRS of an FGRS due to the uncertainty in the Mr. Sengupta earned BS degrees
compressor should always have installed amount of gas that can be recovered and the in chemistry and chemical technology (petroleum
spare capacity in the case of Option 2, variable nature of recovered gases, which is refinery engineering) from the University of Calcutta.
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ADVANCED
CATALYSIS TECHNOLOGY
Special Supplement to
Next-generation technology CORPORATE PROFILES

for diesel dewaxing and economic benefits Criterion Catalysts & Technologies C–79
of advanced cold flow treatment
Rezel Catalyst Corporation C–81
C–74
COVER PHOTO
The new SO2 oxidation catalyst VK-711 LEAP5TM lets the sulfuric acid
producer maintain the same production level with lower emissions,
or increase productivity without increasing emissions.
NEXT-GENERATION TECHNOLOGY FOR DIESEL

DEWAXING AND ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF
ADVANCED COLD FLOW TREATMENT
D. M. HIMSL, Clariant, Heufeld, Germany; H.-C. SCHWARZER, Clariant, Munich, Germany; W. REIMANN, Clariant,
Frankfurt, Germany; G. MUELLER, Clariant, Louisville, Kentucky; and R. A. RAKOCZY, Clariant, Munich, Germany
Around the world, legislation on ve- engine technology and offgas treatment. The authors’ company has nearly 40
hicle emissions has developed over the Diesel fuel adjustment for environmental yr of experience in providing solutions
years to meet a range of policy objectives, specifications can negatively impact other for adjusting cold flow properties, in-
with the main driver for regulation being fuel properties that are important for fuel cluding middle distillate flow improv-
the reduction of negative impacts to cli- applicability, as the boiling range and ers (MDFI) and wax anti-settling addi-
mate, environment and human health. In- nature of the component molecules are tives (WASA). The DODIFLOW and
dividual, public and goods transportation quite sensitive to seasonal temperature in DODIWAX series are well-established
depends on engines and energy carriers. terms of viscosity and flow properties. additives for CFP adjustment. Clariant’s
Generally speaking, internal combus- HYDEX series offers a catalytic dewax-
tion engine-driven vehicles are still the Refiners adjust specifications to follow ing remedy embedded as a drop-in solu-
main choice for mobility. Compared to legislative standards. The most strin- tion for existing diesel hydrotreaters, act-
otto-type engines, diesel-type engines gent regulations for fuel and offgas speci- ing as a dewaxing catalyst layer between
have high prevalence due to their high ef- fications are in the US state of California hydrodesulfurization (HDS) catalysts, or
ficiency. In on-road and sea-cargo areas, and the EU. In fact, the Euro 6 standard is as a standalone solution for separate de-
vehicles and vessels are and will be pre- recognized and applied in many countries waxing of operating units.
dominantly diesel engine-driven. For in- beyond that region. A key measure taken to improve cold
dividual transport, with the exception of The EN ISO 590 standard prescribes flow is the reduction of the presence
the EU otto-type engine, vehicles are the comprehensive specifications for ultra- (concentration) or the impact of long-
choice for mobility. low-sulfur diesel (ULSD) fuel, including chain n-paraffins in a distillate mixture.4,5
Due to engine technology and fuel those regulating physical and chemical Catalytic dewaxing reduces the n-par-
characteristics, diesel-type engines call for properties for optimum combustion be- affins content by selective cracking or
a more complex offgas treatment vs. Otto- havior, especially specifications on cold isomerization. Application of MDFI and
type engines operated with gasoline. The flow for colder climates. This covers main- WASA controls the crystallization behav-
release of nitrogen oxides (NOX ), sulfu- ly the cold filter plugging point (CFPP)1 ior of the final blend so that CFP speci-
rous oxides (SOX ), hydrocarbons (HC) and cloud point (CP),2 with other stan- fications are met and maintained, even
and particulate matter (PM) must be con- dards occasionally providing specifica- during long transportation and storage
trolled by means of fuel specifications, tions for pour point (PP).3 periods of on-road diesel fuel.
Oil refining must be seen as a commer-
Purge gas cial service approach. Certain mixtures of
Makeup H2
H2S crude are converted in available operat-
ing units to meet market needs, while at
Feed Gas
the same time optimizing operations to
achieve the best and most profitable uti-
Naphtha lization of the crude feedstock.
Besides distillation, most operations
Amine unit Kerosine deliver intermediates not ready for di-
HDS
rect blending into the desired product
HDS Diesel pool. In the case of on-road diesel, all
HDS
intermediates, except diesel sourced
Heavies from hydrocrackers, need additional
HDS hydrotreating to comply with EN 590
regulations. Feed sources for diesel
hydrotreating include straight-run gas-
oil (SRGO) directly sourced from the
FIG. 1. Simplified process flow diagram of a typical distillate hydroprocessing equipment. crude distillation unit; visbreaker gasoil
C–74 ADVANCED CATALYSIS TECHNOLOGY | AUGUST 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com

(VBGO); and light and heavy cycle oil the initial boiling point (IBP) and final Additional conversion independent
(LCGO and HCGO) sourced from fluid boiling point (FBP). The least desirable from selective cracking or isomerization
catalytic cracking (FCC) and coker gasoil outcome of setting diesel product cut- calls for certain diesel yield losses. There-
(COGO). To optimize operational re- point DPK shifts into the diesel product fore, additional naphtha (called wild
sults, especially in a refinery focused on is that a considerable amount of heavy naphtha) and gas are produced, sacri-
diesel fuel, domestic fuel oil and jet fuel, fraction remains (FIG. 2). High blend- ficing kerosine and diesel yield. Hydro-
the vast majority of these intermediates ing rates for kerosine have density reduc- dewaxed heavies show special n-paraffin
are sent to the diesel hydrotreater. tion and lubricity loss as consequences. distributions, and advanced cold flow
All intermediates, except lighter frac- At the final stages of diesel blending improver technology is needed to meet
tions, can have a strong deteriorating im- and the addition of further distillate in- specifications.
pact on CFP and on other specification termediates, CFI and MDFI are added to
requirements, as well. Moreover, the dis- adjust the final CFPP. In many cases, the Limitations directing next-generation
tillation range of the applied feed blend cetane number and lubricity also need to technology. As previously discussed, cold
is set much more broadly than for diesel be adjusted. The introduction of catalyt- flow adjustment is a complex operation,
only. The lighter fraction can be directly ic dewaxing as a drop-in layer between and commercial experience has shown
used for cold flow improvement, or as a the HDS catalysts is shown in FIG. 4. that adjustment of cold flow properties
high-value blending intermediate within This solution delivers much more flex- by application of additives and catalytic
the refinery grid, such as dual-purpose ibility in adjusting CFP. In such a case, a dewaxing has technical limitations.
kerosine (DPK). The heavy fraction al- higher quantity of heavier fractions can Improvement of CP by means of CP
lows for the adjustment of density flow be incorporated into the diesel prod- depressants (CPD) is limited to 1,000–
and can be used as a density adjustment uct, since the dewaxing process is com- 3,000, at most. Therefore, in case of the
blending component for heavier fuel oil pensating for the negative impact of the need for larger CP reduction, a pretreat-
types (sometimes called flux). heavy fractions on CFP and, at the same ment by means of dewaxing is required.
A typical distillate hydrotreating pro- time, the addition of DPK is reduced Previously designed embedded dewax-
cess scheme is demonstrated in FIG. 1, (FIG. 5 and FIG. 6). ing solutions were conservative, provid-
and the achieved product distribution is
demonstrated in FIG. 2. This product Hydrotreating Blending
distribution is a consequence of the oper-
ation of specific requirements besides the
main purpose of HDS. Applying a feed
composition, as mentioned previously,
CFP
a higher-than-required quality in CFP is

observed. Throughout the hydrogena-
tion process with HDS, denitrification
(HDN), aromatics saturation (ASAT)
and olefins saturation (OSAT), density Feed blend Effect of HDS Effect of ASAT Effect of Cutting effects Target Blending effects Additive Product
is improved (reduced), but CFP is nega- and HDN OSAT CP (pool) effect diesel
tively impacted (FIG. 3). FIG. 3. Development of CP and CFPP during hydroprocessing and final blending for a
As a first measure, CP is adjusted by refinery operation without catalytic dewaxing.
undercutting, which involves reducing
Purge gas
Makeup H2
H2S
Feed Gas
Naphtha
Amine unit Kerosine

HDS
HDS Diesel
HYDEX G HDW
Heavies
HDS
Gas Diesel
Naphtha Heavies
Kerosine
FIG. 2. Product distribution from FIG. 4. Simplified process flow diagram of a typical distillate hydroprocessing equipment
hydroprocessing without catalytic dewaxing. with dewaxing catalyst layer.
HYDROCARBON PROCESSING | AUGUST 2018 | ADVANCED CATALYSIS TECHNOLOGY C–75

ing abundant cold flow improvement as can occur. Additional formation of light an additional dewaxing catalyst providing
a consequence. In cooperation with its products can impede the application of better yield figures, which is equal to less
engineering partners, HDS catalyst sup- a dewaxing layer because downstream gas and naphtha make.
pliers and customers, Clariant has opti- processing equipment is incapable of
mized its design tools for delivery of pre- handling additional loads, and a revamp New solutions for dewaxing. As men-
cise dewaxing results, while still providing would be too expensive. Activity control tioned previously, the combined dewax-
a certain flexibility in unit handling. of a dewaxing layer by means of quench- ing approach is demonstrated from a yield
Even the most appropriate design ing is not appropriate to reduce dewax- perspective in FIG. 7. Over the distillate
tools are insufficient to provide a smart ing activity in summer to an acceptable processing chain, dewaxing severity on
drop-in solution, as technical limitations economic extent. Even slight additional HYDEX G is reduced to a minimum
hydrogen (H2 ) consumption cannot be demand, and the required CFPP is finally
balanced by the available amount of H2 in adjusted by applying an individually tai-
the unit or the entire refinery grid. Finally, lored DODIFLOW/DODIWAX recipe.
crude sourced from several areas (e.g., Reducing severity on HYDEX G allows
Utah, southeast Europe, Kazakhstan) that for easier handling, delivering certain
contain very high amounts of n-paraffins advantages in overall H2 balance. Having
(especially in the distillate boiling range) more H2 available allows for the applica-
do not allow selective cracking dewaxing, tion of lower-quality feed components.
as required conversion rates will not lead Further advantages will also become
to satisfactory cold flow improvement. evident, especially with refiners facing the
Facing these limitations, a clear mission ever-increasing challenge of conversion of
has emerged to fill the technology gap. As low-quality opportunity crudes. A long-
a unique provider of solutions for oil refin- term study with a HYDEX G and DODI-
eries, Clariant began investigations in two FLOW applicant using this combined ap-
Gas Diesel main directions. One direction is the eval- proach has been recently completed from
Naphtha Heavies uation of whether a combined approach of an operational standpoint. Obtained data
Kerosine
catalytic dewaxing and an additive applica- is under evaluation. An internal pilot test-
FIG. 5. Product distribution from tion is a solution to fill the limitation gap. ing program was also initiated to gain fur-
hydroprocessing with catalytic dewaxing. The other direction is the development of ther understanding of this solution.
Furthermore, a development program
Hydrotreating Blending has been instigated to incorporate an ad-
ditional dewaxing catalyst in the distillate
dewaxing portfolio to fill the aforemen-
tioned gap. The screening of various mate-
rials crystalized a unique selective dewax-
CFP
ing catalyst with improved yield figures

for diesel and kerosine fractions. Intensive
pilot testing has shown attractive yield
figures over a broad cold flow improve-
Feed blend Effect of HDS Effect of ASAT Effect of Cutting effects Catalytic Target Blending effects Additive Product ment range; FIG. 8 shows a small excerpt
and HDN OSAT dewaxing CP (pool) effect diesel
of the observed results on a distillate cut
FIG. 6. Development of CP and CFPP during hydroprocessing and final blending for a containing more than 20 wt% n-paraffins.
refinery operation with catalytic dewaxing.
Additional observations. In addition
to simulating embedded dewaxing in a
Gas-make
pilot plant, testing equipment operation
with HYDEX E and HYDEX G was evalu-
Naphtha-make ated by simulating a standalone catalytic
dewaxing application. Directing the chem-
Yield in wt%
ical pathway toward better yield results—

i.e., away from mainly cracking to partial
Gas-make isomerization—called for the optimiza-
Naphtha-make
MDFI tion of the metal function on the catalyst
Liquid, IBP = 30°C, yield that is responsible for fast H2 transfer.
Liquid, IBP = 180°C, yield
Embedded dewaxing testing showed
that effluents leaving the dewaxing layer
∆CP/CFPP in K
are not totally free from olefins in the case
FIG. 7. Advantages of combined catalytic and additive dewaxing from product of applying HYDEX G, especially in high-
(yield) perspective. severity operation (i.e., high dewaxing bed
C–76 ADVANCED CATALYSIS TECHNOLOGY | AUGUST 2018 | HydrocarbonProcessing.com

temperature, high CP reduction). Com- ∆CP = 3K ∆CP = 5K ∆CP = 11K

100
parison of the achieved results are shown
in FIG. 9. The application of HYDEX 98
E allows a density reduction to achieve a 96
minimum volume swell of 2 vol%. Calcu- 94
lating CI by common practice,6 a CI im- 92
Yield in wt%
provement of 3 points is possible. 90
HYDEX E also allows a shifting of
88
polyaromatics into monoaromatics. Ap-
plication of an established HYDEX G 86
dewaxing catalyst shows an achievement 84
of the same CP reduction at a delta of 2 82
wt%, compared to HYDEX E in a diesel 80
and kerosine fraction. The effluent shows HYDEX G HYDEX E HYDEX G HYDEX E HYDEX G HYDEX E
a decrease of approximately 2 vol% and Kerosine and diesel yield Naphtha-make Gas-make
a reduction of the CI by nearly 2 points.
Polyaromatics are not touched. Therefore, FIG. 8. Product distribution from pilot testing of HYDEX G and HYDEX E with gas-make Cl,
aside from attractive yield and CFI figures, C4, naphtha-make C5, 175°C and kerosine plus diesel fraction above 175°C boiling point.
HYDEX E opens up a wide field of appli-
cation in density and CI improvement. 20 SG = 0.87 kg/dm3; 20 SG = 0.87 kg/dm3;
1.3 wt% S, CI = 54.6 1.3 wt% S, CI = 55.2
12.2 12.2
Summary. Catalytic dewaxing and cold 66.1 66.1
1.7 1.7
flow additives have emerged as a power-
ful methodology and a robust approach
Monoaromatics
to address all aspects of cold flow perfor- Diaromatics
HYDEX G HYDEX E
mance. They have allowed refiners around Triaromatics
the world to unlock substantial business Hydrocarbon balance
value by helping them maximize yields of 20 26.1
high-value distillates and the degrading
of premium stock, both of which result in 12.2 4.9
enhanced margins. The right application SG = 0.87 kg/dm3; 66.1 1.7 SG = 0.87 kg/dm3; 68.3 0.7
1.1 wt% S, CI = 52.2 0.007 wt% S, CI = 58.2
of dewaxing measures can also facilitate
the use of cheaper, heavier feedstocks that FIG. 9. Additional hydroprocessing capabilities of HYDEX G and HYDEX E.
have disadvantages in cold flow properties,
thereby enabling the accommodation of leum products (automatic pressure pulsing method).” graduated with a diploma in chemical engineering
poorer-quality feeds in the blending pool. 4 Rakoczy, R. A. and P. M. Morse, “Consider catalytic from the University of Karlsruhe and the University of
With the introduction of HYDEX E, dewaxing as a tool to improve diesel cold flow prop- Massachusetts in Lowell. He completed his doctoral
erties,” Hydrocarbon Processing, July 2013. thesis at the Technical University of Munich and at the
diesel yield can be further optimized for 5 Koehler, E. O., “Catalytic dewaxing with zeolites University of Erlangen-Nuremberg.
very high sulfur content and heavy crude for improved profitability of ULSD production,”
feedstock, while mitigating much of the in R. Xu, Z. Gao, J. Chen and W. Yan, From Zeolites WERNER REIMANN is Global Marketing Manager
to Porous Materials: 40th International Zeolite for Oil Refinery Services with Clariant BU Oil and
damaging byproduct formation, deliv- Conference Studies in Surface Science and Catalysis, Mining Services. Prior to that, he acted as the Global
ering higher cost efficiencies and sig- Elsevier, New York, New York, 2007. CFI expert. Starting with Clariant/Hoechst in 1987,
nificantly contributing to improved 6 American Petroleum Institute, “Formula 2D13.1,”
he held various leading responsibilities in R&D. Dr.
sustainability. Smart combinations of Technical Data Book Petroleum Refining, 6th Ed., Reimann graduated from the University of Dortmund,
April 1997. where he also completed his doctoral thesis. He was
hydrodesulfurization catalysts, dewax- also a post-doctoral fellow at the State University of
ing catalysts and tailored cold flow addi- DIETER HIMSL is an R&D Project Leader with a focus New York at Albany.
tives will allow refiners to optimize their on hydroprocessing catalysts, located at Clariant’s
margins, handle low-quality opportunity Catalyst R&D Center in Heufeld, Germany. Prior to GENE MUELLER has been Vice President of
his current role, he was a Scientific Coworker at the petrochemicals catalysts at Clariant since May 2018,
crudes and meet demanding fuel specifi- in Louisville, Kentucky. Prior to that, he was Head of
Erlangen Catalysis Resource Center at the University
cations in the future. of Erlangen-Nuremburg. Dr. Himsl graduated from fuel upgrading. Mr. Mueller joined Clariant/Hoechst
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, and AG in 1990 and has served in various different
LITERATURE CITED completed his doctoral thesis at the University positions within the company since that time. He
1 American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM of Erlangen-Nuremburg. graduated in 1989 from Rutgers University with an
D6371, “Standard test method for cold filter plug- MBA degree in economics and finance.
ging point of diesel and heating fuels.” HANS-CHRISTOPH SCHWARZER is Head of sales
2 American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM for styrene MTPROP catalysts in EMEA. Prior to that, RAINER ALBERT RAKOCZY is Global Product Manager
D5773, “Standard test method for cloud point of he was Sales Account Manager as well as a Global for hydroprocessing within the fuel upgrading business
petroleum products and liquid fuels (constant cool- Expert on catalytic dewaxing. He joined Süd-Chemie/ line, based in Munich, Germany. Prior to his current
ing rate method).” Clariant in March 2005 as a group leader in R&D on role, he served as R&D Manager for solid acid-based
3 American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM various topics, including catalyst development and catalyst. Dr. Rakoczy graduated from the University of
D5949, “Standard test method for pour point of petro- catalyst application for air purification. Dr. Schwarzer Stuttgart, where he also completed his doctoral thesis.
HYDROCARBON PROCESSING | AUGUST 2018 | ADVANCED CATALYSIS TECHNOLOGY C–77

WINNING
A D V AN T AGE
Criterion’s newest generation in catalysts continues to

advance our technology to the pole position. With R&D
expertise and innovation second to none, the CENTERA
GT™ high performance catalyst helps refiners keep on
winning! Criterion continues to increase performance
and quality, this leap forward with CENTERA GT adds to
our industry leading line of SENTRY™, ASCENT™ and
ZEOLYST™ catalysts. Our catalysts protect and perform,
adding value with customized refining solutions for even
the most complex needs.
SENTRY: Ultimate protection from feed poisons and

pressure drop
Hydrotreating: Performance in quality meeting strict
fuel standards and maximizing advantaged feeds
Hydrocracking: Increasing the quality and yields for
high value products processing heavier feeds
With world-class technical customer service, Criterion

continues to race ahead for catalyst performance and
value. We look forward to working with you.
Leading minds. Advanced technologies.
www.CRITERIONCatalysts.com
CRITERION CATALYSTS & TECHNOLOGIES
ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY FOR INTEGRATED

SOLUTIONS, IT IS WHAT WE DO
Criterion is the world’s largest supplier of
hydroprocessing catalysts providing complete
process technology solution offerings though its
integration with Shell Global Solutions, Zeolyst
International, and CRI Catalyst. Criterion along
with our technology family has deployed industry
solutions in virtually in every region of the world
specializing in refining and petrochemical opera-
tions to include hydrotreating, hydrocracking,
residue upgrading, hydrogenation, and
isomerization units. With more than 50 years of
experience in the end to end catalyst business,
Criterion has a reputation of delivering value to
its customers through leading products, top notch
technical support and process solution services
used in every type of hydroprocessing operation.
INDUSTRY LEADER
Criterion specialises in cobalt and nickel in helping refiners to process more challeng- tial. These new innovations in catalyst technol-
promoted molybdenum and tungsten on alu- ing feedstocks, raise product slate flexibility, ogy allows the refiner to selectively dial in and
mina/silica based catalysts for a wide range added value in downstream units and, not better direct the molecules that add the most
of hydrotreating applications: least, produce ultra-low-sulphur diesel with value to their unique refining needs. This technol-
• naphtha hydrotreating superior fuel properties. ogy opens up the ability to process extremely
• distillate hydrotreating and distillate heavy feeds that were previously excluded giv-
Dewaxing (for kerosene, jet and INNOVATION ing refiner profitable options in their quest to
ULSD production) Digitalize your catalyst experience as Cri- meet new regulations like IMO. Combine with
• Hydrocracking, hydrocracker feed terion has been leveraging digital tools for the Advanced Trilobe eXtra™ (ATX) technology
pretreatment and mild hydrocracking some time now with CatCheck™ Advisor. The improved throughput without sacrifice to active
• FCC feed pretreatment and robust analytical tool that ensures refiners receive the or selectivity and thereby improve diesel yield
poison guard value they expect from the Catalyst and technol- and volume is a commercially proven example
• residue upgrading (fixed and ogy solution working within the assets driving of our innovative capabilities.
ebullated-bed) hydrotreating and hydrocracking profitability.
• lube oil performance improvement The recent enahancements have brought Cat- INTEGRATION
• tail-gas treating with cooperative Check to the level of not only monitoring the Criterion’s integration with Shell Global
sulfur solutions. way your catalyst vendor would but with trou- Solutions and CRI catalysts is important on
Criterion is an industry leader in these area’s bleshooting type analysis. Taking our customers many value to refiners focus areas. It provides
and retains notably commanding market share to that next level of service. our technology family with a deep insight into
positions in many of these refining segments. Catalyst innovations from Zeolite-based industry needs and trends, a real feel for the
Research has resulted in a string of technology hydrocracking catalysts are the focus of Cri- business from the viewpoint of a refinery and
advances over the past 2 decades enabled terion’s Zeolyst International joint venture with petrochemical plant owner/operator perspec-
by high throughput R&D testing culminating in Philadelphia Quartz Corp. Both companies tive. It also provides access to an outstanding
the introduction of the company’s CENTERA™ contribute research and development efforts to science and engineering resource, which is par-
and ASCENT ™ technology platforms, which maintain Zeolyst’s status as a leader in this valu- ticularly valuable for research and development
includes a series of catalysts boasting a step able refining area. Now via our JV with Rive as well as staying on technology’s forefront. But,
out performance, in many cases unmatched, we are leveraging their proprietary Molecular most importantly, the Shell connection opens the
combination of activity and stability. Highway™ technology which makes zeolite-con- way for genuinely integrated refinery solutions
Now in their second and third generation, taining hydrocracking catalysts more accessible that encompass process technology, reactor
CENTERA GT™, CENTERA™ and ASCENT™ to hydrocarbon molecules, resulting in increased internal engineering and catalysis – all three
catalysts have clearly demonstrated value and yields of transportation fuels. Nano engineer- elements providing world class refining and pet-
with third generation CENTERA GT continuing ing Hydrocracking’s molecular superhighway rochemical plant solutions from leading minds
to add to this industry leading performance to drive molecules to their highest profit poten- and advanced technologies.
SPONSORED CONTENT HYDROCARBON PROCESSING | AUGUST 2018 | ADVANCED CATALYSIS TECHNOLOGY C–79

Providing Innovative Performance Driven
Process and Catalyst Solutions to the
Global Refining and Petrochemical Industry
Leaders in Catalyst Technology for High Severity FCC, Dehydrogenation, and other Processes
for Maximum Petrochemical Feedstocks in the Evolving Petrochemical Driven Refining Industry
Our Team is Driven

to Provide Performance
Solutions for Maximum Value
Rezel Catalyst Corporation

Floor 7, Chengnan Tianfu Mansion
No. 66, 1st Shenghe Road
High-Tech Zone, Chengdu, Sichuan
610041 China
E-mail: sales@rezel.com.cn
Performance - Driven - Value

www.rezel.com.cn
REZEL CATALYST CORPORATION
PERFORMANCE DRIVEN VALUE

Technology Solutions for our Global Refining and Petrochemical Partners
Rezel Catalysts Corporation was China’s first independent cata-

lysts company, where it supplies the leading share of independent
Chinese refineris.
In addition to catalysts and chemicals technology, Rezel is also a pro-
cess licensor and EPC to the refining and petrochemical industry, as well
as an OEM producer of specialty catalysts and zeolite technologies.
Since our overseas expansion began in 2012, Rezel has estab-
lished itself as an independent solutions provider to the global refining
and petrochemical industry through our extensive independent research
& development program and in partnership with our customers and
partners worldwide.
Rezel is committed to creating maximum value for our global cus-
tomers and partners through innovation-driven product and process
technology.
Technology Driven for Ultimate Value
PERFORMANCE
Rezel FCC catalyst performance is equal to or better compared with Rezel is driven to provide maximum value to all of our partners with
all global catalyst company products. Rezel products have replaced competitive technologies, prices, service, and support.
competitors’ products in a full range of applications including the most
challenging residual feed processing operations and high severity, VALUE
petrochemical feedstock-oriented operations. The bottom line is value. The value provided by Rezel’s unique cus-
Rezel’s technology offerings include a novel propane and butane tomized process and catalyst solutions, diverse and inclusive experience
dehydrogenation process and catalyst which offers superior propylene base, and our unique technology partnerships combine to support the
and butylene conversion and selectivity at a much lower cost compared success of our global customers.
to other available processes.
DRIVEN
The Rezel team is comprised of a diverse, international, experienced
range of technical experts from around the global refining and petro-
chemical industry, including experts from every major global catalyst
company, top hands-on experts in refinery operations and troubleshoot-
ing, and some of the top research scientists and manufacturing experts.
With more than 27 zeolite, catalyst, and process technology pat-
ents, Rezel continues to emphasize the development of novel catalyst
and process technologies, spending an above average percentage on CONTACT INFORMATION
R&D to support existing and developing industry demands. More than Rezel Catalyst Corporation
10% of our team are dedicated to R&D efforts. Floor 7, Chengnan Tianfu Mansion, No. 66, 1s t Shenghe Road
Rezel partnerships extend beyond our direct customers to include High-Tech Zone, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041 China
cooperation with university partners, our international business and E-mail: sales@rezel.com.cn
OEM partners, and our licensing parteners. www.rezel.com.cn
SPONSORED CONTENT HYDROCARBON PROCESSING | AUGUST 2018 | ADVANCED CATALYSIS TECHNOLOGY C–81

EVOLVING NEEDS.
SOLVING.
WHEN THE INDUSTRY PRESENTS BIGGER PROBLEMS,
CRI PRESENTS BIGGER SOLVERS.
M O RE S O L U TIO N S .
M O R E R & D.
M O RE E FFIC IE N CY.
MORE C O ST S AV IN G S .
AND NO BIG ADVANCEMENT

EVER HAPPENED WITHOUT CHANGE.
CHANGE IS COMING.
W W W . C R I C A T A LY S T. C O M
Maintenance
and Reliability
S. LINTON, Honeywell Process Solutions,
Manchester, UK
Attaining TCO nirvana with outcome-based services

The industrial manufacturing sector is grappling with an The author company’s internal research has revealed that an
unprecedented number of challenges. Some of these challenges automation system maintained over a 30-yr lifespan can provide
include shifting geopolitical and economic pressures; long-time 43% lower TCO than the same system maintained over 10 yr
workers are retiring and taking their knowledge with them; po- (FIG. 1). This finding highlights the costs—including IP loss—
tential millennial replacements are being drawn to other sec- associated with migrating or replacing an automation system.
tors; technology and operating costs are rising sharply; and From these results, it would be easy to conclude that a busi-
mandates from the executive level to do more with less. ness with a 30-yr old system is simply standing still. However,
To address the latter, business leaders are increasingly look- look more closely and you will find a business that is taking a
ing at total cost of ownership (TCO) as a strategic approach. smart and strategic approach, carefully evolving its systems over
And why not? Maximizing the lifespan—and therefore value— time to achieve required levels of performance, while extracting
of a technology asset makes good sense, and is one area that is ever more value from them. How are they doing this? By insti-
fully within the control of a business. tuting the following activities:
TCO is the sum of all financial costs—direct and indirect— • Buying from established vendors who are not “here today
incurred through the life of a technology asset. In practice, TCO and gone tomorrow”
should incorporate procurement, deployment, operations, • Choosing a vendor with a strong service offering
maintenance and end-of-life management costs, as well as the • Understanding the implications of open technology and
opportunity cost of not upgrading, or using a different technol- how it can extend system life
ogy solution altogether. • Embracing the concept of incremental migration, where
However, many companies look at TCO too simplistically. hardware and software changes are carefully orchestrated
For example, some companies equate TCO solely with mainte- in line with business needs and available budget
nance costs, or how much they are spending annually with their
service provider. This is not a true measure of TCO. Taking a
holistic view, and truly understanding the ways that technology
assets can be optimized, will yield a much better return. This Operating cost—
concept is something that industrial leadership is beginning to 28% System 1: 10-yr estimated life
understand. • Acquisition: $700,000
• Operating expense: $30,000/yr
• TCO = $1 M or $100,000/yr
TCO in automation. TCO is often equated with information Acquisition cost—72%
technology (IT) rather than industrial automation, but the
principle is the same. However, industrial settings have distinct
characteristics, such as longer system lifecycles (e.g., many oil
platforms are designed for 30-yr lifespans), a need for total reli-
ability to avoid costly disruptions to operations, and high risks
and costs involved in migrating to new technology platforms,
including engineering and IP-related costs born from re-train- System 1: 30-yr estimated life
ing staff to achieve equivalent system proficiency. Overall, a Operating cost— Acquisition cost— • Acquisition: $700,000
40% • Operating expense: $33,000/yr
culture of continuity in the industrial space makes it markedly 60% • TCO = $1.7 M or $57,000/yr
different from IT. System 2 is 43% less in TCO/yr
That does not make TCO any less important to industrial
businesses, nor does it mean that there is less urgency to get a
grip on costs. In fact, more and more operational leaders are
pursuing strategies to optimize their automation systems. Most
commonly, these include extending the lifecycle of their tech- FIG. 1. An automation system maintained over a 30-yr lifespan can
nology assets and reducing their operating costs. provide 43% lower TCO than the same system maintained over 10 yr.

Water Management
• Making every effort to protect IP, including refreshing technologies, applications, hardware and
human machine interfaces (HMIs), keeping software processes required to evolve the system and
current and supportable, and managing cybersecurity risks. deliver required performance
From parts, inventory, real estate, testing, downtime (outage • Optimized assets—implementing improvements
and failure expenses), security breaches and prevention, backup and changes to optimize the cost, performance,
and recovery, training, audits, environmental compliance, in- capacity and availability of the system.
ternal and external labor, and insurance, companies are looking Taking on responsibility for the total lifecycle of a plant—
beyond the bottom line of their service agreements to reduce not just its individual parts—represents a substantial shift in the
operating costs. These factors make up the true cost. delivery of services. This shift can be characterized as moving
Companies are comparing these costs with their impact on from insurance to assurance, and it can have a dramatic effect on
production in terms of reliability and optimization, as well as TCO. Outcome-based services arguably offer the fastest, least
other factors, such as the capability to prevent incidents and re- complex path to attaining the TCO nirvana that many compa-
solve production issues and the speed at which the business can nies are seeking.
adjust to change. This operation provides an accurate measure With outcome-based services, service providers and custom-
of the value being delivered. ers set key performance indicator (KPI) goals based on the en-
terprise’s, or plant’s, business priorities, with service level agree-
Outsourced services: Achieving TCO nirvana. As the al- ments put in place to meet those KPIs. Service providers provide
lure of optimized TCO takes hold, stakeholders are becoming guaranteed outcomes for automation system performance, in-
more open to partnerships with service providers that are will- cluding advanced control and process optimization, with finan-
ing to take ownership for the support of their systems, not just cial consequences if the agreed KPIs are not met. The goal for
as a one-time transaction, but as an ongoing partnership. Typi- both parties is the sustained performance of the IT system, with
cally, such offerings include the following services: a strategy of continuous innovation to ensure longevity.
• Maintenance—executing day-to-day tasks and This arrangement makes it easier for new capabilities to be
preventing incidents added to a customer’s service package should business needs
• Support—resolving requests, problems and dictate. These needs might include strengthening cybersecurity
incidents quickly capabilities, instituting preventive/predictive analytics solu-
• Change management—safely introducing new solutions, tions, alarm management tools, competency management pro-
grams and continuous evolution programs. Support for remote
locations, including remote management or the provision of
human capital, are also available.
With outcome-based services, customers can tap into the
NEW VERSION
rich knowledge of the service provider at any time, whether it
is for assistance in creating a roadmap, guidance on selecting
InstruCalc new technologies or advice on product implementation. This
arrangement is more akin to a strategic partnership, with the
CONTROL VALVES • FLOW ELEMENTS • RELIEF DEVICES • PROCESS DATA service provider playing an active consulting role.
Takeaway. Attaining TCO in the industrial sector has seemed

InstruCalc 9.0 calculates the size of control valves, like theoretical concept, unattainable by companies. At best,
flow elements and relief devices and calculates fluid it has been fractionally achieved. However, a more sophisti-
properties, pipe pressure loss and liquid waterhammer cated understanding of TCO has given rise to new ways of un-
flow. Easy to use and accurate, it is the only sizing derstanding it. Outcome-based services deliver longer system
program you need, enabling you to: Size more than 50 lifecycles, more predicable operational and capital expenditure
different instruments; Calculate process data at flow costs, and better system stability, reliability and quality. These
conditions for 54 fluids, in either mixtures or single benefits result in an optimized TCO.
components, and 66 gases, and; Calculate the orifice As more and more businesses adopt this type of service
size, flowrate or differential range, which enables the model, its net effect can be significant. By giving time-consum-
user to select the flowrate with optimum accuracy.
ing system maintenance tasks to someone else, industrial manu-
facturers can be freed to channel increasingly scarce resources
Updates include Engineering Standard
and expertise into areas of the business that really need it. When
Upgrades and Operational Improvements this benefit is considered alongside a step-change in TCO, out-
in InstruCalc Version 9.0 come-based services offer transformative potential.
Please contact J’Nette Davis-Nichols STEVE LINTON is the Global Director of programs and contracts
for Honeywell Process Solutions. He has worked in the
for more information. Honeywell service business for more than 30 yr. His background
GulfPub.com/InstruCalc or call +1 (713) 520-4426. in process control and service management has enabled him
to work directly and indirectly with many customers to help
them develop support strategies that match their market and
business requirements. Mr. Linton holds an MBA degree, and
is a Licentiate Member of the Institute of Measurement and Control.
Water
Management
S. BASU, Headworks Intl., Houston, Texas
Impact of opportunity crudes on refinery desalter

and wastewater treatment performance—Part 1
Refiners are becoming increasingly Inside the desalter, crude is thoroughly salter and results in the escape of large con-
dependent on opportunity crudes to stay mixed with water (4% v/v–6% v/v) at centrations of water in the oil phase and
competitive and enhance margins in the 105°C–150°C (221°F–302°F), which fa- oil in the water phase. High desalter per-
industry’s present uncertain state. Oppor- cilitates the transfer of salt and other wa- formance is essential to ensure minimum
tunity crude is a term to describe newer ter-soluble materials to the aqueous phase. entrainment of oil in the effluent brine
types of crudes that have not been tradi- Bulk segregation of oil and water phases stream and water in the desalted crude.
tionally processed in the past. occurs by gravity as the oil phase separates Carryover of excessive oil in the effluent
Although these crudes offer refiners in the top layer and water gravitates in the brine leads to excessive oil and grease and
an opportunity to buy at much lower than bottom layer. Oil-water separation is en- large chemical oxygen demand (COD)
West Texas Intermediate (WTI) and Brent hanced under an electrostatic field applied loads to the wastewater treatment system.
benchmark prices, their abundance has inside the desalter vessel with the help of On the other hand, the escape of excessive
created major challenges to global refining two parallel electrode plates with opposite water in desalted crude increases the ther-
operations due to the special characteris- electrical charges. Water droplets, which mal load in the atmospheric distilling col-
tics that make such crudes difficult to pro- are negatively charged, coalesce together, umn. Additionally, dissolved constituents
cess. Refiners are compelled to take special migrate toward the positive electrode and in carryover water with desalted crude can
measures to overcome these difficulties, accumulate in the water layer. The sepa- cause corrosion in column internals.
including blending these crudes with tra- rated aqueous phase leaves the desalter as Solids contained in crude settle at the
ditional ones to balance the properties. a brine stream and leads to the wastewater bottom of the desalter vessel and accu-
In many cases, such crudes are incompat- treatment plant. Desalted oil is fed to the mulate with time. These solids are rou-
ible and lead to the formation of solid or atmospheric distilling column after pre- tinely removed by applying a water jet
semi-solid asphalt-like materials that tend heating. A schematic representation of a through a set of mud wash lines inside
to precipitate in the process equipment, desalter is shown in FIG. 1. the vessel from an external header. Mud
particularly desalters. A brief introduction Typically, the oil-water separation is washing effluent leaves the desalter with
of the operating principle of desalters is not ideal: rather than a sharp interface, the the brine stream leading to the waste-
presented here for a clear understanding of two layers are separated by an emulsion water treatment plant. The frequency of
the types of challenges and their remedies. layer, also called a “rag layer,” which con- mud washing is based on the solids con-
sists of oil-water emulsion made up of fine tent in the crude.
Desalter operating principle. Crudes droplets of water dispersed into oil and Proprietary demulsifiers from chemi-
contain numerous impurities that can entrained solids. A thick emulsion layer in- cal vendors are introduced into the de-
impede refining processes. Desalters are dicates poor oil-water separation in the desalter feed to break emulsion and improve
the first equipment to handle and process
crudes in a refinery, and are designed to Caustic
encounter and mitigate the deleterious Desalted crude
effects of such impurities. The primary
function of a desalter is to make intimate Demulsifier Wash water
contact between crude and water by thor- Crude desalter
ough mixing to transfer inorganic salts
and other contaminants contained in the Crude feed
crude to the water, and then remove it as a
Crude preheaters Mixing valve Static mixer
brine stream. The salt is primarily sodium Mud wash
chloride, with other salts containing sodi- Brine
Wash water recycle
um, calcium and magnesium cations, and
FIG. 1. Schematic of a desalter in a petroleum refinery.
chloride and sulfate anions.
Water Management
desalter performance. The right type and (API) or corrugated plate interceptor high acidity as expressed by the total acid
dosage of these chemicals are determined (CPI) separators for primary oil-water number (TAN), high metals concentra-
by pilot and/or field scale tests. separation and suspended solids remov- tion, high filterable solids (FS) and high
Crudes contain dissolved chloride salts al, and dissolved (or induced) air or gas amines content. Impacts of the various
of sodium, calcium and magnesium. Both separators for oil for secondary separa- properties are discussed here.
magnesium and calcium chloride hydro- tion. This is followed by biological treat-
lyze under the prevailing temperatures in ment to remove residual oil and grease, Western Canada crudes. Crudes from
the atmospheric column, according to the and COD in the wastewater. western Canada are heavy, typically with
following reactions in Eqs. 1 and 2: Most commonly, activated sludge an API gravity of 19°–22°. These crudes
process is used for biological treatment are produced by traditional exploration,
MgCl2 + 2 H2O → 2 HCl + Mg(OH)2 (1) of wastewater in petroleum refineries, al- or by steam addition to solid bitumen,
CaCl2 + 2 H2O → 2 HCl + Ca(OH)2 (2) though some facilities use attached growth e.g., from oil sands. These crudes have
processes, especially trickling filters, for high viscosity, which causes the following
However, sodium chloride is a stable upfront roughing purposes. As regula- challenges to refiners:
salt and does not hydrolyze under the tions are becoming increasingly stringent, • High energy demand in piping
column operating conditions. Therefore, many refineries are required to remove transportation
caustic soda solution is typically dosed ammonia by nitrification. Additionally, • Poor mixing, leading to reduced
into the desalted crude to convert dis- some refiners may have to control the to- salt removal from crude
solved calcium and magnesium chloride tal nitrogen in their discharge by adding a • Emulsion formation in the desalter,
into sodium chloride, and to prevent denitrification step in the treatment train. which is enhanced by the presence
hydrochloric acid (HCl) formation by The mix from the aeration basin is then of asphaltenes, leading to poor
hydrolysis inside the crude distilling col- separated in a clarifier by gravity settling. oil-water separation.
umn, which can cause corrosion in the Clarifier effluent typically fulfills the Additional challenges in desalter op-
column internals. discharge regulatory requirements in most eration arise from high levels of filterable
Several manufacturers offer desalters cases. However, exceeding total suspend- solids (FS) in these types of crudes. The
of proprietary design. The designs vary ed solids (TSS) and COD limits is not reported values of 90 lb/Mbbl–100 lb/
based upon arrangement of the electrode, uncommon among refineries, particularly Mbbl (pounds per thousand barrels)1 of
oil-water interface control, mechanical in- when processing opportunity crudes. crude as compared with a normal value
ternal details, etc. However, the operating of ~50 lb/Mbbl FS. These solids are dif-
principle is the same. OPPORTUNITY CRUDES ficult to separate in desalters due to their
AND THEIR IMPACTS fine size and transfer to the desalter brine.
Wastewater treatment. The process The introduction of opportunity The solids in this stream deposit into all
train of a typical refinery wastewater crudes disturbs the operation of desalt- process equipment in the wastewater
treatment plant is shown in FIG. 2. Desalt- ers, which were not designed to handle treatment plant. As a result, the active
er brine blends in an equalization tank the widely fluctuating constituents that volume and hydraulic retention times of
with other process wastewater streams, were not originally intended to be pro- all equipment decrease drastically, affect-
contaminated storm water from refinery cessed by the refinery. These include ing their performance. Moreover, high FS
process areas and water from the tank crudes from a wide range of sources: in crudes help the growth of the rag layer
farm. Other sources of wastewater are heavy crudes from the Canadian Rockies; inside the desalter, promoting emulsion
blowdown streams from cooling towers, Doba crude from West Africa; and light formation, which is detrimental to good
boiler drums and backwash streams from tight oil (LTO) from various shale plays oil-water separation.
filters and demineralizers. Wastewater in North America. These crudes with un- These crudes contain high concentra-
from equalization tanks is fed sequen- desirable properties present unique chal- tions of reduced sulfur compounds [hy-
tially into American Petroleum Institute lenges: low API gravity, high viscosity, drogen sulfide (H2S), mercaptans, etc.] to
the extent of ~3 wt%–5 wt%. Sour crudes
Wash water pose health and safety risks, and are corro-
Desalter sive to metals. Typically, amines are added
Crude Desalted crude
to tie up H2S, and are used in the crude
production process (also called tramp
Stop tank
Wastewater from amines) that become associated with
refinery process Brine
streams crude, a part of which partitions into the
Tank farm water phase in the desalter and leads to the
water
Equalization API Effluent wastewater treatment plant with the brine
Stripped tank separator DAF/DGF Biotreater Clarifier Tertiary filter stream. This leads to very large COD and
sour water
nitrification loads, as well as dissolved ox-
Contaminated
stormwater ygen demand in the biotreater. If the aera-
Return sludge Waste sludge tion system is inadequate to handle excess
loads arising from tramp amines, then the
FIG. 2. Typical refinery wastewater treatment process train.
possibility exists that part of the COD is
Water Management
leaving the wastewater plant untreated. biological treatment and they accompany ing concerns. Moreover, if it carries over
Canadian heavy crudes are also the treated effluent as un-degraded COD. with desalted crude, it can poison fluid
known to have a high TAN, which is a catalytic cracking (FCC) catalysts. The
measure to quantify the acidity of crudes. West African crudes. The Doba oil presence of calcium as an impurity in
High-molecular-weight naphthenic acids fields in the West African nation of Chad coke diminishes its product value.
contribute significantly to the TAN of a are among the major sources of crude in Additionally, high metals concentra-
crude. Typically, the TAN value of crudes West Africa. This heavy crude has an API tions contribute to the high conductiv-
ranges from 0.3–0.5. However, TAN val- gravity of 21°. One of the main attractive ity of crudes, which leads to the lowering
ues as high as 4.3 have been reported for features is that it is a low-sulfur, sweet of grid voltage and the electrostatic field
California crudes.2 crude. However, it presents two major between the electrode plates. This results
Naphthenic acids are complex, organ- challenges in the form of high TAN and in poor separation of oil and water in the
ic acids occurring naturally in crudes, bi- very high metals content, particularly cal- desalter. Beyond these individual effects,
tumen and their products. They are both cium concentrations and, to a lesser ex- their simultaneous presence has a nega-
acyclic and cyclic in structure, with mo- tent, iron. Up to 250 mg/l of calcium in tive effect on desalter operation as it sta-
lecular weights in the range of 140–500. the form of naphthenate salts have been bilizes the emulsion layer in desalter, thus
The general structure of a simple acyclic, reported in literature.3 preventing oil and water trapped in the
and a cyclic naphthenic acid with a single A large excess of calcium presents scal- emulsion layer to break loose.
ring, are shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B.
High concentrations of naphthenic ac- O
ids cause corrosion of metals, as exhibited
by pitting and metal impingement. In the
desalter, naphthenic acids partition into COOH
both oil and water phases. The part trans-
ferring into the aqueous phase leaves with
the brine stream. These long chain organ- CH3 OH
ic acids are highly toxic to aquatic life, as
they are not sufficiently broken down by FIG. 3A AND 3B. Structures of simple acyclic (left) and a single-ring cyclic naphthenic acid.
HONORING INNOVATION
IN THE DOWNSTREAM August 30, 2018 | Houstonian Hotel | Houston, Texas
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Water Management
Light tight oils. LTOs are crudes de- precipitation in desalters and corrosion potential, and health
rived from hydrofracturing operations of downstream processes and safety risks.
shale formations. Hydrofracturing and • High filterable solids • High filterable solids (FS) are
horizontal drilling were game-changing • Entrained H2S that requires present in certain types of crudes.
technologies that completely altered the the addition of amines for handling A number of challenges are posed
global oil supply and demand scenario, and transportation by FS: the clogging of equipment
and impacted the market very signifi- • High concentrations of paraffin and pipes, and the reduction in
cantly over the last few years. Based on a wax, leading to the fouling of active-volume desalters, promoting
projection by the US Energy Information equipment at low temperatures. the stabilization of rag layers and
Administration (EIA),4 LTO is increas- affecting the desalter.
ingly poised to become the major source Effects of opportunity crudes. The • High amine concentrations
of crude in the US in the foreseeable fu- following section is a summary of the im- resulting from addition during the
ture. The US is the second largest among pacts of various contaminants associated production of crude to mitigate
the top 10 countries, with more than 75% with the opportunity crudes presented H2S problems. In desalters, part
of recoverable reserves.5 The country is here, as they relate to the performance of the amines partition with the
by far the largest producer of LTO-grade goals of desalters listed in TABLE 1. water phase and leave with brine
crudes from shale formations, such as the • Low API gravity creates difficulty to wastewater treatment, creating
Bakken in North Dakota, and the Perm- in handling, processing and high COD and nitrification loads.
ian and Eagle Ford basins in Texas. transportation due to high viscosity Moreover, amines cause an increase
LTOs are light crudes with high API and specific gravities. of pH in desalters, which promotes
gravity (≥ 42°), so they do not pose any • High acidity imposes high stabilization of the rag layer and
hydrodynamic challenges and are fairly COD load and affects the impedes desalter operation.
easy to handle. Although readily and inex- microbiological population in
pensively available in abundance, US Gulf biological treatment, as discussed Process monitoring and control. Sev-
Coast refineries had initial difficulties ad- in the following sections. eral case studies are presented of refinery
justing to the new reality after they had • High metals concentrations, wastewater treatment plants that have
modified the equipment to process heavy of which the primary metals of been affected by the constituents present
crudes prior to the advent of shale oil. concern, calcium and iron, are in opportunity crudes processed by those
This requires blending LTO crudes with present both in particulate refineries. Characterization of crudes and
heavy crudes to balance the properties for and dissolved forms. wastewater samples at these refineries were
ease of processing. However, in some cas- • High sulfur, present as H2S and conducted following standard tests and an-
es, they are incompatible. Specific chal- various organic sulfur compounds alytical protocols, as listed in TABLE 2.
lenges of LTO crudes include: (mercaptans, disulfides, etc.), Additional tests were performed using
• Incompatibility with certain heavy can cause a wide range of problems portable electric desalters (PEDs) to eval-
crudes, resulting in asphaltene in handling and processing due to uate the performance of full-scale desalt-
ers handling new crudes and crude slates.
TABLE 1. Desalter performance targets PEDs are instruments widely used in the
industry that simulate the operation of a
Target Light crudes Heavy crudes
desalter in bench scale (FIG. 4).
Salt removal efficiency, % > 90 in a single-stage desalter > 90 in a single-stage desalter In a laboratory setting, PED tests dem-
> 95 in a double-stage desalter > 95 in a double-stage desalter onstrated the salt removal potential, oil-
Salt in desalted crude, lb/Mbbl <2 <2 water separation and emulsion formation
Water carryover in desalted < 0.3 < 0.7 potential from a new crude under the op-
crude, % v/v erating conditions of a desalter, before be-
Oil under carry in brine, ppm < 200 < 1,000 ing used by a refinery as a feed. The results
of these tests help optimize the operating
parameters of the desalter to achieve the
TABLE 2. Analytical methods for crude oil characterization
desired performance.
Crude property Analytical technique Method number A PED test is conducted in multiple
Density API gravity by hydrometer ASTM Method D 1298 steps. First, about 5%–7% of wash water
Filterable solids (FS) Membrane filtration 0.45 µm media ASTM Method D 4807 and a volume of preselected demulsifier
(both the volume and type of demulsifier
Water in oil Colorimetric titration by ASTM Method D 4928
Karl Fischer method are recommended by a chemical vendor)
are added to a preheated crude sample
Salt in water Potentiometric titration ASTM Method D 6470
(80 ml–90 ml) in a graduated glass tube
Chloride in water Ion specific electrode ASTM Method D 512 with a conical bottom. The mixture is
Oil in water Extraction by cyclohexane ASTM Method 3921 blended thoroughly with the help of a
followed by IR spectroscopy blender for a specified length of time.
Total acid number (TAN) Potentiometric titration ASTM Method D 664 This well-mixed liquid is then placed in
Water Management
the test setup, where the mixture is heated

to a typical operating temperature of a de-
salter [105°C–150°C (221°F–302°F)], in
an electrical field under quiescent condi-
tions. The conical bottom of the glass tube
facilitates oil-water separation into layers.
The thickness of each layer is recorded
with time for approximately 1 hr, which
is typically the time it takes for the layers
to stabilize. The appearance of a thick rag
layer indicates poor oil-water separation
and the potential for emulsion formation. FIG. 4. Portable electric desalter in a
Salt concentrations in the separated oil laboratory. Photo courtesy of Dorf Ketal, USA.
and water layers, when compared to the
crude, indicate the desalting efficiency. effluent are measured by third-party, cer-
The variables in these tests include: tified laboratories by standard methods
• Mixing intensity (mixer rpm) [American Public Health Association
• Amount (% v/v) of wash water (APHA), 2012]6 for reporting purposes.
• Type and amount of demulsifier Oil-water separation by a DAF separa-
• Test temperature tor is enhanced by the addition of suitable FIG. 5. Tubes containing crude and
• Applied voltage. flocculation agents. The selection of the demulsifying chemical for PED tests. Photo
The three tubes in FIG. 5 are examples correct type of chemical and its dosage is courtesy of Dorf Ketal, USA.
of crude mixed with 6% water. The mix- performed by chemical vendors onsite by
ture was emulsified in a blender, heated conducting jar tests (American Society MLVSS Mixed liquor volatile suspended solids
ASTM American Society for Testing
and then exposed to the electrostatic field, for Testing and Materials, 2013).7 Also, and Materials
as described above. The tube on the left the optimum operating parameters for MBBR Moving bed bioreactor
was a test blank that had no demulsify- a DAF separator (air-to-solids ratio, gas
ing chemical added to it. The other tubes saturation pressure, overflow rate) must LITERATURE CITED
compared the effectiveness of two differ- be determined by laboratory-scale DAF 1
Kremer, L. and S. Bieber, “Rethink desalting strat-
ent demulsifiers to assist in breaking the prototype units. egies when handling heavy crudes,” Hydrocarbon
Processing, September 2008.
emulsion. The tubes were allowed to sit for In certain cases, as reported in Part 2 in 2
Nagi-Hanspal, I., M. Subramaniyam, P. Shah, S.
20 min before the photograph (FIG. 5) was the September issue, the aeration basins of Moretti and J. Noland, “Exploiting opportunities
taken. It is evident that the PED is effective wastewater treatment plants were severely with challenging crudes,” 2002, www.digitalrefining.
com/article/1000652
at screening for differences in the chemical affected by foaming and floating solids. It 3
Srinivasan, V., M. Subramaniyam and P. Shah,
programs, as the tube on the right shows is essential to identify the types of micro- “Processing strategies for metallic and high acid
significant improvement. Every major organisms causing such problems, and crudes,” 2013, www.digitalrefining.com/arti-
chemical vendor that markets their prod- the operating environment responsible cle/1000885
ucts and services to support desalter oper- for their growth and proliferation. Complete literature cited available online at
HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
ations in refineries are equipped with their
own design of PED equipment, and they Part 2 of this article will explore, SOMNATH BASU is the Vice
select the ranges of operating variables. through three case studies, the effects President of global process
For wastewater treatment, the param- of the contaminants resulting from pro- engineering and Chief Technology
Officer at Headworks Intl. in
eters monitored are inlet and outlet oil cessing opportunity crudes. These three Houston, Texas. He has more than
and grease, and TSS of the API separa- case studies will cover a wide range of 30 yr of experience in industrial
tor and the dissolved air flotation (DAF) refinery locations, as well as their crude water and wastewater treatment
separator. For biotreatment, the typical sources and types. with a special focus on the oil and gas industry.
His prior affiliations include Shell Global Solutions,
parameters are inlet and outlet oil and AECOM, CDM, Stone & Webster and Raytheon
grease, TSS, biochemical oxygen de- ABBREVIATIONS (Badger) Engineers. At AECOM, he was the practice
mand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand COD Chemical oxygen demand leader for the oil and gas water/wastewater business
unit, and he served as the discipline leader for industrial
(COD), reactor basin mixed liquor sus- API American Petroleum Institute
wastewater treatment at CDM. Dr. Basu earned
CPI Corrugated plate interceptor
pended solids (MLSS) and mixed liquor TAN Total acid number a BE degree from the National Institute of Technology
volatile suspended solids (MLVSS). Re- TN Total nitrogen and an MTech degree from the Indian Institute of
fineries requiring nutrient removal also TKN Total Kjeldahl nitrogen Technology, India, both in chemical engineering.
TSS Total suspended solids He earned an MBA from the University of
monitor influent ammonia-N, total Kjel- Massachusetts, Amherst, and his PhD in environmental
FS Filterable solids
dahl nitrogen (TKN) and effluent total LTO Light tight oil engineering from Northeastern University, Boston. He is
nitrogen (TN). All of these parameters DO Dissolved oxygen a registered Professional Engineer (Chemical) in the
Commonwealth of Massachusetts; a senior member of
are measured by relevant Hach methods EIA Energy Information Administration
AIChE; a member of the Water Environment Federation
at the in-house laboratory for process PED Portable electric desalter
DAF Dissolved air flotation separator (WEF); and a member of the American Academy of
control. The regulated parameters in the MLSS Mixed liquor suspended solids Environmental Engineers and Scientists (AAEES).

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Water
Management
M. B. GERHARDT and T. R. STEINWINDER,
Brown and Caldwell, Walnut Creek, California
Options for meeting wastewater

effluent selenium limits
Wastewater treatment units (WW- that are derived from the POTWs’ bio- How sour water and the stripper bot-
TUs) in petroleum refineries are de- solids standards. toms (i.e., stripped sour water) are man-
signed to meet effluent limitations Meeting these low selenium limits is aged has a large impact on how best to
incorporated into National Pollutant challenging, as a target of single-digit µg/l control the refinery’s effluent selenium:
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) is at or near the limits of technology. Hav- • At some refineries, care is taken
permits for “conventional pollutants.” ing the ability to remove selenium from to route all sour water to the
These pollutants include oil and grease, wastewater may allow a refinery more stripper. At others, some is lost
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), flexibility in processing opportunity to the process sewer during parts
chemical oxygen demand (COD), chro- crudes, as the selenium content of crudes of the delayed coking cycle or
mium, sulfide, phenolic compounds, varies from < 0.01 ppmw–0.96 ppmw.2 via the slop oil system, when the
pH, ammonia and total suspended solids However, no single selenium removal sour water tank is skimmed.
(TSS). The technology-based effluent technology is appropriate for all refiner- • When stripped sour water is reused
limitations were originally promulgated ies. The process engineer must consider for desalting, selenium can go to the
by the US Environmental Protection the distribution of selenium in the refin- process sewer either directly or via
Agency (EPA) for the Petroleum Refin- ery to decide what streams to treat, and a brine treatment unit. Once in the
ing Point Source Category [40 Code of then select the technology to meet the process sewer, it combines not only
Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 419] in limit at the compliance point, which is with wastewater from other units
1974, with amendments in 1975, 1977, typically at the point of discharge. but also with stormwater, thereby
1982 and 1985. Technology is well estab- increasing the volume of water
lished for treating these contaminants, Selenium in refinery streams. Some requiring treatment.
and refineries generally meet these limits. selenium enters a refinery in its raw wa- • At other locations, stripped sour
Increasingly, refineries are also receiv- ter source. The selenium maximum water is kept segregated and routed
ing water quality-based effluent limita- contaminant level (MCL) for drinking directly to the WWTU. Some
tions (WQBELs) in their wastewater water in the US is 50 µg/l, an order of facilities have dedicated biological
discharge permits for trace elements. magnitude higher than some refineries’ treatment for stripped sour water
Selenium is one such trace element in discharge limits; however, generally the due to its high COD and phenolic
refinery permits, because it is a com- largest source of selenium in a refinery content.
ponent of crude oil that finds its way is crude. As selenium is directly beneath In the aerobic biological section of a
through refineries to the effluent. Limits sulfur on the periodic table, it follows WWTU, selenocyanate is oxidized pri-
of single-digit micrograms/liter (µg/l) sulfur through a refinery and is released marily to selenite (SeO32–), with small
are becoming more common. Further- from hydrocarbons in cracking and cok- amounts being oxidized further to selenate
more, the EPA released a new selenium ing processes. It then dissolves in the sour (SeO42–). This oxidation can also be done
water quality criterion in 2016 that will water condensing in these units. Sour chemically, as discussed in the following
lead to limits in discharge permits over water is typically the most concentrated section. Fortunately, selenite is one of the
the next 3 yr–5 yr for many refineries that source of selenium in a refinery. easiest selenium species to remove.
presently have no WQBELs.1 The 2016 Sulfur and selenium part ways in the
national recommended aquatic life crite- sour water stripper. Sulfur goes overhead; What stream to treat? The ideal
ria for water concentrations in lentic and selenium stays in the bottoms. This sepa- wastewater stream to treat is small in
lotic water columns are 1.5 µg/l and 3.1 ration occurs because sulfur is largely pres- volume, contains all of the refinery’s
µg/l, respectively. Some refineries that ent in these streams as hydrogen sulfide selenium (i.e., is high in concentration)
discharge to publicly owned treatment (H2S), while selenium exists primarily as and is not oily. The stream that most of-
works (POTWs) follow selenium limits selenocyanate (SeCN–), a reduced anion. ten meets these criteria is the stripped
Water Management
sour water. With these characteristics, sedimentation. The precipitated sludge ing centrifuges and ship it to landfills
the selenium present as SeCN– can be contains trace elements that have been offsite. The dewatered sludge may be a
either removed directly or oxidized to “coprecipitated”—a generic term for characteristic hazardous waste in Cali-
SeO32– and then removed. Aside from removal by chemical adsorption, pre- fornia, depending on the concentration
the capital cost savings in treating a small cipitation and/or entrainment. The pH and leachability.
stream, the target is not as low, because determines the charge on the iron oxide Effective solid/liquid separation is
the treated water will be blended with surface and which trace elements are ad- important in an end-of-pipe iron copre-
the remaining refinery wastewater be- sorbed. At high pH, cationic metals such cipitation. Excessive solids in the efflu-
fore discharge. as copper and zinc are removed, while at ent can result in exceedance of limits for
Several reasons exist for why these slightly acidic pH, anions such as SeO32– TSS and selenium. In addition, inland re-
ideal conditions are not always available: and arsenate are adsorbed. For SeO32–, fineries discharging to fresh surface wa-
• Enough selenium may be present the optimum pH is 5–6.5. ters may have an effluent limit for iron,
in the remaining refinery Two refineries in Northern California as the National Recommended Aquatic
wastewater due to incomplete installed iron coprecipitation systems on Life Criterion for iron in freshwater is
segregation of selenium-containing their biotreater effluents in the 1990s. 1,000 µg/l, and the TSS is primarily iron
sources, so that blending will not Their effluent limit was 50 µg/l, owing to oxide solids.
achieve the effluent limit a dilution credit afforded by their deep- Ion exchange6 and adsorption7 have
• The refinery may have multiple water diffusers. One uses a circular clari- also been tested extensively and imple-
sour water strippers that are fier for solids separation, while the other mented in at least one US refinery.
geographically separated utilizes parallel plate separators. As with many packed-bed wastewater
• The sour water strippers may not Iron coprecipitation is effective on treatment processes, ion exchange and
consistently produce non-oily biotreated refinery wastewater because adsorption media are fouled by oil and
stripped sour water. bacteria in the biotreater oxidize SeCN– plugged by TSS, so these technologies
In these cases, it may be necessary to (the predominant species in stripped sour cannot be used on streams with even oc-
treat the final effluent. water) to SeO32–, which adsorbs onto iron casional slugs of oil that have not been
oxide. Other anionic forms of selenium, filtered of TSS. Other disadvantages of
Treatment technologies. Virtually all including SeCN– and SeO42– (the most ion exchange include competition by
refineries treat wastewater with oil/water oxidized form of selenium) do not adsorb other anions (e.g., sulfate and thiosul-
separation and sometimes other physical well onto iron oxide. Some refineries do fate) and the fact that it produces a liquid
and chemical processes. That may be the have a significant amount of SeO42– in their waste that must be further treated.
extent of wastewater treatment if the wa- effluents, and as a result cannot achieve One US refinery uses a unique system
ter is discharged to a POTW or injection very low selenium limits with this process. that precipitates SeCN– directly using a
well. Other refineries, particularly those If the water to be treated has not been copper salt.8,9 The process was originally
that discharge directly to receiving water, biologically treated, then SeCN– must be developed to remove selenium from the
follow this initial treatment with biologi- chemically oxidized before iron copre- regenerated solution of an ion exchange
cal treatment to remove COD, ammonia cipitation. This has been done with hy- that was being pilot tested on stripped
and other contaminants. drogen peroxide, sodium hypochlorite3 sour water, but it was then applied di-
These treatment processes were nev- and potassium permanganate.4 Report- rectly to the stripped sour water stream.
er intended to remove trace elements, edly, potassium permanganate provides It is very effective on selenium removal
such as selenium. Sampling studies have the benefit of additional oxide surfaces but adds copper to the wastewater,
shown that some selenium is removed in for SeO32– adsorption, as it is reduced to which then requires additional process
biological treatment, as discussed in the manganese dioxide solids. steps to remove.
following sections, but many conven- Other chemical processes used at full
tional refinery WWTUs generally cannot scale are variants of iron coprecipitation. Biological technologies. Two mecha-
meet the selenium WQBELs. Additional Typically, these involve specialty chemi- nisms exist for biological selenium re-
treatment steps—either physical/chemicals that include iron-based coagulants duction: assimilative and dissimilative.
cal or biological—are needed. and sulfur-based metal scavengers. The The first, assimilative reduction, occurs
sludge formed can be removed by sedi- in all refinery biotreaters, since not all of
Physical/chemical technologies. mentation or flotation. the selenium that enters the biotreaters
The selenium in the effluent of refin- All iron-based technologies produce is found in the effluent. A portion is re-
ery biological treatment systems (i.e., large amounts of sludge. Tests for the moved, largely to the biosolids. This re-
biotreaters) exists primarily as SeO32–, Western States Petroleum Association moval has been attributed to assimilative
which can be removed by adsorption showed sludge generation at 2.6 g–3.2 g reduction, a mechanism by which seleni-
onto iron oxides and hydroxide, a fer- of dry solids per g of iron added.5 Treat- um is taken up in place of sulfur in amino
rihydrite complex. Iron coprecipitation ment of a 3,500-gal/min refinery efflu- acids (e.g., forming selenomethionine in-
is a process in which an iron salt, typi- ent using 40 mg/l of iron would produce stead of methionine) and other organic
cally ferric chloride (FeCl3) or ferric sul- 2 tpd–3 tpd of iron solids on a dry weight compounds to become part of the bacte-
fate, is mixed with wastewater at a con- basis. At least one refinery transfers this rial cells. This process alone is generally
trolled pH, precipitated and removed by sludge to its coker; others dewater it us- insufficient to meet effluent limits.
Water Management
Oxidized forms of selenium (e.g., move both nitrate and selenium. Data col- cal reduction is used instead. Packed-bed
SeO32– and SeO42–) can also be used by lected at a full-scale municipal treatment and fluidized-bed systems are commer-
some heterotrophic bacteria as an elec- plant with biological nitrogen removal cially available. On refinery biotreater ef-
tron acceptor under anoxic conditions showed a 93% reduction of selenium in fluent, biological reduction in tanks has
in dissimilative reduction. This process the anoxic tank, but re-oxidation to SeO32– been tested but not implemented at full
is analogous to denitrification, in which and SeO42– in the aerobic section.10 scale. It occurs naturally in pond-based
bacteria metabolize organics for growth The anoxic process of biological re- refinery wastewater systems.
and synthesis, using nitrate as an electron duction of selenium has been exploited in
acceptor and reducing it to nitrogen gas. commercial systems to remove selenium Case study 1: End-of-pipe iron
Similarly, certain bacteria reduce from mine waters and power plant wet coprecipitation. One US refinery in-
SeO32– and SeO42– to elemental sele- flue gas desulfurization (WFGD) scrub- stalled an iron coprecipitation system
nium, which is an insoluble solid. These ber waste. Selenate is the predominant (FIG. 1) in the mid-1990s, immediately
solids exist as nanospheres (1 nm–100 form of selenium in many mining dis- downstream of its existing activated
nm) that are loosely held in the extracel- charges; WFGD scrubber waste contains sludge system, which consists of aeration
lular polymer of the heterotrophs. The a mixture of SeO32– and SeO42–. Since tanks, clarifiers and induced air flotation
reduction occurs at a lower redox poten- SeO42– cannot be removed by most of (IAF) for additional suspended solids
tial than nitrate reduction, so all nitrate the physical-chemical processes, biologi- removal. The activated sludge effluent
must first be removed before selenium
can be reduced. In both cases, an oxidiz- Reactor/clarifier
able organic (i.e., electron donor), such Treated effluent to discharge
as acetate or glycerin, is needed. Other Wastewater from activated sludge unit
oxyanions, such as arsenate and vana- FeCI3
date, may also be reduced and compete
for an electron donor. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Dissimilative selenium reduction can- Sulfuric adic (H2SO4 ) Sludge to thickening and dewatering
not be used on SeCN– or other reduced
species. Therefore, at a refinery, it would FIG. 1. Process flow diagram of a refinery iron coprecipitation system removing selenium
from biotreater effluent.
be considered only for treatment of aero-
bic biotreater effluent, which contains
oxidized selenium species. That stream
is not ideal, however, because all readily
oxidizable organics have already been re-
moved, so supplemental organics would
need to be added. To drive the reaction
to a low residual selenium concentration,
the supplement must be added in excess.
However, the refinery cannot simulta-
neously discharge this excess and meet
its effluent COD limit, so there must be
an aerobic biological organics polishing
step, along with exceptional solid/liquid
separation, to remove the elemental sele-
nium particles. To add to these complica-
tions, biotreater effluent contains nitrate
(formed by nitrification of ammonia),
which increases the amount of supple-
mental organics that must be applied.
Some refineries will face effluent lim-
its on total nitrogen in the coming years,
as regulatory authorities address potential
eutrophication of receiving waters, and ef-
fluent denitrification will be needed. The
removal of nitrate will make biological
reduction a more attractive candidate for
selenium removal. To that end, refineries
that must reduce total nitrogen discharge
should consider how selenium removal
could be incorporated into that process,
so that a single process could be used to re-
93
Water Management
Oxidation Flocculation Dissolved nitrogen and how well stripped sour water is kept
tank tank flotation segregated from other process wastewaters.
Stripped sour water
from stripper Iron-based technologies are the most com-
Treated effluent mon; however, room exists for technologi-
to discharge
cal progress in reducing the mass of residu-
H2O2
Float als produced, in separating biological and
H2SO4 Bottom selenium solids, and in tertiary treating of
sludge Sludge to disposal trace constituents resulting from applica-
Coagulant
Recycle tion of selenium treatment technology.
Flocculant
Nitrogen LITERATURE CITED
saturation
N2 pump
1
US EPA, “Recommended aquatic life ambient water
quality criterion for selenium in freshwater,” EPA
FIG. 2. Process flow diagram of a refinery oxidation, precipitation and flotation system removing 822-R-16-006, Office of Water 4303T, June 2016.
selenium from stripped sour water.
2
Stivanin de Almeida, C., A. Ribeiro, T. Saint’Pierre
and N. Miekeley, “Studies on the origin and trans-
formation of selenium and its chemical species along
the process of petroleum refining,” Spectrochimica
contains selenium, primarily in the form a flocculating tank followed by dissolved Acta Part B, Vol. 64, 2009.
of SeO32–. In the selenium treatment unit, nitrogen flotation (DNF). The DNF has 3
Bennett, C. and J. Gerlach, “Selenium removal pro-
IAF effluent is dosed with ferric chloride, a special pump that saturates recycled ef- cess,” US Patent No. 5,071,568, 1991.
4
Overman, S., “Process for removing selenium from
acid or base as needed, and a polymeric fluent with nitrogen under pressure. As refinery process water and wastewater streams,” US
flocculant and is then introduced into this fluid is returned to the DNF, fine Patent No. 5,993,667, 1999.
the center well of a flocculating clarifier. bubbles form and adhere to the flocculant 5
Gerhardt, M., D. Marrs and R. Roehl, “Optimization
Clarifier sludge, which contains the re- particles, lifting them to the surface of of ferric hydroxide coprecipitation process for sele-
nium removal from petroleum refinery stripped
moved selenium, is centrifuged by a con- the DNF tank, where they are skimmed sour water,” 68th Water Environment Federation
tractor and disposed offsite. for separation. Some solids settle instead. Technical Exhibition and Conference, Miami,
Prior to implementation, the refin- The bottom sludge and float, which con- Florida, 1995.
ery effluent contained approximately tain the removed selenium, are combined
6
Lukasiewicz, R., D. Gallup and B. Kelly, “Method
for reducing the selenium concentration in an oil
60 µg/l–80 µg/l of selenium. At present, and disposed. The DNF is covered and refinery effluent,” US Patent No. 5,601,721, 1997.
the median effluent selenium concentra- vapor-controlled due to the possibility 7
Johnson, M., C. Lord, L. Reed, K. McCarley, G.
tion is approximately 20 µg/l, well below of odors or volatile organic compounds Dodwell, T. Cheung, J. Cruze and R. Anderson,
“Selenium removal process,” US Patent No.
the refinery’s monthly average effluent (VOCs) emissions. 7,419,606, 2008.
limit of 42 µg/l. During commissioning, it was found 8
Gallup, D., “Method for removing selenocyanate ions
that in-line pH control was problematic. from wastewater,” US Patent No. 6,214,238, 2001.
Case study 2: Chemical oxidation Stripped sour water is formed from con-
9
Alexander, R., C. Lord and S. Mitchell, “Selenium
removal from water,” US Patent No. 7,419,602, 2008.
and precipitation in stripped sour densates, so it has little buffering capacity, 10
Pontarolo, D., T. Sandy, N. Keller, M. Gearhart,
water. Another US refinery installed and the titration curve has a sharp drop V. Patel and J. Jimenez, “Fate and forms of sele-
a chemical oxidation and precipitation from highly basic to highly acidic pH. At nium in a biological nutrient removal wastewa-
ter treatment plant,” Proceedings of the Water
system (FIG. 2) in the mid-2010s to treat times, too much acid was being added, re- Environment Federation, WEFTEC 2017, Sessions
stripped sour water only. The water is first sulting in excessive corrosion rates. This 500–508, 2017.
acidified and then treated with hydrogen problem was reduced by a combination of
peroxide (H2O2) to oxidize SeCN– to modifying the acid pumps and upgrading MATTHEW GERHARDT is
SeO32–. Controls are in place to prevent the acid injection quill. Vice President of industrial water
at Brown and Caldwell, specializing
the addition of acid without H2O2, since This refinery has a high effluent lim- in wastewater selenium and trace
acidifying SeCN– can potentially form it—approximately 200 µg/l—because it metals removal. He started his
hydrogen cyanide (HCN). After oxida- discharges to a POTW rather than to sur- career at Chevron Research Co.
tion, proprietary coagulant and flocculant face water. Therefore, operators are able to and has more than 30 yr of
experience in refinery water and wastewater
are added. The coagulant is iron based, so treat as much stripped sour water as need- treatment. He holds a BS degree in chemical
the chemistry is similar to iron coprecipi- ed to meet the effluent limit treating with- engineering from Cornell University and a PhD
tation. The flocculant includes a sulfur- out having to treat the entire refinery efflu- in civil/environmental engineering from UC Berkeley.
containing organic molecule developed ent flow. Stripped sour water that is used THOMAS STEINWINDER is
for metals removal. for desalting is not treated for selenium. Managing Engineer and Market
In this system, flotation is used instead This system allows the refinery to process Sector Director of oil and gas at
of settling to remove the selenium-con- opportunity crudes with higher selenium. Brown and Caldwell, specializing
in water and wastewater treatment
taining solids. The flocculant particles are at petroleum refineries and
very light, and bench-scale testing during Recommendations. The choices of petrochemical plants. He has 12 yr
process development showed that flota- which streams to treat for selenium and of experience in design, bench and pilot testing,
operations and project management. He holds a
tion was an effective solid/liquid separa- what technology to use are site-specific. BA degree from Vanderbilt University and an
tion process that left a clean effluent. At They depend on the amount of selenium MS degree in civil/environmental engineering
full scale, this system was designed with entering the refinery, the effluent limits, from Auburn University.
Innovations
Carboline introduces and then the system can be put back into
polyaspartic coating operation. This eliminates the re-routing
of signalling cables to the respective
Carboline has released Carboquick® switching box and allows the electrical
200, a high-build, one-coat, quick-dry- department to devote its attention to
ing polyaspartic coating that can be ap- other tasks.
plied directly to metal. The coating is The process is leak-tight; the blind tap
typically dry to handle in 1 hr–2 hr, is in the holder replaces the otherwise nec-
easy to apply and ready to spray without essary continuous holes. The absence of
thinning, and produces a smooth and perforated gaskets (for conventional sig-
durable finish. nalling cable holes in the holder) means
Carboquick 200 also provides good that the utilized gaskets cannot become
color and gloss retention in UV exposure, porous, thus preventing an escape of the
exceeding the long-term weatherability process media. FIG. 1. REMBE graphite rupture disc GRX
requirements of SSPC Coating Specifica- The new GRX graphite rupture disc with vacuum support.
tion No. 39 Level 3A. One coat applied also ensures permanent leak-tightness
direct to metal (DTM) at 6 mils–10 mils in normal operation due to a specifi- Safety integrity level
dry film thickness (DFT) provides cor- cally developed coating, even at extreme rating for guided radar
rosion protection of ISO 12944-6 C 3 temperatures. The graphite rupture disc
High, eliminating the need for typical GRX with PyC coating for extra-long level measurement
primer and/or intermediate coats. temperature resistance has been devel- Hawk Measurement Systems
Providing long-term corrosion pro- oped for processes with corrosive me- (HAWK), a global leader in measurement
tection and resistance to the elements in dia, low pressure and temperatures of solutions, has earned safety integrity level
one coat, Carboquick 200 saves signifi- –180°C–1,500°C (–292°F–2,732°F). (SIL) rating SIL2 / SIL3 to aid in reduc-
cant time and money without sacrificing The GRX is available with a synthetic ing safety risks in hazardous applications
performance. resin coating [process temperatures up from the International Electrotechnical
Select 1 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS to 200°C (392°F)], as well as a PyC coat- Commission (IEC). The commission’s
ing developed specifically for the GRX standard IEC 61508 defines SIL using
REMBE launches [temperatures > 200°C (392°F)]. With requirements grouped into two broad
the PyC coating, the rupture disc holds categories: hardware safety integrity and
new products significantly longer at very high tem- systematic safety integrity. A device or
The REMBE NIMU non-invasive peratures, while remaining permanently system must meet the requirements for
signalling unit ensures the highest leak- leak-tight. Rupture discs with a coating both categories to achieve a given SIL.
tightness and reliable monitoring of the made of synthetic resin would no longer Achieving this SIL certification means
rupture discs used. Conventional burst be able to offer this leak-tightness at tem- that HAWK’s Centurion Guided Radar
indicator devices require cables to be peratures exceeding 200°C. measurement systems will provide opera-
mounted on the rupture disc, which With an operating pressure ratio of up tors with the added assurance that it will
must then be routed out through the to 90% and burst tolerances of +/– 5 %, consistently and reliably identify all pro-
rupture disc holder. With the NIMU, a the GRX is usable for rupture pressures cesses considered hazardous and, if failure
signalling indicator is attached to the from 0.02 bar. Optionally, a vacuum sup- was to occur, determine that level of risk.
rupture disc during its manufacturing. port can be integrated (FIG. 1), which is The rating will help evaluate whether this
The actual sensor is screwed into a blind installed without adhesive (which melts specific technology for the measurement
tap in the rupture disc holder, where at very high temperatures). The GRX of multiple mediums such as liquids,
it monitors the position of the signal- is also available with a burst indicator, sludge, powders and granules to a range of
ling indicator on the rupture disc. This upon request. The installation occurs 60 ft for level meets the selected risk tol-
means that the cable only starts outside directly between the flanges. The GRX erance level. These standards have been
the rupture disc holder. has already been installed in various re- widely accepted globally to help define
After a pressure relief, and the associ- actors, tanks, glass containers and other safety instrumented systems (SISs) and
ated opening of the rupture disc, the out- system parts in the chemical and petro- their reliability as a means of assessing
let part of the rupture disc holder must chemical industry. and improving their safety.
be removed, the rupture disc replaced, Select 2 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS Select 3 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS

Innovations
Beckhoff IoT Edge from Beckhoff is a space-saving, high- The compact C6015 IPC with multi-
performance IoT edge device that fully core technology can be flexibly installed
device provides path utilizes these advantages for new and even in highly confined spaces (FIG. 2).
to Industry 4.0-enabled legacy systems in the process industries. Equipped with an Intel® Atom™ proces-
process technology By integrating comprehensive IoT and sor that offers up to four CPU cores, the
Modern smart factory concepts tai- analytics functionality, system consisten- C6015 provides sufficient processing
lored to Industry 4.0 or the Internet of cy in the control platform ensures simple power for simple collection, processing
Things (IoT) offer numerous advantag- implementation and high transparency: and provision of process data and for the
es for increasing process efficiency and • A universal portfolio of more complex tasks required of a modern
quality while lowering costs. The ultra- components for explosion IoT gateway.
compact C6015 Industrial PC (IPC) protection, including the ELX series Existing process technology systems
EtherCAT Terminals, enables end- can be easily equipped with additional
to-end automation of even large IoT capabilities using this IoT edge de-
and complex processing plants. vice, or they can be readied to meet future
• The TwinCAT software platform communication requirements, reducing
offers specific interfaces and production costs, optimizing product
libraries for process technology, quality and improving the transparency
and enables convenient cloud of all process workflows. In addition, sys-
integration via TwinCAT IoT tem availability and productivity can be
and data analysis via TwinCAT increased, and cloud-based services, for
Analytics, synchronizing with example, can be used to implement pre-
control cycles. dictive maintenance.
• A high-performance IoT edge Select 4 at www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS
FIG. 2. Measuring 82 mm x 82 mm x 40 mm,
the C6015 IPC with Intel® Atom processor
device in the form of the C6015
represents an ideal combination of compact ultra-compact IPC, which can An expanded version of
design and high performance as an IoT simultaneously run varied Innovations can be found online
edge device. automation and control tasks. at HydrocarbonProcessing.com.
Crossword
1 2
3
All answers can be found within
this issue of Hydrocarbon Processing
4
Click here to fill in the answers online.
Across
3. I in IIoT
5 6 4. They can provide pressure relief
5. Part of IMO
7. Tunable diode ____ absorption spectroscopy
7 6
9. Bonus Report theme
12. Pressure transmitter in Carlson's work
9 13. Onsite event
15. Crude-to-____
10 11
18. Improve the chemical industry with this
12 19. Type of column analyzed for stability in the Special Focus
Down
13 14
1. This type of failure on a pump
2. First equipment to handle/process crude in a refinery
6. A consideration for turbomachinery control upgrades
8. HP’s most "promising" award
15 16
10. Test in Case 102
11. HP contributor Heinz
17 18 12. Digital replica
14. IRPC Americas locale
16. Reduce this to make a clean fuel
17. Opportunity ____
19
PUZZLED? WE HAVE THE ANSWERS!

Visit HydrocarbonProcessing.com/hp-crossword-0718
for the July HP Awards sponsored crossword puzzle solution.
People
Elliott Group has MRE Consulting Ltd. has Airswift has hired Electrical industry AMETEK Brookfield has
appointed Mark Babyak admitted MRE Directors Meredith Morris as veteran Andy Schwegel named Vicki Case as
as VP of its cryodynamic Bjorn Hagelmann, Doug Business Development has been promoted to Global Marketing Director.
products business, Ashmore and Bill Bucy Manager for global VP of international and She spent the past 12 yr at
formerly the cryodynamics to the partnership. Mr. mobility, where she will industrial/commercial Sealed Air, and served as
division of Ebara Intl. Corp. Hagelmann joined MRE be responsible for safely, sales for Appleton Group. VP of marketing for Global
He replaces John Rann, in 2009 as MRE’s Chief efficiently and compliantly In his 16-yr tenure with e-Commerce & Fulfillment
who is retiring after 41 yr Operating Officer (COO). mobilizing personnel. Emerson, Mr. Schwegel Solutions. While serving
of service with Elliott. Mr. Ashmore joined MRE Ms. Morris joins Airswift has held increasingly in this role, Ms. Case
Mr. Babyak joined Elliott in 2010. In addition to from a major global responsible positions, expanded marketing
in 1981 as a Product driving MRE’s regional relocation management primarily in marketing, efforts by deploying
Engineer for Elliott’s oil expansion, his role has firm where she held business development new digital platforms
systems business. Over the expanded to include the role of Business and sales management. to better reach customer
last 37 yr, he has served business development Development Manager for Harish Shinde has been segments, developed
as Project Engineering for several MRE services 4 yr, working with a range promoted from VP of the automated fulfillment
Manager, Continuous lines. Mr. Bucy joined of Fortune 100 companies. strategy and customer solutions business and
Improvement Manager MRE in 2005 and focuses She has also gained care at Appleton Group to led the operational
and Director of Operations primarily on business professional recognition Mr. Schwegel’s former role excellence team.
for rerate services. development activities as a Certified Relocation as VP/General Manager
He has held the position and process innovation. Specialist and Global of Sola and heating cable
of Director of engineered Mobility Specialist with systems. He previously BCCK Holding Co.
solutions since 2015. the Worldwide Employee served as VP of Appleton President and CEO
EMEX LLC has named Relocation Council, and Canada and as Manager Clark Butts has been
Kurt Keller as Chief serves on the board of in the strategy and named a 2018 Texas Tech
Alessa Popovic has joined Financial Officer. Mr. Keller directors for Houston operations practice of Distinguished Engineer.
blockchain technology firm has more than 20 yr of Relocation Professionals. Deloitte Consulting LLP. Mr. Butts founded BCCK
BTL Group in its London accounting and finance Emerson has promoted in 1980 with only five
office as Senior Business experience with a focus in Joe Ugarte to VP of employees; the company
Development Manager. She the energy industry, and Stacey McGuire has been hazardous at Appleton has since grown to more
previously was the Manager will oversee accounting, chosen as General Counsel Group with direction for than 700 employees and
at EY’s EMEIA Oil & Gas treasury and risk- to lead the legal function the sales of electrical now incorporates BCCK
Advisory Centre, and has management functions. at Pelican Products Inc. products targeting the Engineering, NG Resources
advised both national and He previously worked She brings more than North American hazardous and NGF Construction.
international oil companies 10 yr for Navasota Energy, 15 yr of transactional location petrochemical
on a range of issues related 7 yr at Deloitte and 2 yr and litigation experience and chemical processing
to improving steering at Sonat Energy Services. to her new position. markets. He was The International Marine
mechanisms with strategic Kris Hertel is now the Prior to joining Pelican, previously VP of global Contractors Association
impact across internal Chief Sales Officer, and will she served in a variety sales for TESCOM/ (IMCA) has appointed
departments, operating provide critical oversight of high-level positions at Anderson Greenwood Bruce Gresham as Director
companies and the wider of EMEX’s growing sales companies and law firms Instrumentation, another for client engagement in
group. She worked both and marketing ventures that include J.T. Posey Co., business unit of Emerson the US. He joined Heerema
with EY’s Global and across the US. Mr. Hertel Clinipace Worldwide Automation Solutions. Marine Contractors in
EMEIA Oil & Gas Advisory brings more than 25 yr and Sedgwick LLP. 1985 and has held a wide
teams to implement of sales and marketing range of executive roles in
group-wide strategies, experience to EMEX. Viktor Zubkov has been developing the company’s
as well as build and test Most recently, he served NEBOSH CEO Teresa elected as Chairman market presence in
new service offerings. as Chief Sales Officer for Budworth will retire after of the Gazprom board North America. He is the
Ms. Popovic’s experience North American Power’s leading the company of directors. Alexey past Vice Chairman of
Miller, Chairman of the
Association.
includes project delivery US business division, led for the last 12 yr, and IMCA’s North America
and case development the sales team for Circular transforming the charity Gazprom management regional committee, and
for the application of Energy, and served as the into a global brand in committee, was named was a member of the
blockchain technology in VP of North American the field of health, safety as Deputy Chairman of executive committee and
energy trading, back-office Commercial markets and environmental the Company’s board of board of directors of the
functions and supply chain. for Hudson Energy. qualifications. directors. National Ocean Industries

LEE NICHOLS, EDITOR/ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER
Lee.Nichols@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Onsite
The following scenes were captured

during Hydrocarbon Processing’s Interna-
tional Refining and Petrochemical Con-
ference (IRPC). The event—hosted by
Italian multinational oil and gas company,
Eni—was held in June in Milan, Italy, and
focused on technical solutions for the re-
fining and petrochemical industries.
1
1 Catherine Watkins, Publisher of
Hydrocarbon Processing and
Gas Processing, opens IRPC Europe
to a packed audience. 6
2 Giacomo Rispoli, Executive Vice
President Portfolio Management,
Eni, provided the keynote
presentation on challenges facing
the global refining industry.
3 Delegates from Sandvik take a

quick break from networking to 2 7
pose for a picture. (From left to right)
Barinder Ghai, Alessandra Spaghetti,
Liz Diskin, Paola Pedani and
Oscar Johansson.
4 Colleagues from BP, Dr. Andrew

Poole and Dr. Efimia (Fay) Metsi-
Guckel, catch up during the IRPC
Europe opening reception.
3
5 The use of virtual/augmented reality
in processing plants was the focus of
Joesph McMullin’s (Market Director,
AVEVA) presentation.
6 Massimo Beretta (left) and Fabio

De Luca of Baretti enjoy one of the 8
many networking breaks.
7 A delegation from Alfa Level in

their booth before the afternoon
break. (From left to right) Tobias
Vernersson, Stefano Villa, Erasmo
4
Gallese and Alessandro Tovoli.
8 IRPC’s first mini tech session

was led by Venla Kuuluvainen,
NAPCON, Neste Engineering
Solutions. The topic was how to
boost process plant performance
through online optimization.
9 Christian Vaccese (left) and

Vic Scalco of General Atomics
meet after Mr. Scalco’s presentation
on optimizing solids separation.
5 9
10 Nicola Dessalvi, IMI Critical
Engineering, Paolo Barbieri,
ASCO Filtri SpA and Alessandro
Lauria, IMI Critical Engineering,
discuss the events of the day
during the lunch break.
11 Dr. Madhukar Garg, President-

Refining and Petrochemical R&D,
Reliance Industries Ltd., discusses
an innovative process for the
10 15 simultaneous production of
high-purity benzene and US-grade
gasoline from C6 heart cut of
FCC gasoline.
12 Exhibitors from Georg Fischer,

Raimondo Fiorino and Paolo Salvioli,
enjoying a break in the event.
13 A delegation from Sinopec

16 gathers for a quick picture
between networking.
14 Guido Radaelli, Executive

Vice President of Engineering,
Siluria Technologies, Rasool Barouni,
11 Senior Product Marketing Manager,
Honeywell Process Solutions
and Andrea Redford, Vice President
of Petrochemical Licensing,
17 Siluria Technologies, enjoy a
glass of wine during the event’s
opening reception.
15 Filtrex’s Sales Manager and

Managing Director, Enrico Leucci
and Nicola Riolo, during an
12 afternoon networking break.
16 During the opening reception,

Mauro Beretta and Andrea
18 Bonometti of bulk srl, pose
in their booth before continuing
networking.
17 The NAPCON (Neste Engineering

Solutions) team was out in full
13 force during IRPC Europe.
(From left to right) Venla
18 Kuuluvainen, Arjan van Zijp,
Perttu Tuomaala and
Stefan Bosman.
18 Attendees enjoy good conversation,

wine and an Italian dinner during the
sold-out, offsite networking event.
19 Massimo Trani, Vice President

Technology Licensing, Eni,
provides an overview of Eni’s
Sannazzaro de’ Burgondi refinery
14 19 before a tour of the facility.
ADVERTISER INDEX / HydrocarbonProcessing.com
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go to www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com/RS, follow the instructions on the screen, and your request will be forwarded for immediate action, or go online to the advertiser's website listed below.
Company Page RS# Company Page RS# Company Page RS#
Website Website Website
Advanced Refining Technologies ..................14 (55) Graphite Metallizing Corporation ................. 53 (159) Neste Engineering Solutions Oy................... 32 (157)
www.info.hotims.com/70517-55 www.info.hotims.com/70517-159 www.info.hotims.com/70517-157
AFPM (NPRA) .............................................90 Gulf Energy Information NISTM .........................................................71
Altra Industrial Motion................................ 24 (154) Energy Web Atlas .................................... 62 Paharpur Cooling Towers, Ltd. ......................16 (99)
www.info.hotims.com/70517-154 www.info.hotims.com/70517-99
Events—HP Awards ................................. 87
American Petroleum Institute ..................... 27 (156) Rezel Catalysts Corp ................................C-80 (87)
Events—IRPC Americas ...........................103 www.info.hotims.com/70517-87
www.info.hotims.com/70517-156 Events—WGLC ........................................40 Roth Pump Company.................................. 55 (160)
Ariel Corporation........................................ 28 (65) HP Circulation ......................................... 72 www.info.hotims.com/70517-160
www.info.hotims.com/70517-65 HP Webcast—Schneider Electric ................61 Saint-Gobain Norpro .................................. 22 (91)
Ashcroft Inc. ...............................................21 (153) Marketplace........................................... 101 www.info.hotims.com/70517-91
www.info.hotims.com/70517-153 Shell Global Solutions ..............................C–78 (54)
Software—Instrucalc ...............................84
AUMA Riester Gmbh & Co., KG ......................12 (152) www.info.hotims.com/70517-54
Harsco Industrial Air-X-Changers / Hammco ...45 (88)
www.info.hotims.com/70517-152 www.info.hotims.com/70517-88 Shell Global Solutions ..............................C–82 (74)
Axens .......................................................104 (51) www.info.hotims.com/70517-74
Hunter Buildings ........................................ 26 (155) Sinopec Tech ...............................................18 (59)
Badger Meter .............................................46 (69) Idrojet ....................................................... 65 (161)
www.info.hotims.com/70517-69 Spraying Systems Co ...................................13 (67)
www.info.hotims.com/70517-161 www.info.hotims.com/70517-67
Curtiss-Wright – Est Group ..........................37 (158) Kobelco Edti Compressors Inc ........................ 5 (68) Swagelok .................................................. 30 (73)
Elliott Group ................................................6 (54) Merichem Company...................................... 2 (84) UOP LLC ..................................................... 38 (71)
Finder Pompe SpA....................................... 11 (151) Metrix ....................................................... 93 (162) W. R. Grace & Co......................................... 33 (89)
This Index and procedure for securing additional information is provided as a service to Hydrocarbon Processing advertisers and a convenience to our readers. Gulf Energy Information is not responsible for omissions or errors.
RUSSIA/FSU INDONESIA, MALAYSIA, SINGAPORE, THAILAND

Lilia Fedotova Peggy Thay
Anik International & Co. Ltd. Publicitas Singapore Pte Ltd
Phone: +7 (495) 628-10-333 Phone: +65 6836-2272
Catherine Watkins, Publisher E-mail: Lilia.Fedotova@GulfEnergyInfo.com E-mail: Singapore@GulfEnergyInfo.com
Phone: +1 (713) 520-4421 JAPAN
TURKEY, WESTERN EUROPE
E-mail: Catherine.Watkins@
Hamilton Pearman Yoshinori Ikeda
Phone: +33 608 310 575 Pacific Business Inc.
www.HydrocarbonProcessing.com
Hamilton.Pearman@GulfEnergyInfo.com Phone: +81 (3) 3661-6138
SALES OFFICES—NORTH AMERICA E-mail: Japan@GulfEnergyInfo.com
UNITED KINGDOM/SCANDINAVIA
EASTERN UNITED STATES, EASTERN CANADA Patrick Djuma KOREA
Merrie Lynch Phone: +44 20 3409 2243 YB Jeon
Phone: +1 (617) 357-8190 E-mail: Patrick.Djuma@GulfEnergyInfo.com Storm Associates Inc.
Mobile: +1 (617) 594-4943 Phone: +82 (2) 755-3774
E-mail: Merrie.Lynch@GulfEnergyInfo.com SALES OFFICES—OTHER AREAS E-mail: Korea@GulfEnergyInfo.com
GULF COAST, SOUTH TEXAS AFRICA, MIDDLE EAST MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, SOUTH AMERICA
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Phone: +1 (713) 525-4626 Twiga Media Partner Mobile: +55 21 99616-4347
E-mail: Tom.Witte@HydrocarbonProcessing.com Phone: +254 722 376 972 E-mail: Brazil@GulfEnergyInfo.com
Email: Mbaluli@GulfEnergyInfo.com
MIDWEST, NORTH TEXAS CLASSIFIED SALES
Josh Mayer CHINA—HONG KONG
Laura Kane
Phone: +1 (972) 816-6745 Iris Yuen
Phone: +1 (713) 412-2389
E-mail: Josh.Mayer@GulfEnergyInfo.com Phone: +86 13802701367 (China)
E-mail: L.Kane@GulfEnergyInfo.com
Phone: +852 69185500 (Hong Kong)
WESTERN UNITED STATES, WESTERN CANADA E-mail: Iris.Yuen@GulfEnergyInfo.com DATA PRODUCTS
Rick Ayer
Phone: +1 (949) 366-9089 INDIA J’Nette Davis-Nichols
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SALES OFFICES—EUROPE Mobile: +91-98673 67374 GulfEnergyInfo.com
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Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2018101

ALISSA LEETON, CONTRIBUTING EDITOR
Alissa.Leeton@GulfPub.com
Events
AUGUST Turbomachinery & Pump AIChE Southwest Process Valve World Expo,
Symposia, Sept. 18–20, Technology Conference, Nov. 27–29, Messe Düsseldorf,
HCSMRP 14th Annual Maintenance George R. Brown Convention Oct. 9–10, Moody Gardens Düsseldorf, Germany
and Reliability Symposium, Center, Houston, Texas Hotel and Convention Center, P: +49 211-45-60-01
Aug. 15–17, Moody Gardens P: 979-845-7417 Galveston, Texas infoservice@messe-
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www.smrphouston.org Symposium, Sept. 19–20, Houston, Texas DECEMBER
DoubleTree by Hilton, Kuala GasProcessingConference.com
AFPM Cat Cracker Seminar, Lumpur, Malaysia (See box for contact information) Middle East Catalyst
Aug. 21–22, Royal Sonesta, P: +60 3-2182-3000 Technology Conference,
Houston, Texas spekl@spe.org Women’s Global Leadership Dec. 5–6, Four Seasons
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Stavanger, Norway Riocentro Business Convention, WGLconference.com office@europetro-me.com
P: +47 932-56-125 Rio De Janeiro, Brazil (See box for contact information) europetro.com
angelo@ons.no P: +55 21-2112-9000
www.ons.no riooil@ibp.org.br
www.riooilgas.com NOVEMBER JANUARY 2019
HP Awards, Aug. 30,
Gulf Energy Information Events, Process Safety Management Sulphur CRU, Nov. 5–8, Future of Polyolefins Summit,
Houston, Texas Summit, Sept. 24–27, Gothia Towers, Jan. 16–17, Antwerp, Belgium
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SEPTEMBER IRPC Americas, Sept. 25–26, API 13th Annual FEBRUARY 2019
Gulf Energy Information Events, Cybersecurity Conference
ECC Conference, Sept. 5–8, Houston, Texas for the Oil & Natural Gas Egypt Petroleum Show
JW Marriott Hill Country Resort, HPIRPC.com/Americas Industry, Nov. 6–7, (EGYPS), Feb. 11–13,
San Antonio, Texas (See box for contact information) Marriott Woodlands Waterway, Egypt International Exhibition
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Sept. 25–27, Telus Convention egyps.conference@
EUROCORR 2018, Sept. 9–13, Centre, Calgary, Alberta, Canada Latin American Petrochemical dmgevents.com
Ice Kraków Congress Centre, P: +1 888-799-2545 Annual Meeting, Nov. 10–13, www.egyps.com
Kraków, Poland internationalpipeline Grand Fiesta Americana
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Sept. 17–20, Fira Gran Via, Technology Summit, Oct. 1–3, adipec.delegate@ P: +1 202-457-0480
Barcelona, Spain Atlanta Marriott Marquis, dmgeventsme.com info@afpm.org
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www.gastechevent.com API Fall Refining
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Register
Today
AMERICAS
September 25–26, 2018 | Houston, Texas | HPIRPC.com/Americas
Exploring Downstream Innovation Session Topics Include:

IRPC and GTC Technology are delighted to be collaborating on a pre-IRPC Clean Fuels
conference seminar taking place on Wednesday, September 24, 2018 from 12:30 Digital Operations
to 5:30 pm at the Norris Conference Centers — CityCentre, Houston, Texas.
Emerging Technologies
For more details on the IRPC Pre-Conference Seminar hosted by GTC Technology
go to our website at HPIRPC.com/Americas. Process Controls and Instrumentation
Meeting IMO Regulations
Sponsorship opportunities are available! Process/Plant Optimization

Catalysts
Contact your Hydrocarbon Processing representative or
Hortensia “Tish” Barroso, Business Development Manager, at Maintenance and Reliability
Hortensia.Barroso@GulfEnergyInfo.com
Keynote Speakers include:

Sponsored By:
KEYNOTE
Pre-Conference Mini Tech Session Dr. Thomas Kevin Swift
Workshop Sponsor Sponsor
Chief Economist and
Managing Director,
American Chemistry Council
Exhibitors:
KEYNOTE
Manav Lahoti
Commercial Director
US Olefins
The Dow Chemical Company
Axens is a leading global
provider of technologies, OIL REFINING
catalysts, adsorbents,
services and equipment.
Axens solutions are used PETROCHEMICALS
at major industrial plants
around the world.
GASES
TOGETHER
RENEWABLES
& ALTERNATIVES
SUCCEED
WATER
axens.net/blog
Technology and Business Information for the Global Gas Processing Industry
GasProcessingNews.com | JULY/AUGUST 2018
SMALL-SCALE
PROCESSING
Prevent shutdowns of small-scale LNG
due to seasonal temperature issues
Small-scale LNG—
A game-changer for the future?
GTL
Rethinking project economics
for GTL in 2018 and beyond
LNG
Key projects and market insights
for China’s growing gas and LNG demand
Metrology support for LNG as a transport fuel
TREATING
Operational considerations of side reactions
in gas sweetening system
SOUR GAS LO-CAT®
THIOLEX™
NGLs REGEN®
MERICAT™
SPENT CAUSTIC
MANAGEMENT
CONDENSATE MERICAT™C
LIGHT CRUDE
Merichem Company offers the patented LO-CAT wet scrubbing, liquid redox system that converts H2S to innocuous,
elemental sulfur. The LO-CAT process is applicable to all types of gas streams. To treat NGLs and other liquid
hydrocarbon streams, Merichem’s FIBER FILM® Contactor offers a variety of caustic and amine treating processes
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EDITORIAL COMMENT
CONTENTS
The US Energy Information Admin- GasProcessingNews.com | JULY/AUGUST 2018
istration (EIA) reported in April that the
US set records for natural gas production
in 2017. Gas production measured as 11
gross withdrawals reached 90.9 Bft3d last
year, the highest volume on record. The
country’s gas production, when measured
as marketed natural gas production, also
A. BLUME, reached a new yearly high of 78.9 Bft3d.
Editor As US gas production expanded, ex-
ports of both pipeline gas and LNG increased, for a combined
expansion of 36%. LNG exports nearly quadrupled. The increas-
es in production and export volumes led the US to become a net
natural gas exporter in 2017 for the first time in almost 60 yr.
At the World Gas Conference (WGC) in Washington DC
in late June, US Energy Secretary Rick Perry delivered a keynote SPECIAL FOCUS: SMALL-SCALE PROCESSING
address wherein he stated that the US gas industry has gone 19 Prevent summertime production
through a “fascinating transformation” that is “nothing short of cutbacks for small-scale LNG
spectacular.” Innovation in hydraulic fracturing technology has U. Mathur and B. Markland
“helped unleash America’s natural gas revolution.” 21 Small-scale LNG: A reality today
ExxonMobil Chairman and CEO Darren Woods, who also may be a game-changer for tomorrow
addressed attendees during the Conference, said that the US S. Pachipulusu
shale gas revolution has boosted the US economy, transformed
markets around the world and helped mitigate climate change. TREATING TECHNOLOGY
Mr. Woods noted that maintaining high hydrocarbon produc- 23 Operational considerations of side reactions
tion volumes while simultaneously reducing emissions is a
in gas sweetening systems—Part 1
“dual challenge” for the worldwide energy industry. To this end,
J. Cantrell, G. McIntyre, C. Daniels and E. Stewart
ExxonMobil R&D is focusing on carbon capture and storage in
power generation, among other initiatives. GP 27 Ef�icient acid gas removal using
membrane systems—Part 2
P. O. Box 2608 S. Mokhatab and M. Mitariten
Houston, Texas 77252-2608, USA
Phone: +1 (713) 529-4301
Fax: +1 (713) 520-4433
GTL
www.GasProcessingNews.com
Editorial@GasProcessingNews.com 31 Challenges facing GTL: Rethinking
project economics in 2018 and beyond
PUBLISHER Catherine Watkins
Catherine.Watkins@ R. Lakani, T. Bennett and A. Chandra
EDITORIAL LNG
Editor Adrienne Blume
Managing Editor Mike Rhodes 35 LNG metrology—Measurement support
Editor/Associate Publisher, Lee Nichols for LNG as a transport fuel
Hydrocarbon Processing
A. Kenbar
MAGAZINE PRODUCTION
Manager, Advertising Production Cheryl Willis COLUMNS
Assistant Manager, Advertising Production Krista Norman
Manager, Editorial Production Angela Bathe Dietrich
Industry Perspectives..........................................................11
Assistant Manager, Editorial Production Lindsey Craun Russia eyes Qatar in fight for global LNG market
Artist/Illustrator David Weeks
Graphic Designer Andreina Keller
EWAnalysis .......................................................................... 13
ADVERTISING SALES China’s growing natural gas demand—
See Sales Offices, page 42. key projects and market insights
Copyright © 2018 by Gulf Publishing Company LLC. All rights reserved.
DEPARTMENTS
Gas Processing News .......................................................... 4
US Industry Metrics ............................................................. 8
President/CEO John Royall
CFO Alan Millis Global Project Data ............................................................. 9
Vice President Andy McDowell New in Gas Processing Technology ................................. 41
Vice President, Finance and Operations Pamela Harvey
Other Gulf Energy Information titles include: Hydrocarbon Processing ®, World Oil ®, Cover Image: Oil absorption unit at Nizhnevartovsk
Petroleum Economist ©, Pipeline & Gas Journal and Underground Construction. processing plant in Khanty-Mansiysk District, Russia.
GAS PROCESSING NEWS
M. RHODES, Managing Editor
S & B awarded GE Power reveals gas turbine, services achievements

EPC contract GE Power’s HA gas turbine and the company’s services portfolio—
from Phillips 66 including the 26th HA in commercial operation, and the new MXL2 with
Additive Manufactured Performance upgrade for the GT13E2 turbine—
S & B has been selected by are helping gas power producers meet growing demand for electricity in
Phillips 66 to perform engineering, an efficient and profitable way.
procurement and construction According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), world
(EPC) for two NGL fractionation energy demand is expected to rise by 30% through 2040, which is
plants at the client’s Sweeny the equivalent of adding another India and China to today’s energy
Hub in Old Ocean, Texas. The demand. To meet this increase in demand, natural gas, the rapid rise of
plants will have a combined renewables and energy efficiency improvements will lead the way.
capacity of 300,000 bpd and GE’s HA debuted in 2016 as the world’s largest, most efficient and
will be based on S & B’s proven most advanced heavy-duty gas turbine. Since then, it has delivered two world records for efficiency across
fractionation plant design. the 50-Hz and 60-Hz segments. Today, the HA has achieved more than 118,000 operating hours and is the
The contract represents the fastest-growing fleet of gas turbines in the world, with 76 units ordered by more than 25 customers across 15
12th fractionation plant awarded to countries. Other new milestones and accomplishments include:
S & B in the last 5 yr. The company • Competitive Power Ventures (CPV) and its partner, GE Energy Financial Services, have achieved
has successfully designed and commercial operation at the CPV Towantic Energy Center in Oxford, Connecticut, marking the 26th
constructed more than 1.3 MMbpd HA unit to begin operations. This new plant uses two 7HA.01 gas turbines and associated engineered
of fractionation capacity across equipment packages. The 805-MW combined-cycle plant can provide the equivalent power needed to
the US, and another 900,000 bpd supply more than 800,000 US homes, and the HA’s dual-fuel capability allows the turbines to run on a
of capacity are in progress. variety of fuels, adding significant reliability benefits to the region.
The work will be executed • PSEG Power, a subsidiary of PSEG, achieved commercial operation at its Sewaren 7 combined-cycle
by a proven project team using power plant in New Jersey, powered by a 7HA.02 gas turbine and an associated engineered
S & B’s project management equipment package. The facility generates up to 540 MW, the equivalent power needed to supply
system (iPIMS) and advanced more than 500,000 US homes.
work packaging process (IPPTM). • Tennessee Valley Authority’s Thomas H. Allen Fossil Plant in Memphis, Tennessee, as well as the Haveli
This execution approach will Bahadur Shah and Bhikki power plants in Pakistan, have also recently achieved commercial operation.
ensure that the project delivery • Work at the Porto de Sergipe power plant in Barra dos Coqueiros, Brazil is progressing, with three
is consistent with S & B’s 7HA.02 gas turbines and three generators arriving at the Sergipe port in June. GE will supply the entire
commitment to safety and quality. power island engineered package, as well as the remaining balance of the plant, such as cooling towers,
roads and buildings. When complete, the plant—owned by Centrais Elétricas de Sergipe SA (CELSE)—
GTT to design will be capable of generating 1,516 MW, the largest gas power plant in the country. With an extensive
amount of windpower and hydropower in Brazil, GE’s 7HA technology will play an important role in
tanks of new enabling a quick response to fluctuations in grid demand and adapting rapidly to weather changes.
LNG carrier GE Power is also continuing its investments in its existing fleet. GE Power and Vattenfall Wärme Berlin
GTT has received an order AG—a subsidiary of Swedish utility Vattenfall AB—revealed the new MXL2 with Additive Manufactured
notification from Samsung Heavy Performance, the first upgrade solution for GE’s GT13E2 gas turbines that uses key components manufactured
Industries (SHI) to equip a new with additive technology. Since these components are made with a lightweight configuration and can be
liquefied natural gas carrier engineered to include advanced cooling channels, they help the gas turbine run more efficiently, representing
(LNGC) with its Mark 3 Flex a new frontier in turbine engineering and production. This technology can significantly elevate the output and
membrane containment system. efficiency of existing 13E2 gas turbines, and is capable of the following:
The Mark 3 membrane system is a • Reducing component cooling requirements by up to 25%
cryogenic liner directly supported • Increasing output up to 21 MW in a combined-cycle configuration
by a ship’s inner hull. This liner is • Achieving additional efficiency up to 1.6% in a combined-cycle configuration
composed of a primary metallic • Delivering maintenance intervals of up to 48,000 hr.
membrane positioned on top The new MXL2 with Additive Manufactured Performance can help gas plant power producers save up to
of a prefabricated insulation $2 MM/yr in fuel, while opening up the potential for additional revenue of up to $3 MM/yr in new power capacity.
panel, including a complete This underpins GE’s commitment to keep its mature fleets competitive in today’s dynamic marketplace.
secondary membrane. The primary
membrane contains the LNG cargo Baker Hughes, a GE company, selected for rotating equipment
and is directly supported by and
fixed to the insulation system. Global LNG Services (GLS) is making significant progress for the Main Pass Energy Hub (MPEH) Deepwater
Offering a capacity of 180,000 m3, Port project, owned by its US subsidiary, MPEH LLC, and located 16 mi offshore southeast Louisiana in the
the unit will be built in South Korea Gulf of Mexico. Two LIQUI-MAX vessels, capable of producing a total of 24 MMtpy of LNG, will be permanently
on behalf of shipowner Gaslog. Its stationed at MPEH.
delivery is scheduled for 3Q 2020. GLS’ LIQUI-MAX vessel design uses all industry-standard equipment in a unique configuration, allowing
GTT (Gaztransport and expanded throughput and resulting in an unprecedented CAPEX of less than $400/tpy of liquefaction capacity.
Technigaz) is an engineering GLS’ cost advantage enables it to introduce a floating tolling fee model with a floor rate of
company that specializes in Henry Hub plus 15% plus $1.50/MMBtu for pre-processing and liquefaction, and 50/50 sharing of the
containment systems with liquefaction netback value above the $1.50/MMBtu level.
cryogenic membranes used to Gas will be sourced through interstate pipelines and preprocessed onshore in the Louisiana, Mississippi
transport and store liquefied gas,
and Alabama regions. Baker Hughes, a GE Company (BHGE), was selected by GLS for both its technology
and in particular LNG. The company
and extensive experience in LNG equipment and services. The LM9000 gas turbine leverages scale to provide
designs and provides technologies
that combine operational efficiency effective LNG solutions, thanks to its higher power output on a smaller footprint, its best-in-class efficiency and
and safety to equip LNG carriers, the latest Dry Low Emission (DLE) technology. The LM9000 development, led by BHGE, is the latest in
floating terminals and multi-gas a proven legacy of building robust gas turbines from world-class aircraft engines.
carriers. GTT also develops GLS was established in 2012 with the goal to develop, own and operate clean, safe and cost-efficient
solutions dedicated to land storage floating liquefaction vessels. GLS acquired MPEH LLC and the MPEH project from Freeport-McMoRan Energy
and the use of LNG as fuel for LLC in 2016. MPEH was previously permitted by the Maritime Administration (MARAD) as an LNG import facility,
vessel propulsion. and is ideally located in the Gulf of Mexico to allow efficient marine vessel access to the facility.
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GAS PROCESSING NEWS
M. RHODES, Managing Editor
Tokyo Gas, Centrica sign LNG purchase HoA Trelleborg supplies

Tokyo Gas Co. Ltd. and solutions to
Centrica LNG Co. Ltd., a
subsidiary of UK-based energy
India FSRU
and services company Centrica
Plc., have jointly signed a
non-binding heads of agreement
(HoA) with the jointly-owned
sales entity of the Mozambique
Area 1 JV partners for the long-
term offtake of LNG.
Tokyo Gas and Centrica have Trelleborg’s marine systems
agreed to jointly purchase 2.6 operation has supplied a suite
MMtpy delivered by ship from of products to H-Energy’s floating
the Mozambique LNG project storage regasification unit
from the startup of production (FSRU)-based LNG terminal at
through the early 2040s. The JSW Infrastructure’s Jaigarh
supply agreement provides the Port in Ratnagiri District,
project with key foundation Maharashtra, India.
customers that will facilitate the Developed in accordance with
final investment decision by the Mozambique Area 1 JV partners. industry-leading engineering
Tokyo Gas and Centrica signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) in November 2016 to and safety standards, H-Energy’s
collaborate in their LNG activities. This co-purchase agreement is a significant step toward the goal 4-MMtpy LNG terminal will offer
set out in this MOU, and further deepens the relationship between the two companies. storage, regasification, reloading,
This groundbreaking joint procurement scheme between a UK-based and a Japan-based company fuel bunkering and truck loading
takes full advantage of Mozambique’s central location between Europe and Asia to assist both companies facilities to cater to the growing
in proactively managing demand fluctuations across regions. The transaction represents the first long- energy demand of Indian
term offtake agreement from Africa for both Tokyo Gas and Centrica in line with ongoing efforts to industries. Once operational in
further diversify their respective portfolios of LNG sources. This will also enhance the liquidity and further 4Q 2018, the regasified LNG will
development of the global LNG market. be supplied to customers through
Tokyo Gas Co. Ltd. is Japan’s largest provider of city gas, serving more than 11 MM customers, a 60-km tie-in pipeline that will
primarily in the Tokyo metropolitan area and surrounding Kanto region. International energy and services be connected to a national
company Centrica supplies energy and services to 276 MM customer accounts, mainly in the UK, Ireland gas grid at Dabhol.
and North America. Trelleborg supplied the
terminal with its Quick Release
PGNiG, Port Arthur LNG sign US LNG agreement Hook units, Environmental
Monitoring system, SmartDock
Polish Oil & Gas Co. (PGNiG) docking aid system and Central
and Port Arthur LNG, a subsidiary Integrated Monitoring system.
of Sempra LNG & Midstream, The project was managed by
have entered into an agreement Trelleborg’s experienced project
relating to the terms of delivery team in Melbourne, Australia,
of LNG from the Port Arthur while engineers from Trelleborg’s
liquefaction facility. engineering and design center of
The agreement defines excellence in Ahmedabad, India
carried out the inspection and
basic terms and conditions of
commissioning of the mooring
a 20-yr contract to be finalized
equipment and attended the
between the parties for the successful berthing of the FSRU.
sales and purchase of 2 MMtpy ManMohan Ahuja, Project
of LNG, which is equivalent to Director of H-Energy, commented,
2.7 Bm3y of natural gas following “With India being one of the
regasification. Cargoes will be fastest-growing countries across
supplied, starting in 2023, from the globe, its energy consumption
the Port Arthur LNG facility continues to rise at a rapid rate.
being developed in Jefferson The country’s need for clean, safe
County, Texas. and affordable fuel has never
Deliveries will allow further been greater … The first FSRU-
trading by PGNiG on international based LNG terminal at Jaigarh
markets and are thought to be supplied on a free-on-board (FOB) basis, whereby PGNiG is responsible Port aims to deliver exactly that.”
for transport of the cargoes from Port Arthur LNG. The suite of products supplied
The agreement represents another step in the ongoing development of the Port Arthur LNG liquefaction by Trelleborg falls under its
SmartPort portfolio, which is the
project. In 2017, Sempra LNG & Midstream signed an MOU with Korea Gas Corp. (KOGAS) to provide a
company’s answer to the need
framework for cooperation, including engineering and construction, operations, equity ownership in the
for a standardized way to collect,
Port Arthur LNG liquefaction project and offtake of LNG. The ultimate participation of KOGAS and PGNiG store, analyze and present data.
in the project remains subject to finalization of definitive agreements. The technology platform seeks
The Port Arthur LNG liquefaction facility is planned to export approximately 11 MMtpy of LNG starting to connect all aspects of port
from 2023. Bechtel was selected by Port Arthur LNG to be the engineering, procurement, construction (EPC) operations, allowing users to
and commissioning contractor. Development of the Port Arthur LNG liquefaction project is contingent upon analyze asset performance and
obtaining customer commitments, completing the required commercial agreements, securing all necessary apply data insights to improve
permits, obtaining financing and incentives, and reaching a final investment decision. day-to-day decision-making.
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US INDUSTRY METRICS
A. BLUME, Editor
US natural gas supply and consumption expanded significantly US gas production (Bft3d) and prices ($/Mcf)
from H1 2017 through H1 2018. According to PointLogic Energy, 100 7
total gas use in the Lower 48 states averaged 87.4 Bft d during 3 6
80
5
Gas prices, $/Mft3

Production, Bft3d
H1 2018, an 11% rise from the same period last year. Total gas supply 60 4
averaged 84.8 Bft3d in H1 2018, representing a 10% increase on 40 3
the year. The increase in supply was led by dry gas production, Monthly price (Henry Hub) 2
20 12-month price avg.
Production 1
which expanded by 7.4 Bft d on the year in H1 2018. GP
3
0 0
F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J
2016 2017 2018
US natural gas spot prices at Henry Hub Production equals US marketed production, wet gas. Source: EIA.
and NGL spot prices at Mont Belvieu, $/MMBtu
25 US natural gas plant field production of NGL,
Natural gasoline LPG, ethane and propane, Mbpd
Isobutane 50
20 Butane
NGPL composite
Propane
US gas plant field production, Mbpd

Ethane 40
15 Natural gas spot prices (Henry Hub)
$/MMBtu
10 30
NGL
LPG
Ethane/ethylene
5 20 Propane/propylene
0 10
June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Jan.- Feb.- Mar.- April- May- June- July- Aug. Sept.- Oct.- Nov.- Dec.- Jan.- Feb.- Mar.- April-
2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2017 2018 2018 2018 2018
Source: US EIA Source: US EIA
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GLOBAL PROJECT DATA
LEE NICHOLS, Editor/Associate Publisher, Hydrocarbon Processing
According to Energy Web Atlas and Hydrocarbon Process- is on the back end of its LNG buildout. Australia has more
ing’s Construction Boxscore Database, more than 400 active than 70 MMtpy of LNG export capacity and is challenging
gas processing/LNG projects are under development. The Qatar—which has 77 MMtpy of capacity—for the top LNG
Asia-Pacific and US regions account for just over half of all exporter. The US is building out its LNG export capacity, as
active gas processing/LNG projects globally. Qatar contin- well. Total US LNG export capacity is forecast to surpass 70
ues to be the largest exporter of LNG; however, Australia MMtpy by the end of the decade. GP
New gas processing/LNG project announcements, Market share analysis of active

June 2017-present gas processing/LNG projects by region
17
14 6% Africa
12 12
13
23% US
11 11
9
10 28% Asia-Pacific
8 8
6
7 15% Middle East
5% Latin America
9% Canada
June- July- Aug.- Sept.- Oct.- Nov.- Dec.- Jan.- Feb.- Mar.- April- May- June-
14% Europe
17 17 17 17 17 17 17 18 18 18 18 18 18
Detailed and up-to-date information for active construction projects and operational assets
in the gas processing, LNG and pipeline industries across the globe | EnergyWebAtlas.com
Gas Processing & LNG | JULY/AUGUST 2018 9

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INDUSTRY PERSPECTIVES
Russia eyes Qatar in fight

for global LNG market
E. GERDEN, Contributing Writer
Russia aims to ally with Qatar in LNG competition with the next several years. Russia’s LNG production capacity will be
Australia and other LNG-exporting majors over the coming further expanded by the commissioning of the Arctic LNG 2
years. Amid ever-tightening competition in the global gas mar- project in the same time frame. The development of these two
ket, including the LNG segment, Russia is looking for new allies projects could boost Russia’s LNG production at Yamal by
so that it may remain competitive for years to come. An alliance 70 metric MMtpy, which is comparable with Qatar’s yearly pro-
with Russia could also be of interest to Qatar, which is likely to duction volumes.
lose some large-scale export contracts held by Asia-Pacific buy- In addition to Novatek, leading Russian gas producer Gaz-
ers after 2020. prom plans to build new LNG facilities. The terminals will be
Russia has strong positions in pipeline gas, mainly due to its located in St. Petersburg and the Vladivostok region (Sakha-
cooperation with Iran—the country’s major ally in the Middle lin-2 export project) (FIG. 2), as well as a regasification terminal
East. Russia is seeking a similar ally in the case of LNG. Again, in the Kaliningrad region.
Qatar is a possible option. The Russian government hopes
that strengthening cooperation with Qatar will create condi-
tions for expanding the geography of its LNG supplies.
Russia already considers Qatar a strategic ally in its expan-
sion in the global energy market. In January 2017, the Russian
government sold a 19.5% stake in Rosneft, Russia’s leading oil
producer, to the Qatar Investment Authority for a record sum of
$11.92 B. The acquisition of Rosneft’s stake provided Qatar with
the opportunity to influence the activities of one of the world’s
largest oil producers, and gave it access to Russia’s oil and gas
reserves. The sale of Rosneft’s stake to the Qatar business may
also mean that the Russian government expects more active as-
sistance from Qatar in its expansion into the global LNG market.
Russia’s high hopes for LNG. Contrary to the predictions of

some analysts, sanctions have not prevented the implementa- FIG. 1. The commissioning of Novatek’s Yamal LNG project is
tion of planned LNG projects in Russia. The country aims to scheduled for the end of November 2018.
achieve its earlier announced target to increase its total LNG
production to 81 metric MMtpy by 2035. However, reaching
this goal will largely depend on the rates of implementation
of the majority of investment projects planned for the coming
years, along with the development of Russia’s place in the global
LNG market.
Russian privately-owned LNG producer Novatek recently
stated that it will start exports of LNG from its plant in the Ya-
mal Peninsula in the Russian Arctic region by the end of 2018.
The plant will be the third large-scale LNG project in Russia
and the second LNG plant for Novatek, which could become
the world’s largest producer of LNG. The commissioning of
Novatek’s Yamal LNG project, which is scheduled for the end
of November (FIG. 1), will boost Russia’s overall LNG produc-
tion by 16.5 metric MMtpy and could make it the third-largest
producer after Australia by early 2019. At present, Russia holds
approximately 4% of the global LNG market. FIG. 2. Gazprom’s Sakhalin-2 project on Russia’s Sakhalin Island,
The capacity of the Yamal project will be increased by up to north of Japan, includes development of the Piltun-Astokhskoye
oil field and the Lunskoye natural gas field.
17.5 metric MMtpy by the construction of its fourth train over
INDUSTRY PERSPECTIVES
In 2017, Russia became the world’s seventh-largest LNG The majority of global LNG producers oppose the practice
exporter, with deliveries amounting to 10.8 metric MMt. At of tying the cost of LNG to oil prices, which is favored by Ja-
present, Russia controls approximately 4% of the global LNG pan. The Russian Ministry of Energy believes the alliance with
market and plans to increase its presence in the coming years. In Russia could be of interest to Qatar, which is seeking ways to
early 2018, Russian President Vladimir Putin noted that Rus- diversify its energy exports. Qatar’s significant dependence on
sia has a significant opportunity to become the world’s largest LNG exports makes it vulnerable to potential economic block-
LNG exporter. To achieve this goal, the country will need to ades and trade wars. For this reason, the country is working to
maintain its present gas production rate and boost its LNG ex- increase its presence in the EU’s LNG market, particularly in
port volumes. Russia will implement these plans with the help LNG receiving terminals in the UK.
of its foreign partners, one of which is Qatar. The Russian government hopes that strengthening its coop-
eration with Qatar will provide it access to the Japanese market,
Strengthening cooperation. Russia’s deepening connec- where it will be able to sell its LNG at lower prices than those
tion with Qatar could also be beneficial to the Middle Eastern proposed by both Qatar and Australia. In exchange, Russia will
country, as it may lose some of its major LNG contracts in the be ready to provide Qatar with stakes in some of its largest oil
coming years. projects, such as those being implemented by Rosneft. Russia
Vladislav Vorotnikov, a former senior analyst at the Russian may also provide assistance to Qatar in expanding its reach into
Ministry of Energy, commented on the Russia-Qatar relation- the EU’s LNG market.
ship, “Russia hopes to gain advantage over the ongoing tensions However, the question of a possible LNG oversupply re-
between Qatar and other Persian Gulf states and enter into a mains, particularly in Japan, where the government is rebuilding
strategic alliance with the Qatar government. This will provide and reopening nuclear reactors that were shut down in the wake
an opportunity for Russia to coordinate activities in the global of the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster. Australia is providing a
LNG market with one of its largest players. The same scheme is considerable portion of the LNG demand of Japan and South
already used in Russia with Iran in the segment of pipeline gas.” Korea (FIG. 3).
At present, Japanese importers of Qatar’s LNG continue to China is also reviewing its strategy of energy balance and
pressure the Qatar government, forcing it to make concessions may need less LNG in the coming years than was previously
while signing new contracts and prolonging existing ones. Rep- forecast. Most analysts see the LNG glut as short-term, how-
resentatives of Tokyo Gas Co. and JERA Co., Japan’s leading ever, with the potential for an emerging deficit after 2025 as new
LNG importers, have not yet made final decisions on whether countries join the ranks of LNG importers. In 2017, six nations
to sign new contracts with Qatar. The majority of the existing began importing LNG for the first time: Colombia, Egypt, Ja-
contracts will expire in 2021. Japan hopes for significant dis- maica, Jordan, Pakistan and Poland.
counts for new supplies from Qatar, following the predicted According to forecasts by energy major Shell, China, Japan
decline of global LNG prices after 2020. and India will remain the largest driving force behind growing
Japan insists that the signing of new long-term contracts with demand for LNG. In 2017, China’s LNG imports increased to
global LNG producers be tied to the opportunity to resell the 27 metric MMt, making it the second-largest importer behind
surplus of supplied LNG. This fits with Japan’s ambitious plan South Korea, while India boosted its LNG imports to 20 metric
to become a new center of international LNG trade in Asia. MMt. In 2018, India is anticipated to expand its LNG imports
The Japanese government plans to allocate ¥1 T ($10 B) for by 20%, while new importer Pakistan will need to import 50%
this purpose. The majority of the funds will be used for the es- more LNG to reduce its growing gas deficit. Mexico, Thailand
tablishment and development of LNG-related infrastructure in and Turkey are also expected to increase their LNG imports
Asia. During the next 5 yr, Japan will train 500 technical experts this year. Meanwhile, Bangladesh became the first new importer
in the field of LNG to develop this infrastructure. These plans of 2018, receiving a cargo from Qatar in late April.
also involve the construction of warehouses for LNG storage The direction of the LNG market—and of export players’
and the establishment of an exchange for LNG trade. partnerships—will depend largely on the development of pric-
Qatari and Australian LNG producers are skeptical of Japan’s ing situations. The cost of LNG supplied to Asia has been tra-
plans, as they fear their incomes will be largely formed by the ditionally tied to oil prices, while prices for LNG delivered to
spot market, rather than by long-term contracts. Europe and exported from North America have been tied to gas
hubs. This scenario has led to the formation of different price
levels, as well as to disparities between these levels. Nonethe-
less, the number of short-term spot contracts for LNG supplies
is expected to increase as new players appear on the market. GP
EUGENE GERDEN is an international contributing
writer specializing in the global oil refining and
gas industry. He has been published in a number
of prominent industry publications.
FIG. 3. A shipment of LNG to Japan from Chevron’s Gorgon project,

located off the northwest coast of Western Australia.
EWAnalysis
China’s growing natural gas demand—

key projects and market insights
EWA SUPPORT TEAM
Since market reforms first started in 14

1978, China has shifted from a centrally
planned economy to a market-based 12
economy, experiencing rapid economic
10
and social development. At more than
China's GDP growth in $ US
$12 T, China’s economy is the world’s sec- 8

ond largest. The country has witnessed
substantial GDP growth over the past 6
several decades. Since 2000, China’s GDP
has surged from approximately $1.2 T to 4
more than $12 T, according to the Inter-
2
national Monetary Fund (IMF) and the
World Bank (FIG. 1). 0
The country witnessed its largest 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
GDP growth from 2003–2008. Dur-
FIG. 1. Growth in China’s GDP, in billions of US dollars. Source: IMF and World Bank.
ing this time frame, China’s GDP in-
creased between 10%/yr and 14.2%/yr.
Although the nation’s GDP growth has 16
slowed, it remains healthy at approxi- 14
mately 6.6%/yr, and has maintained a
steady 6.6% growth rate through 1Q/2Q 12
2018 (FIG. 2). This economic growth is 10
responsible for lifting more than 800 MM
GDP growth, %
people out of poverty, and has boosted 8

the growth of the country’s middle class.
6
In turn, China has witnessed a surge in
demand for many goods and services, 4
especially hydrocarbon-based products
2
such as natural gas, transportation fuels
and petrochemicals. 0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 *2018
The Chinese economy is also undergo-
ing a structural shift. Due to excessive air FIG. 2. Percentage growth in China’s GDP, 2000–2018. Source: IMF.
pollution in major industrial cities, China
has instituted an initiative to replace coal-
fired power generation with natural gas- 59 Bm3y in 2006 to more than 210 Bm3y to substantially expand the use of natural
fired power generation. At present, natu- in 2016 (FIG. 4). Within the same time- gas in power generation, China will see a
ral gas makes up approximately 6% of the frame, China has invested heavily to boost spike in additional gas demand over the
country’s total energy mix (FIG. 3). How- natural gas production. From 2006–2016, next several years. The pressing ques-
ever, according to China’s gas-to-power the country’s domestic natural gas pro- tion is: From where will new natural gas
plan, natural gas market share in the coun- duction has increased from 60.6 Bm3y to supplies come? The country is pursuing
try’s total energy mix will increase to 10% more than 138 Bm3y (FIG. 5). several options to help satisfy demand:
by 2020 and to 15% by 2030. Although China’s domestic natural gas increasing shale gas production, building
The country has already witnessed a production has more than doubled over additional pipelines and boosting LNG
surge in natural gas consumption over the the past decade, production cannot keep regasification and import terminal infra-
past decade. According to BP’s Statistical pace with demand. As of 2016, the gap structure. This discussion focuses pri-
Review of World Energy 2017, China’s nat- between natural gas supply and demand marily on the construction of natural gas
ural gas consumption has increased from was nearly 72 Bm3y. With new initiatives pipeline and LNG import infrastructure.
EWAnalysis
The rise of LNG. According to Energy seven additional LNG import terminal expanded, along with the construction of
Web Atlas, China has 18 LNG import ter- projects that will add nearly 19 MMtpy of 11 new receiving terminals. As previously
minals in operation, with a total installed capacity by the early 2020s (TABLE 1). mentioned, EWA is tracking eight of the
domestic capacity of nearly 60 MMtpy. However, China is expected to add 11 new projects, with the additional three
In 2017, China surpassed South Korea as even more LNG import capacity by the still being researched to confirm validity.
the second-largest LNG importer when mid-2020s. During the 2018 World Gas China aims to boost its natural gas con-
it received nearly 38 MMt of LNG. This Conference, Yalan Li, Chairperson of the sumption to 400 Bm3y by the mid-2020s,
represented a year-over-year increase of Board of Directors for Beijing Gas Group making it the second-largest natural gas
approximately 42%. At the time of this Co., announced that seven of the coun- consumer in the world.
publication, Energy Web Atlas is tracking try’s 18 LNG import terminals are being The viability of China’s natural gas
plans depends heavily on the construc-
tion of additional storage and infrastruc-
2% Nuclear ture. According to Ms. Li, natural gas
storage capacity in China accounts for
3% Renewables only 3% of yearly gas consumption. Also,
some in the Chinese government view
6% Natural gas natural gas as more of a “transition fuel,”
and place heavier emphasis on renewable
9% Hydroelectricity fuels. Furthermore, since China has such
19% Oil a large coal supply, some say that coal
use should be expanded to make use of
62% Coal China’s domestic resources instead of im-
porting gas from foreign nations. To over-
come these restrictive views and make
FIG. 3. China’s total energy mix. Source: China National Bureau of Statistics. natural gas a major fuel, Ms. Li named
several important initiatives for Chinese
energy companies and policy makers:
250
• Enhance exploration and
210.3 production of resources
200 194.8 • Invest in digitalization and major
188.4
171.9 technology breakthroughs
Natural gas consumption, Bcm
150.9 • Advocate for natural gas use

150 131.1 for its abundance, low emissions
111.2 and high efficiency
100 84.1
92.6 • Consider the advantages of
73 imported gas, rather than
59.3
50
emphasizing only domestic
energy resources.
She noted that China’s top priority is
0 security of energy supply. To that end,
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
the country plans to increase domes-
FIG. 4. China’s domestic natural gas consumption in Bm3y, 2006–2016. Source: BP. tic production first, and import more
gas—in both the form of pipeline gas and
160 LNG—second.
Although the country plans to boost
13.1 138.4
140 131.6 domestic shale gas production, it will
122.2
not be able to keep pace with natural gas
China’s natural gas production, Bcm
120 118.8
109 demand. Even with additional supplies
99.1
100 88.2
of piped natural gas, China will have to
83.1 increase LNG imports to satisfy surging
80 71.6
natural gas demand. According to several
60.6
60 industry forecasts, China could overtake
Japan as the world’s largest LNG im-
40
porter. This trend is being exacerbated by
20 Japan’s move toward using more renew-
0
able fuels for power generation, along
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 with the restart of several nuclear plants,
which will ultimately reduce the need for
FIG. 5. China’s domestic natural gas production in Bm3y, 2006–2016. Source: BP. additional LNG imports.
EWAnalysis
The locations of China’s operational • CNOOC’s 4-MMtpy Shenzhen CNOOC announced it will begin con-
LNG terminals, as well as those under Diefu LNG terminal. struction of six new storage tanks at its
development, are shown in FIG. 6. In June, two additional major Chi- Tianjin terminal. Each tank will have a
According to the International Gas nese LNG projects were announced. storage capacity of 220 Mm3. The addi-
Union’s World LNG Report 2017, the
Asia-Pacific region imported more than
TABLE 1. LNG import capacity under development in China
211 MMt of LNG in 2017, which repre-
sented nearly 73% of LNG trade. With Project Operator Capacity, MMtpy Status Planned startup
83.5 MMtpy, Japan remained the world’s Wenzhou LNG Sinopec 3 Planning 2020
largest importer. Although Japanese LNG
Yancheng LNG CNOOC 3 Planning 2020
imports dominate global LNG trade—the
country’s imported LNG represents near- Yuexi LNG CNOOC – Planning –
ly 29% of LNG trade—China is gaining Penglai LNG Boata 2.6 Planning 2020
momentum. The Chinese government is Petrochemical
looking to use natural gas in several ways; Shenzhen Diefu LNG CNOOC 4 Under construction 2018
the primary goal is to replace coal-fired
Zhangzhou LNG CNOOC 3 Under construction 2022
power generation with natural gas.
The imported natural gas will provide Zhoushan LNG ENN Energy 3 Under construction 2018
millions of households with an addition- Source: Energy Web Atlas
al energy source for heating. However,
the country will need to invest heavily in
additional natural gas infrastructure to
provide this resource to those that need
it. These investments include the con-
struction of pipeline networks to connect
households to the national gas distribu-
tion system.
As shown in FIG. 6, the country’s LNG
infrastructure is located where natural
gas demand is highest. Construction
of natural gas pipelines to these cities is
economically unprofitable, which makes
additional LNG imports crucial for the
country. China will begin to see addi-
tional piped natural gas imports flow
into the country—primarily through the
construction of Russia’s Power of Siberia
pipeline—which will help supplement
the country’s LNG import volumes.
China witnessed the startup of two
LNG import terminals in 2017. These
two facilities were China National Off-
shore Oil Corp.’s (CNOOC’s) 2-MMtpy
Yuedong LNG terminal and Guanghui
Energy’s 600-Mtpy Qidong terminal. In
1Q 2018, Sinopec’s Tianjin LNG termi-
nal received its first LNG shipment. The
3-MMtpy Tianjin terminal is one of four
LNG import terminals that are scheduled
to become operational this year. Accord-
ing to EWA and GIIGNL analysis, these
LNG startups include:
• ENN’s 3-MMtpy Zhoushan
LNG terminal
• Chaozhou Huafeng’s 3-MMtpy
LNG conversion terminal—
the project includes the conversion
of an LPG plant into an LNG FIG. 6. View of China’s LNG import infrastructure, along with LNG import terminal projects
under development. Source: Energy Web Atlas.
import terminal
EWAnalysis
erations are likely to commence in the

early to mid-2020s.
Natural gas pipeline: A supplement

to LNG imports. China plans to sup-
plement its LNG imports with piped
natural gas from other nations, including
Russia. One of the most prominent pipe-
line projects is Russia’s Power of Sibe-
ria pipeline (FIG. 7). The project, being
developed by Gazprom, will transport
natural gas from Russia’s Irkutsk and Ya-
kutia gas production centers to demand
centers in Russia’s Far East and China via
the eastern route. Once operational, the
Power of Siberia pipeline will have a total
capacity of 38 Bm3y.
In mid-2014, Gazprom and China
National Petroleum Corp. (CNPC)
signed a sales and purchase agreement
FIG. 7. Gazprom is building the Power of Siberia pipeline to provide natural gas to demand
centers in Russia’s Far East region, as well as to China. Photo courtesty of Gazprom.
where Gazprom would supply CNPC
with 38 Bm3y of natural gas for a term
of 30 yr. Gazprom expects to start deliv-
eries by the end of 2019. Although the
eastern route of the pipeline will pro-
vide China with an additional 38 Bm3y
of natural gas supplies, it still will not
be enough to satisfy domestic demand.
Even at full utilization, the pipeline
would only cover a little over half of the
gap between natural gas supply and de-
mand. With the forecast increase in do-
mestic natural gas consumption, China
will need to rely on additional LNG im-
ports to satisfy demand.
As shown in FIG. 8, China has an ex-
tensive pipeline network. Several pipe-
line projects are under development in
the country, including a proposed pipe-
line to connect China’s coastal LNG fa-
cilities. According to Energy Web Atlas,
this project is still under consideration,
and no final investment decision has
FIG. 8. Operational and proposed pipeline infrastructure, along with LNG import terminals, been announced.
in China. Source: Energy Web Atlas.
Takeaway. As China turns its efforts to-
ward reducing air pollution, the country’s
tional storage is needed to satisfy natural LNG import terminal in Yancheng. The demand for natural gas is forecast to sub-
gas demand in northern China, which is 3-MMtpy facility, located approximately stantially increase in the future. Although
increasing at a substantial pace. Accord- 200 mi north of Shanghai, will include the nation plans to develop additional
ing to a June Reuters industry report, the import terminal, storage tanks and natural gas pipelines, China will need to
the Tianjin terminal is expected to more a 158-km pipeline to ship the majority boost its LNG import infrastructure to
than double its total capacity of 3.21 of the LNG to Huainan City in the An- satisfy demand. With nearly 20 MMtpy
MMtpy in 2018 to approximately 7.25 hui province. The project will be built of capacity under construction, the coun-
MMtpy by 2030. by CNOOC Jiangsu Natural Gas, a JV try is investing heavily to increase LNG
CNOOC also announced it is close to between CNOOC Gas and Power and import capacity. This additional capacity
gaining approval from China’s National Huainan Mineral Resources Mining. will help ensure that the country is able
Development and Reform Commission Once approved by the NDRC, the facil- to meet its ambition of boosting natural
(NDRC) to begin construction on a new ity will begin building the terminal. Op- gas in its total energy mix. GP
Technology and Business Information for the Global Gas Processing Industry
Though print, online, e-newsletters and associated

events, Gas Processing & LNG covers the latest
GasProcessingNews.com | MAY/JUNE 2018
advances in processing technology and

PIPELINES AND
TRANSPORTATION equipment developments, market insights and
Treatment strategies to address methanol and meet pipeline specifications
Flow assurance for Egypt’s gas fields
TREATING
trends in the global gas processing industry.
Efficient acid gas removal using membrane systems
Manage contaminants in amine treating units
LNG
Expansion of hybrid LNG and CNG fueling stations
GAS PROCESSING & LNG’S COVERAGE INCLUDES:
ssing.com
ocarbonProce
2017 | Hydr
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LNG, NGL
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E FEEDSTOCKS
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CONTROL
PROCESS TION
AND INS TRUMENTA
to measure
ctroscopy
Use NIR spe ition of LPG
the compos
ve
of innovati
Advantages r training
in operato
simulators
NSFER
HEAT TRA of lysis
Failure ana s
aceradiant tube
olefin furn
SPECIAL FOCUS: SMALL-SCALE PROCESSING
Prevent summertime production

cutbacks for small-scale LNG
U. MATHUR and B. MARKLAND, Aggreko, Houston, Texas
Small-scale natural gas processing facilities are gaining opera- High summertime temperatures result in a loss of cooling
tor interest for their ability to monetize associated gas, although capacity in crucial process equipment, which leads to reduced
maintaining steady throughput year-round requires planning. throughput or problems with maintaining product purities.
Operators without the facilities to handle the associated gas in the This phenomenon is cyclical, as these limits are not evident
production stream may be forced to flare gas, which is wasteful during winter. Process chilling equipment is particularly sus-
and environmentally undesirable. In areas that ban flaring, oper- ceptible to such limitations.
ating licenses require the ability to process the associated gas. In general, the temperature of the available cooling me-
An alternative to flaring is to reinject the gas. Reinjection dium limits the capacity of a closed-circuit refrigeration ma-
can help maintain reservoir pressure and drive enhanced oil re- chine: Summertime air temperatures can often be 60°F higher
covery rates, but it can be costly. It is often more profitable to than in winter. Similarly, cooling water temperatures can be
process gas in a way that generates steady revenues and helps
governments meet regulatory requirements.
In remote locations, such as North American shale fields,
operators can locate small-scale gas plants near gas gathering
facilities. Small-scale gas plants must incorporate the basic gas
processing steps after the gas leaves the separator system: condi-
tioning the gas by removing acid gases such as hydrogen sulfide
(H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2 ), generating pipeline-quality
natural gas, and fractionating and treating NGL.
Summertime LNG production problems. Examining his-

torical data often yields interesting insights into how well the
plant has performed at different times of the year. Throughput
is often found to be higher during winter, when ambient air and
cooling water temperatures are lower.
FIG. 2. Cooling with a large heat exchangera helps NGL fractionation
plants maximize throughput.
FIG. 1. A large-capacity water-cooled chillera can provide supplemental FIG. 3. Supplemental coolinga helps improve unit throughput and
cooling during summer to help increase processing throughput. maintain product purities to increase NGL recovery.

30°F–40°F higher during the summer. This discrepancy can problems and the deployment of properly designed solutions
have a significant effect on the capacity of the refrigeration are essential to mitigating adverse economic impacts caused by
system, which, in turn, forces reductions in gas plant through- throughput reductions.
put. Unfortunately, such production cutbacks—which can be
as high as 5%–8%—often coincide with periods when prod- Addressing cooling constraints. Refrigeration units can
uct margins are high. be key constraints that limit unit capacity during summer.
Fortunately, capacity constraints caused by insufficient Supplemental cooling of the condensed refrigerant after the
cooling can be addressed by deploying supplementary cool- last compression stage can be used to augment refrigeration
ing (FIG. 1), which can bring plant throughput and separation capacity both effectively and safely. In general, it is difficult to
efficiencies back to winter-like conditions even during peak justify permanent facilities for seasonal needs. Seasonal con-
summertime temperatures. Timely planning for summertime straints can be addressed on a temporary basis using rental
equipment, which avoids capital expen-
ditures for permanent facilities and is
very cost effective. Such supplemental
cooling solutions can help improve gas
plant and fractionator throughputs by
5%–8% during peak summer months.
Fractionator cooling. Supplemental

cooling (FIG. 2) can also bring NGL frac-
tionator capacities back to target capac-
ity during summer. Such limitations are
frequently observed with deethanizer,
depropanizer and debutanizer columns,
all of which require adequate condenser
cooling to maintain throughput and
product quality.
Supplemental column overhead cool-
ing (FIG. 3) is used to restore fractionation
capacity and efficiency. Such capacity im-
provements can range from 5%–10%.
Takeaway. Maintaining gas plant and

fractionator throughput levels year-
round requires planning and careful
implementation of properly designed
solutions. Engineered temporary supple-
mental cooling solutions are highly effec-
tive in helping maximize profitability and
ensure product quality in a consistent
MEG RECLAMATION, and reliable manner. GP
TRUST THE PIONEER a

NOTE
Equipment shown is supplied by Aggreko.
UMESH MATHUR is a Technology

Advisor at Aggreko Process
15 YEARS OF EXPERIENCE IN MEG Services. He has worked for
Aggreko for more than 6 yr.
NOW AVAILABLE FROM PROSERNAT His experience covers 52 yr in
process technology, engineering
PROSERNAT exclusively offers Monoethylene Glycol (MEG) design, plant operations, process
Reclamation Process developed by CCR Technologies Ltd. control and real-time optimization. He has worked in
The technology, based on patented vacuum distillation major refinery, petrochemical, gas processing and
fractionation plants in several countries.
process, removes glycol contaminants with very high MEG
recovery efficiency while minimizing waste effluent. BRYAN MARKLAND is a Technology
Advisor at Aggreko Process Services.
www.prosernat.com He has worked at Aggreko for more
than 15 yr. Previously, he worked in
refinery operations and process
technology at different refineries
throughout North America.
20JULY/AUGUST 2018 | GasProcessingNews.com
Small-scale LNG: A reality today

may be a game-changer for tomorrow
S. PACHIPULUSU, Optimized Process Designs, Katy, Texas
As an energy source, LNG is gaining Stricter emissions restrictions in the for a complete supply chain. This supply
ground compared to coal and oil, not only marine sector are providing traction for chain includes natural gas production, gas
because it is cheaper, but also as a way the use of LNG as a bunker fuel. The Inter- processing facilities, liquefaction units,
to meet emissions reduction commit- national Maritime Organization (IMO) export facilities, LNG carriers, import
ments by governments. As a transporta- has imposed new regulations to limit sul- terminals, small-scale LNG transporta-
tion fuel, natural gas emits approximately fur emissions in emission control areas tion, SSLNG remote storage facilities and
20%–30% less greenhouse gas than diesel (ECAs) to 0.1% from the previous limit of truck refueling stations (FIG. 2).
or gasoline, and it emits 50% less green- 1%, and to 0.5% from 3.5% in non-ECAs. SSLNG is more feasible and attrac-
house gas than coal when generating elec- These regulations will be implemented tive when all of the segments of the sup-
tricity (FIG. 1). from 2020. These stringent emissions ply chain can operate more profitably.
Fluctuations in crude prices, environ- regulations will push the marine industry Since SSLNG requires less capital than
mental concerns and the imbalance of toward the use of LNG as bunkering fuel. large-scale LNG facilities, a greater num-
natural gas resources across the globe are Interest in SSLNG is also growing from ber of small-scale business developers
driving today’s LNG import and export the remote residential and industrial sec- are entering the market. However, a lack
markets. Global LNG consumption in tors for power generation. The ability to of experience is challenging the creation
2017 was estimated at 285 MMtpy, and use LNG in its liquid form, without under-
demand is expected to increase by approx- going the regasification process, enables CO2 emissions, lb/MMBtu
imately 4%/yr. However, large-scale LNG small-scale business developers to build Natural gas 117
plants are complex and require many years more profitable business models. Advan-
for planning and execution. tages of SSLNG over large-scale LNG proj- Propane 139
An alternative solution to large-capac- ects are lower CAPEX, shorter construc- Gasoline, without ethanol 157.2
ity LNG is small-scale LNG (SSLNG). tion timelines and shorter payoff periods.
Diesel fuel and heating oil 161.3
The ability to produce LNG at remote
locations, and the availability of technolo- SSLNG supply chain and challenges. Coal, anthracite 228.6
gies to conveniently transport the prod- SSLNG development is dependent on the 0 50 100 150 200 250
uct, has made small-scale LNG an attrac- development of a complete supply chain.
tive way of delivering natural gas to areas Only a few companies have successfully FIG. 1. Natural gas CO2 emissions compared
of demand. The $25-B SSLNG market is developed the infrastructure required with other fossil fuels. Source: US EIA.
forecast to double over the next decade.
Advantages of SSLNG. The primary

business platform for SSLNG is the trans-
portation industry. LNG can be used as a
fuel in large, commercial trucks. Air pol-
lution concerns in China’s major cities are
driving the road transportation fuel mar-
ket toward the use of SSLNG in that coun-
try. A 2007 World Bank report, conducted
with China’s National Environment Agen-
cy, found that outdoor air pollution has
caused approximately 400,000 premature
deaths and indoor air pollution has caused
another 300,000 deaths. At present, Chi-
na has the highest number of LNG trucks
FIG. 2 The SSLNG supply chain.
in operation in the world.
Gas Processing & LNG | JULY/AUGUST 201821
and maintenance of high safety standards. Small-scale business owners, such as half of this decade, with many new players
Key challenges are the modularization of the owners of truck fueling stations, may joining the market (FIG. 4). Recent devel-
plants and the development of cost-effec- face high CAPEX to develop the required opments and ongoing expansions are ex-
tive technologies to minimize both CA- infrastructure for SSLNG, especially since pected to grow China’s SSLNG market to
PEX and OPEX while maintaining safety SSLNG requires low-temperature-rated 20 MMtpy by 2020. The majority of this
standards. The average shipping cost per materials for storage. Where a higher de- growth will be in response to government
ton of LNG is high for SSLNG, compared mand for GTL, CNG or methanol fuel regulations for the use of cleaner fuels
to large-scale LNG transportation; how- exists, it will be challenging for SSLNG to help reduce air pollution. Increases in
ever, the smaller CAPEX and shorter rate producers to operate more profitably. domestic natural gas production will also
of return for SSLNG can offset these costs. play a significant role in the growth of
Global demand forecast. The Inter- China’s SSLNG market.
national Gas Union (IGU) predicts that Outside of China, island nations in
the global SSLNG business will grow to southeast Asia and the Mediterranean are
30 MMtpy by 2020, while strategy and creating greater opportunities for SSLNG
research firm Engie expects it to expand in power generation. Infrastructure build-
to 100 MMtpy by 2030. FIG. 3 shows the out is taking place in these areas.
expected market share of SSLNG by seg- Europe is both an LNG exporter and
ment in 2030 (FIG. 3). importer (FIG. 5). In northern Europe,
Road transportation Marine fuel Power
China is the world’s largest consumer Norway plays a significant role in the re-
of SSLNG. Significant expansion in Chi- gional LNG market, and particularly the
FIG.3. Expected market share of SSLNG by na’s SSLNG sector was seen between the Nordic LNG market. At present, Norway
segment in 2030. second half of last decade and the first has the largest LNG business of any coun-
try in Europe. New tax policies and an en-
End of 2013 vironmental NOX agreement are driving
CNOOC 2%
Xinsheng 4%
Norway’s investments in LNG research
Hanas 9% and development.
Xilan National Gas 1% Japan has been one of the largest LNG
End of 2005 SPT Energy Group 3% importers in the world since the 1990s.
Xingxing Energy 2% Its highly developed and efficient high-
Singopec 7% Xinao 3% way system enables the transport of LNG
PetroChina 13% Singopec 1%
Others 15% PetroChina 6% via road, while railway and small seago-
Guanghui 65% Others 43% ing vessels also provide transportation
Kunlun 12% for domestic deliveries. The high costs
Total capacity: 0.6 MMtpy Total capacity: 8.9 MMtpy Huixin Energy 3% associated with pipeline construction
Guanghui 11% also serve to encourage the production
FIG. 4. Rise of China’s SSLNG market, 2005–2013. Source: IGU.
of LNG and SSLNG over pipeline ship-
ments of natural gas.
Takeaway. SSLNG is becoming an in-

creasingly viable energy source for the
transportation fuel and remote power
industry sectors, partly due to the lower
emissions associated with natural gas use.
Although the total present market share
of SSLNG in comparison with the total
oil and gas industry is small, potential for
strong growth in SSLNG has emerged over
the past few years. Rising use of SSLNG
could alter the landscape of regional and
local gas demand and use, becoming a
game-changer for the energy industry as a
whole over the coming decades. GP
SRINIVASA PACHIPULUSU is a
Lead Process Engineer at Optimized
Process Designs in Katy, Texas,
where he has worked for 6 yr.
He has participated in projects
at various gas processing plants
FIG. 5. Location and status of LNG terminals in Europe. Source: Energy Web Atlas.
and at LPG export terminals.
TREATING TECHNOLOGY
Operational considerations of side reactions

in gas sweetening systems—Part 1
J. CANTRELL and G. McINTYRE, Bryan Research & Engineering Inc., Bryan, Texas;
and C. DANIELS and E. STEWART, INEOS GAS/SPEC, Freeport, Texas
In sour gas treating systems, a number of potential side reac- reactions with time constants of days, weeks or months. This
tions produce unwanted byproducts. These reactions depend slow behavior also makes research and quantification of the ki-
on reactant concentrations, reactant absorption rates, tempera- netics difficult and relatively rare.
ture, kinetic rates and residence times. Appropriate prediction One of the difficulties in assessing these side reactions in gas
of the rates of these side reactions can give greater insight into treating systems is the large number of places the reactions can
the process, in terms of degradation rate and impact of operat- occur in the gas treating system, including in the absorber trays
ing conditions. or packing, absorber bottoms holdup, rich flash, lean/rich ex-
Three reactions are examined in the context of a typical changer, stripper column, reflux drum, reboiler and surge tank,
amine treating process: (1) conversion of hydrogen cyanide as well as in other areas, such as in the sour water stripper or liq-
to formic acid, (2) hydrolysis of carbonyl sulfide (COS) in uid-liquid separators. In addition to the uniqueness of reaction
methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) and (3) CO2 degradation of kinetics, each point of possible reaction has its own reaction
diethanolamine (DEA). The authors explore the occurrence of conditions (concentration, temperature and residence time).
these reactions throughout the process and the effect of operat- The three reactions examined here are hydrolysis of cyanide,
ing conditions through the use of simulation. Part 1 discusses hydrolysis of carbonyl sulfide in the presence of MDEA, and
cyanide hydrolysis, while Part 2 will cover COS hydrolysis and the degradation of DEA. In each case, the reaction kinetics are
CO2 degradation of DEA. reviewed to demonstrate how well the reaction matches with
published laboratory or plant data. Then, a simulation of a typi-
Introduction to treating reactions. A great number of cal amine process is used to show where the reaction occurs and
chemical reactions occur in gas treating, ranging from water to what extent. From these observations, a reasonable process
dissociation to piperazine dicarbamate hydrolysis. For the most for remediation can be assessed.
part, these reactions are reversible and tend toward equilibrium.
Some reactions are not reversible and represent a permanent
Absorber Flash
chemical change in the process. These irreversible reactions fall
Lean/rich
into two major categories: degradation of the solvent and con-
version of gas contaminant components. The extent of these Surge tank
reactions is seldom taken into account in simulation, and gener- Regenerator
ally not in a rigorous fashion. These reactions are generally slow
P-1 Amine makeup
Sweet gas Q-1 Makeup
Lean Recycle
1 feed
Absorber Trim cooler Circulation
pump Add gas
Sour feed Flash gas Blowdown
20
Condenser
Q condenser
Rich amine Lean/rich exchange 1
Rich flash 4
8
12 Stripper
16
20 Reboiler Reboiler
Lean amine Q reboiler
FIG. 1. Typical amine treating process. FIG. 2. Proportion of reaction by unit operation.

TREATING TECHNOLOGY
Typical amine process. The amine process (FIG. 1) examined • Surge tank: 10 min
is purely hypothetical and is used to demonstrate the impact of • Lean/rich exchanger: 1 min.
side reactions. The absorber and regenerator columns have 20 This analysis will also examine the reactions in the mass-
trays with 2-in. weirs. Both of the columns are sized for 70% of transfer portion of columns. The tray liquid residence times de-
flooding. The flash tank operates at 75 psia, and the lean/rich pend on column hydraulics, but typically vary from 1 sec–3 sec.
exchanger produces a rich solvent with a temperature of 210°F.
In this process, a surge tank is included after the lean side of the Cyanide hydrolysis. Hydrogen cyanide is a common con-
lean/rich exchanger. Inlet sour gas is 800 psia and 110°F, while taminant in refinery gases, especially in more severe processing
the lean amine enters the column at 120°F. The regenerator units, such as fluidized catalytic crackers and coking units. It
condenser operates at 120°F. is a weak acid with lower volatility than H2S and CO2, which
The reactions described in this work are kinetically limited allows it to become trapped by water and amine systems. It can
and modeled using a perfectly mixed reactor, which is also re- be driven out of the solution with enough heat, but it accumu-
ferred to as a continuously stirred tank reactor (CSTR). One lates to some extent in a recycled amine loop. As a weak acid, it
of the important factors in determining the extent of the reac- diminishes the ability of the amine to remove acid gases; how-
tions is the amount of time that the reaction mixture remains at ever, the bigger concern is the potential to form heat-stable
a particular condition. These liquid residence times vary from salts (HSS). Once in the aqueous phase, it reacts with hydrox-
plant to plant, but the following holdup times may be used as ide ions to form ammonia and formate ions. Ammonia is an
representative of a typical plant: operational problem in the regenerator, while the formate ions
• Absorber bottoms: 3 min can cause increased corrosion. According to Wiegand and Tre-
• Reflux accumulator: 10 min melling,1 the reaction occurs as shown in Eqs. 1–3:
• Flash tank: 10 min
• Reboiler: 3 min HCN + OH– + H2O → NH3 + HCO2– (1)
16,000 160
with the kinetic rate expression:
14,000 140 rHCN = k[HCN][OH–] (2)
12,000 120 where the rate constant takes the standard Arrhenius form:
Reaction rate, ppmw/d
10,000 100
Formate, ppmw
EA
− (3)
8,000 80 k = Ae RT
6,000 60 This reaction is first order in both cyanide and hydroxide. To

4,000 40 demonstrate the reasonableness of the kinetic model, a simula-
Formate tion was constructed to represent a case described by Wiegand
2,000 Rate 20
and Tremelling.1 They wrote that a 0.25 N solution of cyanide
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
lost 0.00024 N/d in cyanide concentration at room tempera-
Time, days ture. While the proprietary simulator used in this case cannot
simulate a batch reactor in time, the plug flow reactor model
FIG. 3. Time profile of formate and reaction rate. with the appropriate flow and reactor dimensions can simulate
10 10
HCN
OH–
[HCN][OH–] 1
CO2 %
H2S ppm
1
Reactant concentration, mM
Treated gas concentration
0.1
0.01
0.1
0.001
0.01 0.0001
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000
Formate, ppmw Formate, ppmw
FIG. 4. Effect of formate on (A) reboiler reactant concentration and (B) treated gas.
TREATING TECHNOLOGY
such a reaction as an analog in space. With a 1-liter (l) reactor duced in the amine loop is not rejected in the regenerator column
and a 1-l/d liquid flow, the 0.00024 N/d loss rate was repro- and will recycle back to the absorber, so buildup is not significant.
duced at 79°F, within the range of room temperature. As mentioned, the reaction data shown is for a clean, for-
The simulation case has an inlet sour gas with 50 ppm of HCN. mate-free solvent.
Knowing that the process will generate ammonia, the regenerator As the formate builds up, the reaction behavior is expected
column has a purge that is 5% of the reflux flow. As a base case, the to change. FIG. 3 shows the accumulation of formate and the
regenerator operates at 10 psig and has a reboiler duty of 1 MBtu/ reaction rate over time. At 10,000 ppm of formate, the reac-
gal of circulation. The solvent is 40 wt% MDEA with a circulation tion rate is half of the clean solvent rate. The cause of this
rate of 130 gpm, giving a treated gas concentration of 1.5 mol% rate difference can be explained from FIG. 4A. As the formate
CO2, 0.1 ppm H2S and essentially zero HCN. The rich and lean level increases, the hydroxide in the reboiler is reduced and
total loadings are 0.3 mole acid gas/mole amine and 0.002 mole the product of the cyanide and hydroxide decreases, thereby
acid gas/mole amine, respectively. minimizing the reaction.
TABLE 1 shows the reaction conditions at several locations in An additional effect of the formate accumulation is the treat-
the process. As one might expect, the highest HCN concentra- ment performance. FIG. 4B shows the treated acid gas concen-
tion is at the bottom of the absorber and the regenerator reflux ac- trations for a range of formate concentrations. As the formate
cumulator, while the highest temperature is in the regenerator re- level rises, the lean amine becomes leaner in H2S with the same
boiler. The hydroxide concentration is highest in the lean amine. reboiler heat input, and the treated gas H2S level decreases. At
Due to the confluence of time, temperature and hydroxide the same time, the formate shifts the ionic balance of the amine,
concentration, the lower section of the regenerator, the reboiler leaving less free amine, which causes the treated CO2 level to
and the surge tank have the highest reaction extent. This pro- rise slightly.
portion is represented in FIG. 2. Given that increasing the acid in the reboiler can reduce the
Since formate is an HSS, it does not naturally come out of amount of cyanide reaction occurring, one possible operat-
the amine circulation loop, and it will continue to accumulate ing change would be to lower the reboiler duty, allowing for a
over time. The information in TABLE 1 assumes that the formate less lean amine. FIG. 5 shows this effect. As the reboiler duty as
level in the lean amine that travels to the absorber is zero. This a ratio to circulation rate is decreased, the hydroxide concen-
level is achieved by artificially removing the formate after the tration does indeed decrease. However, with less reboiler duty,
surge tank on each cycle. At the operating condition shown, more HCN concentrates at the bottom of the column. At a low
formate would be expected to accumulate at a rate of 1.87 gram- enough duty (e.g., a reboiler ratio of approximately 0.65 MBtu/
moles/hr, or 4.5 lb/d. gal), a cyanide “bubble” forms in the column, and the concen-
As a comparison, 108 lb/d of HCN are absorbed into the tration in the reboiler increases dramatically. At this point, the
system. The liquid holdup shown corresponds to approxi- hydroxide concentration also drops off.
mately 40 min of flow, or about 5,000 gal. On a mass basis, the This combined effect can be seen in the reactant product
formate accumulation rate is approximately 100 ppmw/d of ([HCN][OH–]), which goes through a peak at a reboiler duty ra-
formate. This accumulation rate clearly indicates a motivation
to remove cyanide prior to entering the amine system. Cyanide 10
removal is commonly accomplished with a water/ammonium
polysulfide wash.
Unlike the formate, the ammonia byproduct has an exit route 1

in the reflux purge. Only a small fraction of the ammonia pro-
0.1 HCN
TABLE 1. Conditions for HCN hydrolysis OH-
[HCN][OH-]
Temperature, HCN, OH–, Time, Reaction, 0.01
Location °F ppmw pH sec mol/hr 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Absorber tray 1 124 5.2 10.6 1 0 Reboiler duty, MBtu/gal
Absorber tray 10 154 23 10.0 1 0 FIG. 5. Effect of reboiler duty on reboiler concentration.
Absorber bottoms 140 54 9.6 180 0.01
Flash 142 53 9.7 600 0.038 6.00
L/R exchanger 210 41 9.9 60 0.108 5.00

Reaction rate, mol/hr
rich side 4.00

Reflux accumulator 120 332 7.4 600 0 3.00
Regenerator tray 3 225 28 10.1 1 0.004 2.00
Regenerator tray 20 252 2.1 11.1 1 0.008 1.00

0.00
Reboiler 253 1.3 11.3 180 1.286 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Reboiler duty, MBtu/gal
Surge tank 185 1.3 11.3 600 0.274
Total 2,269 1.869 FIG. 6. Effect of reboiler duty on reaction rate.

TREATING TECHNOLOGY
6 300 6
5 250 5
4 200 4
Reboiler temperature, °F
Rate constant
3 150 3
2 100 2
1 50 Temperature, °F 1
k
0 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Regenerator pressure, psig Regenerator pressure, psig
FIG. 7. Effect of regenerator pressure on reaction.
10 this effect. As expected, reducing the pressure reduced the reac-

tion rate. In this case, dropping the pressure from 20 psig to 0
psig reduces the reaction rate by a factor of approximately 16.
1 However, the second plot indicates that the effect of tempera-

HCN ture on the rate constant accounts for a factor of only 4. Note:
OH-
The condenser was still specified at 120°F. As shown in FIG. 8,
0.1
the lower pressure reduces both cyanide and hydroxide con-
centration in the reboiler, explaining the additional reduction
0.01 in reaction at low pressure.
0 5 10 15 20 One common technique to reduce corrosion in the pres-
Regenerator pressure, psig ence of acids is to neutralize the solution by adding a caustic.
FIG. 8. Effect of regenerator pressure on reboiler concentrations. However, because hydroxide is a reactant to the formic acid
production reaction, this could cause an acceleration of the
2.0
reaction. FIG. 9 shows the effect of adding KOH to neutralize
1.8
the acid content. As the caustic increases, the rate of reaction
1.6
increases relative to the un-neutralized solution. At full neu-
1.4
tralization, there is essentially no reaction rate slowdown due
1.2
to formate accumulation.
1.0 While the rate of HCN hydrolysis in one pass of an amine
0.8 treating system is small, the fact that the reaction product ac-
0.6 cumulates requires that the rate of accumulation and, conse-
100% neutralized
0.4 50% neutralized quently, the rate of reaction be accounted for in the process
0.2 0% neutralized simulation. The impact is important both in the short-term
0.0 prediction of treating performance and in the long-term man-
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 agement of the solvent.
Formate, ppmw
FIG. 9. Effect of caustic neutralization. Part 2 of this article will cover COS hydrolysis and DEA deg-
radation, and share observations about the utility of combining
experimentally determined reaction kinetics with a commercial
tio of 0.65. The reaction rate for the system shows a similar peak simulator for treating applications. GP
in FIG. 6, with the reaction rate at a reboiler duty of 0.65 MBtu/
gal, more than twice as fast as the base case reboiler duty of 1. NOTE
Decreasing the reboiler duty did not reduce the cyanide re- This article was originally presented at the Laurance Reid Gas Conditioning
Conference in Norman, Oklahoma, February 26–March 1, 2017.
action rate, but it is possible that a reduced reboiler temperature
would reduce the reaction rate constant, as well as the reaction LITERATURE CITED
rate. Since the temperature of the reboiler is primarily governed 1
Wiegand, G. H. and M. Tremelling, M. “The kinetics and mechanism of the
by the regenerator pressure, the pressure of the regenerator was decomposition of potassium cyanide in aqueous alkaline medium. Hydrolysis of
varied to explore its impact on the reaction rate. FIG. 7 shows the simplest nitrile,” HCN, Journal of Organic Chemistry, 1972.
TREATING TECHNOLOGY
Efficient acid gas removal using

membrane systems—Part 2
S. MOKHATAB, Gas Processing Consultant, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada; and
M. MITARITEN, Air Liquide Advanced Separations, Woburn, Massachusetts
A number of methods are available for the removal of acid basis. While not universally applied, such arrangements are in
gases. However, membrane-based systems offer some clear commercial operation.13
advantages and opportunities for the efficient removal of high
fractions of acid gases from these fields. Membrane pretreatment system. Membranes can be suscep-
In this article, the authors focus on the use of membrane tible to loss of performance and damage from a variety of con-
technologies to make a large bulk cut of the acid gases, as well as taminants (including certain heavy hydrocarbon components,
to remove some mercaptans from raw natural gas. Part 1 of this particularly aromatics) and liquids or particulates in the inlet gas
article addressed membrane separation and acid gas removal. stream.14,15 To increase membrane lifetime and minimize oper-
Part 2 discusses hybrid membrane/amine systems, in which the ating difficulties (i.e., reduce operating costs), it is necessary to
amine process is used to perform the final purification. properly preheat feed gas prior to the membrane process; other-
wise, the membrane elements may degrade and require frequent
Membrane packaging. Both spiral-wound and hollow-fiber changeouts, greatly increasing operating costs.
membranes are packaged in elements (also called modules or The complexity of pretreatment and its cost are major com-
bundles) that, for commercial natural gas applications, range 6 ponents in the evaluation of membranes for a given application.
in.–12 in. in diameter or more. More commonly, 8-in. and 12- Basic pretreatment includes filters, carbon beds and, common-
in. elements are used. The length of the elements can vary, but ly, preheaters at a relatively low cost. More complex, TSA-based
most cases are 3 ft–5 ft so that they can be handled by one per-
son. They typically weigh approximately 50 lb. The individual
elements allow vertical or horizontal placement. Horizontal ori-
entation is common, although a vertical orientation is preferred
in Air Liquide’s modules operating in condensing mode, where
heavy hydrocarbons are drained from the module. A typical
hollow-fiber module sketch is shown in FIG. 4.
Elements are inserted in a pressure vessel shell and, depending
on the size of the plant, the packaging of the membranes range
from a single element per vessel to two elements in a dual module
(inserted from either end of the vessel), up to systems that hold
multiple elements, with four to six, being common for larger flow-
rates. The overall membrane cost of the elements is fixed, but by
using multiple elements within a single pressure vessel, the cost
of the system can be reduced. This is especially true for offshore
applications, where footprint reduction greatly lowers the cost.
A module with four elements in a single vessel is shown in FIG. 5.
FIG. 4. Sketch of a single acid gas hollow-fiber module.
Membrane process configurations. Membrane systems Source: Air Liquide.
can be configured in several ways, depending on the acid gas
removal requirements. They can be configured as a single-
stage unit, which may result in significant hydrocarbon losses
(typically 10% or more). In high acid gas removal applications,
hydrocarbon losses may be significantly reduced by using a
two-stage membrane system (FIG. 6), where a 10% loss would
typically be reduced to < 2%. However, this arrangement re-
quires the addition of a recycle gas compressor and a second
membrane unit. The economics of the additional compressor FIG. 5. Sketch of multiple modules arranged in a single pressure vessel.
and the membrane unit may be justified on a project-specific Source: Air Liquide.

TREATING TECHNOLOGY
regenerated adsorption systems offer high levels of heavy hy- Membrane solutions. One companya offers hollow-fiber
drocarbon removal at a higher cost. In an evaluation, the cost of membranes that are asymmetric, along with composite mem-
pretreatment should be weighed against the anticipated membranes that have one or more polymer coatings. A variety of
brane life for a given feed stream for an optimum balance of ini- polymers are coated on the fiber to produce membranes with
tial and projected future cost. Damage to the membrane may a wide range of properties. Using this approach, over a dozen
occur in either the support layer or the separation layer. Since membrane products are available with different properties.
membranes vary in both the separation layer used and the un- A unique aspect of the company’s comprehensive membrane
derlying support layer, no single pretreatment kit is fully effec- portfolio is that, in addition to a well-known glassy membrane,
tive for, or minimizes the cost of, all cases. both polyimide-based glassy membranes and rubbery mem-
In a traditional membrane pretreatment scheme, a coalescing branes supported by a polyether ether ketone (PEEK) material are
filter removes entrained liquids and aerosols; a non-regenerable offered. PEEK is a high-temperature engineered plastic that is ex-
adsorbent bed takes out trace contaminants, such as compres- tremely resistant to degradation and allows operation in condens-
sor lube oil and the heaviest hydrocarbons; a particulate filter ing and liquid services. This membrane technology can simultane-
removes any carryover adsorbent dust; and a heater superheats ously remove water and heavy hydrocarbons, as well as a portion
the gas to avoid condensation of liquid across the membrane. of the acid gases (H2S and CO2) from natural gas feed streams. It
A reliable pretreatment system must be highly flexible to has been used in more than two dozen applications to date.
cope with unexpected circumstances, such as variable heavy The rubbery membranes are optimized and combined with
hydrocarbon content in the feed gas. The traditional pretreat- glassy membranes to remove impurities by using a number of
ment scheme is adequate for light gases of stable composition. membranes in series to minimize pretreatment and to remove
However, if there is a sudden, sustained increase in the heavy multiple impurities. An example of such an application is where
hydrocarbon content, or if the feed gas is heavier than initially dehydration, hydrocarbon dewpoint control, H2S removal and
estimated, then the non-regenerable adsorbent, with its limited CO2 removal are required. In such a system, rubbery mem-
capacity, can become saturated within a very short period of branes offering high permeability of water and heavy hydrocar-
time, causing a bottleneck in the system.14 bons facilitate their removal while operating in an environment
Advanced pretreatment systems are designed to protect and with high levels of heavy hydrocarbons, including aromatics.
increase the lifetime of membrane elements by nearly complete They even allow condensing operations. Some NGL may be
removal of water, heavy hydrocarbons and other harmful com- recovered due to the Joule–Thomson cooling effect of pressure
ponents (mercury and mercaptans) in a regenerable, although drop through the membrane.
more expensive, adsorbent-based system. The development of In the comprehensive membrane solution, conventional pre-
a robust and comprehensive pretreatment system, in combina- treatment is replaced with rubbery membranes. The gas then
tion with the continuing development of advanced membranes, flows to downstream glassy membranes, where remaining H2S
has further enhanced the reliability and performance of mem- and CO2 are removed. This allows the use of high-performance
brane technology in a variety of natural gas processing applica- glassy membranes for the acid gas removal section—without
tions. However, the pretreatment system comes with additional the traditional and expensive pretreatment processes discussed
cost and operational complexity. above. In most cases, only coalescing filters are needed, al-
Residue though heating to optimize the membrane performance may be
(low-acid gas) used (FIG. 7).
Residue High-acid-gas
The preheating required is relatively small—typically 20°F
(low-acid gas) content feed gas Permeate above the inlet temperature. With the limited heating required,
(high-acid gas)
High-acid-gas hot oil, steam or electric heat are used and often chosen based
content feed gas on availability for a given project site. Since hot oil and steam
exceed the desired temperature increase, a bypass for outlet
temperature control can be applied to maintain the desired level
Permeate of superheating.
(high-acid gas) It is also important to note that glassy membranes increase
One-stage Two-stage flux (and, therefore, capacity) at higher temperatures, while los-
FIG. 6. 6 Schematic of one-stage and two-stage membrane systems.12
ing selectivity (and, therefore, hydrocarbon recovery). For this
reason, heater sizing should consider a potential future require-
ment where, if the membrane capacity decreases with time, some
capacity can be gained by increasing the operating temperature.
Membrane process advantages and disadvantages.

Membranes are becoming a more reliable and proven alterna-
tive to more conventional means of gas treatment. For bulk re-
moval of acid gases from sour feed gas streams where stringent
specifications are not required, membrane processes offer the
following advantages:13
• Membranes are skid-mounted units. They can be installed
FIG. 7. Schematic of a comprehensive membrane solution.a
in modules and are relatively inexpensive to install.
TREATING TECHNOLOGY
• Membrane modules are compact and lightweight, in such cases. The pretreatment unit will increase the
making them suitable for offshore applications. installation cost and space requirement, thereby reducing
• Single-stage membrane systems have no moving parts, the advantages of the membrane unit.
require minimal operator attention and have low • Replacement or addition of modules becomes necessary
operating and maintenance costs. as membranes age, which must be factored into the
• Membranes are self-supporting and do not require operating costs.
utilities, such as electrical power, water and instrument • A limited number of membrane manufacturer suppliers are
air, if pretreatment of the gas is not required. available, making sudden replacement a difficult option.
• Membranes have no circulating liquids and, therefore, • Membrane units have poor scalability. The number of
no problems associated with spillage or disposal. membrane units is directly proportional to the feed gas
• Membrane modules can be predesigned for capacity flowrate. As a result, the membrane process does not
expansion by adding modules as needed in the future. realize economy of scale.
However, the decision to use membranes for separation
must consider the following shortcomings of the technology:13 Membrane system retrofit for existing units. Membrane
• Loss of hydrocarbons to the permeated stream can result elements age and, over time, require replacement. The mem-
in decreased revenue. These losses can be reduced by brane advances described above have led to an active and grow-
recovery in a recycle loop (i.e., a two-stage system), but this ing market for the replacement of modules in existing units
requires compression and added operational complexity. with more advanced modules. These advances include higher
• Greenhouse gas impacts can occur, if the CO2-rich capacity and higher recovery and/or tolerance to impurities for
permeate is vented to the atmosphere. These impacts longer life. Such a retrofit is dependent on the site requirements.
can be reduced by compressing the permeate stream For example, higher selectivity membranes have been retrofit-
and injecting it downhole. If the permeate is sufficiently ted to improve hydrocarbon recovery. Membrane vendors pur-
rich in CO2, it may be used as a miscible injectant for sue this retrofit market for their own supplied membranes, and,
enhanced oil recovery (EOR). in many cases, they manufacture membrane units that are inter-
• Potential fouling from contaminants (e.g., compressor changeable with the shells provided by other vendors. The per-
lube oil, heavy hydrocarbons and aromatics) may occur. formance options and competitive market pressure give greater
An upstream pretreatment unit is generally required flexibility to the operator of membrane systems.
Liquefied Natural Gas
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TREATING TECHNOLOGY
Hybrid membrane/amine system. Membranes are widely fur production and reducing overall capital and operating costs.
used to remove bulk CO2 from natural gas. The economic ad- CO2-rich permeate may be sent to an atmospheric boiler if
vantage of using membranes for CO2 removal applications is the Btu content is high enough and if there is not too much H2S
enhanced for inlet gas streams above approximately 15 mol% to combust to produce steam. The steam can be used for rich
CO2 and where the product gas can contain a few mol% CO2. amine regeneration in the amine unit. The main attraction of
Membranes cannot typically be used to meet ppm specifica- the hybrid process is the single-stage membrane, which sim-
tions of CO2, owing to the very large surface area (and, there- plifies the membrane separation process without the need for
fore, high CAPEX) that would be required, along with the con- a recycle compressor, while minimizing hydrocarbon losses.15
comitant hydrocarbon loss that would occur.17 This integrated approach also reduces the size and cost of the
Membranes are used for the co-removal of CO2 and H2S, but downstream amine washing and sulfur recovery units by reduc-
only when feed sulfur levels are relatively low.18 In the case of feed ing the acid gas load on the downstream equipment.
gas with high acid gas content, meeting product specifications The hybrid membrane/amine acid gas removal system has
requires a particularly effective method of removing acid gas, been used at a number of sites and is proven in the gas process-
or multiple-step processing. The existing, proven technologies ing industry.16 An example is found at Cameron’s SACROC gas
for acid gas removal to meet commercial requirements (such as processing plant in West Texas, where membranes are used for
chemical absorption by means of amine solutions) are energy- processing up to 660 MMsft3d of inlet natural gas containing
intensive. In evaluating hydrocarbon losses in membranes vs. approximately 90 mol% CO2 and 1,000 ppm of H2S. The ma-
amines, the membrane hydrocarbon loss should be compared jority of the H2S permeates the membranes, as does the CO2.
against the fuel demand in the amine reboiler and in the typical However, the residual sales gas stream still contains approxi-
glycol unit downstream of the amine unit. In recent years, alter- mately 90 ppm of H2S and 10 mol% of CO2. This stream is sent
native technologies have been developed to decrease treatment to downstream amine units to achieve pipeline gas specifica-
costs for natural gas with high acid gas content. This raises the tions of less than 2 mol% CO2 and 4 ppm H2S.17
question of which technology is the most profitable for treating
feed streams containing different amounts of CO2 and H2S. Takeaway. The membrane system market is active and robust,
In many cases, where either a significant amount of H2S is and performance and cost are improving over time. Natural
present in the feed gas or very low CO2 levels must be achieved gas streams may contain acid gas contaminants at levels that
in the product gas, an economical method is to combine mem- can damage process equipment and/or make the product gas
branes with a solvent-based acid gas removal process to achieve stream unacceptable. Different acid gas removal technologies
final specifications.16 The hybrid membrane/amine process are available to meet product gas specifications.
takes advantage of the membrane’s strength as a bulk removal Membranes are increasingly being used to make a bulk
device, while the amine plant takes advantage of its ability to cut of the acid gases, especially in remote locations. The more
achieve low product acid gas concentrations. Moreover, in a bal- recent development of rubbery membranes allows further
anced plant, the membrane permeate (if H2S levels allow) can optimization of the membrane process. For applications
be used as fuel to the amine reboiler. requiring higher levels of acid gas removal, the integrated
Overall, the hybrid system is considered to be an efficient membrane/amine treating approach offers an efficient solution
and highly flexible method for treating highly sour gases, where to develop highly sour gas fields at lower cost and reduced plot
a significant fraction of the acid gases (typically in the range of space, while eliminating the production of elemental sulfur, if
70%–90%) is removed by the membrane unit. The incoming permeate reinjection is possible. GP
high-pressure sour feed gas is split into a partially treated high-
pressure gas and a low-pressure rich acid gas (permeate) stream. NOTE
The residue gas is then polished to the pipeline/LNG specifi- a
Refers to Air Liquide’s All Membrane Solution
cations through a downstream treatment unit with an amine LITERATURE CITED
washing process (FIG. 8). H2S-rich permeate from the mem- Complete literature cited available online at GasProcessingNews.com
brane system ideally can be reinjected, avoiding elemental sul-
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Treated gas Thanks are due to Scott Northrop for reviewing this article and providing
useful comments.
Lean solvent SAEID MOKHATAB is a world-class expert in the natural gas

processing industry. He has worked on the design and operation
Membrane skids Amine-based solvent
for acid gas absorption of several gas processing plants, and has contributed to gas
High-acid-gas (bulk acid gas removal)
(polishing step) processing technology improvements through 300 technical
content feed gas papers and two well-known handbooks published by Elsevier
in the US.
CO2 /H2S rich Rich solvent to MICHAEL MITARITEN is a Senior Director within the Advanced
permeate to regeneration Technologies Group of Air Liquide in Woburn, Massachusetts.
fuel/reinjection He is responsible for the membrane equipment and technology
provided to the natural gas and biogas markets for gas
purification to pipeline quality. He holds 20 patents and has
FIG. 8. Schematic of the hybrid membrane/amine acid gas removal published numerous papers in the field of gas separation. He is
process.19 registered as a Professional Engineer in the state of New York.
GTL
Challenges facing GTL: Rethinking

project economics in 2018 and beyond
R. LAKANI and T. BENNETT, Muse, Stancil & Co., London, UK;
and A. CHANDRA, Muse, Stancil & Co., Houston, Texas
Natural gas is growing in importance

Methane Air separation Hydrogen and F-T distillates
worldwide and is now making up a larger and oxygen carbon monoxide and water
portion of oil companies’ reserves. This Oxygen
trend is driven by discoveries of large gas Natural gas Gas treatment/ Syngas F-T Product
volumes internationally (e.g., East Africa, conditioning generation synthesis workup
West Africa, Eastern Mediterranean),
Reforming Catalyst
along with the US shale gas revolution,
Ethane, N-paraffins,
which has enabled large volumes of gas LPG, naphtha,
production and turned the US into one condensate, kerosine,
sulfur, diesel,
of the biggest gas producers worldwide. other impurities lube base oils
Many companies and host nations
are looking at ways to monetize these
FIG. 1. Schematic of the GTL production process.
recently discovered gas reserves. On the
demand side, gas is widely viewed as the
fuel of choice for many countries, espe- products via reforming, synthesis and up-
cially in the power generation industry. grading processes. The typical GTL prod-
Also, the growing global economy has uct mix focuses on transportation fuels, GTL naphtha
encouraged an increase in gas demand primarily kerosine and diesel. The GTL
for LNG and in the petrochemical indus- production process is shown in FIG. 1. GTL n-paraffin
try, such as using natural gas for the pro- GTL technology has four main com- GTL kerosine
duction of methanol. ponents:
In parallel to these changes in gas pro- 1. Feedstock preparation
duction and demand, oil prices have been • Natural gas treatment
increasing steadily over the past 2 yr and • Air separation to supply GTL gasoil/diesel
have more than doubled since 1Q 2016. oxygen, although some plants
As crude prices rise, petroleum product make syngas (CO + H2 )
prices rise in tandem. Under normal cir- without oxygen
GTL base oils
cumstances, with higher product prices 2. Syngas production using
and relatively cheap, plentiful natural gas catalytic reactors
supplies, announcement of new GTL 3. Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) catalytic
projects would be expected. The authors process to convert syngas FIG. 2. Typical GTL products split.
have seen increased interest in GTL proj- into liquids
ects, and a number of feasibility studies 4. Liquid refining and separation. GTL products from a typical large-
have been conducted in the past few years. The GTL plant has two main catalytic scale GTL plant are graphically represent-
However, despite these favorable dy- processes: ed in FIG. 2.
namics, we have not seen any publicized • Syngas generation, which can be
final investment decisions (FIDs) for from coal (e.g., Sasol’s coal-to- Demand for GTL products and proj-
new, large-scale GTL projects. Here, we liquids plant in South Africa), but ect economics. Demand for GTL prod-
analyze the potential for GTL projects, more commonly uses natural gas ucts is healthy. Diesel consumption is
evaluate present and future project eco- as the feedstock to make syngas increasing, especially in developing econ-
nomics, and discuss the reasons for this • The F-T process, originally omies in Asia and Africa.
lack of activity in the GTL space. developed in Germany in the GTL naphtha, which is free of sulfur,
early part of the 20th century to is in demand. Waxes for the lubes busi-
Background on GTL projects. GTL is convert coal and lignite to liquid ness are also sought after due to their
the conversion of natural gas into liquid petroleum products. high quality.
GTL
Since the trough in oil prices in 1Q associated product prices) reached ap- pact on the calculated IRR, increasing it
2016, both crude and petroleum product proximately $97/bbl, the calculated IRR by approximately 0.2%.
prices have gone up in value, while natu- rose to 15.2%, becoming equivalent with
ral gas prices have remained fairly low. the investment-grade target. Key challenges and potential way
FIG. 3 shows the rise in crude oil prices vs. Further sensitivity analysis indicates forward. Despite higher oil prices, which
Henry Hub (HH) gas prices, with the lat- that, for every $5/bbl increase in crude improve GTL project economics, why has
ter showing an average of $2.74/MMBtu price, the calculated IRR improves by ap- GTL not taken off as expected? The chal-
over the period. proximately 1.1%. Potential GTL investors lenges of project economics and the sen-
Despite these favorable pricing trends, need both sustained high oil prices close to sitivities around crude oil and feedstock
investments in new large-scale GTL proj- $100/bbl and a substantial differential be- prices have been explained. However,
ects have not emerged. To analyze poten- tween oil product prices and gas prices to large-scale GTL projects face a number of
tial project drivers, the authors used an in- make GTL project economics attractive. other challenges:
house GTL economics model, along with Feedstock prices. The authors car- • Shortage of project finance facilities
in-house crude and product price forecast ried out a number of sensitivities using for CAPEX-intensive energy projects
models. Setting a 15% internal rate of re- HH gas prices. Initially, the HH gas price • Few EPC contractors can handle
turn (IRR) as a hurdle rate and an indi- was dropped to $2/MMBtu and the crude projects of this size, resulting in
cator for investment-grade projects, the price was varied as explained previously. a lack of competition
authors examined three key variables and In all cases, project IRR improved by ap- • Massive capital investment;
their impact on present and future GTL proximately 1.8%, reaching 17% with Shell’s Pearl GTL project
project returns. crude at $97/bbl. Gas prices were then in- reportedly cost $20 B
Crude oil prices. Generally, changes creased to $4/MMBtu, and the calculated • Significant gas volumes are
in crude prices cause a direct change in project IRR declined by approximately needed: 0.5 Bft3d of gas
GTL product prices, although the lower- 1.8% in all cases. for a 50-Mbpd GTL plant
volume/higher-priced wax and lube prod- These calculations indicate that low • Limited number of players
ucts often lag crude price movements by gas prices, as typified by stranded gas as- in the GTL technology business
many months. The model was initially sets, are needed throughout the project • GTL plants have proven to be
run using 2015 average prices, where West life to enhance the economics. Escalating operationally complex.
Texas Intermediate (WTI) crude was ap- gas prices have a significant negative im- Overcoming these challenges will re-
proximately $52.35/bbl and HH gas was pact on calculated project economics. For quire a combination of sustained high oil
$2.60/MMBtu, and a 50-Mbpd GTL example, the increasing US LNG export prices in the $90/bbl–$100/bbl range,
plant generated an IRR of only 4.3%. Us- volumes could put pressure on gas prices, low gas prices and a significant drop in
ing 2018 year-to-date prices, where WTI introducing project uncertainties. project costs. The absence of recent syn-
crude is approximately $66.70/bbl and Project costs (CAPEX and OPEX). chronicity of these elements explains why
HH gas is approximately $3/MMBtu, the The capital cost of a typical 50-Mbpd large-scale GTL projects have not been
calculated IRR increases to 7.7%. GTL plant is approximately $5 B; this sanctioned in recent years.
While the effect of higher market figure was decreased by 20% for each of However, the authors do not think that
prices for crude has increased project eco- the cases studied, representing real engi- crude and product price increases are the
nomics, the returns remain well below in- neering and procurement progression. only solution. Movement is seen toward
vestment grade. To determine the impact This adjustment improved the project mini-GTL technology—plants with ca-
of crude price on project returns, HH gas IRR by approximately 4.3% (for the $97/ pacities of 100 bpd–1,000 bpd. Mini-GTL
was fixed at $3/MMBtu and crude prices bbl WTI and $3/MMBtu HH gas case, plants can be used for isolated gas moneti-
were escalated in line with the authors’ in- the calculated project IRR increased to zation and flare reduction. They are less
house crude and product price forecasts. 19.5%). Reducing the OPEX by 20% over complex than large-scale facilities, and
When the forecast crude price (and the the life of the project has a marginal im- some technology providers have modified
their catalysts to maximize diesel produc-
80 4.00 tion and avoid wax handling issues.
70 3.50
Mini-GTL opportunities. The mini-
GTL concept has existed for many years
Henry Hub, $/MMBtu
WTI and ULSD, $/bbl
60 3.00
and is ideally placed to monetize stranded
50 2.50 gas volumes, such as flared gas from a re-
40 WTI 2.00
mote asset. While the industry has histor-
Henry Hub ically focused on large-scale GTL projects
30 Average Henry Hub 1.50 using F-T technology, new technologies
20 1.00
associated with mini-GTL projects could
prove to be both economically and tech-
Jan-16
Mar-16
May-16
Jul-16
Sep-16
Nov-16
Jan-17
Mar-17
May-17
Jul-17
Sep-17
Nov-17
Jan-18
Mar-18
May-18
nologically attractive.
As previously discussed, the hurdle rate
FIG. 3. Rise in crude oil prices vs. Henry Hub gas prices, January 2018–May 2018.
for GTL projects in this price environment
GTL
can be dramatically affected by reductions able for the monetization of flared gas in projects are more likely to be sanctioned
in CAPEX. The new technologies associ- remote locations. In such areas, produc- in the near future. GP
ated with mini-GTL directly attack the tion of gasoline and diesel—products
RAMIN LAKANI is a Consultant in the energy sector
high-CAPEX issues. Specifically, technol- that can be used locally—is preferred with 28 yr of experience in upstream, midstream
ogy developers are focusing on reducing over output of other products derived and downstream projects. He works for Muse,
CAPEX with changes in the “front end” from conventional GTL projects. Stancil & Co., based in London. A Chartered Engineer,
of the project (i.e., syngas production) and The authors believe that mini-GTL he holds a BEng degree in chemical engineering
from University College London, an MSc degree
the reduction or elimination of wax pro- technology may provide some unique ad- in petroleum engineering from Imperial College
duction. Claims of CAPEX reductions of vantages, given its lower CAPEX, simpler London and an executive leadership certificate
10%/bbl–20%/bbl of product, compared operations, focused product slate and from Texas A&M Mays Business School.
to a large-scale GTL plant, are being made ability to meet investment criteria in the TIM BENNETT is a Principal Consultant at Muse,
by mini-GTL technology firms. present price environment. Stancil & Co.’s London office, where he has worked
The claims of reductions in CAPEX for more than 20 yr. He has completed a wide
are partly the result of the development Takeaway. Increases in crude oil prices range of consulting assignments in the oil and gas
sector in Europe, the former Soviet Union, Africa,
of a new generation of catalysts. These have certainly helped GTL economics, the Middle East and Asia-Pacific. Mr. Bennett
proprietary catalysts provide higher but this may not be sufficient for the ap- holds a BSc degree in chemical engineering from
production of diesel, naphtha and gaso- proval of large-scale projects, given the Loughborough University in the UK.
line, while reducing or totally eliminat- complex dynamics involved. A signifi- AJEY CHANDRA is a Director at Muse, Stancil & Co. and
ing wax production. With no GTL wax cant drop in project CAPEX, sustained the Managing Partner of their Houston office, where he
production, the post-production unit to low gas prices and further appreciation in also leads the Midstream and Independent Engineering
separate, process and store wax products crude prices are needed to turn the tide. practice areas for the firm. He has more than 30 yr of
experience in various facets of the energy industry
can be eliminated, thereby dramatically In response, the industry has taken and has had a wide variety of assignments in the US,
reducing CAPEX costs. The elimination steps to reduce project CAPEX and im- Europe and Southeast Asia. He worked at Amoco,
of wax production from the GTL process prove the yield of high-value products. Purvin & Gertz, Hess and NextEra Energy Resources
has the added advantage of reducing the Despite these changes, the relatively prior to joining Muse, Stancil & Co. Mr. Chandra is a
registered Professional Engineer, and holds a BS degree
overall complexity of the equipment, an- high CAPEX requirement for large-scale in chemical engineering from Texas A&M University
other factor that makes mini-GTL suit- GTL projects means that mini-GTL and an MBA degree from the University of Houston.
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LNG
LNG metrology—Measurement support

for LNG as a transport fuel
A. KENBAR, TUV SUD NEL, Glasgow, UK
The use of LNG as fuel has generated executed between 2010 and 2017. The the continued development of transpar-
much interest in the global transportation EMPIR calls, launched between 2014 ent and traceable metrological infra-
sector due to two main drivers—the envi- and 2020, have a total allocated budget of structure for flow and composition mea-
ronment and cost. First, LNG emits virtu- €600 MM, with €300 MM from the par- surement systems. The project will also
ally no sulfur oxides (SOX), low nitrogen ticipating states and up to €300 MM from develop and validate smart sensors for
oxides (NOX) and particulate matter, and the European Commission using Article measurement of methane number (MN)
significantly less carbon dioxide (CO2) 185 of the European Treaty. The calls will and methane slip (MS) to ensure optimal
per unit of energy released than do oil- focus on priority areas to address the EU’s LNG engine performance.
derived liquid fuels. This can reduce the priority challenges in health, energy, en- This project combines the facilities
compliance cost imposed by the use of vironment and industry, and to progress and expertise of nine leading NMIs on
traditional liquid fuels. Second, interest in fundamental measurement science.2 cryogenic flow and chemical composi-
LNG is also driven by lower prices and by tion measurements, along with three re-
gas marketers’ need to create new markets LNG flow measurement. Since the first nowned universities and four industrial
for now-abundant gas supplies. The lower EMRP call in 2010, LNG flow measure- partners with significant experience in
retail price of natural gas in recent years ment and its traceability have been iden- LNG. The project is also directed by an
is a strong driver for LNG penetration in tified by EU national measurement insti- advisory board consisting of 25 mem-
commercial transport.1 tutes (NMIs) as a challenge and priority bers that are key representatives of the
Within the EU, the use of LNG forms area to address. LNG industry (producers, shippers, im-
an integral part of the EU security of en- The LNG 3 project, which is funded port terminal operators and energy com-
ergy policy and is one of the pillars of the under the EMRP, is a 3-yr project started panies) and instrument manufacturers.
Union’s clean fuel strategy. The use of LNG in June 2017 and designed to enable the As the project deals with several as-
in various industry sectors has been under- large-scale rollout of LNG and liquefied pects of LNG metrology, the work is bro-
pinned by the European Metrology Pro- biogas (LBG) as transport fuels. The ken down into five main work packages
gram for Innovation and Research (EM- project’s aims will be achieved through (WPs) to ensure efficient execution of the
PIR). Under this research program, the
development of new reference measure-
ment systems for LNG flow and composi-
tion will provide manufacturers and devel-
opers of LNG sensors with a reliable and
accurate platform for testing and validating
these sensors, thereby allowing them to
advance their measurement technologies
beyond the existing state of the art.
European metrology program for in-

novation and research. EMPIR was
developed as an integrated part of Hori-
zon 2020, also called the EU Framework
Program for Research and Innovation.
Horizon 2020 is the biggest EU research
and innovation program ever, with near-
ly €80 B of funding available over 7 yr
(2014–2020).
EMPIR follows the successful Europe-
FIG. 1. Developing traceability for LNG flow measurement.
an Metrology Research Program (EMRP)
LNG
the realization of the full-scale facility that

will be targeted in future development.
In addition to these initiatives, a novel
cryogenic flowmetering technology by
laser doppler velocimetry (LDV) was de-
veloped in the LNG 1 and LNG 2 proj-
ects. Results from these two projects have
shown that a target measurement uncer-
tainty within ±0.2% is achievable with this
technology in cryogenic conditions. The
ultimate objective is to use this system
as a primary reference standard for LNG
flow measurement to enable flowmeter
manufacturers to develop and benchmark
their meters against this system.
Since the realization of a full-scale
LNG calibration facility can be achieved
only in the distant future, the project
will continue the development of the al-
FIG. 2. Typical pipe installations causing flow disturbance.
ternative calibration approach for LNG
flowmeters, which is based on transfer-
project. The first WP will continue the uncertainty (FIG. 1). For large-scale LNG ring calibrations with a fluid, such as wa-
development of LNG reference flow mea- applications, the development of such a ter, at ambient conditions to cryogenic
surement traceability and accuracy, which facility is an extremely challenging task. conditions by applying appropriate cor-
was started in the first LNG project in Since the launch of EMPIR’s first LNG rections. This economic calibration ap-
2010 so that a target measurement uncer- project in 2010, the typical approach ad- proach was successfully demonstrated in
tainty within ±0.5% could be achieved us- opted for the development of measure- the LNG 1 project for 2-in. Coriolis flow-
ing existing LNG metering technologies. ment traceability for LNG was to break meters of different makes.
The second WP focuses on the develop- it down into several manageable stages, The verification of the calibration con-
ment and validation of a small-scale lique- starting with small-scale applications cept will be continued in LNG 3 for both
fier using a reference-quality liquefaction (transportation), then mid-scale appli- Coriolis and ultrasonic meters supported
technique for natural gas and similar gas cations (refueling and bunkering) and, by cryogenic testing using the small and
mixtures. This reference liquefier will be finally, large-scale custody transfer appli- mid-scale LNG facilities. This calibra-
used to validate LNG and LBG sampling cations (ship loading at export terminals tion scheme is adopted by industry, but
and composition measurement systems. and unloading at import terminals). requires further independent validation.
The third WP will develop cost-effective In the last two LNG projects, LNG 1
and reliable sensors for measurement of (2010–2013) and LNG 2 (2014–2017), Reducing uncertainties in LNG dy-
methane numbers MN and MS. The sen- tremendous knowledge and experience namic flow measurements. Initial
sors will be validated in the fourth WP in were acquired through the successful de- results from the previous LNG projects
an environment that is typical for existing sign and build of the world’s first LNG have demonstrated that better accuracy
and future heavy-duty LNG engines. primary flow standard, capable of han- can be achieved by direct measurement
Finally, the knowledge and experi- dling flowrates up to 25 m3/hr with an of the LNG flowrate, rather than by mea-
mental data obtained from the first four uncertainty factor of ±0.1%. suring the volume in tanks. However, this
WPs will feed into the fifth WP—namely, This build was followed by the devel- testing was carried out in ideal conditions,
creating impact. The information will opment of a mid-scale flow standard in using small flowmeters up to 2 in.
be presented to industry through vari- LNG 2 that handles LNG flowrates up In the LNG 3 project, flowmeters up
ous international committees and in the to 200 m3/hr, using boot-strapping tech- to 4 in., from different suppliers, will be
form of guidelines, new international niques, input from the small-scale prima- systematically assessed for their measure-
standards and other publications. More ry standard and an independent proving ment uncertainties due to several influ-
information on the LNG 3 project is system. The design of this system and a encing parameters, such as upstream flow
available at the project website: https:// major part of the project were completed disturbances, presence of gas in the flow,
lngmetrology.info/ in the LNG 2. The build and commission- meter insulation and meter orientation
ing of the system will be finalized in the under both ambient (water) and cryo-
Developing flow measurement trace- LNG 3 project. This facility will be used genic (LNG) flow conditions. The target
ability. The development of measure- to test and verify the performance of ul- is to reduce measurement uncertainty to a
ment traceability for LNG dynamic flow trasonic and Coriolis flowmeters used in level comparable to that of conventional
measurement requires the development various LNG applications, including refu- hydrocarbon fluids, which is ±0.5%. In ad-
of primary reference systems capable of eling. The success of the small-scale and dition to the flowmeters, two sensors will
calibrating LNG flowmeters with known mid-scale systems will play a major role in be included in LNG testing—an electric
LNG
capacitance tomography (ECT) device reference liquefaction techniques for nat- conditions, determine the knocking point.
and a newly developed ultrasonic sensor ural gas and similar gas mixtures. To run the engine at its most efficient set-
for the measurement of LNG density. This reference liquefier will be used ting, the MN must be determined using
To enable testing of different sizes of to validate LNG and LBG sampling and accurate sensors that will be developed,
flowmeters and comparison of the mea- composition measurement systems. The tested and validated in the LNG 3 project.
surement from each meter against the approach relies on knowing the composi- Depending on the combustion pro-
test facility reference measurement, it was tions of LNG mixtures and then introduc- cess, part of the methane (CH4) may not
necessary to design two separate metering ing the LNG to the sampling and vaporiza- burn in the engine and, therefore, can be
setups—one to accommodate 2-in. de- tion system, which is required to vaporize released to the atmosphere (as MS). For
vices and the other to accommodate 4-in. the sample in a controlled environment economic and environmental reasons, the
devices. Full testing with water was slated without loss or change in composition engine performance needs to be carefully
to start in June 2018 and with LNG later before it enters the gas analyzer (gas chro- monitored and managed through the use
in the year (FIG. 2). matograph). The composition reported of an MS sensor to facilitate increased
A feasibility study will also be carried by the analyzer will be checked against the combustion efficiency and reduced meth-
out to assess whether a cryogenic piston known composition of the mixture. Simi- ane emissions.
prover can be used as a primary refer- larly, the reference liquefier can be used
ence system to verify the measurement to validate the direct composition mea- Dissemination of information. The new
uncertainty of cryogenic flowmeters. surement, using the Raman spectroscopy results from this project will be dissemi-
This will be in addition to the use of the technique under development for LNG. nated to international organizations in the
described LDV system as a primary mea- form of guidelines and standards related to
surement system. New cost-effective inline measure- LNG metrology. The aim is to create a sig-
ment sensors. The composition of the nificant impact that facilitates international
New technique for validation of LNG LNG, energy content and other physical acceptance of the project results. The in-
sampling. In custody transfer applica- properties varies from source to source. ternational working groups from the Inter-
tions (ship loading and unloading), the Furthermore, the LNG composition in national Group of Liquefied Natural Gas
calculation of LNG energy transferred LNG carriers and storage tanks typi- Importers (GIIGNL), the International
requires measurement of LNG volume cally changes over time through a pro- Organization for Standardization (ISO),
in the ship’s tanks, along with the density cess known as “aging,” which means that the European Committee for Standardiza-
and gross calorific value (GCV). The lat- the LNG composition becomes richer in tion (CEN), and the International Orga-
ter two are calculated from the average heavier components. nization of Legal Metrology (OIML) are
composition of LNG, which is obtained For fiscal measurements, the physi- collaborating to achieve this goal.
from sampling and subsequent analysis cal and chemical properties of LNG are In addition, the project impact is maxi-
by gas chromatography. defined through sophisticated LNG mized by other activities, such as organiz-
While some challenges with effective sampling and analysis procedures. These ing workshops and conferences, present-
measurement are related to the measure- processes involve several careful steps in- ing the project’s results at conferences and
ment of the LNG volume, the main chal- cluding sample collection, conditioning, in scientific and key user journals. Two
lenges are with the LNG composition vaporizing, analyzing, reporting LNG workshops are planned: the first at TUV
obtained from such sampling. The accu- composition and, finally, calculation of SUD NEL (UK) in October 2018, and
racy of LNG composition obtained from LNG properties and energy content. the second at Ruhr-University Bochum
sampling will have a direct influence on However, for monitoring and control (Germany) in 2020. The workshops held
the accuracy of calculated density and purposes, it may not be practical or cost- the previous LNG 1 and LNG 2 projects
GCV and, subsequently, on the accuracy effective to use such equipment. Develop- presented an excellent platform for shar-
of LNG energy transferred. It was shown ment of cost-effective sensors that can be ing information and experience between
in the LNG 1 project that, for an average easily installed in-line and provide accept- the project partners and the LNG indus-
LNG cargo, an error of ±1% in energy able measurement accuracy are required. try. Detailed information on these events
transferred may result in €0.5 MM in mis- The development of in-line miniature will be published on the project website:
allocation during custody transfer. The gas composition sensors has already start- https://lngmetrology.info/ GP
significant value of LNG ship load, there- ed in the LNG 2 project, and their poten-
LITERATURE CITED
fore, justifies the most accurate and reli- tial use for LNG engine management and
Complete literature cited available online at
able LNG analysis system. performance monitoring has been success- GasProcessingNews.com.
While many well-established LNG fully demonstrated in initial trials. To op-
sampling and analysis systems have been erate an engine in the most efficient way, ASAAD KENBAR is a Principal
adopted by the LNG industry, no refer- it should be run as close as possible to its Consultant at TUV SUD NEL,
a provider of technical
ence systems exist to accurately bench- knocking point—i.e., the point during the consultancy, research, testing,
mark their performance. The need for engine combustion where part of the fuel flow measurement and program
such a reference system was identified in spontaneously ignites ahead of the flame management services to the
energy and manufacturing
the LNG 1 project, and this need will be front and burns in an uncontrolled man- industries, as well as to government. TUV SUD NEL,
addressed in the LNG 3 project through ner. The methane number (MN), together part of the TÜV SÜD Group, is the custodian of the
the development and validation of new with the engine type and the operational UK’s National Flow Measurement Standards.

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SHOW PREVIEW: GASTECH
Gastech 2018 brings industry professionals

to Spain to discuss emerging markets
A. BLUME, Editor
Gastech is a meeting of minds for generation, trading and pricing, environ-

the world’s most influential and innova- ment and safety, and many more.
tive natural gas and energy profession- The Gastech 2018 Conference will
als—a four-day, multi-stream conference treat delegates to a trio of streams cover-
focusing on recent developments across ing plenary, technical and strategic con-
17–20 September, 2018 the global gas and LNG landscape. tent. The streams will answer many of
Fira Barcelona Gran Via In 2018, the Gastech Conference and the questions facing the industry, from
Exhibition will take place September “What is the role for gas in the energy
Barcelona, Spain 17–20 in Barcelona, Spain, and promises transition?” to “How can gas and LNG
Gastech Exhibition: to climb to new heights with an agenda deliver lower-carbon, lower-cost energy
featuring 350 of the industry’s most across emerging markets?”
• More than 30,000 industry prominent speakers and representatives The Conference will also offer abun-
professionals expected to attend from the global gas supply chain. The dant networking opportunities through
• More than 700 exhibitors speakers carry the common goal of re- its exclusive evening events. On the eve-
from more than 90 countries vealing insights and original information ning of 17 September, Gastech will kick
on key issues impacting the upstream, off with an evening of food, drinks and
• Six targeted “Industry Zones”
midstream and downstream sectors, as Spanish-style entertainment. On 18 Sep-
for 2018 well as exploring a variety of interna- tember, the Exhibition show floor will re-
• 16 international pavilions tional topics focusing on market outlook, main open an hour later than usual to ac-
exploration and production, regulatory commodate exhibitor-hosted networking
Gastech Conference: policies, shipping and transport, power receptions. The extended timing will al-
• 350 senior speakers and
250 presentations from across
the upstream, midstream and
downstream value chains
• 15 strategic sessions with 14 topics
• Extended technical program covering
more than 45 technical sessions
• Four days of executive keynotes;
commercial, technical and specialty
presentations; question-and-answer
sessions; and panel debates
www.gastechevent.com
FIG. 1. Barcelona’s famous Sagrada Familia basilica, design by renowned Catalan architect
Antoni Gaudi, is one of the city’s most popular tourist attractions.

SHOW PREVIEW: GASTECH
influential executives involved in

the procurement, portfolio trade
and end use of LNG.
• Young Gastech. This event
provides an opportunity for
students and junior engineers
who wish to network with their
peers and progress in the natural
gas and LNG industry.
• Asia LNG market development
forum. This focused morning
forum brings together major
stakeholders from Asian LNG
markets to discuss options for
FIG. 2. Fira Barcelona Gran Via, Barcelona’s premier event venue, will host Gastech 2018.
cooperating on developing
infrastructures and contract
flexibility in Asia to create greater
low attendees to mingle with exhibitors in • Future financing of gas and transparency, liquidity and value
a casual atmosphere and make new busi- LNG projects for gas importers in Asia.
ness connections with industry players. • Gas policy
On 18–19 September, specialist events • The electricity generation Barcelona 2018. Barcelona is the capi-
will conclude with their own drinks re- revolution tal and largest city of Catalonia, as well as
ceptions. Last but not least, the 2019 • Gas and LNG in the EU the second-largest municipality of Spain.
Gastech Launch Party on the evening of • FSRUs It is a truly global city, and one of the
19 September will provide announce- • Global gas and LNG project update world’s leading tourist, economic, trad-
ments on the host city for the 2019 Gas- • COP21 ing and cultural centers. Barcelona boasts
tech Conference and Exhibition, and in- • North American shale to export world-renowned performing arts, mu-
vite attendees to celebrate with industry • Gas and LNG as a transport fuel sic, and culinary scenes, as well as lively
stakeholders and colleagues. • Corporate risk, CSR and nightlife and sporting events. Its famous
New for the 2018 Exhibition are In- local content Park Güell and Sagrada Familia basilica
dustry Zones, which will showcase the • Contracts, trading and pricing (FIG. 1), both designed by Catalan archi-
latest products, services and technologies • Consumer spotlight tect Antoni Gaudi, are two of the city’s
in dedicated zones within the exhibition. • Emerging customer markets. most popular tourist attractions. Sagrada
The Industry Zones will help attend- During the technical portion of the Familia is a work in progress—it has been
ees compare multiple solutions in one conference, speakers will offer detailed under construction for the past 136 years.
place. Industry Zones for 2018 include: information on innovative solutions to The outstanding features of the 2018
Gas and LNG processing; IT and digital enhance business opportunities. Gastech event venue, the Fira Gran Via
infrastructure; LNG facilities and infra- The conference will also feature five (FIG. 2), are its architecture, functionality
structure; natural gas vehicles (NGV): specialist conferences: and commitment to sustainability. It has
road, marine and rail; security and HSE; • VIP Program. This exclusive, one of the largest rooftop photovoltaic
and shipping and marine engineering. invitation-only event brings installations, and its eight pavilions, con-
together C-level executives, nected by a walkway that channels the
Conference program. The opening government ministers and policy flow of visitors, provide cutting-edge ser-
ceremony and plenary session of the influencers driving the global vices and logistics. The gastronomic res-
conference will provide insights from in- gas and LNG industry. taurant Nuclo is located inside the Foyer
ternational ministers and industry lead- • Diversity in Energy. A diverse Europe. The Fira Gran Via is located in a
ers from leading national oil companies workforce makes more a more new business development area, close to
(NOCs) and international oil companies qualified and innovative staff. the Barcelona airport and connected to
(IOCs), as they make their predictions The energy industry is also facing the public transport network.
on future developments in the global gas a personnel gap as experienced Gastech 2018 puts forward a compel-
and LNG industry. workers retire. This forum ling case for delegates to attend. From
The Gastech conference will cover will provide a vital platform networking with industry professionals
a wide range of strategic and technical where top-level executives and suppliers from around the world in
issues. Business leaders will share new will share how companies the world-class city of Barcelona, to keep-
ideas and profitable opportunities dur- can make the most of their talent ing abreast of the very latest innovations,
ing the strategic session topics for 2018, pools and foster success. the Gastech Exhibition and Conference
which include: • LNG procurement and trading connects decision-makers and innova-
• The emergence of the new global forum. This invitation-only tors from across the entire natural gas and
utility player forum welcomes prominent and LNG supply chain. GP
NEW IN GAS PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY
A. BLUME, Editor
Honeywell offers Cryogenic N2 removal for landfill biogas project

monitoring system BCCK Holding Co. (BCCK)
for gas metering will provide its Nitech cryogenic
nitrogen removal process as
part of a complete, high-Btu
gas cleaning system for a
landfill gas-to-energy plant
in Washington state.
Klickitat Public Utility District
(PUD) selected BCCK’s Nitech
technology to perform a key
role in transforming landfill gas
into nearly 100% pure renewable
natural gas at the H.W. Hill
Landfill Gas to Energy plant,
located at the Roosevelt Regional
Landfill in Klickitat County.
According to BCCK, landfill-
derived renewable natural gas has the lowest full-cycle CO2 emissions of all transportation fuels, including
Honeywell Process Solutions emissions attributed to electric vehicles. The Klickitat Nitech nitrogen Removal Unit (NRU) will be used to
(HPS) has launched a new gas remove nitrogen from methane gas collected from the landfill. BCCK will provide a dehydration system
metering solution that provides in front of the Nitech NRU to dehydrate from the upstream solvent process. The Nitech NRU will process
easy-to-use health monitoring 7.2 MMsft3d of gas and will recover 99.5% of the methane.
of midstream metering systems
for operations, maintenance and New catalyst line for reciprocating Delivery of
leadership teams. Honeywell
Connected Plant Measurement IQ engine emission control Wärtsilä power
for Gas enhances the metering
MIRATECH has launched a new line of catalyst products for plant will
operation’s reliability and safety
while cutting costs by reducing
controlling emissions from natural gas engines. These catalysts control alleviate Myanmar
CO, VOCs and formaldehyde emissions from lean-burn four-stroke
the need for site visits.
natural gas engines, and NOX, CO, VOCs and formaldehyde emissions
electricity
With advanced diagnostics,
at-a-glance dashboards from rich-burn four-stroke natural gas engines. shortage
and intelligence analytics, Gas engines play a prominent role in the oil and gas industry The technology group
Measurement IQ enables and the power generation sector throughout the US and around the Wärtsilä has been selected
operators to increase metering world. These emission catalysts will assure engine owners regulatory to provide the generating
reliability in the face of skills compliance over long service intervals. equipment for a new gas-fired
shortages, dispersed operations The catalyst products were developed as an outgrowth of power plant needed to alleviate
and a complex hydrocarbon MIRATECH’s acquisition of EmeraChem LLC—an OEM catalyst developer the shortage of electricity
mix. Users can detect and and manufacturer with 25 yr of experience—forming the brand name in Myanmar.The power plant
correct costly mismeasurement, “MeC.” MIRATECH is offering two grades of oxidation catalyst and two will operate on eight Wärtsilä
anticipate equipment failure, grades of three-way catalyst to suit customers’ performance and budget 50SG gas-fueled engines,
reduce gas losses and eliminate requirements. The standard MeC catalyst line carries a 1-yr performance and the electricity generated
unnecessary maintenance. warranty. MIRATECH’s MeC-B catalyst line (“B” for “BEAST”) has the will be fed into the national
Measurement IQ connects durability to carry a full 3-yr performance warranty. grid. The 145-MW plant is
assets across all enterprise Previously, MIRATECH’s engine emissions control systems scheduled to be operational
metering stations and captures incorporated catalysts specified by MIRATECH engineers and during the first quarter of
the data in Honeywell’s secure manufactured by other companies. Some of these catalysts incorporated 2019. Wärtsilä’s capabilities
data center. Users can connect on special features, such as the Vortex and the NEXT substrates, the latter to meet the demanding delivery
any device with a web browser of which induced turbulence and mixing as the exhaust passed through requirements, and the flexibility
and receive customizable alerts the catalyst. This internal mixing increased catalytic performance. of its engines, were cited
on their mobile phone with Meanwhile, EmeraChem developed catalyst products that focused as key factors in the award
Honeywell’s Experion App. on nano surface technologies and precious metal formulations. of the contract.
The Connected Plant solution The Wärtsilä order has been
EmeraChem’s catalyst achieved similar catalytic performance but
monitors for significant changes issued by SEPCOIII Electric
created less backpressure for the engine—a benefit for the engine
in the flowmeter, as well as the Power Construction Co. Ltd.,
operator. Following the acquisition, engineers and scientists at
process and environment in the China-based EPC contractor
MIRATECH and EmeraChem collaborated on the development of the
which it operates. It anticipates for the project and one of the
problems and enables users to MeC catalyst design. The MeC catalyst takes the best of all the legacy
major international power
move from time-based or risk- products and introduces the next generation. construction companies. The
based recalibration of meters to The MeC catalysts are built on a complex turbulent substrate—a order was booked in 2Q 2018.
condition-based monitoring with geometry that increases surface area and catalytic performance without This is the first Wärtsilä Energy
calibrations only when required. increasing backpressure. The ceramic coatings provide durability Solutions contract in Myanmar.
Historical diagnostic data can and high surface area with special additives for high-temperature It will be located in Kyaukse
be used as a basis to extend operation. The precious metal formulations are robust, durable and township, Mandalay region.
calibration intervals specified by regenerable using MIRATECH’s chemical wash process. Substrate layers Wärtsilä supported the two
regulatory authorities. Customers are mechanically locked together for strength, then diffusion-bonded project sponsors for the project,
can save an estimated $50,000/ for rigidity. On the round substrates, layers are also welded together to National Infrastructure Holding
yr if recalibration intervals are prevent separation and gaps, even after thousands of hours of thermal Co. Ltd. and Myanmar Chemical
extended from 1 yr to 2 yr. expansion and contraction and engine pulsations. and Machinery Co. Ltd.

NEW IN GAS PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY
A. BLUME, Editor
Industry’s first Innovative reed valve module and assembly

integrated fixed flow Zahroof Valves Inc. (ZVI) announced that the company’s Reed Valve Module and Valve Assembly
regulator/cylinder have been granted US Patent No. 9,989,161, marking a major milestone for the company. The latest
patent adds to a portfolio of intellectual property of products that are changing the way oil and
Gasco recently gas companies operate. ZVI now has 43 patents granted and several pending on nine different
introduced ez-cal, technologies in 31 different countries.
the industry’s first Since the release of ZVI’s modular reed valve technology encapsulated in its flagship StraightFlo
integrated regulator Valve, 32 related patents have been granted around the world in countries as diverse as Australia,
and cylinder. The new Great Britain, China, Mexico, New Zealand, Russia and Turkey. Additional patents on the technology
ez-cal unit combines are pending in Canada, South America and Southeast Asia.
both the cylinder and The StraightFlo Valve is a reed check valve that is unique in that the valve assembly is made up
regulator in a single of replaceable reed valve modules. These modules are designed so that the gas flows essentially in
product to ensure safety, a straight line through a valve, with very little deviation, resulting in very low losses in the valve. The
simplicity and efficiency valve brings the benefits of improved efficiency, reduced maintenance, better return on investment
for the end user. and reduced greenhouse gas emissions.
The company’s All the wear components are in the module. Therefore, servicing a valve consists of simply
replacing a bad module within the valve with a new one. The technology eliminates the need to
newest innovation
machine any parts during service. Replacement of a module within a valve is done manually, and
signifies a departure
does not require special tools. The modules are interchangeable, with a limited number of modules
from traditional products, offering a unique
required to service all reciprocating compressor applications, thereby reducing valve inventory at a
approach that integrates the regulator and site by as much as 80%.
cylinder in a single unit. Users do not need The design of the reed valve modules makes it more tolerant to liquids and solid particles in
to worry about attaching, removing or the gas stream, resulting in lifetimes as much as 5–10 times that of conventional valves in difficult
misplacing a regulator, which ensures that applications, such as gas production. Improvement in reliability and the mean time between
gases are properly calibrated every time. shutdown of the compressor due to valve issues minimizes production losses from downtime, and
With ez-cal, Gasco is furthering its also greatly reduces emissions.
commitment to innovation, safety and The improvement in efficiency due to the straight flow of gas through the valve, along with the
sustainability in the workplace. The innovative configuration of the modules in valve designs, greatly increase the effective flow area,
new offering saves time and gas, and resulting in improvement of efficiency or reduction in power by as much as 25%, depending on the
eliminates the possibility of self- and application. The power saved can be used to increase flow through the same compressor by as much
cross-contamination. as 25%. The design also results in lower noise and vibration levels.
SALES OFFICES—EUROPE ADVERTISER INDEX

ITALY, EASTERN EUROPE
Fabio Potestá Air Products & Chemicals Inc. .................... 5
Mediapoint & Communications SRL
Phone: +39 (010) 570-4948 Elliott Group ...................................................17
E-mail: Fabio.Potesta@GulfEnergyInfo.com
Catherine Watkins, Publisher
Gulf Energy Information
TURKEY, WESTERN EUROPE
Phone/Fax: +1 (713) 520-4421
Hamilton Pearman
Energy Web Atlas ..............................29, 38
E-mail: Catherine.Watkins@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
www.GasProcessingNews.com Phone: +33 608 310 575 Events—GasPro .........................................43
Hamilton.Pearman@GulfEnergyInfo.com
SALES OFFICES—NORTH AMERICA Events—HP Awards ..................................33
UNITED KINGDOM, SCANDINAVIA
EASTERN UNITED STATES, EASTERN CANADA Patrick Djuma Events—PTF................................................34
Phone/Fax: +44 20 3409 2243
Merrie Lynch E-mail: Patrick.Djuma@GulfEnergyInfo.com Events—WGLC ............................................. 8
Phone: +1 (617) 357-8190
Mobile: +1 (617) 594-4943 GP Circulation .............................................18
E-mail: Merrie.Lynch@GulfEnergyInfo.com SALES OFFICES—OTHER AREAS
Kobelco Edti Compressors Inc ................. 10
GULF COAST, SOUTH TEXAS CHINA—HONG KONG
Tom Witte Iris Yuen Linde Engineering North America ............ 7
Phone: +1 (713) 525-4626 Phone: +86 13802701367 (China)
Phone: +852 69185500 (Hong Kong) Merichem Company ...................................... 2
E-mail: Tom.Witte@HydrocarbonProcessing.com
E-mail: Iris.Yuen@GulfEnergyInfo.com
Pentair Filtration & Process ..................... 44
MIDWEST, NORTH TEXAS
INDIA Prosernat ........................................................20
Josh Mayer
Phone: +1 (972) 816-6745 Manav Kanwar
E-mail: Josh.Mayer@HydrocarbonProcessing.com Phone: +91-22-2837 7070/71/72
Mobile: +91-98673 67374 This index and procedure for securing additional information are
WESTERN UNITED STATES, E-mail: India@GulfEnergyInfo.com provided as a service to advertisers and a convenience to our readers.
WESTERN CANADA Gulf Publishing Company is not responsible for omissions or errors.
JAPAN
Rick Ayer
Phone: +1 (949) 366-9089 Yoshinori Ikeda
E-mail: Rick.Ayer@HydrocarbonProcessing.com Pacific Business Inc.
Phone: +81 (3) 3661-6138
E-mail: Japan@GulfEnergyInfo.com
DATA PRODUCTS
J’Nette Davis-Nichols
Phone: +1 (713) 520-4426
E-mail: Jnette.Davis-Nichols@GulfEnergyInfo.com
OCTOBER 25, 2018 | HOUSTON, TX
GASPROCESSINGCONFERENCE.COM
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Today
Gas Processing & LNG and Hydrocarbon Processing
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For more information visit GasProcessingConference.com

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HIGH-EFFICIENCY

DESIGN WITH CUSTOM

FLUID FLOW AND

ENVIRONMENT AND SAFETY

ADVANCED CATALYSIS TECHNOLOGY

INNOVATING CAUSTIC TREATING TECHNOLOGY

FFC Plus truly is mercaptan treating made better.

SPECIAL FOCUS: FLUID FLOW AND ROTATING EQUIPMENT DEPARTMENTS

ENVIRONMENT AND SAFETY 23 Engineering Case Histories

GAS PROCESSING SUPPLEMENT

PUBLISHER Catherine Watkins

Industry Perspectives EDITOR/ASSOCIATE PUBLISHER

Executive Editor Adrienne Blume

The event will be highlighted by Day 1 keynote addresses ADVERTISING SALES

KOBELCO operates worldwide and is a leader in

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Celebrating the latest advancements

Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2018 7

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Petcoke 6 Mtpd $3.5 MM/d ($1.1 B/yr) in total

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The global leader in hydroprocessing catalysts

Cracking spread, US$/bbl

102 Implied stock draw 5 15

4 Urals Prem. gasoline Gasoil

* Material published permission of the OPEC Secretariat; copyright 2018;

Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2018 15

Global Project Data

Total active projects by region and sector

Boxscore new project announcements,

Hydrocarbon Processing | AUGUST 2018 17

Better pumps and seals for HF service

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18_July_Hydro_Proc_015-5806 Rev #2.indd 3 7/17/18 8:22 AM

Spherical Catalyst Carriers

Typical Size Distribution We offer new materials as carriers that

For inquiries or product samples:

Case 102: Use caution when specifying

Determining fragment distance and velocity. To deter-

The bulk modulus (K), or how much the water volume is

K = –Δp ÷ [Δv ÷ v] = 316,000 lb/in.2 (3) Vf = (1/12) × [2 × g × PEfrag ÷ W] ⁄ ft/sec

TABLE 1. One-pound fragment range and velocity

150 hydro 100 142 183

300 hydro 100 286 363

1,250 hydro 300 (pipeline section) 2,100 2,600

TABLE 1 shows the large variation in a 1-lb fragment’s range

General precautions. Considering the many unknowns in

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from 1.0 PSI to 10.0 PSI

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MCAA market forecast projects industry

Pulp and paper Total market CAGR = 3.7%

Water and wastewater Electric utilities