CDB 3033

TRANSPORT PHENOMENA

Momentum Transport
 Course outcome
CLO1
Explain the theoretical aspects of momentum, mass and
energy transport

2
 Lesson outcomes
1. Explain the relationship of momentum flux, stress and
viscosity
2. Estimate the viscosity of fluids
3. Derive the equation for total molecular transport of
momentum
4. Derive the equations for convective transport of
momentum and combined momentum flux

3
 Momentum Transport – Learning Approach
1. Flow of viscous fluids
2. Shear flow between parallel plates
3. Momentum transfer through the fluid by the viscous action
4. Introduction to Newton’s Law of Viscosity and definition of
viscosity
5. Effects of temperature and pressure on the viscosities of gases
and liquids
6. Calculation of viscosities of gases from the kinetic theory of
gases
7. Viscosities of liquids
8. Convective momentum transport

4
 Molecular Momentum Transfer
-Newton’s Law of Viscosity
• Consider a pair of large parallel
plates, each with area A
• Separated by a distance Y
• In the space between the plates is
a fluid – either a gas or liquid
• The system is initially at rest
• At time t=0, the lower plate is set
in motion in the positive x-
direction at a constant velocity V
• As time proceeds, the fluid gains
momentum
• Assume the flow be laminar
(orderly type of flow)
5
Molecular Momentum Transfer
-Newton’s Law of Viscosity
When the steady-state of motion is
attained, a constant force F is required
to maintain the motion of the lower
plate.
F V (1.1-1)

A Y
dvx
 yx   (1.1-2)
dy
Newton’s Law of Viscosity
 (1.1-3)
kinematic viscosity, 

1
 dvx 
   yx   (1.1-4)
 dy 
 Molecular Momentum Transfer
-Newton’s Law of Viscosity

dvx
 yx  
dy
Two ways of interpretation of yx
1. Force in the x-direction on a unit area perpendicular to
y-direction

2. Flux of x-momentum in the positive y-direction

7
 Units of Momentum Flux and Viscosity
Momentum = Mass  Velocity
Momentum [= ] (kg x m/s)
 kg  m 
 
Rate of Transfer of Momentum [= ]  s 
 s 
 
Momentum Flux = rate of transfer of momentum / area
m m
kg  kg 2
Momentum flux [=] s  s  N  Pa
m2  s m2 m2
1
 dvx 
   yx   [] (Pa)[(m/s)(m1)]1  Pa  s
 dy 
8
 Example 1

Compute the steady-state momentum flux  yx when the lower

plate velocity V is 0.3 m/s in the positive x-direction, the plate
separation Y is 0.0003 m, and the fluid viscosity  is 0.7 cp.
Note: 1 poise = 0.1 Pa ∙ s
 Generalization of Newton’s Law

• Usually, the velocity components in all three coordinates, 𝑣𝑥 , 𝑣𝑦

and 𝑣𝑧 may exist
• A more general expression of (1.1.2) is required to solve
complicated problems
• Consider a very general flow pattern with velocity components
given by:

𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 ; 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡); 𝑣𝑧 = 𝑣𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)

• There will be nine stress components, 𝜏𝑖𝑗

10
Generalization of Newton’s Law
• Consider the cube-
shaped volume element
• The center of the volume
element is 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
• Each face has a unit area
• Cut the volume
perpendicular to each of
the three coordinate
directions in turn
• Remove half of the fluid
within it
• What force has to be
applied in the free
surface to replace the
force that was exerted by
the fluid removed?
 Generalization of Newton’s Law

• There are two contributions to the force:

• That associated with the pressure
• That associated with the viscous forces

• The pressure force will always be perpendicular to the exposed

surface
• Force per unit area on the shaded surfaces are:
x-direction: 𝑝𝜹𝑥
y-direction: 𝑝𝜹𝑦
z-direction: 𝑝𝜹𝑧
 Generalization of Newton’s Law
• The viscous forces exist when there are velocity gradients within the
fluid
• They act at some angle to the surface (neither perpendicular, nor
parallel)

𝝉𝑥 , 𝝉𝑦 and 𝝉𝑧 (vectors) are the viscous forces per unit area

• Each of these forces has components (scalars); e.g., 𝝉𝑥 has

components 𝜏𝑥𝑥 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 and 𝜏𝑥𝑧
 Generalization of Newton’s Law

Summary of forces acting on the three shaded areas:

Direction Vector force per unit Components of forces acting on the shaded face
normal to the area on the shaded
shaded face face x-component y-component z-component

𝑥 𝝅𝑥 = 𝑝𝜹𝑥 + 𝝉𝑥 𝜋𝑥𝑥 = 𝑝 + 𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜋𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜋𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧

𝑦 𝝅𝑦 = 𝑝𝜹𝑦 + 𝝉𝑦 𝜋𝑦𝑥 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜋𝑦𝑦 = 𝑝 + 𝜏𝑦𝑦 𝜋𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑦𝑧
𝑧 𝝅𝑧 = 𝑝𝜹𝑧 + 𝝉𝑧 𝜋𝑧𝑥 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜋𝑧𝑦 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜋𝑧𝑧 = 𝑝 + 𝜏𝑧𝑧

Molecular stresses are defined as (that includes pressure and viscous stresses):

𝝅𝑖𝑗 = 𝑝𝜹𝑖𝑗 + 𝝉𝑖𝑗

 Generalization of Newton’s Law

Definition of Kronecker delta ij

1 if i  j
 ij  
0 if i  j

15
 Generalization of Newton’s Law
Interpretations of 𝝅𝑖𝑗 = 𝑝𝜹𝑖𝑗 + 𝝉𝑖𝑗
• Force in the jth direction on a unit area perpendicular to the i-
direction
• Useful for the description of forces by the fluid on solid surfaces
• Flux of j-momentum in the positive i-direction

• Stresses 𝝅𝑖𝑖 are called normal stresses, and

• Stresses 𝝅𝑖𝑗 (𝑖 ≠ 𝑗) are called shear stresses

• Quantities with two subscripts associated with coordinate

directions are referred to as tensors
𝝅 – molecular stress tensor
𝝉 – viscous stress tensor
 Generalization of Newton’s Law

How are these viscous stresses 𝝉𝑖𝑗 are related to the velocity gradients in the fluid?

• The viscous stresses may be linear combinations of all the velocity gradients

𝜕𝑣𝑘
𝝉𝑖𝑗 = − ෍ ෍ 𝜇𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 𝑖, 𝑗, 𝑘, 𝑙 = 1, 2, 3
𝑘 𝑙 𝜕𝑥𝑙

• No viscous forces to be present if the fluid is in a state of pure rotation

• Leads to that 𝝉𝑖𝑗 be a symmetric combination of the velocity gradients
𝜕𝑣𝑗 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑦 𝜕𝑣𝑧
+ 𝑖 and + + 𝛿 𝑖𝑗
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 Generalization of Newton’s Law

If the fluid is isotropic (i.e., it has no preferred direction), then

𝜕𝑣𝑗 𝜕𝑣𝑖 𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑦 𝜕𝑣𝑧

𝝉𝑖𝑗 = 𝐴 + +𝐵 + + 𝛿 𝑖𝑗 (1.2-5)
𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑗 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

• The scalar constant 𝐴 must be the same as the negative of the viscosity, 𝜇 to
satisfy Eq. 1.1-2
2
• 𝐵 is set equivalent to 𝜇 −
3
 Generalization of Newton’s Law
 v j  v
 ij   μ  
vi   ( 2 μ  κ ) vx  y  vz δij (1.2-6)
 xi x j  3  x   
   y z 
where
i, j = x, y, z
 = dilatational viscosity

Note:
1. For monoatomic gases at low pressures, assume  = 0
2. For liquids the second term becomes zero because they are
incompressible
3. For shear stress (i  j, i.e., yx, zx ) the second term becomes zero
For cases 2 and 3
 v j v 
 ij   μ  i 
 xi x j 
 

19
 Generalization of Newton’s Law
Example 1.1 :- Derive the formula for yy for Newtonian liquids from the
generalized Newton’s law of viscosity.
Solution
For liquids the second term of the generalized Newton’s law of
viscosity becomes zero. Therefore,
 v j vi 
 ij   μ   
 xi x j 
 

For i =y and j = y

 v y v y   v y 
τ yy   μ    2 μ
  y


 y y   

20
 Generalization of Newton’s Law
Example 1.2 :- Derive the formula for yx for Newtonian fluids from the
generalized Newton’s law of viscosity.
Solution
From the generalized Newton’s law of viscosity for i =y and j=x

 vx v y   vx v y vz 

τ yx   μ    ( 3 μ  κ )
2
  δ yx
 y x   x y z 

Second term vanishes since δ yx  0 ( i  j)

 v x v y 
τ yx   μ  

 y x 

21
 Generalization of Newton’s Law
Example 1.3 :- Derive Newton’s law of viscosity from the Generalized
Newton’s Law for two large parallel plates separated by Newtonian fluid,
when the bottom plates moves at constant velocity in x direction, i.e.,
vx.as shown below.

From the generalized equation for i=y and j=x

 v x v y 
τ yx   μ  

 y x 
Since vy = 0
dv x
τ yx   μ
dy

22
 Lesson outcomes
1. Explain the relationship of momentum flux, stress and
viscosity
2. Estimate the viscosity of fluids
3. Derive the equation for total molecular transport of
momentum
4. Derive the equations for convective transport of
momentum and combined momentum flux

23
 Definition of viscosity
 The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance
to gradual deformation by shear stress or tensile
stress. It is also defined as fluid’s resistance to flow.

Liquids with different viscosities.

24
 Viscosity
For Newtonian fluids
1
 dvx 
   yx  
 dy 

The viscosity of all gases and all liquids with molecular weight of less
than about 5000 can be described by the above equation and such
fluids are referred to as Newtonian fluids.

Polymeric liquids, suspensions, pastes, slurries, and other complex

fluids are not described by the above equation and are referred to as
non-Newtonian fluids.
Kinematic viscosity :- viscosity divided by density () is some times
used and is known as kinematic viscosity.



25
 Estimation of Viscosity
 When experimental data are lacking, the viscosity can
be estimated by empirical methods, making use of
other data on the given substance
 Corresponding-states correlation
• Illustrates the general trends of viscosity with
temperature and pressure
 The Principle of Corresponding States (PCS) says that all
gases behave alike at the same reduced conditions.

26
 Estimation of viscosity
 The reduced viscosity can be estimated from
the reduced temperature and pressure using

r  f (Tr , Pr )

where
 T P
r  , Tr  , Pr 
c Tc Pc
~
c  61.6(MTc )1/ 2 (Vc ) 2 / 3
c  7.70M 1/ 2 Pc2 / 3Tc1/ 6

[ c ]  micropoise, [ Pc ]  atm
~
[Tc ]  K , [Vc ]  cm3 / g  mole
27
 Example
 Estimate the viscosity of N2 at 50 oC and 854 atm, given
M=28.0 g/g-mole, Pc=33.5 atm, and Tc=126.2 K.
The critical viscosity can be estimated using
c  7.70(28.0)1/ 2 (33.5) 2 / 3 (126.2) 1/ 6
 189 micropoise  189 10-6 poise
Reduced temperature and pressure
273.2  50 854
Tr   2.56 Pr   25.5
126.2 33.5
From r -graph with Tr=2.56 and Pr=25.5 r =2.6

Therefore, the predicted value of the viscosity

  c r  (189 106 )(2.6)  490 106 poise
The measured value is 45510-6 poise
28
Estimation of viscosity of low density gases

 The viscosity of a pure monoatomic gas

(can be used also for polyatomic gas) at
low density (i.e. P<10 atm.) in terms of
Lennard-Jones Parameters:
MT
  2.669310 5
(1.4-14)
 y
2

where
  2.44(Tc / Pc )1/ 3
  0.841V~1c/ 3
 /   0.77Tc

 y  f ( /  ) Use Table E2

29
 Estimation of viscosity of low density gases
 Symbols
 = characteristic diameter of the molecule/
collision diameter
 = the maximum energy of attraction between a
pair of molecules
 = Boltzmann constant

y = Collision integral for viscosity

30
 Viscosity estimation for mixture of gases
 Use the following semi-empirical formula to estimate the
viscosity of mixture of gases
N x  N
 
 mix   where S    x     1...N
 1 S  1
2
1  M  
1/ 2
  1/ 2
  M 
1/ 4 
  1  1       
       
8  M     M  

N = number of chemical species in the mixture

x= is the mole fraction of species 
= is the viscosity of species  at the system temperature and pressure
M=is the molecular weight of species 
= Dimensionless quantity relating species  and 

31
 Viscosity estimation for mixture of gasses
 Algorithm for estimating viscosity of a mixture

1. Determine the values of 11, 12,…

2. Determine the values of Sk as follows:
S1  x111  x2 12  ...  x N 1N
S 2  x1 21  x2  22  ...  x N  2 N
.
.
.
S N  x1 N1  x2  N 2  ...  x N  NN

3. Determine the values of mix as follows

x11 x2 2 x 
 mix    ... N N
S1 S2 SN
32
 Example
 Example:- Estimate the viscosity of the following gas
mixture at 1 atm and 293 K from the given data on
the pure components at the same temperature and
pressure.

Species Mole fraction Molecular Viscosity

x Weight (g/cm.s)
-7
CO2 0.133 44.01 146210
-7
O2 0.039 32.00 203110
-7
N2 0.828 28.02 175410

33
 Example
Solution 1.000 0.730 0.727
x  [0.133 0.039 0.828]   1.394 1.000 1.006 
1.370 0.993 1.000 

S1  0.1331  0.039  0.73  0.828  0.727  0.7634

S 2  0.1331.394  0.039 1  0.828 1.006  1.0574
S3  0.1331.37  0.039  0.993  0.828 1  1.0489

0.1331462E  7 0.039  2031E  7 0.828 1754E  7

mix   
0.7634 1.0574 1.0489

mix  1714107 g/cm.s

34
 Lesson outcomes
1. Explain the relationship of momentum flux, stress and
viscosity
2. Estimate the viscosity of fluids
3. Derive the equation for total molecular transport of
momentum
4. Derive the equations for convective transport of
momentum and combined momentum flux

35
 Total Molecular Transport of Momentum
In addition to viscous force fluid are also exposed to
pressure force (p) that acts always perpendicular to the
exposed surface.
 ij  p ij   ij
Molecular
stresses viscous
Pressure stress
stress

Static pressure (p) :- acts always perpendicular (normal) to the

exposed surface
- acts both on static and moving fluid
Viscous stress () :- can act in all directions ( both normal and
tangential/shear)
- acts only when there is velocity gradient
36
 Total Molecular Transport of Momentum
1 if i  j
 ij  
0 if i  j
The fluxes of momentum due to molecular stress

Normal stress Shear stress

 xx  p   xx  xy   xy
 xz   xz
 yy  p   yy
 yz   zy
 yy  p  yy 


37
 Lesson outcomes
1. Explain the relationship of momentum flux, stress and
viscosity
2. Estimate the viscosity of fluids
3. Derive the equation for total molecular transport of
momentum
4. Derive the equations for convective transport of
momentum and combined momentum flux

38
Convective Transport
 In addition to molecular
transport, momentum can
also be transferred by the
bulk movement of the
fluid and this process is
called convective
transport
 A fluid element with
velocities vx, vy ,vz and
mass m carries with it the
momentums

39
Convective Transport

x  momentum  mvx
y  momentum  mvy
z  momentum  mvz
 Convective Transport
 The momentum by convection per unit volume is given by
mvx
x  momentum   vx
V
mvy
y  momentum   v y
V
mv
z  momentum  z  vz
V
 The momentum flux ( rate of momentum per unit area) by
convection across the area normal to x (Ax) is given by
Q
x  momentum flux across Ax  vx  vx vx  vx vx
Ax
Q
y  momentum flux across Ax  v y  vx v y  vx v y
Ax
Q
z  momentum flux across Ax  vz  vx vz  vx vz
Ax
41
 Convective Transport
 The momentum flux by convection across the area normal to
y (Ay) is given by
Q
x  momentum flux across Ay  vx  v y vx  v y vx
Ay
Q
y  momentum flux across Ay  v y  v y v y  v y v y
Ay
Q
z  momentum flux across Ay  vz  v y vz  v y vz
Ay

 Similarly, The momentum flux by convection across the area

normal to z (Az) is given by
x  momentum flux across Az  vz vx
y  momentum flux across Az  vz v y
z  momentum flux across Az  vz vz
42
 Convective Momentum Transport
Summary of the momentum transfer by
convection:

Area of Convective momentum flux components

momentum x-momentum y-momentum z-momentum
transfer
Ax vx vx vx v y vx vz
Ay v y v x v y v y v y vz
Az vz vx vz v y vz vz

43
 Combined momentum flux
 The combined momentum flux, , which is the sum of the
molecular momentum flux and the convective momentum flux
is defined as:
ij   ij  vi v j  p ij   ij  vi v j

 The second index gives the component of momentum being

transported
 The first index gives the direction of transport
 The subscripts can be dropped and vector notation can be
used as:
 = p +  + vv

44
 Combined momentum flux
 Example:- Derive simplified expression for the combined
x-momentum flux of a Newtonian liquid:
(1) across an area perpendicular to x
(2) across an area perpendicular to y
Given that vy= vz = 0.

Solution
xx  p   xx  vx vx (1)

Applying Newton’s Law of viscosity

 vx vx  vx
 xx       2 
 x x  x
v
xx  p  2 x  vx vx
x
45
 Combined Momentum Flux

(2)  yx  p yx   yx  v y vx   yx  v y vx

Applying Newton’s Law of viscosity

 v y vx 
 yx   μ  
 x y 

Since it is given that vy=0

dvx
 yx  
dy
v y vx  0

dvx
 yx  
dy

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 Combined momentum flux
 Exercise:- Derive simplified expression for the combined
x-momentum flux of a gas:
(1) across an area perpendicular to x
(2) across an area perpendicular to y
given that vy= vz = 0.

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 Lesson outcomes
1. Explain the relationship of momentum flux, stress and
viscosity
2. Estimate the viscosity of fluids
3. Derive the equation for total molecular transport of
momentum
4. Derive the equations for convective transport of
momentum and combined momentum flux

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