Maney Publishing

An Evaluation of the Preparation of Canvas Paintings Using Stress Measurements

Author(s): Gustav A. Berger and William H. Russell
Source: Studies in Conservation, Vol. 33, No. 4 (Nov., 1988), pp. 187-204
Published by: Maney Publishing on behalf of the International Institute for Conservation of
Historic and Artistic Works
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AN EVALUATION OF THE PREPARATION OF CANVAS
PAINTINGS USING STRESS MEASUREMENTS
GustavA. Bergerand WilliamH. Russell

Abstract-Thousands ofstressmeasurements oncan- platesseemto supportpaintfilmsstillbetter

vaspaintings havebeencollected overthepastthree thancanvasbutaremuchmoredifficult to han-
yearsusingan automated logging program. They dle and repair.Some paintings on metalhave
confirmed theobservation thatpaint needs a stiff
sub- survived in superbconditionforcenturies, as
strate inordertobe preserved undamaged. Consid- as were Metal
erable fluctuationsinthetension ofstretched fabricslong they carefully kept. plates
andcontractions in
inresponse tochanges intemperature andRH were haveonlysmallexpansions
recorded. Suchfluctuations leadto repeated over- response to temperature variations, and none
stretching of thecanvasduring stresspeaks.With due to changesin relative humidity. Theyoffer
eachoverstretching, thecanvas losessomeofitsinitial strong resistance to movements ofthe paint,and
tension. With the
time, canvas becomes so slack as to theirresistance is uniform in all directionsandin
beincapable ofprovidinga firm support forthepaint everypartoftheplate.
film.No longer initsexpansions
restrained andcon- It is onlytensionthatturnsa pieceoffabric
tractions, thepaintfilm distorts,andpullsthecanvas intoa firm support, comparable toa metalplate,
to whichit is attached. Stressdiagrams ofcanvas 'stiffas a board' and capableof protecting a
samplesfollowing stretching, sizing,priming and film.Whenfresh, a paintfilmis as
showdistinctly different which fragilepaint
aging patterns support
theabovefindings. Accordingly, inorder tomaintainsoftas lightcreamand whenit ages it often
thecanvasas aneffective support forthepaintfilm, becomesmorebrittle thanglass.A firm support
preventive conservation mustpreserve itsstiffness. by thesubstrate is essential tothesurvival ofthe
Thiscanbe achieved the
by following means used paint in both cases. In a previous paper, the
eitherseparately orincombination: (1)reducing stress authors haveshownthatfailure ofanysubstrate
fluctuations controlled
bystrictly air-conditioning; (2) to resisttheexpansions andcontractions ofthe
providing the paintfilm with a stiffer
support, as by is a
paintlayer prime cause of the of
decay paint
lining; (3) eliminatingstresspeaksandmaintaining films[1). Theyexplained howdiscontinuities in
sufficienttension withsprings orother devices. thesupport create'deformation valves'which, in
turn,causeplasticdeformations to accumulate,
resultingincracking, bulging orblistering. In the
1 Introduction current valves'willbe
reportthe'deformation
further documented byshowing howthepartic-
Thegreater partofeaselpaintings aresupported ularcracksand deformations of canvaspaint-
bystretched fabrics.Stretching a fabric is a sim- are causedby thefailureof thefabricto
to a
pleway produce perfectly flatsurface which ings its tension,and the stiffness
is light,highlyelastic,resistant to impactand preserveto restrain thereby theexpansions
necessary
and butalso thecontractions primarily
environmental changes,easy to transport ofthepaintfilm.
display.Whena canvaspaintingages,or gets Figure1 provides clearproofthata firm sup-
damaged, itis generallyeasiertorepairthanone can prevent thecracking ofpaintfilms. A
on anyothersupport. port
latebaroquepainting (c. 1750), oiloncanvas,56
It is thestretched fabricwhichgivescanvas x 43cm,wasstretched
thesegood qualities.However,these tothestretcher. byhavingitsedgesglued
paintings Thepainting showsprimary and
advantages wouldbe oflittlevalue,ifthefabric cracks all over its loose surface, as
failedtoprovideas gooda support forthepaint secondary
wouldbe expected in a painting over200years
filmas do alternative substrates, suchas paper, old.
However,the4cm-wide edgeswhichwere
woodenpanels,or metalplates.In fact,metal
firmlygluedtothestretcher withcarpenters' glue
arecompletely crack-free. Thiseffect is themore
Received30 July1987 significant sincethecanvassubstrate, priming,
StudiesinConservation
33 (1988)187-204 187

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 GustavA. Bergerand WilliamH. Russell
..
......... the directionof the grain of the wood, the
Aw.; coefficientsof thermal expansion are about
three-five timessmallerthanthethermalexpan-
sions of metal,and are trulynegligible(wood:
5 x 10-6/0C, copper: 17 x 10-6/?C,tin:23 x

--CAM.
10-6/C). Therefore anyyarnor fabricstretched

or
Q
Mal ............ on a wooden stretcherremainsdimensionally
Alc~:~ stableas longas itmaintainsitstension.Regard-
less of how highits tensionrises,or how low it
falls, the size of the yarn,or fabric,remains
determined bythedistancebetweenthestretcher
bars,as long as its tensionhas a positivevalue.
One mustremember thattheresistanceof a fab-
ricto displacement is proportionalto thetension

.IRA
AW i--*
in its yarns.

vs
of
14110
t;IA
However,anybodywhoeverworkedwithnat-
de i 3F. j~i ural fibersknowsthatit is impossibleto main-
tain tensionin a stretchedfabricforany length
oftime.A newcanvasstretched tightlyas a drum
usuallybecomesslackafteronlya fewdays.Two
questions,therefore, arise:

!-
'14
1 What tensionis requiredto make a fabric
suitableto serveas an effective,firmsup-
portfora fragilepaintfilm?(Althoughthe
answerwill have to be modifiedforeach

?e
......i r:;c particularpaint film,it was feltthatrea-
sonable generallimitscould probablybe
established.)
Figure1 Detailofalatebaroque painting (c. 1750,56 2 How can theoptimal,or sufficient, tension
x 43cm),oiloncanvasprimed witha redboluswhich best be maintained?
wasgluedto itslimewood stretcher
rather thanbeing
nailedtoit.Thepainting showsprimary andsecondary
cracksall overitsloosesurface.However, a 4cm-wide2 Measurements of thephysicalproperties of
stripall around,
which wasfirmlygluedtothestretcherfabrics
withcarpenters'
glue, is completely Prim-
crack-free.
ing,paintandtechniqueareidentical
onbothmounted Previousmeasurements had shownthatthetwo
andloosepartsofthepainting.Thisprovesthata firm axes of
any woven fabric,the warp (machine
supportprevents
cracking ofthepaintfilm. directionor MD) and weft(cross-machine direc-
tion or CD), influenceeach otherstrongly. The
Berger/Russell stresstester,describedelsewhere
paint and techniqueare identicalon both the [2],was builtto take simultaneousbiaxial mea-
mountedand theloose partsof thepainting.It surementsof the sample. To enable the stress
could, therefore,be only the mountingwhich testerto takestress/strain measurements as well,
preservedthepaintfilmin suchgood condition. two specially built micrometerscrews were
Similareffectscan be seen on canvas murals. attachedto the 'stretcher bars' fromwhichthe
There, the paint is usually cracked where the samplewas suspended(Figure 2). One quarter
canvas has detached fromthe wall, while the turnof themicrometer screwsincreasedthedis-
partswhichremainattachedto thewall are gen- tancebetweenthestretcher barsby0-1%. Again,
erallyfreeof cracks. the stresstesterproved extremely sensitive.At
The tensionof a fabricis providedby stretch- the averagetensionof between
100-200N/m,a
ing it on a stretcher.A wooden stretcherhas changein strainof produceda changein
0.1%
considerabledimensionalstability.Indeed, in stressof between10-100N/m, witha marginof
188 Studiesin Conservation
33 (1988) 187-204

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An evaluationof thepreparationof canvaspaintingsusingstressmeasurements

errorof + IN/m.Thismeansthatthereadings 2.1 Plasticdeformation (creep)

weresensitive toa resolution ofatleast0-02%of
thetotallengthofthetestedsample. A pieceoffabricposesa lotofproblems when
The changesin stressvaluesin responseto one triesto measure it exactly. Its size changes
in the distance between the stretcher depending on thewaythefabric is pulled,andit
changes is to determine itsdimensions accu-
barsaddedto theseteststhefollowing parame- impossiblewithout the tension at which itwas
ters: rately giving
- The stressof thefabricas a function of heldduringmeasuring. In addition,one must
strain(theactualdistancethefabricwas remember thatthetension itselfkeepschanging
in responseto environmental conditions, and
stretched).
- The loss of tensionby 'creep'(afterthe becauseof theongoingplasticdeformation or
fabric hadbeenstretched), as a function of creepofthematerial itself.
tensionand time. For ourtests,thecanvasusedto simulate the
- The resistance of thetestedmaterials to support of classical easel paintings was pre-
displacement (modulusof elasticity, 'E', stretched to200N/m (about20kg/m or llb/inch).
stiffness). It is feltthat any measurements, whether linear
- Thelinearequivalent ofthestress changes or stress,prior to stretching, wettingand
causedbytheshrinkage andexpansion of restretching, must be completely inaccurate and
thematerials inresponse toenvironmental cannot serve in the evaluation of the behavior of
changes. stretched canvas.
Measurements ofsomeoftheaboveparame- Followingstretching, the firstwetting, and
terswereinitiated in Italy,and theresults to
pub- restretching 200N/m, the canvas size
lishedbyUrbani[3,4]. increased between 0-4% and 3-0% according to
the strength of thecanvastested(the second
value,of 3-0%,was recordedwhilestretching
H onlyintheMD direction which, inturn,caused
D the tensionin the CD directionto rise to
200N/m: Poissoneffect). Afterthesecondwet-
ting,thesamesampleshad to be restretched to
a totalof0-8-5-0%and,following shorttesting,
restretched a thirdtimeto 1-0-6-0%(topvalue
recorded whenstretched in theMD only).No
usefulstressmeasurements could be taken
FFE 13 beforetheabovepretreatments. Although wet-
Cl E
H and
ting stretching greatly increased itsstiffness,
therawcanvasremained extremely deformable.
.~
Repeated testingshowed that a tension
TTT~TUU
J (stress)of60-130N/m is themaximum thatan
averagerawcanvascanmaintain (depending on
itsstrength). At60-130N/m thecanvasis rather
lightly stretched (6-13kg/m or 0-3-0-6pounds
per inch).If stretched to a tensionabove this
limit,thecanvascreepsand thetensionrapidly
reverts to a valuewhichthecanvascan sustain.
Figure2 Testingarrangement of theBerger/Russell Thus,whenkeying outthestretcher, or stretch-
stresstesterfor stretchedcanvas.A: sample.B: con- ingthecanvaswithmicrometer screws, as inour
nection made of unravelledfiberglassfabric. C; tests, a higher valueoftension couldbe tempo-
stretcher bars. D: supportingframemade of steel.E: butwithin a fewhours,ordays,
load cell.F: adjustabletensioning
bar. G: tension(bolts
rarily achieved,
and nuts). H: micrometer screwassembly.K: alterna-
the tension always reverted to the particular
tiveattachment maximum sustainable tension (henceforth called
byfoursprings(insteadofmicrometer
screwassembly),to testtheeffectof thespringloaded MST). In otherwords,thevalueofMST repre-
stretcher. sentsa yieldpointofthematerial. Atshort-term
33 (1988) 187-204
Studiesin Conservation 189

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 GustavA. Bergerand WilliamH. Russell

loadings,thecanvasmightreactas an elastic and60% RH, thesamplestillmaintained a ten-

materialandrecoveralmostcompletely,
toreach sionof170N/m for48 hours.Understrictly con-
its previoustension.However,everytimethe trolledconditions of23'C + 2' and 60% RH,
MST is exceeded,a smallirreversibledefor- thecanvaskeptthistension for360hours(Fig-
mationtakesplace. ure 3). For some reason, not yet fully
investigated,thetensionthenstartedto riseto
220
- about195-200N/m.
turefinally
It mightbe thatthemois-
penetrated thegluesizingand, by
210- osmosis,started to act on theunderlying fibers
200 - ofthecanvas,causingittoshrink. After another
20hours,atthe380thhour,a tension of184N/m
-\ 190-
inMD and 197N/m inCD wasrecorded, andthe
0 ISO-
zo o80 RH raisedto 98-100%foronehour.Following
w 170
an initialdrop, the tensionrose to about
230N/m. Thisshortexposureto highhumidity
160 MaximumSustainable Tension (MST)
andhigher stresswassufficient tolowertheten-
lso sionbyabout30%. Evenafter72 hoursat 60%
RH and23'C + 2', thetension remained at only
140
-10 10 30
f
50112N/m in MD and 122N/m in CD. The very
TIME:
MoD
HOURS
- CD rapidcreepat highhumidity hasbeenshownin
severalothertests.The loss of tensionat high
Figure3 Creeptest.A heavyliningcanvas(10 double RH mightbe due to rearrangement of theH-
threads/cm in thewarp,11-2doublethreads/cm in the bondsandcrosslinks between thefibers, as also
weftdirection, weight350g/m).It reacheda tensionof notedby Breseewho investigated thegeneral
about 150NImin thewarp (MD) and 175N/min the
of agingon textiles[5]. However,this
effects
weft(CD) direction. Afterrestretching to200N/m,the
rather is usuallyencoun-
tensionreturned to about175N/mwithin 48 hours.The explosiveadjustment
sample maintainedthis tension,withoutnoticeable
teredonly aftera canvas has beenkeptin uni-
losses,for over360 hours(15 days) at 230C + 20 and formor slowlychanging conditions fora long
60% RH. At the end of this test,a generalrise in time.Fluctuations of RH between10% and
humidity, typicalofsummerinNew York,causeda rise 100%andtemperature variations between 5 and
in tensionto 188-199N/m. 35'C arenotunusualforsurroundings without
air-conditioning.Eachcyclecausesconsiderable
over-extension and subsequent loss of tension.
Thus,a strong liningcanvas(warp:10double In addition, ourtestshaveshownthatevenat
threads/cm, weft: 11-2 double threads/cm,small changesof temperature and RH, as
weight: 350gpersquaremeter)whichhad been encounteredin air-conditioned and heated
stretched and wettedtwice,thenrestretched to housesin thetemperate zone,theMST is being
150N/m at'normal'environmental conditions of regularlyexceeded witha subsequent lossoften-
21VCand 60% RH, lost 20% of its tension sion.Indeed,it was notedthatthesmallbut
withintwo hours,down to approximatelyrapidchangescausedbycycling heaters andair-
120N/m. (Thisparticular canvas maintained a conditioners lead to disproportionately large
verysimilartensionin boththewarpand weft changes instressand,therefore, frequently cause
directions, as can be seenin Figure3. For this a rapidlossoftension [2].Lateritwillbe shown
reason,onlyapproximate valuesaregivenwhich thattheexpansions ofthepaintlayerareoften
aregoodforbothdirections.) After twelve hours in theoppositedirection to thecontractions of
of testing, thetensiondroppedto 110N/m. At thecanvas.Ifthecanvasdoesnothavesufficient
thisspecific valuethetensionof thisparticular tensionto resistthismovement, it is forcefully
canvasseemedto stabilizebeforesizing[4]. pressedapartwhenthepaintexpands, andloses
Following sizingandrestretching to 200N/m, itstensionin theprocess.Conversely, anycon-
thecanvasstillretaineda tensionof 195N/m traction ofa crackedpaintfilmpullsthecanvas
aftertwohours,dropping gradually to 180N/m between thecracksfurther apartandcausesitto
after12hours.After slight cycling between 30% expandstillmore.Another'tensiontrap' or
190 StudiesinConservation
33 (1988)187-204

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An evaluationof thepreparationof canvaspaintingsusingstressmeasurements
450
'deformation valve'is formed bythiscombina-
tionofcanvasand paintfilm.Indeed,in paint- 400
ingsonecan usuallyfindthatthecanvasin the
crackedarea bulges;it is muchlargerthanthe 350
surrounding canvaswhichis protected by the
stretcher and whichmightstillbe underlight 300
tension (Figure4). A 'tug-of-war'
takesplace:if z
thecanvashas good resistance to deformation 250-

(becauseof its tension)thepaintwillbe plas-

ticallydeformed and stayin place;if,however,w 200 maximum
Sustainaole Tension (MST)
thecanvashasno strength to opposethemove-
mentof thepaint,it willbe deformed in turn. 150

Whattension, then,doesthecanvasrequire tobe 100

capableofresisting themovements ofthepaint?
50

0- 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

STRAIN (x1000)
- CD (WEFT)
.
Figure5 Stress/straindiagramofa heavyliningcan-
vas (samesampleas inFigure3). Thisshowsclearly
thatthemaximum resistance is only
to deformation
reachedat a stressof about180N/m.Therefore, to
provideanoptimal fora paint
substrate thiscanvas
film,
shouldbe heldclosetoitsMST at 170N/m, shown by
thehorizontalline.

2.2 Resistanceof the canvas to deformation

modulus'E')
(stiffness,
To testthestiffnessofthesample,theresistance
of thecanvasto displacement was measured in
increments of 0-1%, using the micrometer
screws.The stiffness of thesampleswas mea-
suredbiaxially,atdifferentcombinations oftem-
peratureand RH within a rangeof0-50'C and
5-100%RH. Within changesinthe
theselimits,
environment had littleeffect on the E values
measured.However,therewas a considerable
i.. indirect
effect:theE valueschanged dramatically
with the change in stress. The typical
Figure4 Overstretching of the canvas in a cracked stress/strain diagramof canvas is shownin
painting(American,nineteenth oil on canvas, Figure5 [3,4].
century,
76 x 63-5cm).Expandingpaintcauses overstretching At valuesaround thecurveis almost
45N/m,
of thecanvas to whichit is attached,as shownby its horizontal. This meansany displacement will
bulges. During the expansionphase of the cracked encounter almost no resistance.As the tension
paint,thecanvasunderitispushedapart,and theedges
thestiffnessincreasesuntilitbecomespro-
ofthecuppingrise.Duringthecontraction phase ofthe rises,
paint, the canvas underthe cracks (withno paint to portional to the displacement (strain).Thispar-
restrainit) is pulled apart. In bothcases, the canvas ticularrelationship betweenstressand strain
increasesin size. indicateselasticbehavior:at a stressof about
Studiesin Conservation
33 (1988) 187-204 191

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 GustavA. Bergerand WilliamH. Russell

180N/mthestretched canvasbehaveslikean the conditionsunderwhichcanvaspaintings

elasticsolid(a metalplate).However, thislower havebeenwellpreserved forcenturies, because
'elasticlimit'ofthecanvasliesclosetoandoften theyadjustedto theirenvironment at theirown
aboveanother prominent value,namely thatof pace.Butwhenever theminimal environmental
themaximum sustainable tension(MST), the fluctuations, whichthesystem can support, are
tension limitofthefabric. It is,therefore, neces- exceededeitherup or down,a further loss in
saryto maintainthetensionin thecanvasas tension occurs(as,forinstance, whena painting
closeas possibleto theMST inorderto achieve is movedtoanother location).As thetension in
thebestpossibleresistance to deformation and the canvas decreasesits stiffness is greatly
cracking ofthepaintfilm. reduced,and theeffect of theexpansions and
From theseobservations we mayconclude contractions of thepaintfilmincreases.Con-
thatif thetensionfallsbelowitslowerelastic sequently, tobe preserved, thepainting requires
limit,thecanvasno longeroffers thestrongestmoreand moreadditionalprotection against
resistance todeformation itiscapableofprovid- environmental fluctuationsas its tension
ing.The elasticlimitof a material is therange decreases.
within whichthestress isdirectly proportional to Stresschangesoccurin thecanvasdueeither
thestrain. Theratioofstressto strainis a mea- to mechanicalstretching or to environmental
sureofthestiffness ofthematerial and defined changesinsamplesrestrained from deformation
as themodulusofelasticity 'E'. In Figure5,itis bya rigidstretcher. Whena canvasis stretched
represented bythestraight portionofthecurve bysomeamount, AL,thestressincrease is a =
above theMST. In thiscanvas,it is at about E x AL/L,whereE = themodulusofelasticity
170N/m, whichmostreaderswouldconsider and L = theoriginallength.If thecanvasis
rather wellstretched. Thereis alsoan upperend subjectedto environmental changescausing
to theelasticzone (notshownhere),whenthe expansion or contraction, an unrestrained sam-
canvasis overstretched and startsto flow. ple would not experienceany increaseor
Ifthetension risesabovetheMST,becauseof decrease instress.If,however, thecanvasisfixed
environmental conditions, thecanvasis over- (or restrained frommovement), theexpansion
stretched. It thencreeps, andthestress reverts to (or contraction), AL, due to environmental
theMST. Whena reversal ofenvironmental con- changeswouldcreatea stress increase ofa = E
ditionsfollows, thenthetensionfallsbelowthe x AL/L.Theseequationsshowthatthestress
MST andnolonger provides thecanvaswiththe changeisproportional tothestiffness, E, andthe
optimalstiffness (althoughwithsome paint strain, AL/L.Baseduponthis,twoobservations
films,stressessomewhatless than the MST can be made:
mightsuffice to holdthemin goodcondition). 1 For a givendimensional change,greater
Withthesetestresults inmind,itispossibleto stresses
willoccurinthestiffer material or
understand whathappensto a newlystretched the stifferdirectionof the material
canvaskeptunder'normalconditions'. Its ten- (typicallytheCD).
sion,whichisusuallylarger thantheMST,drops 2 Significant stressincreases duetoenviron-
rapidlyto theMST value.Duringthisprocess mentalchangescan only occur if the
andthereafter, thecanvasisexposedtothe'nor- canvasis restrained frommovement, such
mal'changesof theenvironment. If thecanvas as bya conventional stretcher.
has beenproperly sizedand treated, thestress If significant stressincreases(peaks)in the
fluctuations willbe reducedanditsresistance to canvascould be avoided,theaveragetension
creepincreased (see diagramofsizedcanvasin couldbe maintained at a higherlevel.Thiscan
section3, Figures11 and 12). However,it will easilybe achievedby suspending the canvas
stilllosetension whenever theMST is exceeded. fromsprings(see stressdiagramsin section3,
Eventually, thetensionmightdrop to a level Figures15 and 16).A stressriseof 120N/m (as
where,duringthe'average'fluctuations in the mightbe causedby 'catastrophic conditions')
temperate zone,it no longerexceedstheMST. oftendoublesthestressin a canvasheldat the
Further lossesin tension mightthenoccuronly MST of 120N/m. Sucha stresschangeis typi-
under 'catastrophic circumstances', such as callycausedbya shrinkage ofonly In
excessively highhumidity or dryness. Theseare a pieceofcanvasonemeterlong,this 0.2-0-3%.
amounts
192 Studiesin Conservation
33 (1988)187-204

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 ofthepreparation
Anevaluation ofcanvaspaintings
usingstressmeasurements
to no morethantwoor threemillimeters, a dis- larityof theshrinkage strainin boththewarp
tancewhichcan easilybe absorbedbysprings, and weftdirections is striking.
withthebeneficial resultthatthecanvasis not Themeasurements ofthemodulusofelasticity
overstretched or overstressed.Still more (E) alsoexplainanother phenomenon: sincethis
impressive is thecompensation fortheloss of canvasis sixtimesstiffer in theCD thanin the
tensionwhichcan be providedby thesprings. MD direction, themovements ofthepaintfilm
Let us assumethata canvaswhichis stretchedareresisted byforcessixtimeslargerin theCD
slightlybelowitsMST loses IN/mpermonth direction thanintheMD. Accordingly, thepaint
because of creep or slight unavoidable is sixtimesfreer tomoveinthesofter MD direc-
fluctuations in the environment. Then if its tionthaninthestiffer CD direction.Indeed,the
isaroundE = 30,000N/m
stiffness (measured on conditionof thepaintshowsthatin theMD
the seventeenth-century paintingin MD at direction thiscanvaswas incapableof firmly
MST), thislosswouldbe absorbedbythecon- supporting thepaintfilm, andcracksdeveloped
traction of thespringsupportsby 1:30,000= perpendicular to thetension in theweakerMD
0-003%. In a paintingone meterlong this direction (Figure8). Thisis additionalproofof
amountsto 0-03mm. Assuming a lossof IN/m our previousfindings, namely,thatthe main
permonth itwouldtake300months, or25years, causeforpaintdecayis thefailureof thesub-
toextendthecanvasbyonemillimeter, or0-1% strateadequately to restrain themovements of
ofitslength. Thisis a strongargument forthe thepaintfilm.
self-adjusting, stretcher
spring-loaded usedjudi-
ciouslyto stretch a canvasto itsMST (see sec-
tion3, Figures15 and 16) [6-8]. 3 Experimental

Thousandsof readings havebeencollectedon

2.3 Theeffects ofstiffness (modulus 'E') onthe thereactions of stretched canvasto controlled
stresschangesincanvas
In manyof the testedfabricsamples,large environmental fluctuations since the authors'
in thestiffness research on stresschanges began sixyearsago.
differences of thecanvaswere
The data givenin the following pages were
measured whencomparing theweft(MD) and
A good exampleis a selectedfrom more than one hundred testscon-
warp (CD) directions. ductedoverthepastthreeyears,whenthestress
seventeenth-century Spanishpainting described
testerwas automatedand the environmental
in anotherreport[9].Following removalofthe
chamber regulated bythefeedback ofthemea-
Italianpastalining, thissampleshowedtheCD
surements.Differenceswere systematically
stiffness(ECD) to be six timeslargerthanthe introduced inthecontrolled environmental con-
MD stiffness (EMD) or ECD/EMD = 120/20 ditions, and over 1000 data tem-
= 6) (Figure6). Thismeansthatin orderto samples (time,
inbothdirections, thecan- perature, relativehumidity, stressin thewarp
achieveequaltension direction in
sixtimesfurther in the and stress the weft direction)were
vas has to be stretched
intheCD usuallycollected every week. Clear patterns of
MD direction.* Similarly, a shrinkage
responses to the different conditions emerged,
direction (of thecanvasdescribed here)creates anda wealthof on theeffects
an increase intension sixtimeslargerthanwhen of significantfindings
inthe painting techniques and conservation treat-
thecanvasshrinks bythesamepercentage ments are evaluated. Because the
MD direction. Conversely, iftheMD and CD currently being
reactions in the warp and weft directions (MD
expandbythesamedistance, thelossoftension and
wouldbe sixtimeslarger. CD, respectively) haveto becompared with
in theCD direction in RH in
strainineachdirection changes temperature and a certain time
Therefore, theshrinkage the
is equal to thestressdividedbythemodulusof five frame, simultaneous relationships of these
parameters are shownin graphspresented
elasticityin thatdirection (Figure7). The simi- on thesamescale.
In all thefiguresshownbelow,thetop graph
*Thisis a strong
argument againsttheso-called'expansion gives the changes in temperatureand relative
boltstretcher',
popularin theUSA, sinceit stretchesthe humidity(RH) over time; the bottom graph
fabrican equaldistance
in bothdirections. shows the resultingchanges in stress(MD-
Studiesin Conservation
33 (1988) 187-204 193

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 GustavA. Bergerand WilliamH. Russell

warpand CD-weft). The measuring unitsfor stiffness

ofprestretchedandwetted fabricsis not
stressareNewtonspermeter. an isolatedoccurrence. Such changesin the
physicalpropertiesof the canvas and of the
3.1 Wettingand prestretching paintedlaminateare notconfined onlyto wet-
TestsbySottonetal. [10],andourownprevious tingand prestretching. Changesin thephysical
[1,2],haveshownwetting
investigations tobean characteristicsofpaintings fromseem-
resulting
important initialstepin thepreparation
offab- ingly'reversible'
treatments continuethrough-
rics.Wettinghas theeffect of'prestressing'
and out theirlifetime.
Justas 'tempered steel'is no
thefibers
'polarizing' and yarns,therebyelimi- longeriron,and 'prestressed concrete'is no
natingsmallkinksand wrinkles whichreduce longer so thephysical
concrete, characteristicsof
thestiffness
ofthefabric. Thenotableincrease
in canvasandpaintfilms aretransformed byevery
100 -

90 -

80 -

70 -
60

40 -

30

20

80
10

TIME: HOURS
T E M P.0 * X R. H.

300-

280-
260-

240 -

E 220 -

: 200 -

160

-- 14.0

120

100-

80 -

660 "
o 20 4.0 0o 80

T I M E: H 0 U R S
M (WARP)
C -+- C
(WEFT)

Figure6 Stressfluctuationsof a canvassampletakenfroma seventeenth-century Spanishpainting(a detailof

whichis shownin Figure8). The upperdiagramshowsthechangesin temperature and RH; thelowerone shows
theresultingstresschanges.The stressfluctuations are muchsmallerin theMD direction.However,previous
for themodulusofelasticity('E') showedtheresistanceto deformation
testing to be six timesstronger
in theCD
thanin theMD direction.Note theloss of tensionafterexposureto highRH, especiallyintheMD direction, and
comparethisstressrecordwithFigure7.

194 Studiesin Conservation

33 (1988) 187-204

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An evaluationof thepreparationof canvaspaintingsusingstressmeasurements
BOO

500 -

z0

J A
400

300-

-r 200-

Ci' 100

O 20 40 80 80
T IME: HOURS
MDx8 + CD

Figure7 Comparisonofcalculatedshrinkage in thewarp(MD) and weft(CD) directions. In teststo determine

thestiffness(modulusofelasticity,'E') ofthecanvas,it wasfoundthattheseventeenth-century Spanishpainting
shownin Figure8 was six timesstiffer in theCD thanin theMD direction.Therefore, shrinkageof thesame
dimensional magnitude wouldincreasethestresssix timesmorein theCD thanin theMD direction.To compare
theshrinkage straininbothdirections, thestressineach direction
is dividedbythevalueforstiffness('E') in that
direction.Thisgraphshowsthattheactual dimensional changes(shrinkageplus expansion)in theMD are still
largerthanin CD. Stillmorestriking is thesevereloss (over33%) inactual tension(160N/mdownto 1OON/m)
aftera singleexposureto highRH. Withmoreprolongedexposurethecanvassamplewouldhaveburstin two,
as did severalothersamples.

treatmentand every exposure to stress. The

canvas by wetting
increasein size of a stretched
is usually about 2-4% of its area, and the
increase in stiffness,though considerable,
proved of little value in these stress mea-
surements,because the load acted mostlyto
eliminatethekinksand thecreepremainedlarge.
In addition, measurementsattemptedbefore
wettinghave been so erraticas to be deemed
stress
completelyunreliable(see 2.1). Therefore,
patternsof raw, unwettedcanvas previously
- '. i. ii I -J'B published[1] are not repeatedhere.The conclu-
~~'-- ----~5~---~--~-~ii-~ sion is thatany fabricwhichis simplystretched
withoutprior wetting(at least twice) cannot
Figure8 Detail of the seventeenth-century Spanish serveas a usefulsupportforanypaintingwhich
paintingused in Figures6 and 7. All thecracksrunin is expectedto survivefor20-30 years.
thevertical(warp,CD) direction, andperpendicular to
theMD direction.Thismeansthatit is theMD direc-
3.2 Raw canvas
tion whichdeteriorates faster,althoughit seemingly
less violentstressfluctuations. The 'E' test,how-
Testson rawcanvas and otherunsizedcellulosic
suffers
ever,showedthe MD directionto be six timesmore fabricswereperformedrepeatedly.In all cellu-
flexiblethantheCD, and to lose tensionmuchfaster. losicfabricsitwas observedthattherelationship
Accordingly, it had less resistanceto themovements of betweenstressand RH is not a linearfunction.
thepaint whichare thecause of cracking. The stressis lowestat an RH between45% and
Studiesin Conservation
33 (1988) 187-204 195

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 GustavA. Bergerand WilliamH. Russell
300
toconservators
Ofspecialinterest isthestrong
280 increaseinstresswhenhumidity risesover80%.
-
260
240-
co
X
In Figure10,thestressat 80% RH isdoublethe
'normal'stressmeasuredat 60% RH. Much
220 highervalueswouldhave resultedfrompro-
longedexposureto highhumidity. Evenmore
-
200
is therapiddropin stresswhichsets
significant
Z 180 inas soonas thehumidity dropsbelow90% RH.
This can createa verydangerouscondition
0
0 160 0

0
i 120 1401

0 100
100

90

-/
8 0 0
80

080
70
60
0 0

20 I I I I I
0 20 40 60 80 100 40-

% RELATIVE HUMIDITY
O MD(WARP) -- C (WEFT)
20-

Figure9 Tensionas a functionof RH is shownon a

lightcanvassample(16-6 threads/cm, weight200g/m). 0 4 8 12 16 20 24

All cellulosicfabrics have a point of lowesttension TEMP.

TIMEiHOURS
+ XR.H,

(maximumrelaxation)whichis specificto eachfabric

at anygiventime.Different treatmentsandevenhyster-
esis havea stronginfluence on thelocationof thepoint
ofmaximum relaxation.Inprewashed linen,itis usually
around60% RH, as shownabove (withcotton,it is 360
closerto 18-20%). Fromthispointofloweststress,the 340
tensionrisesat botha decreaseor an increasein RH. 320

The changesare mostlygradualup to about 90-95% 300

RH. As thehumidity risesabove95%, thereisgenerally

a steeprisein tension(exceptfor burlap,andpossibly
260

240
otherfabricsnotyetinvestigated). Notethatsizinghas
a profound influenceon thiscurve(Figures10 and 11). 200

180

160-

140 -

120

about60% (Figure9). Betweentheselimitsof 0 4 8 12 16 20 24

RH, thestress curveofrawfabrics showsa shal- -

TIME: HOURS

lowvalley.Atbothendsofthisvalleythetension
STRESSMD f STRESS CD

risesmorerapidly, andaround75% RH thereis

a steeprisein stress.In canvasandcotton,this Figure10 Test on raw,untreatedlinen.In cellulosic
increase can reachover300% ofitsMST ifthe fabrics,a risein RH frequentlycauses a risein stress
exposureto highhumidity is prolonged.The (see Figure9) and a dropin RH causes thetensionto
In addition,as theRH risesto90%, thereis a very
direct between
relationship RH andstress shown drop.
considerableriseintension,followed bya lossintension
inFigure10is notreserved forlinen.Allfabrics as soon as theRH
drops(see also Figures6, 7 and 8).
madeofcellulosic fibers whichweretesteddis- Alsosignificant is thefact thatsmallbutrapidchanges
playedthesamebehavior, withcottonshowing in RH and temperature causefluctuationsin tensionof
thestrongest reactions, followedby linenand much higheramplitudethan do slow and gradual
hemp.Burlapshowedsimilar reactions,
though changesin environmental conditions(see also Figures
to a lesserdegree. 11 and 12).

196 33 (1988) 187-204

Studiesin Conservation

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Anevaluation
ofthepreparation
ofcanvaspaintings
usingstressmeasurements
withina paintingwhichis dryingfollowing ownbulkand needslittlehelpfromthecanvas
exposureto highRH, sinceareasof minimumin orderto stayin place. Sizinghas added
and maximum stressmaybe adjacentto each another important qualityto thestretched can-
other.It maylead to actualmovements within vas:itnowmaintains itstension muchbetter. No
thecanvas(see Figure10). lossoftension duetocreepis recorded inFigure
In rawcanvas,shortabruptchangesin RH 11 although thecycling hereis muchmorevio-
lead to disproportionately large changesin lentthanin theprevious, unsizedsample.Of
Whenchangesareslowandgradual,part specialinterest
stress. is theviolentreaction to cycling
of thestressis probablydissipatedby plastic between the19thand25thhourofthetest,where
deformation. Thedissipation oftension isclearly a cycling heaterincreased thetemperature and
visibleinFigure10:after13hoursoftesting, the simultaneously reducedtheRH. Theamplitude
canvashas alreadylost10% ofitstension, par- of thestressfluctuations duringfastcycling far
ticularlyin the CD direction.The shortexposure exceededthevaluesrecordedat theprevious,
tohighhumidity, lessthanhalfan hour,leadsto more gradualtemperature and RH changes,
anotherloss in tensionofmorethan10%. All shownin Figure11.
ourtestshaveshownunsizedandunprimed fab-
ricstobe incapableofmaintaining theirtension 3.3.1 Weaksizing
forany lengthof time.And withouttension, Figure11 (3.3) showshow the reactionsof a
canvascannotresistthestresses exerted uponit fabric tochangesinRH werereversed bya coat-
bygravity and bymovements oftheexpanding ingofa 6% glue-sizing. However, although the
and contracting paint. glue-sizingreversed thereactions of thecanvas
to environmental changes, theactualamplitude
3.3 Sizing ofthefluctuations increased. Indeed,ithasbeen
The thirdstepin thepreparation ofthecanvas notedthatanexcessively strong glue-sizingoften
forpainting is sizing.It consistsofa thinappli- results incracking, becauseit createslocalcon-
cationof a solutionor gel-coatof animalglue tractions in thecanvas.Theabovefluctuations,
whichpenetrates thefabricand coatsthefibers however, aredueto smallerstrains thanin raw
'individually' in such a way that the fabric canvas,sincethemodulusof elasticity (E) is
retainsits originalappearance.This stepwas increased uponsizing.Thismeansthat,because
probablyderivedfromthetechnique of panel oftheincreased resistance oftheyarnsandfibers
preparation, where a fabricwas often glued to of thefabric to displacement, theactualmove-
thepanelbeforepriming and painting.Even- mentcaused by the same stressdifferential
tuallythepanelwasdispensed withandonlythe wouldbemuchlessintheglue-sized samplethan
canvas remained,supportedby a wooden in the unsized one, although the stress
strainer. It seemsthatthebeneficial effectofthe fluctuations inthegraphshavethesameampli-
previously usedmethods ofgluingonthecanvas tude.
werenotedand maintained. Thelogicalsolution seemedtobetoreducethe
Ourmeasurements haveshownthatitwasthe amountof gluein thesizingformulauntilan
glue-sizing whichmade thecanvascapableof equilibrium wasreached, andthenatural expan-
supporting the priming and heavypaintfilm sionsand contractions of therawcanvaswere
favoredby manyEuropeanartists.Figure11 countered,but not exceeded,by the glue.
showsthatonesingleapplication ofa glue-sizingAnother samplewasprepared.using a 3% glue-
solutionofonly6% concentration brings about solution.Figure12 showsthatthisapproachis
a complete reversal oftheresponses ofthefabric a promising improvement, in spiteof thefact
to changesin RH. The stretched canvassample thatthechanges ofRH arebothmoresevereand
nowcontracts at a dropin RH and thetension moreprolonged in the3% samplethanin the
(stress)increases. Consequently thestiffness of 6% sample.Thecorresponding changein stress
the fabricincreasessimultaneously withthe is muchsmaller:
shrinkage of thepaintfilmunderdryand cool 3% glue-sizing 60% RH 30% RH
conditions. At a risein RH, thesizedcanvas Corresponding tension 180N/m 220N/m
relaxesand thetensiondecreases.At thesame 6% glue-sizing 60% RH 30% RH
timethepaintalsoswells,butis restrained byits Corresponding tension 180N/m260N/m
StudiesinConservation
33 (1988)187-204 197

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 GustavA. Bergerand WilliamH. Russell
100- have shown this protectionto be short-lived,
90o-
particularlyat thelow levelof 3% glue used in
80- this sample. This weak glue-coatingis soon
r
7o - saturated by the moisture and the canvas
so60 shrinks,just as it did withoutthe weak glue-
sizing.Yet our testshave shownrepeatedlythat
50o
40o
heavierglue and pasta coatingshave protected
30
100
20-
90-
10
80-

0o - -1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .... | 1| 1
70-

-
60
0 4 8 12 16 20 24

TIME: HOURS

50-
- + X R.H.
tanperotue-

40 -

400-
30
,oj
380- 20-

360-

340-
120-

300-
3OO 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
t 028O-
260 260
240
220- 240
-
200

180-

160- 280

140 -

-
100-
120 -
30 O
o
-

180
o 4 8 12 16 20 24
200

160
TIME: HOURS
- STRESSCD + STRESS MD

vi140
60-

240-

Figure11 Same sampleas in Figure10, aftersizing 100 T

220-

witha 6% glue solution.The stresspatternis now 80-

reversed:increasedRH causes the tension/stress to S120 2 6 60
4020

drop,decreasedRH causes the tension/stress to rise.

20
Notethattheresulting changesare largerthaninFigure
10. However,sincesizingalso increasesthemodulusof
00 4 8 12 16 20 24
elasticity'E' byabout50-100%, theriseinstressinthis TI M E:
MD
HOURS
+ CD
case mightnotbe indicative Atthe
ofa largershrinkage.
right-hand side of Figure11, the cumulativeeffectof
rapid environmental changes can be observed.The Figure12 Same canvasas usedfor thesamplein Fig-
amplitudeof the stressfluctuationsincreases dra- ure 10, aftersizingwitha 3% gluesolution.Note that
matically(more thandouble). thechangesin tensionare relatively smallerherethan
in bothFigure10 and Figure11. In addition,a short-
termrise in RH to 90% does not resultin a rapid
The interesting fact in Figures 11 and 12 is increase instress(as seenin Figure10), inspiteof the
fact that theexposurein Figure12 is muchmorepro-
thattheglue-sizinghas protectedthesample,at Thisprovesthatsizingreducesthereactionsof
least temporarily, longed.
fromtheviolentshrinkageat thecanvasto
fluctuations in RH. Sizingmakescanvas
high RH. The short-term risein RH in Figure12 behavein a way moresimilarto thatof paint. Also
does notresultin therapidincreasein stressseen noteworthy is the diminishedloss of stressafter24
in Figure 10, because thecanvas fibersare pro- hours.This means thatsized canvas can maintainits
tectedby the glue-sizingwhich preventsthem tensionmuchbetterandfora longerperiodoftimethan
fromabsorbingmoisture.Later tests,however, unsizedcanvas.

198 Studiesin Conservation

33 (1988) 187-204

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Anevaluation
ofthepreparation
ofcanvaspaintings
usingstressmeasurements
canvas paintingsfrom shrinkingat high identified. Someattempts tomodify sizingseem
for
humidity manyhours,depending on the to have been made by Winsorand Newton
thickness ofthecoatingand thestrength ofthe around1928[11].Thesecouldbe takenup again
glue.Onlyveryprolonged exposureto almost nowthatstressmeasurements arepossible.
100% RH producedshrinkage in heavilysized
fabrics.In old canvaseswhichweresimilarly3.4 Priming
treated,shrinkage at highhumidity ispracticallyPriming is thefourth stepin thepreparation of
non-existent (Figures6 and 7). canvasforpainting. Therefore, tocontinue these
As shownabove, excessiveglue-sizing can investigations, thecanvassamplewhichwaspre-
causestressincreases in a veryshorttime.This viouslytestedin itsrawstate,thenin itssized
experience has beenusedbyfakersto simulate state,waslaterprimed witha knife-coat ofwhite
thecracksofolderpaintings. lead in linseedoil, and subjectedto thesame
Weaksizing, orcomplete lackofsizing,seems controlled variationsintemperature and RH as
to havebeenpopularin thesecondhalfof the before.The responses oftheprimedcanvasare
nineteenth century, and it has preserved the shownin Figure13. Withfreshpriming, the
paintingsof thatperiodverywell. However, paintfilmis stilltoo softto affect theresponses
thesepaintings areextremely pronetoshrinkageofthecanvas,as canbe seenbycomparing Fig-
at highhumidity, and theseare the'shrinkers'ure13withFigure11.Theresponses continue to
fearedbyconservators duringliningwithaque- be governed bytheexpansions andcontractions
ousglues.Thefactthattheconditions ofhighest oftheglue-sizing. However, theeffect oftheoil-
shrinkage in thesecanvases(shrinkers) are so paint film(priming)can be detectedby the
closeto theirstateofmaximum relaxation can smaller fluctuations ofthestresscurve,particu-
cause enormousstressdifferentials withinthe larlyintheCD direction, wheretheyarecaused
painting (Figure10). As a result,some parts of by small in
changes temperature. Theresultofa
thecanvascontract whileothersexpand,or at largerchangein temperature is shownbetween
leastoffer no resistance to thecontracting can- the16thandthe18thhourofthetest,wherethe
vas. Thiscausesmovements withinthecanvas fluctuations oftension(stress)can no longerbe
thatthepaintfilm, whichalso expandsat high explained bychangesin humidity alone.
RH, cannotfollow,especially becauseit is no Generally, testsonfreshly primed canvashave
longerheldfirmly bythethinlayerofwetglue- not shownany significantly different results
sizing.As a result,thepaintlayerdelaminates comparedwiththetestson sizedcanvas.The
fromthecanvas. samplewas,therefore, laterprimedagainwith
Even if theglue-link does not fail,and the twomorecoatsofwhitelead,then'aged'forone
canvasis keptfirmly stretched throughout the yearon topofa radiator andexposedto strong
entireoperation (as, forinstance, bya working lightcomingfrom a windowfacing north. Itwas
strainerintheDutchmethod), thepaintis often restretched, again showinglittlechange.The
incapableof following thelocal compressionsreactions of thetriple-primed canvaswerestill
causedbytheshrinking canvas.Consequently,completely dominated bytheeffects oftheglue-
thepaintcracksand fallsoff. sizingwhichwesuspect tobe similar tothelayer
In addition, extended stresstestshaveshown ofpriming. Filmsofoil-paint, suchas priming,
thatlightly sizedcanvas(3% glue-solution) does are knownto reactlikesizing:theyswelland
notmaintain itstensionverywell.Whenusing soften withtherisein humidity, andshrink and
glue,theOld Masters'formula ofabout8% is harden under dry conditions.Accordingly,
probably stillthebest.Nowthattheadvantages priming wouldhavean effect on thereactions of
and disadvantages of choosingtherightsizing sizedcanvassimilarto thesizingitself.
areknown, itshouldbe wellwithin ourcapabil- Although thelackof'action'onthepartofthe
itieseither tomodify theexisting glue-formula or primingwas disappointing, the resultnever-
todevelopa newsizingmaterial. Suchnewsizing thelesscorroborates theexperience of conser-
materialshouldstabilizethecanvasto prevent vatorswithoil painting: during the first20-30
slippageand lossoftension. The actualformu- yearsof itslife,an oil-paint filmis too softto
lationof such a materialis no longervery causecracking and deformation, unlessserious
difficult, since the requirements have been technical errors arecommitted. Thesoftpaintof
33 (1988)187-204
StudiesinConservation 199

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 GustavA. Bergerand WilliamH. Russell
100 Indeed,thestrong
reactions
totinytemperature
90
differences
atthebeginning
ofthetest,whichare
80 neverfoundin unprimedcanvas,showa direc-
70 tionin whichfurther
analysiscouldbe devel-
050
oped.

o40
3.5 Oil-paint films
30
Whilepainting is aestheticallyand mentally a
verydifferent operationfrompriming,one
shouldremember thatphysically the two are
20-

40 quitesimilar, becausepriming is an application

ofpaint.Therefore, thereactions ofthepriming
TIME H0 URSS and thoseofa paintfilmcan be expected to be
almostidentical. The maindifference between
thetwois thatpriming is homogeneous incom-
positionand thickness ofthelayer,whilepaint
variesinconsistency. Thedifference inthickness
andconsistency ofthevariousbrushstrokes cre-
2-0-- atesdiscontinuities in theirexpansion and con-
220
traction, as wellas in theforcesgenerated by
them.Thesediscontinuities lead to distortions
o20O

160o and crackingof the paint,emphasizing the

140
of
importance priming. a
Bysupplyinghomoge-
neouslayerof priming, thesuperimposed dis-
120
10D00
80
tinctbrushstrokes becomepartofa continuous
60-
40 'plate'.It servesas ballastwhichimpedesthe
20 diverseexpansionsand contractions of brush
strokesof different thickness and consistency,
T
HOURS directlyinteractingwitheachotherandwiththe
canvassupport.
Figure13 The sized canvas sampleshownin Figure
11, afterbeingprimedwithone coat of whitelead. On 3.5.1 Olderfilmsofoilpaint
thewhole, thenewly primed canvasandthesizedcanvas As a paintfilmages,itbecomesmorerigidand
have almost identical responses to environmentalhas a stronger influence on thepattern of the
changes.The softoil-paintis still too weak to exert responses of thecanvaswhichcarriesit. This
muchinfluence on thestressin thecanvas.Its presence meansstressdifferentials developbetweenthe
can be noted,however, in themoreviolentresponsesto sizedcanvasand the filmon top of it,
minutechangesin temperature whichcause thepaint whichcan cause
paint
film to expand and push the canvas apart, witha delamination.
deformation, crackingand
resultingloss in tension.
Samplesfortesting films
oil-paint weredrawn
fromtwodiscardedpaintings, dated1974and
a fresh priming doesnothavesufficient stiffness1956,and one undated(c. 1910).In addition,
to causesignificant stresschanges. twoprimed canvaseswereusedwhichprotected
Therefore, neithera freshnor a relativelythereverse oftwoEnglish (c. 100years
paintings
youngpriming can be expectedto havea dra- old). Anothersample was drawn from a
maticvisibleeffect on thestresspatterns ofthe seventeenth-century copyof 'The Spinners' by
testedsamples.However,thetestshaveshown Velasquez.But,becausethe Spanishpainting
thatsmalleffects canbediscerned anditis likely waslinedwithan Italianpastalining, thissample
that,withincreased knowledge ofstress patterns wasconsidered ina classofitsownanditsreac-
and improvements in thetesting equipment, it tionsto changesin environmental conditions
willbe possibletointerpret eventhemoresubtle have been evaluatedseparately, in another
'clues' to the behaviorof canvas paintings.report[9].
200 StudiesinConservation
33 (1988)187-204

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An evaluationof thepreparationof canvaspaintingsusingstressmeasurements
100- As mentionedbefore,an aging paint film
90
becomesa stiff filmof polymericmaterialwhich
80
adjusts to the configuration in whichit is main-
7o-
- 60 o
tained. Small changes, particularly a suddenrise
in temperature, cause itto expand.Sincea risein
d
so
6
50-
o-f0O 4#
temperature also softensthefabric,it frequently
leads to a ratherabruptdropin tension(Figure
W 30 14) [12]. As a generalrule, the effectof tem-
peraturechangesis muchmorepronouncedon
so older paintfilmsthanit is on youngerones. In
'

Figure14,showinga 100-year-old primingat the

0 4 8 12 second hour of testingand again at the fifth
16 20 24 28

T IME:
TEMP.
HOURS
hour,thestressfallswiththerisein temperature,
R.H.

in spiteof a simultaneousdrop in RH, whichin

a sizedcanvaswouldhavecaused a risein stress.
At the 17thhour,thestressriseswitha drop in
190
temperature in the MD direction,in spiteof a
180- simultaneousrisein RH whichin sized canvas
would have led to a dropin tension.In contrast,
170

S 160
in theCD directionthereis a 'normal'reaction,
Z 150
i.e. the stressdrops as the RH rises.A similar
A 140o drop in temperature causes a similarrisein ten-
sion at the 25th hour,and in the 26th hour a
110
w 130

-- 120 subsequentrisein temperature leads to a rather

large drop in tension,although the humidity
100
., stays fairlyconstant.Indeed, the temperature
o 90
change of only 10oC at the 26thhour causes a
0
4 8 12 largerfluctuationin stressthan the changesin
16 20 24 28

-
TI M E
MD
RH from78% to 35% and back betweenthe
HO0URS
+- CD
secondand thefifth hoursof thistest.Whilethe
Figure14 Oil priming, about 100 yearsold. Thepat- CD curvestillshows some resemblanceto the
ternof responsesof thisprimedcanvasis significantly invertedRH line,the MD curvecloselyresem-
differentfromthepreviousones.In thepreviously shown bles theinverted linebecause of its
temperature
samplesthestressfluctuationsweremainlydependent lowerstiffness and lesserresistanceto displace-
on changesin humidity; in thiscanvas,however,they
mentby the paint film.The growingeffectof
are clearly influencedby changes in temperature.
Especiallyin theweaker MD direction,there is almost temperature changeswithadvancingage of the
an invertedrelationbetweentemperature and stress: paintfilmis documentedbymanycrackedpaint-
whenthe temperature falls, the stressrises and vice ings.
versa.Of specialinterest are thehours26 to 29, where As a paint filmcracksand breaksinto small
thetensionin theMD directionrisesin responseto a 'islands',its influenceon thecanvas whichsup-
rathersmall drop in temperature. As the temperature portsitdiminishes, and thestressbehaviorofthe
rises again, shortlyafterthe 28th hour, the tension laminateis again dominatedby thecontinuous,
dropsabruptly.It risesagain afterthe28thhour,with sized,canvas.This is especiallyevidentwhenthe
a dropin temperature, althoughtherelativehumidity canvas is
thehours26 to 29 and glue-lined,and its effectsdoubled by
staysfairlyconstantthroughout
thereis no evidencethatit influences thestressin any thedouble layerofcanvas [2,9]. This reversalof
the stresspatternof the paint filmto the stress
appreciableway.Since canvasalone showslittlereac-
tion to changesin temperature, theseunusualstress patternof the sized canvas was even morepro-
reactionscouldonlybe attributed to theinfluence ofthe nouncedin testswherestiffer paint(epoxy)was
paintlayer on the reactions
stress of the laminate. Also used to examinetheeffects ofpaintlayerson the
striking is thedropin tensionin bothdirections at the stress pattern. This paint was later cracked
eleventhhour,whichis caused by a verysmall rise in in a studyoftheeffects ofcracking.
intentionally
temperature.
33 (1988) 187-204
Studiesin Conservation 201

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 GustavA. Bergerand WilliamH. Russell
loo
cardedoil painting,dated 1974.Priorto thistest,
thesamplewas exposedto a widerangeof envi-
90

ronmentalchanges, and the resultingstress

0
70 fluctuationsrecorded(Figure 15). The sample
was then suspended from the springs and
(0
stretchedbytightening thetensionnuts(G) until
o
the load cells read 200N/m- a tensionwhich
may be consideredquite high. The stretched
S
,
S 30

20 sample was exposed to more severe environ-

mentalchangesthanbefore.The resultscan be
120
0 0 20M 40 60
seen in Figure 16: the stressfluctuationsare
almost completelyeliminated,in spite of some
STEMP
TIME: HOURS,
+ 91 R.H. slightlyimperfectoperation of the springsin
MD at about the40thhour of the test.

36O
34O-
100
32O-

30O- 80-

280
I 70-
260

240 0-
220
50-

Li
o 40 -

160

140 - -30
20-

10-
120 -

0
100 -

80-
_o _

0 o 2o.0 641ao
20 40 60
TIME: HOURS
TIME: HOURS, TEMP. -+ X R.H.
STRESS MD +-STRESS CD

Figure15 Testona recent oilpainting

mounted ona
rigidstretcher.A sampledrawn froma discardedoil
painting(1974) wasexposedtoa widerangeofenviron- 360-

mental changes while'mountedona rigidstretcher'

to 340

registeritsresponses,
before
mounting on a simulated
320

so -
300

spring-loadedstretcher. 280

E
260

240

The phenomenonwas apparent even during

othertests:wheneverrepeatedcyclingcaused the z
160
primingor paintfilmto crack,thestresspattern 140

revertedto thebehaviorof sized,unprimed,and 120

100

unpaintedcanvas. 80

60

3.6 The self-adjusting

0
spring-loadedstretcher
20 40 60 80

TIME: HOURS
STRESS MD +- STRESS CD
[6-8]
The effect of suspendinga canvas froma spring-
16 Same sampleas in Figure15, aftermount-
loaded stretcherwas simulatedon the stress- Figure on a spring-loadedstretcher.The sample was
ing
testerfor stretchedcanvas as follows (letters
exposed to both more severe and more prolonged
referto Figure 2). Four springs(K) were fas- environmental changesthan before.Not only was a
tenedto thestretcher bars (C), oppositetheload uniformtensionmaintainedthroughout the test,but
cells (E). The sample was drawn froma dis- losses of tensionwerecompletely eliminated.

202 Studiesin Conservation

33 (1988) 187-204

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An evaluationof thepreparationof canvaspaintingsusingstressmeasurements

4 Summary 3 Providing thecanvaswitha constant and

sustainabletensionby using springs.
A paintfilmon stretched canvascan be subject Whenthecanvasshrinks, springs prevent
to thesame defectswhichoccuron all other overstressing byelongation: whenthecan-
supports: shrinkage, cracking, alligatoring,
cup- vas expands,springs absorbtheslackand
ping,and delaminations. Thereare, however, helpmaintain sufficienttensionto assure
defects
specific whichcanbe directly ascribedto thestiffness ofthefabric.
thefailure ofthecanvastosupport thepaintfilm
firmly. Acknowledgements
In orderto be preserved, a brittlepaintfilm
exposed to fluctuations of the environmentTheauthors wishtothanktheSamuelH. KressFoun-
needsa stiff, dimensionally stablesupportto dationanditsPresident, Dr Marilyn fortheir
Perry,
restrainitsmovements. A tightly stretchedcan- financial andmoralsupport ofthisresearch project
vasfulfils
thesedemands. However, whenitsten- since itsinception. Grateful acknowledgement goesto
sion drops below its lowerelasticlimit,the theGeorgia Institute ofTechnology College ofArchi-
ofthecanvasfallsquickly.Thecanvas tecture
stiffness foritscontinuous help.TotheBrown Founda-
tion,Inc.andtoalltheother dedicated friendsand
becomesincapableof resisting theexpansions, isexpressed.
contractions andweight ofthepaintedlaminate. contributors, gratitude
Stretched canvas loses its tensionrapidlyto References
reacha specificmaximum sustainabletension
(MST). Ifkeptina controlled environment, the 1 BERGER, G. A., and RUSSELL, W. H.,
MST of thecanvascouldbe maintained fora 'Investigations intothereactions of plastic
longtime.Thepaintfilmwouldalso remain sta- materials toenvironmental changes. PartI. The
ble undersuchconditions. However,whenthe mechanics of decayof paintfilms', Studiesin
in Conservation 31 (1986)49-64.
environmental conditionschange,thetension W.H.,andBERGER, G. A.,'Thebehav-
thecanvasrisesand fallsin response.During 2 RUSSELL,
of the canvas becomes over- iorofcanvasas a structural support forpaint-
periods rising stress, ing'in ScienceandTechnology intheServiceof
stretchedandlosesitstension. Eventually itgoes
Conservation, IIC, London(1982)139-145.
slackand is no longercapableof resisting the 3 TASSINARI, E., 'Metodidicaratterizzazione delle
expansions and contractions of thepaintfilm. teleda rifodero' in Problemi di Conservazione,
The unrestrained movements of thepaintfilm ed.G. URBANI,Editrice Compositori, Bologna
pressthecanvasfurther apartand cause it to (1973)141-165.
buckleand distort. 4 CONTI,W.,andTASSINARI, E., 'Misuredi "creep"
Anyoneofthefollowing three methods canbe su tele da rifodero'in Problemidi Conser-
used to providethe canvas with sufficient vazione,ed. G. URBANI,EditriceCompositori,
stiffness
toresist themovements ofthepaintfilm 5 Bologna (1973)167-181.
BRESEE, R. R., 'Generaleffects ofageingon tex-
and prevent it fromcracking and distorting. Journal theAmerican Institute
1 Strictly controlled which tiles', of forCon-
air-conditioning servation 25 (1986)39-48.
would: 6 BERGER, G. A.,'Winning canvaspaintings' battle
(a) reduce the expansionsand con- of the bulge', Technology & Conservation,
tractions of the canvasthatlead to Spring(1983)5-9.
and
overstretching subsequent loss of 7 BERGER, G. A., 'A structural solutionforthe
tension; preservation of canvaspaintings', Studiesin
(b) reduce the expansionsand con- Conservation 29 (1984)139-142.
tractions of the paintfilmthatput 8 BERGER, G. A., 'Hinweisezum Blendrahmen',
stresson thecanvasandleadtocracks 9 Maltechnik/Restauro no. 4 (1986)47-54.
BERGER, G. A., and RUSSELL, W. H., 'Some con-
and distortions. servation treatments in thelightof thelatest
2 Stiffening and stabilizing thecanvas,by stressmeasurements' in ICOM Committee for
lining,or mountingon a rigidand inert 8th Triennial
Conservation, Meeting,Sydney
surface,wherebythe subsequentenviron- (1987) 127-136.
mental stresses in the canvas are 10 SOTTON,M., CHEVALIER, M., and GUILLY,R.,
'absorbed' by therigidsubstrate. 'Influence
despositions destoilesde
respectives
33 (1988) 187-204
Studiesin Conservation 203

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 GustavA. Bergerand WilliamH. Russell

doublageet toilesupportde peinture surles despicstensionnels. A chaquesurtension, la toileperd

propriet6s de rentoilageia la colle' in ICOM un peu de sa tension et
initiale, avec le temps, la toile
Committeefor Conservation,7th Triennial devientsi liche qu'ellene fournit plus un support
Meeting, Copenhagen (1984)84.2.45-84.2.48. assezferme iala peinture. N'etantplussoutenu lorsde
11 HARLEY, R. D., 'Artists'
prepared canvasesfrom sesdilatations et contractions, le filmde peinture se
Winsor & Newton, 1928-51', Studies inConser- deformeet provoqueune tensionde la toile sur
vation32 (1987) 77-85. laquelleil estpose.Les diagrammes d'effort effectues
12 BERGER,G. A., and RUSSELL,W. H., 'The new sur des 6chantillons de toile apres 6tirement,
stresstestson canvaspaintings and someof encollage, impression et vieillissement montrent des
theirimplications on thepreservation ofpaint- courbesdiffbrentes qui confirment ce qui precede. En
ings'in ICOM Committee for Conservation, 7th consequence, si l'onveutquela toileresteunsupport
Triennial Meeting, Copenhagen (1984) efficace de la couchede peinture, on doitparmesure
84.2.5-84.2.9. de prevention preserver sa rigidite. Ceci peut&tre
obtenupar les moyenssuivants, employes ensemble
GUSTAVA. BERGER,born1920.Studied artinVienna, ou separement: (1) reduire lesvariations del'effort en
civilengineering at theHaifaTechnical Institute,and contrrlant strictement l'atmosphere; (2) pourvoir la
artrestoration inBologna.InNewYorkhewasassis- peinture d'unsupport plusrigide, parexemple parun
tanttoMarioModestini andWilliam Suhr.In 1965he rentoilage; (3) supprimer lespicsd'effort etmaintenir
beganresearch on adhesivesfortheconsolidation of a la toileunetension suffisante--a l'aidederessorts ou
paintings,supported bygrantsfromtheSamuelH. de toutautremoyen.
KressFoundation. Afterdeveloping a newadhesive,
Beva371,hewent
ontoinvestigate other
anddevelop
materials foruseinconservation on a grantfromthe Zusammenfassung-Mit Hilfeautomatisierter Daten-
NationalEndowment fortheArts.Since1980,his sammlungwurdenin den letztenJahrenviele
research has focussedon thereactions of stretchedTausendeSpannungsschwankungen inModellenvon
canvas to changesin ambienttemperature and Leinwandbildern gemessen.Diese bestaitigten die
humidity. Heads the Art Conservation Research Beobachtung, daB eine Farbschichte eine steife
Foundation Ltd, a public, not-for-profit Unterlagefiirihreunbeschidigte Erhaltung ben6tigt.
organization. Author's address: Art Conservation Die Messungenverzeichneten bedeutendeSpan-
ResearchFoundationLtd, 115 West73rdStreet,New nungschwankungen in Leinwandbildern unterdem
York,NY 10023-2940,USA. Einfluss
vonUmweltsverainderungen in Temperatur
und RF. Diese Spannungsschwankungen fiihrenzu
wiederholten Oberspannung der Leinwanddurch
WILLIAMH. RUSSELL,born 1945. MS, Architectural Belastungsgipfel. MitjederOberspannung verliert
die
Engineering, University of Illinois
(1973). Taught at Leinwand ihre Ausgangsspannung ein wenig. Im
theUniversity ofIllinois;AssistantProfessor, Geor- LaufederZeitwirddieLeinwandschlaff undverliert
giaInstitute ofTechnology College ofArchitecture, auf diese Weise die Fihigkeitdie Farbschicht
since1979.Member ofnumerous professional soci- festzuhalten.
Die Leinwand leistet
dannkeinen Wider-
eties,includingAmericanInstituteof Architects,standgegendie Ausdehnung oderdas Zusammen-
American Instituteof SteelConstruction, American ziehnderFarbschicht, welchesichverformt unddie
Concrete Instituteandothers. Consultant toarchitec- Leinwand auf der sie haftetmit sich zieht.
turalandengineering firms.Since1982co-researcherBelastungsdiagramme von Leinwandmustern nach
withG. A. BergerforArtConservation Research Spannen,Leimung, Grundierung undAlternzeigen
Foundation Ltd. Author'saddress: 765 Yorkshire deutlichverschiedene Resultate,die diese Be-
Road NE, Atlanta,GA 30306, USA. obachtungen unterstiitzen.Die Erhaltung derLein-
wandbildererfordertdaherdieBewahrung derSteife
derLeinwand welchediesealleinineinezufriedenstel-
lendeUnterlage fiirFarbschichten verwandelt. Dies
Risum&--Pendant les troisdernieres annees,on a kann mitden folgenden Mittelnerreicht werden,
des millions
recueilli de mesures d'effortde toiles i welcheentwederallein,oder in Verbindung mit-
l'aide d'un programmed'enregistrement auto- einanderverwendet werden k6nnen: (1) Verringerung
matique.Les resultats ontconfirm6 que la peinture a der Spannungsschwankungen durchguteUmwelts-
besoind'unsupport rigidepourse conserver intacte. kontrolle;
(2) Versteifung der LeinwandUnterlage
On a constat6 des differences considerables dans la durchLeimungoderDoublierung; (3) Vermeidung
tensiondes toilestenduesau regardde changementsder "Belastungsgipfel" und Erhaltung der notigen
de temperature et de HR. De tellesvariations con- Spannungmit Sprungfedern und anderenmech-
duisent'i desextensions repeteesde la toileau cours anischenHilfsmitteln.
204 Studiesin Conservation
33 (1988) 187-204

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