MULT VA tABlE
-
CAlCUlUS
C. HENRY EDWARDS
The Uni,·ersity of Georgia, AtlrellS
DAVID E. PENNEY
The Uni,·ersity of Georgia, Athens
I)n·nt .I!'P Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
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M ulrivariablc Calculus ...
Edwards and l'cnncy
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MULTIVARIABLE CALCULUS
CONTENTS
ABOUT Ti l E AUTHORS xi
PREFACE
xiii
.
•
) .-
\
' .
I \
J
, ,
!\l u re '" " " '' Lim it' 75
~ PROJECT: Numerical Ep,ilon -Ddta Limil
l ll• e,li)!alion' X7
I ' ll1e ( 'unn ·pr ol C'un linuily XX
uL---:~~~~~~
ltO, I t ,::~ ,,~1 REVI EW: J)l'finiriun,, Cunt'l'lll,, J(t•,ul t~ JIJ
1
v
vi CONTENTS
--
) ;:
I CHAPTER 6
APPLICATIONS OF THE INTEGRAL
365
fd Riemann Sum Appro., imations J66
6.2 Vol umes by th..: ~1.::t hod o r Cross Sections
376
CONTENlS vii
I
CHAPTER 7 CALCULUS OF TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTION S -127
7.1 Expon e ntial and Logarithmic Funct i••n ~ -12X
~ PROJECT: f) i,cmcrint: t he l"umhc r ,. fur Yourself 4J I
7.2 lntlctcrnuna tc h>nlh and ! .'ll i•pital'' l{ulc -I-ll
7.:. ~h•rc l mkterminatc Form' -1 -l')
7.-l 'll1c :"a t ural Lll):.ll ll hm '" a n l nlct:ra l ..155
PROJECT: Natural Functiona l E<tua tions 461)
7.5 ln , cr'c Tri )!<HHinH: tr ic Function~ -167
7.6 I 1\ pcrlhlli ~: Fu1h:ti'm' -177
REVIEW: Furm ul n, , Cunn•p t,, J) l'finitiun' .u!S
-
,'
' viii CONTENTS
r
CHAPTER 13 PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION 849
13.1 Introduction 850
13.2 Functions of Several Variables 850
13.3 Limits and Continuity 860
13.4 Partial Deriv;Hivcs 1\61\
13.5 l'vlultivariablc Optimization Problems IPS
13.6 Incremen ts and Linear Approximation SS9
13.7 1l1c Mullivariabk Chain Rule 1\96
D.H Directional Derivatives and the Gradient Vector 907
13.9 Lagrange :'v1ultiplicrs and Constrained Optimiwtion 918
0 PROJECT: Nu111.:rkal Sulutiou of Lagrange
Multiplier Systems 927
13.10 Critical Points of Functions ofT\vo Variables 927
0 PROJECT: Critical Poir.t Investigations 935
REVIEW: Definitions, Conl·cpts, Results 936
IAPPENDICES A-1
INDEX 1-1
Maple is n.•cgb . .
tcrcd. tra(kmark of Waterloo •"' I ap1e Inc
I\((1/Il(lllfll/CQ IS a rCf.IStcrcd trademark o r\\' If •
;\It\TLAB is a registered trademark of Th ~~ram Research, Inc.
c. ath\Vorks. lnc.
..
ABO UT THE AUTHORS
xi
j
I
r
PREFAC E
The Text CO-ROM 'llle content of the new e n -ROM that !ICCtllliiWiic, this
text i~ fully integrated ,.·ith the textbook rnarcri:tl. :md i~ designed specifically for
xiii
cq
Xiv PREfACE
!
I
• Weh Site ll1c.: contents of the CD-ROM together with additional learning and
teaching resources a re maintained and updated at the textbook Web site
ww"~prcniJall.cum/edward~. which includes a Comments anti Suggestions
I
center where we invite response from both students <tnd instructors.
I rithmically so that students can work in :t computer lab seuing to submit homework
assignments
student.) for automatic grading. (TI!Crc is a small annual fcc per participating
T New Problems Most of the 600 new problems lie in the intermed iate range of
dt fftcult y. neither highly thcoretical nor computationally routine. Ma ny of th em
have :t ne w technology thvor. suggesting (if not requirin~) the use of technology
rang ing from a graphing calculator ton computer algebra system.
T Project MAterial 1\·bny of the text's 33 projects nrc new for this edition. These
appear following the problem sets at the ends of key sections throughout the text.
Most ( but not all) of rhese projects employ some aspect of modern computational
technology to illustra te the p rincipal ideas of the preccdin!! section. and ma ny
contain additional problems intended :ror >olurion with the usc of a j:raphinj:
calcubtor or computer algebra system. Where appropriate, project d iscus.•ions
a re significantly expanded in the C D-R0:0.1 ve rsions of the projects.
ITEXT ORGANIZATION
T Introductory Chapters Instead of n routine review nf prcc:tlculus topics. Chap-
ter 1 conc<'ntrat<'s spccitkally on functions and ,:raphs f"r usc in mathematical
modeli ng. It onclude~ a section cataloJ:inr. inf,>nnally the ckmcntary tr:~n<ccn
denral funclloll < of cakulu~. "' backgruuml to their more fmmal trcatmcnl u<ing
e;;!cu lu~ tt-elf. Chitpt~r I wnchr1ks with II ~cti(ln lllldrcssint; the 1111rs1iun "What
u Cllkulu~r Chapte r 2 u n limil<I..: gins with a >c<·tinn un tangent lines ru motivate
the uf:llcial intro<luction uf hmit< in Section 1 .1. ·nt,:onumctric !units arc treated
througll"ut Chapter 2 in order to cnwu ragc a richer nnd more ''i<ual introouction
10 the limit wncepl.
f 1
XVi PREFACE
ellipses. and hyperbo las with a single Section 10.6 t hat provid es a unified tre at ment
or all th e conic sectio ns.
'Yif • s.
n lnlt~ N les After the usual introductio n to conve rge nce o f in fi nite sequences
and s~ ncs Ill Se..:tio ns 11 .2 and 11 .3. a combin ed treatmen t o f Tayl or po lynomia ls
and l ay lor series appears in Section 11..1. Tnis makes it possible for the instructor
to cxpcnmc nt with a hricfcr treat ment o f infinite series, hut st ill o ffer e xposure
~o the Taylor series t hat arc so import an t for ;1pp lications. l l1 c principal chan ge
I ll C hapter 11 is t he addition of a new li na l sectio n on powe r series m ethods
nt~d their usc to intwduce new transccmlcnt al function>. thcrchy concl uding the
mtdd lc third o f the hook with a return to differential equations.
Unit 1: Differentiation
3.1 The Deri vat ive ;~nd Ra tes o f Chnngc
J.2 Bu ic D ifferenti.:l tion Rules
rr
I
xviii PREFACE
IACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . .
ow the v·tluc of critical revtewmg dun ng the
All experienced te~ t?ook auth ors k~ '"ork on this edi tion we have profited
preparation and rC\'ISIOn of a m~n uscn pt. 1n our t' • advice of the following very able
grea tly from the unusually detailed and construe IVc
rc,•icwcrs:
I f
• Ira Sharcnow-Univcrsity of Wisconsin, Madison
• Kay Strangman-University of Wisconsin, Madison
• Sofhic Tryph o~a~-~n! vers it y of Toronto at Scarborough
• Clifford E. Wct i- Mtchtgan State University
• Kamran Va kili-Princcton Uni,·ersitv
• Cathleen M. Zucco-Teveloff- Trini ty College
Many of the best improvements that have been made must be credited to col·
leagues and users of Ihe previous five editions throughout the United States. Cnnnda.
..
PREFACE XIX
:nd abroad. We are grateful to all t hose. especially students. who have written to us.
nd hope t hey will continue to do so. We t hank the accuracy checkers of M . and N.
Toscano. who verified the solution of every worked-out e xample and odd-numbered
answer, as well as nil of the sol utions in the Instructor"s and Student Solu tions Manu·
als. We b~lil!\'e that the :tppenrance and quality of the finished hook is clear testimony
1
~ the sktll. diligenrc. and talent of an e xceptional swff at l'rcnticc- llall. We owe spc·
cta_l th anks to George Lohcll. o ur math ema tics ed itor, wh<>~c advice and criticism
gutdcd and shaped this n:vision in many signilkant a nd tangihl<: ways, as did th e
constructive.: commen ts and suggestions of Ed Millman, our developmental editor.
W<! alsnthanlo. Gale Epps and ~telanic Van Bcnthuy~cn for their highly varied and
d~tailcd services in aid of editors and authors throughout the work of revision. The
\'ISual gra phil·, of this text have been widely prai.~cd in prc,·ious edition"- and it is
time for us tu than !.. Run Wcichart of Network Graphics, v.h o h:t~ worked with us
thro ugh the past three editions. Jeanne Audino. ou r productiOn editor. e xpertly and
smoothly manaj:cd the whole process of book product ion. Our art director. Jonathan
Boylan. supe rvised anll coordinated the attractive d esign an~ layou t of the text and
the cover fur this edition. Vince Jansen coordinated the production of the CD-ROM,
for which we thank especially Robert Cu rtis and Lee Wayand for their interactive
examples and llarald l'l eym for his Maple worksheets. l·inally, we again arc unable
to thank Alice Fit?gerald Edwards and Carol Wilso n Penney adequately for their
unrelenting a ssistance. encouragement, suppo rt , and patience extending through six
editi ons and over two decades of work on this textbook.
_j
.. . .. '·
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represents a rutlnnal number. one that is the ratio of two integers. Conversely. every
ra tional number is represented by n repenting decimal lik e the t wo eli$played i'lbovc.
But the decimal e xpansion of an irrational number (a real number that is not r ational) ,
such as
J2 = 1.414213562... or ;r = 3.14159265358979 ....
is both nonterrninating and nonrcpea ting.
TI1e geometric interpre tat ion of real num bers as points on the renlline (or real
1111mber line) U should also he famil iar to you. Each real numhcr is represented by
precist:ly one point of fl. and each point of ll represents precisely one real number.
By convention, the posit ive numbers lie to the r ight of zero and the negative numbers
to the left, as in Fig. A. I.
-2 -1 0 )
The following propert ies of inequalities of real numbers are fundamental and
often used:
If a < band b < c, then a < c.
If a < b. then a + c < b + c.
If a < band c > 0, then ac < be. (1)
The last two statements mean that an inequality is preserved when its members
multiplied by a positive number but is reversetl when they are multiplied by a nega~~:
number.
A-1
A-2 APPEN DlClS
IABSOLUTE VALUE
The ( nonncga ti,·c ) d is tance alo ng the real line b<:t"cen ~cro and t he real number a
is the ah~o lute >'lllue of a. writt.:n Ja j. Equi,·alenlly.
a if a ~ 0:
raJ= { -a if a < 0. (2)
The nota tion a ;::: 0 means tha t o is eithl'r crea te·r than zero or equal to ze ro. Equa-
l ion (2) imp lies ~ha t a' ? 0 fo r c,·cry real numlxr a and that lal =ll if :l nd o nly if
a =0.
fiG URE A.2 The abwlutc value o f Mnreo• cr, (0 1 = 0 and t./i- :!I = :; - ,/2_ the latter bcin!! tr ue b~-cau,;e 2 > ./2. Titus
a real number Is simply its d1starn: e ./2 -
2 -: 0, and he:: nee-
from zero ([xamplc 1).
1-'2-21=- -(../2 - 2) = 2 -../2.
•
'lltc follow in!~ propcrt1c~ of a~olute \'Jluc~ arc freque ntly used:
a h ln ~ di,t:mc~ bet ween the real numbe rs a and II is defined to be Jll - bt (or
II• - aj: th ere's no difference). lltis di, tancc is simply the length of the line segment
FIGURE A.3 The distance of the real lin~: ll with e ndpoin ts a and h (Fig, i\.3).
between a and b.
·n,~ prup~rties or incqu:IIitic:s and of absolute values in Eqs. ( I) through (3)
imply the following important theorem.
l'llOOI-' lltcre are several cases to consider. dependi ng upon whether the two
numbers a and ba re positive or negative :md whic h has the larger absolute value. If
both arc posi tive. then so is a + b: in this c.asc,
so
1--lb f - lbl--1
I I I I JCI + !Jj = a + b < II = ja j < Jaj + JbJ, (6)
FIGURE A.4 The triangle as illustrated in Fig. A.4. lltc other cases arc simi lar. In particular we sec that the
inequality with a > 0, b < 0, and triangle inequality is actually an equa lity (as in Eq. (5)] unlcss 11 and'h have different
lbi < ID!. signs. in which case it is a strict inequality (as in Eq. (6)(. ~
APPENDIX A A-3
~~VA~L~S-------------------------------------
shuppose that Sis a set (collection) of real numbers. It is common to describe S by
t e notatiOn
S = (x: condition},
whe~e the "condition" is true for those numbers x inS and false for those numbers x
not tn S. The most important sets of real numbers in calculus are intervals. If a < b.
then the open intern! (a, b) is defined to be the set
~INEQUALITIES
1lte se t o f solutions of an inequality involving a variable x is often an interval or a
union of intervals, as in the next examples. 11tc solution set of such an inequality is
simply the set of all those rea l numbers .r that satisfy the inequality.
EXAMPLE 6 In accord with Boyle's law. th e pressure p(in pounds per square inch)
and volume V (in cubic inches) of a certain gas salisfr the condition pl' 100.=
Suppose that 50 ;;; V ~ 150 . Wha t is the ra nge of possible valu.:s of the pressure p?
Solution If we substitute l' = 100/ f' in the given inequality 50 ~ V ~ 150, we get
100
50 $ $ 150.
- f' -
It follows that both
100 100
50 $ and $ 150:
- p p -
•
that is. that both
p ~ 2 and p?, ~.
Thus the pressure p must lie in the closed interval I ~ . 2].
•
APPENDIX A A-5
The intersec
· t •tun of the two sets Sand Tis the set S n T del'ined as foll ows:
kms 33 through 36. 46. Write a= (n- b) + b to deduce from the tria ngle inequality
that
l3. x' - 2x _ 8 > 0 ).S. x' - 3x + 2 < 0
.]6. 2.r ~ 15 - .r
2 I" I - Jbl ~ Ia - bJ
for arbitrary real numbe rs a and b.
37· In accord with Bovle's law. the pressu re P (in pounds r:r
square inch) and ~·olumc v (in cubic inches) of a ccrtalfl 47. Deduce from the definition in (2) that Jal < b if and only if
v
-
gas satisfy the condition p == SOO. What is the ra1 nge of -b < a< b.
~·bl · 100 < v < 200
·==•~e~v=a~lu~e~s~o~f~t:h:e~p~r~e:~~u:r:c~.g~•:":e~n~~-~~-~~·-------------------------------------------------------
A-6 AP?ENDICES
:t
H·
to the right. Add ano ther copv o f R perpendicula r to the first .. with th e two lines
cros~in2 whe re the numher uro j; loca ted on .:ach. The \c:rtic:JIImc sho uld ha\'e the
po<>i ti..; numbers abo\'; the hori7ontal line. a; in Fie. 8. 1; the nc:gatin: numbers thus
will be below it. Th e horizon tal line is cJ!kd the .r·;t i< a nd the \'Crtical line is called
the 1"-:ni'-
II-
. With these added fe:!ltlres. " e call the plane the co<l rdin9te plane, because it's
now ~s1bie to locat<! any po!n t there by a pai r o f numbers. ca lled the coordinates
I I I I I
-3 -2 - I 2 ) •
-I 1- of the po:nt. Here·• hn" : If Pis a point in the pl:tne. d raw perpe ndiculars fr~m I' to
the coord1nate a'cs. as <ho"'n in Fi2. B. 2. One pc rp<·ndicul ar meets the .r-ax.ts at the
- 2 1-
.r ·cnHrdin:~le (or ah<ci«a ) of P. b~kd ' • in Fig. ll~. Th<: o ther meet s the y<txis in
-) 1- I he y· coo rdinalt· (N orolin~lc ) .': of l'. TI1e p:~ir or numbers l r, . ytl. in I hal o:der. is
call ed the cunrd i nal~ pair for 1'. o r simply t he coo rdinull'< of 1'. To he conc1se. we
5pea k ol .. lhc p<)IOI l'(.t:. 1·1 J."
FIGURE 8.1 The coord.nate plane. 'll11s coordrnare ,,-,rem i< called the rectan~:ul:tr coordinate system. or the Carte-
, ;an cnnrdina ll· ·~''~IT; (1--ccamc 11< u<c wa< popul:~ ri1cd. beginning in the 1630s. by
I he Fr~nd1 111 .11 hrrnalKr.m .1ntl philo<nphcr Rene D csca n cs ( 1596- 1650 J). Th <: pbnc.
tbu~ coor.l inalrtcJ. I ' denoted by J( because ' " o <·opics of U nn.: used: il is known
also a> I he Cartc;bn plan e.
Rcelan!!ul .H coordinalcs arc ca~y to u~e. hcca u ~c l'l.t1. y 1) amJ Q (xl. >'2 ) denote
I he ~:Jmc poin t 1( and o n ly if .r1 = .t2 and y 1 = .1':· ' ll1 u' wh en yo u know that P and
Q arc 1wo dilk rc nl poi nl s. you may conclude 1hJ1 I' and Q have diffcrenl abscissas.
diffcrcm ord in;llcs. or h01h.
., The point of symm elry lO. 0) where lh<: coord in:llc: axes mee t is cal.lcd the
uriJ,:in. All points on I hex-axis have coordin ates of the form (x . 0) . Althou gh the rt•a/
twmii<'T x is no I the , ;unr: as the ~eornctric JXllll t (.c. 0). I here ar.: situations in which
it is usefu l to lhink of the t\\O as the sam.:. Similar remark> apply to points (0 . y) o n
FIGURE 8 .2 The point P has the y-axis.
rectangul<~r coordinates y,). <••· Titc concept of dis wnce in th e coordinate plane i ~ ha~cd on the l'yrha ~:urc;m
thl'<lrl"lll: If i1fiC is :1 right triangle wi lh ils right angle at I he poi nt C. wi lh hypotenuse
of length c and I he olhcr 1wo sides of lengths a and b (as in Fig. 13.3). th.:n
r :
(1)
·~H~ conver~e of the Py1hagorcan thc?re r~ is also true: If the three sides of ::1 given
tnanglc satJsfy the Pythagorean rclauon m Eq. (I ). then the angle opposite side c
must he a right angle.
A C(nght 1l1~ tlistallct· d( 1'1. /~) ~~t~~·ccn th e points P1 and I~ is. by definition. the le ngth
b .1n;lr)
of the str:uglll -hnc scgm.:nt JOrn rng li and h l l1c following formula gives d( !'1. {'2 )
FIGURE 8 .3 The Pythagorean
10 terms of the coord111 atcs or the two points.
theorem .
Distt~nce Formula
(21
PROOF If .r, f. .tz and )'J f. yz. th en Eq. (2) foll ows from the Pvthaco rean theo-
rem. Use the right triangle with vertices P 1• /'2 , and [~(.r2 , y 1) shO\~'n in-Fig. ll.4.
If x, = xz, then P, a nd P2 lie in a \'C rticalline. In this case
ti ( P~o fz) = IYt- )'11 =V(J•- >~) 2 •
This agrees with Eq. (2) because x 1 = x 2• lbe remaining case (y1 = n) is similar. ~
APPENDIX 8 A-7
EX AMPLE 1 Show t hai the trb nc.Ie PQR with vertices P ( l. 0) . Q(5 . .t) , a nd
R(-2. J) is a right triangle (Fig. B.S).-
r, a
2
= (d(l'. Qll1 = (5- 1): +(.I - 0): = 3.2.
b = [cl(l'. Rlj: = ( -2- 1)1 .._ (3 - 0): = 18.
1
and
c 2 = [cf(Q. R)j' = (-2 - 5): ~ (3 - .1)
2 =50.
Because a1 + o1 ~ r,
the COfll 'rT.SC of the 1')1hlgorca n theorem im plies t na t RPQ
is a righ t angle. (lltc right angle is at I' because pis the vert e x opposite the longest
side. Q R. ) +
Another applic:uion of the distance form ula is an cxpres~ion for the coord inates
oft hc midpoint ,\ f of the line segme nt !'1 /~ wi th endpoints P1 :!nd 1'2 (Fig. l3.6). Recall
from g.cometry that M is the one (and on ly) point of the line segm ent P1 1~ that is
fiCURE8.6 Th~ midpoint AI. equally distant from 1'1 and /~. 'The following formula tells us th at t he coord ina tes
of Marc the m ·erag(S of the corresponding coordina tes o f 1'1 and P: .
M id point Formulil
llll' tttiii1J(Iint o f the linl' Sl'gmcnl wit h cndpninl' f',(.r 1 • y 1 ) a nd P: lx :. _1': ) i ~ the
puint .\II x. )' I with cnnrdin:llc'
:1 = ~(x, + x: l and y = ~(Yt + )':). ( 3)
PllOOF If you subst itute the coo rdinates o f P~o Ill. and ~ in the distance formula.
you fi nd that d ( 1'1• M ) = d(l~ . M ) . All that remains is to sho w that M lies on the line
segment P1 Pz. We ask you to do this. and thus complete the proof, in Problem 31 . ~
This is also the defini ti::ln of a line's slo pe in civil en!!inc:ering (and elsewhe re). In a
surveying text you are li kely to find the memory :l i U
nsc ..
"siClpc = - .
run
Rccll l t h:ll corrc spnnd1·ng sH.lcs
· · ·1.H ( I11:1t 1·"-· cq u~l-~' n glcd)
of Slllll . triangles
f L. h have
equ al ratios. lienee. 1f I ;(X) . ,1')) anu ' ' .r,. ' •1
· , · ' n ( }' l · rc two othe r po mts o I en llC
1
si milari ty of th e t riangle~ in Fig. B.!\ imphc< tha t
y, - ) ':1 -~~ - Yt
=
X-'- X J X~ - X1
lllereforc. the slope 111 35 defined in Eq. (5) docs nor de pend o nlhe panicular choice
of P1 and P2. . ( ) · 0 If L
If the line Lis horizontal. then Ay =
0. In this case Eq. 5 gtvcs m = ..
is ven ical, then A.r = 0. so the slope o f Lis nor di!fined. Thus we have I he followmg
stalem enls:
• Hnri7nn l~llin e; have slope ze r o.
• Vert ical lines have no defin ed slope.
EXAMPLE 2
(a) The slope of the line lhrough Ihe points (3. -2) and (-I , 4) is
4- ( - 2) 6 3
1n= =- = - -.
( -1 ) -3 -4 2
(b) The points (3. - 2) and (7. -2) have the sam e y-coordinale. 1l1ereforc, lhc
line through them is horizontal and thus has slope zero.
(c) llte points (3. - 2) and (3, 4) have the same x~oordinate. Thus the line
through them is vertical , and so ils slope is undefined. +
flJ:; - ;
Y- Yo
x - xo
ArrENDtX s A-9
that is.
Th t! Point-Slo pe EquJtion
• 1 (~oint·r/'tt
'Ill.; . ''"~"-' "' th rou••h the thnii'Oin i LJ,•. 11J) ..
. · ·t' l lin· · nn thc ,.'"'' 1\lth tl
, < till 1•I J th Clltl•Ji
111
· 11 .1I . . . f .
• t ' ' at'' ) th,· •·qu.ttu>n
:-
Solution lhe slope m of L may be ot>t;~in 1·d fro m the two ~,:il·c n points:
5-(-1)
m = 3- I =3.
Eith~:r P, or P: will do for the lixcd point. \\'c usc /'1( 1. - 1). 'lhen. with the aid of
Eq. (6). the point ·slo pc equation of Lis
where IJ =
) It - tnro is a constant. Because y = b when .r = 0. the y- intN~JII of L
fiGURE8.9 The ~traight line with is the point (0. b) shown in Fig. 13.9. Equations (6) :md (7) are different fom1 ~ of th~
~uat1oo y = mx + b ha~ a ~lope m
t'ld y-interce-pt b. equation of n straight line.
Perhaps you noticed that both Eq. (6) and Eq. (7) C'an be written in the form
of the gcncrnllincar cqu:ttion
tlr + By= C. (8)
where ;\, B. and C (Ire constants. Conversely. if 8 -F 0. then Eq. (S) can be written
in the form of Eq . (7) if we d!vidc each tc_r~l by fl. ll1ereforc Eq. (S) represe nts a
straight line with its slope bemg the cocfltctcnt of .r afta s~lution of the cqu:ttion
for v. If B = 0. then Eq. (8) reduces ~o the equatton .o r a vcrttcaliinc: x K (where =
j;
K a constant). If A ,. 0 and ~ 'f 0. then Eq. (S) reduces to the equation of l1
horizontal line: y == 11 (where /Its n constant). lhus "''-'see that Eq . (8) is always an
equ.. . -
=
.,·,on of a straight line unless A II = 0. Con,·ersely. e v..,ry strai~:ht line in the
. one- has an equa ,.ton o f t he form .-
lane-even a vcrucal 111 (S)
coor d 111:11c p • ·
A-1 0 APPENDICES
\ \'
(9)
m = - · = tan¢.
t>x
. . . le then tan¢ is t he ratio of
Th is is true because if o is an acute 31lgle 10 a n ght tnang ·
the leg opposite o to the leg adjacent!~ 0 · h . rncs arc paralle l if and only if
You r intuition correct!~· assur~s ~ ou t. af~:~~~"s from Eq. (9) th:H two paralle l
1
•
they ha\'c the same an~le of anchn:lllon . So
11
wo lines with the same slope must be
nonvenical li nes ha"e the same slope and that t
parall el. This comple tes the proof of Theorem I.
FIGURE 8. 10 How is the angle
of ln,linatlon ¢ related to the
slope m? THEOR EM 1 Slopes of Parallel Lin es . •
Two non\'ertical lines arc pa ral lel if and only if they hn\'e th e sa me s 1ope:.
EXAMPLE 4 Write an equation of the line /. th3t p:tsscs through the point P(3. -2)
and is parallel to the lir.e L' with the equ:uion x + 2y 6. =
Solution When we soh·e the equat ion of I.: for y, we ge t y i .r + 3. So L' has=-
slop~ 111 = -l·
Because L has the same slope. its poin t-s lope equation is then
y+2 = -l<x-3):
( 10)
lltat is.. the slope of each is the negative reciprocal of the slope of th e o ther.
l'UOOF lf the two lines L, and L2 are perpendicular and the slope or each exists,
th en nei ther is horizontal or vertical. Thus the situation resembles the on e shown in
Fig. 8.1 2, in which the two lines meet at the point (.to. Yo). it is easy to sec that the two
right triangles of the figure arc similar, so equality of ratios or corresponding sides
yields
!GRAPHICAL INVESTIGATION
Many mathematical problems require the simult:mcous solution or a pa ir of linear
equations of the form
DtX+bt)'=Ct.
( IJ)
02X + lj~y = C2 .
l11c g.raph of these two equ:llions cunsists or a pair of straight lines in the xy·pl:mc.
If these two lines arc not parallel, then they must intersect at a single point whose
coordinates ( ,t 0 . ) It) constitute the so lution of ( II ). That is.. x = x 0 andy = ) \J arc the
(only) values or .randy for \\hiclt hoth equations in (II) arc true.
In ckmcntary a lgebra you studied variou~ climin:llion and substi tution meth ·
FlGURE 8. I 4 A calculator ods for snlving linear ~ystcms such as tho: one in ( II ). Ex;unp lc 6 illustra tes an alter·
P'!pared to graph the lines In native gmplricnl llll'tfw rl that is some times useful wh.:n a graphing utility-a g.r aphics
lq. (12) (Example 6).
calculator or a computer with a graphin~ program-is available.
With many graphics calculators.. it is necessary first to solve each equatio n for y:
y = (17 - IOx)/ (-8),
y = (67- 15x)/ IS. (13)
Figure E3.14 shows a calculator prepared to grap~ the two lines repre se nted by the
equations in ( 12). and Fig. 8.15 shows the result Ill the viewing window _ 5 :;i :c ~ 5 •
-5~y ~ 5. . .
Before proceeding. note that 111 Fig.~ B. I S the two lmcs c1p{uar 10 be perpcn.
dicular. But their slopes.. (-10)/ (-B) = i and (-IS)/ 18 = - ~ ·are not negative
A-12 APPENDIC ES
l lJr-----------------~ 1..19
U!!·
I.!•S·
) y
1.!~·
us: ·
J.ll
:s
FIGURE 8.16 2 ' 1 ' 3. F IGU R ~ 8. 17 2 75 ~ ' ~ 2 8 5, FIGURE 8.1 8 2.80<' x ;S 2 81,
I~ y;:: 2 ( l~4'Tip'~ 6) I 3S ~ t:: I .:5 (bJ-.,'e 6). 1. 38 :S y::
1 39 (Example 6).
r<'Clr:<~-~·, <'f nn;: ~r:o:her. 11 follows from l11c:orem 2 th:t t the t\\ O li n ear nrc nor
p..-rrcnJrcular
ri,·ur~' II If•. n 1- .•lr.J R!S <h(1\\ <UCCC<<ii'C m ~g n ific:lli o n~ produced by
" tuo:nm~ In·· nn the rumr ,,r 1nrcrsc.:tion o( th<· t\\O line" l11c dashed- line box
rn c~.:lr tr~urc ,, tlr.: \1::\\JilC "ind<m for thc nc\1 li~1m:. looking a t fi g. 1!.18, we sec
th .tt the r~l~f'<'Cir<m f'<llnt '' gt\'l'O by the apprn~ im;ll i<ln<
\ ~ ~.807. y ::::: US.l. ( 1-'l
rtlU ildl'<f tll lhiCl' liClllll.rl pl.,_.,,
Il l<' rc,ult rn ( l.!J r.ml-c .:hcd:cd hy cy uatin;: t he righ t -hand ~id es in ( 13) nnd
,nh·in~ fur 1 . 'f1u, !!"''' 1 = .!~I 15')"":! ~()(>7. Sul"ri r111in!! the cxnct va lue of x into
cilhcr •·qual IIlii 111 ( 1.>1 rh•· n "'·ld< ,. = iG; Nl ::- I JKU.
llt<' )!r.q,hrcal m.:r hod iiJu,trarctl hy E ~:l mplc 6r) pica lly prod uc.:s approximate
"1lutinn< th .ol .or,· <ufli.:i,·llrl~ :occur:llc for prac1ical purpo~c-.. l1u1 tlw metho d is
csrcci.llly mcful fur mmlm···" cqua tro ns. tur " h ich exac t alge braic techniques of
,ulu tiun ma~ no t be a' ;ulahlc. +
l-\ The Fahrenheit tcmper:u urc F :tnd the absolute tcmr>e r· 37. 2x + 3y = S 3S. 6.r + ~y= 5
arurc K s:~tisfy ~ linear equatio n. Mo reove r. K = 273.16 2x + 5y 12= R.r- 6y = 13
• ben F = 32. 3nd K = 373. 16 when F = 212. Express K 39. 3.r + Jy = 17
io temu of F. \\'hat is the ''nlue or F when K = 0? =
40. 2x - 3y 17
3x +5y =l6 2x +5y = 20
}1. The length /. (tn ce nt imete rs) of a copper rod is a hncnr
function of iu Ccl•iu< te rnpcr" lurc C. IC L = 124.9-12 when .U.4 t + 3y -17 4!. .;, + 31 = IS
C : : Oand L a 125.134 \\hcn C = li O.exprcss L intcm1s 5x+5y =21 5r+Sy =29
of C.
4J. Sx + 6y =
16 4-1. S.r + Ily = 21
).~ The owner o f a grocery store finds th nt she cnn sell 980 gnl 7x +JOy = 29 4.r + l Oy= 19
of milk each •wek nt $1.69/ gal and 1220 gal o f milk each
•·eek at $1.49/ gnl. Assume a li near relationship between 45. 6x + 6y = 31 ~ 7.t + 6y = 31
price and sales. I low nllny gallons would she then expect 9.r + l l y = 37 ll x+ ll y= 47
to ~ell each " eek at Sl.56f gal?
l6. Figure 8.19 shows the graphs o f the equatio ns 47. Justify the phrase "no o the r poin t o r the pla ne can d o so"
that follow$ the fi rst appearance o f Eq. (6).
17.r- t Oy = 57, 48. The discussionoflhclincarcquation , t t + By = C inEq. (8)
does not indude a dcscrtptton of the graph of this equat ion
25.r- l Sy = 17. if A= B = 0. \\'1131 is the graph in this case?
at t he o rigin. lne ang le is directed if a directi on o f r otation from its initia l side to its
ter minal side is specified. We call r a pusiti> e angle if this rotati on is counterclockwise
and a ncgat i• e nnJ:Ir if it is clock"i se.
• ~ t P (.r. y ) be the point a t which the te rm inal sideof O intersects the unit circle
.r• +r = I. lll en "e define
)"
cosO = .r, sin O = y. tan O = - .
X
(2)
1 1 .r
sec O = -.
X
csc B = -.
...
cot l' = - . ,.
We assume that x = 0 in the cas<! of tnn 9 and secO a nd tha t y?O in the case of
co t nand ~9. If the anfle f) is positive and acu te. the n it is cle ar from Fif!. C.2 that
FIGURE C.2 Using the un t circle the definitions in (2) ~£ '""wi th the rig.ht tri:tnglc:' cl dimti ons in ( I ) in terms of the
to d efine the trigonometric
coordinates of!'. A dance a t the til! urt: also sho ws which of the functio ns a rc positive
functions.
fo r an gles meach of the fo:.:r qu3d-r:w ts. Fifur<: C 3 s umma ri7cS th is informatio n.
Here "'c di<cu~~ primarily the t\\ O mo" basic tr igonorm :tri..: functions. the si ne
and the Co\inc. From (2) \\C sec imm.·diatcly t hat the o the r fou r t rigo nometric func-
t ions arc defined in terms of sin tl and ws by e
sin P I
ta n O = - - .
cosO
sccO = cosO
--.
r (3)
Sin<
Co~«nnt I AU
cos O
co t O = - -
sin 0 ·
cscr = ~.
Slrl
I
0
To~ncc nl Cn~ome Next. ''c compare the angles 0 and -0 in Fig. CA . \Vc sec that
Cot ;an ~C'n t Xc.·:ant
cos( - 0) = co~O and sin(-0) =-sin O. (4)
Positive in qu3dr:ant~ shown 13cca u.~c x = cos 0 and y = sin 0 in (2) . the eq uation x 2 + y 1 = 1 of the unit circle
transbtcs immcdi:ll cly int o the fu ndamcntul identity or trigonometry,
FIGURE C.3 ThP <igm o f the
trigonometric function s. cos= 0 + sin 2 0 = I. (5)
Dividing each term of this fundamen tal ide ntity by cos2 0 gives the identity
1 + tan 2 0 = scc1 0 . (5')
y
Similarly, dividing each term in Eq. (5) by sin 2 0 yields the identi ty
I + cot 2 0 = csc2 0. (S")
(Sec r•ro blcm 9 of this appendix.)
In Problems 41 and 42 we outline derivations of the ncldition formulas
si n(a + /3) = sinacos fl +cosasinfl, (6)
cos(a + {J) =cos a cos/3 - sin a si n tJ. (7)
With a= 0 = fl in Eqs. (6) and (7). w e get the clouble·anglc formulas
sin 20 = 2sinOcosB, (8)
FIGURE C.4 I he effect of
replacing 0 with - 0 in the sine cos 28 = cos2 0
- sin 2 o (9)
and cosine functions. = 2cos2 0 - 1 (9a)
=l-2sin2 0, ( 9 b)
where Eqs. (9a) and (9h) are obtained from Eq. (9) bv usc of th f d ·d ·
in Eq. (5). • e un a menta11 entity
If we solve Eq. (9a) for cos2 0 and Eq. (9b) for sinl w ,
formulas
h h If 1
, e get t c u ·ang c
o
2
cos 0 =!(I +cos20), (10)
• 2 0 = 2(1
sm I
- cos28). (11)
Equations (10) and (II) are especially important in integral calculus.
r--__
RAD~IA~N~M~EA~S~U_R~E---::::::-------------------------------
In elementary mathc .
APPENDIX C A-15
An angle of 2:r rad co:-responds to one revo lut ion around _the unit circle. This
implies t hat the sine and cosine funct ions hJvc peri od 2:r. meamng th at
sin(l ... 2-r ) =sin I .
(16)
cos( 1 + 2:t ) = cos 1.
fm ~very int eger 11. 'llti' per iodicity nf the sine ~nd co,ine funcl ions i<evide nt in the ir
grJph' ( Fig. C.S). From the c4ua1ions in (J).Ihc olhcr four lrigonomc lric fu nctio ns
(0) also must \Jc periodic. as their graphs in Figs. C.9 and C.IO show.
UJU
"n
2 ~"
T
Tl ( 18)
cosO= 1. cos 2 = 0, cos rr = - 1.
EXAMPLE 1
. -5:: = sin ( -
sm
·
... .. - ..-.:- ) =-sm-
· :: ' 11•
.: = --·2.
~-
cos-
3 -COS ..
( _ ..- )
- 3
:r
== -C013 =- 2I :
2::-
tan-::=tnn ( :r-i- ) ==-tani=-1:
-
, 7;r . ( :r ) :r 1
sm 6 = sm :r + 6 - sin~ = - 1:
1L1J!ENDJX C PROBLEMS
UprtJs in radian mea.wre the anglts in Prob lttru /through S. 8. 3:r 9-~
4
L t:y. z. -270'
23.-r
l liS• 10. 60
"· 210'
!. - 150'
1 In Probltms I I through /-1, tval!latt tht six trigonomttric fimc-
• Profitt17ts 6th rough 10, exp ress in degrus I he angItS givt n in
':4' r/oru of :x: at th~ gi•·tn va/u~s.
lot f>lt iiJUrt.
3:r
6..::.. 2:~
12. :x: - -
4
10 7. 5
A· 18 APPENDICES
7;r 41. The poinu Alcml'.- sinO). Bil. OJ. C(ros¢. ~i~.¢). and
13. z .. 6 1~ . .c = 5:r D ms(ll- c J. sintfl ~ell nrc <hc"'n In Fi!'· C. I •. all ~re
3
roint\ on the unit circle. D<"dUCC from rhc !.let that the hne
Fmd nil :.nlutions .t of 'aclt rqunrinn in Prob1~11U /5 rhmu~h 23. secmenu AC 3 nd 80 h;l\c the s:tmc kngth (~cause they
3 r~ subt~nJed l'ly the ~me ccntrJl un~k • - ¢) tha t
1
1 ~. ~ in r : 0 16. sin.r =I
17. <in.r=-l Ill. cou =0 C(X(.l _ c l = cos t> ro< ¢ - •n tl sin¢.
19. CCIH = I Ul. cos.r =-I
21. t:tn.c =O ll.tan .c= l .•
2J. tan .1 =- I
2-l. Sup~e that tnn.c =
land th at son .r ~ 0. FinJ the '~lues
of the other fi ve tn gun<>mc tric functions o f .t.
2.~. Suppo~ that= .c = -; and that c<" .r > 0. finJ the' alu~
of the othe r five trigon rmctr1C furK!Inn< <•f t
nml from tlw d rjinition f of tht' othrr four l rtJ:t momrtrlr frm rtu m t
. 5:r IO:r
3~. Sltl T .'6. cos 3
37. ,\pply the addition formuln for the sine. cosine. and tan·
sent functions (the latter from Problem 28) to show tlu t if
0 < 0 < rr/ 2. then
Suppou that 0 < IJ < :r / 2. Dnive tht ider:tirieJ in Problmu 38 In Problmu -1) tltmrrgh -1,~. find a/! solutions of the gin~n ~qua
rltrouqh -10. rion that lie in tlr~ illltfl'lll [0. :r ).
311. sin (:r ± 0) = :;: sin IJ 43. 3 sinl .t - co<: x =2 -14. sin 2 x ,. cos1 x
39. co~(rr ± 8) = -cosO ~5. 2cosl x + 3sin: .r = 3
40. tan(rr ± 0) = ±tan 0 47. 8sin1 x cos1 .c =1 41!. cos2{1- .lcosO = -2
AJ>PENDIX D A-19
lim F (.r) = L
·-·
provided that, gi"en c > 0, t here exists a number 6 > 0 such that
Note t hat the number c comes first. Then a value of 6 > 0 must be found so that the
implication in (I) holds. To prove that F(.r) _ Las x _ a. you must. in e ffect. be
able 10 stop the ne xt person you see and ask him or her to pick a positi' e number .l
at random. Then )'Oto must o/wa." be read~· to respvnd " ith a positive numt>cr S. Thts
number 6 ~ust have t he property that the implication in (I) holds for your numbe r
o and th e g~vcn number f. The only restriction on xis th at
lienee. given£ > 0, it suffices to choose 6 = c /2. This illustrates the observatio n that
the required number ois generally a function of the given number£. +
EXA MPLE 2 Prove that lim {3.r~ + 5)
•- l
= 17.
Solution Given £ > 0. we must find o > 0 such that
Our problem. therefore, is to ~how that l.t + 21. ·l.t -:- 21 can be m ade as small ns we
please by choosing x- 2 sufficscntly s~all. 1l1c sdca ss that l.r + 21cannot be 100 la rge
if l.r _ 21 is fairly small. For example. sf lx - 21 < I. th en
Therefo re,
2
0 < l.r _ 21 < 1 implies th:ll 1(3.r + 5)- 171 < 15 . l.r _ 2 1.
A-20 APPENOIClS
Con•cquen t l~. let U\ choose 1J to be the minimum of thr t\\ O numN:rs I a nd f/ 15.
lnen
(
a\ demed. •
EXAMPLE 3 Pro'e th.lt
. I I
~~~ - = - i! ,, = 0.
,_. r ~
Soluti on Fo r s1xpJ:cit~." e "'111 con<i.:!u c>nl~ th.: ca e in " hich a > 0 (the case a < 0
I\\lmilar) .
~upp<l<c tha t, > 0 " f-i' en. We mu~t find :1 numh: r .I <uc-h th:u
'J11c idcn i\ that 1/l t l cannot be too l.ucc 1f 1t - nf iS L1irly small. f'or c~:11nplc. if
l.t - n l < aj2, thcn nn_ < X < ]a / 2. Therefor~.
n
lrl > 2· "0 -
l.r l
.,; -
,,
In thi< c:1sc it would follow that
I II 2
I- - - I
x n
< ---.: . If - a l
tz·
if 1r- a l < n/ 2. llJUs. if we choose c! to be the minimum of th e two numb..:r> n/2 and
n:c /2. then
'
0 < lx- a l < lJ implies that ~-~ ~ < 2,.a=f =f.
x a n· 2
'lnerdorc
. I I
Ilnl- = - if a f 0.
~ -" x a
as desired.
•
W..: ar..: now n:ady to give proofs of the limit laws stmed in Section 2.2.
Constilnl L.1w
If ft.r) = C. a Clll~>t ant . th en
lim f(x) = lim C =C.
, _,, .t-u
Addition Law
If lim f (.rl
·-J = Land lirn G Lrl = M. then
J-J
-
APPENDIX 0 A-21
Therefore
lim [F(x) + G(.r)) = L + .\f.
11s desired.
·-·
Product Law
lim F(.r) = I. nnd ,_,
If ,_, lim G(.rJ = M. thc:n
lim! f(.r:J · Gt.r ll = L ·.I/ .
• -•tl
We now choose .s = min(6 1• 82• ~3 }. ·~1en we substitute (3). (4). and (5) into (2) and.
•t < r _ ai < .S 1m plies that
tina II y. see lh u 0 1• ( f
lf (.r). GC.rl- L. Ml < (I M I + 1). 2(1MI + 1) + ILl· 2(1LI + 1)
f f
<2+2=(,
. Th of tMl + 1 and ILl+ 1 in the denominators avoids the technical
as des1red . e use . . h Lor M be zero ~
difficulty t hat arises should elt er . .
A-22 APPENDICES
Substitution law
tr hm J:l.t) = /. and lim ft r1 = /t /.I. th.:n
,..... '-I
lim /tt:H P = /tLI.
·-·
PROOF Let ( > 0 be gi ven. W e mus t find a numl'<: r .S > 0 such tha t
0 < !.t- a! < <I implks that l f!_~; (.r ll- f(Ll l < (.
13ccau~ f (y) - f< Ll as~· - [_there c~ists .1: > 0 $UCh 1hat
0 < 1.\· - U, < c; implie~ th3 t l[(yl- f< L)! < t. (6)
Also. because t;(x) Las x - a . .,.e C~n lind ~
- > n ~uch th3t
0 < l.t- a! < S implic< th:lt (g(.r)- l..l < cS, :
that i\. such th at
1.\ - [~ < .s,.
where y = g(x ). From (I\) we <cc that 0 < 1r- il( < .S implic:s that
l /Cg(.r))- /C Lll = I /(1)- f(l.)i < C
as desired.
Rcciproc.11 L1w
If lim ~1 1 l = I . .tn d I i thc·n
,_, . · 11.
I I
hm - = -•.
I•J gLt) 1
lim ~ = -l = /(/.).
1
lim /(.tl
•-a
= .1-" X ~
Quotient Law
tr lim F(.r)
,\ - J
= L a nd ,_.,
lim G(.t) = ,\1 :f. n. thl'n
. 1-'l.r) L
I llll - - = -
·-· G<.rl ,\ (
I'IWOF It follows immediately from the product and reciprocal laws that
. -G
hm F ((.r) 1.m1 F(
= •-• · .r) · -
1 = ( hm
. F (.r) )( lim -1- ) = L. _1 = _L
•-• .r) 01(x) •-• • -· • G(x) M ,\>!'
as desired.
Sq ueeze Lnw
Suppo~c that [t.r) ~ g(.r) :;? h(.n in so m.: dl'ktl'd n.:ighborhood of <I and th at
Then
lim g(x) = L
·-·
APPENDIX E A-23
and
L = mm
ct 6arc
lz(x) poinf6t; ~f~th
o}"Th en 8. > 0. ~lorc:ovcr. if 0 < IX - nJ < 8. then both [(x) and
e open mtcrval ( L _E . L + E). So
L-E < f(x)~g(x )~ lz (x) < L +E.
ln us
0 < lx- nl < 8 implies th at lg(x) - LJ <E .
as d esired.
~~AP~P~EN~D~I~X~D~P~R~O~B~L~E~M~S~---------------------------------------
1" /'robkms
. I. tlr rouglr .10. apply tire tlefirritimr 11 f tit ~ 1·mut· to 13. Suppose Ihat L"'
0 and thai f(.r) - Las .r - a. Usc the
method of E.•amplc 3 and I he de finilion of 1hc limit 10 show
rJublt~ll tlrr ~:n·m equafrty.
dircclly 1ha1
1. lim
,_.
x =a Z. lim
J-2
3.t = 6 . I I
Irm - - - -
~. lim (2.r + I) = -5 ·-· /(.r) - L'
.J. lim (.r +3) = 5 J- - l
·- l
1~. Usc I he algebraic idcntily
,_, 6. limx2 =a 2
x•- a" == (x - a )(x"'- 1+ :c"- 2" + .r"-.la !+ . . . + .ta~~-: + a"- 1)
$. liml = I
u
·-·
. I I lo <hnwdircctly from the definition oflhc timitth~tl i m .r" =
7. lim (2.r2 -I)= I
·-· 1
n. 1un 2 = -
J- 12 x al alf if n is a positi\•c integer. ~-•
1
.
9. Il-,
I
rm-- = -
I Jl). lim ~ = -- if a > 0 IS. Apply 1hc idenlily
~~ + 1 •-• vx ..fii
aZ+ l
j.fi - Jal "' l.r - • I
.fi+../ii
IL Suppose that to show directly from 1hc: defini1ion of the limit that
lim /(.r) =L and lim f(.r) = M. lim JX = Jii if a > 0.
~-~ ·-~
Apply Ihe dcfini1ion of 1he limil to prove 1hat L = M.lllU<
1he limil of 1hc function fat .r = a is unique if il cxim.
·-·
16. Suppose
. that
. { (.t)- {(a)> 0 ns .r -a. Pro,•c that th c~
extsts :t nc•ghborhood of a on which f (x) > 0; that is. prove
1!. Suppose that Cis a constan t and 1hat f(.r) __. Las x--> a.
lhatlhere exists ii > 0 such thai
Apply the defi nilion of the limi t 10 prove that
l.r - 111 < ~ implies that f(x) > 0.
lim C · f (x ) = C · L.
·-·
APPENDIX E: THE COMPLETENESS OF THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM
Here we present a self-contained treatment of those ~onsequences of the comple te ·
ness of the real number system that arc relevant to tins text. Our principal objective
is to prove the intermcdra le val ue lhcorcm and the maximum value theorem. We
begin with the least upper bound property of the real numbers. which we take to
be an axiom.
DEFINITION Upper Bound and Lower Bound
s
11 e se t of real numbers is said to be bounded above if there is a numbe r b such
1 x ~ b for every number .r inS. and the number IJ is then called an upper bound
that
for s. Similarly. if there is a numbe r n ~uch that .t ;: : n for every number x ins, then
sis said to be bounded below, and a tS called a lower bound for S.
A-24 APPEND!CE.S
EXERCISE Pro'c that if the ~ct 5 h.1< a ka~t upper bMtn d )., then it is un ique. That
~ pro'c that if i. and 11 arc least upper bound' for S. then i. Jt. =
It i< ca<\ to <ho"' that the ~:r~a:<:stlo"er bc:>und i' <1f a <<.:t S. if any. i< also unique.
At thi< poi nt·, ou <hould con< tr"uct c,;ampk s to illu<tratt• that a set with a ka-r upper
hound i rna~· o r rna~ not con t3in i . •1nd that :1 <irnilar st:llcrncn t i< true o f th e se t's
grcatc<t lo"cr bound.
We no" \ tate the complct<:nrss a.ciom of the n:al numb.:r sys tem.
Bv " orkinc \lith the set T con~is t ine of t he numbers -.c. where xi< inS, it is
no t ditricult to show the followin g conse<luc ncc o ! the least upper hou nd ax io m: If
t he nonempty se t S o f real num be r$ is bounded below. then S has a grea test lower
bound. Occause of thi~ symmetry. we need only one a ~ iom. no1 1wo: rcsul1s for leas t
uppe r bound< a l<n hold for grcatc:st IO\\c:r bound<. provided tha t some atte ntio n is
paid to the direc tion s of the inequa li ties.
TI1e r~st riction that S be noncmpty is annoyi ng but necessary. If Sis the "em pt y"
set of real numbers. then 15 is an upper bound for S. but S has no least uppe r bound
beca use 1-1. 13. 12 .. . . . 0. -I. -2 .. . . are also uppe r bound.s !or S .
S that
. is less · 1east upper bound J Out · f r·· · , · 1 then- because we MC•
. tha n 1ts 1 . ,. 1' 111 ·
d ca1ngw 1th 1 . ·· . ·
for all k > N ~ :ondecr~asmg sequcnce-.r,v :£ .rl :£ >. for a ll k ?; N. ·n 1a t is. .rt. ~~ Ill I
I
h r . = · ccausc f IS an arbnrary positive number ; is- 'llnlllSI hy dc fin•tJn n-
1 e lOI II of the sequence (.r.} . ' lllU s we ha,·c shown 11; 3; ; h~undcd nonincrca~ing
sequcnc~ conve rges. A similar proof can be constructed for noni ncrca~i ng seq u ence~
by workmg with the grea test lower hound . ~
lllc rcfo rc. the least upper bou nd axio m implies the hounded monoton ic sc·
qucnce p ro~c rty of the real numbers. With just a liulc effo rt. vou can prove that the
two me logtc:tlly equivalent. Tha t is. if vou take the hounded nwnownic sequence
property as an axiom. then the least upper bound property follows as n theorem.
11Jc n ested llltcrva/ property of Theorem 2 is also cqu ivalcn t to t he least upper hound
prop ert y. but we shall prove only that it follows from t he least upper bound proper!)'.
because we have chosen the la tte r as the fundamenta l comple teness axiom fo r the
real nu mber system.
/'ROOF It is clear from hypothesis (2) of Theorem 2 that th ere is nt most one such
number c. l11e sequence (a. } of the left-hand endpoints of I he inte rvals is a hounded
(by b 1) nondccrcasing sequence nnd thus h a< a limit a by the bo un ded mo notonic
sequence propert y. Similarly, the sequence (b.} has a limit b. Because 11. ~ b. for all
11, it follows casilv that a ~ b. lt. is clear that lin ;::; " ;::; h :£ b.., for ali " ?; I , so " and b
belo ng to every ir;tcrval /,, . But then hypothesis (2) of llteorc m 2 implies that a = !J,
and clearly this common value~all it c- is the number sa.tisfying the conclusion of
Theorem 2. ~
We can now usc these results to prove several impon a nt theorems used in the
text.
It i~ ea.sy to show Lh3t the sequence {1.1 of inrer.,.nls satisfies th.e hypot heses of
Th eorem 2. Let c be the (unique) real number common to nil th e m ter.,.als ln. We
will sho.,.,· that f ie) = 1\. and th is will conclude the proof.
The sequence (b.} has limit c. so by the continuity of f. th e sequence ( /(bn) J
ha~ litnit /(c). But / lb.) > 1\ fo r all n. so the limit of {/(b.) ] c:m he no less thanK;
that is. flc) !! /\. By considerine the sequence (a.] . it follows that f(c) ~ K as well .
-
The refore. / (c) = K .
- ~
LE MMA 1
Iff is conti nuous on th e cl~ed interval [a. b). then f is bounded the re.
I'UOO F Suppose by "'JY of con1rad1ct ion th:H f i$ not l'ooundcd on l 1 = (a. bJ.
Bi\ect 11 and let f, be cnh;:r half of / 1 on "'h:ch f is unbounded . ( If f is unbou nded
on t>oth hal\·cs, l~t f., = / 1 .) In .cener:1l. let 1•• 1 h: a half of 1. on whic h f is un·
ho un ded.
A gam it i~ ca'y to •ho"' th~t the ~cquencc 11.1 of clo,cd int erva ls ~atisfies
the h) ptllhc'c' of Theorem ~. Let c he the numhcr Cc)nl llllJO to th em all. Beca use
r
I is continuous. the re cxi\tS ll numt-cr ( > 0 such rh:ll is bou ndt•tl on th e interva l
(c- f. c- r J, ll ur fnr ,ufficicnt ly l.u!!e ,·aluc' of"· 1. i> a sub~e t of(<' - ( . c + !). ll1is
~
contradic.-ti nn ~how\ that f mu•t he bounded on (a . !>J.
1l1e technique we arc using in these proof is called the methOfl of bisection.
We now usc it once again to establish the Bo/zano-\Veierstrass property of the r eal
number system.
PROOF Let lo be a closed interval containing the bounded infinite set s of real
numbers. Bisect lo. Let /r be one o f the resulting closed half-intervals of lo that
contains infinitely many points of S. If 1. has been chosen. let ln+t be one of the
closed half-intervals of 1. containing infinitely m any points o f S. An application of
Theorem 2 yields a number p common to all the imervals 1• . If J is an open interval
APPENDI X E A-27
~ont~ining f', thcn 1 cont ains 1. :for some sufficiently b rgc v3luc of II and thus con tJi':'
mfimte ly many points of S. Therefo re pis a limit point o f S.
Our ~nal goal is in sight: We can now prove that a sequence of rc:tl numbers
converges tf •a nd on 1y 1'f ·11 ·IS a Cauchy sequence.
I'ROOF If Ia, I ha~ on ly a finite numhcr of \'a lues. then tht: conclusio n of Lc mrn:l 2
follows easily. We therefore focu• our nrt.:ntion on the case in whic h Ia. ) i' an infinit e
set. It is easy to show thatthi~ set i ~ :~ lso bounded. a nd th us we may apply the n o iMtno-
Wc ierstra~s theore m to obtain a limit poin t p o f Ia,.).
for each intege r k ;;; l. let , ,.,. , be a term of the seque nce Ia. l such that
1. 11(k + I)
> n (k) for all k ~ I , and
I
2. lan<kl - PI< i; ·
/'ROOF It follows immediately from the triangle inequaluty that every convergent
seque nce is a Cauchy sequence. TilliS suppose that the sequence Ia. ) is a Cauchy
sequ e nce.
C hoose N such that
if m. n ~ N. It follows that if n ~ N. tl~en " • lies in the closed inte rval (aN - 1. aN+ 1).
Titis implies tha t the sequence la .J IS bounded. and thus by Lemma 2 it has a con-
vergent subsequence la.rtd· Let p be the hmll of tlus subs~quencc.
we claim that fa. } ttscl f converges lop. Gt\'Cn l > 0. choose M such that
(
(a.., -a.l < 2:
'f > •,f Nevt choose K such that n(K )?: M and
1 111, " =" . ·' . -
Titen if" ~ M.
ian- pi~ (a,. - "•<Kli + lan(KI - PI < f.
A= [D- 1
/(.r{.
'11tc question of the rmrrnuof the arc~ function-one of t he conditions tha t a
functionfmu't <Jti\fy in order for it< intcgr:tl tn c~i<t -did not :tt fi rs t se em to be o f
much im pmt:~ncc. Ei)!htccnth ·ccntur~ m:~thcm:t t ici.ln< "ere mainly occupied (and
M li,ficd) \\ith the imprn\lvc :tpplic:ltlom of calculus to the solu tion o f rca l·world
problem~ :ond d1J ntH conccntrJtc un the l<>fiC.JI found.tlions of the s uhjcct.
ll1e nr~t a1tc mpt at a precise dchmtion of the integral and a proof o f its exis·
tcncc for continu ous functions wa< that of the french mn thcmntician Augustin Louis
Cauchy (17$'1-li\57). Curiously enough. Cnuchy wa< trai ne d a< nn enginee r, and
much of hi< rcsc:trch in mathemat iC'> wa~ in field< that "C today r<.: ga rd a' a pplicatio ns·
o rie nted: hydrodyn:un ics. wan:s in cl~~tic media . vibrations o f <.:lastic me mbranes.
po lariz:ttion of lig ht. a nd the like. Dut he \\ 3S a prolific researcher. and his writ·
ings covc r the ent ire spec tru m of ma the ma tics. wi th occasiona l e ssays into al most
unre lated field-.
Around 1824. C:tuchv defined the integral of a continuo us function in a wav
that is familiar to us. n< a li~1it of lcft·endpoi~t ap proxima tion s: ·
~ n
r
J(J
f( x ) d.r = .).a·-
lim '
o~
f(.r;_t) t:.x.
••I
llt is is a much more complic::t tcd sort of lim it than the ones we discussed in C h:tpter 2.
C:wchy was not e nt irely clear about the nature of th e limit process invo lved in th is
equation. nor was he clear about the precise role th at the hypothesis of th~.: continuity
off played in proving th at the limit exists.
A complete definition of the integral , as we gave in Section 5.4. was lina llv
produced in th c 1850s by th e G erman mathem a tician Georg Bernhard Ri eman~.
Hie ma nn was a student of G auss; he met Gauss upon his arrival at Gottinl!en.
Germany. for the purpose o~ studying theol o~y, when he was about 20 years-old
and G:tuss was about 70. R1emann soon dec1ded to studv mathematics and be·
carne known as one of the truly great ma thema t icians of ihe ninete enth century.
Like Cauchy, he was particularly in terested in appl ications of mathe matics to th.e
real world; his research emphasized electricity. heat. light. acoustics. fluid dynamics.
a~d-as ~ou migh~ infer from tl~c fact.that Wilh elm Weber was a maj or inll~ence on
Rtemann s educatton-magncllsm . R1emann also made significant contributions to
mathematics itself, particularly in the field of complex analysis. A major conjecture
of his, involving the zeta function
(1)
remains unsolved to this day. This conjecture has important consequences in the
.-
APPENDIX F A-29
~(k) = n ,- )-!
(
I
pl
n
whe re the product is taken over all primes p. (lne ZC:t3 function is det.iocJ in E~j( tl~
fo r complex numbe rs s to the ri£ht of the ,·crticalline :tt x = I :tnd IS .cxtcndc . d
othe r complex numbers by the requirement that it be d ifferentiabk.) Rlem:mn die
of tuberculosis shortly before his fo~tiet h bi rt hda,·. .
.~ere we gi:e a proof of the existence of th; intc!:ral oi a wn~inuo~s ft~n~uon:
\\ e " 111 follow R1emann's approach. Specifically. suppose thlt the tuncll<' 11 J 1' c~n.
1
llnuous on the closed and bou nded intervll (a. b). \\'c will pro n : thlt the dctimtc
Integral
exists. That is. we will demonstrate the existen•e of a numbe r I thai s:t ti<tk s the
fo llowing condition: For ever\' l > 0 th ere exis ls $ > 0 such that. for n ·rry Riemann
sum R associa ted with any pa.rtit ion P with 1Pi < cl.
I I - Rl < (.
(Recallth:~tthe norm( f'l of the partition pi s the length of the longest subi nter,·:~l in
the partilio n.) ln o ther wo rds. cvcrv Riemann sum associated with every suflicicntly
"fine" plrtition is close to the number / . If this happens. then the definite int<:gr:~ t
!.&/(.t) d.t
is said to ui•t. and I is its ,·alue.
No w we begin the proof. Suppose througho ut th at / is a function cont inuo us o n
the closed interval [a. b]. Given ( > 0. we need to show the existence of :1 number
6 > 0 such that
and
U(PI = L" / (q, ) A .r1 •
(3b)
Ia I
LEMMA 1
For any partition P of [a. b). L(P) ~ U(P).
Now we need a defi~!tion. ll_le pa.rtition P' is ~ailed n refinement of the partition
P i! each subinterval of P 1scontamed m some submterval of P. That is. P' isobta' d
from p by adding more pomts · o f su bd'IVJSIOn
· · to p . me
A· 30 APPE.NOIC[S
LEMMA 2
Sup~ tha t P' u a refiner.1ent of P. Then
U.P> ~ U. P'>~ U( P ) ~ U( PJ. (4)
Hen ce
f (u) · (:- Xt-1 ) + /(t•) · (Xt- : ) ~ /(f't) ·(:- XI · ) + / ( Jit) · (X~t- Z)
= f<Pl ) · <: - _..,_. + .t1 - :)
= f<pd . (XI - .... . ,).
So the replacement of / (p 1 ) • (.rt- X t-tl cannot d ecrca\c the sum L( f') in question.
:~ndtherefo re L( P ) ~ L( P'). Because th is is all we needed to show. we ha,·e completed
the proo f of Lemma 2. -c
To pro,·e that a li the Ri emann sums for sufficiently fine partitions arc close to
some number/, we must fLrSt give a construction of / . Th.is is accomplished through
Lemma3.
LEMMA 3
Let P. denote the regular partition of (a. b] into 2" subintervals of equal le ngth.
Then the (sequential) limit
(5)
e:~:ists.
/'ROOF We begin with the observation that each partition P•+t is a refinement of
r•. so (by Lemma 2)
L(P,) ~ L(P2> ~ · .. ~ L( P.) ~ .. ·.
exists. lhis establishes Eq. (5), and the proof of Lemma 3 is complete.
It is proved in advanced calculus that iff is cont inuous on [a. b]. then-for
eve ry number f > ~the re exists a number 6 > 0 such that
lu - vi < h.
Th is properly of a function is called uniform continuity off on the in tcrvJI [a. bJ.
Thus the theorem from advanced calculus th at we need to usc states that every
continuous function on a closed and bounded interval is uniformly continuous there.
Note lhe fact that f is continuous on [a. b) means that for each number u in the
interval and each f > 0. there exists 6 > 0 such that if 1• is a number in the interval
with lu - vi< h. then 1/ {u)- / {v) l <(.But unifo rm continuity is a more st ringe nt
condition. It means that given f > 0. you can find not only a value o1 that "works" for
a value 82 that works for "l· and so on , but mo re: You can find a universal val ue of
II J ,
h > 0 that wnrk< for n/1 \'a lues of u in the interval. This shou ld not be obvious when
l·
you not. icc the possibi lit y that 81 = I. 62 = j. h3 = and so on. In any case. it is clear
that umform continuity off on an interval implies its continuity there.
LEMMA 4
Suppose that< > 0 is given. l11en there exists a number o > 0 such that if Pis a
partit ion of [a. b) with 1? I < oand P' is a refinement of P. then
for any two Riemann sums R(P) associated with P and R( P') associated with P'.
PROOf-' Because/must be uniformly cont inuous on {a. b), there exists a numbe r
o> 0 such that if
(
lu- vi < 8. then 1/(u) - /{v)l < .
3(b- a)
Suppose now that I' is a pa rtition o f( a . b) with !PI < 3. TI1en
n n
IV(/') - L(P)I =L 1/(q,)- /{p;)llix; <
3
(b ~ L lix1 = ~.
••I
0
) l~t 3
This is valid because lp; - q, l < 8. for both p, and q, belong to the same subint erval
[x1_ 1 , .r;) of P. and !PI < 6. '
X ow. as shown 10 Fig. F. I, we know that L(P) and V ( P ) differ by less than ~ _
We know also that
13
L(P) ~ R(P) ~ U(P)
IIClJRE
oiL F.l Part of the proof for every Riemann sum R( P) a;sociatcd with P. But
~rnrna 4.
f.: [(:r) dx
exists.
/'R OOF Supro~e th 3 t t > 0 is gi' en. We mu<~ show the c., is tc ncc of a number
o > 0 such that. for e' Cr)' p~rt11ton /' or [•'· />] " ith I /'J < J, we h:wc
If- R!)'ll < (,
wh ere 1 is the numt>cr f:ivc n in Lemm~ J and R( f'J is an arritr:11')' Rieman n su m for
f a\sociatc<.l " ith
/'.
We choo'c the: num be r 6 prn"i<.lc<.l by Lc mm;o .t such tha t
~~~! ;s n~t continuous anywhere. (\\'hv?) Given a partition P of (0. 1). let P• be n
As b ra P<>• nt and q, an irrational point of the ith subinterval of P Cor each i .I ~ i ~ n.
e ore 1attains ·It · · 1 ch
q,. Also · s IIllnunum value 0 at each p, and its maximum value at e3
REM~RK This i~ not the end of the story or the integral. Integrals of highly dis·
con~m~ous funcuons arc iopnn3nJ in many appli<-:ation' or ph~ •ics. :md nc:1r the
h<:gmnmg of the twentieth centurv a number of mathematician<;.. most notably llcnri
~cbcs~uc ( 1R75-19~1 ). deve loped more powe rful integrals. 1hc Lebesgue integral.
10
parucular. always exists when the Rieman n integral docs. nnd gives I he sa me value;
but the Le besgue integral is sufficiently po"'crful to integralc even functions th:ll are
contmuous no"' here. It reports that
1 1
f<x)tlx = I
for the function f of Example I. Ot her mathematicians have developed integr:tls with
dornains far more general than se ts of real numbers or subsets of the pbnc or space.
Theorem I g Uarantees that Eq. (3) holds unde r mild restrictions on the functions g
and Jr.
A· 34 APPENOJCLS
. •.
1!~, 2: g<u,)nc >.~~ox= • s<x>h<x>rlx.
•=l
1' (3)
.
"'here u, and 1 arc arbitrary pomts . h su b'anten..3 1of ·3 rccul:~
of the 11 • r pJ rt ition o r
[a. b) into n $ubintcf\ah.. cJch of length ~.r.
1'/WO/' Let .If: and .11; de not~ the mJ.\.irnum \ Jiues on [a. b) of lg·(.rll ;~nd ill (.r )l.
respecta,cl~·- ~ole that
L" Jll ll, ll.lt, l t u = R. - S... " h..-re R. = L" g( l·, )h( l·, ) .ll..r
lei jal
heca usc both u, and 1•, arc points of the interval f.r, - I • x, I of leng th Ax. '11tc n
IS. I ~
" .
L lg(u,)- g(l',)l - 1/t (I', Jl.ll..r ~ L eM, Ax). ( Ml C..r)
n
= ( i\11 Mz A.r) L A.r = .11 .\ f:(b - a) A.r,
1
•=1
from which it follows tha t s. - 0 as A.r - 0. as desi red.
••
.
FICURE C. l A careful estim.lte of th~ volume of a
solid of revolution around the y-a• is.
Because Theorem I implies that both of the last two sums approach J:2:r
f (x )clx,
the squeeze la w of limits now implies Eq . (4).
We will occasionally need a gene ralization of l11corcm I thai involves the
notion of a conlin uous function F(x. y) of two variables. We say I ha l F is colllinuo us
at the point (xo. )u} provided 1ha1 the value F(x . y) can be made arbitrari ly close to
F (xo. )IJ) mere ly by choosing the point (x. y) sufficiently close to (.to . )Ill· We discuss
continuity of functions of two variables in Chapte r 13. Here it will suffice to accept
the following facts: If g(x) and h (y) arc continu()US functions of the single variables
x andy, respectively, then simple combinations such as
g(x) ± lt(y). g(r.)h(y). and J [g(x) )2 + [lr(y>JZ
arc continuous: functions of the two variables x andy.
Now consider a regular partition of (a. b] into n subintervals. each of length llx,
and let rr; and u; denote arbitrary points of the ith subinterval (:r, • 1• x, ].l11corcm 2 -
we omit I he proof-tells us how to find the limit as 6x - 0 of a sum such as
lim
A_.-o
t
i~ J
9rr; + 11: 6x
4
=Jo{0 ../9x2 + x4tlx
A-36 APPEN DICE.S
APPENDIX G PROBLEMS
In /'rohlr.m.1 I rhmuKh 7, " • and ,., orr orbitrar;· po inu of rJ:<
irlr .wl>inrrrvol nf n rrgularportitirm of[a. b] into r. .1ubir.urvaiJ, ~- lim ~ sin u, cos r, .ell'; a = 0. b =:r12
.)..1- oL-
rach of lr.ngth t:u . Ezprt.ll the gi ,,., limit 0 .1 o.n in:rgra! f ro"' a
to 1>, rhrn compllt< th< valut of rhiJ ir:trgraL '"'
• •
I. lim ~ 11, v, Az; a = 0. b = I 6. h:n ~ )sin: u, +cos=r, Ax : a= 0. b = ''
.!.• - 0 ....._.
t..•-oL- •• •
••1
• .
2. A•- ~ (3u1 + 5v1 ) At;
limfl L-
1• 1
A
a = - I , b =3
..,
7. h:n ~ / u! -'-
.!...t_, L-
ri ~.r: u = 0. b = 2
3. lim ~ u,~ Az; a =IJ, b = 2 8. Ex;:l.1in hl>>< Theorem I ~pplics to sho" that Eq. ( S) of Sec-
,_,
!;. •-"'- lion ~.-1 follows fro m th~ discussit>n that precedes tl m that
~cti on.
a= 0. b =3
9. t.:~c Theore m I tO dcri\ c Eq. (Ill) uf Section 6.-1.
REMARK 1 To see that this theo rem is indeed a gene ralization of the (ordinary)
mean value theorem, we take g(x) = x . Then g'(x)
reduces 10 the fact that
I, and the conclusion in Eq. (2) =
[(b) - [(a)= (b- a)['(c)
for some number c in (a. b).
REMARK 2 Equation (2) has a geometric interpreta tion like that of the ordinarv
mean value theorem. L,et us think _of lhe equations x = g (: ). y [(I ) as describing =
lhe motton of a poml f (x. Y} movmg along a curve C in the xy-plane as increases
from a to b (Fig. 1-1.1). Thalt~ !'(x. y)
1
=
P (g(r ) . [ (1)) is lhe location of the point P
atume 1. Under the assumpltOn that g (b) .,.: g(a), the slope of the line L connecting
the endpoints of the curve Cis
m = .:..f..:.,( --...!f....:.<c....:.l)
b..:...>
g (b) - g(a) · (3)
But if g' (c).,.: 0, then the chain rule gives
dy dyjdt ['(c)
dx = dxfdt = g'(c) (4)
APPEND IX H A-37
---- ---
---
for the slope o f the line tangent to the curve C at the poin t (g(c). [(c) ). Out if
g (b} -:;!; gCa) and g'(c) f. 0. the n !Eq. (2) may be written in t!he form
/ (b) - /(a ) /'(c) (5)
= - -
g(l>) - g (a ) /((c)
so the two slopes in Eqs. (3) and (4 ) arc equal. Thu~ Cauch y's mea n value theorem
implies tha t (unde r ou r assumption~) there is a po int on the curve C whe re t he t angent
li ne is parallel to the line joining the endpoin ts of C. ·n tis is exactly wh:lt t he (ord ina ry )
mean value theorem says for an expl ici tly de fined curve y =
f( x ). lltis gco nu:tric
inte rpretation motivates the followi ng proof of Cauchy 's m ean value t heore m .
PROOF 'Ilte line L through t he endpoints in Fig. H .l has point-slope e qua tion
/ (b) - f( a )
y - /(a ) = g(b) _ g(a ) (x - g(a)),
This is the same as Eq. (2) in the conclusion of Cauchy's mean value theorem. and
the proof is complete. ~
A· 38 APPENO:CES
Nor~ t\ltbm::r.'l the 31sumnuom tb.lt .; (/> 1 ~ dal 3nJ l:'l<"l ~ 0 \\ Crc needed fo r
O:Jr geometri:-m:errreLltio~ of t!:e t!!eorern. the~ -. e re not u~C'J in it~ proof-{)nly
an the molt' atw n fo r the me:hod of rroo!.
rrUJOF OF 1.'1 /0P/11 \ CS RL"LE Su;-ro<c th:~t /I rl ~~ d h:1< the ind c- tc-rmtnatc
fo rm II () 3: , = a. We ml~ i~' oi:e co:::a:m 1 :~ off JnJ .: "' .lllo" t he as<umptaon
that ! a 1 =r = f ! TI:J: is.,. e <::::;-!' de line [t al :1nJ t;t.t l to 1'C' 7Cr<> tn e:1sc thcar
\a lue1 a: .z =a a:: r.ot o n2;:'Ll !:\ Z!\!'C.
:-;,. .. "' C r!'~:n:: o~ : -a: :en;,.~~ 1 ' , ai:Jes o~ .x ="
tn a ti~ cd rctj:hl>orhood of
a on.,. ., ::h lv•:!': ' a~.:! ;; are Cl ~:e::r:· t.l"k Ch<x~ ,,::e su~h ' alue of • and ho ld
it tCffij'<t: .t rth Cl"~ <: ln : Tr:e~ ar;-1\ Ca:J:h~ .• mc.ln \3IU~ theorem Cll1 the tnterval
(a . .z) II! .z ~ a . u'C the tn:cnJ I [ r . .; j 1 \\'c fi nJ tlut there i< :1 number: h<:t\\ CCn a
and r th~ t "c h3, c s .H c J,..:< 1:1 Eq 1: 1 Hen:c. 1>~ \Htuc of l;q (:). \\ C o btain the
cqu1t um
f lrl 1 1 tl - {1 .1 1 f t: l
---
~;l r l
= 1;1 t l - ~ t.J )
= ---
( (: )
Now : dcf't' rHh on t. hut:,, trlrf't'd 1-<:t" ccn r .tnd '' · ~o: a• forrc,J to approach n
a< A 11 We con.:luJc th 11
/1• 1 f t: l f't.t l
!•:t! ,clc ) - ~~~7! ;:'( :) ~ !'~! c ( c) '
under the n~•umptinn tl111 t the t t!:ht·h.lnd hntll c xt~l<. Titu\ "c ha"c w rill cd l'll t)pi tnl's
r ulc in the fMm of Eq . ( 1) ~
+ [ J"(.r)(b - x) - ;! [ 01 (x )(b- x) 2]
+ [;! f 31
(x)(b - x) -
2
;! [!'1(x)(b- .r) 1]
-
APPENDIX I A-39
Upon care f u I tn<pccu
. . on of thiS . 1te fi11·1 "~ ttwo caned
. r~sult, we ~c that all terms c'<ccptt
in plirs. Th us the sum '' telc cope<" to !!i'e
(J)
Finally. \\ e re turn to Eq. (I) and substitute x = a. f(x) = O.and the value o f K
given in Eq. (J ). The result i< the equation
. The parabola. hyperbola. and ellipse that \\ e studied in C h:!Jllcr 10 were originall y
c£, . , .,
introdu•-.:d by the ancient Greek mathcmatici:lns :1s piJnc 'cctilllh ( traces) of a right
circubr cone. Here we show that the intersection o f a plane and n con..: is. imkcc.l,
one of tlu.: thr~o.: conic sections as defined in Chapter I 0.
,:...-- · Figure J.i shows the con.: with equation z = Jx2 + y2 and it s intersection with
~ / apla nc'Pthatpasscs th roughthe point(O.O. I )andthclinc x c > Oi nthcxy-pla nc. =
' 1 , ~ 10. 0. 11 An equatio n of 1' is
"""" •}-------...,.
' / X
:=1- -. (I )
' c
' "' • The an~:le be tween 1' and the xr·pl:me i< ¢ = t:m - 1 (1 /c). We want to show tha t t he
conic section obtained by intersecting the cone anc.lthc plane is
fiCUR£ 1.1 f inding an equation A p:uabol:l if ¢ = -15" (c = I ) .
lot • conic l«tJOn.
An ellipse if¢ < .ts• (c > 1).
A hype rbola if¢ > 45• (c < 1).
x=c(l-z)=c(l- ~ )·
I + C"· (3)
•
=
We bad ..l x2 + >l for the equation of the cone. We make the foltowin
·on: Rep1ace y wn
· h 11, an d rep
. I·.tee. z and x wuh
b· . .
. the c•p S su. stnut tons
·n this equat1
1 ., rcss1ons o n th e
A-40 APP£ND!CE5
right-hand sid~ o r Eqs. (2} and (3). respecti,·ely. These repl3cements yield
' c -. - 1 . ~ '
_, . 0 (.t)
r:r - - . - - I'" - t • .._ C" = •
c-.!.l , 1- r
Thi~ t> the equation o~ !he cun·e in the u 1 -plane.\\"~ e"tamine tht' thn:e c:~scs: for the
angle¢. ·
Suppose lint that o = ~ 5" . Then c- = 1. so Eq . (~ )contains :1 term thJt mcludes
u 2 • ~noth~ r te rm that tnclud<:-< 1 • ~nd a ron;un t tcmt. So thl" curve is :1 parabola; sec
Eq. (6) of Sectto:: 9.6. •
Sup;xN: ne(t th)! ¢ < .!5.. Then c > 1. JnJ l-<1th th<' codlkicnts o f~~~ :tnd ,,.
in Eq.(~ ) uc fY><tthe. l nu< the cunei < an elli p•e : ~<'<' Eq . ( I i) of Section 9.ti.
Fin~JI\·. I f~ •. .l.' . then (' < 1. and the .-.-..:ftin<:nt< or~~~ :lnd •. ~ in Eq . ( ..j) h~ve
opp<.xitc <iin' So the Cltr' e i< "h~pcrl'-oLl: <cc Eq . (: f'll of St.:ction 9.1\.
is gi ,·cn by
Af = \1[ (a) · h + r( h l · h (I)
whac E( h l = (f 1 (h). lz( h ) . . ... f. (h)) is a vector s uch that c~ch demen t f , (h) ap-
proaches zero as h- O. [No tc the symllolt!. for ~increment" and the inverted \1 fo r
" gradi<,n t- o n !he right-hand side in Eq . ( 1). )
To analy7.c the increment .lf. w.: splilthe jump from a to a + hi nton se parate
steps. in each of which only a single coordinat~ is changed. Let c, denote the unit
n-vector \l ith I in !he ith position. and wrilc
a. ) h,
= n fl a -: - I,J:,c ) h .
for <nmc 7, 1-ct" ecn 0 and I • uktilU~IO:'l i:l (: ) t h::n g1\ CS
~~= I:
.. , n rca .• - t:h,t',) h,
l llU\
.':J.f = .__
' 1n ft • l - f th l} h,
•••
~NVERSION FACTORS
1 in. = 2.5~ em= 0.025~m. I m:::::: 3.2808 ft
1 mi = 52SO ft: 60 milh = 88 ft/s
I lb :::::: ~.4~~'2 N: I slug ::::: 1~.594 kg
1 hp = 550 ft ·Ibis :::::: 7~5.7 W
A-4 2 AJ>PENDKE..S
ILAW S OF EXPONENTS
a,.,o" = af"\" 111
• (ab)' = a"b".
in particular.
a1: = /a.
If 11 ~ 0. t hen
(1
· • =-
I
o•
IQUADRATIC FORMULA
ll1c quad ra tic equatto n
II X l + b:r + C =0 (1.1 7- IJ)
has solutio ns
-b ± .Jt.! - .lac
.t =
I FACTORING
11: - h: = (a - b )(a +bl
a3 - lY = (a - b )(a! + tlb + th
a' - b' =(a- b )(a 3 + alb + ub: + bl )
= (a - b)(a + b)(a z + f12 )
5
a 5 - b =(a- b)(a' + a 3b + a 2 /J + ab3 +I>')
(llte pauern continues.)
a3 + b1 = (a+ b)(a 2 - ab + bz)
a 5 + b5 = (a + b)(a' - a 3b + a 2/J -a/} + b' )
a
1
+ b7 = (a+ b)(a 6 - a 5 b + a' I} _ " J/} + 112b' _ abs + b~)
(The pattern continues for odd exponents.)
if n is a po sitive integer.
APPENDIX M A-4 3
EA AND VOLUME
~ In fi g. M.l . the symbols have the fol lowi no meanings.
A: area
"'
b: length of base
- r: rad ius
lJ: nrc a of base C: circumference V: volu me
h : height l : lengt h w: width
0 l~ G
I
I7 .. ~
b,
lo
1 h
r+=?l·
ox.
Recur. ~ular raratlt lc!-('ipcd Pyrami1l: R•ght Ctrcul.t.r cont· R1g.h1cu'C'Uhtt cylinder Spll<"re:
\ 'o ( wh v ~ }BJ1 v~J n r~h-= Jan V: ~,lh • Bh V • j ~rr 1 nnd A. • 4f.' rl
FlGURE M. l The b.,sic gt-omctric sh,lpcs.
IPYTHAGOREAN THEOREM
In a right triangle with legs a and ba nd hypotenuse c.
al+b2=cz .
cos( - 0) = cos 0
2
sin 0+ cos2 0= 1
sin 20 = 2 sin 0 cosO
\
\
II
La" of sines:
sin A
- a- =-;;-=7
si n LJ sin C
<
i.
ka ppa
lamtxl.t
,.
I: 0
r
Sif!lllil
IJU
6 0 del ta M II mu I l' upsilon
E ( c p\ ilon N ,. nu ¢ <f; phi
z
II
{
'I
zeta
eta
-
0
~
(I
~I
omicron
X
ljl
X
,:,
chi
P'i
e 0 th eta n :r pi n omega
"'
ANSWE RS TO
oDD -NU MB ERED PROB LE MS
A-45
A-46 ANSWERS TO 000-NUMBtREO PROBW.IS
- · - - 6 -
IJ ) .. ~- flc nzo ::u! u,,cen!.S .1t n. -:1~nd 11. :21. 'ertac31llnscnt 3t
I t1 Oa J::J '"' t;n.:~nt line :u f ) . Ill.
-) -l.l-2 -l.l-1 - <IJ I '"ii:i""' !i. H~~nz4-,:::...tl un~"!~nls Jl ( i. ± ~ ,13) 3nd :tl (0, 0): ' crtical t:Jn·
~-e:-:1 lt 1: . n,
3.
c:, ,. .t= _
, &l
29. - = - :~ JnJ - • =CV •
dT '1'C'"
.\1. r
c=---:.,=-.-x<nr<+~ 1r "
r- "!
J.._\ The slOf'i: of the hn~ t."·nn t.llning 1:, nnd /'' is
I + ,~l,~ tt
~10 0
r.
h fr• + -lr' - -l/5- .;,s + 4ri +1 ,
J'. '!bC lcr.gth is 211 (r> + 1)1 dt r·
47. :._-- - 1
4 12 -
" J,917.l8.~7217.
41. 5 :t )a·'
6
s.. ('·;2Y-(';I)l =I
~.l Center (1, 2). foci (I±/~. :!I. n<ymrtutc< .•· - :; = ..1: ( ' - I )
t\ [ / is ... :!6cos61l tf•l "" 20 ~13398308 5<5. Cente r (0. 3), foci (0. J ::: 2./5). 3s~ mptotcs ." = J ± xJJ
m.
t'. t' /io- 6cos~ d·1:::. 19.37~896-411
57. Cente r (- I. 1). foci (- I ±
±i(.r +I )
ll. awmptotc< ." - I =
·
~9. Parabola. opening to the left. \ Crte \ 0. Ol. :ni< the .r-a , i>
61. P~r~bob. o pemng to the n~ht. \ 'CrtCX c-} .lll. fl\iS the
n. { ) 106 + 90 co~ II till"' 61.0)35813739 .r·axis
63. Elh('$c, center (0. 21. \Crtic'cs a t (0. tl) nn<l (II. -2)
!!. un~th: 1~' Jlr'CrlF + b'<r>F ar "'39.4035787 129 ni1e the equation as that of a p:tr:tt...oh.
77. n. ;\hout 322 b il hon mile~; to. ahout 1211 hill ion mi les
79. \\'ath focus F<O. c) and ducctri\ the Ime L: )' = r:f•·'
SECTION 10.6 (PAGE 676) (0 <,. < I). begin with I P F l = ,. · I I'Ll. dom inate radicals.
)itnplify. replace "'(I - ~' ) woth lr . :md con, e rt the result-
ing Can esiJn equation to ~stand:trd Co rm."
L ();x'ns to the right; c<Junt ion >l = 12x
Ill . Go to nww.liUJ!<buq:.cdu/d(•ptvmalllfMATinu.V
l. ();>ens downwa rd: equation (A - 2)1 = -S(y- 3) tllip<t<.1.09.0.html.
!. OjYns to the lch; equMion ()' - 3)1 8(.t - 3) =- ( r - 1) 2 3);
7. (};lens downward; cqu~ t ion x= = - 6()' + ~) 83. lloe on ly solution is
4
+ 16 = I.
9. ();>ens upward: equation x: = 4 (y + I) 85. (c) In this case there arc no points o n th e graph .
II. Opens to the right. vertex at (0. 0). n~is the x-axis. focu~ a t =
89. lt\x 1 + 50xy ... 16)J J6':1
13. Ot. dtre<trix x = -3 91. If A is at (-SO. 0) :tnd B is :ot (50, 0 ), th e n the .r ·coord inllle
U Opens to the left. vertex at (0. 0), nxis the r-nxis. focu~ at of the plane i~ :tppro ximatcly .J. I.3395 (in mi) .
<-l.O).directrixr = i 93. 2000 mi
IS. Opens upward. vertex at (2. - 1). n~is r = 2. focus at (2. 0). 95. !legin with r = ~/(1 - .. c~ll) and tirst show tha t the area
d:rec1ri~ y =
-2 o f the ellipse i<
17. Opens downward, vertex at( - ~ . - 3), nxis r = -!. focus
't ).
at(- \. directrix y = - ¥-
19. (~)I -(~ y
= 1 Then u<e the substitutio n discu~sed after l\.l i'l:elbncous
Proble m 134 of Chapter 7.
h •
A-48 ANW/£RS TO ODD-NU'.1 o£~ED PROSlE'.IS
35. 2 37.
51 ~ 1. T, 1-cj:•n. <Uj'J" "C ( "llhl'lll 1,"' of ):CilC r.1111y) Iha I t\ > ll.
') ./5 . ,/5 Jil 9 J5 . ./5 J. DJ 'trg~' (I he 41h pJrll.ll <u m •~ 41)
57. I + -I U- :uc~m
.
- - -- - -
3 M IU
nrn1n-
6 ~- 0 aH."f £<"S (~<0"11('lt1C v. alh r .tlw -2 )
7')• .. =2
4
lccl 0 tan! 0 3
37. D iverges: Show1ha1S, ~ i'·l ~ tl.r·" In .t
> ln( ln(k + l)).
lL
'f/
81. A = I)
0 (I + 1311 I O) '· tf() = .2 • 39. -
47
4l. ~ 31-'1 56
99 43.
83. If lJ < then I he conic is an ellipse: if lJ > t it is a hy· 333 9\MI<J
z
p.-rbola." lf IJ =
l •he graph i' a degenerate p nrabola: '"o 4!'. Conve rges 10- - if -3 < x < J.
parallel lines. If the graph is normallo th ey-axis nt 1he point 3 -.r
(0. 4). I hen I he graph is 1hc ellipse with equation .r - 2
47. Con,·erges to if -I < z < 5.
5- x
5z2
49. Converges 10 ir -2 < x < 2.
16- 4z2
ANSWERS TO ODD-NUMBERED PROBLEMS A-49
I ~ (- 1) ' (2 r ):..• l . · ·
25. ~i n lr = L · This represent~ Iron IS vahd ror
:1. 6 (1n + l )! ·
.~
1 (BcavcrboCk's const~nt) all x.
:J.:; ~
(- l )' r .,.' 2
I !7. si n(.r 2) =
L · . lhis reprcscntJtt· on •os vnhd• for
;s. :;
3 57. 2 59. 3 • ..0
(2n + l)!
all .r.
61. vsc t he• con\'crsc of part 2 ofl11eorem 2. 29. In(! + .r) = ~
N ( - l)" •lrJt
· . This representation 1S v:tl1d 1f
. . . .
6.1. :.5 s L II
•• I
. M, _ 0 as 11 __. + oc. - 1 <X :i l.
67
4 2
_. Paul: -; ~13 ry:
c •·r·. 7'
£9. Pl 7 7 .11. r - ' = 2:
" <-Wx" . Thts · ·IS va1·ctr
· representation 1 or a 11 .r.
.!. of the incident li ght
.
..., n!
i1 ( - l)"'l(.r - I )' . . . .
' ' 12
JJ. In x = ~
N
. 'This representation IS vahd 1f
L II
r~ t~ :r" r~ t 6
1. ,-• = 1- x + ' ! - ·J ! + ~ ! - ' ! + ' ! ,.-: for some nu mber
2 5
.15. cosx = .J22 - .J2
2
(x - ::_)
4
- 2!../2· 2 (.r - ::_4 ):
6
z between 0 and x .
xz x' .ts .
3. cosx = I - ! + ! - S! stn z for some number~ between + -31_11..-2 ( x - :r
-
4
)J+--
.J2 (
4! . 2
. t - -:r ) '
4
2 4
0 and .r.
This rcprt"sc ntarion is ,·a1id for all.r.
r,-:- X x2 .rl 5x•
I v1+x = I + - - - + - - for some
1 + ~) 1: I
•.
number z between 0 and x.
2 8 16 128(1
- =
.17. .r L"' (- IJ' (.r- 1)". 'lltis representation is valid ror
xJ .rt .,
.....
7. tanx=x + - + - (16sec' ~ tan: + Sscr ~ tnnl :) for
3 4!
0< .r < 2.
some number z between 0 and .t.
.
9. artStn .r = x +
x 3 (1 + 2:'!
for some number : between 0
· 39. sin.r = _.Jf + _J I
2 2
(x - ::_) - 2!_../2_2· 2 (.r - =:.)
·I 4
1
- 2
_..J2_
3! · 2
3!(1 - ~>":
and .r.
II· <_. .= r + ~(x-l) + i(.r-l)"
t·
e , t'
+ (i(.r- 1 ) +
1
24
~ ,
(.r-1) + x(.r- ~ )J + -41-.2 (.r- ~ )' + -5~-~2 (x- ~ )s
1
liO(x- 1) for some number z between I an<l .r. llris representation is ''a lid lor all.r.
- 12 .r-6
45. Given / (.r) = .- -•. its plot together with that of
are lhO~~>'TI together next. ~9. Results: With .r = 1 in the M aclaurin scrks in Problem 56.
"'C find that
0 = L!» ( t•• l
....::..I_"" 0.6S32~71 605759l!I I SS·C56S8J 1{.19.
n
~1
y •C<-1\ 1
1. D1•crgn· 1~ l
+
X ... I
11.1 = [~- ln(.t' + I)] "'= +oo.
0
y
5. Converges: 1~ .r ' ~ j d.r = [ arctJn X]~ = ~ < +00.
7. Diverges: 1, . . x- 1
In .r
- d.r = [ lntln .r)]"' = +oo.
~
I
.''= -I + .r
11. Con\'crges: 1"' x' e· • dx = - [(x 2 + 2.r + 2)e·• ] ~= 2
r
< +oo.
-0.5 0.5 •
13. Converges: 1"' :,.r 1
dx = [- I +;nx = _I-~-0
1"' [I ]"'
P,(.r) = I - 2! + 4! - 6! + 8!
15. Converges: .x' x+ 1 dx = 2: arctan(.r 2 ) "' ~ < + oo.
of [(.r) and the graph of g(.r) are shown together. next. 0
0
37. D1vcrgc~ if p ~ I, com·c r~cs lllhc r\\i<c. 13. Con,crt:c< hy the ahc rnatmg series test. (lllc sum is ap·
proximately ll.71 1\M~~ 11\1156.)
39. n > IOCOO
1 ~. Cun\'cr~c< hy the ahcrnnting series test. (The sum i< roughly
R 11 > 100 4.l II > 160,000
- O.S5079f,'Wll t:\·1.)
~5. n ~ 15 47. f' > I
17. Divcr!!es hy the nth·lcrm I<'SI for di\'crgc ncc.
~- Sloppy nnswcr: Over (,(J.J,.It4 ccn llH ics. /\more prl·cisc nn- 19. Divcr~cs hy the nlh ·lcrm tcs l for di,·crgcncc.
!"cr: t\ lillie on:r 922.-160 n: nturics.
21. Con"crgc. ahsulu tdy hy the rat io test. (The sum is~ -)
~1. Apply Theo rem 4 and l'robkm 52 of Section 11.2.
2.\. Cnll\·crgc~ by the alte rnating se ries test. but only condi·
tionally h)' the iniCjtral test. (The sum i< approximately
SECTION 11.6 (PAGE 727) 0. 1 59S6.,'<XlJ7~~.)
2!-. Conwq:cs ah~<•lu tcly hy the root lest. (l11c sum is approx-
irn:ucly I S6.72~1J.11'6 1 ~02-1.)
I. C'onverg.:s: Dnminat.:d hy the p-se ries " ith p = 2.
3. Diverge< hy lirnit -compari<on wi th the harmonic series. 27. ConvcrJ!<'S nhsolut cly by the ratio lest. (l11e sum is
,.· "' "' O.OOtMl4531J9'12<J76.)
S. Con,ergcs: Dominated bv the geome tric se ries with
29. Di"crgcs hy the nlh -lcrrn lest for diverge nce.
ralto \. •
,\1. Conwq:cs al"''lutcly hy the root lest. ('The sum is approx-
7, Dl\ crgcs by limit-compari<on with th e harmonic scrks.
inmely U IS7'Hl7S75U56.)
9. Con,cr~c~: Dominated by the (>·Se ries with P ~- = J .\. Convcr!!<'~ h)' th<' nllcrnating series test, hut only condi-
11. C'oO\erge<: Domi nated by the fl·<erics "ith T' =; · tiun:olly hy the c<unpnrison test. (The sum i< approximatdy
13. 0 1\erge, by comparison " ith the harnwnic series. U.761J:!O~t•252 1 ').)
l5. CoO\crges: Dominated by the p ·sc ri.:s wit h P =2. J!'. Di,•cr)!CS hy the lllh-lerm lest ror dive rgence.
17. Converge<: Oomin 3 tcd hy a )tCnmctric ,cries with ratio J· 37. Divcrg<'< hy the nlh·termtcsl for divcr~cncc.
19· CoO\ergcs by compari~on with the p -se rks "ith I' = 2. 39. Convcr~cs :tl"olutcly by Ihe ratio test. ('lllc sum is approx-
21. Cun,crgc<: Dominat ed bv the p -scrics "ith I' =~ (anw n~ im:ttdy tl.S$1171!1<)')1!767.)
other<). · 41. Convaj:t'S ah,olulcl)· l>y the ratio test. (The sum is approx-
!.l· c on, crgcs: Dorn in3tcd by the p ·scnes
· w11· h P =.,~· imntdy 2 Sll7 11»--M ISS.)
25. Converges: Do minated hy the geometnc · sen'c<" with 4.\. 0.904-1: O.lXlS: 0.90
. 2_.
ratuJ -1~. 0.6319: O.l~ Ml2: 0.632
c•
27· [) ·cvcrgcs hy limi t-compa ri"ul w11h · I1IC p-sc · ·ricswith
· {•.. !· ~7. n.flS;\2: o.o'l:
. n.1
29· ()'l\ crgcs by limit -cn rnpari<on w11 II 11eI ,..,. ·crk<Wilh(> <= \. •
~9. 11 = 6; 0.9~7 (lht• Slllll is nu:T•)
.II C0
• " 'crgcs b)• compari'><ln with a gt•nmc tnc '~
· ·ries with rn ·
. ,· h 51. " = 5: 0 t.(l(\5
llo 11 and by hm11 compari -.on "ol b a jtenn1c·tnc sc ncs '"' ~'- " = ~: 0~1.\
ra11o !
)' 5!'. 11u~ sc<tucnce or term< is not monotonic:~lly decreasing: the
.1.1. Con ' t rges b\' compari<on \\llh. I h e I'' sc·ric:s with p = 2. series di\CI!!C~ l•y com p3rison with the harmonic series.
.1~. D, • . h 1 m1onic series.
.17 ' crgc, hy llmiH:o mpari>oll w11h I c 13 (- tl"
.19. s.-,-. o'lll i 71J3 wi th error k~' th an 11.09-IS.'U. 57. Let n, = 1>, =
Iii ·
~ . s.(l <: 0.52R/170 with error k << th an 11. 1.
'
t ll l l 111 I t t
I. ~ .. It 0 Ll'ifl~01 63. l +3 - 2+5 - 4+7 +9- 6+il+i3-ii +T5
~ I: I he sum ;, appm\Jrlla ldy '" · · ·
~ ~ "'); the \Urn i\ apprn~imatcl)' I) !1)07f4. 6..~ II ('()0\CrjtCS 10 lC! O.
. lJ'C the converse or Theorem 3 in Sectio n 11.3.
A-52 ANSWERS TO ODD-NUMBERED PROBLEMS
3
I )'' 4 . 64
"" 4 + 3 I "'4.021.
( + 64
1. (-1. I) 3. (-2. 2) I. 65''3 = 4 . I
5. [0, 0) 7.[-~·~] I I
3. sin(O 5) "" - - - - 3 "'0.479.
. 2 3'. 2
s. 0.464
9. (-~·D 11. [-2,2)
7 sin(~) ""~ - _;r_ =::; 0 .309.
J
13. ( -3, 3)
15. O·n 9
• 10
sin(~)""~--;r-"='0. 174.
10 3! . 10'
)
I 3•
1' 12
arctan x d _ ~ _ _ 1_ _ _1_ _ _
.r
1_ ,. 0.4872
x - 2 2J . Jl + 2l . 51 21. p •
0
25. (5. 5] 27. (-1. I)
1
In(! + .r) I I I
29. (-co. +oc) IS. [ .r d.r "" IO - 4 . IOZ + 9 . I(}' ::,0.0976.
0
31. f(x)=x + x 1 +x 3 +x'+xs + · · · : R=l 1
I - e-' I I I I
1
/l
17. - - dr:=, - -
2 2!. 2 . 21
+ 3!. 3. 2"
- .,..,........:......-:-:
4!. 4. 24
('I; (-1)"3,.r"• 2 0 .t .
JJ. j(x) = '"' : R= + oo
L- n! I
•• o
+ 5!. 5. 2s "=< 0.4438.
"' (-l)"x ..
35. f (x) = L
"=0
(2n +I)! :
+Z
R= +oc 19. 0.7468241328124270 ::,(),7468
21. 0.5132555590033423 ::,().5133
I 2 x 1 2 . 5 .r1 2 . 5 . 8 x' l . r . r1 I
37. j(x) =I -
3x- 3l · 21 - y · J! - - y . 41 23. - - - - - - - · ·· - - - as x - + oo.
2 6 24 2
2. 5 . 8. 11 xs
_;...J_,S,_-.5,- .. . ; R=l
25. lim
x2 x3 •-0
39. f(x) =(I + x)·' = I- Jx + 3 · 4 · -2! -3 · 4 · 5. -3!
x•
+3·4 · 5 · 6 · - .. ·; R=l
41
X
••• 41. V = 21T 1"
II
sinl x •lx "' (2tr )l - (2Jr >'
xl 2 1• 4'• · 3 +-
12.T)•
6! ·-
5 - .. ·
49. -I < x < I
(I -xr, , "' 8.91050')1465101038.
2.•
+ x),
SL x(l
(I - ..r)l
- I < x <I
~ (-l)"xl<
43. v =2;r
1"
""15.3162279113254.
6J. {(X) =~ {PI+ I)!, -00 < X < +00
....,
1
ANSWERS TO ODD·NUMBERED PROBLEMS A-53
n- 1
c,. = - , r. .. ,
n- - n + 1
if 11 i: 2. w y(.t ) a 0.
25 I .I 2 l 17 7 62 9 131!2 11
• x + ) ·' + IS.t + 315.t + 2835x -'- IS5925.r
. 21R-:-t ll 929569 \5
~ 6081075.t + 63&512S75.r + ...
I. I
3. 10
!9. - 1
5. 0
7. 0
SECTION 11 .10 (PAGE 766) 9. The limit doe~ no t exist.
L •(.r)=a~
~
)' . .
-r = auc•: R = +oo
II. 0
13. +~ (or "Does not exist.")
. -...- n! 15. I
,.,()
17. Converges by the ah c rnnting se ries test. (ll1c sum i~ 3Jr
" - (- 1)' (3.r)"
· ....,
l >(I )=tl,j '\"'
L.. n!
-
2
- =1\1.. -l•r.; R=+o:> proximately O.O.c;()J57603217.)
19. Converges by the ratio test. (ll1e ~um i~ approximntcly
x3l + -2!1 (x'-3 )l 1.405253Sl<028-t)
' l
i I(I )=tl,j I ... -1 . -
I!
21. Converses hy the comparison test and ll1corcm 3 of Sec·
tion 11.7. {'n1e sum is approximately C.23!1-'UMH3!i03.)
=~cxp(~} R= +oo 23. Dive rges by the lllh·le rm tc~t for divergence.
25. Converges hy the comparison test . (The sum is nppro~i·
mntely 1.45lJ973~!U376.)
1
L 2'x" =a~ L (2x)' = 1 ~ 2x;
"\!" :I¢
0
7. )1J)= a 1 R= i 17. Conve rges hy 1hc ahernnting series t:st. {'n 1c sum is ~p·
• .., o
n ..
pwxirn.•t ely 0.;\71\Sfli\S iti llJX.)
2~. Di•cr~cs hy the intcgrnl test .
"'
9. ,\l.r)=tl,j ~ (n+ l )r'= ~I. C(ln~erg.cs by the ratio test; the s um is •. :. nru.l thc radiu~ of
...,
L..
ao
(I - .tl 2
; R= l
convcrl!encc: is +oo .
33. l nc inte rvnl of con•·crgcncc is I -2. ~) .
•\~. ll1c interval of convergence.: i~ I- I . q.
37. l nc scrie• con• e rgcs only if x = 0.
31J. '111c series con,·c rgcs to cosh x on ( -cc. +o:>).
~I. Oil'cr~cs fo r all x hy the nth·tc rm test for di•·crgcnc:c.
.u. Conwrges for all x to cxp le' ).
~5. Let n. =b.= (- 1)" · 11 · 1/,.
51. LOS~
SJ. OA61
~5. 0.797
65. ~~ =2 and "• = 4 for nlln ~ 1.
1. v = Rs = (2. 3)
3. • = Rs = l - 10. - 20)
s. w :: u + ,. = (4. 2}
7. u + • = 51 - 2j
9. ./5. 2Ji1. 4Ji. (-2. 0}, (9. - 10}
A-54 ANSWERS TO ODD-NUMBERED PROBLEMS
11. 2../2. 10. ../5. (-5. -6). (0. 2) 49. a::::74.206831•. fJ==Y ::::;47.124011"
13• .JIO. 2../29. J65. 31- 2j. -i + 19j 51. a:::: 64 .895910? • fi "'55.550098•. Y = 45'
25. a.Lb =
67• 2x + 9 y _ Sz ZJ: the plane that bisects AB and IS perpen-
27. a.l b dicular to that segment
69. TI•c angle between any two edges is ;r /3.
29. i = - 4a + 3b and j = 3a - 2b
1 5
Jt. c=-2a+ 2b
SECTION 12.3 (PAGE 794)
5, 7.
J3, D, 15i- 21j; Il, - I - - J
3 3 I. (0,-14 , 7)
s~ s.../89 .
JS. a. (7i- 3j): b. - (81+ 5J) 3. -101- 7j + k
58 89 5. (0. 0. 22)
37. c = 0 is the unique solu1ion.
43. 1i=7i=l00 7. ±/J (I2. - 3. 4)
45. 1i "'71.971. 7i "' 96.121 (lb) 11. a X (b X c)= -k ~ -i + j = (a X b) X c.
47. Compass bearing 86"13', airspc~<.l approximately 13. b x c is parallel to a.
536.52 mi/h 15. l v'2546
49. Compass bearing 320' 43', airspeed approximately 502 milh 17. u. 55; h. ~
19. Coplanar
21. Not coplanar
SECTION 12.2 (PAGE 786)
23. The area is approximately 4395.6569291026 mz .
&: E../5(2. 5. -4) 25. ·n1c area is approximatdy 31271.643253 ft 2.
-
L (5. 8. -II): (2. 23. 0): 4;
29. Begin with the observation that the a rea of the triangle in
3. (2.3.1); (3,-1.7): 0; .15: ~ J3(1.1.1 ) . !
Fig. 12.3.13 is JPQI · tl.
5. (4.-1.-3): (6.-7. 12): -1: Ji7: j./5(2.-1,0)
31. Begin with the observation tha t a vector perpendicular to
7 • .(1::::8 ) •
=
both lines is 11 F;Q; x ;;;Q;.
9. e = 'JO' 33. Usc Eq. (12) and the result inl'robl~m 32.
11. & ::::: 98' 35. Sec the discussion roll()wing Eq. (3) in the text.
13. comp.b =TI ../5: wmp~a:;; ~ v'i4
15. comp.b =0 = comp.a
SECTION 12.4 (PAGE 801)
17. comp.b =- ~ .15: comp•11 =- ~ Jiii
19• .r= -6.r+ >,2 -2y+ 1! -4z= II I . .r = t, y = 2t, <=31, -oo < 1 < +oo
21. xz- JO.r + 1- f!y + 1! + 2z + 33 =0
J •.t = 21 + 4, )' = 13, : = -JI-3, -OO<I<+OO
23. x 2 + .~ + 1! - 4z =0 = =
5. x - lit. y 31, z =Sr . - oo < 1 < +oo
25. Center (-2. 3. OJ, radius ./f:i
7. .t = 31+3. y e S, : = -31 + 7. - OO< I <+oo
27. Center (0. 0. 3). radius 5
29. 1be .ry·planc:
9. Parametric equations x 1 + 2, y = = - 1 + 3. : = -21 - J.
-oo < t < +oo: symmetric equations
Jl. The plane through (0, II. 10) parallel to the .ry-plane
:+4
JJ. .,
3!.
37.
The union of the three: coordinate planes
l'he single point CO. 0. 0)
The single poinl (3. -4. 0)
X -2=-.)•+ 3= - - .
11. Lt
and /.. '
are skew lines.
/..~ are parallel and dtstmct. 31. r (l) = (!1
6
1+ 10. ..!..,•
12
+lOr ..!_,,)
. 20
Q. L: and
1
1y-3:=0 33. r(l) = (I - I - COS I, I + I - sin I, 51)
lL 1 +•....
•
s.,o
•\ ~ -.
35. v(i:r) = ( 3./2.3./2. 8}. ••On) = 10. nnd
;q,7 = (- 6./2. 6./2. 0}
a(l:r)
- 1+ \I Y"'II ~
•''· •1 + J )' - ..· -- 0 37. u (l) x Y (l)+ u' (t) x •·(t) =(0. .Wt. -IS}= D,( u(l) x v (r)J .
, . J%
• ,. _ :=0 .u. 100ft
lL 1.J -
. ·--1y+ 17t =78 ~3. t·o = .;,..j-z- .,..= 32Ji65 ::: ~ JI.().I7.U25171S~ ft!s
. 5-2110
J.\"'
L and1' arc paralicI an d h3\C no pomts
. .m common. -l7. (a) Ran ge: J00/3 ft. maximum height 100 fL (b) R nng::
J.l. ""• , meet at (and onIy at ) thc potnt
· ( 9917 800ft. mnimum height 200ft: (c) Range: -100./3 ft. mnxt·
i. ; . 7 ).
Jl. ···l mum height 300 It
" 11:....,. ande b<:tv. ccn the piJnes is 0 = arcccx( 1/ ./3).
- ~9. 70 ./iO mls
· · The analc t>etwccn the planes i~ 0 "' 0 because the planes 51. Angle ol inclination: appro~om atol)' ~1·50'33.7.'922-1•: ini·
lL •
11< rarallcl tial ,·elocit)': appro~imatc ly I JJ.6-l .'l515·1S.~ m.!s.
=
l.\ Parametric ~quations.x = 10. )' 1. : = - 10- 1. -oo < 1 < 53. Fim at\umc th>t u (l) =( rro( r) . u ; (l )) nnd •II) = (o•r(1). t•:(l )).
+:<:: urte~t3n cquatmn~ .r = Hl. )' = -10- z Your prooh•ill be u s) to gcncrJluc to ' ector.> with three
ll. There is no line of intersection because the planes nrc ur more cornponc11 ts.
fH31icl. 55. Fir~! sho" tho t D, 1•11) • v(l ) ( =0.
li. Parametric equation' x =3. )' =3 - 1. z = I + 1. - oo < 1 < 57. A centr:rl repulsive fo rce " ith mognitudc proportional to
+:>::: Cartesian equations x =3. : .. ~ - y. dtstancc !rom the origin.
4'!.Jr + 2y + z=li 6J. 5 ft north
!1. 7t-5y-2<= 9 53. x-2y+~:,.J 6~. h. 12 s: t. 2-100 ft nonh. I+I ft caJI: d. 71!-l ft
10Jj 133J50t
!~ - 3- 59. Pnrt (b):
501
SECTI ON 12.6 ( PAGE 828)
SEatON 12.5 (PAGE 813) I. 10.~ 3. 19 (~- 1) o: 32.6-l7355
ll • II ) = (1. 21. 31') . u(l) = J I + 41! +'.It' , a(l) =(0. 2. 61) 19. T (n / 6) = (
,ill
19· .a ,/19)
-19 . N,(lf/61 ~ (- 4./W ./57)
- 1\1 • - 19
-
ll •(1)=(1. x . 4r') . r·(r) = .J1 + 25t"". a (l) =(0. 31. -l< )
4t+ll'lt'
31. Equation x = 2<l + zlJ; circular paraboloid opening along
39. a r = -;:~,:,;,;,:::=;4 the positive .t-axis.
J l + -lrl + 9/ 33. Equation .r= + i- :! =I; circubr hypcrholoid of one sheet
1 Jr• + Sr i ... g with axis the ;:-a~is.
41. o 1 = -JiT+2.
- - av = ..:....:._.fi!
..:,.;;,~.:.:.
+2 3!'. Equation: -l.t = .'.: + :!;circular parabolo id. a xis the pos itive
x-axis. vcrh:x a t the orig in.
43. T (O) = ( Ji
2. Ji
2. o) • N'(0 ) = (0. 0.-1) 37. Equation: : = etp! -.t~ - J.z).
=
39. Equation : :! .r' + r~; roth n;~ppcs o f a right circular cone
with axi~ the : ·:tt is :tnd ' c rtc x at the o rig in.
45. T (O) = ( ,fj
3 . ,fj
3 . ,(!.
3 ) N(Ol= Ji Ji . )
. ( --
2 •-20 .u. The traces in ho rizonta l pla ne~ a rc cllip'c~ with centers on
the :·a ti< and scm iat e > 2 and I.
-ls 12r 3s -l.l The traces in the pla nes x = a are circ k s if tal < 2. single
47. x(s)=2+ - . y(s) = I- . ~(s ) = 3 + l3
13 13 poin ts if ta l "' 2. empty if Jal > 2.
-lJ
49• x (s ) =.>cos
, s.
5 y(.<) =3 sin 5. .f
<(.f ) = -
5
-15. lhe 1race in the pla ne x = a i> a pa rabo la opening upward
1\ith \'CrlCX at ( 11. (), ·111 2 ) .
51. Note that D,(v • v ) =0 (why?). -17. The tr:tces a rc ge ne rally parabola~; some open upward.
I some downward: ro ta te the surf;t cc of Fig. 12.7.22 around
SJ. =-
K(t)
It I the :-axis 45 · to >cc the surfncc .
55. y =3.r l - Rr 4 + 6x' 55. Elliptic paraboloid: : = 2u 2 + 4t•2•
57. Apprn~in13lcl)' 36.651 mils; 2-l.IJ(l m ils 57. llypcrhol ic paraho lnid; : = 5ul - 51' 2•
59. ,\rproxionntcly 0 .672 mil•: 0,(,02 rni/$ =
59. El lipt ical parabolo ttl:;: J·ht' + t 7v'.
6 1. About 7')5 below the ~u rface of the Earth 6 1. Hyperbolic paraholoid;;: J61)ul - 169vl. =
63. Approximate ly I h 42 min 2.588 s 63. H yrcrboluid of o ne shee t; _ , : + t•l + 2w2 = 5.
65. Be£,in with Eq. (-12). su bstitute Eqs. {37) and (41). 65. I lyp.:rbolic cylinder: -5u ' + 5,..: = 1·1.
67. Ellipt ic cy linde r: 2t·1 + 3,..: = 5.
69. E ll ip,o id : 3u 1 + 3t·2 + (,,..l 23. =
SECTION 12 .7 ( PAGE 837)
n.
tcx at the o rigin .
:zJ. H yperbolic parnb<tlo id. S3dd lc point at the origin; to sec it.
execute the Mothrmorico 3.0 command sphe rical: (3. ('C)\ - I ( - tan · l (D)
Par. . .tri c~lotlO( { 2•Y•Y • zoz, y, z ),
{ y , - 1 , 1 ) , { &, - 1,1 II 21. Cylindrical: (S. arctan j. 12):
%!. H yperboloid of one sheet, axis the : ·axis. spherical : ( 13. aroin n.arctan j)
%7. Ellipt.i cal paraboloid. axis t he nonneg~tive y-axi.s. venex at 23. Cylinder. radtus 5. axis the :-axis
the oriJin. 25. The ver ttcal plane y = x
19. H ypcrbolo;d of two shee ts. axis the y-ui.s. oenter the origin. 'l7. The ci rcubr cone i ., 3x1 + 31 "' ith u i' the : ·u is and
intercepu (0. ±6. OJ. venex at the ongm
..
ANSWERS TO ODD.NUM BERED PROBLEMS A·57
,rr·pllOC . . . 19. The position vcclorr(t ) .. (- s in 1. co'il) traces I h e circle o f
!'I· 11t~ • od " ilh ccn1cr a l I he ongm and mlercepts
radius I \\ ilh ce nter (0. 0).
1JtC rlhp<O
)1. !' H. Ol. (0. :b f'~- 0). and (0. 0 . --'-2 )
21. T"o solu1ions: u "" 0.0333~ (aboul l 5-l'.t2") and a "= 0
1:1: ' •· ·lomkr. radou' 2. a xi< I he \'e rt icalli nc .r = 2. y = 0 1.2\11 156 (a bout 73'5R'.t(Y')
C1n;uiJr C) •
-'~; r~ ,., ('l.'n'-'-=
.. 011 oc circu br C) h ndc rs " n h common axis I he
.. 23. K(l) = ~ . 117( 1 ) = 2 , a.- ( l )== I
·~d
-'" ··3'<1' ... ~
radu I and 3 . 2$. lk gi n wil h the ob,crv:uion 1ha 1 v1 x •z is n o rmal 10 lhc
•, T"''. Ct•>ntl
•
'· · ·3'<1(
n" rucnl circular pa rabolood s, each wilh axi< lhc
" • '
•·cn cx al l he ongon : o ne opens upward. the o lhc r
pi.IIIC.
... 27. 3.r - Jy + z = I
j,," n•••HLI .\.\. I' = 2em~~
=
~- C)linJrocal: , : .._ ~: :!5: ~phcrical : I' = 5 ( I he same a< I he .\5. fl: = 2 CU> 2~,
. ~nrh C'f " = :::5l
.tJ. Minima l a t e very m tegral m ultiple of 11 , ma t ima! at C\'Cf)"
II. C•hnJncal: r c~/1 -'- ' <m il~ ~ =l :
odd inlcgra l multiple o f :r/ 2
1 ·hcric:~.l. p <on¢ co, fl-'- •""'<' ~m t1 + p co • ¢ = 1
r . . . I I
\ OlinJnal: , • .,. ~ = r C<"" - 'sm tl + :: 45. T = J:i1+.1 ( - :r. 2) . :-; = (- 2. - :r )
I! . •
= • . . II
srb<nC:I.I: p• I' <In ('I CO'<• ~ 1' ~In¢ Sin + f1 CO< ¢
:r l +4 J.~ l + -l
(t:"s k p llo caned ,. fr \lm l-oth sod~s <lf I he la<t equal io n). 15 5 ' 3 l
49. ) (x ) = -.r- - .t + - x
s
~. l hc rart of I he C) lmdc r <:'f radius.> and ccnl<' rlinc I he : ·a , is 8 -l
1r. 3t ltes !-< I~t ee n lhe piJ n<·s : = - I a nd : = 1
41• The r an of the sr hcric:ll surfJce of ra d ius 2 and cen1cr the SECTION 13.2 (PAGE 857)
0,;~in that lies 1-ct~t ecn the two ho rizonta l p lanes z = - I
•nd : = I I . l11c cnlire .ry·piJ nc
11. "De solid is round ed 3N)\c by Ihe plane : = 2. bclo~t by
3. 1loe cnlire .ry· plane cxccpl fo r i he origin (0. 0)
~~~ pl3n< : =
- ~. outsode t>y the C)"lindcr of radius 3 wi1h
5. All points of I he .ry·plane
~nt:rlmc the : ·J\1'. anJ on, ide by lhe C) Iinder of radius I
•1t~ c-entcrhne the :·3 ~1\. 7. A ll points o n a nd wilhin Ihe u ni l circle
! L "P.:t 1-'lid i<th~ rr~ion bcl\\ecn 1wo concemricsphcricalsur· 9. 111c entire .ry·p!Jnc
!1t:1 ~~!crcd 31 I he o rigin. one o f rndiu< 3 and I he Olhcr I I. "the region a l><n·c the >U3i[!hl h nc " " h cq u:uion y = .r
c: n~u.s 5. IJ. A ll points of the XJ ·plane no 1 o n ~llhcr coordinate atis
!~\ : = ,-: 1~. All po int< of lhc •>-plane no l on e ithe r slraighlline y = x
:E. L - ,.! - r · :; :. ' ../.! - r ! . 1 ~ r ~ 2,. 0~9 ~ 2rr: or ."= -x
b. sc:co ~~~;; ~ . .-r t} ~ o :: .l~ /3 . 0 ~ 0 & 2:r 17. , \ ll poinls in space Olher I ha n Ihe origin 10. 0. 0)
;7, A!-oct :'-'i~ l mo lal-out f> l ~\1 km ) 19. r\ ll poi111S of ~pace: strielly abo ve I he paroboloid ~ "' .r: + _,.:
!9. A !.ttl< It~< th3n J I mi tr,r, km) 21. ·n ,e ho rizontal pla ne 1hrou~h ((). !1. 101
=
2J. "llle pla ne with cq u:u ion ~ .r ~ r
61. 0 ~I'~ ,
1
f(. .._ 1r: . () :; 1< :; 2.-T. ¢ = arctan ( :;) 25. A corcul~r pa raboloid " ilh :.,; , the nonnej:aliw :·a' i"-
opc:n ing. upward. \ crlc x :olt hc m igin
U L !~:c,: ~· >;1=1•'- / .. :? + a1 - ~) 1 ; '!7. 1nc upper half o f 1hc: spheric.a l >Urfucc " ith rad ius 2 a nd
b. ( f -. D ,: - ~ :2 /f •
center (0. 0. 0)
c. =.::;;,,:-2¢ =p= - a~ - IF
29. The lowe r nappe nf a circular c one '' ll h 3 \:1' Ihe : ·:nis ;~nd
verlc, at (0. 0. 101
CHAPHR 12 MI SCEllANEOUS PROBLEMS 3 1. S uaoght hnc> of I he fo m1 • - v = c ("her<' c i< a oon~tanl )
(PAC.[ 84S)
JJ. Elhr-csccntcrcd Jl lhc mogi n ' "lh nujur 3 \ c s o n I he .r·a • i•
a nd mmur axe' un the y·a "< i'
L ... ~' M - AO... )"' 2~( AV - I~ + Mr + MQ) = AV. .l~. C"ur•cs wilh C<jUaliun' nf Ihe furm y
Cllll , IJ OI)
=1' .._ C (C i' a
!. .'>ot c that A ., ~ J P,j / i'Hj. 37. C orcle' cente red :11 the p111111 <2. Ill
7p ~ J'l, ( ·uc~,~ c~n tcr~·l nl lh~ mi1:in
' <r~:nti/IC cqUJIIOn~
4 1. C"onp ucnl cunol.ll p.u .ol-.•lui,h nil \\llh :1\i• thc : ·,. is and
1 - ':IC .; t .; + ~ .
" l -2t. ,1 • - ! +31, : c 2 - Jt . nil npc ninj! upward
'~-"!
· - ... r1c r q u111o ns
-1.1. Srhcoic.ol " ufart•< l'<'llle rr d .11 lhc I"IIIII (:!. 1. J l
-15. "J hc lc:•cl \Urf.orn ..r I nrc .- lhpl ll"JI C\hnd<r> r arallc l 1(1
.J - 1 ·· - l ~-2 t he :~311\ .md rcntr red Hn t tl\.• \ C II IC.t l hnc lh;at m<c:t\ lhe
T=J-=-:J· .r) -pl.onc 311hc I"'"" 12. I. Il l I he d hr-c on" hoch c 3ch such
' · r, '·- L~ ... arc r3 ra l!cl 10 u = (6 . 3. 2>·. lhC r l.lDC h3< C) hndcr mu h the t1· pl3nc h.l\ mJ)"r 3 \1< r a rallcl 1n Ihe
C..- ..._., cqu1uon 13x - ~) - 6~ = .!.J. ~- x· >ll\. monor "" p.ralld In I he '"''"''and 1hc majo r 3t h
ll
1!. }l- ' - .,. : .
I"S I\\ ICc lhc lc nglh o f I he nunur .1\o\.
3
~7. MJichcs Fig. 13.2J2
1........___ _ __
A-58 ANSWERS TO ODD-NUM BERED PROBLEMS
49. Almost matches Fig. 13.2.30 at = we• + e•, -at =u e•+ t'.. • and -at = e" + ve"'.
19. -
S1. Matches Fig. 13.2.28 au av aw
53. Matches Fig. 13.2.41 21. z,(x.y) = 2r-4y. z,cx.y)=-4.r+6y. z,,cx. y) = -4.
SS. Matches Fig. 13.2.42 z,.,(.r. y) = -4.
23. z,(.r. y) = 2xcxp(-/). z,(.r, y) = -2x yexp(-y2),
2
57. Matches Fig. 13.2.44
59. If a and b are not both zero, then the surface has one pit z,,(x. y) = --l.rycxp(-/). z,,(.r. y) = -4xycxp(-/).
and one peal.:. I
25. z.(x, y) = - - =~1 (x, y) and
61. Apparently t1 peaks and n pits alternate ly surround the x+y
origin. I
z, ,(.r. y) =- ( )'
x+y ·
=z ,(x. y).
1
J - JJ .
27. z,(.r. y) = -3··- • cosy. z1 (x. y) = -e sm y.
SECTION 13.3 (PAGE 866) 3
z, 1 (x. y) = 3e- 3' siny. Zp(x. y) = Je- ' sin y.
SS. Continuous for all (.r. y) f,,(.r, )'. Z) = f:.o(X, )', Z) = ()' + .ry;::)e"'.
f,,(x, y. z> = J,.<x. y, Z) = (.r + x 2yzk'"·
SECTION 13.4 (PAGE 875)
=
[,(x. y, z> .r 2 it>"'.
f.,(x. y . z) = .r 2ye'".
f,,.(x. y , Z) = (I + 3.ry;:: + x: / i)<""'.
SS. 11, (.r. I)= - n 1 kexp( - n 1kl) sin n.t .
1
u,(x.l) = ncxp(-n kt)c:>sn.t. nnd
1
11.,(.r,t) = - n exp( - n 1kt)sinnt.
57. !'art (a): y,(.r, t) = acos(.t + 111),
y,(.r. t) = ros(.r + 111),
)'u(.r,l) = - 11 2 sin(.r + dl),
y., (.t. t) c - sin(.r + 111).
l'~rt (h): y,(:r, t) = -Jdsinh(J(.r - 11 t)).
y,(x, t ) = 3sinh (.1(r - til)),
y.,(.r,l) = IJ11 1 ~·"h {.l(.o - <II )),
y ., (.r,l) = 9cu•h(3(x- at)).
l':ort (c): y,(x.t)= - .l:nsinkt sinkm,
y, (X ,I)= k CO$ lu CO'! kill,
y.,(.r. I) = - lla 1 si n k.c CO'< knt
y., (.r . tJ = - II sin k.r cos kat. '
59. y,(x. t) = af'<:r +at)- ag'(x- at).
=
y.,(.r ,t ) a 1 /(.r +at)+ a 1/(C.r - at),
y,(.r ,I) = J'(x +at) + g'(.r - at),
y,.(x. t) = /(.r +at)+ g·cx- at).
ANSWERS TO 000-NUMBERLO I'ROBllMS A-59
7. (I "'" =
u dr + ...,nh· ... "· d·
~ # ..........
.t: + ,~ + .:
. '
9. cl" = I:L'I~~cLr + .r~se.= •·:ch-- t\' SCc= \': tl~
II. J.,. = - .•·:t' "'dr- r:t-"'th - r;r.' "cl:
B. d ..·= 2u cxp( - r: ) du- 1Jlt• ~1p( _·,.:) tl r
~ 10.1\ ~) ::.h
33. 2.5 35. 6 "' 13.0:,'9969
!. \~- - I. -5\
•. 1-~ l\ -~) \7 :\('( ~375:r J3
- • - l "' "'961.2.~101!\ ft1 • about 0 022008 acres
\ 1- :.CI. -;land 1-::. I . - 'l) 36
lh
ll 1-I. O. :~- 1 ). I I. 0. ~t- 1 ). and (0. 0. 0) ~9. 1920 "" 0.027l\16
L\ ~....... ~ !"'nti I. I. 1\ , -o
~I. 1!.5 -'3 ....) :t .. 303 77281 ~
H. r.-\:1~1~ his.h hi~hN roints (\. -I.:!) and { ' . I. 21 IJ
~. a. Let (c. y) - (0. 0) along theline• y .. x andy ,. 0:
r . ~...,.~t romtt:!. : . - 50)
b. you should ftnd that f, (0. 0) =0 = f, (0. 0).
1•. Ey~l~ I'"" lllv.~lf''ints ( -1. 2. -16) and(~ . -1. - 16)
:LHc£!l:SII''int \1. - ::. ~ ~
:>. -} 1.-:.l 3 !~. - I nnd ~ SECTION 13.7 {PAGE 904)
:"'. - I1:1J I !9. (12. ~- 3)
tl~,. ~
Jl !15. 5. ~, .l~. ( J1 . ./2. l) l. - = -(21 ~ l ) exp( -1' - I)
dt
!<. ('.::).) 1 37. 10" 10 x 10 in. d~· aK' 2 t)w
3. - =6t ro<l
dt
j •
!-. -
at = --
s + , = -at
l'l. ~ I[) b' 10 in.. hei~tbt 6 in.
!\. 8~~ a~J.top \ 5 '< ICl in_ (ron\ and b:lC\; 15 X 5 in.. Sides 7. -
a..· =0.-
a... =51
10..: S in. 3J Jt
Jr
U !lf: ,.;~~(in front).~ ft deep. 10 h hish 9. a:; = (y + ll exp(yz.,.. x: +.xy).
\1. ~ ar "'(.r + z) e:cp(y~ + .rz+.xy).
- and
~-
ay
,-
1
~-
-ar =(x + y)cxp(y: + x: + xy)
3:
11. Here we hl•c
,,,
-=
(2y+3=>Jt y' z' ( J xy'z' )
ax + 3:)' .- cos
2.t( % + 2y Jx + 1~· + Jz .
3r 3(x+2y~2:)~
3: .. 2.:(.t + ly + 3:>"'
A-60 ANSWERS TO ODD·NUMBERED PROBLEMS
-iJp at · ax at ay 3. (0. 0)
a, = -
ax a,- +-·
ay -.
a, 1. (3. - 7)
s. (0. 6. --l) 7. (1. I. I)
ap = at . ax + at . a,.. and
9. (2. -~. -2) 11. sJi
iltt ax av /Jy Ju J:l
~,m
-ap = -·-+
at ax -· at -a.v. JJ. I •.
~ - -20
13
ilw ax i)w ily OIV
I 19. - 6./2
15. Answer: 17. -6
ilp i.lt J rt at au at ihv
./iTo and (7.11)
-
a.r=3rt
- ·ax
- +- · - +()w- ·ilx.
~ I' ox
- 21 •
iJp
-iJy =-
at
.- + - . - +-
il u
. -;:- .
at a.. at ilw
and
2
23. - and (3. -l)
5
Ju ily il t· ay i) w iJy
2.5. 14 Ji and (3. 5. - 8)
Jp at i)u at ·-+
-a~ = -ilrt · -+-
il o• ilf ihv
-ilw ·-. 27. 2Jj:j and ( I. 2. 3)
a~ J ot a~ il~
29. 3.r + 4y = 25
= f'< w) · -aw
iJp i.l w
17. :- = f(w)· - .
ol,t il.r -ilp
ay ay
, Jl. 29.r - ·I )•= 70
J.l. + y + z= I
.r
ap
-a: = J'( w ) . -d:
a...
.
ap
-
a..·
= J'(w) • -tl u . and .W. U•c the fact thl t '17 (- t< P)) = - '17 t(l').
au
45. 1·1 dcglonin
iJp
- = /'(w) . - .
a... T
47. a. ' O ft: h. 13. in the direction (4. 3. 12)
<I t• Ju
49. u. 3.r+ 2y- W: = 4:
a- . t, J a~ ~~o
19. il.; = - ;1!3. ily =- y'!l b. approximately 0.44 (true value: 0.448)
51 . .r -2y + z+ 10=0
f:' Y +X)'..-''' + .v:e" + y:e' 1
21. -d~ = - :.._...:....:~_:..:;_:.;;___:_:..;;.;_ 55. Each such pyr3mid ha~ volume 4.5.
ax .r yr:..a + ,.. ,.
57. Heading approximately 36 52' 1 1.6"; up a t an nnglc of 45•
a: x=t'-" + ( :,_ + xu·-' 1
1
~
hyperbola with equation .ry = In 2. and no other extrema. 4
19. i5 21. 23. 19
49. Saddle points at (- I. - I) and (1. I); no extrema.
51. The coefficients m and b arc the !generally] unique solutions 4
25. 3 27. 6 29. 24
of the equations
. . . 31. rr 33. i(32 - 12J3)
I
b I: +'"I: <x.>2 = L::
.r, .r,y, and
35. -abc
6
·-·. .·-· . ·-· 37.
2
3
Ll +ml:x,= L>l·
Jot lo
{,;;:::; J a2- .rl- y2 tly dx.
b
••• ,_, ••• 39. The volume is V = 8
l. 18 3. 128 ( ..!...
-· 60
z1. ~1 I
7. -- 9. 12 II. 6
.. ~,(2 _ J2 )a
1 6
.,. 3 13 128 15. 332 17. 256
,ustQtcd. the volume i.s If /2. If the equa tion of the lcmnis· '5 105 15
~I. e3te should be r 2 == 2 sm 2fl. then the \'Oiumc is :r /~.
37. 8.T 39. 241f 19 .!..!.
1
JS. 111a b ' 30
u
1. (2. 3) 3. (1, I)
~)
16 8
5. m: ~. M, = J' M, == j 7. 2' 5
9. (o. -n 11. (! !)
5' 5
9
I
37. I ,= -k
3
11 (o. ':) 15.
( t4' 14)
.u. 24:r
zt (~7a)
12 ' 12 ll (o. 2n 4Q 1
5' 5' 5
-
St . rl= -
49
• :j 10
25. (~.
;r
::)
8 27. ( 0. ~: )
2lra" .-"
53. ; [6J3 - :r + 8:u csinh ( '7)-8ln 2+ 161n( l
4
+ ..!3)]
29. ( o. 36;r + 33,/j) 31. loa - -
32.'!' + 12J3 n+~ ~ 0.960592
I
ll 4 : i;rk 35. I~=
9 SECTION 14.7 (PAGE 993)
~ Ji05.
37. r: 21 y=-\rs5 39. x =}=..!..a&
3 10 J. s...
4l (~- ~)
3,, J,,.
43. C' 2r)
-. -
:r If 3. V= 2 Jo Jo Jo
t· r r..j;'O rd~drdO
St L Centroid (o. 4a' 3:ra
+ 3:rab + 6/});
+ 12!>
5. ~;(s - 3..13) 7. ~~ra'hl
33. Mass
37 4
l!a ; x
-
=-y =0. 13. 3~;r 15. 8
48
4
37. (a) J:t( l - exp (-aJ)J 17. first usc the suhstitution x =11 + t•. y = 11- v. The value of
the integral is
3
39. il =4(1 2
•T (1 - .!..) J3::::; 3.4469') J.
3 eJ
j j o(x~ + y
l l•J.-or Jp-or'
2
41. I, = ) d A where d A = a 2 sin¢ d¢ dO
s 21. f, = (p 2 sin 1 ¢)(a1 cos
2
0
3768 -o
45. -1-1 :T + b2 sin1 0)oalxp 1 sin¢ dp dr!>t/0
49. x::::: 2. 7~~9 x 106 (meters): mantle th ickness: abou t 3606 k m ,
• 3· (.r.-')-
_ ., _ ( nJJ - 40..16
151n2 ·
6..16 -
ln2
sJJ)
SECTION 14.8 (PAGE 1000)
25. / 1 =~ M (112 + 1>2); the other moments follow by symme try.
I. 6:rJTI 3. ~ ( 17Jt7 - 1) 27. 2.300261!52
S. 3J2 ... ~1n (3+2Ji) 7. 3Ji4
CHAPTER 14 MISCEllANEOUS PROBLEMS
., .
2:r (2d-l
;; ) II. : _6 (65./65- I) (PAGE 1010)
9. T
1-1 1 J.''
1
:.1>. 1! - l
"'2c"" "• - I
23. A=
1 0 0
r dz d9 3.
~
3
5.--
ol
9
25. a. 4 + 7
3arcsinh
(2,/5)
- -
5
- I (4) 7
3 arctan .3 + 6 In 5:
7. 9. 9:r: ( 0, 0. 16)
II. 4:r IJ. 4.T
b. -2../5
- + 5./2 . (T
- -arcsmh
3
./6) I
- (;arctan ( 72- 25,/5)
71
15. :T -
16
2
l7. 12S
15 .
(32 )
7. 0
3
21. i' = ~ '
1
19. k:r; (1.0)
- -I arctan ( 72- 25,/5) + :;_I arct:m (25,/5 "- 72 ) . 3:T
(o. D
6 N n 2~
2.'. 25. IO:r (Js - 2)
(25,/5- 72) ~
+iSI arctan 71 3
27/
• I= J() !1 fit '.
17. a. A pproximatdy 5.123 157: b. approximately 2.302311
29. E lliptic paraboloid 2••'· f • =iS"")(',.
4 I (/ , ' 1 '
+c-)=-s"'or ,
+•>
31. H yperboloid of two shcc:t.s
33. Appro ximatelr 111 .545775
u+" u - v il(.r. y) I
l • .r =-2- , y = - 2-; iJ(II,V) =- 2
37. 'il = - 11
:ra o o
J.•J.lM"•• r drd(J 1
...
ANSWERS TO ODD·NUMBERED PROBLEMS A-65
Jl l)sc I he spheres p = 2 cos¢ and p = 4 cos </>.
J; ~(3757 -J7v'i7 ) 47. 4:- 15.V · F =3.V x F=O
17. V· F= O.V x f'=O
53. rr abc 19. v. f = x 2 + / + i. v x F = (- 2y<:. -2rz. - 2xy)
15
21. V · f'= O. V x F = (2y- 2z. 2z - 2r. 2.r - 2y)
23. V · f = 3. V x f = (x cosxy- xcos.rz. y cosyz - y cos .ry.
SECTION 15.1 (PAGE 1018) ~cosxz - zcosyz)
35. See I he answer to Proble m 15.
I. 3. 37. Usc the results in Pro blems 2.8 and 35.
1 I I ~
""""
/ / / 41. Usc I he res ulls in Problems 28, 35. a nd 39.
1 I I ~ / / / /I I
\ \
//I
\ ' -
SECTION 15 .2 (PAGE 1028)
310 2-18
-' -
I.
5.
3 . 3 . and 62
49 4
3. 3 J2 and 3
6
"
and ) 5
"'-. \ I / / 24 7.
I I / / / / \ \ I I/ 9. 315 19
1l. 60
13. JT (I + 2JT ) 15. 28
7.
/ / /
17•
l 4./i4 - I
(, 19. (o.~ )
2 1. l\!Jss IOk:r; centro id (0. 0, 4JT )
/ / /
I kal ; ce nl roid ( 2 a. 2 a. 0 ) : I, = 1 = 2I "UI';
23. Mass 2 ,
/ / / 3 3
1
/o =mal
, /, ./, ./ .
/ / /
25. /0 = 3k= ~~~~where m is I he mass o f the wire
2
4a
/ / / 27. -
JT
/ / / 1 J:3 -13
29. 2 + 12 arctanhT "'=< 0.690086
I
31. 2
9.
"'\ \
"'-.'\\
)'
I//
I I/
,..._
11.
2
I
\
'- '' ~
" .... .-
_,. ,..../
- ,.. , I
, ; I I
33. a.
1
2kln 2:
.
b. -
1 0
\
'
\
•
,
•
.. .. • I I
39. 15000 ft ·lb
41. 20000 ft·lb
• ' 1
,_ I I
. ' ' ''
//j ,,,
' I
2
j /
I I
t/.L_ _. -
;
~'_,..
•
,.. ....,,',.
'
\
SECTI ON 15.3 (PAGE 1036)
/It \ \" -2 -· 0X l
I. ~~(.r. y) = x 2 + 3.~y + )'2
3. ¢( .r . y ) = .rJ + Zx y + 2r'
13. 5. Not conse rvative
I , I l
''
'- '
\
\ I
I I /
t I / /
7. -' (.r , v) = - x + )•ln.r +- 1•
"
9. ~ (x. y}
.
=
4 3.
sin x + .r In y + e'
o..s ~~... .... ' ~ ' " , ....., I I. Not conservat ive
r
' ol- -. . . - - 13. ¢(x. y} =.r·' y"' + .ry' + s>"
I '
t- - - . . . - -
-~:r:
'.( 1 1
: ; ::::: l\\'..1
15. ¢(x. y )
)'
+ 2../Y + )
y
X
+ 2)'l
·I - 0.5 0 0.~ I 19. ¢ (x. y)= xll+ x y• + I _r
• 5
A-66 ANSWERS TO ODD-NUM BERED PROBLEMS
1. - 20.7 3. ()
- 3;,- 19. 972
1!>. -
s
17. 30;,-
5 s. -52,7 7. - 8.'T
3 9. - 2
21. 301f 23. 45 33.
2 II. ¢(.r . y. z)= 3.ry - 2.rz+ y:
13. ¢ (x. y. z) = 3xe' + 17z + 5ycos x
I 125 s. 2 1 ~8
·T 5
7. 1-i rst assume (hy way of contratliction) that there e.t ists 3
3. 27;,- ,fj:i
functio n <f> (x . y) suc h th3 t V ¢ = (.r~y . .ri).
s. ~ ( - l + t 7 ..fi7) sJS - t soJS + 2
9. m= 3 ; ly = 15
81 9
7. :.8J3 = i'" whe re m is the mass o f S 2St6
II. -7-
2
10 6 = 5
9. -:. . the m3ss o f
-m where mts s 13. Both integrals a rc zero.
3 6 1.5. Begin with the obsc r\'ation tha t ( P. Ql =V ¢ fo r some d if·
520 26 . feren tiable functio n ¢ .
11. T;,- 6 =)'"where m ts the mass o f S
13. 36;,- IS. 2-b
17 371;,- 19. 60.T + 12.-. = n.-.
. 30
17. 0 19. 6 r d¢
23. 1458;r 29. •- - 1/>'(r ); b. 3¢(r) + r - ; c. O
21. 0 r ,/r
"C
I
-a -I a -a
1 )
...,. ( 2' 2 '2 APPENDIX A ( PAGE A·5)
21. x=O=.Y· I
(24a' + 2a1 - I JJi+4ii! + I. I. 14 3. 2
t= 10[11 + 4al)l11 - 1] •
s. 25 7. 27
I . Boyce. Wolli3m E. and Rich>rd C Dil'rima . Elt·mentury Diffam· 9. Ed ..·ards. C H.. Jr. and David E. Penney. Diffatmial £qrw-
rwl Equations (Sth ed.) . New Ymk : John Wiley. t99 t. tioru "''itlr /Joundary Valut Prob/tnu · Compw;n~ and ,\·!odt'ling
(2nd ed.). Up per Saddle River. NJ: l'renuee Ha ll. 2000.
2- Boyer. C.rl B . A f/i.<tr>ry of .\ fathrmntiN (2nd cd.). New York:
Jo hn \\llcy. I'I'l l. 10. Kline. M orri". J\·farhonntical 71w ught from An(irnt to .\fO<Itrn
Times. \'o l"- I. II. and Ill. Kcw York : Odord Uni•·enity Press.
3. Boyer. Carl B.. 71~< lfistory of tilt Ct~lmlus and lu Corruprual
Dr,rlopm~r.t. ~e:w York: Do,•cr Publication<. 1959. t972.
1!. Knopp. Konrad. Tlr<o ry and Application of Jnfinitt SaitJ
4. Bu<k, R. Creigh to n. Ad•·anud Calculus (3rd cd.). New York:
(2nd ed.). l"ew York: lbfncr l'r<\S. 1990.
!'olcGraw-llill, 1977,
12. Pcitgcn. 11.·0. and I~ II . Richter. 77re Btamy of FnuraU. Sew
S. Courant, R1chlrd and Fritz Jo hn. /ntro dm:non 10 Calcu/u.t and
York : Sp ri n~er - Verbg , 1986.
,A.naf..-su. \'ot.. l and !!. New York : Springer-Verlag. 19S2.
13. Simmons. George E .. D•ffem rt:al Equations wult Applications
6. Ed..,.·ards. C H.. Jr.. Calculus ami tlu Pt'rso,wl Complltt r
and 1/u toricai.Vous l"cw York: !'otcGraw-Hill. 1972.
Engle .. ood O •!fs. :"J: Pr<ntiee-Hall. t986.
14. Spi,·ak. !'otichad E .. Cakulru (2nd ed.). Berkelev: Publish or
7. Ed"' ards. C H .. Jr .. Tlrt 1/istorical Devt lopmrnt oftht Calwlu.s.
Perish. 19$0. ·
:->e"' Yo rk: S;>ringer-Verlag. 1979.
t5. Taylor. Angus E. and \\'. Robert Mann. A cl>·ana •l Calc11I11S
8. Ed.,.ards. C. II .. Jr.. Ad•·anctd CalculuJ of S<>•tral Variable<. New
(3rd ed.). ~ew York: John \\l!cy. 1983.
Yo rk : A cademic Press. 1973.
A-68
.2 }•"t!u• -n +I1- u".r +C if n"-1
*' ....-':1·~'" u .. c
8 f stc:udu•Unu + C 10 J 1« u l>n udu• ~c u + C
1
f :O'
37
- 1- S«"' - 2 111.1n"' • !.:l
f\c'C"'"J"• n-1 n-1
f kC'"- 2udu if n •l
n +m
., CO!.... • ' u n- I
+ --
"+m
J. .,
sm" ·u c0\"" 11du
~ J•~n .
II d 4 • 'ID I I - U COS U +C
TA-1
(Table of lnt('!!rals continues rnnn previous page)
(a + Jul + a2)
41i
J ,lwl + al
--.,- d11 =~r::;-:-:;
.,z + a2 -a In 11 +C
50 f d11
11 2 •./ul ±0 2
= ;Ju2±a2+ C
2
a u
52 f t ill
(ul i a l ).ll2
:: ± ,,
a' Jill± a1
+ c
S~
_ J --.,-du
Ja: _ .,: = va•
,..-:--;
-u'"' -a In
I"+ Jal-wll
u +C
~9
f Ja: _ .,: Jal-u1 w
- -- dw =-- ---sin- 1 - +C
ul u a
60 f ""
u ~al- u!
=-~lnJ"•
a
~~
u
+C
65 J ln • du = • In u - u + C
67 fr'• sinbudu ..
01~"b1 (a sin bu- bcosbu) +C
72 Ju sin" 1 u du s l1m:- I) 1
sin" u + ~ .[J""::;i + C 7.1 Ju~an· 1 udu • 2! (u1 + 1 )1an· 1 w-!!+C
2
scc·l u- -1 -J~ du
n+l w·• ,.,-J"" •
Jrt" w-l "tl»• .1' •
1 1 1 77 Ju" s<c"1 udu• ,.., n + I .r,:;i:l
i( " • -I
76 , .... u- - , tlu " + I
-
TA-2
ALGEBRA Binomial t ·omwla
(.r+>i=x1+2.ty+),l
Quadntic Formula
(.r + yr' =..-J + 3..-ly + 3.rl + r .
The wlution. of th<: qu>dratic r<Jilltion (.r + y)' =.r• + .t.-Jy + 6.r2y2 + 4.r yl + J
=
a.rl + b.r + c 0 are givrn by
In gencr.>J. (.r + yY' =.r• + (~).r • - 1y + ( ~).r• - 2?
F•ctorb l n olation
" ) • - tl.l
+ .. · + ( 1 .r · + ... + ( n -1
n )xy• - I+ y•.
GEOMETRY
Ui,hm<t'· t"nrmula'i Rectangle an:n: r-1
_ It
Slopc-intcrttpt equotion:
y = m.r + b
'""'"~'~@
Cylinder \'Oiume: _t,. _
• 3 V = rrr 2h
V= 1 nr ~--:-z..--1:
-~ Curved A
~
Surf:u:e .;s-rea:
Point·slorc rquation: surf:~cc
area:
y-y 1 =m(.r-x 1)
A = 41'1'r•
A =2rtrlr ...
......
-----_...
' >o
623
624 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordinates and Parametric Curvt?i
where A, lJ. and Care constants with 8 t- 0. ·n 1is equation may be written in the
II form
y =mr+b. (2)
II
where. m . = - .A / lJ and b -- CjlJ· ll u t E-<1· (2) ·IS t h e slopc-mterccpt
· equation of the
5
\\t~;ug~ll hne wnh slop!! m a_nd )'·intercept b. Hence the given curve is this straioht line.
e usc
. .th1s approach
. · . c 1 n1 sh ow t11at a spec1hc
rn. Exampl· · • geome tncally
· <>
described
Iocus IS .1part1cular stra1ght hnc.
Y- l= !<x- 1) (.t)
y
and thus has slope }. Bec·Jusc the d
• ' . pro uct of tl 51
follows (from Theorem 2 in Appe nd· ll) le opes Of these two lines is -I. it
solve Eqs. (3) and ( 4) simult aneous! .'x fit hat these lines arc perpendicular. If we
· (3, 2) o f the give>· we
· d cc d . th e m1'd po1nt lnd that' th c ·Intersect io n o f th ese lines is.
Jn
. I b' n 1.lne segmc 11 I • 11tus the locus described is rh;
perpen d1cu ar 1sector of this line segment.
•
FIGURE 10.1.2 The cirde with The circle shown in Fig. 10 1 2 h
. II h . . as center (h k) .
center (h, A) and radius r. geometnca y as t e set or locus of all points p · and radms r. It may be described
- (x, Y) whose distance from (/1, k) is r.
Analytk Geometry and the Conic Sections SECTION 10.1 625
(5)
as the equation of this circle. In pa.rticula r, if 1z = k = O, then Eq. (5) takes the simple
fonn
(6)
\~e ca n sec d irectl y fro m this equation, witho ut furthe r reference to the definition of
Cir cle, tha t a ci rcle centered .at the origin has the follov.;n~ symmetry prope rties:
• Symmetry around the x-axis: The equation of the curve is unchanged when
y is replaced with-y.
• Symmetry around 1/u y-axis: The equation of the curve is unchanged when
xis replaced wi th -x.
• Symnu:1ry with rc.spcc1 to th~ origin: The equatio n of the curve is unchanged
when x is replaced" ith -x and y is repi:Jccd with - y.
• Symmetry tJrmtmltlr~ -l5' line y = .r: The equation is unchanged when.t and
y arc int erchanged.
"lltc re la tio nship bc tl' cc n E4s. (5) and (6) is an illustra tion of the translation
p·rin ciplt• stated informa l!\• in Section 1.2. lmacinc a translation (or "slide") of the
plane that moves each point (x. y) to the new posi tion ( x +h. y + k). Under such a
translatio n. 3 curve C is moved to a new position. The equation of the new translated
curve is easy to obtain from the old equat ion-we simply rc.:place x with x -lr andy
with y - k. Convctscly. we can rccogni1.c a translated circle from its equation: Any
equat io n of the form
by completing sq uares. as in Example 2 of Section 1.2. lbus the graph of Eq. (7) is
either 3 circle (if p > 0), a single point (if p = 0), or no points at all (if p < 0). We
usc this approach in Example 2 to discover that the l.ocus described is a particular
circle.
EXAMPLE 2 Determine the locus of a pointl'(x, y) ilitsdistance I API from A(7, 1)
is twice its distance i /Jl'l fr-o m 8(1, 4).
Solution The points A, 8. and P appear in Fig. 10.1.3, along with a curve through
y
.P that represents the given locus. From
iAP12 = 4181'1 2 (because I API= 2iBPI).
Ads
IJ~·pcrbola:
. r.
II '
x-
/>•
(Ill
Analytic G~etry and the Conk Sections SECTION 10.1 627
(13)
.._--1@ -. whe re
h = +p · - -
1 +c
and h: = a=(l- r 1 ) . (I.$)
.. _, I - ,.z
When we compare & 1s. (9) nnd ( IJ). "'c sec th:ll if e < I . then the locus of P
is an •·llipsr with (0. 0) t rn"'l :otcd to (h. Ol. as illu,trah:d in f-i);. 10.1.7.
FIGURE 10.1.7 An ellip\e: e < I
• Ctz.w~ 3: ,. > I. In this'"'". E q . ( II ) red uces to a tran<latcd vcr.<inn of Eq. ( 10),
(Example 3).
so the locus or ,. i> a hypulmla. 'lltc: dc t:t ils. which :uc similar to those in
C;~sc 2. ;~rc left for Problem J5.
x• - P
If we begin with Eqs. (8) through ( 10). we can derive the general cha racteristics
of the three conic sections shown in Figs. 10.1.7 through 10.1.9. For example, in the
case of the parabola of Eq. (8) with k < 0, the curve passes through the origin • .:c ?; 0
at each of the curve ·s points. J - ±oo as :r - oo. and the graph is symmetric around
the .:c-axis (because the cur\'C is unchanged when y is replaced with - y).
In the case of the ellipse of Eq. (9), the graph must be symmetric around both
coordinate axes. At each point (x. }')of the graph. we must have txt:;; a and IYI :£ b.
The graph intersects the axes at the four points (±a. 0) and (0. ±b).
Finally, the hyperbola of Eq. (10)-or its alternative form
b
y= ±-J.:cz -aZ
a
628 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordinates and Parametric Curves
-is symmetric around both coordinate axes. )Is meets the x-axis at the two points
(±a. 0) ami has one branch consisting of points with x ;:; a and has another branch
where x ;£ -a. Also. lyl -> oo as lxl -> oo.
8. rl+l-4y=5
In Problmr.r 2.5 throu •11 10 .
points f>(x ) 8_ • • dmvc tht> I'IJIUIIion of thr srt of all
9 • .fl + l- 4.r + 6y = 3 11
"ftJ•>Iroftllo• Y wr. .WI/Irfy
. the gi1't'n COlli1·111011.
· 7·ht•IJ .t k·etcII II(
I
" ' • CffiW/ton.
10• .r2 + l + 8.r- 6y = 0
25. The point /'(.r ) ·.
15
, . .
II. 4xz + 4y - 4.r =3 (3, 2) and ( . ). y
7 4
equally dtstant from the two pornts
I
IZ. 4r+41 + r2r= 7 26. The distance fro
from /'to th IU
.
1, 10 the pomt ( -2. I) is hair the distance
f u. 2x1 +21-2x +6y= 13 c pomt (4. -2).
j .... 9.r1 + 9y- J2x = s 27. 'llte point P is th ·
it is from th · . rcc ltmcs as far from the point ( -3. 2) as
, c pomt (5. 10).
IS. 9x: + 9_.J + 6.r- 24y = 19 28. The distance fro p . .
t • , ... J 411.<- JO!!y = 47 lane~ f h m to the hnc .r =< - 3 is equal to its d1s·
rom t c fl<llnt (3. 0).
16. J6.r• + .>V.T -
PoiJr Coordinates SECTION 10.2 629
%9. The sur:' of the d~t~nces from I' to the poinu (~.OJ and ~ Find all hnc~ thlt arc tangent to the omc y = rl and nrc
(-4.0) I\ 10. <~l<o pJrallcl to the hne J , - y = 5.
.)(). The su~ of the d1stanccs from I' to the points (0. )) and 35. Su~ tlut < > 1. Shov- thlt Eq. ( II ) of this section can
(0. - 3) IS 10. be"' ntten in the form
31. find all the line~ thro,ugh the point (2. 1) that arc tanrent
to the parahola y = x· .
Jl. Find all line' throufh th e point (-I . 2) that are normal to
the paral,ol.1 }" = .1 · .
33. Find all lines that are normal to the curve xy = 4 an:l thu~ ~ho.,.ing th3t its graph is a hyperbola. Find a, b. and h
~imultnncously arc parallel to the line y,., 4J . in terms of pan.!<.
I' 1
, ,,
,,
,'\0
•
r<O
I'
y
FIGURE 10.2.1 The d ifference between the two ca~e~
I' r > 0 and r < 0.
y
.
all represent the same pomt p 10
. Fig• 10.2.3. (The rectangular coordinates or •p
are (1. J3 ).)
· h t tnang
that we read from the ng · 1e 1·n Fi<>:o· to ·2 · 4• Converting
• in the opposite direction •
we have
r = x·
"t ~
+ .' . J;lll (I = X;..v if X f. 0. (2)
many different ways using polar
coordinates.
S
• ome care IS
· rcqurrc
· d ·rn rna k'mg tl1e correct choice of 0 in the formula tan 0 = yfx.. If
x > 0. then (x . y) lies in either the first or fourth qu~drant, so - ;r /2 < 0 < ;r /2. whrch
is the range of the in"crsc tangent fu nction ._ Hen ce 1f x > 0, then 0. ~ arctan(> I x). ~ut
if x < then (x. y) lies in the second or th1rcl quadrant. In thiS case a_proper cho~cc
o.
for the angle is 0 = :r + arctan(y/ x). In any C\'ent. the signs of x andY rn Eq. (I) With
r > 0 indicate the quadrant in which 0 lies.
EXAMPLE 2 One reason for the importance of polar coordinates is that many real-
world problems involve circles. and the polar-coordinate equa tion (or po lar equation)
I I of the circle with center (0. 0) and radius a> 0 (Fig. 10.2.5) is very simple:
!
! r =a. (3)
I
Note that if we begin with the rectangular-coordinates equation x2 + y2 = a2 of
this circle and
2 transform
2 it using the first relation in (2). we get the polar-coordinate
equation r = a • Then Eq. (3) resu lts upon taking positive square roo ts. +
FIGURE 10.2-5 The circle r = a
centered at the origin (Example 2).
EXAMPLE 3 Construct the po lar-coordinate graph of the equation, = 2 si n O.
I
I
Solution Figure 10.2.6 shows a table of values of r a s a function of o. ·niC corrc·
spondingpoints (r. 0) are plotted in Fig. 10.2.7, using the rays at multiples of rr/ 6
and th~ c1rcles (centered at the pole) uf radii 1 and 2 to locat e these points. A visual
ins~ccllon of the smooth curve connecting these points suggests that it is a circle of
1 radiUS I. Let us assume. fo~ the mumem that this is so. l'otc then that the point P(r, 0)
I
l
moves once around tlus crrcle cmmterclock,..;,r,. as 0 incn:ast.:s from 0 to ;r and then
moves around this circle a second time as 0 increases from ;r to 2:r.
the nega_tive ~alut.:s of r for 0 ~etwcen ;r and 2rr give-in this example- the same
gcomctnc pomts as do the posntvc values of r foro between 0 and·"'. (Why?)
1
+
·n
is is because
The verification that the graph of r =2sin O is the indicated circle illustra tes
the general pro~edure for t~ansf7rring back and forth betwee n polar and rectangular
coordinates, u.smg the relatiOns m (1) and (2).
Pollr Coortfr.lt~ S~CT10'l10.2 6 31
(} ,
0 OM
:t /6 1.(()
:r /3 113
-~ /2 2rt)
2."1 /3 I.,
S,-;tf> I Cfl
8. ~~ 1
:r orn
- l i ft
7:r
4:r '"
/3 -I 7.l
3.~ / 2 -2(;1)
S:r /3 -173
II :r / 6 -I (( )
2.'T n111
(d~t~ rcv",.,JeJJ
EXAMPLE 4 To t r~n•form the eq ua tiOn ' = 2 <in tl o f Example 3 into rcctn ngultlr
coo rdinates. we lir't mu lt irly hoth 'Ide< by r to ~et
r2 = 2r i ln O.
Equations (I ) and (2) now give
FIGURE 10.2.8 The gr~phl of the More generally. the graphs or the equations
clrclel whose t-quations appur In
Eq. (4) with a= 1. r = ~~sinO and r = :!a co~ II ( 4)
arc circles of radius a centered. respectively, at the points (0. a) and (a. 0). This is
y illustrated (with a = I) in fig. 10.2.8.
s,, substituting the equations !!i"en in ( 1). we can transform the rectangular
equatia'n ax + by = c of a straight line into
ar cosO+ bt- sin 9 =c.
Let us take a = 1 and b = 0. Then we see that the polar equation or the vertical line
:c =cis r = c secO, as we can deduce directly from Fig. 10.2.9.
••<
EXAMPLE S Sketch the graph of the polar equation r = 2 + 2sin9.
fiGURE 10.2.9 finding th~ pol" Solution If we scan the second column of the table in Fig. 10.2.6. mentally adding 2
eqwtion of the vertical lin~ x .. c.
to each entry for r. we see that
• , increases from 2 to 4 as 8 increases from 0 to rr/2:
• r decrca)es from .t to 2 as 0 increases from rr /2 to :r;
• r decreases from 2 to 0 as 0 increases from :r to 3rr/2:
• 1 increases from 0 to 2 as 0 increases from 3rr /2 to 2rr.
'.
632 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordinates and Parametric Curves
.. f . I JlsusthattheeraphrescmblcsthecurveshowninFig.I0.2.JO
Th IS 10 ormauon c ' - • 'd Th aphs of the equations ·
'This heart-shaped graph is called a atrdl 0 1 • e gr.
arc all cardioids, differing only in size (determined by tl ). axis of ~ymmetry (horizontal
or vertical). and the direction in which the cusp at the pole p om ts. •
(I 20 - 4sin 20
0 < (I < j:r 0 < 2fl < lr l'q ;a1ive
Jn < fl < n lf<20 < 2lf Pusiti\'C
lf < ll < ln 21f < 20 < 3.~ Ncga1ivc
~:r <0< 211 :l-7 < 20 < 411 l'dsiti\'c
When 0 lies in the first or th e third quad rant, the quantity - 4 sin 2IJ is negat ive, so
=
tht: equa tion r 2 - 4sin 2lJ cannot be satisfied for nny real values of r. +
FIGURE 10.2. 13 Th~ lemnlsc3te Example t1 illustrates a peculiarity of graphs of polur equations. caused by
rl = -4 sin 29 (E.Xd mple 7). the fact that a single point ha s multiple rep resenta tions in polar coordina tes. The
point with polar coordinates (2. :r /2) clearly lies on the four-leaved rose. but these
coo rdinates do nut satisfy th e equation r = 2 cos 20. lltis me am that a poin t m ay have
one pair of polar conn.linatcs that sat isfy a gi\'e n equation and o thers that do not.
Hence we must be cardul to understand this: ·nte
gra ph o f a polar equation consists
of all t hose points with at least om• polar-coordinate representation that satisfies th e
given equation.
Another result of the multiplicity of polar coordinates is that the simultaneous
solution of two polar equations docs not always give all the points of inlerscction
of their graphs. For instance. consider the circles r = 2 sin 0 and r = 2 cos 0 shown
in Fig. 10.2.R. The origin is clearly a point o f intersec tion of these two circles. Its
polar representation (0. lf) satisfies the equation r =
2 sin 0. and its represen tation
(O.rr/2) satisfies the other equa tion. r = 2cosl'l. Rut the origin has no sing/<' po·
Jar represen tation that sat isfies both equal ions simultam:o·.tsly! If we think of 0 a s
incr easing uniformly with time. then the corresponding moving points on the two
circl es pass t hrnuj:h th e orig in at d iffe rent times. lienee the origin cannot be discov-
ered as a point of in ter.<ection of the two circles merely b) solving t heir equations
r = 2 sin 0 and r = 2 cos (I simult aneously in a straightforward manner. But one fa il·
safe way to find all po inls of in tersection of two polar-coordinate cu rves is to graph
both curves.
( I + sin 0) 1 a r1 = 4 si n 0,
it follow~ tha t
(~in O - 1) 2 .. 0 :
and thu' thJt ~iniJ .. I . Sn 0 mu't he nn angle o f th e form l:r + 2n.~ where n i~
fiGURE 10.2. 14 Tho! urd>ood ~n integer. ;\II pomt ~ on the ca rdioid :md nil poinb un the figure-eight curve ar c
t ~ 1 • ~ @ .and trt~ f~u·~ ~~ht
produced by lc ttmg tJ r.angc fr om 0 to h. Kill = rr_12 will prod uce: all the ,olu11un~
•' • 4 " nl) mt'fl on tour poinU
that we ca n obtatn by stmplc ul~c:huuc eh nunattOn . lhc onI)· ~uch point i' ,v1. :r / 21.
(~8)
and the other three po in t' of intcncct ion arc d etected o n I) 111•hcn I he two cqu;ll ton~
arc graphed. •
634 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordinate~ and Parametric Curves
. 1
-)
on t I1e ·mterva10 < < 8rr. \V'1th ,•·ta
=0 = ~te and Marlremaricn the graphics package com-
mands
polarplot(exp (cos( t )) _ l • cos( 4 • t) + sin(t/ 4 )/\ 3, t•0 •• 8 • Pi)J
and
PolarPlot( Exp (Cos( t ]] - 2•cos( 4• t] + Sin(t/ 4 ] /\ 3, { t, 0, S • Pi ) );
FIGUR E 10.2. 1S r = e<•• 1 -
2 co~ 40 + sin 1(0/ 4 ). (respectively) give the same result (with r in/ lace of 0). .
Because of the presence of the term sin (0 f4), the more usual mte rval 0 ~ 0 ;ii 2..-r
gives only a part of the curve shown in Fig. 10.2. 15. (Try it to sec for yourst:lf.) But
sin) (
0
: Srr) = sin
3
( ~ + 2rr) = sin
3
( n.
so values of si n3 (0/4 ) repeat themselves when 0 exceeds S:r . l11crefore the inter-
val 0 :3 0 ~ Srr suffices to give the enti re bu tterfl y curve. You mi gh t try plott ing a
j butterny cu rve with the term sin 3(9/ 4 ) replaced with sin 5 (0 / 12)- as originally rec·
ommended hy Temple H. Fay in his art icle -The Butterny Curve" (American .\lath·
I'' em atical .\ lmrthly, :\lay 19$9, p. 442). What range of values of 0 will now be required
to obtain the whole butterfly?
X
X
.r
-I -I
10.2 PROBLEMS
1. l'lot the 1x•irm with the g" ·e n po lar coordinates. and then 26. The circk " llh C'cntcr (;\ . .1 ) ~nd radius 5
find the rcct~ngul:rr CtlQrdina tc• o f each.
:1. The m cle "" h crnte r 1I. I) th .H p.1sses thrCiugh rhe origin
(3) ( 1.11 / ·l ) (b) ( - 2. l:t / 3) (C) (J. - 11 / 3)
2!<. The mcle " "h cente r (5. -2) that p3S>CS through the point
(d) (3. 31! / 2) (c) (2. -.•/~1 (f) (-2. -7:r/ 6) (1 , I )
(g) (2. 5,Tf {l)
In l 'mhl<m<]Q rhrou;:h 31. tran.<form til~ givm polar-courdinat~
Z. finLI two po lar·cnnrdinntc rcprcscnt :uion~
nne v. ith' > 0 t'IJIWtion ;, , a r~rr.zngu!nr·COt1rdinmr t"qulltion. lht·n
nwtch lhi!
and the ot he r with r < 0. fm the points" ith the given reel· <qunrimr o.·irll ia ~rraph amo ng them• m Figt /0.2.11 throu~:ll
:mgulnr counhnatc\. / O.l.U.
(3) ( - 1. - 1) (b) ( ,/~ . - I) (C) (2. 2) 29. r = - .I cos !I 30. r = 5cos0 + 5sinll
(d ) (-I. v0) (c) (..12. - ..12) (f) (-3. v0) 31. r = --! cos O+ 3sin 0 32. r = Scosll- IS sin O
ratrm~llltlf fo mL
II. r = 3 Jl. /) = 3:r/~
1.\. r = -5 cos0 14. r = sin :!II FIGURE 10.2.21
1~. r= l-cos20 16. r = 2 + sin 0
17. r = 3scc0 HI. r' =cos 20
F11r thr run·rs 11~scribr11 ill l'mbii.'IIU /9 tlmmglr 28, writ~ ~qua·
tio11s i11 bmh rrclllngular and pt~lar form.
FIGURE 10.2.24
FIGURE 10.2.27
The graph of a polar equation of rhe form r =tl + bcos O
(or r = 11 + bsin (I) i.f callt•d 11 lima~on (from the Frc11ch word
for snail). In Problems 33 thro ugh 36. march the ;:ivcn polar· y
coordinatr t•qrullio n 1\'ith its graph amo11g the limaro ns in
Figs. /0.2.25 through /0.2.2B.
33. r =8+6cos0 3-t r =7 -"-1 cos 0
35. r = 5 + 9cos0 .'6. r = 3 + II cosO
37. Show that the graJ"h of the J"Oiar equation r = ncos ll +
b sin II is a circle if a 1 + b1 # 0. Express the center (h. k) and
radius r of this circle in terms of a and b.
38. Show th:rt if 0 < a < b. then the lima,on with polar cqua·
tion r =a+ bcos 0 has an inner loop (as in Figs.10.2.25 and
10.2.27). In this case. find (in terms of a and b) the runge of
"alues of 0 that correspond to points of the inner loop.
FIGURE 10.2.28
y
Skt rch the gra11hs o{tl .
j? I I'. te flO111r eqrwtrons in Problt'ltr.v 39th rough
• ·. ~< tWI<' Y symmerries around eirlter coordinate oris o r tire
011
orrgm. ·
In Probltm.f 53 thro ugh 58, firul all points of intu uction of the
(Un·es wirh t he givm polar equnrioiU.
SJ, r = I , r "'co•O
FIC.URE 10.2.30 r a cos ( s;)-
!4. r = sino. r 2 = 3cos 2 o
SS. r = •inO. r = cm 21l (o,rrl•rrin2) lt-.ops v.hile the other ho< tcn l oop<? In ench
case '4h3:t r;n~c of \ alun of tt i' require-d to oht:tin :til the
56. r = I + cosO , r = I - sinO
loo~~ In the ~ore g~ncral ca~f.' r = (n'l< Jl(lf q l where p ~nd
57. r = I - cosO, r2 a 4cos0 q :uc pc-~1ti'C' m tc~cf'.. ic;, It p o r tJ (or ~oth ) rh.lt d~..:tcr~ mc
the numhe r <>f lo"ps a nd the rnngc or values of II tcqUtrcd
~8. r 2 = ~ sin O, r' = 4 cos0 hl ~how all the lc.J·op~ an th~ complete grnph?
59. (a) The straight line L passes through the point with polar (;.1, Ft~ure< 10.2.31 :md IO.l.J2 shov.· the !!raphs of the cqua -
coordmali:S ( f' . a) and is pcrpcndicul.u to the line sog· hrms r = 1 + ..t ~in .lO and r -= 1 + 4 cns.l/). \VhJ I Uct crrnmcs
ment joming the pole nnd the point (p. a). Wnte the p<Jiar· 'ol.' ht>thc r a po.I;H CUf\ C of the (<'lrm r ;; tJ + h sin(n0)- with
coordinate cqunl ion or L. (h) Show that the r~mngul3! a and b poso h'c cor.sta~ts and 11 l positi\'C integer- has
coordinatc equation or L is both larger a nd smaller ILXJ~'! \ \'h3 t d etermine-s whethe r
the small<:r loops are ""i thin or outside of t he larger ones?
x cosa + ysina = p.
r = I + w s 0 and r = - I + cos 0
- t
I A=
" .
L D. A;"" L ~ [!(0,"))2 MJ.
I i=1 1=1
1·'
a !lf<0))2dO.
(1)
I
\
Polarui•
(l)
.....
rotu
EXAMPLE. 1 Find the area or the re~ion bounded by the tima~on with equ:ll ion
r= 3-'- 2cos6 , 0 :l 9 ::; h ( Fig. 10.3.-1).- •
Solu tio n \\'c could apply Eq. (2) with a = 0 and fJ = 2:r. Her~. instead. we will make
use of s~mmetry. \\'e 11.·ill calculate the area of the upper half of the region :tnd then
FIGURE 10.3.4 The lima,on of
Example 1. double the result. :"ote that the intinit~simal sector shown in Fig. 10.3.-l sweeps out
the upper half of the lima~on as fo increases from 0 to :r (Fig. 10.3.5). Hence
we now ge-t
I
I ....
Polar
=
rl.·(J(3+4cos0+2cos 20)d8
Jo
I
I
I 2.•!3
'•1+2cos 0
I
te. 4%13 = [ 39+ 4sin9+sin28] =2:r+~~-
I
0
FIGURE 10.3.6 The lima,on of The inner loop of the lima,on corresponds to values of 0 between 'l.T f3 and
Example 2. 4:r / 3. where r is negative. Hence the area bounded by the: inner loop is
[
=~ 38 +4sin O+sin20
l
b fl
Z.•f.l
=:r-!J3.
The a.rea of the region l)ing bttwttn the two loops or the lima,on is then
p0 Jar Curves
The Area Between Two d, _ gCO) . with f <B> ~ g (BJ ~ 0 for a S 9 ~ fl.
Now cons1'der t"·o curves r == j. (O) ·ann boun
- dcd 1,V• these curves and theh rays
· (radil)
10
lnen we can lind the area of the re£ tin the area bounded by t e mncr cun:e
). ·) 0 _ a •nd 0 =a (Fi!!. 10.3.7) by subtrac . £the area A between the two curves 1,
1ncs - .. ~' - urve. litat IS. • •
from th at bounded by th e outer c
so that
A=
1a
~(f(O} a
Pol.u U H
A= ~ 1~ j l/llllf - ],t:lilJf } dtl. (J)
FIGURE 10. 3.7 The area bet~n . r curve• we get the abbre\·iated
the graphs of I and g. With ' outer for the outer curve an d ' •nncr fort hc 1nne
formula
(4)
EXAMPLE 3 Find the area A of the region that lies within the lima~on r = I +
2 cos 0 and outside the circle r = 2.
Solution 'Il1c circle nnd lima~on are shown in Fig. 10.3.9. with the area A hctwccn
them shaded. 'llle points of intersection of thc circle and lima,on arc given by
I+ 2coso = 2, so coso=~·
and the figure shows that we should choose the solutionsO = ±:r /3. 1lu:sc two values
I of 0 are the needed limits of intcgratiun. When we usc Eq. (3), we find that
• J)
t A=~ j- • JJ
IO + 2cos0)2 - 2~]t/O
(hy symmetry)
r/3
= lo (4coso + 2cos2u- l)t/9
= 15~ -2;r
= [4sinO+sin20-oJ:Jl
1 •
J
Alea Computations in Polar Coordinates SECTION 10.3 641
10.3 PROBLEMS
In rroblmrs /IIJrOllgh 6, >ketch the plmw rc~:ion bowu/rd by,,, 20. r = sm51l (Fig. IO.J .P)
givm poi.Jr curw' r = [ <0). a ;:; 0 :i (!. mrrltlre ray>11 =''· I)= p. 21. , : = 4 sin 1/1
t.r =O. O ~O;ii;r 2.r =0. O ;l 0 ~ 2r.
22. r! = ~ C0>21' (fig. 10.3 .15)
3. r = 1/0. rr ~ 0 ~ 3;r 4. r = 1/0 . );r ;ii 0 $ 5.'!'
B. r 1 = 4 sinO
U. r = l•co<M
In Problmu 7 thro ugh 16. find 1/re tuen bounded l>y 1/rt givrrr
curvt. 0.5
7. r = 2cos0 R. r = 4 sin0 r• ""50
9. r = I+ cos O
10. r =2 - 2sin0 (Fig. 10.3.10) II. r = 2 - cos O
JZ. r = 3 + 2sin 0 (Fit:. t0.3.11}
·l
~)
In Problem> 25 Il~rouslr 36, find rlre ar<a of tire regimr ties·
I r•l +:.iinO cribed.
._
' 2!'. Insider = 2 sin 0 and outsider= I
13. r = -4cos9 1~. r = 5(1 +sin&) 28. Inside r = 2 +cosO anc.l outside r= 2
IS. r = 3- cosO 16. r =2 +sin9 +cos9 29. Insider = 3 + 2 cos 0 and outside r = 4
4 l
2
r •2c<M49
-l
-I
-4'-----'---_.J
flC.URE 10.3.12 Th~ thr~· FIGURE 10.3.13 The eight·
lea.,ed rose of Problem 19. FIC.URE 10.3.16 Problem 31. FIGURE 10.3.17 Problem 32.
lta•ed rose of Probl~ 18.
64 2 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordinates and Parametric Curves
the region thai lies between the (n- l)th
(b) The area o f --
33. Insider= 2(1 +cosO) and outsider = 1 and nth turns for n > I.
3-l. Inside the figure-eight curve r 2 =4cos0 and outsider = J
I -cosO
35. Inside both r = 2cos 0 and r = 2sin9
36. Inside r = 2 + 2 sin 0 and outside r =2
37. nnd the area of the circle r = si n 0 +cosO by integration
in polar coordinates (Fig. J0.3.1S). Check your answer by -t
writing the cyua tio n of the circle in rectangular coordinates.
finding its radius. and then using the famili~r formula for the
area of a circle.
42. Figure 10.3.21 shows the first turn of the logarithmic spiral
r = 2e· •JIO together with the two circles. both centered at
-I
(0. 0). through the e ndpoints of the spi ral. nnd the areas
of the two shaded regions a nd \'Crify that their sum is the
area of the annubr region between the two circles.
FIGURE 10.3.18 The circle
r =sinO+ cos O (Problem 37).
38. Find th e area of the region that lies interior to all three
circlesr = l.r = 2cosO.and r = 2sin e.
39. l11c spiral of Archimedes, shown in Fig. 10.3.19. has the
simple equation r = aO (a is a con>tant). Let A. denote
the area bounded by the 11th turn of the spiral. where
2(n - I )n ~ 0 ~ 2n:r. and by the portion of the polar axis
joining its e ndpoints. For each n E; 2. let 1<. = A. - "•-I
I •
~~~~=~ ~0/' 22 The region of
the nth turn of t his spiral. Figure 10.3.20 shows the: first five
9110
turns of the logarithmic spiral r = <' " • and the area of the: FIGURE 10.3.23 The region of
region lying between the second and third turns is shaded. 44 Problem 44.
· The shaded region R 10
.
I~ Find: cardioid, ., + .
3 3 11
fig. 10.3.23 lies in~ide both the
I (a) The: area of the region that lies between the first and Graphically . Sin and the polar cur\'c r = 3 +cos ~0.
second turns. curves· the estimate. the po'Ill1s o f ·rntcrscct .ron o f the two
· n appro~tma tc Ihe area of the: rc~tion R.
Parametric Curves SECTlON t 0.4 64 3
J0.4 l PARAMETRIC CURVES
Until now we have encountered curves mainly as graphs of equations. An equatio n
=
of the _form y = { lx) or of the form x g(y) determines a curve by giving one of the
coordmatc variables c~p:icitly as a function of the o ther. An equa tion of the form
F(x. Y} = 0 may also determine a curve, but then c:ach variable is given implicitly as
a func tion of the other.
Another important t~p~ o f curve is the trajectory of 3 point moving in the
coordinate plane. The motion of the point can t>e described by giving its position
(x(r }. ylr)) at time r. Such a description in,·oi\'CS e ~pressing both the rectangula r-
ct>ordinate variables x and y as functions of a third variable. or paramtter. r rather
tha n as functi om of one another. In this contc~t a purnmetcr is an independe nt
variable (not a constant. as is sometimes meant in po pular usage). This approach
motivates the follo...,i ng t!cfi nition.
that give x andy as conlinuous functions of the real number t (the parameter) in
some interval / .
Each value of the p~rameter 1 determines a point ( /(1). g(t)) . and the set of all
such points is the l!ruph of the curve C. Often the distinction between the curve-the
pair of coordinate runctiom f nnd g~1nd the graph is not made. Therefore. we may
refer interchangeably to the curve and to its graph when the context makes clt.:ar the
I X )' intended meaning. Titc two equations in (J) arc called the parnmetrk eq uations of
the curve.
0 1 0
The graph of a parametric curve may be sketched by plotting enough points
:r I~ 1/./i l t./i to indicate its likel y sh np~. In some cases we can elimina te the parameter t and thu,
.T/2 0 1 o btain an equation in x and y. This equation may give us more information about
J:r/ 4 -lf./i l f,/i the shape of the curve.
:r - I 0
5-T/~ -1/ ./i -11./i EXAMPLE 1 D etermine the graph of the curve
3.1{2 0 -I
1:rf4 IJli -l f,/i x=cosr. y == sinl. 0 S t :ii2-r . (2)
21r 1 0
Solution Figure 10.4.1 stows 3 ta ble of values of x andy that correspond to multiples
of ;or f4 for the parame ter 1. These values give the eight points highlighted in Fig. 10.4.2,
FIGURE t0.4.t A table of vJiucs
for Example 1. all of which lie on the unit circle.lhis suggests tha t the graph is. in fact. the unit circle.
To verify this. we note th3t the fundamental identity of trigonometry gives
What is lost in the process in Example I is the information about how the graph
is produced as t goes from 0 to 2rr. But this is easy to determine by inspection. As 1
travels (rom 0 to 2:r, the poin t (cost, sinr ) begins at (1. 0) and traveh counterclock-
wise around the circle. ending at (1. 0 ) when t = 2Jr.
A given figure: in the plane may be the graph of different curves. To speak more
FIGURE t 0.4.2 The graph of the
parametric functions of Example t • loosely, a given curve may ha\'e different parametrizations.
644 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordinates and Parametric Curves
arametric curve
EXAMPLE 2 The graph of the p '
l y:lt2 - t
is a diffe re nt pa rametrization of this same graph. •
I I
I I
I I EXAMPLE 3 Eliminate the parameter 10 d e1e rmine the g mph of the parametric
(-1. I ) (I. I)
curve
X
X =( - I. )' = 212 - 4t + I. 0~l 2 2.
(0. -I ) Solution We substitute t = x +I · n for x) in to the equation for y.
(from 1h e equa110
This yields
y = 2(x + 1)2 _ 4(x + I)+ I = 2x2 - I
- I < x < 1 Thus the graph of the r-iven curve is a portion of the parabola Y =
2~~- 1(Fi~ 10.4.3). As t increases from 0 to 2. the point (t - trave~
FIGURE 10.4.3 The curve of f
Example 3 is part of a parabola. I. 2t 2 - 4t + I )
along the parabo la from (- 1, I) to (1. 1).
Now. as t increases, the point (sin r. 2 sin 2 1 - 1) travels back and fo rth along the
parabola between the two points (-I. 1) and (I. 1), rather like the bob of a pendu-
lum.
lbe parametric curve of Example 3 is one in which we can eliminate the param·
eter and thus obtain an explicit equation y = /(x). Moreover, any explicitly presented
curve y = f(x) can be viewed as a parametric curve by writing
x =r. y = /(1),
with the parameter r. taking on values in the o riginal domain of f . Dy contrast. the
o.s circle of Exam~le I Illustrate's a parametric curve whose graph is not the graph of
any single fu~cuon. (Why not!) Exam~le 4 exhibits ano tho.:r way in which parametric
y curves can d1ffer from graphs of functtons-thcy can ha\·e self-intersections.
because the curve is traced by a poin t that moves on the screen as the parameter r in·
creases (from 0 to 2:r in this case). Fo r instance. -.·ith a Tl CJiculator se t in ··pa rametric
graph mode,'" one need only enter and graph the equation~
EXA MP lE 5 lhc curve traced by a point f' on the edge of a rolling circle is called
a cycloid. ·n ,e circl e rolls along a straight line without slipping nr stopping. (You will
sec a cydoid if you watch a patch or bright paint on the tire of a bicycle th at crosse~
your p;Hh.) J·in\1 pa rametric equation~ for the cycloid if th e li n~: ilion!! which tit ~ drd~
rolls is th·e .r·axis. the ci rri<! is above the x-axis but always tangent to il. and the pClint
P begins at the origin.
Solution Evidently the cycloid consists of a series of arches. We take as parameter r
the angle (in radians) through which the circle has turned since it began with /'at
the origin . This is the angle TC I' in Fig. 10 .4.5.
,.
P(<. y )
0 , T(ar. OJ , X
\ '~C(nt. n)
\,~lDCOSI
P (r. yl a""1 (l(aq •)
FIGURE 10.4.S The cycloid and the right triangle CPQ (Example 5).
'£11e distance the circle has rolled is 10'/l. so this is also the length of the circum-
ference subtended hy the angle TC P. Thus lOTi = ar if a is the radius of the circle,
so the center C of the rolling circle has coordinates (ar. a) when the angle TC Pis 1.
The right triangle C PQ in Fig. I0.4.5 provides us with the relations
•
646 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordinates and Parametric Curves
ows a bead sliding down a frictionless wire from
H ISTORICAl NOTE Figure 10·.4·6· Sh . - t h ·
point p to point Q.lne brachisrochrone problem ask s wh at s Jape t c wire should be
169
to min imize the bead's time of descent from I' to Q. In June of 6, John Bernoulli
proposed the brachistochronc problem as a public challenge. With a 6-month_ deadline
(later extended to Easter !697 at Leibniz's requc~t). Isaac N.:wwn. t~lcn rcllrcd from
academic life and scn·ing as Warden of the :VIint in Lond.on, received Bernoulli's
challe nce on Januarv 29.!697. The n:ry next day he communicated IllS own solution-
the cur~·c of minim.al descent time is an arc of an inverted cycloid- to the Royal
Society of London.
FIGURE 10.4.6 A bead sliding
down a Wlre-the b rachistochrone lines Tangent to Parametric Curves
problem.
'lne parametric curve .r = [(I ) . y = g(l ) is called smooth if the derivntives J'(t) and
g ' (l) are co ntinuous and never simultaneously zero. In so me neighborh ood of each
point of its graph. a smooth parametric curve can he described in one or possibly both
of the forms y = F(.r ) and .r == G( y ) . To sec why this is so. suppose (for example) that
/'(I ) > 0 on the interval / . TI1en [ (1) is an increasing functio n o n I and therefore
has :m inverse function 1 == ¢(.r) th ere. If we substitute 1 =
¢(:c) into the equation
)' = g (t), then we get
y = g(¢ (x )) = F (x) .
We can usc _the chain rule to compute the slope dy f d x of th e line tangent to a
:~i~~>~~ par:lmctnc curve at a given point. Differentiating y = F (x ) with re spect to
dy d,· d:c
dl = d~. dl.
so
tly _ tlyf tlr g'( l )
tfx - tl.r f tlr = /'Ct )
(4)
I
>'=a (I -cost). (3)
Til en Eq. (4) gives
tly dyftlt .
I -J = - - a SIO I .
t .r tlxjd1 - (I _ Sill/
1
This derivative is zero whc . a - cos ) I - cos 1 · (6)
h . . n y IS an odd . .
onzontal at the midpoint r . . tntcgralmult' 1
correspond to c•·cn integra~ n e~ch arch or the cycloi~p .~ of 7T ·so the tangent line is
11
nominator in Eq. (6) are z~r 1 ~~lplcs of :r, where b ·h e endpoints of the arch es
cycloid fails to be a smooth o. esc arc isolated ?t the numerator and the de·
curve· (Se c Fi1g. 10.4.7.)POints (call c·d msps) at which the
Pclratmtroc Curve5 SECTION 10.4 64 7
t h i~ sho"'; thnt each arch of the C)·doid i~ concave do wnward (Fig. IOA.S). •
REMARK In Fig. 10..1.7 11 appears that the C)·cloid h:u a vertical tangent line at
each cusp point (211.~ 0 . (I) We can vcnfy thts ob~er,at ion by calculating the limit as
I - 2mr of the d.:rivatl\c on (6). Using l' ll6pitars rule. we get
r ,_._ hy solving for y n~ a function of x. But we can parametrize this curve by defining
Using a computer algebra system. we find that the only real zeros of the polynomial
216 - 51 4 + 91 in the numcrutor are r = 0 and 1 :::: - 1.8065. These values of 1 yield
the points f't (0. 0) and /~ ( -0.00002~22. -1.86065). respectively, tha t arc shown in
the figure. Thus I~ docs not lie precisely on the y·:nis. after all.
The denominat or polynomial12t 5 - 20t 3 + 9 in (9) has only the single real zero
1 :::: -2.5587. wh ich yields the single point /'.l( -2.5587. -1.3941) on the curve where
the tangent line is vertica l. In p;orticular, there is 110 vertical tangent line neur the
point /'. indicated in the llgu.r~. . . . . .
To investigate the posstbohty of posstblc mflecuon potnts. we use Eq. (5) and a
computer algebra system to calculate the second derivative
d 2y d (dy) . dx
d;xl = dt tlx .,. dt
6(21 6 - St' + 91)ti3(36t 10 - 150t8 + 501 6 + 5941$- 450t 3 - 8 1)
= (12tl- 2013 + 9)J (10)
648 CHAPTER 10 p0 1 C .
ar OOrdonatt>s and Parametric Curvt'S
l h e two trinomial~ that appear in the numera l~~ and dc;nominator here are the same
as those in (9). and correspond 10 the three c:nttcal pomts already found. Our corn.
puter algebra system reports that the tcnth·degree numcrntor p olynomial in (IO)
has only two real zeros: t ::::: 1.0009 and I ::::: - 2.2614. Titcse two zeros of the sec.
ond deri\·ative yield the two points P.(l.ll172. l.OOO"J) and !'s< 4.8820. -2.261-1) that
are shown in the Iieure.
_ It is visually clear lh:ll
. the
. conc:avlly
b of the curve . changes
at /~-where dyj dx ::::: 0.9063 so the tangent 1!nc IS steep ut not vcrttcal-butthe
character of the rema ining point is not so ob,··~~s. Ncvcrt h~lcss. you can graph the
second derivative in (10) to ,·crify that it is posJtJVC 10 th e. n g ht :111d negative to the
left of / j-so this final Clndidate is. indeed. also an mflccuon pomt.
Finally. because our viewinJ: window in fig. 10.-1.8 is large enou~:h to include
all the critical points and inflection points on the curve in (7)-and since it is clear
from the equations in (8) that 1x1a nd IYI - oo as It I - co-we arc assured that the
figure shows all of the princip.1l features of the curve. •
I .r = /Ctl)cu,fl. y= /(ll)sin/1,
.r=nOcosO. y=aOsinO.
•
,.
...
(Ill
Parametric Curves SEOION 10.4 649
Equation (13) h as the following useful consequence. Let y denote the an·
gle bet ween the tangen t I ine at P and the radius 0 p (extended) from the origin
(Fig. 10.4.10). Then
I dr
cut 1/f = -r · t!O
- 10 ~ ~~ ~ r. ). (14)
ln Problem 32 we indicate how Eq. (14) can be derived from Eq. ( 13).
y y
, . ~·
•
FIGURE 10.4.10 The interpretation of FIGURE 10.4.11 The angle 1/1 is always
the ang le.;,. (See Eq. (14).) 45' for the logarithmic spiral
(Example 9).
EXAMPLE 9 Consider the logarithmic spiral with polar equation r = e-~ . Show that
1ft = 1r / 4 at every point of the spiral, and write an equation of its tangent line at the
point (c•t2, 1r /2).
Solution Because tlr ! dO = <'9 , Eq. (14) tells us that cot 1ft = t!1 ! e'1 = I. Thus t/J =
rt / 4. Whcnt9 = :r/2, Eq. (13) gives
tly c·•i2 sin(;r / 2) + c•ll cos(:r./2)
- = =-I.
tlx e·• i2 coS(T'f /2) - e·• /1 sin(;r./2)
But when 0 =
rr /2. we have x = 0 andy = c-'12• It follows that an equation of the
desired tangent line is
)'- C/2 = -x; that is. X+)'= e•t2.
The line and the spiral appear in Fig. 10.4.11.
•
0 10.4 TRUE/FALSE STUDY GUIDE
10.4 CONCEPTS: QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION
1. Pick two points A and 8 in the plane. lben define a parametrization
P(t) = (x(t), y(l)) of the line segment AB such that P(O) = A and /'(1) = 8.
2. Pick two points A and II equidistant from lhe origin. Then define a para·
mctrization of a circular arc A/J such that /'{0) = A and P( 1) = 8.
3. Pick two points A and 8 on the parabola y = x2 • TI1cn define a parametriza.
tion of the paralxlla such that P(O) = A and /'(1) B. =
4. Let A and 8 be two points on a given parametric curve. Is it always pos-
sible to define :t parametrization of the curve such that P(O) =A and
P(l) =
8?
650 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordinates and Parametric Curves
10.4 PROBLEMS
IS. x =sin 2
:r t. y =ros 1
:r r; 0 ;a t :) 2
16. x =cost. y = sin r: 2
- :r :;i t :;l :r
35. If b =af 4 in Problem 34, ~how that the parame tric equa· ' • 1- t;in9
tions of the hypocycloid reduce to
. t.
y = a sm· '
36. (a) Prove that the hypocycloid of Problem 35 is the graph
of t!he equation
x'" + / " = am.
(bf Find all points of this hypocycloid where its tangent
line is either horizontal or vc rtic:tl , a nd find the intervals on FIGURE 10.4.17 The cardioid
which it is concave upward and those on which it i~ conC3\'C of Problem 40.
downward. (c) Sketch this hypocycloid.
37. Consider a point P on the spiral of Archimedc~ the 41. Usc the technique of Problem 30 to parametrize the first·
curve shown in Fig. 10.4.16 with polar equation r = aO. quadr~nt loop of the folium·like curve .ts + _.~ = 5.t 2y2.
42. A line segment of length 2a has o ne endpoint constrained
to lie on the .r·a.is and the other endpoint constrained to
lie on the y·uxis. but its endpoints are free to move along
those u~~s. As Uwy d<:> so. its midpoint sweeps out a locus
in the xy·plane. Obtain a reetangular·coordinate equation
of this locus and thereby identify this cun·e.
' '
'\\ /11 l'rohlem s -IJ-46.• ilt vtstigate (as i11 t:xample 7) rhe givm curvr
I
Polar ui.s ami construct a sketch that .shows all tire crirical poims tmd in·
flection points on it.
43. X= ).J- 3y2 + I
4-l X = )'"- 3y' + 5y
45• .r) =yS -Syl + 4
FIGURE 10.4 .16 The segment PQ is
tangent to the spiral (a result of 46. ..s = 5/- 17yl + 13y
Archim~es; see Problem 37).
652 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordinates and Parametric Curves
-
I
-2~
,.
FIGURE 10.4.18 TI1e trochoid with o = 2 and b =4.
Note that the trochoid is a familiar cycloid if b =a. We allow the possibility that
b>a. Figure 10.4.18 shows the trochoid with a = 2 and b = 4. Experiment with
different values of a and b. \Vhnt determines whether the trochoid has loops. cusps, or
neither'!
Hypotrochoids
FIGURE 10.4.19 The A hypot rochoid is to a hypocycloid (Problem 34) as a trochoid is to a cycloid. Thus
hypotrochoid with a = 10, b = 2, a hypotrochoid is traced by a point P on a spoke of a wheel of r:ulius bas it rolls
c = 4. around insid.: a circle of radius tt . If the distance of P from the center of the rolling
'~heel is c > 0. show that the hypotrochoid is described by the parametric equa·
I lOllS
(lt-11)
.r =(a - b) cosr + ccos -
0
-r .
Y. = (a- b) Sill
. I .
- C Sill (a- b )
-b-t .
Epitrochoids
An t•pitroclwid is gem:ratcd in th
. . II . I II · c same wav
sn1.1 cue c ro s around on the outsid, ' ' "•s· a I1ypotrochmd.
. except now th.c
otherwise, show that the epitrocho'd. c of ll~c large circle. With the same notllion
I IS dcscnbcd b h
Y t c parametric equations
x = (a+ b) cos r - c cos ( ~: b r).
.
11
Y :::: (a + b) sin 1 - c sin ( ; b r).
Ir b=c-so the pomt plies 0 h .
.1s an eptcyc n t c nm or h
. Imt., ('Illustrated · n Fi
1. • • 1 'Jg. 104 21) t e rolling CJrc · 1 h · ochoid
C, I1lCn I C cpllf
FIGURE 10.4.21 The epitrochoid h1. and c,han.~.~nvcs!lgate for epitroch~,:d .hExpcriment with different values of a.
l = =
with a= 10. b 2, c 2. ypotroc 01...,. s t c sam for
~lila.:.________________________
1
e questions posed previous Y
lnlegral Computations with Param~tric Curves SECTION 10.5 65 3
V, = 1•:r_,.: dx . (2n)
s
1' =lb
=0 • d.t VI + (tly/d.r)Zdx. (3)
We substitute y =
f(x) into each of these integrals before we integrate from .r a =
tO .t =b.
We now wantlo compute these same quantities for a smooth parametric curve
The area, volume. arc length, and surface integrals in Eqs. ( 1) t hrough (4) can the n
be evaluated by making the formal substitutions
.r = /(1), y= g(l),
The infinitesimal "right triangle" in Fig. 10.5.1 serves as a convenient device for
remembering the latter subs-titution for tk The Pythagorean theorem then lends to
FICURE I O.S. I Nearly a right the symbolic manipulation
triangle for dx and dy close to
le<'O.
( -tlx)~
I 1 I
+ (''~')!
-1· lit = Jl f'CI)]2 + (!.: '11)]! tit
l/ ' ' (7)
Jt simplifies the discussion to assume that the graph of the parametric curve
=
in (S) resembles Fig. 10.5.2, in which y g(t) ~ 0 and x =
/ (1) is either increasi ng on
654 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coord inates and ParametriC Curves
. d creasing there. The t wo parts o f Fig. 10.5.2 illus.
y t he entire intef\·al a;; I ;; f3 or 15 e ·,ncrcases the cuf\'C is traced in the posi tiv-
'bT · whether as 1 . '
t •ll Irate the two ~st 1 tUcs,- . h ega ti ve x ·directio n from nght to left. llow
x·dircction from left t~ n~ht. ~r ft ~:rio~ into account depends on which integral
111
...__/
I I
and whether to take thts dtrecuon n
we are computing.
.
C\SI~ I Area and Volume 0 .
°
{ Rcrolution To eva lu ate the integrals in (I) a nd (2).
fl tot = a-th =
_ 10 1 == 11 or from 1
I I
I
I
I
I • 1vc r1.t, we ·mteg rate
• 11111\'0
w I11c • . cuher from Ih -a rr ·sponds'' to traversing th e cttr,·c ·c
I I . f) ' . be no th e one t a t co c tn
proper chotec o 1n11IS on r 1 , . .
a b th e positi"e x-dircction from left to right. Spcctficall}.
(a) /UI incrasing
I •(I
,.,__/ I
I
I
I
whereas
I I
I
I
The validit)' or this me thO<! of c\'alunting the in tegrals in Eqs. (I) a nd (2) follows
• b
from TI1corem I of Section 5.7. on integration by substitution.
CASE 2 Arc Length and Surfau Art'a To evalua te the integrals in (3) and (4).
FIGURE 10.S.2 Tracing a which in,·oh·e lis rather than r/x, we into.:gratc from t = a to 1 = f3 irrespective of
parametriLcd curve: (a) f(l)
the direction of motion along the curve. To sec why this is so. recall from Etl. {-I) of
increJ~1ng ; (b) 1( 1) decrea~in g .
Section 10.4 tha t tlyjdx = g'(t)f ['(t) if ['(I)"# 0 on (a. fl[. Hence
= 1 \I + =1,- \I + [~
~ (dy)
1 1
.<,>]2
(h)
s I -1 dx I f'( t ) dt .
" t X f
f ·l(•) ' (f)
Assuming that ['(t) > 0 if [ (a) = a and f(/J) = b. whe reas J'(t ) < 0 if J(a) = band
[({J) =a. it follows in e ither event tha t
s --
1~ I1 +
a \
[g'(t)]2
['(t) I[ .(I )Jdt.
and so
FIGURE 10.5.3 The quarter<lrcle Solution (a) The lcft·lo· right d ' ·
. trectton nlon h
of Example 1. t
ts from = "/2 tot = 0, and dx = -a sin
1
t}
t e quarter circle shown in Fi!!· 10..5.3
• Therefore Eq. (I) and multiplicnuon
lntegrdl Computatlom with Pat4metiic Curves SECTION 1O.S 655
by 4 give
= 4a 2 Jo
t {2 sin 2
1 d1 = 2a 1Jo
r {2 (I -cos 2r ) dr
I • f2
~ • ., 1T 2
= 2a· [ I - Sin 21 ] O = 2a· · = ;ra
2 2
ror yet another derivation of the familiar formula 11 = :ra 1 Cor the area o f :1 ci rcle of
r ad ius a.
(b) To calculate the ,·olume of the sphere. we apply Eq. (2a) and double to ge t
V = 2 f :r>; dx
},=.'f l2
=2 [,
6 {2
:r(a sin 1) 2( - a sin r dt) = 2rrn3
10
·• f2
(I - cos 1 1) sin ulr
= 4;ra 2 fo
6
!l sin 1 d1 = 4na
2
[-cos 1 J:fl = 4;ra 2.
•
Of course, the results of Example I arc familiar. In contrast. Example 2 requires
the methods of this section.
EX AMPL E 2 Find the area under. and the arc length of. the cycloidal nrc'h or
' iFig. !0.5.4. Its parametric equations are
.r=ll(l-sinl). y = a(l-cosr ). 0 ~ 1 ;:! 2:r.
Solution Because clx =a (I - cos t) dr and the left-to-right direction along the curve
=
is from r 0 to 1 = 2:r. Eq. (I) gives
FIGURE 10.5.4 The (y(loldal arch 26
of E•ample 2. A= { ydx
ltoO
r
}0
sinln II dll = If · !
2 4
· ~ · 6~ .. ·~
211 ·
656 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordinates and Parametric Curves
We thereby get
A == 4a 2
. ~ (!..)
12.' sm 2 Jo
4
tit == 8a2 f" s in u du
0
as fu nct ion~ o f the para meter t.1ltcn this curve is described in recta ngula r coordinates
by the parametric equations
giving x andy as functions of 1. llte latter parametric equ atio ns ma y then be u..<cd in
the integral formula s in Eqs. (I) through (.t).
To compute ds. we first calculate the derivatives
dr dO dy .
tlx
- = (cosO )- - (rsin O) - .
dt dt dt
-
11I
= (sm O) -d
dr
I
+ (r cos O) -dO
til
.
Upon s~b~tituting t~esc cxp~cssions for dx f dt and d yf dl in Eq. (8) and making
algebratc stn:phficauons. we find that the arc-length differential in p arametric polar
coordmates ts
ds= \ l (dr
- ):
dt
+ ( r t/0)2
-
tit
d1 . (9)
0
1
t/s = \/ ( "' ) + r ! 1/(l (10)
' dO '
The su rface area of revolution around the .r-a.~is (Fig. 10.5.7) is given by
S= 1' 9=0
2.:ryds
1
2
•
1={)
y d.r = 1'r -;:0
ytlx + 12.'t =:t
y dx
docs n o r give the correct area of the circle. R elate the two integrals on the
right to the upper and lower halves of the circle.
=
2. If the circle of radius a is parametrized by x a sin 11 r , y a cos ;rt , explain =
carefully why the integral
1 1
t• O
y d.r = 11/1 + 13/2
t c.O
yd.r
r• l/2
yd.r +
12
t • 3!2
y d.r
dot's give the correct area. Relate the three integrals on the right to appro-
priate parts of the circular area.
10.5 PROBLEMS
In Probl~ms 1 rllrnuglr 6, find rile area of 1/re ugion rlrol lies In l'mblem.r 7 rhrouglr 10, fintl rhe •·olwne obtained by rt•vulving
bcrwttn the gi•'~'" paramt•tric cun·t> and thr X·tui.t around rhe X· fl.ris rhe region tlescrib..cl in rhe givm proMttn
l.x=rJ.y=2Jl+l: -l~r ~ l 7. Problem I II. Proble m 2
2. .r = ,.:.., y = .,-•; O~r ~ ln2 9. Problem3 10. l'roblcm S
3. x=cosr.y=sin r; O~t :i lT 1
In Problems II rlrrough 16,finc/ rlre arc lmgrlr ofrlre givm crm ·c.
4. .r = 2 - 3r, y = e z, ; 0 ~ 1 ~ I 11 • .r=21, y= jrl11 ; 5 :;; r :; l2
S.x =cos r,y=<"; O ~ r :i JT
6..r=l -<".y=21+ 1; o :;; r :; t l1..r = ~r 1 • y = \ rl; O:i t :ii l
658
13. x
CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordinates and Parametric Curves
•
FIGURE 10.5.13 The area that the
cow of Problem 42 can grue.
fj
In l'ro/Jir,.~r 43 rhrougl• 54. uu a graphing calwlaror or com·
·' putn algt•brn .1ystem a.f appropriar~. ilppro.rimate (by integrnt·
ing nrut:ertcal/y) the desired quantity if it cannot b~ Clllculatcd
r.ractly.
43. Find the total a rc length of the 3 -lcavcd rose r = 3 sin 30 of
Fig. 10.3.1 2.
FIGURE 10.5.11 The involute
of a cirde. 44. Find the total surface area genermed by rotating around
the y·axis the 3-lcavcd rose o f Problem 43.
45. Fi nd the total kngth of the -!-leaved rose r = 2cos20 of
.$(. Suppose that the circle of Problem ~0 is a water llnk amlthc
Fig. 10.2.12.
"string" is a ro pe of length .1a. It is anchored at the poi nt 8
opposite A Figuw 10.5.12 depicts the total area that can be 46. Find the total surface area gen e rated by revolving around
grazed by a cow tied to the free end of the rope. Find this the x-axis th e 4-lcavcd rose of Problem 45.
total a rea . (The three label<d arcs o f the curve in the figu re 47. Find the tot al arc length of the lima~on (both loops) r =
represent. respectively, an involu te APQ generated as the 5 + 9cos0 of Fig. 10.2.25.
cow unwinds the ro pe in the counte rclockwise direction, a
48. Find the total surface area generated by revolving around
semicircle QR nf r~<.lius :rn ccnterctl at B. and an in"olute
the .r-axis the lima~on of Problem 47.
RSA 2eneratcd as the co w winds the rope nround the tank
proce';;ding in the counterclockwi;c direction from fJ to A. 49. Find the total arc length (all seven loops) of the polar curve
These three ares form a ch)>cd c urve that resembles a car· r = cos(jO) of Fig. 10.5.14.
dioid. and the cow can reach c\'cry point that lies inside this
curve and outside the original circle.)
y
•
FIGURE 10.5.12 The area that the FIGURE 10.5.14 The curve
cow o f Problem 41 can graze. r =cos( ~ 9) of Problem 49.
660 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordinates and Parametric Curves
y
SO. Find the total arc length of the figure-S curve x = sin t .
y =sin 2t of Fig. 10.4.13.
St. Find the tot~l surf3cc area and volume gcncr:ltcd by rc·
volvir1g around the x-a,is the ligure-S curve of Prob·
lem 50.
52. Find the tota l surface a rea and volume generated by revolv-
ing around t he y·axis t he figure -S curve o f Problem 50.
53. Fi nd the total arc length of the Lissajous curve x = cos3r.
y = sin 5r C>f Fig. I0.4.-t.
54. Find the total arc le ngth of the epitrochoid .r = 8 cos 1 -
5 cos -lr. y = 8 sin 1 - 5 sin -lr of r~g. 10.5.1 5.
SS. Fr:onk A . F:.rri s of Santa Clara University. while design- FIGURE 10.5.15 The cpitrochoid of
ing a computer laboratory exercise for his calculus stu· Problem 54.
dents. diswvercd an extremely lovely curve with the para·
metriLation
Svmmctry" in the June 1996 issue of Mat~lematics Maga~int.
l
.r (t) =cos t + co~7t + ! sin 17t. l'iot these equatio ns so you can e nJoy thrs e_xtraordtnaryfig-
ure. then nume rically integrate to approxrmate the length
y(t ) = sint + j sin 7t + } cos 171.
of its gra ph. What k ind of symmetry does the graph havc7ls
f or info rma tio n un what these equations rcpre,cnt. sec this predictable from the coefficients of t in the parametric
his article " Wheels on Wheels on Whcci'I-Surprisi ng equations?
(I)
(a> b) (21
(~)
I
A== 2(a +b) and R =:: f2; ~
denote the arithmetic mean and root-s ua . sa
and b of the ellipse. q re mean. respectively. of the senuaxe
Conic Sections and Applications SECTION I 0.6 661
Investigatio n A As a warm·up, consider the ellipse whose majo r and minor semi-
axes a and b arc. respectivel y. the larges t and smallest nonzero digits or your stude nt
r.o. numbe r. Fo r this ellipse. compa re the arc-length estima te given by (5) and by
nu merical evaluation of the integral in ( .!).
Investigation B It we ignore the perturbing effects of the sun and the plane ts o ther
than the earth, the orbit of the moon is an almost perkct ellipse with the earth at
one focus. Assume th at this ellipse has major semi axis a = 384.403 km (e xactly) and
ecce ntrici ty ( = 0.05.!9 (exact ly). Approximate the perime ter p of this ellipse (usi ng
Eq. (.!)] to the nearest meter.
The Parabola
The case e = I of Example 3 in Section 10.1 is moti\'ation for this formal defi -
nition.
If th e focus of the parabola is F(p, 0) and its directrix is the vertical line x = - p,
p > 0. then it follows from Eq. ( 12) of Section 10.1that the equation of this parabola
is
y2 =4px. (I)
- - -- - --1--t--:, When we replace x with -x both in the equation and i n the discussio n that precedes
it. we get the equation of the parabola whose focus is (- p. 0) and whose directrix is
1he vertical line x = p. TI1e new parabola has equation
s•p
y2 = -4px. (2)
(b)
'The old and new parabolas. appear in Fig. 10.6.1.
FICUR£ 10.6.1 Two pardboias We could also interchange .t and Y in Eq. (l ). TI1is would give the equation of
with vertical directrices. a parabola whose focus is (0, p) and whose directrix .is the horizontal line y = - IJ.
662 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordinates and Parametric Curves
EXAMPLE 1 Determine the focus. directrix. axis, and vertex of the parabola
x 2 = 12y.
Solution We wrilc the given equation as x 2 = 4 · (3y ) . In this form it matches Eq. (3)
with p = ) . l ienee the focus of lhc given parabola is (0 , 3} and ils directrix is the
hori zont al line y = -3. The y-axis is its axis of symm e try, and the parabola opens
upward f10111 it~ ''Crl<:~ al Ihe origin. •
(b)
Suppose that we begin with the parabola of Eq. ( I) and tra nslate it in such a way
FIGURE 10.6.2 Two pa rabolas that its vertex moves to the point (h. k).1l1en the translate d parabola has equation
with horizontal directrices: (a)
opening upward; (b) opening
downward. (y- k} 2 = 4p(x- h). (h)
The new par~bola has focus F(p +h. k) and it s directrix is the vertical line x=
- p + h (Fig. 10.6.3}. Its axis is the horizontal line y = k .
. \\'c can obtain the translat es of the other three parabolas in Eqs. (2) through
(4) mthc same.way. If the vertex is moved from the ori gin to the point (h. 1.:), then
the lhrce equations take these forms:
ld)
Cy- kl~ = - 4p(X - h). (h)
IX - In~ = 41'ty- k). and (3a)
(x - hl: = -4p<_v- k). (4a)
EXAMPLE 2 D ·
eterrnme the graph of th .
e equatiOn
4r- Bx- 12y + 1 ::: O.
-
Conic Sections and Ap plications SECTION 10.6 663
Solutl~n Thi~ equal io n is linea r in x and quad rat ic in y. We d ivide th rough by the
coefficie nt o f >~ and t he n collect on one side of the equa tion all terms tha t include y:
y2 -3y= 2x- L
·nlc n we comple te the squa re in 1he va ria ble y an.d thus find that
----- -------- y
2
- 3y + ~ = 2.t- ~ + ~ = 2.t + 2 = 2(.t + 1).
:Ole lin:1l step is lo write in Ihe form 4p(x- h) the terms on 1hc right-hand side that
mclud c .t:
·~.
(y ')l
- 2 = 4 · iI · (x + 1).
·n l is cqu ~ lio n has 1he form o f Eq. ( I a) with p = !-
h = - I . and k = ~· lllUS the
graph IS a para hula thai opens 10 lh~ ri ght from its ve rtex a t (- I. ~ ). )Is focus is at
FIGURE 10.6.4 The parabol~ of
Example 2.
(- i • ),
~ its d ircc1 rix is Ihe vert ical line -x = - L and its axis is th~ hor izo nta l line
Y == ~ - It appe ars in J~g. 10.11.4. • +
Applications of Pa rabolas
':'1e pa ra hola y2 = 4p.r ( t> > 0) is ~hown in Fig. 10.6.5 a long with an incoming ray of
li gh1 I raveli ng tn the lcfl an d pa rallel to the x -a xis. l11 is light ray strikes the parabola
a t the point Q(a. h) a nd is reflected toward 1h..: .t-axis. which il mee ts a1 the poinl
(c. 0 ). 'J11e lighl ra y's :mglc o f reflection must equal its angle of incidence. which is
why ho th of these angles- mea sured with respccl 10 lhe lnnge nt line /.at Q-are
In he led u in th e figure. ll1c angle vcrl ica l to Ihe angle of incidence is also equal to cr.
It
I lcncc. because Ihe inco ming ray is parallcl lo the x-axis, Ihe angle Ihe rcficclcd ray
...
:•
makes wil h lhe .r-ax is at (c . 0) is 2a .
U sing t he poi nts Q :~nd (c . 0) 10 compu te the slope of the reflected light ray, we
lind that
b 2 1an a
- - = tan 2cr = •
a- c I - tan2 a
(lhe seco nd equality follows from a trigonometric idc nlil y in Problem 64 of Sec-
lion 7.5.) But the angle a is related lo the slope of the Iangen! line L at Q. To find
·•
. ~
Hence the slope of Lis both ta n a and tlyj d x evaluated at (a, b); that is,
p)l/2
tan a = ( ;; .
Therefore,
b 2 tancr
2
/f; 2,[Pii b
;;=c = 1 - tan 2 a = 1 _ !!.. = '' - p = a - p'
/l
/'(~~~---- Q(~. ,)
, ,
,,
Fit. 0)
l
Conic Sections and Applications SECTION 10.6 665
Thus
whe re
c (12)
a=-.
e
FinaUy. with the aid of the fact t hat e < I, we may let
b 2 =a 2(1-e·)=a·-c-
' ' '. ( 13)
Then the equation of the ellipse with focus (c, 0) and directrix x = cfe 2 = afe takes
the simple form
(14)
We see from Eq. (14) that this ellipse is symmetric around bo th coordinate
axes. Its x-inte rce pts arc (±a. 0) and its y-inte rcepts are (0. ±b). ·n1e points (±a, 0 )
are called t he vertices of the ellipse. and the line segment joi ning them is called its
major 1ui~. ll1e line segment joining (0. b) and (0. -b) is called the minor axis [note
from Eq. (13) that b < a).ll1e alternative form
(15)
of Eq. (13) is the Pythagorean relat ion for th e right triangle of Fig. 10.6.10. Indeed.
visualization of th is triangle is an excellent wa y to remember Eq. (15). The numbers
a and b arc the lengths of the major and minor seminxes. respectively.
1 L
'
(-a, 0) (a, 0)
X
a a
.r=- - x=-
t t
l/'F1l • <li'Q 1l
an~.t
!PF~ • tii'Q~
FICURE 10.6.10 The parts of an ellipse. FIGURE 10.6.11 The ellipse as a conic
section: two foci, two directrices.
•
0
Because a= cfc , the directrix of the ellipse in Eq. (14) is x = afe. If we had
begun ins tead with the focus (-c. 0) and directrix x = -afe, we would still have
obtained Eq. (14), because only the squares of a and c arc in\'olvcd in its derivation.
Thus the ellipse in Eq. (14) has two fcx:i, (c. 0) and (-c. 0), and two direct rices, x = c1fe
• and x = -a;e(Fig. IO.t\.11) .
c •0.97 t=0.70 ll1e larger the eccentricity e < I. the more elongated the ellipse. (Remember
that e = I is the eccentricity of every parabola). llut if e = 0, then Eq. (13) gives
fiCURE 10.6.12 The rel~tion
between the eccentricity of an b =a, so Eq. (14) reduces tCI the equation of a circle of radius a. llms a circle is an
~llip~e and it~ ~hape. ellipse of eccentricity zero. Compare the three cases shown in Fig. 10.6.12.
666 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordinates and Parametric Curves
1
EXAMPLE 3 Find an equation of the ellipse with foci (±3. 0) and vertices (:!: 5, O).
(O. • )
FIGURE 10.6.14 An ellipse with EXAMP LE 4 Sketch the graph of the equation
vertical major axis.
x2 )'2
16 + 25 = I.
~olu ti~n TI~c .<·intercepts are (± -1. 0): the y-intcrccpts arc (0. ±5). So the major axis
ISvcrt1cal. \\c take (I = 5 and /J = 4 in E q. (15) and lind that c = 3. lllc foci are thus
at (0, ±3). Hence this ellipse has the a ppearance of the one: shown in Fig. 10.6.15. t
'
/ Ix- + C'y-' + Vx + F.y + F = o. (17)
in which the coeflicients II and C of th d ·
. b 'd . e squa re vanablcs arc both IWIPem and lrm·r
tI zc same .Hgn, may c re uced to t he form ~
a translated cllip~c. 1nu'- ap:ut fro m the exceptio nal cas es already noted. the graph
of Eq. ( 17) is a n clli p~c if AC > 0.
EXA MPLE 6 ·na c mhi t of the earth is an clhpse with the sun at one focus. The
planet's maximum da<tance from the cente r of the sun is ~.56 million m iles and its
m inimu m d istance i' '.11..1-l m illion miles. What a re the major and minor semi axes or
t he e arth's orbit. and \\hat i~ it~ ccccntricity?
t - ~ - 17.51 :; 0.97.
- a - 18.09
a very eccentric orbit (but see Problem 77). •
The reflection proper~· of the ellipse stat~s that the tangen t line at a point p
or an ellipse makes equal angles "ith the two.hnes !'~~ and ~ ~! fr~~m /~to the two
foci of the ellipse (fig. 10.6.18). This property IS the ha,ts of th.c.: w!ttspcrmggallcry"
phenomenon. which has been obser\'ed in the so-called wh1sp~ nng galle ry of the
U.S. Senate. Suppose that the ceiling of a large room lS shap.:d hkc half an ellipsoid
obtained bv revolving a n ellipse around its major axis. Sound wan:s. likc light wa,·cs.
are rcnect~d \loith equal angles of incidence and refl~ction. lltu) if two diplomats
FIGURE 10.6.18 ne relleulon arc holding a qu iet conversation near one focus of the ellipso idal surface. :t reporter
property: ,, = {J.
stnnding ncar the other focus-perhaps 50 feet away- migh t he a hie to C<l\'CSdropon
their con,·ersalion even if the con\'ersa ti on we re inaudible w others in the same room.
Sorne billiard tables nrc manufactured in the shape of an ellipse. llte foci of such
tables arc plainly marked for the convenience of cnthu<iasts of th is unusual game.
A more serious application of the reflect ion prop~ rty or ellipses is the nonsurgi·
cal kid ney-stone trea tment called s/rockwa•·r lithmripS)'· An cll ip~oitlal renector\\ith
a tran~ducer (an energy transmitter) at one focus is posi tioned ou tside the patient's
body <o th:ll the offending kidney stone is located at the other focus. ll1e stone then
i> pul\'crilcd by reflected shockwa\'es emanating from the transd ucer. (For further
detail,_ sec the CO:\IAP S e..-.rlmu 20. 1\'o\'cmhcr. I QR6.)
An alternative definition of the ellipse with foe: F1 and J>: and major axis of
length 2a is this: It is the locus of a point /'such that the sum or the di stances 1/'fd
and 1/' F: l is th~ constan~ 2a. (Sec Problem 82.) TI1is fact gives us a convenient way
fiGURE 10.6.19 One way to draw to draw the elhpse by usmg two tacks placed at F1 and l'i. a string of length 2o. and
an ellipse.
a pencil (Fig. 10.6.19).
The Hyperbola
A hyperbo~a. is a conic section defined in the same way as is an ell ips.:. except that
the eccentrrcny e or a hyperbola is greater than t.
where
c (19)
a=-.
I"
,
a·
To simplify this equation. we le t
.2
u- = a·(e
' 2
- '
I )= c-- ,
a·. (20)
TI1is is pcrmi~siblc because e > 1. So the equation of th e hyperbola with focus (c 0)
=
and d irectrix x cfr = ate takes the form
.rl >,2
-, - ..,=!. (21)
a· v-
'l11c minus sign on the left-hand side is the only differc:nec between the equation of
a hyperbola and that of an ellip-;c. Of cour~e. Eq. (20) also differs from the relation
IJ2 = a2( I - ~} =a: - c2
f.or the case of the ellipse.
l11e h yperbola of Eq. (21) is clearly symmetric arou nd bo th coordina te axes ;md
has x-intercepts (:!:a . 0). But it has no y -intercept. If we rewrite E q. (21) in the form
y
,
= ±-vx2 -
~-
a2. (22)
a
then we see that there are p o ints on the g raph only if ).r ) ii; a. H ence the hyperbola
has two branches, as shown in Fig. 10.6.21. We also sec from Eq . (22) that )yl - oo
as Jxl ..... oo.
ll1c x -i ntercepts V. (-a. 0) and Vz(a . 0) arc the vcrticl.'S of the hyperbola . ;md
the line se~ment joining them is its trans•·crse axis (Fig. 10.6.22). l11e line segm ent
FIGURE 10.6.21 A hyperbola has two fiGURE 10.6.22 The parts of a hyperbola.
branches.
6 70 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordinates and Parametric Curves
. • ate axis. The alternative form
joining IV1(0. -b) and W2(0. b) is ItS conJUg
~=~+~ Wl
. · n for the right triangle shown in Fig. 10.6.22.
1
of Eq. (20) IS the Pythagorean re all~ ul!h the center (0. 0) and the opposite vertices
The lines y ±bxfa that pass ~optotes of the 1wo branches of the hyperbola
= 1
of the rectangle in Fig. 10.6.22 arc us~m
in both directions,. That is. if
b.r bJ 2
y, =-a and YZ =; x - a ·
2
then
(24)
(ZS)
'lhis hyperbola has foci at (0. ±c). TI1c foci as well as this hyperbola's transver.;eaxis
=
lie on the y·axis. Its asymptotes arc )' ±axfb, and its graph generally resembles
the one in Fig. 10.6.23.
When we studied the ellipse. we saw that its orientation- whether the major
axis is horizonwl or vertical-is determined by the relative sizes of tl and b. In the
l 1
Conic Sections and Applications SECTION 10.6 671
ca se of the hyperbol:!. the siiUation is qui te d iffe rent. because the rela tive sizes o f a
and h make no such difference: They affect only the slopes of the asympto tes. The
~arcct ion in which the hyperbola opens-ho rizontal as in Fig. 10.6.22 o r vertic al as
1
n Fi g. 10.6.23-is determined by the signs of the terms that contain x 2 and y2•
r, (0. -.Sl
EXAMPLE 9 Find an equa tion of the hyperbola with foci (±10. 0) and asymptotes
y = ± 4xf3.
(26)
with both A and C nonzero can be reduced to the form
or like
(y- kl 2 (.r- hJ! == 1 (if (i < {)).
a2 - 1.,:
h is either a pnir of intersecting straight lines or
'JllUs if AC < 0 in Eq. (26) , I he grap •
a hyperbola.
EXAMPLE 10 Dctcmlinethegraphoftheequation
9x 2 - 4y - 36x +By== 4.
Solution We collect the terms that contain .rand those that contain y, and we then
complete the square in each variable. We find that
9(x- 2) 1 - 4(y- 1)2 = 36,
so
(x - 2) 2 (y - I ) 2
4 - 9 =1.
Hence the graph is a hyperbola with a horizontal transverse axis and center (2. 1).
llccausc" = 2 and h = 3. we find that c = ./i3. The vertices of the hyperbola arc
(0, 1) and (4, 1), and its foci arc the two points (2 ± ./i3. 1). Its asymptotes arc the
two Jines
y-J =±~(X -2).
.
\
Conic Sections and Applic;alions SECTION 1 0.6 673
Applications of Hyperbolas
'Jl1 e reflecrinn prnpt rry of the hyperbola takes the s.ame form as that for the e llipse.
If P is a point on a hyperbola, then the two lin e~ I' F1 and P F: fro m P to the two
foci mak e equal angles with th e tangent line a t P. In Fi g. 10.6.26 this means that
a == {J.
fiGURE 10.6 .26 The reflection p10per1y fiGURE 10.6.27 Bow a hyperbolic m irror
of the hyperbola . refi-x~a ray aimed at one focus: u .. fJ
again.
For an important applica lion of this reflcc1ion property. conside r a mirror that is
shaped like one branch of a hyperhola and is refleclive on ils outer (convex) surface.
,\n incoming lij!ht ray aimed toward one focus will be refleclc d toward the o ther
focus (Fig. 10.6.27). Ftgurc 10.6.28 indicates I he design of a rcflecling telescope that
makes u'c of I he rcflcclinn propcrtic> of I he parahola and the hypcrhob. ·n1c parallel
incoming light rays first arc rcllcclcd by the parabola 10ward its focus at F.ll1cn they
are in1erccp1cd by an auxiliary hyperbolic mirror wi1 h foci at E and F and reflected
into the eyepiece located a t £ .
Incoming p-.1~Ucl
ligh1 r3.Y'
~h i n mirwr
EXAMPLE 11 A ship lie:s in the Labrador Sea due east of Wesleyville, point A
on the long north-south coastline of Newfoundland. Simultaneous radio signals are
transmitted by radio stations at A and at St. John's. point 8. which is on the coast
200 km due south of A The ship receives the signal rrom i\ 500 microseconds (I!S)
b..:!ore it receives the signal from 8. Assume that the speed of rudiosignals is 30ClrnJ11s.
How far out at sea is the ship'!
6 74 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordinates and Parametric Curves
. . . . . d'anr~mmcd in Fil!. 10.6.29. l11c diffe rence between the
' Solut10n 111e suuauon IS 1 .. ..
d istances of the ship a t S from- A and 8 is
-
If the di~ectrix is the vert ical line x = +p > 0 to the right of the origin, then a similar
calculat•on g1vcs the s:m1e result, except with a change of sign in the denominator.
FIGURE 10.6.30 A conic section:
!()PI = e iJ'QI.
Polar Coordinate Equation of a Conic Section
·n1c pol~r equat ion of a conic section with eccentricit y e, focus 0. and directrix
.r =±pIS
r = ---'p'-e__ (28)
I± I' coso·
and subst ituting in (28) then yie lds the equa tion
·
r= 16
5- 3coso·
-
Conic SectJons and Ap-plications SECTlON 10.6 675
r -- 5\ .
I- FOSO
1-!. 0)
Thus e = ~ and~= ¥· E.qUJtion (29) then implies th:lt a = 5. finally. c = ac = 3
and
b = •./a= - C: = 4.
fiGURE 10.6.12 The ellipse of So we have here an ellirs= with major s:miaxis a = 5. minor scmiaxis b = 4, and
Eu mplc 12. center at (3 . 0) in C~rtesiJn coordinate-;. Th:.- ellipse is shown in fig. 10.6.32. +
REMARK 1 The lioitin~ form of Eq. (::0) as c - 0 is the equltion r =a of a circle.
Becau~e p - x as c - "'Hh a fi 'cd in Eq. ( 29). we may thcrdore regard a ny circle
0
as an ellipse"' ith eccen tricity zero and " i th directri.' at infi nity.
'RE MARK 2 If "C hcgin wnh nn elli pse with ecce ntricity e < I and d irectrix x = - p.
then the limiting form of Eq . (30) as r - 1- is the equat ion
p
r = .,--...!--___,. (31)
I -cosO
o f :1 pa raboll. For instance. fig. 10.6.33 shows a p:1 rabola and nn ellipse o f eccentricity
e = 0.99. bot h with dtrcctrix p = - I. O~erve th at the two curn:s appea r to :llmost
coi ncide ncar the origin wh e re .<cr < 0 < 3.'0' . Thi' ~ort of approximation o f nn el lipse
by a paraholn is useful in studying come ts with high ly eccen tric ellipticnl o rbi ts.
1 0 99
FIGURE 10.6.33 The parabola r = and the elli pse r = ·
1 - cos e 1 - 0.99 case ·
Solution Because the elliptica l orbit is highly eccentric. we assume that nea.r the
sun it can be approximated close ly by a pa rabola. lbe angle 0 =a of the axis is
unknown. but a preliminary sketch indicates that a will be less than the initial angle of
observation: thus 0 <a < :r / 3. Using the polar coordlinate system with this unknown
polar axis and countercloc kwise angular variable¢ = 0 -a (Ftg. 10.6.34 ), the equation
in (31) of the parabola takes the form
, = p
_ . ! . . . __ = ~-.:.._
p __
1-cos¢ 1 -cos(O'-a)' (32)
1l1c vertex of a parabola is its point closest tQ its focus (Problem 65), so the
FIGURE 10.6.34 The comet of minimum distance of the comet from the sun will be r = p / 2 when 0 = :r +a. Our
Examp!e 13. problem. then. is tO determine the values of p and cr.
676 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordinates and Parametric Curves
. . h . observational dala inlo Eq. (32) yields the two equations
S ubslltullng t e gtven p
6 == p and 2 == 1 - cos(rr /2 -a) (33)
1 - cos(rr/3- a)
Elimination of p yields
10.6 PROBLEMS
In l 'rv/Jion< lthruuxh 5. jind the equatimt and Jketclt the graph IS. x 1 - 4.r-4y = 0
of the parabola with verr~x V and fom.< F.
16. i -2.x + 6y+ 15 == 0
I. V<O. 0 ). F (3.1l) 1
17. 4.r +4x + 4y + 13 =0
2. V(O. 0). F(O. -2i 18. 4>;- 12y + 9.r = 0
3. 11 (2. ~). F(2. ll
In Probl..nu 19 througlt 33. find an equatio n of the tlfipst
4. V(- 1.-ll.l'(- 3.-1) sp..cified.
Skrtclt the J':f<lpla v( tit~ rquationr in l' rob lcnu 34 through 38. 67. Show that an equation of the line tangent to the p3 rabola
fm/iratr rem us.. foc t. und l~ngrhs of turs. .'.2 .. 4p.r at the point (.:c, . ) ':>)is
J.l. ~.t 1 ~>.2 = I 6 2p.r - ) uY + 2p.r., =0 .
.•s. 4,: + 9r1 = t~-1 Conclude that the tanccnt hne in tersects th.: x -axis at the
y,, ..:t1 + 9 t l = 24r point ( -.r). 0). Thi< ra; t provides a quick method for con·
structing a line tangent to a parabola at a given roin t.
37. 'h 1 + .tyl- 32y + 2S = 0
68. A com~ t 's orbit is a parabola '"th the sun at its focus. Whe n
.l!l. 2x1 + 3y + 12t - 24y + 1\0 =0 the comet is 100J2 million miks fro m the sun. the line from
In /'rob/em s 39 tltroush 52, {tnt! an equation of rhe ltypuboln the su n to the comet makes an an~le of 45' with th e :txis
descrrl>td. of the parat>ola (Fig. 10.6.35 ). Wh a t " i ll be th e mi nimum dis-
.W. Foci (:!:4. 0 ). ve rt icc~ (1: 1. 0) tance toc twee n the comet and the sun? ISuK_~e.Hinn: Write
th e equation of the P""~"la with the origin a t the focus.
~0. Foci ((1. ±3). vert icc ' tO. ±2)
then ll<e the result of P roblem 65. ]
~I . Foci (± 5. 0 ). n•ympwtcs y ~ ±3.r/ 4
42. Vertices (±3. 0). a•ymptotcs y = ± 3xj4 c
~1. Cente r (1, -2). ve rtices (1. I ) and (1. - 5). asympt otes 69. Su ppose that the angle of Problem 6S increases from 45°
J.r - 2)' = 7 an d J .r + 2y = - I to 90" in 3 days. How much longe r will he required for the
52. Focus (S, - I), asymptotes 3.•· - 4 r = 13 and 3x + 4y = 5 comet to reach it< point of closest appro:tch to the sun?
t\s>ume that the li ne sc!!mcnt frnm the sun to the come t
Sketch the graph.< of the equatiom gi••e-n ;, Problmt5 5J thmugh sweeps out arc11 a t a con stant r>tc ( Kepler's second bw).
58: indicates cema.~ foci. and asym pto tt·.t 70. Usc Eqs. (7) a nd (R) to d erive Eq. (9) with the values of M
53. xl - y -2.r + 4)' =4 a nd R given in Eqs. ( 10) and (II ).
54• .r 2 - 2)~ + 4.t =0 71. Deuucc from Eq. (II) that. given a fixed in itia l velocity ,1,.
the ma..imum range of the projectile is R.n... = •·l Jg and is
55. y- 3.t 2 - 6y = 0 attnined when a = ·15' .
56. .r 2 - y- 2.t + 6y = 9 In l'roblt:ms 72 through 7·1, assrm r. that a projectile is fired with
57. 9.rl-4y2 + IR.t +Ry-= 31 initial •·•locity t'Q =50 m/s from tit• origin and m "" angle of
inclinario11 a. Use g = 9.8 m/s2 •
58. 4 y2 - 9.rl - 18.r- Sy = 41
72. If a = 45', find the range of the projecti le and the maximum
In each of f>roblems 59 thro ugh 64, idemify and sketch lilt conic height it attains.
stction with the Kivcn polar rquarion. 73. For what value or values of a is the range R .. 125m?
6 6 74. Find the range o f the projectile and the length of time it
59. r = ::---:- 60. ' = ..,.t-+""2::-c-o-s~O
1 +cosO remains above the ground if (:t) a = 30'; (b) a= 1\0' .
3 8 75. l11e book EJo,.mts of LJifferential aflll /111egml Ci!lculus
61. r = ::---:- 62. r=s -2 cos 8
1 - cosO hy William Granville. l'erccy Smith. and William Longl~y
12 (Ginn and Company: Bo-;ton. 1929) lists a number of
6
63. r = ::-----,--..,. (..S.r= 3 + 2 cos 0 ~cur_vcs for reference" ; the curve with equ:llion ..(i + .;y =
2 - s in 19
./ii ts called a parabola . Verify that the curve in question
6S. Prove tha t the point of the parabola y 2 = 4p.r closest to its actually is a parabola. or show that it is not.
focus is its vertex . 76. The 1992 edition of the study guide for the national actu·
66. Find an equation of the parabola uhat h as a vertical axis and aria! examinations has a problem quite similar to this o ne:
passes through the points (2 . 3), (4, 3), and (6. -5). Every point on the plane cun•e K is equally distant from the
6 78 CHAPTER 10 Pola r Coordinate1 a nd Pa rametric Curve1
at the poi nt /'(.ro. )Ill ha< e qu3tion
poin t (- 1. - 1) a nd the line.r + y =I. and K hJs equation
x 1 + Bxy + Cy1 -'- D.t + £y + F =0. ~ - M =L
"' Jr
Which is the \'aloe of D: -2. 2. 4. 6. o r 8?
77. (a) The o rbit o f the co me t Kahout ck is an cllip~e o f ex· ·s It o f J'rnblc m S6 to e stab lish t he re flection prop.
trerne eccentricity e = 0.999925: the sun is at one focus o f 87 Use 1he rc u . f
• crty o f the hyperbol:l. (Sec the s ugges tio n nr Pro blem 81.)
thi< e llir"e. The rn i ~im um di~tance bc t-.cc n the su n and
• th• t 0 < " < c. :md let b = ~- Show that
Ka houte k is 0.13 Ali. W hat is the rna , irnum d istance be· 88. Suppo>c ~ x' t a·• - ,-• j /r' = 1 1s · 1h c• Iocus o ( a potnl
· p
twee n 1\aho utek a nd the sun·• (h) 'll1e orbit o f the come t the h' 'J'<!r I"',13 - .
llyakuta ke is a n e llipse of extreme .-cccntncity e = such iha l th e 1/lffut•tlrt' t>ctwccn the dis ta nces I r Fd and
0 9996.:3856; the s un i< at one focu< of thi< clllfS<!. Th<! I p F: l is .:qual to 2a ( F 1a nd F2 are the foc1 of I h e hypc rhola).
minimum d ista nce between the sun and Jh•a kuta ke is . D eri'o: an equa tion for the hyrerhola with . ,·enices
0 2.)()0232 A ll. Wh at is the maximum distan~e ret wee n 89 (±JJ.Ji. :Jt ./11 nnd foci (:!:5. ;j,)). Usc the dlffmn~
I lyak utakc and the s un? definitio n o f 3 hyJl<'rbol:t nnphed hy Pro hlc m !l.~.
7K. 'Ole orhll of the pla net !\lercu ry ISan elhpsc o f cc.:c nt ricity 90. T-. o radio s ignaling statio ns at A ;~nd B li': o n ~n ea st·wesl
'= 0 .206. Its ma ximum and minimum d1<tances from the line. with , , 100 mi west of 8. A p b n e IS flymg " ·est on
sun nrc 0 467 and n 30i A ll. respectl\'cl~. \\'hat a re the major a line 50 mi no rth o f th e lin e A B. R a dio signal~ a rc sent
a nd minor sc min<c< of th e o rbit o f ~fe rcu ry? Does "nearly ( traveling a t YSO ft/f<S) s im ul ta neo u sly from II and andn.
circu br" accura tely de<crihc the urhit of Me rcury? the one sent fro m II arri ves a t the plan e 400 1•s before the
79. D c ri"e Eq . ( 16) fo r an ellipse " ho' e foc 1 he on the y·axi~ o ne sent fro m ; t Whe re is tiH: p la ne '!
KO. S ho w th ai the line tangent to the ell ir<c 91. T" o mdio signalin~: sta ti on< arc located ns in l' roblem 90
x2 )'~ and e ron~mi t rndio ~ i un:''' tha llr:tvcl at the same speed. Out
-+ - =I now -. e know only t-ha t the p la ne i' generally somewhere
a 1 ti
no rth o f the lone A ll. that the signal fro m 11 a rrives 400111
at the point P(.ro. )ll) of that dhpsc hn~ ~quntion
befo re the one sen t from A and that the signal sent from A
XoX ~y I and reflected by th" plane takes a total of 600 J1S to rea ch 8.
a' + hf =· Where i< the plane'!
1!1. Usc t he result uf Pro blem SO to c>tablish the rcneclion pro p·
crty o f the ellipsc.!Sugg~srior~: Let m t>c the <lope o f the line 92. t\ comet has a p.~raholic orbit " 'ith the s un a t one focu~
m,
no rma l to the ell ipse a t /'( r11 • ) ul and let m 1 a nd l>e the \\'hen the comet i< 1.50 mill ion miles f rom the s un. the sun·
comet line ma ke s an angle o f 45' with the a~is of the
slopes of the lines / ' F 1 anti 1' /·i. rc~pcctivcly. frt>m I' 10 the
r-.o foci F1 and 1'1of the e llipse. S how that pa rabola. What " ill be the m inimum d istance between the
m-n11 m: - 111
comet a nd the sun'!
I + 111 1m == I + m:m: 93. 1\ satellite h:t< Ml e lliptical orbit wi th the center of the earth
( ta ke it< rad ius 10 '"' ·1000 m i) at o ne: focus.ll1c lowc:s t point
the n use the identity fo r tan( II - RJ .)
82. Give n Ft(-c, 0) an d f i(c, 0 ) with a > c > 0. prove tha t the
of !Is'."h it is 5~ mi a hove the l"orth Pok: a nJ the highest
pomt " 51~ )() 101 above the So u th Pole. What is the height
ellipse nf the sa tclhtc :.hove the s urface o f the e a rth -.hen the
x' f satelli te cro>~es the eq ua torial p la ne?
- +- = 1
a' b'
94. find the clo<~st appm:~ch to the ;u n of a co met as in Ex~m ·
( \lo ll h ,; =a' - r) is the locus o r those pomts I' such thll pic 13 of this <ce tion; a><umc th~t r = 2 .5 A U when (J = 45'
i /'F,I + I I'F,I = 2a. and t h~t r =
1 A ll whc:n 0 = ')()".
8J. fi nd a n equation o f the ellip<e "ith homontal a nd ' 'crtical 95. ''n ellipse ha~ sc mimajor axis " and scmimino r a~i~ b. Use
a xes that passes thro ugh the !)(lints (- I. 0 ). (3. 0), (0. 2). and the pola r-coord'1nate equa t1on
. o f an ellip se to d erive the
(0. - 2). furmula il = JTob fnr its are a.
8-1. De rive 311 equa tion for the cllip;e with foci (3, - 3) and 96. The orbit uf a ccrt 3111
·• · · h
( - 3. .3) a nd major axis of k ngth Ill. Note th :uthe foci of this p arabola ' co me t approachmg the s un IS t e
e llipse lie o n ne ithe r a \'Crtica lline nur :1 horizontal line.
85. Sho w tha t the graph of the equation r = _ __:,__
xl y1 l - cos o·
- - - --= 1
1.5- c r-6 ta k units fo r r 3 rc• 10
The •
astro no m ica l units. S uppo<e that 1·1
i< ( a ) a hyperbo la with foci ( ±3. 0) if li < c < 15 and (h) a n cs
_ -~
15 d a '
' > for th. e comet to. tra\'el fro m the """IliOn· ·
0 - ~ • lU I~ · · 1" - .
e llipse: if c < 6. (c) Identify the grap h 111 the case c > 1.5. . 1'0<1t1o n 0 = <JO' . H o w m uch longer ..,,11 II
requite fo r th e c omc t to re a ch its JlOint of clt><e>t apnrolCh
86. Esta blish that the line tangen t to the: hyperbola to th c sun'/ As · ,.
s ome that the radius ( r u m the: sun 10 tht
x1
u' -
rtr =I co met s " ·ccps c)Ut a rea at 11 co nst• nl r• te •s the cornet
010 \CS ( Kc: kr' · •• " "·
P 5 second law of p 13nclary mo tion)
Chapter 10 M iscellaneous Problems 6 79
Use tilr fo llll"'lfi,R lur Of a guide to additional mm:rpts that )Oil compares the properties of an e llipse nnd a hyperbob. each with
may nrc•d rn rrt·tcw. foci (:!:c. 0) and major n1i• of length 2n.
1. Ce~ni.: ' cction•
2. 'Th( rela tion~hi p between rectangular and polar coordanates Ellip~c
.t The r. raph or nn equ~ t ion in pobr ·c oordina tes I Hrperbola
c
c (=- > 1
-1. The :uca rnrmu l.t in polar coordin:Hcs Eccentricity c= - < 1
a a
5. ~.:l'lnillon uf a pam me tree cur\'c a nd or a smooth paramct·
nc curve a . b. c re!Jtion al = h: +r cl;: a 1 + tr
6. The ~lope or the line ta nt~cntto a smooth para metric curve .rl
- - :....= I
,J :r ,.:
- - - =I
(roth in rectangular and in polar coordinates) Equation a: ~
a' t>1
7. l ntc!!ral comput atao ns "'ith paramctnc cunc:s (Eq1. (I) (±a. 0)
Vertices (:::a. O)
through (-I) o r Scctaon IO..S(
!1. Arc len~th of a parametric curve y·intercepts (0. ±b) I'o ne
I a a
Direct rices .r = :!:- .t = ±-
REVIEW OF CONIC SECTIONS ~ e
bx
TI1e parabo la with focu s (p. 0) nnd dir cctri' x .. - JJ hns cccen· Asymptote< Non e y=±-(/
tricity t = I nnd equation I = 4px . 'lite accornpa n)ing table
.
CHAPTER 10 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
Skttch the grapla of tlrt tquarions in Probltms lthrouJIIr 30. In .36. Inside r= 3eos0 and outside r = I + eosO
Problem s I through I ll. if tht t:rnph is a conic S<·ction. labtl iu 37. Inside r = 1 + rosll and outside r = cosO
centn, foci. ami •·cniu.~ 38. Oc tween the loop< o f r = I - 2 sin 0
1. A I + ).: - 2x - 2y = 2 2. x 2 + y2 = x + >'
3. x' + yl - fl.r +2y+9 = 0 4. y 4(x + y) = In Problrms 39 through .S), climinatr tht parameter and sketch
zh~ c un·~.
5. x' = Rr - 2y- 20 6. x 2 +2y2 -2.r+Sy+8=0
7. 9r 2+ 4y = 36r 8. x 2 - >.1 = 2.r - 2y- I
39. X = 2t1 - 1, )' = 2fl + 1 -10• .r = cosh r. y = sinh r
-11. x = 2+cos t. y= 1-sin t 42. x=cos' r, y=sin' t
9. > ; - 2.r 1 = ~ r + 2 y + 3 10. 9y' - ~x 1 = Hr + 18y+3 1
11 . .r 1 + 2/ = .ax+ 4y - 12 U. >.1-6y + 4x +5= 0 -13. x = 1 + r1• y = r3
2
13. 9(.r -2 r + l ) = 4(f+ 9) 14. (x 1 - 4)(y2 - l ) =0 In ProbltmJ 4./ thtllugl• 48. wrilt a" equation of tht line tangent
15. x' - Sz+ y2-2y + 16 = 0 =
16. (X - 1)2 + ·l(y - 2) 1 I tn the given cun·e at the indica t~cl point.
17. ( r 2 - -l r + ).1- 4y + S)(.r + y)2 = 0 .u. X = t 1•
= t 3: I
)' I =
18. .I = 1 + 4y+5 19. r = -2 ros0 -15. x = 3sint. y = 4 cost: 1 = :r f -1
I .a6.. x=r. y=c.--•: r =O
20. cosO+ sinll =0 21. , = stn. O +cos 0 =
-17. r 0; ,0 tr/2 =
22. rsin 0 = co~O1 23. r = 3~c o 48. r = 1 + sinO; 0 = :r/ 3
25. r1= 4cos0
:U. r = 2(cos0- I)
= 3 - 2 sin 0
In f'rol>lems 49 ''"""II''
52, find the area of tile rrgion bnween
26. rO = 1 27. r the gi•·m curve mul the x·axis.
~
28. , 1
= _.:.......,. 29. r = 2 +cos 0 -19. .r =21 + I, y = 12 + 3; - I SI ~2
I + cosO 50.x = ~. y = t· -'~ O ~ t ~ IO
.j
30. r = -~--, 5 l. x=3sint. y= 4cos t ; O:i t S rr/ 2
l -2cos0
52. x = cosh t. y =sinh r: 0 :1 t S I
In Probkm.d 1 tiiToUglt )8, find th~ ar~a of the r~gior1 d~scribtd.
31. lnJ>ide both r = 2sin0 and r = 2 cos O In Problems 53 through 57, fin d tilt ar~ l~r~gth of rh~ gil'tfl ~ll,..,t.
32. ln.idc r 2 = 4 cos II
=
SJ. x 11• y = t 3; 0 :i I :! I
33. Jruide r = 3 - 2 sin 0 and outside r = 4 s.&. x = 1n(cost). y = r: O:i t :i ll'/-1
.l.t. Insider>= 2sin20 and outside ,. = 2sin 0 I
35. Insider = 2 sin 2B and o utside r = ./2
ss.x .. :u. y= t' +-:
31
1 S t ~2
680 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordinates and Parametric Curves
6S. Show that the len!(th of one arch of the hypocycloid of Prob-
lem 34 in Section 10.4 iss = 81>(11 - b)/a.
69. l'ind a po lar-comdinate equation of the circle that passes
through the origin and i~ centered at the point with polar
coordinates ( p . u).
70. l'ind a simple equation of the par.~ho!J whose focus is
the origin and whose directrix is the line y = x + 4. Re-
call from Miscellaneous Problem 93 of Chapter 3 that the FIGURE lO.MP.l The
strophoid of Problem SO. FIGURE 10.MP.2 The lofium
dis tance from the point (.to. j 'o) to the line with equation
Ax + lJy + C = 0 i.s
of Descartes xl + yl 3xy=
(Problem 81 ).
f Axo + ll)IJ + Cl
81. Find the area bo
Jill + lJl D. .'
cscartcs wnh •qunded . by J the loop of the folium of .
71. A diameter o f a n ellipse is a chord through its center. Find Fig. IO.M·I~2. Su c ~alton .t + y3 = 3.ry shown IO
the maximum and minimum lengths o f diameters of the then sub · · ( !lgr.l/torc. C ha nge to polar coordinates and
· stttute u - ta 0
ellipse with equat ion 112. U h . - n to evalu ate the area integral.)
se t e method or I'
the firs t· d roblem 81 to lind the area bounded br
x2
a2
1
+ b2 =I. to the f0 ta xS r
ram loop of the curve + =: 5xl (similar
•urn o f Problem I> I)
I
83• The graph or a coni
n. Use calculus to prove that the ell ipse of Problem 71 is nor-
at (5, 0).( _ 5
· ·.
. c section tn the .r }'·plane has intercepts
mal to the coord inate a xes at each of its four vertices. 0
tion you ca · b).((), 41 · and (0. -4). Deduce all the informa·
73, The parabolic arch of a bridge has base width baud height 11 · · · C . whd h'f
it is a p ara boIa oa ut
• n a
h , '"tome.
ho an you dctcrmmc '
1r at its center. Write its equation. choosing the origin on know th h · )per Ia, or an ellipse? What if you .also
the ground at the left end of the arch. at I C graph 0 f h' . I
the point (O. 41 ? I 1s con ic is normal to the y-ax1s n
..
• I ' •
.:,
... .,.,
~ . I •
(
-.
·~ .. .. .. '' .
INFINITE SERIES I •.
;. • I
•
.
.. ·'
. . ... A '
O
n a cold January day
in 19 13, the em ine nt s eries
C1 mhri dgc mathe · ,!_ _ ./8 ~(-In ) ! . (1103 + 2639011).
ma tics pro fe~~o r G. II. :r - 9801 ~ (II! ) 4 396'1"
ll ardy rece ive d a le lle r ..o
from a n unk nown 25·yea r· whose first term ~·ie lds th e familiar approximation
o ld clerk in the acc~unt· :r "' 3. 14159. and wi.th each addi tiona l te rm givi ng ;r to
ing departm en t of a gov· rou ghl y ei ght more decimal places of accur:1cy. For in-
ern me nt office in Madras, stance. jus t four terms of Rama nujan's series arc needed
Ind ia. Its auth or. Sriniva~u to c3lcu latc the 30-place approxima tion
Ramanujan. had no uni-
rr "' 3.14159 26535 89793 23S46 26433 83279
versity education. he
admitted-he had flunked that suffices for virt ually an y imaginable "practical"
out- but "after lea ving applica tion-if the univers e were a sphere with a radius
school! have e mployed the of 10 billion light years. then this valu e of rr would give its
Srinivasa Ramanuj.ln sp:l re time at my disposal to circumference accurate to the nearest hundredth of an
(1887-1920) work at Mathematics ... I inch. Dut in rc.:ccnt years Rama nujan's ideas ha ve been
have not trodden through used to calculate the value of rr accurate to a billion dec-
the conventional regula r course . .. but am s triking out a imal places. Indeed. such ga rgantuan co mputations o f :r
new path fnr myself." l11c ten pages that followed listed in arc commonly used to check the accuracy of new super-
neat handwritten script a pproxinntcly 50 formulas. most computers.
dealing with integrals and infinite series that Ramanujan
had discovered, and asked Hard y's advice whether they II' "'-- -
..
c-.----J ,~ ..- -
contained anything o f value. 'Inc formulas were of such ·~-.,L- - .
(" Ar. r.-. t~.. t;. •'"·- .. 1'1\~',i
exotic and unlikely appearance that Hardy at first sus- tw Jl'• ~..... .. I f(U.J:> · • " J
pected a hoax . but he and his collea gue J. E. Littlewood r(..__ .., !...!.:'J !!5 ..
rl't:...!-
soon realized that they were looking at the work of an r:c~' r~;~1 . ~t:
r t~!' rc~
extraordinary mathematical genius. . . . f~"1. ,....._ ~.; \.";.,: ~- " ..: ...
Thus began one of the most romantiC ep1sodes m 01 H 1 • •• 4 1'- o ... Mf".-.. .,..
the history of mathematics. In Apri11914 RamanuJ•m. ar- -1 • \ •• ._,_,M
., •"•\t('"hl; "-
' ·•4 '• . &<\ . - • •
rived in England a poor. sclf·taught lnd1an m_athcmat1cal ~.;;r . . . ~. ~~·~lj '"'
amateur catlcd to collabo rate as an equal w1th the most • • t .L
' ......,..,:l- ·~1!.!.. -
sophisticated professional ma thematicians of the day. F~r ·'--, -, ...--,. . .. •
•..;u.~ ~r~-..,
N ,lf• • h "~ -r, ~ ~
the next three years a steady stream of remarkable ths-
coveries poured forth from his pen. D~t in 1917 he fell
seriously ill. apparently with tube rculosis. ll.lc followmg ..,
-..
- . 4 • • ~~....,_-;....;.. ..... .
'*'T-:r
~.- ·~::.·,:~::~.
-.=;.:. a;:;. ..;-~.. ·V'¥- ""-t"~
year he returned to India to attempt to regam Ins health "' +- ~ ~· -f.!r.... •(ffll!.<~trJ~
but never recovered. and he died in 1920at the age of32.
"" n ~ ~...,.....;..;.~. - .. _.,,.
Up to the very end he worked feverishly to rc~~rd his fi- 1--<~ ·f - .. .....,.~- - . . J
nal discoveries. He left bd1ind notebooks outhnmg work
whose completion occupied prominent mathematicians A typical page of Ramanujan's
throughout the twentieth century. letter to tlardy, listing formulas
With the possible exception o! E~lc~, no ?nc ~ Ramanujan ha.d d iscovered, but
fore or· since has exhibited RamariUJan s vtrtuostly wnh witl'l no hint of proof or derivation.
681
682 CHAPTER 11 Infinite Series
11. 1~IN~T~R~O~D~U~C~T~IO~N~------------------~~~==~~::==~~
. . her zcno proposed thefifollowing parado~..
Greek phrlo~op
In th e fifth ccn turv n.c..t hc . d'•tancc the runner must rst travel halfwa}'
• , 13 grven ,, ' · . '
In o rder for a runner to tra\c - h If the di stan ce th:ll yet remams. and so on
. . d'stancc then a
then half the remarnrng ' • •. . J·arlv imposs ible for a runner to accomplish
ad infimtu.
m. [! ul. z~e no •argu
-: ed · H .rs c c. criod . of time. so motion . f rom one point
10
infinitely many such tasks m a tinrte P
a nother is impossible. • . fi1111.t subdi,·ision o f [0. I J indicated in Fig. II.I. J.
L! .L · a • dox suoeests the 10
c r each integer n = .. 1 '- · 3. ·: . . .If .' he.'ength
I I" . no sp r~ . .. =
Ze 'th I 2" fo
The re IS one sutnntenal of le ng I f th , subintervals rnto whrch !Its dtvidcd
~l-r=~-I: ti 1'1 I II
of the interval is the sum of the lc:ngt115 0 " '
1+ 2+3+· · · + 11 + · ··
of all the positive intege rs seems meaningless-it docs no t appe ar to add up to any
(fi nite) vnlue. . .
·n,c question is th is: What. if a nythin g, do we mean by the sum of an mfinttt
collection of numbers? 'Jltis chapte r exp lores condi tio ns under which an infinite sum
a 1 + a2 + a3 + ···+a, + ·· ·.
known as an infinite srries. is meaningful. We discuss meth ods for computing the sum
of an infinite series and applications of th e algebra and calculus of infinite scric~
Infinite se ries arc important in science and math e matics because many functions
e ither arise most na turally in the form of infinite series or have infinite series rep·
resl!ntations (such as the Taylor series of Section I 1.4) th;at arc useful for numerical
computations.
(I)
EXAMPLE 1 The following table exhibi ts several particular infinite se.quences. Each
is described in three ways: in the concise sequential notation (ani of (2). by writing
the formula as in (3) for its nth term. and in extende d list notation as in (I). Note
that 11 need not begin with the ini tial \'alue I.
I I I I
al't =- 1 - - - ... - ...
n ' 2'3' .: ' 'n'
I I I
II= - 1• to· HXY t()()()' ·ron ...
• 10•
,fi, JS. JS. JIT..... J3n - 7•...
. n.-r . mr
{
. -n:r } "'
Stn a. =Sin- I. 0. -I. 0 ..... SID Z ... .
2 I 2
{3 + (-1)"}7 2. -l. 2. -t.... . 3 + (- l)n,. · ·
(b) ll1e sequence whose 11th term is the nth decimal digit of the number
:r = 3. 1~ 1592653589793238-16 . . .•
I. 4. I. 5. 9. 2. 6. 5. 3. 5....
(r) The fibona£(i sefJuencc (F. I. which mny t>e defined t>y
F1 = 1. ri =l. anti F. ,I= F.+ F._ 1 for n ~ 2.
Thus each term after the second is the sum of the preceding two tenns:
I. I. 2. 3. 5. 8. 13, 21. 34. 55.. ..
lltis is an example of a recu rsively defined sequence in which each term
(after the first few) is given by a formula involving its predecessors. llte
13th-century Italian m~the mat ici~n Fibonacci asked the following ques·
., tion: If we start with a single pair of rabbits that gives birth tn a new pair
after two months, anti each such new pair docs the same. how many pairs
' of rabbits will we have after nmo nths? Set! Problems 55 and 56.
' =
(d) If the amount A o 100 dollars is invested in a savings account that draws
10% interest compounded annually. then the amount A . in the account
,.I at the end of 11 years is defined (for 11 ;;; I) by the itermivc formula A. =
(l.IO)An- l (rounded to the nearest number of cents) in terms of the pre-
;
ceding amount:
110.00. 121.00. 133.10. 146.41. 161.05. 177.16.
194.87. 214.36. 235.79. 259.37 ....
•
limits of Sequences
The limit of a sequence is defined in much the same way as the limit of an ordinary
function (Section 2.2).
684 CHAPTER 11 Infinite Serie1
DEF IN ITI ON Limit of a Sequen ce the real number L, or has the limit L
We s~ y I hat the sequence (a.
I conu~rg~ to
and we wri te lim lin = L. (41
n-<»
L s we please merely by choosingn to be
provided thnt a" can be made ns close
10
b~r f > 0 there exists an in teger N such
sufficiently lnrgc. That is. given any num c '
'
----------------;;t:; ---------
1 I •
I I I I I I I I I I t I I I
2 J 4 } •
I~ I= ~ <f if II ?. N.
But evidently it suffices to choose any fix •d · · ·s
j
immediately that c Ill Ieger N > 1/f. Then 11 ~ N rmphe
- ( 0 (
1 I I
FIGURE 11.2.1 If N > ; and -~- < L
1 1 " N '·
> N ·'" -n0<-<-
n ~ N <<. as desired (Fig. 11.2.3).
n., u"'
value as n--. oo. (b) The terms of the sequence (n2 } increase without bound as 11 --+ oo.
Thus the se quence (n2 j dive rges. In th is case, we might also say that (n2 } diverges ro
~~
In part 4 we m ust assume that JJ f. 0 (so that b. f. 0 for all sufficien tly large values
or n).
(7)
for every positive integer k.
EXAMPLE 5 Eq. (7) and the limit laws give (after dividing numerator and denom-
inato r by the highest power of n that is present)
'>
.•
. 7n 2 7
11m = 11' m - --
•-oo Sn2 - 3 •- oo 5- -3
n2
lim 7
7 7
= (lim s) - 3 . ( n-oo
lim .!..
2) = s-J.o=s· •
n-oo n
~I 686 CHAPTER 11 Infinite Serie1
cosn
EXAMPL E 6 Show that~--;;-= O.
<JluPeze Jaw and the fact th:ll I I 11 _. 0 as 11
Solution This follows from t h c ,., ~ - OC,
Ob •
because
o•
0..!
•
• • •• t!a t
.s "" ,.. ~l j. ...ofili
·0 1 •
for C\' Cr)' posith·c integer n. •
REMARK \\'ith a typical graphing calculator (in "dot pint mo~c") o r computer
algebra system (using its "list plot" f:tcility), one C:ln plot the _rom ts (n. a. ) in the
FIGURE 11 .2.4 The points .ry-planc corresponding to a gi\'cn sequence Ia. }. (_'igurc II. ~ A shows such a plot for
1, 2, ... , 30.
(n, (C01n)/ n) for n . the s.:quence of E~ample 6 and pro\'idcs ,;sua! e,·.d..:nce of liS conv..:rgcnce to zero.
.j- ~ )1/2
lim \
•-oo n- I
= •-oo
(
lim - -
I +-I
11
= J:i = 2. •
II
------
------
Y• L•c
n A
then all the poi nts (n. f (n )) lie on tbe graph of y = / (x ). It t herefore follows from
the definition o f the lim it of a functio n t hat lim. _,., a. Las well. =
T HEOR EM 4 Limits of Functions and Sequences
If a. = /(n ) for each posit ive integer n. then
lim / (.T)
,. _ ~
=L implies that lim a. = L.
n- x
(8)
lim [ (x )
~ ---..
= •-x
lim sin :r x docs not exist.
Accau~e of (8) we can usc I'H opi tal's mlc for ~cquences: If a. = /(ll), b. = g(n),
and f(x )/ g(.t ) h a~ the in det ermi nate form ccf :x: as x - oo. then
• a.
Itm -
•-<» l•. =,_1.mt, f(x) • J'(x )
- - = 11m - - .
g(.r) •-"" g'(.r)
(9)
provided tha t f and K sa tisfy t he other hypotheses of I'Hopitnl's rule, including the
impnrlant assumption that t he right-hand limit e~ists.
. Inn
S
EXAMPLE 10 .how th:u l1m - =0.
n-oe: fl
Solution Th e function (In x)/.t is defined for all x ~ 1 and agrees with th e given
sequence {(I n n)/ n} when x = 11, a positi ve integer. Because (lnx)jx has the indeter-
minate form oo/ oo as x _. oo, !'Hopital's rule gi,•es
. Inn • ln.t . ;
I1m -
n- ~ n
= ..r1-x.
1m -
X
= 11m "-
~ -~ l
= 0. •
EXAMPL E 1 1 Show th at lim $i
n- oo
= 1.
Solut ion First we note that
I In II
In dfi = Inn 1" = -
II
- 0 as 11 - oo.
by Example 10. By the substitution law with f(x) = e•, this gives
lim n 1'"
n-oo
= n-oo
lim e~p ( lnn1' ") = r 0 = I.
•
3n3
EXAMPLE 12 Find lim-,-.
n-oo e:.n
Solution We apply I'Hopital's rule repeatedly, although we must be car eful nt each
intermediate step to verify that we still have an indeterminate form. Titus we find
that
3n3 . 3.t 3 . 9x 2 • l8x 18
lim -
,_oo e2n
= 11m - ,- = hm -
.r-oo t,:.x x-oo 2e2t
hm -
.r-oo 4el •
=
lim -
.~-oo Sell
0
·
= • =
Bounded Monotonic Sequences
The sc t of all rational numbers has by itself all of the most familiar elementary
algebraic prope rties of the entire real number syste m. To guarantee the existence
of irrationa l numbers, we m ust assume in addition a "completeness property" of
688 CHAI'T£R 11 Infinite Scth~s
.· . the re al line might h ave ··ho les" whe re the irratio
the real numbers. O therwtse. ·n this complctcncs~ pro p e rty is in tc nat
numbers oul!ht
-
to be. One
.
f stallof!!sequ e nce. a bounde d mono tomc
way o t)'J>e nns or
. scqucnc
1
the conve rgence of an lnlpor an 1 . . ·r1 ~
lltc sequence Ja.li" is sa id to be mcre:t.~tnl!
Ot ~ Oz ~ OJ ~ • . • !i On ~ . • •
and decn'a~ing if
a ~ Oz ;:; OJ~ . ' . ~ On ~ •.• '
1
Th e seq ue nce Ia. I is mo notonic if it is e ither inc re asing ~r d ccrcasing ..The sequen~
{a. I is bo unded if the re is a number M such th:ll rn.l .. M fo r all II. Ihe follo~~oing
asse rt io n may be t:t ken to be a n a~iom for the re al numbe r sys te m.
Suppose. for e xample. that the increasing seq uence (a. I;" is bo unded above bv
a number M. mcaning that a. ~ M fo r a lin ;;: I . Oeca usc th e s..:qucn cc is a lso bound~d
bdow (by a 1• fo r instance). th e bounde d monoton ic se q ue nce property implies that
lim a.
n- oo
=A (or some rea lnu mhcr II ~ M.
-
ns in Fig. I 1.2.6(a). If the increasing seq ue nce Ia. I is n o t bou nd ed above. then it
follows tha t
lim a.
•- co
= + oo
as in Fig. ~ 1.2.6(~). (Sec Problem 52.) Figure 11 .2. 7 illu ~tr:lles the g raph of a tvpical
~~:.~:de~ ~ncreasang sequence. with the he ights of the p n ints
1 (n. a., ) steadily ·rising
a,
I
i
., ., I .."'I
•
I•J
a,. as A
1-
M ••
-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.~--~
" ----:.
•
I
•
I I
., ., ., ., ., •• .,
I I I · ••
\b)
•
f iGUR E 11.2.6 (a) tf the incred ~ing
sequ~ce {a.} is bounded above by M FIGURE 11 .2.7 Graph of a
then •ts terms "pile up· at so me . • ~unded increasing seque11ce
A ::> "·'· (b) If the sequence is untf:,~~~~ed Wllh limit A.
then 1U terms " keep going" and d' •
to infinity. •verge
EXAMPLE 13 1 ·
n\•esugate the seque nce Ia I th 1.5 .
r, " :'fl d e fined re cu rs ively bv
U1 = v6• a•+l = v'6+";;:: I
../6.
If the sequence {a I co
J 6+../6. /6+V6+l
. ./6.
.16 J
v·•+ 6+ V6 +
(Ill
. • nvergcs. then 1' t5 I' .
preta tton o f the in fin ite express1.o n tmll II wou ld seem to be the na tural inter·
Infinite Seq uences SECTION 1 1.2 689
A calcula tor gives 2.4-19. 2.907. 2.9R-l. and 2.997 for t he approximate values of
the te rm~ in (II). 1l1is suggests that the sequence may be bou nded above by M 3. =
Indeed. if we a~surnc that a particula r term a. satisfies the ineq uali ty a. < 3. the n it
follo ws tha t
a. ,t = J 6 + a. < J6+3=3:
tha t is. a •• 1 < 3 as well. Ca n you sec that this implies that all t erm s of the seque nce
arc less than 3? (lf there were a first term not less th an 3. then its predecessor wo uld
be less than 3. and we would have a contradiction. This is a " proof by ma th cmatical
induction." )
In o rde r to apply the bounded monoton ic sequence pro perty to co nclude that
th e sequence Ia.) converges. it remains to show tha t it is a n incre:~sing sequ ence. But
11.2 PROBLEMS
In Probfrm.t 1 tlzrough 8. find a paurrn in tlzr sequrnce with given hr Prohlmr.r9 through 42, dererminr wh<ther o r not tire seq<Jencr
tum..t 0 1, a 2 , aJ. a, and (asszuning that it a mrinw·s a.'i indicated ) (a,l corr vrrge.s. ant/ find its limit if it does corr vrrgr.
writ( a fomwln f or the gmeml term u, of the u quence.
9. an = ~
2
5 3 10. a, = -1-n
--
I. 1,4.9,16. .. . 2. 2.7,t2.17.. .. 11 - 2 + 3nl
J . lI · ;I · il·
I I _ rr 2 -n + 1 n-'
iii • ... 11• a,. - 12. a = -....,.--
2n' + ,., • 10n2+J
S jI • J1
0
I I I
j ! Jit • • •
8. 10, 5, 10. 5, .. . 13. a.= I + ( tu)" 14.a.=2 - ( - l)"
7. o. 2,0, 2....
1
V~
_ sin 11 2 se that every newborn pair or rabbits becomes
19. a. - .jii 20. a. = ----;;-- SS. (3 ) S up po
prod ucI "
. •e after two mont 11s. an d th crea f tcr grvcs
If b . .
. birth 10
new pair of rabbits every mon th . we egan wuh a single
21. a. = n sin :r n 22. a. =II COS Jrll 3
newborn pair of rabbits. denote by F. the total. number or
23. a,. = rr -<•'n"Jl" U. a. = 2~"'" pairs or rabbits we ha"e afte r n months. Explaan carefully
why {f. I is the Fibonaccr. scque nc~ ~f Example 2. (b) It
25. a.= .;n
In 11
:U>. a.= ~
ln311 instead. every newborn paar of rabbats becomes productwc
rtcr three months. denote by (G.} thc number olpain of
27. a. = (In 11)2
II
28. a. = II Sin (n 3
rabbits we have aft er n months. Give a recursive definition
of the sequence (G.I and calculate its first ten term~
tan · • 11 ,.J 56. Let {F. I be the Fibonacci seque nce of Example 2. and
29. a. = -- - 30. a•. = .,.1 10
n assume that
, si nh11 . r ••,
2" + I
31. a. = ---;;-- 3- a. = --
coshll
= hm
r - F,-
,._ ~:c:~
35. a.= (
II -
-
11 + 1
- I)" 36. a. = (0.001) - 11"
57. Let the sequence {a. I be defined recursively as follows:
d
Infinite Series and Convergence SECTION 11 .3 691
l" 'sitin: int<' t:<'r "· let ''• 1-c• tht· ~~~st i nt ~):ml multiple of (r) Pn we that if A 2 < 2. then ~~~ < 8 for som e numbe r
1/ 10" that i< """l'l'<'r h<'lltlll ,,rtht• s~ t S. l' rn"c th .tt 1<~.1 is :1 ll < 2 nnd nil sufficil·ntly large " · (d) Conclude that t\ 2 = 2.
l't'ltmto.h .' d ,, ,,,·rc.'n~;ll~! St•quc th..'l• nnd then th:tt A :::. lim,..._ , . a,.
6-l. Investigate the sequence (a. ). where
is a least upp.:r '"'""'' f<~r S.)
(\.\, F.1r <':h:h t" '>iti' ~ mte~,·r n. kt " • he: the l:tr)!l'St intc):r:tl "• = [n+ i + Jii].
multi1•t,· <'f 1/lfl" sudt that a; ~ ~- (a) Prow thnt (11. 1 is
:t t'-'IU1hh.· d ith.'rt•:, ~ing str: ,ttll"lh."t'. ~'' A ::: lim,. .•~,. n,. exists. YClu may need a computer or progrnmmablc calculator to
(b) l'n" e that if ,-~ : ,. ~. th,·n ..; .., ~ f<~r" suflid cntly brj:<'. ll i<co,·cr what is rcmnrb ble abou t th is sequence.
(I )
where I' and q arc positive. We ask no t o nly whet he r th is equa tio n cou ld possibl y
be true. but alsu wha t it mea ns. In t he following two num erica l e xplora ti ons. you
can (for inst:m cc ) take p and q to be the last two nonze ro digi ts in your student
1.0. number.
'
Lo.. = ''' + o: +11 1 + ... + 11., + .... (1)
, ..
"' he re (a.,} is an infi nite sequence o r real numbers. l11c number a, is called the 11th
term o r the se ries. 111e symbol L:~ 1 a., is s imply an abbrevia tio n for the ri!_!ht·hand
side or Eq . ( I ). In this secti on we discover what is meant b y t he sum o f an infinite series.
69 2 CHAPTER 11 Infinite Series
•• •
•
1\·lotivated by Example I. we introd uce the partial smns of the general infinite
series in (I). llte nth 1mrtial sum s. of the series is the sum of its first n terms:
n
Sn=Dt+ al+aJ+· ·· +On= Lat. (3)
k=l
lltus each infinite series has not only an infinite sequence of terms. but also an inlinitr
seflucncc or partial sums S1• ~. S3 • ••• • s•. ... . where
St = a 1,
~ = Ot +o2.
SJ = Ot + o 2 + o3 ,
s
with sum provided that th • r .
c tnlll
.
of Its sequence of partial sums.
• ( •
S = lim sn •
• - 00 (4)
extsts and ts finite). Otherw,· . .
. d' se we say th t 1h
a senes tvcrges, then it has no sum. a c series dive~es (or is divergent). H
'L (I)" 1I I I
00
2 = 2 + 4 + s + 16 + · · ·
n·• l
d i"erges.
Solution 1l1c: seque nce of pa rtial sums of this se ries is
I , 0. I. 0 , 1.....
which hns no limit. The refore the series diverges.
•
EXAMPLE 3 Show that the infmite series
""' 1
L
oa l
11 ( 11 + I)
s. = (~ - D+ (~ - D+ G-n
+ (~ - ~ ) + .. . + (~ -
4 5 n
_!__)
n+l
1 II
= 1- -- = - -.
n+l n+l
694 CHAPTlR 11 Infinite Series
Hence II
L:
"" I - l i m - = 1.
11(11 +I) - •-"" 11 + I •
•••
11 d a telescoping sum. provides us with a way
The sum for s. in Exam~le 3· ca e . 'sin Examples I lind 2 are examples of a
. scncs. The sene . .
to find the sums of certat~ . e of series. the geometric sen es.
more common and more unportan11>p
· S 'es
DEFINITION GeometriC Crt Atric series if each te rm after the first is
· """
111e senes 1·s said to be a ~:com. · h · ....
L...•~o a. . d. 1 lv before it. That t£. I ere tS a num""r r,
a ftxed multiple of the term tmme ta c ·
called the r:~tio of the series. such that
a••• :: rn. for alln ~ 0.
.
H"c "'Tttca = ao f or thc tnt •~ I constant term. then Ot = ar. az = ar2 .aJ =arl.
. ····
and so forth. Thus every geometric series takes the form
00
~ 2 2 2 2
:L 3· = 2 + 3 + 9 + · · · + 3· + · · ·
" :0
""
S ::: l:ar• ::: ~. (6)
••O I- r
If lrl !': I and a # 0. then the geometric series diverges.
S = lim n . ( 1 r•+t ) a
"-oo ~--
- r 1- r --~-
Infinite Series and Convergence SECTION 11.3 695
1
Du t if lrl > I, then lim~- -c: ,~+ I does not exist. so lim~-oo s. docs not exist. This
establis hes the theorem. ~
•
116 - - -- _ : __ ! -.- • ~ · -·---- EXAMPLE 5 With n = I and r = - ~ .we find that
•
•
o• I 3
0!
t -(-i) =s·
11te graph in Fig. 11.3.3 shows the partia l sums of th is series upproaching its sum
~ alternately from ahove and below. +
FIGURE 11.3.3 GrJph olthe lir,t "" 22• - l
do.t~n p.l rtiJI sums ol the infonite EXAMPLE 6 Determine whether or not t he infinite series~ -- co nverges.
serid in Ex;,mple 5. L 3"
•• I
Solution If we \\rite th is series in the form
2~ - · 4 16 ~
L"" --y.- 2 32 12R
!) 2( )
= j + 9 + 27 + Tl + ... = j I + j + 9 + 27 + . . . .
•• I
then we rcco!!ni1c it ns n geomet ric series with first term n = ~and ratior = j. Because
r > I. the second pnn oflhcorem 1 implies th at this se ries diverges. +
lltc:o rem 2 implies that the o peratio ns of nddition nnd of multiplica tio n by a
constant can be carried o ut term by term in the case of cu11vngem se ries. Beca use
the sum of :111 infinite serics is the limit of its sequence of partial sums. this theor em
follows immediately from the limit laws for sequences (Theorem I of Section 11.2).
·n,c geo metric se ries in Eq. (6) may be used to find the rational number repre-
sented by a given infinite repeating decima l.
EXAMPLE 7
5 + - 5 + - 5 + .. · = -
0.55555 · .. = -10 100 1000 10
5( I I
I + -10 + -100 + .. · )
1
= 2: 15t·1 ( 1o). = -1 -_lu_.iO = 15t1 · 19° = f.·
~ ..() ~
7 2X ( I I )
=W + j(')i I + 101 + 10' + ...
= lO + 1000 ~
7 2S ' ( I )" 7 2!\ ( I )
100 = 10 + JiXii I- ffii
7 28 100 7 28 721
= -+ - - · - = - + - = -
10 I 000 99 10 9'-JO 99()'
696 CHAPTER 11 Infinite Series
EXAMPLE 8 Suppose that Paul and Mary toss a fair six-sid ed die in turn until one
of them wins by getting the first "six." If Pau l tosses first, calculate the probability
that he will win the game.
Solut ion Because t he die is fair, the probability that Paul ge ts a "six" on the first
l·
round i~ lnc probabi lity that he gets the ~arne 's first "six" on the second round is
(n 2
(l}-thc product of the probability ar
that neith er Paul no r Ma ry rolls a "six"
!
in the first round and the probabili ty that Paul rolls a "six" in the second round.
P~ur~ probability p of gelling the tin t "six" in the g~me is th e .<lim of hi< probabilities
of ge ll ing it in t he first round. in the second round, in the third ro und, and so on.
H ence
lim a~'# 0
•-oo
or this limi t does not exist then the i fi . . ~
• n tnt If: sencs L... a~ diverges.
.s;, = a, + a2 + a3 + ... + a
is the nth partial sum of the scr'te n •
s. ccausc a"-"""
- " - Jil-t.
co
Consequently, if lim 4 h
•-oo 0 " r- 0• l en the ser·
•
""
ICS L.. a. diverges.
~
REMARK It is important I
0
. l'f . . remember also 1h
gencc test. tire mfimte seri~s ""a e comrapositive of the mh-tcrm di•·er·
rums ctmverxt>s too Th L. • convuges wit/1 · 1{
. "" . , · us We have twos, SIII/I S, then its sequence (lin •0
scnes L.a•. lis sequence la.t or tem~r .cc~u:necs associated with the single infimtt
an lls sequence IS. I of partilll sums. ,\ nd
Infinite Series and Convergence SECTION 11.3 697
(assuming that the se ries converges to S) these two sequences have generally differ-
e nt limits:
lim a.
" '- 00
=0 and lim s"
,._00 = s.
EXAMPLE 9 The series
lim - -
n-oo 311 + I
II
= -3I :F 0. •
WARNING The conve rse of Theorem 3 is fals e! 'llle condilion
lim a. = 0
•-ou
is necessary bur not sufficic-111 to guarantee com'crgcncc of the series
That is, a series may sati~fy the condi tion a.- 0 as 11 ..... oo and yet diverge. l\n
important ex:~mple of a di vergent series with terms tha.t approach zero is the har111onic
series
""' 1 I I I I
2: - = 1+-+ - + - + - +· ...
2 3 4 5
(7)
•- I II
THEOREM 4
The harmonic series diverges.
1'/lOOF The 11th term of the harmonic series in (7) is a. 1/ n, and Fi R. 11.3.4 =
shows the graph o f the related function f(x) = 1/x on the interval! ~ .r ~ 11 1. f'Or +
each integer k, I ::; k ~ 11, we have erected on the subinterval [k, k + I J a Tl'ctangle with
h eight f(k) = 1/ k. A ll of these 11 rectangles have base length 1. and their rc~pect ivc
h eights arc the successive terms I. 1/2. 1/3 ... .. 1/ n of the harmonic series. H ence
the sum of Iheir areas is the nth partia l sum
I I I 1
s. =l +-+-+ - + .. · + -
2 3 4 II
I •
Atu I A"'> 2 ........
II ".
If the seq uence of pa rtial sums of the series I: an diverges to infinity, then we
say that th e se ries di>·crges to inti nit~; and we write
The se ries I:;(- 1)"• 1 of E~amplc 2 is a se ries that diverges but docs not diverge
to infinity. In th e nineteenth century it was commo n to say that such a series was
divergent by o.rcillario11: today we say me rely tha t it dive rges.
Our proof of Theorem 4 shows that
I:"" -=
I
oo.
tl
••I
13ut the part ia l sums of the harmonic series diverge to infinity ve ry slowly. If NA
denotes the smallest intege r such that
NA I
L 11- ~ A .
•~ I
t~en with the aid of a programmable calculator you can verify that Ns = 83. With the
a1d of a computer and refinements of estimates like those in the roof o f Theorem4,
one ca n show that p
N1o = 12367,
Mo = 272.400.600,
Ntoo "" 1.5 X 1043 ' and
N IOCX'l "" 1.1 X 104).1.
Thus yo u wo uld need to add more than a u . . .
series to get a partial sum th:tt exceeds q ;:t c~ of a. b1lhon terms of the harmon1~
20
wo uld be approximatdv O.OOOOOO<~ _ · ~his pomt each of the next few terOI>
to add to reach 1000 is. far great er tl~n t~e ?. • ll1e number o f terms you'd have
4 1 9
tides in the entire un iverse ( Ht'~O) If ·. . . .estimated numbe r of elementary par·
"f'artial sums of infin ite series •nd. h ) o ulen)oy such large num be rs. sec the articl¢
Mmh~marim/ Momhly 84 (1977):
·· " OWtiC}' g "b · ·
237 _248. ,r ow, Y R. I~ Doas. Jr., in ;\merrcon
llteorem 5 says that if two inlinite seri . .
on. then either both se ries conve · b es have the sa me terms from some po1nt
Problem 63. rge or oth series diverge. llte proof is left for
l. \a., nn: e'er c,_,:a::: a co:ncr~en t mfimte seric t>y int~rspcrsing the terms
of t·J.n dl.er.-ent \~n~~"
2. Sur!">'>>: tn~l an Jnfi!"lle <cne~ hJ< lh(' rro;-c n~ th:ll. j!i\Cn nny ro•it ivc
numhcr all hut hnnch mam term< o( the s~n~< .He f'O~IIi\'C nnd kss th n n
thl\ numt--:r (),.., 11 fnll''"'~ thJtthl< <en~< cnn,crj!t'<'.' \\'h :11 if it'~ true t ha t.
rl\en ~0\ 1""-111\C nu:n!>er ..111 hut fini tely 111.1n y r-1r11.1 1 <Uttl < of th e ~C ri eS
nrc rrcntcr th.1n tht< numhcr7 D nc< 11 then fnlln" th.ll thi< 't·r ic' llivcrg cs?
.\. ( ·.1n one delcrtnmc v.hcthcr a j!I\Cn 1nfimtc <e ric:< convcq:cs or d ive rges
mcrt'h h, romrutmr a "'!fincntly l.u!!c numhcr of p.1rtia l sum<?
4. C'.1n one dctcrrmnt' the 'um-.Kcur:ttc tn 3 !!"en ti~t·d numhcr o f d ccirn nl
pl."~' of a cun,crrcnt gc:ometnc sene\ me rei) hy cnmpu tmg a su fficie ntly
larre number (If parllal \um\?
1 1 .3 PROBL EMS
1. I + - + - + --- + - +
3 9 J· ...
~o ~ I
2. I + r ·l + ,.· l + ,.-1 + .. - ,.· • + .. • . L-
• ·I ....,.. I - ( rn• )"
J. I + 3 + 5 + 7 +- -- + (211- I)+···
I
"- 2- + -
,fi+,:12
I
- + --- +-+--•2
I
-
I Zl. t (;)" zz. t(;)"
••I
" ""
S. I - 2 + 4- !I + 16 --- · + ( - 21" + -- ·
6 1 -l+ .l----+(-1 '1" +---
!3. 2: (~';'r u. 2: (;·;,r
. • '' 'I
1' 4 + """ " + -. -
j + 9 + 27 + . -- + 3• .,. I + 2" + 5"
26.
L•· 0 3"
1 2 J R 2" ' 1
8. 3+9 +27+81 + · --+~+--- "' 7 - s• + 3 - II"
9. I+ (1.01)+ (1.01) 1 + (1.01)1 + .. · + (1.01)" +-- ·
27.
L..o 13" 211. L: vrz
•• I
I I I .,
10. I + - + - + .. · + - + .. · J(l ~ 211
,fi .!13 :Iii · L- Jo~n! + 3
"' (-l)"n
II. ~
....,
L-11 + ! 12. t c~) Y
..I
"' '
31.~~
•• I
L 3nl + I
••I
.,
32. L: sin"l
• •I
,., •-I
IJ. "'..., (3)"
.L:t-1)" ; 14.
.. J• - 2"
:L
... --:;;;- 33. L tan"! 34. L"' (nresin I)'
..
L (J2)"" "" (2~ - 2·I) ~· o-1
,.,
I S.
•••
t 6. :L
•••
36. L arctan n
•••
L
700 CIIAPHR 11 lnftrlite Seric\
h />(Juncr mrfficitlll r < I if. whe n it i~ dropPt<l
"- 1 6-1. A bal 1 ahs .. •It It it oouncc< hack to a he ight or ,
,,7, ,~ - - (StrJ:J;fltmn ~fimic the proof of Theo rem 4to from a e re I • . '"
..
L-nlnn
:
\llll\\ tli\CI!'CIICC.)
' )- Suppose that such a ba ll •s dropped frorn th
( Fig. I I.3 .5 . I l . fi .
. h · ht n and suh<cquent y >ounces 111 muctv rna
iniual Cl!! ·. . , h h · · ny
t
lrt l'mhlmrr 4./ tltrttiiJ:lr .t'J, fin d the se1 of n/11/rore vnhus of x
fo r whhh tlrt• }:II t'll H'f W\ ;, 11 ttJn\•rrKrnr Kt!Omttrtc snies. th~n
l'.lJHt'H the• M llll oftlu: Stflt'.f ll\ u functwn of x.
. /~ I ...,, ~ ( 5t
1
L ~ ' + 16
-IH, "- ( l )" )"
•· I
2::
••I
65. A ball "ith bounce codlicicnt r = 0 1).1 (sec Problem 6-1)
In /'roJ,f,.," JO tlrrmt,;lr .~S.
,._.,,,."' thi' nth pflrttal 1wrr of tlre is dro pped from a n init ia l he1g ht nf 11 = 4 ft. Usc a g~D
;,jimtf' ft'rl('\ ut flft•lr H·opins ""''{of in t.:rumplc J) and th~reby mctric sene• to co mpute the t ot~ I time required for it to
fitulrltr• .\tun of rhr srrit'S t{ 11 rt>tu·trs:~.t. complete ir. Infinitely m~ny huuncc\. 'llte time required lor
"-
I ' a ball to d rop lr feet (from res t) ., ../ITIR seconds. " hm
'.In: + ~n - 2
,!:0.
L ~,:- I 51.
L =
g 32 ftfsl .
•· I ••I
66. Suppo>c that the governmen t spend• Sl hillion and t~t
~!.
L" In -n +-I ~·'·
~
6 (')k
00
5
5 =4
by very quickly c:~lculating th e first seven partial sums 1.0000. 1.2000, 1.2-tOO, 1.2480.
1.2.t96, 1.2.t99. and 1.2500. While not conclusive, this nu merical evidence is never·
the less reassuring.
•• o
with r = 0.2. 0.5. 0.75, 0.9. and 0.99. For each value of r , calculate the partial sums Sn
with n = 10. 20. 30.... . continuing until two successive rc~~ults agree to four or li\'e
decimal places. (For r = 0.9 and 0.99. you may decide to usc" = 100. 200. 300.....)
H ow docs the appa rent rate of con,·crgcncc-as mc:1surcd by the number of temls
required fo r the desired accuracy--{!cpcnd on the value of r?
(•) John and M ary draw alternately from a shurncd deck of k cards. ')he first
one to draw an ace- the c:~rd numbered 1-wino;, Assume that John draws
first. U sc the formula for t he sum of a geometric series to calculate (hoth as
a rational number and as a four-place decima l) the probability 1 tha t John
wins, and similarly the probability M tha t M ary wins. Check thn t 1 + M = I.
4
702 OtAPTER 11 Infinite Series
The .mfinue. senes . we stud.1ed ·tn s~·ctio n 11.3 have consume terms.h and f the sum of
. (assummg
such a se ncs . Jt. con\·er"eS)
1> is a mmzber. In contrast.• fmuc · o the practical
·Importance o f ·m fim1te
· sencs· d e rives from the fact that many unc t1o ns have useful
represe ntat io ns as infinite series with .-ariable terms.
_ I_ =
1-x
L"" x" = 1 + x + x 2
+ x 3 + ·· · (1)
tt=O
)'=-'-
1-A of the function j(x) = 1/ ( 1 - x ). That is. for each fixed. numbe r x with )xi < I. the
infinite se ries in (I) convc rr,cs to the numhc r 1/( 1 - .r) . n,c nth part1 al sum
' S, (x)= I + x +r' -rx' 3 + · ··..,.-
' x" (')
•
of the geometric !>cries in ( I ) is now an nth·dcgree polynomial that approximates the
fu nc tion f <x ) = 1/ ( 1- x). ll1e convergence of the infinite series for lxl < I suggests
that the approximation
I 2 1 n
--"='
l -x l + x+x +.r+· · ·+x (3)
FIGURE 11.4.1 Graphs of the
partial sums s,( x ), Sz (x), and
51(•) of the power series
should the n be ~ccuratc if 11 is sufficien tly large. Figure ll..l.l sho ws the graphs of
00 1 1/ (1 - x ) ~ nd the three approx imat ions S1(x), S2 (x) . anti S3 (x). It appears that th~
'""x"
L.,
= - - of Example 1.
1- x approximations are more acc urate when 11 is larger anti when .r is close r to zero. +
-o
, ll1e definitions of the. various elementary transce ndental functions leave it un-
clear ho" to compute thctr values precisely, exce pt at a few isolated points. For
example,
lnx =
1
I
• I
- tit
I
(x > 0)
Polynomial Approximations
1 Suppose that" c want w calcu late (or. at least, closely approximate) a specific value
/(xo) of a give n function f. It would suffice to find a polyno mial P (x ) with a graph
th:ll is ,·cry cl ose to tha t of f o n some intcT\·al co ntaining xo. Fo r then we could use
the \'3lue /'(x0 ) a~ nn approximatio n to the actual value of f (x0 ). Once we know how
to find such an approximating polyno mial f'(x ), the next question would be how
accurate! ) f'(.ro) approximates the desired value f (xo).
The simplest example of polynomial approximation is the linear approxima tion
f <x> ::::: j(a} + ['(a}(.r- a)
obtained by writing l!:.x = x - a in the linear approximation formula, Eq. (3) o f
Section 4.2. The graph of the first·degree polyn o mial
•
= f (a ) + J'(a)(x - a)
l't (.r ) (4)
fiGURE 11.4.2 The tangent fine
at (a, l(o)} isthe best linear is t he line tangent to thl! curve y = f (x) at the point (tr ,f(a)); see Fig. I 1.4.2. This
approximation to y • I (x) near o. first-deg ree polynomia l agrees with f a nd with it.> first derivative at x =a. That is,
l't(a ) = / (a ) and /~(a )= J'(a).
EXAMPLE 2 Suppose that j (x) = ln.r and that a = I. Then /(I)= Oandf'(l) = 1.
so Pt (x )= x - I. lienee we expect that In x ::::: x - 1 for x ncar I. With x = 1.1, we
find that
Pt(l.l) = 0.1000. whereas ln (l.l ) "" 0.0953.
The err or in this approximatio n is about 5%.
To better approximate In x ncar x = l ,lct us find a second-degree polynomial
that no t only has the same value and the same first derivative as does fat x = 1.
but als<J has the same second derivative there: f'2'(1) = f"(l) =- I. To satisfy th ese
conditi ons. we must have
f'.!(l) = C2 + Ct +Co = 0,
1';(1) = 2c2+Ct =I , and
1~'(1) = 2c2 =-I.
When we solve these equations. we ftnd that co = - ~ · Ct =2, nnd r : = -~.so
/~(.t) = -~ + 2.r -lx2.
With .r = 1.1 we find that /~( 1.1 ) = O.Cl'/50, which is accurttlc to three decimal places
bcc:1u'>c ln(l.l) .., 0.0953. 'lltc graph of)' = I Hx) is :t parubola thro ugh (1. 0) with
the same value, slope. a111/ ctlf\'a/IIT<' there a~." = In x (Fig. IIA.3). •
llle tange nt line and th e parabola tL\cll in the compu tation~ of Example 2
illustrate one general approach to polynomial approximatio n. To approximate the
function [ Cx) ncar .c = a, we: look for an nth-degree polynomial
such tha t its value at a and the val ues o f its fi rst 11 deriva tives at a a gree with the
correspond ing values of f . That is. we req uin: t hat
P. (a ) = /( a ),
?;, (a ) = /'(a).
?;,' (a ) = J"(a ), (5)
co == /~ (a) == f(a )
by the first condition in Eq. (5). Substituting x == a into
c, = /~(a)== /'(tl)
by the second condition in Eq. (5). Ncxt. substituting .r = into
11
(7)
ll1c polynomial in Eq. (8) is called the nth-degree Taylor polynomial of the
functi on f at the point x =
a. Note that P.(x) is a polynomial in powers of x - a
rather than in powers of x . To usc /~, (x) effectively for the approximation of f(x)
ncar 11. we must be able to co mpute the value j(a) and the values of its derivath·es
j'(a). ("(11 ). and so on. all the way to f'" 1(a).
ll1 c line y = f'1 (x) is simply the line tangent to the curve y = f(.r) at the point
(a. /(11)). 11ws y = j (x ) ~nd y = /'1(x) have the same slope at this point. Now recall
from Section ~.6 that the second deriva tive measures the w ay the curve y = j(.r) is
bending as it pas,cs through (il, f(a)). ·nH:rcforc. let us call j"(ll) the "conc;l\i ty"
of y= j (x ) at (u. f(u)) . 'l11cn. because 12'(11)= /"(11) . it follows that_\· = /~ (.r ) has
the same val ue. the sa me slope. am/ the same concavity at (II. f <a)) as docs y = j(.r).
Moreover. P3 (.r) and j (.r) will also have the sa me rate of change of concavity at
(n. j (11)). Such observations suggest that the larger n i,, the more closely the nth·
degree Ta ylor polynomial will approxima te f(.r ) for x ncnr 11.
Solu tion ·nti s is the easiest of all 'lbylor polynomials to compute, beca use f 111(x)::
e' for all k ~ 0. Hence f rkt(O) = I for all k ~ 0. so Eq. (9) yields
x1 .rJ xn
P. (X) = I + f + - + - + ... + -
" . 2! 3! 11! • •
llte first few Taylor po lynomials of the natural exponenti a l function at a =0
arc, therefore,
/lt(.r) = I.
Pt(x) =l + .r.
Pz(x) = I+ .r + !x2.
/'l(.r) = I + x + !.rz + ~.rJ.
P.(x) = I + .r + lx1
2
+ 0~x3 + 1. ~4
24'' •
1 . hII .4.5
Figure • h shows the g raphs
. • ·r) • 'and pJ (x ) . Th e ta bl e Ill
of 1'1(.r) · /\( · Fitg. 11 .•.
'6
~~tot s of" t esc polynomt~ls approximate /(.r) =I" for .r = O.l and for .r 0.5. =
. east or t 1tesc two values of x the closer x is to 0 h 'dl p, ( )
appears to approach f<x) as II inc;cases. . a = . t e more rapt y • x
FIGURE 11.4.5 The first three
Taylor polynomials approx imating .t - -0I
=
f(x)=t!"' near x 0.
" j P. (x ) I!"' c·' - P., (x )
0 1.00000 1.10517 0. 10517
I 1.10000 1.10517 0.00517
2 1.10500 1.10517 000017
3 1.10517 1.10517
4
0.00000
1.10517 1.10517 0.00000
X -- 05
II P.(.r) I'' t'' P. (.r)
0 1.00000 1.6-1872 0.64872
I 1.50000 1.6-1872 0.14872
2 Lll2500 1.6-IS72 0.02372
3 1.6.151!3 1.6-1872 0.00289
4 l.floll\44 1.64872 0.00028
5 1.64879 1.6.1872 0.000)2
Taylor Series and Taylor Polynomials SECTION 11.4 70 7
Taylor's Formula
1ne close ness with wh ich the polynomia l P.(x ) approximates the funct ion f ( x ) is
me asu re d b y the differe nce
R .(x ) = f (x ) - Pn (X) .
for wh ich
This di ffe rence R,.(x) is called the nth-dc~:rcc rem ainder for f(x ) ut x = a . It is the
erro r made if the value [ (x) is replaced with t he ap proximation /~ (x ) .
lltc theorem tha t let s us estimate th e e rror. or remainde r. U. ( x) is called
Tuylor 's formula. after Brook Taylor ( 1685-1731). a follower o f Newton who intro·
d uccd Tay lor polynomials in an article published in 1715. 'Ih e particula r expressio n
fo r R,. (.r) that we give next is ca lled the Lagrange fo rm for the remainder because it
first appe ared in 1797 in a boo k written by the Fre nch m athematician Joseph Louis
L.1grange (1736-18 13).
t he conclusion of the mean value theorem (Section 43). lltus Taylor's formula is a
far-reaching generalization of the mean value t heorem of differential calculus..
where z is some number between a and .t . 11tus the nth-degree rem:1inder term is
(13)
which is easy 10 remember- it's the same as the last te rm of f', .J(.t), except that
f'""t '(a} is replaced with 11 (z). r ·•
EXAMPlE l (co ntin ued ) To estimate the accurncy o r the approximation
1 , I 1 -'· ( _ I )4
ln.r =(x - I )- l(X- It+ J(x- I) - 4!z" X
where 1 < z< 1.1. The value z = 1 giws the largest possible magnitude (0. 1)'/ -1 =
0.000025 o f the remainder term. It follows that
0.095308 < In ( 1.1) < 0.095334,
so we can conclude that In( 1.1) =0.0953 to four-place accuracy. •
Taylo r Series
If the function f h:~s derivatives of all orders. then we can write Taylo r's formula
(Eq. ( II )) 11ith any degree 11 tha t we plea c. Ordinarily. the exact value of z in the
Taylor remainder term in Eq. (IJ) is unknown. Nevertheless. we can some times use
Eq. ( 13) to ~how that the rema inder app roaches zero as 11 __. +oo:
·-
lim R,(x) = 0
f(x) =
t*1(a)
~ - (x- a)*
~ '·'
A. o "· . (IS)
EXAMPLE 5 In Example 4
integers k ~ 0. Hence the Taylowrcformula
-
noted that if /(x ) == e' then
•
Jl''<x> -- r' (orDll
f(x) =/(0) + /'(O)x + !J!l2.x 2 + Jf•I(O) [ I•+ II(')
21 ·--+-x• + ~ x"' 1
n! (n + l )!
Taylor Series and Taylor Po lynomials SECTION 11.4 709
at a = 0 gives
It' x•+ I
0 < jR,.(x )l < ( ifx > 0 .
II + I)'.
'lne reforc, the fact that
.
ltm -
x" =0 ( 18)
n-~ n!
for all x (sec Problem 55) implies that lim,._ 00 R,.(x) = 0 for all x. This means that
t he Taylor series for c' con \'crgcs to e' for all .r, and we may write
ll1e series in Eq. ( 19) is th·c most famous and most important of all Taylor series.
With x =I , Eq. ( 19) yields a numerical series
~ ~
,. = )~ -n ! = I + -I!I + -2!I + -J!I I
+ - + . ..
4!
(20)
w..aU
for the number e itself. The lOt h and 20th part ial sums of this series give the approx·
imations
I I I
e "' I +-
I!
+-
2!
+ · · · + - "'2 7182818
10! .
and
1
e "' I + .!_
I!
+ .!_
2!
+ · · · + -20! ::::: 2 .71828 18284 59045 235 '
both of which are accurate to the numbe r of decimal places shown.
•
EXAMPLE 6 To find the Taylor se ries at a = 0 for /(x) = cosx. we first calculate
the derivat ives
/ (.r) = cosx. f'(x) = -situ.
f"(.r) = -cosx. J i l l (:c) = sin .r.
f 41
(.r ) = cos.r, f 1' 1(.r) = -sinx,
f 11J>1(.r) = (-1)"cosx.
It follows t hat
/ a,1(0) = (- ! )" but f 'ln•l l(O) = 0.
so the Taylor polynomials and Taylor series of /(:c) = cos x include only terms of
,J
x '.
~vt!n degree. The Taylor formula of degree 211 for cos .t at a =0 is
whefc tis between 0 and .r. Because icos.r j :ii I ror all:. it follows from Eq. ( 1H) t hat
the remainder term approaches ze ro as n - oo fo r all x. H ence the desi red Tnylor
4
71 0 CHAPTE.R 11 Infinite Series
In Problem 41 we ask you to 5I10 '', St·milarlv' that the Taylor series at a ::: 0 of
f (x) =sin xis
l · ·'
+ .15
_ - .1'-7 + · · ·.
sinx = 2:: "" (-I )"x !"
" =()
(2n ])! +
_
- x
_ ::..._
3' 5! 7!
(22)
n = 13 n : 2J
n cc 7 n • IS n : 23
FIGURE 11.4.7 Approximating cosx
FIGURE 11.4.8 Approximating sin x with
with nth-degree Taylor pofynomials.
nth-degree Taylor polynomials.
The case a == 0 of Taylor's series in ( I6) is called the 1\lacl:mrin series of the
function /(.r),
Colin Maclaurin (16lJS-17-16) was a Scottish mathematician who used this series as
a basic tool in a calculus book he puhlishcd in 1742. The three Maclaurin series
00
.t x" x2 .r 3 x"
e = 'i;""'-=l +x+-+ - +-+ ...
~ "' 2! 3! 4! .
(19)
~ (- l )"x2n x2 .t4 x6
cosx = L.. == 1- - + - - - + .. . and (21)
• ~o (211)! 2! 4! 6'.
. ~ (-I)"x2n+t x3 .r5 x7
SUI X = •L_.
=O (2n+t )!
=.\' - -3! + - _ - + . ..
5! 7! (22)
(which actuallythat:
ison. Observe were discovered by Newton) bear careful examination and compar-
• TI1c !erms _in the e~en cosine series are the l'l'l'fl·dcgrcc terms in the expo·
nent1al senes but With alternating signs. .
• TI1~ terms i~ the odd sine series arc the odd-degree terms in the ex ponenull
senes but With alternating signs.
I>·=
, .., I>· 11 =-J
+i L""
pro vided that the two infin ite series of rea l t e rms on the right-hand side converge, in
which cnsc we say that the series of comple x te rms on the left-ha nd side com·erges.
It can be shown that the exponentia l se ries in (19) converges whenever th e
number xis replaced with a complex num ber z = x + iy. Conseq ue ntly. the e.xpone n·
tial function e' can be <lrfinrd (for complex. as well as for real arguments) by means
of the series
e , =L'-n! = I
00 J1
+<+ -+
4
-
..2
< +-~···.
, ,
2!
.J
3!
T'
4!
n..O
The Number rr
In Sec1ion 5.3 we described how Archimedes used p<>ln~ons inscri bed in and circum-
scribed al>ou l the unit circle to show thai 3\¥ < :r < 3j . \\~th the aid of electronic
computers. .~ has hccn calculated "'well owr a hillimr llccimal places. \\'e d escribe
no w some of the method~ that have hccn used fm such ('UIIIputatio ns. [For t\ chroni-
cle of human it(s pe rennial fasci nation with the number :r . sec l'eter Beckmann. A
1/istory of :r. New York : St. Martin's l'rcss. 1'.171.1
We begin wilh the elementary a l gchr:~ic identity
I , , 16 + .. · + (- l )"tln+ I+ 12
- I - t• +I -
I +t2 - • b th sides of this last e quation from 1 ::Q
0
Because I>, tan- I 1
= I /( 1+1z>' integrallnS
tot = x gives x z,•'
:r+ r___
x1 + · ·· + <-1
J )"-2n+ , + u 21o+ l· (25)
tan- ' x = :c - ) 5 7
2
where • \ lxl " •J
• + < \1'o1n+2 dx
, :,.+2
~tfX \ ,. := -211 + 3.
(26)
IR:,.<t I =
\1 it clear that
0 1
kes
11
~! - HH + HU ~m'
3 5
tan- '0) -
h first
HISTORICAL NOTE In 1706. John Machill u sed Eq. (28) to calcui31C 1 e .$! 59
lOOdcci mal places o f :r. (I n Problem 54 we ask you to use itW show that :r == 3.l <.t
0 35
to live decimal place s.) In I R44 the lightning-fast mcntnl calculato r Zacharias
o r Germany computed the fint 21Xl decimal places of :r . using the related {ornlUll
of ;r" by George Micl in the American Mathematical Momlrly 86 (1979). pp. 694-697.
Although few practical applic~tions require more than ten or twelve decimal places
of rr, these computations provide dramatic evidence or the power ofTaylor's formula.
Moreover. the number ;r continues to serve as a challenge both to human ingenui ty
and to the accur~cy and efficiency of modern electronic computers. For an accoun t of
how investigat ions of the Indian mathematical genius Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887-
1920) have led recently to the computation of over a billion decimal places of rr.
sec the article "Ramanujan and pi," Jonathan M. Borwcin and Peter B. Borwein,
Scientific American (Feb. 1988). pp. 112-117.
11.4 PROBLEMS
In Problnns I through 10. find Taylor's formula for the given In Problems 21 through 28,find the Maclaurin series of the given
frmction fat a = 0. Find botlr tl.- Taylor polynomial P, (.r) of function f by substitllling in one of the known series in Eqs. (19),
the indicated degru nand the remainder term R.(x). (21 ), and (12).
1. f (x ) = ,-•. n =5 21. f(x) =~-· 22. f(x) = •"
2. f(x) = sin.r, n= 4 23. f(x ) = e_,, Z..l. f(.r) = exp(r')
3. f (x ) =cosx. n=4 25. f(x) = sin 2x 26. f(.r) = sin~
1 2
4. f (x ) = - -. n =4 27. f(.r) = sin x1
1-.r
5. f (x) = v'i'+x.
n =3 28. f(x) = sin2 .r = i<l - cos2.r)
6. f (.r) =In(! + .r). n = 4 In Problems 29th rough 40, find the Taylor series { Eq. (16)/ of
7. f (.r) =tan.r. n=3 the given function at the indicated p oint a.
8. f (x) =arcunx , n=2 29. f(x) = ln(l + .r). a = 0
9. f Cx ) = sin-• x.
n =2
30. f(x) = 1 _I .r. a= 0
10. f(x)=x ' -3x 2 + S.r -1, n=4
31. f (x) = , -•. a= 0
In Problmu 11 through 20, fin d th'- Taylor polynomial with rt·
maindu by ll5ing tht gi>·tn valuts of a and n. JZ. f<x> = sinx, a= ;rf2
lL f (x) = ~: a = l.n = 4 33. {Cx) = ln.r, a= I
12. f (x ) = cos x; a = ;t/ 4. n = 3
)4. f(x) =e". a =0
13. /(x) = sin.r; a=:r/6. n = 3
35. f(.r) = cou, a = :t / J.
1-'. f(.r) = ../X; a =100. n = 3
I I
15. f(.r) = ; a= S, n = S 36. f(x) = •. a = 0
(x - 4)l
(1- .r)·
16. / (.r) = tan.r: a= tr/4.n = 4 I
37. {(x) = -, a a I
17. f (x ) =cosx : a= :r. n = 4 Jt
20. / (x ) = vi-I
r.--: ; a = O. n =4 40. /(z) = .ji"""+.;, a =0
z
714 CHAPT[R 11 Infinite Series
~2. Beginning "' ith a .. t~n - t C!>.u~c the add ition formula
for the hnx:rl>olic sine and CO\ine functions. \\"ha t is their
tln A ~ tan fl
relation\hlp to the :'-1nclaurin \cries oft he ordinary sine and
co<inc functions?
tnn(A + II) = I - t:u1 A t.lfl II
.U. De rive the :'-lacl;o urin se ries sta ted in Problem 43 bv sub- 10 sh<•w in turn that (a) t:Jn 2a ~ : (h) tan -Ia " j~: =
Mllutong the kno"'n M aclaurin series for the expo~cnti31 (c) ran c:r 1~ - 4<Yl =- ::.:., . Fin a lly. show that part (c) im.
fu nction in the dcftmt ions
pht·s Eq . (2S) .
+ c- • ~-'· 1\pply th e ndd itio n formula for the ta n!:en t functionto ver·
coshx = c'-~-
2
a nd sinhx "" - - -
~· - t•"' '
2 ify ECJ. (29).
54. Every youn~ person dc~e rves the thrill, jll\l once, or CJI·
of the hype rbolic function<. ru l;llin~ pcrwnally rhc lif't scvcr.1l ucrinwl places of the
number .~ .1hc ' ecmin):ly random nature of thiHicrintal e{·
Tl1~ sum C'Ommandt listrd fo r Jr\'ttal rnmputrr ttlt:rbrtJ s.n trm.J
In th~ Section 11.3 PmJrO rtlll hr ll<rtl U> cnlmlfll<' Tnylor poly· p.tn,wn tlc m.lntl' .on c~pl.on.otion: hull.lfldccd. a rc the di~its
rromial< r/ficrmtl~·. For imtana. "'""' thr Tl f;tilfJh ins calnr/mor
3.1415Y ~M.'S:-'17'.1.1 ... uetcrmin<·d'! For a partial an,,.er.
dcfirritioJJ.t set ) Our c;llcul.uor tn dl'pl.oy nmc tkcimal places. l hcn 3dJ
cnouJ:h term< of the arctan!!cnt <eric< in (27) 11 ith .r =Ito
Yl • ein ( x ) calcu late nrctan( I) accurate tn nin e places. t'c"· caku!Jte
the va lue of :u ct.on ( 1:.) ' imib rly. Finally, substitute thc~c
Y2 • eum(eeq((-lJ A( N-l)•X A (lN-1)/ nume rical result ~ in E<l. (2S) and solve for n. I low many
(2N-1) 1,11, 1 , 7)) :occur:Jte dcrima l places do you ge t?
n! < - -
2·-·
1 ifll > k.l
I • c- 11•· 1r..1
!+i = I- t + t· - t l ·I· ... + (- l )"r" + ,;_...,-- -
1+I
frnmr "' ()tot =.r to show tha t
f I t: r :l ... t1
n( + .r) ::: .r - ~ + :._ _ ... + (_11• ~ + R,.
FIGURE 11.4.9 Graph\ of y "' \In x - 3 II + I
where lim I' _ (I
and it\ 1 3th-degrte Taylor polynomial •-"' '• - . 11c ncc conclude t lwt
p, J(x).
"'
ln(l + x ) = " '<- I >"'' J•
45. fC~ ) "' ~' -• 46. {Cx ) = s in x L• •l "
ir o < x ~ 1.
41. /(.<) = COli.l' ~ /It ) .. In ( I + _.)
I
51
• ~ritici1c the folln " ing "proor· rh :u 2 .. 1. Sul"tituting r • 1
49. / (.r) = i+.(" 50. f (x) .. _ I mtn the result in l'rnh lc rn 56 yield< the f:Kt th .l l
1 - .rl
ln 2= I - I + l - j + . .. .
The Integral Test SECTION 11 .5 715
((
.
5 ::1 ... \+-Ji +l+··· . .
and then that
~ x
1
then
ifo::;x ~ t.
....
- :: "'"'
1-.r
b " (
L... - tl = 2 x + -3 + -5 + · · ·
)
Hence : "' r'• ~ = r = I.0 59. Approxima te the number ln 2 ;::; 0.693 15 first by substi-
tuting .r = I in the ~lacllurin se ries of Problem 56. and
~ Deduce (rom the result of Problem 56 first that then by >UbstillHing x:: l (why?) in the second series of
"'
~ A,. 1 J Problem 5S. Which approach uppears to requ ire the fewest
In (I - x) = - L... - == -x - :_ _ :_ _ . .. terms 10 yield the ""lue of In 2 •ccura tc to a gi,·cn number
._, n 3 J
of decimal places'
50 the seq uence IS" I o f pa rtial surn~ o f the sc ril·~ i~ i ncrca~ing. He nce the re a re
ju~t t wo pm~i bilitie'<. If the scc1uence IS.. I is bowrt!rtl- thcre ex ists a n umber M such
tha ts. < M for all n- thcn the bo unded mo n oto nic seque nce propert y (Sectio n 11 .2)
rr
J
71 6 CHAPTER 11 Infinite Series
"""'
implies that S == lim._, s. exists. so the series La. comwges. Otherwise. it diverees
to infinity (by Problem 52 in Section 11.2). . '
A similar alternative holds for rmproper mte~rals. Suppose that the function f
is continuous and positive-valued for x ~I. llJen II follows (from Problem 51) th<!t
the improper integral
either converges (the limit is a real number) or diverges to infinity (the limit is
+oo). This analogy between positive-term series and improper integrals of positive
fu.nctions is the key to the integral test. We compare the ~ehav ior of th.e series La,
w11h that of the improper integral in Eq. (I). where f IS an appropnately chosen
function. (Among other things. we require that f(n) =a, for alln.j
1. . .
I
f( x) dx $
-
s•. • (2)
s. - ar = a2 +OJ + a4 + ... + a.
shown in Fig. 11..5.2 is contained in the rcgio d f
Hence nun cr y= (x) fromx=ltox ::n.
(3}
' y
Sur pose lint that the im proper integral J1"" {(.c) tl.c diverges (necessar ily
to +N). lncn
j~·
1
lim f(.r) dx = +oo.
n-ro
1
so it follo w1 from (2) tha t lim~-"' s. = +oo as well. nnd hence the infinite se ries L: "•
li\..c" is~ di\l'T)!<'$.
Now supl"'~' inst<' IHl thatthc improper integral J1 f(.t) tlx conve rges and has
th<' (llnit~ ) value / . '1ltl' l1 (:')implies that
s. ~ 11 1 + ]." f(.t)dx :! at + I.
so the increasing sequence IS. I is rounded. TIIU~ the infinite series
ronvncc> a< \\ ell. lienee \\ e h:we sho wn that the infinite series and the improper
integral either lxtth com·er!!C o r both diverge. ~
EXAMPLE. 1 \\'e u<cd a vcnion of the integral test to pro ve in Section 11.3that the
ham10nic series
"" ! 1 I 1
2:: - = 1+ - + -+- + .. .
•• I II 2 3 ~
div<'rges. Usi ng. the test as stated in lneorcm 1 is a lill ie simpler: We note t hat
f(x) = 1/.r is f>'JSili,·e. continuo us, and decreasing fo r x i: 1 and tha t { (11) = l / 11 for
each positive intc~tcr n. No w
EXAMPLE 2 Show that the r•-series converges if 11 > l but d i,·ergcs if 0 < p ~ 1.
Solution The ca~c p == l h:1s already been sclllc:d in Example 1. If p > o but p t- 1.
then the functio n f(x) == l f xP s:1 t i~fies the conditions of the: intcj!.raltcst. and
f.
t
- l ll.t
X'
= lim
b-"'
jb -t
l dx = lim [ - :--:-:---:-:
XP b-
l l~
( p - J )xr - t I
"' .
1lnl - 1 ( 1- - l )
b-oo p- l /)P - 1 '
If p > l , then
!." I
-
.rP
I
tlx "' -
f' - J
I
< 00
'
so the integral and the series hoth convo:rr.c. litH if 0 < f' < 1. the n
"
1 x' 1
-
l
tit = lim - - (IJ1- , - I ) =
~>-"" l - p
l
3Dd in this cue the integrnl and t he series both di,·e rgc.
•
718 CHAPTER 11 Infinite Series
!.,.,
tr+l
/(.t) dx :£ R. :£ J."" [(.t) dx,
"
(6)
lk-l
for k = II + I. II ... 2 We add the . . r.
result is the ineq. ua'lit~· in (G)' b' s~ mcqua tiles for all such values of k. and the
• . ccausc
t-Jtt+l •
If we substitute R. == s _ s. th . .,
satisfies the inequality "' en 11 follows from (6) that the sum S of the sen<'-
I
.i ~;,+j""
·• •
/lx)tl.r $ S < s
- ; "+
1' . /Cntlx .
' "
\
The Integral Test SECTION 11.5 719
If the nth partial sum s. is known and the difference
1•+t [( x )dx
betwee n the: two in tegrals is small. then (7) provides an accurate estimate o f the sum
S of the infinite seri es.
EXAMPLE 3 We will sec in Sectio n 11.8 t hat the exact sum of th e p-series with
p = 2 is n 2 /6. thus giving the beau tiful form u la
rr 2 I I I
- = 1 + - + - + - + · ... (ll)
6 22 J2 42
Usc this series to approximate the number :r by applying the integ ra l test remainder
estimate, first with 11 = 50. then with 11 = 200.
Solu tion Obviously we take f(x) = ljx 2 in the remainder est imate. Because
1""
11
_!_2 dx = lim
x b-oo
[-~]
x
b =lim(~-~)=~.
b-~ 11 b
11
n
Eq. (7) gives
I :r I 2
s. + -
11+
-1 ~ :_6 :; .s;, + - .
II
(9)
where
I 1 I
Sn=l +-+
22 -J2 +·· ·+-
Ill
is the 11th partial sum of the series in (8). U pon multiplying by 6 and taking square
roots. (9) gives the inequality
(10)
You c-ould add the first 50 terms in (ll) one by one in a few minutes using a simple
four-function calcula to r. but this kind of arithmetic is precisely the ta.~k for which a
modern ca~lculator or computer algebra system is designed. A o ne -line instr uction
such as the calculator comma nd awn 1aeq 11/n/\2. n, 1, 50) ) yields
so l
5ll) = "' -; "" 1.625132734.
L-n-
·- t
Then. using (9) for illustration rather than ( 10). we calculate
I rr 2 I
1.62513273 + 5I < 6 < 1.6251327-1 +50 ;
."f 2
1.64474057 < 6 < 1.6451327-1;
finally. roundin g down on the left and up o n the right (why?). we conclude that
3.1-114 < rr < 3.141!!. 'l11c a,·crage of these two bounds is the traditional four·piJcc
appro~imation IT "= 3. 1416.
'The 2CXlth partial sum nf the series in (8) is
2f t } I
s21., = 'L-,.2 "" 1.639946546.
"• t
720 CHAPTER 11 Infinite Series
1 1 1 1
f"c
J. x(ln x)2
dx- lim [ - - -]"
- h-"' In x "
= b-oc
lim ( - - -
In 11
- - ) = - -.
In b ln 11
Substi tu ling n = 2 shows that the series in ( 11) converges (by the integral test). Our
calculations and the right·hand ineq ual ity in (6) now give R., < I /(i nn), so we need
11.5 PROBLEMS
~~~~--~-----------------
In Problems I through 30, use tht lntegmltesr ro re.rrrhe givtn
series for convergence. "' I
6. "
~' -
11(11 +-I)
•••
L ;;r.;T
"" II
"' I
"'
I.
-·
.., I
L
,. I
'·I:
-~, -
- I
ninn
II. " ' ln11
~n
·-·""
3.L./n +l 4. (II + 1)4/) 9.
L -2• "' ~
Ill.~ ~ ·
·-I ••• "·•I
·-·
d
The Integral T~t SECTION 11.5 721
~ , "'-
I: ~ 1 In Problr.nu 4J th ro w;h 46, find thr Jllnt of tl:r gh•m srria ac·
II.
•••
12.
L••• 17n - 13 n u au to tht' ir.dtcaud numba J: of dt'ctmal place.'l Begin by
findmg tlu smallrH •·alur of rr such char tht' rrmnir.du smufi(S
• •I
•• • " "
...
17. L 2n +5
.$5•
L:
.., ~l : A. = S -'6. z= ~, ; k :: 7
n 1 + 5n + 17 18.
i>(": l) ·~·
•••
·-· In Prohlnrn 47 and .Sli uJr a corr.puu r af.~t"bra systr111 (if ttt:C·
19. t
•••
In ( I + ~~ ) 20. t 2"•n' t uary) to rfnrrmin~ tht ..aJua of p for -...·hich tl:t' 1:i1·rn infinir~
j(N(J Cf)f)l.f'fj;f f.
•••
L
~ ~ "' I
"' 47. .SS.~
"'
21. :L"
4n + 5
• ·I
1 12. I: (4n +" 5)>'1 1
••I
n' L- p-"""
• ••
•• • -''~· Dcduo: /r(lm the inequalities in (2) ami (J) wi1h the func·
"" h u n / <• l = 11.. lha t
~ 11~11,
~
ZJ. u.
L•· I
n(lr: nl 1 I
Inn S I + - + -
2
1
3
I
+ · · · + It- S
-
I + In 11
""
u.. L
"'
1
fur n = I, 2. 3. . . . . II a computer odd~ I million< te rms of
25.
L
•• I
4n' + I)
A-I
n+l
, + 1110 the harmonrc •c rreo pe r '<cnnd. how Ions will illa kc fo r lh~
plrtial ~um tu reach SO'?
"' ~
27. I: " +I
n• + 2n
•• I
1 211.
L (n ~ I)'
50. (a) Let
I'!·• I I I I
L"" arcta nn ... c. = I + ; + - + · ·· + - - Inn
29.
, :+ 1 30. L.., n(ln n)[ln(ln n) I I
- 3 11
••• ... Conclude that the sequence (c. ) is dccrcasin!;t. ll•ere fore
•• I • •I y
. c. -= 1.rm ( I + -I + -1 + ... + -I - Inn)
I1m
= n-eo >: 0.57722
"-:.a 2 3 n
In Problt'nU .J.S through 3 8, dt'l<"rmin~ tlrt' ~·nltu•J t:-j Jl fc >r wh iclr
tlr~ gi\'t'ff St'ri~s C{)fl\'t'TJ(t".t. is kno wn as F.uiC"r•s con~1ant.
"" 51. Suppo>e that the function f is continuous and positive.
JS. L"' I
I"' Jl>. L en': I )• volucd lor x ~ I. Let
••• •••
b.= [ / (x)dx
I h · "c n v•lue
11 4 usc I he £1' " o f the zct!l function and the
In Problem~ t roug · · . Exannle 3 of this secti on) with the given value
integral-test rema1ndcrcstlmate (ash!~ . 1f th e number rr is th ereby determined
of n to determine how accurately I c \a 1uc o
Knowing that
rr "'=' 3. 141 59 26535 89793 23846,
write ench final answer in the form rr "'=' 3.aucc
L 1e .• • • £lVII
· · 1g precisclv; those
· digits that
arc correct or correctly rounded .
. - 2 rr 4
1. \(2) = '6
" with 11 = 25. 2· >' (4) = 90 with n = 20.
,_ 6 lT 8
3. ((6) = 9-15
" · hn
WJI = ,-::>. • ''(8) = 9450
... with11 = 10.
S. Finally. usc one of the preceding fou r problc:ms and your own careful choice ofr.
to show tha t rr "'=' 3.14159265-l with all digits correct or correctly rounded.
Euler showed that if 11 is even then {(n) is a rational multiple of :r • (as in the ases
n = 2. -l. 6. 8 cited above). Because any integral po,,cr of :r is irra tional. it follows
that the number ( (n ) is irr:llional if n is C\'Cn. Uut little was known :~bout ( (n ) Cor
n odd unt il l 9iR, when Roger Ap~ry proved that ('(3) is irrational. In Section 7.7
of Andrews. Askey. and Roy, Special Functions (Cambridge Univ. Press: 1999).
the authors show that there exist infinite sequences (II.,J and ( D,} of intege rs such
that
for each integer n;;; l. Can you explain why this implies that ('(3) is irrational?
(Assume, to the contrary, that n3) = p/q is rational.)
1
h 11
t e geome tnc serres of Sect10n 11.3 and t~e fJ·series of Sectio n 11.5:-lney ~rc " ' r
•••,.,. ,., • ., oow '"""""' "'"'"" "'" '""'"''"" "' ";""''"" ;, ' "'" , . ,
Comparison Tests lor Positive-Term Series SECTION 11 .6 723
to determine. Recall that the geometric series 'L r" conve rges if (r( < I and diverges
if (r ( ;:: I, and that the p-series 'L l f n'' converges if p >I and dive rges if O < p ~ I.
Let La. and Lb. be positive-term series. Then we say that the series 'L b,.
dominates the series L a11 pro,·ided that a.~ b. for all n . Theorem I says that the
posi tive-term series La. converges if it is domina ted by a convergent series and
diverges if it dominates a positive-term divergen t series.
EXAMPLE 1 Because
I
- - -- - - < -
11(11 + I )(n + 2) n3
n= l
EXAMPLE 2 Because
I 1
> --
J2n- 1 ../2ii
for all" ~ 1, the positi,•e-term series
~ I 1 1 1
L ~=l+ r::;+ ~+ -+ ...
n~t """-I v3 v5 ./7
Cor convergence.
Solution We note first that if n S:. 1, then
n! = 11(11 - I )(n - 2) · · · 3 · 2 · 1
;: 2 . 2. 2 ... 2. 2. 1 (the sa me llttmb..:r of factors):
a
that is. n! 2•-l for 11 6; I. Thus
I I
- <
n!
-
= 2•-•
for n 2: 1.
so the series
"" I ~ I
I+L..-'2n-
- t = 1 +'
is dominated by the series
,... L. -.
2n
, .()
which is a convergent geometric series (afte r the first term). Bo th ar~ positi~e·term
series. so by the comparison test the given series converges.. We saw 111 Sccllon 11.4
that the sum of the se ries is the number e, so
I I 1 1
e=l+-+-+-+·
1! 2! 3!
.. +-+
n!
.. ·.
Indeed, this series provides perhaps the simplest way of showing that
3n 2 +n
a.=.....,---=
114 + .;n·
. .
then w~ rea.son that " .'s s~all m comp~rison with 311 2. and that .jii is sma1
I. om~P
,r.tn; _
ison wtth n • when 11 ts qutte large. 1lus suggests that we choose b,. = 311 2I n - 31. od
The series E 31n 2 converges (p = 2), hut when we attempt to compare 11" ~est 1;:
E b•• we find that a. i:: IJ., (rather than a.:;:; b.). Co nsequently. the cornpan~ondoes
doe~ not apply imme.d iately-the (act that La. dominates a convc~g.cnt sc~~~~ han·
not 1mply that La. ttself converges. Theorem 2 provides a convcment wa)
dling such a situation.
t1
Comp.1ri1on Tesu for Positive-Term Series SECTION 11 .6 725
ex:ists and 0 < L < +oc. then either both series converge or both series diverge.
PROOF Choose two fixed positive numbers P and Q such that P < L < Q. 111en
P <a./b. < Q Corn sufficient ly large, and so
EXAMPLE 4 With
Because L: l/112 is a con\'crgent p·scrics (p =2). tht: limit comparison test tells u s
th at the series
also converges.
•
EX AMPLE 5 Test for convergence: L"" 21I+I 1 nil
.
n-=1
Solution Because lim._ ,.,(ln n )/11 = 0 (by l'l-16pital's rule ),In 11 is very small in com·
parison with 211 when 11 is large. We therefore take a.= I / (211 + Inn) and. ignoring
the constant coefficient 2. we take b.= I {11. Then we find that
. a.
hm .
- = 11m 11
= I'tm 1 -
11-oo b. •-«> 2Jr + In 11 •-oo In 11 -
2+-
2·
II
B ecausc the harmonic series L I In = L: b. diverges. it follo"''S that the given series
L: On also diverges. •
Il converges because
. . d
II IS
. db , t he converoc nt p-ser ies
om mate )
oo oo I
"
Lb•= L
~t=l n=l
nl '
It thcrd ore follows by the integra l test re mainde r e stima te (Section 11.5) that
b, = a, + a 2 + a3,
bz = a•.
b:J = as + a6 ,
and so on. Then eve ry partia l sum T, of Lb.
is equal to som e par tial su!ll o! ~·· ~ fJ1
~eca~e IS.~ is an increasin~ seq uence with limit S L ct., it follows :asll)'3 ~h~ = 111 cn
IS an mcreasmg sequence with the sam e limit. Thus L, b. = S as well . Ille g
"""'
Comp<~rison Tests for Positive-Term Series SECTION 11 .6 727
11.6 PROBLEMS
Uu compari.w rrtesrs to dftrrmin~ wiletila ril~ infinire stries in "" I
Problems ltlrrough 36 wnvag~ or diverge. B. L Inn 14. "" I
~ n - lnn
•-< •••
~ .,
1~- · "" ~
"' l
~n 2+ I 16. ""
~ J·
~
.. I
••• • ••
"' I
"' II + 2"
3. ""
~II- +Jrj
•••
4
· L••I , vzII + 17. L .-, + -3•
~. . I_
Ill.'\-
~ 2• + 3'
"' I "' 1 !011 2
• ••
..
•••
...
6. L -.-+-
"' I
s. "" -
~I + 3• 19. ""-
, 1- 2C
l "" _ I_
·-· .. ,
""n--,
II
~n- nn
...
,.- ~
L... 11 1+.;;t
•••
00
8. ~ ,. + 2 22 "" nrctnn 11
••• ~ ,
•••
"" I 2J. ~ sin2 (~/n) ~ ,,..
~
10. "" .Jiil+f
11" + 1 ~ n· 24. I: ~
••• ••• • ••
lL ~ 2Jri "'
I: I
u. ~n-1+2
-·
~ n +n u.
•••
J+s·
-·
~nl +Jn
728 CHAPTER 11 Infinite Series
Show thlt if La. is a convergent positive- term series. then
"' 1 .as. the series L sin(a.) Jlso con,•crges.
28.' -
L.- n-2• (a) Pro\'C that Inn < n 1 '~ for all sufficiently la_
rge valuesotn
••I 46• (b) Explain why part (a) shows that the senes 1/ Unn}i L
~ 3
29. ' diven!eS.
L--
4 +-
-fii • rrov; that if La.is a convergent positive-term series. then
•• I
47
~ ' l I L;fa.f n) con,·erges. ..
31. 'L_, =:......:__ La. is a cofnver~cnt pOSibllve- te_rmh ~criesand
• •I
n2. 3" 48. Suppose that
that (c.} is a sequence o poSII I\'C num crs w1t 1m11 zero. 1
.:f.
33. L_, 2 +, s'i.. n n 34. f. 1::: L
Prove that a. c. converges.
49. Usc the result of Problem -18 to prove that if and La. 2).
•·I ••I
are convergent positive-term senes.then a.b. com·crget L
.,
35.
' ( n + 1)"
L- n"•l [Suggestion: 2~ (I + ~)" =e.] so. Prove that the series
<•I "" 1
L:1 +2+J+ .. ·+II
•· I
converges.
In Problem:r 37th rough .fO, calculate the sum ofthefirst tm terms St. Usc the result of Problem 50 in Section ll.5 to prove that
of tltt• uries, thm estimate the error made in using this partial sum the series
to appro.t:imare the sunJ of the se*r-ies. ..,
37. '
.,.,
L.--
, .. +I
-
I
38
""
· L:3. + 1
I L: 1 I I
••I I + - + - + .. . + -
. .. ) ••I 2 3 n
diverges.
«> '
~
2: ~
40 I
39. ,l · L- (rr + l)(ln 11) 2 52. Ad apt the proof of the limit-comparison test to pro"c the
••I •· 2 following two results. (a) Suppose that L;a. and L:b. are
In Pmblrm:r 41 thro11glr 4.J. fir.st dnermi11~ tht 1mall~st posi· positive-term series and that Lb. converges. If
ti•·t• inu·gcr n JIICh that the rrmairulu sarLvfies the inequality
R • < 0.005. Thm usr 11 calculato r or computa 10 approximat~ L= lim ~ =0.
fi-X. b,
the sum of the serie.< accurate to two dt•cimal places.
N ) ~ then La. converges. (b) Suppose that La. and L b, arc
41
· • ~ n' + I
L 4'- 'L- (n +" 1)2" positive-term series and that Lb. diverges. If
""'I , .J . a.
L = (1m-= +oo.
~ cos4 " 11-?0 bn
43. L.-
' -n. -
La. diverges.
·-· then
11
.JIALTERNATING SERlE~ AND ABSOLUTE CONVERGENCE
•
In Secuons
• •
11.5 and I 1.6 we considered
. •
on tv• pos·11t\'e-term
· sen·es. ..,.ow
, we dt' -<cUSS
tnfintte
. senes
. that
,. have bo th postltvc
. terms and · .
negaltvc terms. An tmportan1c•lJn· •
I
pets a senes "-llh terms that arc alternative( .· · and negattve .
• . . . ' Ypostttve An a1tern•lin•
~ •
seru.•s ts an tnfinttc series of the form ·
"'
L (- t)" •llln =lit -a.• +tl J - II~
+ II~ - ··•
(I)
'"'•I .
~ (-1)•+1 1
L.-~;.._=1-- 1 1 1
I
n•t n 2 + 3 - 4+ S - · ··
'
...\
d
Alternating Series and Absolute Convergence SECTION 11.7 729
~ (-D" = 1 - ~ + ~- ~ + 16 -
1
···
are both alternating se ries.1l1eorem 1 shows th at both these series converge because
the sequence of absolute values of their terms is decreasing a nd has limit zero.
Because ak- ak+l ~ 0 for all k, the sequence{~} is increasing. Also, because
S2n =at - (a2 - a3)- · · •- (a2n-2- az,_t) - Uz,,
Sz, ;£ a 1 for a lin. So the increasing sequence {Sz,) is bounded above. Hence the limit
S = lim S2n
n-oo
exists by the bounded monotonic sequence property of Section 11.2. It remains only
for us to verify that the odd-numbered partial sums S1 • S; . S5 • ••• also converge to S.
But Sln +l = S2n + a 2n+ l and limn-oc a 2n+l = 0, so
lim
n-oo
~+I = ( n-oc lim a2n+1) = S.
lim Sz,) + ( n-oo
s
s, s, s 6 - I- Ss s 3 s, Thus limn-<» Sn = S. and therefore the se ries in Eq. (1) converges.
I I
I
I I 1111111111 1 1
I I I ild\11 I I
I
I
I
I
Figure 11.7.1 illustrates the way in which the partial sums of a convergent alter-
FIGURE 11.7.1 The even partial
nating series (with positive first term) approximate its sum S. with the even partial
sums { S2n} Increase and the odd sums {S,_,} approaching S from below and th e odd partial sums {S2n+ tl approaching
partial sums {Sz..,.l) decrease. S from above.
is an alternating series, and by expanding we verify that n(2n + 1) > (n + 1)(2n -1).
- q
r'7'
I
730 CHAPTER 11 Infinite Series
so it follows that
11 n+1
- - > - = fln+l
0
• - 2n - 1 2n + I
for all n i:; 1. But
so the alternat ing series test does not apply. Cl1liS .fact alone docs not imply that the
series in question diverges-many series tn Secuo ns 11.5 and .11.6 con~·erge even
though the alternating series test does not apply. I3ut the sc ncs of thts example
diverges by the nth-term divergence test.) •
If a series converges by the alt<.:rnating series test, then ll1eorcm 2 shows how
to approximate its sum with any desired degree of accuracy- if you have a comput~r
fast enough to add a large number of its terms.
In pJrticular. the: sumS of a convergem alternating series lies hrrween any roro
comecurive (lflrtial sum.~ 'l11 is follows from the proof of l11co rcm I, where we saw
that { S~,. ) is an increasing sequence and that (.5>_, +1 ) is a decreasing sequence, both
converging 10 S. l11c resulting inequalities
S211- 1 > S > S211 = 52n-t - a211
s,, . 1 and
FIGURE 11.7.3 Illustrating the 52., < s < s211+l = Sz,, + az,+ I
proof of the alternating series
remainder estimate. (sec f'ig. 11.7.3) imply the inequality in (2).
REMAR~ 11tc inequalit}: i~1 (2) means the following. Suppose that you arc given an
a/temaWlfJ
. scrll!s
. that sa usties
. · · the conditions· of 111c·ore . m ,_ am1 has sum S. ·r·l1cn' if
4
n;O II!
fo r all x and thus (with x =- I) that
1
- = c-t = I - 1 + I I I
c 2! - 3! + 4! - ...
Use this alternating series to compute . _1
e accurate to four decimal places.
Solution To attain four-place accuracv • . h If unit
in the fourth place. Thus we want ''we Y.ant lhc error to be less than a a
I
tR.t<
(n + 1) ! <ooooos
== · •
d
Alternating Series and Absolute Convergence SECTION 11.7 731
If we use a calcul:llo r to compute the reciprocals of the factorials of the fi rst several
intege rs, we find that the leas t va lue of 11 for which this inequality holds is n = 7. Then
_1 1I 1 I 1 1 1
e = 1- ll +
! - )! + 4! - ! + ! - ! + R7 ::::. 0.367857 + R1 •
2 5 6 7
(Relyin g on a common "+2 rule of thumb:· we arc carrying six decimal places because
we want four-place accuracy in the fin al answer.) Now the first neglected term 1/8!
is positive, so the ineq uality in (2) gi\'CS
I
0 < R, < S! < 0.000025.
l11erefore
~ ""'0.367!157 < e- 1 < ~ + 0.000025 ""' 0.3678!12.
l11e two bounds here both round to e- 1 ::::. 0.3679. Altho ugh this approxima tion is
accurate to four decimal pl nccs. its rcci proc:~ l
e= I;e- 1 ::::. 1; (0.3679) ::::. 2.7181 ::::.2.718
gives the number c acc urate to only three decimal places. •
Absolute Convergen ce
l11c series
con\'erges. but if we simply re place each term with its :~bsol utc val ue, we get the
divergen t series
I I I I
1+ -2 +-+-+-+
3 4 5 ·· ·.
In contrast, the converge/It se ries
00
(- I )n 1 I 1 2
~~= l -2+4-3 + · · ·=3
has the property that the associated positive-term se ries
I I I
1+-+-+
2 -1 8- .... ···=2
also converges. 111corem 3 tells us that if a series of positive terms converges. then we
may insert m inus signs in front of any of the terms- every other one, for instance-
and the resulting series will also converge.
1 t convergence
DEFINITION. A_ b sou e. . ubsolutelr(andiscalled absolutclycom·ergent)
L:
The series a. IS sa1d to ron,erge -
provided that the series
L lanl = Jad + lazl + JaJI + ... + lanl + .. .
converges.
Thus we have expIa·me d the title of Theorem 3,. and we can 11 rephrase the thco-
· ·e
rem as follows: I'! a ser1es conv r ges absolutely· rhen If converges. 1e two examples
. b
prece d .mg Th eorem 3 sh ow thai
• •a convergent series may e11her converge a solutelv .
or fail to do so:
I I I I
1--+ - --+ --· ··
2 4 8 16
is an absolu tely convergent series because
I I 1 I
1+ -+
2
-4 +-+-+···
8 16
converges, whereas
I I I I
1--+--- + --···
2 3 4 5
is a series that , though convergent, is not absolutely convergent. A se ries that con·
verges but docs not converge absolutely is said to be con1lirionally com·ergcnt. Con·
seq ucntly. the terms absolwely com·ergent, conditionally con vergent, and divergenl
are simu ltaneously all inclusive and mutually exclusive: Any given numerical series
belongs to e.~act ly one of thoso: three classes.
Tit ere is some advantage in the application of Theorem 3. because to apply it
we test the po.titive-tcrm series L la,,l for convergencc- :md we h1we a va riety of
tests.. such as comparison tests or the integral tcsl, d esigned for usc on posil ivc·tcrm
series.
. Note also that absolute convergence o f the series La, means that a diffem!l
se ncs L: lanl converges. and the two sums will gene rally differ. For example, wtth
a. ( 3I)" • the formula for the sum o f a geometric series gives
=-
whereas
~ "'( -')n = -I = 3- .
L...lan l =L
nell n~o 3 I - ~ 2
_.1
Alternating Series and Absolute Convergence SECTlON 11 .7 733
for all n ~ I. Hence the positive·term series :L Ia. I con,·crgcs by the comparison test.
because it is dominated by the convergent p-series :LO / n~). 111Us the £_iven series is
absolutely eon,·c rgcn t. and it therefore co nverges by Theorem 3. +
One r ea~on fo r the importance of absolute converge nce is the f:lct (proved
in advanced ca lc ulu s) th at th e terms of an absolutely convcr!!c nt se ries m:1y be rc·
groupe d or rearr anged 1\ithou t chanf!in!! the sum of the series. t\~ we Sll!-:._ttc$ll.:d at
the end o f Section 11.6. this is nor true of condition:~lly
. convcr~:cnt se ries. ~
p
. I
= ,._X>
ltm -a....-, , (3)
n,
either e xists or i~ infinite. 11ten the infinite series La. of nonzero te rms
1. Converges ah~olutcly if p < I ;
2. D iverges if p > I.
PROOF If p < I. choose a (fixed) number r with p < r < I. Then Eq. (3) implies
that there exists an intege r N such th at Ia• .._,, ~ r ia. I Cor a lin ~ N. It follows that
la,,·.d :;i rla.vl.
fa,,·+21 ~ r faN+t l :;i r 2!11N !.
faN+JI ~ riaN+l i ~ r 3 iaN!.
and in ge ne ral that
Then
(-1)" ... '2•+1
(n + 1)! 2
IOn-1 1--.-oo
=lim - . - =0.
p= lim - On lim r.- co n -r 1
n-:-c ( - 1}"2"
n!
. 5 convprees
Because P <I, the sene ~ - a
bs olutely.
•
"" n
EXAMPLE 6 Test for convergence: ~ 2".
I
I'm -a....
p -- tt!,.IXI On
,, = I'tm -
n-oo !!._
2"
hm - 2-11 - 2'
+ l)l
- - - = }~".:!,
3rr2
P = lim,a_-+_1, = • lim
•-oo lin - x
(11
3"
, 1)2
(n _... = -'' ·
....
,.
In this case P > I, so the given series diverges.
•
THEOREM 5 The Root Test
Suppose that the limit
p lim vfaJ
=n-oc (4)
PROOF If p < !. choose a (fixed) number r such thatp < r < I. Then Ia. 1/• <.r' and ted
hence !o.l < r•, for rr sufficiently large. Thus the series")' Ja.,J is eventually1domtna he
by the convergent gcometnc . scncs. L r•. Therefore.._ L la11 1 converges. an d sof t
series L o. converges absolutely.
If P >I. then Ia. I'' "> I, and hence Ia. I > 1, for, sufficiently large. 1bcre
the nth-term test for divergence implies that the series La. diverges.
0~
\
AlternJt ing Series and Absolute Convergence SECTION 11.7 735
EX AMPLE 8 Consider the series
"-' I II I II I
; 2 HI-I)' = 2 + I + 8 + 4 + 32 + i6 + ....
l l1en a•• I fa. = 2 if n is even. whereJs a••!Ia. = ~ if n is odd. So the limit required
for the rati o test d ocs no t exist. Out
so the gi ven series converges by the root tes t. ( Its co nvergence also fo llo ws from
the fact th:n it is n rcarmngcmcnt of the positive -t erm conve rge nt geo me tric series
L: t; 2".) •
11 .7 PRO BLEM S
D(tcrmin~ wil ctiln o r n ot tilt• a/tcmariltg sait'5 in Problm u I "' ( - t )• •l 20. ~ (- 1).. '11!
tilrougil 20 COIIV<'rge or dh·agc. 19. L
•• I
• t::'
Vn L..,
•••
(2n)!
"' ( - t )••l "" (- t )• ••
I. '2:: l 2- 2: ~ Dctt'"llill~ ll'ltetlterrlte series in Pro blrms 2 / tltro ugiJ 42 <:011 verge
·-·"' (-1)"11
11
t
••I a/JJOllllrl)'. <'tmvergc C:OIItlirion ally, or diverge.
4.
(-1 )"11
, 21. ~ (-l)" • l 22. ~ - '-
J.2: -311 + 2 3n· + ?. L.., 2• L.., n 2 + I
•~ I • ·I "-'
S.
oo ( - l ) ..ln
'•2•::I J n1+ 2 6.
N
L JiiJ+S
•• I
{ - 1)'1 • 1111
2J. t
• •I
(-! )"Inn
II
,... ]
2~ f: ~
•• I
7.
f. nn (-1 )"• 1n
I 8.
f (- ! )"Inn
,fo
II 25. t C~)" .., 3"
26.2: -
n!n
•·1 ••1 •· I
9. f. <-;:·n 10. L (- j
N
f: (- t )• • l n !
n•
••• •• I ·-0 ..I
• •I
( mr r
-10 l 29. t
..I
(- t )"•
1 1
( - '-)"
n+ l
30. L00
•••
-n!n2
(211)!
13.
••I
"' "'
15. f: <-l>"sin(~) 16. f: <-l)"n sin(;;) 33. I:
•• o
<-1 >" ( Jn+I- .!ii) 34• I: n · w·
t ['n G) r
•·1 •·I •· I
17.
f: ( - t )•+l
~
18.
"'
L: ( -1.01).. 1
n' 35. 36.
t (n!)l
-(2n)l
•·l •· I • •I n .O
736 CHAPTER 11 Infinite Series
if 11 is odd.
"" 1- 1)"' 3' 1 "' 1
(-1 ).. arctann 7n
37.
l: nc2• +I)
38. l: n a.= ( ~
·-·" (-1)' ' 1
n!
••• 56. if n is even .
39.
l:
•••
I · 3 · 5 · · · (2n - I)
.<7. L:
.
G,ve a ·
n example o f a pair o f convergent series '\' 0
b, such that [
, .
a. u. dov~rges. .
i... • and
40.
L... (- 1)"" , t. 3. 5 ... (2n - I) SS. Prove thai [ Ia.! diverges 1f lhc scnes La. divergct
I . 4 . 7 ... (ln - 21
""' 59. Pro"e that
a•
"' (II + 2)! " <-t r·'n" lim -; = 0
41.
l:
•••
) •(tt!J'
.u. l:
.., 3-"
n-:oo n.
~ nr" = _ _r_ _
••• ~· L- ( I - r) 2
47. 2:
•••
"-
(- 1)"' '
II
12 1erms 48. z:•••: : - ,.,-.
"' ( - 1)' ''
15 lcrms
61. Let
• ..o
~ ( -1)·+1
Ill Prohl<•ms 49tl~rough 54..<ttm tnough tem Lr (tell how many)
to OfJpro rimme rhr sum of rh~ serirs. h'riling the SUJn roundtd ro II. = L• I
k and S. = ~ - -
k-
the indi~tJtcd number of ~orrrct dt cimal placts.
·~· '='
" (-) J" ' deno1e lhe lllh partial sums of the harmonic and alternating
49. L-
" --fl 4
- . 3 deci mal plac.:s harmonic series. respecli\•cly. (a) Show thai S,_. = 11:..- II,
••• for all 11 f; I. (b) Probkm 50 in Section 11.5 says that
"' (- 1)"'
so. "
~
- - s- · 4 decimal places
II
lim ( H, -Inn)= y
•-x
• -=I
I "' (- 1)" .
(where y "'0.57722 deno tes Euler's constant). Explain why
Sl • - = " - - . 4 deomal places il follows thai
.Jr L.... n!2"
""" lim(//.,. - In 2n) = y.
"" (- I)" •- oc
<2. cos I = " - - . 5 decimal places
• ~ (ar)!
, .u (c) Conclude from parts (a) and (b) that lim,_., Sv. == !n2.
Th us
"' ...,.:_.:......., ("):.
( -1 )"
- 0•1 • 5 decrmal
. places
"
"'·'· son
· 60"
= L
..., (2n+ I J'. 3
"" ( -!)""'
t
I
~ • Jn(l • I) = "L- -
;>"'o
. 7 decimal places
II • ({I"
lf= l
6!. Sup.-v>se
• o· v· that "" · a conduoonally
L... a, IS ·· · fi'"''t•'~
convergenliO "·
rrcs. For each 11.lcl
In Problems 55 a11d 56. sirnw tlrat tlr~ indical(t/ alremating suits
E (_1)" J0 , sati.Jfi~s th.~ co1ulition tlrata" .-
4
U~ n - +oc. but
a: = a, + !o,! a, - fa,l
""'·arlrc/e.u di•·erg<'.< 1dl wiry tit< alrematmg U rt<'S ttst do•s nor
2
and a; =
2
.
appl)'. It may b<" it~formati••e to graph th( first 10 or 20 portia/
sums. (a) Explain why "" • . .. r-s of
L... a. consosts of lhe posotl\'C 1c '"
I if n is odd.
La.
(b) G ' and whv"'a- . .r~
• i... • consosts of the ncgauvc tcrms o t-- "··1
1 tl 1\'en 3 real number r. show thai some: rcarr:•ogcm'"
or t he co d' ·
SS. a.= { ~ : n lloonally convergent series La, conwr~cs 1~
Sttggesrl<m· IC, · .
• ,,.
,. if n is even.
pan~al
• · ·
. . . .
ts f'OSilovc foronstance be•tn w11
. h lh< htsl
\ sum of the positive series L ": 1ha1 cx,ec s '·
• · · " . d
\
d
Power Series SECTION 11.8 737
TI1en ndd just cnou~h terms o f the negnti••c se ries La; 65. I I ere is another rcarrnng.-mcnt o f the nltcrnating h:trmonic
so that the cumul:lllve su m I S less than r. :-<ext add just series or Problem 61:
enough terms of the pos itive sc rie~ t hat the cumulative sum
is greater than r . and continue in th is way to de tine the
1- ! _ ! _! _!
2 .) 6 s
desired rearrangement. \\'hy does it follow that this rear·
ranged infinite sc ric~ co nverge\ to r ? I I I I I
+ -
3
- -
10
- -
12
- -
1.!
- -
16
tiJ. Usc th e method of Probl em 62 to write the ti ro;t dolen
I I I I I
term~ of a rearrangement of th e a hern:uin!: harmonic se ries +----- -- --
( Prnblcm til) that conve rges to I rather tha n to In 2. 5 IS :o 22 ~-1
M. Describe a way to rearran ge the terms of the ahemat· 1 I I I I
+- - - - - - - --+ ·· ·.
7 : 6 zs ;tJ 32
ing harmonic series to obtai n (a) t\ rearranged series that
conve rges to - 2; (b) A rea rr anged series tha t diverges Use a computer to coiiC<:t c' idcnc-e about the ,·aluc of its
to +oo. su m.
, Ot.:l
~ Xn x ·"' .T3 X"
e = L..- II I. = I + x + -2,. + -3,. + -4,. + ... . (2)
n~o
N ( - I }" X :, X~ X~ X0
cos :r =L (2 n}! =I- 2! + .t! - G! + ·· · and
n:O
• oo (- l }".r:!n+l xJ xs x'
StnX = L
n=O
<'
-II +
I}'
'
= X- ::;;+""-
·' · ::l .
-7,
'
+ ... . (4)
Tit e re we used Taylor's formu la to show that the series in Eq s. (2) through ( 4) co n-
verge, for all x . to the func tio ns c' , cos .r, and sin .r, respectively. Here we investigate
the co nvergen ce of a "po wer series" without knowing in advance the fu nctio n (if any)
to wh ich it converges.
All the infinite series in Eqs. (1 ) through (4) h ave the form
''
L"' u,.\·'• = u 0 + fl1X + il~x: + · · · + tl,t.t '' + ... (5)
..
'' ""'
wit h the constan t coefficiems ao. Ot. az, . . . . A n in fini te series of th is for m is called
a po,n•r series in (po wers of) x. In order that th e initial terms of the two sides of
Eq. (5) ngree, we a dopt he re the conven tio n that x 0 1 even if x 0. = =
Convergence of Power Series
The part ial sums of the power series in (5) a re the polynomials
(6)
exists. This is the limit that we need if we wan t 10 lp~ly th: ra~io test to th~ series
• test to the power scnes 111 Eq. (5), \\e wme
'" o f constants. 1io app1>. tile ratio
'-a.
u. = a.:c" and compute the limit
a r•~ 1 , -p JrJ
.
llm
n-c-:: I I
- = I'lm ••I· n
lln+ l
-
11,. n-ro I llnX
- • • (7)
If p == 0. then L a• .r" converges absolutely for all.r. If P = +::o. the n L a.:c" diverges
for all x ? 0. If p is a positi\'c-rcal number. we see from Eq. (7) that L a.x" converg~
absolute ly for a ll x such that p · l.rl < !-that is, when
In this case the ratio les t also implies that L a.x" diverges if Jxl > R but isinconclusi•e
when x = ± R. \\'c have therefore pro\'cd Th eorem I , under the addi tional hypothesis
that the limit in Eq. (6) exists. In Problems 69 ancl iO w e outline a p roof th3t does
I I
not require this addi tional hypo thesis.
·.~le :1.u~ber R of C.~sc 3 is called the radius or con,•e r~:ence of the power serits
La•.<.' \\ c "file R =00 111 Case 1 and R =0 in Case 2. 'll1e set o f all real numbers.r
for wh 1_ch the sen~s converges is called its lnlenal or rom-cr~:l'nce (Fig. 11.8.1): note
that thts set 1s an mtcrval. If 0 < U < 00 tlte· n th , · 1 r · c of
th c ·mterva 1s • c 111 crva1o co m•crg•encc IS on
(- R. !<) ,
(-R,RJ, 1-R. R) , or (- R. R].
Sene,
Y.ries
x:._:z::a
tl i\'CI'l:C'i Scrici
When we substitute either of the endpoints x = ±R into the series L: a.x". we ob tain
an intinite se ries with constant terms whose convergence must be determ ined sep-
arate tv. Because these \\ill be numerical series, the ea rlier tests of this chapter arc
appropriate:.
L n~3· ·
nal
I .tm
I f - 'X>
I~~·-· 1
- - = ~·tm
II" If- X
(n +I)· 3•+1
x"
.
=lim
nl.rl
•-<» 3(n + I) - -
- 3 ·
l.rl
fl • 3"
Now l.rl/3-: I provided that l.rl < 3. so the ratio test implies th:ll the given series con-
verges al~ol utcly if t.rl < 3 and diverges if t.rl > 3. When x = 3. we have th e divergent
harmonic series [ ( 1/ n). and when x = - 3 we have the convergent alternating se ries
L:<- 1)"/n. Tiws the interval of converge nce of the gi ven power se ries is l-3. 3).
We sec dramat ically in Fig. 11 .8.2 the differen ce betwee n convergence at x = -3 and
divergen ce at .r = +3. +
t 5 z
t
t
t t
I t
I t
t I
f . -3 j '. 3
FIGURE 11.8.2 Graphs of the partial sums s.(x), S6(x), and S,o(x) of the power series
S(x) = L"" x"
= -3, but apparently
n . • of Example 1. We see convergence at x
-· 3
S(x)- oo as x approaches + 3. where the series diverges harmonically.
l"·+lI ,.
I.am - - = am
n-o..:u,. n-oo
(211 + 2)!
( -2)"x"
= lim 21x l
•-oo (2n + I )(2n + 2)
= 0
(211)!
~
t
I
FIGURE 11.8.3 GrJphs of the partiJ I sums Ss(x), S, o(x), S,s(x), and S10(x)
of the power series S(x) = 2:"" (Z2 ~!)" of Exampl~ 2. which converges to
2
n=O
cos ..f'ii for x > 0.
EXAMPLE 3 Find the interval of convergence of Ihe se ries L:;';:t n•x•.
Jim
r• -~
l""·•• i =lim l(n+ n't)•• l..-•+1 1= lim
lin n-oo 1
.t" n-oo
(n + 1)(1 + ~)" l.rl =+CO
n
for all x # 0. because
lim
,._00 (1 + ~)"=e.
tl
·nlUs !he gi,·cn series diverges for allx t- 0, and its interval of convergence consists
of the single point x = 0. •
EXAMPLE 4 Use the ratio test to verify that the Taylor series for cos.r in Eq. (J)
converges for all .r.
Solution With "• = (-I )"x 2" /(2n)! we find that
(-l)"•'.rl"+2
(2n + 2)! x2
n-oo 1"""'1 = I'1m
I.101 - -
lln n-oo ( -l )"x 2•
= •-«:
lim
(2n + I )(2n + 2)
=0
(2n) !
for all x. so the series converges for all x. •
IMPORTANT In Example 4, the ratio test tells us only that the series for cos.r con·
\'Crgcs 10 some numb.:r, nor necessarily the particular number cos .r. The argurn~n'
of Section 11.4. using Taylor's formula with remainder is required to esllllllish 1 ~
31
J
the sum of the series is actually cosx. '
l d
Power Series SECTION 11.8 741
"\.
L a,,lx- t'J"
'\" = 11,1 -+ a t(.r- cl + a 1t.1 - c 1·' + · · ·. (9)
whe re r is a cons ta nt. is called a pO\\cr scric~ in (po wers of) x - c. Dy the same
reason i n~ that led us to l l1corc m I. with x n rcpl:lced with (.r - c)n thro ugho ut, we
conclude that eit her
Conwttc~" CtJt1\'C:f'tC\.,
l>iVtfl;C'S'! Dlvertc'7
I c- /1 r
I
r -+- R
!.
- -::t
S<rics
' x-
Sc:nc.s S<ria
diverges
~ (- t n x - 2)"
L...., II· 4"
·~·
Solution We let u. = (- I )" (x - 2)" / (11 · 4"). 1lten
( - 1)"+1( x - 2)"'"
. I"•+ I .
hm - -I = Inn
u,.
tt-.x» 11- oo
(n + I)· 4• ~ •
( - l )" (x- 2)"
" . 4"
= lim lx - 21 11 l.r - 21
n- oo 4 . II +1 = - 4-
Hcncc the given series converges when l.r - 21 < 4, so the rad ius of con vergence is
= =
R 4. Because c 2. the series converges wh en -2 < x < 6 and diverges if either
x < -2 or x > 6. When x = - 2. the series reduces to the dive rgent harmonic series,
and when x = 6 it reduces to the conve rgent alternating series L:<-1)" f 11. TIIUS the
interval of convergence of the given po wer series is ( - 2. 6). +
Power Series Representations of Functions
Power series arc impo rtant tools for computing (or approximating) values of func-
tions. Suppose that the series L: anxn converges to the value f(x); that is,
/ "(a) ( r - a ) 2 + L i - (x- n) 3
f(x) = [(a)+ ['Ca )(x - n) + - 2! . ., 3
[<"'(a) " R
+ ... + (x -a) + . (x). (10)
II 1
.
· b)'
· gr·.-en
The re mainder R " (x ) IS
f '"+ 11(z) n+l
' ( )_
I'•x- (x -a) ,
(n + l )!
whe re z is some number be tween a an d x. If ' ve le t 11 __. +oo in Eq. (10), we obtain
llr corcrn 2.
'l11c po wer series in E q. (12) is the Ta) lor series o f th e function f at x = a (or
in po wers of x - 11. or h'ith center a ). If a == 0, we o bta in the po we r scnes
commonly called the .'olncl:mrin series o f f . lltus the po wer se ries in Eqs. (2) through
(4) :trc the Macl a urin series of the functio ns e·' , cos x, and s in x, respective ly.
EXAMPLE 6 New power series can be construc ted from old ones. Fo r instance.
upon repl acing x with - x in th e Maclaurin series for e-', we o b tain
+ e-• x~
cosh.r==
e-'
2 =2'I ( l + x +-
x 2 .r3
2
, + -,+ - + ...
)
. 3. 4!
I( x2 x3 x~ .. . ) .
so
+2 I -X+ 2! - 3! + 4! -
r1 ·" r,
co,hx == 1 + ~ ·t ~
2. 1
4!
+ ·'-6! + ...
Power Series SECTION 11 .8 74 3
Similarly,
. .r .. r "
.r 7
s tnh .r = x -'- - + - -'- - ... ...
.:-! 5! i!
l" o tc the strong rese mblance to Eqs.. (3) and (4). the series fo r cos x and sinx.
rcspccth ely.
U pon re placing x wi th -x2 in the series for~. we ob tain
•
e- r = L"" (- I) n
x u.
-
n '.
= 1 -x·_._
x4
' ___ .,.• ., ,
. 2'.
x6
3'. .
n~ 0
Bccau' c tl!i~ power se ries converges to cxp( -x~ ) for all x. it must be the :'-laclaurin
se ries fo r c xp (-x 2 ). (Sec Proble m 66.) Think how tedi ous it would be to com·
putc the d e riva tive s of cxp ( - x 2 ) needed to write its :'.lacl aurin scrit:s directly fro m
Eq. (13). +
Only terms of eve n degree appear, so le t us ''Tile""= (-l)"xu. / [2u.(n!)2 J for the
11th term in this series (not counting its constant term). Then
( -1 )"~ 1 xU.· 2
I .lnt
,._,...,
l"n+l I=
--
ll,
I'lm
,._""
2 2n+2[(n
(-I )"xu.
+ 1)!)2
2Zn (n!)2
for all x. ~o the ratio test implies tha t l o(x ) is d efined on the whole rea l line. The
series for J0 ( x ) resembles somewhat the co~ inc series. but the graph o f J0 ( x ) exhibits
damp~rl oscillations (fig. ll.R.S). Bessel functions are important in such applications
as the distribution of tt:mpcraturc in a cylinc.lrica l steam pipe and d istribution of
thermal m:utro ns in a cyl indrica l reacto r. •
1
P1,(s)
-I
P,.(s)
The Bino m ial Series nd useful of nil :;erics. the binominl striri.
f
Example R gives one o t e h most . . lli60s. II is th e ·mfi mt· c scn·es genera1J7ation
famous a ·
'. db Newton m t 11C
which was d1sc~vere. Y • of elementary al~ebrn.
of the (finite) bmomml theor~n1
. . cro rcn l number. Show thnt the Maclnurin
EX A MPLE 8 Suppose that a IS a nonz
sc ri c~ of f(x) =(I + x)" is
" I )t(t - ., I ... Itt - II + I) "
(I + .r)u = I + L
""' - -n! '
.. - I
utu- II • ct(u - l l(a- ~~ t- 1 + ... (U)
"'I + ax+ -7:.,,- .r· r ,
.''· · ·
f(x )= (I + X)u
J'(x) = a(l + x)• - l
f"C x ) = a(a - 1)(1 + x)•-l
f 31
(x ) = a (a- l )(a- 2)(1 + x)"- 3 •
u,.-_ a (a - l )(a-2)-
n!
.. (a- n + I)
x"
.
We find tha t
· I"··' I
lam
,..._00 -ll - = ,._IX:
11
lim (n
a (a- l )(c.r- 2) ···(a- tr
+ I)!
+ l)x"
n!
= lim
•-oo
I II + 1-
(a - n )x
I - l.tJ.
lienee the ratio test shows that the h' ·. . . 1
and diverges if lxl > 1 Its conv . rnom~o~ l sc nes conve rges nbsolutcly tf Jxl <
· ergcncc :at the endpc1· . h v•rlue
of a: we shall not pursue th is probl . , tnts x == I depend s on I c · f
1
the binomial seri es actuallv is (I + c)r~ .. f roblcm 67 outlines a proof th;ll th e sum 0•
J X I JXJ < J.
(15)
1
-=== I +
:J.(-x) + (- D(- n· (- x)·. +···+ 1 ·3·5···<2n-l) x"+ ···.
~ I! 2! n!·2"
I
~= I +
L"" 1 · 3 · 5 · · · (211 - I) n
.r. (lti)
v 1 - .r , :1 2 · 4 · 6 · · · (211)
We will find this se ries quite useful in Example 12 and in Proble m 68.
/ (x) = L a.x" = ao + a ,x + a 2x
2
+ a 3~ + ...
• •o
with nonzero radius o f convergence R. Then f is d ifferentiable on ( - R. R) and
Also,
x 00 n+ l
I (/) dI = "~ a.x _ + ~(It
1 t
X + a2x + · · ·
2 3
fo ·- 0
II+ 1 - IIQ.T 3 (18)
for each x in (- R. R). Moreove r, the powe r series in Eqs. ( 17) and (18) have the
same rad ius of conve rgence R.
REMARK 1 A lthough we omit the proof of Theorem 3, we observe that the radius
o f convergence of the series in Eq. (17) is
R = I.tm
•-oo I+ I(
(n
tta.
l)a,.+l
= I'tm -n- ) · ( hm
n-oo n +1 . - a.
,_.., a,.+l
I I) . I I - hm -a.-
- n-oc aMI ·
74 6 CHAPTER 11 Infinite Serie1
. f [(r ) and the power series for /'(x) have th•
Thus, by Eq. (8). t he power sencs or -
ssumption that the prece d'mg )'1m1t
· exists)•
same radius of c.onvergence (
under t11e a ·
. . tant consequence: If both the power series
REMARK 2 Theorem 3 has thiSdlmfpor II x with (xl < R ( R > 0), L a,x" = L b. x•.
'L- a. x" and 'L- b, .r n COI1 \'~r2C
~ -.
311 • or a , IS
Ta)·lor series of a function . 1ts
, umque. power
1
then a. = b, (o r all " · In parucular. tle bl 66)
· ('f
se ries representa tion ·) (See Pro em ·
I an) · •
. .
EXAMPLE 9 Termwise di fferenuauon °f the geometric series for
I
/ (.r) == -
1-.r
yields
I
(1 -.r)Z
= D, (_!__) = D,,
1 - .r
(I + X + .r2 + XJ + .. . )
3
= I + 2.:c + 3.r 1 + 4.r + · · ··
11lUS
I
"' ll.t"-1 = L:<
'= L "" rr + l ).t".
( I - .r)· 1'1 • 1 , .o
ll1c series converges to I f (l - .r) 2 if -I < x < I. •
EXAMPLE 10 Rcplacing.r with -1 in the geometric series of Example 9 gives
1
- - = I - t + t 2 -1 3 + .. · + (- l)"t" + .. ·.
I +t
Bcc~usc D, In(! + t ) = l f (l +t). term wise integration from t = 0 tot = .r now gi\'es
In(! +x) =
1• 0
I
- - dt
l+t
= 1' (l-t + t
2
- ... + (- l )"t" + . .. ) dt:
if l.rl < I.
•
EXAMPLE 11 Find a power series r··p .
· c resentatton for the arctangen t function.
Solution Because D, tan-lt = 1/ (1 + 12 , . . ·
series ), tcrmw1se mtcgration of the geomctnc
I
i+"('i = I - 12 + 14 - 16 + 18 - ..•
gives
I an
- 1x "' 1' - I
+ t2
- o (I - I + 14 - 16 + 18 - ...) dt
0 I
tit - 1' 2
l J
PowN Series SECTION 11.8 74 7
1
I
I
•
I r.~3
l I
I I
I I
I I
I I n• 7
I l
I I
I I
I I
l I
I I
l I
l l
I l
.t 0' - 1 •~ I
--,= =
I
.,1)::"{2
= I + L"" 1 ·3·5· .. (2n - I),
2 · 4 · 6 .. · (2n)
t ""
n= l
1
if iti < I. Because D, sin- 1 = l j ./1='(2, tcrmwise int egration of this series from
1 = 0 to t = x gives
. -1
sm x = 1'0
I
r.---T
vI - t • .
rlt
""
= .t + L.
"""'
1· 3·5 .. ·(2n-l)
2 · 4 · 6 · .. (2n)
x 2n + l
.-
2n + I (21)
·~·
if lxl < I. Problem 68 shows how to usc this series to derive the series
~2 1 1 I 1
-6 =1 +-+
22 -+
Jl -;+
4· .. ·+-+
n2
.. ·.
which we used in Example 3 of Sectio n 11.5 to approx imate the number ;r . •
~1~1~.8~P~R~O~B~l!E~M~S~------------------------~~~~==~==~~---
fn I'm b/ems 3
/ throu~h -12. use pow.-r serit·s ~sta!J/tshetl in , .
· . .r . lo~
Fmd the imerval ofcom·ngma ofeach puwu s.-ries in Problmu ,
secuon to Jill o
fi 1 ptMfr sail's r l'presentatw.' l 01 11te gn •en funcr
,r h '•'l
f thrnuglt 30. ine the mdim of convergrnce o, I 1: re.rultin•m;
Thm 1I,·tcm l • ·tt
I. L"' ,. . . Jl. / (.t) = I .r ~ 32. {(X) = 10 ~X
• •I X
, -JJ
JJ. = x·e ~- f ( x ) = -
"' f(r)
9- .rl
L ~
J. (- l)'.r"
2• n i /.Z)•
••I ••I
S. L"" n!~'
••I
6. t (-~·.r•
•• I
3"x"
7
•· I
In( ! + .r) .r- arcl3n.t
L"' (- l )'n 112(2.r )' "' ,:.(" 41. f(.r) = - - -
?
4 -·
[( _
.r) - J
9.
••I
10.
L
••I
3n - I
.r .r
JO
.., I · J -S .. -(2n-l) x•
• I.:
55. Verify by termw· • d'
and cos 1·n· . l!lc lffcrcntiation or the hypc rllO 1' 05
I" l;r.e I
r
j
2-~
-8---(Jn-1)
··I • scncs · 1;
c~h.rQnd,- h . 10 ·xample 6 tha t each of the: un ch
·
satisfies the an
ell-'
.r 15· the. d cn·vat ·l\•c nf the othcr.anu·' th ·•1tcl
dirt·
crentlal equation y"- >' = 0.
Power Series SECTION 11 .8 749 l
56. In elemen tary mathematics one sees various definitions illustrate the approxima tio n of f(x) by its Taylor polyno-
(some circula r! ) of the trigonome tric functions. One ap· mials with center a = 0.
pm:1ch ton rigorou< foundation fo r these functions is to be·
62. firs! find the Taylor series of the function
gin by delining co~ x and sin x by means of thei r \laclau rin
series. For instance. never ha ' mg. heard of sine, cosine. or • sin t
the number ".we might define the function g(x) =
1
o
-
I
dt .
S(x)
"'
=L (-I )"- 1x:.- • Then de termine " here this power series converges Fina lly.
use a graphing calculator or computer to illustrate the ap·
(2tl- l)!
"= l proximation of g (x) by its Taylor polynomi3IS \\i th center
n =0.
and verify using the rat io tc~t that this series converges for
all x . Usc a computer algebra system to plot graph~ of high- 63. Deduce from the arctangent series (Example II) that
degree partial sums !,(x) of thi\ S<: ries. Doe\ it appear that
the function S(x) appears to have a zero somewhere nea r
the numbe r 3? Sol ve the equation J,(x ) = 0 numer ically
(for ~orne large valu es of n) to verify thatthi<least p<><itive
Then usc this alternating series to show that rr = 3.1~ ac·
zero of t he si ne function is npprox im~tcly 3.14159 (and th us
the famm1< number :r makes a fresh new appearnncc). curate to two decimal places.
57, Th~: Dcssel function of order 1 is llcfined by ~- Substitute the Macburin series for sinx. and then assume
the validity of te rmwise inlcgration of the resulting series.
"' ( - l )"xlo•l x x' x' to derive the formula
J ,(x) = L••• 2ln• n!(rt + I)!= 2 - It; + 384- ... ·
1
t-'sinxtdr = ~ (lxJ < 1) .
[ I +x·
-
0
Verify that this series convcrgc·s for all x and that the
Usc the fact from Section 8.8 that
derivative or the Bessel function of order 1ero is ~iven by
J,;(:() = -J, (x). Are the graphs in Fig. I 1.8.7 consistent with
this. Iau er fact? 1~ r·~-· dr = l'(n + l) = 11!.
65. (a) Deduce from the Maclaurin series fort! that
-
I "" (-!)"
- = ~ - -1-(.tlnx)".
x' L- 11.
-I
-20 - 10 0 iO 20
1 l
o x•
"" I
-1ix = ~ - .
L. n,.
•• I
Verify by termwise differentiation !hal y = l o(x ) satisfies which converges (to something) if l.tl < I. Compute the
Bessel's equation of order zero. derivative f'(x) by termwisc differentiation, and show that
it satislics the differential equation (1 + .t ) f'(x) = a{(x).
611. Verify that y = 11 (x) satisfies llesscl's equal ion of order I (b) Solve the differential equation in part (a) to obtain
(Problem 59).
/(x) = C(l + x)" for some constant C. Finallv. show that
61. first use the sine series to find the Taylor series of f (x ) = C = I. Thus the binomial series converges t~ (I + x)" if
(si n x )jx . Then use a graphing calculator or computer 10 Jxl <I.
750 CHAPTER 1l Infinite Series
Usc thi< information and parts (a) nnd (c) to !how that
(>ft. (a) Show by direct integration th at
"' I ;rl
" - Il
2:C 1 1
• ttt = la1 - a2 +a.1 _ ••• ± a ,,)+ r:. (I)
t~l
then E = :roan+ I.± fln•2 =F 11• +~ ± · · · is I he error made when th e se ries is mmcard-
thc tc
. mts followmg
. (.- I)•+1a• ·ar c· stmp
· 1Yc1topped off and discarded. and the n-ternl
pa~ttal sum ts used m pl:lcc of tlw actua l sum of th a wl 1 , · Th , maind~r
e~tlm:ltc I hen says that the crro F J • . c 10 e sc n es. c rc . . J
. d· • •• • .r · 135 the same s1gn as the first term not rctltO"'·
.m IS 1c~s m magnttude than tins first ne 1 d .
· g ecte term: that IS. 1E) <On+ I·
EXAMPLE 1 Use the first four lcrms of th, b. . .
c momtal senes
•
~ I +h •
- ~·t r 2 + j6t X J - ffil X~ +
= ... Ill
lo cstun:llc the number Jffi5 'tnd 10 .
' es lunme the accuracy in the approximJtion.
Solution If x > 0 then the binornial sc rie . . ·e~
In o rder to match the pa ttern on , f s 15• afte_r the first te rm. an altcrnaungsen
11 tc 1e t-hand s d . .., .
' I e rn cq. (2). we first wntc
Titcrefo re.
REMAR K Suppose thJ t we h:1d been asked in :tdv:mcc to approximak JITi5 neeurnte
to five decimal places. A conve nie nt way to do this is to continue \\Ti ling terms
of the series u ntil it is dear t ha t thev have t>ccomc too small in macnituck to a ffect
the fifth d ecima l place. A good ruk. of thumb is to usc two more d..-cimal places in
the co mputa tio ns than a rc requi red in the final answer. Thus we me se ven deci mal
pla!:es in t his case and ge t
EXAMPLE 2 Figure 11.9. 1 shows the graph of th e function /(x) = (sin:r)f:r. Ap·
·~r-------r-----~ proximate (accurJtc to three decimal pbccs) the area
A= j• -n
sin x d
--x= 2
X
1• 0
sinx d
--x
X
(3)
of the shaded region lying under the "principal arch" from :r = -rc to :r.
Solution When we substitute the Tarlor se ries for sinx in Eq. (3) and integrate
tc rmwise, we get
and thus
2~r 3 2:r 52.'! 7 2rr 9 2:r 11
"= 2:r- 3!3 + 5!5- 7!7 + 9!9 - 11!11 + .. ·.
following the " + 2 rule of thumb" and retaining five d ecim•t l places, we calcul:nc
and
ll1e series in Eqs. (4) and (5} converge for any x that lies interior to the intervals
of convergence of bolh L a.x• and L b.x•.
llJU s if L''"x" a nd L b.x• arc powe r series represe nt alions of the func1ions
f(x) and g(.r). respecti.,.cly. then the product power ~cries L: c,x" found by '"ordinar)'
rnuhiplic.1tion"" and colkc1ion ofl crms is a power series represe ntation oft he product
function [(x)g(x). 'I his fact can also be used 10 divide one power se ries by another,
prm ·itlcd that the quolicnl is known lo ha\'e a power series represen talion.
EXAMPlE 3 Assume thai lhc tangent function has a power series representation
tan x = L: a.x" (it docs). Usc the Maclaurin series for si n x and cos x to find a0 • a1.
a 2. and llJ.
But because
.
Sill X =X - I
> t3
o'
+ _!._ .s
120 '' - •· •
comparison of eoe£ticients gives the equations
= o.
I
a, I =
-~tto + a2 = 0,•
- !2al + llJ = -~t ,
TilUs we find that a0 =o. a, = 1 th _ 0
• • - .and11J =~ -So
tan .r .r + }xl + ... .=
ll1in_gs arc not always as they til'S! a l • . c
continuation · PI car. A computer algebra system g1vcs th
Figure 11.9.2 shows the approximat ion of the tangent function (on -;r /2 < .r < ;r /2)
by the first four odd·degree polynomial partial sums correspo nding to the terms ex-
hibited in Eq. (7). Evidently these polynomial approximations have difficulty ~keep·
ing up" wi th tan x as it approaches ±oo as x -+ ±..-r /2. +
FIGURE 11.9.2 The graphs of
y = tan x and the first lo ur pa rtial Power Series and Indeterminate Forms
sums of the p{)wer series in (7). Accord ing to 'Theorem 3 of Section 11.8, a p<>wcr series is differentiable and therefore
cont in uou~ within its inter"al of conve rgence. It follows that
Exa mples 4 and 5 illustrate th e usc of this simple observation to find the· limit of
the indete rm inate form f (x )/g(x). The technique is to first substitute power series
!J re presenta tions for f (x ) and g (x).
il
EXAMPLIE 4 Find lim sin x - arctanx
•-o x~ ln (l + x )
.• Solution The power series of Eqs. (4), (1 9), and (20) in Section I 1.8 give
sinx- arctanx = (x- ~x 3 + 1 ~x 5 - .. ·) - (x- !x3 + !x5 - .. ·)
Hence
·
. sm x- arctan x . 6x - Tilix + .. ·
I 3 23 5
ILm 2
x-o x In(! +x)
= x-o
1lffi I
x3- x 4 + .. .
2
1_ 23 x2 + .. .
"' lim 6 tf
•-o 1- 2x + ... •
. In x
EXAMPLE 5 Find hm - - .
.t-lx- 1
Solution We first replace x with x - I in the power series for ln(l + x) used in
Example 4. (Equation (8) makes it clear that this method requires all series to have
center c if we are taking limits as x--+ c.] This gives us
lnx = (x -1)- !<x- 1)2 + ~(x- 1)3- ....
Hence
. lnx . (x-I)- ~(x- 1)2 + !<x -1)3 _ ...
hm - - = hm .;__..;_-=..:..__.:..._~..;_-....:......
__
x-lx-1 •-t x-1
= x-1
lim [I - !<x- 1)+ ~(X - 1)2- .. ·] = 1. •
The method of Examples 4 and 5 provides a useful alternative to 1'1-lopital's
rule, especially when repeated differentiation of numerator and denominator is in·
convenient or too time-consuming. (Sec Problems 59 and 60.)
754 CHAPT£R 11 Infinite Series
. ra hical Error Estimatio n
NumeriCal and G PhOW hO\\. 10 ·,nvestieate
-
the accuracy in a power-sen·
, e1
The follo" ing exampIes 5 'tied inte!'·al of \'alucs of x. \\ c will taketh
· t'on for a spec1 . .. e
partial-sum approXlilla 1 . . ·s "accurate to p decr mal places to mean tha•
. . approxlmauon' . 1 1 .
statement that a £1' en · h If a unit in th e p th dcc1ma pace; that i~ lhat
. . · th· JPss than a £
1ts error £ 1s numenca . • c four· lace accuracy means that I I < 0.00005. (~ote
1£1 < 0.5 x w-P. For mstanc · :, .• ) "'cvertheless. we sho uld remember that in
· h ber of zeros 11c c. •'
that P = ~IS t e num within a half unit in the p th place may round "the
some cases a result accurate 10 d d p places may still be in error by a unit in
"'Tong way," so that the r~sult roun <! 10
the pth decimal place (as tn Problem 12 )-
0.0807-1551
1
(rounded to eight decimal plac:s)u r~or.valucs for n: :
1, 2, 3, ... of this maxim31 c~r:
we sec that 11 :::: 4 will suffice \\'. ·h r SIX· place accuracy we want 1£1< o.OOOOOO)·.
I
0.002-19039 · c t crefore us th 1• onnJ1
2 e c seventh-degree Taylor po >11
3 0.00003658
O.<XXm031
ll
7(X) :::: X - -
xl+ :cs ;(1 (JO)
4 I
s o.OOXJOOOO . . 3! Si- 71
to approximate Stn X Cor 0::; X :£ :r/·t w·11h - . .
x - :r /6 we get
FIGURE 11.9.3 Estimating the
error in uample 6(b). sin 30" ""' ::_ - ~ + (rr /6)5 (rr /6)1 1
6 3! "55 - ---:n- ""'0.49999999 ""' i'
Power Series Computations SECTION 11.9 755
(11)
- O.S gives five-place accuracy when x is such that the error E satisfies the inequality
7
l.rl' lxl
-.!_1 - 0.5 0
I El < T! =
5040
~ 0.000005;
X
that is. when lx l ~ [ (5~0) . (0.000005)jlf1 :::: 0.5910 (radians). In degrees, this corre-
FIGURE 11.9.4 The graph olthe sponds to angles between - 33.86' and +33.86°.ln Fig. 11.9.4 the graph of y = x' /7!
x'
maximal error y = ! in in the vie"i ng window - 1 ~ x ~ 1. -0.00001 ;;; y ~ 0.00001 provides visual corrobo-
7 ration of this analysis-we see clearly that x 7 /7! remains between -0.000005 and
Example 6(c).
0.000005 when x is between -0.59 and 0.59. +
EXAMPLE 7 Suppose now that we want to approximate f(x) = sinx with three-
place accuracy on the whole interval from 00 to 90° . Now it makes sense to begin with
a Tay lor series cent ered at the midpoint x = rr / 4 of the interval. Because the function
f (x ) and its success ive derivatives arc sin x , cos x. -sin x. - cos x, and so forrh. their
l l
values at x = ;r / 4 arc Ji. Ji, -lJi. - ~ Ji. and so forth. Consequently Taylor's
formula with remainder (Section 11.4) for [(x) =
sinx centered at x =
rr/4 takes
the fom1
2
sin x = Ji
2
· [1+ (x- ::) - _!_ (x- ::)
4 2! 4
3
5 x~IO~-·------------,-,
-!.>! (x- ::)
4
+ .. · ± ..!._
n!
(x- ~)"]
4
+ E(x) (12)
where
!E(x)l
= t<•+l l(z)
(n +I)!
(x - ::)•+
4
1<= (n +I I)! lx - ::4 1"+1 (13)
for some z in the interval 0 ~ x ~ :r /2. Observe that the corresponding Taylor series is
not alternating-if x > rr /4 it has instead a"++--++--" pattern of signs-but
we can still use the remainder estimate in (13). For three-place accuracy we need to
choose 11 so that y = E(x) remains within the viewing window -0.0005 ~ y ~ 0.0005
X on the whoI<! interval 0 ~ x ~ rr /2. Looking at the graphs plotted in Fig. 11.9.5, we see
=
that this is so if n 5 but not if 11 = 4. The desired approximation is therefore
FIGURE 11.9.5 Comparing errors
in Example 7.
sinx""
Ji [1 + ( x- 4;r ) -
T. 1(
2! x- 4 )2 -
;r 1(
31 x-
1t
4 )3
+ ..!._
4! (x-::)\
4 _!_ (x- ::)
5! 4
5
)
.
=
For instance, substitutingx 0 we get sin o•::::: 0.00020 ""O.OOOas desired, and x =:r/2
gives sin 90° "" 1.00025 ::::: 1.000. +
~1~
1~
.9~PR~O
~B~l~E~MUS~------------------------------------------
. I J I ~
fn Problmll I rhrnugh 10, uu on infinir• u ri•• to opproximau Jot, srnx :::: X - ij·r + jj,).r
th~ indicatc,od nurnb~r accurott to tJur r d~cimal plocrs.
3~. ln( l + .r) "' X- ).r 1 + J.rJ - !.r'
1. ~ 2. ~
y, ...ff+X :::: I + j.r - £x 1
3. sin(0.5) 4. t ·Ol
37. Show that the apprmimation in l'r<>hlc m 33 ~:ivcs the ••aluc
5. tan " 1 (0.5) 6. ln( I.I J of e' accurate to within 0.00 1 if I r l S 0.5. 11tcn calculate ~';
.
7. san (~) 10 R. cos(~)
20
accurate to t \VO c.kcima l places.
3..'t For what values of x i< the approx imation sin x :::: x -I 11
9. sin 10" 10. C0\5' accurate to five dcrirual place< 'I '
In l'ml>l• mJ II rlrrouglr 22. ,..,, pt>wn u rre.< to appr(lximm~ rh• 39. (a) Show tha t the va lues o f the rosi ne runctinn f<>r angl11
''olut! of the Ki"·tn int~gra/.1 accurate tt) four tlt'\imnl placc~t between ~()' and 50" cw he calcula ted with fivc·placc accu-
II.
1 1
1 SlnJ
•
- - d.z
X
12.
1' .
o
SIO X
- - tl.z
,/i
racy '"i ng the approximation
13. 1'"
0
urctaru dx
X
14. 1' sinx 2 dx
I S. !. 11' 0
In(I
X
+ x) dx 16. 1 112-
0 v'i+7
I
--dx
(b) Show that this approximation yields ei)!ht·pbcc
racy for angles he tween ~-1" and ·16• .
40. Extend the approximation in l'roblcm 39 to one thl t )icl.h
am~·
17. J.'"
0
I --, -
- - • tl.x
X
I ll [ " ~ dx
0
the ''alucs of cosx accur:rtc to live decimal places for 3ngk;
between 30'' and 60".
21. ],
IJ
I /~
d
POWI!rSeriesComputation1 SECTION 11 .9 757
~- Approxim :lle the volume of the ~olid gener 3 ted by rotatmg Us~ lht po..·u saia in Problem 53 10 approxunart K'itl: TWO·
the region ol l'roblem ~2 around the .r·Ut\. pLJa accurac.v tf:t rillhcr fomudablc integrals In l'robltrn.f .S5
.tS. Dcrh·e the geomc tnc ~e rie\ by long c.ll\tsson o ( t - z into t. and 56. Cor:p~rt) o:tr aumara .. u}: lht c.racl •'aflus gi >O! by a
COtr.p uler afg( b ra S)'J/(tn.
.a(i. Denvc the ~roes lor tan .r hsted on Eu:nple J by long di·
!.
I .~
viSion of the Maclaun n serses of c01 .r 1nto the !\.bcburin
series or sin.r. . d.r
o I -x·.,. r
.&1. Deri,·c the geo met n c series rep:esentauon o f 1/ (1 _ .r) by
finding a,. a, . a: . ... such that
si n.t-tanx
~9. Usc known power series 10 evnlu3te lim . _ 1 _
1 "' .. -o Sin X - t:tn 1 X
scc:c • - - • ~ o,..c" . 60. Substilute series such as
cou L...
,. .....
xl .r~ 55.r'
SO. Multiply the geomctnc se ries lor 1/ (1 - .r ) nn d the series ssn(tun x ) = .r + - - - - - - + .. ·
6 4() 1008
lor ln(1 - .r) to show that if It I < 1, then
provided by a computer algcbrn system to evaluate
In (I - x) ( ) 1
J- x =-.t - l +j .r - (1+ j+l).rJ
- ( I+ l + ! + l).r'- . ...
Sl. Take ns known the logarithmic series 61, (3) fi r11 USC the p>rame trit,1lion .r(l) • II COS I, )'(I) oo /Jsin I.
0 ~ t ~ h of Ihe ellipse (.r /o) 1 + (y/b) 1 a I to show thnt its
In(! + x ) =.r- jx: + !x> -J x' + .. · . perimeter (arc length) pis given by
Find the first lour cocfticscnts 10 the series for r' by findsng
au. a1, a1 , and OJ such that
..
= ~" "' = L:a.(x - j x' + !x>- i.r ' + .. r.
1 +x
..., "'here • =/ I -
(bfa )' is the ~«tntricilyolthc ellip'<:. Thi>
SO<alkd t lltpric mrtgral i• nonclemcniJry. a nd so mus t be:
appro\lmJted numerically. (h) US<: the binomial >cries to
This is exactly how the po~~oer series for ,.• ~~oas lint discov-
expand the in tc~rand in the P<'<imetcr fo rmub in plrt (a).
ered (by NcMo n)!
Then intcgrare term"' i..,- u,ing f"Ontllll~ ll31ro m 1he Iable
SZ. Use the method of Example 3 to show that of intc~rals in•idc the back co,·cr-roshow tha trhe pcrime·
tcr of the cllip-;e ;, gi,'Cn in terms of its majur scmiaxis and
X
-SIOX = I + 6-1xl + 7
- x1 +
360
.. ·. eccentricity by the power series
53. Show that long division of power se ries gives p = 2.Ta(l- 4~t 1 - 6-1
~ •• - 256
~.•- ~.•-
1631!4
... )
•
2+.r =2-x-x' + 2xJ-x• -x> +2x~
l+.r +.rl 62. The aritlrmetic nrt•trrr of the major and minor scmiAxes of
- .r'- ..~ + u•- .r'0 - x 11 + .... the ellipse of P roblem 61 i• A = ~(a+ b); their roul·sqrwrt
Show also that the radius of convergence of this series is m catJisR= Vl<a'
+ tr).Substituteh a JI=(T and u">C =
R=l. the binomial series to derive the expansions
54. Usc the series in Problem 53 tn approxuna te with two·placc
accuracy the value of the intcgul
+ 2 d.r.
!.
0
117
,tl
...
+X + I and
Compare your estimate with the e xact result give n by a R=o(l- ~. 2 - .!...•-
4 32
1
-12!1 ~( 1 - . .. )
-t~- 2048 •
computer algebra system.
758 CHAPTER 11 Infinite Series
If t i• quite sm•ll-a~ in a nearly circular ellip<e-thon th•
Something wonderful happens" hen you 3\'enge these two difference between the exact value of p and the simple a~
series: show that
proximation
p"' ;r(A.;. R) = :r (!(a+ b)+ Jj(a 2 + 11))
is extremely small. Fot instance. suppose that the orbit or
and then note that the first four tcnm of the series " ithin the moon around the ea rth ts an clhpsc wJth major semi-
the parentheses here arc the same as in the dlip<C perime· axis" exactly 238.~57 milc:s long and eccentricity f exactly
ter series of Problem 61( 1>). Conclude that the perimeter p 0.05-19. 1ncn ti'C Eq. (14) and a compute r algebra system
of the ellipse is t;ivcn by with cxtcnclcd-preci5ion arithmetic to find the perimeter
5:ra ~ or lhc moon 's orhil accurate tn rhe nearest inch: g.ive }'Our
p = :r ( A + R) + 8192f . + .. ·, (U ) answer in milcs-fcct· inchcs forma t.
. ' ,- . IRS
$tan d ard c lc Jnc nt ;ay functt f .. no ~CJftllltlll th :tt c :tn l >c cxr"rc!'1"'cd in t<rln' o f thC
· usc 1to0,.' o c.1 1cu lu 'l.. On c " f th c most important app 11CJ
o f powe r series is their · tK• ml
' 01 ~c ~uch dtff crcntta · 1cquatio ns.
The Power Series Method
'llle pu,.·a urit's mrthod for ~ol~in tf . •,
the JX>"Cr series g n tffcren!lal equation con~ists of substttU H•·~
....
\' =
. I: c r"- ..
... ~. .. - c,,..,. r, ..- + t";.r- -+· ct..r ' ._. ... (ll
Series Solutions of Differential Equations SECTION 1 1.10 7 59
in the differential equation. and then attempting to determine what the values of the
coefficients c0 • ct. r:. r 3 • •.• must be in order tha t the se ries in ( 1) will act ually satisfy
the given differential equation. At first gbnce this might seem to be a formidable
problem. beca use we have infinitelv mln,· unknowns r 0• Ct . r2, CJ • .. . to find . Nev-
e rt hekss. we will see tha t the mcth~d frequently succeeds. When it does. we obtain
a power series representation of a solution. in con trast to the closed form solutions
that result from the solution techniques we saw in Chapter 9.
Be fore we can substitu te the scri~s in ( 1) in a differential equation. we must
first know what to substitute for the dcrivJ tives y' , y" .. .. of the unknown function
y(x). Uut recall from Theorem 3 in Section 11.8 that the dcriva tivc of a power series
can b-~ calculated bv termwise diiie re ntiation. Hence the first a nd second derivatives
of the series in (I) ~ re gi,·en by
and
'
y· =L 11( 11 - I lr • .r" - : = 2c2 + 6c;.r + l2c.x 2 + .. · ·. (3)
rt::.!
Also. these two series have the same radius of convergence as the original series
in ( I ).
The process of determining the coefficients co. rt. c2 , CJ, .•• in the series so that
it will satisfy a given differential eq uation depends also on the following consequence
of termwise differentiation: If two powe r series represent the same function on an
open interval, then they are identical series. That is. they arc one and the same power
series. (See Problem Min Section 11.8.) In particular, if L:a.,x" ::0 on tm open
inten,nl. rhen ir follows rhar a. =0 for all n. This fact is sometimes called the identity
principle for power series.
To compare coefficients here, we need the general term in each sum to be the term
containing x". To accomplish this, we shift the index of summation in the first sum.
To sec how to do this, note that
~ ro
L nc.x•-l = Ct + Zc2x + 3c3.t + · · · = L (n + l)cn+ 1x".
2
•cO
Titus we can replace 11 with 11 + I if, at the same time, we start counting one step lower:
that is, at 11 = 0 rather than at 11 = I. This is a shift of+ 1 in the index of summation.
The result of making this shift in Eq. (4) is the identity
00 ""
that is,
00
2c.
Cn+l = - Hl (S)
2c
2
23co - - 2-3co
C)= - 3= - ~- 3!-
13y now it should be clear that after n such steps, we will have
.2"co _
c.=(- 1) - - . 11 ~ 1.
11!
(This is easy to prove by induction on 11.) Consequently. our solulion takes the form
In the final step we have used the familiar exponential series to idenlify our power
series solution as !he same solution y(x} = c0 e - l• we could have obtained by the
method ~rf separation of variables. •
(6}
hy shifting !he index of ~ummation by + 1 in the series on the left. lltat is, we si~u;
taneously mcrcased the .mdcx of summation by 1 (replacing with n + l.n - . n.,. .~
and dl'at·tucd !he startm~ pou11 by I, from 11 = 1 to 11 = 0 thcr.:by obrainrng tt.•.
11
series on !he right. 'Iltis procedure is valid because each inlini.te scric; in (6) is simri)
a compact notation for the single series
(71
More generally, we can shift the indo:x of summation by kin an infinite seri~
by simultaneously
. kf' • !he summarion index by ,..,
' bincrrasing '· ( ..... , + k) and tlccri'115'~
h
1 e startmg pmnt Y ·. ·or msrancc, a shift by +2 (n -+ + 2) yields
11
Series Solutions of Differential Equations SECTION 1 1 . 10 761
(x - 3) L nc.x• - l + 2 L c.x• = 0.
so thnt
eo oo oo
that is.
00
c.
Hence our proposed power series solution is
= -n+l
- co
3 .. if II f; ).
00
II + 1
y(x) = co~ --x• (8)
L.. 3• .
n=O
Its radius of convergence is
p I .1m
= n-oo I I= .
-c.-
Cn+l n-oo
ltm -311 + 3
n+2
= 3,
762 CHAPTER 11 Infinite Series
. . ~ if _ 3 < x < 3 and div~rges if lxl_> 3. In this pa~icuJar
Thus the series m (8) co~vcrg~s . n elementary solution (obtamed by ~eparallon o!
e.v•mple we can explain why. ,\ . . . _ 1/(3 - x) 2 • If we differentiate term....
uatwn IS >- ' 'JS
· •
,u ·
variables) of our differentia1cq
the geometric series
I
::; 1 "" x"
I __;__ == - ~ , • .
-3 - X
== 1 _ _X
3
J L.., n,, .r·
so that
Because of the presence of the two terms - I and -x on the right-hand side. we need
to split off the first two terms.. co + c1x, of the seri es on the ri ght for comparison. I!
we also shift the index of summation on the left by - 1 (replace n = 1 \\ith n =2and
n with n - I). we ge t
Because the ldt-hand side conta ins neither a constant te rm nor a term containing X
to the first power. the identity principle now vidds c = 1 c _ 1 and c = (n-l)C,-1
for n ~ 2. I t fo IIows t I1at . 0 , I - .< rr
C4 = 3 · C3 = 3!,
and, in general, that
y(x)
"'
= 1 +x + L(n-l)!x".
•=2
But the radius of convergence of this series is
so the ser ies converges on I)' Cor :r = 0. Wha t does thi< mean? Simply that the given
differenti al equation docs not have a (convcrgentJ po"er series solution of t he as·
sumcd form y :;: L c.r•. Thi example scrYes lS a warning th:tt t he simple act of
writing y = L c.x• in,olves an as umption that may b~ false. •
y = I:>-•.r".
••0
we find that
L"' nc.x--•
'-
l = and y" = L 11(11 - I )c.x•-:.
••I
(9)
(11 + 1)(11 + 2)
for 11 ~ 0. It is evident !hat this formula will determine the cocfllcients c. " i1h even
subscript in te rms of co und those o f odd subscript in terms o f c- 1; c0 nnd c 1 arc not
predetermined, a nd thus will be th e two arbitrary co nstants we expect to llnd in a
general solution of a second-order eq uation.
When we apply the recurrence relatio n in (9) with '' = 0, 2. and ~ in turn, we
get
. finitions of Functions
Power Serres De b further comment. Suppose that we had n• ,
. fE pic 4 can car • . -ler
1l1e solution o xam , . s. let alone their fay 1or sencs. We would th
heard of the sine and cosme funcu~n oluti ons en
have discovered the two power senes s
:>C
~ (-1) X
n 2n _ __x2 + _x4 _ ...
1 UO)
C(x) == L (Zn)! - 2! 4!
=I)
and
J s
oo ( - W x2n+ I - X - ~ + :_ - , ..
S(x) == L
n=O
(2n + 1)! - 3! 5!
(II)
of the differential equation /' + y == 0. It is clear th at C(O) = 1 and that S(O~ ::0.
After verifying that the two series in (10) an d (I 1) converge for all x. we can differ-
entiate th em term by term to find that
C'(x ) == -S(x) and S'(x) = C (x). (12)
Consequently C'(O) = 0 and S'(O) == I . 11JUS with the aid of th~ power series method
(all the while knowing nothing about the sine and cos me functions). we ha1·e discov-
ered that y = C(x) is the uniqu e solution of
y" + y == 0
that s;llisfics the initial conditions y(O) == I and y' (O) = 0, and that y = S(x) is the
un ique solu tion that satisfies the initial conditions y (O) = 0 and y'(O) = 1. It follo•s
that C(.r) and S(x) arc linearly independent. and- recogni zing the importlncc of
the differential equation y" + y =O-we can agree to call C the cosine function and
S the sim• function. Indeed. all the usual properties of these two functions can N:
established, using only their initial values (a t x = 0) and the derivatives in (12): tha~
is no need to refer to triangles or even to angles. (Can you use the series in (10) lnd
( II) to show that (C(x) F + (S(x)F = I for all x?) This demonstrates that th~ cosine
and sine functions arc fully determined by the differential equation l' + y = 0 of
which they are the natural linearly indepe ndent solutions. figures 1J.J O.I and 11.10.1
show how the geomet nc character of the graphs of cosx and sin x is revcakd by the
graphs of the Taylor polynomial approximations that we ge t by truncating the infinit~
series in (10) and (11).
'
L
lions m atoms and molecules.
Series Solutions of Differential Equ4tions SECTION 11 .10 765
The ide nt ity princi ple now f.i' cs c: = 0---bec;~use there is no othe r constant term on
the lc ft - h ;:~ nd side-and the recurrence relation (II + 2)(11 + l)r.~ l - Cn- 1 = 0 for
11 ~ 1. Rcpl:lcc mcnt o f 11 "ith n + I gives the recurrence relation
(13)
c. • l = (n + 2)(n + 3)
Co rn 51; 0. Thus e:~ch coefficien t (after the first three) depends on the third previous
one. li enee the fac t that c 2 = 0 implies that
C2 = CS = Cg = · · · = 0.
Beginning with r 0 a~ an arbitrary constant. we apply ( 13) with 11 = 0. 11 = 3.
= 6 in tum and calculate
and 11
co co CJ co rb c0
CJ = - =- .
2·3 6
C6
5·6 ISO
=- =- .
and c9 = -
8 ·9
= --
1296()'
Beginning with Ct as a second arbitrary constant. we calculate similarly
Ct Ct C< C1 ,.., t"t
c~ "" 3. 4 =ii• c, = ~ = 504· and Cto "' 9. Ill"" 4536()"
When we collect th e terms that invoh·e co and those that involve c 1 • we get the genera l
solution
,r3 .r6 .r9 ) ( .r• x' riO )
y(.r) =Co ( I + -
6
+ -180 + - -
12960
+ · · · + Ct X+ - + - + -· - + ...
12 504 45360
of the Airy equation. " i th arbitrary constants co and Ct. We sec here the independent
(why?) particul ar solution~
xJ .r 6 x9 x• x' .r'o
y1(r)
.
=I+ -6 + -180 +12960
--+··· and )'2(.t) = .t + - + - + - - + ...
12 5(» 45360
Recognizing the pattern of coeCticients is not so easy as in Example 4. hut you can
verify that the terms shown agree with the formulas
1 1.10 PROBLEMS
In Probl~tru I throu~h 10./intl apowa JairsJtJitmon oftllf b''rn
S how (as itr Example ) } that tht powtr suits m.rhod fa ll! '''
dtf{rrtnrial ~quntrnn nrtamint' th~ radius of ('tiN\ a !;tiiC( nftht'
rrJu1iin.r: strit'5.. tmd IHt )OUr l..rrm drdgt of fam zliar .\larlaurrn
>idd a po ..·tr suits solmion of rht fn m r y =L
c,x• for t!:r
srrirr and rlu hinnmial st rir," to idrm,b • rhc- J't."rtrs so/u:ion in di!fattrllal equations in Problenu 15 rhrou~;lr I S.
15
terms nf fa m ilinr ,•/or:rmnr.~· fun crion t (Of cmu sr. n o 011c cmr · :xy' + Y =0 l ti. 2ry'=y
p rtvrm you fro m rJ:rrkbrJ: your k 'Otk by alJo l'fllving tlu equa-
rimtc by rlzt mtrh(I(/J "/ Clznp rrr 9!) 18. :x'y' = 2y
I. f = y !. l= ~y
In Problwn I <I tltrou g/, 11, firs t clcri•·e a rec11rre11ct rt/iJ!iOI!!"'
) . 2y'-"3y=0 "' y' +Z..y - 0 ~ngc.fnr II i:: 2 itr trmu ofc0 o r c 1 (o r bo:h). Thm npp/1· th!S'' ''"
mzna/ C'Ontlllit•'" to fintithr ''alut1 of Co and Ca • •V~xt.drittr"..:f.l
(, (X - 2)}' + )' .. 0 c,. (m tt-rmt n'11 11 1 . . · '·'
• · r • " " t •t tt.xt) and. fin alt.·. rclenrij\• lltt par!!<'...~
so/uuon '" l<'rm, f , .1.
7. (l.r- l )y' + 2y =0 8. 2(x + I )y' = y 19
u ,,,,lOr elemenrary frmcrwn t
\ 1~" th~ 1"'--'" '·r sc: riC'~ nl~th,,l hl dis:""ct the ~ol utiu.n Sul"titute I hi~ .cries in y'"' I + y1 and equate like puwcn
N of .r to d e rive lhc following relutions:
,~ (- l l l , ."'4 t ! ,, • \&
J, ( r \ ~ - ~: ' (l. ! )' = 1 - - +- --- + · · ·
5c 1 2c,.
4 1>-l Z.\(~1 ) (·, - I. "'
,,f the:-
''""
n("-s...~cl -=qua th'll .t y· -+ .' · + n · • O E'pl:, in "h~· 7r· 7 "' 2( 1 ~ (c ,) 1 , 9r. "' 2<7 + 2c.~c, ·
thC' S.:n<'S nltt h'-"-! '-h'Cs n~'t yi<'IJ nn uh tc.' J'<"I'hh:nt 'c'-~,,nd
t l c.a1 :J J\ ·., + 2c1C'1 +(C)) : .
$\"'ut hJn .
!..' (a) S!'h1"' t h:tt th e S\:'\ luth'n nf thc in11i~l ' J ill(' pn lt'lc.•m (c) Conclude thilt
,.· = 1 - ,.: . n \h a 0
I \ 2 I 17 '
i<J ( t l ., t l n t . (h) 11PC.l U<r 1 ( l l ., 1~11 , i"'" r><IJ !unct mn t.1n ,. • .r + J.r + 15.r + ) IS r
..·hh ~.,tO)= 1. iu T.,~ ,(,r ' ""r,r-s i' "'r tht.. r'-'lln
f , ~.:,.......;,I p.,..,flfJith I !J df"'' '""'Vt' • ltr.h,., , , " " ' tfl, ' ' q'--" '"' ' unh 'J
lc. J (Y" t'f'f'1. ~,_J I f'Jd 4:~ /oM:/ tf U d 1,or1 ((Jt1t " t "
u. u. w 11
., - 7
.....
,: . I
!. II . .. ~ 15. "· - ( 1r~' • II ' '
L •· • - -
~. '
,.,,,,. ''' '" "'I'" .,.,l, ,lt.,• ,.,,.,. btflmr, " 'i"' 1n l"t••' :......,, 1,.. tlt~~ clt
)() ( I IIU t't f 'l Jh n ' "
-II ,,. Hf
!. •· •
I • 1- l r'~ ~
I ... 4.. " · - \
o.-
(
1- • t
- " • -I
II.. \'!.... ~ ~~'.!'
... ...
.(....
17. l
,.. __ ~~ u·· • 1n "
--· "
'-!> :..0 a. '! ...... . ..
- . .
1. •• -
Ill
-.......
')
)'
"
.... '?"
.. -.. -,. '-
~ ,_
' • • - f- 1,-- - '!!
··~ • I , -:_ •-:,·
IL • ,. • - -.:s -
I
•
I
"
1!.. •• - ... .- !II. L-
'-
-·
.2.. ''" -
Itt I #II
ll.
....
L... }"• l
768 CHAYT£R 11 lnfin.te Seri~
...
2!. 2:2 . , ,.,, lJ. ~ (-f )"n
••• L. rln n }l
... • ·l
u . ,~ !.:..!1:
L- fO il• F (.r) = L f~r"
u ..
•• I
~
.;n
I
•
f (.r) = l
A
•
- r - x•
ol9. \\'c say th3t t h~ mjinlft' prmluct indacatcr.J by
••• L. n (l nn)(fn ln n )
- l
30.
"' I J1o+ n,l = ( I -1 a , )( l +a: HI + tz,) . . .
L
•••
n Cfnnllln lnn )l •••
con•~rgM provided that the infinite series
•••
, 0 )"
J.t L
,_, 4•
37.
...
39. ,..- _I --:
...
L- 2Cn!)
- _1I_' .r"
+'"'(....,
.ro. L v ( 1)'
I + ;; (.r- It'
converge<, and u'e the intc~;rnl tc\1 rem• indcr cstinl3:e to
3pproxim31 CiL< valuc. 11tc •ctual value o f this infinite rt<>I-
••• UCI ;, known to be
oil . 2:cr - n l " ol!. I)n.r)• In f'm blmu 5/tlmmgla 55, Ill<' infinllc J<'ries tn approcrmJ:trJ-.1
indicatrtl nwnbcr accurate to t!Jfc'l! dccimt~l plncts.
••• •••
"' ,... st. ill n ln(l.2)
u "L-11,.
f.'
.J.j, flnr.J th~ r:tti ~tul number thnt ho< repeated dccimol c•pan-
sio n 2. 7 IR2S 11;2.~ 1 1!2.~ ... . I - e· •
ss. -tl.r
.as. c; 1\ c :m C;\:tmrll· n( c~ o cunn·rgcnt numerical series L: a,. 0 .r
nnd Lb. <uch th.11 the se ries La. b. divcrgc'3. Y>. Substitute the Maclau rin sc ric< fo r s in .r in!O that fort' to
46. PnJ\c th:H if [ 11,. i~ a cunvcrgccu positi \'C·tcrm serit:s. the n obt:tin
E II~ COrl \'t.' I'~Cl\. .
ol7. Let the seq uence (a. J he defi ned recursive ly as folio" ' ' rtl" ' = I +.r+ }x: - + ·· ·, i.r'
I 7
5 • Substitute the Maclaurin <cries for the cosine nnJ then in·
n 1 = 1: a..,. s = J + - - - i( n ~ l.
1 tcgra tc term" isc to de rive the furmula
+''"
"Jhe Jim it of the Ma~ucm:c {u,. ) hI he.: ~·aluc of the COfllilw ed Cy r.:
~ "";r :
fraction [
e·•· ws 2.rr tit = -:;-e· • ·
• 0 -
I + - -- --:-- - Use the rcduclion formula
2+ - -....:....,--
2+ I 1"" t'·~··' tit = 2n2- I f."' ,,•.z,.-•' tit
2+-- " f S<''
2+ .. . that follows from the cone ale rived in l'r(>hklll ~~ ~ ,, ...
' 83 · ' tcgr>'
,\s•uming th3t A = lim._.,. a, exists. pro••e thJt A = ./2. ~ton : ·The v:ahdu)' of th is imprnper tcrllll""' ' "
IS subJect to verilic:uion
Cltdpler 11 Mi~'cllancous Prob lems 769
induction on 111hat
t3R h - 1 ,t • 1'
0
-
I - r·'
I r/r
...
L
~ . :. . ..
-2n + I
T(2n) =(-1)" 1 (1 - ! +! - .. . :i __!_-
3 S 2n - 1
!.) .
4
• ..0
{c) Conclude from r~m (h) nnd (d) th• t
if 1•1 < I.
~- l'ro•c that I I 1 n
1--+---+ .. · • -
sinh· ' :r .. 1' - 1
,/fl i!
- ,t1
3 5 7
(f) l'ro•·c hy induction n n 11t hnt
.I
., ,"~l - 1\'I · J · ~ · t!n ll , :~·• rrz, 1 I I c -21 I - II• ( 1 - 21 I ,-1 - · 1. ~ -In 2).
II
L-
• ...,
.,- ~ • (I .• · (~II) ·
2n-
~ I
(!:)Conclude fro m pJrl\ (h) and (r) that
if It I < I.
• ln2
(;0. Surl'~c t h~ t tnn' • ~ "· •"' . D e termine a, 1, u 1, a:. nml a,
t-~ ~ul'l-\lltuttn)! th<' tn•cr•t• t.ln~cnt ~cric• IEq (27) nf Sec- (IJ. r ro•·e "' fu lln w• thJt the numhcr' "irratoton~l lir<t <up-
liN\ 11 .~1 intu the equ.ltl(lt\ ru'c to the cnntr .try 1hnt,.. " p / if • .., he re (I and q arc fX"'ttl><:
integers. Note th.11tf > I Write
= l3n (tnn · • L" a,( l.ln· t -I'q =' = I ., I I I I
t t) a
...., A)" .
I! 2~
~ - • R.,.
- + - ... - +
J' 'I~
61. Am•nltn~ Ill Sttrlm~ ·s """·the , ,tht< uf n! for large n i' where ll < R• < 3/Cq + II!. ( Why?) 1hcn •how th 11 multi·
t h-en to a clo<-e 3ppm"'n31l<1n hy plying of hnth •ide• u f th i• cqu~tinn hyq~ "'uukl kold tn the
. cnntrndiclton that nne <ide uf the rc~ult "an ontcJter but
-
! :r 11
() II
; ~ f•l .
the other ~itlc j, not.
,6-1, EvaluJtc the inlinite product (•ce T'rohlcm .:9)
I I 1
ll(lll= 1211 - 3(,11n 1 + 1261\n''
S...hrututc '' ' " ' tnto ~hcl•unn's \.Crte• fm r' 10 ~how Uut
.
hy finding an c t plic:it form uld for
.
,.
~· ~I. _1_ _. _ 1_ _
I :!n l -.ov,:
139
~ I ~Ill"' + n. n' -
·-· I
( t '= ~ '
CCI ) 0!.1 """"' thu the nett tc rm tn thc bst >eltn h on<.! then taking the ltmit •• ol - · "-
-571 l~ .l-. . 3~' 1' 65. rind a rontinucd Cr~ c11on reprcscnUt><.>n (sa rr, len o~·)
c. 1><:!.=
.. '"' + ----..:...-:----
T!111 •
!. Un' A dt a, +----~---
a: + _ _..;_,..
1-
I o f -IS
"··-... . .
Tin • 21 • ,- ~ I
- Till )
66. ( v>lu;stc
..
I" I c~ dc th>t Tl nJ - 0 n, - "() (c) Show
t:x " ,- IJ I
1+ -- - · -
~ I
t - -
I ~
- + - • - -
I I ~
• -- •
~.t T•'J'. "'f' •"·"
u•• t (( 11• jln 2 (d ) l'' rO>c by 2 3 .I ~t>l ~ \!Jl)
...
•
... .......
... •.·
:
r ·.
' .
.\. :- . . ..... .
l .·
VECTORS, ..CURVES ~ AND·
SURFACES. IN ~ SPACE
.. ..
:
( ..
.· . .. •
A
ncient Greek rna· philosophical than mathe matical significance. H is hdio·
thcmaticians and umric s.•sr<'m was still O\'Crly complica ted. still requir ing
35tronomers dc,·c:· m an,· secondan· circles. and still hesct with inaccuracies
loped an elahorat e mathe· in reprcscnting..thc motions of the hca\'cnly bodies.
matical model to account h wa~ Johannes Kepler "ho finally got rid of all
for the complica ted mo · these circles. On the ha~is of a detailed :malysi s of plane·
lio ns of the sun. moon. and tarv ob~en·ations accum ul ated hv the Danish astronomer
six planets then known as T~ ~ho 13rahc. Kepler stated h i~ tl;ree famous laws ofplan·
viewed [mm th e earth. A ctar.v marion, which describ.: clltptical (rather than cir·
combi na tion of u niform ci r- cular) orbit~ of planets nrcnmd the sun (Section 12.6).
cular motion~ w:1~ u'c d to Ironically. his nriginal go.1 l had hcen In prove that the
descrihe the motam of each pbccmcnt of Mercury. Vcnu>. Ea rth . Mars, and Ju piter
)ohannt's Kepler (1571 - 1630) body around the cort h- i' llctcrmincd by the lh·c rcgul:l r polyhedra as indica te\!
if the earth i~ arhitrnrily in the figure at the IO\\C r nght. which appea red in his
placed at the origin of coordinates. then each body tlol's M ysrcrium Cosm ngrnplucum (I ;'\90). l l 1is model of th e
orbit the earth. solar s~·stem shows a cuhc m~crihed in the sphere con·
In this ~ystcm. it w:ts typical fo r a planet P to tra,•cl taining Sawrn 's o rbit. and the 'Phcrc of Jupiter's orbit is
uniformly around a small circle ( the c•piC'yclc) " ith ce nter inscribed in th is cube. ,\ te trahcdron (with four trian gular
C. which in turn traveled unifom1ly around a circle ccn· faces) is inscribed in Jupiter's sphere. a nd in this lctrahe·
tercd at the e arth (lahclcd E in the figure at the lower dron is inscribed the sphere: of the or hit of ~Ia rs. Continu-
left). lltc radii of the circles and the angular sp..:~ds of r ing in I hi> way.tlu: spheres or the three remaining pbnets
and C were dHhen 10 mat ch the ohscrved motion of the th~n known wer~ interspc:rscd with the remainin g three
planet a s clus<:ly a~ possible. for greater accuracy. ~ec· regular solids- the octahedron (eight triangular faces).
ondan· -circles on circles" co uld be used. In fact . severo I the dodecahedron (12 pentagonal faces). and the icosa·
circle; were required for each body in the Greek theory of hcdron (20 triangul:lr face s). II is said that Kepler always
epicycle·s. which reached its defini tive form in Pt olemy's remained prouder of hb five solids than of his three laws.
AImag<'~ I of the second century A.n.
In 15-13. Cope rnicus alte red Ptolemy's nppro;tch
by placi ng the ce nter of each primary circle a t the sun
rather than at the earth. But this change was of greater
771
772 CHAPTER 12 Vectors, Curvei. and Surface:s in Space
. 6S?) Nc..-1on sho" cd tha t Keple r's laws foU~
In his Principia Matlrrmatu:a ~I ( F :.,•ma ~nd soon ) :~nd the inve rse-squareIa:
from the has1c · pnnc1p
· · 1es of mcchanJCS
. _ · using m:ll:tcm:ltiCS · to c xp1am· natural phe.
. . n HIS success In ~ I \\' ld'') .1n~p1rcd
. con.
of gra,•it:lllonal aunct10 · f o f the s,·s tclll of t 1c or
no mcna (-1 now demonstrate the radm.: tood :~nd ""rh ap' e ' e n ma~tc rcd. lhisne~
. ould 1x un crs • 1- . .
fidcncc that the um,·erse c .1 ••5 perccpuo n of thclf a nd of It s place in th•
co nfidence pe rmanent ~ 1 · altered . d pD" ·rful but now ant tqua tcd orm of gcor:~e1••
hum::tm ) · f
. :-.; 1on cmplo' e a <
sc herne o f th tng"~- • e'>' - . 6 '"c apph· thc mcr<.krn ca lculusoh ·caor-
. h I' · cipia 1n 5ccuon 12· • •
rica Icalculus m t e rm · . b I\\ ·"n Newton·~ Ia" and Kepler's la~s.
,·alucd functions to o utline the rclat ton c cc
Th~ directed lin~ segmen t Oi> from the.: origin 0 10 the point J'(a. b) is one
gcomc tnc ~cprcscntat1on of the ,·ector ' · (Sec Fig. 12.1 .2.) For this reason. the ' ector
P(u. b )
v = (a. hj ts called the position •ector of the.: poin t /'(a. b). In fact. the rela tionship
0
lz/ bct wccn ' "' {a . b) :rnd P(a. b) is so clns..: tha t, in ce rta in cont exts. it is co nvenient to
confu_sc the. 1\\ 0 del_lbe ratdy-to regard ,. and /' as th e same ma the matical obje<t
fh c.: d1r ectcd fmc sc~mcnt from the puint Q(a,. 1J 1) to the poin t H(t~>. bz) hal the
same d1. rec1ton
, • ude Jl the• d'Ire"etc d 1·me.: se gme nt fru mthc.: on· ~1~ 11 0 (0· 0110
and.nr agnrt
thCJl<llnt/ (tl,h) Witha:oa1 - a- 1 andb:o
· _ -
~ . tl\•thCV
/n - b1 ( F1g.• 12 . 1.2) . an d con equcn . .
represe nt t hc same \'ector ,. - 0 J' - QJ' 11 · . · d he
. - - \. us obscrvatro n makes it c asv to hn t
FIGURE 12. 1.2 The position componc ntso f t.c\'ccto
h rwnharb't1 rar),.lllltral
·· · · · 0
vector v of the point P and pOint Qand :~rnitra ry te rm inal po1nt""
another represcnution Qii of v. REMARK \\'hen discussing vector.> we often u . ordi·
nary numerical {1uantity 0 • tl . . sc the h: rm swlar to rc.:fe r w 1111
distingui'h the n·m· es 'f ne lat r's 110 1 a vector. In printed work we usc bold type 10
· · " o vectors rom tho 11f 1 . · ·h J'
the sc;rlars a and b that arc the en se nt 1er mathcmaucalnbJcCtS. sue ·
worl: a suitnhlc alternative is 10 ~;:,~~ncnts of the vc~t or ,. - {11. h). In h :rn dw~rt~
that denotes a ''ector llllls " . · ~n ~row-or JU~t a h:1r- ovcr every S) 111 J
· Joumaywntev-
for au :1rrow or a bar over a v ·cto b
( I'
- n, >; or v
- (a. b). .lltcrc ·1~ no nee
=
should he used then.:. c r (a· ) already identified hy angle brnckcts. so none
'
en = (CIIJ . cuz). (3)
l'o tc rhnt
kt
"' leu: = / (cu 1) : + (cu:l: = lei V(11Jl 2 + (u:)2 = lei· lui.
'lllll~ the length of k nl is Jcl times the: length of 11 . 'll u.: m·gnth·c of the vector 11 is the
vector
r >0 , < () - 11 := ( - 1) 11 := (-llr. - 112) .
•
with the same length as 11 but the opposite direction. We say th at the two nonzero
vecto rs u anLI ,. have
FIGURE 12.1.8 Thevectou u
I.
I
may n ave Inc $J 'TlC d"ec110n J$ u
or the o pposite d~rec tlon,
• The s:1me direction if u = cv for some c > 0;
depending on the sig n of c. • Oppo,itl' dirl•rtions if 11 = cv for some c < 0.
llte geometric interpretation of scalar m11ltiplicntinn i~ that c11 is the vector,.ilh
length lcl·lol. with the same direction as 11 if c > 0 but with the o pposite directioni:
c < 0 (Fig. 12.1.8).
ll1e difference 11 - , . of the ,·cctors u = (u 1, u 1) and , = (Vt . 1'2) is defined to~
0
u - ,. =u T ( - v) = (11 1 - v1• ttz - t'2). (~J
If we. think of (11, . 11: ) and ( t· 1• •': ) a~ positio n vectors of the points r :md Q. rt·
spccu,·cly. then u - ,. may be represented b\• the arrow Q/' fro m Q to r. We t:Ll!
p
therefore "rite •
u-v =OP-OQ = iJP.
as itlu~trated in Fig. 12.1.9.
- • I
E X A~PLE : Su ppose th at u = (-1 . -3) = (- 2 . 3). Find lui and the ,·ector!
I
I . nnd v
I
I
u + •. u - v. J u, - 2•·. and 2u + -lv.
I
'
FIGURE 12.1.9 Geometric
intt>rpretatio n of the difference
Solut ion
luJ = / -I! + (- )Jl = Ji5 = S.
u - "· II + \' := (-1 + (- 2), -J + 3)::: (2. 0) .
II - V =(4 - ( - 2) -3
.
') (j
- .) = ( '· - 6).
3u = (3 · 4. 3 . (-3)) = (1 2, - 9).
- 2v = (-2 . (-')
- ' - 2 . 3) = (4. - 6).
2u +·h · = (2 . 4 + -1
. (-2), 2. (-3) + 4 ' 3) = (0. 6).
•
The familiar algebraic propcn io: ,.;ng
analogous properties of ,·ector dd' . 5 of real numbers carry over to the fol10d !'<
a 11100 and scalar multiplication. Let 11. b. ~n c
Vectors in the Plane SECTION 12.1 775
I. a -'- h = h -,. u.
!. a + (h + Cl = (U + h i + C.
.'. r ln + h J = ra + r h . (5)
~. <r .,.. ·' ln = r:t + <a .
You can e:~sily. ,·crif\·. these identities bv. working.. \\ith co mponents. r-or cx:~mpl e. if
=
a = (a 1 .a:} and b (b 1. b:}. then
r(a-'- b ) = r (a 1 +1> 1• a: +b::l = (r (at +btl. r (a: +b::))
= (ra 1 -'- r l>1• ra; + rf>: ) = (rat. r a:) .._ (rbt . rb::) = rn + rb .
11u: proofs of the other four identities in (5) are left as .:~erciscs.
(-at) + (az):
2
lui=
lal
- = -Ital lal
\/a 1l +a,=
2
•
I.
(7)
FIGURE 12.1.10 The vectors I Thus every vector in the plane is a linear combination of i and j. The usefulness
and I· of this notation is based on the fact that such linear combinations or I and j may be
manipulated as if they were ordinary sums. For example. if
n = ati + a2,j and b =btl + f>,j.
t.hen
Also,
•
1
EXA M PtE 6 A 100-lh wei~ht is suspende d Irom the ceil in!! by means o r two per·
pcndicular lkxible cables of~q ual length (Fig. 12 .1 .13). Find the tension (in pounds)
FIGURE 12.1.1 2 Re~olutionol
a .a (o 1• a1 )
into Ill horizontal and
in e 3ch cahle.
vertical component\.
Solulion Each cable is inclined at a n a ngle of 45• from the h orizontal. so it fol·
lows readily upon calculating horizontal a r;d ve rt ical components tha t the indicated
tension force vectors T 1 and T z are gi,·cn by
T 1 = (7j cos ~5')1 + Cli sin ~5.)j and T 2 = (- 72 cos 45")i + ('li s in 45. )j.
where 7j = lT d a nd T: =
IT: I arc the te ns io n forces we sec k. ll1c d ownward force
of gra,·ity acting o n the weight is given by f = -IOOJ. In order tha t the wc:ighl hangs
mo tionlcs.<. the three forces must "balance,'' so that T 1 + T 2 + t' =II: that is.
[<71 cos 45. )i + <71 sin ~S.)j ] + I(- 7i cos ·15")1+ Cli sin ~5")j J = IOOj.
When we equate the components of i in this equation a nd separately equate the
compone nts of j . we get the two scalar equations
fiGURE 12.1. 11 The suspended 7j cos45• - 11 cos45• :: 0 and 7j sin 45' + 7i sin 45• = 100.
wei9h1or Example 6.
ll1e firs t or these scalar equations implies that 7j = Tz = T and then the second vicl<.ls
T = 100/(2 sin45•) =50J2"" 70.71 (pounds) for the tenslon in each cahlc. ' •
I. D~scuss the rcla lion between a 2·dimcnsional vecto r a nd a point in the plane.
2. GIVe several e~ampl-s of ·· h ·
. · . c q uan tntcs t at possess both macnitude and dJTeC·
ttnn. For e ach. dtscuss wh • tl 1h ·· • d
· c 1cr an< ow such q uanhttcs mi~:ht he addc ·
J. If a person Ol\·ns Stock in two · · .. · f J'o
. . compam cs. how mt~ht the worth of Ius port o 1
be descn bcd hy a 2·dtmet1SI.Iln·11 \ . t ., II' ' · '· ·,n
· 'cc or. several peo1,Jc own me sroc~
these same two companies rorrn . . . • .. r roc
. a pa rt nerslu p, IS the '"worth vector o
partners h 1p equal to the s um of th
e wort11 vectors of t he part ners'!
l.
Vector~ in ~he Pla ne SECTlON 12.1 777
12.1 PROBLEMS
{n Problem ' f th rtmgh 4, finti tJ vector ·v = (a. b} that is reprt· 33. Find a vecto r that h as tile same di rectio n as 5i - 7j a nd is
u m rd by the rlrrccu d fin e segm mt TJ~11 sketch hnth
RS. and R.s· (a ) three ti mes its le ngth : ( b) o ne· third its lcn~;th.
tl:e pVlitio" verto r nf the poin t / '(a. b).
~. Find~ vector that h as the oppo~i tc di rection fmm - 3 i + 5j
1. RCI .2J, S(3.5) 2. R(-2. -3). S(l, 4 ) and u (a) fo ur times its le ngth: ( b) o ne -fo urth its leng th.
3. RC5 . Hl). S( - 5. - 10) 4. R(- 10. 20), S(l5. - 25 ) 35.. Find a vecto r of lengt h 5 wi th (a) the same dir~cti on a s
7i - 3j ; (b) the direct io n oppo~itc t h~ t of 8i + Sj.
fn Pmblmlf 5 thro ugh 8, find the sum w = u + v and 1/lu"'trate it
~:mmctriCI/1/y. J6. Fo r "' hat numbers c a re the ve cto rs (c. 2) a nd (c. - 8)
perpendicula r?
5. u = ( I. -2). " = (3. 4 ) 6. UJ = (4 . 2). y = (- 2. 5)
37. For wh 3t numbers c are the ve ctors 2ci - 4j and 3i + cj
7. fl = 3i + 5j . .. = 21- 7j 8. u :71+ 5j , v =- IOi perpendicular?
38. G iven the th ree points A(:!. 3). 8 ( - 5. 7), a nd C CI. - 5). ver·
fn f'roblem s 9 through / 6, fi nd Ia!. l-2bi. ta - bi. a + b. and
3a - 2h. ify b~· direct comput3tion o f the vectors nnd their s um tha t
rd.u ed'!
.Jiononols of o parardogr.~m A/lCD bi>C(I
<:1. Pro• e 1h3 I \he • ~ • . - .
-- eOlCh oche r. [Suggrwon If ,II and. •' are the ~1dpom1> of
I he tat.on.. ~ '
d _ nt>· rc•reet""'"· · and 0 •s chc orip11.
•I 1C ant.!
silo" rh.lt 6.\i = us.[
S4. lise \ CC!OfS CO rr<WC th:\1 the midpoints o_f the four SiJI'\
or an arh 1 rrar~· quadnlaccr>l are che vertiCes of a paul·
FIGURE 12.1. 17 The vrcton
of Problem• ~ 7 t hiOUCJh • 9 lclop:rm.
• Appar..nl velo<rty: v, 5~. Fi£Ur< 1 2. 1.1~ >hO" S the •·ecror a , obr•ined b)·r otating
• W.nd veloCity: w =
r h~ vecror a 11 11 + tJ;j through a counccrdoek"ISCangl<
• Tn l<" v rloc1ty: v 9 • • • + w or '10 . Sho" rh3l
47. S upJ'n<c that the winJ i< blowing from the northeast at [Suggc1rio11: Oc11in by writing 11 = (r cos 0)1 + ( r sin O)j.J
50 nw 'h nnJ tlut the pilot wi•hcs to fly due co<! nt 5()fl milh.
··~
What >lwuiJ che plane's aprarcnc •·elocicy •·ector be:?
411. l{c fl< >l Problem .n wirh the phrase dur ttut repl" d wirh
du,- Wt.Jt .
4 9. R c[l<31 Problem ~7 in the C3SC rho! the pilOt wishes to ny I X
north" •" 31 500 mi:h.
so. Gh·e~ny ~ee ~nrs ;\, D. and C 1n che pb ne, show FIGURE 12.1.18 Rotate •
1~.at A IJ + IJ C.., C A = 0. [S~tsgrsr:on· Plcrure the tri•n- counterclockwise 90• to
obldin a " (Problem 55).
gle AIJC.J
The thre e coordi na te a~cs taken in pai rs determine the r!ucc coordina te p lancs
(Fig. 12.2.3 ):
2
1PtPz1 = I RP~ 1 4- lPt RI2 = IRFW
2
+ IQRl 2 + IP1 Ql2
:: : d.Jsunce
~) 2 + <zr -
2
from tf·:.c: = (.rr - .r2) + (Yt - t z) 2 •
.ry - pl::~_n-:
Thus th e dist:mce formula for rhe di<tance I 1'1 Pz l be rwecn the poinrs P and p is
1 2
FIGURE 12.2.4 Locating the 1n 1;1 = \h r1 - x:J 5 + <y,- .v:J: + <: 1 - .::: 1! . (I)
point P In re<tanguiM
coordinates.
P(J. y. :)
I
I '
}----------
v
I '
EXAMPLE 1 The d istane<: between the points 11( 1. J. -2) and 11(4. -3. I) is
x, + .tz )) + .'~ ~)
.\1 ( --:r-· -r-· 2 .
(Sec Problem 63.) .
The gr~ph of an equ:llion in three va~inbles .r ·:''· :m.d ~IS t~: set of all points in
space"' ith rect:tncular coordina tes that sattsfy that ~qua t tun . In ge neral, the graph of
an equatoon in th;cc va ri:tblcs is a /ll'o·dimetrsional St<r[ace in ll' ( three-dimensional
s pace with rectangular coordinates).
EXI\MPLE 2 Give n a fix"d point C(lo. k.l) and n number r > 0. find an equation of
the sphere with radius rand cen ter C.
Solution Fly ddi nit ion. the sphe re is the set of all po ints /'(.r . y. l ) such that the
di~t:tncc from I' to C isr. That is.ICf'l = r. and thus iC/'1 2 = , :. l ltcrcforc
(3)
•
Equation (J) i> worth remembering as the equation of the sphere "ith n diusr
a nd center C(lt. k. I) shown in Fig. 12.2.7. Moreover. given an equation of the form
FIGURE t2. 2.7 The sphere with
center (h, t ,l) and radius r . x 2 + ·'.1 + ~1 + ,\ r + lly + C: + / ) = II.
we can allcmpt - by completing the square in each variable-t o write it in the form
of Eq. (3) and thereby show that its graph is a sphere.
x
2
+ r ' + r ' + 4.r + 2y- 6~- 2 = o.
Solution We complete the squ:~re in each variable. Th e equation then takes the {Ollll
s
(~l
FIGURE 12.2.8 The Jrrow oP lvJ ::: ..;.rl + yl + zl
r~re~nts the positJon vector
for the length (or magnitude) of the
V <= ( X, y, .l).
Vector " . ....
= (.r Y •)
l
l hrcc·DimcmlonJI Vectors SECTION 12.2 781
v
Ci iv,en 1wo po ml\ 1\ (n 1, a 1 , tr 1 ) :md IJ(!J 1 ,/,1, 3 ) in space, t he di rected line seg·
rn c tll t\ /lin l·i,:. 12.2.'1 r cprc,c nt~ the vec tor
\Vh :•t ittn c:an' for two wctor' in ~r:•cc In he equal i ~ cs~cnti:~lly the s:tme as in
fiGUR( 12.2.? Tlw ,1rrow A.B t he caw ol t\\o dirnemion.d ve ctor\: ll1c vector~ n = (a 1 • fl J . at) and h = (IJ, . l)Z . b3)
repr r\rnll llw wcto r ar c Clf lla l prov tdcd that ,, 1 - /, 1• u1 = I•: . and tlJ = /o_~. 'Jlwt is.. two vectors arc equal
v • (f11 - o,,h, - u1, h, - u, ). cx:"·t ly "'"' n cnrr e,ponrhn): cnmpnm:nl\ arc cqu:tl.
We d c hn c: aclch ti o n :111d wal:~r multiplic.:at ion of t hrcc-d imt:nsiona l vectors ex·
actly :"we chd 111 Section 12. 1. t;•kin r. into account tha t the vectors no w ha ve th ree
cnmpwt clll\ rather than two: 'Inc Mun of the vector~ a = (a 1• a 2• a.\ ) a nd h = (b,. &z. I)J)
i ~ the vector
(5)
llccau•.e 11 and h lie in a plan e (all ho ugh not necessa ri ly the xy-pla ne) if t he ir ini tial
po inh coin ctclc:. atld•tion of thrce·dimcn,ional vectors obeys th e sa me parallclog r:u n
la w a\ in th e two-dimc tl\ionalca 'c (l·lr,. 12.2.10).
It c i~ a rca1mlln hc r, t he n the ' c:•l ar multiple ca i~ the vec to r
(6)
fiGURE 12. 2. 10 The
p.u.1ih•logr:>n1 l.1w f or addition 'Jltc kng th o f en is lei t imes th e len!-:th o f :1. and ca has t he same di rectio n as a if
of vector\.
c > 0 ' "' ' rhc oppo~itc d irect io n if c -: 0. ' ll• c following algebra ic pro pen h:s of vector
ad dition:u1tl 'c:llar multipl ica tio n for t hree-dime nsiona l vecto rs arc easy to est ablish ;
the y fnllow from computations wit h co mpo ne nts. e xactly a~ in Sectio n 12. 1:
II -i h = h + II .
II ·t th + f) = I n + h) ·1 f .
r (u -i h ) = rn + r h. (7)
,, + .< ) :1 = , .. + .':1.
(rs )u = r (.m ) = s (r a ).
EXAMPLE 5 Given the vectors a = (3. -.t. 2) and b = (S. 2 · - 7>· we can write
a = 3i - .tj + 2k and b = Si + 2j - 7k
in order to c:Jlculatc
i a + 5b = 7 . (3i - -lj + 2k) + 5 . (5i + 2j - 7k)
= (2 ! + 25)i + (-28 + IO)j + (14 - 35) k
= -l6i -! Sj _ 21 k = (-16. - IS. -21).
•
The Dot Product of Two Vectors
11te dot product of the two vectors
a = a 11 + al,j + a 3k and b = bt i + btl+ bJ k
is the number obtained when we multiply correspo nding compone nts of a and band
add the results. Tiut is.
(8)
Thus the dot product of two vectors is the sum nf the products of their corresponding
componrlll.<. In the case of plane vectors a = (a 1 • a2 ) :md b = (b1. bz) , we simply
dispense \\ith third components and write a· b = a1b1 + azl>z.
EXAMPLE 6 To apply the definition to calculate the dot product of the two vccto~
a = (3. 4, 12) and h = (- 4. 3, 0), we simply follow the pattern in Eq. (8):
ll·h = (3)(-4) +(4)(3) +(12) (0) = - 12 + 12 + 0 = 0.
And if c = (4. 5. -3). then
~c following properties of the dot product show that dot products of vccto~
behave m many ways m analogy to the ordinary algebra of real numbers.
a·a=lul:.
a· h = h. a.
(9)
ll· th + c)-=u·h + n ·c:.
!'ROO/' If cllher a = ON h = O.thcn Eq.l iO} follo"' immedia tely. If the vectors II
:md h arc p:ualld. then h = r:a \\lth ci:hcr r > 0 and P = 0 orr < 0 and 0 = :r. In eith e r
ca~c. b<Hh s:dc< m Eq ( 101 rcJucc to t in :. <o npin the co nclu5io n of llH.:orcm I
folio·.• ' ·
=
\\'e turn to the ~encral CJ\C m "h1ch the vc( tOr u n /;and h 0Q nrc no nze ro =
and nonp:mtlkl. '! hen
IQ/;(1 = Ia - h : =In - h) · ( 11 - h)
= :t·a - a · h - h ·a + h·h
= (a ' ; + lb .: -~ a · h
But c =
IQ 1'1is the side of tri:m glc OPQ (Fig. 12.~. 12) that is op posit e th e angle 0 in-
cluded be tween t he sides n = Ia' and b = th .. l ienee the law o f cos ines (Appe ndix M)
gives
IQ/'1: = r = n= ... h: - 2nbco~o
= Ia:= + lh12 - 2 1al lh1cos 0 .
l11i s theore m tell~ us that th e angle 0 betwee n the nonzero vectors a and b can
be found by usin g the eq uation
u· h
co~O = - -. ( II )
lul lhi
For instance. given the ve ctors a = (8. 5) and b = (-11. 17) of Example 5 in Sec-
tion 12.1. we calculate
(8.5) · (-11.17) {8)(- 11)+ (5 )( 17) -3
cos&= 1(8.5)11(- 11.17)1 = J S1+ 52J(-ll)Z+ I71 = J89J4W'
It follows that 0 = arccos{-3/J89ATii)"" 1.5865 (radians )"" 90.9()> f 90°, so we
sec again that the vectors 11 and b arc not perpe ndicular.
More generally. the two nonzero vectors 11 and h arc perpendicular if and only
if they make a right angle. so that 0 =
rr / 2. By (II). this in turn is so if and only if
u . b = 0. Hence we have a quick computat ional check for perpendicularity of vectors.
Similarly.
L 8 = cos
-·(/iii. iiC)-
-
J811 Jt liCI
• - cos
- ·( (-3.3.-J)·(-4. 1. - 1))
...f'i7 ./Iii
I = cos·• ( 18
../27FIS
) "" 0.6155 (rad) "=' 35.26• .
'I
111en LC = 180' - LA- L 8 "" 90' . As a check. noiC th at
G1. CiJ= <1.2. -2>· <4. - 1.1 > = 0.
So the angle at Cis. indeed. a right angle. •
Direction Angles and Projection s
The diree11on :tng1es of I he nonzero vector a =
(a 1• n2• DJ) are the angles a. fl. 3nd
y that it makes " ith the ' 'CCtors i. j . and k. rcspccti,·ely (FiJ:. 122.1.1). The cosines of
thcs.: angks. cos a. cos P. and cosy. arc called the di reclinn cosinl's of t he ,·ector a.
When we re place b in Eq . (II ) -.ith i . j . ~ ntl lo: in turn. we li nd th3t
:a · i n1
cos a = - - = -
Ialli! laf '
a· j nz
' cosp = - - = - . and (Ill
tai iJI laf
ll• k DJ
FIGURE 12. 2. 14 TM direction cosy=-=-
angles ol the vector a . l• l lkl lal'
lbat is. the direction cosi nes of a arc the compone nts of the unltvfctor aflal with the
same direction as a. Consequent ly
(13)
'\
\
. InI cos 0 in either ca~c. Equation ( !0) then gives
COmPt,D =
i:JIIhl cosO :t·h
= -- (14)
'
\
"
,'""'
'~ .
-comp ta)
111
ibl lbl
'J11cre is no need to mcmoriz.: this formula, for-in pmct ice-we can always read
u .~, = u - a1 = (4 , - 5.3)-
I\-32 .- I .32) = I\ 314 · -:r·
14 7)
3 .
3
lne di agram makes our choice of u1 plausible, and we have de libera tely chosen a .~,
so thatu = a11 + a.~, . To verify tha t the vector u1 is indeed para llel to h. we simply note
tha t it is a scalar multiple o f h . To verify that n~ is perpe ndicular to h , we compute
the dot product
1f'
S!«<
S$'
. 1_
,.:.--
Pb.~ ----==---
II = PQ
Q
Solution \\'ca rcgJ\Cn that lf l : 20(Ib) and ll>l = 5280(ft). Becausecos 30' =j./3.
Eq. (16) )Idds
II' = F · ll = lfll l>]cos 30' = C20l(52SCII0 J3) "'91452 (ft ·lb).
'Jl1i• rn av •ccm li ke a lnt of work for a child to do. If the 1-milc trip takes an hour
then the. chilLI ;, !:encratin!! p o wrr (\\ork per uni t time) at th e rate of (91452 ft·lb)i
(Jt\00 •J"' ~5.~ rr lt•!.,_ Jl ccau\c I hor,c powcr(hp) is dcli ncd to be 550 ft -l b/s. the child's
"prl\\ cr r:o1111 ~ " ;, 25.·1/550 "' l~ hp. By cmnp:1rison. nn ndult in excellen t physical
condition c.on clunb the 2570 steps of the staircase o f th e CN tower in Toronto in less
than ~0 minu rc,., On Octobe r 29. 19l'i9. Ore ndon Kccnory of To ronto set the world's
rewrtl lor the la>lc>t ~ta1 rchmb the re wilh n time of 7 min 52 :;. r\ssuming thar he
climhcd 1672 ft and weighed 160 lb. he g~neratcd an ave rage o f more than 0.988 hp
over !his time intcf\·al. t
12.2 PROBLEMS
(fr/'m /Jirm.fl thrtUtf:lo 6,firtd (a) 2• + b. (b) 3• - ~b. (c) •· h. U through
d . Ill' . Find c0 '"1', b anti comp a for the ,·ccton •
(tl) I• - b', ami(~) • 11• 1. an 1, given rn Prohlems I through 6. •
J• • "'(2. 5. -~). h = {1, -2. -))
lfl Problmrs / 9 tlrmugl 24 .
f
Jphtf~. I
2. 1 "' (- 1. 0, 2) , b =(J. ~. -S) r • Write th(• t>qumion of tht indicattd
I
J. 1 =I + J + k. b= J- k 19. Center (3, 1. 2). rndius 5 ~
4. 1 • 21 - Jj + Sk. b =51+ 3j - 7k 20. Center (-2 ' 1•- S) • f iH1.HIS v7
r.
l!i. .r' + ,. + i ~ 4 ' - f.,)' = 0 to keep it mov•ng, at a constant 1peed. Suprose that a dog-
26. .r +>;""~-l!.r -9y~ 10z+40=0
1 team hJrncs' i< <lU.:tchec.f \0 ihat the team's force vector
mnlcs a:> angk of 5' "'llh the homontal. If the dog team
27. 3t'+3);+3r- IR<-4ll=O
pulls this skd at n speed of 10 mi 1h. how much p<l"'er
]..'l 2.t 1 1 2y'.; 2:' = 7.t- 9y+ Ill (rn honq>o.,er) a ro the dogs generating? (Notr: I hp is
550 It lb/).j
In /'rul>lwa 19 th rnux lt 38, tlrtcribr tl,_ graplr nf th<' gi\ en tqua·
rmn itr gt.•tmrrtnc t( rtru, ruing p lain. rlt>or l11n guag~
57. Supp<X<: that the hori10nt~l and \<rtrcal com poncn ts o f the
three ,·ectors ~ ho"' n in T·ig. 12.::.1 'I h.rlancc ( the a lgc bra1e
2'} . l = () 30. X =f) sum of the honzontJI cnmponcn!l ts zero. a' b the su m of
~ I. ' =10 32. XY=O the vertical components) . How much "'"'k rs done by the
cor.stant force F (parallel to the tnclrncd plane ) in pulling
33• .ryl =0 3-t. .r1 + )) + i +7=0
t~c wc rght m.; up the mclined plane a ' 'crtica l height lr?
~~• .r + > + J? =0
2 2
36. x' + f + ;! - 2.x - I = 0
37. .r 2 + y1 + :' - 6x + Ry + 25 ~ ()
.18. x 2 + y 2 =0
Two Vt't' l O I'.\' arr para /It/ prov;,J~d that onr u a Jtalar multlplt t)/
the other. Vt'lt!rmin~ '\'ht:thrr the \ 't'CIOfl a a nd IJ tn /,roMttru 39
tllfOltKh .J2 ar~ /}llrtt fl<•l 01 prrpt·ndtcular o r n t•llht>r
39. a = (4. -2. 6) and b = (6, -3, '1,
40. u = (4. -2. 6) >nd b = (·1, 2. 2)
rtClJRE 12.2. 19 The in<lrned plane
ot Probl~m S7.
41. ~ = 12i - 20j + ll>k and h = -9i + 15j- 12k
58. l'rn~c the C.uchy·Sch,.•ulntiJU~Iily~
42. a = 121- 20j + 17k nnd b = -9i + 15j + 2~k
Ia ·hi:; l• l lh l
In l'ro hlcms -13 mu/ .J.J, dttaminr whc-:lrt>r or nottJr~ three givtn
pomiJ lit on a singlt> straight litu•. for ;til pairs of vectOJ'1 a nnd h.
43. f <O. - 2. -1 ), Q(l. -3. 5). /((4. -6. 8) 59. Given two arb<trary vector-. • and b , prove that they satisfy
the triangle lne~ualit y,
44. 1'(6. 7. SJ. Q<J. 3. 3J. U(l2. 15. 18)
:a ... hi:;; 1• 1+ lhl.
In froblmiS 45 tl:muglr 48, find (to th~ ntarest cltgru) the thru
(Suggestion: Square both sides.)
anglt>s of tlw 1ritmg/~ with tlr~ gi,·tn ~·crtices.
(.0. Prove that if a and h arc arbitrary vectors, then
45. A(I. 0. 0), l1!0. I, 01. C(O. 0. I )
46. A(I.O,O), R(l.2.0), C( l.2.3) Ia - hl i: I• ! - lb!.
47. A(l.l. 1}, 8 (3, -2. 3). C(3, 4, 6) (S~tggwioll: W rite a = (a- h)+ h; then apply the t riangle
inequali ty of Problem 59.)
-'8. A(I. 0. 0). R(O. I. OJ. C( - I. - 2. - 2)
61. Use the dot p roduct to construct a nonzero vec tor w =
In Pro!Jiems 49thrOIIJ:h 52, find tht tlirecrion angles ofthr vector (w 1, "'l· w 1 ) perpendicular to both of the vectors u =
rrprrsmted b·y PQ. (1, 2, - 3) nnd •· = (2. 0. I ).
49. I'( I. -I. 0). Q(3. 4, 5) 62. The unit cube rn the firs t octant in space has opposite ver·
tices 0 (0. 0. 0) and /'(1, I. I) . Find the angle bctw·een the
SO. P(2 . - 3, 5). QO. 0. -I) edge of the cube on the .r·axis and the dragonal O f ' .
Sl. P (-1. - 2 . - 3). Q(S. 6. 7)
63. Prove that the point M given in Eq. (2) i.s indeed the mid·
~!. P<O. 0. 0). Q(5. 12. 13) point of the segment P1 1'z. (Note: You mu<t prove !J.mh that
.11 is equall y d i.stant from J>1 and P2 anclthat M lies on the
In Problrms 53 nmJ 54, find the work W donr by the force Fin segment 1'1 f~.J
moving a pnrridr in a srraightline frc>m I' to Q.
64. Given vector1 a and b, let a = Ia ! and b =Jbl. Prove that the
SJ. f =i - k; /'(0. 0. 0). Q(3. I. 0) \'CCtor
(ba +a h)
54. f = 2i - 3j + 5k; P(S. 3. -4), Q(-1. -2. 5) ~ =
(a+ b)
SS. Suppose that the force vector in fig. 12.2.17 is inclined at an
angle of 4()' from the 2 round. If the child cx.,rts a constant bisects I he angle between a and b.
force of 40 N. how mu~h heat energy (in calo ries) docs the 65. Let a, b. and c be three vectors in the X)'·planc with a and h
child expend in pulling the sled a distance of I km along nonzero and nonparallel. Show that there exist scala rs a and
the grou nd? (Note: 1 J of wor k requires an expenditure {J such that c =a a + /lb . (Suggmion: llcgin by expressing
of0.239 calories of e nergy.) a . b, and c in terms of I. j , and k.)
788 CHAPTtR 12 VKtOfl, C~. a nd SurfacH in Spa<~
70. The methane molecule Cll. is nrrangcd with th~ four by.
66. U:t ax .._ by .._ c "' 0 be the ~quat:oo of th~ hne Lin the
' dr<>~:<n atoms at the 'eru.c es o f n rog~lor tetrahedron and
xy-plan~ "'"h normul \<:<lOr n. Let P0 (x, . •1\>l be a point on
wit h the cart>on atom at 1LS center (hg 12.2 2fl). Su~
thi~ hn~ and /',(x 1 • ya) be a point not on L !'rove that the
a•es and scale arc ch<>'Cn 10 thlt thc letrahcdron
JXrr<:ndicular dl\l~nce frO!':! 1'1 10 L 11 I h 31 t.he . . (I I 1
is that of l'robkm 69. wllh 1" cent« a t l · i. ;l. Find th(
bond ar:!!' a bct,.cen the hoc< from the carbon aton. to
two of the hydrogen ntom<.
67. Given the '"'o roinl\ A 3. -2. J ) and 8<5. ~- -I). "'-:..te an
equation in r. y. ~nd: that s.a.p that the 5'C 1int P (x . \ ', : )b..
c:qu:ally di,lant fro:n the p,.tnU A and 8 The-n Strnphf> this
equatio n nnd g1vc a geometric description of the <CI of all
such point\ rc•. y. ~ ~ -
611. Given the fixed point AO. 3. 51. the pomt P r.r. y. :l. and
the \CCtor n = I - J .._ 2L. ~:<e the dot product to bc 1p ~
\\11le an cquatmn m x. y. and :that t.a~' tht,. n and A P
nrc perpendicular. "lnen "mrhf) th" <'iUatlon and ~1vc a
geometric dc-,cnplum of all such f'C'lnt< /'1• . '. ~~
6'1. l'nwc th:tt the puint\(0. n. OJ. ( I. l. Ol. ll.n. I l. a nd 10. I. ll
arc the: \ CrtiCC' of :t t CfUIJr tC:IIJhcdHtn h) '-h0'41ng lhJt
coch HI 1hc •i•edge• hn< lcn~lh ./5 Then U\C ttc dnt
fiGURE 12.2.20 The methane
I'•Otluct tu find the >n~lc bet,.ccn an) '"'" cd~C\ of the
bond angle o of Prohlpn· 70.
tc1rl\hcdron .
I•
ll.3 lTHE CROSS PRODUCT OF VECTORS
We oflcn need to find~ vector that i.s pcrpend1cul~r to each of two vectors a and b
in srace. A routine way of doing this i< rrovidcd hy the c ross prruf11ct n_x h of the
• • 1> wctors a ~ nd h . lnis vector product is quite unlike the dut projuct 11- h tn that a · b
is a scalar. whcrNs a x b is n ' "<'Ctnr. f-or this rca~on u x h is sometimes called the
••rct11r prm l11ct of the two vectors a and b.
The cro~s product (or •cctor product) of the vectors n = (a 1. az.a3 ) and b =
(b,. 1•:. hJ) is de ll ned :~lgcbraically by the formula
(ll
b
Altho ugh this fo rmula seems unmotivated. it has a redeeming feature: lltc product
ax b is pe rpendicular both to a and to b . as suggested in fig. 12.3. L
fiGURE 12.3.1 The cross produU
a x b 1s perpcndlcuiJr to both a
TH EOREM 1 Perpendicularity of the Cross Product
~ nd b .
The cross product • x b is rcrpcndicula r both to 11 a nd to h.
PROOf' We show tha i a x his perpendicular to 11 hy s h o wing thai the dot product
of • and ax b is zero. Witb th<! components as in Eq. ( 1). we find that
a· (a X b)= llt(<lzbJ- <IJ~) + Uz(UJbl - a 11>)) + IIJ(II Ib:!- tllbt )
= a,al i>J - lltliJbl + tlzliJbc - a 2a 11>) + II JUt~ - a Jazl>t
= 0.
A si mil ar compulation shows that b · (a x b) = 0 a s well, so a x b is also perpcndiculJr
to the \'ector b . ~
(2)
EXAMPLE 1
' - .l1, = 2 · 4 -(-1) · 3 = 11.
•
I;
(3)
Each element a, of the lir$t ro"· i> multiplied by the 2-by-2 '"subdclerminant"' obtained
by deleting the ro" and column that contain 11,. No te in Eq. (3) tha t signs are att;tchcd
to the "• in accord "ith the checkerhoard pattern
+ - +
+
+ - +
Equati<)n (:1) is an expansion of the J·hy·J dc tcrmin:mt along its first row. It
can b..- <'l(p:tndcd a inn~ any other row or column as well. f or example, its expansion
along its S<'COnd cnlu mn i~
In lin,·ar algebra it is shown that all such expansions yield the same value for the
dete rminant.
Although we can expand a determinant ()[order 3 along any row or column.
l~<·re we will usc only expansions along the first row. as in Eq. (3) and Example 2.
EXAMPLE 2
l11is is c:tsy to verify by expanding the 2-by-2 determinants on the right-hand side and
no ting that the three components of the right·hand side of Eq. (I) result. !'vlotivated
by Eq. (4). we write
j k
lt X h= fl 1 d1 " ·' (5)
,, l~z i>J
790 CHAPTER 12 V~cton, Curves, and Surlaus in Space
. .. . thi< c uation is to be e\•atuated by expansion along
The "symbolic determtna~t tn . ~ 1 q thous:h it we re a n ordinary determina nt with
its first row. just as in Eq. (.>)and 1 ;' ~: expa-;,sion is the righ t·hJnd side or Eq. (4).
1
real number cnrncs. 11tc _result 0 1 . x b form the second row or lhc 3-by.J
Th c component>. or th <. jtrsr vector (a th.
11
Ill
s •cond vector h form t Itc rI urd
. row. The
·
determmant. an t 1c d 1 components
• . . o c <
bee~ usc as we soon shall sec, a x b is
and h 1s tmportan1 · •
ord cr o f th.e vect ors a luct is 110 1 commutati••e.
to b x a· The cross prcx. .
genera IIy n Ot equa1 · od ·. 1
the form most convement for computa.
Equation (5} for the cross pr uct '
tiona! purposes.
.. b
If the vectors a and h share the same in itial point. the n 'Iheorem I implies that
ax b is perpendicular to the plane de termi ned by u nnd h (Fig. 12.3.2). There arc
still two poss ible directions for a x h. hut if a x h i'- 0, the n the triple 11. h . a x b is a
ri}iht·hand cd triple in exact!\' the s~mc sense as the triple I. j . k. 11nts if the thumb of
your right hand points in th~ direction of a x h, then your fingers : uri in the direction
of rotation (less than ISO") from u to h.
Once we ha•·c establ ished the di rection of u x b , we can describe the cross
product in comple tely geometric terms by telling what the length )a x hi of the \'ector
11 x b is. l ltis is gi\'cn by the formula
u x u = n x ii :-: HX n = ll (8)
t\.'1 c.•\ ~f\ '~rh.'r u
l ~<iu.Hiou Pl h,l, an in1pon:m 1 geom et ric int erpreta tion. Suppo~that o a nd b
fiC.lJR£ I ::-. 3. 3 ltw ,.,,.,, <'I th<' .trl.' " 'l'l<''l'llt<·d h · adj.1<:<: nt ~ide< of a parallcl ogram/'QRS, with a = I'Q and b = PS
~'JI,, 1 1\~~,,lf._\Ul Nt\ l \ !.;t ' lt .
( I ·,,:. I ~ .. I.J). llt<: p:nalklngram the n has base of le ngth fa ! and heigh t Ihi si n 0 , so its
art'a t'
(9)
·n,u, t/:,· /,·ngtlr o( tlu· c11 n < !''"duct u x h i.< numerically the snme ns the nren of the
f•.tra/1,·/.,grllm c/,·rr·mtin.·tl by u rmd h. It follows that the area of the triangle PQS in
l 'i!!. I ~ ..' .-1. "h<><c :m·a is h,l lf that of tlw parallclogr:utl, is
(10)
Equ.Hinn (Ill) gin~s a <JUick way 10 comput e the area of a triangle-even one in
SJ'.Il'l•- witlh>Ut the n~ed of lintlin): a ny of its angles.
l XAM P LE ·I Find the nrc;t of the tri :mglc with ver tices A(3, 0, - I), 8 (.1. 2. 5) . .and
r C(7. - ~. -II.
FIC.UR[ 1:2. 1..1 Th<' Me.l ol .VQS
l\! '" ' b Solution Ali = ( t . 2. 6) ami A C = (4. -2. 5) , so
j k
tl lixAC= 2 6 = 221 + 19j - !Ok.
-1 - 2 5
lllc rcforc. hy Eq. (W).thc area ,,f triangle ABC is
Uut
fiGURE I 2.3 .5 Thr W~ic unit
•ff'loo In ip.>Ct. j X I "" - k . k X j == - i. an<l i X I. = - j . (lib)
IXI =j X j = I. Xk = 0. (lie)
also fo llow directly from the original definition of the cross product (in the form in
Eq. (5)). l l tc product! in Eq. (I Ia) a rc ea sily remem bered in t erms o f the sequence
I. j. k. I. j. k.
The product of any two comc:cutivc unit vectors. in the order in which t h~y apper~r
in t his sequence, is the next one in th e sequence.
4
792 CHAPTl R 12 VKto~. Curves. and Su rfaces in Sp.lce
! 3. a x (b + c) = ( a x b ) + (a
~. a· (h x c) = {a x b) · c:
X c):
(U )
(15)
(16)
5. a x (b x c)= (a · c)b - (a · b)c.
l he proofs of t::qs. (12) thro ugh (1 5) arc stra ightfo rward ap plicat ions of th•
definition of the cross product in terms of components. Sec Problem 33 for an outline
of the proof of Eq. ( 16).
We c:tn flnd cross products o f vectors e~ pre~sed itl te rms or the basic unit vectors
i . j . and k h)· mea ns of computations that closely resemble those o f ordinary algebra.
We simply appl)' the al gebraic prope rties summarized in ·n 1corem 3 togethe r \\i th
the rela t ion~ in Eq. ( I I ) giving the variou5 prod ucts o f t he thre e unit vectors. We
m ust be careful to prese rve the order of factt)rs, because vecto r multiplicat ion is not
commutat ive- altho ugh. of course. we should not hesi tate to use Eq . (12).
II • (b X c) = a 1(l>>C) _ ~c2)
. • -az(b t CJ - bJC t )+ a3 (1J 1 cz -~c 1 ) .
But the cxprcsston on the right is the value <If the, 3-b y-3 detc rnuna
. nt
ll • (b X C) = a,
1>1 -
, ,:
<J• "'I .
I>
)
\ Ct c ,: C\
L
"'" Cro" r roc..c:t of \ « too StcllO'l 12. 1 793
[XAM PU r, II • .. :1 .11. h I · j • ~ . .anJ c ., J j I.., then
II -.1
(I J -1
.
• -1
-0
0 J
•
l l c tm:" :ta:--C' o! 1~ •-.1lr t;t;-1: r·,.-L:t (,,, .trrl·.:.llll'"' d.-r-·nd, on th<'
fnHh·~1:-;o r"' :r-t:. l... :r:r~~· •! '~ l c · a h ,, ... ,! c "'c.· th·(:- '~:~h'r' \\ Ji h thl· <.tnh~
l!""l1131 ;vnr.~ f 1;"U:e i: l 1 ' .a., t!-c r. :
t' :t:r ,~,t Jch·rnl:n~d l'\ t h~'l• \ t:t."h.lr'-
th.tl I 'AI:t .ltr '"1 •c;':C\.C'"""I~ • l":c- • \C~h't\ \' .tJ h1.•r.: t_•,kc.•, If th,: \ l·.:h'~ :1. h.
,lfi,J ( IIC (o;>' r •r (I 1': .I\.~.:~ rl.t:-C) then the p.tt.llkkl' li'<'•ll' .ft•~t't:l'f<l:t• Jnd
fi GUR l 12 l (, t h~ vr,• "' • of th•
tl\ \ulun c u /c;Ju l!.roo'C'M 1 h .... :-!, \' h:-t!'icr \\1 n~'l th.:- thrt·( ,c.·""tt.u" .nc.· t.·,,p) .u1.1r.
pMdllrl•·p•f"''l " • · (b " ( )
hu t II 1\ rn "':II rf 11 .,.1 <'0 I~~\ Jlr r, 11
1 ' /(()()f' If the th1cc \C< hll' ar c c11pbn.u. then • .1n.l h " c .trc pcrpcndt.:nl.tr. ' "
\ ·- n ·th " ct 0 t\ \\umc. t hrn. tlut the \ u r nell '"rl.tn.u II~ Fq ('I) the :m.•:t
uf the h,to,(' (lkl <'CIIIIII<'d h\ h and C) of the f'31 ,l lkkrtpc.l" 11 It '< Cl.
Nm• let " 1-c t h~ ,,. 111r .1nt:lc i"C 1" c~n 11 .tncJ 1he: ' c<l ur h '< c t h.tt " l"'''l"'nchntl,1 r
t~• the: h.t,c I hen the ht: t):!ht ut th<· pMallckptp.:J "/1 1u """' If t1 "th.: ant:k he ·
=
t " ccn thn c.-tcu ' u .tnJ h x c:-. th en ctthcr tl u ltrl' = ~ - (I . ll <·n•c """ ten' Ill. ~o =
I'= tlh = lh X Cl llll COS {I= ht'lh X CtiCO' til= lll •th X e) I.
[XAMPL[ 7 l'i):urc 12.:1.7 sho11 ~ the pyramiJ 0/'Q« and the p:H!l!lclcpipcd hulh
dctcrminn l hy the: ' cctors
3 2 - I
EXAMPLE 8 Usc the scalar triple product to show th:u th e points A (l. - I. 2).
JJ(2 , 0. 1), C(3, 2. 0). and D{S. J , -2) arc coplanar.
So lu tion It's enough to show that t he \'CCtors iiii = (I. 1. -I). tiC = (2. 3. -2).
and AD = (~. S. -~) arc coplanar. But their scalar triple product is
I - 1
2 3 -2 =1·(-2)- 1· 0+(- 1)·(-2)=0.
4 5 -~
794 CHAPTER 12 Vectors, Curves, and Surf~ces in Space
the arallelepiped determined by these three vecto
so Theorem ~ guarantees that f-·cn poin ts arc coplanar. ~
hils \'Olume zero. Hence the four ll
'tc often in scientific applications. For exampr
Th ~s product occurs qUI r. d · .e.
e cr . .. ce is free to ro tat e nround the rixe pomt 0 . If a force F
su ppose tha ~ a bod> m spaod\' that fore.: causes the body to rotate. l11is effect is
acts nt a pomt P of the b · · d b , the relation
measured bv the torque vector r define >
· r ::: r x t'.
- h · h · • throus:h 0 dete rmined by r is th e axis of rotation
"here r = OP. t e stratg. t 1me • .
and lhe length
lrl = lri!FIsin 0
i~ the moment of the force F around this axis ~Fig. 12.3.8). .
. t·o of t he cross product m\'oh·cs the force exerted on a mov1 ng
,\ nothcr app I1ca 1 n · . . · · 1,
. 1 h . • m•nnctic field Thi~ force IS Im po rtant m partie" accelcraton.
c ha rge d p:trI rc c ~ .. ~, · . . .
rna'~ ,pcctrornctc~. Jnd telc\'i< ion picture tu~cs : contrnlhn~ th e paths ofthc.IOni iS
I
accompJo,hcd through the intcrp b~ of electriC :1nd ~n :~gnctiC fields. In such m~um.
~lances. the force F on the particle due to a magnetrc field dcpen~ls ~)n three thmgs;
FIGURE 12.3.8 The torque vt.>ctor the chnrge ,1 of the partie it:. its \'cloci ty vecto r,., and the magne tic held vector II at
r Is normal to bot!· r and F. the in<tant ancous location of the particle. And it turns out tha t
f' = (qv) X 8.
12. 3 PROBLEMS
Find a x b in rrobk11u I tllfmtgh 4. 9. Apply Eq. (5) to \'erify the equations in ( !Ia).
I. a = (5. -I. -2). b = (- 3. 2. .t)
10, Apply Eq. (5) to ' 'erifythe cquaiion\ in (I ll>).
2. • = (3, - 2. 0). b = (0. 3. -2)
II. :rove th~tthc \ector product is not a,;,;ociativc b)' comj'Jr·
J•• =1- j ... 3k, b = -2i + Jj + k rng u x (b x c) with (a x b) x c in the case a = i. b == i +l
.a. a = 41+ 2j - 2k. b = 2i - Sj + .Sk and c = 1+ J + k.
In Problrm.> 7 and S.find rwo diffumt unit v~ctors a and v both l S. Find the area of the triangle with ,·crtices P(l. 3. -!L
of k'h ich or~ p~rpmdku/ar to both tht gi•·~n vtctors 1 and b. Q<2. 4. S), and R(-3. - 2, 2).
1. 1 = (3. 12. 0) and b = (0. 4, 3) 1
6. ~d ~volum!_2( the parallelepiped with ndja~nl ed:
8. 1 .. 1+ 2j + 3k and b = 21 + 3j +.Sk . ' OQ, and OR, where P Q and Rare the pointS~~·
1n Problem 14. ' •
Tl>.- CroH Prod<Kt of \ t<to•s SEcn0\1 12 l 79 5
{al lo nol !'~< •:•lu,tt •·~ II• per• lrl l"'•l.,. •h aJ c•r.l r
t•ll'' , Ill ', 0(1 an.l 01\, "'l•r 1'. {>, anJ R ~•c I' 'I" ,,,
pHn on l'r ut•ktn I~ lh) l u •ll h• '"1u:nt 1 ! ~ ~.r pHl l I
"llh Hl11of\ I I , 1'. (I, ~ II I II
I mJ "'""''"""' "I"" 'I" I 1· ulor '" II• r•··~ thr '"'' .~.
I'""'' I' (I .onol H uf l'r .. t.• I I\ ll n t l I~· tl ' >"'CC
ll 'lf!l the- t'lh'ln , ,, thl\ rl.a•,,. "' (. •nt pu•.n, ft • 01:
Itt I''•'•'!' t•H / V throrh.•lt ~ .' ,/, t lrf'JI,f' .., / , •I,. r , 1 1, , tl , ( ,,. ,
~'' '"I'''' '"' ,\ II. ( . 11t1d /) lUi' • nrl.m u If n1 ' 'n.f tl ~ 1~~, FIGURE 12 3.12 f'rt'bl~on 16
••f 1lrr /'''''"11.1 "'uh lhnt' /uu t /'flllltl tH fl\ \ , ,, , f"\, 1 h ,., •I"'' rtt
' '''!'ft" " ''''r"uh tlt.u of,,,,. f'd ri.lllrf,·t''' ''" ,1 ..uu.~ 11, A Ji, 27. Ar;oh !,1 ( ~)II> ' til(\ fq (l : l. thc .lnlil'\•mmut.Hhity of
,'\( ·, ,,,,/ " /J
tt·: \C .. t• 'r· Ju.,t
Jij. 11 1. ' · ~). lit I, .1 I I, ( 12. U 7o , nntl /1 I X l o 1!\. \ 0-.! ,1 • . , , ·~r !I, .. : o,kntll~ (M <.-~IJr triple prod·
! 0, Ii i\ . ~~. 171, /12' II ~}J ( 1~ 1 I· :•1. aud t..' ''J:',, 1 ,"'I't C l~,
/lj:to, Ill 1'1)
: 1. \ ~ .. (' ·~ I r ~l'hl (.) tr(' "':!'It~ ,,n 3 hnc: l..ln (l'·l~t.'. Ul A
!1. tlr\ : . I t, l l rh , ol,lll,(IJ \II .oru l/lil l l l l ' l t--~r· """ · en / t l 1:::11 ( > ICokul~tron i"C' "~~s
, ,\, ,'~. ~!. Ill. lt, l~o ..lt . :n1. (117.~' ~~ •• •n.l t•• 3rt 11 !t ~~e I! tr.~· 1/'(ll,><ll•>" l~ it lh<· !'e'T'<'ndrrubr
/1{ \1 , 11, ,~ , J•,t.ulce fr~un , \ 111 th( Inc I I\
(11,11)
(0, 01
tl "' I ~. ( ;;;Q; X iiTb )I
FIGURE 12.3.1 1 Problem 25. Ii\Q7 x P;'Q; I
<
796 CHAPTER 12 Vecto11, Curves, and Surfaces in Spat e
J.' Deduce from the or1hogonality propc!lies of the vert
32. U)c the follo"-in~t mcthoJ to e>tabhsh thM the ·~ctor triple · product that the vector (a x h ) X (r x d ) c.1n be wriucn~:
llrctdnct (II x h) x r iSClJUal to (a . c)h - th . r)a . (a) Let I be
a unit "~Clnr in the duection of a and let J 1x a unit •·ector
the form , ,a ... r 1b and m the form + s1 d. ••<
pcrpcndscub r 1n I and r arallcllO the plane of a and h. Let JS. Consider the trian gle in the xy·pla ne that ha, veni~
, OJ. (.tt. y:. 0). and ( XJ • .)'}. 0). Use the •«tor prO<Ju
K = I x J . E•rl~in "' hYthe re are Kalars a 1 , b,. b; . r 1 • <t. ( Xt· '1 ' .
and r,such thl t to pro\'C that the nrc a of t11s 1 . • I • I /' f
w ang e ts •a the a!Jsolur<t1
•·alii~ of the determrnant
a =a, l. h =b, I + b,J . and r = c11 + c:J + CJ K
I .r, Y•
(b) Now show that
ca x b) x c= -11 1/>;r:l + a1b:c1J.
(c) Finally. sub.titutc for I and J in terms of a and b. 36. Given the •·eclOrs a = (a, . /1 2. /13) and b = (b., b,. b,) , verity
33. By pcrmuta ti•m of the vecwrs a. h. and c. deduce from Eq. (6).
Problem 32 tha t
Mx (h X c)= (a · c)b - (o ·b)c by computin~ each side in terms of the components of 1
[thi' i' Eq. {Ill)[. and b.
for some r.:al number r. If To = M and r = OP arc the po~ition vectors of the
points f b and P. respectively. then P0 P = r - To. Hence Eq. ( 1) gi,·cs the •'t<IOI
1
t'IJUUiio n
These. a rc purum etric eq uutlons o f Ihe line L th~.. t p asses t h roug1' t h e pom
· 1 (•· · ''11· ;.-I
...,.
a nd ts parallel to the vector ,, == (a, b. c). ·
so we take a = 2. b = -3. and c = I. With /'1 ns the fi~co point. the equa tions in (3)
give
y = 2-31,
as p:uamctric equations of L In contrast. with /~ as th e fixed point an d wi lh the
vector
-2•· = - -li + 6j - 2k
(p:nallel to •·) as the direction vector. the equa tions in (3) yield lhc parametr ic
equations
X= 3- -lt. y=-1+6t. :: = 3-21 .
l lms the parametric equations of a line a rc not unique.
If all the coefficients a, b. and c in (3) arc nonzero, then we can eliminate the
parameter 1. Simply solve each equation for rand then set the resulting expressions
equal to each other. This gives
These are called the symmetric Cflualions of the line L If one or more of a orb or c
is zero, this means that L lies in a plane paralle l to o ne of the coordinate planes. nnd
798 CHAPTER 12 Vectors, Curve5, and Surfaces in Space
EXAMPLE 3 Find both parametric and srmmetric eq~ations of_the li~e L through
· , llo (3 . 1• - 'J n (.l -I 1} Find a lso the pomts at wh1ch L mtersects th•
•nd rJ
lh e pom.s - • · • • •
three coordinate planes.
Solution The line Lis parallel to the vecton ~ M = ( I. -2. _3). so w~ taken= 1.
b = -2. and c = 3. ·n1e equations in (3) then gtvc the parametnc equauons
X:: 3 .._, I, y = I - 21. z = - 2 + 3t
of L and th e equations in (6) give the symmetric equations
.r-3 y- 1 z+2
-,- =-=z-=3
To find the point at which L intersects the xy-plane. we set z= 0 in the symmetric
equations. Tit is gives
i.
and sox= !j and y = - Thus L meets the xy-plane at the point ( !j. 0). Sim- -!.
ilarly. x = 0 gives (0. 7. -11} for the point wh ere L meets the yz-plane, and y = 0
gives ( ~. 0,-!} for its intersection with the x :-plane. +
Planes in Space
A plane 'P in space is determined by a point P0 (x0 , y 0 , Z<J) through which 'P passes
• and a line th rough l'o that is normal to 'P. Alternativel y. we may be given /bon 'P and
a vector n = (ll. b. c} normal to the plane 'P. 'll1c point /'(x. y. z) lies on the plane
'P if and only if the vee~ nand PoP arc perpendicular (Fig. 12.4.5). in which case
n · PoP =_Q0Ve write l'oI' = r - ro. where rand r0 are the p~sition vectors r = Or
and ro = 0 lb of the points P and Po. respectively. Thus we obtain a vector equation
1
n • (r- r0 ) =0 (7)
of the plane 'P.
FIGURE 12.4.S Because n Is If we s~bstitute n = (a,~· c ), r = (.t, y. z). and ro = (.to. ) 'o . Zo) into Eq. (7). we
normal to P. it follows that n is thereby obtam a scular equation
normal to PoP lor all points
P in P. <l(.t- .t,)} + b(y- .I\,)+ c(: - :ol = 0 (81
of the plane through Po(xo. Yo Zo) with normal ,. ct
·
b
c orn =(a . . c).
!:A(~~~~ 2~ i:n equation of the plane through Po(-1. 5, 2) with normal vector
where d = ax0 + b)\l + c;:o. Conversely, eve ry linear equation in x. y. and z of the form
in Eq. (9) re prese nts a plane in space provided th at th e coefficien ts a. b. and c arc
not a ll zero. ll1c reason is that if c "" 0 (for instance). then we can choose xo and
) b a rbit rarily and solve th e equation nx0 + b)u + CZQ = d for ZQ. With these va lues,
Eq. (9) takes the fo rm
n ax+ by+ c~ = nxo + hyo + CZQ:
tha t is,
EXAMPLE 5 Find an equatio n for the plane thro ugh the three points P (2,4, -3),
Q(3, 7. - I). ami /?(4. 3. 0).
RE 12.4.6 The normal vector Solution We wan t to usc Eq. (8}, so we first need a vector n that is normal to the
as a cross product (Example S). plane in qu esti o n. One easy way to obtain such a normal vector is by using the cross
product. Le t
j k
n = I'QxPR = I 3 2 = lli + j - 7k.
2 - 1 3
Because PQ and PR arc in the plane, their cross product n is normal to the plane
(Fi g. 12.4.6). Hence the plane has equation
11 (x - 2) + (y - 4) -7(z+3) =0.
After simplifying, we write the equation as
llx + y-7z=47.
•
Two planes with normal vectors n and 111 arc said to be pnrnllcl provided that
FIGURE 12.4.7 The intersection n and m are parallel. Otherwise, the two planes meet in a straight line (Fig. 12.4.7),
of two nonparallel planes is a and we can find the angle 9 between the normal vectors n and m (Fig. 12.4.8). We
straight line. then define the nnglc between the two planes to be either 8 or rr - (),whichever is
an acute angle.
Solution TI1c vectors n = (2, 3, -1 ) and m = (4, 5, 1) are normal to the two planes,
'' so
n·m 22
cosO= - - = .
lnl lm l JT4J42
fiGURE 12.4.8 Vectors m and n
normal to the planes 'P and Q, H~ncc 0 = cos-• ( H./3) "" 24.87• .
respectively. To determine the line or intersection L of the two planes, we need first to find
a point Po that lies on 1- We can do this by substituting an arbitrarily chosen value
of x into the equations or the given planes and then solving the resulting equations
=
for y and z. With x 1 we get the equations
2 + 3y- z = -3,
4+5 y+ z=l.
The common solution is y = -1, z = 2. Thus the point P0 (1, -1. 2) lies on the line L
q
Next we need a vector " parallel to L The vectors n ~nd m normal to the two
planes arc both perpendicular to L so their cross product I S parallel to L 1\ltcrna.
tivcly, we can find a second point 1~ on /.by subs!ltutmg a second value of x into
the ~quat ions of the given planes and solving for )' and z. as before. With x ,. 5 we
obtain the equations
10+3y- z == -3.
20+5y+ z == I.
with common solution y == -~. ~ = 1. Thus we obtain a second point /'t(5. -4.J) on
Land thereby the vector
\' == Po?;= (~ . -3. - I )
EXAM PL E 7 In Example 3 .we saw tha t the line l. through the JX>int /ll(3. I. - : )
and /'1(4.- I. I) has syrnmctnc equations
x -3 y-1 ~ +2
- , - == --=-2 =3'
J'rocc:eding to rewrite these equations as in (10). we nhtain fi rst the equations
- 2(.r - 3) = y -1.
3(.r - 3) = ~ +2 .
3Cy - ll = - :!(: + 21
and then (upon sirnplilicarion) the e<IUatinns
2.t + y = 7.
3.r - z "' II,
d
Lines and Planes in Space SECTION 12.4 801
1 )'
(a) •t'-'o intcr<eC'tlng lines-: (b) lWo parallel lin<>: (c) Two comcuJcnt lincJ:
:a un1quc solutilm, no wlution. mfimtcly many soluhOn!.
FIGURE. 12.4.10 {a) The nonparallel lines L1 and L1 intersect In a sing le point. {b) The
distinct pJrallcllines L1 and L2 have no point of intersection. {c) The coincident lines L1
and L1 hJvc infinitely many points in common.
In each of the fullotdng cases, describe similarly the possible configurations and hence
th e· possible lllllllbcr ofpoi11ts of i11tasection of the indicated number of li11es or planes.
Trans/are your geometric con clusion into a srareme111 about rhe possible mtmber of
solutions of a system of n•·o or three li11ear equnrions in two o r three unknowns.
2. lluee lines in the plane.
3. Two lines in space.
3. lluc.:c planes in space.
12.4 PROBLEMS
In /'rob/ons 1 through 4, write parametric equariolt.f of the 11. l11rough P(l. I. I) and perpendicular to the xy-planc
waighr line rhar ptuscs through the point I' and is parallel to 12. lltrough the origin :t nd perpendicular to the plane with
tht" v~·(tor v. equa tion x + y +: = I
1. /'(0. 0. 0), v = I + 2j + 3k 13. Through f'{2. -3. -1 ) and perpendicular to the plane with
2. /'(3. - 4. 5). ,. = -2j + 7j + 3k equation 2.r - y + 3z = .:
3. P(.t. 13. - 3). .. = 2l - 3k 14. l l trough /'(2. -I, 5) :tnd parallel to the line with pnramctric
equations x = 3t, y = 2 + r.: = 2- r
4. /'(17. -13. - 31). .. = (- 17.13.31)
In f'roblim•s 15 thrnuglt 20. deremtinr ,..!Jrrha the rwo lines L 1
· cquatUIII.!
Itt /'rohh•mt 5 tflf<mgl• 8, writ~ ptrram rtrtc · of rlIt' am/ L2 art• JUifflllc-1. .tk,·w. or imnst'('ting. If tltey imt•rs<·cr. find
wai~;hr /m~ rlwt pass~s through tlte points f't ami l i. tltt! p aint of intt:r.H'Ctinn.
s. 1', w. o. 0). /'l( - (•. 3. 5) 15. L ,: .t-2 = \<Y+ I)= i <z-3);
6. 1',(3. 5. 1). /'l(6. -8. 10) 1.1: !<x-5)= !<y- l) = z- -1
7. P1 (3. 5. 7). /'1 ((,, 5, 4) 1(,. L 1: "l(.c - lll = >· -6=-1(· + ~5)·•
2 ...
1!. /'.129. - -17. 13). /'l (73. 53. - 67) Ll: =
~(X- 13) = -~<.v - 2) i<: - 5)
In l'ro!J/rmt ? through 14. writ~ borlt parametric and symmnric 17. f_,: .r=li+2t, y=5+2I. z = 7+3r:
tqlulfiqrn forth.- indic111nl srmigltt/inr. L1: x = 7 + 3s. y = 5 + 3.t, :=10+5.v
9. Thruuyh /'(2. 3. - -1 ) and parallel to ,. = (I. -I. -2) 18. t 1 : x = 14+3t. y=7+2t, :=2l + 5t ;
29. Through the origin and parallel to the plane with equation
54. Show that the perpendicular distance D from the .
3x + 4y = z+ 10 POlO!
P0 (xo~ )'o, Zo) to the plane ax+ by+ cz =dis
30. Through P(5, 1 4) and parallel to the plane with equation
laxo + byo + CZQ - dl
1
x+ y-2z= 0 D =
../a2 + b2 + c2 .
31. Through the origin and the points P(1~ 1,1) and Q(l~ -1~ 3)
32. Through the points A(l , 0, -1), B(3~ 3, 2), and C(4, 5, -1) [Sug~estion: The lin.e that passes through P0 and is per·
pendtcular to the gtven plane has parametric equations
In Problems 33 and 34, write an equation of the plane that con- x=xo +at, y = yo + bt, Z=Zo +ct. Let P1(x1,y11 z1)be
tains both the point P and the line L. the point of this line, corresponding to 1 = t 1, at which it
33. P(21 4, 6); L: X= 7- 3t, y = 3 + 41, z = 5 + 21 inters~the given plane. Solve for ft. and then compute
In Problems 35 through 38, determine whether the line Land the In Problems 55 and 56, use the formula of Problem 54 to find
plane P intersect or are parallel. If they intersect, find the point the distance between the given point and the given plane.
of intersection. 55. The origin and the plane x + y +z= 10
35. L: x =7-4t, y=3+6t, z=9+5t; 56. The point P(5, 12, -13) and the plane with equation 3x+
P : 4x + y + 2z = 17 4y+5z = 12
36. L:x=15+7t, y=l0+12t, z=5-4t; 57. Prove that any two skew lines Jie in parallel planes.
P: 12x -5y+6z =50 58. Use the formula of Problem 54 to show that the pet·
37. 1.:. 3 + 2t, y = 6- St,
X= z = 2 + 3t; pendicular distance D between the two parallel planes
P: 3x+2y-4z= 1 ax+ by+ cz + d1 = 0 and ax+ by+ cz + d2 == 0 is
38. l:.x=l5-3t, y=6-5t, z=21-14t; D= ldt -d2l
P: 23x + 29y- 31z = 99 ../a2 + !J2 + c2
In Problems 39 through 42, find the angle between the pl 59. The line Lt is described by the equations
"h th e gtven
· . anes
X- 1 = 2y + 2,
w11 equattons. Z = 4.
39. x=IOandx+y+z=O Th ,. 1) Jt!J
e tne Lz passes through the points P(2. 1. -. v·i
40. 2x - y + z = 5 and x + y - z=1 Q(OI 8, 4). (a) Show that L 1 and L 2 are skew lines. (lt_)_ ;
111
41. x - y - 2z = 1 and x - y - 2z = 5 t~e results of Problems 57 and 58 to find the perpend''
dtstance between L and L
42. 2x + y + z = 4 and 3x - y - z =3 I 2· L
60. Find
. the ShO rf est d tstance
• between pomts• o( the fiJ]e I
In Problems 43through 46, write both parametric and s .
· ,, h 1· ,, · . ymmetnc Wtth parametric equations
~quattofi.J o1 I
e me o1 mtersect10n of the indicated planes.
43. The planes of Problem 39 44. The planes of Problem X=7+2t , )'=11-St, z:::13+61
40
45. ThcplanesofPr9blem41 46. TheplanesofProblem and the r , . . 2y+4z$
42 d me LJZ of Intersection of the planes 3x- .
10 an 5x+3y-2z 15. ~
.1 :: fU l. .r = ,t ;ltl. : = hU I ( I)
that specify its coordinates <~S funct io ns of time t . A par:tmetric curve C in space is
(by defin ition ) simply a triple (f. g . h) of such coordinau· jiwctions. But often it is
useful to refer info rmally to Cas th e trajectory in sp:tcc tha t is traced o ut by a moving
point with the'e coordin~te functio n<.. Space curves exh ibit a nu mber of interesting
new phe nomena that we did not see wit h plane curves.
EXAMPLE 1 Figure 12.5.1 shows a common trefoil kno t in space defined by the
parametric equa tions
.r{l) = (2+cm~ t )coH . y(t) = (2 + cos ~ 1 ) si nt . z(t) = sin ~t.
fiGURE 12.S.1 A tubular knot Actu ally. to enhance the t hree -d i me n~ion a l appeara nce of this curve's sha pe. we have
whose centerline is th e parametric plot ted in the figure a thi n tuhub r surface whose ce nt erl ine is th e knot itself. l11c
curve of Example 1 .
viewpoin t for the compute r plot is so chosen that w e arc looking down on the curve
fro m a poilll o n the positive z-axis. +
EXAMPLE 2 Figure 12.5.2 shows simultaneously the circle
.r(l) =4 cost. y(l) = 4 sin t. z(l) o 0
.
, FIGURE t2.S.2 The Borromean ring5 of Example 2.
/
804 CHAPTER 12 Ve<tors. Curv~s. and Surfaces in Space
--- -... _
'
or simply
r =xi + yj + :k = (x. y. : }.
whose compone nts are the coordinate functions or the moving point (Fig. 12.53).
Equ:llinn (2) defines a •·ector-•·alu cd ru nctinn I hat associates with the number t the
vector r(l). In the case or a pl ane curve described by a two-dime ns ional po sition \'CC·
tor. we may suppress the third component in Eq. (2) and write r (l) = x(l )i + y(l)j =
(.t(l). y(l )).
r (l) = I cos t+ j si nt + tk
describes the helix or Fig. 12.S.4. 13ecause x 2 + \ '2 = cos2 1 + si n2 1 = 1 for all 1,the pro-
j.:ction (.t(l), )'( I )) into the xy-plane moves <lf~und and around the unit circle. Mean·
wh!le. t>.:cause ;: =I, the p<Jint (cos 1. sin t. 1) steadily moves upward the wrtical
cyltndcr.1~ space that stands above and below the circle x: + y: = 1 in011the X) -piJ nc.
The r:multar co~kscrcwshape or the helix appears evervwhere from the coilr:d sprinp
of an automob1le to the douhll' l~t·lix ntod d of the o·NA
geneuc · ·111rorma uon · or ltvmg
. . cells (rig. 12.5.5). • m o 1·ecu1e lh a 1 c..~rrics th~•
lim r (t ) = r (ll).
·-·
lltis amounl.s to saying that r is continuo us ala if a nd o n ly if it ~ compon e nt func tion ~
f . g, and lr ::~re C(ltll inuous at a .
ll1e d crh:uh·e r' (r ) of the vcctor-valuell functio n r(l) is tlc llncd in ahno~t exactly
the same way as the th!rivative of a re al -va lued functio n. Spcdlically.
, . r (r + C.t ) - r (t)
(5)
r (I) = hm .
.)t-\1 0.1
FIGUR E 12.S.6 Geometry of the
derivJtive of • vt:"cto r.volued
funtlion. provided tlilat this limit exists. Figures 12.5.6 a nd 12.5.7 correctly suggest t hat the
tl erh ·nt in• nctor
r •(t) = cir
- = 1>,Ir!/) I
tit
c
will be tangent to the curve C "ith position vector r (t ). For this rca•on. we call r' (t ) n
tangent >ector to the curve Cat the corresponding point /' provided that r'(J) cxi'h
and is n onzero there. lltc tan~:ent lim• to C at this point I' with position vcc tnr r(t )
is then t he line through P determined by r'(c).
Our n ext result implies the simple bill important fact tha t the derivative vector
r'(l) C:ln be calcul~tcJ hy r omponentwi<<- cl iffcrl'ntiation of r(t )-that is. by differen -
tiating sep:uatcly the component fu nctions o f r (C).
r' (t ) = ru-•O
Il• l l l6 - = 1llll
61
r .
o>.r-o
:..:: · ..::6::..:1):....-_':..:.<:..:.
' <:....c+.:...
61
t)
.
= .,.,_o
ltm
f(t + 6t)l + g(t + L\t )j + h (t + L\t )k - f( t )l - "(t)j - h(t)lc
'
L\1
= (I. llll
11r-0
f{t + L\t)- [(l)) l + (
At
l' llll
-'• · • 0
g{t + 1.\t)- g(l )) j
AI
EXAM PllE 4 Find pam metric equation~ of the line t3ngent to the hcltx C of
Example 3 at the point /'(- I. 0. IT) whe re t = IT.
806 CHAPTER 12 Ve<ton, Curves, and Surface1 in Space
so the vector tangent to Cat Pis r '(:r)==-J + k =.(O. - 1.1). ~t. follows that the
parametric equations of the line tangen t at P-wtth tiS own post lion vector r(tr) +
cr'(:r )-arc
X:: -I. J =-c.
In particula r. we see tha t th is tangent line lies in the vcrticnl pl:lne .< = -I. +
lltcorcm 2 tells us that the formulas for com? uti ng deriva ti ves of sums and
products of vector-va lued functions arc formally s:mila r to those for real-valued
functions.
PROOF We'll prove part (4), working with two-dimensional vectors for simplicitv,
and leave the other parts as exercises. If ·
then
u(t ) . v(l) = ft(l)gt(l ) + {z(! )g2(1).
ctrcle of radius a centered at the orP·. '_met nc curve r (r) = ni cos c + aj sin 1 is th~
• E.XAM PLE 5 'Otc trajectory o f the ara .
• tgm m the xy plan B ' a
constant, part 4 of Theo rem 2 gives . · ' e. ecause r(t) . r (t) == a·.
in differential notation.
.ir tiJ ,i, d:
' "' - = - i +- ..:. j ... - L.. (7h)
dr tit dr tit
nltcrna tivcly.
(lib)
11111s, for motion in the plane or in space. ju~t as for mo tion along a line.
The speed r(r) and scnl:1r uccelemlion tl (l ) of the m oving point arc the lengths of its
velocity and acceleration vectors. resp.:ctively:
and
a(t) = ln(l )l = \
,i2.r)2
( dtl +
('ildt 2y)1 + ((flz)1
dtl · (10)
Note 111e scalar acceleration a = !dv f dt i is gencra!!y 1101 equal to the derivative
d v/dt of the speed of a moving point. The difference between the two is discussed in
Section 12.6.
EXAMPLE 6 A particle moving along the parabola y = .r 2 in the plane has position
vector r (l) = ti + t 2j . Find its velocity and acceleration vectors and its speed and
scalar acceleration at the instant when t = 2.
Solution Because r(2) = 2i + 4j. the location of the particle at timet = 2 is (2. 4).
Its velocity vector and speed arc given by
j k
qv x 8 = q -awsinwt acu coswr
b = qac<>B(icostut + jsinwr) .
0 0 8
The acceleration vector in Eq. (13) gives
2
rna= - maw (lcos wt + jsinwr).
When we co":'pare the last two results, we see that the helix of Example 7 satisfies
Eq. (14) prov1ded that
= I ( •"lt
lim- • ()
t f er; >Ut)
1 el
+ j ( hm
- 0
~~
t
••I
g(t.' l t>t).
'I hi~ g ives the result th~t
(15)
llllls a •·t·crn r·\'rliurtl fr m ctin n may Itt' illlt'Jirat~d cnm pnm·mwi.fc'. ll1e three·
dime nsi o nal vers ion of E q. ( 15) is d e ri ved in the same way. merely includ ing third
components.
Now sup pose tha t lt (t) is :m antideri l'lllivt' o f r(t ). meaning tha t R'( t) = r(t ).
TI1at is. if lt (l) = f(t )i + G(l)j. then
R' (l) = F ' (l ) l + G(t)j = [ (t )i + g(t)j = r(t).
ll•c n compo ncntwisc intcgr:llion yields
on the basis of a componentwise computation similar to the one leading to Eq. (16).
If r(t), v(t ), and a (l) are the position, velocity, and acceleration vectors of a
point moving in space, then the vector derivatives
c/r dv
- =v and -=a
dt dt
8 10 CHAPTER 12 VectOr$, Curves. and Surfaces in Spac~
and
r (l) = j \II) tit . (19)
r con~tant o f integration.
Both of these inte!!rals in,·oh·e 3 n :ct(l · • -
J
= tru + tll + (3t 2 - t >Jl tit= (t 2 + t)i + <r3 - t>j + c2.
·--..------
' <:;;;;
-
,.
so
v(t ) = ' (0) .._ fo' a (t ) dt.
Thus the velocity at e\'ery timet~ 0 is kn own. Similarly. because r'(t) = ,·(1), a seco nd
integra tion gi"es
for the p<Xition of the ~ub at e"ef)· time 1 ~ 0. On-board computers can he pro-
grammed to carr: out th ese integrations (pc rhJf'S by using Simp;;on 's :lp proxima -
tion) and contlnuou;ly pro,ide captain and crew "'ith the submari ne 's (a lmos t) exact
po~ition and velocit:.
clv •
II = -dt = -t:J.
~
(21)
dorcctly O\Cr ~now t~nt ISO milh (220 ft/s)l. , ld a bale of hay be re leased in order
Plane's sp.:cd IS a cons· . the ta roet) s tOU '
.
horit.o ntal nnd the d Jrect hnc 10 "'
'
'
1600''
'
EXAMPLE 10 A ball is thrown no rthward into the air from the origin in.ryz·spacc
( the .ry·plane represents the ground and the po\itive y-axis points n orth). The initial
velocity (vector) of the ball is
vo = v(O) = 80j + 80k.
The spin o f the ball ca uses an eJStw:ml accele ra tion of 2 ftfs2 in add ition to gravi·
tation:tl acceler:ttion. Thus the accelera tion vector produced by the combination of
gravity and spin is
a (t) = 2i - 32k.
FIGURE 12.5.14 The trajectory of First find the velocity \'Ccton(t) oft he ball and ils position vectorr(l}. Then determine
the ball of Example 10. where and with whal speed the ball hits the ground (Fig. 12.5.14).
Solution When we antidiffercntialc a (/) we get
and sub~l iluting t =0 gives Cz = r(O) = 0. He nce the p05ilion vecto r of the ball i~
r (l ) = t 1i ~ 80tj "'- (801- 16t:)k.
"fhe ball hi ts 1he ground when : = SOt - 16t: = 0: th:H is. when t = 5. Its
posi1ion vec10r then is
r(5) = 5:i "'- 80 · 5j = 25i + -IOOj .
~o th e ball h as !raveled 25 h eastward and .WO h no rthward. Its vel ocity vector n t
impact is
v•(5) = 2 · 5i + 80j-"- (SO - 32 · 5)1.: = IOi + SOj -Wk.
approxi ma1Ciy 113.51\ h/;.. Dcc.1u~e the b:~ll slarted "ith ini1inl speed l'o =
J'l$ul + 8C)l ::::. I 13.14 ft/s. its eas t" ard acceleration ha~ s lightly incrc:~~cd i1s tcrmin nl
speed. •
t. Give a definition o f lim, _. r(t) that docs no! involve the compone nt funclions
of r.
2. Give a definilion of r'(t) th ai docs not involve the component functi ons o f r.
3. Give a d efinilion o f
J.br(t ) dt
thnt does not involve !he compone nt functions of r.
12.5 PROBLEMS
In Problem.~ 1 through 4, also matcll tlrl.' curves tlt~re dejinrtlwitlr their thru-tlimtnsiona/ plots in Figs. 12.5.15 through 12.5.18.
1. Show th~ t the graph of the curve wi th parametric equations 29• a(r) = 2j _ 6rk: r0 21: ' 'o = 5k =
x = r. y = ~h 5r. : = cos Sr bcs on the circular cylinder 30
• a(r) = 6rl- 5j + t2r: k: ro 31 + 4j : = vo = 4j - Sk
i + r = I cente red nlons the x·axis. · 31. a (r) = ri ... r=j + r' k: ro = 101: "" = !OJ
2. Shov; that the ~raph of the curve with parametric equations J!. a(r) = 11 + t · 'j : '" = ) i + 4j : v0 = 5k
x = sin r. y =cos r.: = cos8r lie< on the vertic:~ I circubr
C) Iinder x: - .'J = !.
J3.a(l): i cosr..- j sinr: ro = j : vo= - i + Sk
= 3i + ~j :
II 3. Shov; that th~ graph o f the curve "; th parametric equations
.t c tsan fu.)'= ICc ~t)t, : c rl ic~onthccon e : e J r 1 - ,\J
with i t~ vcncx nt the oriein and opening up ..... a rd.
.).l a (ll = 9ti sin3r~j cosJr) + ~ k:
J~. 11te parametric equatit,ns of a movi ng point are
ro •0 = 21-7\
In Prohlmn 5 thrn11Kh 10. find the vn111rs af r'(t) and r ·(t) for f),[u(r) . • <n) and D, (u (r) x v(r))
tire Ri''~n \'nlu~s ofr. u(r) = (r.r:.r ' ) nnd • (r) = (o:' .cos r.sinr).
1f
5. r(r) =dl - 2j : r =I 37. Verify part 5 ofThcorem 2 in the special case u (r) = (0, 3. 41)
6. r(r) = r2 i - r 1j : r ., 2 and v(l ) = (Sr. 0. -~).
7 . r(r) = r 2' 1 + t'' ' j: r=0 38. !'rove part 5 of Theore m 2.
II. r(r)= l cosr + j smr: t • :T / ~ 39. 1\ point moves on 11 sphere centered a t the origin. Show
9. r(l) = 31em ~nr + 3j sin 2 .T r: 1 = 3/~ that it< 'e!ocity <ector i>:•!ways tange nt to the sphere.
10. r(l ) = 51co.r - 4j ~i n r: I = ;r .SO. A particle moves " ith constant ~peed along a curve in space.
l
Show that 11< veloci ty :tnd acceleration vectors are alwn)1
In Problems II tluott.~lt 16. rlre po.<ition vrctor r(r) of a {Jarti· pc rp~nd ic ula r .
cle moving in sptzcr iJ givtn. Fir.d irs •·elocity arrd acceleration 41. Find the ma,imum height reached by the ball in Example !0
Vt'Ctor.f ami irs speed at timr r. and nho its speed at that height.
11. r (l) = rl.._r:j -r' k 42. 11te llngular momcnturn l .(r) nnd torque t (l) o f a mo•ing
12. r(r) = r 1 (3i + ~~- 12k ) pa n icle: of m:u;s m u.;th ro~ition ve-ctor r ( t ) arc defined to be
13. r(r )= ri +.k'l + ~<" k l (l) = m r(l) x • (1). t(l ) = lll f(l) X 1 (1).
14. r(l) = l l + , :'j + r' k
!'rove that l '(l) = t (l ). It fo llows th at 1.(1) must be con·
JS. r (l) = (3 cos r)i + (3sinr)j - ~r k slant if t a 0: this i~ the law of conservation o f angulu
16. r (l) = t2ti -(5sin2r)j - (5cos2r)k momentum.
Calc 11 1atc thr inttgrol> in P10blerru llthr011glr 20. Problems ~Jrlrrouglz ~8 deal witlz a projectile fired from the ori·
gin (so Xn = )I> = OJ "·irlr i•1irial sputl ' 'o ami initial anglt of
17. t '' (lsinr + 2j cosr)dr
Ja 18. [ ( ~· - j)dl i11cluwrwn a. Tlrr. ron~:r <~f t/zc pmjecrile is tlrr horizorrraltlil·
IOIIU it travels befo r" it rrtums ro rltr .~wwul.
.SO. A bomb is d roppcd (initial s1ced zero) from a helicopter rndius r nt a consta nt nngular spee d oft)) radian~ per second
hove ring 3t 3 height of SOO m . A projectile is fired from a (Fig. 12.5.1 9). If its initial position is (r. 0), the n its pos ition
gun located o n the ground SOO m west of the roint directly vector is
be nea th the hdicopter. l ne projectik is surposed to inter· r(l) = ir cO<tul + j r si n cvt.
cep t the bo m b a t a hci!'ht of exactly 400 m. If the pro jcctik
is tired at th e same instant that the t-omb i< dropped, what (a) Show th:tt the vclocitv vector of the pHtticlc is tangent
s hou ld be its initial 'clN:ity and 3 11):1C of incl in:n ion'! to the circle nnd tha t ittc speed o f the pa rticle is
51. Suppose, mo re realistica ll1. tha t the projectile of l'ro- v(l ) = 1• (11= r w.
ble m 50 is fired I s after the bl'mh is drorr•·d. \\'hat should
be its initial ' 'clocity and an~le <'f inclination? (b) Show tha t the ncc.ek rn tion vector a of the particle is
directed opposite to r a nd that
52. An artillery gu n " ith a munlc 'Ciocity of 1000 h/s is located
ato p a seaside cliff 500ft h•gh . At '~ hat initi31 inclina tion n (l ) = la(l) l = r w 2•
angle (or an~les) Slh>uld it 5rc a projcct i!~ in orde r to hit a
ship at se.a 20 .000 ft from the base of the cltff!
SJ. S up pose that the vector-v:tlu,·d function< u (r) and v(r) both
haH•Iimits as r - a. !'rove:
,_.
(a) lim(u (r) + v{r)) = lim u(r) +lim \ (I );
,_, ,_.
(b) !~(u{r) · , (l)) = (!~~u(l)) . (!~~ ,·(1)) .
~. $uprose th at roth the vector·\'3!ued func tion r(l ) and the
re.al-valued function h (t ) are di!feren tbble. Deduce the
chain rule for ' ·eetor·v.>lueJ functions.
D.(r(h(rll] = h '(r)rl hlr)).
in compo::entwisc f:!.Shion from the ordinary chain rule.
~~- A po!nt mo,·es "'ith constJnt speed. so its velocit y '·ecto r v
sati~fi~ the co:1dition FIGURE 12.5.19 Uniform circular
motion (Problem 61 ).
tvt: = v · • = C (a constant).
Pro\'e t!'lat the velocity and acceleration \ectors of the point 6 2. Suppo<c thnt a particle is mo,i ng und~r the influence o f n
arc ~!ways pcrpendicu~ r to each other. a nrral Ioree tic ld n = k r. where k is a scalar function of .r.
56. A point mon~s o n a circle "hose center i< a t the origin. y . and : . Conclude that the trajectory of the pa rt icle lies in
I.Jse the d ot product to sho,.,· that the ~ition and veloci ty a fixtd plane throug.h the origin.
'ectors of the m o , ·ing point are always perpendicular. 63. A tx,.cball i< thro"n with nn :nitbl , ·elocity o f 160 ft/s
57. A pom: mo,es on the hyperbola xJ- y = l wit h posit ion s traight up" ard from the ground . It expcricnC<'S a down-
war.! gr>''ot at ionat accekrat ion ol32 ftls1 • llec:ttl5e o f spin.
r (l) = I cO\h wt - j sinh wt it exp~nt:ncc:' "btJ a {lh.Jrilonul) north" ard accdt"r:.tt ion of
0. I ftls 1: othe r\\ is c. th e a ir has no clk<:t on its motio n . Ho w
(the nu:nber w" a com:..nt ). l'ro'c that the uccclcntion far n<lrth o f the throwin!! point will the ball bnd7
,ecto r • 11) ~uwes the equatio n • ( t) = cr(r). "here c ts a
~it 1 ve coru!.l!nt. What wrt o f external force v.ould pro·
(.4. A l>:"ch.oll i< hit with an init i.tl vclt'>dty of 96 ft:s and anini·
tial inchn;tt iun angle nr 15 ' hom ~round k \ d str :ti_~ ht d\l\\ n
duce thu k ind of mo tion'
a (uullln~. llt."l•.lll\C nf !!>pin It expcrlcn\.·C:s .l hurllt'llt:t l .JC'C"e}-
58. Suppose t.ltat a point mo ,e• on the elliP'e cratlnn of 2 ft/,: rc;.·r p\·nd•cular hJ the" f,,ut hne: othl•rwi~c.
x' >J --,.
(1:lr
_, the " " h:" "" dlcrl con ot< nH>t iton. When the t-all hits the
.!rnunll. tuw. f.u 1\ It rrom the: hl\l lllne-7
,. ith position ,·ector r(l) G i:J CQ\ . , , ... j lni n wr (bJ ;, a con · 65. 1\ J>rPJn'lii< " 111 ed nnllh" ·"d (on the l""itr\ c y-directi(ln)
nan!). Pro,·e that the attckra toun Hctor • \Htl\tle• the uut tu ><3 !rum the top of • '<·•'i 'lc doll 'S-1 ft hi11h. '11le
equation • O ) = cr <1 ). "'here c "a net-auve e<>n•t~nt To "':~at prujC'ctlh:\ tmtt;tl \'ck~·at~ \ C'Ch tl 1" ' •' : ~U1j + lflllt. . In ad·
!oOrt of external Ioree F il l doc• thl\ mu!lo n cor re•pond · dt1HII1 hl J Jtt"' n.... .ud (nq:.thvr : · dH l'(h,·m ) ~r.t v1t rtt ion31
:u:.:rlcutaon of J~ It',:. It c \ Jl('rie ncc:s 10 flight an rrnt " 3rd
~- A pomt mo•~ in the p~ne ..it~ C<Jn\t>nt accekration ~cc·
(ptl\lll''C' r -dorn·tron) accck nllh)ll (l(:! ftl<' due to srin
101 • = aj . p10 ,c tlt)t iu path " a pa ra bola o r 3 ll raty,h t
( N) lind the rro)C(trlc\ Hlocity nnd po <itio n vccton 1 sec·
Lne... ond\ •Ite r it " tired
M. p>rtlck "wbjcctto no force. so il• acce~er·
s.,f'PUW= th.at 3 (b) l lo"' Inn~" the proJ<Clolc in the atr'!
1110n\eC!or 8 r1 ) is oder.tu:ally rero. Pro- e thot the pa rttcle (c) Where doc\ the proJeCt de htt the wMer ( : = 0)7 (ii,c
tr.-ch • kmt a st ratght hnc at con<t3n t spc:ed (:-.le ,. ton's the an,v.er by tdlm~ how far no rth o ut to sea and ho" '
f.ntl.t " of mo u o n). fAr ea\1 along the Cfi~U 1\ il\ lmp.tt t P'"lll<\n.
6 1. u , oform Cur ular .\fo~rt O:mnder a p~rt ock that moves (d) Whar i• the maximum height or the projeCitk a l><" e the
• coun:crc.loc k• t\C around lh~ Circle "' l!h untcr ro. 0) and w 3tt:r'
816 CHAPTER 12 Vt<tors, Curves, and Surfaces in Space
th the gun and target ;~re on level ground. Hal(,.
66. A gun tire<~ shell "'·ith ~ mu1.7le \"elocity o f 150 mls. While an d bo . h 1i II . ~tv
between them is a hill (.CIO m h~ g . e ~rcCJSely how 10 a:,;,
the ~hell is in the air. it e xperiences ~ do,.-nward (,·erti· h gun-both compass hcad.ns and mchnation from tl:
cal) gravitational accelera tion of 9 m/s: ~nd ~n east ..•ard ~o~izontat-so that the shell will clear the hill and hitth~
(horizontal) Conohs acce!cratJon of 5 cmls:: air resistance
ma)· be: ignored. The ta rgct•s 1500 m due north of the gun. target.
where g ~ 32 ft/s2 is the gravitational acceleration. II ere we will ignore any other
effects of ai r resistance.
With the spin vector S = S k pointing upward. as in Fig. 12.5.21. show first thai
•
S X,.= -Su,.i + Su,j. (3)
Nowsuppose thatthepitcherthrows 1h b .
~ = 5 (ft), with initial ve locity vector
· e all from the •nitial position x0 =)b :0.
vo = 120i - 2j + 4k (S)
(with components in feet per second 5
=
of S 'j! rev/s. A reasonable value ~f ~ ~:' ~ 120 ft/s, about 82 milh) and with a spin
c = 0.005 flfs2 ftl
per s of velocity and rcv/s o f spi n
although the precise value depend . ·
course) scuffed the ball or administ s odn whether the pitcher has (accidentally. of
ere some fo rcig
Sh ow ll rstthat these values of th
hs
n su la nce to it.
e parameters yield
• =16J -32k
for lhe ball's a cceleration vector The .
· . vector
posttJon · n Integrate 1Wte.
· e ·tn su ccession to find the ba tt"s
U~e your resu lts tO fi ll in th e foiJO\\ing table. giving the pitched ba iJ"S h o rizo ntal
deflection y and height z (ahove th e ground) a t qu:mcr-sccond inten·a ls.
I (\)
I r (ft) I .l (ft)
I :(ft)
0() 0 I .,0 5
025 30 I 7
oso , (,() I ? ?
Suppo\c that the batter geg a -fi-.;- on the pitch hy ot-se n ·ing the ball d uring
the first qu a rtc:r- ~c:cond and rrc:p:m·s tow. in~. ,\ fta o.:.' s does the pitch st ill appear
to be straigh t on t:trgct towa rd ho me plat<.: at J heifht of 5 ft7
What happen\ to the h:tll during the tina! qu:trt~r-second ofits approach to ho me
pla te-after the batter h a~ hc~:un to ~"inl! the bat: \\11:11 "ere tht: t>all",; horizontal
and vertical delkctions during thts b:icf reriod7 \\nat is your conclusion'! Docs the
.
pitched ball rcall\ ..cunc .. or not~.
We see from Eq. (9) in St!ction 12.5 th:tt the intcgr:tnd is the speed v(r) = lr'(l )l of
the moving po in t with positio n vector r(l). so
.f = 1~ 1'(1) , ,, • (3)
EX AMP LE 1 Find the a rc le n gth of o ne turn (from t 0 to t = = 2:r fw) o f the hel ix
shown in Fig. 12.6. I . This he lix has th e parametric equa tions
x(t) = a cos w r, y(t ) = a sin wt . Z(l ) = bt .
v(t ) = J a1wl+fi2.
Hence Eq. (3) gives
,
2.T/w 2:r
s=
1
0
J a2cif + b2 cJt = -
w
Ja2w2 + !J2.
Fo r insl:lnce, if a = b = w = I, the n s = 2:r J'i. which is J2 times the circumfe rence
o f the circle in the x y-plane ove r which the he lix lies. •
Let s(l ) de no te the arc length alo ng a smoo th curve from its initial point r(a)
FIGURE 12.6.1 The helix of
Example 1. to the vari able point r (l ). TI1cn, from Eq. (3), we o btain the urc·length function s(t)
818 CHAPTER 12 Vecton. Curves. and Surfaces in Space
of the curve:
s(t) = [ v( r ) dr. (4)
be the position vector of a differentiable p13ne curve that is smoorlt- meaning that
T
the velocity vector v( t) = r ' (t ) is nan zero. Then the c·J rve 's unit tangent netor a1th~
point r (t ) is the unit vector
T (t) = ~ = V(l)
)\'(/)) l'( l ).
where u(t ) = )v (t)) is th~ speed. Now denote by t/! the angle of inclination ofT.
measured counterclockwtse from the positive .t·axis (Fig. 12.6.4). Then
T = i cost/J + j si ntt~ . (8)
FIGURf 12.6.4 The unit tangent We can express the unit tangent vector T of Eq. (8) as a function of the ar:·
vector f . length parameter s indicated in Fig. 12.6.4. Then the rate at which T is turninS 15
Curvature and Acceleration SECTION 12.6 819
l'otc that
(dTI
1ds
=Ideds l (10)
(11)
the ab~olu t c value o r the rate o r change or the ande ¢with respect to nrc length s .
We dcfme th e curvatu re K in term< of d¢ 1ds rat her than d¢/dt beca use the latter
depend~ not only on the sha pe o f the cu rve. but also o n the speed of the moving point
r (t ). f o r a str a1ght hn e the angle 6 is a constant. so the curvature gi ve n by Eq. (11)
i~ zero. If you imagine a point that is mcl\ing with constan t speed alo ng a curve. the
curvat ure i< ~r<.:atc>t nt poin t ~ "'here¢ chnnges the mos t r:.pidly. such as the points
p f' and U on th e curYc o f Fig. 12.ti.5. 1l1c curvature is l c:l~t :lt poin ts such as Q and S,
where r/J is changing the tca~t rapidly.
FIGURE 12.6.5 The curvat ure Is We need to derive 3 for mula that i.s effective in comp uting th e curva ture of a
IMge at P and R, small at Q and S. smooth parametric pl:lnc curve x = x (t), y = y(t). First we note that
I!
provided x ' (l ) -1 0. Hence
do
- = y"x' - y'x" -. ( I
dt (x ')2 .
(>')
+ -x'
2
) _ x'y" - x"y'
- ___..:..-:----_:-:
(x ')2 + (y) 2,
where primes denote derivatives with respect tot . Because v = dsfdt > 0, Eq. (1 1)
gives
K = ld"'l = l d<!> I=~ ~ d¢1:
ds dt
' dt
ds v dt
thus
(12)
At a point where x'(t) = 0, we know that y'(t) # 0, because the curve is smooth.
Titus we will obtain the same result if we begin with the equation cf> = cot- 1(x' 1y').
An explicitly described curve y = f(x) may be regarded as a parametric curve
x = x, y = f (x). 11ten x ' = 1 and x" = 0, so Eq. ( 12)-with x in place of r as the
parameter-becomt!S
(13)
EXAMPLE 3 Show that the curvature at each point of a circle of radius a is~e = If a.
Solution With the familiar parametrization x = a cost, y = a sin t of such a circle
centered at the origin, we let primes denote derivatives with respect to t and obtain
.r' = -a sin 1, >?=a cost,
x" =-a cost, y" = -asinr.
820 CHAPTER 12 Ve<tOtl, Cu~s. and Surfact1 in Space
~t =
1( -a Stnl -
[(-asint )~ ... (acos t )
zp t2 =a' --;;
. . < d E ( 13). O ur point o f de parture would then be
Alt crnattvcly. we could ha'e u. e q. . le ". nd we would compute y' and y" b)•
th e equa l·ron .("• + r ' = al 0 f th ~• sam
•
e crrc . " •
implicit diffe rent iation. (Sec Prob lem ·> 27
lnlll itivc ly. N i< tire unit IW flnal vector tn the curw: tlrat poilll.f in the din•ction inll'laiclr
tlrr cun ·t· is brmling.
Suppose tha i /' is a point on a p:lr:lrne lrized curve at which K # 0. Consider the
circle that i> tangen t to tho: cu rve a t P :1nd ha< the same cur\'al ure the re. l lle center
of the circle is t~ lie on the conca\'e side or the curve- that is. on the side toward
which the normal ,·cctor ;..; poin ts. Thi~ circle is called the osculat ing circle (or d rclt
or ~unutu re) or the curve at the gi\'en poin t beca use it touches the cu rve so closely
there. (O .,·u/wu i< th" L11i n u.·or<.l for kus. ) Le t p be the r adius of the oscula ting circl<
and h:t -r = OC he the posi tion \'ector of its cen ter C (Fig. 12.6.6). Then p is. called
the rudius ur cur•·aturc of the curve at th e poi nt I' a nd '"'f is en lied the (vector) center
or cun alure of the curve nt P.
Example 3 implies that the radius of curvature is
I
FIGURE 12.6.6 OscuiJt.ing circle, P= - (lSI
I(
radius of curvature, and centN of
curvJturc. and th e rnctthat JNI = I implies that the positio n vector of the center of curvature is
2
N= - -1+ -1 J
./5 ./5
Curvature and Acceleration SECTION 12.6 821
t hat i~ pe rpcndtcular to T . (Kote th:!t T · ;-.; = 0 .) If y = xl, then dyf d:r = 2r and
d:) / dx 2 = 2.so Eq. (13) ~1clds
I, .• , 2
I( = (! ... (~'):p 1 = (I ... .s.:z)J'= ·
So at t he point ( 1. 1) v. e find the cu n ·aturc and r ndius o f cur,·aturc to be
2
I(= - -
5./3
re~pccth·ely.
Kc xt . Eq. ( 16) gives the center of cun-a ture as
"'!= ( I. I) + -~- ( - 2
1) = (- .1.:;7) .
sJs ,-=· IZ
- "'" ' " -
"Ihe equation of the ~u!Jting circle to the rarabol:l nt (I. I) is. therefore .
.,.~
(X - .l ) " -
• (
}' -
- ) :
! = p · = -j-.
'I t
Figu r•: 12.6.7 \hOIJ. S thi' larcc oscubt mc circle at the point ( I. I). ns well as the
• . I I
fiGURE 12.6.7 0 \culating circlts \lllallcr o~culatinr ctrclc' that a rc tangent to the pamlxlla a t t he points (0. 0). (3. 9l.
for thC' parabo la of Example 4. and <i. ~ ). 1\ it clear t o~ nu "hich of thc<c oscul:ning circles is wh ich? +
Curvature o f Space Curves
Comidcr now a rml\'in,: p.rrticlc in ~pace with twice-differentia ble position vector
r (t ). Suppo'e a b~1 t hat the velocity ,·eetor \' (/)is neve r ze ro. Th e unittongcnl ' 'C("tor
at time t i~ dcli ncd. a ~ before, to be
. \ (/ ) v(t)
f (t ) =- - =-
t•·(r )l
.
11(1)
(17)
so
,. = t:T. (18)
We defined the curvature o f a plane curve to b.: " = id¢ / d.sl. whe re¢ is the a ngle of
incl ination of T from the posit h ·c x-a~is. Fo r a space cu rve. !he re is no single angle
tha1 d.:1crmincs the direction of T . so we adopt the follo\\~ng a pproach ( which leads
to the sam e valu e for curvature whe n applied to a space curve th at happe ns to lie in
the xy·planc). Differentiating the identity T · T = 1 with respect to arc length s gives
dT
T · - =0.
rls
It follows that the vectors T a nd dT / d.s are always perpendicular.
The n we de fine th e n1r•·atnrc" of t he curve at the point r(l) to be
Equation (21) shows that N has the some direction as dTfds (Fig. 12.6.8), and
fiGURE 12.6.8 The principal unit Eq. (20) shows that N is a unit vector. Because Eq. (21) is the same as Eq. (14),
normal vector N points in the
direction in which the curve is we sec that the present definitions of K and N agree with those given earlier in the
turning. two-dimensional case.
822 CHAPTER 12 Vectors, Curves, and Surfaces in Space
ture K of the helix of Example I, the helix With
EXAMPLE S Compute the curva
parametric equations
x(t ) = o cos wt. ) ·(t ) = asinwt. ;;(t ) = bt.
and speed
t: = l''l = /a2cv2 + fi!.
Hence Eq. (17) gives the unit tange nt \'ector
,. i(-ow sin wt) + j(/Uv cos w t ) + bk.
T =-
II = 7 I I+
.,a·w- '·'
IT
Then
dT i(-aif cos wt ) + j { -ac.1~ sin wt)
dr = J a2wl + li
so Eq. (19) gives
for the curvature of the helix. l'otc that tlu: helix h:ts constant cur\'aturc. Also note
that. if b = 0 (so that the helix reduces to a circle of radius o in the xy·p lane), our
result reduces to I( = 1/ a. in agreement with our computation of the curvature of a
circle in Example 3. +
cle·. ,
u = -eft r +•····N. (22l
Because T and·d N are unit \'Cctors tange nt and normal• to the curve. respcc t\·cJv
Eq . ( 2') 1 ,.
- pro,·t cs a tlrcomposition of tlrr accderatimr 1·ector into its components
tangent to and normal to the trajectory. The tangent ial component
dv
ar=- (231
dt
is the rate of change of speed or the particle wh • h
· ere as t e normal component
A.s an application of Eq. (22). think of a train m oving along n straight track
with constant speed v, so thatar = 0 =liN (the latte r because K = 0 for a stra ight
=
line). Suppose that at time 1 0, the train enters a circular curve of radius p. At that
in~tant, it will su dt/('11/y be subjected to a normal acceleration of magnitude v 2I p,
proportional to the square of the speed of the train. A passenger in the train will
ex:pe riencc a sudden jerk to the side. If 11 is large. th e stresses may be great enough
to dnmage the track or dcra ilthc train . h is for exac tly this reason that railroads arc
built not with curves shaped lik e arcs of circles but with approach curves in which
th e cu rvature, and hence the normal acce leration, build up smoothly.
Solution llte trajec tory and the vectors Nand T appear in Fig. 12.6.10. Tl1crc Nand
T are shown attached a t th e point of e"aluation. at which 1 I. The particle has =
position \'CC!Or
\'(/) = 31 i + 41 1j .
Hence it s speed is
when 1 = I. A s a check (Problem 28), you might compute T and r\ when r = land
verify that
•
It remain~ for u~ to se e how to compute tl r. ""·and N cffccti,·ely in the cnsc
o f a ~pace curve. We would prefer to ha,·c: fnnnulas tl1at explicitly cont:tin only the
vect or~ r. •·. and a.
II we compute the do t product of ,, .. vT with the accc kration a as given in
Eq. (22) and u\c the fact\ tha t T·T c I nnd T·N = (),we ge t
"· • -
dt• ·)
t•T · ( - 1
•
+ (vn. (n•"N tit•
) = t· - .
dr dr
It follows that
,. ..
dt• ' •• r'(l ) . , - (/)
"' ----
dr lr 'In t (16)
824 CHAPnR 12 Vectors, Curves, and Surfaces in Space
Because K and v are nonnegative and because T X N is 3 unit vector, we may conclude
th at
Jv· x a! lr' (l) x r "(t)l
K = -;r- = lr'(t)l 3 · (27J
!r'(l) x r"(t)l
a,y= (28)
lr'(l)l
'Jne curvature of a space curve often is not as easy to compu te directly from
the definition as we found in the case of the helix of Example 5. It is generally more
convenient to use Eq. (27). Once a. T. ar. and a,... have be~:n computed, we can rewrite
Eq. (25) as
a-arT
N=
l (29)
E~AM PLE 7 Compu~c T , N. K, or, and a ,v at the poin t (I, !. ~) of the twisted cubic
wtth paramctnc equations
X(l) =I, )'(/) = ~ 1 2,
gives
r' (r) = (l.t,t2 ) and r"(l) = (0, 1. 2t) .
When we substitute t = I, we obtain
v(l) = (1. I, I) (velocity).
v(l) = Jv(l )l = J3 (sp~:cd). and
a(l ) = (0, 1. 2) (acceleration)
at the point (1. !. !).11ten Eq. (26) gives the tangeminl component of acceleration:
v ·a 3
ar=- = - =v'33
v J3 .
Because
j k
vX a = I I 1 = (1, -2, 1) .
0 1 2
Eq. (27) gives the curvature:
_ !v X al ..f6 J2
K- - = - - -
v3 (J3)3- ) ·
l t ; j d.
r . 'l ' I' I' -
' ..,'''
' ,,'i \
I
... a-
- .:-r
I ...
~
.: , ' .
~
1. Th: ,.. rt-tt l' f " ;\..:~ r L\n,"t i~ ~~' <'lhr,,~ '''th th ... .. un :\t \'th' (,,.u,
' ""P.'-•.:- r.l..!ht$ \~~'' : h"t:t th.· ~un h ' ;t r!.\lh"\ '"""'-'i'' ''Ht .11'\.:t ;\t n ,..,,t\,t:tn t rt.tt.\
.\ 1:::- !'~·:•• ;oy 1.' ( th.c' l""lh' i \'f t"'\ \ ' hl!h' U \"( ,\ ,~ l.\1\\t .1!'-,'\ll tlH• '(UI\ h l't''l'\'f'o
ti ...,r. ..,l h' th..:" ..-..!'-.:f' ,..( th...• " '·'"'' :-..·m•·" '' ,,! \t' <'lhl'h ..·.tl P I l'it
Fi~\IIT 1:.<'.1: tllustr.ltrs 1\q •kt\ ,..,,,n.ILI" l1 1h1• l'l.l lh'lll~, ,. ,~ ~· lh~ p.uh•
P: P: and 1\ f', :1l.·a~ it< ,•d•it in ~'l11.1llun~<.. tlh'lt th,• ~1\'.1 • ,q till' \h .hl,•d ,•111 1'111".11
s~:-.'rs .., ·"- !': ~=tJ S I~ 1". .ul' t·4u.\l.
t n ht~ f"r:.."! ...·:;'£.: .\t.::l:r· ·:.::o .\: \\('.'\ ~\. :-\ (.' \\ h~n ~"1\\i'l,• H·d a l''''' '•alul l'~ut lhH\ '
an t iqu.-1:~...:! f,' rtn \.'! ~<'~,m~tri.:., l ,·."\kulu!O ,,, 't"'" th.ll l\. q 'kt', I.'"" h,ll''" (1\HH
the i'.\ S!O: r nr:...·trks "'f 1\H."'\.'h.U\h._'~ l f t·:.:. ~thl ~,, ' '") .Hhl th\" U\ \l't ,,•• ,qt&.Hc* I;\\\
FIC.UiU 12.6. 12 !<e,:>' ~s t-"' t' i f.i.l\tt.ni~.,r..\1 .\ttr.\..·th' ll. ln th{' t-:m.un,\,·1 ,,1 tht' ;\,·,·th ' ll " '" •'l'l'h tlH· """h-rn
~- ~ es :n.a: :_....~ s..~--=~ a·tl.s "~ C.ll..~utu~ l'i \ C"'..:-h..'r·\ :\luc-..t (ua~o."\h'~'' "' ,,ut llnt"' Uu:· td.,th'l\ h ._· t\\ \\"U N (' \\h't\·, 1."''
~!..kl -' ~-~ ~ .l~: ·s L~ cl 3nJ Kerk-r'> !."'~
::?..~J of t."'l'f 0"!>. !J1 ~ecl'ilt1"\U
; , ?2 a.-.~ r, P,. a "'t tq.nl~
RadiJI and Transverse Component ~ of Ac Cl· l ~·r.,t lnn
To N:!!in . ' ' C $ ..·t up :t ""'"-'Hhn:ttC' <\,t rtn m " t",·h tlw Mm ' ' l,~·.th•,l .H t1H· '' ' Y-11\ m
the r bnc '-'r nlt._H i(\1\ ,;f :\ t'l.Htrt. 1 rt T - ,\f ) an-.l fl (}(f) ,,, .. tlh." I''''·" ,.,,,, r dm.ttt•,
nt t ime l .._.. (the pl.\m,•t ·'"it ,,d,its th~.· S\11\ \ \\.· \\ ,Hll n,,, l+.l ' l'h t th t• t'Lutr t ', l''"i1 h'l\.
"~10\:'ity. and :t;."\."\"kr:tti,,n , .l.\.'h'N r. ' ·:nul • inh' "'·''·''and ,,1,'"'""'',.
'' 'lUI"''''""""·
Todn $0. w e inln.xlu<X nl ~.h·h l''inl\1.1') ,,( 111<' l'l.lih' (til,• •'ll)!itl t' \,'t' l'h' •ll 't h,•tlllll
,· ~ctors
t .\111
Jr II C SUb< l iiUt~ I'= !1(1) , lhCII II , .llld II • l>t'\'\ 011\1' fllll\'li••ll ' \0( I. llH' r10otla l 111111 \'\' <' •
to r u , rJI\\..':t~S r~llll(\ dir c~.·tly ·"'a' fh\11\ th (" ,,fi~tn : IIH' tntn'"''''" HIHt \{·,· t ,\1 .. _ ,,
obl3i ncd fr nm u , h)• a ' l\l ' cnnnl crd••\'1.\\i,<· u•r.ll io•n (II!: t ~ .l\ I.' I.
In r ·rohk m (.(, " " 11<l. p•n "' l ('ri fy. t')' n •llll''''"'"l " l'" •hlkll'lllt.lliolll ,,( tht•
c:quali•JII~ in (Jtl), lh:a l
so
' .. t ii~. (.1! I
' = U rtlr
til
Jll
- + r - u ...
til {33)
'Then. by usi ng the equations in (31) ~nd rolkcting t he codlicie nts of u, and ll;
(Problem 67). v.e obtain th e decomposition
u-
- [
1(
-
tlr :
r -T (,/II):) , [I titd ( r : i/11)]
-
dr
U, T --
r
--
tit
D ~t
of the acceleration ' 'ector into its radial and transverse componen ts.
.
f = 111 3 = - -G.llm
,.
- . - 11 ,. (3S)
where M de notes the mass o f the sun and m the ma ss of the orbiting planet. Dut th:
acceleration of the planet is given also by
(36)
wh ere J<:=GM. We equate rhe t ransve rse components in Eqs. (3-t) and (36) anJ
thus obtam
~ . !!,
r dr
(r ddrO) = O.
2
• tf(J
r· - = lr (/r ;1 constant) (371
I 1I '
FICURE 12.6.14 Attaswept out \~e k~ow from Secrion IOJ that ir A(t ) denotes rhc area swept out by rhe
by the radius vector. planet s radaus vector from time 0 to time t (Fig. 12.6.14), then
A(r ) =[ . 2_,2
I t/0 =
OtO)
111
_,2
I ~ 10 dt.
o 2 tfl
1'
Now we aprly Ihe fundamental theorem of ca lculus, wh ich yields
riA I , dO
- = _,._ (381
dr 2 dr ·
Wh en we compare Eqs. (37) and (38), we see that
dA lr
-=-
dt 2'
(39)
•
L '
CurvJture Jnd Acceleration SECTION 12.6 827
Bcc.•uJ~c lr/2 is a conswm. we have derived Kepler's second law: 1l1c radius ' 'ector
from sun to pl ane t swe eps out aren ~t a const ant rate.
Next \\' C o utli ne the tkr i\'ati on of ~cwton's bwof gra\'it ation fro m Kepler's first
·' and scconcll:m s of plane t an· m otion. Figure 12.6. 15 sho~,-s ~n e ll ipse wit h eccen tricity
c and focus at the oril!in. Titc dcfinim: relation JO PJ = ••ii'Qi of this ellipse give s
r = e(p - r cos O). Sol~ing I his cquat i;n then yields the polar-coord inate equa tion
FIG URE 12.6.15 A polar ,,.
r = -.....:.._ _ (40)
coordinate e llipse v./th eccentritity I + •· cosO
e "' 101'1/\I'QI.
of an e llipse with cccc nt rici t\' ,. < 1 and directrix x = p . In Problem 6-1 we nsk you
to show hy diffcrenti atin 1: t\\:icc, u~ing the chain rule a nd Kepler's second law in the
form in Et(. (37), that Eq. (40) implies I hal
d:r
Jii =
11 (I I)
rl
2
; - [ IC .
(41)
Now if Kepler's second law in the form in Eq . (37 ) holds. then Eq. (3-1) gives
u [~:~ - rC~Y] u,
= (42)
for the planet's acceleration vector. Finally. upon substit uting dO/ dr = hf r 2 from
Eq. (37) a nd the cxpres~ion in Eq . (41) for d 2r f tlt 2 , we lind ( Problem 65) I hat Eq . (42)
can be simplified to the form
a= - - -., u,. (·U)
'"''.
1l1is is the inverse-square law of gravitation in the form of Eq . (36) with 11 = h 2/pe.
Now suppose that the e ll iptical orhit of a planet around the sun has major
semiaxis a and minor scmiaxis 1>. lncn the constant
h:
I'~=
Jl
that appears in Eq. (42) satisfies the equ:llions
0 2 _ IJ2) b2
pi!= a (I - c l) =a ( 1 - a2 = -; ·
(See Eq . (29) in Section lO.Ii.J We equate these two expressions for/'<' and lind that
=
tr2 J.l iJl I a .
Now let T denote the period of revolut ion of the planet-the time rcqui11:d fl)r
it to compktc o ne full re\'olution in its elliptical orbi t around the sun. ll1cn we Sl'C
fro m J:q . (39) that the area of the e llip<e bounded by this orhit is A = ~ hT ~ab =
a nd rhu\ I hat •
ll1ercfo re
r = yu'. (.UI
•'"~""' /
where I he proportiona lity cnn~lant Y "" ·h 2!I• = -l:r 2I G M (cnmp:trc Eq<. () 5) and
(3f•) ) depend• on rh e gravit alional cnn•tanl (; nmllh<' <un's m ~ss ,\I. Thus " " haw
M:n"W) •o s.. ~ de rived Keple r'• lh ird law ol pl.n1ctary mol ion from hi' lint t wol:t'" .111<1 l'c\\!lln's
• V et.:t law o ! gnl\·itatiunal a ttraclion.
J
EXAMPL[ 8 lnc period o f revol urinn of ~k rcmy in its ellipt ical orl•it around the
sun i• T = 87.97 day' where a• 1hn1 nf I he c:1rth i• ~65.26 day<. Compute the major
~ m iaxr~ (in nwon omical un it\) of the mtnt nf Mercury. Sec Fig. 12.6.16.
fiC.Uil[ 12..6. 16 Th~ in~ pl•n~U Solution lnc major sc miaxi\ of the o rbit of the canh i\. by ddi nitio n. 1 AU. So
<:/. the VJ/.r >f'1.tm (Lumpl~ 8 ) . Eq . (44) gives the value o f the constant y = (365.26): (in da y= t AU' ). H ence the
q
828 CHAPTER 12 Vectol'l, Curves, and Surfaces in Sp~ce
T" )
I{J _ ( (87·97>
· ' )1/J ::; 0.387 (AU).
0 =( y - (365.26)2 •
As \'et we ha,·e considered only pl:lncts in orbits ~roun? the sun. But Kepler's
laws and ·the equations of this section apply to ~od:cs 1.n orbJt arou~d any ~ommon
central mass. so long as they mo,·e solei~: u~dcr the mlluenc: .o r 11s gravna1101UI
attraction. Examples include satellites (arufictal or natural) orbnmg the earth or the
moons of Jupite r.
12.6 PROBL EM S
Find 1/i~ arc lm!(lh of tnch cun·t dncrib~d in Problems 1 8, Y=.t1 al{-l.-l)
through 6.
9, Y = cos.r at (0, I)
J• .r = Jsin2t, y =3cos21, t., 81; from 1 = Otot = .~
10• = 1 - I, >' = ' 1 + 31 + 2. where t = 2
:z. .r = t.y=t1j ./i.t=t1{3; froml = lltot = 1
11•
.t
=Scost.)'=4sint,whcret = !t/4
J. x =(It" cost.)'= (It" sint. z = 17r'; from 1 = 0 to 1 =1 A
111. x = r 1.y c: t 1 at (- 1. 1) in term~ of the arc length 1 mea<urcd coun tcrcloclr. wise from
19. x = 3 ,;n 2r. y = 4 coo; 2r. whe re t = :r / 6 the inuialpomt 11. 0. !h.
20. .r =1 - ~in t ,y = 1 - C<"t,v.he rc: r =.~ /2 .S9. Find the arc- len~th p:tramctrwtion or the helix
. ' r ,v.hcrct = ):rf4
21 . x = en., ' 1.,1'=\ln .:rll) = Jco; r. }'Ill =·' sin r . : ( 1) = -lt
nu· ptHitiotJ ~ rrtor , , {J Pflrlir lr IIJrn:itt~t in rh~ planf! ir gi~~n in '" te=s or the: nrc lcn~th s mea~urc:-d from the ini tial
Pm/Jimu :>:! thwug!J ]fi F111d th~ tang~r.riol and norrrJJ/ com· poir.t 1} . 0. 0).
pmrrtllt of tltr a cn·lt·rmion \ICCII)r.
50. Sut-<titu: e x = r • .'' = f(l) . and: = 0 into Eq . (:!7) to ,-e rify
22. r (f) = Ji ~in;r t + 3j co,:r t t!-...3.t the C:Uf"\·ature of th~ rb.n-e tur\.e ." = /{r) i'\
l.l. r(t) = (21 + I )i + (Jrl- l)j
l.S. r(t) = i ct"h3t + j ~i nh 3t
2$. r (f ) = it cos 1 + j t s in r
Sl. J\ p.1r1rck mmcs und=r the mllut'n.X o f a Coree that is nl·
2f•. r (t) = (t·' s in r,.,.'ccx r) "'')"' i"'r,'<'ndrcubr 1(1 it• dri"<'Ction or m otion. Show that
the speed o! the pJ rttclr mu~t be cons tant .
27. l ise E<J. (D) to compute th e curva ture or the circle v.ith
equati on x 2 + y' c a 2. ~!. Ded uce from Eq. ( ~J) thJt
211. VcriC)• the equa tion ¥ T + ¥ N = 31 + llj given at the end or Jc.r·(rllz + (y"(l)l~ _ ( tl(l))z
Exnmplc 6 . c = = ( r'(l)l~ + (y'(t))l
31 . .ry = I nt (I. I ) $.S. TI1e fo lium of D~rtC\ \\ ith eq uation x 1 + y' = 3xy is
sho wn in Fig_ 12.6.18. find the cun·aturc and cente r or c ur-
l·~ind the• curvaturt• ~ of rlt~ spact-• l"IIT\'t:!S h 'ith position ~·ectors vature or thi• folium at the point (; , ; ). Begin hy cnlcula t in~:
J:il'<'ll in J>mblrm.<32 through 311. tlyf dx and tl 1y/tlx~ by implrcit ~iCCcrcntint ion.
Jl. r(f) = rl + (21 - l )j + (31 + 5)k
33. r(l) = ri + j sin r + k cos 1 •
3-S. r (l) = (1,1 ~ , r-')
ltr l'roblenu -l!throu~:h -15. Jim! th<' unit o•..ctors T ant! N forth~ fiGURE 12.6.18 The folium
git;en curve ar rite itulicutt·tlpr'iul. of D e>carte> (Problem 54),
F (x . y ,l) =0 (ll
is the set of all points who~ coordinates (x. >'· t ) satisfy th is equation. We refer to
the graph of such an equatton a s a surfarc. For instance. the graph of the equation
xl+y2+:2- l =0
is a familiar surface, the unit sphere centered :tt the origin. But note that the graph
o f Eq . (I) docs not al":ays agree with our intuitive notion o f a surface. For example.
the graph o f the cqunt1on
(xl + y2)(y2 + ?>cr + x 2) = 0
co nsists of th e points lying on t he three coo rdin~t · be
" c axes m space. cause
•
X
+ r' = 0.tmp ,.tes Ih at X = y=0 (the l -3Xis);
l
0
r + z l = Q implies that l =X =0 (the y·axis):
We lea~e. for adva~ccd cal_culus the precise definition of surface as well 3 5 the studY
of condlttons suffictent to tmply that the gra ph of Eq ( 1) · f
· actua11y 1s a sur ace.
Cyt•ndcrl and Qu~dric Surfaces SECTION 12.7 831
co. o. .S)
y,._,.
.'' .... . ·' • ' 1
, • /.
/.----~----- ----/
... >
J fO. 0. - .SI
fO. CUI In order to sk~tch a \ urfac-c S. it i• oft en helpful to examine its inte rsections
with v:cri••u< pl.cne'- 'Ihe tru ce of the surface: S en the pl.me 1' i\ the inte rsec tio n of 'P
and S. r or n~rnpk. if S i' a , phcrc.thcn " e c:tn \ cn fy hy the methods of elementary
gcomctr~ that the tr.ccc of Sin the pla ne Pis a ccrcle (Fig. 12.7. 1). provided that
1' intl·rscrt < the sphere hut is not me rely tangen t to 11 ( ~'rob lem 49). figure 12.7.2
illustrates the hnritnntaltracc circles th~t (toge ther "ith two "polar points") make
up th e sphere .r-• + )'2 + :·' = 25.
When we wan t to visualize a specific surface in space. it often suffices to examine
its traces in the coordinate planes and possibly a few planes pa rallel to them, as in
Example I.
FIGURE 12.7.3 TrJces of the
plane 3x + 2y + 2z c 6 in the
coordinate planes (Example 1). EXAMPlE 1 Consider the plane with equation 3x+2y+2z = 6. We find its trace in
the .ry·planc by se tting~= 0. The equation th en reduces to the equation 3x + 2y = 6
of a straight line in the xy-pllne. Simil:~rly. when we ~ct y = 0 we get the line 3x +
2:: = 6 :IS the trace of the given plane in the xz·planc. To find its trace in the yz·planc,
we set .r = 0. and this yields the line y + :: = 3. Figure 12.7.3 shows the portions of
these three trace lines that lie in the first octant. Together they give us a good picture
of how the plnne 3x + 2y + 2:: = 6 is situated in space. +
.. -· -- ... EXAMPl E 2 Figure 12.7.4shows a vertical cylinderfor which Cis the circle:r2+ y2 =
a~ in the xy·planc. The trace of this cylinder in any horizontal plane z = c is a circle
with radius a and center (0. 0. c) on the z-axi.'i. ·n 1us the poi nt (x . y. z) lies on this
cylind;r if ~nd only if:t 2 7 y 2 = a 2• J:Iencc this cylinder is the graph of the equation
FIGURE 12.7.4 A rig ht circular
r
x2 + = a·, an equation m three va nables-even th ough the variable z is technically
cylinder. missing.
832 CHAPTER 12 Vectol'l, Curves, and Surfacts in Sp.~ct
care:<plicitlyin thecquation.r 2 +y2:: 01
. bie •doesno I ap r • ' '. h
The fact that the ,·a~a • O) on the rirdt• .r2 + r = a· 10 I e .ry-plane.the
mean~ that gi,·cn any pomt (.ro. ) b · , . d all values of :. The set of all such points
. on I hc 0 ·lander for
point (.r,,. )\1• : ) h~s . an1 · 1 I'me ·IS a ruling
( · ·'"1,.. 0). ·n1us this vcrttca
. . I I' h ~h the potnl .ro. . v · . .I I .
1s the \'Cr~1ca m,e t ~ou~:-: 7 c _ exhibi ts the cylmucr as Itt: umon of its
12 75
of the cy/mtlcr .r +_,-=a · l rgur •
ru ling~
: 0
EX AMPLE 4 lllc graph of the equation -ly 2 + 9~ = ~6 is the elliptic 0 Iindrr
• hnwn in Fig. 12.7.7. Its rulings nrc parallel to the .r·axis, and it$ trace in every plane
1 perpendicular to the x-axis is an ellipse with scmiaXC$ of lengths 3 and 2 (just like
the pictured ellipse .rl/9 + i /~ = I in the yz·planc). •
FIGURE 12.7.6 The vertical EXAMPLE 5 The graph of the equation z = ~- .r 2 is the p;tmbolic cylinder sho11n
cylinder through tilE~ figure-eight in Fig. 12.7.!!. Its rulings nrc para llel to the y-uxis. and its trace in every plane pcrpcn·
curve • ~ sin I, y = sin 21. dicular W the y-axis is a parabola that is u parallel translate of the parabola: = 4-x 2
inthc .H ·planc. •
Surfaces of Revolution
Another way to _usc a ~l~nc curve C to gene rate a surface is 10 revolve the cuf\·e in
space around a hnc L 10 tts plane. This gives a surfac-e or rc,·olution with a~is L. FClr
Solution We rq>lace )'with .J.rl + yl in the given equation. This yields 4.r 2 + 4f +
=
:? 4 as an tquntion of the ellipsoid. +
EXAMPLE 7 Determine the graph of the C<jUatio n r = .r 2 + y2.
:./
,•
some important special cases of the equation
/~- •
,·
1
I
I
•
'
'
T (4)
I I ' This is a special second-degree equation in that it contains no terms im·olving the
-:...--- · ~'
(._ : _) products xy. xz. or yz.
-- r- EXAMPLE 8 lllc: ellipsoid
FICURE 12. 7.11 Th~ cont of
wmp!e 7. (5)
. . tric around each of the three coordinate planes and has intercepts (±a. 0. 0).
ts symmc
"'b 0) and (0, O, ±c) on the three coord'mate axes. (Th ere ·IS no 1oss of generahty ·
~ ·. - · · ' a that a. b, and c arc positive.) Each trace oflhis ellipsoid in a plane parallel
0
tn assumtn,.
f lhc coordinate planes 1.S eat . hcr a s1ng
. Ic pomt
. or an e II'tpsc. "'
ror example. 1f.
10 one.o
-c < .;a < (, . " .. 2
=
then the trace of the ellipsoid of Eq. (5) in the plane z Zo has equation
x· )'" <o
- + ,_,
al u-
=I- 2
c
> 0.
834 CHAPTER 12 Vectors, Curves, and Surfaces in Space
·
which is the cquJ ii on of an ellipse · scm
wrth J
• ·taxes (a1c.·) '-2 - '<l 2
• •·tnd (bjc) cl - ~·
.J. J
figure 12. 7.1 2 shows this ellipsoid "ith scmiaxcs a. b, and c labeled. Figure 12.7.13
sho" s its trace ellipses in planes parallel to the three coordmatc planes. +
.x2 I z (6)
a2 + b2 =~
is shown in Fig. 12.7.14. Its trace in the horizontal plane z = :0 > 0 is the ellipse
x2ja2 + y2f b 2 = ;,.jc with scrniaxcs aJ:.o/c and b.J!;;JC. Its trace in any vertical
plane is a parabola. For instance. its trace in the plan~ y = )'o has equa tion x 2fa 2 "'
yl,!b2 = ~/c. which can be written in the form :- : 1 = k(x- x 1 ) 2 by taking <r = C}i /tr
and .r1 = 0. · n lC paraboloid opens upward if c > 0 and downward if c < 0. If a =b.
then the paraholoid is said to be circular. f'igurc 12.7.15 shows the traces of n circul•r
t1
Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces SECTION 12.7 835
EXAMPLE 11 The hyperboloid of o ne sheet with equation
(R)
iS,shown in Fig. 12.7.17.1ts tr:1cc in the horizontal pl:lnc ~ =:J~ is the ellipse x 2f a1 +
r I~ = I + ~!c 2 > 0. Its trace in a vertical plane is a hyperbola except wh~n the
vem:al pl:u1e inl crsccts !he xy-planc in n line t an!_:cnt to the ell ipse x 2fa1 + >.2 I b• ~ I.
l.n lh•s s pecial ca~c. !he lr<Jcc is a <.lcg.cncrale hyperbola consisling of two intcrscctmg
lines. l'igu rc 12.7.1(1 shows the !races (in planes parallel to the coordin:llc pla nes) of
n circular (a = b) hyperboloid of o ne shee t.
ll1c graphs of !he equatio ns
fiGURE 12.7.17 A hyperboloid of
one ~heet (Example 11 ). >" <) ;:'- x' 1:.1 >.2
/_,1 + c! - al =I nnd al + c! - c' =I
are also hypc rboloids of one shee t. opening a lo ng !hex· nnd y-axes, respective ly. +
EXAMPLE 12 ll1c hyperboloid of '"o sheets wilh equation
.
:- x-' ,. .'.
-:--;· -~ = 1 (9)
c- a- lr
consisls of 1wo sepa rate pieces. o r sheets (F.g. 12.7.19). l11c two sheets o pen along
I he positive and ncga1ivc z·axis and inlcrsccl il all he poinls (0. 0. ± c ). llle trac:c of
this hyperboloid in a horizontal plane ~ = z.:, wilh 1:01 > c is the ellipse
t2 \,1 ~2
:._ _, .::_ = ~ - 1> 0
Ill • lJ1 c1 .
Its !race in any \'Crtical plane is a nondcgcncrale hyperbola . Figure 12.7.20 shows
traces of a circular hyperboloid of two sheels.
FIGURE 12.7.18 A circul.r
The graphs of I he equations
hyp<'rboloid or one ~heet
(EJtample 11 ) . Its traces in
horizontal planes are circles; its
t.-a::es in vert.k..ll p!anes art'
hyperbolas.
r!CURE 12.7.21 A hypetbolic paraboloid is a FIG URE 12. 7.22 The ve~tical tra~el o:
>Midlc-!h.>p<d >urfocc (E••mplc 13). th~ hypPrhnlir. rmrahol ood z = y - t
(Example 13).
is saddle sl1aped. as indicated in Fig. 12.7.21. lis trace in the horizo~tal plane< "' :0 is
a h\'perbola (or two intersecting lines if :o = 0). lis trace in a verttcal pl_ane para_llel
to the .rz-plane is a parabola that opens downward. whereas its tra~e m a \'entcal
plane parallel to the yz-plane is a parabola that opens upward. In _rarucul:u. the trace
or the hyperbolic paraboloid in the x <·plane is a parabola opcnmg downward from
the oril!in. wh.:reas its trace in the yz-pbnc is a parabola o pening. upward from th~
origin.~Thus the origin looks like a local maximum from one d irection but like a local
FIGURE 12.7.23 The horizontal minimum from another. Such a point on a surface is ca lled a ~odd le point. .
traces of the hyperbolk pa raboloid Figure 12.7.22 shows the parabolic traces in vertical planes of the hyperbohc
1 = y> _ x> (Example 13). paraboloid z = .v2 - x-2. Figure 12.7.23 show~ its hyperbolic traces in horizontal
planes. •
The !~/lowing questions are concerned with possible graphs of the second-degree
equatmn
2 2
Ax + By + Cr + Dx + £y + Fz + H = 0. (Ill
[k5 cntv uml J(~u·ll rl:<' graplu "/the <'quatiuns gi•~·n in Prob-
J'(l. l'ro•·e 1ha 1 1hc projccltttn inlo 1he y:·planc of ll~e cu~c of
/m-.s 1 rhn•:rsh .>0. inlcr<cclinn of !he surfaces ;c = I - _..> a mix ., y- +::-ISnn
1•.h ... : .•· + 10~ = :o 2. 3.r + 2y ,. 30 ellipse (Fit:. 12.7.24).
~ -·' +.•'=9 ......' ~ •'-9
5. .X.\ =J 6. : = .lr: + -li
7. : = ~. : + _..: K. ~.,. :
+ \1)·' = J6
9. : = .I - .r' - .'; 10. yl + :2 = 1
tJ. :: = X:+ ~.: J !, X = 1+).!+:' t
I~ :' "' .l(.r' + .'.:) l.a.,.:= ~ r
t~. .r' = ~ :+S 16• .r .. 9 - :'
t7. ·h 1 - _,.: = .: 18. -'' + :' =4
19• .r' = .~..-z ... 9:' 20 • .r' - .,_,.: = '
fiGURE 12.7.24 The
ll. .r' + i + ~= = 0 2.! . x = sany p.~raboloid and parabolic
~\ .t = 1y: - :: ~4. x' + ~ .•.: + 2:' ~ ~ c:ytindrr of Problem SO.
!_<._ .t: + ~;- 9: : a 9 ~·6,. X~- ,\':- 9z!'::: 9 51. Show 1h.111hc projcclion into !he xy·plonc o f !he intcrscc·
lion of !he plane ~ = y and I he paraboloid z = x: + I I~ a
l 7. -'" = J.r + 9:.:- :.'l. ""; + -1.x 2 _ 9:.1 ~ J6
circle (Ftg. 12.7.25).
!9. ,.: - 9.r' - "=' -
.J6 JO• .r' + + 4:' .36 9i =
f'roblf'mS 31 rluo u!ih .:ogi• e thr rqunrion of n cun•r in onr ofth~
coordinatt plun~.s. \\'nrt 011 rqwwo n for rht• surface grrrernteli
b)' rn-ol•·m~: tl:u mn·r around tlrr indicarrd tui.t. Then s ktrch
zr.< surfxr.
Jl. .1 a ~: :: the ..C·!\XIS
J::. .1 r' + 9).: = .J6: !he y·aris
).\. _, ;- :' = 1: !he : -:uis
J.l : = .I - .r': 1he :·3xis
35. }: = .:r: the .r·:txis FIGUR E I 2. 7.25 lhe pl.tne and
36. ): = 1: the : ·:t\IS j)<ltaboloid of ProblemS I.
J7. : = etrl - .r' J: 1he : -axi• 51. Prove lh>l lhc pmjccunn in1o1hc r :·pl3nc of !he inte~cc·
JA. (y- .:): - :.= = 1; the .:-axis tion nf I he paraboloith )' = 2.r: + 3i andy a S- 3x: - 2:1
i\ a circle (Fig. 12.7.2f>) .
.)9. The lioe : = lz: !he :-uh
• The line : = 2.r: the .r·3U\
/r. F'tob!~tru -l/ thttm~h -l Y. d rscrif>e rh~ twcu ofrh~ gi•·rn sut·
faca m plann of rh~ mdicauJ l)f'~·
~L r- ~_.: = .:; in horiLonlal planes (lh~ parallc:lto the
• .'·rl3nc)
42. .r: _ 41 + 4: 1 .. J ; in horo.eonr.a l plancl
U , : - -'.'.: - .:: : .. 4. in plane' pa131lclto the yl· plane
FIGURE 12.7.26 lhe two
~ ~ = -'•' - 9_.": rn ho rr7o nu.l pl3nc:\ p.u J boloith of Probl ~m S2.
'!-. := 4, : + 9).1: in planc•parnlld 10 the y r.-plan" 5J. l'rov~ th;tt tlh! prnjc..: lion httu the •.r·rlant: or the In •
-16. : = zy: in horllont:~l plane> l<l'~ct inn nf I he plrtn~ z + y + : = I anJ lh..- ellipwid
47. ~ = JY, in \Cit lc:li pi30C\ lhn>o~h 1hc :·UI\ x' + ~,.1 ~ ~ i = ~ i• ~n ..-lltt''C.
~ , : _ 1; + : l = I. rn both huriwnlal nnd vertic.ll plan« ~- Sh<>w lh ~ llh<'l curw
•
nf irllcru·r riu n uf I he pl.\nc: = A,. and
'
pa:allcl lo !he coordm>tc ate\ !he C)' htulcr ' + r- It• an clltf"<. (S...~~"""'': l nlrc>du~
/lt•<uuHhnJic' inln lhc pbnc : E Ay 3\ r•• n....-s: U:l the
~- PrO\e 1ha1 the: t11:~n ~tks OAC and OBC in Fig. 12·7· 1 a rc: /1 •2ti' he the '"'!lin~ I • ·axr1 :tnd kt lhc ll·a•i• l'C the hnc
roncrucnt. and thcr~hy cunclud" lh~tthc trace of 3 sphere : = ky, .r ,. U.J
"'•• rnlerl<.'Clong pl~nc: ;, a c~tclc.
838 CHAPTER 12 Vectors, Curves. a 'ld Surf~ces In Spdce
Jnd
r
: =·'....:~. .,-=.
t!lnfl = :.. if x I 0.
.r
\'
(2)
Read thc'c rcbtio n<hip< directly Crom the right tria nJ:Ic in Fig. 12.8. 1.
Cylindrical Coordinates
·n,._. r~ lincl ri r:ol .-. .. ordin:ott'' tr. "· ~) nf a poi rH
I' in space arc natural hybrid~ of its
J'<~lar .oud tc<.: l.lllpll.or n>< •rJ1natc~ \\'e u<c th e polar roordin:ltcs (r . 0) of the point
in thl· l'l.111e \\ llh r~ci.IIIJ;Uiar cuord i 11 :11~~ ( I'. y ) n11d usc th e same ~-coordinate as
FIGURE 12.6 .1 The telat:on in rccta11gulao ~omJ i natc'- ('ll1c cylindrical Clll >rdin:lh:s of a point I' in space are
between tectanguiJr and pol3t illustra te<! in I t[!. 1::.1-1.2.) ·n,i, mean< thai wc can oh(ai n tho.: relation s between the
coord,n•tcl In the • y-piJnc.
fl'Cta ngu l.~r cnord111:1tcs ( .r . y. :) of 1hc poi nt / ' nntl its cylindrical coordinates (r, O. l)
by simply atljoinmg the idcnttt y: =~ to th.: Cllllations in ( I) and (2):
and
. .
,.' = \ - + ,- . \'
-- ....-
..._ - (4)
W.: c:~ n u<c these equations to con\'crt from rectangular to cvlindricnl coordinates
and VICC \'Crsa. ·
EXA~ PLE 1 (:~)Find the rcctan!!ular worc.Jinatcs of the point I' h:1ving cylindricll
{J(•. )'. 01 conr mates <4· J':· ?). (h) Find the cylindrical coordinates of the point Q ha\'ing
n:ctangular coordmatcs (- 2. 2. 5).
Solution (a) We apply the equations in (3) to \\rite
FIGURE 12.8.2 f lndng t."oe
cyi•ndrical coordirwttl of the
point P. x = 4cos0:r ) =4 .! = 2.
Y = -lsin{j:r) = 4 . (-} JJ) = _ 2 J3.
;: = 7.
Thus th e poin t /'has r.:ctangular coo I' r:;
(I) . . n mates (2 - 2v3 7)
' N oung' hrst that th.: 1,0 1· nt Q ·I~ .m I 1IC s'• d • •
apply the ctluatiuns in (4) ami write · ccon ttuallrant of the xy-plane.we
= /(-2)~ + 22 = 2./2,
r
tan(l = _
-2_
2 - - 1. so 0:: ~
4 '
: = 5.
l nus the point Q has cylind rical coo d'
. . r ma tes (2,/2 .1 ,n
mtegral muluple of rr too so othe r C\1' • • :;:r. 5). We can add any e,c
.I and (2./2. -i:r. 5). , 1
.'lilt neal coo rdinate!\ for Q arc (2../2. ~;r. Sl
•
l
Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates SECTION 12.8 839
ll1c gra11h of an equatio n involvi ng r. 0. and z is the set of all points in space
having cyl indrical coord ina tes that satisfy the equation. The name cylintlrical coor-
~litwtn arises fH>m the f<~cttha tthe !!raph in space or the eq ua tion r = c (a conswnt)
IS a cylinde r of radi us c symmet ric aro und the z-ax is (l·ig. 12.8.3). Cylindrica l coo r-
(C, 0. dinates arc useful in describi ng o ther surfaces that a re symmetric around the z-axis.
(0. ( , 0)
:n1c rcctangulnr-coordina tc equa tion of such a surface typically invo lves x and y o nly
Ill the co mbination x Z + y 2 , for which we can t hen substitute r 2 to get the cy lindrica l-
coonli nJt e .:quation.
FIGURE 12.8.4 The cone FIGURE 12.8.5 The FIGURE 12.8.6 The
z2 = ,,_ paraboloid z = r1. ,z z 2
ellipsoid
9 + 4 = 1.
EX AM PLE 3 Sketch the .region that is bo unded by the two surfaces \\i th cylindrica l-
.
coord mate equat 'ions z = r·' an d z = o" - r•.
'
that descrilx: parabolo ids opening upward from (0, 0. Ol and downward from (0. 0 . 8).
respectively. Figure 12.8.7 shows a computer plot of the rc!!ion in space that is
bounded below hy the pa raboloid z = x 2 + l and above by the paraboloid : =
' -•-·'-r 2
8 - x - >.l· •
REMARK ll1c relatio ns .f = r co~n and )' = r sin (1 play an import ant role in the
computer plotting of figures synunctric around the ~-axis. For instam:c.thc parabolo id
z = 8 - , z o f Exam ple 3 can lx: plotted usin)! computer al!!chra s~·Mcm syntax lik e
the Map/~ command
plot ld ( (r • co • (O), r ••ln tO), 8 - r l\ l ) ,
r• O• • l , OoO•• l•P i l1
fiGURE 12.8 . 7 Tht" solid of or the Mtllltr!m tllica comm;md
U..mple· 3. Para...,t rl c P lot l O( t r•Co •( O), r•s in [9) , a • r /\ l).
J
840 CHAPTER 12 Vectors, Cu~. and Su rlace$ in Space
. .15 d ··scribed parame trically by givi ng x, y, and l
In e ithe r command the parat>olot0 "
in terms o f r and 0.
.
l mlccd. these cqua ttons are m ost c:asi
· l)' re. membered
, . by vi, ualizing this triangle.
Substituting the equations in (5) into t hose m (.>) ytclds
(6)
These three equation< give the rclation~hip be t wee n recta ngular and sphe rical coor·
dinates. 1\lso useful is the formula
fiGURE 12.8.9 The twO n.1ppes ot
a 4S" cone;¢ c rt/ 2 os the
spheticdl equdtJOn ot the •y·piJ ne.
a cons~quence of the distance formula.
It i• import~nt tn note the order in wh ich the sphc1ical<.:ourdi natc s (p, ¢. 0) of a
poi nt /' arc: writte n- lim the d i~t~ nce p uf /'from t he o rigin. then th e a ngle¢ down
from the posith·e ~-a'i" a nd la~t the coun tcrclock" i'c: a n!!!.:: (I m easured from the
positive .r·aXi'l. You may find this mnemonic de: vice to he helpful: 'llte consonants m
the word " raft'' remind lL'
in order, of rho.fee (fo r phi). am! the ta . Warning: In some
other physics and m athematics books. a differe nt orde r. or even diffe rent symbols.
may be used. .
Gh·cn lhc rectangular coordinate s (.r. y. ~) of the point P, one systcm:li!C
method for finding the spherical coord ina tes (p. ¢ . O) o f I' is th is. Firs t we find th<
~·ylindrica l coordina tes r and 0 of I' wit h the a id of the tri angle in Fig. !2.S.!O(a).
1ncn we find p and 4> from the triangle in Fig. 12.8.1O(b ).
EXAMPLE 4 (a) find the rcctangularcourdin:ucs o f the point /'having the spherical
..-.....:...._....,, coordinates (8. ~ :r. ! :T). ( b) 1\pprnximatc the sphe rical coord inates of the point Q
having rectangular coordinntes (- 3. -4. - 12).
Next,
Finally, the point ( - 3. - 4) lies in the third quadrant o f the xy·pla nc, so
'JlJUs the approxi mate spherical coordin ates of the point Q arc (13. 2.7468. 3.785 1) .
•
EXAMPLE. 5 Find a SJ'heri; aJ.coonlinate eq ua tion of the para boloid with
rectangular-coordinat~s eq ua t ion ~ = x 2 + ) .2.
=
Solutio n \\'.: substitute z p cos<!> from Eq. (5) and x 2 + y2 = r 2 = p 2 si n 2 4> (rom
E q. (6). This gives p cos 4> = p 2 sin 2 ¢.Ca ncelling p gi vcs cos</> = p sin 2 <f>; t hat is,
p = esc ¢ cot¢
is the spherical-coordina te equation of the paraboloid. We ge t t he who le para boloid
by using d> in the range 0 < <J> ~ rr f2. Note that ¢ = ::r /2 gives the point p = 0 that
m igh t otherwise have been lost by cancelling p. +
Solut ion We first multi ply each side by p and get p 2 = p sin ¢ sin 0. We then usc
Eqs. (6) and (7) and find that x 2 + y2 + i- =
y. This is a rectangular-coordina te
eq uation of a sphere with center (0. ~ . 0) a nd rad ius ~ . +
REMARK ll1e rela tions in (6) arc used in compute r p lotting <>f sphcrical-coordinatc
surfaces. For instance. the spherical surface p = 2 cos¢ nf E xampk 6 can be plo tted
using comput er algeb ra system syntax like the Maple· cnrnrnands
p : • l • c oaiQI J
plot3d( (p•a in(Q) "coa( O), p • aint Q)•aint O), p • coa( OIJ,
0 • 0 . • Pi/~, 0 • 0 .. l " Pl II
EXAMPLE. 8 find the great-circle di~tancc between New York (lati1Udc ~0.75'
nort h. longitude 7~ · west) and London ( lalitude 51.5' north, lon gi tude 0'). (S~c
fig. 12.8.1:\.)
= =
Solution From the equations in (S) we fiml th atr:>" 49.25" , o• 2S6" for New York.
wh~reas ¢ =.
31!.5• . 0' = 360' (or 0") for London. li enee the an~:ular spherica l co·
ordlllatcs of New York arc <P = (49.25/ ISO):r. 0 = ('2136/ l 80):r. and those of London
nrc¢ =(38.5/ ISO).'T , 0 = 0. Wilh th ese values of o and (} and wilh p =
3960 (mi).
l
(Example 8).
-
·C)1indri~~~ ~nd Spherical CoordinJtes SECTION I 2.8 .84 3
the equations in (6) give the rcctnngulnr coordinates
New York : P1(826.90. -2883.7.:1. 2584.93)
and
---
FIGURE 12.8.14 The great-drcle
Titc angle y be twee n the radius vectors u =
sa tisfies the equation
cosy=--
II • \'
07\ nnd v = C5'F; in rig. 12.8.14
Thus y is approximJtcly 0 .875 (rad). Hence the great-circle di~tance between New
York and London is close uo
12.8 PROBLEMS
Jr. Prubl~mJ I rhrough 6, firul th~ rutangular coordinates of th, In Prob/,ms 2J through JS. d"tcrib( tl:t graplt oft/:. gi>·m l'q u.:-
pmnJ "' zlh 11:~ gr~·tn cylindrical cootdmat~~ tion. ( It iJ und~rsl()()t/ that rquatiorrs including r or~ in r.\·lmci rirtzl
' L ( 1. ~ " · 2) 2.. (3.j::. - I) coorditratrt and thos< including p c>r ¢ arr in .<phtriral C(>{>nfi·
nnt~.t)
In l'miJ/rmt .Sj rl:m11,~h 51. d~scnM and slurch th~ surfac~ o r 61. D
escribe the cone o f Problem 60 in spherical cootdinates_
. the •rc• t·ci rck route from l'cw York lo
Mtlul dr.cn hrd by tht gh·cn rquollor.s and lor mrqualities. 6'- In tl ·'1 n~(E •mplc " 8 ) ·1n :mplane
· ... II n·
m rlla y rc' gcncrall•
45. r "' J. - I ;; z "i, I London ' " D C'CS the · • p l:rnc ever 0 y a l a 1atllude
· highrr'
e:.tst-nort hea' I· .
.v.. {) = 2. 0 :i ¢ :; ~ [2 • h f Londnn'' IS"~Iir.won: E xpress th e •·coordinate
than 1 a l o · · . f . .• h • . .
., rout<: as a funct ro n o .r. anu t e n max:nuzc ·1
47. p .. 2. rr /3 ";, ¢ ~ 2.7 /3 of the p I an~ . ' '·
• 12 " 1,, s·ho" s t h~ tnrus t hat is ohwincd by revolvinoo
411. f) :; r ;: 3. -2 ~ : :! 2 63 fi ..•un.: ·~'· {l
• aroun
"' d l he ....
•
· ·", xis the crrclc o f rad.rus l>ccntc
o
rc ll .at the point
.
4'). 1 :: , :: 3. -2 ~ : ~ 2
Co 0 ) ·an t h~ •,·z·planc. \\'me u radrcal d' -frcc C<Juat:un descrrh.
(b) cy 1·rnuric~l
~0. () .... {) :: 2. 0 :i <> :i ;r /2 in~ thi < toru< in (a) rcctangu br coor rn:llcs;
c~mlrn.uc<; (c) ~phencal coord:n ates. (d) Investigate the
sJ. 3:;; {) ;; s
use o f one u( thc<c d c<cri rtions '"'h a compute r algebf3
S2. O:i ¢ .... rr/ 6. OSP:! 10 s~-stcm to plot thr< """' " ith selected ' -a lues of a and b.
~3. The por3bol~ ; = A>. y .. 0 ;, rotated >ro~nd the : ·
a\i'- Wnte n C) hndric:.I<OOrdrnate equatron lor the IUrfJce
thereby generated.
~4. ' I h e hyperbola>' - :! = 1.' = 0 1< rototed aro und the z·
~ • i•.
Wnte a C) lindric:.l-coordanate equMinn lor the <urlace
there by ~c n erat cd.
~~. A l'lphc rc of raJ ius 2 is cl.'nlc rct.lfit lh..: c~fl f iiL 1\ hofc uf r n·
dn" I ;, drilled th rough the sphe re. " nh the '"I ' of the hole
lying nn the .:·a)iS. Dc ~c.:n hc the: M•IIJ r c~1on lh:l t remrun\
(Fig. 12.S 15) an (a) C)hnJnc.rl wurdrn.rtc' ; (h) >phcricnl
courdutates.
fiGU RE 12.8 .16 The toru s of
Problem 63.
Uu th~ following list"' n /i14 id~ to concrpu thnt yor. ma)' nttd 9. Compon~ntwise differe ntiation and integm tion o f vecto r-
to rrvi~w.
' 'alued lu nctio~
I. Vcc10rs: the ir definitio n. le ngth, equality, add 1tion. multi- 10. The equations o f mo tio n of a project ile.
pl icat ion hy ~calnrs, and dot product. II. The velocity and accrleration \'eCton o f a particle mo vi ng
2. Th~ dot (scaiM) p rnduct o r \'CCtOr5--dcfinition and geome t· along a p3rametnc sp.1ce curve.
n c mte rprcta tu>n .
t2. Are length o f a pJr3mctric space curve.
3. Usc o f the do t product to test pcrpendicu!arit" of ,·ec· lJ. The curvatu re. unit tan2~nt 'ffior. and p ri ncip3l unit nor-
tnrs and. more generally, to find t he angle bet,;,een t'A O mal vecto r o f a p.1rame~ric cunc in the pl:tne o r in space.
vecto rs.
U . T~n~e ntiala ncl norr.ll.l rompone nts o f t he accclern tion \'CC·
4. lnc crcxs (vector) prod uct of two vector\--defimtion and to r o f 1 p.uamctric ccne.
RComc tric inte rpr eta tion.
l.S. K eple r 's three I.1Sw-s o( rhncury mo tion.
S. ·n,c scala r tr iple p roduct o f three " ector...-<lefinit ion and 16. The nd•al and tran<\er<e unit ,·ectors.
geome tric inte rpre ta tion .
17. PalM dccorn f'05itio n of ' doci ty ond accckrat inn vecto rs.
(,, lllc parame tric and sym met ric equation\ o f the stra ight line
18. O ath ne o f the de ri\'Jtion o f Keple r's b ws fro m N~wton's
tha t pa\~cs through a given rx•in t and is parallel to a &"en
vector. Ia"' o! gra,i tauon.
19. Equa tion' o f C)hndc l\ and surfncc~ of re volu tion.
7. 'll>c equation o f the plane thrcJUf~h a given point normal to
a given vecto r. 20. lhc <ta nd,wJ t~f'<'< o f quadm: surfaces.
R. Vecto r-valued functio ns, velocity vectors, 3nd acceleratio n 21. Dcfin•uo ns o f the nhndriol -coordinate a nd sp he rical-
vec tors. coordinate ')~ltm<: lhe cquaJion< rda tin!l cyli nd ricnl a nd
$phericnl coon.hn.l tes to roclln~tulnr coordinat es.
' '
...
' CHAPTER 12 ·MISCELLANEOUS
..
•
PROBlEMS
.~
' ' -. • I •
.. .... .' .
• • ·. '
I. Suppose tha t M is the mid point of the segme nt / 'Qin space t!. Write an eq uation o! the plane th ro ugh /'(3. - 5. I) with
a nd that A is :mother point. Sho w tha t normal vecto r n = i + j
- 1 - - 9. Show th at the lines with sym metric equ:1tions
AM = 2( A /' + AQ).
2.. Ut • a nd b be n o nzt'ro vectors.. Deline x- I =2(y + I ) =3 (: - 2)
b and
a u = (co m p.a) W
a nd a 1 = a- a 1.
x - 3 = 2()' - I ) = 3(: + I)
Pro,·e that a~ is perpendicular to b. '---._ are parallel. Then wTite an equation of the plane co ntaining
3. Let f> and Q be diffe rent po ints in spncc. Sho w that the_ these two lines.
point R lies on the line through ~if and only 10. Let the lines L , and L: have symme tric equa tio ns
if there e xist numbers a and b such that a + b =1 and x _ x, y _ y, l _ l.
DR =aOP +bOQ.Co nclud ethat -
a,
=
- b
,
=-
c,
r (t) =tOP + (I - t)OQ
fo ri = I. 2. Show that L 1 and L 1 arc skew lines ifand only
is a parametric equation of this line. if
4. Conclude from the result of Problem 3 tha t the points
P. Q, and R are collinear if and only if there exist num· ~0.
bers a, b, and c. not all zero. such that a + b + c =0 and
aOP+hOQ +cOR = 0.
.5. Let f>(x0 • ) b l. Q(x 1 , y1 ) , and R(x:. n ) be points in the 11. Given the four points A(2, 3. 2). 8(4. 1. 0), C( -I. 2. 0),
xy-plane. Use the cross product to show that the area of and D(S. 4. -2), find an equation of the plane that passes
the triangle f>QR is through A and 8 and is parallel to the line through C and D.
U. G iven the points A. B. C. and Dof Problem 11. find points
A= ! Hx 1 - xo)( }~- ) b)- (x: - .ro)(}) - )b) l.
P on the line AB and Q on the line CD such that the line
6. Write both symmetric and parametric equ~tions of the PQ i~ perpe~dicular to both AB and CD. What is the per·
line that passes thro ugh p 1(1. -1 , 0) and JS parallel to pendtcular dtstance tl between the lines AB and CD?
v = (2, -I, 3). 13. Let Po(Xo. ,)1). :O) be a point or the plane with equation
7. Write both symmetric and parametric equations of the line
that passes through P1{1 , -1. 2) and /': (3, 2. -1). ax +by + Cl+ d =0.
......
D= tJ , a, ,,, Ct = 0.
J,J: - ;-; - (j n:. b: cz
14. Sho w that the di<tancc D fror:1 the roin t P1Cx 1• y 1 • ; , ) to the
p la ne a x + b)' +c ; -r 1! "' 0 u equal to the dis tance from the 26. •D~duce .from
(
i'ro hh:m 15 th3 t the eq uati on of the osculat.
Problem ~-I ) to t h.: pa ramctnc curve r(l) at th•
mg p 1am: .
o rigin to the plane "'ith e.q uat•o n
a(x +x,) +h!y+ y 1 )"'r( ; + ; ,) +d "' 0.
roinl r(ro) can "e \\
~
rtltl'll '" the fo r m
~~
19. The acc·c kr:ui~':l of a cc:rtttin particle i' 29. A roint movt·s nn the unir s phe re p = I with it~ spheri·
ca l a ngula r coordi nates at ti me r given by o = ¢ (1). e =
a = i si n r - j cos 1.
P(r). a;:; r ::; b. U<e the equa l inn< relat ing rectangular Md
A ss ume that the particle bcgms ut time r "' 0 nt the point sphe rical coonlina tc s to sh ow tha t the a rc le ngth of its pJth
(0. I) and has initial w lod ty v0 = -I. Show that its pa th is i'
a circle.
211. t\ pa rticle mows in an attracting central fo rce field with
fo rce proport ional 1<> th e distance from the o rigin. This im-
s=[ [ ('~~ Y+(sin! ~~) (~~)Til dr.
pl ies l hrtl t h~ r:trt icl~·~ :\l"C"i"1~r :HiN1 \ ' l• C"t Or i~ a - - tu~ r.
wher(! r i:ro. the position vector of the part id e. A~sumc that .Ill. llte vector p rod uct II = T x N of the unit ta ngent \ ector
the p:nucle's initia l po~i t ion is r,1 = pi and tha t It< in iti al :mJ the princ1pa l unit nurm a l vecto r is the unit binorm:d
' 'clocity is vo "' qwj S how that the trajecto ry of the par- • cctnr II o f a cu rv~. (a ) Diffcr.:ntia tc II. T =()to show thlt
ticle is the e lliJ>'e with equation x'1 p' .-. .'~ Jq1 = 1. [St~g· T h pcrpc ndicubr to d ll/lf<. (b ) D •ff.:rc nti:u c 11·11 =:Ito
gn rion- It x" (l) = -4.1x(r) ("here k " constant). the n sht>W tha t ll is pcr pcndiw la r 10 d ll j ds. (c) C<mclud~ from
.t(l) = A cos kt + R sin Ia for some constants A and B.J parts (a) and ( h) tha t t/IJ j tls =
-rr" for some number r .
:U. A t time r = 0, • j!rnunJ latg<'l is 160 ft from a gun and is Ca lled the ln rsion of the curve. r me asures the amount thll
movin.,-: d irct:tly r~way from it with a ron~tant speed nf SO flls. the curve twists at each poi nt in space.
H the muu lc velocity of the gu n b 320 fils. at "hat angle of .H. Show that t he torsio n of the he lix o f Exa mple 7 of Sec·
elevation a sho uld it be tired in orde r to strike the moving uon 125 is constant b y sh ow ing tha t its va lu e is
target?
f>,,,
22. Suppose that a gun with muulc \'eloci ty t'o is located at the r = ._,......,... ;__
foot o f a hill with a .30" slope. AI what a ngle of e le vation
n 2(if +~·
3
(from the horizontal) should the gun be ftred in order to 2. Deduce from the d e finition o f to rsio n ( Problem 30) thlt
maxim ize its range. as measured up the hill? r a 0 for anv curv~ • t 1 1 . . .
. ' • • tc 11 l.lt r (r J ltcs tn a ftxed plane.
23. A particle moves in space with parametric equations 33. Wrtte a n equarior1 i · h · · I
. ' n sp encal co ordinates fo r the sphenca
2
X= t . )' = 1 , Z ~ ~rlll. find the CUrvature of its trajecto ry 34 ~rface wnh radius I a nd center x = 0 "' , .. ~ = I.
a nd the tangential and normal components of its accelera · 1
• C be the circle in the n·pla ne with ;adius 1 and ctn·
rion when r "' I. te~.10Yd 1• t = 0. W rite equatio ns in bo th rccran~ular Bnd
=.
%4. The o sculating plane to a space curve at a point p of that eve. n eal coordinates of the s urface obtained bv ;e, ·ol,.;., g
curve is the plane through P that is parallel to the curve's around the z-a~is. ·
un it tangent and principal unit normal vectors at P. Write 35. l.ct Cbcthccurve 101 · h• . . • , :-
2(r _ l. w . e n·pla ne wnh cquatton ()" + ;-) -
an equation of tile ~Xeulating plane to the cur ve of Prob- th ~ ). nte an equatton in spherical coordinates of
le m 23 at the point (I. I. j).
• e ~urThace obtained by revolving this c urve arour.d the
25, Show •?at the equation of th~ plane that passes through , · axrs.
that , 2 _
en sketch t his
• .
f
sur ace. [Suggesrion: Remem ·
b(r
the pomt /'ll{.to. y.,. Zo) a nd ts parallel to the ve ctors - 2 cos 29 IS the polar equa tion o f a figure-eJght
curve.)
Chapter 12 M iscell.mcous Problems 84 7
.'6. Let ~l l'C the area of the par~ll~ram PQRS in sp~ce de· -1-1. The right 1-rnnch C'f the hyperbola .r: - l "' I may be
temuncd by the \"CClors a :: I'Q ~nd h :: PS. Let A" he pnrnme tritcd hy .r(l) .. co'h 1. y(l} .. sinh 1. Find the point
the n.rca of the perpendicul.tr proj ection of PQRS into n where its curva ture i< mi ni m nl.
plane t~a t ""kcs. an acute an~lc y " ith the plane uf I' QiiS.
~ ~. Find lhc vectors N a nd T til the point of the curve .r(l) c
Assu mtnt: that A = A cm yin <uch u 'itua tio n ( th is 15 true).
prove th at the areas o f the rcrrcndtcul.tr projections or the
1 cos r. y(r) = 1 sin I that c\lfrcspo nds to I 11/2. =
~6. Find the point< on the ellip<c .r 1 j t1 1 +).:Iff- "' 1 ( with a >
paratlclngm m I'Q RS ullo the thrt"c coord inate planes Dre
h > 0) " here the cun•ntur~ is maximal and tho<c where it
(l · (a x b ) (. U· (a x bl(. (k ·( a X h )( .
i< minimal.
-17. Surro•e that the plnnc cun·c r = /(0) is ~ti•·en in pobr co-
~oncludc. that the square Of the Mea of a parallclui!r:tm nnlinatcs. \\'rite , . fo r /'(II) nnd , . for ["(fl). Show that its
m ~pace ts equal to th..- sum o r the squ3 rcs of the arc:t< curv3ture is gi,·cn by
of rts pcrpcndtcular projections into the th,.·c coordinate
pl anes.
37. Tnkc a =
(a, . a:. OJ) nnd h a ( /1 1• b:. !>.) in Problem 36.
. .. lt 1 + 2(t ') 1 -
tr' l
1r l + (t")l pt:
Show that
4-S.. Use the fo rmuiJ in l'rohlem -17 to c:rlc:ul.llc the curvature
of the pbne ~ =
Ar + B.•· and the c:llipsoid + >~ j/iZ +
.r 1 j a 1 S I. Suppose that a tetrahedron in space has a solid right an!!le
:!- 1r. =
I is either empty. n <in~lc point. o r an e llipse. a t one vertex (like a corn~r of a cutx). Suppose that A is
4!. Sup~ th at y =
[ (x l is the graph of n function for " hich the area of the si<lc OpJX>sitc the sohd right angle and lh:ll
r i• contin uous.. and suppo<e nlso thnl the ~raph h3\ 31\ B. C. and n nrc the nrcn• of the other three sides. (a) Pro ,·e
infle<:lion point3t 10. [ (a)). Pro,·c that the curvature of the th at
!rar!l at .r = a is zero. ,~: "' 8' .._ C 2 + ri.
~ fi::td the points on the curve )' =
sin .r "'here the curvature (b) Qf "' bJl famOU> theorem i5 this 3 thrce-dimension:ll
11 ma ttmal and t~ "'here it i5 minimal. ,·ersion?
- ...,
. ..
~
,. , ..
-· .. ' .. • t ''
.·.'
'I
• I
'
I f: ,
' .
... .. J '
J
oseph Louis Lagrange motio n o f a particle in space th:ll is constrained to
is remembered for his move on a surface defined by an equat io n of the for~1
grea t t reatises on ana- g (x . y. z> =0. Section 13.9 applies the Lagra nge _ll_lul_ll·
lytical mechanics and on plier method to the problem of maxi m izing o; n~.rnrmrz·
the t heo ry of functions ing a function f(x, y. z) sub ject to a "constrarnt of the
tha t summarized much fo rm
of eigh tee nth-century pure
and ap plied mathematics. g (x . y . z) = 0.
ll!CSe t re~Hiscs-Mecanique
arwly tiq11c ( 1788). 7'/zeorie Today this method has applicatio ns that range from
des fonctinns analytiq11es minimizing the fuel required for a spacecra ft to achreve
( 1797) .. and 1-t•rom s11r its desired trajectory to maximi zing the producti vity o r
le calc11l dt·s foncrions a commercial enterprise limited by the a vailability of
~h Louis u grange ( 1806) -systc rna tically de· financial. natural. and personnel resou rces.
(173&-1813) ve lopcd and applied widely Modern scientific visuali zation often employs com-
the differen tial and integral puter graphic techniques to present different inte rpreta-
c;~kulus of multivariahl e funct ions e xpressed in terms of
tions of 1hc same data sim ultaneously in a single figure.
the rect:m gula r coordinates x. y. z in three-dimensional 'l11e roJJowing color graphic shows both a graph o f a s ur-
!p3~ Th~y were written and published in Paris dur·
=
race z j'(x. y ) and a co nlour ma p showing level curves
that appear to encircle points (.r. y) corresponding to pies
int the last <Juartc;r-c;..:ntvry of Ln gmng~ ·s career. But
he~ ~e-. ·up and sp.:nt his first 30 years in Turin. Italy. tmd peaks on the surface. In Sect ion 13.5 we lea rn how
to locat e rnultivariable maximum-minimum points like
!lis father pointed La grange towa r d the law. hut by age
those visible on this surrace.
17 Lagrange had dec ided on a cmcer _in sc1ence and
rnathcma.ti~ Based o n his ea rly work m celestial me·
chanics (t he mathematical analysis of the mo tions of tl~e
planels and sa tell ites in our solar system). Lagrange Ill
17fl> succeeded Leo nha rd E uler as d irector of the Bcrhn
Academy in G erma ny. .
La£Jangc regarded his f;rr·reachrn g work ~n
· - . .
rna.t1mum-mrntmum pro11 1ems. a•-~ t11' ·s b.:st work 111
mathema ti~ Thi~ work, which continued throughout
his long career. dated back to a letter to E uler _th;~t
wrote fr om ·r·unn · w1te n h•"' was
1
,_,.grange
- • · only. I.'1.
. llus
letter outli ned a new app roach t o. a ccr.l at.~l _cJ.t s~ ('~ 1
849
850 CHAPTER 13 Partial Differentiation
'I~N~T~RO~D~U~C~T~I20~N~------------------~~~::c==::~::-::
13 • 1L! 1
, nd 15 to the calc ulus of functtons of
We turn ou r attention here an
d in Chapters .. a
df
. bl
t 'o ns d epend o n two or more vana es.
. \I . eat-worl unc t
more than o ne vanable. · :1n~ r
For example:
. \1- 11 RT ( where '' and R are con-
. · · · the idcal~:as I3 '' P - ) V( 1 )
• In phystcal cherrustr~ ,,. o ;e o f the ,·a riablcs p (pressure • vo ume .
31
stants) is used to express • • f th e othzr two.
a nd T {tempe ratu re ) ·
as n fune!IOD 0 b'
. Jar loca tio n on the ca rt s sur ace
f
bo level at a pa rtrcu •
• The altitude a ,.~ se:1 d lonl:itudc o f th e locati o n.
depends o n the latitude an -_ . s. ove rhead costs. the cost of each
nd' o n sa 1e .
• A manu facturcr·s P1o fit. d~pe - . · ,. dd itional va riab les.
. 1 cd and 10 m an' cas.s. a
raw m atcna us · • · · ·I therdc pc n dson itsefficicncy.
f bl e r•y a solar p~ne c:m ga
• Tlteamounto u>a cc n " . . · 1h and c o fdcva tionofthe sunabovc
its angle o f incli natio n to th.: suns r a)S.. e -
the horizon. and other fact ors.
. . fi d an ex tre me value of a function of
A t ypical opphca llon may call for ~~ to _m ·ant to min im i7.e the cost o f making
se ve ral vari ahies.. For cx:1mplc. 'uppo~c 1 3.t " e "'· - f d b ·tck cost Sl j ftl its
0 f ~8ft' g 1ven that•ts ron an
. 1 · •
a rcctan~ula r ho ~ Wit h a ,.,~ umc
1 : _ S' / f : fi •urc 13.1.1 shows such a
w and botto m cost S2; ft · . and liS two e nds co >t _, ~ . ~ . '!! be
FIGURE 13.1.1 A box whose tot.lt p r h 'dth y and heistht • U nde r the co nd itt o ns gtvcn. liS total cost wt
co~t we want to minimize. box o 1engt x. wt . ~ •·
C = 2.r z + ~xy + 6y~ (dolla rs).
Dut x, y. nnd z nrc not independent va riables. beca use the box has fixed vo lume
V = .ry:= ~R.
·
\ Ve e liminate z. for instance. fro m the first fn rmula by u >mg h d· bccaus~
t c sccon • ·
: = 48/ (xy). the cost we wnnt to minimize i~ given by
288 96
C = ~xy+ - +- .
X .V
We can typically define n funct ion f of two (or three) var iables by giving a
formula that specifics f(x. y) in te rms of x and y (or f(x. y . z) in terms of x, y. and z).
In case t he domain Dof f is no t explicitly specified, we t ake D to consist o f all poi nts
for which the gi\•cn for mula is meaningful.
EXAMPLE 2 Find the d omain of definition of the func tion with formula
Sol ut io n For f(x . y ) to be d efined , the mdicand x - >,1 must be positive-that is,
y! < x. li enee the domain (lf f is the se t of points lying strictl y to t he right of the
=
pa rabola x y2 • ll1is domain is shaded in Fig. 13.2.1. The pa rabola in the figure is
da shed to indica te that it is not included in the domain of f ; any point for which
.r = yl would entail d ivision b y ze ro in Eq. (I ).
The function f(x. y) hns the value ± I whene ver
y
r:--:--; = .l. J·.
~
VA- F
that is. when y 2 = .r- ) ,2 . so x = 2y2 . "lllUs / (.r. y) = ± I at each point of the parabola
l(x. y) = A
fiGURE 1 3:.2.1 The domain of
X - y1
(E.xample 2).
=
x 2y2 [other tha n its vertex (0. 0). which is not included in the do main of fl. TI1is
pa rabola is shown as a solid curve in Fig. 13.2.1. •
J:f A and k arc constants.. then this formula gives t he temperature Tas a function o f
the four independent variables x, >'· z. and r.
r ----------------------~~
852 CHAPTER 1 3 Partial Differentiation
We sha.ll sec that the main differences between single-variabl.e and muhivari-
able ca lculus show up when only two independent ~·anahlcs are l~volved. Hence
ma ny of o ur results will be stated in terms of func hons of t wo van ablcs. Most of
th ese results readily generalize by analogy to tht! case of three or more mdcpcndcnt
va riables.
EXAMPLE 3 Ske tch the graph of the function /(.r.y) = 2 - !x- ~y.
Solution We know from Section 12.-1 that t he gra ph of the equation : = 2 - ~x - jy
is a pl:mc. ~nd we can vi~uali1.c it hy us in!! its inte rcepts with the coordi nate axes to plot
((1, 6, ())
the portio n in the first octant of space. Cle arl y ~ = 2 if x y 0 . Also the equation
= =
,. =
gi"cs y = 6 if x = z = 0 a nd x = 4 if y =: 0. H ence the grnph looks as pictured
in fig. 13.2.3. •
(4. 0. 0)
EXAMPLE 4 ll1e graph of the function /(.t. y) = .x 2 + y 2 is the familiar circular
2
paraboloid <=.t + y2 (Section 12.7) shown in Fig. 13.2.4. •
FIGURE 13.2.3 The planar graph EXAMPLE 5 Find the domain of definition of the function
of Example 3.
g(x. y) =! j 4 - 4x~- yl {2)
and sketch its graph.
.r2+h·2+z2= 1
of an ellipsoid with semiaxes a = I • b-- 2• •'ltld c-- 1 (S.cellon
· 12 7) I'
~~~":rdt~: ~rii~~i~~ ~;,;~~~~~~).wherever it is defined, so the graph of g is the uppe;
. . . . . >Ill g(x. y) 3S
r-·~--~ ~- ~rl) 1
\' : '
I
'
I :
f
I
' 1iy
\ l '
fJ
-2
•,'_,
0 1
-2 -1
0
y
FIGURE 13.2.4 Thr paraboloid is tht!
graph of thr function f(x, y) ~ x2 + y 2• FIGURE 13.2.S The domain of the
function g(K, y) = ~ J• _
4xl- yl. FIGURE 13.2.6 The graph of the
function g is the upper half of the
ellipsoid.
-
l hc: in tc:r'CCIIOn of the horuon t,tl rlJnc: , .. A " ith the ~u rf.t CC: /( I . > ) 11
~,llc:d the contn ur rune of hcl)!ht A on the ~u r bce ( f ir
ll2.7) 11H' H'II ICn l Jli<IJC~·
liOn or th1\ contour cunc into the ty·ri Jnc '' the lr •tl cur•r fl 1 • ' ) /.. o f the
functton I 'l hu\ a Jc:,c:l cunc o! 1 n stm"h 3 \Ct 10 the t }·r l.1nr on "luch thr \' ll luc
{ Cx · Yl is rorwnnr On 3 tororraph:c m Jr. such 3\ thC' one in It~ I J.~ S, the le vel
1
,...
, ,. ~ ,
' :
.....
---- ,
------
'
...... .
FIGURE 13.2.8 Thr region nNr l ong1 Pt'ak. Roc ky Mount•in N~tionol P.~r~. ColorMfo,
showing contour lines Jt intervals of 200 leet.
EXAM PL E 6 Figure 13.2.10 show~ som~ typical cont our curve~ on the parabo loid
~ = 25 - x 2 - >'". Figure I:1.2.1 1 shows the corresponding lc:vc l curvc.s. +
25
2()
15
: 10
5
0
fiGURE 13.2.9 Contour curves and FIGURE 13.2.10 Contour curves on FIGURE 13.2. 11 level wrves ol the
~~ curves for a hill. the surfacez == 25 - • 1 - Y1 • function f( x, y) = 25 _ , z _ y l .
r 854 CHAPTER 13 Partial Differentiation
=
So lut ion If k i- () then the curve >~ - x: k is a hypcrhol:l (Sectio n 10.6). It opens
along the .' -axi' if k > o. along the .r -axi' if k < 0. If k ~ 0 tl~cn we have t he equa·
tion ,.: - ·' 2 = o, who'c cr~ph cunsi, ts of the t\\O s tratg ht ltncs y = x a nti y = -x.
Ftgu;c 13.2.12 ~hem ~ ><m~c of the te,·cl curves. each b hc lcu wi th th e Cl.>rrcspondi~g
constant value of =. l ~gurc 13.2.1 3 sho ws co ntour curves on the hypcrboltc parabolOid
== y: - x: (Sectio n 12.7). :-:o te th at t he saddle point at the uri gin on the paraboloid
=
corrc~pond~ to the inte rsectio n point of the two level curve s y x and y - x in =
Fig. 13.2.12. •
1he graph of a function f <x. ,v. :) of three vari ables cannot be drawn in three
dimensions. but we can readily visualire its le• cl surf~ces of the form f<x . y. Z) = k.
For e'!ample. the level surf~ccs of the fun ction /IX. y. z) = x 2 + / + z2 are spheres
(spherical surfaces) centered at the origin. Thu~ the level surfaces of fare the sets
in space on which the value j(.t. y. => is const:111 t.
H the function f gi\'cs the tempe rature at the location (x. y) or (.r, ,v. =>· then
its level cun·cs o r surfaces arc called isuthenns. A weather map typically includes
lc:vel curves of the gwund-level atmospheric: pressure: these a re called i•uh ars. El'en
thou!_!h you m ay be able 1<> construct the gra ph of a function of two variables. that
graph might be so complicated that in format ion abnm the functio n (or the situation
it desc ribes) is obscure. Frequently the level curves t hemselves gi\'e more informa·
tion, as in weather maps. Fu r example, Fig. 13.2.1-t shows leve l cu rves fo r the annual
-
.
•• 1: • • . :'l::: !": ::a; h , • 1:- ,: - := , L' J h'r<rl-<•l.•iJ of onc 5hcct. " hcrc:t~ if
' · In'' l .., \ 0:~ •, · :"\' ,'-;.,".:t' 11':: -.\ 'n( .t: - \: - :! = l) ltc:~ t~t'' t.•cn th ese
t" , h';"~ , .., ~\t'='f~' J, •
fiCURE 1) l . 1S ~~~...
\.>rl.Kf1 cf lh<' fw'Xt ~ Compu ter Plots
,_ .. ,(, ,,:)- •: ·· =- ...:
(t • ll""P'~ Sl \1 -,' -:-.·:· <1•'.:-• !'J\: <.:;(.1:c J.'.! C'\'"l!<lUr rl••lltn!! !l>Ulln.:s hJ.. o: the .\fap ft:
"' ,.! ..
:-: eo • ):!,)·· : · a ·:. x • ·l .. l. y • -l .. l ) l
[).AM PLE Q l·a)!urc 1.1 ~ ((\ •ho "'' 1-o.•th the j:llph ~nd ~orne projected contour
•·un ~' {'r th~ fun~u,,n
/(1. y)= ( t : - _I;)C \ f'\-.1:- i).
0!:-<t'r'<' t h~ p.lllt'rn< t•f nc:str u k ' el cunc~ thJtamlac:u c " pits" and "pea k<" o n the
sur(.,.·c. In Fi~. I.'..:. I~. thc k H·I cu r, cs th.tt correspond to <urf~cc contour< :1bovc
th.: 1' ·J' l.ln;: Jrt' sh''" n m r~d. " hilt: tl:o><: thai cm rc'J"md to contours l:tclow the
11·pl.ln.- .tr~ >h•" •n m 1-luc. ln tha> \\3~ '"can Ul,lln!!ulsh he tween pe ak' :and pit'I. It
.lrJ'o:.l!~ hl. d~ thJ t the our!.l;c ha• pea\..; J!-<nc the f'<liOl< (: 1. 0) o n the x -a ~i< in the
11·r!Jn<·. :mJ hJ• P"' 1-<·l,m tht• P.'ims tO. =l l on thc _1 -a~i<. llec:l u<c /(x. :!:x ) "" 0.
the: t" '' J~ lim·< .' == 1 in Fi!!. 1~ ..:. 11 arc al<n lc' el cun•cs; they inte rsect at the
I"''"! ttl. 01 in the pb nc tha t c••m·spond< to a s.:~ddlc poin t or "pass" (n< in llltlllllftJi ll
I'·L>J) o n the surface. +
•
FIGURE 13.2.1 6 The graph and p roie<:ted contour FIGURE 13.2.17 Level curves
cur\'CS of the function f { x, Y) = { • I - YI) e·•'· r' • for the function l(x, y) =
(xl- y1)e-•'-r'.
REMARK In Section 13.5 we will study ~nalytic methods for locacing m:1ximum nnd
minimum JXli nt s or functions cf two \';m ablcs I'X<ICtly. n ut Example 9 indicates that
plots of lc\'el curws prol'idc a valuable too l for locating them approximtllfly.
856 CHAPTER 13 Partial Differ~tiation
--
EXAMP LE 10 Thesurface
(3)
• 1·s sym met n·ca1 wn · h respec t 10 the •· • 3 xis.
· becJusc. Eq. (3) r ed 1 uces to hthe equarioo
, . ,2
~ = sin , (Fi~,t. 13.2.IS) in terms of the radial coonhnate .,. = y x· T > 1 a t measures
perpcn d 1cu. 1nr d '1~tance 1-ro m the •- -.axis.
· 'Th e sur/flee
. : = sm r. .1s. generated
. by rc"Ol\'iog
the curve : = si n x around the ~-axi <. Hence: liS lcvd cur' ~s ar e carclcs centered 31
FI GURE 13.2.18 ThHurve
z "' sin r (uample 10).
=
t he o rigin in the xy-planc. For imtan~e. : 0 if,. is ~n ~~~ ~~raJ mulllpl~ of :r. whcrc~s
: = :: 1 1! r is an" odd in~el!ral muluple of :r / 2. F1gurc 1.>.2.19 shows traces of th1s
surface in planes' para llel t; t he y:-pl:me. The "hJt ~f:ect." was achie"ed by pi oiling
,, (x . y. : ) for those points (x. y ) that lie within a ccn:un clhpsc In the xy -plane. •
I Gi' en an arbitrary function j(x . .1•). it can be quite a challenge to construct
' , __.. . =
by hand a picture of the surflee : j(x . y). Example I I illustrates some special
tcchmques tha t may be useful. Additional surf:lcc-s ketching techniques will appear
in the remaind er nr thi< ch~p l e r.
in which the surface l = f(x. y) intersects the y~·planc. But if we set y =}b in Eq. (4),
we get
Z= (hi + f.ro- bY~) - .r2 ;
thnt is,
z = k- .r2• (6)
which is the cquat~nn of a pa rabola in thc x~-planc. Jlcncc t he trace of ~= f(x. y) in
each plnnc y = )IJ IS a para~la of lht> form in Eq. (6) (Fig. 13.2 .20).
. Wc.ca ~t ~sc H1c technt.qucs o f Section 4 ..5 to ske tch the curve in Eq. (5). Calcu-
la ttng the dcnvat1ve of: wnh respect tn y, we ge t
Now we can see what the surface : = [l t. y) looks like. Each vertical plane
Y = >•, intersects the cun c in Eq . (5) 3t a sinfk roint. .1nd thi:< P<' int i~ the v.:rtex of a
pa raboiJ that opens down"ard ltl:e thlt in Eq. (6): this p:u:~bob is the intcr~cction
=
of the plane and the surface. Thus the surface : j(x . y) is generated by trnnslating
the vertex o f such a parabola along the cun·e
•- ~).:
... - ..
+ !I_}J
~
_ I v•
J!..- .
as indicate<.! in n g. 13.2.22.
Figure 13.2.2J show< some typical contour cu rves o n thi~ surface. 'l11cy indicate
tha t th e surbcc resem bles two peaks <cparated hy a mountai n pass. Fi l\urc 13.2.24
shows a computer plot of le vel curve< o f the fu nction f ( r . y). l11c nested level c urves
enclosi ng the points (0. - 3) a nd (0. -l )corrcspon<.lto the peaks :It th.: point (0. - 3. n>
and (0. 4. if'>
on the surface z = f(x . y). The level fig ure -eight cun•c through (0, 0)
fiGURE 13.2.24 Level curves of marks th:: saddle point (or pass) that we s~c at the origin on th<: surface in f~gs. 13.2.22
the function I (x, y) = ~ yl + and 13.2.23. Extreme values and saddle points o f functions of two variables arc
M 1- u y• - x2 (Example 11 ). discussed in Sections 13.5 and 13.10. +
~ 13.2 PROBLEMS
1
br l'rol>tems 1 tlrrouglr 20, slttl~ the largest possible domain of 4. f(x. y) = --
definition of tlw given function f.
x -y
4
2
~ 0
FIGURE 13.2.26 The graph -2
1 + sin(xy)
Z= of Problem 14.
2 X 2 +y
X )'
xy
15. f(x, y) = -2--2 FIGURE 13.2.27
X -y FIGURE 13.2.28
1
16. f(x, y, z> = -r:=~====
~~
Jz-x2- y2
···::::c:T:::r:::;::: : :;:::::
17. f(x,y,z)=exp( 2 \ ) 30
x + y +z2 ~ 20
10
18. f(x, y, z) = ln(xyz) 0
-10
19. f(x, y, z> = ln(z- x2 -I> -20 .
-6-4 -~2""""'"~·~~--
-2 -1 0 . . 2 -2-1 '
20. f(x, y. z) = sin-1 (3- x2 -I- z2 ) X
FIGURE 13.2.29
In Problems 21 through 30, describe the graph of the function f . FIGURE 13.2.30
21. f(x, y) = 10 22. f(x, y) == x
23. f(x, y) = x + y 24. /(x, y) == ..jx2 + y2
25. f(x,y)=x 2
+! 26. f(x, y) == 4- x2 - I
27.
------
f(x,y>=J4-x 2 -y2 28. f(x, y) == 16- y2
29. f(x, y) = 10- Jx 2 + y 2
30. f(x, y) = -J36- 4x2 - 9y2
FICURE 13.2.31
FIGURE 13.2.32
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3 + 2 Functions of Several Variables SECTION 13.2 859
47• /(X, y) =X y
2
48. f(X, y) = 2x- y
57. z=3(x2 + 3y2) exp(-x2- y2), lxl ~ 2.5,lyl ~ 2.5
3 3 2+ I 2
49• f(x,y)=X- X iY (Fig. 13.2.37)
2 2
50• /(X, y) =X - y
51, /(X, y) =X
2
+ y4 - 4y2
sz. /(X, y) = 2y3- Jy2- 12y + x2
FIGURE 13.2.34 z=r 2 exp(-r 2 )cos 2 (ie), FIGURE 13.2.39 FIGURE 13.2.40
lxl ~ 3, IYI ~ 3,r ~ 0.
2 2)
FIGURE 13.2.36 z= x exp( -x - Y I
FIGURE 13.2.43 FIGURE 13.2.44
IX1~2, IYI~2.
For a function/of two variables, we ask ~hat num?er (if any) the values /(xl
approach as (x, y) approaches the fixed pomt (a b) m the coordinate plane. /)
1
a function f of three variables, we ask what number (if any) the values f(x y or
approach as (x, y, z) approaches the fixed point (a, b, c) in space. ' ,z)
EXAMPLE 1 TI1e numerical data in the table of Fig. 13.3.1 suggest that the val
?f the function f(x, y) =XY approach 6 as x 2 3~ andy~ simultaneously-t~es
ts, as (x, y) approaches the point (2, 3). It therefore is natural to write at
lim
(.r. y)-t>(2,3)
xy=6.
•
f(x. y) = xy
X y (rounded)
.. lim ,,
..........
I .,.• \') ( I
f< X , .V)· = L. (11
poin t (A •)) ffiUll be tO JtCOffij"fUh th15. \\'e th:nk or the roint (.r. y ) liS being close tO
(a. b) Pr<J\'Jdcd that tt he<> "''thin a sm:~ll arrular dt< l. (iFis:. 13J.:!) "ith ce nte r ( n. />)
~nd radtu< b. ~~o be rc ois a smaoll p<Xit i\ C number. The roi~t (.r. ) ) lie< .,.;thin this disk
tf and only if
(2)
Th i~ o"->cr•allo:t sene< a< rr:<O:I\a:ton for the fomul defini tion. \\ith ' "''' addition:tl
condt ticm, Fi r• 1. "' e define th~ hm 1t o f f f.t. y) 3< ( t . ·' ) - · ! 11. f>l m:ly unde r th•· condi·
llo n tha t the <hma on o( cdtm1t. •n off cont.lm< l"'int< 1.r. ·' 1 ~ (tl. f>) th:tt tic ar bitrarily
clov.: to fa. In -tha: t" . .
t! hm r> rn d:<k l'( th<: sort ~hOI' n in Fil!. l.i~'·2 :tml thus "it hin
a.ny and C\Cf) f'fC3\< tfncJ r"'l<l!l~c dt<tlnO:::! of (,z. /l) lknc:: '\\C dll not sre:t k Of the:
FIGURE 13. 3.2 lne circular doll
hmtt off at an t<<Jlltcd p<>Hll fl ( tl< dom:un () Fin:~lh. "C dn n r>r rcquin: that f be
With center (o, b) and rad•m A. ddincd at the point Ca. f>l it <ell Thu< " e dchl-cr:uci,· c~cludc thc l"'"ibil ity lhlll
(A .))=fa.b). ·
(2')
R( MARK 'lltc: "e xtra" inc:qu:~lity 0 < J< < -a)!+ (y- h)! in Eq. ( 2') serves 10 en·
sure that (.r. y) ~ (a. 1>).
Solution IIere 11 = b = 0 and L = I in the definition of the limit. Given f > 0. we must
find a value ~> 0 such that
as dc:sirc:d. •
862 CHAPTER 13 Partial Differentiation
Thus f is co ntinuous at (a. b) if it is define~ the re a~d its li~it there is equa~ to
its value there. precisely as in th~ case of a funct1on of a smgle vanabl~. The funct1~n
f is said to be conlinuous on the set 0 if it is continuo us at each pomt of 0, agam
exactly as in the single-variable c;•~e.
1 EXAMPLE 3 Let D be the circular disk consis ting o f th e points (.r. y) such that
x 2 + y" ;;; 1 ;1nd let {!x. y ) = 1 a t each point of D (Fig. 13.3.4). Then lhc limit of
f (x. y ) at each poi nt of 0 i.• 1. so f is continuous on D. I3ut let the new function
g(x . y) be defi ned o n the entire plane R 1 as follows:
[(x. y) if (.r. y) is in 0;
g(.r.y)= .
{0 o thc rwJSC.
·n1en g is n o r conlinu ou~ on /l 2• For insta nce. 1he limil of g(.r. y) as (.r. y) .... (1.0)
docs not exist hecause there exist hoth poin l' wilhin D arbilrarily close to ( I. 0) at
wh ich g '""the val ue I """points out~ide o f 0 arbilr~rily close to (I. 0) at which
FIGURE 13.3.4 Th~ circul.u di'k g h:1s I he value 0. Thus g(x. y) cannot approach any si ngle va lue as (x. y ) .... ( I. 0).
of Exampl~ 3. Because g has no limit at ( I . 0). it cannot be continuo u' there. •
·n1e limit laws of Section 2.2 have natural analogues for functions of several
variables. If
then the sum. product. and q uo tient laws fo r limits are these:
lim
( -..v) - 1" " •
I[l.r. •'')."Cr.
·"
) 'll =I •
. •t
n • (6)
lim
(r.y)-(a,b)
f(x • y) -a
- an d lim
(x.yJ-ta,b)
g(x ' >') -- b •
Hence the product law gives
lim
l<,yJ-(a.b)
xy Jim 1f(x 'Y )8 (X, Y) )
= Cx.y)-ta.b)
Mo re generally, st:p~: tha t P( ll . ~ ,I\ a rolynomi al in the two \'J ria bl es ){and
Y· Th.:u i' Pu. >lis a sum of co:utlnt mu!t:rks of the ro m ry' " her e the expon ents
rand 1 are nonnegati' e in:eg en. Thu.s Pv:. . .•l on t-<: "'Titten in the fo rm
P (.t.) ) = L c, 1 .t'~ 1•
The SU!':"' and produtt la ...'l !o: lir:1its then i:nply lh3t
E:n
t r , , _ , .. "
= '\'
L-
( Em .
{ r • - 4 ... 1
c,,.r'y')
= '\' c, (lim
L- 1 ,_.,
.r')( lim l )
·-~
EXAMP LE 5 The funcuon f l 1 .) 1 = :!.t ' >.: - in + .l r=r' - 5 j_, a pol~ no mial, w we
C:.lln f111d iu limi t at nny pomt (a. b) itmply I'>) c\ a)u:umg f(•l. h). Fo r instance,
li m
( c.r•- c- l Z1
{( r .y)=f(- 1. :!1 = 2 (- 1)' (21 1 -7 - (- 1)(2)+ .1 ·(- 1) 1(2) 1 - 5 = 49.
•
Ju<t as in the sin!:k·vnrbhlc ca<c. any compo<ition of con tinuo u\ multivari ahte
funct io ns i<al<o :t continuou~ funct io n. Fo r cx3mpk. supp<Xc that the funct ion~ fa ml
g nrc hnth C'e>ntinuo us at (u . b) and that lr is co ntinuous a t the poi nt (f(a , I>) , f; (a. b) ) .
lncn the co mposite function
1/(.r , y ) = h ( { (.t, )') . g (.r . y))
EXAMPLE 6 The funct ion g (.r. y ) = sin (.r1 + y: ) is the co mposition of the conti·
nuous functio n sin 1 and the polyno m ial .r2 + .1,;. and is t herefo re continuo us every-
where. Hence the functio n f defined by
si n(.r2 + ),;)
f (:r,y) = I .r2 + y2
unless :r = y =0,
{
if .t= y =O
is continuous except possibly at the o rigin (0. 0). where the denominator is zero. But
we saw in Example 2 that
lim f(.r, y) =I= { (0, 0).
t•.rl- t1l.Ol
so 1 is continuous at the origin as welL Thus the function f is continuous everywhere.
•
EXAMPLE 7 If
Jr)'
f(x. y) = e-'1 sin -:t' + xy In ../y- :r,
then t'' is Ihe composition of co.ntinuous f~nctio~ tl1us continuous; sin y is con· lrr
tinuous for the same reason: theu product ts contmuous because each is continuous..
864 CI~APTER l l Pdrtial Differentiation
lim
h ; , J- I L 2)
(I!'' sin :ry
J
'"- .ryln Jy- x] = /(1. 2) = e · I + 2 1n I =~.
2
•
Example s ll and 9 illustrate tech niques tha t sometimes a re s uccess ful in han.
1lling ca ~c\ ~>i t h de nominators that approach 1cro: in such cases the techniques of
Examples 5 through 7 cannot be applied.
hccau•c lcosO sin O! ~ lcosO I·Isi n 01 ~ I fo r a ll 0. So if the fun ction f is deli ned as
X \'
/ (x. y) = J x z + >.z if (x . y) i- ( 0. 0),
{
0 ifx =)·= O.
then it follows that f is continuous at th ..
FIGURE H .l .S T~ 91lph of := [(.r l '). lt cormhora tL'S the z . e_or' 1l'" (O. O). Figure t:l3.5 ~hows the graph
·· ero 1unut 11at we fo und at (0 0) N · . h
xy
~ (£.• •mplt 8). graph a pp.:ars to rcscmhlc the saddl• . : · · cart 11c ongtn I e
hut this d O<!sn'tlook like a smooth: ~>lilt urn a hypcrholtc parabolo id (Fig. 13.2.13).
L a
v _.1 + y1
• 11 com ortablc sadd le. +
EXAMPLE 9 Show that
f<x.y)=f(x.mx) = X ·ntf _ m
x2 + m 2x2 - 1 + 2
'f m
I x ~ n. If we take m= I. we see that / ( . - •
other th an (0. 0). If we ta ke m =-I th x • >) - } at eve ry poin t o f the line J = .r
FIGUR E 13.3.6 ~function f ol =
Y - x othe r than (0. 0). Th us f <x >,') apepn f(xl , y) =- l
at evc rv ""int of the line
Eu mplt 9 take1 on both v1lues proach
an . es (0 · () l a long these two Jines
· (Fig. roac. 1cs
.
13 3 6
tw d'1ff · '"' °
, c rcnt va lues as (.r. y) ar-
+ ~ 1nd - ; 11 points arbitrarily y smg/l'.value as (.r, y) ap proaches (0 , 0) and t/ ~en~c f(x . y) cann ot approach
dme to the origin. ca nnot CXJSI. '
15 tmphes that the lim it in question
~ a'\d Continui1y SECTION 13.3 865
~gur~ 13.3.7 sho'"~ ;s comp!.~ ter-~er.cr3ted gr;srh o f the funelion f (x . y) =
x .\ f (r '"')~ ). It CDn5iHs of hne.u r;l\~ alon2 ca.::h t)f "hjch the pobr angular co-
ordina te q i\ CO:JStan t. For each nu~~r : . t-..:t .... ecn - l and l (incl usi,·e). there
are ray' along "'hich { l r . .' 1 has th e con<tant , ,,lu ~ ::. lienee \\C e::~n ma l..c /(.r . _\')
approach any n um~r "t' plca<c in [-I.~) b~ k u in!! ( r . .') :tpprooch (0. OJ from I he
arpropriatc cL rcctwn. There a re :tl<o p:.ths akm:; "' hich ( r. ·' ) appr oaches (0. 0') but
th e hmit of {( x. y ) docs not e:tist ( Probl:m 53). •
REMARK In order fo r
fiGURE 11. 1. 7 Th~ grJ;>h of
JY
1(• . y) :: -.--::;(Exam~ 9).
J +, L= lim /( r . y)
t t .• ' - ' " ~I
to exist, fi x.> ) mu~t a;'pft\ach L (<.'r ""·' .llt.l c1rr~· nHxk of approach of (.r. y ) to
Ca. M . In ? rol-km 51 "'t' ._~1•c an C'tam"k
t r
,,fa run..:t~<•n ' suc h th.tt f(.r . •1•) - 0 as
(.r. Yl - 10. OJ alon~ am \tr:ucht hr.c throu~h th,· Ni.:in.l-ut ((.r. 1·) - I as (.r. ) ") -+
W. OJ alon~ the pa~~bola .' .;, r: Thu< th(. m ~t hr•d .n( E~amplc ·., canm•t be used
to show that a hm11 n1\t'- only thlt it d<X~ nnt. r vrtun.ttc:ly. rn:my imr'<•rtan t app-
lica tions. includmt: th ose " C d•\1.'\J<-< in the re m:~ indc r l>f t hi< <'h:lptcr. inn>J,·c only
funct1on~ that nhibi t no ~uch e t o tu: l>cba,·i,,r :15 the funct ion< of P rnhlcms 51
t hrou~:.h 53.
J
~XI = xi + .ti + · · · + x~ .
For instance. the: 4-vector (5, -2. 4, 2) has length J 25 + 4 + 16 + 4 ./49 7, = =
lbe function f : R"- ll may he regarded eithe r as a functio n of the " in-
dependent real variables .r, . .r2 ... . . -~· or_ as a function of the single n-vcc!or
x = (.rt • .rz . ...• .r.). We may then wnte e1ther [ ex, . .rz .... , x.) or f (x). depend-
ing 011 which notation seems most natural in a given situation. For instance, with
vector notation the limit concept takes the form of the statement that
·-·
lim /(x)= L ,( 8)
provided thal. for every number f > 0. lhere exists a corresponding number cS > 0
such that
Then the function f is continuous at the point 11 =(a,, al .. · · .a.) provided that
lim f( x ) = /(11).
·-·
An attractive feature of vector notation is th at the multidimensional statemen ts
{10)
in (8). (9). and (10) take precise ly the same forms as in th e cas_e of f_u nctions of a
- .
sinclc variable as do the multidimension JIIimit laws. (Sec the dtscusston questions
for this sectio n. )
13.3 PROBLEMS
Us~ the /rmit laws am/ COitS~quences of COntinuity tO ~\'a/untr xy-:
13. lim
til~ limits in /'rob/ems I through 16. h .y.:>- 11 .1 o, cos.ryz
1. lim (7- .r 2 + s•• y) 14. lim x +Y+ 4
, ... .. J-tOIII
h .y.n-a.- t.JI .t1 + },Z + z l
2. lim (3.<: - 4xy + 5.¥'1
fl . t)-U . - Z l IS. lim .;xy J .T :
3. lim t-"
h.y.:J-t::,a. u y tan 4
t &... J- t l .- 1,
16. lim arcsin
4. lim ~ tt.y)-(1. - 1) Jx2xy+ r
,, .,,.t-11>.0• I + .t:;
s- .r;: In Problems 17 tiJro11giJ 20. ,.,·olllate tile /imiu
S. lim ....:..
· --''--
~~.,,-*oJh 3 + .c + y lim /(:r + IJ. Y) - f(:r • y)
9- ..: •- • iJ and
6. lim lim /(x.y+ kl- f Cx.y)
, •.• 1- .2. .J1 I+ xy
7. lim In J,..,-_-..
-:,,-_-r.,.· 17. /(x. y ) = ·xy
-· lc
18. /(.t,y) = .t 2 + l
' '··· ·-··0,0')
I + :r + 2y
19. f(x.y)=xy-2 20. f (:r ,y) =.t1 _v'- tO
s. t,.,,l~. -u In J)-1 x
In Pwblems 21rh,mgh 30, find rhe limit"' show that it dtJ<'S nor
9. lim r ..:, ros(3.t + 4y) rxifl.
(..1.)1- IU.OI
cos(.r1 + ,.:)
,
•·1 1
.
1m -I + xy
(•.,,-o.u
I - xy ..
-.... lim
(A,y)-12.-21
4_-xy
4 + xy
r
!
10. u . lim I - x2 - ) .2
1 .-l(I,O,
xl+y+r ll lim xyz . yz+x:+•Y
,,_,_.,_ ,,...., y: + :r: + xy 24. l1m ,
u. (•., lim
,. ... u.t. IJ l - x- y-:
t.., .t•-u.- a.J} 1 + xy..
l
limit~ ~nd Continuity SE(TION 13. 3 867
rot (..-2
+ )1 )
xz + ).z (a) Show that f(x. y) -. 0 ns (x. yl - (0. 0) along any
nnd every straight line through the origin . (b) Show that
l'}. .
hm exp ( - -
, -I - )
/ (.t. y) - I as (.r. y) - (0. 0) along the parabo la y .rl. =
f • •.• I- (O..O• x• + ).2 Conclude that the limit of f( x . y ) as (x . y) -. (0. 0) does
not exisL The graph of f is shown in Fig. 13.3.8.
Jr. Prot>lrms 3/ through 36. dntrrnin~ tiJ,. 1
. arg<st .ftt of points
in thr. x y-plant on whrch thr gi>·cn formula l1t fimrs a conrmuoru
.
funrtum.
31. /(;r.. _v) = ../x + y
.H. f <x. )'):: sin " 1(.t 2 + j)
JJ. j(:r. )'I= ln(.r 1
+ /- I) .\.t. /(.r . y) = ln(2.r - y)
x' + y' sin Jx: + y' 52. Suppose that f(x. y) = (.r- y)/(x' - y) except at points of
39. lim ~ , .., = 0
... ,>-10.01 (x• ... r., )"· 40. lim
(r,y)-100)
J.rl + yl
the cun·e y = x' . where we tlefin~ f(x. y) to be I. Show th3t
f is nor co ntinuous Jl th.e point ( I. 1). E,·aluJ ie the lim·
n. D etermine whether o r not ils of f <x. y) as (.r. y)- (I. I ) along the vertical line x 1 =
and along the hori?ontalli ne y: I. [ Sugg~.rrion: Re.cJII that
lim .l'.\'l
a~- tY =(a- b)(a 2 + ab + bl).}
t l ., , :>-fO O.Oi xl + y1 + :2
53. Let
exists: C\-:tlu3te it if it docs exist. (Suggrstion: Substi· . .ty
I lffi - --
tute s~herica! coordinJiesx: p sin ¢ cos O. y = psin Q'>sin O. ( f . • l -ftHll x= + yl
:= pcosc.J be the limit in Example 9. Show thai :\S (.t. y)- (0. 0) along
42. D e1ermine whether or not the hyperbolic spir"l rrJ =
l. the limit of f(.r. y) does not
exist.
I
lim arct:tn • ., .,
c..• . :~ - to o a, x- + y- + z- JJuca.s the com irwity of rhr fun ction> tlefinrd in Prob/.,nu 5-t
o iru: e\·aluate it if it docs exist. [See the S uggmion fo r
56.
tfJTOIIg lt
.r• - t'
4-1. Jim ,. ~ ,.
c•.,,_..,.,. r + x · y 2 +)
In Probkn a -t.S and 46. Jhvo-• tl:tJJ tilt g i••m limit dot'J not t'.tiJl
by coruidt'rtr!/: point> nf tht' fo rm ( z. 0. 0) o r (0, y. 0) or (0. 0. : )
tJ..41 11,?prrXJC.h thr o rrtm along or.( of tilt> toorclinatt au•.t.
~s.
In Problaru -t7 thTOu~/1 50, us~ a compurrr·pfrlftt'd II'"P" tn fiGURE 1l.l .9 The gr.1ph
1-in •Y
upufn .. ;,_, tht' x~> atlzmll dtXJ rwtoill. t • - - of Problem ~4.
•r
,__ z l - 2.>J
~-
,_,
wn
•- n~ ,~-J - ',1
... ~ + 4 t y + ,.:
~- Cf Ism
,,_,.OJ .I J ... .cy + yJ
sin xy:
!1. Let unlc\~ x )'l "' 0.
56. hi•. y. :I = xy:
{
1 if xy: .. o.
l
868 CliAI'TER 1 3 Pa,..Jal Differentiation
IPARTIAL DERIVATIVES
(I I
Note that Eqs. (3) and ( 4) arc simply restatements of Eqs. ( l) and (2). Just as
with single-variable derivatives. there arc several alternative ways of writing partial
derivatives.
-
.. .
•._ Notation
.
for
..'"
Partial
' .
... ' ..
Derivatives·
"
; .. ~
-
~ ..........
.
- . . .. .
__, .... "'~
.
· U z=f(x.y), then we may express its partial derivatives with respect toz and r•'
; rc:spcctively, in these Corms: · · ·
1
: ai at · a ·. ·
...... .... •... ax= a.r = /s(x, y) ==ax /(x, y) =D,(f(x, Yl] =Dt(/(x, yl}; '(5) .
a: at a '
l , . . . •• ' ay == v~Y = /y(x_,y)=
• y f<x.y)
-a . = D_.(f(x, y)]= D2[f(x.
. y)). (6)
·· ~- ~.
::.• .) -.._· - '. ·:.. ,.. .. • • . ..... • .l .-, ' . .\ •
,. ·.' ., .
Computer algebra systems generally employ variants of the "operator nota·
tion"forpartialderivatives.suchas difflf(x,y), x) ando[t[x,yJ. xl inMapk
and Matlttmatica, respectively.
~ole t h3ttf "'t delete the s~ mlx>l} tluoug,'-.out Eq (J ). the re•ul t is the hmit t hlt
defines t he stntle-vanJtlle den'au'e {I ~ 1. Tht~ r.lcJn< th.tt v.c cJn caku!Jte a : j ilx
as an ··ordtn,r:·- d:rh·atl\·e "'ilh re~j'X"Ct to t stmp!~ t~~ regardtnl! .' l~ a cunstJnt
durmg the proce1s o f c!:He re n:u:io:t. S:,-:u!.trh. ,.,. c.tn C'C>r:t pure •: , , a..< :10 ordtnl~
demathe ~ thi."l\: in l! of, as the od, \J:uhk Jmlt:cattns: r J< 3 con~t:lnt during
the computation. - · • -
Con\equentl: . ,. c ~h!o:n necJ to e\ JluJtc Jtre.:th the hmi t< tn Eq'- (J l nnd (J )
tn order to cal:uhte panial dem .t:i'~ O ·J 1:: 3 nh ,.,·,,mrl: arrt: fam ili.1r differ·
tnttation result\ to dt!ferc::tutc ' I r.-', ~~o1 th 1 ..-.~.:t II' en he r mJc penJent ' :11i:tble
(x or }) "' ht!e holding the o t!:!er ' Jr:Jt-!e C(ln<tant. In sh,m.
• To c:al::u!.tte tJf "z. regard.' l< .t cnn<Unt :u:J dtffcrentt3 tc "ith rc~p.:ct to .r.
• l o calculate iJ fla ). regard$. ~ .1 ron\ Unt .1nJ dtffcrcnti:llc " ith r~sp.•c t toy.
Elt AM P LE, 1 Compute roth the plrtill J en' 311' e< ,•_(1 J r .1nd ;Jff il.> of the functit>n
/ ($..}) = .r· - 2.t ,.: - ,.'.
Solut ion ·ro compute the p.l llt:tl tlcri,·J:l\c off " ith rc<pect to .r . we rcgnrd y as n
constan t Then "'e dtf!ercntiate norm~ll~· and find thJt
Jf
- : : .,f ..
il r -
">,.•·
•
When "-C regard $. tl' n corntan t anJ d•Hcrcnll.ltc "'ith rc•pcct to y. we find that
iif •
-
ily
: ..tr\ -
•
3)...
•
EY.A MPLE 2 Fi ndil:taxand a :Jilyif: =l • :- y:J~ ..
a:
ax = (2t )(e - H
) +ex·+
"
)~ )( -)~ - ') = (2.. -
' I '
X')'- y \ k-'' ·
Because x andy appenr symmetrically in the c \prcssion furl , we get <J l / a y when we
inte rch3ttgc x J nd y in the expression for 3: / il.r:
i)~ • J
. xr- x k - ''·
-ay = <2•·-
You sho ul d check th is result by dif!crenti:uing with respect toy directly in o rder to
find a:t ay. •
EXAMPLE 3 Suppose that the xy-planc is somehow heated nnd that its temperature
at the point (.r. y) is given by the function / (.r. y) = .t 2 + h y 2 - >.J, whose part ial
derivath·es f, (x, y) == 2.t+ 2y2 and / ,-(.t . y) = 4.ry- 3y2 we re calculated in E x:1mple 1.
Suppose also that distance is measured in miles and tempe ra ture in degrees C elsius
(" C). lhen at the point (I. - 1). one mtle east and ?"e
.mile south of the ori~in,
the rate of change of tempe rature ( tn degrees pe r m1le) m t he (eastward) posiu vc
870 CHAPTER 13 P~rtill Different1at10n
.r-dorect ion is
f, ( l.-1 ) =2 ·( 1)+2·(-1):= ~ (deglmi).
. ~... rd) nn<iti,·c ,·.direction is
and the rate of change m the (no• LUw3 1·-- •
E.XAMPLE 4 The , 0 lume \ ' (on cubic centimeters) of I mole (mol) of an ide.1l gas
i~ gi\'cn h)'
(82.06J T
Vo •
p
where p ;, the p res<u re (in 3ttn<Kphcrcs) and Tis t he ab<olute temperature (in kel·
, . 10 q J.; ). where ~-; = C T 273). 1ind t he rate< of change of the volume of I mol of a~
i<lcnl £3 ' with respect to pressure amJ w1th respect to lcm pcratu:e when T = 300 K
nn<l p = 5 atm.
Solution 11oe partial derh·:~tives of\' "'i th respect to its two variables are
•
/ Geometric Interpretation of Partial Derivatives
f iGURE 13.4.2 An x·curve and its 11te partial derivativ~s f, and f.. arc the slopes of lines tangent
to certain curves
tangent line " P . on the surface ~ = {f.r. y ). Figure 13.4.\ illustrates the intersection of this su rface
=
" i th a vertical plane y h parallel to the .tZ·COOrdinatc plane. Along the intersection
curve. the .r·coordinate varies hut the y-coordinatc is constant: y =bat each point
: hcou\e the curve lies in the ' 'C:rtical plane y =b. A curve of intersection of z = f(x. )')
T•ntm l•"" with .1 ve rtic•! plane parallel to the Xl:·plane is therefo re ca lled an .r-cune on the
surfac.:.
Figure \3.4.2 sho"''S a point P(a. b. c) in the surface z = j(.r. y), the .r·CUf\'C
thr~ug~ P. and the line tangent to this .r-curve at P. Figure \3.4.3 shows the par3llel
prOJeCtiOn of the vc rttcalplanc y = b onto the .r:-planc itself. We can now "icnorc"
the presence of." = band regard ~ = [Cx. b) as a function of the single variablc~r. The
slope of the line tangentto.thc. original .r·curve through p (sec Fig. 13.4.2) is equal
-.l-----:-a::'.;;;
1 01:----~. to_thc slope of the tangent hnc m Fig. 13.4.3. But by famili ar singlc·variable calculus.
tht.s latter slope is given by
fiGURE 1 ] .4.3 Proiectlon into th~
xz.pl~rw of the x~ through lim [(a+ h, b )- [(a. b) r ( b)
P(o, b, c) and iu ~ngent line. ~-o It a, · ="
,..Mile , ••
' ,. ______ _
. ----··--
.I
-...J
~--·- ·
I
\ •• c
f iGURE 13.4.4 A v•rtKaJ piJ.,., f IGU;<E I l 4 5 A v~ •"<~ •:> FIGUR E 13.4.6 Projt'<lJOn into tht
pdr alltl to tht y z.ptane lnt•r\"{U l.r>tJ"'<1 : • ~ • • , t·"p:_,.-e oJ L'1e y-<UN<' through
the IUrfdCt / D I {~. y) m. r<urve P {.J t-. c) a nd •a t~ngent ~nt'
\\'c prucccd In much the ~3mc V.3\ to 10\C<li~.IIC: the j:COOlelric mea n in)t o r
p.utoal dlffcrcnll.lllt>n v. ath rr•pcct to , fi~urc 1 \ ~ -1 IIIU,tratc< the llllCI\<:C tion with
the ~urfa~c: =/I'·' 111( .1 •crt~o:a l p!Jr.c , ""' p.u .1llcl w the y:-cnonh n.oa· plane.
No" the: CUf\C or lnter~ccth)n 1\3 \ ·C'Uf\~ 3!o nt,t \4hlch \ \;}fiC~ hu e ' .. , i' cnn~t :lnt.
Figu re 13A.5 sho"> th" ' -rune:~ / l oJ . )) 3nd m t.on.:cnt hnc at / '. ll1c pruject ion
or the tangent line in the y~·pbnc (111 fig. D J I>) h.H \llJpc iJ ~/iJ y ~ /,Ca. b). ·nw~ we
sec thntt hc geome tric meaning of [."a_~ lollo" s:
tXAMI' L[ .S Suppo<c that the graph~ = 5 t ycxp(-.r' - 2y2 ) in Fig. 13.4.7 rc prc·
fiGURE ll.4.7 The graph sc nts a terrain fcaturin ~t l\H> peaks (h ills. actually) and two pits. With all di~tanccs
1: 5xy e• p(- • 2 - 2y 2 ) . meas ured in miles. : is th e nlt itude atx)\c thl.' JX>in t (.t . )') nt s.:a leve l in the xy· plnnc.
for instanl.'c. the hci):ht uf the pil.'tured poin t /' is ~( - I . - I J = 5r- J :::: 11.24R'.I (rni),
nhout 1314 ft ahovc sea lc•·o:l. We ask at wha t rr11e we climb i(. start ing atth.: point
/'(- I. -I. 0.2~S9l. we head cith.:r due cast (the posi tive: .t·direction) o r due n o rth
(the positi•·c .•·-d irection). If "'c calcubte th e two part ial derivatives of ~(x. y ). we get
a: .
-=:>y(l -2x")cxp(-.r·- )" )
, , 2 ,
an
d a: . ,
-=:>.r(l- 4y-) up(-.r-2y-).
1 ,
To find an equ ation of thi s tangent pla ne a t the po int_l'(a, b:. c) where '.= f (a • b).
reca ll from Sectio n 12..: that a typica l no nvc rucat pla ne m space that passes through
the po int /'has a n equation o f the form
where p = - A/C and q = - ll/ C. llJis plane will be tangent to the ~urface z_= f<x .• y)
at the point P(a. b. c) provided that the hoe defi ned 1n Eq. ( 10 ) with y= b IS tangent
to the x -curvc in Eq. (7). and the line ddinctl in ( 10) with x = a is tangent to the
y·curvc in Eq. (S). But the substitut ion y = b reduces Eq. ( 10) to
z -c =p(x- a ). d:
so ilx = p.
and the substitution x = a reduces Eq . (tO) to
i)z:
4- c = q(y- b). so - = q.
ily
Moreover. our discussion of the geometric interpretat ion of partial d erivatives
gave
ailz l
X ca.bJ
={. (a , b) and ilz: l
0), <•.bl = f 1 (a, b)
for the slopes of the lines through P that are tangent there to t he x-curve and y-curvc,
respectively. Hence we must have I'= f ,(a. b) and q = f (a . b ) in order fo r the pbne
1
in Eq. ( 10) to be tangent to the surface z= / C.r . y ) at the po int P. Substituting these
values in Eq. ( 10) yields the following result (under the assumption that the partial
derivatives are continuous. so tha t the tangent plane is defined).
The plane tangent to the surface:= /(x .y) at th..- point /'( ,1>. /(II . h ) ) h11s
equation 11
If fo r "·ariety '"e '"nle (.co. ~. ;:.~) fo r the coordinates of !'. " e c:1n rewrit e
&J. ( II ) in the fo rm •
f,l :x- • }'))(X - X.,) -"- f, ( X, , ,\''J)(.\ - ) '>) + (- I )( : - ;:., ) =0, ( 12)
from -.hich "'e see (b} consulting Eq (8) in Sc;:tion I.!A) th.ll the pl:tnc tnn!!cn t lo
the ~urfacc:: f <x . .\1 at the point P<:r.• •••~ . :;:.,) h3< norm•l H' cto r
=
n == f •(..to.)ll) .l + f ,c.rv.]l))j. - k = (a: - . - I).
- . a: ( l.l)
ll.t J ."
N~le _tha t n is a do"'n"'-ard·po:nting 'C.:lor ( \\'hy~): 1t< ncp tivt> - n is the upward·
pomtmg vec tor sho•... n in r.~ 13..! 10
: - 2 =- .l (.r- l l -~(y- 1 )
=
(whe n simpI ificd. : 8- J t - 2y) a< nn cqunt on n of the plane tangcnrrnrhc pM:tl>il·
loid nt 1'. 'lllc comput er plo t in Fig. IJ A.l l corrol:>o r:ll c< rhh result. +
~I
-= _:_ ,..:.·=._Y~
. -,/..:_1f_ ·t_
hm ·=::.)_-....!.,.!~~·..:.·::.Y~·::.:1
FIGURE 13.4.11 The P·"''boloid (h · ,,_., "
and tangent plane of Ex•mple 6 .
;tf I' / t.r . .1' +h. :1- /I r . ."· : l
- = l nt • (14)
;Jy lt- H It
:If ft.r . y . .: + In- /l .r. y. : 1
and - = hm .
a= h-u h
If e; = (0, o..... 1 ..... 0) is the unit tr·vector with ith entry 1. then .
/(1 +he,) = /(x,, xz, .. .. x,_,, x; + lr, x;., . ... . x.).
The partial derivative tlflox; = l.r. =D./= D~ I off with respect to the ith variable
x; is rhen defined ro be
olf . ftx + llc, l - /('Xl
-ax, = ,,_.,
hm II . (15)
874 CHAPTER 1 3 Partial Differentiation
. ti\'CS
EXAMPLE 7 Th e four partial dcn\'a . o f the function g(x. >'·"· u) =e'" sin vy
arc " - re" , ~111
. L'\' . a nd g., = yc"' cos vy.
- , c" ' sintH' g =t:c-'" , ..
co~1_\. ('\11 - · •
g, - 1 -· y • 'h
. \ ':\II. \'C:S b \' d I' ff~r
. I l - c"' srn
' ~. 1111··uinc t ' •\ ' wit respect
Ob~c nc that "C get these p:Htl~ t e_n ' • •
· ld· , the remainrn g th ree va nables
•
at:- a a2
(/,),=[,. = ax= ax ay - ax tay · ("I) _
{[,),-_r,,-_ ~_!...(ill)=
ay - oy ay <Pt
ily 2'
If we "rite ~ = f<x . y). then we can rcplncc .:ach occ urrence of the sy m bol f here
with:.
Note '£he function [,, is the second·ordcr pa rtial d e rivative of f with respect to
x lirst ::1nd th en to y: [ 1 , is the result of diffcren ti:ltin g with respect toy lirst and
X second. Altho ugh a nd r... r..
:lTC not ncccs~arily equal. it is proved in advanced
calculus that these two "mixed" second-orde r partial deriva ti ves are equa l if they
arc both continuous. More precisely. if [ ..1 and !,. are continuous o n a circular disI:
cente red at the point (a. b). then
llut if the mixed second-order derivative s [, 1 and [ ,.., are merely defined at (a .I>)
but not necessa rily continuous at and ncM this point. then it is entirely possible at
[,,. 'F [ , .at (a, b). (See Problem 74.)
nccau~c most functions of interest to us have second-order partial derivatives
that arc continuum C\'crywhcrc they arc de lined, we will ordinarily need to d eal with
only th ree distinct second-order partial derivative s ( J... [,.,. and /,. = f,.) rather
than with four. Similarly. if f (x. }'.<)is a function of three v·ariablcs with cont inuous
second -order partial d erivatives, then
f, I t . ' ( ~:f)
-~ r .~:
,.,
=- l;i•
/,,, ~
' ( .. () «'!
~ .:-;': " '·~-~ -
,:.
{,., c ~r.J
.. ..() •I I
~·' ( ~:
/.,, =~
LXA M I'll II \f '" 1tu1 !he p3rtni 1k~t•ltllcs o f th:rd Jnd htgh~r ord ers o r the
1unt..llon lfe , 'l , : - ~ ,. :- , 1 :u~C'll":"\Llnt
\ olutlon \\ r hn,f 1t,:
f,ft.~1 -=.1 .~, :
~ .. JnJ /,(r.I'Jr> Jt y-3).:
I ut.t lh.
J,.,lt . • l ~ n. {.,,t • .yi •O f,,, l c.,,-.s. ~nd f,,,(r.)l=-6.
'lltc flltKtt"n f t' n l" 'l) rwnu.tl . \O nil rt< plllrJI deri\Jll\el nrc polynomi:t!s nnd
~~ r, thrtd•••r. I'OIIItnthtU\ c• <I)" here l lcn'c "-C need nnl com pule any o the r lhird·
••rd,•r l ~lllt.•l do ttl':lll\ <:1, c.t~h 1\ C<Ju.tllo one n( lh~c fou r. ~1oreo•cr. bccau~c lh c
llmd ·•• nkr ~·.uti .ll dc rivat hcs arc all con,l3nt. all hi\Jhcr·ordc:r parual d c riva1ive' o r
I All' 1CI\l. •
~ 13.4 PROBLEMS
/1r l'n.,f'olN tlS J t htt)u_a:J: .."'(~ t)utiJWl~ tl:~ jlrst-tmlt'r ptutidl fltn'•·o · 9. /(x. y) = ·' •
trws of nrdi fu.ltflion 10. {(.r . y) = un · • x y
I• I ( t . yl • ·' • - . . - xy '
.t ' y + .o ·y~ + .•·' II. f(x. y. :) = x'lz'
!. {l t. _l') a .• si n y ll. { (.r. y. :l = x2 + y' + l'
13. /(.r. y . : ) "' r'''
~. {( l , .l'l a .. '(.:'\1$ .1' - ~ill .l')
l.t. f <x. y.z) =x'- l 6yz
.&. { (t .y) .. ... ' .....
15. {(.r . y. : )=.r 2t ' ln:
,. + ,. .ry
16. f( u, v) =(2rl + 3v 2) cxp(-u 2 - v2 )
~
Fig111es /.1.4. 12throuxh IJ..J./7 show thl' graphs ofa anain June· 55. It is show~ in ph} sics that the tcmp..-rnturc 11 ( r.l) at time 1
tion j(.r. y) and it.r first- and second-ortlu partial duivati•·rs. In at the po~nt .r of a ion~:. in sulated roJ that lies alon~ th(
ProiJ/ems .J5throu~th 50. match that jimction or partial tlrri•·ati.-~ x-ax ts snttsfics the onc-dimen.tiona/ h!'nt c·qruuim1
with its !(fDplr. au 3 111
-= k- (k is a constant).
0/ ax2
Show that t he functio n
70. Figu re 13.4.19 shows the graph o f the sum 73, figure 13.3.7 shows {the• ;;p~ of~:~c:::c~o>~ ~ :.efined by
f{x. )') = o.r· + r
: cx.y)= L [.Cx. y) if .r = y =0.
1• 1
(a) Show thntthc first ·ordcr partial d erivatives f, and/, nr~
of the four funct inns defined in Proble m 69. Explain why defined ever)'" here and a rc contmuo us except pos~ibly at
l (.r. y) i~ a harmonic function. the o ri!!i n. (h) Consider behavior on s traight lines to show
tha t neithe r f, no r f. is continuous a t the ori~,:in . (c) Sho~
J0 that the )CCond·ordcr partial derivati,·e< or I a rc al l dcfin~d
and continuous .:xccpt [!<")<Sibly at the nri!!in. (d) Show th 31
the second·order p:utial derivatives f., :1nd f., exist at th~
on!!tn. but tha t the: mtxc:d part ial d e rivatives f,, and 1,.
do no t.
7~. Figure: !3.~.:0 shows the graph of the function g d efined by
xy(x:- i>
g(;r, )' ) = x: + y: unlcs.s .r =y =0.
{
0 i( ;r := )' =0.
(a) Show tha t the tirst·ordcr partia l deriva tives 8• and g,
arc tlcfinctl cvcrp• here and :trc continuous except possi·
bly :11 the ori~ti n . (11) Usc f!<'la r comchn:ltcs 10 show thll
g. and g~ one u m ti nuou" :.t (0. 0 ) n~ wdl. (c) S how chat
the •c:cond·ordcr p3rti al de rivatives of sarc all!lctin<·tl ~nd
f iGURE 13.4.19 The surface cuntutum" c •ccpt fl<"'ibly at the o rigin (d) Sho " thJtJll
z = 1(• . y) of Problem 70. s
four second-order r~rttal dcnvathcs o f e xist Jtthe ori·
gin. but tha t g.,(O. 0 ) x J:,.(U. 0 ). (c) Con>idcr 1-<:hJ\~or on
7 1. You arc standing at the point \\ here .r = y = 100 (It) o n a stratght lone• to ~how that none of the four scCtmd·order
hillside ,.hose height (in fee t al'O\C ocalcvcl) is given by partial dcnva tivcs o f J: is con tinuous at the: origin.
~ = 100 + IOO
I (.r'' - 3.ty "
+ 2y).
with the pnsiti\'c .r·axis to the c:t>t :onLithc positive y·:txis
to the nurth . (a) If you head due e:O>t. "ill you initially be
ascending or descending'! A t " hat a ngle (in deg.rccs) from
the horiwntal'/ (h) If you he:od due north. will you initially
he a..cend ing or dcsccndint;'! At "ha t a ng.k (iot degrees)
from the ho riwntal?
72. ;\n~wcr questions (a) and (b) in l'rnl>lcm 71. except that
now you are standing at the point "'h ere .r = ISO and
y = 250 (It) on a hillside who«! height (in feet abm·e sea
Je,cJ) i< given by f iGURE 13.4 .20 The graph
I • • .. ~y - xyl
~ = I 000 + IOU(I (J.r • - S.ry + y). 1 "' .. z ..- yl of Problem 74.
value M on R ot t he point (a b)
o n 3
r
nd
R
wit h i'
f .
51 111
me Y (x, y) on a plane regto
C (Fig. 13.5.1 ). We say t hat the function a • P~c: (no nint e rsecting) closed curve
. anatns u s abso lute, or global, m alirnutll
• 0 provtdcd that
o r I<. In plain v.ord, the absolute maximum .\f and the absolu te minimum mare the
lar~test and smalle1t vJ!ues ( respectively) attained by /C:r . y) at points o r the dom:~in
R or f.
Theorem I. pro,ed in advanced calculus courses. gu.1rJntee~ the e xistence of
absolute m:IXimum and minimum ,'l!.!ues in many situations of practica l interest .
We can think of the local maxima on the graph as m ountain tops or "peaks" and t he
local minima as valley bottoms or "pits." •
Ab\olute m.uimum
Local rron1,mun•'
Ab<olu~t minimum/
l kcau~c /(a,/>) i~ 3 loc:ol ma~ imum l'aluc nf f<.r . .1·). it f,,JI<m:~ rca ~ily th at G(a)
anu.• Il ( l >I ;trc 1oca 1ma"mun
· 1 ,·•lu"<
" ' o f Ct·r ) ·•1mJ 1/t:•·). rc•pcctl\'c
. . ly. llle rcforc the
sinj:le-variable nll.~imum-m in imum cri te rio n or Sccuo n :1.5 JnlpltCS that
C '(a ) = O and /1 '(1>)= 0 . (21
Combin ing (I) and ( 2). we co nclude tha t
f,(fl,h)=O and /, (a .b) =0. (3)
t;s~cn ti ally the same argumen t yields tht: same conclusio n if / (a. b ) is a local mini·
(all( •.yl• , , • vl, k><•l """""""' 11 10. 0) mum val ue of f (x . )'). ·n,is di scussion establishes Theon:m 2.
The equations in (3) imply that the plane tangent to the surface ::-= f (.t. )'l
mu~t he horizontal at any loca l maximum o r local minimum poi nt (11, b. f (a. h)). in
pe rfect analogy to the single-,·ariablc case (in which the tangent line is horizonu l at
any local maximum or minimum point on the graph of a d iffcro:ntiablc function).
d
-
Muttivari.lbte Optimization Probl~ms SECTION 13.S 881
aa.rr = aayr = O.
2. An interior point of R where not both partial d erivatives exist, o r
3. A point o f the boundary cul"\'e C of R.
Along tl:t rds< .. /:rrr ·' = 0: The funelio n f(.t. y) takes the fo m1
aCrl=[(r.O!=:l-.r. O-.,.r~2.
Because: a ( rl i< a t.kcrea;ing fun;tion. tiS c\lrem.t for 0 ;. ·' ~ 2 occur nl the
cndp<>int< r =Cl and .r = :!. Th,, ri•c< the t\\O l"'"'ibili ti c, (tl. ())and (2. Cl) for
loc:uion< of extr.:ma of /(.r. y).
A/mrs tl:< <ds•· "1:.-rr .r = 0: The functi o n f< r . y ) t ake~ the form
FIGURE 13.S.6 The tri•ngu!Jr Pl.' I= /tO. y l = 3- y. 0 ~ ." ... -1.
reg10n of Ex•mplc S. The endpoints of thi< intenal yiehJ the points (CI.ll) and (0 • .1 ) as possibilities
fo r location< o: o:xtrcma of f< r. ·' ).
On tire' <'tiS<' of R " Ita< ." = J - :!.r: \\·c: mav sulhtitule ~ - :!..r for ,. in the
formub for j(x. y) and thus c~prcs.s f 3..S a fu~ction of a single variabic:
~f "'~ are lucky. thele equations ,.iJI ha'e only one simultJneous solution (.r. )')
mtenor to R. If so. then that solution r.1 ust be the loca tion of the desired maximum
~or ~inimum ). If ,. e find that the equations in (.! ) have sc:vcr.tl sim ult:tneous so lutions
fiGUR E 1l .S.7 The surface mte n o r to R. then v.c simply evahute f :tt e:u:h <oluuon to c!e tcrm ine whi ch yields
1 1
1 : x• + y• - x y opens upward. th e la rgest (or smallest) value of f(.r. y) and is therefore: the dcsin:d mn:\imu m
(or mtmmum) point.
We can u~e this method to find the lo,.es t poi nt on n surface ~ = f<x . y) that
open~ upwa rd, as in Fig. 13.5.7. If R is a suflicientlv l:uge rc:ctnnglr:. the n /(x. y)
nlloins lnrgc pmimc val ues eveT)"'herc on the houndaT)' o f R bu t smalle r v:tlucs at
int e rior IX>i nt!-. It follows that the min imum value of f<x. y) rnu~t be a tw ined :tt an
inte rior poin t or 1<.
'll1e quest ion of a highe\t or lowest point is no t pert inen t fo r a surf:-tce that
open ~ hoth upward :-tnd downwa rd. as in Fig. 13.5.8.
Now co nsi der a fixed poin t (.r. y) and let m denote t he s maller. a nd ,\1 the la rger. of
t he two numbers (x ( and (y(. Then
8 xl
J
+ 4yl < 4(.r(3 + 4 1 .~·( 3 = 4nf! + 4 M 3
<
4M 1 + 4M ' 8
=-
.r + y• : x• + y• nr' + M' = 0' + M' /o(
Fo r instnnce. if either JX( or (y ( is greater ~han -~'= 10. then the fractio n withi n brackets
in Eq. (6) has absolute value less than TO • so tl foll ows th at / (.r. y) < 0.
lltus /(.r. y) is ncgat h·e outside the la rge sq uare R with ve rtices (:1:10. :1:10)
in t he x y-plane. But z = f<x . y) certainly attains posi tive values within R. such as
/(I. I) = !f.Consequently Theorem 1 impli es that / (.r. y) attains an abso lute max-
imum val~c at some interior poin t of R. So le t us proce ed to find t his maximum
value. . .
Beca use the partial derivat1ves ilt;/ilx and IJz/ iJy e xtst everywhe re, Theorem 3
implies tha t we need o nly solve the equatio ns il : /ilx = 0 a nd iJ z/IJy = 0 in Eq. (4)-
fiGURE 13.S.9 The surface t hal is.
l= ~x 1 + 4 yl- x• - r•
opens
IJ: = 8x 2 - 4x3 = 4x 2(2- .r)=0.
downward.
iJx
iJ z =
IJy
12v -
'
41 =4l<3- y) = 0.
If t hese two equations arc satisfied. t he n
[ Either x = 0 or x - 2] a nd Ieit her y = 0 or y = 3. j
884 CHAPTER 13 Partial D•fferent.iation
or or B
\ ..-:::::< \/
...:";~/·,· I
I::::=
B
Con<~e<tuc:ntly. we n:cd only inspect the values
':, ·:. . .. ·. .. \
I . '
~.
I
..' . . I·.. ·.:. " ..,,
t
•• . I
_..
••
• • :\.
~(0.0)
· (,-- · 0)
~
= 0.
= ~3 = 5333 333 333 ... .
•
'·.'·•.
',.
3J = 27.
.. ',, ..
' f , • ~(0.
' •' /·-- EXAMPLE 7 Find rhc minimum cost of a rect:mgular Ito~ \\ilh volume -1$ fr1 if
rhe fwnt and b:1ck cost Sl /ft1 .rhe top and bottom cost S2 / fl~. aml tht: two end<cost
S3/ fl~ . (We lir.t di>cuss.:d such a box in Sectionl3.1.) 'llti>l>ox b ;,huwn in fig. 13.5.11.
Solution We found in Seclion 13.1 th;tt the cost C (in dollars) oft hi< hox is gi, cn by
•
C(x. y) =-lxy + -288 +-
96
X .,\'
FIGURE ll.S. I I A bo• whose
total cost w e w Jnt to m inimize in rcrm~ of irs lc!nr.th r and -.;drh y. Let R be a $quare such ,., rhe one s hu\\ II in
(E><ample 7). Fig. 13.5.12. Two sides of_R nrc so close to lhc coordinale a xes th.ll 288/ x > 1000 on
the Stdc nc:ucsl I he y-axts and%/)' > HXJO on the side neare~l the x-axi'\. Al1o. rhe
squarc h >o large rhat ·l.ry > 100tl on both o f tht: other two >ides. ·n1i< me;~ns thll
C(x. )') > 1000 HI cwry point (x. y) of the fir>t quadrant that lies on or outside the
hou~tbry o( the >qu.arc ~-. Lkcause C(.r. y) attai ns rca<on~hl )• sm~ll values \\ ithin R
(fo~ mst.ance, ~(1. 11 ~ 3tiS). H ts cl<!ar that the ahoh.uc rninimun: of 0111 ~ 1 occur ar c
. mle nor
an . of II. lllUS. althou•'h
. porn! .. dom•..1'11 <>f ll 1c cos1 runcuon
::. the nattwtl
, · C(x , )'l
tS rhc enure ftrst .quadranr. we have succeeded in rcstr' c · · d ·
· 1 1ong 11s om:un to a rcgton · R
of the son 10 whtch Theore m 3 applies.
We therefore solve Ihe simultaneous equations
ac 2811
i)x = 4Y - .r2 = 0,
iJC 96
il y = 4x - yz = 0.
W.: multiply the first equation by r and the 5 II f
quently required in lhc solut'o ·f . ec:om 'Y Y· (Atlltoc meth od< MC rc·
FIGURE 13.S.12 Thecoil dure gives
1
°
n srmu1tancous nonlinear cquntions.) lltis proc(·
function ({•. y) of E•ample 7
tak~ on l~rge p<»ltive valu~i on 2&~ 96
the boundJry of the square. - = 4xy = -
x y'
Multivaridb'e Optimization Problems SECTION 13.5 885
so tha t .r. = 288,\'/ 96 = 3y. We substitute .r. = 3y into the e quat ion aCf oy = 0 and find
that
H ence Y = ~lg = 2. sox= 6. The refo re. the m inimum c~t o( this box is C (6. 2) = 144
(dollars). Beca use t he ' olume o f t he box is \' = .n-: = .tS. its height is : = .!8/ (6 · 2) =.;
when .r. = 6 and y = 2. Thus the optimal box is 6 ft '' ide. 2 ft deep. :tnd .; ft hig h . +
REMARK A s a check. no te that the cheapest surfaces ( front and back ) a rc the largest.
whereas th e most expensive surfaces (t he sides) are t he s mallest.
We have seen that if f, (a. b ) =0= f 1 (a. b). then [(a. b) may be either a maxi·
mum value. a m inimum \'alue. or neither. In Section 13.10 we discuss condi tio ns that
suffice to distinl!uish betv.e.en a local ma:urnum. aloe~! minimum. a nd a saddle p o int
on the surface:·= f (.r.. y) . These conditions in"olve the second-o rder deri \'a t ives of f.
We may therefore attempt to find this point by solving the three s im ult a neou s
e quatio ns
for the t hree unknown values x =a,~· = b. and:= c. Titus a key ste p in t he metho d
of solut ion of a t hree-variable extreme \'alue problem is essen tia lly the sam e as in
t he me thod for a two-variable problcm-..se t the partia l derivatives e q ua l to zero
a nd sOI\'c the resulting equa tions.·· B ut sec Problem~ 6R t hrough 70.
Exa mple !I illust rates a .. line·th rough· the·poi nt .. me thod that we can som e times
usc to show that a poin t (a. b. c) where the cond it ions in (8) ho ld i~ ne ithe r a loca l
r ma ximum nor a local m inimum point. (Th.: met hod is also applicab le to func ti ons o f
two o r of more than three \'ari ables.)
EXAMPLE 8 D ete rmine whethe r the function f (x. y, Z) =xy+ yz- xzhas a ny local
extrem a.
Solution TI1e necessa ry cond it ions in Eq. (8) give the equa t ions
f,( x. y. z)= y -z= O.
f 1(x . y, Z) = X + Z = 0.
f :(X. J .Z) = Y - X = 0.
I
~
886 CHAPTER 13 Partial Differentiation
3. z = x y + 5 J . : ~ x~ + ~~ + 2r H---R'l--.,~----1-~ -s
s.z = x 1 +l -6x+2y+5 6• · - 10+~o .l - 6 y-x·-)
.. - . , ...'
~ :=~+~+~ L :=~+~ - ~
9 • : = 3xl + 12.1' + 4y'- 6y + 5 (Fig. 13.5.13)
2
-I
10. z~ ,..---::--.,.;..-..,....~
I - 2.r + 2y + .r l + yl
11. l =(2.r 2 + 3yl)cxp(-x 1 - i > (Fig.13.5.14)
:.<- {I 1 , y } = x : + I - lr: R is the tnangular region ,. ith the ono:t. and tl:e O~;xJSitc \Crte, on the plan~ " i th cqua·
>Crt ices a t tO. OJ. C2. OJ. and 10. 2J. . -. _ \\b•t LS the m n •mum po~<sble volume
t JOO X- .J,.V - ~ := 11 . ~
1
%6. fi x. y) cr x + i - x - }: R n the region of Problem 25. ol sud! ~ bo.t'
: 1• { CX.)) = 2.r ·~ R n the mcul.lr dl\lc zl _ ...: :; I . 46.. Three sdeJ of a r.-c-un~ubr 1-<n he in the C'OOrdlnate pl~nes.
tl':elr ro::u::o~ >e:tet ;t the onpn.the rpp<»t!e 'ertex u o n
:S. { l:r . y } = .r ); . R" the mcubr di\l x l .._ )J :; J.
the pJ:!e .. i!h cq:.aJUon
In r ro!>lmu !Q rltrc•u~IJ JJ, rht ~qunrwn of o p!or:t o r surfou u z ' ; I
• r•rrt Fmd rltt firJ/·(K/oJnl(lrllf!l r tx . ) . : J On tht Jl" fau cloJtJI 0
--=---=
b c
mtht >i•rn fi t td 1'""'1 Q l t · 1 • ~ .) {Su~S:tJIIfJn ,\flr.lrli:t tl:r (a . b. a.."'t! care ,..._.,.1ti'e et'nstant<). In term< of a. h..? nd c.
q aml t!lllnncr I I'Q,: 111 11 funnrm oft and> J
1 11 v. tJ: is tl:e rrutJmu:':l J".l5511-!c ' "!~me of swh a ""' ·
:'1. The p!Jne I 2x + -1 )' + Jz • If>? and the fil ed point Q 0. 0. OJ -'1. Fir.d L":e r::.t\lr::U::'I ,-oJume of 3 rc.-c\J n)!UIJ r tx>, that 3 rm~
JO. The pl~ne 2.r ... 2y + ~ : 27 and the fned f'<Mnt Q i?. ?. 9 1 o!fltt v. 11! accc;-t (0 : ddi' rry 1f the ~um of its lmgth an
grr.J: can:K>t et~cJ Ill" in
J l. The plane 2.r + Jy + ~ .,. 49 and the fil ed potnt Q(7. - 7. OJ
.&8. Re.,e~t Prot-km J 7 f<'r the cJS<: of a cyhnJrical txl'-onc
31. The ~urfacc .ryz "' !land the ft l e cl p<lint QtO. fl. fl) shared lsk<' a hat~" or" fat marlin~ tut>c:.
3.\. The ~urlace x1r: l = 4 a nd th: fi xed p<unt (>rfl. 0. o1 "9. ,\ rcctancular t"'• v. 1th its ba~c in the • •··rl~ne i< in<cri!'Cd
. • • > ()
>l. 111e >urfacc x' }'" i = !l Rnd the ftl Cd p<llnt Qt0, 0. 0) und.:r the ~nrlt of the parat-<>J.ud : = I - .t · - .'~ ·.: • ·
35. f-ind th e mlximum p<mihlc product ul three f'O'i ll\ C num . Find the ml\tmum P""'blc , ,,J ume o f the Nl , , (S11g,cr.t·
hers whose sum h I 20. tion. You m.1' a<sumc that the <aJt·> nf the ho\ arc pur~lkl
to the 'ert1e.1i coorJtnJte piJnc:.. a nJ it lu ll<>"' thut the b<>X
y, Find th e maximum po\\ible volume u l n rectangul~r bot 1! is S)mmctn;Jli) placeJ Jrl\UOJ these p JJ II C:.. j
the sum of th e length\ uf i., 12 ed~;r' h 6 mete r~
~. \\'hat a< the ma\lmum ro<<~l>k ' <•lunu: "' n rcctnngulnr box
31. Find the dimensiom of the box with vo lume J(J(X) in.1 that in<.."l'iN:d m a hrma<phere of rnJtu< R 7 A~~umc th nt o ne
has minimal tow I su rbcc nre:t. lace of the bot hes tn the pl.1n:u b.1•e "'the hc mi<phcrc.
38. Find the dimensions o f the opcn· IOppetl hox v. ith \ Oiume Sl. A 1-uo) " to h.-e the <h.trc n( .1 ll):h t cir~ul.ar cylinder
4000 cml "hose bottom and four sides have mintmal total oppcd • • each end I>)· 1denii~JI r1 ~h t c1r cuJJr cones "ith
surface area. th e ume rodtu\ ., the C\ltn,kr Find the manin1um p<><'lblc
surfac-e a rc-.l o ( the buo;. gi,en thnt 11 h a" tl --cc tJ ' o lumc V ,
In Prubl~ms 39 through ./], you art' tn find tilt' tlamuurom that
minimi:r tlrr tom/ cmt of thr m otnml nutlt't l to COIU/ruct the 52. A pentagonal v. mdow u to ha\ c the ,h.1pc uf n r~ctangle
rrctangu/ur lwt th111 ir tlrJcribrtl. ItiS tllltt'r clo<ed (Wf'. buuom, sunnou~ted !:>) an 1\0\Cclc' UJ.1nglc (" tth ho r1t.ont.1l h.1~e.
and fou r srdts) m upcn ·toprc:d ffm" .tukf ami a /Jouom). so the "'i ndow ~symmetric around Jls \crl1ea l a~ i\), a nd
the pcnmeter of the " lndo" 1S to he 2-l ft . \\'ha t nrc the
39. The bo~ i< to be open-topped v.1th 11 volume of 600 in.1 The d1mensions of such a " Indo" th.H v. tll admit the m OJt hght
material for its bouom cost< 6c:fin. 1 a nd the material for its (because its area 1S the !!rea tes t)'!
lour sides costs 5~tin 1
53. Find the pornt t.r..vl 1n the plane lor v.h ieh the surn of the
40. The box is to be clo,cd with a volume of ~S It '. The mate ri31 squares of its distances from 10. I). 10. 0 1. nnd (2. 0) is n
for its to p and bottom costs S3/ft 1 and the material for its minimum.
four sides cost. S~lft 2 •
S-1. Find the point( .r. y ) in the plane lor which the sum of the
41. llte box is to he clo<cd v.ith n \'Oiume o f 750 in. 1 l11e mn· squHes of its distances from (<1 1• 1>,). (n l. 1>,). and (o1 • b, )
terial for iiS top und i'<mom cn<ts J~/in. 2 • the materi3l for is a minimum.
its front and back costs ~/in. 2 • und the material fo r its two
e nds costs '.1;:/in. 2 SS. An A·frame house is to ha'c llxed \ Oiurnc l'. Its front and
rear "''JIIs arc in the shape of equal. parallel tso~ccles tri·
42. The box is to be n closed shipping crate with a volume of angles with horizontal bases. 'Inc IO<tf con>t)b of two rcct·
12 m 1. llw material for its houom c<><l< Miu as much (per 3ngfc.s th:u connect pai"' o f upper sides vf Ihe triangles. To
square me ter) as the material for its top and four sides. minimize heating a nd coohn g cost•. the to ta l area of the
43. A rectangular building is to have a volume of SOOO ft'. '' .n· A-frame (excluding the noor) is tn be minimi7ed. Describe
nual heatin g and cooling costs will a mount to S2Jft 2 fo r liS the shape of the t\·fr>me of minimal area.
top. front , a nd back. nnd $~/ft 2 fo r the two end walls. Wb3t 56. What is the maximum possible ' Oiumc o f a rec ta ngula r box
dimensions of the building would minimize these annual whose longest d iagona l has fixed length L'!
costs?
57. A wire 120 em long is cut into thrc~ "'t~,..n p ieces. and
~. You want to build a rectangular aquarium with a bon?m each piecc is bent into the shape of a square. H ow should
made of slme costing 28~/i n . 2 Its sides will be gi3~S. wh1ch thi.s be done to minimize the total area o f these squa re~? To
costs 5~/in .:. and its top " ill be stainless steel. wh1ch costs maximize it?
2~n.2 The\'olumeofthisaquuium is to be 24.000 in. 1 What S8. You must divide a lump of pu tty ol fiud volume V into
. . ?
arc the dimensions of the le:1.1t cxpens1ve s uch aquanum · three or fewer pieces and form the pieces in to cube:~.. H ow
4.1. A rectangular box i> inscribed in the first octant v.·ith three should you do this to max.imize the total surface a rea of the
of its sides in the coordinate planes. their common \'Crtex at cubes? To minimize it?
888 CtiAPTER 13 P.Htl,tl Drtf~rtntoJtoOn
to th" prolll<m A<"mtc th:ot 1hc !.1C1 nf the merger ol AP
~9. A H'f) l.m~ rcctAn,•1c 0( 'hCC'I me loti h on • •Jih Land u hl ~nJ Cit" l nu" n tn the m.rn., rconcno nf 110
he foiJe.J tu m•kc • r.un j:U11cr ll•~· 1.1 ~If>) ~b.,mll< on
H•lull'c h) m>\lntllln~ the Cr<M \CCtn•n•lorcJ ~ho,.n tnthc '' f.ume r can '·"' ' 'herr. hnr'- ·" " ' c.ottlc She ha< >pace lor
11~urc.
"-'· 1-(l •herr .,1 t:n hnv' 111 fill c.ottlc ur any cornhrnataun "'ing
lhr \JnlC amnunt"l 'r"''". th.ot '" lo. <hccp u<c •• much space
, h<~'' 111 ,, c.1 ttk 1h e .ont rcrp.otctl profi t\ pcranrmal uc
1
- .• s'
~· rcr <herr. s' per h<l~ ..rn.J -" fIll c.rc 'I hcad or CJt:lc.
SIO
•n Sutc '·'"' rcquur' t h~t a f•rmcr r.mc 3\ m.my hogs as sheep
>nJ p ttk cuml>rncd l lol "' doc:< the farmer maxtmrzc her
IIGURl ll S 16 Crou l<'< toO<"I ol prnfit?
the r• n g ..ttrr of Prollh•m S'l
rroh/mll M iJr.d II~ tiro/ •• rr/r riot' qrllldffiiiCfo rm
60. Cnmirkrthdun. llun /41. )I (I ,:Ill 1,:1 (>)Sb•"'•
th:\1 (, 40 0) - H f ,tll HI (h) '\tHI'-' th,H !\1 r C \ Cl) \U;i'fl11
I c' . }, {1\ ! + '"'" ,, '" '"'; (9)
hnr v ,H thH,U}'h tO U 1, I he fu n\ ht~n ' ' • , ,,. l t'u' .,,.._,_ M. Shu" thallhc qu.lllr>lld•'"" I'" ('/J ha< only the <i ngkcril·
c.":! I min unu m·'' , - n (c) I -c :umnr th e'' Jl:JC"\ nf f :U l"''int\ ..,,1t t"irutll. fllunk" " ' ,,: 11, on "hich ~~sc C\ cryroint
,,r tht· p.n ·' ~'1.' \ 2 ' 1 to 'h' '"' t h.ll f d· Ill'' , , , h t\(" •• 1,• ''" .1 ccrl.un hnt' t hr(lu~;h rht• <H IJ!Ifl ~~ n cn rrc:tl po1nt & .
(,1111li i\11 1HIIl\ Ill 10, U1 JI U\ tdl\ II'! l h t1 \4 (' (',H\MCll U \.C thC' J"'CfU11~nt \\ 11h (111Hp111 Cf ~~t.q"h' In fHrmui .IIC :1 COnjr:CfUrC
l uH.'·IhltHJ}:h ·l l h,'• f\tiiUI mc tiH)\t u f r, •mph: K lu \hnw lh.:at •1.,u11 hc <h.rrc u( th e \urf.rcc: ~ = /I r. )'f in the <·xrc pliunal
1
II r nnlt h .1 Ju.,:al t" XtfC IH\1111 ,,,,c"' 1,1 ~ o. (".m ~uu ' u l•, l uullate pmr ''UilJCCtwc'l
fi 1. Surr'n'"' th.H ,\lphn. l n~o.·, lHhl ftct.t , I 111 ttl muf.tcturc C••m · ~~. t he a cnmpu lcr .lf!'<"llr.o 'Y''" "''" t:r:oph Ihe qundratic furm
fX"Itli H~ (h111 lh11 hk n llt'UI) rft t,hh.' h . With the: \\' l't: k h \tJc:, in ('f) lorn v:orr<l\ u( rhlfc:n·n 1val11c' uf the cncflicicntstr. b.
of l'a~h 1'' ••~ hu.·t tkt t.' r ll tnh.'\1"'' 1ht.• ,~,·ll •n..: ~'r h .t' ~ •f 1h 11 pu l\t and r in n rJc r tn Ct 11 rnh•lr;•l c llu: followi ng t \\' 0 conclusiont
••f
uct muJ th~ p1 1\'\' ' '' rt'IHJ"t' ltlh'" SupJ~"" lhat ,\ lphtt 'c'' (a) If ,, - 1,: • n. olu·n lh<·r •·• l'h nl: = [lr . y) i< an ellip-
:t )1.,11\'' J'III:C' ~lt 1 ~h11J,H , ~ ~ ~ litH I f0 1 II\ J'f Pdlld, \lo hth• 1\ct.l tic par:tl"\tl)t~l•1 .H h l f thcu:forc h .l\ c ilhc r a m ;nilllUOl Or 3
~..:t~ a ~ah.·, prict· •~I .' ' tl,,ll,ll' I'<' I wut lor II" p r,,._lu('t. ~Llr· n1fn11num •.o luc .tl III,I)J (I>) II or - 11 ~ 0. I hen the ~rnph
kc t n~'.::uch ,Jh'\\' th.u tiH· " '-'ell)' prnht nt.t~h.- hy J\l r~·' i" ol : u [ I ' · >'I " ,, h) I"'' hulrc l'.ornl•"l"'d 31H.I / thcrdurc
th<·n ""'a -.uJ,Ifc t><>int Mill. Ill.
s1
lncrm-~ts •nd Untlr A;lpn)Um.ltion S£CTION 1 3.6 889
t\8. Find the glob~l maximum and mmimum ,_ ,
'<OJUC1 0 1
1
{IX.). ~)=.r - fu.1 .._ ); .-. 2}~ .._ f - IZ 70. The ru::c ... • ath CijUJti<>n .t - ' - : .. I mee t< the i'.:sl
OC"'..1r.tan the tn.1n~Je T (.-r v. hirh .t . '· 1nd : JrC' 31l tx'll ·
\\'h~l happen\ ~~ the pomt o r point! ~~ "'h' h II h ncgJta,c. Find the ~3 \I :nun" Jluc of the c- • rrc«ac>n E: .1- =
, I .o • • ff lC a I rcc
p~rt•~ ucrova tl\ c~
o arc somuhnneousl) zero?
)' - : on r. ,u
Yl•U .. rwi:>Jhl~ rax"'\'cJ !'>) •<•l•ln~ t he
69. find the ~Jobal muomum and minomum , aluesof e!jUll:on of IM r i Jnc 1' f,,, : = I - I - ' .lnJ ~ut>sti·
=
f.l(.t . y. ~) J . - f\{1 y - ).... ~· ... 12 tuti:-; t or : in 1~e ~\r::-~t('t'! £ tn '-'~t.un lh~ qulnt~!~
\\'hat happens nt the point or pomts at ,.. h·~~ II ~ 1:1._ • l = .r-, -II- .r - 1lto ~ r.lJW~a:<'J \\'hat h•rr<""'
.
partoaI dcro\atrves .
of g arc samuhancoush u '"''~ a tau a:~~~ f'<"- 1or IX""''
Jt.,.ht.:h 1-.'th f'lrtiJI dcn• Jli'C'I o! h
. ro . ue s:=ul!a~c<"U\J) rcro"'
df= (( r ):!. r
tO npproximalc the incrrmmr. o r aC'tUll chln~e.
"-/= f( x- :!J.r) - / ( r )
in the value o( 3 \tngJe.variabJc (unction th:tt reSUltS {rom the Ch:tOj:C ~X in the
independent varinhlc. Thu' A/ <::df; that i~
We now describe the use of the p:trti:t l deriv~ti\C$ a fla x and iJ//ih· to nppro~·
imatc the lncrl'ml'nt ·
6/ = f<x + :!.x . .1• + 6 y) -/(.r .y) {2 )
in the value of a function f (of two varilblcs) th:tt resul ts when its two indcrcn·
dent variables are changed simultaneously. H only x we re changed :tnd y \\ere held
constant. we could temporarily regard f(x. y ) as 3 function of x alone. llu:n. with
fAx. y ) playing the role of ['(.r),the line:tr :tpproxim:ttio n in Eq. ( I) would gh·e
/(x + 6 x . y)- / (x. y) "' f, (x. y) ~.r {3)
fo r the cha nge in f corresponding to the change 6.r in x . Similarly. if only y were
ch a nged a nd x were held constan t, th<!n- tcmpornrily regarding /(x. y) as a function
of y :lione- we would get
f(x. )' + 6y) - /(.r. y) "= f 1 (x . y ) 6y (.S)
fl.r + 6.r. y + t:.y) "= /tx. yl + /,(.r . .r> A.t + f, tx . yl ~y. (6)
EXAMPLE 1 Find the differc nti~l elf of the functio n /(.r . y) = .r2 + 3.ry - 2yl.
llle n compare d f and the ac tua l mcremcnt 1:!. / when (x. y ) changes from 1'(3. 5)
to Q(3.2. 4.9).
--
890 CHAPTER 13 Partial Oiff~rentiation
is a /inrar functio n of A.r and Ay; the codficients [,(a . b) and fr(a. b ) in this linear
function depe nd on a :ond 1>. 'lh us the d tfkrential d f i< a linear approximation to the
~ctua t increment A/. Th ~ line·" ~rrroxima t ion theorem (stated later in this section)
implies that if the f.mction f has continuou~ partial derivatives. t hen df is :1 ruy
good 11pproximmio11 to A[ wh en the changes ~\x ant! Ay in .< and y arc sufliciently
sma ll. The lin c:tr npprnximatio n
f <u + t::..r. h-A.I·) "' f! ti.l>l + f, tll.b )J).x+ f1(a .b) t::.y (8)
may th~n be used to estima te the value of [ (a + Ax . b + Ay) when Ax and A y arc
small and the values [(a . b) . f , (a.l>). and f1 (a. b ) are a ll known.
Solution w~ begin h)' lett ing f<x. y ) = /Zxl + y l . t1 = 2. and b =3. It is t hen easy
=
to compute t he exact value [ (2. 3) J2 · 8 + Y_ J25 5. Next. =
iJ f }'
and
a)' = v"'2x=•;=+=>.z"''
so
[,(2. 3) = ¥ ant! {y(2, 3) = ~ ·
rl: Cl :
,/: = -J.r j.,t - -
d)
~ \.
•
( 9)
It is customary to "-Tite d.r fo r 6.x and d•· for 6 ,. in this formula. Wh en this is done.
C(j. (9) takes the form • •
(10)
\\'hen "-e use this notation. ,.e mu~t realize th.u d.r and tf>- h:n .: no connotat ion of
be ing " infinitesimal" or even small. Th.: di!fcrcntJJI d: is still simply a lin.:a r function
of the ordinary real variabl~ d.r and r/1 . a func11o:1 that ci ' es alin ~ar appnnim:Hion
to the change in: -.hen x and.\ arc ch~~gcd by the am;~nts d.r and dy. respectively.
-I
AV= (cm 3 ) .
•
-2
EXAMPLE 4 The point (I. 2) lies on the curve: with equation
-3~~~~~--~~~
- 3-2 -1 0 2 3 f(x,y ) =2xJ+ ),J-5x y= 0. (II)
•
FIGURE 13-.6. 1 The curve of (Sec Fig. 13.6.1.) Approximat e the y-coordinate of the nearby point (x. y) on this
hample4. curve for which x 1.2. =
= =
Solution The increment between /(I. 2) 0 and /(x. y) 0 on this curve is t!.f =
10
0 ~ df. so when we compute t he differentials in Eq. ( II). we get
I
8
6
4
(\ df= at dx +of dy= (6x 2 - 5y)dx + (3y2 - 5x) dy=O.
ax oy
2
CIYl 0 \ Now when we substitutex =I. y = 2.andclx =0.2. we obtain the equation ( -4)(0.2)+
-2 V\ = =
(7) dy 0. It then follows that dy (0.8)/7 "'0.114 ::::: 0.1. This yields (1.2, 2.1) for
-4 y. 2.084 the approximate coordinates of the nearby point. As a check on the accuracy of this
-6 approximation, we can subst itute x = 1.2 into Eq. (11 ). This gives the equation
-8
2. o.2> + J - s. <t.2)y =I - 6y + 3.456 =O.
3
- to
-4 J -2 -1 0 I 2 J 4
y
The roots of this equat ion are the x -intercepts of the curve in Fig. 13.6.2. A calculat or
~iGURE 13.6.2 Th~ graph of or computer with an equa tion solver (or Newton's method) t hen yields y::: 2.084:::
9<r> ., r-
6y + 3.4s 6. 2.1 for the solution near y = 2. •
892 CHAPTER 13 Partial Differentiation
. f .h More Variables
Functtons 0 T ree or . o f more t hJn two variables are defined
. · ,_ r funcuons
Increments and d1ffcrenuau o .
. .
Slmllarh·. . ,.. = ! <x · >.· •·) has
A funcuon ' mcremen
1
• A T + '-' •
A • ) - /(X, •\', l)
Aw = 6 f =! (x + ...AX. ) ' ~
• u)'· •
and differential
'f af
~-A I'+- 6::
at
dw = df = -d
IJ.r
A
u .f • ay . "·
".
that is.
-J , •)n· ilh'
thr =-"t'tt" d.r -r- "-..fy- I
1 ." + T- tl-•
f ...
if. as in Eq. (10). ~~oc wnte d.r for A.r. dy for t.y. and d : for A:.
EXAMP LE 5 You have constructed a metaI cu h.•~ tl1 ·•t ~ is supposed 10 ha1.·c ed£e
•
length 100 mm. hut each of its three measured dim~n<ions x. -~·· ~IH.l : may b~ m error
l'Y a, muc I1n~ a m1'II'1mcte r. tJse differential<
' · to e<llma
· tc: the m.mmum resulung error
in its cnlcui.Hcu volume II = xy:.
Solution We need 10 apprn~ i matc the inc remen t
6 V = V( l OO + tfx. 100 + tfy. 100 + d:)- V(IOO. 100. 100)
when the errorstlx. dy. and dz in x. y. and z :uc maximal. ·n1e diffe rential of V =xy:
is
dV =yz d.r + .r: dy + x y d:.
with one term for each independent variable. We introduce the gradient vector
of I he f~nc tion t(xJ, X2 . • • • • Xn) of n variables; its c leme nts nrc the 11 first-order part ial
dcnvatii'CS of f (ass n · th h · ) · · ·
. ' u ~ mg at I ey C XI5 1 • ll1JS ne w vcclor-valucd function is called
the gradtell/ of t and IS denoted by v t (pronounced "del /") In Sect' on 13.8 we
explor.: the meaning o f th e gr d' · 1 . 1
. . . a
dCI' ICC to s1mphfy the formula in (12). 1cnt vector V [;here we use it simply as a notauona
-
lnut'N'l:.S .a-.d ~J· A;Y,>roA.-m:JOO SECTlON 13.6 893
l h e dot (or sc;~la r) p roduct o ! t•••o n-, eCl On IS. c:X3C11y 35 in d imcmi~'"':! _nn~
3, the ~um o f the products of corr~N>, ndml! e lemenl5 o f the t v. o ve c to rs. Th~ t IS. If
a -- (a,, a 2• .. . • a , and b = ·~. l>; . .. . b. ).-then
1
• ·b = a1t>; - a:l>: -
· - a, t>•.
Con~quc: ntly. the line.l r .lp;'rou.•ution fo:mul.l an (I ~ ) tJ kcs the concise Co rm
( I~)
/ h - b t::: / (xl - '!;'f(s l · h.
in pleasant anal(Y,!~ v. tth the om.inJI sinde· \ Jriat>le J prro~im a t ion /(.r + lr )""'
/ (xJ- /'lx)h (v.nung h for ~.r l:e;e). BcCl~<c: "\/( 1 ) a nd h arc l-oth \CCtors \\i th n
compon e n t\. th~ dot p rodu" on tl:e n ght·hJr.d ~~J~ in ( 1-1 ) is dcfi rH:d and t:i"cs
V /I ' 1 · h =D, /t t l /: 1 - D; j(t lh; ..._ · · ..._ D, j(x)h • .
th u\ prcwidin~t the lrnea r tcr:n< on the ri.:ht -hand <rJc m ( t:!). In :malo~ " it h the tv.o·
\ :l nahle Ca\C rn (~J. the \Um of the<c n hn~J r term< 1< the: d ifTcrentill l til= ' / (\) · h
n f the funct ion f o f 11 re:t l 'IIIJ'>I~ \ \ ith h .. d\ = (tf r 1 • tl r; .... . d r~l. thi< drffer-
enllal ta k es the form
tlf .. -
aj
d r1 - -
af
dr1 ... ... +
ill
- dx.
iJx1 il X1 i) r.
th nt gcncral i7c < the t w<Hl imc n sional d rffc rentr,\1 rn E<1. ( 10).
l llc j:radrcn t vec to r V / ( 1) i< defined " herc,er all o f the firs t-ord e r p:trti:tl
d e ri,·nti\ CS o f I" ~ "' In Apf'<'ndtx )( v. c !!"" 2 pr<><>f or the linea r appro<irn:l lic>n
theorem stated ne xt. Th1< t hcnrc m a-..~u res U \ ( rn effect) that if the pa rt tal d c rivati,·cs
of I arc :tbo nmtimwru. t hen the linear approxrma u o n m ( I-I) i\ a x ootl np p ruxima·
t io n when Ih i = lri
J1ri + + · · · + is small. 1r;
T H EO REM linea r Approxima tion
Su ppose that th<: functio n f (s ) of 11 \'ariablcs h a~ continuo us fi rst-orde r partial
derivatives in a regio n th;Jt conta ins the n eighborhoo d jx - a l < r con~i~ t ing of
all points x at d ista n ce less t han r from the fu c:d point a . If a + h lies in thi~
ne ig hborho od, the n
/( • + h) = / (a)+ V / (a) · h + <(h) · h ( IS )
wh ere c(h )- (cd h) , <:(h ) . . .. • c.(h )) is a vecto r su ch th;ll each clement t t ( h ) ap·
pronches zero as h - 0.
in (15) is the error in th~ linear approximation- it measures the extent to which the
11pproxim11tion /(a + h l "'=' /(a)+ Vf(a) · h fails to be an <'qlllrlity . We may rcg:trd the
conclusion of the: linear npproximation theorem as saying that if h is "very small,"
th e n each clc!ment £,( h) o r ((hl is also "very small." In this event. each summa nd in
(16) is 3 product of two very small terms. so we might sa y that the error €(h) · h is
"very very small."
Now let us di~;dc by Ihi in Eq. (16). Then we: sec: tha t
c(h ) • h Itt /r2 lt.
Iii! = (t(h ) Jhl + E2(h ) Jhl + · ••+ fn(h ) Jhl - 0 (17)
894 CHAPTER 13 Partial Oiffer~nti.ltlon
~ :5 1 and f,(hl - 0
h' -
as I1 - 0 . D ,' , , d'ang bo t h st.d es b y ,'h in Eq · ( 15) the refo re ~£ives the limit
under the a-.um.,tion that the functio n f is cont inuously d iCCerentiable ncar a.
The ~onditfon in Eq. (11\l i< centra l.to the study of differentiJbili.ty of m~hivari
ablc funcllnn~o. Indeed. the reaf-,·alued fur.ction j( ~ l ts S~td to lle d1fferen11able at
the pmnt a pro,idcd thJt there n isu a constant ' ector c = (c,. c:. ·· · · c. ) such that
. [ (a ..._ h) - [(a) - c · h _
lim - 0· (19)
·-· lh
In effect , t h i~ ddinitit'n means that f i< diffcrcn tiahlc a t n if there exists a linear
function r. h = , 11! 1 - c:h: + +,.•
,,.(of the Cl'ntponcn t<nf h) that approxima tes
the incrcmcm ft u .-. ht - [tal so clc>s dy th.tt the error i' 'mall e ven in com parison
"ith lhl. Equa tinn (I S) implies till! iff i ~ cont inuou<ly differen tiable nca r a. then
the padi,·nt ' ector v /ta t ts precisely ~uch a ''ector c (and moreover, by Problem -lS.
i~ the on!\' )UCh vector).
Tht;< 11 fi •11rtmn is diff(rmriablt if 11 i$ conrllawurlv diffamriablt'. lnis says linle
in the ca<t' of a si n~k-variable function. which is c:tllcd drffcrcntrable if its derivati\'~
merely cxi<t<. In ~ontr:~st . we have as yet said nothing :~bout the existence of parti31
d~rL\ati, ,., of a differentiable mul!i,·ariahlc function. The follo"ing example treats
the ca<c of just " =2 \'Jriablcs.
[XAM PLE 6 Suppose that the function [(:c. y) is differentiable at the point (a, b).
Dy Eq. ( 19). this means that there exists a constant vector r :: (c1 , c2) such that
Thu~ the ~artial der~vathc f,(a , b) exists and is equal to the first element , of r.
SmniJ.Il~·· rf w~ suh<trtute lr, =0 and h 1 = It in (20)-do this \'Ourself-we find1 that
the parual dem·atr.-e [,.(a, b) exrsts and i< equal
•
to t)1c sc 0 d. l f
. c n c cmcnt c2 o c.
•
. ., 6, is. . the
. Example • case n = 2 of the ocncral
e- thcor c 111 tllat d 1''~erenrra
· btrty
'/' or
1 uwwce of all first·orda JJarri ! /er' · 11 · · 1
11 po1111 1111/ll<S 11 1 rvarn ·cs ar r1rat pomr. It ts a so
I . d 'ff . · b' · . . .
true t 1a1 1 crcnua tl!tv !Ill plies conunuil'' ( Problem -17) 1
· • r· · r·
ro 11owmg ' · n summary. we ha ve the
unp tcatrons or a function f of several va ri:~hlcs:
Problems 43 t hrough -15 sho"'· that no!'le of th ese implications can be re_v crsed for 11
function I of t" O or more \'ariabies. That L<.. 1 cnn have p3.11inl derivatives "lthout
being diffe rentia hie. and C<!n be diffe rentiable " i thout bein!! continuously d lffer:n-
tiable. ~loreover. 1 e:tn have partial deri,·atives " it hou t being continuous (and nee
~·crsa) . Th u, the mere e xi\tcnce of p:~rti:~J derivnti,·es-even all of t he"_'-3P~~rs 1~
Imply much IC$\ for a function of se,·eral v:u-i:~bles than 11 docs fo r a smglc·' :mabl~
function. Out all the se distinctions dis.:!py.!:!r in the case of tolynom ials :tnd rntion:~l
funct ions of se ve ral variables-.... hi1:h h~ve continuous p:miJI derivatives wherever
they are defined.
I. Compa re the concert of differen tiabili ty fo r sin gle-variable func tio ns with
t hat fo r multi variable functions.
2. Compare the roles of the dcri' ati' e of a sin):k-,·ariablc function and the
gradie nt "ecto r of a multi' aria t-Ie function. Fo r inst:t ncc:. what is the value
of the gradient \ Cctor at a local ma ~imum or minimum point ?
3. Doc~ a ~urface ~ = f(x. yl aJ.,.ays h:a'e n t:mFc:nt pbnc a t a poin!l! where
f is diifcrcn tiablc ? Dc~ribc t he "ay this tange nt pbnc appro ximnres the
g raph nca r the po int (a. f!a)).
13.6 PROBLEMS
!. w =arctan(~) , , •.l
6.w = xr'-)'X"+:, 26. ( J26 )( .ru )( 0:17 )
7. w= ln(x 2 + l + zl> 27. r 0 ' = cxp(l.l'- O§)
8. w = sin .ry.:
9. w = x tan y: 10. w = xyt••· .!125
28. v'""
.10
11. "' = t - •yt U. IV= ln(l + rs)
.r +r 29. JC3.J)l + (4.2)! + (1 1.7)2
14.... = - -
s -I
15. w = J xl + yl + z: 30. \1<5. 1> 2 + 2 . <5.2) 2 + 2 . cs.w
.H. The )'·Coordinate o r the point P ncar (1. 2) on the curve
16. w = pqr exp(-p2 -ql- r 2)
2x' + z_,.J = 9.T)'. ir the :r·coordinatc or pis 1.1 .
In Problems 17 through 24, uu tht txact valrtt f< /') and tht Jl. The :r·coordinate of the point P near (2. -l) on the curve
-l.t' .._ -ly' = 17.r _,~ . ir the ;•-coordinate o f I' is 3.9.
2
1
tlif!mmia/ d to Df>pro;J;imatr rile m /ur I< Q).
17. f<:r. y) = J ;rl + yl; /'(3. 4). Q(2.97. 4.04) 33. Tbe base and height or a rectangle arc measured as 10 em
and 15 em. respective!)'. with a po<sible error o f as much as
18. [ (:r.y)= J:rl-yl; /'(13.5).Q(IJ.2.-l .9) 0.1 em in each measurement. Usc dirfcrentials to estimate
the maximum resulting erro r in computing the area of the
19, [C:r, y) = I ; /'(3. 6). Q(3.02. 6.05) re.c tanglc.
l + x+y
20. f <:r. y. zl = .pfi; P(t.3. 3). Qc0.9. 2.9. 3.1) 34. The base radius rand the height h or a right circular cylin-
der arc measured a~ 3 em and 9 em, respectively. There is a
21. [C:r,y.:)= J:rl+)J+r; P(3.4.12),Q(3.03.3.96.12.05) pos$iblc error of I mm in each measurement. Use diHeren-
tials to estimate the maximum possible error in computing:
2l.f(:r.y.:)= XyZ ; P(2.3.5).Q(L98.3.03,4.97) (a) the volume or the cylinder; (b) the total surface arc.a of
x+y+z the cylinder.
2l. f <:r. y, ~l =t ' '"; P(l. 0. -2), Q(1.02, 0.03. -Vl2)
lS. The base radius r and height h of a right circular rone
=
U. [(x,y) (x- y)cos2uy; P(l. !), Q(1.1.0.4) are measured as 5 in. and 10 in., respectively. There is a
896 CHAPTER 13 P~rtial Oifferenti~tion
36. The dimension~ of a clo<ed rectangular box arc found by "here,.. and h ;~rc 1hc "idth and height. respectively. of
measurement to be I() em b) 15 em by W em. but there 1s lhe bc::1m and k is a cumtanl that tlcpcnd~ on lhc length
a P'""blc en o r of 0.1 em m each. Usc differential> to csu- and co mpo<lliOn o f 1he l~<am and I he amounl of the lold.
mntc the max1murr rcsulung error in computmg 1he total
Show I hal
dS =-s(2-t~ ~ "") ·
sur race ar ea of the f'><\x .
37. i\ surveyor wan I' 111 find I he area in acre~ of a ccrlnrn lkld ... ..·+ "
\
( I acre is 43.560 It' ). She mea \ u n:s 1" o di ffc rent ;,Jc<. find·
in& them to be" = S!•l It and h = 1m ft. ""h a r<J<;,bk
s
If = 1 in. "hen"' = =
2 in. :1nu h 4 in .. approx imlle lhc
sae "hen" = ~I in. :uulh = .J I in . Compare your appro~·
cnor of as much as 1 It 111 each mca•u reme nt . She finu~ the
i.-n-ation with the a:tu3 1 va:uc you compulc from Eq. (21).
angle bct,. ee n thC\c '" o"dcHo bcl• = 311. "ith J r<><<~t-lc
error of a< much a< n 25 'lhe fie ld i< tnan~ular '" 11< area 43. Lei 1hc funcuon I l>c defined on the \\hole .ry ·planc by
i< ghcn hy A= lal"onO. lJ<c Ulffcrent1al~ to e\llmJIC the /Cx . .') = 1 if r = y 1 0, \\ hcrea< IC r. y) = () olherwisc.
m:.ximurn rc,ult ingt:rr nr. in acre'- in cumputm~ Ihe :trC'J of (a) Sho " th~ l 1 i< nol conlinuou< at (0. U). (b) Show thai
the field hy thi~ fornn rl.r. hnth p.~r1ial dcnv:tt i,·cs f, and 1. cx i<l nl (0. 0).
311. lJ~C different i.1 1< ltl e\llm31e the change in I he \ (IJume of ~. Show lh:rtlhc funclion /(.r. y) =(,)IX+ .;t)'JJ is cOnlinuous
I he J;US of Example :1 if il< pre"urc i< dccrca,cd from 5 nlm nnd h:t< p~rll:. l <krivalivc; a l the Orij!i n (0. 0) . but is nol
111 ·I.<J at m and il~ lcmpernlurc i< dccrease<l from 3!() K 10 drffcrcnllnhlc 1hnc.
21'«1 K.
45. Sho " thai I he function f defined hy /(.r. )')=I +
39. The period of oscillalion of n simple p.:ndulum of knglh /.IS x 3 smll/.r) for x 10. and [(0. y) = y:. ;, differenliablc at
given (appro~imald)) hy the formul• T h /1./1:. = (0. 0). bul 11 not continuously d1flerelllinblc there because
Estimate the chan£e 1n the period of a pendulum if ils f,!.r. )) 1< not con1inuous at W. 0 ).
length is increa~ed from 2 h lo 2ft I in. and it is smwhane·
46. Lei / (.r) he a function of the single vari~blc .r. Show I hot
ou~ly moved from n local ion " he re g i< e xaclly 32 fl/s 2 10
I he oruin :try dcnvali>c ['I<~) cx i>l< if and on ly if f is differ·
one where 1: = 32.2 h 1•
cntiablc in lhc scn<c o f Eq. (19) . mcanine th:ll I hen' c.~ist<
4U. G iven the pendul um of Problem 39. show that I he relati ve a conslant c such thai
error in I he dctcrmin:Hion of T i~ half I he difference of the . /(a+ h) - /((1)- d t
rclali,•e errors in mca;uring Land g-that is. I hal I101 = 0
..., lh l .
in,.hichcasc /'la) =c.
47. Deduce from f:c1. ( 19) thai 1hc function f is continuous
wherever i1 i< <hffcrcntiabk.
41 . The range of~ projcc1ilc fired (in a \'Jc.-uum) wilh initill
velocity t'o ::tnd inclination :angle fr from the: hol'it.nnl31 ~8. Deduce fro.m Gq. ( 19) I ha t if the muh ivnriahlc funcliun /(t )
is /( = f, t·5 sin2a . lhc diffcl'c ntials 10 apprmintalc the IS dlffC~COII:tblc <II a, I he n its firSI·Order p~rlial dcriv:tli\'C$
ch:lll):C i'ri range if"" is increased from 400 10 410 Ills and a
at a CXISI :•nd a re given hy O, /Ia ) = 1', fori = 1. 2 . ... . n.
is increased from 30 10 3 t•. Conclude rn llrrn th at lhc vcciM c ., (c 1• c 2 •••• c ) in (19)
ts umqu ~. • "
fJ,( fl~tr). hlr)) j :: f, l ~ ll). h (lll . ~·(rl .._ j, f.t:(l\. 1: (1)) - /t'(l) . (~)
1\ proof of the chain rule 1s included at the end of thi< <c:ction. In ou tline. it coMists
ot beginning"' ith the linear apprn~rmatton
-"'
t:. t ilx .C.t ily _:<;t
lltcn we take the limi t as t:.t - 0 to ohtain
d"· a... d.t aw dy
di = ilx · dt - iJy · dt ·
I contc~t o r -n
In 11e 111eor c'nl 1• ,,.e nla\'·. refer to ,.. a~ the de
. pen dent \'llriahle, x
and ' a~ 1ntc· rmc1hate· •ana 1 cs.• :Ind t ..~s the irul cJlcndc nt nmahlt'.
· 11 . Then. note that
the richt·hand ~ide nf [q. (:')has two terms.. one fN each intermed ia te van:~ hie. both
term\. like the right·hand side of the sin)!IC·\':Iflahlc: chain rule in Eq. (2). I f. there are
more I han two intermedia te varia hies. then there is still ont! term on th e nght·hand
~ i dl· for each inte rm edia te variahk. Fn r example. if,..= [(x. y. Z) with x. }'.and l
each a function of 1. then the chain ruk t:1kes tlu: form
hll('rmcdl.-lc
v~tnabfc"
tlw ilw dx CJ ,.. dy uw dz
-dl =-.-
ax dr + -
ay . -
dt
+-. -.
ill dr
(5)
1 ------- lnlk~niknl
V3J1::1h)t
TI1e proof of Eq. (5) is essentially the same :1~ the proof o f Eq. (3): it requires the
FIGURE 13. 7.2 levels o! ~h•in
rule variJbles.
linear approximation theorem for three \':l riahles r:11hcr than for two variables..
You may find it useful to em ision the three types o f ,·a riablcs-dcpcndcnt,
intermediate:, and independent-as though they were lying a t three d iffc rentle,•els..
a< in Fig. t:\.7.2. with the dependen t variable: at the top and the independent variable
at the hotltun. Each ,·a riable then depend< (either di rc~:tly or indirectly) on those
that lie he low it.
•
In Example 3 we could check the resu lt given bv the h . I · b li ..
:l< an explicit function of 1 and h. . . . c arn ru c y trs t wnttng"'
. h respect to 1.
o r II' wn t en com putmg the ordmar)· single-van·~bJe
·• d~ri\'a
• tivc
ow ow aw ay aw a::
ilx
FIGURE 13.7.3 Diagram for - = -.- +- .- +- . -.
w = w(x, y, 1), where x = x(u, v), av ax av ily a.. az av
y • y(u, v), a nd z - z (u, v) .
1l1Corem 2 describes the most general such situation.
1l1us t here isn formula in Eq. (6) for each of th e independent variabl es ta.t2 •..••
t•• and the right-hand side of each such formula conta ins one typical chain rule term
for each of the intc rrncdialc Yariablcs x 1, .tz, ...• Xm.
EX AM PLE 4 Suppose that
Solution The relationships among t he variahles are shown in Fig. 13.7.4. The chain
rule gi\•cs
FIGURE 13.7.4 Didgram for
ilz ilz au illav
1= z(u, v). where u .. u(x, y) and - = - . - +-.- = 3 . 2 + (-2). 3 =0
r>
v = v(x, (Exa mple 4). ax iiu ax av ax
and
il z ilz au ilz iJt·
-ily =-. - + - · - =3· 1 +(- 2)·(-2)= 7
iJu oy ot· ily
at th e indica ted po int (x. y) = (1. I ).
•
EXAMPLE 5 Letw = f<x. y) where x and)' are given in po lar coordinates by the
= r cos 0 and y = r sin 0. Calculate
equatio ns x
aw ilw alw
- and -
ar ao . iJr 2
in te rms o f r, o, and the partial derivatives of w with respect tox andy (Fig. 13.7.5).
Solution Here x andy are intermediate variables: the independent variables arc r
and 0. First note tha t
ilx
- =COS9,
ay
-=san .
. (} ax =
-
. 8
-rsm and
ily
ar ar ae · iJ8 = r cos8.
fJ<~URE 13.7.5 Diagram for Then
,. • "'(x, r>. where x .. x(r,
8) aw = _aw · -ax + -aw · -ay =aw- cosl'l+ -sm9
aw .
11\d Y • )(r, 8 ) (wmple 5). (7a)
ar ax ar ay ar ax ay
900 CHAPTER 1 3 Partial Dofferentiation
and
aw (ib)
ao
Next,
aa,::..- -_ ~(a"")
ar ar
= ~ (a..- cosO+ a
iJr ax
".' sino)
i.l)
(h, • au·"' . 0
= - · cosll -'- - sm ·
ar Jr
"-here ..., == . -_ a" ·fi.l_1.. \\'•• •applv• Eq. (7a) to calcula te a..·,fiJr and
iJ wfi.l r and"_.
i'lw 1 fiJr. and we obtain
-
- (
:l.,.
ax' co~
v' ll' 0 ~ -a=w
- sin 0 ) cos 0
ayilx
+ ( --cos
a1w
iJxiJy
0 + -a::w
iJy·
..
.-, Sill o) .
Sin
I)
·
•
EXAMPLE 6 Suppose that"' == [ (u . o•. x. y), where u and t' arc func tions of x andy.
I !ere x and y play dual roles as intermediate and indcp..:ndc:n t vari:Jblc:s. The chain
rule yield~
ilw a[ iJu il f i.l t· <if :J.r ;'if Jy
-
ax
= -au ·ax
-+ -
at•· --'-
il.r
-iJ.r ·ax
- +iJy
- ·ax
-
ilf ilu
== - · -
ilf
+ -011 · ax
- .... -.
.1 t• • ar
ilu ax ax
bcc:Jusc a.rfiJx = I and ilyfiJx = 0. Simi larly.
FIGURE 13.7.6 Diagram for
il w
--=
ar 011
-· - +- · -~-
ilf at• ar
w = f(u, v, x, y), whtre iJy au iJy il t• il.l· ily.
u = u( x, y) and v = •(•. Y)
(Example 6). These results are consistent with the paths from " ' to x and fro m " ' to 1· in th~
molecular model shown in Fig. 13.7.6. • •
T= (dx dy d4)
N = ( -a;: -a: - 1)
dt . dt. dt and
ilx' ay· .
then Tis tangent to the curve and N is normal to the surface. Show th at T and :..; arc
everywhere perpendicular.
dz. il z dx il : d1·
-= - · -+- -~
dt il.r dt (! y dt .
Out this equation is equiva lent to the vector e quation
a: al )
( ax. (dx tly d;:)
ay . -I 0 di. dr. di = 0.
Thus NoT = 0, so N and Tare perpendicular.
•
The Multivarlable Chain Rule SECTION 13.7 901
Implicit Partial Differentiation
Sometimes we need to investig:tte a function~= g(x. y)that i~ no t defin ed cxp licilly
by a fnrmula giving : in tem1s of x and 1', hut insteatl is dclined implici tl y by an
~quat ion of the fo rm F(x . y. ~) = 0. The following implicit function thcorc~. pr~ved
~n advanced c~lculus. guarantees the existence and differentia!>ility of such Implicitly
ell ned functions under ce rtain natural hypotheses.
Moreover. the function g(x) is uniquely defined for x nea r 11. In brief. The·
orcm :! implies th tll the equation F(x 1, .r 2••••• x•. ~) = 0 implicitly defines om:
an~ only one continuously differentiable function : = g(x 1• x 2 •. •• • x.) ncar any
pom t where a F foz ¥0. Knowing that the function g exists ;md is diffcrcntiahlc. we
c~n calculate its partial derivatives hy implicit differentiation of the given equation
I· (.rt. x2 . ... . x•. :) = 0. Differentiating this equation with resr;:ct to x, yields
aF .ax1
- - + ... +oF - + ... + -ar . -ax. +ar- .ilz
- .ax, - = 0. ( )
dX1 J.r, 8.r, <J.r, il.t. il.r, i)~ iJ.r1 9
llut iix1 !8x1 = 0 unless j = i, and ax, fox,= 1. so Eq. (9) reduces to the equation
aF aF a~
-+-·-=0.
ilx, a~ ax,
(10)
for th e ith parti:~l dcrh·arh·c or: = g(x 1• x 2 •• • •• x.). In a specific example, it usually
is just a~ simple to differentiate the gi ven equation F Ct 1, x: ..... x•. :) = 0 as in (9).
rathe r th an 3pplyin!! the formula in ( 10).
::] = [ Sill 0
T '(r ,O) = iJr c~~o - nin fl]. ( 161
[ <Jy r CO' tl
ilr ao
n
The Mu!:ivari.Jb!e Ctuin Rule S~CTION 13.7 90 3 I
. !\ow sup pose tha t the d:pende nt \'ariable ,.. is a function F (.t. )')_ of the inter-
med tatc va riables x a ndy, and thereby is gi\'en by the composite funcuo n
G(u. t ) = f ( T{u ,~:)) = f (x (u. t'). y (u. t·)) ( 17)
o ( the independent vari ables u and,. (Fig. i3.7.9). The deri\'~t ive ma trices
lOx ;,,..·
f' (x.y) = [ il"
iJy
1 and G '(u. t·) = ra ..·
, (l u
:"·1
v L'
( 18)
o( F and G a re defined in analo~~ "-i th (IJ}-there 1:>-.:ing a single row in each matri~.
co rresponding to the single dependent, ariablc .... Those who arc famil i:H with ma tnx
FIGURE 13.7.9 Diagram for
w = f (• . y) where (x. y) =
mult iplicati on will recognize that the '" o ch:~ in rule fo rmui:!S
= T(u. v) a.. J w ay
- x ... a... ih ·
(.r(u. v) . y(u. v)) 0\\' ilx
dl<' - a
- = ""' -~ -= - - + - -
ou il x au ily ilu 0
ih Cl t il r ily 3t•
arc the "components- of the single matrix equa tio n
th~t is.
il w (l w l = loaxw iill.rt•l 0
(19b)
lau ih · il y
J t•
l11us the ch ain rule fo r the sttuation indicated in Fig. 13.7.9 implies th:ll rh~ derivative
=
matrix of the compos/It: function G F o T i rthr m atri:r product G ' F ' T'. • =
EXAMPLE 1 1 With the polar-coordinate deri\'ati\'e matrix T' (r, 0) in (16), the rna·
trix multiplicati on in Eq. ( 19b) yields
Let
Ax = g(to + AI) - g (to). Ay = IT(ro + AI) - lz(t0 ) .
Then
g (to + At)= a +Ax and ll (to + Ar) = b + Ay .
If
Aw = f (g(lo +AI ), lz (to + At))- f(g (to). lz(to))
= {(a + Ax. b + Ay)- f(a, b),
904 CHAPTER 13 Partial Differentiation
lienee
dw ow dx ihv dy
Tt -
- -ax· -de+ -ily · -tit .
1lws we have cstahli~hetl Eq. (3) . writing aw; ax nnd owfiJy for the partial derivatives
f. (a. b ) and [y(a. b) in the final step. -<
13.7 PROBLEMS
In Problmu 1 through 4,find dw jdt both by ttsin~t the ch~in n•le In l'ro l>/mts .5 lllfOIIgh 8, fiml aIVI ih tmd 0"'I iJI.
and by exprnsing w explicitly as a functton ofI before diffam- 1
5. IV = + y2 + i): x = s - t. y = s + t. z == 2./ii
ln(x
tiating.
I. w = exp(-x:-y): x = t , y= ,fi 6. w = pq sin r: p = 2v + t, 'I =s - t, r =s I
7. w = J 11: + 1.2 + 4.2.• u = 31'1 sin s . v = 31!' coss. : "' Jl
1
2. w= ~; u = cos2t, v = sin2t
fl. w =yz +zx+.ry;
II V + x = s2 - c·' . y = s·, + t 2• z == r ' 12
J. w =sin .ryz: x = t. y = ,: • z = t 3
In Prob/mu 9 tltrough /2, [i111l Jr ;ax, <Jr /Jy, nttd ar j Jz.
4. w = ln(u + v + z): u = cos2 1. v = sin 2 t , z =12 9. r = t'"•"•"'·, u ::e yz.. L' == xz. w = xy
The Multivariable Cha in Rule SECTION 1 3.7 905
JO r = tll'k'- u~- t..:- w=; u = \,' + . .
• .. .... l z::: X + ,:. kot =:: X--L y
36. A rectangular block hns d ime nsions x = 3 m. y= 2m. nnd
Jl, r =sin( p/q l: p= \/x.v2 ~l. q = -/x .._ 2y + J·
:::I m. lf .rand v are increa•in£ at I em/min nnd 2 cm!mi n.
l -•r --!!.+~
q J
... !..p . p = t',.• • q = t'''. J 1: . . . .
• respccti,el~·. "'hile ~ is d~cre;sing at 2 em/min. are the
b!ock ·s ' olum~ and total surface area increasing or decreas·
ing? At "'hlt r ales?
In Prob/~111$ IJ through 18, " ' rrlt' chain ntlt' r0 l ..
. . f I d ,. mw tll gtvmg tht'
partial dt'm·ara·t' o I t<" <'Pt:rltlt"nt •·ariah/,. p ..-irh res 37. The volu me I ' (m cubic ccnlimeters) and pressure p (in at·
mdrpmdmt 1 aria hit'. prcr to each n <xphcres ) o f n molc:s of an idealc:~s sa ti sf" the equation
p\' = nRT. "here Tis its temperature (in d~!!rees Kel\i n)
IJ. p = f<x. y) : x =.t(ll.t•, w), .v= >(u, v.w ) and R = S~ C\6. Supp<Xc 1h;n a sample of the gas has a
1.1. p = f<x. y, ~); X= x(u. •·) . y = y(u, I'). : = ~ (u. 1') 'Oiume of 10 L "hen the pressure is 2 :um and the tem-
1~. p = /Itt. v. " ·) : tt = ll( .r . y, z). I' = tlx )' ' ) p<:nlure is 300'K. If the pressure is increasing a1 I atmfmin
• •< , "' =I>'(X, )', : ) and the temrcrature is increasing at 10' K/ min, is the vol·
16. p = / ( 1•, w); y, ~. 1),
I '= t•(.r. .,.. =k'(.r, y, : . I ) urne of the gas sample incre:~sing or decreasing? At what
17. p =/(,.·): ,.. = w(x. y. z. "· v) nte?
18. p = /(.t , y,u, v); X= X(S, 1), 38. The nggrepte rcsisunce R of three: variable resistances
Y = y(s. t ) . u=u(s. r ),
v=v(s.l) R,. R:. and RJ connected in parallel sa tisfies the harmonic
rquation
In Problt'm.l /9thrtii<JI. h 2-1, fuul a:/ ilx and , ·I'>·a!fi
u -...J u
·
. llnctiOIU o
f
. · I 1 I I
.r, y, and:. tlSSflllllllg thm ~ = f(x y) smisfies rh• " . · -=-+- ... -.
• ~- ~n f'fl f'Qflatron. R R R~ RJ
19. xm + ytJ + :!:1 = I 1
20. x 1 + y 1 + r = xy: Suppose thai R 1 nnd R~ nrc HX.l n nnd arc increasing at
I !lis. "'hile R , is 200 n and is dccre:uing at 2 S"lls. Is R
11. xe•" + ye:..' + :.~·r = 3 incrc:a,ing or decreasing at I hat inst:tn t? At what rate?
22. xs+xY +y: =5 =
39. Suppose thnt x h(y. ; l sa tisfies the: equal ion F(.x. y, z) = 0
x2 Y~ ~ nnd that F, ~ 0. Show that
23. a- l + -+;.=
/yl c:-
1
a.t a F/i'l y
2-'• .t y~ = sin (x + y + z)
ay = - a F;iJ.t ·
In l'rol>lcms 25 throt~gh 28, tLfl'thc mt·thotl of E.rample 6 to find 41!. Suppose I ha t w = / (x. y) ..r = r cosO , :~nd y= rsinO. Show
ow /il.t and i)..-fi!y tl.t fwtctionJ vfx andy. that
25. = II: + 1•2 +X: + )~; = y, =
(iJw)2 + (iJ"')' (~)2 + .!_ (~)2
W II X - t' X+}'
Itt Jh<>tt. rl:c• .~rn rr.:! ,omJ'•'I (,lh ,lu\, .ft·n.,!:', lht• dt"'·llhr pf
46. Suppose th3t
W h' lth f((J'(fl (11 11. H htt( u I t 1(\'.111/(,/ .H ot /JOh'ftt•,r 1,f lllr
-17. Suppo se th3tw = f(r ) and that r = \ ·,: + y:- ::. Sh<m h.1nJ "'"' 111 t.· nn• ••I 1 ,. 1 .. ·""' I I
~..t. \ \·rih th~ n.· ... u!: ,,f t·r~'I,J.:m '\ 1,,, tlh' ~.·.pr.al h'U
that
tPw 2 d'-' f .( I • \ • ,'
I 1: I l ; I ,-: (l
=tfr':
- +r-tlr- ·
\ \:ts!\ tht• ~~..·,ult ~~1 l'r~.'!'l ..•m ' l \'''th {'. \ . l llh l /' mpi.H\'
,,f, . ,., Jnd :) f,,, th ..· t.•qu.llh'll
-IS. Suppose that w = f (u ) + g ( t·). th at '' = .1 - ur. and th.tt
'' = x +fit . Show th at r 1,.. 1·. 1 1
, jJl l\' (tt .Htd H .ut· ,.,,u,t.mh ), '' hh·h t' ' l''•'"''' thl' hk .1 l ~·" 1.1"
J r'
= a• -il.t.-•. Colh:.kl .\ fl ' l' ll qu.ultrl\ ''' lhluhl " h''"·' J1 1''"HI'' J'. ' \'I
unW \ ' , .1nd lt."fllJ'('f.tt llh' f ,.ltl'h .t ~1 \ c'U " ,t.tiC t'qU,\Ih\11 "
-11). A ssume that w = f( u . v ) \\ here 11 =A+ y :mJ 1 = \ - \. t'f th~.· r.Hm l•r. \ , I ) ll llH' rhnm:t l ,., p:u t,h h.' ,, .111d
Show that j, ,tltw rm.tl C1HHI~n.·"hh ' ,r~ ·-lllu· lhtUhl .IH' ddmn l l•\
a...
Jr ily
a..· = (aau. . )' (a . . )' Jt· .. I ,II ,I \ '
I ' ,I I
511. G ive n: n• = [ex. y ). x = r'' cos t •. a nd~· = ,.• so n o•. S how A rply ·n w{'rt'm J 1u't "* .
:.d.:ul.u~· ,1\ • · ·'r
.uhl .~ \ ·, .• 1', nll.l
th at thc:n h' 1.\ tl..·ul.•tc ·'r ,l \ · .tthl •'I' '·• 1'. 1kdu ..·(· f•t•m Ih.· h'·
s ul!:-. th.1t ,lJ' ,I r - ,, ,-.
~~ppns:· th:ot 'I "' F (l , •·. ~~ " ith 1 , .1 " ''"'·"'"' ' " ·' " "
M.
=. tf • 1·, f, ):ondth :ot ( t , l',~) /'(u, o·, ., l:"on l'll't•
~~ ). = :~. k·m ,)t\, lr r, n ,.. .... ·r. dt.' d th'\~ fh'Ul l hl· '-'h.un auk "' nw~•l\'tll
ag
(~: ),= ax ( (lOb)
2 tha t c;• ,. F " l " ( mat " ' !'""" '"''
li I. If II' a F ( 1 I' • )
· • · · •· • •'I~P 1)' :lw l t.':o.tllh ,,( l'h •l•h-m' ~IJ ,Hh I ('II
e·a.~. )r = a:
i!IJ
(:;), = ah Jy
( !Or) h> r akuht,· hv 111 11
. ·
or ... With I <'Si
.
l<' ' I I
' . ~ n I H'
r
1 · .h ' " t tH· p.utl.\1 d,. .,, ,,11' •.,
'' " 1H\1IIph,·.lt
.
"J'lWil,·~,l \ 'tl \1 Jdllt .l h'' J'•"'11 ' ,Ulo
I~
Directional Derivatives and the Gradient Vector SECTION 13.8 907
Directional De rivatives
Recall that the first-order partial deriva ti\•es of the function l = [(x, y) nrc defined
to be
r l' f(x + Jr. y)- f <x. y) rc ) ,. j(x .y+lr)-f(x,y)
1 ,(:r. y) = tm nn d 1 r x . y ~ tm
h-0 1I h- 0 "
wherever these limits exist. If we write x = (x. y ), then these partial derivatives may
be described a bit mo re concisely in the form
. /(x + /rl) - f(x) _ . /(x + /rj ) - / (X)
);
'
(X) = ltm
h- 0
I
I
• f 1 (x) - 11m ( 1)
h-0 "
where i =(I, 0) and j = (0. I ) ns usual. Thus/. and / 1 re present rates of change of z
with respect to distance in the directions of the unit vectors i a nd j . We get the
dcfmition of the directional derivative upon replacing i or j in (1) with an arbitrary
specified unit vector n .
The function f in Eq. (2) can ben function of two o r three o r more variables.
Comparing Eqs. (I ) and (2~. we see tha t the partial derivatives of a function of two
va riables x andy can be wntten as
fx(x. y) =Daf(x. y) and f 1(x, y) =Dj[(x. y).
908 CHAPTER 13 Partial Diffcrcnti31ion
1lltl~ f, and [, arc. indeed. the directional deriv:!livcs off i~ the directions of the
unit vectors i and j. Similarly. if f is a functio n o f the three vanablcs x. >'·and z. then
its panial dcnvati\'es
f , = Di{. f1 = DJI. and /: = Dt f
arc the dr rectional de rivati,·es of fin the directions of the three standard unit vectors
Q ,,' =
i =(I. fl. f) • j = o. 1. ().and k (0. 0. I} in space.
The lunit in Eq. ( 2) " ould still make scn' e if u \\ere not a unit ,·ector. n ut the
mcanrn~ uf thrcctional dc rivati-·es is easiest to und~ r;t and "hc.: n u is a unit vector.
,-?':/ and thi' is " hY " c define D. f tx ) only " he n 111 =I. In rig. 13.8.2 the unit vector u
pnrnts rn the drrection from the fi, cd poin t P (" ith pO"it ion ,·c:ctor x) to the point Q
---,
(\\ilh rn~iti nn vector ~ - J:u ). The n
• L\W ::: J( Q) - f(/') =/( X+ ilu)- / (.,.)
FIGURE 13.8.2 The flrll \tep in i~ the increme nt in_!l:e functiOn VJ JUC IV = J(.t, _1'. =) from thC point (' \ 0 th e poin t Q.
computing the rJte of change of
f(x, y, z) in the direction of the H we write t:H =l l'QI = h for the di-;tancc from J' to Q. thc.: n the quotient
unit vector u. [ ( Ql- [ ( }') / ( X + IJu)- [(X)
-= =
D.s ll'Qi "
is the average rau· of change of IV with respect to distance from ['to Q. It is therefore
natural to regard the limit
df1 l
- = D./(P).
IS r
o.r_simpl)' .d"'!tfs
•' •as in Eq
. · (3) · fo
.· r th e ·mstantaneous r.Hc of change of the function
" - f (.r. >· ~J at the pomt 1'. "''h respect to distances in the direction of the unit
vector u.
theorem. 0
e constants as lr -+ 0. This proves the follo" inf
Directional Derivatives and the Gradient Vector SECTION 13.8 909
If the unit vector u makes the counterclockwise angle 0 wi th the positive x-axis (as
in r:i g. 13.8.3). the n u =(cos O. sin O) . so Eq. (6) takes the form
Jw ihv
(6)
EXAMPLE 1 Suppose that the temperature (in d egrees Celsius) a t the point (x. y )
near a n airport is give n by
I
f (x. y) = 180 (7400- 4x - 9y- (0.03)xy]
(with distances x and y measured in kilometers). Suppose that your aircraft takes
off fro m this airport at the location P (2{Kl. 200) and heads northeast in th e directio n
specified by the vector,. = (3. 4). What initial rate of change o f te mperature will you
obse rve?
Solution Decause vis not a unit vector, we must first repl ace it with the unit vector u
having the same direction:.--
,. (3, 4) / 3 4)
u = 1v1 = J 32 + 4 2 = \ 5· 5 ·
Now we may use the formula in (6), which yields
"fbis insta nta neous rate of change - 0.1 oc fkm means that yo u will observe initially a
decrease o r 0.1oc in tempe rature per kilometer traveled. •
EX AMPLE 2 If f <x. y. ~~ = F + sin x~ + t·"·. then the second formu la in (10) gi\·es
V f(x. y. ~l ==(~cosx ~ + yp'!'Ji + (~ +.r«'·'!'lj + (y + xcosx ~)k.
1l1c value of this gradien t vc:ctur :11 the poi nt (0. 7. 31 is
V[(O. 7. 3) = (3. I + 7. l )i T (3 + (). l )j + (7 + 0. l )k = ! Oi + 3j + 7k. •
The chai n rule has a similar gradient vector form. For instance. suppose th:lt the
differen tiab le vector-valued function
r(l) =x(l ) i + ,r(r)j + ~(y)k
is the position vector of a curve in /l 3 and that f< x. y. : ) is a different iable function.
Then the composition
[ (r (r)) = j (x (r ). y(r ) . : (1))
is
toa differentiable
is function of r. and its (ordin ·:~ry)
. chain
• -ruled c n\'att\'C
· · wtt · h respcc 1
1
(with tempera ture in d egrees Celsius and d ist a nce in k ilometers) has dircrtion:tl
tlcri vu tivc '
dw •c
- = D. f(l'> = -0.1 -
ds km
at the point P (21Xl. 200) in the direction of the unit wct<~r u = ( ~. ~ ). If a pbne dcp:trts
fro m a n airpQrt a t /' and fl ies in the direction u \\ ith speed ,. = ;ls) lr = 5 km 1min. th c n
Eq. ( I.I) g ives
dw = dw . tis =(-o
.l km 1:~1 )=-O
'C) (s mm .Stmn
·~ .
dt ds dt
Thus an initi11l ra te of decrease o f a h al f·degree of tcmpc:rn turc: per minute: is ob:scrvcd .
•
EXAMPLE 4 Now suppos~ that the temperature function of Exnmplc 3 is replaced
with
"' = f (x. y. ~~ = !
1 0
(7.100- 4.:r - 9y- (0.0.3)xy) - 2=.
Solution The unit vector in the directio n of the given ' '<'Ctor (3. -l. -I~) is
V f(x. y. ~) =-
1 ~(-l + (0.03)y)i- 1 ~0 (? + (0.03).r)j - 2k
has the value
tO 15
Vf( /') "'- - I - - j - .,,.
180 ISO . ..
at the in itin.l posit ion P(100. 200. 5) o f th~ h:1wk. lllc:rc.-forc the ha" \. 's initbl rnt~ of
chang~ o f t·~mpe rature with respect to distance is
~= D. f(/') = V f(/' ) · u
tis
= (-~)
JRO
( ~)
13
+ (- ~)
11\tl
(.:.)
D
+ (-2)(-12)=
1:1
-l7
26 ~
•c
l .SOS - .
l.:m
It\ tpccd il d r{dt - 3 kmlmin. so the time r:ltc: o r change of temper Mute.- c:xpc: ric.-n~d
by the hawk is
dw dw dr (
- "'- · - = •c ) ( km ) •c
1.808- 3 - -. =5A2-l - .
dr dJ dr km mtn min
Thus the hawk initi31ly gets wtrmcr by alm~t 5 .5 degrees per minute: at it dl\·c1
toward the: ground. •
J
9 12 CHAPTER 13 Partial Diflcrent iation
so the value of the directional derivat ive.: in this direct io n is ..:qual to the le ngth of the
gradient vector. l l1is argum ent establishes th e fo llowing res ult.
ll1Us th e gradien t vecto r \1 f po ints in the d irectio n in which the fu n ction fin ·
crm scs the mosr rapidly, and it.1· /,·n~-:th is the rate of in crease of f ( witlr resp~ct to
rlistaiiC<') in that dir~ction. For instanct:, if th e function f gives t he temperature in
space. then the grad ient vector \1 / ( P) points in the direc tion in which a hawk at P
should initi ally fly to get war mer the fastt:st.
""/( !')
v =--·-
10 .
180
IS
- j -2k
180
of the gradi ent vector or f at the poi nt /'(200 200 S .
value · · · ). By TI1corem 2, the max1mum
tlw
- 1 =D,.. [( Pl= I\1/( Pli=
IS
V(-~)
180 -,.
2
, ( IS )
2
+ (- 2)2 ~ 2.0025
- 180
(•C/km) of th e directional derivative of I t p . .
a ts attamed with the unit vector
rn - V / (/') "" I ( 10 15 .
- (\1/(1')1 ~ UXi25 - ~ 1 - - j _ 2k)= -lOt - l5j - 360k
180 11 0 360 45 .
Titc speed of the hawk is tis /tit - 3 ktn/ . ·
·
cxpcncnced by the hawk is - mtn, so th e Itme rate o r change of temperature•
·
dw tlw cis ( •c
dl = ds . tit ~ 2.002s -k ) (3 k~ ) =6.0075 ·c
m mtn · ·
111111
Thus the hawk ini1ially gets warmer by sli h
the ground. g tl y more 1han 6 • cJmin as it dives townrd
-
s
Firure 13JI.5 iho-ol the third-<juadran t \ector -JOi - 15j thlt represents the
r
ha11.l:'< (hori7ontalj comrJn he:~ding oi :r- tan - 1( 1:::: 2J6.JI ' (abou t :"6.31 so uth
of "' c~t ) . lhc ha11. ( 1~ desunJm2 }60 mtt~rs vertielllv for C\ a\' Jw: ...
15: :::: 1!\.021\
n . - . .
. leter\ It 0 1 e~ ho ri70ntalh I fence its am!Je of descent (mc:lSUr<..'J from th e ho rizon Ia))
"ahout t an-I r 3~l ' l\(J2P, 1 ::: i .l3' . - +
FIGURl 1l.8.S l he d1vlng h~N'r.'i "'he re the funct ion F i\ continuolUiv d1!fercnti3l>le. The implicit fwu:tion tlrl'nrt'm
compall heading. MM~d in Section 13.7 (1heorcm 3 there\ tmrhc< tlw. nc;u :1ny poi nt I' whe re the
par ll al d cri,·ati'c ;, { fit: t< l'•)n7ero. Eq t Ito) define< : tmrhcitly as a continuously
dtllcren t table functtnn f nf .r and , Thu< t!:~ trlph f t r . >. : 1= 0 n•incidc>-nc:tr
/'- with the ~urfa•e : = /1 • ' '· St;:u!Jrl).thc j:f:!ph ,)( Eq (16\ ('(lin.:nk~ "ith t he
surf:tcc uf the form , - s,:l • : 1 ne.u an~ pomt "'here ,1 f 1 t is non1cm. :~nd " ith 3
\Ur f.tCe } ="' t . ~ I ncar an~ ro•nt "'here l F ;;, i~ m>nrc ro In <hurt. the !!r:-tph of
F ( A. ). ::I "' 0 lool.\ hlc 3 SUf f.ICC near an\ romt r ~I "' hteh ~F(rl -1 0 (~o th:\1 :II
lca~t nne of the par11~l dcrJ, at l\ c< ofF •~ non1cro) 111c nc~t theorem impl ies tha i
the p.r~d•cnt ,·ector 'V I ( /'1 i< then normal to the ~urfacc f (.r . y. : 1= 0 ntth e po int /'.
~
I
r,) VFCI'0 1 THEOREM 3 Gradie nt Vecto r as No rmal Vector
f ' ( l• • ()•0 Suppo<c that F ( t . •v. : l t< con linuou~l~ d• ffcrentt~hlc nnd let / b( . ) \1 . :ol be: a
rtrl .
1, ~
,
)
potnt of the paph of the t'IJUatton f l.1 . ) . ~I= 0 at "'hich V f ( Pol ;i 0. If r(l) i~ :t
differentiable cur\'C on this surface with r(t~ l = ( r.1. )\1. :o) and r'( IJ ) -# 0, then
V f(Po) · r' Cro) = 0. (17)
'· . l ltt.ts V F( /'0 ) is perpendicular 10 the tangent \'ector r'(l0 ), ns indicated in Fig. 13.8.6.
fiGURE 1l.8.6 The gradient
vector V F II normal to every
curve in the \ UrfJce f ( • . y, z) = 0. 1'/UJOI: ll1e stateme nt th at r(r) lies on the surface F(x. y. : ) =0 implies that
F(r(r)) = 0 fo r ali t. Hence
1£ we write the explicit surface equation:= f (x, )') in the form F(x, y. 4) = f(x. y)-
z = O. then
ar 1+ ar1+ ark = at 1+ at 1-k.
a.r ily ill il.r ay
lllus Eq. (IS) agree s with the definition of a normal vecto rthat we ga\'Cin Section 13.4
(Eq. (13) there). . .
J( the tangent vecto r T to a curve IS normal to t he vector n at the pomt P, then
T lies in the plane through P that is normal to n. If the function F is continuously
differentiable. we therefore d~fine the tangent plane to the surface f(x. y. d = 0 at
u point P(a, b. c) :tt which V f( P) 'F 0 to be: the plane through P that has the normal
914 CHAPTER 13 Partial Differentiation
F.r(a. b. c)(x- a)+ F_. (n . b. c)(y- b)+ F,(n . b. c)(: - c) =0. (19)
EXAMPLE 6 Wri te a n equ:l!ion of the plane t:mgent to the ell ipsoid 2.r: + -ly: +
z2 = 45 at the point (2. -.3. - 1).
Solution If we write
then F(x. y. : ) = 0 is an equation of the ellipsoid. ll!Us. by ~l cor.: m.3. a vector nom1JI
to the ellipsoidal surface at (.r. y. :) is '\F (x. y. :>= (4.r.liy. 2: ). so
is normal to the ellipso id at (2. -3. -1 ). Equation ( 19} then gives the answer in the
form
2-l(y + .3 ) - 2(: + I l =0:
7 .• S(x - 2) -
.
that is.-lx - l 2y- :=-15.
•
/ If F and G are continuously d ifferenti able functi ons of three vari:Jhh:s. th~n
/
the intersectio n of the surfaces
I
I
F(x . y. : ) =0 and G(x. y . : ) = 0 (20)
will generally b.: some sort of curve C in space. \ lore pn:cisely. if P is a point of C
/
v where the two gradient v.:ctors '\F( P ) :uH.l '\G(I') arc not collinear. th en a !!C:ner:tl
/
multivariable ve rsion of the implici t functionth.:orc:m implies th:ll ncar /'til<' equ:t·
tions in (20) can be "solwd for two of the: va ri:lbks in terms of thl' third." lllis ntl':ll1~
FIGURE 13.8.7 VF x VG is that the two equations implicitly defi ne ei ther .r and y a;; fun.:tions of :. l>r ." ami :
tangent to the curve C of
Intersection. as functions of .r. or x a nd: as functions of y. In any .:ven t. C is a s nh>oth curw tlllt
passes through P. Dcca us.: this curve lies o n bo th surfaces. it s tam:cnt vt'ctor at I' is
perpendicular to both their norma l \'CCto rs vF( P) and v G( P). It follows that th('
vector
T = v F ( P) x v G(P)
is tangent a t P to the curve C of intersection of the two surfnc.:s F(x. ,., : ) = 0 anJ
G(x. y. z) =0. (See Fig. 13.8.7.) ·
H~nce .a vector tangent at P to the curve or inte~ection or the paraboloid and the
e lhpsotd is
j k
T=Vfx 'VG= 2 - 2 -1 = (- 14,-12.-.l).
J -6 .l
A slightly simp ler vector parallel to T is n = (7. 6. 2). and n is also normal to the
desired plane through {1. - I. 2). Th~ refore an equation or the p lane is
l 7(x - I ) ~ 6(y ~ I ) + 2(: - 2) = 0:
EXAMPLE 8 Write an equa tion of the line tangent at th e point (1. 2) to the
rolium o r Descartes with equa tion F<x. y) =2'1'3 + 2r.l- 9xy=0. (Sec Fig. 13.8.10.)
So a vector normal to the foli um at (I. 2) is vf(l . 2) = -121 + 15j. Hence the
FIGURE 13.8.10 The folium and
tangen t line h as equation -12(x - I ) + 15(y - 2) =0. Simplified, this is 4x -
its tangent (Example 8). 5y + 6=0. •
~ 13.8 PROBLEMS
In l'wblem.s 1 through JO, find tlrt gradit'nt vector V f at tht 6. f(x.y.z) = Jx 2 + y2 + z2 : 1'(12.3,4)
indicatt'd point P.
7. ftx. y. z) = t'' sin y + t' 1 sin z + e' sin x; P(O, 0, 0)
I. /(x. y) = 3x- 7y: P(17, 39)
2. /(x. y) =3x2 - Sy; P(2. -3) 8. j(x, y, Z) c x2 - 3yz + r; P(2,1, 0)
3. /(x. y) = exp( -x 2 - i>: P(O. 0) 9. f(x, y, Z) = 2./Xfl; P(3, -4. -3)
4. /(x. y) = sin ~ lfXy; P (3. -I)
10. f<x.y.z) = (2..r -3y+5d; P(-5.1.3)
S. f<x. y, zJ = 1- i; P(l7. 3, 2)
9 16 CHAPTER 13 Partial O:fferenliation
19. /(.t , y. ~~ = e''': /'(4. U, - 3). v = j - k (Ill <kcre~< Cd-iu- 1. Fi::J th.: r Jt: ,,r
chJngc (i:t cl:f:~es
Ccl<au< l'<'r l.o h1m~l~rl oi t~nlf'<'l.llUI~ a: the roin t PI!.::
211. f<x. y. ~~ = J1n - .r 1 - >J - z2: I'll. 1. - 21. v = (3. 4. -12) =
in th~ dnc~t1lln C'f th~' 't..'\Lnr ' i - : j - : k.
In /'rob/cm.f 2/rhmu~:lo 2.~. jim/ rhe m n r mwm tlort'Cltllnlll drr1111· ~5. Suppo'c th ..lt tht! fu~.:: H,,n
til·.: off or P aml rhe t!trct'lion in wh ich 11 occurs. h = [1 t . \, ; I = J(l - I I - (:- y:
21. /(.r, y) = 2.r 1 + 3t)' + 4); : / '(1 , 1)
of l'rot-:cm .w Clle< th" t<tr.;-.=r~tu:c J tthc p..>int ls. _1. : oc!
21. [(.r. y) = arc~an(~): /'(2, -3) srace. l l..nat- an th!< prct-!"m ·"" an l.iil>mctcrs. cl~!=-:=
Cei<•U"- and m.:tutK) \\'b tumc rate of chan):c (in C!f.:~
2J. / (x,y) = ln (.r1 + y2 ): /'(3, 4 ) Celsou< rcr minUl~ ) "'II 3 ha"'k or<cn c J < it tli;!S t~ct'~;~
P(l . 2. Jl at a Sf'<'Cd o! : k m min. he.ldmJ; dtr~ctly to,. lrJ
2-l. f <x. y l = sin (3.r - 4y): /'(rr/ 3.n / 4) the poin t Q,J, ~ . ~ ~~
25. /(.r. y. z) = 3.r + y! + 4:2: /'(1,5. -2)
1
.U.. Suppose that the tc mper3turc" (in degrees Cc:lsius) atth!
21\. f (.r. y. z) = cxp(.r - y- :); /' (5. 2. 3) poin t (.r . .') i< !!"""by
w c fir . .' I = Ill - 10.003lr: - tO (X}.l).'; ·
27. / (.r, }'. ~) = ~: /'(2. 2 . 2)
In "' hat d orcction u s!loul.l a t>umhk!>cc at the l'l' int c.:.l. _;,
Ul. f(.r, y. ~) = J2.r+ 4•· +6~: 1'<7.5.5) initially fl~ in order IO get "'JmtCf the l'!ll~t ~ui:lh ~ fi:;.!
In ProhJ.•ms 29 rh mu~h .J.I, tt.fe the normal graditnt lt'Ctor to t ~c darcctional dcril ati,·e D. ftJII, ~)J in thi> ''l':ir:1;l .!im:·
tum u.
wrirr an rquntion (If thr lmr (or plane) tangemro rhe Jli•·rn cmw
(or s mfiu·e) or the J:il'<'n p nim 1'. .17. Sup!X>~c tha t the temf'<:rature II· (in dcl!rccs Ccl-;i u.<) atth~
1 1 pomt (.t. y, ~~in space is ~iven hy •
2?. cxp(25- .r - y ) = I; /'(3. 4)
;1(1. 2.rl + :l)) = 35; 1'(2. 3) II' = 50+ xy~.
Jl. x' T.ry+ / = 19: /'(2. -3) (a) Find the ra te of change of tcmf'<'r:uu rc ,.ith re<J'C'-'1 I''
d asta ncc a t the point P (3. .!. 11 in the d irc.:t i,,n ,,r t!lc •c:·
32. 3x1 + 4y: + 5:1 = 73: 1'(2. 2. 3) to r 1 _= (I • .,- · ...~ ) · (Th c u n.ts
. o ( th,un.:c m ' f'.J,'t" 2:-(' !'c-rt l
JJ. x''' + y 113
+ ~Ill a I; 1'(1. - 1.1) (h) Fand the ma• ir.t31 d irccllonal Jct i\ Jtl\c EJ.II' 3: t~(
~. x y ;;;+x= - 2y + 2 - 14; 1'(5. - 2.J) rx>mt PC3. 4 . I l 3nd the d~rc~tiun u in " hach that r.~:nun::a>
OCCUIO.
The properties ofgrntl:mr •·r rrors lisrt•tl in /'rob/ems J.S through
J Hexlzihit rlze ci<m: mwlo~y bttn·t'<'ll the gradimr opaoror V and 48. Supro<c that the temperature (in dq~rcc< Celsius) at the
pomt (x · )'· ·)
' in s pace ·as £1l
· cn by the fllrmub
th~ sin}:lc.~•'-'tlfi"bh• tlt•rn·ative opt:rotor D. \'t·rif.v each. a.tSiuni11~:
tlzat a and I> Of<' CUIIj fUIItS lllllltlzlll " am/ t• art drff~rellliub/e
frmcrions of.r antl y . The units of d ' <t •·
~~' = IOC-x1 -
., ; -.
_ .:
l
!Cr.)')=
Directional Derivatives and the Gradient Vecto r SECTION 13.8 917
(~)\\"rile :.n cqua1ion (in _ •h~ form <=ax+ by+ c) of SiiC"C' Of
1hc p~:me 1.1n~cnt 10 I he h11l"d~ a1 I he po im P (2, 1. OA). :=/l t.)')
(b) Usc ' fl - . l l l o appmxmmc Ihe ahiludc of 1h • h'll
. '"'~ . _ Q J ,
3 t-o,·c 1he po m1 ' - ·• ·
c I
'.l m lhc .n-planc. Compare your 1n,/1•. yl
rtsu1t \\ lth the :IC"tual3hltude :u this po int. _____).7_____{_!
~- fi nd an cqu.1ti0n for lhc p b nc 1>ngcn1 10 1hc l':traboloid
' .. ... • t • I I
: = -t· - _.. yo· 3nu, Slll\U t:.tn<:ously, p3ratl~l tO t he rt:me I
~x- 3y - .: = 10. PC<11 ._
I ___U _ __
~I. TI>c "'nc ' "' h <'qual icm : : = x: + )~ and 1hc pb nc wilh
FIC.URE 13.8.13 The etoss section of the part of
c:qu:Hi''" :._, -+ .:-.,\ ... J: + ~ ::: 0 intersect in an cll ifKe. \\'rite
the graph abov~ u (Problems 56 through 61 ).
Jn cqu:lll<'n of t h~ r l.me n nrm:ll to 1his ellipse .al l he point
P !~ . .:. - ~ ~ ( Fi~. 1.' !'.!!)
57. Yo u are Slanding a1 the point ( -1 00. - 100. 430) on ll>e hill
~!. It ~~ :1pp.u~nt frnm !!~onu:t~· that the h ighest and lo"c~t of Problem 56. In what dircclion ( tha t is. with what corn·
>'" nts ,,( the dilp>C of Problem 51 are th<1se pooints where p .1 S\ headi ng) sh<)Uid you proceed in order to climb the- most
ns t:ln~cnt line is ho rizontal. Find thO"-l" points. s1eeply' AI wh>t angle fro m the h o rizontal will yo u initiolly
be climbi ng?
~..\ Sh~v. that the :r~.pherc x= + y: + :? = , : and th~ cone
::' = ~: •: - tr _~: arc ortho~"""l (that is, have pcrpcndic- 5H.. Repeat Problem 56, but no w yo u arc standing a l the po inl
ubr t:' n~cnt pb nc-s) :H C\cry point o f their rin terscctio n /'(100. 100. 500) o n the h ill described by
(Fig. l~.lU : ). 1000
: = l .;. (().()()()(lJJx'.;. (0.00007Jy' ·
59. Repeat Problem 57. except begin at the po inl
/'( 100. 100. 500) o f Ihe hill of Problem 58.
60. You arc stand ing a t the poinl (30. 20. 5) on a hill " i th t he
shnpe o f the surface
\\'e cou ld in principle try tO solve thi ~ co n~trai nt eq uation for y = ¢ (x) and th e n max-
imize o r minim ize the singk·,·aria ble funct ion /(.r. ¢(x)) by th ..: s tand;Hd method of
finding its critic~! po ints. But " hat if it i ~ impractica l or impossible to so lve cq. (1)
explicitly fo r )' 111 terms of x? An al ternative approach t hat does not require that
we first solve this equation is the mcth url uf lagrange multiplie rs. It is named
fo r its tli ~cu,·~rc!r. the ltal_ian-horn French mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange
{1731'>-ISIJ). l11e method tS ba>cJ un TI1cm.: •ll 1.
The M ethod
Let's h ·
see w at steps we should follow to solv
method of Lagrange multipliers. First we eda p~oble':" by using Th eorem 1-the
nee to tdentlfy a quantity z = /(.t, )')to
- l agra"'}e "-' v'l ;:>1nand Cons:r4 ~ Opt:rriz~tio., S~(TlO.'J l3 .9
919
be ma"m11ed " ' mtn tm,zcd, tJb;~tt to the co n.stramt _r ex,) I= 0. Then Eq. ( 1) ;,nd
the tv. 0 \CJiar comronc:nt1 of Eq. (:!) ~i!ld thr~c: c:qu.ltion<:
(I)
~( t . )I"' 0.
(2ll)
f,l:c ••' l= ;.g, C:c .)l. and
(lh)
f,(x . _\) = ;.~,>, (.r, }l.
Thu "'C h;nc: tl:ree cqu:llt'ln< t!ut v.e can al!~mp to 5-0hc for the three unkno"ns
r · '. Jnd ;__ The rornt< 1t . •' t thlt "'C tir:J ( a«um i~ ~ th.lt our dft>rt c~re ;;uccc:;.<ful) :l rc
tl.c onh l""'th!~ l•>::!'tt'~< f, • t:.~ n:rer.u ,,f ' <ul-rc:t t,, th: C<':l•tr .unt ' ' '. ·' l = 0.
llt< ·""'O-tl~d qJu•• of,. cJI ed l ..11:r•nt~ nt ~lripli~r-. m.l< 1....- rc<c.1kJ ·''"ell hu t
often are not of mu.h rntere<l Ftr:ll:\. "'C •.Jku!Jtc th: <.Jiuc ': 1 , 'I Jt c:1ch ,,(the
'01Ul1tUl J"CUOh f t \ ) 10 t•rJer IO 1Jenit!\ ll' r':':.l,lm!Jr:l anJ m intntUm V:l)UC:'-.
\\ c mu't hc.or on mmJ the Jo!,hu,·n·.ll p<><<lntlll' th.lt the m.ntnHtont>r minimum
(or 1-'th)of {111.1\ o...:,ur at.l r->:nt ,.here~. 1 • • •=ll = l.',lt.\l. lllc Ll~r~nj;C mul·
ttphtl meth•~! nl\ htl to 1 >.:lte thc'e e~ccrti<"n~l r<'tnl<.. 1-ut the ~ c.m u'uall~ he
rcCO)'nllcd :1\ J"'l:lt\ "her ~ thr p 1ph of~ ~ I , _I ) : (l (,II" Ill I'<' :1 \ rlll><lth l' lH\'C,
=
Solutio n \\'c need tn mtntmue the dl\tancc tf "r,~ from t he ori~tin of a point
/'( \. 11 ••n the cur' c A." "" 1. ll ut the alfenr.l r< ~rmpler if in< tcatl ~<c nrinimilc the
Because
ag as •
a[ = 4y. af = 4x
ax ay
and
ax = 2x. -ay ==~'>'·
-
= onor y
It is clear I hat neither x =0 gives the m:tximum area . so we can solve these
two mult iplie r equations for
2y X
-='- =-.
X 2y
Thus x= = 4y: at t he desired maximum. Becau<e x 2 + ..ty2 = ..\, it f?llows _that x= =
.l y2 = 2. Because we seek (as in Fig. 13.9.3) a first-quadr:mt solution po_mt (x. y).
we conclude that x = ./2. y = 11./i. gives the maxi mum pos<iblc cross-secuonal area
11.,., = 4(./i.)(l j ./i.) = 4 ft2 of a ~cetungul:tr beam cut from the elliptica l_log. Note
that this maximum area o f ~ [ t· is about ~ % of the total cross-sectional area
A= :w b = 2;rft 2 of the original log. •
REMARK =
If we consider all four quadrants. then the condi lion x 2 4y2 = 2 yields
the four points ( ../2. 1/ ../2). (-../2. 1/ ../2). (-.Ji. -1 /.Ji). and ( .Ji. - 1/ ../2). The
2
function f(x , yl = -lxy in Eq. (5) au ains its maximum value + 4 on the ellipse .t -"
4y2 = 4 at the first and third of these po ints and it s m inimum value - 4 at the second
and fourth points. Th e Lagrnngc multiplier m ethod t hus locates all o f the globll ex-
trema of f(.r . y) on the cll ip)e.
for some '\Calar J.. This \'C:Ctor equ:nion correspor.ds to three sc:~lar equat ions. To find
the po\\iblc locations o f the ex trema off su!lject to the constraint g." e c:1n :1ttempt
fiGURE 13.9.4 l he natural
~raloution of Theorem 1 hold\
t o ~oh c: srmultaneousl~ the four equl::om
101 func1Joru olthrct variab'~'
g(.r. y. : ) = 0. (7)
for the four unkno,.nu. y. : . and J.. lf su~es<ful. "c then e\Jiu:\le /(.r. y . : I :11 each
of the 'oluuon pornt\ (;r ..'. : 1 to ~c: at "'hrch rt 3llltns rt< ma~imum and minimum
\':tluc ... I n analogy to the: l\lo n·drmen<ional c:t<e. "'C al<o rhc:ck roin ts ~~which the
~urfacc !((X. y. :1 =n l~il' to I'C <moot h. Th u< the L.ngr~n)!C multiplier me thod wit h
one cnn~t r~int i' e"cntially the •~me in drmc:Mio n three a< in dimcmion two.
EXAMPLE 3 l·i nll the m~xirmrm volume of a rcct:tn!lul~r bo~ inscrihc:d in the
c llip~oill r 2/n: + )~//J1 + :?/<"l c I with iLS f~ccs parallel to the coordinn tc planes
(Fig. 13.•).5).
Solution Let l'(.r. y. :) be the vencx of the hn~ that lies in rhc lint oct~nt (whe re .r,
~·. n nd: nrc all po~ith•c). We want to m:nimitc t he \'Oiume V(z. y. :I = lhy: subject
to the consrraint
xl \ .1 :!-
g (.r. y. :) =--;
a· + ·,,..
.... + -;
c-
- I=0
fiGURE 13.9.S A rectangul.u Equa tions (!\a). (Sb). and (Sc) give
2• x 2y x 21 bo • in\ crib~d in JO 2J.x 2AI· 2>.:
til p10<d with \crniJ• c• o, b, and c. a.._: .
Sy.:= -a•, . 8.t~ = IT 8..t"\' = - •.
• C'"
Tht whol~ bo• I\ d etermined by
1ts fir\t·octant verte• P(K, y, 1). !'an of the :~rt of marhcmatics lies in pau,ing for a momenr to lind nn cleg:mt
way to solve n problem rather rhan rushing in headlnn{: wi th brut e force methods.
Here. if we multiply the first equation by .r, the second by y. and the third by:. we
find thnt
.r-' r. '
2). -; = 21...., = 2J. ~' =!Uy:.
-
a- rr c·
Now .l. ..= 0 because (:tt m:lximum volume) .r. y. and ~ are nonzero. We conclude that
xl yl £1
al = tr = c 2 ·
1llc sum of the lnst three expressions is I, because that is precisely the construint
condition in this problem. Thus each of these three expressions is equal to All !·
three (lf x. y. and: are posirivc. :1nd therefore
a h c
x "" ../3. y= ../3. :1nd t = ../3.
n 1ercforc. the box of maximum \'Oiume has \'Oiume
8
v = v"' .. = 3../3 abc.
9 22 CHAPTER 13 Pa rtia l Diffe rentiation
Note th at this a nswer is d imensionally correct- t he prod u~t o~ the thre; lengths a.
b. and c vie lds a volume. But beca use the vo lume of the el hps01d IS V == 3;rabc, and
I8/C 3J3j ]/ (4:r / 3) = 2/ (.T J3> "" 0.37. it follows t ha t the ma xi~1 al box occupies only
about 37% of the vo lume of the circumscribed e ll ipso1d. Cons 1de nng the M % result
in Exam ple 2. would you consider t his result pla usible. o r surprising? +
OUTI.It\'H OF l 'flOOF 13y an appropria te ve rsion of the imp lici t fu nction thco·
rem. t he curve C of intersection o f the two surfaces ( Fig. 13.9.6) m ay be represe nted
nca r f> by a pa rarnctri.£.£urve r (t ) wit h nonze ro tangen l vecto r r' (t ) . Le t tobe the value
of r such that r (tol == 0 / ' . We comp ute t he deriva ti ves at to of th e composite functions
/ (r (t )), g( r (f)) , and h (r (t ) ). W e find-e xact ly as in the proo f o f l11eore m ! - that
c
-- -
V / ( P ) · r'(to) =O. V,r;( P) ·r'(ro)= O. a nd Vh{P ) · r'(to) =O.
l' ..;· These t hree equation' imply tha t all t hree gr adie nt vectors arc pe rpendicular to
the curve Cat P and thus that they all lie in a single plane, th e plane normal to the
FICURE 13.9.6 The relation curve Cat the poin t P. -
between the g radient vectors in
the proof of Theorem 2. . N_o w Vg( P ) and;:'" <P ) arc no nzero and no npara ll el, so v f(f' ) is the sum of its
proJections onto V;:C I ) and Vh ( /') . (S ee Problem 65 o f Sectio n 12.2.) A s ill ustrated
in Fig. 13.9.7. this fact implies Eq. ( 10). -<
. I ~ exa mples we rrefcr to avoid subscripts hy writing 1. a nd~~ for the Lagrange
muh oploc rs l , lind ;..,- on the stat ement of ·n 1·•or•'
~ ' nl 2. ·111e cq ua t1·o ns m
· (9 ) and the
three sc;1lar co mpo ne nts o f the vecto r c quat 1·,, 11 1·n I JQ) h · . · h • "1vc
. . • , t en gtvc n sc to 1 c "
simultaneous e quau ons
!,'IX , y. Z) =0 , (9a)
h (.r. y. : l = 0. (9b)
t1
Lag·a"<,jt Mu•::pr ~"~ a'ld Con~tra'~ 0ptl"nild'!lo.1 SECTION 13.9 9 23
EXAMPLE4 Th I ••.
.
c II 'r'c (Fi~ n oS) fi t! h ·.
= .
=
e I' 30t: .r .._ ,. - : 1:! int~~ccts the p..ual:x>loid : .r + .-- m :tn
<- • · ·• · In t e h1~he~t anJ lo"'c~: rom t ~ on th1< clhpsc.
Solution The hc1ght of t he pomt f.t. ' · : ) LS :. so "'C \\;!nt t<) finJ the n1.1~imum nnd
mmunum 1aluc' of ·
(1~h)
nnd
=j - IL ( 1~cl
If / I I\ ere 7Ct o. then Eq.( l.!a ) \\ ould imply tha t ~. = 0. \\ hich contradicts cq. ( 1-lc).
lienee 1• 1' O.nnt! thc rcrorc che cq u3tron<
=
11ws we oht ain the two solut ions .r = - 3 and .r 2. Because y .r and : 2.r2 . the = =
co rresponding points of the ellipse are r. (2. 2. SJ and /',:( -3. -3. 18). It's clear which
is th e lowest and" hich is the highest. +
is
(16)
=
where we write P (XJ • .rz•.... .r"). This condition 110\ds under the assumptions
that the functions f. g,, gz . • ..• and gk arc continuously differentiable ncar the op·
timal point r.
and that-in the language of linear algebra-tho: gradient vectors
l
924 CHAPTER 13 Partial Differentiation
l . f<x: y ) attains a minimum value but no maximum value s ubj ect to the co n-
str:u nt g(x. y) 0. =
2. f (x . )') attains neither a maximum value no r a mi nimum value subject to the
cons tr:unt g (x . y) = 0.
3. f<:r • .") att:lins its maximum value subject to the constra int g(x . 1·) = 0 at a
~an t p 1.\'herc V f( P ) 'I 'A V g( P) fo r a ny 'A . ( In view of Thcore~ I how is
thas poss1blc?) ·
~>
y
•
FIGURE 13.9.11 A right FIGURE 13.9. 12 A general
tri4ngle with fixed perimeter triangle with fixed perimeter
P (Problem 47). P (Problem 48).
FIGURE 13 .9.9 A tri4ngle
inscribed In a circle (Problem 37).
48. Figure 13.<>.12 shows a general tri:onglc with sides .r, y, and l
~ Find the points on the rutatcJ ellipse x: + xy + f = 3 thnt and fixed pen meter /'. Mnimitc its a rea
arc closest to and farthest (rom the origin. (Suggestio11:
Write the Lagrange multiplier equations in the form A= / (:r.y.z. a) = j ry sina
for 1 :5 i ;:;; 11 and apply the res ult in pnrt (a) to deduce the
arithmetic·geomNric m en n Inequality
FIGURE 13.9.13 The
inscribed hexagon a1 +a: + · · · +a.
of Problem 49. ..,.•/a 1a,• · · · a,. S
- II
SO. Whe n the he xagon of Fi g. 13.9.13 is rotated arou nd the 6.\. Figure 13.9.15 sho"s a moa t of wid th a = 10ft. filled with
y -axis, it generates a solid of rc,·o lutio n cnns1.tin~: nf a al~gator"- and bo unded on each s idt: by a wall of height
cylinde r and two cones (f·ig. 13.9. 1~). Wha t radiu~ and b = 6 ft. Sold ie rs pl a n to bridge this moat hy scaling a
cylinder he ight maxi mize the ' o lumc o f th1s solid'? l:ldde r pl:1cc:d :lCrO"" the nc.uc r '"'"'II a'i ind i c:~'ltcd, :tnchorcd
nt the ground \\ith n handy bou lde r. and wi th the upper end
('- _r'1..,1
d11cctly a hove the fa r wall o n the oppo•i tc: side o f the moat.
They n ltu ra lly wonder w hat is the minima l length Lnf a lad·
dc r that" 1!1 suffict: for this purpose. 'lltis is :1 particula r case
I 1
2y
of the probkm of mi nimizing the kng th of a line segment
in the tll•-p!Jne that jnms the poi nts / ' (X . 0) and Q(O. y) on
I
~ ....__..,
. _l
11 the two coordinate axes :111d passes through the: given first-
quadra nt po int (a .I>). Show that / . ,., ., = (alt J + ~tl ))ll by
=
minim izing 1he squart.'d leng th [(.r. y) .rl + y1 sullject to
the constraint that 11 = a and ' ' = b satis fy the ttt·-cquntion
FIGURE 13.9.14 11/.r + v/)' = I o f the line thrnugh P and Q.
The solid
of Pro blem 50.
e c con•tn intthatlh: '"·~n coordanat~ \ (o . b. c ) u tn!y the Da•1d Srn::, ·s am d e ·Soh:: ton of a Ca!:ulu< .Pr~b!em ~~
0 1 • -<qu,tton u 1 + • I> .._ " I : • 1 o f the plane through ~linim1l \ 'ol'u.::Je" i~ Thr Anr r.ccr. .\f~rf:tr"1a!lca. ,\ {ol'!t ·f
t~c roint • r. Q. an<l R In general. the'>< equallo~.s ha•·e _...,, 1. PP ,- 1-I _"- - I ). ,. here a t..1 ~n n~e s~"ltem
... , ,.,.,
( .\ 1uc .. .
o.
,., \ ::<>" " do-cJ·h•tm wlutton Se• e nhele\\, }Ou can u~e . ~ · '• ~onltr.e3r equauon m
11 + 1 cqu•t tons ts redu:e~.o to a SIOio•• " •
1 C\.>::ll4t tr •l~tl:·ra S)'1t~ m Ca\ m the CD· RO~I .-roj~ct a slnz>: u:1k::O'A n.)
r:" lltl\11 (01 thl\ \~CliO:!) tO ar;>roxtmate OUmen:::a!Jy the 6!. Sll;~e tha: L , ts U:e !!:~e o! intersection of the pbn:s
m•n~t:1um l lluc <•! A "'•lh !:J•en r:u:::en:::al •abe< o! a. b. ~ _ , _ :: = 15 a:~ll x _ 1 , .,. 3: =30. an<\ that L: LS
anJ r h<'"' tim that "lth a = b = c = 1 you ' et an ac· t.'te ~e olt~!:r~.:t!Ot: o! the pll::es .t - .' - -= = IS and
~utc • rrro\lmatl(•n to the euct •alue m pa ~t lb) The~
3 , _ 1 1 _ ) : = :0 Fi~d the ck><est J'('l!lt5 p1 and P: on these
fffCll lh.C r rOCCI\ "'llh ) OUr O'Jon select ion of values of 12, l'A'O ske,. hr.~ L'st a ro::1;-u:cr to sohe thc co~es~nd ·
~- anJ r. (SNt: Thl\ thr~c ·d:mcn\lo:~:~l prot>lcl:'l ~o a\ r:lO:I- ang La;unge o ul:i r her system ol iOlmeu equ:m ons 10 10
••t<>l ~'>)' the m• c\IIP,li!On of the 11-d•menu onal •enton 1 ~ U:\k.CO'a--:"o...\.
nnd
t. = AC- £i! = f,.(n. b)f11(a , b) -(J, 1 (n, b)]1 • (2)
We outline a proof of Theorem I at the end of this section .
Thus 1 hastithtr a local mnximum or a l~al minimum at the critical point (a. b)
pro,·ided that the discriminant ~ =:
AC- ~- ts positive. In this case, A= f,.(a. b)
play-s the role of the second denvatt•·e of a smglc·variable function: There is 8 local
minimum nt (a. b) if A > 0 and a local maximum if A < 0 .
9 28 CHAPTER 13 Partial Differentiation
If t:. < 0. then 1 has neither a local maximum n ar a local minimum at (a. b). In
this case we call (a. b ) a saddle point off. th inking of th e 11ppea mn cc of the hyperbolic
paraboloid l<x. y ) = x= - yl (Fig. !3.1 0.1 ). a typical cxnmph: of thi~ case.
ll1corcm 1 docs not answer th e question of what h:~ppe ns \\ hen A= 0. In this
- - - , case. the two-\·ariable second derivative test fails-it give~ no information. Moreover.
at such a point (a. b). anything can happc:n. r:~nging from the local (indeed global)
minimum of ICx. J) = .r' ~ y• at (0. 0) to the ··monkey s:u.Jdle ·· of Exam ple 2.
I . In the cJSe of a function l < x. y ) with several crit ical points. we: must compute
the quantit i.:s A lJ. C. and t:. sep:~ratcly :11 c:~ch c:itic:tl point in order to apply
the test.
FIGURE 13.10.1 The origin is a
saddle point of the surfac~ with
equation r .. xl _ yl . EXAMPLE 1 Locate and classify the critic.,! points of
l<x. y) =3x- .r3 - 3.ry1.
Soluti on This function is a polynomial, so all its p:~rti n l de ri v:~ tives exist and arc
continuous C\·erywherc. When we cqu:~tc its first partial derivatives to zero (to locate
the critical points of f). we ge t
l.(x. y)= 3- 3x 2 - 3/ =0 and lr<x. y ) = - 6xy= 0.
lne second of these.: ~quatio ns implies that x or y must be.: zero: then the first implies
that the other mus t be ±I. Thus th ere are four critical points: ( 1. 0), ( - 1. O). (0, 1).
and (0, - I ).
Critical Type of
Point A 8 c 6 E xtremum
(1. 0) -6 0 - I\ 36 Localm~ximum
(-I. 0) 6 0 (, 36 uxat minimum
(0. 1) 0 -6 0 -36 s~ddlc poinl
(0. -1 ) 0 6 () -3(> S~ddle poin1
(0. -I ) 0.6
2 0
• ~0~.5.-~--~~--L-~
() 0.5
• •
FIGURE 13. 10.3 l~ CUt\leS for 1~
function of Eumple 1. FIGURE 13.10.4 level curve$ near
t~ critical point (1, 0). FIGURE 13. 10.5 Lev~l curves Mar
the critical point (0, 1).
J
-
Critiul Poinu olfur.ctions of Two Variables SEcnON 13.10 929
It follows that
.rl =/ and y(.r - ,1 J =0.
l11e fi rst of these equa tions gives .r = :!:y. If .r = y. the seco nd equation implies that
y = 0 or y =I. If .r =- y. the second equ ation im plies that y = 0 or y = - I. Hence
there nrc three critical points: (0. 0). ( I. I ). and (I. -I).
The second-order part ial derivatives of f are
A= f., (.r. y) = -l2.r. 8 =[, ,(.r. y) = 12y. C = [ 11 (.r. y) = l2.r - 36y.
These expressions gi,·e the data shown in the table in fig. 13.10.7. The critical point
test fails at (0. 0). so we must find another way to test this poinr.
Critical Type of
Point II B c 6 Extremum
We observe that f(x. 0) =-uJ and that [ (0, y) = -3y4 • Hence, as we move
away from the origin in the
Positive .r-dircction: f decreases;
Negative x-direction: f increases;
Positive y-direction: f decreases;
Negative y-direction: f decreases.
9 30 CHAPTER 1 3 Partial Differentiation
fir . yl• t\.ry' - 2.r' - )y' Consequently. 1 has neither a local maximum nor a local mini~un~ at . the origin.
-I The graph of 1 is shown in Fig. 13.10.8. If a monkey wc.rc to sit ~vJth t~s rump at
the origi n and face the negative x·direction. then the directions 111 whtch f(x. y)
2 decreases would pro vide places for bot h its tail and ItS ;wo legs to h ang. That's why
this pa rt icular surface is called a monkey saddle ( Fig. l.l.10.9). •
0 '
which are not as easy to solve as the corresponding equations in Examples I and 2.
llut if we write Eq. ( 4) in the form
2y(i - 4.r + 2) = 0.
we sec that ei the r y == 0 o r
i =4x - 2. (S)
(6)
Tlte graph o f <,D (x) in Fig. 13.10.1 0 shows tint this ' .
with approximate valucsx :::: -3. x :::: · d' ~ ~ cq~atlo~ has three rea l solut ions
1
or Kewton 's method (Section 3 8) vo · an xb~ ~- U smg eithe r graphica l techniques
· • • u can o tam the values
Y=±J4x-2. (8)
FIGURE 13.10.10 The graph of
¢(x) = xl - 9x + 6 (Example 3). but the first value of x in (7) vields no
values of x in (7) add four c;itical po· r~a ~alue at all for y. Thus the two posith•e
1
111 50
already found. f(x. Y) to the one critical point (0,0)
These five critical points are list d .
the corresponding values of e 111 the table in Fig. 13.10.11, together with
u.,aJ ~ "ltr-'1\Jnt
((), 01
Jn:aJ nllftU'Mif:t
- (1 ~ \. ~ ~'I I
2 • - 4i.JJ!c f"-,t"l
t0 71.11QI I
y 0 4\a..SJ!e J""••nf
10 71, -!I 'll}
-~ t= 3.1.a l..ax .a.J rrun1murn
z• ) 1 (l.~~- - 2 ~Q)
-~ L• · l /
l . - )
-~ -l 0 : ~
l
Proof of Theorem 1
[t happens thai lhe beha1•ior of the function f(z, y) nemr its critical point (a. b) is
de termined by the behavior near the origin (0. 0) o f the q uadratic rorm
q(h, k) = Alt 2 + 28hk + CJ<2 (9)
in h and k (A B. and Care computed as in Eq. (1)). If A '1- 0. then you can verify
readily that
1
q(h, k) = A[(Ah + Bk)l +A~]. (10)
either by expanding the right-~and side in.(~O) or by completing the square in Eq. (9}.
The three parts of the fo!lowtng proposttton correspond to the three cases in the
conclusion of Theorem L
932 CHAPTER 13 Partial Differentiation
The three parts of this proposition can be visua lized by thinking of the graph
of q as a n upwa rd·opcning ell iptic pa raboloid in part I. as a d ownward·opening
paraboloid in part 2. and as a hyperbolic par:~boloid with ;J sadd le p oi nt in part 3.
PflOOF Parts 1 and 2 of the proposit ion follow im mediat ely by cons ide ration of
signs in Eq. (10). because the quantity within the b rackets is positive if A > 0 and 1r
and k a rc not both zero. in wh ich case the sign of q (x . y) is the sa me as th e sign of A
Part 3 leads to several cases d epe nding on the poss ible values of A B. and C.
If A = C =0 and A =- B" < 0. then q(lr. k) = 2 Bhk. so the co nclusion in part 3
follows at once.
= =
If IJ Oan d t;. i\ C < 0. then A and C have different signs and Q(lz. k) = Alr2+
C/(2 . so aga in the concl usion in part 3 foll ows at once.
If fl ~ 0 ~nd A ;i 0 . then the va lues q (h. 0) = Ah~ and q(h.- Ah! 8) = t;.k2; A
have different signs if t;. < 0. so agai n the concl usion of part 3 follo ws. l11e analysis
of the rema ining case, in which 8 ¥ 0 a nd C -:F 0, is simi i:J r. ~
Now Ictus consider the critic3l point (a. b) of the function [(x . y) of Theorem 1.
Draw a circular disk centered at (a. b) a s in Fig. 13.10.13. Because the sccond-ord<:!r
partial dcrivarives of I are continuous. we can ma ke the rad ius of th is disk so small
that the quantiry f.,(x. y)J,.,(x. Yl,- (f,,(x . y)f has the same sign as the constant
6 = fu (a. b)f,?.(a. b) - [fn·<a . b)]· at every point (.r. y) of the dis k.
Now constder the singlc·variable func tio n g defin ed by
(a +It, b + 4 )
/("i i, )
•
(a, b )
FIGURE 13 10 l3 .
centered a; th · !he ctrcular di1k
e potnt (a. b).
-
an<J th~ n
• ;; dJ ;. d,v
.f (f l ~ -:-l hf,- k[ , l - - -:-0:{, ... k f,l-d·
,._. dt -'\ .
= ,_; {,. - :f:JJ., - t.7 {n .
.... h .. re the ln•J•cated r 1:1Lll ~:1·. ~~1\C'\ 0~ , a:c to be C\3Ju.JtcJ 31thc point (.r. ,\') =
1
Ia th /, • tkJ U>r:\CQu-.:n:h ~ 10 = 0 ~...au~ f, o. !I• = 0 = { . t o. b) • .tnJ
~· r i = A h= -:1iH-Ck {12)
...,h,.,., ~~.- cc.ef(><:if;:-::' i\. IJ . .tn<! c '"' e:~ q=J:.ttte fo r:n deno te the \ .t l~c< of :he
v:c<onrl dera"a'" c\ f,. . {... ~nJ f., lrnf'Cd" ch ) .tithe !'<'int 11. :n = Co-r h. I> .._ t k l .
llce<~u~.e viiJJ = flo b1 a::J t tl 1 = {Ia :_ 1:. b - .1.1. Eq<.. ( II ) :1nJ ( 1:!) imp ly
I l1.tt
( 13)
:0\\um,. t hat t h,. mrulu d:\ 1: 1::1 fit. I] 10 1J tS so sm.11J th31 A h:1s t he s:~me sip1 :\S
A 'l h tn th,. <juaJ r~IIC fnrm
Gn•t' .lllll(l(r t' rnnrpft"J of ) cmr Ok.r~ diffu rnt f rom an,\ • rho/ appear in this St'Ciion. tlrat
1fl111rrnt<' tltt" Jo lla" in g Jituallo tU.
13 . 10 PROllL EMS
Findmul f'I,IHif~· tltr f'riurnlpoimf oftlrr / Hnnion ,. in Ptnhlcnu I
lhtou,~ l; 11. If u ,., ,1wtr r al1:rlu11 ·"Y"""H a vailablr, du·ck your
' ' 111/tr l>y "'" "'' 11{ 11111,,1, f>lolf like lhMr in Fill ' 13.10. /4-
I.I.J0./7.
26. Let J <s. 1) denote the squarr of the dist:~ncc between a I~'J>·
=
ica! point o f the line x = 1 • ." t + I. ' = 2r and a typrcal
point of the hne x = 2s. y s - I. ~ =: s + I . Show thai Ihe
=
sinck critica l point o ff i> a Jocalmrnrmum. lienee find Ihe
clo~c<t porn I> on these 1\\0 <ke w lines.
27. Ld / L<. y l d~notc the ,quare of rhc distance from (0. 0. 2)
10 a typical point u f the surface : = .ry. Find and cbssif)'
the critical points u f f
28. Show th:llthc ~urf:.cc
FIGURE 13.10. 15 Contour plot ~= (X'+
~ ,
2y') exp(l
,
-.r·- ,)
y·
for Problem 1 3.
looks likt: two moun tain pe3k <jo ined hy two ridges with a
1·t f<x. y) = x>+ 6ry + J/ + 1\x pi t hcl\\t:cn them.
15. {(.t. y) = 3.t 1 + 6xy + 21 + l l r - 2~)' 29. A wire 120 em lo ng is c ut into th ree pieces t lf le ngths .r, y.
2 and 120 - x - y, and each piece b ben t in to the shape of
lti. f<x. y) = 3x -t· 12.ry + 2y' - for + l\y
~~quare. Let f < x. y) d e no te the s u m of the a reM o f these
17. /(X. )')= 4 t y- 2x'- >;. (Fi{t. 13.10.16) ;qua res. Show I hat the sin Ric en tica l poin t or I is a local
minimum . Bu t surely it i< p(l<sihlc to martmiu the sum of
the area-. Ex plai n.
JO. Show that the graph o f the function
. ~X . ~)'
I (x. y) = srn T srn T.
FIGURE 13.10.16 Contour plot 32. ~ct f<x. y) = xl- 3.c,.z. (a) Show that its only critical point
for Problem 17. ~s (0, 0) and tha! d = 0 there. (b) Dy e xamining the behl\'•
•or of X - l•f on straight lines through the ori~in show
3
111. f<x. y) = Sry- 2x 2 - , ' that the s urface< = xJ- 3.tyl qua lifies as a monk~y ~ddle
(Fig. 13.10.18).
19. /(x,y) = lcl -3x1 +i -12x+ 10
20. f<x. y) = 2.rl + 1- Jx:- 12.r- Jy (Fig. 13.10.1 7)
1
2L /(x, y ) = xyexp(-A -yl)
, • .2 , ,
22. f (x, y ) = (X" + y ) u p(x· - y)
i\ u'clllo illumalc cumpu lc r n!gcbra s~slcm lcchniqu e\ for 1he loc:Hinn and cla~si·
ficallon of cril•cal p<nnl\ (m funcuon\ of 1-.n ':IIIJhlc~ a< follows:
• Firsl. a surface graph <ho-.\ the "hrg picwrc:" rh:ll " 'C wan t In invc<li~a lt: in
dt:tail. In Fij:. 1.1.10.20 we ~cc two peak~ and 1110 pil'i. a~ 1\CII as an app~rcnt
saddle poin1.
• Next. a conlour graph as in Fig. 13.10.21 rc,ca l ~ the app roxima te loca tio n o f
each of lhc~c crilical poi nls.
• Then we setup I he equa tions f,<x. y ) =Oand /.(x. yJ = 0: we u~c a computer
algebra solve command 1o approximate the crilica.l points accurate ly-with
th e known appro~ im:rlc: location of each cmical poin1 providing an ini tial
gue~ for irs calculation.
• Finally. \\ C compute I ha l information abou1 1he second-orde r pa rtia l deriva.
ti vcs needed 10 apply Theorem Ito classify each critical poinl. A nd a contour
plo t in a smnll nei ghborhood of a cri1ical poi nl (as in Figs. 13.10.3 thro ugh
13. 10.5) can provide satisfying visual corrobora1ion o f our results.
f (x. y) = (ax
2
+ 2bx y + cy) exp(-x 1 - I> (2)
2
I
• 0
-I
-2
-2
0
• y l
: 0
-5
whe re o, b. and care se lected int egers. or the more exo tic fu nc tio n
where f' is a s m a ll posi tive integ.:r. With the plus s ig n in Eq. (3) you are likely IO sec
a h 3lf·dozc:n critica l points. but with the minus sign you ca n expect to see m ore (as in
Fig. 13. 10.22. in wh ich p = 5 and there appears to b.: some " action" near th e o rigi n.
in addi tion to the pairs of pits, pea ks, and passes tha t arc mos t evident).
.·cHAPTER
.... 13
. REVIEW:
. . oeFJNITIONs, .coNciPTs,
. .. ...
RESULTs .= . ..
Us~ th~ follo,..ing list a$ a 1111id~ ro conupu that ) 'nu m ay nud &.. The linear approl!C imntion theorem .
10 fC\.tiCW.
9. l11e chain rule for functions of severn! variables.
1. Graphs and level curves of function< of two variables. 10. D irectional de rivatives - defi nitio n a nd compu ta tio n.
2.. Limits a nd con tinuity of functions of two or three 11. ·me gradie nt vect or nnd the chain rule.
variables.
12. Significance of the length and direction o f the gradient
3. Partia l derivatives-definition and computation. \'ector.
4. Geometric interpretation o f par1ial derivatives and the
13. l11c grudicnt vecto r as a norm al ' 'e ctor; t:1ngent piJnc to a
plane tang~ntto the surface l {(x. y). = surface F(.r. y. :) = 0.
S. A bsolute: anti local maxima anti minima.
14. Constrained malimurn .minimum problems and the
6. Necessary conditiom for a local extremum. Lagrange multiplier method.
7. Increments :md differentials of functions of two or three IS· S u ffi c•c~t
. con d 111ons
.· fo r a bcal e xtremum of a function of
variables. two \ 311ab lcs.
l. Use spherical coordinates to show th:lt S. find a function / (x. y) such t hat
. x1 + r- r 1
f,(x. )'} = 2x.vl + ~· sin y
hm
(,e,,,t) ... Cl),O.Oi X 2 + ) + ~ - 0.
.l ,
and
satisfic5 the two-dimension al hcnt cqu!llion (Su,c_cr.Hio, · Writt> w a f.' {(I) tit "h e re u .. ,r:(.r) nnd
t•= lr! <). J
au =k(<l 111 ,,lu) 2.l. Suppusc: tha t a. h. and c arc mutually peq x·ndicul:rr unit
u" t v" x ·• + •"))-' . 'ectors in splcc and th31 f " :1 funttitm uf the three lndc·
pendent vln3bl~ x. ,.. anJ : . Show th.lt
12. Suppo<c that f(x. y . : J =~- (a) Shnw thnt the panial
'\'f = • t D, { l .,.. h( 1>•/1 + c(IJ, fl.
dai•·atiws f,. { .. :rnd f: all l'XI<I at the origin. (b) Show
that the dircctiunal dcriv:u iw 0 . {tO. 0. Ill c\ists if nod onlv 2-l let R = (cosfl.<~nfl.O) anJ E-l =(-si n fl.cosO. O) he t he
if I he unit \ eCtor 11 is :r line:rr combin ation o f >Umc lwn .;f pobr<oordinatcs un it vectors. Given /t .r. y. :l .., k'(r. n. :).
lhc standard umt vector> I. j . 3nd 1.. show th3t
13. Dcfint> the partial d e nva ii\ CS r, and r , of the \'cctor-•alucd 0. ! =a..· and
function r (.r. y) = ix + j 1· + I;. {( <. y) by componcntwise ar
pdrlral d iffere ntiatio n. Then sht>w that the \"ecto r r, x r, is Then conclude from Problem 23 thJt the gradient vector is
normal to the surface : = f ( ' . y ). gi•·en in cylindrical coordinJtes by
lt. An open-topped rcctangul:u box i< to h:wc tot3l sur· aw 1 a.., J h'
C.ce area 3(X) em:. Find the dimensions that maximize its 'C'f = - R - - - 9+ - k
•·olumc.
3r , ilO al .
25. Suppose that you are standing at the point with coordi·
15. You must build a rect angular !hipping crate wilh volume 60
1 nates ( -100. -100. 430) on a hill th3t h3, the sh3pc or the
11 • Its sidescos1 Sl / ftl, its top costs S2/ ft: , and it.s bottom graph of
com S3/ ft:. What dimensions would minimi1c the tot3l cost
of the bo~'/ == 500- (0.ll03).r' - (0.00-l)yl
16. A pyrami(] is bounded b\' the three coordinate pllnes and (in units of meters). In what (horizontal) d irection should
hy the plane tangent to the s urface xy: = I :ll a point in the ) "OUmove in order to maintain :r co~st:rnt altitude-tha t is,
first OC1ant. Find the volume of this pyrami(] (it is indepen· to neither climb nor descend the hill?
dent of the point of tangency). 26. Suppose that the blood concc!nlration in the ocean a t the
17• Two resi<tors ha,•e rcsbtant-cs R and R1. rcspecti,·ely. point (x. y) is given by
1
When they arc connected in panrllcl. the tntal resistance
Rof the resulting circuit satislies the equntion
f<x. )') = 1\ exp( - k\.r' + 2i)l.
I 1 I where :tand k a rc. positive con~tants. ,, <h ark nlways
-=-+-. sw1ms m the d!rcetron of V f . S~uw tha t its path i< 3
R R1R1 parabola Y =ex:·
[Sugg~sriwr: Show th:rt the condition that
SuPIX>Se that R1 and R 2 arc measure d to be 300 and 600 0 (tlx / dt. dy{dl) rs a multiple llf V f implies th3 t
(ohms) respectively. with a ma~imurn error of I % i~ c nch
I dx I t1·1
measurement . Use diffcrencial~ tn estimate the maxrmum
error (in ohms) in the cnlcula1cd vnluc of R.
; dt = 2y til .
I&. Con~ider a g,as that satisfies van dcr Waal s' equation. (See Then nntidiffcrentinte this cquution.J
Problem 67 or Sectron 13.4.) Usc differentials to nppro~i· 27. Consider a plane tangent to the surface with cqu•t "
'fJ .UJ ~11 _ " aon
lllate the change in its volume if p is increased from I atm r + T + • - I. Find the sum of the squares of the
to l .l atm and Tis dccreascdfrom 313 K to 303 K. x·, y-, and z· intercepts of this plan:.
938 CHAPTER 13 Partial Differentiation
28. Findthepoinuontheellipse r f a 2 .._}.!/ b1 = 1 ("'itha :b) Locatr and cuwrfy thr critical poinrs (lo~al maxima, local min.
"'here the normal line passes through the origin. ima. saddlr points. and othtr painrs ar whrch the tangmt plant is
29. Let horiwnral) ofthr functroru in Problmu -II through 50.
.u . J(x. y) = .r3 y- 3.ry + .r~
42. f<x. y) = .r: + .ry + y2- 6.r + 2
.u. J (.r. y) = .r 3 - 6ry + T
if (x. )') f. (0. 0) and define /CO. 0) to be 0. Fim show tha t
f is d iffe rentiable at the origin. Then classify the origin as ~. /Cx. y) = x:.1' + xf + x + Y
a cri tical point of f . 45. f <x . y) = .r 3 ):Cl - x - )')
30. Find t he point of the surface~ = xy + 1 tha t rHloscst to the -16. / C.r. y) = x'- 2-r: + _ ,l + 4y + 3
origin.
47. /(X.)')=<''' -lry
31. U~e the method of Problem 3S in Section 13.9 to find the
scmia• cs of the rotated ellipse
.as. tcx. y>=.r ]
- .1·
1 "'
+r + r
..,
(x + y+ d ~ J (.rl + / + i-J
for ~n)' three numbers x. y. and z.
37. Genera liLe the method of Problem 36to show that. for any
n a rbitrary real numbers x , . x2. .... and x. ,
FIGURE l l .MP. l Fitt.i ng the best straight line to
the d a ta points (.rr,. Y.). 1 ~ i ~ n (Problem 51).
.r 1 + Xz + · · · + x" ~
n
\j xf + xi +n ·· · + x! .
S2. Let I :R z, - R be de fined for ( x. y) in R z, by
Thu~ the urirlrmrric mt'an of the real numbers x 1• x1 • •• •• x. •
is n o greater than their r oot ·.Jquarr mean. /(x. Y)=" 7.Y= LX1Y1·
38. Find the m aximum and minimum values o f / Cx. y) = xy- 1•1
x- y at points on and within the plane triangle with vertices Use L1gran•c m 1 · 1.
o u trp rcrs to show tha t the ma ximum value
(0. 0). (0 . I). and (3. 0). 0 f / (ll ~·) b'
- . ·
G1\Cn any IWO \"CCI the constrai
s u JCCtto nts 1x1= 1 a nd I}I= Irs I.
39. Find the maximum and m inimum values of /Cx. y. z>= d · ' d
._ b ors • an b tn R-. wTite x = •11•1.1n
x= - y; at points of the sphere x 2 + )l + t = I. >- /lb l to c onclude that
4(). Find the maximum and m inimum values o f f( x. y) =x2y
aTb ~ jajjb j
at points of the ellipse x= + 4y = 24.
(the Cauch y-Sch .. an inequality) .
JJU LTlPLE INTEGRALS \
eometric proble m~
G of mrnwrc-<lcal·
ing with concept\ of
length. area. and \'ulumc-
fails to hold. But "ith his new definition of the in·
tegra l. Lebesgue showed that a derivathc function f'
is intc~rablc and that the fundamenta l theorem holds.
Sinub;ly. the equali ty of douhk and iterated integral~
c3n he traced hac I. .:o ccn· (Sectio n 1~. 1} hold" o nl\' under rather dra>tic rcstric·
turi~s to the ri>c of civi· tion> rf the Riemann dciinttton of multiple integrals is
hLatu.>n> in the fertile river u<ed. h ut the Lcbcs~:uc intcl!r:t l re soh·es the diflicult;·.
\alleys of Africa and Asia. For wch reaZons. th; Lebesgue theory of mea·
wh~ n such is<uc~ a~ area~ of su re and integration predominat<:> in moJern mathcmat·
ticlds and ,·olume< of 11.ra· ical research , hoth pu re and applied. For instance. the
naric< became important. l..ch;:sguc inte gral i~ basic to such d ivcr<c realms as ap·
1l1csc prohlc:rns led ulti · plied prohahility and mathema tical biology. th.: quant um
HoM ltbesgue (1875- 1941) matcly to the im···~'lll, "hich thcMy of atoms und nuclei. and the mformation the·
is used to calculah: (among ory and electric sip,nals processing of modem computer
Nher thin~;<} areas and volume> of curvilinc:u figures. technology.
But only in the early twentieth century we re certain 'l11c Section 14.5 Project illustrates the applicatio n
1.>~;:-s:lnding diflicultic< with mca<ure and integration uf multiple integrals to such concre te problems as the
fin~ly r<".oh·cu. largely :1< a con<cquencc of the work of optimll dc,ign of racc<;u wheels.
t::e French mathematician llenri Lchcsguc.
In hi> 11J02 thesis presented at the Sorhonnc in
P:ms. ~btsguc introduced ::t new ddinit ion o f the in·
::?=31. generalizing Riemann's definition. In essence. lei
de:i.ne the inte gral of the function Jfrorn.x = cr to .r = b.
l<~sgue repl::~ced Riemann's subdivision of the interval
[o.b] into nonoverlapping subintervals with a partition
of[q,b] into disjoint mcnsur~bl e sets (E;).lbe Riemann
1'.!::1 ' [ /lt;l D..t was thereby replaced with a sum of
the form [ f ( x;) m,. where m, is the measure <>f the ith
\..>t E, and x' is a number in E,. To sec the advantage
o~ the -Le~sgue integral." consider the fact that there
exm diiferentiable functions whose dcrivati\'CS :trc no t
t::::gubk in the sense of R iemann. For such a function,
tl:e fundamental theo rem of calculus in the form
939
940 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integrals
DOUBLE INTEGRALS
14, 1\ . f f t'ons
1 of two or three varia hies. Such
This chapter is devoted to mtcgral: 0 unc 11·c·J tions of multiple integrals include
. I . IC"r'll- 11te app •. .
integrals arc called mu I lip c m " ' -· d f ce 'lr&.!'l in a wider varie ty of Situations
. f . 1 me mass :1n sur a ' '
computation o area.'? u · . .. ' nte •nl of Ch:~pters 5 and 6.
than ca n be handled wnh the smgle 1 ,g j ·s the t/ou/Jie integral
The simples t sort of multiple ~r~tegr.l 1
!~ f(.t.y)d,\
computing areas. the dcfin~!lon of th~ doftFi I-I I ~-a solid bounded above bl' the
f t' tl ·volume \• of the solld o 1g. · · · · . .
o compu 1ng ~~ r I , t' v, functi onfo,·.:r the recta ngle I< in the xy·planc.
graph : = J (x. y) o t lc nonnega 1 c
To dclinc the mh~c
FIGURE 14.1.1 We will usc a
double integral to compute the V= Jjfl
j(x.y)tiA
volume V.
of such a double integral. we begin with :1n :lpproximation to V. To obtain this
approxim:uion. the first step is to construct a p:u titio n 'P of R mto subn:ctangl~s
R, R 1. Rz . ... , R1 determ ined by the points
I
I
•
a = x0 < x 1 < x2 < · · · < x., = b
I of! a. b) and
I
II c= Yo < Yt < Y2 < · · · < y., =d
I
II
of tc. J). Such a partition of R into k = 11111 recta ngles is shown irf fig. 14.1.2. Titc
order in which th~se rectangles are labdc:d makes no difference.
Nex t we choose an arbitrary point (.t ; . y;J of the ith rectangle R; for each i
(where I ~ i :£ k ).'Otc collecti on of points S = ((x;, y; ) 1 I ~ i ~ k 1is ca lled a s clrclinn
for the p~r tition 'P = (R, II ;;; i ~ kJ. As a measure of the size of the rectangles of the
FIGURE 14.1.2 A partition 'Pof partition 'P, we ddine its norm I'PI to be the maximum of the lengths of the diagonals
the rectangle II. of the rectangks I R ;}.
Now consider a rectangular column that rises straight up from the xy·plane. Its
base is the rect;~ngle R, and its height is the value f<x;. y;) of fat the selected point
(xj. y; ) of R,. One such column is shown in Fig. 14.1.3. If AA , dcnot.:s the ar.:a of
R., then the volume of the ith column is /(:x.;, yiJ AA;. The sum of the volumes of
all such columns (Fig. 14.1.4) is the Riemann sum
I
1, JJ }(
/(.r. y)c/A = lim ~ /(r '
111- ·H t_
y• ) 61\
It~
1 • •· 1 I•
•• I
provided that this limit exists. (We will make thA c .f h . f such a
' ~ oncept o t e existence o
i
~ 1n:ey~·1 S!CTIO'I 14. 1 941
'
luru t "'' " ' prcc•-.c •n ~<"t1on IJ 2.l lt "pro\ cd in • •h'anC'c tl c.1ku l u~ th~t the l imit
in EtJ. (2 ) do~• c \ h l 1f f " cnn ll nuou\ o n R To mo ti-.11 < the intrnduc tum of the
H•cm~ IHI ~um 111 l:q . ( I). "' e a~\u mccl thJt f "''" mm ncg:ttl\ e o n U. hu t E•l· (2)
•c1VC> h> tlctl nc the tluuhlc Integral "' e r a rect.11nglc ,. he the r or nu t f i~ no n nella tiw.
._
"·
•
C' · I )
=
over the rect angle R (I . 3) x (-2. 1). by clrula ting the Hiema nn 5Um In (I) fo r the
p a rtitio n il lu•trntcd in Fig. 14.1.5. "'i th the i th point (.r;. y;J ~lccted a~ the ccnt<.:r or
th e i th recta ngle R, (fo r each'· 1 :; ' ~ 6).
•...
I ! l •
4',•
--- So lutio n E:1ch or the six p:utit ion re<:l lngl~ shown in Fig.. 1J.1 .5 i~ a un it square
-I
. .
~
= =
with area ll r\ , 1. \\"Jth /( • . y) 4 r 1 ~ 6.r_,.:. the dC<~ired Riemann \um is therc'forc
-l -- - " " •
L•
(1. - l) C'· - Zl
f( .ct. y;l 6 t\ ; = / ( r j• .•·j) 6A I ~ / (.ri.yj ) 6A z + / (.rj.) j ) 6A 3
IICURE 14.1.5 The p.1t11tion in ••t + / (.r;. y; J 6A• + / C.r;. >; I 61\ s + / (.r;. y;J 611 &
E...mpl~ 1.
= 1n. -n<l) +10.-n<l) + 10.-D(I)
+ J(l . - } )(1) +I ( ~· i )Ol + /{!.l)Ol
"SI
= T l<S . I + T
. + ... 2~ . 1 + 'i
t>.l . ] + ... 6J . I + :w
T . I = 294.
Thus we find Ihat
bur our calculalion provides no information about lhe accuracy or this appro~i
marion.
•
REMARK 1 The single-variable appro~imalion melhods of Secrion 5.9 all have
nnalogs rnrdout>le integrals. In Example I we calculatcclthc midpoint approlim•tlon
10 rhc given double integral
Jj II
f(x.y)dA
942 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integrals
usi ng a part it ion o f the rectangle R in to six subrecta ngles. The R iemann sum we
Number of Midpoint
ca lculated is th e sum o f the vo lum es of six rec tangular co lumns or b lock s. Each
Subrcctangles Approximation
of these col umns has a base co nsisting of o ne o f the su brcc ta nglcs in Fig. 14.1.5
6 29-HJO and has height eq ual to the val ue f(x,' . y; ) o f the func tio n a t the midpoint of that
24 307.50 s u brecta ngle.
96 3 10.88
384 31 1.72
REMAR K 2 If we subd ivide each rec ta ngle in Fig. 14. 1.5 in to four equal smaller
1536 311.93
6144 311.98
rec tangles. we ge t a part it ion of R into 24 sub rc ctangles. and th e corres po ndino
Riemann sum is the sum of the , -olum e of 24 rectangular columns wi th bases thcs~
24 subrcctangles. Suppose tha t we co ntinue in th is way. quadrup ling the n umber
FIGURE 14.1.6 Midpoint
approximations to the Integral in of subrccta ngl es (and of recta ngular colu mns) a t each step. and use n compu ter
Example 1. to calcula te each time the Riema n n s um defined by se l<:cting th e ce nt e r of each
s ubn:ctanglc to calcu la te the height of the co r respo nd ing recta n gula r column. Then
we get the mitlpo in: app rox imatio ns listed in Fig. 14. 1.6 to the actua l vo lume \'
tha t li es over the rccta ngi<: Rand u nder the surface~ = f (x. y) . (Sec Fi g. 1·1.1 .7.)
Figure 1-I.I.R shows the "rect:lngular block approximatio ns " to \I that correspo nd to
pa rt itions o f U into 2-l. 96, and 384 subrcctangles. In Ex:tmple 2 we will see (much
more easily) that the exact value o f V is gi"e n b y
V = jj (4x
R
3
+ 6x y 2 ) d A = 3 12.
Iterated Integrals
~e direct e va_lua tio n o f t?e _l imit in Eq. (2) is generall y even less practica l than the
? trect e valuatton_of the ltm tt we used in Sectio n 5.4 to define the single -va riable
mte gra l. In pract1cc, we sh all calcula te doubh! integrnls ove r re ctangles by means of
the Iterated integrals that ap pear in Theo rem 1.
FIGURE 14.1.7 The surface
z = 4 x 1 + 6xy2 over the
rectang le R. THEOREM 1 Do_uble ~ntegrals as Ite rated Single Integrals
Suppose tha t R = [a • b) x [c , C/ )• ·n1Cn
I ( x. y) IS contmuous on the rectangle
,.
!~ f (x . y ) d A = [ (1d 1
f(x , y) c/ y ) d x =[ ([ f (x, y ) dx )dy . (3)
. l l1eore m. I tells us
. how to· compute ad ou bl e ·mtc gra l b v mea ns of two successive
( or llerared) smgle-,·a n ablc integrat ions. e •ach of ,,,,uc
· h we can
' · u te bv usmg
comp · the
( un d a men tal theore m of calculus ( if the functi on/' . . rr· · ·
· IS su tC1e n tly well-be haved o n R).
I I I I
I I
(a) 24 blocks. V :: 301.50 (b) 96 blocks. v ., 310.SS
(c) 3S-t blocks. v :: 311.72
FIGURE 14.1.8 Midpoint sum approximations to the volume Vunder th
and 384 subrectangles. e surface z = 4x 3 + 6xy2 with 24, 96,
--
.~-------------------------
Double lntegr~ls SECTION 14 · 1 9 4 3
Let us explain what we mea n by the parentheses in the iterated integ ral
= J.~ (1
4
[ [ f(x.y)dy dx J(.t,y)dy)dx . (4)
First we hold x constant nnd integrate with respect to y. fro m y = c to Y = tl. The
result of this first integratio n is the [)artial integral or[with respect to >'· deno ted by
14 J<x. y) tiy,
and it is a function of .t nlone. Titcn we integrate this latter function with rc~pcct
to .t. from .t == a to .t = b.
Similarly, we calculate the iterated integr al
by first integ rating fro m a to b with respect to x (while holding y fixed) and th en
1 integrating the result from c to d with respect ~o y. TI1c o rder of integrat ion (ei ther
first wit h respect to x nnd then with respect toy, o r the reverse) is determined by the
order in wh ich the differentials tlx and tly appear in the iterated integrals in Eqs.. ( .!)
---r • l and (5). We .almost always work "from the in~ide o ut." TI1eorem I guarantees that
_l the value obtained is independent of the order of integration provided that I is
• continuous on R.
" - y •-2 EXAMP LE 2 Compute the iterated integrals. in Eqs. (4) and (5) for the function
f(x. y) = 4x 3 + 6ry 2 on the rectangle R "' [I. 3) x (-2. 1).
Solution The rectangle R is shown in Fig,. 14.1.9, where the vertical segment (on
FI(;UitE \4.1.9 ~ inner limiu of which .r is constant) corresponds to the inner integral in Eq. (4). Its endpoints lie at
the frn itm ted int~ral
r:.umplt 2).
heights y "' - 2 and y = 1, which arc, therefore, the limits on the inner inte gral. So
Eq. (.!)yields
= j ((~.r 3 + 2.r) -
3
(-S.t 3 - 16.t ) )d.r
= jl 3+ ( 12.t 18x) dx
('.:...,:;.~ 2)
= 1:((81 + 27y 2) - (I +3~·:))dy
-[:Cso + 2~y1)dy
.. [so>·+syl]~~. m. •
When we note that iterated double integralt arc almost alw~ys evaluated !:rom
the in1ide out. it becomet clear that the parentheset appearing on the right·hand
944 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integrals
= [ (~:re_. + r) dy
1
x • Ot-----l = [ -:re'
I
2
+ y ] = -I :r(e -
0 2
I)+ I.
•
y=O •
Iterate d Integrals and Cross Se ction s
An out line of the proof of 1lrcorcnr I illuminates the reln lionsh ip he twee n iterated
FI GURE 14.1.12 Example 4. integrals and t he met hod o f cross scctions (for computin!! volu mes) discussed in
Section 6.2. First we partiti on [a, b j into 11 equal subin terva ls. e ach of le n gth 6x =
(b- a)j11 , :md we also parti tion (t-. dJ int o n equ al subinterval~. each of length 6y =
(d- c) j n. 1lris g ives n 2 rcctanglc:s. each of whi ch has area 611 = 6.r 6\·. Ch oose a
point .r; in [.r,_,, .r, J for each i . I ;£ i ;£ n. Then the average v:~lue theorc~ for ~inglc
integrals (Section 5.6) gives a point y,j in [y1 _,, y1 Jsuch tha t
YJ
! TJ-l
f(.r,· . y)rly = /(.r; . Y/;l 6 y.
This gives us the selected point {.r;. y1j) in the rcct:~ngle [x1_ 1, x 1 J x [Yi-t . Yi J. Then
= t. (~!,::, f(xj,y)dy)~x
=L
•
h :}
(
1
~
d
f(xj.y ) dy) 6x
•
=L
.., A(xi) 6.r ,
where
Lb A (x)dx.
~ ln:eg•a!! S~CTlO'I 14.1 945
Kl lhc relult of ou r compulltion i~
"'hich give~. the area ala ' ertical crcxs ~ctio:n in a piJnc f<'rp<:ndiC"ub r to the ,>·-axis.
!Although tt ~cc ms appropri.lte to u-..: the nolltton A(v) here. note that A (.<) and
A ( y ) are by no means the ~me lunctton!) -
~ 14. 1 PROBLEMS
z. Approximate Lhc integral
I. Approxim~te the integral
JJ (4.r) + 6.r,-ll dA
Jj• (4.r l +6.ry1) dA
• · · sl1own in Fig· 14.1.5.r but as in Problem 1. but selecting each Cx;. y;) as (a) the upper
of Example 1 using the parut•on h kit corner of the rectangle R,; (b) the lower right corner oC
selecting each (x' v') as (a) the lower left corner ol tRe
• · · 'upper ng
. h t comer of the rectang e •· the rectangle R,.
rectangle R ,; (b) the
946 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integrals
12
R l9.1"1" (sinxcosy)dxdy
rrsing the given partition and sele~tion of points (xi, yi) for the
rectangle R. 20.1•fl1•~cosxsiny)dydx
= =
3. f(x, y) x + y; R (0. 2) x (0. 2); the partition Pconsists
of four unit squares; each (xi, >'i> is the center point of the
ith rectangle R ,.
21.1 1
1' xe' dydx
1
2 dx dy
rT'2
· !2
consists of four equal squares; each (x; , y,') is the ccntc.r
point of the ith rectangle R1•
26.
10
Ju (y- 1) cos.r dx dy
II. f(x, y) = sin 4xy; R = (0. 1J x (0. :r ]: the partir ion Pconsists
•12!' .
of six equal rectangles of widrh tJ.x = and heigh! Ay = ~ rr;
each (x;. y,') is the center point of the ith rectangle 1<,.
l 27.
10 t
sm y d.rdy
X
f.Zl.l(~+ !)dydx
size.
30.
9. f(x , y) = x 1 yl; R = (!. 3) x (2, 5]; the partition 'P consists . I I ) X
of six unit squares.
10. f(.<,y) = /IOO-x 2 -y2;R = (1.4]
~-....,----,
n.1 1
R
2 4
(3x +4y)dxdy given by the iterated imegral.~ in Eqs. (4) ami (5) are indeed
<'qual.
1312
12. .t2ydxdy 31. f(x. y)
32. f(x. y) =sin x cosy;
= 2ry- 3yl: R = (-1, 1) x (-2, 2)
R = (O,;r) (-;rj2,rr/2J
j''JJ (2x-
X
13. 7y) dydx 33. f(x, y) = Jx + y; R = (0, I] x (1.2)
-1 I
34. f(x. y) = e·••>; R = (O.ln 2] x (0, In 3)
14. 1:1• 2
x /dydx 35. Prove that
IS. 11 3 3
(.<)' + 1x + y)dx dy lim 111t·t"v"<1xd>·-O
"-oc 0 0
- - .
16. 1 2
[ (x
2 2
y - 17) dx dy
36. Suppose that f(
R
=
(
) k ·
x • Y = IS a constant-valued function an
a, bJ x [c, d). Usc Riemann sums to prove that
d
17. !! 2
-1 -1
2
(2xl-3x y)dydx
2
If kdA =k(b-a)(d-c).
R
Double Integrals over More General Re9ions SECTION 14.2
947
38. Jf. cf(x. y)dA =cj f./ (.<. y) dA (cis n constant). jj t<x. )·)dt\ ~ jj s<x.y) dA.
• •
14.1 l'roject: Mid point Sums Ap proxi mating Do ubl e lnt e~o:ml~
Su ppose tha t we divide the intervals Ia. b) and 1c. <II into m subintervals of length Ax
and into " subintervals of length Ay (respectively) . If u, and t ·1 deno te the midpoints
of the ith subinterval of [a . b) nnd the jth subinterval of lc. d ) (respectively). the n
(u,. v1 ) is the midpoi nt of the ijth subrcctangle (x, _J, .t,) x IYJ- l· y 1 ). We thereby
• • r: l obtain the midpoint sum approximation
••I·• r!' (•:- •: ' Ut ~
• •
··~ .,, 1•:- f"I\ h r.. • 1 l
. ., •: •, b .t
to the double integral of the function f over the rectangle R = [a. b ) x [c. d) .
Figure 14.1.14 illustrates the case in which m = =
3 and 11 2. In the CD· RO:'vt rna ·
FIGURE 14.1.14 ~ ~ints used tcrial for th is project we illust::llc the usc of computer algebra systems to calcul:!te
"' tile midpoint appro•imation. midpoint sum approxi mations rapidly and cfticicntly.
~ I I .• - I
I
I
I
(• • ) • I
I
I
L f <x;.y,•) t. ,\ ,
- I l I I I 1•1
- ~ I ; I l
.uociated with the inner partition P . In Ci15c f i~ nonnc~Jti\'c on R, thi\ Riemann
3
sum approxim3te! the volume of the: thrt"e ·d imcnsional rq;ion thn t he~ undcr t he
surface: == / ( <. y) nnd nhovc the t egton R in the: r.1·· phnc:. We the refore: define the
double integul off over the region R by t nking the limtt of this Riem~nn sum n~
948 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integrals
'd d h 1· I' · · ·
prov1 e · I a tillS 1mll eXIS15 10
the sense of I he following dclinilion.
provided that, for C \ 'CT)' f > 0. there exists a number lJ > 0 such that
l
L j(.r,'. y,' ) 6A 1- I < l
for every inner parliti on p = (R 1• R 2• ... . Rt l of R that has norm !P I < .5 nnd
every ~e lect ion of poi nts (.r,'. y,') in R, (i = I. 2. .. . . k ) .
11JUs the meaning of the limit in Eq. ( I) is th at the Riemann sum can be made
arbitrarily clmc to the number
I = Jj R
j (x . y )dA
merely by choosi ng the norm of the inne r partition P sufficiently small. In this case
we say that the function / is in tcgrahl c on tho: region R.
if R
(.r + y) tiA
where R i~ the region in the first quadr:~ n t hounded by the unit circle nnd the co·
ordinate axes. Do so by calcul:lting the sum in Eq. (I) for the inner partition and
mid point sclt:ction indicated in Fig. l4.2.2(a).
• '
I I
-......J.. I
~
I
0.75
• • • I'
on • • • • • '\ 0 7.1
' 1\. .
. •• • .•
• • • • • ~
0) 05 :-
• •
025
• • •
\ 0 25
• • •
• • . •• •. .• ·• l 0
• • • • • .• • • •
oJ.) o.l u.n I • II H U..) 0.7~ I •
(a) 11 inlerior squ.orcs wilh Ax ~ AJ ., j (b) ~I intcnor squares wilh A~ = 6 )' • I (c) to• · . . A "A,.,. ~
A 01o110tcnor squ :u cs wit 1' u • •
· Ti
FIGURE 14.2.2 Inner partition$ of the quartcr·circle R with ll. .r = ll.y = 1 Ax _ A 1 1 d
1•"' - '-'Y= !• an Ax = Ay = n·
949
,v s
~~ s = l!(!. ') - J(i. D- JU. !l - J(l. ~ )
--
I;"
8
!l
~~
0 ) .1.1
0 ·I'l l ... J(l . 0 - 1n. ~ l ... J(l. ~ l - ! ( ~ . ~l ] ~r ~~·
----no II<' 05\JI
..-
~
I
32
6-1 3 1~ 9
0 6:~
0 (,.16 - (J -n - (i - n- n- o- c- n: ·l· l·
12.7:111 (I IW>
\2$
:_(,{, 5l.~m () 1'12
- nnd t hu\
I
m 205)~(> 0 (,(,~
s !.!.
I to~~
I i l
~2.51•1 Q(>lo~
0:
JZ
c 0.).137.5 ""0..3-U.
•
IICUR[ 14.2.3 The number n o l REMARK In Fir t.t.:::.:::(n) " C ~pn h) dl\,d.ng the un11 i ntel'al~ on the r- nnd
wbinl~rv.>h in ~ach dir <·cloon, lhr y-a ~ cs in w n "' .! 'ub in le r'"ats each FiFU t r< 1.1 2 ~ ( I• ) and \ .I :!.1(c) <how th e inne r
numb<r N ol smJII squ.ues in the p.H titiun' th•tr c<u h.,. hcn -. e bq:in.,. ith n .. !l ~nd n = tti suhintcr' at< (re~rccti,·ely)
rnflff p.~r1 olton .•md Ihe
corrrspondong appro•i m~ tr
in each lhrccti<on Surr•"c th>t " c runtonue in tht< "''>·
<l•>ul>hn~ the numl>cr" of
~uhi ntc f\ nh in •·ac h llo i ~Ctonn at c.>ch ~ lcJ'. anti ""' 3 com r uter tu cakul.<l c e ach
Rltm3nn sum S.
l ime t he m•lll>lli nt Ricm.mn sum corrc>pondmgto the tcsultm\! mncr plrtltion o f
the quartcr<ircutar rqthm R. Figure 1.1.2.3 sho"'1 the rc<ultmg approxim.u ions to
th e in1 c11ral
--c; ·
,..,.(•)
fJ +R
(.r y) d A ;
we al~o <how the total number N o f interior squJrcs used at each step. In l'whlcm 51
we a<k )'<'U to shnw {u<ing a comp:uati<'dy simple computation "'ith iterated in te·
grals) thnt the e xact <'aluc of this integral is j. ('Thus t he approximation in E.~amplc 1
is no t c<cry imprc.si<'c.)
(2)
where .1·1(.r) and .' -:(x) arc continuous functions of x on {a. bJ. Such a reginn appears
in Fig. \4.2 ..1. lltc regio n R is culled hnrizontally sim ple if it can be described by the
inequaliti<:s
when: .t 1 (y) and xz(y) are continuous functions or y on {c. dJ.The region in Fig. 14.2.5
• is hori1.0ntally simple.
'lne~rcm I tell~ u~ how to ~ompul_c by ite rate~ integration a double integral
over :1 rcg1on R that IS etther ventcally stmple or honzontnlly simple.
L
950 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integral~
y
JJ R
f (.r.y) dA = r
If R is the horizontally simple regio n given in (3), the n
~
1•:(>1 f(x.y) d.rd y.
.rafy)
(5)
l11 corcm 1 here includes Th eore m I of Section J.U as a special case (when R
is a rcxtangle), and it can be proved by a generaliza tion of the argumen t we outlined
there.
jj R
x/dA.
FIGURE 14.2.6 The vertically
~imple region of Example 2.
where R is th e lirst·quadrant region b ounded b y the two curves y = ..[i andy = .r3.
Solution A/..-ays sk etch the rt•gion R of imegration before attempting to evaluate a
tloubl.: imegral. As intlicatctl in Figs. 1·1.2.6 and 14.2.7, the g ive n region R is both
vertica lly and horizon tally simple. 'lbc vcrtica l segme nt in Fig. 14.2.6 wi th e ndpo ints
y =
on the curves y .r 3 andy = ../i corresponds to integrating first with respect to y:
!! R
x/dA = ll:
o ,
xltiydx = {' [~xi]
Jo 3
.;; d.r
,.,,
lot (~x
= 5 12- ~x 10 ) dx = ~ - ~ = ~
.> 3 21 33 77 ·
=
We obtain x = ~· 2 and x. y 1!3 when we solve the equations y = ..[i andy .r3 for =
x ~n terms of y. !be honzontal segment in Fig. 14.2.7 corresponds to integrating first
wtth respec t to .r:
FIGURE 14.2.7 The horizontally
~lmple region of Example 2.
•
EXAMPLE 3 Evaluate
jj II
(6x+2y 2 ) dA,
!
. :!_,..\ - 5.• ' )Jy
=
!-l
(12- 12.• ... 7_>'-
•
E xample:\ shm" that C\ tn "'hen the region R 1< both 'erhcall~ nnd horitontnlly
simple. it may he ca<ier to •n tq:rate in o ne order r.Hher th.•n lh<' nther 1-c<'llu<c n ( the
sha pe o[ It \\'c natu rally rrcfcr th<' ea,.er rvutc !he chot; e of the prderal:>lc orde r
of integration may be •nllucnccd al\o h) the nnturc of I he function f ( •. ,vl. It m.t y be
d•flicuh - N e,·cn imJ'O'<ible-to compute 3 gil·en ttcmted Integral bul cn<y to do so
after •w rcwN r tire ordrr ••! imc~;rarion. Example 4 ~ho"'' tha i the ke y to reversing
t he o rder or integrat ion is thi~:
EXA MP LE 4 Evaluate
12!1
0 •f1
y~'
J
d.r dy .
So lution We cannot integrate first \\ it h respect to .<. as indicated. because cxp(x ' J
is known to have no ekmcnt3ry antidcrivative. Sn we try to evalu3te the integral by
first reversing the order of integration. To do so. we sketch the region or integrat ion
specified by the limits in the given iterated integ~~l.
1
llte n:gion R is determmcd by the mequah t u~s
~ y ~ .r ~ I and 0 ~ y ~ 2.
Thus all points (x . y) of R li~ between the horizontal lines y = 0 and y = 2 and
be tween the two lines .r = y/2 and x = I. We draw the four hnes y = 0. y = 2•.r =
y/ 2. and .t = 1 and find that t he regio n of integration is the shaded triangle that
appears in Fig. l.t.2.!0. . .
=
Integrating first wllh respect toy, from Yt (.r) 0 to yz (.t ) = 2..:, we obtam
= [2-3 ~·'],.o = 2
1
m·a(R ) ~JJ R
f (x.y)dA ~ M·a(R), (8)
JJ 11.
f(x,y)dA =if R1
f (x.y)dt\ + Jj R:
f (x.y)dA. (9)
Jn Eq. (9), R 1 and H 1 arc simply two nonovcrl:lppint: rcgi~11s (wi th disjo int interiors)
FIGURE 14.2.1 1 Th~ r~iom of
\\i th union R (Fig. 1~.2.11). We indicate in Problr.:m~ 4) through ~8 proofs o f the
Eq. (9).
prope n ics in (ll) through (9) fo r the special case in which R is a rectangle. .
·n1c proper!)' in Eq. (9) e nahks u~ to cv:1luatc doubl: mt cgra ls o ' :cr n r~g~on R
that is ncithc r \'crtically nor horizon rally simple. All that IS necessa ry IS to d1v1ck R
into a linitc number of simple n:t:ions R 1. R z•. •. . R •. ll1 e n w..: integrate over each
1
(converting each double integral into an iterated integral. as in the examples of this
(- 2. )) r.. )) section) and add the results.
EXAMPLE 5 Let [be a function that is integrab le on the region f? of Fig. 14.2. 12.
c-2. 11~--+--~c:.n Note that R is not simp le. but is the union of the vertically simple region R 1 and the
horizontally simple region R z. Using the bound ary curves labeled in the ligure and
the appropriate order of integration for each rcgioo. we see Ihat
if R
f(x. y)tiA = JfR,
f(x,y)tiA +if R:
f(x.y)dA
1j
1
r~ion R is the union o' the I ~r
1
1 J.Z+> /4 I
nonoverlapping simple r~ions R,
and R2 •
= -2 I
f(x.y) d ytlx +
- 1 - 1- 1 1
f(x.y)dxdy.
•
0 14.2 TRUE/ FALSE STUDY GUIDE
14.2 CONCEPTS: QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION
1. s.ketch. a plane. region tl~at is (a) both horizo ntally simple and vertically
su~plc, (b) honzontally Simple but no t vertically simple: (c) vertically si01·
P.lc but not ho nzontally sunplc: (d) neither horizon tally n or vertical!\'
s1mple. ·
2. Sketch
. seve ral different rc.,io
" ns th a t .ICC · 11er honzontally
. nc1t · ·
nor ,·cru.:nlly
s1mple hut can be subdivided ·111t d'ff
• , . • • 1 · ·
? crc nt numbers of nono\'(:rlapprng rc·
g10ns. each nf wh1ch ~s either honzontally simple or vertically simple. Whlt
J about
C · 1C~,
an annula r reg10n bounded by two concentr'IC ClfC ··'>
• . onstru~t s~vcral examples or double integrals that arc readily cvalu;Jtcd by
mtegraung m one order but not in the reverse order.
...
Double Integrals over Moroe General Regions SECTION 14.2 953
14 .2 PROBLEMS
1;.\·c!mH( tltr itt"rilt~d ir:tr8ral.s in PrtJblrtttJS lthrt•u~:lr 1-1.
fiGURE 14.2.13 FIGUR E 14.2.14 Ill. /C.t. y) = y: R is boundo.l by the pan bolas x = I - y 2 and
X=)")- f.
Problem 3. Problem 4 .
19. /Cx. y) =
x : R is bounded by the .<·axis and the cu!'·e
!..;; y = ~in x. 0;:; x ~ :r.
6.
!. 1
.• (.<+y)dxt!y 20. f(x.y) =sinx: R is hounded by the x·axi~ and the
.\' =C'OS - :r{2 'S ..: -s :r{2.
.J,
CUI'\'c
7.
11!..''
0
' (2.r - y) d y dx (Fig. 14.2.15) 21. j (x. y) =1/y: f/ is the triangle
) ' = l • .r =t:,3r1d ) ' C2 ,( ,
bounded by the lines
1
'- /1:· 2
(1 ... 2y) d •dy (Fig. l~ 2.17) .ll.
!. . l•
f.' .
'
\Ill )'
- - ,/'y d I
y
12
· [ [' ' d y dt (fig. .~.2.1!!)
J.t
{1 "'
I 0 , " dl dy If I
J.IA .
9 54 CHAPTlR 14 Multiple Integrals
~7.
grnl, tu prove f:q (7) for the case in " hich U i• a rectangle
v. ith side• pamllcl to the conrdinatc a•cs.
U>c l( icmann surrs to pro'c the inequalities in (IS) fo r the
!!, j(.r. y ) dA
c:a'c in "hich R is a recta ngle wi th sides pa rallel to ahe of th~ Ki••m f rmcllon o•·a the rrgiun R bmmdt'tl by tlr<' unit cir·
C'OOrd tMtc "'"s. clr and the cm>rtlmutr ll res in the first qrtadrnnt, r.tri'(>t- unitkt'
~II. Usc itcrntcd intcgr;,l \ ami famililr propcrtic~ o f s in~k intc · Example 1-t~f<' 1111 tn ner partition resulting f rom the " " nf
11 = 5 subinruva/.~ in m elt directio n. Thcn 11<1' itrrnted integrals
grn ls to prO\'C Eq. (9) if R 1 nod R2 nrc recta ngles with sides
to calculate tht•<•tnct mlrte of tire cloul>le integm/.
parallel tu the coordinate axes and the right· hand edge of
R 1 is the lch· hand edge of R 2 • 52. / C.r .y ) = .ry 53. j(x . y) = xycxp(y 1)
::/h...-)
I /
"'""'"''' tb2]
/ -;- -- -- --~
---~l
I........_ ____
' ..
---Ill'<...,
fiGURE 14. 3.2 ~ ~ '":tqra' .., FIGUiiE 14 l . l ~ crosH«tiorul arta is
Eq. (1) a11h~ ••to of • r~<>n n t.">e
!. .
~.
Yl·pl•~- ,I ; l( •.y)d) .
II i~ of intc rc \1 tn nntc the c-onnectton t>et"'ccn tht< dcfintt ion :tn d the en>~·
sect io na l a pproac h to \ <Jlumc that "'e d•-.:u~<cd 10 S<-cllt>n t..~ . If. for example. th~
rc l!ion I< 1\ VC JIIcally \lmplc. then the ' Olumc tntc!:r.1l tn Eq ( 1) takc< the form
is equ:~lto the area of the region in the y~·plane that hes he low the curve
~ = / (r. y ) (x fheu)
a nd ahuvc the interval y,(.r) ::i y ~ )~(x) (Fig. l-1_1,:!). Uut thi< is the projection of
the cross section s hown in Fi~. 1-1.3.3. lienee th e \':lluc o f the in ner int egral is simply
th e area uf thc cross section of the solid region 1' in a plane perpendicular to the
x -axis. lltus
I and so in this case Eq. (I) reduces to -volume is the integral of cross-sectional area.-
' If c..·nch ,·c ni~o.·:,llin4..' in Ih.: ty -pbnt: 11'1(''-·ts U in a \lll,&:l c· line sc!!mt:nl .
'' tht:n N i< ,-crtkally sim pk. and you 111:1~ integral.: lir~t "'ith respect
'
~ to 1. ·n1e limit' 1111 .'\\ill he the .' -c'"' f<.h nah:' .' tiO and • :lx) nf the
endpt~illtS ,,f th i' lin.: sq:mcnt. (Sec Fi!!. l-1.~ ·l.l ·n,..,_limits on x "·ill
i~ ~
: :
be the endp<~ints" and /• of the tnt<:rval "''the
projects. 11teorcm ~ uf Section l-1.2 then gives
.1-a'" nntn "hich u
I • ~ •
Alternatively,
V= j'fJ. f (x,y) dA = [1 r
, :(]1
.rt()>
f(x.y) dxdy. (3)
II
. .
As md1cate 10 1g. · · .
x,
d. Fi IJ 3~• ()·) an d .TJ ( ' ·) :trt:
' the x-coordinatesd of .the
t
• and c and dare the en pomts
endpoints of this horizontal hne scgmcn , .
of the corresponding interval on the y·:IXIS.
.r
EXAMPLE 1 The rectangle R in the xy·planc consists of those poi nts (x, y) for
which 0 :5 x ;a 2 and 0 ;:; y ;a I. Find the vo lume V of th e solid that lies below the
surface~ = I + xy and above R (fig. 14.3.6).
Solution llcre f(x , y) = I +xy. so Eq. {I) yields
V = J£ :d,\ = 11\J 1
+xy)dy dx
FIGURE 14. 3.6 The solid of
A =a( R ) = JJ R
It/A = JJ II
dA
<-'1
of the plane region R. In this case the solid region T resembles a desert mcsl
(Fig. IJ.3.7)-a solid cylinder with base R of area A a nd height 1. The volume of
any such cylinder-not necessarily circular-is the product of its hei~ht and the area
of its base. In this case. the iterated integrals in Eq-;. {2) and (3) rcd~cc to
lclxcly,
.>but r .t'ocn
FIGURE 14.3.7 The mesa. respectively.
k~.t and \ 'Illume by ()ouble lnttg'>t!On S~CTION 14.3 957
= lo 1'
' : -~. t!' = , (3,
f' 't>] ,., - ;r; :) J ' = [ ~_ J~ '1
t: - t 3
0
= .,~
•
fiGURE 14.3.8 lhe reg'on R of
[J.~mple 2.
EXAM PL[ l Find the volume of the "'"C"dgc-sh~r<"d <ohJ T tha t lies nh<w e t he
.t)'·planc. hc 'l ow the pl:~ne ~ =
.1. and "ithtn the c-.·lind.:r , : + >: ~. Thi~ w.:uge is =
shown in Fig. I ~.3.9. ·
''
'''
cO.!; :
' ..../ .. - ,.J
•/
~-11--T' --------
/ ' ...;;:-;;
• -o"
··0 ., ,_. 0 )
V = J~: dA=2Jo.Jo
[' { ,Ffi [' [ I 2] ..{;:;;
xd.rcdy=2 } •
0 2x • ..0 ely
= [<4-yl)dy= [4y- jy)J: = '; .
As an exercise. you should integrate in the other order and verify that the r~uh is
the same. •
I
I I
I Volume Between Two Surfaces
I I I
I I Suppose now that the solid region T lies <lbove the plane regio n R, as before, but
i/:-t--J
I~' '
bctwel'tl the surface"s z =
z,(.r. y) a nd:= ~z(x. y ), where z,(.t, y ) ~ ;:1(x, y) for all
(.r. )')in R (Fig. !4.3.11 ). 111cn we get1hc volume V of 1' by subtracting the \'olumc
below:= z 1 (.r , y) from the volume below l = zz(.t, y), so
More briefly.
V = JJ
(Z1op -
"
~t«) tiA l
" he re ~•or = ~: (.r. y ) describes the top surface and~"'" =
~ ~ (x · y) th e bott om surface
of T . This is a natural generalization of the fo rmul a ro.r the area of the plane region
be tween the curves y = : d .r) a ndy= ~z (.r) o ver the m tc rva!Jn. b J. ~lorcover.like
that fo rm ula. Eq . (5) is v:~lid eve n if : d.r , yl. o r both : J(.r . y) and ~z(.r. y). arc negative
ove r part o r all o f the region R.
V =
JJI!
(z,or - Zt>,.) dA =j l
- 1
11-•'
,r l
(6 - 2 y) d y tlx
= 2
10
1 [ 6y -l)--
' • ' d.r
,• • l
(hy ~>· m me t ry)
1. !! R
Jt-.rl- y2 tiA
2. ~~ (10- .t + y) dA
3. Jj {1-
R
J.r2+ y2)tft\
4. Jj Jxl +
R
y2 tiA
S. jj R
(5 - .r2 si nx + yl cosy) dA
AJu • "'<l \'clum~ by Dovb'~ t.,:~·non StCliO'J 1.- .J 959
14.3 PROBLEM S
Iff Prt:t.&,frmtl rl':tnu (h Jn. '''' d'lu't!, •~·r~ra• ., t 'f ff.f If., t: • t,J
l. ) =
!. ' s
J,
I ,
,:
\
-
of :1-.t rrc:c.l" m tl:< a' ·ti.Jr:' ,..,,,, f, If,) tht li'' rrt n..n tl
..
=: I •
t sO t • l. ' • n. ' ..
'
. \ ''
Probl ~m
2
). Problem 4
.
:- -'• • • y-;
. r r
\ ~ t•• I •
n. ' - o. :_,
s. y = x , .. +y - 2. y - Cl
1
6.. y=(.t - l ) , ya( t ..· l )1 , \' • 0
7. y=x 1 +1. y • 2t 1
- 3 ( l i jt 14.3 Ill) In r ,,fit,mt 17 lh,.t)II C,w. fi,, Jtltt> ' ,,fhm,. rtf th,. xn·rn \ tt/,d
8. y c A1 + 1. y • 9 - l
1
(llA IU.\7) !7, lhe \'>hill\ t>ounJn l tw the pLtnr• I ... o. ~ n.: 1), Mlll N
3 t -~\•: = h
f iCURE 14.) . 16 In rrnhlriiU 31 throt.tt,l: 3·1. f.nt ,,., , , ~It unotttlutttJ:rtJ/ thnt
rt CURE 14.3. 17
Probl~m 7. gi\ t'J ll:r \ O/umt' of tJ:r (I\ ttt J4t/:./ 17UI1 U't' U (Omfltlltr o/~rbra
Probl~m 8. suum (t/ U\oUl..z.~/,., M t\a!u;JU t.htJ ltHt'trnl
9. )' =•. y = h, .rya2 31. The sohJ h.-s m•iJe the nhnckr , : ~ ,: • I . ~h<he the
2 J >· r lanc. •nJ ~k>wth( plane;= t i- I (fig. I ~..J II/)
,. .. l + t:
II. : = I + X + y; • = o. X - I. y • o. )' .. I
1!. :::: 2.r + Jy; .t =0, .r = :l. y = 0. .\' = ~
U. : = y + r'; .c = 0, ·' ., I , y • 0. ,1' ., 2
1
'- : = 3 + COS .f + COSy; :< 0, X = c .~, ,1' "' 0, yen
(Fig. 14.3. IS)
IS. : = X + )'; .f =0, y D 0. X + ~· .. I
FICURE 14.3. 19 l h c solid of
16. : = 3.r + 2 .1·; :< =0, y =Q, :< + 2y "' ol Problem 31 ,
17, < "' I +.i + y; • = I. r • 0, .1' .. .rl
18 32. l'he solid !ies n~ve the .ry·plnne :tnd be: low the paraboloid
· : = h + y; x =: 0. y = I . :< = ./Y : =9 - r - .t".
19. ,.,,I; )' .. ,l, )'= I
3.". The soli~ lies :nsid; both the cylinJcr .t1 + >'' .. l and the
sph~ re x· + r
+ :· = 4.
960 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integrals
J..t. Tlu: solid lies inside the sphere .~: 2 + yl + :2 = 2 and above .0. Find the volume removed when :t vcrt ical square hole of
the p~raboloid ~ = x: + yl. edge length R is cu t directly t~rough the center of a long
horizontal solid cylinder nf rad111< R.
35. Usc douhlc integra tion to lind the volume of the tetrahc·
dron in the first octant th~l i~ bounded by the coordinate 4-t. Fi nd t he volume of the soll,d l~unded by the two surfaces
planes and the plane "ith equation : = .r2 + 3>.2 and: ;: -1 - r (f-Ig. 1-1.3.2-1).
~ y .:
-a +-+
b
-=!
c
(Fig. 14.3.20). The numbers a, b. and c arc positive constants.
14
.4 1DOUBLE INTEGRALS IN POLAR COORDINATES
A double int egral may he easier to evaluate after it has hce n transformed from
rectangular x~·-coordina tes into polar r!i-coordinatcs. lltis is likely to ~ the ':1 se
when the region R o f in tegra tion is a p olar rectangle. A pol:~r rectan gle IS 3 region
described in pola r coordina tes by the inequalities
(I)
a ~ r ~ b. a ~ 0 :'i /J.
llti~ polar rectangle i~ shown in fig. 1-1.4.1. If a = 0. it is a sector o_f a circul~r disk of
rad1us h. If 0 < a < ''·a = 0. and p = 2:r. it is an annular ring of tnncr rad1us" and
outer radius IJ. Beca u\e the area of a circular sector with radius r und cent ra l angle 0
is lr 20. the ar ea of the polar rectangle in (I) is
A = !b 2 (fl- a) - !a 2 ({J - a)
JJ t<~.
R
y) di\.
where U i• the polar rectangle in (I). Thus we want the volume of the solid wit h base
R that lies below the surface:=[(.<. y) (fig. 14.4.2). We tlcfincd in Scctinn 14.lthc
douhlc integral as a limit of Riem:mn sums associated with partitions consis t ing of
1
ordinary rectangles. We can define the double integral in terms or polar partitio11s as
well, made up of polar rectangles. We begin with a partition
••• a = ro < r, < 'l < · · · < r,. =b
FIGURE 14.4.2 A solid region
whose bdse is the poldr of (a.I>J intom subintervals all having the same length t:.r = (b - rt)/nr and n partition
rotunglc R. a = ~ < 01 < ~ < · -· < o. = fJ
of [a. flJ intu n subintcrv~ls all having the same length AO = (jJ- a)fn. l11is gives
the polar partiti on 1' nf R into the l = m n polar rectangles R 1. R 2 , •••• R 1 indicated
in Fig. 1-U J. The nnrm 11'1of this polar partition is the maximum of the lengths of
the diagonals of its polar subrcctanglcs.
Let the center point o r R, ha\'c polar coordinates (r;. 8;>.where r; is the average
radius of R,. Then the rectangular coordinates of this poi nt arc x; = r; coso;
nnd
)'
le i i::d
I
= L s <r,'. r,' ) t:>.r t:>.O.
1=1
J!
I
the small polar rectangle suggest
that its area is dA = r d1 dO. j(x.y) t/A = tP1-
lim l : J <x;. y;)6 A ,
0
R •• I
= lim I
2:_g<r;. o;)t:>.r 6 0 = 1~1b Ji(r, O) drdO.
d,.~ B - 0
·-1 a a
That is.
s and inserting the appropriate limits of integration o n rand 0. In particular, note t/t(
"extra " r 1>11tlrt! riglu·lra11tl sit/(' o f Eq. (3). You may remember it by visualizing the
FIGURE 14.4.S The paraboloid of "infinitesimal polar rectangle·· of Fig. 14.4.4. with "area" dA = r dr dO.
Example 1.
EXAMPLE 1 Find the volume V of the solid shown in Fig. 14.4.5. This is the figure
bounded below by the xy·planc and above by the paraboloid~ = 25- x2 - y2.
,. Solution 1l1e paraboloid intersects the xy·plane in the circle x2 + y2 = 25. We can
compute the volume of the solid hy integrating over the quarter of that circle that
lies in the first quadrant (Fig. 14.4.6) and then multiplying the result by 4. Thus
V =4
10 0
s1~ (25 -x 2 - y 2 )d)'d.r.
.
There is no difficulty in performing the integration with respect to y, but then we are
confronted with the integrals
/ I 2
,.o j .)25-x 2 dx, jx V25-x 2 dx, and j<25-x2)ll2 dx.
FIGURE 14.4.6 One-fourth of the
domain of the integral of Let us instead transform the original integral into polar coordinates. Because
Example 1. i 2
25- xz- = 25- r and because the quarter of the circular disk in the first quadrant
d
0 s s :: /~ .
I'
.·-'
e J . -
J
=" ~
~
' •
More Ccncr,,l Pol.u-Coord inatc Regions
If R "a mnrt' ~<'ntr~l rtr ->n. t"c'" "c o:'ltr3~<!Nm inh> J'>l.tr coonltn.ttc<thc d ouhlc
tntq:r nl
•
... JJ• /l r. >lJ \
h)' n rrr•\ln,· II~·""""' of Rorrunn <Um< ...........ttcJ "" ~ "J''l.tr inner r -trlll l\ln<"
nf the <nllonJo<31t'd on !'tot 1 ~ J • ln<lt'3J .,r ~'""~ th\' lfcl~rkd <kri\'~tion-~ 1\Cn ·
c t ~ l ll .lllo>fl olt hc pt <<r•hn 1• d rrr• rll••n ,.( 1 •l t l )-" <" <h.tll <rnrph tthc the rc\lrl t< in
I IGUR£ 14.4 .7 A pol•• inorr
OOC' \ f"CI.U' C.\'<: of r~>h.h;. dl tm('•ft.JO\t"
l"rt.lion ol the '"JoOn R
h \•urc 1 s J' \ ho\'' .1 radi.Jih umrlr f t'CIC\0 R ('l'lht\Un~ n ( lhtt'.C point 'IO with
p<~b r C<>••HIIIr.llr < tlut <,11l<h• the m<<JUihllc<
JJ I(
(I r . •·loll\ -
1 "'
~ 1·
,, ....
.. (5)
f.il·c~ the C\':tlu ~tion in polar cnord lltatc~ of 4 douhlc lnt<ltrill me r /( (unde r the
usu~ l a"~1111rtinn th at the indrcllcd integral• c\ist). =" ntc thai v. c integrate hf\t w ith
rcspc<'tlo r. \\llh the hmit• r 1(0) ond r :(ll) N:ing the r-c-uurdrn~lc< uf ,, t yp rc:o l rndia l
SC):III<' Jit in N (lir,. 1·1.-I.S) .
l igurc l-1-l.'J 'l"'"s huw "'" ,·,rn '><: t up the IICJJtcll intc~:tr:tl on the right · hand
silk ••f F.q. (5) in a r..m1al " a)'· Fir<t, n t~prcal :uca clement tltl r dr ti!J i• s wept =
IIGUR[ 14.4.8 A rJclrJIIy ~lrnplc radially frum r = ' '(II) In r a r:(tl). Sccuml, the resu lt ing strip" rnt<~lcd from 0 = a
rtgion R. to 11 = fJ to '"cep out the rc~tion K Equation (5) yield' the V<•lumc fo rmula
JJ •
flx . .>)dtl = jj .I
ftrct.,.,f! .r sin Otrrlr.tO. (7)
1ltc symbol S o n the ~ight-hand si~c represents ~he _appro~riale limits on r and e
such thnl the region R 1S swept out m the manner md1catcd m Fig. 14.4.9.
With f(x. y)., I, Eq. (7) reduces to the fo rmula
area o f R is
fti.f-H r d rdO
A=
i. ,_
=211 l•cood
r drdO
(symme try)
0 ~ r ~ 2cos 0, - rr / 2 ~ () ~ rr/2.
We shall integra.te only n_ve~ the upper half of I<, rakin g advantage o f the symmetry
of the sphc rc ·wath-hole. llus mvo lves dou bling, for a second time the integra l we
FIGURE 14.4.12 The small <ircle is write. So-using Eq. (5)- we find that '
the domain R ol the Integral of
Example 3.
965
and t herefore
,. = jj t ; '7 - :....,lc-'
•
EXAM PLE 4 lind the 'olu:::~ o! tl':~ so!id that is 1-oo~;::dec 3!-\1\C hy lhc r;~n!xlloiJ
~ = IS- ,: and ~l o" by t!:e r-1:a!'1oloiJ : =,:(Fig. I.!.! 1~).
~Olu1ion 'Jhc CUI\ C of in:ers.ectiO:l o! t!:~ l\lo O p.U3!-.,!,11J> 1< f,1UnJ hy <imultJnC'OU\
\Oiullon of the cquJI!orn of th~ t'llo{) sur~a~ \\c cl:m:nJtc: to ot>t.u n
,~=I>-,:_ t!:.lt ,, ,: = J
li enee the Y>lod locs aho,e the p!Jne cucubr dn\. f) "'ith p<>IJr Jc<ntptinn 0 :i r :i ~
nnd ~o the \'Oiume of the sold i\
(9)
(llu: lir>t inequality i< valid 1-cc:tusc ,.- •' !I ,.- • for A ~ 1.) It follows that
1• ,.-•' dx
Solution Le t v. deno te the \'Oiume of the region that lies below the surface ~ =
~- · '- •' and above the square with \'crticcs (±b, ±b) in the xy -planc (f1g. 1-IA.I-1).
l llCII
It follows th~t the volume Lue Iow~ ="-·'-•'· and abovc Ihe cnttrc xy-pl anc is 0
2
v = &lim
-N
v. = b-oo r• ..-·' dx) =-1 (
lim -1 ( lu [
o e-•' dx)
2
= 412.
where 1 denotes the value of the improper integral in (9).
966 (H,WTER 14 Multiple Integrals
\\'c equa te these '"·o va lues of l ' . and it follo ws thai ~1 2 = :r . lltercforc. / = !fi.
as desired. •
14.4 PROBlEM S
In Problems I through 7. jiml the indicatt•d tut•n by tlouh!t• intc- 4
7. TI1o area inside tho sm~ l lcr loop of r = 1 - 2sin 0
gration in polar cuordinatrs. (Fig. 14.-I. I S)
29. Fi•J I~< •-nl=e <>! t~c -l<'C-ce3on «'11<- 1-ountkd " ' the
'r"'crc z=- :a.: - ::~ c:: J.nJ the C'<'nc: = \ r = ..... , : ' ' 'he'n
o = I c"''' <.0! J n t"'c "'t"<' ~ h'-l"' :1 rn Fig 1.1 J :.:..
30. FinJ lhc \ O!u:n-e t-.. .. un ,kJ r~ rh;.• r.tr.t"'~'t'iJ.: = r:. the
(I i f, 14.4.20) C)hnJr: r r ~:a \I:"'' ... . 3nd tl"c rbr.~: =0
JJ. rir.J :ht \(,lt.. ~t l!'t 1t l1c:~ ~IO"- the: r.lrJ~)h,jJ : .. , :
a nd "~"t <lr.c I ""r ,~f the lcmna,·.arc " ith c.·qu.auo n
1 , :. ~,n..,
1"1'
quJnrr-cirdc of q uJrter-circfc o f Pro blem 18. 1 ~
Problems I 3 and 14 • . . d • d•=-
• If - •. - .' 'I• ~
In Pmhlrms 19 rhmuglr 12, find rlrc •·olumr of tlr( sn li.t tlrnt is
bf)llfltlt:'tl n f}(W C nml b doh•/)y the gil·t•n su rf acrs :: = :: 1(.c , y ) llttd 35. l'ini.l ~he volume of the ><.>lic.l torus o btarnec.l by revolving
: = ::(.r. y) tlnd /irs abnl't' thr p lim r rt'Ri<m I? /J<)lmdr~l l>y tlw tf~e doskr ~ " aro unJ the line .< = b > a (f ig, 1·1..1 .2~).
gi•·r11 run·c r = g (/1). j.Su~g<'.ffWII: If t he orca clement d A = r dr J O is revolved
around the line, the •·olumc gcner3tcd os dV = 2.~(b -x )tlA .
19. ;=I. : = 3 + x + y; r = I
E xprc55 c•-e~·thing in polar coordinarcs.J
!0.; = 2 + .r , ; =4 + l r : r =2
!I. ; = 0, ; = 3 + .r + y; r = 2 sin 0
22. ; = 0. : = I + .r : r = I + cos O
Soll't Problt nu 23 thro ugh 32 by d o ubl' int<"grotion in polar
coordmnrrs.
!3. Find the volume of a sphere of r~dius a by do uble inte·
grolio n.
U. Find the ,·olume of 1he solid bo unded by 1he parabo loids
: = 12 - 2x 2 - ~· 2 and: = .r1 + 2y 2• FIGURE 14.4.23 The FIGURE 14.4.24 The torus
spherical segment of Problem 35 (the case
25. Suppose tha t h > a > 0. S how l hal the volume of the solid of Problem 33. a= 1, b = 2 is sho wn).
bounded by the cylinde r .r' + y' =a'.
the plane : = 0. and
the pla ne .:= x + h is V = :ra'h.
26. Find the \'Oiume o f the wedge-shaped solid described in In Problems 36 through 40, ust doub/c ifllt!grals in powr coordi·
Example 3 of Section 14.3 ( Fig . 14.4.21). nat<> to find tile ••o lumcs of tit< indicated solids.
27• Find the volume bounded by the paraboloids l = x 1 + Y 1 36. The solid lies abo,·e the plane : = - 3 and below the pa 3 •
and ; = 4 _ 3.t ' _ 3 yl , boloid z = 15- 2x1- 2y2. r
U!. Find the volume bounded by the paraboloids l =X 1 + Y' 37. The solid is bounded ubove by the plane ; =
below by the par aboloid : = .r2 + yl + >'·
,I' + 4 nod
and 1 = 2x2 + 2y2 _ 1.
968 CHAPTlR 14 Multip!e lntegra't
38. The sohd lies imide the: cylinder_.: + 1 1 a .1, aN>H: the 3 Jcet-rn S\'<tem co show chat the 'olume of mate rial removed
..t )·plane. and below the plane~= .r- ~· + J. is ;bout flo.~ of the 'olume o f the sphere .
39. The 'IOiid i< bounded by the c:lliptic:~l p;\rabo!oid~: =.rl + 43. Sup~~ chat a hc:\ .1gonal hco!t: .s cu~ s~mmetric;\lly ch_rough
1ylnnd: =12 - ul - y= . the center or a sphere nr r~dJU5 - · lllc CTil"< SeCtiOn or
che hole 1< a uni t regular hc.\l).!C>n - a si~·sidet.l equiJn~u
40. ll1e solid lies inside: the ellipsoid .! c1 + .!yl ... := =SO and lar poly)!un v.·ith c:l<' h )Ide and "rJthu<- of le ng th I. Usc a
;\hove the paraboloid: = 2_r1 + 2_,.1. computer a ljtchra <y<t<.>m w ;how that the volume uf rnJ.
41. find the \'Oiumc rc:mO\cd \!o hen 3 circular hole or radiUS tcrial rcmcncd 1< a.oou t :!<J% of the ' o lumc of the sphere.
n < b 1> bored S)'mmetrically thro ugh the center o r 3 srhc:r.: !To g1,c ~our nlntl'lltcr :tl)!chra sy<>tcm •. mo re '1goruus
or trldius b. IChrck: It's about 35 % or the \ Oiu me or ch.: \\OilOUI . \OU {'(lUIJ try :1 J'Cili:I~On:ll (ti ,·e·SI(kd) Of hcptag.
sphe re when o ., I anti b e 2.1 on 3 1 ()cv~n·\ttl~dJ hole. each "ith - ratltus- I. With~ unn
n. Suppo..: that 3 circular hole with radiO~ I i< CUI off-center li·s:Jcd poll con. t he Hllunu: of the matcri~l removed"
through a <phcre uf radius J The a~J< of the hc>le IS at o«·r .u•. oi 'chat of th e <rhcn:. close to the :150.:. figure
di<tance 2 from the center of the sphere Usc a computer c1ted m l'rot>lem J 1.1
"'= jj y)dA.
R
.Str. (I )
In brief,
m= j~ odA= j~ dm
in terms of the dens ity l5 nnd the m ass cleme nt
dm =o d;\ .
'lltc coordinates (x. y) of the centroid ,
defined to be • or cwter of mass, of the laminn ~re
~
Y= Ill j'f1..., ,~(.r ..
II
>) tiA
. (3)
•
-- 969
• = ~JJ.raM.
,
1,...nU\ -• anu.• -~ are the · n th~ rc11.ion R.
a1 rra~r, al11rJ
of .r and , "•:h rrsrr.:r I <' ma!.S 1 - •
The centrl••J lt. \It\ the f'OI:'ll o! the bm1n:l ·,. he re t1 "' ou!J l-:1lln:e honLontatly tf
pbccd on the pomt of an i:e I''' ~ I Fi z. !! .5 : 1 f
lithe den\lt\ fuf'Ction ~ hJ< t h~ mr:.ff.u:: , aluc t -. 1'. then the Cl>Ordtn:ttcs ?
IIGURl 1~ S.2 A LJmo<U b.l ~'XC<i ' and\ arc indcrcndent of the <;-::-.:1f: , J!ue o~ k 1\\ h~ 'l In -u.:h a .:a•: "'.: " 'tl
1
<1''" <tnlrood {:.:nerally ta\.c ~a ltn our co~puta!H'"'- ;\lo rco ,cr. tn th1<ca<c m "'tl ha 'c the ~a me
numc r"31 ' aluc a\ the :~ re 01 A of R. 3 ~J 11 . '''~ t!:cn calkJ th<" Ct'ntrnid of the pi :an<"
r t~:ion 1<.
Gene ra\1~. "'e mu<t cakuiJic all three m:cgrals tn Eq'- (I) th rnu~h ()) 1n order HI
Ctnd the ce ntroid Cl! a!Jmtr.l Uut ~mellme\ "'eon ta;..c :d,ant.t~e of the f"tl'""n~
J_lmmrtr\ pflnnplr If the plane rc~ 11m R (C•'""'krcd w 1-..: a b min:l of con~t:lnl
dcn\11)) " ·~ mmctn.:: "'tth rc•r-;c: to the hl'c 1.-thJit"- tf R t< orned <>nl<llt<elf "hen
the r lane 1< fl >l .tl cd rhwu~h ~n ~n~le of 1'-11 awunJ the line L- thc n the cen trOid
of R he' ••n I u ·,~:_ I~<< ) r,., r u mple. the lcnumd of~ rccr~n):le ( Fi!! 1-1.5.-1) i<
the f'(>ll11 " here the rc rpcndJCUilr l>I'CC INs of tts <1Jcs mccl. !-.:cruse t he~<: l-tsccwrs
:uc ~l<o lme< of\\ mmctr. .
In the ca\t'.O! a m;nwn•ranr den<rt~ fu ncllon J, "'C rcqutrc (fnr S)mntc try)
th~t 6-as " ell n\ the tC!ll<ln '''elf - I'<' <ymmctnc nl-<>ut the f.COm c tric line I. of
symmctry. ln:tll' " c rcquuc that .lt l' l,.. AC(J) tf (as tn Fi~. I-1 .5J) the I"""''
I' and
Q nrc ·~ mme t n~all) l •..:atcJ "'rh •np.:ct w l .. Then the ccntu•iJ u( the bmina R
"'til lie on the !tnc l. of S)tnltlcl~.
EXAMPLE 1 Consider the semicircul:u disk of radius a shown in fig. 1' .5.5. If it
. ~ a 1. Ih en .tiS ma<S .rs m = 1! rra 2( numen. cally equal to its area),
has coru;t:mt d cnslly
and hy symmetry its centroid C(:t. )') lies o n they-axis.. H ence:< =
0. and we need
on I)' compute
y= .!.. Jj ~- dr.t
r m
2.
R
_f fi I ,.. o,
=
=
rra ·
r.· [<r sin 0) rdrd9
rra· Jo o
2. 0 :ra
(polar coordinates)
3:-r
n 1us the centroid of the scm~ircular lamina i~ located at the point (0. ~a /3:-r ). Note
~-E 14.S.S Th~ centroid of a th~t the comrutcd '':tlue fur y has the dt~cnst~ns o f length {because a is 3 length) ,
····~ular dtsk (b1mple 1).
as tl should. Any answe r that has other d tmc nstons would be suspect. •
-
970 CHAPT£Rl4 Multiple Integrals
2 • 63 r.
FIGURE l4.S.6
txampte 2.
Th~ lam1na of
= ~
1 - I
(.rl + 2.r"- X )dX = 20"·
,
20
-
jl . + 2.t)- x ) d.t - 2063 . ~5 = ~:7
(x
j -
63 -1
3'=-20.-j j 63k
2
-1
J
•'
+2
kx 2 ydydx= 6.)~J- 1 2·r·y
20 l l ].
1 , 2 +2
, • ••
1012. 3 ~ 6 -~ . 531_ 11 8
= -;- (x + ·h + 4x - .t J clx - 63 35 - 41) .
6, -1
·nutS the lamina of this example has mass 63k/20. and its centroid is located at the
point(;. '1:>. •
Solution First \\t! change to polar coordin~tcs. b.:cause both the shape of the llound·
ary of the lamina and the formula for its density su~gest that thi ~ will make the
computations much simpler. Equation (I) then yie lds the mass to he
1\y symme try of the lamina and its density functio n. the centroid lies o n the line
y = .t. So Eq. (.'\)gives
_x=y=-
_ I
m
fl.R
y~ d,\=~ 6
k :ra3 0
1"'21ao kr3 si n 9drd9
_
-
6
~a3
1•!2
o
[4'• sm· O 1 ]"
d O= ::--3.71
6 a4 • 11 3a
sin Od O= 2-.
,..o .. a .. o rt
Thus the: given lamina ha.s mass !k:ral; its centr ·d · d he point
(3a/2~. 3a/2.-.r). 6 01 ts 1ocate at t •
IIppi UlJOtU o' Double ln~t9"J 1 S SECTION 14.5 971
\'=A · d
fiGURE 14.5.8 A ~lid of volume
v. " d 11 g•nerat~ by th,. ar~.s of the sol idi \ the product of t!le are.a A of R a,-d the d1<1.1n.:c J tn,ek d hy the
, ,. rtsctntrOO<I trovtl\ the ccntrord o f R.
d \(,net d • h r around a drcl,.
cl r..rouH.
"
1
/hl- ... ,
• b
fiGURE 14.S.9 A rrgion R ~tWffn fiGURE 14.5 . 10 A sobd ol rtvOiuloon con\iu ing of
the gr •ph> of two functJons. cytmdriol ~.
PROOF In Section 6.6wc !reared the spccialcasc ofn ' ertic:~llysimplc region of the
form illustrated in Fig. 1-1.5.9 and the correspond ing ' o lumc u( re volution i llu~tratc:d
in rig. I ~ .5. 10. M or.: gcn.:rally.l: t 'P = {H 1 • R: • . .. • R ,Jl>c an inn.:r partition of f<.lcl
(.r; . .r;> b.: the c.:nt.:r or the rectangle R,. a nd kt ~A 1 denote the area o f R, . ll1c n. by
the formula fo r th e vnlurnc of a cylindrical shell (Eq . ( I) in Section 6.3). the volume
obtained by revolving the rectangle H1 in a cirdc of radiu~ .r; around the }'·axis (for
inst~nce) is L~-11, -2:u; A t\ 1 • ll rncc the volume of the entire ~ol ld o f revolution is
given approximately by
v ;:; L• ~ v, = L2;r.r;
•
AA, .
••• ••1
We see here a Riemann sum appro:rimatin~t rhe integral
~!~URE 14.$.11 A sphere of EXAMPLE 4 Find the v~lumc V of t.he sphere of rndius a genernted by revolving
~~•. o g~nerattd by revolving a around the x-axis the semtcucular regton D of Example 1. See Fig. 1~.5. 11.
IOrcular region ot uea
At 1 rr
t'lo l ' around iu dameter on 1
Solution The area of Dis A= i:ra • and we found in Example I that y == 4a/3:r.
c., ··~•11 (uample 4). The Hence Pappus's theorem gives
, . · tro1d of the stmiclrcle travels
Crtt~ of circumference
d'Ot1g '
"2., v.
_ -Ia :ral 4
V=2:ryA=2:t · -
3JT
· - = -JTal.
2 3
+
972 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integrals
EXAMPLE 5 Consider the circu lar d isk o f Fig. 1-t5. 12. with ra dius (I and center Jt
the point (/l. 0) "'i th 0 < a < b. find the vol ume \1 of th~ solid to rus ge nerated bv
revolving this disk a round they-axis. Such a to rus is shown in Fi!!. 14.4.2-t ·
;-- Solution The centroid o f the circle is at its ce nt e r (b. 0). sox= h. He nce the ce ntroid
is revo lved through the distanced = 2:rb. Conseque ntly.
, ,
i,. l;rlt
,
=
V :: d. r\ 2:r b - ~(I - = ~7 ·a·b.
--•==-11 xds. - 11
s ('
y= -
.f c
y ds 1-'l
depending on whc_th cr Cis a smooth a rc of the form y == f (x) or one of the form
x = g(y ). Alternatively. we may ha\'C
X = (I CO<r,
o
. r.
y =a sm 0 ~ 1 ~ ;r .
y-axis. Note that the answer is both ~Ia~;~;~ aocated ~~ l_he point (0, 2tl j:r) on the
nd dlm~;nstonally correct. •
I
l
The first theorem of Pappus· !t·t
• s, an analog uc• ror surface area of revolution.
... 4 973
ApplicJtions of Double Integra 1s SECTION 1 .5
A=
1•
I~
2rrxds = 2rr.<·-I
J
!•
l• o
xds
EXAMPLE 7 Find the s urface area A o f the sphere of radius a generated by revo-
lving around the x-axis the semici rcular arc of Example 6.
Solution Uceausc we found that y = 'liz f rr and we know tha t s = rra, the second
theorem of Pappus gives
Solution Now we think of rc•·olving :.ro und the y·axis the circle (not the d isk ) of
ra di us u ce nt ered at the poin t (b . 0). Of cour~c. the centroid of the circle is loca te d
a t its center (h. 0): this follo" s from the symmct ry princip le o r can be '"erified hy
using computations such as those. in Example 6. l-Ienee the dist:mcc tra••elcll hy the
ce ntro id is d = 2:rb. Because the circumference of the circle iss== 2;r,., the second
theorem of Pappus gives
(5)
v.he rc I' c r<x. y ) denotes the pcrpcru.l icular distance: 111 L I rom the point ( r , y)
o f U.
The m m t imJIOrta nt case i' th:Jt in which the axis uf re•·ulutinn i~ th e • .. · .
f - . • .1,., so
I' = , = J~l + > ( h~ 1-15 1~). In tim C:J\C we call I "' l o th e ......., lllunwnt or
int"rtiJ uf the htmma U. llru\ the polar ntcnn~n t uf rrt~ fha ul U ;, d e tine d tu he
~6)
9 74 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integral!
It follo\\"5 t hnt
fo =I,~ 1_..
where
(7)
and
I,= ~~x:dm = ~~.r:~dA. (II)
I Jere I, ·~~the mo ment of ·mcrua · o f t h e 1an 1 I·n~• around th e .r-axi~ :~nd / , is its moment
of inertia aro und the 1'·3xis. . . '· · . · . . • . f
. . I' at' on of moments of inertia ln\'o ln:s "Ill' IIC 'Ill'£> o tO·
rtant app IC. t ( II , c r ' n' 1) w' th
· t\nc Impo·<• • 1~r dt.<k
tntl(>tt . o n<iuer a ctrcu"
•
. th·•1t i< r.:\'oh·ing
•
- arou nd tts .co.:n tt:r ftc. ' 1;,11 1 • · I•
FIGURE. 14.5 . 1S TI1e rot.ltlng do!~. d d . ccond A ma<< .:kmcnt elm attli~tanco.: r 1om t l c on gm
an!!ubr ~pee "' ra tans per •. · '- S) ' lhus the kim:tic e nergy of the
is rnnvin!! wi1h (linenr) vcloctty ,. = ' "' (Fi!'. 14.5 · 1· · ·
mass clement is
Summing by integration over the whole di sk. we find that its kinetic energy due to
rota lion at angulnr speed w is
Beca use linear kineticen erc" has the formula .- E = ~ m.?. Eq. (9) suggests (correctly)
!ha t moment of inerti:1 i.~ th~ rotalional an:~ Iogue of tn:IS'-
A =1 1''
- 1
1
-y•
l dxdy= ~5 -
X
The cross secti on of_sue~ a re~tangula r beam is shown in fig. 14.5.1 7. It s width is l
a nd the moment of mert ta of lis cross sectio n is
!11/S 4
1, =
1-1 -liS
y 2 dxdy=-.
15
• f4
B ccause Ih e rallo • • IS
FIGURE 14.5.17 A r~ctar>gular o ' to n IS T . we see tha t the I beam is more than twice as strong
~a m for compari1on with the as a rectangular beam o f the same cross -sectional are a . Th is strength is why 1 beams
1~am ol Examp l~ 9. are com mon!)' use d in construction.
App hu:>O<n c1 Double lnt~·als SECTlON 1•.S 975
Solu_t ion In C Mtesta n coordmat~ the l~ma R <XCU;Jies th e rl:~nc r egion -~ .._ f
2
:? a·: 10 pola r coordmales. thLS restion h3S the much simple r descriptio n 0 ~ r S a,
0 $ fl S 2:: . Equat ion (6) then gJ\-e$
f) = jj ,
o = {:.. [
r 2 dA
} ';) l
6r 3 dr d 9 = ~:-:,a' = ~na'.
- -
14.5 PROBLEMS
1• Probtr..., 1 through /0, find rht untmid of the plant rtgion 7. y = 0. y = x 1, x =2
bo•ndrd by thr given curves. Auumt thattht dttuiry is & el for
toe}, rtgiolt
8. y = x 1 , y =9
l • ., 0. .t = 4, )' =o. )' = 6 9. y = 0. '1 = xl - 4
1. . .. 1, .t =3, )' = 2, y = 4 10. ;r:: -2, ;r =2, y = 0. '1 .. xl +1
l.'"-1, .t = 3. Y=-2, y=4 In ProbltmJ I I through 30, find thr mass and centroid of the
(.
l .. 0, )' .. 0, .t + y =3 plant lamiM with th.- ;,dicattd shapr and dtnsiry.
s. ,.,O. y,O tl. The triangular region bounded by x "' 0, y = 0. andz+y = 1,
l . .t + 2y = 4
.,;tb &(.t. y) =xy
1•0. .
>''".t .t +y = 2
976 CHAP'T[R 14 Multiple Integrals
I = /0 + m (x,~ + )',lJ.
FIGURE 14.5.22 The tr.lf.lt'lold of
Problem 48. 55. Supf'O'C that a plane lamina con< isis o r two nn noverla pping
lami nae. Shnw that i~< po lar mome nt of inertia is the sum of
~- ,,rrly the occ.,nd th,·orcm of I'Jf'I'U' tc> show that the Iat · I heirs. U~e I hi< faCI togethe r wi th the re sul t< nf J'rohlcms 53
cr>l sutfJcc area of the conical frus tum of l'mhlcm 4 s L< and 5-l to tind the ro lar mo ment u( inertia or the T ·Sh~pcd
a " n(r 1 + r:)L. wh~rc lamina or consta nl de nsity~ .. k > 0 shown in Fig. 145.25.
I. a /(r 1 - r:l' + hl
1
is 1tHinnt hci~hl.
!0. (•l Arrly the scmnd theore m or l'a ppus to vc ri(y that the (- • • 4 ) r----+----1 ( 4 • • ,
cuf'<J >urfacc >rc> of n right circular cylinder of height h
I I
(- 4 . ) ) / " (4. )/
•nJ tx"c <Jehu" h :\ = 2Hir . (b) Exr>lain hmnh i< follows (- I.JI (1, )J
:~h.o from the result ,,( Pruh1l"m J9.
!1. (•l finJ the ccntrnid of the plane region shown in 1- 1. or 11. 01
fi~ 1..S.5.2...~. "h ich C\ln~i~t~ f'f a scmicirculJr rccinn of radius
G sinin~ JI<'P a n·cun~ul:u rq.titln or width i, :-~nd height FIGURE 14.5.25 One lam ina made of
b ,.hO<c l>3st "en the .I ·Hi.;. (h) 'I hen apply the lirst the · two simpler ones (Problem SS).
orr-m of Pappu~ iO hnd the volume ge nerated by rotating 56. A r:tcquc t con~ists ora un i!ormlamina. that oc.cupies the rc·
thi< rcg,ion >round the .t·3xis. ginn inside I he righl·h3nd loop or , : cos UJ on lhe end of =
n handle (as>umcd to be or ncgligibk m;.ss) corrc~ponding
to Ihe inte rval - I ~ ~ ~ 0 (Fig. 1-1.5.26). find 1he radius of
gyra1ion or the racquet aro und the line x = -I. Where ;.
its s" cct spot'/
T h
.r=-1
'
---:-4-::~_..,...j_
o,
(-O. (o. 0) ...
to ._.,._ lhat the wlume tJf a p:uabolo•tl of re vululio n with of thr irrdkaud plt~nt l.amirw R. l C)u m.a:v wr ~irlttr a NJmpu;t'r
a!J;tbtll J _v1trm u r tilt" .tint>·· co 1inr i.ntt"]:ftlls of Fc)rnru/a ( 113) in·
ra4.~n r and hciz/11 h ;, I' .. j"r' ll.
Jitlt thrlwrl. nn•a .
, 51. /( ;, bounded hy the circle with pul.u equ.tti<>rl r • l >in ~
and hM dl"n,lty functiun .S (, . .'·) • ·' '
1----., ''·., ~.)l. /( j, t'HUOtk41 h)' t he Ci rcle "'lh f!"ll.U t q u.Hh.ll\ t c: 2 Stn t)
;~nd h." ,h;n·.,.ty fun~t h m &\ l , 1' ) ~ , \r.!~
SCI. I< t\the ' cmu.·ucub r ~t.,k bnund( J h~ t h~ t · .t\.i' ancl lh('
U jli:'Cf h.. lt of tht• cnck \\ tth f"''lar t"tlla:tl i n n, m ~Cf~O and
h:a \ tlc n\l t~ fun \."thJU•\ t • . vl • t
(II). U a' the 'rn ucu ~u1.u J1,l h..1und('d hy the , ·a \I\ and Ihe
un>e r h•ll nf the cttdc " 'th pol.u C<jUillil'n r = 2cmll • nd
f iGURE 14.S.14 Tht- h11\ den, lly fun~tum .\( • , y) .. ., : >'
rt<Jion of Probl~m S2.
978 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integrals
Imagine nn experiment in" hich you roll v:uious types of wheels down an incline
to ~ce which re:u;h cs the bo tt om tlw fa~test (Fi g. 1-1.5.27). Suppose thai :l wheel of
radius a antlma" M start~ from rest at the top with potential energy PE = M gh
and reaches the bottom with angula r speed"' and (linear) vc:locity v = tuv. lltcn (by
conse rvation of energy) the wheel's initial pot~.:ntial ene rgy has been transformed
into a sum KEu + KEroc of translation kinetic energy KEcr = ~Mv 2 and rotational
kinetic energy
2
, I
KE, 0 , =2/ow2
= /ov
a ,
2 2
( 1)
lo = kMa 2 (3)
-J +
V- - 2gil .
1 k.
(.S)
5• ~.nswer Probl~m 3 if the wheel is shaped like an annular ring (or washer)
tth outer ra\lms a aud inner radiu s b.
£.tamp/~ J and Pmblcm.r -II and -11 in Secrion 1-1.7 prvvid~ rhr momeflls of immia
nudc•d 111 l'mblems 6 1/rrou~h 8. In tach of rhes~ problems. find rhc vt'lncily of rht'
"'lrrel whrtl if rene/res lht ba~lam of rhc inclfn,..
. 1TRIPLE INTEGRALS
14 6 ll1c definitio n o f the triple integral is the thr~e-dimensional ve rsio n of th e definition
of th e double in tcgr~l of Section 14.2. Let f (x, y. z) he continuous on th e hounde d
space region T :and s uppose that T lies inside the rectangula r block R determined by
the inequalities
We divide fa. b) into subintervals of equal length 6x, fc. dJ into subintervals of equal
length Ay . and I p. q J into subin tervals of equal length A:. llli~ generates a p~nition of
R into smaller rectangula r blocks (a' in Fig. 14.6. 1). each of volume A V = A r ~)' A:.
~ / '· Let P =(T1 • T: . ... . T.ll-.: the collection of these s maller blocks that lie wholly ,. ithin
I
r '
/ T . Then Pi< called an inner partition of the region T . The nnrm I'PI of 'Pis the length
of a longe<t dia gonal of any of the blocks T,. If C.t; • .•·: . :;l is an arbitrnrily selected
.J!) point ofT. (for each i = 1. 2•. . . , n ), then the Rie mllnn •um
/, -
~ ..__ I
•
2:: /(.(. y;.:; l AI'
·-·
riGIP! 14.6.1 One l.IN, bltxk in
is an approxim.1t io n to the triple integm l off over the region T.
r rNo- ~!JOn ol ~ bound~
~""P' T. For e xample, if T i• a MJiid body with deruity functio n /. th~n such a R icn1ann
sum approxima tes its total mass. We define the triple lnl ('j!rul or f on n Thy mean<
of the cqua too n
~ onlim- u ~
!fl.
t
fC•. ''· :) dV
' '--
•-1
f(.r1' , y;. :;) tJ.I' . ( II
It ;, pro•·cd in a d vnno:cd calo:uhl' th.~t thi• '.imit uf Hict~l:lllll smn< cxi<ts n\ the nur 111
!'P I nppr 11 , 1chc' ' " "'provided tha t f t<c~tnt ~nu"'" '"~ 1 nn~l that the huuml.ll)' nf the
rcyjun T h rc:ou 111.chly wc ll ·hchn, cd . (l·or ""'·' "'"·" s uf!lo:es fur the b..•und:t~ )' o fT
con'"' uf a flltttc nurnl>c r of \ lll<l<>th >urbccs.)
t II J u,t 3 , "'' tth \lnuhk ontcgrah. we nrclrna n.I Ycompute trtp• I •
c tnlc!!ral< hy mennH>f
itcr tcd 1 ntc~:rah. If the rc11ion nf int cgr;otiOn" a rcctangui.H hlock . n. on Example 1.
3
then ,. c can ontcgtatc in any nrdcr ,. ., ,. ,, h .
980 CtiAPTER 14 Multiple Integrals
'
-l ~x~ l.
. + >-.. •and T consists of those points (.r. y. z) in space
< >' =
2= < 3• and 0 ~ z~ 1
T = t f3[xy:+~y:2]I dydx
FIGURE 14.6.2 The re<t.angular j_ J J~ 2 ;=0
block T of Example 1, for which
- 1 ~ x ;:; 1,2 ~ y ~ 3, and
o :;; z :> l . == / l (.cy + ~>) dydx
t [ ~xy2 + ~l]
3
=
1- I 2 4 ··2 dx
t (5;zx + ~5) dx = [5
= }_1 2 5 JI 5
4x + 4x - 1 = 2 •
'11 1· · f louble intPgrals tha t we saw in earlier sec tions generalize
1e app IC3IIOnS 0 < • • • f · !J(
immediately 10 triple int egral~. H T i~ a solid body With th e density unct10n .r, >'· z).
then its mass m is given by
m = jjj odv. T
(2)
:c =!;; JJ1 T
xodV. (4a)
z- =..!..
Ill
1'j}T
rr :stlv. (4c)
ll1e moments or inertia ofT around the three coordinate axes are
I,= !!1 T
(y
2
+ z2)8t!V, (Sa)
11 = JJ1 (x
2
+ z2)8tiV. and (Sb)
T
I, = !!1 T
(x
2
+ y 2)oliV. (Sc)
d
r-
"-- I
R ~a(..I:.J)
f(x.y.z)d;)liA. (6)
Y1(.t) ~ Y :i Yl(X), a :i x ~ b,
fiGURE H .6.l ObtJining th~ then (integra ti ng last with respect to .r),
i:n'U ol inttgr41ion IOf l .
1lms the ~riplc integral reduc;s in Ihis case to three iterated single integrals. These
tO. a.., can (on pnnciple) be evaluated by using the funda mental theorem o f calculus.
~ XAM P LE 2 Find the mass m of the pyramid T of Fig. 14.6.4 if its de nsity funclion
ISgiVen by~ (x. y. z) z. =
Solution The regio n Tis bounded he low by the x y-planc;; =0 and nbove b y the
=:
plane 4 6 - 3x - 2v. Its ba.<c is the plane regio n R bo unded by th e .r· a nd y -a.'<cs
1
and the lme J = ~(6- 3.r). lienee Eqs. (2) and (6) yield
m -
- 121t•-l•J(216-Jo-l, :d:dydx = 121(6-l•l/2 [I-z·•]f>-l>-2y dydx
0 0 0 0 0 2 ,-o
=?
I 121t6-l•l/2 (6- 3.r- 2y)2dydx = -I 12[--(6
I
- 3x- 2y)3
] t6-l•112 d.r
- oo 2o 6 ,...,
= -1
12
1, I)
2
1 [ --(6-3x)
(6 -3.t ) 3 <i.t = -
12
1
12
4]
=6- =9.
•• o 122
2 4
IIGtJPiE 14.6.4 The pytamid T of We leave as an exercise (Problem 45) to show tha t the coordinates o f the ce ntroid
!u-.,., l , tU 114~ h th~ tNngle y. n o f the p yramid a rc give n by
(7.
i r~tt-c , 1~.
- =;;I
.r
~ 0
1'1''-3"121•-J•-z,
0 0
x: d~dydx = -2 .
5
describes the bound:try circk of t he d isk R of radius ~ and with cc ~t.cr (0. in the !)
. 1
.t) ·p :me (F' 1' 7)
1g. " ·"· .
L Because
• . this dis k is no t cen tered a t the.: o n g m. the volume
integra l
We may integrate first with respect to ei the r x or y if the.: space region Tis either
x -sim 111e or y-si mpl~. Such sitllat ions. as wdl as a ~-si mpl e solid. appea r in fig. 14.6.8.
•l'
For example. suppo~e that T is y-simple. so that it has a d escriptio n of the form '
y1 (x.z) ~Y ~ Y2(x .;: ) , (x.z) in R.
where R is th e projection o fT into th e x:·pla ne. ' l11en
!JJ.r
r
T
/(x.y, Z)t!V = !! ( .
R
J.Y•(.r.:)
.
.\I t • ... )
/(x , y . :.)dy
)
dA. (7)
(b) T it y-~impk
where dA = dx d z or dA = d~ cl.r ami the limits y 1(.r. z) and y (x. ~) arc the
2
·'·-coordinates of the endpo ints of the line segment in which a t ypical line parallel to
the y-axis inte rsects T . If T is .r-simple. we have
/
/
/
/
/
/
!!}_ T
f(x .y, z)d;\= !j (lR
>l(V, , )
>dy.:)
/(x. y .:.)dx
)
d;\, (8)
,
.. . ,•,.:/j•!l.
/ \......... , ·-··
II
/------ 11.01
II . - I I
Solution 1 1l1e p~ojcction ofT intn the xy-pl~nc is the region shown in Fig. l-1.6.10.
bounded hy x =y- 3nd .r =
I. So Eq . (6) gives
:.,.•1 • I
\' :; 11111-·
1
-1 y-
,
0
chdxdy=2 1.1/1
0
, 0 - .r)t/.t{/y
,.
1
2 ,. [ I
, ( 1 2] , I •) S
= lo x- ix ,.,, Jy = 2 lo 2- y· ... 2-" dy = j5 ·
c1. OJ
\
: ... • o Solu tion 2 1l1e projcctinn ofT into the A:·planc is th<· triangle bound.:d hy the
cnordinatc axes and the line .1 +: = I (fig. 1-1.6. 11). ~~~ Eq. (7) gives
r!C.UR£ 14 6. 1 1 lht ~I
1l1l-•f.!i-..r. 11l-o-IX
:V:>«t>ot-1 ol ~ IOitd rtogoon T
,.~ ~~ ' t-;:>14~ {tump:t 4, 1
klr...,.. z) \' = 0 0
dyd:dx =2 u 0
d: dx
s
1
1
1
= 2 (r f l - x 3 ")d.r = - .
0 15
Solu tion 3 The projection nf T into the _~·:·plane is the triangle bounded lw the
y·axis and the para bob: "' I - y 1 (Fig. 1-1.6.12). so E11. (S) yidds •
I' V ..
! 11-r'/1-:
1
-1 "r
dx d:dy.
_Q\
I•-l.o, :•o tt .or
and nahu tion o f thi ' integrnlngain gh·es \ ' = {1 •
No" fo r the centroid of T. Because the region T i~ symme tric " ith rc~J'<'Ct tu
the J :- p13ne, it• ccntruitl lie• in thi\ pl.rne. tlllll ' " Y • 0. We PUt<· :r And ll\' '"Ill z
1ntcrrnttng fir1t with r c~pcct tu y: •
.i ..
I
v JJ,
j' (( t d \' •
I~ ('
~ fo fo
(' -•j,r;
- ,7 t dyJ:d t
984 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integrals
similarly.
-=
z
_!_j'ff :dV =I:>
v JJ.T 8
-1111-•l-,fi,fi
0 0
2
:dydulx = 7·
~\ )
·,,,, ·-\-~~-...,, -- J:-y'
X
' \\~,~, I /~
\ I
)~,.,
)'
l11e region Tis al so x-simple. so we may integrate first with respect to .r. The
projection ofT into the y~ ·plane is bounded by the line z = y + 2 and th e parabola
2
z = y • which intersect at the points (-1 . I) and (2. 4) (Fig. 14.6.14).11le endpoints
of a line segmen t in T parallel to the x-axis have x-coordin atcs x = ±Jz-y1.
Because T is symmetric with resp<.:ct to the n -plane. we can integrate from .r = 0 to
x = Jz- y 2 and double the result. Hence T ha s volume
= 2
12[2(
- 1 .)
::; : - )'2
)3'2]y+2
, . ,,
(/y = 34 - 21 (2 + y -y2)3/2
-1 .
dy
= ~ 13(2
3 -3/2 4
(? - 112)3[ 2 (/II
(comple ting the s quare; II ~)
= .\' - 2
271·'12
=-
4 -rr(l
cos4 0d0 (u =~ sin O)
27 I 3 1r 8J;r
= - · 2· - · - · - = -
4 2 4 2 32 .
14.6 PROBLEMS
1
In Problmu 11 through 20, skrtclr tire solid bounded by the
~:raplts of thr given rqwtiom Tl~en find its volumr by triple
integration.
11. 2.r + 3y + l = 6.... = 0. )' =0. : = 0
1. j(1 • y. : ) = x + y + : : Tis the rectangular box 0::; x::; 2. 12. z = y. y =•'· y = 4. : c O (Fig. l~.6. 16)
o ~~· ~ 3.0~ : S t.
:. /(•..•·.:) = .r y •in:: T is the cube O:i.r :i n.O ;:i y;:i :r,
0~ : ~ :'f.
3. /C•. ~ - ;) = .r)·: : T is the rectangular block - I S x :i 3,
0~ _v ;:i 2. - 2 ;:; : ~ 6.
t f l•. y. : l = x + y.:. : : T is the rect3ngu!Jr block o r
, ..
Prcloltm 3.
!. /(l . ) . : l = .r ' : T is the tetrahedron bounded by the coor-
dJr.l:e rtan~ and the fi rst octant pa n of the pl'a ne with
e-quJuon z - .v + .: = L
4. /l1.). : )a 2.r + 3y: T is a fi rst-octant tetrahedron ns fiGURE 14.6 . 16 The surfaces of
"' Problem 5. exa:pt th3t the plane has equation Problem 12.
Zl - 3_,..,.. : :~: 6.
1
1. / l•.,. : ) =x ,:; T lies bd o" the surface : = I - x and 13. y +: = 4. y = 4 - x 1• •v = fl. : = !I
lbo' e t.!le recun gle - I ~ 1 ~ 0. 0 :; >' :; 2 in the A)'·rlanc.
14. : =_..: + y
• : = 0. X = o. y = 0 .... + y = I
1
L /I • . .•. : J =21 ... : : T l i~ below the surface with equation 1~.: = 10-.rz - yl , _..,. =..- 1. . - ::: yz.: =0
: = : - }; J!lld abo, ·e 1he rectangle - I ::1 J :; I. -2 :i J &2
L1 th< J y-plane.
J(,_ .f ~ : 1, X = 8 - z. 1, )' ;::; - J. )' = - J
t. /(c.,.:) c,
-+ ) : T i\ the: rc:gion txl..-. ccn chc: ~urbcc, 17. = = y +: = 4. y = o. : 0
.r1 • =
: "' 2 - 1: and: e , : lor 0:; >:; J (fig. l ~ .l\.1 5). 18. : = I - y 1• : = y: - I, x +: = I . .r = 0 (fig. 1~.6. 1 7)
Ill /ll. 1 • : I=:. r ;, the region between the ourf>C.:S z = Y' 19. )' = :_1 , :_ a ).1 , :C + )' + :! a 2• .\' ~ ()
r
.., == 8- ( O< - I ~ . :: 1. 20. y = 4 - x 1 - : 1• X = 0. y= ll. : = 0. 1 +; c 2
23. Find the centroid of the wlid of Problem 17. FIGUR E 14.6.19 The solod
FIGURE 14.6. 18 The Inlet·
24. Find the centroid of the ~olid hounded b) ~ =I - .r'. ~ =0. secting cylinders of or intersection in
y =-l,and > = I. Problem 39.
Problem 39.
2~. Find !he ccntroJd of the \Ohd hounded l>y ~ = co~ .r . .r =
-;r /2 . = = =
.r :t / 2. y fl.: 0, and v - : I. = ' I Fi111 d the mlumc txJumlctl h y the elliptic parabolords z=
2(,, Findrhc momcnl of incnia around !he ~·axis of the solid of .. •
2.r' .~ ,.: and: = 12 - , ' - 2y·.' :"'o re II1a1 Ih'1~ soI'd .
1 proJects
l'rubkm 12. onlo ~ circubr d isk in th e l .' ·pl.rlle.
27. Find the rnument of inertia nrnund thc >·axis of !he solid .n. Find rhe \'Olume t>ou nd.:d h)' rh.: cllipric paraboloid .r=
of Pm lllem 24. ..: + ~~: and the r l:rnc ,. = 2.r + J.
28. l-i nd !he mw1wn1 of incni a a round !he :·nxi~ of !he solid -13. Find the volume of rhc dhplll'a l cone hnundcd hy : ==
cylinde r ,,.: "' y: ::i 11:. 0 ... : ... II .
=
.jxz ... 4.1 : amlthc pl.rnc.:: I . (Su,~:,~:cstiQ/1: Integrate firsr
29. fi nd !he mnmcnt of inert ia around the :·axis of !he solu.l "irh respect 10 r.J
bounded by x + y +; = I. .t = o. y = o. nnd: = 0.
.U. Find the ,·ohrnlc of th ~ rqtinn hou nded hy the paraho·
30. Fi nd the momcnl or incnia around I he : ·a~is nf !he cube loid .t = ,~ 1 ~ 2:: nnd the parabolic cylinder .r = 2- yl
wi th vertices(± t.J. :1:! I and (:!:!. 4.:!:! ). (Fig. 14.6.20).
=
3 1. Con;.idcr the oolid r arnboloid t-oundcd hy ~ .r: + y: and
rh e plane: = 1r > 0. Show rhat il$ ccnrroid lies on ir s axis of
symmetry. rwo·lhirds of the way from it$ " \'Crtex" (0. 0. 0)
to its ba<c.
32. Shu\\ that the centroid of a right circular cone lies on rhe
axis or rhe cone and three·founhs of !he way from the \'Crt ex
to the base.
In Pmblmu .1.1 tlmm,r;h .m, tl1r imlicar~tl solid has rmifon/1 tim·
sity 6 a I r111lr11 othrr,..i<<'illllirntt'll.
33. For" cut•e \\tlh edge knglh tJ. find the momenr of inertia
around one of it' edge~ FIGURE 14.6. 20 The
1urldCe1 of Problem 44.
34. lltc den>ity at r ( • . .'.:)of rhc first·nctant cube with edge
lcn~th "· I.Jces paralld 10 !he ctl(lrdin:He planes. and op·
po;,~tc ''erltccs (0. 0. Ut and (a. a. a ) i; proportional 10 rhc 45. Find !he centroid of rhe pyramid in Example 2 wilh density
square or the drs1u 11ce from I ' 10 the origin. Find the coor· 6(.r. y. :) = :.
dinate;. of the ccnrn>id of thi~ cube.
-16. Find the Centroid of t he parabolic ~Cjllllcn l (wilh dcnsily
3S. Find rhe rnomclll or i 11~r1i:r mound the :·axis of I he cube of o"' I ) in Example 5.
l'robkm 34.
36. l11c cube bounded hy the coordi nale planes nnd the planes -1:
For l'roblem s through 52. the ll l'l!rftJ:t' •·nl11r Jof the ftm rtion
x = 1. y = I. and : = I has dcnsiry J = k ~ ar the poinl / (.r , )'. Z) at pomt.f of th•· .<p ace r••gio11 T i1· ril'fim:d to 1>1•
/'(x. y . <) (k is n p!hitil'c COilSianr ). Find irs ccmroid.
37. l-i nd the momcn l of inertia around the :·axis of the cu be of
Prot> lem 36.
38. Find the mome nt of inen iu around n di:un cter of n solid
1= ~ JJJ /(x. y. ~}dl'
r
sphere of radius a.
39. Find !he cent roid of Ihe first-octant region thai is int erior 10
~>·her: V i.r rhe volum e of T . For insr1111 ce. if T is tt solid ll'i!lr
denmy 6 o I. thm th~ coordi11ares y. mul ~of its amroid or(
r.
=
the two cyli ndco .r1 + 'l .. I nnd y 1 + : 1 I (Figs. 14.6. 18
the 01 eragt values of the "coordinate functions" r ,., a111l: at
and J.t.6. 19).
poims ofT. ' ·
40. Find the mome nt of incnin around the :·axis of !he solid of
Problem 39. 47. Find ~ he 3\'cragc \'3lue of t he density function 6(.r. y. : ) =:
nt pornts of the pyramid T of Example 2.
987
,~
lbt lll;'k I I l I
...., • ~ "'!.... ~ lmo t!w ..lC ...c f"'llllt\
:-1 In (I-, :q] . , 0.~~~~~5.)
<\ I
rnnu.lo-l I u"'f'W:
"''
0 lJ.(I l'n\jf'U: \ nhlmf'clt"' ll•t•tlna l'aJ'111>oloid
\ ,lnm<"".k • a• • 1 fMtrJ "' ll<>.tt t-,._, , ;onJ \tuJ•cJ the ~"t>k JX"iuon
(-<< '·~ I~ ... : II ••I • n. ....r , ...., " IUf r•nt-.>J.,J ,,( umro>rm tl··n'lh r.u :t
l~••t...•l·-..1 thai n... h tn an ' J I" !J~ he Jt...:o•-crcJ h..... "' J.:tcrmtnc ,,.
•nslr ••I moltn.alto>n tn t<tm• ,,, 11\. "''~-and ccntr.-.J ,,r the ni-<I~<JUC sc~mcnt"
,,, the r.a••""···J th.&t he:-• ..... , th th ••trr Itt!<' The rnn.. rl·• he tnt wJucc:d
''" th" tn•c•ttgat~<•n l•"c' :~ ccnlunn •aot arc <1111 tmrvrl•nt m mcl<.lcrn nuvol
al'\:htlc.tur<
( W h ere R
· t h C prOJCCllOn
IS
· ·
0
r T 1·nto th ~p ;r1·-pla
.
nc as us ua l). We saw in Section 14.6
'
th at
::<•-Yl )
fff
j j jT
f(x,y .z )dl' =
11.R(1 .
. :(<.Yl
f(x , y.~)dz dA. (J)
If we can describe the region R more na tura lly in po!J r coord inates than _in recta?·
gu lar coordinates. then it is li ke ly that the integra tion o 1·er the plane r egton R wtll
be simple r if it is carri ed out in polar coordina tes. .
We firs t exp ress t he inne r p:Hti al inte gral of Eq. ( 1) tn terms of r and 0 by
writing
::(J, y) hZ,l•.P)
l ,,(,,1 )
f(x. y . z)dz =
Zd•.8)
F(r. 0 . : ) dz . (2)
where
F (r, 0. z) = f(r cosO. r sin 0. z) (3a)
and
Z, (r , 0) =:, (r cos 0. r s in If) (3b)
fori = ), 2. Substituting Eq. (2) into Eq . (I) with dtl = r dr d O ( imporlant) gives
l :(t ,8) )
.
/JJ( f< x. y.; )tiV =jr ff
J1,,
flrw~o . ninO. :.J rdz tlrtiO. (S)
dV = rd:drt/0
,
may be regarded inform~lly as the produc t of d z and t he polar-coordinates ;~rca
e lement tfA = r tlr t/0. It IS a consequence of th e formula 6 I' = i' 6 z 6r 6 0 for the
vo lume of lhe cylindrical block sh own in Fig. 14.7.2 .
_l ntegra~ ion in_cylindrical c~ordinates is p artic ularly useful for com putations
FIGURE 14.7.2 Th~ volume of the
cylindrical block is A V = a_ssoc1ated with .solids of revolution. So tha t the limits of integration will be 1~c
16Z6f 6 11. s1mplest, the sohd should usually be placed so that the :1xis of revolu tion is the :-aXIS.
l'l:~r~ :,oo in Cy' nd·•ul •nd Spi'>(>rkal COO<d"'Jt~1 SKTIO~ 14 .7 989
" EXAMPLE 1 fi 11d 1h~ d~d
tw th. , • , - c:e_ntro1 J of the firlt-{)Ct.mt rortro n T of the rolaJ ball t>oun -
. . c . phcrc ,. - •. -a· Th ld T . ~'
• - . c so I 3p~3l'~'" fit:. P .l ..•.
· · Solut ion l..,_p 0 1 ! - 1 •
-...,· ••· _,. . _ "- ' umc 0 the fir11 octant of the solrd t>.lll is \' = ~ · j;rtl~ = . :to'.
11CColU\C t = \-- •~ b
} S}rnmct~. v.c need calcullle o n ly
- ... ..,.
--.
I
1 -.
1
-~ =: \- iff ~ 1
d \' = :-;
..Q
6
{·: {• {-~ :r tf: ertl-l
J~ }:, })
• I -....._
' :- · 0 6 1''=[!-r ca .
-- :-; .
· - r' ) c!rd-'1
.. o I) ) ~
Thu' the ccntrotd i' loc., tctJ a t the poiot (~a. ~a. ~ 0 ). O~cr..-e th~t the :m<wcr is both
plau\Jhlc and drrn.:n\ ronall y co nce1. +
EXAMPLE 2 find the ' otumc 3nd ~ntrotd of the ~olrd T th;u i.s bounded hy the
1
= 2.~ ( -l ha·. - -I ba •) = :r
- h = ~I :ra'h
,
2 -1 2b 2
IIGUH 14.7.4 The p.>rJboloid ol
l'-11'pl~ 2.
(because a'
= h/1>).
By symmetry. the centroid of T lies on the :·a~i'- so all tha t remain• is to
compute :::
:::: 2_
V
JJJ r
:t/V::.....;.. { :,.
;'ta"'lr l o l o , ,:
f"J.•
r z d;:.drdO
2
= - ,- 1,~']," ( -1 IJ·r-
:ra·h o o 2
' - b'r)
2
l .) drdO
= - -1,- ( -I h·a·
, • - -I b·a
, 6 ) =: -h.
2
a· h -1 12 3
ag ain usin !,! the fact that a: = ?Jb. 'Blerefo:e the centroid ~r Tis located at the point
(0. 0 . j h) . A gain. this answer as both plausablc and dtmensaonally correct. +
IIC.URE 14.7.5 Volume and \Ve can sununarizc the r<:$uhs of Exomplc 2 as fo llows: The volume of a right
'""!Ioid of a right cirwlar circular paraboloid is half that of the circumscribed cylinde r (fig. 14.7.5). and its
~>araboloid in terms olthe centroid lies on its axis of S}mmetry two-tlurds of the way from the "vertex" at
""'-""'SCribed cylinder. (O. 0. 0) 10 its circular "base" at the top.
'
As indicated bv the dimensions labeled in Fig. 1-1.7.7. this sphe ric:~! block is (if
6p. 6¢. and ~;. are small) appro.rimmely a rectangular bf~c k with dimensions 6p,
FIGURE 14.7.6 The spherical
coordinat~s ( ll. c. 0 ) of the
P1 6¢. and P: sin ¢2 MJ. Thus its volume is :~pproximately Pi sin 0: 6p 6o 6 0. It can
point P. be shown (see Problem 19 of Section 1-I.R) thJt the exact vol um e oft he spherical block
described in (7) is (8)
6 \' = p2 sin¢ 6 p AI/J 611
for certain numbers p and¢ such that !'I < p < P: and ¢1 < ¢ < ¢2.
Now suppose th at we partition each of the intervals [Pt . r>z l. [Ot· ~z l . :1nd (Ot.I1JI
into 11 subin terv:~ls of kngths
P: - 1'1
6p = .
II
respectively. This producc:s :1 spherical partition P of th~ sphe rical block T into k = nl
sm:~ llc r spherical blocks T1 • Tz. .... T,; sec Fig. l-1.7.R. By Eq. (R). thcrc exists a point
(p,. J,,. t), ) of the spherical block T. suc h th:l t its volume is 6 \', = tV sin¢, Ap A¢ 60.
l11c n orm !P i of P is the length of the longcst diagonal of any of the small spherical
blocks r •. r 2. .... r,.
If ex;_. y;. :;J are the rectangular coordina tes of th e point with spherical coordi-
nates (p,. ¢,. 0, ). then the definition of the triple integral as a limit of Riemann sums
as the norm iPI approaches zero gives
t
= t#:~o L FCP1· ~•• ~~ >o?- sin¢, 6p 6o 60. (9)
i= l
T,
I
I
f'•1 4 8 ep $ln¢1 49
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
y
T
FIGURE 14.7.7 Tht volume ol the spherical blodc is FIGURE 14.7.8 The spherical block Td ivided Into
approximately pf m ¢ z tJ.p tJ.¢ tJ.'J. lc smaller spherical blocks.
d
v. he re
iff
T
/ (X.) .; )d \ '
Iff
T
/ (:t.).:.) d \'
into spherical coordinates whenever the region Tis « ntrally dmpfe.-tha t is, whe n·
eve r it has a spherical·coordinatcs description of the form
Pa(¢ , 0) ~ ¢ ~ Pl(¢ . 0 ).
(12)
If so, the n
(13)
J
The limits on pin Eq. ( 13) arc simply the p-coordinatcs (in terms of¢ and O)
o f the end points of a typical radial segment that joins the '·inner" and "oute r" pa.rts
fiCURE 14.7.9 A centrally simple o f the bounda ry ofT (Fig. 1 ~.7.9). Thus the general formula for triple integration In
rtgion. spherical coordinates is
JJJ, f (x . y . : )ti l' = jj!,. f l p sin 4> cosO. P sin<t> sin 0 . fl cos¢) p 2 sin ¢ d p dt/>dl9,
(14)
where. as before, U does not denote a region in .xyz·space but rather indicates limits
on p, ¢, and 9 appropriate to describe the region Tin spherical coordinates.
EXAMPLE 3 A solid ball r_with co~stant demity ~is bounded.by the spherical
surface with equation p =a. Usc sphen~al coordtnates to compute Its volume v and
its moment of inertia I, around the z·aXIS.
L
992 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integ rals
V = JJJ. T
dV = 1"1o•~o•l' p2sin ¢ dpd¢>d0
r
: ~
I )
EXAMPLE 4 Find th e volume and centroid of the uniform " ice -crc am cone" C that
=
is hounded hy the cone t/> rr / 6 and the sp he re p = 2n cos </J of radius a . ll1c sphere
and the part of the cone within it arc shown in Fig. 14.7. 10.
- - - -: - . K --.:
Solution ll1c icc-crea m cone is described by the ine qualities
f-!-:i.., 0 ~ 0 ~ 2rr,
I
O ~ p ~2iiCOS¢ .
\ i / Using Eq. (13) to compute its volume, we get
: /
\ \
' I ' z- ,.,6r2a c"""'
l1
~
V = o o lo p2sin,P dpd,Pd(}
19. Find the volume o f the region bounded by the pl a ne z=I 36. Fin d t h e mOm e nt of inertia a ro und a d iameter of the
• aseous spherica l star of Prob lem 35.
and the cone ~ = r. g h .
_ (a ) Use spherical coord inates to evalua te t e mtcgral
20. Show tha t the centroid of a homogeneous solid right circu- 37
lar cone lies on its axis three-quarte rs of the way from its
vertex to its base. J!~ 3
cxp(-p ) dV
z from its ba se-so lJ = k: (whe re k i~ a po<iti,•e constant). JS. Usc the method of Pro bkm 37 to s how th a t
24. Solve Problem 20 by triple integration in spherical co- x exp(-x:- y 2 - z 2 )dxdy d z =2:r.
ordinates.
25. Find the volume a nd centroid of the uniform sol id tha t lies 39. Fi nd the average distance of poi n ts of a solid ball of radius
inside the s phere p = 11 and nhove rhe cone r = :. a fwm rhe ccn~cr o f the ball. (The definiti o n o f the average
va lue of a function p recedes Pro b le m 47 in Section 14.6.)
26. Find the momen t of inertia I, of the ' o liu of Problem 25.
40. Find the average distance of the points of a solid ball of
27. Find the mome nt of inertia a round :r tangen t line of a solid
homoge neous sphere of radiu~ n nnd tota l mass m. radius a from a tixed bo undary point of the ball .
2ij. A sphe rical shell of m ass m is bounded by the spheres p = a Problems 4/t~nd 42 provide resulrs chat are needed in the Section
and p = 2a, and its density function is 8 = p:. Find its mo- 14.5 pro jeer.
m ent of ine rtia around a diameter.
~I. A sphericJI she ll of radius a a nd negligible thickness has
29. Describe the >urfacc p = 2a sin¢ and compute the vo lume a rea density 6, so its mass ism = 4:r oa 2• Show that its mo-
of the region it bounds. ment of ine rtia about an axis of symmetry is /o ~ma 2 • =
30. Describe the surfacer> = I +cos<!> and compute the vo lume 42. A spherical shell has inner radius a , outer radius b, and uni·
of the region it bounds. Figure 14.7.14 may be use ful. fo rm density~ . Show that its m o me n t o f ine rt ia about an
axis of symme try is / 0 = ~m c2 , where m is the m ass of the
shell a nd
2 b5 - li S
c = b3 - a l '
. ; .,. •Hit
.-,;.;_--
- ..
_ _ . . __,-•
...
_'·IOIH-111!
· P4lllhl
... ,..............
;, ~:;~
,. . . ,.
.. 4
I
--~~.__
..
t·la-
f":':'J·.· . .~·-·s;.·lr.._!
~- ·
- _ _
.. -
_
· · - ....... ..
.
....
,,~~"1.1;;
. ...
• 1 ~"'
~·······
r · .
•
.
,,
~·
j(
'1'1
J~. figure 14.7.16 shows the bumry sph e re with spherkal· FIGURE 1.&. 7. 17 ~ syltt!m of Problem 47 .
r,
coordinates cqu~tion f' = + 3 cos )I) sin .S¢. U..: a co m -
puter olgehra system 10 fi nd the volume or the reg•on
enclosed by thi~ humpy •ph ere. Then ~"' d · · n : fl(" ' in¢ll\" ~nd "('0'\0 + p cru. ~-"t =c-.
( Why')]
-IS.. Con\IJc r no"' the •f'her"'3lshella :; r ;:: 1- "''th unifo rm den ·
suy 6 Shu.. tha t this 'hdl c"rts nn net f<n~·· o n a poi nt
n•a" .., l,<,.ted ot rhe f"ll~t (0, 0. c) tnritlr it- that i"- "ith
tel ~ " '!he computo!Jon .. 111 l"C the s.me a< in Pro hle m47
e xcept fur the hmlt\ o f mtc:gr .Hion on ft nnt.J ....
~9. If the eart h "<I< pcrkc ll) •phcncal " tth r3drus R =
6J70 km. w ufurm d-c n\lt~ &••lnd m.lS\ M :::::: t'T t5H'. then
(:~ecor ding to Enmplc Jj rt< rr.omcn t of tne!ll.l ohout it s
polar.,;, " o uld be I a j.\IR'. In actuality. ho weve r, m ea·
SUf(nlent.s from 'lltclhtc'S sndu::Jtc: th3t
1 ., 1.\fR' (IS)
F, = -1L'1•1'
0 o o
Gm &
w·
~osa Pl sin¢ dt/J dpdiJ.
Change the first variable of integratio n from¢ to ... by using
the law of cosines:
FIGURE 14.7.18 The core and mantle
w2"' P2 + c2- 2pccos ¢ . of the earth.
996 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integrals
14 • 8 us~U~R~F~A~CE~A~RE~A~------------------~--~~~~~::::~
.
Until now our concept of a sur
f •
h
, r~r'll • _ j(x. v) of a function of two
h c g •• ,, ·. .
rt"ace defined imphc1tly by an equation
JCc
. h:l~ b~en
•
t ~
·
variables. O ccasiOn:\ II y we h:tve see n sue a su
. 1 •oduc..: the more prcc1sc
· concept of a
Kow we wJn Lto m r .
= ·' .
of the form F (x . ~· . : ) 0 .
n•Jonuc of 3 par:~mctnc curve.
. s11r.r.ace-t hc 1,,.0 ·cllnlcns1onJ 1 a u e
parametric 1
.,,,..
R
,.
• .r
FIGURE 14.8.2 Th e paramelllc
FIGURE 14.8. 1 The uv-reglon Ron
~u rf.,c <' ~ on .ryL-space.
\.vhich th~ tra.,\form ation r as dehned.
·
A p:tr:tml'lnc
S IS
. 1hc• ima"C:
f
Mlf :tn~ •'
of •'I functi on or transformation
.
f that
111c par:~ metric surface S is c:~llcd ~muot h provided that the component func·
9
tions of r h:1ve con tinuous partial dc:rivati\'t.:S with re spect to " and v and. moreover.
the vectors
or ax . iJy . iJ;: ' (2)
R
r. = :;-
ull
= (x • . y •• :.) = :;- ' + :;-J + :;-k
utl vii uu
and
or ax . (h· . a:
r. = :;- = (x • • y • • ;:.) = :;-•+ ~J + :;- k (3)
vV v ii oil 0 11
:~rc nonzero and nonparallel at each interior point of R. (Compare this with the
FIGURE 14.8.3 A rectangle in the
rO-pl6ne; the domain of the
definition of smooth parametric curve r(r) in Sectio n 10.-1.} We ca ll the variables 11
=
function z g(r, 0) of Example 1. and v the parameters for th e surface S. in analogy with the single pam meter r for a
parametric curve.
(b) Similarly. we may regard a surface given in n·lindrical coordinates bv the graph
of z = g(r. 0) as a parametric surface with paran;eters rand 0. The transformation r
I l I I 1
from the rO-plane (Fig. 14.8.3) to xy~·spacc (Fig. 14.8.4) is then given b)'
' 1 I t I
~\
x =r cosO. y=rsin O. ~=g (r. O) .
(r COl f, r t in 8, 0) (c) We may regard a surface given in spherical coordinates bv p = lt(c/J. 8) as a parn·
metric surface with par:~m~ tc rs (/1 a~d 0 , and the corrcspondi~g transformation from
F1CURE 14.8.4 A cylindrical· the ¢0-planc to .tyz·space IS then gtven by
coordinates surface in .ryz-space
(Ex•mple 1). x = li(c/J.O)sin¢ cos0, y = h(c/J.O)si nd> sin O. : =IJ(c/>.O)co5¢ . (6)
Surface Arra SECTION 14 ·8 997
l'hc conl.'.c pt o f a r ar:unetric surfal.'e lets us trent :til these spcci:tl cnscs. nnc.l mun!
Others. wnh the same techniques.
(7)
is a vc.-ctor no rmal to S nt the !'oint r (11, . v, ).
Now suppose that both llu and Av are small. 'llten the area AS, of the c urvi·
linear fi gureS, should he approximately equal to the area A r, of the pnrallo: logrnm
" ith ndjacent sides r . (11,, v,) Au and r ,.(ll, , v,) AI' (Fig. 14.8./l). But the area o f this
para ll elogram is
AP, =Jr. (11, , 111 ) ll11 x r ,(u, . v,) A v J =IN(u,, t',) l Att A11.
This me am that the nrc:1tr(S) of the surface S should be given approximately by
• •
a(S) = LAS, :o:: L Ar,.
;.t i• J
so
•
a (S) :o:: L JN (u, , 111 )1 Au A t·.
••I
n ut this last sum iJ 3 Riemann sum for the double integral
JJ II
JN (U,I' )Jdutlt•.
" · • .1 . ' . .. ,
/•
1
0
ily
(9)
EXAM PLE 2 Find the a rea o f th e e ll ipse cu t fro m the plane : =2x + 2y + I by th e
cylinder .r1 + y~ = I (Fig. 14.8.9).
Solution Jlc rc. R is the unit circle in the r.1 -p lane with area
if R
i d.rdy=:r .
A= ij /I + zi + z; dx d y
R
=if R
J 1 +22 + 22 dxdy = if
R
3d.rdy=3:r. •
fiGURE 14.8.9 The cylinder and REMARK Compu ter-generated figures such a s Fig. 14.S.9 could not be construct~d
plane of ExJmple 2. easily witho ut using parametric surfa ces. For e xample. the 1·enical C)•linder m
Fig. )4.8.9 was generated by instructing the co mputer to plot the p ara metric sur-
face d efined on the rO-rectangle - 5 ~ : ~ 5. 0 ~ 0 ~ 2.7 by
r (:. 0) = (cos O. sin 0. : ).
Is it clear that the image of this transformati on is th e cyEnder x2 + y z = 1. -5 ~ : &5?
( 10)
A =1'1' J
1
1
r - ,: (u): d r d tl =!.T 1' r / 1 .+. -lr 1 tlr
•
In Exampl e .1. ) OU -. otold getl he •~me re•uh if ) OU fir<t ""'I<'~ ...r z + y: . used
Eq. (9). which j!i \'cs
and then changed to polar coordinates. In E.~.1mple .; it -. ould 1>c le\s convenient to
hegin "'ilh rectangular coordina tes.
FIGURE 1-4.8 .11 The spiral r3mp
oiE.umple 4 . EXAMPLE 4 Find the arc.l of lhc spiral ramp := £1,0 ::; r S I, 0 S (l :i :r . Thi\ i~ the
upp<r surface o f the solid sho\\n in Fig. 1-I.S.Il.
Solu tion Equation ( 10) gi"cs arc.1
A=
1'1' 0
-
V r1 +1drdll = :.:_ [, f2 + ln ( l+,f2)]:::: J .6051),
2
We avoided a trigonometric substilution by using the: table of integrals imide th e
back cover. •
IICURE 14.8.12 The torus of EXAMPLE S Find the surface area of the torus gcnc:r.1tcd by revolving the circle
uampte s.
1
{.t - b) + :z =a 2 (0 <a <b)
in the x:·plane around the :-axis (Fig. 14.8. 12).
Solutio n With t he ordinary p<>lar coordinate 0 and the angl<' 0:• or Fif:1. l -1.8. 13, the:
torus is described for 0 ~ 0 ~ 2.~ and 0 ~ 1/1 ~ 2:r by the: parametric equn tions
x =rcosO=(b+acos~)cosO,
y = r sinO = (b +a cos ¢) sinO,
:= asin~.
l-Ie nee the ge n eral s urface -a r ea formula. Eq. (8), g ives area
A= 1 ·•12.. a(b + a
2
cos 1/J ) dOd t;t = 2rr a [ hl/1 +a s in V'] :"= 4rr 2ab.
We ob tained t he same resu lt in Sectio n I-tS with the a id o f Pa ppus's firs t theorem .
•
0 14.8 TRUE/ FALSE STUDY GUIDE
14.8 CONCEPTS: QUESTIONS AND DISCUSS ION
J. Compare the c:~lcul a t ions o f t he surface nrc a of a sphe re using (a) r ectang u-
la r coo rdin:nes: (b) cylindrical co ord inat es; (c) spherical coo rdinates. (Sec
P roblem 18 of th is section.)
3
2. We kno w tha t the ,-ol ume of a soli d ball of rad ius r is \f(r) = 5:rr and
that the a re a o f its spherical su rface is S(r) =4:r r ~ . Is it a coincidence that
V' (r ) = S{ r )? llt ink abou t a t hin spherical shell a s "volume as product of
thickncs~ and a rea."
1 4.8 PROBLEMS
1. Find the area of the portion of the plane ~ = x + 3y that ~ = ~- A pply Eq . (8) to show tha t the area of this zone is
lies inside the elliptical cyl inder with equatio n A = 2~itl la .
.t•' , .•' 14. Consider th e meridional zone of heig ht lz = c -I> that lies
- + '-= 1. nn the sphere r 2 + : = = a 2 be tween t he p la nes ~ = band
4 9
~ =c. where n ;? h < c :=; a. Apply E q. ( 10) to show th:ll th e
2. Find the area of the region in the plane~ =I + 2.t + 2y th at area nf t hi~ 70nc is A =
2nah .
lies directly above the region in the .ry·planc bo unded by
15. Find the area of the part o f the cvlindcr x= + :2= al that
=
the parabolas y .r 2 and .r y~ . = lies with in the cylinder, : = .tl + ).2 = a 2.
3. l·i nd the area of the! part of the paraboloid z = 9- .t2 - 1,2
16. Find the area o r the pan o r th e sphere r 2 + : 2 = a= that lies
that lies above the plane z =5. ·
within the cylinder r = a sin 0 .
4. Find the area of t he part of the surface 2z = .t 1 that lies
17. (a) Apply Eq . (H) to show that th e su rface area of the sur-
directly abo,·c the triangle in the xy·pl:!ne with vertices at
(0. 0). ( I. 0). and ( I. I ).
~ac~ Y =
f(x. ~). for (x . ~) in the region R o( the .r: -plane.
IS g1vcn by
5. Find the area of the surface that is the graph of : = .r + v2
fo r 0 ~ x ::> I. 0 ~ y & 2.
6. Find the area of that part of the surf3c.: of Probkrn 5 that
·
t\ = !!• I + (:-il/)1
i!x + (i-ilz
!/)2 ..
d .t d ·
lies above the tria ngle in the .ry·plane with vertices at (0. 0).
(b) State and deriv.: a sim ilar formula for the ~rea of the
(0 , I ). and ( I. I) .
surfacer==/(,·
· - --·) for (·' ...· ) an 1 reg1.o n R o ft he yc·planc.
· ttc
7. rind by integratio n the area of the part of the plane
1!1. Suppo,;e that R i~ •a rcg1 . .- on ·an t1IC ¢0-planc. Conside r the
=
2x + 3y + ~ C. that lies in the first octant.
pa rt of the sphe re P = " that corresponds to(¢. &) in R.
8. Find the area of the ell ipse that is cu t from the plane pa r.l~lc t razed by the equations in (li) with II("- 0) - n A p·
2t + 3y + ~ = 6 by the cylinder x 2 + y2 = 2. plv• E<J·. (R) to 5how 11ta t the surface arc:1 or this '"· part
- of. the
9. Find the area that is cut from the saddk-shaped surface sphere 1s ·
=
z xy by the cylinder x + y
2 2
I.=
10. rind the area that is cut from the surface z = x 2 - yl by the
A = JJ k
n 2 sin ¢ d¢ d0.
cylinder x 2 + y 2 = 4.
19. (a) Consider the usphcrical rectangle " defined by
11. Find the surface area of the part of the paraboloid ~ =
16 - x 2 - y 2 that lies abo"e the xy-planc. P =a. ¢ , ~ <I> :; ¢2 =¢a + t.¢ . O, ~0 ;;;_ 02 = 01 + D.B.
12. Show by integration that the surface area of the conical sur- Apply the formula of p ro'IIem · 18 and the average value
face z = br between the planes z = 0 and ~ = h = ab is
~;~;~;~~~ce ~rol:alern 50 in Sectio n 14.2) to show' ttwt the
given by A = rraL. where Lis the slant height )a1 + 112 • • ' • IS sp lcrac;al rectangle is A = a= sin ¢ A"' t;.l} (or
and a is the radius of the base or the cone. some <;> 1n (¢•· ~~,)
· · (b) C o nclude from the result in" part (a)
t hat I Iac voluntc 0 f tac
1 spherical block ddincd · by •
13. Lett he part of the cylinder x 2 + y 2 = tJ 1 between the planes
= =
z Oand z h beparametrizedbyx =a cos O, y =a sin O, Pa ~ P ~ Pl = P1 + Ap.
- 1001
_..,... I(,.; -r:) smcA¢.'.'' of rJ:~ f'Jf'! of tJo~ II" rn Jurf.Ja S t1::Jr /Ju ttf>t>• <' tl:r Jquart In thr
l\ ·rlantJ,1'ln.Jt>v(..tl-l < , ~ 1. -I ~ ' :; I. (h} ~r l + l \ l~ I.
f"C>l~•. den• ( E'l ("I c-1 ~CliO!! I ~ 7 t>~ arrl}1:1,.the mea:~
.~~c t~m to the !u!l,t><>n f(M = p' on the antcnol
~. s i< the r..tnl-o-.1.-..d : .. , : - ,:,
(1' · r:l 26. SIS the CO<Ie : = \ ': + .':.
:t. \Uib<c (' ~ :'..l)ln c- . Wh~ Ill\ called a rrnchrJ
()c;.-nl'<" the n. s "the h~f'C'"''·'•J : c t .... , , •
""''~ It u p3nmctnred •• an Eq (6) ,.tth h l¢.1'!., l8. Sis t~c St'herc ,: - ,: - := =.t.
~wn¢ ShOVo thlt II\ ~vbce •ru u
A = .1, : 0 : . Fig·
art p 1~ m1y be hclp!ul In ProNt,..1 ?9 thr"'•.t k J!. 0 r.;•.mrttri: a:wn nf.o quadnc-
surfac~ u ft\t''f L.:u ;,t(T*:zr..~ s:.,th "' ('t't': 1 • <tn~ r a I am i
0~
••JCtt\h., C'C"JJ\t. "• bcCKhu sm r.: a t' Sinttu: - I S u ~ 1,
t:l te11!15ofP (0 S /l•' 1., hnJ: (.," : ~ /o) hp .. fl : l "'"' ''· I " L<t
=
!
formula ..'1.
f(: )sintl.: "' : . Fnun Eq (!() derive the ><ll!.tcc·urea .\3. An dhp,coiJ ,. ith <em'""' a. b. ~nd c b <lcfincd by Ihe
p.1 nmctn73tion
A =
1I •
f(:l/ 1 + (f'(:lF d:d(l,
where a = g(c) and b = g(d ). l11e method of substitution involves a "change of vari-
ables .. that is tailored to the evaluation of a given integral.
I'' Suppose that we want to evaluate the double integral
I s jj F(x. y) dxdy.
R
I A change of mriables for this integral is dc: tcrmined by a continuously differentiable
transformation T from the ut··plane to the xy·plane- th at is. a function T that asso-
ciates with the point (u. t:) a point (x . y ) = T(u. t•) given by ..:quati ons of the form
of the im·cr~c tran<rurmatinn T - 1 from the xy· planc w the lll'· plane.
Often it i~ convenien t to visua lit.e the transformation T geometrica lly in terms
of its IH'IIriT .f and 1J·C11n·cs. The u -c urH' S ofT arc the images in th e .ry·plane of the
hurizunral lin.:s in tlu.: ll t:·planc- on c3ch such curve th..: val ue o f 11 varies but t' is
FIGURE 14.9.1 Th<'
transformation T turns the consta nt. 'J11e u·cunes ofT :H.: th..: imag..:~ of the ,·erriwl lin cs in the 11 v·plane-on
rectangle S into the curvilinear each of these. the \'alue of'' varies bul 11 i; consta nt. No te that the image unde r T of
figure R. a rectangle hounded hy horizontal and ,·cnica l lin c~ in the lll'·pl:l!le is a cun ·ifinear
fig liT<' bounded by u·curvcs and l' ·Curvcs in the xy-planc (f'ig. 14.9.1). If we know th e
equations in (3) of the: in\'ersc transformati on. then we can find the u-curvcs and the
u-cu rves quite simply by writing the equations
k (x, y) = c1 (u-curve on wh ich u = C1 is constant)
and
h(x.y)=C2 (v-cur\'e on which 11 = C 2 is constant).
Y2 = v =C,
2
X - (constant).
and the v-curves are the rectangular hyperbolas
FIGURE 14.9.2 The u-curves and
X )'= II= C2 (COnStant).
v-curves of Example 1.
l11esc two familiar families of hype rbolas arc shown in Fig. 14 _9 ·2 ·
•
Change of Variables in Double Integrals
Now we shall describe the change of variables in a dou 1 . ,
to the tran sformation r specified lw the cqu·nio . ('t)\mtegral that co~responds
plane be the image under T of the ·• . . ' ns 111 ~ · et the regton R 111 the .r.r·
on R and let (S- s, I '"e ar.: g•on 5 111 11l e uv-plane. Let F(x. y ) be continuous
1' •' ' . ' • 5n L> ' n Ill OCr parti!IO f 5 · ·
dimensions ~:; 11 by· l:> v Each r 1
· •
. ' n
ec ang1e 5 IS transfon · d b 7"
° mto rectan gles each wllh
- ..
R , in the .rJ··planc (Fig 14 9 3) ll ':' ' ne Y 1nto a curvtlmcar figure
· · · . 1e 1111ages ( R 1 R R
5; thc:n constitute an inner partition of th •. 2 · • · • • • 1u~der T of the rectangles
rather than rectangles). e regiOn R (though tnto curvilinc:ar figures
Change of VMiables in Multiple lntt>grals SECTIO N 1 4 .9 1003
Lc:t (u; • u;J be the lower ldt·hand corner point o f s,. and wri te
(.r; • Yil =(f(u;. v; ). g (u;. vi ))
,, fo r its imaoe und T Th
"
.
er . e II ·CUr\'e through (.ri . y,' ) has vcloctty \'Ccto r
But
·' j k
ilx a.•
iix d)'
fiGURE 1-4.9.3 ~ ~fftct of th<! 0 au au
::-rlormouon T. We ~1tim.1t~ t h~
t. X ' • = Cu au =
0)' ay k. (5)
Cx ;)y
a••
aru ol R • T( S,) by computing 0 au
:"« l"tl d the pa·a:Celogram P,. dt• av
The 2 x 2 dete rminant on the right in Eq. (5) is called the Jacobian o f t he transfor·
mation T : n;, - n;.. after the German mathemat ician Carl Jacobi (IS0-!-1851).
who first in,est igated gener.~l changes of variables in double int e gral~
J, (u. u) =
x, (u, r·) .t ,(ll, t•)\.
(6)
\ y. (u . l') y.(u . r·)
Another common nod particul arly suggc~tive notatton for the bcohi:m is
J( ( . \ )
lr a - -
il (u . r•)'
where the 2 , 2 patt ern rcmonJ• u~ that hoth the dcp<:nJcnt , ,,riahks , anJ, are
drlfercn lllt c.l wnh t C\I'CCIIIIIXoth the imlc~nJe nt •·ariJ!>ks 11 :tnd 1 •
H cc:~ll th.ol .,., c I'<' I'•"' " ' ' h nn onnc o p.u trtrun I.St. S; . ... , S. } of the rc ~iw1 S
in t he III'•PIJnc. "'''"the lnloi~C\ nf thc \ e rl·ct.tnglc\ r••rming 3 CUf\lhnc .rr Pll h tio n
( Ht. H: . ... , H. Iul the rcr.um R • r!S l m th.- H ·pl.rnc. :O.h1w Eq-. (.t) and (5) impl)'
th:ltl hc :u ca AA, of R, " g.rvcn •pp ro\ rrlu tcl) h~
in t crrm o f the abrnlutr r·alur of the J• cohian lk t erminllol ll nd the area a (S, l • t.u A t•.
l bcrd ore. .. he n '"'set up Hientlnn ' urn\ lor appro \ im.mng double tntcgral~ ,.e
1004 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integrals
r· find th at
jj
R
F(x.y)dxdy::: t
i =l
F (x,',y,')ll A ,
m
::: L F (j( 11;.t•,"). g(11;. t•,')))Jr(u;. t',") Jllu!lv
i· l
" : : jj
lr~(f.g)
F(/(ll.t').g (u.l')) llr(u,v )ldudt·.
s
This discussion is. in fact . an outline of 3 proof of the fo llowing gene ral chan,::e-or.
y
''ari:thl c~
theo rem. To ensure the existence of tht: indicated double integrals, we as-
sume that th e boundaries of hoth regions R and S consist of a finite number of
piecewise smoot h curves. (Sec Fig. l-l.9A.)
If we write G (u . t•) = F(T(u. v )) for the result of subs tituting x(u. v) and y(11, v)
for x ami y in the original integra nd F (x. y), then the change-of-variables formula
in (7) takes th e form
·ntus we formally transform the integral f{R F(x. y) t/;\ by replacing the original
variabks x and y with .r ( 11, 11) and y(u. v), respectively. and writing
I
II
t/A = -
il(x.y) ldudv
lil(u. 11)
1 b
f(x) dx = 1 fJ
f(g(u))lg'(u)J du. (Ill)
Thus the Jacobian in Eq. (8) plays the role of the derivative g'(u) in Eq. (I).
~XAMP~E 2 Suppose that the 1ransfom1ation T from the r B-planc to the .ry-planc
ts determmed by the polar equ:~tions
~=!cosO -rsin Ol -
il(r, 0) sinO rcosO - r >0,
, s•CTJON 14.9 1005
Ch.lng~ of VariJbl~ in l.!u:t.p:e Integ•a s •
. .
G rvcn a partscular doubl~ inteval JJ j!.r. , ) c!.r d ". ho" do '"' sn · . ••- d ~ f'TC>tfttC·
1
. T
· h -
live c ange of variables~ O:~e s tandard approach· is to ·chro<e- n trnns fo rm ·3tson
such that t he bounda ry o! R cc nsists of u-curves and t·-curw~ In C3~ it i< mo re con·
•
vcnscntto express u and ,. in terms of .r ar.d '· we cJ n tir.;t co mpute "' ( 11 • 1·)/ il( r • •v)
explicitly and then find the needed JJrobiJ n ; ( r .••l/ iiCu. 1 l from che formui:J
EXAMPLE 3 Suppose t hat R is the pbne regio n of unit density thJt is b<wndcd hy
t he h yperbolas
,\
of this region.
il(u, v)
acx. y)
= I)'
2.r
Hence Eq. (9) gives
il(x.y)
aell. v) = 2(x2 + y2) =- 2J -t.,l + •.z .
We are now ready to apply the change-of-variables theorem, with the regions S and
FIGURE 14.9.5 The
=
R as shown in fig. 14.9.5. With f' (x . y) x 2 + y 2• Eq. (8) gives
tansformati'on T and the new
rtgion Sconstructed in Example 3. lo= !J R
(x
2
+ /)dxdy =
3
t}, J1{ V4u + 2J 4uZ1 ~ v2 dudv
2 1•2
• •
t {3 I
= Js }, '2dudv =3.
•
Example 4 is motivated by an important application. Consider an engine with
an operating cycle that consists of alternate expansion and compression of gas in a
piston. During one cycle the point (p. \' ).which gives the pressure and volume of this
gas. traces a closed curve in _the p V -plane._The wo rk done by the engine-ignoring
friction and related losscs-1s then equal (m appropna te unus) to the area mc/osed
by this cun'e, called the indicator diagram of the engine. The indicator diagram for
an ideal Camot <'ngine con~ists of two isotherms x y = a. xy = b and two adiabatics
xyY = c, xyY = d, where y IS the heat capacity ratio of the working gas in the piston.
A typical value is y = 1.4.
.....
1006 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integra ls
EXAMPLE 4 find the area of the region R bounded hy the curves .ry = I. xy = 3
' and xy 1 • = I. xyl.• = 2 (fig. 14.9.6).
Solut ion To force the given curves to be u-curves and ••-curves. we define our
1
change-of-variables
-...- tran;form:llion bv .
.. 11 = .nand I' = xy • • lltcn
(lA).r/'
.r I=(OA ).n-· 1
' = (0. 4)1'.
So
_ac_.r_•.r_> = _____ = _2.5
a (u. l') a(u.t•)/ il(.r.y) I'
A=!! ld.rdy=
R
JJ. z J ., -
~:.:.dudt• = 5 1n 2. •
Chnngc of Variables in Triple Integrals
'lltc changc-of-vnrianles formula for triple intc)!r:lls issimil nr IO Eq. (H). Suppose !hat
S nnd U =T(S) nrc regions that correspond unde r the w ntin uously differentiable
transformation T : R!,.w - R~.., .. '11tcn the Jaconinn ofT is I he dc lcrminnnt
il r il.r ilx
iJ u a11 ilw
il(.t.\' ,~) ily i)y ily
l r(u,v,w)= · = (10)
il(u. v. w) iJu iJ ( I il ll'
a: a= a~
au ot• on·
Then (under assumptions equivalent to those stated in 1ltcorcm 1) the change-of-
variables formula for triple integrals is -
iff R
F(x.y. : )dxdyd: = Jj
S
F(T (u.v. w)) llrlu. v.w )l duclt>dw, (11)
jjj R
F(x,y.z)dx dyd:=jr ff G (u.u, w)lil(.r.y.:J i duclvdw,
J Js
il(u . v. w)
(12)
jj~ F(x.y,z) dxdy dz= jjj G(p, ¢ ,0) plsincf> dpd¢ d0.
s
The sign is correct because p2 sin¢~ 0 for 1/1 in (O )
• 1'{ •
•
Clun<Jt ol V•n.tbl~ in Myltipl" lnt"9r•h SECTION 1" ·9
1007
(XAMPU G lind the ' olume CJf the solid torus R obtatncd bv rc,olving nround
the : ·t"i' the cir cular lli\k •
( 13)
in the: • : ·pbnc.
Solution ' 1111\ 1\ the toru\of Etampl e 5or Sect ton J.!./1, Le t U\" rtle II for the orlltna ry
pnl.tr comdtnatc an~c 11 • 1 for the antic v o f fi~t IJ. 13. and" for the ll1\lancc: from
the: ce nte r uf the CirCUlar dl\k dc\.Cnbcd b) the mcquahty tn ( 13) We then defi ne th e:
11 nm f<~l lllallon T hy m ea n\ of the equ.11 on\
1
,f "" f/1 + W CCX l ) CC)\ u, \ =(b .._ " CO\ l ) SIO u, : =" SIO 1'.
'Jlte ~l1he solid toru\ H i\ the image under T of the rcttJOn m "'" -sp.1ce descnbcd by
th e IOC(jU3htiC\
0 ::' u ~ 2..o: . 0 ,.. t ,. 2..~ . 0 .,. . • -:;: a
llyn routine computation, "C fmd that the Jaco h1an o fT IS
il ( A,)',:)
.,. .;. . . :. .::.. :.._:: =" (b.._"' CCX t•) .
il (u , t , ,.)
which agree~ with the vnluc V = 2:rb · :ra 2 gi ven by Pappus's first theorem (Sec·
tion 1-t.S). +
t-liJ PROBLEMS
~ l'rohltnu I tllrouglt 6 so!l·t for .r. ond y i11 tum.! of 11 and ~. 6. 11= - -
2.r.
u=.rl-+-
2y
'"'~co . a(x, y)/8(u, v). zl + yl' yl
'"PUtt tht Jacobian
7. Let R be the paraUelogram bounded by the lines .r + y ., 1.
l...
L" "•+ )'.
l. • - y,
2
Ll= x-y
v = 3.r +,. .r + y = 2 and 2.r -3y = 2.2.r. - 3y = S. Substitute u • .r +y,
v .. 2.r.- 3y to find its area
=yfx
• • •y.
t • "2(
s.
··• +
u
•I + ' I ).
2y 1,
v .. 2(.rl -
v =.t-2yl
y) Ac: if I
ld.r d y.
1008 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integrals
8. Substitute" = .ry. r = y/.r to find the area of the first· tJ. Use elliptical coordinates x =
3r cos 9. Y = 2r sin8 to find
quadrant region bounded hy the lines y =
x • ." = 2c and the \'Oiume o f the region hounded hy the .ry·plane. the
the hyperholas.r~· =I. xy = 2 (Fig. 1~.9.7). paraboloid : = x= + y2 • and the elliptic cylinder
.f: ·'1'1
_..__=J.
9 .j
11. Use the method of Problem 10 to find the area of the first·
quadrant region bounded by the curves y = .r1 • y = 2<1 x exp( -k(.r
2
+ y 2 + z2)} dx dy tlz = ~~.
and .r = yl, .r .. 4yl.
20. Let R be the solid ellipsoid with constant density o and
12. Let R be the first-quadrant region bounded by tbe circles boundary surface
x' + yz - 2• . .r 2 + y1 = 6x and the circles .r 1 + y 2 = 2y. A 1 • yZ z:
.r' + y' = 8y. Use the transfonnation "I ..- b' + cl I. =
2c 2y
u --
- xl + yl'
11=----- Use. ell_ipsoidal coordinates x .. tlpsin6cos0. >' =
xl + y'
bpstn¢sm8, z =
cpcos¢ to show rhat the mass of R is
to evaluate the integral M = ~ ;r oabc.
z_\ "fbe centro id or the plane regio n o f Pr oblem 9 ( Fitt- 14. .8)
9 (c) Firully. u-.e the tran, fomutio n T 1( , - u;.
J e lin c..S
;t lb<centrood of the plane reg:on o f Problem 10 (Fig.. K 9 . by A = !sin wl '(cos, l . , = Uon t l let"-' ' to <'J lu ~IC' the li·
91 nal u::e~ul on !"lrl (b) a nJ therd:·~ <>1-tJ on ( ukr·s rc,ult
..-..moment of 1net113 around each coord 10 , 1
1.1. ..~ •
solid elli~md o f f' rohlem 20
~ e au s o 1 the
th3 t Cl1 o=.• : eo A.< ind.:atC'J " ' f-i~ p '110. the trJ n<f<•t·
mu ion T came <the ontcriN of the tll.ln)!k 0 ~ u S IT r-) - t•.
;6. lbc ~n1ro1d of the ~olod nl Pmble m 16 and its moments of 0 ~ I ~ :. r.. tn the ll t'•piJnc M< ·lo.<lnC tO the ontC rtOI Of the
onerlll around the comdrnatc a_, e,. unot "GtUrc in the •>··r u ne.
!1 Write the tri ple mtegrnl that & 1\'Cl> the a\·erage d ist {
•. I'd 1 . ancc o
...,ints
, .~
of the so
. ' e hp<o
. rd o f Proble m 20 from th ·
e ongm.
Then approxrmate that mtegral 1r1 the ca-..: a 4• b J. = =
and c = 2.
1'1'
0 0
-, - 1 - tl.t d y c {(2).
- .ry
nsuming l h~ v3lidity <>ltcrmwi>c inte~?.ration of the rCjUit ·
ing~>erics in power> o f zy. -
~. (3) First find a commo n dcno minntor in the integr:tnd. thc n
make the ~ubstitution " "' .r 1 • o• : y 1 to sho"' thot
1'1'( 0 0
- I-
1 - .<>'
- - I- ) dA d•• :: -{(2).
l +x.v ·
I
2
(b) Add the equation in pan (o) nnd the identit)'
1'1'(- + - -
0 0
1
1 -zy
I
l +.ry
) dxd•· = 2
·
1'1'
0 0
I , ,tl.rdy
1 -z· _..-
f iGURE 14.9.10( b) Their imJ 9e u<u~s
in the ra09e olt.h e lronslorm.~toon T.
r,. tht {ollo ...·ing list as a Rtlidr to ronupts that yo11 may nr.-d 8. E••aluation of triple intc~r:tls by iterated ~in~tlc intc ·
lornUw. gr:11ion
• Definition of the double integral a~ a limit of Riemann sums
1 9. Ap['licatio ns o f triple integrals to tlnd volume. m•ss. cen ·
l. E•aluauon of do uble integrals by ite rated single integration troids. and moments of inertia
ll:\c 0 ( the double integra! tO lind the volume between IWO 10. Transformation of the triple inle)!ral JJJ J<x. )', :)t!V
into cylindrical :ond spherical comJiMtes '
' 'Jtlaces aho,·c a given plane regio n
t 'transformation of the d ouble integral JJ,
f(x • Yl dA into ll. The s urface area or 3 parametric • urfacc
P<llar COord mates 12. The area of 3 surface: = {(.r, y) for (x . y) in the plane
!. ApPfication o f double integrals to lind mas.'l. centroids. and region R
I. lrloments of inert ia or plane laminae 13. llle Jacobian o f a trans formation of roor<linatcs
7
lhet~o~o theorems o f Pappus 14. The tr:tns forrnation o f :l douhle Or triple integral COrTe•
· Definition of the triple integral u a limit or R iemann sums sponding to a gi>-en change of variahles
101 0 CHAPTER 14 M ultiple Int egrals
1'!'
16. TI1c rccion lxlund~d by y = x= and x = y : 6(.t. y) = .r 2 +yl
1
I. ,, ... d y • • d ,
I 11. The rq: ion bo unded by x = 2)" an .\" = x -4: .S(.r, y) == yl
0 •"' ./i+?
1'1'
18. The rc~;:ion J--e tween _,.= lnx and the.r-axisovcr the inte rva l
2. sin-
- .r dxdy I i£ r ~ c: J( l, 1·) = 1/.r
0 1 ... 19. The circle !xlunded by r = 1 cos 0: tl(r. B) = k (a constant)
- -~=1.
0 ,: J
n= b·
.,, .v cxp(
)r
2
)
cl.rtly Emplo~ the facts that thc arca of this semiellipsc is A =
0 Ji X :wb/1 and the •·olumc of the ellipsoid it gene rates " hen
. .1 ~ I ' = •~ .ill I'
rnt:th.· d :lHlUih I t hC.: .t ·:lX I~ 'J"' .
ti. The d o uble intcgrnl
12. (a) l hc the fir$! thco n:m of I'.I J'JlUS to fi nd the cent roid of
,.-•
-dvd r
lhc fir,t·tlu.u.Jr.lnt r\')f l it.Hl of the annular ring with bound·
ary cncle~ ,: - ,.: = ,: and x= T -": = b: (" here 0 < a < b).
y
(b) Sho" th.1 tthc lim1tin!! position of this centroid as b - a
i< the centro id of .1 qu .utcr-circular a rc. as we found in Prob-
is an improper in tegral mer 1hc unbounded rcr,ion 1n thc
lem ol-l uf S<·ct1u n l·l 5 .
tina <tU.Idrunt hct\\cen the line~ ,. = < nnd 1 0. ;\\\Um·
in!' that it i- valid (it is) to rc1cr'<: the nnkr uf rntrj:rarion. 23. Find the centrtlld of the regron in the X,l'·pla ne bounded by
c•·.,luntc th i' inlcj:ral by integrating first 111th rc~pcettu.r. the x-.nl< and thr paraoola ." = -l- x 2 •
7. Find the •·olurnc of the ;,olid Tthat hes below the: p.truboloid u . Find the • olumc of the 'olid that lies below the pa rabolic
~ = .r1 + ,.: and a hove the trinn):lc R in the .<,> ·plane that cylinder : "' r= .1nd nhovc the triangle in the r y·p1.1nc
hn< vertices ut (0. 0. 0) , (I. 1. 0) . and (2. 0. 0). bounded by the coordi nate axes and the line x + y = 1.
II. Fi nd hy integrat ion in cyl ind ric:ll coordina tes the volu me 25. Usc cylindrical coo rd inates to lind the volume of the ice·
cream cone bou nded a bow by the sphere x l + yl + z2 = 5
ho
,
x· - ,,...
.
unded by t he paru bolo ids 4 = 2.r 1 + 2y1 nnd 4 "' 48 -
and be low by t he cone ~ 2 = J.r=
+ y l.
9. Usc integration in sphe rical coord mn tcs to find the volume 26. Find the volume and centroid of the icc-cream cone
nod cc:nt roid o f th e solid region that is inside t he sphere bounded above by the sphere p = a and below by the cone
f1 = 3. hclow the co ne¢ = :r /3. and nbove the .ry·planc ¢=:r /3.
¢ = :r/ 2. 21. A homogeneous solid circular cone has mass M and base
10. Find the •·olumc of the solid bounded by the elliptic radius n. Find its moment of inertia around its axis of
paraboloids ~ = x 2 + 3y2 and 4 = 8 - x= - 5,> 2• symmetry.
II. Find the volumc bounded by the par:1boloid y = x 2 + 3zz 28. Find the m~ss of the first octant of t he ball f1 ~ a if its density
nnd the parabolic cylinder y = .: - ~~. at (.r . y. ~) rs 6(x. y. : ) = xy:.
12. Find the volume of the region hounded by th e parabolic 29. Fi nd the moment of inert ia around the .r·a xis of the ho·
cylin<lcrs ~ = .r 2, ~ = 2 - .r 2 and the p13nes y = 0. y + ~ = 4. mogencous solid e llipsoid with unit densitv a nd bou ndary
su~~ ·
IJ. Fi nd the volume of the regio n bo unded by the elliptical
=
cylinder y 2 + -1~ 2 4 and the planes x = 0, .r = y + 2. .t l yl ~2
14. Show that the volume of the solid bo unded by the elliptical t1 1 + b 2 + c! =I.
cylinde r 30. Find the volu me o f the regio n in the first octant th at is
~~nded by the sphere p ="·the cylinder r = 0 , the plane
• -a, the .r~·planc, and the yz-plane.
Jl. Find the moment of inertia arou nd the z·axis o f the ho-
and t he planes ~ = 0, ~ =
h • x (where h > a > O) is mogeneous region of unit density that lies inside both the
V .. :robh. sphere p = 2 and the cylinder r = 2 cos e.
15. Let R be the first·QU3dunt region bounded by the curve In Problmu Jl throw>/ 3 , . .
x• + .r 2y 2 = y 1 and the line y = x. Usc polar coordinates to . ~ ' " • a vo1rn nc rs g~ncrored by rt••ol•·mg
a p Ian r r ~gron R ar01 d .
evaluate . Ill on a.ttS. To fin d the volum e, set up a
doubll! 1111egro/ over R b 1 · d
. . . Y f t'VO vmg on area flem em d A aroun
t Irc rrulzcmrd lUIS to o"t~rnrore
!!. II
.,
I
., dA .
(I+ x· + y•j2 32. Find the vo lume of th
h . .
• 0 ..
• O 1ume e1emt'/11 d V
I'd · .
e so t obtatned by rc\'o lving nro un
t e Y·axts the regton inside the circler= 2a cosO .
d
finJ I h 0
~ , 1ume of 1he •olod oblamec.l bv re•ol
. • •rn g ar ound
_l.l <i< lhr re~ron enc1m ed by Ihe cnrd 1u 1d ~. Apply lhe formula of Prot>km .19 10 compute lhe atc3 o f
t~( ' '" ' • 1 4 C(.l \ ll
·:_I(hC \('1Un1C uf Ihe •••lod l<'tU\ Obl~rnecJ h\' . Ihe plrl Of Ihe C) hnder r ,. a s::1 !' lhlti.N 1nS1d<: Ihe srhere
_u. fuw, •l 0 .., r :;, II arounlllhc lone 1 ., - b II> I ~ ' l( \ Ohrn' ,: +:: -=a: .
thC ul" • • - n. 51• Find the rot.r moment of oner111 of the f\r<t ·quJdranl re·
me 1h.11 the wru' of l'wblem :4 hat un f
·'·~ """ f ' o rm den·
Ill) J fonJ ,,, m••onenl u onc rll• awund , 1, n•l urn l axl\of
pon n! ronuant densoty 6thll is roun..led h) the hyperbol3S
.r. y • 1. • y • J tlnc.J .~ : - )': c 1. .: - v=., -'·
i)OIJliC lf)'·
! 2.. Suh\tttute" a J. - J Ano! • c .r - ) tot\ 3lU3te
~·-• l(lrlon>u~lt J: tfr11l "lilt average dl\l~nce Th
f'nX•' • . T . ( " I'''"
J/ltd~tt, Ol[ rlzr I'"'"' I • •· ' >)from lhc poinl.J of rl
Iff ~ ,. 1rh ~ttJ A '-' .lrfir:r•i lll t >c '' p 41!c
"!""' ~
i1 =; JI• ,/(t - .,)' + () - )'o)l dA . "'here R 1s rounded b~· Ihe coon:!on31< n\es and the line
.t +vm l.
!.). l:\C clhf"'Odal et)()r.Jonltcs ' ~ao sinoco<c~ . y=
Tl:t ••t'~.~~ t!otra~rt "' a pmr.l \ to. •o. ;ol {tom rl~t poorolJ of a bp iln c "" rl. : ~ (p cos c to find Ihe m>« of the solid
Jf"~~r t'f,cicm f.\' ,/tJitfffl tuwlngotoly clh~d
)1. Sh•"" lhJI the. aver•F.C ll l\ lancc u f Ihe ro•nl! uf ft dotk of
uJIU<CJ fr••m '''cente r·~ 2.r (.l
~1. Sh•>"' 1ha1 lho• a• cra j:c Jl\l ancc of Ihe I'"'"'' of a d o<l of
uJ•u' a hum a fhcol I'""" nn j[, hnuntlal\ i< J !tof<},, .
if 111 den<oly l it he point ( • . v. :l i<!liven hy
)S. t\ c1tdc o•f ~:otliu< I i< onl cronr I(> nnJ l:onrc nl 10 n Cllcle nf
nd1u< ~. find lho· 3 \ Cl 3):e dl\l3nCc nf Ihe poinlof langency
fr••m lh< f'l>~nl< thai lie h ·lwo·c n lloc '"" corclc,,
.)'!, Sh•'" lh3tlhc avcr n~c <h,l.lllce nf Ihe P<•inls of 3 •pheual
1>.111 .,f rnolnl< a h nm it< crnlcr i< ~~ ~~. ~4. Lc1 R be lhe firt~·qu>drJnt region houn<lc<l by the
._,, Sh•'"' !hal l he avcr:I}:C <l"t:rno·c of Ihe poinl< nf n spherical lcmni\Catc\ , : • lcm!t) . ,: • .& ct'h'U' :1nd r 1 a )sin20 .
~JII <>f u dou< c1 !rum a 11\cJ point on il' surl•C"e i< f>n /5 , : .. 4 >rn :!i~ (Fig. 14.:-.l r.l ). Show 1h' ''" orca i<
~1. A •rhcrc <•f radiu> 1 i' interior In and tan ge nt 10 n sphere of
13Jou< "· Find Ihe :over a}:<' <li,lnnce of the poinl of lnngrncy
frnm the \CI nf allpui nl~ bc l\\ ecn Ihe 1\\n >phcrcs.
C. t\ righl circubr come ha' r:odiu < R nnd hci~hl /1 , Find the
>'Cf3jte do,lancc <•f poinl' nf the cunc fro m its vertex . (SIIKJ:t:tlloro: Define the uansformallon T from Ihe uc·plane
to Ihe •O·plnne by r1 = uor: cos 20, rl .. u 1il sin 20. Show
!.\ Find the surface nrc:r of lhe pari of the paruholoid : "' first lhM
10- , : that lies l>el"'ccn Ihe N o planes: = I and: ~ 6.
«. FinJ the surface llr<"3 of Ihe pari of Ihe surf3ce: = y1 - .r 1 "
-&IV- ,
I ,.•n
lhJI i> insiJc Ihe cylinder ,: + _.. : = 4. r·=
w+ u (I = l arct>n ~.
!.\ Let .~~ Ihe surf3ce Mea of the wnc on Ihe sphere p = a be·
,.. ecn Ihe r lanes; = :, and; = ;:(where - a :i ; , < =: :i a). 'The n sho'"' lh31
L'>c the formula of l'roblcm 18 in Sccuon 1-1.810 show Ihat
3(r, 0) I
A = 2:-:ah. ~here h = ::- : 1 •
u(u, u) = - 161-(u + ~>'" .J
46. ~ind Ihe surface arc3 of Ihe pan of lhe sphe re p = 21hal is
Wide the cylinder x= + >: = 2-t.
fl. Asquare hole wilh side len~th 2 is cui through a cone of
tdghl 2 and base radius 2; Ihe centerline of lhe hole is lhe
l\is of symmclry of 1he cone. Find the area of Ihe surface
rcmo,·ed fromlhe cone.
~ l\umerically approximale 1he surface area of lhe part or
t~e P•l~abolic cylinde r 2: = .rl 1hn1 lies inside 1he cylinder
•-r =l.
49
• A "fence" of variable height lt (r) stands abol'e lhc plane
cune (.t(r). y(r)). Th U5 Ihe renee has 1he paramelrizalion
\~ • (r).)' = )'(1), ~ = : foraSr S b.O:l::lh(r). Ap-
•
P > Eq. (8) o r Seclion 14.8 10 show thai the are a of Ihe
fence is
b
1012 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integrals
55. A 2-by-2 square hole is cut symmetrica lly thro ugh a sphere in part (a) is ,\ = 4~r ( ../3- I ) . (St~gg<"srion: First integrate
of radius ../3. (Sec Fig.. 1-t.~·IP.2.) (a) Show that the total by parts. the n substi tute x = ./2 sm 0.(
surface area of the two pieces cut from the sphere is 56. Sho w that the volume enclosed by the surface
6
is V -- ..L
210
oocsrion: Substi tute y = b sin 0. (
a 1 . (Su. ,.,(')
58. Find the ave rage of the .rqllare of the distance of points
of the solid ell ipsoid ( x /t<) 2 + { y /b) + (:/cl ~ I from the
2 2
•
-----~· ~
.. j
'\
JfDOR CALCULUS I
1013
1014 CHAPTER 15 Vector Calculus
. 1 VECTOR FIELDS
15 1 Th is chap te r is d evoted to to pics in the ca lculus of vector fie lds of importance in
science an d e nginee rin g. A ,·ector field defined o n a re gion T in space is a vector-
va lued function f that associa tes wi th eac h po int (x . )' • .:) ofT a vector
nr. briefly, F = Pi + Qj nr F = ( P. Q ).
It is usdul to be.: able to visualize a g iven vec tor fie ld F. One common way is to
s~e tch a co llec tion of typical vec10rs FC.r. y) . each represe nted by an arrow o f length
IHx. y)l and loc:~ted wit h (x . y) as its ini tia l po int. 'llris procedure is illustrated in
Example I.
JF(x, y ) l = Ixi + yj l = J x 2 + y2 = r,
equal to the dis ta nce from the origin to ( x. y). Figure 15 1 I h
vecto rs representin g this v..:ctor fi eld. ,. • . . s ows some typical
•
Among the most im porta nt vector fields in r . · . . ·
fie lds. Imagine the steady flo w o f a tluid s uch ~s the app ICalloi~S a re -.. e Joc1ty vector
· " \'>-ater m a nver o r tl1e n l ·· d
B .,. astead)'fto ... wc mea' n tl1at
' tire ,.e1ocny
· vecton( t . · ) ft h fl . ! 11 .Sv an\ln ·
FIGURE 15 .1.1 The vectorfield each point (x. y. :) is im.lcp.:ndcnt of ti~le (althou~il) . , o • c u_ll . owmg thro ugh
F(x, y) = xl + yJ. x ' y. and:), so the p:rtt..:rn of the flo w remains co "' not nc.: cessan ly llltkpcndent of
vector ricld of the fluid fl ow. nstant. Then ' '(x. y, : ) is the nlodty
,- / ;
' •
I I
~ -
-.... I
I
\,. - · ·
' ' .. I. .
" • l
' ' /
/ / I I \ \
' ' ,,' ,... ~ -_ _,//
...
\ '
/
/ I I I I
\
~EM ARK . Mcxt computer ~l~ehra 5)-stems h:we the f.lci litl to plot vcct11r licld 'i. For
ansl:t nce.elther lhe.l/ap/rcommand !\elc!plott (x, y) , ·•• • J •. l . y . -2 .. 2 1 or
the Mmlrrmatitn command PlotVectorrlelc!( ( x ,y). (x. - l,l), (y, · l , l ) I
gcnc ral c\ a compute r plol hkc rsl(. 15.1..1 of the vee~ or lidJ F = •I + 1j t>f E "'"ll'k I.
n . . .
tc computer hns !>Calt:d I he vccton lo ~ li,ed m:n mn1m len~tth so !hal the k n!!th
n.f each vector as plotlcd ;, prnportJnnallo it< actu.o l lcn,:lh. l·i l'urc 15.1..1 ~hnws a
Stm olar computer plot of the vector field f' =-
yi .._ .r j of Example 2.
Equally important in phy1ic.11 npplicn linn• .ore forn· fic'!d< Suppt><c th at <orne
circumstance (perhJ I" gr:tvitational or dectrical in ch.u Jeter) c.1u,es a fl)ret· F ( t. y. :)
to act on a partick whe n it is placed i'lt the: point (.c . y. ~). TI1c n '"' c ha -.·c 3 furcc
fie ld F. Exam ph: 3 deals with what is perhaps t he mo~ l common force fie ld percei ved
by huma n beings.
r EXAMPLE 3 Suppose that a mass .If is fixed al th~ origin in space. When a particl e
\ I I of unit mass is placed at the poi nl (.c. y. : l other !han the ori~:in . il is subjected ton
,',II;~, force f (x. y. ~)of gravitational att rnction directed to" :ord lhc rna\s !If a l !he origin.
,,,\//,.,.,. By Newton's inve rse-square law of !!ravitalio n. the magnitude of I' i' F = GMj r2.
~--......._\/ ___ _ =
whe re r /xl + yl + : 2 is the le ngth of the posilion vector r =xi + yj +: k. It
follow~ immediately that
kr
r(.r. ~·. : ) =- , J' (4)
where t = G M. because this vector has both the correct magnitude and the correct
direction (toward the ori)!.in. for f' is a multiple of - r). i\ force field of the fo rm in
Eq. (4) is called an i11 vrrse-square force field . Nolc tha t f'(.c. y. z) is not defined at
fiGURE 15.1.5 An inverse-square the origin and that iFI - +oo as r - o•. figure 15.1.5 illustrates an invc rse·squarc
fore~ field (Example 3). ~~ ~ld. •
The artial derivatives on the right -hand side of Eq . (5) are evaluated at the point
(.r. / :).Titus Vf(.r. y. z) is a ve: tor field: It is the gradient wet or field of_rhc function
and is sometimes denoted hy grad 1: A~cord~ng to lltco_rcm I. of Scctton 13.1!. ~he
fvector "v f(r· • )'· ..·)points in the d1recuon tn. wh1ch the .maxunal d1rccuonal dcnvauve .
( . z) is obtained. For examplc.tf /(:r. y. : ) ts the temperature at the pomt
o ff at :r.y. . · "/( ·
·n space then vou should move in the d1recuon v ;r, y . z) m or er to warm
d
(:r.y. z) I ' •
up the most quickly.
1 016 CHAPTER 15 Vector Calculus
/ I I I I
//I I I
•
I
I
\ \ \
\ \ ", ,,
" In th e case of a two-variable scalar function f(x, y) we s uppress the third com.
ponent in Eq. (5). so V f = (f,. f 1 ) = f, i + J,.j defines a plane vec tor field.
/ / ; I I I \ ' \ ', ......
.- ., , ' ' • =
--. • , .' .' --
' ... EXAMPLE 4 With f(x , y) = x2- y2, the gradient vector field Vf 2xi- 2yj
y
--.
... .... .. '' ' . . ,. --
'
, ,
plotted in Fig. 15.1.6 should remind you of a contour plot ncar a saddle point. +
• I I
ll1e notation in Eq. (5) suggests the formal expression
,,,
' .. ' ' \
\
I
I
I I
I I I I/
I//
a a a
'\ \ \ I
•
I I I I I V= i - + j - + k-.
ax ay az
(6)
FIGURE 15.1.6 The gradient It is fruitful to think of V as a vector differential operatOr. That is, V is the operation
vector field V f = 2x l - 2yJ of that, when applied to the scalar function f, yields its gradient vector field Vf. This
Example 4.
operation behaves in se"eral familiar a nd important ways like th e operation D, of
single-va ri able differentiation. For a familiar example of this phenomenon, recall
that in Chapter 13 we found the critical points of a function f of several variables
to be those poin ts at which V f (x. y. :) = 0 and those at which V f(x, y. z) does not
exist. As a computationally useful instance, suppose that f and g are functions and
that a and ba re constants. It then follows readily from Eq. (5) and from the linearity
of part inI differen tiation that
Thus the gradient ope rator is linear. It also sati sfies the product rule, as de monstrated
in Example 5.
EXAMP LE 5 Given the differentiable functions f(x. y , :) and g(x, y , z) , show that
"V (fg) = f V g + g Vf. (8)
Sol~t~on We apply the definition in Eq. (5) and the prod uct rule for partial differ·
enttallon. TI!Us
vu8 > = i a~Jg> + j a(fg) + k au.r:>
tlx ay ilz
= i(/g, + gf,) + j (/gy + g/y) + k(fg, + gf:)
= f · (ig, + j gy + kg,) +g ·(if, + j/y + kf:) =JVg + gVf,
as desired.
•
The Divergence of a Vector Field
Suppose that we arc gi,·en the vector-valued function
di"F="il· l,.=~
., + ilQ +ilN
- (9)
" ·' ily il:.
Here div is an abbreviation for "diver en " .
consistent with the formal expression f~ ;..c: •Ellld the alternative notation V • F is
· r v 111 ·q. (6). That is,
V·F =/ ~ ~
\ax ' <h"a,i) ill'
· (P,Q.R)=-+_Q..t.aR
a
. - ilx il v . ilz .
We will sec in Section 15.6 that if vis th . •
then the value of div vat the point ( . c v.e 1ocny vector field of a steady fiuid flow.
. · . x • J • z) 1s cssemiall h .
at wh tch 11 uu.l mass IS flowing away (or "diver . .. Y t c net rate per umt volume
gmg ) from the point (x. "· z).
V~tor F'odd1 SECTIO'I t S. l 1 01 7
EXAMPLE 6 If 1h
e vector field F ts
· SJI·en
· by
div F :: .!.(
ax u
'>• a_.l:
0 . a
sm >) -'- a: (xy ln: ) =t'-'-:cosy + ; .
X \"
The analogues of Eq1. (7) 3nd (S) for dh·cr gencc ;uc the formulas
~ · (a f - bG) = a ~ · r- b ~ · G (10)
and
curt •• = V x •· =
a ,,j I.
fl
(12)
th a,~· a:
r Q R
curl F =
il a a
ilx ily il:
.rt' : siny :ry In z
= l(x In;:- sin y) + j (- y In l) + k (-u 1).
The analoeues of Eqs. (10) and (II) for curl arc the formulas
~ V X (aF + bG) =a( V X f ) .L. b( V X G ) (14)
and
V x {/G) = (/)( V x G)+ (V /) X G (lS)
V x Vf = iJ.x C!y a~
ar IJf iJf
TI1crcforc.
V x Vf= O
because of the equality of continuous mixed second-order partial derivatives.
•
0 15.1 TRUE/ FALSE STUDY GUIDE
15.1 CONCEPTS: QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION
1. Discuss the analogy between the differential operators
D =-
d
an
d ~
v =
.1- a + J.a
-
tlx ilx iJ y
for functions of one and two variables (respccti\•cly).
2. What arc the similarities and differences between the divergence and the
curl of a vector field?
15.1 PROBLEM S
Jn Problems I rh rottgh 10, illttstrm~ the given vecwr field I' by
skt·tdting sn-eral t)'pical•wcrors in the jieltl. March the gradient ••ector fieltl.r of the functions in l'robl~ms
II through 14 with the cnmpttter-grnermt>d plot.v ;11 Figs. 15. 1.7
I. f'(x. y) = I + j thro ugh 15. 1.10.
2. f (.r, y) = 31- 2j
J. l'(.r. y) = .r l - yj
r/ / '•
r. . . . .
I I
\ '"1
4. f (.t ' y) = 2i + .rj o.s ..... , ,
~
/ I
• • ',
' '']
..........
s. f'(x. y) = cx= + y1) 1r.(xl + yj ) y 0J- - .
. •• ' .. --
6. f'(x, y) = Cx 1 + iJ-111 Cxl + yj ) • -o.s
!- -
' ' ' ,
• --
.......
7.1'(x.y.:)= j + k t' '' '
-I .........
i i / ..........
8. f (x, y, :) =I+ j - k
f:--.,' \ I I /_.//
9. f (x. y. :) =-xi - yj -l - 0.3 0 0.3
..
/
d •• ·"' c-nnsran:u.. 1ar.:J t da:o:t :Jr:•t ( • tr::lJ
~ " o·· · •t t ..·....
· '-·· ~...
- _.
-, • .._ ...•.~.
.
[- -
~ - - 1
y
• -- ..
;
"l
. - --:
. - -~
· "'•
and r and c drr:o:< t!:~rt rrr..::..:!:J:c \ tr'!:'' -~(.:.is.
4
t " : ,-
- 1:_..... .,
..
t,.... .. •
• • . -
• • ' ..
•
i " ; , . • .... 1
• • ·.
25. "' laJ - b, i =a ' f - b ' g
26. ' ·tar - bG a = c "' . r - t."' . G
.:: .. . · I
/
..
, • • •
0
'I ~
:
~
1 .
0
. .. ..
OS
'•
27. "' x (a f - !:G1 = a (' x f' l - b l"' x G1
l8.. "' · 1/ G t = 1/lt' · G • - <"'fl · G
29. ... Y (/ G I = If>< ' x G a- t' f l X G
riGURE 1S.1.10
fiGURE 1S.1.9
.30. ... (L) t
= t ..., -. I
t·
'f
11. /l <.)'l :: X ,\ ' 31. "' · l f Y G t = G· <' x fl- f · t ' x Gl
t:. /( 1, 1 ) = lJl + y' £ ua':>luh tl:t 1drn:w r J m frr>~!mu 3: ti- 'C'"S~ .:J un.lu :/:~ .U·
L\ / I I. ) )= ~in ~ (;r:
+ yl) sumpr11m r.J-.ar r;,r sc<=!~ , f:u.cr: .. ,.J 1c •.J t c ·..! :J:r , = ••· f.r:.t r
2 2 ort ~ rcr co r:tinunuJI\· d1{.1rr~n n.: f:,:~
(t / (1. yl =sin \<Y - x )
Jl. dl\ I rut! f I : 0
I• Pmblrms 1$ tltrr>u~lr 2~. colculart tilt tlivtr/ltflrr mtd curl of ~J. dl\ l "'/ J I .. I dl\'(, t l - ' dt\ I ' fl - ~, ,/l · <' d
:1-.t gi> rn •·•·rtor field I·. ~. dl\ ("'f X ' ( I = 0
Ll. f(J, y.:)c: xl + >l + : k \'orfy tht ldtntttt(J ll1 rrnf>!t,.,..J .t5 rhrc'IJ~Il J-4 , ir: " hh.·h • ;, Q
t6. F( <. y,:) • 3xl - 2)-j - ~: k COnJtunt ' t Cl.Or. r = ~ i - 'J-; \. . a.r..J r • r p,,.,..,.!trYU J ... t: '1.1 .'.~
Imply rhar l>urh th< dt> agrna ar:.l rl:r c:u l o/ •111 :m rrsr·.<•;:wrr
17. flr. )·.:)=)·: l +x: j + .tl'k \'rcro r {rtltl 'anu h idtr.llca/1•
t1 fl• .r.:l c: x11+ y1j + := t. 35. ' · r = 3 and ' x r~0
t9. !'( t . y. :l "'xy:l ... .•·: :J + :x 1 k 36. V · (a x r ) =0 and ' x t• x r) = ~*
!1. fl•.y. : t.,. ( 2.. - y)i + (3y - 2: )j ... (7:- J;r )k 37. ... . ,,
.!.. = 0 3S. ,, . o
.,. x!..
!1. fl• .y. :) = ()': + : 1 )1 + (r: + :=)j + (x1 + yl)k
!.!. fit. y. : ) • (r'' sin y)j + (r" cos : l k
39. Vr = ~, -40. ' ( ,~)- _ ,,
!_
P,. ... ,
'" .I b • '•
into short curve segments (Fig. 15.2.2). \\'e let P, denote the poi~t.(~(r,). >'.(l.). z(r,))
for; = 0. 1. 2.... . n. Then the points Po. P1• •• • • P. arc the subdtvts!On potnts of C.
From our study of nrc length in Sections 10.4 and 12.6. we know that the arc
length t:.s, of the segment of C from P. - t to f', is
1ne limit of this sum as t:.r _. 0 should\><! the.: actual mlss m. ll1is is our motivation
for the definition of the line integral of the function f along the cu rve C. de noted
by
jc
f(x. y.z) ds.
REMARK It ca~1 be shown that the limit i.n (3) always exists if the function/is conti11·
uous at each potnt of C. Recall from Section 10.4 that the curve Cis smooth provid~d
~~------------------
1
1021
Une tnteqrart SECTION 15-2
. Wh e n v. c su1~iltutc
· Eq. (2) into Eq. (.3). we rccogni1c- 1hc re<tJit n~ the 1·11111·1 0 (
a Rlc m~n n sum. Therefo re
in Th u< v.c may naluate the line mtcgJ31 fc /( r. y. ~ ~ell t>y c!tprcssing. everything
term< o f the paramete r r. mdudmg. the symN>Iic arc·kng:th <"Iemen!
~sa con_~quencc. the ri gJH ·hlnd <1de in Eq- (J ) is eva lul led ns em ordinary .Jin,t;l<'
wrth rrJput tn thr r ral wariablr r.
111/Cf(ral
1\ curve C thJ t lies in the ~y·pla nc may be regarded a< a space curve for wh ic h
: land ; ' (I) ) arc zero. In thi\ cn<c we simply suppre<< the varia hk : in Ect. (-I) ond
write
(5)
In the case that fis positivc·valucd. Fig. 15.2.3 illustrates an interpretation of the line
integral in Eq. (5) as the area of a "fence" wh~e base is the curve C in the .ry·planc.
with the height of the fence ab<w c the point (x. y) given by f (x. y) .
Solution Here
ds = J( -sin 1)2 +(cos 1) 2 d1 =dl ,
so Eq. (5) yields
( xyds=J_~'"
12
.
COSIStntdl=
[ 1 sm-r
. , ]" 1
=:z· +
Jc r-o 2 o
Le t us now return to the physical wire and denote its density f~nction by
~ (x, y, : ). The mass of a small piece oi length t.s is Am= 8 As, so we wnte
dm = .S(x, y, : ) ds
for its (symbolic) element of mass. Then the mass m o f the wire and its centroid
(:f. y. Z) are de fined as follows:
EXAMPlE 2 Find the centroid of a wire that has density 6 = kz and the shape of
the he lix C (Fig. 15.2.5) with pa rame triza tion
x = 3 cos t. y = 3 sin 1, z = 4t, 0 ;:;; 1 ;:i rr.
Solution lltc mass element of the wire is
dm =o ds = kzds =4kl V{ -3 sin r) 2 + (3 cos1)2 + 42 dl = 20k r d1.
Hence the formulas in (6) yield
x=-
- 1
Ill
1c oxds=-
1
10k;r2 0
1" 60kiCOS idl
26 [ COSI
= ;r . ]''
+ ISllll 12
=--":<-1.22·
FIGURE 15.2.5 The helical wire of 0 ;rr 2 •
Example 2. Does the centroid
(-1.22, 1.91,8.38)1ieon the
wire?
- 11 oy
Y= -
"' c
ds = - 1
10k ;r2 o
1"
60k t sin 1 d1
6 [ SIOI-ICOS/
= rrl . ]" 6
O =;":<1.91;
f = _!. f ozds=__!__
mJc 10krr2
r 80kr
lo
2 t11
8 [ 1 3] " Srr
= rr2 31 o = 3 ":<8.38.
So the centroid of the wire is located close to the point {-1.22, 1.91, 8.38). •
s1
1023
Thus
Jc
/(.r. :r. : )d r = J.t• /(.r(/),.'(1). : (l))r'(lldl.
(Sa)
Similarly, the line Integrals of f along C ... lth respect to y nnd "ith respect to : arc
given by
~ /!<. ). : 111.' =J.' jtrtll. .' l' l. : t rll,, 't l)</1 (81>)
and
=r
1 c
/(l. ).: l.J:
}"
/( fltl ,yll).:trll:'( t ) dr. (fie)
.
• The three integrals in (8) typically.occur together. If P. Q. and R nrc continuous
functions of the ,·ariables x, y. and z. then we " rite (indeed. d(jirr')
The line integrals in Eqs. (8) and (9) are e\'aluated by expressing .r, y . :.. dx, tfy,
nnd tfz. in terms of 1 as determined by a suitable parametrization of the curve llle c.
result is an ordinary single-\'ariable integral. For instance. if Cis a parametric plane
curve parametrized over the intcrval[a. b) by r(r) = (.r (r). y(l )),then
£I' d.r + Q dy = t[ P(.r (l). y(t)) · .r'(l) + Q (.r (l), y(r)) . y'(l)) dt.
jc ydx+zdy+xdz,
y
Solution Because dx = dt, dy = 2t dr. and d z = 3r 2 dr, substitution in terms of r
A yields
jy
C
dx + zdy + x dz = 1'
O
2
r2 dr + r3(2r dr) + r(3r tit)
I
FIGURE 15.2.61 f ds =
-C
In contrast. the signs of the derivatives x'(l) , y'(r). and z'(t) in Eqs. (Sa), (8b), and
{ fdsbutj Pdx+Qdy = (Sc) are cha nged wh en the direction of th e parametrization is reversed, so it follows
lc -c
-1 Pdx+ Qdy.
that
Thus changing the orientation of the curve changes the sign of a line integral with
respect to coordinate variables, but does not affect the value of a line integral with
respect to arc length. It is proved in advanced calculus that, for either type of line
integral. two one-to-one parametrizations of the same smooth curve give the same
value if they agree in orientation.
y
EXAMPLE 4 1l1c parametrization x = I + 8t, y = 2 + 61 (0;::; r ;::; 1) of the line
8(9. 8)
segment C from A(1.2) to 8(9.8) in Fig. 15.2.7 gives dx=8dt, dy=6dr. and
=
ds lOdr. Hence we e asily verify that
A(!, 2) and
X
~ydx + xdy = 1 1
[(2+61) ·8+ (1 +8t) -6]dt=70.
j-C
xyds = 10
2
(9-4t)(8-3t)·5dt=290,
whereas
fc f( x, y . :) ds -- J
c, . c,
/( x , y. : )ds = J c,
f( x . >· : ) ds ~ J c,
/(:r.. y.; )d s.
EXAMPLEs E
·valuate the hoe integral
7
) . ~)
J c
)dx ~ 2.zdy
fo r each of t hese three cur.-es C ( Fig. 15.2.9):
8 (2,4)
c,
Cl
lh . .
Thc s\raJgh t hne segment in the plane from A ( I. l) to 8 ( 2. ~):
c, an~ P a ne path from A 0. I) to 8(2. .;) along t he graph of t he parabol:l > = x~:
C3 The Mraight line in the plane from A(!. I) to Q(2. I} follo\l ed hphe str:~igh t
hne from Q (2. 1) to 8(2. -'>·
• Jc,
ydx + 2z dy ... 1'
1
(I+ 31)tll + 2(1 + r}(3tf1 l
f
c)
y dx + 2:r dy = 12
.aa l
{(l )(dx) + (2x)(O>} +f.' y• l
{(y)(O) + (4)(tly)J
= 1 2
••1
1 dx +f.' r• l
4 dy = 13.
•
Example 5 shows that we may well obtain different values for the line integral
from A to 8 if we evaluate it along different curves from A to 8. Thus this line
integral is pallt·deptndtnr. We shall give in Section 15.3 a sufficient condition for the
line integral
Jc
Pdx+Qdy+Rdz.
to have the same value for all smooth or piecewise smooth curves C from A to 8.
and thus for the integral to be independent of path.
Recall from Section 12.6 that the unit umgm t vecwr to the curve C is
I
T =-= -
v (dx. d y • -d~ k) .
- •+-J+
,. u dt dr tit
We wa nt to approximate the wo rk IV do ne by the fo rce field F in mo ving a
particle along th e c urve C from A to IJ. Subdivid e Cas indicated in Fig. 15.2. 10.
111ink of F movin g th<: p:uticlc from P,_ 1 toP.. two consec utive division point s o f C .
The work t:. IV, do ne is approxima te ly the produc t of th e di stance t:. s, from P,_ 1 to
P, (m easured a long C) a nd the tnngential compo n e n t f. T of the force F at a typica l
po int (x(r,' ), y(r,' ). z(t,')) be tween P,_ 1 and P, . 11ms
w= jc r:.Tt!.r. ( 12)
Thus work. i~ tire integra/with respect to arc length of tire tangemial componellf of the
fo rce. lnt ulttvely, we may regard dlV = F · T ds as the ir. finitesimal element o f work
done by the tangential comp~ne~t F ·To~ the force in moving the particle along the
arc·length element ds. The hne mtegral m Eq. (12) is then the "sum" of all these
infinitesimal elements of work.
It is customary to write
so
T ds = d r.
II' = 1c f · dr ( 1.3)
W =1 f' · T d1
=
1 4
. I
I'
dx .
eft
d\• .
dt
d~
eft
=1 •
b (
P- +d.f
dt
+ Q~
d\•
dt
R-
d:)
tit
dt .
Titercforc,
Titis computation reveals an important rel ation between the two types of tine in te-
grals we have defined here.
1 c
f·T ds = 1 c
l'd.t + Qdy+ R d:. (15)
REMARK If th e orientation of th e curve Cis reversed, then the sign of the right-
hand integral in Eq. (I 5) is changed according to Eq. ( 11 ). whereas the sign of the
left -hand integral is ch:mgcd because T is replaced with - T .
EXAMPLE 6 The work done by the force field F = yl + :j +xk in moving a particle
from (0. 0. 0) to (1,1. 1) along the twisted cubic x = r, y = r2,::: = rl is given by the
line integral
IV =1 c
F·dr = 1c
F·Tds = 1 c
ydx + zdy +xdz,
b
1028 CHAPTER 15 Vector Calculus
\\1 =
f k(xdx + ydy + :dz)
, ' ;:·)-
(x·+,··-'- , Jf '
c -
1J
=
(J k·
lo (16 +~z>Jtzd==
[ -k
J J6 +:z o =zo·
k
•
~ 15.2 TRUE/ FALSE STUDY GUIDE
15.2 CONCEPTS: QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION
I. Contras t the d~linitions of Jc 1 ds a nd Jc I dx wh_c rc.: C is a smoot h cu~ve
111 ~r~ ce. Descnhc phys1cal mc~sureme nts appropnate to both types of hnc
intq:ra l~. E.xplai n ''h)' one de pe nds on the orie ntation o r direction of inte-
gration :~long the curn: Cam! the o thc:r d o t: s not.
2. Explain the rela tion be tween the line integrals
15.2 PROBLEMS
In Probl~ms I tltrouglt 5. evaluate rite line integrals In l'rublmtS II through 15, evaluate the line imegral
1 c
f(x . y)ds. 1c
f (x.y)dx. and 1
c
f(x.y)c/y
c
1 F·Tds
14. f (x, >'· Z) = (2x + 3y)i + (3x + 2y)j + 3z 2k: Cis the path
In Problems 6 through /0, evaluate from (0. 0. 0) to (4. 2, 3) that consists of three line se~ments
parallel to the .<·axis. the )'·axis. and the =·axis. in thai order.
/. P(x. y)dx + Q(x , y)_dy. IS. F(·t • y· · ••)- · ·'J .,.. 2xyz k : C is the path from
c -.,.•"21 "'· A'
(-1. 2. -2) to (1, 5, 2) that consists of three line segments
=
6. l'(x. y) xy, Q(x, y) = x + y; Cis the part of the gmph of parallel to the •·a• • ., 1'·•
s the x-ax1·s, an d t he y -ax1s,
. 1.n that order.
y = x 2 from (-1. I ) to (2. 4)
In Prob/enu 16 thro ugh 18. evalllate
7. P(x. y ) = y 2• Q(x. y) = x ; Cis the part of the graph of
x = y 3 from (-1. -I ) to (1.1)
8. /'(.< , y) = y../X. Q (x , y) ~ x../X; Cis the part o( the graph
1c
f(x, )',Z)lfS
- If
V =-
s
c
D {,t,\•)ds
.
bll >t of li:r bru!tlmJ>: A l .<(~ lh
(I" '
>illft Joltllf>t'tl hJ..r tltt
!'"'""tlidt~ tlown " fri(lt on/,•ss
r C fmm I' In (J u~tln thr mJiurm·r of
the gravrUJtro flfJ/ fmrr I' = -1 Sllj l11 '"ch pml>lrm ,.,,.,.,. tlwt f
d urJ t-'rf' JDmC' amount uf .,. o rk. un tltf' ,,,.,w,. \Y - 15000 h ·lb,
•f.trt sis tltt ltngtlt of C and D (x . y) tlmott·s the diHtmu from
Pra tilt ••ariabl~ po i111 (x. y) of C. Itt /'robl~ms 16 tl~rrlltl(h 31.
as if Itt or >hr had tfrop~tf s1Ta1gh1 do..,. '" rhr II"'"'"'·
comp11rr rh' tll'l'rtlge d isttm ct', e.raclly if pos.ribl<'. l'l.<~ by using :Ill. C is the •tr~ight line scgmcn l y =·• from l' (liMI. l O()) to
a romplllrr algebra sysrcm to find it (eitltrr sym bolically or, if Q(O. 0).
ttrruGr): numuically}. 39. C is the circul31 arc .r = 100 stn 1, y = lfXleo< r from
!6. USt the sta ndard trigonometric pnrametrization of 3 circle P(O. 100) to Q(lOO. 0).
C of u dius a to verify that the average distance of points 40. C is the p~rab<1l ic nrc y = .r: /l (X) from /'( 100. lOll) to
of C from its center is 0 =a. Q (O,O).
!7, find (exactly) the avcr3gc distance from the point (a. 0 ) 41. Now suppose that the ltJO.h ten·story building of l'sob-
IO points of the circle of radius 11 ccnrercd at the origin. lems 38 through-lOis a arcular to"'cr " ith a radtw. of 25 ft.
(Suggwion: Use the law of cosines to li nd D(x. y).) nnd the tire·cscnpc slid~ is a sp11al (hd ical ) ramp that en·
ci rcles the tower once eve~ t-. nlloors. Use a hnc integral
28.. find the average distance (rom th e origin to points of the
to cornputc the " ork done by the ~ra,itational force field
C)'cloidal arch of Problem 24. F = - 200k nn a 2M·Ib pe rson v.ho slides down this (fric·
29. find the a•·erage distance from the origin to poin ts. of the tionlcss) ramp from the top or the ~uilding to the j!round.
><troid of Problem 25. 42.. 1\11 electriC current I in :1 lo ng str 3tg_ht u ire generales :t mug-
ll find the average distance from the origin to points of the netic field R in the space surroundmg the: wtrc. 1ltc vector
helix of Problem 21. R i\ tangen t to any Ctrclc! C that i~ centered on the wire
and lies in a plane perpendicular to th~ wire. Ampert•'s law
ll Thespiral parame trized by x = ..-• cos r. y = ~-· sin r starts
in1plics that
ar (I. 0) ,.hen r = 0 and closes in on the origin a~ t - cc.
ul( improper inregrals to calculate the average distance
from the origin to po ints of this spiral.
3!. find the work done by the inversc·square force field of
Etarnple 7 in moving a particle from ( I , 0. 0) to (0. 3. 4>· where Jt is a certain electromagnetic constant. Deduce from
lnregrate first along the line segmen t from 0:0. O) 10 this fact that the magnitude B = IBI or the magnetic field
(~.0.0) and then along a path on the sphere wtth ~qua· is proportional to the curre~t I and inversely proportional
ltOn il + y2 + ~~ = 2S. The second integral is automaucally to the distance r from the wtre.
tcro. (Why'?)
1030 CHAPTER 15 Vector Calculus
1 c
vf · dr = j(r (b))- /(r (ll)). (2)
1'/lOOF Wcwnsidc r the three-dimensional ca~e /(.r. y . ~)illus t ra ted in Fig. 15.3.1.
ll!Cn 'V/ = (iJfjiJx. ilfj(}y. iJf/ilz). so ·n1eorcm I in Sectio n 15.2 yields
'Vf · dr = 1 IJf dx+ ilf d y+ IJf d:
1c c ax iJy a:
8 -1
- •·(ar
- --r --+
ox oy dr
d:)
of -
t~.r . ilf d y
- dr iJ;: dr
de
· •
y
~y th~ multivariablc chai n r ule (Sect ion 13.7), the integrand he re is the d eriva·
live G (c) of the com posite functio n G(c) = /( r(r )) = j(x(r). y (c), z (r)) . 111c rcfore it
follows that
= / (r (b)) - / (r (a)).
and so we have established E q. (2). as desi red.
1 c
'Vf·dr = /(8 )-/(A), (J)
EXAM PLE 1 If
k k
f(x . y , z) = --=
r J x2 + y 2 + z2
then a brief co mputation shows that Vf -- F 15
· 11•c. mvcrse-square
· fo rce fi eld
f (x. y. ~) = k(xi + yj + ~k)
(x2 + y2 + z2 )3/1
of Example 7 in Section 15.2, where we calc 1 .
by the force field F in moving a part icle alo nu ~ted d_•rcctl_y the work II' = k j 20 do_ne
A (0. 4, 0) to the point JJ(O, 4, 3). Indeed u . g a stra•gh t hne segme nt from the pomt
• smg lbeorcm 1 we find that the work done
1031
Tht Fundarrl1!ntal Thi!Oftm and lndt~nd~ct of Path SECTION 15· 3
by F in movin~ ~ p~rtic:le along any smooth path from A to 8 ( th't does n o t p3SS
through the ongm) 15 given by
W= jc f ·dr = jc V f · d r
=/CO. .:. 3) - / (0. .:. 0) (b~ Eq. (3)}
(where F = ( I'. Q, R)) has the samt mlt•t Cor any two curves with the s:~ me initia l
nnd terminal points.
because the value of the integral depends only on the points A and B. no t on the
particular choice of the path C joining them.
W= 1 c
f·Tds = k 1c
w·Tds. (6)
This is the wind's contribution to our trip fro m A to B. In this context. the q uestion
of independence of path is whether or not the wind's wo rk IV depends on whidr path
we choose from point 1\ to point B.
EXAMPLE 2 Suppose that a ~tea_dy \\ind ~lows toward the northeast v.ith velocity
vector w = 101 + 10j in fps umts: rts speed IS lwl = IOJ2 "=' 14 fils-about 10 mi/h.
Assume that k = 0.5, so the wind el!crts 0.5 lb of force for each foot per second of
=
its velocity. Then F Si + Sj . so Eq. (6) yields
- ['r
- -· ' :!
4- !.r:]IO0 = 100
\\' • <h:tll "ec th at it follows from llteorem 2 or
f1-lb of work. the same ~· hdon~. • ·( - ). ·. !Gpendent o f p:u h. so the wind does
this section that the line tnl<~&ral Jn Eq. 1 15 me~ +
100 ft ·lh of work along any p:llh from (O. 0) 10 (IO. 10 ).
"' =! - ydx+xtly =
c, c,
j
f·T rl.s= IO · IO:r= IOO:r.
111e fact that we get different values along different path~ from (10, 0) to ( - 10. 0)
sho\\s that the line integral in Eq. (S) is no / independent of path. +
1lteorcm 2 tells us when a given line in tegral is independent of path and when
it is not.
( 1 , _,,
f (x. y.:) =J c
f·T d1 =
1 (C;t.... =.,t
f" · T ds. (9)
= r··•·'·''
I • ' .: )
F · T ds.
l.n the last integral. we may take the path of intC!;r:ltion to he the parame trized
h?c segment /. from ( t. ).:) to ( t +h.). : ) defined bv ¢(1)= ( • + rll.y. : ). 'Iltcn
1> (r l = (II· 0. 0) =hi. \0 the umt tans:ent , ector is T= i. Al~o. d r d: = 0. so =
=
rls d.1 = It dt alo ng this p;l!h. Therc!~re .
For a first application of 111corcm 2. conside r the force field f ' yl + .rj that =-
co rresponds to the counterclockwise wind discussed in Example 3. Because the line
integral fc F · T ds is norindependent of path in any plane region that eithe r includes
or encloses the ori!lin. it follo" s that t' is not the grad•ent uf a ny scalar function f.
By cont rast. the force field F =: 5i + 5j. which corresponds to a con~tant wind
b lowing northeast, is oh\'iously the gradient o f the funct ion f (x. y) = S.t + 5 y. 11tere·
fo re lncorem 2 implies that the: line integral fc F · T <Is is independent of path in the
entire plane R 2 •
Similarly. the inverse-square fo rce field 1-'(.r. y.:) =kr/ r 3 o f Example 1 is the
gradient of the function f (x. y. <:) = - kfr (w~c~e r = J x 2 + y 2 + ;:1 ) . Hence Theo·
re m 2 implies that the line integral fc F · T ds •s mdepcndcnt o f path in R 3 minus the
origin.
1 8
F · T ds = 1 8
'VI · dr =l(ll )-I(A } (11)
Solution 13ccn u ~c we nrc give n the informa tion that F is a con~ervative fie ld. the
line integral J F · T til is indepe nden t of path by Titcon: m 2. ·ntcrefore we may :1pply
Eq. (9) to linu a scala r potenti al function f Le t C bt: tlw straight-line path from
A (0. 0) to II ( r1. Yl) parametrized by .c = x1 r. y = y 1t. 0 ~ r ~ l. Titt:n Eq. (9) yield~
f(xt. 1
ytl =
11
F · T ds
=1
8
(6xy - /)dx + (4y + 3x 2 - 3x/)dy
. I to obtam
for the vector field F in Eq. ( 12). As a check · we can dl'fferent1me .
a1 1 of
oy = 4y + 3x2- 3xy2.
ax =6xy- )'.
•
Out how did Wt: know in advance tint II . , .
conservntive'? 'll1c answer is provided bv 'I;
l c vector held I· m Example 4 was
on Green's theorem is outlined in th.. ne'xt co~em ; a proof of this theorem based
5CCIIOn.
1 3
~ ·
1035
T~ funda-nenu l Th«l<tm and lnde~ndence ol Pa th SECTlON 15· 3
Observe that the vector field f in Eq. ( 12). where P(:c. y) = 6.xy - >.J nnd
QCx , y) =
4 > + Jxl - 3xy 1 • satisfiesthc criterion in Eq. ( 13) b<:c:!USC
EXAMPlE 5 Given
where {(y) i~ nn ~arbitrary (unction· of y alone: it act~ n~ a ~con~t ant of int cgrati ~n··
with respect tn .t. bccau\c it~ dcri,·atlve with respect to_. is zero. We nex t dctcrrnmc
;(y) by imposi ng the second condi tion in ( ! ~):
'iJf , , ' , .,
- =3r -3.cy· +( (y)= ~y+Jc·- 3.cy·.
iJy
It fo llo ws tha t ~ '(y) = -l y, so ((y) = 2y2 + C . When we set C = 0 and s u bstitut e the
result into Eq. (15 ). we get the same po tentia l function
f(.r. y) = 3.r' y- .r y3 + 2y 2
thnt we found by entirely different methods in Example 4. •
Conservative Force Fields and Conservation of Energy
Given a conservative fo rce field f. it is customary in physics to introduce a minus
sign and write f' = - V V. ll1en l' (.r. y. ~) is called the potential energy at the point
(.t , y. ~ ) .With f = -V in Eq. (II). we have
' II'= 1 8
f·Tds = V(A ) - V ( B ). (16)
and this means that the work W done by Fin moving a particle from A to 8 is equal
to the tfr crease in potential energy.
Here is the reason why the expression conservative field is used. Suppose that a
particle of mass m moves from A to 8 under th e in~uence of the conservative force
f. with position vector r(r) , 11 ~ r ~ b. Then Newtons law F(r(t)) == m r'' (r) == m v'(t)
=
with dr = r'(t) dr v(r ) dr gives
1 8
F·Tds = lb mv' (r)·v(r)dr
By ~qu:u in!; the right·h :~nd ~ides o f Eqs. ( II\) ~nd ( li). we get the formula
ll1is i\ the llw of con,N• ntion or mt'chanic-:11 cncr~· fo r a particle moving under the
influence <>f ~ cor:st·n·,ui•··· force field: Its totnl energy- the sum of its kinetic ene rgy
! nil': :1nd its potcn ti:JI cnc rg~· 1 '-rem:~i ns conswnt.
EXAMPLE 6 If" <! t:Jke J. = G .lfM in the c:~lcu!Jtion in Example I. we see that the
invcr$C·squ:uc gr:n•it:~t ion:1l force
G .\f t'l r
F(.r • ."· : ) = - - ,J.,.-
(exerted on 3 m:t'-( plrticlc m by a m:~ss .If fi~cd a t the origin) is the negative of the
gradien t of the po tential cncq:y function
G .lfm
l '(r, ."· : ) = - --.r
I knee Eq. ( ll') irnphcs tha t the total em:rgy of the m:1ss plrticle moving with velocity
t' a t dt~tan,·e r from the ongin i~ the o:o nst:m t
I , G.lfm
t: = - 111l'' - - -.
2 r
It foll,m$ (fM imt:tn<·c) th:ll if- f<>r \\hJtcvcr re:~son-thc particle approaches the
urigin (r - 11). the n its •cloci ty IIlli( ! increase without b ound (t• - +oo). +
I. Giv.- ~..:vera! cxampk~ of line integra ls th:~t arc I ll)/ independent of the path.
:!. Give several cxampks of a vector Held F and a closcd path C such that
1 C'
F·T ds # 0.
~. Give sc,·cral examples <>f vector fields that are not conservative .
.
. 15.3 PROBlEMS
D<t<mtiru h'ho•thcr thr ,.,.,.,.,fir!.Is in l'ml>lrm• I throu.~h 16 art• II. = (.r cosy+ sin y)i + (y cos .r +sin .r}j
l'(.r . .")
cotr.~en·nti\'(".
Find poto:tia! functions fn r thosr tluu art• C(llt$c~n·a·
1i1·e (t·ithu by in.rpation or by ll.<ing thr mrthml of E.mmpt.• 5). 1!. rex . y) = t' •• tc.•.v + y )l + (.t y + .t)j)
l. l''(.• . .'') = ~~·· 1· ~ ... )l + (J t + ::!y)j D. n •. yl = <.'•'.''~ + y'}i + (3AJ ..,2 + .•·' + 4xy3)j
!. r(.r . y) = (·h - y)l + (6y- .<)j 14. l'(r . .") = V ' si n y + tan y)l + (e' cosY+ x sec! y)j
3. F(.t . .'') = (3.<1 + ~.,.:)i + ( ~t y + tiy 1 )j 2
15.1'(.r, y)= ( •_3y') t + (2y_ .r 2 • 1 )·
= (2.•·y' + .h 1 )1+ (~< y + 4y')j >' •
1
4. F(.r . .'') .t
l
' ... .v'
- ... -
.j"j J
~- t'( t, y) = (2y + sin 2.• )i + (3 r + c.•s Jylj
16 J'( •) - 2xsr. - 3yS/~ J y S/3 - ') S/2
• .r • .> - " ' I+ _, j
6. F(.r. yl = (·I,:,,. - 5/)1 + (.r~ - 2th.r ~)j lr·'·y-ll 3.r3!l yS!~
7. F(.r . .•·>= (r' + ; ) I + Cy 1
+ In .r)j In l'ml>f,•m.t 17 tlrmt 1 o/1 20
• • •'
I
• npp )' the metho d of E.rnmple 4 to
/lltd.aptll<'lltl<ll f~tnction fo r tht• i~:di<'tltt'd w:ctor frdd.
II. t'(.r. y) = ( I + y<")l+(2y+.u")j
17. 11lc vector ficiJ of Problem 3
9. t '(.r,y) = (cos .r + ln y)l + (~ +<'')J Ill. '11tc vector ticl,t of Prohlcrn 4
x+y 19. '11lc wctor fidJ of l'rnhlern iJ
10. F(.t, y) = ( r + nrct3n y)l + ~ j
I + y• 20. The vector tield or Prohlcrn 8
,_,]/th rough 26, Jhowrhattht /IIVtn 1• • Cr~·s Theottm SECTION 15.-4 1037
prob~<•·- . 111 r lllt~gro/ h
I~ 'r.tof path mthr tf111Tt .ty ·plant,thrn calcul I ' In ·
Jr.f'"'t . l
~frJo.rl"'t integra ·
a r lr.~ 'alue l-l ut F<.t.y. ;: ) =
Iunction 1 bv
1 ~; _ ex~.._ J )j .._ ( <J .._ l )k. Define the
l....
.~ l
(,: ~ l t y)d.t + ( r + 2..))d)
ll.
1 11
'
1<~.,.:1 = 1 I' · T JJ.
1!.
£.. (2.r- 3y) dx + (2)- 3.r )dy
DetcrCJine 1 b. e,;!ua:ins:
"'I= f. . -
,;.is
c
• i:ere Cis the llt3i2!1t line ~t..-ncnt frorr. (0. 0. 0> to ( r . .'. : l
l:r.e ~;~te;:r~ l. then shov.· that
.
3~. Let /t.r.;r) = t.ln ' 'hl.r l. v. hich if • >0 equ:ll.s the pol3r
angle e for the roict ex . .>l. (a) Sho,. tlut
-• I • ~J
f = "'l= r··, ,... .
:5. [t
'"
1 • l ZI
(\iny + ycosx)dx + hin.r + .rro<.y)dy
~
jc F ·Ttl s
ing a pa rt icle from a pornt at dr<tance r 1 from the origin to
r,
n point at distance from the o ng.>n ;, Jiven by
along both the upper and the lo wer halves o f the circle z 1 +
.vi = I from ( I, 0) to (-I. 0). Is the re a function 1 = l<x, y)
defined for x and )' not both 1c1o such that V1 = F? Why?
37. Suppose that an ennh ntellite with mass m = 10000 k g
ll S!!ow that ifthe force field f' = PI + Q j is conservative. then travels in an elliptical orbit "' ho~ apogee (fan hest point)
ar tay = 3Qtax. Show that the Ioree field of Problem 30 and perigee (dns<st point ) are. re.pcctivel)·. 11000 k m
s.atisfies the condition 3 P{ay = aQtax but nevertheless is and 9000 km from L~C center or the e•nh. Calculate the
not conservali\'"c:.
work d one against the eanh's gra,'iutional force field
31. Suppose that the force field F = P I + Q j + R k is ronser· f=- GMm r f r' in lifllng the utcllitc fro m perigee to
•·ati•·e. Show that apogee. Use the ''alucs .II =
5.97 >< 10:' kg fo r the mau
ap ao aP aR aQ aR of the eanb and G = 6.67 >< 10·" l"·m 2.' kg2 for the univer·
Slll gravitational constant.
ay =a;· a: =a;· and a? .. ay.
ll. Apply Theorem 2 and the result of Problem 32 to show that 38. Calculate the work that must bt done against the sun's
gravitational force field in transponing the satellite of
Problem 37 from the earth to ~!an. Use the values M ~
j uy dx +x 1dy + y 1 dz 0
1.99 >< 10' kg for the mass ofthesun. rr = !.SOx 101 km for
c the distance from the sun to earth, and r,. .. 2.29 " !OS km
• is not independent of path. for the distance from the sun to Man.
iPdx+Qdy
c
th en denotes a line in tegra l around C in the posit ive dirccti o n- thnt is. using a para-
FIGURE l S.4.l Positive metrization consi~ten t with the posiri,·e orientation o f the c urve.
orientation of the curve C: The The follo"ing result first app.:arcd (i n an equ i,·a lcnt fo rm) in n book let on th e
region R w ithi n Cis to the left of application~ of mat-hema tics to c kc tricity and magnetism. puhli~ hcd priv:llcly in 1828
the unit tangent vector T. by the self-ta ught Englis h mathematica l physicist George Green ( 1793-1 84 1}.
GREEN'S THEOREM
Let C he a po~i ti vely o ri e nt ed piecewise-smooth simple closed curve tha t bounds
th e region R in th e pla ne. Suppose that the func tions P (x . y) a nd Q(x . y) have
contin uous first-order pa rti a l deri vative~ on R. ·n,en
iC
l'dx + Qdy = f)_ (-.-- -ill') dA.
R
i•Q
cJ.r ,Jy
(I)
PROOF First we give a proof for the case in which the region R is both horizontallv
simple ami vertica ll y simple. Then we indi cat e how to extend th e result to mor~
genera l re gions.
Recall from Section 14.2 that if R is vertica lly simple. then it has a d esc ription
of th e form !11 (.r) ;£ Y;:; g:(J). a ;a x ::l b. The boundary curve Cis then th e union of
the four arcs C1. C2. C3. and c. of Fig. 15.4.2. positivel y o rie nted as indicated there.
Hence
f c
l'dx = 1c1
Pdx + 1
c:
Pdx + 1 c,
Pclx + 1 c,.
Pdx.
• b The integrals along bot~ C2 a nd c. are zero, because on those two curves x(r) is
constant , so that d.r = x (I) dr = 0. 1l1Us we need compute 0 1 th · 1 1
c 1 and c3 . n Y e mtegra s a ong
FIGURE I 5.4.2 The boundary
lltc poi nt (.r . Kl (.r}) traces Ct as x increases fro m 0 to b 1 1 ·
(.r. g2 (.r)) trnces CJ as .r dec rem.:~ from b to a. H ence
curve C is the union of the four
arcs Co, C2, C1 , and c•. • w tereas t l C polllt
i c
Qdy = +j'Jr aQ
rJx
R
ciA (3)
j<':u ll:
P dx + Q.ty = JJ R:
(aQ
J .r
_ a~)
a)
dA.
\\'h.en we add these tW(l equations. the result is Eq. ( 1). G reen's theorem fo r the
rcp on R, bccau~c th~ two line integrals nlong D 1nnd f) l cance l. Thi\ occurs because
D1 nnd D: rcprcsl'nt the same cur\'c with opposite orientations. so
EXAMPU I Use Gree n's theo rem to evaluate the line int.cgral
1 ('
(2y + J 9 + x>) dx + (5x + rm""') ely.
Solut ion With /' (x. y) = 2y + ~ and Q(.r. y) = 5t + r ••<Ul'l>. we see that
aQ - ar = 5 - 2 = 3.
ar ily
lk o u}C C bou nds R. a circular d i\k with :Ire:~ ·b . Green's theorem therefore implies
that the ghcn line integral is equa l to
h
1040 CHAPTER 15 Vector Cafculu~
1
EXAMPLE 2 Evaluate the line integral
Solution To evalua te the lin e integra l direc tly. we would need to pa rametrize se pa-
rately the line and th e parabola. l ~tead. we apply Green 's theorem with P (x • )') =
3xy a nd Q(x. y ) = 2f", so
ii Q aP
- - - = 4x - 3x = x.
iix !Jy
FIGURE 1S.4.S The region of
Example 2. Then
i3xydx+2f~dy= jjxdA
C R
To do this we must be able to find functions P (x. y ) and Q(x. y ) such that
iJQ iJ P
- - -=f(x.y).
ox 0)'
A=~~ -ydx+xdy=-
c
i.
c
ydx= J
~
xdy. (4)
fxcly=jj ldA=A.
C R
The third resu.lt may be obtained by averaging the left· and right-hand sides in the
last two equauons. Alternatively, with P(x. y) = -y/ 2 and Q("x. y) = x j 2. Green's
1041
Grffl''s ~rem SECTION 15 .4
theorem gives
EXAMPLE 3 Apply the corolllrv to Green's theorem to find the nrc:~ A of the
region R bounded by the ellipse ;cif a: .,. yl/ b: = I.
Solution With the parametrization~ = 0 cos 1. ,. =b sin 1. 0 ~ r ~ 1::-. Eq · (4 ) gives
A= i ;c dy = 1~• (a cos l )(b cos 1 dl)
1 1~ (1 +eos2r)dl = :rab .
= -ab
2 0
•
fiGURE 15.4.6 An annular . By usi ng the technique of subdi vidinl! 3 rel!ion into simpler ones. we can extend
re9ion-the boundary cons•sU of Green's theorem to re2ions with boundari~s that C'Onsist of two or more sim ple closed
twO simple closed curves, one curves. For example. ;onsidcr the annula r region R of Fig. J;;..t.6. "ith bou ndJry C
witllin the other. consistin g of the two simple cla<cd curws c, and C:. l11 .:- po~it ive direction alo.n!!
C-thc direction for which the reeion R al" 3 \'$ lies on the left-is co untcrclockw1sC
on the out er curve C1 but clockwi<c on the in.ncr rurve C;.
We divide R into two region< R 1 and R: by using two crosscuts, as sho~vn
in Fig. 15.4.7. Applying Green's theorem to each of th ese subregions. and notmg
cancellation of li ne integrals in opposite dir~c t ions along the crossc uts. we get
i + f + =
c,
( P dx Q dy)+
c,
( Pd:c Qdy)
and also show that this integral is z.ero if C does nor enclose the origin.
2 2
Solution With /'(.r. )') = -y/(.r + .'' ) and Q(.r . .") = .r f(.r2 + .'·2 ). a brief compu-
tation gives iJQ/ih- IJI'foy :" 0 whc~ ·~ andy are not both zero. If the region R
bounded by C docs not contam the ongm. then I' and Q and their derivatt·~
continuous on R. Hence Green. ·s. I heorem ·unp r·1cs that the integral in (jUcstion
• · es. are
~~~RE 1S.4.8 Use the small h 1s zero.
(Ex e c. ij Cencloses the origin u c does cncIosc 1h_e ongm. t ~n ':''e enc.1ose the origin in a small circle Cu of
atnple 4). radius c1 so small that c. hes wholly wuhm C (fig. 15.4.8). We pararnctriz, tl · . I·
. 0 < < "· Th G • c us Ctrc c
by~ = a cos 1, y = a s1~ r, = t = ..,'1'. en reen s theorem, applied to the re ion
R between C and c•. g•vcs g
1 -yd;c +xdy
]'_ .r2 + y2
_ 1
J:c.
-y d.r +~dy
.r 2 + ,.2
-jj
- OdA ==0.
C . R
IMPORTANT llu: reason for the minus sign on the left-hand side ·1 th f
the positive orientation of c. with respect to the region R is clockw'ts ~ ( c. a~t that
c as tndtcated
1042 CHAPTER 15 Vector Calculus
. · n d e termines a counterclockwise
in Fig. 15.4.8). whereas the sele.cted parametnzatto
o rienta tion o f c•.
There fore.
f_ - yd:r + :rdy = i - y~r +~ dy
= rob ldr=2.•.
Jo •
REMARK The result of Example.! can be interpreted in te rms of the po lar-coordinate
angle (} = arctan(y/ :r). Because
-Yd:r +.rdy
dB= . • ,
X"' +.\' ..
the line integral of E~ample -l measures t he net change in 0 .as w~ go ar~und t~e
curve C once in a coun tcrclock\\ise direction. l ois ne t c ha nge ts 2:r tf C enc oscs t e
origi n and is zero othe rwise.
PROOF OF TIIEOIWM 3 I N SECT/0 .\ ' l!i.J We now s ke tch a proof that_if the
,·ector fie ld F = Pi + Qj i5 continu ously d iffcrcntiah lc in a n o p e n rec tnnglc ~ tn the
.ry -planc. then F i .con~crva t ivc in R if and only if iJ Pt ay = aQ/Jx at cach_pomt of R.
First suppo~c tha t F is conse rvative in R. Then there cx tsts n functton f (x. y )
defined on R such that
ilf . Jf . p · Q ' F
VJ = - t + -J= •+ J =·
ilx iJy
:u each point of R. The n I' = ilf/C! x and Q = fJ/ /oy. so it follows that
aP a ( of)
ay = 0)' il.r
<N iJ 2f
= ily iJ.r = ox iJy = CJ.r
a (a1oy ) = aaxQ.
as desired. The equality in th e midd le-where the order o f partial differentiation is
reversed-fo llows from the equality o f mixed second-ord e r partial derivatives of a
fun ction whose second-o rder partial derivatives are co ntinuo us.
:-/ext. for the conve rse. suppose tha t aI' fJy =a Q/Cx a t e ach point of R. If we
can show that line integrals of I' arc independe nt of the pa th in R. then it will follow
from l11eorem 2 in Section 15.3 that F is conse rvath·e in R. as d esired. So let C and
1
C2 be two smooth paths in R with the same initial p oint A and the same terminal
point B. ant! let C = C t U ( -C2) be the closed path that first follows Ct from A to B
and then follows thc n:vcrscd path -C2 from B back to A. H C is a simple closed
path (one with no crossing po ints) and Dis the region bounded by
theorem gives
then Green's c.
1 c,
F · T ds= 1 c,
F-Tds
for two such smoo~h pat!ts Ct and Cz that together form a simple closed path. The
more gen~ral ca.sc m w!uch C has ~nitely many self-intersections can be treated by
decomposmg C mto finitely many stmple closed paths. Then the line integral around
4 1043
Green's Theorem SECTION 15 •
f_ F·Tds=O.
c
as nee~ed to conclude that line in tegrals of F are independent of the path. a nd h~·~·~~
!hat F 15 co.nsen-ative. A complete proof would require discussion of the P0551 1 1 1
that C has mfimtely many self·intersection!.
=
where F o•·. llte line integral around C that this sum approximates is ca lled the
llGURE 15.4.1 0 The flux ¢> of the flux of the vector field F across the cun·e C. Thus the flux <!> of F across C is given
vtctor field F across the curve C Is by
tht net outflow minus the net
inficw.
<!> = /: F·n <ls. (5)
c
1 (·dx
T= ~ 1 dt
,ely)= .dxds . J. dyds
+ J dt 1
T
because v = ds f dt . Hence
liCUR£ 1
tll~r . S.4.11 Computing the
un,t"
illeunit ta ormal vector n from
ngent vector T.
n=TXk=(l~; +j~~) X k.
1 044 CHAPTER I.S Vector Calculul
r
jF . n ds =
r
(.\lh· j .\'j). (~ ~~ -j ~;)
ds dx + .If dy. =i-t\'
· G rcc n·s theore m to th c 1ast r·me ·m 1eg r~J
Applytng - -Nand Q = .lvl. we I!Ct
.. ,,,· th P- ~
\\11c11 we suh\tillHe Eq. (S) into Eq. (7). we oht:~in n ••ector form of Green's
th cu rcm:
iC
F · n ds = JJ ~ · FdA.
II
(9}
with the undc r~t anding thai n is the nura unit normal to C. 1l1U~ the flux of a vector
field across a pusitivcly orien ted simple clm cd curve Cis equal to th e double integral
o[ its divcrbcncc over t he region 1\ huumlcd by C .
If thc di ~k N wi th area a (I<) is bounded by a posi tive ly orie nted circle C with
FIGURE 15.4.12 The circuiJr di)k
R of rJdius r centered at (.<o. ro). radius rand center (.rn. Yo) (Fig. 15 ..!.12). then th e Olve rage value prope rty of double
integrals (~c:c l' rohlcm 50 in Section IJ.:!) gi ves
{
C:.
F ·n ds = !! R
V'·F tiA=( V' · F (x,Y))·a( H )
1
V · FLru. Yul = lim - - .
,_II :rr• J:J,c. F ·ntis ( 10)
jj /(x .
R
y)dl\= t (!!
1•1 R.
j(x,y)dA).
2. Sket.ch several examples of smooth closed paths in the plane t.hat have
sclf·mtersections. In each case indicate how to decompose the gtven self·
intersecting path C into simple closed paths C1, C 2••• . , c, so that
1F·Tds= t (l i'·Tds).
c 1•1 c.
15.4 PROBLE MS
r.Fn>~:..,...s I t.r.roush 1~.apply Grun 's thro r<m to tvaluare tht In Probltm! I3 through I6, uu the corollary to Grten 's thtottm
.-:t$':1 ro find tht arta of tht indicattd regio,..
J c
Pdx T Q dy
13. The circle bounded by .< = a cos t. y = a sin r. 0 ~ r :l 21r
14. The region between the x·nxis a nd one arch of the cycloid
wit'h parametric equations x o a(t -sin 1), y = a( I -cos I )
'""'""'.! :J:r spn:i,".rd pomn·rly orimtrd clout/ curvr C. 15. The region bounded by the nstroid with para metric equa·
= ' - , :. Q(.r , y) = y + .r 2: Cis the square with lions x = cos1 1, y = sin' I, 0 ~ r ~ 2:r
··=
L f lt .J)
1=: I.=: l ).
!. !'It , ] 1 = :r' - J'".
Q (.r . y) =
-l.cy; C is the boundary of the
16. The region between the graphs of y = x 1 and )' = x 1
23. F = (3r-"- y'i+?JI +( 2y - ~)j and Cis the triangle theorem (Eq . (4 )) to find the a re3 o f .th i~ loop. (SuggrJ·
of Problem 19. rion: Set 1 =r.r to disco ,er n pa ramctnzato o n o f t~c . loop.
To obtai~ the area of the loop. use ,·a lues of r that he tn the
U. F = C3.K,1 1 - ~.K )I + (3x 1 y - 4.v)j and C is the closed curve intef' al (0. 1J This gi' cs the h alf o f the loop that hcs below
o f Problem 20.
the line~ = x.)
!S. Suppose that fis a N !ce d ifferent iab!e scalar fune~ion o f x ~ Find the area bounded by one loop o! the curve x =sin 2r.
and y . Show that
,· = sin:.
V 1f=d iv( V/)= ;,:~ - ~:~ . 3::. Let 1and !I be functions with con tinuou< <ccond·ord: r. par.
Jx· "-'. tial tkn,ati, cs in the rt·gion R h<1unded by the posttolcl~·
ori~nted l'"··c.:11isc-smooth simple closed CIIT\C C. Apply
26. Show th at/ ( r. J) = ln(x 2 + .1 1 ) sattsfies Lapi3«'Hquation Green's theorem tn -.·cwr furmtu s h o " t hat
1
V ! = 0 except at the poin t (0. 0).
17. Supp<Ke I hot f and g ore '" icc ·diHcrentioblc functio.-.s.
Show tha t
V g "' II V :/ + ~ , ,. '·~·
2 1
V (/R) ., I It was this form ul.o ra ther tha n Green's theorem itself that
appcJ rcd m Green '> bvuk of 11'23.
2K. Suppo~e that the function /!• ..') i~ t"icc conttnuou,ly
differe ntiable in the region /( hounded by the rositt,cly 36. Comrl~tc th<" proo f nf th e simple ca<c of Green's theorem
oriented picccwi~c·~mooth cu r"c C. J'ro, c tha t by sho" "'!! dort•ctl) that
f c
Df d y- at dx =
a.r a.1· J! ~
't' :/ ' ' ·' dy.
;JQ
- dtl
i),r
29. Let f? be the plane re ginn with nren A enclo~cd by the pos·
iti\'e ly oriente d piccewise·smooth simpk clo<rd euf\e C. if the r.:gio n R is horiwnw lly <imple.
Usc Green's theorem to show that the coordinates of the 37. Suppo•c lh.ll the l'OIItHkd plane regio n N is divided into
centroid of R arc the nonu1c rl.opping subregions R 1 • R ; . .. . , f/, . If Gree n's
theorem. Eq. ( I). hold, for each of these subrq:ions. explain
.i' = _!_ 1 x 1dy. J=-2., 1
2A f_ it!x.
2A }~(' why it follo11s that Green's theorem ho lds fo r R. State care·
c fully :'!ny 3<.;;:ump1 ions rh:a t you nt.!cd to m::akC'.
30. Use the res ult of Problem 29 to find the centroid of (a) a
J8. (a ) If Cis the hne segment from ( r 1 .y1 ) 10 (.r: ..l·:).showby
semici rcular region of radius a: (h) a quaner·circular region direct c1·aluation of the line integral tha t
of radius a .
3 1. Suppose: th3t a 13min3 ohapcd like the region o f Probkm 29
has constant dcns uy ~. Show that its moments of inertoa
around the coordtnatc axes are
f, =--~
c
3
f )Jt fX , (b) Let (0. 0). Cr,, ."1). and (.f: • .1':) he the ''ertices of a tri·
angle ta ken in countc rclockwi•e order. Deduce from pa rt
(a) and Green's theorem thJ t the nrca of this triangle is
32. Use the result of Problem 31 to show tha t the po lar mo-
men t o f inert ia lu = I, + I , of a circuiM l:omin:o o f radius
"' =!<.'t."2 - ·".!)'J).
a. ccntt•rcd at the ori~in and o f cun~t.ont density <5. is JM a1, 39. Usc. the resuh of Problem l'l to find th e Mea of (:1) the
where ,\( i• the mass or the lamina. - equ olate r~l tr! a~gle wnh "ertice~ ( 1.0). (co~ j n.sin j n l.
and (co' J:T. son J:T): (b) the regula r pc ntason "ith l'erllces
33. The loop o f the folium of Descartes (with equation .r 3 + y' =
(1.0). (co,j:r. sin j .,. ). (cosj ., ., sin !rr). (cus•n . sin ~.,. ).
3xy ) appears in Fig. 15.4.14. Appl y the corollary to Green's
a nd (t"os ~ rr. sin ~,,.) . ' 3 l
FIGURE 15.4.14 The loop o f Problem 33. line integra l in part (a) to alineintcgra l around J . (c) Apply
Green's theorem to t he line integral in p:!rt (b).
1048 CHAPTER 15 Ve<tor Calculus
is normal to Sat the point r (11, v) and tJ.S; = jN(11 1 , t:1)i tJ.11 tJ. v is the area of the
parallelogram P, that is tange nt to the surfaceS at the po int r (111. v1 ).
If th e surfaceS also has a density function j(x. y. : ), then we can approximate
the total mass m of the surface by first multiplying each parallelogram ~rea tJ.S, in
Eq. (I) by the d ensity j(r (111, v, )) at r (11,. v1) a nd th en summ in g these estimates over
a ll such parallelograms. Thus we obtain the approximation
11tis approximation is a R iemann sum for the sur fucc lntcgr nl o f t h e function f o,·er
t he surface S, denoted by
jj f(x, y. z)dS = j j
S D
f (r (ll. v)) IN(u. v)l d11 dv
To e va lua te the surface inrcgral ffs f(x. y . z) dS, we simply use the paramctriza·
tion r to express the variables x, y. and z in terms of 11 and v and forma lly replace the
surface nren element d S wit h
in the Jacobian notation of Section 14.9. so th e surface integral in Eq. (4) takes the
form
Jj s
/C.•. y, :) tiS
(7)
·nti~ forrn.ula converts the sur~ace integral in to an ordilwry tlmtble int<'gral ovc:r the
rcgwn V 111 the uv-planc, and ts analogous to the formula (Eq. (4) of Section 15.2)
1 c
f(x. y. z)tl.t = [" j(.r(r), y(t), :(r))
.• (d.c):
-
<It
+ ( -"-")~
tlr
+ ( -dr
"~)~ dr
that convert~ a line integral. into an ordinary singl e in tegral.
I~ tlw tn:r~ortanl spcctal case .o r a s urfaceS tkscrihecl as a graph~ = IJ(.r. y) of
a funclto n h deft ned on a rcgton [) 111 the xy· planc, w~; may usc x and ,. (rather than
II and ")as the para rn~: tcrs. lltc su rface area ch:mcnt the n takes the f~rm
JS.SISURFACE INTEGRALS
t\ .I ta faa imc~:rnl is to surfaces in space what a hne (or '"cur-e") int egral is tn cur"cs in
the plnnc. Con•idcr a cur"cd. thin meta l sheet sh.1~d like the sur laceS. S uppose tha t
th is sh eet ha~ \'arinhlc llcn~ity, gi,·cn at the point Cx.). ~ ~by the known continuous
function f( x . y. ~)in units such :u grams per Mjuarc centime ter or surface. We wan t
to lie fi ne the surfnee integra l
Jj f(x. y.~) dS
l
in such n way thnt-upon evaluat ion-it gi ..cs the total mass of the thin metal sheet.
In case f (r. y, : ) o I . the numcric-31 \':tlue of the integral should also cqu:tl the surface
• area of S.
A s in Section 1-1.8, \\C assum e that Sis 3 smooth parametric surface described
by the function or transfom1ation
r(u, t·) = (.r(u. t•). y (u, t') , ~(u. t•)) =xi + yj + ~k
~ - - I
t :~·-'·
~·
~
,.• '
..........
/
for (11, t·) in a rc~tion Din the ut•·plJne. \\'c suppose through out that the co mponent
function~ orr have continuous partial deri\'ati' es and al~o that the vectors r. = <Jr tau
=
and r , J rja1• arc nonzero and nonparallel at each interior point of D .
r(a.,.. t,l Recall how "e computed the ;urface area A of Sin Section I-tS. We began with
an inner partition of l> consisting of n rectangles R,. Rl • . ... R •• each A11 by Au in
si7 e. 11lc images under r of the rectangles are cur\'ilinear figwn:s filling most or all of
fiGURE IS.S. 1 Approxim~tlng
the su rfaceS. and these pieces o f S arc lhemsel"es approximakd by parallelograms
SUMo~tt are~ with parallelograms. r, of the sort shown in Fig. 15.5.1. 'lhis ga\'c us the a pproximation
n n
-~
5 1049
Surface Integrals SECTION 15·
(as in Eq. (9) of Section 14.8). The surface integral off overS is then given by
+ (~)
1
jj f(x.)·.~)dS = jj j(x.y.h(x.y)) 1
+
ill!)!
( il.r iJy
d:c dy.
(9)
s (J
Cent ro1'dsa nd moments of incnia for surfaces arc compute d ln . .th e s:~me
· much 1
way as for curves (see Section 15.2) using surface inte11.rals in place of hnc mtegra s.
For example. suppose that the surf~cc S has dcnsitv i(r y •) at the point (x. >'· ~)
and t0 t a1mass'"· Then the ~-component 'f of its centroid
' : ' and '• ·liS momen t of incrua
I, around the ~-axis are given by
I 2 + y 2 +z 2 dxdy= a
= -v.r
l.
- d.rdy .
z
Hence
1
f= - - 2
2:ru
JJ z · ~z
0
1
dxcly = - -
2:ra
JJ 0
I d.fll y= ~-
2
Note in the final step th:ll Dis a circular disk of radius a in the x y-plane. This simplifies
the computation of the last integral. •
EXAMPLE 2 find the moment of inertia around the z-axis of the spherical surface
x'+ y2 + ~2 = a2 , assuming that it has constant density[, = k.
Solution ll1c spherical surface of radius a is most easily parametrized in spherical
coordinates:
x =a sinQ'Jcos9, y =a sin cfl sin 9. Z =a COSt/>
for 0 ::; tf> ::; :r and 0 ~ () ~ 2~r. Hence the sphereS is defined parametrically by
r (cfl. 0) = i a sin¢cos0 + j a sin¢sin9 + ka cost/>.
it follo"'-s that
1, = jj (.r 2 + i> 6 d S = 12.•1~ 2 2
k(a sin ¢) a 2 sin cfl dd> c/0
s
= 2;r . ka 4 • 2 Jo
,.{2 sin Q'Jc/~ = 4lfk a
3 4 2
· 3 (by integral formula 113)
2 2
= J2 ..bka2 -a 2 =3ma.
1 050 CHAPTER 15 Vector Calculus
using in the fina l step the fact that the mass o f the spherical s urface with de nsity k is
m = 4.7ka2. Is th is result both plausible and dimensionally correct? •
J!
·vr
Pdyd: "- Qd:dx "- Rd.rdy
s
l>P
is analogous to the line integral fc P dx- Q dy with r~spcct to coordina te va riables.
~ The definition of the integral ffs Rtl.r dy. for instance- with R(x . y . :) a scalar
functi on (instead of f) and Jxd_,. an area ckmcn t in the .ry·pl~nc (i nstead of the
..
I I I 1
I I I I
I,
.,
t, area elcm~nt tiS on the surface S}-i~ muth·atc d by n:plac ing the area c leme nt
I I
I I
It
It
6S, = f;-./(u,. t ', ll ou o ,. in the Ric:mann sum in Eq. (J) wi th th e.: area t>S, cos y of its
I 1 l1
projection into the xy·pl:lne ( Fig. I:'.5.1). lltc resu lt is the Ri e mann ~urn
:: I: '
·'
I 1
0'.,\S,Co\ y
I t
t'• '
f? (r(u; . v,) ) cosy Jl'\ (u, . t•, Jl t:.u o t' "=' jJ
n
R (r(u . I')) cos y (N (u . to) I d 11 d v. (10)
FIGURE 1S.S.2 Finding the area To calculate the fac tor cosy in Eq. ( 10). w..: conside r the.: un it no rmal vector
of the projected p arnllclogrnm.
N
n =I ='I I= icosa + j co~fi + k cosy ( 11)
with directio n cosines cos u . cos{J. and cosy. Usi ng Eq. (6) w t: find tha t
. N· i I iJ(\' . ~)
cos a = n • 1 = - = - - · - and. sim ila rl y.
1:-.11 INJ il(u . t•)
I iJ(: ..t ) I iJ(x, y)
cos,,11, = - - -. cosy= - - - . (ll)
)/'If iJ(u. v)
JN( il[ 11, 11)
Substitution for cosy in (10) now yields the definition
11 s
R(x . y . z)dx dy = 11 s
R(x.y. z)cosydS
=
!'1 D
iJ(x. y)
R(r(u. 11)) -
iJ(11, 11)
tlu d 11. ( 13)
Similarly, we defin e
11 s
P(x.y. z) dydz =If s
P (x,y . z) cos adS
-!'1
-
0
f'( r ( u .11)) -o(y , z) d u dv
il(u , v)
( 14)
a nd
-iJ(x.-Z)=
i)(u. v)
IX· I I' "I= - ,---(
z.
Xu _ '"
Zv - - X
ac ))' "-1r
x
4, X
II " "1 U, tJ
CTlON 15.5
1051
Surface lntcgrJIS SE
ll1is implies th at
The three integrals in Eqs. (13) through (IS) typically occu r together. and the
general surruce intc~:ral with respect en coordinate urea clements is the sum
tha t is,
J! s
Pdydz + Qdrdx + Rdxdy = Jj
l)
(r iJ(y. :)
iJ(u • v)
+ Q~ + R a((x. y))) dudv.
iJ(II,tJ)
0
"·"
( 17)
Equation ( 17) gives the evaluation procedure for the surface integral in Eq. ( 16):
Substitute for .r. y. z. and their derivatives in terms of u and 11, then integrate over
the appropriate region D in the ,,.,.plane.
The relation between surface in tegrals with respect to surface area and with
respect to coordinate areas is somewhat analogous to th e formula
relating line integrals with respect to arc length nnd with respect to coo rd inates.
Gi\'cn the \'ector field f =Pi+ Qj + Rk. Eq. (11) implies that
f · n = f'cosa + Qcosfl + Rcosy, ( IK)
so the equations in (12) yield
EXAMPLE 3 Suppose that Sis tht.: surface : = h(x. y), (x . y) in/). Then show that
'f
J 15
Pdytl~+Qdzdx+Rdxtly=iJo (-1':~ - Q:~.. +R)dxdy, 1
(20)
where P. Q. and R in the second integral arc evaluated at (x. y. il(.t. )')),
Solution TI1is is simply a matter of computing the thre e Jacobians in Eq. (l7)
with the parameters x and y. We note first that iJxj:Jx =I== IJyjiJy and th at
ax;ay = 0 = IJyfiJx. Hence
a(y. zl = IY• y,, __az iJ(z. x) = lz, z,, == _ az
a(x. )') z. z, - ax. il(x.y) x, x, ay'
1052 CHAPTER 15 Vector Calculus
and
jx, x,l =I.
o (.t . y) =
a(x . y) y, )'
'
Equation (20) is an immcdi:ltc consequence. •
The Flux of a Vector Field .
. .
O ne of the most important apphca11ons o f sur face ·m 1egrals involves the compuftation S
of the nux of a ,·ecto r fie ld. To de fi ne the nux of the \'CCtor field f acros s 1f11e sur ~ce ·
WC'"tSSUmP tha t 5 has 31111il norm al \'CC tOr til C ld n I hat ' c conunuous
' \ ·ari's . d (1'I ' rom· potnt b/to)
Poi '
nt of '
S. This cond ition excludes from our const 'd .
cra t'
ton onc·stdc
. . nononenra
bl f e.
- - If .S" . "td 'd (onmta e) su r ace.
surfaces. such as the ~11lbius strir of Fig. 1"·"·3· . 15 ~,1' \0 ~ i "a closed su rface (s uch
th en there arc two posstble choJccs for n. For examp c. 1 s .h h
I ,
as a torus or sphe re) tha t separa tes space. t len \\ C may·. ·choose for n e ll• er) tThe ou ter
't
normal vector (a t each point of S) or the inner normal ,·ector (Fig. ·~· 4 · c unt.15
normal vector defined in Eq. ( II) may be eithe r the outer no~ma l or the mncr normal,
wh ich of th e two it is de pends on how S has been para metnzed.
.
n
(\
'
. ••
111 IOIICf fh •ln t.:•f
To dcline the concept of nux. suppose that we are given the vector field F.
the orientablc surface S. and a continuous unil normal vector field n on S. l11en. in
:malogy with Eq. (5) in Section 15.4, we define th e flux <l> ncrnss S in the direction
uf II by
r For example. if F= O\', where ,. is the veloci ty vector field corresponding to the steady
now in space of a fluid of density 8 and n is the ow er unit normal vector for a closed
surfaceS that hounds the space region T,thcn the !lux det ermined by Eq. (21) is the
/ -...... " net r:ate of !low of the lluid ow of T across its boundary surface S in units such as
L~----
s grams per second.
·•
} - - - - 7 - ----;;y
EXAMPLE 4 Calculate the nux Jf5 F·ndS,whcreF =~·ando kandSisthc
ical surface of radius a with c4uation z = Ja 2 - x2-
hemispher-
with outer unit normal
y2
vector n. (Sec Fig. 15.5.5.)
Solution If we think of F= t·ok as the velocity vector field of 11 nuid that is flowing
FIGURE 15.5.5 The hemisphereS
of Example 4. upward with constant speed t·o. then we can interpret lhc !lux in question as the
rate of now (in cubic centimeters per second, for example) of the lluid across S.
To calculate this flux, we note that
.ti+yj+zk I.
n = Jx2 + y2 + z2 =;<xr + yj + zk).
f
1053
Surface Integrals SECTION lS.5
Hence
I t'O
f·n =~:ok· - (x i + yj+ zk) = -z.
a a
so
r r
!!.s F·ndS
lJ() 2.T
=-;:; io io
(2
2
(acos¢)(a sin ¢)d¢d0
thus
2
jj F·ndS = 1Ta t'Q .
s
2 2
This last quanlity is equal to the flux ofF = t'Q k across the disk x 2 + y ;:! o
of area 1Ta2 • If we think of the hemispherical region T bounded by th e hemisphere
Sand the circular disk [) that forms its base. it should be no surprise that the rate
of inflow of an incompressible fluid across the disk [) is equal to its rate of outflow
across the hemisphereS. +
EXAMPLE 5 Find the llux of the vector field F = xi+ yj + 3k o ut of the region T
bounded hy the paraboloid z = x2 + y 2 and the plane z = 4 (Fig. 15.5.6 ).
Solution Let S1 denote the circular top. which has outer unit norm~ I vector n 1 = k.
Let S2 be the parabolic part of this surface. with outer unit no rmal vector n 2 • llte flux
across S 1 is
,
N =
( -il.t'-ay'l
<lz az ) =<-2x.-2y.l)
litURE 1S.S.6 The surface of
U."'t>itS.
= =
for a vector normal to the pa raboloid z .<2 + y2. Then n N/INI is an upper- and
thus an innu- unit normal vector to the surface Sz. lltc unit omer normal vector is.
=
therefore, n2 - ~ = - N~INI . opP?site ,to th~ dirc~tion of N =
(-2<. -2y. 1). With
parameters (x. y) tn the ctrcular dtsk x· + Y ~ 4 m the x y-plane, the surface-area
clement is JS = !Nidx tly. 111crcforc. the outward tlux across Sz is
=- Jf 0
F·Ndxtly=- jj (.t.y,3)·(-2x,-2y.1)dxdy
/)
=- jj(3-2x~-2y 2 )dxdy.
D
1054 CHAPTER 15 Vector Calculus
"llle number K - normallv. but not always. a constant-is th e hear condt~cth·iry of the
body. lnc ,·ector q po ints in the direction of hea t flow. an_d its le ng th ts the. r~t-e of
ll ow of hea t across a unit :1rca nornu l to (). ll1is !low rat e ts mc:l~ur.:d ~~ umts such
ns ca lories per second per square centimeter. I[ Sis a clns..:d ~urfacc wtthm the body
bounuing. the solid n:gion T a nd n denotes the outer tmit normal vecto r for S, then
EXAMPLE 6 Suppose that a uniform solid ball 8 of radi us R is centered at the origin
(fig. 15.5.7) and that the temperature u within it is given by
·Illus the temperature of B is maximal at its center and i:o; 1.ero on its boundary. find
the rate of How of heat across a sphereS of radius a < R centered at the o rigi n.
Solu tion Wri ting r = .ri + yj + zk for the position vector of a p oin t (x, y. z) of B.
we find that the heat flow vector q in Eq. (22) is
() == -K Vu =- K · c(- 2xi - 2yj - 2~;k) =2 Kcr.
Obviously the outer unit normal vector n at a point (x. y. 1:) of the spheres is n = rfa,
FIGURE 1S.S.7 The solid ball8ol so
Example 6.
q· n =2K c r · ~ =2K ca
a
2
because r · r = a at points of S. lnercfore the heat flow across the sphere s (with
area A (S) = 4rra 2 ) is
where M is the total mass enclosed by Sand G is the universal gravitational constant.
Surface Integrals SECTlON 15.5 1055
G auss's law also n r . .
r o f a charge 1 PP tes to tnverse-squarc electric fie lds. The e lcctrtc field at
· q ocntc d at the 0 · · ·
m mk.s u n its (ch . n gtn ts E = qr/(4:Holr)3) where to "" · · x
s 85 10- 12
(ou tw a rd) n u x ~~r~e m co ulombs). The n G all5s's la~· for ~lectric fields says tha t the
a cross t h e closed su rface S is
¢> = !!. s
E·n dS = Q
Eo
(2.5)
15.5 PROBLEM S
h Prob!nr.J I thro ugh 6. ~· aluar• til• S tlf fa<"• integral 1!. S is the part of the sphere x1 + y 1 + z' =25 thntlics outs ide
ff
1
flq. : )dS. the t')·tindc r .r 2 + y 2 = 9.
l /IJ. y, ; ) =X.>. y; 5 j, the first-octan t part Of the plane
In Pwblmu 13 thro11gh 18. ~··aluar~ tlz~ Sl4f/llct inr~gral
r- y -:=1. J/1 f · n tiS. K:hut n u tilt up-..·ard-polnttng un11 norm.3.1 ' "t'C·
:. / (•. J.: I = x)·:; Sis the triangle "'ith ,·cniccs (3.0.0). tor to th~ gi•·m surfort S.
.0.: 0). and (0. 0. 6) . l.l. F =•I + yj : Sis the hemisphere z = J9- x' - yl .
l '"· •. , , = .• - : ~ 3;
. s i• the •part •o f the
9 ptonc <a 2.< + 3y 1~. F = x i + yj + : k: S is the ftrst-<>eta nt pan o r the plane
t)-.ulies L"Uide the cylinder :r· + y- =. lr + 2y+ l = 3.
( /0. ,. : I =:=: sis the part or the cone! - Jx' + y' that 1.5. f' • 2yj + 3: k; S ist hc port of the pl3nc;: =3r + 2 thJt lies
ba t.~1i~~ ~c cylinder ..r: - >1 =4 . within the cylinder x 2 + y 2 ~ -l.
!. I ' · •. : I= X T ... I :s is the pan or the 1paraboloid l = 16. F =:
k: Sis the upper h>lf of the spherical surb ct p = 2.
•' - ,.: that U:. ins.de the cylinder x 1 + y 4. = (Suggf.ltl()rt: Usc >pherical coordinates. J
l /u .J . : l = ex' + rJ:: Sis the hemisphere:= .j,-1---x""'--- >'·'. 17. t' . yl - xj: S is thc pn11 or the cone ;: .. r th31 1ics within
the cylinder r = 3.
It Prob!<nu 7 tJ:rou~h 12. find th e m om ent of intrt~a 18. F co le i .._ 2yj + J k: S is the part of the paraboloid ;: =
if.'x; - r) s
d of rJ:e li" en Jt.lffau s ...
;rh rt spn t to the :-a.ro.< 4- x' - ).l that li.s Abo"C the xy·planc.
)~t tJ-At S fuu CO"--Iart/ dautt} 6 • J.
In J'roblmu 19 ohrough 14. ralculalt rh• out><·ard ftu..t of rh~
7. 5 li &.e pan of the plane Z ~ X + 'f that heS inside the ,,,r,.~ fi,/,1 F
ar ron zht S:H"t'n c'lostd sru/ilC~ S.
C)!J~der .r: - .,: = 9. 19. f • xl + 2 yj + 3;: k: S i<thc hu und:.ry o f the fi"t -octont unit
·
l SISthepanofthesurfacez,.xyth•t I'testMt
· 'de the""linder
., cubc with oppu<itc \ c tticc< tO. 0 . 0) and (1 , t , I ).
,: -r D 25.
211. t' • 2.11- 3yj +: lo.;S i< the bound:ny oft he sohd hcm1sphe rc
, , 1 h 01 I' s between rhe
· S lllh•n•nofth•,.,.I.Jnde
- ,.... . - -, rx'~ •· t =
te h "'Iinder O ~:~ J.. _ _. : - y: .
1'4~ J = -I and ) • I. As par>meten on t e . ,
~\C 1 and the polar angular coordmote tn
. the x ••· plane. 11. f • .I - yj; S is the houmbry of the >olid fir>t·octa nt
pyramid bounded by the coordinate plxnes a nd the planc
ll s
ttc pan of the cone z. •
t\
J 1 .: that )les between
s +J Jr + 4y+ t = 12.
~planes : = 2 and : '" S. :z. f' ., 2x l + 2) j + 3k;S iHhc houndary of the solid parabolo id
IL • p>n of the sphere x·, + 1, + •, l =25 that lies abo"e
sll lne rounded by the t y·pl>ne and ;: "' 4 - .t 1 - y2 •
~ ~"": = 3.
1056 CHAPTER 15 V~tor Ci!lcu!u~
23. f ' = ~ 2 k : S is the bounda ry of the solid bounded by the l'\ O!uar~ til~u int~graU. symbo liwlly if ponibl<:. numrricolly if
pa raboloids ~= x 2 -'- y: and : = l R- x2 - yl. = =
r:rc(Jsary (k·ith the numuical va!t~rs a 4 . b 3. an d c = 2 of
24. I'= x i + 2y j + 3: k : S i~ the bounda ry ofthesolidbou nded
2 2 2 rhr gi1·en pt:rtunrren ).
2
by the cone: = J_,:
+ y: and the pl~ne ~ 3. = 37. S is the e lliptic paraboloid : = (._r fal' + ()f bl with
pa rametrization ' =au cos t' , .'' = bu stn ' '· ~ = u ·. 0:) u ::! c.
25. The fir~Hxt :ont pa rt o f the sp herical s urface p = aha..~ unit
0 ;it· ::! !:r.
d e nsity. Find its ce ntroid . 2
38. S is the ellip<oid (.r / a ) 2 + (yfb )2 + (: / c) =I with para-
26. l hc co nica l su rface ~ = r. r :; o . ha~ constant dc nsiw 6 = t . metnzation x =as:inu cos r·. )' =bsin u sin t' , .:= c cos u,
!find its centroid and its mo me nt of inerti a around th~ ~-axi5-
O~ u $."!. 0~r~ ~.:r.
r • r ~ a , has constant den$ily .!,
2
27. ll>e paraboloid z = fi nd 39. S is the h.-rct\x)Joid (.rj a); + (_r/bl: - : 2 = I wi!h para-
its ce ntro id a nd momen t o f in ert ia around the ~-a~''-
=
mctrill!io~-' = a ro5h u cos,._ y b cosh u si n t•, ~ = sinh u,
U . Find the centroid of the pa rt o f the spherical surfJce p = a -c :i w ~c. O;lr~ 2:r . See Fi!!- 15.5 .1\. whe re the 11-<:ur-vcs
th ai lies with in the co ne r = .:. are hypcr t>ol,ts and 1hc •·-cu rves are e ll ipses.
29. Find the ce ntroid o f the pan of the spherical sur-
face x 2 + y 2 + z2 = 4 that lies both inside the C\hr.dcr
x2 + y' = 2x and abo ve the x y -plane. •
30. Suppnse that the toroidal smf:~ ce o f Example 5 of Sec-
tion 14.X has uniform den<ity and tutal nta" M . Shnw thai
its moment of ine rtia arnundl the ~-;u i < i• j M<J.-12 + 2J>l).
lfl l ' ro/Ji t'IIL'f J I ond 32, IUt' a talrl.· o fin tC',s;ralt o r a romputer oiJ:f·
bra s ystl'lll ti/m:Ct'.\'Sllry ) t tJ fin d th r momrnr ofint rtin arnuruJ thr"
t·11.ris ofth~ given .mrf tJct' S. AJ\'I.rm r that S Juu coru mn t demit)•
6 .. I.
31. Sis the part of the paraho lic cylinde r: = -t - y 1 tlw t lies
ins itlc I he rectan~;ular cylindc r - I ;i • ;i I. - 2 :l y ;i 2. fiGURE 1 S.S.8 The hy~ rboloid
32. Sis the pan o f the parabolo i<! ~ = -l - x' - y2 that lies inside: of Problem 39.
the square cylinder - I :; .< S I. - 1 :l y :i I.
40. The Mobius strip in Fig. 15.5.9 was gene ra ted by plotting
33. LetS de no te the surf:occ ~ = for ( x. y) in the region
/r ( r .••·) the points
f) in the ·' y· pbnc, and le i y be the angle be tween k and the:
upper normal vector N 10 S. Pl'uvc that y = (4 + 1 cos ~0 ) sin 0.
z = 1 sin iO
j j / (x. )'. !)dS = j j j(x . .1', h(x. y)) sec y clx ely .
for -I :l t ~ I. 0 ;i 0 ~ 2:r . T hi' M obiu< stri p has width 2 and
.t s
a circula r ce nterl ine of rad ius 4. Se t up integrals giving its
3-$. Find a formula for area a nd moment o f inertia ( assume constant dens ity & "' I)
JJ.I
1' d y d z. +Q dzdx + Rd.<d)'
around the ~ -axis. a nd usc a computer algebra system 10
C\'aluate them numerically.
11
0 lS.S l'roject: Surface I 1
Fi n cgrnls nnd Rocket Nose Cones
I
•sure 15.5.1 0 sho~-s a ( . .
' curved) nose coneS of height h = 1 altached to a cyhndncal
I
rocket of rad·
density d ( IUS .' = I that 15 . movmg· downward with vcloci t,· ,. thro ugh atr · of
or, equivalently the k · . • · • d)
In the Princ;11 • M ' . roc ct IS stattonary and the ~iris st rcam ong upwar ·
1
the force of · ta . at tcmnuca Newton showed tha t (u nder plamthlt: . · ·)
:t!'.~umptlons
atr reststance the k · · · ' d 1 ·
proportional both 10 th roc et expcnenccs 1s govcn by F ~ 2:rR 6o•· . an t 1us ts
coefficient R · . e densuy of the :1ir and to the square of its velocity. l'hc drag
IS gtven by the SUrf~CC integral
In an eAvt~ordinary
.a
tour de force, Newton d~termined the nose cone with mini-
. h · 1 11 · d d
mum possible air resistance, allowtng bo~ da.etrcbodu
rGURE 1S.S.11 The flat-tipped
ilr. ttone.
1
1 Lion connecting the tip to the cy tn nca
1
ar art ~p an k a curvecsurfacc
Yo .t e roc et-see . Henry
of reso u •N 1 n·s Nose-Cone Problem:· The Mathfmattca Journal? (Winter 1997),
Edwards. ' e\\ o
PP· 75-82.
J5.6 ~THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM . to surface integrals what Green's theorem is to line intc·
The divergence theorem IS urface integral over a closed surface into a triple int egral
grals. It lets us conve~ a s 0 r vice ve rsa. The divergence theorem is known also as
over the enclosed reg!on. •astern European countries it is called Osrrogradski's
Gauss's theorem, and 10..so~e c of mathematics" Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855)
theorem. The German pnnce force fields; the Russian Michel Ostrogradski (I SOl-
used it to study inverse-squ;re Both did their work. in the 1830s.
. t dy beat uow.
JS6l) used 11 to s u
1 058 CHAPTER 15 Vector ulculus
jj S
F·n dS = JJJ. T
, . F t/1'.
(I)
i
('
F · n ds =jj ~ ·F riA.
~
If n is give n in terms of its direction cosines. a<; n = (cusa. cos{J. cosy}, then (by
Eq. (II!) in Section 15.5) we can 14Tite the divergence theorem in sca la r form:
jisf ( Pcos a +
r Qcos{J + Rcos y)dS =Jr f f
} }7
(iJ('
a.r
+ iJ Q
ay
+ iJR) dV.
a:
(3)
. It i~ best to p:uarnetrize Sso tha.t the norm al vector given by the parametrization
IS the outer no rmaL 11•en we can wrue Eq. (3) en tirely in Cartesian form:
J•,\Jl1'J,\I.
. rROOF OF TilE DIVEUGENCF• T//EOR/·' • .t•'1 \Ve s ha II prove t I1c
d1vcrgence
· 1 . · 1 theorem o nlv
• : for the case
. in which th e rcc'•on T ·t.5 s·111111 1t ~ncous 1y r-
s unp e.> ·Stmp e. and , -sunple. 11us guarantees tha t every s traight 11•11 e p . II 11
coo d ' t • • • • ar.1 e o a
r tna e axts Intersects T. tf at all, in a single point or a single line sc men! It
suffices for us to denve separa tely the equations g ·
for (x. y) in D. the projection or T into th e xy-planc. As in fig. 15.6 .1. we denote the
=
lower surface z : , (x. y ) or T by 5 1, the upper surface z = : 2(x. y ) by 52 • an d the
lateral surface between S1 and 52 by 53 • In th e case or some simple surfaces. such as
a spherical su rface, there may be no surface S3 to consider. But even if there is.
=
because y 90' at each poin t or the vertical cylinder 53 •
On the uppe r surface S2 , the unit upper normal vector corresponding to the
parame trization z = z2(x, y) is the given outer unit normal vector n , so Eq. (20) of
Section 15.5 yields
nut on the lower surface s,, the unit upper normal vector corresponding to the pa ra-
metrization z = z1(x, y) is the inner normal vect or - n. so we must reverse the sign .
TIIUS
jj
S1
R dxdy=- jj R(x, y. zt(x , y)) dxdy .
D
(8)
= jr f ( {"''·'' oR dz) dx dy .
jD l:o(•.yl /J:
Therefore
j1rf
5
Rdxdy= J/1 ~~ r ~
dV.
This is the third equation in (5), and we can derive the other two in the same
way.
·~
1060 CHAPTER 1S Ve<tor Calculus
EX AMPLE 1 Let S be the surbce ( u ith outt'r unit nurmll \'Cc tor n ) of the rq:ion
T bounded !'>) the: plan~ : = 0. , = 0. y = :::.and th e p:u:tholic cylinder: I - .r
2
=
(Fig. 151i.2) Apply the d1\cr~cnce th<.'orem to compute
//_ F· n dS
s
gi,·cn F = (t -'-C<ny)i + (\ + <in : )j - C: -r')k.
Solution To C\':t lu at c the <u rf.w: tntc~ral d1rcctly wuu ld he n lcn!,:thy pwjc.:ct. llut
div F = I + I + I = J. <O u c c.1n apply the dl'cq:cncc th cor.:m easily:
jj j
F ·n dS= iffr d1,· F dl ' = jjjr J dV.
\\'c cxonun c lit'!· J5.6.2 to find chc limit., (,:•r the! \ Oiunlc intcgrnl and thu~ nhtni n
jf s
I' · n dS = 1:i.lLl-•' J d: " ·' 111 211
=1 1
( I - r ) tl r = R. •
EXAMPLE 2 Lc:t S be the surface of the sohd cyl111dcr T b(lundci.l by the planes
: = 0 and z = 3 and the cylinder .r: -'- ~: =
-1. Calculate the outward flux
JJ s
F·n dS
Solut ion If we denote by P. Q. and R the component functions of the vector field F.
we find that
iJP , ' 2 '
iJ.r =2.r · X+ (.t· + y·+: ) . ( =J.r' + y2 + z2.
Similarly.
aQ • z ,
-=Jr
iJy
+ z + x- and
so
d iv F = 5(x 2 + i + ,z).
Therefo re the divergence theorem yields
Jj S
F·n dS= iff T
5(x2+y2+:2)dV.
~~ F·n dS = 1"1 1
2 2 3
5(r
2
+ z2 ) rdzdrd9 '
= IO:r Lz [r z + ~r:
0
3
3
3]
3
:•0
dr
(
= 10:r}0 (Jr +9r)dr=lO.T
3 [3;{ +~rlL=JOO.T.
4 2
+
The Divt'rgence Theorem SECTION 15.6 106 1
Solution Equation (9) follo....-s immedi:tteh· from Eq. (J) if we take /'(.r. ·' ; :) ~-' ·
g<x •
>'i •>. =>'· and
0
R(x.
y, : ) = :. For example. if Sis the sphe rical surface r + r +
• = wnh volume 1' . surface area A. and outer unit normal vector
V = ~Ifs x d y d: + y d: dx +: dxdy
= ~ jf (x cos a+ ycosfj + z cosy) dS
s
=j
I jrisf xl + y2 + .2tiS= jaI ;ri fs I tiS = JaA.
•
I
0
You shou ld confirm that this result is consist en! wi1h the famil ia r formula~ V = :j1ro 3
nnd A = 4rra2. •
EXAMPLE 4 Show tha t the divergence of the vector field F at the point /'is given
by
Jf S,
F · n dS = jjj B~
V ·F dV.
Then we apply the 3\'erag.: value property of triple integrals, a result analogous to
the double integral result of Problem 50 in Section 14.2. 'This yields
Iff H,
V·f dV=(V·FO'>I ·t•(B,)
Equation ( IO) follows after we divide both sides by 1'(8,) and then take the limi t as
r .... 0.
•
.
for mstnnc e . suppose that F = ~ ,. is. the
h vector
. field of a· Ouid now. We can •
. E (IO) 3 5 sa)·ing that V · f (P) IS I e net rate per umt volume that Ouid
mterpre. t q. 1.
• ") f
(or "d 1•vergmg rom the po'nt P 17o th '
• , ., r
·
IS reason the PO lilt p
mass 1s no .... ng a~ra~ F(P) ,. 0 but a sink if v · f (P ) < 0.
I
is called a source 1 v •
1062 CHAPTER 1S Ve<tor Calculus
/ : / . a nd S,, o f rad i1 o and 1•. "it h II· o .-:h. ·ntc co,)rdin.llc p b nc< separat e T into eight
rcfi' "'' 7'1. T~ . ... . r,. each ' hapcu :t< 111 fi!,; !5.(d. Let I:, d c nntt.' th e boundary of
/
·1 ,' \
• # d ~ ·· 7i anJ le t n, he the o uh.:r unit nc)rm:d vector h ) I:, . \\'c: e1 pp ly t ht~ divergence theorem
1 ,' _.-r '\ :
I _::..;.. - - : to each of these eight re gions a nd o btatn
-- I'
-------7-
•. -"'r" ..... ~-
•
: )
•. ~-·'1. I , ,,._J
t !!1
I '•• ......
, ,.,.. !
/' ---1T..
/
!!1 T
V·ft! V =
I•J f.
, .frfV
s
f iGURE 15.6. 3 One O<tJ nt of the
shell between S., and s•.
='£/1••1 t.
f · n , dS (di, c rgc nce t heore m)
JJ
==
s..
f ·n. dS + !1 s.
f·n • dS.
I krc we write n, fo~ the inner no rmal vector on Sa and " • for th e outer norm al vector
on s•. TI1e b st cgual lt )' ho lds because the surface integrals o ver the internal hounda
surfaces
. (the .sur faces in the coordinate planes) ca ncel in p·•1irs-thc . r10 r n1a 1s nrc
'ry
oppos1tc ly onentc~ th~ re. As the t>oundary S of T is the union o f the 5 hc ric~l
surfaces s.
and s•.
11 now follo ws that p
-
~
=
JJ GM r · -r d S =GM
---c-
lriJ
--
lrl al
JJ lcJS : -ol:rG .\1. (13)
s. .s..
Thus ':'e have cs tabli5hed Gauss's law (Eq. (2.-1) in Section 15.5) for the special case
of a stnglc point rna\,. lhc more general ca\c of a collc:ction of p<1in t m:~sscs '' ithin
Scan be cstabli~hed by enclosi ng each in its o"'n sm:1ll sphere. If we replace the
constant GM in Eq. (13) \loith Q/~:T fo. we obtain simi la rlv Ga uss's lnw
fjs E · n dS= Q
fo
( 14)
for the inverse-square electric Held F. = Q r/(~.H olriJJ of n ch:trge Q lying within S.
Another impre\\ive conscquc;ncc or the divergence theorem is ,\rchimc dcs'
law or buoyancy: sec Problem 21 here and Problem 22 of Section 15.7.
if S1
F · n ciS = JJ S:
F · n dS'/
=
If f' - krflrJ3 is an inverse -square force field directed toward the o rigin.
under what conditions on St and Sz can we conclude that the two flux integrals
are equal?
1S.6 PROBLEMS
!• P•oblt~~u l tilrouglt 5. \'~rify the dil•trg~lfu 11t~orrm by dir«l tetrahedron bounded by the three coordinates planes a nd
tc"'I"'1Wron of borh rloe mrface /megral and tlo~ triple• im~grill the plane .t + y + : = I.
•'£• 1/J. /11 fl()l>/om 6 through 14. r-sr rlr~ di•·erg.nce theorem ro evo/-
l r,"' Ji + >'l + zk: S is th e spherical surface wilh equation J
untr fs F . n tl S. whtrt n is tht own unit normal vrrror ro rlrt
' +r' ... :' = I. surfaa S.
hrec cuordonalcs planes and tbe three planes x - 2 · 8. f ., (.• '.., >1)(xl + >i):S i.s I he 1urface oft he re&ion bounded
=
', r • ' l1+
1 •2. ind . .. 2 by the plane : 0 and the paraboloid z = 25 - x l _ yl.
.
'
Y: J1+ xz k: Si~ the surface of Problem 3. 9, f :: (.r + r '') l + (y +sin .r~)j + (cos x >·)k: S iHhe surfnee
1
10. F. := (.ry1 + ~-·~in :)i + Cx2 y + ~ - ·cos : )j + (tan - 1 .r_v )li : up coord .m:t 1~s so th• t rv><ltr'vc v:llues o f : arc measured
o.1 , • .,.._
S i' the ~urhce of the region hounded by the paraboloi d do.,.n ... art! from the surface. The n the pressure nt de pth:
z = .rl .-. / ~nd the plane: = 9. =
is P 6g : . '11!c buoyant force e xerted on the body by the
11. E' == (.rl+) 1 +:2 Hx i +> J +: k): S isthesurfaceof P roblem R fluid is
r - r1l
l ill/ (Jlf <Jlf n r.... :l =lr - , •.
r:1
V f = - + - + -•.
a,l ">·' a:·
Shc>~~o• that d1v F = () e 'ccp t at th<' point r ,.
=
ltl. Let ilfl an V f · n de no te th e di rectional dc riva ti'c of the
2.1. Apr!) the dJICr£cn.:e theorem to com pute th e outward
:sca lar fu nction f in the d.rcction of the nutcr unit normal
vector 11 let the surfaceS th:tl bound' the rc!!ion T. Shu"' nu,
tha t
r
"' here f ' = 1r:r. r = ri + .''J + : 1.. :rn d S i' the surface of
l'rohlcm !( fSu:;-~«11<>11' Integrate in cy lind rica l cc>ordinatc~o
Uu rlrc· 11oflltitm nf Pmbh•ms 15 1md 16 i11 Prohlt-m< 17
li r.t wtth rc~rcct ro , .1nd then " ilh re5pcct to : . Fo r the
t hTOII!(h I'J.
IJHc:r intc,gratJon. m.1 ke a tr•gononH.: tric sub~1 i lution :md
17. Suppo<c that V 1f a () in the region T with boundary sur- then consult Eq. (9) of Sccuon S.) for the anridc rrvativc
face S. Show thnt of sec> t•.J
= (iilyJ R_aQ)
i) z
i+(aP _ aR)J+(aQ_ aP)"·
az il.t ax ay
<2 >
i
c
l'·Tds .
where T is the posi tive-directed unit tangent vector to C. Consequen tly. we can
rewri le Green's theorem in the form
i C
f·T ds= jf R
(curl f )· k c/1\. (3)
S tokes' theorem is the generalization of Eq. (3) that we get by replacing the
plane region R with a lloppy two-dimensional version: an oriented bou nded surfaceS
in three-dimensional space with boundary C that consists of one or more simple
)" dosed curves in space.
An orit•nlcd surr:1rc is a pi::cewisc smooth surface S together with a chosen
unit normal vector licld n that is continuous (that is. cont inuously turning) o n each
smooth piece of S. "ll1c positi ve orientation of the bountlary C of ;m oriented surface
f!CURE 15.7.1 Ve<tors. surface, S corresponds to the unit tangen t vector T such tha t n x T always points into S
rd boundary curve mentioned in (Fig. 15.7.1). Check that for a plane region with unit normal vector k. the positive
~ su:ement o f Stokes' theorem. orient at ion of its outer boundary is counterclock"ise.
STOKES' THEORE M
Lets be an oriented. bounded, and piecewise smooth surface in space with pos-
ilivelv oriented boundary C and unit normal vector field n. Suppose that T is a
pOSitively oriented unit \"ector fiel_d tangcn~ t? C. If the vector field f is continu-
ously differentiable in a space rc g1on conta10mg S, then
1 f·T .d s=
Jc
Jfs (curl t' ) ·nt/S. (4)
Tbus Stokes' theorem means that the line im:gral around the boundary curve
of the rangemia/ compnnelll of f ectualf the surface mtegral of the normal componem
of curl f . Compare Eqs. (3) and(~).
lllis result first <lppear.:d pubhcly ~sa pro~lcm ?Oscd by G~orgc Stokes (18 l9-
. • ·xamination for C;unbndgc Umvcrsuy students 10 1854. It had been
1903) on
• a pmc c.l·tt ' er to Stokes from the p hys1C1st
· · \V"ll"
1 1am Thomson (Lord Kelvin
stated m an 1850 c · '
1824-I907).
1066 CHAPTER 1 S Vector Calculus
In .terms of the components of F = pi+ Qj +R k nnd those. or. curl fo'. we can
recast Stokes' theorem-with the aid of Eq. (19) of Section 15.5-m us scala r fo rm
t P d.r + Q dy + R d~
c= fl.s (aRay ial Q)
- - - dyd; + - - - tft,tfx+
z
(ill' a~
ilR)
a.r
- -a.
(aQ
nx
<J I') d I.
>
XI) . (5)
.[Pax =
Ic
j'fJ. (aP·': d~tlx- iJayP d.r dy) (6)
s
and the corresponding two equations that arc the Q and R "components" of Eq . (5).
Equation (5) itself then follows by add ing the three rcsul".
/'AUT/AI- J>ROOF Suppose first that Sis the graph of a func tion;= j(.r. ·' ). (,r. ,\')
: •/(t., y} in D. where S ha~ an uprcr unit norma l vector and D is a region in th e .r.-·-planc
bounded by the simple closed curve J ( Fig. 15.7.2). 1l1c n
fc =f.Pdx
J
l'(.r.y.J(.r,y)) d.r
= - j' ( ap dxdy
)
In thi< cqultion we rcpi::Jcc I' with 0, (l with 'J l'f a;. a nd R "llh -,1/' f ,ll.
!'! (
j
JJ·I' .l; d.; - ~
-;-
I"
i) f>
.J)
tltdy ) : !'! (
/}
;1-
:.: .J\
:1 /' ).t • •t. .
- .1 -/' ....:.--
1, \ '
(li)
Finally.. we compare E~~ (7) and (i<) and sec: t h.11 " C: h .l\1.' c,t.lhli,hcJ E<! (o)
Jf WC C:ln Wfrt C the \ lltfa ,·c .~ 111 tit~ fmrn~ \' ,... o"'•' '\ I , ..•) •111J 1 " h'l \.;,
) tl
lc:'I\ \\ Ct...ln
dc11•c the (1 and U "'""'l'' "'e nt\ " of Et1. ( ~ )an nouda thl" , 1111.. ,, 11 I I
. .· ~ ... • . 11 , f'r"" C\
•
••f
~t ole\ th culclll llll th~ ' l'e•·aal•·;" c• a \ 111!.1\' l' S that ·
l' •lfl t~· •. , ,.,. t 1
., 1• 1 1 <II C< ,1\ .q~r.tp I
t
1n alltl11 ec (tH IIdlnat t tht et:lll itt\. Stt~kn' l).,- ,"c:"' 1111\ •
the n t·~ .. , , 1
..,.. ... C1h ~.·,1 hl a more
pcner:tl mac ntc d \U rl4~c hy th e nuw-l.omoll:or lltc th,><l nf '"t'<ll\tltrl, t ·
l •• I IOhl 'UIHf'11.:t
\UI(dCe\, to c:ot h 11( v.luda the prcccdan1~ p ru11f '' apph,·.ablc ~
f r
I' ·Ttll.
v. here C i< the elliJ»e in which the pl~nc: ~ ) + 3 an tcn;cct< the t'\ Iind e r l ~ l • 1
1 1
Onent the ellrJ»e countcrclock -. i>c 3\ vic.,. ed from nho• e ll l c I'( •) nnd
3z i- Srj -2) k. ' · '"
Sto\es' Tht'O('Ml SECT10'1 15•7 1067
j k
curl F = a a
-il:il = -.:i ~ .~j - :'li:.
a.r ily
3: S.r - 2··
so
because we can sec from Fig. 15.7.J that Sis nn ellip$<: " ith ~cmia'(t"S I and ,J 1. Thu~
its area is ;r ./2. +
jj_s C' x F ) • n d S.
where F = 3: I+ 5xj - 2yk and Sis the part of the parabolic surf:u:e : = .x= + y: that
lies below the plane: = 4 and whose orientation is gin·n by the upper unit norm:el
vector (ng. 15.7.-l ).
Solution We pa ramet rize the boundary circle C of S b~· .• :: :' c~ 1, y = :'$in r.: = .s
forO ~ r ~2rr. lhcndx - 2sinrdr.dy 2cosrdr.and d: O. SoStokes' theorem
yi.:lds
= = =
JJfj_cv
s
x f )· n dS= { f · T ds=
c
f c
3: d.r+5.xdy-2yd:
{ 2.'
IICUat 15.7.4 The parabolic = Jo 3· 4 ·(-2sin r dr)+5·(2cos r)(2cosrdr)+2· (2sinr)· O
l~ll:!cf E~<.~mple 2.
rh
= 1 ~
(-2-lsinr + 20cos r)dr
2
= lo (-2-lsin r + 10 + 10cos2r) dr
2.'
= [24cos r + !Ot+5sin 2r ] =20:r.
0
•
JUS! as !he d ivcrg•cncc theorem. yields aI physical
. I . interpretation
. of di,· F [Eq. ( 10)
of Section 15.6/. Stokes' theorem ytc~s a p l}'~tca. ~~~e~~~c t~~~~n ,~f n;rl. t'. l~·r s, he
1
a circular disk o f radi us rand area ll( ,) =l ;rrc, c~n chrc a .. ell'<ltnt , tn sp:lc~· and
. 1:tr to the (fixed) un it vector• n.h ct , r><! dt ehposm ve y o ru:mell bound an·
n.•rpcnd1cu ·
•·.-
ctrcle of S, (Fitg. 15 ·7 ·5). Then
. Stokes 1 eorem an I c nveragc value proper!\· · of
double integrals together gtvc
for some point p o f s,. We a ssu me th at f is continuo usly d ifferen tiable Ill f', so it
follows that
V x F(i') _. V X F(/') as 1' - • P.
If we lirst divide both sides by n(S,) and then take the li mit as r - 0, we ge t
fV X . -I
f {l')j ·n = hm ~
c I·' · 'I' <S.
I (9)
r- 0 ;r r 2
c.
l oCJnation (9) h:1s a rwtur:1lphysica l meaning. Suppos e that t' = l> v. where v is
t he ,·cJol'ity ,.c,tor licld of the s rcatly-statc n ow of n fluid with con~tant dcns 11y .!.
ll1cn 1hc va lue of the in tegral
( dc lcrmincd hv '\' x f ( / ') is !he a.xi; abou l wh id1 the flui<l nca r I' is rcvolvi n)! !he mus t
rapid!}·· A tin;· paddle " hee l p laceJ in the fluid :11 P (see Fig. 15.7.6) would ro tat~ the
fastest if its a'is lay ;rlon!; thi~ line. II fo llows from ~li<ccll ~ ncou< Prnhlc:m 32 at the
end of th i' chapte r th~ t fcur l FJ= cScv in the ca<c of a fluid rc n1l"in!! <t cadi l ~ around
a fixed a'is with ,·o n,tant an)!UI.tr speed '" (i n radians per second). 11JU.; 'x
Ft /')
indicates bot h !he di rccti<rn mrcl ra te of rot a tio n of the lluid nca r 1'. Occ.;m<c o f this
inlcrprc t;t I ion. some olde r b<•••ks u<c t h~ no ta tio n " ro l F" for I he c ur I. an a hbrc \'ia lion
r.c; URE. 1S.7.6 Th~ pldd1~-whffi
thai has dis:~ppca rcd from general u<c.
in:r:rpre-t.o:iotl of curl f .
If '\' x F = 0 everywhere. then the flu id !low nnd !he \'<'ctor ticltll F arc said
t o 1:1<! irrolallnrtal. A n rntin ite,imal s traw placed in :~n irrot:ttiona l tluid il<l\\ wou!J
be transbtc:J par;~ lid to it<clf wi thmll rota ting. A n:ctor lic ld F <klincJ <111 n simp!~
co nnected region n is irrnta tiona l if nml on ly if it i' con>cr,·~ti \'c. "hi,·h in turn 1~
true if and only if the line in tegrnl
1 F·Ttii
('
;, independent o f the pa!h in D . ('ll1c rc,~iun f) i< s.oid tn be s implr cunnt><·tt•d if e \ cf\'
\implc cfo,cd curve in /) c.m h,· cunrin twu'l)' s ltnon k 111 a Jl<•int ." hilc •t n' ino: in<id~
/) 'lltc inte rior of atoru <i~ tilt na rn plr of a <p.occ IC)!illn!ha t 1< "''I s impl\' ~·nn'rwctcJ
It is rruc:. l hOU)'h not oh\'iouoc, lh.tt :til)' pi ... . ,.... ,,j,t: ~mrh.llh simp!\~ l'kh~J t;."unc 11l 3
simply cunncctc<l rcf:iun /) h th e huund .u) uf n poccc \\ a5c 'nwuth <1rae nt c<l >Urbcc
rn /J.)
O UT/.1.\ 'f: OF I~\ /(T/;\1. /'/rOO f ' A complctt• p rouf r•f the t/ p.tt t uf ·n 1cnrcn>
I i\ t'3\~: h) E u mplc R o f Sccttc)n I ~. 1 , V X ( '\'¢ ) a ll fn r oln y "" ic·c.Jaf(cr<·n tubk
sc:1lar funct ion ¢ .
Stole~· Theo<em SECTION I S.7 1 069
Th ··~nptlon
II e re is a dc.- . . of ho ·
. en rem I. '' ~sun1 e that •. . . w ""~ m1gh1 sho w the: un/y if part of the proof o f
ITTolallonal. Let /'oCr~. y11 • ;:o) be a fixed poin t of D .
11
Given an a rbitrary nn· p
. ,-~rnt (x ,. · ) o f D
·· · • . " e would lik e 10 define
~ I
· · · T ds - j
C:
f·Td.r :: j
JC
F ·Tds= ff (V x F ) ·n dS=O
JJS
because o f the hl·poth · 1 ,. • •
. . . . em l1 n1 v X f "' O. l hisshows tha t the line in legr:t l f. F · f ds
I~ tndependrnt nf rl · d · c .
pa I. JUSI 35 cs1rc:d. In f'roblem 21 we ask you to comple te thiS
~roof by ~ho-..ing that the function¢ o f Eq. ( 11) is 1he one whose existen ce is claimed
rn Theore m I. llrat is. f' = V¢. ~
=
EXAMPLE 3 Show lha tthc veclor field F Jx 2i +S;2j + IOy:k i-1 irrowtio nal. Then
n
find a putc ntial fu nction ¢(x. y. such that V ¢ = .-.
I j k
V X t' =
a a a = (10:- JOdi= 0.
ilx ay ilz
J.rl 5:2 lOy:
lienee 1lreorem I implies th:11 f' has u pote ntial function 1/>. We can a pp ly Eq. (II)
c
to find explicitly. If C 1 is the straight line segment from (0. 0. 0) to (u. 11, w) that is
=
pa rame trized by x = ur. y 111, t = wt for 0 :;; r !i I. the n Eq. (I I) yields
1
¢(u. v, w) = 1 t' · T t!s= f"'·•·· 3.r 2 dx+5z 2 dy +l0yzdz
Co J,o,O.O)
= 1.
1-4
1
(3ulrl)(udt) + (5w 2t 2)(udt) + ( IOutwt)(wdt)
and thus
¢(u. v. w) =U ' + Suw·.'
. ·b'tr•"" point of space. we hal'e found that 4> (x . y. :)
h "'-32,._5.2
=
But because ( u • l . w)ISanart-J
. f r As n check, we note t at"'' - .r ..., - , • an d
1
1
3 + 5" . 2 1•s a sea1ar potenua . o rd · +
x ••
¢ · = l Oy:. so
=
V 0 f as destrc ·
'
• . h , Jocit)' field of a steady fluid flow that is both
hal V I.S I C \C · • h
lic.atlon Suppose 1 . the density 6 of the flurd IS constant. Suppos_e I at
~PP . nl and incomp ressible-.. a re ion r. Then. because of conscrvallo n of
II~otatJOn 1 cd surface that bound> . ~e mass of fluid "ithin S remains constant.
s 15 anv c os
• e nu.~ o f,. across
S must be zero.
mass. I h
1070 CHAP'Tll! 1 S Vt<tor C.'cu't.-l
Bec:a u~ thi~ hole!\ fo r t:n•· r~zion T. it follo"'s frc>m the: U\UJI ;t•er:rge ' 'Jiuc property
argumen: that dt\' ' = () ~,e,:;.-..here. The ..::rbr {unc-tion c pro,ided hy Theo rem I.
fo r "' hich ' = , ¢,I\ c:rl!ed.the .-l'locit~ po t rnti~l o f the nuid no w. We substit ute
"= ' ¢into the cqu.:rtion dl\ ' = 0 anJ lh~reby obtain
a=c a=c il=¢ (12)
di.-(, ¢ ) = - . -----;- - . :=0.
il •· d)" J;·
Thu\ the \ elocll~ r')lentill C of an irrOL11 ion.ll anJ ineomprc:«ihlc nuid no w satisfies
Lop/au • qu.J''"''
La;>!.11:c 'e<patr<>n ar;-ea~ rn numc:rou< other :tpphc:ruon.\. for example. con·
\ider a he1ted 1><-..h •"•....: :..-m;-er3ture fun::tton u = u t ' · '.:)is independent o f
trmc I lhen •w ir .. (I'" the h~3t equltwn. Ett (II) ur Sc:C1t00 15.6. shows that the
"stead) ·\tlte tem;-enturc· funcuon u( , . '. : l <Jtt<ric< I rrpllcc:'< equation
(13)
lhc.,.. l•ricf rem.11 k\ shnuld tndtcate how the mathc m ati~ of thi< c ha pter forms
th e ~t.rr'tllt l( f"llltt l<tr tn>e\lif.tltnn< in a numlxr ul :~rc:t<. includrng acoust ics. ac rody·
n:r rnk'\, clcwum.rvnctt•m. mrtcowlo!(y. anJ occanorraphy Indee d . the en ti re sub·
jcct of ' cl tnt calculu' \tern' hi\tnn;;,ll: from tl\ m.uhcm.tticu l applications rather
than !rum .tll'\trJ<tlll.tthcnMtt~al cun\tJ~rJtlon~ I he m odern form of the s ubject is
due pnmJrtl~ tu J. Willa rd G tbtx(IX39-190J).thc fiN J!le.ll Amc rtcan ph ysicist. and
the En)!li>h clcctrrcal cngtnccr Olt,cr I ka\t\tdc ( IXStl-1\125).
f_
Ca
F · T ds = i
C:
F · T tis?
15 .7 PROBLEMS
In f roblt•Jru I rltmuglt 5, ''" Stokrs' th,orrm for tltr t>•aluntion 3. F = (.ry, -,2. arctan .r 1 ): Sis the part o £ the paraboloid: =
of 9- .< 2 - r above the .ry-plane and with uppe r u nit normal
vector.
j jccurl f l ·n d S.
s =
"- F = yli + .r zj + .ry k: Sis the part of I he cylinder zl + vl 1
1. f a 3) 1 - 2..J + xy: k : S is the hemisphcric31 surflce: =
=
t>etween the two planes z = 1 and z 3 and ~~oith out~r unit
normal vector.
J~- x' - y' with upper unit normal vector. J
S. F = (yz. - .r :. : 1 ) : S is the part of th e cone : = x' + y'
2. f =2.rl+lrj + t'k: Sisthcpanof L~cparaboloid: .. x'+ >.l bc~ ..·e.e n th e two planes l =
I and : = 3 and with upper
below the plone: = 4 and " itb upper unit normal vector. untt normal vector.
Stokes' Theorem SECTION 15.7 1071
rems 6 rhroux" I 0, U.S( Stokes. th~orrm 10 I!VQ/uar
~~b I! that
f_ F ·T ds .
('
f_
c
¢ T ds= J!s
n x V ¢ dS.
6. f :dyl - 2$j + 3yk : Cis the circle xl + y2 9• 4 = = -1, )Suggarion: Appl)' Stokes' theorem with f' ¢•. where • =
oriented counterclockw1 ~e as \'tewed from above. is an arbitrary constant vector.)
f " 2: ; + xj + 3y k: C i~ the ell ipse in whkh the pla ne z = x 19. Suppose that a and r are as in Problem 15. Prove that
1 ' der x l + Yl
meets the cy J1n =.
4
oncnted counterclockwise
J!
0 0
In Problo:•m.<I I throug/t f.l, first .r how tl:at thr given vrctor fidrl REMARK The formulas in Problem 20. the dil'crgencc
r iJ irroltltinnlll; then llpply thr m t thod of E.wmplr J to fmd a theorem. and Problem 20 of Section 15.6 nil fit the patte rn
pormtial fun ction C = ¢ (x . y, :) for f .
n. r ~ Oy- 2rli + O.t + :lj + C.v - 2xlk Jj nO ( )dS s Jjj V O ( ) t/ V,
U. f = <3i - !Ox: 2 ) i + 9 t y 2j - ! Ox 2: k S T
JJ, t' = (3e' - 5ysin x)l + (5cos.r )j + (17 + 3.u' )k where 0 denotes either ordin.11y multiplication, the d ot
product, or the vector product, and eit he r a sca lar function
U. f = r 3r, where r =x i + yj + : k and r = )rl or a ''ector-valued function is placed "ithin th e p arentheses.
~- Suppose th3t r = xl + yj + z k and that a is a con" ant vecto r. as appropriate.
Show th M 21. Suppose that the line integral Jc F · T rls is independen t of
(a) V · (a x r) = 0: path. II
=
(b) V x (a X r) 2a :
(c) V · )(r·r)a) =2r · a: ('
¢(x.y.z)= } ,., t ' ·l'ds
(d) V x l<r · rl• ) = 2(r X a).
16. Prove that
as in Eq. (II), show that V ¢ =
1'. (Suggestion: If L is the:
jJs (curll' ) ·ntiS
line segment from (.r . y . z) to (x + ll.x . y. z). then
....
hls the s3me •·aluc fur a ll o riented surfaces S that have the
'-lme oriented boundary c urve C.
¢(x + ll.x. y , z)- ¢(x . y,:) =
J L
F' ·Tr/.r =
! •
l' dx .J
jJ (curl t") ·n dS = O:
ro o~ J/1
T
r d V.
# 1 . ._
Uu th~ fol/owinx lu t a.s a guid" to crmupu tluJt JOu rr.a;r r:u.d 8. Def:nition and cv~nu~tion of the surface integral
to rrvirw.
I. !l)cfinition nnd evaluatio n o f the lin e integral Jj s
f Cc y. : )t!S
J
c
Pdx .._ Q dy + R d;;
10. Rcl.ltionship J:.ct,.~..:n the t"o tyrcs o f su rfnee integrals: the
0U\ O( J \CCtllr ticJJ .l~rOS.S 3 $U r (.u:c
'cHAPTER 15 MiscELLANEous
. PROBLEMS
.. . ··· ~- ' .. .1 .. •~ ..;
. '- ~
I. Evnlu:u c the line intcgrol 6. Apply Theorem 2 of Section 15.3 to show thai the line
integral
j (.•' + i>ds. j y 2 dx + 2xydy + z til
c c
whe re Cis the str:li&ht line segment from (0. 0) to (3. 4). (rom the fixed point A to the fixed poi nt 8 is independent
2. Evaluate the line intcgul of the path C from A to R.
7. Apply Theorem 2 of Section 15.3 to show that the line
j y 2 dx + x2 dy. integral
c
where Cis the part of the gr:tph of y =x 2 from (-1. I) to
(I. I).
3. Evaluate the line integral is not independe nt or the path C fro m (0. 0) to (I. 1).
8. A wire shaped like the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 • z 0 has eon- =
j F·T d.r, stJnt density and to ta l mass M. Find its moment of inertia
around (a) the :-axis; (b) the x -axis.
c
where F =xi+ yj + zk and Cis the curve x = r". y = r,
9. A wire shaped like the parabola y = l.r
2 , 0 ~ x ;;i 2. has den·
sity function <I = x . Find its mass and its moment of inertia
z = t' -'.O~t ~ ln2. around the y-axi$.
4. Evaluate the line integral 10. Find the work done by the force field t' = d - xj + yk in
jc x)•zds.
moving a particle from (1. I. I) to (2. 4. 8) along the curve
y =.tl.l = .r'.
11. Apply Green's theorem to evaluate the line integral
..-here C is the path from (1 . 1. 2) to (2. 3. 6) consisting of
three straight line segments. the first parallel to the x-axis.
the second parallel to the y-uis. and the third parallel to
t c
2
x ydx +xy 2 dy.
t.he ;;-axis. where C is the boundary of the region between the two
s. Evaluate the line integral curves y = x 1 and )' = 8- x'.
c: ~ x 2 dy,
'"·here Cis the curve x = 1, y = r'".z = r1,0;:!t ;;i 4. c
Chapter 1 S Mi~cell~nt'OuS Problems
1073
fc, f · n ds = f. f · n ds
that
..here"
is an outer unit normal in the plane.
c,
JJ s
Pdyd: +Qd:dx+Rd.rdy
"=2I 2:::• c.r, y.. , - .... ,,.). .,.here sec{!= Jt + (Jyfu x)' + (oy f\1:1'.
••I l l U:t T be a region in SJXIce "' ith \'Oiumc \' , bound.sry sur·
.. hcrex., 1 -= .rs and >·· I= ) I· faceS. and centrmd cr. J, ;). Use the tlivergencc theorem
15. Suppose that the line integral J,; I' dx + Q tly is indepcn- to show thnt
cl<nl of the path in the plane rcg1on D. Prove that
~ Pdx + Qdy=O
c 24. A pply the result o f Problem 23 to find the centroid of the
for e•~ry pie~wise smooth simple closed curve C in D. solid hemisphere
16. Use Grec:n·s theo rem to prove that
: i: 0 .
fc
l' tlx+ Qdy:aO l'rol>fmLr 25 tlrrou~:ls 27 outlinr th~ de'fi•·atimr of tlor lor111 <'qun-
tinn for a hady with ttmpcrmurc u • u ( \' . f, ;. . t) Dl tltt! paint
(x , y . .:) at timr 1. DcmHc by K iu lu·m contlucti•·ity and by c its
for every piecewise smonth simple closed curve C in the hrm CtlfltiCity, hlllh a.nwn<'d cmutnnt. and lrt k = K /c. L<'r 8 I><'
pl1ne region D if and on ly if ii P/ily = ii Q fil x at each point a small solid ball witlun rh<' body. ami lrt S tfmorr thr bmmdary
of D. sphrrc of IJ.
17. Evaluate the surface integral 15. Deduce from the dl\·ergcnce theorem :tnd Eq . (23) of Sec-
tion 15.5 that the rule of heat now across Sin I~> 8 is
jj J
(x 2 + i + 2zl dS.
2
" hereS is the part of the paraboloid z = 2 - x2 - y that
hesabo• e the xy·plane. 26. The meaning or heal cap~city is th:11, if Aw is small. then
IS. Suppose that t• = (.rl + 11 + zl )(x l + yj +z It) and that S i\ (<' ou) A Vcalories o f heat arc required to raise the tern·
~spherical surface x l + y2 + z2 = a1 . Evaluate perature of the \'C>Iume 6 V by Ou dc~tr~es. It follows thai
the rate lll which the volume A V is absorbing heat i<
jjs r · n dS c(aw/at) A \' . (Why?) Conclude that the rate o f hea t flo w
into 8 is
28. Fo r a mady·Jtalt temperature f1l11aion (o:-:e tbat is inde- 'e!ocitv o f the point v.;th position vector r is ... = w x r,
pendent of timer). the heat e quation recuces to Laplace's "' h~~e 'w = w.:u is the an£ular .elocity vector. ~Ole tha t
e quation. !• = ~o.· r. si:li'. where ii is-the angle betwee n r a nd w. (b)
t.;se the (Jet thJt • = w x r. established in p3rt(a).to show
that curl • = 1w .
.13. Consider an incompressible fluid flo.-ing in space ( no
sources or s1nks l wi th , ·ariJble dcmity J( r . y. :.r) a nd ve-
(a) Sup~e that u, and u; a re t .. o so!~tions o : Lap!Jt"e'i !o--it\' fidd ' (.t. ._ ~.r ) . Let 8 J:.c a smlll ball v.i th radius
c quntion in the region T and that u 1 a~d u; avee o:t it.s r Jnd spheric:1l ~urface S centered at the point (.ro. Jo. =<J).
boundary •urface S. Apply Problem li o : Section 15.6 to
Then the .lmOU!lt of fluiJ .-i thin S lt time tis
the function f = u : - u; to c oncl ude that ' f = 0 J! ea~h.
poin t of T. (b) From the facts that 't1j = 0 tn T an<! f a 0
o n S. conclude that f ., 0. !!.0 u1 = u,. Thus t!:e stead\- Q (r ) =Jjj 5dl'.
a
s tate temperatures within r egJOn are drrumir.rd by tbe •
boundary-value temperatures. JnJ diffe rentia tion unde r the inte&ra l sign yields,
29. Supf'O'C that r = • I + >l + ~ k and that ¢ 1r ) i< a S<a!J r
funct ion of r= jrj. Compute
o·cr> = j j j ~~ "''·
(a) 't1</>(r ); ~
{b) div l¢1r)rl:
(c) cu rl l¢1r )rl. (a) C<,n<iJ< r fluid flow"''""-' S to gel
3(). Let S be the Ul>per hall o f th e toru• ohtained b• r e•ohon~
oround the ~-axi5 the circle (y -r. l' + :' = /> 1 (a~ h > 0) rn
the y;·pbnc, wit h uppe r uni l norma l • ector. l lc<.:11~ how
Q ' (r) =- Jj J
J •• ·II dS.
1-1
f-2 INDEX
c IOCU\. 627 D
~cncrator. fo2fo
r:ol (unit of he31 rnerl(y). /\-~ 2 in ('<ll;or cc~ >rJm al~'.l\74 O:o<e. Z11chari:" (1 ~2-J.-I SM ). 7! 2
O.kulu s o f •·oriO!ion-.. ~9 revkw. t\79 Dcp<·nclc nt •·• roJhlc, K'lll
O. nJ jZa mc, 701-7112 a< 'CC11o n\ u( t'i'lfiC. A ·J9 Derivative:
Cardioid. 6.'2. 6J~. IIJ6 (Problems 41--42). Connected pl:tnc rc.:~mn (arc'-' i.\C), tlircctron:ol. !107
(137 (l'rnhlcm W). I\3S. '1.~~ (I' H•hk m 50 ) partoal. ~.1!
f•-;(1 (l'rnhkm 65) Con.S<r\'311un ur UH.'l'h.IUIC!ll of \ CCtor· ..·alul.'d functio n. IeOS
arc le n2th. 1\51, cnt.:U!\', IU.tfl Oerh·aii\C \'C:Cior. l(.f •~
sur'face"' area uf ri!'\'Olutiun. {)56 Consc:rva lr\C a~J llf tH:ation.al vec tor O c.ca rrc-.. Rt·ne ( 1190- IMU). ti2J. 62~. A -6
Cam nt c ngonc. ICXI5 licld" 1(1(,~ f<>hu m, 6511 (Pwbkm .10).1\5R (Pm~ lcm
Cartcsi:~n cuHh.hn:uc )\~.tc:m. A-6 Con.~rv3lwc H"ChH fidJ. 10.'..1 .17). (,<II (rrol•lcm 8 1). 901 ,91 5
Cath<Xlc-rnv tulx-.141S • ongm for h:rnunt•h'£~. 1035 Dclc..'"fOlHl.lnl. m
C ouchy. 1\u~uslln L""" (17~'1- 1857). nnd porcnri:ol fun<t ion ( theorem). ! 03~: OOJ!!"'' " " n f rhom~ll'- ~16 ( l'rnhkm I~)
i\-::S. A·-'6 (('r<>t>f), 1().12- 1~3 D occ g:ooooc. (>W.. 7(.1(1 ( Prohlcno 6'1). 70!
Cauchy >rquc ncc. A-!7 Consrraint. 918 Dirfcrc..·ncc nf ...~, ,, r, 77J
Cauchy's mean •·nluc theorem. /\ -31\ Continued (rJction.li</1. 76.~ (l'wbl~m ~ 7). Diff<r.:nll>hk (mulll• .on:ohlc) funcrion. K<J.I
Cauchy·SChW317 ii1CIJUa1ity, 769 ( Prc>blcm n5) D otrcrenro>L ll.~9 . X'l!. H'l.l
787 ( Pro!>lcm 5.~). Con11 nuuy· Diffcre nrial fo rm. 102.1
'13~ ( Prnhlom 52) of muhov3ria~lc function. MZ Jlofferenti3l ~,·on~t·lly. !013
Ccl~ti>l mcch.1nK-.. 1'19 of \ C't'hJt·\·alucd function. ~J4 IJiff<:fCOllllH)O Jtld lfllt'grauon o( J"''tto Cf
Cd siu•- f ahrenhcit relatio nship, Continuity cquarinn. 1117 ~ (l'roblcm 33) '"" "'· 7-15- 747
,\ ·5 ( Pr<>hlcm JS) <.:omiuu-..usl_:. c!tffcrcnll.:abk Dtfft:rcntlltionc,r \ l'flvr·VJJucd runcrions. 806
Ccnt<r of curv:oture. 820 functoon. ~ 9J D1Hph3nlu' Ulotllll A n . 250), 623
C entrally sompk rc~ion. 991 Contuur c urH~. JiCSJ Dm:ct...·d hm; ~c~:rnl'flt. 772
Centroid . 969 Cnn ..·ergrnc.·. c tJ( s<."quenn.· . Ml.S J)n('Ci il)n :trt~k~. n1~incs.. 7H-a
or bumpy sphere. ?95 ( l'roblcm 46) C'nnrdinJle ~~~t'" in ~r...:tcc, 71H D~rr c-riona l tlcriv~ui ..·c. 907
o f cone. 986 ( Problem 32), Cnnrdmlt(' function\. 6JJ cakur:uinn. YfPJ
9')~ ( l'whlcm 20) Coordinate: plane. A--6 0 111cnminan1. ll27
of cyclllidJI " ire. 10::'9 ( Prol-lcm 2~) Coordin :11c r lanc!.. 77'J ni W(lii\JU Ont'S o ruJmJt•trcat" (Gauss. JSO J),
o f cy !onde r. 9QJ (Problem 18) Coordm:trc..·' ,-\ -6 Ill!}
of hcmosphcrc. 9"-fl ( Prohkm 22). C<>pc:micu ... ~KOIJS ( 1~73-15-lJ). nJ D1~tancc, ;\·!. A 4i
9<~ (l'n•hlcm 21) Cvplanar pouH').. 7~3 berwccn line'- NS ( Problem 3 1).
o ( ..iC'c<rcam ct~ne.... W2. Corc -man ll(' nHl-Jcl of c:Jrth, 9n ( Problem t\5 ).
1010 ( l'roblcm 26) WS ( Prvhkrn 49) 93-l ( l'rohlcm 26)
o f la mina, 9611 Crirical poonr. lt.~ l bet .. ccn parallclplancs.lill! ( Problem
of par•bol01d. 'l~> (l'roh lc m 31) C rc" < prc>du<t (nf VCCIO" ). 7AA 5R). X·th ( Pruhlcno 15)
o f pl>ne curve. Yn al~chraic rrnpc..·rliC\. 71)2 o rigin tu plane, ~- t.S-~6 (l 'rnhlcno JJ)
of Kmicucular d1.sk. 96Q not aw>ciari,c. 79J ( f'whlcm I I) point to lin<. 1"-~ ( l'rnhlcm f.f>).
o f solid, 9110 nm cnmmuratJ\c, 7'Xl. 7'12. 195 (l'r.•~lem :!'-!)
of wire. 10!2 N5 11'ruN <m 27) point tO p l:on.:-. 7')~ ( l'rohlcm .10).
Ccrr< (aSleroid). 10 1J geomctrjc )i!!nlficam:c. 790 I'll~ ( Prot-1.:-m ~J ).
Chain rule (mul:ivan• ble). 897 lengrh. 790 I'll• ( l'wt•km I~)
and f'J r.Jid \ CCIUI\, 791 DI\UlnCe fortnul..t {10 'pace), "179
genera l. !iY'J
m.1tril fo rm. 90::' -903 rcrrcnd.cu!Jrily, 71\S Di ..·crgt"nc..:c. IUI6. Jh. a~
proof. 9'J3 Crt><'ICUI , J ~ll iJ cntH k•, ( ~ ilh c-url :and f_r:•Uil·nl).
Ch•"~< o! voroohle• in triple inte~rol-.. IIJO(>
Cube. rof.liC'cJ. ""·~c, out \·olume. Hll9 (l 'rublcnh ~S---14)
101 : ( f'wblcm 59) 01\ c rgcn~< t hcnrcm. 11113. 1057. 105.~
Ch•ngc-ol -•·oroohlc< t heorem. I ()).I
Chord (longur) of sp here. ?JR ( l'roblem J2) Curl. 1017 pani>l rroo[. lll~!t- 111511
itlcn titocs (with tli• c rgcncc a nd ~radionl). 0:--IA To" cr ( ,.; in~· r .ork. l'c rrh). ~~
Circle: 1019 ( l'rol>lcno< 25--1-1)
area, f>.l::' ( Problem 37). ~~- fo57. /\ ·15 Dooecabed'"l do<. ~Ill
area wnhon th ree, fwZ (l'whfcm 39)
Cu rvarurc. M18. 1119. 8ll n..g saJ<IIc. Y.l.lc PrllNcm .131
ar innwoo n poult, 8-17 (rrohkm ~2 ) Do~ ,Jc.l. 7:<7 ( l'ro~lcrn 51\)
or<:umfcrence. A· l5 in rotor coordinate-.. 8-1 7 (l'rublcm J 7)
p.~-ramcrric c4uat~tJn~.b.SJ
D orn:1in (of mulla\'.tri.lhk functil'n), 8!o0
of • pace cur><\. 1!21--1!2: l>tH produc1 (••f 'c..~.,·~tu,). 7M!
polar cquauon. '>JO. I)JI. fJJ2.
631> ( l'rubl<m• 37. 39-40 ) Cu•r. t\46 t1 lgchmk p h·~~ICU.:).. 7S~
Cycloid. f\.1~. r.sJ (rrohlcm 3R). )tCOmc trk intL'rprclation, 7SJ
rccun~ubr e q uarion. 632 1112q ( Prn hlcm 2~) Uc" llf HI \'c..'ChH
C orel< o f cur> • rure. II:!O arc kn~tb. MS Dnubk hc·l,._ M.l
Circula rion, 10611 arc> un<lcr ar~h. 655. JO-l S (Problem 14) Dnuh/r lfr/1> . Tl..- ( J.orn<> D. W.ot\On,
O cNd cur>·e. /037 /Ilea of r<\Hiutin n. 651! (l'mhlcms I <11,~ ). ~11-1
s<mplc. 1037 2J . JS) D ouble int<~tml. 'IJII. '1-111
Q ooc:d rnrc rv•l. A·J a1 brachhruc:hronc, (;..1.6 3\'<r3~c •.rluc propc:rry. <I~ (Problem SO)
CN To,. cr (Toron ro). 781> 8t'On1C: tric C00\1tu..:tion of ta ngent, (\'3l u.1 tum, QS()
Coin to-s game. 700 ( Problem• 1\8-0?) 6511 ( l'r.,hlcno .1.1) propc:rloC\, 94 7 (l' rt' hkms 3~). 952
Coi!Jncu potnU. ~.5 ( Problem 4) puametric equation,_ t\4S D ou ble-•nglc fnrmulu. A-JJ
Colorado. 8.53 surlacc .uta of rc \ olurion,
Compl<tcncn adorn. A·Z4 6SR (l'ro hlcm J~)
Component o f a olo ng b. 715 volume o f re•·olutoon. E
Component••~ d iffc re nti>lion, 805 6.S9 (l' roblcm 39),
Cone: 680 (Problem 67) ~- 696. 1r11. 111. n J. 7J I
&enc tator. 626 Cylinder. IJI Irration a lity, 76Q(Problem t\3)
na~626 clliptic.IJZ ~· . 7(H
• n h ~quare bole. l Ol l ( Problem 47) Earrh orbn. IUO (Prohl<m .SS)
par2bolic. IJZ
Conic teetion. 62J. 6!-1. 6~: su abo ruling. Ill Earrh utdlite. JOJ7 (Problem< 37-.~)
EJIJpte, Hyperbola. ParabolA Eccentncity. 626. 627
Cylindric.1l coordinate'- 8l8
ecunuicity. 626. U7
,\\~'ell (IS19-1955). 10\3
INDEX 1-3
. Foc:us (of conic ~ion). 627
fPt(\:1. / D•fftrtntinl a11d lr.ttgral Cakulu.s
Fohum of Descartes.. 650 (Problem 30) of functioo. 851
v-r.:s~> ~J).617 ( Prot-lcm 75)
11 ~~(Problem 81), 829 (Probiem ? f ~aramct11c cu"·c. Mol
' 6!('. 617. 66-1 . . ). 901.915. 1().16 (Problem 33) G ravotallonal anr>Cliun by spherical ballOt
~. 11131;,c Jelimuo n. 668 . 3~
lco&th, 658 (Ptoblcm 37)
~~ic:ltl'>I\S to pl.tnet>r)' o tbm., f67-«>8 shdl. 9'15 (l'roblcms 47--IS). 1056
. gcnc ralw:d, IG-17 (Problem 41) (l'ro~lcm ~I ) . I ()(>.I (l't ub!em 2~)
':.,. \tn2th. f6 1 Fuhum·hkc cun•c. 651 (l'roblem 41) Greate11 1\Wo cr t-ound. ,\ .u
1
" tJ' ( l'tOI>km 25). I ().II KIOI·pouml. 786 G reek alphabet. i\-1-1
con•< sectio n. 6'6
at(:L
• Force. A-ll Green. Gcor,c 111'>3· 11'-11 ). 103S
~metet. 6SO ( Ptoblcm 11) perpendicub r to d irection or~:... Green·, fi"t•<lcnury. IOM ( l'roblem IS)
ctc-"1rh. 66-1 """ .........n. G reen:s sccon<.l i<lentuy. \~ ( l'robkm 19)
"""(Problem 51)
e:tcntOCII). 6M f o rce field. 1015 Greens thcoren. 103!1
fc>eUS. 66-' inversc·squue. lOI S corollary (uca). 10.:0. \073 (Probl<m l.t)
l:t~St.lowcst poi nts. 917 (Ptob em 52). Four-leaved rr)SC. 632. 637 (l'roblcm ~?)
...cctur form. 1~
913.925 (Problem ~2). b59 ( Ptoblcms ~~) • Grc:enwich (En&land). Sl2
9~6 (Problem IJO) Function: Gyrat1on ( radiu• of), 975
03,or. minor >liS. 66~ continuous\~ drlferentilble, 893
rcnmctct. 661.757 (Problem• 6~ . 62). d~pendcnt , tndcpemlcnt -ariab!e. 851 II
\COl ( Ptublcm >I) d rllerenll>hlc (multrvariablc) 1!')4
roints clo-.est 10 origm. domain, RSO ' 1lall·angl< form•l•'l. i\· 14
925 (Ptnblem• :;s. 43) ma1.imum. minimum '3.lut. m Halley. Edmund (165(>..\142). 667
tcflc<tion property. 66..'\. of n vari~blc<, 865 llallcy's romet.!-.67
67:\ ( Ptob\cm 81) not integrahlc. A-33 llardy.G. 11 (1877· 1~47). 681
~emr>«S. 61\5 trittnnomctric. sa· Trigonometrtc Harmo nic equ>tion. <lOS ( l'roblcm 3!1)
\~rt:,. 665 functions Harmonic luncroon. m ( Probkm 69).
D!l~id. 833 of twn, three ..-anable'- 8~ 87~ ( Pwblem 70)
wrfJ('C: area. 6S.'\ (l'rohkm 25) vector-valued. Ill» llarr.~onoc ..:rie~ b'n. 717.736
• oh.:me. 960 (Ptoblcm ~). Fund~mental idcnllty of trigonnmctry. A·l4 di"Cr%cncc. 697
ltxlS ( Ptoblem 14) Fundamental theorem of calcu1u5.. 939 )\ow ~h,crgcnce. &.m
Er.\f501d of re•olution. i\33 for line inter,rals. 1030 1Llt•urf•cc. !l56
El!r,<oot.ll coordmates. IOOS (Problem 20). lor vector-valued functions. &l'J Ileal cap>cit). 1073 (Problem 26)
1011 ( Ptoblem 53) llc>t comluC1hll). 1 0~
llc>t cqu•tion. 1116!. 1074 (Prohlem 28)
El!lj'lic mtegral. 660 G dcrivahon. \07~ ( l'rol•lcm< 25-27)
£l!:;o:l<aI cone. IU-' one-<limen!ionol. ~;(, (Prot>lcm 55).
Elh?ttcal p>raboloid. ~ S77 (Pwbkm 61).
g. i\-42
Et:;'l.oltonn.. 1001 (Problem:>!) Galilci. G alilco (1~1~2). ~ 937 (l'wblcm 10)
Et•tm>.bll y. su Euler's con\lant two-damen!ion:sl. S#(, (r rob!cm 56).
E.~dc. 771 G amm> functio n. 7.t9 (l'roolcm ~) '137 (1'roblcm II )
E~~d01<l. 652. 6l!O ( Ptoblem ~) Gauss. Cnrl Friedrich (1777- 1855). 1013. Ileal flo v.. 1054
E,..,::uc:-..,d. 652.. Nl() ( Problem 54) 1057. A·2t; l!e.-"rJc. Oli•cr (18541-1925). 1070
~·.:.>ht~ u! •«tor'>. 773 Gauss's law. 1061- 1063. \()6.1 ( l'roblcms Hchoccutr1C)\~t..:m. 711
E.;::: lion o( 13ngcm plane. 872 2-1- 27) llcli •. S(}.l. Rl'i
E.;m•>~cnt hnc m tcgr3IS. 1027 lo t electric tleld.\. 1055 I lcp13;nnJI h"l<. %R ( l'rnl>lcm ~3)
C ~Jtt rrwt (unchun fo r invc~·~quare £-f3\ itation.J.l lleron·, lt•rmul.>. '1'.5 ( l'rnblcm ;16)
&tor an hncar >rpro.,ma tion. I!Vl lleu~tonJI hole. •Jrl.!l (ProNem ~')
ficiJ-. I ()5.1
&tor ru.~CII<>n .•,,~ ( Eumple 5) Gouss's theorem (divergence theurcm). 1057 lligh all rollutl<'Cl Ioree>~!. s~
Elr=a~-. 7!11 1/istc>l) of rr . A (Pe ter ll.:ckmann). 711
General choin rule. 899 llolc (squ>t<) thruu;th cone.
Ealtr. Lconlurd ( li07-l1R3). 681.722. ~9 Geometric series. 6(J4 lOll (1'1\>~lcm ~7)
Er:l<t'sconstonl (y). 721 ( Proble m 50). ratio. ~ !Iole through C) rn.lcr. 9roiJ ( l'roblcm ~3)
736 ( Probkm 6 1) sum. 69~ llolc lhrou~h <p'tcrc. ~~ ( Prot•lcm 55).
EtJct·s lormula. 711 . 713 Gcosvnchronous orbit, 828 96o (rrul•lcm< 51- 53). 9(>1,
~ence: Gihh<. Jo•i•h Willard (1839-1903). 1000 %.'t (l'rohlcm< ~ \-13).
o! <kfin11e Integral. A-29 tbrou?,h A -33 G l:1s< l"'nc. 700 ( Problem 71) m (f mhlcm ~3).
of C:oub!e inteval. ~ G lob>I extrema. 8'18. 8'79 1011 (Prohlcm 55)
types. 881 1lorizont>lly sintplc rc~ion. '»9
r Gradient 'ectot . 119! . 910
annlogv with J), , IJI6(l'roblcms
tlors<ro"' cr. 786
Huylcbrouc\'.. 0111<. 1009
. 3~38). lOIS H• akuta~e (corrct). 67S (l'robl<m 17)
Fthrtnhtit·Ccbius con'•tnion. in C)'lindrici•l ccXlrdlmttc ~ ll~rerl><>lo. t.:·.t.~ (l'toblcm 35)
t\ ·5 (Problem 38) 937 t 1'toblem 1~) • •rrh<>t•<>'"· 6;3~7~
Fant•~.ks (Ail•b. -sonh to the Fcturc"'). idenlltiCS (wolh ,h><rgcnCC >nd CU ) r\), branches.. !L6. 61S. 669
Sou ( Proble m• 57- 59) 101'1 ( l'rublems 25~ as con•.: KC'luln, 6~6
~-ms. Fronk A . 6Nl ( Problem 55) •
intcrpr c t~1iun , ,.gm 1 ·
"ficaocc •
91'
- cOnJUSll< 1 \1\.610
) . Tt!ll!'lt II 63-1 linearitv. 1016 con)\rucuon of roinl.s thereon.
~=.a~ Pierre de (1601-16M). 623.62~ as no~•l •ectot. 913 t-!10 (Ptoblcm 76)
F;etl!lat' "la<t theo rem.- 623. 722 and proJuctrule. 101 6 diflcrcncr definition. 678 (Problems
:bona;a. Leona rdo (of Pisa; 117f1!-poJI Gr>di<nt • ector field. IO I ~ 81-88)
12!Q). 683 diverge~"~· 1° 16 • (1863-l~l). directrix. ~
J.tt a!Jo ~que nee Gran,-.11<. \\ ilium ;\nthoo~ eccentricit). 668
firure.,rgtt cu:-ve. 633.631 (Ptoble:n 52). 677 (Problem 75) focus. 668
M2 ( Problem 3~). rc!leClion tropcny. 673,
Gtapb: . · d· 1 678 ( Ptoblcm 81)
Fn YJl ( Pto blcms 50-Sl) of equatio n 1n C):lln nc!. 9 ui~ 669
~b'ed ra.e. 637 (Pto blem 51) coordin>te!.. ...,
. . polu coordlnatdo.
630 transvcne
:,~~ :,.rabo'oid 'Xi vertex. 669
11 of equat!on !" th e variables. 710. 1130
~• (<>! 'octot f.c~d). 10..3 of cqUlliOR 10 rc
><:au surlo~ IO!l
1.4 INDEX
Powe r series (Cont.) Riema nn hypothesis. 722 Spherical coortlin rrtc•. 11-W
identitr principle. 159 R iemann • um. 9-10. 947,979 Spherical partit ion. 9')(1
3nd indetrrmin3te forms. 753 gencralilcd. A-3-1 norm. 990
intcrv• l ur con ver~encc. 738. 741 Ricmonn zeta fu nction. 722. A·211 Spiral of A rchimede'- 637 (Prohlem 50),
in P<'"<rS uf .<-c. 74 1 Rise. A·7 &12 (Prol>lcm 39), &lS.
radius o f C(>nvcrge ncc. 7.\8, 741 Rocket nose cone. 1057 651 (Prohlcm 37)
t cprc >cniJiiun<lf /(>), 741 R ocky Mountain !">tiona! Park ore lcn~th. 65R (Problem 27)
~'lu1h'n or d1Urrcn1ial cqu.arions.. (Cnlu13Ju). 85J curv.1tlJre.IW7 (Problem 4R)
7~~ -76) Root ·~qu;uc nu:.1n an~J arithmclic mc3n, Spirnl romp 3re3. 9'19
f~~r tan r , 767(Prohlcm 25) 93.~ (l'rnhkrn 37) Spring. Da,·id. <n7 (Prohlem &1)
Prime intCj:<r.l\.~.\ A·29 Rose (roiJr curw). I•J2 ./2. 69 1 ( f'roble rn {,~). 696. A- 1
Primt' numt'Cr lhrort-m. 1013 Rotating culx-. 1012 (Prohlem 59."'" ~osy!) ./5. 7(,Q ( f'mhkrn 6~)
Prin~ of m:lthcm.lliC"S.. srr \,:1us.s Ruler-•nd<ompa\S construction\, 1013 Stirling's >eric-.. 76~1 (Problem 61)
Pri ncipal unit nnrm•l ,.ee1or. lllll.lt2 1 Run. A·7 Stokc'<, Gco r£c (11!19- 1903).1065
l'rtnrtpio Morhrm•wecr. n2. 1!25. 9'15. 1057 Sto kc•' thcorem. 1065
Projcctik rJngc. M>-1. 6n (Probl<ms 72-74).
~>'% (l'rot•km 41 ) s I"" ial proof. 1(166
Strophnid.li80 (Prol>lem 80)
J~~ also TraJectt>n ·
S>tldlc point. 8J6. 9211 Submarrne e xampk. 810
p-seri<!.. 717 ·
St. John'• (Ncwfuundland), 67.l Surface. 11.10
1'tolcmy (Oaud•us Ptol<mlleU!.. orkn table. nonorientable. 1052
c. m~-c. 170). n1 St. f'ctcr,hurg ( Ru« ia ). 84-1 ( l'rohle ms 57-59)
SJn Fr>nci,co. !W-1 (Ptohlem 56) oriented . I 065
1')1h>gorcan theotem. 1!47 (Problem 51). piecewise smooth. I OS8
A-6, A - IJ S>tcllitc (communrcations). 828
sa .. null rtOblem. 920 of fC\'Oiution. IUl
convcnc:. A·7
Scal:u . nz trace. 831
Surface area:
Scal.11 3<-r<lerat ion. 807
Q Sca!Jr multiple (of \'ector). n4 or cone, 976 (l'ruhlcm 47)
Scallt prwucl. su \'ector. Dot ptO<Iuct in cylindric.nf cvnrtlin:lle-'- 99tt-999
Scnlar triple product . 79!, 795 (l'rovkm 28) of tllipsoid. 651! (Problem 25)
Quodrotic furm. 931,932
Q u>dric surfJce, IUJ and n~lumc llf p:uaU dc:pip~:lf, 79.1 of ell ipticaltnru'- 1001 (Problem 34)
Qu>drilatcr3 L ns(Problem 54) Scher I.'; minirn:tl •urf:rn·. S77 (rrnbkm 61!) of mcridtonalmnc. WOO ( Problem 14)
Second deri,·lti'c lt'"l for j( ' . ·' ), 927 in p:.rametric ft-~rm. 65-:
Scqucn(·r. 'u Infinite \C'qucnrc of p inched torus. 1001 ( l'roblem 20)
R Serie\. J4't' ln rinarc ~cn4..,_s in rcctan~ufa r coordmJIC''S. WS
Seventeen-side,! hule, %8 ( Prohle m 43) of rotat<J astruid. 65S ( l'mblcm 31)
R acquet. 975. 9n (l'rohlem 56) Sh:rrk ;wimmin ~. 9.17 (l'roblem 26) of rota ted c.~t<lioiJ. 656
Radral component o f accckr3tion. 8!5 Shift uf inJcx of sununJttOn. 760-761 of rot>tc<l <')'<"luid. 658 (l'roblcm ~4 )
Radi:ol COl>rdtoa!e. 629 Shock-.••< hthotnl"~- MS o r Wilted lcrnni-cotc. 6SS (Problem 32)
Radi•JJ~ s•mrk rcg•on. 963 Side cowJ•Uon • .su Cofl\trJmt of ~mooth paramclric sur13n:, 998
R ad1;,n mc:a.~urc. A·15 "Similarity in l rr3tion.rhty l'tO<rfs for 11 , In 2. or sphere. 65~. <J7J
R.ld iu~ or CUr\aturc. fCl() {(2). and C!Jl."' IIX'J '"'"I'·
o f •piral 'JW
R odiu• of gyr.ton n. '175 Simple ci05Cd cur> e. 1037 <lf tnru<. 65$ (Prnhkm 2$), 973. 999
R aft (mnemonic). 8-10 Simply connce1cd trj!ion. 1068 Surface intepal. ~~~. 105 1
R ailruad track.IC'l (Problem 55). Sin~. 1061 surface area ekment. 104.'1
~ 7 (Prnhkm ~ 9) S~cw hne!l, 797,1\.15 ( l'rnhlem I 0), Sw«t spot. •175, 9n (Ptohlcm 56)
Rain gutter.~ ( Prnhlcm 59) 927 (Problem 65 ). Symmetry prurciplc. %9
Ramanujan. Snn1>aY ( IXK7-1920). 681.713 93-1 (l'rol-lcm 26) S)·nt met ry p ropert ies.. 625
'"Ram.>nujan and pt.-713 Slop.:. A ·7 in polar cuordinate!., 632
R ange of projee1rk. 6n (Problem• 12-7~ ). or horizontal hnc, A.S
li'J'> I Probkm ~ II or r•arullellincs, A -10 T
R•tional numi'c:r . liJS. 7W ( Problem• of rcrrcndicuiM hne$. A -10
JS-:31. A· l of vruic:.l linc, i\·8 T:mgcnt lute. W5
R eall10c. Real numi'c:r. A -1 Slope·intrreept equ>tion. ,\ -9 T•ngentpl•nc. l!7.!.. 9 1J
Rcarungcmcnt uf 1ntinitc s.cric\. 726. Slug (unit uf rna\\), A-ll OlHm.al \CC1or. S7J
i)7 ( Prublem> 6}-{>5) Smith. f'erccy Fr:rnklyn ( 11\67- 1'>56). 677 Tangrnt vr~h•r. 805
Rec1Jngular coordtnate >)'1tcm. A -6 Smooth rurve. surfarr. 646, \104, llryh>r, llr.~·• e (1(,~~- 1 731). 707
Reeunsul.r coordm•tn in >p<>ee. ns. T19 '1'16. 1()~) Tllylur r<>l)'lt•>tlliJI, 70.5
COO<dln>le UC\, TT8 Solar p.1nri.IISO w11h rrm ~undcr. 707
lir>t octant. T19 "Solutron of • Cakulu• Problem on M inim>! Tllylor ""tie!., 701!
nght·handcd. m Vulurnc," Y27 (f'roblcm M)
S.>urcc. 106 1
3rC'\In '. 747
Rerurrencc re!Juon. 76/J or<-.inh x. 761l (Prohlem 59)
Renecting tciMCOpe. 673 Spurn/ /'unr/IOfU (A ndrrou, A•ke)', arctan o. 71 ~. 7.16
Regubr pol~gon.,1 01J ontl Roy. I'JY?). n~ 00. '. 710. 7.\7
Remau11Jcr (an inlinue KnM). 711. 730 Spced,IKI7,1118 ca.h • . 714 ( Ptuhkms ~3-14 ). 7~2
a lternati.".g "'""estimate. 7.30 Sphere. 7110 r'. 70'-1, 7J 7
eitlmaling.. 7:6 bumpy. 1\.l-1 ( Pro l•lem 64) rcprc,cnta t ion o r /(•1. 7~1
integultcsr c>!ll!Utc. 718 longnt cho rd. 9.18 ( l'roblcm 31) • in •· 710. 737
Rcpc•ting dcc:mJI. ~- 700 ( Problcnu surf• ct orca. 654, '173 sinh•. 71~ ( ProblemHJ...I4). 7~3
JS.-:3). A ·l volume, 65~. 9Hl (Problem 39). tonhJ. 71>9( 1'wblcm ~)
Rc•crdnJ order of intcgr• tion. 9SI-9S2 '16 7 ( l'rohlem 23 ). 971, Taylo r'• rvrmulo. 707 , A -Jll
k<). 951 9'13 (Prot>lcm 3) Tennis racque t. '175. 977 ( Problem 56)
Re>1e-a of conrc .cct:or.._ 679 Sphere with hole. 8-1-1 (Problem 55). Ttrmonating d cClmJ iet p• nsion. A ·l
Rbombu\. A •U (Problem 28) 960 ( Proble m> 51-53).~. Tttrahcdron. 7S.~ (ProNtrn 69).
diagon• ls. S.U., ( Problem 18) 968 (Problem> 4143), ll-l7 (Prohlcm 51)
Riemann. G. f Bernhard (1826-1866), ~(Problem 43) Thh>ri~ dt~ ft~n(lfunJ ungJy tiqutJ (usr•n~c.
939. A -28 Spbcrical block. 990 1 797). ~Q
INDEX 1-7