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MULT VA tABlE
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CAlCUlUS
C. HENRY EDWARDS
The Uni,·ersity of Georgia, AtlrellS
DAVID E. PENNEY
The Uni,·ersity of Georgia, Athens
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M ulrivariablc Calculus ...
Edwards and l'cnncy
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MULTIVARIABLE CALCULUS
CONTENTS
ABOUT Ti l E AUTHORS xi
PREFACE
xiii
1 CHAPTER 1 FUN CTIONS, GRAPHS, AND MODELS 1

I. I l'tiii<: I HH h a nd ~la lh..: malicill\loddin t: ..,
~ PROJECT: i\ Squar..: Wadin~ l'llol II
1.'2 ( ira p i" o f Eq ua l ion' and Func lion~ 12
.() PROJECT: t\ ll r.. L..._.n T'"'" 2~
1.3 1',•1 ~ 1111n11al' a nd 1\l~eh ra ic Funclion' 24
~ PROJECT: i\ l.ea nin!-! Ladder ;\J
1.·1 Tra ll " '''lld <.' nlal h uK iion' 33
~ PROJECT: 1\ Sphc r ic:•l J\ ,t.· roid .t~
l _'i l're• ;,." . \\'ha l I• C';llcu lu, '! .t5
1•• , ~""' •• ,. REVIEW: J)l'finiliun' mul C nnl"l'p ls -'II
1 CHAPTER 2 PRELU DE TO CALCULUS 53

2. 1 Tall!!•'lll l .in..,, and Slop.: Prcdiclur:- :i.t
I •r----------, ~ PROJECT: Numcrictl Slope lnve~l igal ion~ 63
2.:! ' llte l .in111 Cunrepl fl."l
~ PROJECT: 1.111111' Slo p.:s. and l.ogarillun' 7-t
,... , ...... ,, .
)
0,.
~
.
•
) .-
\
' .
I \
J
, ,
!\l u re '" " " '' Lim it' 75
~ PROJECT: Numerical Ep,ilon -Ddta Limil
l ll• e,li)!alion' X7
I ' ll1e ( 'unn ·pr ol C'un linuily XX
uL---:~~~~~~
ltO, I t ,::~ ,,~1 REVI EW: J)l'finiriun,, Cunt'l'lll,, J(t•,ul t~ JIJ
1
l CHAPTER 3 THE DERIVATIVE 101

3.1 '1h,· I kr i v~ l i\'1.' :u11l Rar e' of C'hang.: 1112
J2 11."1.: llifkr.: ll li.ll inll l( ulc' 115
J.J 'll u: Cha in H ulo.: I :!h
J..l t>.:ri\al hn of 1\lgc hraic Function' 1:\3
v
vi CONTENTS
3.5 Maxima and ~linima of Functions on Clo~.:d l ntcn·als 142

0 PROJECT: Wh.:n J;; Your Coff<:c Cup Stahl.:~!"~ ISO
3.6 ,\ppla..:d Optimi7atinn Prot>l.:ms 15:!
3.7 D.:ri,·:tll\ .:.; of Tri!!onomctric Functions I (,5
3.S Succc:"ivc.: t\ppn•.xim:lli<lll> and 1'\..:wto n's ~lt:thod 176
[j PROJECT: Jl o" Dt:<: p o~,t:~ :1 Floa t in,!! Ball S ink? I ~S
REVIEW: 1-'mmula,., Concepts. lkfiniti un ~ l li9
I CH~\PT[ R 4 ADDITIO:-.:AL APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 193
.t.l lmplrcll I un.:u"n' :JOJ R.:J.,t..:d Rat.:' I'M

.:.·· PROJECT: ln'r:,ti)!atin)! th ..: Fc>lrum c•f D..:~ca rtc.:' 203
IS 4.2 lnc:r..:mc: nh. J>,:fc.: rc: nti ab.. anJ Linea r 1\pprn'<imation 20-1
•
I .t.:l lnrr,·a,lll!! and lkcr..:a;;ing function~ .utd tit.: 1\h:an
I
J
I , .aht ,· · n~ ,·· .r,·m :! 1:!
4 ..1 ·1111.: I ir, t lkm•;Jii vc: ' li:·a and t\ pplicatio n' .,,..,
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~~ PROJEC T: 1-.l.tking ;t Candy Box \\'ith Lid 2.12
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l .-··/ ,tj Sim plc: Cunc.: SJ....-t.:hing 2.12
\ v ·1.6 ll i)!h..: r lkrivati'..:' and Concavity 2.12

- _,,
< 4.7 Cun..: Sl..o.:ll:hing anJ ,\,~ mpt c•t..:~ 15(•
- ' -l 1
" .{:'t PROJECT: Locating Spccial Point\ on Exotic Graphs 267
REVIEW: Ddi uit inn,, Cunn·pt'- Rl·,uJI, 267
I CHAPTER 5 THE INTEGRAL 271

:i. l Inr rud uction ~72
5.2 i\ntilkrivativo.:s and Ini tial Value Problems 272
5.:1 Ekmcnt:.ry Area Comrutation.; 2S6
SA l{i l·mann Sum~ and the lntcgral 29S
0 PROJECT: Calculatn nCo mputcr Ri.:mann Sums
55 Ev:tlu;·u ion of lntc t-:ral~ ~0~ .
5.6 llt.: Fundamental'lltcorcm of Calculus J IS
5.7 lnlcj:r:llinn l>y Suh~ritutinn 32S
5$ 1\ro.:a~ nf I'Jan,· R.:,.::illllS ~-~6
5.9 1'\unll:ri,·al lnll'<!r:ll i<m ~~6
z_, PROJECT: Tra p,·~t•ili:Jl and SimiJsort
• • •
\ JlJ'Hl.Xtlll:J
• 1 . ttOns.
359
REVIEW: Ucluutwns. Cmu:q us, ltt·~ult~ 361 ·
I CHAPTER 6
APPLICATIONS OF THE INTEGRAL
365
fd Riemann Sum Appro., imations J66
6.2 Vol umes by th..: ~1.::t hod o r Cross Sections
376
CONTENlS vii
11.3 Volume~ hy th.: l\kthod of Cylindncal Shell~ 31'17

PROJECT: n~:,ig n Yo ur Owu l{in t:! 395
6 .4 Arc l.l' llt: th and Surfac.: Area of Revolution 396
6.5 Fort·.: and Work -105
II.(• C~:ntroi J~ of l'l anc Rq:i<m' anJ Curv.:~ -I If•
REVIEW: l>clinitiun, Cn n('\' fJ"· Jt c, nlt' .l23
I
CHAPTER 7 CALCULUS OF TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTION S -127
7.1 Expon e ntial and Logarithmic Funct i••n ~ -12X
~ PROJECT: f) i,cmcrint: t he l"umhc r ,. fur Yourself 4J I
7.2 lntlctcrnuna tc h>nlh and ! .'ll i•pital'' l{ulc -I-ll
7.:. ~h•rc l mkterminatc Form' -1 -l')
7.-l 'll1c :"a t ural Lll):.ll ll hm '" a n l nlct:ra l ..155
PROJECT: Natural Functiona l E<tua tions 461)
7.5 ln , cr'c Tri )!<HHinH: tr ic Function~ -167
7.6 I 1\ pcrlhlli ~: Fu1h:ti'm' -177
REVIEW: Furm ul n, , Cunn•p t,, J) l'finitiun' .u!S
ICHAPTER 8 TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION 489

S. l lnt rotluc t1nn -l'Xl
K2 lnh:!,:ral 'lahk' and Simph: Suh,titutiml" -l1Xl
l ntl')!ration hy l';•rt" -1'14
Tri)!o1hllllc t ric lnt.:!,:ra l' 5111
x.s Rational Fun ct•• •11' ;~ ntl Partia l Fra ction' 51~'\
SJ, Tri gon<Hil•' tri c Suh,tit uti on 5 I 5
8.7 lntc.cral< ln \'nhml!. Ou.1dratic p,,hnomials
. 52 1
~.s l mprop.:r l ntq:ral' 5:!o
S urnrnur~ !'.W
I CHAPTER 9 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 5<15

9 .1 Simpk· Equatro:1' and ~ l o.l.:l< :'i4f•
•J.:! Slop.: Fa..:ld' .uu.l Eukr'' f-kthliJ :'i5X
~ PROJEC T: I ·.. mt•ut,·r·A,,i<tnl SlllJX' Fic l<h and
Eul,·r ·, ~kt lu>d 5h7
<1..' s.·par;,hk hltt:lllllfl\ allll i\rplic:llllllh 5(~'\
').-l J.i nc ar E• l"·''"'n' a n,l ,\pplicaunn' 575
<),5 J'llp Ula t IIIII ~ It ><k l' 5X7
) 111--l----"-~" ~ PROJE C T: l' rl'da tt or·l'll·y r:,lu.lli<111' ami Yuur O"n
-I (i.tllll' l'r l''<' l\l' 5'17
IJ.o Laru.:.or !'> l'l'<>nJ·<l rdc r btu:1t1on' ~·JS
'J.7 M ..:ch.u1u:a l Vahr.llion' 1~17
REVIEW : l h ·linitiun-. Conce pt-. Kr, ull' lll8
-
,'
' viii CONTENTS
I CHAPTER 10 POLAR COORDINATES AND PARAMETRIC CURVES 623
I 0.1 Analytic Gcomt:try and the Conic Sections 624

10.2 Polar Coordinates 629
10.3 Area Computatio ns in Polar Coordinates
638
10.4 Para me tric Curves 643
O• U PROJECT: Trochoid Investigations 65 2
I"HI.u I 0.5 I ntc~ra l Compu ta tions with P:Hnme tric Cu rves 653
;I \I'~
PROJECT: ~l oo n Orbits and R ace Tracks 660

,. ., r ., I .. 2 , ,..., 0 10.6 Conic Sccti ons and Applicati o ns 661
REVIEW: Concepts and D efiniti o ns 679
ICHAPTER 11 INFINITE SERIES 681

11.1 Int roduction 6S2
11.2 Infinite Sequences 61\2
PROJECT: Ncsted Radi cals a nd Continu ed Fractio ns 691
11.3 Infinite St:rics and Convergence 69 1
PROJECT: Nume rical Su mmati o n a nd Geometric Series 70 1
11 .4 Taylor S~.:rics and Taylor Polynomials 702
G PROJECT: Calcula ting Logarithms o n a D ese rt ed
Island 715
11.5 'lltc lntegral l i:s t 715
PROJECT: Th e Numbe r :r. On e~.: and for All 722
11.6 Comparison T~.:sts for l'ositivc:Jcrm Series 722
I 1.7 Alternating Series and Absolute Convergence 728
II .R Power Serics 737
l l.lJ Power Se ries Computations 750
G PROJECT: Calculat ing Trigonome tric Func tions
on a D~.:serted Isla nd 758
11.10 Series Solut ions of Differential Equa tions 758
REVIEW: Definitions. CuncctUs. Hesults 767
I CHAPTER 12 VECTORS, CURVES, AND SURFACES IN SPACE

771
12. I Vectors in the !'lane 772
12.2 llu~.:e-Dime nsional Vec tors 778
12.3 ll1e Cross Product of Vectors
788
12.4 Lines and Planes in Space 796
12.5 Curves and Mot ion in Space 1!03
PROJECT: Docs a Pitched Oaseball R I
12.6 C urva tu re and Acceleration • ea ly Curve? 816
817 ·
12.7 Cyli nders and Quadric Surfaces
830
12.8 Cylindrical and Spherical Coord"
. m ates 838
REVIEW: Definitions, Concepts, R
· esults H4S
CONTENTS ix
r
CHAPTER 13 PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION 849
13.1 Introduction 850
13.2 Functions of Several Variables 850
13.3 Limits and Continuity 860
13.4 Partial Deriv;Hivcs 1\61\
13.5 l'vlultivariablc Optimization Problems IPS
13.6 Incremen ts and Linear Approximation SS9
13.7 1l1c Mullivariabk Chain Rule 1\96
D.H Directional Derivatives and the Gradient Vector 907
13.9 Lagrange :'v1ultiplicrs and Constrained Optimiwtion 918
0 PROJECT: Nu111.:rkal Sulutiou of Lagrange
Multiplier Systems 927
13.10 Critical Points of Functions ofT\vo Variables 927
0 PROJECT: Critical Poir.t Investigations 935
REVIEW: Definitions, Conl·cpts, Results 936
ICHAPTER 14 MULTIPLE INTEGRALS 939

14.1 Double lntc:grals 940
0 PROJECT: Midpoint Sums Approximating Double
Integrals 947
14.2 Double Integrals over More Gcncml Regions 947
14.3 Area and Volume by Double Integration 954
14.4 Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates 961
14.5 Applications of Double Integrals 968
PROJECT: Optimal Design of Downhill Race-Car Wheels 978
14.6 Triple Integrals 979
0 PROJECT: Archimedes· Floating Paraboloid 987
14.7 Integration in Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinatc:s 988
14.8 Surface Area 996
14.9 Change of Variahlcs in Multiple lntc~mls tOOt
REVIEW: Definition~ Concepts, Results 1009
I CHAPTER 15 VECTOR CALCULUS 1013

15.1 Vector Fields 1014
curt t·
15.2 Line lntc:gral' J(JJ 9
15.3 "ll1c Fundamcntal"l11c:orcm and lndepcmt.:ncc of l'ath lll30
( 15.4 Green·~ "lhcnrcm I037

15.5 Surf:tce Intc:.:r:1h 1(~17
0 PROJECT: Surface lntc:grals nnd Rocket Nose Cones 1057
15.6 "l11c Divc:rgc nce ·n,corcm 1057
15.7 Stokes· ' lhcorcm 1065
REVIEW: Definitions. Concepts. Result5 ]072
X CONTENTS
IAPPENDICES A-1
A: Real Numbers and Inequalities A-l

6
B: The Coordinate Plane and Straight Lines A -
C: Review of Trigonometry A-13
D: Proofs of the Limit Laws A-19
E: TI1c Completenes~ of the Real Number Sys tem A-23
F: Existence of the Integral A-28
G: Approximations and Riemann Sums A-33
H: L'Hopital"s Rule and Cauchy's Mean Value 'llleorem A-36
I: Proof of Taylor's Formula A-38
J: Conic Sections as Sections of a Cone A-39
K: Proof of the Linear Approximation Theorem A-40
L: Units of ~lea~urement and Conversion Factors A-41
M: Formulns from Algebra. Geometry. and Trigonometry A-42
N: TI1e Greek Alphabet A -~
ANSWERS TO ODD-NUMBERED PROBLEMS A-45
REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY A-68
INDEX 1-1
TABLE OF INTEGRALS TA-1
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03 1
Black Star p. IW/ Courtesy of the I ihr 3 ~e f ~ ' d E . Penney p. ~ Robert Gaf\ey/
0
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tx . . • u ccn1>erg/PhotoEd it 1013 (
( Htnrn nght) Chand ra X-Ray Center/A. Hnhm P· top left) CO RBIS:
Maple is n.•cgb . .
tcrcd. tra(kmark of Waterloo •"' I ap1e Inc
I\((1/Il(lllfll/CQ IS a rCf.IStcrcd trademark o r\\' If •
;\It\TLAB is a registered trademark of Th ~~ram Research, Inc.
c. ath\Vorks. lnc.
..
ABO UT THE AUTHORS
C. llenry Edwards is emeritus profc:ssor of mathema tics at the University of

Georgia. He earned his Ph .D. at the Univcrsit,•ofTcnncssee in 1960. and rcc.cntly re-
tired after 40 years of classr<>om teaching (incl~ding calculu5 or d iffe rential equations
almost C\"Cry term) at the universities of Tennessee. Wisconsin, and Gco reia. "ith a
brief interlude at the Institute fo r Advance d Study ( Princeton) as an Alfr;d P. Sloan
Research Fellow. lie has received numerous teaching awards. including the Univer-
sity of G eorgia's lwno ratus medal in 1983 {for sustained excellence in honors teach-
ing). its Josiah Meigs award in 1991 (the inst itution 's highes t award fo r teaching). and
the 1997 s tate -wide Geo rgia Regents award for research university faculty teaching
exccllcnc.c. !lis scholarlv career has ranl!ed from research and dissertation d irection
in to pology to Ihe histtl~Y of m~th~mati~s to computing and technology in the teach·
ing and applications of mathematic,;. In addition to being author or co-author of
calculus. advanced calculus. lin,·ar algebra, and differen tial equations textbooks. he
is well-kno wn to calculus instructors as author of "!7re Historical Development of the
Calwlus (Springer· Verb g. 19i9). During 1he I 9')0s he served as a principal invcsti·
gator on three NSF-suppo rted projects: (I) A sd10ol mathematics project in.cluding
Maple fo r be ginning algebra students, (2) A Calculus-with-.\fathematica program.
and (3) A MAJ'LAB-bascd computer lnb project for numerical analysis and differ-
~ntial equations students.
o~l\·id E. ••cnncy, University or Georgia, completed h is l'h. D. at Tulane Uni-

versity in 1'.165 (under the direction of Prof. L. Bruce Treybig) while teaching at the
Uni,·crsity of New Orleans. Earlier he had worked in e xperimental biophysil-s at
Tulane University and the Veteran's Administration llospital in New Orleans under
the directio n of Hobert Dixon ~lc ,\fcc. where Dr. McAfee's research tt•:•m's primary
focus was on the active tr:•n~port of sod ium ions by biological membranes. Penney's
primary contribution here was the development of a mathematical model (using
simulwneous ordinary differential e'luations) for the metabolic phenomena re!;ulat-
ing such transport. with p•>tcntial future applications in kidney physiolo):y. n1:mage·
ment o f hypertension, and treatment of conj:cstivc he;nt failure. l ie alsu dcsiJ!ncd
and constructed scrvmncchanisms for the· accurate monitoring of i•'n tr:•n~IX>rt. a
phenom<,non invoh·ing the measurement uf p;>tcntials in micnwohs at iml'c..l:mccs
of millions of m egohm s. Penney hcgan teal'hin~ cakulus at Tul:me in I 9~7 and taught
that cour>c almo't every term with enthusiaMn and di<tinc·tinn until hi< r•·tir.·mcnt
at the end of the last millennium . Durin): hi~ tenure at the llni,·crsity of <leor!!ia
he received nurncrou• lJnivcrsit)'·willc leaching awnr<l~ :" well as llircctin~ sevc·ral
docto ral <.li~~ertatiun.~ and :.even undergmdu~tc rc>carch prnjccts. li e i• the author
of rc~earch papers in number thenry and topology and is the nuthur or co-author of
textboob on calculu~. computer programming, differential CIIUatiOn'l.lincar .ulgc bra,
and liberal art\ mathcmatil!ll.
xi
j
I
r
PREFAC E
Contemporary calculus instructors and stmk'nt s face traditional challenccs as well

as_ ne~v ones that result from changes in the role and practice of math~matics hy
sctcnttsts and cngincct·s in the world at large. As a consequence. this sixth edition of
our calculus text hook is its most cxh:nsive rcvi,ion since the first edition appeared
in 19$2.
'1\vo dtapters of the fifth edition have been combined in a single more tightly
organilcd one. An entirely new chapter now appc;u·s in the tahk of contents. and
most of the rcmainin!,t chapters have been extcnsi,·cly rcwriu en. About 125 of the
book's over 750 worked examples arc new for thi' editio n and the 1825 figures in
the text include 225 new computer-generated !!raphi<'S. About 600 of its over 7000
pro:Jicms arc new. and these arc augmented hy ~20 ne1v conceptual discussion ques-
tions that now prl'Ccdc the problem set-. Moreover. 1050 new true/false question~ arc
included in the Study Guides on the new CD-HOM that accompa nies this edition.
In summary. almost 2000 nf these S-100-pl us pmhlcm< and que~tions arc new. and
the text discussion and explanations have undergone corresponding alteration and
improvement.
IPRINCIPAL NEW FEATURES

llte current revision of the text features
• More unified trea tment of lrunsct'ndcntal functions in Chapter 7, and

• A new Chapter 9 on dilft>rential t'llll:tlions and applications.
'lhc new chapter on differentia l equation< nuw appears immcdiatdy a fter

Chapter R on technique< of integration. It includes hnth dircctiun fields and
Euler's method togethe r with the more elementary syr.tl><llic mc tht\ds (" hich c~ploit
techniques from Chapte rS) and interesting applicati,lll< uf hoth lir>t - and '"''"nd-
md-:r equation'- Ch:tptcr II (Infinite Scrks) nnw end, with a new S\'Ction e1n l'''wcr
sene~ l)rtluricHl' nf d ifferential equation,., lhu-. hnn~ing full cirdc :t unifying focu' of
sccond-scme,tcr calculus on elementary difkrc nt iul equations.
INEW LEARNING RESOURCES

Conceptual Discussion Questions ·n,c set of pr<'hkm< that cnnclmks each
sect inn;, now prcccdctl hy a hric! Crmccph: Qut-•liorl' a nd m~u"inn set C<)nsi<tin!!
;,f ,cve r:tl npcn-endcd conceptual qucsllons tha t can he u<cd for either individual
study or cla"rcwlm di,cu"ion.
The Text CO-ROM 'llle content of the new e n -ROM that !ICCtllliiWiic, this
text i~ fully integrated ,.·ith the textbook rnarcri:tl. :md i~ designed specifically for
xiii
cq
Xiv PREfACE
. stud >' 0 fthc . If. This CD-ROM features the following

usc hand-in-hand wtth d book tiSe
cht"nn·
•· ·no
resources to support 1earm <> an tea b'
• h 1 einforcc and encourage student

• lnter-Jcth·e True/fa ...•- e St ud)' Gmdes . t a r. tions for cac h scclton . care f uII}.
reading of the text. Ten au thor ·.wntten dques dents can request tn d'tvt'd ua I h'tnts
·
h the secuon an st u
guide students throug . j k for needed :nformatt·o n.
sug,.csting "'he re in the secuon
" · ~ d
10
~ d' and comput e r algebra
·c mulumc ta' •
prcsen-
• l.h·l" Examples feature ynamt . •
. d bv 'lUll to cxp1an.
ations-which enhnncc:: studen t
t<~uons-manv accompantc , ' . t 've exampks expa nd upon many
· d. n ·rnc<l' mtcrac 1 •• •
intuition a nd undcrstan •nb. .. . d . , can change mput data and
k . . 1 ·xampks stu en 1· • - .
of the text boo ··s pnnctpa " • · ·hangcs in st e p-by-step so uttons
.. d h h<erw the rcsu1ttng c • 1
cond1t1o ns an t engraphs
and accompanving o • a nd hguru;. . \V·
• a lklhruugh •·ideus demonstrat e 1tow
· • • · h these li,·c e xamples. .
students can mtcract wn ·. . . . ,f computational proble ms tn each
• lfom<•wnrk Starters fo r the pnnc~p.l t~p~~ l rcscnta tions si mila r to the live
1
text hook sect inn. featunng htlth mtcractJ:: p d :os of pencil -and-paper
examples ~nd (\\'ch·lt~k cd) volce-n~rratc vJ. \he , 1utio n o f selected
invcsti~:1tions iiJu,t ratmg typ1calm lttal ~teps m ·0
textbook problems. f h , Imost three dozen

• Cnrnputin~o: l'rnj•·•·t l!l'sourres support most o t e .I : .• k di
projects that follo w key sections in the text. f-or each such prOJc~t ~tar c ' n
I I C D 1., 0 .. 1·con more extended discuss1ons tllustratmg Maple,
t 1e text 1v a · ' "' · . . · . . ·d d
•\ fmltrmniicn MATLAB. and graphing calculator mvcsugat1ons ar~ provt ~ ·
Computer al~ehra system commands can he copied and pasted for mteracuve
execution. fT 1 k
• flyJ1crlinkcd 1\Japll' Wurkshl'el~ co~tributcd by Ha rald Plc.y m o e cmar ·
University College (Norway) constitute an tnteracuve vcrs1on of essenually
the whole textbook. Students and faculty using Maple can change ·~put data
and coOHJilions in most ot the text examples to investigate the resultmg
changes in step-by-step solutions and accompanying graphs and ligures.
• Pn"l'rPnint l'r<·~entatinns provide classroom projection versions of about 350
of the figures in the te.xt that would be least convenient to reproduce on a
I black hoard.
!
I
• Weh Site ll1c.: contents of the CD-ROM together with additional learning and
teaching resources a re maintained and updated at the textbook Web site
ww"~prcniJall.cum/edward~. which includes a Comments anti Suggestions
I
center where we invite response from both students <tnd instructors.
PH Grade Assist (Computerized Homework Grading System)

About 2000 of the.: textbook problems are incorporated in an automatc.:tl grading
system th;tt is now available. Each problem solut ion in the system is structured algo-
I rithmically so that students can work in :t computer lab seuing to submit homework
assignments
student.) for automatic grading. (TI!Crc is a small annual fcc per participating
New Solutions. Manuals "lltc entirely new 1810-page Instructor's Solutions

Manual (ava!lahlc 111 three volumes) tncludes a detailed solutio n for every problem
in the hook
checked . lltese
inde pende solutions were wntten
ntly hy others. ~'xclusivcly
by the authors anti have been
'lhc entirely nc~·

9JO-pagc.: Student Solutinns Manuul (available in two vol-
umes) includes a dcta1lcd solutton for every odd-mnnbc.:rec problem in the text. 'llte
answers (alone) to most of these odd-numbered problems arc included in the answers
section at the back of tlus book.
New Technologr manuals Each or the following manuals is av<~ilablc

shrink·
wrapped wtth any verston
which are inexpens•ve): of the text for half the normal price of the manual (all of
-
PREFACE XV
• J~nscn, Using MATLAB in Cnlculu.r (0-13-02726/l·X)

• 1-reeseJStegcng.a. Calculus Conccpu Using Drril'l' (0-13-085152-3)
• Gresser, T/ Graphing Cnlct•lmor Approach. 2·· (0-1:1 -0'n017-7)
• Gresser. A Mnrltemarica Apprv aclt. lt• (0-l.l-092015-0)
• Gresser, A Maple Approach. 2t• (0-13-0<J2014-2)
ITHE TEXT IN MORE DETAIL . . .

In preparing this edition, we have taken ndYnntni!C o f marw valuable Cl>mmcnts and
suggestions from use rs of the first live edit ions. ll>is r.;,•isiun was so pervasive th:tt
the inJividual changes ;trc ton numnous to be detailed inn preface. butth<· fol lowing
paragraphs summarize those that may be of widc.st interest.
T New Problems Most of the 600 new problems lie in the intermed iate range of
dt fftcult y. neither highly thcoretical nor computationally routine. Ma ny of th em
have :t ne w technology thvor. suggesting (if not requirin~) the use of technology
rang ing from a graphing calculator ton computer algebra system.
T Discusdon Questions and Study Guid es We hope rh c 320 conceptual dis-

cussion questions and 1050 trudfalsc st udy·guide questions constitute a useful
3ddition to the traditional fare of student exercises and problems. lbe True/False
Study Guide for each section provides a focus on the key ideas of the section. with
the single goal of motivating guided student reading of the section.
T Examples and Explanations About one-sixth of the rook's worked examples

are either new or significantly revised. toge ther with a similar percentage of t he text
discussion and explanations. Additional computational detail ha< hecn inserted
in worked examples where students have experienced difficuhy. together with
addi tional sentences and paragraphs in similar spots in rcxt discussions.
T Project MAterial 1\·bny of the text's 33 projects nrc new for this edition. These
appear following the problem sets at the ends of key sections throughout the text.
Most ( but not all) of rhese projects employ some aspect of modern computational
technology to illustra te the p rincipal ideas of the preccdin!! section. and ma ny
contain additional problems intended :ror >olurion with the usc of a j:raphinj:
calcubtor or computer algebra system. Where appropriate, project d iscus.•ions
a re significantly expanded in the C D-R0:0.1 ve rsions of the projects.
T Historical Material llistorical nnd hiot:raphical chapter opening< offer stu·

dents a sen<c of the development of our sut>jcct t>y real human beings. Indeed.
our cllposition of calculus frequently rctlccts the hiswrical development of the
sut>ject - from ancient rimes tot he age~ of Newton and Lcibniz atul Euler to our
own era of new computational power and technology.
ITEXT ORGANIZATION
T Introductory Chapters Instead of n routine review nf prcc:tlculus topics. Chap-
ter 1 conc<'ntrat<'s spccitkally on functions and ,:raphs f"r usc in mathematical
modeli ng. It onclude~ a section cataloJ:inr. inf,>nnally the ckmcntary tr:~n<ccn
denral funclloll < of cakulu~. "' backgruuml to their more fmmal trcatmcnl u<ing
e;;!cu lu~ tt-elf. Chitpt~r I wnchr1ks with II ~cti(ln lllldrcssint; the 1111rs1iun "What
u Cllkulu~r Chapte r 2 u n limil<I..: gins with a >c<·tinn un tangent lines ru motivate
the uf:llcial intro<luction uf hmit< in Section 1 .1. ·nt,:onumctric !units arc treated
througll"ut Chapter 2 in order to cnwu ragc a richer nnd more ''i<ual introouction
10 the limit wncepl.
f 1
XVi PREFACE
Th e seq uence Of topics. in Ch . ~pters I 3 and ti4 diffe rs 'a

T Diffe re ntiation Chapters \\' 11 •mJH to budd ~lla .:nt con 1dcncc hy
bit from the most tra d .IUO · na t order..
· r·1cu 1ty. 111c ch am
d e a f"increasi ng chf · rule
. . n ·arlv ul or cr o ~ . I . ,, f .
intro<lucmg 10p1cs more "~ ·• ' ) 311 d . . cover th e has1c Icc 1n1qucs or <hffe r.
~ppears quite ear IY (.m S.ecuon ·'-' · d' ''" ~ in!! maxima and nmuma • • •m .secllon~3.5
·
. f I 1OilS before ~~u,~ ~ . . f I .I . •
b
cntiatingalge ra1c unc . • . nificant apphcallon~ o lie uc n vallvc).
' )( r:ll • e·lrl\ <Onl<.: Sll! . 11
and3.6(inordc:rtol ust .
. ,
c: ·
I • d. lvaun:s o a SIX •
f 11 .· trigonometric functi(IIIS. 1c authors·
Sccuun .>.7 treat~ t I< cr . . , S) ,,ill be apparent.
~
fondness for. C\\ tons " . m ·thod d . _ -'· plication~ arc dcfcrrc<l to Ch aptcr 4
(SecllOII
Th . 1 • theorem an II' ap . .1.1·rr ·
e ~lea~ 'a~" . . andrclatl·dratc~inScctJOn4. l.anuul crcnt1als
(followmg 1mphc11 d1ff.:re~uat:o~on .t:!). In addition. a dominant theme of Chap-
111 1
and lmear approx1mauon Scch uct graJlhs of functions and to explain
•· h • f calculus bot to con~1r - • • .
tcrd~· 1s 1 c usc aophs that have hcen construet·d c bv. 3 calculator or computer.. l111s
1
an
thememtcrprc
is dc\'e!!r
lopcd .111 ·Scct1ons
. . ..., 4 on th." first dcrh·ative test a nd 4. 6· o n h1ghcr
dcrivath·c< and conca\'ity.
.,. Integration Chapters CJ 1 ~ pt c r 5 l>egi n~ with a sect ion on an ti d7riva tivcs-

wh1ch wultlln~1ea • lly he •mcluded ·m 11c 1 prcccd'lllf!' clnp
.' . tcr • hu1 hc.:nc
. lns
•. from
. the
us~ o r 1nh.·cra
· ,·no1a11on. 1
· · \\'11~..:·n t11e u...
· ··rinilc intc••ral
e " 1111rocl uc..:d 111 Sec11o ns 5.3
and 5.4. w~ emrhasit.e endroint ;uulmidpoint sums m~ h er tl.lan upp..:r and lo\~W
and more ge nera l Rieman n sum o;. ·n1i~ co ncre te e mph:1s1Scarne~~ hrou_gh the ch.!p·
tcr to i1s fina l Sl'C tion on numerical integra ti on. Chapter 6 bt:f!l ns wnh a t.a rgc ly
new ,cction on Riema nn sum app ro.~irnat ions. wit h new examples t·..: nt e ru~ g on
fluid llow a nd medical applications. Sectio n 6.6 is a new trea tme nt of ccn trn1ds of
plane regions and cu n ·e,._
Chaplcr S ('1\?chniqucs of Integrati on) is organ i?-ed to accommodate those
in~tructors who fc<.:ltha t mc th ods of forma l integration now rcquin.: less cmph3·
sis.. in \'iew of modern techn iques for both numerical and symbolic integration.
lnlcgralion hy pa n , (S<·c li on 8.3) r1c.:.:ue~ trigonomctn c intcgrab (Sec tion 8.4).
lllt.: method of partial fraction~ appears in Section X.5. and tri)!unometric subsll·
llllions and int.:gr<tls in\'oh ing quadratic polynomi~l~ follow in Scc1ions 1\.6 ~nd
8.7. 1mpropcr integrals appc~r in Section S.S. with Ill!\\ and suhstantial subsections
on special functions and probability and random sampling. l11i~ rcarran~ement of
Chapter 8 makes it more convenient to stop" hcrc\'er the in ·tructor de~ires.
"f' Calculus of Transcendental Functions Section 7.1 (much ~trcn~thcncd for

this edition) introduce~ the exponential and logarithmic function~ f;om a fairly
intuiti\'e.' iew"?i nt: the approach ha<cd on the na tu:al logarithm as an int.:g.ral
appt:ars m S.::ctum 7.4. Sect rons 7.2 and 7.3 intrvducc l'l lopital's rule and apply it
to round out the calcul~s of exponent ia l <~nd logarit hmic functions. Sections 7.5
a nd ~.6 cmw bot h dcr_l\·au,·cs of and integra ls involving in\'crse trigonometric
functions a nd hypcrbohc functions.
T Differential Equatio ns 111is ··· nt1'r •l , 1 · ·

. . · ~ c Y new c toptcr b.:!!IIIS With the most e lc·
mc nt:Jr\' d1 fkrcnt1al equat io ns and :t]lplicati· 111, (S · ,, ) 1·
11o n '· 1 anc1 111c: n proce<.:< '
to .mtrod· ucc bot h grapl11cal . (slope fie ld ) and • , · ..ec.· c.
1111111 11 t (r. ) 1 d · Sec
· "2
hun ~.. .su1lseq· , uc· nt seclluns
· of the ch·•ptcr 1 c· ~• •1 I ..:u I 1e r me · t 10 · ~ 111 .1 ·
. . . . . ' r ·' 1 sc p~ ra 1 e and ltnc<t r l1rst·orucr
u1ffcrcnll al c<JUalluns and (mmn rc depth lit• . · · ·
.
11ons such as populauon . "rowtl (' 1 · • 1Ill a C't)Ctlitls
.. n· U>tl.l ' ~ f'·' ")
•' ''llll ¥. 'l(l(lhC:l·
'
and motion with r.-sista ncc. ~'- lltc1 finaltw • : . . •an11prcc
mc ud111!(' . loJ.:ISilc • 1ator-p rey popu 1atu · 1n'· )
11
•
hn.:ar C(( Ua tron
.
~ and a rphcation
. scct1on
~ lo mc:c:h:i . . ~I of •' hChapter?
. trea• t sew
' nd -ordcr
..
still mo re: covcra"c of diff· , · 1 •• • lllca ' 1 r~ u o n~. l n~ truc to rs dcsmng
"
bundle a nd usc appropriate crcnlla
sc:ct' equations can a rr.mge . • . Wil . It lItc. pu h i'Is·I1c. r to
lions: Computing und l\Jodeling 21· (P · . ' IOns or F. dw~ nl~ 'tnd
' I'cnn~:y. ll'1ITerc n!la ' I f-'1" a •
e · rcnt1cc- I Ialt. 20()0).
T Para metric Curves a nd Po lar Coo rdi nate s • • . . . •
is the replacement of three separate • l~tc pnnc1pat change 111 C hapt er 1(1
5
ecltons tn the 5th edition on parabolas.
PREFACE XVii
ellipses. and hyperbo las with a single Section 10.6 t hat provid es a unified tre at ment
or all th e conic sectio ns.
'Yif • s.
n lnlt~ N les After the usual introductio n to conve rge nce o f in fi nite sequences
and s~ ncs Ill Se..:tio ns 11 .2 and 11 .3. a combin ed treatmen t o f Tayl or po lynomia ls
and l ay lor series appears in Section 11..1. Tnis makes it possible for the instructor
to cxpcnmc nt with a hricfcr treat ment o f infinite series, hut st ill o ffer e xposure
~o the Taylor series t hat arc so import an t for ;1pp lications. l l1 c principal chan ge
I ll C hapter 11 is t he addition of a new li na l sectio n on powe r series m ethods
nt~d their usc to intwduce new transccmlcnt al function>. thcrchy concl uding the
mtdd lc third o f the hook with a return to differential equations.
Y Multiv.ula b lc Ca lculus ·111.: treatme nt or ca lculus u ( mo re than a si nl!lc variable

is rathe r traditio nal. hegin ning wi th vectors. cu rves. a nd s urfaces in C hap ter 12.
C hapto;: r U features a strong treatmc·nt of mult iva ri ahle maximum-minimum prob-
le m s in Sl.'ctinn~ t:l .5 (initia l approach to these problem~). 13.9 ( La grange mul-
t ipliers). and 13.10 (crit ical poi nts of functions of two va ria bles). C hapte rs 13
(Partial D ifferentiation ). I-I (Multiple Integrals) , and 15 ( Vector Calculus) ha ve
bl!cn significantly rewritte n for this edition.
IOPTIONS IN TEACHING CALCULUS

The Calculus Sequence Tl11: present version o f the text is accompa nied by a
less traditiona l versio n t hat t reats t ra nscendenta l functions earlier in singlc:-va riable
ca lculus and includes ma tric~s fo r use in mu lt iva ria t>le calcu lu~ Bo th versio ns o f th~
co mple te text are also avaibt>l <! in two -volume split edit ions. By appro priate select ion
o f first and seco nd volumes. the instructor can therefore construct a co mple te text
for a ca lculus seq uence with
• E arly transccndenta ls in single-variable calculus and m:llriccs in multivarinble

ca lcul us;
• Early transccmlcnt als in single- variable calculus but traditional cow rage of
multivaria blc calc ulus;
• Tra n~cende nt al functions delayed unt il after the int~5ral in sin gle-variable:
calculus. but matrices used in multivariablc ca kulus:
• Neither ea rly t ranscendcntals in si ngle-variable calcul us nor matrices in
mult ivarinblc c:tk ulus.
Maximum-Minimum Problems ·n ,e text includes ti rs t , ,,wra!!<" of m:nimum-

m inirnum pruhlc m~ in Chapter J ( Sectio n<:1.5 a n.! :1.6) to prnvi,k •·art y mnti ,·a tinn in
the fo rm of cuncrct c applicati<lll~ of t he de rivat i' c. a mi thcnr,·turns with the first. and
sccond-d crh·ativc tests of Sect ion ~ -t-1 and ·l.h. I h m·.- vc r. some in<t ruc t o~ m:ty pn:-
fc r 10 u c at th'-·-.c appli<-·atiun~ l:ltc:r- (olluwin~ ttig''IHH11C'tric d~riv:•t i \·l--~ :md rC" b t(•d
ra t ~~. a nd a ion~ l' it h th~ hulk of th.: tt'<n<.· i:tte<lma t.: ri:tlttl C h:tpt•· r .1. Th,· modul ar
cha ract c r of the pc 1 t tn c nt s.:ctton' in t h.:sc t"" .tifk r~nt ia I,-.•k uJu, d t.ll'l crs ,..._. rm its
\ UCh d c,i rcd rc;m :tn!!,Cntc nt' o f the m.ttcri:t l " ithin th•· t ~pKa l p.t ir nf inst ru.:tinna l
umh (each likely tollowc<l hy it\ " " n hour t c~t ). h •r nh t.tn.-c. Sc.:t i' ''" J.:'i :tnd .' .6 on
rna. x- nun 111ohlclll ' can I...- dck t rcd and u~cd. h•. hq:in . th ,· ,,·coml unit on dtfk rcnti31
·.;,lcuiU'I.. aft er 01 ppc mhn.: Sc.-ct tun' -1. 1 ( lmpltctt Dtfk r,·m,at iun .md RcLttc d R:ttc\)
~ nd -1 .2 ( l ncre mcnt,_l> tlk tc ntl.tl 'l.. and Linear t\ ppr.>\ tm.tt ion) to the lirst unit. '!110~
t he rnJ teual 10 Chaptcn 3 and 4 wo uld he cnvc r.:<.l in the fullowin): ord~t.
Unit 1: Differentiation
3.1 The Deri vat ive ;~nd Ra tes o f Chnngc
J.2 Bu ic D ifferenti.:l tion Rules
rr
I
xviii PREFACE
3.3 The Chain Rule . net ions

3 4 Derivatives of Algebratc Fu. F tions (skipping Example 13 and Prob.
. . ometnc unc
3.7 Deriv:Hives of Tngon
!ems 78-86) . . d Newton's Me thod
. Approx·imauon> an
3.8 Succcsstvc
• . d RclatcJ Rates .
4.1 Im plicit Funcuons an . L' ar Approximation
4.2 Increme nts, Differentials, and me
.
Unit II : Applicattons o f the Derivative
. . .
of Funcuons on Closed Intervals
3.5 ~bxima and ~ f tmma
. . · · Problems Th
.l6 ,\ pphcd Optlmtzatton . d the Mean Value eorem
4.3 lncrea<ing and Decrcasmg · functtons . an
.
4.-S - . 1i
llte Fir~t Derivau,·e est an 'd \ pphcauons
-'-~ Simple Curve Sketching .
.S.6 llighcr Dcriva ti\'CS and Concavuy
4.7 Cu rve Sketching and Asymptotes
IACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . .
ow the v·tluc of critical revtewmg dun ng the
All experienced te~ t?ook auth ors k~ '"ork on this edi tion we have profited
preparation and rC\'ISIOn of a m~n uscn pt. 1n our t' • advice of the following very able
grea tly from the unusually detailed and construe IVc
rc,•icwcrs:
• Kenzu Abdella- Trent Uni,·ersity

• i1\lartma llodc-North" estern University
. •
• D:l\'id Caraballo-Gcorgetown Unt,·erslly
• Tom C:t<sidy-Ruckncll University
• Lucille Croom- llunter College
• Yuana n Diao-Univcrsity of North Carolina at Charlotte
• Victor [ lias-University of W.:stern Ontari o
• llai tao Fan-Georgetown University
• James J. Fa ran. V-The State Uni versity of New York at Buffalo
• K. ~. Gowrisankara n-McGill Univc rsil)'
• Oing Han - Uni,·ersity of l'otrc Dame
• Melvin 0 . l.ax- C:tlifornia Stale University. Long !leach
• Robert II. U:"is- Fordham University
• Allan 0. 1\!aclssac-Unh·ersi ty of Western Ontario
• Rudolph ~1. Najar-California Slate University, Fresno
• George Pletsch-Aibuquerque Technical nn<.l Vocational Institute
• Nancy Rnlli~- Roston College
• Robert C. Hcilly- University of Californ ia, Irvine
• Jamc~ A. Rcnckc- Clemson University
• Alexander Rctakh- Yalc Universit y
l • Cnrl Richm- Mc\1aster University
I f
• Ira Sharcnow-Univcrsity of Wisconsin, Madison
• Kay Strangman-University of Wisconsin, Madison
• Sofhic Tryph o~a~-~n! vers it y of Toronto at Scarborough
• Clifford E. Wct i- Mtchtgan State University
• Kamran Va kili-Princcton Uni,·ersitv
• Cathleen M. Zucco-Teveloff- Trini ty College
Many of the best improvements that have been made must be credited to col·
leagues and users of Ihe previous five editions throughout the United States. Cnnnda.
..
PREFACE XIX
:nd abroad. We are grateful to all t hose. especially students. who have written to us.
nd hope t hey will continue to do so. We t hank the accuracy checkers of M . and N.
Toscano. who verified the solution of every worked-out e xample and odd-numbered
answer, as well as nil of the sol utions in the Instructor"s and Student Solu tions Manu·
als. We b~lil!\'e that the :tppenrance and quality of the finished hook is clear testimony
1
~ the sktll. diligenrc. and talent of an e xceptional swff at l'rcnticc- llall. We owe spc·
cta_l th anks to George Lohcll. o ur math ema tics ed itor, wh<>~c advice and criticism
gutdcd and shaped this n:vision in many signilkant a nd tangihl<: ways, as did th e
constructive.: commen ts and suggestions of Ed Millman, our developmental editor.
W<! alsnthanlo. Gale Epps and ~telanic Van Bcnthuy~cn for their highly varied and
d~tailcd services in aid of editors and authors throughout the work of revision. The
\'ISual gra phil·, of this text have been widely prai.~cd in prc,·ious edition"- and it is
time for us tu than !.. Run Wcichart of Network Graphics, v.h o h:t~ worked with us
thro ugh the past three editions. Jeanne Audino. ou r productiOn editor. e xpertly and
smoothly manaj:cd the whole process of book product ion. Our art director. Jonathan
Boylan. supe rvised anll coordinated the attractive d esign an~ layou t of the text and
the cover fur this edition. Vince Jansen coordinated the production of the CD-ROM,
for which we thank especially Robert Cu rtis and Lee Wayand for their interactive
examples and llarald l'l eym for his Maple worksheets. l·inally, we again arc unable
to thank Alice Fit?gerald Edwards and Carol Wilso n Penney adequately for their
unrelenting a ssistance. encouragement, suppo rt , and patience extending through six
editi ons and over two decades of work on this textbook.
C. Henry Edwards David E. Penney

hedwards@math.uga.edu dpcnney@math.uga.edu
_j
.. . .. '·
. .,
. . .. •
... ·.
~ ..
'•
.. ., .·.··...
\.,.
~. .. . .
APPENDIX A: REAL NUMBERS AND INEQUALITIES

1llc r~al numbers arc already familiar to you. They arc just those numbers ordinarii~
used m most measuremen ts. The mass. velocity. te mperature. and charge ~fa. bod)
arc measured wi th real numbers. Real numbe rs can be represent ed by trrmm~ttn~ or
nont crrninatin g decimal expansions ; in fact, every rea l number has a nontennrna tm g
decimal expansion because a terminating expansi on c.1n be padde d with infinitely
many ze ros:
3
x= o.375 = 0.375000000 ....
Any rc11C111ing decimal, such as
7
22 = 0.31818 181 818 . . . .
represents a rutlnnal number. one that is the ratio of two integers. Conversely. every
ra tional number is represented by n repenting decimal lik e the t wo eli$played i'lbovc.
But the decimal e xpansion of an irrational number (a real number that is not r ational) ,
such as
J2 = 1.414213562... or ;r = 3.14159265358979 ....
is both nonterrninating and nonrcpea ting.
TI1e geometric interpre tat ion of real num bers as points on the renlline (or real
1111mber line) U should also he famil iar to you. Each real numhcr is represented by
precist:ly one point of fl. and each point of ll represents precisely one real number.
By convention, the posit ive numbers lie to the r ight of zero and the negative numbers
to the left, as in Fig. A. I.
-2 -1 0 )
FIGURE A.l The real line R.
The following propert ies of inequalities of real numbers are fundamental and
often used:
If a < band b < c, then a < c.
If a < b. then a + c 0, then ac < be. (1)
If a < band c < 0, then ac > be.
The last two statements mean that an inequality is preserved when its members
multiplied by a positive number but is reversetl when they are multiplied by a nega~~:
number.
A-1
A-2 APPEN DlClS
IABSOLUTE VALUE
The ( nonncga ti,·c ) d is tance alo ng the real line b<:t"cen ~cro and t he real number a
is the ah~o lute >'lllue of a. writt.:n Ja j. Equi,·alenlly.
a if a ~ 0:
raJ= { -a if a < 0. (2)
The nota tion a ;::: 0 means tha t o is eithl'r crea te·r than zero or equal to ze ro. Equa-
l ion (2) imp lies ~ha t a' ? 0 fo r c,·cry real numlxr a and that lal =ll if :l nd o nly if
a =0.
EXAMPLE 1 As Fig. ,\ .::! sho" s.

,..1:.-·....;JI_•_J,..__.:.I'.:.I_
= 4_ --i
- L l -1__!_I_L....LJ_J_J_j_
-J fJ •
H' = J anJ 1-Jd = J.
fiG URE A.2 The abwlutc value o f Mnreo• cr, (0 1 = 0 and t./i- :!I = :; - ,/2_ the latter bcin!! tr ue b~-cau,;e 2 > ./2. Titus
a real number Is simply its d1starn: e ./2 -
2 -: 0, and he:: nee-
from zero ([xamplc 1).
1-'2-21=- -(../2 - 2) = 2 -../2.
•
'lltc follow in!~ propcrt1c~ of a~olute \'Jluc~ arc freque ntly used:
(Ill= (- 171 = ,;;;: -.. 0.

jab!= lnllbl.
(3)
-lnl ;;: a 2 1al.
lb- nl o' la- llj and jaj < h if and on ly if - b < a < h.
a h ln ~ di,t:mc~ bet ween the real numbe rs a and II is defined to be Jll - bt (or
II• - aj: th ere's no difference). lltis di, tancc is simply the length of the line segment
FIGURE A.3 The distance of the real lin~: ll with e ndpoin ts a and h (Fig, i\.3).
between a and b.
·n,~ prup~rties or incqu:IIitic:s and of absolute values in Eqs. ( I) through (3)
imply the following important theorem.
THEOREM 1 Triangle Inequality

fur all real numbers a and b.
la + bJ~Ja l +lbJ . (4)
l'llOOI-' lltcre are several cases to consider. dependi ng upon whether the two
numbers a and ba re positive or negative :md whic h has the larger absolute value. If
both arc posi tive. then so is a + b: in this c.asc,
Ia + bl = a+ b = jaj + lbl. (5)

If a > 0 but b < 0 a nd Jbl < ja j, then
so
1--lb f - lbl--1
I I I I JCI + !Jj = a + b < II = ja j < Jaj + JbJ, (6)
FIGURE A.4 The triangle as illustrated in Fig. A.4. lltc other cases arc simi lar. In particular we sec that the
inequality with a > 0, b < 0, and triangle inequality is actually an equa lity (as in Eq. (5)] unlcss 11 and'h have different
lbi < ID!. signs. in which case it is a strict inequality (as in Eq. (6)(. ~
APPENDIX A A-3
~~VA~L~S-------------------------------------
shuppose that Sis a set (collection) of real numbers. It is common to describe S by
t e notatiOn
S = (x: condition},
whe~e the "condition" is true for those numbers x inS and false for those numbers x
not tn S. The most important sets of real numbers in calculus are intervals. If a < b.
then the open intern! (a, b) is defined to be the set
(a. b)= (x: a < x <b)
of real numbers, and the closed intenal [a. h) i~

(a. bJ = {x: a ~ x ~ b).
Thus a cl osed interval conta ins its endpoints, whereas an open interval does not. We
also use the half·open intervals
[a. b) = (x: a ~ x < bl and (a, bJ = (x: a < :c ~b).
( (1,3) )
Thus the open interval (1. 3) is the set of those real numbersx suc h that! < x < 3, thc
1-1. l ) closed interval [- 1. 2] is the set of those real numbe rs x such that - 1 ~ x ~ 2, a nd
the half-open interval ( -1. 2) is the set of those real numbers x such that -1 < x ~ 2.
(0. Jj)
In Fig. A.5 we show examples of such intervals as well as some unbounded intervals,
(H. I ) 1 which have forms such as
[a. +oo) = fx: x e; a),
(-oo.a ) = (x: x :;; a}.
(-•. 2)
(a , + oo) = (x : x > a),
fiGURE A.~ Some examples of
i:nerva!s of real numbers. and (-oo, a) = fx: x <a).
The symbols + co and - oo, denoting "plus infinity'" and "minus infinity,"' arc merely
notational conveniences and do not represent real numbers-the real line ll docs
not have "endpoints at inlini ty." The usc of these symbols is motivated by the brief
and natural descriptions [rr. +oo) and (-oo. 2) for the sets
(x : x E: rr I and {x : x < 2)
of all real numbers x such that x E: tr ;tnd x < 2, respectively.
~INEQUALITIES
1lte se t o f solutions of an inequality involving a variable x is often an interval or a
union of intervals, as in the next examples. 11tc solution set of such an inequality is
simply the set of all those rea l numbers .r that satisfy the inequality.
EXAMPLE 2 Solve the inequality 2.t - I < 4.r + 5.

Solution Using the properties of inequalities listed in (1). we proceed much as if we
were solving an equation for x: We isolate x on one side of the ir.equality. He re we
begin with
2x -1 < 4.r +5
and it follows that
-1 < 2x + 5;
-6 < 2x;
-3 < .t.
Hence the solution set is the unbounded interval ( -3, +oo).

•
A-4 AP?ENDICf..S
EXAMPLE 3 Solve the ineq113lity -13 < I - -tr ~ 7.

Solution We simplify th e given incqu:!lHy as follows:
-13< 1 - .!r ~ i;
- 1 ~ ..!.r - I < 13;

.I
-6 ;:1 .!.r < 1-1:
- ~$.r<;.
Th u\ the solution ~et of the gh en i~e~u:!lit~: is the half-open intcr,-al I-~ · ~ ). •
EXAMPLE 4 Sohc tht inequalily .J- 5r < 2.
Solution From the founh pro;-e rt~ of at-<olut~ ,·:wlu,·< in (3). \\ <! ~ee that the given
inequali ty i~ equivalent t o
- : < 3 - 5r < 2.
We nows1mphf) '"in the pre\ in::• t-..o c , .1mrl::~:
-5 < -5 r <. - 1:
l cr ~ I
'lllll' the solu tion se t i\ th e npcn m tcf\ JI n. 1). •

EXAMPLE 5 Solve the incqunhty
~
-,....--,.. < 1.
12r - 31
Solutio n It i> usually best to begin by c l iminaton ~ a den omi nator containing the
unknown . I!ere we mult iply ~:lch term by the posw•·r quantlly 12..r - 31to obt:1in the
eq uivalent inequa lity
12..r - Jl > 5.
It follows from the la't property in {3) th:lt thi> is so 1f and only if ei ther
2x- 3 < -5 or 2..r - J > 5.
1l1e solut ions of these two inequalities are the open intervals ( - :>O. - I ) and (4. +oo).
rc:spcctiwly. li enee the solution se t of the original inequality consists of nil tho~c
numbers .r that lie in either of these two ope n intavals.. +
1l1e union of the two sets S :md T i\ the set S U T given by
S u T= l.r: either .r e S or x e T or both}.
llllls the solution set in Example 5 can be " Ti tt.:n in the form (-co. -I ) u (4. +co).
EXAMPLE 6 In accord with Boyle's law. th e pressure p(in pounds per square inch)
and volume V (in cubic inches) of a certain gas salisfr the condition pl' 100.=
Suppose that 50 ;;; V ~ 150 . Wha t is the ra nge of possible valu.:s of the pressure p?
Solution If we substitute l' = 100/ f' in the given inequality 50 ~ V ~ 150, we get
100
50 $ $ 150.
- f' -
It follows that both
100 100
50 $ and $ 150:
- p p -
•
that is. that both
p ~ 2 and p?, ~.
Thus the pressure p must lie in the closed interval I ~ . 2].
•
APPENDIX A A-5
The intersec
· t •tun of the two sets Sand Tis the set S n T del'ined as foll ows:
S n T={x:both xe S and xeT).
· Example 6 is the set {-oo. 2] n [ ~ . +OC) =

llJUs the solut"JOn se t In n.2].
38. The relationship hcrween rh e Fahren he it tempe rature F

and the Celsius temperature C is £iven hy F = 3:! + C. If J
the remperature o n a certain da y rang~d from a lo w of 70~F
ro a h1~h of90' F. " hJ t was the ran£e of rhe temperatu re'"
degree< Celsiu<~
1- 61 39. A n ckwica l circuit con rains a hatter)' supp lying F. volts in
6.
141+ 1- 21 series with a resistance of R ohms. a< shown in Fig. A.6.
l11en the current of I ampe res that now~ in the circu it sa tis·
1. J(-3) 1
1 K. 13- J3i fies O hm·s law. F.= /R. f( F., 100 and 25 < R <50. " hat
10. -17 - 4) is the range of possible ' 'a lues o f I?
9. l:r -¥I
11. It - 31. given X < 3
t!. 1.r- 51+ l.r - 101. given l.r- 71 2
IS. 3.t - ~ ;; 17 16. 2x + 5 ::) 9

11. 2- 3x < 7 U!. o- 5.r > -9
20. 4 ;;! 3.r - 5 ~ I 0 FIGURE A.6 A simple ele<:ttic circuit.
19. -3 < 2x + 5 < 7
11. - 6;; 5 - 2r < 2 22. 3 < I- 5x < 7 40. The period T( in seconds) ofa ~c pendul um of length L
23. 13 - 2xl < 5 24. 15.r + 3 1:£ 4 v
(in feet) is given by T = 2:r L/ 32. If 3 < L < 4. when is
the rnngc of pos<iblc val ues ofT?
~. II- 3xl > 2 26. I < 17.r - I I < 3
.n. Use the properti<-s of inequalit ies in (I) to show that the
I sum of two positive numbe rs is po sitive.
27. 2;; I~ - 5x l :£ 4 21!. - - > 3
2.r + 1 .IZ. Usc the propert ie s of ineq ua lit ies in (I) to show tha t the
2 2 product of two p~ir ivc numbers is posit ive.
29. - -5-5 30. - - number is negative.
II - 5xl : 3
.$.1. Suppose that a a nd that a and b arc either both positive
32. Soh·e the inequality x 2 - x - 6 > 0. [Suggestion: Co nclude
or hoth negarive. !'rove thtlll /a > 1/ b.
from the facto rization x' - x - 6 = (.r - 3)(.r + 2) tha t the
quantities x - 3 and .r + 2 arc eith er both positive o r borh .15. Apply the triangle inequality twice to show that
negative. Consider the two cases separately to deduce that
fa + b + cJ~(ti l + lbl +lei
the solution set is ( - x . -2) U (3. oo).J
Ulc rht method of Problem 32 10 SiJive rite inequalities in l'mb · for arbitrary real numbers a. b, and c.
kms 33 through 36. 46. Write a= (n- b) + b to deduce from the tria ngle inequality
that
l3. x' - 2x _ 8 > 0 ).S. x' - 3x + 2 < 0
.]6. 2.r ~ 15 - .r
2 I" I - Jbl ~ Ia - bJ
for arbitrary real numbe rs a and b.
37· In accord with Bovle's law. the pressu re P (in pounds r:r
square inch) and ~·olumc v (in cubic inches) of a ccrtalfl 47. Deduce from the definition in (2) that Jal < b if and only if
v
-
gas satisfy the condition p == SOO. What is the ra1 nge of -b < a< b.
~·bl · 100 < v < 200
·==•~e~v=a~lu~e~s~o~f~t:h:e~p~r~e:~~u:r:c~.g~•:":e~n~~-~~-~~·-------------------------------------------------------
A-6 AP?ENDICES
APPENDIX 8: THE COORDINATE PLANE AND STRAIGHT LINES

Im agine the na t. featu r eless. two-dimensio nal pbne of Eucl id"s g.:o rnc_try. Install a
cop\' of the real number line R. w11h th~ line ho ri1ontal a nd the pos1tJ\"C n umbe rs
:t
H·
to the right. Add ano ther copv o f R perpendicula r to the first .. with th e two lines
cros~in2 whe re the numher uro j; loca ted on .:ach. The \c:rtic:JIImc sho uld ha\'e the
po<>i ti..; numbers abo\'; the hori7ontal line. a; in Fie. 8. 1; the nc:gatin: numbers thus
will be below it. Th e horizon tal line is cJ!kd the .r·;t i< a nd the \'Crtical line is called
the 1"-:ni'-
II-
. With these added fe:!ltlres. " e call the plane the co<l rdin9te plane, because it's
now ~s1bie to locat<! any po!n t there by a pai r o f numbers. ca lled the coordinates
I I I I I
-3 -2 - I 2 ) •
-I 1- of the po:nt. Here·• hn" : If Pis a point in the pl:tne. d raw perpe ndiculars fr~m I' to
the coord1nate a'cs. as <ho"'n in Fi2. B. 2. One pc rp<·ndicul ar meets the .r-ax.ts at the
- 2 1-
.r ·cnHrdin:~le (or ah<ci«a ) of P. b~kd ' • in Fig. ll~. Th<: o ther meet s the y<txis in
-) 1- I he y· coo rdinalt· (N orolin~lc ) .': of l'. TI1e p:~ir or numbers l r, . ytl. in I hal o:der. is
call ed the cunrd i nal~ pair for 1'. o r simply t he coo rdinull'< of 1'. To he conc1se. we
5pea k ol .. lhc p<)IOI l'(.t:. 1·1 J."
FIGURE 8.1 The coord.nate plane. 'll11s coordrnare ,,-,rem i< called the rectan~:ul:tr coordinate system. or the Carte-
, ;an cnnrdina ll· ·~''~IT; (1--ccamc 11< u<c wa< popul:~ ri1cd. beginning in the 1630s. by
I he Fr~nd1 111 .11 hrrnalKr.m .1ntl philo<nphcr Rene D csca n cs ( 1596- 1650 J). Th <: pbnc.
tbu~ coor.l inalrtcJ. I ' denoted by J( because ' " o <·opics of U nn.: used: il is known
also a> I he Cartc;bn plan e.
Rcelan!!ul .H coordinalcs arc ca~y to u~e. hcca u ~c l'l.t1. y 1) amJ Q (xl. >'2 ) denote
I he ~:Jmc poin t 1( and o n ly if .r1 = .t2 and y 1 = .1':· ' ll1 u' wh en yo u know that P and
Q arc 1wo dilk rc nl poi nl s. you may conclude 1hJ1 I' and Q have diffcrenl abscissas.
diffcrcm ord in;llcs. or h01h.
., The point of symm elry lO. 0) where lh<: coord in:llc: axes mee t is cal.lcd the
uriJ,:in. All points on I hex-axis have coordin ates of the form (x . 0) . Althou gh the rt•a/
twmii<'T x is no I the , ;unr: as the ~eornctric JXllll t (.c. 0). I here ar.: situations in which
it is usefu l to lhink of the t\\O as the sam.:. Similar remark> apply to points (0 . y) o n
FIGURE 8 .2 The point P has the y-axis.
rectangul<~r coordinates y,). <••· Titc concept of dis wnce in th e coordinate plane i ~ ha~cd on the l'yrha ~:urc;m
thl'<lrl"lll: If i1fiC is :1 right triangle wi lh ils right angle at I he poi nt C. wi lh hypotenuse
of length c and I he olhcr 1wo sides of lengths a and b (as in Fig. 13.3). th.:n
r :
(1)
·~H~ conver~e of the Py1hagorcan thc?re r~ is also true: If the three sides of ::1 given
tnanglc satJsfy the Pythagorean rclauon m Eq. (I ). then the angle opposite side c
must he a right angle.
A C(nght 1l1~ tlistallct· d( 1'1. /~) ~~t~~·ccn th e points P1 and I~ is. by definition. the le ngth
b .1n;lr)
of the str:uglll -hnc scgm.:nt JOrn rng li and h l l1c following formula gives d( !'1. {'2 )
FIGURE 8 .3 The Pythagorean
10 terms of the coord111 atcs or the two points.
theorem .
Distt~nce Formula
'Ill~ di, tum·e I'C twccnthc twn point~ l'J(.t· 1. y 1 1

. :md / ':_(.r: ..I~ ) is
(21
PROOF If .r, f. .tz and )'J f. yz. th en Eq. (2) foll ows from the Pvthaco rean theo-
rem. Use the right triangle with vertices P 1• /'2 , and [~(.r2 , y 1) shO\~'n in-Fig. ll.4.
If x, = xz, then P, a nd P2 lie in a \'C rticalline. In this case
ti ( P~o fz) = IYt- )'11 =V(J•- >~) 2 •
This agrees with Eq. (2) because x 1 = x 2• lbe remaining case (y1 = n) is similar. ~
APPENDIX 8 A-7
f iGU RE 8.4 Use this triang'e to f iGURE 8 .5 II this a right triangle

deduce the diuance formula. (EJ<ampl~ 1}?
EX AMPLE 1 Show t hai the trb nc.Ie PQR with vertices P ( l. 0) . Q(5 . .t) , a nd
R(-2. J) is a right triangle (Fig. B.S).-
Sol utio n lltc dis tance fo rmula gives
r, a
2
= (d(l'. Qll1 = (5- 1): +(.I - 0): = 3.2.
b = [cl(l'. Rlj: = ( -2- 1)1 .._ (3 - 0): = 18.
1
and
c 2 = [cf(Q. R)j' = (-2 - 5): ~ (3 - .1)
2 =50.
Because a1 + o1 ~ r,
the COfll 'rT.SC of the 1')1hlgorca n theorem im plies t na t RPQ
is a righ t angle. (lltc right angle is at I' because pis the vert e x opposite the longest
side. Q R. ) +
Another applic:uion of the distance form ula is an cxpres~ion for the coord inates
oft hc midpoint ,\ f of the line segme nt !'1 /~ wi th endpoints P1 :!nd 1'2 (Fig. l3.6). Recall
from g.cometry that M is the one (and on ly) point of the line segm ent P1 1~ that is
fiCURE8.6 Th~ midpoint AI. equally distant from 1'1 and /~. 'The following formula tells us th at t he coord ina tes
of Marc the m ·erag(S of the corresponding coordina tes o f 1'1 and P: .
M id point Formulil
llll' tttiii1J(Iint o f the linl' Sl'gmcnl wit h cndpninl' f',(.r 1 • y 1 ) a nd P: lx :. _1': ) i ~ the
puint .\II x. )' I with cnnrdin:llc'
:1 = ~(x, + x: l and y = ~(Yt + )':). ( 3)
PllOOF If you subst itute the coo rdinates o f P~o Ill. and ~ in the distance formula.
you fi nd that d ( 1'1• M ) = d(l~ . M ) . All that remains is to sho w that M lies on the line
segment P1 Pz. We ask you to do this. and thus complete the proof, in Problem 31 . ~
~TRAIGHT LINES AND SLOPE

'
We want to defi ne the slope of a stra i ~ht line. a measure of its rate o f rise or fa ll
(rom left to right. Given a nom·at ical straight line L in the C()Ordinate plane, choose
two po ints 1'1 (.r1 , _l't) and /~(.r1 . _1~) on L Conside r the increm ents Ax and C.y ( read
"delta .x '' and "delta y" ) in the x· and y-coordtn ates from /'1 t o f>z. lltcse are defined
as follo ws:
C.x =xz- .r, and C.y = )'2 - Yl· (4)
Engineers (and o thers) call C.x the run from ~'1 to 1~ and C.y the rise from f't t o Pz.
as in Fig. n.7. lltc slope m of the non vertical hneL IS then defin ed to b e the ratio of
the rise to the run:
!lcu~E 8 . Ay )~- Yt
~-.:~ht 1,~~- The slope of a Ill = - = --
c.x xz- Xt
.
(5)
A-8 APPENDICES
FIGURE B.S The result of the slope

mmpuLlt>on does not de"pend on
"hich two points of l are used.
This is also the defini ti::ln of a line's slo pe in civil en!!inc:ering (and elsewhe re). In a
surveying text you are li kely to find the memory :l i U
nsc ..
"siClpc = - .
run
Rccll l t h:ll corrc spnnd1·ng sH.lcs
· · ·1.H ( I11:1t 1·"-· cq u~l-~' n glcd)
of Slllll . triangles
f L. h have
equ al ratios. lienee. 1f I ;(X) . ,1')) anu ' ' .r,. ' •1
· , · ' n ( }' l · rc two othe r po mts o I en llC
1
si milari ty of th e t riangle~ in Fig. B.!\ imphc< tha t
y, - ) ':1 -~~ - Yt
=
X-'- X J X~ - X1
lllereforc. the slope 111 35 defined in Eq. (5) docs nor de pend o nlhe panicular choice
of P1 and P2. . ( ) · 0 If L
If the line Lis horizontal. then Ay =
0. In this case Eq. 5 gtvcs m = ..
is ven ical, then A.r = 0. so the slope o f Lis nor di!fined. Thus we have I he followmg
stalem enls:
• Hnri7nn l~llin e; have slope ze r o.
• Vert ical lines have no defin ed slope.
EXAMPLE 2
(a) The slope of the line lhrough Ihe points (3. -2) and (-I , 4) is
4- ( - 2) 6 3
1n= =- = - -.
( -1 ) -3 -4 2
(b) The points (3. - 2) and (7. -2) have the sam e y-coordinale. 1l1ereforc, lhc
line through them is horizontal and thus has slope zero.
(c) llte points (3. - 2) and (3, 4) have the same x~oordinate. Thus the line
through them is vertical , and so ils slope is undefined. +
IEQUATIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES
flJ:; - ;
Y- Yo
x - xo
ArrENDtX s A-9
that is.
) ' - )\> = m(x - .r0 ). (til
Because .• EcJ.( 6 ). as docs cvay o ther r<>inwf Land ~t·c:~mc

no o th the .point (·ru. )IJ) saushcs
tine 1 er
ltl pomts
. of the pia· nc. canto •
1 so. Eq. (li) i< indeed an equati o n f,>r the ):tn'n
~ sununarv· · " c h ale
. • t11c f ollowm!!
. rc~u lt.
Th t! Point-Slo pe EquJtion
• 1 (~oint·r/'tt
'Ill.; . ''"~"-' "' th rou••h the thnii'Oin i LJ,•. 11J) ..
. · ·t' l lin· · nn thc ,.'"'' 1\lth tl
, < till 1•I J th Clltl•Ji
111
· 11 .1I . . . f .
• t ' ' at'' ) th,· •·qu.ttu>n
:-
. Ettna tion (li) is• c•llcd

.. · tlte poonl->
· • of I~ partlv h•c:nt<C t Iw co ·
1ope equattnn
ordma• tes of the po'nt
1 (x,,. )nl an d the sh,pc m <•f L m:w t>e read ·d .tn·ctl v from th .t$
equatton. · ·
EXAMPLE 3 Write an <'<JUatiom fo r the straigh t line Lthmu)!h th<'J'Oint$ / '1 ( I . - I)

and 1 ~(3 . 5).
Solution lhe slope m of L may be ot>t;~in 1·d fro m the two ~,:il·c n points:
5-(-1)
m = 3- I =3.
Eith~:r P, or P: will do for the lixcd point. \\'c usc /'1( 1. - 1). 'lhen. with the aid of
Eq. (6). the point ·slo pc equation of Lis
y+I = 3(x - 1).
If simplification is appropriate. we mav. write 3x - .I' =.t or .1· = 3.r - 4. •

Equation (6) can be wri tten in the form
y=mr+ b (7)
where IJ =
) It - tnro is a constant. Because y = b when .r = 0. the y- intN~JII of L
fiGURE8.9 The ~traight line with is the point (0. b) shown in Fig. 13.9. Equations (6) :md (7) are different fom1 ~ of th~
~uat1oo y = mx + b ha~ a ~lope m
t'ld y-interce-pt b. equation of n straight line.
The Slope-I ntercep t Equ:~ tion

'lltc point rc\,
y) li~s l\11 th<' hn·· \\ith sh>p•: Ill :lltd y-illt<'f<"Cpt, if and (111)\' if tht'
l'uordinato:s of/' satisfy till' <'<(U:ttion ·
,1' =//IX+ h. (7)
Perhaps you noticed that both Eq. (6) and Eq. (7) C'an be written in the form
of the gcncrnllincar cqu:ttion
tlr + By= C. (8)
where ;\, B. and C (Ire constants. Conversely. if 8 -F 0. then Eq. (S) can be written
in the form of Eq . (7) if we d!vidc each tc_r~l by fl. ll1ereforc Eq. (S) represe nts a
straight line with its slope bemg the cocfltctcnt of .r afta s~lution of the cqu:ttion
for v. If B = 0. then Eq. (8) reduces ~o the equatton .o r a vcrttcaliinc: x K (where =
j;
K a constant). If A ,. 0 and ~ 'f 0. then Eq. (S) reduces to the equation of l1
horizontal line: y == 11 (where /Its n constant). lhus "''-'see that Eq . (8) is always an
equ.. . -
=
.,·,on of a straight line unless A II = 0. Con,·ersely. e v..,ry strai~:ht line in the
. one- has an equa ,.ton o f t he form .-
lane-even a vcrucal 111 (S)
coor d 111:11c p • ·
A-1 0 APPENDICES
PARALLEL LINES AND PERPENDICULAR LINES . . .

I .
Then it s angle of anchnahon
If t he line L is nothorizontal.thenitmust.cross t he~·axas. ' ti"c: .r·axis to LIt follows
1 L is the angle o measured_ countercloc~"15e from~ e ~~.IO makes it clear that this
1: . ,,
Sio:'< "' • 'ij"=T,
:n
that 0 < o < 180' if¢ IS measured degrees. lgluJtcd tw t he equation
angle o and the slope m of a no:l\·erucal hnc ;ue re ·
\ \'
(9)
m = - · = tan¢.
t>x
. . . le then tan¢ is t he ratio of
Th is is true because if o is an acute 31lgle 10 a n ght tnang ·
the leg opposite o to the leg adjacent!~ 0 · h . rncs arc paralle l if and only if
You r intuition correct!~· assur~s ~ ou t. af~:~~~"s from Eq. (9) th:H two paralle l
1
•
they ha\'c the same an~le of anchn:lllon . So
11
wo lines with the same slope must be
nonvenical li nes ha"e the same slope and that t
parall el. This comple tes the proof of Theorem I.
FIGURE 8. 10 How is the angle
of ln,linatlon ¢ related to the
slope m? THEOR EM 1 Slopes of Parallel Lin es . •
Two non\'ertical lines arc pa ral lel if and only if they hn\'e th e sa me s 1ope:.
. owithout the usc of th e tangent function.1ltc two

lhcorcm I t:an a Iso be pro'c · · 1 • • n ' lar
. 1 · I'
IInC~ S Jt)Wll Ill rig. '·
r::: 11 arc p·
•1 rallel 1 raght tn ang es nrc su I ,
if and o nly .if the I wo
which i~ ~:qui valent to the slopes of th e lines be1ng c qua ·
EXAMPLE 4 Write an equation of the line /. th3t p:tsscs through the point P(3. -2)
and is parallel to the lir.e L' with the equ:uion x + 2y 6. =
Solution When we soh·e the equat ion of I.: for y, we ge t y i .r + 3. So L' has=-
slop~ 111 = -l·
Because L has the same slope. its poin t-s lope equation is then
y+2 = -l<x-3):
if you prefer, x + 2y =-I.

•
FIGURE 8.11 Two parallel lanes.
TH EOREM 2 Slopes of Perpendicular Lines
Two lines L 1 and L1 with slopes m1 and mz. respective ly, arc perpendicular if 31ld
o nly if
( 10)
lltat is.. the slope of each is the negative reciprocal of the slope of th e o ther.
l'UOOF lf the two lines L, and L2 are perpendicular and the slope or each exists,
th en nei ther is horizontal or vertical. Thus the situation resembles the on e shown in
Fig. 8.1 2, in which the two lines meet at the point (.to. Yo). it is easy to sec that the two
right triangles of the figure arc similar, so equality of ratios or corresponding sides
yields
)'2 - ) I> Xo - .Tt x, - .ro l

mz=
x2 - xo
= Yt - .Yo
=-
Yt - ) \1
= - -.
m,
FIGURE 8.12 Illustration of the
proof of Theorem 2.
lltus Eq. (10) holds if the two lines are perpcndicular.lllis argument can be reversed
to prove the converse-that the lines are perpendicular if m m -I. ~
1 2
=
EXAMPLE 5 Write an equation of the line L through the point 1'(3. -2) that is
perpendicular to the Line I.: ~ith equation x + 2y = 6.
APPENDIX B A-11
~I CURt 8.13 Posiw e and neg,ttive slope; effect on¢.
Solution As we saw in Example -1, the slope of t.: is n ( = -!.

E3y Th eorem 2. the
=
slope o f Lis m = -I f m' 2. 'Thus L has the point·slopc equatio n
y + 2 = 2(x - J):
equivalently. 2x - y = 8. •
You will find it helpful to remember that the si~n of the slope 111 of the line
L indicates whether /. runs upward or downward a~ your e yes move from left to
right. If m > 0, then the angle of inclination(> of I. must be an acute angle:. because
m = tan o. In th is case. L "runs upward " to the right. If m < 0. then t!J is obtuse. so
l. "runs downward." Figure 11.13 shows the geometry be hind the se obse rvati ons.
!GRAPHICAL INVESTIGATION
Many mathematical problems require the simult:mcous solution or a pa ir of linear
equations of the form
DtX+bt)'=Ct.
( IJ)
02X + lj~y = C2 .
l11c g.raph of these two equ:llions cunsists or a pair of straight lines in the xy·pl:mc.
If these two lines arc not parallel, then they must intersect at a single point whose
coordinates ( ,t 0 . ) It) constitute the so lution of ( II ). That is.. x = x 0 andy = ) \J arc the
(only) values or .randy for \\hiclt hoth equations in (II) arc true.
In ckmcntary a lgebra you studied variou~ climin:llion and substi tution meth ·
FlGURE 8. I 4 A calculator ods for snlving linear ~ystcms such as tho: one in ( II ). Ex;unp lc 6 illustra tes an alter·
P'!pared to graph the lines In native gmplricnl llll'tfw rl that is some times useful wh.:n a graphing utility-a g.r aphics
lq. (12) (Example 6).
calculator or a computer with a graphin~ program-is available.
EXAMPLE 6 We want to investigate the simultaneous solution o f the linear cqua·

tions
lOx- 8y = 17,
15x + ISy = 67. (12)
With many graphics calculators.. it is necessary first to solve each equatio n for y:
y = (17 - IOx)/ (-8),
y = (67- 15x)/ IS. (13)
Figure E3.14 shows a calculator prepared to grap~ the two lines repre se nted by the
equations in ( 12). and Fig. 8.15 shows the result Ill the viewing window _ 5 :;i :c ~ 5 •
-5~y ~ 5. . .
Before proceeding. note that 111 Fig.~ B. I S the two lmcs c1p{uar 10 be perpcn.
dicular. But their slopes.. (-10)/ (-B) = i and (-IS)/ 18 = - ~ ·are not negative
A-12 APPENDIC ES
l lJr-----------------~ 1..19
U!!·
I.!•S·
) y
1.!~·
us: ·
J.ll
:s
FIGURE 8.16 2 ' 1 ' 3. F IGU R ~ 8. 17 2 75 ~ ' ~ 2 8 5, FIGURE 8.1 8 2.80<' x ;S 2 81,
I~ y;:: 2 ( l~4'Tip'~ 6) I 3S ~ t:: I .:5 (bJ-.,'e 6). 1. 38 :S y::
1 39 (Example 6).
r<'Clr:<~-~·, <'f nn;: ~r:o:her. 11 follows from l11c:orem 2 th:t t the t\\ O li n ear nrc nor
p..-rrcnJrcular
ri,·ur~' II If•. n 1- .•lr.J R!S <h(1\\ <UCCC<<ii'C m ~g n ific:lli o n~ produced by
" tuo:nm~ In·· nn the rumr ,,r 1nrcrsc.:tion o( th<· t\\O line" l11c dashed- line box
rn c~.:lr tr~urc ,, tlr.: \1::\\JilC "ind<m for thc nc\1 li~1m:. looking a t fi g. 1!.18, we sec
th .tt the r~l~f'<'Cir<m f'<llnt '' gt\'l'O by the apprn~ im;ll i<ln<
\ ~ ~.807. y ::::: US.l. ( 1-'l
rtlU ildl'<f tll lhiCl' liClllll.rl pl.,_.,,
Il l<' rc,ult rn ( l.!J r.ml-c .:hcd:cd hy cy uatin;: t he righ t -hand ~id es in ( 13) nnd
,nh·in~ fur 1 . 'f1u, !!"''' 1 = .!~I 15')"":! ~()(>7. Sul"ri r111in!! the cxnct va lue of x into
cilhcr •·qual IIlii 111 ( 1.>1 rh•· n "'·ld< ,. = iG; Nl ::- I JKU.
llt<' )!r.q,hrcal m.:r hod iiJu,trarctl hy E ~:l mplc 6r) pica lly prod uc.:s approximate
"1lutinn< th .ol .or,· <ufli.:i,·llrl~ :occur:llc for prac1ical purpo~c-.. l1u1 tlw metho d is
csrcci.llly mcful fur mmlm···" cqua tro ns. tur " h ich exac t alge braic techniques of
,ulu tiun ma~ no t be a' ;ulahlc. +
APP END IX B PROBLEMS

Tllft'«'ll"illt\ A. II.,,,/ C IU' 011 fl \IIH:/c• )/fOIJ.,'htlm~ dmttl tml\· if In l'ro!JI~m< f.J rhrough .?1, k•rirc an <'tflllllion of the straight
r/u• sltlp~of A ff '"'<lrtnl '"'II~ <lnr•·of /JC. In l'mhlml< I tlrn•u~;h line' L drKriht'd.
.J. plot tlrt• rhrc·,. ~"'"" f'tlU:/{ nntl thc·n tlc•te'rmir:t' wh,·tlrrr or n~t
1-1. I. is ,·.:rtical and has .r· inte rcept 7.
thry li~ (liJ tr ·' m;;:/t• '""'·
1 ~. I. is horizonta l 3nd plsses through (3, - .S).
I . A! - I. -=>· llr1. I I . cc ~ . J>
/11: . .~ I. Cell. 01 16. L has .<·intercept 2 and y·int~ rcc pr - 3.
~- tl ! -2. 5).
J. A (- 1,(>1 , Rt i.:J. C (J . -21 17. I. passes thr(>ugh (2. -3) and (.S. 3).
A c- 3. : 1.
"· 8 ( 1./\) ,
In Proh/,·m< 5 and 6, "-''',,,..COliC

C(~. 1-IJ
<'!'' nf sl<'l'•' tn tlw"' thnt ''"
IIi. I . passes 1hroug h (-I. - 4) and has slope j.
19. L passes through (4. 2) a nd has angle of inclination IJ.S•.
f our pailll< ;:i•'<'ll tll't' ''"' •wrirr
21. ~ p:1sses through (I. 5 ) lnd is parallel to th e line with cq ua·
1>. ,1(7.-ll. R\-2. 21. C( l.~ l. 0 (10. 1) liOn 2x + y = 10.
/ 11 /'m b/<'IIIS 7 und S. ' "''"' that tlu· thre,· gi•·m points tlfl' the 22. Lpasses through ( - 2, ~) a nd is perpendicular ro the li ne
t'erticc.'·'· of a ri);lrttritmglt·. wuh equa tion x + 2y = 17.
7. ,1(-1. - l l. 11(2. 7r. ({-1 , - ~)
23. Lis the perpendicular bi~ccror o f the line segmen t that bas
II. A ell. - 11. 8(2. 31. C( - .l. -2 ) endpoints (-1 . 2) a nd (3. 10)
I n J>m!Jiml.f () thrtlltJill / .1, .'i11d t/11• .<lnpl' m 11111/ y ·illtl'TC<'pt!J of Z-1. Find t?c pc rpc ndicullr distance from the point (2. 1) to the
tht•linc " ith rhr ~;i•·m rqrta:inn. Tl1r11 skrtch rht! l11w. hnc wuh equation y = x + 1.
9. ::!.1 = 3y 10. X .._ y = I 2S. Find the pcrpendicullr diunncc between the parallel lines
Y = 5x- I and y = .S.r + 9.
11. 2-• - y +3= 0
26. ~e points 11(- 1. 6), li(O.O).and C(3, I) a re three conscc·
IJ. 2.r = J- .Sy utl\·e ' 'Crtoces of a parallelogram. Whal are the coordinltes
AFPENDIX C A-13
, urth ,·ertex? (What ha ppens if the word C'OnJtcutiv c
oflhC,o
.11 omiucd 7)
l'rO'·e th atthc d i,gonals of the parallelo gram of Problem 26
tf. . ct•ach other.
btf>! '
ho"' that the p~ints A(- 1,2), 8 (3. - 1), C(6. 3). and
~ 5 7 61nrc the verttccs o f n rhom.~ us-a parallelogram with
Dt-· r sides having the sa me length. 1l1c n pro\'c that the
all 1ou . I t .
di~n
als of th iS r 10 m 1us nrc perpendtcular to each ot her .
The points 11(2. 1). 8 (3. 5). an.d CO. 3) arc the vertices of l
zg. atnl. n•lc
~ · Pro\'e tll3 t the lt ne JOtntng the mid points of AB
ar. d BC is pa rallel to A C. FIGURE 8.19 Tht lines of

Pro!:llem 36.
A mtdian of n trinn[:lc i• a line joining a ,·enex to the mid.
· 1 of the opposite side.
l\ potn . Prm·~ that t he medians of the
uillllttk of Problem 29 mt crsect in a single point. Are these two lines parallel? If not. lind their point of.in·
te rscctioo. If yo u ba'e a graphing utility. lind the solutton
lL Complete the proo f nf the mtdpoint fo~mula in Eq. (3). It by graphieal appro<timation as well as by exact nlgcbra tc
• •the pomt M ltcs o n the segment
· .IS neccssar)' to sho w that me thods.
p,f':. One way to do tim " to show that the slope o f ,\f p
1
iseq~al to the store of M 1} . In Problems 37 through -16. uu n graphics cnlcrd ator o r cr~m·
l!. Let ?(xo. ,111) ben pnint of the circle with cente r C(O. 0) and (111/t'r to nppruximntr Jlraphictrlly ( h'rth tlrrrr• tligi rs tn tire rrg lrt
udiu~ r . l~ccall that the line tange nt 10 the circle nt the of t!tr tlecrm al correct or w rrrcth• rou~tdt'd) tla· solutio11 of tltt!
gi•·mlmenr rq11ntio11. Thert cha k ) OIIr appro.rim att' solmion by
point I' is pcrpe nlliculllr W t!le radius C P. l'ro,·c tha t the
equation of thiS ll nj!en t hnc ts .r..t + )hY = r l. w iving tl~r sy1trm by nil r.rnct olgclm11c method.
l-\ The Fahrenheit tcmper:u urc F :tnd the absolute tcmr>e r· 37. 2x + 3y = S 3S. 6.r + ~y= 5
arurc K s:~tisfy ~ linear equatio n. Mo reove r. K = 273.16 2x + 5y 12= R.r- 6y = 13
• ben F = 32. 3nd K = 373. 16 when F = 212. Express K 39. 3.r + Jy = 17
io temu of F. \\'hat is the ''nlue or F when K = 0? =
40. 2x - 3y 17
3x +5y =l6 2x +5y = 20
}1. The length /. (tn ce nt imete rs) of a copper rod is a hncnr
function of iu Ccl•iu< te rnpcr" lurc C. IC L = 124.9-12 when .U.4 t + 3y -17 4!. .;, + 31 = IS
C : : Oand L a 125.134 \\hcn C = li O.exprcss L intcm1s 5x+5y =21 5r+Sy =29
of C.
4J. Sx + 6y =
16 4-1. S.r + Ily = 21
).~ The owner o f a grocery store finds th nt she cnn sell 980 gnl 7x +JOy = 29 4.r + l Oy= 19
of milk each •wek nt $1.69/ gal and 1220 gal o f milk each
•·eek at $1.49/ gnl. Assume a li near relationship between 45. 6x + 6y = 31 ~ 7.t + 6y = 31
price and sales. I low nllny gallons would she then expect 9.r + l l y = 37 ll x+ ll y= 47
to ~ell each " eek at Sl.56f gal?
l6. Figure 8.19 shows the graphs o f the equatio ns 47. Justify the phrase "no o the r poin t o r the pla ne can d o so"
that follow$ the fi rst appearance o f Eq. (6).
17.r- t Oy = 57, 48. The discussionoflhclincarcquation , t t + By = C inEq. (8)
does not indude a dcscrtptton of the graph of this equat ion
25.r- l Sy = 17. if A= B = 0. \\'1131 is the graph in this case?
APPENDIX C: REVIEW OF TRIGONOMETRY

In elementary trigono metry. the six basi.c trigonometric fttn~tions of 311 acute
an lc 0 in a right triangle arc defined as ~altos between patrs of s1de; of the triangle.
Asgin Fig. C. I. where ":ldJ...· St!ln d s f or ·ad
• Jacent ·" "opp" fo r "opposite,
· " and "hyp" for
"hypotenuse,"
adj . opp opp
cosO=- . stn O = h}'P, tan O = -
hyp adj •
(1)
hyp
sec 9 = -d.
cscO = opp
hyp. cot O = adj.
ll!j
3 J 0 PP
llc11RE C.t
rJ 1 '13ht '"· Tht
sidts a nd angle 9 r c these definitions to direcr~d angles of arbitra ry size in the followin
...ngle. We gsenera
way. uppose IZ that the initinl side of the angle 9 is the positive x-axis. so its vertex _g
1s
A· 14 APPENDICES
at t he o rigin. lne ang le is directed if a directi on o f r otation from its initia l side to its
ter minal side is specified. We call r a pusiti> e angle if this rotati on is counterclockwise
and a ncgat i• e nnJ:Ir if it is clock"i se.
• ~ t P (.r. y ) be the point a t which the te rm inal sideof O intersects the unit circle
.r• +r = I. lll en "e define
)"
cosO = .r, sin O = y. tan O = - .
X
(2)
1 1 .r
sec O = -.
X
csc B = -.
...
cot l' = - . ,.
We assume that x = 0 in the cas<! of tnn 9 and secO a nd tha t y?O in the case of
co t nand ~9. If the anfle f) is positive and acu te. the n it is cle ar from Fif!. C.2 that
FIGURE C.2 Using the un t circle the definitions in (2) ~£ '""wi th the rig.ht tri:tnglc:' cl dimti ons in ( I ) in terms of the
to d efine the trigonometric
coordinates of!'. A dance a t the til! urt: also sho ws which of the functio ns a rc positive
functions.
fo r an gles meach of the fo:.:r qu3d-r:w ts. Fifur<: C 3 s umma ri7cS th is informatio n.
Here "'c di<cu~~ primarily the t\\ O mo" basic tr igonorm :tri..: functions. the si ne
and the Co\inc. From (2) \\C sec imm.·diatcly t hat the o the r fou r t rigo nometric func-
t ions arc defined in terms of sin tl and ws by e
sin P I
ta n O = - - .
cosO
sccO = cosO
--.
r (3)
Sin<
Co~«nnt I AU
cos O
co t O = - -
sin 0 ·
cscr = ~.
Slrl
I
0
To~ncc nl Cn~ome Next. ''c compare the angles 0 and -0 in Fig. CA . \Vc sec that
Cot ;an ~C'n t Xc.·:ant
cos( - 0) = co~O and sin(-0) =-sin O. (4)
Positive in qu3dr:ant~ shown 13cca u.~c x = cos 0 and y = sin 0 in (2) . the eq uation x 2 + y 1 = 1 of the unit circle
transbtcs immcdi:ll cly int o the fu ndamcntul identity or trigonometry,
FIGURE C.3 ThP <igm o f the
trigonometric function s. cos= 0 + sin 2 0 = I. (5)
Dividing each term of this fundamen tal ide ntity by cos2 0 gives the identity
1 + tan 2 0 = scc1 0 . (5')
y
Similarly, dividing each term in Eq. (5) by sin 2 0 yields the identi ty
I + cot 2 0 = csc2 0. (S")
(Sec r•ro blcm 9 of this appendix.)
In Problems 41 and 42 we outline derivations of the ncldition formulas
si n(a + /3) = sinacos fl +cosasinfl, (6)
cos(a + {J) =cos a cos/3 - sin a si n tJ. (7)
With a= 0 = fl in Eqs. (6) and (7). w e get the clouble·anglc formulas
sin 20 = 2sinOcosB, (8)
FIGURE C.4 I he effect of
replacing 0 with - 0 in the sine cos 28 = cos2 0
- sin 2 o (9)
and cosine functions. = 2cos2 0 - 1 (9a)
=l-2sin2 0, ( 9 b)
where Eqs. (9a) and (9h) are obtained from Eq. (9) bv usc of th f d ·d ·
in Eq. (5). • e un a menta11 entity
If we solve Eq. (9a) for cos2 0 and Eq. (9b) for sinl w ,
formulas
h h If 1
, e get t c u ·ang c
o
2
cos 0 =!(I +cos20), (10)
• 2 0 = 2(1
sm I
- cos28). (11)
Equations (10) and (II) are especially important in integral calculus.
r--__
RAD~IA~N~M~EA~S~U_R~E---::::::-------------------------------
In elementary mathc .
APPENDIX C A-15
one com 1 matt~. angles frequ 1 . . · ' £" ' ·

meas P etc rcvofuti o n. 1n calculus 't en t ·' arc mea<ured m dr~rt·rs. ••llh ·'""
. m
urc anglc5 in radio Th . 1 IS more com cment- JnJ <>ftcn c~~cnllJI-ICI
subtcn ds in (thatt' s th~ nt c t'lldlart mt>a<ure of an anck 1 ~ the kncth of the .trc it
. . -arcucurs 0 1 r • •
ts at the center or the et rcl• ( ~ o.) the unit cucle "' hen th: •.:rtc~ t>f the :10!!lc
Recall that the area ;, ;g. C:::>).
th e formulas nd Ctrcum(erence C of a circle of r~rfiu~ r nr.: ri ven by
A= .~,~ and C = 1-~r.

fiGURE (.5 The rad1an me.11ure where the irrational num~ . .
ch nl ng'c. of th e unit eire!~ ·5 2.- .':: 15 appro~tmatel~ .\IJ159. ne.·au$<! the circumfcn.· nre
·I • and ItS central angle IS .'ffi'. it f<>llo" s that
. 2:r rad = .360: l&r = ::raJ::: .'. IJI 5Q raJ. (12)

Radian< Ocgrccs Usmg Eq. ( 12) -...c ca I
n eas1 ~convert l-ark anJ forth 1-ct\\c.-en r:tdi:ms :tnd tl.:grces:
0 0
ISO
rr/6 311 I rad = - :., 57 1; · .w.~... ( l l:t)
,Tj 4 115 :r
(,()
1 ~ rJJ "= OOI7J5 raJ
::/3
11/2 I)() 1' :: ( I Zb)
l T{J 120 Figure C.6 show~ radian ·' ·
• -uqrrce con,erston< for some common ancle'-
J.T/4 135 Nowco 'd 1 •
n~t c r :In ang c of fl rad1ans at the cen ter of J ~m:lc: of racliu~ r ( f·i!!. C.7).
5tr/6 150 Deno te.hy .! the length of th e nrc suhtcnllcd hy 11: denote hy t1 the area of the ~ector
:: lRO of the Circle ho unded by this angle. 'fhcnthe rrnpor! ion<
J.T/2 270
2.'1 360 s A ll
-= - ,=-
.!:r 720 2:rr ~r · 2:r
give the fo rmulas
FIGURE ( .6 Some radian-dcgrec
<cm~rs;ons.
s = r (} (0 in rad bns) ( 13)
and
(9 in radians). ( 14)
The definitions in (2) refer to trigonometric functions of anglt•s rather than
trigonometric functions of numbers. Suppose that/ is a real number. ·n lCn the num-
ber sin I is, bv definition. the sine of an angle of t radians-recall that a pmitive angle
is directed ~ounterdock nise from th.: posit1vc x-a ~ is.. -. hercas a negative angle is
direc ted clockwise. Briefly. sin tis the sine of an angle of 1 rndinns. The other trigono-
me tric functions of the number t have simila r definitions. Jiencc, when we write sin 1•
0 . 1 and so on. with t a real number. it is always in reference to an angle to t radians.
c s 'When we need to refer to the sine o~ a~ angh: o~ t d~~rees. we will .henceforth
wnte· sm · r•. The point is that sin 1 and sm r are qwte dtfferent funct1ons of the
van a. ble 1· "'
r •or example• •vou would -eet
sin 1• :::: 0.0175 and sin30' = 0.5
FICUR£ C.7 The ~re~ of n sector on a calcu Iator seI ·n

t
degree mode. Uut in radian mode, a calcula tor would give
1'11 l 't length of a circufar arc. sin 1 :::: 0.8-U5 and sin 30::::: - 0.9880.
. . b .. en the functions sin t and sin t , is
111e rclauonslup ct~<c
t
si nr• '"' sin ( ;~~) · (IS)
• . ds e 1·en to programming languages. In FORTRAI\', the

The distincuon ext~n ·ne function and you must write sin t • in the form
· 1 radtnn st •
f unction SIN IS tt e ·t write SIN(P i •T/180) to get the correct value of
In llASIC you mus
SIND< T) · of degrees.
the sine of nn angle 1
A-16 APPENDICES
f iGURE C.8 Periocfd:y c! the sine and cosine functions.
An angle of 2:r rad co:-responds to one revo lut ion around _the unit circle. This
implies t hat the sine and cosine funct ions hJvc peri od 2:r. meamng th at
sin(l ... 2-r ) =sin I .
(16)
cos( 1 + 2:t ) = cos 1.
II follows from Ihe c4ul1ions in ( 16) 1hat

~in(l _.. 2wr I= sin 1 and cos(!+ 2n:r) =COS / (17)
fm ~very int eger 11. 'llti' per iodicity nf the sine ~nd co,ine funcl ions i<evide nt in the ir
grJph' ( Fig. C.S). From the c4ua1ions in (J).Ihc olhcr four lrigonomc lric fu nctio ns
(0) also must \Jc periodic. as their graphs in Figs. C.9 and C.IO show.
UJU
"n
2 ~"
T
(b) I>) lb)

FIGURE C.9 The graphs of (a) the FI GU~E C.l O The graphs of (a) the secant function and (b) the cosecan t
tangen t function and (b) the functron.
cotangent function.
We see from the equat ions in (2) th at
. ;r
sin O= 0. sm-
2 = 1. sin rr = 0,
Tl ( 18)
cosO= 1. cos 2 = 0, cos rr = - 1.
~I Tile lrigonometric functions of rr f6 ;r /4 and ;r / 3 (the rad' ·

~
1
and 60., respectively) are easy to ;ead from the well-kn~~~ eq~tva Ients of 30' ' 45• ,
For instance n tnang es of Fig. C.ll.
{j '
. :r 1 ~
sm - = cos -:r3 = -2-2.
-_
12/11 6
k_j sin :!:. = cos:::_ =

4 4
2. -
..ti -
.j'i.
T · and (19)
1
FIGURE C.ll Familiar right . :r :r .,fj

triangles. sm-3
=cos-=-
6 2 .
A!'P:NO!X c A-1 7
To find the val
1h . . ues or trigono, . .
et r penodicitv and th~ .d ~e_tnt: funcuons of angles J.uger tbn :: {2. we can use
• ~ I entJttes
sin(:: ::!: li) ==~ sin 11.

cos!:: ::!: 11) == -c~9 nnd (20)
tan(;: ::!: e ) == -"- tan~
(Proble ms 38. 39. and 40 . . . - . . .
cotangent func tions. ) as "' ell as stmtlar tden tuies for the coscc:tnt. secant. and
EXAMPLE 1
. -5:: = sin ( -
sm
·
... .. - ..-.:- ) =-sm-
· :: ' 11•
.: = --·2.
~-
cos-
3 -COS ..
( _ ..- )
- 3
:r
== -C013 =- 2I :
2::-
tan-::=tnn ( :r-i- ) ==-tani=-1:
-
, 7;r . ( :r ) :r 1
sm 6 = sm :r + 6 - sin~ = - 1:
cos 3 5:r =cos (2JT - :r ) :r)

== co~ ( - ~ =cos 3'- = 2I :
3
. 17.-r . (
san ( ) -= sm 2:r + i5-r ) = sin 5:r
6
= Stn· (:r - :: ) =<In(;'
(i . :r ~
I
2' •
EX AMPLE 2 Find the solutions (if any) of the equ ation
sin~ .r - 3 cos2 x + 2 =0
that lie in the int erva l (0, IT).
Solu t ion Using th e fumlamc:ntal identi ty in Eq . (5) . we substitu tc cos2 x = 1- sin2.r
into th e given equati on to obta in
sin1 x - 3(1 - sin 2 x ) + 2 = 0:
4 sin2 x - I = 0;
Stn .r =_,
. .._t
_
Bccnusc sin x i: 0 for x in (0. :r ). sin x = - ~ is im~ssible. But sin x = ! for x = :rc / 6
and for x = :r _ :r /6 = S:r f6. 1l1ese are the solutions of the given equation that lie
in (0. :r ). +
1L1J!ENDJX C PROBLEMS
UprtJs in radian mea.wre the anglts in Prob lttru /through S. 8. 3:r 9-~
4
L t:y. z. -270'
23.-r
l liS• 10. 60
"· 210'
!. - 150'
1 In Probltms I I through /-1, tval!latt tht six trigonomttric fimc-
• Profitt17ts 6th rough 10, exp ress in degrus I he angItS givt n in
':4' r/oru of :x: at th~ gi•·tn va/u~s.
lot f>lt iiJUrt.
3:r
6..::.. 2:~
12. :x: - -
4
10 7. 5
A· 18 APPENDICES
7;r 41. The poinu Alcml'.- sinO). Bil. OJ. C(ros¢. ~i~.¢). and
13. z .. 6 1~ . .c = 5:r D ms(ll- c J. sintfl ~ell nrc <hc"'n In Fi!'· C. I •. all ~re
3
roint\ on the unit circle. D<"dUCC from rhc !.let that the hne
Fmd nil :.nlutions .t of 'aclt rqunrinn in Prob1~11U /5 rhmu~h 23. secmenu AC 3 nd 80 h;l\c the s:tmc kngth (~cause they
3 r~ subt~nJed l'ly the ~me ccntrJl un~k • - ¢) tha t
1
1 ~. ~ in r : 0 16. sin.r =I
17. <in.r=-l Ill. cou =0 C(X(.l _ c l = cos t> ro< ¢ - •n tl sin¢.
19. CCIH = I Ul. cos.r =-I
21. t:tn.c =O ll.tan .c= l .•
2J. tan .1 =- I
2-l. Sup~e that tnn.c =
land th at son .r ~ 0. FinJ the '~lues
of the other fi ve tn gun<>mc tric functions o f .t.
2.~. Suppo~ that= .c = -; and that c<" .r > 0. finJ the' alu~
of the othe r five trigon rmctr1C furK!Inn< <•f t
Dt•tluet th' it!~nllli'J in f>mbl~mJ }()and !7 fmm rl:' f:m.1.;"''"'

tal rdrnriry
nml from tlw d rjinition f of tht' othrr four l rtJ:t momrtrlr frm rtu m t
2(,, I + ta n1 (I "' •eel I! 21. l +cor' tJ = C\c'"

211. Octlucc from the :ltl<l• tinn f<Hmula- for the""~ anti C<,..lll<
the addition formula for the tonj:<Ot rtCURE C t 2 Ocriv'ng thc cosine Jddition
formut 1 (Prob'cm 41)
1:\n t + t3n '
t3n( r -f 1') = · .
· I -tan .I tan I'
-1!. (3) Usc the lrt.\n~!cs sho"n '" fi~ C.IJ tu deduce that
In l'mltlmu 29 rhrortl'h .111. rtH rhr mrrlw.J af £.ramp!< /w find
'"' int!icarr·d l'lllrt<s. sin(r • ~)=en, (I and co<(()+~ ) =-sin O.
. 5n 7.7
29. Sltl "(, JO. cos"(,
(b) Usc the results of l'robkm -II and p..rt (a) to derive the
. ll rr l'l,T :~ddition form ub for the s• nc function.
31. Sin 6 J!. cos 6
. 2.T -I.T
3.\ , Sin T ~ COST
. 5:r IO:r
3~. Sltl T .'6. cos 3
37. ,\pply the addition formuln for the sine. cosine. and tan·
sent functions (the latter from Problem 28) to show tlu t if
0 < 0 < rr/ 2. then
(n) cos( i -0) =sin 0;

X
(b) sinG - 0) = cos9;

(c) cot ( I - 9) = tan9.
Tile prcfi~ co· is an abbre,iation for the adjccti,·e comple·
m ;•nfllr)'. which describes two a ngles whose sum i~ :r /2. For
FIGURE C.13 Deriving the identities of
example. :r/ 6 and :r / 3 are comple mentary angles. so (n) Problem 42 .
=
implies th at cos .T/6 sin :r /3.
Suppou that 0 < IJ < :r / 2. Dnive tht ider:tirieJ in Problmu 38 In Problmu -1) tltmrrgh -1,~. find a/! solutions of the gin~n ~qua
rltrouqh -10. rion that lie in tlr~ illltfl'lll [0. :r ).
311. sin (:r ± 0) = :;: sin IJ 43. 3 sinl .t - co<: x =2 -14. sin 2 x ,. cos1 x
39. co~(rr ± 8) = -cosO ~5. 2cosl x + 3sin: .r = 3
40. tan(rr ± 0) = ±tan 0 47. 8sin1 x cos1 .c =1 41!. cos2{1- .lcosO = -2
AJ>PENDIX D A-19
APPENDIX D: PROOFS OF THE LIMIT LAWS

Recall t he definition of the limit:
lim F (.r) = L
·-·
provided that, gi"en c > 0, t here exists a number 6 > 0 such that
0 < l.r - a! < o implies thlt IF (.r) - L l < t. ( I)
Note t hat the number c comes first. Then a value of 6 > 0 must be found so that the
implication in (I) holds. To prove that F(.r) _ Las x _ a. you must. in e ffect. be
able 10 stop the ne xt person you see and ask him or her to pick a positi' e number .l
at random. Then )'Oto must o/wa." be read~· to respvnd " ith a positive numt>cr S. Thts
number 6 ~ust have t he property that the implication in (I) holds for your numbe r
o and th e g~vcn number f. The only restriction on xis th at
0 < l.r- a! < 6.

as given in (I).
To do all this. you will ordinarily need to give an e.~pl ici t m et hod-a recipe o r
fo rmula- fo r producing a value of o that work s for each value of e. 1\ s examples I
t hrough 3 show, the method will depend on th e particular function F under study as
well as the values of a and L
EXAMPLE 1 Prove that Jim {2.t- I) = 5.

•- l
Solution Gi,•en c > 0. we mu.st find 6 > 0 such that
IC2.t - I ) - 5)1 < l if 0 < l.r- 31 < o.

Now
1<2.t- I ) - 51 = J2.t- 61= 21.r- 3J.

so
0 < l.r - 31 < ; implies tha t 1<2.t - I) - 51 < 2 · i= f.
lienee. given£ > 0, it suffices to choose 6 = c /2. This illustrates the observatio n that
the required number ois generally a function of the given number£. +
EXA MPLE 2 Prove that lim {3.r~ + 5)
•- l
= 17.
Solution Given £ > 0. we must find o > 0 such that
0 < l.r - 21 < o implies that 1{3x 2 + S) - 171 < c.

Now
1 (3x~ +5) -171 = J3x~ -121 = 3- l:c + 2i·l.r -21.
Our problem. therefore, is to ~how that l.t + 21. ·l.t -:- 21 can be m ade as small ns we
please by choosing x- 2 sufficscntly s~all. 1l1c sdca ss that l.r + 21cannot be 100 la rge
if l.r _ 21 is fairly small. For example. sf lx - 21 < I. th en
l.r + 21= l{.r- 2) +-I I ~ lx - 21 + 4 < 5.
Therefo re,
2
0 < l.r _ 21 < 1 implies th:ll 1(3.r + 5)- 171 < 15 . l.r _ 2 1.
A-20 APPENOIClS
Con•cquen t l~. let U\ choose 1J to be the minimum of thr t\\ O numN:rs I a nd f/ 15.
lnen
(
O< l.r-2 <c! L"D?!i~that ox= -51-l i l < l5 · 15 =c.
a\ demed. •
EXAMPLE 3 Pro'e th.lt
. I I
~~~ - = - i! ,, = 0.
,_. r ~
Soluti on Fo r s1xpJ:cit~." e "'111 con<i.:!u c>nl~ th.: ca e in " hich a > 0 (the case a < 0
I\\lmilar) .
~upp<l<c tha t, > 0 " f-i' en. We mu~t find :1 numh: r .I <uc-h th:u
0 < t - " < J 1m ph.:' thJt ~

,t
- ~,
,,
... L
'J11c idcn i\ that 1/l t l cannot be too l.ucc 1f 1t - nf iS L1irly small. f'or c~:11nplc. if
l.t - n l < aj2, thcn nn_ < X < ]a / 2. Therefor~.
n
lrl > 2· "0 -
l.r l
.,; -
,,
In thi< c:1sc it would follow that
I II 2
I- - - I
x n
< ---.: . If - a l
tz·
if 1r- a l < n/ 2. llJUs. if we choose c! to be the minimum of th e two numb..:r> n/2 and
n:c /2. then
'
0 < lx- a l < lJ implies that ~-~ ~ < 2,.a=f =f.
x a n· 2
'lnerdorc
. I I
Ilnl- = - if a f 0.
~ -" x a
as desired.
•
W..: ar..: now n:ady to give proofs of the limit laws stmed in Section 2.2.
Constilnl L.1w
If ft.r) = C. a Clll~>t ant . th en
lim f(x) = lim C =C.
, _,, .t-u
PROOF Because IC - Cl = 0. we merely choose .S = 1. regardless of the previously

given value off > 0. lnen, if 0 < lx - a J < o, it i~ automatic that IC- Cl < c. -c
Addition Law
If lim f (.rl
·-J = Land lirn G Lrl = M. then
J-J
!~!F(x) + G(x)) = L + .H.
-
APPENDIX 0 A-21
a numbc •Let< > 0 beg·I\'en. Beca use

PROOF .
LIS tbe limit of F(x) as .r _. a. there .
CXISIS
r 0 1 > 0 such that
0 < lx- a] < .S1 implies that Jf(x)- Ll < ~·

Because M is the lim·11 0 f G(.r) as x -+ a, there exists 11 number .S~- > 0 such that
0 < lx- a) < 61 implies that IG(x)- M l < i·

Let l> = rnin(.S I· 62I· Then 0 < lx- al < .S implies that
I( F(x) + G(.r))- CL + .If) I ;£ iF(x ) - LI "- IGCx) - M l < ; "'; =f.
Therefore
lim [F(x) + G(.r)) = L + .\f.
11s desired.
·-·
Product Law
lim F(.r) = I. nnd ,_,
If ,_, lim G(.rJ = M. thc:n
lim! f(.r:J · Gt.r ll = L ·.I/ .
• -•tl
PROOF Gi\·en f > 0. we must find a numbe r .5 > 0 such thJt

0 < lx- al < S implies that 1F(x) · G(.r) - L · Ml < c.
But first. the triangle inequality gi,·es the result
!F(x) · G(.r)- L· M l = JF(.r) · G(.r) - L · G(x ) + L· G(x ) - L· M l
~ IG(x)l·ff(x)- Ll + ILI·JG(x)- M I. (2)
Because lim f(x) = L there exists .S1 > 0 such that

..--· 0 < J.r - ~ f l) .
al <.5 1 implies that JF(x) - Ll < 2 (1./J+ (3)
And because lim G(.r) = M, there exists 61 > 0 such that

·-·
0 < l.r- a( < .52 implies that IG(x) - Ml < 2(I ~ +I) . (4)
MoreO\'CT, there is a tlrird number OJ> 0 such that

0 < J.r- al <OJ implies that JG(x) - Ml < l.
which in aurn implies that

(G(x)J < JMi + I. (S)
We now choose .s = min(6 1• 82• ~3 }. ·~1en we substitute (3). (4). and (5) into (2) and.
•t < r _ ai < .S 1m plies that
tina II y. see lh u 0 1• ( f
lf (.r). GC.rl- L. Ml < (I M I + 1). 2(1MI + 1) + ILl· 2(1LI + 1)
f f
<2+2=(,
. Th of tMl + 1 and ILl+ 1 in the denominators avoids the technical
as des1red . e use . . h Lor M be zero ~
difficulty t hat arises should elt er . .
A-22 APPENDICES
Substitution law
tr hm J:l.t) = /. and lim ft r1 = /t /.I. th.:n
,..... '-I
lim /tt:H P = /tLI.
·-·
PROOF Let ( > 0 be gi ven. W e mus t find a numl'<: r .S > 0 such tha t
0 < !.t- a! < 0 $UCh 1hat
0 < 1.\· - U, < c; implie~ th3 t l[(yl- f< L)! < t. (6)
Also. because t;(x) Las x - a . .,.e C~n lind ~
- > n ~uch th3t
0 < l.t- a! < S implic< th:lt (g(.r)- l..l < cS, :
that i\. such th at
1.\ - [~ < .s,.
where y = g(x ). From (I\) we <cc that 0 < 1r- il( < .S implic:s that
l /Cg(.r))- /C Lll = I /(1)- f(l.)i < C
as desired.
Rcciproc.11 L1w
If lim ~1 1 l = I . .tn d I i thc·n
,_, . · 11.
I I
hm - = -•.
I•J gLt) 1
/'UOOP Let f ( x ) = l f x. l11en. ns we S.'l\'1 in Examp le 3.
lim ~ = -l = /(/.).
1
lim /(.tl
•-a
= .1-" X ~
Hence the substitution law gives the result

.
I1m - I= 11m . f Cg (.t )) = / ( L) = -LI .
• -• g (.r) •- •
as desired.
Quotient Law
tr lim F(.r)
,\ - J
= L a nd ,_.,
lim G(.t) = ,\1 :f. n. thl'n
. 1-'l.r) L
I llll - - = -
·-· G<.rl ,\ (
I'IWOF It follows immediately from the product and reciprocal laws that
. -G
hm F ((.r) 1.m1 F(
= •-• · .r) · -
1 = ( hm
. F (.r) )( lim -1- ) = L. _1 = _L
•-• .r) 01(x) •-• • -· • G(x) M ,\>!'
as desired.
Sq ueeze Lnw
Suppo~c that [t.r) ~ g(.r) :;? h(.n in so m.: dl'ktl'd n.:ighborhood of 0 we ch

· oose 01 > 0 a nd 62 > 0 such that
0 < lx - nl < 81 impl1·es that If (x ) - Ll < f
and
. 0 < lx- aJ < 0~

r 1mphes
· . that Jlz (x ) - LJ < E.
L = mm
ct 6arc
lz(x) poinf6t; ~f~th
o}"Th en 8. > 0. ~lorc:ovcr. if 0 < IX - nJ < 8. then both [(x) and
e open mtcrval ( L _E . L + E). So
L-E < f(x)~g(x )~ lz (x) < L +E.
ln us
0 < lx- nl < 8 implies th at lg(x) - LJ <E .
as d esired.
~~AP~P~EN~D~I~X~D~P~R~O~B~L~E~M~S~---------------------------------------
1" /'robkms
. I. tlr rouglr .10. apply tire tlefirritimr 11 f tit ~ 1·mut· to 13. Suppose Ihat L"'
0 and thai f(.r) - Las .r - a. Usc the
method of E.•amplc 3 and I he de finilion of 1hc limit 10 show
rJublt~ll tlrr ~:n·m equafrty.
dircclly 1ha1
1. lim
,_.
x =a Z. lim
J-2
3.t = 6 . I I
Irm - - - -
~. lim (2.r + I) = -5 ·-· /(.r) - L'
.J. lim (.r +3) = 5 J- - l
·- l
1~. Usc I he algebraic idcntily
,_, 6. limx2 =a 2
x•- a" == (x - a )(x"'- 1+ :c"- 2" + .r"-.la !+ . . . + .ta~~-: + a"- 1)
$. liml = I
u
·-·
. I I lo <hnwdircctly from the definition oflhc timitth~tl i m .r" =
7. lim (2.r2 -I)= I
·-· 1
n. 1un 2 = -
J- 12 x al alf if n is a positi\•c integer. ~-•
1
.
9. Il-,
I
rm-- = -
I Jl). lim ~ = -- if a > 0 IS. Apply 1hc idenlily
~~ + 1 •-• vx ..fii
aZ+ l
j.fi - Jal "' l.r - • I
.fi+../ii
IL Suppose that to show directly from 1hc: defini1ion of the limit that
lim /(.r) =L and lim f(.r) = M. lim JX = Jii if a > 0.
~-~ ·-~
Apply Ihe dcfini1ion of 1he limil to prove 1hat L = M.lllU<
1he limil of 1hc function fat .r = a is unique if il cxim.
·-·
16. Suppose
. that
. { (.t)- {(a)> 0 ns .r -a. Pro,•c that th c~
extsts :t nc•ghborhood of a on which f (x) > 0; that is. prove
1!. Suppose that Cis a constan t and 1hat f(.r) __. Las x--> a.
lhatlhere exists ii > 0 such thai
Apply the defi nilion of the limi t 10 prove that
l.r - 111 < ~ implies that f(x) > 0.
lim C · f (x ) = C · L.
·-·
APPENDIX E: THE COMPLETENESS OF THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM
Here we present a self-contained treatment of those ~onsequences of the comple te ·
ness of the real number system that arc relevant to tins text. Our principal objective
is to prove the intermcdra le val ue lhcorcm and the maximum value theorem. We
begin with the least upper bound property of the real numbers. which we take to
be an axiom.
DEFINITION Upper Bound and Lower Bound
s
11 e se t of real numbers is said to be bounded above if there is a numbe r b such
1 x ~ b for every number .r inS. and the number IJ is then called an upper bound
that
for s. Similarly. if there is a numbe r n ~uch that .t ;: : n for every number x ins, then
sis said to be bounded below, and a tS called a lower bound for S.
A-24 APPEND!CE.S
DEFI N ITION Least Upper Bound and Greatest Lower Bound

The numhcr ). i~ said to be a Je:J~t upper bound for the se t S of real numbers
pro,idcd tha t
I . i. i~ an upper bound fo r S. and

2. I! b is an upper bound fo r S. then). ~ b.
Similarly. the number i' i.s said to be a ~rt~a test lo,. c r bound fo r S if Y is n lower
bound fo r Sand i' ~ a fo r e,·er:- lower bound a u( S.
EXERCISE Pro'c that if the ~ct 5 h.1< a ka~t upper bMtn d )., then it is un ique. That
~ pro'c that if i. and 11 arc least upper bound' for S. then i. Jt. =
It i< ca<\ to <ho"' that the ~:r~a:<:stlo"er bc:>und i' <1f a <<.:t S. if any. i< also unique.
At thi< poi nt·, ou <hould con< tr"uct c,;ampk s to illu<tratt• that a set with a ka-r upper
hound i rna~· o r rna~ not con t3in i . •1nd that :1 <irnilar st:llcrncn t i< true o f th e se t's
grcatc<t lo"cr bound.
We no" \ tate the complct<:nrss a.ciom of the n:al numb.:r sys tem.
Le.Ht Upper 13ound A)tiorn

If th<.: lhH1Cll11't\' ' Ct S of r.·al nurnl'<:l\ h." :u1 upper ''"und. tht•n it has a lca~t
upper hounJ .
Bv " orkinc \lith the set T con~is t ine of t he numbers -.c. where xi< inS, it is
no t ditricult to show the followin g conse<luc ncc o ! the least upper hou nd ax io m: If
t he nonempty se t S o f real num be r$ is bounded below. then S has a grea test lower
bound. Occause of thi~ symmetry. we need only one a ~ iom. no1 1wo: rcsul1s for leas t
uppe r bound< a l<n hold for grcatc:st IO\\c:r bound<. provided tha t some atte ntio n is
paid to the direc tion s of the inequa li ties.
TI1e r~st riction that S be noncmpty is annoyi ng but necessary. If Sis the "em pt y"
set of real numbers. then 15 is an upper bound for S. but S has no least uppe r bound
beca use 1-1. 13. 12 .. . . . 0. -I. -2 .. . . are also uppe r bound.s !or S .
DEFINITION Increasing, Decrea sing, and M onotonic Sequences

l l1c infi nite sequence x , . x:. X J •. ..• x, .. .. is sa id to be nnndccrea~ing if x. ~ Xn+l
for e very n ~ I. l11 is seq uence is said to be nonincrca~in:: if x" ~ Xn+ t fo r e ve ry
n £; I . If the sequence lx. J is either nonincrca si ng or nondecreasing. th en it is sa id
to be rnonotonk.
l11eorern I gives the bounded monotonic sequence property o f th e set of r eal

numbers. (Recall that a set S o f real numbers is said to be bounded if it is conta ined
in :111 int erval of the form [a. b).)
THEOREM 1 Bounded Monotonic Sequences

Every bounded monotonic sequence of real numbers converges.
PROOF Suppose that th e sequence
S= (xnl = (x, .xz,XJ .... ,xk, ... j

is bounded and nondecreasing. By the least upper bound axiom, S has a least upper
hound i .. We claim that i. is the limit of the sequence {x, }. Consider an open interval
centered at A-that is. an interval of the form 1 =< (). - f . ). +f ), where f > o. Some
terms of the sequence must lie within 1, else ). - f would be an upper bound for
APPENO!ll E A-25
S that
. is less · 1east upper bound J Out · f r·· · , · 1 then- because we MC•
. tha n 1ts 1 . ,. 1' 111 ·
d ca1ngw 1th 1 . ·· . ·
for all k > N ~ :ondecr~asmg sequcnce-.r,v :£ .rl :£ >. for a ll k ?; N. ·n 1a t is. .rt. ~~ Ill I
I
h r . = · ccausc f IS an arbnrary positive number ; is- 'llnlllSI hy dc fin•tJn n-
1 e lOI II of the sequence (.r.} . ' lllU s we ha,·c shown 11; 3; ; h~undcd nonincrca~ing
sequcnc~ conve rges. A similar proof can be constructed for noni ncrca~i ng seq u ence~
by workmg with the grea test lower hound . ~
lllc rcfo rc. the least upper bou nd axio m implies the hounded monoton ic sc·
qucnce p ro~c rty of the real numbers. With just a liulc effo rt. vou can prove that the
two me logtc:tlly equivalent. Tha t is. if vou take the hounded nwnownic sequence
property as an axiom. then the least upper bound property follows as n theorem.
11Jc n ested llltcrva/ property of Theorem 2 is also cqu ivalcn t to t he least upper hound
prop ert y. but we shall prove only that it follows from t he least upper bound proper!)'.
because we have chosen the la tte r as the fundamenta l comple teness axiom fo r the
real nu mber system.
THEOREM 2 Nested Interval Property of the Real Numbers

Suppose that !1. [z . lJ. ... . r•. .. .
is~ sequence of closed interv~ls (so r. is of the
form [lin. IJ. ] for each posi tive integer n) such th:l!
1. 1. contains 1.. 1 for each n ;:: I. and

2. lim (b. - a.) = 0.
n-o.:
The n there exists exactly one real number c such that c belongs tor. for all n.1bus
(c} = It n h n lJ n · · · .
/'ROOF It is clear from hypothesis (2) of Theorem 2 that th ere is nt most one such
number c. l11e sequence (a. } of the left-hand endpoints of I he inte rvals is a hounded
(by b 1) nondccrcasing sequence nnd thus h a< a limit a by the bo un ded mo notonic
sequence propert y. Similarly, the sequence (b.} has a limit b. Because 11. ~ b. for all
11, it follows casilv that a ~ b. lt. is clear that lin ;::; " ;::; h :£ b.., for ali " ?; I , so " and b
belo ng to every ir;tcrval /,, . But then hypothesis (2) of llteorc m 2 implies that a = !J,
and clearly this common value~all it c- is the number sa.tisfying the conclusion of
Theorem 2. ~
We can now usc these results to prove several impon a nt theorems used in the
text.
THEOREM 3 lntermedic1te Value Property

of Continuous Functions
H the function f is continuous on the interval [a. bJ and {(a)< K <{(b), then
K:,;, f(c) for some number c in (a. b).
/'ROOf' Let r 1 = [a. b]. Suppose th~t I. has _been ~elincd for n f: 1. We describe
(inductively) how to define !HI • and tl~1~ shows m parllc~l:l.T ho w to define [z, r.1• and
be the ldt·hand cndpomt of f•• b. be liS n ght-hand endpoint and 111
so fo r th . Let ll• . · •
be its midpoint. ·n1cre arc now three cases to cons1der: f (nr.) > K , f <m.) < K, and
. > K. then J(a.) < K < f (m.),. .111 th'ts case, let a. +1
[ (m. )H= fK(m.) = a., bn+t = m.,,
and l = [an+I· b• • d.
'j( 1J (m.) < K , thenleto~+l = m•. bn+t =b•• and ln+t ~ [a•• 1.b•• t).
If / (nr. ) = K. then we stmply Jet c = m" and the proof 1s ~omplcte. Otherwise,
at each stage we bisect !• and let /..-1 be the half of 1. on which f takes on values
both above and below K.
A-26 APP£NDIC£5
It i~ ea.sy to show Lh3t the sequence {1.1 of inrer.,.nls satisfies th.e hypot heses of
Th eorem 2. Let c be the (unique) real number common to nil th e m ter.,.als ln. We
will sho.,.,· that f ie) = 1\. and th is will conclude the proof.
The sequence (b.} has limit c. so by the continuity of f. th e sequence ( /(bn) J
ha~ litnit /(c). But / lb.) > 1\ fo r all n. so the limit of {/(b.) ] c:m he no less thanK;
that is. flc) !! /\. By considerine the sequence (a.] . it follows that f(c) ~ K as well .
-
The refore. / (c) = K .
- ~
LE MMA 1
Iff is conti nuous on th e cl~ed interval [a. b). then f is bounded the re.
I'UOO F Suppose by "'JY of con1rad1ct ion th:H f i$ not l'ooundcd on l 1 = (a. bJ.
Bi\ect 11 and let f, be cnh;:r half of / 1 on "'h:ch f is unbounded . ( If f is unbou nded
on t>oth hal\·cs, l~t f., = / 1 .) In .cener:1l. let 1•• 1 h: a half of 1. on whic h f is un·
ho un ded.
A gam it i~ ca'y to •ho"' th~t the ~cquencc 11.1 of clo,cd int erva ls ~atisfies
the h) ptllhc'c' of Theorem ~. Let c he the numhcr Cc)nl llllJO to th em all. Beca use
r
I is continuous. the re cxi\tS ll numt-cr ( > 0 such rh:ll is bou ndt•tl on th e interva l
(c- f. c- r J, ll ur fnr ,ufficicnt ly l.u!!e ,·aluc' of"· 1. i> a sub~e t of(<' - ( . c + !). ll1is
~
contradic.-ti nn ~how\ that f mu•t he bounded on (a . !>J.
THEOREM 4 Maximum Value Property o f Continuo us Functions

((the function/is continuous on the cl~cd and bounded intcrvn l (n . l>j. th e n there
exists a number c in (a. bJ such that f(x) ~ /(c) fo r a ll.r in (a. bJ.
l'llUUF Consider thc se t S = l[(x) 1n ;;i x ~ b}. By Lemma I , t his sc r is bounded,

anti it is certainly noncmpty. Let). be the least upper bound of S. O ur goa l is t o show
that A is a value /(.r ) off
With / 1 = (a. hj. bisect h as before. Note that A is the least upper hound of th e
values off on at least one of t he two ha lves of / 1; le t / l be that half. H avi ng d e lined
I•• le t ln+l be the half of t. on which i. is the leas t upper hound of the va lues tlf f Let
c be the number common to all these intcn·als. It then follows from thc co ntinuity
=
of f . much as in the proof of 1lH:orcm J. that /(c) A. And it is clear that [(.r) ~ A
fo r a ll.r in (a. b). ~
1l1e technique we arc using in these proof is called the methOfl of bisection.
We now usc it once again to establish the Bo/zano-\Veierstrass property of the r eal
number system.
DEFINITION limit Point

Let S be a set of real numbers. 1l1e number p is said to be a limit point of S if
every open interval containing p also contains points of S other than p.
BOLZANO- WEIERSTRASS THEOREM

Every bounded infinite set of real numbers has a limit point.
PROOF Let lo be a closed interval containing the bounded infinite set s of real
numbers. Bisect lo. Let /r be one o f the resulting closed half-intervals of lo that
contains infinitely many points of S. If 1. has been chosen. let ln+t be one of the
closed half-intervals of 1. containing infinitely m any points o f S. An application of
Theorem 2 yields a number p common to all the imervals 1• . If J is an open interval
APPENDI X E A-27
~ont~ining f', thcn 1 cont ains 1. :for some sufficiently b rgc v3luc of II and thus con tJi':'
mfimte ly many points of S. Therefo re pis a limit point o f S.
Our ~nal goal is in sight: We can now prove that a sequence of rc:tl numbers
converges tf •a nd on 1y 1'f ·11 ·IS a Cauchy sequence.
DEFINITION Cauchy Sequence .

llu:: sequence Ia. I~ is sa id to be a Caucll\' sN1ucnre if. for eve ry f > 0. there cxtsts
an antegcr N such tha t ·
for all m. 11 ;:: N.
LEMMA 2 Convergent Subsequences

Every bounded sequence of rea l numbers h3~ a con\'crgcnt s ubscquen<X'.
I'ROOF If Ia, I ha~ on ly a finite numhcr of \'a lues. then tht: conclusio n of Lc mrn:l 2
follows easily. We therefore focu• our nrt.:ntion on the case in whic h Ia. ) i' an infinit e
set. It is easy to show thatthi~ set i ~ :~ lso bounded. a nd th us we may apply the n o iMtno-
Wc ierstra~s theore m to obtain a limit poin t p o f Ia,.).
for each intege r k ;;; l. let , ,.,. , be a term of the seque nce Ia. l such that
1. 11(k + I)
> n (k) for all k ~ I , and
I
2. lan<kl - PI< i; ·
It is 1hen easy to show lhatla.. c<,) is n convergent (top) subsequence of fa,. ).
THEOREM 6 Convergence of Cauchy Sequence s

A sC:<]Uence of real numbers converges if a11d only if it is a Cauchy sequence.
/'ROOF It follows immediately from the triangle inequaluty that every convergent
seque nce is a Cauchy sequence. TilliS suppose that the sequence Ia. ) is a Cauchy
sequ e nce.
C hoose N such that
if m. n ~ N. It follows that if n ~ N. tl~en " • lies in the closed inte rval (aN - 1. aN+ 1).
Titis implies tha t the sequence la .J IS bounded. and thus by Lemma 2 it has a con-
vergent subsequence la.rtd· Let p be the hmll of tlus subs~quencc.
we claim that fa. } ttscl f converges lop. Gt\'Cn l > 0. choose M such that
(
(a.., -a.l < 2:
'f > •,f Nevt choose K such that n(K )?: M and
1 111, " =" . ·' . -
Titen if" ~ M.
ian- pi~ (a,. - "•<Kli + lan(KI - PI < f.
1ltereforc. (a.} co m•crges top by definition.

A-28 APPENDICES
APPENDIX F: EXISTENCE OF THE INTEGRAL

\\'hen the basic computational alswrithms of the calculus were d iscove red by :--:ewto n
and Leibniz in the latter half of~he seventeenth.centur:. the~l~~cal rigor t h~~'had
been a feature of the Gree k method of cxhau<t1on was la r!!- 1' uba ndoned. .hen
computin2 the a rea A under the cur.·c y = [!xl. fnr o:1mplc. :"ewton tOO k It as
in tuit ive!\~ obvious that the area function exist td. and h( proceeded to compu te ll
as th!: aniidemati 'e of the hei£:ht fun~tion [!.r ). Lei bniz rc:g:1rdcd A :ts :tn mfin.ue
sum o f infinitesimal area ekm;r.ts. e:1ch of the form ciA= f<x) dx. but in pr3ctt ce
computed the area
(
A= J. f(.t ) dx
by antidiffcrc:ltiation just as ;-.;e,qon d1d-th:1t is. by compu ting
A= [D- 1
/(.r{.
'11tc question of the rmrrnuof the arc~ function-one of t he conditions tha t a
functionfmu't <Jti\fy in order for it< intcgr:tl tn c~i<t -did not :tt fi rs t se em to be o f
much im pmt:~ncc. Ei)!htccnth ·ccntur~ m:~thcm:t t ici.ln< "ere mainly occupied (and
M li,ficd) \\ith the imprn\lvc :tpplic:ltlom of calculus to the solu tion o f rca l·world
problem~ :ond d1J ntH conccntrJtc un the l<>fiC.JI found.tlions of the s uhjcct.
ll1e nr~t a1tc mpt at a precise dchmtion of the integral and a proof o f its exis·
tcncc for continu ous functions wa< that of the french mn thcmntician Augustin Louis
Cauchy (17$'1-li\57). Curiously enough. Cnuchy wa< trai ne d a< nn enginee r, and
much of hi< rcsc:trch in mathemat iC'> wa~ in field< that "C today r<.: ga rd a' a pplicatio ns·
o rie nted: hydrodyn:un ics. wan:s in cl~~tic media . vibrations o f <.:lastic me mbranes.
po lariz:ttion of lig ht. a nd the like. Dut he \\ 3S a prolific researcher. and his writ·
ings covc r the ent ire spec tru m of ma the ma tics. wi th occasiona l e ssays into al most
unre lated field-.
Around 1824. C:tuchv defined the integral of a continuo us function in a wav
that is familiar to us. n< a li~1it of lcft·endpoi~t ap proxima tion s: ·
~ n
r
J(J
f( x ) d.r = .).a·-
lim '
o~
f(.r;_t) t:.x.
••I
llt is is a much more complic::t tcd sort of lim it than the ones we discussed in C h:tpter 2.
C:wchy was not e nt irely clear about the nature of th e limit process invo lved in th is
equation. nor was he clear about the precise role th at the hypothesis of th~.: continuity
off played in proving th at the limit exists.
A complete definition of the integral , as we gave in Section 5.4. was lina llv
produced in th c 1850s by th e G erman mathem a tician Georg Bernhard Ri eman~.
Hie ma nn was a student of G auss; he met Gauss upon his arrival at Gottinl!en.
Germany. for the purpose o~ studying theol o~y, when he was about 20 years-old
and G:tuss was about 70. R1emann soon dec1ded to studv mathematics and be·
carne known as one of the truly great ma thema t icians of ihe ninete enth century.
Like Cauchy, he was particularly in terested in appl ications of mathe matics to th.e
real world; his research emphasized electricity. heat. light. acoustics. fluid dynamics.
a~d-as ~ou migh~ infer from tl~c fact.that Wilh elm Weber was a maj or inll~ence on
Rtemann s educatton-magncllsm . R1emann also made significant contributions to
mathematics itself, particularly in the field of complex analysis. A major conjecture
of his, involving the zeta function
(1)
remains unsolved to this day. This conjecture has important consequences in the
.-
APPENDIX F A-29
theory of the distribution of prime numbers bcc.:wse
~(k) = n ,- )-!
(
I
pl
n
whe re the product is taken over all primes p. (lne ZC:t3 function is det.iocJ in E~j( tl~
fo r complex numbe rs s to the ri£ht of the ,·crticalline :tt x = I :tnd IS .cxtcndc . d
othe r complex numbers by the requirement that it be d ifferentiabk.) Rlem:mn die
of tuberculosis shortly before his fo~tiet h bi rt hda,·. .
.~ere we gi:e a proof of the existence of th; intc!:ral oi a wn~inuo~s ft~n~uon:
\\ e " 111 follow R1emann's approach. Specifically. suppose thlt the tuncll<' 11 J 1' c~n.
1
llnuous on the closed and bou nded intervll (a. b). \\'c will pro n : thlt the dctimtc
Integral
J.' /(x) tix
exists. That is. we will demonstrate the existen•e of a numbe r I thai s:t ti<tk s the
fo llowing condition: For ever\' l > 0 th ere exis ls $ > 0 such that. for n ·rry Riemann
sum R associa ted with any pa.rtit ion P with 1Pi < cl.
I I - Rl < (.
(Recallth:~tthe norm( f'l of the partition pi s the length of the longest subi nter,·:~l in
the partilio n.) ln o ther wo rds. cvcrv Riemann sum associated with every suflicicntly
"fine" plrtition is close to the number / . If this happens. then the definite int<:gr:~ t
!.&/(.t) d.t
is said to ui•t. and I is its ,·alue.
No w we begin the proof. Suppose througho ut th at / is a function cont inuo us o n
the closed interval [a. b]. Given ( > 0. we need to show the existence of :1 number
6 > 0 such that
,1- tf<x;) ~x,, <l (.Z)

••I
for every Riemann sum associ:! ted with any parti tion P of (a. bJ with 11'1< 8.
Given a partitio n /'of (a. b] into 11 su bintcr•·als that arc n otii<'C<'S.wrily vf ,·qu al
length. lett'• be a point in the subinterval [x,_ 1. .r,] at whichfanains its minimum
value f (p, ). Similarly. let / ('I•l l;le its maximum 1·alue there. TI1ese numb~rs exist for
;= I. 2. 3. ... • 11 because of the muimum value pro perty of con tinuous functions
(Theorem~ of Appendix E).
In what fo llo ws we will denote the resulting lower and upper Riemann sums
associated with I' by
L(P) = L" f (p, ) M , (3a)
1· 1
and
U(PI = L" / (q, ) A .r1 •
(3b)
Ia I
respectively. Then Lemma 1 is obvious.
LEMMA 1
For any partition P of [a. b). L(P) ~ U(P).
Now we need a defi~!tion. ll_le pa.rtition P' is ~ailed n refinement of the partition
P i! each subinterval of P 1scontamed m some submterval of P. That is. P' isobta' d
from p by adding more pomts · o f su bd'IVJSIOn
· · to p . me
A· 30 APPE.NOIC[S
LEMMA 2
Sup~ tha t P' u a refiner.1ent of P. Then
U.P> ~ U. P'>~ U( P ) ~ U( PJ. (4)
PROOF The ir.equalit~ U P') ~ U( P') i~ a con~cquence of Lemm a I· We will show

tha t lJ PJ ~ U r 1: the r : oof th3t C.:( P' I ~ U< p , i~ similar. . .
l he retir.~r.~ent r i~ ot-t~ir.~J f:om p b~ JJJmg on~ or more po mts o f sutxll·
'i\lon to P. s., a ll v.e need <how j, th~t the Ri.:mann <um /,( f'l c:tn no t b<: ~~crca!e~
br add me 3 ~lnde ~"'''"'of <uNi,i<IOn. Thus \\C \\ill surr·)~C th:ll the p:trtll.IOII I IS
obtained frc•m f' (-.\ dl\11.!tn1: the .!.th sut-intc f' ;ll (.r , . 1 • r,j nf f' intO tWO SllhllltCrvals
(Xt - 1 . : j and (:.x,fh~ m~a;s of the nc" sut><.livision l"'int : . .
l be onl) re~ul t ing effect on th:: correspond'"!! Riem:tnn s um tS to replace the
term
in U./'J v. ith the t\\ O·term su m

+ /(I' ) · (XI - : ).
fl u ) · (: - Xt -tl
whe re f(u) i' the minimum o f f on [ r,_ 1. :I :1nd /( t•) i< the minimum off on (<. Xt)·
B ut
f <pd ::i f lu ) and /(pd S / (t•).
Hen ce
f (u) · (:- Xt-1 ) + /(t•) · (Xt- : ) ~ /(f't) ·(:- XI · ) + / ( Jit) · (X~t- Z)
= f<Pl ) · <: - _..,_. + .t1 - :)
= f<pd . (XI - .... . ,).
So the replacement of / (p 1 ) • (.rt- X t-tl cannot d ecrca\c the sum L( f') in question.
:~ndtherefo re L( P ) ~ L( P'). Because th is is all we needed to show. we ha,·e completed
the proo f of Lemma 2. -c
To pro,·e that a li the Ri emann sums for sufficiently fine partitions arc close to
some number/, we must fLrSt give a construction of / . Th.is is accomplished through
Lemma3.
LEMMA 3
Let P. denote the regular partition of (a. b] into 2" subintervals of equal le ngth.
Then the (sequential) limit
(5)
e:~:ists.
/'ROOF We begin with the observation that each partition P•+t is a refinement of
r•. so (by Lemma 2)
L(P,) ~ L(P2> ~ · .. ~ L( P.) ~ .. ·.
Therefore ( L( P.>l is a nondecreasiog sequence of real numbers. Moreover,

2" .,~
UP.)= L f ( p,)Ax, ~ Mt 6x, = M(b - a),

;.t i-t
where M is the maximum value of Jon (a. b].

APPENDIX f A-31
'lheorem I of Appendix E guarantees that a bounded monotonic sequ ence of

real numbers must converge. TI:us tbe number
exists. lhis establishes Eq. (5), and the proof of Lemma 3 is complete.
It is proved in advanced calculus that iff is cont inuous on [a. b]. then-for
eve ry number f > ~the re exists a number 6 > 0 such that
1/(u) - / { v)l < f

for every two points 11 and v of [a. b] such that
lu - vi < h.
Th is properly of a function is called uniform continuity off on the in tcrvJI [a. bJ.
Thus the theorem from advanced calculus th at we need to usc states that every
continuous function on a closed and bounded interval is uniformly continuous there.
Note lhe fact that f is continuous on [a. b) means that for each number u in the
interval and each f > 0. there exists 6 > 0 such that if 1• is a number in the interval
with lu - vi< h. then 1/ {u)- / {v) l <(.But unifo rm continuity is a more st ringe nt
condition. It means that given f > 0. you can find not only a value o1 that "works" for
a value 82 that works for "l· and so on , but mo re: You can find a universal val ue of
II J ,
h > 0 that wnrk< for n/1 \'a lues of u in the interval. This shou ld not be obvious when
l·
you not. icc the possibi lit y that 81 = I. 62 = j. h3 = and so on. In any case. it is clear
that umform continuity off on an interval implies its continuity there.
R cmcrnher that throughout we have a con tinuous function f defined on the

closed interval [a. b).
LEMMA 4
Suppose that< > 0 is given. l11en there exists a number o > 0 such that if Pis a
partit ion of [a. b) with 1? I < oand P' is a refinement of P. then
IR(/'J - R(P')I 0 such that if
(
lu- vi < 8. then 1/(u) - /{v)l < .
3(b- a)
Suppose now that I' is a pa rtition o f( a . b) with !PI < 3. TI1en
n n
IV(/') - L(P)I =L 1/(q,)- /{p;)llix; <
3
(b ~ L lix1 = ~.
••I
0
) l~t 3
This is valid because lp; - q, l < 8. for both p, and q, belong to the same subint erval
[x1_ 1 , .r;) of P. and !PI < 6. '
X ow. as shown 10 Fig. F. I, we know that L(P) and V ( P ) differ by less than ~ _
We know also that
13
L(P) ~ R(P) ~ U(P)
IIClJRE
oiL F.l Part of the proof for every Riemann sum R( P) a;sociatcd with P. But
~rnrna 4.
L(/') ~ L(P') ~ U{P') ~ U{l')

A·32 APPENDICES
by Lemma 2. because P" is a refinement of P; n1orreover.

lJ. !") ~ R(P') ~ U(l")
for C\'ery R iemann sum R( P") associa ted with P'. P') lie in the interval
As Fig. F.! shows. both the num be rs R( P) ttnd ~( ~ the roof of
[U F). U ( P)J of length Je.s.s than ! /3. so Eq. (6) follows. Tins con,ludes P .c;
Le mma ~ .
TH EOREM 1 Existence of t he Int egral .

. . d d · ~ . 1[ 1 b) then the mtecr:~ 1
If f•scont:nuous on the closed and boun ~ tnkf\ 3 ' · · -
f.: [(:r) dx
exists.
/'R OOF Supro~e th 3 t t > 0 is gi' en. We mu<~ show the c., is tc ncc of a number
o > 0 such that. for e' Cr)' p~rt11ton /' or [•'· />] " ith I /'J < J, we h:wc
If- R!)'ll < (,
wh ere 1 is the numt>cr f:ivc n in Lemm~ J and R( f'J is an arritr:11')' Rieman n su m for
f a\sociatc<.l " ith
/'.
We choo'c the: num be r 6 prn"i<.lc<.l by Lc mm;o .t such tha t
If<! f') - /?(f,..ll < "3

if I Pi < J and P' is a refi nement of f'.
By Lemma 3. we c::~n choose an integ~ r N so l Mgc that
(
I PNJ < 6 and JL(f'N )- 11 < ) ' (7)
o.
Given an arbitrary parti tion P such that 1f l < le t P' he a common refi ne m ent of
both P and P,, .. You can obtai n such a pa rtitio n P'. fo r example. by using a ll the points
of subd ivision of both P and f',, . to form the subintervals of [a. b) t ha t const it ute P'.
Beca use P' is a refi nement of both P and P.v a.nd both the la tter pa rtit ions have
mesh less than 8, Lemma ~ impl ies that
I R(l')- R( P')J < ~ and IL(P,v)- R(P')I < ~. (8)

~ 3
Here R( P) and R(P') are (arbitrary) R ie mann sums associa ted with p and P' , rc-
specti\'ely.
Given an arbitrary Riema nn sum R( P ) associated with the partition p with
mesh less than .S, we see that
II- R( P)I = II - IJ.Ps) + L(l>,") - R( P') + R(P') - R( P)I

~I I- L(/\·)1+ IL(P,..,) - R(P')I + IR(P') - R( Pl l.
~n the last sum. bo th of the last two terms are less than£ /3 by virtue of the inequalities
m (8). We also know, by (7), that the first term IS less than £/ 3. Consequently,
II- R( P)I < £.
This establishes Theorem 1.
We dose with an example that shows that some hypothesis of continuity is

required for integrability.
EXAMPLE 1 Suppose that /is defined for 0 :£ :r :£ 1 as follows:
/(x) = {I if xis irrational;

0 if x is rational.
APPENDIX G A-33
~~~! ;s n~t continuous anywhere. (\\'hv?) Given a partition P of (0. 1). let P• be n
As b ra P<>• nt and q, an irrational point of the ith subinterval of P Cor each i .I ~ i ~ n.
e ore 1attains ·It · · 1 ch
q,. Also · s IIllnunum value 0 at each p, and its maximum value at e3
L(P) =L" f( p,)tu, = 0. whereas U( P) = L" f(q,)A:r, = 1.
lllUs if we choose ( = ~ . then ·-·

there is no number 1 that can lie within l of both L( P)
i;.dl J~(P). no matter how small the mesh of P. It follows that fis not integrable o;
REM~RK This i~ not the end of the story or the integral. Integrals of highly dis·
con~m~ous funcuons arc iopnn3nJ in many appli<-:ation' or ph~ •ics. :md nc:1r the
h<:gmnmg of the twentieth centurv a number of mathematician<;.. most notably llcnri
~cbcs~uc ( 1R75-19~1 ). deve loped more powe rful integrals. 1hc Lebesgue integral.
10
parucular. always exists when the Rieman n integral docs. nnd gives I he sa me value;
but the Le besgue integral is sufficiently po"'crful to integralc even functions th:ll are
contmuous no"' here. It reports that
1 1
f<x)tlx = I
for the function f of Example I. Ot her mathematicians have developed integr:tls with
dornains far more general than se ts of real numbers or subsets of the pbnc or space.
APPENDIX G: APPROXIMATIONS AND RIEMANN SUMS

Several times in Chapter 6 nur attempt to compulc some quantity Q led to the
follo"ing si tuation. Reginning "'ith a regular partition of an appropriate interval
[n. b) imo n subintcr"als. each of length 6:r. "'e found an appro~imation A. to Q oC
the form
•
A.= I : s<u, )h(v,) 6x . (I)
•••
where u, and v1 are two (generally diffe rent) points of the ith subinterval [.r, . 1• :r, ).
For example. in our discussion of surface arc~ of revolution that precedes F.q. (8) o f
Section 6.4, we found the approximation
t 2:Tf(11,)J1 + [f'(t•,) Jl 6x (2)

·-·
to the a rea of the surface generated by revolving the curve y = f(:r), n ~ :r ~ b.
aro und the .r·axis. (In Section 6A we wrote .r;· for u, and x; Cor v, .) Note that the
expression in 2 is the same as the right-hand side in Eq. (I): tnke g(.r ) = 2;r /(x)
and lz (x) = I +I f'< x>Jl.
In such a situation we observe that if u, and v, were the same point x; oflx1• 1 • :r, 1
Cor each i (i = 1. 2. 3..... n). then the appr?xim:uion in Eq. ( 1) would be a Riemann
sum Cor the function g(x)h(x) on [n. b). llus lead~ us to suspect that
•
lim L S(II,)h(vi)A.t =1b g(x)h(x)tl.r .
(3)
A• -0 "
•••
In Section 6.4, we a.ssumed the validity of E~. (3) and concluded from the ~pproxi·
· ·111 (')
mauon - that
• the surface area of revolution ought to be defined to be
A= lim t2;rf(u,}Jl + (f' (v,))ZAx =1b2;rf(.r)Jt + (f'(x))2d.r.

A.1-0 / •I "
Theorem I g Uarantees that Eq. (3) holds unde r mild restrictions on the functions g
and Jr.
A· 34 APPENOJCLS
THEOREM 1 A Generali~ation or Riemann Sums

Sup~ that hand g' arc continuous on fa. b). Then
. •.
1!~, 2: g<u,)nc >.~~ox= • s<x>h<x>rlx.
•=l
1' (3)
.
"'here u, and 1 arc arbitrary pomts . h su b'anten..3 1of ·3 rccul:~
of the 11 • r pJ rt ition o r
[a. b) into n $ubintcf\ah.. cJch of length ~.r.
1'/WO/' Let .If: and .11; de not~ the mJ.\.irnum \ Jiues on [a. b) of lg·(.rll ;~nd ill (.r )l.
respecta,cl~·- ~ole that
L" Jll ll, ll.lt, l t u = R. - S... " h..-re R. = L" g( l·, )h( l·, ) .ll..r
lei jal
i' a Htcmann sum appro.a:hmg 1: K(.t)llt.rl,J.r as ~x - n. and

•
s. = L
,_, [~ 111, I- ,t:(t·, 1)/t(t·, I ~.r.
Tu ptc l\c Eq. (~) tl i\•uflicicntto shClw th.tt s. -· Cl a~ ~\.r - · 0. ·nte nt~nn value
theorem gtvc~
),ll( tt, ) -,c:(t•,) l = IJ;'Ci',ll·lu, - t•,l [ •, in ( 11, . 1·,})
;:: .\IJ .ll..r.
heca usc both u, and 1•, arc points of the interval f.r, - I • x, I of leng th Ax. '11tc n
IS. I ~
" .
L lg(u,)- g(l',)l - 1/t (I', Jl.ll..r ~ L eM, Ax). ( Ml C..r)
n
= ( i\11 Mz A.r) L A.r = .11 .\ f:(b - a) A.r,
1
•=1
from which it follows tha t s. - 0 as A.r - 0. as desi red.
As an applicatio n of Theorem I. let us give a rigorous dcriv:uion of cq. (2) of

Section 6.3.
v = J.b2:r .rf(.r) c/.r, (4)

for the volume of the so lid gene rated by re vo lvi ng around the y·nxis the region be·
tween the gra ph of y = /(.r ) and the .r -axis for a ~ .r ~ b. Deginning with the usual
r~gular partition of [a. b].lct f(.r7>and / (.r;) denote th.: minimum and maximum
values nf f o n the: i th subintc:rval [x,_,, x, J. Denote by .r; the midpo int of this subin -
terval. from fig. G.J, we see that the part of the solid genera ted by revolving the
region bdow y = f(x). x,_, ;; x ~ x;, contains a cylindrical shell with :we rage r:ulius
x;. thicknc:ss 6x. and height f <x: ) and is contained in ano ther cylindrical she ll with
the ~amc average radius and thickness but with height f(.rf). H cnc~ the volume A V;
of this part of the solid satisfies the inequalities
2;rx;" f(.r;) A.r;; A V, ;; 2n.r; f(x;) A.r .

We add these inequalities fori = I. 2, 3, ... , 11 and find that
• •
I>ui f(.r:J Ax ::; v ;; L, 2n.r,' f(.rl) A.t.
i• l
APPENDIX G A· 35
••
.
FICURE C. l A careful estim.lte of th~ volume of a
solid of revolution around the y-a• is.
Because Theorem I implies that both of the last two sums approach J:2:r
f (x )clx,
the squeeze la w of limits now implies Eq . (4).
We will occasionally need a gene ralization of l11corcm I thai involves the
notion of a conlin uous function F(x. y) of two variables. We say I ha l F is colllinuo us
at the point (xo. )u} provided 1ha1 the value F(x . y) can be made arbitrari ly close to
F (xo. )IJ) mere ly by choosing the point (x. y) sufficiently close to (.to . )Ill· We discuss
continuity of functions of two variables in Chapte r 13. Here it will suffice to accept
the following facts: If g(x) and h (y) arc continu()US functions of the single variables
x andy, respectively, then simple combinations such as
g(x) ± lt(y). g(r.)h(y). and J [g(x) )2 + [lr(y>JZ
arc continuous: functions of the two variables x andy.
Now consider a regular partition of (a. b] into n subintervals. each of length llx,
and let rr; and u; denote arbitrary points of the ith subinterval (:r, • 1• x, ].l11corcm 2 -
we omit I he proof-tells us how to find the limit as 6x - 0 of a sum such as
L F(u,, v;) 6x.

1:1
THEOREM 2 A Further Generalization

Let F (x. y) be continuous for x and y both in the interval(a. b]. l11en . in the
notation of the preceding paragraph.
n b
lim L F(rr,,l'; )6x=1 F (x,x)dx . (5)
dJ-0 4J
iaJ
Theorem I is the special case F(x, y) = g(x)lt(y) of Theorem 2. Moreover,the

integrand F (x. x) on the right in Eq ..(5) is merely an or~inary function of the single
variable x. As a formal matter, the mtegral corrcspondmg to the sum in Eq. (5) i.~
obtained by rc·placing the s~nunation symbo_l with an integral sign. changing bo th 11,
and 11, to x. replacing 6.r w1th tlx. and mscrtmg the correct limits of integration. For
example. if the: interval[a. b] is (0. 4], then
lim
A_.-o
t
i~ J
9rr; + 11: 6x
4
=Jo{0 ../9x2 + x4tlx
A-36 APPEN DICE.S
APPENDIX G PROBLEMS
In /'rohlr.m.1 I rhmuKh 7, " • and ,., orr orbitrar;· po inu of rJ:<
irlr .wl>inrrrvol nf n rrgularportitirm of[a. b] into r. .1ubir.urvaiJ, ~- lim ~ sin u, cos r, .ell'; a = 0. b =:r12
.)..1- oL-
rach of lr.ngth t:u . Ezprt.ll the gi ,,., limit 0 .1 o.n in:rgra! f ro"' a
to 1>, rhrn compllt< th< valut of rhiJ ir:trgraL '"'
• •
I. lim ~ 11, v, Az; a = 0. b = I 6. h:n ~ )sin: u, +cos=r, Ax : a= 0. b = ''
.!.• - 0 ....._.
t..•-oL- •• •
••1
• .
2. A•- ~ (3u1 + 5v1 ) At;
limfl L-
1• 1
A
a = - I , b =3
..,
7. h:n ~ / u! -'-
.!...t_, L-
ri ~.r: u = 0. b = 2
3. lim ~ u,~ Az; a =IJ, b = 2 8. Ex;:l.1in hl>>< Theorem I ~pplics to sho" that Eq. ( S) of Sec-
,_,
!;. •-"'- lion ~.-1 follows fro m th~ discussit>n that precedes tl m that
~cti on.
a= 0. b =3
9. t.:~c Theore m I tO dcri\ c Eq. (Ill) uf Section 6.-1.
APPENDIX H: L'HOPITM 'S RULE AND CAUCHY'S MEAN VAL UE THEOREM

Here we give a pm of of I'JI (lpital's ruk.
. /(t) ,. J'(x)
I un - - = 1m - - (I)
•- • g f.r ) •-• ,1/'(X ) '
under the hypotheses of TI1corem I in S.:ct ion 7.2. ·n,c proof is based on a gen·
craliza tion of the mean value theorem d ue to the French mathematician Aug ustin
Louis Ca uchy. Cauchy used this generaliza tion in the ea rly ninet ee nth cen tury lo
give rigorous proofs of several calculus results no t previo usly established firmly.
CAUCHY' S MEAN VALUE THEOREM

Suppose th3t the func1ions f 3nd .r; nrc co ntinuous o n the dosed and bounded
interval (a . b] and differentiable on (a . b). Then there exists a number c in (a, b)
such that
(!(b) - [(a)Jg'(c) = [g (b) - g(a) ] J'(c). (2)
REMARK 1 To see that this theo rem is indeed a gene ralization of the (ordinary)
mean value theorem, we take g(x) = x . Then g'(x)
reduces 10 the fact that
I, and the conclusion in Eq. (2) =
[(b) - [(a)= (b- a)['(c)
for some number c in (a. b).
REMARK 2 Equation (2) has a geometric interpreta tion like that of the ordinarv
mean value theorem. L,et us think _of lhe equations x = g (: ). y [(I ) as describing =
lhe motton of a poml f (x. Y} movmg along a curve C in the xy-plane as increases
from a to b (Fig. 1-1.1). Thalt~ !'(x. y)
1
=
P (g(r ) . [ (1)) is lhe location of the point P
atume 1. Under the assumpltOn that g (b) .,.: g(a), the slope of the line L connecting
the endpoints of the curve Cis
m = .:..f..:.,( --...!f....:.<c....:.l)
b..:...>
g (b) - g(a) · (3)
But if g' (c).,.: 0, then the chain rule gives
dy dyjdt ['(c)
dx = dxfdt = g'(c) (4)
APPEND IX H A-37
---- ---
---
FIGURE H. I The idea of Cauthy's mean value theorem .
for the slope o f the line tangent to the curve C at the poin t (g(c). [(c) ). Out if
g (b} -:;!; gCa) and g'(c) f. 0. the n !Eq. (2) may be written in t!he form
/ (b) - /(a ) /'(c) (5)
= - -
g(l>) - g (a ) /((c)
so the two slopes in Eqs. (3) and (4 ) arc equal. Thu~ Cauch y's mea n value theorem
implies tha t (unde r ou r assumption~) there is a po int on the curve C whe re t he t angent
li ne is parallel to the line joining the endpoin ts of C. ·n tis is exactly wh:lt t he (ord ina ry )
mean value theorem says for an expl ici tly de fined curve y =
f( x ). lltis gco nu:tric
inte rpretation motivates the followi ng proof of Cauchy 's m ean value t heore m .
PROOF 'Ilte line L through t he endpoints in Fig. H .l has point-slope e qua tion
/ (b) - f( a )
y - /(a ) = g(b) _ g(a ) (x - g(a)),
whic'h cnn be rewritten in the fo rm Ax + By + C = 0 with

A = g(b) - [(a ). 8 = - [g(b) - g (n) ]. a nd
C = f( n) (g(b) - g(t! ) J - g(a ) [ f (b)- [ (a) ]. (6)
Acco rding to Miscellaneous Proble m 93 of Chapter 3. the (perpendicular) distance
from the point ( xo. yn) to the line Lis
IAro + Byo + C i
d = .
J Al + Bl
Figure 1-1.1 suggests that the point (g(c). / (c)) will maximize this distanced for points
on the curve C.
We ;~remotivated. therefore, to define the auxilia ry Junction
¢ (1 ) = A g (t ) + llf( t ) + C. (7)
with the constants A. 8, and C as defined in (6). lltus 1/l(t ) is essentially a constant
multiple of the distance from (g (t ). /(t )) to the. line Lin Fig. H. I.
Now q,(a ) = 0 =
¢ (/)) (why?). so Rolle s theorem (Section 4.3) implie s the
existence of a number c in (a . b) such that
¢'(c ) = i\g'(c) + /Jf'<c) = 0. (R)
We substitute the values of A and 8 from Eq. (6) into (8) and obtain the equation
[f(b) - { (11 ) ) g' (c) - [g(b) - g(a} ) ['(c ) = 0.
This is the same as Eq. (2) in the conclusion of Cauchy's mean value theorem. and
the proof is complete. ~
A· 38 APPENO:CES
Nor~ t\ltbm::r.'l the 31sumnuom tb.lt .; (/> 1 ~ dal 3nJ l:'l<"l ~ 0 \\ Crc needed fo r
O:Jr geometri:-m:errreLltio~ of t!:e t!!eorern. the~ -. e re not u~C'J in it~ proof-{)nly
an the molt' atw n fo r the me:hod of rroo!.
rrUJOF OF 1.'1 /0P/11 \ CS RL"LE Su;-ro<c th:~t /I rl ~~ d h:1< the ind c- tc-rmtnatc
fo rm II () 3: , = a. We ml~ i~' oi:e co:::a:m 1 :~ off JnJ .: "' .lllo" t he as<umptaon
that ! a 1 =r = f ! TI:J: is.,. e <::::;-!' de line [t al :1nJ t;t.t l to 1'C' 7Cr<> tn e:1sc thcar
\a lue1 a: .z =a a:: r.ot o n2;:'Ll !:\ Z!\!'C.
:-;,. .. "' C r!'~:n:: o~ : -a: :en;,.~~ 1 ' , ai:Jes o~ .x ="
tn a ti~ cd rctj:hl>orhood of
a on.,. ., ::h lv•:!': ' a~.:! ;; are Cl ~:e::r:· t.l"k Ch<x~ ,,::e su~h ' alue of • and ho ld
it tCffij'<t: .t rth Cl"~ <: ln : Tr:e~ ar;-1\ Ca:J:h~ .• mc.ln \3IU~ theorem Cll1 the tnterval
(a . .z) II! .z ~ a . u'C the tn:cnJ I [ r . .; j 1 \\'c fi nJ tlut there i< :1 number: h<:t\\ CCn a
and r th~ t "c h3, c s .H c J,..:< 1:1 Eq 1: 1 Hen:c. 1>~ \Htuc of l;q (:). \\ C o btain the
cqu1t um
f lrl 1 1 tl - {1 .1 1 f t: l
---
~;l r l
= 1;1 t l - ~ t.J )
= ---
( (: )
Now : dcf't' rHh on t. hut:,, trlrf't'd 1-<:t" ccn r .tnd '' · ~o: a• forrc,J to approach n
a< A 11 We con.:luJc th 11
/1• 1 f t: l f't.t l
!•:t! ,clc ) - ~~~7! ;:'( :) ~ !'~! c ( c) '
under the n~•umptinn tl111 t the t t!:ht·h.lnd hntll c xt~l<. Titu\ "c ha"c w rill cd l'll t)pi tnl's
r ulc in the fMm of Eq . ( 1) ~
APPENDIX/: PROOF OF TAYLOR'S FORMULA

c' cral different proohof·raylo r's formull (lllcnrcm 1 of Scctwn I I..I) arc known.
h ur none of them >ccms very well moti, arcd-.:;•ch rcqmrc' wmc "Irick " tnl>cgin
the proof. ln~ trick we employ here (suggesrcd hy C. R. M.teCiucrl i~ tn hcgin by
introducing an au~ilia ry functio n F (.rl . defined a• follow•:
F (.r ) = / (b) - [ (.r) - Fc.r )(b - .x) - /"C.xJ Cb - .c)l

2!
f" ' (.r )
- ... - - ----(b - x )•- K (b- .c)•• l (I)
n! .
=
"hcrc the comttmt K is chosen so th:tt F (a ) 0. To sec that the re is such a value or
= =
k. \\ C cou ld suhst itu_rc .r = a o.n the right and F (.r ) F (a ) 0 on th e left in Eq . ( J)
and then sol' e routmcl~· fo r 1\. bur we have no need to do this explicitly.
Equation ( I ) makes it quite ob,·ious that Fib) = 0 as well. 'lhcrcfore. Ro lle's
theo rem (Section -1.3) implies that
(2)
ro r some poinl: of the open intcr\'al (a. b) (under th e assum ption that a < b). To
sec what Eq. (2) means. \\C diffcn:ntialc both sides of Eq . (I) and find tha t
/"(x) =- f'(x) + [Fc.xl - J"(x)(!J- .rl l
+ [ J"(.r)(b - x) - ;! [ 01 (x )(b- x) 2]
+ [;! f 31
(x)(b - x) -
2
;! [!'1(x)(b- .r) 1]
+ .. · + [ (11-I I )! f'"1(x)(b- x )"" 1 - ..!_

II!
[ 1. .11(.r)(b-
.
.c)"]
+ (11 + :)K (b - :c)".
-
APPENDIX I A-39
Upon care f u I tn<pccu
. . on of thiS . 1te fi11·1 "~ ttwo caned
. r~sult, we ~c that all terms c'<ccptt
in plirs. Th us the sum '' telc cope<" to !!i'e
(J)
li enee Eq. (2) mcnns thJt

f'•Hl( -)
( 11 + I ) K (h - : )" - • (b - ~)· = 0.
n!
Consequen tl y we c:m canc·el (h - :)" and solve fo r
K = /'" ""(:). (ol)

(n ... I )!
Finally. \\ e re turn to Eq. (I) and substitute x = a. f(x) = O.and the value o f K
given in Eq. (J ). The result i< the equation
0 = / (b)- /(a) - f<a)(b- a)- /"(a) (I> - a ):

2!
J l•l(a) • Jl••ll(~) •-I
- .. ·- - - (b- a) - (I> - 11) •
11! (n+l)!
which is equivalent to the desired Taylor's formula. Eq. ( I I) of Section 10.4.
APPENDIX j: CONIC SECTIONS AS SECTIONS OF A CONE
. The parabola. hyperbola. and ellipse that \\ e studied in C h:!Jllcr 10 were originall y
c£, . , .,
introdu•-.:d by the ancient Greek mathcmatici:lns :1s piJnc 'cctilllh ( traces) of a right
circubr cone. Here we show that the intersection o f a plane and n con..: is. imkcc.l,
one of tlu.: thr~o.: conic sections as defined in Chapter I 0.
,:...-- · Figure J.i shows the con.: with equation z = Jx2 + y2 and it s intersection with
~ / apla nc'Pthatpasscs th roughthe point(O.O. I )andthclinc x c > Oi nthcxy-pla nc. =
' 1 , ~ 10. 0. 11 An equatio n of 1' is
"""" •}-------...,.
' / X
:=1- -. (I )
' c
' "' • The an~:le be tween 1' and the xr·pl:me i< ¢ = t:m - 1 (1 /c). We want to show tha t t he
conic section obtained by intersecting the cone anc.lthc plane is
fiCUR£ 1.1 f inding an equation A p:uabol:l if ¢ = -15" (c = I ) .
lot • conic l«tJOn.
An ellipse if¢ < .ts• (c > 1).
A hype rbola if¢ > 45• (c < 1).
We bet:in by introducing u•·-cuurdinatcs in the pl ane P a s follows. llle

11.coordinMe =
of the p~int (x. y. zl of 1' i~ 11 y. Th~ 11:=oorc.linate of the sa me point
iS itS pcrpcnc.J~CUI:tr (:~~tanCCJ fro m thehiJnc X = C. • nit'S CXpl;un~ the II • and ll•:tXeS
indica ted in F1g. J.l . h gurc .2 s 11ows t c cross sccu on mthc plane y = 0 exhibit ing
t he relation betwee n 11. x. and z. We sec th at
• II
z = vsm¢ = JI+C:1'
(2)
Equations (I) and (2) give
x=c(l-z)=c(l- ~ )·
I + C"· (3)
•
=
We bad ..l x2 + >l for the equation of the cone. We make the foltowin
·on: Rep1ace y wn
· h 11, an d rep
. I·.tee. z and x wuh
b· . .
. the c•p S su. stnut tons
·n this equat1
1 ., rcss1ons o n th e
A-40 APP£ND!CE5
right-hand sid~ o r Eqs. (2} and (3). respecti,·ely. These repl3cements yield
After we simpli fy. this last equation t.1kes t he form
' c -. - 1 . ~ '
_, . 0 (.t)
r:r - - . - - I'" - t • .._ C" = •
c-.!.l , 1- r
Thi~ t> the equation o~ !he cun·e in the u 1 -plane.\\"~ e"tamine tht' thn:e c:~scs: for the
angle¢. ·
Suppose lint that o = ~ 5" . Then c- = 1. so Eq . (~ )contains :1 term thJt mcludes
u 2 • ~noth~ r te rm that tnclud<:-< 1 • ~nd a ron;un t tcmt. So thl" curve is :1 parabola; sec
Eq. (6) of Sectto:: 9.6. •
Sup;xN: ne(t th)! ¢ < .!5.. Then c > 1. JnJ l-<1th th<' codlkicnts o f~~~ :tnd ,,.
in Eq.(~ ) uc fY><tthe. l nu< the cunei < an elli p•e : ~<'<' Eq . ( I i) of Section 9.ti.
Fin~JI\·. I f~ •. .l.' . then (' < 1. and the .-.-..:ftin<:nt< or~~~ :lnd •. ~ in Eq . ( ..j) h~ve
opp<.xitc <iin' So the Cltr' e i< "h~pcrl'-oLl: <cc Eq . (: f'll of St.:ction 9.1\.
APPENDIX K: PROOF OF THE LINEAR APPROXIMIITION THEOREM

Umkr !he hlp<Hh e< i' .. r cnntinuou< dtffc rcn!IJhill ty nf the !int":H approxi m atio n
lhcnr<·m sla tc:d in Sec! inn 13.n. """-Jilt to prove tha11he increme nt
l!.[ = [ (a ... h )- / ( ul
is gi ,·cn by
Af = \1[ (a) · h + r( h l · h (I)
whac E( h l = (f 1 (h). lz( h ) . . ... f. (h)) is a vector s uch that c~ch demen t f , (h) ap-
proaches zero as h- O. [No tc the symllolt!. for ~increment" and the inverted \1 fo r
" gradi<,n t- o n !he right-hand side in Eq . ( 1). )
To analy7.c the increment .lf. w.: splilthe jump from a to a + hi nton se parate
steps. in each of which only a single coordinat~ is changed. Let c, denote the unit
n-vector \l ith I in !he ith position. and wrilc
II() =a and a, = a, _ 1 + It, e, (2)

fori= I. 2, . . .. 11. so tha t 11. = a + h. Then
t!.f = /(a,) - /(:l:J)
= (f(un) - f(a._,J) +[/(a._,) - /(a._z)] + .. .
+ Lf(a2 ) - /(a!)]+ (f(a1)- /(:l:J)];
that is.
n
Af =L [/(a; ) - /(a,_ 1)).
(3)
i= l
The ith term in this sum is given by

f (a,) - /(a;_,)= /(a, + lz, , ... . a;_t +h; _1 , a1 +h;.a,+1, ... ,a.)
- f(a, +ht . .. . ,a;-t + h,_,,a;,a;+l · .. . . a.)
= g1(1)- g, (O),
where the differentiable function g, is defined by
g;(/) = f(a, +lz,, ... ,a;_, +h;_,,a, +tlr1,a;+1 .... ,a.).

AFi'[NOIX l A-41
l he mean \ J)ue theorem t hen )•elds
{fa >- {Ca -d= ~. Ill-, tO! = s:;e7, HI -01

= n, /I 11 : - 1: I· . a -I -
0. 0 1: -I· a. - I 1:, 0c. · I· 0 0 0 0
0
a. ) h,
= n fl a -: - I,J:,c ) h .
for <nmc 7, 1-ct" ecn 0 and I • uktilU~IO:'l i:l (: ) t h::n g1\ CS
~~= I:
.. , n rca .• - t:h,t',) h,
= L lD / ta l - D,ffa - 7 h. c.l- D./Cal( · /:, .

... 1
l llU\
.':J.f = .__
' 1n ft • l - f th l} h,
•••
( ,(h ) ., 1>. /I a • 1 .-. /,lr co 1- D./Cal - 0

( h} Cllnt muit} o f /J, f at a ) :t' h - • 0 (and hence a 1 - · a hy ( ::! )). \\".: h:l\ e thcrcfllfe
c~t:lhh~h(•tl (I) and hence complete d the p rc>O!. ~
APPENDIX L: UNITS OF MEASUREMEN T AND CONVERSI ON FAC TORS
IMKS SCIENTIFIC UN ITS

• Length in meters (m): m:nt in k iloj:rJm~ ( kg). timr in second~ (s)
• Force in nC\\ wns (I"): a fon:c of I S imparts an accdc ration of I m/s2 t o a
11\:ISS of I kg.
• \lilfk in jouk> (J): I J is the work do ne by a fo rce of I N acting through a
di~tancc t)f I m.
• /'cii\W in watts (W) : I W is I J/s.
I BRITISH ENG INEERING UNITS (F PS)

• LC'ngth in feet (ft).fora in pounds (lb).tmrt' in seconds (s)
• .\Ills> in ~!up: I lh of force imparts an accclcrn tio n of I CVs 2 tu a mass o f 1
slug. A mass of m slugs at the su!facc of the earth has a weight of w = mg
po unds (lb ). " here !i ::::: 32.17 ft/s-.
• ll'ork in ft ·lb. pn..-u in ft · Ibis.
~NVERSION FACTORS
1 in. = 2.5~ em= 0.025~m. I m:::::: 3.2808 ft
1 mi = 52SO ft: 60 milh = 88 ft/s
I lb :::::: ~.4~~'2 N: I slug ::::: 1~.594 kg
1 hp = 550 ft ·Ibis :::::: 7~5.7 W
A-4 2 AJ>PENDKE..S
• Crm itatinnal acalcrarion: s:::: 32. 17 ftlsl :::: 9.W7 mls:

• A rmospht n c prrsm rt": 1 atm is the pressure cxcncd by :1 col umn o f mercury
76 em hi!!h: 1 a tm:::: I·UO lb 'in.: ::::: 1.0 13 x I(}' :--::m:
• !lear rr.ugy: I Btu ::::: 778 ft · lb :::: 2~2 ca l. I cal ::::: .!.JSJ J
APPENDIX M: FO RMULAS fRO M ALGEBRA, GEOMETRY, AND TRIGONOMETRY
ILAW S OF EXPONENTS
a,.,o" = af"\" 111
• (ab)' = a"b".
in particular.
a1: = /a.
If 11 ~ 0. t hen
(1
· • =-
I
o•
IQUADRATIC FORMULA
ll1c quad ra tic equatto n
II X l + b:r + C =0 (1.1 7- IJ)
has solutio ns
-b ± .Jt.! - .lac
.t =
I FACTORING
11: - h: = (a - b )(a +bl
a3 - lY = (a - b )(a! + tlb + th
a' - b' =(a- b )(a 3 + alb + ub: + bl )
= (a - b)(a + b)(a z + f12 )
5
a 5 - b =(a- b)(a' + a 3b + a 2 /J + ab3 +I>')
(llte pauern continues.)
a3 + b1 = (a+ b)(a 2 - ab + bz)
a 5 + b5 = (a + b)(a' - a 3b + a 2/J -a/} + b' )
a
1
+ b7 = (a+ b)(a 6 - a 5 b + a' I} _ " J/} + 112b' _ abs + b~)
(The pattern continues for odd exponents.)
IBINO MIAL FORMULA
if n is a po sitive integer.
APPENDIX M A-4 3
EA AND VOLUME
~ In fi g. M.l . the symbols have the fol lowi no meanings.
A: area
"'
b: length of base
- r: rad ius
lJ: nrc a of base C: circumference V: volu me
h : height l : lengt h w: width
0 l~ G
I
I7 .. ~
b,
lo
1 h
Rm>ngle: .-1 =bh Par.alld,,tram· A a bh

Ibh
Tri>ngle· A, Trl.prtntd. A • ~ (b 1 + b:\h Circ!c: C :;- 2:rr and A: Jr,J
r+=?l·
ox.
Recur. ~ular raratlt lc!-('ipcd Pyrami1l: R•ght Ctrcul.t.r cont· R1g.h1cu'C'Uhtt cylinder Spll<"re:
\ 'o ( wh v ~ }BJ1 v~J n r~h-= Jan V: ~,lh • Bh V • j ~rr 1 nnd A. • 4f.' rl
FlGURE M. l The b.,sic gt-omctric sh,lpcs.
IPYTHAGOREAN THEOREM
In a right triangle with legs a and ba nd hypotenuse c.
al+b2=cz .
~ORM ULAS FROM TRIGONOMETRY

sin ( -0) = -sin 0
cos( - 0) = cos 0
2
sin 0+ cos2 0= 1
sin 20 = 2 sin 0 cosO
cos 20 = cos 2 0 - sin1 0
sin(cr +/J) = sin cr cos,'l + coscrsin fl
cos(cr + /J) = cos cr cos fl - si n rt sin fJ

tan cr + tan fl
tan (cr + tl) == ------..:_
I - tan cr tan tl
,O 1 - cosO
sin·
2 = 2
,0 I +cosO
cos· - =
2 2
A-44 APPENO:Cts
For an a r bit ra~ trian~k ( Fig. ~1.2 ):
\
\
II
La" of sines:
sin A
- a- =-;;-=7
si n LJ sin C
<
f iGURl M.2 An arb11tary ttiang'e.
APPENDIX N : THE GREEK ALPHABET
A u alpha I iota r I' rho

B
r
{j
y
~Ia
gamma
K
,\
I(
i.
ka ppa
lamtxl.t
,.
I: 0
r
Sif!lllil
IJU
6 0 del ta M II mu I l' upsilon
E ( c p\ ilon N ,. nu ¢ <f; phi
z
II
{
'I
zeta
eta
-
0
~
(I
~I
omicron
X
ljl
X
,:,
chi
P'i
e 0 th eta n :r pi n omega
"'
ANSWE RS TO
oDD -NU MB ERED PROB LE MS
S<CTION 110. 1 (Pi\GE 628)

21
I
• ' =cos (I+ sinO .r + y=l
1. x+2y+3=0 2
3. 31 - 4.r=2S 2.t r = . ; )'=.t + 2
smiJ- cos O
l. x +y = l
2~. r +i!sin li =O: .r 1 + y' + Ry= O
1. Center t - I. 0). radius J5
27. r =2(co<0+ sinO); .r1 + y1 = 2.r+2y
9. Center (2. - 3). radius 4 29. Matches Fig. 10.2.23.
ll. Crntcr (\. 0), radius I
JJ. :O.I:uchcs Fig. 10.2.24.
L\ Center (\ , -~) . radius 3 JJ. !'.latches Fig. I 0.2.25 .
1!. Center ( - t
j , j• ),
•• •
r aviUS 2
3~. !'.latches Fig. 10.2.26.
11. The single po int (3. 2) 37. Circle, center ( ja.jbl. radius ./a ! + t,l1
19. There arc 11<'> points o n the graph. 39. Circle, center (I. 0). radius I. symmetric aro und the x -a xis
!1. <• + ll' + ( ,V + 2)' = 34 4 l. Cardioid. cusp at the origin (where 0 = 1r ). symme tric
2.\ (r - 6)' + (y - 6)1 = i around the .r -a,is
!S. fhc locus is the pcrpenuicular bisecto r of the segment join· .u. Lima\<>n. symmetric around the y-axis
ing the two given points: it ha< equation 2.r + )' = 13. ~S. Lcmn i,catc lying in the firs t nnd third q uad ra nts, sym metric
l7. The circk with center((>. I I ) and rad ius 3Jl a round the lines y= x nnd y = - x and wi th rCSJl<:Ct to the
pole
!9. Thelocu< has equation 9.r' + 2Sy' = 225 : it is an ellipse with
center (0. 0), horizonto l majo r axis of leng th 10. verttcal mt· ~7. rour·lcaved rose, symme tric aruund both coord ina te axes.
nor a'is of length 6. and interC<'pts ( :I: 5. 0) and (0. ± 3). around both lines y= ± .r, and with r espect to the pole
ll. There arc two such lines, with eq uations ~·1. T hree-leaved rosc. s~m mctric a ro und the x-axis, u nchange d
y - I = (4± 2-.IJ ) · (X - 2). t hrough any rota tion aro und the origin of an integ ral m ul-
t ipk of 2:r / 3
ll. There are two such lines. with equatio ns y- l = 4(x - 4)
and y + 1 = 4(.r + 4). 51. Fivc -le.w ed rose. symmetric a round the y- nxis, unchanged
t hrough any rotatinn a ro und the o rigin o f nn integra l mul-
t iple of h / 5
SECTiON 10.2 (PAGE 63 5) 53. The o nly point of intersect ion h as coordinates ( 1. 0).
55. The points o f intersection are q. lrr>. q.
~ :r ) , (-1. ~ rr ),
La. (l ./2. jJ2): h. (1. -JJ): c. (~. -tJ3):
anu (0. 0).
57. The points of intersection are (0, 0 ). (2. rr) .
e. (J'i. - ./2): r. (JJ. - 1): g. (- JJ, l)
(2-'2- 2. cos- • (3- 2,/2 )) and
(2-'2 - 2, - cos- t (3- 2-'2)).

61. The polar equatio n can be writlcn in the fo rm r = :!:a +
!J sin 9. If Ia I = lhl and ne ither is zero. the n the gr aph is a
cardioid. U Ia ! "' lbl and neith er a no r b is zero, then the
g raph is a hm a~on. If en her n Or h is 2ero and the o ther is
I S. (x 2 + >~)' = 4 Y'
19. r =2scc 9: x =2
not, then the g raph is a circle. [(a
consists of the pole alo ne.
=
b = 0 the n the graph
A-45
A-46 ANSWERS TO 000-NUMBtREO PROBW.IS
SECTION 10 .3 (PAGE 64 1) 9. 9r~~y== Z!S 11. or : - -1,1.: = 16

13. .c' - _,.: =I I ~- ." =I - r. 0 ~ .r S I
I. 17. 9.r = J.-
i; IX)ncl\C' ur" Jrd
19. :_-:-.I- J_,. = ::-=: ronc:\'C do~n"'ard
'I q -
-
~ !..\ t7 =-=;
~
- · - - 6 -
IJ ) .. ~- flc nzo ::u! u,,cen!.S .1t n. -:1~nd 11. :21. 'ertac31llnscnt 3t
I t1 Oa J::J '"' t;n.:~nt line :u f ) . Ill.
-) -l.l-2 -l.l-1 - <IJ I '"ii:i""' !i. H~~nz4-,:::...tl un~"!~nls Jl ( i. ± ~ ,13) 3nd :tl (0, 0): ' crtical t:Jn·
~-e:-:1 lt 1: . n,
3.
c:, ,. .t= _
, &l
29. - = - :~ JnJ - • =CV •
dT '1'C'"
.\1. r
c=---:.,=-.-x<nr<+~ 1r "
r- "!
J.._\ The slOf'i: of the hn~ t."·nn t.llning 1:, nnd /'' is
I + ,~l,~ tt
~10 0
11n.d ti'U< 1< ·''~'the

\':tluc of d\'/ •1 t .1t th\! poin t /'.
5. y
.H. The llknlltl('~ W'i 1r = n"' 1 - J 'illl~ t t:l'S t anc..l si n Jr =
04 J\lnt w'' t - .,.n' t "'Ill'<: ' ~ rr holrful.
51: ,,l
.St . t • - -,. \ - -· -.. fl .. I <+~
1~ , J .L. , ..
4J. :-<o hon70ntal tangent\; '""'""' t:lll!'cna. nt (-3. 21 and

I I.O t.infl<et l"n~llnt.ll1- 1. 1).
45. llori wnl.lil.an~cn" at Ill. - ~ ;\1177). !0, II. and (0. 2.1H3)
3 9 (nurnt>.:r. -.. ath J~nnu l ~>ina. orc .1J>pmxima tions);
7, :r 9. 2" II. l.~ \ertical Ung<nh at <- 1 K5.W, I 7.l~ l ). (2.432·1. 1.7321).
19 I and 0 .5~7J .fla: anllectann p<>~nt< at (-5. 1.SO.S. - 3. 1103),
13. 4:r
·~· 2, 17. i'' (0. - ~ ."17il. r ~.f1Jill. - I 1~1 t.\a. (1..5117-l. II) . (ll. I).
!0. 1.1 4331. and ( J ~01'>1. ~.X.Sl>Sa. To >cc the g.rarh. use
19. -:r 2 1. 2 ZJ. ~ a computer algebra >~.tern tc> pl<ll the parametric equa-
4 1 1
tions.< = (t - 5t + J ) 1 ' . y= t with the (suggested( range
:..<. !n + J./3 27.
SJT - f.../f -2.7 ~ t ?; 2.7.
6 24
39./3 - IOJT 2 - ,fi
29. 6 31. - 2 - SECTION 10.5 (PAG E 657)
20.~ + 21./3 rr- 2
3.5. - 2- 22 4
JJ. 6 1.
5 .J. 3
1 2
37. (x- !) + (y - !} =!: I
s. 2<r +I) 7. ~
35
9. 16!T 74
15 II. -
3
I.J. ;r ./f
4 15. (e 1' - I )J5
8
17. ~~ (5312 - 2 312 )
19. ~~ (13~12 - 6}
21. 16JT 1 23. Sn 211 J
25. a. 1rab; b. ~1rabl
27. ~ [21r \h + 4rr 2 +In (2.-r +VI + 4;r2 ) ]
SECTION 10.4 (PAGE 6SO) 3 ,
29. s"'a- 31. ~2 ll'Ol
1. y=2x-3 J. yl = .t )
33. 216./3 24.:.:.3,.
::.../3.:..;3::.
S. y=2x1 - S.t +2 7. y=4x 2,x>0 5 35. .:..
4
ANSWERS TO ODD·NUMBERED PROBLEMS A-4 7
r.
h fr• + -lr' - -l/5- .;,s + 4ri +1 ,
J'. '!bC lcr.gth is 211 (r> + 1)1 dt r·
47. :._-- - 1
4 12 -
" J,917.l8.~7217.
41. 5 :t )a·'
6
s.. ('·;2Y-(';I)l =I
~.l Center (1, 2). foci (I±/~. :!I. n<ymrtutc< .•· - :; = ..1: ( ' - I )
t\ [ / is ... :!6cos61l tf•l "" 20 ~13398308 5<5. Cente r (0. 3), foci (0. J ::: 2./5). 3s~ mptotcs ." = J ± xJJ
m.
t'. t' /io- 6cos~ d·1:::. 19.37~896-411
57. Cente r (- I. 1). foci (- I ±
±i(.r +I )
ll. awmptotc< ." - I =
·
~9. Parabola. opening to the left. \ Crte \ 0. Ol. :ni< the .r-a , i>
61. P~r~bob. o pemng to the n~ht. \ 'CrtCX c-} .lll. fl\iS the
n. { ) 106 + 90 co~ II till"' 61.0)35813739 .r·axis
63. Elh('$c, center (0. 21. \Crtic'cs a t (0. tl) nn<l (II. -2)
tl. J.'' ~ J29 - 20 em(! 0) till "' 16.3-1283337 39

65. Min imize ( r -{•l' + ~-= whcrc.t =,1.:/(.J.p).
69. A!'Out 16 h JS min
71. ~hximi1c R(al = <•·,; <in 2a)/K ·
~L (a) Appro~imatcl~· 16.0570275666; (b) '~; 73. Approximately I.J. ' -10' p • :tnd 75' 19' ·17'
75. Square the !!J''cn cqu•t~<ln t" tee to dnninatc radic.tls. con-
~ {' 2
)25 cos 2 5t +9sin 3rdr :>: 2.1 .6029616185 \ crt to polar form. rotate .J.5 h)' rcpl~cing r' "it h 11 + (:t / -1),
nnd finall)' return to Cartc~ia n coordinates. You" ill rccog·
!!. un~th: 1~' Jlr'CrlF + b'<r>F ar "'39.4035787 129 ni1e the equation as that of a p:tr:tt...oh.
77. n. ;\hout 322 b il hon mile~; to. ahout 1211 hill ion mi les
79. \\'ath focus F<O. c) and ducctri\ the Ime L: )' = r:f•·'
SECTION 10.6 (PAGE 676) (0 <,. < I). begin with I P F l = ,. · I I'Ll. dom inate radicals.
)itnplify. replace "'(I - ~' ) woth lr . :md con, e rt the result-
ing Can esiJn equation to ~stand:trd Co rm."
L ();x'ns to the right; c<Junt ion >l = 12x
Ill . Go to nww.liUJ!<buq:.cdu/d(•ptvmalllfMATinu.V
l. ();>ens downwa rd: equation (A - 2)1 = -S(y- 3) tllip<t<.1.09.0.html.
!. OjYns to the lch; equMion ()' - 3)1 8(.t - 3) =- ( r - 1) 2 3);
7. (};lens downward; cqu~ t ion x= = - 6()' + ~) 83. lloe on ly solution is
4
+ 16 = I.
9. ();>ens upward: equation x: = 4 (y + I) 85. (c) In this case there arc no points o n th e graph .
II. Opens to the right. vertex at (0. 0). n~is the x-axis. focu~ a t =
89. lt\x 1 + 50xy ... 16)J J6':1
13. Ot. dtre<trix x = -3 91. If A is at (-SO. 0) :tnd B is :ot (50, 0 ), th e n the .r ·coord inllle
U Opens to the left. vertex at (0. 0), nxis the r-nxis. focu~ at of the plane i~ :tppro ximatcly .J. I.3395 (in mi) .
<-l.O).directrixr = i 93. 2000 mi
IS. Opens upward. vertex at (2. - 1). n~is r = 2. focus at (2. 0). 95. !legin with r = ~/(1 - .. c~ll) and tirst show tha t the area
d:rec1ri~ y =
-2 o f the ellipse i<
17. Opens downward, vertex at( - ~ . - 3), nxis r = -!. focus
't ).
at(- \. directrix y = - ¥-
19. (~)I -(~ y
= 1 Then u<e the substitutio n discu~sed after l\.l i'l:elbncous
Proble m 134 of Chapter 7.
~ (~Y+(-JrY=' CHAPTER 10 MISCELLANEO US PROBLEMS

~~ , (PAGE 679)
l7. - +
16
r.12 --1
)I, (~)I
5
.(~
)'- )l
,..
I
=I JJ.
(r -
81
I )I
+
()' - 2)1
72
=I
t . Circle. center ( I. 1). radiu' 2
3. Circle. cente r (J. - ll. radius I
S. P~rahola, \'C:rlCX (~. -2), focus(4, -25), openinjl d Ownward
35
· ~tcr (0. 0). foci (±2./5. o). axes 12 and 8 1. Ellipse. center (2. 0). vert ices ut (0, 0), (4, 0 ), (2. 3), :md
37
· ~ntcr(O. 4). foci (0. 4 ± J5 ). axes 6 and 4 (2. - 3). fo..• (2. ±J5)
9. fl ypcrholn. center (-I, 1). foci (- 1. 1 ± J3l, vertices
)9, ~I _ yl _ I
15 - .u.
(~)2
4
-(!)l 3
= I (-1. I ± J'iJ
11. There arc no points o n the graph .
IJ. Hyperbola. cente r ( I. 0), \c:rtitXs (3. 0 ) and ( - 1. 0). foci
(I± J3.0)
h •
A-48 ANW/£RS TO ODD-NU'.1 o£~ED PROSlE'.IS
I S. C1rcle. c~ntct C~ I l. t~d1u• I SECTION 11 .2 ( PAGE 689)

17. The ~tr•rh cO:\\ I"'
of th~ •:rar~l:tl:~e >= - z ~~~~::~ ..,:,'1
the IV>I>tcd J" "ntl? il. II 1\ nola CO:UC \ tCIIOn- 1. c . =,.;. c..~r r. i: 1
19. Cucl<. c~n ·~ : f- I. 01. ud1u• I 3. c., = 3- . (Jt r. ~ I.
!I. l hc •tr•12ht hr.c ,. nh <;,.;,,.an equa:.on 1 = z- I ~. c.= ( } ' l - n-· t~=- r: ~ 1.
2.3. lhc hur11nntal hn~ >= 3 7. c. = 1 - (- 1l· for r:;:: 1.
2..<. A pau of UOftOI <l'ah throu;h the o"r::o:.tl:e f.6.!1t 1J \~1:"1·
9. <
.' I I. 0 1.1. I
mctuc around the_. .• .,.
17. 0 19. (l
27. ,, hma,cm \)tnmctroc ar ound lhe )·UI\ ~ ~- o .,er-;.~
~!'. ()
29. Elhf"e. ccntc1 f- i 111. hor11n:l!al \<:t::I~3J(>r am o~ 21. 0 !.'. I
:!:Q. 0 .H . ()
length j. \CtnJmonur •~" of lcnr1h ' ,"\ 'tfloce< 1-.1 0 :7. 0
I
(II. .!. j v'j 1. and Cj. Ol.foo 1- j .Ill a~d •II U, .u. ~ J~ . .17. ~
~
J I. 11 - 2 3'!,/:i - Ill· -'I. OJ\ Crj!CS .t.l. I
.l?. I
2 31 A 4$. : -'1. I -'11. :r
35. 2 37.
51 ~ 1. T, 1-cj:•n. <Uj'J" "C ( "llhl'lll 1,"' of ):CilC r.1111y) Iha I t\ > ll.
;w. The <lr•ip,hlline .v .. x + 2

4
5.1. l.cl /. = hm '· ll>cn I
.. ' ..lo·n, '··• ·
!-~. ~~~ c; - <i· - G, = 1: G •• ,,_ G. + G • • : fur 11 ~ 3.
41. ·n,c ci1clc wilh cen te r 12. II"'"' radm• l Cl>cd U:• <\%.
4.t The •· scrnicuhklll Jllllllh..!.,.. "'''h Cane'"'" cqu.ltoon 51. (h) ~
l n ( l - 1)'
45. y =- j(J -J 2)
4'1. 2-1 ~I . .l:t SECTION 1 1.3 (PAGE 699)
13 ./IT - K ( -1.!
5.\. ~-. () 3
27 I. :;
') ./5 . ,/5 Jil 9 J5 . ./5 J. DJ 'trg~' (I he 41h pJrll.ll ..15 7. 6

S'J. 1112-1 61. ~ 9. Di\Cr):c~ (rcomclnc "'' h ra lio I 01).
II . D i, agcs b~ the r.lh ·lclrn lc•t.
6.\. Supp<>-c 11131 I he circle mil< 10 Ihe rij!hl thiOUJth 3 ccn1ral
J.l, 01\cq:cs (gcomclrlc "" h rallo -3/ c).
ant: I<" II. Then r .. 111• - /"on P• ." = 11 - /re-o< 11.
l~. :! + ../1
6$. If lhc .-picycluid is ~hif:cd 11 unil< In Ihe lcfl. il< cqu>lion~
...II he 17. Di' er~cs b~ I he nlh·ICrm ICSI •
I
z=2ncosO -nro<20 -a. y = 2nsm8 -asin UI. 19.
12
Now compute and simrlify , : =z: + >:· ! I.
:'! - t!
67. f>:tla'
2.1. D1verges (geometric with ralio ~~1 ) .
69. r = 2 p cos(ll - o)
65 2-17
7 1. Maximum 2n. minimum 2b 25. 12 27. - g 19
• •
-1/n:(h- x ) 31. Diverges by lhe nlh ·lcrm tes t.
73. y= li
1
J.l. Dive rges (geomelric wi1h ralio 1a n 1 > 1).
75. The ellipse h:o s cqu:olion ( ; Y+ ( i) = I.

3~. _!!__
4 -IT
7')• .. =2
4
lccl 0 tan! 0 3
37. D iverges: Show1ha1S, ~ i'·l ~ tl.r·" In .t
> ln( ln(k + l)).
lL
'f/
81. A = I)
0 (I + 1311 I O) '· tf() = .2 • 39. -
47
4l. ~ 31-'1 56
99 43.
83. If lJ < then I he conic is an ellipse: if lJ > t it is a hy· 333 9\MI<J
z
p.-rbola." lf IJ =
l •he graph i' a degenerate p nrabola: '"o 4!'. Conve rges 10- - if -3 < x < J.
parallel lines. If the graph is normallo th ey-axis nt 1he point 3 -.r
(0. 4). I hen I he graph is 1hc ellipse with equation .r - 2
47. Con,·erges to if -I < z < 5.
5- x
5z2
49. Converges 10 ir -2 < x < 2.
16- 4z2
I ~ (- 1) ' (2 r ):..• l . · ·
25. ~i n lr = L · This represent~ Iron IS vahd ror
:1. 6 (1n + l )! ·
.~
1 (BcavcrboCk's const~nt) all x.
:J.:; ~
(- l )' r .,.' 2
I !7. si n(.r 2) =
L · . lhis reprcscntJtt· on •os vnhd• for
;s. :;
3 57. 2 59. 3 • ..0
(2n + l)!
all .r.
61. vsc t he• con\'crsc of part 2 ofl11eorem 2. 29. In(! + .r) = ~
N ( - l)" •lrJt
· . This representation 1S v:tl1d 1f
. . . .
6.1. :.5 s L II
•• I
. M, _ 0 as 11 __. + oc. - 1 <X :i l.
67
4 2
_. Paul: -; ~13 ry:
c •·r·. 7'
£9. Pl 7 7 .11. r - ' = 2:
" <-Wx" . Thts · ·IS va1·ctr
· representation 1 or a 11 .r.
.!. of the incident li ght
.
..., n!
i1 ( - l)"'l(.r - I )' . . . .
' ' 12
JJ. In x = ~
N
. 'This representation IS vahd 1f
L II
SECTION 11.4 (PAGE 713) 0 < .r S 2.
r~ t~ :r" r~ t 6
1. ,-• = 1- x + ' ! - ·J ! + ~ ! - ' ! + ' ! ,.-: for some nu mber
2 5
.15. cosx = .J22 - .J2
2
(x - ::_)
4
- 2!../2· 2 (.r - ::_4 ):
6
z between 0 and x .
xz x' .ts .
3. cosx = I - ! + ! - S! stn z for some number~ between + -31_11..-2 ( x - :r
-
4
)J+--
.J2 (
4! . 2
. t - -:r ) '
4
2 4
0 and .r.
This rcprt"sc ntarion is ,·a1id for all.r.
r,-:- X x2 .rl 5x•
I v1+x = I + - - - + - - for some
1 + ~) 1: I
•.
number z between 0 and x.
2 8 16 128(1
- =
.17. .r L"' (- IJ' (.r- 1)". 'lltis representation is valid ror
xJ .rt .,
.....
7. tanx=x + - + - (16sec' ~ tan: + Sscr ~ tnnl :) for
3 4!
0< .r < 2.
some number z between 0 and .t.
.
9. artStn .r = x +
x 3 (1 + 2:'!
for some number : between 0
· 39. sin.r = _.Jf + _J I
2 2
(x - ::_) - 2!_../2_2· 2 (.r - =:.)
·I 4
1
- 2
_..J2_
3! · 2
3!(1 - ~>":
and .r.
II· <_. .= r + ~(x-l) + i(.r-l)"
t·
e , t'
+ (i(.r- 1 ) +
1
24
~ ,
(.r-1) + x(.r- ~ )J + -41-.2 (.r- ~ )' + -5~-~2 (x- ~ )s
1
liO(x- 1) for some number z between I an<l .r. llris representation is ''a lid lor all.r.
B· I JJ(.r-6:r) -4I(.r-6:t) ../3( :r)·'+

·Stnx = 2+2
1
- 12 .r-6
45. Given / (.r) = .- -•. its plot together with that of
~ ( .r - 7, )' for some number :between :r /6 and .r.

~ I • are shown nc~t.
(;_ 4)i == l- 2(x-5)+3(x-W- 4(.t-5)1 + 5(.r-5) -
6(x - W + (.r - 5>" . SQ.IO for some number z between

, 720 (z-4)0
o and x.
11
• <osx =-I + (x- rr )·' •
_ (x- rr) _
••
~ (.r -:r)1 for some
2 24 120
number.... bctwecn 1r an d x.
19. _rn 3 3 1 3 •
==l+i<x- IJ+s<x-1)2- 16 <x- tl '+m(.• - l>-
(x-I)S •
4
~· · ,_, ..
, :,, for some number z between 1 and ·• ·
2
'I
•. t ' '
"'
'\"' (- l )"x" d r II
== L_ --;--. lltis representation is vali or 3 x ·
ll -c} If . 'Jlre graphs of /(.r) = e· • and
lJ. ,-J._~(- 1 )"3'.1'" . .
- L- 1
• This representation 1s vahd for all x. /{,(.t ) = 1_ x + ~2 _ ~l x
•
.rl x6
"-<> n.
2! 3! + 4! - 5! + 6!
A-50 ANS\'IlRS TO 000-NUMeEP.£0 Pl!OBlfMS
are lhO~~>'TI together next. ~9. Results: With .r = 1 in the M aclaurin scrks in Problem 56.
"'C find that
0 = L!» ( t•• l
....::..I_"" 0.6S32~71 605759l!I I SS·C56S8J 1{.19.
n
~1
\\itll .r = l in the second scric$ in Problem 5$. we lind that

'
••
2 3 • b = ')" ...!__ "'0.69JI-l7 1 l'05599~5.3()<}-li72J210107.
47. One of the: Taylor polynomials for / (z 1 = cos...c is f'.l< ) =

I- ,
.f2 .XC
+ 14 . . l ltc graph• of I and /', arc l hown together.
---·
.__ n·3;'t
BeC<lll5<' IJ - In 11 "" O.OOQ9l'Xl(lJ\I'JS-I. " hcrt•as 1/J - In 21 "'

2• 2.039 " JO·-". it iHkarthat the second ~cries of l'rohkm 5~
nc>t. is f.u surcrior to lhc s~ries of Pro~l~m 56 for chc :lCCUr:Hc
arpro-cim.1tion of In : .
SECTION 11.5 (PAGE 720)
y •C<-1\ 1
1. D1•crgn· 1~ l
+
X ... I
11.1 = [~- ln(.t' + I)] "'= +oo.
0
49. One of the 'litylor polynomials fnr llxl = -

1
/~! r ) =
1~! r + l)- 1' 2 d.r = [2(.r + 1) 11'],~ = +oo.
- i•
I ~ x J. l>1 verge<:
2
I - x + x - .r' + x' . The graphs of I nnd /~ M< •hown
together. next.
y
5. Converges: 1~ .r ' ~ j d.r = [ arctJn X]~ = ~ < +00.
7. Diverges: 1, . . x- 1
In .r
- d.r = [ lntln .r)]"' = +oo.
~
9. Converges (to I):

1~ 2·• dx = [- -
0
I- ] "' =1- < +oo.
2•1n2 ., ln2
I
.''= -I + .r
11. Con\'crges: 1"' x' e· • dx = - [(x 2 + 2.r + 2)e·• ] ~= 2
r
< +oo.
-0.5 0.5 •
13. Converges: 1"' :,.r 1
dx = [- I +;nx = _I-~-0
S I. lltc gmph of the 'lllylor polynomial . I+ ln .r

- hm - =I < +oo.
.~ -~ X
x x2 .r 3 .t 4
1"' [I ]"'
P,(.r) = I - 2! + 4! - 6! + 8!
15. Converges: .x' x+ 1 dx = 2: arctan(.r 2 ) "' ~ < + oo.
of [(.r) and the graph of g(.r) are shown together. next. 0
0
17. Diverges: 1"' x' !~:! 17 dx = [ Jn{.rl + 5.r + 17)]~

=+oc.
19. Converges: 1"' 1

In (• + ~)
.t
dx =: ~2 - In 2 < + oo.
21. Diverges: 1"' 4 x 2x+ 5 dx = [~ Jn(4.r2 + 5)]~ = + oo.
57. By Theorem 4 of Section 11.3, S is not a number. Hence

23. Diverges:
i "' xJiiiX 1""
2
- I dx:
2
{In .r)- 112 dr
.r ·
[zclnx> 112 ] ~"' +oo.

auempts to do arithmetic with S will generally lead to false
or meaning! ess results. =
ANS\V[RS TO ODD-NUMBERED PROBLEMS A-51
47. Usc the romp.1ri,nn It'<I.

~ 9- t\ pply the C'<lll\'t'fSc or '111COrcm 3 in Section 11 .3 and Ihe
rcsuh in Prohlcm ·Ill.
51. Usc Ihe rcsuh in l'rohlcm 50 in Section 11.5.
SECTIO N 11.7 (PAGE 735)
:'/. Con,crgc~: 1 arcta n .t

:
X + 1
d1 =[ :;~I (arctan x )l ] " '
I
I.
3.
Cum·t·rj:cS ( 111 ;1: .~:) hy the ahemating series lest.
Divcr!!es hy the nlh ·lcrm test for divert:cncc.
J,~l
=n < + ex>. ~-
7,
Dive rges hy Ihe nlh·lcrm test fnr diver~cncc.
Divcr~:es hy lh<' nlh·lerm test for divcq:ence.
31. This is not a posi tive-t.:nn ~crks. 9. Con,·crgcs (lu -~ ) hy the ahcrnalingscrics test.
_1,\ The terms of this seric< arc nnt monntnnically decreasing. II. Convcr!!c< by Ihe !!h<•rnating se ries test. (The sum is ap-
3,;, 01\CI~CS if 0 < f' ::: I. wnn:rj:CS if p > I. rroxim:nel~· -0. 1 71\2~.\~556.)
37. D1vcrgc~ if p ~ I, com·c r~cs lllhc r\\i<c. 13. Con,crt:c< hy the ahc rnatmg series test. (lllc sum is ap·
proximately ll.71 1\M~~ 11\1156.)
39. n > IOCOO
1 ~. Cun\'cr~c< hy the ahcrnnting series test. (The sum i< roughly
R 11 > 100 4.l II > 160,000
- O.S5079f,'Wll t:\·1.)
~5. n ~ 15 47. f' > I
17. Divcr!!es hy the nth·lcrm I<'SI for di\'crgc ncc.
~- Sloppy nnswcr: Over (,(J.J,.It4 ccn llH ics. /\more prl·cisc nn- 19. Divcr~cs hy the nlh ·lcrm tcs l for di,·crgcncc.
!"cr: t\ lillie on:r 922.-160 n: nturics.
21. Con"crgc. ahsulu tdy hy the rat io test. (The sum is~ -)
~1. Apply Theo rem 4 and l'robkm 52 of Section 11.2.
2.\. Cnll\·crgc~ by the alte rnating se ries test. but only condi·
tionally h)' the iniCjtral test. (The sum i< approximately
SECTION 11.6 (PAGE 727) 0. 1 59S6.,'<XlJ7~~.)
2!-. Conwq:cs ah~<•lu tcly hy the root lest. (l11c sum is approx-
irn:ucly I S6.72~1J.11'6 1 ~02-1.)
I. C'onverg.:s: Dnminat.:d hy the p-se ries " ith p = 2.
3. Diverge< hy lirnit -compari<on wi th the harmonic series. 27. ConvcrJ!<'S nhsolut cly by the ratio lest. (l11e sum is
,.· "' "' O.OOtMl4531J9'12<J76.)
S. Con,ergcs: Dominated bv the geome tric se ries with
29. Di"crgcs hy the nlh -lcrrn lest for diverge nce.
ralto \. •
,\1. Conwq:cs al"''lutcly hy the root lest. ('The sum is approx-
7, Dl\ crgcs by limit-compari<on with th e harmonic scrks.
inmely U IS7'Hl7S75U56.)
9. Con,cr~c~: Dominated by the (>·Se ries with P ~- = J .\. Convcr!!<'~ h)' th<' nllcrnating series test, hut only condi-
11. C'oO\erge<: Domi nated by the fl·<erics "ith T' =; · tiun:olly hy the c<unpnrison test. (The sum i< approximatdy
13. 0 1\erge, by comparison " ith the harnwnic series. U.761J:!O~t•252 1 ').)
l5. CoO\crges: Dominated by the p ·sc ri.:s wit h P =2. J!'. Di,•cr)!CS hy the lllh-lerm lest ror dive rgence.
17. Converge<: Oomin 3 tcd hy a )tCnmctric ,cries with ratio J· 37. Divcrg<'< hy the nlh·termtcsl for divcr~cncc.
19· CoO\ergcs by compari~on with the p -se rks "ith I' = 2. 39. Convcr~cs :tl"olutcly by Ihe ratio test. ('lllc sum is approx-
21. Cun,crgc<: Dominat ed bv the p -scrics "ith I' =~ (anw n~ im:ttdy tl.S$1171!1<)')1!767.)
other<). · 41. Convaj:t'S ah,olulcl)· l>y the ratio test. (The sum is approx-
!.l· c on, crgcs: Dorn in3tcd by the p ·scnes
· w11· h P =.,~· imntdy 2 Sll7 11»--M ISS.)
25. Converges: Do minated hy the geometnc · sen'c<" with 4.\. 0.904-1: O.lXlS: 0.90
. 2_.
ratuJ -1~. 0.6319: O.l~ Ml2: 0.632
c•
27· [) ·cvcrgcs hy limi t-compa ri"ul w11h · I1IC p-sc · ·ricswith
· {•.. !· ~7. n.flS;\2: o.o'l:
. n.1
29· ()'l\ crgcs by limit -cn rnpari<on w11 II 11eI ,..,. ·crk<Wilh(> <= \. •
~9. 11 = 6; 0.9~7 (lht• Slllll is nu:T•)
.II C0
• " 'crgcs b)• compari'><ln with a gt•nmc tnc '~
· ·ries with rn ·
. ,· h 51. " = 5: 0 t.(l(\5
llo 11 and by hm11 compari -.on "ol b a jtenn1c·tnc sc ncs '"' ~'- " = ~: 0~1.\
ra11o !
)' 5!'. 11u~ sc<tucnce or term< is not monotonic:~lly decreasing: the
.1.1. Con ' t rges b\' compari<on \\llh. I h e I'' sc·ric:s with p = 2. series di\CI!!C~ l•y com p3rison with the harmonic series.
.1~. D, • . h 1 m1onic series.
.17 ' crgc, hy llmiH:o mpari>oll w11h I c 13 (- tl"
.19. s.-,-. o'lll i 71J3 wi th error k~' th an 11.09-IS.'U. 57. Let n, = 1>, =
Iii ·
~ . s.(l <: 0.52R/170 with error k << th an 11. 1.
'
t ll l l 111 I t t
I. ~ .. It 0 Ll'ifl~01 63. l +3 - 2+5 - 4+7 +9- 6+il+i3-ii +T5
~ I: I he sum ;, appm\Jrlla ldy '" · · ·
~ ~ "'); the \Urn i\ apprn~imatcl)' I) !1)07f4. 6..~ II ('()0\CrjtCS 10 lC! O.
. lJ'C the converse or Theorem 3 in Sectio n 11.3.
A-52 ANSWERS TO ODD-NUMBERED PROBLEMS
SECTION 11.8 (PAGE 748) SECTION 11.9 (PAGE 756)
3
I )'' 4 . 64
"" 4 + 3 I "'4.021.
( + 64
1. (-1. I) 3. (-2. 2) I. 65''3 = 4 . I
5. [0, 0) 7.[-~·~] I I
3. sin(O 5) "" - - - - 3 "'0.479.
. 2 3'. 2
s. 0.464
9. (-~·D 11. [-2,2)
7 sin(~) ""~ - _;r_ =::; 0 .309.
J
13. ( -3, 3)
15. O·n 9
• 10
sin(~)""~--;r-"='0. 174.
10 3! . 10'
)
17. u. n 19. (0. 0]

.
1
18 18 3! . J8l
t I I ~o
1
sin.r
II -dr"='l --+---~ .9641.
• o X • J!3 5!5 7!7
21. ( -4, 2) 23. (2, 4]
I 3•
1' 12
arctan x d _ ~ _ _ 1_ _ _1_ _ _
.r
1_ ,. 0.4872
x - 2 2J . Jl + 2l . 51 21. p •
0
25. (5. 5] 27. (-1. I)
1
In(! + .r) I I I
29. (-co. +oc) IS. [ .r d.r "" IO - 4 . IOZ + 9 . I(}' ::,0.0976.
0
31. f(x)=x + x 1 +x 3 +x'+xs + · · · : R=l 1
I - e-' I I I I
1
/l
17. - - dr:=, - -
2 2!. 2 . 21
+ 3!. 3. 2"
- .,..,........:......-:-:
4!. 4. 24
('I; (-1)"3,.r"• 2 0 .t .
JJ. j(x) = '"' : R= + oo
L- n! I
•• o
+ 5!. 5. 2s "=< 0.4438.
"' (-l)"x ..
35. f (x) = L
"=0
(2n +I)! :
+Z
R= +oc 19. 0.7468241328124270 ::,(),7468
21. 0.5132555590033423 ::,().5133
I 2 x 1 2 . 5 .r1 2 . 5 . 8 x' l . r . r1 I
37. j(x) =I -
3x- 3l · 21 - y · J! - - y . 41 23. - - - - - - - · ·· - - - as x - + oo.
2 6 24 2
2. 5 . 8. 11 xs
_;...J_,S,_-.5,- .. . ; R=l
25. lim
x2 x3 •-0
39. f(x) =(I + x)·' = I- Jx + 3 · 4 · -2! -3 · 4 · 5. -3!
x•
+3·4 · 5 · 6 · - .. ·; R=l
41
41. f(..r) = L"" -;;-:;:T;

(-l)"x"
R= 1
•••
. O M "' I - -I · ( -;r )" "=< 0 9S·IS
.
'"' (- 1)"x""•' 29• smou
2! IS ' '·
....,
43. /<..rl=L (2n+ll!·(6n+4J: R=+oc
31. IH>R1998
"' (-1)"..r.lo+l 33. Six·placc :tecuracy
45. f(x)='"' , ( I); R =+oo .lS. r·i vc·pbcc nccuracy
~ 11. • 3n+
oJ )
37. ,.ll.l "" 1.39
( - l )" .. 'x 111 - 1 39. a. IU,(.t)l < 0.000002;
L % .
n!. (2n _ 11 ; R = +oo

b. 1R,(.r)J < 0.000000003
47. /(..r}=
X
••• 41. V = 21T 1"
II
sinl x •lx "' (2tr )l - (2Jr >'
xl 2 1• 4'• · 3 +-
12.T)•
6! ·-
5 - .. ·
49. -I < x < I
(I -xr, , "' 8.91050')1465101038.
2.•
+ x),
SL x(l
(I - ..r)l
- I < x <I
~ (-l)"xl<
43. v =2;r
1"
""15.3162279113254.
6J. {(X) =~ {PI+ I)!, -00 < X < +00
....,
1
ANSWERS TO ODD·NUMBERED PROBLEMS A-53
n- 1
c,. = - , r. .. ,
n- - n + 1
if 11 i: 2. w y(.t ) a 0.
25 I .I 2 l 17 7 62 9 131!2 11
• x + ) ·' + IS.t + 315.t + 2835x -'- IS5925.r
. 21R-:-t ll 929569 \5
~ 6081075.t + 63&512S75.r + ...
CHAPTER 11 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS

(PAGE 767)
I. I
3. 10
!9. - 1
5. 0
7. 0
SECTION 11 .10 (PAGE 766) 9. The limit doe~ no t exist.
L •(.r)=a~
~
)' . .
-r = auc•: R = +oo
II. 0
13. +~ (or "Does not exist.")
. -...- n! 15. I
,.,()
17. Converges by the ah c rnnting se ries test. (ll1c sum i~ 3Jr
" - (- 1)' (3.r)"
· ....,
l >(I )=tl,j '\"'
L.. n!
-
2
- =1\1.. -l•r.; R=+o:> proximately O.O.c;()J57603217.)
19. Converges by the ratio test. (ll1e ~um i~ approximntcly
x3l + -2!1 (x'-3 )l 1.405253Sl<028-t)
' l
i I(I )=tl,j I ... -1 . -
I!
21. Converses hy the comparison test and ll1corcm 3 of Sec·
tion 11.7. {'n1e sum is approximately C.23!1-'UMH3!i03.)
=~cxp(~} R= +oo 23. Dive rges by the lllh·le rm tc~t for divergence.
25. Converges hy the comparison test . (The sum is nppro~i·
mntely 1.45lJ973~!U376.)
1
L 2'x" =a~ L (2x)' = 1 ~ 2x;
"\!" :I¢
0
7. )1J)= a 1 R= i 17. Conve rges hy 1hc ahernnting series t:st. {'n 1c sum is ~p·
• .., o
n ..
pwxirn.•t ely 0.;\71\Sfli\S iti llJX.)
2~. Di•cr~cs hy the intcgrnl test .
"'
9. ,\l.r)=tl,j ~ (n+ l )r'= ~I. C(ln~erg.cs by the ratio test; the s um is •. :. nru.l thc radiu~ of
...,
L..
ao
(I - .tl 2
; R= l
convcrl!encc: is +oo .
33. l nc inte rvnl of con•·crgcncc is I -2. ~) .
•\~. ll1c interval of convergence.: i~ I- I . q.
37. l nc scrie• con• e rgcs only if x = 0.
31J. '111c series con,·c rgcs to cosh x on ( -cc. +o:>).
~I. Oil'cr~cs fo r all x hy the nth·tc rm test for di•·crgcnc:c.
.u. Conwrges for all x to cxp le' ).
~5. Let n. =b.= (- 1)" · 11 · 1/,.
51. LOS~
SJ. OA61
~5. 0.797
65. ~~ =2 and "• = 4 for nlln ~ 1.
1. v = Rs = (2. 3)
3. • = Rs = l - 10. - 20)
s. w :: u + ,. = (4. 2}
7. u + • = 51 - 2j
9. ./5. 2Ji1. 4Ji. (-2. 0}, (9. - 10}
11. 2../2. 10. ../5. (-5. -6). (0. 2) 49. a::::74.206831•. fJ==Y ::::;47.124011"
13• .JIO. 2../29. J65. 31- 2j. -i + 19j 51. a:::: 64 .895910? • fi "'55.550098•. Y = 45'
IS. 4, 14, J65. 4i- 7j. 12i + 14j

S;l. :3
S5. Approximately 7323.385 cal
3 4, 3. 4,
17· ••= -si-sJ· ··=s•+sJ 57. W = mglt .
. Wtl. h 1a.,.. b j: -_(a + b) . (u +b) and expand Ihe nght·
l\, 15 , s , 15, 59. Bcgm
19· U = !7 1 +UJ' \' = -17 -17J hand side.
61. Anv nonzero multiple of w == (-2. 7, 4 )
21. a= PQ =-4j • ~ l>~cl - blcl - a ,c2 - azcl
23. a = llQ =Si - 14j 6::..a
'
== b.P- (.l l t·r,l-l·2
a ,bl- lll l
,, b1 .
25. a.Lb =
67• 2x + 9 y _ Sz ZJ: the plane that bisects AB and IS perpen-
27. a.l b dicular to that segment
69. TI•c angle between any two edges is ;r /3.
29. i = - 4a + 3b and j = 3a - 2b
1 5
Jt. c=-2a+ 2b
5, 7.
J3, D, 15i- 21j; Il, - I - - J
3 3 I. (0,-14 , 7)
s~ s.../89 .
JS. a. (7i- 3j): b. - (81+ 5J) 3. -101- 7j + k
58 89 5. (0. 0. 22)
37. c = 0 is the unique solu1ion.
43. 1i=7i=l00 7. ±/J (I2. - 3. 4)
45. 1i "'71.971. 7i "' 96.121 (lb) 11. a X (b X c)= -k ~ -i + j = (a X b) X c.
47. Compass bearing 86"13', airspc~<.l approximately 13. b x c is parallel to a.
536.52 mi/h 15. l v'2546
49. Compass bearing 320' 43', airspeed approximately 502 milh 17. u. 55; h. ~
19. Coplanar
21. Not coplanar
23. The area is approximately 4395.6569291026 mz .
&: E../5(2. 5. -4) 25. ·n1c area is approximatdy 31271.643253 ft 2.
-
L (5. 8. -II): (2. 23. 0): 4;
29. Begin with the observation that the a rea of the triangle in
3. (2.3.1); (3,-1.7): 0; .15: ~ J3(1.1.1 ) . !
Fig. 12.3.13 is JPQI · tl.
5. (4.-1.-3): (6.-7. 12): -1: Ji7: j./5(2.-1,0)
31. Begin with the observation tha t a vector perpendicular to
7 • .(1::::8 ) •
=
both lines is 11 F;Q; x ;;;Q;.
9. e = 'JO' 33. Usc Eq. (12) and the result inl'robl~m 32.
11. & ::::: 98' 35. Sec the discussion roll()wing Eq. (3) in the text.
13. comp.b =TI ../5: wmp~a:;; ~ v'i4
15. comp.b =0 = comp.a
17. comp.b =- ~ .15: comp•11 =- ~ Jiii
19• .r= -6.r+ >,2 -2y+ 1! -4z= II I . .r = t, y = 2t, <=31, -oo < 1 < +oo
21. xz- JO.r + 1- f!y + 1! + 2z + 33 =0
J •.t = 21 + 4, )' = 13, : = -JI-3, -OO<I<+OO
23. x 2 + .~ + 1! - 4z =0 = =
5. x - lit. y 31, z =Sr . - oo < 1 < +oo
25. Center (-2. 3. OJ, radius ./f:i
7. .t = 31+3. y e S, : = -31 + 7. - OO< I <+oo
27. Center (0. 0. 3). radius 5
29. 1be .ry·planc:
9. Parametric equations x 1 + 2, y = = - 1 + 3. : = -21 - J.
-oo < t < +oo: symmetric equations
Jl. The plane through (0, II. 10) parallel to the .ry-plane
:+4
JJ. .,
3!.
37.
The union of the three: coordinate planes
l'he single point CO. 0. 0)
The single poinl (3. -4. 0)
X -2=-.)•+ 3= - - .
11. Parametric cquationsx =I , y 1.:

Cartesian equations .r = I, y = 1.
-
= =1 + 1. -oo < 1 < +oo:
39. Parallel (and not perpendicular)
13. Parametric equations .r = 2t + 2. y =- 1 - 3. : =3t + 4,
41. Parallel (and not pcrpcndicula.r) -oo < 1 < +oo: symmeuic equations
43. The poinl\ lie on one line:.
x- 2 ·- J
~. Alllhre.c: angle> h3\'e me:.surc: flY. -2- = -( y + 3) = :::__
3 .
47. ! A :::::79' . £8 :::: 64•, tC :::: J7•
1.5. The lines meet at (and only at) the point (2. - I. 3).
ANSWERS TO ODD-NUMBERED PROBlEMS A-55
11. Lt
and /.. '
are skew lines.
/..~ are parallel and dtstmct. 31. r (l) = (!1
6
1+ 10. ..!..,•
12
+lOr ..!_,,)
. 20
Q. L: and
1
1y-3:=0 33. r(l) = (I - I - COS I, I + I - sin I, 51)
lL 1 +•....
•
s.,o
•\ ~ -.
35. v(i:r) = ( 3./2.3./2. 8}. ••On) = 10. nnd
;q,7 = (- 6./2. 6./2. 0}
a(l:r)
- 1+ \I Y"'II ~
•''· •1 + J )' - ..· -- 0 37. u (l) x Y (l)+ u' (t) x •·(t) =(0. .Wt. -IS}= D,( u(l) x v (r)J .
, . J%
• ,. _ :=0 .u. 100ft
lL 1.J -
. ·--1y+ 17t =78 ~3. t·o = .;,..j-z- .,..= 32Ji65 ::: ~ JI.().I7.U25171S~ ft!s
. 5-2110
J.\"'
L and1' arc paralicI an d h3\C no pomts
. .m common. -l7. (a) Ran ge: J00/3 ft. maximum height 100 fL (b) R nng::
J.l. ""• , meet at (and onIy at ) thc potnt
· ( 9917 800ft. mnimum height 200ft: (c) Range: -100./3 ft. mnxt·
i. ; . 7 ).
Jl. ···l mum height 300 It
" 11:....,. ande b<:tv. ccn the piJnes is 0 = arcccx( 1/ ./3).
- ~9. 70 ./iO mls
· · The analc t>etwccn the planes i~ 0 "' 0 because the planes 51. Angle ol inclination: appro~om atol)' ~1·50'33.7.'922-1•: ini·
lL •
11< rarallcl tial ,·elocit)': appro~imatc ly I JJ.6-l .'l515·1S.~ m.!s.
=
l.\ Parametric ~quations.x = 10. )' 1. : = - 10- 1. -oo < 1 < 53. Fim at\umc th>t u (l) =( rro( r) . u ; (l )) nnd •II) = (o•r(1). t•:(l )).
+:<:: urte~t3n cquatmn~ .r = Hl. )' = -10- z Your prooh•ill be u s) to gcncrJluc to ' ector.> with three
ll. There is no line of intersection because the planes nrc ur more cornponc11 ts.
fH31icl. 55. Fir~! sho" tho t D, 1•11) • v(l ) ( =0.
li. Parametric equation' x =3. )' =3 - 1. z = I + 1. - oo < 1 < 57. A centr:rl repulsive fo rce " ith mognitudc proportional to
+:>::: Cartesian equations x =3. : .. ~ - y. dtstancc !rom the origin.
4'!.Jr + 2y + z=li 6J. 5 ft north
!1. 7t-5y-2<= 9 53. x-2y+~:,.J 6~. h. 12 s: t. 2-100 ft nonh. I+I ft caJI: d. 71!-l ft
10Jj 133J50t
!~ - 3- 59. Pnrt (b):
501
SECTI ON 12.6 ( PAGE 828)
SEatON 12.5 (PAGE 813) I. 10.~ 3. 19 (~- 1) o: 32.6-l7355
1. BcCluloC + :! = I while xis arbitrary. the graph lie' on

,~
S. 20 + 9ln 3 "' 2.98ln51 7. K(Ol = 0
10
L\c cyltnder or r~diU> I " ith a.is the X·3Xis. i\ sm>ll port or
tbcgraph is shown in l'ig. 12.5.17. 9. • (0) = 1
l Becau!>t .r1 + ,~ =1' = ~ . the graph lies on the cone with
i US the :·a•i' and eq uation i =
.r1 + f. A sm~ll pan of
" ) = -10.182
II. <( :i lf.S I .. 0.2 1 5~76
the graph is shown in Fig. 12.5.1(1.
5. r (I) =O= r' (l ) IJ. (-j ln 2.jv'i)
7. ( (01 = 2i- j and r"(0) =4i + j 15. Maximum at (±5, O), minirnurn at (0. ±3)
'··(n =6ni and ·(n "' ~~~ J 1 17. T(-1) = (

./iO 3
To· Ji1j)
lO . JI0(- 1) ~ <3 Jfti
10 .
-../iii)
10
ll • II ) = (1. 21. 31') . u(l) = J I + 41! +'.It' , a(l) =(0. 2. 61) 19. T (n / 6) = (
,ill
19· .a ,/19)
-19 . N,(lf/61 ~ (- 4./W ./57)
- 1\1 • - 19
-
ll •(1)=(1. x . 4r') . r·(r) = .J1 + 25t"". a (l) =(0. 31. -l< )
ll ' r) =( -J sin i.Jcosr . -~) . 21. 'rt31T/~) = (-.;;. -.;;).

l (l)=J 9sin1 1 + 9 co~' r + IIi .. 5. lRt 6
• 'r) =(-3co-s 1. - 3sin r. 0) :!J. or = ~.~ • a., ,. _ ,::..=
v91' + '1 . ,/91I+i'
11. (2-2..fi. . ./2) 15. 11r

I
= vr:r:-; • a t\' •
I'+ 2
i· + I ...fil + I
I
;n. II !7. < c -
a 29. X! + (y - 0l = !
15. r (l) =(I. O. r) 31. (~ - 2) 1 + ()'- 2) 1 = 2 33. K (l) S l
35. A'( l) .. .ji -·
3" 37. Or c Oa a.•
4t+ll'lt'
31. Equation x = 2<l + zlJ; circular paraboloid opening along
39. a r = -;:~,:,;,;,:::=;4 the positive .t-axis.
J l + -lrl + 9/ 33. Equation .r= + i- :! =I; circubr hypcrholoid of one sheet
1 Jr• + Sr i ... g with axis the ;:-a~is.
41. o 1 = -JiT+2.
- - av = ..:....:._.fi!
..:,.;;,~.:.:.
+2 3!'. Equation: -l.t = .'.: + :!;circular parabolo id. a xis the pos itive
x-axis. vcrh:x a t the orig in.
43. T (O) = ( Ji
2. Ji
2. o) • N'(0 ) = (0. 0.-1) 37. Equation: : = etp! -.t~ - J.z).
=
39. Equation : :! .r' + r~; roth n;~ppcs o f a right circular cone
with axi~ the : ·:tt is :tnd ' c rtc x at the o rig in.
45. T (O) = ( ,fj
3 . ,fj
3 . ,(!.
3 ) N(Ol= Ji Ji . )
. ( --
2 •-20 .u. The traces in ho rizonta l pla ne~ a rc cllip'c~ with centers on
the :·a ti< and scm iat e > 2 and I.
-ls 12r 3s -l.l The traces in the pla nes x = a are circ k s if tal < 2. single
47. x(s)=2+ - . y(s) = I- . ~(s ) = 3 + l3
13 13 poin ts if ta l "' 2. empty if Jal > 2.
-lJ
49• x (s ) =.>cos
, s.
5 y(.<) =3 sin 5. .f
<(.f ) = -
5
-15. lhe 1race in the pla ne x = a i> a pa rabo la opening upward
1\ith \'CrlCX at ( 11. (), ·111 2 ) .
51. Note that D,(v • v ) =0 (why?). -17. The tr:tces a rc ge ne rally parabola~; some open upward.
I some downward: ro ta te the surf;t cc of Fig. 12.7.22 around
SJ. =-
K(t)
It I the :-axis 45 · to >cc the surfncc .
55. y =3.r l - Rr 4 + 6x' 55. Elliptic paraboloid: : = 2u 2 + 4t•2•
57. Apprn~in13lcl)' 36.651 mils; 2-l.IJ(l m ils 57. llypcrhol ic paraho lnid; : = 5ul - 51' 2•
59. ,\rproxionntcly 0 .672 mil•: 0,(,02 rni/$ =
59. El lipt ical parabolo ttl:;: J·ht' + t 7v'.
6 1. About 7')5 below the ~u rface of the Earth 6 1. Hyperbolic paraholoid;;: J61)ul - 169vl. =
63. Approximate ly I h 42 min 2.588 s 63. H yrcrboluid of o ne shee t; _ , : + t•l + 2w2 = 5.
65. Be£,in with Eq. (-12). su bstitute Eqs. {37) and (41). 65. I lyp.:rbolic cylinder: -5u ' + 5,..: = 1·1.
67. Ellipt ic cy linde r: 2t·1 + 3,..: = 5.
69. E ll ip,o id : 3u 1 + 3t·2 + (,,..l 23. =
SECTION 12 .7 ( PAGE 837)
1. The plane "' ith intercepts x =

lj!. y = 10. and~= 2. SECTION 12.8 (PAGE 843)
3. C ircular C)'hndcr. radtu< :l, a ~ i< the :·n~i ...
I. (0. 1,2) 3. (-Ji.Ji.J)
5. A hyperllolic C) Iinder "'ith rulin~< parallcltn the : ·axi< and
mee ti n~t the .1 y·plnnc in the h)'perbola with equation x y =4 . 7. co. 0. 2)
5. (I. J3. -5)
7. EUtpttC paraboloid. a.xts the :·a xis. •·ertcx at the oricin.
opening upward. - 9. (-3.0. 0) 11. (o. - ,IJ. 1)
9. Circular pJtaboloid, axis the :-axi!l, vcrte~ a t (0. 0. 4). open·
Note ~hat a 8'~~~~ pomr tlo~s not lto \'r' Wll( /lh' cy fu ulrica/ or
ing d o "'n"' ard. sph~nctll Wt~rduwrt•J. lml~"'· rho,• me mji11ir~lr m am · a>rr~n
II. Circular pa rabolo id. axi< the z-u is. \'ettcx a t the origin. answu.<to l'ro~>lt·m 1.1 rhrt~u,~h 22. If " com1,,,,., pmcrammt'd
opcnmg up,..ard. t o unplr·m t'lll l:tf.~. (3) and (()I COII\'r' rt\' ,\ our'"""'''' 10 l'Otri"('/
13. Both nappes of a circular cone. :ui< the :-a~is. vertex at the rt•cmngular roordilwft•.t. your mawc•r ;, alnJtl.\1 rrnmnh· co,("('l.
o rigin. 13. Cylindrical: (0. u. 51: sphc ric.tl: (5. u. 01 ·
15. f'a rabolic cylinder pa rallel to the y-nxi"- opening upw:m.l.
Jo,.. cs t p01nts th~ on the line z., - 2. x = 0. 15. Cylindric:~!: (h.:rt-1.0); sphcric:tl: (Ji. :r{ 2.:rt 4)
17. Elliptica l cylinder pawllclto the t·nxi~.centerlinc the : ·axis.
19. Both nappes (I( nn ellipticnl cone. a.is the x-nxis. vertex at
17. Cylind rical: (Ji ..~t-1. 1); spht·ricnl: (.Jj. m., - t .Jj ~)
3 .4
the origin .
%1. Paraboloid openin g d o wn ward. am the nega tive z·axis, vcr· 19. Cylindrical : ( ../5, tan - 1 ( ~). -2):
n.
tcx at the o rigin .
:zJ. H yperbolic parnb<tlo id. S3dd lc point at the origin; to sec it.
execute the Mothrmorico 3.0 command sphe rical: (3. ('C)\ - I ( - tan · l (D)
Par. . .tri c~lotlO( { 2•Y•Y • zoz, y, z ),
{ y , - 1 , 1 ) , { &, - 1,1 II 21. Cylindrical: (S. arctan j. 12):
%!. H yperboloid of one sheet, axis the : ·axis. spherical : ( 13. aroin n.arctan j)
%7. Ellipt.i cal paraboloid. axis t he nonneg~tive y-axi.s. venex at 23. Cylinder. radtus 5. axis the :-axis
the oriJin. 25. The ver ttcal plane y = x
19. H ypcrbolo;d of two shee ts. axis the y-ui.s. oenter the origin. 'l7. The ci rcubr cone i ., 3x1 + 31 "' ith u i' the : ·u is and
intercepu (0. ±6. OJ. venex at the ongm
..
ANSWERS TO ODD.NUM BERED PROBLEMS A·57
,rr·pllOC . . . 19. The position vcclorr(t ) .. (- s in 1. co'il) traces I h e circle o f
!'I· 11t~ • od " ilh ccn1cr a l I he ongm and mlercepts
radius I \\ ilh ce nter (0. 0).
1JtC rlhp<O
)1. !' H. Ol. (0. :b f'~- 0). and (0. 0 . --'-2 )
21. T"o solu1ions: u "" 0.0333~ (aboul l 5-l'.t2") and a "= 0
1:1: ' •· ·lomkr. radou' 2. a xi< I he \'e rt icalli nc .r = 2. y = 0 1.2\11 156 (a bout 73'5R'.t(Y')
C1n;uiJr C) •
-'~; r~ ,., ('l.'n'-'-=
.. 011 oc circu br C) h ndc rs " n h common axis I he
.. 23. K(l) = ~ . 117( 1 ) = 2 , a.- ( l )== I
·~d
-'" ··3'<1' ... ~
radu I and 3 . 2$. lk gi n wil h the ob,crv:uion 1ha 1 v1 x •z is n o rmal 10 lhc
•, T"''. Ct•>ntl
•
'· · ·3'<1(
n" rucnl circular pa rabolood s, each wilh axi< lhc
" • '
•·cn cx al l he ongon : o ne opens upward. the o lhc r
pi.IIIC.
... 27. 3.r - Jy + z = I
j,," n•••HLI .\.\. I' = 2em~~
=
~- C)linJrocal: , : .._ ~: :!5: ~phcrical : I' = 5 ( I he same a 2~,
. ~nrh C'f " = :::5l
.tJ. Minima l a t e very m tegral m ultiple of 11 , ma t ima! at C\'Cf)"
II. C•hnJncal: r c~/1 -'- ' <m il~ ~ =l :
odd inlcgra l multiple o f :r/ 2
1 ·hcric:~.l. p <on¢ co, fl-'- •""'<' ~m t1 + p co • ¢ = 1
r . . . I I
\ OlinJnal: , • .,. ~ = r C<"" - 'sm tl + :: 45. T = J:i1+.1 ( - :r. 2) . :-; = (- 2. - :r )
I! . •
= • . . II
srb<nC:I.I: p• I' <In ('I CO'<• ~ 1' ~In¢ Sin + f1 CO< ¢
:r l +4 J.~ l + -l
(t:"s k p llo caned ,. fr \lm l-oth sod~s <lf I he la<t equal io n). 15 5 ' 3 l
49. ) (x ) = -.r- - .t + - x
s
~. l hc rart of I he C) lmdc r <:'f radius.> and ccnl<' rlinc I he : ·a , is 8 -l
1r. 3t ltes !-< I~t ee n lhe piJ n<·s : = - I a nd : = 1
41• The r an of the sr hcric:ll surfJce of ra d ius 2 and cen1cr the SECTION 13.2 (PAGE 857)
0,;~in that lies 1-ct~t ecn the two ho rizonta l p lanes z = - I
•nd : = I I . l11c cnlire .ry·piJ nc
11. "De solid is round ed 3N)\c by Ihe plane : = 2. bclo~t by
3. 1loe cnlire .ry· plane cxccpl fo r i he origin (0. 0)
~~~ pl3n< : =
- ~. outsode t>y the C)"lindcr of radius 3 wi1h
5. All points of I he .ry·plane
~nt:rlmc the : ·J\1'. anJ on, ide by lhe C) Iinder of radius I
•1t~ c-entcrhne the :·3 ~1\. 7. A ll points o n a nd wilhin Ihe u ni l circle
! L "P.:t 1-'lid i<th~ rr~ion bcl\\ecn 1wo concemricsphcricalsur· 9. 111c entire .ry·p!Jnc
!1t:1 ~~!crcd 31 I he o rigin. one o f rndiu< 3 and I he Olhcr I I. "the region a l><n·c the >U3i[!hl h nc " " h cq u:uion y = .r
c: n~u.s 5. IJ. A ll points of the XJ ·plane no 1 o n ~llhcr coordinate atis
!~\ : = ,-: 1~. All po int< of lhc •>-plane no l on e ithe r slraighlline y = x
:E. L - ,.! - r · :; :. ' ../.! - r ! . 1 ~ r ~ 2,. 0~9 ~ 2rr: or ."= -x
b. sc:co ~~~;; ~ . .-r t} ~ o :: .l~ /3 . 0 ~ 0 & 2:r 17. , \ ll poinls in space Olher I ha n Ihe origin 10. 0. 0)
;7, A!-oct :'-'i~ l mo lal-out f> l ~\1 km ) 19. r\ ll poi111S of ~pace: strielly abo ve I he paroboloid ~ "' .r: + _,.:
!9. A !.ttl< It~< th3n J I mi tr,r, km) 21. ·n ,e ho rizontal pla ne 1hrou~h ((). !1. 101
=
2J. "llle pla ne with cq u:u ion ~ .r ~ r
61. 0 ~I'~ ,
1
f(. .._ 1r: . () :; 1< :; 2.-T. ¢ = arctan ( :;) 25. A corcul~r pa raboloid " ilh :.,; , the nonnej:aliw :·a' i"-
opc:n ing. upward. \ crlc x :olt hc m igin
U L !~:c,: ~· >;1=1•'- / .. :? + a1 - ~) 1 ; '!7. 1nc upper half o f 1hc: spheric.a l >Urfucc " ith rad ius 2 a nd
b. ( f -. D ,: - ~ :2 /f •
center (0. 0. 0)
c. =.::;;,,:-2¢ =p= - a~ - IF
29. The lowe r nappe nf a circular c one '' ll h 3 \:1' Ihe : ·:nis ;~nd
verlc, at (0. 0. 101
CHAPHR 12 MI SCEllANEOUS PROBLEMS 3 1. S uaoght hnc> of I he fo m1 • - v = c ("her<' c i< a oon~tanl )
(PAC.[ 84S)
JJ. Elhr-csccntcrcd Jl lhc mogi n ' "lh nujur 3 \ c s o n I he .r·a • i•
a nd mmur axe' un the y·a "< i'
L ... ~' M - AO... )"' 2~( AV - I~ + Mr + MQ) = AV. .l~. C"ur•cs wilh C<jUaliun' nf Ihe furm y
Cllll , IJ OI)
=1' .._ C (C i' a
!. .'>ot c that A ., ~ J P,j / i'Hj. 37. C orcle' cente red :11 the p111111 <2. Ill
7p ~ J'l, ( ·uc~,~ c~n tcr~·l nl lh~ mi1:in
' <r~:nti/IC cqUJIIOn~
4 1. C"onp ucnl cunol.ll p.u .ol-.•lui,h nil \\llh :1\i• thc : ·,. is and
1 - ':IC .; t .; + ~ .
" l -2t. ,1 • - ! +31, : c 2 - Jt . nil npc ninj! upward
'~-"!
· - ... r1c r q u111o ns
-1.1. Srhcoic.ol " ufart•< l'<'llle rr d .11 lhc I"IIIII (:!. 1. J l
-15. "J hc lc:•cl \Urf.orn ..r I nrc .- lhpl ll"JI C\hnd<r> r arallc l 1(1
.J - 1 ·· - l ~-2 t he :~311\ .md rcntr red Hn t tl\.• \ C II IC.t l hnc lh;at m<c:t\ lhe
T=J-=-:J· .r) -pl.onc 311hc I"'"" 12. I. Il l I he d hr-c on" hoch c 3ch such
' · r, '·- L~ ... arc r3 ra l!cl 10 u = (6 . 3. 2>·. lhC r l.lDC h3< C) hndcr mu h the t1· pl3nc h.l\ mJ)"r 3 \1< r a rallcl 1n Ihe
C..- ..._., cqu1uon 13x - ~) - 6~ = .!.J. ~- x· >ll\. monor "" p.ralld In I he '"''"''and 1hc majo r 3t h
ll
1!. }l- ' - .,. : .
I"S I\\ ICc lhc lc nglh o f I he nunur .1\o\.
3
~7. MJichcs Fig. 13.2J2
1........___ _ __
A-58 ANSWERS TO ODD-NUM BERED PROBLEMS
49. Almost matches Fig. 13.2.30 at = we• + e•, -at =u e•+ t'.. • and -at = e" + ve"'.
19. -
S1. Matches Fig. 13.2.28 au av aw
53. Matches Fig. 13.2.41 21. z,(x.y) = 2r-4y. z,cx.y)=-4.r+6y. z,,cx. y) = -4.
SS. Matches Fig. 13.2.42 z,.,(.r. y) = -4.
23. z,(.r. y) = 2xcxp(-/). z,(.r, y) = -2x yexp(-y2),
2
57. Matches Fig. 13.2.44
59. If a and b are not both zero, then the surface has one pit z,,(x. y) = --l.rycxp(-/). z,,(.r. y) = -4xycxp(-/).
and one peal.:. I
25. z.(x, y) = - - =~1 (x, y) and
61. Apparently t1 peaks and n pits alternate ly surround the x+y
origin. I
z, ,(.r. y) =- ( )'
x+y ·
=z ,(x. y).
1
J - JJ .
27. z,(.r. y) = -3··- • cosy. z1 (x. y) = -e sm y.
SECTION 13.3 (PAGE 866) 3
z, 1 (x. y) = 3e- 3' siny. Zp(x. y) = Je- ' sin y.
1. 7 3. t' s. -35 29. z, (.r. y) = 2x cosh ( ::) . z,(x. y) = - ~~ sinh ( : 2 ) .

3
7. 0
13. 1
9. I
15. -4
11. --
17. y;
2
X
z,1 (x. y) = - 4.r . ( yl
y smh I) . z,,(x. y) =- 4x .
yJ sm h(>.zI) .
19. ~-=; 2xy 21. 0 ... !3
.....,, 31. z=6x+8y-25
25. 0 JJ. Z = - 1
27. Docs not e~ist; it is also correct to indicate that the limit 35.z = 27.r - 12y-38
is +oo. 37. z= I -x + y
29. 0 39. ~ =IO.r- 16y - 9
31. All points (.r. y) such that y > -x 41. One answer: f (.r. )') =.r 21
33. All pointS (.t. y) such that xl + yl > 1 43. f, 1 (.r, y) = -2x sin xycosxy ;e -2ysin xycosxy =f ,(x. y).
1
35. Continuous at all points (x, y) other than (0. 0) 45. Ma tches Fig. 13.4. I 4
37. 0 39. 0 41. 0 47. Matches Fig. 13.4.13
43. Docs not c~ist 49. !\·l atches Fig. 13.4.15
45. Doc-s not exist St. f,,(.r. y)= tllfl.r'"- 1y" - 1 = J,, (x. y).
47. Does not exi5t 53. f.,(.r, y. Z) =/ie'".
49. Does not exist r., (X. y. ~) = r,.
(.r z) = (.ryi + z)e'''.
0 ) '.
SS. Continuous for all (.r. y) f,,(.r, )'. Z) = f:.o(X, )', Z) = ()' + .ry;::)e"'.
f,,(x, y. z> = J,.<x. y, Z) = (.r + x 2yzk'"·
=
[,(x. y, z> .r 2 it>"'.
f.,(x. y . z) = .r 2ye'".
f,,.(x. y , Z) = (I + 3.ry;:: + x: / i)<""'.
SS. 11, (.r. I)= - n 1 kexp( - n 1kl) sin n.t .
1
u,(x.l) = ncxp(-n kt)c:>sn.t. nnd
1
11.,(.r,t) = - n exp( - n 1kt)sinnt.
57. !'art (a): y,(.r, t) = acos(.t + 111),
y,(.r. t) = ros(.r + 111),
)'u(.r,l) = - 11 2 sin(.r + dl),
y., (.t. t) c - sin(.r + 111).
l'~rt (h): y,(:r, t) = -Jdsinh(J(.r - 11 t)).
y,(x, t ) = 3sinh (.1(r - til)),
y.,(.r,l) = IJ11 1 ~·"h {.l(.o - <II )),
y ., (.r,l) = 9cu•h(3(x- at)).
l':ort (c): y,(x.t)= - .l:nsinkt sinkm,
y, (X ,I)= k CO$ lu CO'! kill,
y.,(.r. I) = - lla 1 si n k.c CO'< knt
y., (.r . tJ = - II sin k.r cos kat. '
59. y,(x. t) = af'<:r +at)- ag'(x- at).
=
y.,(.r ,t ) a 1 /(.r +at)+ a 1/(C.r - at),
y,(.r ,I) = J'(x +at) + g'(.r - at),
y,.(x. t) = /(.r +at)+ g·cx- at).
ANSWERS TO 000-NUMBERLO I'ROBllMS A-59
SECTION 13.6 ( PAGE 895)
J. d.. :: .lcl.l-~dy .r d\·

\' tit-
!o. d..·=. . .
,It ... ..: ... _,~ .l' + )-
7. (I "'" =
u dr + ...,nh· ... "· d·
~ # ..........
.t: + ,~ + .:
. '
9. cl" = I:L'I~~cLr + .r~se.= •·:ch-- t\' SCc= \': tl~
II. J.,. = - .•·:t' "'dr- r:t-"'th - r;r.' "cl:
B. d ..·= 2u cxp( - r: ) du- 1Jlt• ~1p( _·,.:) tl r
1 ~. "" =Xdx + ~ d~· .,. : d :

17. 5.01~
\ l .t:+,,:
. _ ..: -
19. 0.0993
1 ~53
21. I }(X) "" 13.0.10769 l.\ 106
s£cnoNn .s ( P,\Gl 886) 25. 191.1 !7. lA
3.H
\. n.:r: 3~ n,, h••rirontJit.m~~nt pbncs. !9. 26 "" 12$01692 .\1. LOS
~ 10.1\ ~) ::.h
33. 2.5 35. 6 "' 13.0:,'9969
!. \~- - I. -5\
•. 1-~ l\ -~) \7 :\('( ~375:r J3
- • - l "' "'961.2.~101!\ ft1 • about 0 022008 acres
\ 1- :.CI. -;land 1-::. I . - 'l) 36
lh
ll 1-I. O. :~- 1 ). I I. 0. ~t- 1 ). and (0. 0. 0) ~9. 1920 "" 0.027l\16
L\ ~....... ~ !"'nti I. I. 1\ , -o
~I. 1!.5 -'3 ....) :t .. 303 77281 ~
H. r.-\:1~1~ his.h hi~hN roints (\. -I.:!) and { ' . I. 21 IJ
~. a. Let (c. y) - (0. 0) along theline• y .. x andy ,. 0:
r . ~...,.~t romtt:!. : . - 50)
b. you should ftnd that f, (0. 0) =0 = f, (0. 0).
1•. Ey~l~ I'"" lllv.~lf''ints ( -1. 2. -16) and(~ . -1. - 16)
:LHc£!l:SII''int \1. - ::. ~ ~
:>. -} 1.-:.l 3 !~. - I nnd ~ SECTION 13.7 {PAGE 904)
:"'. - I1:1J I !9. (12. ~- 3)
tl~,. ~
Jl !15. 5. ~, .l~. ( J1 . ./2. l) l. - = -(21 ~ l ) exp( -1' - I)
dt
!<. ('.::).) 1 37. 10" 10 x 10 in. d~· aK' 2 t)w
3. - =6t ro<l
dt
j •
!-. -
at = --
s + , = -at
l'l. ~ I[) b' 10 in.. hei~tbt 6 in.
!\. 8~~ a~J.top \ 5 '< ICl in_ (ron\ and b:lC\; 15 X 5 in.. Sides 7. -
a..· =0.-
a... =51
10..: S in. 3J Jt
Jr
U !lf: ,.;~~(in front).~ ft deep. 10 h hish 9. a:; = (y + ll exp(yz.,.. x: +.xy).
\1. ~ ar "'(.r + z) e:cp(y~ + .rz+.xy).
- and
~-
ay
,-
1
~-
-ar =(x + y)cxp(y: + x: + xy)
3:
11. Here we hl•c
,,,
-=
(2y+3=>Jt y' z' ( J xy'z' )
ax + 3:)' .- cos
2.t( % + 2y Jx + 1~· + Jz .
ar (.r + )' + 3:)~ ( ..r.H )

ay"' y(.r+2y+3z>'' cos ./.t+ly+3= . and
3r 3(x+2y~2:)~
3: .. 2.:(.t + ly + 3:>"'
A-60 ANSWERS TO ODD·NUMBERED PROBLEMS
13. The formulas arc SECTION 13.8 (PAGE 915)
-iJp at · ax at ay 3. (0. 0)
a, = -
ax a,- +-·
ay -.
a, 1. (3. - 7)
s. (0. 6. --l) 7. (1. I. I)
ap = at . ax + at . a,.. and
9. (2. -~. -2) 11. sJi
iltt ax av /Jy Ju J:l
~,m
-ap = -·-+
at ax -· at -a.v. JJ. I •.
~ - -20
13
ilw ax i)w ily OIV
I 19. - 6./2
15. Answer: 17. -6
ilp i.lt J rt at au at ihv
./iTo and (7.11)
-
a.r=3rt
- ·ax
- +- · - +()w- ·ilx.
~ I' ox
- 21 •
iJp
-iJy =-
at
.- + - . - +-
il u
. -;:- .
at a.. at ilw
and
2
23. - and (3. -l)
5
Ju ily il t· ay i) w iJy
2.5. 14 Ji and (3. 5. - 8)
Jp at i)u at ·-+
-a~ = -ilrt · -+-
il o• ilf ihv
-ilw ·-. 27. 2Jj:j and ( I. 2. 3)
a~ J ot a~ il~
29. 3.r + 4y = 25
= f'< w) · -aw
iJp i.l w
17. :- = f(w)· - .
ol,t il.r -ilp
ay ay
, Jl. 29.r - ·I )•= 70
J.l. + y + z= I
.r
ap
-a: = J'( w ) . -d:
a...
.
ap
-
a..·
= J'(w) • -tl u . and .W. U•c the fact thl t '17 (- t< P)) = - '17 t(l').
au
45. 1·1 dcglonin
iJp
- = /'(w) . - .
a... T
47. a. ' O ft: h. 13. in the direction (4. 3. 12)
<I t• Ju
49. u. 3.r+ 2y- W: = 4:
a- . t, J a~ ~~o
19. il.; = - ;1!3. ily =- y'!l b. approximately 0.44 (true value: 0.448)
51 . .r -2y + z+ 10=0
f:' Y +X)'..-''' + .v:e" + y:e' 1
21. -d~ = - :.._...:....:~_:..:;_:.;;___:_:..;;.;_ 55. Each such pyr3mid ha~ volume 4.5.
ax .r yr:..a + ,.. ,.
57. Heading approximately 36 52' 1 1.6"; up a t an nnglc of 45•
a: x=t'-" + ( :,_ + xu·-' 1
1
59. Heading approximately 203, 11'54.9"; up at an angle of ap-

a)' =- xy~u + ~lJ proxima tely 75' 17' 8.327"
a: r.r a: ely 61. a. Descending, angle ahout R• 2'58.1";
lJ. -
iJ.r
= --.-.
a·: d)' = -0:: b. descending. an~;:lc ahout 3' 37'56.7"
aw a...
2S. -
iJ.t
= 6.r~ -=6y
iJy
!7. ,\ nswcr: SECTION 13.9 (PAGE 924)
I. Ma., imum ../5, minimum - ../5

J. Maximum 4, minimum - 4
5. M3ximum 3, minimum - J
7•.•~o• maxtmum;
. . .
mtnamum -IR
7
9. !'lf;oximum 7, minimum - 7
and II. Maximum 20, minimum - 20
a... l<,V JJ• ,Max .unum ':!.
Ill mmomum
.. ()
i)y = J (x l + )~)l{l ( (.rl + y l) l!l + (,rl + yJ)IIl J . .. 25
3.r))
Is• Nu maxmtum; nummum -
3
+ 2 C.rl + ) .l)lr. ((.rl + yl) IIJ + (.rl + yl) lllJ 17. Max imum I + ./2. minimum I - ./2
19. (12. 16)
)
+x ln (l.rl + l>'fl + (.rJ + y)'',).
21. (12.4.3)
29. x + 2y + 2z = 9 z.t m.S.4>
31. z = . l - y
ZS. ( ./2. ../i. I)
33. -2880 in.J /h
261!' 27. Maximum: lHOOO
3!.T "" 16.3363 f tm1n
,, . 29. Minimum: 600 in.2
.ng at T
37. Oeaea1o 13 u mm. Jl. Slfi.OO
JJ. Front 15 in. ~·ide and Sin. high. depth 10 in.
57. It will brut.:. J!. Two closest points: (2. -2. I ) and (-2. 2. I)
ANSWERS TO ODD-N UM BERED PROBLEMS A-61
1 3) and (-2. - 3) 35. Local minimum at ( 1..532. 0) ( numbers with d ecima ls a re a p-

)~· (. . paint (L/5. ~ J5. - 4 + J3) · p roxim:ll ions). saddle point at (0.3.l7, 0). glo ba l m inimum
JJ, !!ig.heSt S at (- 1.879 . 0)
oint (-l J5.-! J5. - 4 - J3) 37'. Loca l ( inde ed. glo ba l) minimum at ( - 1.879. 1.879) (num·
lo" tst p s
bcrs with decimals are appro~imations). saddle poin t at
J.l. Cl v••
~·st point
(0.3-17. - 0.3-l7).1oca l minimum at (1.532. - 1..532)
(~[- s + 3J5 ]. t; [-s + 3J5]. H3- J5 ]). 3?. G lobal m inimum at (3.62.5. - 3.9S.l) ( numbers with d eci -
mals a rc a ppro xima tions) ~ nd at (3 .625 . 3 .9S.lJ, sadd le p oint
(lrthcst point
at (0, 0)
(- ~ [5+ 3J5 ]. - f.; [5+ 3J5J.l[3-'- J5 ]).
J,
7
~l3ximum area: l(3 - 2 J2 )1' ~ (0.1).l3)P 2
2
st. (0A10245 . 0.3-178 10) (cooroinatc~ approximate ) (PAGE 936)
CJ, (4. 6)
~5. Closest ( - 0.60-1 . - 1.207. - 1.8 11). I. Yo u should obtai n r 2 sin: 0 co,z t1 - 0 as r - 0 .
·· farthest (2.60·1, 5.207. 7.R I I ) (coordinates approxi m3tc ) I .
3 · g (x. )')- 2 i g CO. 0) as ( r . y) - (0. 0 ) along t he hnc y =.r .
51. Closest point ( nJi3. f; Ji3 ). 5. f<x . y)= .r'>) + e'sin y .,. y+ C ("'he re Cis a n a r bitra ry
farthest point ( - nJi3. - f\ Ji3) constant).
7 . 11\c origin and points o n the circle formed by the in tc rscc·
59. ~Ji
~
tio n of the parabolo id a nd the ho r i1ontal plane ~ = J.
11 9. You should find tha t the no rma l to the co ne nt (a , 1'>. c)
6~ The minimum is (a:ll + h21l) '
(extended . if necessary) pa.sscs through the po int (0, 0 , :2c).
65. (7. ~3. - 21 )on t t and ( 12.41. -22l on L 1
I I. You sho uld lind tha t

13. Yo u should find that
1. !.De~ I (in !:let. global) mini m um a t (- I. 2)
r, X r, = (- f , (x . y). - f 1 (x. y ), 1) = V g (x , y , ~)
3. Saddle point at ( - j . -~)
5. !.Deal (in fact. global) m inim um at ( - 3. 4) where x< x. )'. ~) = t - /Cr . y ) .
7. l ocal maximum at (-I. - I ), saddle point at (0. 0) J:S. '!be base of the shipping c'" tc will be a ~quare 2 . J IIJ ~
2.8&144991~ feet on each side and the height of the crate
9. No exlrcma
will be 5 . 3 11l"' 7.21 1 2~78.5 fee t.
ll i.Dcal (in fact. globa l) minima at (-1. -1 ) a nd ( I. I ). saddle
17. The estimate of the erro r is 2 n.
point at (0. 0)
19. The maximum erro r will !'<: approxima tel y 3% .
1l Saddle point at (-1. l),local minimum a t (3. - 3)
2 I. The six points (±.l, 0. 0), CO. :!:2. 0). and (0. 0 . ± j} .
1!. local minimum a t ( - 5. 3). saddle p oi nt at (0. - 2)
2.3. Fir~! rename u. b . a nd r ( if nece ssary) so tha t a . h . c fo rms a
17, local (in fact j:IObal) maxima at ( -1. - 2) and (1 , 2). saddle
right-handed triple, a nd th us " x b = c. e tc.
point at CO. 0)
ZS. Eith er ( - ~. 3) or (~. - 3). 27. 1
19. Saddle point a t ( - 1. 0), local m inimum at (2. 0)
lL Saddle point at (0. 0), local (in f<~ct. globa l) maxima at 29. The global minimum va lue of / (x. y ) is 0 = / (0. 0 ).
H -'2. -l J2) and(l Ji. l J2) . local ( in fact, global) ·'·I. '!b e se miaxcs h:l\'c lengths I and 2.
3·3. The min im um Ol-curs when the triJngle is totally degcn e r·
minima at (i -'2. -j J2) and (-~ Ji. l Ji )
ate: Its three \'ertices arc all located a t the same poin·t of
ll Global minimum a 1 (0, 0) • the circumfe rence of t he ci rcle.
•c
~. Global maxi mum at (0. 0) 3~. 1l1c closest and fart he.st po ints a re ( respectively)
!7, Global minimum va lue 3 at (-I. -I ) a nd ( I. l i . no ex·
tremum at (0. 0)
29• The global maxim um value 900 occurs on the boundary of
o-16.~-16) a nd ( - ~-16. -~ -16).
the do main. 37. Let n be a fixed positi"e integer and let /(.r1• x 2 • .. .. x") =
)l If 1 andy are both eve n integers. then there is a saddle point x, + x1."' · · · + x•. ~hxi m ize this function subject to the
01 ( x, Y): if x and y are odd integers both of the form 4k +I constr:unt
or both of the form 4k + 3. then the re is a global maximum · g (Xt . X2, • · · , .t,.) = xr+ .t?+· · · +.\'~ -a:= 0
at (z . Y): if x and y are o dd integers one of which is of the
fo!ln 4k + I and the other of which is of the form 4k + 3. where a is a fixed but Otherwise tubitrary nonnegative re al
ll. then there is a global minimum at (x. y). number.
Exa.'lline the behavior of f (x. y) on lines of I he form J9, Maxim11m: I; minimum: - !
2
y"' ""'·
41. Theorem I of Section 13.10 yields these results: 61 17. 0

13. 3 15. 0
AtP(-1. - 1): A=6. 8=0. C=2. t-=12, 21. I 23. 2
19. 11'
/(P) =-I: Local minimum; 32 4
512 3
At Q(O. 0): A= 0. 8 = -3. C = 2. 6 = -9. %5-
• 21 -~7• -3 29.
/(Q) = 0: Saddle point;
AtR(-./3.0): A=O. 8=6. C=2. 6=-36. 31. 2 33. 8"
[( R) =
0: Saddle point; 35. Approximately 7.9517471897
AtS(./3.0) : A=O. 8=6. C=2. 6=-36. 37. 0 39. 0 4 1. 0 43. 0
f <Sl = 0: Saddle point; e- 2
At T(1. 1): A= 6. 8 = 0. C = 2. 6 = 12, 53. Midpoint approximation: 0.1 09696; exact value: - -
4
J<n =-I: Local minimum .
There are no global extrema (examine [(x. y) on the lines SECTION 14.3 (PAGE 959)
.1' = ±.t).
43. Saddle point at (0. O).local (not global) minimum at {2, 2) 1 32 5 5
t. 6 3. 3 .6
45. Local maximum at <J.
!>.saddle po int at (0. 1). local max·
imum at C\'cry point of the x·axis for which .r < 0 or x > 1. 32 II. 2
7. 3 9. 21n2
local minimum at every point of the .r -axis fo r which 0 <
.r < I , and no global extrema. I 41
47. Saddle point at (0. 0). global minimum at every point of the
13. u IS. 3 17. 60
~
hyperbola with equation .ry = In 2. and no other extrema. 4
19. i5 21. 23. 19
49. Saddle points at (- I. - I) and (1. I); no extrema.
51. The coefficients m and b arc the !generally] unique solutions 4
25. 3 27. 6 29. 24
of the equations
. . . 31. rr 33. i(32 - 12J3)
I
b I: +'"I: <x.>2 = L::
.r, .r,y, and
35. -abc
6
·-·. .·-· . ·-· 37.
2
3
Ll +ml:x,= L>l·
Jot lo
{,;;:::; J a2- .rl- y2 tly dx.
b
••• ,_, ••• 39. The volume is V = 8
SECTION 14.1 (PAGE 94S) 625;or 3 J3 + 2;or R 1

.u. - 2- 43. 6
1. L 198; b. 480 J. 8
I , 4(, 256
• 15
5. 88 7. 2"''
47. Approximately 3.5729749639
9. L~ M ~ U 11. 80
49. S;or
13. - 78 15. 128.25
51. IOB:r
17. -·U 19. I
~-I
53. The "hole ,·olumc~ is approximate I)· 26.7782.
1 1. -2- 2J.Z..-2
,.• + B:r ~1 I SECTION 14.4 ( PAGE 966)

%5. 4 - •
29. 21n 2 31. Both values: -32
I.J.t. lof' r tlr tiO"' rr 3
J. 2:r
1~ (9./3 - 8Ji + I)
o
JJ. Bo th values:
4rr - JJ:i
. 2:r-23./3
1'1'
5. 6 7
35. .r" y" d.r dy = I )2 .
o (n+I 9 l6;or
'3
J7. Note that 0 :i [(.r. y) ~ sin jll' =I if (.r. y) iu p<Jint of R. ;or In 2 16:T
13. 4 15. 5
SECTION 14.2 (PAGE 9S3) ;r
17. 4 (I - co~ 1) =>: 0.361046
5 J. ! I
I. 6 5 19. 2-T 21. 4Jr
2 ' 12
I
7. 20
I
9. - -
18
II.~
2
23. lt.[ z..Jaz -rltfrJO
SECTION 14.6 ( PAGE 985)
l. 18 3. 128 ( ..!...
-· 60
z1. ~1 I
7. -- 9. 12 II. 6
.. ~,(2 _ J2 )a
1 6
.,. 3 13 128 15. 332 17. 256
,ustQtcd. the volume i.s If /2. If the equa tion of the lcmnis· '5 105 15
~I. e3te should be r 2 == 2 sm 2fl. then the \'Oiumc is :r /~.
37. 8.T 39. 241f 19 .!..!.
1
JS. 111a b ' 30
4(. ~(6-1 - 2~J3 )11'

J
128
21. Mass 5 : centroid (o 20 10
. 7. 7)
tl. JlclagonJI hole: 9.R30~ I (numbers with decimals arc ap-
pro>imo tions). Penta gon al hole: 9.0368fl. I lcptagnnal hole: 23. (o ~ . 1' 7 ~)
IOJ~7. 17-sidcd hole: 11.49809.
25• (o. 72~ -- 9,T 9:r. 9;r - 16)

72 - !/;!
SECTION 14.5 (PAGE 975) I
27. 1,=,8 29. I,= Jo
u
1. (2. 3) 3. (1, I)
~)
16 8
5. m: ~. M, = J' M, == j 7. 2' 5
9. (o. -n 11. (! !)
5' 5
9
I
37. I ,= -k
3
11 (o. ':) 15.
( t4' 14)
.u. 24:r
n. (o. ;D 19. (~2. ::)

8
45. (! ~ 12) 47. "=-32
-
zt (~7a)
12 ' 12 ll (o. 2n 4Q 1
5' 5' 5
-
St . rl= -
49
• :j 10
25. (~.
;r
::)
8 27. ( 0. ~: )
2lra" .-"
53. ; [6J3 - :r + 8:u csinh ( '7)-8ln 2+ 161n( l
4
+ ..!3)]
29. ( o. 36;r + 33,/j) 31. loa - -
32.'!' + 12J3 n+~ ~ 0.960592
I
ll 4 : i;rk 35. I~=
9 SECTION 14.7 (PAGE 993)
~ Ji05.
37. r: 21 y=-\rs5 39. x =}=..!..a&
3 10 J. s...
4l (~- ~)
3,, J,,.
43. C' 2r)
-. -
:r If 3. V= 2 Jo Jo Jo
t· r r..j;'O rd~drdO
St L Centroid (o. 4a' 3:ra
+ 3:rab + 6/});
+ 12!>
5. ~;(s - 3..13) 7. ~~ra'hl
b. volu :ra 9. I,= ~~ ...a'hl J 1• Sl:r

-2-: (0. 0. 3)
me 3 · (~a 2 + 3:rab + 6/J)
Sl I I
.. "iim(a' +If)
13. 2~1T I S. i (SJ'i- 7)
_ I 'h : , I
- '"l) t484
f< r.
-k 17• I •- 126:ra (3a + ~~~ ) = 'iim(3Jz +~ill)
3
S7, Mau
:r • et-ntroid
(
0. ~ ) 19.
IT
3 21. (o. o. ~a)
1"1''1"'*
1
• ~la11 If2 · centroid
59
(
~ • ..:_ ) ZJ. V = P
2
sin rJ> tip tl¢ cl8 = ~
~ J .T 0 0 0 3
25. m= j(2-J2)al; i = y=O. Z= ;~(2+J2 )a s. x = 11 ; 11

, y= ± ../u -
2
v (choose the sign so that Y ~ 0 );
the Jncobian is
28 s 7 ,
27. I,=
15
:t6a = s"u''
29. This "pinched to rus" has \'Oiume V =2:rlal.
2-./2
2
31. I,= IS (128 - St J3);r6a 1 ~
7. s 9. ln2 II.
8
33. Mass
37 4
l!a ; x
-
=-y =0. 13. 3~;r 15. 8
48
4
37. (a) J:t( l - exp (-aJ)J 17. first usc the suhstitution x =11 + t•. y = 11- v. The value of
the integral is
3
39. il =4(1 2
•T (1 - .!..) J3::::; 3.4469') J.
3 eJ
j j o(x~ + y
l l•J.-or Jp-or'
2
41. I, = ) d A where d A = a 2 sin¢ d¢ dO
s 21. f, = (p 2 sin 1 ¢)(a1 cos
2
0
3768 -o
45. -1-1 :T + b2 sin1 0)oalxp 1 sin¢ dp dr!>t/0
49. x::::: 2. 7~~9 x 106 (meters): mantle th ickness: abou t 3606 k m ,
• 3· (.r.-')-
_ ., _ ( nJJ - 40..16
151n2 ·
6..16 -
ln2
sJJ)
25. / 1 =~ M (112 + 1>2); the other moments follow by symme try.
I. 6:rJTI 3. ~ ( 17Jt7 - 1) 27. 2.300261!52
S. 3J2 ... ~1n (3+2Ji) 7. 3Ji4
CHAPTER 14 MISCEllANEOUS PROBLEMS
., .
2:r (2d-l
;; ) II. : _6 (65./65- I) (PAGE 1010)
9. T
1-1 1 J.''
1
13. .r1 = a d zd9 IS. 8a 2 I. I

~tlytlx= 2-
-- ./2
.<l y:O vI + x· 3
:.1>. 1! - l
"'2c"" "• - I
23. A=
1 0 0
r dz d9 3.
~
3
5.--
ol
9
25. a. 4 + 7
3arcsinh
(2,/5)
- -
5
- I (4) 7
3 arctan .3 + 6 In 5:
7. 9. 9:r: ( 0, 0. 16)
II. 4:r IJ. 4.T
b. -2../5
- + 5./2 . (T
- -arcsmh
3
./6) I
- (;arctan ( 72- 25,/5)
71
15. :T -
16
2
l7. 12S
15 .
(32 )
7. 0
3
21. i' = ~ '
1
19. k:r; (1.0)
- -I arctan ( 72- 25,/5) + :;_I arct:m (25,/5 "- 72 ) . 3:T
(o. D
6 N n 2~
2.'. 25. IO:r (Js - 2)
(25,/5- 72) ~
+iSI arctan 71 3
27/
• I= J() !1 fit '.
17. a. A pproximatdy 5.123 157: b. approximately 2.302311
29. E lliptic paraboloid 2••'· f • =iS"")(',.
4 I (/ , ' 1 '
+c-)=-s"'or ,
+•>
31. H yperboloid of two shcc:t.s
33. Appro ximatelr 111 .545775
u+" u - v il(.r. y) I
l • .r =-2- , y = - 2-; iJ(II,V) =- 2
37. 'il = - 11
:ra o o
J.•J.lM"•• r drd(J 1
3. Two 50iution,: z =± (ufv ) n , y o: ±(uv)sn (dloosethePm.e

1
sign): the Jacobilln is l /(211) in each case.
...
ANSWERS TO ODD·NUMBERED PROBLEMS A-65
Jl l)sc I he spheres p = 2 cos¢ and p = 4 cos </>.
J; ~(3757 -J7v'i7 ) 47. 4:- 15.V · F =3.V x F=O
17. V· F= O.V x f'=O
53. rr abc 19. v. f = x 2 + / + i. v x F = (- 2y<:. -2rz. - 2xy)
15
21. V · f'= O. V x F = (2y- 2z. 2z - 2r. 2.r - 2y)
23. V · f = 3. V x f = (x cosxy- xcos.rz. y cosyz - y cos .ry.
SECTION 15.1 (PAGE 1018) ~cosxz - zcosyz)
35. See I he answer to Proble m 15.
I. 3. 37. Usc the results in Pro blems 2.8 and 35.
1 I I ~
""""
/ / / 41. Usc I he res ulls in Problems 28, 35. a nd 39.
1 I I ~ / / / /I I
\ \
//I
\ ' -
SECTION 15 .2 (PAGE 1028)
310 2-18
-' -
I.
5.
3 . 3 . and 62
49 4
3. 3 J2 and 3
6
"
and ) 5
"'-. \ I / / 24 7.
I I / / / / \ \ I I/ 9. 315 19
1l. 60
13. JT (I + 2JT ) 15. 28
7.
/ / /
17•
l 4./i4 - I
(, 19. (o.~ )
2 1. l\!Jss IOk:r; centro id (0. 0, 4JT )
/ / /
I kal ; ce nl roid ( 2 a. 2 a. 0 ) : I, = 1 = 2I "UI';
23. Mass 2 ,
/ / / 3 3
1
/o =mal
, /, ./, ./ .
/ / /
25. /0 = 3k= ~~~~where m is I he mass o f the wire
2
4a
/ / / 27. -
JT
/ / / 1 J:3 -13
29. 2 + 12 arctanhT "'=< 0.690086
I
31. 2
9.
"'\ \
"'-.'\\
)'
I//
I I/
,..._
11.
2
I
\
'- '' ~
" .... .-
_,. ,..../
- ,.. , I
, ; I I
33. a.
1
2kln 2:
.
b. -
37. Note I hat r is normal to the sphere.

I
2
kln2
1 0
\
'
\
•
,
•
.. .. • I I
39. 15000 ft ·lb
41. 20000 ft·lb
• ' 1
,_ I I
. ' ' ''
//j ,,,
' I
2
j /
I I
t/.L_ _. -
;
~'_,..
•
,.. ....,,',.
'
\
SECTI ON 15.3 (PAGE 1036)
/It \ \" -2 -· 0X l
I. ~~(.r. y) = x 2 + 3.~y + )'2
3. ¢( .r . y ) = .rJ + Zx y + 2r'
13. 5. Not conse rvative
I , I l
''
'- '
\
\ I
I I /
t I / /
7. -' (.r , v) = - x + )•ln.r +- 1•
"
9. ~ (x. y}
.
=
4 3.
sin x + .r In y + e'
o..s ~~... .... ' ~ ' " , ....., I I. Not conservat ive
r
' ol- -. . . - - 13. ¢(x. y} =.r·' y"' + .ry' + s>"
I '
t- - - . . . - -
-~:r:
'.( 1 1
: ; ::::: l\\'..1
15. ¢(x. y )
17. ¢(.r. y) = .rl + 2xy 2

= -
xl
)'
+ 2../Y + )
y
X
+ 2)'l
·I - 0.5 0 0.~ I 19. ¢ (x. y)= xll+ x y• + I _r
• 5
A-66 ANSWERS TO ODD-NUM BERED PROBLEMS

21. 6 23. !I'
25. - Jr "7 "'( x. y. z)= xyz
- · ., I. iff R
V·t' d l' = 4Jr = J!l'·ndS
S
29. ¢(x . y. : l =xycosz - yzl"' I
37. IV= S.O#U x 1010 N·m 3. 2~ s. 2
I
7. ~ 9. 4
2
703125;r 13. 16;,-
I I. ~
3
1. 0 3. 3 5. 482620 + 29-103 In II
10
23. 48 ;r
7. 2 9. 0 II • ~
105
SECTION 15. 7 (PAGE 1070)
1. - 20.7 3. ()
- 3;,- 19. 972
1!>. -
s
17. 30;,-
5 s. -52,7 7. - 8.'T
3 9. - 2
21. 301f 23. 45 33.
2 II. ¢(.r . y. z)= 3.ry - 2.rz+ y:
13. ¢ (x. y. z) = 3xe' + 17z + 5ycos x
CHAPTER 15 M ISCEllANEOU S PROBLEMS

( PAGE 1072)
I 125 s. 2 1 ~8
·T 5
7. 1-i rst assume (hy way of contratliction) that there e.t ists 3
3. 27;,- ,fj:i
functio n <f> (x . y) suc h th3 t V ¢ = (.r~y . .ri).
s. ~ ( - l + t 7 ..fi7) sJS - t soJS + 2
9. m= 3 ; ly = 15
81 9
7. :.8J3 = i'" whe re m is the mass o f S 2St6
II. -7-
2
10 6 = 5
9. -:. . the m3ss o f
-m where mts s 13. Both integrals a rc zero.
3 6 1.5. Begin with the obsc r\'ation tha t ( P. Ql =V ¢ fo r some d if·
520 26 . feren tiable functio n ¢ .
11. T;,- 6 =)'"where m ts the mass o f S
13. 36;,- IS. 2-b
17 371;,- 19. 60.T + 12.-. = n.-.
. 30
17. 0 19. 6 r d¢
23. 1458;r 29. •- - 1/>'(r ); b. 3¢(r) + r - ; c. O
21. 0 r ,/r
"C
I
-a -I a -a
1 )
...,. ( 2' 2 '2 APPENDIX A ( PAGE A·5)
21. x=O=.Y· I
(24a' + 2a1 - I JJi+4ii! + I. I. 14 3. 2
t= 10[11 + 4al)l11 - 1] •
s. 25 7. 27
I,= ~Jr& ((24a' +2a -1J~ 1

+ 1] 9.
22
T - :r (because :r < •,.1• )
11. 3 - x 13. ( - oc, 2)
29 ( - 4 . 0 .:rr - ) IS. (7, + oo) 17. ( - ~ · +oo)
• 3Jr - 6 2:r - 4
19. ( - 4. )) 21. 0-¥]
460..1i7 + 13 arcsinh 4 25. ( -oc. \) u ( I. +ocl
31. 48 23. (- 1,4)
35. - 172S:r 1.1. [o. j] u [t. ~] 29. n. m

37. /,=> 5157.168115 31. (-oo. !) u 0· +oo)
39. I,"' 98S46.934874
ANSWERS TO ODD-NUMBERED PROBUMS A-67
13. If x = J::r • then the, alues of the six trigonometrid unttio ns

6
are given in the follo-..i n!! table.
tan r sec x cse x cot x

sinx COS X
I ./j ./3 2.,/j ..fj

-2
2 2 3 3
OIX B (PAGE A -12)
,lPPEN
:::.---
"' , lie on one line. 15. x = n:r ,. here r. is an intei!cr
1 1,.c) •
• d not lie on one 1me.
). llttY 0 • I
17. x = 2n.'1 - I -..here n is a n intege r
. •rallclogram •~ a rectangle.
~nus p.. 19. x =2r..-= ,. here n is 3n intei!a
;, (tight angle at A 21. x =r-'! "' here n is an integer
'·Slope j. y-interccpt 0 2J :r . .
• x = n::r - -J "'here n IS an mte.:er
Jl. Slope 2. y-intcrccpt 3 ~ •
Slope - j. y-interccpt 1 25. The rcsulu arc in the ne' t t:tble.

11
17. y = lr -7
~~ y= -5 cscx C'Ol .f
21. 2.r + y=1 sin .r cos x tan .r scc.r
19. y:6- .r
4 J 3 5 5 4
25. i3 ./26 J
1.\ 2y=l3-.r - j
5 5 J J 3
))-)'1
)I. p1M and M~have the sa me slope - -.
X1- X2
I I
!25f + 57461 29. - 31. - i JJ ./3
2 • 2
ll. K= 225
II 7 rr 2:r
1.1.. 1136 gav..It 37. X= - -:i· )' = 2 35. -.;; .&J. )• 3 .. :!.
4" 2
37 I 22 I ~ 3;r 5n 7rr
l9. .r=6· y=-2 4 1. x = 5' y=-s 47
'IS' S 'll' 8
1!1 7 33 119 19
U.r=-:j· y = S 45. x =
12 . y=-'4 APPENDI X D ( PAGE A·23)
1. Given t > 0, let .S = t .

APPENDIX C (PAGE A-17)
J. Given t > 0. kt cS = t .
2 7 5 !'. Gi,·e n f > 0. lett. be the mi nimum of I and l /3.
I. 9" (rad) 3. n (md) 5. -
6n (rad)
4 7. Given t > 0. let cS be the minimum of I and t /6.
7. 72' 9. 675• 9. Consider th ree c:tscs: a > 0, a < 0. nnd tl = 0.
13. Consider t"' o cases: /. > 0 and L < 0.
IL ~X= -=j.
then the values or the six trigonometric rune· 15. Gi,·en a > 0 and f > 0. let 6 be the minimum o f n /2 and
liOns are given in the following table. (../IQ.
sinx cosx tanx secx csc x cot x APPENDIX G ( PAGE A -36)

2J3 J3
--2 I
2
- JJ 2 - -3- 3 I. J
1
J• ~3 s. -2I 7. 9
52
REFEREN CES FOR
FURTHE R STUDY
References 2. 3. 7. and 10 may be consulted for historical topics pertinent to calculus.

Reference 14 provides a more th eoretical treatm ent o f single-variable calculus topics
than ours. Refe rences -1. 5. R. a nd 15 include ad va nced topics in multivariahlc calcu-
lus. Rdcrcnce II is a standa rd work on infinite se ries. Refe rences I, 9, and 13 are
differential equations textbooks. Reference (> d iscusses topi cs in calculus together
with co mputing and progra mming in BASIC. Th ose who would like to pursue the
topic of fract al~ should look at reference 12.
I . Boyce. Wolli3m E. and Rich>rd C Dil'rima . Elt·mentury Diffam· 9. Ed ..·ards. C H.. Jr. and David E. Penney. Diffatmial £qrw-
rwl Equations (Sth ed.) . New Ymk : John Wiley. t99 t. tioru "''itlr /Joundary Valut Prob/tnu · Compw;n~ and ,\·!odt'ling
(2nd ed.). Up per Saddle River. NJ: l'renuee Ha ll. 2000.
2- Boyer. C.rl B . A f/i.<tr>ry of .\ fathrmntiN (2nd cd.). New York:
Jo hn \\llcy. I'I'l l. 10. Kline. M orri". J\·farhonntical 71w ught from An(irnt to .\fO<Itrn
Times. \'o l"- I. II. and Ill. Kcw York : Odord Uni•·enity Press.
3. Boyer. Carl B.. 71~< lfistory of tilt Ct~lmlus and lu Corruprual
Dr,rlopm~r.t. ~e:w York: Do,•cr Publication<. 1959. t972.
1!. Knopp. Konrad. Tlr<o ry and Application of Jnfinitt SaitJ
4. Bu<k, R. Creigh to n. Ad•·anud Calculus (3rd cd.). New York:
(2nd ed.). l"ew York: lbfncr l'r<\S. 1990.
!'olcGraw-llill, 1977,
12. Pcitgcn. 11.·0. and I~ II . Richter. 77re Btamy of FnuraU. Sew
S. Courant, R1chlrd and Fritz Jo hn. /ntro dm:non 10 Calcu/u.t and
York : Sp ri n~er - Verbg , 1986.
,A.naf..-su. \'ot.. l and !!. New York : Springer-Verlag. 19S2.
13. Simmons. George E .. D•ffem rt:al Equations wult Applications
6. Ed..,.·ards. C H.. Jr.. Calculus ami tlu Pt'rso,wl Complltt r
and 1/u toricai.Vous l"cw York: !'otcGraw-Hill. 1972.
Engle .. ood O •!fs. :"J: Pr<ntiee-Hall. t986.
14. Spi,·ak. !'otichad E .. Cakulru (2nd ed.). Berkelev: Publish or
7. Ed"' ards. C H .. Jr .. Tlrt 1/istorical Devt lopmrnt oftht Calwlu.s.
Perish. 19$0. ·
:->e"' Yo rk: S;>ringer-Verlag. 1979.
t5. Taylor. Angus E. and \\'. Robert Mann. A cl>·ana •l Calc11I11S
8. Ed.,.ards. C. II .. Jr.. Ad•·anctd CalculuJ of S<>•tral Variable<. New
(3rd ed.). ~ew York: John \\l!cy. 1983.
Yo rk : A cademic Press. 1973.
A-68
.2 }•"t!u• -n +I1- u".r +C if n"-1
~ fa" t!u = .E::._

ba
+C /i Json II du "' • ('(K II +C
*' ....-':1·~'" u .. c
8 f stc:udu•Unu + C 10 J 1« u l>n udu• ~c u + C
1
f :O'
f . ,'A utfus -esc u + C

12 J ra.o u du =lnt<ec •I + C I J J ror u du =-In lese ul + C
II ""' • •
«< • J •· •lnJ«C • + <>nul • C

1.5 Jcsc u du = -ln~sc u +roc llj + C 16 J
- tfu
- - = sm· 1 -u + C
,Ia:- ,.,: a
I~
J
I
I 7 :l•wl
~.
~--un
a
I ·I U
a
-+
C I ll f - = - II n - -01•C
- Ju
al- 111 2D u-a
t• 19 Jwiu·-~~~ gl
=~=-~/~/ · c
TRIC.O~O,\IETR IC FORMS · ' uJu = -I u - -1''"

20 f sm·
2 ~
. 2u + C 21 Jr.x 1 u du = !,
2
+! sin :Z.I+ C
~
2J Jcot~ u clu, -cot u - u + C 2-l J <in 1 • Ju • - 5(2 • sin 1

u)oos u +C
!.1 J""' o d• • ~fl + cos1 u)sin u + C 26 Jun 1

u Ju= ~an2 • + lnlro> ul +C 27 JcOt1 • du • - 4cOt1 u- In !sin ul • C
lS J...: •4• • ~sec• ton u+ I lnlsec u+ tnn ul+ C
1
2? Jc><:l u tlu • - ~c>< u - cot •I + C
•
Jll JSlnov 11n "
b d
"=sinCa-b)u
2(a _b ) -
sin(a + b),.
~(n +b) +
C ·r , b'
1 a· s ..
,
•1
J L
cO<Inuco<ttu~u•
, sin(o -b)ll sin(o-+b)u C If , b 2
l(a-b) + 2Ca + b ) + a·•
J! Ju••• rosIN d• = - cos(a-

~Co b)
blu - cos(o + b)u + C
! (a • b)
if a 1 • li
.lJ J. . udu • -~sin"- 1 u cos u + n:

1
Jsin•·l u du
1
35 rtlllf' u.d"a-L.tan"' - 1 u- rt3n•-l , du if ntt l
J' n- I J' 31i Jcoc• u du • -n-1
--coc•-• u -f coc.. -1 uJu jf n -. 1
37
- 1- S«"' - 2 111.1n"' • !.:l
f\c'C"'"J"• n-1 n-1
f kC'"- 2udu if n •l
l.! f«c' d:. =-• ~ I esc"· u

0 1
COt u+: =; Jc..c" · l u du if n • I
J9a J~rr- • cO\"' ., d u=-- sirt' - 1
n +m
., CO!.... • ' u n- I
+ --
"+m
J. .,
sm" ·u c0\"" 11du
l9b J.,.. •""'"' • d• • - sin" • n • m I • c<>IM . I • m - I

~ ;;-:;-;;;
J, -
)In" II Ceh""
2
II tfu if m-. - ,,
~ J•~n .
II d 4 • 'ID I I - U COS U +C
TA-1
(Table of lnt('!!rals continues rnnn previous page)
FORI\IS ll'VOI.VI:'II(; J,: ± a l
(a + Jul + a2)
41i
J ,lwl + al
--.,- d11 =~r::;-:-:;
.,z + a2 -a In 11 +C
~(2111 ± alJVwl ± a2- ~ lnlu+ .'u2 ± a 2l+ C

J
J~~l- al 11
-18 J u2 Ju1 ± 0 1 du .
.&7 - - - du= ·.'u2-a2 -asec- 1 - •C
11 a
50 f d11
11 2 •./ul ±0 2
= ;Ju2±a2+ C
2
a u
52 f t ill
(ul i a l ).ll2
:: ± ,,
a' Jill± a1
+ c
f'ORJ\IS 1~\'0LV I:-\G J.,:- ,:
S~
_ J --.,-du
Ja: _ .,: = va•
,..-:--;
-u'"' -a In
I"+ Jal-wll
u +C
~9
f Ja: _ .,: Jal-u1 w
- -- dw =-- ---sin- 1 - +C
ul u a
60 f ""
u ~al- u!
=-~lnJ"•
a
~~
u
+C
F.XPO-.;t::"TIAI. A I'll I.OC:ARITII~II C FORMS li.~ J.... dll .. (• - l)e" ... c
65 J ln • du = • In u - u + C
67 fr'• sinbudu ..
01~"b1 (a sin bu- bcosbu) +C
f•'l J•in· 1 u du • u sin"1 u + J1- u: + C

IN\'ERSE TIHGONU~IETRIC FOK\IS
70 JWl· l II cfl, • II WI· I U- ~ In (I + u 1

) + C 71 Jsec· I u du =u sec· I u -In~ + .r.:;i':lj. c
72 Ju sin" 1 u du s l1m:- I) 1
sin" u + ~ .[J""::;i + C 7.1 Ju~an· 1 udu • 2! (u1 + 1 )1an· 1 w-!!+C
2
J. -·•udJI•~=·•u-~Ju1-l Ju" sin"1 u du • u"+•1sin· • u - n-•1 -I J~

1
7-1 +C
75
11 J _ .,: du j( " --I
1
scc·l u- -1 -J~ du
n+l w·• ,.,-J"" •
Jrt" w-l "tl»• .1' •
1 1 1 77 Ju" s<c"1 udu• ,.., n + I .r,:;i:l
i( " • -I
76 , .... u- - , tlu " + I
-
TA-2
ALGEBRA Binomial t ·omwla
(.r+>i=x1+2.ty+),l
Quadntic Formula
(.r + yr' =..-J + 3..-ly + 3.rl + r .
The wlution. of th<: qu>dratic r<Jilltion (.r + y)' =.r• + .t.-Jy + 6.r2y2 + 4.r yl + J
=
a.rl + b.r + c 0 are givrn by
In gencr.>J. (.r + yY' =.r• + (~).r • - 1y + ( ~).r• - 2?
F•ctorb l n olation
" ) • - tl.l
+ .. · + ( 1 .r · + ... + ( n -1
n )xy• - I+ y•.
For e3ch positive intrger n. ") is the integel m'(n-

n! m)! .
"here the b inomial roc:fficient ( m
n!=r.Cn-l )(n -2) ... 3·2·1:
by defioi1ion. 0! = I.
ractoring
Radicals
t f n i~ a posith·c integer. then 2 3 2
.r• - y• =(.r - v)(.c" - I + .r• - y + .r•- >' - ...
.. .r, ·_ t - 1\ .• + . .. +.ry•-2 + y" - 1).
• :xJKmt·nt' '
(ah )' = a' b' a'a' = a' • ' ~"'~'~~=-
I tr r. i~ an odd positi\"C intrgc:r. thenJ l - 2 , - J .2 _ .•.
~ e a'-•
•• .r• + )'" : (.f + v)(.r" - 1 - x ,\ + .r' )
(a')' = a"
a' t.·- - )' . ...
. I I IT -.ry • - 1 +y.• - I).
GEOMETRY
Ui,hm<t'· t"nrmula'i Rectangle an:n: r-1
_ It
Dis.tnncc o n the real number hoe:

A= bh L_____j
> - -d - . . b
d e Jn - bi
a b
Dist:mce in the cOOfdin:ue plane:
=l (.rl - .rl): .. ( y l - ) 'l )l rPkrv
u
tl bz Circre 3rc3:
Trnrcw id area~
........-· cxi·Yil b 1 + bz h .:
=
A "' 2
F:tlUOllion5 or I Jn('S und Cirrle~ A= - 2 - Circumrcrencc:
bl C= 2nr
Slopc-intcrttpt equotion:
y = m.r + b
'""'"~'~@
Cylinder \'Oiume: _t,. _
• 3 V = rrr 2h
V= 1 nr ~--:-z..--1:
-~ Curved A
~
Surf:u:e .;s-rea:
Point·slorc rquation: surf:~cc
area:
y-y 1 =m(.r-x 1)
A = 41'1'r•
A =2rtrlr ...
......
-----_...
' >o
Circle with C<'nter (h. k) and Cone volume:

radius r : V=fnr 2h
(.r- hr' + (y- ·•>'-=r-'
Curvrtl surface area:
A = nr¥r 2 +h 2
TRIGO NOMETRY cos(A + 8) - cos ,\ cos 8 - sin A sin 8

sinl A +cos:A = 1 ( lhefunda-ntal identity) cos(A - 8) = cos A cos 8 + sin.<\ sin 8
1an:A + I = seelA sin(A +B)= sin A cos B .. cos A sin 8
sin(ll -B)= sin A cos 8- cos A sin 8
cos 2A = cos2A- sin2A = I - 2 sinlA ~ 2cos2A- I
sin :z.~ = 2 sin A cos A sinlA= 1-cos2A
2
See !he Appendices for mon: reference fonnulas.
POLAR COORDINATES AND
PARAMET RIC CURVES
P icrre d e Fe rmat ex·

cm pl ific~ t h.- d J\ IIIl -
J:Ui~lu:d tr:Hhtion of
g re:11 nmatcurs '" m.l thc-
the Ch apt er I C>rt:nin)l). Fermat concentrat ed on the
in' c~t l~illion of ):COm c tri.: <·un·es defined hy a lgebraic
cqu.llion\. For m~t ancc. h<' in trndurcd the translation
method< of th i' chapte r t~>):l·t lwr with rt>tation me th-
mn t iel;. l.il.. c II•~ contcm· ll<l\ to ~how t h.!l th e 11 raph nf an e quatio n of th e l"nrm
p11rary l{c nc D e~cnlle~ At : 1 /In·~ (\.: + /h t- 1:1' t F = lli~!!<'nc rally aconic
he wn' c lluca h.~d ,,, a 1 ~1\\ . <c<.:uon. :-.t.•'l nr hi~ matla: m.lli.:a t wurk rc maim:d unpuh·
ycr. llut unlike I h-•cnrtc<. h<h cd du rin~t lu< tikt imc . hut it C<Hltain ~ numerou' ta n ·
Fermat acllla ll y p1act kcd !(C III lmc (deri vative) and nrea (in t<·gr:ll) comput:ll inns.
law as hi> profc"ion am i 'll1 c hntti~ ntly c:••lmnl lcfl ·h:uul p ho tograph is n
~er ved in the •q :ionnl p;u . twent1 c I h-ccntury example of a gcomcll ic <>l>jcct deli ned
liament. II i, ample lei<IHC hy m ea ns of al~:c hrnic orcr atiuns. S tart ing w ith the point
PienedcFernMt(1601 - 166S) tim e was. IH>wevl' r. tkvntcd /'(a . />) in the .ry-pl:lne, we interpret /'a~ the complex
t o mnthem:llics and to other nu mber c = a + l•i antltlc linc th e seq ue nce 1~,.) of points
intellectual pursuits. s uch a s the study of ancient Greek of the com plex pl.1nc ite rat ive ly ( ns in Section 3.8) by the
manuscripts. equations
In a margin of one such m :muscr ipt (hy the Greek •
~ = r. <o.Jtt-1 -_ .....l
, +c (for n ~ 0).
mathematician Diophantu~) was found a handwrint·n
note that has rcmainl·d an cni!!ma ever since. Ferm:ll as· If this seque nce of poi nts re main\ inside the circle x 2 +
serts that for no integer n > 2 do ptlsitivc intege rs x. y, y~ = 4 fnr all11. the n the original point l'(a.ll) is colored
and ;:: exist such that xn + \" = ;::n. For instance, although black . Othe rwi$l', the colnr a~signed to/' is determined by
15~ + !)~ = J7Z, the sum t;f two ( positive integer) cubes the sp eed with which this se quence "escapes" that circu-
c:tnnot be a cube. "I have fo und a n :ulmirahlc proof of lar di sk . ·n,c set of all bl ack points is the famous Mtmt/t•/-
this." Fermat wrote, "but this margin is too narrow to con· lm>t srt, discovered in 1980 by the French mathematician
lain it." Despit e the publication of many incorrc•·t proofs. Benoit Mandclbrot.
MFermat's last theorem" remained unproved fnr thrr<!
and one-half centuries. But in a June 19<JJ lect ure, the
British mathematician Andrew Wiles of Prince ton Uni·
vcrsitv announced a ton~ and complex proof uf Fe rmat's
last theorem. Although ·the proof a s originally proposed
contained some gaps. these hll\'e been repaired_. and c~
perts in the fi eld ngree that Fermat's last conJt'CIItrl' 1S.
finally. a theort'm. . . f
Descartes and Fermat shared in the d•~covery 0
analytic geometry. Out whereas Dcscar.t cs typ•c.ally u~c~ The object in the right-hand figure is a subset of that In the
left-hand figure.
geometrical methods to solve algcbnuc equauons (sec
623
624 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordinates and Parametric Curvt?i
10.1 1ANALYTIC GEOMETRY AND THE CONIC SECTIONS

Plane anal)1ir ~:eometry, a centra l topic ~f this chapte r. is the us.c nf algebra and
calculus to study the properties of cu rves m thcxy-pla.ne. llle ancient Greeks Used
deductive reasoning and the methods of a~iomatrc Euclidean geomet ry to study lines,
circles. and the conic sectiuns (parabolas. ellipses. ~nd h yp erho!as) .. :Ole properties
of conic sections h:wc played an important r.olc 111 d1versc SCICIIt1hc applications
since the seventeenth century. when Kepler d1scovcrcd-and Newton explained-
the fact tha t the orbits of pl;nets and other bodies in the Solar System a re conic
sections.
ll1e French mathematicians Desca rtes and Ferm a t. working a lmost indepen-
den tly of one another. initiated analytic geometry in I fi37. lhc cen tral idea of anah·tic
geometry is the correspondence between an equation F(x, y) = 0 and its locus (iyp-
ically, a curve). the se t of all those points (x, y) in th e plane with coordi nates that
satisfy this eq uation.
A central idea of analytic geometry is this: Given a geome tric locus o r curve,
its properties ca n be derived algebraically or analytically from its defining equation
F(x, )') = 0. For example. suppose that the equation of a given curve turns out to be
the linear equation
Ax+ By= C, (I)
where A, lJ. and Care constants with 8 t- 0. ·n 1is equation may be written in the
II form
y =mr+b. (2)
II
where. m . = - .A / lJ and b -- CjlJ· ll u t E-<1· (2) ·IS t h e slopc-mterccpt
· equation of the
5
\\t~;ug~ll hne wnh slop!! m a_nd )'·intercept b. Hence the given curve is this straioht line.
e usc
. .th1s approach
. · . c 1 n1 sh ow t11at a spec1hc
rn. Exampl· · • geome tncally
· <>
described
Iocus IS .1part1cular stra1ght hnc.
EXAMPLE 1 Pwvc that the se t of all · · ·

(5. 3) is the perpendicular bisector o'r ti~OIIi~t~ ~~.uldlstant fr?l~t the points (I. I) and
c segment that )orns these two points.
Solution ll1e typical point I'( r ) in Fi .
(5. 3) if and only if - 'y lg_ IO.l.l IS equally dista nt from (I. I) and
' (.r- 1)2 + (y- 1)2:: (.r-5)2+(y - 3)2;

'
FIGURE 10.1.1 The perpendicular x·- 2x + 1 + y2- 2y +I == xz- IO.r + 25 + / - 6y + 9;
bisector of Example 1. 2r + y = 8;
Y == -2r +8. (3)
Thus the given locus is the stra1·.,htl' . . E
I <>
through (I. I) and (5 , 3) has equation
rnc 111 ·q. (3) wh . .
ose slope IS -2. ll1e straight hne
Y- l= !<x- 1) (.t)
y
and thus has slope }. Bec·Jusc the d
• ' . pro uct of tl 51
follows (from Theorem 2 in Appe nd· ll) le opes Of these two lines is -I. it
solve Eqs. (3) and ( 4) simult aneous! .'x fit hat these lines arc perpendicular. If we
· (3, 2) o f the give>· we
· d cc d . th e m1'd po1nt lnd that' th c ·Intersect io n o f th ese lines is.
Jn
. I b' n 1.lne segmc 11 I • 11tus the locus described is rh;
perpen d1cu ar 1sector of this line segment.
•
FIGURE 10.1.2 The cirde with The circle shown in Fig. 10 1 2 h
. II h . . as center (h k) .
center (h, A) and radius r. geometnca y as t e set or locus of all points p · and radms r. It may be described
- (x, Y) whose distance from (/1, k) is r.
Analytk Geometry and the Conic Sections SECTION 10.1 625
The dista nce form ula the n gives
(5)
as the equation of this circle. In pa.rticula r, if 1z = k = O, then Eq. (5) takes the simple
fonn
(6)
\~e ca n sec d irectl y fro m this equation, witho ut furthe r reference to the definition of
Cir cle, tha t a ci rcle centered .at the origin has the follov.;n~ symmetry prope rties:
• Symmetry around the x-axis: The equation of the curve is unchanged when
y is replaced with-y.
• Symmetry around 1/u y-axis: The equation of the curve is unchanged when
xis replaced wi th -x.
• Symnu:1ry with rc.spcc1 to th~ origin: The equatio n of the curve is unchanged
when x is replaced" ith -x and y is repi:Jccd with - y.
• Symmetry tJrmtmltlr~ -l5' line y = .r: The equation is unchanged when.t and
y arc int erchanged.
"lltc re la tio nship bc tl' cc n E4s. (5) and (6) is an illustra tion of the translation
p·rin ciplt• stated informa l!\• in Section 1.2. lmacinc a translation (or "slide") of the
plane that moves each point (x. y) to the new posi tion ( x +h. y + k). Under such a
translatio n. 3 curve C is moved to a new position. The equation of the new translated
curve is easy to obtain from the old equat ion-we simply rc.:place x with x -lr andy
with y - k. Convctscly. we can rccogni1.c a translated circle from its equation: Any
equat io n of the form
.t~ + y1 + At + /Jy + C = 0 (7)
can be rewritten in the form

(x - 11)2 + (y - k)2 = p
by completing sq uares. as in Example 2 of Section 1.2. lbus the graph of Eq. (7) is
either 3 circle (if p > 0), a single point (if p = 0), or no points at all (if p < 0). We
usc this approach in Example 2 to discover that the l.ocus described is a particular
circle.
EXAMPLE 2 Determine the locus of a pointl'(x, y) ilitsdistance I API from A(7, 1)
is twice its distance i /Jl'l fr-o m 8(1, 4).
Solution The points A, 8. and P appear in Fig. 10.1.3, along with a curve through
y
.P that represents the given locus. From
iAP12 = 4181'1 2 (because I API= 2iBPI).
we get the equation

(x- 7}2 + (y- 1)2 = 4((x- 1)2 + (y- 4)2].
Hence
A(7. I)
3x2 + 3y2 + 6x- 30y + 18 = 0;
_x2 +I+ 2x -lOy= -6;
FICURE 10.1.3 The locus of 2
Example 2. (x + 1) + (y - 5)2 = 20.
Thus the locus is a circle with center ( -1. 5) and radius r = .JW = 2./S. •
626 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coord inates and Parametric Curves
Conic Sections h rc the curves formed by a plane inter.

Conic secrions are so named because. they -:cula r cone with two nappes extending
Cl<nn>ton secting a cone. The cone ~sed is_ a ng.1t..1).c• There arc three types o f contc
· secllons.
·
1 10
II infinitclv far in both dtrecuons (Fig. .
· - If the cutu ng P13
nc is parallel to some generato r of the
as illustrated in Fig. IO.l.:l. d axis, forms the cone). then the curve of
. tha t. w hen rei·olved aroun . an ·parallel to a generator. I h e n th e curve
cone (:1 hne 1
inte rsection is a parabola. ~f the plan~ IS "~e-an e/lipse-{)r a hyperbola with two
of inte rsection is either a smgle close cur
branclr(S.
Ads
FIGURE 10.1.4 A cone with two

nappes. llypcrhula
FIGURE 10.1.S The conic sectiom.
In Appendix J we usc the methods of three-d imensio na l a na lytic geometry to

show that if an appropr iate xy-coo rdinatc system is se t up in th e int e rsecting plane.
then the equations of the three conic sections ta ke the foll owing forms:
Pam bola: ·' .1 = kx: (H)

Ellipo.c: x-' r
-; +-;-= 1: (9)
IJ~·pcrbola:
. r.
II '
x-
/>•
II '! - /.f! = I. (10)
In Section 10.6 we discuss these conic sections 0· n lite h · f d fi · · h

. .
two-dmlcnstonal-they do not require the three-<li ·asts 1(l c· mllto
f ns t at are
d
an ·mtcrsecung
· pane.
1 -
Example 3 illustrates one su hme nstonrt1 scttmg o a· cone· an
c approac 1 to the come secuons.
L 1 EXAMPLE 3 Let e be a given positive numb. ( .
logarithm hasc· in th.: co nte xt of . . cr 1101 to be confused w11h the natural
·· · , contc sections_ e st·lnd f . . ) .
the locus of a point P(x )') if its d ' st f ' s or I'CC('Ilfrlcu y . Detenmne
. •
distance from the vertical line L whose , ance rom
. .the fixed F
pouu · (p. ) IS e tunes 1'ts
. 0 . .
f equation ts x = - p (Fig. IO.I. 6 ).
Q(-p.,l ----- Solution Let PQ be the perpendicular f J> .
rom 10 the hnc L ·ntc n the condition
IPFi =ei i 'QI
takes the analytic form
V(x- p)2 + y2 == elx - (-p)l.

~ - -p That is.
FIGURE 10.1.6 The locus of
wmplt3.
so
(Ill
Analytic G~etry and the Conk Sections SECTION 10.1 627
• Ca.u 1: e = I. Th en Eq. ( II ) reduces to

~ ( 12)
·'J = -.px.
W e sec upon comp3 rison .,.,; th Eq. (8) t hJt the locus of P is a parabola if
e = I.
• Ca.sc 2: e <I. D ividing both sides of Eq. (I I) by I- c, we get
• t~r= '": ~
x- - 2p·--,.:c.o.-·-. =-p·.
I - e- I - f'·
We now complete the square in x. The resul t is
.:c _ P . I .._ r~ ) " _ ~ = P: ( (I + t'~ )

1
_
,
I] = a· .
( 1- e- 1-e- 1-e-
1
Th~ equat ion has the form
(13)
.._--1@ -. whe re
h = +p · - -
1 +c
and h: = a=(l- r 1 ) . (I.$)
.. _, I - ,.z
When we compare & 1s. (9) nnd ( IJ). "'c sec th:ll if e I. In this'"'". E q . ( II ) red uces to a tran<latcd vcr.<inn of Eq. ( 10),
(Example 3).
so the locus or ,. i> a hypulmla. 'lltc: dc t:t ils. which :uc similar to those in
C;~sc 2. ;~rc left for Problem J5.
TIJU< the locus in Example 3 is a parabola if r = I, an dlip.H· if c < I, ;~nd a

lzypc:rhn/a if<' > I. ll1c num ber r is called th e eccentridty or the conic section. lltc
point F(p. 0) is commonly called its focus in the parabolic case. Figure IO.I.H shows
the parabola of Case I; fig. 10.1.9 illustrates the hyperbola of Case J. +
x• - P
FIGURE 10.1.8 A parabola:~ = I FIGURE I 0.1.9 A hyperbola: t > I

(Example 3). (Example l).
If we begin with Eqs. (8) through ( 10). we can derive the general cha racteristics
of the three conic sections shown in Figs. 10.1.7 through 10.1.9. For example, in the
case of the parabola of Eq. (8) with k < 0, the curve passes through the origin • .:c ?; 0
at each of the curve ·s points. J - ±oo as :r - oo. and the graph is symmetric around
the .:c-axis (because the cur\'C is unchanged when y is replaced with - y).
In the case of the ellipse of Eq. (9), the graph must be symmetric around both
coordinate axes. At each point (x. }')of the graph. we must have txt:;; a and IYI :£ b.
The graph intersects the axes at the four points (±a. 0) and (0. ±b).
Finally, the hyperbola of Eq. (10)-or its alternative form
b
y= ±-J.:cz -aZ
a
628 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordinates and Parametric Curves
-is symmetric around both coordinate axes. )Is meets the x-axis at the two points
(±a. 0) ami has one branch consisting of points with x ;:; a and has another branch
where x ;£ -a. Also. lyl -> oo as lxl -> oo.
0 10.1 TRUE/ FALSE STUDY GUIDE

10.1 CONCEPTS: QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION
You may 1•·am co usc the implicit plotting facility of a compwcr algebra system to
investigate the following question.~
I. The g raph of the equation x2 -I

=0 consists of the two lines x- y = Oand
x + y = 0 through the origin. What is the graph of th e equation x" - y" = O?
D ocs it depend on whether the positive int eger n is eve n o r odd? Explain
your answers.
2. I low do the g raphs of the equations .r3 + ),3 I and x~ + = l =
I differ from
+I =
the unit ci rcle .r 2 I (and from each other)? How docs the graph of the
equation x" + y" = I change as the positive integer 11 ge ts larger and larger?
Discus~ the possibility of a "limi ting set" as n -> +oo. Do these questions
depend o n wht:ther 11 is even or odd'!
3. 'llu' graph of I he C<luaJion x 2 - y 2 = I is a hyper bola. D iscuss (as in Ques·
tion 2) the graph of the equation .r" - y" I. =
10.1 PROBlEMS
In Pmhlt'ln< 1 through 6, wriu· an rq11ntion of th~ .<pccifirtl In Problrms 17 through 20, slww that the graph of rite gi1•en
straight lim!. rquatwn cmr.<Ltt.r eitlwr of a single point or of no po int.<
I. The line lhrough I he poin l (I. -2) that is p•rallcl to the line 17• .r
2
+ 1- 6.r- 4y + 13 =()
with equation x + 2y 5 = 2
18. 2r +2y+6x+ 2y+ 5 = 0
2. lnc line through the point (-3, 2) that is perpendicular to
the line wilh equation 3.r - -ly = 7 19. .xl + >'2 - 6.r - lOy + 84 = 0
3. ·rnc line 1hat is tangent to the circle .r~ + f = 25 at the 20. 9xl + 9f - 6.r- 6y+ 11 =0
point (3, - 4)
In. Pro!J/rms ~' I thro111:11 24• wme
· the eqrwlion of the speciGed
4. ll1e line that is t:mgcnt to the curve );: = .r + 3 at the point Ctrc1e.
1
'
(6, - 3)
21. The. circle with ccn1cr
• ( 1
- • - 2) that passes through the
5. ·ntc line that is perpendicular to the curve .r 2 + 2f = 6 at pomt (2, 3)
the point (2, -I)
2Z. The circle with ce 1 12 2 .
6. lnc perpendicular bisector of the line segment with end- n er • - ) that IS tangent to the line
Y = .r + 4
points ( -3. 2) and (5. - 4)
2J. llte circle with ,
In /'rohlt•ltLV 7 through M.jiml the cmt~r and ratliu.r ofthe circle _ center (n. 6) that is tan.,cnt to the line
Y- 2.r-4 .,
descrih~tl in the gi•·en equation.
24. lltc circle that
7. x 2 + 2x+ l =4 and (5, -I) ' passes through the points (4, 6), (- 2. - 2).
8. rl+l-4y=5
In Problmr.r 2.5 throu •11 10 .
points f>(x ) 8_ • • dmvc tht> I'IJIUIIion of thr srt of all
9 • .fl + l- 4.r + 6y = 3 11
"ftJ•>Iroftllo• Y wr. .WI/Irfy
. the gi1't'n COlli1·111011.
· 7·ht•IJ .t k·etcII II(
I
" ' • CffiW/ton.
10• .r2 + l + 8.r- 6y = 0
25. The point /'(.r ) ·.
15
, . .
II. 4xz + 4y - 4.r =3 (3, 2) and ( . ). y
7 4
equally dtstant from the two pornts
I
IZ. 4r+41 + r2r= 7 26. The distance fro
from /'to th IU
.
1, 10 the pomt ( -2. I) is hair the distance
f u. 2x1 +21-2x +6y= 13 c pomt (4. -2).
j .... 9.r1 + 9y- J2x = s 27. 'llte point P is th ·
it is from th · . rcc ltmcs as far from the point ( -3. 2) as
, c pomt (5. 10).
IS. 9x: + 9_.J + 6.r- 24y = 19 28. The distance fro p . .
t • , ... J 411.<- JO!!y = 47 lane~ f h m to the hnc .r =< - 3 is equal to its d1s·
rom t c fl<llnt (3. 0).
16. J6.r• + .>V.T -
PoiJr Coordinates SECTION 10.2 629
%9. The sur:' of the d~t~nces from I' to the poinu (~.OJ and ~ Find all hnc~ thlt arc tangent to the omc y = rl and nrc
(-4.0) I\ 10. <~l<o pJrallcl to the hne J , - y = 5.
.)(). The su~ of the d1stanccs from I' to the points (0. )) and 35. Su~ tlut < > 1. Shov- thlt Eq. ( II ) of this section can
(0. - 3) IS 10. be"' ntten in the form
31. find all the line~ thro,ugh the point (2. 1) that arc tanrent
to the parahola y = x· .
Jl. Find all line' throufh th e point (-I . 2) that are normal to
the paral,ol.1 }" = .1 · .
33. Find all lines that are normal to the curve xy = 4 an:l thu~ ~ho.,.ing th3t its graph is a hyperbola. Find a, b. and h
~imultnncously arc parallel to the line y,., 4J . in terms of pan.!<.
1Q.2 1POLAR COORDINATES

famili ar v.ay to locate
A n point in the coordin:llc pbnc i~ by speci fying its rectan!!ular
coordina te' (x. y)-that i\. hy gh·mg its abscL"-.<.1 .t and o rdinate y rcl:t tivc to give n
perpendicula r a'e" In ~orne problem\ it is more conve nien t to locn te a point by
means of it\ polar coordm(lfn 1ltc pol.lr coordmatcs I:i' c it~ positi on rela th·c to
a fix ed refe rence poin t 0 (th e l'"lf) nnd tn a given ray (the pnl~r n:d~) hcginning
at 0 .
For convenience. we begin with a give n xy·coordinatc sys tem and the n take the
origin a~ the pole ami th e non nC!:at l\'e x-axi• as the polar axi5. Gi ve n the pole 0 and
the pol;u axis. the poin t /'with pnl:u runrd inatf• r and 0 , wrillen as the ordered pair
(r. 0) . is located a~ follows. First find the te rm inal side of the angle 0 , give n in radia ns.
where 0 is mcasureJ counterclockwise (if O > 0) from the .r·a.t i s (the polar axis) as its
in itial side. If r ;;: 0. then I' is on the terminal side of this angle at the d ista nce r rrom
the ori!'in. If r < 0 . then I' lies on the ray opposite the te rminal side at the d istance
Jrl = - r > ()from the pole (Fig. 10 .2.1). 'fne r11di:al cunrdin:tte r can be described as
the tlirc·<·t,·d Ji~tancc of I' from the pole alon!' the te rminal side or the angle ll. Thus.
if r is positive. the point I' li es in the same qu:~<lra nt as 0 . whereas if r is negative.
then Plies in the upposite quadrant. If r = 0. the an gle ll docs not mallcr; the po lar
coordinates (O.ll ) reprc$cnt the origin whatever the llllJ:Uiar coordinate 0 might be.
llte origin. or pole. is the only point for which r = 0.
I' 1
, ,,
,,
,'\0
•
r<O
I'
y
FIGURE 10.2.1 The d ifference between the two ca~e~
I' r > 0 and r < 0.
EXAMPLE 1 Polarcoordinatcsdifrcr rrom rectangular coordinates in that any point

has more than one representation in polar coordinates. For example. the polar co·
o... • ordinates (r. (}) and ( - r . 0 + ;r) represent the same point P. as shown in Fig. 10.2.2.
, ,, More generally. this point P has the polar coordi~ates (r, (} + mr) for any even integer
,, am/the coordinates ( - r. 0 + mr) ror any odd mteger n. Thus the polar-coordinate
11
pairs
FIGURE 10.2.2 The polar
coordinates (r, o) and (-r, 0 + ~r)
represenl lhe same point P
(Example 1).
y
.
all represent the same pomt p 10
. Fig• 10.2.3. (The rectangular coordinates or •p
are (1. J3 ).)
. tes into rectangular coordinates, we usc the basic

To convert polar coord ma
relations
~
x=rcosO. y= rsinO (1)
· h t tnang
that we read from the ng · 1e 1·n Fi<>:o· to ·2 · 4• Converting
• in the opposite direction •
we have
FIGURE 10.2.3 The point P of

Example 1 can be described in
.,
r = x·
"t ~
+ .' . J;lll (I = X;..v if X f. 0. (2)
many different ways using polar
coordinates.
S
• ome care IS
· rcqurrc
· d ·rn rna k'mg tl1e correct choice of 0 in the formula tan 0 = yfx.. If
x > 0. then (x . y) lies in either the first or fourth qu~drant, so - ;r /2 < 0 < ;r /2. whrch
is the range of the in"crsc tangent fu nction ._ Hen ce 1f x > 0, then 0. ~ arctan(> I x). ~ut
if x < then (x. y) lies in the second or th1rcl quadrant. In thiS case a_proper cho~cc
o.
for the angle is 0 = :r + arctan(y/ x). In any C\'ent. the signs of x andY rn Eq. (I) With
r > 0 indicate the quadrant in which 0 lies.
Polar Coordinate Equations

FIGURE 10.2.4 Read Eqs. (1) and Some curves ha\'c simpler equations in polar coordinates than in rectangular co-
(2)-conversions between polar o rdinates; this is a n imponant reason for the usefulness of polar coordinates. Tite
and rectangular gra1•h of an equation in the polar-<:oordinatc va riables r and 0 is the s~t of all tl_tosc
points I' such that P has some pair of polar coordinates (r. 0) that sausfy the gt~cn
coordinates-from this figure.
equation. 'lbe graph of a polar equation r = f(O) can he constructed by computmg
a table of values of r against 0 and then plotting the corresponding point.s (r . 0) on
polar-coordinate graph paper.
EXAMPLE 2 One reason for the importance of polar coordinates is that many real-
world problems involve circles. and the polar-coordinate equa tion (or po lar equation)
I I of the circle with center (0. 0) and radius a> 0 (Fig. 10.2.5) is very simple:
!
! r =a. (3)
I
Note that if we begin with the rectangular-coordinates equation x2 + y2 = a2 of
this circle and
2 transform
2 it using the first relation in (2). we get the polar-coordinate
equation r = a • Then Eq. (3) resu lts upon taking positive square roo ts. +
FIGURE 10.2-5 The circle r = a
centered at the origin (Example 2).
EXAMPLE 3 Construct the po lar-coordinate graph of the equation, = 2 si n O.
I
I
Solution Figure 10.2.6 shows a table of values of r a s a function of o. ·niC corrc·
spondingpoints (r. 0) are plotted in Fig. 10.2.7, using the rays at multiples of rr/ 6
and th~ c1rcles (centered at the pole) uf radii 1 and 2 to locat e these points. A visual
ins~ccllon of the smooth curve connecting these points suggests that it is a circle of
1 radiUS I. Let us assume. fo~ the mumem that this is so. l'otc then that the point P(r, 0)
I
l
moves once around tlus crrcle cmmterclock,..;,r,. as 0 incn:ast.:s from 0 to ;r and then
moves around this circle a second time as 0 increases from ;r to 2:r.
the nega_tive ~alut.:s of r for 0 ~etwcen ;r and 2rr give-in this example- the same
gcomctnc pomts as do the posntvc values of r foro between 0 and·"'. (Why?)
1
+
·n
is is because
The verification that the graph of r =2sin O is the indicated circle illustra tes
the general pro~edure for t~ansf7rring back and forth betwee n polar and rectangular
coordinates, u.smg the relatiOns m (1) and (2).
Pollr Coortfr.lt~ S~CT10'l10.2 6 31
(} ,
0 OM
:t /6 1.(()
:r /3 113
-~ /2 2rt)
2."1 /3 I.,
S,-;tf> I Cfl
8. ~~ 1
:r orn
- l i ft
7:r
4:r '"
/3 -I 7.l
3.~ / 2 -2(;1)
S:r /3 -173
II :r / 6 -I (( )
2.'T n111
(d~t~ rcv",.,JeJJ
FIGURE 10.2.6 Valu~\ of JICUR[ 10.2.7 T~ gu ph of the poldr t-qu•tlon

r = 2 s•nY (U.•"'P'e )) f a2 ~n· (l-4"'1* ) )
EXAMPLE 4 To t r~n•form the eq ua tiOn ' = 2 <in tl o f Example 3 into rcctn ngultlr
coo rdinates. we lir't mu lt irly hoth 'Ide< by r to ~et
r2 = 2r i ln O.
Equations (I ) and (2) now give
Finally, after we complete the square in y, we have

x2 + (y -1 ) 2 = 1.
the rcctangul:u·coordinate equation (or rrc:angular rquation ) of a circle who'e center
is (0. I) and "hose radius is 1. •
FIGURE 10.2.8 The gr~phl of the More generally. the graphs or the equations
clrclel whose t-quations appur In
Eq. (4) with a= 1. r = ~~sinO and r = :!a co~ II ( 4)
arc circles of radius a centered. respectively, at the points (0. a) and (a. 0). This is
y illustrated (with a = I) in fig. 10.2.8.
s,, substituting the equations !!i"en in ( 1). we can transform the rectangular
equatia'n ax + by = c of a straight line into
ar cosO+ bt- sin 9 =c.
Let us take a = 1 and b = 0. Then we see that the polar equation or the vertical line
:c =cis r = c secO, as we can deduce directly from Fig. 10.2.9.
••<
EXAMPLE S Sketch the graph of the polar equation r = 2 + 2sin9.
fiGURE 10.2.9 finding th~ pol" Solution If we scan the second column of the table in Fig. 10.2.6. mentally adding 2
eqwtion of the vertical lin~ x .. c.
to each entry for r. we see that
• , increases from 2 to 4 as 8 increases from 0 to rr/2:
• r decrca)es from .t to 2 as 0 increases from rr /2 to :r;
• r decreases from 2 to 0 as 0 increases from :r to 3rr/2:
• 1 increases from 0 to 2 as 0 increases from 3rr /2 to 2rr.
'.
.. f . I JlsusthattheeraphrescmblcsthecurveshowninFig.I0.2.JO
Th IS 10 ormauon c ' - • 'd Th aphs of the equations ·
'This heart-shaped graph is called a atrdl 0 1 • e gr.
r=tl ( l ±sin fll ami r = ll(l ± cosO)
arc all cardioids, differing only in size (determined by tl ). axis of ~ymmetry (horizontal
or vertical). and the direction in which the cusp at the pole p om ts. •
EXAMPLE 6 Sketch the graph of the equat ion r = 2 cos 20 .

Solution Rather than constructing a table of values of r as a function of 6 and then
plotting individual points. Jet us begin with a rectangular-c~ordtnnte graph of r as a
FIGURE 10.2.10 A cardioid fun.:tion of 0. In Fig. 10.2.1 1. we sec that r = 0 if 8 is an odd u~tegral mult1ple of IT { 4,
(Example 5).
and that r is a lternately positive and negative on success1vc mtcrvals of le ngth :r/ 2
from one odd integral multiple of :rj.!t to the next.
Now le t"s think about how r changes as (J increases, beginning at 0 = 0. As 0
increases from 0 to :r f -l. r decreases in value from 2 to 0, and so we draw the first
po rtion (labeled ·· r..) of the polar curve in Fig. 10.2.12. As 0 increases from ;r f 4 to
3:r f -l, r first decreases from 0 to -2 and then incr eases from - 2 to 0 . Because r is
now nt:g;llive. we draw the second and third portions ( labeled "2" and "3") of the
polar curve in the third and fourth quadrants (rather th;m in the first and se-cond
quadrants) in Fig. 10.2.12. Continuing in this fashion. we draw the fourth throu•h
eighth portions of thc polar curve. with those portions where r is ne gative in the
q_uadrants opposite those in which 0 lies. 11tc arrows on the resulting p;Jar curve in
~-•g. 10.2.1 ~ mdJe<llc the direction of motion of the point P(r. 0 ) along the curve as 0
mcreases. ntc whole graph consists of four loops. each of which begins and ends at
f i GURE 10.2. 11 The rl'Ctangular the pole. •
coordinates graph of r = 2 cos 28
as a function of(! . Numbered
portions of the graph correspond 11te curve in Example 6 is called a four-leaved rose. The equations r = n cos nO
to numbered portions of the and r · =h 11 Sill ~roses" with 2n ·'leaves·" or IOOJ)S . an d n >
polar-coordinates graph in 1 nO ·rrepresent
· .. 1·f 11 1s· even _2
h Ul Wit 11 oops 1 IllS odd and n ;:: 3. -
Fig. I 0.2.1 2.
.rr. .·The four-leaved
d.· r rose exhibits-several tvpesofs"ntrnct
• J
r )·, 11te fo IIowmgaresomc
. ,
su"tcwnr con 1t1ons .or symmetry in polar coordinates:
• For symmetry around rite x-axis: 11JC equation .

replaced w!lh -0. IS unchanged when 0 is
• For .1)'1111111'/ry tlrutmd the y-axis . lb, .

replaced with 11 _ o. · " equatiOn is unchanged when 0 is
• For symmetry wirlt respect 10 the uri.;,. 11 , . .
is replaced with -r. 8 · lc equat10n IS unchanged when r
flecausecos20 =cos( -20) = cos 2 (rr _ 0 . .

Jca1•cd rose satisfies the; first two sv ). the cquahon r = 2 cos 20 of the four-
. . mmetry condit' . .
svnunetnc around both the r-ax1·5 ~nd •ons. and therefore liS 0oraph IS
" • ' · " 11lC y ' I X. · 11 ·
the origin. Nevertheless this CCJttat 1·0 d . ., · •s. Ius II is also S\'lllme rric around
' ' II 0\!S /lot S'l( ·f h · .
for symmetry around the origin 11li . ' Is Y t e llmd condition the one
FIGURE 10.2.12 A four-ll'aved
.. . . s r11 ustratcs that I I .
d 1110ns g1ven art: sufficient for the . . ' a t wugh the symme try con-
. · s~mmerncs de· ·b 1 ·
rose (Example 6). con d 111ons. sen et, they are not nt!cessary
EXAMPLE 7 Figure 10.2.13 shows the !ern .

IIJseate with equat ion
r 2- 4 .
- - 511120.
To see why it has loops only in the sec c.J
of signs of values of -4sin 21J. on and fourth quadrants, we examine a table
-
r
l'olar Coordinates SECTION 10.2 633
(I 20 - 4sin 20
0 < (I < j:r 0 < 2fl < lr l'q ;a1ive
Jn < fl < n lf<20 < 2lf Pusiti\'C
lf < ll < ln 21f < 20 < 3.~ Ncga1ivc
~:r <0< 211 :l-7 < 20 < 411 l'dsiti\'c
When 0 lies in the first or th e third quad rant, the quantity - 4 sin 2IJ is negat ive, so
=
tht: equa tion r 2 - 4sin 2lJ cannot be satisfied for nny real values of r. +
FIGURE 10.2. 13 Th~ lemnlsc3te Example t1 illustrates a peculiarity of graphs of polur equations. caused by
rl = -4 sin 29 (E.Xd mple 7). the fact that a single point ha s multiple rep resenta tions in polar coordina tes. The
point with polar coordinates (2. :r /2) clearly lies on the four-leaved rose. but these
coo rdinates do nut satisfy th e equation r = 2 cos 20. lltis me am that a poin t m ay have
one pair of polar conn.linatcs that sat isfy a gi\'e n equation and o thers that do not.
Hence we must be cardul to understand this: ·nte
gra ph o f a polar equation consists
of all t hose points with at least om• polar-coordinate representation that satisfies th e
given equation.
Another result of the multiplicity of polar coordinates is that the simultaneous
solution of two polar equations docs not always give all the points of inlerscction
of their graphs. For instance. consider the circles r = 2 sin 0 and r = 2 cos 0 shown
in Fig. 10.2.R. The origin is clearly a point o f intersec tion of these two circles. Its
polar representation (0. lf) satisfies the equation r =
2 sin 0. and its represen tation
(O.rr/2) satisfies the other equa tion. r = 2cosl'l. Rut the origin has no sing/<' po·
Jar represen tation that sat isfies both equal ions simultam:o·.tsly! If we think of 0 a s
incr easing uniformly with time. then the corresponding moving points on the two
circl es pass t hrnuj:h th e orig in at d iffe rent times. lienee the origin cannot be discov-
ered as a point of in ter.<ection of the two circles merely b) solving t heir equations
r = 2 sin 0 and r = 2 cos (I simult aneously in a straightforward manner. But one fa il·
safe way to find all po inls of in tersection of two polar-coordinate cu rves is to graph
both curves.
EXAMPLE 8 Find all points of intersection of the graphs of the equations r =

I + sin O and r 2 = 4sin0.
Solution llt c graph nf r = I + sin 0 is a scaled -d own version of the cardio id of
, Example 5. In f>rublcm 52 we ask you to show that the g.r:tph of , : = -l sin 0 is
A
th e tigurc ·cight curve shown with the card ioid in Fi~:. 10.2. 1-l. lhc ti~urc shows four
poin ts of int ersection: II. II, C, ami 0 . Can we find all four u~ ing al g.chr:t?
Give n the two equat ions. we begin by eliminating r . llccausc
( I + sin 0) 1 a r1 = 4 si n 0,
it follow~ tha t
sin' 0 - 2sin 0 + I "' O:
(~in O - 1) 2 .. 0 :
and thu' thJt ~iniJ .. I . Sn 0 mu't he nn angle o f th e form l:r + 2n.~ where n i~
fiGURE 10.2. 14 Tho! urd>ood ~n integer. ;\II pomt ~ on the ca rdioid :md nil poinb un the figure-eight curve ar c
t ~ 1 • ~ @ .and trt~ f~u·~ ~~ht
produced by lc ttmg tJ r.angc fr om 0 to h. Kill = rr_12 will prod uce: all the ,olu11un~
•' • 4 " nl) mt'fl on tour poinU
that we ca n obtatn by stmplc ul~c:huuc eh nunattOn . lhc onI)· ~uch point i' ,v1. :r / 21.
(~8)
and the other three po in t' of intcncct ion arc d etected o n I) 111•hcn I he two cqu;ll ton~
arc graphed. •
634 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordinate~ and Parametric Curves
Calculato r/ Computer· Genera te d Pola r Curves

,. . -
.
· ·
. . . , to construct !>v hand the "buttcrny curve" shown
It m1ght t~kc you qulle a " 1111c · 1 b
h' calculators and computer a ge ra systems have
m h g. 10.2.15. But most grap '"!! ' . 'tl a T l calcul:ltor se t in " 1
facili ti.:s for plotting polar curves. For 111St~nce. WI 1 . po ar
•
gr~ph mode," one need only en ter anv::.
·' "ratlh the equation
_ 2 • cos( 4 0 ) + si n(0 /4 )/\3
r • e /\. ( cos ( 0 ))
. 1
-)
on t I1e ·mterva10 < < 8rr. \V'1th ,•·ta
=0 = ~te and Marlremaricn the graphics package com-
mands
polarplot(exp (cos( t )) _ l • cos( 4 • t) + sin(t/ 4 )/\ 3, t•0 •• 8 • Pi)J
and
PolarPlot( Exp (Cos( t ]] - 2•cos( 4• t] + Sin(t/ 4 ] /\ 3, { t, 0, S • Pi ) );
FIGUR E 10.2. 1S r = e<•• 1 -
2 co~ 40 + sin 1(0/ 4 ). (respectively) give the same result (with r in/ lace of 0). .
Because of the presence of the term sin (0 f4), the more usual mte rval 0 ~ 0 ;ii 2..-r
gives only a part of the curve shown in Fig. 10.2. 15. (Try it to sec for yourst:lf.) But
sin) (
0
: Srr) = sin
3
( ~ + 2rr) = sin
3
( n.
so values of si n3 (0/4 ) repeat themselves when 0 exceeds S:r . l11crefore the inter-
val 0 :3 0 ~ Srr suffices to give the enti re bu tterfl y curve. You mi gh t try plott ing a
j butterny cu rve with the term sin 3(9/ 4 ) replaced with sin 5 (0 / 12)- as originally rec·
ommended hy Temple H. Fay in his art icle -The Butterny Curve" (American .\lath·
I'' em atical .\ lmrthly, :\lay 19$9, p. 442). What range of values of 0 will now be required
to obtain the whole butterfly?
10.2 TRUE/ FALSE STUDY GUIDE

I. figures 10.2. 16 throu~h 10.2. 18 illustrate the polar curve r = 11 + bcosO for
va rr ous va lues of a and b. Wha t de termines whe ther the curve exhibits a
cusp (fig. 10.2. 16). a loop (fi!!. 10.2. 1i). or neit her (Fig. 10.2. 1R)? Docs your
answ~r apply also to polar curves of the form r == a + h sin 0? Given 11 :md b.
wha liS the drffcrcnce be tween the cu rves r - + b cos 0 a nu.• r a + b Sill
· Q?•
- (I =
1 1
y
X
X
.r
FIGURE 10.2.16 r = 4 + 4 cos O. FIGURE 10.2.17 r = 4 + 7col O.

FIGURE 10.2. 18 r = 4 + 3 cos O.
2. Figu res 10.2.19 and 10.2.20 show the
r = sin 40. G iven a positive . graphs of the equa tions r = cosJO and
" rose graphs" r ==cos nO . d lllteg~r " · what is th e diHerc nce between the
olll r =Sill nO? E I . . I
of leaves in the complete ,, · xp <nn prcc1scly how the nullllCr
1
, II 1 ucnends
0 S 8 S :r or() :;; 0 s 2;r givesgmp ,. on n. \VI1:1t delcrnun· cs whet I1o·r
a t 11~:: leaves?
Polar Coordinates SECTION 10.2 635
-I -I
FICURE 10.2.19 1 =<Os } q , FIGURE 10.2.20 r = sin48.
10.2 PROBLEMS
1. l'lot the 1x•irm with the g" ·e n po lar coordinates. and then 26. The circk " llh C'cntcr (;\ . .1 ) ~nd radius 5
find the rcct~ngul:rr CtlQrdina tc• o f each.
:1. The m cle "" h crnte r 1I. I) th .H p.1sses thrCiugh rhe origin
(3) ( 1.11 / ·l ) (b) ( - 2. l:t / 3) (C) (J. - 11 / 3)
2!<. The mcle " "h cente r (5. -2) that p3S>CS through the point
(d) (3. 31! / 2) (c) (2. -.•/~1 (f) (-2. -7:r/ 6) (1 , I )
(g) (2. 5,Tf {l)
In l 'mhl<m<]Q rhrou;:h 31. tran.<form til~ givm polar-courdinat~
Z. finLI two po lar·cnnrdinntc rcprcscnt :uion~
nne v. ith' > 0 t'IJIWtion ;, , a r~rr.zngu!nr·COt1rdinmr t"qulltion. lht·n
nwtch lhi!
and the ot he r with r < 0. fm the points" ith the given reel· <qunrimr o.·irll ia ~rraph amo ng them• m Figt /0.2.11 throu~:ll
:mgulnr counhnatc\. / O.l.U.
(3) ( - 1. - 1) (b) ( ,/~ . - I) (C) (2. 2) 29. r = - .I cos !I 30. r = 5cos0 + 5sinll
(d ) (-I. v0) (c) (..12. - ..12) (f) (-3. v0) 31. r = --! cos O+ 3sin 0 32. r = Scosll- IS sin O
In l'mblmrs J tlrrou~lr 10. o'.rJirt-<S tlrr J:in·n ,.-crangulm ~qrmrion

in polar form.
J..r a ~ 4. y = 6
$.• .r = 3y 6. x 1 + i = 25
7• .ry = I
10• .f + ,. = .t
br l'mblttns 1/tlmmglr /8, ~.rpfi'JS tlr~ ~:il·m polar eqrwtion in X
ratrm~llltlf fo mL
II. r = 3 Jl. /) = 3:r/~
1.\. r = -5 cos0 14. r = sin :!II FIGURE 10.2.21
1~. r= l-cos20 16. r = 2 + sin 0
17. r = 3scc0 HI. r' =cos 20
F11r thr run·rs 11~scribr11 ill l'mbii.'IIU /9 tlmmglr 28, writ~ ~qua·
tio11s i11 bmh rrclllngular and pt~lar form.
19. The vertical line through (2. U)

20. The horizontal line through (1, 31
21. The line with slope -1 through (2 , -II
22. The line with slope I through (4. 2)
23. The line through the points (I. 3) and (3. 5)
14.. The circle with center (3. o; that passe! through the origin
2S. The circle with center (0. -4) thai pas5<:S through the origin FIGURE 10.2.22
FIGURE 10.2.23 FIGURE 10.2.26
FIGURE 10.2.24
FIGURE 10.2.27
The graph of a polar equation of rhe form r =tl + bcos O
(or r = 11 + bsin (I) i.f callt•d 11 lima~on (from the Frc11ch word
for snail). In Problems 33 thro ugh 36. march the ;:ivcn polar· y
coordinatr t•qrullio n 1\'ith its graph amo11g the limaro ns in
Figs. /0.2.25 through /0.2.2B.
33. r =8+6cos0 3-t r =7 -"-1 cos 0
35. r = 5 + 9cos0 .'6. r = 3 + II cosO
37. Show that the graJ"h of the J"Oiar equation r = ncos ll +
b sin II is a circle if a 1 + b1 # 0. Express the center (h. k) and
radius r of this circle in terms of a and b.
38. Show th:rt if 0 < a < b. then the lima,on with polar cqua·
tion r =a+ bcos 0 has an inner loop (as in Figs.10.2.25 and
10.2.27). In this case. find (in terms of a and b) the runge of
"alues of 0 that correspond to points of the inner loop.
FIGURE 10.2.28
y
Skt rch the gra11hs o{tl .
j? I I'. te flO111r eqrwtrons in Problt'ltr.v 39th rough
• ·. ~< tWI<' Y symmerries around eirlter coordinate oris o r tire
011
orrgm. ·
3'J. r = 2cosl) (circle:)
40. r == 2 sin()+ 2 coso (circle)

41 • r == 1 +coso (cardioid)
42. r == I - sino (cardioid)

43. r == 2 + 4 sin 0 (lima,on)
44. r ==4+2coso (lima~on)
FlGURE 10.2.25 45. r 1
= 4sin 20 (lcmniscntc)
Polar Coord inates SECTlON 10.2 6 37
46. , : =4 cos28 (lemni~ate)
J7. r c 2 \in 211 ((nu r-lcnvcd rO<.e)

48. r = 3 sm .311 (three -leaved rose)
49. r ,. 3co'30 ( thrcc-Jea,cd rOY.:)

~. r = 3~ (.pi ral or Archimede~)
! I. r " 2sin 50 ( fi \e-Jea ,cd rose)

S!. , : =4 sinO (figure e ight )
In Probltm.f 53 thro ugh 58, firul all points of intu uction of the
(Un·es wirh t he givm polar equnrioiU.
SJ, r = I , r "'co•O
FIC.URE 10.2.30 r a cos ( s;)-
!4. r = sino. r 2 = 3cos 2 o
SS. r = •inO. r = cm 21l (o,rrl•rrin2) lt-.ops v.hile the other ho< tcn l oop<? In ench
case '4h3:t r;n~c of \ alun of tt i' require-d to oht:tin :til the
56. r = I + cosO , r = I - sinO
loo~~ In the ~ore g~ncral ca~f.' r = (n'l< Jl(lf q l where p ~nd
57. r = I - cosO, r2 a 4cos0 q :uc pc-~1ti'C' m tc~cf'.. ic;, It p o r tJ (or ~oth ) rh.lt d~..:tcr~ mc
the numhe r <>f lo"ps a nd the rnngc or values of II tcqUtrcd
~8. r 2 = ~ sin O, r' = 4 cos0 hl ~how all the lc.J·op~ an th~ complete grnph?
59. (a) The straight line L passes through the point with polar (;.1, Ft~ure< 10.2.31 :md IO.l.J2 shov.· the !!raphs of the cqua -
coordmali:S ( f' . a) and is pcrpcndicul.u to the line sog· hrms r = 1 + ..t ~in .lO and r -= 1 + 4 cns.l/). \VhJ I Uct crrnmcs
ment joming the pole nnd the point (p. a). Wnte the p<Jiar· 'ol.' ht>thc r a po.I;H CUf\ C of the (<'lrm r ;; tJ + h sin(n0)- with
coordinate cqunl ion or L. (h) Show that the r~mngul3! a and b poso h'c cor.sta~ts and 11 l positi\'C integer- has
coordinatc equation or L is both larger a nd smaller ILXJ~'! \ \'h3 t d etermine-s whethe r
the small<:r loops are ""i thin or outside of t he larger ones?
x cosa + ysina = p.
60. Find a rectan!)ubr-coonlinate equa tion o r the cardioid r

"1th poiJr cqu:nio n r I -cosO. =
61. Usc polnr coordinat es to identify the graph or the
rectan!)ular-coordinatc equatio n a 2(x 2 + ).l) = (.r 1 + 1 -
byl'.
62. Plot t he polar equ31ions ,
r = I + w s 0 and r = - I + cos 0
on the some coordinate plane. Comment on the re>ults

6J. Fi2 ure$ 10.2.29 and I0.2.30show the graphs of the equations
r;;. ros(50/3) a nd r =
cos(50/ 2). Why does one have five
FIGURE 10.2.11 r c I + 4 ,;n 30.
1
- t
FIGURE 10.2.29 r "' cos ( s: )- FIGURE 10.2.12 r = 1 + 4 cos 40.

4
]0.3 1AREA COMPUTATIONS IN POLAR COORDINATES

y The graph of the polar-coordin ate equation r = f(O) may bound a n area, as d.oes the
cardio id , = 2(1 +cos 0)-see Fig. 10.3.!. To calculate. the area of thts regton, we
may find it convenient to work directly with polar coordmates rather than to change
to rectaneular coordinates.
To ;ee how to se t up an area integral using polar coordina.te s..we consider the
region R of Fie. 10.3.2. This reeion is bounded by the two radtal lines 0 = a and
---]ii---+--~---x 0 = {3 and by the curve r = j(O). a~() ~ {3. To approximate the area A of R, we
begin with a partition
rt = 00 < 81 < ~ < · · · < 0, = {J
of the interval [a. /3) into n subintervals. all with the same length D.O = (/3 - rt)/ n.
We select a point 0," in the ith subinterval(B, -t. 0,) fori= l. 2 ..... 11 .
FIGURE 10.3.1 What is the area of Let 6 A, denote the area of the secto r bounded by th e lines 0 = (), _1 and 0 = 0,
the region R bounded by the ~nd by the curve r = j(O) . We sec from Fig. 10.3.2 th at for small values of D.O, 611;
cardioid r "' 2(1 + cos 9)? ts approximately equal to the area of the circular sector that has radius r;" = f(O;")
I and ts bounded by the same lines. ll1at is.
'
I
6A,"" ~<rn 2 M = ~ [f<OnJ 2 60.
lI We add the areas of these sectors fori = I. 2•.. . . 11 and thereby find that
I
I A=
" .
L D. A;"" L ~ [!(0,"))2 MJ.
I i=1 1=1
TI1e right-hand sum is a Riemann sum for the integral
1·'
a !lf<0))2dO.
Hence •. if f is continuous, the value of this integral is the li mi t as D. O --. 0 of the

precedmg sum. We therefore conclude that the a A .r 1 · · ·
. 0 10 rea o, t ze r eg1011 R bounded by
rI ze I mes =a ant = /3 and the curve r =
/(0) is
(1)
The infinitesimal sector shown in Fig 10 3 3 . h .

tl ;1 = ~ r 2 dO, serves as a useful de vi~ .
•
i·'WI! radtus r • central angle dO, and area
e or remembering Eq. (I) in the abbreviated
I
\
Polarui•
FIGURE 10.3.2 We obtain the area

formula from Riemann sums. F:GURE 10.3.3 Nonrlgorous derivation
0 the area formula in polar coordinates.
-
Area Computatioru in Polu Coordina t~ S!:CTION 10.3 639
form
(l)
.....
rotu
EXAMPLE. 1 Find the area or the re~ion bounded by the tima~on with equ:ll ion
r= 3-'- 2cos6 , 0 :l 9 ::; h ( Fig. 10.3.-1).- •
Solu tio n \\'c could apply Eq. (2) with a = 0 and fJ = 2:r. Her~. instead. we will make
use of s~mmetry. \\'e 11.·ill calculate the area of the upper half of the region :tnd then
FIGURE 10.3.4 The lima,on of
Example 1. double the result. :"ote that the intinit~simal sector shown in Fig. 10.3.-l sweeps out
the upper half of the lima~on as fo increases from 0 to :r (Fig. 10.3.5). Hence
A =21! !r'd9 = L ' (3+2 cosO)'d8
=fo' (9 + l2cos0 + J.cos 2 9) dB.

Because
4 cosl(l =..• . l+cos2ll

2 = 2 + 2 cos 20 .
we now ge-t
FIGURE 10.3.5 Infinitesimal

i\ = 1" (II+ 12cos 0 + 2cos 20) d9
sectors from 0 • 0 to 0 : "
(Example 1).
= [110+ 12sin 8 + sin 2oJ: =li lT. •
EXAMPLE. 2 Find the area bounded by each loop of the lima~on w; th equation
r =I + 2 cos 8 (Fig. 10.3.6).
Solution The equation 1+ 2 cos O =0 has two solutions for 8 in the interval (0. 2:r ]:
0 = 2.• / 3 and 0 = J.;r / 3. The upper half of the outer loop of the lima<;on corre-sponds
\
\ to values o f (I between 0 and 2:r / 3. where r is positi,·e. Because the curve is S)mmetric
\ B• lK/l
\
around the .t-axis. we can find the total area A 1 bounded by the outer loop by
\ integr;1ting from 0 to 2.•/ 3 and then doubling. Thus
\
\
iO+ 2cos8)2 do =fo:..o(l +4cos9 +4cos2 8)d9

\
\ A 1 =2 fobf.l
I
I ....
Polar
=
rl.·(J(3+4cos0+2cos 20)d8
Jo
I
I
I 2.•!3
'•1+2cos 0
I
te. 4%13 = [ 39+ 4sin9+sin28] =2:r+~~-
I
0
FIGURE 10.3.6 The lima,on of The inner loop of the lima,on corresponds to values of 0 between 'l.T f3 and
Example 2. 4:r / 3. where r is negative. Hence the area bounded by the: inner loop is
[
=~ 38 +4sin O+sin20
l
b fl
Z.•f.l
=:r-!J3.
The a.rea of the region l)ing bttwttn the two loops or the lima,on is then
A= At- Az = 2.• + !J3 - (;r - ~J3) = ;r + 3J3.

•
p0 Jar Curves
The Area Between Two d, _ gCO) . with f ~ g (BJ ~ 0 for a S 9 ~ fl.
Now cons1'der t"·o curves r == j. (O) ·ann boun
- dcd 1,V• these curves and theh rays
· (radil)
10
lnen we can lind the area of the re£ tin the area bounded by t e mncr cun:e
). ·) 0 _ a •nd 0 =a (Fi!!. 10.3.7) by subtrac . £the area A between the two curves 1,
1ncs - .. ~' - urve. litat IS. • •
from th at bounded by th e outer c
given by ft 1 . JZdO -1/J H;;(O) j2 dO.
so that
A=
1a
~(f(O} a
Pol.u U H
A= ~ 1~ j l/llllf - ],t:lilJf } dtl. (J)
FIGURE 10. 3.7 The area bet~n . r curve• we get the abbre\·iated
the graphs of I and g. With ' outer for the outer curve an d ' •nncr fort hc 1nne
formula
(4)
for the nrea of the region shown in Fig. 10.3.8.
FIGURE 10.3.8 Theradiaftinesegmcnt

FIGUR E 10.3.9 The region of
illustrates the radiir...,.. and r....., of Eq . (4). Ex;~mple 3.
EXAMPLE 3 Find the area A of the region that lies within the lima~on r = I +
2 cos 0 and outside the circle r = 2.
Solution 'Il1c circle nnd lima~on are shown in Fig. 10.3.9. with the area A hctwccn
them shaded. 'llle points of intersection of thc circle and lima,on arc given by
I+ 2coso = 2, so coso=~·
and the figure shows that we should choose the solutionsO = ±:r /3. 1lu:sc two values
I of 0 are the needed limits of intcgratiun. When we usc Eq. (3), we find that
• J)
t A=~ j- • JJ
IO + 2cos0)2 - 2~]t/O
(hy symmetry)
r/3
= lo (4coso + 2cos2u- l)t/9
= 15~ -2;r
= [4sinO+sin20-oJ:Jl
1 •
J
Alea Computations in Polar Coordinates SECTION 10.3 641
~ 10.3 TRUE/ FALSE STUDY GUIDE

I. Give an example of a plane region whose area can t>e calculated both by
a rectan gular-coordinate in tegral and a pol:~r-coordi nate integral. but the
latter is easier to c ,·aluate.
2. Give an example of a plane region "hose :1rcn can be c:~ lculatcd bot h by
a rectangular-coordinate integral and a poi:Jr-coordinatc integral. but th e
former is easier to evalua te.
3. Give an example of an unbounded pbnc region such th at its pola r-coordinate
are a integral is improper but convergent.
10.3 PROBLEMS
In rroblmrs /IIJrOllgh 6, >ketch the plmw rc~:ion bowu/rd by,,, 20. r = sm51l (Fig. IO.J .P)
givm poi.Jr curw' r = [ <0). a ;:; 0 :i (!. mrrltlre ray>11 =''· I)= p. 21. , : = 4 sin 1/1
t.r =O. O ~O;ii;r 2.r =0. O ;l 0 ~ 2r.
22. r! = ~ C0>21' (fig. 10.3 .15)
3. r = 1/0. rr ~ 0 ~ 3;r 4. r = 1/0 . );r ;ii 0 $ 5.'!'
B. r 1 = 4 sinO
U. r = l•co<M
In Problmu 7 thro ugh 16. find 1/re tuen bounded l>y 1/rt givrrr
curvt. 0.5
7. r = 2cos0 R. r = 4 sin0 r• ""50
9. r = I+ cos O
10. r =2 - 2sin0 (Fig. 10.3.10) II. r = 2 - cos O
JZ. r = 3 + 2sin 0 (Fit:. t0.3.11}
·l
fiGURE 10.3.14 The live. FIGURE 10.l.1S The

r •l-2\111 0
I
( ) leavt'd rose of Problem 20. lemniscate of Problem 22.
0 0
~)
In Problem> 25 Il~rouslr 36, find rlre ar<a of tire regimr ties·
I r•l +:.iinO cribed.
._
' 2!'. Insider = 2 sin 0 and outsider= I
FIGURE 10.3.11 The 26. Inside bot h r = 4cos0 :lnd r = 2

FtC.URE 10.3.10 The
c~rdioid of Problem 10. lima, on of Problem 12. 27. Inside both r =cos O nn.d r = J3sin0
13. r = -4cos9 1~. r = 5(1 +sin&) 28. Inside r = 2 +cosO anc.l outside r= 2
IS. r = 3- cosO 16. r =2 +sin9 +cos9 29. Insider = 3 + 2 cos 0 and outside r = 4
In Problmu 17 tlrrouglr 24. find tire area bormt!et! by o11e loop

=
30. Inside rl 2 cos 28 and o utsidt r =1
31. Inside r 2 = cos20 and r 2 = sin20 (Fig. 10.3.16}
of tire gi•·tn eurw.
17. r = 2cos20 18. r =3sin30 (Fig.J0.3.12) J2. Inside the large loor and outSide the small loop of r =
I- 2sine (Fig. 10.3.17)
19. r = 2 cos40 (Fig. 10.3.13}
4,..----.---~
4 l
2
r •2c<M49
-l
-I
-4'-----'---_.J
flC.URE 10.3.12 Th~ thr~· FIGURE 10.3.13 The eight·
lea.,ed rose of Problem 19. FIC.URE 10.3.16 Problem 31. FIGURE 10.3.17 Problem 32.
lta•ed rose of Probl~ 18.
64 2 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordinates and Parametric Curves
the region thai lies between the (n- l)th
(b) The area o f --
33. Insider= 2(1 +cosO) and outsider = 1 and nth turns for n > I.
3-l. Inside the figure-eight curve r 2 =4cos0 and outsider = J
I -cosO
35. Inside both r = 2cos 0 and r = 2sin9
36. Inside r = 2 + 2 sin 0 and outside r =2
37. nnd the area of the circle r = si n 0 +cosO by integration
in polar coordinates (Fig. J0.3.1S). Check your answer by -t
writing the cyua tio n of the circle in rectangular coordinates.
finding its radius. and then using the famili~r formula for the
area of a circle.
FIGURE 10.3 .20 The logarithmic

spiral of Problem 41.
42. Figure 10.3.21 shows the first turn of the logarithmic spiral
r = 2e· •JIO together with the two circles. both centered at
-I
(0. 0). through the e ndpoints of the spi ral. nnd the areas
of the two shaded regions a nd \'Crify that their sum is the
area of the annubr region between the two circles.
FIGURE 10.3.18 The circle
r =sinO+ cos O (Problem 37).
38. Find th e area of the region that lies interior to all three
circlesr = l.r = 2cosO.and r = 2sin e.
39. l11c spiral of Archimedes, shown in Fig. 10.3.19. has the
simple equation r = aO (a is a con>tant). Let A. denote
the area bounded by the 11th turn of the spiral. where
2(n - I )n ~ 0 ~ 2n:r. and by the portion of the polar axis
joining its e ndpoints. For each n E; 2. let 1<. = A. - "•-I
FI GURE 10.3.21 The two regions

Polo~r .uis
o f Problem 42.
43. lllc _sl~adcd region R in n g. 10.3.22 is bounded by the

cardror.d ' - I + cos 0, the spiral r = ,••• ,, , U S () $ JT. and
the sprral r - e"t> < < . - .-
. . - · -:r ~ 0 = 0 . Graphrcally estunatc the
pornts o. f mtersc·~tr'on
• of h . . .
t c cardro rd and the sp1rals. then
FIGURE 10.3. 19 The spiral of approxrmate I he area of the region R.
Archimedes (Problem 39).
2.s r - - r - - ---. 8
deno te the area between the (II- l)lh and the nth turns. 2
u 6
111en derive the following results of Archimedes:
I
•I
(a) A 1 = ! n<2:ra) 2 ; (b) A1 = TI"(~na ) 2 : o.s
2
(c) R 1 = 6 A ,; (d) R•• , = ttR1 for n i: 2. -0'0 l--1:-1r:;:-lf--\-._J
r = c(l·)
y
0
40. Two circles both have radius ''· and each circle passes -I
through the center o f the other. nnd the area of the re· -I.' -2
gion that lies within both circles. -2 -~
4 1. A polar curve of the: form r = at' ... is called a logarithmic 2 3 -6

6
-6
spiml. and the portion given by 2Cn- I ):r :ii 0 :ii 2n:r iscalled • -4 -2 0
•
2 4
I •
~~~~=~ ~0/' 22 The region of
the nth turn of t his spiral. Figure 10.3.20 shows the: first five
9110
turns of the logarithmic spiral r = <' " • and the area of the: FIGURE 10.3.23 The region of
region lying between the second and third turns is shaded. 44 Problem 44.
· The shaded region R 10
.
I~ Find: cardioid, ., + .
3 3 11
fig. 10.3.23 lies in~ide both the
I (a) The: area of the region that lies between the first and Graphically . Sin and the polar cur\'c r = 3 +cos ~0.
second turns. curves· the estimate. the po'Ill1s o f ·rntcrscct .ron o f the two
· n appro~tma tc Ihe area of the: rc~tion R.
Parametric Curves SECTlON t 0.4 64 3
J0.4 l PARAMETRIC CURVES
Until now we have encountered curves mainly as graphs of equations. An equatio n
=
of the _form y = { lx) or of the form x g(y) determines a curve by giving one of the
coordmatc variables c~p:icitly as a function of the o ther. An equa tion of the form
F(x. Y} = 0 may also determine a curve, but then c:ach variable is given implicitly as
a func tion of the other.
Another important t~p~ o f curve is the trajectory of 3 point moving in the
coordinate plane. The motion of the point can t>e described by giving its position
(x(r }. ylr)) at time r. Such a description in,·oi\'CS e ~pressing both the rectangula r-
ct>ordinate variables x and y as functions of a third variable. or paramtter. r rather
tha n as functi om of one another. In this contc~t a purnmetcr is an independe nt
variable (not a constant. as is sometimes meant in po pular usage). This approach
motivates the follo...,i ng t!cfi nition.
DEFINITION Parametric Curve

A parametric ron c: C in the plane is a pair o f functions
X = / (1). )' = ,1)'(/ ), (1)
that give x andy as conlinuous functions of the real number t (the parameter) in
some interval / .
Each value of the p~rameter 1 determines a point ( /(1). g(t)) . and the set of all
such points is the l!ruph of the curve C. Often the distinction between the curve-the
pair of coordinate runctiom f nnd g~1nd the graph is not made. Therefore. we may
refer interchangeably to the curve and to its graph when the context makes clt.:ar the
I X )' intended meaning. Titc two equations in (J) arc called the parnmetrk eq uations of
the curve.
0 1 0
The graph of a parametric curve may be sketched by plotting enough points
:r I~ 1/./i l t./i to indicate its likel y sh np~. In some cases we can elimina te the parameter t and thu,
.T/2 0 1 o btain an equation in x and y. This equation may give us more information about
J:r/ 4 -lf./i l f,/i the shape of the curve.
:r - I 0
5-T/~ -1/ ./i -11./i EXAMPLE 1 D etermine the graph of the curve
3.1{2 0 -I
1:rf4 IJli -l f,/i x=cosr. y == sinl. 0 S t :ii2-r . (2)
21r 1 0
Solution Figure 10.4.1 stows 3 ta ble of values of x andy that correspond to multiples
of ;or f4 for the parame ter 1. These values give the eight points highlighted in Fig. 10.4.2,
FIGURE t0.4.t A table of vJiucs
for Example 1. all of which lie on the unit circle.lhis suggests tha t the graph is. in fact. the unit circle.
To verify this. we note th3t the fundamental identity of trigonometry gives
50 every point of the gr.~ph lies on the circle with equation x2 +f =

I. O>nverscly,
the point of the circle with angular (polar) coordinate 1 is the point (cost, sin/) of
the graph. Thus the graph is precisely the unit circle. +
What is lost in the process in Example I is the information about how the graph
is produced as t goes from 0 to 2rr. But this is easy to determine by inspection. As 1
travels (rom 0 to 2:r, the poin t (cost, sinr ) begins at (1. 0) and traveh counterclock-
wise around the circle. ending at (1. 0 ) when t = 2Jr.
A given figure: in the plane may be the graph of different curves. To speak more
FIGURE t 0.4.2 The graph of the
parametric functions of Example t • loosely, a given curve may ha\'e different parametrizations.
arametric curve
EXAMPLE 2 The graph of the p '
I_ 12 21 _ 00 < 1 < +oo

x =1 + 12 • Y -- ----,.
1 + 1·
. I I ·r2 + ).2 .
. we fin d Ita =
I here as well. If 1
a lso ties on the unit c1rclc. because . P ( r(l) y(l)) bcgms at (1, 0) a nd travels
begl' ns ~ 1 0 and increases. the n the potnt . · ' 0 and decrea ses. then the point
" , . le If t bcgms 31 ' ,. .
along the upper half of the ctrc . · half of the circle. As 1 appro:~chcs ~II her +oo
P (x(t) v(t)) travels along the lo,,er ' . ( O) Thus the g raph cons1sts of the
o r -~· the point P approaches the pmn t ~ siight modi ficat io n of the curve of
1
unit cir~lc with the single point ( - 1· O) delete · . -
A
Example I.
x= Cost . )• =sinr. -rr < t<:r,

I
I
I
I
y
I
I
I
l y:lt2 - t
is a diffe re nt pa rametrization of this same graph. •
I I
I I
I I EXAMPLE 3 Eliminate the parameter 10 d e1e rmine the g mph of the parametric
(-1. I ) (I. I)
curve
X
X =( - I. )' = 212 - 4t + I. 0~l 2 2.
(0. -I ) Solution We substitute t = x +I · n for x) in to the equation for y.
(from 1h e equa110
This yields
y = 2(x + 1)2 _ 4(x + I)+ I = 2x2 - I
- I < x < 1 Thus the graph of the r-iven curve is a portion of the parabola Y =
2~~- 1(Fi~ 10.4.3). As t increases from 0 to 2. the point (t - trave~
FIGURE 10.4.3 The curve of f
Example 3 is part of a parabola. I. 2t 2 - 4t + I )
along the parabo la from (- 1, I) to (1. 1).
REMARK 'rlte p;trabolic arc of Example 3 can be reparametri zed with
x=sint, y=2sin 2 t-l.
Now. as t increases, the point (sin r. 2 sin 2 1 - 1) travels back and fo rth along the
parabola between the two points (-I. 1) and (I. 1), rather like the bob of a pendu-
lum.
lbe parametric curve of Example 3 is one in which we can eliminate the param·
eter and thus obtain an explicit equation y = /(x). Moreover, any explicitly presented
curve y = f(x) can be viewed as a parametric curve by writing
x =r. y = /(1),
with the parameter r. taking on values in the o riginal domain of f . Dy contrast. the
o.s circle of Exam~le I Illustrate's a parametric curve whose graph is not the graph of
any single fu~cuon. (Why not!) Exam~le 4 exhibits ano tho.:r way in which parametric
y curves can d1ffer from graphs of functtons-thcy can ha\·e self-intersections.
-0 .s EXAMPLE 4 The parametric equations

_,
L-~;-:~~
X =COS(!/,
Y = sinbt
-1 -0.5 0 o.s ......
• (\\-ith a a~d b c~nstant) define t.he Lissajous curves that typica ll y appear on oscil·
FIGURE 10.4.4 The Lissajous
tosco~es m ph~stcs_ and elo.:ctromcs labora tories. 11lc Lissajous curve with a = 3 and
b =5 ts shown m_ fig. 10.4.4. You probably would not want to calculate and plot hy
curve w 'lth a = 3• b .. S.
hand enough pomts to produce a li_ssajous curve. Figure !0.4. was plo tted with
4
a computer program that generated 11 almost immediately. Dut it is perhaps more
· · to watch a slower gra h' 1 ·
mstructtve ' P tng ca culator plot a parametric curve like thiS.
/ '
Parametric Curves SECTION 10.4 645
because the curve is traced by a poin t that moves on the screen as the parameter r in·
creases (from 0 to 2:r in this case). Fo r instance. -.·ith a Tl CJiculator se t in ··pa rametric
graph mode,'" one need only enter and graph the equation~
Xr * COS ( 3T) Yr • a1n!5T)

on the int-erval 0 ~ r ::; 2:r. \\'ith .\fapl~ and Mathemarica the commands
plot ( (coa(J • t),sin r 5• t ) ,t= 0 .• 2 •p1) )1

and
Para:netrl.cPlot ( (Coa [ )•t ) • Sin I s •t )). (t, 0. 2•P1)) I
(respectively) give the same ftgurc. •

'J11c usc of parametric equations .r = ..r(l). y = y(l) is most advantageous when
e limination of the paramete r i< either imposs ible or would lead to an equatio n y =
[(.r ) that is comidcrahly more complicated than the origi nal parametric equations.
llti< oft en happen< when the curve is a ~come trie locus o r the path of a point moving
under specified cond ition<.
EXA MP lE 5 lhc curve traced by a point f' on the edge of a rolling circle is called
a cycloid. ·n ,e circl e rolls along a straight line without slipping nr stopping. (You will
sec a cydoid if you watch a patch or bright paint on the tire of a bicycle th at crosse~
your p;Hh.) J·in\1 pa rametric equation~ for the cycloid if th e li n~: ilion!! which tit ~ drd~
rolls is th·e .r·axis. the ci rri<! is above the x-axis but always tangent to il. and the pClint
P begins at the origin.
Solution Evidently the cycloid consists of a series of arches. We take as parameter r
the angle (in radians) through which the circle has turned since it began with /'at
the origin . This is the angle TC I' in Fig. 10 .4.5.
,.
P(<. y )
0 , T(ar. OJ , X
\ '~C(nt. n)
\,~lDCOSI
P (r. yl a""1 (l(aq •)
FIGURE 10.4.S The cycloid and the right triangle CPQ (Example 5).
'£11e distance the circle has rolled is 10'/l. so this is also the length of the circum-
ference subtended hy the angle TC P. Thus lOTi = ar if a is the radius of the circle,
so the center C of the rolling circle has coordinates (ar. a) when the angle TC Pis 1.
The right triangle C PQ in Fig. I0.4.5 provides us with the relations
at - x = tl sin 1 and a - y = a cos 1.

Therefore the cycloid-the path of the moving point P-has parametric equations
x = a(l - sirll). ,1'=11(1-cosf). (J)
•
ows a bead sliding down a frictionless wire from
H ISTORICAl NOTE Figure 10·.4·6· Sh . - t h ·
point p to point Q.lne brachisrochrone problem ask s wh at s Jape t c wire should be
169
to min imize the bead's time of descent from I' to Q. In June of 6, John Bernoulli
proposed the brachistochronc problem as a public challenge. With a 6-month_ deadline
(later extended to Easter !697 at Leibniz's requc~t). Isaac N.:wwn. t~lcn rcllrcd from
academic life and scn·ing as Warden of the :VIint in Lond.on, received Bernoulli's
challe nce on Januarv 29.!697. The n:ry next day he communicated IllS own solution-
the cur~·c of minim.al descent time is an arc of an inverted cycloid- to the Royal
Society of London.
FIGURE 10.4.6 A bead sliding
down a Wlre-the b rachistochrone lines Tangent to Parametric Curves
problem.
'lne parametric curve .r = [(I ) . y = g(l ) is called smooth if the derivntives J'(t) and
g ' (l) are co ntinuous and never simultaneously zero. In so me neighborh ood of each
point of its graph. a smooth parametric curve can he described in one or possibly both
of the forms y = F(.r ) and .r == G( y ) . To sec why this is so. suppose (for example) that
/'(I ) > 0 on the interval / . TI1en [ (1) is an increasing functio n o n I and therefore
has :m inverse function 1 == ¢(.r) th ere. If we substitute 1 =
¢(:c) into the equation
)' = g (t), then we get
y = g(¢ (x )) = F (x) .
We can usc _the chain rule to compute the slope dy f d x of th e line tangent to a
:~i~~>~~ par:lmctnc curve at a given point. Differentiating y = F (x ) with re spect to
dy d,· d:c
dl = d~. dl.
so
tly _ tlyf tlr g'( l )
tfx - tl.r f tlr = /'Ct )
(4)
at :my point where

but g'(r ) # 0.
['(I) # 0· ·n1c tan •ent . . . .
' g hnc IS vcrucal at any point whe re f' (t) =0
Equation(~) gives y' = dy f dt 'IS a r .
respect to I, again ;ith the aid of thc,ch air~ncu.on ,of I. '~not her differentiation with
rule, results In the formula
dy'- d.
- 1i
.
dr
dl - dx . dl.
so
t/: ,. ,.
-.:.. - ( y til·' / tit
dr' - -,-
. 11 ·'
= -'----
r/.r/1/1 · (5)
EXAMPLE 6 Calculatetly/dx andtJ2y; 2 f

r.1x or the cycloid Wllh
. the parametricequa·
tions in (3).
Solution We begin with
.r = a(l -sin t).
I
>'=a (I -cost). (3)
Til en Eq. (4) gives
tly dyftlt .
I -J = - - a SIO I .
t .r tlxjd1 - (I _ Sill/
1
This derivative is zero whc . a - cos ) I - cos 1 · (6)
h . . n y IS an odd . .
onzontal at the midpoint r . . tntcgralmult' 1
correspond to c•·cn integra~ n e~ch arch or the cycloi~p .~ of 7T ·so the tangent line is
11
nominator in Eq. (6) are z~r 1 ~~lplcs of :r, where b ·h e endpoints of the arch es
cycloid fails to be a smooth o. esc arc isolated ?t the numerator and the de·
curve· (Se c Fi1g. 10.4.7.)POints (call c·d msps) at which the
Pclratmtroc Curve5 SECTION 10.4 64 7
FI GURE 10.4.7 Horizontal Ll'\~nu and cusps of th~ cycloid.
Kext. E.q. (5) yields
d~y (cos t )( I- cost) - (sin t l(sinl)

1
tl:x = (1-cost)l·a(l-co~l) = -a(l -cost) 1 .
Because d yf d.r2 < 0 fo r ali t (except fo r the i~ola tcd even integral multiples of :r).
2
t h i~ sho"'; thnt each arch of the C)·doid i~ concave do wnward (Fig. IOA.S). •
REMARK In Fig. 10..1.7 11 appears that the C)·cloid h:u a vertical tangent line at
each cusp point (211.~ 0 . (I) We can vcnfy thts ob~er,at ion by calculating the limit as
I - 2mr of the d.:rivatl\c on (6). Using l' ll6pitars rule. we get
. rly . sin 1 • cos 1

Iom -
t- J.• tl.t
= t-lornIn• I- CO~ I
., 1om - - = ±oo.
,_u,,
sin I
because cos 1 - I and ~in 1 - 0 as 1 - 2n:r . The limit is +oo or -oo according as
I uppmachcs 2111r from the right or the left . In either event, we conclude that the
tangent line is. indeed. \ er tical at the cusp point.
EXAMPLE 7 It would be impractical to attempt to graph t he curve

x3 = 2l -Sy' + 9y (7)
r ,_._ hy solving for y n~ a function of x. But we can parametrize this curve by defining
)' = '· X= (21

6
- 51
4
+ 91) 1' 3. (8)
Figure 10.4.8shows a computer plot of this parametric curve for -2.5 ~ 1 ~ 2.5. We sec
at least fou r likely critical and inHection point~ It appears that there are horizontal
tangent lines at the points P1 and 1'1 on the y.a ,is. and vertical tangent lines at P3
,. . .. and f'4• Let's investiga te the character of these points by calculating the pertinen t
derivatives.
FIGURE 10.4.8 The parametric To investigate the possibility of horizontal and vertical tangent lines, we usc
curve of Example 7. Eq. (~) to calculate th e first derivative
dy dyftlt 3(2t 6- s1• + 9t)?tJ
tlx = tl.r/tlt = 121' - 20tl + 9 · (9)
Using a computer algebra system. we find that the only real zeros of the polynomial
216 - 51 4 + 91 in the numcrutor are r = 0 and 1 :::: - 1.8065. These values of 1 yield
the points f't (0. 0) and /~ ( -0.00002~22. -1.86065). respectively, tha t arc shown in
the figure. Thus I~ docs not lie precisely on the y·:nis. after all.
The denominat or polynomial12t 5 - 20t 3 + 9 in (9) has only the single real zero
1 :::: -2.5587. wh ich yields the single point /'.l( -2.5587. -1.3941) on the curve where
the tangent line is vertica l. In p;orticular, there is 110 vertical tangent line neur the
point /'. indicated in the llgu.r~. . . . . .
To investigate the posstbohty of posstblc mflecuon potnts. we use Eq. (5) and a
computer algebra system to calculate the second derivative
d 2y d (dy) . dx
d;xl = dt tlx .,. dt
6(21 6 - St' + 91)ti3(36t 10 - 150t8 + 501 6 + 5941$- 450t 3 - 8 1)
= (12tl- 2013 + 9)J (10)
648 CHAPTER 10 p0 1 C .
ar OOrdonatt>s and Parametric Curvt'S
l h e two trinomial~ that appear in the numera l~~ and dc;nominator here are the same
as those in (9). and correspond 10 the three c:nttcal pomts already found. Our corn.
puter algebra system reports that the tcnth·degree numcrntor p olynomial in (IO)
has only two real zeros: t ::::: 1.0009 and I ::::: - 2.2614. Titcse two zeros of the sec.
ond deri\·ative yield the two points P.(l.ll172. l.OOO"J) and !'s< 4.8820. -2.261-1) that
are shown in the Iieure.
_ It is visually clear lh:ll
. the
. conc:avlly
b of the curve . changes
at /~-where dyj dx ::::: 0.9063 so the tangent 1!nc IS steep ut not vcrttcal-butthe
character of the rema ining point is not so ob,··~~s. Ncvcrt h~lcss. you can graph the
second derivative in (10) to ,·crify that it is posJtJVC 10 th e. n g ht :111d negative to the
left of / j-so this final Clndidate is. indeed. also an mflccuon pomt.
Finally. because our viewinJ: window in fig. 10.-1.8 is large enou~:h to include
all the critical points and inflection points on the curve in (7)-and since it is clear
from the equations in (8) that 1x1a nd IYI - oo as It I - co-we arc assured that the
figure shows all of the princip.1l features of the curve. •
Polar Curves as Para metric Curves

I
I
t\ curve given in polar coordinates by the equation r = /(0) can be regarded ;15 a
p arametric curve wirh parameter e. To sec this. we recall that the cquations.r = r cosO
I an~)' = ' sin 0 allow us ro change from polar to rectangular coordinates. We replace
I r wtth /(0). and thi~ gil'cs the parametric equations
I
I .r = /Ctl)cu,fl. y= /(ll)sin/1,
which express .r :md yin rerms of rhc parameter 0.

(II)
EXAMPLE 8 The spiral of Arrhimrdrs has Ihe polar·coordinate equation r = a!J

(Fig. 10.4.9). 'llzc equations in (II) give the spiral the parame trization
.r=nOcosO. y=aOsinO.
•
,.
...
FtG~RE 10.4.9 The spiral of

Archomede1 (Example B).
lhe slope dyfdx o f a tangent I'

l ordinates as well as rectangular c ~~e can b~ computed in term s of pelar Cl~
/(9) , we usc the parametrization s~r :1 tcs. Gt.vcn a polar·coordinatc curve ' -
10
gives · own 111 ( I I). l11co Eq. (4). with 0 in plac.: oft.
(Ill
Parametric Curves SEOION 10.4 649
o r, alternatively, denoting f'(O) by r ' ,
dy r ' sin fl + r cos O

- = -- - - , - - (13)
t/r r' ccx ll -r ~in ll'
Equation (13) h as the following useful consequence. Let y denote the an·
gle bet ween the tangen t I ine at P and the radius 0 p (extended) from the origin
(Fig. 10.4.10). Then
I dr
cut 1/f = -r · t!O
- 10 ~ ~~ ~ r. ). (14)
ln Problem 32 we indicate how Eq. (14) can be derived from Eq. ( 13).
y y
, . ~·
•
FIGURE 10.4.10 The interpretation of FIGURE 10.4.11 The angle 1/1 is always
the ang le.;,. (See Eq. (14).) 45' for the logarithmic spiral
(Example 9).
EXAMPLE 9 Consider the logarithmic spiral with polar equation r = e-~ . Show that
1ft = 1r / 4 at every point of the spiral, and write an equation of its tangent line at the
point (c•t2, 1r /2).
Solution Because tlr ! dO = <'9 , Eq. (14) tells us that cot 1ft = t!1 ! e'1 = I. Thus t/J =
rt / 4. Whcnt9 = :r/2, Eq. (13) gives
tly c·•i2 sin(;r / 2) + c•ll cos(:r./2)
- = =-I.
tlx e·• i2 coS(T'f /2) - e·• /1 sin(;r./2)
But when 0 =
rr /2. we have x = 0 andy = c-'12• It follows that an equation of the
desired tangent line is
)'- C/2 = -x; that is. X+)'= e•t2.
The line and the spiral appear in Fig. 10.4.11.
•
0 10.4 TRUE/FALSE STUDY GUIDE
1. Pick two points A and 8 in the plane. lben define a parametrization
P(t) = (x(t), y(l)) of the line segment AB such that P(O) = A and /'(1) = 8.
2. Pick two points A and II equidistant from lhe origin. Then define a para·
mctrization of a circular arc A/J such that /'{0) = A and P( 1) = 8.
3. Pick two points A and 8 on the parabola y = x2 • TI1cn define a parametriza.
tion of the paralxlla such that P(O) = A and /'(1) B. =
4. Let A and 8 be two points on a given parametric curve. Is it always pos-
sible to define :t parametrization of the curve such that P(O) =A and
P(l) =
8?
10.4 PROBLEMS
In Prohlrm < I rhroug/1 12. d iminare the paramnrr and then

5
~
:
sketch the cun·c.
J
I. X =I + I. )' = 2r- I 2
I
2. x =t 2
+ I. y =2t 2
- I y 0
3. x = r1 • y =r 3 -I
-2
4. X = .Ji. )' = 31 - 2 -J
5. X =I + I. )' =212 - I - I -~
2 J • 5 - 1 -0.5 0 0.5
-~) - 2 - I 0 I
6. X = 11 + 3t . )' =I - 2 •
1 . .• ="'· y = 4r FIGURE 10.4.12 The curve of
FIGURE 10.4.13 The curve of
Problem 26.
8. x = 2e'. y = 2r.- ' Problem 25.
9. x = 5cosr. y =3sint 29. n 1e curve C is dc re rmincd by the P?ra mc,lric equations
10. x =sinh t. y = cosh r .r =..-•. y =cl' . Calcul a te d y/dX and d · yjdx·. d1rcctly from
ll.x = 2co~ht . y =3sinht these parame1ric equat ions. Co nclutlc that CIS concave up-
wa rd a t every point. ll1cn ske tch C.
12. .t= 5CCI. )' =13111
;10. 111c graph o f the fo lium of D~scartcs with rectang ular equa-
In Problems 13 through 16, fi rst diminat~ rl.- pammrrcr and tio n .xl + yJ =3X)' appca~ in f'ig. 10.4.14. Parametrize irs
skt'lcllthe t:rtrvc. Then tlcscrrb~ tl:c m otion of tlr~ p oint (x(l). y (l)) loop as follows: Le t f' be the po in t o r inrc~ectiun of the
as t variej· in the gi~·en inurval. line y =
rx with the loop ; then soh•e fo r the coordinates .r
13. x = sin2:rr. y = co<2:r t; O;;i r ;;i I and y of I' in terms of r.
14. x = 3 + 2cos t. y = 5 - 2sinr; 0 ~ t :£ 2.-r y
IS. x =sin 2
:r t. y =ros 1
:r r; 0 ;a t :) 2
16. x =cost. y = sin r: 2
- :r :;i t :;l :r
{n Prnbl<'m.r 17 tlrmuglr 20. (a ) fir.sr write the equation of tire

/inc wngt•nt to rhr gh ·(•n paramt·rrrc curve at the pointthm cor-
2
re.<pmld., to tlrr gi ,·,·n •·a/ur •>f t. ami (I>) then calcrtlate tfl y I d r
to dctt•flnin~ wherJu~r the curve i.\' conca•·e up•~·aNI or conctn:e
do wnh'ard tllthi.f p u inr.
17. x = 2t 2 + t. y = 3t 3 + 2: t = I
18. x = cos 3 1. y =sin} r: t = n/4 FIGURE 10.4.14 The loop of the
folium of Descartes (Proble m 30).
19. X = tsint, )' = /COSt; I= n/2
31. Parame~rize the par;rbola >.2 = -lpx by expressing .rand y
20. x =~"· y=c-': t =0 as functoo ns of the slope m of the tange nt line ;tt the point
Jn Problmrs 21 thmugh U. find the anglr t/1 bctwr•t•n tire radirt< l'(x. y ) of the parabola . -
0 f' and the tt111gmt line at rh~ poirrt r that correspond.1 to the 32. Let I' ~ a point nf the curve with polar equa tion r = / (8).
giVt:ll mlue of 0. and let"' he the angle between the extended radius OPand
21. r=cxp (o JJ). 0=.-r/ 2
22. r = l /0. fJ =l the tangent . line •at p · l .c. 1"' b c 11c
1 angle of 1nchnat1U11
· · · o f t h.IS
tanc~nt hnc me·• ·d . .
23. r = sin 38. 0 = ~/6 24. r = I -cosO. 0 =n j J ta I.
-
Then t/1
·
- rr
· s ure co untcrclockwtsc fro m the honzon·
_ 0 v . . f E
" .
1 . - · " Y q. ( l·l)by substitutmgta na ='
11
'h>'l•..1t 110111 Eq. (IJ) and lan O yfx = (s infl)/ (c;,sOJ into
=
In Prohlems 25 tlrrortgh 28, f ind t c 1dcntaty
(tt) The puints on the ctlfl't' whrre the umgmtlin~ is hnri·
:ontal.
(b) Tlte slop<' of eaclt rang':nl lin~ at arty [JfJint ..-here th~ cot t/1 = I + tan a tanO
wn•e intersuts the x ·a.rt.t
t:ln{a - 0) = tan a - tan 0
.zs. x = 1z, y = rl - 3r (Fig. 10.4.12) 33. Let

· Po be
· the higllCSt pornt
· of the circle uf f'ig. 10..15- 1hc
c1rc 1c. that g· cncratcs the cycloid of F.xample- 5. Show th~l
26• x =sin 1, y =sin 2r (Fig. 10.4.13) 11IC 1me through ll d 1 . ·
p· h . u an t1c potnt P o f the cvcl0id (the pol01
ISs nwn on fig 10 4 S) . · .1._..
27. , = 1 +coso r · · · · IS tangent to the cycloid a t /'. ""
act 8"'c~ a geometric construction of the line tan~ent 10
%8. ,z = 4 cos 28 (See fig. I 0.3.15.) 1
lh C C)'C Old. -
Parametric Curves SECTION 10.4 651
'-' A circle of rad ius b rolls without 5 lipp'1ng · 'd . f
• . . . '"" c a c~rc 1e o Archimede1 viev. ed the path o f I' as compounded of two
rnd1us a > /J. l11 c path of~ pomt fhcd on th · f
. · · c cucum ere nee motions. or.e with speed a directly away from the o rigin
of the ro.II1ngmc1c I Hailed a h.~Pr>eyct01 d ( Fi £. lOA. IS). Let
0 and another a circular motion with unit nngu!Jr speed
[' bcg m I" JOt~rn~y nt A(tl, 0) and lett b-.: the angle AOC, around 0 . This sugges ts Archim~dcs' result tha t the line
" here 0 1s the ... un...~ c ·1.5 th e cen·
. center of the large eire!", PQ in the figure is tangent to the spiral at P. Prove th at this
· , o f p are
te r of the rolling Circle. Show that the coord ma,es
is indeed true.
gh·cn by the parametric equations
38. (a) Deduce from Eq. (6) thJt if 1 is not an integral mu ltiple
x = (a- b) cos t + OC(JS (a~ bt). of 2.~. then the s!opc of the tanscnt line at the correspond·
ing po1nt of the cycloid tS cow j 2l. (b) Conclude that nt the
cusp of the cycl01d whae 1 is an integ.ra l multi ple of 2.:r , the
)'=(a - b)sin t -bsin (a;bt). cycloid h:~s a \CnJCal tange nt line.
39. A lo.wdromr is n cun·c r = [ (8) such tha t the tangent line
at rand the radius OP in Fi2. 10.4. 10 make n constant an·
g!c. Csc Eq. ( I~) to pro'c th>t eve ry loxod romc is of the
form r = A<""." here A and k arc constants.. 'Ill us every lox·
odrome ts a loganthmic spiral s1milar to the one considered
in Example 9.
40. Let a eun·e be d<!scribcd in (Xlfar coordinatl'S by r /!9) =
where f i< cnntinunu<. If [(al "'0. then the origin is the
po1n t of the curve cn rrc,rcmding 1<1 0 = a . Deduce from the
pnramctritation ·' "' [It' ) cos II ,,>·= flO) sin !I that the line
tan gent to the curve nt this po int mnkcs lhc angle a wit h
the positi'e .r·nxis. FM exam ple. the cardioiJ r = [CO) =
I- ;inO shown in Fig. 10.4. 17 is tangent tn the y·axis a t the
origin. 1\nd. indeed, / (rr/2) =0. The y·axis is the line
0 =a = .~/2.
FIGURE 10.4. 15 The hypocycloid of
Problem 34 .
35. If b =af 4 in Problem 34, ~how that the parame tric equa· ' • 1- t;in9
tions of the hypocycloid reduce to
. t.
y = a sm· '
36. (a) Prove that the hypocycloid of Problem 35 is the graph
of t!he equation
x'" + / " = am.
(bf Find all points of this hypocycloid where its tangent
line is either horizontal or vc rtic:tl , a nd find the intervals on FIGURE 10.4.17 The cardioid
which it is concave upward and those on which it i~ conC3\'C of Problem 40.
downward. (c) Sketch this hypocycloid.
37. Consider a point P on the spiral of Archimedc~ the 41. Usc the technique of Problem 30 to parametrize the first·
curve shown in Fig. 10.4.16 with polar equation r = aO. quadr~nt loop of the folium·like curve .ts + _.~ = 5.t 2y2.
42. A line segment of length 2a has o ne endpoint constrained
to lie on the .r·a.is and the other endpoint constrained to
lie on the y·uxis. but its endpoints are free to move along
those u~~s. As Uwy d<:> so. its midpoint sweeps out a locus
in the xy·plane. Obtain a reetangular·coordinate equation
of this locus and thereby identify this cun·e.
' '
'\\ /11 l'rohlem s -IJ-46.• ilt vtstigate (as i11 t:xample 7) rhe givm curvr
I
Polar ui.s ami construct a sketch that .shows all tire crirical poims tmd in·
flection points on it.
43. X= ).J- 3y2 + I
4-l X = )'"- 3y' + 5y
45• .r) =yS -Syl + 4
FIGURE 10.4 .16 The segment PQ is
tangent to the spiral (a result of 46. ..s = 5/- 17yl + 13y
Archim~es; see Problem 37).
10 4 Project· Trochoid ln,·estigations . .

· • k· e of a wheel of rad1us a as 11 rolls along
· I' on a spo ' .
A trochoid is traced by a po•nt ', ntcr of the rolling whecl1s b > 0. show that
the x·aXJS. · • of P from t 11 " ce
· If the d1stancc tric equations
the trochoid is described by the p:~ramc
y:::: a- bcost.
x =at- bsinr.
-
I
-2~
,.
FIGURE 10.4.18 TI1e trochoid with o = 2 and b =4.
Note that the trochoid is a familiar cycloid if b =a. We allow the possibility that
b>a. Figure 10.4.18 shows the trochoid with a = 2 and b = 4. Experiment with
different values of a and b. \Vhnt determines whether the trochoid has loops. cusps, or
neither'!
Hypotrochoids
FIGURE 10.4.19 The A hypot rochoid is to a hypocycloid (Problem 34) as a trochoid is to a cycloid. Thus
hypotrochoid with a = 10, b = 2, a hypotrochoid is traced by a point P on a spoke of a wheel of r:ulius bas it rolls
c = 4. around insid.: a circle of radius tt . If the distance of P from the center of the rolling
'~heel is c > 0. show that the hypotrochoid is described by the parametric equa·
I lOllS
(lt-11)
.r =(a - b) cosr + ccos -
0
-r .
Y. = (a- b) Sill
. I .
- C Sill (a- b )
-b-t .
Note that the hypotrochoid is a hypocrcloid if c =b 11 . , ·

ways ·1 h\'pOtroch(1· . • k Fi • · Jere .He a number of d1fferent
. .• . • • lu can 1oo . ·•gurcs 10.4.19 and 10 . • . . 'I·
IIJ<!S. Experiment wit h differen t v·tlues .4.20 Illustrate two poss1b1
the trochoid has I<>Op• custJS < ' . h of a· IJ, and c. What det ermines whether
' ,, · · · lr neu cr? If tl
FIGURE 10.4.20 The many there arc'! Docs a h\'potro h .d · Jere are loops. what determines how
hypo trochoid with o = 10, b = 4, · , c 01 always re · If · be
of turns around th e origin? \VIJat h . peat ttse after a !imtc num r
c = 2. number'! · • appcns 1f · · ·
a IS an tnteger hut b is an irr:ttiOnJ1
Epitrochoids
An t•pitroclwid is gem:ratcd in th
. . II . I II · c same wav
sn1.1 cue c ro s around on the outsid, ' ' "•s· a I1ypotrochmd.
. except now th.c
otherwise, show that the epitrocho'd. c of ll~c large circle. With the same notllion
I IS dcscnbcd b h
Y t c parametric equations
x = (a+ b) cos r - c cos ( ~: b r).
.
11
Y :::: (a + b) sin 1 - c sin ( ; b r).
Ir b=c-so the pomt plies 0 h .
.1s an eptcyc n t c nm or h
. Imt., ('Illustrated · n Fi
1. • • 1 'Jg. 104 21) t e rolling CJrc · 1 h · ochoid
C, I1lCn I C cpllf
FIGURE 10.4.21 The epitrochoid h1. and c,han.~.~nvcs!lgate for epitroch~,:d .hExpcriment with different values of a.
l = =
with a= 10. b 2, c 2. ypotroc 01...,. s t c sam for
~lila.:.________________________
1
e questions posed previous Y
lnlegral Computations with Param~tric Curves SECTION 10.5 65 3
J0.5 ' INTEGRAL COMPUTATIONS WITH PARAMETRIC CURVES

In C'h~pl cr 6 we d1~cus<ed 1hc compu1:11ion of n variety of geometric c1uanti1ies
M<ocialcd \\i lh I he graph y = f (x) of a nonncgalivc funclio n on 1hc in1c rval (a , b).
111csc included 1hc follo"ing.
• ll1c area unde r Ihe cu rve:

(I)
• l11c volume o f revolulion around Ihe .r-axis:
V, = 1•:r_,.: dx . (2n)
• 'll1e volume o f revolution around the y-axis:
\1 1= [b2;u y t/.r. (2b )
• 'll1c arc lenglh of I he curve:
s
1' =lb
=0 • d.t VI + (tly/d.r)Zdx. (3)
• 'll1e area of Ihe surface of revolulion around the x-axis:
1'·'·" S, = 2rry ds . (4u)
• 'l11c area of Ihe surface of revolulion around they-axis:
s, = 1•'"" 2:r x tis . (4h)
We substitute y =
f(x) into each of these integrals before we integrate from .r a =
tO .t =b.
We now wantlo compute these same quantities for a smooth parametric curve
x = / Ct). ,V = g (t). tt ~ I ~ {1. (S)
The area, volume. arc length, and surface integrals in Eqs. ( 1) t hrough (4) can the n
be evaluated by making the formal substitutions
.r = /(1), y= g(l),
1/X = J'<l) t/1. tly = g ' (l) tit . nnu (6)

df = J lf'U> F+Ig'c n)!dt.
The infinitesimal "right triangle" in Fig. 10.5.1 serves as a convenient device for
remembering the latter subs-titution for tk The Pythagorean theorem then lends to
FICURE I O.S. I Nearly a right the symbolic manipulation
triangle for dx and dy close to
le<'O.
( -tlx)~
I 1 I
+ (''~')!
-1· lit = Jl f'CI)]2 + (!.: '11)]! tit
l/ ' ' (7)
Jt simplifies the discussion to assume that the graph of the parametric curve
=
in (S) resembles Fig. 10.5.2, in which y g(t) ~ 0 and x =
/ (1) is either increasi ng on
654 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coord inates and ParametriC Curves
. d creasing there. The t wo parts o f Fig. 10.5.2 illus.
y t he entire intef\·al a;; I ;; f3 or 15 e ·,ncrcases the cuf\'C is traced in the posi tiv-
'bT · whether as 1 . '
t •ll Irate the two ~st 1 tUcs,- . h ega ti ve x ·directio n from nght to left. llow
x·dircction from left t~ n~ht. ~r ft ~:rio~ into account depends on which integral
111
...__/
I I
and whether to take thts dtrecuon n
we are computing.
.
C\SI~ I Area and Volume 0 .
°
{ Rcrolution To eva lu ate the integrals in (I) a nd (2).
fl tot = a-th =
_ 10 1 == 11 or from 1
I I
I
I
I
I • 1vc r1.t, we ·mteg rate
• 11111\'0
w I11c • . cuher from Ih -a rr ·sponds'' to traversing th e cttr,·c ·c
I I . f) ' . be no th e one t a t co c tn
proper chotec o 1n11IS on r 1 , . .
a b th e positi"e x-dircction from left to right. Spcctficall}.
(a) /UI incrasing
I •(I
,.,__/ I
I
I
I
whereas
A= [ g(t ) /' (I) tit if /({J) < [(a).
I I
I
I
The validit)' or this me thO<! of c\'alunting the in tegrals in Eqs. (I) a nd (2) follows
• b
from TI1corem I of Section 5.7. on integration by substitution.
CASE 2 Arc Length and Surfau Art'a To evalua te the integrals in (3) and (4).
FIGURE 10.S.2 Tracing a which in,·oh·e lis rather than r/x, we into.:gratc from t = a to 1 = f3 irrespective of
parametriLcd curve: (a) f(l)
the direction of motion along the curve. To sec why this is so. recall from Etl. {-I) of
increJ~1ng ; (b) 1( 1) decrea~in g .
Section 10.4 tha t tlyjdx = g'(t)f ['(t) if ['(I)"# 0 on (a. fl[. Hence
= 1 \I + =1,- \I + [~
~ (dy)
1 1
.<,>]2
(h)
s I -1 dx I f'( t ) dt .
" t X f
f ·l(•) ' (f)
Assuming that ['(t) > 0 if [ (a) = a and f(/J) = b. whe reas J'(t ) < 0 if J(a) = band
[({J) =a. it follows in e ither event tha t
s --
1~ I1 +
a \
[g'(t)]2
['(t) I[ .(I )Jdt.
and so
f = 1~ / !f'<t>Jl + (g'<llF tit = [' (-,tlx) + (tly):

2
-1 tit. (8)
t I t I
ll1 is formula, derived under the assum )lion 1 ,

to be the definition of arc le nRth fo r an 1 . hat f (I) # 0 on (a. fl). ma y he to ken
11
the area of a surface of re\';hllinn 'is ~;li::~ar}: smooth parame tric curve. SimiiJrly.
y result of first substituting Eq. (6) into E ( a d lor sm ooth para m e tric curves as th~
to t = p. q. 4 ) or ( 4b) and then integrating from t :=a
EXAMPlE 1 Use the parametri~~, ·

· 1 ·h .... 10n r - a
ctrc e wu center (0. 0) and radius a ~ fi-d cos t . y =
volume V of the sphere obtained b
10 1 a sin 1 (0 :i 1 :i 2:r) of th~
. (a) t he area A of this circle: (b) th~
• (') th' surface areaS of this sphere. y revolvmg the 'irde around t he x · nxis: 3nJ
FIGURE 10.5.3 The quarter<lrcle Solution (a) The lcft·lo· right d ' ·
. trectton nlon h
of Example 1. t
ts from = "/2 tot = 0, and dx = -a sin
1
t}
t e quarter circle shown in Fi!!· 10..5.3
• Therefore Eq. (I) and multiplicnuon
lntegrdl Computatlom with Pat4metiic Curves SECTION 1O.S 655
by 4 give
A= 4 f y dx = 4 J.o (asin 1){-a sin 1) d1

l ta '!! /2 rr(!
= 4a 2 Jo
t {2 sin 2
1 d1 = 2a 1Jo
r {2 (I -cos 2r ) dr
I • f2
~ • ., 1T 2
= 2a· [ I - Sin 21 ] O = 2a· · = ;ra
2 2
ror yet another derivation of the familiar formula 11 = :ra 1 Cor the area o f :1 ci rcle of
r ad ius a.
(b) To calculate the ,·olume of the sphere. we apply Eq. (2a) and double to ge t
V = 2 f :r>; dx
},=.'f l2
=2 [,
6 {2
:r(a sin 1) 2( - a sin r dt) = 2rrn3
10
·• f2
(I - cos 1 1) sin ulr
= 2na 3 [-coH + ~COSJ IJ •fl =:!Tal.

3 0 3
(c) To find the su rface area of the sphere. we calculate first the arc-lengt h
d iffe rential
tis = Jc -a sin r) 2 +(a cos 1)2 rlr =a dr

of the parametrized curve. Titen Eq. (4a) gives
1•112:r(a si nt) · adt

1
• 11
5=2 2:ryds =2
,..o 0
= 4;ra 2 fo
6
!l sin 1 d1 = 4na
2
[-cos 1 J:fl = 4;ra 2.
•
Of course, the results of Example I arc familiar. In contrast. Example 2 requires
the methods of this section.
EX AMPL E 2 Find the area under. and the arc length of. the cycloidal nrc'h or
' iFig. !0.5.4. Its parametric equations are
.r=ll(l-sinl). y = a(l-cosr ). 0 ~ 1 ;:! 2:r.
Solution Because clx =a (I - cos t) dr and the left-to-right direction along the curve
=
is from r 0 to 1 = 2:r. Eq. (I) gives
FIGURE 10.5.4 The (y(loldal arch 26
of E•ample 2. A= { ydx
ltoO
= 12.• c1(1- cost)· a(!- cos t )dr = a 12.•( I - cosr)2 dt 2
(or the area. Now we usc the half-angle identity
1 - cost= 2sin 2 (~)
a nd a consequence o r Problem 58 in Sectio n 8.3:
r
}0
sinln II dll = If · !
2 4
· ~ · 6~ .. ·~
211 ·
We thereby get
A == 4a 2
. ~ (!..)
12.' sm 2 Jo
4
tit == 8a2 f" s in u du
0
-- Sa·~ . .•~ . -21 . 3-4 :=

...
.):fQ
2
·cJoid 1lte arc-le ngth differe ntial is

for the area under one arch o f t h e ~ ·
2
tis == / a Z(I _cos ! ) 2 + (a sin 1) tit
==a / 2(1 _ cos I ) dt = 2n sin ( D dt.
so Eq. (3) gives

2.•
s = 1b
2n sm
.
2
I
dt == [ - 4a cos 2
!_
]0 =Sa
for th e len gth of one arch of the cycloid. •
Parametric Polar Coordinates
Suppose thai a paramet ric cur\'e is dete rmined by giving its po lar coordinates
r = r(l). O =tl( l ) . a :i"; 1 ;£ fl
as fu nct ion~ o f the para meter t.1ltcn this curve is described in recta ngula r coordinates
by the parametric equations
x(l ) = r ( l ) cos O(t ), y(t) = r(t )sin O(l). a~ ~ ~ {J.
giving x andy as functions of 1. llte latter parametric equ atio ns ma y then be u..<cd in
the integral formula s in Eqs. (I) through (.t).
To compute ds. we first calculate the derivatives
dr dO dy .
tlx
- = (cosO )- - (rsin O) - .
dt dt dt
-
11I
= (sm O) -d
dr
I
+ (r cos O) -dO
til
.
Upon s~b~tituting t~esc cxp~cssions for dx f dt and d yf dl in Eq. (8) and making
algebratc stn:phficauons. we find that the arc-length differential in p arametric polar
coordmates ts
ds= \ l (dr
- ):
dt
+ ( r t/0)2
-
tit
d1 . (9)
0
FIGURE 10.5.5 The diHerential

In the case of a curve with the explicit polar coo rd ' t
. · ·• •
use 0 ttself as the parameter. Then Eq (9) takes th · f
·
ma e equat1on r = f ((} ),we m'''"·
triangle in polar coordinates. · e s1mp1er o rm
1
t/s = \/ ( "' ) + r ! 1/(l (10)
' dO '
The formula tis = V(dr)l + (r d0)2 c · ·

the aid of the tiny "almost-triangle",shqutva~ent to Eq. (9), is easy to remember wtth
own tn Fig. 10.5.5.
EXAMPLE 3 Find the perimeter ( I· .
r = 1 + cosO (Fig. 10.5.6.). Find als~~h~ngth) s of the cardioid with polar c~uatto~
cardioid around the x-axis. surface area S generated by rcvoh1ng th
Solution Becausedr/tiO =-sinO c (

' q. IO) and the identity
FIGURE 1o.5.6 The cardioid of
Example 3. 1 + coso == 2 cos2 ( ~) (til
Integral Computations w ith Parametric Curves SECTION 10.5 657
give
ds = Jc -sinW + (I+ cos0)2 dO= J2(1 + cosO)dO
=J 4cosl G) dO = l2cos (DIdO

.
El encc ds = 2 cos(O / 2) dO on the upper half of the cardioid. where 0 ::l 0 ~ rr. and
t hus cos(O / 2) ~ 0. Therefore
The su rface area of revolution around the .r-a.~is (Fig. 10.5.7) is given by
S= 1' 9=0
2.:ryds
= 1' z:r cr sinOlds = f" z.:r(l + cose)(sinO>. 2cos (D do

9dl fo
fiGURE 10.S.7 The surface
generate d by rotating the cardioid = 16:r
1.
0 2
0(l
2
[ 2
cos• -sin-dn = 16:r -- cos 5 -
5 2
0]. =
0
3211
--
5
around t.he x-axis.
using the identi ty
sinO= 2sin (0 (0 cos
.as well as the ide nt ity in Eq. (I I ).

•
@ 10.5 TRUE/ FALSE STUDY GUIDE
I. If the circle of radius a is parametrized by x = a cos r, y = a sin r as in Exam-
ple I , explain care fully why th<! integral
1
2
•
1={)
y d.r = 1'r -;:0
ytlx + 12.'t =:t
y dx
docs n o r give the correct area of the circle. R elate the two integrals on the
right to the upper and lower halves of the circle.
=
2. If the circle of radius a is parametrized by x a sin 11 r , y a cos ;rt , explain =
carefully why the integral
1 1
t• O
y d.r = 11/1 + 13/2
t c.O
yd.r
r• l/2
yd.r +
12
t • 3!2
y d.r
dot's give the correct area. Relate the three integrals on the right to appro-
priate parts of the circular area.
10.5 PROBLEMS
In Probl~ms 1 rllrnuglr 6, find rile area of 1/re ugion rlrol lies In l'mblem.r 7 rhrouglr 10, fintl rhe •·olwne obtained by rt•vulving
bcrwttn the gi•'~'" paramt•tric cun·t> and thr X·tui.t around rhe X· fl.ris rhe region tlescrib..cl in rhe givm proMttn
l.x=rJ.y=2Jl+l: -l~r ~ l 7. Problem I II. Proble m 2
2. .r = ,.:.., y = .,-•; O~r ~ ln2 9. Problem3 10. l'roblcm S
3. x=cosr.y=sin r; O~t :i lT 1
In Problems II rlrrough 16,finc/ rlre arc lmgrlr ofrlre givm crm ·c.
4. .r = 2 - 3r, y = e z, ; 0 ~ 1 ~ I 11 • .r=21, y= jrl11 ; 5 :;; r :; l2
S.x =cos r,y=<"; O ~ r :i JT
6..r=l -<".y=21+ 1; o :;; r :; t l1..r = ~r 1 • y = \ rl; O:i t :ii l
658
13. x
CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordinates and Parametric Curves
= sin 1 - cos 1. y = sin 1 + cosr: i ;r ~ 1 :i l :r 31 Fm . d t h e ar ea of the surface obtained

• troid of Problem 29 around the x-axls.
. by revolvino, the •S·
•
"
14. x = t' sin 1. y = t' cos 1: 0:; 1 ~ :r
3' fin d t h e area Of the surface generated by . revoh·ing
. the le-
..,.
IS. r = ~12 : 0 ~ 8 ~ -l:r 01
=
•· ·scate rl 2al cos 20 around the y-ax1s (F1g. 10.5.9).[Sug.
• Usc Eq · (IO)·' note tha t r dr = - 2a 2 sin 20 d9].
16. r =6 : 2:r ~ 0 ~ 4;r
gtJIIOII:
In Problems 17 llrrollgh 22.find 1/re area of 1/re surface of remill·

lion genua1ed b y revolving 1/re given Cllrve arollnd 1he indicaud
axil.
17. X = I -I. y = 2,/i. I :l 1 ~ 4; the .<·axis
1!1. x = 21 + 1- 1• y =SJr.
2
I :l 1 :z 2: the x·axis
19. x =1 , y =21 + 3.
3
- I ~ ~ ~ 1: the y· axis
20. = 2J + I. y = 1 + I.
X
1
0 ~ I a3: the y· axis
21. r = 4sin0 . OaO :l :r : the x·nxis
22. r =e'. 0 ~ 0 :i j ;r: the )'·axis
23. Find the volume generate d hy revolving around the x·axis
the region unde r the cycloid a I arch o f Example 2. FIGURE 10.5.9 The surface generated
24. Find the area of th e surface generated by revolving around by rotating the lemniscate of
the x·axis the cycloidal arch of Example 2. Problem 32 around the y-axis.
25. Usc the pMametrilat ion ·' = a cos I, y = bsin 1 to find:
(a) the arc3 bou nded by the ellipse x' f a1 + ;til = I: i 33. Figure 10.5.10 shows the graph of the parame tric curve
(b) the ,-o lumc of the ellipsoid generated by revolving this
ellipse around the x -nxis. x = 11 ./J. y = 31 - ~1 3 •
26. Find the nrc:• bounded by the loop of the parame tric curve '!be shaded region is bounded by the part of the curve for
.r = 1 2 • y = 1-'- J1 of Prohlem 25 in Section 10.4. which -3 ~ 1:; 3. Find its area .
27. Usc the parametrization x =1 cos 1. y =1 sin 1 of the
Archime dcan spiral to find the arc length of the first full y
turn of thiS Spiral (corresponding !O 0 aI ~ b).
=
28. The circle (x - I>)' + >~ a~ " ith r3dius a < band center
(b. 0) can be para metrized by
x = b + a cos 1. y = a sin 1. 0:;; 1 ~ 2.:r. X
Find the surface area of the torus obtained by rc,·olving this

circle around the y·axis (Fig. 10.5.8).
FICURE 10.5.10 The pa rametric

curve of Problems 33 through 36.
34. Find the arc len th f h

g o t c loop of the curve of Problem 33.
35. Find the volume 0 f .
the r- ·. h the sohd obtained bv revolving around
· ax,. t e shaded · · '
rcgtOn m Fi~:. 10.5.10.
36. Find the surface ar f . - .
around th . . ca 0 rc,·olutlon generated by re\'OI"ng
37 . e .r-axts the loop of Fig. 10.5.10.
• (a) With rcfcrcnc 10 .,
FIGURE 10.5.8 The torus of tio n 10.4, sho wthaet I roblem 30 and Fig. 10.4.14 in Sec·
Problem 28. of the folium f the arc length of the first-quadrant looP
0 0 cscartes is
29, The a.rtroid (four-cuspcd hypocycloid) has equation x lll +

ylll =a211 (Fig. 10.4.15) and the parametri7..ation
s:: 610
1
:i_l + 41 2 -41 3 _ 4 1! + 41 6 + 1S
(1 + 1l)2
dt.
x = a cos 3 1. y = a sin 3 t. 0 :l l :'j 2;r. (b) Usc a program

pro~imatc this 1 mable calculator or a computer to 31"
. engrh.
Find the area of the region bounded by the astroid. 33. Ftnd the
. surface area d th'
30. find the total length of the astroid of Problem 29. Y·axlsthecyclo"d ' generated by rotating aroun
only if x ;;: 0.] t al arch of Example 2. [Suggr.flion: ,:~ J?
Integral Computations with Parametric Curves SECTION 10.5 659
39 Find the volume gene rated by rotating arou d th . .
• · d · n C ) ·UXIS 42. !':o w suppose that the rope of the previous problem has
the regton un cr the cyclotdal arch of Exam p1e 2. length 2::a a nd is anchored at the point A before being
,w. Supp~c that after a string is wound clockwise a round a wound completely a round the tank. !':ow tind the total area
circle o f radtus a. liS free end is a t the point H 0) (S that lhc CO\\ can graze. Figu re :0.5.13 shows an involu te
'< h . ' a . . ee
· · ) · ow 1 e strtng is unwound. alwavs stre tched
Fig. 10 ·511 APQ. a semicircle QR of radius 2:ra centered a t A nnd
tight so the unwound ~rtion T P is tangen t ~0 the circle an involute RSA The cow can reach every point that lies
at T. l11e locus ~f the stnng's free endpoint p is called the inside the ou ter curve and o utside the original circle.
ln•olut e of the cucle.
(a) Show that the parametric equations of the in\'olute (in
terms o f the angle 1 of Fig. 10.5.1 1) are R
x=a (cosl+rsinl). y = a (sinl-rcosl).
(b) Find the length of the involute from 1 = o to 1 = :: . y
•
FIGURE 10.5.13 The area that the
cow of Problem 42 can grue.
fj
In l'ro/Jir,.~r 43 rhrougl• 54. uu a graphing calwlaror or com·
·' putn algt•brn .1ystem a.f appropriar~. ilppro.rimate (by integrnt·
ing nrut:ertcal/y) the desired quantity if it cannot b~ Clllculatcd
r.ractly.
43. Find the total a rc length of the 3 -lcavcd rose r = 3 sin 30 of
Fig. 10.3.1 2.
FIGURE 10.5.11 The involute
of a cirde. 44. Find the total surface area genermed by rotating around
the y·axis the 3-lcavcd rose o f Problem 43.
45. Fi nd the total kngth of the -!-leaved rose r = 2cos20 of
.$(. Suppose that the circle of Problem ~0 is a water llnk amlthc
Fig. 10.2.12.
"string" is a ro pe of length .1a. It is anchored at the poi nt 8
opposite A Figuw 10.5.12 depicts the total area that can be 46. Find the total surface area gen e rated by revolving around
grazed by a cow tied to the free end of the rope. Find this the x-axis th e 4-lcavcd rose of Problem 45.
total a rea . (The three label<d arcs o f the curve in the figu re 47. Find the tot al arc length of the lima~on (both loops) r =
represent. respectively, an involu te APQ generated as the 5 + 9cos0 of Fig. 10.2.25.
cow unwinds the ro pe in the counte rclockwise direction, a
48. Find the total surface area generated by revolving around
semicircle QR nf r~<.lius :rn ccnterctl at B. and an in"olute
the .r-axis the lima~on of Problem 47.
RSA 2eneratcd as the co w winds the rope nround the tank
proce';;ding in the counterclockwi;c direction from fJ to A. 49. Find the total arc length (all seven loops) of the polar curve
These three ares form a ch)>cd c urve that resembles a car· r = cos(jO) of Fig. 10.5.14.
dioid. and the cow can reach c\'cry point that lies inside this
curve and outside the original circle.)
y
•
FIGURE 10.5.12 The area that the FIGURE 10.5.14 The curve
cow o f Problem 41 can graze. r =cos( ~ 9) of Problem 49.
y
SO. Find the total arc length of the figure-S curve x = sin t .
y =sin 2t of Fig. 10.4.13.
St. Find the tot~l surf3cc area and volume gcncr:ltcd by rc·
volvir1g around the x-a,is the ligure-S curve of Prob·
lem 50.
52. Find the tota l surface a rea and volume generated by revolv-
ing around t he y·axis t he figure -S curve o f Problem 50.
53. Fi nd the total arc length of the Lissajous curve x = cos3r.
y = sin 5r C>f Fig. I0.4.-t.
54. Find the total arc le ngth of the epitrochoid .r = 8 cos 1 -
5 cos -lr. y = 8 sin 1 - 5 sin -lr of r~g. 10.5.1 5.
SS. Fr:onk A . F:.rri s of Santa Clara University. while design- FIGURE 10.5.15 The cpitrochoid of
ing a computer laboratory exercise for his calculus stu· Problem 54.
dents. diswvercd an extremely lovely curve with the para·
metriLation
Svmmctry" in the June 1996 issue of Mat~lematics Maga~int.
l
.r (t) =cos t + co~7t + ! sin 17t. l'iot these equatio ns so you can e nJoy thrs e_xtraordtnaryfig-
ure. then nume rically integrate to approxrmate the length
y(t ) = sint + j sin 7t + } cos 171.
of its gra ph. What k ind of symmetry does the graph havc7ls
f or info rma tio n un what these equations rcpre,cnt. sec this predictable from the coefficients of t in the parametric
his article " Wheels on Wheels on Whcci'I-Surprisi ng equations?
10.5 l•roject: 1\loon Orbits and ltacc Tracks

"llte investigations in this project c31l for the use o f nume rical integration tech-
niques (using a calculato r or computer) to approximate the param e tric arc-length
integral
(I)
Conside r the ellipse with equation
(a> b) (21
and eccentricity f = v' l - (b/a )2 Substitute tile · ·

· parametnz:llton
x == 11 cost. y = b sin 1 (3)
into Eq. (I) to show that the perimeter or th II ' · . . · · I

e e tpse ts gtven by the elltptlc mtegra
(~)
"ll1is integral is known to be nonele , .

imation to it is mcntary tf 0 < f < I. A common simple approx·
P ~ lT(A + f~). (51

where
I
A== 2(a +b) and R =:: f2; ~
denote the arithmetic mean and root-s ua . sa
and b of the ellipse. q re mean. respectively. of the senuaxe
Conic Sections and Applications SECTION I 0.6 661
Investigatio n A As a warm·up, consider the ellipse whose majo r and minor semi-
axes a and b arc. respectivel y. the larges t and smallest nonzero digits or your stude nt
r.o. numbe r. Fo r this ellipse. compa re the arc-length estima te given by (5) and by
nu merical evaluation of the integral in ( .!).
Investigation B It we ignore the perturbing effects of the sun and the plane ts o ther
than the earth, the orbit of the moon is an almost perkct ellipse with the earth at
one focus. Assume th at this ellipse has major semi axis a = 384.403 km (e xactly) and
ecce ntrici ty ( = 0.05.!9 (exact ly). Approximate the perime ter p of this ellipse (usi ng
Eq. (.!)] to the nearest meter.
Investigatio n C Suppose t hat you are designing an elliptical au to racetrack. Choose

scm1a xcs for your racetrack so that its perime ter will be somewhere between a half
mile and two miles. Your task is to construct a table "it h timr and speed columns that
an observer can usc to determine the a,·eragc sp~cd of a particular car as it circles
the track. ll1e times listed in the first column should correspond to speeds up to
perhaps ISO milh.ll1c observer clocks a car's circuit of th e trac k and loca tes its time
for the lap in the first column of the table. The correspo nding figure in the second
colum n then gives the car's average speed (in mi les per hour) for th:lt circuit of the
track . Your report should include a convenient table t o usc in this way-so you can
successfully se ll it to racetrack patrons attending the au to races.
]0.6 1CONIC SECTIONS AND APPLICATIONS

H ere we discuss in more detail the th ree types of conic sections-parabolas, e llipses.
a nd hyperbolas- that were introduced in Section 10.1.
The Parabola
The case e = I of Example 3 in Section 10.1 is moti\'ation for this formal defi -
nition.
DEFINITION The Parabola

A parabola is the set of all points Pin the plane tha t arc equidistant from a fixed
point F (called the focus o f the parabola) and a fixed line L (called the p arabola's
dirertri x) not con taining F.
(a)
If th e focus of the parabola is F(p, 0) and its directrix is the vertical line x = - p,
p > 0. then it follows from Eq. ( 12) of Section 10.1that the equation of this parabola
is
y2 =4px. (I)
- - -- - --1--t--:, When we replace x with -x both in the equation and i n the discussio n that precedes
it. we get the equation of the parabola whose focus is (- p. 0) and whose directrix is
1he vertical line x = p. TI1e new parabola has equation
s•p
y2 = -4px. (2)
(b)
'The old and new parabolas. appear in Fig. 10.6.1.
FICUR£ 10.6.1 Two pardboias We could also interchange .t and Y in Eq. (l ). TI1is would give the equation of
with vertical directrices. a parabola whose focus is (0, p) and whose directrix .is the horizontal line y = - IJ.
. Fi!! !0.6.2(a): its equation is

1
This parabola opens upward. as 111 - ·
xl = 4py. (3)
. . in E (3). This gives the equation
finally. we replace)' wuh -) q.
xl = -4py (~)
. d . \\1·th focus (0. - p ) and with directrix y == p, ns in

. down\\ar
of a parabola opemng
(>)
Fig. 10.6.2(b). d. . ed far is svmm etric aro und one oft he coordinate
Eac h of the parabolas ISCU>S 50 • • · II d h .· . f h
axes. m e !me around w IC a par,al>ola· is· svmmctnc
. - . h. h · ISca
. e· t e ·ax1s
· o IIt e parabola·
The pomt . of a paralx>IJ 1111·d "") . . between its focus and Its ·dm:ctnx · \'ertex·
d ·1s ca ed the
.__1 . ·n.
Of l h e pa ravva . ' rtcv
tuC \C ·' of each
' parabo la that we d1scussc m connect1on with
Eq~ ( I ) through (4) is the origin (0, 0).
EXAMPLE 1 Determine the focus. directrix. axis, and vertex of the parabola
x 2 = 12y.
Solution We wrilc the given equation as x 2 = 4 · (3y ) . In this form it matches Eq. (3)
with p = ) . l ienee the focus of lhc given parabola is (0 , 3} and ils directrix is the
hori zont al line y = -3. The y-axis is its axis of symm e try, and the parabola opens
upward f10111 it~ ''Crl<:~ al Ihe origin. •
(b)
Suppose that we begin with the parabola of Eq. ( I) and tra nslate it in such a way
FIGURE 10.6.2 Two pa rabolas that its vertex moves to the point (h. k).1l1en the translate d parabola has equation
with horizontal directrices: (a)
opening upward; (b) opening
downward. (y- k} 2 = 4p(x- h). (h)
The new par~bola has focus F(p +h. k) and it s directrix is the vertical line x=
- p + h (Fig. 10.6.3}. Its axis is the horizontal line y = k .
. \\'c can obtain the translat es of the other three parabolas in Eqs. (2) through
(4) mthc same.way. If the vertex is moved from the ori gin to the point (h. 1.:), then
the lhrce equations take these forms:
ld)
Cy- kl~ = - 4p(X - h). (h)
IX - In~ = 41'ty- k). and (3a)
(x - hl: = -4p<_v- k). (4a)
Equations (Ia) and (2a) both take the general form

FIGURE 10.6.3 A translation ol
the par.!bola yl = 4px.
·' ..!+ Ax+ fly + C == 0 (, \ i: 0), (5}
whereas Eqs. (3a) and (4a) both take the general form
x: + Ar + 11.1• + (' - II (6)

Ill "" 01.
What is significant about Eqs. ( 5 ) d ( .
linear in one of the coordinat , ~
11
11
6) IS what they have in common: llolh are
e 'ana >es ·1nd . d · ·
relIuce any such equation to one of t •. . lJ~Ia ra tlc Ill the other. In fact. we ca.
n
by completing the square in tl _he st.mdard forms in Eqs (Ia) through (4l )
' · ' le coordmatc va ·. hi .. ' · · l~is
means t hat the {!raph of anv cclu . f rtcl C that appears quadratically. "
·n. f - 1
a1IOn 0 the for f · '-~Ia
."'c catures of the pa rabola can be re rn o either Eqs. (5) or (6) is a par·a '~" ·
In Example 2. ad from the s tandard form of its cquauon. as
EXAMPLE 2 D ·
eterrnme the graph of th .
e equatiOn
4r- Bx- 12y + 1 ::: O.
-
Conic Sections and Ap plications SECTION 10.6 663
Solutl~n Thi~ equal io n is linea r in x and quad rat ic in y. We d ivide th rough by the
coefficie nt o f >~ and t he n collect on one side of the equa tion all terms tha t include y:
y2 -3y= 2x- L
·nlc n we comple te the squa re in 1he va ria ble y an.d thus find that
----- -------- y
2
- 3y + ~ = 2.t- ~ + ~ = 2.t + 2 = 2(.t + 1).
:Ole lin:1l step is lo write in Ihe form 4p(x- h) the terms on 1hc right-hand side that
mclud c .t:
·~.
(y ')l
- 2 = 4 · iI · (x + 1).
·n l is cqu ~ lio n has 1he form o f Eq. ( I a) with p = !-
h = - I . and k = ~· lllUS the
graph IS a para hula thai opens 10 lh~ ri ght from its ve rtex a t (- I. ~ ). )Is focus is at
FIGURE 10.6.4 The parabol~ of
Example 2.
(- i • ),
~ its d ircc1 rix is Ihe vert ical line -x = - L and its axis is th~ hor izo nta l line
Y == ~ - It appe ars in J~g. 10.11.4. • +
Applications of Pa rabolas
':'1e pa ra hola y2 = 4p.r ( t> > 0) is ~hown in Fig. 10.6.5 a long with an incoming ray of
li gh1 I raveli ng tn the lcfl an d pa rallel to the x -a xis. l11 is light ray strikes the parabola
a t the point Q(a. h) a nd is reflected toward 1h..: .t-axis. which il mee ts a1 the poinl
(c. 0 ). 'J11e lighl ra y's :mglc o f reflection must equal its angle of incidence. which is
why ho th of these angles- mea sured with respccl 10 lhe lnnge nt line /.at Q-are
In he led u in th e figure. ll1c angle vcrl ica l to Ihe angle of incidence is also equal to cr.
It
I lcncc. because Ihe inco ming ray is parallcl lo the x-axis, Ihe angle Ihe rcficclcd ray
...
:•
makes wil h lhe .r-ax is at (c . 0) is 2a .
U sing t he poi nts Q :~nd (c . 0) 10 compu te the slope of the reflected light ray, we
lind that
b 2 1an a
- - = tan 2cr = •
a- c I - tan2 a
(lhe seco nd equality follows from a trigonometric idc nlil y in Problem 64 of Sec-
lion 7.5.) But the angle a is related lo the slope of the Iangen! line L at Q. To find
·•
. ~
Ihat slo pe. we begin with

FIGURE 10.6.5 The reflection y = 2./{ii =2(p.t )l/2
property of the parabola: a =
fJ .
and compute
dy = (!!.)'12.
dx x
Hence the slope of Lis both ta n a and tlyj d x evaluated at (a, b); that is,
p)l/2
tan a = ( ;; .
Therefore,
b 2 tancr
2
/f; 2,[Pii b
;;=c = 1 - tan 2 a = 1 _ !!.. = '' - p = a - p'
/l
because b = 2.jpii. Hence c = p. The surprise is that c is independent of a and b

d depends only on the equation y2 = 4px of the parabola . ll1erefore all incoming
~;ht rays parallel to the .r-axis will be reflected to the single point F(p . 0). This is
why F is called the focu.~ of Ihe parabola. . . . . .
This rellection property of the parabola ts exploited m the dcstgn of parabohc
· rs. Such a mirror has the shape of the surface ob1aincd by revolving a parabola
FIGURE 10.6.6 lncidentrays m lrro ·. ax' s of symmetrv. "Jben a bearn o f.mcomtng . I.1g ht rays para IIe I to 1h e ax1s
.
parallel to the axis reflect through aroun d 115• ' . 1• • ' •
will be focused at F, as shown in Fig. 10.6.6. lbe reftectton property can also be used
the focus.
664 CHAPT£R 10 Polar Coordinates and Parametric curves b II I
reflected in a cam para c to the a~
he focus arc · · t r · s.
in reverse-rays emitted at~ e Moreover. apphcauons are no •mned to light
thu~ keeping the light ~am mtens ~d in visual and radio tcles~o~s. radar antennas,
rays alone; pa rabolic mtrrors ar_e us ·crophone S)'Stcms. satelli te groun d stations_
searchlight s. automo~t·1 e headheh - ts. m• .
and sola r heatin£ deviCeS. . ·entccnth century that th e traJectory or a
~ d lv 10 the se'( ndcr the ass umpt ·tons t hat ntr· rcststance
.
Ga lileo discoverc ear.
· 3 parabo1a u . · )
Pr01·cc tilc fired from a gun IS •• . 1 accclcratt on rcmams constant . SuppoSt
can be ignored and that 1he gravttattona
. : . •• 'ty '"' nt time 1 =
0 from t hc ongm
· · and at'
. . . fi d ·'th 1011131 \ c 1OCI • v h . .. ) ) .
that a prOJCCtlle ts. u e. wtf m the honzon . lal.r-axis.
• Then t e mttlll vc ocny of the
an angle a of .mclinatton ro
projectile splits into the components
Fi.nn1 potnl •·o. t'O.< = t•ocos a and I'Or = t'O sin a .
FIGURE 10 .6 .7 R~>Oiution of the f 1h t the projectile continues to move horizont~Uy
initi.JI velocity v0 in:o its horizontal as indicated in Fig. I 0.6.7. The act . ~ Eq (3.;) of Section 5 .2. impl ies that its .r- and
~~oi th constant speed t·n... together "'1 1 ·
and vertical components.
y-coordinatcs after 1 seconds are
.r = (~'O cos a ) r . (7)
y= - ~gr 2 + ( v0 sina)l. (8)
· · 1 = x / ( Vo COs a ) from Eq· (7) into. Eq.

By substttutmg . f(8 ) and then completing the
form
squ~rc. we can derive (as in Problem 70) an equatto:t O 11tc
y - M=-4p (x -! R)2• (9)

!lfn • • ,,
Here,
v5 sin2 a
•Itt = ...=...,:--- (10)
2g
is the maximum height attained by the projectile, and
FIGURE 10.6.8 The trajectoty of

v2 sin 2a
R = ....:.o' - - - (11)
the projec tile, showing its g
ma• irnum altitude lvf and Its
range R. is its ru n~:e, the horizontal distance the projectile will travel before it returns to the
ground. '[hus its trajectory is the parabola shown in Fig. 10.6.8.
The Ellipse
An ellipse is a conic section with eccentricity e Jess than 1, as in Example 3 of Sc<·
tion 10.1.
DEFINITION The Ellipse

Suppose I hat. t < I , and lc:t F be a fixed poi nt and La fixed line not containing f .
The ellipse wnh eccentricity e focus F and d' rt · l · h f · lS p such
h h d' • · • tre n x ~ ts t e set o a11pom
t at I e •stance iPFi is e times the (perpendicular) distance from p the line L
10
'lltc equation of th II' ·15 h
1
·
x-axts an d L · h . e e. •pse
ts t e ventcal hn c t _ • 2especially simple if F is the point (c. 0) on 1e
6 9 If Q
is the oint (cje2 , .' - ' 1c • 11tc case c > 0 is shown in Fig. I0· · ·..
~ th~~ ~i~~~n pc::rp~:ndicular
'
lP Fl ei /'QI PQ ts the from l'(x . y) to l - lltc condttlon
/'(~~~---- Q(~. ,)
, ,
,,
Fit. 0)
FIGURE 10.6.9 Ellip1t: focus F,

di~lriJC t. tccentricity ~-
l
Conic Sections and Applications SECTION 10.6 665
Thus
whe re
c (12)
a=-.
e
We divide both sides of the next-to-last equation by a= (I - r 2) and get

x2 y=
-+
a2 a2(1 - e2)
=1.
FinaUy. with the aid of the fact t hat e < I, we may let
b 2 =a 2(1-e·)=a·-c-
' ' '. ( 13)
Then the equation of the ellipse with focus (c, 0) and directrix x = cfe 2 = afe takes
the simple form
(14)
We see from Eq. (14) that this ellipse is symmetric around bo th coordinate
axes. Its x-inte rce pts arc (±a. 0) and its y-inte rcepts are (0. ±b). ·n1e points (±a, 0 )
are called t he vertices of the ellipse. and the line segment joi ning them is called its
major 1ui~. ll1e line segment joining (0. b) and (0. -b) is called the minor axis [note
from Eq. (13) that b < a).ll1e alternative form
(15)
of Eq. (13) is the Pythagorean relat ion for th e right triangle of Fig. 10.6.10. Indeed.
visualization of th is triangle is an excellent wa y to remember Eq. (15). The numbers
a and b arc the lengths of the major and minor seminxes. respectively.
1 L
'
(-a, 0) (a, 0)
X
a a
.r=- - x=-
t t
l/'F1l • <li'Q 1l
an~.t
!PF~ • tii'Q~
FICURE 10.6.10 The parts of an ellipse. FIGURE 10.6.11 The ellipse as a conic
section: two foci, two directrices.
•
0
Because a= cfc , the directrix of the ellipse in Eq. (14) is x = afe. If we had
begun ins tead with the focus (-c. 0) and directrix x = -afe, we would still have
obtained Eq. (14), because only the squares of a and c arc in\'olvcd in its derivation.
Thus the ellipse in Eq. (14) has two fcx:i, (c. 0) and (-c. 0), and two direct rices, x = c1fe
• and x = -a;e(Fig. IO.t\.11) .
c •0.97 t=0.70 ll1e larger the eccentricity e < I. the more elongated the ellipse. (Remember
that e = I is the eccentricity of every parabola). llut if e = 0, then Eq. (13) gives
fiCURE 10.6.12 The rel~tion
between the eccentricity of an b =a, so Eq. (14) reduces tCI the equation of a circle of radius a. llms a circle is an
~llip~e and it~ ~hape. ellipse of eccentricity zero. Compare the three cases shown in Fig. 10.6.12.
1
EXAMPLE 3 Find an equation of the ellipse with foci (±3. 0) and vertices (:!: 5, O).
(O. • )
Solutl·on We are g1\'cn

· c = 3 an d a -- ,. (13) gives b = 4.11lUs Eq · (14) &•\·es
5 · so En .
x2 y2
-+-=I
25 16
for the d esired equa tion. Tilis ellipse is shown in Fig. 10.6.13.
•
If the two foci of an ellipse arc on the y-axis. such as F1 (0. c) and F2(0. -c).
then the equation of the ellipse is
FIGURE 10.6.13 The ellipse of
Example 3. x··' \""''
-:;+ :, =L (16)
lr a·
and it is still true that 11 2 = b! + c2 . as in Eq. ( 15). But now the major axis of length 2a
is vertical and the minor axis o f length 2h is horizontal. The deriva tion of Eq. (16) is
similar to tha t of Eq . ( 1-1): see Problem 79. Figure 10.6.1 -1 shows the case of an ellipse
whose major axis is ve rtical. l11c \'crticcs of such an ellipse arc at (0, :!:a): they arc
always the end po ints of !he major axis.
In prac1icc there is liule chance of confusing Eqs. ( 1-l) and ( 16). l11e equation
or the given Jata \\ ill make it clear whether the major axis of the ellipse is horizontal
o r \'ertical. Just usc th e: eq uation to read the ellipse's intercept s. ·n,e two intercepts
th :H arc brthcst f rom the origin are the endpoints of the major axis: I h e other two are
the endpoints of 1hc minor axis. '!he two foci lie on the major axis. each at distance c
from the center o f the ellipse- which will be the origin if th e equation of the ellipse
has the form of either Eq. (14) or Eq. (16).
FIGURE 10.6.14 An ellipse with EXAMP LE 4 Sketch the graph of the equation
vertical major axis.
x2 )'2
16 + 25 = I.
~olu ti~n TI~c .<·intercepts are (± -1. 0): the y-intcrccpts arc (0. ±5). So the major axis
ISvcrt1cal. \\c take (I = 5 and /J = 4 in E q. (15) and lind that c = 3. lllc foci are thus
at (0, ±3). Hence this ellipse has the a ppearance of the one: shown in Fig. 10.6.15. t
Any equation of t he form
'
/ Ix- + C'y-' + Vx + F.y + F = o. (17)
in which the coeflicients II and C of th d ·
. b 'd . e squa re vanablcs arc both IWIPem and lrm·r
tI zc same .Hgn, may c re uced to t he form ~
FIGURE 10.6.15 The ellipse of t1(x - lz): + C(y - kJ! = G

Example 4.
by completing the sq uare in x and , We . ·· •
Then if G < 0 there arc no n.f t >·h . m~~ assume that 1\ and Care both po~J!IV~.
• ,.. m s t at sausfv Eq (17) d · 1 tv
set. If G = 0. th en there is exact I\' ont> oin ' · . · ·an I 11c graph 1s tlc emp,
if G > 0, we can cli\'idc: both sid;s oft~ t_on the: l.o cus-thc single point (Jr. k). And
1
resembles one of these two: e ast equatiOn by G and ge t an equation that
(.t - II}! ( I' _ A;)!

- II.• - +. It: = 1. (ll!al
1.1 - lz) ! ( \' - k )l

~+·'
1/ '
= 1. (ISb)
Which eq uation should you choose? Sci t . . .

d ition a !;: b > 0. Finally, note that eithcrc~f the one tl~at is. consistent with th: conf
· the cqua ttons 10 ( 18) is the cquluon °
Conic Sections and Appliutioru SECTION 10.6 667
a translated cllip~c. 1nu'- ap:ut fro m the exceptio nal cas es already noted. the graph
of Eq. ( 17) is a n clli p~c if AC > 0.
EXAMPLE 5 D ete rmi ne tht: gra ph o f the equation

3x: - sy1 - 12x + 30y + .n = o.
c-
I
Ul.-l •\ )) ~olutlon We collect term' con taining .r. terms containin g y. and complete the square
10each variable. 1hi~ gh·es
J<r - Jx) + sc ~..: + 6 1•) = -J2:

J(.rl - J .( + J ) + 5()..: + 6') + ')) = 15:
(x - :!)z (y + 3) 1
5 + 3 =1.
fiGURE 10.6.16 The ellip~e ol Th us t he given cqu:llion is t h~t of a transll ted ellipse \\i th center at (2. - 3).
Ltamplc S. Its horiwmal major scmaa1is has lcm!lh a =
J5 and its minor se rni:L"<iS h:1s lengl h
IJ ~ Jj (Fig. 10.6.16). ·n ac dastancc fr~m the center to c:1ch focus is c = ./i and the
eccent ricity i$e = cfn = Jf/5. +
Applic il tion s of Ellipses
EXA MPLE 6 ·na c mhi t of the earth is an clhpse with the sun at one focus. The
planet's maximum da<tance from the cente r of the sun is ~.56 million m iles and its
m inimu m d istance i' '.11..1-l m illion miles. What a re the major and minor semi axes or
t he e arth's orbit. and \\hat i~ it~ ccccntricity?
Solut ion 1\ ~ Fig. 10.6.17 shows. we have

n + .c = 94.56 and n- c = 91.44.
with units in millions or mik:s. We conclude from these equations t hat tl = 93.00. tha t
=
c 1.56, and then t hat
b = J<93.00)2 - (1.56)! ~ 92.99

million miles. Finally.
1.56
FIGURE 10.6.17 The orbit of the
I' = -ac = 93.00
~ -
- :.: 0.017.
earth with Its eccent ricity
exaggerated (Example 6). n number rc l3ti \'cly close to zero. lltis m eans that the earth 's orbit is nearl y circular.
Indeed, the maj or and minor scmiaxcs arc so nearly equal that, on any usual scale,
the earth's orbit would appc:tr to be a perfect circle. Ou t the difference between
uniform circular motion and the earth's actu al motion has some impo rtant aspects.
including the facts that the sun is 1.56 million miles off center and that the orbital
speed of the e3rth is not constant. +
EXAMPLE 7 One or the /llOSt famous comets is llalley's comct, n;um:d fo r Edmund
Halley (1656- 17.t2). a disc ipl e of Newton. Oy studying the records of the pa ths of
earlier comet s, II all ey deduced that th<:: comet of lllS2 was the sa me one that had
bccn sighted in 1607. in 1531. in 1-156, and in 1066 (an omen at the Battle of l lastings).
In 1682 !Iaiiey predic ted t hat this come t would return in 1759, in 1835, and in 19 10;
he was correct each time. lhe period of ll:alley's comet i.~ about 76 years- it can
vary a couplc of years in cit her direction because o f perturbations of its orbi t by the
planet Jupiter. 'lltc orbit of Halley's come t is an ellipse with the sun at one focus.
In terms of astronnmicnl units (I A U is the mean distance from the earth to the
sun). the major and m inor serniaxcs of this e lliptical orbit arc 18.09 A U and 4.56 AU.
rcS(Ic!Ctively. What arc the maximum und minimum c.list nnces fr01'n the sun o£ Halley's
comet?
668 CHAPTER 10 Polar Coordanatl's and Parametric Cu~
.
Solullon .
We are gt,·en that a -_ !8·09 (all distance measurements are in astronorn·•cal
=
units) :md that b 4.56. so
, = Jos.091 z _ (4.56!~"" 17.51.
·
Hence the maxamum d'IStance or the comet · isrn· + c :;· 35.6() AU·
. from the· sun
d · · · d' · c-
an ns mtntmum IStance ts a - - · • 0 58 AU. lbe eccentncuy o lis orbu is
t - ~ - 17.51 :; 0.97.
- a - 18.09
a very eccentric orbit (but see Problem 77). •
The reflection proper~· of the ellipse stat~s that the tangen t line at a point p
or an ellipse makes equal angles "ith the two.hnes !'~~ and ~ ~! fr~~m /~to the two
foci of the ellipse (fig. 10.6.18). This property IS the ha,ts of th.c.: w!ttspcrmggallcry"
phenomenon. which has been obser\'ed in the so-called wh1sp~ nng galle ry of the
U.S. Senate. Suppose that the ceiling of a large room lS shap.:d hkc half an ellipsoid
obtained bv revolving a n ellipse around its major axis. Sound wan:s. likc light wa,·cs.
are rcnect~d \loith equal angles of incidence and refl~ction. lltu) if two diplomats
FIGURE 10.6.18 ne relleulon arc holding a qu iet conversation near one focus of the ellipso idal surface. :t reporter
property: ,, = {J.
stnnding ncar the other focus-perhaps 50 feet away- migh t he a hie to C<l\'CSdropon
their con,·ersalion even if the con\'ersa ti on we re inaudible w others in the same room.
Sorne billiard tables nrc manufactured in the shape of an ellipse. llte foci of such
tables arc plainly marked for the convenience of cnthu<iasts of th is unusual game.
A more serious application of the reflect ion prop~ rty or ellipses is the nonsurgi·
cal kid ney-stone trea tment called s/rockwa•·r lithmripS)'· An cll ip~oitlal renector\\ith
a tran~ducer (an energy transmitter) at one focus is posi tioned ou tside the patient's
body <o th:ll the offending kidney stone is located at the other focus. ll1e stone then
i> pul\'crilcd by reflected shockwa\'es emanating from the transd ucer. (For further
detail,_ sec the CO:\IAP S e..-.rlmu 20. 1\'o\'cmhcr. I QR6.)
An alternative definition of the ellipse with foe: F1 and J>: and major axis of
length 2a is this: It is the locus of a point /'such that the sum or the di stances 1/'fd
and 1/' F: l is th~ constan~ 2a. (Sec Problem 82.) TI1is fact gives us a convenient way
fiGURE 10.6.19 One way to draw to draw the elhpse by usmg two tacks placed at F1 and l'i. a string of length 2o. and
an ellipse.
a pencil (Fig. 10.6.19).
The Hyperbola
A hyperbo~a. is a conic section defined in the same way as is an ell ips.:. except that
the eccentrrcny e or a hyperbola is greater than t.
DEF INI TION The Hype rbola

Suppose that c• >I. and let f' be a fi xed point and L r. ·'!' · · F
Then th.: h~j)t'rI10la WJth
. eccentril'itv
, e rocm• F a111xeu
1· me L
not· contmmng
h f 11·
· I' h th 1 th d ' · ' • ant c •n·~tr1~ IS t c se t o a
po sue l. a e •stance I/' F1 is c times Ihe (llcrpcndicular) distance front
rntsthe hne
/'to
!' I.
As with the ellipse. the equation of h · ·

(c. 0) o n the x-axis and Lis the \'Crtical ~ .Yrcrhol<~ •~ simplest if F is the pot?l
o( ~. ,)
1
Fig. 10.6.20. If Qiqhe point (r/e2. ). th e 11 n; x. = c~el. lltc c~sc c > 0 is sho"n '"
I-- ....,
1'1 •• ,,
I. The condition I/'Fi = e)PQ( giv~ 1
Q as the i>Crpcndtcular rrorn /'(x. y) to
\
\
\
(x- c)2 +I== !'2 (x- e2~)\
' .-.t•<
I FI GURE I0.6.20 Tht definition ol
the hy~bola.
where
c (19)
a=-.
I"
If we divide both sides of t he ncxt·to·last equation by a 2(r2 - I). we get
,
a·
To simplify this equation. we le t
.2
u- = a·(e
' 2
- '
I )= c-- ,
a·. (20)
TI1is is pcrmi~siblc because e > 1. So the equation of th e hyperbola with focus (c 0)
=
and d irectrix x cfr = ate takes the form
.rl >,2
-, - ..,=!. (21)
a· v-
'l11c minus sign on the left-hand side is the only differc:nec between the equation of
a hyperbola and that of an ellip-;c. Of cour~e. Eq. (20) also differs from the relation
IJ2 = a2( I - ~} =a: - c2
f.or the case of the ellipse.
l11e h yperbola of Eq. (21) is clearly symmetric arou nd bo th coordina te axes ;md
has x-intercepts (:!:a . 0). But it has no y -intercept. If we rewrite E q. (21) in the form
y
,
= ±-vx2 -
~-
a2. (22)
a
then we see that there are p o ints on the g raph only if ).r ) ii; a. H ence the hyperbola
has two branches, as shown in Fig. 10.6.21. We also sec from Eq . (22) that )yl - oo
as Jxl ..... oo.
ll1c x -i ntercepts V. (-a. 0) and Vz(a . 0) arc the vcrticl.'S of the hyperbola . ;md
the line se~ment joining them is its trans•·crse axis (Fig. 10.6.22). l11e line segm ent
FIGURE 10.6.21 A hyperbola has two fiGURE 10.6.22 The parts of a hyperbola.
branches.
. • ate axis. The alternative form
joining IV1(0. -b) and W2(0. b) is ItS conJUg
~=~+~ Wl
. · n for the right triangle shown in Fig. 10.6.22.
1
of Eq. (20) IS the Pythagorean re all~ ul!h the center (0. 0) and the opposite vertices
The lines y ±bxfa that pass ~optotes of the 1wo branches of the hyperbola
= 1
of the rectangle in Fig. 10.6.22 arc us~m
in both directions,. That is. if
b.r bJ 2
y, =-a and YZ =; x - a ·
2
then
(24)
To verify the first limit (for instance). note that

b . b (x- JxL a2 )(.r + Jx2- a2)
lim - (x-Jx2 -a 2 )= hm -· +../X 2 _ 2
.a-ou a z-N a X a
2
b 11
- lim - · =0.
-.-oo a x+Jx2 -a1
Just as in th e case of the ellipse. the hyperbola with focus (c. 0) and directrix
x = afe ~lso has focus (-c. 0) and directrix x = -aj e (Fig. 10.6.23). Because c = ae
by Eq. (19). the foci (±at•. 0) and the directrices .r = ±aj e take the same forms in
I,. terms of a and .. for both the hyperbola (e > I) and the ellipse (e < 1).
If we interchange x and yin Eq. (21 ), we obtain
(ZS)
'lhis hyperbola has foci at (0. ±c). TI1c foci as well as this hyperbola's transver.;eaxis
=
lie on the y·axis. Its asymptotes arc )' ±axfb, and its graph generally resembles
the one in Fig. 10.6.23.
When we studied the ellipse. we saw that its orientation- whether the major
axis is horizonwl or vertical-is determined by the relative sizes of tl and b. In the
fiGURE 10.6.23 The hypefbor
l horizontal directrices. a of Eq. (25) has
l 1
ca se of the hyperbol:!. the siiUation is qui te d iffe rent. because the rela tive sizes o f a
and h make no such difference: They affect only the slopes of the asympto tes. The
~arcct ion in which the hyperbola opens-ho rizontal as in Fig. 10.6.22 o r vertic al as
1
n Fi g. 10.6.23-is determined by the signs of the terms that contain x 2 and y2•
EX AM PLE 8 Sketch the graph of the hyperbola '-'ith equation

yl x2
9- 16 =I.
Sol ution Th is is an equat ion of the form in Eq. (25 ). so the hyperbola opens ve rtica lly.
Because a = =
3 and b 4 . we find th at c = 5 by using Eq. (23): ~ = a 2 + b 2 • Thus
the ve rtices arc (0. :!:3), the foci arc th e two points (0. :!:5). a nd the asymptotes are
th e two lines y = ± Jxf ·l . This hyperbola appea rs in Fig. 10.6.24. +
r, (0. -.Sl
FIGURE 10.6.24 The hyperbola of

Example 8.
EXAMPLE 9 Find an equa tion of the hyperbola with foci (±10. 0) and asymptotes
y = ± 4xf3.
Solution Because c = 10. we have
Thus h = 8 and a = 6, and the standard equation of tile hyperbola is

x2 y2
36- 64 = I.
•
As we noted earlier. a ny equation of the form
(26)
with both A and C nonzero can be reduced to the form
ll(x -II)~ + Ill y- k) 2 = G

by completing the square in x and y. Now suppose that the coefficients ;I and C
of the quadra tic terms have opposite signs. For example, suppose that A = p2 and
=
B -q 2 • TI1c last equation then becomes
p 2(x -Jz)l- q2(y- k)2 = G. (27)
of cquares on the left-hand side yields
If G = 0. then factori7.ation of the difference -
the equations d (x _h) _ q(y- k) = 0
( _h)+ q(y _ k) an =0
P
Px . h lopes m = ±pfq. If G -j; 0, then division of
. . h (I1 k) wll s
of two stra1ght hoes throug . ' ks either like
Eq. (27) by G gives an equauon 1113t 100 ·
2
(x - 11) 1 (y- kl == 1 (if G > 0)
a2 - (,1
or like
(y- kl 2 (.r- hJ! == 1 (if (i < {)).
a2 - 1.,:
h is either a pnir of intersecting straight lines or
'JllUs if AC < 0 in Eq. (26) , I he grap •
a hyperbola.
EXAMPLE 10 Dctcmlinethegraphoftheequation
9x 2 - 4y - 36x +By== 4.
Solution We collect the terms that contain .rand those that contain y, and we then
complete the square in each variable. We find that
9(x- 2) 1 - 4(y- 1)2 = 36,
so
(x - 2) 2 (y - I ) 2
4 - 9 =1.
Hence the graph is a hyperbola with a horizontal transverse axis and center (2. 1).
llccausc" = 2 and h = 3. we find that c = ./i3. The vertices of the hyperbola arc
(0, 1) and (4, 1), and its foci arc the two points (2 ± ./i3. 1). Its asymptotes arc the
two Jines
y-J =±~(X -2).
translates of the asymptotes y = ±3.rf2 of the hyperbola ~x2 - ! y2 = I. fig·

9
ure 10.6.25 shows the graph of the translated hyperbola.
•
I\ fiGURE 10.6.25 The h

EJ<ample 1o a 1 YJ>etbola of
xz/4 - yl t9 .. ;~nslate of the hyperbola
Y-1=-tfc - 2)
.
\
Conic Sections and Applic;alions SECTION 1 0.6 673
Applications of Hyperbolas
'Jl1 e reflecrinn prnpt rry of the hyperbola takes the s.ame form as that for the e llipse.
If P is a point on a hyperbola, then the two lin e~ I' F1 and P F: fro m P to the two
foci mak e equal angles with th e tangent line a t P. In Fi g. 10.6.26 this means that
a == {J.
fiGURE 10.6 .26 The reflection p10per1y fiGURE 10.6.27 Bow a hyperbolic m irror
of the hyperbola . refi-x~a ray aimed at one focus: u .. fJ
again.
For an important applica lion of this reflcc1ion property. conside r a mirror that is
shaped like one branch of a hyperhola and is refleclive on ils outer (convex) surface.
,\n incoming lij!ht ray aimed toward one focus will be refleclc d toward the o ther
focus (Fig. 10.6.27). Ftgurc 10.6.28 indicates I he design of a rcflecling telescope that
makes u'c of I he rcflcclinn propcrtic> of I he parahola and the hypcrhob. ·n1c parallel
incoming light rays first arc rcllcclcd by the parabola 10ward its focus at F.ll1cn they
are in1erccp1cd by an auxiliary hyperbolic mirror wi1 h foci at E and F and reflected
into the eyepiece located a t £ .
Incoming p-.1~Ucl
ligh1 r3.Y'
~h i n mirwr
FIGURE 10.6.28 One type of reflecting

telescope: main mirror parabolic, auxiliary
mirror hyperbolic.
Example I I illustrates how hyperbolas are used to determine the positions of

:ships at sea.
EXAMPLE 11 A ship lie:s in the Labrador Sea due east of Wesleyville, point A
on the long north-south coastline of Newfoundland. Simultaneous radio signals are
transmitted by radio stations at A and at St. John's. point 8. which is on the coast
200 km due south of A The ship receives the signal rrom i\ 500 microseconds (I!S)
b..:!ore it receives the signal from 8. Assume that the speed of rudiosignals is 30ClrnJ11s.
How far out at sea is the ship'!
. . . . . d'anr~mmcd in Fil!. 10.6.29. l11c diffe rence between the
' Solut10n 111e suuauon IS 1 .. ..
d istances of the ship a t S from- A and 8 is
-
A£0. 10011 '

----- s Slup iSBI- !SAl= 500.300 = 150.000
meters; that is. 150 km. Thus (by Problem 88) the ship li~s on a hyperbola with
I
I
I
I foci A and B. from fig. 10.6.29 we see that c =
100. so a= i · 150 = 75, and thus
b = .;;2 _ 0 2 = Jjoo= - 75z = 25fi.
In the coordinate system of fig. 10.6.29. t he hype rbol a has equation
y2 xz
- --=1.
75 2 7. 25!
FIGURE 10.6.29 A navigation =
We s ubstitut e v 100 because the ship is due eas t of A. Thus we find that the ship's
distance from ~he coastline is x = •;~ ~ 58.3 km.
problem (Example 11 ).
+
Conics in Polar Coordinates

In order to investi gate orbits of satellites-such as planets or comets orbiting the
sun or natur:tl or artificia l moons orbiting a plan et- we nee d equa tions of the conic
sections in po lar coord inates. As a bonus, we lind that all three conic sec tions have
the sa me general equation in polar coordinatcs.
To derive: the pola r equation of :1 conic section. suppose its focus is the ori·
gin 0 and that its di rectrix is the vertical line x = -p (with p > 0). In the notation of
=
fig. 10.6.30. the fact th at !OPI e!PQi then tells us that r =
c(p + r cosO). Solution
of this equation fnr r yields
pl'
' = .,...--....!...
! -ecosO ·
--
If the di~ectrix is the vert ical line x = +p > 0 to the right of the origin, then a similar
calculat•on g1vcs the s:m1e result, except with a change of sign in the denominator.
FIGURE 10.6.30 A conic section:
!()PI = e iJ'QI.
Polar Coordinate Equation of a Conic Section
·n1c pol~r equat ion of a conic section with eccentricit y e, focus 0. and directrix
.r =±pIS
r = ---'p'-e__ (28)
I± I' coso·
figure 10.6.31 shows a n ellipse with eccc ntricit . .

Its ve rtices correspond too = 0 •.• _
.. nu 0 - rr. where max
y_e <1 I and d ~rcctnx x = -pd.
d · · 1 d"
r occur. It follows that the lengt h 2 0 f. ._ .' · .•rna an mm1ma ra n ro an
1 II liS m :IJI.lr :IX IS IS
FIGURE 10.6.31 The maximal

radius r0 =L and the minimal
2a = r0 + r 1 = ...!:!_ + _!!!!___ Zpe
)-(' 1 +1'-1 - 2 '
1- I!
Cross multiplication gives the relation e
radius r 1 = L1 + e of the ellipse.
pe = a(l _ e2), (29)
and subst ituting in (28) then yie lds the equa tion
·
r = n(l - el) (30)

I ±ecoso
of an ellipse with eccentricity e and rna· . .
J OT semi3XIS a,
EXAMPLE 12 Sketch the graph of the equat10n

.
r= 16
5- 3coso·
-
Conic SectJons and Ap-plications SECTlON 10.6 675
So lu tion first we di,id~ numerator :md denominato r by 5 and find tha t

I~
r -- 5\ .
I- FOSO
1-!. 0)
Thus e = ~ and~= ¥· E.qUJtion (29) then implies th:lt a = 5. finally. c = ac = 3
and
b = •./a= - C: = 4.
fiGURE 10.6.12 The ellipse of So we have here an ellirs= with major s:miaxis a = 5. minor scmiaxis b = 4, and
Eu mplc 12. center at (3 . 0) in C~rtesiJn coordinate-;. Th:.- ellipse is shown in fig. 10.6.32. +
REMARK 1 The lioitin~ form of Eq. (::0) as c - 0 is the equltion r =a of a circle.
Becau~e p - x as c - "'Hh a fi 'cd in Eq. ( 29). we may thcrdore regard a ny circle
0
as an ellipse"' ith eccen tricity zero and " i th directri.' at infi nity.
'RE MARK 2 If "C hcgin wnh nn elli pse with ecce ntricity e < I and d irectrix x = - p.
then the limiting form of Eq . (30) as r - 1- is the equat ion
p
r = .,--...!--___,. (31)
I -cosO
o f :1 pa raboll. For instance. fig. 10.6.33 shows a p:1 rabola and nn ellipse o f eccentricity
e = 0.99. bot h with dtrcctrix p = - I. O~erve th at the two curn:s appea r to :llmost
coi ncide ncar the origin wh e re .<cr < 0 < 3.'0' . Thi' ~ort of approximation o f nn el lipse
by a paraholn is useful in studying come ts with high ly eccen tric ellipticnl o rbi ts.
1 0 99
FIGURE 10.6.33 The parabola r = and the elli pse r = ·
1 - cos e 1 - 0.99 case ·
EXAMPLE 13 A certain comet is known to have a highly eccentric elliptical Qrbit

with the sun at one focus. Two successive observations as this comet approached the
sun gave the measurements r = 6 A U when 0 = 60•, and r = 2 AU when 0 = 90"
( rela tive to a fixed polar·coordinatc system). Estima te the position of the comet at
its point of closest approach io the sun.
Solution Because the elliptica l orbit is highly eccentric. we assume that nea.r the
sun it can be approximated close ly by a pa rabola. lbe angle 0 =a of the axis is
unknown. but a preliminary sketch indicates that a will be less than the initial angle of
observation: thus 0 <a < :r / 3. Using the polar coordlinate system with this unknown
polar axis and countercloc kwise angular variable¢ = 0 -a (Ftg. 10.6.34 ), the equation
in (31) of the parabola takes the form
, = p
_ . ! . . . __ = ~-.:.._
p __
1-cos¢ 1 -cos(O'-a)' (32)
1l1c vertex of a parabola is its point closest tQ its focus (Problem 65), so the
FIGURE 10.6.34 The comet of minimum distance of the comet from the sun will be r = p / 2 when 0 = :r +a. Our
Examp!e 13. problem. then. is tO determine the values of p and cr.
. . h . observational dala inlo Eq. (32) yields the two equations
S ubslltullng t e gtven p
6 == p and 2 == 1 - cos(rr /2 -a) (33)
1 - cos(rr/3- a)
Elimination of p yields
6-6(~cosa+ ~sina) '"' 2 - · 2sina.
We therefore need to solve the single equation

Jcosa + (JJ3- 2 ) sin a- 4 == 0.
A cnlculato r or computer yields the approximate root a =
0.3956 ""' 22.67•. ll1cn lhe
second equation in (33) gives p == 2(1 -sin a ) "" 1.2293 (Au). Because 1. asrronomical
unit is abo u t 93million miles, the comct'sclosest approach to the sun IS about = !P
(0.5)(1.2293)(93) "' 57. 16 million miles. •

I. Summarize the definitions and alternative constructions of the parab<Jia.
ellipse, and hyperbola.
2. Compare the rencction properties of the three types of conic sections.
3. Summariz.: th.: applications of the conic sect ions. You m ight like to consult
an encyclopedia o r do a Web search.
10.6 PROBLEMS
In l 'rv/Jion< lthruuxh 5. jind the equatimt and Jketclt the graph IS. x 1 - 4.r-4y = 0
of the parabola with verr~x V and fom.< F.
16. i -2.x + 6y+ 15 == 0
I. V<O. 0 ). F (3.1l) 1
17. 4.r +4x + 4y + 13 =0
2. V(O. 0). F(O. -2i 18. 4>;- 12y + 9.r = 0
3. 11 (2. ~). F(2. ll
In Probl..nu 19 througlt 33. find an equatio n of the tlfipst
4. V(- 1.-ll.l'(- 3.-1) sp..cified.
5. V(2. 3). 1'(0. 3) l'J. Vertice-s (±-t. 0) and (0. ±S)

20. Foci (±5. 0). major scmiaxi$ 13
In l'rohlt•m.r 6 throug!t / 0, find the equation anti sketch the graph
of the pmabofa with tltc given foctu and tlirectrir. 21 · Foci (0. ±8). major scmiaxis 17
6. 1'(1. 2J . X == -I 22. Center (0 · 0) · vcni~I . r a.,ts

· ax1·s 12, mmo
~ maJOr . 8
23• Foci (±3. 0). eccentricity J
7. F(O. -3). y = 0
II. 1'(1. -ll. X= 3
U. Foci (0. ±4). eccentricity j
25. Center (0· · O) · h ',,·IZOn la 1maJOr
· .
axts . . 1
20. ecccntrtctty ;
\1. f'((l. 0), >' == -2
26. Center (0 U) h ·. . . . ;
10. F(-2. J).x == - 4 · • <>nwnta1 mmor axts 10, eccentricny ;
27• Foci (±2, 0), directrices x = ±8 .
In Pwblmu II tltrou.~h 18, sketch the parabola with tltr gl••cn
211• Foci (0. ±4), directrices y = ±9
rquation. Show aiUIIobd itJ ••nt~x. focus. a.ri~ and dir~ctrLr.
29. C.: ntcr (2 · 3)' • honmnta
·. . 8. vert ical a xis 4
1 axts
II. l == 12..r
30. Center (I · - 2) • hort"zun I3 I nl:t)Or
. 3 XIS
. 8, cccenlrtCIIY
. . il
12. .rl == -8 >'
31. Foci ( - 2. I) and (4 • I) • m·· . 10
")Or 3XIS
IJ. I== -6.r 3,- r'OCI· ( - 3. O) and ( -3, 4). minor axis 6
2
14. x = 1>' 33• Foci ( -2. 2) and (4, 2) . eccentricity !
,..,
Coni' SC(tions and Applications SECTION 10.6 677
Skrtclt the J':f<lpla v( tit~ rquationr in l' rob lcnu 34 through 38. 67. Show that an equation of the line tangent to the p3 rabola
fm/iratr rem us.. foc t. und l~ngrhs of turs. .'.2 .. 4p.r at the point (.:c, . ) ':>)is
J.l. ~.t 1 ~>.2 = I 6 2p.r - ) uY + 2p.r., =0 .
.•s. 4,: + 9r1 = t~-1 Conclude that the tanccnt hne in tersects th.: x -axis at the
y,, ..:t1 + 9 t l = 24r point ( -.r). 0). Thi< ra; t provides a quick method for con·
structing a line tangent to a parabola at a given roin t.
37. 'h 1 + .tyl- 32y + 2S = 0
68. A com~ t 's orbit is a parabola '"th the sun at its focus. Whe n
.l!l. 2x1 + 3y + 12t - 24y + 1\0 =0 the comet is 100J2 million miks fro m the sun. the line from
In /'rob/em s 39 tltroush 52, {tnt! an equation of rhe ltypuboln the su n to the comet makes an an~le of 45' with th e :txis
descrrl>td. of the parat>ola (Fig. 10.6.35 ). Wh a t " i ll be th e mi nimum dis-
.W. Foci (:!:4. 0 ). ve rt icc~ (1: 1. 0) tance toc twee n the comet and the sun? ISuK_~e.Hinn: Write
th e equation of the P""~"la with the origin a t the focus.
~0. Foci ((1. ±3). vert icc ' tO. ±2)
then ll<e the result of P roblem 65. ]
~I . Foci (± 5. 0 ). n•ympwtcs y ~ ±3.r/ 4
42. Vertices (±3. 0). a•ymptotcs y = ± 3xj4 c
43. Vertices (0, ±5), a'ymptotc\ y == ±.r

44. Vertices (±3. 0). eccentricity c = ~
45. Foci W . ±6) , eccentricit y e = 2
4{), V~rtices (±4, 0) and pa,sing thro tlgh (8, 3)
47. Foci ( ± 4. 0), directrices .r = ± t

48. Foci ('(l. ± '!),directrices y = ± 4
.S9. Center (2. 2). horizunt:tl trans verse axis of le ngth 6. ccccn·
tricity t' 2 = FIGURE 10.6. 35 The
come t of Problem 68 in
50. Cen ter (-I . 3), vertices ( - 4. 3) and (2. 3). foci ( -6. 3) and parabolic orbit around
(4. 3) the sun.
~1. Cente r (1, -2). ve rtices (1. I ) and (1. - 5). asympt otes 69. Su ppose that the angle of Problem 6S increases from 45°
J.r - 2)' = 7 an d J .r + 2y = - I to 90" in 3 days. How much longe r will he required for the
52. Focus (S, - I), asymptotes 3.•· - 4 r = 13 and 3x + 4y = 5 comet to reach it< point of closest appro:tch to the sun?
t\s>ume that the li ne sc!!mcnt frnm the sun to the come t
Sketch the graph.< of the equatiom gi••e-n ;, Problmt5 5J thmugh sweeps out arc11 a t a con stant r>tc ( Kepler's second bw).
58: indicates cema.~ foci. and asym pto tt·.t 70. Usc Eqs. (7) a nd (R) to d erive Eq. (9) with the values of M
53. xl - y -2.r + 4)' =4 a nd R given in Eqs. ( 10) and (II ).
54• .r 2 - 2)~ + 4.t =0 71. Deuucc from Eq. (II) that. given a fixed in itia l velocity ,1,.
the ma..imum range of the projectile is R.n... = •·l Jg and is
55. y- 3.t 2 - 6y = 0 attnined when a = ·15' .
56. .r 2 - y- 2.t + 6y = 9 In l'roblt:ms 72 through 7·1, assrm r. that a projectile is fired with
57. 9.rl-4y2 + IR.t +Ry-= 31 initial •·•locity t'Q =50 m/s from tit• origin and m "" angle of
inclinario11 a. Use g = 9.8 m/s2 •
58. 4 y2 - 9.rl - 18.r- Sy = 41
72. If a = 45', find the range of the projecti le and the maximum
In each of f>roblems 59 thro ugh 64, idemify and sketch lilt conic height it attains.
stction with the Kivcn polar rquarion. 73. For what value or values of a is the range R .. 125m?
6 6 74. Find the range o f the projectile and the length of time it
59. r = ::---:- 60. ' = ..,.t-+""2::-c-o-s~O
1 +cosO remains above the ground if (:t) a = 30'; (b) a= 1\0' .
3 8 75. l11e book EJo,.mts of LJifferential aflll /111egml Ci!lculus
61. r = ::---:- 62. r=s -2 cos 8
1 - cosO hy William Granville. l'erccy Smith. and William Longl~y
12 (Ginn and Company: Bo-;ton. 1929) lists a number of
6
63. r = ::-----,--..,. (..S.r= 3 + 2 cos 0 ~cur_vcs for reference" ; the curve with equ:llion ..(i + .;y =
2 - s in 19
./ii ts called a parabola . Verify that the curve in question
6S. Prove tha t the point of the parabola y 2 = 4p.r closest to its actually is a parabola. or show that it is not.
focus is its vertex . 76. The 1992 edition of the study guide for the national actu·
66. Find an equation of the parabola uhat h as a vertical axis and aria! examinations has a problem quite similar to this o ne:
passes through the points (2 . 3), (4, 3), and (6. -5). Every point on the plane cun•e K is equally distant from the
6 78 CHAPTER 10 Pola r Coordinate1 a nd Pa rametric Curve1
at the poi nt /'(.ro. )Ill ha< e qu3tion
poin t (- 1. - 1) a nd the line.r + y =I. and K hJs equation
x 1 + Bxy + Cy1 -'- D.t + £y + F =0. ~ - M =L
"' Jr
Which is the \'aloe of D: -2. 2. 4. 6. o r 8?
77. (a) The o rbit o f the co me t Kahout ck is an cllip~e o f ex· ·s It o f J'rnblc m S6 to e stab lish t he re flection prop.
trerne eccentricity e = 0.999925: the sun is at one focus o f 87 Use 1he rc u . f
• crty o f the hyperbol:l. (Sec the s ugges tio n nr Pro blem 81.)
thi< e llir"e. The rn i ~im um di~tance bc t-.cc n the su n and
• th• t 0 < " < c. :md let b = ~- Show that
Ka houte k is 0.13 Ali. W hat is the rna , irnum d istance be· 88. Suppo>c ~ x' t a·• - ,-• j /r' = 1 1s · 1h c• Iocus o ( a potnl
· p
twee n 1\aho utek a nd the sun·• (h) 'll1e orbit o f the come t the h' 'J'<!r I"',13 - .
llyakuta ke is a n e llipse of extreme .-cccntncity e = such iha l th e 1/lffut•tlrt' t>ctwccn the dis ta nces I r Fd and
0 9996.:3856; the s un i< at one focu< of thi< clllfS<!. Th<! I p F: l is .:qual to 2a ( F 1a nd F2 are the foc1 of I h e hypc rhola).
minimum d ista nce between the sun and Jh•a kuta ke is . D eri'o: an equa tion for the hyrerhola with . ,·enices
0 2.)()0232 A ll. Wh at is the maximum distan~e ret wee n 89 (±JJ.Ji. :Jt ./11 nnd foci (:!:5. ;j,)). Usc the dlffmn~
I lyak utakc and the s un? definitio n o f 3 hyJl<'rbol:t nnphed hy Pro hlc m !l.~.
7K. 'Ole orhll of the pla net !\lercu ry ISan elhpsc o f cc.:c nt ricity 90. T-. o radio s ignaling statio ns at A ;~nd B li': o n ~n ea st·wesl
'= 0 .206. Its ma ximum and minimum d1<tances from the line. with , , 100 mi west of 8. A p b n e IS flymg " ·est on
sun nrc 0 467 and n 30i A ll. respectl\'cl~. \\'hat a re the major a line 50 mi no rth o f th e lin e A B. R a dio signal~ a rc sent
a nd minor sc min<c< of th e o rbit o f ~fe rcu ry? Does "nearly ( traveling a t YSO ft/f<S) s im ul ta neo u sly from II and andn.
circu br" accura tely de<crihc the urhit of Me rcury? the one sent fro m II arri ves a t the plan e 400 1•s before the
79. D c ri"e Eq . ( 16) fo r an ellipse " ho' e foc 1 he on the y·axi~ o ne sent fro m ; t Whe re is tiH: p la ne '!
KO. S ho w th ai the line tangent to the ell ir<c 91. T" o mdio signalin~: sta ti on< arc located ns in l' roblem 90
x2 )'~ and e ron~mi t rndio ~ i un:''' tha llr:tvcl at the same speed. Out
-+ - =I now -. e know only t-ha t the p la ne i' generally somewhere
a 1 ti
no rth o f the lone A ll. that the signal fro m 11 a rrives 400111
at the point P(.ro. )ll) of that dhpsc hn~ ~quntion
befo re the one sen t from A and that the signal sent from A
XoX ~y I and reflected by th" plane takes a total of 600 J1S to rea ch 8.
a' + hf =· Where i< the plane'!
1!1. Usc t he result uf Pro blem SO to c>tablish the rcneclion pro p·
crty o f the ellipsc.!Sugg~srior~: Let m t>c the <lope o f the line 92. t\ comet has a p.~raholic orbit " 'ith the s un a t one focu~
m,
no rma l to the ell ipse a t /'( r11 • ) ul and let m 1 a nd l>e the \\'hen the comet i< 1.50 mill ion miles f rom the s un. the sun·
comet line ma ke s an angle o f 45' with the a~is of the
slopes of the lines / ' F 1 anti 1' /·i. rc~pcctivcly. frt>m I' 10 the
r-.o foci F1 and 1'1of the e llipse. S how that pa rabola. What " ill be the m inimum d istance between the
m-n11 m: - 111
comet a nd the sun'!
I + 111 1m == I + m:m: 93. 1\ satellite h:t< Ml e lliptical orbit wi th the center of the earth
( ta ke it< rad ius 10 '"' ·1000 m i) at o ne: focus.ll1c lowc:s t point
the n use the identity fo r tan( II - RJ .)
82. Give n Ft(-c, 0) an d f i(c, 0 ) with a > c > 0. prove tha t the
of !Is'."h it is 5~ mi a hove the l"orth Pok: a nJ the highest
pomt " 51~ )() 101 above the So u th Pole. What is the height
ellipse nf the sa tclhtc :.hove the s urface o f the e a rth -.hen the
x' f satelli te cro>~es the eq ua torial p la ne?
- +- = 1
a' b'
94. find the clo<~st appm:~ch to the ;u n of a co met as in Ex~m ·
( \lo ll h ,; =a' - r) is the locus o r those pomts I' such thll pic 13 of this <ce tion; a><umc th~t r = 2 .5 A U when (J = 45'
i /'F,I + I I'F,I = 2a. and t h~t r =
1 A ll whc:n 0 = ')()".
8J. fi nd a n equation o f the ellip<e "ith homontal a nd ' 'crtical 95. ''n ellipse ha~ sc mimajor axis " and scmimino r a~i~ b. Use
a xes that passes thro ugh the !)(lints (- I. 0 ). (3. 0), (0. 2). and the pola r-coord'1nate equa t1on
. o f an ellip se to d erive the
(0. - 2). furmula il = JTob fnr its are a.
8-1. De rive 311 equa tion for the cllip;e with foci (3, - 3) and 96. The orbit uf a ccrt 3111
·• · · h
( - 3. .3) a nd major axis of k ngth Ill. Note th :uthe foci of this p arabola ' co me t approachmg the s un IS t e
e llipse lie o n ne ithe r a \'Crtica lline nur :1 horizontal line.
85. Sho w tha t the graph of the equation r = _ __:,__
xl y1 l - cos o·
- - - --= 1
1.5- c r-6 ta k units fo r r 3 rc• 10
The •
astro no m ica l units. S uppo<e that 1·1
i< ( a ) a hyperbo la with foci ( ±3. 0) if li < c < 15 and (h) a n cs
_ -~
15 d a '
' > for th. e comet to. tra\'el fro m the """IliOn· ·
0 - ~ • lU I~ · · 1" - .
e llipse: if c < 6. (c) Identify the grap h 111 the case c > 1.5. . 1'0<1t1o n 0 = <JO' . H o w m uch longer ..,,11 II
requite fo r th e c omc t to re a ch its JlOint of clt><e>t apnrolCh
86. Esta blish that the line tangen t to the: hyperbola to th c sun'/ As · ,.
s ome that the radius ( r u m the: sun 10 tht
x1
u' -
rtr =I co met s " ·ccps c)Ut a rea at 11 co nst• nl r• te •s the cornet
010 \CS ( Kc: kr' · •• " "·
P 5 second law of p 13nclary mo tion)
Chapter 10 M iscellaneous Problems 6 79
CHAPTER 10 REVIEW: CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
Use tilr fo llll"'lfi,R lur Of a guide to additional mm:rpts that )Oil compares the properties of an e llipse nnd a hyperbob. each with
may nrc•d rn rrt·tcw. foci (:!:c. 0) and major n1i• of length 2n.
1. Ce~ni.: ' cction•
2. 'Th( rela tion~hi p between rectangular and polar coordanates Ellip~c
.t The r. raph or nn equ~ t ion in pobr ·c oordina tes I Hrperbola
c
c (=- > 1
-1. The :uca rnrmu l.t in polar coordin:Hcs Eccentricity c= - < 1
a a
5. ~.:l'lnillon uf a pam me tree cur\'c a nd or a smooth paramct·
nc curve a . b. c re!Jtion al = h: +r cl;: a 1 + tr
6. The ~lope or the line ta nt~cntto a smooth para metric curve .rl
- - :....= I
,J :r ,.:
- - - =I
(roth in rectangular and in polar coordinates) Equation a: ~
a' t>1
7. l ntc!!ral comput atao ns "'ith paramctnc cunc:s (Eq1. (I) (±a. 0)
Vertices (:::a. O)
through (-I) o r Scctaon IO..S(
!1. Arc len~th of a parametric curve y·intercepts (0. ±b) I'o ne
I a a
Direct rices .r = :!:- .t = ±-
REVIEW OF CONIC SECTIONS ~ e
bx
TI1e parabo la with focu s (p. 0) nnd dir cctri' x .. - JJ hns cccen· Asymptote< Non e y=±-(/
tricity t = I nnd equation I = 4px . 'lite accornpa n)ing table
.
Skttch the grapla of tlrt tquarions in Probltms lthrouJIIr 30. In .36. Inside r= 3eos0 and outside r = I + eosO
Problem s I through I ll. if tht t:rnph is a conic S<·ction. labtl iu 37. Inside r = 1 + rosll and outside r = cosO
centn, foci. ami •·cniu.~ 38. Oc tween the loop< o f r = I - 2 sin 0
1. A I + ).: - 2x - 2y = 2 2. x 2 + y2 = x + >'
3. x' + yl - fl.r +2y+9 = 0 4. y 4(x + y) = In Problrms 39 through .S), climinatr tht parameter and sketch
zh~ c un·~.
5. x' = Rr - 2y- 20 6. x 2 +2y2 -2.r+Sy+8=0
7. 9r 2+ 4y = 36r 8. x 2 - >.1 = 2.r - 2y- I
39. X = 2t1 - 1, )' = 2fl + 1 -10• .r = cosh r. y = sinh r
-11. x = 2+cos t. y= 1-sin t 42. x=cos' r, y=sin' t
9. > ; - 2.r 1 = ~ r + 2 y + 3 10. 9y' - ~x 1 = Hr + 18y+3 1
11 . .r 1 + 2/ = .ax+ 4y - 12 U. >.1-6y + 4x +5= 0 -13. x = 1 + r1• y = r3
2
13. 9(.r -2 r + l ) = 4(f+ 9) 14. (x 1 - 4)(y2 - l ) =0 In ProbltmJ 4./ thtllugl• 48. wrilt a" equation of tht line tangent
15. x' - Sz+ y2-2y + 16 = 0 =
16. (X - 1)2 + ·l(y - 2) 1 I tn the given cun·e at the indica t~cl point.
17. ( r 2 - -l r + ).1- 4y + S)(.r + y)2 = 0 .u. X = t 1•
= t 3: I
)' I =
18. .I = 1 + 4y+5 19. r = -2 ros0 -15. x = 3sint. y = 4 cost: 1 = :r f -1
I .a6.. x=r. y=c.--•: r =O
20. cosO+ sinll =0 21. , = stn. O +cos 0 =
-17. r 0; ,0 tr/2 =
22. rsin 0 = co~O1 23. r = 3~c o 48. r = 1 + sinO; 0 = :r/ 3
25. r1= 4cos0
:U. r = 2(cos0- I)
= 3 - 2 sin 0
In f'rol>lems 49 ''"""II''
52, find the area of tile rrgion bnween
26. rO = 1 27. r the gi•·m curve mul the x·axis.
~
28. , 1
= _.:.......,. 29. r = 2 +cos 0 -19. .r =21 + I, y = 12 + 3; - I SI ~2
I + cosO 50.x = ~. y = t· -'~ O ~ t ~ IO
.j
30. r = -~--, 5 l. x=3sint. y= 4cos t ; O:i t S rr/ 2
l -2cos0
52. x = cosh t. y =sinh r: 0 :1 t S I
In Probkm.d 1 tiiToUglt )8, find th~ ar~a of the r~gior1 d~scribtd.
31. lnJ>ide both r = 2sin0 and r = 2 cos O In Problems 53 through 57, fin d tilt ar~ l~r~gth of rh~ gil'tfl ~ll,..,t.
32. ln.idc r 2 = 4 cos II
=
SJ. x 11• y = t 3; 0 :i I :! I
33. Jruide r = 3 - 2 sin 0 and outside r = 4 s.&. x = 1n(cost). y = r: O:i t :i ll'/-1
.l.t. Insider>= 2sin20 and outside ,. = 2sin 0 I
35. Insider = 2 sin 2B and o utside r = ./2
ss.x .. :u. y= t' +-:
31
1 S t ~2
Yo. r "' sinO; O;;! O ;S :r

74. Use methods of calculus to find the points or the ellipse
57. r = sin (!1/3); O ;i O :; :r
1
x
2
1
-+-=I
I" l'robl~~~~s 58rlrumglr 61. find the ar~a oftlte mrface g"1uured al b2
by re•·olwng rlrl:' gil'l'n mn·e aro tmd thl:' X·axis. that arc nearest to and farthest from (a) the center (O. O);
511. X "' 1 2 + I, y e: 3r; () ;) I ;S 2 (b) the focus (c. 0).
59. X = 4 Ji, )' "' Jr' + 2rl;

I
I ::i I ;;! 4 1s. Consid.:r a line segment QR that contains a point I' such
that JQ/'1 =a and l f'RI = b. Suppose that Qisconstrained
(>0. , =cos o
10 mow on the y-:uis. whereas R must remain on the x-a~is.
61. r=.,·n; o :;o:; :r Pro,•c tha t the locus of I' is an ellipse.
62. .t "' e'cos r , y = ~si nr ; O:;i r S:r/2 76. Suppose thalli > 0 and that Ft a nd F2 are two fixed points
63. Consider the rolling circle o f radius a that was used to gcn· in the plane with I F1 F:l > 211. Im agine a point P that moves
er?tc.the ~ycloid in Example 5 of Section 10.4. Suppos~ t hat in such a way that ! f'F1 I =
211 + l l' Ftf. Prove that the lo.
th1s .m ete 1s the rim of a di,k. and let Q he a poi nt o f this disk cus of pis one b ranch o f a hyperbo la with foci f·i and r,,
at distance b < a from its ccnte r. l'ind parametric eq uations Then- as a consequence-explain how to co nstruct poin~s
fur the curve traced hy Q as the c ircle roll~ a long the .r·axis. on a hyper bob by dra-.ing appropriate circles centered at
AS\umc th:lt Q hegins a t the point (0. a - b). Ske tch this its foci.
curve. which is c:•llc d a trochoid. 77. Let Q1 and 0 be two points on the pnrabob J1 =4p.t.l.ct
M. If the smaller circle of l'roblcrn 34 in Sectio n lOA ro lls P be the point of the pa rabola at which the tangent line is
ar~und the oursidc of the la rge r circle. the path o f the point parallel to Q1 Q: . Prove that the horizontal line throu~h p
f' IS called an e pic:yrloid. Show that it has parametric equa· bisects the segm ent Q, Q2. -
liOns
78. Determine the locus of" po int /'such that the pro<.luccorits
distances from the two fixed points F1(- a,0) and F2 (o,0)
x = (a+ b)cos r- I> cos a + b)
( -,-r , is a:.
79. Find the eccentricity of the conic section with equation
)'"' (a+ I>) sm
. r- I>Sm
. ("-h-1
+I> ) . 3x 2 - y2 + 12x + 9 = 0.
1!0. l'ind the a rea bounded by the loop of the s tropltoid
65. Suppose tha t b"' a in Problem 64. Show that the epicycloid
is then the cardioid r "' 211(1 - cosO) translated a units to r = secO- 2cos0
the righ t. shown in f-ig. IO.MI~l.
66. Find the are:t of the surface gene rated by revolving the lcm.
niscate r 1 "' 211 2 cos 20 around the .r·axis.
67. l-ind the \ OIWl lC generated by revolving around the y·axis
y
the area under the cycloid
x =o a(r -sinr ). y = o(l-cosl), O ~ r ;i 2~r.
6S. Show that the len!(th of one arch of the hypocycloid of Prob-
lem 34 in Section 10.4 iss = 81>(11 - b)/a.
69. l'ind a po lar-comdinate equation of the circle that passes
through the origin and i~ centered at the point with polar
coordinates ( p . u).
70. l'ind a simple equation of the par.~ho!J whose focus is
the origin and whose directrix is the line y = x + 4. Re-
call from Miscellaneous Problem 93 of Chapter 3 that the FIGURE lO.MP.l The
strophoid of Problem SO. FIGURE 10.MP.2 The lofium
dis tance from the point (.to. j 'o) to the line with equation
Ax + lJy + C = 0 i.s
of Descartes xl + yl 3xy=
(Problem 81 ).
f Axo + ll)IJ + Cl
81. Find the area bo
Jill + lJl D. .'
cscartcs wnh •qunded . by J the loop of the folium of .
71. A diameter o f a n ellipse is a chord through its center. Find Fig. IO.M·I~2. Su c ~alton .t + y3 = 3.ry shown IO
the maximum and minimum lengths o f diameters of the then sub · · ( !lgr.l/torc. C ha nge to polar coordinates and
· stttute u - ta 0
ellipse with equat ion 112. U h . - n to evalu ate the area integral.)
se t e method or I'
the firs t· d roblem 81 to lind the area bounded br
x2
a2
1
+ b2 =I. to the f0 ta xS r
ram loop of the curve + =: 5xl (similar
•urn o f Problem I> I)
I
83• The graph or a coni
n. Use calculus to prove that the ell ipse of Problem 71 is nor-
at (5, 0).( _ 5
· ·.
. c section tn the .r }'·plane has intercepts
mal to the coord inate a xes at each of its four vertices. 0
tion you ca · b).((), 41 · and (0. -4). Deduce all the informa·
73, The parabolic arch of a bridge has base width baud height 11 · · · C . whd h'f
it is a p ara boIa oa ut
• n a
h , '"tome.
ho an you dctcrmmc '
1r at its center. Write its equation. choosing the origin on know th h · )per Ia, or an ellipse? What if you .also
the ground at the left end of the arch. at I C graph 0 f h' . I
the point (O. 41 ? I 1s con ic is normal to the y-ax1s n
..
• I ' •
.:,
... .,.,
~ . I •
(
-.
·~ .. .. .. '' .
INFINITE SERIES I •.
;. • I
•
.
.. ·'
. . ... A '
i nfin itc series. An example of his discoveries is the infinite
O
n a cold January day
in 19 13, the em ine nt s eries
C1 mhri dgc mathe · ,!_ _ ./8 ~(-In ) ! . (1103 + 2639011).
ma tics pro fe~~o r G. II. :r - 9801 ~ (II! ) 4 396'1"
ll ardy rece ive d a le lle r ..o
from a n unk nown 25·yea r· whose first term ~·ie lds th e familiar approximation
o ld clerk in the acc~unt· :r "' 3. 14159. and wi.th each addi tiona l te rm givi ng ;r to
ing departm en t of a gov· rou ghl y ei ght more decimal places of accur:1cy. For in-
ern me nt office in Madras, stance. jus t four terms of Rama nujan's series arc needed
Ind ia. Its auth or. Sriniva~u to c3lcu latc the 30-place approxima tion
Ramanujan. had no uni-
rr "' 3.14159 26535 89793 23S46 26433 83279
versity education. he
admitted-he had flunked that suffices for virt ually an y imaginable "practical"
out- but "after lea ving applica tion-if the univers e were a sphere with a radius
school! have e mployed the of 10 billion light years. then this valu e of rr would give its
Srinivasa Ramanuj.ln sp:l re time at my disposal to circumference accurate to the nearest hundredth of an
(1887-1920) work at Mathematics ... I inch. Dut in rc.:ccnt years Rama nujan's ideas ha ve been
have not trodden through used to calculate the value of rr accurate to a billion dec-
the conventional regula r course . .. but am s triking out a imal places. Indeed. such ga rgantuan co mputations o f :r
new path fnr myself." l11c ten pages that followed listed in arc commonly used to check the accuracy of new super-
neat handwritten script a pproxinntcly 50 formulas. most computers.
dealing with integrals and infinite series that Ramanujan
had discovered, and asked Hard y's advice whether they II' "'-- -
..
c-.----J ,~ ..- -
contained anything o f value. 'Inc formulas were of such ·~-.,L- - .
(" Ar. r.-. t~.. t;. •'"·- .. 1'1\~',i
exotic and unlikely appearance that Hardy at first sus- tw Jl'• ~..... .. I f(U.J:> · • " J
pected a hoax . but he and his collea gue J. E. Littlewood r(..__ .., !...!.:'J !!5 ..
rl't:...!-
soon realized that they were looking at the work of an r:c~' r~;~1 . ~t:
r t~!' rc~
extraordinary mathematical genius. . . . f~"1. ,....._ ~.; \.";.,: ~- " ..: ...
Thus began one of the most romantiC ep1sodes m 01 H 1 • •• 4 1'- o ... Mf".-.. .,..
the history of mathematics. In Apri11914 RamanuJ•m. ar- -1 • \ •• ._,_,M
., •"•\t('"hl; "-
' ·•4 '• . &<\ . - • •
rived in England a poor. sclf·taught lnd1an m_athcmat1cal ~.;;r . . . ~. ~~·~lj '"'
amateur catlcd to collabo rate as an equal w1th the most • • t .L
' ......,..,:l- ·~1!.!.. -
sophisticated professional ma thematicians of the day. F~r ·'--, -, ...--,. . .. •
•..;u.~ ~r~-..,
N ,lf• • h "~ -r, ~ ~
the next three years a steady stream of remarkable ths-
coveries poured forth from his pen. D~t in 1917 he fell
seriously ill. apparently with tube rculosis. ll.lc followmg ..,
-..
- . 4 • • ~~....,_-;....;.. ..... .
'*'T-:r
~.- ·~::.·,:~::~.
-.=;.:. a;:;. ..;-~.. ·V'¥- ""-t"~
year he returned to India to attempt to regam Ins health "' +- ~ ~· -f.!r.... •(ffll!.<~trJ~
but never recovered. and he died in 1920at the age of32.
"" n ~ ~...,.....;..;.~. - .. _.,,.
Up to the very end he worked feverishly to rc~~rd his fi- 1--<~ ·f - .. .....,.~- - . . J
nal discoveries. He left bd1ind notebooks outhnmg work
whose completion occupied prominent mathematicians A typical page of Ramanujan's
throughout the twentieth century. letter to tlardy, listing formulas
With the possible exception o! E~lc~, no ?nc ~ Ramanujan ha.d d iscovered, but
fore or· since has exhibited RamariUJan s vtrtuostly wnh witl'l no hint of proof or derivation.
681
682 CHAPTER 11 Infinite Series
11. 1~IN~T~R~O~D~U~C~T~IO~N~------------------~~~==~~::==~~
. . her zcno proposed thefifollowing parado~..
Greek phrlo~op
In th e fifth ccn turv n.c..t hc . d'•tancc the runner must rst travel halfwa}'
• , 13 grven ,, ' · . '
In o rder for a runner to tra\c - h If the di stan ce th:ll yet remams. and so on
. . d'stancc then a
then half the remarnrng ' • •. . J·arlv imposs ible for a runner to accomplish
ad infimtu.
m. [! ul. z~e no •argu
-: ed · H .rs c c. criod . of time. so motion . f rom one point
10
infinitely many such tasks m a tinrte P
a nother is impossible. • . fi1111.t subdi,·ision o f [0. I J indicated in Fig. II.I. J.
L! .L · a • dox suoeests the 10
c r each integer n = .. 1 '- · 3. ·: . . .If .' he.'ength
I I" . no sp r~ . .. =
Ze 'th I 2" fo
The re IS one sutnntenal of le ng I f th , subintervals rnto whrch !Its dtvidcd
~l-r=~-I: ti 1'1 I II
of the interval is the sum of the lc:ngt115 0 " '
0 then it would appear tha t
FIGURE 11.1.1 Subdivhion of an ' + ' . ! + _!_+ .. · + _!_ + .. · ·

I= 2
interval to illustrate Zeno's 4 -r 8 I6 2"
parado x. · · · 1 . dd ' up to I But the formal infinite sum
wrth anfinately many terms some 10\\ a Ill£ ·
1+ 2+3+· · · + 11 + · ··
of all the positive intege rs seems meaningless-it docs no t appe ar to add up to any
(fi nite) vnlue. . .
·n,c question is th is: What. if a nythin g, do we mean by the sum of an mfinttt
collection of numbers? 'Jltis chapte r exp lores condi tio ns under which an infinite sum
a 1 + a2 + a3 + ···+a, + ·· ·.
known as an infinite srries. is meaningful. We discuss meth ods for computing the sum
of an infinite series and applications of th e algebra and calculus of infinite scric~
Infinite se ries arc important in science and math e matics because many functions
e ither arise most na turally in the form of infinite series or have infinite series rep·
resl!ntations (such as the Taylor series of Section I 1.4) th;at arc useful for numerical
computations.
7l .l i iNFI NITE SEQUENCES

An infinile sequence of real numbers is an ordered, unending Jist
(I)
of numbers.. 'I11at this list is ordl'red implies that ·t h

·d .
r·
· • ' as a rrst term a 1 a second tcrrn
tl>, a t I11r term fiJ, and sn forth llJ•t tl1c s · · ·· 1· · · I·1 ·s
• (for every n ) the ni h lern · h "
that cqucncc IS· unen ' d mg.
' or 111 rmp "
. 111, as a successor a
clliJlSis in ( 1) an infinite scqu. . . . n+I ·
· ume.
·nlUS,. as ·llldiC<J!C( It>Y th e fi nal
· · cucc rwvcr ends and-d · ·c
explicitly emil• a fiuitc number of te . · ' CSpllc the fact that we wnt
. · •. rms-11 actuall•· h· · fi · ,_ f ,.
Concrse notatiOn for the infinite s ' <JU . . 1 ,Js an m t111te nunwcr o term .
. c enccrn(I) 1s
{a.,J;". or •itllj>ly fI 1" I. (21

Frequently an infinite sequence f I 0 r ..
.numbers can be described ";~II at once
.' by a single function f that gives the sut'c"
values o f thc function: · c~:sstve term so· f t 11e seq uence as succcSsJ''
·e
i' a. = f(n) for " = I • 2, 3, . . . . (3)
i Here a.= f(n) is simply a formula forti 11• 1111

sequence fa. I is given in advance, we c
. I f .· . .
llerm Of the SCCJUCnce. Conversely. if the
an regard (3) •. tl d . . . f t'on
f I1avmg t 1e se t o J>OSI!Ive mtegers as its do . · •1.s '': .ehnuron of the unc 1,.
use the subscnpt notation a. in prcfercn rnam of de1tn1110n. Ordinarii\· we " 111
ce to the fu nctron
· notation f(n). ·
Infinite Sequences SECTION 11 .2 683
EXAMPLE 1 The following table exhibi ts several particular infinite se.quences. Each
is described in three ways: in the concise sequential notation (ani of (2). by writing
the formula as in (3) for its nth term. and in extende d list notation as in (I). Note
that 11 need not begin with the ini tial \'alue I.
I I I I
al't =- 1 - - - ... - ...
n ' 2'3' .: ' 'n'
I I I
II= - 1• to· HXY t()()()' ·ron ...
• 10•
,fi, JS. JS. JIT..... J3n - 7•...
. n.-r . mr
{
. -n:r } "'
Stn a. =Sin- I. 0. -I. 0 ..... SID Z ... .
2 I 2
{3 + (-1)"}7 2. -l. 2. -t.... . 3 + (- l)n,. · ·
Sometimes it is incorwenient or impossible to g:i"e an expl icit formub for the

n th term of a pa rt ic ular sequence. ll1e followin!! example illustrates how sequences
may he defined in other w::~ys. +
EXAMPLE 2 llerc we give the first ten terms of each sequence.

(n) ll1e sequence of prime intege rs (those posi tive integers n having precisely
two divisors, I and n with 11 > 1).
2. 3. 5. 7, 11. 13.17, 19. 23, 29....
(b) ll1e sequence whose 11th term is the nth decimal digit of the number
:r = 3. 1~ 1592653589793238-16 . . .•
I. 4. I. 5. 9. 2. 6. 5. 3. 5....
(r) The fibona£(i sefJuencc (F. I. which mny t>e defined t>y
F1 = 1. ri =l. anti F. ,I= F.+ F._ 1 for n ~ 2.
Thus each term after the second is the sum of the preceding two tenns:
I. I. 2. 3. 5. 8. 13, 21. 34. 55.. ..
lltis is an example of a recu rsively defined sequence in which each term
(after the first few) is given by a formula involving its predecessors. llte
13th-century Italian m~the mat ici~n Fibonacci asked the following ques·
., tion: If we start with a single pair of rabbits that gives birth tn a new pair
after two months, anti each such new pair docs the same. how many pairs
' of rabbits will we have after nmo nths? Set! Problems 55 and 56.
' =
(d) If the amount A o 100 dollars is invested in a savings account that draws
10% interest compounded annually. then the amount A . in the account
,.I at the end of 11 years is defined (for 11 ;;; I) by the itermivc formula A. =
(l.IO)An- l (rounded to the nearest number of cents) in terms of the pre-
;
ceding amount:
110.00. 121.00. 133.10. 146.41. 161.05. 177.16.
194.87. 214.36. 235.79. 259.37 ....
•
limits of Sequences
The limit of a sequence is defined in much the same way as the limit of an ordinary
function (Section 2.2).
684 CHAPTER 11 Infinite Serie1
DEF IN ITI ON Limit of a Sequen ce the real number L, or has the limit L
We s~ y I hat the sequence (a.
I conu~rg~ to
and we wri te lim lin = L. (41
n-<»
L s we please merely by choosingn to be
provided thnt a" can be made ns close
10
b~r f > 0 there exists an in teger N such
sufficiently lnrgc. That is. given any num c '
that (a. - Ll < l for all II ~ N. (S)
th en we say th:lt (a. ) dh·erges.

If the sequence {a.) docs not converge.
'
-- -- - - - -- - ~ ---- - l~f:! ___ _____ _

L _j_________:
· ----.~~.~--~----~-
----------------;;t:; ---------
1 I •
I I I I I I I I I I t I I I
2 J 4 } •
fiGURE 11.2.1 The point (n, a.) ~p proaches the line

y = L as n - + :o.
•• figure 11.2.1 illu5trates geometrically the definition of the li mit of a sequence.

n ccausc
L- < L •<
Ia. - Li < l means that L- f <a. < L + l .
FIGURE 11 .2.2 The inequality
10" - L 1 < < means that a" lies the condition in (5 ) means that if 11 i;; N. then the point ( II , a.) lies be tween the
so mewhere between L - < and ho ri zontal lines y = L- f and )'= L + £. Alterna tively. if 11 ~ N. then the number
L + r. a. lies between the points L- f and L + f on th e real line (Fig. 11.2.2).
EXAMPlE 3 Suppose th:ll we want to establish rigorouslv the intuitive!\" evid~nt

fact that the sequence: (1/ lll j converges to zero. · '
. I
I •m -
n-:.o fJ
= 0. (6)
Been use L = 0 here. we need only convince ourscl\•c•s th It ·· ber t

there corresponds an .mtcger N such that · a1 1o eac posmvc nurn
I~ I= ~ <f if II ?. N.
But evidently it suffices to choose any fix •d · · ·s
j
immediately that c Ill Ieger N > 1/f. Then 11 ~ N rmphe
- ( 0 (
1 I I
FIGURE 11.2.1 If N > ; and -~- < L
1 1 " N '·
> N ·'" -n0<-<-
n ~ N <<. as desired (Fig. 11.2.3).
n., u"'
EX AMPLE 4 (a) 11tesequence IC-I )• .

•
ciliate" between the two values +1 and ~ d•~ergcs bcclusc its successive tcmls... ~:
1
· ence (- I )" cannot approach any s~nsl
value as n--. oo. (b) The terms of the sequence (n2 } increase without bound as 11 --+ oo.
Thus the se quence (n2 j dive rges. In th is case, we might also say that (n2 } diverges ro
~~
Using Limit Laws

.
The limit laws in Section 2.2 for limits of functions have natural analogues for lim·
its of sequences. Their proofs a re based on techniques similar to those us~.:d in
Appendix D.
THEOREM 1 Limit l aws for Sequences

If the limits
lim a. = A and lim b. = B
11-x. n- oo
exist (so A and B arc real numbers). then
1. lim ca. =c A (c any real number);

•-oo
2. lim (a. +b.)
n- ~
= A+ 8;
3. lim a.h. = 1\8;
"~ "'
. a. A
4. I1m-=-.
•-oo b. f)
In part 4 we m ust assume that JJ f. 0 (so that b. f. 0 for all sufficien tly large values
or n).
TH EORE M 2 Substituti on Law fo r Se qu ences

If lim.-oo a. = A and the function f is continuous a t :r = A, t hen
lim f(a.)
•-oo
= /(A).
THEOR EM 3 Squeeze Law for Se quen ces

If a. ~ b. ~ c. for all 11and
lim a. = L = ,._00.
n-01:.)
lim c•.
t hen lim.- 00 b. = Las well.

Th ese theorems ca n be used to compute limi ts of many sequences formally,
without recourse to the definition. For example. Eq. {6) and the product taw or limits
yield
(7)
for every positive integer k.
EXAMPLE 5 Eq. (7) and the limit laws give (after dividing numerator and denom-
inato r by the highest power of n that is present)
'>
.•
. 7n 2 7
11m = 11' m - --
•-oo Sn2 - 3 •- oo 5- -3
n2
lim 7
7 7
= (lim s) - 3 . ( n-oo
lim .!..
2) = s-J.o=s· •
n-oo n
~I 686 CHAPTER 11 Infinite Serie1
cosn
EXAMPL E 6 Show that~--;;-= O.
<JluPeze Jaw and the fact th:ll I I 11 _. 0 as 11
Solution This follows from t h c ,., ~ - OC,
Ob •
because
o•
0..!
•
• • •• t!a t
.s "" ,.. ~l j. ...ofili
·0 1 •
for C\' Cr)' posith·c integer n. •
REMARK \\'ith a typical graphing calculator (in "dot pint mo~c") o r computer
algebra system (using its "list plot" f:tcility), one C:ln plot the _rom ts (n. a. ) in the
FIGURE 11 .2.4 The points .ry-planc corresponding to a gi\'cn sequence Ia. }. (_'igurc II. ~ A shows such a plot for
1, 2, ... , 30.
(n, (C01n)/ n) for n . the s.:quence of E~ample 6 and pro\'idcs ,;sua! e,·.d..:nce of liS conv..:rgcnce to zero.
EXAMPLE 7 Show that if a> O.then lim,.- oo .:fti = !.

Solution \\'c apply the: substitution law with ICxl n'. = a.=
I I II, and A= 0. Be-
cause l / n- 0 a~ n- oo and I is contin uous at .r = 0. th is gives
lim a11" = lim IO / n) = 1(0) = a = I.
n -N n- ~
0
•
EXAMPLE 8 ll1c limitbws and the continuity o f f(.r) = ./X a t x = -l yield
.j- ~ )1/2
lim \
•-oo n- I
= •-oo
(
lim - -
I +-I
11
= J:i = 2. •
II
EXAMPLE 9 Show that if lr l < I. then lim._ ,., r• = 0.

Solution
f be Jr" J = J( - r )"l· we mJ\'
Decause " 0 < r < 1. 111en 1l r = 1to
· • •assume th•t
or some num r a > 0, so the binomial formula yields
I
r• = (I + a )" = I +no +(positive terms} > I + 11n;
0 < ,. < ___.!__
I + no.
Now 1/ (1
_ ex:. + 110) --+ 0 as n - co· lltere~o re. the squeez..: law implies that r• .... 0 as
11
Figure 11.2.5 shows the graph of 3 f .

•
the sequence Ia.} is defined b)· the f ' ul nct• o n I such that lim , _ l(.t) = L II
o rmu a a~ = /(n) fo r C:IC1I pOSIII
. .VC mtc~c
. r II.
y
II. a 1)
I
------
------
Y• L•c
n A
~IGURE 11.2.5 If lim

hm_.., 0.. = l ._, f( x)"' L and o /( )
· •.. n. t~n
then all the poi nts (n. f (n )) lie on tbe graph of y = / (x ). It t herefore follows from
the definition o f the lim it of a functio n t hat lim. _,., a. Las well. =
T HEOR EM 4 Limits of Functions and Sequences
If a. = /(n ) for each posit ive integer n. then
lim / (.T)
,. _ ~
=L implies that lim a. = L.
n- x
(8)
The con,crsc o f the statemen t in (S) is generally false. Fo r example. ta ke / (x ) =

sin :r x and. for each positive int~ger n. let a. = =
/ (n) sin n:r. Then si n n:: a 0, but
sin nt o~cillates between I and - I. so
lim a, = lim sin n:r
,_X n- ~
= 0. but
lim [ (x )
~ ---..
= •-x
lim sin :r x docs not exist.
Accau~e of (8) we can usc I'H opi tal's mlc for ~cquences: If a. = /(ll), b. = g(n),
and f(x )/ g(.t ) h a~ the in det ermi nate form ccf :x: as x - oo. then
• a.
Itm -
•-<» l•. =,_1.mt, f(x) • J'(x )
- - = 11m - - .
g(.r) •-"" g'(.r)
(9)
provided tha t f and K sa tisfy t he other hypotheses of I'Hopitnl's rule, including the
impnrlant assumption that t he right-hand limit e~ists.
. Inn
S
EXAMPLE 10 .how th:u l1m - =0.
n-oe: fl
Solution Th e function (In x)/.t is defined for all x ~ 1 and agrees with th e given
sequence {(I n n)/ n} when x = 11, a positi ve integer. Because (lnx)jx has the indeter-
minate form oo/ oo as x _. oo, !'Hopital's rule gi,•es
. Inn • ln.t . ;
I1m -
n- ~ n
= ..r1-x.
1m -
X
= 11m "-
~ -~ l
= 0. •
EXAMPL E 1 1 Show th at lim $i
n- oo
= 1.
Solut ion First we note that
I In II
In dfi = Inn 1" = -
II
- 0 as 11 - oo.
by Example 10. By the substitution law with f(x) = e•, this gives
lim n 1'"
n-oo
= n-oo
lim e~p ( lnn1' ") = r 0 = I.
•
3n3
EXAMPLE 12 Find lim-,-.
n-oo e:.n
Solution We apply I'Hopital's rule repeatedly, although we must be car eful nt each
intermediate step to verify that we still have an indeterminate form. Titus we find
that
3n3 . 3.t 3 . 9x 2 • l8x 18
lim -
,_oo e2n
= 11m - ,- = hm -
.r-oo t,:.x x-oo 2e2t
hm -
.r-oo 4el •
=
lim -
.~-oo Sell
0
·
= • =
Bounded Monotonic Sequences
The sc t of all rational numbers has by itself all of the most familiar elementary
algebraic prope rties of the entire real number syste m. To guarantee the existence
of irrationa l numbers, we m ust assume in addition a "completeness property" of
688 CHAI'T£R 11 Infinite Scth~s
.· . the re al line might h ave ··ho les" whe re the irratio
the real numbers. O therwtse. ·n this complctcncs~ pro p e rty is in tc nat
numbers oul!ht
-
to be. One
.
f stallof!!sequ e nce. a bounde d mono tomc
way o t)'J>e nns or
. scqucnc
1
the conve rgence of an lnlpor an 1 . . ·r1 ~
lltc sequence Ja.li" is sa id to be mcre:t.~tnl!
Ot ~ Oz ~ OJ ~ • . • !i On ~ . • •
and decn'a~ing if
a ~ Oz ;:; OJ~ . ' . ~ On ~ •.• '
1
Th e seq ue nce Ia. I is mo notonic if it is e ither inc re asing ~r d ccrcasing ..The sequen~
{a. I is bo unded if the re is a number M such th:ll rn.l .. M fo r all II. Ihe follo~~oing
asse rt io n may be t:t ken to be a n a~iom for the re al numbe r sys te m.
Bounded Monotonic Sequence Property

Every bounded monotonic infinit e seque nce conve rges- tha t is, has a finite limit.
Suppose. for e xample. that the increasing seq uence (a. I;" is bo unded above bv
a number M. mcaning that a. ~ M fo r a lin ;;: I . Oeca usc th e s..:qucn cc is a lso bound~d
bdow (by a 1• fo r instance). th e bounde d monoton ic se q ue nce property implies that
lim a.
n- oo
=A (or some rea lnu mhcr II ~ M.
-
ns in Fig. I 1.2.6(a). If the increasing seq ue nce Ia. I is n o t bou nd ed above. then it
follows tha t
lim a.
•- co
= + oo
as in Fig. ~ 1.2.6(~). (Sec Problem 52.) Figure 11 .2. 7 illu ~tr:lles the g raph of a tvpical
~~:.~:de~ ~ncreasang sequence. with the he ights of the p n ints
1 (n. a., ) steadily ·rising
a,
I
i
., ., I .."'I
•
I•J
a,. as A
1-
M ••
-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.~--~
" ----:.
•
I
•
I I
., ., ., ., ., •• .,
I I I · ••
\b)
•
f iGUR E 11.2.6 (a) tf the incred ~ing
sequ~ce {a.} is bounded above by M FIGURE 11 .2.7 Graph of a
then •ts terms "pile up· at so me . • ~unded increasing seque11ce
A ::> "·'· (b) If the sequence is untf:,~~~~ed Wllh limit A.
then 1U terms " keep going" and d' •
to infinity. •verge
EXAMPLE 13 1 ·
n\•esugate the seque nce Ia I th 1.5 .
r, " :'fl d e fined re cu rs ively bv
U1 = v6• a•+l = v'6+";;:: I
Solu tion The fi rst fo ur te r . " for II ;:; I. (10)

rms o th ts seque nce arc
../6.
If the sequence {a I co
J 6+../6. /6+V6+l
. ./6.
.16 J
v·•+ 6+ V6 +
(Ill
. • nvergcs. then 1' t5 I' .
preta tton o f the in fin ite express1.o n tmll II wou ld seem to be the na tural inter·
Infinite Seq uences SECTION 1 1.2 689
A calcula tor gives 2.4-19. 2.907. 2.9R-l. and 2.997 for t he approximate values of
the te rm~ in (II). 1l1is suggests that the sequence may be bou nded above by M 3. =
Indeed. if we a~surnc that a particula r term a. satisfies the ineq uali ty a. < 3. the n it
follo ws tha t
a. ,t = J 6 + a. < J6+3=3:
tha t is. a •• 1 < 3 as well. Ca n you sec that this implies that all t erm s of the seque nce
arc less than 3? (lf there were a first term not less th an 3. then its predecessor wo uld
be less than 3. and we would have a contradiction. This is a " proof by ma th cmatical
induction." )
In o rde r to apply the bounded monoton ic sequence pro perty to co nclude that
th e sequence Ia.) converges. it remains to show tha t it is a n incre:~sing sequ ence. But
(a.,. 1) 2 - (a.) 2 = ({l + a.l - (a. )1 = (2 +a.)(3-a.) > 0

because a, < 3. F!ecau~e all terms of the ~equence arc pos iti ve (why'!). it therefore
)' follows that a• • 1 > a. fo r alan ~ I. as desi red.
Now that we know that th..: limit A of the sequence Ia. ) e xists, we can writ c
A= lim an+l = lim J6+ a. = J6+ A

r.-""),. "- ~
3 - --.-----.- -.- - - - - - -----
• a nd thus 1\ 2 =
6 + 1\. The roots of this quadratic equa tion arc - 2 and 3. Because
A > 0 (why?). we conclude that A = lim.-"' a.= 3, and so
/6+ J6+J6+~=J. (12)

FIGURE 11 .2.8 Graph of the The graph in Fi g. 11.2.R of t he first ten te rms o f the sequence (an ) shows th3t the
sequence of uample 13. conv..:rgencc to its limit 3 is quite rapill. +
To indica te what the tJ.ounlled mo no to nic sequence property has to do with th e
" comple teness prope rty" of the real numhers. in Pro ble m li3 we nut line a proof, using
this pro pert y. of the existence o f the number .Ji. In Proble ms Ii i and 62. we outline a
p roof of the equivalence of the bound..:d mo no to nic se q uence property and ano t he r
common statement of the compl<.:te ncss of the real number system- the least upper
bound property.
@ 11.2 TRUE/FALSE STUDY GUIDE

1. Can a sequence (an If converge to two different numbers?
2. Suppose it is known that every o pen interval conta ining the point Lcontains
all but finitely many members of the sequence (a.)f . Docs this impl y that
lim.-xan = t'!
3. Suppose that the sequence (a. lf is obtained by interspersing the members
of the two convergent infinite sequences !Pnlf and lq.)f . D ocs it follow
that the sequence (o. li"' also converg..:s?
11.2 PROBLEMS
In Probfrm.t 1 tlzrough 8. find a paurrn in tlzr sequrnce with given hr Prohlmr.r9 through 42, dererminr wh<ther o r not tire seq<Jencr
tum..t 0 1, a 2 , aJ. a, and (asszuning that it a mrinw·s a.'i indicated ) (a,l corr vrrge.s. ant/ find its limit if it does corr vrrgr.
writ( a fomwln f or the gmeml term u, of the u quence.
9. an = ~
2
5 3 10. a, = -1-n
--
I. 1,4.9,16. .. . 2. 2.7,t2.17.. .. 11 - 2 + 3nl
J . lI · ;I · il·
I I _ rr 2 -n + 1 n-'
iii • ... 11• a,. - 12. a = -....,.--
2n' + ,., • 10n2+J
S jI • J1
0
I I I
j ! Jit • • •
8. 10, 5, 10. 5, .. . 13. a.= I + ( tu)" 14.a.=2 - ( - l)"
7. o. 2,0, 2....
1
690 CHAPTE.R 11 Infinite Series

hai A is a fixed real number. Given x1 -;. 0 b
54. Suppose t I I ut
_ I + (-I)" otherwise arbitrary. define the sequence x. rccunivelyby
15. a. = I+ (-1)" 16. a. - .jii
+ (-I)" .jii x•• , = ~ · ( 2x. + (:.~2) if n ~I.

_ I
17. a. - or l8. _ sinn
a,.,--y;-
Prove th 3t if L = lim. - oo x. exists. then L = TA.
V~
_ sin 11 2 se that every newborn pair or rabbits becomes
19. a. - .jii 20. a. = ----;;-- SS. (3 ) S up po
prod ucI "
. •e after two mont 11s. an d th crea f tcr grvcs
If b . .
. birth 10
new pair of rabbits every mon th . we egan wuh a single
21. a. = n sin :r n 22. a. =II COS Jrll 3
newborn pair of rabbits. denote by F. the total. number or
23. a,. = rr -<•'n"Jl" U. a. = 2~"'" pairs or rabbits we ha"e afte r n months. Explaan carefully
why {f. I is the Fibonaccr. scque nc~ ~f Example 2. (b) It
25. a.= .;n
In 11
:U>. a.= ~
ln311 instead. every newborn paar of rabbats becomes productwc
rtcr three months. denote by (G.} thc number olpain of
27. a. = (In 11)2
II
28. a. = II Sin (n 3
rabbits we have aft er n months. Give a recursive definition
of the sequence (G.I and calculate its first ten term~
tan · • 11 ,.J 56. Let {F. I be the Fibonacci seque nce of Example 2. and
29. a. = -- - 30. a•. = .,.1 10
n assume that
, si nh11 . r ••,
2" + I
31. a. = ---;;-- 3- a. = --
coshll
= hm
r - F,-
,._ ~:c:~
exists. (It does.) Show that r = ! (I + J5).(Suggestion: Writ~

33. a. - (I + ~ )" 34. a. = C2n + 5) 11" a.= F.! F._ , and show that a• • r = I + (I fa.).)
35. a.= (
II -
-
11 + 1
- I)" 36. a. = (0.001) - 11"
57. Let the sequence {a. I be defined recursively as follows:
a, =2: a.. a=i <a. + 4) rorll ~ l.
37. a. = ~ 38. a. = (1 - 2,)" /1'

(a) Prove hy induction on 11 th at a. < 4 for each 11 and that
{a. } i~ an in creasing sequence. (b) Find the limit ofthis sc·
2))/• = (-I )"(~ + 1) 11"
qucnce.
39. a.= ;;( 40. a.
58. Investigate as in Example 13 the sequence {a.l that is
dclincd recursively by
41. a.=
2
( 3: :2
2)" 42. "
• = 1-.tiior a, = .Ji.. lln+l = J2 + a. for n ~ I.
In l'rnblc•m.r 43 through 50. investi!lalc the given s.:qu~11U (a. 1 In p3rticular, show that
11 umt·rically or graphically. Formulate a rea.<()IUib/e guess f or tit~
••altu of its limit. Tltrra apply limit laws to veri/)• tiwt your gueu
is correct.
n- 2 211+3
44. a.=--- Vrrif.v tire rt'sults .vtmed in Pro!Jie11tr 59 a11 d 60.
43. a.= - 511 - 17
n + 13
46. a. = (
,J - 5 )'' '
811) + 111
59• \/ 20 + V20 + V20+ J20+ . . . = s.
•o
-.o..
. 2
a,.= nsm-
n 60. V90+ V90 + V90 + Jw + ... = JO.
49. a. =4tan
_ n
1
-I
-n+ 1
so. a. = 3sin·• \rll - I
411 +I
l'roblems61 t~~ul62 ' 1ra1 wrtittlre
I h t!
rea/numbers·
b It
·
.
least upper bound proprrt)·of
' I e nOIIt'lllfJt}• Sl'l S nf r1•a/ 111111r/JtTS1::liS iiJI.
If
uppu ou,ntl. then S lra.r a lt•asrupper hmmtl Tire numbrr ·11
15
51. Prove that if lim._,. a.= 11#0. then the sequence
((-l}"a.l di>·erges. an upptr Jtmnd for tire set S If X < ~f r II. . S Tlrr "p,"('
bound !.of Sis a I = ' , or a .r rrt . l'i r
52. Prove thai if the increasing sequence (a.} is not bounded, rittw L · . ta.tt uppu baund for S if no fllllllltrr sma..
then lim.-.. a. = +oo. (ll's largely a mancr of S3)'ing pre· J~t s 1 u 1wt "l'fler bou 1111,ror s. )'ou can easily show taa 1 Iifz/:l·
ws east upper b · 1,·•rr
cisely what this means.) words rfa 1
·
°"'"
1 s 1,, mad L 2• tltcn L 1 = L::"' ·•·
(IISittpper boUtt d r.or a st•t rxirts, tlarn 11. IS. um·q•·tt
53. Suppose that A > 0. Given x, # 0 but otherwise arbitrary, 61. Prove that lhc 1..
1
. · . thl
define the sequence {x. I recunivc:ly by bo d . cast upper bound pro•"'riY arllPh' '
un cd monot · F- • • ·If 1~.1
· . h on1c sequence propertv (Su~~··sr""'·
IS a ounded in. . ,· " . nl"<"'
bo d r creasmg ~equencc and A is the Jc3St u, 1
un o the set {11
can p ·
>
• : II = I I of terms of the scqucnc • ·
c 1t'v
rove that A _ li
2. p - m• ••"' a•.)
6 rove that the bo d . rt)' iJII·
Prove that if L =lim.-.., x. exists. then L = ±JA plies the 1 un ed monotonic sequence prope . ·•
I ' east upp . bo . . for c)···
I cr und property. (SuggesttOII·
d
Infinite Series and Convergence SECTION 11 .3 691
l" 'sitin: int<' t:<'r "· let ''• 1-c• tht· ~~~st i nt ~):ml multiple of (r) Pn we that if A 2 < 2. then ~~~ < 8 for som e numbe r
1/ 10" that i< """l'l'<'r h<'lltlll ,,rtht• s~ t S. l' rn"c th .tt 1<~.1 is :1 ll < 2 nnd nil sufficil·ntly large " · (d) Conclude that t\ 2 = 2.
l't'ltmto.h .' d ,, ,,,·rc.'n~;ll~! St•quc th..'l• nnd then th:tt A :::. lim,..._ , . a,.
6-l. Investigate the sequence (a. ). where
is a least upp.:r '"'""'' f<~r S.)
(\.\, F.1r <':h:h t" '>iti' ~ mte~,·r n. kt " • he: the l:tr)!l'St intc):r:tl "• = [n+ i + Jii].
multi1•t,· <'f 1/lfl" sudt that a; ~ ~- (a) Prow thnt (11. 1 is
:t t'-'IU1hh.· d ith.'rt•:, ~ing str: ,ttll"lh."t'. ~'' A ::: lim,. .•~,. n,. exists. YClu may need a computer or progrnmmablc calculator to
(b) l'n" e that if ,-~ : ,. ~. th,·n ..; .., ~ f<~r" suflid cntly brj:<'. ll i<co,·cr what is rcmnrb ble abou t th is sequence.
I 1.2 l'w j l'ct: Ncsll'd ll ntliculs nnd Co ntinued Frnctions
(I )
where I' and q arc positive. We ask no t o nly whet he r th is equa tio n cou ld possibl y
be true. but alsu wha t it mea ns. In t he following two num erica l e xplora ti ons. you
can (for inst:m cc ) take p and q to be the last two nonze ro digi ts in your student
1.0. number.
Explo ra tio n 1 Define the infinit e sequence {tl., } recursively by

11 1 = .Jlj ami an+ a = .jq + pa., for 11 ?; I. (2)
Usc a cakul3to r ur comp ute r to approximate e nough terms of this sequ ence numer-
ically to de ter mine whe ther it appea rs w converge. Assuming that it docs. write the
first se vera l terms sym ho licall y a nd conclud.: that A = lim.,_ "' a., is a n atural inter-
prcta tiCln n f the lit'SI t'd radical o n the left-hand side in (I). Finally. take the limit in
t he recursion in (2) tn show that A is the pos itive solution or t he quadratic equa tion
x~ - J'X - 11 = 0. Docs the quad ra tic formula the n yield a result consistent with your
numc rical.:vidcncc'?
lx plora tlon 2 Define the infinite sequence (b., ) recursively by
ba =p a nd b.,+ I = p + -bq for 11 ?; 1. (3)

"
Usc a calculntor or compute r to approximate cn ou!!h terms or t his sequence nume r-
ic.ally to determ ine wh et he r or no t it ap pe nrs to converge. Assuming t hat it docs.
write the li rst scvcral te rms symbo lically and conclude that /J = lim., _ "-' b., is a natu-
ral int erpre tation or thc co11tinurd f raction o n the ri!!ht-hand side in ( 1). Finally. take
the limit in th e recursi on in (3) to show that ll is also t he positi\'e solution of the
qund ratic equatio n x~- p.t - q = 0. Concht<k thcrchy that Eq. ( I ) is indeed true.
INFINITE SERIE S AND CONVERGENCE

]]. 31 i \ n Infi nite 1erlc~ c~prcs~ion
is an of the fo rm
'
Lo.. = ''' + o: +11 1 + ... + 11., + .... (1)
, ..
"' he re (a.,} is an infi nite sequence o r real numbers. l11c number a, is called the 11th
term o r the se ries. 111e symbol L:~ 1 a., is s imply an abbrevia tio n for the ri!_!ht·hand
side or Eq . ( I ). In this secti on we discover what is meant b y t he sum o f an infinite series.
69 2 CHAPTER 11 Infinite Series
EXAMPLE 1 Consider the infinite series

~ I I 1+!+_!_+ .. ·+_!_+ ... (2)
t..- 2• == 2 + 4 8 I6 2"
n-::.1
1
Sum of First
that was men tioned in Section I 1.1; its nth term is On = /:n · A lthough we cannot
n nTcrms literally add an infinite number of terms. we can a~d any luutc number of the terms
in (2). For instance, the sum of the first five terms tS
5 o.961!75mo
10 0.9'.1902J44 ! + ! + ! + _!_ + _!_ = ~ = 0.96875.
15 0.9'.19969-lS 2 4 8 16 32 32
20 0.99'.19'.1')05
25 0.9999')9<)7 We could add five more terms. then live more, and so forth. lne table in Fig. 11.3.l
shows wha t happe ns. It appears that the sums ge t closer and closer to I as we add
more and more terms. If indeed th is is so. then it is natural to say that the sum of the
FIGURE 11 .3.1 Svmsoftermsin
the infinite series of Example 1. (whole) infinite series in (2) is 1, and hence to write
2: 2"I == 21 + 4I + 81 + 16I + . .. + znI + ... = 1.

00
•• •
•
1\·lotivated by Example I. we introd uce the partial smns of the general infinite
series in (I). llte nth 1mrtial sum s. of the series is the sum of its first n terms:
n
Sn=Dt+ al+aJ+· ·· +On= Lat. (3)
k=l
lltus each infinite series has not only an infinite sequence of terms. but also an inlinitr
seflucncc or partial sums S1• ~. S3 • ••• • s•. ... . where
St = a 1,
~ = Ot +o2.
SJ = Ot + o 2 + o3 ,
Sto = a 1 + a2 + aJ + a~ + as + a6 + a7 + llij + a 9 + litO•

nnd so forth. We define the sum of the 10 . li . .
of partial sums. provided that tht's • • _mne senes to be the limit of its sequence
· • 1tmll CXIStS.
DEFINITION The Sum of an I f .

We say that the infinite series n tntte Series
00
LOn converges (or ·IS convergent)

n~ t
s
with sum provided that th • r .
c tnlll
.
of Its sequence of partial sums.
• ( •
S = lim sn •
• - 00 (4)
extsts and ts finite). Otherw,· . .
. d' se we say th t 1h
a senes tvcrges, then it has no sum. a c series dive~es (or is divergent). H
Thus the sum of an infinite se ries is a r .

• •m•t of finite sums.
provided that this limit exists.

Infinite Series and Convergen<e SECTION 11.3 693
EXAMPLE 1 (continued) Show that the series
'L (I)" 1I I I
00
2 = 2 + 4 + s + 16 + · · ·
n·• l
converges. 'l11cn find ils sum .
Solution 'll1c lirst four partial sums arc

I 3 7 15
s. = 2' S•, =-
4. SJ = - .
8
and s~ = -.
16
• It seems like ly that S,. = (2" - 1)/2", and indeed this follows e asily by inducti o n.
1.6
1 .~ because
L.:
I - - . - . - .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . 0 . . .. . - - I 2" - I 1 2""" 1 - 2 + I
OS • s••• = s. + 2•+1 = ~ + 2•+1 = 2•1-1 =
Ob
0~
•
H ence the sum of the given serie s is
o:
0
10 :0 .•
S = nlim
-oc
s. = n- 2" -1
lim -
~
- = lim I - -
211 n- oo n
( I) = 1.2
fiGURE 11 .3.2 Gr3 ph of the lim
20 p.u tiJI sums of the infinite 1l1e graph in Fi g. 11.3.2 illustrates the convergence of the partial sums to the
series in ~Jmple \ . number I. +
EXAMPLE 2 Show that the se ries
oc
L (- 1)"• t = 1- I + 1 - 1 + ·· ·
n= l
d i"erges.
Solution 1l1c: seque nce of pa rtial sums of this se ries is
I , 0. I. 0 , 1.....
which hns no limit. The refore the series diverges.
•
EXAMPLE 3 Show that the infmite series
""' 1
L
oa l
11 ( 11 + I)
con\'crgcs. 1l1en find its sum.

Solution We need a formula for the rrth pa rti al sum S. so that we: can e\·alu:llc its
limit as 11 - oo. To find such a formula. we begi n with the obscr"ation that the rrth
term o f the series is
I l I
a,. = 11(11+1) = -II - -11 + J .
(In more complicated cases. such a~ tho~c in l'rohlc ms 50 through 55, such a dl·com·
positio n can be obt;•incd hy the me thod of partial frac t io n~.) It follows that the sum
of the lirst n term~ of the given series i~
s. = (~ - D+ (~ - D+ G-n
+ (~ - ~ ) + .. . + (~ -
4 5 n
_!__)
n+l
1 II
= 1- -- = - -.
n+l n+l
694 CHAPTlR 11 Infinite Series
Hence II
L:
"" I - l i m - = 1.
11(11 +I) - •-"" 11 + I •
•••
11 d a telescoping sum. provides us with a way
The sum for s. in Exam~le 3· ca e . 'sin Examples I lind 2 are examples of a
. scncs. The sene . .
to find the sums of certat~ . e of series. the geometric sen es.
more common and more unportan11>p
· S 'es
DEFINITION GeometriC Crt Atric series if each te rm after the first is
· """
111e senes 1·s said to be a ~:com. · h · ....
L...•~o a. . d. 1 lv before it. That t£. I ere tS a num""r r,
a ftxed multiple of the term tmme ta c ·
called the r:~tio of the series. such that
a••• :: rn. for alln ~ 0.
.
H"c "'Tttca = ao f or thc tnt •~ I constant term. then Ot = ar. az = ar2 .aJ =arl.
. ····
and so forth. Thus every geometric series takes the form
00
a + ar + ar' + ,,.\ + ··· = L~ ar n · (5)

. ..o
Note that the summa tion begins at 11 = 0 (rather than at 11 = I ). It is therefore

con,·enicnt to regard the sum
s. = a ( I + r + r2 + r3 + · · · + r")
of the first n + I terms as the nth partbl sum of the serit:s.
EXAMPLE 4 The infinite series
~ 2 2 2 2
:L 3· = 2 + 3 + 9 + · · · + 3· + · · ·
" :0
is a geometric series whose first term is a = 2 and whose ratio is r = j. •

THEOREM 1 The Sum of a Geometric Series
If lrl < I. then the geometric series in Eq. (5) converges, and its sum is
""
S ::: l:ar• ::: ~. (6)
••O I- r
If lrl !': I and a # 0. then the geometric series diverges.
/'ROOF If r = I. then S. - (11 + I) 50 h · 0 I(

r - -I and a # o lh . th -. . a· 1 e sencs certainly diverges if a f' ·
- · · en .: se ncs dtvcrges
So we may suppose that 1, 1 # 1 ll , hv
·•an at l' k h · E
gument 1 ·e t cone tn x~ mplc 1·
-
· ten the elementary identity
I + r + ,2 + , J + ... + r"
1 _ ,n+I =:
follows if we ntult iplv each side h 1 1-' .

series is · · y - r · lienee the 11th partial sum of the geomctnC
s.==a(l + r + rl+rJ+··· • ( 1 r"+l )

+ r )=tl - - - -
If lrl •d, then r••t ..... o I- r I- r .
as
geometric series converges to n - oo• by Ex 'mp e in Section 11.2. So in this case ~~·•
a I 9
S = lim n . ( 1 r•+t ) a
"-oo ~--
- r 1- r --~-
Infinite Series and Convergence SECTION 11.3 695
1
Du t if lrl > I, then lim~- -c: ,~+ I does not exist. so lim~-oo s. docs not exist. This
establis hes the theorem. ~
•
116 - - -- _ : __ ! -.- • ~ · -·---- EXAMPLE 5 With n = I and r = - ~ .we find that
•
•
o• I 3
0!
t -(-i) =s·
11te graph in Fig. 11.3.3 shows the partia l sums of th is series upproaching its sum
~ alternately from ahove and below. +
FIGURE 11.3.3 GrJph olthe lir,t "" 22• - l
do.t~n p.l rtiJI sums ol the infonite EXAMPLE 6 Determine whether or not t he infinite series~ -- co nverges.
serid in Ex;,mple 5. L 3"
•• I
Solution If we \\rite th is series in the form
2~ - · 4 16 ~
L"" --y.- 2 32 12R
!) 2( )
= j + 9 + 27 + Tl + ... = j I + j + 9 + 27 + . . . .
•• I
then we rcco!!ni1c it ns n geomet ric series with first term n = ~and ratior = j. Because
r > I. the second pnn oflhcorem 1 implies th at this se ries diverges. +
lltc:o rem 2 implies that the o peratio ns of nddition nnd of multiplica tio n by a
constant can be carried o ut term by term in the case of cu11vngem se ries. Beca use
the sum of :111 infinite serics is the limit of its sequence of partial sums. this theor em
follows immediately from the limit laws for sequences (Theorem I of Section 11.2).
THEO REM 2 Te rmwise Additi on and Mul ti plica tion

If the series A = L: a. and 8 = E b. converge to I he indicated sums and cis a
constant. then the series L:<
n. +h.) and :Len. also con,·crgc, with sums
I. L(a. + b.) = II+ 8;
;t. L cn. = c1\.
·n,c geo metric se ries in Eq. (6) may be used to find the rational number repre-
sented by a given infinite repeating decima l.
EXAMPLE 7
5 + - 5 + - 5 + .. · = -
0.55555 · .. = -10 100 1000 10
5( I I
I + -10 + -100 + .. · )
1
= 2: 15t·1 ( 1o). = -1 -_lu_.iO = 15t1 · 19° = f.·
~ ..() ~
In a more complicated situatio n. we may need to u~c the l crm"isc algebra of

lh eorern 2:
0.721!21<21! ... =-}()7 + -10

2R 28 2R
1 + -lOS + -1()1 + .. .
7 2X ( I I )
=W + j(')i I + 101 + 10' + ...
= lO + 1000 ~
7 2S ' ( I )" 7 2!\ ( I )
100 = 10 + JiXii I- ffii
7 28 100 7 28 721
= -+ - - · - = - + - = -
10 I 000 99 10 9'-JO 99()'
n liS. teeh mque

. can be used to show that C\'c
. ry repeat .ins infinite
. <lccimal
. repre.
· be
Sen1sa rat tona 1num r. . Consequent I)'. the dectmal expansiOns
. • . C o f trratJOnal numb ers
2 mu st ....
r-;
S uc h as :r, ~ .an d v~ '>"
nonrcpcatinc ~
as well. a s m 1llltte.
.
o nversclv•• if p and
q are integers with q -1 0. then long division o f q 1010 P yt~l.d ~ :t repeating decimal
cxp:msion for the rational number p/ q. because such a dtvtsto n can yield at eath
stage only q possible different remainders. •
EXAMPLE 8 Suppose that Paul and Mary toss a fair six-sid ed die in turn until one
of them wins by getting the first "six." If Pau l tosses first, calculate the probability
that he will win the game.
Solut ion Because t he die is fair, the probability that Paul ge ts a "six" on the first
l·
round i~ lnc probabi lity that he gets the ~arne 's first "six" on the second round is
(n 2
(l}-thc product of the probability ar
that neith er Paul no r Ma ry rolls a "six"
!
in the first round and the probabili ty that Paul rolls a "six" in the second round.
P~ur~ probability p of gelling the tin t "six" in the g~me is th e .<lim of hi< probabilities
of ge ll ing it in t he first round. in the second round, in the third ro und, and so on.
H ence
"=~ +(~Y (D +(~Y (U G) +···

=Hl+GY+(D\ ...]
I I I 36 6
= 6. I - ml = 6. il = iJ·
Becn
I (
u~e ·he has the advan
,
tage of tossing first
• •
Paulll:tS· nlore th nll
~ tllC. fa1rpro
· bat
b'l'lly
I o gctltng th e first "s1x" and thus winning the game. •
lheorcm 3 is often useful in sho • h · .

"tng t at a gtvcn scn cs does no t converge.
THE O REM 3 The n t h-Term Test for Dive rg ence

If either
lim a~'# 0
•-oo
or this limi t does not exist then the i fi . . ~
• n tnt If: sencs L... a~ diverges.
PROOF We want to show under th

· e stated h)"'oth · h . .
II su fti1ces to show thalif t he series La
d ,. em l at the sc n es La. di'-ergcs.
suppose thnt Ea. 1 m"-oo S,. where
converges with su m S :_ ~cs converge. the n lim,._coc
1
a,. = 0. So
-
.s;, = a, + a2 + a3 + ... + a
is the nth partial sum of the scr'te n •
s. ccausc a"-"""
- " - Jil-t.
co
lim ''• = lim (S.

•-oc •- S.• - tl = ( lim
·-"' s. _ (I'.:.".!, s._,) = s- s = o.
•-"' )
Consequently, if lim 4 h
•-oo 0 " r- 0• l en the ser·
•
""
ICS L.. a. diverges.
~
REMARK It is important I
0
. l'f . . remember also 1h
gencc test. tire mfimte seri~s ""a e comrapositive of the mh-tcrm di•·er·
rums ctmverxt>s too Th L. • convuges wit/1 · 1{
. "" . , · us We have twos, SIII/I S, then its sequence (lin •0
scnes L.a•. lis sequence la.t or tem~r .cc~u:necs associated with the single infimtt
an lls sequence IS. I of partilll sums. ,\ nd
Infinite Series and Convergence SECTION 11.3 697
(assuming that the se ries converges to S) these two sequences have generally differ-
e nt limits:
lim a.
" '- 00
=0 and lim s"
,._00 = s.
EXAMPLE 9 The series
L"" (- l)"- 1n 2 =I -4 +9 -16+ 25 - .. ·

tt=)
diverges because lim. - 00 a. does not exist. whereas the series

~ II 123 4
~ 311 + I = 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 + .. .
n=l
diverges because
lim - -
n-oo 311 + I
II
= -3I :F 0. •
WARNING The conve rse of Theorem 3 is fals e! 'llle condilion
lim a. = 0
•-ou
is necessary bur not sufficic-111 to guarantee com'crgcncc of the series
That is, a series may sati~fy the condi tion a.- 0 as 11 ..... oo and yet diverge. l\n
important ex:~mple of a di vergent series with terms tha.t approach zero is the har111onic
series
""' 1 I I I I
2: - = 1+-+ - + - + - +· ...
2 3 4 5
(7)
•- I II
THEOREM 4
The harmonic series diverges.
1'/lOOF The 11th term of the harmonic series in (7) is a. 1/ n, and Fi R. 11.3.4 =
shows the graph o f the related function f(x) = 1/x on the interval! ~ .r ~ 11 1. f'Or +
each integer k, I ::; k ~ 11, we have erected on the subinterval [k, k + I J a Tl'ctangle with
h eight f(k) = 1/ k. A ll of these 11 rectangles have base length 1. and their rc~pect ivc
h eights arc the successive terms I. 1/2. 1/3 ... .. 1/ n of the harmonic series. H ence
the sum of Iheir areas is the nth partia l sum
I I I 1
s. =l +-+-+ - + .. · + -
2 3 4 II
I •
Atu I A"'> 2 ........
II ".
FIGURE 11.3.-4 Idea of the proof of Thtert"m 4.

. B h ectannJcs circumscribe the area under the curve}' _ 1

o f t he scn es. · ccause t esc r · ~ d · - lx
. 1 .• tlterefore sec that S. must excee t 1us area. 11tat 1•5
from x = I to x = n ~ . \\ c ,
s. > J"•'~ d.r = [Jn xf" ' = ln(n + 1).

But ln(n + I) takes on arbitrarily large positive val ues with increasing 11. Beca use
s. > ln(n + 1). it follows that the part ial sums of the harmon1 c sen cs also take on
arbitrarily large positive values. J"ow the terms of th e harmontc scncs arc positivc.so
its sequence of parti:tl sums is increasing. We may therefore conclude that s. -.+:le
as n - too , and hence tha t the harmonic series dive rges. ""
If the seq uence of pa rtial sums of the series I: an diverges to infinity, then we
say that th e se ries di>·crges to inti nit~; and we write
The se ries I:;(- 1)"• 1 of E~amplc 2 is a se ries that diverges but docs not diverge
to infinity. In th e nineteenth century it was commo n to say that such a series was
divergent by o.rcillario11: today we say me rely tha t it dive rges.
Our proof of Theorem 4 shows that
I:"" -=
I
oo.
tl
••I
13ut the part ia l sums of the harmonic series diverge to infinity ve ry slowly. If NA
denotes the smallest intege r such that
NA I
L 11- ~ A .
•~ I
t~en with the aid of a programmable calculator you can verify that Ns = 83. With the
a1d of a computer and refinements of estimates like those in the roof o f Theorem4,
one ca n show that p
N1o = 12367,
Mo = 272.400.600,
Ntoo "" 1.5 X 1043 ' and
N IOCX'l "" 1.1 X 104).1.
Thus yo u wo uld need to add more than a u . . .
series to get a partial sum th:tt exceeds q ;:t c~ of a. b1lhon terms of the harmon1~
20
wo uld be approximatdv O.OOOOOO<~ _ · ~his pomt each of the next few terOI>
to add to reach 1000 is. far great er tl~n t~e ?. • ll1e number o f terms you'd have
4 1 9
tides in the entire un iverse ( Ht'~O) If ·. . . .estimated numbe r of elementary par·
"f'artial sums of infin ite series •nd. h ) o ulen)oy such large num be rs. sec the articl¢
Mmh~marim/ Momhly 84 (1977):
·· " OWtiC}' g "b · ·
237 _248. ,r ow, Y R. I~ Doas. Jr., in ;\merrcon
llteorem 5 says that if two inlinite seri . .
on. then either both se ries conve · b es have the sa me terms from some po1nt
Problem 63. rge or oth series diverge. llte proof is left for
THEOREM 5 Series that Are E

If there ex ists a posith•c integer k hventually the Same
"' "' .
i- a. and i- b. en her both conver
· sue b an . -- b• for all n > k, then the se· ne
that ·s
ge or oth d1verge.
It follows that a /inirt' numb f
,j joined to an infinite series withoutcrlo terms can be changed deleted from, or ad·
I a termg its con vergence or ·d ivergence (all hou.,•h
th e sum oCa convergent series will en .
• g crally be changed by such alterations). In
pan,cut.ar, utinl! b.= 0 for n " k J:-.d t>, =a, for n > k. v.e see t hJt t he series
....
-- ·- a• - a,.,- ---
..l:a. =a, - a~ -OJ -
ar.d the \Cn~t

~
"\'" a.= c 1 • 1 -a,.: -a 1.J - a .~- ···

£..-
- -~ - .
1 1.3 TRUE / FALSE STUDY GUIDE

11.3 CONCEPT S: QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION
l. \a., nn: e'er c,_,:a::: a co:ncr~en t mfimte seric t>y int~rspcrsing the terms
of t·J.n dl.er.-ent \~n~~"
2. Sur!">'>>: tn~l an Jnfi!"lle <cne~ hJ< lh(' rro;-c n~ th:ll. j!i\Cn nny ro•it ivc
numhcr all hut hnnch mam term< o( the s~n~< .He f'O~IIi\'C nnd kss th n n
thl\ numt--:r (),.., 11 fnll''"'~ thJtthl< <en~< cnn,crj!t'<'.' \\'h :11 if it'~ true t ha t.
rl\en ~0\ 1""-111\C nu:n!>er ..111 hut fini tely 111.1n y r-1r11.1 1 <Uttl < of th e ~C ri eS
nrc rrcntcr th.1n tht< numhcr7 D nc< 11 then fnlln" th.ll thi< 't·r ic' llivcrg cs?
.\. ( ·.1n one delcrtnmc v.hcthcr a j!I\Cn 1nfimtc <e ric:< convcq:cs or d ive rges
mcrt'h h, romrutmr a "'!fincntly l.u!!c numhcr of p.1rtia l sum<?
4. C'.1n one dctcrrmnt' the 'um-.Kcur:ttc tn 3 !!"en ti~t·d numhcr o f d ccirn nl
pl."~' of a cun,crrcnt gc:ometnc sene\ me rei) hy cnmpu tmg a su fficie ntly
larre number (If parllal \um\?
1 1 .3 PROBL EMS
In l'roblf"nn I tJ,,us:h 37. drtnmmr Mhrtltrt thr gnrn infinu~

'
17. ~ n " .;;;
Jt"rits cntn rtJ:t.\ ur tlu rtJ:r\. 1/11 nm' rt.tr\ find ltJ sum
I I I
L
• •I
IOn - 17
l it.
L ln(n
•• I
~ I)
1. I + - + - + --- + - +
3 9 J· ...
~o ~ I
2. I + r ·l + ,.· l + ,.-1 + .. - ,.· • + .. • . L-
• ·I ....,.. I - ( rn• )"
J. I + 3 + 5 + 7 +- -- + (211- I)+···
I
"- 2- + -
,fi+,:12
I
- + --- +-+--•2
I
-
I Zl. t (;)" zz. t(;)"
••I
" ""
S. I - 2 + 4- !I + 16 --- · + ( - 21" + -- ·
6 1 -l+ .l----+(-1 '1" +---
!3. 2: (~';'r u. 2: (;·;,r
. • '' 'I
1' 4 + """ " + -. -
j + 9 + 27 + . -- + 3• .,. I + 2" + 5"
26.
L•· 0 3"
1 2 J R 2" ' 1
8. 3+9 +27+81 + · --+~+--- "' 7 - s• + 3 - II"
9. I+ (1.01)+ (1.01) 1 + (1.01)1 + .. · + (1.01)" +-- ·
27.
L..o 13" 211. L: vrz
•• I
I I I .,
10. I + - + - + .. · + - + .. · J(l ~ 211
,fi .!13 :Iii · L- Jo~n! + 3
"' (-l)"n
II. ~
....,
L-11 + ! 12. t c~) Y
..I
"' '
31.~~
•• I
L 3nl + I
••I
.,
32. L: sin"l
• •I
,., •-I
IJ. "'..., (3)"
.L:t-1)" ; 14.
.. J• - 2"
:L
... --:;;;- 33. L tan"! 34. L"' (nresin I)'
..
L (J2)"" "" (2~ - 2·I) ~· o-1
,.,
I S.
•••
t 6. :L
•••
36. L arctan n
•••
L
700 CIIAPHR 11 lnftrlite Seric\
h />(Juncr mrfficitlll r < I if. whe n it i~ dropPt<l
"- 1 6-1. A bal 1 ahs .. •It It it oouncc< hack to a he ight or ,
,,7, ,~ - - (StrJ:J;fltmn ~fimic the proof of Theo rem 4to from a e re I • . '"
..
L-nlnn
:
\llll\\ tli\CI!'CIICC.)
' )- Suppose that such a ba ll •s dropped frorn th
( Fig. I I.3 .5 . I l . fi .
. h · ht n and suh<cquent y >ounces 111 muctv rna
iniual Cl!! ·. . , h h · · ny
t
.umes. Use ~~ gcomc tnc <cn.:s

.
to ~ho" t at I c total up.a•d
· .__ · · " ·
\ he the methntl of r:, amplc 6tn verify tha t . ce it travels In all It< '"'uncmg tS
down d 1s1nn
(nl UIN.,(,(,f,l,(,(, !· (b) 0.111111111 ·· · = ~:
l+r
(c) II 24W'J'I'l'J'I ,. !: hll 0 <mi'Y/'m · · · =I. D =n·-- .
l- r
In l'mhlmrr .l'i tl~rtm!(l!.tJ, fintl the ratwnal numbt'r reprt.Sented
/>v tlrr J:i• r11 rrpr·atinf: tlrcrmol. Note that D i~ finite.
•W. U.-1747 ·1747 .. . -10. 0.2525 2525 ...
41. 0.12:11 2J l2J .. . 42. 0.3377 3377 3377 ... - tniual hc•shl h
43. 3. 1·1151) 1·115 1) 1~1 59 .. .
lrt l'mhlmrr 4./ tltrttiiJ:lr .t'J, fin d the se1 of n/11/rore vnhus of x
fo r whhh tlrt• }:II t'll H'f W\ ;, 11 ttJn\•rrKrnr Kt!Omttrtc snies. th~n
l'.lJHt'H the• M llll oftlu: Stflt'.f ll\ u functwn of x.
4-1. L"' <2x)' 4~.

tOY
·-·"' •·I
4( •• 2::<• - I )" 47. t(x~2)'

hi •·I FIGURE 11.3.5 Succ cHive bounces of the
Probl ~ms 64 and 65.
ball of
. /~ I ...,, ~ ( 5t
1
L ~ ' + 16
-IH, "- ( l )" )"
•· I
2::
••I
65. A ball "ith bounce codlicicnt r = 0 1).1 (sec Problem 6-1)
In /'roJ,f,.," JO tlrrmt,;lr .~S.
,._.,,,."' thi' nth pflrttal 1wrr of tlre is dro pped from a n init ia l he1g ht nf 11 = 4 ft. Usc a g~D
;,jimtf' ft'rl('\ ut flft•lr H·opins ""''{of in t.:rumplc J) and th~reby mctric sene• to co mpute the t ot~ I time required for it to
fitulrltr• .\tun of rhr srrit'S t{ 11 rt>tu·trs:~.t. complete ir. Infinitely m~ny huuncc\. 'llte time required lor
"-
I ' a ball to d rop lr feet (from res t) ., ../ITIR seconds. " hm
'.In: + ~n - 2
,!:0.
L ~,:- I 51.
L =
g 32 ftfsl .
•· I ••I
66. Suppo>c that the governmen t spend• Sl hillion and t~t
~!.
L" In -n +-I ~·'·
~
L l(m I8tr- 3 each recip1cnt of a fraction of th i• \\e ~lth ~pcnds IJO~I> of

II 1 - the doll3 rs that he ur 'he r<'Celvc ... In turn. the secon~·
••I ul
recipients spend 90% of the dollar~ thcv rccci,e. and so on.
"' I "' ~ l? w much tot~ I spcndin); the reby resuil< from the original
~.
2::: ,<,.+ 2> 5~.
2::,,
,..} ~1 lnJCCIIon of Sl b illion into the cconomv"
••I ' .
67. A tlnk init ially contain• a m ass At., o f air. Each stroke of a
In /'m/dml\ 56 thrrlltJ:h 60. " " a m mptllu algrbra sy11em 10
vacuum p umr removes 5% uf the atr in the container. Com·
find lilt' {lllf/inl fmmm r tfrmmtuHilitm nf the genua/ trrm, tlten
putc: (a) 'lne ma« .\ f. of ai r remainin g in the tank after n
llflllly tire m rtl wd of l'mblem r 50 tlm>uJ:lt 55 ro .! lull/he uriej_ strokes of the r um 11.• (h) linln-'- i\(, •
1
' 2n + l "'6n~+2n -1 · fan
· co 1n
· mturn
· ·s
· one of them wtn
7
~'
68. Paul and Marnos
56. L
4• 1
11 zc 11 + 1)1 L n(n + 1)(4112-
~ -1
!)
, sa unral
the gam~ by gelling the firs t "h ead ." Calcubtc for each the
probablhly tha t he or s he" ins the ~:a me.
.:::.. 2 "'
,!:II. L
•-I
n(n + I )(n + 2)
5'}. """ 6
n•l n(n + I )(11 + 2)(n + 3)
L...
69. Peter. Paul. :tnu M·
h .
,. . . -. . ·
· ary toss .1 fa1r co1n 111 turn till Ill one o
them wms ~ Y gelling the firM "h e ad." Calcul.1tc for c;tch
1
f
~ 6n t e probab1h tv· th•t" 11c• or s 11e w1n'

• the ga me. Chcc
• k· }Ou · •r
' .nsl~er by verifyi ng that the sum uf the three probabih·
3
611.
L n' - 5nl +
·-J
4 1 tcs ts 1 .
t\ I . L: "• tfi,·crgi.'~ and c i~ n non1crn con~tant . then
l'rov~ : If 70. Peter, Paul. and M•1 , . . . ..
. · ' ry roll a frm t.hc 1111 urn until one of tl:, m
L t•o,. di\'crgcs. " ins b .
<~bil.u/r~e/~"S the lir~t " six." Calcubtt: for cnch the prot--
62. Suppmc tlwt L tr, cornerges and that Lb. d.verges. Prove 1
verify' ah c " she "ins the game . Ch eck your an~"crbY
Ihat L (a , + b.) dtvagc>. tng I ~I the · f I .
7 I. A pane of a cc sum o t IC three prubabil iucs 1S I.
63. U:t s. and 1; tkno lc the nih partial sum~ nf [ "• and [b•.
· 1
light 11 b •-· r 1aln l)-pc nf r,:b " re flect< ho lf th<' incid~n
res pect ively. :,upp<><c tha t k i\ n fi'ed Jl051li\'e in teger and • svr., one fo 1 ' 10·
dow is d · un '· und tran~ mit< une· fnur th . ""
that "• = h. for all n ::: k. Sho w that .s;, - T. = s.- 7t fo r ma e o f 1" 0 p . f • rr.>ll
space (Fig. .tnc ~ 0 tht< gla,< separated h>: as · .
all 11 > k. lienee pro'e 'lllcnrcm 5. 11 3
lrarumiu db· .f>). Wha t fraction of the incident hght/ IS
e Y the do uble " indow?
Infinite Series and Convergence SECTION 11 .3 701
72. Criticize the follo111i ng evaluation of the sum of an infinite

series:
u: ...1!!_
..!!£ - // 16 let .r =I- 2 + 4 - 8 + 16- 32 + 64 - .. ·.
/Ill - !ill Then 2.r = 2- 4 + 8 - 16 + 32 - 64 + .. ·.
I!J1
Outer
- 1/(>4
lnnotr
Add the equatio ns to obtain 3.r = I.Thus .r = l·
.,.,... and "therefore"
"""'
FIGURE 11.3.6 The double.p.m c 1-2+ 4 -8 + 16-32+64- ... = j .
window of Problem 71.
11.3 Project: Numcri cnl Summation an d Geometric Series

With 3 m ode m ca lculat o r or computer. the comput:uio n of partial sums of infinite
serics-h istoric:~ lly a tedious and time -consuming t:~sk-is now (ordinarily) a simple
matter. Graphing ca lcu lators and computer algebra systems typica lly include one ·
line command such as
oum(oeq(a,k), k,l,n)) Tl calculator

aum ( a(k), k • 1. .n ) Ma]llc
Sum [ a [kJ. { k, 1, n ) Mathematioo
a,
for the calculation o f the nth partial sum of the infinite series E~ 1 whose kth term
is denoted by a( k). Fo r instance. we can check numerically the fact that
6 (')k
00
5
5 =4
by very quickly c:~lculating th e first seven partial sums 1.0000. 1.2000, 1.2-tOO, 1.2480.
1.2.t96, 1.2.t99. and 1.2500. While not conclusive, this nu merical evidence is never·
the less reassuring.
Investigation A Calculate partial sums of the geometric series
•• o
with r = 0.2. 0.5. 0.75, 0.9. and 0.99. For each value of r , calculate the partial sums Sn
with n = 10. 20. 30.... . continuing until two successive rc~~ults agree to four or li\'e
decimal places. (For r = 0.9 and 0.99. you may decide to usc" = 100. 200. 300.....)
H ow docs the appa rent rate of con,·crgcncc-as mc:1surcd by the number of temls
required fo r the desired accuracy--{!cpcnd on the value of r?
Investigation B A rchaeological evidence indicates thnt the ancient (pre-Roman)

Etruscans pla yed dice usi ng a dodecahedral die having 12 pentagonal face~ numbe red
1 through 12 (Fig. 11 .3.7). One could simulate such 3 dit• hy drawin g a randnm ca rd
fro m a deck of 12 canl~ numhc red I through 12. l l ere kt's th in k nf a deck having k
canis numbered !through k . fur your own persnnal va lue 11f k, he gin with the larg~st
digit in the surn o f the digits in your studcntiD num ber. 'l11is is your value of k unless
FIGURE 11.3.7 The 12-sided
dodeuhedron.
this digit is lc:ss than 5, in wh ich ca.~e subtract it fro m 10 to j!e t your value o f k.
(•) John and M ary draw alternately from a shurncd deck of k cards. ')he first
one to draw an ace- the c:~rd numbered 1-wino;, Assume that John draws
first. U sc the formula for t he sum of a geometric series to calculate (hoth as
a rational number and as a four-place decima l) the probability 1 tha t John
wins, and similarly the probability M tha t M ary wins. Check thn t 1 + M = I.
4
702 OtAPTER 11 Infinite Series
d p ul draw al ternately from th e deck of k. ca d

Now Joh n. Mary. ~:' hei~ respective probabilities of winning. given t~ s.
(b)
Calculate scpMate ) t ' d aws second. Check th at J + M + p == I at
Jo hn draws first and Mar) r, ·
J J •4 1 TAYLOR SERIES AND TAYLOR POLYNOMIALS -
The .mfinue. senes . we stud.1ed ·tn s~·ctio n 11.3 have consume terms.h and f the sum of
. (assummg
such a se ncs . Jt. con\·er"eS)
1> is a mmzber. In contrast.• fmuc · o the practical
·Importance o f ·m fim1te
· sencs· d e rives from the fact that many unc t1o ns have useful
represe ntat io ns as infinite series with .-ariable terms.
EX AMPLE 1 If we write , = x for the ratio in a geometric se ries, the n Theorem 1

in Section 11.3 gives the infinite series representatio n
_ I_ =
1-x
L"" x" = 1 + x + x 2
+ x 3 + ·· · (1)
tt=O
)'=-'-
1-A of the function j(x) = 1/ ( 1 - x ). That is. for each fixed. numbe r x with )xi < I. the
infinite se ries in (I) convc rr,cs to the numhc r 1/( 1 - .r) . n,c nth part1 al sum
' S, (x)= I + x +r' -rx' 3 + · ··..,.-
' x" (')
•
of the geometric !>cries in ( I ) is now an nth·dcgree polynomial that approximates the
fu nc tion f <x ) = 1/ ( 1- x). ll1e convergence of the infinite series for lxl < I suggests
that the approximation
I 2 1 n
--"='
l -x l + x+x +.r+· · ·+x (3)
FIGURE 11.4.1 Graphs of the
partial sums s,( x ), Sz (x), and
51(•) of the power series
should the n be ~ccuratc if 11 is sufficien tly large. Figure ll..l.l sho ws the graphs of
00 1 1/ (1 - x ) ~ nd the three approx imat ions S1(x), S2 (x) . anti S3 (x). It appears that th~
'""x"
L.,
= - - of Example 1.
1- x approximations are more acc urate when 11 is larger anti when .r is close r to zero. +
-o
REMARK ll1c approximatio n in (3) could be used to calcula te numerical quotients

with a calculator that has only + . -. x keys (but no .;-key). For instance.
329 3.29
73 = 0.73 = 3•29 X I - 0.27
"" (3.29)[1 + (0.27) + (0.27) 2 + ... + (0.27)10]
"" (3.29)(1.36986): thus
329
73 "" 4.5068,
nccurat.e to ~our decimal ~laces. ll1 is is a simple illustration of the use of polynomial
approx1matton for nurne ncal computation.
, ll1e definitions of the. various elementary transce ndental functions leave it un-
clear ho" to compute thctr values precisely, exce pt at a few isolated points. For
example,
lnx =
1
I
• I
- tit
I
(x > 0)
by definition, so obviously In J = 0 but no Oth • . ·n. aturJl

exponenttal · ·ts the inverse ' or 1 r s .er. va1uc of In x ts obvtous.• ,• ..c ntat all
· f unct1on
11 · .. o It 1s c1car that e 0 - 1 bu t 11 IS no •
clear how to compute.,.. for x -J. () Indeed .- · S>
"l·on
.,..
as ./X is not computable (precise! · . , even. such 'a n tnnoce
· nt·1ook.mg c.
· xprc ns
.
to be lh e square o{ a rattonal Yand m a finite numbe r of stC(lS) unless x happe
number.
Taylor Series and Taylor Polynomials SECTION 11 .4 703
Dut any value o f a polynomial
P(x) =co+ CtX + (l.t2 + ··· + c.x•

with kno wn codricicnts r0 • Ct , c2 , ...• r. is easy to calculate-as in the preceding
remark, only addition and multiplicatio n arc required. One goal of th is section is to
usc the fact that polynomial values are so read ily computable to help us calculate
approxi m ate values of functions such as In x and~·.
Polynomial Approximations
1 Suppose that" c want w calcu late (or. at least, closely approximate) a specific value
/(xo) of a give n function f. It would suffice to find a polyno mial P (x ) with a graph
th:ll is ,·cry cl ose to tha t of f o n some intcT\·al co ntaining xo. Fo r then we could use
the \'3lue /'(x0 ) a~ nn approximatio n to the actual value of f (x0 ). Once we know how
to find such an approximating polyno mial f'(x ), the next question would be how
accurate! ) f'(.ro) approximates the desired value f (xo).
The simplest example of polynomial approximation is the linear approxima tion
f <x> ::::: j(a} + ['(a}(.r- a)
obtained by writing l!:.x = x - a in the linear approximation formula, Eq. (3) o f
Section 4.2. The graph of the first·degree polyn o mial
•
= f (a ) + J'(a)(x - a)
l't (.r ) (4)
fiGURE 11.4.2 The tangent fine
at (a, l(o)} isthe best linear is t he line tangent to thl! curve y = f (x) at the point (tr ,f(a)); see Fig. I 1.4.2. This
approximation to y • I (x) near o. first-deg ree polynomia l agrees with f a nd with it.> first derivative at x =a. That is,
l't(a ) = / (a ) and /~(a )= J'(a).
EXAMPLE 2 Suppose that j (x) = ln.r and that a = I. Then /(I)= Oandf'(l) = 1.
so Pt (x )= x - I. lienee we expect that In x ::::: x - 1 for x ncar I. With x = 1.1, we
find that
Pt(l.l) = 0.1000. whereas ln (l.l ) "" 0.0953.
The err or in this approximatio n is about 5%.
To better approximate In x ncar x = l ,lct us find a second-degree polynomial
f'.! (x ) =Co + CtX + C2X

2
that no t only has the same value and the same first derivative as does fat x = 1.
but als<J has the same second derivative there: f'2'(1) = f"(l) =- I. To satisfy th ese
conditi ons. we must have
f'.!(l) = C2 + Ct +Co = 0,
1';(1) = 2c2+Ct =I , and
1~'(1) = 2c2 =-I.
When we solve these equations. we ftnd that co = - ~ · Ct =2, nnd r : = -~.so
/~(.t) = -~ + 2.r -lx2.
With .r = 1.1 we find that /~( 1.1 ) = O.Cl'/50, which is accurttlc to three decimal places
bcc:1u'>c ln(l.l) .., 0.0953. 'lltc graph of)' = I Hx) is :t parubola thro ugh (1. 0) with
the same value, slope. a111/ ctlf\'a/IIT<' there a~." = In x (Fig. IIA.3). •
llle tange nt line and th e parabola tL\cll in the compu tation~ of Example 2
illustrate one general approach to polynomial approximatio n. To approximate the
function [ Cx) ncar .c = a, we: look for an nth-degree polynomial
P.(x ) = co + CtX + c2x 2 + · · · + c. x•

4
704 OIAPTER 11 Infinite Series
FIGURE 11 .4.3 The linear a nd parabolic

=
approximations to Y In x near the
point (1, 0) (Example 2).
such tha t its value at a and the val ues o f its fi rst 11 deriva tives at a a gree with the
correspond ing values of f . That is. we req uin: t hat
P. (a ) = /( a ),
?;, (a ) = /'(a).
?;,' (a ) = J"(a ), (5)
/~"1 (a) = j<"1(a).

We can use these 11 + I conditions to evaluate the values o f the n +I coefficients
co. c,. c2•• • • • c• .
The algebra involved is much simpler, however, if we begin with P.(x ) expressed
as an nth·dcgrce polynomia l in powers of x - a ra the r th an in powe rs of x:
P.(x ) == c., + Ct (X - a ) + Cz(x - 11 ) ~ + ... + c. (x- a )". (6)
'I11en substituting x == a in Eq. (6) yields
co == /~ (a) == f(a )
by the first condition in Eq. (5). Substituting x == a into
/~(x) == Ct + 2cz(x- a )+ 3cJ (.r- 11 )2 + .. . + nc.(x _ a )•-•

yields
c, = /~(a)== /'(tl)
by the second condition in Eq. (5). Ncxt. substituting .r = into
11
?;,' (x) = 2c2 + 3 · 2c3 (.r - a )+ .. . + ll(ll _ l)c.(.r _ a)"-2

yields 2cz = ?;,' (a) = /"(a). so
Cz =! /"(a).
We continue this process ro find 1 in
c,, · ... c•. In general the constant tern
the J. h denva~~c P.: (x) is k!c,. because it is the kth derivati\'e of the kth·d~gr~~
1 • . ,1 CJ,
term b,(x -a) m P.(x): •
~''lx) = lc!ck +!powers of x- tl} .

(Recall that k! = 1 · 2 · 3 ... Ck _ 1) k d . . . cr k.
rea d "k f ac1ona . So w hen we sub· 1· enotes the. {flt·torial of the posiuve mtog
• I")
s llute x =a mro P.:''<x> . we lind that
k!ck == ~kt (a) = I lk>(a)
_j
Taylor Series and Taylor Polynomials SECTION 11.4 705
and thus thnt
(7)
fork = 1. 2. 3.. . . . 11.

Indeed. Eq. (7 ) holds also fork = 0 if we usc the universal convent ion th at
0! = I and agree th at the 7.eroth dcrivati,·c g 10l of the function g is just g itself. With
such convent ions. o ur co mputations establish the following theorem.
THEOREM 1 The nth-Degree Taylor Polynomial

Suppose that the first n derivative< of the function f(x) exist at x =a. Let P.(x)
be the nth-degree polynomial
P.(x) = L" Jlkt(a)

- kl (x - a)k
k ..O • (8)
f"(a) Jl•l (a)
= 2
/(tt) + J'(a)(x -a) + - - (x - a) + · · · + - - ( X - a)".
2! n!
Then the values of P.(x) and its firstn derivatives agree. at x = a. with the values
off and its first11 derivatives there. That is. the equations in (5) all hold.
ll1c polynomial in Eq. (8) is called the nth-degree Taylor polynomial of the
functi on f at the point x =
a. Note that P.(x) is a polynomial in powers of x - a
rather than in powers of x . To usc /~, (x) effectively for the approximation of f(x)
ncar 11. we must be able to co mpute the value j(a) and the values of its derivath·es
j'(a). ("(11 ). and so on. all the way to f'" 1(a).
ll1 c line y = f'1 (x) is simply the line tangent to the curve y = f(.r) at the point
(a. /(11)). 11ws y = j (x ) ~nd y = /'1(x) have the same slope at this point. Now recall
from Section ~.6 that the second deriva tive measures the w ay the curve y = j(.r) is
bending as it pas,cs through (il, f(a)). ·nH:rcforc. let us call j"(ll) the "conc;l\i ty"
of y= j (x ) at (u. f(u)) . 'l11cn. because 12'(11)= /"(11) . it follows that_\· = /~ (.r ) has
the same val ue. the sa me slope. am/ the same concavity at (II. f <a)) as docs y = j(.r).
Moreover. P3 (.r) and j (.r) will also have the sa me rate of change of concavity at
(n. j (11)). Such observations suggest that the larger n i,, the more closely the nth·
degree Ta ylor polynomial will approxima te f(.r ) for x ncnr 11.
EXAMPLE 3 Find the nth-degree ll1ylor polynomial of f(x) = lnx at a = I.

Solution ll1c first few derivatives of f(x) = In x nrc
, I 1 0 1(.t) = -2 • 3' 4!
! (x ) = -.
X
j"(x) = --;.
x·
/ .r 3
! 1' 1(x) = - --;.
x• r S)
<.r> = s·
X
'lbc patt ern is clear:
lienee Jl*1( 1) = { - 1)1 - 1(k - l ) !.soEq. (ll)givcs

I , 1 1 • ( - 1)•-t
P.(x) =(x-1)-- <x-l)' +- <x- l )1 - - (x-1) + .. · + {x - 1)" .
2 3 ~ II
With, = 2 we ohtain the quadratic polynomial

f~(x) =(x- I) - ! (x - I )2 = - ; x~ + 2x - ~ .
the same a\ in Example 2. With the third -degree Taylor polynomial
J>3 (x) =(x- I )- !<x- 1)1 + i<x- 1)3

. oxt'nwt ing ln(l I) = 0.095310179 ... ""0 095 3 ""-

we can go a step further tn appr ' · · · •ne
value
= 3
P;(l.l) (0.1) _ !(O.I)z + !<0.1) ""0.095333 ;::;; 0.0953
is accurate to four decimal places (rounded). In Fig. ll.4. 4 we sec .that, the higher
the degree and the closer .r is 10 1, the more accurate the approxtmatwn lnx :::: l'.(x)
:tppears to be. +
In the common case a = o. the 11 th-degree Taylor polynomial in Eq. (8) reduces
to
/"(0) ' / '" '(()) n
r:,(.r) = /!01 + j'(Cllx + "l!r + · · · + - 11-!- x .
(9)
fiGURE 11.4.4 The first three
Taylor polynomials approximating
f(x) = lnx near x = 1. EXAMPLE 4 Find the lith-degree Taylor polynomial for f(x } =eX at a = 0.
Solu tion ·nti s is the easiest of all 'lbylor polynomials to compute, beca use f 111(x)::
e' for all k ~ 0. Hence f rkt(O) = I for all k ~ 0. so Eq. (9) yields
x1 .rJ xn
P. (X) = I + f + - + - + ... + -
" . 2! 3! 11! • •
llte first few Taylor po lynomials of the natural exponenti a l function at a =0
arc, therefore,
/lt(.r) = I.
Pt(x) =l + .r.
Pz(x) = I+ .r + !x2.
/'l(.r) = I + x + !.rz + ~.rJ.
P.(x) = I + .r + lx1
2
+ 0~x3 + 1. ~4
24'' •
l'~(x) = I + x + _zt.r z + ~.r3 + 1. r• + ..LxS

o z•· 120 •
1 . hII .4.5
Figure • h shows the g raphs
. • ·r) • 'and pJ (x ) . Th e ta bl e Ill
of 1'1(.r) · /\( · Fitg. 11 .•.
'6
~~tot s of" t esc polynomt~ls approximate /(.r) =I" for .r = O.l and for .r 0.5. =
. east or t 1tesc two values of x the closer x is to 0 h 'dl p, ( )
appears to approach f<x) as II inc;cases. . a = . t e more rapt y • x
FIGURE 11.4.5 The first three
Taylor polynomials approx imating .t - -0I
=
f(x)=t!"' near x 0.
" j P. (x ) I!"' c·' - P., (x )
0 1.00000 1.10517 0. 10517
I 1.10000 1.10517 0.00517
2 1.10500 1.10517 000017
3 1.10517 1.10517
4
0.00000
1.10517 1.10517 0.00000
X -- 05
II P.(.r) I'' t'' P. (.r)
0 1.00000 1.6-1872 0.64872
I 1.50000 1.6-1872 0.14872
2 Lll2500 1.6-IS72 0.02372
3 1.6.151!3 1.6-1872 0.00289
4 l.floll\44 1.64872 0.00028
5 1.64879 1.6.1872 0.000)2
Taylor Series and Taylor Polynomials SECTION 11.4 70 7
Taylor's Formula
1ne close ness with wh ich the polynomia l P.(x ) approximates the funct ion f ( x ) is
me asu re d b y the differe nce
R .(x ) = f (x ) - Pn (X) .
for wh ich
f(x ) = P.. (x) + Rn (X). (10)
This di ffe rence R,.(x) is called the nth-dc~:rcc rem ainder for f(x ) ut x = a . It is the
erro r made if the value [ (x) is replaced with t he ap proximation /~ (x ) .
lltc theorem tha t let s us estimate th e e rror. or remainde r. U. ( x) is called
Tuylor 's formula. after Brook Taylor ( 1685-1731). a follower o f Newton who intro·
d uccd Tay lor polynomials in an article published in 1715. 'Ih e particula r expressio n
fo r R,. (.r) that we give next is ca lled the Lagrange fo rm for the remainder because it
first appe ared in 1797 in a boo k written by the Fre nch m athematician Joseph Louis
L.1grange (1736-18 13).
THEOR EM 2 Taylo r's Formula

Suppose th at the (n + I )th derivative of the function f exists on an interval con·
taini ng the points a and b. lltcn
["(n) 2
/ (b) - / (a ) I f'(a )(b - a ) + 2 !( b - a)
\)) (n) r (n) ( ) J ln+l)(•)

+ -f - (b - a ) 3+ · · · + _ _a_ (b - a)" + ' (b - a )"+l (11)
3! n! (n + 1) 1
for some number : between (J and b.
REMARK With 11 = 0. E q. ( I I) reduces to the equation

[( b) = [ (a) + J'(z)(b - a).
t he conclusion of the mean value theorem (Section 43). lltus Taylor's formula is a
far-reaching generalization of the mean value t heorem of differential calculus..
A proof of Taylor's fo rmula is given in Appendix I. If we replace b \\i th x in

Eq. ( II ) . we gel the nth-de~:ree Tuylor fomml a with remainder ut x =a.
11
, ["(d ) , [ '• (11) 1
f <.r> = fl u )+ + - .,- - (.r - <I)' + -~-,- (.' - 11)·
/(tl)( .r - 11)
-·
1
~-
f'" ' (tl) J'" ~ "l :l 1.
+ · •· + - -- (.\ - II)"+ (.t- <1) . . ( 12)
II ! (II + IJ!
where z is some number between a and .t . 11tus the nth-degree rem:1inder term is
(13)
which is easy 10 remember- it's the same as the last te rm of f', .J(.t), except that
f'""t '(a} is replaced with 11 (z). r ·•
EXAMPlE l (co ntin ued ) To estimate the accurncy o r the approximation
In 1.1 :::: 0.095333.

~
' 708 CHAPTER 11 Infinite Series
we substitute .r =I into the formula (k _ I)!

t-1
rl)(.r) = (- l ) -x-;-1-
for the kth derivative of f(.r) = ln.r and gel

t''(l> = ( -l)*- 1(k-1)!.
Hence the third-degree Taylor formula with remainder a t x = I is
~,
1 , I 1 -'· ( _ I )4
ln.r =(x - I )- l(X- It+ J(x- I) - 4!z" X
v.ith z between a = I and .r. With x = 1.1 this gives

(0.1 )~
ln(J.I):::: 0.095333- "'4(1'
where 1 < z< 1.1. The value z = 1 giws the largest possible magnitude (0. 1)'/ -1 =
0.000025 o f the remainder term. It follows that
0.095308 < In ( 1.1) < 0.095334,
so we can conclude that In( 1.1) =0.0953 to four-place accuracy. •
Taylo r Series
If the function f h:~s derivatives of all orders. then we can write Taylo r's formula
(Eq. ( II )) 11ith any degree 11 tha t we plea c. Ordinarily. the exact value of z in the
Taylor remainder term in Eq. (IJ) is unknown. Nevertheless. we can some times use
Eq. ( 13) to ~how that the rema inder app roaches zero as 11 __. +oo:
·-
lim R,(x) = 0
fo r some particular fixed value of x. Then Eq. (10) gives

( 1-l)
f(.r) = }~~[P.(x) + R.(x)J = lim P.(x) = tim ~ f'' '(a) (x _ a)t;

n- oo n-oo L- kl
k..Q •
that is,
00
f(x) =
t*1(a)
~ - (x- a)*
~ '·'
A. o "· . (IS)
ll1c infinite series
" f '" 'Ca)

L ~(X-ti)"=[Cal +{tii)(X -11\ + J"(a) (- )~
, .n 2! X tl
+ · ·· + r·'ca) (x _ a)" + . . . (16)

n!
is ca lled the Tuylorseriesofthe funct'o
1 f .
Tuylor polynomials of 1 at x = 11 • n at x = tl.lts partia l sums are the succcsSII'C
. We ca n write the Taylor se ri es of 11 fun • .
Bu t 1f the limi t in Eq. ( 14) can b. c 5 t· 1.>1' hcllon I Witho ut k nowing that it convcrg~s.
Tay!orsc:riesinEq.(l6)actu~llycco '
1 15
cd,thcn it follows as in En. (15) that th'
• m·erges to f( ) If , h
\'alue of /Cxl sufficiently accurate! b c • ~ · so, then we can approximate t_e
of I of sufficiently high degree. y Y alcula tmg the value of a Taylor po!)•nor!llll
EXAMPLE 5 In Example 4
integers k ~ 0. Hence the Taylowrcformula
-
noted that if /(x ) == e' then
•
Jl''<x> -- r' (orDll
f(x) =/(0) + /'(O)x + !J!l2.x 2 + Jf•I(O) [ I•+ II(')
21 ·--+-x• + ~ x"' 1
n! (n + l )!
Taylor Series and Taylor Po lynomials SECTION 11.4 709
at a = 0 gives
·' x 1 x3 x" c'x"+1 (17)

e =i+x+-2'. +-3,. +···+-,
II. + (II+ 1)'.
for some ~between 0 and x. If x a nd hence z are nega ti ve the n e' < I. whereas e ' < e'
if both arc positivc. ll1 us the remainde r te rm R,.(x) satisfies t he inequalities
jxj"+l
0 ' if x < 0.
It' x•+ I
0 < jR,.(x )l < ( ifx > 0 .
II + I)'.
'lne reforc, the fact that
.
ltm -
x" =0 ( 18)
n-~ n!
for all x (sec Problem 55) implies that lim,._ 00 R,.(x) = 0 for all x. This means that
t he Taylor series for c' con \'crgcs to e' for all .r, and we may write
, ' .r" X.! X) x"'

,. = ' - = t + x +-+ - +-+ .... (19)
L- "'
.,o 2! 3! -1!
ll1e series in Eq. ( 19) is th·c most famous and most important of all Taylor series.
With x =I , Eq. ( 19) yields a numerical series
~ ~
,. = )~ -n ! = I + -I!I + -2!I + -J!I I
+ - + . ..
4!
(20)
w..aU
for the number e itself. The lOt h and 20th part ial sums of this series give the approx·
imations
I I I
e "' I +-
I!
+-
2!
+ · · · + - "'2 7182818
10! .
and
1
e "' I + .!_
I!
+ .!_
2!
+ · · · + -20! ::::: 2 .71828 18284 59045 235 '
both of which are accurate to the numbe r of decimal places shown.
•
EXAMPLE 6 To find the Taylor se ries at a = 0 for /(x) = cosx. we first calculate
the derivat ives
/ (.r) = cosx. f'(x) = -situ.
f"(.r) = -cosx. J i l l (:c) = sin .r.
f 41
(.r ) = cos.r, f 1' 1(.r) = -sinx,
f 11J>1(.r) = (-1)"cosx.
It follows t hat
/ a,1(0) = (- ! )" but f 'ln•l l(O) = 0.
so the Taylor polynomials and Taylor series of /(:c) = cos x include only terms of
,J
x '.
~vt!n degree. The Taylor formula of degree 211 for cos .t at a =0 is
x·' " x.:~~

cou = I - - + - -···+ (- 1) - - + (- 1)"•1
2! 4! (211)!
cos z ,
(211 + 2)!
x·••Z
whefc tis between 0 and .r. Because icos.r j :ii I ror all:. it follows from Eq. ( 1H) t hat
the remainder term approaches ze ro as n - oo fo r all x. H ence the desi red Tnylor
4
71 0 CHAPTE.R 11 Infinite Series
series of f(x) _ 0 converges to cos ·r for all x. so we may write

= cosx at a-
.2 t'>~ r"
"' (-1)"x"" ·' + :__- :.._ + · · · · (21)
~ (2n) !
cosx = ""' =1 -_~. •. 4! 6!
":0 •
In Problem 41 we ask you to 5I10 '', St·milarlv' that the Taylor series at a ::: 0 of
f (x) =sin xis
l · ·'
+ .15
_ - .1'-7 + · · ·.
sinx = 2:: "" (-I )"x !"
" =()
(2n ])! +
_
- x
_ ::..._
3' 5! 7!
(22)
Figures I 1.4.7 and I 1.4.8 ·tllustrate the mere.

· asim!ly
- ofbetter approximations
the seri es in Eqs. (21)to cosx
and and
(22).
sin x that we get by using more and more lcrms
n = 13 n : 2J
n cc 7 n • IS n : 23
FIGURE 11.4.7 Approximating cosx
FIGURE 11.4.8 Approximating sin x with
with nth-degree Taylor pofynomials.
nth-degree Taylor polynomials.
The case a == 0 of Taylor's series in ( I6) is called the 1\lacl:mrin series of the
function /(.r),
" 1'"'1111 f" WJ J'-' ' (OJ

)" -
-tr;Q
x"
11!
= /(0) + "((Orr + -
2!
.r; +-
~!
xJ + ··· . (23)
Colin Maclaurin (16lJS-17-16) was a Scottish mathematician who used this series as
a basic tool in a calculus book he puhlishcd in 1742. The three Maclaurin series
00
.t x" x2 .r 3 x"
e = 'i;""'-=l +x+-+ - +-+ ...
~ "' 2! 3! 4! .
(19)
~ (- l )"x2n x2 .t4 x6
cosx = L.. == 1- - + - - - + .. . and (21)
• ~o (211)! 2! 4! 6'.
. ~ (-I)"x2n+t x3 .r5 x7
SUI X = •L_.
=O (2n+t )!
=.\' - -3! + - _ - + . ..
5! 7! (22)
(which actuallythat:
ison. Observe were discovered by Newton) bear careful examination and compar-
• TI1c !erms _in the e~en cosine series are the l'l'l'fl·dcgrcc terms in the expo·
nent1al senes but With alternating signs. .
• TI1~ terms i~ the odd sine series arc the odd-degree terms in the ex ponenull
senes but With alternating signs.
Equati~ns (19), (21 ).~nd

(22) arc identities that hold for all values of x. Consequently.
new scnes can be denvcd by substitution, as in E"nmplcs 7 and R.
EXAMPLE. 7 Substituting x = -1 2 into Eq. (19) yields

14 16
e-•' = I - 1
2
+---
2! 3!
+ · · · + (-1)"n!- + · · · ·
1?Jo
•
EXAMPLE 8 Substit utingx = 21 into Eq. (22) gives
s
sin 2r == 21 -
4 )
- 1
3
+-
4
15
1 - -
315
8
1
7
+ · · ·. •
Euler's Formulil
The sum of nn infinite series I: c" with complex terms Cn =a,. + ibn is defined by
"' 00 00
I>·=
, .., I>· 11 =-J
+i L""
pro vided that the two infin ite series of rea l t e rms on the right-hand side converge, in
which cnsc we say that the series of comple x te rms on the left-ha nd side com·erges.
It can be shown that the exponentia l se ries in (19) converges whenever th e
number xis replaced with a complex num ber z = x + iy. Conseq ue ntly. the e.xpone n·
tial function e' can be <lrfinrd (for complex. as well as for real arguments) by means
of the series
e , =L'-n! = I
00 J1
+<+ -+
4
-
..2
< +-~···.
, ,
2!
.J
3!
T'
4!
n..O
If we substitute the pure imaginary number<= iO (with 0 real), we get
..~ 9 Loc (i 0)" . (1'0) • (i0) (i0) 2 3 4

~ = - -
n!
= I + tO+ - - ..- - - + - - + · · ·
2! 3! 4!
•-<>
02 i0 3 o• i0 5
= I +iO---- + - +-- ...
2! 3! 4! 5!
= (t - oz2! + o•4! - .. ·) +; (o - oJ3! + os - .. ·) 5! •

1
using the facts that i 2 == - I , i 3 == - i, i ' = I, and so on. We recognize the Maclaurin
series for cos 0 and si n 0 on the righ t-hand side and conclude that
r19 =cosO+ i sin O

for every r eal number 0. This is the famo us :Euler's formula. Fo r instance, with 0 = r.
=
it gives.,... = cos :r + i sin :r -I, and hence the extraordinary relation
e•• + I =0
relating the live most important special numbers in mathematics: 0, 1, i, :r, :md e.
The Number rr
In Sec1ion 5.3 we described how Archimedes used p<>ln~ons inscri bed in and circum-
scribed al>ou l the unit circle to show thai 3\¥ < :r < 3j . \\~th the aid of electronic
computers. .~ has hccn calculated "'well owr a hillimr llccimal places. \\'e d escribe
no w some of the method~ that have hccn used fm such ('UIIIputatio ns. [For t\ chroni-
cle of human it(s pe rennial fasci nation with the number :r . sec l'eter Beckmann. A
1/istory of :r. New York : St. Martin's l'rcss. 1'.171.1
We begin wilh the elementary a l gchr:~ic identity
_ I _= I -x +xz - xl + ·· . + (- t )' - lxl · t + (- l)•x' (2-'1

l+x l + x'
which can be verified by multiplying both sides by I + x . We substitute r2 for x and
712 CIIAPTER 11 lnfinit~ Sene\
"+ I fm k :~nd thus lind that (-I)" t l /!to •2
I , , 16 + .. · + (- l )"tln+ I+ 12
- I - t• +I -
I +t2 - • b th sides of this last e quation from 1 ::Q
0
Because I>, tan- I 1
= I /( 1+1z>' integrallnS
tot = x gives x z,•'
:r+ r___
x1 + · ·· + <-1
J )"-2n+ , + u 21o+ l· (25)
tan- ' x = :c - ) 5 7
2
where • \ lxl " •J
• + < \1'o1n+2 dx
, :,.+2
~tfX \ ,. := -211 + 3.
(26)
IR:,.<t I =
\1 it clear that
0 1
kes
11
1nis estimate of the error ma

lim R. == 0
·- ~
. f the 1·nve rsc tangent funcllon: .
· h 1' lor scncs or
if lxl :;! 1. I knee we oht:un I e ay
~
, !ltt-t r\ .l ·
\' 7
(21)
"' . -' - t -:_ ·1 -:-- - +··· .
t:ln- 1 .t c L..t- 1\ ~-. 3 :. 7
fj a- lf
valid for - 1 S :c ~ l. . E ( ?) we obtain f. ribni ~ 's srries

If we SU~IIIUIC :C = 1 1010 q. 2 '
11 I 1 1
--
4 -
1- -J + --
~
-7 +· ···
.ffectivc way to compute rr. But the
. .
/\II hough this is a beautiful scnes. tl IS not an e • -' :c if Ill is
error estim ate in Eq. (26) shows that we can usc Eq. (25) to calculate tan
small. For example. if :c := ~ . then the fact that
1
- - ~ 0.000000057 < 0.0000001
9 . 5q
implies th;tt the approxima tion
~! - HH + HU ~m'
3 5
tan- '0) -
is accurate to six decimal places. . { the

1
\ccur atc in\'crsc tangent calculations lead to accurate computallons ~ 10
number :r. For example. we can usc the addition formula fo r the tangent functiOn
show (l'roblem 52) that
(lSl
h first
HISTORICAL NOTE In 1706. John Machill u sed Eq. (28) to calcui31C 1 e .$! 59
lOOdcci mal places o f :r. (I n Problem 54 we ask you to use itW show that :r == 3.l <.t
0 35
to live decimal place s.) In I R44 the lightning-fast mcntnl calculato r Zacharias
o r Germany computed the fint 21Xl decimal places of :r . using the related {ornlUll
~=tan-' G)+ rnn-' G) + tan- 1 (n. ll9>

You might enjoy verifying this formula. (See Problem 53.) A recent computation of
1 million decimal places or n used the formula
:.4 =12 tan-1(.!..)+Stan-'(..!..)

18 57
-S tan- '(-'-).
• 239
111
""
r or d env~ttons
· · o f Ih'IS Co rmuIa and o thers like it, with further discussto
· n of iotl'
31
computallons of the number rr, see the article kAn algorithm for the c:~lcul
of ;r" by George Micl in the American Mathematical Momlrly 86 (1979). pp. 694-697.
Although few practical applic~tions require more than ten or twelve decimal places
of rr, these computations provide dramatic evidence or the power ofTaylor's formula.
Moreover. the number ;r continues to serve as a challenge both to human ingenui ty
and to the accur~cy and efficiency of modern electronic computers. For an accoun t of
how investigat ions of the Indian mathematical genius Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887-
1920) have led recently to the computation of over a billion decimal places of rr.
sec the article "Ramanujan and pi," Jonathan M. Borwcin and Peter B. Borwein,
Scientific American (Feb. 1988). pp. 112-117.

1. Suppose that we take Euler's formula e!9 = cosO + i sin IJ as a starting point
and define the exponential e' = e<+iY by writing
e' = e'e'Y = e'(cos y + i sin y ).
Can you then prove on thisbasisthate<+"' = e'e"' if z = x+iyand w = u +i v
arc complex numbers?
2. Can you use the definition of c' in Ouest ion I to prove that D,e"' = ke"' if
k = a + bi is a complex constant and .r is a real variable?
11.4 PROBLEMS
In Problnns I through 10. find Taylor's formula for the given In Problems 21 through 28,find the Maclaurin series of the given
frmction fat a = 0. Find botlr tl.- Taylor polynomial P, (.r) of function f by substitllling in one of the known series in Eqs. (19),
the indicated degru nand the remainder term R.(x). (21 ), and (12).
1. f (x ) = ,-•. n =5 21. f(x) =~-· 22. f(x) = •"
2. f(x) = sin.r, n= 4 23. f(x ) = e_,, Z..l. f(.r) = exp(r')
3. f (x ) =cosx. n=4 25. f(x) = sin 2x 26. f(.r) = sin~
1 2
4. f (x ) = - -. n =4 27. f(.r) = sin x1
1-.r
5. f (x) = v'i'+x.
n =3 28. f(x) = sin2 .r = i<l - cos2.r)
6. f (.r) =In(! + .r). n = 4 In Problems 29th rough 40, find the Taylor series { Eq. (16)/ of
7. f (.r) =tan.r. n=3 the given function at the indicated p oint a.
8. f (x) =arcunx , n=2 29. f(x) = ln(l + .r). a = 0
9. f Cx ) = sin-• x.
n =2
30. f(x) = 1 _I .r. a= 0
10. f(x)=x ' -3x 2 + S.r -1, n=4
31. f (x) = , -•. a= 0
In Problmu 11 through 20, fin d th'- Taylor polynomial with rt·
maindu by ll5ing tht gi>·tn valuts of a and n. JZ. f<x> = sinx, a= ;rf2
lL f (x) = ~: a = l.n = 4 33. {Cx) = ln.r, a= I
12. f (x ) = cos x; a = ;t/ 4. n = 3
)4. f(x) =e". a =0
13. /(x) = sin.r; a=:r/6. n = 3
35. f(.r) = cou, a = :t / J.
1-'. f(.r) = ../X; a =100. n = 3
I I
15. f(.r) = ; a= S, n = S 36. f(x) = •. a = 0
(x - 4)l
(1- .r)·
16. / (.r) = tan.r: a= tr/4.n = 4 I
37. {(x) = -, a a I
17. f (x ) =cosx : a= :r. n = 4 Jt
18. /(.r) =sinx; a=:t/ 2.n=4 38. {(x) = COH, a = tr /2

19. f< x ) = xl 12: a= l.n = 4 39. {(x)=sin x, a=rrf J.
20. / (x ) = vi-I
r.--: ; a = O. n =4 40. /(z) = .ji"""+.;, a =0
z
714 CHAPT[R 11 Infinite Series
St. u tthc function

41 . D crh·c. a' in Eumple 5. the Taylor Jcric~ in Eq. (22) of
=
fCx) smx at a= 0. "" (- l )".r " x x1 _r)
'
f (.r )"' L (2n)! -1
- --+---+
2! 4! 6! ...
42. Gra ntcl.lthat 11 is valil.lto diffe rentiate the si ne and rosine
• •o
Ta)·lor scnes in a term·by·tcrm manne r. u'e these seric< to
vcnfy that D, cos .r =- sin .r and f), smx = cos .r. •1 r. . 1 ll" repbdng x with ,/X in the M nclaurin senc
bC uCtlllCU ·' . . '( 1
fo r co• x. Plotp.nti~ l s um~ of t h~< sc11es In vcn )' ~traphically
4J. Usc the l.liffcrentiation fo rmulas /J, sinh x ~ co<h .r and
V, cosh x = sin h x to dcri"c the :'-b clau rin ~cries thnt /(X) ngrccs with the fu n ct1on J<( r) d efi ned by
co• ,fi if .r <; 0.

"" :, ' r !A· l x<rl = { Cll'h vr.::T ·r o
cosh x
.
= 'L ..=:._
..., C2nJ!
and smh.r = L..., (_II
. '+ I ) .'
lXI l X < ·
~2. Beginning "' ith a .. t~n - t C!>.u~c the add ition formula
for the hnx:rl>olic sine and CO\ine functions. \\"ha t is their
tln A ~ tan fl
relation\hlp to the :'-1nclaurin \cries oft he ordinary sine and
co<inc functions?
tnn(A + II) = I - t:u1 A t.lfl II
.U. De rive the :'-lacl;o urin se ries sta ted in Problem 43 bv sub- 10 sh<•w in turn that (a) t:Jn 2a ~ : (h) tan -Ia " j~: =
Mllutong the kno"'n M aclaurin series for the expo~cnti31 (c) ran c:r 1~ - 4<Yl =- ::.:., . Fin a lly. show that part (c) im.
fu nction in the dcftmt ions
pht·s Eq . (2S) .
+ c- • ~-'· 1\pply th e ndd itio n formula for the ta n!:en t functionto ver·
coshx = c'-~-
2
a nd sinhx "" - - -
~· - t•"' '
2 ify ECJ. (29).
54. Every youn~ person dc~e rves the thrill, jll\l once, or CJI·
of the hype rbolic function<. ru l;llin~ pcrwnally rhc lif't scvcr.1l ucrinwl places of the
number .~ .1hc ' ecmin):ly random nature of thiHicrintal e{·
Tl1~ sum C'Ommandt listrd fo r Jr\'ttal rnmputrr ttlt:rbrtJ s.n trm.J
In th~ Section 11.3 PmJrO rtlll hr ll<rtl U> cnlmlfll<' Tnylor poly· p.tn,wn tlc m.lntl' .on c~pl.on.otion: hull.lfldccd. a rc the di~its
rromial< r/ficrmtl~·. For imtana. "'""' thr Tl f;tilfJh ins calnr/mor
3.1415Y ~M.'S:-'17'.1.1 ... uetcrmin<·d'! For a partial an,,.er.
dcfirritioJJ.t set ) Our c;llcul.uor tn dl'pl.oy nmc tkcimal places. l hcn 3dJ
cnouJ:h term< of the arctan!!cnt <eric< in (27) 11 ith .r =Ito
Yl • ein ( x ) calcu late nrctan( I) accurate tn nin e places. t'c"· caku!Jte
the va lue of :u ct.on ( 1:.) ' imib rly. Finally, substitute thc~c
Y2 • eum(eeq((-lJ A( N-l)•X A (lN-1)/ nume rical result ~ in E<l. (2S) and solve for n. I low many
(2N-1) 1,11, 1 , 7)) :occur:Jte dcrima l places do you ge t?
nrq;rnphrd. tlzc rt'.w lt is Fig. 1/..J. Q, <ht~~vin~: tlwllhc Urh-degrt•e

55. !'rove thnt
Tay lo r poly nom iill P" Cx ) "PI"" 'imtltt•.• sin .r rarlrc•r clo.tcly if . .r "
- 3:r {2 < x "' 3.~ / 2 hulll fl/ our<idrthi.<"'"~'''· 11.•' plotrinJ: srveral I1111 - = 0
,. _" II!
.\tlt ' Cf'\ ~tit ,. Tayft ,, polynomhlff of a frmnum /(.\) 3111111/tnorouJ/y,
,,.r rll': gt·t a ~·i·wa/ srnu of thr " ".\' in h'hich they appuJ.limate if xi< n real numher. (Su,~:gc•>t/on: Chnosc an integer Asuch
th<' fun~riotJ. Dn thi.r for t'ach fwrrtum t;l•·m 111 l'robl~ms .J5 that k > Ill!. a nd let I. = 1-> 1' 1 k!. Then show tha t
thro ugh 50.
n! < - -
2·-·
1 ifll > k.l
M. Suppmc that 0 < .r $ l . lntc l'ratc N-th ~itk< of the ith'ntit)
I • c- 11•· 1r..1
!+i = I- t + t· - t l ·I· ... + (- l )"r" + ,;_...,-- -
1+I
frnmr "' ()tot =.r to show tha t
f I t: r :l ... t1
n( + .r) ::: .r - ~ + :._ _ ... + (_11• ~ + R,.
FIGURE 11.4.9 Graph\ of y "' \In x - 3 II + I
where lim I' _ (I
and it\ 1 3th-degrte Taylor polynomial •-"' '• - . 11c ncc conclude t lwt
p, J(x).
"'
ln(l + x ) = " '<- I >"'' J•
45. fC~ ) "' ~' -• 46. {Cx ) = s in x L• •l "
ir o < x ~ 1.
41. /(.<) = COli.l' ~ /It ) .. In ( I + _.)
I
51
• ~ritici1c the folln " ing "proor· rh :u 2 .. 1. Sul"tituting r • 1
49. / (.r) = i+.(" 50. f (x) .. _ I mtn the result in l'rnh lc rn 56 yield< the f:Kt th .l l
1 - .rl
ln 2= I - I + l - j + . .. .
The Integral Test SECTION 11 .5 715
((
.
5 ::1 ... \+-Ji +l+··· . .
and then that
~ x
1
then
In 2 "' S - 2 · 0 + ! + 1+ l + .. ·) "' S- S"' 0.

l+ x
In -
ifo::;x ~ t.
....
- :: "'"'
1-.r
b " (
L... - tl = 2 x + -3 + -5 + · · ·
)
Hence : "' r'• ~ = r = I.0 59. Approxima te the number ln 2 ;::; 0.693 15 first by substi-
tuting .r = I in the ~lacllurin se ries of Problem 56. and
~ Deduce (rom the result of Problem 56 first that then by >UbstillHing x:: l (why?) in the second series of
"'
~ A,. 1 J Problem 5S. Which approach uppears to requ ire the fewest
In (I - x) = - L... - == -x - :_ _ :_ _ . .. terms 10 yield the ""lue of In 2 •ccura tc to a gi,·cn number
._, n 3 J
of decimal places'
@ 11.4 Proj ect: Calculating Logarithms on n Deserted lslllnd

The problt:m is that you 're stranded fo r life on a desert island with o nly a ve ry basic
calculator that docs no t calculate natura l logarithms. So to get modern scie nce going
on this miserabl<! island. you need to use th e infin ite se ries for In[(I+ .r)/(1 - .r)J in
Proble m 58 to produce a simple table o f logari t hm~ (with five-place accuracy, sa y).
giving In x a t least for the intel!ers x = I. 2. 3. . .. . 9. a nd 10.
1l1e most d irect way mig ht be to usc the series for ln[(l + .r)/ (1 - .r)J to ca lculate
first In 2. In 3. In 5. a nd In 7. 1l1e n usc the Ia w o f loga ri thms In .ry = In x + In >' t o fill
in the o th<.:r en tries in th e table by si mple ad di tion o f lo garith ms already computed.
Unfortuna tely. larger values o f x result in series that arc more slo wly convergent.
So you cou ld sa ve yourself time a nd work by e xe rcising some ingenuity: Ca lculate
from scratch some fo ur orhc•r loga rithms fwm which you can build up the rest. Fo r
e xa mple. i f you know In 2 a nd In 1.25. then In I 0 = In 1.25 + 3 1n 2. (Why?) Be as
ingeni o us as you wish. Ca n you comple te you r table o f te n logMithms by calc ulating
d irectly (us inl.~ the series) fewer than four logarithms to begi n with?
f o r a fi n~ lc. calcula te somehow (from scratch. and accura te to five rounded
d ecimal plac..:s) the n;llu rallogari thmln(pq .rs). whe re p. q. r, and s d eno te t he last
four trcm zero d igits in yo ur stude nt 1.0. num be r.
11 .5 1 THE INTEG RAL TEST

A Taylo r series (as in Sec tion 11 .4) is a specia l type o f infinite series with l'tlriablc
term~ We saw tha t Taylo r's fo rm ula can so metimes be used- as in the case of the
exponent ial. sine. and cosine series-to establish the convergence o f suc h a series.
nut g iven an infinite se ries L: a. with WtLHmrr terms. it is the e xceptio n rathe r
tha n the ru le whe n a si mple formula fo r the r~th partial sum of tha t se ries c;ln be. fo und
a nd used r.Ji rectly to de te rmine whet he r the se ries conve rges o r d iverges. 111e re arc.
however. several ,·m u•t•rgctrcr trst,<tha t usc the rcrn~f o f a n infinite se ries ra th e r than
its pa rt ial sum'<. Such a test . whe n succcs,ful. will tell us whe the r or not the ~cries
con verges. O nce we know th at the se ries L: a. do cs co nvcrt:c. it i~ the n a separate
m:tl tc r to li nd its surn J . It rnay be necessary to approx im:llc Shy add ing suflicic ntly
many te rms: in t hi~ case we ~hall need to know how ma ny te rms arc required for the
dc,i rcd :occuracy.
Jl c re a nd in Sectio n l l .f>. we cnncc:ntr:1te o ur a u c ntio n on posithr· tl•rm !'erie..~
tha t is. series with t e rm~ that a rc all pmitivc:. If a. > n fo r all11 , the n
S1 < S:< SJ< .. ·< S.. < · .. .
50 the seq uence IS" I o f pa rtial surn~ o f the sc ril·~ i~ i ncrca~ing. He nce the re a re
ju~t t wo pm~i bilitie'<. If the scc1uence IS.. I is bowrt!rtl- thcre ex ists a n umber M such
tha ts. < M for all n- thcn the bo unded mo n oto nic seque nce propert y (Sectio n 11 .2)
rr
J
71 6 CHAPTER 11 Infinite Series
"""'
implies that S == lim._, s. exists. so the series La. comwges. Otherwise. it diverees
to infinity (by Problem 52 in Section 11.2). . '
A similar alternative holds for rmproper mte~rals. Suppose that the function f
is continuous and positive-valued for x ~I. llJen II follows (from Problem 51) th<!t
the improper integral
r"" f(.r) dx = lim 11> f(.r) dx

) 1 b-oc 1 (I)
either converges (the limit is a real number) or diverges to infinity (the limit is
+oo). This analogy between positive-term series and improper integrals of positive
fu.nctions is the key to the integral test. We compare the ~ehav ior of th.e series La,
w11h that of the improper integral in Eq. (I). where f IS an appropnately chosen
function. (Among other things. we require that f(n) =a, for alln.j
THEOREM 1 The Integral Test

Suppose that Ea. is a positive-term series and that f is a posi tive-valued, de-
creasing. con tinuous function for x ~I. If f(n) =a, for all integers n ~ I, then the
series and the improper integral
"" Joo f(x) clx

La•
na l
and
either both converge or both diverge.

I.
/'ROOF Because f is a decreasing function, the rectangular polygon with area
Sn = OJ + 02 +OJ + · · · + On
shown in Fig. I L'i.l contains the region under y = f(x) from x =1 to x =n + J.

Hence
1. . .
I
f( x) dx $
-
s•. • (2)
Similarly, the rectangular polygon with area
s. - ar = a2 +OJ + a4 + ... + a.
shown in Fig. 11..5.2 is contained in the rcgio d f
Hence nun cr y= (x) fromx=ltox ::n.
(3}
' y
FIGURE 11.5.1 Under~tit114ting the partial sums

with an lnt~r•l. FICURE 11 s
· t • •2 ~rest1mating
with •n 1
.
the partial sums
~ n "9<al.
The lnt1!9ral T~st SECTION 11.5 71 7
Sur pose lint that the im proper integral J1"" {(.c) tl.c diverges (necessar ily
to +N). lncn
j~·
1
lim f(.r) dx = +oo.
n-ro
1
so it follo w1 from (2) tha t lim~-"' s. = +oo as well. nnd hence the infinite se ries L: "•
li\..c" is~ di\l'T)!<'$.
Now supl"'~' inst<' IHl thatthc improper integral J1 f(.t) tlx conve rges and has
th<' (llnit~ ) value / . '1ltl' l1 (:')implies that
s. ~ 11 1 + ]." f(.t)dx :! at + I.
so the increasing sequence IS. I is rounded. TIIU~ the infinite series
L"' a• = lim S. "- ~
ronvncc> a< \\ ell. lienee \\ e h:we sho wn that the infinite series and the improper
integral either lxtth com·er!!C o r both diverge. ~
EXAMPLE. 1 \\'e u<cd a vcnion of the integral test to pro ve in Section 11.3that the
ham10nic series
"" ! 1 I 1
2:: - = 1+ - + -+- + .. .
•• I II 2 3 ~
div<'rges. Usi ng. the test as stated in lneorcm 1 is a lill ie simpler: We note t hat
f(x) = 1/.r is f>'JSili,·e. continuo us, and decreasing fo r x i: 1 and tha t { (11) = l / 11 for
each positive intc~tcr n. No w
j "' ~ tl.r = lim j~ ~ d.r = lim ( ln xjb= lim (In b- In

t X ~~ 1 X b-oN 1 h-::cr
1) = +oo.
Thus the improper integral dh·c:rgcs and. therefo re. so docs the h:m110 nic series. +
lnc harmo nic series is the case p = 1 of the fJ-'~:rlcs
" l l 1 1
..
---
L- -11 r = ! + ..,,
I
- + -1r + ·· · + -11 t• +· ··.
- •
(-l)
Whether the p-scries converges or diverges depends on the vnlue of p.
EXAMPLE 2 Show that the r•-series converges if 11 > l but d i,·ergcs if 0 o but p t- 1.
then the functio n f(x) == l f xP s:1 t i~fies the conditions of the: intcj!.raltcst. and
f.
t
- l ll.t
X'
= lim
b-"'
jb -t
l dx = lim [ - :--:-:---:-:
XP b-
l l~
( p - J )xr - t I
"' .
1lnl - 1 ( 1- - l )
b-oo p- l /)P - 1 '
If p > l , then
!." I
-
.rP
I
tlx "' -
f' - J
I
< 00
'
so the integral and the series hoth convo:rr.c. litH if 0 < f' < 1. the n
"
1 x' 1
-
l
tit = lim - - (IJ1- , - I ) =
~>-"" l - p
l
3Dd in this cue the integrnl and t he series both di,·e rgc.
•
As specific examples, the series

coo l I I 1
"~ nl-
-1+-+-+···+
22 32 -+
n2 · ..
n=!
converges (p = 2 > 1). whereas the series

"" I I I I
L:Jri=l+ JZ+ JJ+ ·· ·+ Jii + ···
n=l
diverges ( p = i ::; 1). . .

Now suppose that the positive-term se ncs Ln. conv~rges by the Integral test
and that we wish to npproximate its sum by addtng suffictcn tly many of its initial
terms. ·n1e difference between the sum S of the series and its nth partial sums. is
the remainder
R. =s- s. = On+J + 11n+2 + n n+3 + ... . (5)
This remainder is the error made when the sum is estimated by using in its place the
partial sum s•.
THEOREM 2 The Integral Test Remainder Estimate

Suppose that the infinite series and improper integral
"" a.
I::
n::l
and 1"" f(x)dx
satisfy the hypotheses of the integral test, and suppose in addition that both con·
verge. TI1cn
!.,.,
tr+l
/(.t) dx :£ R. :£ J."" [(.t) dx,
"
(6)
where R. is the remainder given in Eq. (5).
' PROOF We see from Fig. I 1.5.3 that
t•• /(.t) (/.t ~ nk ~ r /(.t) dx

Jk
k
lk-l
for k = II + I. II ... 2 We add the . . r.
result is the ineq. ua'lit~· in (G)' b' s~ mcqua tiles for all such values of k. and the
• . ccausc
t-Jtt+l •
FIGURE 11.5.3 Establishing the

Integral test remainder estimate.
and
k~tl_/<x)tlx == J."" f(x)dx.

"" k
If we substitute R. == s _ s. th . .,
satisfies the inequality "' en 11 follows from (6) that the sum S of the sen<'-
I
.i ~;,+j""
·• •
/lx)tl.r $ S < s
- ; "+
1' . /Cntlx .
' "
\
The Integral Test SECTION 11.5 719
If the nth partial sum s. is known and the difference
1•+t [( x )dx
betwee n the: two in tegrals is small. then (7) provides an accurate estimate o f the sum
S of the infinite seri es.
EXAMPLE 3 We will sec in Sectio n 11.8 t hat the exact sum of th e p-series with
p = 2 is n 2 /6. thus giving the beau tiful form u la
rr 2 I I I
- = 1 + - + - + - + · ... (ll)
6 22 J2 42
Usc this series to approximate the number :r by applying the integ ra l test remainder
estimate, first with 11 = 50. then with 11 = 200.
Solu tion Obviously we take f(x) = ljx 2 in the remainder est imate. Because
1""
11
_!_2 dx = lim
x b-oo
[-~]
x
b =lim(~-~)=~.
b-~ 11 b
11
n
Eq. (7) gives
I :r I 2
s. + -
11+
-1 ~ :_6 :; .s;, + - .
II
(9)
where
I 1 I
Sn=l +-+
22 -J2 +·· ·+-
Ill
is the 11th partial sum of the series in (8). U pon multiplying by 6 and taking square
roots. (9) gives the inequality
(10)
You c-ould add the first 50 terms in (ll) one by one in a few minutes using a simple
four-function calcula to r. but this kind of arithmetic is precisely the ta.~k for which a
modern ca~lculator or computer algebra system is designed. A o ne -line instr uction
such as the calculator comma nd awn 1aeq 11/n/\2. n, 1, 50) ) yields
so l
5ll) = "' -; "" 1.625132734.
L-n-
·- t
Then. using (9) for illustration rather than ( 10). we calculate
I rr 2 I
1.62513273 + 5I < 6 < 1.6251327-1 +50 ;
."f 2
1.64474057 < 6 < 1.6451327-1;
3.1-11-10787 < IT < J .l-11 7li2J7.
finally. roundin g down on the left and up o n the right (why?). we conclude that
3.1-114 < rr < 3.141!!. 'l11c a,·crage of these two bounds is the traditional four·piJcc
appro~imation IT "= 3. 1416.
'The 2CXlth partial sum nf the series in (8) is
2f t } I
s21., = 'L-,.2 "" 1.639946546.
"• t
Substituting this sum and n == 200 in (tO). we get

3.t.t158081 < :r < 3.l.t160457.
~
. d ·d accurate to four decimal pl aces.
11115 proves that ;r ::::: _,,!416 roun e ' •
EXAMPLE 4 Show that the series
"" I
'~ n (lnn)·, (III
r..:2
· how manv terms you would need to add to find its sum
converges. an d d etenmne • ' · · d 1 ·
· h' (JI l"'at 1·s, how large must 11 he m or e r t 1at the remamder
accurate to wll m 0 . . "'
satisfy t he inequality R. < O.ot 'l
2
Sol ution We begin the sum at n == 2 because In I = 0. Let f (x) = 1/[x(ln x) ). Then
1 1 1 1
f"c
J. x(ln x)2
dx- lim [ - - -]"
- h-"' In x "
= b-oc
lim ( - - -
In 11
- - ) = - -.
In b ln 11
Substi tu ling n = 2 shows that the series in ( 11) converges (by the integral test). Our
calculations and the right·hand ineq ual ity in (6) now give R., < I /(i nn), so we need
- 1- ~ O.ot: Inn ?; 100: n ~ e 100 "=' 2.7 x 10~3 •

Inn -
A compu ter that could calculate a billion (!Oq) terms per second would require about
8.5 x 10"6 years- far longer than the e xpected lifetime of the un iverse-to sum this
many terms. But you can ch eck that accuracy to o nly one decima l place-that is.
R., < 0.05-would require only a hout n == 4.85 x !()'~ (fewer than a h alf bi ll ion) t~rms.
well within the range of a powerful desktop computer. •
0 11 .5 TRUE/ FALSE STUDY GUIDE

I. What migh t it mean to say that one infinite series converges more slo.,.ly
than another? Perhaps that more terms of one th:1n the other must be added
to make the remainder R., less th:1n a preassigned e rror? If so, complre
th e rates a t which the series "' 11 - l " ' 11-3!2 " ' -~f.l " ' - IOI/100
L- '~ • L-" ·····L-" ·· ···
converge.
2. Ca~ you use infi nite se ries such as those listed in Qu estio n It o illustr3tCthe
claun th:ll, however slowly o nc, 10 · fimue · senes
· converges. there 's another one
thai converges even mo re slowly?
3. Cnn
. •vou think of a way • • in w 1uc · 1l t11e convergent infinite series 1n
· Q ues·
liOn. I "'
seem to resem ble m .• d ~ ·.
_ . ore an more closely the divergent harrnont<
Sen es L. .II 1? .DI SCUSS
.· the p · ' b'l· h
OSSI I 11y t at two infin ite series can rcscm •
b!•
each ot her arb1tranly closelv· ,. yc t one converges and the o ther diverges.
11.5 PROBLEMS
~~~~--~-----------------
In Problems I through 30, use tht lntegmltesr ro re.rrrhe givtn
series for convergence. "' I
6. "
~' -
11(11 +-I)
•••
L ;;r.;T
"" II
"' I
"'
I.
-·
.., I
L
,. I
'·I:
-~, -
- I
ninn
II. " ' ln11
~n
·-·""
3.L./n +l 4. (II + 1)4/) 9.
L -2• "' ~
Ill.~ ~ ·
·-I ••• "·•I
·-·
d
The Integral T~t SECTION 11.5 721
~ , "'-
I: ~ 1 In Problr.nu 4J th ro w;h 46, find thr Jllnt of tl:r gh•m srria ac·
II.
•••
12.
L••• 17n - 13 n u au to tht' ir.dtcaud numba J: of dt'ctmal place.'l Begin by
findmg tlu smallrH •·alur of rr such char tht' rrmnir.du smufi(S
13. f: n' Inn "'

14. Ln ~ 1
tht mtqua!uy R,.. < S x 10 · 1'- · ll. TJ:tn ustll calculaw r to comput~
tht paniJ;/ sum S, and round off approp riatdy .
n·
•••
... ·-·... ~3.
"' I
2:: , ,., : .u.
"' I
Ln';
15.
L n.: l 16.
Ln, ~n
.., k =2
·-r
k=3
• •I
•• • " "
...
17. L 2n +5
.$5•
L:
.., ~l : A. = S -'6. z= ~, ; k :: 7
n 1 + 5n + 17 18.
i>(": l) ·~·
•••
·-· In Prohlnrn 47 and .Sli uJr a corr.puu r af.~t"bra systr111 (if ttt:C·
19. t
•••
In ( I + ~~ ) 20. t 2"•n' t uary) to rfnrrmin~ tht ..aJua of p for -...·hich tl:t' 1:i1·rn infinir~
j(N(J Cf)f)l.f'fj;f f.
•••
L
~ ~ "' I
"' 47. .SS.~
"'
21. :L"
4n + 5
• ·I
1 12. I: (4n +" 5)>'1 1
••I
n' L- p-"""
• ••
•• • -''~· Dcduo: /r(lm the inequalities in (2) ami (J) wi1h the func·
"" h u n / <• l = 11.. lha t
~ 11~11,
~
ZJ. u.
L•· I
n(lr: nl 1 I
Inn S I + - + -
2
1
3
I
+ · · · + It- S
-
I + In 11
""
u.. L
"'
1
fur n = I, 2. 3. . . . . II a computer odd~ I million< te rms of
25.
L
•• I
4n' + I)
A-I
n+l
, + 1110 the harmonrc •c rreo pe r '<cnnd. how Ions will illa kc fo r lh~
plrtial ~um tu reach SO'?
"' ~
27. I: " +I
n• + 2n
•• I
1 211.
L (n ~ I)'
50. (a) Let
I'!·• I I I I
L"" arcta nn ... c. = I + ; + - + · ·· + - - Inn
29.
, :+ 1 30. L.., n(ln n)[ln(ln n) I I
- 3 11
for n = I. 2. 3 . . . .. Deduce from Problem 49 thnt 0 ::! c. ;:) I

••• for a ll"· ( b) l'o te th>t
In Problmu 31 throu~h ) 4, Ill/ "'fry tire imrgraltest does not
•· r I I
ap ply to llrr git.·t•tt .uric...t.
31. f: ( -~)· "'

JZ. :L ~- sin n . i
~
-d.r ~
s
--.
- n+ 1
••• ... Conclude that the sequence (c. ) is dccrcasin!;t. ll•ere fore
33. t n' 2 +sinta

:w. f: ci~n)'
the sequence (.c, l converges. The number
•• I • •I y
. c. -= 1.rm ( I + -I + -1 + ... + -I - Inn)
I1m
= n-eo >: 0.57722
"-:.a 2 3 n
In Problt'nU .J.S through 3 8, dt'l<"rmin~ tlrt' ~·nltu•J t:-j Jl fc >r wh iclr
tlr~ gi\'t'ff St'ri~s C{)fl\'t'TJ(t".t. is kno wn as F.uiC"r•s con~1ant.
"" 51. Suppo>e that the function f is continuous and positive.
JS. L"' I
I"' Jl>. L en': I )• volucd lor x ~ I. Let
••• •••
b.= [ / (x)dx
for n = 1. 2. 3 . ... . (a) Suppose thatthcincrcasingsc:qucnce

{b,fiS bounded. so I hat IJ = lin~._,.. h. c•ists. Pro,·e thai
In l'roblmu J9 through 4}, fintlthr lta.<t pm itive integrr n such
tlrat tlr~ rtmDitrd~r R,. in 17t~ort"l 2 U /ru titan E.
!.~ / (.r) d.r "' JJ.
"' I ~ n''·
"" I
39.
L -n·,.·
•• r
£ "' 0.000 I 40
. . L.
•••
E "' 0 00005
(b) Prove th3l if the sequence (b. I is nottxlund~d. then
"" I
41. :L,
•••
.: E "' 0.00005 4Z. E."' 2 )( tO· II
!."" /(:r) tlx "' +oo.
~
I 722 CHAPTER II Infinite Series
Once and for ,\II
J 1.5 f'roJ•eCt: The Number ;r' · h h ·b
ri es ..-- 11n P w11 t e vana lex ~·e
in the p·Se L- · · h · '
When we re place the. parameter fJ
rtant transcen den r ..~ l functions tn htgher mar emaru:s, Ill•'
ge l one of the most.tmpo
Riema nn zeta function I I
"" I I - + - + "· .
=
~(x) "L.... n' = '
I .:.-+
2' 3' 4'
•• I
. tea complex num .
=
ber r n + hi in rhe zeta function. 1'-'ov.
I.d . .
REMARK Onccan subs utu , d rhc mosr fam ous unso \ C conJccruretn
that Fermat's Jastt h.:orem has b.:cn pr~' c ' r (a + bi ) = 0 implies that a = ~; that
. R' n h\·pothc~t~- 11131 >
math ema tics ts the ternan · ,. nn zeta function h:wc real part i· 1 (The
of the 1,1cm:t • .
is. that the only complex zeros .
131 1
1 + 14 IJ-l75i.) The truth of the R1cmann
smallest such example is approx 1 ~ c• Y ~
hypotheSIS . would h;ne . profound 1mp 1
. 1ca11onh5 1
·n· number theory, including informa-
lion about the di stribution of the pnmc num crs.
I h · "c n v•lue
11 4 usc I he £1' " o f the zct!l function and the
In Problem~ t roug · · . Exannle 3 of this secti on) with the given value
integral-test rema1ndcrcstlmate (ash!~ . 1f th e number rr is th ereby determined
of n to determine how accurately I c \a 1uc o
Knowing that
rr "'=' 3. 141 59 26535 89793 23846,
write ench final answer in the form rr "'=' 3.aucc
L 1e .• • • £lVII
· · 1g precisclv; those
· digits that
arc correct or correctly rounded .
. - 2 rr 4
1. \(2) = '6
" with 11 = 25. 2· >' (4) = 90 with n = 20.
,_ 6 lT 8
3. ((6) = 9-15
" · hn
WJI = ,-::>. • ''(8) = 9450
... with11 = 10.
S. Finally. usc one of the preceding fou r problc:ms and your own careful choice ofr.
to show tha t rr "'=' 3.14159265-l with all digits correct or correctly rounded.
Euler showed that if 11 is even then {(n) is a rational multiple of :r • (as in the ases
n = 2. -l. 6. 8 cited above). Because any integral po,,cr of :r is irra tional. it follows
that the number ( (n ) is irr:llional if n is C\'Cn. Uut little was known :~bout ( (n ) Cor
n odd unt il l 9iR, when Roger Ap~ry proved that ('(3) is irrational. In Section 7.7
of Andrews. Askey. and Roy, Special Functions (Cambridge Univ. Press: 1999).
the authors show that there exist infinite sequences (II.,J and ( D,} of intege rs such
that
0 < JA, + 8.('(3)1 < 3 . IO

( 9 )"
for each integer n;;; l. Can you explain why this implies that ('(3) is irrational?
(Assume, to the contrary, that n3) = p/q is rational.)
COMPARISON TESTS FOR POSITIVE-TERM SERIES _

11. 6 . .
Wuh the Integral test we attempt to determine wl th, . · 1i · c series con·
, b · · . . 1e cr or not .tntn 1n1 1 ..,
' \ erges _ycompanngJt wuhan 1m proper integral.llu: methods of this s.:cti on in,·o!~<·
compa:1~g th e ter~s o'f the J:osirivc-rnmserics L: a. with those of "noth er posit~~~:
term scrrcs J:.~" whose convergence or do"crgencc is kn own. We h" ''e ;'l !rc:ady de e
oped two fam1hes of reference u ries for tbc rol of th '· · <"" h · these ~r 1
. . . c c .:nown se n cs 1 . • ·
1
h 11
t e geome tnc serres of Sect10n 11.3 and t~e fJ·series of Sectio n 11.5:-lney ~rc " ' r
•••,.,. ,., • ., oow '"""""' "'"'"" "'" '""'"''"" "' ";""''"" ;, ' "'" , . ,
Comparison Tests lor Positive-Term Series SECTION 11 .6 723
to determine. Recall that the geometric series 'L r" conve rges if (r( I and dive rges if O < p ~ I.
Let La. and Lb. be positive-term series. Then we say that the series 'L b,.
dominates the series L a11 pro,·ided that a.~ b. for all n . Theorem I says that the
posi tive-term series La. converges if it is domina ted by a convergent series and
diverges if it dominates a positive-term divergen t series.
THEOR EM 1 Comparison Test

Suppose th at La, and 'L br. are positive-term series. The n
1. La. conve rges if L bn converges and a,. ~ bn for all n;
2. 'La. dive rges if Lb. diverges and a.;:: b. for all n.
!'flOOr De note the nth partial sums of the series 'Lon and 'L b, by S, and 7;..
respec ti vely. Then (S,. 1and (T, 1a re increasing sequences. To prove part ( I), suppose
th a t L b, conve rges, so T = limn-x T, exists (so th at Tis :1 real number). Then the
fact that a,, ~ b. for al111 implies th a t s. ~ T, ~ T for alln. TI1us the sequence (~,1 of
partial sums of [a. is bounded and inc reas ing and therefore converges. Thus La,
converges.
Pa rt (2) is merely a restatement of part ( 1). If the series 'La, converged,
then the fact that La, dominates 'L b, would im ply-by part (I ). with a,. and b,
interchanged-that [ b, com•erged. Out L: b,. diverges, so it follows that 'La, must
also dive rge. ~
We know by TI1eorem 5 of Section 11.3 that the convergence or divergence of an

infinite se ries is not affected by the inse rtion or deletion of a finite number of terms.
Consequently, the conditions a, :;; b, and a.~ b. in the two parts of the comparison
test rea lly need to hold only fo r all 11 ;:: k, where k is some fixed positive integer. Tims
we can say tha t the positive-term series L: a, converges if it is "eventually dominated"
by the convergent positive-temJ series 'L b, .
EXAMPLE 1 Because
I
- - -- - - < -
11(11 + I )(n + 2) n3
for all n;:: 1, the series
2: 11(11 + II)(n + 2) = 1 · 2I · 3 + 2 · 3I · 4 + 3 . 41 . 5 + ...

<»
n= l
is dominated by the series L l f n 3• which is a convergent p-series with p = 3. Both

arc positive-term se ries, and hence the series 'L l f (n (n + 1)(n + 2)) converges by
part (I) of the comparison test. •
EXAMPLE 2 Because
I 1
> --
J2n- 1 ../2ii
for all" ~ 1, the positi,•e-term series
~ I 1 1 1
L ~=l+ r::;+ ~+ -+ ...
n~t """-I v3 v5 ./7
dominates the series

q
. . s with p =!·and a constan t nonze ro multi ple

Ou~ L: 11111{2 i~ a dt.vcrgent p-ser~ ( ) of the comparison test implies that the seri~1
a dtvergent sencs dt\·ergcs. o P3 25 s
L: 11 J2n - 1 also dive rges. •
EXAMPLE 3 Test the series

"" ! I 1 1
' - = 1+ -1, +" + 3' + ...
L. 11! • -· .
• ..o
Cor convergence.
Solution We note first that if n S:. 1, then
n! = 11(11 - I )(n - 2) · · · 3 · 2 · 1
;: 2 . 2. 2 ... 2. 2. 1 (the sa me llttmb..:r of factors):
a
that is. n! 2•-l for 11 6; I. Thus
I I
- <
n!
-
= 2•-•
for n 2: 1.
so the series
"" I ~ I
I+L..-'2n-
- t = 1 +'
is dominated by the series
,... L. -.
2n
, .()
which is a convergent geometric series (afte r the first term). Bo th ar~ positi~e·term
series. so by the comparison test the given series converges.. We saw 111 Sccllon 11.4
that the sum of the se ries is the number e, so
I I 1 1
e=l+-+-+-+·
1! 2! 3!
.. +-+
n!
.. ·.
Indeed, this series provides perhaps the simplest way of showing that
e::::: 2.71828 1828 459045 23536. •

Limit Comparison of Terms
Suppose that L: a,. is a positive -term series such that a.- 0 as 11- +00· Then. in
connection with the nth-te rm divergence test o f Section 11.3. the se ries La. h 35.3 t
least a clrance of converging. !low do we choose an a ppro priate positive-term ~cne~
L h. with which to compare it? A good idea i~ to express !J,. as a simplt• functtOn ~
11, s impler than a,. hut such that a. and b. approach 7cro ut the same rate as n- +"';
If the formula for a,, is a fraction, we can try discardin g all hut the terms of largcs
magnitude in its numerator and denominator to Corm !J,.. f-or e xample. if
3n 2 +n
a.=.....,---=
114 + .;n·
. .
then w~ rea.son that " .'s s~all m comp~rison with 311 2. and that .jii is sma1
I. om~P
,r.tn; _
ison wtth n • when 11 ts qutte large. 1lus suggests that we choose b,. = 311 2I n - 31. od
The series E 31n 2 converges (p = 2), hut when we attempt to compare 11" ~est 1;:
E b•• we find that a. i:: IJ., (rather than a.:;:; b.). Co nsequently. the cornpan~ondoes
doe~ not apply imme.d iately-the (act that La. dominates a convc~g.cnt sc~~~~ han·
not 1mply that La. ttself converges. Theorem 2 provides a convcment wa)
dling such a situation.
t1
Comp.1ri1on Tesu for Positive-Term Series SECTION 11 .6 725
THEOREM 2 Limit Comparison Test

Su ppose that L: a. and L: b. are positi,·e·tenn series.. If the limit
. a.
L = r.-
l tm-
oo b.
ex:ists and 0 < L < +oc. then either both series converge or both series diverge.
PROOF Choose two fixed positive numbers P and Q such that P < L < Q. 111en
P <a./b. < Q Corn sufficient ly large, and so
Pb. <a. < Qb.

fo r all sufficiently la rge values of n. U Lb. co nverges. then La. is eventually dom·
ina ted by the conve rgent sen es L Qb, = Q'£b•. so part (1) of the comparison tes t
implies tha t L o, al~o con,·erges. If L b. diverges. the n '£a. eventually dominates
the diverge nt se ries L I'b.= P L b,. so part (2) of the comparison test implies that
L: a. also div~:rges.. 11JUs the convergence of eithe r series implies the convergence of
the othe r. ""'
EXAMPLE 4 With
(motivated by the discussion preceding Theorem 2). we find that

I
. a. . 3n + rr
4 \
.
3+ 11-
Itm -
•-oo b. = •-oo
11m
n' + ,fn
= •-oo
1tm - --
1
= 3.
I + II 112
Because L: l/112 is a con\'crgent p·scrics (p =2). tht: limit comparison test tells u s
th at the series
also converges.
•
EX AMPLE 5 Test for convergence: L"" 21I+I 1 nil
.
n-=1
Solution Because lim._ ,.,(ln n )/11 = 0 (by l'l-16pital's rule ),In 11 is very small in com·
parison with 211 when 11 is large. We therefore take a.= I / (211 + Inn) and. ignoring
the constant coefficient 2. we take b.= I {11. Then we find that
. a.
hm .
- = 11m 11
= I'tm 1 -
11-oo b. •-«> 2Jr + In 11 •-oo In 11 -
2+-
2·
II
B ecausc the harmonic series L I In = L: b. diverges. it follo"''S that the given series
L: On also diverges. •
It is important to reme mber that if L= lim._..,(n,.fb.) is either zero or infini te,

then the limit comparison test docs not apply. (Sec J>roblem 52 for a d iscussion of
what conclusions may sometimes be drawn in these cases.) Note, for example, that
if On= 1 /n~ and b.= 1/n, then lim._oo(a./bn) =0. But in this case L:a. converges.
whereas L: b. diverges.
726 CHAPTER 11 Infin ite Series
Estimating Remainders . •. ow that Lb. converges. so the compariSO:t

r aU n and" e•ell.
Suppose that 0 ~ a. ~ b• or
.. n · " · d S "
Let us wn te s = L- 0 • a n = t... b•. lf .t
._ 0 \"erges as ''
test implies that L. • co~! bl for the rem ainder
numerical estimate IS a va t 3 c
Rn = S- Sn::: b-. .. I + br.+l + ...
it to est ima te the re mainder
. ._ b then we can USe
in t he dominating sen es L. •·
- s-s" = On ~l ~
' On t2 +· ··
fn-
. < < b (for a lin) imp lies that 0 ~ ' " ~ R•. \\'e
-c- a. . 1"ue. r cason ts that 0 -- 0 • .,us~d
in the scn· es L. •
the intcoral tcM r cm a ·tnd er csttmate
·
'f f . tance we 11 ave ~
.
ca n apply thts facti. or ms R "'
· - which is. then, an u ppe r bo u nd for ' • as well
to calculate an upper bound for •

oo 00
I
I>· = L:
n;l n• l
, J + Jli
Il converges because
. . d
II IS
. db , t he converoc nt p-ser ies
om mate )
oo oo I
"
Lb•= L
~t=l n=l
nl '
It thcrd ore follows by the integra l test re mainde r e stima te (Section 11.5) that
(l < '• ~ Rn ~ • xl1"' I

dx =
.
~~
f I
l- 2x2
1b
• =
l
2 11 2 .
Now a calculator gives

100 I
s1oo = "~II3 + JliII "" 0.680184 and Rtoo ;£ . I()02 = 0.OOO<f:>.
2 1
ft 5 ]
It follows that 0.680284 ;i! s ;;i 0.680334. In pa rticular,

00 1
L: )+ ,fo "" 0.6803
n• l II II
rounded accurate to four decimal places.

•
Rearrangement and Grouping 01
· II o r posiiiVC·term
\\ 'c c 1osc ou r d 'ISCUSSIO .. sen·es w1th
· the observation· t h 3 tthc sum ~
· 'ts t~[111·
a convergent po.1·irin ··term series is not alt ered hy groupi n~ o r rca rran gmg 1
For cx:1mple. let 2:
a. be a convergent pos itive -term se rie s and consider
L"" b. = (a l + az + 113) + ~~~ + (a 5 + a 6) + ·· ·.

•~ I
That is. the new series ha.s terms
b, = a, + a 2 + a3,
bz = a•.
b:J = as + a6 ,
and so on. Then eve ry partia l sum T, of Lb.
is equal to som e par tial su!ll o! ~·· ~ fJ1
~eca~e IS.~ is an increasin~ seq uence with limit S L ct., it follows :asll)'3 ~h~ = 111 cn
IS an mcreasmg sequence with the sam e limit. Thus L, b. = S as well . Ille g
"""'
Comp<~rison Tests for Positive-Term Series SECTION 11 .6 727
is more subtle if terms of [a. a rc moved "out of place:· as in

...,
L b. = a1+a= + aJ + a3 + a6 +as +as +a to+ au + ·· ·.
but the same conclusion holds: Any rearrangement of a convergent positivt'-term
se ries also conver2es. and it con,·erees to th..: same sum.
is
Similarly. it easy to pron.> th;t any grouping or rearrangement of d ivergen t a
po~it ivc-tcr m series also di\'e rccs. 13ut these obse rvations :!II fail in th e ca~c of an
infinite se ries" ith both positiv; and negati,·e terrns. Fo r example. the series L:C -I)"
diverges, but it has the con\'ergent grouping
(-I + I) + C-I 'T I) T ( - 1 - I ) + .. · = 0 + 0 + 0 + .. · = 0.
It follo" s from Problem 56 of Section IIA that
I I I I
In 2 = I - z+ ) - :i + S - · · · .
bu t the rearra nge ment
llllllll
1+--- + - + - - - + - + - - -+ ...
3 2 5 7 4 9 II 6
converges instead to~ ln 2. This se ries for In 2 eve n has rearrange me nts th:ll converge
to ze ro a nd o thers th at diverge to + oo. (Sec Problem 64 of Section 11.7.)
~ 11 .6 TRUE/ FALSE STUDY GUIDE

1. Can you give examples of a pair of positi\'C-term infinite se ri es La. and
L: b. such tha t lim._ 00 (a. / b.) = 0 and (a) both series con\'ergc: (b) both
diverge: (c) o ne converges a nd the other di,·erges?
2. Can you give a n example of two con\'ergent positi\'e-te rm infinite se ries
L: a. and L: b. such that lim. _,(a./b.) = I but nei ther series dominates
the other?
3. c~n you give an cxampk of two positive-term infin ite series L: a. nnd L: b.
that either both converge or both di"ergc. butt he limit lim. _ (11. / b.) docs
not exist?
11.6 PROBLEMS
Uu compari.w rrtesrs to dftrrmin~ wiletila ril~ infinire stries in "" I
Problems ltlrrough 36 wnvag~ or diverge. B. L Inn 14. "" I
~ n - lnn
•-< •••
~ .,
1~- · "" ~
"' l
~n 2+ I 16. ""
~ J·
~
.. I
••• • ••
"' I
"' II + 2"
3. ""
~II- +Jrj
•••
4
· L••I , vzII + 17. L .-, + -3•
~. . I_
Ill.'\-
~ 2• + 3'
"' I "' 1 !011 2
• ••
..
•••
...
6. L -.-+-
"' I
s. "" -
~I + 3• 19. ""-
, 1- 2C
l "" _ I_
·-· .. ,
""n--,
II
~n- nn
...
,.- ~
L... 11 1+.;;t
•••
00
8. ~ ,. + 2 22 "" nrctnn 11
••• ~ ,
•••
"" I 2J. ~ sin2 (~/n) ~ ,,..
~
10. "" .Jiil+f
11" + 1 ~ n· 24. I: ~
••• ••• • ••
lL ~ 2Jri "'
I: I
u. ~n-1+2
-·
~ n +n u.
•••
J+s·
-·
~nl +Jn
Show thlt if La. is a convergent positive- term series. then
"' 1 .as. the series L sin(a.) Jlso con,•crges.
28.' -
L.- n-2• (a) Pro\'C that Inn < n 1 '~ for all sufficiently la_
rge valuesotn
••I 46• (b) Explain why part (a) shows that the senes 1/ Unn}i L
~ 3
29. ' diven!eS.
L--
4 +-
-fii • rrov; that if La.is a convergent positive-term series. then
•• I
47
~ ' l I L;fa.f n) con,·erges. ..
31. 'L_, =:......:__ La. is a cofnver~cnt pOSibllve- te_rmh ~criesand
• •I
n2. 3" 48. Suppose that
that (c.} is a sequence o poSII I\'C num crs w1t 1m11 zero. 1
.:f.
33. L_, 2 +, s'i.. n n 34. f. 1::: L
Prove that a. c. converges.
49. Usc the result of Problem -18 to prove that if and La. 2).
•·I ••I
are convergent positive-term senes.then a.b. com·crget L
.,
35.
' ( n + 1)"
L- n"•l [Suggestion: 2~ (I + ~)" =e.] so. Prove that the series
<•I "" 1
L:1 +2+J+ .. ·+II
•· I
converges.
In Problem:r 37th rough .fO, calculate the sum ofthefirst tm terms St. Usc the result of Problem 50 in Section ll.5 to prove that
of tltt• uries, thm estimate the error made in using this partial sum the series
to appro.t:imare the sunJ of the se*r-ies. ..,
37. '
.,.,
L.--
, .. +I
-
I
38
""
· L:3. + 1
I L: 1 I I
••I I + - + - + .. . + -
. .. ) ••I 2 3 n
diverges.
«> '
~
2: ~
40 I
39. ,l · L- (rr + l)(ln 11) 2 52. Ad apt the proof of the limit-comparison test to pro"c the
••I •· 2 following two results. (a) Suppose that L;a. and L:b. are
In Pmblrm:r 41 thro11glr 4.J. fir.st dnermi11~ tht 1mall~st posi· positive-term series and that Lb. converges. If
ti•·t• inu·gcr n JIICh that the rrmairulu sarLvfies the inequality
R • < 0.005. Thm usr 11 calculato r or computa 10 approximat~ L= lim ~ =0.
fi-X. b,
the sum of the serie.< accurate to two dt•cimal places.
N ) ~ then La. converges. (b) Suppose that La. and L b, arc
41
· • ~ n' + I
L 4'- 'L- (n +" 1)2" positive-term series and that Lb. diverges. If
""'I , .J . a.
L = (1m-= +oo.
~ cos4 " 11-?0 bn
43. L.-
' -n. -
La. diverges.
·-· then
11
.JIALTERNATING SERlE~ AND ABSOLUTE CONVERGENCE
•
In Secuons
• •
11.5 and I 1.6 we considered
. •
on tv• pos·11t\'e-term
· sen·es. ..,.ow
, we dt' -<cUSS
tnfintte
. senes
. that
,. have bo th postltvc
. terms and · .
negaltvc terms. An tmportan1c•lJn· •
I
pets a senes "-llh terms that arc alternative( .· · and negattve .
• . . . ' Ypostttve An a1tern•lin•
~ •
seru.•s ts an tnfinttc series of the form ·
"'
L (- t)" •llln =lit -a.• +tl J - II~
+ II~ - ··•
(I)
'"'•I .
or of the form :[:, 1(-l)"a., where a. >Or mating

hamtonic series or all n. For example, the altt
~ (-1)•+1 1
L.-~;.._=1-- 1 1 1
I
n•t n 2 + 3 - 4+ S - · ··
'
...\
d
Alternating Series and Absolute Convergence SECTION 11.7 729
and the geometric se ries
~ (-D" = 1 - ~ + ~- ~ + 16 -
1
···
are both alternating se ries.1l1eorem 1 shows th at both these series converge because
the sequence of absolute values of their terms is decreasing a nd has limit zero.
THEOREM 1 Alternating Series Test

If th e alternating se ries in Eq. (1) satisfies the two conditions
1. a" ~ an+ I > 0 for alln and

2. lim an= 0,
n-oo
then the inftnite series converges.
PROOF We first consider the even-numbered partial sums~. S4 • 56 ..... S,..n, . .• .

\Ve may \>.Tile
S2n =(at - a2) + (aJ - a4) + · · · + (aln - 1 - a2n).
Because ak- ak+l ~ 0 for all k, the sequence{~} is increasing. Also, because
S2n =at - (a2 - a3)- · · •- (a2n-2- az,_t) - Uz,,
Sz, ;£ a 1 for a lin. So the increasing sequence {Sz,) is bounded above. Hence the limit
S = lim S2n
n-oo
exists by the bounded monotonic sequence property of Section 11.2. It remains only
for us to verify that the odd-numbered partial sums S1 • S; . S5 • ••• also converge to S.
But Sln +l = S2n + a 2n+ l and limn-oc a 2n+l = 0, so
lim
n-oo
~+I = ( n-oc lim a2n+1) = S.
lim Sz,) + ( n-oo
s
s, s, s 6 - I- Ss s 3 s, Thus limn-<» Sn = S. and therefore the se ries in Eq. (1) converges.
I I
I
I I 1111111111 1 1
I I I ild\11 I I
I
I
I
I
Figure 11.7.1 illustrates the way in which the partial sums of a convergent alter-
FIGURE 11.7.1 The even partial
nating series (with positive first term) approximate its sum S. with the even partial
sums { S2n} Increase and the odd sums {S,_,} approaching S from below and th e odd partial sums {S2n+ tl approaching
partial sums {Sz..,.l) decrease. S from above.

y 00
(-1)"+1 1 1 1 1
I
---• ._-• _,_-• .. -•....._~ ·-.-· .. --
•
L 2n - l =l-3+5-7+9- ···
~~~ ·
satisfies the co nditions of Theorem I and therdorc converges. 1l1e alternating series
test docs not tell us the sum of this series, but we saw in Section 11.4 that its sum
is :;r f4. ·n1e graph in Fig. 11.7.2 of the partial sums of this series illustrates the typ·
ical convergence of an alternating series, with its partial sums approaching its sum
alternately from above and below. •
FIGURE 11.7.2 Graph of the first
14 partial sums of the alternating
series in Example 1. EXAMPLE 2 The series
<'> (-l)n+ln 2 3 4 5
L
ns 1
1
2n-1 = -3+5-7+9-···
is an alternating series, and by expanding we verify that n(2n + 1) > (n + 1)(2n -1).
- q
r'7'
I
so it follows that
11 n+1
- - > - = fln+l
0
• - 2n - 1 2n + I
for all n i:; 1. But
so the alternat ing series test does not apply. Cl1liS .fact alone docs not imply that the
series in question diverges-many series tn Secuo ns 11.5 and .11.6 con~·erge even
though the alternating series test does not apply. I3ut the sc ncs of thts example
diverges by the nth-term divergence test.) •
If a series converges by the alt<.:rnating series test, then ll1eorcm 2 shows how
to approximate its sum with any desired degree of accuracy- if you have a comput~r
fast enough to add a large number of its terms.
THEOREM 2 Alternating Series Remainder Estimate

Suppose that the series L:< - 1)"+1n. satisfies the conditions of the alternating
se ries test and therefore converges. Let S denote the sum of the series. Denote
by R, = S - s. the error made in replacing S with the 111h parti<ll sum S., of the
series. l11cn th is rcnmindcr R. has the sa me sign as the next term (- I y•+ 2an+l of
the series. and
(2)
In pJrticular. the: sumS of a convergem alternating series lies hrrween any roro
comecurive (lflrtial sum.~ 'l11 is follows from the proof of l11co rcm I, where we saw
that { S~,. ) is an increasing sequence and that (.5>_, +1 ) is a decreasing sequence, both
converging 10 S. l11c resulting inequalities
S211- 1 > S > S211 = 52n-t - a211
s,, . 1 and
FIGURE 11.7.3 Illustrating the 52., < s < s211+l = Sz,, + az,+ I
proof of the alternating series
remainder estimate. (sec f'ig. 11.7.3) imply the inequality in (2).
REMAR~ 11tc inequalit}: i~1 (2) means the following. Suppose that you arc given an
a/temaWlfJ
. scrll!s
. that sa usties
. · · the conditions· of 111c·ore . m ,_ am1 has sum S. ·r·l1cn' if
4
SIS replaced. with .a p·trtml

• sum S"' tile crrc ·' · ·
1r maue IS numencallv less th an the fi~t
"
tcr~ " "+I notrct ~mc:d and has the same sign as this first neglectc.d term. Important:
Thts error cst1matc does not applv' 10 other 1,.P'.• es o f se ncs.
.
EXAMPLE 3 We saw in Section 11.4 that
e' =L~ 00 "
n;O II!
fo r all x and thus (with x =- I) that
1
- = c-t = I - 1 + I I I
c 2! - 3! + 4! - ...
Use this alternating series to compute . _1
e accurate to four decimal places.
Solution To attain four-place accuracv • . h If unit
in the fourth place. Thus we want ''we Y.ant lhc error to be less than a a
I
tR.t<
(n + 1) ! <ooooos
== · •
d
Alternating Series and Absolute Convergence SECTION 11.7 731
If we use a calcul:llo r to compute the reciprocals of the factorials of the fi rst several
intege rs, we find that the leas t va lue of 11 for which this inequality holds is n = 7. Then
_1 1I 1 I 1 1 1
e = 1- ll +
! - )! + 4! - ! + ! - ! + R7 ::::. 0.367857 + R1 •
2 5 6 7
(Relyin g on a common "+2 rule of thumb:· we arc carrying six decimal places because
we want four-place accuracy in the fin al answer.) Now the first neglected term 1/8!
is positive, so the ineq uality in (2) gi\'CS
I
0 < R, < S! < 0.000025.
l11erefore
~ ""'0.367!157 < e- 1 < ~ + 0.000025 ""' 0.3678!12.
l11e two bounds here both round to e- 1 ::::. 0.3679. Altho ugh this approxima tion is
accurate to four decimal pl nccs. its rcci proc:~ l
e= I;e- 1 ::::. 1; (0.3679) ::::. 2.7181 ::::.2.718
gives the number c acc urate to only three decimal places. •
Absolute Convergen ce
l11c series
con\'erges. but if we simply re place each term with its :~bsol utc val ue, we get the
divergen t series
I I I I
1+ -2 +-+-+-+
3 4 5 ·· ·.
In contrast, the converge/It se ries
00
(- I )n 1 I 1 2
~~= l -2+4-3 + · · ·=3
has the property that the associated positive-term se ries
I I I
1+-+-+
2 -1 8- .... ···=2
also converges. 111corem 3 tells us that if a series of positive terms converges. then we
may insert m inus signs in front of any of the terms- every other one, for instance-
and the resulting series will also converge.
THEOREM 3 Absolute Convergence Implies Convergence

H the series L: !a.! conve rges, then so docs the se ries L: a•.
PROOF Suppose thai the series l: (a.,( converges. Note that

0 ;':i a., + Ja.. l ~ 2!anl
for all n. Let 1>. =a.+ !a.,(. It then follows from the comparison test that the positive-
term series 2: b, conve rges, because it is dominated by the convergent series L: 2ta.J.
It is easy to verify. too. that the termwise dilference of two convergent series also
converges. Hence we now sec that the series
L:>" = L(b, - Ia.!) = Lbn - L la. !

converges.
732 CHAPTE.R 11 Infinite Series
est o ne not limited to positive-term s• .
ther converge nee l · . •rre.s
Thus we have ano . . 0 . •en the se ri es <;"""""a•• test the senes "'Ia
· 5 cncs· 1\ L... L- • 11or
nor limited to altemaung . · then so does the former. (Out the converse .
convergence. If the latter coO\ cr~~~ us 10 ma ke th e following definition. 15
not true!) Th is phenomenon mouva es
1 t convergence
DEFINITION. A_ b sou e. . ubsolutelr(andiscalled absolutclycom·ergent)
L:
The series a. IS sa1d to ron,erge -
provided that the series
L lanl = Jad + lazl + JaJI + ... + lanl + .. .
converges.
Thus we have expIa·me d the title of Theorem 3,. and we can 11 rephrase the thco-
· ·e
rem as follows: I'! a ser1es conv r ges absolutely· rhen If converges. 1e two examples
. b
prece d .mg Th eorem 3 sh ow thai
• •a convergent series may e11her converge a solutelv .
or fail to do so:
I I I I
1--+ - --+ --· ··
2 4 8 16
is an absolu tely convergent series because
I I 1 I
1+ -+
2
-4 +-+-+···
8 16
converges, whereas
I I I I
1--+--- + --···
2 3 4 5
is a series that , though convergent, is not absolutely convergent. A se ries that con·
verges but docs not converge absolutely is said to be con1lirionally com·ergcnt. Con·
seq ucntly. the terms absolwely com·ergent, conditionally con vergent, and divergenl
are simu ltaneously all inclusive and mutually exclusive: Any given numerical series
belongs to e.~act ly one of thoso: three classes.
Tit ere is some advantage in the application of Theorem 3. because to apply it
we test the po.titive-tcrm series L la,,l for convergencc- :md we h1we a va riety of
tests.. such as comparison tests or the integral tcsl, d esigned for usc on posil ivc·tcrm
series.
. Note also that absolute convergence o f the series La, means that a diffem!l
se ncs L: lanl converges. and the two sums will gene rally differ. For example, wtth
a. ( 3I)" • the formula for the sum o f a geometric series gives
=-
whereas
~ "'( -')n = -I = 3- .
L...lan l =L
nell n~o 3 I - ~ 2
EXAMPLE 4 D iscuss the convergence of the series

"" cos "
"\" .2
L... -
"l
=cos I +~ cos 3
4 +--+ ··· .
rl • l 9
Solution Let On = (cosn)Jn 2 • Then
I
_ Jcos, J 1
IaIt-~<
I
I
n2 = n1
_.1
Alternating Series and Absolute Convergence SECTlON 11 .7 733
for all n ~ I. Hence the positive·term series :L Ia. I con,·crgcs by the comparison test.
because it is dominated by the convergent p-series :LO / n~). 111Us the £_iven series is
absolutely eon,·c rgcn t. and it therefore co nverges by Theorem 3. +
One r ea~on fo r the importance of absolute converge nce is the f:lct (proved
in advanced ca lc ulu s) th at th e terms of an absolutely convcr!!c nt se ries m:1y be rc·
groupe d or rearr anged 1\ithou t chanf!in!! the sum of the series. t\~ we Sll!-:._ttc$ll.:d at
the end o f Section 11.6. this is nor true of condition:~lly
. convcr~:cnt se ries. ~
The Ratio Test and the Root Test

O u r ne xt two con' cr(!cr.ce tests involve a wa\· or mcasurins: the rate of s:rowth or de·
crease of the scquc n;c {a, ) of terms of a seri~s to dctcrmin~ whether :L~n. converges
absolutely or dtvcrges.
THEO REM 4 The Ra tio Test

Suppose that the limi t
p
. I
= ,._X>
ltm -a....-, , (3)
n,
either e xists or i~ infinite. 11ten the infinite series La. of nonzero te rms
1. Converges ah~olutcly if p I.
If p = 1, the ratio test is inconclusive.
PROOF If p < I. choose a (fixed) number r with p < r < I. Then Eq. (3) implies
that there exists an intege r N such th at Ia• .._,, ~ r ia. I Cor a lin ~ N. It follows that
la,,·.d :;i rla.vl.
fa,,·+21 ~ r faN+t l :;i r 2!11N !.
faN+JI ~ riaN+l i ~ r 3 iaN!.
and in ge ne ral that
H ence the se ries

fa.vi+ laN+tl + !a,.·+zl + .. ·
is dominated by the geomet ric series
faN!(! + r + r 2 + r
1
+ · · · ).
and the latter converges because lrl < 1. Thus the series L !a. ! converges, so the
series I: a. converges ab~olutcly.
IC p > 1. then cq. (3) implies that there exists a p ositive integer N such that
Ja.+tl > !a.! for all n " N.lt follows that Ia. I > !aNI> 0 fo r a lin > N:n1us the sequence
(ani cannot approach zero a s n ..... +oo.and consequently. by the nth·tcrm divergence
test. the se ries L: a. diverges.. -c
To sec that L: a. may either converge or diverge if p = 1. consider the divergent

series I:;O/ tt) and the convergent series L:O/n 2). You should verify that. for both
series. the value of the mtio p is 1.
EXAMPLE S Consider the series

"" (- 1)"2" 4 8 16
,.
~,
= -2+ --- +-- ... ·
·- n! 2! 31 4!
~
I I
734
' CHAPTER 11 Infinite Seriei
Then
(-1)" ... '2•+1
(n + 1)! 2
IOn-1 1--.-oo
=lim - . - =0.
p= lim - On lim r.- co n -r 1
n-:-c ( - 1}"2"
n!
. 5 convprees
Because P <I, the sene ~ - a
bs olutely.
•
"" n
EXAMPLE 6 Test for convergence: ~ 2".
Solu tion We have

n+l
11 + I - ~
2MI
=n-oo
.
I
I'm -a....
p -- tt!,.IXI On
,, = I'tm -
n-oo !!._
2"
hm - 2-11 - 2'
13ccausc p < I • tllt·s series convcrccs

""" (absolutely). •
3"
EXAMP LE 7 Test for convergence: L
00
n2.
•· 1
Solution Here we have
Jn+l
+ l)l
- - - = }~".:!,
3rr2
P = lim,a_-+_1, = • lim
•-oo lin - x
(11
3"
, 1)2
(n _... = -'' ·
....
,.
In this case P > I, so the given series diverges.
•
THEOREM 5 The Root Test
Suppose that the limit
p lim vfaJ
=n-oc (4)
exists or is infinite. Titcn the infinite series L:::O.

1. Converges absolutely if p < I;
2. Diverges if p > I.
If p = I, the root test is inconclusive.
PROOF If p < !. choose a (fixed) number r such thatp < r < I. Then Ia. 1/• <.r' and ted
hence !o.l < r•, for rr sufficiently large. Thus the series")' Ja.,J is eventually1domtna he
by the convergent gcometnc . scncs. L r•. Therefore.._ L la11 1 converges. an d sof t
series L o. converges absolutely.
If P >I. then Ia. I'' "> I, and hence Ia. I > 1, for, sufficiently large. 1bcre
the nth-term test for divergence implies that the series La. diverges.
0~
' The rauo. test .1s generaIIy Simpler

. to apply than the root test. and t he reforc st'' t
is ordinarily the one to try first. But there are certain series for which the root te
\ succeeds and the ratio test fails. as in Example 8.
\
AlternJt ing Series and Absolute Convergence SECTION 11.7 735
EX AMPLE 8 Consider the series
"-' I II I II I
; 2 HI-I)' = 2 + I + 8 + 4 + 32 + i6 + ....
l l1en a•• I fa. = 2 if n is even. whereJs a••!Ia. = ~ if n is odd. So the limit required
for the rati o test d ocs no t exist. Out
so the gi ven series converges by the root tes t. ( Its co nvergence also fo llo ws from
the fact th:n it is n rcarmngcmcnt of the positive -t erm conve rge nt geo me tric series
L: t; 2".) •
G 11 .7 TRU E/ FALSE STUDY GUIDE

11.7 CO NCEPTS: QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION
I. Can you give an exam ple of a diverge nt nl tcrnating se ries L:<- n~~+ t a. such
that hm• . , o., = n~ I n view of the a lterna ting se ri es tes t stated in Theore m I
nf th i' >Cl't il•n. l~<•w i ~ sud1 an exa m ple possible?
2. G i,·c )tHlr l'Wil example o f an infi nite se ries such that both L:n,. and L: Ia ,. I
co m·crge hut h:l \'C d iffere nt sum'\. bo th o f which you ca n calcu la te. Wh at c a n
you mndu dc about the se ri es if 2:::11., an d L: ]a,.l ha,·c the same sum ?
3. Cnn yougi ,·c an c x:unp k o f a comlitiona lly convergent positive -te rm series?
Why o r why no r?
11 .7 PRO BLEM S
D(tcrmin~ wil ctiln o r n ot tilt• a/tcmariltg sait'5 in Problm u I "' ( - t )• •l 20. ~ (- 1).. '11!
tilrougil 20 COIIV<'rge or dh·agc. 19. L
•• I
• t::'
Vn L..,
•••
(2n)!
"' ( - t )••l "" (- t )• ••
I. '2:: l 2- 2: ~ Dctt'"llill~ ll'ltetlterrlte series in Pro blrms 2 / tltro ugiJ 42 <:011 verge
·-·"' (-1)"11
11
t
••I a/JJOllllrl)'. <'tmvergc C:OIItlirion ally, or diverge.
4.
(-1 )"11
, 21. ~ (-l)" • l 22. ~ - '-
J.2: -311 + 2 3n· + ?. L.., 2• L.., n 2 + I
•~ I • ·I "-'
S.
oo ( - l ) ..ln
'•2•::I J n1+ 2 6.
N
L JiiJ+S
•• I
{ - 1)'1 • 1111
2J. t
• •I
(-! )"Inn
II
,... ]
2~ f: ~
•• I
7.
f. nn (-1 )"• 1n
I 8.
f (- ! )"Inn
,fo
II 25. t C~)" .., 3"
26.2: -
n!n
•·1 ••1 •· I
9. f. <-;:·n 10. L (- j
N
tl · ')"•I 27. t (- 10)"

n!
28.
• •I
f: (- t )• • l n !
n•
••• •• I ·-0 ..I
11. L"" (-l)"n

J'F+T
12. LN
• •I
( mr r
-10 l 29. t
..I
(- t )"•
1 1
( - '-)"
n+ l
30. L00
•••
-n!n2
(211)!
13.
••I
f. 11~13 n; ) sin ( 14.

L"'
•· I
cos mr
, ,.ltl 31. t c~~" J
••I
3l.
t ( -1 )"2)o
7•
• •I n ..Q
"' "'
15. f: <-l>"sin(~) 16. f: <-l)"n sin(;;) 33. I:
•• o
<-1 >" ( Jn+I- .!ii) 34• I: n · w·
t ['n G) r
•·1 •·I •· I
17.
f: ( - t )•+l
~
18.
"'
L: ( -1.01).. 1
n' 35. 36.
t (n!)l
-(2n)l
•·l •· I • •I n .O
if 11 is odd.
"" 1- 1)"' 3' 1 "' 1
(-1 ).. arctann 7n
37.
l: nc2• +I)
38. l: n a.= ( ~
·-·" (-1)' ' 1
n!
••• 56. if n is even .
39.
l:
•••
I · 3 · 5 · · · (2n - I)
.<7. L:
.
G,ve a ·
n example o f a pair o f convergent series '\' 0
b, such that [
, .
a. u. dov~rges. .
i... • and
40.
L... (- 1)"" , t. 3. 5 ... (2n - I) SS. Prove thai [ Ia.! diverges 1f lhc scnes La. divergct
I . 4 . 7 ... (ln - 21
""' 59. Pro"e that
a•
"' (II + 2)! " <-t r·'n" lim -; = 0
41.
l:
•••
) •(tt!J'
.u. l:
.., 3-"
n-:oo n.
(for any real numbe r a) by appl};ng the ratio lest 1o sho..

In l 'rohlems 43 through 48, Htm the lndica:rd twmbrr of initial that the infinite series L a" j n ! converges.
tams of the givm alternating suits. Thm appl•· the nltrrnaring
srri;.•.\' remllindn ~.srrnwrt~ rn estimatr thr ~rror in approxim ating
• (a) Suppose thai r is a (fixed) numbe r sue~ thal lr l < 1. U!¢
60
the .'ftun of thr su ie1 wuh this parttnl sum. Fmalf.v. oppro:cunat~ lhe ratio tesl to prove 1hat the senes [, . 0 nr• converg::t
tltr sum of rhr suir\ writing prccisrly tht number of decimal Lets denote its sum. (b) Sho w that
ploet·s rhmtherr~y nrr guara111ud to be cnrrrct (aftu rounding).
"'
~
-n··• L"' (- ! ).., (1 - r)S= I>"·

.u. l:
•••
<
- --
II 3
. 5 terms 44.
•••
~· 8 1erms
·-·
45.
2:
"' (- I>· ··
- -,-
II .
. 6 te rm• 46.
f. (- ! )"''
- - - . 7 terms
t r"
Show how 10 conclude thai
~ nr" = _ _r_ _
••• ~· L- ( I - r) 2
47. 2:
•••
"-
(- 1)"' '
II
12 1erms 48. z:•••: : - ,.,-.
"' ( - 1)' ''
15 lcrms
61. Let
• ..o
~ ( -1)·+1
Ill Prohl<•ms 49tl~rough 54..<ttm tnough tem Lr (tell how many)
to OfJpro rimme rhr sum of rh~ serirs. h'riling the SUJn roundtd ro II. = L• I
k and S. = ~ - -
k-
the indi~tJtcd number of ~orrrct dt cimal placts.
·~· '='
" (-) J" ' deno1e lhe lllh partial sums of the harmonic and alternating
49. L-
" --fl 4
- . 3 deci mal plac.:s harmonic series. respecli\•cly. (a) Show thai S,_. = 11:..- II,
••• for all 11 f; I. (b) Probkm 50 in Section 11.5 says that
"' (- 1)"'
so. "
~
- - s- · 4 decimal places
II
lim ( H, -Inn)= y
•-x
• -=I
I "' (- 1)" .
(where y "'0.57722 deno tes Euler's constant). Explain why
Sl • - = " - - . 4 deomal places il follows thai
.Jr L.... n!2"
""" lim(//.,. - In 2n) = y.
"" (- I)" •- oc
<2. cos I = " - - . 5 decimal places
• ~ (ar)!
, .u (c) Conclude from parts (a) and (b) that lim,_., Sv. == !n2.
Th us
"' ...,.:_.:......., ("):.
( -1 )"
- 0•1 • 5 decrmal
. places
"
"'·'· son
· 60"
= L
..., (2n+ I J'. 3
"" ( -!)""'
t
I
~ • Jn(l • I) = "L- -
;>"'o
. 7 decimal places
II • ({I"
lf= l
6!. Sup.-v>se
• o· v· that "" · a conduoonally
L... a, IS ·· · fi'"''t•'~
convergenliO "·
rrcs. For each 11.lcl
In Problems 55 a11d 56. sirnw tlrat tlr~ indical(t/ alremating suits
E (_1)" J0 , sati.Jfi~s th.~ co1ulition tlrata" .-
4
U~ n - +oc. but
a: = a, + !o,! a, - fa,l
""'·arlrc/e.u di•·erg<'.< 1dl wiry tit< alrematmg U rt<'S ttst do•s nor
2
and a; =
2
.
appl)'. It may b<" it~formati••e to graph th( first 10 or 20 portia/
sums. (a) Explain why "" • . .. r-s of
L... a. consosts of lhe posotl\'C 1c '"
I if n is odd.
La.
(b) G ' and whv"'a- . .r~
• i... • consosts of the ncgauvc tcrms o t-- "··1
1 tl 1\'en 3 real number r. show thai some: rcarr:•ogcm'"
or t he co d' ·
SS. a.= { ~ : n lloonally convergent series La, conwr~cs 1~
Sttggesrl<m· IC, · .
• ,,.
,. if n is even.
pan~al
• · ·
. . . .
ts f'OSilovc foronstance be•tn w11
. h lh< htsl
\ sum of the positive series L ": 1ha1 cx,ec s '·
• · · " . d
\
d
Power Series SECTION 11.8 737
TI1en ndd just cnou~h terms o f the negnti••c se ries La; 65. I I ere is another rcarrnng.-mcnt o f the nltcrnating h:trmonic
so that the cumul:lllve su m I S less than r. :-<ext add just series or Problem 61:
enough terms of the pos itive sc rie~ t hat the cumulative sum
is greater than r . and continue in th is way to de tine the
1- ! _ ! _! _!
2 .) 6 s
desired rearrangement. \\'hy does it follow that this rear·
ranged infinite sc ric~ co nverge\ to r ? I I I I I
+ -
3
- -
10
- -
12
- -
1.!
- -
16
tiJ. Usc th e method of Probl em 62 to write the ti ro;t dolen
I I I I I
term~ of a rearrangement of th e a hern:uin!: harmonic se ries +----- -- --
( Prnblcm til) that conve rges to I rather tha n to In 2. 5 IS :o 22 ~-1
M. Describe a way to rearran ge the terms of the ahemat· 1 I I I I
+- - - - - - - --+ ·· ·.
7 : 6 zs ;tJ 32
ing harmonic series to obtai n (a) t\ rearranged series that
conve rges to - 2; (b) A rea rr anged series tha t diverges Use a computer to coiiC<:t c' idcnc-e about the ,·aluc of its
to +oo. su m.
77.8 1POWER SERIES

TI1c most important infinite se ries represe ntations of functions a rc those wh o~e terms
nrc con~tant multiple~ o f (<uccc~ iv.: ) integ r:1l po wers of the independe nt vari able
x - tha t is. series t hat re se mble " infinite po lyno mials." Fo r cx:~mp!t:. we discussed in
Section II ..I the ge ometric series
1
- - =l+x+x=+x3 + (i.tl < I) ( I)
1- x
and th e Tayl or se ri es
, Ot.:l
~ Xn x ·"' .T3 X"
e = L..- II I. = I + x + -2,. + -3,. + -4,. + ... . (2)
n~o
N ( - I }" X :, X~ X~ X0
cos :r =L (2 n}! =I- 2! + .t! - G! + ·· · and
n:O
• oo (- l }".r:!n+l xJ xs x'
StnX = L
n=O
<'
-II +
I}'
'
= X- ::;;+""-
·' · ::l .
-7,
'
+ ... . (4)
Tit e re we used Taylor's formu la to show that the series in Eq s. (2) through ( 4) co n-
verge, for all x . to the func tio ns c' , cos .r, and sin .r, respectively. Here we investigate
the co nvergen ce of a "po wer series" without knowing in advance the fu nctio n (if any)
to wh ich it converges.
All the infinite series in Eqs. (1 ) through (4) h ave the form
''
L"' u,.\·'• = u 0 + fl1X + il~x: + · · · + tl,t.t '' + ... (5)
..
'' ""'
wit h the constan t coefficiems ao. Ot. az, . . . . A n in fini te series of th is for m is called
a po,n•r series in (po wers of) x. In order that th e initial terms of the two sides of
Eq. (5) ngree, we a dopt he re the conven tio n that x 0 1 even if x 0. = =
Convergence of Power Series
The part ial sums of the power series in (5) a re the polynomials
s 1(:r) = Oo + (IJ.\', Sz(X) = 00 + OtX + OzX 2, S J(X) = Oo +litX + llz X

2
+ 11.\.T~ .
a nd so fo rth. Th e nt h pa rtia l sum is a n nth-d egree po lynomia l. When we ask when·
the power series converges, we seek those val ues o f x for which the limi t
s(x) = lim s,.(x)
n-·!'10
""
. cries is then a function of x th at is d efin ed wherev
exisu. The sum s(.r) of a po" er 5 er
the series con,·crges._ . .
111
ob,·iously con\'crges when x =
0. In general. it ll'il
The powe r senes (5) f •nd di"ercoe fo r ot hers. Because of the wa . 1
con1'crge for some nonzcr · d h. t-10 rest of S~:ct ion 11 .7 is pa rticularlv effect·. ·
0 \'3JUeS 0 X" "' \' I:)
I · h f ·n\'olvc I c ra • IV•
w 11c powers o x arc t • h' h g' vcn powe r series con vcrl!,es. '
in determinine the val ues of ;c for w IC a - 1 -
Assume-that the limi t
(6)
exists. This is the limit that we need if we wan t 10 lp~ly th: ra~io test to th~ series
• test to the power scnes 111 Eq. (5), \\e wme
'" o f constants. 1io app1>. tile ratio
'-a.
u. = a.:c" and compute the limit
a r•~ 1 , -p JrJ
.
llm
n-c-:: I I
- = I'lm ••I· n
lln+ l
-
11,. n-ro I llnX
- • • (7)
If p == 0. then L a• .r" converges absolutely for all.r. If P = +::o. the n L a.:c" diverges
for all x ? 0. If p is a positi\'c-rcal number. we see from Eq. (7) that L a.x" converg~
absolute ly for a ll x such that p · l.rl < !-that is, when
l.rl < N = -I = lim - - .

p ~~ -'
I' · I
a,,. 1
(8)
In this case the ratio les t also implies that L a.x" diverges if Jxl > R but isinconclusi•e
when x = ± R. \\'c have therefore pro\'cd Th eorem I , under the addi tional hypothesis
that the limit in Eq. (6) exists. In Problems 69 ancl iO w e outline a p roof th3t does
I I
not require this addi tional hypo thesis.
TH EOREM 1 Convergence of Power Series

If ) a•.<" is a power series. then ei ther
1. l l1c series con\'crgcs absolutely for all x, or

2. The series con,•crgcs o nly when x = 0, or
3. 'll1cre exists a number R > 0 such tha t L:a.x" converges a bsolutely if
l.tl < R and d iverges if J.r J> R.
·.~le :1.u~ber R of C.~sc 3 is called the radius or con,•e r~:ence of the power serits
La•.<.' \\ c "file R =00 111 Case 1 and R =0 in Case 2. 'll1e set o f all real numbers.r
for wh 1_ch the sen~s converges is called its lnlenal or rom-cr~:l'nce (Fig. 11.8.1): note
that thts set 1s an mtcrval. If 0 < U < 00 tlte· n th , · 1 r · c of
th c ·mterva 1s • c 111 crva1o co m•crg•encc IS on
(- R. !<) ,
(-R,RJ, 1-R. R) , or (- R. R].
Con"'t rse-\1 Comcrge"?

Divcr~ e~ 1
Oi\ erge~?
I I
0 R
Sene,
Y.ries
x:._:z::a
tl i\'CI'l:C'i Scrici
FIG URE 11.8.1 The interval of

convergence if o < R _ 1. a.
- "-oo
I I
•m -o,. <oo.
1
Power Series SECTION 11 .8 739
When we substitute either of the endpoints x = ±R into the series L: a.x". we ob tain
an intinite se ries with constant terms whose convergence must be determ ined sep-
arate tv. Because these \\ill be numerical series, the ea rlier tests of this chapter arc
appropriate:.
EXAMPLE 1 Find the interval of convergence of the series

0C II
L n~3· ·
nal
Solution With u. = x" f( n · 3") we find that

x""-1
I .tm
I f - 'X>
I~~·-· 1
- - = ~·tm
II" If- X
(n +I)· 3•+1
x"
.
=lim
nl.rl
•-<» 3(n + I) - -
- 3 ·
l.rl
fl • 3"
Now l.rl/3-: I provided that l.rl < 3. so the ratio test implies th:ll the given series con-
verges al~ol utcly if t.rl < 3 and diverges if t.rl > 3. When x = 3. we have th e divergent
harmonic series [ ( 1/ n). and when x = - 3 we have the convergent alternating se ries
L:<- 1)"/n. Tiws the interval of converge nce of the gi ven power se ries is l-3. 3).
We sec dramat ically in Fig. 11 .8.2 the differen ce betwee n convergence at x = -3 and
divergen ce at .r = +3. +
t 5 z
t
t
t t
I t
I t
t I
f . -3 j '. 3
FIGURE 11.8.2 Graphs of the partial sums s.(x), S6(x), and S,o(x) of the power series
S(x) = L"" x"
= -3, but apparently
n . • of Example 1. We see convergence at x
-· 3
S(x)- oo as x approaches + 3. where the series diverges harmonically.
EXAMPLE 2 Find the interval of convergence of the power series

~ (-2)".r" 2x 4x2 8.r 3 16x 1
~
~0 (211)! = 1 - -2! + -4! - -6! + - 8! - ...
Solution With"" = (-2)"x" /(2n)! we lind that

( -2)" ~ 1 x•+l
l"·+lI ,.
I.am - - = am
n-o..:u,. n-oo
(211 + 2)!
( -2)"x"
= lim 21x l
•-oo (2n + I )(2n + 2)
= 0
(211)!
~
t
I
740 CHAPTER 11 Infinite Serie1

.,.,)I (2Jr + 1)(2n + 2) J. Hence Ihe ra1io 1•
7 + 2) 1 "' (u• · . · . 'II
for all x [using !he fact thai (.tn. · vcrces for all x, and liSJntcrval of convergence
. wer sencscon -
implies !hal the g1vcn po t"re real line. •
is therefore (-oo. +oo). the en 1
• results upon substituting ./'ii for x .
· f ExampIc 7- tn
REMARK The power scncs o . But only for x > 0 docs the st!m S(.r) of lhe
the Tavlor se ries for co~x [Eq. ())]. . f the function cos JlX (Ftg. 11.8.3). For
. · . . . character o · .
scncs exh1b1t the OSCI11 ato?' tht: uitc different (and nonosct11 atory) functton
10
x < 0 the JX>'''er scncs con\·erges q
c-osh ./iLii.
1
FIGURE 11.8.3 GrJphs of the partiJ I sums Ss(x), S, o(x), S,s(x), and S10(x)
of the power series S(x) = 2:"" (Z2 ~!)" of Exampl~ 2. which converges to
2
n=O
cos ..f'ii for x > 0.
EXAMPLE 3 Find the interval of convergence of Ihe se ries L:;';:t n•x•.
Solution With "• = n"x" we find that
Jim
r• -~
l""·•• i =lim l(n+ n't)•• l..-•+1 1= lim
lin n-oo 1
.t" n-oo
(n + 1)(1 + ~)" l.rl =+CO
n
for all x # 0. because
lim
,._00 (1 + ~)"=e.
tl
·nlUs !he gi,·cn series diverges for allx t- 0, and its interval of convergence consists
of the single point x = 0. •
EXAMPLE 4 Use the ratio test to verify that the Taylor series for cos.r in Eq. (J)
converges for all .r.
Solution With "• = (-I )"x 2" /(2n)! we find that
(-l)"•'.rl"+2
(2n + 2)! x2
n-oo 1"""'1 = I'1m
I.101 - -
lln n-oo ( -l )"x 2•
= •-«:
lim
(2n + I )(2n + 2)
=0
(2n) !
for all x. so the series converges for all x. •
IMPORTANT In Example 4, the ratio test tells us only that the series for cos.r con·
\'Crgcs 10 some numb.:r, nor necessarily the particular number cos .r. The argurn~n'
of Section 11.4. using Taylor's formula with remainder is required to esllllllish 1 ~
31
J
the sum of the series is actually cosx. '
l d
Power Series in Powers of x - c

J\ n infi ni te se ries of the form
"\.
L a,,lx- t'J"
'\" = 11,1 -+ a t(.r- cl + a 1t.1 - c 1·' + · · ·. (9)
whe re r is a cons ta nt. is called a pO\\cr scric~ in (po wers of) x - c. Dy the same
reason i n~ that led us to l l1corc m I. with x n rcpl:lced with (.r - c)n thro ugho ut, we
conclude that eit her
I. 'I11e series in Eq. (9) convcr!!es absolute ly for all .r, o r

2. l l1c series con ve rges only whe n x - c = 0-that is. whe n x = c- o r
3. ·n,..:rc e xists a number R > 0 ~uch tha t the series in Eq. (9) con verges abso·
lu tcly if tx- cl < I< and dive rges if l:r - cl > R.
As in the ca'c of a power seric' with c = 0, the number R is called th e r:uliu~ of

rum·crl!c ncc of the series, a nd the intc n al uf cun\·crl!cncc of the se ries L: an (.r - c)"
is the se t of a ll num bers x for whic h it conve rges (rig. 11.8.4). i\s befo re. whe n
0 iVtfl;C'S'! Dlvertc'7
I c- /1 r
I
r -+- R
!.
- -::t
S<rics
' x-
Sc:nc.s S<ria
diverges
FIGURE 11.8.4 The Interval of

( convergence of L:: o
a"(x - c)".
EXAMPLE 5 Determine the inte rval o r conve rgence of the series
~ (- t n x - 2)"
L...., II· 4"
·~·
Solution We let u. = (- I )" (x - 2)" / (11 · 4"). 1lten
( - 1)"+1( x - 2)"'"
. I"•+ I .
hm - -I = Inn
u,.
tt-.x» 11- oo
(n + I)· 4• ~ •
( - l )" (x- 2)"
" . 4"
= lim lx - 21 11 l.r - 21
n- oo 4 . II +1 = - 4-
Hcncc the given series converges when l.r - 21 < 4, so the rad ius of con vergence is
= =
R 4. Because c 2. the series converges wh en -2 < x < 6 and diverges if either
x < -2 or x > 6. When x = - 2. the series reduces to the dive rgent harmonic series,
and when x = 6 it reduces to the conve rgent alternating series L:<-1)" f 11. TIIUS the
interval of convergence of the given po wer series is ( - 2. 6). +
Power Series Representations of Functions
Power series arc impo rtant tools for computing (or approximating) values of func-
tions. Suppose that the series L: anxn converges to the value f(x); that is,
f(x) = au + a,.r + tl:x2 + · · · + (l.,.t" + · ··

742 CI>APTER 11 Infinite Series
~·
sc r 'es The n we c all '\'
' f th e po we r 1 .
. · rgcnce o · · ' "L. D'
fo r c:~ch x in the intcrvJI o.f con' c r ). f or e xampl e. _the geom e tnc sc n es L. x• in
a JW'H. . r .scril'~ rcprcscntniUIII of f(..
. . . cprcscntatwn o f th e fun c!lon f(x) =
1/ (1 - x) on the
Eq . ( I ) is a powe r sc ncs r .
·mt crva 1(- 1. 1)· . f ul 'a with rc mamde rh can hofte nhbe used
1 Taylo r s orm
We saw in Sectio n 11.4 ww . ' · f iven fun c tion. R ecall t at t e nt ·degree
to lim! a powe r sc n·•cs rt:·prcsc
· ntatJon . o ag
Taylo r's formula fo r ! (· ' ·
r) at r = a IS
(31 a)
/ "(a) ( r - a ) 2 + L i - (x- n) 3
f(x) = [(a)+ ['Ca )(x - n) + - 2! . ., 3
[<"'(a) " R
+ ... + (x -a) + . (x). (10)
II 1
.
· b)'
· gr·.-en
The re mainder R " (x ) IS
f '"+ 11(z) n+l
' ( )_
I'•x- (x -a) ,
(n + l )!
whe re z is some number be tween a an d x. If ' ve le t 11 __. +oo in Eq. (10), we obtain
llr corcrn 2.
THEOREM 2 Taylor Series Representations e interval con·

Sup pose that the functio n f has d cri\•a ti ves o f a ll o rde rs o n som
tai ni ng a and a lso tha t
lim R.(x ) =0 (II)
for cnch x in that interva l. ll1c n
f (x ) == Loo -f '"' (n-)(x -

-~
1
11.
a)" (12)
"~'
for each x in the in terval.
'l11c po wer series in E q. (12) is the Ta) lor series o f th e function f at x = a (or
in po wers of x - 11. or h'ith center a ). If a == 0, we o bta in the po we r scnes
' f'"'IO! j"'(O ) . )

/C.I) == '"'
~
-
11!
x" == / till + }'tO)x + - - .\ • + · · ·.
2!
(13
~~ ~-.
commonly called the .'olncl:mrin series o f f . lltus the po wer se ries in Eqs. (2) through
(4) :trc the Macl a urin series of the functio ns e·' , cos x, and s in x, respective ly.
EXAMPLE 6 New power series can be construc ted from old ones. Fo r instance.
upon repl acing x with - x in th e Maclaurin series for e-', we o b tain
e-• -- I -.r ~· -x2,2 - ·-r3 + .. . + ( - 1)"'r- " + ... .

· 3! 11!
Let us now add the series for e' and c-• and d ivide by 2. lllis g ives
+ e-• x~
cosh.r==
e-'
2 =2'I ( l + x +-
x 2 .r3
2
, + -,+ - + ...
)
. 3. 4!
I( x2 x3 x~ .. . ) .
so
+2 I -X+ 2! - 3! + 4! -
r1 ·" r,
co,hx == 1 + ~ ·t ~
2. 1
4!
+ ·'-6! + ...
Power Series SECTION 11 .8 74 3
Similarly,
. .r .. r "
.r 7
s tnh .r = x -'- - + - -'- - ... ...
.:-! 5! i!
l" o tc the strong rese mblance to Eqs.. (3) and (4). the series fo r cos x and sinx.
rcspccth ely.
U pon re placing x wi th -x2 in the series for~. we ob tain
•
e- r = L"" (- I) n
x u.
-
n '.
= 1 -x·_._
x4
' ___ .,.• ., ,
. 2'.
x6
3'. .
n~ 0
Bccau' c tl!i~ power se ries converges to cxp( -x~ ) for all x. it must be the :'-laclaurin
se ries fo r c xp (-x 2 ). (Sec Proble m 66.) Think how tedi ous it would be to com·
putc the d e riva tive s of cxp ( - x 2 ) needed to write its :'.lacl aurin scrit:s directly fro m
Eq. (13). +
EXAMPLE 7 Someti mes a function is originally defined by means of a power series.

One of the most imponant -higher tra nscendenta l functions" o f applied mathe matics
is the ncs~cl function J 0 (x) of o rder zero defined by
Only terms of eve n degree appear, so le t us ''Tile""= (-l)"xu. / [2u.(n!)2 J for the
11th term in this series (not counting its constant term). Then
( -1 )"~ 1 xU.· 2
I .lnt
,._,...,
l"n+l I=
--
ll,
I'lm
,._""
2 2n+2[(n
(-I )"xu.
+ 1)!)2
2Zn (n!)2
for all x. ~o the ratio test implies tha t l o(x ) is d efined on the whole rea l line. The
series for J0 ( x ) resembles somewhat the co~ inc series. but the graph o f J0 ( x ) exhibits
damp~rl oscillations (fig. ll.R.S). Bessel functions are important in such applications
as the distribution of tt:mpcraturc in a cylinc.lrica l steam pipe and d istribution of
thermal m:utro ns in a cyl indrica l reacto r. •
1
P1,(s)
-I
P,.(s)
FIGURE 11.8.S Graphs of the Bessel function /o(•) and iu Taylor

polynomials Pa(• ), P 14(x), Pz, (x}, and P10(x).
The Bino m ial Series nd useful of nil :;erics. the binominl striri.
f
Example R gives one o t e h most . . lli60s. II is th e ·mfi mt· c scn·es genera1J7ation
famous a ·
'. db Newton m t 11C
which was d1sc~vere. Y • of elementary al~ebrn.
of the (finite) bmomml theor~n1
. . cro rcn l number. Show thnt the Maclnurin
EX A MPLE 8 Suppose that a IS a nonz
sc ri c~ of f(x) =(I + x)" is
" I )t(t - ., I ... Itt - II + I) "
(I + .r)u = I + L
""' - -n! '
.. - I
utu- II • ct(u - l l(a- ~~ t- 1 + ... (U)
"'I + ax+ -7:.,,- .r· r ,
.''· · ·
Alia de termi ne the intcr.,.al of convergence of this binnmia l series.

Solutio n To derive the series itself. we simply list nil the derivatives of /(x) =
(I + x)". including its "zerot h" derivative:
f(x )= (I + X)u
J'(x) = a(l + x)• - l
f"C x ) = a(a - 1)(1 + x)•-l
f 31
(x ) = a (a- l )(a- 2)(1 + x)"- 3 •
f "1(x ) = a (a - l)(a - 2) ···(a - 11 + I )( I + x )•-•.

Thus
f"1(0) = a (a- l)(a - 2) · ··(a - n + 1).
If we substi tut e this value of /'" 1(0) into the Mac lnurin se ries form ul a in Eq. (13).
we ge t the binomial series in Eq. (14).
To d.:term ine the inte rval of convergence of the binomi al series. we let
u,.-_ a (a - l )(a-2)-
n!
.. (a- n + I)
x"
.
We find tha t
a (a- l)(a- 2) ... ( a _ n )xn<-l
· I"··' I
lam
,..._00 -ll - = ,._IX:
11
lim (n
a (a- l )(c.r- 2) ···(a- tr
+ I)!
+ l)x"
n!
= lim
•-oo
I II + 1-
(a - n )x
I - l.tJ.
lienee the ratio test shows that the h' ·. . . 1
and diverges if lxl > 1 Its conv . rnom~o~ l sc nes conve rges nbsolutcly tf Jxl <
· ergcncc :at the endpc1· . h v•rlue
of a: we shall not pursue th is probl . , tnts x == I depend s on I c · f
1
the binomial seri es actuallv is (I + c)r~ .. f roblcm 67 outlines a proof th;ll th e sum 0•
J X I JXJ < J.
. I~ a = ~·a positive integer. then the , . , . he

btnomtal senes reduces 10 the b' . eocfficrcnt o f x• ts zero for 11 > k. :tnd 1
rnomra l formula
Otherwise Eq . ( 14) is an infinite series. Fo r example. wi th a=!· we obtain
(15)
If we replace x with - x and take a = - ! .we ge t the se ries
1
-=== I +
:J.(-x) + (- D(- n· (- x)·. +···+ 1 ·3·5···<2n-l) x"+ ···.
~ I! 2! n!·2"
which in summ31io n no tation takes the form
I
~= I +
L"" 1 · 3 · 5 · · · (211 - I) n
.r. (lti)
v 1 - .r , :1 2 · 4 · 6 · · · (211)
We will find this se ries quite useful in Example 12 and in Proble m 68.
Diffe re ntiation a nd Integration of Power Series

Sometimes it is inconve nie nt to compute the repea ted d e rivatives of a funct ion in
o rder to find its Taylo r series. An alte rnative method of finding new power series is
by the differentiatio n and integration o f known power series.
Suppo<e that a power series representation of the function f( x) is k nown . Then
Theorem 3 (we leave its proof to advanced calculu<) implie that the functio n f ( x )
may be differentia ted hy separately differentia ting the individual terms in its power
se ries. 'llwt is. the powe r series obtained by tcrmwise diffe rentia tion con\·e rges to
the d erivative f'(x) . Similarly, a function can be integra ted by te rmwise integration
-·. of its powe r series.
THEOREM 3 Termwise Differentiation and Integration

Suppose tha t the function f has a power series representa ti on
00
/ (x) = L a.x" = ao + a ,x + a 2x
2
+ a 3~ + ...
• •o
with nonzero radius o f convergence R. Then f is d ifferentiable on ( - R. R) and
J'(x) = L"" na.x•·l =li t + 2a2x + 3a)x2 + 4a,x 3 +.... {17)

n=l
Also,
x 00 n+ l
I (/) dI = "~ a.x _ + ~(It
1 t
X + a2x + · · ·
2 3
fo ·- 0
II+ 1 - IIQ.T 3 (18)
for each x in (- R. R). Moreove r, the powe r series in Eqs. ( 17) and (18) have the
same rad ius of conve rgence R.
REMARK 1 A lthough we omit the proof of Theorem 3, we observe that the radius
o f convergence of the series in Eq. (17) is
R = I.tm
•-oo I+ I(
(n
tta.
l)a,.+l
= I'tm -n- ) · ( hm
n-oo n +1 . - a.
,_.., a,.+l
I I) . I I - hm -a.-
- n-oc aMI ·
74 6 CHAPTER 11 Infinite Serie1
. f [(r ) and the power series for /'(x) have th•
Thus, by Eq. (8). t he power sencs or -
ssumption that the prece d'mg )'1m1t
· exists)•
same radius of c.onvergence (
under t11e a ·
. . tant consequence: If both the power series
REMARK 2 Theorem 3 has thiSdlmfpor II x with (xl < R ( R > 0), L a,x" = L b. x•.
'L- a. x" and 'L- b, .r n COI1 \'~r2C
~ -.
311 • or a , IS
Ta)·lor series of a function . 1ts
, umque. power
1
then a. = b, (o r all " · In parucular. tle bl 66)
· ('f
se ries representa tion ·) (See Pro em ·
I an) · •
. .
EXAMPLE 9 Termwise di fferenuauon °f the geometric series for
I
/ (.r) == -
1-.r
yields
I
(1 -.r)Z
= D, (_!__) = D,,
1 - .r
(I + X + .r2 + XJ + .. . )
3
= I + 2.:c + 3.r 1 + 4.r + · · ··
11lUS
I
"' ll.t"-1 = L:<
'= L "" rr + l ).t".
( I - .r)· 1'1 • 1 , .o
ll1c series converges to I f (l - .r) 2 if -I < x < I. •
EXAMPLE 10 Rcplacing.r with -1 in the geometric series of Example 9 gives
1
- - = I - t + t 2 -1 3 + .. · + (- l)"t" + .. ·.
I +t
Bcc~usc D, In(! + t ) = l f (l +t). term wise integration from t = 0 tot = .r now gi\'es
In(! +x) =
1• 0
I
- - dt
l+t
= 1' (l-t + t
2
- ... + (- l )"t" + . .. ) dt:
1 1• . 1 ' 1 ' 1 (- 1)" ..

n( -r .t) = x- ; r + ~.r - -;.rJ + ... +
~ _, ~ II
.r " + ... (19)
if l.rl < I.
•
EXAMPLE 11 Find a power series r··p .
· c resentatton for the arctangen t function.
Solution Because D, tan-lt = 1/ (1 + 12 , . . ·
series ), tcrmw1se mtcgration of the geomctnc
I
i+"('i = I - 12 + 14 - 16 + 18 - ..•
gives
I an
- 1x "' 1' - I
+ t2
- o (I - I + 14 - 16 + 18 - ...) dt
0 I
tit - 1' 2
if .r is in the interval (-I. 1) where the . .

gcomctnc scnes converges. Therefore
•
1.111
- 1
.I ::
L:
" (- 1)"•11 ;,. ,
' 1 ,
., :: , __ •• 17
•· t ·" - I . .'.I + .~ · r· - 'i·f + ·jl ·\ '' - .. .
(ZO)
''
if:-~ < x < I. Figure 11.8.6 illustrates both . .

lhts tnterval and the divergence outs'd . 1he convergence of the power series w1thl11
lCit. •
l J
PowN Series SECTION 11.8 74 7
1
I
I
•
I r.~3
l I
I I
I I
I I
I I n• 7
I l
I I
I I
I I
l I
I I
l I
l l
I l
.t 0' - 1 •~ I
FIGURE 11 .8.6 The graphs of the Tay1or polynomials of degrees n = 3, 5, 7,

and 9 illustrate the convergence within the interval -1 < x < 1 and divergence
outside this interval.
EXAMPLE 12 Find n power sc1·ics represen tation for th e arcsine function.

Solution First we substitute 12 for x in Eq. (16). This yields
--,= =
I
.,1)::"{2
= I + L"" 1 ·3·5· .. (2n - I),
2 · 4 · 6 .. · (2n)
t ""
n= l
1
if iti < I. Because D, sin- 1 = l j ./1='(2, tcrmwise int egration of this series from
1 = 0 to t = x gives
. -1
sm x = 1'0
I
r.---T
vI - t • .
rlt
""
= .t + L.
"""'
1· 3·5 .. ·(2n-l)
2 · 4 · 6 · .. (2n)
x 2n + l
.-
2n + I (21)
·~·
if lxl < I. Problem 68 shows how to usc this series to derive the series
~2 1 1 I 1
-6 =1 +-+
22 -+
Jl -;+
4· .. ·+-+
n2
.. ·.
which we used in Example 3 of Sectio n 11.5 to approx imate the number ;r . •
0 11 .8 TRUE/FALSE STUDY GUIDE

11 .8 CONCEPTS: QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION
J. Suppose that you started with the ~·laclaurin ser ies of the sine nnd cosine
functions as their de finitions. How many of the familiar properties of cos x
and sin x-such as thei r derivat ives and addition formulas-<ould you es-
tablish using only these series'? ·
2. Use the Maclaurin series for the sine and cosine functions and the cor·
respo nding hyperbolic series in Example 6 to explore re lations between
function pairs trig ix and trigh x, where trig denotes one of t he cos/sin/tan
trigonometric functions. and trigh denotes the corresponding hyperbolic
function.
..,
74 8 CHAPTER I I Infinite Series
~1~1~.8~P~R~O~B~l!E~M~S~------------------------~~~~==~==~~---
fn I'm b/ems 3
/ throu~h -12. use pow.-r serit·s ~sta!J/tshetl in , .
· . .r . lo~
Fmd the imerval ofcom·ngma ofeach puwu s.-ries in Problmu ,
secuon to Jill o
fi 1 ptMfr sail's r l'presentatw.' l 01 11te gn •en funcr
,r h '•'l
f thrnuglt 30. ine the mdim of convergrnce o, I 1: re.rultin•m;
Thm 1I,·tcm l • ·tt
I. L"' ,. . . Jl. / (.t) = I .r ~ 32. {(X) = 10 ~X
• •I X
, -JJ
JJ. = x·e ~- f ( x ) = -
"' f(r)
9- .rl
L ~
J. (- l)'.r"
2• n i /.Z)•
••I ••I
S. L"" n!~'
••I
6. t (-~·.r•
•• I
3"x"
7
•· I
In( ! + .r) .r- arcl3n.t
L"' (- l )'n 112(2.r )' "' ,:.(" 41. f(.r) = - - -
?
4 -·
[( _
.r) - J
9.
••I
10.
L
••I
3n - I
.r .r
'" frnl>ll'lll< ./J through -IR, fin d n po wer srries uprrsrnration

"' (-1)•,,• ' for thr !li•·t n function f (.r) by ll.fing tc·m1n·iu inrrgration.
II. ~
" :;:-:---:-:::-;
2• (n + J)l
ltal
12. L-
'..
..I
10"
J.' sin1 1
44. f (x) = J.' si~l
"' (Inn)..-" L: (- I )"4'.r'
4,\. fi x)= dt dt
IJ.
L 3' 14.
n Inn
= J.' cxp( !.' - -
••I
v ..L:
•·1 •
4:-. f (.r)
o
- t 1) de 46. /(.r) =
o
:uctlnt dt
I
~ ~- L' cs.• -
•••
3)" 16.
••I
(2.r-l)'
n' + 16 47. /( r ) = !.' 0
I- CX~(-t1} tit
t·
"' 2'(.r - 3)'
11. 2:: 41!. tanh - .r
1
= J.'o - 1- tit
••I I - tl
"' n!
Ill. 2:: n• - .1
' (D o nor rest 1hc· cndpomls;
. the series diverges Brginning
1
,,. . ll'ith th<· S£'OIIIctric series "6.""~ .t• ns in E.rample 9.
• •I M each.) 'n_ernuwtt· """" ';,,.,. tu ji111ltlte sums (/u-, l.r 1 < 1) oftheflO" I t
Jerw.t 111 f'ruhft·m,\ -19 through 51.
N (211) 1
19.
L•• I --.r 0
n! 49.
"-
L n.r• !iO. L"' n (n - I )x"

... 1 - 3 - 5-- -(2n+l)
·~ I
52. u~c the ""~<cr sc . rh

ll•l ....
20.
L
• •I
IJ!
.r• (Do not test th... endpoints: the
seri~~ di\·ergcs nt c3ch.)
··-
numcncal series
. t'e
racs o t e precedang problems to sum ..
" ' n-l(.r +I)' l!. ~ C- l l"' 1(.r - 2>" "'

21. ~ 3•
L -2•
II
L- n2
and
•·I ••I
••I •• I
"" (3- .r)' "" ( - 1)"' 110"
2.).
I.:
•· I
- --
nl 2-1. L n!
(.t - 10)' S.l. Veri fy hy tcr .
th ~t th
. .
lll WISc differentiation uf its ~lncl:aurin StiiCS
• •I
...
. '. I c cxr~uncnti al function y e' satisfies the differ·
cn tJa equation 11 111 ·
=
· ·1
"' rt I. • ( - 1)"'1 uriscs n·11 It =
Y r Y- (Thus the cxponcnti31 $CI~'
25. Lo• l
- (.r- 5)
2" 26. L-
- I
n · l()o
(.r - 2)' .' ur Y "~ a power series that
der'IV:Itlvc.)
3
• is its own term"' >t
1
S-1. Verify hy tcrrnw· . . <t-

27. L"' xrr' ries th·ltth . •sc dlffcrentbtion of their Macl:1unn ,
• e Sine f · """'1<'1
Y= COS .r both ~ncllon Y = sin .r and the cosine lu'"''
• ..o
S:lllsfy the differential equat ion
... (-l)'.r"
29• I.: l -3 -5--· (2n-l)
-I
,[l>'
d;l + y = 0.
JO
.., I · J -S .. -(2n-l) x•
• I.:
55. Verify by termw· • d'
and cos 1·n· . l!lc lffcrcntiation or the hypc rllO 1' 05
I" l;r.e I
r
j
2-~
-8---(Jn-1)
··I • scncs · 1;
c~h.rQnd,- h . 10 ·xample 6 tha t each of the: un ch
·
satisfies the an
ell-'
.r 15· the. d cn·vat ·l\•c nf the othcr.anu·' th ·•1tcl
dirt·
crentlal equation y"- >' = 0.
Power Series SECTION 11 .8 749 l
56. In elemen tary mathematics one sees various definitions illustrate the approxima tio n of f(x) by its Taylor polyno-
(some circula r! ) of the trigonome tric functions. One ap· mials with center a = 0.
pm:1ch ton rigorou< foundation fo r these functions is to be·
62. firs! find the Taylor series of the function
gin by delining co~ x and sin x by means of thei r \laclau rin
series. For instance. never ha ' mg. heard of sine, cosine. or • sin t
the number ".we might define the function g(x) =
1
o
-
I
dt .
S(x)
"'
=L (-I )"- 1x:.- • Then de termine " here this power series converges Fina lly.
use a graphing calculator or computer to illustrate the ap·
(2tl- l)!
"= l proximation of g (x) by its Taylor polynomi3IS \\i th center
n =0.
and verify using the rat io tc~t that this series converges for
all x . Usc a computer algebra system to plot graph~ of high- 63. Deduce from the arctangent series (Example II) that
degree partial sums !,(x) of thi\ S<: ries. Doe\ it appear that
the function S(x) appears to have a zero somewhere nea r
the numbe r 3? Sol ve the equation J,(x ) = 0 numer ically
(for ~orne large valu es of n) to verify thatthi<least p<><itive
Then usc this alternating series to show that rr = 3.1~ ac·
zero of t he si ne function is npprox im~tcly 3.14159 (and th us
the famm1< number :r makes a fresh new appearnncc). curate to two decimal places.
57, Th~: Dcssel function of order 1 is llcfined by ~- Substitute the Macburin series for sinx. and then assume
the validity of te rmwise inlcgration of the resulting series.
"' ( - l )"xlo•l x x' x' to derive the formula
J ,(x) = L••• 2ln• n!(rt + I)!= 2 - It; + 384- ... ·
1
t-'sinxtdr = ~ (lxJ < 1) .
[ I +x·
-
0
Verify that this series convcrgc·s for all x and that the
Usc the fact from Section 8.8 that
derivative or the Bessel function of order 1ero is ~iven by
J,;(:() = -J, (x). Are the graphs in Fig. I 1.8.7 consistent with
this. Iau er fact? 1~ r·~-· dr = l'(n + l) = 11!.
65. (a) Deduce from the Maclaurin series fort! that
-
I "" (-!)"
- = ~ - -1-(.tlnx)".
x' L- 11.
(b) Assuming the validity of termwise integration of the sc·

ries in part (a). usc the integral formula of Problem 53 in
Section S.R to conclude that
-0.5
1
-I
-20 - 10 0 iO 20
1 l
o x•
"" I
-1ix = ~ - .
L. n,.
•• I
• ti6. Suppose that f(x) is reprc·scnted by the power series

FIGURE 11.8.7 Graphs of the Bessel
functions Jo(x) and J,(x). Note that
their zeros are interlaced, like the
zeros of the cosine and sine functions.
for all x in some open inter,·al centered at x = 0. Show bv re-
peated differentiation of the series. substituting x = 0 ~fter
58. Verify by termwise integration thai each different iation, that a.= f"l(O)/ rt! for all , 2: 0. Thus
the only power ~cries in x lhat represe nts a functi~n at and
j xJ0(x) dx =xlt(x) + C. ncar x = 0 is its Maclaurin series.
67. (a) Consider the binomial series
59. Bessel's equation of order 11 is the second-order differential
cqu:Jtion
"' .
a (a- l )(a - 2) .. · (a-rt+l)
f (x) =L x•
2 2 n'• •
x 2 y" + xy' + (x - n )y = 0. • -'>
Verify by termwise differentiation !hal y = l o(x ) satisfies which converges (to something) if l.tl < I. Compute the
Bessel's equation of order zero. derivative f'(x) by termwisc differentiation, and show that
it satislics the differential equation (1 + .t ) f'(x) = a{(x).
611. Verify that y = 11 (x) satisfies llesscl's equal ion of order I (b) Solve the differential equation in part (a) to obtain
(Problem 59).
/(x) = C(l + x)" for some constant C. Finallv. show that
61. first use the sine series to find the Taylor series of f (x ) = C = I. Thus the binomial series converges t~ (I + x)" if
(si n x )jx . Then use a graphing calculator or computer 10 Jxl <I.
750 CHAPTER 1l Infinite Series
Usc thi< information and parts (a) nnd (c) to !how that
(>ft. (a) Show by direct integration th at
"' I ;rl
= :r:. I:~~~= -r·

f.
0
I arc:sinx dx
-../:::1=-=x::;:: II
69
••I
Prow th at if the power series L n.x• con•·erges for SOtnt
(b) Use the result of Problem 58 in Section 8.3 to show th~t • JO rh~n it con•crgcs absol utely for all , s•••
x = t:o r · ""' . - .-
that 1, 1< lxol· [Sug_~rslltm: Concl ude from the fan thl:
I x"-'• 1 2 . .j . 6 ·· · (2n) a .r• =0 that ra•.t"l ~ l.r/ .rol" for all n sufficieat11
f. -;:=; dx=
./f=XT I · 3. 5·· ·(2n + ll
.
I
l
tm~~~llt:s" the sc ri<:s L ja. r"l i~ even tually dominar~d
3rJ;C• . . '\' J" h• h
1l)' the -ccometnc scm:s L. l.rf.ru . w tc converges d
(c) Substitu te th~ series of Example I0 for arcsin x into the
integral of fl3rt (a): then usc the integral of part (b) to inte· j.rl < Irol-l
grate termwi<e Conclude that 70• Suppo>C that the power seric< L a.x" converges for sorrt
but not all nonzero values of .r. Le t S be the ~et of rei!
1
nrcsin x I I I numocrs for whtch the >Crt<' t·om crgcs a~olutely. (l)C(JC).
1.
o ~
""~'!'=::;: dx = I + -JZ .L -
5; - -
7: + ···· elude from Problem 69 that the >Ct Sis bounded at>eM.(bi
Let;. he the least upper hound of the set 5. (Sec l'rob!:;:
(d) 1\otc that 61 of Section I 1.2.) Th en ;how that L "•x• con verg~!C~
solutc lv if 1rl < J. and diwrgc~ if I rl > ;.. Expbin " hY tb1
"' I "" I ' I proves.Tlleorcm I without the additiorwl hypothesi, lhJI
"L.- -,.: -- "L-
~·I ••I
(2n - I +"
L- -
(2n)l · )l
••I
lim._,.. lt~,.tfa.l exist-.
. 1 POWER SERIES COMPUTATIONS

11 9
Power series often nrc used 10 approximate numcric:ll va lues of functions and Ul·
legrals. Altemating power series (such as th e sine a nd cos ine series) are especially
common and useful. Recall the alternating series rema ind e r (or "error"') estimate of
Thcorcm2 in Section 11.7. It applies to a convergent alterna ting series [(- 1)'+1; ,
whosc terms are dccreas1ng (so 11. > a•• 1 for every n ). If we write
" - Il
2:C 1 1
• ttt = la1 - a2 +a.1 _ ••• ± a ,,)+ r:. (I)
t~l
then E = :roan+ I.± fln•2 =F 11• +~ ± · · · is I he error made when th e se ries is mmcard-
thc tc
. mts followmg
. (.- I)•+1a• ·ar c· stmp
· 1Yc1topped off and discarded. and the n-ternl
pa~ttal sum ts used m pl:lcc of tlw actua l sum of th a wl 1 , · Th , maind~r
e~tlm:ltc I hen says that the crro F J • . c 10 e sc n es. c rc . . J
. d· • •• • .r · 135 the same s1gn as the first term not rctltO"'·
.m IS 1c~s m magnttude than tins first ne 1 d .
· g ecte term: that IS. 1E) <On+ I·
EXAMPLE 1 Use the first four lcrms of th, b. . .
c momtal senes
•
~ I +h •
- ~·t r 2 + j6t X J - ffil X~ +
= ... Ill
lo cstun:llc the number Jffi5 'tnd 10 .
' es lunme the accuracy in the approximJtion.
Solution If x > 0 then the binornial sc rie . . ·e~
In o rder to match the pa ttern on , f s 15• afte_r the first te rm. an altcrnaungsen
11 tc 1e t-hand s d . .., .
' I e rn cq. (2). we first wntc
. ./10s ~ JJOO + 5 ::: 10 / 1 + t~t = 10Jt + 0.05.

Then wuh x = 0.05 I he series ·rtl (2} .
grvcs
Ji05 = JO [1 + rcoo
!. 5) - ~ (0.05)2 + ft <0.05)3 + £]
I = 10 IJ.02461J53 I'
~ I + £) = 10.246953 1 + 10 E
I Note that the e rror 10£ in our ap r . . · •· t~C
error E in the truncated series itsefr. ~:·f:latton v'iU5 =::: 10.2~61J531 is _10 tin1~ £ 11
.I
lows from the remainder esttm:ltC t

Pow~r Serie~ Comp\Jtations SEenON 11.9 751
is negative and that
110£1 < 10 · 1 ~s(0.05)'::::: O.IXXl002-t
Titcrefo re.
10.~469531- 0.00000::!4 = 10.2-169507 < ,1105 < 10.2-16953 1.

so it follo ws that JTii5::::: 10.24695 round~d accurate to five! decimJl places. +
REMAR K Suppose thJ t we h:1d been asked in :tdv:mcc to approximak JITi5 neeurnte
to five decimal places. A conve nie nt way to do this is to continue \\Ti ling terms
of the series u ntil it is dear t ha t thev have t>ccomc too small in macnituck to a ffect
the fifth d ecima l place. A good ruk. of thumb is to usc two more d..-cimal places in
the co mputa tio ns than a rc requi red in the final answer. Thus we me se ven deci mal
pla!:es in t his case and ge t
./105 = 10 . (I + 0.05) lr.

::::: I 0 · ( I ·! 0.025 - 0.00031 25 + 0.00000 78 - 0.00000 02 + · · ·)
::::: 10.246951 ::::: 10.24695.
EXAMPLE 2 Figure 11.9. 1 shows the graph of th e function /(x) = (sin:r)f:r. Ap·
·~r-------r-----~ proximate (accurJtc to three decimal pbccs) the area
A= j• -n
sin x d
--x= 2
X
1• 0
sinx d
--x
X
(3)
of the shaded region lying under the "principal arch" from :r = -rc to :r.
Solution When we substitute the Tarlor se ries for sinx in Eq. (3) and integrate
tc rmwise, we get
- O.S L-- - -__1_--.,.-...J

-K -6 - 4 -l 0 l ~ 6 K A= 2
1•
o :c
1 (
- .r - 1
;rJ
3.
xS :r1
+ 15. - 17. + ·· •
)
d.r
•
FIGURE 11.9.1 The graph
sinx
y= - of Example 2.
X
and thus
2~r 3 2:r 52.'! 7 2rr 9 2:r 11
"= 2:r- 3!3 + 5!5- 7!7 + 9!9 - 11!11 + .. ·.
following the " + 2 rule of thumb" and retaining five d ecim•t l places, we calcul:nc
A= 6.28319- 3.44514 + 1.02007-0.17122 + 0.01825- 0.0013-t + 0.00007- ... .

The sum of the first six terms gives A ::::: 3.70381. Because we arc summing an
alternating series. the error in th is approximation is positive 1111d less than the ne xt
term 0.00007. Neglecting possible roundoff in the last place, we would conclude
that 3.7038 1 < A< 3.70388. TI1us A::::: 3.70-t rounded accurate to three decimal
~= •
The Algebra of Power Series
Theorem 1, which we state without proof, implies that power series may be added
and multiplied much like polynomials. The guiding principle is that of colle,cting
coefficients of like powers of x.
Add' and Multiplying Power Series

TH~REM dl ~b .'~;p,ower series with nonzero mdii of convergence. Then
Let '- a.x" an '- .x
~ "+ "' "'
"" b x" = ~(a.+ b,)x"
L,., Dn.t l-.J '' ~
n.O ndl n:O
and
(f>.x") (f. b.x") £.

n=O "•0
=
n• O
c.x•
=aobo + (aob1+ a 1bQ}x + (aob2 + a1b1 + a~bo)x 2

+ ·· ·, (SI
where
c. =nob. + a 1bn- 1 + alb,-~ + · · · + lln-1 bt + a,bo. (6)
ll1e series in Eqs. (4) and (5} converge for any x that lies interior to the intervals
of convergence of bolh L a.x• and L b.x•.
llJU s if L''"x" a nd L b.x• arc powe r series represe nt alions of the func1ions
f(x) and g(.r). respecti.,.cly. then the product power ~cries L: c,x" found by '"ordinar)'
rnuhiplic.1tion"" and colkc1ion ofl crms is a power series represe ntation oft he product
function [(x)g(x). 'I his fact can also be used 10 divide one power se ries by another,
prm ·itlcd that the quolicnl is known lo ha\'e a power series represen talion.
EXAMPlE 3 Assume thai lhc tangent function has a power series representation
tan x = L: a.x" (it docs). Usc the Maclaurin series for si n x and cos x to find a0 • a1.
a 2. and llJ.
Solution We multiply series to obtain

sin x = tan x cosx
2
= (no + a1x + a2x 2 + a3.rJ + .. ·) ( 1 - x_ + :.rJ. . . _ ...) .
2 24
If we ~ultiply each term in the first factor by each term in the second. then colle(t
coefficu:nts of lik e powers. the result is
But because
.
Sill X =X - I
> t3
o'
+ _!._ .s
120 '' - •· •
comparison of eoe£ticients gives the equations
= o.
I
a, I =
-~tto + a2 = 0,•
- !2al + llJ = -~t ,
TilUs we find that a0 =o. a, = 1 th _ 0
• • - .and11J =~ -So
tan .r .r + }xl + ... .=
ll1in_gs arc not always as they til'S! a l • . c
continuation · PI car. A computer algebra system g1vcs th
tan.r = .t + !xl + ~,I> .. 5 + fi

17 7 h. l
t X + ,..,..... . 9 + 13A! .tt +
(11
. . "".,.. RS'i>·· .. '
of the tangent sencs. For the general for ·· .v_s . • , ·s
Theory and Application of Infinite S . 111 or the nth codfic1cnt. sec K. Knor&
l!rtes (Ne w York: Hafner Press. 1971). P·
2 ·
Power Series Computations SECTION 11.9 753
y
yD
~· = S,(xt
s,<•l I Y ~ s,<xl ou may a lso check th at the first f ew terms agree with the result of ord inar}' division
IO...--~--,---rt.f...!..,.., of the Maclaurin series for cos x into the Maclaurin series for sin x:
8
~ I 3 2 5
• x + x + x + .··
3 15
2
y 0 I- 21.t2 + 24I X• )
- •• • X -
I + 120
(/3 I xs - . . .
Figure 11.9.2 shows the approximat ion of the tangent function (on -;r /2 < .r < ;r /2)
by the first four odd·degree polynomial partial sums correspo nding to the terms ex-
hibited in Eq. (7). Evidently these polynomial approximations have difficulty ~keep·
ing up" wi th tan x as it approaches ±oo as x -+ ±..-r /2. +
FIGURE 11.9.2 The graphs of
y = tan x and the first lo ur pa rtial Power Series and Indeterminate Forms
sums of the p{)wer series in (7). Accord ing to 'Theorem 3 of Section 11.8, a p<>wcr series is differentiable and therefore
cont in uou~ within its inter"al of conve rgence. It follows that
lim 'I\' a,.(x- c)"

L-
.r -• c
= ao. (8)
n=<l
Exa mples 4 and 5 illustrate th e usc of this simple observation to find the· limit of
the indete rm inate form f (x )/g(x). The technique is to first substitute power series
!J re presenta tions for f (x ) and g (x).
il
EXAMPLIE 4 Find lim sin x - arctanx
•-o x~ ln (l + x )
.• Solution The power series of Eqs. (4), (1 9), and (20) in Section I 1.8 give
sinx- arctanx = (x- ~x 3 + 1 ~x 5 - .. ·) - (x- !x3 + !x5 - .. ·)
= ~x3- tlioxs + ...

and
X 21n (I +X ) =X2 • ( X- t 2 t J
2x + jX + · · ·
) = .f3 - 1 x•
2 + jt Xs - · • •.
Hence
·
. sm x- arctan x . 6x - Tilix + .. ·
I 3 23 5
ILm 2
x-o x In(! +x)
= x-o
1lffi I
x3- x 4 + .. .
2
1_ 23 x2 + .. .
"' lim 6 tf
•-o 1- 2x + ... •
. In x
EXAMPLE 5 Find hm - - .
.t-lx- 1
Solution We first replace x with x - I in the power series for ln(l + x) used in
Example 4. (Equation (8) makes it clear that this method requires all series to have
center c if we are taking limits as x--+ c.] This gives us
lnx = (x -1)- !<x- 1)2 + ~(x- 1)3- ....
Hence
. lnx . (x-I)- ~(x- 1)2 + !<x -1)3 _ ...
hm - - = hm .;__..;_-=..:..__.:..._~..;_-....:......
__
x-lx-1 •-t x-1
= x-1
lim [I - !<x- 1)+ ~(X - 1)2- .. ·] = 1. •
The method of Examples 4 and 5 provides a useful alternative to 1'1-lopital's
rule, especially when repeated differentiation of numerator and denominator is in·
convenient or too time-consuming. (Sec Problems 59 and 60.)
754 CHAPT£R 11 Infinite Series
. ra hical Error Estimatio n
NumeriCal and G PhOW hO\\. 10 ·,nvestieate
-
the accuracy in a power-sen·
, e1
The follo" ing exampIes 5 'tied inte!'·al of \'alucs of x. \\ c will taketh
· t'on for a spec1 . .. e
partial-sum approXlilla 1 . . ·s "accurate to p decr mal places to mean tha•
. . approxlmauon' . 1 1 .
statement that a £1' en · h If a unit in th e p th dcc1ma pace; that i~ lhat
. . · th· JPss than a £
1ts error £ 1s numenca . • c four· lace accuracy means that I I < 0.00005. (~ote
1£1 < 0.5 x w-P. For mstanc · :, .• ) "'cvertheless. we sho uld remember that in
· h ber of zeros 11c c. •'
that P = ~IS t e num within a half unit in the p th place may round "the
some cases a result accurate 10 d d p places may still be in error by a unit in
"'Tong way," so that the r~sult roun <! 10
the pth decimal place (as tn Problem 12 )-
EXAM Pl E 6 Conside r the polynomial approximation

2n-1
.r' x' I ••I x
Sin X ,.. X - - + - - ... + (- ) -(.u
.,,.-.,--:-1)""! (9)
3! 5! - .
obtained by truncating the alternating Taylor series of the sine function.

fl ow accurate is the cubic approximat io~ P3(x) ""' x-:;- x /3! for angles from
3
(n)
0' to JO·? Usc this approximJtion to esum:llc san 10 .
(h ) How many terms in (9) are ncctlc:d to guaran tee six-place accuracy in cal·
cula tin g si.n x (or angle~ from 0' to 45"? Usc the corresponding polynomial
to approximate sin 30' and sin 40' .
(c) for what values of x docs the fifth-degree approxima tion yield five-plact
accuracy?
Solution (a) Of course we must substitute x in radians in (9), so we deal here ~rith
' 'alues of x in the interval 0 :i x ~ ;r / 18. For any such x, the error E is posith·e (Wby?)
and i~ bounded by the magnitude of the next term:
E
I I < S!
x' ::i (;r/ 18)'
! ~ 0.00000135 < 0.000005.
5
We c~u n.t five ze ros o~ the right. and thus we have five·place accuracy. For instance.
substatutang x = rr/18 m the cubic polynomial /~(x) gives
sin 10' =sin ( ~) ""' ;S _;! .(~ y

~ 0.1736468""' 0.17365.
This fi,·e·placc approximation sin JO> :::;, 0 17365 · 1 wn·
place value of sin 10• is 0_1736482 ~ O.l7j . ts correct . because the actua se
65
Solution (b) For any x in the inte 1 0 he

polynomial value in (9) in pi 7a
::i x ~ " / 4. tbe error E made if use 1 we
neglected term, ace 0 the actual value sin x is bounded by the first
1£1< x2•.-l (1r/4)2n+ t

(1T/ 4 )2n• l . (211 + I)! ::i (211 + 1)1.
The table m Fig. 11.9.3 shows c 1
n
(2n +I )!
0.0807-1551
1
(rounded to eight decimal plac:s)u r~or.valucs for n: :
1, 2, 3, ... of this maxim31 c~r:
we sec that 11 :::: 4 will suffice \\'. ·h r SIX· place accuracy we want 1£1< o.OOOOOO)·.
I
0.002-19039 · c t crefore us th 1• onnJ1
2 e c seventh-degree Taylor po >11
3 0.00003658
O.<XXm031
ll
7(X) :::: X - -
xl+ :cs ;(1 (JO)
4 I
s o.OOXJOOOO . . 3! Si- 71
to approximate Stn X Cor 0::; X :£ :r/·t w·11h - . .
x - :r /6 we get
FIGURE 11.9.3 Estimating the
error in uample 6(b). sin 30" ""' ::_ - ~ + (rr /6)5 (rr /6)1 1
6 3! "55 - ---:n- ""'0.49999999 ""' i'
Power Series Computations SECTION 11.9 755
as expected. Substituting x = 2:T / 9 in (10) similarly gives sin40" ::::: 0.64278750,

whereas the actual ei ght-place value of sin 40" is 0.64278761 ::::: 0.642788.
o.s . Solution (c) The fi fth-degree approximation
(11)
- O.S gives five-place accuracy when x is such that the error E satisfies the inequality
7
l.rl' lxl
-.!_1 - 0.5 0
I El < T! =
5040
~ 0.000005;
X
that is. when lx l ~ [ (5~0) . (0.000005)jlf1 :::: 0.5910 (radians). In degrees, this corre-
FIGURE 11.9.4 The graph olthe sponds to angles between - 33.86' and +33.86°.ln Fig. 11.9.4 the graph of y = x' /7!
x'
maximal error y = ! in in the vie"i ng window - 1 ~ x ~ 1. -0.00001 ;;; y ~ 0.00001 provides visual corrobo-
7 ration of this analysis-we see clearly that x 7 /7! remains between -0.000005 and
Example 6(c).
0.000005 when x is between -0.59 and 0.59. +
EXAMPLE 7 Suppose now that we want to approximate f(x) = sinx with three-
place accuracy on the whole interval from 00 to 90° . Now it makes sense to begin with
a Tay lor series cent ered at the midpoint x = rr / 4 of the interval. Because the function
f (x ) and its success ive derivatives arc sin x , cos x. -sin x. - cos x, and so forrh. their
l l
values at x = ;r / 4 arc Ji. Ji, -lJi. - ~ Ji. and so forth. Consequently Taylor's
formula with remainder (Section 11.4) for [(x) =
sinx centered at x =
rr/4 takes
the fom1
2
sin x = Ji
2
· [1+ (x- ::) - _!_ (x- ::)
4 2! 4
3
5 x~IO~-·------------,-,
-!.>! (x- ::)
4
+ .. · ± ..!._
n!
(x- ~)"]
4
+ E(x) (12)
where
!E(x)l
= t<•+l l(z)
(n +I)!
(x - ::)•+
4
1<= (n +I I)! lx - ::4 1"+1 (13)
for some z in the interval 0 ~ x ~ :r /2. Observe that the corresponding Taylor series is
not alternating-if x > rr /4 it has instead a"++--++--" pattern of signs-but
we can still use the remainder estimate in (13). For three-place accuracy we need to
choose 11 so that y = E(x) remains within the viewing window -0.0005 ~ y ~ 0.0005
X on the whoI<! interval 0 ~ x ~ rr /2. Looking at the graphs plotted in Fig. 11.9.5, we see
=
that this is so if n 5 but not if 11 = 4. The desired approximation is therefore
FIGURE 11.9.5 Comparing errors
in Example 7.
sinx""
Ji [1 + ( x- 4;r ) -
T. 1(
2! x- 4 )2 -
;r 1(
31 x-
1t
4 )3
+ ..!._
4! (x-::)\
4 _!_ (x- ::)
5! 4
5
)
.
=
For instance, substitutingx 0 we get sin o•::::: 0.00020 ""O.OOOas desired, and x =:r/2
gives sin 90° "" 1.00025 ::::: 1.000. +
0 11.9 TRUE/FALSE STUDY GUIDE

1. Outline how you might use the binomial series (as in Example t) toeonstruct
a table of roots-perhaps the square roots, cube roots, and fourth roots of
the first 100 positive integers.
756 CHAPTER 11 Infinit e Seri~
. mples or se veral inlc{!rals ror which numerical ap

2. Gave your own cxa
. .
· ·
. (•s in Example 2) would he usc 111•
r ' ' Pro1i
· •
ma tton usmg sc ncs fl · ' •
. . mplcs or seve ral indclcrnunalc.: rorms ror which nuanc .

J. G ave your own exa S) ld neal
· ·
eva Iua!lon usang acs (as in Examples
scr' · 4 and wou he usdul ·
~1~
1~
.9~PR~O
~B~l~E~MUS~------------------------------------------
. I J I ~
fn Problmll I rhrnugh 10, uu on infinir• u ri•• to opproximau Jot, srnx :::: X - ij·r + jj,).r
th~ indicatc,od nurnb~r accurott to tJur r d~cimal plocrs.
3~. ln( l + .r) "' X- ).r 1 + J.rJ - !.r'
1. ~ 2. ~
y, ...ff+X :::: I + j.r - £x 1
3. sin(0.5) 4. t ·Ol
37. Show that the apprmimation in l'r<>hlc m 33 ~:ivcs the ••aluc
5. tan " 1 (0.5) 6. ln( I.I J of e' accurate to within 0.00 1 if I r l S 0.5. 11tcn calculate ~';
.
7. san (~) 10 R. cos(~)
20
accurate to t \VO c.kcima l places.
3..'t For what values of x i< the approx imation sin x :::: x -I 11
9. sin 10" 10. C0\5' accurate to five dcrirual place< 'I '
In l'ml>l• mJ II rlrrouglr 22. ,..,, pt>wn u rre.< to appr(lximm~ rh• 39. (a) Show tha t the va lues o f the rosi ne runctinn f<>r angl11
''olut! of the Ki"·tn int~gra/.1 accurate tt) four tlt'\imnl placc~t between ~()' and 50" cw he calcula ted with fivc·placc accu-
II.
1 1
1 SlnJ
•
- - d.z
X
12.
1' .
o
SIO X
- - tl.z
,/i
racy '"i ng the approximation
13. 1'"
0
urctaru dx
X
14. 1' sinx 2 dx
I S. !. 11' 0
In(I
X
+ x) dx 16. 1 112-
0 v'i+7
I
--dx
(b) Show that this approximation yields ei)!ht·pbcc
racy for angles he tween ~-1" and ·16• .
40. Extend the approximation in l'roblcm 39 to one thl t )icl.h
am~·
17. J.'"
0
I --, -
- - • tl.x
X
I ll [ " ~ dx
0
the ''alucs of cosx accur:rtc to live decimal places for 3ngk;
between 30'' and 60".
19. J.' ,-•' d.r ~o•

•
1'
0
1 -cosx
.,
.f "
l 1X
In Problt:m :r 4/ thrtm;;h -l-1, w.-e rcrnuvise integrmion nftill upprv·
primt· rwwer .rrrits to appro.rimnre t/r(• indicalt'il an·a or l'l dll rr.(
nccurat( to two deo'mal p/,~ees.
21. ],
IJ
I /~
{!J + x=dx 22. [ " ~ tf.r

o I+ X
41. Figure 11.9.1 shows the region tha t lies tx:twccnth~ ~rar~
of Y == (sin .r)j .r a nd the .r ·axis from .r = - .7 to .r = , . Sul>-
2
stitutc sin x = ! I I -cos 2.r) to approximate the n>lumc of
Itt Problems lJ through 1.~, U.j t powrr .\'tries raJher than the solid that is ge nerated by re\•olvin~: this region around
tllcipiran· nil~ to ~··a/uatc.• tl:~ giv~n limit the .r·axis. •
:!4. lim x - sinx 42. Approximate the arc:1 of the region tha t tics bet\\c~n the
•-O .rJ cos x graph of Y = (I - cosx)j.r 2 and the .r-axis from x = .:,,
I - cosx . .-'- c·'- 2x to x = 2:r (Fig. 11.9.6).
ZS. lim .;._--:c:- 26. lrm - -- - -
,_, X(<"' - I) .c-o x - arc1an x
,. . ln(x1 )
27. lim
J"-0
(! --.X
1
-)
SID X
"""· 1li D - -
•- 1 X - ) o.s
In Problems 29 throu~h .12. calcufatr tlrr indicotrtl numl•er with 0.4
the rt'quir.-d occwacy ming Taylor$ formula for an oppwpriate 0.)
function u nruetl or the r:i•wr p(lilll .r = o. y
0.2
29. sin 80' ; a = ,T /~ . (o ur decimal places
O. t
J(). cos 35' : a = .T /~. fo ur decimal places
0
31• cos 47 '; a = :rf~. six dccill11ll places -0.1
- to -s
3 2. si n 58': a = :r/ 3. six decimal places 0 5 tO
•
In pro!Jlems 3.1 through ~6. tferumine .rhr numba of decimal FIGURE 11.9.6 The rl'gion of
places of accuracy tlrt! grven approprrate formula yidd.r for Problem 42.
IX !~ 0.1.
43. Appro~im t. h
. a c t c vohmtc of the solid generated by 11 ' 13
J l+ l x l +z.x
l. tin~
33• r' ;:, 1 + .r + 1x 0 h
t c rcgron of Problem 42 around the y-axi<.
d
POWI!rSeriesComputation1 SECTION 11 .9 757
~- Approxim :lle the volume of the ~olid gener 3 ted by rotatmg Us~ lht po..·u saia in Problem 53 10 approxunart K'itl: TWO·
the region ol l'roblem ~2 around the .r·Ut\. pLJa accurac.v tf:t rillhcr fomudablc integrals In l'robltrn.f .S5
.tS. Dcrh·e the geomc tnc ~e rie\ by long c.ll\tsson o ( t - z into t. and 56. Cor:p~rt) o:tr aumara .. u}: lht c.racl •'aflus gi >O! by a
COtr.p uler afg( b ra S)'J/(tn.
.a(i. Denvc the ~roes lor tan .r hsted on Eu:nple J by long di·
!.
I .~
viSion of the Maclaun n serses of c01 .r 1nto the !\.bcburin
series or sin.r. . d.r
o I -x·.,. r
.&1. Deri,·c the geo met n c series rep:esentauon o f 1/ (1 _ .r) by
finding a,. a, . a: . ... such that
(1- .r)fo , - a1 z • o 1 r 1 - a>•' - . ·) = 1. In

!.
0
''=
1- r - r
I d.r
Pro~lmu 57 and 58, graph 1J:~ gi• tn fun w on tmd u vrral of

48. Derive the fim lh c codficsents in the binomial sen e\ lo r ia Ta)lor p<>/~·r:omia!J ofth~ utdicottd dtgrus.
-fi+X by find sng ao. a,. oz. "'" and a, \Uch that S!O.I
=- - ; degrees n = 2, 4, 6. . .. .
57. f (z )
...
..
.t9. Use the method o f E xample 3 to lind the coclficienn a,.o,,
a1 , a 3, and a, in the se ries
/ (.t) =
!. stn t
-
I
d1; degrees n = 3. 5. 7, ... .
si n.t-tanx
~9. Usc known power series 10 evnlu3te lim . _ 1 _
1 "' .. -o Sin X - t:tn 1 X
scc:c • - - • ~ o,..c" . 60. Substilute series such as
cou L...
,. .....
xl .r~ 55.r'
SO. Multiply the geomctnc se ries lor 1/ (1 - .r ) nn d the series ssn(tun x ) = .r + - - - - - - + .. ·
6 4() 1008
lor ln(1 - .r) to show that if It I < 1, then
provided by a computer algcbrn system to evaluate
In (I - x) ( ) 1
J- x =-.t - l +j .r - (1+ j+l).rJ
- ( I+ l + ! + l).r'- . ...
Sl. Take ns known the logarithmic series 61, (3) fi r11 USC the p>rame trit,1lion .r(l) • II COS I, )'(I) oo /Jsin I.
0 ~ t ~ h of Ihe ellipse (.r /o) 1 + (y/b) 1 a I to show thnt its
In(! + x ) =.r- jx: + !x> -J x' + .. · . perimeter (arc length) pis given by
Find the first lour cocfticscnts 10 the series for r' by findsng
au. a1, a1 , and OJ such that
..
= ~" "' = L:a.(x - j x' + !x>- i.r ' + .. r.
1 +x
..., "'here • =/ I -
(bfa )' is the ~«tntricilyolthc ellip'<:. Thi>
SO<alkd t lltpric mrtgral i• nonclemcniJry. a nd so mus t be:
appro\lmJted numerically. (h) US<: the binomial >cries to
This is exactly how the po~~oer series for ,.• ~~oas lint discov-
expand the in tc~rand in the P<'<imetcr fo rmub in plrt (a).
ered (by NcMo n)!
Then intcgrare term"' i..,- u,ing f"Ontllll~ ll31ro m 1he Iable
SZ. Use the method of Example 3 to show that of intc~rals in•idc the back co,·cr-roshow tha trhe pcrime·
tcr of the cllip-;e ;, gi,'Cn in terms of its majur scmiaxis and
X
-SIOX = I + 6-1xl + 7
- x1 +
360
.. ·. eccentricity by the power series
53. Show that long division of power se ries gives p = 2.Ta(l- 4~t 1 - 6-1
~ •• - 256
~.•- ~.•-
1631!4
... )
•
2+.r =2-x-x' + 2xJ-x• -x> +2x~
l+.r +.rl 62. The aritlrmetic nrt•trrr of the major and minor scmiAxes of
- .r'- ..~ + u•- .r'0 - x 11 + .... the ellipse of P roblem 61 i• A = ~(a+ b); their roul·sqrwrt
Show also that the radius of convergence of this series is m catJisR= Vl<a'
+ tr).Substituteh a JI=(T and u">C =
R=l. the binomial series to derive the expansions
54. Usc the series in Problem 53 tn approxuna te with two·placc
accuracy the value of the intcgul
+ 2 d.r.
!.
0
117
,tl
...
+X + I and
Compare your estimate with the e xact result give n by a R=o(l- ~. 2 - .!...•-
4 32
1
-12!1 ~( 1 - . .. )
-t~- 2048 •
computer algebra system.
If t i• quite sm•ll-a~ in a nearly circular ellip<e-thon th•
Something wonderful happens" hen you 3\'enge these two difference between the exact value of p and the simple a~
series: show that
proximation
p"' ;r(A.;. R) = :r (!(a+ b)+ Jj(a 2 + 11))
is extremely small. Fot instance. suppose that the orbit or
and then note that the first four tcnm of the series " ithin the moon around the ea rth ts an clhpsc wJth major semi-
the parentheses here arc the same as in the dlip<C perime· axis" exactly 238.~57 milc:s long and eccentricity f exactly
ter series of Problem 61( 1>). Conclude that the perimeter p 0.05-19. 1ncn ti'C Eq. (14) and a compute r algebra system
of the ellipse is t;ivcn by with cxtcnclcd-preci5ion arithmetic to find the perimeter
5:ra ~ or lhc moon 's orhil accurate tn rhe nearest inch: g.ive }'Our
p = :r ( A + R) + 8192f . + .. ·, (U ) answer in milcs-fcct· inchcs forma t.
0 11.9 Project: Calculating Tri~:onometric Functions on a D eserted Island

Again (as in the 1 !.J Project) you're stnlndcd for life on a desert island with only
a very basic c~!culator that doesn't know about tra nscend ental functions. ;-.low )·our
task is to usc the (a lternating) sine and cos ine series to construct a table presenting
(with five-place accuracy) the sines, cosines, and tange nts of angles from 0' to 90' in
increments of 5' .
To begin wi th. you can find the sine. cosine. and tangent of an angle of 45' from
the fam iliar J.J.,/2 right triangle. lltcn you can fi nd the va lues of these functions 3t
an angle of 60' from an equilateral trbng!c. Once you know all about 45 ' and (ff
angles. you can usc the sine and cosine addi tion formulas
sin(a ± {I)= sinacosfl ±cosasinjj
and
cos( a ± fl) =cos a cos fl 'F sin a sin {J
and/or equivalent forms to find the sine. cosine. and tangent of such anoles lS 15'.
30' . 75•. and 90'. "
. But algebra and simple trigonometric identiti~s will prob:~blv ne,·er ~tive '<'~
the •_me or co, inc or an angle o f 5" . For this you will need 10 us~ the pow;r series
for smc and cosme
. Sum
· ·. · cn ouoh
" t crms
• ( an d t h en some) so you know your result ·11
accurate to mnc dc:1ma! places. TI1en fill in all the cntrks ·in mur t:t~lc. rounding
them to five places. fell-honest! . •h, h . · 1
. ~ -\\ ct eryouren t ncs ~grcc\\iththost\'OUr r(;.
caIcu Ia tor g~vcs. ~ ·
fi~a!!y, explain .what st_ratcgy you would usc to compl~tc: a similar tabk cf
1
va ucs o tngon ometnc functtons With angles in increments of 1' r:Jthcr th~n 5' .
11.10 ISERIES SOLUTIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

In Section 9.6 we sa"· that so!vino • I
~ .. ICIIJJ())!~ncou . r tfff . I . " t•h
con~tant coefficient< can he rcd ' ·d • ' ~n~:lT 1 e rcntta ~quatl()n · .
of its charactcri~tic CCJU:ttion "llu·cc. . to th ~ a!gchr:uc prohkm of finding the root'
. . · I ere 1\ no SHIIJ'I. .· 'I · d ( tr
so!vutg hncar differen tial . . . ' c or 'llllt Ml\' rout HI~ prcx-.: ure '
. . CljU3 tlllll~ With l'tlr II f. . . . l( ·
lookm!( cqu:ttion ns y " _ n _ Il l . '" ,. co..: llnt:nt~ [,en su~h a stntr·
1
. ' ,- . IRS
$tan d ard c lc Jnc nt ;ay functt f .. no ~CJftllltlll th :tt c :tn l >c cxr"rc!'1"'cd in t<rln' o f thC
· usc 1to0,.' o c.1 1cu lu 'l.. On c " f th c most important app 11CJ
o f powe r series is their · tK• ml
' 01 ~c ~uch dtff crcntta · 1cquatio ns.
The Power Series Method
'llle pu,.·a urit's mrthod for ~ol~in tf . •,
the JX>"Cr series g n tffcren!lal equation con~ists of substttU H•·~
....
\' =
. I: c r"- ..
... ~. .. - c,,..,. r, ..- + t";.r- -+· ct..r ' ._. ... (ll
Series Solutions of Differential Equations SECTION 1 1.10 7 59
in the differential equation. and then attempting to determine what the values of the
coefficients c0 • ct. r:. r 3 • •.• must be in order tha t the se ries in ( 1) will act ually satisfy
the given differential equation. At first gbnce this might seem to be a formidable
problem. beca use we have infinitelv mln,· unknowns r 0• Ct . r2, CJ • .. . to find . Nev-
e rt hekss. we will see tha t the mcth~d frequently succeeds. When it does. we obtain
a power series representation of a solution. in con trast to the closed form solutions
that result from the solution techniques we saw in Chapter 9.
Be fore we can substitu te the scri~s in ( 1) in a differential equation. we must
first know what to substitute for the dcrivJ tives y' , y" .. .. of the unknown function
y(x). Uut recall from Theorem 3 in Section 11.8 that the dcriva tivc of a power series
can b-~ calculated bv termwise diiie re ntiation. Hence the first a nd second derivatives
of the series in (I) ~ re gi,·en by
y' = L' ncr:.t" - 1

= c 1 + ::!c~.r + Jc.•x: + ··· (2)
·~ l
and
'
y· =L 11( 11 - I lr • .r" - : = 2c2 + 6c;.r + l2c.x 2 + .. · ·. (3)
rt::.!
Also. these two series have the same radius of convergence as the original series
in ( I ).
The process of determining the coefficients co. rt. c2 , CJ, .•• in the series so that
it will satisfy a given differential eq uation depends also on the following consequence
of termwise differentiation: If two powe r series represent the same function on an
open interval, then they are identical series. That is. they arc one and the same power
series. (See Problem Min Section 11.8.) In particular, if L:a.,x" ::0 on tm open
inten,nl. rhen ir follows rhar a. =0 for all n. This fact is sometimes called the identity
principle for power series.
EXAMPLE 1 Solve the equation y' + 2y = 0.
Solution We substitute the series

"" 00
}' = L tn:t" and y' = L 11c.x•-t,

n:O n=l
and obtain
«> "'
L IICnXn-l +2L Cn.t" = 0. (4)
n.:;} 11=0
To compare coefficients here, we need the general term in each sum to be the term
containing x". To accomplish this, we shift the index of summation in the first sum.
To sec how to do this, note that
~ ro
L nc.x•-l = Ct + Zc2x + 3c3.t + · · · = L (n + l)cn+ 1x".
2
•cO
Titus we can replace 11 with 11 + I if, at the same time, we start counting one step lower:
that is, at 11 = 0 rather than at 11 = I. This is a shift of+ 1 in the index of summation.
The result of making this shift in Eq. (4) is the identity
00 ""
L(" + l)c.,+l.r" + 2 L c,x" = 0:

•~o •~O
that is,
00
L[(n + l)cn+l + 2c.}x" = 0.

n:O
q
. ·a! then it follows from the identitv pr·••

If rhis equal ion hoids on some mteJ"\ ·
> . consequently. • 1"Ciple
·
, - 0 for a 11 n 0
that ( n + l }c.+t + -'• - == •
2c.
Cn+l = - Hl (S)
· (5) .1s a recurrc nee relation from whichhwe can . successivevf

for all n i: 0. ·quallo~
E
f ·rhe Iauer will rurn ou110 be I e arburaryc n ;
0 513 '·
com pule Ct. c:, CJ. · · · n• rerms o co.
1 ·1
solurion of a fusl·ordcr d'ff
1 ercnrta equarion. 1
th at we expect 10 find m a ~enera1
Wirh n = 0, Eq. (5) gtves
2ca
Ct = --~-·
With n = I, Eq. (5) gives

2c1 22co _ 22co
cz = - -2 = +---
1. 2 2'. ·
With 11 = 2. Eq. (5) gh·cs
2c
2
23co - - 2-3co
C)= - 3= - ~- 3!-
13y now it should be clear that after n such steps, we will have
.2"co _
c.=(- 1) - - . 11 ~ 1.
11!
(This is easy to prove by induction on 11.) Consequently. our solulion takes the form
"' co: 2"c0 "' ( -2x)"

y(x) = "' c.x" = " (-I)" - x" = co" - - - = coc-Zs.
L,; L. n! L- n!
n =O t~=O 11~)
In the final step we have used the familiar exponential series to idenlify our power
series solution as !he same solution y(x} = c0 e - l• we could have obtained by the
method ~rf separation of variables. •
Shift of Index of Summation

In the solution of Example I we wrote
(6}
hy shifting !he index of ~ummation by + 1 in the series on the left. lltat is, we si~u;
taneously mcrcased the .mdcx of summation by 1 (replacing with n + l.n - . n.,. .~
and dl'at·tucd !he startm~ pou11 by I, from 11 = 1 to 11 = 0 thcr.:by obrainrng tt.•.
11
series on !he right. 'Iltis procedure is valid because each inlini.te scric; in (6) is simri)
a compact notation for the single series
(71
More generally, we can shift the indo:x of summation by kin an infinite seri~
by simultaneously
. kf' • !he summarion index by ,..,
' bincrrasing '· ( ..... , + k) and tlccri'115'~
h
1 e startmg pmnt Y ·. ·or msrancc, a shift by +2 (n -+ + 2) yields
11
Series Solutions of Differential Equations SECTION 1 1 . 10 761
If k i.~ negative we interpret a ~decrease by k- as an i ncre:.~ by -k = IJ.1. Thus a shift

by -2 (n --. n- 2) in t he index of summation yields
"' n- 2)c._ .t"-

L"' nc• .r"- = L:< 1
2
3
:
we have dureaud t he index of summation by 2. but increased the starting point

by 2. from n = 1 t o n = 3. You shou ld check t hat the summation on the righ t is
mere ly another representa:ion of the series in (7).
EXAMPLE 2 Solve the equation (x- 3))' + 2y = 0.

So lution A s before. we su~titutc
and l = L"' nc•.t" - 1

• •I
to obtain
.., 00
(x - 3) L nc.x• - l + 2 L c.x• = 0.
so thnt
eo oo oo
L nc,x" - 3 L nc• .r"- 1+ 2 L c• .r" = 0.

In the lirst sum we can replace n = 1 with n = 0 with no e ffect on the sum . In the
second sum we shift the index of summation by+ I. Th is yields
00 .., ~
L nc.x" - 3 L (n + l)co+lx" + 2 L c.x• = 0:

n=O n~ n:;:;()
that is.
00
L [nc. - 3 (11 + 1)c•+l + 2c.) x" = 0 .

••o
llte identity principle then gi,·es
nc. - 3(n + lk•tl + 2c. = 0.
from which we obtain the recurrence relatio n
n+ 2
c.+l = (11 + ) c. for n;:; 0.
3 1
We apply this formula with 11 =0," = 1, and n = 2 in tum, and find that
Ct = -32 co. 3 3 4
3. 3
4
cz = 3 . 2 ct = 32 co. and c3 = - - c2 = - co.
33
This is almost enough to make the pattern evident; it is not difficult to show by
induction on 11 that
c.
Hence our proposed power series solution is
= -n+l
- co
3 .. if II f; ).
00
II + 1
y(x) = co~ --x• (8)
L.. 3• .
n=O
Its radius of convergence is
p I .1m
= n-oo I I= .
-c.-
Cn+l n-oo
ltm -311 + 3
n+2
= 3,
. . ~ if _ 3 < x < 3 and div~rges if lxl_> 3. In this pa~icuJar
Thus the series m (8) co~vcrg~s . n elementary solution (obtamed by ~eparallon o!
e.v•mple we can explain why. ,\ . . . _ 1/(3 - x) 2 • If we differentiate term....
uatwn IS >- ' 'JS
· •
,u ·
variables) of our differentia1cq
the geometric series
I
::; 1 "" x"
I __;__ == - ~ , • .
-3 - X
== 1 _ _X
3
J L.., n,, .r·
· ·tn (8) · ·nlUs th is series (with the arbitrarv·

· 1 0 f the scncs
we get a constant mu 111 P e ) c resents the solution
constant c0 appropnately chosen r P
I
y(x) = (3 - x)2
. , d tl c si ngularitY at x = 3 is the reason why the radius

on the mt erval -3 < x < -'·an 1 • ' b _ 3 •
of convergence of the power series solu uon turned out to c P - .
EXAMPLE 3 Soh·c the equation x 2 y' =)'-x- I.

Solution We make the usual substi tutions y = I: CnX" and r ' = I: nc.x"- 1• which
yield
"" <»
x 12:::nc.x• - l =- 1- x + l: c, x".
11=1 rt=-0
so that
L"' nc,x•+ l =-I - x

"' c.x".
+L
n-=1
Because of the presence of the two terms - I and -x on the right-hand side. we need
to split off the first two terms.. co + c1x, of the seri es on the ri ght for comparison. I!
we also shift the index of summation on the left by - 1 (replace n = 1 \\ith n =2and
n with n - I). we ge t
Because the ldt-hand side conta ins neither a constant te rm nor a term containing X
to the first power. the identity principle now vidds c = 1 c _ 1 and c = (n-l)C,-1
for n ~ 2. I t fo IIows t I1at . 0 , I - .< rr
C4 = 3 · C3 = 3!,
and, in general, that
Cn= (n-1)! for 11 ;:: 2.

Thus we obtain the power series
y(x)
"'
= 1 +x + L(n-l)!x".
•=2
But the radius of convergence of this series is
P == lim (n- l)! . 1

•-oc 11 , = hm - =0,
• -oo n
11
Stries So'utions of Differtntial EquJtions SECTION 11.10 763
so the ser ies converges on I)' Cor :r = 0. Wha t does thi< mean? Simply that the given
differenti al equation docs not have a (convcrgentJ po"er series solution of t he as·
sumcd form y :;: L c.r•. Thi example scrYes lS a warning th:tt t he simple act of
writing y = L c.x• in,olves an as umption that may b~ false. •
EXAMPLE 4 Sol ve the equation y" + y = 0.

Solution H we assum~: a solu tion of the form
y = I:>-•.r".
••0
we find that
L"' nc.x--•
'-
l = and y" = L 11(11 - I )c.x•-:.
••I
Substituting fo r y andy· in the d iffcrcntiJI equation then yields

.... "'
L 11(11- l)c.x•-~ + L c.:r" = 0.
n•2 ft.O
We shift the inde x uf summatio n in the first sum by +2 (rcpbcc 11 = 2 with 11 = 0

and 11 ' ' ith 11 + 2). ·n,is ~tivcs
"' ~
l:<n + 2)(11 + 1)c•• lx" + L c.x• = 0.
The idcn tity (11 + 2)(n + l )c.~l +c. = 0 now fo110\vs from the identity principle. and
thus we obtain the recurrence relation
(9)
(11 + 1)(11 + 2)
for 11 ~ 0. It is evident !hat this formula will determine the cocfllcients c. " i1h even
subscript in te rms of co und those o f odd subscript in terms o f c- 1; c0 nnd c 1 arc not
predetermined, a nd thus will be th e two arbitrary co nstants we expect to llnd in a
general solution of a second-order eq uation.
When we apply the recurrence relatio n in (9) with '' = 0, 2. and ~ in turn, we
get
Taking n = 1. 3. and 5 in tum. we find that

C1 C1
C) = - J!, C5 = S! . and
Again. the pattern is clcnr; we leave it for you to show (by induction) that fork ~ I,
(-I )teo ( -l)tc1
cu = (2k)! and cv..1 = (2k + I )!.
1l1Us we get th e power series solu tion

2 4 6 3
x .r .r )
- Co ( 1 - - + - - - + · · · +
( x- + -x3 - :...._
r' + · ..) ·
Y(;r) - 2! 4! 6!
C1 X -
3! 5! 7! •
that is. y(:r) = co cos :r + Ct sin:r. Note that we ha\'c no problem \\ith the radius o!
convergence here; the Taylor series !or the sine and cosine functions con\'erge for
dL +
764 CHAPTIR 11 Infinite Series
. finitions of Functions
Power Serres De b further comment. Suppose that we had n• ,
. fE pic 4 can car • . -ler
1l1e solution o xam , . s. let alone their fay 1or sencs. We would th
heard of the sine and cosme funcu~n oluti ons en
have discovered the two power senes s
:>C
~ (-1) X
n 2n _ __x2 + _x4 _ ...
1 UO)
C(x) == L (Zn)! - 2! 4!
=I)
and
J s
oo ( - W x2n+ I - X - ~ + :_ - , ..
S(x) == L
n=O
(2n + 1)! - 3! 5!
(II)
of the differential equation /' + y == 0. It is clear th at C(O) = 1 and that S(O~ ::0.
After verifying that the two series in (10) an d (I 1) converge for all x. we can differ-
entiate th em term by term to find that
C'(x ) == -S(x) and S'(x) = C (x). (12)
Consequently C'(O) = 0 and S'(O) == I . 11JUS with the aid of th~ power series method
(all the while knowing nothing about the sine and cos me functions). we ha1·e discov-
ered that y = C(x) is the uniqu e solution of
y" + y == 0
that s;llisfics the initial conditions y(O) == I and y' (O) = 0, and that y = S(x) is the
un ique solu tion that satisfies the initial conditions y (O) = 0 and y'(O) = 1. It follo•s
that C(.r) and S(x) arc linearly independent. and- recogni zing the importlncc of
the differential equation y" + y =O-we can agree to call C the cosine function and
S the sim• function. Indeed. all the usual properties of these two functions can N:
established, using only their initial values (a t x = 0) and the derivatives in (12): tha~
is no need to refer to triangles or even to angles. (Can you use the series in (10) lnd
( II) to show that (C(x) F + (S(x)F = I for all x?) This demonstrates that th~ cosine
and sine functions arc fully determined by the differential equation l' + y = 0 of
which they are the natural linearly indepe ndent solutions. figures 1J.J O.I and 11.10.1
show how the geomet nc character of the graphs of cosx and sin x is revcakd by the
graphs of the Taylor polynomial approximations that we ge t by truncating the infinit~
series in (10) and (11).
'
P1C.<) P11 Cx)

FIGURE 11.10, ~ Graphs of cos x and its
Taylor polynomoal appro•imations p (x) FIGURE 11.10.2 Graphs of siru and 111
Pa(x), P,.(x), P16 (x), P11(x), and Pz!(x): Taylor polynomial approximations Ps('i'
P1(x), Pn(x), Pos(x), p21 (x), and Pzs(' ·
ll1is is by no means an uncommon . . . . ction'

of mathematics occur in the "trst . sttuataon. Many unportant specsal fun tiJl
" · mstance
equations. and thus are in practiced .r.
as · . f d'ff•ren
· power scnes solutoons o 1 < !c:
. . . c,mt'tl by means f I . . . E~aosr
mtroduccs 111 thts manner the A · ~ . • o t 1ese power sc rrcs. ·. .,01
rry '""Ciron~ that . . . •1112 1·',
the propagation of radio waves 10 vi bra , · . • appear 111 apphcatwns r;tng -
L
lions m atoms and molecules.
Series Solutions of Differential Equ4tions SECTION 11 .10 765
EXAMPLE 5 Soh ·e the Airy equa tion y'' - .ry = 0.

Solution Substituti ng y = 2: c,..r" a nd y• = 2: n{n - I )c,..r"- : :1.5 usu:1l yields
~ ~
L n(n- I )c,..r•- J - L c•.r• •l = 0 .

...o
A shift of indices-replacing 11 with 11 + 2 in the first sum and with 11 - 1 in the
second-y ields
... "'
L(n + 2)(n + l)c•+2·t" - L c,. . t.r" = 0.
~ .o ft•l
Splitting o f( the term co rresponding to 11 = 0 in th e first sum nnd combining the

remaining terms. "C get
2c2 + L"' ((n + 2)(11 ~ l)r•• z - c• • J!.r" = 0.

•~ I
The ide nt ity princi ple now f.i' cs c: = 0---bec;~use there is no othe r constant term on
the lc ft - h ;:~ nd side-and the recurrence relation (II + 2)(11 + l)r.~ l - Cn- 1 = 0 for
11 ~ 1. Rcpl:lcc mcnt o f 11 "ith n + I gives the recurrence relation
(13)
c. • l = (n + 2)(n + 3)
Co rn 51; 0. Thus e:~ch coefficien t (after the first three) depends on the third previous
one. li enee the fac t that c 2 = 0 implies that
C2 = CS = Cg = · · · = 0.
Beginning with r 0 a~ an arbitrary constant. we apply ( 13) with 11 = 0. 11 = 3.
= 6 in tum and calculate
and 11
co co CJ co rb c0
CJ = - =- .
2·3 6
C6
5·6 ISO
=- =- .
and c9 = -
8 ·9
= --
1296()'
Beginning with Ct as a second arbitrary constant. we calculate similarly
Ct Ct C< C1 ,.., t"t
c~ "" 3. 4 =ii• c, = ~ = 504· and Cto "' 9. Ill"" 4536()"
When we collect th e terms that invoh·e co and those that involve c 1 • we get the genera l
solution
,r3 .r6 .r9 ) ( .r• x' riO )
y(.r) =Co ( I + -
6
+ -180 + - -
12960
+ · · · + Ct X+ - + - + -· - + ...
12 504 45360
of the Airy equation. " i th arbitrary constants co and Ct. We sec here the independent
(why?) particul ar solution~
xJ .r 6 x9 x• x' .r'o
y1(r)
.
=I+ -6 + -180 +12960
--+··· and )'2(.t) = .t + - + - + - - + ...
12 5(» 45360
Recognizing the pattern of coeCticients is not so easy as in Example 4. hut you can
verify that the terms shown agree with the formulas
~1· 4 · · · (3k-2) 14 and )'"(X)=.r+~2-5 .. ·(3k-l)rJk+t

= 1 + L.... (3k)! .r • L....
Yt{X)
hi '·t (3k +I)! . .
The special co mbinations
766 CHAP1ER 11 lnfon.te Seri~
FIGURE 11. 10.3 The gra~hs y = Al(x) and

y = Si(x) of the Airy luncltons.
. r1met ion dc:finc:d in S.:ction 8.1>-Me the standard

-\\ ith rl.r l tk no tons the g mm~ h
3
t ' ~lt:tbles and c o mputer algebra snt~1111
A m fu n C/Imt\ "hich appear tn mat ~rnn tc. '
•Jnctq:raph~
. .
. ( () I )d .
• h ' b' t oscill.t tory. bch:n tor or .r < . Hll ' t x ecr:35es
\·c
tn I t!: 11.1 0.•• ex t t •
c~punc ntta!l~· ar.d Lli (.r) increases cxponcnttally a s .r - oo. •
0 11. 10 TllUE/ FALSE STUDY GUI DE

11.10 CONCEPTS: QUESTI ONS AND DISCUSSION
1. Suppt"c 1ha 1 the exponential fu nction /:.'(.r) = c: is ·"''fin;tl
as _the sol~tioo
of the tnitial value problemy'= y. y(O) = I. Bc g tnnmg Wtth thts dcfimtton.
"hat properties of the functton F.(.r ) can be esta b lis hed?
2. Supr•o' c that the hyp<:rbolic functions Ch(x ) = co~h x and Sh (x) = sir_;,
arc dc•finnl as the solut ion~ of the differentia l equation y" = y tha t satisfyth:
in it bl condi tions y (O) = I. y'(0) = 0 and y(U) = 0. y'!O) =
I. respective!~.
Dcginning "ith these definition~. wha t prope rties nf the fu nc tio n' C h(x) and
Sh (.r) can be establishe d '! Can you di scover a con necti o n be tween these
fu nctions and the function E(.r) o f Qu estion I ?
1 1.10 PROBLEMS
In Probl~tru I throu~h 10./intl apowa JairsJtJitmon oftllf b''rn
S how (as itr Example ) } that tht powtr suits m.rhod fa ll! '''
dtf{rrtnrial ~quntrnn nrtamint' th~ radius of ('tiN\ a !;tiiC( nftht'
rrJu1iin.r: strit'5.. tmd IHt )OUr l..rrm drdgt of fam zliar .\larlaurrn
>idd a po ..·tr suits solmion of rht fn m r y =L
c,x• for t!:r
srrirr and rlu hinnmial st rir," to idrm,b • rhc- J't."rtrs so/u:ion in di!fattrllal equations in Problenu 15 rhrou~;lr I S.
15
terms nf fa m ilinr ,•/or:rmnr.~· fun crion t (Of cmu sr. n o 011c cmr · :xy' + Y =0 l ti. 2ry'=y
p rtvrm you fro m rJ:rrkbrJ: your k 'Otk by alJo l'fllving tlu equa-
rimtc by rlzt mtrh(I(/J "/ Clznp rrr 9!) 18. :x'y' = 2y
I. f = y !. l= ~y
In Problwn I <I tltrou g/, 11, firs t clcri•·e a rec11rre11ct rt/iJ!iOI!!"'
) . 2y'-"3y=0 "' y' +Z..y - 0 ~ngc.fnr II i:: 2 itr trmu ofc0 o r c 1 (o r bo:h). Thm npp/1· th!S'' ''"
mzna/ C'Ontlllit•'" to fintithr ''alut1 of Co and Ca • •V~xt.drittr"..:f.l
(, (X - 2)}' + )' .. 0 c,. (m tt-rmt n'11 11 1 . . · '·'
• · r • " " t •t tt.xt) and. fin alt.·. rclenrij\• lltt par!!<'...~
so/uuon '" l<'rm, f , .1.
7. (l.r- l )y' + 2y =0 8. 2(x + I )y' = y 19
u ,,,,lOr elemenrary frmcrwn t
9. (r -1 Jl• 2y •O 10. 2(.r- l)y' .. Jy

' ,.- + 4 >' = O: y(O) =
0. y'(O) D 3
20. , . - 4y .. ();
In l'fi•blm u 1/rhrouxh 14. " "' th~ method of f:.rtllnplc• ~ 1u fin 1J
y(O) = 2. y'(O) =0
th'O fi•r<-ar/y intleprmlrm f)()Wtr JCTlr~ .tnlurinn..:r of tltf' gktn t/if. 21. y• - 2)' + y "' 0: y(O) = 0. y'(O) .. I
ftrttrtilll tquarwn D c!ltflnmt the radw.o; of cnnv"'S~"IIt"t• of ~ac}j 2
Jtries. and idtr.tify tht gtntral W Ililian in rcmu of fam ilt•r t it· 2. y" + y'- 2 >" =0: y(O) = I , y'(O) = -2
mtntQT}' f unction!. 23. Show that the equation
Jl , ,.· =>'
13. y' + 9y = 0 I .f. ,.. + y = .r .r2, . + :xl y' + y .. 0
has no po wer 5e · . ~ •
rtes solut10n of lhc form y = '-' c,x ·
Chapter 11 Misccll3ncous Problems. 76 7
\ 1~" th~ 1"'--'" '·r sc: riC'~ nl~th,,l hl dis:""ct the ~ol utiu.n Sul"titute I hi~ .cries in y'"' I + y1 and equate like puwcn
N of .r to d e rive lhc following relutions:
,~ (- l l l , ."'4 t ! ,, • \&
J, ( r \ ~ - ~: ' (l. ! )' = 1 - - +- --- + · · ·
5c 1 2c,.
4 1>-l Z.\(~1 ) (·, - I. "'
,,f the:-
''""
n("-s...~cl -=qua th'll .t y· -+ .' · + n · • O E'pl:, in "h~· 7r· 7 "' 2( 1 ~ (c ,) 1 , 9r. "' 2<7 + 2c.~c, ·
thC' S.:n<'S nltt h'-"-! '-h'Cs n~'t yi<'IJ nn uh tc.' J'<"I'hh:nt 'c'-~,,nd
t l c.a1 :J J\ ·., + 2c1C'1 +(C)) : .
$\"'ut hJn .
!..' (a) S!'h1"' t h:tt th e S\:'\ luth'n nf thc in11i~l ' J ill(' pn lt'lc.•m (c) Conclude thilt
,.· = 1 - ,.: . n \h a 0
I \ 2 I 17 '
i<J ( t l ., t l n t . (h) 11PC.l U<r 1 ( l l ., 1~11 , i"'" r><IJ !unct mn t.1n ,. • .r + J.r + 15.r + ) IS r
..·hh ~.,tO)= 1. iu T.,~ ,(,r ' ""r,r-s i' "'r tht.. r'-'lln
GiAPTIR 11 REVIEW: DEFINITIONS, CC>NCEPTS, RESULTS

.. ¥ • • ·~ •
.. ..
C}"t' lJ:.r {~t-.,. U:~ lJt CJ " r:ul.!t t._ , C't""l'tC't'' f f' that .\•'cJU m ay llcttf JJ. The oom p:trison a nd lim11 co mpariso n tests
l(t 'l"'\ lt""' 1.1. lhe altern ating ..:rie.s test
t.. O<~"':: ; H""Xl c! th~ lu.~:~1 C"! a st'qi.!cn.:c 15. " ~''lute co n \·e rJtc ncc: d e fini t io n and t he !.let tlu t it impliC'-,
!.. Tbc- 1=.1:: b ·~ f 0 1' ~:.:-C"(');:"(') con \·crgl·ncc
J. TU ~X!!"..i..-.l ~~'ll;>.".K M-qu~n~ properly 16. 11>c n tio tc<t
4.. I>.:f:...!. ~"''IC N t~t s:.::n r-! ,~., 1nfin1te s.tn~s 17. The rout t<"st
~ f;.~:...!.J f ew: t!--c ,...;:m o ! .a ~c omctn;: S.('l1<"'1
Hl Po~ cr srries: r ndJUs of coo ...( rge nce and intC'rval o f co n, e r·
~ The r.:..'l -:r-n:llnt f 'If d..:.,cr~c:1ec ,:cn-:-c
i. 0 r,C.:--f'OI.;c Of t."'e h.U T:')()r.JC ~ n ~ J q , ll1c l'H no mia l ~ rh: <
A. nx ""~!"'<~ Ta) l.ot f'Od~r.orr.al of the func tion fa t the ! 0. l<ml -..,~c thffc rcntaa tion a nd int(gf3tion o! pov.er sc nes
~'! l ; tz
lJ. Tile u \.C o f f"'"'-'CJ )cric-1 to appro ->:>drr and lOICif>l\
l l. n:r Ta )1X ocnn o! L'>< cl<me n!Ary u anscen d cnt>l
!!.. The \urn and r rnd uct of t'4'0 powC'r s.cnr ,
~ ~.,..,..1
!...\. The u \C Clf rv""'"·e r scric' to c valu .:t te tndetcrmin.ue form1
IL n ..., ::.:r r,:'&) 1::.:
!.&. 1\J,.c r .e n <"• solution ol <llffcrcntill cqu~UOO\
1!. C=- ~r.-..::c ot p-ocnn
CUAP TH! 11 t.11S CEL U•N (O U5 PRO!lllMS
f , ~.:,.......;,I p.,..,flfJith I !J df"'' '""'Vt' • ltr.h,., , , " " ' tfl, ' ' q'--" '"' ' unh 'J
lc. J (Y" t'f'f'1. ~,_J I f'Jd 4:~ /oM:/ tf U d 1,or1 ((Jt1t " t "
u. u. w 11
., - 7
.....
,: . I
!. II . .. ~ 15. "· - ( 1r~' • II ' '
L •· • - -
~. '
,.,,,,. ''' '" "'I'" .,.,l, ,lt.,• ,.,,.,. btflmr, " 'i"' 1n l"t••' :......,, 1,.. tlt~~ clt
)() ( I IIU t't f 'l Jh n ' "
-II ,,. Hf
!. •· •
I • 1- l r'~ ~
I ... 4.. " · - \
o.-
(
1- • t
- " • -I
II.. \'!.... ~ ~~'.!'
... ...
.(....
17. l
,.. __ ~~ u·· • 1n "
--· "
'-!> :..0 a. '! ...... . ..
- . .
1. •• -
Ill
-.......
')
)'
"
.... '?"
.. -.. -,. '-
~ ,_
' • • - f- 1,-- - '!!
··~ • I , -:_ •-:,·
IL • ,. • - -.:s -
I
•
I
"
1!.. •• - ... .- !II. L-
'-
-·
.2.. ''" -
Itt I #II
ll.
....
L... }"• l
768 CHAYT£R 11 lnfin.te Seri~
...
2!. 2:2 . , ,.,, lJ. ~ (-f )"n
••• L. rln n }l
... • ·l
u . ,~ !.:..!1:
L- fO il• F (.r) = L f~r"
u ..
•• I
... 1- 11'' '

~ 1- l l .. ' arctan n 1· (b) Shu"
·-·
L 11'1 • tl ..,J 27.
con•ergcs if J.t l < that ( I - .r - •'IF(l j., ' ·!C>
•••
..,
L. ,, \10 -
I
It
29.
-·
L.
~
.;n
I
•
f (.r) = l
A
•
- r - x•
ol9. \\'c say th3t t h~ mjinlft' prmluct indacatcr.J by
••• L. n (l nn)(fn ln n )
- l
30.
"' I J1o+ n,l = ( I -1 a , )( l +a: HI + tz,) . . .
L
•••
n Cfnnllln lnn )l •••
con•~rgM provided that the infinite series
Find thr ilrr,·r 'olll / uf r tm ~.,.,);~"c' nftJI4~ ~~k c~ Jc>r;~~ in Probft•rrt..f

~
.lltltmuglr 40. S = LIn ( I + a.)

"' _z·,.· ..,
J J.
L n! ••n
converges, in " hich cn<e the "nlue of the infinite prod'el "'
by definition. ~s. lJ<c th e int,·,;r.t l tc~t to pro\'c that
"' (••- ,,. 12x - ) )'
3.\. L -
V
•••
, 0 )"
J.t L
,_, 4•
3~. J<i. \.::..., C2.r - I)" di>•crgcs.

....
L- IJ~ + 1 30. Prove th~t the infinite pn><luct ('ee l'roblcm 49)
37.
...
39. ,..- _I --:
...
L- 2Cn!)
- _1I_' .r"
+'"'(....,
.ro. L v ( 1)'
I + ;; (.r- It'
converge<, and u'e the intc~;rnl tc\1 rem• indcr cstinl3:e to
3pproxim31 CiL< valuc. 11tc •ctual value o f this infinite rt<>I-
••• UCI ;, known to be
Filultlrr Jc•tofa .'l ••a/utJ of.r f eu ••hich th~ uri~s in Problom 4/

tltto ltt:lt .J.l COtnrrt;r . sinh .T "" J .6760779 !0:174977 72009.W175.
If
oil . 2:cr - n l " ol!. I)n.r)• In f'm blmu 5/tlmmgla 55, Ill<' infinllc J<'ries tn approcrmJ:trJ-.1
indicatrtl nwnbcr accurate to t!Jfc'l! dccimt~l plncts.
••• •••
"' ,... st. ill n ln(l.2)
u "L-11,.
f.'
.J.j, flnr.J th~ r:tti ~tul number thnt ho< repeated dccimol c•pan-
sio n 2. 7 IR2S 11;2.~ 1 1!2.~ ... . I - e· •
ss. -tl.r
.as. c; 1\ c :m C;\:tmrll· n( c~ o cunn·rgcnt numerical series L: a,. 0 .r
nnd Lb. <uch th.11 the se ries La. b. divcrgc'3. Y>. Substitute the Maclau rin sc ric< fo r s in .r in!O that fort' to
46. PnJ\c th:H if [ 11,. i~ a cunvcrgccu positi \'C·tcrm serit:s. the n obt:tin
E II~ COrl \'t.' I'~Cl\. .
ol7. Let the seq uence (a. J he defi ned recursive ly as folio" ' ' rtl" ' = I +.r+ }x: - + ·· ·, i.r'
I 7
5 • Substitute the Maclaurin <cries for the cosine nnJ then in·
n 1 = 1: a..,. s = J + - - - i( n ~ l.
1 tcgra tc term" isc to de rive the furmula
+''"
"Jhe Jim it of the Ma~ucm:c {u,. ) hI he.: ~·aluc of the COfllilw ed Cy r.:
~ "";r :
fraction [
e·•· ws 2.rr tit = -:;-e· • ·
• 0 -
I + - -- --:-- - Use the rcduclion formula
2+ - -....:....,--
2+ I 1"" t'·~··' tit = 2n2- I f."' ,,•.z,.-•' tit
2+-- " f S<''
2+ .. . that follows from the cone ale rived in l'r(>hklll ~~ ~ ,, ...
' 83 · ' tcgr>'
,\s•uming th3t A = lim._.,. a, exists. pro••e thJt A = ./2. ~ton : ·The v:ahdu)' of th is imprnper tcrllll""' ' "
IS subJect to verilic:uion
Cltdpler 11 Mi~'cllancous Prob lems 769
induction on 111hat
t3R h - 1 ,t • 1'
0
-
I - r·'
I r/r
...
L
~ . :. . ..
-2n + I
T(2n) =(-1)" 1 (1 - ! +! - .. . :i __!_-
3 S 2n - 1
!.) .
4
• ..0
{c) Conclude from r~m (h) nnd (d) th• t
if 1•1 < I.
~- l'ro•c that I I 1 n
1--+---+ .. · • -
sinh· ' :r .. 1' - 1
,/fl i!
- ,t1
3 5 7
(f) l'ro•·c hy induction n n 11t hnt
.I
., ,"~l - 1\'I · J · ~ · t!n ll , :~·• rrz, 1 I I c -21 I - II• ( 1 - 21 I ,-1 - · 1. ~ -In 2).
II
L-
• ...,
.,- ~ • (I .• · (~II) ·
2n-
~ I
(!:)Conclude fro m pJrl\ (h) and (r) that
if It I < I.
• ln2
(;0. Surl'~c t h~ t tnn' • ~ "· •"' . D e termine a, 1, u 1, a:. nml a,
t-~ ~ul'l-\lltuttn)! th<' tn•cr•t• t.ln~cnt ~cric• IEq (27) nf Sec- (IJ. r ro•·e "' fu lln w• thJt the numhcr' "irratoton~l lir<t <up-
liN\ 11 .~1 intu the equ.ltl(lt\ ru'c to the cnntr .try 1hnt,.. " p / if • .., he re (I and q arc fX"'ttl><:
integers. Note th.11tf > I Write
= l3n (tnn · • L" a,( l.ln· t -I'q =' = I ., I I I I
t t) a
...., A)" .
I! 2~
~ - • R.,.
- + - ... - +
J' 'I~
61. Am•nltn~ Ill Sttrlm~ ·s """·the , ,tht< uf n! for large n i' where ll < R• < 3/Cq + II!. ( Why?) 1hcn •how th 11 multi·
t h-en to a clo<-e 3ppm"'n31l<1n hy plying of hnth •ide• u f th i• cqu~tinn hyq~ "'uukl kold tn the
. cnntrndiclton that nne <ide uf the rc~ult "an ontcJter but
-
! :r 11
() II
; ~ f•l .
the other ~itlc j, not.
,6-1, EvaluJtc the inlinite product (•ce T'rohlcm .:9)
I I 1
ll(lll= 1211 - 3(,11n 1 + 1261\n''
S...hrututc '' ' " ' tnto ~hcl•unn's \.Crte• fm r' 10 ~how Uut
.
hy finding an c t plic:it form uld for
.
,.
~· ~I. _1_ _. _ 1_ _
I :!n l -.ov,:
139
~ I ~Ill"' + n. n' -
·-· I
( t '= ~ '
CCI ) 0!.1 """"' thu the nett tc rm tn thc bst >eltn h on<.! then taking the ltmit •• ol - · "-
-571 l~ .l-. . 3~' 1' 65. rind a rontinucd Cr~ c11on reprcscnUt><.>n (sa rr, len o~·)
c. 1><:!.=
.. '"' + ----..:...-:----
T!111 •
!. Un' A dt a, +----~---
a: + _ _..;_,..
1-
I o f -IS
"··-... . .
Tin • 21 • ,- ~ I
- Till )
66. ( v>lu;stc
..
I" I c~ dc th>t Tl nJ - 0 n, - "() (c) Show
t:x " ,- IJ I
1+ -- - · -
~ I
t - -
I ~
- + - • - -
I I ~
• -- •
~.t T•'J'. "'f' •"·"
u•• t (( 11• jln 2 (d ) l'' rO>c by 2 3 .I ~t>l ~ \!Jl)
...
•
... .......
... •.·
:
r ·.
' .
.\. :- . . ..... .
l .·
VECTORS, ..CURVES ~ AND·
SURFACES. IN ~ SPACE
.. ..
:
( ..
.· . .. •
A
ncient Greek rna· philosophical than mathe matical significance. H is hdio·
thcmaticians and umric s.•sr<'m was still O\'Crly complica ted. still requir ing
35tronomers dc,·c:· m an,· secondan· circles. and still hesct with inaccuracies
loped an elahorat e mathe· in reprcscnting..thc motions of the hca\'cnly bodies.
matical model to account h wa~ Johannes Kepler "ho finally got rid of all
for the complica ted mo · these circles. On the ha~is of a detailed :malysi s of plane·
lio ns of the sun. moon. and tarv ob~en·ations accum ul ated hv the Danish astronomer
six planets then known as T~ ~ho 13rahc. Kepler stated h i~ tl;ree famous laws ofplan·
viewed [mm th e earth. A ctar.v marion, which describ.: clltptical (rather than cir·
combi na tion of u niform ci r- cular) orbit~ of planets nrcnmd the sun (Section 12.6).
cular motion~ w:1~ u'c d to Ironically. his nriginal go.1 l had hcen In prove that the
descrihe the motam of each pbccmcnt of Mercury. Vcnu>. Ea rth . Mars, and Ju piter
)ohannt's Kepler (1571 - 1630) body around the cort h- i' llctcrmincd by the lh·c rcgul:l r polyhedra as indica te\!
if the earth i~ arhitrnrily in the figure at the IO\\C r nght. which appea red in his
placed at the origin of coordinates. then each body tlol's M ysrcrium Cosm ngrnplucum (I ;'\90). l l 1is model of th e
orbit the earth. solar s~·stem shows a cuhc m~crihed in the sphere con·
In this ~ystcm. it w:ts typical fo r a planet P to tra,•cl taining Sawrn 's o rbit. and the 'Phcrc of Jupiter's orbit is
uniformly around a small circle ( the c•piC'yclc) " ith ce nter inscribed in th is cube. ,\ te trahcdron (with four trian gular
C. which in turn traveled unifom1ly around a circle ccn· faces) is inscribed in Jupiter's sphere. a nd in this lctrahe·
tercd at the e arth (lahclcd E in the figure at the lower dron is inscribed the sphere: of the or hit of ~Ia rs. Continu-
left). lltc radii of the circles and the angular sp..:~ds of r ing in I hi> way.tlu: spheres or the three remaining pbnets
and C were dHhen 10 mat ch the ohscrved motion of the th~n known wer~ interspc:rscd with the remainin g three
planet a s clus<:ly a~ possible. for greater accuracy. ~ec· regular solids- the octahedron (eight triangular faces).
ondan· -circles on circles" co uld be used. In fact . severo I the dodecahedron (12 pentagonal faces). and the icosa·
circle; were required for each body in the Greek theory of hcdron (20 triangul:lr face s). II is said that Kepler always
epicycle·s. which reached its defini tive form in Pt olemy's remained prouder of hb five solids than of his three laws.
AImag<'~ I of the second century A.n.
In 15-13. Cope rnicus alte red Ptolemy's nppro;tch
by placi ng the ce nter of each primary circle a t the sun
rather than at the earth. But this change was of greater
K~pler's r~uldr polyhedron model

The sman ci~ is the epkyde. of the solar system.
771
772 CHAPTER 12 Vectors, Curvei. and Surface:s in Space
. 6S?) Nc..-1on sho" cd tha t Keple r's laws foU~
In his Principia Matlrrmatu:a ~I ( F :.,•ma ~nd soon ) :~nd the inve rse-squareIa:
from the has1c · pnnc1p
· · 1es of mcchanJCS
. _ · using m:ll:tcm:ltiCS · to c xp1am· natural phe.
. . n HIS success In ~ I \\' ld'') .1n~p1rcd
. con.
of gra,•it:lllonal aunct10 · f o f the s,·s tclll of t 1c or
no mcna (-1 now demonstrate the radm.: tood :~nd ""rh ap' e ' e n ma~tc rcd. lhisne~
. ould 1x un crs • 1- . .
fidcncc that the um,·erse c .1 ••5 perccpuo n of thclf a nd of It s place in th•
co nfidence pe rmanent ~ 1 · altered . d pD" ·rful but now ant tqua tcd orm of gcor:~e1••
hum::tm ) · f
. :-.; 1on cmplo' e a <
sc herne o f th tng"~- • e'>' - . 6 '"c apph· thc mcr<.krn ca lculusoh ·caor-
. h I' · cipia 1n 5ccuon 12· • •
rica Icalculus m t e rm · . b I\\ ·"n Newton·~ Ia" and Kepler's la~s.
,·alucd functions to o utline the rclat ton c cc
12 •71VECTORS IN THEA PLA.N E . h I th t ·mJJcraturc. o r m:h $ can be specifi ed in terms or

phystcal quanttty sue as en g . c.: .
• 1 be ·1 agnit~lllt'. Such a qu;mtity i~ c;1llccl 3 ~c:1l:rr. O ther phys1cal
a srng e rca1num r. r s m . ·' .• 1· · h
q ua nt ·ltac'
· ..t nd v•loci
~ u c h :.s [ o rce • 11,;
tv nn•sess
_, . t '" ·• both nr:tgniiUuC.: a nu l lfi!C/1011; I ese
quantities arc called •ector 'l"~ntit ics. or stmply .''N1to~:-. . . .
For example. to specify the vcloc1ty of 3 mov1nj: po 1ntllll ~e c~o rchn~tc pl.1nc: 11e
must give both the rate at which it moves (its speed) and the d ~rcctton o f t hatm~llon.
'J11c.: •·t'fucity l'ee/or of the moving point incorpor~ I CS bo th p1<:CeS Of lll fnrm:rt iOn-
dircctio n and speed. It is convenient to rcpr<:sc.: nl t his veloci ty vector hy nn arrow. with
its ini tial point located at the current posi tion o f the mo vi ng po in t on its trajectory
(Fig. l2. 1.1 ).
Alt hough the arrow. a directed line segme nt. ca rrie~ the d esired information-
both magnitude (the segment's length) a nd directio n- it is 11picwri al rcprcscnt3tion
FIGURE 12. t. 1 i\ velocoty v«:tor rat her tha n a c1ua ntita tivc ohjcct. l ltc following formJ I de finition o f a vector captures
m~y be represented by ~n artow.
the essence.: of magnitude in combination with directio n.
DEFI NJTION Vector

• A •ector v in the Cartesian plane is a n ordered pa ir of rea l nurnhcrs that has the
form (a. b). We write ,. = (a . b) and call a and b the l'ompnnc.>nls o f the ,·ector ''-
Th~ directed lin~ segmen t Oi> from the.: origin 0 10 the point J'(a. b) is one
gcomc tnc ~cprcscntat1on of the ,·ector ' · (Sec Fig. 12.1 .2.) For this reason. the ' ector
P(u. b )
v = (a. hj ts called the position •ector of the.: poin t /'(a. b). In fact. the rela tionship
0
lz/ bct wccn ' "' {a . b) :rnd P(a. b) is so clns..: tha t, in ce rta in cont exts. it is co nvenient to
confu_sc the. 1\\ 0 del_lbe ratdy-to regard ,. and /' as th e same ma the matical obje<t
fh c.: d1r ectcd fmc sc~mcnt from the puint Q(a,. 1J 1) to the poin t H(t~>. bz) hal the
same d1. rec1ton
, • ude Jl the• d'Ire"etc d 1·me.: se gme nt fru mthc.: on· ~1~ 11 0 (0· 0110
and.nr agnrt
thCJl<llnt/ (tl,h) Witha:oa1 - a- 1 andb:o
· _ -
~ . tl\•thCV
/n - b1 ( F1g.• 12 . 1.2) . an d con equcn . .
represe nt t hc same \'ector ,. - 0 J' - QJ' 11 · . · d he
. - - \. us obscrvatro n makes it c asv to hn t
FIGURE 12. 1.2 The position componc ntso f t.c\'ccto
h rwnharb't1 rar),.lllltral
·· · · · 0
vector v of the point P and pOint Qand :~rnitra ry te rm inal po1nt""
another represcnution Qii of v. REMARK \\'hen discussing vector.> we often u . ordi·
nary numerical {1uantity 0 • tl . . sc the h: rm swlar to rc.:fe r w 1111
distingui'h the n·m· es 'f ne lat r's 110 1 a vector. In printed work we usc bold type 10
· · " o vectors rom tho 11f 1 . · ·h J'
the sc;rlars a and b that arc the en se nt 1er mathcmaucalnbJcCtS. sue ·
worl: a suitnhlc alternative is 10 ~;:,~~ncnts of the vc~t or ,. - {11. h). In h :rn dw~rt~
that denotes a ''ector llllls " . · ~n ~row-or JU~t a h:1r- ovcr every S) 111 J
· Joumaywntev-
for au :1rrow or a bar over a v ·cto b
( I'
- n, >; or v
- (a. b). .lltcrc ·1~ no nee
=
should he used then.:. c r (a· ) already identified hy angle brnckcts. so none
A djn:cted line segment h:1~ 00 1h . or

v =(a. b) is denoted by v =Ivi. d . length and directio n. 'I he lenl:lh of the w et
an ts defined as follows:
,. =1•·1=l(a . h )! = .j, ! - /,!. {II

Vectors in the Plane SECTION 12.1 773
., 'llte no tatio n v = 1"1is used because th e le ngth of a vecto r is in many ways analogous
to th e a bsolute value of a real number (Fig. 12.1.3).
EXAMPLE 1 The length of the vecto r ,. = (I. -2) is
v= l(t. -2>1= Jo> 2 + <-2>2 = ./5. •

Th e o nly vector with length zero is the zero vector with both components zero.
deno ted by 0 =
(0. 0). Th e zero vector is unique in thnt it has no specific directio n.
riGURE 12.1.3 The length v "' lVI Ev;ry nonzero vector has a specified directio n: the vec to r represented hy th e arro w
of the ve<tor v.
0 f' from the o rigin 0 to anoth er point Pin the plnne has directio~ccitied (for
imta nce) by the countcrclock"·ise angle from th e posit i\'C .r·axis to C?.E..
Wh at i~ impo rtant abo ut the vector ,. = (a. h) n:prcs.:ntcd by 0 I' often is not
wlr.ere it i~. but how long it is and which way it poin ts. If the direct<.:d line segment
Q I< ~th endpo ints Q(a 1• b 1 ) and R(a2 • f>: ) has the sa me length and directio n
as OP. then we say th at QR represents (or is a representation of) the vector v
( Fig. 12. 1.2). Thus a single vector has many representati ves (Fig. 12.1.4).
Algebraic Operations with Vectors

ll1c opcrations of additinn and multiplic~tion of real numbers have analogues for
vectors. We shall define each of th ese ope rations of ~·ector algebra in terms of com·
• •(a.b) / poncnts of vectors and then give a geometric intcrpret<Jtion in tcrms of arrows.
/"~ •"'- h>
DEFINITION Equality of Vectors
FIGURE 12.1.4 All these arrows 11tc two vectors 11 = (11 1, u 2) and " = (v 1• tl2) arc CCJual provided that 111 = 111 and
represent the same vector Ill = l)2·
v ;:: (0, b).
In other words, two vectors are equal if and only if correspomling compo·
s m•11ts are the same. Moreo ver. two directed line segments fiQ and HS represe nt
the same vector provided that they l~e the~me length and direction. 11tis will be
the case provided that the segments /'Q and RS are opposite sides of a parallelogram
(fig. 12.1.5).
DEFINITION Addition of Vectors

R ----
--- r
The sum u + v of the two vectors 11 = (ll~o 112) and v = (v1, tl2) is the vector
U + V = ( Ill + V J, 112 + 112), (2)
FIGURE 12.1.5 Parallel directed
segmt'nts representing equal
vectors. T11us we add vectors by adding corresponding components-that is, by com·
p onelllwist• adtlition. 111c geometric interpretation of vector addition is the triang'le
law or addition. illustrated in Fig. 12.l.fi. where the labeled lengths indicate why
this interpretation is valid. An equivalent interpretation is the parallelogram law or
addition, illustrated in Fig. 12.1.7.
1 y
FIGURE 12.1.6 The triangle law FIGURE 12.1.7 The parallelogram

is a geometric interpretation of law for vector addition.
vector addition.
77 4 CHAPTER 12 Wctol'l. Curves. and Surfac~s in Space
_ (4 3) and v - (- 5. 2) is the vector
EXAMPLE 2 The sum of the vectors u - .
- ' J - (4 +(- 5). 3+2)=(-1,5).
u ~ ,. = (·t 3 ) + (-). - - •
u Uut if u = (llt .ll: ). then
It is natural to \\Tite 1u = " - ·
, _ (
: u .:= U - U - IIJ .
u •)
•
+ (tt 1• tt: ) = (2u J. 2u z).
. . . f vecto r by :t sellar ( rc~l nu mber) alsois define.J
This su~2esr.s that muluphcatJOn 3 °
in a co~lxment\\ isc manner.
. . . f a Vect or by a Scalar
DEFI NITION M ult1phcat100 O .
. •1 t cr then th e ~l'nl ar mul tiple cu IS the vector
1f u = ( IIJ . u: ) and c IS a rca nurn ' ·
'
en = (CIIJ . cuz). (3)
l'o tc rhnt
kt
"' leu: = / (cu 1) : + (cu:l: = lei V(11Jl 2 + (u:)2 = lei· lui.
'lllll~ the length of k nl is Jcl times the: length of 11 . 'll u.: m·gnth·c of the vector 11 is the
vector
r >0 , < () - 11 := ( - 1) 11 := (-llr. - 112) .
•
with the same length as 11 but the opposite direction. We say th at the two nonzero
vecto rs u anLI ,. have
FIGURE 12.1.8 Thevectou u
I.
I
may n ave Inc $J 'TlC d"ec110n J$ u
or the o pposite d~rec tlon,
• The s:1me direction if u = cv for some c > 0;
depending on the sig n of c. • Oppo,itl' dirl•rtions if 11 = cv for some c < 0.
llte geometric interpretation of scalar m11ltiplicntinn i~ that c11 is the vector,.ilh
length lcl·lol. with the same direction as 11 if c > 0 but with the o pposite directioni:
c < 0 (Fig. 12.1.8).
ll1e difference 11 - , . of the ,·cctors u = (u 1, u 1) and , = (Vt . 1'2) is defined to~
0
u - ,. =u T ( - v) = (11 1 - v1• ttz - t'2). (~J
If we. think of (11, . 11: ) and ( t· 1• •': ) a~ positio n vectors of the points r :md Q. rt·
spccu,·cly. then u - ,. may be represented b\• the arrow Q/' fro m Q to r. We t:Ll!
p
therefore "rite •
u-v =OP-OQ = iJP.
as itlu~trated in Fig. 12.1.9.
- • I
E X A~PLE : Su ppose th at u = (-1 . -3) = (- 2 . 3). Find lui and the ,·ector!
I
I . nnd v
I
I
u + •. u - v. J u, - 2•·. and 2u + -lv.
I
'
FIGURE 12.1.9 Geometric
intt>rpretatio n of the difference
Solut ion
luJ = / -I! + (- )Jl = Ji5 = S.
u - "· II + \' := (-1 + (- 2), -J + 3)::: (2. 0) .
II - V =(4 - ( - 2) -3
.
') (j
- .) = ( '· - 6).
3u = (3 · 4. 3 . (-3)) = (1 2, - 9).
- 2v = (-2 . (-')
- ' - 2 . 3) = (4. - 6).
2u +·h · = (2 . 4 + -1
. (-2), 2. (-3) + 4 ' 3) = (0. 6).
•
The familiar algebraic propcn io: ,.;ng
analogous properties of ,·ector dd' . 5 of real numbers carry over to the fol10d !'<
a 11100 and scalar multiplication. Let 11. b. ~n c
Vectors in the Plane SECTION 12.1 775
vectors :md r and s real numt>c~ Then
I. a -'- h = h -,. u.
!. a + (h + Cl = (U + h i + C.
.'. r ln + h J = ra + r h . (5)
~. <r .,.. ·' ln = r:t + <a .
You can e:~sily. ,·crif\·. these identities bv. working.. \\ith co mponents. r-or cx:~mpl e. if
=
a = (a 1 .a:} and b (b 1. b:}. then
r(a-'- b ) = r (a 1 +1> 1• a: +b::l = (r (at +btl. r (a: +b::))
= (ra 1 -'- r l>1• ra; + rf>: ) = (rat. r a:) .._ (rbt . rb::) = rn + rb .
11u: proofs of the other four identities in (5) are left as .:~erciscs.
The Unit Ve ctors i and j

A unit vector is a vector of kngth I . 1f n = (a 1• a; ) #- 0. then
II
II = - (6)
lal
is the unit vecto r wi<h the sa me direction as n. because
(-at) + (az):
2
lui=
lal
- = -Ital lal
\/a 1l +a,=
2
•
I.
For example. if a = (3. -4). then InI = 5. Thus <!.- 3)

is a unit vector that has the
s3me direction as a.
Two particular unit vecto rs play a special role, the vectors
I = (1. 0) :111d j = (0. 1).

j The first points in the positive x-direction: the second point s in the positive y·dircction
(!Fig. 12.1.10). Together they provide a useful alternative notation for vectors.' If
( 1. 0) a. = (a , . az), then
(7)
FIGURE 12.1.10 The vectors I Thus every vector in the plane is a linear combination of i and j. The usefulness
and I· of this notation is based on the fact that such linear combinations or I and j may be
manipulated as if they were ordinary sums. For example. if
n = ati + a2,j and b =btl + f>,j.
t.hen
Also,
EXAMPLE 4 Suppose th:1t a= 21 - 3j and b = 31 + 4j. Express Sa- 3b in terms

or i and j.
:Solution
5a - 3b = 5 · (21 - 3j) - 3 · (31 + 4j)
= (10- 9)1 + (-15 - 12)j =1- 27j. •
776 CHAPTER 12 Ve<:tors, Curves, aod Surf4ces in Spa<<'
_ Si .._ Sj and h =- IIi + 17j arc pi o iled cnrc[uiJy
25.--- -.--- - --., EXAMPLE 5 When the \•ector~ • - cv ~ieht be pe rpendicular. Dete rmine 1\hether
(Fig. 12.1.11 ). they look as though th • -
or not this i\ so. .
15 rc 3 rdcd as posi tion WCIOT$ or the p<lln!S 1'(8. 5)
Solut io n lrthevcctors :a nndbare g. _ b _ 3 == -I 9i + 12j represents the third
y 10 · d1 frcn:ncc c - ·
and Q( - II. 17). then t I'''r ) \ ccording to the Pythagorcan thcore"'
· I OPQ (Fil: I 2 1· 11 · '
s s ide !' Q <>f the tmng c . ~ · h ·· ten use f' Q ir- and only ir lei·' ' ..,
jaj· + Jbi:. =
1hi< tri,. ngle i~ " right rn:tnj!IC \\1th ) JXl
0 ~--~1r--~-~ flut
-5~~--~~--~~__J ~ s ,.. ,1+ jbj :=[8: + 5:1 + ((- 1 1) 2 + 17 1 j =: ~99.
- IS - 10 - .1 0 S Ill IS jcj 2 :=(-19)1 + 121 =505 "c.r~a
h -.
•
1
It ro llows that the vectors a and b arc n 0 1 pcrpcndicul:u.

fiGURE 12 1.11 The vectors a. b,
and b - .o or Example .S.
Equ31lon . (7)cKprcsscsth c \ .cC • tor 8 -- (a 1• a•• ) as the sum o r a. horizontal
.
vector
• . · • 1-:- p
0 1 1 and a VCrl lC:Jf \"CCIOr O:J. ll~ 1g. - · · - ·
1 p sho"s. ll1e dccomposJ!Jon
. . or resolwion
. .
r of a vecto r ·mto 1·15 1wr11on 1a 1 a nd ,·crtical • components• 1< an unporta nt technique . .m
.. 17or c· •nmplc
l IlC ~ I U d y 0 f \ CC!Ot qu:1nl ·I1·IC,, • • a force l· rnav . · be decompmcd . mto rts
hn ri1ontal and vcrr ical compone nts F, i nnd fij . respccl!wly. 111" phys Jc:t l effect ol
1hc srng· 1e force F' 1~· th c s·,, m.c as til•'~ combined . effect
. l>f the 'cparatc . .forces F11and
..
F-.J' ("n . . . 1 C
liS I"i :l O inSJ Tl C or the Cllll'l·ricafl)' vcnhahlc: )J.Ifafklo\:lJm
. . ... . l.lW of add!!JOO
of fo rces.) Bccau~c of thi< dccompo<it ion. man r two·d Jmc:nsJOn:tl proble ms can be
re d uced to onc-d imcn<ional problem<. the l.l i! Cr sol,·ed. and t lu: two results combmed
(again hy vector met hod<) to give the solu tion or the o riginal problem.
EXA M PtE 6 A 100-lh wei~ht is suspende d Irom the ceil in!! by means o r two per·
pcndicular lkxible cables of~q ual length (Fig. 12 .1 .13). Find the tension (in pounds)
FIGURE 12.1.1 2 Re~olutionol
a .a (o 1• a1 )
into Ill horizontal and
in e 3ch cahle.
vertical component\.
Solulion Each cable is inclined at a n a ngle of 45• from the h orizontal. so it fol·
lows readily upon calculating horizontal a r;d ve rt ical components tha t the indicated
tension force vectors T 1 and T z are gi,·cn by
T 1 = (7j cos ~5')1 + Cli sin ~5.)j and T 2 = (- 72 cos 45")i + ('li s in 45. )j.
where 7j = lT d a nd T: =
IT: I arc the te ns io n forces we sec k. ll1c d ownward force
of gra,·ity acting o n the weight is given by f = -IOOJ. In order tha t the wc:ighl hangs
mo tionlcs.<. the three forces must "balance,'' so that T 1 + T 2 + t' =II: that is.
[<71 cos 45. )i + <71 sin ~S.)j ] + I(- 7i cos ·15")1+ Cli sin ~5")j J = IOOj.
When we equate the components of i in this equation a nd separately equate the
compone nts of j . we get the two scalar equations
fiGURE 12.1. 11 The suspended 7j cos45• - 11 cos45• :: 0 and 7j sin 45' + 7i sin 45• = 100.
wei9h1or Example 6.
ll1e firs t or these scalar equations implies that 7j = Tz = T and then the second vicl<.ls
T = 100/(2 sin45•) =50J2"" 70.71 (pounds) for the tenslon in each cahlc. ' •
12.1 TR UE/fALSE STUDY GUIDE
I. D~scuss the rcla lion between a 2·dimcnsional vecto r a nd a point in the plane.
2. GIVe several e~ampl-s of ·· h ·
. · . c q uan tntcs t at possess both macnitude and dJTeC·
ttnn. For e ach. dtscuss wh • tl 1h ·· • d
· c 1cr an< ow such q uanhttcs mi~:ht he addc ·
J. If a person Ol\·ns Stock in two · · .. · f J'o
. . compam cs. how mt~ht the worth of Ius port o 1
be descn bcd hy a 2·dtmet1SI.Iln·11 \ . t ., II' ' · '· ·,n
· 'cc or. several peo1,Jc own me sroc~
these same two companies rorrn . . . • .. r roc
. a pa rt nerslu p, IS the '"worth vector o
partners h 1p equal to the s um of th
e wort11 vectors of t he part ners'!
l.
Vector~ in ~he Pla ne SECTlON 12.1 777
12.1 PROBLEMS
{n Problem ' f th rtmgh 4, finti tJ vector ·v = (a. b} that is reprt· 33. Find a vecto r that h as tile same di rectio n as 5i - 7j a nd is
u m rd by the rlrrccu d fin e segm mt TJ~11 sketch hnth
RS. and R.s· (a ) three ti mes its le ngth : ( b) o ne· third its lcn~;th.
tl:e pVlitio" verto r nf the poin t / '(a. b).
~. Find~ vector that h as the oppo~i tc di rection fmm - 3 i + 5j
1. RCI .2J, S(3.5) 2. R(-2. -3). S(l, 4 ) and u (a) fo ur times its le ngth: ( b) o ne -fo urth its leng th.
3. RC5 . Hl). S( - 5. - 10) 4. R(- 10. 20), S(l5. - 25 ) 35.. Find a vecto r of lengt h 5 wi th (a) the same dir~cti on a s
7i - 3j ; (b) the direct io n oppo~itc t h~ t of 8i + Sj.
fn Pmblmlf 5 thro ugh 8, find the sum w = u + v and 1/lu"'trate it
~:mmctriCI/1/y. J6. Fo r "' hat numbers c a re the ve cto rs (c. 2) a nd (c. - 8)
perpendicula r?
5. u = ( I. -2). " = (3. 4 ) 6. UJ = (4 . 2). y = (- 2. 5)
37. For wh 3t numbers c are the ve ctors 2ci - 4j and 3i + cj
7. fl = 3i + 5j . .. = 21- 7j 8. u :71+ 5j , v =- IOi perpendicular?
38. G iven the th ree points A(:!. 3). 8 ( - 5. 7), a nd C CI. - 5). ver·
fn f'roblem s 9 through / 6, fi nd Ia!. l-2bi. ta - bi. a + b. and
3a - 2h. ify b~· direct comput3tion o f the vectors nnd their s um tha t
9. a = (1. -2), h = (-3.2) Ali+8C +CA = o.

10.• = (3 . 4), b = (-4. 3) In Problrtns 39 thn>uf:h 4Z. ~:ivra componmrwis~ proofof rlu: in·
dicatrd proprrty of•·ector a fge-bra. Tak e a = (a , , a: ). b = (l>o. l>,) .
11. a = (-2. - 2). h = ( - 3. - -1) and c = (c 1 • r 1 ) th roughout.
12. II = -2(-1 , 7), b = -3( - 4, -2) 39. a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
B. a = I + 3j. b = 2i - 5j 40. (r + s)a = ra + s•
14. II == 21 - 5j , b = I - 6j 41 . (r s)a = r(sa)
IS. a = -11 . b = - 7j 42. H a + b = a, the n b =0.
16. 8 = -i- j . b = 21 + 2j 43. Fi nd the tension in e ach cable o f Exa mple 6 if the a ngle
between the m is 120".
In Probf<"lll$ I 7 thro ugh 20, fi nd a unit ••retor u witI• the same
direction as th e given ••ectnr R. ExpresJ u in tcm L< of i and j. i\lso In Problem.<4./ thro ugh ./6, a given wright (in potmds) is sus·
fi nd a u nit vector v with the direction o ppo.rit< that of a. pmded by two ca/Jfcs as show•n in the figure. Find rhe tm sion in
17. a = (-3. - 4) 111. " = (5, - 12) each cable.
19. a = 81 + 15j 20. a = 71 - 24j 44.
In l'roblrmr 21 th rough 2./, find the vator 1!:.!;Xprcs.red in umu

of I alit] j . tlwt is represented by the aTFOw I'Q in the plane.
21. p = (3 . 2). Q = (3. - 2)
22. r = <-3. 5>. Q = <- 3.6> FIGURE 12.1.14
23. P = (--1. 7), Q = (-1.-7)
24. P =( l, - 1), Q= (-4,-1) 45.
In Pml>lcms 15 through 28, tlctermine whether or n ot the given
vectors a and b arr pu pendicular.
25•• = (6, 0). b = (0 . - 7)
26. a = 3j. b = 31 - j
27. a = 2i- j. b = 4j + Ri
211. a = 81+ !Oj. b = !51- 12j FIGURE 12. 1.15
fn Problt!ms 29 and 30, apre>S I and j in ttriiU of• and b.

46.
29. a = 21 4- 3j . b = 31 + 4j
30. a =:Si - 9j, b =4i- 7j
In Problems 31 and 32. write c in the form ra + sb where r and
s ar~ lco.fors.
Jt. • ,. I + j . b ,. 1- j . c = 21 - Jj
na=3i + ~. b=m + ~. c=~+~ FIGURE 12.1.16
7 78 CHAPTER 12 Ve<tors. Curv~s. and Surfat~ in S::>at ~
e the nn<t!IOn •·ecrors of the poincs P >nd
"I If • an d b •r ,... . .h .
In f'rro~l~ms 47 rhrou ~h 49. a>mmt rhr fo//(lkrn~ faa: If"" Q!T• ~ ' . h~ plane and .11 i< rhe porn! " It pos1110n ' '«tOr
1
plant f~'J Meill: ' 'ln·city •·«tor ,.., t tlatn r to tht a1r ar.,l tl:t \ d«· Q ~ • bl ho" that .I f i< chc midpoint of the lint sc•.
.- - - (a "'r' , ) - ~
II) ' of thr •\ m d iJ • .thtn the • rlocity \ecto r of zht plant rt la:n t to - : r Q Is ir sufticrcnt to show thai rhe vectors P.ll and
men t · .,
rhr grmmd u •·, = v, - • (Fig. 11 1.17} 11-t >tcror • · 11 call<d Q:\i ar< cqu>l anJ oppOSite .
rlrr • Pr~rcn: velocity Yector and tht >t<tor •, 11 <alltd tl" true let .I f >nd ,, . be the midN>ints of AO
v eloc ic~· vector. ~-!. In th~ trJJn~ Ic ' Inc" ~ 1 ~-
nd A . re. <
. , <e ,mcnt- 1·0 111 ing the m1'J pomts .
o f two s1des
.
of
' rho t the 11nc · ra
3 tn nnitIc: 1S r.
!l llcl h.) the llt~. rd swJ<:
· 'r I 0 \.\. nrc I h~1r
· length\
rd.u ed'!
.Jiononols of o parardogr.~m A/lCD bi>C(I
<:1. Pro• e 1h3 I \he • ~ • . - .
-- eOlCh oche r. [Suggrwon If ,II and. •' are the ~1dpom1> of
I he tat.on.. ~ '
d _ nt>· rc•reet""'"· · and 0 •s chc orip11.
•I 1C ant.!
silo" rh.lt 6.\i = us.[
S4. lise \ CC!OfS CO rr<WC th:\1 the midpoints o_f the four SiJI'\
or an arh 1 rrar~· quadnlaccr>l are che vertiCes of a paul·
FIGURE 12.1. 17 The vrcton
of Problem• ~ 7 t hiOUCJh • 9 lclop:rm.
• Appar..nl velo<rty: v, 5~. Fi£Ur< 1 2. 1.1~ >hO" S the •·ecror a , obr•ined b)·r otating
• W.nd veloCity: w =
r h~ vecror a 11 11 + tJ;j through a counccrdoek"ISCangl<
• Tn l<" v rloc1ty: v 9 • • • + w or '10 . Sho" rh3l
47. S upJ'n<c that the winJ i< blowing from the northeast at [Suggc1rio11: Oc11in by writing 11 = (r cos 0)1 + ( r sin O)j.J
50 nw 'h nnJ tlut the pilot wi•hcs to fly due co<! nt 5()fl milh.
··~
What >lwuiJ che plane's aprarcnc •·elocicy •·ector be:?
411. l{c fl< >l Problem .n wirh the phrase dur ttut repl" d wirh
du,- Wt.Jt .
4 9. R c[l<31 Problem ~7 in the C3SC rho! the pilOt wishes to ny I X
north" •" 31 500 mi:h.
so. Gh·e~ny ~ee ~nrs ;\, D. and C 1n che pb ne, show FIGURE 12.1.18 Rotate •
1~.at A IJ + IJ C.., C A = 0. [S~tsgrsr:on· Plcrure the tri•n- counterclockwise 90• to
obldin a " (Problem 55).
gle AIJC.J
Jl.2 lTHREE-DIMENSIONAL VECTORS

In th ~ firsl eleven ch~plers w e discussed many n~pccls of the calcul u~ of funclions
of~ single v~riat>lc. ·ntc g~omc1~· of such func tion~ i~ 1wo-di mension:tl. bccau\c chc
gr:tpl~ ~f ~ functil10 of a single variable is a curve in the cuo rdinate plane. Mo>t of the
remam•n!:! cha plc rs dea l wuh the calc ulus of func1ions of J,.,.,.,,
1( (two or morel imlc·
pendent variable .. l nc: geometry of function' of two variables is three-di mcnsionll
because Ihe grap~s of such functions are generally surfaces in s pace .
~ec1an~ular c~r~mates ·~the pl~ne may he gene ralized to rectangular coordt·
nales tn ~pace. A ~n nt m space IS dclcrmincd by givi ng ib loot ion rclalivc 10 Jhrte
muiUallv · pc rpcndrculM coordinate u'~s· th·tc • 1,..1" th rouo1l t hC O. rtl!lll · · (.) . \\'c shJfl'
usually draw the x-. )'·, and :-axes a~ ~hown in F , 1~?"'1 · - ,. :, 111 arro" s
· .1· • h · · . 1· ~ ~- - · -· , somc umo \\ 1
111urcatmg t c pn~t lr\'C um:clion along caclt .., ...,,. t'h .· . . .· .- . ,.,. ,s l•C
.t .t · 'I I f , • ·' . e p<>sr llvc x -~x1s '"11 .t • 3•
Ia be Icu .r. :1nu .:m1ar y. or the posilivc )'· •and ,• -axes. . \\-cth I Ius
. configuraltOII · of "axe~
o ur rectangular coordmate s\·stcm is said 1 , 1 , • h - h . r·n·•crs
• 1 .• · • ' < lc rll: t·h:uull·d· If vou curl I c ' o
o f your nghl t:utu m tho: direction of .1 ''0' . . · · .. .· JCt lhe
· · · h ro l.ll •o n fro n1 1l1e l'os·rtl\'•' r- ax r~
Pos ruvc y-axts. t .:n 'vour th um b potnts · ' ·111 '
.
the lltr.:ct' f h · " •
· · . • axt<.. If thc
x- and ·1·- a~es were .
in te rch ang ·d h
c .I en t he coon.li 11 t• ,
con o t e posttl\ e -- ·
. ld h ·I (t-han•' ·
J•J
These rwo conrdma1e syslcms . d'ff . a c $)Stem \\O U ~ e . 1~
FIGURE 12.2.1 The right-handed coincid~ncc with the olher b•·! .tre 1
me ans of
ercnl 10 that it is impos~iblc to hrin~ one '"h(
· . . · · · ·h,. I
cOOfdi~ate system. L· an d o-a laninc mol~culcs show . _ ro 1allo ns and tmn.~bltons. 11m ts " · 11,
the lefl·handcd ("lcvo~) version b:.'" 1·tg. ~ 2:2.2 ;trc di fferent; yo u can n1CI N ~i·
book we shall di-.cuss ri2ht·ha d d not the rcght-handc:d ("dcxtro") vcrsron. lnd ~
3
1
- n c coordin· t · I ,-s <'
1he x-. y-. and z-axes with the righ h a e syst ems exclusrvelv and a " 3.
t· anded orientation shown in Rg. 12.2.1.
-
Thre~-Dimensional Vectors SECTION 12.2 779
FIGURE 12.2.2 The st !.'f~som"'n of the amino acid alanine are

ph]"1ica'lt a nd biolog"ca'ly d "erent even through they have the same
mo~ecular fo-rrru'.a.
The thre e coordi na te a~cs taken in pai rs determine the r!ucc coordina te p lancs
(Fig. 12.2.3 ):
• "I he (ho rizo nral 1.ry·pla ne. "here : = 0:

• Th e (' Crl ica l) y:·planc. "here .r = O: nnd
• ·nrc (\crlical ) x:- pla ne. "here y = 0.
The po int /' in ~pace i~ said to hJvc rcl1an~;ulnr mordinn tcs (x. y. z) if
FIGURE 12.2.3 The coordinate • .r is it \ s igned di\ tancc fro m the y :-pbnc.
planes in space. • y is its signed d istance from the .r z-pbne. an d
• z is its ~igncd distance from the .ry-plane.
(See Fig. 12.2.4.) In this case we may describe the loc~r ion of I' simply by calling it
··the poi nt P (.r. y. : ):" There is a natural one-to-o ne corre spo ndence berwee n ordered
J . dt\lll:KC triples (x. y . : ) o f real numbers and points Pin space: this correspondence is ca lled a
rectangular coordinat~ s~ stem in space. In Fig. 12.2.5 the point f' is locarcd in the first
--+----•/.d. st~"''IX
from lhe
J: ·pto~ne
p from lht: octant - rhe eighth of space in which a ll rhrce rectangular coordi nates are positive.
)':·pl.ane If we apply the P ythagorean theorem to the righr rria ngles P QR and P R /'1_
in Fig. J 2.2.6. We! gc r 1 1
2
1PtPz1 = I RP~ 1 4- lPt RI2 = IRFW
2
+ IQRl 2 + IP1 Ql2
:: : d.Jsunce
~) 2 + <zr -
2
from tf·:.c: = (.rr - .r2) + (Yt - t z) 2 •
.ry - pl::~_n-:
Thus th e dist:mce formula for rhe di<tance I 1'1 Pz l be rwecn the poinrs P and p is
1 2
FIGURE 12.2.4 Locating the 1n 1;1 = \h r1 - x:J 5 + <y,- .v:J: + <: 1 - .::: 1! . (I)
point P In re<tanguiM
coordinates.
P(J. y. :)
I
I '
}----------
v
I '
FIGURE 12.2.5 Completing the

/1
fiGURE 12.2.6 The distance between p
box to show P w ith the illusion of and P1 is the length of t he long diagona;
the third dimension. of the box.
q
780 CHAPTER 12 Vc!cton, Cu~VM, ~nd Surbces in Sp.>c P
EXAMPLE 1 The d istane<: between the points 11( 1. J. -2) and 11(4. -3. I) is
JA B!= ..rc~ _ J )Z + ( -3- J)Z +{I+ 2)2 =./54"" 7.348.

•
You can applv the dist:mce formula in Eq. ( I ) to s.how that t he midpoint .\1 or
. . : . p ( ,. - ) and fl., ( t• ·~. :, ) ts
I he IInC segment JOintOg 1 .lt . . I • • I • ' ·· '" •
x, + .tz )) + .'~ ~)
.\1 ( --:r-· -r-· 2 .
(Sec Problem 63.) .
The gr~ph of an equ:llion in three va~inbles .r ·:''· :m.d ~IS t~: set of all points in
space"' ith rect:tncular coordina tes that sattsfy that ~qua t tun . In ge neral, the graph of
an equatoon in th;cc va ri:tblcs is a /ll'o·dimetrsional St<r[ace in ll' ( three-dimensional
s pace with rectangular coordinates).
EXI\MPLE 2 Give n a fix"d point C(lo. k.l) and n number r > 0. find an equation of
the sphere with radius rand cen ter C.
Solution Fly ddi nit ion. the sphe re is the set of all po ints /'(.r . y. l ) such that the
di~t:tncc from I' to C isr. That is.ICf'l = r. and thus iC/'1 2 = , :. l ltcrcforc
(3)
•
Equation (J) i> worth remembering as the equation of the sphere "ith n diusr
a nd center C(lt. k. I) shown in Fig. 12.2.7. Moreover. given an equation of the form
FIGURE t2. 2.7 The sphere with
center (h, t ,l) and radius r . x 2 + ·'.1 + ~1 + ,\ r + lly + C: + / ) = II.
we can allcmpt - by completing the square in each variable-t o write it in the form
of Eq. (3) and thereby show that its graph is a sphere.
EXAMPLE 3 Determine the graph of the equation
x
2
+ r ' + r ' + 4.r + 2y- 6~- 2 = o.
Solution We complete the squ:~re in each variable. Th e equation then takes the {Ollll
<x2 + 4.r + 4>++ = 2 + (4 + 1 +9> = t6:

that is.
(.r + 2)2 + (y + l)l + (t- 3)2 = 42.
Thus the graph of the given equation is the sphere ,,ith rndius 4 and center
(-2. -I. 3). •
P(>. 1· :I Vectors in Space

'01c discussion of vectors in space para II 1 . . . .
the plane. The f.lillcrence is that , ' c ~ the dlscuss•onm Sc.:t iun 12.1 o f-·,•cl(lr;tn
a 'ector tn sp·1c, o.. 1 1 r thJO
two. lhe poin t /'(.r. 1·• • ) has llos' f · · C~'IS I 1rec components rnt 1e ·
. . • ' · • ton ' 'eetor , . - 0 /' . . •5-CntcJ
by the dtrccted hne se~,:rnent (or arro ')
0 - = (.r. y. ~). whtch IS repr< . ll
as by any parallel translate of this . " l' from the oril!in 0 to the point I' (a> "e
y 3 10
Eq. (I) gives .trrow-see Fig. 12.2.!!). TI1e distance formul
s
(~l
FIGURE 12.2.8 The Jrrow oP lvJ ::: ..;.rl + yl + zl
r~re~nts the positJon vector
for the length (or magnitude) of the
V <= ( X, y, .l).
Vector " . ....
= (.r Y •)
l
l hrcc·DimcmlonJI Vectors SECTION 12.2 781
v
Ci iv,en 1wo po ml\ 1\ (n 1, a 1 , tr 1 ) :md IJ(!J 1 ,/,1, 3 ) in space, t he di rected line seg·
rn c tll t\ /lin l·i,:. 12.2.'1 r cprc,c nt~ the vec tor
I I\ kn )•,th i' t he di,tancc between the two point ~ A and //:
1••1 - l,i 1i1 - Ja,, - a t)~ + Cl>z - (J 1 )

2 + 0>.1 - {JJ) 2 •
\Vh :•t ittn c:an' for two wctor' in ~r:•cc In he equal i ~ cs~cnti:~lly the s:tme as in
fiGUR( 12.2.? Tlw ,1rrow A.B t he caw ol t\\o dirnemion.d ve ctor\: ll1c vector~ n = (a 1 • fl J . at) and h = (IJ, . l)Z . b3)
repr r\rnll llw wcto r ar c Clf lla l prov tdcd that ,, 1 - /, 1• u1 = I•: . and tlJ = /o_~. 'Jlwt is.. two vectors arc equal
v • (f11 - o,,h, - u1, h, - u, ). cx:"·t ly "'"' n cnrr e,ponrhn): cnmpnm:nl\ arc cqu:tl.
We d c hn c: aclch ti o n :111d wal:~r multiplic.:at ion of t hrcc-d imt:nsiona l vectors ex·
actly :"we chd 111 Section 12. 1. t;•kin r. into account tha t the vectors no w ha ve th ree
cnmpwt clll\ rather than two: 'Inc Mun of the vector~ a = (a 1• a 2• a.\ ) a nd h = (b,. &z. I)J)
i ~ the vector
(5)
llccau•.e 11 and h lie in a plan e (all ho ugh not necessa ri ly the xy-pla ne) if t he ir ini tial
po inh coin ctclc:. atld•tion of thrce·dimcn,ional vectors obeys th e sa me parallclog r:u n
la w a\ in th e two-dimc tl\ionalca 'c (l·lr,. 12.2.10).
It c i~ a rca1mlln hc r, t he n the ' c:•l ar multiple ca i~ the vec to r
(6)
fiGURE 12. 2. 10 The
p.u.1ih•logr:>n1 l.1w f or addition 'Jltc kng th o f en is lei t imes th e len!-:th o f :1. and ca has t he same di rectio n as a if
of vector\.
c > 0 ' "' ' rhc oppo~itc d irect io n if c -: 0. ' ll• c following algebra ic pro pen h:s of vector
ad dition:u1tl 'c:llar multipl ica tio n for t hree-dime nsiona l vecto rs arc easy to est ablish ;
the y fnllow from computations wit h co mpo ne nts. e xactly a~ in Sectio n 12. 1:
II -i h = h + II .
II ·t th + f) = I n + h) ·1 f .
r (u -i h ) = rn + r h. (7)
,, + .< ) :1 = , .. + .':1.
(rs )u = r (.m ) = s (r a ).
EXAMPLE 4 l fa = (3.4.1 2) antl h = (-4. 3,0), the n

u + h = (3 - 4, 4 + 3, 12 + 0) = (- 1. 7.1 2).
lal = V32 + 41 + 122 = ./i69 = 13 .
211 = (2 · 3, 2 · 4, 2 · 12) = (6. 8. 24), and
2:t - 3h = (6 + 12. 8-9.24 - 0) = (1 8 . - I. 24).
•
A uni t vector is a vector of le ng th I. We can e xpress any vecto r in space (or
space vector) in t erms of the three haslc unit vecto rs
i = ( l. ll. ll). j = (II. I. 0 ) . k = (0 . 0, I ).

r When lncat etl with their initial po ints at the origin, these basic unit vectors fo rm
a right -ha nd ed triple o f vectors po int ing in the positive d irectio ns alo ng t he three
coo rdin ;1tc a xe s (Fig. 12.2.11 ) .
'Ote space vectm n = (a 1, trz,liJ) can be writte n as
fiGURE 12.2.11 TI1e basic u nit
vect01s 1.1. and k. a = (Jt l + a2.J + (J) k,
782 CHAPTER 12 Ve<tors. Curves, and Surfaces in Space
. . . f h b3 s·c1 unit ,-ectors. As in the two-dimensional case th

a hncar combmat1on o I c . ebraic opera tions involving vector ' e
usefulness of this representation IS that a1g . . _, k s lllay
.
be carried out stmply · co·ffic
by co 11 ecung ~ 1 cnt~ of 1. J. anu .
EXAMPLE 5 Given the vectors a = (3. -.t. 2) and b = (S. 2 · - 7>· we can write
a = 3i - .tj + 2k and b = Si + 2j - 7k
in order to c:Jlculatc
i a + 5b = 7 . (3i - -lj + 2k) + 5 . (5i + 2j - 7k)
= (2 ! + 25)i + (-28 + IO)j + (14 - 35) k
= -l6i -! Sj _ 21 k = (-16. - IS. -21).
•
The Dot Product of Two Vectors
11te dot product of the two vectors
a = a 11 + al,j + a 3k and b = bt i + btl+ bJ k
is the number obtained when we multiply correspo nding compone nts of a and band
add the results. Tiut is.
(8)
Thus the dot product of two vectors is the sum nf the products of their corresponding
componrlll.<. In the case of plane vectors a = (a 1 • a2 ) :md b = (b1. bz) , we simply
dispense \\ith third components and write a· b = a1b1 + azl>z.
EXAMPLE 6 To apply the definition to calculate the dot product of the two vccto~
a = (3. 4, 12) and h = (- 4. 3, 0), we simply follow the pattern in Eq. (8):
ll·h = (3)(-4) +(4)(3) +(12) (0) = - 12 + 12 + 0 = 0.
And if c = (4. 5. -3). then
U•C = ())(-!) + (4)(5) + (12)(-3) = 12 + 2()- 36 = -4. •

IM PORTANT The dot product of two vectors is a sm/ar- that is. an ordinary real
numt:er. For this reason the dot product is often called the scalar product. Exam·
pic 6 11lustra1cs the fact that the scalar product of two nonzero vectors (with positirc
lengths) may be zero or even a negative number.
~c following properties of the dot product show that dot products of vccto~
behave m many ways m analogy to the ordinary algebra of real numbers.
a·a=lul:.
a· h = h. a.
(9)
ll· th + c)-=u·h + n ·c:.
(r u) · h = r(u • h l =-: a. (rh).

Each of the properties in (9) can be establish ' d b . . onents of
the vectors inve~lved. For instance to c t bl' he . y workmg wJth comp ·e tbl!
5
a 15 the second equat1on, supp<)S
1 - (a1 "' a 3) and b- (b ,.._
- • •• - 1 •
t. vz.'J).lllcn
•·b =a,bl +alb.+ b b
• a 1 J = ,a, + b:a1 + b,a) = b ·a.
This derivation makes it clearthat the . cons!"
quence of the commutative law b bacommutative law for the dot product 1S a be~
a = for multiplication of ordinary real nulll
E ~ample(, <ho·..., that the c!~;c"'l1ic cicfinir:on of th e d o t produ ct is easy to opply
in routme ca!cuhtio:1~ flut "hat do-;:~ it mean? The <i~:nificancc ond m en ninl! or the
dnt p rnduc-t lie 1:1 1!< crl'm(:nc m:urrn.J:cl'n .
I' Let th~ \CCtN' a and h 1-.: rcrrc<cnted as p<><i tion vectors hy the di rected
<cgm~r.t~ OF' a~J OQ. rc,rcc: l't:l~ Then th:: an!'lc ,; l"-ci'H~(·n a a nd h is t he an gle
Q at 0 tn tmn;k OPQ of I!; 1::.: 1.:. \\'c <3~ th ~: a and h .1 rc parnlkl if r = 0 or if
& =::and that a ar...! h .!r.: perpendic-ular 1f .1 = :: r.:. For con,enicnce. \\C regard the
7 Cffl \CCt<H (I = (1. I. I J< t>-"\th rJr:!lkl tO w;d r-.:rr<:ndicuJJr to t'l ( f _\' vector.
THEOREM 1 Int erpretat ion o f the Dot Product

If fl IS the an;Je l:>etv.e~:lthc 'ectors :1 ar.d h . then
FIGU RE 12.2. 12 l he a ngl9 r, 3 • b ::: ll 1
b ' CO~ tl. ( 10)
~tw~en the vector\ 11 and b .
!'ROO/' If cllher a = ON h = O.thcn Eq.l iO} follo"' immedia tely. If the vectors II
:md h arc p:ualld. then h = r:a \\lth ci:hcr r > 0 and P = 0 orr < 0 and 0 = :r. In eith e r
ca~c. b<Hh s:dc< m Eq ( 101 rcJucc to t in :. <o npin the co nclu5io n of llH.:orcm I
folio·.• ' ·
=
\\'e turn to the ~encral CJ\C m "h1ch the vc( tOr u n /;and h 0Q nrc no nze ro =
and nonp:mtlkl. '! hen
IQ/;(1 = Ia - h : =In - h) · ( 11 - h)
= :t·a - a · h - h ·a + h·h
= (a ' ; + lb .: -~ a · h
But c =
IQ 1'1is the side of tri:m glc OPQ (Fig. 12.~. 12) that is op posit e th e angle 0 in-
cluded be tween t he sides n = Ia' and b = th .. l ienee the law o f cos ines (Appe ndix M)
gives
IQ/'1: = r = n= ... h: - 2nbco~o
= Ia:= + lh12 - 2 1al lh1cos 0 .
Finally, co mparing these two expressio ns fo r 1Q 1'12 yields Eq. ( 10).
l11i s theore m tell~ us that th e angle 0 betwee n the nonzero vectors a and b can
be found by usin g the eq uation
u· h
co~O = - -. ( II )
lul lhi
For instance. given the ve ctors a = (8. 5) and b = (-11. 17) of Example 5 in Sec-
tion 12.1. we calculate
(8.5) · (-11.17) {8)(- 11)+ (5 )( 17) -3
cos&= 1(8.5)11(- 11.17)1 = J S1+ 52J(-ll)Z+ I71 = J89J4W'
It follows that 0 = arccos{-3/J89ATii)"" 1.5865 (radians )"" 90.9()> f 90°, so we
sec again that the vectors 11 and b arc not perpe ndicular.
More generally. the two nonzero vectors 11 and h arc perpendicular if and only
if they make a right angle. so that 0 =
rr / 2. By (II). this in turn is so if and only if
u . b = 0. Hence we have a quick computat ional check for perpendicularity of vectors.
COROLLARY Test for Perpendicular Vect o rs

1l1e two nonzero vectors a and b ar c perpendicula r i f and only if a . b = 0.
784 CHAPTIR 12 Vectors, Curves, and Surfaces in Space
lane wctor> " = (8. 5 ) and b - ( - 11, 17) of
h
EXA MPL~ .7 (a) '_l'o show t~at ln~t · rpendicular. we need ~nly have. calcula;ed
Example m Se:uon 12.1 "er~ : _ 3 and observed tha i li S value IS not zero.
85
t heir do t producl a· b =
- 88_- S • -I) and h = (- 11. 17. - 3). we lind th3t
(b) Gi,·cn the ~p~cc vecto rs a - ( · ),
. 7 ( 1)(-3) := - 88+ 5 + 3=0.
a · b = tS)( - 11) ~ ()){ 1 > ~-
3 d b au perpendicular. t
We may therefo re condude that an
·n th• triangle of Fig. 12.2.13 wi th vertices at
EXAMPLE 8 Find the angles s hown 1 ~
" IS. - • . ) l
A(2. -I. 01. 8 15. -~. 3). and C(l. -3. 2J.
Solution We apply Eq. (10) w1t

· h 8 = -11\. a-AB =(3. -3.3).
-
and b=AC=
(- I. -2. 2). This rields
All ·
~
Ac) -·((3.-3.3) · (- 1. -2.2))
C(l. - J. l l Li\ :=cos-1
( JALII I -ACI := COS ffi.fij
FI GURE 12.2. 13 The ttiangle 9

of Example 8. _
- cos
- 1(
./27 .fii ) "" 0.9553 (r:1d) "" 5·1.74• .
Similarly.
L 8 = cos
-·(/iii. iiC)-
-
J811 Jt liCI
• - cos
- ·( (-3.3.-J)·(-4. 1. - 1))
...f'i7 ./Iii
I = cos·• ( 18
../27FIS
) "" 0.6155 (rad) "=' 35.26• .
'I
111en LC = 180' - LA- L 8 "" 90' . As a check. noiC th at
G1. CiJ= <1.2. -2>· <4. - 1.1 > = 0.
So the angle at Cis. indeed. a right angle. •
Direction Angles and Projection s
The diree11on :tng1es of I he nonzero vector a =
(a 1• n2• DJ) are the angles a. fl. 3nd
y that it makes " ith the ' 'CCtors i. j . and k. rcspccti,·ely (FiJ:. 122.1.1). The cosines of
thcs.: angks. cos a. cos P. and cosy. arc called the di reclinn cosinl's of t he ,·ector a.
When we re place b in Eq . (II ) -.ith i . j . ~ ntl lo: in turn. we li nd th3t
:a · i n1
cos a = - - = -
Ialli! laf '
a· j nz
' cosp = - - = - . and (Ill
tai iJI laf
ll• k DJ
FIGURE 12. 2. 14 TM direction cosy=-=-
angles ol the vector a . l• l lkl lal'
lbat is. the direction cosi nes of a arc the compone nts of the unltvfctor aflal with the
same direction as a. Consequent ly
(13)
EXAMPLE 9 Find the d irection angles of the vector a == 21+ 3j _ k.

Solution Because I• I = v'l4, the equations in ( 12) give
a =cos -I ( - 2 ) "' 57.69"
Ji4 0 fl =cos - I ( .Ji4
3 )
"" 36.7o·•
and y =cos-!(.=..!..)
Ji4 "" 105 so• 0 0
•
Three-Dimensional Vector1 SECTION 12.2 785
Sometimes we n.:cd to find the componen t of one vector a in the d irectio n of

a no the r nrm~ero vector h . ·nlink of t he two vectors loca ted with the sa me initial
point ( Fig. 12.2. 15 ). 'lncn the (scalar) component of :!1 along h. deno ted by compb a .
is numerically the lcn!!th of the perpendicul ar projeclio n of a onto t he straigh t line
dete rmined hy b. TI1e number compba is positive if the anglc 8 between a is acut e (so
a and b po int in the sam e general direction) and negati ve if 0 > rr /2. Thus compbn =
'\
\
. InI cos 0 in either ca~c. Equation ( !0) then gives
COmPt,D =
i:JIIhl cosO :t·h
= -- (14)
'
\
"
,'""'
'~ .
-comp ta)
111
ibl lbl
'J11cre is no need to mcmoriz.: this formula, for-in pmct ice-we can always read
fiGURE 12.2.15 The component

compba = IaI cosO from the figure and then apply Eq. (10} to elim inat e cos O. Note
that comphn is a scala r. not a vector.
of • along b .
EXAMPLE 10 G i,·cn u = (-1. -5. 3) a nd b = (2. 1. -2). ex press a as the sum of a

vc.:cto r u1 parallel to b and a vector n.~, perpend icular to b.
_... --- \
I
Soluti on Our method of solution is motivated by the diagram in Fig. 12.2.16. We
take
\~
al = (compbn)lblb- = :J•h
-lhl'-, b = 8-5-6
9
b
FIGURE 12.2.16 Construction

of a 1 and •L· =-~('
3 -· I . -2)=~-~
\ 3. _!3. ~)
3 .
and
u .~, = u - a1 = (4 , - 5.3)-
I\-32 .- I .32) = I\ 314 · -:r·
14 7)
3 .
3
lne di agram makes our choice of u1 plausible, and we have de libera tely chosen a .~,
so thatu = a11 + a.~, . To verify tha t the vector u1 is indeed para llel to h. we simply note
tha t it is a scalar multiple o f h . To verify that n~ is perpe ndicular to h , we compute
the dot product
Thus n 1 and n~ have the required properties.

•
One important application o f vector components is to the de finition and com-
putation of ll'ork. Rccallth.at the work II' done by a constant fo rce F exerted along
the line of motio n in moving a particle a distance d is given by II' = Fd. nut what
if the force is a consta nt vector F pointing in some direction other than the line of
motion. as when a child pulls a sled against the resistance of friction (Fig. 12.2.1Z2.7
Suppose that F moves a particle along the line segment from I' to Q, and let r> = PQ
be the resulting tlis('lnccmcnt •·l'ctnr of the object (Fig. 12.2.18). ·n1cn the wurl II'
done by the force 1: in moving the object along the line from I' to Q is, by definition,
t.he product of the component of F along 0 and the distance moved:
W = (comp0 F) 10 1. ( 15)
1f'
S!«<
S$'
. 1_
,.:.--
Lul(' of moe ion

.
r
Pb.~ ----==---
II = PQ
Q
FIGURE 12.2.17 The vector force F is FIGURE 12.2.18 The force

const~nt but ~CIS at a11 ~11gte to tile line vector F and displacement
of motion (Example 10). vector Din Eq. (16).
786 Ct!APTEA 12 Vt<ton , Corvtl, 1nd Surfacr~ in Space
. p f - (f. 0 )/IDI. we eet
If we u~c: Eq. (J J ) and subsututc: com u - -
\V : F · D
,_.. b · the constant force f in mo"ing an objec t along the displacem•nt

fo rt I1c "'or' uonc
' Q .Th·'. f · uon
Ia ·, the , ~ctor ••encrnhza · o f t hc sea
· 1ar work formul•
'
\eCtor I) : I . IS ormu 1, " . . . •
w : Fd. Work il measured in foot-pounds (ft·llJ) 1f 'hsta nce IS measured in feet
.• r J If ·c uni ts of meters (m) fo r thst;lllcc and newtons (N) for
anu orcc m p<JUn s. me 1n . .
force are u~cd. th~n 1\0rk is measured in jo ules (J). (One JOUle 15 approximately
0.7376 ft lb. )
EXAMPLE 11 Suppose that the force ' ector in Fig. 12.2.1 7 is inclined at an angle
of 30 !rom the l!ruund. If the child exerts a constant force o f 20 lb, ho w much work
IS done m pulling th~ skd a distance of one mile?
Solution \\'ca rcgJ\Cn that lf l : 20(Ib) and ll>l = 5280(ft). Becausecos 30' =j./3.
Eq. (16) )Idds
II' = F · ll = lfll l>]cos 30' = C20l(52SCII0 J3) "'91452 (ft ·lb).
'Jl1i• rn av •ccm li ke a lnt of work for a child to do. If the 1-milc trip takes an hour
then the. chilLI ;, !:encratin!! p o wrr (\\ork per uni t time) at th e rate of (91452 ft·lb)i
(Jt\00 •J"' ~5.~ rr lt•!.,_ Jl ccau\c I hor,c powcr(hp) is dcli ncd to be 550 ft -l b/s. the child's
"prl\\ cr r:o1111 ~ " ;, 25.·1/550 "' l~ hp. By cmnp:1rison. nn ndult in excellen t physical
condition c.on clunb the 2570 steps of the staircase o f th e CN tower in Toronto in less
than ~0 minu rc,., On Octobe r 29. 19l'i9. Ore ndon Kccnory of To ronto set the world's
rewrtl lor the la>lc>t ~ta1 rchmb the re wilh n time of 7 min 52 :;. r\ssuming thar he
climhcd 1672 ft and weighed 160 lb. he g~neratcd an ave rage o f more than 0.988 hp
over !his time intcf\·al. t
0 12 .2 TRUE / FALSE STUDY GU IDE

I. Discuss the rc!Jtion between a 3·d i rncn~ i onnl ,·ector and a point in space.
2. fl ow docs rhe dot product of two vectors re se mble the ordinary product of
two numbers? I low do the two products differ? }
J. Discuss the ana Joey between ahe absolute vnluc of an be d h 1 ah
of a vector. urn ran 1 c eng
-'· ~ ive ~n ex3mplc of a real -world situ ati on described bv a triple of real num·
crs. n roar example, do vector addit ion and scala; multiplication make
any sense?
12.2 PROBLEMS
(fr/'m /Jirm.fl thrtUtf:lo 6,firtd (a) 2• + b. (b) 3• - ~b. (c) •· h. U through
d . Ill' . Find c0 '"1', b anti comp a for the ,·ccton •
(tl) I• - b', ami(~) • 11• 1. an 1, given rn Prohlems I through 6. •
J• • "'(2. 5. -~). h = {1, -2. -))
lfl Problmrs / 9 tlrmugl 24 .
f
Jphtf~. I
2. 1 "' (- 1. 0, 2) , b =(J. ~. -S) r • Write th(• t>qumion of tht indicattd
I
J. 1 =I + J + k. b= J- k 19. Center (3, 1. 2). rndius 5 ~
4. 1 • 21 - Jj + Sk. b =51+ 3j - 7k 20. Center (-2 ' 1•- S) • f iH1.HIS v7
r.
5. a = Zl - j. b = j - Jk 21. One diameter· th

~, · c ~C)!mc nt joining (3. 5. -3) and (7. 3. ll '
6. a ,. I - 2j + 31<. b = I + Jj - 2k
1 ahrough 12. Find, to the nearell degree. the angle between
the vectors a and b in Problems I through 6.
·- Center (4 5 _ 2
l l "'-
~naer (0 0 2
.
· ' J.pa,srng through the point ( I. 0. OJ
· · J. tangent 10 the .n ·planc
'~'
U. Center (3 4 ·
· - · 3), tangent to the ..r~·plane
\
j
•
Three-Dimensional Vectors SECTION 12.2 78 7
In froh/ml.f l .S thmu~:h 18, /tml the C<!fltrr and radiu.J of thr 56. A lff)'}.lb d<n sled has a e<XIficknt ol shdin g friction oiO 2.
.tphtrt K'itJr the gn'(IJ
50 It require\·. lor~ with a hom on ta l comroncnt o r 20'l lh
U/ZiftiiO I L
l!i. .r' + ,. + i ~ 4 ' - f.,)' = 0 to keep it mov•ng, at a constant 1peed. Suprose that a dog-
26. .r +>;""~-l!.r -9y~ 10z+40=0
1 team hJrncs' i< <lU.:tchec.f \0 ihat the team's force vector
mnlcs a:> angk of 5' "'llh the homontal. If the dog team
27. 3t'+3);+3r- IR<-4ll=O
pulls this skd at n speed of 10 mi 1h. how much p<l"'er
]..'l 2.t 1 1 2y'.; 2:' = 7.t- 9y+ Ill (rn honq>o.,er) a ro the dogs generating? (Notr: I hp is
550 It lb/).j
In /'rul>lwa 19 th rnux lt 38, tlrtcribr tl,_ graplr nf th<' gi\ en tqua·
rmn itr gt.•tmrrtnc t( rtru, ruing p lain. rlt>or l11n guag~
57. Supp<X<: that the hori10nt~l and \<rtrcal com poncn ts o f the
three ,·ectors ~ ho"' n in T·ig. 12.::.1 'I h.rlancc ( the a lgc bra1e
2'} . l = () 30. X =f) sum of the honzontJI cnmponcn!l ts zero. a' b the su m of
~ I. ' =10 32. XY=O the vertical components) . How much "'"'k rs done by the
cor.stant force F (parallel to the tnclrncd plane ) in pulling
33• .ryl =0 3-t. .r1 + )) + i +7=0
t~c wc rght m.; up the mclined plane a ' 'crtica l height lr?
~~• .r + > + J? =0
2 2
36. x' + f + ;! - 2.x - I = 0
37. .r 2 + y1 + :' - 6x + Ry + 25 ~ ()
.18. x 2 + y 2 =0
Two Vt't' l O I'.\' arr para /It/ prov;,J~d that onr u a Jtalar multlplt t)/
the other. Vt'lt!rmin~ '\'ht:thrr the \ 't'CIOfl a a nd IJ tn /,roMttru 39
tllfOltKh .J2 ar~ /}llrtt fl<•l 01 prrpt·ndtcular o r n t•llht>r
39. a = (4. -2. 6) and b = (6, -3, '1,
40. u = (4. -2. 6) >nd b = (·1, 2. 2)
rtClJRE 12.2. 19 The in<lrned plane
ot Probl~m S7.
41. ~ = 12i - 20j + ll>k and h = -9i + 15j- 12k
58. l'rn~c the C.uchy·Sch,.•ulntiJU~Iily~
42. a = 121- 20j + 17k nnd b = -9i + 15j + 2~k
Ia ·hi:; l• l lh l
In l'ro hlcms -13 mu/ .J.J, dttaminr whc-:lrt>r or nottJr~ three givtn
pomiJ lit on a singlt> straight litu•. for ;til pairs of vectOJ'1 a nnd h.
43. f <O. - 2. -1 ), Q(l. -3. 5). /((4. -6. 8) 59. Given two arb<trary vector-. • and b , prove that they satisfy
the triangle lne~ualit y,
44. 1'(6. 7. SJ. Q<J. 3. 3J. U(l2. 15. 18)
:a ... hi:;; 1• 1+ lhl.
In froblmiS 45 tl:muglr 48, find (to th~ ntarest cltgru) the thru
(Suggestion: Square both sides.)
anglt>s of tlw 1ritmg/~ with tlr~ gi,·tn ~·crtices.
(.0. Prove that if a and h arc arbitrary vectors, then
45. A(I. 0. 0), l1!0. I, 01. C(O. 0. I )
46. A(I.O,O), R(l.2.0), C( l.2.3) Ia - hl i: I• ! - lb!.
47. A(l.l. 1}, 8 (3, -2. 3). C(3, 4, 6) (S~tggwioll: W rite a = (a- h)+ h; then apply the t riangle
inequali ty of Problem 59.)
-'8. A(I. 0. 0). R(O. I. OJ. C( - I. - 2. - 2)
61. Use the dot p roduct to construct a nonzero vec tor w =
In Pro!Jiems 49thrOIIJ:h 52, find tht tlirecrion angles ofthr vector (w 1, "'l· w 1 ) perpendicular to both of the vectors u =
rrprrsmted b·y PQ. (1, 2, - 3) nnd •· = (2. 0. I ).
49. I'( I. -I. 0). Q(3. 4, 5) 62. The unit cube rn the firs t octant in space has opposite ver·
tices 0 (0. 0. 0) and /'(1, I. I) . Find the angle bctw·een the
SO. P(2 . - 3, 5). QO. 0. -I) edge of the cube on the .r·axis and the dragonal O f ' .
Sl. P (-1. - 2 . - 3). Q(S. 6. 7)
63. Prove that the point M given in Eq. (2) i.s indeed the mid·
~!. P<O. 0. 0). Q(5. 12. 13) point of the segment P1 1'z. (Note: You mu<t prove !J.mh that
.11 is equall y d i.stant from J>1 and P2 anclthat M lies on the
In Problrms 53 nmJ 54, find the work W donr by the force Fin segment 1'1 f~.J
moving a pnrridr in a srraightline frc>m I' to Q.
64. Given vector1 a and b, let a = Ia ! and b =Jbl. Prove that the
SJ. f =i - k; /'(0. 0. 0). Q(3. I. 0) \'CCtor
(ba +a h)
54. f = 2i - 3j + 5k; P(S. 3. -4), Q(-1. -2. 5) ~ =
(a+ b)
SS. Suppose that the force vector in fig. 12.2.17 is inclined at an
angle of 4()' from the 2 round. If the child cx.,rts a constant bisects I he angle between a and b.
force of 40 N. how mu~h heat energy (in calo ries) docs the 65. Let a, b. and c be three vectors in the X)'·planc with a and h
child expend in pulling the sled a distance of I km along nonzero and nonparallel. Show that there exist scala rs a and
the grou nd? (Note: 1 J of wor k requires an expenditure {J such that c =a a + /lb . (Suggmion: llcgin by expressing
of0.239 calories of e nergy.) a . b, and c in terms of I. j , and k.)
788 CHAPTtR 12 VKtOfl, C~. a nd SurfacH in Spa<~
70. The methane molecule Cll. is nrrangcd with th~ four by.
66. U:t ax .._ by .._ c "' 0 be the ~quat:oo of th~ hne Lin the
' dr<>~:<n atoms at the 'eru.c es o f n rog~lor tetrahedron and
xy-plan~ "'"h normul \<:<lOr n. Let P0 (x, . •1\>l be a point on
wit h the cart>on atom at 1LS center (hg 12.2 2fl). Su~
thi~ hn~ and /',(x 1 • ya) be a point not on L !'rove that the
a•es and scale arc ch<>'Cn 10 thlt thc letrahcdron
JXrr<:ndicular dl\l~nce frO!':! 1'1 10 L 11 I h 31 t.he . . (I I 1
is that of l'robkm 69. wllh 1" cent« a t l · i. ;l. Find th(
bond ar:!!' a bct,.cen the hoc< from the carbon aton. to
two of the hydrogen ntom<.
67. Given the '"'o roinl\ A 3. -2. J ) and 8<5. ~- -I). "'-:..te an
equation in r. y. ~nd: that s.a.p that the 5'C 1int P (x . \ ', : )b..
c:qu:ally di,lant fro:n the p,.tnU A and 8 The-n Strnphf> this
equatio n nnd g1vc a geometric description of the <CI of all
such point\ rc•. y. ~ ~ -
611. Given the fixed point AO. 3. 51. the pomt P r.r. y. :l. and
the \CCtor n = I - J .._ 2L. ~:<e the dot product to bc 1p ~
\\11le an cquatmn m x. y. and :that t.a~' tht,. n and A P
nrc perpendicular. "lnen "mrhf) th" <'iUatlon and ~1vc a
geometric dc-,cnplum of all such f'C'lnt< /'1• . '. ~~
6'1. l'nwc th:tt the puint\(0. n. OJ. ( I. l. Ol. ll.n. I l. a nd 10. I. ll
arc the: \ CrtiCC' of :t t CfUIJr tC:IIJhcdHtn h) '-h0'41ng lhJt
coch HI 1hc •i•edge• hn< lcn~lh ./5 Then U\C ttc dnt
fiGURE 12.2.20 The methane
I'•Otluct tu find the >n~lc bet,.ccn an) '"'" cd~C\ of the
bond angle o of Prohlpn· 70.
tc1rl\hcdron .
I•
ll.3 lTHE CROSS PRODUCT OF VECTORS
We oflcn need to find~ vector that i.s pcrpend1cul~r to each of two vectors a and b
in srace. A routine way of doing this i< rrovidcd hy the c ross prruf11ct n_x h of the
• • 1> wctors a ~ nd h . lnis vector product is quite unlike the dut projuct 11- h tn that a · b
is a scalar. whcrNs a x b is n ' "<'Ctnr. f-or this rca~on u x h is sometimes called the
••rct11r prm l11ct of the two vectors a and b.
The cro~s product (or •cctor product) of the vectors n = (a 1. az.a3 ) and b =
(b,. 1•:. hJ) is de ll ned :~lgcbraically by the formula
(ll
b
Altho ugh this fo rmula seems unmotivated. it has a redeeming feature: lltc product
ax b is pe rpendicular both to a and to b . as suggested in fig. 12.3. L
fiGURE 12.3.1 The cross produU
a x b 1s perpcndlcuiJr to both a
TH EOREM 1 Perpendicularity of the Cross Product
~ nd b .
The cross product • x b is rcrpcndicula r both to 11 a nd to h.
PROOf' We show tha i a x his perpendicular to 11 hy s h o wing thai the dot product
of • and ax b is zero. Witb th<! components as in Eq. ( 1). we find that
a· (a X b)= llt(<lzbJ- <IJ~) + Uz(UJbl - a 11>)) + IIJ(II Ib:!- tllbt )
= a,al i>J - lltliJbl + tlzliJbc - a 2a 11>) + II JUt~ - a Jazl>t
= 0.
A si mil ar compulation shows that b · (a x b) = 0 a s well, so a x b is also perpcndiculJr
to the \'ector b . ~
Yo u need not memorize Eq . (I). because there is an alternative ve rsion invt,ll"·

ing determinants tnat is easy both lo remember and to use. R cclll tha i a d~t~rnrinanr
The CroH ProdU<t o f V('(tor\ SECTION 12.3 789
of order : is llctincd n~ folio"~:
(2)
EXAMPLE 1
' - .l1, = 2 · 4 -(-1) · 3 = 11.
•
I;
A d eterminant or t>rder 3 can be defined in tcm1s of d~ t crminan ts of orde r 2:
(3)
Each element a, of the lir$t ro"· i> multiplied by the 2-by-2 '"subdclerminant"' obtained
by deleting the ro" and column that contain 11,. No te in Eq. (3) tha t signs are att;tchcd
to the "• in accord "ith the checkerhoard pattern
+ - +
+
+ - +
Equati<)n (:1) is an expansion of the J·hy·J dc tcrmin:mt along its first row. It
can b..- <'l(p:tndcd a inn~ any other row or column as well. f or example, its expansion
along its S<'COnd cnlu mn i~
In lin,·ar algebra it is shown that all such expansions yield the same value for the
dete rminant.
Although we can expand a determinant ()[order 3 along any row or column.
l~<·re we will usc only expansions along the first row. as in Eq. (3) and Example 2.
EXAMPLE 2
2 - 1 41- 3·I -32 451+ (-2) . I-32 _,1

5 7
-3 7
= I· (-5- 28)+ (-3) · (10+ 12) +(-2) · (14-3)
= -33 - 66- 22 = - 121.
•
Equation {I) for the cross product of the vectors a = a 11 + al.i + a3 k and
b = b11+ bzJ + b3 k is equivalent to
uX b = laz''z "J
bJ
II-I"b,.I tiJij
~
+I"'/>1 azl k.
bz
(4 )
l11is is c:tsy to verify by expanding the 2-by-2 determinants on the right-hand side and
no ting that the three components of the right·hand side of Eq. (I) result. !'vlotivated
by Eq. (4). we write
j k
lt X h= fl 1 d1 " ·' (5)
,, l~z i>J
790 CHAPTER 12 V~cton, Curves, and Surlaus in Space
. .. . thi< c uation is to be e\•atuated by expansion along
The "symbolic determtna~t tn . ~ 1 q thous:h it we re a n ordinary determina nt with
its first row. just as in Eq. (.>)and 1 ;' ~: expa-;,sion is the righ t·hJnd side or Eq. (4).
1
real number cnrncs. 11tc _result 0 1 . x b form the second row or lhc 3-by.J
Th c component>. or th <. jtrsr vector (a th.
11
Ill
s •cond vector h form t Itc rI urd
. row. The
·
determmant. an t 1c d 1 components
• . . o c <
bee~ usc as we soon shall sec, a x b is
and h 1s tmportan1 · •
ord cr o f th.e vect ors a luct is 110 1 commutati••e.
to b x a· The cross prcx. .
genera IIy n Ot equa1 · od ·. 1
the form most convement for computa.
Equation (5} for the cross pr uct '
tiona! purposes.
EXAMPLE 3 If a = 31- j -"- 2k and b = 21 + 2j - k. then

j
_,,
k
axb = 3 - 1 2
2 2
= (I- 4)1 - (-3 - -l)j + (6- (-2))k .
l11US
a x h = -31 + 7j + 8k.
You might now p;111 <e to •·crify (hy using the dot product) that the vecto r -3i + 7j +8k
is perpendicul ar hoth to ll nnd to b . +
.. b
If the vectors a and h share the same in itial point. the n 'Iheorem I implies that
ax b is perpendicular to the plane de termi ned by u nnd h (Fig. 12.3.2). There arc
still two poss ible directions for a x h. hut if a x h i'- 0, the n the triple 11. h . a x b is a
ri}iht·hand cd triple in exact!\' the s~mc sense as the triple I. j . k. 11nts if the thumb of
your right hand points in th~ direction of a x h, then your fingers : uri in the direction
of rotation (less than ISO") from u to h.
Once we ha•·c establ ished the di rection of u x b , we can describe the cross
product in comple tely geometric terms by telling what the length )a x hi of the \'ector
11 x b is. l ltis is gi\'cn by the formula
FIGURE 12.3.2 The ve<:tors a, b, (6)

and a x b -in that ordN-Iorm a
right·handed triple. We can verify this vcctm identi ty routinely (though tediously) by writing a =
(at,tll, llJ) and h = (b,, b) . I)) ). comput ing both sides of Eq. (6), and then noting
that the results are equa l (Problem 36).
Geometric Significance of the Cross Product

Equation (6) tells us what )a x b ) is• but lb corem
• 2 reveals the geomct n·c stgmficancc
· ·
of the cross product.
THEOREM 2 Length of the Cross Product

l et 0 be the angle between the
0< < ) Th
c: 0 :l :r . en
nonze ro vectors u and b (measured so that
Ia X hi = la llh l sin 0. (7)
PROOF We bcgir. with Eq (6) d

. . an usc the fact that a. b = lnllh l cos 9. Thus
Ia x biz = lt~lzlblz- <•·b)2 = lal 2lh12- (iullbl cos0)2
=1• 121b l2(1 - cos2 0) =la l21 h l2 sin2e.
Equation (7) now follows afte r we tak h .. ·
is the correct root on th . ht-h d . e t e posmv~ square root of both sides. (llltS
eng an stde because sm e ~ 0 for 0 ~ 0:;; :r .) "'
The Cross Product of Vectors SECTION 12.3 791
COROLLARY PMnllcl Vectors

'J\, ' ' 11\lllt<:n> ,..:,·wrs u ami h arc paralle l (0 = 0 or 0 = rr ) if and on ly if o X b = 0.
In pnni,·ullll, lhc cw~s product of any vector with itself is the ze ro vect or. Also,
~'•t· ( I)'""" ' imnwdia tdy 1hat th e cro's product of any vector wi th t he ze ro vector
i~ tlw tt•n• V<'l'tlll' its,·If. ' lltu~
u x u = n x ii :-: HX n = ll (8)
t\.'1 c.•\ ~f\ '~rh.'r u
l ~<iu.Hiou Pl h,l, an in1pon:m 1 geom et ric int erpreta tion. Suppo~that o a nd b
fiC.lJR£ I ::-. 3. 3 ltw ,.,,.,, <'I th<' .trl.' " 'l'l<''l'llt<·d h · adj.1<:<: nt ~ide< of a parallcl ogram/'QRS, with a = I'Q and b = PS
~'JI,, 1 1\~~,,lf._\Ul Nt\ l \ !.;t ' lt .
( I ·,,:. I ~ .. I.J). llt<: p:nalklngram the n has base of le ngth fa ! and heigh t Ihi si n 0 , so its
art'a t'
(9)
·n,u, t/:,· /,·ngtlr o( tlu· c11 n < !''"duct u x h i.< numerically the snme ns the nren of the
f•.tra/1,·/.,grllm c/,·rr·mtin.·tl by u rmd h. It follows that the area of the triangle PQS in
l 'i!!. I ~ ..' .-1. "h<><c :m·a is h,l lf that of tlw parallclogr:utl, is
(10)
Equ.Hinn (Ill) gin~s a <JUick way 10 comput e the area of a triangle-even one in
SJ'.Il'l•- witlh>Ut the n~ed of lintlin): a ny of its angles.
l XAM P LE ·I Find the nrc;t of the tri :mglc with ver tices A(3, 0, - I), 8 (.1. 2. 5) . .and
r C(7. - ~. -II.
FIC.UR[ 1:2. 1..1 Th<' Me.l ol .VQS
l\! '" ' b Solution Ali = ( t . 2. 6) ami A C = (4. -2. 5) , so
j k
tl lixAC= 2 6 = 221 + 19j - !Ok.
-1 - 2 5
lllc rcforc. hy Eq. (W).thc area ,,f triangle ABC is
~ j22! + I'J~ + (-I O)l = !J943 ;:, 15.37.

•
L • I -. j
l'o w kt u. ,., "'he a righl ·handcd triple of mutually pcrpcnd icub r unit \'CCtors.
=
'llte an!!k he tween any two nf these is 0 rr/2 . and lu i = tv! = Jw l = l.llms it foll·o w~
frnm Eq. (7) tha t u x v = w. When we apply this observation to the basic unit \'Cc to"
i , j . and k (Fi}!. 12.J .5). we sec that
IXj = k, j Xk = I, and kXi =j . (II a)
Uut
fiGURE I 2.3 .5 Thr W~ic unit
•ff'loo In ip.>Ct. j X I "" - k . k X j == - i. an<l i X I. = - j . (lib)
'lltcsc oh~c rvatiom, tugc thcr "ilh the fact that
IXI =j X j = I. Xk = 0. (lie)
also fo llow directly from the original definition of the cross product (in the form in
Eq. (5)). l l tc product! in Eq. (I Ia) a rc ea sily remem bered in t erms o f the sequence
I. j. k. I. j. k.
The product of any two comc:cutivc unit vectors. in the order in which t h~y apper~r
in t his sequence, is the next one in th e sequence.
4
792 CHAPTl R 12 VKto~. Curves. and Su rfaces in Sp.lce
Note Th~ cross protluct is not comnwtath·e: 1 X j "' j X 1· ln~t~ad , it is antic0111•

· d II o X b := -(h X a ). Tins IS the fi~ t
mutah• e: For any two vect ors a an • · • pan o!
Theorem 3.
THEOREM 3 Algebraic Properties of the Cross Product
If a. b . and c are ,·ectol'1 and k is a real number. t hen
(12)
1. a x b = - (b X a):
\ 2. (ka) X b =a X (k b) = k(a X b) : (IJ)
! 3. a x (b + c) = ( a x b ) + (a
~. a· (h x c) = {a x b) · c:
X c):
(U )
(15)
(16)
5. a x (b x c)= (a · c)b - (a · b)c.
l he proofs of t::qs. (12) thro ugh (1 5) arc stra ightfo rward ap plicat ions of th•
definition of the cross product in terms of components. Sec Problem 33 for an outline
of the proof of Eq. ( 16).
We c:tn flnd cross products o f vectors e~ pre~sed itl te rms or the basic unit vectors
i . j . and k h)· mea ns of computations that closely resemble those o f ordinary algebra.
We simply appl)' the al gebraic prope rties summarized in ·n 1corem 3 togethe r \\i th
the rela t ion~ in Eq. ( I I ) giving the variou5 prod ucts o f t he thre e unit vectors. We
m ust be careful to prese rve the order of factt)rs, because vecto r multiplicat ion is not
commutat ive- altho ugh. of course. we should not hesi tate to use Eq . (12).
EX AM PLE 5 (i - 2j + 3k) x (31 + 2j - 4k)

= 3(1 X I) + 2(1 X j ) - ~(i X k) - 6(j X I) - ~(j X j )
+8(j X k ) + 9(k X I) + 6(k X j ) - 12(k X k)
= 3 . 0 + 2k - -1 . ( - j )- 6. ( -k) - 4 . 0 + 8i + 9j + 6 . ( - i ) - 12. 0
= 21 + 13j + Sk. •
Scalar Triple Products
Le t us examine the product a · (b x ~:) that a ppears in E q. ( 15). This expression would
not mnke sense were the parentheses instead around a. b. because a . b is a scalar.and
thus we ~ould not form the cross prod uct of a. h with the vect or " · This me aM that we
may omtt the parc ~tlteses-thc expression a . h x f is no t a mbiguous- hut )\'C keep
them for e xtra cla~tty. TI1c dot p roduct of the vectors 11 and b x c is a realfnumhcr.
call~d the ~tar t~pl~ pmdue1 o f the vectors a, b , a nd c. Equa tion (15 ) implies tht
cuno us fact th at we c:m mte rchange the operations • (d ot) and x (cross) .,..;thout
affecttng the value o f the e xpression:
a· (b X c:) = (a x b). c:
for nil vectors a, b, and c.
To compute the scalar triple produ~t . • ~~
~ ·, n tc·rms o f co m pone nts. wnte
= =
I />;:, IJJ) .and c (c,.cz,cJ). l h cn
(a,.az, O)) . b (),.
so b XC = (bzCJ- ~C2)j - (bt ~l - ~c,)j + (btC2 - />zCt)k ,
II • (b X c) = a 1(l>>C) _ ~c2)
. • -az(b t CJ - bJC t )+ a3 (1J 1 cz -~c 1 ) .
But the cxprcsston on the right is the value <If the, 3-b y-3 detc rnuna
. nt
ll • (b X C) = a,
1>1 -
, ,:
<J• "'I .
I>
)
\ Ct c ,: C\
This is the quickest wa y to co mpute the scalar trt' pl e pro d uct .
L
"'" Cro" r roc..c:t of \ « too StcllO'l 12. 1 793
[XAM PU r, II • .. :1 .11. h I · j • ~ . .anJ c ., J j I.., then
II -.1
(I J -1
.
• -1
-0
0 J
•
l l c tm:" :ta:--C' o! 1~ •-.1lr t;t;-1: r·,.-L:t (,,, .trrl·.:.llll'"' d.-r-·nd, on th<'
fnHh·~1:-;o r"' :r-t:. l... :r:r~~· •! '~ l c · a h ,, ... ,! c "'c.· th·(:- '~:~h'r' \\ Ji h thl· <.tnh~
l!""l1131 ;vnr.~ f 1;"U:e i: l 1 ' .a., t!-c r. :
t' :t:r ,~,t Jch·rnl:n~d l'\ t h~'l• \ t:t."h.lr'-
th.tl I 'AI:t .ltr '"1 •c;':C\.C'"""I~ • l":c- • \C~h't\ \' .tJ h1.•r.: t_•,kc.•, If th,: \ l·.:h'~ :1. h.
,lfi,J ( IIC (o;>' r •r (I 1': .I\.~.:~ rl.t:-C) then the p.tt.llkkl' li'<'•ll' .ft•~t't:l'f<l:t• Jnd
fi GUR l 12 l (, t h~ vr,• "' • of th•
tl\ \ulun c u /c;Ju l!.roo'C'M 1 h .... :-!, \' h:-t!'icr \\1 n~'l th.:- thrt·( ,c.·""tt.u" .nc.· t.·,,p) .u1.1r.
pMdllrl•·p•f"''l " • · (b " ( )
hu t II 1\ rn "':II rf 11 .,.1 <'0 I~~\ Jlr r, 11
TI I [ ORr M II Sci11M Tr iple Pr oducts .Htcf Vohmtl'

"''II""
l h l' I • r tht• I It tlkk r lt'Cd dcrcrnunc d"' t he \~~1111" II,h . nn , ,. i' thl·
''"" olu tc \ .tluc <•I I he ,, 1lu lr ork rn"h" t a · t h ' c l, t h.ll ''
I' (IN)
1 ' /(()()f' If the th1cc \C< hll' ar c c11pbn.u. then • .1n.l h " c .trc pcrpcndt.:nl.tr. ' "
\ ·- n ·th " ct 0 t\ \\umc. t hrn. tlut the \ u r nell '"rl.tn.u II~ Fq ('I) the :m.•:t
uf the h,to,(' (lkl <'CIIIIII<'d h\ h and C) of the f'31 ,l lkkrtpc.l" 11 It '< Cl.
Nm• let " 1-c t h~ ,,. 111r .1nt:lc i"C 1" c~n 11 .tncJ 1he: ' c<l ur h '< c t h.tt " l"'''l"'nchntl,1 r
t~• the: h.t,c I hen the ht: t):!ht ut th<· pMallckptp.:J "/1 1u """' If t1 "th.: ant:k he ·
=
t " ccn thn c.-tcu ' u .tnJ h x c:-. th en ctthcr tl u ltrl' = ~ - (I . ll <·n•c """ ten' Ill. ~o =
I'= tlh = lh X Cl llll COS {I= ht'lh X CtiCO' til= lll •th X e) I.
'll111< 11c ha\ C verified Eq. ( 18).
[XAMPL[ 7 l'i):urc 12.:1.7 sho11 ~ the pyramiJ 0/'Q« and the p:H!l!lclcpipcd hulh
dctcrminn l hy the: ' cctors
11 = (J/; = (.l. 2. - I), It = OQ = (- :!. S. 1). and c= OH = (2. I. 5).

l
l l1c ' 'nlumc nf thc p~ r:umd j, I' = A h." here hi' i t ~ hc ight lntl thc area A of i t~ h:"c
0/'Q i' ht~i/ thc area nr the corrcspontlint: ha'c nf the: raralldcpipcd. It therefore
follows from Eq. (17) and ( I!\) that I' is one-~ixth the ' olu mc uf the parallelepiped:
3 2 - I
fiGURE 12.3.7 The pyrnmld (Jnd

V = I
- ln· (l'
6
X c)l =- - 2
6
1
2
s I
5
= I~H = IS. ..
pMallclcpipcd) of E~.u11pi<' 7.
EXAMPLE 8 Usc the scalar triple product to show th:u th e points A (l. - I. 2).
JJ(2 , 0. 1), C(3, 2. 0). and D{S. J , -2) arc coplanar.
So lu tion It's enough to show that t he \'CCtors iiii = (I. 1. -I). tiC = (2. 3. -2).
and AD = (~. S. -~) arc coplanar. But their scalar triple product is
I - 1
2 3 -2 =1·(-2)- 1· 0+(- 1)·(-2)=0.
4 5 -~
794 CHAPTER 12 Vectors, Curves, and Surf~ces in Space
the arallelepiped determined by these three vecto
so Theorem ~ guarantees that f-·cn poin ts arc coplanar. ~
hils \'Olume zero. Hence the four ll
'tc often in scientific applications. For exampr
Th ~s product occurs qUI r. d · .e.
e cr . .. ce is free to ro tat e nround the rixe pomt 0 . If a force F
su ppose tha ~ a bod> m spaod\' that fore.: causes the body to rotate. l11is effect is
acts nt a pomt P of the b · · d b , the relation
measured bv the torque vector r define >
· r ::: r x t'.
- h · h · • throus:h 0 dete rmined by r is th e axis of rotation
"here r = OP. t e stratg. t 1me • .
and lhe length
lrl = lri!FIsin 0
i~ the moment of the force F around this axis ~Fig. 12.3.8). .
. t·o of t he cross product m\'oh·cs the force exerted on a mov1 ng
,\ nothcr app I1ca 1 n · . . · · 1,
. 1 h . • m•nnctic field Thi~ force IS Im po rtant m partie" accelcraton.
c ha rge d p:trI rc c ~ .. ~, · . . .
rna'~ ,pcctrornctc~. Jnd telc\'i< ion picture tu~cs : contrnlhn~ th e paths ofthc.IOni iS
I
accompJo,hcd through the intcrp b~ of electriC :1nd ~n :~gnctiC fields. In such m~um.
~lances. the force F on the particle due to a magnetrc field dcpen~ls ~)n three thmgs;
FIGURE 12.3.8 The torque vt.>ctor the chnrge ,1 of the partie it:. its \'cloci ty vecto r,., and the magne tic held vector II at
r Is normal to bot!· r and F. the in<tant ancous location of the particle. And it turns out tha t
f' = (qv) X 8.
0 12.3 TRUE/ FA LSE STUDY GUIDE

12.3 CONCEPTS: QUESTIONS AND D ISCUSSION
I . I low do.:s the cross product of two ,·cctors resemble the ordinary produe~
uf two numbe rs? I low do the two products differ'!
2. Discu's the di fferences and th e simila rities be twee n the dot prod uct nnd the
c ro<~ product of two \'CCtnrs.
3. ''surveyor n11:asurcs a polygonal plot of land hy first finding the coordinat~

of the vertices of its bounding polygon. Outline how the surveyor might then
proce..:d to usc cross products to calculate the area of the plot.
12. 3 PROBLEMS
Find a x b in rrobk11u I tllfmtgh 4. 9. Apply Eq. (5) to \'erify the equations in ( !Ia).
I. a = (5. -I. -2). b = (- 3. 2. .t)
10, Apply Eq. (5) to ' 'erifythe cquaiion\ in (I ll>).
2. • = (3, - 2. 0). b = (0. 3. -2)
II. :rove th~tthc \ector product is not a,;,;ociativc b)' comj'Jr·
J•• =1- j ... 3k, b = -2i + Jj + k rng u x (b x c) with (a x b) x c in the case a = i. b == i +l
.a. a = 41+ 2j - 2k. b = 2i - Sj + .Sk and c = 1+ J + k.
In Problmu 5 om/ 6. find tht• cmss product of th~ gi•·m

12• ~nd nonlcro vectors u. b . and c such that 11 x b = • X c bui
2·t!imrtuimwl n•ctNS a = (a,. a:) ami b = (1>,,/,~) by first "ex·
f. c.
tmt!i11g " th~m /ll 3·dimmsin twl l'(Ctors a = (11 1• a1, 0) and 13. Suppose th~tlhe three ''cctou a , b, at~d c arc mutu>liY ret·
b = (b,. l,, . 0). pendrcular. Prove lhat a X (b x c) = O.
5. a= (2. -3) and b =(4. 5) 1-t Find the a rca o f the tnanglc
. .
with vertrccs P(I · 1·0'.
6. 1 = -51+ 2j and b = 7i - llj QO. 0. I), and R(O. J. 1).
In Problrm.> 7 and S.find rwo diffumt unit v~ctors a and v both l S. Find the area of the triangle with ,·crtices P(l. 3. -!L
of k'h ich or~ p~rpmdku/ar to both tht gi•·~n vtctors 1 and b. Q<2. 4. S), and R(-3. - 2, 2).
1. 1 = (3. 12. 0) and b = (0. 4, 3) 1
6. ~d ~volum!_2( the parallelepiped with ndja~nl ed:
8. 1 .. 1+ 2j + 3k and b = 21 + 3j +.Sk . ' OQ, and OR, where P Q and Rare the pointS~~·
1n Problem 14. ' •
Tl>.- CroH Prod<Kt of \ t<to•s SEcn0\1 12 l 79 5
{al lo nol !'~< •:•lu,tt •·~ II• per• lrl l"'•l.,. •h aJ c•r.l r
t•ll'' , Ill ', 0(1 an.l 01\, "'l•r 1'. {>, anJ R ~•c I' 'I" ,,,
pHn on l'r ut•ktn I~ lh) l u •ll h• '"1u:nt 1 ! ~ ~.r pHl l I
"llh Hl11of\ I I , 1'. (I, ~ II I II
I mJ "'""''"""' "I"" 'I" I 1· ulor '" II• r•··~ thr '"'' .~.
I'""'' I' (I .onol H uf l'r .. t.• I I\ ll n t l I~· tl ' >"'CC
ll 'lf!l the- t'lh'ln , ,, thl\ rl.a•,,. "' (. •nt pu•.n, ft • 01:
Itt I''•'•'!' t•H / V throrh.•lt ~ .' ,/, t lrf'JI,f' .., / , •I,. r , 1 1, , tl , ( ,,. ,
~'' '"I'''' '"' ,\ II. ( . 11t1d /) lUi' • nrl.m u If n1 ' 'n.f tl ~ 1~~, FIGURE 12 3.12 f'rt'bl~on 16
••f 1lrr /'''''"11.1 "'uh lhnt' /uu t /'flllltl tH fl\ \ , ,, , f"\, 1 h ,., •I"'' rtt
' '''!'ft" " ''''r"uh tlt.u of,,,,. f'd ri.lllrf,·t''' ''" ,1 ..uu.~ 11, A Ji, 27. Ar;oh !,1 ( ~)II> ' til(\ fq (l : l. thc .lnlil'\•mmut.Hhity of
,'\( ·, ,,,,/ " /J
tt·: \C .. t• 'r· Ju.,t
Jij. 11 1. ' · ~). lit I, .1 I I, ( 12. U 7o , nntl /1 I X l o 1!\. \ 0-.! ,1 • . , , ·~r !I, .. : o,kntll~ (M <.-~IJr triple prod·
! 0, Ii i\ . ~~. 171, /12' II ~}J ( 1~ 1 I· :•1. aud t..' ''J:',, 1 ,"'I't C l~,
/lj:to, Ill 1'1)
: 1. \ ~ .. (' ·~ I r ~l'hl (.) tr(' "':!'It~ ,,n 3 hnc: l..ln (l'·l~t.'. Ul A
!1. tlr\ : . I t, l l rh , ol,lll,(IJ \II .oru l/lil l l l l ' l t--~r· """ · en / t l 1:::11 ( > ICokul~tron i"C' "~~s
, ,\, ,'~. ~!. Ill. lt, l~o ..lt . :n1. (117.~' ~~ •• •n.l t•• 3rt 11 !t ~~e I! tr.~· 1/'(ll,><ll•>" l~ it lh<· !'e'T'<'ndrrubr
/1{ \1 , 11, ,~ , J•,t.ulce fr~un , \ 111 th( Inc I I\
' ·'I \h\1\\' a (\t\1\ ~~HIHII pi I H n f 1. 1Ot l. ""11 h tlU$'h-\ lli'~•J

! .\. 1 I ~~UI t.• 1~
kn)•th\ uu.•n, l lll'~l hr u \UI\C' Vnt I"' ' hn1l1tu· lt"'u~hn., lt'
,, I AI' l< A (I,
•I' {I
,,r~.,~h ' ~lin ' llo~n " "' Ihe" ' '"' l''"'l u~•l·" in I •1 11 1111
h• r.tku l.llc Ihe""'·' uf till' 1'1111
(h) l '-< lhl\ fnrmull In co,r ute the d l\l.lnCc (rom the
I'""' I I . 11. l l rn the hnc lh••urh the '"" pnonl~ 1'!2. J . I )
.ond Q1-J. I, ~~
(11,11)
fiGURE 12.) .9 roohl~m 2) .
a . Rrrcnr Pn•hkm ~J with the plul 'h""" in Fi~ 12.;\.HI.
FIGURE 12.'3.13 Problem 29.
,\ll. Surp.,,c that A i, a poi nt not on the plane determined by

th~ three point~ 1', (!.anti R. C.1kula1e in two ways the vol-
ume of the pyramid A f'QR to show that the perpendicula r
di,tancc from A 10 thi\ pl3nc is
FIGURE 12.) .10 Problem 24. I lAP . (AQ X Aihl

t = - -
IPQ x PRi
.
2~. Rcf>cal l'rc•blem V with the pl~>t sho wn ~~~ Fig. 12.3.11.
ISugsr"Siimo: nr.r di,•idc Ihe plo l lOW two tnanglc'l. 1 Usc thi~ Cormul~ to co mpute the dist:tncc from the
point II. 0. 1) to the plane through the points /'(2. 3, 1. ).
Ql3. -1. ~ ). :md U(O, 0. 2).
31. Suppose that 1', and Q 1 arc two points on the line L 1 and
that f~ and Q1 Me two points on the line L1. 1f the lines L 1
and l.: arc not parallel. then the pcrpcntlicular d istance d
betwee n them i> the projeCIIOR of ~OntO 3 \'CCtor R that
is perpcndicuiJr lxllh 10 P, Q 1 and p;Q;. Prove that
(0, 01
tl "' I ~. ( ;;;Q; X iiTb )I
FIGURE 12.3.1 1 Problem 25. Ii\Q7 x P;'Q; I
<
796 CHAPTER 12 Vecto11, Curves, and Surfaces in Spat e
J.' Deduce from the or1hogonality propc!lies of the vert
32. U)c the follo"-in~t mcthoJ to e>tabhsh thM the ·~ctor triple · product that the vector (a x h ) X (r x d ) c.1n be wriucn~:
llrctdnct (II x h) x r iSClJUal to (a . c)h - th . r)a . (a) Let I be
a unit "~Clnr in the duection of a and let J 1x a unit •·ector
the form , ,a ... r 1b and m the form + s1 d. ••<
pcrpcndscub r 1n I and r arallcllO the plane of a and h. Let JS. Consider the trian gle in the xy·pla ne that ha, veni~
, OJ. (.tt. y:. 0). and ( XJ • .)'}. 0). Use the •«tor prO<Ju
K = I x J . E•rl~in "' hYthe re are Kalars a 1 , b,. b; . r 1 • <t. ( Xt· '1 ' .
and r,such thl t to pro\'C that the nrc a of t11s 1 . • I • I /' f
w ang e ts •a the a!Jsolur<t1
•·alii~ of the determrnant
a =a, l. h =b, I + b,J . and r = c11 + c:J + CJ K
I .r, Y•
(b) Now show that
ca x b) x c= -11 1/>;r:l + a1b:c1J.
(c) Finally. sub.titutc for I and J in terms of a and b. 36. Given the •·eclOrs a = (a, . /1 2. /13) and b = (b., b,. b,) , verity
33. By pcrmuta ti•m of the vecwrs a. h. and c. deduce from Eq. (6).
Problem 32 tha t
Mx (h X c)= (a · c)b - (o ·b)c by computin~ each side in terms of the components of 1
[thi' i' Eq. {Ill)[. and b.
12.4\LIN ES AND PLANES IN SPACE . .

Just a' in the plane. n straight line in ~pace i~ d<!tc rmtncd by any two po mts P~ P,
that lie on it. We m:ty wril c ,. = / 'u /'1 - mcani ng th:ll the di rected line segment /hPt re·
presents the vector v - 10 desc ribe the .. di rection of the line." TilUS. alternalively. a
line in space can be specift~d by giving a point / b <m it an d a [nonzero J vector •·Ihat
de termi nes the direction of the lin.:.
To invc~tigate equations that describe lines in space. lc t u~ he gin with a straight
L line /. that p:t<<'-'< through th e poi nt l'0 (.<u. y0 • ~) an<l is pa rallel to the vector Y =
a i + bj + ck ( Fig. 12.4.1). lllcn another point /' (x . y, z> lies o n the line L if :md only
if the vectors ,. and n;/' arc pa rallel. in which case
= /V /'u f' (I)
for some r.:al number r. If To = M and r = OP arc the po~ition vectors of the
points f b and P. respectively. then P0 P = r - To. Hence Eq. ( 1) gi,·cs the •'t<IOI
1
t'IJUUiio n
FIGURE 12.4.1 finding the r = ro + t v (ll

cqu.ltion of the line L that passes
through the point Po and is de~rihing the lin e L As indicated in Fig. 12.4.1, r is the positio n vecto r o f an arbitrary
par.JIICI to the vector v. pomt !'on the lrn~ I~ ~nd Eq. (2) givcsr in terms of th<! pa ra meter 1, the posit.ion vee·
tor ro of afixrd pomt l u on L. and the ftxed vector •· that dete rmines the d irccuon of L.
llte lc.ft . am\ right·hand sides of Eq. (2) arc equ al. a nd each s ide is 3 v~ctor. So
correspond rng com~ncnls are also equal. Whe n we write lhe resulting equJtioo~
we get a scalar <.kscnphon Clf the line 1 Bee·•us.t: ro (Xo. 1\t . ::a ) a nu.• r -- (;r · ·r · 1\.
• - y =
Eq. (2) the reby ytclds the three sca lar equations ·
,\" = '" + "'· y =)lo + "'· ;: = :.tl + I ( ,
These. a rc purum etric eq uutlons o f Ihe line L th~.. t p asses t h roug1' t h e pom
· 1 (•· · ''11· ;.-I
...,.
a nd ts parallel to the vector ,, == (a, b. c). ·
FIGURE 12.4.2 The line L of

EX.AMPL E 1 Write paramelric equations of the line L that passes t hrou~h thl
Example 1. pomts Pt (I , 2. 2} and /~(3. -1 . 3) o f Fig. 12.4.2.
Solution ·n,e line Lis parallel to Ihe vecto r
v= M = (31 - j + 3k) - (I + 2j + 2k) == 2i - 3j + k,
line~ and Planes in Space SECTION 12.4 797
so we take a = 2. b = -3. and c = I. With /'1 ns the fi~co point. the equa tions in (3)
give
y = 2-31,
as p:uamctric equations of L In contrast. with /~ as th e fixed point an d wi lh the
vector
-2•· = - -li + 6j - 2k
(p:nallel to •·) as the direction vector. the equa tions in (3) yield lhc parametr ic
equations
X= 3- -lt. y=-1+6t. :: = 3-21 .
l lms the parametric equations of a line a rc not unique.
Given two straight lines L 1 and L~ "ith parametric equa tions

x =x1 .:.. o 1t. J = Yt +btl. ~ = : : + Ctl (4)
and
x = .t: +a:s. )' = >~ + f>:s. :: = Z2 + c~s . (5)

respec tively. we can sec a t a glance whet her nr not /. 1 nno L 1 arc parallcl. Occausc
Lt is parallel to • 1 = {llt .l•1• c!) a nd 1.: i' pa rallel to v 2 = (a1 . 1>t. c:). it foll ows that
t he lines L t and L 1 arc parallel if and only if the vectors v 1 and v 2 a rc sca lar mu ltip les
FIGURE 12.4.3 Pua l!el line~. of each o ther ( Fi!!. 1:!..1..3). If th~ two lin~s arc not parall el. we can attempt to lind n
point of intersection hy solving th.: cyua tions
Xt + li tI = x2 + IIJ·' and Yt + b 1t = .1'2 + />t.r
sim ult:lncously for s and 1. If these values of sand 1 also "ltisfy the equa t ion~, + c 11 ~
: z + c,s. then we h:l\'c found a point of intcrscction. It s rectangula r coordina tes can
be found by substituting the resulting valu.: of 1 into Eq. (4) [nr the r~'ult ing value
o f s int o Eq. (5) ]. Othe rwise. t he lines L t a nd L 2 do not intersec t. Two nonparallel
and nonintersecting lin es in space nrc called skew lines (Fig. 12.4.4).
o~·=
., EXAM PLE 2 The line L 1 with parametric cqu:uions
fiGURE 12.4.4 Skew fin~.

.r = l + 2t. y = 2-31, z = 2 +I
passes through the point P1 (1. 2. 2) (d iscovered by substitutingr = 0) and is parallel
to the vector " t = (2, -3. I). The line L 2 with parametric equations
.r = 3+41. y= l-6t, z = 5 + 2t
passes through the point P2(3. 1. 5) and is parallel to th e vector v2 (4, -6. 2). Be- =
cause \ ·2 = 2\·t · we see that /.1 and l~z arc parallel.
But arc L 1 and L~ actually different lines. or arc we perhaps dealing with two
differe nt parametrization> uf the """c line? Tu <llt>wcr this lJUCstion. we note t hat
PtP2 = (2. -I. 3) is not a multiple of, and therefore is not parallel to. Vt (2. -3. 1). =
Thus the point P2 docs not lie on the line Lt. and hence the lines L 1 and L 2 nrc
indeed distinct. •
If all the coefficients a, b. and c in (3) arc nonzero, then we can eliminate the
parameter 1. Simply solve each equation for rand then set the resulting expressions
equal to each other. This gives
.f - XI) . " - ·' '' :: - .:u

-~~- = - ,-, - = - l-. - (6)
These are called the symmetric Cflualions of the line L If one or more of a orb or c
is zero, this means that L lies in a plane paralle l to o ne of the coordinate planes. nnd
798 CHAPTER 12 Vectors, Curve5, and Surfaces in Space
·m t h'ts case t11e 1.me does not have svmmetric

. equa
. . tions.
. For· example. · if c = 0' then L
1e to wnte
. . h .
I1cs m t e honzonta 1p1ane : ZJJ· = • Of course•
11 1s sttll
.
poss1b eq uations for
=
I . that don't include the parameter 1: if c 0, for mstancc. but~ a~d bare nonzero.
then we could descnbc . the hne
· L as the set of pomts (x. '"· z) sausfvmg• the equa1·Ions
.r-xo y - )'o z = Z<J.
--a-=~·
EXAMPLE 3 Find both parametric and srmmetric eq~ations of_the li~e L through
· , llo (3 . 1• - 'J n (.l -I 1} Find a lso the pomts at wh1ch L mtersects th•
•nd rJ
lh e pom.s - • · • • •
three coordinate planes.
Solution The line Lis parallel to the vecton ~ M = ( I. -2. _3). so w~ taken= 1.
b = -2. and c = 3. ·n1e equations in (3) then gtvc the parametnc equauons
X:: 3 .._, I, y = I - 21. z = - 2 + 3t
of L and th e equations in (6) give the symmetric equations
.r-3 y- 1 z+2
-,- =-=z-=3
To find the point at which L intersects the xy-plane. we set z= 0 in the symmetric
equations. Tit is gives
i.
and sox= !j and y = - Thus L meets the xy-plane at the point ( !j. 0). Sim- -!.
ilarly. x = 0 gives (0. 7. -11} for the point wh ere L meets the yz-plane, and y = 0
gives ( ~. 0,-!} for its intersection with the x :-plane. +
Planes in Space
A plane 'P in space is determined by a point P0 (x0 , y 0 , Z<J) through which 'P passes
• and a line th rough l'o that is normal to 'P. Alternativel y. we may be given /bon 'P and
a vector n = (ll. b. c} normal to the plane 'P. 'll1c point /'(x. y. z) lies on the plane
'P if and only if the vee~ nand PoP arc perpendicular (Fig. 12.4.5). in which case
n · PoP =_Q0Ve write l'oI' = r - ro. where rand r0 are the p~sition vectors r = Or
and ro = 0 lb of the points P and Po. respectively. Thus we obtain a vector equation
1
n • (r- r0 ) =0 (7)
of the plane 'P.
FIGURE 12.4.S Because n Is If we s~bstitute n = (a,~· c ), r = (.t, y. z). and ro = (.to. ) 'o . Zo) into Eq. (7). we
normal to P. it follows that n is thereby obtam a scular equation
normal to PoP lor all points
P in P. <l(.t- .t,)} + b(y- .I\,)+ c(: - :ol = 0 (81
of the plane through Po(xo. Yo Zo) with normal ,. ct
·
b
c orn =(a . . c).
!:A(~~~~ 2~ i:n equation of the plane through Po(-1. 5, 2) with normal vector
1 . (X+ 1) + ( -3), (y- 5) + 2. (Z- 2) = 0;

that is. x- 3y + 2: = -12.
•
IMPORTANT The coefficients of x y and · en•;
of the normal vector. ll1is is always ·th 4 10 the last equation are the com~n h·,
form e case, because we can write Eq. (8) Int ..
ax+ by+cz = d, (9)

Lines and Planes in Space SECTION 12.4 799
where d = ax0 + b)\l + c;:o. Conversely, eve ry linear equation in x. y. and z of the form
in Eq. (9) re prese nts a plane in space provided th at th e coefficien ts a. b. and c arc
not a ll zero. ll1c reason is that if c "" 0 (for instance). then we can choose xo and
) b a rbit rarily and solve th e equation nx0 + b)u + CZQ = d for ZQ. With these va lues,
Eq. (9) takes the fo rm
n ax+ by+ c~ = nxo + hyo + CZQ:
tha t is,
a(x -xu) + b(y- ) o) + c(z - :o> = 0,

so thi s equati o n repre se nts the plane through (xo. )\! . zo) with normal vector {n. b, c).
EXAMPLE 5 Find an equatio n for the plane thro ugh the three points P (2,4, -3),
Q(3, 7. - I). ami /?(4. 3. 0).
RE 12.4.6 The normal vector Solution We wan t to usc Eq. (8}, so we first need a vector n that is normal to the
as a cross product (Example S). plane in qu esti o n. One easy way to obtain such a normal vector is by using the cross
product. Le t
j k
n = I'QxPR = I 3 2 = lli + j - 7k.
2 - 1 3
Because PQ and PR arc in the plane, their cross product n is normal to the plane
(Fi g. 12.4.6). Hence the plane has equation
11 (x - 2) + (y - 4) -7(z+3) =0.
After simplifying, we write the equation as
llx + y-7z=47.
•
Two planes with normal vectors n and 111 arc said to be pnrnllcl provided that
FIGURE 12.4.7 The intersection n and m are parallel. Otherwise, the two planes meet in a straight line (Fig. 12.4.7),
of two nonparallel planes is a and we can find the angle 9 between the normal vectors n and m (Fig. 12.4.8). We
straight line. then define the nnglc between the two planes to be either 8 or rr - (),whichever is
an acute angle.
EXAMPLE 6 Find the angle 8 between the planes with equations

2x + 3y- z = -3 and 4x + 5y + z = I.
Then write symmetric equations or their line or intersection L
Solution TI1c vectors n = (2, 3, -1 ) and m = (4, 5, 1) are normal to the two planes,
'' so
n·m 22
cosO= - - = .
lnl lm l JT4J42
fiGURE 12.4.8 Vectors m and n
normal to the planes 'P and Q, H~ncc 0 = cos-• ( H./3) "" 24.87• .
respectively. To determine the line or intersection L of the two planes, we need first to find
a point Po that lies on 1- We can do this by substituting an arbitrarily chosen value
of x into the equations or the given planes and then solving the resulting equations
=
for y and z. With x 1 we get the equations
2 + 3y- z = -3,
4+5 y+ z=l.
The common solution is y = -1, z = 2. Thus the point P0 (1, -1. 2) lies on the line L
q
800 CHAPTER 12 Vectors, Curves, and Surfaces in Space
Next we need a vector " parallel to L The vectors n ~nd m normal to the two
planes arc both perpendicular to L so their cross product I S parallel to L 1\ltcrna.
tivcly, we can find a second point 1~ on /.by subs!ltutmg a second value of x into
the ~quat ions of the given planes and solving for )' and z. as before. With x ,. 5 we
obtain the equations
10+3y- z == -3.
20+5y+ z == I.
with common solution y == -~. ~ = 1. Thus we obtain a second point /'t(5. -4.J) on
Land thereby the vector
\' == Po?;= (~ . -3. - I )
parallel to L From Eq. (6) we now find symmetric equations

x-1 y+l z- 2
-4- == --=-3 = -=1
of the line of intersection of the two given planes.
•
Finally, we may note that t he symmetric equations of a line L present the line
I as an intersection of planes: We can rewrite the equations in (6) in the form

b(.t - .to) - a(y - ) Il l = 0 .
c(.r - .to) - a ( ;:- zo) = 0. (101

I c(y - )'o) - b(z - ::o> = 0.
lltesc arc the equations of three planes that intersect in the line L lltc first has normli
vector (b. -a. 0). a \'CCtor parallel to the .ty·plane. So the first plane is perpendicubr
to th..: .ry-plane. Similarly. the sccnnd plane is perpendicular to the .rz·planc and th:
third is pr!rpendicular to t he yz·pbnc.
The equations in (Ill) arc symmetric equations of the line that passes through
the point f'o(.ro. } \>. ;,,) and is parallel to ,. = (11, b , c) . Un like the equations in (6).
the se cquarions ..rc meaningful whether or nm all the componcnts a. b . and c 3r<
nonzero. Titey have a special form. though. if onc of the three components is zero.
If. say, a = 0. then the first two equations in ( 10) taketh~ form x == x0 . 'lltc line is
then the intersection of the two plan..:s x ==.to and c(y- ) b)= b( ~ - :u) .
EXAM PL E 7 In Example 3 .we saw tha t the line l. through the JX>int /ll(3. I. - : )
and /'1(4.- I. I) has syrnmctnc equations
x -3 y-1 ~ +2
- , - == --=-2 =3'
J'rocc:eding to rewrite these equations as in (10). we nhtain fi rst the equations
- 2(.r - 3) = y -1.
3(.r - 3) = ~ +2 .
3Cy - ll = - :!(: + 21
and then (upon sirnplilicarion) the e<IUatinns
2.t + y = 7.
3.r - z "' II,
FIGURE 12.4.9 rtw.line L of 3y + 2z=-l

w mple J IS the inter'SK!JOM Of the
....,.nel to the r-a•a, the that represent /.• as the in~crscction of three: pl ane s, each of them parallel to one •'1
p~.t ne P • .--
Par•flel to the y-a.,s, •nd ,,f
the three coordrna tc axes rn space. figure 12.4.9 shows a computer ,).,1 t h~<t' th~
pi;Jne p 1 ..,
.. _ .
n.ar~el to""' ~-•.,s . pl;mes intersecting in the line L I t
the pi •ne r 1 .--
d
Lines and Planes in Space SECTION 12.4 801
0 12.4 TRUE/ FALSE STUDY GU IDE

12.4 CONCEPTS: QUESTIONS AND DISCUSS ION
I. Figure 12.4.10 shows the possihlc configuration of two lines Lt and L2 in the
xy-planc. \\'c.: sec.: that the intersection of L 1 <tnd L 2 can consists of either
one point. no points. or infini te ly m<tny points. Explain why this geometric
ohscrvatio n implies th<tt two linear equationsa 1x + b,y == c, and 112x + bzy ==
c2 in two unknowns x and y can have eithe r a single simultaneous solution
(x . y), no solution, or infinitdy many diffe rent solutions.
1 )'
(a) •t'-'o intcr<eC'tlng lines-: (b) lWo parallel lin<>: (c) Two comcuJcnt lincJ:
:a un1quc solutilm, no wlution. mfimtcly many soluhOn!.
FIGURE. 12.4.10 {a) The nonparallel lines L1 and L1 intersect In a sing le point. {b) The
distinct pJrallcllines L1 and L2 have no point of intersection. {c) The coincident lines L1
and L1 hJvc infinitely many points in common.
In each of the fullotdng cases, describe similarly the possible configurations and hence
th e· possible lllllllbcr ofpoi11ts of i11tasection of the indicated number of li11es or planes.
Trans/are your geometric con clusion into a srareme111 about rhe possible mtmber of
solutions of a system of n•·o or three li11ear equnrions in two o r three unknowns.
2. lluee lines in the plane.
3. Two lines in space.
3. lluc.:c planes in space.
12.4 PROBLEMS
In /'rob/ons 1 through 4, write parametric equariolt.f of the 11. l11rough P(l. I. I) and perpendicular to the xy-planc
waighr line rhar ptuscs through the point I' and is parallel to 12. lltrough the origin :t nd perpendicular to the plane with
tht" v~·(tor v. equa tion x + y +: = I
1. /'(0. 0. 0), v = I + 2j + 3k 13. Through f'{2. -3. -1 ) and perpendicular to the plane with
2. /'(3. - 4. 5). ,. = -2j + 7j + 3k equation 2.r - y + 3z = .:
3. P(.t. 13. - 3). .. = 2l - 3k 14. l l trough /'(2. -I, 5) :tnd parallel to the line with pnramctric
equations x = 3t, y = 2 + r.: = 2- r
4. /'(17. -13. - 31). .. = (- 17.13.31)
In f'roblim•s 15 thrnuglt 20. deremtinr ,..!Jrrha the rwo lines L 1
· cquatUIII.!
Itt /'rohh•mt 5 tflf<mgl• 8, writ~ ptrram rtrtc · of rlIt' am/ L2 art• JUifflllc-1. .tk,·w. or imnst'('ting. If tltey imt•rs<·cr. find
wai~;hr /m~ rlwt pass~s through tlte points f't ami l i. tltt! p aint of intt:r.H'Ctinn.
s. 1', w. o. 0). /'l( - (•. 3. 5) 15. L ,: .t-2 = \<Y+ I)= i <z-3);
6. 1',(3. 5. 1). /'l(6. -8. 10) 1.1: !<x-5)= !<y- l) = z- -1
7. P1 (3. 5. 7). /'1 ((,, 5, 4) 1(,. L 1: "l(.c - lll = >· -6=-1(· + ~5)·•
2 ...
1!. /'.129. - -17. 13). /'l (73. 53. - 67) Ll: =
~(X- 13) = -~<.v - 2) i<: - 5)
In l'ro!J/rmt ? through 14. writ~ borlt parametric and symmnric 17. f_,: .r=li+2t, y=5+2I. z = 7+3r:
tqlulfiqrn forth.- indic111nl srmigltt/inr. L1: x = 7 + 3s. y = 5 + 3.t, :=10+5.v
9. Thruuyh /'(2. 3. - -1 ) and parallel to ,. = (I. -I. -2) 18. t 1 : x = 14+3t. y=7+2t, :=2l + 5t ;
10. lluough /'(2. 5. - 7) and Q(4. 3. R) Ll :x = 5+3s. y= l5+5s. z = 10+7s

47• Write symmetric equ~tions for the line throu
19. L 1: ~(x-7)=~(y+5)=-k<z-9); that is parallel to the ltne of Problem 46. gh P(3,
31
Lz: -~(x -11) = -k<Y -7) = n<z -13)
I
48• Find an equation of the plane through P(J 3

20. L 1: x=13+12t, y=-7+20t, z=11-28t; perpendicular to the planes x + y == 2z and 2; • l) that .
. f h +~,..., ~
L2 : x = 22 + 9s, y = 8 + 15s, z = -10- 21s 49• Find an equatiOn o ~ e plane through (1 1 1 .... 0. 1
tersects the xy-plane m the same line as d ' l !hat ·

In Problems 21 through 24, write an equation of the plane with oes th 1n.
3x + 2y- z = 6· e Plane
norma/vector n that passes through the point P.
SO. Find an equation for the P.lane that passes thr
21. P(O, 0, 0), n = (1, 2, 3) point P(l. 3 -2) and contams the line of intersou~h the
1
22. P(3, -4, 5), n = (-2, 7, 3) the planes x - y + z = 1 and x + y- z == 1. ectton 01

23. P(5, 12, 13), =i- k
n Sl. Find an equation of the plane that passes throu h
24. P(S, 12, 13), n =j
P(l. o, -1) and Q(2. 1, 0) and is parallel to the 7in~h~ ~oin4
section of the planes x + Y + z = 5 and 3x _ y::: . f 1nter.
In Problems 25 through 32, write an equation of the indicated 4
plane.
f
52. Prove that the lines x - 1 = (y + 1) = z _ 2 and
l(y- 2) = f(z- 4) intersect. Find an equation ofthx- 2:::
25. Through P(5 7, -6) and parallel to the xz-plane
1
;lane that contains them both. e [only]
26. Through P(l , 0, -1) with normal vector n = (2, 2, -1)
53. Prove that the line of intersection of the planes x +
27. Through P(10 4, -3) with normal vector n = (7, 11~ 0) 2
1
__.
z = 2 and 3x + 2y + 2z = 7 is parallel to the linex- 1 Y'
. d -
y = 3 - 5t, z = 2 - 4 t . F m an equation of the pia d
+6t
28. Through P(l, -3~ 2) with normal vector n = OP mined by these two lines. ne eter.
I
29. Through the origin and parallel to the plane with equation
54. Show that the perpendicular distance D from the .
3x + 4y = z+ 10 POlO!
P0 (xo~ )'o, Zo) to the plane ax+ by+ cz =dis
30. Through P(5, 1 4) and parallel to the plane with equation
laxo + byo + CZQ - dl
1
x+ y-2z= 0 D =
../a2 + b2 + c2 .
31. Through the origin and the points P(1~ 1,1) and Q(l~ -1~ 3)
32. Through the points A(l , 0, -1), B(3~ 3, 2), and C(4, 5, -1) [Sug~estion: The lin.e that passes through P0 and is per·
pendtcular to the gtven plane has parametric equations
In Problems 33 and 34, write an equation of the plane that con- x=xo +at, y = yo + bt, Z=Zo +ct. Let P1(x1,y11 z1)be
tains both the point P and the line L. the point of this line, corresponding to 1 = t 1, at which it
33. P(21 4, 6); L: X= 7- 3t, y = 3 + 41, z = 5 + 21 inters~the given plane. Solve for ft. and then compute
34. P(13,-7,29); L:x=17-9t, y=23+14t, z=35-4lt D = IPoPtl.]
In Problems 35 through 38, determine whether the line Land the In Problems 55 and 56, use the formula of Problem 54 to find
plane P intersect or are parallel. If they intersect, find the point the distance between the given point and the given plane.
of intersection. 55. The origin and the plane x + y +z= 10
35. L: x =7-4t, y=3+6t, z=9+5t; 56. The point P(5, 12, -13) and the plane with equation 3x+
P : 4x + y + 2z = 17 4y+5z = 12
36. L:x=15+7t, y=l0+12t, z=5-4t; 57. Prove that any two skew lines Jie in parallel planes.
P: 12x -5y+6z =50 58. Use the formula of Problem 54 to show that the pet·
37. 1.:. 3 + 2t, y = 6- St,
X= z = 2 + 3t; pendicular distance D between the two parallel planes
P: 3x+2y-4z= 1 ax+ by+ cz + d1 = 0 and ax+ by+ cz + d2 == 0 is
38. l:.x=l5-3t, y=6-5t, z=21-14t; D= ldt -d2l
P: 23x + 29y- 31z = 99 ../a2 + !J2 + c2
In Problems 39 through 42, find the angle between the pl 59. The line Lt is described by the equations
"h th e gtven
· . anes
X- 1 = 2y + 2,
w11 equattons. Z = 4.
39. x=IOandx+y+z=O Th ,. 1) Jt!J
e tne Lz passes through the points P(2. 1. -. v·i
40. 2x - y + z = 5 and x + y - z=1 Q(OI 8, 4). (a) Show that L 1 and L 2 are skew lines. (lt_)_ ;
111
41. x - y - 2z = 1 and x - y - 2z = 5 t~e results of Problems 57 and 58 to find the perpend''
dtstance between L and L
42. 2x + y + z = 4 and 3x - y - z =3 I 2· L
60. Find
. the ShO rf est d tstance
• between pomts• o( the fiJ]e I
In Problems 43through 46, write both parametric and s .
· ,, h 1· ,, · . ymmetnc Wtth parametric equations
~quattofi.J o1 I
e me o1 mtersect10n of the indicated planes.
43. The planes of Problem 39 44. The planes of Problem X=7+2t , )'=11-St, z:::13+61
40
45. ThcplanesofPr9blem41 46. TheplanesofProblem and the r , . . 2y+4z$
42 d me LJZ of Intersection of the planes 3x- .
10 an 5x+3y-2z 15. ~
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Curves and Motion in Space SECTION 12 .5 803
J2.5 l CURVES AND MOTION IN SPACE

In Section lOA we discussed parametric curves in th e plane. Now think of a point
that moves along a curve in three-dime nsional space. We can describe this point's
changing position by mea ns of parametric equations
.1 :: fU l. .r = ,t ;ltl. : = hU I ( I)
that specify its coordinates <~S funct io ns of time t . A par:tmetric curve C in space is
(by defin ition ) simply a triple (f. g . h) of such coordinau· jiwctions. But often it is
useful to refer info rmally to Cas th e trajectory in sp:tcc tha t is traced o ut by a moving
point with the'e coordin~te functio n<.. Space curves exh ibit a nu mber of interesting
new phe nomena that we did not see wit h plane curves.
EXAMPLE 1 Figure 12.5.1 shows a common trefoil kno t in space defined by the
parametric equa tions
.r{l) = (2+cm~ t )coH . y(t) = (2 + cos ~ 1 ) si nt . z(t) = sin ~t.
fiGURE 12.S.1 A tubular knot Actu ally. to enhance the t hree -d i me n~ion a l appeara nce of this curve's sha pe. we have
whose centerline is th e parametric plot ted in the figure a thi n tuhub r surface whose ce nt erl ine is th e knot itself. l11c
curve of Example 1 .
viewpoin t for the compute r plot is so chosen that w e arc looking down on the curve
fro m a poilll o n the positive z-axis. +
EXAMPLE 2 Figure 12.5.2 shows simultaneously the circle
.r(l) =4 cost. y(l) = 4 sin t. z(l) o 0
in the: x y-plane. the ellipse

X(1)= 5COSI, y(t) "' 0. z(t ) = 3si n c
in the xz-pl:lne. and the ellipse
X(l ):: 0. y(t) = 3cost, z(t ) = 5sin 1
in the yz-plane. Here. ag;~in, we actuall y have plotted thin tubular tori having these
closed curves as ccnte rl ines. Can you sec that any two of these curves are unlinked,
but that the three together apparently cannot be "pulled apart"'? +
•
.
, FIGURE t2.S.2 The Borromean ring5 of Example 2.
/
804 CHAPTER 12 Ve<tors. Curv~s. and Surfaces in Space
--- -... _
'
fiGURE 12.S.3 The position vector FIGURE 12.5.4 The poin t of

, = (•. y, L ) of a moving particle in space. Example 3 moves in a helical path.
Vccto r-Villued Functions

• 1oc.., 11"on
1 ., '~ c1langmg of~
... po'1nt movin g along the par:Hnctric curve in (I) C.1n ~
described by giving its position •·ector
r (l) = X(l )i .._ y(l)j + : 11 11. = (Xfl ) . . 1'( /) . :I t )) , (!)
or simply
r =xi + yj + :k = (x. y. : }.
whose compone nts are the coordinate functions or the moving point (Fig. 12.53).
Equ:llinn (2) defines a •·ector-•·alu cd ru nctinn I hat associates with the number t the
vector r(l). In the case or a pl ane curve described by a two-dime ns ional po sition \'CC·
tor. we may suppress the third component in Eq. (2) and write r (l) = x(l )i + y(l)j =
(.t(l). y(l )).
EXAMPLE 3 'lltc position vector
r (l) = I cos t+ j si nt + tk
describes the helix or Fig. 12.S.4. 13ecause x 2 + \ '2 = cos2 1 + si n2 1 = 1 for all 1,the pro-
j.:ction (.t(l), )'( I )) into the xy-plane moves <lf~und and around the unit circle. Mean·
wh!le. t>.:cause ;: =I, the p<Jint (cos 1. sin t. 1) steadily moves upward the wrtical
cyltndcr.1~ space that stands above and below the circle x: + y: = 1 in011the X) -piJ nc.
The r:multar co~kscrcwshape or the helix appears evervwhere from the coilr:d sprinp
of an automob1le to the douhll' l~t·lix ntod d of the o·NA
geneuc · ·111rorma uon · or ltvmg
. . cells (rig. 12.5.5). • m o 1·ecu1e lh a 1 c..~rrics th~•
FIGURE 12.S.S The intertwinffi

heloces that model the DNA
mole<ule servffi a s a model fO< the
ONA Tower in Kings P~rlo.. Perth,
Austr~lo.s. For a fascinating ~ccount
of the d.scovery of the role of the
helix as the genetic basis fO< rote (~l
Itself, s~ )ames 0 . Watson, TM
Double Heh~ (New York:
I Atheneum, 1968). provided that the limits in the last three ex • . . . · s o!
C P~csstons exrst. Thus we take hrn 11
vector·valued functions by lakin I' .
1
l ' g tmHs o t lctr component functions.
Curves and Mot ion in Space S(CffON 12.5 805
We sny that r = r (t) is continuou• at the numbe r'' provided that
lim r (t ) = r (ll).
·-·
lltis amounl.s to saying that r is continuo us ala if a nd o n ly if it ~ compon e nt func tion ~
f . g, and lr ::~re C(ltll inuous at a .
ll1e d crh:uh·e r' (r ) of the vcctor-valuell functio n r(l) is tlc llncd in ahno~t exactly
the same way as the th!rivative of a re al -va lued functio n. Spcdlically.
, . r (r + C.t ) - r (t)
(5)
r (I) = hm .
.)t-\1 0.1
FIGUR E 12.S.6 Geometry of the
derivJtive of • vt:"cto r.volued
funtlion. provided tlilat this limit exists. Figures 12.5.6 a nd 12.5.7 correctly suggest t hat the
tl erh ·nt in• nctor
r •(t) = cir
- = 1>,Ir!/) I
tit
c
will be tangent to the curve C "ith position vector r (t ). For this rca•on. we call r' (t ) n
tangent >ector to the curve Cat the corresponding point /' provided that r'(J) cxi'h
and is n onzero there. lltc tan~:ent lim• to C at this point I' with position vcc tnr r(t )
is then t he line through P determined by r'(c).
Our n ext result implies the simple bill important fact tha t the derivative vector
r'(l) C:ln be calcul~tcJ hy r omponentwi<<- cl iffcrl'ntiation of r(t )-that is. by differen -
tiating sep:uatcly the component fu nctions o f r (C).
THEOREM 1 Componentwise Differen tiation

FIGURE 12. S.7 The deriv•tive Suppose that
''-'<tor is ungent to the curve at r (r) = (f(t ). g(l) . lr(c )) = [(t)l + g(t )j + lr(c)k.
the point of ~•lu•t ion.
where f, g, a nd h arc differentiable fu nc tiom. ll1c n
r'(t) = ( J'(I). g '(t ).lt'{t )) = ['Ct)i + g'(t )j + Jr' (c)k . {6)
That is. if r =xi + yj + zk. the n
d r =dx 1+dyj +tlzk.
dt tit dt dl
PllOOF We ta ke the limit in Eq. (5) simply by ta king limits of components. We

find tha t
r' (t ) = ru-•O
Il• l l l6 - = 1llll
61
r .
o>.r-o
:..:: · ..::6::..:1):....-_':..:.<:..:.
' <:....c+.:...
61
t)
.
= .,.,_o
ltm
f(t + 6t)l + g(t + L\t )j + h (t + L\t )k - f( t )l - "(t)j - h(t)lc
'
L\1
= (I. llll
11r-0
f{t + L\t)- [(l)) l + (
At
l' llll
-'• · • 0
g{t + 1.\t)- g(l )) j
AI
• IJ(c + AI) - h(t) ) k

I1111
+ ( 11r-u AI
.. /'(1 )1 + g'(l)j + h'(l)k.
EXAM PllE 4 Find pam metric equation~ of the line t3ngent to the hcltx C of
Example 3 at the point /'(- I. 0. IT) whe re t = IT.
806 CHAPTER 12 Ve<ton, Curves, and Surface1 in Space
Solution Component wise differentiation of r (t) == Ieos I + J sin I + rk yields

r'(c) == - isint + J cost + k.
so the vector tangent to Cat Pis r '(:r)==-J + k =.(O. - 1.1). ~t. follows that the
parametric equations of the line tangen t at P-wtth tiS own post lion vector r(tr) +
cr'(:r )-arc
X:: -I. J =-c.
In particula r. we see tha t th is tangent line lies in the vcrticnl pl:lne .< = -I. +
lltcorcm 2 tells us that the formulas for com? uti ng deriva ti ves of sums and
products of vector-va lued functions arc formally s:mila r to those for real-valued
functions.
THEOREM 2 Differentiation Formulas

Let u(C) and v(c) he differentiable vector-valued functions. Let /z(l) be a differen-
ti able real-valued function and let c he a (constant ) sca lar. Then
I . D,!u (C) + v(r )j = u' (C) + v'(l).

2. D, (cu (l) j = cu'(l ).
J. D, (h(l)u(l) j = lt'(t)u(r ) + h(c )u' (C ),
4. D,(u(C) · •·(r)j = u'(t) · v(c) + u(t). v'(l), and
5. D,(u(r) X •·(c )] = u'(t) x v(r) + 11(1) x v' (t).
PROOF We'll prove part (4), working with two-dimensional vectors for simplicitv,
and leave the other parts as exercises. If ·
11(t) = ({t(f). [z(t)) and v(r ) = (g1(t),g2 (r)).
then
u(t ) . v(l) = ft(l)gt(l ) + {z(! )g2(1).
Hence the product rule for ordinary

- real-valued fu n.-t·tons gtves
.
D, [u(t)· •·(l)) = D,[ft (r)gt(l) + h(r )g2(rl)

= l f~(l)g.(f ) + {J(I)g; <l)) + lfi(t)g2(1) + [l(t)gi<l)l
' == (~ (l)g.(l) + r;<c>g1(1)) + [ft(t)g;(r) + fl(l)gi(t>J
= U (1) • \'(/) + U(/) • •'(1).
REMARK lltc ort.ler o f the factors in (-

because the cross product is not co part :l) of Theorem 2 must be preserved
mmutatt\·e.
ctrcle of radius a centered at the orP·. '_met nc curve r (r) = ni cos c + aj sin 1 is th~
• E.XAM PLE 5 'Otc trajectory o f the ara .
• tgm m the xy plan B ' a
constant, part 4 of Theo rem 2 gives . · ' e. ecause r(t) . r (t) == a·.
0 =dr~(a2 ) = dr~[r(l). r{l)) = r ' ()

1 • r(t) + r(l) · r'(t) = 2r'(t). r (r) .
Because r'(t) • r(t ) e O,wesecthat(consiste t .

FIGURE 12.5.8 The position and vector r'(t ) is perpendicular to the po ·r n wuh elementary geometry) the tangent
51 ton vector r (t) at every point of the circle
tangent vectors for the circle of
ExampleS.
(Fig. 12.5.8).
•
l' •
CurwJ •nd Motion in Space SECTION 12.5 807
Velocity and Accelerati on Vector$

Lookinl! at Fill- 12.5.1\ nod the dcftn1tion of r ' ll) in Eq . (5 ). " c note that ir (l .._ Cit) - r(tll
is the di;tanc~ from the point" ith p<Xition Hctor r(l) to the point " ith position n:ctor
r (t + 61 ). It follo"s that t he quoucnt
[r(r- ur)- rlt )i

.:.r
i~ Ihe a•·crage speed of a particle th attravch from r(rlto r(r + ..'>r ) in time 61. Cnnsc-
. . (5) .\·idds both the direction of motion nnd the in~tnntnncous
qucnth·.th(: limit in Eo.
speed of a panicle mo,1ng along a cm'c "ith poiltion vector ru).
\\'e therefore define the •·eloci t) • ector •·(t) at time 1 of a point mo ving along a
cu rve with posi tion \CCtor rtr) as the d~ri,oti\'C
• ttl:: r Ill= f'tlli -t .~;'tllj + ii'(I) L.: (7n)
in differential notation.
.ir tiJ ,i, d:
' "' - = - i +- ..:. j ... - L.. (7h)
dr tit dr tit
Its occelerution vector a (I) L' given by
ntr ) = • ' (I) = /"ll)i + ,l(ftlj + it"!tl k: (!Ia)
nltcrna tivcly.
(lib)
11111s, for motion in the plane or in space. ju~t as for mo tion along a line.
H·lodt~· i< tht· tinw clt•rhatile <>f P"'itinn:

uccderulinn is the lime olcrh·athe of •dndt~··
The speed r(r) and scnl:1r uccelemlion tl (l ) of the m oving point arc the lengths of its
velocity and acceleration vectors. resp.:ctively:
..Cl) = l• tt\1= \ i,,1·)1+(''~):

-tit + ('....:..
/(tlx): -
tit (9)
and
a(t) = ln(l )l = \
,i2.r)2
( dtl +
('ildt 2y)1 + ((flz)1
dtl · (10)
Note 111e scalar acceleration a = !dv f dt i is gencra!!y 1101 equal to the derivative
d v/dt of the speed of a moving point. The difference between the two is discussed in
Section 12.6.
EXAMPLE 6 A particle moving along the parabola y = .r 2 in the plane has position
vector r (l) = ti + t 2j . Find its velocity and acceleration vectors and its speed and
scalar acceleration at the instant when t = 2.
Solution Because r(2) = 2i + 4j. the location of the particle at timet = 2 is (2. 4).
Its velocity vector and speed arc given by
,. =I+ 2tj and v(t) = 1"(1)1 = v't + 4t2,

-------------------------~
808 CHAPTER 12 Ve<tors, Curves, a nd Surfaces In Space
2 _ Ji1 (a scalar). It~ acceleration is a (t):::: 'J(r).,

Y =
so v(2) i + 4j(a vector) and v< >.-
d = !al = 2 (scalar accele rati on) for an
2j (a constant vector). so .a = a~!Ja e 12 .5.9 shows the trajectory of the panic!~1
wnh ns vclocny and accelcrauon ve

,.(
incl udi ng the instant at wh~ch ~ - ." c:!~ 2) and a(2) au ached at its location (2,
2
•1
4
when 1 = 2.
. 1 ation speed, and scalar acceleration of a

EXAMPL E 7 Find the ,-~Jocrty. _acce/~~li~ ,~ith position vector
moving point P whose trajectory 15 th ·
r(l ) = (a cos wr) i + (a sin wr)j + br k . (It)
FIGURE 12.5.9 The velocity and
acceleration vectors at t = 2 Solution Equation (II) is a general ization of the po~itionl vecto~ r(/) .= i~os~ +
. I· 3 Here x 2 + r =a . so I le XJ•PfOJCCllon
j sin r .l. rk of the hfelprxlm . xatnhlep ~irc.lc of radius a centcrc.:d ill the origin. This
(hample6). . . E
(a coswr. a srn wt) o res on ( . . . .
· ·
prOJCCtron moves aroun l c d h. c·rclc
1 with ·mgular
' •
speed 11J radrans per unu lime).
'f b 0) h , t' . 1 'I'
Mean while. the point P itself also is moving u~ward (1 > . o n t e \c:r tC,J cy tn·
d cr o f rad IUS a; 1I1c ~-com p0 n ell! Of its ,·clocitv
• 1s d·f
: dt = b. Except for the radrus of
the cylinde r. the picture looks the same as Fig. 12.?.4. .
The derivative of the position vector in (I I) IS the ve locity vecto r
•·(r) = (-awsinwr) i + (awcoswr)j + b k. {12)
Another differentiation gives its acceleration vector
a (r) = (-atv2 cosltJI)i + (-(l{v2 sinwl)j
= - acvz( icos wt + j sin wr). (13)
The speed of the moving point is a constant. because
v(t) = ll'(l) l = J al,vl + bl.

Note that the acceleration vector is a horizontal vector of le ngth 11w2 • Moreover. if
we think of a(l) as attached to the mo,;ng point at the timer of evaluation-so that
the initial point of o(r) is t he terminal point of r(r )-thcn a(I) points d irectly toward
the point (0. 0. br J on the z·axis. +
REMARK The hdix of Example 7 is a typica l trajectory of a charged part icle in a

constam magnetic field. Such a particle must satisfy both Ncwwn's Jaw F = ma and
=
the magnetic force law F (qv) x B mentioned in Section 12.3. Hence its velocity
and acceleration vector.; must satisfy the cqu:nion
(q•·) X 8 = ma. (14)

If the constant magnetic field is \'ertical, B :::: Bk, then with the velocity vector of
Eq. (12) we find that
j k
qv x 8 = q -awsinwt acu coswr
b = qac<>B(icostut + jsinwr) .
0 0 8
The acceleration vector in Eq. (13) gives
2
rna= - maw (lcos wt + jsinwr).
When we co":'pare the last two results, we see that the helix of Example 7 satisfies
Eq. (14) prov1ded that
qawB = -maw2; that is, w = _q 8 .

m
Fo~ example, this equation wo.uld determine the angular speed w for the belie~!
traJectory of electron~ (q < 0) m a cathode-ray tube placed in a constant magneuc
FIGURE 12.5.10 A spiraling
ele<tron in a cathod~·ray tube.
field parallel to tbe ax1s of the tube (Fig. 12.5.10).
Curvts and t.lotion in Spllct SECTION 12.5 809
Integration of Vect or-Valued Functions

I nt egral ~ of vcct or·valu~d fu nctio M nrc d::tincd by ann logy with the definition o f an
intepal of a real-valued functio n:
1' r(l)t/1 = ~:".'.. t

•L I
rtt,' l ~1.
where r; i~ a point or the ith subint:.-~·:~1 o f a division of [a. bJ inro n sut>int c ~·n ls. all
with the ~arne len gth t'l.t = l b- a )l n .
If r! t) = f Cr ) i + gC t Jj is co ntmuo us on [a. b]. thcn-by takinglim it.scomponcn t·
wi~-wc ge t
= I ( •"lt
lim- • ()
t f er; >Ut)
1 el
+ j ( hm
- 0
~~
t
••I
g(t.' l t>t).
'I hi~ g ives the result th~t
(15)
llllls a •·t·crn r·\'rliurtl fr m ctin n may Itt' illlt'Jirat~d cnm pnm·mwi.fc'. ll1e three·
dime nsi o nal vers ion of E q. ( 15) is d e ri ved in the same way. merely includ ing third
components.
Now sup pose tha t lt (t) is :m antideri l'lllivt' o f r(t ). meaning tha t R'( t) = r(t ).
TI1at is. if lt (l) = f(t )i + G(l)j. then
R' (l) = F ' (l ) l + G(t)j = [ (t )i + g(t)j = r(t).
ll•c n compo ncntwisc intcgr:llion yields
[ r(t ) tit = i ([[II) tit) + j ( [ ):( t ) cit ) = i [ Ftr{ +j [ (;tt{:

= (Ftltli + G!lllj! - IF<nli + Gta >Jt.
Tims th e fundamental theorem ofcalculus for vector-valued functions takes the form
, J. =
h
!. • r (l ) tit = [RCI) R (/•l - lt (ll ). (16)
where R' (t) = r(l) is continuous on {tl, bj.

Indefinite integrals of "ector-valued functions may be computed as well. If
R '(t) = r(t), then e\'ery antideri\'ative of r(t ) is of the form R(t) + C for some
constant \'CCior C. We therefore write
j r(t ) cit = R(t) + C if R'(t ) = r(t). (17)
on the basis of a componentwise computation similar to the one leading to Eq. (16).
If r(t), v(t ), and a (l) are the position, velocity, and acceleration vectors of a
point moving in space, then the vector derivatives
c/r dv
- =v and -=a
dt dt
8 10 CHAPTER 12 VectOr$, Curves. and Surfaces in Spac~
imply the indefinite integrals

• II)::: J u(l) dl
(18)
and
r (l) = j \II) tit . (19)
r con~tant o f integration.
Both of these inte!!rals in,·oh·e 3 n :ct(l · • -
· poin t has ~:iven initial positio n vector r(O) = 21.

EXAM PLE 8 Suppo~c that 3 ~10 '~ng d :tcccler;tion ,·ector a (/) = 2i + 6tj. Find its
initial velocit) vector qO) == I - J· :an • •
position and velocity at tim.: t.
Solution Equat ion ( 18) gives
• (t) = j a(t)dt = j<21+6tj )dt =2ti +3tzj + C t.
. tor c we substitute 1 = 0 in t his equ:~tion and find that

To C\:tluatc t h c constnnI vee 1o • .
c c
•·{0) == (U)i + (0)j + 1• so 1 == v(O) == 1- j . Thus the vcloctty vector of the movmg
point at t ime 1 is
••(t ) = (211+ 3t2j ) + (I - j ) = (2.t + 1)1+ (3t 2 - I )j.
A second integration. using Eq. (19). gives
r (/) = j v(l) c/1
J
= tru + tll + (3t 2 - t >Jl tit= (t 2 + t)i + <r3 - t>j + c2.
Again we substitute 1 = 0 and find that Cz = r(O) = 2i. Hence

r (l ) = (1 2 + 1)1 + (1 3 - t )j + 21 = 2
(1 +I + 2)i + (13 - l)j
is the position vector of the point at time 1. •

Vector integration is the basis for at least one method of navigation. If a sub-
marine is cruising beneath the icecap at the North Pole. as in Fig. 12.5.11. and thUS
can u~c neither visual nor radio methods to determine its positi;n, there is :tn alter·
native. Build a sc nsiti,·c gyroscopc -accch:romet.:r combin:ation and inst:a\1 it in the
subm;trinc. The dcvic.: cont inuously measures the.: sub's acceleration vector. begin·
ning at the time 1 = 0 "'hen its position r (O) and vclocitv ' '(0) arc known . Becau~
v'(t) = a (t ), Eq. (1 6) gives -
1' a (I) cit = [v(t)1: = v(t)- v(O).
·--..------
' <:;;;;
-
,.
HCURE. 12.5.11 A submarine beneath the polar ltecap.

Curves and Motion in Space SECTION 12.S 811
so
v(t ) = ' (0) .._ fo' a (t ) dt.
Thus the velocity at e\'ery timet~ 0 is kn own. Similarly. because r'(t) = ,·(1), a seco nd
integra tion gi"es
r(t) = r (O) + 1' •·(I) dr
for the p<Xition of the ~ub at e"ef)· time 1 ~ 0. On-board computers can he pro-
grammed to carr: out th ese integrations (pc rhJf'S by using Simp;;on 's :lp proxima -
tion) and contlnuou;ly pro,ide captain and crew "'ith the submari ne 's (a lmos t) exact
po~ition and velocit:.
Motion of Proj ectiles

Suppose that a proJectile is laun:hed from the point (.fv. )t1l . with ) \l de noting its
initial height ahove the suriace o f the earth. Let a be the angle o f inclina tio n fro m
the hori 7o ntal o f its initial velocity -ector ' o (Fig. 12.5. 1::!). Then its in it ial posi ti o n
vec tor is
(20a)
and from Fig. 12.5.12 we sec tha t
•·o = (t'O cma JI + (t'QSi na)j . (20b)
=
whe re tiJ l•·ol is the initia l speed o f the projectile.
FIGURE 12.S.12 Trajectory of a We suppose tha t the mo tio n takes place sufficiently close to the surface th:l! we
projectile launched at the angle a . mny assum e that the earth is fla t a nd that gra,·i ty is pe rfectly un iform. lhe n. if we
also ignore air resistance, the acce le ratio n of the projectile iJ
clv •
II = -dt = -t:J.
~
where g ,:::; 32 ft/s 2 ,:::; 9.8 m/s 2 • Antidifferentintion gives

v(r) = - grj + C 1.
Put t = 0 in both sides of this last equation. This shows that C1 = v0 (as e xpected!)
and thus that
tlr
\ ' (! ) = - = - gtj + •·o.
dt
Another antidifferentiation gi\'CS

r (l) = -!gt2j +VOl + C2.
Now substituting! = 0 yields Cz = ro. so the position vector of the projectile at
time 1 is
(21)
Equations (20a) and (20b) now give

r(t) = ((t·o cosa)t + xo]i + [-!gr2 + (t'O sina)t + Jll]j.
so parametric equations of the trajectory of the particle are
X(l) = (LIJCOSa)/ + Xo, (22)
y(r) = - !gt 2 + (llosina)t + J\l. (23)

812 · Space
CHAPTER 12 Vectors, Curves, and Surfaces on II t an altit ude of 16011 ft to pass
· I10ri1.onta y a ' I d I
· Jane is tlymg d 10 relc·1se hay to a n ttcre. The
E~AMPLE 9 An:~nd ca ttle on the groun ,;'l:vhat ar;glc of sigh t <!> (between lht
·
dorcctly O\Cr ~now t~nt ISO milh (220 ft/s)l. , ld a bale of hay be re leased in order
Plane's sp.:cd IS a cons· . the ta roet) s tOU '
.
horit.o ntal nnd the d Jrect hnc 10 "'
to hit the target?

. _ o where tltc b·Jic ·
of hay is re leased at ti me
(
.
Solution (ft/s), an d cr -_ 0 · Tit c n Eqs. (22) and 23) take
Sce Fi1g. 12·5· 13. We _take .ro-
220
t = 0. 11ten ) IJ = 1600 (ft). Vo - ' 1600
theforms _ y(I)::- J6r+ ·
2201
x(t)-' _ JO (s) when the bale o f hay hits
· ns we find t 1tat I -
From the second of these equ:lllo . I d a horizontal distance
. 0) It hJS then tra\e e
the groun d ( ' = · f )
• =
x(IO) 220 · 10 2200 (I. =
1fence the required angle of sight is
1600) ~ 36.
¢= tan -
1(
2200 - · •
'
'
1600''
'
FIGURE 12.5.13 Trajectory of the hay bale of

Example 9.
EXAMPLE 10 A ball is thrown no rthward into the air from the origin in.ryz·spacc
( the .ry·plane represents the ground and the po\itive y-axis points n orth). The initial
velocity (vector) of the ball is
vo = v(O) = 80j + 80k.
The spin o f the ball ca uses an eJStw:ml accele ra tion of 2 ftfs2 in add ition to gravi·
tation:tl acceler:ttion. Thus the accelera tion vector produced by the combination of
gravity and spin is
a (t) = 2i - 32k.
FIGURE 12.5.14 The trajectory of First find the velocity \'Ccton(t) oft he ball and ils position vectorr(l}. Then determine
the ball of Example 10. where and with whal speed the ball hits the ground (Fig. 12.5.14).
Solution When we antidiffercntialc a (/) we get
v(t) = j a (t) dt = j (21 - 32k) dt = 2tl - 32tk + Ct.

We substitute t = 0 to find Ihat C 1 = v0 = 80j + SOk. so
v (r) = 2tl + 80j + (80 - 32t)k.
Another antidifferentiation yields
r{t) = j v(t) dt = j (2tl + 80j + (80- 32t)k) dt

2
= t 1+ 80tj + (801 - 16t1 )k + C2 ,
Curves and M ot ion in Sp.Kc SECTION 12.5 81 3
and sub~l iluting t =0 gives Cz = r(O) = 0. He nce the p05ilion vecto r of the ball i~
r (l ) = t 1i ~ 80tj "'- (801- 16t:)k.
"fhe ball hi ts 1he ground when : = SOt - 16t: = 0: th:H is. when t = 5. Its
posi1ion vec10r then is
r(5) = 5:i "'- 80 · 5j = 25i + -IOOj .
~o th e ball h as !raveled 25 h eastward and .WO h no rthward. Its vel ocity vector n t
impact is
v•(5) = 2 · 5i + 80j-"- (SO - 32 · 5)1.: = IOi + SOj -Wk.
so i1s speed v.hen it hits 1he gtound is
approxi ma1Ciy 113.51\ h/;.. Dcc.1u~e the b:~ll slarted "ith ini1inl speed l'o =
J'l$ul + 8C)l ::::. I 13.14 ft/s. its eas t" ard acceleration ha~ s lightly incrc:~~cd i1s tcrmin nl
speed. •

12.5 CONCEPTS : QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION
In Qurstiom I throu~:h J. lc•t r : ll - u3 b~ a V~C'tOr·l'lliurcl f rmcricm of II ro·al
varia!Jie t . In each question you are asked for a "conrtlinare-frt·c· ·· ti<'fi n irion. Comparc·
your tlcfinirion with the correspomlin~ componenrwi.u dl.'jinitirm or calculation. Do
tlrr. two agra?
t. Give a definition o f lim, _. r(t) that docs no! involve the compone nt funclions
of r.
2. Give a definilion of r'(t) th ai docs not involve the component functi ons o f r.
3. Give a d efinilion o f
J.br(t ) dt
thnt does not involve !he compone nt functions of r.
12.5 PROBLEMS
In Problem.~ 1 through 4, also matcll tlrl.' curves tlt~re dejinrtlwitlr their thru-tlimtnsiona/ plots in Figs. 12.5.15 through 12.5.18.
FIGURE 12.5.15 FIGURE 12.5.16 FIGURE 12.5.17 FIGURE 12.5.18

4
8 14 CHAPTER 12 Vectors. Curve s. a nd Surfaces in Space
1. Show th~ t the graph of the curve wi th parametric equations 29• a(r) = 2j _ 6rk: r0 21: ' 'o = 5k =
x = r. y = ~h 5r. : = cos Sr bcs on the circular cylinder 30
• a(r) = 6rl- 5j + t2r: k: ro 31 + 4j : = vo = 4j - Sk
i + r = I cente red nlons the x·axis. · 31. a (r) = ri ... r=j + r' k: ro = 101: "" = !OJ
2. Shov; that the ~raph of the curve with parametric equations J!. a(r) = 11 + t · 'j : '" = ) i + 4j : v0 = 5k
x = sin r. y =cos r.: = cos8r lie< on the vertic:~ I circubr
C) Iinder x: - .'J = !.
J3.a(l): i cosr..- j sinr: ro = j : vo= - i + Sk
= 3i + ~j :
II 3. Shov; that th~ graph o f the curve "; th parametric equations
.t c tsan fu.)'= ICc ~t)t, : c rl ic~onthccon e : e J r 1 - ,\J
with i t~ vcncx nt the oriein and opening up ..... a rd.
.).l a (ll = 9ti sin3r~j cosJr) + ~ k:
J~. 11te parametric equatit,ns of a movi ng point are
ro •0 = 21-7\
.r(tl = 3cos2r. .'' (1 ) = 3sin2r. ~(r) =St.

4. Show that the graph of the cur.·e "ith pa rametric equations
=
x = cos /\in ~r . y ~i n r stn ~r.: =eo5 ~rlies on the surface find its wlocitv. speed. and nccclcrntion at timer = h /8.
of the sphere l 1 + l-r z' I. = 36. Usc the equations in '11!corem 2 tO calculate
In Prohlmn 5 thrn11Kh 10. find the vn111rs af r'(t) and r ·(t) for f),[u(r) . • <n) and D, (u (r) x v(r))
tire Ri''~n \'nlu~s ofr. u(r) = (r.r:.r ' ) nnd • (r) = (o:' .cos r.sinr).
1f
5. r(r) =dl - 2j : r =I 37. Verify part 5 ofThcorem 2 in the special case u (r) = (0, 3. 41)
6. r(r) = r2 i - r 1j : r ., 2 and v(l ) = (Sr. 0. -~).
7 . r(r) = r 2' 1 + t'' ' j: r=0 38. !'rove part 5 of Theore m 2.
II. r(r)= l cosr + j smr: t • :T / ~ 39. 1\ point moves on 11 sphere centered a t the origin. Show
9. r(l) = 31em ~nr + 3j sin 2 .T r: 1 = 3/~ that it< 'e!ocity <ector i>:•!ways tange nt to the sphere.
10. r(l ) = 51co.r - 4j ~i n r: I = ;r .SO. A particle moves " ith constant ~peed along a curve in space.
l
Show that 11< veloci ty :tnd acceleration vectors are alwn)1
In Problems II tluott.~lt 16. rlre po.<ition vrctor r(r) of a {Jarti· pc rp~nd ic ula r .
cle moving in sptzcr iJ givtn. Fir.d irs •·elocity arrd acceleration 41. Find the ma,imum height reached by the ball in Example !0
Vt'Ctor.f ami irs speed at timr r. and nho its speed at that height.
11. r (l) = rl.._r:j -r' k 42. 11te llngular momcnturn l .(r) nnd torque t (l) o f a mo•ing
12. r(r) = r 1 (3i + ~~- 12k ) pa n icle: of m:u;s m u.;th ro~ition ve-ctor r ( t ) arc defined to be
13. r(r )= ri +.k'l + ~<" k l (l) = m r(l) x • (1). t(l ) = lll f(l) X 1 (1).
14. r(l) = l l + , :'j + r' k
!'rove that l '(l) = t (l ). It fo llows th at 1.(1) must be con·
JS. r (l) = (3 cos r)i + (3sinr)j - ~r k slant if t a 0: this i~ the law of conservation o f angulu
16. r (l) = t2ti -(5sin2r)j - (5cos2r)k momentum.
Calc 11 1atc thr inttgrol> in P10blerru llthr011glr 20. Problems ~Jrlrrouglz ~8 deal witlz a projectile fired from the ori·
gin (so Xn = )I> = OJ "·irlr i•1irial sputl ' 'o ami initial anglt of
17. t '' (lsinr + 2j cosr)dr
Ja 18. [ ( ~· - j)dl i11cluwrwn a. Tlrr. ron~:r <~f t/zc pmjecrile is tlrr horizorrraltlil·
IOIIU it travels befo r" it rrtums ro rltr .~wwul.
43. If a = 45' . what vnlue of t·0 gives a ra nge of I mi?

44. If a = 60 and the range is R = t m i. what is the ma•imum
height attained by the pmjcctilc'l
In Pw l>fmr.f 11 rltmt~glr 14. apply 11reorcm Z to comptll~ rltt
4~. Deduce from Eqs. (22) and (23) the fact that the range is
dni••ati•·~ D,(u(r) · • (I))
21 • u (l) = J ri - J. w(l) =21- Srj R = ~t.'~Sinaros a.

22. u (l) = rl + r 1j . v(r) = r 1i -rj 46. Give n the initial spccJ t'(l, lind the an~ic a that maximizes
2J, u (r) = (cosr.sinr), v(l) = (sin r. -cos t ) the range. !Suggrsrimr: Usc the result ~f Problem 45.1
z.a. u = (I ,rl .r'l. ,. = (cos 21 . si n 2t. r ·lt) =

47. Suppu~ thalt'(l 160 (Ills). Find the maximum height .v....
und the ra nge H of the projectile if (n) a = 30 ; (b) " " J5' :
1 Problrms 15thro~gh 34, tilt accrlnation v~cror a (r ), riJ~ in/rial (c) a =00'.
n it ion ro = r(O). and rhe /nitta/ vrlocicy Yo = • (0) of a pnrticlt 48. The p rojectile o f Problem 47 is to be fi red at a target 60J ft
pos . ,. d . •' ()
moving in :ryt·spaet art g~>·m. rtn tiS poswon vu tor r t at away•. and there is a hill 300 ft high m idway between the
rimt' c. gun su e and this ta rget. At wh at initial a ngle of inclinanon
should the projectile be: fired?
..,, • =0·.
u t o • I; =k Yo
49. A projectile is to be fi red horizontally from the top of 3
26. a =21; ro = Jj: vo = 4k
t (J().m chff at a targe t I km fro m the base of the cliff. \\'lilt
n . a (t ) = 21 - 4k ; ro "' 0: . ... lOj
should be the initial velocity o f the projectile? (Ust g $
28. a (t } = 1 - J+ 3k; ro = Si; vo =7J 9.8 mls1.)
Curves and Motion in Spa:c SECTION 12.5 815
.SO. A bomb is d roppcd (initial s1ced zero) from a helicopter rndius r nt a consta nt nngular spee d oft)) radian~ per second
hove ring 3t 3 height of SOO m . A projectile is fired from a (Fig. 12.5.1 9). If its initial position is (r. 0), the n its pos ition
gun located o n the ground SOO m west of the roint directly vector is
be nea th the hdicopter. l ne projectik is surposed to inter· r(l) = ir cO<tul + j r si n cvt.
cep t the bo m b a t a hci!'ht of exactly 400 m. If the pro jcctik
is tired at th e same instant that the t-omb i< dropped, what (a) Show th:tt the vclocitv vector of the pHtticlc is tangent
s hou ld be its initial 'clN:ity and 3 11):1C of incl in:n ion'! to the circle nnd tha t ittc speed o f the pa rticle is
51. Suppose, mo re realistica ll1. tha t the projectile of l'ro- v(l ) = 1• (11= r w.
ble m 50 is fired I s after the bl'mh is drorr•·d. \\'hat should
be its initial ' 'clocity and an~le <'f inclination? (b) Show tha t the ncc.ek rn tion vector a of the particle is
directed opposite to r a nd that
52. An artillery gu n " ith a munlc 'Ciocity of 1000 h/s is located
ato p a seaside cliff 500ft h•gh . At '~ hat initi31 inclina tion n (l ) = la(l) l = r w 2•
angle (or an~les) Slh>uld it 5rc a projcct i!~ in orde r to hit a
ship at se.a 20 .000 ft from the base of the cltff!
SJ. S up pose that the vector-v:tlu,·d function< u (r) and v(r) both
haH•Iimits as r - a. !'rove:
,_.
(a) lim(u (r) + v{r)) = lim u(r) +lim \ (I );
,_, ,_.
(b) !~(u{r) · , (l)) = (!~~u(l)) . (!~~ ,·(1)) .
~. $uprose th at roth the vector·\'3!ued func tion r(l ) and the
re.al-valued function h (t ) are di!feren tbble. Deduce the
chain rule for ' ·eetor·v.>lueJ functions.
D.(r(h(rll] = h '(r)rl hlr)).
in compo::entwisc f:!.Shion from the ordinary chain rule.
~~- A po!nt mo,·es "'ith constJnt speed. so its velocit y '·ecto r v
sati~fi~ the co:1dition FIGURE 12.5.19 Uniform circular
motion (Problem 61 ).
tvt: = v · • = C (a constant).
Pro\'e t!'lat the velocity and acceleration \ectors of the point 6 2. Suppo<c thnt a particle is mo,i ng und~r the influence o f n
arc ~!ways pcrpendicu~ r to each other. a nrral Ioree tic ld n = k r. where k is a scalar function of .r.
56. A point mon~s o n a circle "hose center i< a t the origin. y . and : . Conclude that the trajectory of the pa rt icle lies in
I.Jse the d ot product to sho,.,· that the ~ition and veloci ty a fixtd plane throug.h the origin.
'ectors of the m o , ·ing point are always perpendicular. 63. A tx,.cball i< thro"n with nn :nitbl , ·elocity o f 160 ft/s
57. A pom: mo,es on the hyperbola xJ- y = l wit h posit ion s traight up" ard from the ground . It expcricnC<'S a down-
war.! gr>''ot at ionat accekrat ion ol32 ftls1 • llec:ttl5e o f spin.
r (l) = I cO\h wt - j sinh wt it exp~nt:ncc:' "btJ a {lh.Jrilonul) north" ard accdt"r:.tt ion of
0. I ftls 1: othe r\\ is c. th e a ir has no clk<:t on its motio n . Ho w
(the nu:nber w" a com:..nt ). l'ro'c that the uccclcntion far n<lrth o f the throwin!! point will the ball bnd7
,ecto r • 11) ~uwes the equatio n • ( t) = cr(r). "here c ts a
~it 1 ve coru!.l!nt. What wrt o f external force v.ould pro·
(.4. A l>:"ch.oll i< hit with an init i.tl vclt'>dty of 96 ft:s and anini·
tial inchn;tt iun angle nr 15 ' hom ~round k \ d str :ti_~ ht d\l\\ n
duce thu k ind of mo tion'
a (uullln~. llt."l•.lll\C nf !!>pin It expcrlcn\.·C:s .l hurllt'llt:t l .JC'C"e}-
58. Suppose t.ltat a point mo ,e• on the elliP'e cratlnn of 2 ft/,: rc;.·r p\·nd•cular hJ the" f,,ut hne: othl•rwi~c.
x' >J --,.
(1:lr
_, the " " h:" "" dlcrl con ot< nH>t iton. When the t-all hits the
.!rnunll. tuw. f.u 1\ It rrom the: hl\l lllne-7
,. ith position ,·ector r(l) G i:J CQ\ . , , ... j lni n wr (bJ ;, a con · 65. 1\ J>rPJn'lii< " 111 ed nnllh" ·"d (on the l""itr\ c y-directi(ln)
nan!). Pro,·e that the attckra toun Hctor • \Htl\tle• the uut tu ><3 !rum the top of • '<·•'i 'lc doll 'S-1 ft hi11h. '11le
equation • O ) = cr <1 ). "'here c "a net-auve e<>n•t~nt To "':~at prujC'ctlh:\ tmtt;tl \'ck~·at~ \ C'Ch tl 1" ' •' : ~U1j + lflllt. . In ad·
!oOrt of external Ioree F il l doc• thl\ mu!lo n cor re•pond · dt1HII1 hl J Jtt"' n.... .ud (nq:.thvr : · dH l'(h,·m ) ~r.t v1t rtt ion31
:u:.:rlcutaon of J~ It',:. It c \ Jl('rie ncc:s 10 flight an rrnt " 3rd
~- A pomt mo•~ in the p~ne ..it~ C<Jn\t>nt accekration ~cc·
(ptl\lll''C' r -dorn·tron) accck nllh)ll (l(:! ftl<' due to srin
101 • = aj . p10 ,c tlt)t iu path " a pa ra bola o r 3 ll raty,h t
( N) lind the rro)C(trlc\ Hlocity nnd po <itio n vccton 1 sec·
Lne... ond\ •Ite r it " tired
M. p>rtlck "wbjcctto no force. so il• acce~er·
s.,f'PUW= th.at 3 (b) l lo"' Inn~" the proJ<Clolc in the atr'!
1110n\eC!or 8 r1 ) is oder.tu:ally rero. Pro- e thot the pa rttcle (c) Where doc\ the proJeCt de htt the wMer ( : = 0)7 (ii,c
tr.-ch • kmt a st ratght hnc at con<t3n t spc:ed (:-.le ,. ton's the an,v.er by tdlm~ how far no rth o ut to sea and ho" '
f.ntl.t " of mo u o n). fAr ea\1 along the Cfi~U 1\ il\ lmp.tt t P'"lll<\n.
6 1. u , oform Cur ular .\fo~rt O:mnder a p~rt ock that moves (d) Whar i• the maximum height or the projeCitk a l><" e the
• coun:crc.loc k• t\C around lh~ Circle "' l!h untcr ro. 0) and w 3tt:r'
816 CHAPTER 12 Vt<tors, Curves, and Surfaces in Space
th the gun and target ;~re on level ground. Hal(,.
66. A gun tire<~ shell "'·ith ~ mu1.7le \"elocity o f 150 mls. While an d bo . h 1i II . ~tv
between them is a hill (.CIO m h~ g . e ~rcCJSely how 10 a:,;,
the ~hell is in the air. it e xperiences ~ do,.-nward (,·erti· h gun-both compass hcad.ns and mchnation from tl:
cal) gravitational accelera tion of 9 m/s: ~nd ~n east ..•ard ~o~izontat-so that the shell will clear the hill and hitth~
(horizontal) Conohs acce!cratJon of 5 cmls:: air resistance
ma)· be: ignored. The ta rgct•s 1500 m due north of the gun. target.
12.5 Project: Does a Pitched Baseball Re:tlly Cun·c?

' Have vou ever wondered whe ther a b:lSeball pitch really curves o r whether it"s
some ;ort of optical illusion? In this project you'll usc calculus to illuminate tile
matter.
Suppose that a pitcher throws a ball toward home plate (60 ft away, as in
WHo Fig. 12.5.20) and gives it a spin of S revo lut ions per second countcrclock_wisc (as
0 viewed from above) about a vert ical a xis through the center of the ball. llus spin is
I tome
pb tc dc~c rihcd hy the .<pin •·ector S that points a long the axis of revolutio n in the right·
handcJ Jircction ~nd has lengt h S (Fig. 12.5.2 1).
i FIGURE 12.S.20 The X·d•l~ points

toward hom~ plate.
We know from studies of aerodynamics th at this spin causes a difference in air
pressure on the sides of the ball towarJ and away from thi s spin. Studies also show
that th is pressure Jifference results in a spin nccclcmrion
I as= cS x v
I or the ball (where c is an empirical constan t). The total acceleration o f the ball is
I then
a = CcS x v) - g k . (2)
where g ~ 32 ft/s2 is the gravitational acceleration. II ere we will ignore any other
effects of ai r resistance.
With the spin vector S = S k pointing upward. as in Fig. 12.5.21. show first thai
•
S X,.= -Su,.i + Su,j. (3)
whd~re ··~ is the componen t of , . in the x -dircction and u1 is th e component of v in the

Y· lrCctron.
FIGURE 12.S.21 Th~ spln and
For a ball p itched along the x-axi , · hI
velocity vectors. imation s x v = St· J' is s uftic·e s. t, ts muc arger than t·1 • and so the approx·
• ' nt 1Yaccura te for ou r purp \" h k th
acceleration vector of the ball to be oscs. vc may t en ta ·e e
a = cSv,j - gk. (~)
Nowsuppose thatthepitcherthrows 1h b .
~ = 5 (ft), with initial ve locity vector
· e all from the •nitial position x0 =)b :0.
vo = 120i - 2j + 4k (S)
(with components in feet per second 5
=
of S 'j! rev/s. A reasonable value ~f ~ ~:' ~ 120 ft/s, about 82 milh) and with a spin
c = 0.005 flfs2 ftl
per s of velocity and rcv/s o f spi n
although the precise value depend . ·
course) scuffed the ball or administ s odn whether the pitcher has (accidentally. of
ere some fo rcig
Sh ow ll rstthat these values of th
hs
n su la nce to it.
e parameters yield
• =16J -32k
for lhe ball's a cceleration vector The .
· . vector
posttJon · n Integrate 1Wte.
· e ·tn su ccession to find the ba tt"s
r(t) =.r(t)l + y (t )j + l (t)k .

Curvature and AcceferJtion SECTlON 12.6 81 7
U~e your resu lts tO fi ll in th e foiJO\\ing table. giving the pitched ba iJ"S h o rizo ntal
deflection y and height z (ahove th e ground) a t qu:mcr-sccond inten·a ls.
I (\)
I r (ft) I .l (ft)
I :(ft)
0() 0 I .,0 5
025 30 I 7
oso , (,() I ? ?
Suppo\c that the batter geg a -fi-.;- on the pitch hy ot-se n ·ing the ball d uring
the first qu a rtc:r- ~c:cond and rrc:p:m·s tow. in~. ,\ fta o.:.' s does the pitch st ill appear
to be straigh t on t:trgct towa rd ho me plat<.: at J heifht of 5 ft7
What happen\ to the h:tll during the tina! qu:trt~r-second ofits approach to ho me
pla te-after the batter h a~ hc~:un to ~"inl! the bat: \\11:11 "ere tht: t>all",; horizontal
and vertical delkctions during thts b:icf reriod7 \\nat is your conclusion'! Docs the
.
pitched ball rcall\ ..cunc .. or not~.
12. 6\ CURVATURE AND ACCELERATION

l l1c ~p~:cd of a mov int: point is ci1N~ly rela ted w the: nrc le ng th o f its trajec tory.
'll1c arc-lc.:ngth formu la for pa rame tric curve~ in ~pace (or space! czuvt•s) is a natural
ge ne rali zation of the formul a for parametric plane curves [Eq. (8) o f Section 10.5].
llte nrc hm~:t h s al ong the smooth curve with posit ion vector
r(r) = /(t )i + ,~; (l)j + h(r)k =xi + yj + ~k (1)
from the po int r(a) to th e p<Jint r(/l) is. by definition.
•< = 1~ J ix' Ul F + (.111tlF + [::'Cr)j=dr

= 1,. (- + (''-Y ): + (-
.•
tfx ):
tit tit
tf: ) : tit .
,/r (2)
We see from Eq. (9) in St!ction 12.5 th:tt the intcgr:tnd is the speed v(r) = lr'(l )l of
the moving po in t with positio n vector r(l). so
.f = 1~ 1'(1) , ,, • (3)
EX AMP LE 1 Find the a rc le n gth of o ne turn (from t 0 to t = = 2:r fw) o f the hel ix
shown in Fig. 12.6. I . This he lix has th e parametric equa tions
x(t) = a cos w r, y(t ) = a sin wt . Z(l ) = bt .
Solution We found in Exa mple 7 o f Sectio n 12.5 tha t
v(t ) = J a1wl+fi2.
Hence Eq. (3) gives
,
2.T/w 2:r
s=
1
0
J a2cif + b2 cJt = -
w
Ja2w2 + !J2.
Fo r insl:lnce, if a = b = w = I, the n s = 2:r J'i. which is J2 times the circumfe rence
o f the circle in the x y-plane ove r which the he lix lies. •
Let s(l ) de no te the arc length alo ng a smoo th curve from its initial point r(a)
FIGURE 12.6.1 The helix of
Example 1. to the vari able point r (l ). TI1cn, from Eq. (3), we o btain the urc·length function s(t)
818 CHAPTER 12 Vecton. Curves. and Surfaces in Space
of the curve:
s(t) = [ v( r ) dr. (4)
The fundamental theorem of ca Icu1us then gi"es

ds (5)
- =V.
dr
. . II' ofchatt"t' ofits arc-lcngth frmcrion. l(
· ' 11 IS tl!t' 111111' ra "
Thusrlll~spadofrht•m?''"'gpou I) is an increasing function of t and therefore
L'(l ) > 0 for all 1. then II foliO\'S that s ( . , wl'th r (s) in th e curve's original
· 1 (5 l Wh •n we n:p 1.tcc 1
hn~ an in\·crsc f~nc uon • . c •
1
•th param etrization
1
paramc1ric equations. we obt:un the arc en ~:
x = x(s) . y = y(s). : = z(.r).
. · · o • 1 as n funclio n of nrc length measured along
FIGURE 12.6.2 A curve l l1is gives the po\tll<•n of the rnovm=- pom
p.~rametrizw by arc length s. the cun•c from ils ini lial point. (See Fig. 12.6.2.)
EXAMPLE 2 Ir we Ia ke a = 5, I 12 and'"- 1 for the hel ix of Example I, then

'= · • · -
. ( 2 2 11)112
the \'clocny formula " = a w + ' Y''clds
v= Jsl . Jl + 122 = JJ69= 13.
Hence Eq. (5) gives tis{dr = 13. so
s = 131.
taking s= 0 when r = 0 and thereby measuri ng arc length from I he natural star~ing
point(5. 0. 0). When we substituter= s / 13 and the numerical values of a.b.an~ w1~to
the original parametric equations of th e helix. we ge t the nrc·length pnrametnzauon
U 'Jt s s 12s
~aiUft x(s) = 5cos iJ• y(s) = 5sin J3• <:(s) = 13
0
of the helix. •
Curvature of Plane Curves
The word cun·arurr has an intuiti\'e meaning that we need to make precise. Most
people would agree that a straight line does not curve at all, whereas a circle of small
radius is more curved than a circle of large radius (Fig. 12.6.3). This judgment may be
FIG URE 12.6.3 The intuitive idea based on a concepti on of curva ture as "rate of change of direction."l11c direction of
of curvature. a cur\'c is dt:termincd by its velocity \'CCtor, so you would expec t the idea of cur\'aturc
to have something to do with the rate at which the velocity vector is turning.
Let
r ( t) = x (t )i + y(r)j . a ;;; r ~ b (6)
be the position vector of a differentiable p13ne curve that is smoorlt- meaning that
T
the velocity vector v( t) = r ' (t ) is nan zero. Then the c·J rve 's unit tangent netor a1th~
point r (t ) is the unit vector
T (t) = ~ = V(l)
)\'(/)) l'( l ).
where u(t ) = )v (t)) is th~ speed. Now denote by t/! the angle of inclination ofT.
measured counterclockwtse from the positive .t·axis (Fig. 12.6.4). Then
T = i cost/J + j si ntt~ . (8)
FIGURf 12.6.4 The unit tangent We can express the unit tangent vector T of Eq. (8) as a function of the ar:·
vector f . length parameter s indicated in Fig. 12.6.4. Then the rate at which T is turninS 15
Curvature and Acceleration SECTION 12.6 819
m~asured by the derivative

dT d T do • . • d¢
ds =do· ds =(- •sm¢+ J cos¢) ds' (9 )
l'otc that
(dTI
1ds
=Ideds l (10)
became the vector o n the right-hand side of Eq. (9) is a un it vector.

The cunaturc at a point oi a plane curve. denoted by K (lowe rcase Greek
kappa). is therefore defined to be
(11)
the ab~olu t c value o r the rate o r change or the ande ¢with respect to nrc length s .
We dcfme th e curvatu re K in term< of d¢ 1ds rat her than d¢/dt beca use the latter
depend~ not only on the sha pe o f the cu rve. but also o n the speed of the moving point
r (t ). f o r a str a1ght hn e the angle 6 is a constant. so the curvature gi ve n by Eq. (11)
i~ zero. If you imagine a point that is mcl\ing with constan t speed alo ng a curve. the
curvat ure i< ~r<.:atc>t nt poin t ~ "'here¢ chnnges the mos t r:.pidly. such as the points
p f' and U on th e curYc o f Fig. 12.ti.5. 1l1c curvature is l c:l~t :lt poin ts such as Q and S,
where r/J is changing the tca~t rapidly.
FIGURE 12.6.5 The curvat ure Is We need to derive 3 for mula that i.s effective in comp uting th e curva ture of a
IMge at P and R, small at Q and S. smooth parametric pl:lnc curve x = x (t), y = y(t). First we note that
<!> = tan- 1(dy) = tan - 1(y'(l))

dx x'(t )
I!
provided x ' (l ) -1 0. Hence
do
- = y"x' - y'x" -. ( I
dt (x ')2 .
(>')
+ -x'
2
) _ x'y" - x"y'
- ___..:..-:----_:-:
(x ')2 + (y) 2,
where primes denote derivatives with respect tot . Because v = dsfdt > 0, Eq. (1 1)
gives
K = ld"'l = l d<!> I=~ ~ d¢1:
ds dt
' dt
ds v dt
thus
(12)
At a point where x'(t) = 0, we know that y'(t) # 0, because the curve is smooth.
Titus we will obtain the same result if we begin with the equation cf> = cot- 1(x' 1y').
An explicitly described curve y = f(x) may be regarded as a parametric curve
x = x, y = f (x). 11ten x ' = 1 and x" = 0, so Eq. ( 12)-with x in place of r as the
parameter-becomt!S
(13)
EXAMPLE 3 Show that the curvature at each point of a circle of radius a is~e = If a.
Solution With the familiar parametrization x = a cost, y = a sin t of such a circle
centered at the origin, we let primes denote derivatives with respect to t and obtain
.r' = -a sin 1, >?=a cost,
x" =-a cost, y" = -asinr.
820 CHAPTER 12 Ve<tOtl, Cu~s. and Surfact1 in Space
Hence Eq. ( 12) gives

. )( a sin I ) _ ( -a cos t)(a cos t )l al _
~t =
1( -a Stnl -
[(-asint )~ ... (acos t )
zp t2 =a' --;;
. . < d E ( 13). O ur point o f de parture would then be
Alt crnattvcly. we could ha'e u. e q. . le ". nd we would compute y' and y" b)•
th e equa l·ron .("• + r ' = al 0 f th ~• sam
•
e crrc . " •
implicit diffe rent iation. (Sec Prob lem ·> 27
II CollO" 'S immctli3tcly from Eq~ (8) ~nrl (9) th at

dT
T· - = 0.
ds
· . T • nd its d~ri,·ati\'C ,·ector d T f ds a re pe rpendicular. If
so the unn tangent 'ector u • • f dT t ·
idT / ds ) ,;_ 0. then the unit vector ;..; tha t points in th e d1 rec11on o / < s IS called
the principal unit normal •·ector to the cur\'c. Dec:JUs.: K = ldtf>f dsi = idT Ids) by
Eq. (10). il follows that
dT (14)
- = KN.
ds
lnlll itivc ly. N i< tire unit IW flnal vector tn the curw: tlrat poilll.f in the din•ction inll'laiclr
tlrr cun ·t· is brmling.
Suppose tha i /' is a point on a p:lr:lrne lrized curve at which K # 0. Consider the
circle that i> tangen t to tho: cu rve a t P :1nd ha< the same cur\'al ure the re. l lle center
of the circle is t~ lie on the conca\'e side or the curve- that is. on the side toward
which the normal ,·cctor ;..; poin ts. Thi~ circle is called the osculat ing circle (or d rclt
or ~unutu re) or the curve at the gi\'en poin t beca use it touches the cu rve so closely
there. (O .,·u/wu i< th" L11i n u.·or<.l for kus. ) Le t p be the r adius of the oscula ting circl<
and h:t -r = OC he the posi tion \'ector of its cen ter C (Fig. 12.6.6). Then p is. called
the rudius ur cur•·aturc of the curve at th e poi nt I' a nd '"'f is en lied the (vector) center
or cun alure of the curve nt P.
Example 3 implies that the radius of curvature is
I
FIGURE 12.6.6 OscuiJt.ing circle, P= - (lSI
I(
radius of curvature, and centN of
curvJturc. and th e rnctthat JNI = I implies that the positio n vector of the center of curvature is
"'( = r + pN (r = iJi'). (161
EXAMPLE 4 Determine the vectors T a nd N. the curvature K and the center of

curvature of the parabola y = x 2 at the poi nt ( 1. 1). •
Solution If the parabola is parametrized by x = 1 _ 2 h · ·· ,. 's
= t i + 12j, so v(t) = i + 2, Th
r(t)
1· e speed .IS ••( t) • Y- t • I en Hs posllton \ector I
=
J J+ 4t2, so Eq. (7) yi<!lds
T(t) =~ = 1+2tj
V(l) JJ + -ltl'
By substituting t = I, we find that the un 1·t 1angent vector at (1, I) is
1 2
T = -1+ - j
./5 ./5 .
Because th e parabola is concave upward .
the upward-pointing unit vector at (1. 1), the principal unit normal vector IS
2
N= - -1+ -1 J
./5 ./5
t hat i~ pe rpcndtcular to T . (Kote th:!t T · ;-.; = 0 .) If y = xl, then dyf d:r = 2r and
d:) / dx 2 = 2.so Eq. (13) ~1clds
I, .• , 2
I( = (! ... (~'):p 1 = (I ... .s.:z)J'= ·
So at t he point ( 1. 1) v. e find the cu n ·aturc and r ndius o f cur,·aturc to be
2
I(= - -
5./3
re~pccth·ely.
Kc xt . Eq. ( 16) gives the center of cun-a ture as
"'!= ( I. I) + -~- ( - 2
1) = (- .1.:;7) .
sJs ,-=· IZ
- "'" ' " -
"Ihe equation of the ~u!Jting circle to the rarabol:l nt (I. I) is. therefore .
.,.~
(X - .l ) " -
• (
}' -
- ) :
! = p · = -j-.
'I t
Figu r•: 12.6.7 \hOIJ. S thi' larcc oscubt mc circle at the point ( I. I). ns well as the
• . I I
fiGURE 12.6.7 0 \culating circlts \lllallcr o~culatinr ctrclc' that a rc tangent to the pamlxlla a t t he points (0. 0). (3. 9l.
for thC' parabo la of Example 4. and <i. ~ ). 1\ it clear t o~ nu "hich of thc<c oscul:ning circles is wh ich? +
Curvature o f Space Curves
Comidcr now a rml\'in,: p.rrticlc in ~pace with twice-differentia ble position vector
r (t ). Suppo'e a b~1 t hat the velocity ,·eetor \' (/)is neve r ze ro. Th e unittongcnl ' 'C("tor
at time t i~ dcli ncd. a ~ before, to be
. \ (/ ) v(t)
f (t ) =- - =-
t•·(r )l
.
11(1)
(17)
so
,. = t:T. (18)
We defined the curvature o f a plane curve to b.: " = id¢ / d.sl. whe re¢ is the a ngle of
incl ination of T from the posit h ·c x-a~is. Fo r a space cu rve. !he re is no single angle
tha1 d.:1crmincs the direction of T . so we adopt the follo\\~ng a pproach ( which leads
to the sam e valu e for curvature whe n applied to a space curve th at happe ns to lie in
the xy·planc). Differentiating the identity T · T = 1 with respect to arc length s gives
dT
T · - =0.
rls
It follows that the vectors T a nd dT / d.s are always perpendicular.
The n we de fine th e n1r•·atnrc" of t he curve at the point r(l) to be
"= 1 (~~1 = 1 ~,~ ~:I= ~~~~I· 09 )

At a point where K # 0, we define the prindpalunit normal ~ector N to be
N rlTf ds I dT
l = idTfdsi = ; ds' (::!O)
so
dT
ds = KN. (21)
Equation (21) shows that N has the some direction as dTfds (Fig. 12.6.8), and
fiGURE 12.6.8 The principal unit Eq. (20) shows that N is a unit vector. Because Eq. (21) is the same as Eq. (14),
normal vector N points in the
direction in which the curve is we sec that the present definitions of K and N agree with those given earlier in the
turning. two-dimensional case.
ture K of the helix of Example I, the helix With
EXAMPLE S Compute the curva
parametric equations
x(t ) = o cos wt. ) ·(t ) = asinwt. ;;(t ) = bt.
. we computed the \'Cioc:ity vector

Solution In Example 7 of Sccuon 12 ·5•
=
v l(-awsin M) + j (awcoscvt) + bk
and speed
t: = l''l = /a2cv2 + fi!.
Hence Eq. (17) gives the unit tange nt \'ector
,. i(-ow sin wt) + j(/Uv cos w t ) + bk.
T =-
II = 7 I I+
.,a·w- '·'
IT
Then
dT i(-aif cos wt ) + j { -ac.1~ sin wt)
dr = J a2wl + li
so Eq. (19) gives
for the curvature of the helix. l'otc that tlu: helix h:ts constant cur\'aturc. Also note
that. if b = 0 (so that the helix reduces to a circle of radius o in the xy·p lane), our
result reduces to I( = 1/ a. in agreement with our computation of the curvature of a
circle in Example 3. +
No rmal and Tangential Compo ne nts of Acceleration

We ma)' npply Eq. (21) to analyze the meaning of the acceleration vector of n mov·
ing particle with velocity vector ,. and speed t•. 11tcn Eq. (17) gives v = vT , so the
acceleration vector of the particle is
u = d,· = d uT +vdT = dv T +v dl'cls
dt tit tit dt ds cit·
Dut dsfdt = 11, so Eq. (21) gives
cle·. ,
u = -eft r +•····N. (22l
Because T and·d N are unit \'Cctors tange nt and normal• to the curve. respcc t\·cJv
Eq . ( 2') 1 ,.
- pro,·t cs a tlrcomposition of tlrr accderatimr 1·ector into its components
tangent to and normal to the trajectory. The tangent ial component
dv
ar=- (231
dt
is the rate of change of speed or the particle wh • h
· ere as t e normal component
Us= 4' t •1 = _'

l"
(2,.)
p
measures the rate of change of its direction 0 r . ..

FIGURE 12.6.9 Resolution of the motton. The decomposttton
acceleration vector • into its
tangential and normal • =arT+a.vN (251
componenu. is illustrated in Fig. 12.6.9.
A.s an application of Eq. (22). think of a train m oving along n straight track
with constant speed v, so thatar = 0 =liN (the latte r because K = 0 for a stra ight
=
line). Suppose that at time 1 0, the train enters a circular curve of radius p. At that
in~tant, it will su dt/('11/y be subjected to a normal acceleration of magnitude v 2I p,
proportional to the square of the speed of the train. A passenger in the train will
ex:pe riencc a sudden jerk to the side. If 11 is large. th e stresses may be great enough
to dnmage the track or dcra ilthc train . h is for exac tly this reason that railroads arc
built not with curves shaped lik e arcs of circles but with approach curves in which
th e cu rvature, and hence the normal acce leration, build up smoothly.
EXAMPLE 6 A particle moves in the xy-planc with p a rametric equations
x(t ) = ~ 12. y(t) = j13 .

Find th e tangentia l and nnrm;tl compone nts of its acceleration vector when r = I.
Solution llte trajec tory and the vectors Nand T appear in Fig. 12.6.10. Tl1crc Nand
T are shown attached a t th e point of e"aluation. at which 1 I. The particle has =
position \'CC!Or
and thus veloci ty
\'(/) = 31 i + 41 1j .
Hence it s speed is
fiCURE 12.6 .10 The moving 11(1) = )9r 2 + l61•.

parti~le of EJcample 6.
from which we calculate
dv + 32!3
91
ll r = - =
d1 ./9r2 + 16r• •
Thus v = 5 and 11 r = ¥ whe n 1 = I.
To usc J=;q. (IZ) io ~:omputc the curv3turc at r = I. we compute d.r/dt = Jr.
dy j dl = 41 2 . d 2x f dr 2 = 3, and d:yjd1 2 =Sr. Thus at 1 = 1 we have
lx ' y"- x"y'i !3 · 8-3 · -I I 12

= =
l"
vl Y = 125'
Hence
- KV2 - 12
II.v- -m· 52_
--r
12
when 1 = I. A s a check (Problem 28), you might compute T and r\ when r = land
verify that
•
It remain~ for u~ to se e how to compute tl r. ""·and N cffccti,·ely in the cnsc
o f a ~pace curve. We would prefer to ha,·c: fnnnulas tl1at explicitly cont:tin only the
vect or~ r. •·. and a.
II we compute the do t product of ,, .. vT with the accc kration a as given in
Eq. (22) and u\c the fact\ tha t T·T c I nnd T·N = (),we ge t
"· • -
dt• ·)
t•T · ( - 1
•
+ (vn. (n•"N tit•
) = t· - .
dr dr
It follows that
,. ..
dt• ' •• r'(l ) . , - (/)
"' ----
dr lr 'In t (16)
824 CHAPnR 12 Vectors, Curves, and Surfaces in Space
Similarly, when we compute the cross product of ,. = vT with each side of

Eq. (22). we lind that
2
v X a= (vT x dvT ) + (vT X Kt1 N) = Kt?(T X N).
eft
Because K and v are nonnegative and because T X N is 3 unit vector, we may conclude
th at
Jv· x a! lr' (l) x r "(t)l
K = -;r- = lr'(t)l 3 · (27J
It now follows from Eq. (2-l} that
!r'(l) x r"(t)l
a,y= (28)
lr'(l)l
'Jne curvature of a space curve often is not as easy to compu te directly from
the definition as we found in the case of the helix of Example 5. It is generally more
convenient to use Eq. (27). Once a. T. ar. and a,... have be~:n computed, we can rewrite
Eq. (25) as
a-arT
N=
l (29)
to lind the principal unit normal vector.
E~AM PLE 7 Compu~c T , N. K, or, and a ,v at the poin t (I, !. ~) of the twisted cubic
wtth paramctnc equations
X(l) =I, )'(/) = ~ 1 2,
Solution Differemiating the position vector
gives
r' (r) = (l.t,t2 ) and r"(l) = (0, 1. 2t) .
When we substitute t = I, we obtain
v(l) = (1. I, I) (velocity).
v(l) = Jv(l )l = J3 (sp~:cd). and
a(l ) = (0, 1. 2) (acceleration)
at the point (1. !. !).11ten Eq. (26) gives the tangeminl component of acceleration:
v ·a 3
ar=- = - =v'33
v J3 .
Because
j k
vX a = I I 1 = (1, -2, 1) .
0 1 2
Eq. (27) gives the curvature:
_ !v X al ..f6 J2
K- - = - - -
v3 (J3)3- ) ·
l t ; j d.
r . 'l ' I' I' -
' ..,'''
' ,,'i \
I
... a-
- .:-r
I ...
~
.: , ' .
~
t'tCUll 1 ~6. ll Ok---..!:~ C" ...~

'-:r :.~ ':".,·.t:e-..;:_ ~< . . .~!c...~ -t ....
"': ~ :-:.:-~!".: L! :-t ;"'>.!·:.-.t'='
;-_-.. ~ 'A·:- :'\..-s. : ......- \~--::·
N ~" t~'ll . 1\l'plcr. .md tlw s,,l.,r 5\ 'h' lll
r . :) cr: C: - ;. ::-:1 :'N - : .:~-- !' T A!o ..'-..:t~ -.~,....~:~h.. ''t'··~n"$-l''~ .· -. · ft~, . . ,·~.lrt ..·t . tt'h· ""''·"'" ' "' " ' ' l l'\\t '''" " ,, ,,~·u,
~.:t:~' ~·.:l.. t ..'t~ .... f..,:~~,~~LHh',\ t"~ .t-.,~j"'\th· ~ k.- l't,•• l \ ' •t lf\\,l) ,,t th ... (,'lt•''' i"~ thh"l"-
rn:"~ t:!~to"':*.~ t't,"~\\ ~,'Wtt ,'\~ " ('••ttt's l..t'u ._, ( ••\;U\\'1_.,~ Uh'' t''"•
1. Th: ,.. rt-tt l' f " ;\..:~ r L\n,"t i~ ~~' <'lhr,,~ '''th th ... .. un :\t \'th' (,,.u,
' ""P.'-•.:- r.l..!ht$ \~~'' : h"t:t th.· ~un h ' ;t r!.\lh"\ '"""'-'i'' ''Ht .11'\.:t ;\t n ,..,,t\,t:tn t rt.tt.\
.\ 1:::- !'~·:•• ;oy 1.' ( th.c' l""lh' i \'f t"'\ \ ' hl!h' U \"( ,\ ,~ l.\1\\t .1!'-,'\ll tlH• '(UI\ h l't''l'\'f'o
ti ...,r. ..,l h' th..:" ..-..!'-.:f' ,..( th...• " '·'"'' :-..·m•·" '' ,,! \t' <'lhl'h ..·.tl P I l'it
Fi~\IIT 1:.<'.1: tllustr.ltrs 1\q •kt\ ,..,,,n.ILI" l1 1h1• l'l.l lh'lll~, ,. ,~ ~· lh~ p.uh•
P: P: and 1\ f', :1l.·a~ it< ,•d•it in ~'l11.1llun~<.. tlh'lt th,• ~1\'.1 • ,q till' \h .hl,•d ,•111 1'111".11
s~:-.'rs .., ·"- !': ~=tJ S I~ 1". .ul' t·4u.\l.
t n ht~ f"r:.."! ...·:;'£.: .\t.::l:r· ·:.::o .\: \\('.'\ ~\. :-\ (.' \\ h~n ~"1\\i'l,• H·d a l''''' '•alul l'~ut lhH\ '
an t iqu.-1:~...:! f,' rtn \.'! ~<'~,m~tri.:., l ,·."\kulu!O ,,, 't"'" th.ll l\. q 'kt', I.'"" h,ll''" (1\HH
the i'.\ S!O: r nr:...·trks "'f 1\H."'\.'h.U\h._'~ l f t·:.:. ~thl ~,, ' '") .Hhl th\" U\ \l't ,,•• ,qt&.Hc* I;\\\
FIC.UiU 12.6. 12 !<e,:>' ~s t-"' t' i f.i.l\tt.ni~.,r..\1 .\ttr.\..·th' ll. ln th{' t-:m.un,\,·1 ,,1 tht' ;\,·,·th ' ll " '" •'l'l'h tlH· """h-rn
~- ~ es :n.a: :_....~ s..~--=~ a·tl.s "~ C.ll..~utu~ l'i \ C"'..:-h..'r·\ :\luc-..t (ua~o."\h'~'' "' ,,ut llnt"' Uu:· td.,th'l\ h ._· t\\ \\"U N (' \\h't\·, 1."''
~!..kl -' ~-~ ~ .l~: ·s L~ cl 3nJ Kerk-r'> !."'~
::?..~J of t."'l'f 0"!>. !J1 ~ecl'ilt1"\U
; , ?2 a.-.~ r, P,. a "'t tq.nl~
RadiJI and Transverse Component ~ of Ac Cl· l ~·r.,t lnn
To N:!!in . ' ' C $ ..·t up :t ""'"-'Hhn:ttC' <\,t rtn m " t",·h tlw Mm ' ' l,~·.th•,l .H t1H· '' ' Y-11\ m
the r bnc '-'r nlt._H i(\1\ ,;f :\ t'l.Htrt. 1 rt T - ,\f ) an-.l fl (}(f) ,,, .. tlh." I''''·" ,.,,,, r dm.ttt•,
nt t ime l .._.. (the pl.\m,•t ·'"it ,,d,its th~.· S\11\ \ \\.· \\ ,Hll n,,, l+.l ' l'h t th t• t'Lutr t ', l''"i1 h'l\.
"~10\:'ity. and :t;."\."\"kr:tti,,n , .l.\.'h'N r. ' ·:nul • inh' "'·''·''and ,,1,'"'""'',.
'' 'lUI"''''""""·
Todn $0. w e inln.xlu<X nl ~.h·h l''inl\1.1') ,,( 111<' l'l.lih' (til,• •'ll)!itl t' \,'t' l'h' •ll 't h,•tlllll
,· ~ctors
t .\111
Jr II C SUb< l iiUt~ I'= !1(1) , lhCII II , .llld II • l>t'\'\ 011\1' fllll\'li••ll ' \0( I. llH' r10otla l 111111 \'\' <' •
to r u , rJI\\..':t~S r~llll(\ dir c~.·tly ·"'a' fh\11\ th (" ,,fi~tn : IIH' tntn'"''''" HIHt \{·,· t ,\1 .. _ ,,
obl3i ncd fr nm u , h)• a ' l\l ' cnnnl crd••\'1.\\i,<· u•r.ll io•n (II!: t ~ .l\ I.' I.
In r ·rohk m (.(, " " 11<l. p•n "' l ('ri fy. t')' n •llll''''"'"l " l'" •hlkll'lllt.lliolll ,,( tht•
c:quali•JII~ in (Jtl), lh:a l
I IC.URE 12.6 . 13 Th~ radJal J nd o/11 , dtl tfu . .frt

tttn!..~~ Uf\lt VKtOf u . ~nd U _,.
• u,. - nm_
l - ... • - u , .
dt dt dt <It
so
' .. t ii~. (.1! I
Oiffcrc:nlial in~t l)<llh 'ido:s nf Eq. P11 "hh "~'1'<'~1 In 1 •!h•t·~

rlr olr rho ,
' .. - • u, - + r - .
tit tit tit
q
826 CHAPTER 12 Veaors, Curv~s. and Surfaces in Space
\\.e usc 111e fi1rs1 equauon

· tn· (31) and find t hat the r tanet"s vdocity vector is
' = U rtlr
til
Jll
- + r - u ...
til {33)
Th us we h J\'C expre(sed th e veloci

· • ,. in te m1s of the radial \'CCior u, and lhe
t\'
lranwe rsc vector u •· •
We differentiate both sides of Eq. (~3) and thereby hnd that
2
. 1, , ( ( fl r _. ' fr du
~ ) + (dr
- dO ue+ r -
- d ,0 u.,+ r -
dO <luo)
-.
3
= tit = u , d 1: dt dr dr dr tir· ' dr tit
'Then. by usi ng the equations in (31) ~nd rolkcting t he codlicie nts of u, and ll;
(Problem 67). v.e obtain th e decomposition
u-
- [
1(
-
tlr :
r -T (,/II):) , [I titd ( r : i/11)]
-
dr
U, T --
r
--
tit
D ~t
of the acceleration ' 'ector into its radial and transverse componen ts.
Planets and Sate llites

The ke y to l'cv.ton's analysi~ was the connection between his 13w of gra,•itationJI
attraction and Kepler's second law nf planeta ry motion. Suppose that we begin with
the inverse-sq uare law of gravi tati on in its vec tor fom1
.
f = 111 3 = - -G.llm
,.
- . - 11 ,. (3S)
where M de notes the mass o f the sun and m the ma ss of the orbiting planet. Dut th:
acceleration of the planet is given also by
(36)
wh ere J<:=GM. We equate rhe t ransve rse components in Eqs. (3-t) and (36) anJ
thus obtam
~ . !!,
r dr
(r ddrO) = O.
2
We drop the factor 1/ r,then antidiffcrentiale hot h sides.. We find that
• tf(J
r· - = lr (/r ;1 constant) (371
I 1I '
FICURE 12.6.14 Attaswept out \~e k~ow from Secrion IOJ that ir A(t ) denotes rhc area swept out by rhe
by the radius vector. planet s radaus vector from time 0 to time t (Fig. 12.6.14), then
A(r ) =[ . 2_,2
I t/0 =
OtO)
111
_,2
I ~ 10 dt.
o 2 tfl
1'
Now we aprly Ihe fundamental theorem of ca lculus, wh ich yields
riA I , dO
- = _,._ (381
dr 2 dr ·
Wh en we compare Eqs. (37) and (38), we see that
dA lr
-=-
dt 2'
(39)
•
L '
CurvJture Jnd Acceleration SECTION 12.6 827
Bcc.•uJ~c lr/2 is a conswm. we have derived Kepler's second law: 1l1c radius ' 'ector
from sun to pl ane t swe eps out aren ~t a const ant rate.
Next \\' C o utli ne the tkr i\'ati on of ~cwton's bwof gra\'it ation fro m Kepler's first
·' and scconcll:m s of plane t an· m otion. Figure 12.6. 15 sho~,-s ~n e ll ipse wit h eccen tricity
c and focus at the oril!in. Titc dcfinim: relation JO PJ = ••ii'Qi of this ellipse give s
r = e(p - r cos O). Sol~ing I his cquat i;n then yields the polar-coord inate equa tion
FIG URE 12.6.15 A polar ,,.
r = -.....:.._ _ (40)
coordinate e llipse v./th eccentritity I + •· cosO
e "' 101'1/\I'QI.
of an e llipse with cccc nt rici t\' ,. < 1 and directrix x = p . In Problem 6-1 we nsk you
to show hy diffcrenti atin 1: t\\:icc, u~ing the chain rule a nd Kepler's second law in the
form in Et(. (37), that Eq. (40) implies I hal
d:r
Jii =
11 (I I)
rl
2
; - [ IC .
(41)
Now if Kepler's second law in the form in Eq . (37 ) holds. then Eq. (3-1) gives
u [~:~ - rC~Y] u,
= (42)
for the planet's acceleration vector. Finally. upon substit uting dO/ dr = hf r 2 from
Eq. (37) a nd the cxpres~ion in Eq . (41) for d 2r f tlt 2 , we lind ( Problem 65) I hat Eq . (42)
can be simplified to the form
a= - - -., u,. (·U)
'"''.
1l1is is the inverse-square law of gravitation in the form of Eq . (36) with 11 = h 2/pe.
Now suppose that the e ll iptical orhit of a planet around the sun has major
semiaxis a and minor scmiaxis 1>. lncn the constant
h:
I'~=
Jl
that appears in Eq. (42) satisfies the equ:llions
0 2 _ IJ2) b2
pi!= a (I - c l) =a ( 1 - a2 = -; ·
(See Eq . (29) in Section lO.Ii.J We equate these two expressions for/'<' and lind that
=
tr2 J.l iJl I a .
Now let T denote the period of revolut ion of the planet-the time rcqui11:d fl)r
it to compktc o ne full re\'olution in its elliptical orbi t around the sun. ll1cn we Sl'C
fro m J:q . (39) that the area of the e llip<e bounded by this orhit is A = ~ hT ~ab =
a nd rhu\ I hat •
ll1ercfo re
r = yu'. (.UI
•'"~""' /
where I he proportiona lity cnn~lant Y "" ·h 2!I• = -l:r 2I G M (cnmp:trc Eq<. () 5) and
(3f•) ) depend• on rh e gravit alional cnn•tanl (; nmllh<' <un's m ~ss ,\I. Thus " " haw
M:n"W) •o s.. ~ de rived Keple r'• lh ird law ol pl.n1ctary mol ion from hi' lint t wol:t'" .111<1 l'c\\!lln's
• V et.:t law o ! gnl\·itatiunal a ttraclion.
J
EXAMPL[ 8 lnc period o f revol urinn of ~k rcmy in its ellipt ical orl•it around the
sun i• T = 87.97 day' where a• 1hn1 nf I he c:1rth i• ~65.26 day<. Compute the major
~ m iaxr~ (in nwon omical un it\) of the mtnt nf Mercury. Sec Fig. 12.6.16.
fiC.Uil[ 12..6. 16 Th~ in~ pl•n~U Solution lnc major sc miaxi\ of the o rbit of the canh i\. by ddi nitio n. 1 AU. So
<:/. the VJ/.r >f'1.tm (Lumpl~ 8 ) . Eq . (44) gives the value o f the constant y = (365.26): (in da y= t AU' ). H ence the
q
828 CHAPTER 12 Vectol'l, Curves, and Surfaces in Sp~ce
maj or semi axis of the orbit of ~lercury is
T" )
I{J _ ( (87·97>
· ' )1/J ::; 0.387 (AU).
0 =( y - (365.26)2 •
As \'et we ha,·e considered only pl:lncts in orbits ~roun? the sun. But Kepler's
laws and ·the equations of this section apply to ~od:cs 1.n orbJt arou~d any ~ommon
central mass. so long as they mo,·e solei~: u~dcr the mlluenc: .o r 11s gravna1101UI
attraction. Examples include satellites (arufictal or natural) orbnmg the earth or the
moons of Jupite r.
EXAMPLE 9 A communications relay satellite is to be placed in a circular orbit

around the earth and is to have a period of revolutio n of2-l h. This is a geosynchronous
o rbit in which the satelli te appears to be stationary in the sky. Assu me that the earth's
natural moon has a period of 27.32 days in a circular orbit of radius 238.850 mi. '\'hat
should be the radiu~ of the satellite's orbit? (See Fig. 12.6.17.)
Solution Equation (4-l). when applied to the moon. yields

FICURE 12.6.17 A communi-
cations satellite in orbit around the
= y(238.850)1•
(27 .32) 2
earth (bample 9). For the sta tio nary sntellite that has period T = I (day), it yields 12 = yrl, where r
is the radius of the geosynchronous orbit. To climir.ate y , we divide the second of
these equations by the first and find that
) (23!1. 850>'
, = -(--27=.-3:-:2-:),,....
Thus r is approximately 26.330 mi. The radius of the earth is about 3960 mi, so the
satellite \\ill be 22370 mi above the surface. t

1. The curv~turc of a plane cuf\·e is d efined in Eq. (I I ) and the curvature of a
space curve is d:lin~d in Eq. (21 ). L)o these nvo d e finitions agree in the caS¢
of a cur\'e that hes rn the .ry-plane? Explain why.
2. ~uppose that two hodic~ move solely unde r their mutual gravitational attrac·
lion. ~ltcn each mo\'cs m an elliptical orbit a rout the othe r. For instancdna
coordrnatc. ~ystem.with tho: earth (rather than the sun) at the origin. the mbit
of the sun IS an clhpsc with the earth at one focu s. Which is n·ait\·
the center
of the solar sys tem? Is this a mathcmatt·c~t
~
or a p h 1'losoph'tea1qucstton
· · •'
12.6 PROBL EM S
Find 1/i~ arc lm!(lh of tnch cun·t dncrib~d in Problems 1 8, Y=.t1 al{-l.-l)
through 6.
9, Y = cos.r at (0, I)
J• .r = Jsin2t, y =3cos21, t., 81; from 1 = Otot = .~
10• = 1 - I, >' = ' 1 + 31 + 2. where t = 2
:z. .r = t.y=t1j ./i.t=t1{3; froml = lltot = 1
11•
.t
=Scost.)'=4sint,whcret = !t/4
J. x =(It" cost.)'= (It" sint. z = 17r'; from 1 = 0 to 1 =1 A
l 2. x = 5coshl, )' = 3sinht. "'here 1 = 0

4. .r = 11{2. =
y = In'· z = t ./i; from 1 = I to 1 2
s. .r = 31 sin t, )' = 3t ros t. r = 211: from 1 = 0 to 1 = 4/5 In Probltms I J lhrnugh 16, fintlllre poinl or puillls on thr g••·(fl
,.,,\.~ ot wlricll the cur vature is a ma.tintultt.
6. .r .. 2t''. y = ~ -· .z = 21: from 1 .. 0 to 1 = 1
13. y = ~·
In Prnbl~m.• 7th rough 11, find tht curvaturt of tht givtn plant 1-t y = lnx
curvt ot 1ht imllcolttl point.
IS• .r = Scos1.y .. 3sint
1. y =~at (0. OJ 16. .ry = I
Curvature and Acceleration SECTlON I 2 .6 829
f nr til~ pftm~ n<fl'~J in l'rol>l~rnJ 17 rhrouxh 11. find rJ:~ ur.ir .S,'!. Find the a rc-length parametri1..11ion of the cirde
rnn~;rnt and normal t.'C'CIOrt at th,. indicotf"d pninL
17. y= x 'at (- 1.-1 ) ~ (1) =2CO\/, )IT)= ~sinr.
111. x = r 1.y c: t 1 at (- 1. 1) in term~ of the arc length 1 mea<urcd coun tcrcloclr. wise from
19. x = 3 ,;n 2r. y = 4 coo; 2r. whe re t = :r / 6 the inuialpomt 11. 0. !h.
20. .r =1 - ~in t ,y = 1 - C<"t,v.he rc: r =.~ /2 .S9. Find the arc- len~th p:tramctrwtion or the helix
. ' r ,v.hcrct = ):rf4
21 . x = en., ' 1.,1'=\ln .:rll) = Jco; r. }'Ill =·' sin r . : ( 1) = -lt
nu· ptHitiotJ ~ rrtor , , {J Pflrlir lr IIJrn:itt~t in rh~ planf! ir gi~~n in '" te=s or the: nrc lcn~th s mea~urc:-d from the ini tial
Pm/Jimu :>:! thwug!J ]fi F111d th~ tang~r.riol and norrrJJ/ com· poir.t 1} . 0. 0).
pmrrtllt of tltr a cn·lt·rmion \ICCII)r.
50. Sut-<titu: e x = r • .'' = f(l) . and: = 0 into Eq . (:!7) to ,-e rify
22. r (f) = Ji ~in;r t + 3j co,:r t t!-...3.t the C:Uf"\·ature of th~ rb.n-e tur\.e ." = /{r) i'\
l.l. r(t) = (21 + I )i + (Jrl- l)j
l.S. r(t) = i ct"h3t + j ~i nh 3t
2$. r (f ) = it cos 1 + j t s in r
Sl. J\ p.1r1rck mmcs und=r the mllut'n.X o f a Coree that is nl·
2f•. r (t) = (t·' s in r,.,.'ccx r) "'')"' i"'r,'<'ndrcubr 1(1 it• dri"<'Ction or m otion. Show that
the speed o! the pJ rttclr mu~t be cons tant .
27. l ise E<J. (D) to compute th e curva ture or the circle v.ith
equati on x 2 + y' c a 2. ~!. Ded uce from Eq. ( ~J) thJt
211. VcriC)• the equa tion ¥ T + ¥ N = 31 + llj given at the end or Jc.r·(rllz + (y"(l)l~ _ ( tl(l))z
Exnmplc 6 . c = = ( r'(l)l~ + (y'(t))l
/11 l'rah/,•m.<29 through 3 /, ji11d rhr rquarinrJ of tlu: mmlaring

53. 1\ pply the formula o f l'rohlcm 5! to calcu late the cu rvature
rirdr for the giv<'llf'lanc cunot·m rhr indirmrd pninr.
o r the cun e
29. y = I - .r 2 a t (0. I )
&in / , y(r) =si n 1 - 1 cc.. r •
.'10. y =,.. ;tt (0, I l
.1 (1) :a COS I + I
31 . .ry = I nt (I. I ) $.S. TI1e fo lium of D~rtC\ \\ ith eq uation x 1 + y' = 3xy is
sho wn in Fig_ 12.6.18. find the cun·aturc and cente r or c ur-
l·~ind the• curvaturt• ~ of rlt~ spact-• l"IIT\'t:!S h 'ith position ~·ectors vature or thi• folium at the point (; , ; ). Begin hy cnlcula t in~:
J:il'<'ll in J>mblrm.<32 through 311. tlyf dx and tl 1y/tlx~ by implrcit ~iCCcrcntint ion.
Jl. r(f) = rl + (21 - l )j + (31 + 5)k
33. r(l) = ri + j sin r + k cos 1 •
3-S. r (l) = (1,1 ~ , r-')
35. r(l) = (.-'cos r. <"sin 1. <")

36. r(l) = ir sin r + jr cos r + kr
.l? through .St. rind the tangentia l and normal components
or ac;clcration 11, and t1,v Cor the c u rves o r Problems 32
thro ugh 36. respectively.
ltr l'roblenu -l!throu~:h -15. Jim! th<' unit o•..ctors T ant! N forth~ fiGURE 12.6.18 The folium
git;en curve ar rite itulicutt·tlpr'iul. of D e>carte> (Problem 54),
42. ·n u: CUf\' C or l'whkm 3-1 at ( I. I. I)

55. De termine the constants A , B. C. D, E. and F so that the
43. The cun·e of l'roblem 33 at (0. 0. I) CUf\'e
4-t l1tc curve of Problem 3 at :6. 0. 17)
45. The curve o f Pro blem 35 at (I. 0. I)
y = Ax5 + 8x 4 + Cr' + Dx 1 + E.r. + F
46. rind T. N. a,, and 11-" as functions of 1 for the helix of does. simultaneously. all o r the follo wing:
Exa mple I. • Joins the two poi nts (0 .0) and ( I. I);
47, Find the nrc-le ngth parametrization of the line • Has slope 0 at (0. 0) and slope 1 a t (1 , I);
:(tl = 3 + 3r • Has curvature 0 at both (0. 0) and (1, 1).
X(l ) =2 + 41. y(t ) ~I- 121,
The curve in questio n is shown in color in Fig. 12.6.19. Why
in terms of the a rc lengths measured from the initial point would this be a good curve to join the ra ilroad tracks. shown
(2, I. 3). in black in the: figure?
8 30 CHAPTER 12 Vector1. Curvts. and Surfacts in Space
. moon· a=238.900mi. t=0.055, T=27.32da),
59. The eart h s · .
=
'fi . 1eJrth satellite: a 10.000 mt, t O.S
60 An arto eta
=
' . h earth to be a sphere with radius 3960 mi.
61. Assumtng .t ede above the earth's surface of a satellite in a
find the altttU • . 1 · f
. b' that has a penod of revo utton o I h.
etrcular or tt '
. h f3 ct th 'lt Jupiter's period of (almost) circular rev.
62. Given t e .• tite Su n is 11 .86 H . calcula te the distance of
olutton arounu •
Jupiter from th e Sun. . . . .
c trth so tcllite Ill el hptoc•l orbtt varies in
63 Suppose t hat a n •
FIGURE 12.6 . 19 Connecting • . d f 100 to 1000 mi above the ea rth 's surface (as.
aJutu ~ rom . . . .
rdroad traclu (Problem .SS). sumed spherical). Find this satellite s pcnod of revolution.
· · ~ with the polar-coordinates equation of an
~. (a ) Bc£tnntno . I dK I .
~. Consider a body in an clliptocal orbot ~~o nh major and minor elli~ in Eq (~0). apply the chat~ ru ed .affn ~per s ~
scmia•e• n and band period or revoluuon T. ( a) Deduce ond 13" in the form tiiJftlt := /rf r to 1 crcnuat~ r "llh
frt>m Eq. (33) th:ll ,. = r rdO/rll l ~~o hen the body i• nearest to respect 10 1 and thc:cb)' sho": that tt; /dt :=_ (hs;n 9)/ p.
antl farthc•t fmrn its foci. (b) Then appl)' Kepler's <econd (b) Differentia te agatn to >ho" that d r / tit - (h ~os8)/
law to conclude that c = 2:rabf (rT) nothe body's nea rest (prl) . (c) Derive Eq. (~H bysohmg Eq. (~0) for cos 9and
and farthest roints. suh5tuuting the rc)UII on the form ula 111 part (b).
fro l'ro/JI,.,,_, 57 thr<Nif:lo 6(}, apJ>Iy tilr r!flttlli mo nf !'"" (b ) of (,5. Deri•c Eq. (~J) by suhstituting the expressions for d~/Jt
f•r oblt•IIJ .S~ to computr tlu: .f/ ltt:d (ur milf'S f'C"' \ ( Cotlll ) of tltr and d :r ftltl give n hy Eq~ (37) and (41 ). rcspccuvcly.mto
givr•n body (zt tlrt• n ctlft"j f mulfarthf!.HJm llllJ of iff o rbit. Con vr~t Eq. (~2).
1 AU. rile major sem w.ris of tilt• £a n il s orbit. irotO ?2.'J5o,OOO mL 66. Dcri•c both e<JuMion~ in (31) by differentiating the equl·
!-7. Me rcury: a =0.3R7 AU. t' =0.206. T = 87.97 d a)·' tion• in (30).
58. The earth: e = 0.0167, T = 365.26 tl>)S 67. Derive Eq. (3-1) by differentia ting Eq. (33).
Jl.JI CYLINDERS AND QUADRIC SURFACES

=
J ust as the graph of an equa tion f(x, y ) 0 is ge nerally a curve in the xy-plane. the
graph of an eq uation in three variables is ge nera ll y a surface in space. A function Fof
three variabl es associates a real numbe r F(x. y. z) with each ordered triple (x , y. :)
of real numbers. The grnph of the cqu:uion
F (x . y ,l) =0 (ll
is the set of all points who~ coordinates (x. >'· t ) satisfy th is equation. We refer to
the graph of such an equatton a s a surfarc. For instance. the graph of the equation
xl+y2+:2- l =0
is a familiar surface, the unit sphere centered :tt the origin. But note that the graph
o f Eq . (I) docs not al":ays agree with our intuitive notion o f a surface. For example.
the graph o f the cqunt1on
(xl + y2)(y2 + ?>cr + x 2) = 0
co nsists of th e points lying on t he three coo rdin~t · be
" c axes m space. cause
•
X
+ r' = 0.tmp ,.tes Ih at X = y=0 (the l -3Xis);
l
}.2 + r = 0 im plies that )' = l =0 (the X•axis)•

0
0
r + z l = Q implies that l =X =0 (the y·axis):
We lea~e. for adva~ccd cal_culus the precise definition of surface as well 3 5 the studY
of condlttons suffictent to tmply that the gra ph of Eq ( 1) · f
· actua11y 1s a sur ace.
Cyt•ndcrl and Qu~dric Surfaces SECTION 12.7 831
Plc"l ncs and Tr<~ cc s

Tite scm pie" e ~~mple of a ~urflce is a plane with hnear equation Ar + By + C: •
D - 0. In the \ •cc tco n "' dc\CUH " amplcs of o the r 5imple surfaces that frequently
nppcar en multc' arcable calculu\.
co. o. .S)
y,._,.
.'' .... . ·' • ' 1
, • /.
/.----~----- ----/
... >
J fO. 0. - .SI
FIGUR[ 12. 7. 1 lhr incmrctton olthe FIGURE t 2.7.2 A sphere JS a union of

iphere ! ,,nd the pl.1ne T' I• ,, clrcle (lrc trs (Md two points).
fO. CUI In order to sk~tch a \ urfac-c S. it i• oft en helpful to examine its inte rsections
with v:cri••u< pl.cne'- 'Ihe tru ce of the surface: S en the pl.me 1' i\ the inte rsec tio n of 'P
and S. r or n~rnpk. if S i' a , phcrc.thcn " e c:tn \ cn fy hy the methods of elementary
gcomctr~ that the tr.ccc of Sin the pla ne Pis a ccrcle (Fig. 12.7. 1). provided that
1' intl·rscrt < the sphere hut is not me rely tangen t to 11 ( ~'rob lem 49). figure 12.7.2
illustrates the hnritnntaltracc circles th~t (toge ther "ith two "polar points") make
up th e sphere .r-• + )'2 + :·' = 25.
When we wan t to visualize a specific surface in space. it often suffices to examine
its traces in the coordinate planes and possibly a few planes pa rallel to them, as in
Example I.
FIGURE 12.7.3 TrJces of the
plane 3x + 2y + 2z c 6 in the
coordinate planes (Example 1). EXAMPlE 1 Consider the plane with equation 3x+2y+2z = 6. We find its trace in
the .ry·planc by se tting~= 0. The equation th en reduces to the equation 3x + 2y = 6
of a straight line in the xy-pllne. Simil:~rly. when we ~ct y = 0 we get the line 3x +
2:: = 6 :IS the trace of the given plane in the xz·planc. To find its trace in the yz·planc,
we set .r = 0. and this yields the line y + :: = 3. Figure 12.7.3 shows the portions of
these three trace lines that lie in the first octant. Together they give us a good picture
of how the plnne 3x + 2y + 2:: = 6 is situated in space. +
Cylinders and Ruling'S

Let C be n curve in a plane and let L be a line no t parallel to that plane. Then the
set of points on lines parallel to L that inte rsect Cis called a cylinder. These straight
Jines that make up the cylinder are called rulings of the cylinder.
.. -· -- ... EXAMPl E 2 Figure 12.7.4shows a vertical cylinderfor which Cis the circle:r2+ y2 =
a~ in the xy·planc. The trace of this cylinder in any horizontal plane z = c is a circle
with radius a and center (0. 0. c) on the z-axi.'i. ·n 1us the poi nt (x . y. z) lies on this
cylind;r if ~nd only if:t 2 7 y 2 = a 2• J:Iencc this cylinder is the graph of the equation
FIGURE 12.7.4 A rig ht circular
r
x2 + = a·, an equation m three va nables-even th ough the variable z is technically
cylinder. missing.
832 CHAPTER 12 Vectol'l, Curves, and Surfacts in Sp.~ct
care:<plicitlyin thecquation.r 2 +y2:: 01
. bie •doesno I ap r • ' '. h
The fact that the ,·a~a • O) on the rirdt• .r2 + r = a· 10 I e .ry-plane.the
mean~ that gi,·cn any pomt (.ro. ) b · , . d all values of :. The set of all such points
. on I hc 0 ·lander for
point (.r,,. )\1• : ) h~s . an1 · 1 I'me ·IS a ruling
( · ·'"1,.. 0). ·n1us this vcrttca
. . I I' h ~h the potnl .ro. . v · . .I I .
1s the \'Cr~1ca m,e t ~ou~:-: 7 c _ exhibi ts the cylmucr as Itt: umon of its
12 75
of the cy/mtlcr .r +_,-=a · l rgur •
ru ling~
. tl1at is. the curve C can be an dlipsc. a rect-

A C\'lindcr need not be ctrcu1ar- '
onglc. o r~ quite :ubitr:try curve.
t>o h horizontal traces and ,·crtical rulings on a I'Cr·

EXAMPLE 3 Figure 12.?.6shows_ h: rve C i~ th e Xl'·plane (C has the pa rametric
tical C\'lindcr through the figurc·Ct£ cu ·
. :r = sin 1. y = sm
equations . 2t. o< <"_-r >·
., r = •
If the curve C in the xy-plane has equation

FIGURE 12.7.S The <y1indt r
~~ + y' a o1 . Ill rulings are /(.r. y) == 0. (ZJ
par.llicl to the L·a•is.
then the cylinder through C with I'Crti cal ruling~ has 11_1c same cc~l~a tio~l in _space. ~is
is su hccau'c th e point /'(x. y . :) he~ on the cyhmkr tf nnd o n I} tf the po1~11 (.t, ) •.01
lies on th~ curve C. Similarly. the !!raph of an equa tion ,t:(.r. :) = 0 IS a c~· hmlcr wuh
rulings parallel to they-axis. and the graph or an equ:ttion h(y. : ) ':"' 0 IS a ~yhndcr
with rulin!!~ parallel to the .r-axis. l11Us th e grap h in space of an equatiOn that mclud~s
on I\' t\llt uf tho: tim·.: coordinate variables is always a cylinder: its ruling~ arc parallel
to th~ axis corresponding to the missing vari:ablc.
: 0
EX AMPLE 4 lllc graph of the equation -ly 2 + 9~ = ~6 is the elliptic 0 Iindrr
• hnwn in Fig. 12.7.7. Its rulings nrc parallel to the .r·axis, and it$ trace in every plane
1 perpendicular to the x-axis is an ellipse with scmiaXC$ of lengths 3 and 2 (just like
the pictured ellipse .rl/9 + i /~ = I in the yz·planc). •
FIGURE 12.7.6 The vertical EXAMPLE 5 The graph of the equation z = ~- .r 2 is the p;tmbolic cylinder sho11n
cylinder through tilE~ figure-eight in Fig. 12.7.!!. Its rulings nrc para llel to the y-uxis. and its trace in every plane pcrpcn·
curve • ~ sin I, y = sin 21. dicular W the y-axis is a parabola that is u parallel translate of the parabola: = 4-x 2
inthc .H ·planc. •
Surfaces of Revolution
Another way to _usc a ~l~nc curve C to gene rate a surface is 10 revolve the cuf\·e in
space around a hnc L 10 tts plane. This gives a surfac-e or rc,·olution with a~is L. FClr
FIGURE 12.7.7 Aft elliptical cylinder

(E.ampte 4). FIGURE 12.7.8 The parabolic cylind~
l c 4 - x 2 (Exa mple .S).
Cylinders and Quadric Surf.lces SECTION 12.7 833
~:tnmpl_e. Fig. 12.7.•1 shows the surface ~cncratcd by revolving the curve /(x, y) 0 =
1 1
~ the llr~t. q uadrant uf the xy·planc uwund! the x-:~xis. ll1c typical point /'(:c. y.l)
hcs •m th is surf:l~<' of re•·ohlli(>rt provitled that it lies on the vertical circle (parallel
10 lht~ .1':-pl:mc) with C<'ntcr R(x. 0. Ol nnd rndius r such that the point Q(x. r, 0) lies
on th<' ~i\'cn curve C. in which case f(.r . r} = 0. Because
it is thcrcforc nc<'tssary that

(3)
lltis, then. is the <'quat io n of a mrfncc nf rc•·olution urnund the X•llxiS.
'lltc <'quat ions uf surfaces of •·evolution around other coordinate axes arc ob-
FIGURE 12.7.9 Thr surbc.-
tained simib rly. If the tirst-quadrant curve f(x. vl = 0 is revolved instead a round
g<-ncuted b)• re>tating C MOtmd th<' y-nxi.._ tlwn w,· replace x with JX• + ~-to ~et ihc equation /( ./x 2 + z2. yJ = 0 of
t""'""'h . (For ciJrity. only J the r<·~ultin g ~urface o f rcw>lution . If the curve g<y. z> = 0 in the fi rst quadrant of the
qwrt~ of the ~url~ce is shown.} .1::-pbnc is rc"olwll around the ~-a~is, we replace y with .Jxz + y2 • ll1us the equa-
tto n nf th(• resulting surfa,·e of revolution around the ~-axis is g( .J.rz + y 2 • z) = 0.
llll·sc assertions nrc easily verified with the aid of diagrams similar to fig 12.7.9.
EXAMPLE 6 Write an equation uf the ellipsoid ufrcn>lution obtained by revolving

th<' cll ips<· -ly: +:? = 4 around the z-axis (Fig. 12.7.10).
Solution We rq>lace )'with .J.rl + yl in the given equation. This yields 4.r 2 + 4f +
=
:? 4 as an tquntion of the ellipsoid. +
EXAMPLE 7 Determine the graph of the C<jUatio n r = .r 2 + y2.
Solution First we rewrite the given C<luation in the form z = ± ../.rZ

+ yZ. ll1us
the surf:tC<' is symmetric nround the .q·-plane. and the uppe r half has equation
: = .Jx! + y!. We can obtain this last equation from the simple equation : y by =
replacing y with ../.r!
+ y!. ·nms we ohtain I he upper half of the surface by rcvolv·
fiGURE 12.7.10 The ellipsoid of ing the line ~ = y (for y ~ 0) around the ::-axis. lltc graph is the cone shown in
rt'>'Olution of E••mple 6. fig. 12.7.11. Its upper half has equation z = J.r:
+ y! and its lower half has equation
=
z = - J.r= + y!. lltc entire cone :? .r! + y is ohtained by re\'olving the entire line
2
:= y around the :·axis. +
.,..-- ----.. Quadric Surfaces

t~\""---- -----,1
,. ....,. ly/
~ . I ;
Cones. spheres, circular and parabolic cylinders. and ellipsoids of revolution arc all
surfaces that are graphs of second-degree equations in x. y. and t. ll1e graph of a
second-degree equation in three variables is called n quadric surface. We discuss here
- I
:./
,•
some important special cases of the equation
/~- •
,·
1
I
I
•
'
'
T (4)
I I ' This is a special second-degree equation in that it contains no terms im·olving the
-:...--- · ~'
(._ : _) products xy. xz. or yz.
-- r- EXAMPLE 8 lllc: ellipsoid
FICURE 12. 7.11 Th~ cont of
wmp!e 7. (5)
. . tric around each of the three coordinate planes and has intercepts (±a. 0. 0).
ts symmc
"'b 0) and (0, O, ±c) on the three coord'mate axes. (Th ere ·IS no 1oss of generahty ·
~ ·. - · · ' a that a. b, and c arc positive.) Each trace oflhis ellipsoid in a plane parallel
0
tn assumtn,.
f lhc coordinate planes 1.S eat . hcr a s1ng
. Ic pomt
. or an e II'tpsc. "'
ror example. 1f.
10 one.o
-c < .;a < (, . " .. 2
=
then the trace of the ellipsoid of Eq. (5) in the plane z Zo has equation
x· )'" <o
- + ,_,
al u-
=I- 2
c
> 0.
FIGURE 12. 7.13 The traces of the

FIGURE 12.7.12 The ellip soid of xl yl 1z
Example 8. ellipsoid - + -b 1 -"- 1 (Example 8).
al c
·
which is the cquJ ii on of an ellipse · scm
wrth J
• ·taxes (a1c.·) '-2 - '<l 2
• •·tnd (bjc) cl - ~·
.J. J
figure 12. 7.1 2 shows this ellipsoid "ith scmiaxcs a. b, and c labeled. Figure 12.7.13
sho" s its trace ellipses in planes parallel to the three coordmatc planes. +
EXAMPLE 9 l bc elliptic.- parabolnid
.x2 I z (6)
a2 + b2 =~
is shown in Fig. 12.7.14. Its trace in the horizontal plane z = :0 > 0 is the ellipse
x2ja2 + y2f b 2 = ;,.jc with scrniaxcs aJ:.o/c and b.J!;;JC. Its trace in any vertical
plane is a parabola. For instance. its trace in the plan~ y = )'o has equa tion x 2fa 2 "'
yl,!b2 = ~/c. which can be written in the form :- : 1 = k(x- x 1 ) 2 by taking <r = C}i /tr
and .r1 = 0. · n lC paraboloid opens upward if c > 0 and downward if c < 0. If a =b.
then the paraholoid is said to be circular. f'igurc 12.7.15 shows the traces of n circul•r
FIGURE 12.7.14 An elliptic

paraboloid in pl;mcs paralklto the .r <· and y:-plan.:s. +
paraboloid (Example 9).
EXAMPLE 10 llr.: elliJllkal cone
r' )""> z->

-; + u = - ;
a· u- c·
is shown in Fig. 12.7.16. Irs !race in the horizontal plane z= ~ '# 0 is an ellipse with
scmiaxcs t~l:.o!fc and bizol/c. +
FIGURE 12.7.1S Trace

FIGURE 12.7.16 An elliptic cone
parabolas of a cirrular (bample 10).
paraboloid (Example 9}.
t1
Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces SECTION 12.7 835
EXAMPLE 11 The hyperboloid of o ne sheet with equation
(R)
iS,shown in Fig. 12.7.17.1ts tr:1cc in the horizontal pl:lnc ~ =:J~ is the ellipse x 2f a1 +
r I~ = I + ~!c 2 > 0. Its trace in a vertical plane is a hyperbola except wh~n the
vem:al pl:u1e inl crsccts !he xy-planc in n line t an!_:cnt to the ell ipse x 2fa1 + >.2 I b• ~ I.
l.n lh•s s pecial ca~c. !he lr<Jcc is a <.lcg.cncrale hyperbola consisling of two intcrscctmg
lines. l'igu rc 12.7.1(1 shows the !races (in planes parallel to the coordin:llc pla nes) of
n circular (a = b) hyperboloid of o ne shee t.
ll1c graphs of !he equatio ns
fiGURE 12.7.17 A hyperboloid of
one ~heet (Example 11 ). >" <) ;:'- x' 1:.1 >.2
/_,1 + c! - al =I nnd al + c! - c' =I
are also hypc rboloids of one shee t. opening a lo ng !hex· nnd y-axes, respective ly. +
EXAMPLE 12 ll1c hyperboloid of '"o sheets wilh equation
.
:- x-' ,. .'.
-:--;· -~ = 1 (9)
c- a- lr
consisls of 1wo sepa rate pieces. o r sheets (F.g. 12.7.19). l11c two sheets o pen along
I he positive and ncga1ivc z·axis and inlcrsccl il all he poinls (0. 0. ± c ). llle trac:c of
this hyperboloid in a horizontal plane ~ = z.:, wilh 1:01 > c is the ellipse
t2 \,1 ~2
:._ _, .::_ = ~ - 1> 0
Ill • lJ1 c1 .
Its !race in any \'Crtical plane is a nondcgcncrale hyperbola . Figure 12.7.20 shows
traces of a circular hyperboloid of two sheels.
FIGURE 12.7.18 A circul.r
The graphs of I he equations
hyp<'rboloid or one ~heet
(EJtample 11 ) . Its traces in
horizontal planes are circles; its
t.-a::es in vert.k..ll p!anes art'
hyperbolas.
FIGURE 12.7.19 A hyp<'rboloid of FICUA£ 12.7.20 A clrcul•r

two sheet! (E.,mple 12). hyp<'rboloid or lwo sheets
(E~ample 11). Its (nond~ener•te)
trace\ in horizontal plt~ne-"S ~re circle-s;
its traces in vmical ploJn~' ~re
hyptrbolas.
r 836 CHAPTER 12 Vectors, Curves, a nd Surfaces In Space
10 ids of t"'o sheet~ ~penin" along 1

he .r-axis andy-axis. rcspecti\'ely.
· h 1 h ·
. " in standard form wll + on t e nght-
are also h)-per~ f h,-perbolo1d 1s \\Tltten b· of sheets is equal to the
When the cquauon o a ;nd (g)]. then the num cr •
numb~r
hand side (as'" Eqs. (S~ eft-hand side.
of negative terms on th~ 1
r!CURE 12.7.21 A hypetbolic paraboloid is a FIG URE 12. 7.22 The ve~tical tra~el o:
>Midlc-!h.>p<d >urfocc (E••mplc 13). th~ hypPrhnlir. rmrahol ood z = y - t
(Example 13).
EXAMPLE 13 The hyperbolic paraboloid
(<' > 0) (10)
is saddle sl1aped. as indicated in Fig. 12.7.21. lis trace in the horizo~tal plane< "' :0 is
a h\'perbola (or two intersecting lines if :o = 0). lis trace in a verttcal pl_ane para_llel
to the .rz-plane is a parabola that opens downward. whereas its tra~e m a \'entcal
plane parallel to the yz-plane is a parabola that opens upward. In _rarucul:u. the trace
or the hyperbolic paraboloid in the x <·plane is a parabola opcnmg downward from
the oril!in. wh.:reas its trace in the yz-pbnc is a parabola o pening. upward from th~
origin.~Thus the origin looks like a local maximum from one d irection but like a local
FIGURE 12.7.23 The horizontal minimum from another. Such a point on a surface is ca lled a ~odd le point. .
traces of the hyperbolk pa raboloid Figure 12.7.22 shows the parabolic traces in vertical planes of the hyperbohc
1 = y> _ x> (Example 13). paraboloid z = .v2 - x-2. Figure 12.7.23 show~ its hyperbolic traces in horizontal
planes. •

The !~/lowing questions are concerned with possible graphs of the second-degree
equatmn
2 2
Ax + By + Cr + Dx + £y + Fz + H = 0. (Ill
1. U~der.what conditions on the coerticients A, B. and cis the graph (a) an

elhpsotd; (b) a paraboloid; (c) a hYPerboloid?
2. Under what conditions on the coefficients is the graph a cone or cylinder?
3. Besides ellipsoid!>. paraboloids, hyperboloids, cones and cylinders. what are
th~ other possibilities for the graph or the equation i~ ( 11 )? Give an example
to tllustrate each possibility.
Cylinders and QuJdric Surfacn SECTION 1 2.7 837
12.7 PROBLEMS
[k5 cntv uml J(~u·ll rl:<' graplu "/the <'quatiuns gi•~·n in Prob-
J'(l. l'ro•·e 1ha 1 1hc projccltttn inlo 1he y:·planc of ll~e cu~c of
/m-.s 1 rhn•:rsh .>0. inlcr<cclinn of !he surfaces ;c = I - _..> a mix ., y- +::-ISnn
1•.h ... : .•· + 10~ = :o 2. 3.r + 2y ,. 30 ellipse (Fit:. 12.7.24).
~ -·' +.•'=9 ......' ~ •'-9
5. .X.\ =J 6. : = .lr: + -li
7. : = ~. : + _..: K. ~.,. :
+ \1)·' = J6
9. : = .I - .r' - .'; 10. yl + :2 = 1
tJ. :: = X:+ ~.: J !, X = 1+).!+:' t
I~ :' "' .l(.r' + .'.:) l.a.,.:= ~ r
t~. .r' = ~ :+S 16• .r .. 9 - :'
t7. ·h 1 - _,.: = .: 18. -'' + :' =4
19• .r' = .~..-z ... 9:' 20 • .r' - .,_,.: = '
fiGURE 12.7.24 The
ll. .r' + i + ~= = 0 2.! . x = sany p.~raboloid and parabolic
~\ .t = 1y: - :: ~4. x' + ~ .•.: + 2:' ~ ~ c:ytindrr of Problem SO.
!_<._ .t: + ~;- 9: : a 9 ~·6,. X~- ,\':- 9z!'::: 9 51. Show 1h.111hc projcclion into !he xy·plonc o f !he intcrscc·
lion of !he plane ~ = y and I he paraboloid z = x: + I I~ a
l 7. -'" = J.r + 9:.:- :.'l. ""; + -1.x 2 _ 9:.1 ~ J6
circle (Ftg. 12.7.25).
!9. ,.: - 9.r' - "=' -
.J6 JO• .r' + + 4:' .36 9i =
f'roblf'mS 31 rluo u!ih .:ogi• e thr rqunrion of n cun•r in onr ofth~
coordinatt plun~.s. \\'nrt 011 rqwwo n for rht• surface grrrernteli
b)' rn-ol•·m~: tl:u mn·r around tlrr indicarrd tui.t. Then s ktrch
zr.< surfxr.
Jl. .1 a ~: :: the ..C·!\XIS
J::. .1 r' + 9).: = .J6: !he y·aris
).\. _, ;- :' = 1: !he : -:uis
J.l : = .I - .r': 1he :·3xis
35. }: = .:r: the .r·:txis FIGUR E I 2. 7.25 lhe pl.tne and
36. ): = 1: the : ·:t\IS j)<ltaboloid of ProblemS I.
J7. : = etrl - .r' J: 1he : -axi• 51. Prove lh>l lhc pmjccunn in1o1hc r :·pl3nc of !he inte~cc·
JA. (y- .:): - :.= = 1; the .:-axis tion nf I he paraboloith )' = 2.r: + 3i andy a S- 3x: - 2:1
i\ a circle (Fig. 12.7.2f>) .
.)9. The lioe : = lz: !he :-uh
• The line : = 2.r: the .r·3U\
/r. F'tob!~tru -l/ thttm~h -l Y. d rscrif>e rh~ twcu ofrh~ gi•·rn sut·
faca m plann of rh~ mdicauJ l)f'~·
~L r- ~_.: = .:; in horiLonlal planes (lh~ parallc:lto the
• .'·rl3nc)
42. .r: _ 41 + 4: 1 .. J ; in horo.eonr.a l plancl
U , : - -'.'.: - .:: : .. 4. in plane' pa131lclto the yl· plane
FIGURE 12.7.26 lhe two
~ ~ = -'•' - 9_.": rn ho rr7o nu.l pl3nc:\ p.u J boloith of Probl ~m S2.
'!-. := 4, : + 9).1: in planc•parnlld 10 the y r.-plan" 5J. l'rov~ th;tt tlh! prnjc..: lion httu the •.r·rlant: or the In •
-16. : = zy: in horllont:~l plane> l<l'~ct inn nf I he plrtn~ z + y + : = I anJ lh..- ellipwid
47. ~ = JY, in \Cit lc:li pi30C\ lhn>o~h 1hc :·UI\ x' + ~,.1 ~ ~ i = ~ i• ~n ..-lltt''C.
~ , : _ 1; + : l = I. rn both huriwnlal nnd vertic.ll plan« ~- Sh<>w lh ~ llh<'l curw
•
nf irllcru·r riu n uf I he pl.\nc: = A,. and
'
pa:allcl lo !he coordm>tc ate\ !he C)' htulcr ' + r- It• an clltf"<. (S...~~"""'': l nlrc>du~
/lt•<uuHhnJic' inln lhc pbnc : E Ay 3\ r•• n....-s: U:l the
~- PrO\e 1ha1 the: t11:~n ~tks OAC and OBC in Fig. 12·7· 1 a rc: /1 •2ti' he the '"'!lin~ I • ·axr1 :tnd kt lhc ll·a•i• l'C the hnc
roncrucnt. and thcr~hy cunclud" lh~tthc trace of 3 sphere : = ky, .r ,. U.J
"'•• rnlerl<.'Clong pl~nc: ;, a c~tclc.
838 CHAPTER 12 Vectors, Curves. a 'ld Surf~ces In Spdce
72.8 1CYLINDRICAL AND SPHERICAL COORDINATES . . . -

. ··d. nnlv o ne nf $c,·cral usdul ways of dcscnbmg poin..
Rcctancu!J r ct>Ordtnatcs pro' 1 " . . . c.J' ...
' rf . , ll ~ r. we tl i~cu ~s two adthllonal coor mate systems in
cu r\'CS. ami su ace~ m s pace • c · . d' . ·
. . 1 space. •o•
th rt:l'·(I1mcn<1<'11a r:ach is •a •ccn.:r<~li1a tll>n of pob r coor mate~ 10 the coor.
di natc pl.mc . 1
I', cc.J 11 rrlH11 ,Sec tton
· 10·-, tll ·'lt th e rch· tion ~ h 1 p. between
. t 1c. rectangular
. • coordi-
na tes (.r . .")and the polar coordinates (r, (I ) oC a po1ntm space IS gl\·cn by
x= r co~ (I . v .: r sinO (I)
Jnd
r
: =·'....:~. .,-=.
t!lnfl = :.. if x I 0.
.r
\'
(2)
Read thc'c rcbtio n<hip< directly Crom the right tria nJ:Ic in Fig. 12.8. 1.
Cylindrical Coordinates
·n,._. r~ lincl ri r:ol .-. .. ordin:ott'' tr. "· ~) nf a poi rH
I' in space arc natural hybrid~ of its
J'<~lar .oud tc<.: l.lllpll.or n>< •rJ1natc~ \\'e u<c th e polar roordin:ltcs (r . 0) of the point
in thl· l'l.111e \\ llh r~ci.IIIJ;Uiar cuord i 11 :11~~ ( I'. y ) n11d usc th e same ~-coordinate as
FIGURE 12.6 .1 The telat:on in rccta11gulao ~omJ i natc'- ('ll1c cylindrical Clll >rdin:lh:s of a point I' in space are
between tectanguiJr and pol3t illustra te<! in I t[!. 1::.1-1.2.) ·n,i, mean< thai wc can oh(ai n tho.: relation s between the
coord,n•tcl In the • y-piJnc.
fl'Cta ngu l.~r cnord111:1tcs ( .r . y. :) of 1hc poi nt / ' nntl its cylindrical coordinates (r, O. l)
by simply atljoinmg the idcnttt y: =~ to th.: Cllllations in ( I) and (2):
x = r cosO. y .. r sin O. ==z (3)
and
. .
,.' = \ - + ,- . \'
-- ....-
..._ - (4)
W.: c:~ n u<c these equations to con\'crt from rectangular to cvlindricnl coordinates
and VICC \'Crsa. ·
EXA~ PLE 1 (:~)Find the rcctan!!ular worc.Jinatcs of the point I' h:1ving cylindricll
{J(•. )'. 01 conr mates <4· J':· ?). (h) Find the cylindrical coordinates of the point Q ha\'ing
n:ctangular coordmatcs (- 2. 2. 5).
Solution (a) We apply the equations in (3) to \\rite
FIGURE 12.8.2 f lndng t."oe
cyi•ndrical coordirwttl of the
point P. x = 4cos0:r ) =4 .! = 2.
Y = -lsin{j:r) = 4 . (-} JJ) = _ 2 J3.
;: = 7.
Thus th e poin t /'has r.:ctangular coo I' r:;
(I) . . n mates (2 - 2v3 7)
' N oung' hrst that th.: 1,0 1· nt Q ·I~ .m I 1IC s'• d • •
apply the ctluatiuns in (4) ami write · ccon ttuallrant of the xy-plane.we
= /(-2)~ + 22 = 2./2,
r
tan(l = _
-2_
2 - - 1. so 0:: ~
4 '
: = 5.
l nus the point Q has cylind rical coo d'
. . r ma tes (2,/2 .1 ,n
mtegral muluple of rr too so othe r C\1' • • :;:r. 5). We can add any e,c
.I and (2./2. -i:r. 5). , 1
.'lilt neal coo rdinate!\ for Q arc (2../2. ~;r. Sl
•
l
Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates SECTION 12.8 839
ll1c gra11h of an equatio n involvi ng r. 0. and z is the set of all points in space
having cyl indrical coord ina tes that satisfy the equation. The name cylintlrical coor-
~litwtn arises fH>m the f<~cttha tthe !!raph in space or the eq ua tion r = c (a conswnt)
IS a cylinde r of radi us c symmet ric aro und the z-ax is (l·ig. 12.8.3). Cylindrica l coo r-
(C, 0. dinates arc useful in describi ng o ther surfaces that a re symmetric around the z-axis.
(0. ( , 0)
:n1c rcctangulnr-coordina tc equa tion of such a surface typically invo lves x and y o nly
Ill the co mbination x Z + y 2 , for which we can t hen substitute r 2 to get the cy lindrica l-
coonli nJt e .:quation.
EXAMPLE 2 (a) lllOI>hcrc x 2 + ,.2 + ~2 = al ha~ cyli ndrical-coonlin ate eq uation

l "1 , •
r + ~ = a·.
FIGURE 12.8.3 The cylmdcr r = c. ( h ) 'I11c ccmc ~~ = x 2 +_,.= has cylindrical-coor<linnlc equatio n z2 = r 2 • T.aking
square roo ts. we get ~ = ±r. and the two signs give (for r ;:; 0) the two nappes o f th e
cone ( Fig. I ~ -~'A ) .
(c) 1l1c paraholoid ~ = x 2 + yl has cylindrical-coordinate equati on l = r2
( Fig. 12.S.5).
(d ) ll1c elli psoid (x/3) 2 + ( r / 3f + (~/2)2 = 1 h as cylind rical-coord inate equa-
tion (r f )}' + (~/2) 1 = I ( f·i g. 12.S.6). +
FIGURE 12.8.4 The cone FIGURE 12.8.5 The FIGURE 12.8.6 The
z2 = ,,_ paraboloid z = r1. ,z z 2
ellipsoid
9 + 4 = 1.
EX AM PLE 3 Sketch the .region that is bo unded by the two surfaces \\i th cylindrica l-
.
coord mate equat 'ions z = r·' an d z = o" - r•.
'
So lut io n If we substitu te r 1 = x 2 + y1 in the given equations, we get the: familiar

recta n2ular equ ations
... z = x2 + y
2
nnd z 8 - M =r 2 - y2
that descrilx: parabolo ids opening upward from (0, 0. Ol and downward from (0. 0 . 8).
respectively. Figure 12.8.7 shows a computer plot of the rc!!ion in space that is
bounded below hy the pa raboloid z = x 2 + l and above by the paraboloid : =
' -•-·'-r 2
8 - x - >.l· •
REMARK ll1c relatio ns .f = r co~n and )' = r sin (1 play an import ant role in the
computer plotting of figures synunctric around the ~-axis. For instam:c.thc parabolo id
z = 8 - , z o f Exam ple 3 can lx: plotted usin)! computer al!!chra s~·Mcm syntax lik e
the Map/~ command
plot ld ( (r • co • (O), r ••ln tO), 8 - r l\ l ) ,
r• O• • l , OoO•• l•P i l1
fiGURE 12.8 . 7 Tht" solid of or the Mtllltr!m tllica comm;md
U..mple· 3. Para...,t rl c P lot l O( t r•Co •( O), r•s in [9) , a • r /\ l).
( r , O,:I), (O, O, l•PI) !1
J
840 CHAPTER 12 Vectors, Cu~. and Su rlace$ in Space
. .15 d ··scribed parame trically by givi ng x, y, and l
In e ithe r command the parat>olot0 "
in terms o f r and 0.
Spherical Coordinates . , ( b O> of the p oint P in space. The

/*(p • . • • h · 1 comdmatc~ P · q • . .
FitZure 12.S.S ~hO\\ S the ~p enr-.a
• · 51'mph· t hen<·· 1. t ~nce fl = 10 /'i from the o n gm .·
0 to P.
first spherical cuordtnat.: P ts : , . •lc bet\\ cen O P a nd the posutve <-axis.
i n:ll~ o 1S t 11 " a n!;
Th e second ~phenca I coor d 0• _1 a lt hough 11· ·ts not rcstnctcd
·
:, 1 1
• the: .trHC.: f Vu to
Thus " c mar a lway~ c hoos~ ¢ tn . . . • ·' of c\' lo ndric:ol courdtn atcs. lltat IS. o
,I ' • ... • " •
. II (I · th e famtha r .Hll!1" " · .

tha t domJ in. F1na ~ · IS · . • · 'C tion ') of I' mto I he xy·p1anc. Thus
d . 0 [ th • \ 'CrtiC:l1 prO)< " ·
i~ the angular cuor 1n~tc _ • . tcn ·aliO. _
2 7 ). al t hou~h it i< not restricted to that
we mav al wavs ch <l<) c.: 0 111 th e In d· d ia ns.
fiGURE 12.8 .8 find ing the .. . . . . alwa \'S rncasm c trt ra , .
domam. !loth angle' o a nd 0 .ore ' . · used because the gra ph o f the equation p :: c
sphcncal coordonatel ot
The n~me sphi'Trml coor d lllnt<'S . • sph··rical sur face-o f ra dius c ccnter~d
15
the poin t P. . · h. more preeN: 1'· :t ~ •
(ns a cnn\1.111t) "a <p ere- ·
· ·.
¢ - c (~ cnn,t:t n
t) d ·•c·ioc:s (on.: na ppe o f) a cone if
c. · ,
at the onpn. lltc equa tton -. , , 1\ 'J). lllc spll ~ric:t l cquntion or th e xr·planc
(J < c <.~ fl. or tf ."t / 2 < c < .~(Fig. 1-· ·
is¢ = :r {2. , 8 s · · •c tha t

From the ri!!ht triangle 0 /'Q of fig. 1- · · • \\ C sc
r =psin ¢ a nd : =p cc•~4~ - (5)
.
l mlccd. these cqua ttons are m ost c:asi
· l)' re. membered
, . by vi, ualizing this triangle.
Substituting the equations in (5) into t hose m (.>) ytclds
(6)
These three equation< give the rclation~hip be t wee n recta ngular and sphe rical coor·
dinates. 1\lso useful is the formula
fiGURE 12.8.9 The twO n.1ppes ot
a 4S" cone;¢ c rt/ 2 os the
spheticdl equdtJOn ot the •y·piJ ne.
a cons~quence of the distance formula.
It i• import~nt tn note the order in wh ich the sphc1ical<.:ourdi natc s (p, ¢. 0) of a
poi nt /' arc: writte n- lim the d i~t~ nce p uf /'from t he o rigin. then th e a ngle¢ down
from the posith·e ~-a'i" a nd la~t the coun tcrclock" i'c: a n!!!.:: (I m easured from the
positive .r·aXi'l. You may find this mnemonic de: vice to he helpful: 'llte consonants m
the word " raft'' remind lL'
in order, of rho.fee (fo r phi). am! the ta . Warning: In some
other physics and m athematics books. a differe nt orde r. or even diffe rent symbols.
may be used. .
Gh·cn lhc rectangular coordinate s (.r. y. ~) of the point P, one systcm:li!C
method for finding the spherical coord ina tes (p. ¢ . O) o f I' is th is. Firs t we find th<
~·ylindrica l coordina tes r and 0 of I' wit h the a id of the tri angle in Fig. !2.S.!O(a).
1ncn we find p and 4> from the triangle in Fig. 12.8.1O(b ).
EXAMPLE 4 (a) find the rcctangularcourdin:ucs o f the point /'having the spherical
..-.....:...._....,, coordinates (8. ~ :r. ! :T). ( b) 1\pprnximatc the sphe rical coord inates of the point Q
having rectangular coordinntes (- 3. -4. - 12).
Solution (a) We apply the equation~ in (6) to write
x = 8sin (~ rr ) cos0n ) == 8·! .! = 2.

y == 8sin {1 rr) sin (in) = 8. ! .0 ./3) == 2./3,
Q
'
l == 8 cos(~n ) = 8 · (- ~~) == -4~.
(bl Thus the point f' has rectangu lar coordiontcs (2, 2~. -4J3).
(b) Fi rst we note that r = J<-3)2 + ( -4) 2 = JB = 5 a nd that
FIGURE 12.8.1 0 Tria~les u1ed In
ftnding sphffical coordinates.
p = J(-3)2 + (-4)2 + (- 12)2 = ./169 == 13.
Cylindrical and Spherical Coo rdinates SECTION 12.8 841
Next,
4> = cos- 1 G) = cos-

1
(- !~) ""2..746~ (rad).
Finally, the point ( - 3. - 4) lies in the third quadrant o f the xy·pla nc, so
0 = rr + tan - 1 (~) "" 3.785 1 (rad).
'JlJUs the approxi mate spherical coordin ates of the point Q arc (13. 2.7468. 3.785 1) .
•
EXAMPLE. 5 Find a SJ'heri; aJ.coonlinate eq ua tion of the para boloid with
rectangular-coordinat~s eq ua t ion ~ = x 2 + ) .2.
=
Solutio n \\'.: substitute z p cos<!> from Eq. (5) and x 2 + y2 = r 2 = p 2 si n 2 4> (rom
E q. (6). This gives p cos 4> = p 2 sin 2 ¢.Ca ncelling p gi vcs cos</> = p sin 2 <f>; t hat is,
p = esc ¢ cot¢
is the spherical-coordina te equation of the paraboloid. We ge t t he who le para boloid
by using d> in the range 0 < <J> ~ rr f2. Note that ¢ = ::r /2 gives the point p = 0 that
m igh t otherwise have been lost by cancelling p. +
EXAMPLE 6 Determ ine the gra ph oft he spherical-coordinate equatio n p = 2 cos</>.

Solutio n Multiplying by p gives
= 2p cos d>:
p2
then substituting p2 = x 2 + y 2 + z2 and z = pcosd> yields
.•·
x2 + yl + z? = 2z
as the rectangu lar-coordinnte equation of the graph. Comple ting the square in z now
gives
rtGURE 12.8.11 The sph~>re of

t ... mple 6.
so t he graph is a sphere with center (0. 0, I ) and radius I. It is tangent to the x y-pl:mc
at t he origin ( Fig. 12.8.11 ). +
EXAMPLE 7 Determine the graph o f the spherical-coordinate equation p =

si n ¢ sin O.
Solut ion We first multi ply each side by p and get p 2 = p sin ¢ sin 0. We then usc
Eqs. (6) and (7) and find that x 2 + y2 + i- =
y. This is a rectangular-coordina te
eq uation of a sphere with center (0. ~ . 0) a nd rad ius ~ . +
REMARK ll1e rela tions in (6) arc used in compute r p lotting <>f sphcrical-coordinatc
surfaces. For instance. the spherical surface p = 2 cos¢ nf E xampk 6 can be plo tted
using comput er algeb ra system syntax like the Maple· cnrnrnands
p : • l • c oaiQI J
plot3d( (p•a in(Q) "coa( O), p • aint Q)•aint O), p • coa( OIJ,
0 • 0 . • Pi/~, 0 • 0 .. l " Pl II
or the Matlu:matic'll cumm.and'

p • l Co a ( Oil
Para:etrlcPlot3D(
( p • slniOI "Coa( O!. p •sin(oJ • s i ni OJ , p • coa (¢)),

(0, 0, Pill), ( 0, 0 , l " Pi) !1
842 CHAPTIR 12 Vectors, Cu~s. a nd Surfaces in Space
. f e is described parametrically by giving x. y, and~ in
In each c~c the sphcnc:ll sur ac
terms of p. ¢. and (}.
Latitude and Longitude . .

. f , 1·sa circle fo rmed by the rntersectiOn of the surfact
A. ~rea l circl e of 'a sphe ncal sur, :lC<.:
fth•s phcrc.·nlllsagrea tctrceo · 1 f asplencalsurface
1 •
wuh a plan~ through the cen ter h0 the 1 h Th
. . . ) h " .
s·1mc rad111 ~ a< t rc sp e re. ere fore. a 2reat
rs a crrclc (rn the surface t a1 a5 . 1 sphere.• h's
o'sihle circumkrenc<' t hat 1res o n t1e
c
. . . ·
ctr clc ~~ a cr rdc o f m:~xrmum P •· · . · 1 ·
. ·
1 0 11 • ·
n spherical su rface he on a grea t csrc c (unrquclv
eaSY tO )CC Lh._at anv l\'• 0 r o anS . a •
· · .• •h · t< lie o n the end< of a dramet e r o f th e sphcrc). ln the
d etermrncu un 1c« t c t\\O p0 111 • .
: t • <hO'' n th:~t th e ,h o rtest di~ta nce between two such points-
c:tIcu Iu<o f ' ana t ron-. 1 15 , · .
mca\urcd alo mt t he curYcd su rf:~cc-i< the shorter of the t\~o arcs '?f the great C'lrcl:
t hJt cunt:ltn) them. Tite su rprise may N: th at the .<ltortcst dtstance IS found by using
the lnrgnt ctrcle. .
lhe sphencal coordinates c and 0 ;m: clo<cly rela ted to the la llludc and lon-
giiUde of pomts on the ~u rfacc of the e ;trth ,\"t.lll~e I hat the_ e~rt~ I~ a sphere ~ilh
FIGURE 12.8.12 Th~ rcl•tiom r:ul iu< p = :;9Nl mi \\'e t:-e£in wilh the prirnt· ntl'riclllm (a nwrullan IS a great semlru·
among IJ\itudc, lof19ilude, af'\d clc co nncctr ng the :"\urth a~d South 1\,les) lhr<'ll )!h G reenwich. E ngland, just outsid~
spherical coordinate!. Lond1 Hl. 'll ti< i< 1he point marked Gi n Fi!,!. I:;.i\. 12.
\\'c t ; 1 ~ ~ the ~-a ~is through the Nor th Pole ami th e .r-axi s throug h the point
where the prime rncridtan intersects the equa lur. llH: lulillulc a and (west) longiludr
fl of a point /'in th e t'urthcrn l lcmi<phcrc arc given by the equations
u = 90 - ¢ and fl = 360" - 0" . (8)
where o• and n• arc the an[:ular spherical Cll()rdi nat es. measu red in de~rus. of P.
(That i' ¢ • and o• denote the degree equi,•:~lo:n t < o f I he angles¢ and 0 . rcspecti\'ely.
which a rc mcasuro:d in radians unlo: ss ~u hcrwisc sp:cificd .) Tims I he latiludc a is
measured north\\ard from the equator and the lo ngitude fJ is measu red \\C:Stward
fro tn the prime mt:riJian.
EXAMPLE. 8 find the great-circle di~tancc between New York (lati1Udc ~0.75'
nort h. longitude 7~ · west) and London ( lalitude 51.5' north, lon gi tude 0'). (S~c
fig. 12.8.1:\.)
= =
Solution From the equations in (S) we fiml th atr:>" 49.25" , o• 2S6" for New York.
wh~reas ¢ =.
31!.5• . 0' = 360' (or 0") for London. li enee the an~:ular spherica l co·
ordlllatcs of New York arc <P = (49.25/ ISO):r. 0 = ('2136/ l 80):r. and those of London
nrc¢ =(38.5/ ISO).'T , 0 = 0. Wilh th ese values of o and (} and wilh p =
3960 (mi).
Gf«nwach me:nd 1an
F~CURE 12.8.13 Finding th~ gr~at-<ircle

drstance d from New York to London
l
(Example 8).
-
·C)1indri~~~ ~nd Spherical CoordinJtes SECTION I 2.8 .84 3
the equations in (6) give the rcctnngulnr coordinates
New York : P1(826.90. -2883.7.:1. 2584.93)
and
London: /-~(2465.16. 0.0. 3099.13).
---
FIGURE 12.8.14 The great-drcle
Titc angle y be twee n the radius vectors u =
sa tisfies the equation
cosy=--
II • \'
07\ nnd v = C5'F; in rig. 12.8.14
arc between New York and lull•l

l ondon (Example 8).
= 826.9Q . 2 J65 . 1 6 - 2SS3 . 74 · 0+25~9J.J099. 1 3 :o::O.G41.
(3960) ~
Thus y is approximJtcly 0 .875 (rad). Hence the great-circle di~tance between New
York and London is close uo
d = 3960 · 0.875 "'3465 (rni) ,

about 5576 km .
•
1.. Give several exa mples of surfac..-s that are described more si mply in rectan·
gular coord inates lhan in cylindrical or spherical coordinalcs.
2. Give several examples or surfaces that are describ.:d more simply in cylin·
drical coordinalcs than in rcctangullr or spherica l coordinates.
3. Give several exampl es of surfaces t hat arc described more simply in sphcric.al
coordinates than in rectangular or cylindrical coordinates.
12.8 PROBLEMS
Jr. Prubl~mJ I rhrough 6, firul th~ rutangular coordinates of th, In Prob/,ms 2J through JS. d"tcrib( tl:t graplt oft/:. gi>·m l'q u.:-
pmnJ "' zlh 11:~ gr~·tn cylindrical cootdmat~~ tion. ( It iJ und~rsl()()t/ that rquatiorrs including r or~ in r.\·lmci rirtzl
' L ( 1. ~ " · 2) 2.. (3.j::. - I) coorditratrt and thos< including p c>r ¢ arr in .<phtriral C(>{>nfi·
nnt~.t)
J. (2. ~ :r. 3) 4.. (J.;.-. - 1) 23. , ~ 5 24.. 0e3:r / 4

!. (2. !::. -5) 6.. (~ .J :-r.6) 25.. (J = .T / 4 26. p =5
n. c = :rt 6 211. If> • 5.T/ 6
In Pro!JlrmJ 7 t1:rough 12, find 1/u: rntangular coordinates ofth~
Z9. ¢ c tr/2 ~). ¢ a.T
pocr.a " 11h tr~ gi• m Jpherical coordmattf I P. c. 0 J.
7.. r2. 0. :r ) II.. IL T.OI Jt. ~ + u: = "
JJ. r • 4 cos0 ~ p a ~ ~·•s¢
9. (3. !:r . .- ) J(J. (~ . ; 1f.j:r )
JS. t 1 - 4r +3 • 0 .\6. p: - 4j) + -' .. 0
12. (fo. J:r.j" } 37. :1 - r• .\fl p'+ 4 pa l)
II. ( 2. ' " · !·T)
I~ Pro~iam IJ thwu~h 21. fin d both th~ Cjlmdrrral aw_lfdmat~>
In rrohll'nt1 JQ tlrrou~h "'"· <orn•nt thf" .~1\ tn f'"((IHitlml ht,th
or4 th• >pi:rrt(a/ wordmatrJ of the pomt I' with th~ li'"'"
rrl'l · C)•luu lnr al anflto Jf'htricnl C()(}t,_/mattJ.
(t )
4"l ('ula r Ctl'_)rdmatts.

JY. ,. : + .": + i :;; 2.S
B . PIO. CJ. SJ 14.. PIO. 0. - J l
-10• .rl + , ..: - ~(
!.!.. Pll . I. OJ 1&.. r12. - 2. o, 41 .. s + y + : = I
n. rn . 1. n 111. P( - 1.1.-1) .C!. .r+y s 4
1,. l'r2. I. -21 28. PI -!. - 1. - 21 .0.. ~: • i ... :" =J + y+t
11. PrJ . 4. 12 1 ::. r c- 2. 4. -121 44. :=z1-y!
r 844 CHAPTER 12 VN:tors. Curvts. and SurfdcM in Space
In l'miJ/rmt .Sj rl:m11,~h 51. d~scnM and slurch th~ surfac~ o r 61. D
escribe the cone o f Problem 60 in spherical cootdinates_
. the •rc• t·ci rck route from l'cw York lo
Mtlul dr.cn hrd by tht gh·cn rquollor.s and lor mrqualities. 6'- In tl ·'1 n~(E •mplc " 8 ) ·1n :mplane
· ... II n·
m rlla y rc' gcncrall•
45. r "' J. - I ;; z "i, I London ' " D C'CS the · • p l:rnc ever 0 y a l a 1atllude
· highrr'
e:.tst-nort hea' I· .
.v.. {) = 2. 0 :i ¢ :; ~ [2 • h f Londnn'' IS"~Iir.won: E xpress th e •·coordinate
than 1 a l o · · . f . .• h • . .
., rout<: as a funct ro n o .r. anu t e n max:nuzc ·1
47. p .. 2. rr /3 ";, ¢ ~ 2.7 /3 of the p I an~ . ' '·
• 12 " 1,, s·ho" s t h~ tnrus t hat is ohwincd by revolvinoo
411. f) :; r ;: 3. -2 ~ : :! 2 63 fi ..•un.: ·~'· {l
• aroun
"' d l he ....
•
· ·", xis the crrclc o f rad.rus l>ccntc
o
rc ll .at the point
.
4'). 1 :: , :: 3. -2 ~ : ~ 2
Co 0 ) ·an t h~ •,·z·planc. \\'me u radrcal d' -frcc C<Juat:un descrrh.
(b) cy 1·rnuric~l
~0. () .... {) :: 2. 0 :i <> :i ;r /2 in~ thi < toru< in (a) rcctangu br coor rn:llcs;
c~mlrn.uc<; (c) ~phencal coord:n ates. (d) Investigate the
sJ. 3:;; {) ;; s
use o f one u( thc<c d c<cri rtions '"'h a compute r algebf3
S2. O:i ¢ .... rr/ 6. OSP:! 10 s~-stcm to plot thr< """' " ith selected ' -a lues of a and b.
~3. The por3bol~ ; = A>. y .. 0 ;, rotated >ro~nd the : ·
a\i'- Wnte n C) hndric:.I<OOrdrnate equatron lor the IUrfJce
thereby generated.
~4. ' I h e hyperbola>' - :! = 1.' = 0 1< rototed aro und the z·
~ • i•.
Wnte a C) lindric:.l-coordanate equMinn lor the <urlace
there by ~c n erat cd.
~~. A l'lphc rc of raJ ius 2 is cl.'nlc rct.lfit lh..: c~fl f iiL 1\ hofc uf r n·
dn" I ;, drilled th rough the sphe re. " nh the '"I ' of the hole
lying nn the .:·a)iS. Dc ~c.:n hc the: M•IIJ r c~1on lh:l t remrun\
(Fig. 12.S 15) an (a) C)hnJnc.rl wurdrn.rtc' ; (h) >phcricnl
courdutates.
fiGU RE 12.8 .16 The toru s of
Problem 63.
64. The bumpy •ph<•rc o f Fig.. 12.1!. 17 i• an exaggerated rcr-

r~nlalinn of '\\ :1\ C~ un lhc ~urface of :.1 very ~mall r1Jne1
lh:~t rs con:rc..J hy a n .· ry d~cp nee an . Such hurnry or v.rin·
klcd <phcrc' n~>y .11<<>. pcrh:o p' rnurc rc:r li>lic:rlly, !>c u,cJ
to modcltunwrs. U<c n co:nputcr a lge bra system to plot the
sph cr-ica l-c,.>ordina tc s ur (.tCl.'
FIGURE 12.8.1S The
sphere-with-hole of Problem SS. P =" + b cos m O s in 11¢
sr.. rind th e great-circle dista nce in mile• :tnd in kilome ter. with >e lected values o r the ~itivc numoc rs ,, and I> 'nJ
lru:n Ati>1Hn (latitude 33.75' north. longit ude 1!4.-10 west) the pusitivc intege rs m and " · How docs the s urface dcpc:r.J
to S•n Fr3ndsco (lati tude 37.7S ' no rth. longitude 122.-12• on the value of cnch o r these fo ur param e te rs'?
\<CSI) .
51. find the great<ircle distance in miles and in kilometers
from Fairhanks (13titude 6-1.80' north. longitude 1 ~7.85•
· west) to St. Petersburg. Rus<ia (latitude 59.91 • non h. lon-
gitude 30.43' ~nsr of G rcen,.ich-altemati>·cly. longitude
32'1.57 • ,. e~ t ).
5l!. n ccau se F3irb•nt s and St. l'cter~burtt. Russia (sec l'rob·
lcm 57) a re at a pproximately the same 13titude. a plane
could Oy from one to the! other roughly a ion~ the 62nd par-
nile I of latitude. " ''uratcly c;tima te the kngth of such a
I rip bo th in kifom~:tc:rs a nJ in miles.
59. In flyi ng the ~real-circle rout~ from Fairll3nks to
S t. l'c tcr,hurg. R ussia (sec l'rohlcm 57). how clo>e in kilo-
met ers and in mi le• to the :-.:onh l'u lc >< ould a phnc fl) •
60. 11tc ve rtex of a right circula r cone of radrus R and height H
is located at the origin and iiS axis lie• on the nonnegative
l-ax i~ Describe the solid cone in cylindncal coordinates. FICURE 12.8 .17 The bum py sph ert'
o f Problem 64.
Chapt er 12 Miscei!Jneoul Problems 845
CHI\PTER 12 REVIEW: DEFINITIONS, CONCEPTS, RESULTS
Uu th~ following list"' n /i14 id~ to concrpu thnt yor. ma)' nttd 9. Compon~ntwise differe ntiation and integm tion o f vecto r-
to rrvi~w.
' 'alued lu nctio~
I. Vcc10rs: the ir definitio n. le ngth, equality, add 1tion. multi- 10. The equations o f mo tio n of a project ile.
pl icat ion hy ~calnrs, and dot product. II. The velocity and accrleration \'eCton o f a particle mo vi ng
2. Th~ dot (scaiM) p rnduct o r \'CCtOr5--dcfinition and geome t· along a p3rametnc sp.1ce curve.
n c mte rprcta tu>n .
t2. Are length o f a pJr3mctric space curve.
3. Usc o f the do t product to test pcrpendicu!arit" of ,·ec· lJ. The curvatu re. unit tan2~nt 'ffior. and p ri ncip3l unit nor-
tnrs and. more generally, to find t he angle bet,;,een t'A O mal vecto r o f a p.1rame~ric cunc in the pl:tne o r in space.
vecto rs.
U . T~n~e ntiala ncl norr.ll.l rompone nts o f t he accclern tion \'CC·
4. lnc crcxs (vector) prod uct of two vector\--defimtion and to r o f 1 p.uamctric ccne.
RComc tric inte rpr eta tion.
l.S. K eple r 's three I.1Sw-s o( rhncury mo tion.
S. ·n,c scala r tr iple p roduct o f three " ector...-<lefinit ion and 16. The nd•al and tran<\er<e unit ,·ectors.
geome tric inte rpre ta tion .
17. PalM dccorn f'05itio n of ' doci ty ond accckrat inn vecto rs.
(,, lllc parame tric and sym met ric equation\ o f the stra ight line
18. O ath ne o f the de ri\'Jtion o f Keple r's b ws fro m N~wton's
tha t pa\~cs through a given rx•in t and is parallel to a &"en
vector. Ia"' o! gra,i tauon.
19. Equa tion' o f C)hndc l\ and surfncc~ of re volu tion.
7. 'll>c equation o f the plane thrcJUf~h a given point normal to
a given vecto r. 20. lhc <ta nd,wJ t~f'<'< o f quadm: surfaces.
R. Vecto r-valued functio ns, velocity vectors, 3nd acceleratio n 21. Dcfin•uo ns o f the nhndriol -coordinate a nd sp he rical-
vec tors. coordinate ')~ltm<: lhe cquaJion< rda tin!l cyli nd ricnl a nd
$phericnl coon.hn.l tes to roclln~tulnr coordinat es.
' '
...
' CHAPTER 12 ·MISCELLANEOUS
..
•
PROBlEMS
.~
' ' -. • I •
.. .... .' .
• • ·. '
I. Suppose tha t M is the mid point of the segme nt / 'Qin space t!. Write an eq uation o! the plane th ro ugh /'(3. - 5. I) with
a nd that A is :mother point. Sho w tha t normal vecto r n = i + j
- 1 - - 9. Show th at the lines with sym metric equ:1tions
AM = 2( A /' + AQ).
2.. Ut • a nd b be n o nzt'ro vectors.. Deline x- I =2(y + I ) =3 (: - 2)
b and
a u = (co m p.a) W
a nd a 1 = a- a 1.
x - 3 = 2()' - I ) = 3(: + I)
Pro,·e that a~ is perpendicular to b. '---._ are parallel. Then wTite an equation of the plane co ntaining
3. Let f> and Q be diffe rent po ints in spncc. Sho w that the_ these two lines.
point R lies on the line through ~if and only 10. Let the lines L , and L: have symme tric equa tio ns
if there e xist numbers a and b such that a + b =1 and x _ x, y _ y, l _ l.
DR =aOP +bOQ.Co nclud ethat -
a,
=
- b
,
=-
c,
r (t) =tOP + (I - t)OQ
fo ri = I. 2. Show that L 1 and L 1 arc skew lines ifand only
is a parametric equation of this line. if
4. Conclude from the result of Problem 3 tha t the points
P. Q, and R are collinear if and only if there exist num· ~0.
bers a, b, and c. not all zero. such that a + b + c =0 and
aOP+hOQ +cOR = 0.
.5. Let f>(x0 • ) b l. Q(x 1 , y1 ) , and R(x:. n ) be points in the 11. Given the four points A(2, 3. 2). 8(4. 1. 0), C( -I. 2. 0),
xy-plane. Use the cross product to show that the area of and D(S. 4. -2), find an equation of the plane that passes
the triangle f>QR is through A and 8 and is parallel to the line through C and D.
U. G iven the points A. B. C. and Dof Problem 11. find points
A= ! Hx 1 - xo)( }~- ) b)- (x: - .ro)(}) - )b) l.
P on the line AB and Q on the line CD such that the line
6. Write both symmetric and parametric equ~tions of the PQ i~ perpe~dicular to both AB and CD. What is the per·
line that passes thro ugh p 1(1. -1 , 0) and JS parallel to pendtcular dtstance tl between the lines AB and CD?
v = (2, -I, 3). 13. Let Po(Xo. ,)1). :O) be a point or the plane with equation
7. Write both symmetric and parametric equations of the line
that passes through P1{1 , -1. 2) and /': (3, 2. -1). ax +by + Cl+ d =0.
......
846 CHAPTER 12 Ve<tOI'1, Curves. and Surfaces in Space

" • c 1) and •·z = (a 2. 1>2 . Cz ) can be written in th•...
. _ (OJ. "l
, 1 -
By projecting 0?;,
on10 the normal \ ector n = (a. b. c),
form
show that the di~tance () from the origin to this plane is .r - .to y- ) \> : - :.0
D= tJ , a, ,,, Ct = 0.
J,J: - ;-; - (j n:. b: cz
14. Sho w that the di<tancc D fror:1 the roin t P1Cx 1• y 1 • ; , ) to the
p la ne a x + b)' +c ; -r 1! "' 0 u equal to the dis tance from the 26. •D~duce .from
(
i'ro hh:m 15 th3 t the eq uati on of the osculat.
Problem ~-I ) to t h.: pa ramctnc curve r(l) at th•
mg p 1am: .
o rigin to the plane "'ith e.q uat•o n
a(x +x,) +h!y+ y 1 )"'r( ; + ; ,) +d "' 0.
roinl r(ro) can "e \\
~
rtltl'll '" the fo r m
~~
[K - r(r,1l] · [r ( rol x r" (l., )j = 0.

lienee conclude from t h~ result o f Problem 13 that
.. here K = (.r.y. ~). lSt>tc firs t tha t the vcctors T and N are
D = Ia , , +by, - c : , + d ; .
roplan:u with r' (l) :lllll r (/).
Ja ~ + !,! .... ~
27. u~c the rc~ult of l'robk m 26 to wri te a n equat!on of the
IS. fi nd the ~rpcndirul ar d istance hct.,.ccn the p>rallel plln~ o<culating pl.1 nc tn the twisted cubic x = t . y = t·. ~ = r' at
2x - y + 2; "' 4 and 'lr - ." + 2~ "' 13. the point (I. I. I).
J(i. \\'fi tc nn Ct~ UJI on or I he plrtnc lhruugh l hC J'OiOl ( 1, 1, 1)
28. Let 3 parametric c un c m sp:.tcc t~c dcscrib~d b~' equations
tl13t j , no rm al to t he lWI\tct.l cu blC x -= t. y = ,:, ;: r1 r' at , = r(l). o ,. c1 (1 ). : = ~ir ) tha t g •w the cyhndn cal coordi·
this tX>i nt. nat~~ of a moving r<-' int o n the c urve fo r 11 ~ t ~ b. Usc the
17. Let AIIC I'C nn isosceles triangle " n h I A/Ji "' lAC!. Ltt M c:quJ tions rc llting. rccwngutu :.111d cylind rica l coordjn3tes
be the midpoilll of BC. Usc the do t proJuct to show that to show that rh.: a rc le ngth of the c ur ve is
A.\ 1 on<l liC arc pcrpcndicui.H.
I ll. Usc the dot r uxluct w show tha t the d iagonab of a r hom-
bus (a para llclo,:rn m with all four sidL-s o f cqunl kn&th) are
pe rpe ndicular 10 c:tch nt hcr.
s= [ [ (~~Y + (<~:)l + c~~Yr dl .
19. The acc·c kr:ui~':l of a cc:rtttin particle i' 29. A roint movt·s nn the unir s phe re p = I with it~ spheri·
ca l a ngula r coordi nates at ti me r given by o = ¢ (1). e =
a = i si n r - j cos 1.
P(r). a;:; r ::; b. U<e the equa l inn< relat ing rectangular Md
A ss ume that the particle bcgms ut time r "' 0 nt the point sphe rical coonlina tc s to sh ow tha t the a rc le ngth of its pJth
(0. I) and has initial w lod ty v0 = -I. Show that its pa th is i'
a circle.
211. t\ pa rticle mows in an attracting central fo rce field with
fo rce proport ional 1<> th e distance from the o rigin. This im-
s=[ [ ('~~ Y+(sin! ~~) (~~)Til dr.
pl ies l hrtl t h~ r:trt icl~·~ :\l"C"i"1~r :HiN1 \ ' l• C"t Or i~ a - - tu~ r.
wher(! r i:ro. the position vector of the part id e. A~sumc that .Ill. llte vector p rod uct II = T x N of the unit ta ngent \ ector
the p:nucle's initia l po~i t ion is r,1 = pi and tha t It< in iti al :mJ the princ1pa l unit nurm a l vecto r is the unit binorm:d
' 'clocity is vo "' qwj S how that the trajecto ry of the par- • cctnr II o f a cu rv~. (a ) Diffcr.:ntia tc II. T =()to show thlt
ticle is the e lliJ>'e with equation x'1 p' .-. .'~ Jq1 = 1. [St~g· T h pcrpc ndicubr to d ll/lf<. (b ) D •ff.:rc nti:u c 11·11 =:Ito
gn rion- It x" (l) = -4.1x(r) ("here k " constant). the n sht>W tha t ll is pcr pcndiw la r 10 d ll j ds. (c) C<mclud~ from
.t(l) = A cos kt + R sin Ia for some constants A and B.J parts (a) and ( h) tha t t/IJ j tls =
-rr" for some number r .
:U. A t time r = 0, • j!rnunJ latg<'l is 160 ft from a gun and is Ca lled the ln rsion of the curve. r me asures the amount thll
movin.,-: d irct:tly r~way from it with a ron~tant speed nf SO flls. the curve twists at each poi nt in space.
H the muu lc velocity of the gu n b 320 fils. at "hat angle of .H. Show that t he torsio n of the he lix o f Exa mple 7 of Sec·
elevation a sho uld it be tired in orde r to strike the moving uon 125 is constant b y sh ow ing tha t its va lu e is
target?
f>,,,
22. Suppose that a gun with muulc \'eloci ty t'o is located at the r = ._,......,... ;__
foot o f a hill with a .30" slope. AI what a ngle of e le vation
n 2(if +~·
3
(from the horizontal) should the gun be ftred in order to 2. Deduce from the d e finition o f to rsio n ( Problem 30) thlt
maxim ize its range. as measured up the hill? r a 0 for anv curv~ • t 1 1 . . .
. ' • • tc 11 l.lt r (r J ltcs tn a ftxed plane.
23. A particle moves in space with parametric equations 33. Wrtte a n equarior1 i · h · · I
. ' n sp encal co ordinates fo r the sphenca
2
X= t . )' = 1 , Z ~ ~rlll. find the CUrvature of its trajecto ry 34 ~rface wnh radius I a nd center x = 0 "' , .. ~ = I.
a nd the tangential and normal components of its accelera · 1
• C be the circle in the n·pla ne with ;adius 1 and ctn·
rion when r "' I. te~.10Yd 1• t = 0. W rite equatio ns in bo th rccran~ular Bnd
=.
%4. The o sculating plane to a space curve at a point p of that eve. n eal coordinates of the s urface obtained bv ;e, ·ol,.;., g
curve is the plane through P that is parallel to the curve's around the z-a~is. ·
un it tangent and principal unit normal vectors at P. Write 35. l.ct Cbcthccurve 101 · h• . . • , :-
2(r _ l. w . e n·pla ne wnh cquatton ()" + ;-) -
an equation of tile ~Xeulating plane to the cur ve of Prob- th ~ ). nte an equatton in spherical coordinates of
le m 23 at the point (I. I. j).
• e ~urThace obtained by revolving this c urve arour.d the
25, Show •?at the equation of th~ plane that passes through , · axrs.
that , 2 _
en sketch t his
• .
f
sur ace. [Suggesrion: Remem ·
b(r
the pomt /'ll{.to. y.,. Zo) a nd ts parallel to the ve ctors - 2 cos 29 IS the polar equa tion o f a figure-eJght
curve.)
Chapter 12 M iscell.mcous Problems 84 7
.'6. Let ~l l'C the area of the par~ll~ram PQRS in sp~ce de· -1-1. The right 1-rnnch C'f the hyperbola .r: - l "' I may be
temuncd by the \"CClors a :: I'Q ~nd h :: PS. Let A" he pnrnme tritcd hy .r(l) .. co'h 1. y(l} .. sinh 1. Find the point
the n.rca of the perpendicul.tr proj ection of PQRS into n where its curva ture i< mi ni m nl.
plane t~a t ""kcs. an acute an~lc y " ith the plane uf I' QiiS.
~ ~. Find lhc vectors N a nd T til the point of the curve .r(l) c
Assu mtnt: that A = A cm yin <uch u 'itua tio n ( th is 15 true).
prove th at the areas o f the rcrrcndtcul.tr projections or the
1 cos r. y(r) = 1 sin I that c\lfrcspo nds to I 11/2. =
~6. Find the point< on the ellip<c .r 1 j t1 1 +).:Iff- "' 1 ( with a >
paratlclngm m I'Q RS ullo the thrt"c coord inate planes Dre
h > 0) " here the cun•ntur~ is maximal and tho<c where it
(l · (a x b ) (. U· (a x bl(. (k ·( a X h )( .
i< minimal.
-17. Surro•e that the plnnc cun·c r = /(0) is ~ti•·en in pobr co-
~oncludc. that the square Of the Mea of a parallclui!r:tm nnlinatcs. \\'rite , . fo r /'(II) nnd , . for ["(fl). Show that its
m ~pace ts equal to th..- sum o r the squ3 rcs of the arc:t< curv3ture is gi,·cn by
of rts pcrpcndtcular projections into the th,.·c coordinate
pl anes.
37. Tnkc a =
(a, . a:. OJ) nnd h a ( /1 1• b:. !>.) in Problem 36.
. .. lt 1 + 2(t ') 1 -
tr' l
1r l + (t")l pt:
Show that
4-S.. Use the fo rmuiJ in l'rohlem -17 to c:rlc:ul.llc the curvature
A:= l~ ~r~ 1~: ~ r +1~ ~ r

.-(8) AI the point (r.ll) of the Spiral of Archimedes "'i t h
=
equation r 0 . Then show that K(lll - 0 a• 0 - +oo.
49. 1\ railway cuf\e rnu•t join two strni~tht track\. one extend ·
~~ Let C be 3 {'Urve in a pb ne 1' rlut is not parallel to the ing due 1\"C>t flllm ( - 1. - I ) nnd the other e xtending due
~-axi\. Suppo<c that the projection or C into the .ry·pl:tnc cast from ( I . I ). Determine A B. nn<l C so tha t the cun-·c
is a n ..-llip<c. Introd uce ll t·<'llord~rt atcs into the plu nc p to )' =A .r + /Jr 1 + C.r' joins (- 1. - I) a nd ( I. I) und so that
prove th at the curn- Cis tl>clf an ellipse. the slorc and curvatu re or this connecting curve a rc zero at
39. Conclude from Probkm 3S that the intersection of a non- both its ~ndpoin ts.
vcrtic.tl pllne and an elhrtic C) Iinder wit h venical sides is ~0. r\ plane pa<sing throuj:h th e origin and not parnllel to any
an el hpse. coordinJte plane ha• an cquJrion or the form A • + By+
~ Use the result of Problem 3 to pro,·c that the intersect ion Cz = 0 and intersects the spherical surb ce .r 1 + y + i Ff =
of the p lane ~ = Ar- By and the p:uaboloid ~ = al +b' yl r in a &real circle. Find the highest poin t on this great circle;
is ei ther em;:>ty. a single point. o r :.n ellipse. that is. find lhe coordinates of the point "'i th lhc largest
~L Us.: t he result of Problem JS to pro,·e that the intcrs~ction ~<OOrdinatc..
of the pbne ~ =
Ar + B.•· and the c:llipsoid + >~ j/iZ +
.r 1 j a 1 S I. Suppose that a tetrahedron in space has a solid right an!!le
:!- 1r. =
I is either empty. n <in~lc point. o r an e llipse. a t one vertex (like a corn~r of a cutx). Suppose that A is
4!. Sup~ th at y =
[ (x l is the graph of n function for " hich the area of the si<lc OpJX>sitc the sohd right angle and lh:ll
r i• contin uous.. and suppo<e nlso thnl the ~raph h3\ 31\ B. C. and n nrc the nrcn• of the other three sides. (a) Pro ,·e
infle<:lion point3t 10. [ (a)). Pro,·c that the curvature of the th at
!rar!l at .r = a is zero. ,~: "' 8' .._ C 2 + ri.
~ fi::td the points on the curve )' =
sin .r "'here the curvature (b) Qf "' bJl famOU> theorem i5 this 3 thrce-dimension:ll
11 ma ttmal and t~ "'here it i5 minimal. ,·ersion?
- ...,
. ..
~
,. , ..
-· .. ' .. • t ''
.·.'
'I
• I
'- PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATI~N I .. ..

.,
.. ,,..
. ...
.. ..... .. '
'
I f: ,
' .
... .. J '
J
oseph Louis Lagrange motio n o f a particle in space th:ll is constrained to
is remembered for his move on a surface defined by an equat io n of the for~1
grea t t reatises on ana- g (x . y. z> =0. Section 13.9 applies the Lagra nge _ll_lul_ll·
lytical mechanics and on plier method to the problem of maxi m izing o; n~.rnrmrz·
the t heo ry of functions ing a function f(x, y. z) sub ject to a "constrarnt of the
tha t summarized much fo rm
of eigh tee nth-century pure
and ap plied mathematics. g (x . y . z) = 0.
ll!CSe t re~Hiscs-Mecanique
arwly tiq11c ( 1788). 7'/zeorie Today this method has applicatio ns that range from
des fonctinns analytiq11es minimizing the fuel required for a spacecra ft to achreve
( 1797) .. and 1-t•rom s11r its desired trajectory to maximi zing the producti vity o r
le calc11l dt·s foncrions a commercial enterprise limited by the a vailability of
~h Louis u grange ( 1806) -systc rna tically de· financial. natural. and personnel resou rces.
(173&-1813) ve lopcd and applied widely Modern scientific visuali zation often employs com-
the differen tial and integral puter graphic techniques to present different inte rpreta-
c;~kulus of multivariahl e funct ions e xpressed in terms of
tions of 1hc same data sim ultaneously in a single figure.
the rect:m gula r coordinates x. y. z in three-dimensional 'l11e roJJowing color graphic shows both a graph o f a s ur-
!p3~ Th~y were written and published in Paris dur·
=
race z j'(x. y ) and a co nlour ma p showing level curves
that appear to encircle points (.r. y) corresponding to pies
int the last <Juartc;r-c;..:ntvry of Ln gmng~ ·s career. But
he~ ~e-. ·up and sp.:nt his first 30 years in Turin. Italy. tmd peaks on the surface. In Sect ion 13.5 we lea rn how
to locat e rnultivariable maximum-minimum points like
!lis father pointed La grange towa r d the law. hut by age
those visible on this surrace.
17 Lagrange had dec ided on a cmcer _in sc1ence and
rnathcma.ti~ Based o n his ea rly work m celestial me·
chanics (t he mathematical analysis of the mo tions of tl~e
planels and sa tell ites in our solar system). Lagrange Ill
17fl> succeeded Leo nha rd E uler as d irector of the Bcrhn
Academy in G erma ny. .
La£Jangc regarded his f;rr·reachrn g work ~n
· - . .
rna.t1mum-mrntmum pro11 1ems. a•-~ t11' ·s b.:st work 111
mathema ti~ Thi~ work, which continued throughout
his long career. dated back to a letter to E uler _th;~t
wrote fr om ·r·unn · w1te n h•"' was
1
,_,.grange
- • · only. I.'1.
. llus
letter outli ned a new app roach t o. a ccr.l at.~l _cJ.t s~ ('~ 1
optimiZation pro blem' that ClliiiJlii \C the. ~.tkttJu, c

variation~ A tvptcal example i' the isof"'"""'trrc prof•·
km. -. hich asks -.ha t curve of a g i\ cn arc lc: r~gth en·
cl~ a plane region with the grc;rtc\t area . ( llu: an·
s" cr: a cu. clc:. ) In the .\lecmuqll<'
. . 0 11111) .IIIJIIt
· •. La. granj:C
- •
ipphed hr~ - method of multipli er 5 " to invcstrgntc the
849
850 CHAPTER 13 Partial Differentiation
'I~N~T~RO~D~U~C~T~I20~N~------------------~~~::c==::~::-::
13 • 1L! 1
, nd 15 to the calc ulus of functtons of
We turn ou r attention here an
d in Chapters .. a
df
. bl
t 'o ns d epend o n two or more vana es.
. \I . eat-worl unc t
more than o ne vanable. · :1n~ r
For example:
. \1- 11 RT ( where '' and R are con-
. · · · the idcal~:as I3 '' P - ) V( 1 )
• In phystcal cherrustr~ ,,. o ;e o f the ,·a riablcs p (pressure • vo ume .
31
stants) is used to express • • f th e othzr two.
a nd T {tempe ratu re ) ·
as n fune!IOD 0 b'
. Jar loca tio n on the ca rt s sur ace
f
bo level at a pa rtrcu •
• The altitude a ,.~ se:1 d lonl:itudc o f th e locati o n.
depends o n the latitude an -_ . s. ove rhead costs. the cost of each
nd' o n sa 1e .
• A manu facturcr·s P1o fit. d~pe - . · ,. dd itional va riab les.
. 1 cd and 10 m an' cas.s. a
raw m atcna us · • · · ·I therdc pc n dson itsefficicncy.
f bl e r•y a solar p~ne c:m ga
• Tlteamounto u>a cc n " . . · 1h and c o fdcva tionofthe sunabovc
its angle o f incli natio n to th.: suns r a)S.. e -
the horizon. and other fact ors.
. . fi d an ex tre me value of a function of
A t ypical opphca llon may call for ~~ to _m ·ant to min im i7.e the cost o f making
se ve ral vari ahies.. For cx:1mplc. 'uppo~c 1 3.t " e "'· - f d b ·tck cost Sl j ftl its
0 f ~8ft' g 1ven that•ts ron an
. 1 · •
a rcctan~ula r ho ~ Wit h a ,.,~ umc
1 : _ S' / f : fi •urc 13.1.1 shows such a
w and botto m cost S2; ft · . and liS two e nds co >t _, ~ . ~ . '!! be
FIGURE 13.1.1 A box whose tot.lt p r h 'dth y and heistht • U nde r the co nd itt o ns gtvcn. liS total cost wt
co~t we want to minimize. box o 1engt x. wt . ~ •·
C = 2.r z + ~xy + 6y~ (dolla rs).
Dut x, y. nnd z nrc not independent va riables. beca use the box has fixed vo lume
V = .ry:= ~R.
·
\ Ve e liminate z. for instance. fro m the first fn rmula by u >mg h d· bccaus~
t c sccon • ·
: = 48/ (xy). the cost we wnnt to minimize i~ given by
288 96
C = ~xy+ - +- .
X .V
Because neither of the variables x o r y can be e xpresse d in terms o f the other.

the single-variable maximum-minimum techniques ol Ch apte r 3 cannot be apphcd
here. \\'e need new optimi:tation techniques applicable to functio ns o f two or more
independ~nt variable<.. In S<.'ction 13.5 we shall re turn to th is problem.
The problem of optimization is merely one example. We shall sec in th is chapter
that ma ny of th e main ingredie nts o f single -variable d iffere ntial calculus-limits.
deriva tives and rates of change. chain rule co mputatio ns. and m a xim um-m inimum
techniques-can be generalized to functio ns of two or more variables.
IFUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES
DEFINITION Functions of Two or Three Variables

A function of 1wo variables. defined on the dom11in Din the plane. is a rule f that
associates with each point (x, y) in D n unique real number. denoted by f (.r. y).
A fundion or three variables, defined on the d omain Din space. is a rule f that
associates with each point {x. y . l) in D a unique real number f <x, y. z).
-
Functions of Several Va riables SECTION 13.2 85 1
We can typically define n funct ion f of two (or three) var iables by giving a
formula that specifics f(x. y) in te rms of x and y (or f(x. y . z) in terms of x, y. and z).
In case t he domain Dof f is no t explicitly specified, we t ake D to consist o f all poi nts
for which the gi\•cn for mula is meaningful.
EXAM PLE 1 The domain of the fu nct ion f with formula
f (x. y ) = .)25 - ,rl- yl

is the se t of all (.r . y) s;ch that 25 - x2 ~ 0-t ha t is. t he circular d isk x 2 + y 2 ~ 25
-l
of radius 5 Cente red at the origin. Simila rly. the function g defi ned as
x+y + z
g(x.y, Z) = I l ' '
v x +y·+ z·
is d efined at all points in space where x 2 + y2 + ~2 > 0. ·n1Us its d om ain consists o f
all ·p oints in three-dimensional space R > other than the origi n (0. 0. 0). •
EXAMPLE 2 Find the d omain of definition of the func tion with formula
f(x , y)= Jh· X- yl

(I)
Find also t he points (x, y) at wh ich f (x. y) = ± I.
Sol ut io n For f(x . y ) to be d efined , the mdicand x - >,1 must be positive-that is,
y! < x. li enee the domain (lf f is the se t of points lying strictl y to t he right of the
=
pa rabola x y2 • ll1is domain is shaded in Fig. 13.2.1. The pa rabola in the figure is
da shed to indica te that it is not included in the domain of f ; any point for which
.r = yl would entail d ivision b y ze ro in Eq. (I ).
The function f(x. y) hns the value ± I whene ver
y
r:--:--; = .l. J·.
~
VA- F
that is. when y 2 = .r- ) ,2 . so x = 2y2 . "lllUs / (.r. y) = ± I at each point of the parabola
l(x. y) = A
fiGURE 1 3:.2.1 The domain of
X - y1
(E.xample 2).
=
x 2y2 [other tha n its vertex (0. 0). which is not included in the do main of fl. TI1is
pa rabola is shown as a solid curve in Fig. 13.2.1. •
In a geometric, physica l, or eco nomic situation, a function typically r esults fro m

exp ressi ng one descriptive variable in terms of others. A s we saw in Section 13.1. t h e
co st C of the box discussed t here is given by the fo rmula
288 96
C=4xy+-+ -
.r y
in te rms of the length x and width y of the box. The value C of this function is
a variable that depends on the values of .t atid y. Hence we ca ll C a dependent
.-a ria hie. whereas x andy are inde pendent ' 'ariuhles. An d if the t emperature Tat t he
=
point (x. y . ~) in space is given hy some formula T h (.r. y. ~) . then the de pende nt
variable Tis a function o f the three independent varia hies x , y. and ~.
We can define a function o f four or more variables by givin~ a formula that
includes the appropriate number of inde pendent variables. For example. if an amo·unt
A of heat is rcka~cd at the origin in space at time r = 0 in a medium with t hermal
djffusivity k. th en-unde r a ppropriate condit ions-the temperature Tat the po int
(x . y . z) at t ime 1 > 0 is giwn by
T(;r , >'· z.r )

A
= (4:rkr) 1' 2 exp
(
-
x~ + y1 +
4kt
,z) ·
J:f A and k arc constants.. then this formula gives t he temperature Tas a function o f
the four independent variables x, >'· z. and r.
r ----------------------~~
852 CHAPTER 1 3 Partial Differentiation
We sha.ll sec that the main differences between single-variabl.e and muhivari-
able ca lculus show up when only two independent ~·anahlcs are l~volved. Hence
ma ny of o ur results will be stated in terms of func hons of t wo van ablcs. Most of
th ese results readily generalize by analogy to tht! case of three or more mdcpcndcnt
va riables.
• Graphs and level Curves

We c tn visual ize ho w a function f of two variables .. work s .. in te rms of its graph. The
FICURE 13.2.2 The graph of a l!r:IJlh or f is the graph of the equa tion : =
f( x. y ). 'TlrJs th e )!raph of [ is the set of all
function of two variables is points in space with coord inates (x . y. : ) that sa tisfy the eq ua tton ~ = /(.r , y). (See
typically a surface "over• the
Fig. 13.2.2. ) The pla nes and quadric surfaces of Sections 12A and 12.7 provide some
domain of the function.
simple exam ples of graphs of functions of two vari ables.
EXAMPLE 3 Ske tch the graph of the function /(.r.y) = 2 - !x- ~y.
Solution We know from Section 12.-1 that t he gra ph of the equation : = 2 - ~x - jy
is a pl:mc. ~nd we can vi~uali1.c it hy us in!! its inte rcepts with the coordi nate axes to plot
((1, 6, ())
the portio n in the first octant of space. Cle arl y ~ = 2 if x y 0 . Also the equation
= =
,. =
gi"cs y = 6 if x = z = 0 a nd x = 4 if y =: 0. H ence the grnph looks as pictured
in fig. 13.2.3. •
(4. 0. 0)
EXAMPLE 4 ll1e graph of the function /(.t. y) = .x 2 + y 2 is the familiar circular
2
paraboloid <=.t + y2 (Section 12.7) shown in Fig. 13.2.4. •
FIGURE 13.2.3 The planar graph EXAMPLE 5 Find the domain of definition of the function
of Example 3.
g(x. y) =! j 4 - 4x~- yl {2)
and sketch its graph.
Solution 'lbe functiong is defined where\'Cr 4 - 4x 2- y2 ;;; Cl-that is, x2 + l;•l ~ 1-

so that Eq. (2)does ~ot •.n"olvc the square root of a negative numbcr.llJUs the domain
of g IS the ~~et of pomts tn the .ty-p!anc that lie on and within the e llipse x Z + ! y~ = 1
(Fig. 13.2.::.). If we square both stdcs of the equation : = ~ j4 _ 4x~ _ y2 and simplify
the result, we get the equation •
.r2+h·2+z2= 1
of an ellipsoid with semiaxes a = I • b-- 2• •'ltld c-- 1 (S.cellon
· 12 7) I'
~~~":rdt~: ~rii~~i~~ ~;,;~~~~~~).wherever it is defined, so the graph of g is the uppe;
. . . . . >Ill g(x. y) 3S
r-·~--~ ~- ~rl) 1
\' : '
I
'
I :
f
I
' 1iy
\ l '
fJ
-2
•,'_,
0 1
-2 -1
0
y
FIGURE 13.2.4 Thr paraboloid is tht!
graph of thr function f(x, y) ~ x2 + y 2• FIGURE 13.2.S The domain of the
function g(K, y) = ~ J• _
4xl- yl. FIGURE 13.2.6 The graph of the
function g is the upper half of the
ellipsoid.
-
l hc: in tc:r'CCIIOn of the horuon t,tl rlJnc: , .. A " ith the ~u rf.t CC: /( I . > ) 11
~,llc:d the contn ur rune of hcl)!ht A on the ~u r bce ( f ir
ll2.7) 11H' H'II ICn l Jli<IJC~·
liOn or th1\ contour cunc into the ty·ri Jnc '' the lr •tl cur•r fl 1 • ' ) /.. o f the
functton I 'l hu\ a Jc:,c:l cunc o! 1 n stm"h 3 \Ct 10 the t }·r l.1nr on "luch thr \' ll luc
{ Cx · Yl is rorwnnr On 3 tororraph:c m Jr. such 3\ thC' one in It~ I J.~ S, the le vel
1
cun·cs arc cun C\ of con\tJnt hc•~:ht mtxl\ c «:a Je, cl
FIGURE 13.2 .7 A co nto u r curve

and the corresponding level curve.
,...
, ,. ~ ,
' :
.....
---- ,
------
'
...... .
FIGURE 13.2.8 Thr region nNr l ong1 Pt'ak. Roc ky Mount•in N~tionol P.~r~. ColorMfo,
showing contour lines Jt intervals of 200 leet.
Level curves give a two ·dimensional way uf representing n threc·dirnc n~iona l

surface~= [(x. y).j ust as t he two -dirncnsi\lO:tl nlJp in Fi g. 13.2.R represe nts n three·
dime nsio nal mountain range. We do this by drawi ng t ypica l level curves of~ = f (.r. y)
in the xy-pbne. labeling each with the corn:sponding (constJnt ) va lue of ~- Fig·
ure 13.2.9 illustrates t his process fo r n simple hil l.
EXAM PL E 6 Figure 13.2.10 show~ som~ typical cont our curve~ on the parabo loid
~ = 25 - x 2 - >'". Figure I:1.2.1 1 shows the corresponding lc:vc l curvc.s. +
25
2()
15
: 10
5
0
fiGURE 13.2.9 Contour curves and FIGURE 13.2.10 Contour curves on FIGURE 13.2. 11 level wrves ol the
~~ curves for a hill. the surfacez == 25 - • 1 - Y1 • function f( x, y) = 25 _ , z _ y l .
r 854 CHAPTER 13 Partial Differentiation
fiGUR E 13.2.12 lrvel curves for FI GURE 13.2.13 Contour curves on

1 = y - • (Ex3mple 7).
1 1
the function I(•. y) = y 1 - x 1 •
EXAMPLE 7 Sketch w mc typic:~llcvcl curves for the fu nction [(x . y) = y - x

2 2
•
=
So lut ion If k i- () then the curve >~ - x: k is a hypcrhol:l (Sectio n 10.6). It opens
along the .' -axi' if k > o. along the .r -axi' if k < 0. If k ~ 0 tl~cn we have t he equa·
tion ,.: - ·' 2 = o, who'c cr~ph cunsi, ts of the t\\O s tratg ht ltncs y = x a nti y = -x.
Ftgu;c 13.2.12 ~hem ~ ><m~c of the te,·cl curves. each b hc lcu wi th th e Cl.>rrcspondi~g
constant value of =. l ~gurc 13.2.1 3 sho ws co ntour curves on the hypcrboltc parabolOid
== y: - x: (Sectio n 12.7). :-:o te th at t he saddle point at the uri gin on the paraboloid
=
corrc~pond~ to the inte rsectio n point of the two level curve s y x and y - x in =
Fig. 13.2.12. •
1he graph of a function f <x. ,v. :) of three vari ables cannot be drawn in three
dimensions. but we can readily visualire its le• cl surf~ces of the form f<x . y. Z) = k.
For e'!ample. the level surf~ccs of the fun ction /IX. y. z) = x 2 + / + z2 are spheres
(spherical surfaces) centered at the origin. Thu~ the level surfaces of fare the sets
in space on which the value j(.t. y. => is const:111 t.
H the function f gi\'cs the tempe rature at the location (x. y) or (.r, ,v. =>· then
its level cun·cs o r surfaces arc called isuthenns. A weather map typically includes
lc:vel curves of the gwund-level atmospheric: pressure: these a re called i•uh ars. El'en
thou!_!h you m ay be able 1<> construct the gra ph of a function of two variables. that
graph might be so complicated that in format ion abnm the functio n (or the situation
it desc ribes) is obscure. Frequently the level curves t hemselves gi\'e more informa·
tion, as in weather maps. Fu r example, Fig. 13.2.1-t shows leve l cu rves fo r the annual
FIGURE ll.2.14 Dayt of h' h · 11 · · ·

Natlonat Atlas of the u 'ted'9S aor po utton forecast '" the Untted States (from
nt tat~. U.S. Department ol lhe Interior, 1970).
.. ... ~--~=-- •' .!.»-. ··! 1'. ,·1: .1.: i'"":.:·.v." r'~:o~.•: .1.1 daffercnt h'<."":JhtaC'< m the United
· · 1'-~ "-:.! 1: , ~ ::-- , ; ~ ... : : ..~ :x--~ n '~ 'th.'-. lt"-'".11 \,\nJtJC'ln' c:tu,cd b~ inJr ,i d·
~.:•'': :<. 1'.· .1 c -.c 1:1d :.11:< ~~~~ "C•lern (\•~••r.JJ,•. , ,,uth G.:••rgiJ. an d central
I! - ·• a' n:--:.:: •'-: •a-·: r..:~t-er (10. 1:1 tl:J• ,.J, d ,,f hi~h·r•JIIu t ion thy~ c:1ch
\ .. ..)•
-
.
•• 1: • • . :'l::: !": ::a; h , • 1:- ,: - := , L' J h'r<rl-<•l.•iJ of onc 5hcct. " hcrc:t~ if
' · In'' l .., \ 0:~ •, · :"\' ,'-;.,".:t' 11':: -.\ 'n( .t: - \: - :! = l) ltc:~ t~t'' t.•cn th ese
t" , h';"~ , .., ~\t'='f~' J, •
fiCURE 1) l . 1S ~~~...
\.>rl.Kf1 cf lh<' fw'Xt ~ Compu ter Plots
,_ .. ,(, ,,:)- •: ·· =- ...:
(t • ll""P'~ Sl \1 -,' -:-.·:· <1•'.:-• !'J\: <.:;(.1:c J.'.! C'\'"l!<lUr rl••lltn!! !l>Ulln.:s hJ.. o: the .\fap ft:
"' ,.! ..
:-: eo • ):!,)·· : · a ·:. x • ·l .. l. y • -l .. l ) l
rl o U::O ( y•: • x • : , ( a ,•l,ll. ( y, · J , l) )

Contoyrrlet! y • J . x •J, ( x .·l.l), (y,-l.l)
r.•: the f~.;n."'ll\'n fi t . \ I - ,: - I: ••f Eumrk -
[).AM PLE Q l·a)!urc 1.1 ~ ((\ •ho "'' 1-o.•th the j:llph ~nd ~orne projected contour
•·un ~' {'r th~ fun~u,,n
/(1. y)= ( t : - _I;)C \ f'\-.1:- i).
0!:-<t'r'<' t h~ p.lllt'rn< t•f nc:str u k ' el cunc~ thJtamlac:u c " pits" and "pea k<" o n the
sur(.,.·c. In Fi~. I.'..:. I~. thc k H·I cu r, cs th.tt correspond to <urf~cc contour< :1bovc
th.: 1' ·J' l.ln;: Jrt' sh''" n m r~d. " hilt: tl:o><: thai cm rc'J"md to contours l:tclow the
11·pl.ln.- .tr~ >h•" •n m 1-luc. ln tha> \\3~ '"can Ul,lln!!ulsh he tween pe ak' :and pit'I. It
.lrJ'o:.l!~ hl. d~ thJ t the our!.l;c ha• pea\..; J!-<nc the f'<liOl< (: 1. 0) o n the x -a ~i< in the
11·r!Jn<·. :mJ hJ• P"' 1-<·l,m tht• P.'ims tO. =l l on thc _1 -a~i<. llec:l u<c /(x. :!:x ) "" 0.
the: t" '' J~ lim·< .' == 1 in Fi!!. 1~ ..:. 11 arc al<n lc' el cun•cs; they inte rsect at the
I"''"! ttl. 01 in the pb nc tha t c••m·spond< to a s.:~ddlc poin t or "pass" (n< in llltlllllftJi ll
I'·L>J) o n the surface. +
•
FIGURE 13.2.1 6 The graph and p roie<:ted contour FIGURE 13.2.17 Level curves
cur\'CS of the function f { x, Y) = { • I - YI) e·•'· r' • for the function l(x, y) =
(xl- y1)e-•'-r'.
REMARK In Section 13.5 we will study ~nalytic methods for locacing m:1ximum nnd
minimum JXli nt s or functions cf two \';m ablcs I'X<ICtly. n ut Example 9 indicates that
plots of lc\'el curws prol'idc a valuable too l for locating them approximtllfly.
856 CHAPTER 13 Partial Differ~tiation
--
EXAMP LE 10 Thesurface
(3)
• 1·s sym met n·ca1 wn · h respec t 10 the •· • 3 xis.
· becJusc. Eq. (3) r ed 1 uces to hthe equarioo
, . ,2
~ = sin , (Fi~,t. 13.2.IS) in terms of the radial coonhnate .,. = y x· T > 1 a t measures
perpcn d 1cu. 1nr d '1~tance 1-ro m the •- -.axis.
· 'Th e sur/flee
. : = sm r. .1s. generated
. by rc"Ol\'iog
the curve : = si n x around the ~-axi <. Hence: liS lcvd cur' ~s ar e carclcs centered 31
FI GURE 13.2.18 ThHurve
z "' sin r (uample 10).
=
t he o rigin in the xy-planc. For imtan~e. : 0 if,. is ~n ~~~ ~~raJ mulllpl~ of :r. whcrc~s
: = :: 1 1! r is an" odd in~el!ral muluple of :r / 2. F1gurc 1.>.2.19 shows traces of th1s
surface in planes' para llel t; t he y:-pl:me. The "hJt ~f:ect." was achie"ed by pi oiling
,, (x . y. : ) for those points (x. y ) that lie within a ccn:un clhpsc In the xy -plane. •
I Gi' en an arbitrary function j(x . .1•). it can be quite a challenge to construct
' , __.. . =
by hand a picture of the surflee : j(x . y). Example I I illustrates some special
tcchmques tha t may be useful. Additional surf:lcc-s ketching techniques will appear
in the remaind er nr thi< ch~p l e r.
EXAM PLE 11 Investigate the graph of the function
FIGURE 13.2.19 The hat surlace f( x. y) = V + ~i- fJY4 - x 2• (4)

J
z ., sin •2 + y2 (Example 10). So lu tion 111e key feature in Eq. ( 4) is that the right·hnnd side is the sum o f n function
of x and a function of y. If we set x = 0. we: get the curve
l= ii ... h>.l- b>'" (5)
in which the surface l = f(x. y) intersects the y~·planc. But if we set y =}b in Eq. (4),
we get
Z= (hi + f.ro- bY~) - .r2 ;
thnt is,
z = k- .r2• (6)
which is the cquat~nn of a pa rabola in thc x~-planc. Jlcncc t he trace of ~= f(x. y) in
each plnnc y = )IJ IS a para~la of lht> form in Eq. (6) (Fig. 13.2 .20).
. Wc.ca ~t ~sc H1c technt.qucs o f Section 4 ..5 to ske tch the curve in Eq. (5). Calcu-
la ttng the dcnvat1ve of: wnh respect tn y, we ge t
tl~=~y+ !>,2 _!>..l _ l y( 2 12 I

dy 2 s s - -8 >' - y - >=- 8r<y+3><y- 4).
Hence the critical points arc y- -3 _ 0 d
arc - · Y- • nn Y == 4 . TI1e corr esponding \'a lues of:
/(0, -3) = 3.09. /(0. 0) == 0. and / (0. 4) = ~ "' 6.67.

Il "'
Because l - -oo as y ._ "-oo 1· 1 f 0 11 .
tha t in Fig. 13.2.21. - ' ows read II)' th at the graph o f Eq. (5) looks lik~
fiGURE 11.2.20 Th~

lntmection of z = f ( z, y) and FIGURE 11.2. 21 Th~ curve
the plan~ r = )b (Example 11 ). l
l - y2 + y 1 -r. y•b
(uample 11 ).
functions of Several Variabtes SECTION 1 3.2 85 7
fiGURE 13.2.22 Tra(e p.rabo'as o! fiGURE 13.2 ..23 Contour curves on

l =I(T, y) (Example 11 ). =
z l(.t. y) (Example 11).
Now we can see what the surface : = [l t. y) looks like. Each vertical plane
Y = >•, intersects the cun c in Eq . (5) 3t a sinfk roint. .1nd thi:< P<' int i~ the v.:rtex of a
pa raboiJ that opens down"ard ltl:e thlt in Eq. (6): this p:u:~bob is the intcr~cction
=
of the plane and the surface. Thus the surface : j(x . y) is generated by trnnslating
the vertex o f such a parabola along the cun·e
•- ~).:
... - ..
+ !I_}J
~
_ I v•
J!..- .
as indicate<.! in n g. 13.2.22.
Figure 13.2.2J show< some typical contour cu rves o n thi~ surface. 'l11cy indicate
tha t th e surbcc resem bles two peaks <cparated hy a mountai n pass. Fi l\urc 13.2.24
shows a computer plot of le vel curve< o f the fu nction f ( r . y). l11c nested level c urves
enclosi ng the points (0. - 3) a nd (0. -l )corrcspon<.lto the peaks :It th.: point (0. - 3. n>
and (0. 4. if'>
on the surface z = f(x . y). The level fig ure -eight cun•c through (0, 0)
fiGURE 13.2.24 Level curves of marks th:: saddle point (or pass) that we s~c at the origin on th<: surface in f~gs. 13.2.22
the function I (x, y) = ~ yl + and 13.2.23. Extreme values and saddle points o f functions of two variables arc
M 1- u y• - x2 (Example 11 ). discussed in Sections 13.5 and 13.10. +
13.2 TRUE/ FALSE STUDY GUIDE

1. Summarize the relationship between the level curves of a function f(x. y)
and the pits. peaks. and passes on the surface l = f(.r. y). In short, how
can you locate likely pits. peaks, an<.! passes by looki ng at a plot of level
c u rves?
2. Give examples of other types of data for your country that might be pre-
sented in the form of a contour (level curve) map like the one shown in
Fig. 13.2.14.
3. The function graphed in Example 11 is of the form z= f(x) + g(y),the sum
of single-variable functions of the two independent variables x and y.
D escribe a way of sketching the graph of any such function.
~ 13.2 PROBLEMS
1
br l'rol>tems 1 tlrrouglr 20, slttl~ the largest possible domain of 4. f(x. y) = --
definition of tlw given function f.
x -y
l /(x.y) =4-3.r -2y S. f(x, yl = ?/Y- x 2

2. /(x. y) = Jx2+ 2y2 6. f(x. y) = ./27 + ?j3y
3.f(x,y) = . -1- 7. f(x. y) = sin- 1 (x~ + y~)
x2 + y2
sketch some typical/eve/ curv
858 CHAPTER 13 Partial Differentiation 31 through 40' es Of
In Problems
the Junction f. 32. f (x, Y) = x2 - y2
8. [(x, y) = tan- (~) 1
31. /(X, y) ~ x- y 2 34. f(x, y) = Y- x2
33. f(x, y) ~ x + ~y
2
9. [(x, y) = exp(-x2- l> (fig. 13.2.25) 36. f(x, y) = Y- cosx
35. j(x, y) ~ y- x
2 + l- 4x
37. f(x, y) ~\
2 _ 6x + 4y + 7
38. f(x, y) ~ x + y 2
( -x2- y )
39. j(x, y) ~ exp
1
40. f(x, y) ~ 1 + x2 + Y2
through 46, describe the level surfaces of th
FIGURE 13.2.25 The graph of the In Problems 41 e
function of Problem 9. function f .
41. j(x. y, z) ~x 2 + ) '2 - z
2
10. f(x, y) = ln(x2 - )' - 1) 42. j(x, y, z) = z + Jx2 + y2
11. f<x y) = In()'- x) 43. f(x,y.z)=x2+l+l-4x-2y-6z
_2 2 2
12. f(x, y) = J4- x 2 - y2 44. j(x. y. z) = z - x - Y
l+sinxy 45. f (x' y, z) = x2 + 4/ - 4x - 8 y + 17
13. f(x, y) = ---'-
xy 46. f(x, y. z) =X2 + l + 25
1 + sinxy )
14 f<x y) - (Fig. 13.2.26 In Problems 47 through 52, the function f(x. y) is the sum of a
• • - x2 + y2 function of x and a function of y. Hence you can use the method
of Example 11 to construct a sketch of the ~ttrface z f(x, y}. =
Match each function with its graph among Frgs. 13.2.27 through
13.2.32.
4
2
~ 0
FIGURE 13.2.26 The graph -2
1 + sin(xy)
Z= of Problem 14.
2 X 2 +y
X )'
xy
15. f(x, y) = -2--2 FIGURE 13.2.27
X -y FIGURE 13.2.28
1
16. f(x, y, z> = -r:=~====
~~
Jz-x2- y2
···::::c:T:::r:::;::: : :;:::::
17. f(x,y,z)=exp( 2 \ ) 30
x + y +z2 ~ 20
10
18. f(x, y, z) = ln(xyz) 0
-10
19. f(x, y, z> = ln(z- x2 -I> -20 .
-6-4 -~2""""'"~·~~--
-2 -1 0 . . 2 -2-1 '
20. f(x, y. z) = sin-1 (3- x2 -I- z2 ) X
FIGURE 13.2.29
In Problems 21 through 30, describe the graph of the function f . FIGURE 13.2.30
21. f(x, y) = 10 22. f(x, y) == x
23. f(x, y) = x + y 24. /(x, y) == ..jx2 + y2
25. f(x,y)=x 2
+! 26. f(x, y) == 4- x2 - I
27.
------
f(x,y>=J4-x 2 -y2 28. f(x, y) == 16- y2
29. f(x, y) = 10- Jx 2 + y 2
30. f(x, y) = -J36- 4x2 - 9y2
FICURE 13.2.31
FIGURE 13.2.32
3 + 2 Functions of Several Variables SECTION 13.2 859
47• /(X, y) =X y
2
48. f(X, y) = 2x- y
57. z=3(x2 + 3y2) exp(-x2- y2), lxl ~ 2.5,lyl ~ 2.5
3 3 2+ I 2
49• f(x,y)=X- X iY (Fig. 13.2.37)
2 2
50• /(X, y) =X - y
51, /(X, y) =X
2
+ y4 - 4y2
sz. /(X, y) = 2y3- Jy2- 12y + x2
Problems 53 .through 58 show the graphs of six u .

_/(X, y). Frgures 13.2.39 through 13. 2.44 sho fi nctrons
z- fu . b . w 1eve[ curve
tsfior the same nctlons ut m another order tl FIG~RE 13.2.37 z= 3(x2 + 3 y2) exp( -x2 _ y2),
plo d , te 1eve1curves
. eachftgurecorrespon tocontoursatequal/yspac dl . lxl = 2.5, IYI ~ 2.5 .
m f M h e terg1tts on
the surface z = (X, y). ate each surface with its level curves.
58. Z=xycxp(-~(x2+y2)), lx1~3.5,1yl~3.5
53' z== 1 +X !+ Y 2• lxl ~ 2, IYI ~ 2 (Fig. 13.2.33) (Fig. 13.2.38)
FIGURE 13.2.38 Z= xyexp( -!(x2 + y2)),

FIGURE 13.2.33 1 lxl ~ 3.5, IYI ~ 3.5.
Z= -----,..--
1 + x2 + y2,
lXI ~ 2, IYl ~ 2.
54. z=r 2 exp(-r2 ) cos2 ( ~8), lxl ~ 3, IYI ~ 3 (Fig. 13.2.34)

l.
FIGURE 13.2.34 z=r 2 exp(-r 2 )cos 2 (ie), FIGURE 13.2.39 FIGURE 13.2.40
lxl ~ 3, IYI ~ 3,r ~ 0.
55. z= cos Jx 2+ y 2 , lxl ~ IO,Iyl ~ 10 (Fig. 13.2.35)
FIGURE 13.2.35 z=cos Jx 2

+ Y2 1
lxl;£101 lyl;£10.
56. z=xexp(-x2 -y), 1x1 ;£2, IYI ~2 (Fig.13.2.36)
2 2)
FIGURE 13.2.36 z= x exp( -x - Y I
IX1~2, IYI~2.

k and pits depend on the values of th
apparent pea s e co
59• Usc a computer to investigate surfaces of the form z = stants a, b, and c? n.
(~x + by) cxp( -x 2 - y2). How do the number and toea- ter to investigate surfaces of th
61. Use a comp U c f°rlll
lions of apparent peaks and pits depend on the values of ( r2) sin nO. How do the number and 1
the constants a and b? z=r 2 exp- . d ocati
of apparent peaks and ptts depen on the value or ons
the
60. Usc a computer to graph the surface z = (ax 2 + 2bxy + integer n?
cy2 ) cxp( -x2 - y) with different values of the parameters Repeat Problem 61 with surfaces of the forrn
a • b, and c. Describe the different types of surfaces that arc 62
• r2exp(-r2)cos2 n0. ~:::.
obtained in this way. How do the number and locations of
-------------------------------------------------~
J3.31 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY ---

We need limits of functions of several variables for the same reasons that we need
· d" · · Cd
limits of functions of a single vanable-so thhatbw: can tscut.ss cofnlt~n~tty, slopes, and
rates of change. Both the definition
. and t e astc h proper
h tes o tmtts. of funct·tons
of several variables arc esse~ttally the ~am~ ~s t ose t at we stated tn Section 2.2
for functions of a single vanable. For stmphctty, we shall state the m here only f
functions of two variables x and y; for a function of three variables, the pair (x or
should be replaced with the triple (x, y, z). Y) I
For a function/of two variables, we ask ~hat num?er (if any) the values /(xl
approach as (x, y) approaches the fixed pomt (a b) m the coordinate plane. /)
1
a function f of three variables, we ask what number (if any) the values f(x y or
approach as (x, y, z) approaches the fixed point (a, b, c) in space. ' ,z)
EXAMPLE 1 TI1e numerical data in the table of Fig. 13.3.1 suggest that the val
?f the function f(x, y) =XY approach 6 as x 2 3~ andy~ simultaneously-t~es
ts, as (x, y) approaches the point (2, 3). It therefore is natural to write at
lim
(.r. y)-t>(2,3)
xy=6.
•
f(x. y) = xy
X y (rounded)
2.2 2.5 5.50000

1.98 3.05 6.03900
2.002 2.995 5.99599
1.9998 3.0005 6.00040
2.00002 2.99995 5.99996
1.999998 3.000005 6.00000
~ ~ .J.
2 3 6
FIGURE 13.3.1 The numerical data

of Example 1.
Our intuitive idea of the limit of a f . . . .

the number L is the limit of the f . unction of two vanables IS this. We say that
and we write unchon f(x, Y) as (x, y) approaches the point (a. bl.
.. lim ,,
..........
I .,.• \') ( I
f< X , .V)· = L. (11
provided that the number f(x )

choosing the point (x, y) suffic·i:nt~;n be made as close as we please to L merelY b)'
1
h !0 make this intuitive idea p c ?se to-but not equal to-the point (a. b).
t e distance £ > 0, say-we want ;~ctse, we must specify how close to L-\\ithin
x, y) to be, and then how close to (a, b) the

lim u•"ldContinu ty SECTION 13. 3 861
poin t (A •)) ffiUll be tO JtCOffij"fUh th15. \\'e th:nk or the roint (.r. y ) liS being close tO
(a. b) Pr<J\'Jdcd that tt he<> "''thin a sm:~ll arrular dt< l. (iFis:. 13J.:!) "ith ce nte r ( n. />)
~nd radtu< b. ~~o be rc ois a smaoll p<Xit i\ C number. The roi~t (.r. ) ) lie< .,.;thin this disk
tf and only if
(2)
Th i~ o"->cr•allo:t sene< a< rr:<O:I\a:ton for the fomul defini tion. \\ith ' "''' addition:tl
condt ticm, Fi r• 1. "' e define th~ hm 1t o f f f.t. y) 3< ( t . ·' ) - · ! 11. f>l m:ly unde r th•· condi·
llo n tha t the <hma on o( cdtm1t. •n off cont.lm< l"'int< 1.r. ·' 1 ~ (tl. f>) th:tt tic ar bitrarily
clov.: to fa. In -tha: t" . .
t! hm r> rn d:<k l'( th<: sort ~hOI' n in Fil!. l.i~'·2 :tml thus "it hin
a.ny and C\Cf) f'fC3\< tfncJ r"'l<l!l~c dt<tlnO:::! of (,z. /l) lknc:: '\\C dll not sre:t k Of the:
FIGURE 13. 3.2 lne circular doll
hmtt off at an t<<Jlltcd p<>Hll fl ( tl< dom:un () Fin:~lh. "C dn n r>r rcquin: that f be
With center (o, b) and rad•m A. ddincd at the point Ca. f>l it <ell Thu< " e dchl-cr:uci,· c~cludc thc l"'"ibil ity lhlll
(A .))=fa.b). ·
DEFINITION Th e Limit o r f(x. y)

We \ay tha t the limit cor fC •. I l ,., ( r . ·' ) appr02Ch~ (a. h) I• L provided tha i for
e very numbe r ' ... 0. there n t\1< :t num~r J > 0 "ith the follo"intt property: IC
C.t. )' ) 1\ a pomt ol the cl nmasn of f •uch t h.lltl
(2')
ahe n it follow~ th:ll

1/( r. y)- l..l < c. (3)
R( MARK 'lltc: "e xtra" inc:qu:~lity 0 < J< < -a)!+ (y- h)! in Eq. ( 2') serves 10 en·
sure that (.r. y) ~ (a. 1>).
EXAMPLE 2 ·n1c computer-generated graph in Fig. IJ.J.J $uggcs ts that

sin(.r: + >.1)
.r· + ,~
'I 'I = 1..
Solution IIere 11 = b = 0 and L = I in the definition of the limit. Given f > 0. we must
find a value ~> 0 such that
FIGURE 13..3.3 The 9"Ph

0 < J.r! + ).: < cS implies that
l
sin(.r
J: 1
2
+ r>
+ y-,
l
- I <f.
~in(•' + y 1) But the familiar singlc-varia.hle limit
r a l l of Example 2.
X +y . sint
I 1111 - - = 1
t -O I
implies the existence of a number eSt such that
0 < ltl <eSt implicsthat l si~ t - l l<f.
When we substitute I= .t2 + T, we see lh:ll

sin(.r2 + r> - I I<f .
0 < (.r2 +it < eSt implies thai
I '
.r 2+ Y"
Hence we need only choose cS =../fl. Then
0< Jxz+ y: < 8 implies that 0 < tx2 + >.21 < .sz =.St.
sin(.rl + r> -I I<

which (in tum) implies that
I .r2 + y2 f,
as dc:sirc:d. •
Continuity and the limit Laws

We frequ entlYrelv on continuily rather than the fo rmal defi_nition ~f I he limit to eva).
. · r·f · · f ,·era! ,.3 r 1'ables. We sav thai f 1s contmuous at the point
uatc I1m1ts o unct1ons o se '
(a . b) provided that [ (a. b ) exists and f(x . J) approaches f(a , b) as (x • J) approaches
(a. b). That is,
lim [ (x, y) =[(a, b).
Cx .yi- Ca.b)
Thus f is co ntinuous at (a. b) if it is define~ the re a~d its li~it there is equa~ to
its value there. precisely as in th~ case of a funct1on of a smgle vanabl~. The funct1~n
f is said to be conlinuous on the set 0 if it is continuo us at each pomt of 0, agam
exactly as in the single-variable c;•~e.
1 EXAMPLE 3 Let D be the circular disk consis ting o f th e points (.r. y) such that
x 2 + y" ;;; 1 ;1nd let {!x. y ) = 1 a t each point of D (Fig. 13.3.4). Then lhc limit of
f (x. y ) at each poi nt of 0 i.• 1. so f is continuous on D. I3ut let the new function
g(x . y) be defi ned o n the entire plane R 1 as follows:
[(x. y) if (.r. y) is in 0;
g(.r.y)= .
{0 o thc rwJSC.
·n1en g is n o r conlinu ou~ on /l 2• For insta nce. 1he limil of g(.r. y) as (.r. y) .... (1.0)
docs not exist hecause there exist hoth poin l' wilhin D arbilrarily close to ( I. 0) at
wh ich g '""the val ue I """points out~ide o f 0 arbilr~rily close to (I. 0) at which
FIGURE 13.3.4 Th~ circul.u di'k g h:1s I he value 0. Thus g(x. y) cannot approach any si ngle va lue as (x. y ) .... ( I. 0).
of Exampl~ 3. Because g has no limit at ( I . 0). it cannot be continuo u' there. •
·n1e limit laws of Section 2.2 have natural analogues for functions of several
variables. If
lim f(x , y) = L and lim g(x. y) = M, (4)

(A. y~ -· (a .b) (z .y)- (a,h)
then the sum. product. and q uo tient laws fo r limits are these:
,....\~~"-'" I to·..1·) + g (.r. rtl = 1. + M. (5)
lim
( -..v) - 1" " •
I[l.r. •'')."Cr.
·"
) 'll =I •
. •t
n • (6)
and [(.r. )') L

lim 'I 0.
. . ..... - ,.,,hi !; (X. ,\ ') =M if M (7)
EXAMPLE 4 Shmnhat lim xy=ab

(X.y)- ( a .b) '
Solution We take [(.r.)•) =x and ( )_ .

limit that g .r • Y - Y· Then '' follows from the definition of
lim
(r.y)-(a,b)
f(x • y) -a
- an d lim
(x.yJ-ta,b)
g(x ' >') -- b •
Hence the product law gives
lim
l<,yJ-(a.b)
xy Jim 1f(x 'Y )8 (X, Y) )
= Cx.y)-ta.b)
= L.,¥~•.bl f(x, y)] L.,\~a.b)g(x, Y>] =ab. •

l.i:r :.s and Con~:nu :y SECTlON 13.3 863
Mo re generally, st:p~: tha t P( ll . ~ ,I\ a rolynomi al in the two \'J ria bl es ){and
Y· Th.:u i' Pu. >lis a sum of co:utlnt mu!t:rks of the ro m ry' " her e the expon ents
rand 1 are nonnegati' e in:eg en. Thu.s Pv:. . .•l on t-<: "'Titten in the fo rm
P (.t.) ) = L c, 1 .t'~ 1•
The SU!':"' and produtt la ...'l !o: lir:1its then i:nply lh3t
E:n
t r , , _ , .. "
= '\'
L-
( Em .
{ r • - 4 ... 1
c,,.r'y')
= '\' c, (lim
L- 1 ,_.,
.r')( lim l )
·-~
= 2:: c.,c' f.! = P(a. 1>1.

h follov.s that <'l tr) pol) norr.tal in f>o() (vr More) 1criablrs is an e•·erywher.:
cQntrn uouJ /11n ct:on
EXAMP LE 5 The funcuon f l 1 .) 1 = :!.t ' >.: - in + .l r=r' - 5 j_, a pol~ no mial, w we
C:.lln f111d iu limi t at nny pomt (a. b) itmply I'>) c\ a)u:umg f(•l. h). Fo r instance,
li m
( c.r•- c- l Z1
{( r .y)=f(- 1. :!1 = 2 (- 1)' (21 1 -7 - (- 1)(2)+ .1 ·(- 1) 1(2) 1 - 5 = 49.
•
Ju<t as in the sin!:k·vnrbhlc ca<c. any compo<ition of con tinuo u\ multivari ahte
funct io ns i<al<o :t continuou~ funct io n. Fo r cx3mpk. supp<Xc that the funct ion~ fa ml
g nrc hnth C'e>ntinuo us at (u . b) and that lr is co ntinuous a t the poi nt (f(a , I>) , f; (a. b) ) .
lncn the co mposite function
1/(.r , y ) = h ( { (.t, )') . g (.r . y))
is also continuous at (a . b). A s a co nsequence. any finite: co mbinatio n involving sums,

p roducts, quotie nts. and co m po~it ions of the f~miliar el ementary functio n< is co ntin-
uo us. except possibly at points where a denominator is ze ro o r whe re the fo rmula fo r
the functio n is othe rwise me-aningless. ll1is gene ral rule suffices fo r the e valuat ion of
most lim its that we shall encounter.
EXAMPLE 6 The funct ion g (.r. y ) = sin (.r1 + y: ) is the co mposition of the conti·
nuous functio n sin 1 and the polyno m ial .r2 + .1,;. and is t herefo re continuo us every-
where. Hence the functio n f defined by
si n(.r2 + ),;)
f (:r,y) = I .r2 + y2
unless :r = y =0,
{
if .t= y =O
is continuous except possibly at the o rigin (0. 0). where the denominator is zero. But
we saw in Example 2 that
lim f(.r, y) =I= { (0, 0).
t•.rl- t1l.Ol
so 1 is continuous at the origin as welL Thus the function f is continuous everywhere.
•
EXAMPLE 7 If
Jr)'
f(x. y) = e-'1 sin -:t' + xy In ../y- :r,
then t'' is Ihe composition of co.ntinuous f~nctio~ tl1us continuous; sin y is con· lrr
tinuous for the same reason: theu product ts contmuous because each is continuous..
864 CI~APTER l l Pdrtial Differentiation
Al..o y _ x. a polyn omial. is continuous eve rywh e re: /y- x is t he r~ fo re continuou$

if y!: x: In Jy - x is co ntinuous pro,i ded tha t Y > x: xy In ..fF'X IS the product of
funct ion~ conti nuous if y > x . And thus the sum
:ry
fC.r.y)= r 'sin7
. + x y lnJy -x
of functio ns continuous if y > .r is itsel f continuous if Y > x . Be cause f (x . Y) is con-
tinuo us if) > x , it follows that
lim
h ; , J- I L 2)
(I!'' sin :ry
J
'"- .ryln Jy- x] = /(1. 2) = e · I + 2 1n I =~.
2
•
Example s ll and 9 illustrate tech niques tha t sometimes a re s uccess ful in han.
1lling ca ~c\ ~>i t h de nominators that approach 1cro: in such cases the techniques of
Examples 5 through 7 cannot be applied.
EXAMPLE 8 Show tha t lim .ry =0.

u. 1 )- <0.0 J J.r! + .l.:
Solution Le t (r. 0) he the polar coordinates of th e poi nt (.r. y ). 'lltc n .t = r cosO and
y = r sin ll.so
xy (r co•O)(r si n O) , .
'-' , = = rcosiJsm O (o rr > 0.
v ,(' + r Jr 2 (cos 1 0 +s in ' 0)
Because r = J .r 2 + y! . it is clear th:tt r - 0 as hoth x and y approa ch zero. It there-

fo re follows that
lim xy
<• .yJ- <O.OJ . 1 2
r1m r cos 0 sin 0 = 0.
=
v .r + r , ,_o
hccau•c lcosO sin O! ~ lcosO I·Isi n 01 ~ I fo r a ll 0. So if the fun ction f is deli ned as
X \'
/ (x. y) = J x z + >.z if (x . y) i- ( 0. 0),
{
0 ifx =)·= O.
then it follows that f is continuous at th ..
FIGURE H .l .S T~ 91lph of := [(.r l '). lt cormhora tL'S the z . e_or' 1l'" (O. O). Figure t:l3.5 ~hows the graph
·· ero 1unut 11at we fo und at (0 0) N · . h
xy
~ (£.• •mplt 8). graph a pp.:ars to rcscmhlc the saddl• . : · · cart 11c ongtn I e
hut this d O<!sn'tlook like a smooth: ~>lilt urn a hypcrholtc parabolo id (Fig. 13.2.13).
L a
v _.1 + y1
• 11 com ortablc sadd le. +
EXAMPLE 9 Show that
docs not e xist.

}
Solution Ourplanis to showthat f <x ) - 2 '·

{iC• •H t ..... ns (.r. Yl approaches (0 0) from d'ff 'y -: x yj(x + r l approaches d iffere nt values
· line of slo crent dtrcction s.· •supposc that (.t. y ) approaches
'
•
1
(() • 0) i11o ng the straight
>' = mx. So. on this line, · pc 111
through th~: ongin. O n th is line we have
f<x.y)=f(x.mx) = X ·ntf _ m
x2 + m 2x2 - 1 + 2
'f m
I x ~ n. If we take m= I. we see that / ( . - •
other th an (0. 0). If we ta ke m =-I th x • >) - } at eve ry poin t o f the line J = .r
FIGUR E 13.3.6 ~function f ol =
Y - x othe r than (0. 0). Th us f <x >,') apepn f(xl , y) =- l
at evc rv ""int of the line
Eu mplt 9 take1 on both v1lues proach
an . es (0 · () l a long these two Jines
· (Fig. roac. 1cs
.
13 3 6
tw d'1ff · '"' °
, c rcnt va lues as (.r. y) ar-
+ ~ 1nd - ; 11 points arbitrarily y smg/l'.value as (.r, y) ap proaches (0 , 0) and t/ ~en~c f(x . y) cann ot approach
dme to the origin. ca nnot CXJSI. '
15 tmphes that the lim it in question
~ a'\d Continui1y SECTION 13.3 865
~gur~ 13.3.7 sho'"~ ;s comp!.~ ter-~er.cr3ted gr;srh o f the funelion f (x . y) =
x .\ f (r '"')~ ). It CDn5iHs of hne.u r;l\~ alon2 ca.::h t)f "hjch the pobr angular co-
ordina te q i\ CO:JStan t. For each nu~~r : . t-..:t .... ecn - l and l (incl usi,·e). there
are ray' along "'hich { l r . .' 1 has th e con<tant , ,,lu ~ ::. lienee \\C e::~n ma l..c /(.r . _\')
approach any n um~r "t' plca<c in [-I.~) b~ k u in!! ( r . .') :tpprooch (0. OJ from I he
arpropriatc cL rcctwn. There a re :tl<o p:.ths akm:; "' hich ( r. ·' ) appr oaches (0. 0') but
th e hmit of {( x. y ) docs not e:tist ( Probl:m 53). •
REMARK In order fo r
fiGURE 11. 1. 7 Th~ grJ;>h of
JY
1(• . y) :: -.--::;(Exam~ 9).
J +, L= lim /( r . y)
t t .• ' - ' " ~I
to exist, fi x.> ) mu~t a;'pft\ach L (<.'r ""·' .llt.l c1rr~· nHxk of approach of (.r. y ) to
Ca. M . In ? rol-km 51 "'t' ._~1•c an C'tam"k
t r
,,fa run..:t~<•n ' suc h th.tt f(.r . •1•) - 0 as
(.r. Yl - 10. OJ alon~ am \tr:ucht hr.c throu~h th,· Ni.:in.l-ut ((.r. 1·) - I as (.r. ) ") -+
W. OJ alon~ the pa~~bola .' .;, r: Thu< th(. m ~t hr•d .n( E~amplc ·., canm•t be used
to show that a hm11 n1\t'- only thlt it d<X~ nnt. r vrtun.ttc:ly. rn:my imr'<•rtan t app-
lica tions. includmt: th ose " C d•\1.'\J<-< in the re m:~ indc r l>f t hi< <'h:lptcr. inn>J,·c only
funct1on~ that nhibi t no ~uch e t o tu: l>cba,·i,,r :15 the funct ion< of P rnhlcms 51
t hrou~:.h 53.
Functions o f Three or More Varia bles

'JliHJ< f~r in thi< S~Ciinn , "' C h:l\C d!'CU<"Cd CXpJicitJy On ly functionS of IWO V:Hiai>Jc:s,
hut the l'Hill'c pl ' of linut' and contmu•ty gcncr:tl11c in a <tr.•iglllfnrward m:mnc r to
functions of l hr~c or more ,·nn~hlc-. ,\ funct ion f of " v~ria hlo·< as<i)'.ll' a sin~:lc real
numbo:r [ (.r1. .r: . ... , .c.) to ::m ll·l uplc ( r 1. r:. . . . .r. J of rc:•l numba!'. For instance.
=
the function f migh t a,sign to the .t-tupk ( r, .1'· :.r) the ternpc rnt ure 11 f< r. y. z. r)
ll t tim.: r a t the poi nt ( .r. y . : ) in t hree-dimensional •p:tcc:.
Just as thrce-di mcnsion:1 l space /l 1 is the set nf all trip les (.r 1, .r1• .r.o) of rea l
numbe~ ll•dimt-nsional spaceJl• is the ~t of all n ·lu pk< of real nurnhcrs. llws the
tc rnpc raturc function mcnti0ncd earlier is ddincd on f!>ur-dimcnsion:ll space /l4 • \Ve
may t hcrdorc write f ; K' - fl. with time 1 playing the role of th e: fo urth dimen sion
(but witho ut the fanciful implie:.l tions some tim es enjoyed in science tiction).
It is common pr:.1ctice to ide ntify the •H uplc (.r 1 • x: .. .. . .r.) with th e vector
x = (.r 1 , .r: . . ... .r.)-regarding each notation as si mply a way of specifying the snmc
ordered list .r1. .rz, . . . . .r. of rc:al numbe~ Then we may also regard /(" as the se t o f all
n -vectnrs. This viewpoin t ena bles us to add po ints in ll" coordina tcwisc as n-vcctors.
a nd simil:.lrly to multiply poi nts by sca lan;. In analogy with lengths of vectors in Jl2
a nd R ). we define the lt•ngth lxl of the vecto r x in ll" to be
J
~XI = xi + .ti + · · · + x~ .
For instance. the: 4-vector (5, -2. 4, 2) has length J 25 + 4 + 16 + 4 ./49 7, = =
lbe function f : R"- ll may he regarded eithe r as a functio n of the " in-
dependent real variables .r, . .r2 ... . . -~· or_ as a function of the single n-vcc!or
x = (.rt • .rz . ...• .r.). We may then wnte e1ther [ ex, . .rz .... , x.) or f (x). depend-
ing 011 which notation seems most natural in a given situation. For instance, with
vector notation the limit concept takes the form of the statement that
·-·
lim /(x)= L ,( 8)
provided thal. for every number f > 0. lhere exists a corresponding number cS > 0
such that
lf(x) - Lj < f whenever 0 <: 1x - u: < S. (9)

Then the function f is continuous at the point 11 =(a,, al .. · · .a.) provided that
lim f( x ) = /(11).
·-·
An attractive feature of vector notation is th at the multidimensional statemen ts
{10)
in (8). (9). and (10) take precise ly the same forms as in th e cas_e of f_u nctions of a
- .
sinclc variable as do the multidimension JIIimit laws. (Sec the dtscusston questions
for this sectio n. )

I. Give prcci<e state ments o f th e limi t laws for rcal-valuc:J functions of three
or more v~ri ahlc'- Expbin why any polynom ial in three or more varia hies
is continuou < every.,., here.
2. Sta te precisely th e genera l principle: nf the con tinuity of compositions of
continunu' rnuhiv~riat>lc function'- II sh o ul<.l a pply. fo r instance, to a function
o f four ,·ariabks each o f which is itself a function of three variables.
3. Expbin how the reasoning nf Examples 2 and 6 applies to th e function F
defined except al the origin in U' hy
.
}·(x,y. ~J =
sin (x 2 + }.2 + il>
2
X + y2
+ :'·
What are your conclusions?
4. Give several concrete examples of rcal·world functions o f four or more
variables.
13.3 PROBLEMS
Us~ the /rmit laws am/ COitS~quences of COntinuity tO ~\'a/untr xy-:
13. lim
til~ limits in /'rob/ems I through 16. h .y.:>- 11 .1 o, cos.ryz
1. lim (7- .r 2 + s•• y) 14. lim x +Y+ 4
, ... .. J-tOIII
h .y.n-a.- t.JI .t1 + },Z + z l
2. lim (3.<: - 4xy + 5.¥'1
fl . t)-U . - Z l IS. lim .;xy J .T :
3. lim t-"
h.y.:J-t::,a. u y tan 4
t &... J- t l .- 1,
16. lim arcsin
4. lim ~ tt.y)-(1. - 1) Jx2xy+ r
,, .,,.t-11>.0• I + .t:;
s- .r;: In Problems 17 tiJro11giJ 20. ,.,·olllate tile /imiu
S. lim ....:..
· --''--
~~.,,-*oJh 3 + .c + y lim /(:r + IJ. Y) - f(:r • y)
9- ..: •- • iJ and
6. lim lim /(x.y+ kl- f Cx.y)
, •.• 1- .2. .J1 I+ xy
7. lim In J,..,-_-..
-:,,-_-r.,.· 17. /(x. y ) = ·xy
-· lc
18. /(.t,y) = .t 2 + l
' '··· ·-··0,0')
I + :r + 2y
19. f(x.y)=xy-2 20. f (:r ,y) =.t1 _v'- tO
s. t,.,,l~. -u In J)-1 x
In Pwblems 21rh,mgh 30, find rhe limit"' show that it dtJ<'S nor
9. lim r ..:, ros(3.t + 4y) rxifl.
(..1.)1- IU.OI
cos(.r1 + ,.:)
,
•·1 1
.
1m -I + xy
(•.,,-o.u
I - xy ..
-.... lim
(A,y)-12.-21
4_-xy
4 + xy
r
!
10. u . lim I - x2 - ) .2
1 .-l(I,O,
xl+y+r ll lim xyz . yz+x:+•Y
,,_,_.,_ ,,...., y: + :r: + xy 24. l1m ,
u. (•., lim
,. ... u.t. IJ l - x- y-:
t.., .t•-u.- a.J} 1 + xy..
u. Jim (.r + y + z) In .ryz 25. lim In( I + .r2 + y)

~.,..u ... CJ.l.lJ ...,)-tO.Ol
l
limit~ ~nd Continuity SE(TION 13. 3 867
rot (..-2
+ )1 )
xz + ).z (a) Show that f(x. y) -. 0 ns (x. yl - (0. 0) along any
nnd every straight line through the origin . (b) Show that
l'}. .
hm exp ( - -
, -I - )
/ (.t. y) - I as (.r. y) - (0. 0) along the parabo la y .rl. =
f • •.• I- (O..O• x• + ).2 Conclude that the limit of f( x . y ) as (x . y) -. (0. 0) does
not exisL The graph of f is shown in Fig. 13.3.8.
Jr. Prot>lrms 3/ through 36. dntrrnin~ tiJ,. 1
. arg<st .ftt of points
in thr. x y-plant on whrch thr gi>·cn formula l1t fimrs a conrmuoru
.
funrtum.
31. /(;r.. _v) = ../x + y
.H. f <x. )'):: sin " 1(.t 2 + j)
JJ. j(:r. )'I= ln(.r 1
+ /- I) .\.t. /(.r . y) = ln(2.r - y)
35. /(x.y') = tJn- 1 (~)

.t' + y· ~- /(.r. )') =tan · 1 (.....!._)
x+y
Jr. Probkrru .37 thrort~h . ."''alunrr tli•.. 11·,,11·t b y mak·m.t:
._ 40. · t1:~
polar C"O<>rdtnat<".< .w!>strtiJtton (.r . y) : (r cos O rsin 0) and
wing tf:<' [net that r - 0 a.< (.r . yl - 10. 0). ' 2x1 y
'
FIGURE 13.3.8 The grJph l - of a - -
+ y1 X
4
Problem S l; note the curve y = x2 , z = 1.
x' + y' sin Jx: + y' 52. Suppose that f(x. y) = (.r- y)/(x' - y) except at points of
39. lim ~ , .., = 0
... ,>-10.01 (x• ... r., )"· 40. lim
(r,y)-100)
J.rl + yl
the cun·e y = x' . where we tlefin~ f(x. y) to be I. Show th3t
f is nor co ntinuous Jl th.e point ( I. 1). E,·aluJ ie the lim·
n. D etermine whether o r not ils of f <x. y) as (.r. y)- (I. I ) along the vertical line x 1 =
and along the hori?ontalli ne y: I. [ Sugg~.rrion: Re.cJII that
lim .l'.\'l
a~- tY =(a- b)(a 2 + ab + bl).}
t l ., , :>-fO O.Oi xl + y1 + :2
53. Let
exists: C\-:tlu3te it if it docs exist. (Suggrstion: Substi· . .ty
I lffi - --
tute s~herica! coordinJiesx: p sin ¢ cos O. y = psin Q'>sin O. ( f . • l -ftHll x= + yl
:= pcosc.J be the limit in Example 9. Show thai :\S (.t. y)- (0. 0) along
42. D e1ermine whether or not the hyperbolic spir"l rrJ =
l. the limit of f(.r. y) does not
exist.
I
lim arct:tn • ., .,
c..• . :~ - to o a, x- + y- + z- JJuca.s the com irwity of rhr fun ction> tlefinrd in Prob/.,nu 5-t
o iru: e\·aluate it if it docs exist. [See the S uggmion fo r
56.
tfJTOIIg lt
Probl-.m .11.) sinxy

unit~~"' xy = 0 .
.54. /(.r. y ) = .t_l' (Sc<: Fi!!- 13.3.9 .)
In Prob!.......u -1] and""· im·ati)?al< thr t::xurmu t>fth<' givrn lim it {
1
by ~r.aking thr subwwrion y m.t. = il ... ·'' : 0.
.r• - t'
4-1. Jim ,. ~ ,.
c•.,,_..,.,. r + x · y 2 +)
In Probkn a -t.S and 46. Jhvo-• tl:tJJ tilt g i••m limit dot'J not t'.tiJl
by coruidt'rtr!/: point> nf tht' fo rm ( z. 0. 0) o r (0, y. 0) or (0. 0. : )
tJ..41 11,?prrXJC.h thr o rrtm along or.( of tilt> toorclinatt au•.t.
~s.
In Problaru -t7 thTOu~/1 50, us~ a compurrr·pfrlftt'd II'"P" tn fiGURE 1l.l .9 The gr.1ph
1-in •Y
upufn .. ;,_, tht' x~> atlzmll dtXJ rwtoill. t • - - of Problem ~4.
•r
,__ z l - 2.>J
~-
,_,
wn
•- n~ ,~-J - ',1
... ~ + 4 t y + ,.:
~- Cf Ism
,,_,.OJ .I J ... .cy + yJ
sin xy:
!1. Let unlc\~ x )'l "' 0.
56. hi•. y. :I = xy:
{
1 if xy: .. o.
l
868 CliAI'TER 1 3 Pa,..Jal Differentiation
IPARTIAL DERIVATIVES
(I I
6z = f(x. y + k)- f<x . y ).

and the corresponding instantaneous ra te of change of: is
6·
dz= lim ~
- (')
•
tly .-.-o 6 y
The limits in Eqs. (I) and (2) arc the two partial derh·uth·es of the function [(x. y)
with respect to its two independent variables x and y, respect ively.
DEFINITION Partial Derivatives

'Inc parti:tl derinllin•s (with n·sp..-ct to x and with respect to y} o f the function
[Cr. y) are the two functions defined by
'(
, , X, I - f(x,y) .
y ) = I'Jill /(.< + h,y) (3)
J!-O l
f1 (x,y ) = I.am f(x.y+k)-

•.
f(x , y)
t-o .: (4)
whenever these limits exist.
Note that Eqs. (3) and ( 4) arc simply restatements of Eqs. ( l) and (2). Just as
with single-variable derivatives. there arc several alternative ways of writing partial
derivatives.
-
.. .
•._ Notation
.
for
..'"
Partial
' .
... ' ..
Derivatives·
"
; .. ~
-
~ ..........
.
- . . .. .
__, .... "'~
.
· U z=f(x.y), then we may express its partial derivatives with respect toz and r•'
; rc:spcctively, in these Corms: · · ·
1
: ai at · a ·. ·
...... .... •... ax= a.r = /s(x, y) ==ax /(x, y) =D,(f(x, Yl] =Dt(/(x, yl}; '(5) .
a: at a '
l , . . . •• ' ay == v~Y = /y(x_,y)=
• y f<x.y)
-a . = D_.(f(x, y)]= D2[f(x.
. y)). (6)
·· ~- ~.
::.• .) -.._· - '. ·:.. ,.. .. • • . ..... • .l .-, ' . .\ •
,. ·.' ., .
Computer algebra systems generally employ variants of the "operator nota·
tion"forpartialderivatives.suchas difflf(x,y), x) ando[t[x,yJ. xl inMapk
and Matlttmatica, respectively.
~ole t h3ttf "'t delete the s~ mlx>l} tluoug,'-.out Eq (J ). the re•ul t is the hmit t hlt
defines t he stntle-vanJtlle den'au'e {I ~ 1. Tht~ r.lcJn< th.tt v.c cJn caku!Jte a : j ilx
as an ··ordtn,r:·- d:rh·atl\·e "'ilh re~j'X"Ct to t stmp!~ t~~ regardtnl! .' l~ a cunstJnt
durmg the proce1s o f c!:He re n:u:io:t. S:,-:u!.trh. ,.,. c.tn C'C>r:t pure •: , , a..< :10 ordtnl~
demathe ~ thi."l\: in l! of, as the od, \J:uhk Jmlt:cattns: r J< 3 con~t:lnt during
the computation. - · • -
Con\equentl: . ,. c ~h!o:n necJ to e\ JluJtc Jtre.:th the hmi t< tn Eq'- (J l nnd (J )
tn order to cal:uhte panial dem .t:i'~ O ·J 1:: 3 nh ,.,·,,mrl: arrt: fam ili.1r differ·
tnttation result\ to dt!ferc::tutc ' I r.-', ~~o1 th 1 ..-.~.:t II' en he r mJc penJent ' :11i:tble
(x or }) "' ht!e holding the o t!:!er ' Jr:Jt-!e C(ln<tant. In sh,m.
• To c:al::u!.tte tJf "z. regard.' l< .t cnn<Unt :u:J dtffcrentt3 tc "ith rc~p.:ct to .r.
• l o calculate iJ fla ). regard$. ~ .1 ron\ Unt .1nJ dtffcrcnti:llc " ith r~sp.•c t toy.
Elt AM P LE, 1 Compute roth the plrtill J en' 311' e< ,•_(1 J r .1nd ;Jff il.> of the functit>n
/ ($..}) = .r· - 2.t ,.: - ,.'.
Solut ion ·ro compute the p.l llt:tl tlcri,·J:l\c off " ith rc<pect to .r . we rcgnrd y as n
constan t Then "'e dtf!ercntiate norm~ll~· and find thJt
Jf
- : : .,f ..
il r -
">,.•·
•
When "-C regard $. tl' n corntan t anJ d•Hcrcnll.ltc "'ith rc•pcct to y. we find that
iif •
-
ily
: ..tr\ -
•
3)...
•
EY.A MPLE 2 Fi ndil:taxand a :Jilyif: =l • :- y:J~ ..
Solutio n Occausc J:f ax is calculated a' tf it "'ere an o rdinary de rivative wi th re-

spect to .t. with y held constant. we u~c the pmduct rule. Thi< y.i v~:•
a:
ax = (2t )(e - H
) +ex·+
"
)~ )( -)~ - ') = (2.. -
' I '
X')'- y \ k-'' ·
Because x andy appenr symmetrically in the c \prcssion furl , we get <J l / a y when we
inte rch3ttgc x J nd y in the expression for 3: / il.r:
i)~ • J
. xr- x k - ''·
-ay = <2•·-
You sho ul d check th is result by dif!crenti:uing with respect toy directly in o rder to
find a:t ay. •
Instantaneous Rates of Change

To get an intuiti\'C feel for the meaning of p:trtial dcrivati,·es. we can think of f <x. y)
as the temperat ure at the point (.r. y) of the plane. Then f, (x. y) is the instantaneous
rate of c hange o f temperature at (x . y ) per unit increase in x (w ith .•· held const ant).
Si milar!)'. /. (x. y) is the instantJ ncous rate of change of tempe rature per un it increase
in ,. ("'i th x held consta nt). For instance. we show in the next example that. \loi th the
tc~pcraturc function / (x. y) = .t: + l r y2 - y' of Example I. the rate of change of
temperature at the point (1. - I ) is +4• per unit d istance in the positive x -di rcction
and - 7° per unit distance in the posi tive )'·d irection.
EXAMPLE 3 Suppose that the xy-planc is somehow heated nnd that its temperature
at the point (.r. y) is given by the function / (.r. y) = .t 2 + h y 2 - >.J, whose part ial
derivath·es f, (x, y) == 2.t+ 2y2 and / ,-(.t . y) = 4.ry- 3y2 we re calculated in E x:1mple 1.
Suppose also that distance is measured in miles and tempe ra ture in degrees C elsius
(" C). lhen at the point (I. - 1). one mtle east and ?"e
.mile south of the ori~in,
the rate of change of tempe rature ( tn degrees pe r m1le) m t he (eastward) posiu vc
870 CHAPTER 13 P~rtill Different1at10n
.r-dorect ion is
f, ( l.-1 ) =2 ·( 1)+2·(-1):= ~ (deglmi).
. ~... rd) nn<iti,·c ,·.direction is
and the rate of change m the (no• LUw3 1·-- •
[,<1 . - 1)= -l · l · (- ll _ 3 . ( -1)2 = - 7 (deg1mi ).

· · (! l l •nd _.-3 tk l. m1 ca< t. we cxp.:ct to e xpe rience a
Thu\. tl we <tart at the potnl · - " t. d (I I)
· '-- J (0 11- o.s C I f inslc~d " ' surtc at . - and
temperature mcrca~ of a.-.,ut · · - · h , f ho
· ld ct to e~p::ricncc a tem pe rat ure c angc o a ut
w:~lkcd 0 2 m1 nonh. "e ... ou e~l'<' • f b .s•c +
(- 7) . (0.21 = - LJ · C; th 3 t J\. a te:nper3turc decrease o 3 o ut 1·
E.XAMPLE 4 The , 0 lume \ ' (on cubic centimeters) of I mole (mol) of an ide.1l gas
i~ gi\'cn h)'
(82.06J T
Vo •
p
where p ;, the p res<u re (in 3ttn<Kphcrcs) and Tis t he ab<olute temperature (in kel·
, . 10 q J.; ). where ~-; = C T 273). 1ind t he rate< of change of the volume of I mol of a~
i<lcnl £3 ' with respect to pressure amJ w1th respect to lcm pcratu:e when T = 300 K
nn<l p = 5 atm.
Solution 11oe partial derh·:~tives of\' "'i th respect to its two variables are
fiGURE 13.4.1 A vcrt icJt plane (82.06) T

parallel to the x z.plane lntcrs«U - = and
ap pl
the surfact t = f( x, y) in an
X ·CUrv~ .
\\1th T=300 and r>=5. we have the ' 'alues a vtap = -9~.72 (cm3/atm) and
iJ\IfoTc: 16.-1 1 (cm'JK). These partial dcrh·ntivcs allow us to estimate the effect ol
a small change in tcl:tpcrnturc o r in pressure on the vo lume \'of the gas, 3S follows.
: 1".-·:·.. ) ""'"'"" \\'e arc given T = 300 and p = 5. so the volume of gas with which we nrc dealing is
Swrfllo>~ ;-- '/ ... Ct6H
: • ft.~.. , . I / : • 1\•· • • V = (S2 .06)(300) = .:923.60 (cm 3 ) .
' ,, 5
\\'c would expect an mcrcnsc in pressure of I ntm (with T held constant ) to decrease
,. . . '
' I
1
the volume of gas by appropriately I L (1000 em'). because -98-1.72 "" -1000. A n
: -~~-
,' A a,•.•. o,
increase in temperature of I K (or t •C) would. with p held comtant, increase the
volume: by about 16 cm3 • because 16.41 "" 16. •
,
~, I 1
•
/ Geometric Interpretation of Partial Derivatives
f iGURE 13.4.2 An x·curve and its 11te partial derivativ~s f, and f.. arc the slopes of lines tangent
to certain curves
tangent line " P . on the surface ~ = {f.r. y ). Figure 13.4.\ illustrates the intersection of this su rface
=
" i th a vertical plane y h parallel to the .tZ·COOrdinatc plane. Along the intersection
curve. the .r·coordinate varies hut the y-coordinatc is constant: y =bat each point
: hcou\e the curve lies in the ' 'C:rtical plane y =b. A curve of intersection of z = f(x. )')
T•ntm l•"" with .1 ve rtic•! plane parallel to the Xl:·plane is therefo re ca lled an .r-cune on the
surfac.:.
Figure \3.4.2 sho"''S a point P(a. b. c) in the surface z = j(.r. y), the .r·CUf\'C
thr~ug~ P. and the line tangent to this .r-curve at P. Figure \3.4.3 shows the par3llel
prOJeCtiOn of the vc rttcalplanc y = b onto the .r:-planc itself. We can now "icnorc"
the presence of." = band regard ~ = [Cx. b) as a function of the single variablc~r. The
slope of the line tangentto.thc. original .r·curve through p (sec Fig. 13.4.2) is equal
-.l-----:-a::'.;;;
1 01:----~. to_thc slope of the tangent hnc m Fig. 13.4.3. But by famili ar singlc·variable calculus.
tht.s latter slope is given by
fiGURE 1 ] .4.3 Proiectlon into th~
xz.pl~rw of the x~ through lim [(a+ h, b )- [(a. b) r ( b)
P(o, b, c) and iu ~ngent line. ~-o It a, · ="
,..Mile , ••
' ,. ______ _
. ----··--
.I
-...J
~--·- ·
I
\ •• c
f iGURE 13.4.4 A v•rtKaJ piJ.,., f IGU;<E I l 4 5 A v~ •"<~ •:> FIGUR E 13.4.6 Projt'<lJOn into tht
pdr alltl to tht y z.ptane lnt•r\"{U l.r>tJ"'<1 : • ~ • • , t·"p:_,.-e oJ L'1e y-<UN<' through
the IUrfdCt / D I {~. y) m. r<urve P {.J t-. c) a nd •a t~ngent ~nt'
Thu1 v.c ~c th3t the ~~omctno: r:~::.tni~~ off, •• :t• Colt•""
GeomC'tric l nt rrpret.llion o f r•' I tt

' l11c '.1luc f , 1,, In "the ''"~"-' ''' t hdan~ t.ln~, nl ~ 1 I 'I,, . 1>. c· l t. >1 he t' ·<'Uf\ ,. t h n Hl)\h
/' 11n till" •ur(.O<e: ~ /I I . ' 1
\\'c prucccd In much the ~3mc V.3\ to 10\C<li~.IIC: the j:COOlelric mea n in)t o r
p.utoal dlffcrcnll.lllt>n v. ath rr•pcct to , fi~urc 1 \ ~ -1 IIIU,tratc< the llllCI\<:C tion with
the ~urfa~c: =/I'·' 111( .1 •crt~o:a l p!Jr.c , ""' p.u .1llcl w the y:-cnonh n.oa· plane.
No" the: CUf\C or lnter~ccth)n 1\3 \ ·C'Uf\~ 3!o nt,t \4hlch \ \;}fiC~ hu e ' .. , i' cnn~t :lnt.
Figu re 13A.5 sho"> th" ' -rune:~ / l oJ . )) 3nd m t.on.:cnt hnc at / '. ll1c pruject ion
or the tangent line in the y~·pbnc (111 fig. D J I>) h.H \llJpc iJ ~/iJ y ~ /,Ca. b). ·nw~ we
sec thntt hc geome tric meaning of [."a_~ lollo" s:
Geometric ln terprctntion o f Of lly

·n,. . • :1 h11.'
f,trr. /•1 i' th.: 'I''~'' of tho: line tan)!l.'nt at / 't<~. b. c) til the: y-.:urve
thruu)!h /' ontlw ''"(.IC\': -fc1 • •' 1
tXAMI' L[ .S Suppo<c that the graph~ = 5 t ycxp(-.r' - 2y2 ) in Fig. 13.4.7 rc prc·
fiGURE ll.4.7 The graph sc nts a terrain fcaturin ~t l\H> peaks (h ills. actually) and two pits. With all di~tanccs
1: 5xy e• p(- • 2 - 2y 2 ) . meas ured in miles. : is th e nlt itude atx)\c thl.' JX>in t (.t . )') nt s.:a leve l in the xy· plnnc.
for instanl.'c. the hci):ht uf the pil.'tured poin t /' is ~( - I . - I J = 5r- J :::: 11.24R'.I (rni),
nhout 1314 ft ahovc sea lc•·o:l. We ask at wha t rr11e we climb i(. start ing atth.: point
/'(- I. -I. 0.2~S9l. we head cith.:r due cast (the posi tive: .t·direction) o r due n o rth
(the positi•·c .•·-d irection). If "'c calcubte th e two part ial derivatives of ~(x. y ). we get
a: .
-=:>y(l -2x")cxp(-.r·- )" )
, , 2 ,
an
d a: . ,
-=:>.r(l- 4y-) up(-.r-2y-).
1 ,
FIGURE 11.4.8 The angle of climb

ax ay
in the • ·direction. (You sh ould check this.) Substituting x = y =- I no w gives
ilzil.t l =.5~- 3 "' 0 .2489 a nd :z1 = 15t'- 3 "' 0.746!\.

(- 1.-11 v)' (- 1,- (1
The units here are in miles per mile-that is. the ratio or rise: to run in vcrticnl miles
per h orizontal m ile. So if we head cast. we start climbing at an angle of
a = tan- 1 (0.2-1$9) :::: 0.24~0 {rad) .
about 13.98'. (Sec Fig. 13.4.8.) But if we head n o rth. then we stan climbing at an
angle of
=
fi t a n -I (0. 7468) "' 0.6415 {rad),
npproximately 36.75•. (See Fig. 13.4.9.) Do these r esults a ppear to be consiste nt with
FIGURE 13.4.9 The angle of climb
in tht y-direction. Fig. 13.4.77 •
8 72 CHAPTER 13 Partial Differentiation
Planes Tangent to Surfaces d~ det e rmine a unique plane

. 'II
Th e two tange nt hnes 1 ustra
ted in fias. l.l.4.2 a n 13.4.5
~ ·r h
. < e in S ecti o n 13.7 I hat 1 I e partia l
of ~ and)' t hen th1s p a ne contams
. P ( b f (a b )) \\ e Ill 11 _e . I .
thro ugh the pom t a. · · · .
· s funcuons ·• ' ·
de rivatives f , a nd f, are cont muo u . on t he surface z = f (x . y ) that passes
the line tangent at /' t o el·ery smooth ~~c·t'on of t he p b ne tangent t o the surface
throu gh P. This mo tivates the followmg c 1111 1
at !'.
·) h:~s cont .muous p..~rti' al d e ril'ati

ION PI Tangent to z = f( x, y) .
DEFINIT ane ' • ves on a Circular
· /(
Suppose tha t the funct •on x . >. h l:!nl'
111en ~ e p
lnn~:cnl
to t h e surface z = / (x. y )
disk cen tered at the poin t (a. b). p th:lt cont a in s the lines tangent
at the point P(a . b. f<a . b)) IS t he pl:tnc throug11
at P to t he two cu rves
: = f(x, b ), \' = b (x-curve) (7)
ant!
: = j (a . y) . X = II (y-curvc ) . (8)
To find an equ ation of thi s tangent pla ne a t the po int_l'(a, b:. c) where '.= f (a • b).
reca ll from Sectio n 12..: that a typica l no nvc rucat pla ne m space that passes through
the po int /'has a n equation o f the form
A(x - a)+ B(y - b)+ C (z- c) = O (9)
whe re C t- 0. If we solve fo r z - c w.: get the eq uatio n

z- c = p (x - a ) + q Cy -b) (10)
where p = - A/C and q = - ll/ C. llJis plane will be tangent to the ~urface z_= f<x .• y)
at the point P(a. b. c) provided that the hoe defi ned 1n Eq. ( 10 ) with y= b IS tangent
to the x -curvc in Eq. (7). and the line ddinctl in ( 10) with x = a is tangent to the
y·curvc in Eq. (S). But the substitut ion y = b reduces Eq. ( 10) to
z -c =p(x- a ). d:
so ilx = p.
and the substitution x = a reduces Eq . (tO) to
i)z:
4- c = q(y- b). so - = q.
ily
Moreover. our discussion of the geometric interpretat ion of partial d erivatives
gave
ailz l
X ca.bJ
={. (a , b) and ilz: l
0), <•.bl = f 1 (a, b)
for the slopes of the lines through P that are tangent there to t he x-curve and y-curvc,
respectively. Hence we must have I'= f ,(a. b) and q = f (a . b ) in order fo r the pbne
1
in Eq. ( 10) to be tangent to the surface z= / C.r . y ) at the po int P. Substituting these
values in Eq. ( 10) yields the following result (under the assumption that the partial
derivatives are continuous. so tha t the tangent plane is defined).
Th e Plane Tangent t o a Surf<~ce
The plane tangent to the surface:= /(x .y) at th..- point /'( ,1>. /(II . h ) ) h11s
equation 11
: - /(11 , b) = j~ (a . l1)(.r -11) + f,Cll.i>){y - 1>1.

CII I
Parwl tmovJ ~ S£cnON 13.-1 873
If fo r "·ariety '"e '"nle (.co. ~. ;:.~) fo r the coordinates of !'. " e c:1n rewrit e
&J. ( II ) in the fo rm •
f,l :x- • }'))(X - X.,) -"- f, ( X, , ,\''J)(.\ - ) '>) + (- I )( : - ;:., ) =0, ( 12)
from -.hich "'e see (b} consulting Eq (8) in Sc;:tion I.!A) th.ll the pl:tnc tnn!!cn t lo
the ~urfacc:: f <x . .\1 at the point P<:r.• •••~ . :;:.,) h3< norm•l H' cto r
=
n == f •(..to.)ll) .l + f ,c.rv.]l))j. - k = (a: - . - I).
- . a: ( l.l)
ll.t J ."
N~le _tha t n is a do"'n"'-ard·po:nting 'C.:lor ( \\'hy~): 1t< ncp tivt> - n is the upward·
pomtmg vec tor sho•... n in r.~ 13..! 10
E~ AM PL£ 6 Write an cqu;uion of the rl.tnc t.1ngcnt to the paral-nlnid : = 5 - 2.,.:-

r nt the poinr /'(1. 1. ~).
FIGURE 13.4.10 Th e surface So lution II /(.t. . .v) ~ 5 - 2.r'- .,.:, then

z= f(•. y), 'its tangent plane at
f,( t , ) ' ) = -.It ,
P(•o. ro. to). and the vector - n
normal to both at P. f,(l. 11 = - J . /,(1. I) = -2.
l ienee Eq. ( 11) gives
: - 2 =- .l (.r- l l -~(y- 1 )
=
(whe n simpI ificd. : 8- J t - 2y) a< nn cqunt on n of the plane tangcnrrnrhc pM:tl>il·
loid nt 1'. 'lllc comput er plo t in Fig. IJ A.l l corrol:>o r:ll c< rhh result. +
Function s of Three or More Variab1es

Just like fun-c tio ns of rwo varbhk~ a funct iun of 1hrce ur more v11riahlc~ '"" Jlart ial
dc rivarives with respect rn each o f its independen t vanahlc~. 'll•c part ia l tkrivarivc
wirh respect In each variable h deli ned as a limit of a d offc rcncc q uoticnr involving
increments in the select ed varia ble. For instance. a funcronn /(.t . y. <) has thrc.: partial
derivatives. which arc deli ned lo he
~I
-= _:_ ,..:.·=._Y~
. -,/..:_1f_ ·t_
hm ·=::.)_-....!.,.!~~·..:.·::.Y~·::.:1
FIGURE 13.4.11 The P·"''boloid (h · ,,_., "
and tangent plane of Ex•mple 6 .
;tf I' / t.r . .1' +h. :1- /I r . ."· : l
- = l nt • (14)
;Jy lt- H It
:If ft.r . y . .: + In- /l .r. y. : 1
and - = hm .
a= h-u h
Partial derivatives of functions of still more variables arc defined in an unaJ.

ogous way. A function /(.r,,.fl ..... x.l of" \•ariables has 11 partial derivatives, one
with respect ro each of irs independent variables. Limit quorienrs corresponding to
those in (14) can be wrirren more concisely using vecto r notation. Let us write
J(x) = f<x 1• .t.z, . . . . x.) where x = (.rr ..tz, .. . . x.).
If e; = (0, o..... 1 ..... 0) is the unit tr·vector with ith entry 1. then .
/(1 +he,) = /(x,, xz, .. .. x,_,, x; + lr, x;., . ... . x.).
The partial derivative tlflox; = l.r. =D./= D~ I off with respect to the ith variable
x; is rhen defined ro be
olf . ftx + llc, l - /('Xl
-ax, = ,,_.,
hm II . (15)
874 CHAPTER 1 3 Partial Differentiation
d the instantaneous rat e of change of the

The \'alu e of aflax, can be interprc~e a~ . h , riablc x,. Just as in the case of two
funct ion "aluc f (x) pe r unit · c han -l!~- 10 the 11
. ld ·, ' a ti\'esiscalc ula ted b y d 1' ffere nt1atmg
· ·
. h 0 fthesep~ rtl:l cn ' a
independent \':mablcs. eac d ' " the others as constants.
,, ith respect to the se Iecte d ' ·ari:Jblc · rq;:~r m,
. ti\'CS
EXAMPLE 7 Th e four partial dcn\'a . o f the function g(x. >'·"· u) =e'" sin vy
arc " - re" , ~111
. L'\' . a nd g., = yc"' cos vy.
- , c" ' sintH' g =t:c-'" , ..
co~1_\. ('\11 - · •
g, - 1 -· y • 'h
. \ ':\II. \'C:S b \' d I' ff~r
. I l - c"' srn
' ~. 1111··uinc t ' •\ ' wit respect
Ob~c nc that "C get these p:Htl~ t e_n ' • •
· ld· , the remainrn g th ree va nables
•
to th e ' :lfiablc~ x. y.u.and c 111 ur ·

· I n IOC'I · C 1 lC:l<C 110 111 " - •
constan t.
Hie hc r·Order Partiill Deriviltivcs .

g · ·. .· nt1 f arc. them"cl,·es
~ funcllo ns o f x and y, so
' l11c lir<t·ordc.:r parual den, a tl\ es f , a ' . ,. par ·r.l derivatives of f,(x. \')
· d '11 h e~p •ct tn r o r to ,.. 111- • 11·
thcy ma~ bc.:th ffc rcnu:tte " r " . · . t' · l.clcrhatiws of f. 11
d f C \') 'Ire.: called the scconcl·nrc1cr p.er r.e . 1.
·
ere arc fo ur of
them .rhc.:ca
an \ · · u~c• t11crc are fo ur
· poss ibilities in the.: unh.:r of diffc rc n tl atron:
(J,),=J.. =ax =ilx

at. a (at)
iJ r
_
J
-iJx : ·
1
f
of, a (of) _ o1f

(/,)y =[xy =ay = OJ' ax - 0)' dX •
at:- a a2
(/,),=[,. = ax= ax ay - ax tay · ("I) _
{[,),-_r,,-_ ~_!...(ill)=
ay - oy ay <Pt
ily 2'
If we "rite ~ = f<x . y). then we can rcplncc .:ach occ urrence of the sy m bol f here
with:.
Note '£he function [,, is the second·ordcr pa rtial d e rivative of f with respect to
x lirst ::1nd th en to y: [ 1 , is the result of diffcren ti:ltin g with respect toy lirst and
X second. Altho ugh a nd r... r..
:lTC not ncccs~arily equal. it is proved in advanced
calculus that these two "mixed" second-orde r partial deriva ti ves are equa l if they
arc both continuous. More precisely. if [ ..1 and !,. are continuous o n a circular disI:
cente red at the point (a. b). then
r.,(a. b) = [, ,(a. b). ( 16)
llut if the mixed second-order derivative s [, 1 and [ ,.., are merely defined at (a .I>)
but not necessa rily continuous at and ncM this point. then it is entirely possible at
[,,. 'F [ , .at (a, b). (See Problem 74.)
nccau~c most functions of interest to us have second-order partial derivatives
that arc continuum C\'crywhcrc they arc de lined, we will ordinarily need to d eal with
only th ree distinct second-order partial derivative s ( J... [,.,. and /,. = f,.) rather
than with four. Similarly. if f (x. }'.<)is a function of three v·ariablcs with cont inuous
second -order partial d erivatives, then
a2J a2r a2r azr iJ2f o2f

axay=ayax · ~=~· and oya;:=aza.v·
TI1iid-ordc:r and higher-order partial derivatives nrc defined si milarly. ::111d the
~rder.in which the diffe~entiations are performed is unimportant as Jon~t as all deriv3 ·
uves mvolved are contmuous. In such a case. for example, the distinct third -order
J' 11 lnJ <lrri',tli\C\ II( lh• fur.,h<l:l : ~ {I I , ) J IU
f, I t . ' ( ~:f)
-~ r .~:
,.,
=- l;i•
/,,, ~
' ( .. () «'!
~ .:-;': " '·~-~ -
,:.
{,., c ~r.J
.. ..() •I I
~·' ( ~:
/.,, =~
LXA M I'll II \f '" 1tu1 !he p3rtni 1k~t•ltllcs o f th:rd Jnd htgh~r ord ers o r the
1unt..llon lfe , 'l , : - ~ ,. :- , 1 :u~C'll":"\Llnt
\ olutlon \\ r hn,f 1t,:
f,ft.~1 -=.1 .~, :
~ .. JnJ /,(r.I'Jr> Jt y-3).:
I ut.t lh.
J,.,lt . • l ~ n. {.,,t • .yi •O f,,, l c.,,-.s. ~nd f,,,(r.)l=-6.
'lltc flltKtt"n f t' n l" 'l) rwnu.tl . \O nil rt< plllrJI deri\Jll\el nrc polynomi:t!s nnd
~~ r, thrtd•••r. I'OIIItnthtU\ c• <I)" here l lcn'c "-C need nnl com pule any o the r lhird·
••rd,•r l ~lllt.•l do ttl':lll\ <:1, c.t~h 1\ C<Ju.tllo one n( lh~c fou r. ~1oreo•cr. bccau~c lh c
llmd ·•• nkr ~·.uti .ll dc rivat hcs arc all con,l3nt. all hi\Jhcr·ordc:r parual d c riva1ive' o r
I All' 1CI\l. •
0 13..1 ntUE/ fALSE STUDY GUIDE

13.4 CO NC EPTS: QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION
=
I. Rrc~ll !ha l the absolute \'Jiuc funct ion / (x l Jx l is di ffe re ntia b le e xcept
=
nl t he si n~k poin t x 0 . Can you .Jdin<' a n analogou$ funclion or 1wo
\'ariahlcs- om· th:ll h :l\ panial dc riv:Hi,.cs except at a si ngle poin l?
!. Supr<><e th at lh<· 'urbcc ~ = / (.r. y/ ha~ a peak o r a p i! (tha t is. either a
hi)!h J'•>in t or a lnw pninl) a t a po im (a,f,, () where !he ~urfacc has a rangcm
p l.tn c. \\'hat can yo u say ahout this tangent pbnc':' What can you say a bou t
the va llll'S <1( Ihe pa rtial d~ri•atil'cs [ , (a. b) and [, Ca. h)?
J. Can a surfarc ~ = /(.r . y) have a pit or a pea k at a poin t whe re t he par-
lial <leri\':ll ivcs f, and / 1 do no t exist? Supply an example illustraling your
answe r.
~ 13.4 PROBLEMS
/1r l'n.,f'olN tlS J t htt)u_a:J: .."'(~ t)utiJWl~ tl:~ jlrst-tmlt'r ptutidl fltn'•·o · 9. /(x. y) = ·' •
trws of nrdi fu.ltflion 10. {(.r . y) = un · • x y
I• I ( t . yl • ·' • - . . - xy '
.t ' y + .o ·y~ + .•·' II. f(x. y. :) = x'lz'
!. {l t. _l') a .• si n y ll. { (.r. y. :l = x2 + y' + l'
13. /(.r. y . : ) "' r'''
~. {( l , .l'l a .. '(.:'\1$ .1' - ~ill .l')
l.t. f <x. y.z) =x'- l 6yz
.&. { (t .y) .. ... ' .....
15. {(.r . y. : )=.r 2t ' ln:
,. + ,. .ry
16. f( u, v) =(2rl + 3v 2) cxp(-u 2 - v2 )
~
.. It •. .•·) = --· 6. / (.r. y) ., ·•' + y'

.( - .'' ,z- s::.
7• 17. /(r.l ) =,.-,-+ s·,
ft •. )') = ht(.r' + y') 11. /( r, y) = (.r - )') "
8 76 CHAPTER 1 3 Partial Differentiation
18. /(u. 11) =~··ccosu11 +sin uv)

19. / (11. ' ' · w) = ~~~· + ··~· + ~<'r"
20. /(r.s.t ) =(I - , 1 - sl -t!)r·•"
In Pmblt'mf 1/throu~lo 30, v~rtf:}' lhat • ..... -- ..•,,.

21 . ~ =x 1
- -lxy -'- 3);
22. ~= 2.rJ -'-5.r 1y -61 + x,.'
23. z =.r: e xp(- r:) u.
25. ~ =ln(x + y) 26. :; = (xl + r>'o
27. :; = .,-l• cosy 28. l= (X-'-) ) SCCXJ FIGURE 13.4.14 FIGURE 13.4 .1S
1
29. z = x cosh( I/ /) 30. :: = sinxy ..- tan· • xy
In Prob.l t:•,u J I lltrm 4,;h 40, {it~tl an cquutifln ofth~ plane ra.ngrnt
to the filV<'Il smfncc·:: = /!x. y) at tire mdicatrd pomt P.
3 1. :: = .r1 + yl; r = (3. -1. 25)
32. z = Jso - .r 2 - ,.: : r = (4. -J. 5J
3.1. z=si n:rxy.
2 • 3 S . - I)
I' = (.,
-1
..
~- :; =- tan · • .ry: I' = (1. 1. I )
35. z=x' -y\ 1' = (3.2. 19)

36. z = 3x + -ly: I' = ( I, I. 7) FIGURE 13.4.16 FIGURE 13.4.17
37. z = xy: I' = (I, - I. - I )
45. /(,r. y) -16. f,(x. ,1')
311. z= cxp(-x2 -y); I' = (0, 0, I)
39. z=x 2 - -lyl: 1' =(5.2,9)
-17, J,.(.r. )') .as. /.. (.r. ,1')
-19. f,. (.r . y ) ~0. /.,( r. y)
40. z= J.r2 + ).!: P .. (3. - -1. S)
51. Verify that the mixed second-order panial dcri,ati,..-s f,.
Rt'cnll thnt f, 1 = [ 1 , [.or n fim ction j(.r, y) with C'tmtimwus and / .. are equal if /C.r. y) = x"' , ... "here m and n 3r~
St'Ctmd·ortlu partial derivntio·~s. ln/'wb/,•uu .J/ tlorou;:h .J.J, ap· positive imet:ers. •
ply llus cnteno1J tu dc!termm,. wlrc-tlzt•r thrr(' rdus a fu,Ciion 5Z. !Suppose that : = <'' • '· Sho w th at r' ·' rs the result of t!lf·
f (x. y) lulling tit.: S" en fir>l·ortlr:r partwl dt•ri•·nti•·es. If so. uy fcrcntiating : first m times " ith resp..-ct to x. then 11 tim~s
w tletamill<' a fomw/a for Slldo a fi m ctiull j (x, y). \\ith respec t to .' '·
~1 . f,(.r. )') =Lr).!. / 1 (x. y) = 3x'>.1 53. Let /(.r . y. ~~ = ~"'. Calcula te the distinct second-erda
42. f,(x. y ) = Sxy+ >)· /,!x. y) = 3r + 2.ry parti>l derivatives off Md the third-order partial dah-:~·
tl\' C f.,,.
43. f,(x. y) = cos2(xy). /, (.r, y) = sin 2( ry)
S-1. Shuppose that g!x. y) = sinxy. Verify th :u 8 ,. = 8 ., and
44. f,(X,)' ) =cosxsiny. / 1 Cx.y) =sinxcosy I 31 gcw, = f:, ,, :::: R yu •
Fig111es /.1.4. 12throuxh IJ..J./7 show thl' graphs ofa anain June· 55. It is show~ in ph} sics that the tcmp..-rnturc 11 ( r.l) at time 1
tion j(.r. y) and it.r first- and second-ortlu partial duivati•·rs. In at the po~nt .r of a ion~:. in sulated roJ that lies alon~ th(
ProiJ/ems .J5throu~th 50. match that jimction or partial tlrri•·ati.-~ x-ax ts snttsfics the onc-dimen.tiona/ h!'nt c·qruuim1
with its !(fDplr. au 3 111
-= k- (k is a constant).
0/ ax2
Show that t he functio n
11 = rt(x .r) = exp( -n2kl) sin nr
satisfies the one-dim• ·

... nsaono 1 h cnt ·
&:CIU.lll\H1 (or ;111 ,
·-
.;h<'h·e
of the constant 11• •
56. The two-tlimtruional hem <'qrwtio11 for an in.sulatcd thin

plate is
FIGURE 13.-4.12 FIGURE 13.4.13

Partial Derivative$ SECTION 13.4 877
Show that the func tion
as functions o f tlle o ther two. Show t hat
11 = u (x. )'. I )= e l p( - (nrl ... n 2 )kl ) $in nu ccx ny ap a\' ar
- · - · -=-1.
s:~ti~fies th is equ~tion fo r any choice of t he con\Un tl m a\· ar ar
and n. 6-1.. It is Eeometriclh e vident th3t c' el')' p la ne tan~c n t to the
51, ,\string is stre tched ~long the X·Ui\. fixed a t each end and co~e-:? = x= .._ _,'::. p.uscs th rough the ori~in. Sh o w this by
then set int o vih ratton It is '>hov.n in ph)"iC\ that t h~ dis- metl-.ods of eakulw..
placement Y => y(x , r) of the pomt nf the string at location 65. The re IS only one point at "' hkh the p13ne t angent to the
x at time 1 sat isfies the tmr-tilmrtUrnnalwa• r rquauon surfatt
.,.
' •>' 2
'
il• y : =r - 2 cy + 2.'~ - 6.r + Sy
az 1 =u ;J.;i ·
is horizontal. Find it.
where the constant a d cpc ncs o n the densuy and tensio n 66. S!!o"' t!':at the plane tangent to thc p:ua l:-uloid with equ.a tion
of the string. Sho w tha t the followt n~t functions saltsfy the
: = r ....~at the pornt t el . h. c) intersect- the f.''·pbnc rn the
one-dimensio nal wave cqua tmn : (a) y = sin( c•an: (h) y = line ~1th. cquarion :.ax ...... ~b .. - a: ..... ,:. TI1 c: n s ho " tha t thi~
=
cosh(3(x - 111 (); (c) y sin k .r co~ lw 1 (k ''a constant). .
line is tangen t to the circle " 1t h cquati••n -1 r · t--1,,-
. , I.
= a· + r ·
~- A steady-state te mpe ratu re fu nction " = rt(x, y) for a thin 67. Accordini! to nn der \\':tals' eq ua tion. I mol of :1 !:3~ sati\·
lht plate satisfies l .uplnc<·'J ~f/rtalum
lies the equation
l) 1u fl 1u
-
axz+ -
a yl= 0. (P + 1~, )w- hl = (1<2.06)T
Determine which of the following function\ sa t i~fy whe re f' , V , a nd Ta re as in E~ a rnpk -1. Fnr ca r hun diu~ ide,
L1placc 's equation: 11~ 3.5'1 .-c 10" ant.! h = ·1! .7. anJ \' ;, ~5,(11Xl ern' when/' is
(a) 11 = In ( Jx 2 + y2 ): I atm ant.! T = JI~ K. (a) C'nmp~tc ;ll'/.1f> by diffcll.:nti-
ati ng van dc r Waal< ~q ua t ion \'fth T held con<tant . lltcn
(b) u= Jx 1 + y 1:
estim ate the chanRe in \ Oiume th.ot " '"tid result from an in·
(c) 11 = arctan(y/ .r);
crease of \J I >~m .~r p rc\\u rc ,. ith r held :ot ;1 U K . (h) Com-
(d) 11 = .,- • sin y.
pute il l'JJ T by d offc rcnrra tong; van <k r w.•. tl' ·equal ion with
59. Su11pose that f nnd 1: arc twice -diffe rentiabl e functio ns of p held co nstanL Then csllma tc the dl :t nj:c in volume tlml
3 single variable. Show th at ) (.t, 1) c f <x + ttl) + g(x- nr) would rc:sult fro m a n increase o f I K rntempcr:lturc v. ith I'
s.11isfics th e onc-dintc n,io nalv. :1\ c equa tio n o f l'rohle m 57. held at I atm.
60. lltc electric JX>t c ntial fi e ld o f a po int cha rge q is de- 68. A minimnl mrfacr has the lca~t surface area of all surfaces
fined (i n appropriate units) by ¢(.r , y , :) = q/ r where r = with the same boundary. figure 13.-I. IS sho ws Scht'fks min·
J~z + >.! + :1. Show that¢ 'a tisfies the thrrr-tfimmsional imal surface. It has the equat ion
Lap/au rqualion
: = ln(ros.t ) -ln(CO\ y).
ale az.p az11
-+ - + - = 0. A minimal surface:= f (x. y) is known to satisfy the pallial
a.rz iJy: il :1
d ifferentia l equation
61. ut u(x. I) denote the undergro und temperature nt depth
x and time 1 nt a locatio n where the seasonal variation o f (t + .:!)z.. -zz.~l.z.•, + (t + i,}z,-1=0.
surface (x = 0) temperature i~ described by Verify this in the case o f Schcrk 's minimal surface.
11(0. I ) :: 1~ + 1111 COS w l ,
where To is tllc annual avera~c surface temperature and the
constant w is so chosen that the period of 11(0.t) is one year.
Show that the function
ll(x.t) =To+ a0 cxp( -x Jcu/2k) cos(wt - x .;;;;J2k)
satisfies both the "surface condition" and the one·
dimensional heal equation o f Proble m 55.
62. The aggregate electrical tcsistance U of three resista~ces
R,, Rz, and R, connected in parallel s3tisfics the equauon
FIGURE 13.4.18 Schl!rk's minimal
j I I I surface (Problem 68).
-==- +- + -.
R R1 Rz R,
Show that 69. We say that the function : ::: /(1, y) is harmonic if it sat-
1 islies laplace's equation z., + : 11 = 0. (Sec Problem 58.)
aRoR iJR (I I I) .
(,]_+_1 +,]_) •
"i'R;+aR 2 +ilR, = fq+ Ri+ Rj ..,.\Rr R2 R,
Show that each of these fo ur functions is h armonic:
(a) f,(x. y ) = sinx sin h(:r - y);
63. The idHI ps l•w pV = n RT (n is the number of moles (b) fz(x. y) =sinh 2.r sin 2y;
or the gas, R is a constant) determines each of the th ree (c) [J(x. y) -=sin 3x sinh 3y;
v
~ari:lbles p (pressure ). (volume). and T (temperature) (d) f, (x . y) = sinh4(~r- x) sin4y.
878 CHAPTER 13 Partial OiHerenti<ltion
70. Figu re 13.4.19 shows the graph o f the sum 73, figure 13.3.7 shows {the• ;;p~ of~:~c:::c~o>~ ~ :.efined by
f{x. )') = o.r· + r
: cx.y)= L [.Cx. y) if .r = y =0.
1• 1
(a) Show thntthc first ·ordcr partial d erivatives f, and/, nr~
of the four funct inns defined in Proble m 69. Explain why defined ever)'" here and a rc contmuo us except pos~ibly at
l (.r. y) i~ a harmonic function. the o ri!!i n. (h) Consider behavior on s traight lines to show
tha t neithe r f, no r f. is continuous a t the ori~,:in . (c) Sho~
J0 that the )CCond·ordcr partial derivati,·e< or I a rc al l dcfin~d
and continuous .:xccpt [!<")<Sibly at the nri!!in. (d) Show th 31
the second·order p:utial derivatives f., :1nd f., exist at th~
on!!tn. but tha t the: mtxc:d part ial d e rivatives f,, and 1,.
do no t.
7~. Figure: !3.~.:0 shows the graph of the function g d efined by
xy(x:- i>
g(;r, )' ) = x: + y: unlcs.s .r =y =0.
{
0 i( ;r := )' =0.
(a) Show tha t the tirst·ordcr partia l deriva tives 8• and g,
arc tlcfinctl cvcrp• here and :trc continuous except possi·
bly :11 the ori~ti n . (11) Usc f!<'la r comchn:ltcs 10 show thll
g. and g~ one u m ti nuou" :.t (0. 0 ) n~ wdl. (c) S how chat
the •c:cond·ordcr p3rti al de rivatives of sarc all!lctin<·tl ~nd
f iGURE 13.4.19 The surface cuntutum" c •ccpt fl<"'ibly at the o rigin (d) Sho " thJtJll
z = 1(• . y) of Problem 70. s
four second-order r~rttal dcnvathcs o f e xist Jtthe ori·
gin. but tha t g.,(O. 0 ) x J:,.(U. 0 ). (c) Con>idcr 1-<:hJ\~or on
7 1. You arc standing at the point \\ here .r = y = 100 (It) o n a stratght lone• to ~how that none of the four scCtmd·order
hillside ,.hose height (in fee t al'O\C ocalcvcl) is given by partial dcnva tivcs o f J: is con tinuous at the: origin.
~ = 100 + IOO
I (.r'' - 3.ty "
+ 2y).
with the pnsiti\'c .r·axis to the c:t>t :onLithc positive y·:txis
to the nurth . (a) If you head due e:O>t. "ill you initially be
ascending or descending'! A t " hat a ngle (in deg.rccs) from
the horiwntal'/ (h) If you he:od due north. will you initially
he a..cend ing or dcsccndint;'! At "ha t a ng.k (iot degrees)
from the ho riwntal?
72. ;\n~wcr questions (a) and (b) in l'rnl>lcm 71. except that
now you are standing at the point "'h ere .r = ISO and
y = 250 (It) on a hillside who«! height (in feet abm·e sea
Je,cJ) i< given by f iGURE 13.4 .20 The graph
I • • .. ~y - xyl
~ = I 000 + IOU(I (J.r • - S.ry + y). 1 "' .. z ..- yl of Problem 74.
73.5 1MULTIVARIABLE O PTIMI ZATION PROBLEMS

c~~.s~c~mqucs
·nt c single·variablc maximum· m inimu 1 . .
to func tions o f several variables. We of Sc7tion 3.5 gene ra lize rc3dtiY
pose th nt we are interested in th . c r first a funcuon f of two ,·ariablcs. Sup-
c e xtreme \ " I lues ana· db I .n
point~
R hI at consists of the
value M on R ot t he point (a b)
o n 3
r
nd
R
wit h i'
f .
51 111
me Y (x, y) on a plane regto
C (Fig. 13.5.1 ). We say t hat the function a • P~c: (no nint e rsecting) closed curve
. anatns u s abso lute, or global, m alirnutll
• 0 provtdcd that
f(x. }') ~ M =/(a, b)

for all points (x. y) of R. Similar! . •
m at the point (c. d) of R r . y. f attatns tts absolute, o r glo b a l. mlnlmurn ,.Jue
=
p ovtded that f(x . y) £: m f( c , d) fo r all points (x. y>
Multiva-iJbf~ Optimiu~ Prob!~m! SECTlON 13 . .S 879
o r I<. In plain v.ord, the absolute maximum .\f and the absolu te minimum mare the
lar~test and smalle1t vJ!ues ( respectively) attained by /C:r . y) at points o r the dom:~in
R or f.
Theorem I. pro,ed in advanced calculus courses. gu.1rJntee~ the e xistence of
absolute m:IXimum and minimum ,'l!.!ues in many situations of practica l interest .
THEOREM 1 Existence o f Extreme Values

Sup~ that the function/ is cominuou< on the re!!ion R that consisl5 o f t he points
on and " ithin a simple dosed cune C in the p lane. Then f :111ain< an absolute
maxtmum value at some point (a. b) of Rand :m ains an :tbsolutc minimum value
a t some point (c. d) orR.
FIGURE 13.S.1 A p lanf' '<'<JIOn R
tJoundcd by the >impl" clvw<J
cu~ C and a di>k D in R cent~r~d We arc Interes ted main tv in the ca<c in " hich the function f auai n< its ah<olutc
at the interior point (o. b) of R. maximum (or minimum) ,al~e at an interior roint of R. Th e poi nt (11. h) nf R is
called un intcrinr poin t of R prm tdrd that some circul.tr th< k cent e red at (II. h) lies
v.holl y "'itlun H Oil!. 1.~.5 . 1 ). The interiM roints of a reg1n n 1\ of the snrt tlcscribcd
in Theore m I arc prcct<C I\ t ho<c that do nm lie on t he huundary curve C.
An :lb\olutc c~ trcm~ value :mained lw the func tinn ~t :Ill lfll<'fior point or R is
nccc"arily n loc:t l ntrcmc value \\'..- say th at /Ill. l•l i~ n lnru l m uxim 11111 \'Uinc of
/(:r . y) pr ovid ed tha t il i< t he atxolu:c m:nimum va lue n f f nn <umc disk D th~t is
cc nt c •c:d a t 111. /•l an d li e< "holly 1AII hm th e domjin H. Si mil.uly. a lnn tlmlnimum
\11Im· i' nn ah\olu ic minimum value on some <uch di,l.. . 'lltus n ltx:alm:~ximum (or
min imum)' alu c /Ia. II) i< not neccss:~t~ly an abmlutc ma~tmun t (or minimum) value,
hut i• the l ~ rgcst (or ~ mallcst) va lue a tt ained by /fx. y) nt point< ncar (a. b ).
EXAMP LE 1 Figure 13.5.2 shows a computcr·gcncra tcd graph of th e functi o n
plott ed o n the rectangle R for which -3 ~ x ~ 3 and -3 ~ y ~ J . Looking at the

Inhe led extreme values o f / (:r. y). we ~c
• A local ma~imum that is not an a bsol ute ma.~ imum.

• ;\ loca l maximum that is also an ab<olute max imum,
• A loca l m inimum that is not an aiJ<;olutc mini mum, and
• A local m inimum t hat is also an absolute minimum.
We can think of the local maxima on the graph as m ountain tops or "peaks" and t he
local minima as valley bottoms or "pits." •
Ab\olute m.uimum
Local rron1,mun•'
Ab<olu~t minimum/
FIGURE 13. .S.2 Local extrema contrasted with global

~xtrema.
880 C~tAPTtR 13 Partial O•fferentiation
Finding Local Extrema

, . . . ··d ractical w :1y to lind local extrema o f functions
\\ e need a cntcnon that " 1 11 prOi t ea Pd It st ~ t ··d in Titcorc m 2-is analogou•
. bl Th des tr ~ r.:su - " ~ ,
of tv. o (nr more) vana c:s. e •. • -. If f(c) i~ a loca l extre me value of the
· 1c·,·ana
to thc smg · bl e en' terion of Sccuon
. f .>.).
h _ c mu~t he a critical poim v.here
d ifferentiable singk -,·a riablc: functton · t en x -
fie> = 0. . h /( b) is a local maximum value of f (x . y) attained
Suppose. for mstance. 1 at . a · . . . . f, and f cxi~t. \\'c consider vertical
· ( b) h e both parual dernalli CS • • •
at a pom t a. " er . __ ! < . JU<t a< "hen we ex plorcd the
plane cross-section cun cs on the graph · -. x · :' 1· . • Th • .
• f 2rti31 derivaun :s tn Sccu nn b .-l. e cross secuon
~:..ome tnralmterrretalton o -~ • c ra hs (in these planes) of the single-
cu r' cs parallel to the x:- and .' . -planes arc th g r
variable functions
=
G(:r) f (x. b) and 1/(y) f<a · y) =
v.ho~e dcn,·at il es arc the partial dcrivatil cs of f:
f,(a. b) = G'(a) and f,(a . hl = 1/'(hl. (I)
l kcau~c /(a,/>) i~ 3 loc:ol ma~ imum l'aluc nf f<.r . .1·). it f,,JI<m:~ rca ~ily th at G(a)
anu.• Il ( l >I ;trc 1oca 1ma"mun
· 1 ,·•lu"<
" ' o f Ct·r ) ·•1mJ 1/t:•·). rc•pcctl\'c
. . ly. llle rcforc the
sinj:le-variable nll.~imum-m in imum cri te rio n or Sccuo n :1.5 JnlpltCS that
C '(a ) = O and /1 '(1>)= 0 . (21
Combin ing (I) and ( 2). we co nclude tha t
f,(fl,h)=O and /, (a .b) =0. (3)
t;s~cn ti ally the same argumen t yields tht: same conclusio n if / (a. b ) is a local mini·
(all( •.yl• , , • vl, k><•l """""""' 11 10. 0) mum val ue of f (x . )'). ·n,is di scussion establishes Theon:m 2.
THEOREM 2 Necessary Conditions for l ocal Extre ma

Suppose that f(.t, y) attains a local maximum value or a local minimum va lue_at
the point (a. b) and that both the p:1r1ial d eril•ati ves f ,(a. b) and / 1 (a. b) extSt.
Then
f ,(a. b) = 0 = / 1 ( a , b). (.))
The equations in (3) imply that the plane tangent to the surface ::-= f (.t. )'l
mu~t he horizontal at any loca l maximum o r local minimum poi nt (11, b. f (a. h)). in
pe rfect analogy to the single-,·ariablc case (in which the tangent line is horizonu l at
any local maximum or minimum point on the graph of a d iffcro:ntiablc function).
EXAMPLE 2 Consider the thr~c familiar surfa ces

z= / (:r. y)= ;r2 + y2 ,
.: = g(.t, y) =l - x z- y2. and
z = h (:r, y) =y2- .tl
sh o~'ll ~n Fig. 13.5.3. In each :a~c Jzt a.r =± 2.t and J z/ Jy = ± 2y. TIIUs bo th parti31
denvat1vcs arc ~cro ;1t tho: ongm (0.0) (and only then:). It is cl.:ar from the figur~
that f (:r._ y) =.t + r h;s a localm•n•mum at (0 .. 0). In fact. bcca u~c a squ:\re cannot
2
be ncgau,·c. _z = .t + y· has the global minimum value 0 at (0. 0). Si mi larly. J: (.f • •rl
has a~ ~~~ (mdc:-cd. global ) ma~tnlUm l'alue at (0. 0). whe re a~ lt(x. y) h a~ ne ither -~
local muumum nor n localmax1mum there- the origin is a satld/e poim o f it. Tll l>
example sho"''S that a point (a. b) where
a, a~
FIGURE U .S.l \'\'here both - = 0= -
il.r il}'
p.srtial derivJtives are zero. there
m•Y be (a) a minimum. (b) a may correspon~ _to ~ither a local minimum, a local maximum, or nei the r. Th us the
ma~imum. or (c) neit~. necessary condttlon m Eq . (3) is not a sufficie nt conditi on fo r a local ex trem um. •
d
-
Muttivari.lbte Optimization Probl~ms SECTION 13.S 881
EXAM PLE 3 Find all points on the surface

: = ~Y~ + t.i- -bt' -.r
a t ~~>hich the tangent plane is ho rizontal.
So lu tio n We first calcu late the partial dcri\"ati\"CS i) : f iJ .r a nd Cl :/iJ)~

a:
iJ.r= -2.r.
d l = h + I \..2- I ) J
ay • g. s
= -1 .,\ "(),! - \" - 12) =- 1 \"( \• .1-})l\" - ~ ) .
~ ~.. .
We next equate both a: t a.r and a:;ay to 7e ro. This yields
-2r =0 and -h·c\"~J )(y- ~)=0.
Simultaneous solu tion o f these equations ~icld exactly three poin ts where hoth
_, p artial dc ri\"ati\"CSa rc zero: (0. - 3). <0. 0). and (0. -I J. llt.: thret: corres po nding points
o n the ~u rfncc .,. here the tangen t pl.1ne i< hori1ontal a rc (0. -3. Y'!>. (0. 0. 0), nnd
f iGURE 13.S.4 The sur1ac~ of (0. 4. ~ ). "l hesc th ree point~ are indica te d on the gr:~ph in Fig. 135.-1 of the surf:~ee.
Example 3.
(Recall that we constructed th is surface in Example I I o f Sec tion 13.2.) +
Fin ding Global Extrema

l11eorcm 2 is a very u~e ful t uol for findtn!: the ai"!Solutc mnximum a nd nbso lute min-
imu m va lues attained hy n continuou\ function f on n regio n R of the type d escribed
in 11tcurc m I. If f<a. b) b th e absolu te m:uci rnum v:~l u c. fnr example. the n ( a . II) is
eithe r :1n interior JXlin t of U or a point uf the boundary curve C. If (tl, b) i~ an inte rior
poi nt a nd bo th the pa n ial <.lr.:rivati\ cs f , (a . b) and f 1 (a . b) e xist, then llteore m 2
implies that both these partial de rivatives mus t be ze ro. l l tus we have the fo ll owing
resu lt.
T HEOREM 3 Typ es of Absolute Extrema

Su ppose tha t [is continuo us on the plane re gion R co nsis ting of the points on an d
within a ~i mplc closed cur\"e C. Ir /(a . l>) is ell he r the :~ bsol ute maximu m o r the
a bsolute minimum va lue of / (.r. y) on R. then (a. b) is e ither
I. An interi or po int of Rat which
aa.rr = aayr = O.
2. An interior point of R where not both partial d erivatives exist, o r
3. A point o f the boundary cul"\'e C of R.
A point (a , b) where: e ither condition ( I ) or cond ition (2) ho lds is calle d a

criticul point of the function f . Th us Theorem 3 says tha t a11y e.xtremt' valu f' o f tlrt'
contim wru fwr ctiort f Of! tlrr plant' Tt'l(imt R IIIIL.f l occur at Of! i merio r critical point o r
at a bo tttltlary poillf. Note the analogy with l n corem 3 of Sectio n 3.5, which implies
that a n extre me value of a sin gle-variable function / (.r) o n a closed and bou nded in-
terval /must occur eithe r a t an interior critical point of I o r a t an end point (boundary
po int ) o f/.
As a consequence of Theorem 3. we can find the absolute maximum and mini-
m um v:tl ues of f (.r. y) o n R a s follows:
1. First locate the interio r critical points.
2. Next find the possible extreme values o f f o n th e boundary curve c.
3, fi nally co mpare the \'a lues of I a t the poin ts fou nd in steps 1 and 2.
The tech niq ue to be use d in the second s te p will d e pend on the nature o f the
bou nda ry cu rve C. as ill ustrate d in Examples 4 a nd 5.
r 882 CHAPTER 13 Partial Differentiation
-· , . _ .r= _ ,.: on 1 ~e rc~ion R consis tin~ of the points on

I' EXAMPLE 4 L:::. J (~ •• •>.- ' . · ~ Th
:!nd \\lthtn the C\T:k X" - \ - = !Ill :he X\ ·t'bn..
3 hof/tsshownin Filtl355
C ~r p. . • •·.
I~ \\.e <ee t h:11 · 1h.~ . · ~Iu~ 0 oi f "curs lt the ongtn. (0. Ol. "here both the
:
mmt::-~u::-~ h · .1
· · I .. - · ·1 to c'ri<!-· ( \\nv~).
'- -
r:~:ttll <!en\-:!tl\CS I :m- I' Ill .
"here :IS t c: mHtmum \3 ue I ofj
. I
/h.,,. ,~
.. . ,.. · I f 1'>~ rou.'ldlrY Clf\7 C. +
on R oc::urs :~t ~:t:J: ar.J ~wry pou: o ··• .
--· ~II EXAMPLE 5 Fi::d th: r:::?..~ir:tul:lJd :::U:!ir.1um •Jiu:.-s 3t1Jined by the fu nction
fix. y ) =X.'- .r- .' - 3
' · f h · , ~p~~ ... R in th~ r, -"13.-'lC \\ith •·crt ices 3 t (0, 0), (2. 0). and
at po1nts o t. e tnJ::~.~r r... ~""" .. ·. t-
FIGURE 13.S.S The gr~ ph of !M
eO. J ).
functiOn o' bamp'e ~. Solution The re~io~ R is s!':0"1l in Fi!'. I:..5.6. l!5 lxlund:uy -cur> c :· C consists of the
\cgment 0 ~ x ~ ~ 0 ~ l~e .r-a'tis.. the ~<"gmer:l 0 ~ , .... .l.<>n t~e .' ·l~L~ nnd the pl rl of
1 the hne 2.r _ ·' = ~ thlt lies in the first quJdrJnt. Any tntenor e ~tremum mu I occur
(0.•)
at a pomt \\here roth
Jf = ,. - I and
ar .
nrc zero. lie nee the onl~ interior criltC31 point i' ( I. I ).
Along tl:t rds< .. /:rrr ·' = 0: The funelio n f(.t. y) takes the fo m1
aCrl=[(r.O!=:l-.r. O-.,.r~2.
Because: a ( rl i< a t.kcrea;ing fun;tion. tiS c\lrem.t for 0 ;. ·' ~ 2 occur nl the
cndp<>int< r =Cl and .r = :!. Th,, ri•c< the t\\O l"'"'ibili ti c, (tl. ())and (2. Cl) for
loc:uion< of extr.:ma of /(.r. y).
A/mrs tl:< <ds•· "1:.-rr .r = 0: The functi o n f< r . y ) t ake~ the form
FIGURE 13.S.6 The tri•ngu!Jr Pl.' I= /tO. y l = 3- y. 0 ~ ." ... -1.
reg10n of Ex•mplc S. The endpoints of thi< intenal yiehJ the points (CI.ll) and (0 • .1 ) as possibilities
fo r location< o: o:xtrcma of f< r. ·' ).
On tire' <'tiS<' of R " Ita< ." = J - :!.r: \\·c: mav sulhtitule ~ - :!..r for ,. in the
formub for j(x. y) and thus c~prcs.s f 3..S a fu~ction of a single variabic:
y(.r) =.r ( J - :.n - r - t-1 - :!.r) .,. :l

= - :.r: -5x -1.
To find the C'll~cme value< of y( r ). " "' fin.t c;:~leul:uc:
y ·(.r) = -.l.r + 5:
Y_'<.r~ =0 11 h~r~ X = ~- Thus ea,ch c~tr~mc •·aluc of y(.r ) on [0. 2) must occur
either at the m.cn o r pomt.r = ~ o r the mtef\·ai [O. 2) or 31 one o f the endpoints
x = 0 and .r = .:!.This gi•·cs the possibilities (0. .1 ). ( ~ . ~ ) . and (2. 0) fo r locations
of extrema of f(.r. y ). • -
\\'e conclude b•· e\'3lu:llino f 1 e:~ch of th~ n.~·tnlS h f d

· "' · 3 ' •" we :~•·e o un :
j (O. 01 = 3. - maximum
/(~ . ~) = 2.125
/(1.1) 2. =
/(2. 01 = I.
j(O. .I)= -I.111 i n i mum
Thus the maximum v:~luc of/( r r ) o n lh . .
value is /(0 . .1) =-I · ·· e regiOn R ts /(0. 0) = 3 and the minimum
• •
Note the t erminolo~:y used in this , . .
off is 3. the maxintum o;:,.urs at th !
. sec t ton. 11 Example 5. the maximum•·.tlut
point on the graph of 1 is (0. o. _ c pomt (O. 0) m Ihe d o main off, :md the lriglrfSI
31
Multivariable Optimization Problems SEcnON 13.S 883
H ighc~t <lnd LoweH Points o f Surfaces
~n applied problems ,.e frequenth· know in ad,·ance that the a~olute maximum
or ':1Jnimum) ,-alue of [ (x. ' ') o; R occurs at an intuior point o f R where both
partial d erivatives of f exist. In this irnporun t C3~. Theorem 3 tells u s that '>'e can
1?Cate e'cry ~sible point at which the mJ"'timum (or minimum) might occur by
stmultaneoUlly sohing the t'>'o equations
l
f,(x . y) =0 and f 1 (x. ~·) = 0. <-'>
~f "'~ are lucky. thele equations ,.iJI ha'e only one simultJneous solution (.r. )')
mtenor to R. If so. then that solution r.1 ust be the loca tion of the desired maximum
~or ~inimum ). If ,. e find that the equations in (.! ) have sc:vcr.tl sim ult:tneous so lutions
fiGUR E 1l .S.7 The surface mte n o r to R. then v.c simply evahute f :tt e:u:h <oluuon to c!e tcrm ine whi ch yields
1 1
1 : x• + y• - x y opens upward. th e la rgest (or smallest) value of f(.r. y) and is therefore: the dcsin:d mn:\imu m
(or mtmmum) point.
We can u~e this method to find the lo,.es t poi nt on n surface ~ = f<x . y) that
open~ upwa rd, as in Fig. 13.5.7. If R is a suflicientlv l:uge rc:ctnnglr:. the n /(x. y)
nlloins lnrgc pmimc val ues eveT)"'herc on the houndaT)' o f R bu t smalle r v:tlucs at
int e rior IX>i nt!-. It follows that the min imum value of f<x. y) rnu~t be a tw ined :tt an
inte rior poin t or 1<.
'll1e quest ion of a highe\t or lowest point is no t pert inen t fo r a surf:-tce that
open ~ hoth upward :-tnd downwa rd. as in Fig. 13.5.8.
EXAMPL[ 6 n nd the high~\! point on the ~urfacc

~= f(.r. y )= jx1 + 4.\J -x•- y'. (5)
So lut io n We observe that the negative fourth-degree terms in f(.r. )') clearly pre-
=
d o minate when l.rl a nd/o r ly l is large. so the surface ~ f(;r. y) opens downward.
(Sec: Fig. 13.5.9.) ·ro verify this observatio n, we Cacwr out x ' + y' a nd write
f iGURE 13.S.8 The surface
1 = x• + y• -
lx 1 y 1 opens both
upward a nd d own ward. f(x,y)=(x4 +J">(~;: : ~;J - I]. (6)
Now co nsi der a fixed poin t (.r. y) and let m denote t he s maller. a nd ,\1 the la rger. of
t he two numbers (x ( and (y(. Then
8 xl
J
+ 4yl < 4(.r(3 + 4 1 .~·( 3 = 4nf! + 4 M 3
<
4M 1 + 4M ' 8
=-
.r + y• : x• + y• nr' + M' = 0' + M' /o(
Fo r instnnce. if either JX( or (y ( is greater ~han -~'= 10. then the fractio n withi n brackets
in Eq. (6) has absolute value less than TO • so tl foll ows th at / (.r. y) < 0.
lltus /(.r. y) is ncgat h·e outside the la rge sq uare R with ve rtices (:1:10. :1:10)
in t he x y-plane. But z = f<x . y) certainly attains posi tive values within R. such as
/(I. I) = !f.Consequently Theorem 1 impli es that / (.r. y) attains an abso lute max-
imum val~c at some interior poin t of R. So le t us proce ed to find t his maximum
value. . .
Beca use the partial derivat1ves ilt;/ilx and IJz/ iJy e xtst everywhe re, Theorem 3
implies tha t we need o nly solve the equatio ns il : /ilx = 0 a nd iJ z/IJy = 0 in Eq. (4)-
fiGURE 13.S.9 The surface t hal is.
l= ~x 1 + 4 yl- x• - r•
opens
IJ: = 8x 2 - 4x3 = 4x 2(2- .r)=0.
downward.
iJx
iJ z =
IJy
12v -
'
41 =4l<3- y) = 0.
If t hese two equations arc satisfied. t he n
[ Either x = 0 or x - 2] a nd Ieit her y = 0 or y = 3. j
884 CHAPTER 13 Partial D•fferent.iation
II follows thot cirhcr
or or B
\ ..-:::::< \/
...:";~/·,· I
I::::=
B
Con<~e<tuc:ntly. we n:cd only inspect the values
':, ·:. . .. ·. .. \
I . '
~.
I
..' . . I·.. ·.:. " ..,,
t
•• . I
_..
••
• • :\.
~(0.0)
· (,-- · 0)
~
= 0.
= ~3 = 5333 333 333 ... .
•
'·.'·•.
',.
,·.; .-:-·•• ...· ..

0 '
3J = 27.
.. ',, ..
' f , • ~(0.
: (2. 3) = 9} ~ 32.3JJ :133 333 .... m.t~imum
1nu~ the: highcsr poinr on rhc surface is the point q7)

(:!. 3. -y · lltc rour cnuc~
· · 1pomts
·
FIGURE 13.S. 10 The uitical
pointi of Example 6. on rh e \Urfacc nrc indicarcd in Fig. 13.5. 10. •
Applie d Maximum-Minimum Problems

'lltc :onal\si\ o( a mulliva riahlc ;~pplicd m.tximum·nti nimum prohlcrn involves the
'""'c ~:c~cral ''q" 1h.11 we li~tcd at rhc bq:innin1: tl( Seer ion 3.6. H••rc. ho\\t:vcr. we
wi ll cxprc'~ rhc dcpcnden l variable- the: quan l iry In he rna ~ irni zcd or minimized- as
a funt'lton f(x, )')of ' "'" imk pemlcnr vari.thlcs.. Oncc we h:l\'1! iilc ntificd the ~ppm·
pri~lc region in I he .r y-pbnc a~ the dom:~in of f. the nt cl hods of rhi' section nrc appli-
rr
cable. \\'c oflcn find I hal a preliminary step is required: rhc mcanin~fu l domain or
defi nition n( f is an unhounded region. then we lirsr restr kt f to :1 /1111/llti<'tl plane rc·
gion U on which we know I he desired exrrc me value occ ur" '!11i<procedure i< >imilar
to rite one we u<cd with opcn-i nterv:tl maximum-minimum pnthlems in Section ~A.
' •' /·-- EXAMPLE 7 Find rhc minimum cost of a rect:mgular Ito~ \\ilh volume -1$ fr1 if
rhe fwnt and b:1ck cost Sl /ft1 .rhe top and bottom cost S2 / fl~. aml tht: two end<cost
S3/ fl~ . (We lir.t di>cuss.:d such a box in Sectionl3.1.) 'llti>l>ox b ;,huwn in fig. 13.5.11.
Solution We found in Seclion 13.1 th;tt the cost C (in dollars) oft hi< hox is gi, cn by
•
C(x. y) =-lxy + -288 +-
96
X .,\'
FIGURE ll.S. I I A bo• whose
total cost w e w Jnt to m inimize in rcrm~ of irs lc!nr.th r and -.;drh y. Let R be a $quare such ,., rhe one s hu\\ II in
(E><ample 7). Fig. 13.5.12. Two sides of_R nrc so close to lhc coordinale a xes th.ll 288/ x > 1000 on
the Stdc nc:ucsl I he y-axts and%/)' > HXJO on the side neare~l the x-axi'\. Al1o. rhe
squarc h >o large rhat ·l.ry > 100tl on both o f tht: other two >ides. ·n1i< me;~ns thll
C(x. )') > 1000 HI cwry point (x. y) of the fir>t quadrant that lies on or outside the
hou~tbry o( the >qu.arc ~-. Lkcause C(.r. y) attai ns rca<on~hl )• sm~ll values \\ ithin R
(fo~ mst.ance, ~(1. 11 ~ 3tiS). H ts cl<!ar that the ahoh.uc rninimun: of 0111 ~ 1 occur ar c
. mle nor
an . of II. lllUS. althou•'h
. porn! .. dom•..1'11 <>f ll 1c cos1 runcuon
::. the nattwtl
, · C(x , )'l
tS rhc enure ftrst .quadranr. we have succeeded in rcstr' c · · d ·
· 1 1ong 11s om:un to a rcgton · R
of the son 10 whtch Theore m 3 applies.
We therefore solve Ihe simultaneous equations
ac 2811
i)x = 4Y - .r2 = 0,
iJC 96
il y = 4x - yz = 0.
W.: multiply the first equation by r and the 5 II f
quently required in lhc solut'o ·f . ec:om 'Y Y· (Atlltoc meth od< MC rc·
FIGURE 13.S.12 Thecoil dure gives
1
°
n srmu1tancous nonlinear cquntions.) lltis proc(·
function ({•. y) of E•ample 7
tak~ on l~rge p<»ltive valu~i on 2&~ 96
the boundJry of the square. - = 4xy = -
x y'
Multivaridb'e Optimization Problems SECTION 13.5 885
so tha t .r. = 288,\'/ 96 = 3y. We substitute .r. = 3y into the e quat ion aCf oy = 0 and find
that
H ence Y = ~lg = 2. sox= 6. The refo re. the m inimum c~t o( this box is C (6. 2) = 144
(dollars). Beca use t he ' olume o f t he box is \' = .n-: = .tS. its height is : = .!8/ (6 · 2) =.;
when .r. = 6 and y = 2. Thus the optimal box is 6 ft '' ide. 2 ft deep. :tnd .; ft hig h . +
REMARK A s a check. no te that the cheapest surfaces ( front and back ) a rc the largest.
whereas th e most expensive surfaces (t he sides) are t he s mallest.
We have seen that if f, (a. b ) =0= f 1 (a. b). then [(a. b) may be either a maxi·
mum value. a m inimum \'alue. or neither. In Section 13.10 we discuss condi tio ns that
suffice to distinl!uish betv.e.en a local ma:urnum. aloe~! minimum. a nd a saddle p o int
on the surface:·= f (.r.. y) . These conditions in"olve the second-o rder deri \'a t ives of f.
Functio ns of Three or Mo re Variables

Th e m e thods of this <ect ion gcnerali1c readily to functions of three or more variables.
For imtance. sup rose that th e function [ Cr . y . : ) is con tinuo us o n a bounded region
R in space bounded by a closed su rface S. Then (in ana logy with Theorem I). t he
funclion f attains an ab<olu tc maximum \'aluc at some poi nt (a . b , c) o f R (a nd li ke ·
wi~e an ah~olutc min imum \'Jluc a t some poin t of R ) . If (a, b. c) is an in te rio r po int
of I? a t which the pa rtta ltlcrtvatives of f exist. then ( in ana logy wit h 111corcm 3) it
follows that a ll three "ani~h the re:
{.1•• · b. <' ) = {. Cu. h . c- 1 = /,Ca. It, cl = II, (7)
We may therefore attempt to find this point by solving the three s im ult a neou s
e quatio ns
f , (X, y. ~~ =!l, f,(.r . ,.. ~~=II, ami f,tx. y. :J = 0 (II)
for the t hree unknown values x =a,~· = b. and:= c. Titus a key ste p in t he metho d
of solut ion of a t hree-variable extreme \'alue problem is essen tia lly the sam e as in
t he me thod for a two-variable problcm-..se t the partia l derivatives e q ua l to zero
a nd sOI\'c the resulting equa tions.·· B ut sec Problem~ 6R t hrough 70.
Exa mple !I illust rates a .. line·th rough· the·poi nt .. me thod that we can som e times
usc to show that a poin t (a. b. c) where the cond it ions in (8) ho ld i~ ne ithe r a loca l
r ma ximum nor a local m inimum point. (Th.: met hod is also applicab le to func ti ons o f
two o r of more than three \'ari ables.)
EXAMPLE 8 D ete rmine whethe r the function f (x. y, Z) =xy+ yz- xzhas a ny local
extrem a.
Solution TI1e necessa ry cond it ions in Eq. (8) give the equa t ions
f,( x. y. z)= y -z= O.
f 1(x . y, Z) = X + Z = 0.
f :(X. J .Z) = Y - X = 0.
We e asily find that the simultaneous solution of these equations is x = y = z = 0 . On

= =
the line x y z through (0. 0. 0). the function f<x. y • .t) r educes to .t 2 . which is
minim al at x=O. But on the line x= -y = z. it reduces to -3.r. 2 , which is m a ximal
when x = 0. H ence f can h ave neither a local m a" imum nor a local minimum at
(0. o. 0). TI1ere£orc it has no extrema. local or global. •
I
I
~

1. Suppose: that the function f is continuous on the di~k D bo~nded by the
unit circler - ,.: = 1. Is it possible that /(.r. y) auams both ns maximum
and minimu:n ,.;lues on D at points of the bound:~ry circle? Illustrate your
anS\\cr with an exJmple.
2. Gtve an example of a function th:~t is dcfin.:d at e1•ery point of the unit disk
D but attains no maxin10m ,·alu.: at :my point o f D.
3. Give an ex ample of a function f tktin.:J on the unit dis k D that a tt ains its
maximum value at an interior point at which th e partial derivativ.:s of D do
not exist.
-1. flow would you alte r the proof of Theorem 2 to show that the pa rtial deriva.
th·cs of a function of three varianks ,·ani>h ;11 :111 int.:rior loca l maximum or
minimum poin t ~ (\\'hat \\ ould you rncan hy a n intl!rior poim of a space re·
giun'! ) Docs your proof apply to the: func tion ... = f(x. y . .:::) = J.r2 + y~ + ~~?
13.5 PRO BLEM S

~~ml>/'c•m.r I t/1~!111~11 I }, filii/ fl 'i'T)' pflitll " " tit•• jiil'fll .Jurfrtr( 12. ~ "' 2.rycxp(- ~(J.r 1 + J">) (fi)!. 13.5.15)
' - f (X. y) fll 111/ur lt '''" umgl'lll p/n11c' i< !tori :mwtl.
I. z=.r -3y+.5 y
3. z = x y + 5 J . : ~ x~ + ~~ + 2r H---R'l--.,~----1-~ -s
s.z = x 1 +l -6x+2y+5 6• · - 10+~o .l - 6 y-x·-)
.. - . , ...'
~ :=~+~+~ L :=~+~ - ~
9 • : = 3xl + 12.1' + 4y'- 6y + 5 (Fig. 13.5.13)
2
-I
FIGURE 13.5. 15 The surface of Problem 12.
Each of tire surfMes cl•fin~tl ill p

opetu dn..- ...a,,/ II . mblems 13 tltrouglt 12 ~i:i:tt
01u uu a 1ugh •st .
luu tlfnwcst point. Fintlthi.s lu ~I c: pomt: ()r tJpt!I IS up,,.·arJ cr.J
11
z ~ f<x. y). S testor/u" c.st pomt 0 11tho11rf.xt
FIGURE 13.5. 13 The surface of 14. := (~r -Sy - x= -i

Problem 9.
10. z~ ,..---::--.,.;..-..,....~
I - 2.r + 2y + .r l + yl
11. l =(2.r 2 + 3yl)cxp(-x 1 - i > (Fig.13.5.14)
10-2.r 4y+xl + y'

21. l
.,,
=exp(2x- 41•. - r=
. - y
l)
· -· z =(I+ .tz) cxp(-xl - i>

/11 Problem• ~3 11
;,j
valtt•s allai1 by•;,ouglt 18· {rlld tile mnximum ami mir.iu:um
·
regum R te gwe11 /II II Cl io II f< X. )') on thr sil·tll p/Jf.(
2J. ff(x.y ) =x +2y; Risthc squ 3re wnh
U
. vcnic<'s 31 (:I: 1. ;::!\.
FIGURE 13.5. 14 The surtace of Problem 11•
. ( x. V) = xl + yl
. - x; R 1.5 the squ3re of Problem 2.1.
Multivaria b!t Optimization Problems SECTION 13 .S 887
:.<- {I 1 , y } = x : + I - lr: R is the tnangular region ,. ith the ono:t. and tl:e O~;xJSitc \Crte, on the plan~ " i th cqua·
>Crt ices a t tO. OJ. C2. OJ. and 10. 2J. . -. _ \\b•t LS the m n •mum po~<sble volume
t JOO X- .J,.V - ~ := 11 . ~
1
%6. fi x. y) cr x + i - x - }: R n the region of Problem 25. ol sud! ~ bo.t'
: 1• { CX.)) = 2.r ·~ R n the mcul.lr dl\lc zl _ ...: :; I . 46.. Three sdeJ of a r.-c-un~ubr 1-<n he in the C'OOrdlnate pl~nes.
tl':elr ro::u::o~ >e:tet ;t the onpn.the rpp<»t!e 'ertex u o n
:S. { l:r . y } = .r ); . R" the mcubr di\l x l .._ )J :; J.
the pJ:!e .. i!h cq:.aJUon
In r ro!>lmu !Q rltrc•u~IJ JJ, rht ~qunrwn of o p!or:t o r surfou u z ' ; I
• r•rrt Fmd rltt firJ/·(K/oJnl(lrllf!l r tx . ) . : J On tht Jl" fau cloJtJI 0
--=---=
b c
mtht >i•rn fi t td 1'""'1 Q l t · 1 • ~ .) {Su~S:tJIIfJn ,\flr.lrli:t tl:r (a . b. a.."'t! care ,..._.,.1ti'e et'nstant<). In term< of a. h..? nd c.
q aml t!lllnncr I I'Q,: 111 11 funnrm oft and> J
1 11 v. tJ: is tl:e rrutJmu:':l J".l5511-!c ' "!~me of swh a ""' ·
:'1. The p!Jne I 2x + -1 )' + Jz • If>? and the fil ed point Q 0. 0. OJ -'1. Fir.d L":e r::.t\lr::U::'I ,-oJume of 3 rc.-c\J n)!UIJ r tx>, that 3 rm~
JO. The pl~ne 2.r ... 2y + ~ : 27 and the fned f'<Mnt Q i?. ?. 9 1 o!fltt v. 11! accc;-t (0 : ddi' rry 1f the ~um of its lmgth an
grr.J: can:K>t et~cJ Ill" in
J l. The plane 2.r + Jy + ~ .,. 49 and the fil ed potnt Q(7. - 7. OJ
.&8. Re.,e~t Prot-km J 7 f<'r the cJS<: of a cyhnJrical txl'-onc
31. The ~urfacc .ryz "' !land the ft l e cl p<lint QtO. fl. fl) shared lsk<' a hat~" or" fat marlin~ tut>c:.
3.\. The ~urlace x1r: l = 4 a nd th: fi xed p<unt (>rfl. 0. o1 "9. ,\ rcctancular t"'• v. 1th its ba~c in the • •··rl~ne i< in<cri!'Cd
. • • > ()
>l. 111e >urfacc x' }'" i = !l Rnd the ftl Cd p<llnt Qt0, 0. 0) und.:r the ~nrlt of the parat-<>J.ud : = I - .t · - .'~ ·.: • ·
35. f-ind th e mlximum p<mihlc product ul three f'O'i ll\ C num . Find the ml\tmum P""'blc , ,,J ume o f the Nl , , (S11g,cr.t·
hers whose sum h I 20. tion. You m.1' a<sumc that the <aJt·> nf the ho\ arc pur~lkl
to the 'ert1e.1i coorJtnJte piJnc:.. a nJ it lu ll<>"' thut the b<>X
y, Find th e maximum po\\ible volume u l n rectangul~r bot 1! is S)mmctn;Jli) placeJ Jrl\UOJ these p JJ II C:.. j
the sum of th e length\ uf i., 12 ed~;r' h 6 mete r~
~. \\'hat a< the ma\lmum ro<<~l>k ' <•lunu: "' n rcctnngulnr box
31. Find the dimensiom of the box with vo lume J(J(X) in.1 that in<.."l'iN:d m a hrma<phere of rnJtu< R 7 A~~umc th nt o ne
has minimal tow I su rbcc nre:t. lace of the bot hes tn the pl.1n:u b.1•e "'the hc mi<phcrc.
38. Find the dimensions o f the opcn· IOppetl hox v. ith \ Oiume Sl. A 1-uo) " to h.-e the <h.trc n( .1 ll):h t cir~ul.ar cylinder
4000 cml "hose bottom and four sides have mintmal total oppcd • • each end I>)· 1denii~JI r1 ~h t c1r cuJJr cones "ith
surface area. th e ume rodtu\ ., the C\ltn,kr Find the manin1um p<><'lblc
surfac-e a rc-.l o ( the buo;. gi,en thnt 11 h a" tl --cc tJ ' o lumc V ,
In Prubl~ms 39 through ./], you art' tn find tilt' tlamuurom that
minimi:r tlrr tom/ cmt of thr m otnml nutlt't l to COIU/ruct the 52. A pentagonal v. mdow u to ha\ c the ,h.1pc uf n r~ctangle
rrctangu/ur lwt th111 ir tlrJcribrtl. ItiS tllltt'r clo<ed (Wf'. buuom, sunnou~ted !:>) an 1\0\Cclc' UJ.1nglc (" tth ho r1t.ont.1l h.1~e.
and fou r srdts) m upcn ·toprc:d ffm" .tukf ami a /Jouom). so the "'i ndow ~symmetric around Jls \crl1ea l a~ i\), a nd
the pcnmeter of the " lndo" 1S to he 2-l ft . \\'ha t nrc the
39. The bo~ i< to be open-topped v.1th 11 volume of 600 in.1 The d1mensions of such a " Indo" th.H v. tll admit the m OJt hght
material for its bouom cost< 6c:fin. 1 a nd the material for its (because its area 1S the !!rea tes t)'!
lour sides costs 5~tin 1
53. Find the pornt t.r..vl 1n the plane lor v.h ieh the surn of the
40. The box is to be clo,cd with a volume of ~S It '. The mate ri31 squares of its distances from 10. I). 10. 0 1. nnd (2. 0) is n
for its to p and bottom costs S3/ft 1 and the material for its minimum.
four sides cost. S~lft 2 •
S-1. Find the point( .r. y ) in the plane lor which the sum of the
41. llte box is to he clo<cd v.ith n \'Oiume o f 750 in. 1 l11e mn· squHes of its distances from (<1 1• 1>,). (n l. 1>,). and (o1 • b, )
terial for iiS top und i'<mom cn<ts J~/in. 2 • the materi3l for is a minimum.
its front and back costs ~/in. 2 • und the material fo r its two
e nds costs '.1;:/in. 2 SS. An A·frame house is to ha'c llxed \ Oiurnc l'. Its front and
rear "''JIIs arc in the shape of equal. parallel tso~ccles tri·
42. The box is to be n closed shipping crate with a volume of angles with horizontal bases. 'Inc IO<tf con>t)b of two rcct·
12 m 1. llw material for its houom c<><l< Miu as much (per 3ngfc.s th:u connect pai"' o f upper sides vf Ihe triangles. To
square me ter) as the material for its top and four sides. minimize heating a nd coohn g cost•. the to ta l area of the
43. A rectangular building is to have a volume of SOOO ft'. '' .n· A-frame (excluding the noor) is tn be minimi7ed. Describe
nual heatin g and cooling costs will a mount to S2Jft 2 fo r liS the shape of the t\·fr>me of minimal area.
top. front , a nd back. nnd $~/ft 2 fo r the two end walls. Wb3t 56. What is the maximum possible ' Oiumc o f a rec ta ngula r box
dimensions of the building would minimize these annual whose longest d iagona l has fixed length L'!
costs?
57. A wire 120 em long is cut into thrc~ "'t~,..n p ieces. and
~. You want to build a rectangular aquarium with a bon?m each piecc is bent into the shape of a square. H ow should
made of slme costing 28~/i n . 2 Its sides will be gi3~S. wh1ch thi.s be done to minimize the total area o f these squa re~? To
costs 5~/in .:. and its top " ill be stainless steel. wh1ch costs maximize it?
2~n.2 The\'olumeofthisaquuium is to be 24.000 in. 1 What S8. You must divide a lump of pu tty ol fiud volume V into
. . ?
arc the dimensions of the le:1.1t cxpens1ve s uch aquanum · three or fewer pieces and form the pieces in to cube:~.. H ow
4.1. A rectangular box i> inscribed in the first octant v.·ith three should you do this to max.imize the total surface a rea of the
of its sides in the coordinate planes. their common \'Crtex at cubes? To minimize it?
888 CtiAPTER 13 P.Htl,tl Drtf~rtntoJtoOn
to th" prolll<m A<"mtc th:ot 1hc !.1C1 nf the merger ol AP
~9. A H'f) l.m~ rcctAn,•1c 0( 'hCC'I me loti h on • •Jih Land u hl ~nJ Cit" l nu" n tn the m.rn., rconcno nf 110
he foiJe.J tu m•kc • r.un j:U11cr ll•~· 1.1 ~If>) ~b.,mll< on
H•lull'c h) m>\lntllln~ the Cr<M \CCtn•n•lorcJ ~ho,.n tnthc '' f.ume r can '·"' ' 'herr. hnr'- ·" " ' c.ottlc She ha< >pace lor
11~urc.
"-'· 1-(l •herr .,1 t:n hnv' 111 fill c.ottlc ur any cornhrnataun "'ing
lhr \JnlC amnunt"l 'r"''". th.ot '" lo. <hccp u<c •• much space
, h<~'' 111 ,, c.1 ttk 1h e .ont rcrp.otctl profi t\ pcranrmal uc
1
- .• s'
~· rcr <herr. s' per h<l~ ..rn.J -" fIll c.rc 'I hcad or CJt:lc.
SIO
•n Sutc '·'"' rcquur' t h~t a f•rmcr r.mc 3\ m.my hogs as sheep
>nJ p ttk cuml>rncd l lol "' doc:< the farmer maxtmrzc her
IIGURl ll S 16 Crou l<'< toO<"I ol prnfit?
the r• n g ..ttrr of Prollh•m S'l
rroh/mll M iJr.d II~ tiro/ •• rr/r riot' qrllldffiiiCfo rm
60. Cnmirkrthdun. llun /41. )I (I ,:Ill 1,:1 (>)Sb•"'•
th:\1 (, 40 0) - H f ,tll HI (h) '\tHI'-' th,H !\1 r C \ Cl) \U;i'fl11
I c' . }, {1\ ! + '"'" ,, '" '"'; (9)
hnr v ,H thH,U}'h tO U 1, I he fu n\ ht~n ' ' • , ,,. l t'u' .,,.._,_ M. Shu" thallhc qu.lllr>lld•'"" I'" ('/J ha< only the <i ngkcril·
c.":! I min unu m·'' , - n (c) I -c :umnr th e'' Jl:JC"\ nf f :U l"''int\ ..,,1t t"irutll. fllunk" " ' ,,: 11, on "hich ~~sc C\ cryroint
,,r tht· p.n ·' ~'1.' \ 2 ' 1 to 'h' '"' t h.ll f d· Ill'' , , , h t\(" •• 1,• ''" .1 ccrl.un hnt' t hr(lu~;h rht• <H IJ!Ifl ~~ n cn rrc:tl po1nt & .
(,1111li i\11 1HIIl\ Ill 10, U1 JI U\ tdl\ II'! l h t1 \4 (' (',H\MCll U \.C thC' J"'CfU11~nt \\ 11h (111Hp111 Cf ~~t.q"h' In fHrmui .IIC :1 COnjr:CfUrC
l uH.'·IhltHJ}:h ·l l h,'• f\tiiUI mc tiH)\t u f r, •mph: K lu \hnw lh.:at •1.,u11 hc <h.rrc u( th e \urf.rcc: ~ = /I r. )'f in the <·xrc pliunal
1
II r nnlt h .1 Ju.,:al t" XtfC IH\1111 ,,,,c"' 1,1 ~ o. (".m ~uu ' u l•, l uullate pmr ''UilJCCtwc'l
fi 1. Surr'n'"' th.H ,\lphn. l n~o.·, lHhl ftct.t , I 111 ttl muf.tcturc C••m · ~~. t he a cnmpu lcr .lf!'<"llr.o 'Y''" "''" t:r:oph Ihe qundratic furm
fX"Itli H~ (h111 lh11 hk n llt'UI) rft t,hh.' h . With the: \\' l't: k h \tJc:, in ('f) lorn v:orr<l\ u( rhlfc:n·n 1val11c' uf the cncflicicntstr. b.
of l'a~h 1'' ••~ hu.·t tkt t.' r ll tnh.'\1"'' 1ht.• ,~,·ll •n..: ~'r h .t' ~ •f 1h 11 pu l\t and r in n rJc r tn Ct 11 rnh•lr;•l c llu: followi ng t \\' 0 conclusiont
••f
uct muJ th~ p1 1\'\' ' '' rt'IHJ"t' ltlh'" SupJ~"" lhat ,\ lphtt 'c'' (a) If ,, - 1,: • n. olu·n lh<·r •·• l'h nl: = [lr . y) i< an ellip-
:t )1.,11\'' J'III:C' ~lt 1 ~h11J,H , ~ ~ ~ litH I f0 1 II\ J'f Pdlld, \lo hth• 1\ct.l tic par:tl"\tl)t~l•1 .H h l f thcu:forc h .l\ c ilhc r a m ;nilllUOl Or 3
~..:t~ a ~ah.·, prict· •~I .' ' tl,,ll,ll' I'<' I wut lor II" p r,,._lu('t. ~Llr· n1fn11num •.o luc .tl III,I)J (I>) II or - 11 ~ 0. I hen the ~rnph
kc t n~'.::uch ,Jh'\\' th.u tiH· " '-'ell)' prnht nt.t~h.- hy J\l r~·' i" ol : u [ I ' · >'I " ,, h) I"'' hulrc l'.ornl•"l"'d 31H.I / thcrdurc
th<·n ""'a -.uJ,Ifc t><>int Mill. Ill.
n.~"'" I ,l 5. 7 awl /.I j H illrtllmrr· (wrtl r ml>lrm<flli (Uft/ 67 drat

and th3t th< " rc~l\ f""lilm>tlc I>) II i' witlr) tlrt" ra\t"f b :r -l
mul I, ~ - ; ( rr\JU"((;\'('/y) 11{ thr Jf~l.al
(>(yl • - -'': ~ 1 ~.' t- '!.ly - ~ ' - I ~ quart ic rurm
(10)
(l"t\th 10 lhC'IU(an..h ,,f d ,,llar, ). "llu• t'CC'Uhar nn1..11iun :tri~~
from thr rarl lh:\1 ' ,, t he ''"'Y Y.!llahk umkr the nm ·
1rt'l nf A lph.1 an,t ,. ''I he ''nly \';m ahlc u n,Jt.-r I he C't'nuul
M~ Show th31 the 'l "·"trc fo rm f in ( I U) h3\ only the single
or lku ( If thl' ,h,l ult"' ~nu. fc.· ,·l fr rc hl V. flh' ,.h.\) in critrc•lr<•inl (ll. 01 unlc" b = - 1. in "' hich ca<c c'cry point
on 3 Ccrt.un Jl.llr u( line' lhrnu~th the Uf'lt!ln is a critiC31 po&Dl
r lan: <>f /'til •n,t (.11 •· 1·1 '" rl.orc "' (.11 q I (;o) ' ' "•me (Fig. 13.5.17). Expcruncnt "''t h compJt<'l ~:r~phs m fonnu·
that ~lth '-'""'P·IIl' man.,~c f' knn"" c.al~o.·ul u' :md t hat c;tch
knt,A ' ch.11 lht.• , .,Jr~r L.nnw' c:~t kul u' unJ hr~' ~ me <tUn ·
late a conjecture ahuut the •ll.lpe of the r.rarh or 1 tn ••cb
m or -.en,..· \ Vh:n pnn.· " lll l·.u.:-h rn:~narc: r ~cl ru m:'l\imitc
or the two c3><:\ b > - 1 an.J b , - 1.
hi'C "'"'r'-'n~ ·, " . ·rlly r u,tit'.' (Ill i"o" ~url''"'c rh:H chc '""u
ma n.t)!t.' r' '-' nlc.... r lllh' an :.~n·t.•mc: nl (lq:.1l t)r ~ ~lhc... r"I'C'• hy
"hi'h chry pl .tn 1u m.I\ 11111/C thc1 r 1,.1,11 \\4.'clh pruliL :\uw
"h :ol <houl<l '"' the M.'lllll): p11n• 11f r:odot""'"""l'! (\\',.sup-
ros~ th.tllh()' ~ilt dl\hk I he 14.'l'oUII in!= pn•lit Ill ;m C<~Uilahlc
woy. t>ut th< olct:orl< of th o< inll'iguinj: prnblcnt nrc not the
:
i'•n1e.)
62. ·nmc finn<- t\j.u l'wducts (t\1'). lkhcnwth Ouicksil•·er
(UQ). :ond Cnn~lontcr:otc lh•>uUI\"CS (Cit)- pr"'lucc pwd·
uch in q uanrittc.' ' tt. II. nnd (, I'C'I.J"'('l'tivdy. 11ic weekly
prnfits that nn.-ruc til each. in Chuus:uldS u( dnll::tl'!\. obey I he
fullowln~ Cll \l·~lirm;:
t\ 1' ; /' ., 1()(1011 - t1 1 - 211 /1, fiGURE 1l.S.17 The 9rDph of l'\C (unction
110 : (! • 2lKMl II - 2/11 - ·IllC. f(x, Y) • J( • - • 1 Y 2 + y' h ~ving critical points
on the linc1 y ~ ±x.
C l{ : H ,. 151MIC - JC 2 - 6tiC.
67. Tosh<~w th:1lthe <tUM tic form in ( 10) ha5 a local rninimum#l
(•) 11 c:och 1"11111 act> in<lq>cmkntl)' h> nt:o~intite its wcrkly
the nngtn tf I> > - I ""''a saddle point of b < - 1, substitute
prof1t, "hat willth!l«: prufit' 1><:7 (h) If firm< t\1' und CR x = r cosO, ,\' = r sin O a nd write ..t .. + 2b.&: + l :: r4 g(9 ) y
join to m:1,;in•iJc their aowl pr tttit while 110 runtinuc:.s to act
~~~ find the 1113Ximurn ;•nd minimum values of g(Ol fot
3 t01.c, ,.hot dfcct> "'llthi• h>vc'l Gi'c n mmp/r•rc answer 0 5 0 :! 2,,.,
s1
lncrm-~ts •nd Untlr A;lpn)Um.ltion S£CTION 1 3.6 889
t\8. Find the glob~l maximum and mmimum ,_ ,
'<OJUC1 0 1
1
{IX.). ~)=.r - fu.1 .._ ); .-. 2}~ .._ f - IZ 70. The ru::c ... • ath CijUJti<>n .t - ' - : .. I mee t< the i'.:sl
OC"'..1r.tan the tn.1n~Je T (.-r v. hirh .t . '· 1nd : JrC' 31l tx'll ·
\\'h~l happen\ ~~ the pomt o r point! ~~ "'h' h II h ncgJta,c. Find the ~3 \I :nun" Jluc of the c- • rrc«ac>n E: .1- =
, I .o • • ff lC a I rcc
p~rt•~ ucrova tl\ c~
o arc somuhnneousl) zero?
)' - : on r. ,u
Yl•U .. rwi:>Jhl~ rax"'\'cJ !'>) •<•l•ln~ t he
69. find the ~Jobal muomum and minomum , aluesof e!jUll:on of IM r i Jnc 1' f,,, : = I - I - ' .lnJ ~ut>sti·
=
f.l(.t . y. ~) J . - f\{1 y - ).... ~· ... 12 tuti:-; t or : in 1~e ~\r::-~t('t'! £ tn '-'~t.un lh~ qulnt~!~
\\'hat happens nt the point or pomts at ,.. h·~~ II ~ 1:1._ • l = .r-, -II- .r - 1lto ~ r.lJW~a:<'J \\'hat h•rr<""'
.
partoaI dcro\atrves .
of g arc samuhancoush u '"''~ a tau a:~~~ f'<"- 1or IX""''
Jt.,.ht.:h 1-.'th f'lrtiJI dcn• Jli'C'I o! h
. ro . ue s:=ul!a~c<"U\J) rcro"'
73.6 I INCREMENTS AND LINEAR APPROXIMATION

In Sectio n <1.2 we used the d;ffcr~r.:iJ!
df= (( r ):!. r
tO npproximalc the incrrmmr. o r aC'tUll chln~e.
"-/= f( x- :!J.r) - / ( r )
in the value o( 3 \tngJe.variabJc (unction th:tt reSUltS {rom the Ch:tOj:C ~X in the
independent varinhlc. Thu' A/ <::df; that i~
/l A + :!.1 ) - {If) ltt {1 1l ~ ..- . {I)
We now describe the use of the p:trti:t l deriv~ti\C$ a fla x and iJ//ih· to nppro~·
imatc the lncrl'ml'nt ·
6/ = f<x + :!.x . .1• + 6 y) -/(.r .y) {2 )
in the value of a function f (of two varilblcs) th:tt resul ts when its two indcrcn·
dent variables are changed simultaneously. H only x we re changed :tnd y \\ere held
constant. we could temporarily regard f(x. y ) as 3 function of x alone. llu:n. with
fAx. y ) playing the role of ['(.r),the line:tr :tpproxim:ttio n in Eq. ( I) would gh·e
/(x + 6 x . y)- / (x. y) "' f, (x. y) ~.r {3)
fo r the cha nge in f corresponding to the change 6.r in x . Similarly. if only y were
ch a nged a nd x were held constan t, th<!n- tcmpornrily regarding /(x. y) as a function
of y :lione- we would get
f(x. )' + 6y) - /(.r. y) "= f 1 (x . y ) 6y (.S)
for the change in/ corresponding to the ch:tngc Ay in y.

If both .r and y are changed simultaneously. we might expect the sum o f the
approximations in (3) nnd ( -1) to be a good estima te or the resulting increment in the:
value of f. On this basis we define the differe-nt ial
tlf = f,(.r. y ) A.t + f,( .r. yl6y (!')
of a function o f two independent variables. The approximation 6/ =::: df thcn yields

the approximation
fl.r + 6.r. y + t:.y) "= /tx. yl + /,(.r . .r> A.t + f, tx . yl ~y. (6)
EXAMPLE 1 Find the differc nti~l elf of the functio n /(.r . y) = .r2 + 3.ry - 2yl.
llle n compare d f and the ac tua l mcremcnt 1:!. / when (x. y ) changes from 1'(3. 5)
to Q(3.2. 4.9).
--
890 CHAPTER 13 Partial Oiff~rentiation
Solution The d ifferential of f. 3S given in Eq. (5 ). is
df = ar ~.r .._ ~I .t.y = (2r + 3y) t..r + (3.r- 4y) 6y.

ax ay
At the point P (3. 5) this d ifferential is
df =(2 . 3 .._ 3 . 5) t..r - (3. 3- J . 5) Ay =2 1 .t.x- I 1 t.y.
\\'it h t::.x = 0.2 and t.y = - 0.1. corresponding to the change from P(3. 5) to
Q!3.2. 4.9). we ge t
df = 21 ·(0.2J- 11· (- 0. 1)= 5.3.
l nc actual change in the ,·aluc off from I' to Q is the increment

6[ = [(3.2. J 9) - [\3. 5) =9.26- .: =5.26.
so in t his~xampk the differential seems to be a good approxim:uicn to the increment.
•
i\t the fhcd poin t f'(a . bl. the dllfcrc nti:ll
df = [, (a. hJ A.r ... f,.(a. b) A y (7)
is a /inrar functio n of A.r and Ay; the codficients [,(a . b) and fr(a. b ) in this linear
function depe nd on a :ond 1>. 'lh us the d tfkrential d f i< a linear approximation to the
~ctua t increment A/. Th ~ line·" ~rrroxima t ion theorem (stated later in this section)
implies that if the f.mction f has continuou~ partial derivatives. t hen df is :1 ruy
good 11pproximmio11 to A[ wh en the changes ~\x ant! Ay in .< and y arc sufliciently
sma ll. The lin c:tr npprnximatio n
f l + f, tll.b )J).x+ f1(a .b) t::.y (8)
may th~n be used to estima te the value of [ (a + Ax . b + Ay) when Ax and A y arc
small and the values [(a . b) . f , (a.l>). and f1 (a. b ) are a ll known.
EXAM PLE 2 Usc linea r approximation to estima te /2. (2.02)l + (2.Y7J2.
Solution w~ begin h)' lett ing f<x. y ) = /Zxl + y l . t1 = 2. and b =3. It is t hen easy
=
to compute t he exact value [ (2. 3) J2 · 8 + Y_ J25 5. Next. =
iJ f }'
and
a)' = v"'2x=•;=+=>.z"''
so
[,(2. 3) = ¥ ant! {y(2, 3) = ~ ·
H ence Eq. (8) with 6.r =0.02 and 6y = -0.03 gives

/2. (2.02)) + (2.97)2 = [(2.02. 2.97)
"" [(2. 3) + {x(2. 3) . (0.02) + {, (2. 3). ( - 0.03)
= 5 + ¥ . (0.02) - ~ . (0.03) =5.03.
The actual ,·alue to four decimal places is 5.0305.
•
, =
~~ ~ f(.r. )') ,we often write.dz in place of df. So the differential of the dcpcn·
dent 'anable z at the pomt (a, b) ts dz = f,(a, b) 6x + J,(a. b) t.y. At the arbitrary
pomt (.r. y) the dtfferential of z takes the form
dz= f,(x, y) t::.x + {1(x, y) t::.y.

lna~menu and Unelr Appro.<im.!tion SECT10N 13.6 891
~~ or~ \imply. v. e can v. rite
rl: Cl :
,/: = -J.r j.,t - -
d)
~ \.
•
( 9)
It is customary to "-Tite d.r fo r 6.x and d•· for 6 ,. in this formula. Wh en this is done.
C(j. (9) takes the form • •
(10)
\\'hen "-e use this notation. ,.e mu~t realize th.u d.r and tf>- h:n .: no connotat ion of
be ing " infinitesimal" or even small. Th.: di!fcrcntJJI d: is still simply a lin.:a r function
of the ordinary real variabl~ d.r and r/1 . a func11o:1 that ci ' es alin ~ar appnnim:Hion
to the change in: -.hen x and.\ arc ch~~gcd by the am;~nts d.r and dy. respectively.
EXAMP LE 3 In Example .! of Section 13..!. "C considered 1 mole o f an ide:1l gas-its

volume V in cub1c centimeters !!i,en m terms of it- pressure I' in a tmospheres and
te mpe rature T in kehin1 by the formula V = tS2.06J r; I'· A pproximate t he ch:m gc
1n I' \\hen f' i\ incrc:t<ed from 5 ntm to 5.2 atm and Tis increased from 300 K to
3l0 K.
Solution The diffc rcnti31o f V c VCp. T) i\
iJ I' iJ V 82.06 · T 82.06

,/V =-- tip + -- ciT -=- elf'_.. - - dT.
<Jp il T pl P
With p = 5. T = 300, dp==0.2. and dT = 10. we compute
JV _ 82.06 · 300 O7 82.06 O_

Jr-------~----~
I. 2) ( 1.2, ?)
I - Sl . .• + 5 . I - - 32 .S
Tit is ind ica tes that the gas will decrease in volume by about 33 cm3 • Titc actual change
is
82
·~_/ - 82 ·~·300 = 4892.0- .!923.6 =-31.6
y 0 f------:>~..:=..------i 10
-I
AV= (cm 3 ) .
•
-2
EXAMPLE 4 The point (I. 2) lies on the curve: with equation
-3~~~~~--~~~
- 3-2 -1 0 2 3 f(x,y ) =2xJ+ ),J-5x y= 0. (II)
•
FIGURE 13-.6. 1 The curve of (Sec Fig. 13.6.1.) Approximat e the y-coordinate of the nearby point (x. y) on this
hample4. curve for which x 1.2. =
= =
Solution The increment between /(I. 2) 0 and /(x. y) 0 on this curve is t!.f =
10
0 ~ df. so when we compute t he differentials in Eq. ( II). we get
I
8
6
4
(\ df= at dx +of dy= (6x 2 - 5y)dx + (3y2 - 5x) dy=O.
ax oy
2
CIYl 0 \ Now when we substitutex =I. y = 2.andclx =0.2. we obtain the equation ( -4)(0.2)+
-2 V\ = =
(7) dy 0. It then follows that dy (0.8)/7 "'0.114 ::::: 0.1. This yields (1.2, 2.1) for
-4 y. 2.084 the approximate coordinates of the nearby point. As a check on the accuracy of this
-6 approximation, we can subst itute x = 1.2 into Eq. (11 ). This gives the equation
-8
2. o.2> + J - s. <t.2)y =I - 6y + 3.456 =O.
3
- to
-4 J -2 -1 0 I 2 J 4
y
The roots of this equat ion are the x -intercepts of the curve in Fig. 13.6.2. A calculat or
~iGURE 13.6.2 Th~ graph of or computer with an equa tion solver (or Newton's method) t hen yields y::: 2.084:::
9<r> ., r-
6y + 3.4s 6. 2.1 for the solution near y = 2. •
. f .h More Variables
Functtons 0 T ree or . o f more t hJn two variables are defined
. · ,_ r funcuons
Increments and d1ffcrenuau o .
. .
Slmllarh·. . ,.. = ! <x · >.· •·) has
A funcuon ' mcremen
1
• A T + '-' •
A • ) - /(X, •\', l)
Aw = 6 f =! (x + ...AX. ) ' ~
• u)'· •
and differential
'f af
~-A I'+- 6::
at
dw = df = -d
IJ.r
A
u .f • ay . "·
".
that is.
-J , •)n· ilh'
thr =-"t'tt" d.r -r- "-..fy- I
1 ." + T- tl-•
f ...
if. as in Eq. (10). ~~oc wnte d.r for A.r. dy for t.y. and d : for A:.
EXAMP LE 5 You have constructed a metaI cu h.•~ tl1 ·•t ~ is supposed 10 ha1.·c ed£e
•
length 100 mm. hut each of its three measured dim~n<ions x. -~·· ~IH.l : may b~ m error
l'Y a, muc I1n~ a m1'II'1mcte r. tJse differential<
' · to e<llma
· tc: the m.mmum resulung error
in its cnlcui.Hcu volume II = xy:.
Solution We need 10 apprn~ i matc the inc remen t
6 V = V( l OO + tfx. 100 + tfy. 100 + d:)- V(IOO. 100. 100)
when the errorstlx. dy. and dz in x. y. and z :uc maximal. ·n1e diffe rential of V =xy:
is
dV =yz d.r + .r: dy + x y d:.
When we substitute x =y = l =tOO and dr =±I, dy =± I. and til= ± I , we get

dV = 100· 100 · (±1) + 100 ·100 · (:!:1 ) + 100 · 100 · (:!:1) = :!:30000.
It may surprise you to fi nd that an error of only a millimeter in each dimension of a
cube can result in an e rror of 30.000 mml in its volume. (For a cube made of precious
metal. an error of 30 cm 3 in its volume could correspond 10 a difference of hundreds
or thousands of doll ars in its cost.) •
Line a r Approximation and Differentiability

Vector notation simplifies the description of differe ntials and linear appro~imation
for functions of several vari ables. Let t(x) = t(x 1 • •t 1, ...• x.) be a real-valued func·
tion of n variables. If
X =: (XI . X2 .... , X n ) and h = (IJ 1,11),. .. , IJ.) ,

then the linear approxima1ion formula for t takes t he forrn
t(x + h)"" t(x)+ at IJI + at hl + ... + at h (I~)

iiXJ ax2 dXn "
with one term for each independent variable. We introduce the gradient vector
of I he f~nc tion t(xJ, X2 . • • • • Xn) of n variables; its c leme nts nrc the 11 first-order part ial
dcnvatii'CS of f (ass n · th h · ) · · ·
. ' u ~ mg at I ey C XI5 1 • ll1JS ne w vcclor-valucd function is called
the gradtell/ of t and IS denoted by v t (pronounced "del /") In Sect' on 13.8 we
explor.: the meaning o f th e gr d' · 1 . 1
. . . a
dCI' ICC to s1mphfy the formula in (12). 1cnt vector V [;here we use it simply as a notauona
-
lnut'N'l:.S .a-.d ~J· A;Y,>roA.-m:JOO SECTlON 13.6 893
l h e dot (or sc;~la r) p roduct o ! t•••o n-, eCl On IS. c:X3C11y 35 in d imcmi~'"':! _nn~
3, the ~um o f the products of corr~N>, ndml! e lemenl5 o f the t v. o ve c to rs. Th~ t IS. If
a -- (a,, a 2• .. . • a , and b = ·~. l>; . .. . b. ).-then
1
• ·b = a1t>; - a:l>: -
· - a, t>•.
Con~quc: ntly. the line.l r .lp;'rou.•ution fo:mul.l an (I ~ ) tJ kcs the concise Co rm
( I~)
/ h - b t::: / (xl - '!;'f(s l · h.
in pleasant anal(Y,!~ v. tth the om.inJI sinde· \ Jriat>le J prro~im a t ion /(.r + lr )""'
/ (xJ- /'lx)h (v.nung h for ~.r l:e;e). BcCl~<c: "\/( 1 ) a nd h arc l-oth \CCtors \\i th n
compon e n t\. th~ dot p rodu" on tl:e n ght·hJr.d ~~J~ in ( 1-1 ) is dcfi rH:d and t:i"cs
V /I ' 1 · h =D, /t t l /: 1 - D; j(t lh; ..._ · · ..._ D, j(x)h • .
th u\ prcwidin~t the lrnea r tcr:n< on the ri.:ht -hand <rJc m ( t:!). In :malo~ " it h the tv.o·
\ :l nahle Ca\C rn (~J. the \Um of the<c n hn~J r term< 1< the: d ifTcrentill l til= ' / (\) · h
n f the funct ion f o f 11 re:t l 'IIIJ'>I~ \ \ ith h .. d\ = (tf r 1 • tl r; .... . d r~l. thi< drffer-
enllal ta k es the form
tlf .. -
aj
d r1 - -
af
dr1 ... ... +
ill
- dx.
iJx1 il X1 i) r.
th nt gcncral i7c < the t w<Hl imc n sional d rffc rentr,\1 rn E<1. ( 10).
l llc j:radrcn t vec to r V / ( 1) i< defined " herc,er all o f the firs t-ord e r p:trti:tl
d e ri,·nti\ CS o f I" ~ "' In Apf'<'ndtx )( v. c !!"" 2 pr<><>f or the linea r appro<irn:l lic>n
theorem stated ne xt. Th1< t hcnrc m a-..~u res U \ ( rn effect) that if the pa rt tal d c rivati,·cs
of I arc :tbo nmtimwru. t hen the linear approxrma u o n m ( I-I) i\ a x ootl np p ruxima·
t io n when Ih i = lri
J1ri + + · · · + is small. 1r;
T H EO REM linea r Approxima tion
Su ppose that th<: functio n f (s ) of 11 \'ariablcs h a~ continuo us fi rst-orde r partial
derivatives in a regio n th;Jt conta ins the n eighborhoo d jx - a l < r con~i~ t ing of
all points x at d ista n ce less t han r from the fu c:d point a . If a + h lies in thi~
ne ig hborho od, the n
/( • + h) = / (a)+ V / (a) · h + <(h) · h ( IS )
wh ere c(h )- (cd h) , <:(h ) . . .. • c.(h )) is a vecto r su ch th;ll each clement t t ( h ) ap·
pronches zero as h - 0.
REMARK 1 The multivnrialllc function I is said to be continu ously diiTcn!nliahlc at a

point provide d th at its lirsHJrder pa rtial d eriva tives not only exis t but nrc continuous
a t the po int. Thus the hypothesis or tbc Linear approximatio n theorem is th at the
functio n 1 is continuously d ifferentiable in the specified neighborhood oft he point a.
REMARK 2 The dot product

(( h ) · h = ( f (h)hr + E2(h ) /12 + · · · + En(h)/r~ (1 6)
in (15) is the error in th~ linear approximation- it measures the extent to which the
11pproxim11tion /(a + h l "'=' /(a)+ Vf(a) · h fails to be an <'qlllrlity . We may rcg:trd the
conclusion of the: linear npproximation theorem as saying that if h is "very small,"
th e n each clc!ment £,( h) o r ((hl is also "very small." In this event. each summa nd in
(16) is 3 product of two very small terms. so we might sa y that the error €(h) · h is
"very very small."
Now let us di~;dc by Ihi in Eq. (16). Then we: sec: tha t
c(h ) • h Itt /r2 lt.
Iii! = (t(h ) Jhl + E2(h ) Jhl + · ••+ fn(h ) Jhl - 0 (17)
894 CHAPTER 13 Partial Oiffer~nti.ltlon
as h - 0. The reason is thJt . for ea::h i ( I ~ i :ii n).
~ :5 1 and f,(hl - 0
h' -
as I1 - 0 . D ,' , , d'ang bo t h st.d es b y ,'h in Eq · ( 15) the refo re ~£ives the limit
. [ (a - h) - [(a) - '\![(a) . h = 0, (18)

lim lh'
- -· +
under the a-.um.,tion that the functio n f is cont inuously d iCCerentiable ncar a.
The ~onditfon in Eq. (11\l i< centra l.to the study of differentiJbili.ty of m~hivari
ablc funcllnn~o. Indeed. the reaf-,·alued fur.ction j( ~ l ts S~td to lle d1fferen11able at
the pmnt a pro,idcd thJt there n isu a constant ' ector c = (c,. c:. ·· · · c. ) such that
. [ (a ..._ h) - [(a) - c · h _
lim - 0· (19)
·-· lh
In effect , t h i~ ddinitit'n means that f i< diffcrcn tiahlc a t n if there exists a linear
function r. h = , 11! 1 - c:h: + +,.•
,,.(of the Cl'ntponcn t<nf h) that approxima tes
the incrcmcm ft u .-. ht - [tal so clc>s dy th.tt the error i' 'mall e ven in com parison
"ith lhl. Equa tinn (I S) implies till! iff i ~ cont inuou<ly differen tiable nca r a. then
the padi,·nt ' ector v /ta t ts precisely ~uch a ''ector c (and moreover, by Problem -lS.
i~ the on!\' )UCh vector).
Tht;< 11 fi •11rtmn is diff(rmriablt if 11 i$ conrllawurlv diffamriablt'. lnis says linle
in the ca<t' of a si n~k-variable function. which is c:tllcd drffcrcntrable if its derivati\'~
merely cxi<t<. In ~ontr:~st . we have as yet said nothing :~bout the existence of parti31
d~rL\ati, ,., of a differentiable mul!i,·ariahlc function. The follo"ing example treats
the ca<c of just " =2 \'Jriablcs.
[XAM PLE 6 Suppose that the function [(:c. y) is differentiable at the point (a, b).
Dy Eq. ( 19). this means that there exists a constant vector r :: (c1 , c2) such that
lim /(n +It,. b + lr1l - f(n, b) - (c 1h 1 + c21t 2) _

, . , ••• J- 10.01 I, ' I ' - 0. (20)
, V lj + I)
lr ha = It and lt2 = 0. then Eq. (20) implies th at
. /(a+ h. b)- [(n. b)- Ctlt

I1111 - 0
•-o It - ·
and hence tha t
I' f(a +h. b) - /(a. b)
• tm
-o /r -- cI·
Thu~ the ~artial der~vathc f,(a , b) exists and is equal to the first element , of r.
SmniJ.Il~·· rf w~ suh<trtute lr, =0 and h 1 = It in (20)-do this \'Ourself-we find1 that
the parual dem·atr.-e [,.(a, b) exrsts and i< equal
•
to t)1c sc 0 d. l f
. c n c cmcnt c2 o c.
•
. ., 6, is. . the
. Example • case n = 2 of the ocncral
e- thcor c 111 tllat d 1''~erenrra
· btrty
'/' or
1 uwwce of all first·orda JJarri ! /er' · 11 · · 1
11 po1111 1111/ll<S 11 1 rvarn ·cs ar r1rat pomr. It ts a so
I . d 'ff . · b' · . . .
true t 1a1 1 crcnua tl!tv !Ill plies conunuil'' ( Problem -17) 1
· • r· · r·
ro 11owmg ' · n summary. we ha ve the
unp tcatrons or a function f of several va ri:~hlcs:
• Iff ~s continuously differentiable. then I is diffcrenti:thle.

• If /as diffe rentiable. the n nil partia l dcri\'ntives of f . .
. d'f' ,
• If f IS 1 .crenllablc, then f is continuous.
CXISl.
tncremenu and lintar Af';Jroximation SECTION 1 3.6 895
Problems 43 t hrough -15 sho"'· that no!'le of th ese implications can be re_v crsed for 11
function I of t" O or more \'ariabies. That L<.. 1 cnn have p3.11inl derivatives "lthout
being diffe rentia hie. and C<!n be diffe rentiable " i thout bein!! continuously d lffer:n-
tiable. ~loreover. 1 e:tn have partial deri,·atives " it hou t being continuous (and nee
~·crsa) . Th u, the mere e xi\tcnce of p:~rti:~J derivnti,·es-even all of t he"_'-3P~~rs 1~
Imply much IC$\ for a function of se,·eral v:u-i:~bles than 11 docs fo r a smglc·' :mabl~
function. Out all the se distinctions dis.:!py.!:!r in the case of tolynom ials :tnd rntion:~l
funct ions of se ve ral variables-.... hi1:h h~ve continuous p:miJI derivatives wherever
they are defined.
~ 13 .6 TRUE/ FALSE STUDY GUIDE

B.6 CONCEPTS: QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION
I. Compa re the concert of differen tiabili ty fo r sin gle-variable func tio ns with
t hat fo r multi variable functions.
2. Compare the roles of the dcri' ati' e of a sin):k-,·ariablc function and the
gradie nt "ecto r of a multi' aria t-Ie function. Fo r inst:t ncc:. what is the value
of the gradient \ Cctor at a local ma ~imum or minimum point ?
3. Doc~ a ~urface ~ = f(x. yl aJ.,.ays h:a'e n t:mFc:nt pbnc a t a poin!l! where
f is diifcrcn tiablc ? Dc~ribc t he "ay this tange nt pbnc appro ximnres the
g raph nca r the po int (a. f!a)).
13.6 PROBLEMS
Find tht diffurmia/ d w in Pml>lrm .r /through 16.

/,. Pmblmu ]5 rhrou~h 31. u.u difftrrnrlal.r / f) apprQ.r/matt rl:t
2
t. " ' = 3.r + 4xy- 2y' 2. w = exp(- x1 - il itrdirnrttl numbtr
3. w = J t+ x : + y2 4. w ::a .ryr '.,.. 2~. ( /i5 + lw)2
!. w =arctan(~) , , •.l
6.w = xr'-)'X"+:, 26. ( J26 )( .ru )( 0:17 )
7. w= ln(x 2 + l + zl> 27. r 0 ' = cxp(l.l'- O§)
8. w = sin .ry.:
9. w = x tan y: 10. w = xyt••· .!125
28. v'""
.10
11. "' = t - •yt U. IV= ln(l + rs)
.r +r 29. JC3.J)l + (4.2)! + (1 1.7)2
14.... = - -
s -I
15. w = J xl + yl + z: 30. \1<5. 1> 2 + 2 . <5.2) 2 + 2 . cs.w
.H. The )'·Coordinate o r the point P ncar (1. 2) on the curve
16. w = pqr exp(-p2 -ql- r 2)
2x' + z_,.J = 9.T)'. ir the :r·coordinatc or pis 1.1 .
In Problems 17 through 24, uu tht txact valrtt f< /') and tht Jl. The :r·coordinate of the point P near (2. -l) on the curve
-l.t' .._ -ly' = 17.r _,~ . ir the ;•-coordinate o f I' is 3.9.
2
1
tlif!mmia/ d to Df>pro;J;imatr rile m /ur I< Q).
17. f<:r. y) = J ;rl + yl; /'(3. 4). Q(2.97. 4.04) 33. Tbe base and height or a rectangle arc measured as 10 em
and 15 em. respective!)'. with a po<sible error o f as much as
18. [ (:r.y)= J:rl-yl; /'(13.5).Q(IJ.2.-l .9) 0.1 em in each measurement. Usc dirfcrentials to estimate
the maximum resulting erro r in computing the area of the
19, [C:r, y) = I ; /'(3. 6). Q(3.02. 6.05) re.c tanglc.
l + x+y
20. f <:r. y. zl = .pfi; P(t.3. 3). Qc0.9. 2.9. 3.1) 34. The base radius rand the height h or a right circular cylin-
der arc measured a~ 3 em and 9 em, respectively. There is a
21. [C:r,y.:)= J:rl+)J+r; P(3.4.12),Q(3.03.3.96.12.05) pos$iblc error of I mm in each measurement. Use diHeren-
tials to estimate the maximum possible error in computing:
2l.f(:r.y.:)= XyZ ; P(2.3.5).Q(L98.3.03,4.97) (a) the volume or the cylinder; (b) the total surface arc.a of
x+y+z the cylinder.
2l. f <:r. y, ~l =t ' '"; P(l. 0. -2), Q(1.02, 0.03. -Vl2)
lS. The base radius r and height h of a right circular rone
=
U. [(x,y) (x- y)cos2uy; P(l. !), Q(1.1.0.4) are measured as 5 in. and 10 in., respectively. There is a
896 CHAPTER 13 P~rtial Oifferenti~tion
· .1 beam is supported ol both ends :md suppons

possible error o f ns much as fa
in. in each mcn~ure 42. i\ h onzon1·•
a
. . . .
un iform load. Tite dcn~cuon. ur sag. nl tiS m1dpo 1m is
ment. Usc differenlials to estimate the maximum resu lt ing
e rror tha t might occur in computing the ' olume o f the gi\'Cn by k
cone. 5 = ,.-!r)· (21 )
36. The dimension~ of a clo<ed rectangular box arc found by "here,.. and h ;~rc 1hc "idth and height. respectively. of
measurement to be I() em b) 15 em by W em. but there 1s lhe bc::1m and k is a cumtanl that tlcpcnd~ on lhc length
a P'""blc en o r of 0.1 em m each. Usc differential> to csu- and co mpo<lliOn o f 1he l~<am and I he amounl of the lold.
mntc the max1murr rcsulung error in computmg 1he total
Show I hal
dS =-s(2-t~ ~ "") ·
sur race ar ea of the f'><\x .
37. i\ surveyor wan I' 111 find I he area in acre~ of a ccrlnrn lkld ... ..·+ "
\
( I acre is 43.560 It' ). She mea \ u n:s 1" o di ffc rent ;,Jc<. find·
in& them to be" = S!•l It and h = 1m ft. ""h a r<J<;,bk
s
If = 1 in. "hen"' = =
2 in. :1nu h 4 in .. approx imlle lhc
sae "hen" = ~I in. :uulh = .J I in . Compare your appro~·
cnor of as much as 1 It 111 each mca•u reme nt . She finu~ the
i.-n-ation with the a:tu3 1 va:uc you compulc from Eq. (21).
angle bct,. ee n thC\c '" o"dcHo bcl• = 311. "ith J r<><<~t-lc
error of a< much a< n 25 'lhe fie ld i< tnan~ular '" 11< area 43. Lei 1hc funcuon I l>c defined on the \\hole .ry ·planc by
i< ghcn hy A= lal"onO. lJ<c Ulffcrent1al~ to e\llmJIC the /Cx . .') = 1 if r = y 1 0, \\ hcrea< IC r. y) = () olherwisc.
m:.ximurn rc,ult ingt:rr nr. in acre'- in cumputm~ Ihe :trC'J of (a) Sho " th~ l 1 i< nol conlinuou< at (0. U). (b) Show thai
the field hy thi~ fornn rl.r. hnth p.~r1ial dcnv:tt i,·cs f, and 1. cx i<l nl (0. 0).
311. lJ~C different i.1 1< ltl e\llm31e the change in I he \ (IJume of ~. Show lh:rtlhc funclion /(.r. y) =(,)IX+ .;t)'JJ is cOnlinuous
I he J;US of Example :1 if il< pre"urc i< dccrca,cd from 5 nlm nnd h:t< p~rll:. l <krivalivc; a l the Orij!i n (0. 0) . but is nol
111 ·I.<J at m and il~ lcmpernlurc i< dccrease<l from 3!() K 10 drffcrcnllnhlc 1hnc.
21'«1 K.
45. Sho " thai I he function f defined hy /(.r. )')=I +
39. The period of oscillalion of n simple p.:ndulum of knglh /.IS x 3 smll/.r) for x 10. and [(0. y) = y:. ;, differenliablc at
given (appro~imald)) hy the formul• T h /1./1:. = (0. 0). bul 11 not continuously d1flerelllinblc there because
Estimate the chan£e 1n the period of a pendulum if ils f,!.r. )) 1< not con1inuous at W. 0 ).
length is increa~ed from 2 h lo 2ft I in. and it is smwhane·
46. Lei / (.r) he a function of the single vari~blc .r. Show I hot
ou~ly moved from n local ion " he re g i< e xaclly 32 fl/s 2 10
I he oruin :try dcnvali>c ['I<~) cx i>l< if and on ly if f is differ·
one where 1: = 32.2 h 1•
cntiablc in lhc scn<c o f Eq. (19) . mcanine th:ll I hen' c.~ist<
4U. G iven the pendul um of Problem 39. show that I he relati ve a conslant c such thai
error in I he dctcrmin:Hion of T i~ half I he difference of the . /(a+ h) - /((1)- d t
rclali,•e errors in mca;uring Land g-that is. I hal I101 = 0
..., lh l .
in,.hichcasc /'la) =c.
47. Deduce from f:c1. ( 19) thai 1hc function f is continuous
wherever i1 i< <hffcrcntiabk.
41 . The range of~ projcc1ilc fired (in a \'Jc.-uum) wilh initill
velocity t'o ::tnd inclination :angle fr from the: hol'it.nnl31 ~8. Deduce fro.m Gq. ( 19) I ha t if the muh ivnriahlc funcliun /(t )
is /( = f, t·5 sin2a . lhc diffcl'c ntials 10 apprmintalc the IS dlffC~COII:tblc <II a, I he n its firSI·Order p~rlial dcriv:tli\'C$
ch:lll):C i'ri range if"" is increased from 400 10 410 Ills and a
at a CXISI :•nd a re given hy O, /Ia ) = 1', fori = 1. 2 . ... . n.
is increased from 30 10 3 t•. Conclude rn llrrn th at lhc vcciM c ., (c 1• c 2 •••• c ) in (19)
ts umqu ~. • "
]3 , 71THE M ULTIVARIABLE CHAIN RULE

TI1e s ing le -variable chain rule expresses th d . .
in terms of the derivatives of 1 and ~:· c c n vattvc of ncompo~itc function f(g(l))
D, /(g(t)) = f'<K(t ) · g'( t ).

With IV = l (x ) nnd x =g(t }' the chain ru le.tmp J'ICS that
dw dw dx
. dt = dx dl· 12>
The stmplcst muhivariahlc chai n rule s itu:uio . , . , .
both x andy are functions of lh . n tmolvcs a func t 10 n w = /(.c y) whe re
· · e sa m e s m<>le
composite function /(g(t) h(t)). h .o
va · bl
• rta. c t: x = •
g(t) a n dy = 11(1). Titc
expresses its derivative i~ tst cna smgl~ -\':trtablc fun c tion of t .a nd 'lltcorcrn I
1
e rms of the parttal derivati\·cs of I and the ordinarY
T!><! Mu'trflr!J~'e Ch.fn Ru'e 5t CTION 13.7 897
de riva ti ves of d h \\' . • .
h II an · e n\~Ume thattnt" stated hvrorhcses hold on su11a blc dom:1ms
sue that the compcxite funrtion i< defined. ·
T H EORE M 1 The C h a in Rule

Suppmc ihat ""=fix . .1') hJ\ ronli:JUOU\ first-order plrtiJI dcri ,·ativcs J nd that
; =:~~~II and ) = l:(r J arc d•fferentia!:>Jc functio ns. Then ..- i< a diffe rent iab le
•Unctton of t, and
d" ;l,.· dx .~... dl"
(.3)
dt = il.r . dt - Jy . cit ·
~ he vari able no:ation of Eq (;)ordinarii~ "ill r..· more usdul thnn fu nctio n
nc:t~ llon. Rem~m!->c r . in an~ ca«:. that the r~ni31 dcri, at ivcs in Eq. (3) arc to be
C\ alu:o tcd at the pomt 1 ~ 1 11. hrll ). <o in fun.:tinn notati.,n Eq. ( J ) i•
fJ,( fl~tr). hlr)) j :: f, l ~ ll). h (lll . ~·(rl .._ j, f.t:(l\. 1: (1)) - /t'(l) . (~)
1\ proof of the chain rule 1s included at the end of thi< <c:ction. In ou tline. it coMists
ot beginning"' ith the linear apprn~rmatton
o! Section IJ.6 and dovitlin!! hy M:
-"'
t:. t ilx .C.t ily _:<;t
lltcn we take the limi t as t:.t - 0 to ohtain
d"· a... d.t aw dy
di = ilx · dt - iJy · dt ·
EXAMPLE 1 Su ppose that w = e'' · x = t 2• nnd y = t 1• lhc n

-dw
ax = )'tt·'Y.
~1 w ..,
- = x e' 1
ily -rlx
dt
,
=-t. and rly '
dr = Jr.
So Eq. (3) yields

dw ()w dx aw dy
- = - · - + - · - = (ye'1 )(2t ) + (xe"')(3t 2)
tit ax dr ay tit
= (r1e'') (2t ) + (t l e'1) (3t2 ) = 5t 4 e1~ •
REMARK Had our purpose not b..:en to illustra te the multivari able chain rule. we
could have obtained the same result dw f dt = 5t 4 exp ts more simply by writing
W = e'oy = e<r'J(t') = et'
and then differentiating was a single-variable function of 1. But this single-variable

approach is available only if the functions_x(l) and y (l ) are known explicitly. Some-
times. however. we know only the llllmencal ••allle.t o f -~ and y and/or their rates of
(----1 change at a gi ven instant. In such cases the multivariablc chain rule in (3) can the n
I I be used to find the num erica I rate of change of ov at that instant.
I
~ EXAMPLE 2 figure !3.7.1 shows a melting cylindrical block of icc. Decause of the
sun's heat beating down from above, its height his decreasing more rapidly than its
radius r. If its height is decreasing at 3_cmlh and its radius is decreasing at 1 cmlh
fiGURE 13.7.1 Warm sun meiting when , = 15 em and h = 40 em, what ts tlw rate of change of the volume V of the
a cylindriu l b lock of ice
(Example 2). block at that instant'!
898 CHAPT£R 13 Partial Differentiation
Solution \\'ith V = ~r 1 h. the chain rule gives

il l' dl tlr dh
d \' iJ Vdr , -~=2:r rh -+ ;rr 2 T
dr = Tr dt -r i)/t dt dt ({
. \'a lues ' -- JS· h -- 40 •clrjdt
Substituting the give n numcncal =
- l ,anddhf dt =-3·
we: lind that
dV =2:r(IS)(-lO)( - I) +:r(l S)1(-3) = - I R7S;r ::::: -5890.49
3
(em 1h).
tit h 6 1'
· 1block is decrcasin••
Thus th e \'olume or the cy I.md nca • "' ~ ~ slightly less t an Hers per
+
hour at th e gi"en instant.
I contc~t o r -n
In 11e 111eor c'nl 1• ,,.e nla\'·. refer to ,.. a~ the de
. pen dent \'llriahle, x
and ' a~ 1ntc· rmc1hate· •ana 1 cs.• :Ind t ..~s the irul cJlcndc nt nmahlt'.
· 11 . Then. note that
the richt·hand ~ide nf [q. (:')has two terms.. one fN each intermed ia te van:~ hie. both
term\. like the right·hand side of the sin)!IC·\':Iflahlc: chain rule in Eq. (2). I f. there are
more I han two intermedia te varia hies. then there is still ont! term on th e nght·hand
~ i dl· for each inte rm edia te variahk. Fn r example. if,..= [(x. y. Z) with x. }'.and l
each a function of 1. then the chain ruk t:1kes tlu: form
hll('rmcdl.-lc
v~tnabfc"
tlw ilw dx CJ ,.. dy uw dz
-dl =-.-
ax dr + -
ay . -
dt
+-. -.
ill dr
(5)
1 ------- lnlk~niknl
V3J1::1h)t
TI1e proof of Eq. (5) is essentially the same :1~ the proof o f Eq. (3): it requires the
FIGURE 13. 7.2 levels o! ~h•in
rule variJbles.
linear approximation theorem for three \':l riahles r:11hcr than for two variables..
You may find it useful to em ision the three types o f ,·a riablcs-dcpcndcnt,
intermediate:, and independent-as though they were lying a t three d iffc rentle,•els..
a< in Fig. t:\.7.2. with the dependen t variable: at the top and the independent variable
at the hotltun. Each ,·a riable then depend< (either di rc~:tly or indirectly) on those
that lie he low it.
EXAMPLE 3 Find tlwf dl if'"= x 2 + ~c' + sin xz a nd x = r, y = }.2 . z = rl.

Solution Equa tio n (5) gives
r/111 t11\' dx ihv tl)' iJ w d·
- = - · - + - ·-+-·_::
tit Jx tit il)' dt iJ ~ dt
= (2x + ~C'osx:)(l) + ( ~cY)(2r) + (c' + x cosxz)(3t2)

= 2r (3r2 + 2r4k '' + 4tJ cos r• .
.L.
•
In Example 3 we could check the resu lt given bv the h . I · b li ..
:l< an explicit function of 1 and h. . . . c arn ru c y trs t wnttng"'
. h respect to 1.
o r II' wn t en com putmg the ordmar)· single-van·~bJe
·• d~ri\'a
• tivc
Several Independent Variables

l11crc may be several independent variables a w • . . . .
f or example, if,.. = f <x. \', •) wl , _ s c l1as several tntermcchatc vanabks.
• ' = =
lcre x - 1:(11 , t•}, }' /:(11, v). and z k (u. v). so th3t
"' = f(.t, y . Z) == /(g(u, 11},/r(tt. t•) . k(u . v)).
I hen we hnve the three intcrmedhtc V:lrinbl '
variables 11 nnd c. In this case w~ wo~ld cs x . )'.and land the two indcpcndcnt
iJw jau and aw;a 1. of the com ·' t r . need to compute lhe pnrrinl d erh·ath·es
0
implies that each partial der·· .r t.sr e furrhcllo n. The general chain rule in Theorcm2
ru Ie formula such as Eq. ( 3 r\aor 1vc o t c d ependent
. .. · bl c ,.. ·ts grvcn
var.'a · by a cha·
. ,n
) . ( ). The on I~ dt ffc rcncc ts that the deri\'ativcs ..,til
5
respect to the indepe d
n ent van ables are partial derivatives.. For instance.
~-- -il h· ·-+

il.t a... ill'
. + ()rv "·
iJ11 il.r il fl ay · il u u..,.
iJ~ · <J u'
The Multivariable Chain Rule SECTION 13.7 899
llte "molecular model" in Fi11.. 13.7.3 illustrates this formula . The "ato m" ntthc
to p r · 1 ~ h
. cprcscn ts t te dependent variable w. 'llte atoms a t the next level rcprescntt e
llll~rmcdiatc \'llfiahlcs x. y, and:. The atoms :n the bottom rt!prcsentthc indcpend~nt
vanables 11 and t •. Each "bond" in the model represents a partiJl derivative involvmg
t~e two variables (the atoms joined by that bond). finally. note that the formu la
dasp~aycd ~cforc thi~ paragraph expresses J wf Ju as the sum of the products o f the
partial denvativcs taken along all descending p:llhs from ... to u. Similarly. the sum o f
the product~ of I he partaal derivati\·es along all descending paths from"' to 1' yields
the correct formula
ow ow aw ay aw a::
ilx
FIGURE 13.7.3 Diagram for - = -.- +- .- +- . -.
w = w(x, y, 1), where x = x(u, v), av ax av ily a.. az av
y • y(u, v), a nd z - z (u, v) .
1l1Corem 2 describes the most general such situation.
THEOREM 2 The General Chain Rule

Suppose that w is a function of the va riables x1, x 2••••• x., and tha t each o f these
is a function of the variables r1• r2• ••• • r•. If all these functions have continuous
first-order partial d erivatives, then
(hv il w il.t1 Jw il.tz Jw iJ.r,.
-
ill;
= -
ax.· -ar,+ - · - + .. · +
ilxz ill; ax..- ·ar-; (6)
for each i. I :il i :il 11.
1l1us t here isn formula in Eq. (6) for each of th e independent variabl es ta.t2 •..••
t•• and the right-hand side of each such formula conta ins one typical chain rule term
for each of the intc rrncdialc Yariablcs x 1, .tz, ...• Xm.
EX AM PLE 4 Suppose that
~ = f(u. v). II= 2x + )', v = 3x- 2y.

Given lhe va lues a~jilu = 3 and ilz/ at· = - 2 at the poim (11. v) = (3. 1). lind t he
values az(iJx and a ~;ay at t he corresponding point (x, y) = (1 . 1).
Solution The relationships among t he variahles are shown in Fig. 13.7.4. The chain
rule gi\•cs
FIGURE 13.7.4 Didgram for
ilz ilz au illav
1= z(u, v). where u .. u(x, y) and - = - . - +-.- = 3 . 2 + (-2). 3 =0
r>
v = v(x, (Exa mple 4). ax iiu ax av ax
and
il z ilz au ilz iJt·
-ily =-. - + - · - =3· 1 +(- 2)·(-2)= 7
iJu oy ot· ily
at th e indica ted po int (x. y) = (1. I ).
•
EXAMPLE 5 Letw = f<x. y) where x and)' are given in po lar coordinates by the
= r cos 0 and y = r sin 0. Calculate
equatio ns x
aw ilw alw
- and -
ar ao . iJr 2
in te rms o f r, o, and the partial derivatives of w with respect tox andy (Fig. 13.7.5).
Solution Here x andy are intermediate variables: the independent variables arc r
and 0. First note tha t
ilx
- =COS9,
ay
-=san .
. (} ax =
-
. 8
-rsm and
ily
ar ar ae · iJ8 = r cos8.
fJ<~URE 13.7.5 Diagram for Then
,. • "'(x, r>. where x .. x(r,
8) aw = _aw · -ax + -aw · -ay =aw- cosl'l+ -sm9
aw .
11\d Y • )(r, 8 ) (wmple 5). (7a)
ar ax ar ay ar ax ay
900 CHAPTER 1 3 Partial Dofferentiation
and
aw (ib)
ao
Next,
aa,::..- -_ ~(a"")
ar ar
= ~ (a..- cosO+ a
iJr ax
".' sino)
i.l)
(h, • au·"' . 0
= - · cosll -'- - sm ·
ar Jr
"-here ..., == . -_ a" ·fi.l_1.. \\'•• •applv• Eq. (7a) to calcula te a..·,fiJr and
iJ wfi.l r and"_.
i'lw 1 fiJr. and we obtain
az... _ ( aw, . ax~ ~

, • . .J_ cosO+ a') (a..-
_ •. ax a..... . -;
_ + -- ay) sm. o
iJr l - ax Jr • ay i)r ax o1r il.l ()
-
- (
:l.,.
ax' co~
v' ll' 0 ~ -a=w
- sin 0 ) cos 0
ayilx
+ ( --cos
a1w
iJxiJy
0 + -a::w
iJy·
..
.-, Sill o) .
Sin
I)
·
finall y. b~caus.: "'r• = "'•r· we ge t

a2w iJlw ., •
(J"' w • a'· w . 2o
-iJr 2 = -(Jxl cos· 0 + 2 ilx
- -
iJy
co~ nsrn 0 + -iJ.1.- srn . (8)
•
EXAMPLE 6 Suppose that"' == [ (u . o•. x. y), where u and t' arc func tions of x andy.
I !ere x and y play dual roles as intermediate and indcp..:ndc:n t vari:Jblc:s. The chain
rule yield~
ilw a[ iJu il f i.l t· <if :J.r ;'if Jy
-
ax
= -au ·ax
-+ -
at•· --'-
il.r
-iJ.r ·ax
- +iJy
- ·ax
-
ilf ilu
== - · -
ilf
+ -011 · ax
- .... -.
.1 t• • ar
ilu ax ax
bcc:Jusc a.rfiJx = I and ilyfiJx = 0. Simi larly.
FIGURE 13.7.6 Diagram for
il w
--=
ar 011
-· - +- · -~-
ilf at• ar
w = f(u, v, x, y), whtre iJy au iJy il t• il.l· ily.
u = u( x, y) and v = •(•. Y)
(Example 6). These results are consistent with the paths from " ' to x and fro m " ' to 1· in th~
molecular model shown in Fig. 13.7.6. • •
EXAMPLE 7 Conside~ a parametric curve x = x (r) . y = )'(1), : = : (r) th:ll lies on

=
the surface 4 [(x. y) m space. Recall tha t if
T= (dx dy d4)
N = ( -a;: -a: - 1)
dt . dt. dt and
ilx' ay· .
then Tis tangent to the curve and N is normal to the surface. Show th at T and :..; arc
everywhere perpendicular.
Solution The chain rule in Eq. (3) tells us that
dz. il z dx il : d1·
-= - · -+- -~
dt il.r dt (! y dt .
Out this equation is equiva lent to the vector e quation
a: al )
( ax. (dx tly d;:)
ay . -I 0 di. dr. di = 0.
Thus NoT = 0, so N and Tare perpendicular.
•
The Multivarlable Chain Rule SECTION 13.7 901
Implicit Partial Differentiation
Sometimes we need to investig:tte a function~= g(x. y)that i~ no t defin ed cxp licilly
by a fnrmula giving : in tem1s of x and 1', hut insteatl is dclined implici tl y by an
~quat ion of the fo rm F(x . y. ~) = 0. The following implicit function thcorc~. pr~ved
~n advanced c~lculus. guarantees the existence and differentia!>ility of such Implicitly
ell ned functions under ce rtain natural hypotheses.
THEOREM 3 Implicit Function Theorem

Suppose that the function F(x1• x2 , .• • • .rn. <:) is continuously differentiable ncar
the point (11. b) = (n1. liz, ...• n . b) at which F(u. b) = 0 and D, f'(a . b) i: 0. Then
the re exists a continuou~ly differentiable function z = g(.r1, xz, .. . . .r.) such that
g (a) = band l'(x. g(x)) = 0 for x ncar u.
Moreover. the function g(x) is uniquely defined for x nea r 11. In brief. The·
orcm :! implies th tll the equation F(x 1, .r 2••••• x•. ~) = 0 implicitly defines om:
an~ only one continuously differentiable function : = g(x 1• x 2 •. •• • x.) ncar any
pom t where a F foz ¥0. Knowing that the function g exists ;md is diffcrcntiahlc. we
c~n calculate its partial derivatives hy implicit differentiation of the given equation
I· (.rt. x2 . ... . x•. :) = 0. Differentiating this equation with resr;:ct to x, yields
aF .ax1
- - + ... +oF - + ... + -ar . -ax. +ar- .ilz
- .ax, - = 0. ( )
dX1 J.r, 8.r, <J.r, il.t. il.r, i)~ iJ.r1 9
llut iix1 !8x1 = 0 unless j = i, and ax, fox,= 1. so Eq. (9) reduces to the equation
aF aF a~
-+-·-=0.
ilx, a~ ax,
which (ossuming that il F ta ~ 'I O) we can solve to obtain the formula
(10)
for th e ith parti:~l dcrh·arh·c or: = g(x 1• x 2 •• • •• x.). In a specific example, it usually
is just a~ simple to differentiate the gi ven equation F Ct 1, x: ..... x•. :) = 0 as in (9).
rathe r th an 3pplyin!! the formula in ( 10).
EXAMPLE 8 Figure 13.7.7 shows the graph of the cqu:~tion

F(.t. y) = x 3 + ) .J- 3xy =0 (II)
(Ihe folium or Descartes th3t we discus~cd in Example 3 of Section -'.1). With II = I.
X in plac-e of Xt. and )'in place Of :. the implicit function the~>rcm impltcs that this
equation implicitly defines y a~ a function of x except pos~ibl)' "he re
aF ,
-ily = 3r- Jx = U.
By \Uh\titut ing y: = x in Eq. (I I ). you c:111 ~how that the nnly such (Xlints t'n the
c ur,·c ar c tile miri n ({1 , 0 1. where twn hranchcs nf the Cllr.'c intn~cct . nnd tlu: point
ftC.Uit( 1) . 7. 7 Gt~ph of~ (.!/.i. ~12 1 • .,.lle rc tile ligurc 'how\ a \'l'f llcaltan~ent hm·. At nny uthcr P<' int on the
cu ~ c we cnn thlfcrc:ntiatc with rc,pcct ln.t in Eq. (II) to t'hl.un
~-J~tion ' <•. rl • ,I + yl -
l•r • o ((.r.,mp'~ ! ) iJ F tl.r JF dy • .l ch•
_ . _ + - . - ., (3t'- J 1•) · I + (3 1 - ~ r ) · -!.. ,.. 0
iH dx Jy tl.r • • clr
We c.ln then w l\'c fur the ,lope
ily .r l - )'
- = - -,-
tl.r r- x
of the hne ungent to the curve nt nny point "' here the re i, not a ' 'ertical lllnJ:ent
line.
•
EXAMPLE 9 Figure 13.7.8 shows the graph of the cqu:t tion

4 ,• + 4 + 4x2l;? - 34 == 0. {12)
F(x.y.z) =X + > 4
tl . the im pl ici t function theo rem implies
=
With 11 2 and x and y in plac~ of .~t nn / 2' t'on
that lhis equation implicitly dehnes z ns a unc 1
of rand ,. except possibly where
• ' •
aF = 4<' + Rx2r2: =4z( z2 + 2xl y~) == 0.

ilz • ..;. 0 so it follows that ;;: .IS de fime d as
'I11e partial tkrivutivc is nonlero whcr~vc r • .,. , ' · . .• .• = 3-11 in which the
. , t 1 the p(llnts of th e curve .t + )
1
a function of .r am Y exc.:p a • ~ ) At ~nv other point of the surface we
surface intersects the .ry·plane (where • - 0 · • .
can d iffcrcntiat..: with respec t to x and Y in (12) 10 oht:un
FtCUR~ 13.7.8 Cr~ph of \he
equa\ton f(x. y, z) = x• + y' + a .J , , a:
z' T 4x1 y 1 z' - 34 = 0 aF . a.r + ii F . ily + aF. ~ =
<·txJ+Rxl:l> · l +(4 4 + 8:..-y-:J · ax =0
(E.xllmple 9). ax ax ay ax az ax
and
ax iJF ay o F a:_< 4 ,3+"·2vJJ· I +(4 -1 + 8x1r2z>·a:= O.
-allxF . -ay + -ily . -oy + -i)z . -;-
ily
- > "·' , • , • ay
We can then solve for

Jz xl+2ry2:2 a: )'
) -
+2r•y;:-'
().r = z-'+ 2x1y2z and lly=- :3+2r!y!:'
For instance. ut the point (2. I. I) of the surface we find that o ~{ax - •j an d =
a<.t tJy =-I. Hence the plane tange nt 10th.: surface at this point has equation
:-I= -j(.c- 2) + (-l)(y- I ); tha t is, 4.r + 3y + 3: = 14. •
Matrix Form of the Chain Rule

case 111 = 11 = 2 of the chain rule corresponds to the case of two inte rmediate
·n 1c
variables (x andy. say) that a re functions of two independe nt \'ariables (rt and,., say).
x = f< u. v). .1' = g(tt. t'). (13)
lliCSC functions d.:scrihc a trunsrornmt iu n T: u~. -· u;.

from the coo rdina t ~ pl.tne
u;u O f (II, V)·p:t irs tOthe C:OOrdinate plane U!v Of {X, )')·pairs. '!111~ il11>1)!1.' of th<'J"lin t
(II. U) orR!. i~ the point T{u. v) = ({(11. t'), ): (11. r·)) = (r. y) or n.;,.
Tht.' llt>rh-:atiH'
ma1rix or the trans formation T at th e po int (u . r•) i< then th.::? '< :! array
ax
T '( II ,~) = illl tU )
[ il,l '
Ju
of pa rt i~l derivative< of the component function< in (IJ) of the trnnsfonn:ll ion T (Jll
evaluat ed at the point Cu. r•J).
E XA MP ~E 10 'l~1 c polar coordinat.: trunsformution T :

1 1anu 1 wr cqu;Jtlon' u;, _ /(1 is dcfinc:d by
t lC' '·'
.r = r co~ II. y • r sin o. ( 1 ~1
Its deriva ti ve matrix i' given hy
ax
::] = [ Sill 0
T '(r ,O) = iJr c~~o - nin fl]. ( 161
[ <Jy r CO' tl
ilr ao
n
The Mu!:ivari.Jb!e Ctuin Rule S~CTION 13.7 90 3 I
. !\ow sup pose tha t the d:pende nt \'ariable ,.. is a function F (.t. )')_ of the inter-
med tatc va riables x a ndy, and thereby is gi\'en by the composite funcuo n
G(u. t ) = f ( T{u ,~:)) = f (x (u. t'). y (u. t·)) ( 17)
o ( the independent vari ables u and,. (Fig. i3.7.9). The deri\'~t ive ma trices
lOx ;,,..·
f' (x.y) = [ il"
iJy
1 and G '(u. t·) = ra ..·
, (l u
:"·1
v L'
( 18)
o( F and G a re defined in analo~~ "-i th (IJ}-there 1:>-.:ing a single row in each matri~.
co rresponding to the single dependent, ariablc .... Those who arc famil i:H with ma tnx
FIGURE 13.7.9 Diagram for
w = f (• . y) where (x. y) =
mult iplicati on will recognize that the '" o ch:~ in rule fo rmui:!S
= T(u. v) a.. J w ay
- x ... a... ih ·
(.r(u. v) . y(u. v)) 0\\' ilx
dl<' - a
- = ""' -~ -= - - + - -
ou il x au ily ilu 0
ih Cl t il r ily 3t•
arc the "components- of the single matrix equa tio n
G '(u, t•) = F' (x, y ) T ' (u. t•); (1 9a)
th~t is.
il w (l w l = loaxw iill.rt•l 0
(19b)
lau ih · il y
J t•
l11us the ch ain rule fo r the sttuation indicated in Fig. 13.7.9 implies th:ll rh~ derivative
=
matrix of the compos/It: function G F o T i rthr m atri:r product G ' F ' T'. • =
EXAMPLE 1 1 With the polar-coordinate deri\'ati\'e matrix T' (r, 0) in (16), the rna·
trix multiplicati on in Eq. ( 19b) yields
aw a... ) = law ilw ) ['?sO -rsin O)

smO rcos O
l ar ao ax CJy
ilw i) w
= [ -cosO+ -
ax ay sin O
The components of this matrix equation arc the scalar chain rule fo rmul:ls
3w aw aw
- = - cos 9 + - sm0.
0 aw = - ra..-
-
i) w
- sin B + r - cosO
ilr ax ily ao a.r ay
that we saw p reviously in Example 5.
•
We have d iscussed here the 2 x 2 case or a general m x n matrix formulatio n o f
the mullivari able chain rule. The 3 x 3 case and its application to spherical coordinates
a re discussed in P ro blems 58 through 61.
PROOF O F TH E CIIAIN R UL E Give n tha t w = f <x. y) satisfies the hypotheses

of Theorem 1. we choose a point to at which we wish to compute tlw Jtit and write
a g(to). = b = ll(to).
Let
Ax = g(to + AI) - g (to). Ay = IT(ro + AI) - lz(t0 ) .
Then
g (to + At)= a +Ax and ll (to + Ar) = b + Ay .
If
Aw = f (g(lo +AI ), lz (to + At))- f(g (to). lz(to))
= {(a + Ax. b + Ay)- f(a, b),
then what we need to compute is

dw . t:.w
- == h m -
dt <l.t-0 t:. t
. . t hcor•m
The linear approxlffiatlon ~
of ·Section 13.6 gives
t:.w == f,(a. b) Ax + / y(n. b) t:.y + <t ~x + !2 t:.y .
_ A 0 a nd t:. v - 0. We note that both t:.x and
where £ 1 and £ 1 approach zero a, ... x _. -. .
t:.y approach zero as t:;t - 0. because bot h the dcnvauvcs
dx = hm-
_ . t:>x and ely -- lt' m t:>y
dt .>t- o t:. c dt •"-o ..,c
A
ex ist. There fore.

dw t:."· ,
uX t:.v, _t:.x ( 6y]
_
- = lim - == lim [ f,(a . b)- + [v(a . b)"Ki + !t 6 1 + 1 61
dt A:- 0 61 .>t- 0 t:.t
dr d1• dx dy
== f,(a,b) <;I + / , (n, h) d~ +0· dr +0 · d:·
lienee
dw ow dx ihv dy
Tt -
- -ax· -de+ -ily · -tit .
1lws we have cstahli~hetl Eq. (3) . writing aw; ax nnd owfiJy for the partial derivatives
f. (a. b ) and [y(a. b) in the final step. -<

13.7 CONC EPTS: QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION
1. Give your own ex3mple of a composite function si tuation illusrr:uine the
general chain rule (Theorem 2). but " ith different numbers of independent.
intermediate, and tlepentlent vari ables than in any of the examples in this
section.
2. Let C be a set in the xy·planc R~ . We migh t call C a ~muuth curve provided
that every poi nt o f C has a neighborh ood within which C agrees with the
graph of a continuously d ifferentiable function-either y = / ( .r ) or x == g(y).
Under what conditions on the function F (x , y) doc s the implicit function the-
orem imply that the graph of th..: equatio n F (x . y ) = 0 is a smooth curve?
Explain.
3. Let Sbc a set in .ry z-space R 3 . We might callS a smnoth surface provided that
every point of S has a nei ghborhood within w:1ich S agrees with the graph
of a continuously differentiable functio n-either z = f(x. y) or x = g(y. : )
?r y~ lz (.r. :). U nder wh.at conditions on the function F (.r. y, z) does the
tmphctt functton th..:orcm tmply that the graph of the equation F(x. y, t ) == 0
is a smooth sur face? Explain.
13.7 PROBLEMS
In Problmu 1 through 4,find dw jdt both by ttsin~t the ch~in n•le In l'ro l>/mts .5 lllfOIIgh 8, fiml aIVI ih tmd 0"'I iJI.
and by exprnsing w explicitly as a functton ofI before diffam- 1
5. IV = + y2 + i): x = s - t. y = s + t. z == 2./ii
ln(x
tiating.
I. w = exp(-x:-y): x = t , y= ,fi 6. w = pq sin r: p = 2v + t, 'I =s - t, r =s I
7. w = J 11: + 1.2 + 4.2.• u = 31'1 sin s . v = 31!' coss. : "' Jl
1
2. w= ~; u = cos2t, v = sin2t
fl. w =yz +zx+.ry;
II V + x = s2 - c·' . y = s·, + t 2• z == r ' 12
J. w =sin .ryz: x = t. y = ,: • z = t 3
In Prob/mu 9 tltrough /2, [i111l Jr ;ax, <Jr /Jy, nttd ar j Jz.
4. w = ln(u + v + z): u = cos2 1. v = sin 2 t , z =12 9. r = t'"•"•"'·, u ::e yz.. L' == xz. w = xy
The Multivariable Cha in Rule SECTION 1 3.7 905
JO r = tll'k'- u~- t..:- w=; u = \,' + . .
• .. .... l z::: X + ,:. kot =:: X--L y
36. A rectangular block hns d ime nsions x = 3 m. y= 2m. nnd
Jl, r =sin( p/q l: p= \/x.v2 ~l. q = -/x .._ 2y + J·
:::I m. lf .rand v are increa•in£ at I em/min nnd 2 cm!mi n.
l -•r --!!.+~
q J
... !..p . p = t',.• • q = t'''. J 1: . . . .
• respccti,el~·. "'hile ~ is d~cre;sing at 2 em/min. are the
b!ock ·s ' olum~ and total surface area increasing or decreas·
ing? At "'hlt r ales?
In Prob/~111$ IJ through 18, " ' rrlt' chain ntlt' r0 l ..
. . f I d ,. mw tll gtvmg tht'
partial dt'm·ara·t' o I t<" <'Pt:rltlt"nt •·ariah/,. p ..-irh res 37. The volu me I ' (m cubic ccnlimeters) and pressure p (in at·
mdrpmdmt 1 aria hit'. prcr to each n <xphcres ) o f n molc:s of an idealc:~s sa ti sf" the equation
p\' = nRT. "here Tis its temperature (in d~!!rees Kel\i n)
IJ. p = f<x. y) : x =.t(ll.t•, w), .v= >(u, v.w ) and R = S~ C\6. Supp<Xc 1h;n a sample of the gas has a
1.1. p = f<x. y, ~); X= x(u. •·) . y = y(u, I'). : = ~ (u. 1') 'Oiume of 10 L "hen the pressure is 2 :um and the tem-
1~. p = /Itt. v. " ·) : tt = ll( .r . y, z). I' = tlx )' ' ) p<:nlure is 300'K. If the pressure is increasing a1 I atmfmin
• •< , "' =I>'(X, )', : ) and the temrcrature is increasing at 10' K/ min, is the vol·
16. p = / ( 1•, w); y, ~. 1),
I '= t•(.r. .,.. =k'(.r, y, : . I ) urne of the gas sample incre:~sing or decreasing? At what
17. p =/(,.·): ,.. = w(x. y. z. "· v) nte?
18. p = /(.t , y,u, v); X= X(S, 1), 38. The nggrepte rcsisunce R of three: variable resistances
Y = y(s. t ) . u=u(s. r ),
v=v(s.l) R,. R:. and RJ connected in parallel sa tisfies the harmonic
rquation
In Problt'm.l /9thrtii<JI. h 2-1, fuul a:/ ilx and , ·I'>·a!fi
u -...J u
·
. llnctiOIU o
f
. · I 1 I I
.r, y, and:. tlSSflllllllg thm ~ = f(x y) smisfies rh• " . · -=-+- ... -.
• ~- ~n f'fl f'Qflatron. R R R~ RJ
19. xm + ytJ + :!:1 = I 1
20. x 1 + y 1 + r = xy: Suppose thai R 1 nnd R~ nrc HX.l n nnd arc increasing at
I !lis. "'hile R , is 200 n and is dccre:uing at 2 S"lls. Is R
11. xe•" + ye:..' + :.~·r = 3 incrc:a,ing or decreasing at I hat inst:tn t? At what rate?
22. xs+xY +y: =5 =
39. Suppose thnt x h(y. ; l sa tisfies the: equal ion F(.x. y, z) = 0
x2 Y~ ~ nnd that F, ~ 0. Show that
23. a- l + -+;.=
/yl c:-
1
a.t a F/i'l y
2-'• .t y~ = sin (x + y + z)
ay = - a F;iJ.t ·
In l'rol>lcms 25 throt~gh 28, tLfl'thc mt·thotl of E.rample 6 to find 41!. Suppose I ha t w = / (x. y) ..r = r cosO , :~nd y= rsinO. Show
ow /il.t and i)..-fi!y tl.t fwtctionJ vfx andy. that
25. = II: + 1•2 +X: + )~; = y, =
(iJw)2 + (iJ"')' (~)2 + .!_ (~)2
W II X - t' X+}'
26. ... = J~~t·.<y : 11 = ~. v = _jx +y =

il.t ay iJr r2 ao
27, w = xy ln(tt + v); 11 = (.t: + yl)lll , .., = (.t~ + y)'fl 41 . Suppc= that w= f (u) and that tt=x + y. Show that
28. w = xy: =
.(
... v = - - -
\'
=
ihv fiJ x ilwfiJy .
Ul.' - u -~--
.t +r x2 + r 42. Suppose t hat w =[ (tt) and that tt = x- y . Show
that
In ProblmiS 29tlzrouglz 32, write an eq11ation for tht" plane tan· iJwf iJx = -aw;ay and that
gmt atrlze poifll P to the .wrfacl' with rlzc giw·n <"qttation_
iJ2w a2..... iJ2 w
29. x + y + :! = 9; P ( l. 2. 2)
1
- , = - = - --
il.t• ay: axay ·
30. x + 2y + 2:! = 14; /'(2. 1, -2)
2
1 43. Suppose that w = f(x. y) where x = u + v and y= u _ v.

31. x + .1,.1 + :! = Sxyz: P(2. I. I) Show that
32. zl +(X + )')r + x 2 + y 2 = 13; P(2. 2. 1) il 2w a2 w azw
33. TI1e sun is melting a rectangular block of ice. When the a;z - ay.z = a;;a;; .
block's height is I rt and the edge of its square base is 2 rt,
its height is decreasing at 2 in./h and its base edge is decreas- 44. Assume that w = f<x. y) where x = 2u + 11 andy= u _
11
ing at 3 in ./h. What is the block 's rate of change of volume Show that ·
Vat that instant?
iJ2w 2 alw az..., iJlw alw
34. A rectangular lx1x has a square base. Find the rate at which 5 -2+ -+2-=-+-
ax ax ay iJyl auz av2 ·
its volume and surface area arc changing if its base edge
is increasing at 2 em/ min and its height is decreasing at 45. Suppose that w = {(x, y),x = r cos9, andy= r sin9. Show
3 em/min at the instant when each dimension is I meter. that
35
• Falling sand forms a conical sandpile. When the sandpile alw iJ2w i)2w 1 ow 1 iJ2w
has a height of 5 ft and its base radius is 2 ft. its height iJx2 + ily = a;r +;a;+ r 2 w·
is increasing at 0.4 ftfmin and its base radius is increasing
at 0.7 ftlmin. A t what rate is the volume of the sandpile 2
(Suggesriob":' Firsht find a w 1ao2 by the method of Example .
increasing at that moment? Th en com tne t e result with Eqs. (7) and (8).) 7
906 CHAPTER 1 3 Pa rtial Differentia tion
Itt Jh<>tt. rl:c• .~rn rr.:! ,omJ'•'I (,lh ,lu\, .ft·n.,!:', lht• dt"'·llhr pf
46. Suppose th3t
W h' lth f((J'(fl (11 11. H htt( u I t 1(\'.111/(,/ .H ot /JOh'ftt•,r 1,f lllr
ind(pl•t:d(l:r '.zri.:!•.'t, u .m./a

!-.'. l',in!! th<' not.lll<>nonthr <'•l''·H'''"' "' (~11). ,fhl" th.u
and that r = J xl + y2 + ~". Sho w that
(5rn:~t',\ rtc n: f uhlth,· thtt·,·p.ntul \k in .lt rq•, ' "' t h~,_•11,:ht
-17. Suppo se th3tw = f(r ) and that r = \ ·,: + y:- ::. Sh<m h.1nJ "'"' 111 t.· nn• ••I 1 ,. 1 .. ·""' I I
~..t. \ \·rih th~ n.· ... u!: ,,f t·r~'I,J.:m '\ 1,,, tlh' ~.·.pr.al h'U
that
tPw 2 d'-' f .( I • \ • ,'
I 1: I l ; I ,-: (l
=tfr':
- +r-tlr- ·
\ \:ts!\ tht• ~~..·,ult ~~1 l'r~.'!'l ..•m ' l \'''th {'. \ . l llh l /' mpi.H\'
,,f, . ,., Jnd :) f,,, th ..· t.•qu.llh'll
-IS. Suppose that w = f (u ) + g ( t·). th at '' = .1 - ur. and th.tt
'' = x +fit . Show th at r 1,.. 1·. 1 1
, jJl l\' (tt .Htd H .ut· ,.,,u,t.mh ), '' hh·h t' ' l''•'"''' thl' hk .1 l ~·" 1.1"
J r'
= a• -il.t.-•. Colh:.kl .\ fl ' l' ll qu.ultrl\ ''' lhluhl " h''"·' J1 1''"HI'' J'. ' \'I
unW \ ' , .1nd lt."fllJ'('f.tt llh' f ,.ltl'h .t ~1 \ c'U " ,t.tiC t'qU,\Ih\11 "
-11). A ssume that w = f( u . v ) \\ here 11 =A+ y :mJ 1 = \ - \. t'f th~.· r.Hm l•r. \ , I ) ll llH' rhnm:t l ,., p:u t,h h.' ,, .111d
Show that j, ,tltw rm.tl C1HHI~n.·"hh ' ,r~ ·-lllu· lhtUhl .IH' ddmn l l•\
a...
Jr ily
a..· = (aau. . )' (a . . )' Jt· .. I ,II ,I \ '
I ' ,I I
511. G ive n: n• = [ex. y ). x = r'' cos t •. a nd~· = ,.• so n o•. S how A rply ·n w{'rt'm J 1u't "* .
:.d.:ul.u~· ,1\ • · ·'r
.uhl .~ \ ·, .• 1', nll.l
th at thc:n h' 1.\ tl..·ul.•tc ·'r ,l \ · .tthl •'I' '·• 1'. 1kdu ..·(· f•t•m Ih.· h'·
s ul!:-. th.1t ,lJ' ,I r - ,, ,-.
(a'" ):+(-a"') = c-:. [(-a"')'+ (~)').

2
~7. lltt• lh,•rm.d t.' ' P·' n't' '" .md ''~'lhc.• t m,,l ,·,,ml'' t' ''-' ' 11' \,f
ox ~y oil <J o•
l iqui~.l llll.'h.'IJry :H t' ,, 1 ~ , 10 • ,t nd ;: ,l •) ' ll' •. h'·
spt•~o'tl ' t" l ~. tn L· : tt m ~ l ' tuu h . St l J~l'''(' tlut ,, ltu·tllh ' IU\'1." 1
5 1. A ssu me tha t ••· = f (x. y) and thl t the re is a constant a sudt bulh j, l' \ ,11..'11\ tilll'd ' "1h 1\lt' II' U I\ .11 ~0 t ' I l l h.: t•tllt• ,·.ul
that '' ith~t.utJ .m mt...·r n.t IJ~r l'"'ll rc.· , ~llh' nh, 1, . t h.t n ~'Ptl.Hru. ,·:tn
x == 11 cos a- a.: sin a and y =u sin cr + t•cosa. it t' C h~o·:th7d h l :05 ( ' \\ tlh,\\lt l•rt·.t " tn~: : Sll.~..;··, tJ· '" ' ' Pl'"
the n.•su lt ,.( l'r•lbh- m 5f' h' ,•.t k ul.tll' tlh· llh.' H ' ,,,,. m J'U"'-'tll\.'
S how tha t W ith l":ld t lncrc.'H' l' , ,( ''IH.' dq~rt•l.• II\ l t'lUJ''I.\I UH'
~:t S up)' '''" 'h nt lhl.' tran , (,,rlll.Hh•ll U ••

' •• r. • u' ,,,,,•htH"·'
by th\.' fun( titllh \ = q u, r·. w ). , . n \(H, t •,
·n u.· n its tk l i\'nth e matri' j, ,,~.. li rh•d t•y
,, ) , :
" f
:'"· t'. h'
r~- ' ..... ]

52- Suppose that w = f (u). whe re 1 ,.
x·' - 't". 7'tu. a·. "''' " I' I' I'

t l == - ,
X
• , .
+ .)'" :: .. ..
Cakul.tl<' the •lni, a ti•··· m:u 11 , ,,f the li 11,••11 ll .ln,f•'""·'
Show th l l xw, + yw, = 0.
lion tldi.ncll h y x ,_ ,, , u , t.11. r ,·, "·· ,... 11 : 11 t f.:t • •':"'·
Suppose that tire cqumion F (.r . .1·. l. ) =
0 defint·s imp licitly th.r ; = f l 1ll + }.,,. + C\ h '.
thre<' f unctions z =
f (x. y). Y =
K_i • · .;:).am/ x = My. : l. J o C':okula t<· tlw .tco i, ,lti•~ nu to i' .,( tlw :-.ph-.·tt~o".'l \"'
k~ep track of rhe vnriou.'i partial tlrn ,·arn·rs. we us,. rht• twtnrw n ' ' n linatc tr an'\(,, 11l1 .\ I H\ n I' t.l~o.• l\ n\'l.l t,,~ , ;' , ju J '"'' I~ .
." = 1' :-.in ctt:o-.in r~.: .. 1 , ,.,,,~...
(~~ ), = ~~ · (~;). = ~~· (20:~)
•
~~ppns:· th:ot 'I "' F (l , •·. ~~ " ith 1 , .1 " ''"'·"'"' ' " ·' " "
M.
=. tf • 1·, f, ):ondth :ot ( t , l',~) /'(u, o·, ., l:"on l'll't•
~~ ). = :~. k·m ,)t\, lr r, n ,.. .... ·r. dt.' d th'\~ fh'Ul l hl· '-'h.un auk "' nw~•l\'tll
ag
(~: ),= ax ( (lOb)
2 tha t c;• ,. F " l " ( mat " ' !'""" '"''
li I. If II' a F ( 1 I' • )
· • · · •· • •'I~P 1)' :lw l t.':o.tllh ,,( l'h •l•h-m' ~IJ ,Hh I ('II
e·a.~. )r = a:
i!IJ
(:;), = ah Jy
( !Or) h> r akuht,· hv 111 11
. ·
or ... With I <'Si
.
l<' ' I I
' . ~ n I H'
r
1 · .h ' " t tH· p.utl.\1 d,. .,, ,,11' •.,
'' " 1H\1IIph,·.lt
.
"J'lWil,·~,l \ 'tl \1 Jdllt .l h'' J'•"'11 ' ,Ulo
I~
Directional Derivatives and the Gradient Vector SECTION 13.8 907
l3.8 lDIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVES AND THE GRADI ENT VECTOR

Figure 13.8. 1 sho"'> temperature s (in degrees Fahrenheit) recorded a t U.S. locations
at 2:12 P.~l. E.D.T. o n Thursdav. April 12. 2001. Th is plot of the U.S. temperature
functio n T = [ Cx . \')is cont our~d "bv color"- thl t is.. loc:t tio ns " ;th the same tem·
pe rature a re show~ in the same colo~. If\\ e dep.lrt fro m :m :tirport :~nd fly due e:~st
(in the positive .r-dtrectton). the n the rate of changt: of tempcr:~turc (in degrees per
mil e) tha t '-'C ini ti ally o!:lserve i~ given by the pnrti:ll d~riv :tti ve IJ Tfa .r = f,. If ~\'e
r.
fl y due north. then iJ TJo~ = gi\·es the ini tial r3tC of change of t .:mp.:ra ~ ure ." 1 th
respect to d i~ta nce . Out '-'C need not th either due cast or due north. The fil rl'ctwnal
duivarive intr od uced in this section e~3bles us to calcula te tl'.e rate of ch::sngc of 3
function in any specifted direction.
FIGURE 13.8. t Current ttmperaturt1 (' F) recordtd at

2: t2 P.M. on Aprilt2, 2001.
Directional De rivatives
Recall that the first-order partial deriva ti\•es of the function l = [(x, y) nrc defined
to be
r l' f(x + Jr. y)- f <x. y) rc ) ,. j(x .y+lr)-f(x,y)
1 ,(:r. y) = tm nn d 1 r x . y ~ tm
h-0 1I h- 0 "
wherever these limits exist. If we write x = (x. y ), then these partial derivatives may
be described a bit mo re concisely in the form
. /(x + /rl) - f(x) _ . /(x + /rj ) - / (X)
);
'
(X) = ltm
h- 0
I
I
• f 1 (x) - 11m ( 1)
h-0 "
where i =(I, 0) and j = (0. I ) ns usual. Thus/. and / 1 re present rates of change of z
with respect to distance in the directions of the unit vectors i a nd j . We get the
dcfmition of the directional derivative upon replacing i or j in (1) with an arbitrary
specified unit vector n .
D EF 1N ITI 0 N Directional Derivative

The d irectional dcrh·atin~ of the function fat the point x in the direction of the
unit vect o r u is
_ . / (x +/au) - f(x)
D" f( x) - 1tm (2)
h-0 I 1
provided th::st this limit exists.
The function f in Eq. (2) can ben function of two o r three o r more variables.
Comparing Eqs. (I ) and (2~. we see tha t the partial derivatives of a function of two
va riables x andy can be wntten as
fx(x. y) =Daf(x. y) and f 1(x, y) =Dj[(x. y).
908 CHAPTER 13 Partial Diffcrcnti31ion
1lltl~ f, and [, arc. indeed. the directional deriv:!livcs off i~ the directions of the
unit vectors i and j. Similarly. if f is a functio n o f the three vanablcs x. >'·and z. then
its panial dcnvati\'es
f , = Di{. f1 = DJI. and /: = Dt f
arc the dr rectional de rivati,·es of fin the directions of the three standard unit vectors
Q ,,' =
i =(I. fl. f) • j = o. 1. ().and k (0. 0. I} in space.
The lunit in Eq. ( 2) " ould still make scn' e if u \\ere not a unit ,·ector. n ut the
mcanrn~ uf thrcctional dc rivati-·es is easiest to und~ r;t and "hc.: n u is a unit vector.
,-?':/ and thi' is " hY " c define D. f tx ) only " he n 111 =I. In rig. 13.8.2 the unit vector u
pnrnts rn the drrection from the fi, cd poin t P (" ith pO"it ion ,·c:ctor x) to the point Q
---,
(\\ilh rn~iti nn vector ~ - J:u ). The n
• L\W ::: J( Q) - f(/') =/( X+ ilu)- / (.,.)
FIGURE 13.8.2 The flrll \tep in i~ the increme nt in_!l:e functiOn VJ JUC IV = J(.t, _1'. =) from thC point (' \ 0 th e poin t Q.
computing the rJte of change of
f(x, y, z) in the direction of the H we write t:H =l l'QI = h for the di-;tancc from J' to Q. thc.: n the quotient
unit vector u. [ ( Ql- [ ( }') / ( X + IJu)- [(X)
-= =
D.s ll'Qi "
is the average rau· of change of IV with respect to distance from ['to Q. It is therefore
natural to regard the limit
tfw = lim D.w = lim f( x + IJu) - f(x ) (3)

ds -'>-0 D.s lo-o IJ = Du /(x )
a~ the in•t:mtnncnus rate of change of h ' at I' with respect to di tance in the direction
from I' to Q. Son•c science and engineerin g tc.\ t> lllfl) u~c.: th<: nutatiun
df1 l
- = D./(P).
IS r
o.r_simpl)' .d"'!tfs
•' •as in Eq
. · (3) · fo
.· r th e ·mstantaneous r.Hc of change of the function
" - f (.r. >· ~J at the pomt 1'. "''h respect to distances in the direction of the unit
vector u.
Calculation of Directional Derivatives

Equation (2) rli'fines the directional derivativ · b 1 h d . ·
t ion:~l dcrivati,·c:s? To answe tl · . . . . c. u ow owe actually calcullltcdarec·
that if the function [(r x r us qu) :stalofnf. we r~call (from Eq. ( IS) in Section 13.6)
. . . • ' · l· .... .r, rs Cl crenuablc at · - ( h 'ts
pan1al denvatavcs exist there: morco,·er. x - .r,, .r1 •••.• x.). t en I
lim /(X+ h i - j'(XI - V [(~I· h (41

, _., Ihl = O
where V [(x) = ( 0 1 [(x). 0z [(x), .... D f . . . .

substitute h =/m where 11 is a un't • (X)) IS the gradacnt vect or of f nt x. If W<
implies that 1
vector and h > 0 (so that Ihi = h). then EtJ. (~)
Jim [(x + h)- f(x)- V j(x). flu

h-0 lr
= lim ( [(x + hu) - f(x)
h-o h - V J(x)· u)=Du[(x)- V /( x)· u =O.
In the last step we have used the deli . . .
and the fact that x and u play the rol ma~ron 111 (2) of the directional deriva tive D. !<~
1
theorem. 0
e constants as lr -+ 0. This proves the follo" inf
Directional Derivatives and the Gradient Vector SECTION 13.8 909
THEOREM 1 Calculation of Directional Derivatives

If the real-valued fu nction f is d iffere ntiable a t x and u is a unit vecto r, the n the
d irectional derivative D. f (x) exists and is given by
D. f(x) = \1f(x) · u. (5)
For instance, if z = f (x , y) is a function of two variables, so tha t

\lf (x. y) = (f.<x.y)./,.(x. y)} and u = (a,b).
then Eq. (5) gives
---- -f~ ---

GURE 13.8.3 The unit vector u
Eq. (7).
Dla.b) [ (x. y ) = (f_.( x . y ) . f 1 (x . y) ) · (a. b) = a fx(x.y) + b f 1 (x.y).
If the unit vector u makes the counterclockwise angle 0 wi th the positive x-axis (as
in r:i g. 13.8.3). the n u =(cos O. sin O) . so Eq. (6) takes the form
Jw ihv
(6)
Duf(x . y) = f, (x. y) cosO+ [ y(x. y ) sin O=-

· ilx
cosO+-;,- sin O.
uy
(7)
If w = f (x . y . ;:) is a function of three variables a nd n = (a. b. c) (still a unit vecto r),

then Eq. (5) similarly yields
D (a .l>.r ) f(x. y. Z) =a f, (x , y. z) + bf,.(x . y. Z) + c f l (x . y . z). (8)
EXAMPLE 1 Suppose that the temperature (in d egrees Celsius) a t the point (x. y )
near a n airport is give n by
I
f (x. y) = 180 (7400- 4x - 9y- (0.03)xy]
(with distances x and y measured in kilometers). Suppose that your aircraft takes
off fro m this airport at the location P (2{Kl. 200) and heads northeast in th e directio n
specified by the vector,. = (3. 4). What initial rate of change o f te mperature will you
obse rve?
Solution Decause vis not a unit vector, we must first repl ace it with the unit vector u
having the same direction:.--
,. (3, 4) / 3 4)
u = 1v1 = J 32 + 4 2 = \ 5· 5 ·
Now we may use the formula in (6), which yields
Duf(x. y)=G) · ( 1 0 (-4- (0.03)y]) ! +G)· (1!0[-9 -(0.03)x]).

Whe n we substitute x = y = 200 we find that
D.tu•> =(D·(- /~) + (D·(- 1 ~)) = -11: 0 =- o.t. 1
"fbis insta nta neous rate of change - 0.1 oc fkm means that yo u will observe initially a
decrease o r 0.1oc in tempe rature per kilometer traveled. •
The Gradient Vector

In Section 13.6 we introduced the gradient vector informally as a notational device for
simplifying the expression o r ce rtain multivariable formulas. Most or the remainder
o f this section is d evoted to exploration or the meaning and geometric interpreta tion
of gradient vectors. largely in two and three dimensio ns. We be~tin with a formal
definition.
91 0 CHAPTER 13 Partial DiHerentiation
DEFINITION Gradient Vec tor " . .

• f d'ft· rcntiablc r~:~l-valm:d function f: U - R ts the vector-
Th c gracI•cnl o t11c 1 ..: · •
valued function V f : l l' - ll" ckfincd by
Vf(xl= (D1 [ (xl. 0:/(x).. .. . D,[(x)). (9)
· h d' t \'Cctors of functi ons of two and three vnriahlcs are

I n parllcu1ar. t e gra u:n ·
given (respectively) by
Jf . i.l f . at at at
Vf(f')=- • + -J nnd v f<P1 == -Jx i + -Dy j + -:k:
(1 0)
D~
ax o.r
the partial derivatives in Eq. (10} arc to be evalu:Hed a t the point P.
EX AMPLE 2 If f <x. y. ~~ = F + sin x~ + t·"·. then the second formu la in (10) gi\·es
V f(x. y. ~l ==(~cosx ~ + yp'!'Ji + (~ +.r«'·'!'lj + (y + xcosx ~)k.
1l1c value of this gradien t vc:ctur :11 the poi nt (0. 7. 31 is
V[(O. 7. 3) = (3. I + 7. l )i T (3 + (). l )j + (7 + 0. l )k = ! Oi + 3j + 7k. •
Theorem I says th at if the functi on f is differentiable at x and u is a unit vector.

then the directional derivative of fa t x in the direc tion u is given by
D. /( xl = V f( x) ·ll . ( 11)
The chai n rule has a similar gradient vector form. For instance. suppose th:lt the
differen tiab le vector-valued function
r(l) =x(l ) i + ,r(r)j + ~(y)k
is the position vector of a curve in /l 3 and that f< x. y. : ) is a different iable function.
Then the composition
[ (r (r)) = j (x (r ). y(r ) . : (1))
is
toa differentiable
is function of r. and its (ordin ·:~ry)
. chain
• -ruled c n\'att\'C
· · wtt · h respcc 1
1
D,(f(r{l))] = D, [f(x(r}. y(l}. Z(t}) ] = of . dx + ilf. dy + ilf . dz

Dx dr oy dr a:: dr·
We recognize here the dot product
D,(f(r (t}}] = V f(r (r )) . r' (r), (11)

where
- c/r
r'( t ) --=
dt
-clx.
tit
•+-=-·tlv cl·
-
clrJ + eft k
is the velocity vector of the l)'lfamet .
If · • ne curve r (t }
r{l} IS a sm ooth parametric curve with .
then,.= t·u when: t' = 1•·1is th. s d . nonze ro velocity vector ' '(I )= r'(tl.
. , c . pee of nwtmn I I .
umt vector tangent to the curve (Section ., . a ong I tc curve and u =':It· is the
D,[ [( r(l) )] =Vf . ~. l). n1en Eq. ( 12) implies tha t
1 6
(r (t)) · r (r ) = V f( r (r)) . vu -
and hence in turn that - vV /(r ( t }l · u.
. D,j[(r(r)}]= v D~f(r(r}). I~)

Wnh w = [(r{l)}. we may write D [( (1} (
I0 ( 't) d"
Unt tstance along the paramet d
• r · l -dw;.cl s fOrthe derivative of w with rcsp•"1
Eq. (13) takes the natural chain rule ;~:~l curve, and v =dstHr for the sp.:ed. Then
-- d; ·
l ._ __ ""'
•lr -
till' / ·
(,\
c/r . (Hl
Directio nal Derivative s and the Gradient We tor SECTION 1 3.8 911
EXAMPLE 3 I n Example 1 we fo und that t he tempera ture functi o n
,.. = f( x. ,., =- -[7.1()()- .lx - g,. - (O.O.~)n)

1
• 1!>0 • •
(with tempera ture in d egrees Celsius and d ist a nce in k ilometers) has dircrtion:tl
tlcri vu tivc '
dw •c
- = D. f(l'> = -0.1 -
ds km
at the point P (21Xl. 200) in the direction of the unit wct<~r u = ( ~. ~ ). If a pbne dcp:trts
fro m a n airpQrt a t /' and fl ies in the direction u \\ ith speed ,. = ;ls) lr = 5 km 1min. th c n
Eq. ( I.I) g ives
dw = dw . tis =(-o
.l km 1:~1 )=-O
'C) (s mm .Stmn
·~ .
dt ds dt
Thus an initi11l ra te of decrease o f a h al f·degree of tcmpc:rn turc: per minute: is ob:scrvcd .
•
EXAMPLE 4 Now suppos~ that the temperature function of Exnmplc 3 is replaced
with
"' = f (x. y. ~~ = !
1 0
(7.100- 4.:r - 9y- (0.0.3)xy) - 2=.
The ndditionaltc rm -2~ corresponds to a decrc.-asc of 2, C in temp<o:raturc: per kilo-

meter of ah itudc ~- Suppose tha t n hawk hovering at the point P(ZOO. ~00. 5) ab<J\'e
the ai rport :sudden ly dives at :1 speed of 3 kml min in the dir<'ction specified by the
vector (3 . -l. - 12). \\lt3t instantaneous rntc of change.- of temperature.- d ocs the bird
experience?
Solution The unit vector in the directio n of the given ' '<'Ctor (3. -l. -I~) is
The temperature grad ient ''ector
V f(x. y. ~) =-
1 ~(-l + (0.03)y)i- 1 ~0 (? + (0.03).r)j - 2k
has the value
tO 15
Vf( /') "'- - I - - j - .,,.
180 ISO . ..
at the in itin.l posit ion P(100. 200. 5) o f th~ h:1wk. lllc:rc.-forc the ha" \. 's initbl rnt~ of
chang~ o f t·~mpe rature with respect to distance is
~= D. f(/') = V f(/' ) · u
tis
= (-~)
JRO
( ~)
13
+ (- ~)
11\tl
(.:.)
D
+ (-2)(-12)=
1:1
-l7
26 ~
•c
l .SOS - .
l.:m
It\ tpccd il d r{dt - 3 kmlmin. so the time r:ltc: o r change of temper Mute.- c:xpc: ric.-n~d
by the hawk is
dw dw dr (
- "'- · - = •c ) ( km ) •c
1.808- 3 - -. =5A2-l - .
dr dJ dr km mtn min
Thus the hawk initi31ly gets wtrmcr by alm~t 5 .5 degrees per minute: at it dl\·c1
toward the: ground. •
J
9 12 CHAPTER 13 Partial Diflcrent iation
Inte rpretatio n of the Gra die nt Ve c t or . .

· 1 int erpretation that mvo lvcs the max1mum
'!11c gradient vector \1 f has nnlm p~rtan f h. d '{("· enti ablc fu ncti on fat a give
po~~ihlt; value of the directional defi Vclt iV; ~ td ~h~ Uc;~ it V~CtOr II (Fig. 13.8.4), the~
point f'. I f ¢ is th e angle betwee n \1f(l) an
Eq. ( I I ) gives
D. !< /' )= \1[( f') . 11 = (\1! = (\1/ ( !')(cos¢
·
becauSe In (= l. ll1c maximUm ' hi · , 1 , f co~¢ i ~ I ' and thisoccu
po~~~ c \ a Uc; 0
rs when o== O·
r , . .
•ll11s
· IS
· so when u 1 · 1ar un1·t ' ·c·ctllr '" -- \lf( P Jfl \1[ ( I )(
·S the parucu . that pomts m. the
FIGURE 13.8.4 The angle¢ . . r h I' I '"/( !') itself In this case th<! pre VIOUS formu la Yields
d 1rcc11on o t c grac le nt vee or v · · •
between '\1 f and the unit vector u .
Dm f< PJ=i\lf (/')1. (15)
so the value of the directional derivat ive.: in this direct io n is ..:qual to the le ngth of the
gradient vector. l l1is argum ent establishes th e fo llowing res ult.
THEOR EM 2 Significance of th e Gradie nt Vecto r . .

The max imum value of the direc tional de riva tive D., /( P ) IS obtamed when u
is the unit vector in th e direction of the grad ient \'ector \1 /( P); th at is. when
u == V f </ 'J/I V /( /')1. '!11c value of the.: m ;-~x i m um direct ional derivative is (\1 /( P)I.
the length ur the gradie nt vector.
ll1Us th e gradien t vecto r \1 f po ints in the d irectio n in which the fu n ction fin ·
crm scs the mosr rapidly, and it.1· /,·n~-:th is the rate of in crease of f ( witlr resp~ct to
rlistaiiC<') in that dir~ction. For instanct:, if th e function f gives t he temperature in
space. then the grad ient vector \1 / ( P) points in the direc tion in which a hawk at P
should initi ally fly to get war mer the fastt:st.
EXAMPLE 5 Recallthc temperatu re functi on

I
w = f (x . )'. zl = 180 [7400- 4x- 9y - (0.03) xy) - 2~
of Exa~nplc_ 4 (wi th distance in kilometers and tempe rature in degrees Ce lsius). In

what d1 rcc11~n should a h:l\vk. starting at the point {'(200. 200. 5) at an altitud.: of
~ km, dtvt: m ~rdc r to g.:t warmer the fastest? How rapid!\• will its temperature
mcrcasc as 11,d1vcs .at a. speed
. of . 3 km/min?
. ' w·111 h'·.: 1't s· compass 1tea d'mg and
· What
angIeo f desce nt as II chves 111 th1s particular direction?
Solution In Exa mple 4 we calculated the value
""/( !')
v =--·-
10 .
180
IS
- j -2k
180
of the gradi ent vector or f at the poi nt /'(200 200 S .
value · · · ). By TI1corem 2, the max1mum
tlw
- 1 =D,.. [( Pl= I\1/( Pli=
IS
V(-~)
180 -,.
2
, ( IS )
2
+ (- 2)2 ~ 2.0025
- 180
(•C/km) of th e directional derivative of I t p . .
a ts attamed with the unit vector
rn - V / (/') "" I ( 10 15 .
- (\1/(1')1 ~ UXi25 - ~ 1 - - j _ 2k)= -lOt - l5j - 360k
180 11 0 360 45 .
Titc speed of the hawk is tis /tit - 3 ktn/ . ·
·
cxpcncnced by the hawk is - mtn, so th e Itme rate o r change of temperature•
·
dw tlw cis ( •c
dl = ds . tit ~ 2.002s -k ) (3 k~ ) =6.0075 ·c
m mtn · ·
111111
Thus the hawk ini1ially gets warmer by sli h
the ground. g tl y more 1han 6 • cJmin as it dives townrd
-
s
Firure 13JI.5 iho-ol the third-<juadran t \ector -JOi - 15j thlt represents the
r
ha11.l:'< (hori7ontalj comrJn he:~ding oi :r- tan - 1( 1:::: 2J6.JI ' (abou t :"6.31 so uth
of "' c~t ) . lhc ha11. ( 1~ desunJm2 }60 mtt~rs vertielllv for C\ a\' Jw: ...
15: :::: 1!\.021\
n . - . .
. leter\ It 0 1 e~ ho ri70ntalh I fence its am!Je of descent (mc:lSUr<..'J from th e ho rizon Ia))
"ahout t an-I r 3~l ' l\(J2P, 1 ::: i .l3' . - +
The Grad ient Vecto r as a Norm al Vector

Con\idcr the graph o! t he cquJt ion
f (X.}. : \=0. ( 161
FIGURl 1l.8.S l he d1vlng h~N'r.'i "'he re the funct ion F i\ continuolUiv d1!fercnti3l>le. The implicit fwu:tion tlrl'nrt'm
compall heading. MM~d in Section 13.7 (1heorcm 3 there\ tmrhc< tlw. nc;u :1ny poi nt I' whe re the
par ll al d cri,·ati'c ;, { fit: t< l'•)n7ero. Eq t Ito) define< : tmrhcitly as a continuously
dtllcren t table functtnn f nf .r and , Thu< t!:~ trlph f t r . >. : 1= 0 n•incidc>-nc:tr
/'- with the ~urfa•e : = /1 • ' '· St;:u!Jrl).thc j:f:!ph ,)( Eq (16\ ('(lin.:nk~ "ith t he
surf:tcc uf the form , - s,:l • : 1 ne.u an~ pomt "'here ,1 f 1 t is non1cm. :~nd " ith 3
\Ur f.tCe } ="' t . ~ I ncar an~ ro•nt "'here l F ;;, i~ m>nrc ro In <hurt. the !!r:-tph of
F ( A. ). ::I "' 0 lool.\ hlc 3 SUf f.ICC near an\ romt r ~I "' hteh ~F(rl -1 0 (~o th:\1 :II
lca~t nne of the par11~l dcrJ, at l\ c< ofF •~ non1cro) 111c nc~t theorem impl ies tha i
the p.r~d•cnt ,·ector 'V I ( /'1 i< then normal to the ~urfacc f (.r . y. : 1= 0 ntth e po int /'.
~
I
r,) VFCI'0 1 THEOREM 3 Gradie nt Vecto r as No rmal Vector
f ' ( l• • ()•0 Suppo<c that F ( t . •v. : l t< con linuou~l~ d• ffcrentt~hlc nnd let / b( . ) \1 . :ol be: a
rtrl .
1, ~
,
)
potnt of the paph of the t'IJUatton f l.1 . ) . ~I= 0 at "'hich V f ( Pol ;i 0. If r(l) i~ :t
differentiable cur\'C on this surface with r(t~ l = ( r.1. )\1. :o) and r'( IJ ) -# 0, then
V f(Po) · r' Cro) = 0. (17)
'· . l ltt.ts V F( /'0 ) is perpendicular 10 the tangent \'ector r'(l0 ), ns indicated in Fig. 13.8.6.
fiGURE 1l.8.6 The gradient
vector V F II normal to every
curve in the \ UrfJce f ( • . y, z) = 0. 1'/UJOI: ll1e stateme nt th at r(r) lies on the surface F(x. y. : ) =0 implies that
F(r(r)) = 0 fo r ali t. Hence
0= 0. F ( r (lo)) = VF(r (ro)) · r' (to)= V f ( l'ol · r '(t.:J)

hy the c hain rule in the form in Eq . ( 12). 111erdorc the nonzero \'CCtors Vf( / b) and
r '(ro) arc perpendicular. -c
Decausc the gr:-tdicnt vector V F(/'lJ) is perpendicular at Po to every curve on
the surf:1cc through l b. it is a normal •-ector n to the surface F (x. y, l) = 0 nt the point
/b:
iJF aF iJ F
n = -i + - j + - 1... (18)
a.r ily ;':
1£ we write the explicit surface equation:= f (x, )') in the form F(x, y. 4) = f(x. y)-
z = O. then
ar 1+ ar1+ ark = at 1+ at 1-k.
a.r ily ill il.r ay
lllus Eq. (IS) agree s with the definition of a normal vecto rthat we ga\'Cin Section 13.4
(Eq. (13) there). . .
J( the tangent vecto r T to a curve IS normal to t he vector n at the pomt P, then
T lies in the plane through P that is normal to n. If the function F is continuously
differentiable. we therefore d~fine the tangent plane to the surface f(x. y. d = 0 at
u point P(a, b. c) :tt which V f( P) 'F 0 to be: the plane through P that has the normal
vector 0 given in Eq. ( 18). An cqu:l!ion of this ta nge nt plane is then
F.r(a. b. c)(x- a)+ F_. (n . b. c)(y- b)+ F,(n . b. c)(: - c) =0. (19)
EXAMPLE 6 Wri te a n equ:l!ion of the plane t:mgent to the ell ipsoid 2.r: + -ly: +
z2 = 45 at the point (2. -.3. - 1).
Solution If we write
F< ..... - + -1 ,.: .._:!- -15 .

~ -,......·) =..,r: ~
then F(x. y. : ) = 0 is an equation of the ellipsoid. ll!Us. by ~l cor.: m.3. a vector nom1JI
to the ellipsoidal surface at (.r. y. :) is '\F (x. y. :>= (4.r.liy. 2: ). so
'VF(J.. - 3. -1 l = 1\i - ~-lj - ::k
is normal to the ellipso id at (2. -3. -1 ). Equation ( 19} then gives the answer in the
form
2-l(y + .3 ) - 2(: + I l =0:
7 .• S(x - 2) -
.
that is.-lx - l 2y- :=-15.
•
/ If F and G are continuously d ifferenti able functi ons of three vari:Jhh:s. th~n
/
the intersectio n of the surfaces
I
I
F(x . y. : ) =0 and G(x. y . : ) = 0 (20)
will generally b.: some sort of curve C in space. \ lore pn:cisely. if P is a point of C
/
v where the two gradient v.:ctors '\F( P ) :uH.l '\G(I') arc not collinear. th en a !!C:ner:tl
/
multivariable ve rsion of the implici t functionth.:orc:m implies th:ll ncar /'til<' equ:t·
tions in (20) can be "solwd for two of the: va ri:lbks in terms of thl' third." lllis ntl':ll1~
FIGURE 13.8.7 VF x VG is that the two equations implicitly defi ne ei ther .r and y a;; fun.:tions of :. l>r ." ami :
tangent to the curve C of
Intersection. as functions of .r. or x a nd: as functions of y. In any .:ven t. C is a s nh>oth curw tlllt
passes through P. Dcca us.: this curve lies o n bo th surfaces. it s tam:cnt vt'ctor at I' is
perpendicular to both their norma l \'CCto rs vF( P) and v G( P). It follows that th('
vector
T = v F ( P) x v G(P)
is tangent a t P to the curve C of intersection of the two surfnc.:s F(x. ,., : ) = 0 anJ
G(x. y. z) =0. (See Fig. 13.8.7.) ·
EXAMPLE 7 l11e point P(l.- I. 2) lies o n both the: p:-.rabo lo id
F(x . y. : ) =x~ + y:- : = 0

and the ellipsoid
G(x. y. :) = 2~: + 3y2 + i- 9 =·0.

Write an equatio n of the plane through P that is normal to the curw of intcrsccti•>ll
fiGURE 13.8.8 The point of these two surfaces (Fig. 13.8.8).
P(l, - I, 2) on the curve of.
intersection of the parabolOid Solution First we compute
f ( x, y. z) ., o and the ellipsoid
C(x, y. J') =0 of Example 7, VF= (2x.2y.-1 ) and v G= (-I.r. 6y.2: ).
and the tangent line L through P
that is parallel to the vector At P(l. -I. 2) these two vectors arc
y.., Vf(P) x VC(P) =
(-14. -12. - 4}.
V F(l , -1.2)= (2. -2. -I) and v G(I. -UJ = (.t. - 6.-1 ).
Directional Der+tativei and the Gradient Vector SECTION 13.8 91 5
H~nce .a vector tangent at P to the curve or inte~ection or the paraboloid and the
e lhpsotd is
j k
T=Vfx 'VG= 2 - 2 -1 = (- 14,-12.-.l).
J -6 .l
A slightly simp ler vector parallel to T is n = (7. 6. 2). and n is also normal to the
desired plane through {1. - I. 2). Th~ refore an equation or the p lane is
l 7(x - I ) ~ 6(y ~ I ) + 2(: - 2) = 0:
FIGURE 13.8.9 Gradient vecton

~nd level curves for the function
tha t is. 7x + 6y + 2: = 5. •
f ( x, y) = x1 - 7xy + 2y'. A result analogous to Theorem 3 holds in two dime nsions (and in higher di·
mensions). If the function F of two variables is continuous~\· difkrcntiablc. then the
=
graph or the equatio n F (x. y ) 0 looks like a smooth ct•rY~ C near each po int Pat
which v F( P) ,.= 0. and then the gradient vector '\F ( /') is norma l to Ca t /'. Conse·
qucntl y, if we usc a computer algebra system to plot bo th a number o f lcvd curves
and a "field" or d ifferen t gradient vect o rs of the funct ion F (x . y). then (as illustrated
in Fig. 13.R.\I) the gradient vecto r a t each point is normal to th e level curw through
th at point.
EXAMPLE 8 Write an equa tion of the line tangent at th e point (1. 2) to the
rolium o r Descartes with equa tion F<x. y) =2'1'3 + 2r.l- 9xy=0. (Sec Fig. 13.8.10.)
Solution The gmdic nt of F is
'VF(x. y) = (6x 2 - 9y)i + (6y1- 9x)j .
So a vector normal to the foli um at (I. 2) is vf(l . 2) = -121 + 15j. Hence the
FIGURE 13.8.10 The folium and
tangen t line h as equation -12(x - I ) + 15(y - 2) =0. Simplified, this is 4x -
its tangent (Example 8). 5y + 6=0. •

1. The partial derivatives f,(a. b) and f,.(a. b) give the slopes (vertical rise per
horizontal run) of the lines tangent to the x-curve == f (x, b) and the y-curvc
: = f (a, y) through the point (a. b. I (a. b)) on the surface z = j(x. y). What
is nn analogous interpretation of the directional derivative D,.f(a , b)?
2. Suppose that you have: a map showing level curves fort he function z f(x. y) =
describing a mountain you're climbing. How can you usc the level curves to
sketch a path of ~steepest ascent" from your present location on the moun·
tain side to the peak of the mount<~ in'! This will be a path that at each point
climbs as steeply as possible. Would your compass heading on such a path
or steepest ascent always be directly toward the mountain peak?
~ 13.8 PROBLEMS
In l'wblem.s 1 through JO, find tlrt gradit'nt vector V f at tht 6. f(x.y.z) = Jx 2 + y2 + z2 : 1'(12.3,4)
indicatt'd point P.
7. ftx. y. z) = t'' sin y + t' 1 sin z + e' sin x; P(O, 0, 0)
I. /(x. y) = 3x- 7y: P(17, 39)
2. /(x. y) =3x2 - Sy; P(2. -3) 8. j(x, y, Z) c x2 - 3yz + r; P(2,1, 0)
3. /(x. y) = exp( -x 2 - i>: P(O. 0) 9. f(x, y, Z) = 2./Xfl; P(3, -4. -3)
4. /(x. y) = sin ~ lfXy; P (3. -I)
10. f<x.y.z) = (2..r -3y+5d; P(-5.1.3)
S. f<x. y, zJ = 1- i; P(l7. 3, 2)
9 16 CHAPTER 13 Partial O:fferenliation
In f'mh/ma 1/thrnugh 10. fin rlthr tlirwiono/ deri•·om·r off ot

.SO. S uppo5e that 1 is a function of three indcrcndem ,·ariJb!:s
;x . ,., and : . ho " ' thJt D1 I== f,. DJ / = f,. an d D, f = f:.
I' intire tlirec:tirJII of v; tlmr i~ find
v .u. Sh~" that the equation o f the line tan):cnt to th: co~i•a~c.
n. / U'I. u=-. tion Ax:_ Br_l _ C.•.: = Datt hc !"lint C.r,. _l , lts
11 1
tt. /( r,y)=.r=+2xy+3y 1
: f'(2.1). v = (l.l ) ( A r )r - j 8 y _r - r ' I - I C.' l y = D.
12. f<x.yl=r',in.'~ /'CO. :r j .!), l = 1.-1 .$2. Sl:o "' th3tthc equ~tiO:ll~f th: r!.lr~ IJ'1f~!H IO the qclJ:;;
surface A,:- s,.~ - C:- = {)at th<.' f''Hll (.[ .... :. I IS
13. f<x. )') = x 1
-
1
x y+ xyZ.,- r': 1'0. -I). 1 = 2i + Jj
, A.r '·' -' fJ, '·'- tC:.,l: =D.
1-l. Jcx. yl = t:•n· • U): /'c-3. 3). 1 = 3i - .!j
.u. Sholl thJt Jn cquJt i0n ,,r the rbnc t J n~cnt tO t~~
IS. [ex. yl = ; in xco,y: /'(:r/3. - 2.~ /3). 1 = t J. -3) r:~raN>h)iJ : == A r:- 8,; ~I the l"'ln t ( t • y_. . :'.!) is : -:. =
:!At.t"-~Rv\
l ei. fC x. }'. ~~ = xy + .H + ~: I'( I . -I. 2). 1 = ( 1. I. I )
~. Sur>"'""' t!lltt!!e t:!'lr-.:rJturc at the f""nl .1 r. y. : I in Sj\1~.
17. f( x. y . ~~ = Jxy~ : 1'(2. - I. -2). ' = i + 2j - 1~ "'"h d 1 ,ta:~::: mcJ-~rd m l t!,,mcter' ''):lien by
l it / (x. y. ~~ = ln0 + r 1 ~ 1)-;2): PO . -l.ll. • = 2i -2j - :' ~ " =; t •• : •= ! t- t\- r::. - .'~
19. /(.t , y. ~~ = e''': /'(4. U, - 3). v = j - k (Ill <kcre~< Cd-iu- 1. Fi::J th.: r Jt: ,,r
chJngc (i:t cl:f:~es
Ccl<au< l'<'r l.o h1m~l~rl oi t~nlf'<'l.llUI~ a: the roin t PI!.::
211. f<x. y. ~~ = J1n - .r 1 - >J - z2: I'll. 1. - 21. v = (3. 4. -12) =
in th~ dnc~t1lln C'f th~' 't..'\Lnr ' i - : j - : k.
In /'rob/cm.f 2/rhmu~:lo 2.~. jim/ rhe m n r mwm tlort'Cltllnlll drr1111· ~5. Suppo'c th ..lt tht! fu~.:: H,,n
til·.: off or P aml rhe t!trct'lion in wh ich 11 occurs. h = [1 t . \, ; I = J(l - I I - (:- y:
21. /(.r, y) = 2.r 1 + 3t)' + 4); : / '(1 , 1)
of l'rot-:cm .w Clle< th" t<tr.;-.=r~tu:c J tthc p..>int ls. _1. : oc!
21. [(.r. y) = arc~an(~): /'(2, -3) srace. l l..nat- an th!< prct-!"m ·"" an l.iil>mctcrs. cl~!=-:=
Cei<•U"- and m.:tutK) \\'b tumc rate of chan):c (in C!f.:~
2J. / (x,y) = ln (.r1 + y2 ): /'(3, 4 ) Celsou< rcr minUl~ ) "'II 3 ha"'k or<cn c J < it tli;!S t~ct'~;~
P(l . 2. Jl at a Sf'<'Cd o! : k m min. he.ldmJ; dtr~ctly to,. lrJ
2-l. f <x. y l = sin (3.r - 4y): /'(rr/ 3.n / 4) the poin t Q,J, ~ . ~ ~~
25. /(.r. y. z) = 3.r + y! + 4:2: /'(1,5. -2)
1
.U.. Suppose that the tc mper3turc" (in degrees Cc:lsius) atth!
21\. f (.r. y. z) = cxp(.r - y- :); /' (5. 2. 3) poin t (.r . .') i< !!"""by
w c fir . .' I = Ill - 10.003lr: - tO (X}.l).'; ·
27. / (.r, }'. ~) = ~: /'(2. 2 . 2)
In "' hat d orcction u s!loul.l a t>umhk!>cc at the l'l' int c.:.l. _;,
Ul. f(.r, y. ~) = J2.r+ 4•· +6~: 1'<7.5.5) initially fl~ in order IO get "'JmtCf the l'!ll~t ~ui:lh ~ fi:;.!
In ProhJ.•ms 29 rh mu~h .J.I, tt.fe the normal graditnt lt'Ctor to t ~c darcctional dcril ati,·e D. ftJII, ~)J in thi> ''l':ir:1;l .!im:·
tum u.
wrirr an rquntion (If thr lmr (or plane) tangemro rhe Jli•·rn cmw
(or s mfiu·e) or the J:il'<'n p nim 1'. .17. Sup!X>~c tha t the temf'<:rature II· (in dcl!rccs Ccl-;i u.<) atth~
1 1 pomt (.t. y, ~~in space is ~iven hy •
2?. cxp(25- .r - y ) = I; /'(3. 4)
;1(1. 2.rl + :l)) = 35; 1'(2. 3) II' = 50+ xy~.
Jl. x' T.ry+ / = 19: /'(2. -3) (a) Find the ra te of change of tcmf'<'r:uu rc ,.ith re<J'C'-'1 I''
d asta ncc a t the point P (3. .!. 11 in the d irc.:t i,,n ,,r t!lc •c:·
32. 3x1 + 4y: + 5:1 = 73: 1'(2. 2. 3) to r 1 _= (I • .,- · ...~ ) · (Th c u n.ts
. o ( th,un.:c m ' f'.J,'t" 2:-(' !'c-rt l
JJ. x''' + y 113
+ ~Ill a I; 1'(1. - 1.1) (h) Fand the ma• ir.t31 d irccllonal Jct i\ Jtl\c EJ.II' 3: t~(
~. x y ;;;+x= - 2y + 2 - 14; 1'(5. - 2.J) rx>mt PC3. 4 . I l 3nd the d~rc~tiun u in " hach that r.~:nun::a>
OCCUIO.
The properties ofgrntl:mr •·r rrors lisrt•tl in /'rob/ems J.S through
J Hexlzihit rlze ci<m: mwlo~y bttn·t'<'ll the gradimr opaoror V and 48. Supro<c that the temperature (in dq~rcc< Celsius) at the
pomt (x · )'· ·)
' in s pace ·as £1l
· cn by the fllrmub
th~ sin}:lc.~•'-'tlfi"bh• tlt•rn·ative opt:rotor D. \'t·rif.v each. a.tSiuni11~:
tlzat a and I> Of<' CUIIj fUIItS lllllltlzlll " am/ t• art drff~rellliub/e
frmcrions of.r antl y . The units of d ' <t •·
~~' = IOC-x1 -
., ; -.
_ .:
f ' anct '">pace a rc mel. (al FinJ t!>c rJt<

JS. V (a~<+bu)= a Vu + bVo·. ;\1\. V (uu) = t<Vu + t•V11• o c~angc o f tc mpcrJturc at the pomt l't \ -~ ' l '"I~< J:·
rcctzo n r h .. .•
- = vV u-• uV u ·r
)7. 't' ( ") ~
l II ,- 0 .
docs 1\'o I c ' CCio r ' = .'i - ~j - I :~ . (h) In "' hl l Jn·~.'l"-'~
v .~ . .onere as.; OICI>t rapiJ h 3t /'"! \\nat i< th<: , ·;t(uc ,,(
the maxunal d arc.:cltonJI
. .•
.)II. If n is a po<itive imegcr, then V11" = ntt"" ' V11 • d en\ a live- a t J•".'
J9. Show that the v<~luc of a diffctcntiablc function fd·'~r 'S
49. Suppose th at th 3 1 ·
e Illude ~ (in m ile; a bo'c S<'l k ,el)" 3
r
the most rapidl y nt/' in the direction oft he vector
d irectly oppo>itc to the gradien t vector.
/(';,s
'
-'v , . . :
ccrtam hollas dcscr·L .,d b h· ·
""' Y the CIJUa tioo ~ = /t.r. \'I , " ' ''
l~(.r: - .ry + 1y=l .
l
!Cr.)')=
Directional Derivatives and the Gradient Vecto r SECTION 13.8 917
(~)\\"rile :.n cqua1ion (in _ •h~ form <=ax+ by+ c) of SiiC"C' Of
1hc p~:me 1.1n~cnt 10 I he h11l"d~ a1 I he po im P (2, 1. OA). :=/l t.)')
(b) Usc ' fl - . l l l o appmxmmc Ihe ahiludc of 1h • h'll
. '"'~ . _ Q J ,
3 t-o,·c 1he po m1 ' - ·• ·
c I
'.l m lhc .n-planc. Compare your 1n,/1•. yl
rtsu1t \\ lth the :IC"tual3hltude :u this po int. _____).7_____{_!
~- fi nd an cqu.1ti0n for lhc p b nc 1>ngcn1 10 1hc l':traboloid
' .. ... • t • I I
: = -t· - _.. yo· 3nu, Slll\U t:.tn<:ously, p3ratl~l tO t he rt:me I
~x- 3y - .: = 10. PC<11 ._
I ___U _ __
~I. TI>c "'nc ' "' h <'qual icm : : = x: + )~ and 1hc pb nc wilh
FIC.URE 13.8.13 The etoss section of the part of
c:qu:Hi''" :._, -+ .:-.,\ ... J: + ~ ::: 0 intersect in an cll ifKe. \\'rite
the graph abov~ u (Problems 56 through 61 ).
Jn cqu:lll<'n of t h~ r l.me n nrm:ll to 1his ellipse .al l he point
P !~ . .:. - ~ ~ ( Fi~. 1.' !'.!!)
57. Yo u are Slanding a1 the point ( -1 00. - 100. 430) on ll>e hill
~!. It ~~ :1pp.u~nt frnm !!~onu:t~· that the h ighest and lo"c~t of Problem 56. In what dircclion ( tha t is. with what corn·
>'" nts ,,( the dilp>C of Problem 51 are th<1se pooints where p .1 S\ headi ng) sh<)Uid you proceed in order to climb the- most
ns t:ln~cnt line is ho rizontal. Find thO"-l" points. s1eeply' AI wh>t angle fro m the h o rizontal will yo u initiolly
be climbi ng?
~..\ Sh~v. that the :r~.pherc x= + y: + :? = , : and th~ cone
::' = ~: •: - tr _~: arc ortho~"""l (that is, have pcrpcndic- 5H.. Repeat Problem 56, but no w yo u arc standing a l the po inl
ubr t:' n~cnt pb nc-s) :H C\cry point o f their rin terscctio n /'(100. 100. 500) o n the h ill described by
(Fig. l~.lU : ). 1000
: = l .;. (().()()()(lJJx'.;. (0.00007Jy' ·
59. Repeat Problem 57. except begin at the po inl
/'( 100. 100. 500) o f Ihe hill of Problem 58.
60. You arc stand ing a t the poinl (30. 20. 5) on a hill " i th t he
shnpe o f the surface
: = IOOexp ( - .<' + 3>;) .

70 1
(a) In wbal direction (with what compass heading) should
you proceed in order to climb the most steeply? At what
anale fro m the horizontal will yo u initially be climbing?
(b) If. instead o( climbing as in plrt (a) , you head d i rectly
f iC.URE 13.8. 11 The FIC.URE 13.8.12 A <:ut-away west (the negati..-e x·dircction). then at what angle wi ll you
c on~ and p'ane of view of the cone and sphere of be climbin g initi ally?
Problems .5 1 and 52. Problem 53.
61. (a) You arc standing at t he point where x = y = 100 ( ft) on
S-4. Suppos.: t!ut 'P1 and 'P: are planes tangenl to the circu_lar the side o f a mountain whose height (in feel above sea Je,·el)
is gi,·en by
cllipwid .~ ... i ... =
2::' 2 at rhe two points P1and P, hJnng t • •
the lllm c : <oor<linatc. Show that 'P1 and 'P: Intersect the ~~ - - (3.r· - Sxy + y'),
1000
.:-axi1 at the ume point.
with the x-nxis pointing cast ond the y·axis pointing n o rth.
~5. A plan~ tan£cntto the surface xy; =I nt a point in I he first
If you head norlllc:l.lt. will ~(IU be asccndms or descentding?
ocunt cu!s o ff a p) ra mid from t he firs t ocl ant. Show lhat
AI whal ongle (in degrees) from the hnritontal? (b) If you
~n: 1'4 0 su ch pyramJd\ have: t he same volume.
head 30 • north of east. wi11 ~uu t'C a...:c:nt.h n s, or dr-scem.hng7
Al-.hsl angle (in dq:recs) from the horiwntt11'!
In Prob!"nu 54 lhrouAh IJJ. tht" function t = f<r. • )') dt'Jt rrb.a
62. Suppose thot the t-.·o surf.~ee• f<.<.y. zl= O and
tht Jhcot uf 0 11111. J1 P ) ;j t iof altitutf, of the ht/1 al>lwc tht polflr
g ( x. y. :l a 0 both pass thn>u~h the p0int I' where both gra-
i'f .r . ) : m tht' X\ ·plant' If .H Jtl fla rt at tilt' poin t (r. f ( P ), .oftlu.J
dient veclon 'tl f! 1'1 an<! 't'g ( /') exi~t (a) Sho -. that the two
lui!. tl:n! D.. / (p} t1 }tiUf 1111,. 11/ cftmh (rttt: pt'f l l nll oflw rr.:onflll
surfaccsa re tan11ent ot /'if and nnty if 't'/I I') x 't'g( l'l = 0.
duranc<J "' \Otl prt~Crt'd in tltt' honl ont:tltllfrCiio n U = a i + bj
(I>) Sho w th•tthc 1wo surfaces are urthot:onal at /' if and
·
A rul:h,.ant;!t'ai ~huh .''''' c1""1' ~·IJl1(' ) l, t1 wn/Jc m ehi r J irtrtio"
o nly if V / ( /') · Vg ( /') • 0.
u y = tan 'I /). { I I' I!. aJ ''"""'"' 1-'•!1· /J X I J.
56. Yoo ore >U ndtng 31 I he potnl ( - 1111. - !IWl. 4J0) on I hill
t.l. Sui'P'" " 1ho1 lhc pl~nc Ve<to rs u antl v arc n u t collinear
and lh;at the fu nctto n /lx . yl is d 1ffercnllablc at P. Shu-.
thar ha• t he 'hap.: o f 1hc g raph uf
that lhe value.• of lhe d irectinn~l denn tl\·cs D., f <P) and
:=SIYJ - 10 00J1 •' - IO n'J.Ill. 0. f (/'l determine Ih e ' ·aluc o f the tltrcctio nal dc rivaltvc
o f fat /' in every other direction .
.,11h' · , :~nd • ~.t<en 10 feet. (>) \\'hat ,.,u
be your rale of
• • o<er
clc-nb (riu ' run) 1f )OU hca d non h '"". >t'· At •·b~l an· 64. Show th•lthefunch o n / I•. yJ ~ (To + ~ l' isconttnuou'
tie fro m !be ho m ont• l "' Ill ) OU be climbing? (b) Rtput atlhe on&in and ha• d irectional d c riv•t•vc• in all d tr<"ctton'
P>rl h). e1rept no"'· you h ead no n hca>t. !here. bul is no ' differentiable ot the o n &i n.
]3.91LAGRANGE MULTIPLIERS AND CONSTRAINED OPTIMIZATION

In Section 13.5 we discussed the problem of finding the maxi?'um a~d minimum
values a ttain ed bv a function f (:c. y) a t points of the plane reg• on R. 1n th e simple
case in which J< c.onsists of the points o n ;md within the simple closed curve C. We
saw tha t any local maximum or min imum in the interior of R occurs a t a point where
= =
f, ( x. y) o· f>(x. y) or at a point whe re f is not differen tiable (th~ latter usually
signa b .! by the failure of/. or f,. to exist). He re ~~·e discuss the v~ry d1Herent mauer
of find ing the maximum and minimum valu es attamed by / at pomts of the /)()ulldary
CUr1·e C.
If the curve C is the graph o f the equatio n g (.r. y ) = 0 . then our task is to
maximile o r minimize the function [ C:c. y ) suhjcct to the constraint. or s ide condition.
g(x. y) = 0. ( I)
\\'e cou ld in principle try tO solve thi ~ co n~trai nt eq uation for y = ¢ (x) and th e n max-
imize o r minim ize the singk·,·aria ble funct ion /(.r. ¢(x)) by th ..: s tand;Hd method of
finding its critic~! po ints. But " hat if it i ~ impractica l or impossible to so lve cq. (1)
explicitly fo r )' 111 terms of x? An al ternative approach t hat does not require that
we first solve this equation is the mcth url uf lagrange multiplie rs. It is named
fo r its tli ~cu,·~rc!r. the ltal_ian-horn French mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange
{1731'>-ISIJ). l11e method tS ba>cJ un TI1cm.: •ll 1.
THEOREM 1 Lagrange Multiplier (with one constraint)

Let !_C.r_. y) ~ nd g(.r. y) be continuou~ly differentiable functions. If the maximum
(or nummum) value of f(x. y ) subject to the constraint
g(x. y ) =0 (I)
occurs at a point P where Vg( P) '# o. then
V /(I') =>. Vg( P) (2)
for some constant J....
I 'ROOf' Because Vg{ P) '# O.thc implicit functi n 1h

of the con~traint equation g(x y) _ 0 ° . .
eo rem •mphes that the graph C
tinuou~ly differentiable singl•.',.3 r::bl agfrees_nca r ~Cxo . Yo ) with the graph of 11 con·
. c • 1·• c unctiOn-en her 1· - ( ) fl -·
case pmv1des a smooth parame tr'lc . • - a .r or x = (.1·). Ett hc r
",-or ·mstance .111 the case ,. _' ~ c r ) cur' e
d li r(r) whose ima . . ·
ge oll!rees ne;tr I ' w1th C.
, · · . -" · we e tne r(l) - ( -
=
r ~ro! = ( 1. a '(t,)) T' 0 as indicated in Fi . 13 9 I - r. aC_f)). If r(r~ ) (.ro._.IIJ ). then
mmtmum) value on c at /'( r l h!! · · · · If /C.r · .1) attam s Its m;~xunum (or
· · . · o. ) 'n • t C O the COmpo 't f ·
tams us max1mum (or minimum) , 1 s1 c uncuon (I) = /( r(r)) at·
F_
laucatr -- r0 • sot!13 t F. ' (To) = 0 . .nlerefore

. = =
F'(tn) V /( r (ro)) . r' (to) V /( P). r' (lo} 0 = (3)
by the grad1cnt vecto r form of the ch•oHO . ru le of Eq (P) . s .
. II ccausc r(r) lies on the curve (x. , _ ~ ·~ cellon 13.8.
FIGURE 13.9.1 The conclusion of '

J.c ·
•~ constant-valued-G(r) =0-so 1 l ·1 l - O, th e composite function G(r) = g(r{l ))
a 0 · ll1crcforc
Theorem 1 illustrated.
G'(to) = V g(r (lo)) . r'{to) =V •( P • r' I
Equations (3) and (4). when taken to et h . 8 ) ( ol =0. (.$)
vectors V /C P) and Vg ( P ) are both p g e r... mply that the two-dimensional plane
are therefore collinear. Because V g ( ~t;~da~ular to the nonzero vector r' (to). and
scala r multiple of V g( P ) J. ust as cl . d . • It now follows that V I ( P) must be a
• a1me Ill Eq. ( 2 ). ~
The M ethod
Let's h ·
see w at steps we should follow to solv
method of Lagrange multipliers. First we eda p~oble':" by using Th eorem 1-the
nee to tdentlfy a quantity z = /(.t, )')to
- l agra"'}e "-' v'l ;:>1nand Cons:r4 ~ Opt:rriz~tio., S~(TlO.'J l3 .9
919
be ma"m11ed " ' mtn tm,zcd, tJb;~tt to the co n.stramt _r ex,) I= 0. Then Eq. ( 1) ;,nd
the tv. 0 \CJiar comronc:nt1 of Eq. (:!) ~i!ld thr~c: c:qu.ltion<:
(I)
~( t . )I"' 0.
(2ll)
f,l:c ••' l= ;.g, C:c .)l. and
(lh)
f,(x . _\) = ;.~,>, (.r, }l.
Thu "'C h;nc: tl:ree cqu:llt'ln< t!ut v.e can al!~mp to 5-0hc for the three unkno"ns
r · '. Jnd ;__ The rornt< 1t . •' t thlt "'C tir:J ( a«um i~ ~ th.lt our dft>rt c~re ;;uccc:;.<ful) :l rc
tl.c onh l""'th!~ l•>::!'tt'~< f, • t:.~ n:rer.u ,,f ' <ul-rc:t t,, th: C<':l•tr .unt ' ' '. ·' l = 0.
llt< ·""'O-tl~d qJu•• of,. cJI ed l ..11:r•nt~ nt ~lripli~r-. m.l< 1....- rc<c.1kJ ·''"ell hu t
often are not of mu.h rntere<l Ftr:ll:\. "'C •.Jku!Jtc th: <.Jiuc ': 1 , 'I Jt c:1ch ,,(the
'01Ul1tUl J"CUOh f t \ ) 10 t•rJer IO 1Jenit!\ ll' r':':.l,lm!Jr:l anJ m intntUm V:l)UC:'-.
\\ c mu't hc.or on mmJ the Jo!,hu,·n·.ll p<><<lntlll' th.lt the m.ntnHtont>r minimum
(or 1-'th)of {111.1\ o...:,ur at.l r->:nt ,.here~. 1 • • •=ll = l.',lt.\l. lllc Ll~r~nj;C mul·
ttphtl meth•~! nl\ htl to 1 >.:lte thc'e e~ccrti<"n~l r<'tnl<.. 1-ut the ~ c.m u'uall~ he
rcCO)'nllcd :1\ J"'l:lt\ "her ~ thr p 1ph of~ ~ I , _I ) : (l (,II" Ill I'<' :1 \ rlll><lth l' lH\'C,
EXAMPLE I lind the p< ttnl\ e>{ t he rcetan!!ubr h~pcrl'l\llJ r Y= I th Jt a rc dosc5t to

the 011{:111 (0. 0) .
=
Solutio n \\'c need tn mtntmue the dl\tancc tf "r,~ from t he ori~tin of a point
/'( \. 11 ••n the cur' c A." "" 1. ll ut the alfenr.l r< ~rmpler if in< tcatl ~<c nrinimilc the
of thi< di<tnncc suhjcctto the comtraint

g(.r.y)=xy-1 .. 0
that the point P hcs on the hy;>crbola. B ecau~
af ilf ilg ill(

-:;- =2x. - = h . and - = \' -= x.
u .f ay . ax ·· iJy
the Lagran!;!c multiplier equations in (2a) and ( 2b) t:tkc the form
2.r = i.)'. 2y= l.r
Ir we multi ply the llrst of these equations hy x and the second by y. we can conclude
th3t
fiGURE 13.9.2 The level cu~

I( •. y) c AI and tht constr3int
=
at /'(.r. y). Butt he factthat.ry 1 > 0 implies that x and y have the s:1mc sign. lienee
curvt g( ' · y) • 0 art :•ngent at =
the fact that xl = ).1 implies that x y. Substituting in .r y = I then gi\'cS .t l = 1. so
a point P where the mJximutn it follows finally thnt either .r = y = I or x = y = - 1. The two resulting possibilities
or minimum v~lue AI is a!taint<!. (1, 1) and ( - 1. -1 ) nrc indicntcd in Fig. 13.9.2. •
REMARK E:otamplc I illust rates an interesting geometric interpretation of Theo-

=
rem 1. We see in Fig. 13.9.2theconstraint curve g_C:c • .V) 0 together u:ith typical level
curves of the funcuon f(.r. y). ~ccause the gradrcnt vectors V' f and V'g are normal
to the kvcl curves of the funct1ons I and g. respect ively. it follows that t~.e curves
/(.t. y),., .\ /and g(.t. y) ~ 0 are tangent ~o one ano~her at the point P where the two
gradient vectors arc colh~ear and f ~ttarns tts maxrmum (or minimum) \'alue M. In
effect. the Lagran~e multrpher en tenon ser~cs to select. from among the Je,·el curves
of f. the one that IS tangent to the constrntnt curve atl'. Thus we see in Fig. 13.9.2
thnt the circle xl + yl = 2 and the hyperbo la x~ = I are, indeed. tangent at the two
points (1, 1) and (-1..-ll where the squared diStance f(x. y) =:rl + yl is minimal
subject to the constratnt g(x. J) = :cy- I.
9 20 CHAPTER 13 Partial Oiffertntiation
. blcm of Example 5 in Section 3.6. we max imized the

1
EXAMPLE 2 In the sawmtll pro be~~ cut from 3 circular log. Now we consider
cro\ \ -scctional area of a rectangu1ar u . f tcnoths a = 2 ft and b = I ft. \\'hat
th e eltpltC:l
' 9 3 \\lth semtaxes o
I . . 1 1og 0 f Fitg. 1-'· ' ' f
.,
tlar b•':llll CUI aS indica ted from lh 'ts
•ts the maxunal
• • 1 ~ rca o a rcctanl!t "
cross-sccttona ~ · -
ell iptical log?
. ded bv t he ellipse (.r/ 2): + _ ,.: = 1: that is. x 1 + -ly1 = 4.
Solution The log ts boun : . d . Fi1 1' 9 3 we want to maximize the
So wi1h the coordinate system tndtcate '" £.· -'· ·- •
FIGURE 13.9.3 Cutting a cro~s-scctional area
II'( \angular beam from an A =f(x. y) =-l.ry (5)
clfiptlcal log (bcample 2).
of the beam subject to the co nstraint
g(x. y) =x= + -tyl- -1 = 0. (6)
Because
ag as •
a[ = 4y. af = 4x
ax ay
and
ax = 2x. -ay ==~'>'·
-
Eqo;, (~)and (2b) give
= onor y
It is clear I hat neither x =0 gives the m:tximum area . so we can solve these
two mult iplie r equations for
2y X
-='- =-.
X 2y
Thus x= = 4y: at t he desired maximum. Becau<e x 2 + ..ty2 = ..\, it f?llows _that x= =
.l y2 = 2. Because we seek (as in Fig. 13.9.3) a first-quadr:mt solution po_mt (x. y).
we conclude that x = ./2. y = 11./i. gives the maxi mum pos<iblc cross-secuonal area
11.,., = 4(./i.)(l j ./i.) = 4 ft2 of a ~cetungul:tr beam cut from the elliptica l_log. Note
that this maximum area o f ~ [ t· is about ~ % of the total cross-sectional area
A= :w b = 2;rft 2 of the original log. •
REMARK =
If we consider all four quadrants. then the condi lion x 2 4y2 = 2 yields
the four points ( ../2. 1/ ../2). (-../2. 1/ ../2). (-.Ji. -1 /.Ji). and ( .Ji. - 1/ ../2). The
2
function f(x , yl = -lxy in Eq. (5) au ains its maximum value + 4 on the ellipse .t -"
4y2 = 4 at the first and third of these po ints and it s m inimum value - 4 at the second
and fourth points. Th e Lagrnngc multiplier m ethod t hus locates all o f the globll ex-
trema of f(.r . y) on the cll ip)e.
In the applied m aximum-minimum problems of Section 3.6. we t ypically began

with a formula such as Eq. (5) of this secti on . expressing th e quantity to bc ma><imilcd
in temu o f Mo variables x andy. for example. We then used some availahk relation
such as Eq . (6) between I he variables x a nd I' to eliminate one o f them. such as Y·
Titus we finally obtained a si ngt..: -vari able frr,-rctioll by substituting fm yin terms of
.tin the original fo rmula . As in E xample 2. the Lagrang.: multiplic r m e thod frce.s us
from the necess ity of fo rmulating the proble m in terms of a single-variable function.
and frequently le ads to a solutio n process t hat is algc':lr:tically simph:r and ca~ic r.
lagrange Multipliers in Three Dimensions

Now suppose that /(.t . >'· ~)and g(x , y, ~)are continuou~ly diffc rcn tia\'lle functions
and that we want to find the points o n the surftlce
(
g x ,y.~J = () m
at which the function f(x. y, : ) attains its maximum a nd minimum values. Thcorct11 1
holds precisely as we h ave statcc.l it. except with three independent variable~ rathc~
than two. We leave the details to Problem 45, but an argument similar to the pr('()
Llgrao<J~ Mu'tpl erl and Co<ntraintd O?tJmizattOn SECTlON 13.9 9 21
VfiPr of lhcnrcm I sh0\1.\ rhat-JI a m3t~mum or mtnrmum rornt r of / ( r . y. : 1 on the
Vrfl'l s~rfacc: J:f ~ ••'. : 1= 0-tt:c t"'o ~radrent ,~ctors ' f CP I ar.J ' "'PI arc roth pcrpcn·
drcular toe' er~ smnoth cur.c: on the surhcc t hmu~:!l P. H en;e th~y are t-oth no rmal
~o the ~u rhcc at r. and arc therefore: colhnc:ar. (Sc:~ Fig. 1~ o J .) lkcau<c <t:'g ( PI'#: 0 .
. ./
It folio"'' t hlt
r
I
, tt,,. :)•O
_, • (8)
for some '\Calar J.. This \'C:Ctor equ:nion correspor.ds to three sc:~lar equat ions. To find
the po\\iblc locations o f the ex trema off su!lject to the constraint g." e c:1n :1ttempt
fiGURE 13.9.4 l he natural
~raloution of Theorem 1 hold\
t o ~oh c: srmultaneousl~ the four equl::om
101 func1Joru olthrct variab'~'
g(.r. y. : ) = 0. (7)
f , (.r. y. : ) = l.~, (.r. y. : ). (Sa)
/,(z. ~· : 1 = '-~, (.r. ~· : ). (8b)
/ ,(.r. >'· : ) = l.g,(;r. y. : ) (8c)
for the four unkno,.nu. y. : . and J.. lf su~es<ful. "c then e\Jiu:\le /(.r. y . : I :11 each
of the 'oluuon pornt\ (;r ..'. : 1 to ~c: at "'hrch rt 3llltns rt< ma~imum and minimum
\':tluc ... I n analogy to the: l\lo n·drmen<ional c:t<e. "'C al<o rhc:ck roin ts ~~which the
~urfacc !((X. y. :1 =n l~il' to I'C <moot h. Th u< the L.ngr~n)!C multiplier me thod wit h
one cnn~t r~int i' e"cntially the •~me in drmc:Mio n three a< in dimcmion two.
EXAMPLE 3 l·i nll the m~xirmrm volume of a rcct:tn!lul~r bo~ inscrihc:d in the
c llip~oill r 2/n: + )~//J1 + :?/<"l c I with iLS f~ccs parallel to the coordinn tc planes
(Fig. 13.•).5).
Solution Let l'(.r. y. :) be the vencx of the hn~ that lies in rhc lint oct~nt (whe re .r,
~·. n nd: nrc all po~ith•c). We want to m:nimitc t he \'Oiume V(z. y. :I = lhy: subject
to the consrraint
xl \ .1 :!-
g (.r. y. :) =--;
a· + ·,,..
.... + -;
c-
- I=0
fiGURE 13.9.S A rectangul.u Equa tions (!\a). (Sb). and (Sc) give
2• x 2y x 21 bo • in\ crib~d in JO 2J.x 2AI· 2>.:
til p10<d with \crniJ• c• o, b, and c. a.._: .
Sy.:= -a•, . 8.t~ = IT 8..t"\' = - •.
• C'"
Tht whol~ bo• I\ d etermined by
1ts fir\t·octant verte• P(K, y, 1). !'an of the :~rt of marhcmatics lies in pau,ing for a momenr to lind nn cleg:mt
way to solve n problem rather rhan rushing in headlnn{: wi th brut e force methods.
Here. if we multiply the first equation by .r, the second by y. and the third by:. we
find thnt
.r-' r. '
2). -; = 21...., = 2J. ~' =!Uy:.
-
a- rr c·
Now .l. ..= 0 because (:tt m:lximum volume) .r. y. and ~ are nonzero. We conclude that
xl yl £1
al = tr = c 2 ·
1llc sum of the lnst three expressions is I, because that is precisely the construint
condition in this problem. Thus each of these three expressions is equal to All !·
three (lf x. y. and: are posirivc. :1nd therefore
a h c
x "" ../3. y= ../3. :1nd t = ../3.
n 1ercforc. the box of maximum \'Oiume has \'Oiume
8
v = v"' .. = 3../3 abc.
9 22 CHAPTER 13 Pa rtia l Diffe rentiation
Note th at this a nswer is d imensionally correct- t he prod u~t o~ the thre; lengths a.
b. and c vie lds a volume. But beca use the vo lume of the el hps01d IS V == 3;rabc, and
I8/C 3J3j ]/ (4:r / 3) = 2/ (.T J3> "" 0.37. it follows t ha t the ma xi~1 al box occupies only
about 37% of the vo lume of the circumscribed e ll ipso1d. Cons 1de nng the M % result
in Exam ple 2. would you consider t his result pla usible. o r surprising? +
Problems that have Two Constraints

Suppose that we \\Jnt to find the maximum and m inimum va lues of the function
f(x. y. ~)a t poims of the curve of intersection of t he two surfaces
g (x.y. z)=O and h(x.y.:) = O. (9)
' l11is is a maximum·minim um proble m wilh r..-o con s traints. The L:~grange multiplier
method for such si tuations is based on Theorem 2.
THEO REM 2 La gra n ge M u lt ipl ie rs (with two const r a in ts)

Suppo~c 1hat f <x. y. zJ . g(x . y. z) . and h(x. y. z) arc co ntinuo usly diffe rentiable
function,. If the max imum (or m in imum ) value of /(x. y . ~) subject to the two
co nst raints
g(x .y.z)=O and h(x.y.z)= O (9)
occurs at a poin t P where the vectors Vg( P ) and V h( !')nrc no nzero and no npar·
allel . then
V f< P) = >-1 Vg( f') + A2 Vh( P J ( 10)
for some two constan ts ;, 1 and >

-2·
OUTI.It\'H OF l 'flOOF 13y an appropria te ve rsion of the imp lici t fu nction thco·
rem. t he curve C of intersection o f the two surfaces ( Fig. 13.9.6) m ay be represe nted
nca r f> by a pa rarnctri.£.£urve r (t ) wit h nonze ro tangen l vecto r r' (t ) . Le t tobe the value
of r such that r (tol == 0 / ' . We comp ute t he deriva ti ves at to of th e composite functions
/ (r (t )), g( r (f)) , and h (r (t ) ). W e find-e xact ly as in the proo f o f l11eore m ! - that
c
-- -
V / ( P ) · r'(to) =O. V,r;( P) ·r'(ro)= O. a nd Vh{P ) · r'(to) =O.
l' ..;· These t hree equation' imply tha t all t hree gr adie nt vectors arc pe rpendicular to
the curve Cat P and thus that they all lie in a single plane, th e plane normal to the
FICURE 13.9.6 The relation curve Cat the poin t P. -
between the g radient vectors in
the proof of Theorem 2. . N_o w Vg( P ) and;:'" <P ) arc no nzero and no npara ll el, so v f(f' ) is the sum of its
proJections onto V;:C I ) and Vh ( /') . (S ee Problem 65 o f Sectio n 12.2.) A s ill ustrated
in Fig. 13.9.7. this fact implies Eq. ( 10). -<
. I ~ exa mples we rrefcr to avoid subscripts hy writing 1. a nd~~ for the Lagrange
muh oploc rs l , lind ;..,- on the stat ement of ·n 1·•or•'
~ ' nl 2. ·111e cq ua t1·o ns m
· (9 ) and the
three sc;1lar co mpo ne nts o f the vecto r c quat 1·,, 11 1·n I JQ) h · . · h • "1vc
. . • , t en gtvc n sc to 1 c "
simultaneous e quau ons
!,'IX , y. Z) =0 , (9a)
h (.r. y. : l = 0. (9b)
/ ,(.1 . y , ~ ~ = A,t; , lx . y, ~~ + Jlil, (x . y. ~). (lOa)
/,.tx. y . : 1 :; '-~:_.t x . y, : 1 ·1- Jl h, (.t . y. :1. (l Oh)
f:lx . y . ~ ~ = >•.r:~tx. y. :1 + Jlll ~lx. y . : l (JOel

FICURE 13.9.7 Geometry
of the equdtion V f ( P) =
J. 1 Vg(P) + l.zV h(P).
- in the five unknowns x, y, z. >.,and ~·
t1
Lag·a"<,jt Mu•::pr ~"~ a'ld Con~tra'~ 0ptl"nild'!lo.1 SECTION 13.9 9 23
EXAMPLE4 Th I ••.
.
c II 'r'c (Fi~ n oS) fi t! h ·.
= .
=
e I' 30t: .r .._ ,. - : 1:! int~~ccts the p..ual:x>loid : .r + .-- m :tn
<- • · ·• · In t e h1~he~t anJ lo"'c~: rom t ~ on th1< clhpsc.
Solution The hc1ght of t he pomt f.t. ' · : ) LS :. so "'C \\;!nt t<) finJ the n1.1~imum nnd
mmunum 1aluc' of ·
/Lt . ."· : \= : ( II}

suhjcct to the t\lo o cond itions
fiGURE 13.9.8 The plane and g( t • ."· :l = .r- .' - : - 12 = 0 ( 121

p.~·aboloid in ter\ e< lin9 on lh~ and
~n p~ of bample 4 .
. . .\ . ..." ) =
, ,( t .r" - .,.: - ...' -- 0 .
' Inc conditionHn ( lOa) throu9J (IOc) }i:::ld
0=1 -1u.r . (1~a)
(1~h)
nnd
=j - IL ( 1~cl
If / I I\ ere 7Ct o. then Eq.( l.!a ) \\ ould imply tha t ~. = 0. \\ hich contradicts cq. ( 1-lc).
lienee 1• 1' O.nnt! thc rcrorc che cq u3tron<
2JLX = -). = 2Jt )'

imply that .r = y. Substi tuting .r =y int o Eq {13) gi\'c~ :=l.r:. and the n Eq. (12)
yields
l.r 2 + 2.r- 12 = 0:
2(.t + 3)(.r - 2) = 0.
=
11ws we oht ain the two solut ions .r = - 3 and .r 2. Because y .r and : 2.r2 . the = =
co rresponding points of the ellipse are r. (2. 2. SJ and /',:( -3. -3. 18). It's clear which
is th e lowest and" hich is the highest. +
More Variables, More Constraints

r-l .a ny practical constrained optimiza tion proble ms ha'\'c more than three variables
an.d/or more than two constrain ts. For inst:lllce. Problem -Ill i~ a concrete plane gc·
o m e try prohk m " ith four independent " aria hies.
ll1crc i;; a general form of the L~grange multiplier condition that applies to
any such prohlcm. wh atever the numbers of \':triahlcs and constrai nts. \ Vc need
only adjoin an additional te rm to the ri gh t·hand side in Eq. (10) for e ach addi -
tional constraint. ll1c rcsultint! condition for ma~imizing or min imizing the value
f (x 1 • x 2• • • • • x. ) of a function of n variahks subject to the k constraints
g, (.r, . .t2....• .r.J = 0.
gz(.r,. xz, ... . x.) = 0.
(IS)
is
(16)
=
where we write P (XJ • .rz•.... .r"). This condition 110\ds under the assumptions
that the functions f. g,, gz . • ..• and gk arc continuously differentiable ncar the op·
timal point r.
and that-in the language of linear algebra-tho: gradient vectors
l
p e linearly independen t in R". The latter hypothesis

V g1( P). V gz( P ). · · · · Vgt~ !.e~:ors ca n be e xpressed as a linear co mbination of the
mea ns that no o ne of these . d d prO\'Cd in Chapter II of Edwa ....
h k I lh di ng theo rem I S state a n r..,,
ot er ·- . ecorrespon - . 1'\cw Yo rk : Do\·e r Publica tions. 1 99~).
Advanctd Calculus of St>•·eral Varwbles (• .
Each of the radie nt vectors in Eq. ( 16) has n com pone ~Ls. When the resu lta~g n
g · ·· co mbined ( Problcm61) wtt h th e k sca la r cquattons
"scala r component cq uataons are .
in ( 15). we obtain the k ~ n scalar equattons
Kt Cx 1 • Xl • . . . • x.l = 0.. ... g ,(x l . xz• •• · . x,.) = 0.

"- f( x 1• Xz, .... Xn ) = A' I '-'1
'-'l
"- g ! (X I · ,r,• • " "
X )+ • · ·
"
+ >.t l>t gk(:CI . X2. • • . • Xn ).
[hf(x 1. x 2• .... x,.) = >. 1D:g1(Xt .Xz • .... x.).., ... + >. tD:gt (XI.x2..... x. ). (17)
to solve for the k + n unknowns >. 1 • '-2· .... >. •. x,.

X2 • .. • • x • .
Fo r in\t~nce. suppmc that we ask fo r the minimal d ista nce be twee n points
l'(x . y. z) and Q(u. 11. 11·) o n two diffe ren t spac.: curves. eac h o f whic h is present ed
as the.: intersectio n of two surface s. We have the six coord inates x. y. z.u. t•. and
w of the two poi nts a nd the fo ur constraan t eq ua tions o f the fo ur given surfaces.
Then the system in (17) becomes a sy~tem o f ten e qua tions in the te n unk nowns
x . y . :.tt. v, w. }. 1 , 1.: . ).J . and;••. Sec Problem 65. whe re th e two c urves a rc skew
lines in space. This i ~ a compa ratively simple ca~c. bu t you sure ly wi ll wa nt to use a
compute r algebra system to solve the problem. (Sec the CD · R0 \1 project material
for this section.)

Give l'xamplrs of continuously diff u em iable ft m ctiom f . g: R 2 _,. R satisfying the
condirions in Qttesrions I rltrouglt 3.
l . f<x: y ) attains a minimum value but no maximum value s ubj ect to the co n-
str:u nt g(x. y) 0. =
2. f (x . )') attains neither a maximum value no r a mi nimum value subject to the
cons tr:unt g (x . y) = 0.
3. f<:r • .") att:lins its maximum value subject to the constra int g(x . 1·) = 0 at a
~an t p 1.\'herc V f( P ) 'I 'A V g( P) fo r a ny 'A . ( In view of Thcore~ I how is
thas poss1blc?) ·
13.9 PROB LEMS

In f'mblt•lll.l I through / 8, find tiff m aximum and m inimrun
,,altus- if may - o/the giv<"n fimcrion f .w bjcct W thc Ri•·cn co 11 • H. / Cx. y . l) = Jx + 2y + z; .r: ·f- l + zl = 1
s train/ or cons troint.t. 9. / (x.y.z) = x+ >'+ z; .t l + 4yz + 9z' = 36
1. [ Cx. y ) = 2.r + y; x1 + y = I 10. / (.r . y. z) = x y:; + yl + i' = I
xl
2. / (x,y) = x + )~ x 2 + -'Y = I 11. f< x. y.z) = X)' + 2;:: .rz + y' + ~ = 36
J. [ Cx. y) = x1 - y'; x1 + l =" 12. / (.r. y . zl = x - >' + - • _ .rz - 6.ry + y •
.. ' -
4.. f Cx.yJ = x 1
+i; 2r + 3y =6 13. f <x. y.:) = xllr: x z + ~~.z + 9~ = 27
5. [ ex. yJ = x y: "..-z + 9y' = 36 14. f<x. )'.l) = l l + y' + r; x' + y' + :' = 3
6. f (x . y ) .. 4.r' + 9y; r + >) = 1 1
IS. f <x. y. :) =x +l+r; .r+y+ z = 1 nnd x +2y +3: = 6
1
7. f(x. y. :) = x +I+ t!-; 3z + 2y + , .. 6
l6. / (x.y.z) = :; X
1
+ I =I and2r + 2y +: =5
Lagrarl<J~ MultJpl ~rl and Constra!ned Optim11ation SECTION 13.9 925
11. f «•·Y· : 1"' :; A .._> ~ : .. I amb 1 .. vl .. 1 3?. Use the method o f Problem 3S tn find the roints of the
Ill. f l r. y. : l = t; x-'- .' ~:- 12 antl 4); + 9:1 = y, rotateJ h~ pcrbol.l ,? - 1~) - 6),: = IJO that arc closest
to the ort;:Jn.
19. fi ntllhr l'"in t nn thdonr 3 o q ' :: !l ( lthat n clo.ci!to the
ongon IJ<c Lag.~an~c multophcr\ teo mo'!omi 1 c the squ.lrt of q,.: =:.6 t h~ I a rc cl~c:st
JO. Find t!:e roi::ts of the e llip<c .: ,: +
the do~uncc to t!:e ;'Oint 11. I) .ts "' dl as the f<'tnl 1>r poont\ brt hes t
!(1. 1\ rcrtJn~ul.u opcn· tnpp<"d ...., , n ttl hHc ,olum~ 7(fJ ,, l from 1t
lbc m~tcroal f" r ol\ hottom l l l'\1\ 7~ on l 3 ,-,d tl:~ mttcn~l J l. Fi:'ld t!:e bV!est a;:d lo... C1t roints on the ellrp<c fo rmed hy
for il\ fllUr \ ertoc.ol 'ld ., Ctl\1\ x
on I l '\(: th~ method of tl:~ 1::te~;11on of the '1 hnder x: "' i
= I Jnd the rlane
L;n:r~ng~ mul11pltc" "' lin<.l14h.lt <lomen\1~~·.,. ... ··oil_
.. • . • 101 m rze !.r - ~\- : = J
the C'O\t uf the mateooal U\cd on ccon\lr uctonr th" ~-o,
-'!. Arr!~ the me tho..! or E \3m pie .: 1::1 fmd the hij!htst nnd
In rmlolmn ll rlo~OUF,II .I.J. IIJr rio, mrrhr>d of I A~ran~r muf:o.
lo<o.c<t ro<nrs 1':'1 the d!op<c formed b~ the interscctao n o f
plirn to $ol.oe rlor mtilcarrrl pml>t•oto frnm Snrum 1J J the cone := = ,: - ,; and th~ pl.tne r - :' + .\: = 3.
: 1. 1'n1blcm 29 22. l'rot>lem Jll U Fi:::lrhe f<"int< "" the elhr<c of r "'"km 4: th.ot nre nearest
the onpn anJ tho-c: th3l are brthest fw m it.
ll. l'rol>km 31 .W. l'r nhlem 32
4-t. 11\e oce tra\ ~llo... n in fi.: 1.1 o.tO 11 to he: mndc from nmte·
l.~. l'rnhkrn 33 26. l'roblem ).1 ri~l th•t c~ts I< in : ~~~"-"""" the ro<t functio n /C r, y. : ) =
21. l'roblc rn 35 2K. l'rnhlem 36 ~,~· - }r:- 7 v: subject to the ron<trJint< that rnch o f the
:<1. l'rohlcrn 37 12 comp3t1mrnr•" to hJ\ e a sq uJrc ho riwntnl ern« see-
30. l'ouhlc m 3~
lion and th~ t the total ' ol umr ( ij!n<>rinj: the pa rtitions) i\
31. l'roblcm 3'.1 32. Pro hl em 411 to be 12 an.>
33. l'rohlc m 41 :l~ . l'rnhlc m 4~
35. Find the pnonl or points of the surfncc : • ' '' , 5 cl<" e" to
the ori~in. [SIIII!I•.•trmr: t-1 inimi1c 1he squflrt' nf the lli<t.lncc. l
36. A triangk with side' r. y. ~ml : ho• fhrd r<'llmetcr
2s = .r + )' +:. It :. no en A;, ~hen h~· II Nr>ll'sformultt· '
A a i.•(.r- • H• - b)(J- c). FICUR£ 13.9. 10 Th~
iCe tray or PrObt"m 44.
Use the method n f l~1~r.n1~~ multophers to show th3t.
among all triangles " ith the j:I\Cn pcnmetcr, the one of .&5. Pro,·e Theorem I fo rfunctoo ns of three variable• by showing
large>! area is equilarcr:ol. (.S:...,.srmrur C orhu.lcr m3 .,ntiz· that !loth of the \Ccton ~/C P>and '>11< I'>nrc pcrpcndic·
ing ,t= rathe r th.m AI ular at P to e'"l) cunc o n the surface)(( r. y. :1 = 0.
37. Use the mcth•ld nf l~1gran!!t multiplie rs to sho"' that, o f -'&. Find the kngth' o f the ~cmia~e• of the clhf"e of Example 4.
alltrian~:k' in,cril>•:ll in the unit c1rde. the one of j:rcote<t
-11. Figure 13.9.11 sho"'s 3 right 111anglc " nh side<o x . y. and l
area is «1uilaocral (Su..,.,~rllu•" lJse Fig. 13.9.9 on.J the fact
thatth~ area o f a trianslc with $ides a an<! b nnd included
3nd fixed perimeter P. ~l axim•ze its a rea A = subject l.rr
anglc tl is gi\'cn by the formula A = j ol>sinO. I
to the eonstraints ~ + y + l = I' an<l x 1 + y2 = In r.
particular. show that the optimal sueh triangle ;, iw<ecles
(by sho.,.ing that x = .v).
~>
y
•
FIGURE 13.9.11 A right FIGURE 13.9. 12 A general
tri4ngle with fixed perimeter triangle with fixed perimeter
P (Problem 47). P (Problem 48).
FIGURE 13 .9.9 A tri4ngle
inscribed In a circle (Problem 37).
48. Figure 13.<>.12 shows a general tri:onglc with sides .r, y, and l
~ Find the points on the rutatcJ ellipse x: + xy + f = 3 thnt and fixed pen meter /'. Mnimitc its a rea
arc closest to and farthest (rom the origin. (Suggestio11:
Write the Lagrange multiplier equations in the form A= / (:r.y.z. a) = j ry sina
ax + by "' U. subject to the constraints .r + y + z = p and

l
ex + tiy "' 0. l = .r 2 + ) ; - 2.ryccxa
These cqll.'ltions have a nontrivial solutio n only if arl - (the Ia~ of c~ines~. In particular, show that the optimal
be"' 0. Use this fact to solve first Co r .L[ such tnangle os equtlatcral (by sho,.ing that.r y z). = =
• The plnne J.r + 9y +: = 0 intersects the elliptic paraboloid

49. Figure 13.9.13 shows a hexagon with vertices (0. :!: I ) and 60 z = 2.r: + J).: in an ellipse. Find the htghest and lowest
(±.t. ±y) inscribed in the unit circle x 1 +I =1. Show that
points on this ellipse.
its area is m aximal when it is a r~gular hexagon with equal
sides a nd angles. 61. Explain carefully how the equations in (17) result from
those in ( IS) and (16). If you w tsh. constder only a non.
tri, ·ia l speciJI case. such as t he case 11 = 4 a nd k 3. =
' 62. (a) Suppo~c that .r1, x 2• ••• • a nd x. n re positive. ~how that
the m in im um value of f (xl =.It +X:+· · ·+x. s ubJCCilo the
constraint ,, 1, ·: •• . .r. = I is 11 . (b) Given 11 posith ·e numbers
0 1• a: . .. . . a" .lct
for 1 :5 i ;:;; 11 and apply the res ult in pnrt (a) to deduce the
arithmetic·geomNric m en n Inequality
FIGURE 13.9.13 The
inscribed hexagon a1 +a: + · · · +a.
of Problem 49. ..,.•/a 1a,• · · · a,. S
- II
SO. Whe n the he xagon of Fi g. 13.9.13 is rotated arou nd the 6.\. Figure 13.9.15 sho"s a moa t of wid th a = 10ft. filled with
y -axis, it generates a solid of rc,·o lutio n cnns1.tin~: nf a al~gator"- and bo unded on each s idt: by a wall of height
cylinde r and two cones (f·ig. 13.9. 1~). Wha t radiu~ and b = 6 ft. Sold ie rs pl a n to bridge this moat hy scaling a
cylinder he ight maxi mize the ' o lumc o f th1s solid'? l:ldde r pl:1cc:d :lCrO"" the nc.uc r '"'"'II a'i ind i c:~'ltcd, :tnchorcd
nt the ground \\ith n handy bou lde r. and wi th the upper end
('- _r'1..,1
d11cctly a hove the fa r wall o n the oppo•i tc: side o f the moat.
They n ltu ra lly wonder w hat is the minima l length Lnf a lad·
dc r that" 1!1 suffict: for this purpose. 'lltis is :1 particula r case
I 1
2y
of the probkm of mi nimizing the kng th of a line segment
in the tll•-p!Jne that jnms the poi nts / ' (X . 0) and Q(O. y) on
I
~ ....__..,
. _l
11 the two coordinate axes :111d passes through the: given first-
quadra nt po int (a .I>). Show that / . ,., ., = (alt J + ~tl ))ll by
=
minim izing 1he squart.'d leng th [(.r. y) .rl + y1 sullject to
the constraint that 11 = a and ' ' = b satis fy the ttt·-cquntion
FIGURE 13.9.14 11/.r + v/)' = I o f the line thrnugh P and Q.
The solid
of Pro blem 50.
In Problems 5 /tlmmgh 58. coMidcr the squau of the disltlncr

to be ttut.tilniz.ed or nzitJinzi:_t•d. Ust the numericdl solution com·
m 11nd in 11 computu algel>ra sysrt m a.t nreded to soh•e the ap-
propriate Lagrange multiplier tq11111ions.
=
St. Find the points of the parabola y (.r - I ) 2 tha t arc closest
to the origin.
52. Find the poi nts of the ellipse 4.r 2 + 91 = 36 tha t a re closest
10 and farthest from the point (3. 2).
53. Find the fint·quad rant point of the cun·e xy = 24 that is
closest to the point ( I. 4).
54, Find the point o f the surface xyz = I that is closest 10 the
point ( I. 2. 3).
ss. find the points on the sphere "ith cente r ( I. 2. 3) and radius FIGURE 13.9. 15 The alligator-filled moat
6 that are closest 10 and farthest from the origin. of Problem 63.
56. Find the points of the ellip<oid 4x 1 + 9y2 + z2 = 36 tha t arc ~. A three-dimensiona l analog o f the two-dimensional prob-
closest to and farthes t from the origin. lem in Proble m 63 asks for the minimal area A of the
57. Find the points o f the ellipse 4.r 2 + 91 = 36 that :tre closest triangle in llt·w-space with \'Crt ices P (.r. 0. 0), Q(O. y. ()).
10 and farthest from the: stf3ight line x + y = 10. and R(CI, 0. :) o n the three coordin ate axes and passin~
thro ugh the gi"en first-octant point ((1 , b. c). (a) First de·
58. Find the points on the ellipsoid 4x 2 +9,.-' + z2 = 36thatarc duce from Miscellaneous l'robk m 5 1 of Chapter 12 thllt
closest to and farthest from the plane 2x + 3y + z 10. = =
A 2 !<r1y 1 ... .r:z= + y::). (b) H., = b = •. ~ 1 then. b)'
59. find the maximum possible \'Oiume of a rectangular box symmetry, x Y ~.Show in this case that x = ••
= = = 3· =:
that has its base in the .ry· planc and its upper vertices on i
and l~us tha t A = JJ. (c) Set up the Lagra nge ·multiplier
tbe elliptic paraboloid z = 9- x 1 - 2>~. cqua11on1 for minimizing the squared area A: subject 1"
- 927
Critiul Po'n~ c! fu~ons ol Two V~riJ b'Cl S~CTlON 13. 1O
e c con•tn intthatlh: '"·~n coordanat~ \ (o . b. c ) u tn!y the Da•1d Srn::, ·s am d e ·Soh:: ton of a Ca!:ulu< .Pr~b!em ~~
0 1 • -<qu,tton u 1 + • I> .._ " I : • 1 o f the plane through ~linim1l \ 'ol'u.::Je" i~ Thr Anr r.ccr. .\f~rf:tr"1a!lca. ,\ {ol'!t ·f
t~c roint • r. Q. an<l R In general. the'>< equallo~.s ha•·e _...,, 1. PP ,- 1-I _"- - I ). ,. here a t..1 ~n n~e s~"ltem
... , ,.,.,
( .\ 1uc .. .
o.
,., \ ::<>" " do-cJ·h•tm wlutton Se• e nhele\\, }Ou can u~e . ~ · '• ~onltr.e3r equauon m
11 + 1 cqu•t tons ts redu:e~.o to a SIOio•• " •
1 C\.>::ll4t tr •l~tl:·ra S)'1t~ m Ca\ m the CD· RO~I .-roj~ct a slnz>: u:1k::O'A n.)
r:" lltl\11 (01 thl\ \~CliO:!) tO ar;>roxtmate OUmen:::a!Jy the 6!. Sll;~e tha: L , ts U:e !!:~e o! intersection of the pbn:s
m•n~t:1um l lluc <•! A "'•lh !:J•en r:u:::en:::al •abe< o! a. b. ~ _ , _ :: = 15 a:~ll x _ 1 , .,. 3: =30. an<\ that L: LS
anJ r h<'"' tim that "lth a = b = c = 1 you ' et an ac· t.'te ~e olt~!:r~.:t!Ot: o! the pll::es .t - .' - -= = IS and
~utc • rrro\lmatl(•n to the euct •alue m pa ~t lb) The~
3 , _ 1 1 _ ) : = :0 Fi~d the ck><est J'('l!lt5 p1 and P: on these
fffCll lh.C r rOCCI\ "'llh ) OUr O'Jon select ion of values of 12, l'A'O ske,. hr.~ L'st a ro::1;-u:cr to sohe thc co~es~nd ·
~- anJ r. (SNt: Thl\ thr~c ·d:mcn\lo:~:~l prot>lcl:'l ~o a\ r:lO:I- ang La;unge o ul:i r her system ol iOlmeu equ:m ons 10 10
••t<>l ~'>)' the m• c\IIP,li!On of the 11-d•menu onal •enton 1 ~ U:\k.CO'a--:"o...\.
0 13.9 l'roject: ~umcrirnl Sol ution of l.agnngc ~tultiplirr S~~tcms

11tc La gra nge multiplie r pr ot>lems m E~ amp!es !through .! of this sectio n :m: so':'e-
"ha t at)ptcal tn th~t t he equatt<•n• an the<e e ~ample< c:m be sohed C ' ~ctly and Wtl h-
out ~rea l effort. Frequently a 1-, grance multiplie r proble m k ads to a sy<tcm of c:qu? ·
lion<; that can h<: ~ol vcd on I~ nu me ncall) nnd appro , ima tc ly. l11c C D· R0!\1 mntcn~l
fo r t his <ectton suppli" I) pica I computer J lgcbra syste m commlnd.; lor t he nu ni eri·
cal solution of such ~} ~!em~ piLl\ u t\\ O·latldc r moat problc m thn tlea ds to n system of
12 no nlinea r equations in seven coordtnatc • anables and ft•·e I~, grange multipliers.
13.1 0 ICRITICAL POINTS OF FUNCTIONS Of lWO VARIABLES

We s aw in Section 13.5 that in order !or the di !fcrcnti~blc !unction J<x. y ) to have
either a local minimum or n local maJtimum a t :10 intcnor crittC3l point l'(a. b) of its
d omain. it is a nt·cesstuy condition that /'be a cm ic'a/ pu im of / - that is. that
{,(11. b) = 0 = J,(a.IJ).
I I ere we give condition~ sufficient to ensure th3t f has n local extremum nt a critical
point. 11lc criterion stated in Theorem I involves the second-order partial deriva·
tives of f at (a. b) and plays the role of the single-variable: second derivative test
(Section 4.6) for functions of two •·ariablcs. To simplify the sta tement of this result.
we use the follo11i ng abbrc,·iations:
A= /u (a.b). 8= f,7 (a , b) . C.: f 71 (a.b), (l)
nnd
t. = AC- £i! = f,.(n. b)f11(a , b) -(J, 1 (n, b)]1 • (2)
We outline a proof of Theorem I at the end of this section .
T H EOREM 1 Two-Variable Second Derivative Test

Suppose that the function f(x. y> has continuous second-order partial dcriva.
th·es in a neighborhood of the critical point (a. b) at which its fin>t·order partial
derivatives all vanish . Let A B. C. and 6 be defined ns in Eqs. (I} and (2}. Then:
• [(a. f>) is a local minimum value of f if A > 0 and 6 > O;
• f(a, b) is a local maximum value off if A< 0 and t. > O;
• f<a . b) is neither a local minimum nor a local maximum if 6. < 0.
Thus 1 hastithtr a local mnximum or a l~al minimum at the critical point (a. b)
pro,·ided that the discriminant ~ =:
AC- ~- ts positive. In this case, A= f,.(a. b)
play-s the role of the second denvatt•·e of a smglc·variable function: There is 8 local
minimum nt (a. b) if A > 0 and a local maximum if A < 0 .
9 28 CHAPTER 13 Partial Differentiation
If t:. < 0. then 1 has neither a local maximum n ar a local minimum at (a. b). In
this case we call (a. b ) a saddle point off. th inking of th e 11ppea mn cc of the hyperbolic
paraboloid l<x. y ) = x= - yl (Fig. !3.1 0.1 ). a typical cxnmph: of thi~ case.
ll1corcm 1 docs not answer th e question of what h:~ppe ns \\ hen A= 0. In this
- - - , case. the two-\·ariable second derivative test fails-it give~ no information. Moreover.
at such a point (a. b). anything can happc:n. r:~nging from the local (indeed global)
minimum of ICx. J) = .r' ~ y• at (0. 0) to the ··monkey s:u.Jdle ·· of Exam ple 2.
I . In the cJSe of a function l < x. y ) with several crit ical points. we: must compute
the quantit i.:s A lJ. C. and t:. sep:~ratcly :11 c:~ch c:itic:tl point in order to apply
the test.
FIGURE 13.10.1 The origin is a
saddle point of the surfac~ with
equation r .. xl _ yl . EXAMPLE 1 Locate and classify the critic.,! points of
l<x. y) =3x- .r3 - 3.ry1.
Soluti on This function is a polynomial, so all its p:~rti n l de ri v:~ tives exist and arc
continuous C\·erywherc. When we cqu:~tc its first partial derivatives to zero (to locate
the critical points of f). we ge t
l.(x. y)= 3- 3x 2 - 3/ =0 and lr<x. y ) = - 6xy= 0.
lne second of these.: ~quatio ns implies that x or y must be.: zero: then the first implies
that the other mus t be ±I. Thus th ere are four critical points: ( 1. 0), ( - 1. O). (0, 1).
and (0, - I ).
Critical Type of
Point A 8 c 6 E xtremum
(1. 0) -6 0 - I\ 36 Localm~ximum
(-I. 0) 6 0 (, 36 uxat minimum
(0. 1) 0 -6 0 -36 s~ddlc poinl
(0. -1 ) 0 6 () -3(> S~ddle poin1
FIGURE 13.10.2 Critical-point ana1)11is for the fu1 ction of ua mpe

1 1.
The second-order partial derivati ves of 1 a re
A = I .. Cx. y) = -6x, 8 = lxy(x , y) = -6y. c = l ,, (x. y) =-6.r.

lienee t:. =36(x2 - yl) at each of tbe critical points.. 111 ' . b .111
rizcs the situ ation at e;tch of the four critical . , ~ Ia le rig. 1 ~. 10.2 summa·
plot in Fig. l3.10.3. Near th e points ( ~I O) po.mts. \\htch arc l:~heled an the contour
that signal local extrema (Pig !3
rk . 10)- ' we sche th c_ nestcd "ellipse-like" contours
· · ·4 . am1ncart c pntnts (0 ~ 1) .. b
1 c 'contours that sign:ll S:lddle points (Pig
13 10 S) T'i · · - we sec: 1typcr o 1:1·
points on the graph of z = f(x, y). · · · · ·•gurc 13.10.6 shows the critical
(-1. 0) (0. I) •
( 1.0)
(0. -I ) 0.6
2 0
• ~0~.5.-~--~~--L-~
() 0.5
• •
FIGURE 13. 10.3 l~ CUt\leS for 1~
function of Eumple 1. FIGURE 13.10.4 level curve$ near
t~ critical point (1, 0). FIGURE 13. 10.5 Lev~l curves Mar
the critical point (0, 1).
J
-
Critiul Poinu olfur.ctions of Two Variables SEcnON 13.10 929
f iGURE 13.10.6 Crap» o1 w lunc:tJOn

ol t.ampl~ 1.
EXAMPLE 2 Find and cln\~i fy t he critical poi nts of the function
{Cx . •v) =6 t i - 2.tJ- 3/.

Solution \Vhen we equate the first-o rde r parta~l de riv:u i\•cs to zero. we get the
equations
f, (x. y) =61- 6.r: = 0 and / ,(x. y) = 12.ry- 12/ = 0.
It follows that
.rl =/ and y(.r - ,1 J =0.
l11e fi rst of these equa tions gives .r = :!:y. If .r = y. the seco nd equation implies that
y = 0 or y =I. If .r =- y. the second equ ation im plies that y = 0 or y = - I. Hence
there nrc three critical points: (0. 0). ( I. I ). and (I. -I).
The second-order part ial derivatives of f are
A= f., (.r. y) = -l2.r. 8 =[, ,(.r. y) = 12y. C = [ 11 (.r. y) = l2.r - 36y.
These expressions gi,·e the data shown in the table in fig. 13.10.7. The critical point
test fails at (0. 0). so we must find another way to test this poinr.
Critical Type of
Point II B c 6 Extremum
(0.0) 0 0 0 0 Test fails

(1.1) -12 12 -24 I~ Local maximum
{I. - 1) -12 - 12 -24 I~ Local maximum
FIGURE 13.10.7 Critical-point analysis for the function of Example 2.
We observe that f(x. 0) =-uJ and that [ (0, y) = -3y4 • Hence, as we move
away from the origin in the
Positive .r-dircction: f decreases;
Negative x-direction: f increases;
Positive y-direction: f decreases;
Negative y-direction: f decreases.
9 30 CHAPTER 1 3 Partial Differentiation
fir . yl• t\.ry' - 2.r' - )y' Consequently. 1 has neither a local maximum nor a local mini~un~ at . the origin.
-I The graph of 1 is shown in Fig. 13.10.8. If a monkey wc.rc to sit ~vJth t~s rump at
the origi n and face the negative x·direction. then the directions 111 whtch f(x. y)
2 decreases would pro vide places for bot h its tail and ItS ;wo legs to h ang. That's why
this pa rt icular surface is called a monkey saddle ( Fig. l.l.10.9). •
0 '
EXA MPLE 3 Find and classify the critical points of th e fu nction
/(~r . )") -- lr'

J'
+ lv•-
2·
4xv~
"
+ 2x2 + 2...\.2 +3.
FIGURE 13.10.8 The monkey Solution When we equate to zero the first -order p ani a l derivat ives of f, we obtain
saddle of Example 2. the equa tions
f.(.r. y) = 1• x 3 - 4y-, + 4 .r 0 = . (3)
f, (x . y) == 2y 3
- 8xy + 4y =0, (4)
which are not as easy to solve as the corresponding equations in Examples I and 2.
llut if we write Eq. ( 4) in the form
2y(i - 4.r + 2) = 0.
we sec that ei the r y == 0 o r
i =4x - 2. (S)
If y == 0. then Eq. (3) reduces to the equation

" J t -1 ., ...
3x + -.x = 3 x(x- +-') =0.
FIGURE 13.10.9 The monkey in whose only solution is x_= 0. l n us one critical poi nt of 1 is (0. 0).
its saddle (ExJmple 2).
=
If y i 0, we subslltut c y 2 4x - 2 into Eq. (3) to ob tai n
j.r3 - 4 (4x- 2) +4x = 0:
that is.
j x3 - 12x + 8=0.
Thus we need to solve the cubic eq uatio n
(6)
Tlte graph o f <,D (x) in Fig. 13.10.1 0 shows tint this ' .
with approximate valucsx :::: -3. x :::: · d' ~ ~ cq~atlo~ has three rea l solut ions
1
or Kewton 's method (Section 3 8) vo · an xb~ ~- U smg eithe r graphica l techniques
· • • u can o tam the values
x::::-3.2899, .r::::0.7057. x:::::2.5842, (7)

accurate to four decimal places. The corre .
by spondmg values of yare given from Eq. (10)
Y=±J4x-2. (8)
FIGURE 13.10.10 The graph of
¢(x) = xl - 9x + 6 (Example 3). but the first value of x in (7) vields no
values of x in (7) add four c;itical po· r~a ~alue at all for y. Thus the two posith•e
1
111 50
already found. f(x. Y) to the one critical point (0,0)
These five critical points are list d .
the corresponding values of e 111 the table in Fig. 13.10.11, together with
A= fxx(x.y ) =4x2+4 . B = /xy(X, y) =-By.

C = [yy(x, y) = 6y2- 8x -r,
•4
6. = AC- B2
C11 ttal
Pou:! ~ 3 -l 5
z. OUffl () "1,67 o;or ~~ ~ =--.!-~ =
) 01( ( (} 0 9'J7l - O<ml ::.. ~-J - = -~.._,--.~
: 3 (ffl) 3. 7.!.~~ J.;.:.0~ -3.5~3 -) ~1'13
II J (.1 J 59'1 5'?} }0 71 .l<UI
B r, r. l - .~ I) - :t- -:.3 10 :J 10
c J{f) 3: 9 J.: q .lJ _~ ~ 3.1..'5
A ltSft) -J~ 9J - 3: 0..: JO(l t>: J~!l 6:
Type U>c.l! S1.!J'c Sl~~~ uXJI L~XJI
rn:mmam retnt f',.mt minimum mana:n unt
f iGURE 11.10 II o.u~'u~oor o• II'~ e.t<al poma '" [u-,pl~ 3.

(roundctlt o t·-.c> deClmal pl.lce~)a t each of t he~e crillcll f'l.liO l \\'c: 'c.: t h~ t ~ > 0 and
A > Oat!O. OJ anti a: 12 5J\: . :::: "'7.:1. •oth~c: !'<lint<arc l<li:JI mini mum poi nts. Oul
A- 0 at (0.i057. :::0.9fl7l 1. <o thc:<c: N nare <a,tdlc point <. The level cun·c din~tmrn
in fi g. 13.10.12 <hn14 < ho~~o thc:<c: fl\c critk.ll point< fi ti OJ;C ihcr.
u.,aJ ~ "ltr-'1\Jnt
((), 01
Jn:aJ nllftU'Mif:t
- (1 ~ \. ~ ~'I I
2 • - 4i.JJ!c f"-,t"l
t0 71.11QI I
y 0 4\a..SJ!e J""••nf
10 71, -!I 'll}
-~ t= 3.1.a l..ax .a.J rrun1murn
z• ) 1 (l.~~- - 2 ~Q)
-~ L• · l /
l . - )
-~ -l 0 : ~
l
fiGURE 13.10.12 l~l curvesfO< the functiOn

of Example 3.
Finally. we observe that the beha,·ior of { (x. y ) is approxinmtt:ly that uf x• + l

~ y • when 1.~ 1 or !)'lis large. so tbc surface: = { (.r. y) must o pen upward and.lhercfore,
haven global low point (but no global hi~th point). Examining the values
{(0. 0) = 3 and {(2.5~2. ±2.8874) "=' - 3.5293.
we· sec that the global minimum value of {(.r. y) is approximately - 3.5293. •
Proof of Theorem 1
[t happens thai lhe beha1•ior of the function f(z, y) nemr its critical point (a. b) is
de termined by the behavior near the origin (0. 0) o f the q uadratic rorm
q(h, k) = Alt 2 + 28hk + CJ<2 (9)
in h and k (A B. and Care computed as in Eq. (1)). If A '1- 0. then you can verify
readily that
1
q(h, k) = A[(Ah + Bk)l +A~]. (10)
either by expanding the right-~and side in.(~O) or by completing the square in Eq. (9}.
The three parts of the fo!lowtng proposttton correspond to the three cases in the
conclusion of Theorem L
PROPOSITION Behavior of Quadratic Forms

1. If t:. > 0 and A > 0. then q(h. k) > 0 unless It a nd k arc both zero.
2. rrt:. > 0 and A< 0. then q(h. k) < 0 unless It and k arc both zero.
3. If t:. < 0 th en everv neichborhood o f (0. 0) contains points at which
0
q(h. k) > a nd points. at which q (h. k) < 0 .
The three parts of this proposition can be visua lized by thinking of the graph
of q as a n upwa rd·opcning ell iptic pa raboloid in part I. as a d ownward·opening
paraboloid in part 2. and as a hyperbolic par:~boloid with ;J sadd le p oi nt in part 3.
PflOOF Parts 1 and 2 of the proposit ion follow im mediat ely by cons ide ration of
signs in Eq. (10). because the quantity within the b rackets is positive if A > 0 and 1r
and k a rc not both zero. in wh ich case the sign of q (x . y) is the sa me as th e sign of A
Part 3 leads to several cases d epe nding on the poss ible values of A B. and C.
If A = C =0 and A =- B" < 0. then q(lr. k) = 2 Bhk. so the co nclusion in part 3
follows at once.
= =
If IJ Oan d t;. i\ C < 0. then A and C have different signs and Q(lz. k) = Alr2+
C/(2 . so aga in the concl usion in part 3 foll ows at once.
If fl ~ 0 ~nd A ;i 0 . then the va lues q (h. 0) = Ah~ and q(h.- Ah! 8) = t;.k2; A
have different signs if t;. < 0. so agai n the concl usion of part 3 follo ws. l11e analysis
of the rema ining case, in which 8 ¥ 0 a nd C -:F 0, is simi i:J r. ~
Now Ictus consider the critic3l point (a. b) of the function [(x . y) of Theorem 1.
Draw a circular disk centered at (a. b) a s in Fig. 13.10.13. Because the sccond-ord<:!r
partial dcrivarives of I are continuous. we can ma ke the rad ius of th is disk so small
that the quantiry f.,(x. y)J,.,(x. Yl,- (f,,(x . y)f has the same sign as the constant
6 = fu (a. b)f,?.(a. b) - [fn·<a . b)]· at every point (.r. y) of the dis k.
Now constder the singlc·variable func tio n g defin ed by
g(l) = [ (a+ tlz. b + tk )

for O ~ t ~I. Application of Taylor's formula (Sectio n 11.4) to g(l) g ives
g(l ) = g(O) + g'(O) + !g"(f) (11)

for some number l between 0 and 1· But the cha·
• m ru1e gtves
· first
g'(t) = iJf d x + iJf dy- .

iJx dt iJy dt - lzfx + k[y.
(a +It, b + 4 )
/("i i, )
•
(a, b )
FIGURE 13 10 l3 .
centered a; th · !he ctrcular di1k
e potnt (a. b).
-
an<J th~ n
• ;; dJ ;. d,v
.f (f l ~ -:-l hf,- k[ , l - - -:-0:{, ... k f,l-d·
,._. dt -'\ .
= ,_; {,. - :f:JJ., - t.7 {n .
.... h .. re the ln•J•cated r 1:1Lll ~:1·. ~~1\C'\ 0~ , a:c to be C\3Ju.JtcJ 31thc point (.r. ,\') =
1
Ia th /, • tkJ U>r:\CQu-.:n:h ~ 10 = 0 ~...au~ f, o. !I• = 0 = { . t o. b) • .tnJ
~· r i = A h= -:1iH-Ck {12)
...,h,.,., ~~.- cc.ef(><:if;:-::' i\. IJ . .tn<! c '"' e:~ q=J:.ttte fo r:n deno te the \ .t l~c< of :he
v:c<onrl dera"a'" c\ f,. . {... ~nJ f., lrnf'Cd" ch ) .tithe !'<'int 11. :n = Co-r h. I> .._ t k l .
llce<~u~.e viiJJ = flo b1 a::J t tl 1 = {Ia :_ 1:. b - .1.1. Eq<.. ( II ) :1nJ ( 1:!) imp ly
I l1.tt
( 13)
:"'uw t • .. A C - li ha• tl:e u::1-.: uvn as ~ = A C- 8: . And tf A= 0. t he n " e m::~y

1
:0\\um,. t hat t h,. mrulu d:\ 1: 1::1 fit. I] 10 1J tS so sm.11J th31 A h:1s t he s:~me sip1 :\S
A 'l h tn th,. <juaJ r~IIC fnrm
qr/r, 1.1 =A h: - '17fi:J.. .._ Lk
I hil l :tppt:nl\ 10 l .q (I J} n hohll\ t he <>'!me heh~ \ 101 3\ the qu.oJr:~tic fo rm q(l: . kl o r

1 ~11 ( 'J) 1 h corcm I """' ron....., !rom the prOj'O'>IIion o n the lxh3 \'io r o f q u:~d r:o t ic
lu rm• I or ln\l l~nce. rl .\ ~nd A are lv>th f<"'lll\e, then the ' 31Ue\ qOr. k ) an<l h ence
tj Ch , .1.1 nrc J')<l"' itl\ c unlc\\ II and k arc hoth 1cro The refore Eq. ( 13) gives
flu- h . h- k l = f l o . b1 - liJIId .J > /la.b )

nt eac h po int (u + h.b ... J.~rhe r t h3n la . b o thd f--(1( the ci rcul:\r d is k or
Fi1: IJ. W. IJ. 'l hu\ fl u. bl IS a IOCll mrnunum '.tluc tn t hts first case: o f Theore m
I . 'I he ut hcr twn C<I\C\ follow from sim1lar argmncnts.
0 13 . 10 TR UE/ FALSE STUDY G UID E
13 . 10 CONCE PTS: QUESTIONS AND DISC USSI O N
Gn•t' .lllll(l(r t' rnnrpft"J of ) cmr Ok.r~ diffu rnt f rom an,\ • rho/ appear in this St'Ciion. tlrat
1fl111rrnt<' tltt" Jo lla" in g Jituallo tU.
I . ll1c three cases in Theorem I.

2. 'l11c fact that either a maximum or a m irumum. or neither. can occur t a
cr it ic:•! poin t at 11. hich 6 = AC- 8 1 0. = 3
13 . 10 PROllL EMS
Findmul f'I,IHif~· tltr f'riurnlpoimf oftlrr / Hnnion ,. in Ptnhlcnu I
lhtou,~ l; 11. If u ,., ,1wtr r al1:rlu11 ·"Y"""H a vailablr, du·ck your
' ' 111/tr l>y "'" "'' 11{ 11111,,1, f>lolf like lhMr in Fill ' 13.10. /4-
I.I.J0./7.
I. /( •·.y) ., z.1 + >" + 4r - 4y + S

2. / (x .y) .. IU + 12.r - 12y - Jr1 - 2/
J. / (t. yl .. 2.t 1 - 3yl ~ 2.r - 3y+ 7
-l / ( t .)•) u f )' + ~ r - 2y +4
~. /lx. }'l "' 2.t 1 + 2ry ·f l + 4.r - 2y + I

fiCURE 13.10.14 Contour plot
6, /(A,)') • A + •lt y ·I 2/ + 4A - lly + 3
1
for Problem 7.
1. / ( t , )') • xl + y' 1- 3xy + 3 (fil• 13.10.14) 9. /lx.y) = 6.r -r'- y'
II. /(x,y) • x: - 2.ry + y' - y 10. { (.r. y) = 3.ry - r'- '.J
,,-- - - - - - - -- - -
9 34 CHAPTER 13 Pa rtial Differentiatio n
11. f(x. y) = x' + y' - ·h y

=
In Problems 23 through 25, fi',st sh~w 1~1~1 t:J. _J.. /,.-:- (/,~)!;,
uro 01 111~ ori~in. Then clrusify tlus rr~rtwl p o mt by ''JJilo/r:ing
12. f(x. y) = xl
13. f<x . y)
+ 6xy + 3/
= xl + 6xy + Ji- 9x (Fig. 13.10.15)
thr srrrfau ~ =
2J. .
f (X. y).
/(X . y) =X ' + )'
2.1. /(:t. y) = x> + l

z.c. /(x.y) = exp(-x .. - ."
)
26. Let J <s. 1) denote the squarr of the dist:~ncc between a I~'J>·
=
ica! point o f the line x = 1 • ." t + I. ' = 2r and a typrcal
point of the hne x = 2s. y s - I. ~ =: s + I . Show thai Ihe
=
sinck critica l point o ff i> a Jocalmrnrmum. lienee find Ihe
clo~c<t porn I> on these 1\\0 <ke w lines.
27. Ld / L<. y l d~notc the ,quare of rhc distance from (0. 0. 2)
10 a typical point u f the surface : = .ry. Find and cbssif)'
the critical points u f f
28. Show th:llthc ~urf:.cc
FIGURE 13.10. 15 Contour plot ~= (X'+
~ ,
2y') exp(l
,
-.r·- ,)
y·
for Problem 1 3.
looks likt: two moun tain pe3k <jo ined hy two ridges with a
1·t f<x. y) = x>+ 6ry + J/ + 1\x pi t hcl\\t:cn them.
15. {(.t. y) = 3.t 1 + 6xy + 21 + l l r - 2~)' 29. A wire 120 em lo ng is c ut into th ree pieces t lf le ngths .r, y.
2 and 120 - x - y, and each piece b ben t in to the shape of
lti. f<x. y) = 3x -t· 12.ry + 2y' - for + l\y
~~quare. Let f < x. y) d e no te the s u m of the a reM o f these
17. /(X. )')= 4 t y- 2x'- >;. (Fi{t. 13.10.16) ;qua res. Show I hat the sin Ric en tica l poin t or I is a local
minimum . Bu t surely it i< p(l<sihlc to martmiu the sum of
the area-. Ex plai n.
JO. Show that the graph o f the function
f(.r. y> =xye~r (Hx: + 4.fl)

has a saddle point but no local extrema .
31. Find and clas.<ify the critica l points of the functio n
. ~X . ~)'
I (x. y) = srn T srn T.
FIGURE 13.10.16 Contour plot 32. ~ct f<x. y) = xl- 3.c,.z. (a) Show that its only critical point
for Problem 17. ~s (0, 0) and tha! d = 0 there. (b) Dy e xamining the behl\'•
•or of X - l•f on straight lines through the ori~in show
3
111. f<x. y) = Sry- 2x 2 - , ' that the s urface< = xJ- 3.tyl qua lifies as a monk~y ~ddle
(Fig. 13.10.18).
19. /(x,y) = lcl -3x1 +i -12x+ 10
20. f<x. y) = 2.rl + 1- Jx:- 12.r- Jy (Fig. 13.10.1 7)
1
2L /(x, y ) = xyexp(-A -yl)
, • .2 , ,
22. f (x, y ) = (X" + y ) u p(x· - y)
FIGURE 13.10.18 The monkey

saddle of Problem 3 2 .
FIGURE 13.10.17 Contour plot 33• Repeat Problem 32 ·
for Problem 20 . that n~·r t h . . wrth /(x. y) = -'.n •(x 2 - )h Silo"
~ c cntrcal pornt
· <0. 0) the sur
• face : = fCx. )' )
Cnv..al Points of Func::O"'s of Two V~-iao1es SECTI0:-.1 13.10 935
uJhfics as a "dog sadd!e" for a doll ..ilh a 'Ct) shon lad

ir... 13.10.19). / ( t . .•l=
x •i r: - ,;)
. . :
.t• - .'~
Olls!h lhe t-eh3\'JOr of f ne u 1!1e C'!ttJ.:JI poinl (0. 0) .

lr: Pr(JI,!n~• .15 :J:rt'u ~J: JO, " " a w w<p:tUf al, tbra prli,Cfllrtl
faJ tfh.H:r,;:td U: tJ.:c pttl'('~t m.;•tr:.t!/+..H tf:•( f(ClrtH1 } (() arrr() f·
tt- a:., ru"*'!rnc.;J;_, ar:J c'..tu(" tl:~ cr:::c.;l r (nr.t o' thr ~n·rn
fur.c::or. .
3!. fl ~.~ l ='J'- 1 ~-,; - M
M. fl~. _\) =x'- .It: - ,; - 11\t
37. j( ~ .~l =:t' -l:!.t) -to•! .... .~, -10
FIC.URE 13.10. 19 The d(XJ sadd e .>.'\. fl t , ~ l =t' - ~ .. - ~ , ; - lttt - 10
of Problem 33.
39. fh. • l = x'-:•'-1-'-••; -::::o ,·=
0 t.:\.10 l'roj cc1: Cri tical1'11int ln,estij!ation~

In 1hc CD -H0:\1 malcnal for 1 hi~ proj~:ct. lhe funclion
f ( t . .1 l = I0 c xp (- x: - !.n· - !.1; ) ~in .~· sin .'' ( I)
i\ u'clllo illumalc cumpu lc r n!gcbra s~slcm lcchniqu e\ for 1he loc:Hinn and cla~si·
ficallon of cril•cal p<nnl\ (m funcuon\ of 1-.n ':IIIJhlc~ a< follows:
• Firsl. a surface graph <ho-.\ the "hrg picwrc:" rh:ll " 'C wan t In invc<li~a lt: in
dt:tail. In Fij:. 1.1.10.20 we ~cc two peak~ and 1110 pil'i. a~ 1\CII as an app~rcnt
saddle poin1.
• Next. a conlour graph as in Fig. 13.10.21 rc,ca l ~ the app roxima te loca tio n o f
each of lhc~c crilical poi nls.
• Then we setup I he equa tions f,<x. y ) =Oand /.(x. yJ = 0: we u~c a computer
algebra solve command 1o approximate the crilica.l points accurate ly-with
th e known appro~ im:rlc: location of each cmical poin1 providing an ini tial
gue~ for irs calculation.
• Finally. \\ C compute I ha l information abou1 1he second-orde r pa rtia l deriva.
ti vcs needed 10 apply Theorem Ito classify each critical poinl. A nd a contour
plo t in a smnll nei ghborhood of a cri1ical poi nl (as in Figs. 13.10.3 thro ugh
13. 10.5) can provide satisfying visual corrobora1ion o f our results.
You can follow this agenda to invcsliga te a functio n such as
f (x. y) = (ax
2
+ 2bx y + cy) exp(-x 1 - I> (2)
2
I
• 0
-I
-2
-2
0
• y l
FIGURE 13,10.20 Graph olthe FIGURE 13.10.21 Contour plot

function in Eq. (1 ). lor the function in Eq. (1 ).
936 CHAffiR 1 3 Partial Differentiation
: 0
-5
FIGURE 13.10 .22 GrJph of the lunc:ion in

=
Eq. (3}, with p 5 and the minus sign.
whe re o, b. and care se lected int egers. or the more exo tic fu nc tio n
f<x, y} = 10 (x·' + >.s ± ~) exp ( -x2 -/> ... j exp(- 2

(x - I ) - / ) (3)
where f' is a s m a ll posi tive integ.:r. With the plus s ig n in Eq. (3) you are likely IO sec
a h 3lf·dozc:n critica l points. but with the minus sign you ca n expect to see m ore (as in
Fig. 13. 10.22. in wh ich p = 5 and there appears to b.: some " action" near th e o rigi n.
in addi tion to the pairs of pits, pea ks, and passes tha t arc mos t evident).
.·cHAPTER
.... 13
. REVIEW:
. . oeFJNITIONs, .coNciPTs,
. .. ...
RESULTs .= . ..
Us~ th~ follo,..ing list a$ a 1111id~ ro conupu that ) 'nu m ay nud &.. The linear approl!C imntion theorem .
10 fC\.tiCW.
9. l11e chain rule for functions of severn! variables.
1. Graphs and level curves of function< of two variables. 10. D irectional de rivatives - defi nitio n a nd compu ta tio n.
2.. Limits a nd con tinuity of functions of two or three 11. ·me gradie nt vect or nnd the chain rule.
variables.
12. Significance of the length and direction o f the gradient
3. Partia l derivatives-definition and computation. \'ector.
4. Geometric interpretation o f par1ial derivatives and the
13. l11c grudicnt vecto r as a norm al ' 'e ctor; t:1ngent piJnc to a
plane tang~ntto the surface l {(x. y). = surface F(.r. y. :) = 0.
S. A bsolute: anti local maxima anti minima.
14. Constrained malimurn .minimum problems and the
6. Necessary conditiom for a local extremum. Lagrange multiplier method.
7. Increments :md differentials of functions of two or three IS· S u ffi c•c~t
. con d 111ons
.· fo r a bcal e xtremum of a function of
variables. two \ 311ab lcs.
CHAPTER 13 MISCElLANEOUS PROBLEMS
1. Usc polar coordinates to show that

if (x · y} ~ CO. O}; we tlrfinr ,1;(0. 0) to he zero. Sho w that & is
. xlyl not COIItUIIIOIIS at (U, Q) ,
hm - - -, = 0. 4
(.1., 1-fO.Ol X 2 + )'• ' Compu te g,CO.O) and K1 (0 0} fo r the function <• of
l'roblcm 3. • o
l. Use spherical coordinates to show th:lt S. find a function / (x. y) such t hat
. x1 + r- r 1
f,(x. )'} = 2x.vl + ~· sin y
hm
(,e,,,t) ... Cl),O.Oi X 2 + ) + ~ - 0.
.l ,
and
3. Suppose that / , (.r• y) c i

3.r 2 +c cosy + I .
.ry 6. Pro ve tha t there 1·5 .
g(.r, y) =-z--·
+ X )~
order ranial d . "". funct1on f \\ ith continuous second·
/,(x' y) = Rxl )'. cnvntlvcs such that /, (.r. y) = 6.ty2 nnd
Chapter 13 Miscell.1neous Problems 9 37
1• Fi...•nJ 111c poinl or poinl~ on I he ,nanholo"
.
rd ....• -_ J : -. , -· 31
.. tich the nor~3l hnc 1'3'\C' throul'th the romt (0, 1). o. 19. E:lch of the ~miJ' M a. t>. 3 nd c of nn ~U1psoid wrth volume
I '= j'" at>c- i.s meJSured "'•th n mHi:num pcrcentJt:e ~rror
8. Write an t>quatton of the pl3nt> tanrentto the ~urfaee
Of 1"... t:~ d:fferen llal< to c<llm3tC the ma,imum percent•
sin .r y ... sm.': ... ,, n .. : ,. 1 age error tn the calculated \al uc of \'.
20. Tv. o spheres ha•e radu ., and /'>. anJ the d!StJncc I'Ctv.een
at tbt> point (I. -~ ~. 0) their ceote~ 15 c < a - to. l"llus tl:e spheres meet rn n com·
9• Pro•e t~t c.''"~ hnt> normal to the rone "'ith cqtL1IIon ClOn cir:k Let f' t'C a l''•nt on thrs c1rdc. and let 1"'1 and
: = ,1~-- _.. mtt>~cc:t~ the : ·d\ i'L 1': b.! the {'l3nc< UO£Crll at p tO the tv. l\ sphere-. find the
10. Sho" that the function angle bct ... ee:~ ;-, an.! >: in terms of a. fo. and r (Su~~rstin11:
Rec:lll L~3! t!:c 3n~k t'Ct-.cen 1"0 rl~ncs i~ by definition.
I
u (.r.t J= -;=::=;:: c\p ( -..-: ) the l~gk N:t ... ecn their norm:ll \ eCtMs. j
, , -l ~ l.t 4 !.J 21. Fir:d e• ef) romt on the surfl.:-c: of the elhpsoid .r=
+ 4y; +
9~ = 16 lt "h:.:h the O\'ITnll hnc at tbe point passes throut:h
utisfi,..lhe nne~imensional heat equal ion the <'<':>l<r tO. 0 . 01 of I he clhp, uid.
au
-=
ill
iJl u
I. -il f l"
21. Su;-rose th.tt
...,
11. Show that the function
Show that
F (.r)c
1,,,, {(t)t/1 .
u(x. y .l) =I- exp ( xl + vZ )

----=-
4:r /..r 4/..r F'( f)= f(lr(x))l•'(.<l - {(.t;(r))g'( r) .
satisfic5 the two-dimension al hcnt cqu!llion (Su,c_cr.Hio, · Writt> w a f.' {(I) tit "h e re u .. ,r:(.r) nnd
t•= lr! <). J
au =k(<l 111 ,,lu) 2.l. Suppusc: tha t a. h. and c arc mutually peq x·ndicul:rr unit
u" t v" x ·• + •"))-' . 'ectors in splcc and th31 f " :1 funttitm uf the three lndc·
pendent vln3bl~ x. ,.. anJ : . Show th.lt
12. Suppo<c that f(x. y . : J =~- (a) Shnw thnt the panial
'\'f = • t D, { l .,.. h( 1>•/1 + c(IJ, fl.
dai•·atiws f,. { .. :rnd f: all l'XI<I at the origin. (b) Show
that the dircctiunal dcriv:u iw 0 . {tO. 0. Ill c\ists if nod onlv 2-l let R = (cosfl.<~nfl.O) anJ E-l =(-si n fl.cosO. O) he t he
if I he unit \ eCtor 11 is :r line:rr combin ation o f >Umc lwn .;f pobr<oordinatcs un it vectors. Given /t .r. y. :l .., k'(r. n. :).
lhc standard umt vector> I. j . 3nd 1.. show th3t
13. Dcfint> the partial d e nva ii\ CS r, and r , of the \'cctor-•alucd 0. ! =a..· and
function r (.r. y) = ix + j 1· + I;. {( <. y) by componcntwise ar
pdrlral d iffere ntiatio n. Then sht>w that the \"ecto r r, x r, is Then conclude from Problem 23 thJt the gradient vector is
normal to the surface : = f ( ' . y ). gi•·en in cylindrical coordinJtes by
lt. An open-topped rcctangul:u box i< to h:wc tot3l sur· aw 1 a.., J h'
C.ce area 3(X) em:. Find the dimensions that maximize its 'C'f = - R - - - 9+ - k
•·olumc.
3r , ilO al .
25. Suppose that you are standing at the point with coordi·
15. You must build a rect angular !hipping crate wilh volume 60
1 nates ( -100. -100. 430) on a hill th3t h3, the sh3pc or the
11 • Its sidescos1 Sl / ftl, its top costs S2/ ft: , and it.s bottom graph of
com S3/ ft:. What dimensions would minimi1c the tot3l cost
of the bo~'/ == 500- (0.ll03).r' - (0.00-l)yl
16. A pyrami(] is bounded b\' the three coordinate pllnes and (in units of meters). In what (horizontal) d irection should
hy the plane tangent to the s urface xy: = I :ll a point in the ) "OUmove in order to maintain :r co~st:rnt altitude-tha t is,
first OC1ant. Find the volume of this pyrami(] (it is indepen· to neither climb nor descend the hill?
dent of the point of tangency). 26. Suppose that the blood concc!nlration in the ocean a t the
17• Two resi<tors ha,•e rcsbtant-cs R and R1. rcspecti,·ely. point (x. y) is given by
1
When they arc connected in panrllcl. the tntal resistance
Rof the resulting circuit satislies the equntion
f<x. )') = 1\ exp( - k\.r' + 2i)l.
I 1 I where :tand k a rc. positive con~tants. ,, <h ark nlways
-=-+-. sw1ms m the d!rcetron of V f . S~uw tha t its path i< 3
R R1R1 parabola Y =ex:·
[Sugg~sriwr: Show th:rt the condition that
SuPIX>Se that R1 and R 2 arc measure d to be 300 and 600 0 (tlx / dt. dy{dl) rs a multiple llf V f implies th3 t
(ohms) respectively. with a ma~imurn error of I % i~ c nch
I dx I t1·1
measurement . Use diffcrencial~ tn estimate the maxrmum
error (in ohms) in the cnlcula1cd vnluc of R.
; dt = 2y til .
I&. Con~ider a g,as that satisfies van dcr Waal s' equation. (See Then nntidiffcrentinte this cquution.J
Problem 67 or Sectron 13.4.) Usc differentials to nppro~i· 27. Consider a plane tangent to the surface with cqu•t "
'fJ .UJ ~11 _ " aon
lllate the change in its volume if p is increased from I atm r + T + • - I. Find the sum of the squares of the
to l .l atm and Tis dccreascdfrom 313 K to 303 K. x·, y-, and z· intercepts of this plan:.
28. Findthepoinuontheellipse r f a 2 .._}.!/ b1 = 1 ("'itha :b) Locatr and cuwrfy thr critical poinrs (lo~al maxima, local min.
"'here the normal line passes through the origin. ima. saddlr points. and othtr painrs ar whrch the tangmt plant is
29. Let horiwnral) ofthr functroru in Problmu -II through 50.
.u . J(x. y) = .r3 y- 3.ry + .r~
42. f<x. y) = .r: + .ry + y2- 6.r + 2
.u. J (.r. y) = .r 3 - 6ry + T
if (x. )') f. (0. 0) and define /CO. 0) to be 0. Fim show tha t
f is d iffe rentiable at the origin. Then classify the origin as ~. /Cx. y) = x:.1' + xf + x + Y
a cri tical point of f . 45. f <x . y) = .r 3 ):Cl - x - )')
30. Find t he point of the surface~ = xy + 1 tha t rHloscst to the -16. / C.r. y) = x'- 2-r: + _ ,l + 4y + 3
origin.
47. /(X.)')=<''' -lry
31. U~e the method of Problem 3S in Section 13.9 to find the
scmia• cs of the rotated ellipse
.as. tcx. y>=.r ]
- .1·
1 "'
+r + r
..,
49. f (,r. >")- ( x - y)(ry- I)

73x' + 72-ry + 52/= 100. ~- f <x. y) = (2r: + ): l c • p( - x 2 - y )
32. Usc the L1grangc multiplier method tu •ho"' that the Sl . Gi,·en the data poant< (x, . y,) fo ri = I. 2.- .. • n. the ltast·
longes t chord of the sphere xl '- )J + ~: = I h:1s length 2. •quon·< ~tru i~ht lin e ." = t•r.r + h is the line th at best fits
(S~<gg<'.I/Um: There i> no loss of gcncrahty rn a"unung tha t these data in the fol!,m in~ scn<c. Let d, y, - (m x, +b) be =
( I . 0. 0 ) "unc endpoint of the chord .! the tl.-r·inritm of the prcdi~tetl value m x, + b from the true
:u. U<c the me t hod of L1 !:rangc multrplicrs. the law o f cmi ncs, value >•. Let
and Fig D .CJ.CJ to lind the triant;lc o f mi nimum perimeter •
in<erihe tl rn the unit circle. fCm . b)= df + df + ·- · + tl,; = L [y, - ( IIU', + b)J1
3.$. When 11 cu rrent I enters t" o rc>asto rs. " ith resistances R1 i =l
and N1 • that arc connected in parallel. ll >phts rnto two cur- be the sum <>f the square~ of the dcvin tions. 11ac least·
rent\ I , a nd I~ (with I= 11 + 1:) in such a "lY to min- squares strarght line rs the one that rninimi,r;cs this sum
imilc the tc>tal power loss R1 1f ~ R: If- Exprc,~ 11 and (Fig. 13.M P.I) Show how to choose m and b by minimiz·
1: in terms of R1• R1 • and I . Then den.-e the fo rmula in ing f- (Nat<": The only variables in this computation are
l'roblcm 17. mandb.J
JS. Usc the method of Lagrange multipliers to find the points y
uf the c:lf1p)C .xl + 2y2 ;_ 1 th :lt nrc do,c·u to ~mJ (,•rtlu::o,t
from th e hnc x + y =2. [Sugg<">tiun: Le t f<x. y. u, 1•) <lc notc
the squa re of the diitancc b<:twccn the poin t (x. )') o r the P{,~~ )',) Q.
ellipse and the point (u, u) of the line.]
d I
36. (a) Show that the maximum of ' I
I @
@ ,~ l'. (• •. y.l
/(x. y . t ) =x + y + z
@ ""' Q, (x,. nu, +b)
a t points of the sphere x 2 + y +i = a 2 is aJ3. (b) Conclude 1 lie nt.t· . b
from the result in part (a) that
(x + y+ d ~ J (.rl + / + i-J
for ~n)' three numbers x. y. and z.
37. Genera liLe the method of Problem 36to show that. for any
n a rbitrary real numbers x , . x2. .... and x. ,
FIGURE l l .MP. l Fitt.i ng the best straight line to
the d a ta points (.rr,. Y.). 1 ~ i ~ n (Problem 51).
.r 1 + Xz + · · · + x" ~
n
\j xf + xi +n ·· · + x! .
S2. Let I :R z, - R be de fined for ( x. y) in R z, by
Thu~ the urirlrmrric mt'an of the real numbers x 1• x1 • •• •• x. •
is n o greater than their r oot ·.Jquarr mean. /(x. Y)=" 7.Y= LX1Y1·
38. Find the m aximum and minimum values o f / Cx. y) = xy- 1•1
x- y at points on and within the plane triangle with vertices Use L1gran•c m 1 · 1.
o u trp rcrs to show tha t the ma ximum value
(0. 0). (0 . I). and (3. 0). 0 f / (ll ~·) b'
- . ·
G1\Cn any IWO \"CCI the constrai
s u JCCtto nts 1x1= 1 a nd I}I= Irs I.
39. Find the maximum and m inimum values of /Cx. y. z>= d · ' d
._ b ors • an b tn R-. wTite x = •11•1.1n
x= - y; at points of the sphere x 2 + )l + t = I. >- /lb l to c onclude that
4(). Find the maximum and m inimum values o f f( x. y) =x2y
aTb ~ jajjb j
at points of the ellipse x= + 4y = 24.
(the Cauch y-Sch .. an inequality) .
JJU LTlPLE INTEGRALS \
eometric proble m~
G of mrnwrc-<lcal·
ing with concept\ of
length. area. and \'ulumc-
fails to hold. But "ith his new definition of the in·
tegra l. Lebesgue showed that a derivathc function f'
is intc~rablc and that the fundamenta l theorem holds.
Sinub;ly. the equali ty of douhk and iterated integral~
c3n he traced hac I. .:o ccn· (Sectio n 1~. 1} hold" o nl\' under rather dra>tic rcstric·
turi~s to the ri>c of civi· tion> rf the Riemann dciinttton of multiple integrals is
hLatu.>n> in the fertile river u<ed. h ut the Lcbcs~:uc intcl!r:t l re soh·es the diflicult;·.
\alleys of Africa and Asia. For wch reaZons. th; Lebesgue theory of mea·
wh~ n such is<uc~ a~ area~ of su re and integration predominat<:> in moJern mathcmat·
ticlds and ,·olume< of 11.ra· ical research , hoth pu re and applied. For instance. the
naric< became important. l..ch;:sguc inte gral i~ basic to such d ivcr<c realms as ap·
1l1csc prohlc:rns led ulti · plied prohahility and mathema tical biology. th.: quant um
HoM ltbesgue (1875- 1941) matcly to the im···~'lll, "hich thcMy of atoms und nuclei. and the mformation the·
is used to calculah: (among ory and electric sip,nals processing of modem computer
Nher thin~;<} areas and volume> of curvilinc:u figures. technology.
But only in the early twentieth century we re certain 'l11c Section 14.5 Project illustrates the applicatio n
1.>~;:-s:lnding diflicultic< with mca<ure and integration uf multiple integrals to such concre te problems as the
fin~ly r<".oh·cu. largely :1< a con<cquencc of the work of optimll dc,ign of racc<;u wheels.
t::e French mathematician llenri Lchcsguc.
In hi> 11J02 thesis presented at the Sorhonnc in
P:ms. ~btsguc introduced ::t new ddinit ion o f the in·
::?=31. generalizing Riemann's definition. In essence. lei
de:i.ne the inte gral of the function Jfrorn.x = cr to .r = b.
l<~sgue repl::~ced Riemann's subdivision of the interval
[o.b] into nonoverlapping subintervals with a partition
of[q,b] into disjoint mcnsur~bl e sets (E;).lbe Riemann
1'.!::1 ' [ /lt;l D..t was thereby replaced with a sum of
the form [ f ( x;) m,. where m, is the measure <>f the ith
\..>t E, and x' is a number in E,. To sec the advantage
o~ the -Le~sgue integral." consider the fact that there
exm diiferentiable functions whose dcrivati\'CS :trc no t
t::::gubk in the sense of R iemann. For such a function,
tl:e fundamental theo rem of calculus in the form
lb J'( x )dx == f(b)- f (a}

We could u~e multrple lnte<Jr•ls to determine the best design
for the wheels of these soapbox derby car1.
939
940 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integrals
DOUBLE INTEGRALS
14, 1\ . f f t'ons
1 of two or three varia hies. Such
This chapter is devoted to mtcgral: 0 unc 11·c·J tions of multiple integrals include
. I . IC"r'll- 11te app •. .
integrals arc called mu I lip c m " ' -· d f ce 'lr&.!'l in a wider varie ty of Situations
. f . 1 me mass :1n sur a ' '
computation o area.'? u · . .. ' nte •nl of Ch:~pters 5 and 6.
than ca n be handled wnh the smgle 1 ,g j ·s the t/ou/Jie integral
The simples t sort of multiple ~r~tegr.l 1
!~ f(.t.y)d,\
of a continuous function f(x . y ) 0 '·er the rt'ctangl<'

R = [a. b} x {c. d)= ((x. y) I o ~ x ~ b. c ~ y ~ dl
. 1 1 . resen ts here a differential clement of
io th e xy·planc. (We Wll_l _see that,';n ~~pintcor.,l is motivated by the problem of
area A.) Just a~ the definH~on of th~ ' !! lhh! i~~c rnl is motivated by the rroblcm
1
computing areas. the dcfin~!lon of th~ doftFi I-I I ~-a solid bounded above bl' the
f t' tl ·volume \• of the solld o 1g. · · · · . .
o compu 1ng ~~ r I , t' v, functi onfo,·.:r the recta ngle I< in the xy·planc.
graph : = J (x. y) o t lc nonnega 1 c
To dclinc the mh~c
FIGURE 14.1.1 We will usc a
double integral to compute the V= Jjfl
j(x.y)tiA
volume V.
of such a double integral. we begin with :1n :lpproximation to V. To obtain this
approxim:uion. the first step is to construct a p:u titio n 'P of R mto subn:ctangl~s
R, R 1. Rz . ... , R1 determ ined by the points
I
I
•
a = x0 < x 1 < x2 < · · · < x., = b
I of! a. b) and
I
II c= Yo < Yt < Y2 < · · · < y., =d
I
II
of tc. J). Such a partition of R into k = 11111 recta ngles is shown irf fig. 14.1.2. Titc
order in which th~se rectangles are labdc:d makes no difference.
Nex t we choose an arbitrary point (.t ; . y;J of the ith rectangle R; for each i
(where I ~ i :£ k ).'Otc collecti on of points S = ((x;, y; ) 1 I ~ i ~ k 1is ca lled a s clrclinn
for the p~r tition 'P = (R, II ;;; i ~ kJ. As a measure of the size of the rectangles of the
FIGURE 14.1.2 A partition 'Pof partition 'P, we ddine its norm I'PI to be the maximum of the lengths of the diagonals
the rectangle II. of the rectangks I R ;}.
Now consider a rectangular column that rises straight up from the xy·plane. Its
base is the rect;~ngle R, and its height is the value f<x;. y;) of fat the selected point
(xj. y; ) of R,. One such column is shown in Fig. 14.1.3. If AA , dcnot.:s the ar.:a of
R., then the volume of the ith column is /(:x.;, yiJ AA;. The sum of the volumes of
all such columns (Fig. 14.1.4) is the Riemann sum
I
L f(x;', y,') Li. A" ( I)

i-=-J
an ~pproximation to the volume V of the solid region th at lies above th e rectang.lc

Rand under the graph t = f(x, y).
. We wo ul~ expec t to determine the exact volume v hy taking the limit of the
R1emann sum rn Eq. ( 1) as t~e norm I'PI of the partition p approach~s zero. We
therefore define the (double) Integral of the function f over the rectangle R 10 be
1, JJ }(
/(.r. y)c/A = lim ~ /(r '
111- ·H t_
y• ) 61\
It~
1 • •· 1 I•
•• I
provided that this limit exists. (We will make thA c .f h . f such a
' ~ oncept o t e existence o
i
~ 1n:ey~·1 S!CTIO'I 14. 1 941
'
IIGU~l 14. 1. ) Al'fYo •...,.>;_ng riGUR£ t 4. 1.4 Con1mm

t ho V'/vno ~ I~ ...,,. ...:• by
<OtTt 'PQn<f.r>q to .. p.~rt>tion ol
\um"''fVJ r l JfT'tl'\ ol c~1 ~~ rt'C 1•"9'~ R.
W'l\h tl'o(t...tnq .a{.u b"'"
luru t "'' " ' prcc•-.c •n ~<"t1on IJ 2.l lt "pro\ cd in • •h'anC'c tl c.1ku l u~ th~t the l imit
in EtJ. (2 ) do~• c \ h l 1f f " cnn ll nuou\ o n R To mo ti-.11 < the intrnduc tum of the
H•cm~ IHI ~um 111 l:q . ( I). "' e a~\u mccl thJt f "''" mm ncg:ttl\ e o n U. hu t E•l· (2)
•c1VC> h> tlctl nc the tluuhlc Integral "' e r a rect.11nglc ,. he the r or nu t f i~ no n nella tiw.
EXAMPLE I Approxirmtc the valu' o f rhc inrcgrnl

' jj (Jr 1
+ 6 ry:Jd A
•
I ---
..
11. 11
._
"·
•
C' · I )
=
over the rect angle R (I . 3) x (-2. 1). by clrula ting the Hiema nn 5Um In (I) fo r the
p a rtitio n il lu•trntcd in Fig. 14.1.5. "'i th the i th point (.r;. y;J ~lccted a~ the ccnt<.:r or
th e i th recta ngle R, (fo r each'· 1 :; ' ~ 6).
•...
I ! l •
4',•
--- So lutio n E:1ch or the six p:utit ion re<:l lngl~ shown in Fig.. 1J.1 .5 i~ a un it square
-I
. .
~
= =
with area ll r\ , 1. \\"Jth /( • . y) 4 r 1 ~ 6.r_,.:. the dC<~ired Riemann \um is therc'forc
-l -- - " " •
L•
(1. - l) C'· - Zl
f( .ct. y;l 6 t\ ; = / ( r j• .•·j) 6A I ~ / (.ri.yj ) 6A z + / (.rj.) j ) 6A 3
IICURE 14.1.5 The p.1t11tion in ••t + / (.r;. y; J 6A• + / C.r;. >; I 61\ s + / (.r;. y;J 611 &
E...mpl~ 1.
= 1n. -n<l) +10.-n<l) + 10.-D(I)
+ J(l . - } )(1) +I ( ~· i )Ol + /{!.l)Ol
"SI
= T l<S . I + T
. + ... 2~ . 1 + 'i
t>.l . ] + ... 6J . I + :w
T . I = 294.
Thus we find Ihat
bur our calculalion provides no information about lhe accuracy or this appro~i
marion.
•
REMARK 1 The single-variable appro~imalion melhods of Secrion 5.9 all have
nnalogs rnrdout>le integrals. In Example I we calculatcclthc midpoint approlim•tlon
10 rhc given double integral
Jj II
f(x.y)dA
usi ng a part it ion o f the rectangle R in to six subrecta ngles. The R iemann sum we
Number of Midpoint
ca lculated is th e sum o f the vo lum es of six rec tangular co lumns or b lock s. Each
Subrcctangles Approximation
of these col umns has a base co nsisting of o ne o f the su brcc ta nglcs in Fig. 14.1.5
6 29-HJO and has height eq ual to the val ue f(x,' . y; ) o f the func tio n a t the midpoint of that
24 307.50 s u brecta ngle.
96 3 10.88
384 31 1.72
REMAR K 2 If we subd ivide each rec ta ngle in Fig. 14. 1.5 in to four equal smaller
1536 311.93
6144 311.98
rec tangles. we ge t a part it ion of R into 24 sub rc ctangles. and th e corres po ndino
Riemann sum is the sum of the , -olum e of 24 rectangular columns wi th bases thcs~
24 subrcctangles. Suppose tha t we co ntinue in th is way. quadrup ling the n umber
FIGURE 14.1.6 Midpoint
approximations to the Integral in of subrccta ngl es (and of recta ngular colu mns) a t each step. and use n compu ter
Example 1. to calcula te each time the Riema n n s um defined by se l<:cting th e ce nt e r of each
s ubn:ctanglc to calcu la te the height of the co r respo nd ing recta n gula r column. Then
we get the mitlpo in: app rox imatio ns listed in Fig. 14. 1.6 to the actua l vo lume \'
tha t li es over the rccta ngi<: Rand u nder the surface~ = f (x. y) . (Sec Fi g. 1·1.1 .7.)
Figure 1-I.I.R shows the "rect:lngular block approximatio ns " to \I that correspo nd to
pa rt itions o f U into 2-l. 96, and 384 subrcctangles. In Ex:tmple 2 we will see (much
more easily) that the exact value o f V is gi"e n b y
V = jj (4x
R
3
+ 6x y 2 ) d A = 3 12.
Iterated Integrals
~e direct e va_lua tio n o f t?e _l imit in Eq. (2) is generall y even less practica l than the
? trect e valuatton_of the ltm tt we used in Sectio n 5.4 to define the single -va riable
mte gra l. In pract1cc, we sh all calcula te doubh! integrnls ove r re ctangles by means of
the Iterated integrals that ap pear in Theo rem 1.
FIGURE 14.1.7 The surface
z = 4 x 1 + 6xy2 over the
rectang le R. THEOREM 1 Do_uble ~ntegrals as Ite rated Single Integrals
Suppose tha t R = [a • b) x [c , C/ )• ·n1Cn
I ( x. y) IS contmuous on the rectangle
,.
!~ f (x . y ) d A = [ (1d 1
f(x , y) c/ y ) d x =[ ([ f (x, y ) dx )dy . (3)
. l l1eore m. I tells us
. how to· compute ad ou bl e ·mtc gra l b v mea ns of two successive
( or llerared) smgle-,·a n ablc integrat ions. e •ach of ,,,,uc
· h we can
' · u te bv usmg
comp · the
( un d a men tal theore m of calculus ( if the functi on/' . . rr· · ·
· IS su tC1e n tly well-be haved o n R).
I I I I
I I
(a) 24 blocks. V :: 301.50 (b) 96 blocks. v ., 310.SS
(c) 3S-t blocks. v :: 311.72
FIGURE 14.1.8 Midpoint sum approximations to the volume Vunder th
and 384 subrectangles. e surface z = 4x 3 + 6xy2 with 24, 96,
--
.~-------------------------
Double lntegr~ls SECTION 14 · 1 9 4 3
Let us explain what we mea n by the parentheses in the iterated integ ral
= J.~ (1
4
[ [ f(x.y)dy dx J(.t,y)dy)dx . (4)
First we hold x constant nnd integrate with respect to y. fro m y = c to Y = tl. The
result of this first integratio n is the [)artial integral or[with respect to >'· deno ted by
14 J<x. y) tiy,
and it is a function of .t nlone. Titcn we integrate this latter function with rc~pcct
to .t. from .t == a to .t = b.
Similarly, we calculate the iterated integr al
[ [ f( x. )') dx dy = [ ([ J<x. y) dx )dy (5)
by first integ rating fro m a to b with respect to x (while holding y fixed) and th en
1 integrating the result from c to d with respect ~o y. TI1c o rder of integrat ion (ei ther
first wit h respect to x nnd then with respect toy, o r the reverse) is determined by the
order in wh ich the differentials tlx and tly appear in the iterated integrals in Eqs.. ( .!)
---r • l and (5). We .almost always work "from the in~ide o ut." TI1eorem I guarantees that
_l the value obtained is independent of the order of integration provided that I is
• continuous on R.
" - y •-2 EXAMP LE 2 Compute the iterated integrals. in Eqs. (4) and (5) for the function
f(x. y) = 4x 3 + 6ry 2 on the rectangle R "' [I. 3) x (-2. 1).
Solution The rectangle R is shown in Fig,. 14.1.9, where the vertical segment (on
FI(;UitE \4.1.9 ~ inner limiu of which .r is constant) corresponds to the inner integral in Eq. (4). Its endpoints lie at
the frn itm ted int~ral
r:.umplt 2).
heights y "' - 2 and y = 1, which arc, therefore, the limits on the inner inte gral. So
Eq. (.!)yields
j ' ([~(4xl+6xy1 )dy)dx "' l [4.t 3y+2.tyt __ 1 dx
= j ((~.r 3 + 2.r) -
3
(-S.t 3 - 16.t ) )d.r
= jl 3+ ( 12.t 18x) dx
= [3.t4 + 9.r 2J: = 312.

lhe horizontal segment (on which y is consta nt) in Fig. 1-1.1.10 corresponds to the
inner integrDI in Eq. (5).1ts endpoints lie nt x = I and x = 3 (the limits of integra t ion
fo r x ), so Eq. (5) gh•cs
RGURE \4.1. \0 rnc•

in~r Om
~ t.">t w.ond i~•~ ln~gr1l
u L([ <4.r3 + 6xy1 )dx )dy = L[.t•+ lt
1lJ:_ dy1
('.:...,:;.~ 2)
= 1:((81 + 27y 2) - (I +3~·:))dy
-[:Cso + 2~y1)dy
.. [so>·+syl]~~. m. •
When we note that iterated double integralt arc almost alw~ys evaluated !:rom
the in1ide out. it becomet clear that the parentheset appearing on the right·hand
'd · E d u nn ecessa ry They are. t herefor e. gen e rally o m itted.

1 s r cs rn ·qs. ( 4 ) nn ( 5) ar e · ·. . . d . · r.
· Whe n d . dr appenrs rn t he rntcgr.rn . " e rntcgr a tc m st
a~ rn Examples 3 a nd .:. > • f dx dv tells us to integrate fi rs t wi th
wrth respect to y. whereas t he appea rance o .
respect to x.
EXAM PLE 3 Sec Fig. 14.1.11.
• 1'1'12 cosx cosy d y dx = 1" [ cosx s in yJ .: : dx
= 1·• cosxdx = [si n x ]; =0. •

FIGURE 14.1.11 Example 3.
EX AM PLE 4 Sec Fig. 14.1.12.
r'Jor r. (e' +sinx)dxdy = Jor' [xe·' - cosxJ.,.o

io •r- cl.'·
= [ (~:re_. + r) dy
1
x • Ot-----l = [ -:re'
I
2
+ y ] = -I :r(e -
0 2
I)+ I.
•
y=O •
Iterate d Integrals and Cross Se ction s
An out line of the proof of 1lrcorcnr I illuminates the reln lionsh ip he twee n iterated
FI GURE 14.1.12 Example 4. integrals and t he met hod o f cross scctions (for computin!! volu mes) discussed in
Section 6.2. First we partiti on [a, b j into 11 equal subin terva ls. e ach of le n gth 6x =
(b- a)j11 , :md we also parti tion (t-. dJ int o n equ al subinterval~. each of length 6y =
(d- c) j n. 1lris g ives n 2 rcctanglc:s. each of whi ch has area 611 = 6.r 6\·. Ch oose a
point .r; in [.r,_,, .r, J for each i . I ;£ i ;£ n. Then the average v:~lue theorc~ for ~inglc
integrals (Section 5.6) gives a point y,j in [y1 _,, y1 Jsuch tha t
YJ
! TJ-l
f(.r,· . y)rly = /(.r; . Y/;l 6 y.
This gives us the selected point {.r;. y1j) in the rcct:~ngle [x1_ 1, x 1 J x [Yi-t . Yi J. Then
jj /(.r , y )dt\ "" t

It l. j =J
f <xt. Y,j) 6A = tt
•=-1 1=1
f<x;. Y,j) 6y 6x
= t. (~!,::, f(xj,y)dy)~x
=L
•
h :}
(
1
~
d
f(xj.y ) dy) 6x
•
=L
.., A(xi) 6.r ,
where
A (x)= ld /(x ,y) dy .
Moreove r. the last sum is a R iemann sum for t h .

c mtcgra 1
Lb A (x)dx.
~ ln:eg•a!! S~CTlO'I 14.1 945
Kl lhc relult of ou r compulltion i~
If, / Cr.y)dA "= t..

:
t\ (z; )tu
\\'c can con'c!l

:; r A(.: )dt = [ ( { /(.r . .,)J_v)ar.
th Bout1me ·toto a complete r roof o! Theo re:n 1 b'" sho" 10!' · th at t h.e
·
Pr ccc d me a · · · ·
- pproxtr:lJttom becorr:e eq!Llhti~ "'hen"'!! Ll~c ltmtts as" - -'- x .
·., 1n ca~e the fun::1io n fi\ nonne~;:lll\c Oii'l R. 1 r,~ fu;;;n\';; .~ ( t ) mtrnduc~d here
!tJ•cs
'· th
c area of the ' en teal. -
cra<s ~ion of R f<'JT'<!"du.-ul.u to the .t -:u ts
.
(Fig.. l-1 .1.13). Th u\ the iterated in tel!ral in Eq (.!) e t r rc<«:S the \"olumc I' 3> the in-
tegral from • =a to .c = b of :he dos.s-s~tionJI area function A ( .t ). Simillrly. the
JIGUR£ 14.1.13 The arN ol the
tt crat_c d In tegral in Eq. (5) exprc:s..= V as th e in te.:r:1l from , = c toy
functton - ·
=
d of the
cron 1tct10n .!t • 1\
~(•) ., j"I( K, y) dy. Aly l =f.' / tz. y)b.
"'hich give~. the area ala ' ertical crcxs ~ctio:n in a piJnc f<'rp<:ndiC"ub r to the ,>·-axis.
!Although tt ~cc ms appropri.lte to u-..: the nolltton A(v) here. note that A (.<) and
A ( y ) are by no means the ~me lunctton!) -
0 14. 1 TRUE / FALSE STUDY GUIDE

l. Dc ,cr il-c :t< r o mpl etcly ns possible the nn~lO)lY lx t... ~en
• a sinj!lc-vari nble integral J1 f (.: ) d .• 0 ' er an interval I -= In. b)
and
• lt double intcF,ral jjtr j (.r. )'}dA over a rectangle R = (a. bJ x (c. d ).
Di:scuss bot h the simil3ritics :tnd the: differences.
2. Write the .. do uble" Riemann sum
corresponding to subdivisio n of I"· b) and {c. d) into m subin tervals each of

le ngth 6x and into" subinterval s each o( length Ay (respective ly). together
with selections {x; r .. , and {y;};&, of points in these subintervals. What
cho ices of these sdcctio ns mi~ht co rrespond to ldt-hand. right-hand. and
midpoint sums fo r single-variable intej!rals?
3. Ca n vou d~scribc a way of gene ralizing the idea of trapezoidal appro:.:ima-
tions.for sin~k-varbbk integrals to duuble-sum appro~imations for double
intecrals'l Think of usi ng trapezoidal approximations for the cross-sectional
area· integrals di$cussed at the end of this section.
~ 14. 1 PROBLEMS
z. Approximate Lhc integral
I. Approxim~te the integral
JJ (4.r) + 6.r,-ll dA
Jj• (4.r l +6.ry1) dA
• · · sl1own in Fig· 14.1.5.r but as in Problem 1. but selecting each Cx;. y;) as (a) the upper
of Example 1 using the parut•on h kit corner of the rectangle R,; (b) the lower right corner oC
selecting each (x' v') as (a) the lower left corner ol tRe
• · · 'upper ng
. h t comer of the rectang e •· the rectangle R,.
rectangle R ,; (b) the
In Problems 3 through 8, calwlate the Riemann sum for )1-1

Jj f(x, y) dA
18.
1 I -J
(xly- xl)dydx
12
R l9.1"1" (sinxcosy)dxdy
rrsing the given partition and sele~tion of points (xi, yi) for the
rectangle R. 20.1•fl1•~cosxsiny)dydx
= =
3. f(x, y) x + y; R (0. 2) x (0. 2); the partition Pconsists
of four unit squares; each (xi, >'i> is the center point of the
ith rectangle R ,.
21.1 1
1' xe' dydx
4. f(x, y) = xy; R = (0. 2) x (0. 2): the partition P consists of

four unit squares; each (x;, yi) is the center point of the ith
rectangle R 1 •
22. 1x ~'
f'
lo ..
2
1
2 dx dy
5. f(x. = x2 - 2y; R = (2. 6) x (-1 , 1); the partition Pcon·-

y)
sists of four equal rectangles of width tJ.x
tJ.y = 1; each (x;. yn
2 and height
is the lower left corner of the ith rect-
= 23. 11' 1
e' sinydydx
angle R,. "4 [' [' ea1 ".r d)'

6. f(x, y) = x2 + y 2;
R = (0, 2] x (0. 3]; the partition Pconsists * · Jo Jo "
of six unit squares; each (x,·, yi) is the upper right corner of
the ith rectangle R,.
7. f(x, y) = sin x sin y; R = (O,rr J x (0, :r J; the partition P
25. f.' f.' (xy +sin x) dx tly
rT'2
· !2
consists of four equal squares; each (x; , y,') is the ccntc.r
point of the ith rectangle R1•
26.
10
Ju (y- 1) cos.r dx dy
II. f(x, y) = sin 4xy; R = (0. 1J x (0. :r ]: the partir ion Pconsists
•12!' .
of six equal rectangles of widrh tJ.x = and heigh! Ay = ~ rr;
each (x;. y,') is the center point of the ith rectangle 1<,.
l 27.
10 t
sm y d.rdy
X
In Problems 9antl 10, let L, M. and U denote tire l~icmtlllll .w ms

calculmed for tlw given function f am/tire indicated partition Pby
28.
f'j'
1 t
I
-tlydx
xy
selectin~ tire lower left comers. mit/points. and upper riglrr comers
(respectively) of tire rectangles in ·p, Without actually ca/culming
any of these Riemann sum.~ arrange rlrem in increasing order ()f
29.1111 o 0
(-1 + _ I
x+l y+ l
) dxrly
f.Zl.l(~+ !)dydx
size.
30.
9. f(x , y) = x 1 yl; R = (!. 3) x (2, 5]; the partition 'P consists . I I ) X
of six unit squares.
10. f(.<,y) = /IOO-x 2 -y2;R = (1.4]
~-....,----,
>< (2,5];thcparti- In Problems 3/through 34, verify that the values of

tion P consists of nine unit squares.
Evaluare the itemtecl integrals in Problems llthrough 30. Jjf(x,y)dt1
n.1 1
R
2 4
(3x +4y)dxdy given by the iterated imegral.~ in Eqs. (4) ami (5) are indeed
<'qual.
1312
12. .t2ydxdy 31. f(x. y)
32. f(x. y) =sin x cosy;
= 2ry- 3yl: R = (-1, 1) x (-2, 2)
R = (O,;r) (-;rj2,rr/2J
j''JJ (2x-
X
13. 7y) dydx 33. f(x, y) = Jx + y; R = (0, I] x (1.2)
-1 I
34. f(x. y) = e·••>; R = (O.ln 2] x (0, In 3)
14. 1:1• 2
x /dydx 35. Prove that
IS. 11 3 3
(.<)' + 1x + y)dx dy lim 111t·t"v"<1xd>·-O
"-oc 0 0
- - .
16. 1 2
[ (x
2 2
y - 17) dx dy
36. Suppose that f(
R
=
(
) k ·
x • Y = IS a constant-valued function an
a, bJ x [c, d). Usc Riemann sums to prove that
d
17. !! 2
-1 -1
2
(2xl-3x y)dydx
2
If kdA =k(b-a)(d-c).
R
Double Integrals over More General Re9ions SECTION 14.2
947
J7. Use Riemnnn sums to show. wilhoUI calculating the value

of the integral. that 39. JJ [/(r. y)+ g(x. y)]dt\
0 :; 1'1' sin .JXY d .t d y ;;; :r 2.

•
= jjt<x.y)dA+ Jf g(x.y)dA.
• problems 38 rhroug/• .~0 lisr prop~rrie.r of doubt~ inregraiJ rhat • •
art analogous to fmrulta r properrres of srnglc integral.< In each
(a.U statt' th~ corrr.sponding rr/ation berw rc11 Rieman 11 .sum.\' as· ~0. If f(.t. y ) ~ g(x . y ) at each point o rR. then
jodatrrl wirlt a gi•·m parririon and srlarion fo r rhe rccrans lr R.
38. Jf. cf(x. y)dA =cj f./ (.<. y) dA (cis n constant). jj t<x. )·)dt\ ~ jj s<x.y) dA.
• •
14.1 l'roject: Mid point Sums Ap proxi mating Do ubl e lnt e~o:ml~
Su ppose tha t we divide the intervals Ia. b) and 1c. <II into m subintervals of length Ax
and into " subintervals of length Ay (respectively) . If u, and t ·1 deno te the midpoints
of the ith subinterval of [a . b) nnd the jth subinterval of lc. d ) (respectively). the n
(u,. v1 ) is the midpoi nt of the ijth subrcctangle (x, _J, .t,) x IYJ- l· y 1 ). We thereby
• • r: l obtain the midpoint sum approximation
••I·• r!' (•:- •: ' Ut ~
• •
··~ .,, 1•:- f"I\ h r.. • 1 l
. ., •: •, b .t
to the double integral of the function f over the rectangle R = [a. b ) x [c. d) .
Figure 14.1.14 illustrates the case in which m = =
3 and 11 2. In the CD· RO:'vt rna ·
FIGURE 14.1.14 ~ ~ints used tcrial for th is project we illust::llc the usc of computer algebra systems to calcul:!te
"' tile midpoint appro•imation. midpoint sum approxi mations rapidly and cfticicntly.
14.2 1DOUBLE INTEG RALS OVER M O RE GEN ERAL REGIONS

Now we want to define and compute do uble integrals over re gions more general than
rectangles. Let the functio n /be defined on the plane region 1?. and 5lii'1'0$C that R
is hounded - that is, that R lies wit hin some rect angle S . To detlnc t he (dou ble:)
integra l off o ver R. we begin with a partition Q of the rectangleS into subu:ctanglcs.
Some of the rectangles of Q will lie wholly within !?. some will be outside: R. and
some will lie partly within and partly outside R . \Vc co nsider the collectio n p =
1R 1 • R 2 •• ••• R, I of all those rectan gles in Q that lie completrly w irh i11 the region
R. This collectio n Pis C3lled the: innt•r partitio n of the re gion R <lc:termincd tw the
partition Q of the rectangleS (Fig. 1·1.2.1). Oy the no rmiPi of the inn<'r r .utiti.on p
we: mean the norm of the partition Q that determines 1'. S•lle thnt 11'1depends nnt
only on P hut o n Q ns "ell.
UiinJ; the inner partition 1'of the region R. we cnn proceed in much the same
r~ ..,........, i I I I J wav a ~ in Scctton 1·1.1 . ll y choosi ng an arbi tmry point (.t;. y;> in the i th rcctan~lc
I
./ . . _
'!
~· I
......
I
,,
-1 J_J 11 , 'or p fo r i =
1. 2. J .. . . . k. we ohtain n 5rlt•t·liun fo r the innc:r J'.trtitio n 1'. l.ct-us
deno te by t.A, the nr cn of R ,. 'llten this se lectio n r.i,·cs the: R lem11nn Mtm
~ I I .• - I
I
I
I
(• • ) • I
I
I
L f <x;.y,•) t. ,\ ,
- I l I I I 1•1
- ~ I ; I l
.uociated with the inner partition P . In Ci15c f i~ nonnc~Jti\'c on R, thi\ Riemann
3
sum approxim3te! the volume of the: thrt"e ·d imcnsional rq;ion thn t he~ undcr t he
surface: == / ( <. y) nnd nhovc the t egton R in the: r.1·· phnc:. We the refore: define the
double integul off over the region R by t nking the limtt of this Riem~nn sum n~
the norm IP I approaches zero. Th us

l
lim L
=ll'i-
fl. R
f (x. y) dA ·0
r•l
f(xi. y,' ) 6A ;, (I)
'd d h 1· I' · · ·
prov1 e · I a tillS 1mll eXIS15 10
the sense of I he following dclinilion.
DEFINITION The Double Integral . .

111e dnuiJic inlcf!ral of the bound.:d function f O\'er the plane region R IS the
number
I = Jf R
j (x . y)dA
provided that, for C \ 'CT)' f > 0. there exists a number lJ > 0 such that
l
L j(.r,'. y,' ) 6A 1- I < l
for every inner parliti on p = (R 1• R 2• ... . Rt l of R that has norm !P I < .5 nnd
every ~e lect ion of poi nts (.r,'. y,') in R, (i = I. 2. .. . . k ) .
11JUs the meaning of the limit in Eq. ( I) is th at the Riemann sum can be made
arbitrarily clmc to the number
I = Jj R
j (x . y )dA
merely by choosi ng the norm of the inne r partition P sufficiently small. In this case
we say that the function / is in tcgrahl c on tho: region R.
Note If R i~ a rectangle and we choose S = R (so that an inner partition of R is simply

a partition of!<). then the preceding ddiniti on rcdu\'cs to our earlier definition of
a double: integral ove r <I rectangle. In advanced c:~lcu lus th e double inte!!ral of the
function f m·cr th e hounded plane region R is shown to exist provided th at f h
co ntinuous on I< and the hcnmdary of/( i~ reasonably well·bcha\'cd. In particular. it
suffices for th e hound:~ry of R to consi>t of a finite number of piecewise smooth simple
closcll curves (tha t i~. each boundary cur\'c consists of a fi nite number of smooth arcs).
EXAMPLE 1 Approximate the \'alue of the integral
if R
(.r + y) tiA
where R i~ the region in the first quadr:~ n t hounded by the unit circle nnd the co·
ordinate axes. Do so by calcul:lting the sum in Eq. (I) for the inner partition and
mid point sclt:ction indicated in Fig. l4.2.2(a).
• '
I I
-......J.. I
~
I
0.75
• • • I'
on • • • • • '\ 0 7.1
' 1\. .
. •• • .•
• • • • • ~
0) 05 :-
• •
025
• • •
\ 0 25
• • •
• • . •• •. .• ·• l 0
• • • • • .• • • •
oJ.) o.l u.n I • II H U..) 0.7~ I •
(a) 11 inlerior squ.orcs wilh Ax ~ AJ ., j (b) ~I intcnor squares wilh A~ = 6 )' • I (c) to• · . . A "A,.,. ~
A 01o110tcnor squ :u cs wit 1' u • •
· Ti
FIGURE 14.2.2 Inner partition$ of the quartcr·circle R with ll. .r = ll.y = 1 Ax _ A 1 1 d
1•"' - '-'Y= !• an Ax = Ay = n·
949
,v s
~~ s = l!(!. ') - J(i. D- JU. !l - J(l. ~ )
--
I;"
8
!l
~~
0 ) .1.1
0 ·I'l l ... J(l . 0 - 1n. ~ l ... J(l. ~ l - ! ( ~ . ~l ] ~r ~~·
----no II<' 05\JI
..-
~
I
32
6-1 3 1~ 9
0 6:~
0 (,.16 - (J -n - (i - n- n- o- c- n: ·l· l·
12.7:111 (I IW>
\2$
:_(,{, 5l.~m () 1'12
- nnd t hu\
I
m 205)~(> 0 (,(,~
s !.!.
I to~~
I i l
~2.51•1 Q(>lo~
0:
JZ
c 0.).137.5 ""0..3-U.
•
IICUR[ 14.2.3 The number n o l REMARK In Fir t.t.:::.:::(n) " C ~pn h) dl\,d.ng the un11 i ntel'al~ on the r- nnd
wbinl~rv.>h in ~ach dir <·cloon, lhr y-a ~ cs in w n "' .! 'ub in le r'"ats each FiFU t r< 1.1 2 ~ ( I• ) and \ .I :!.1(c) <how th e inne r
numb<r N ol smJII squ.ues in the p.H titiun' th•tr ct " c runtonue in tht< "''>·
<l•>ul>hn~ the numl>cr" of
~uhi ntc f\ nh in •·ac h llo i ~Ctonn at c.>ch ~ lcJ'. anti ""' 3 com r uter tu cakul.<l c e ach
Rltm3nn sum S.
l ime t he m•lll>lli nt Ricm.mn sum corrc>pondmgto the tcsultm\! mncr plrtltion o f
the quartcr<ircutar rqthm R. Figure 1.1.2.3 sho"'1 the rc<ultmg approxim.u ions to
th e in1 c11ral
--c; ·
,..,.(•)
fJ +R
(.r y) d A ;
we al~o <how the total number N o f interior squJrcs used at each step. In l'whlcm 51
we a<k )'<'U to shnw {u<ing a comp:uati<'dy simple computation "'ith iterated in te·
grals) thnt the e xact <'aluc of this integral is j. ('Thus t he approximation in E.~amplc 1
is no t c<cry imprc.si<'c.)
• • ~> • Evaluation of Doub le Integrals

111e e xplicit cvnluation of Riem ann sums as in Example I is cumbersome and incffi.
I ICUR£ 14.2.4 A vertically 'lmple
region II. cicnt. llut for ce rt ain cnmmon types or region' "'e can c,·al uate double integrals by
using iterated intcg.rals in much the: same" ay as we do when the: region is a rect:lngl~.
111c plane region R is cnllcd n•rtlrolly ~ltnplc if it can he: described lly means of the
inequalities
(2)
where .1·1(.r) and .' -:(x) arc continuous functions of x on {a. bJ. Such a reginn appears
in Fig. \4.2 ..1. lltc regio n R is culled hnrizontally sim ple if it can be described by the
inequaliti<:s
.t, {y) ~ x :i x:{y). (3)
when: .t 1 (y) and xz(y) are continuous functions or y on {c. dJ.The region in Fig. 14.2.5
• is hori1.0ntally simple.
'lne~rcm I tell~ u~ how to ~ompul_c by ite rate~ integration a double integral
over :1 rcg1on R that IS etther ventcally stmple or honzontnlly simple.
L
950 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integral~
THEOREM 1 Evaluation of Double Integrals . . .

Suppose that f<x . y ) is continuous on the region R. If R IS the verllcally Simple
region given in (2). then
b J YJ(A)
JJ R
f (.r. y)dA =
J. a JtfA)
/(.r. y) dyd.r. (4)
y
JJ R
f (.r.y) dA = r
If R is the horizontally simple regio n given in (3), the n
~
1•:(>1 f(x.y) d.rd y.
.rafy)
(5)
l11 corcm 1 here includes Th eore m I of Section J.U as a special case (when R
is a rcxtangle), and it can be proved by a generaliza tion of the argumen t we outlined
there.
EXAMP LE 2 Compute in two different ways the integral
jj R
x/dA.
FIGURE 14.2.6 The vertically
~imple region of Example 2.
where R is th e lirst·quadrant region b ounded b y the two curves y = ..[i andy = .r3.
Solution A/..-ays sk etch the rt•gion R of imegration before attempting to evaluate a
tloubl.: imegral. As intlicatctl in Figs. 1·1.2.6 and 14.2.7, the g ive n region R is both
vertica lly and horizon tally simple. 'lbc vcrtica l segme nt in Fig. 14.2.6 wi th e ndpo ints
y =
on the curves y .r 3 andy = ../i corresponds to integrating first with respect to y:
!! R
x/dA = ll:
o ,
xltiydx = {' [~xi]
Jo 3
.;; d.r
,.,,
lot (~x
= 5 12- ~x 10 ) dx = ~ - ~ = ~
.> 3 21 33 77 ·
=
We obtain x = ~· 2 and x. y 1!3 when we solve the equations y = ..[i andy .r3 for =
x ~n terms of y. !be honzontal segment in Fig. 14.2.7 corresponds to integrating first
wtth respec t to .r:
FIGURE 14.2.7 The horizontally
~lmple region of Example 2.
•
EXAMPLE 3 Evaluate
jj II
(6x+2y 2 ) dA,
where R is the region bounded by the parabol ,

' ' ax = y- and the straight line .r + y = 2.
Solution 'llH! region R appears in Fig 14 2 R . . .
simple. If we wished to integrate fi ,: h · · · 11 IS both honzontally an d vertically
would need to evaluate two integ:.~ ~
15
1 11
respect 10 Y and the n with respect to.r, we
FIGURE 14.2.8 The vertically

~imple region of Example 3. JJ R
f(x, y)dA =
o
11./i
1 ( -,fi
6f
·
+ 2 .2 ,
} )d}dx + 1.1-./i
4 2-x
(6.r +2i)dydx .
I
Oo\Jb!~ h:egtas o-·tt •.tor~ G~w~l Rtg~ru S!CTlON 14.2 9 51
The renlon ilthat the lo rmula of the funCl!On v = \~( r ) de<~-ribmt:. t he wtop bo undary
curve~ 0 r R h · ·· ·
. c ang.es at the pomt I I. I ). frc-m , = , 'I e-n th~ kit to,. = .:! - .t on the
n ghth. n u t :~s "' c ~c m Fi~ I ~ .:!.9. e'en r.n..;:<;r.:.JI sc~:,ment in R c'l"t~nds from ... ~ :
=
on t c left to - ~ . · . - .
. ~ - - - ~ on the n ~ht. Therdo:e. mtctr.lttn;: fir1t "'1th respect to .r
rcqum:s us to cv•Juat ~ c o n1~ one •tlera
- tcd t:ltei'ral:
. • •
f(GUR[ 14.2.9 Th~ hori<:onL>IIy

!implt region of uampl~ 3.
!
. :!_,..\ - 5.• ' )Jy
=
!-l
(12- 12.• ... 7_>'-
•
E xample:\ shm" that C\ tn "'hen the region R 1< both 'erhcall~ nnd horitontnlly
simple. it may he ca<ier to •n tq:rate in o ne order r.Hher th.•n lh<' nther 1-c<'llu<c n ( the
sha pe o[ It \\'c natu rally rrcfcr th<' ea,.er rvutc !he chot; e of the prderal:>lc orde r
of integration may be •nllucnccd al\o h) the nnturc of I he function f ( •. ,vl. It m.t y be
d•flicuh - N e,·cn imJ'O'<ible-to compute 3 gil·en ttcmted Integral bul cn<y to do so
after •w rcwN r tire ordrr ••! imc~;rarion. Example 4 ~ho"'' tha i the ke y to reversing
t he o rder or integrat ion is thi~:
Find and sketch the region R o' e r "' hich

t he in tegration is to be pe rformed.
EXA MP LE 4 Evaluate
12!1
0 •f1
y~'
J
d.r dy .
So lution We cannot integrate first \\ it h respect to .<. as indicated. because cxp(x ' J
is known to have no ekmcnt3ry antidcrivative. Sn we try to evalu3te the integral by
first reversing the order of integration. To do so. we sketch the region or integrat ion
specified by the limits in the given iterated integ~~l.
1
llte n:gion R is determmcd by the mequah t u~s
~ y ~ .r ~ I and 0 ~ y ~ 2.
Thus all points (x . y) of R li~ between the horizontal lines y = 0 and y = 2 and
be tween the two lines .r = y/2 and x = I. We draw the four hnes y = 0. y = 2•.r =
y/ 2. and .t = 1 and find that t he regio n of integration is the shaded triangle that
appears in Fig. l.t.2.!0. . .
=
Integrating first wllh respect toy, from Yt (.r) 0 to yz (.t ) = 2..:, we obtam
= [2-3 ~·'],.o = 2
1
I[IGURE 14-2. 10 The region of

'4mple 4.
= 1
0
t
2.t 2~· ) d.r - k- 1).
3 •
952 CliAPHR 14 Multiple Integral!
Properties of Double Integrals . .

, . . , . . some formal properues of double mtegrals. Let
\\ e conclude thrs sect1on b~ hsuog . f t'o rlS on a region Ron which /(x I')
b contmuo us unc 1 •.
c bc a constant an d I an d .11 e
. d n·1ax 1mum v.t 1u c ,.'I · Let a(R) denote the area of
. .
nttam~ a minimum value m an a '· .
the regio n R. If all the indicated integrals e:<JSt, then:
~~ cf(x . y)dA = c ~~ f(x.y)dA. (6)
i~(l(x.)· )+g(x. y)jdA = ~~ j (x.y)dA + j~ g(x.y)dA, (7)
m·a(R ) ~JJ R
f (x.y)dA ~ M·a(R), (8)
JJ 11.
f(x,y)dA =if R1
f (x.y)dt\ + Jj R:
f (x.y)dA. (9)
Jn Eq. (9), R 1 and H 1 arc simply two nonovcrl:lppint: rcgi~11s (wi th disjo int interiors)
FIGURE 14.2.1 1 Th~ r~iom of
\\i th union R (Fig. 1~.2.11). We indicate in Problr.:m~ 4) through ~8 proofs o f the
Eq. (9).
prope n ics in (ll) through (9) fo r the special case in which R is a rectangle. .
·n1c proper!)' in Eq. (9) e nahks u~ to cv:1luatc doubl: mt cgra ls o ' :cr n r~g~on R
that is ncithc r \'crtically nor horizon rally simple. All that IS necessa ry IS to d1v1ck R
into a linitc number of simple n:t:ions R 1. R z•. •. . R •. ll1 e n w..: integrate over each
1
(converting each double integral into an iterated integral. as in the examples of this
(- 2. )) r.. )) section) and add the results.
EXAMPLE 5 Let [be a function that is integrab le on the region f? of Fig. 14.2. 12.
c-2. 11~--+--~c:.n Note that R is not simp le. but is the union of the vertically simple region R 1 and the
horizontally simple region R z. Using the bound ary curves labeled in the ligure and
the appropriate order of integration for each rcgioo. we see Ihat
if R
f(x. y)tiA = JfR,
f(x,y)tiA +if R:
f(x.y)dA
FIGURE 14.2.12 The nonsimp~
1j
1
r~ion R is the union o' the I ~r
1
1 J.Z+> /4 I
nonoverlapping simple r~ions R,
and R2 •
= -2 I
f(x.y) d ytlx +
- 1 - 1- 1 1
f(x.y)dxdy.
•
1. s.ketch. a plane. region tl~at is (a) both horizo ntally simple and vertically
su~plc, (b) honzontally Simple but no t vertically simple: (c) vertically si01·
P.lc but not ho nzontally sunplc: (d) neither horizon tally n or vertical!\'
s1mple. ·
2. Sketch
. seve ral different rc.,io
" ns th a t .ICC · 11er honzontally
. nc1t · ·
nor ,·cru.:nlly
s1mple hut can be subdivided ·111t d'ff
• , . • • 1 · ·
? crc nt numbers of nono\'(:rlapprng rc·
g10ns. each nf wh1ch ~s either honzontally simple or vertically simple. Whlt
J about
C · 1C~,
an annula r reg10n bounded by two concentr'IC ClfC ··'>
• . onstru~t s~vcral examples or double integrals that arc readily cvalu;Jtcd by
mtegraung m one order but not in the reverse order.
...
Double Integrals over Moroe General Regions SECTION 14.2 953
14 .2 PROBLEMS
1;.\·c!mH( tltr itt"rilt~d ir:tr8ral.s in PrtJblrtttJS lthrt•u~:lr 1-1.
I . [l'(l+x)d.v J;r 2.1' 1''(\+y)Jydx
.\ 1'f.' ' (.r+y)d;rdv (Fit:. 14.2. 13)
~ 1'.J.' (x + y)dr <f.v (FiJ'. 14.2. 14)

FIGURE 14.2.17
Problem 10.
FIGURE 14.2. 18
Problem 12.
0 ' t1
'" rro htcm.f 15 ''"""!I'' u.

rmlrmlf ,,, ifltegral of t/r.( giv'n
fimr1i11nf ( r. y) <J\·r r tht' phmt' rr•gio n R tlrlll Lr tl~.scrib~d.
1~. /(x. y) "' xy: R is bounded by the parabola y = x 2 and the
line y = 4.
16. /(.t. y) = x 2: R is bounded by the parabola y = 2- x 2 and
the line y = - 4.
17. /(.<. y) = x: R is bounded by the parabolas y = x 1 and
• y =S-.x2 .
fiGURE 14.2.13 FIGUR E 14.2.14 Ill. /C.t. y) = y: R is boundo.l by the pan bolas x = I - y 2 and
X=)")- f.
Problem 3. Problem 4 .
19. /Cx. y) =
x : R is bounded by the .<·axis and the cu!'·e
!..;; y = ~in x. 0;:; x ~ :r.
6.
!. 1
.• (.<+y)dxt!y 20. f(x.y) =sinx: R is hounded by the x·axi~ and the
.\' =C'OS - :r{2 'S ..: -s :r{2.
.J,
CUI'\'c
7.
11!..''
0
' (2.r - y) d y dx (Fig. 14.2.15) 21. j (x. y) =1/y: f/ is the triangle
) ' = l • .r =t:,3r1d ) ' C2 ,( ,
bounded by the lines
:1..r,; 22. j(x. y ) = x .•·: R is thdirst-quadrant quarte r circle bounded

&.
1 - ...& o~ + 2yJ d• d y (Fig. 14.:!.16) by .1' + ."' = I and the coordinate axes.
2.\. j(x. y) = I - x : R is the t rinn~lc with •·erticcs (0. 0} . (1. 1).
and (- 2. 1).
2-l. /I•. y) = 9- y: R is the tri:mgle -.ith vertices (0. 0). (0. 9).
and 0. 6).
/nl'rahlc'lll..f 25 through J .S, fin. t d .t'tt h tht' r~gion of int~gration..

rc•,.~ru thr ordtr ofintrgration a.t in E.xomrJJ~s J antl -1, and fina!ly
t>•·alrw tc tht rt'JIIItins intt'N' "L
2.~. j ' J.'

-2 .z
.t
1
ytlyd;r 26.
.
J.t !.'
•'
(.l- l )dyd.t
I IGUR£ 14.2. 1S
j J.'"'
FIGURE 14.2. 16
~ 7. Probl~m 8. 27. l
I ,I
.r Jy .<l• 2ll. j~.. j~- ·' yd.<d if
,. ..
'· J.' ['c, -.,d1d. 29.

1'1'···' ltl y d•
1
'- /1:· 2
(1 ... 2y) d •dy (Fig. l~ 2.17) .ll.
!. . l•
f.' .
'
\Ill )'
- - ,/'y d I
y
l l / '. 1 / •. ' ' • " ' d r d•

JJ.
!.If' '
-I-. ,,, ,,,.
I+ I
12
· [ [' ' d y dt (fig. .~.2.1!!)
J.t
{1 "'
I 0 , " dl dy If I
J.IA .
9 54 CHAPTlR 14 Multiple Integrals
wh~" R 11 til' r~l(ttJn hour.d~tl by thr two gi•·~n wn n B~fore ~9.

Use R ie mann su ms to p rove th:lt
integratin1/,. tll r a rakulator or (()mpmu In appm.rimnt~ (graph·
troll)• or othav. tu} the coo rdinates of thr poinl.l of m tauctwn !~ f(.r. ~·) dA ~ !~ g (x, y)dA
of tltr l(ll•t n rllr>t J.
JS. )' "' .rl + I. )' = Jx2 if f (:c. y) 5 g(x. ~·)at e~ch poin~ o f the region R. a rectangle
"ith sides par~ !lei to t he coordanatc axes.
36. y = x•. )' = x + 4
1 50. Suppo•c tha t the co ntin uous ~unctio~ f is integrable on the
y =-- plane rcl!ion R and th at fa ttaa ns a rmnrmum va lue m and a
1 + .r2
maximu~1 , aluc ,1/ on R. i\~~umc that R is cn mrectrtl in the
JK. y = x'- 16. ." = 2.r - .r 2 fo lio" in£ scn•c· For any two points ( rn. ,\'u l ~nd (.r,. ,1 ,) of
J9. y = .r'. )'= CO'>.r R. the re " a co ntinuous puamc tnc curve r ( l) tn R fo r v.hich
40. > = .r 2 - 2.r. >=sin .r r (O) = ( :cd . ~ 1) and r ( I ) = (x 1 • ,1'1) . Let n ( R ) deno te the a rc 3
uf R. TI>c n d ed uce from (8) the a•·erag~ ••alut' property nf
In f'roblenu J I tluouKI: J-1, the r~gion R u the squar~ ..·uh •·cr· double intc11ral<·
tirr<(± I. 0) and (0.:!: I ). Us~ the spnmnry nf thn rtl(llln around
the roortfmm~ tun to rrduu tltt labor nf r• nlua:ing tit~ K" fn
imt grnk
JJ f( r . .') dA= /Ci .f>· n(R)
•
fo r so me poult (1. Yl of R.[Sugge.<tinn: If m =
f(xo. Yo) and
.11 = f (.r1 , y 1). the n you may apply the intermediate value
prorc rt y of the cunt itlltou' funct io n /(r (r )). j
51. Show oy ite rated an tcgration that the exact value of the
integra l in Exa m ple I i< j .
~~. Usc Riema nn sums to pro ve Eq. (6) fo r the ca~c m " hicb
IIi\ a rectangle " i:h ; ides pa rallel to the coordmatc . ,.,.._ In Prob/mu 51twtl5.i,jirsc approximate (as in E:camplt' I) tht'
4(~ U' c iterated integrals and fa mthar pn>pcrttcS o f single intc• intt'gra/
~7.
grnl, tu prove f:q (7) for the case in " hich U i• a rectangle
v. ith side• pamllcl to the conrdinatc a•cs.
U>c l( icmann surrs to pro'c the inequalities in (IS) fo r the
!!, j(.r. y ) dA
c:a'c in "hich R is a recta ngle wi th sides pa rallel to ahe of th~ Ki••m f rmcllon o•·a the rrgiun R bmmdt'tl by tlr<' unit cir·
C'OOrd tMtc "'"s. clr and the cm>rtlmutr ll res in the first qrtadrnnt, r.tri'(>t- unitkt'
~II. Usc itcrntcd intcgr;,l \ ami famililr propcrtic~ o f s in~k intc · Example 1-t~f<' 1111 tn ner partition resulting f rom the " " nf
11 = 5 subinruva/.~ in m elt directio n. Thcn 11<1' itrrnted integrals
grn ls to prO\'C Eq. (9) if R 1 nod R2 nrc recta ngles with sides
to calculate tht•<•tnct mlrte of tire cloul>le integm/.
parallel tu the coordinate axes and the right· hand edge of
R 1 is the lch· hand edge of R 2 • 52. / C.r .y ) = .ry 53. j(x . y) = xycxp(y 1)
J4.3 l AREA AND VOLUME BY DOUBLE INTEGRATION

Our deli nit ion of the d o uble integml J[R f (x. y ) tfl\ was m otivated in Section 14.2 bv
the pro blem o f computing the volume of th e solid •
1'= J(.r.y.~) l (.r.y) E R nnd O ~ z~/(.t ,y)l

th:at lies below the surface: - j (.t J' ) ·•nd 'ah o ve Ill. · R· h
( rd · .' '. ' c rcgron m the .{\'· plane. Sue
i n so t appears tn Fig. 14.3. 1. Dcsprtc tlus ••cornet de mo tt'v•t' · d fi • ·
·' bl . · · . . "' " ron, t11e actua 1 c mrtton
o f II1c uo u c tntcgra1 as a lt nttt of Rrcman n stun s docs d ., ,
of volume. We may. the refore. tu rn ma , . · not c pc n d o n t he conctpl
tlcfine vo lume. ttcrs aro und an d usc the doubk integral to
I
)
DEFINITION Vol~me .below z=J(x. y )
Suppose tha t the functton f 1s continuous a d
region R Then the •·olume v of the I' d nh nonnegative on the bounded plane
be t at lies below t h· e surrace : = / (.r. J·)
· the region R is defined to so 1
and nbovc
FIGURE 14.3.1 A solid region T

with v~rt.lcal sid~s and base R in v=jjJ<x. y) dA, (U
R
th~ ... r·plan~.
provided that this integr al exists.
-
Atta.ndVo'u~byDoublelnt~-ation SECTlO'I 14.3 955
I:
::/h...-)
I /
"'""'"''' tb2]
/ -;- -- -- --~
---~l
I........_ ____
' ..
---Ill'<...,
fiGURE 14. 3.2 ~ ~ '":tqra' .., FIGUiiE 14 l . l ~ crosH«tiorul arta is
Eq. (1) a11h~ ••to of • r~<>n n t.">e
!. .
~.
Yl·pl•~- ,I ; l( •.y)d) .
II i~ of intc rc \1 tn nntc the c-onnectton t>et"'ccn tht< dcfintt ion :tn d the en>~·
sect io na l a pproac h to \ <Jlumc that "'e d•-.:u~<cd 10 S<-cllt>n t..~ . If. for example. th~
rc l!ion I< 1\ VC JIIcally \lmplc. then the ' Olumc tntc!:r.1l tn Eq ( 1) takc< the form
in term~ o f Jlc ratcu intc~:rnl\. ll1c tnne r integral

.,...
,\ (.r ) =
!
t tC • ,
/l • .))d)
is equ:~lto the area of the region in the y~·plane that hes he low the curve
~ = / (r. y ) (x fheu)
a nd ahuvc the interval y,(.r) ::i y ~ )~(x) (Fig. l-1_1,:!). Uut thi< is the projection of
the cross section s hown in Fi~. 1-1.3.3. lienee th e \':lluc o f the in ner int egral is simply
th e area uf thc cross section of the solid region 1' in a plane perpendicular to the
x -axis. lltus
I and so in this case Eq. (I) reduces to -volume is the integral of cross-sectional area.-
Volume by Iterated Integrals

A threc-dimcn<innal rc!!ion T is typically d escribed in terms of t he surfaces t hat
tx>und it. lltc tin-t step in applying Eq. (I) to compute the ' olumc \1 of such a region
is to determine the rc!!ion U in the xy-plane over which T lies. The second step is to de-
termine t he appropriate order of integration. This may b.: d one in the follo•A·ing way:
' If c..·nch ,·c ni~o.·:,llin4..' in Ih.: ty -pbnt: 11'1(''-·ts U in a \lll,&:l c· line sc!!mt:nl .
'' tht:n N i< ,-crtkally sim pk. and you 111:1~ integral.: lir~t "'ith respect
'
~ to 1. ·n1e limit' 1111 .'\\ill he the .' -c'"' f<.h nah:' .' tiO and • :lx) nf the
endpt~illtS ,,f th i' lin.: sq:mcnt. (Sec Fi!!. l-1.~ ·l.l ·n,..,_limits on x "·ill
i~ ~
: :
be the endp<~ints" and /• of the tnt<:rval "''the
projects. 11teorcm ~ uf Section l-1.2 then gives
.1-a'" nntn "hich u
I • ~ •
~E 1·4.3.4 A vtrtically simp!~ \' = {{ f(.r,y)oiA =

JJ,. 1•bj'""' .
.'l hl
/(l.))tl_l' <l.r.
Alternatively,
1 meets R in a single line segment,

H each horizontal line i~ the .ry·p/~eu may integrate first with respect
the n R is horizontally Simple. an >o
to .r. l n thisC3se
V= j'fJ. f (x,y) dA = [1 r
, :(]1
.rt()>
f(x.y) dxdy. (3)
II
. .
As md1cate 10 1g. · · .
x,
d. Fi IJ 3~• ()·) an d .TJ ( ' ·) :trt:
' the x-coordinatesd of .the
t
• and c and dare the en pomts
endpoints of this horizontal hne scgmcn , .
of the corresponding interval on the y·:IXIS.
.r
FIGURE 14.3 .$ A ltOfilOIIldlly >1mple

region.
EXAMPLE 1 The rectangle R in the xy·planc consists of those poi nts (x, y) for
which 0 :5 x ;a 2 and 0 ;:; y ;a I. Find the vo lume V of th e solid that lies below the
surface~ = I + xy and above R (fig. 14.3.6).
Solution llcre f(x , y) = I +xy. so Eq. {I) yields
V = J£ :d,\ = 11\J 1
+xy)dy dx
FIGURE 14. 3.6 The solid of
= [[y+~xy2]~d.t= [(l+~x}lx= [x+ ~x21: =3.

Example 1.
•
Th e special case f(x, y) = 1 in Eq. ( I) gives the area
A =a( R ) = JJ R
It/A = JJ II
dA
<-'1
of the plane region R. In this case the solid region T resembles a desert mcsl
(Fig. IJ.3.7)-a solid cylinder with base R of area A a nd height 1. The volume of
any such cylinder-not necessarily circular-is the product of its hei~ht and the area
of its base. In this case. the iterated integrals in Eq-;. {2) and (3) rcd~cc to
A= ~ 1bf.,.. . ldydx and A=

ld1""' J
lclxcly,
.>but r .t'ocn
FIGURE 14.3.7 The mesa. respectively.
k~.t and \ 'Illume by ()ouble lnttg'>t!On S~CTION 14.3 957
EXAMPLE 2 Compute by d o uble intecr3tion the :~rca A <>f the rq:ion R in t he

x~ ·plane that t\ bounded by the p.u arol;) = .r: - :!.r J~d the hnc ~ = t.
Solution \ • ..,
• I \ =
tndiCJ!Cd 1!"1 fi!(. J~}.8. thC ftnC .'1."\"' .1 :10d the p.:tr.Jt'Of:l \},.. = .(" -.-<
Intersect at the romt' rO. Ol and 13. 3). (Thc<c coon!uutcs arc c:tsy to find h y solvm~
the equatiOn y,.>:- =
)'.c•. ) Therdor:.
A= • J..J.... ld_>d.1 =1'1'

..._
0
•'-:.. l.!yt! r
= lo 1'
' : -~. t!' = , (3,
f' 't>] ,., - ;r; :) J ' = [ ~_ J~ '1
t: - t 3
0
= .,~
•
fiGURE 14.3.8 lhe reg'on R of
[J.~mple 2.
EXAM PL[ l Find the volume of the "'"C"dgc-sh~r<"d <ohJ T tha t lies nh<w e t he
.t)'·planc. hc 'l ow the pl:~ne ~ =
.1. and "ithtn the c-.·lind.:r , : + >: ~. Thi~ w.:uge is =
shown in Fig. I ~.3.9. ·
''
'''
cO.!; :
' ..../ .. - ,.J
•/
~-11--T' --------
/ ' ...;;:-;;
• -o"
··0 ., ,_. 0 )
fiG'URE 14.3.9 The wedge or fiGURE 14.3.10 Noll of the b.ne

Exa"'ple 3. Rot the W<"d<)e (Eo.tm pte 3).
Solution "The hasc region R is a semicircle of r:tdius 2, hut by symmetry we may

integrate over the first·quad rant quart er circleS alone and then douhlc tho.: result. A
sketch of the quarter circle (Fig. 1~.3. 10) helps establish the limits of integra tir•n. We
could integrat e in either nr<lcr. hut integrating with rc5pcct to x first giws a sDightly
simpler compYI>IIiQn Q( the ' 'Qiumc \':
V = J~: dA=2Jo.Jo
[' { ,Ffi [' [ I 2] ..{;:;;
xd.rcdy=2 } •
0 2x • ..0 ely
= [<4-yl)dy= [4y- jy)J: = '; .
As an exercise. you should integrate in the other order and verify that the r~uh is
the same. •
I
I I
I Volume Between Two Surfaces
I I I
I I Suppose now that the solid region T lies <lbove the plane regio n R, as before, but
i/:-t--J
I~' '
bctwel'tl the surface"s z =
z,(.r. y) a nd:= ~z(x. y ), where z,(.t, y ) ~ ;:1(x, y) for all
(.r. )')in R (Fig. !4.3.11 ). 111cn we get1hc volume V of 1' by subtracting the \'olumc
below:= z 1 (.r , y) from the volume below l = zz(.t, y), so
!!CUR[ 14.3.11 lhe solid T hJs

'"trtocallides and il bounded V = jjkz<x.y)- zt (x, y))dA . (S)
·~ ar~d berow by surf•ces. R
958 CHAPTER 14 Multiple lnt~grals
More briefly.
V = JJ
(Z1op -
"
~t«) tiA l
" he re ~•or = ~: (.r. y ) describes the top surface and~"'" =
~ ~ (x · y) th e bott om surface
of T . This is a natural generalization of the fo rmul a ro.r the area of the plane region
be tween the curves y = : d .r) a ndy= ~z (.r) o ver the m tc rva!Jn. b J. ~lorcover.like
that fo rm ula. Eq . (5) is v:~lid eve n if : d.r , yl. o r both : J(.r . y) and ~z(.r. y). arc negative
ove r part o r all o f the region R.
EXAMPLE 4 Find th e vol ume V o f th e solid T bounded hy th e plan es~ = 6 and

~ = 2y a nd by the pa ra bo lic cyl inc.lc rs y = x 2 nnd y = 2 - .r • 'fllis solid is sketched
2
in Fig. 14.3. 12.

Solu tion llecau ~e the give n parabo li c cy linde rs :He pe rpend ic ul:.r to the .ry·plane,
I he solid T has vert ica l sides ·n1U~ we may th ink of T ::t s lyi ng be tween the planes
~ ~ ..~ = 6 and :be• = 2)· and abo ve the xy ·pla n.: reg ion I? that i~ bounded by the parabo.
las)'= .r 2 and y== 2 - .r: . As indica let! in f'i);. 14.3. 13. these parabol n~ intersect at the
points ( - 1.1 ) and Cl.l ).
Integratin g first with respect 10 y (fo r oth e rwise we would need two inte grals),
FIGURE 14.3.12 The solid T of
[xample 4. we gc1
V =
JJI!
(z,or - Zt>,.) dA =j l
- 1
11-•'
,r l
(6 - 2 y) d y tlx
= 2
10
1 [ 6y -l)--
' • ' d.r
,• • l
(hy ~>· m me t ry)
= 21' (16. (2- .rl) - (2- .r2)2 j - (6.r2- x~ l) tlx
FIGURE 14.3.13 The region R of

= 210
1
(8- S.r2) d.r = t6 (.r _ 3~.r )] 0 =
1
32
3. •
Example 4.
14.3 CONCEPTS: QUESTIONS AN D DISCUSSION
These tJIICsliom im·olvt· "rrick imt•gml~ .. 1 , 11 . .
rht• 1111i1 tli.vk .r 2 + ,.z s 1 in rlre t \'·n/ · .' " c nc cast• rl~c reg ron R of imcgmrion is
· - · ,. t ' • tllll1 I11c cvullmll 111 f 1 1 II
111
means of ilallled single: ime••mls.miulr b d. t o 1 I<' t 0 11 ) e illl<'grul by
. " "' I e re , wus. Dw )'0 11 ·fl 1011 Ill
I I It' llllt'!{rtrl mentally eirher b)• visua/iz. .
II
t .1e a J c to t'\'UIIWit
.. mg t1•c vo1wrrc represent I b I . I l
e.rp Iortmg spmnelr)• {or hollr). Do .ro. l!t )' I II! mtegm or 7y
1. !! R
Jt-.rl- y2 tiA
2. ~~ (10- .t + y) dA
3. Jj {1-
R
J.r2+ y2)tft\
4. Jj Jxl +
R
y2 tiA
S. jj R
(5 - .r2 si nx + yl cosy) dA
AJu • "'<l \'clum~ by Dovb'~ t.,:~·non StCliO'J 1.- .J 959
14.3 PROBLEM S
Iff Prt:t.&,frmtl rl':tnu (h Jn. '''' d'lu't!, •~·r~ra• ., t 'f ff.f If., t: • t,J
l. ) =
!. ' s
J,
I ,
,:
\
-
of :1-.t rrc:c.l" m tl:< a' ·ti.Jr:' ,..,,,, f, If,) tht li'' rrt n..n tl
..
=: I •
l. y=•l. , •!• - ~ (Fiz l4'14 t

'- , ., !J - J. • •f>•- ,. (1,, 14 "S I
FI CU~[ U.} 18 T"" lut1~(r

(1! ~..... ••
t sO t • l. ' • n. ' ..
'
IIC.UR£ 14. 3.14 IICUR£ 14,) . a

l.\ : <p ~- ' - l, • - o. \ ... '· \ - i 1
. \ ''
Probl ~m
2
). Problem 4
.
:- -'• • • y-;
. r r
\ ~ t•• I •
n. ' - o. :_,
s. y = x , .. +y - 2. y - Cl
1
6.. y=(.t - l ) , ya( t ..· l )1 , \' • 0
7. y=x 1 +1. y • 2t 1
- 3 ( l i jt 14.3 Ill) In r ,,fit,mt 17 lh,.t)II C,w. fi,, Jtltt> ' ,,fhm,. rtf th,. xn·rn \ tt/,d
8. y c A1 + 1. y • 9 - l
1
(llA IU.\7) !7, lhe \'>hill\ t>ounJn l tw the pLtnr• I ... o. ~ n.: 1), Mlll N
3 t -~\•: = h
r !.'1. 1l>r wlrJ " ~'><•unJr.J hy the r t•nr\ y - fl. : .. n. y - l.t .

and .: ' - ~ .. ... : .: "
2'1. The whJ he, unJet the h)l"'r.._>t•>tJ: • • v on.J oh.l\c the
tt1an~!c 1!1 Lht .1 .' ·rbnc "'lth \ Crth:t' tl . ~ ). ( I , 4 ), nni..S U. 2)
30. The M>liJ h.- u"Jcr the J'Jra'' "'"'J ! • 1.S - •' - .•' anti
ai'O•·e thr tnJnj:!e in the 1\·rl•ne '""h • ntoC'e• (- J. - 4).
( -3.4), a.nd ( ~. 01
- f- ,;
y_.,_ - + --\-;
f iCURE 14.) . 16 In rrnhlriiU 31 throt.tt,l: 3·1. f.nt ,,., , , ~It unotttlutttJ:rtJ/ thnt
rt CURE 14.3. 17
Probl~m 7. gi\ t'J ll:r \ O/umt' of tJ:r (I\ ttt J4t/:./ 17UI1 U't' U (Omfltlltr o/~rbra
Probl~m 8. suum (t/ U\oUl..z.~/,., M t\a!u;JU t.htJ ltHt'trnl
9. )' =•. y = h, .rya2 31. The sohJ h.-s m•iJe the nhnckr , : ~ ,: • I . ~h<he the
2 J >· r lanc. •nJ ~k>wth( plane;= t i- I (fig. I ~..J II/)
,. .. l + t:
In Problmu J 1 rhmugh :!6. fiml thr '"lrmrr uf rhr ~oil~ tlwt

li<1 1>./m.· ''" .trtr{il<'r : .., 1(c, yl <lrrtl ahm r tlrr rrgrcm ur thr
c) ·plant buunllttl hy thr ~;,.,., run·c•,\
II. : = I + X + y; • = o. X - I. y • o. )' .. I
1!. :::: 2.r + Jy; .t =0, .r = :l. y = 0. .\' = ~
U. : = y + r'; .c = 0, ·' ., I , y • 0. ,1' ., 2
1
'- : = 3 + COS .f + COSy; :< 0, X = c .~, ,1' "' 0, yen
(Fig. 14.3. IS)
IS. : = X + )'; .f =0, y D 0. X + ~· .. I
FICURE 14.3. 19 l h c solid of
16. : = 3.r + 2 .1·; :< =0, y =Q, :< + 2y "' ol Problem 31 ,
17, < "' I +.i + y; • = I. r • 0, .1' .. .rl
18 32. l'he solid !ies n~ve the .ry·plnne :tnd be: low the paraboloid
· : = h + y; x =: 0. y = I . :< = ./Y : =9 - r - .t".
19. ,.,,I; )' .. ,l, )'= I
3.". The soli~ lies :nsid; both the cylinJcr .t1 + >'' .. l and the
sph~ re x· + r
+ :· = 4.
J..t. Tlu: solid lies inside the sphere .~: 2 + yl + :2 = 2 and above .0. Find the volume removed when :t vcrt ical square hole of
the p~raboloid ~ = x: + yl. edge length R is cu t directly t~rough the center of a long
horizontal solid cylinder nf rad111< R.
35. Usc douhlc integra tion to lind the volume of the tetrahc·
dron in the first octant th~l i~ bounded by the coordinate 4-t. Fi nd t he volume of the soll,d l~unded by the two surfaces
planes and the plane "ith equation : = .r2 + 3>.2 and: ;: -1 - r (f-Ig. 1-1.3.2-1).
~ y .:
-a +-+
b
-=!
c
(Fig. 14.3.20). The numbers a, b. and c arc positive constants.
'FIGURE 14 .3. 20 The

J
FIGU RE 14.3.21 The solid

FIGURE 14.3.24 The
tetrahedron of Problem 3.S. of Problem J7.
solid of Problem 44 .
36. Suppose lhatlr > ' ' > 0. Show tha t the volume of the solid
ho unded by the cylinde r x 1 + y 1 = tt 2 , the plane z = 0. and 45. Find the volu me v or t he soli d 7' hou nded hy the parabolic
the plane z = x + 1r i' v = :ra 2!r . cyli nde rs: = x 2• z = 2.r 2• ••· = .r 2• nnd y = I!- .r 2•
37. Find the volume of the first nctnnt part of the solid bounded
by the cylinders x 1 + y 1 = I ond yl + : 1 = 1 (Fig. 14.3.21). In rrobl~mf ·ffl llfJfl ./7, 11'1' II COIIIJIIIft•r nlgchm .vy</1'111 /0 find
lSu,~~:•·>tion: One order of integra tion is considerably easier (ritht•r appru.rimatt'ly or rxnctly) the \'tllllmt• "f till' .w/id thmlics
than the other.} under th~ surfac~: = f (.c. y ) fltltluhm•t• th~ region in the xy·planr
38. Find by double integration the volume of the solid boun-
that i.J bow11l~d by)' = cos .c nnJ y =- cuu for- :r / 2 ~ .t ~ :r {2.
=
ded hy the surfaces y = sin x . y -~in x. : = sin x . and ~- /C.r.yl=4-.r -y 2 2
47. f(r.•·) = cm y
z = -sin x for 0 :i x ~ :r . 48. Rcpc:~t Problem -17. but "ilh /(A.y) = l~inA i cos.r. Also
try to exploit symmetry 10 evaluate the volume integral
In rrol>lt'lllf 39 through -15, you may CQIIJIIII Chopra 7 or tht'
manually.
inugroltablt' ituith- thr bnck cover ofthi.J book to find ontidrri•·o-
,;,·C's fl{ ~lith r-tprc-J-'ficnu O'f (a' - _.l) ''l. In Problem.s .SY tltrollgh 51, the eq11ntions of" plant• and a
39. Fi nd th<-' volume of a sphe re of radius a by double in- paraboloid are gi•·rn. Use a cnnrp11trr alg~hra systrm to emluort
tegration. th~ dmtblr imegralthat gi•·f'.f thr •·nlu11u• "!the snlitllmtmdd bv
th~ n•·o surfat:r.~ .
40. Usc double integration 1n find the formub V = \'(a, b. c)
for the ,·olume of an ellipsoid " ilh sc miaxes of lengths o. 49. z = lr + 3 nnd z = x2 + yl
b. and c 50. z = 4x + 4y and : =,r2 + yz _ 1
.u . Find the volume of the solid bounded be low by the xy·planc
and nbo,•c by the pamholuid: c 25- x 1 - y2 by cvalu3ting 51. 16.< + l l:!y +: =0 and : = l l - 4rl-9yl
a do uble int egral (Fig. 1·1.3.22).
-, soppose _tll3 1 a S<ruarc
:>- hole with side~ of length 2 is cut
42. find the volume of the solid l'<mnded by the two para- syrnmctnca lly thrnugh the ce nter of a sphere of radius 2.
boloids z = x 2 + 2y2 and z = 12- 2x:- y 2 (Fig. 14.3.23). Usc a cornputc:r algebra 1yste m l(l compuh: the volume
thcr~by removed. Show tha t your result i~ (exactly or 3p·
proxnnatcly) c4 ualto the exact value
4
V = j (19:r + 2J2 -54tan · 1 Ji).
53. Suppose that a square hole with side~ of lcnj!lh 2 is cut

t off-center through a sphere of r:1diu<4. Le t S be the ~qu:1re
cross ·sec
• . 0 _0 0 f 11lc hoe
II' 1 man
· equ:Hurialplancof thesphere.
lllc mldpoml c~· o f s· ...·. ·••
. d'1'\tnncc
. 2 f1u111 'he .._·cn1cr t'{ rht!
~ph ere. an.d the radius of t he sphere th•t l''l<s~s thrnuth C
~ ' IS d' . " ' ' '"'
perpen •cular lo t wu sides of S. Usc :• compu ter al£d'r.J
._
FIGURE 14.3.22 The solid FIGURE 14.3.23 The solid of system ~ show that about HI% o f the " hole volume of l ht
0
paraboloid of Problem 4 1. Problem 42. sphere IS removed -.•hen lhe hole is cut.
Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates SECTION 14.4 961
14
.4 1DOUBLE INTEGRALS IN POLAR COORDINATES
A double int egral may he easier to evaluate after it has hce n transformed from
rectangular x~·-coordina tes into polar r!i-coordinatcs. lltis is likely to ~ the ':1 se
when the region R o f in tegra tion is a p olar rectangle. A pol:~r rectan gle IS 3 region
described in pola r coordina tes by the inequalities
(I)
a ~ r ~ b. a ~ 0 :'i /J.
llti~ polar rectangle i~ shown in fig. 1-1.4.1. If a = 0. it is a sector o_f a circul~r disk of
rad1us h. If 0 < a < ''·a = 0. and p = 2:r. it is an annular ring of tnncr rad1us" and
outer radius IJ. Beca u\e the area of a circular sector with radius r und cent ra l angle 0
is lr 20. the ar ea of the polar rectangle in (I) is
A = !b 2 (fl- a) - !a 2 ({J - a)
= !<a+b)(a -b)({J -a) = rt:.rt:.O. (l)

fiGURE 14.4.1 A pol•rrcctangle. = =
where C. r b - a. t:.O fJ - a. and r =l
(a +b) is the a•·uagt' mtlius o f the po lar
rectangle.
Suppose that we want to compute the value of the double integral
JJ t<~.
R
y) di\.
where U i• the polar rectangle in (I). Thus we want the volume of the solid wit h base
R that lies below the surface:=[(.<. y) (fig. 14.4.2). We tlcfincd in Scctinn 14.lthc
douhlc integral as a limit of Riem:mn sums associated with partitions consis t ing of
1
ordinary rectangles. We can define the double integral in terms or polar partitio11s as
well, made up of polar rectangles. We begin with a partition
••• a = ro < r, < 'l < · · · < r,. =b
FIGURE 14.4.2 A solid region
whose bdse is the poldr of (a.I>J intom subintervals all having the same length t:.r = (b - rt)/nr and n partition
rotunglc R. a = ~ < 01 < ~ < · -· < o. = fJ
of [a. flJ intu n subintcrv~ls all having the same length AO = (jJ- a)fn. l11is gives
the polar partiti on 1' nf R into the l = m n polar rectangles R 1. R 2 , •••• R 1 indicated
in Fig. 1-U J. The nnrm 11'1of this polar partition is the maximum of the lengths of
the diagonals of its polar subrcctanglcs.
Let the center point o r R, ha\'c polar coordinates (r;. 8;>.where r; is the average
radius of R,. Then the rectangular coordinates of this poi nt arc x; = r; coso;
nnd
)'
FIGURE 14.4.1 A polar partition of the polar

re<:ungle R.
962 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integra ls
. f h R "ctn~nn sum fo r the function j(.r. y) associated with

y; =r,' sm o;.
There ore t e r ·
the polar p:lrtition Pis
l
L f <.r: . ..-: >6A , .
. • · • ea of the polar rcct:t ngle R 1 (in part a consequence of
where 6A , = r, t;r 6 0 IS the ~r . , . l:lr coordinates. we obtain
Eq. (2) ]. When we express thiS R1cmann sum Ill po ·
1 • • j(r,' coso; . r; sin B;>r;' tlr 6 0
=~
rJ6 L_ f <x; . y,' ) 6A i <-J
le i i::d
I
= L s <r,'. r,' ) t:>.r t:>.O.
1=1
where g(r. 0) = r · f (r cos . r

,o ·
Sill
II) This last sum is simply a Riem:~nn sum for the
• • •
double integral
1~1~ g(r. O)dr d£1 = 1 ft1 b j(rcos O. rsi nO) rdrdO.

so it finally follows th:lt
FIGURE 14.4.4 The dimensions of
J!
I
the small polar rectangle suggest
that its area is dA = r d1 dO. j(x.y) t/A = tP1-
lim l : J <x;. y;)6 A ,
0
R •• I
= lim I
2:_g<r;. o;)t:>.r 6 0 = 1~1b Ji(r, O) drdO.
d,.~ B - 0
·-1 a a
That is.
j~ j (x.y) c/A = 1 ;11 b f(rcosO.rs in O) rclrdO. (3)
1l1us we formally transform inw polar coordinates a double integral over a

polar rcct:~nglc of the fonn in (I) by substituting
x = r cos O. y=r~in O. dA = r clr t/0 (4)
s and inserting the appropriate limits of integration o n rand 0. In particular, note t/t(
"extra " r 1>11tlrt! riglu·lra11tl sit/(' o f Eq. (3). You may remember it by visualizing the
FIGURE 14.4.S The paraboloid of "infinitesimal polar rectangle·· of Fig. 14.4.4. with "area" dA = r dr dO.
Example 1.
EXAMPLE 1 Find the volume V of the solid shown in Fig. 14.4.5. This is the figure
bounded below by the xy·planc and above by the paraboloid~ = 25- x2 - y2.
,. Solution 1l1e paraboloid intersects the xy·plane in the circle x2 + y2 = 25. We can
compute the volume of the solid hy integrating over the quarter of that circle that
lies in the first quadrant (Fig. 14.4.6) and then multiplying the result by 4. Thus
V =4
10 0
s1~ (25 -x 2 - y 2 )d)'d.r.
.
There is no difficulty in performing the integration with respect to y, but then we are
confronted with the integrals
/ I 2
,.o j .)25-x 2 dx, jx V25-x 2 dx, and j<25-x2)ll2 dx.
FIGURE 14.4.6 One-fourth of the
domain of the integral of Let us instead transform the original integral into polar coordinates. Because
Example 1. i 2
25- xz- = 25- r and because the quarter of the circular disk in the first quadrant
d
0 s s :: /~ .
I'
\' ., ~ 1":1'!'!.~ - r:) r J r.!"
.:. ·~ 1 1' J.l t-::...~ "' t-:5-.

r.: J
f ..
:.:... '! -
~
..
-
J
f •
.·-'
e J . -
J
=" ~
~
' •
More Ccncr,,l Pol.u-Coord inatc Regions
If R "a mnrt' ~<'ntr~l rtr ->n. t"c'" "c o:'ltr3~<!Nm inh> J'>l.tr coonltn.ttc<thc d ouhlc
tntq:r nl
•
... JJ• /l r. >lJ \
h)' n rrr•\ln,· II~·""""' of Rorrunn <Um< ...........ttcJ "" ~ "J''l.tr inner r -trlll l\ln<"
nf the <nllonJo<31t'd on !'tot 1 ~ J • ln<lt'3J .,r ~'""~ th\' lfcl~rkd <kri\'~tion-~ 1\Cn ·
c t ~ l ll .lllo>fl olt hc pt <<r•hn 1• d rrr• rll••n ,.( 1 •l t l )-" <" <h.tll <rnrph tthc the rc\lrl t< in
I IGUR£ 14.4 .7 A pol•• inorr
OOC' \ f"CI.U' C.\'<: of r~>h.h;. dl tm('•ft.JO\t"
l"rt.lion ol the '"JoOn R
h \•urc 1 s J' \ ho\'' .1 radi.Jih umrlr f t'CIC\0 R ('l'lht\Un~ n ( lhtt'.C point 'IO with
p<~b r C<>••HIIIr.llr < tlut <,11l<h• the m<<JUihllcnnul.o
JJ I(
(I r . •·loll\ -
1 "'
~ 1·
,, ....
.. (5)
f.il·c~ the C\':tlu ~tion in polar cnord lltatc~ of 4 douhlc lnt<ltrill me r /( (unde r the
usu~ l a"~1111rtinn th at the indrcllcd integral• c\ist). =" ntc thai v. c integrate hf\t w ith
rcspc<'tlo r. \\llh the hmit• r 1(0) ond r :(ll) N:ing the r-c-uurdrn~lc< uf ,, t yp rc:o l rndia l
SC):III<' Jit in N (lir,. 1·1.-I.S) .
l igurc l-1-l.'J 'l"'"s huw "'" ,·,rn '><: t up the IICJJtcll intc~:tr:tl on the right · hand
silk ••f F.q. (5) in a r..m1al " a)'· Fir<t, n t~prcal :uca clement tltl r dr ti!J i• s wept =
IIGUR[ 14.4.8 A rJclrJIIy ~lrnplc radially frum r = ' '(II) In r a r:(tl). Sccuml, the resu lt ing strip" rnt<~lcd from 0 = a
rtgion R. to 11 = fJ to '"cep out the rc~tion K Equation (5) yield' the V<•lumc fo rmula
\' = 1 ~1·-· : r dr./0

. ·-
the \'olumc V ('1( the solid that lie' abo\'e the region R o f Fig. 14.4.8 and below
( ('If
(6)
lhc surr:..·c: = /(x, •·) = /Cr cosO. r sin 0).

Obser\'C: that f;Q\. (J) nnd (5) fo r the e valuation o f a do uble integral in polar
coordinates ta ke: th e form
JJ •
flx . .>)dtl = jj .I
ftrct.,.,f! .r sin Otrrlr.tO. (7)
1ltc symbol S o n the ~ight-hand si~c represents ~he _appro~riale limits on r and e
such thnl the region R 1S swept out m the manner md1catcd m Fig. 14.4.9.
With f(x. y)., I, Eq. (7) reduces to the fo rmula
IIGURE 14.4 .9 lnt~.ratinglirst

"''th tel~ to r and th~n with
A =o( R) = 1j s
r dr dtl (8)
~ toe.
d 0 11 ble integra tion in polar coo rdinates. Note
1 for co mputing the area a (R ) of R by . .,Ton in the .ry-plam:, bu t to a new
. h b I S f·rs not to a nC\1 r e.,
ag:u n that t c sym o re " . . , f he o rigina l r.:gion R.
d escription- in terms of polar coordrnatcs-o 1 •
, h , r ·eio n R bo u nded o n the inside b y the circle
EXAMPl E 2 Figure 14.4.10sho\\ S 1 " ~ - ? ·O IJ)· following a tvpical radial
'. = I a nd o n the ouL~r'dc_I'?' l Il~. r1maron
'
r - + cos .
h nc out wa rd from the orrgrn. we sec tha t ' onocr
• .
- - = 1 ami'""'<'= 2 + cosO. Hence the
area o f R is
fti.f-H r d rdO
A=
i. ,_
=211 l•cood
r drdO
(symme try)
FIGURE 14.4.1 0 The region R ol

E><ample 2. =21• 1
I , 1
- ((2+cosO)·- I· Jd0
0 2
= 1,·•(3 + 4 cos 0 + cosz O) tiO
= r
Jn (3 + coso + ~ + ~
4
2 2
cos 2o) r10
=[ (3+ DdO= ~-7 .

llu.: cosine terms in the nex t-to-last integ ra l contribute no thi ng. beca use u pon inte·
gration they yield sine terms tha t arc zero at hot h limi ts of in tegration. +
EXAMPLE 3 Find the volume of the solid regio n t ha t is interior to both the sphere
xl =
+ y 2 + ~ 2 = .t of radius 2 and the cylinde r (.r - I ) 2 + y 2 I. 'll1is is the volume
or ma te rial removed when an off-center hole of rad ius I is bo red just tan ge nt to a
FIGURE 14.4. 11 The sphere w ith d iameter alltlw way through a sph ere nf radius 2 ( Fig. 14.4. 11).
off-<enter hole (£><ample 3).
Solution We need to i ntcgrJtc t he function f (.r. y ) = J 4 - x~ - y2 ove r the disk R
that is bounded by the circk wit h cente r ( I. 0) and rad ius I (Fig. 14.4.12). The desired
vo lume V is twice that of the part abo ve the xy -p lanc, so
1
V= zjj J 4 -x2- y z dA .
R
But this integral woul d be awkward to e valuate in rectangular coo rdinate s, so we

change to polar coordinates.
ll1c circle o f radius I in Fig. 14.4. 12 is familiar fro m Section 10.2: its polar equa·
tion is r = 2 cosO. The refore the region N is described by the inequalities
0 ~ r ~ 2cos 0, - rr / 2 ~ () ~ rr/2.
We shall integra.te only n_ve~ the upper half of I<, rakin g advantage o f the symmetry
of the sphc rc ·wath-hole. llus mvo lves dou bling, for a second time the integra l we
FIGURE 14.4.12 The small <ircle is write. So-using Eq. (5)- we find that '
the domain R ol the Integral of
Example 3.
965
and t herefore
\' = J::3 ( .::.~ - ~)

3
= 16 -
} -·
- f.! == Q f.!.:-05
Q •
,. = jj t ; '7 - :....,lc-'
•
EXAM PLE 4 lind the 'olu:::~ o! tl':~ so!id that is 1-oo~;::dec 3!-\1\C hy lhc r;~n!xlloiJ
~ = IS- ,: and ~l o" by t!:e r-1:a!'1oloiJ : =,:(Fig. I.!.! 1~).
~Olu1ion 'Jhc CUI\ C of in:ers.ectiO:l o! t!:~ l\lo O p.U3!-.,!,11J> 1< f,1UnJ hy <imultJnC'OU\
\Oiullon of the cquJI!orn of th~ t'llo{) sur~a~ \\c cl:m:nJtc: to ot>t.u n
,~=I>-,:_ t!:.lt ,, ,: = J
li enee the Y>lod locs aho,e the p!Jne cucubr dn\. f) "'ith p<>IJr Jc<ntptinn 0 :i r :i ~
nnd ~o the \'Oiume of the sold i\
fiGURE 14.4. 13 lhr IOiid ol

\' .,. JJ,, (~,.,-:,..IdA= 1"·;~{(1'1,-r:)-r:{T<Irdtl
1:. 1: [
l •ample 4 .
1 ]:
= '!.T ~r' = lt\or .
3
= (!It- 2r )dTtlfl
u u Jr: -
0 •
EXAMPLE 5 II ere "' C apply a standard pol.u<oordmatc' technique to sh.,-. th:u
(9)
REMARK This importan t impro per integral com·crgcs because
1•,.-•' ~ 1•,.-• 1"< ,.-• =;

dx dx !i ch
(llu: lir>t inequality i< valid 1-cc:tusc ,.- •' !I ,.- • for A ~ 1.) It follows that
1• ,.-•' dx
is n bounded and increasing function of b.
Solution Le t v. deno te the \'Oiume of the region that lies below the surface ~ =
~- · '- •' and above the square with \'crticcs (±b, ±b) in the xy -planc (f1g. 1-IA.I-1).
l llCII
fiGURE 14.4. 14 The 1urfacc

1" t·•'·r' (E•~mple S).
v. = 1.1" , ,dxdy
- • -• ,.- • _, = r ,.-,,( j"_ ~- · ,dx)dy
J_.
6
It follows th~t the volume Lue Iow~ ="-·'-•'· and abovc Ihe cnttrc xy-pl anc is 0
2
v = &lim
-N
v. = b-oo r• ..-·' dx) =-1 (
lim -1 ( lu [
o e-•' dx)
2
= 412.
where 1 denotes the value of the improper integral in (9).
966 (H,WTER 14 Multiple Integrals
i'\ow we compute v b\' another me.thod-by usi.ng 1polar ~oordinares. We take

the limit. as b - .._ :>:>, o f th e ,-olumc h.:! o w :. = e-•· _, := t·-·· and above the cir-
cul ar d is k with center (0. 0) and radius b (Fig. l·t-U5). This disk is described by
0 ;:l r ~ b. 0 ;:l 0 ~ 2:r. so we obtain
V == lim ( "' (brr-•' drd£1 = nlim ( -' [-~e-•']b dO

b- x Jo Jo - :-: . Jo ,~
fiGURE 14.4.1S The surface
L ., e-•' (Example 5). = lim (~~ [I - ,-b'] dO = lim :r (I- r-b' ) = :r.
• - :>! Jo 2 b-v
\\'c equa te these '"·o va lues of l ' . and it follo ws thai ~1 2 = :r . lltercforc. / = !fi.
as desired. •
Q) 14.4 TRUE/ FALSE STUDY GUIDE

1. De-c rib<· a pla ne region R such tha t e va lua tion of .f{H fdA by iterated
inlcg.ral iPn without subdi' iding the rc~ion R would requi re the usc of rcct-
anj!u!Jr cuortlina tcs. and ano the r region such that this would rcqu.i rc the usc
of polar coord in:otcs.
2. Ctn you dcscrihc a n integral JJ~ fdA such that R is the unit square
0 ~ x ;;; I. 0 ;;£ y ~ I. but the integral is more easily evaluated in. polar co-
ordinates than in rectangular coordina te s?
3. Can you dc~crihe an intcgrnl .£[{ fdA such that R is the unit disk() S r S I
" - -
but the integral is more ca>ily evaluated in rectangular coord in:ltcs than in
pobr coordinates?
14.4 PROBlEM S
In Problems I through 7. jiml the indicatt•d tut•n by tlouh!t• intc- 4
7. TI1o area inside tho sm~ l lcr loop of r = 1 - 2sin 0
gration in polar cuordinatrs. (Fig. 14.-I. I S)
1. The area h<>unded hy the circler = I

2. 'llte ;If<:a bounded by the circler= 3 sin 0
J. The area hounded by the cardioid r = I + cosO
(Fig. 14..1. 16)
4. Theareahoundedbyoncloopof r = 2cos20 (Fig. 14.4.17)
5. lhe ;~rc a inside both the circles r "' I a nd r = 2si n 0
6. The :~rca inside r =2 cos O and outside the circler = 2 FIGURE 14.4. 18 The lima~on
of Problem 7.
2 2
In. f'm blems 8 througl ' 12. use d ouhle mregratio
. n ;, polar coor·
tI mates
., to find rhe •·oil mu of t1''" so1ulthat
. - /irs below thr gil'rn
0
sur,aceand , abovethe
, r>lan e r egwn
. R bowrded by thr gi•·mcur>t.
0
8. : = .r·.,. y·; r =3
-I
-I 9. := Jx2+yl ; r =2
-2 r•l co..;29
-2 10.z=xl + yl; r=2cos0
fiGURE 14.4.17 The rose 11. z = 10 + 2.f + 31'. •' .

r "" smo
FIGURE 14.4.16 The card ioid
of Problem 3. of Problem 4. r=a
,: .. ,l . ;: • .,:
f •
•
'
!lig. 14.4. 19)
FIGURE 14A.ll f iG URE I ~ 4.22 The

Th .,.~..ge cl !.1: JC ~ -<tf'4, c~ e
Problcn 16. of Problem 19.
29. Fi•J I~< •-nl=e <>! t~c -l<'C-ce3on «'11<- 1-ountkd " ' the
'r"'crc z=- :a.: - ::~ c:: J.nJ the C'<'nc: = \ r = ..... , : ' ' 'he'n
o = I c"''' <.0! J n t"'c "'t"<' ~ h'-l"' :1 rn Fig 1.1 J :.:..
30. FinJ lhc \ O!u:n-e t-.. .. un ,kJ r~ rh;.• r.tr.t"'~'t'iJ.: = r:. the
(I i f, 14.4.20) C)hnJr: r r ~:a \I:"'' ... . 3nd tl"c rbr.~: =0
JJ. rir.J :ht \(,lt.. ~t l!'t 1t l1c:~ ~IO"- the: r.lrJ~)h,jJ : .. , :
a nd "~"t <lr.c I ""r ,~f the lcmna,·.arc " ith c.·qu.auo n
1 , :. ~,n..,
J l . find the H>lure th11 he"n<~Jd><ll h thee\ hn,for •'+ ,,: .. 4

nnd the t llltw''d 2r 1 .._ ~\: .._ : = ~ 1 ~. · ~
.IJ, fl U· h • a.then the rl•ne: ~ fl-h eut<.,fl.npheric.ll •c~·
rncru uf hceJ,!ht h JnJ rJd1u\,. fr.,m rhc 'Pitt.•rc t : ..._ , 1 +- :: •
a'( fiS 11~ !.1) l>l~h ..,. th.ulo' = :=.rh lr' (h) Shu" that
the: \ u lurnt o f rhc \f"hcuc..l l '<gmcnt ,, \ ' • l nh (3b: + h ') .
•~. Show b)' t he method <>I ll Hmrlc j thru
fiGURE 14.4.19 The fiGUR E 14.4.20 The
1"1'
quJnrr-cirdc of q uJrter-circfc o f Pro blem 18. 1 ~
Problems I 3 and 14 • . . d • d•=-
• If - •. - .' 'I• ~
In Pmhlrms 19 rhmuglr 12, find rlrc •·olumr of tlr( sn li.t tlrnt is
bf)llfltlt:'tl n f}(W C nml b doh•/)y the gil·t•n su rf acrs :: = :: 1(.c , y ) llttd 35. l'ini.l ~he volume of the ><.>lic.l torus o btarnec.l by revolving
: = ::(.r. y) tlnd /irs abnl't' thr p lim r rt'Ri<m I? /J<)lmdr~l l>y tlw tf~e doskr ~ " aro unJ the line .< = b > a (f ig, 1·1..1 .2~).
gi•·r11 run·c r = g (/1). j.Su~g<'.ffWII: If t he orca clement d A = r dr J O is revolved
around the line, the •·olumc gcner3tcd os dV = 2.~(b -x )tlA .
19. ;=I. : = 3 + x + y; r = I
E xprc55 c•-e~·thing in polar coordinarcs.J
!0.; = 2 + .r , ; =4 + l r : r =2
!I. ; = 0, ; = 3 + .r + y; r = 2 sin 0
22. ; = 0. : = I + .r : r = I + cos O
Soll't Problt nu 23 thro ugh 32 by d o ubl' int<"grotion in polar
coordmnrrs.
!3. Find the volume of a sphere of r~dius a by do uble inte·
grolio n.
U. Find the ,·olume of 1he solid bo unded by 1he parabo loids
: = 12 - 2x 2 - ~· 2 and: = .r1 + 2y 2• FIGURE 14.4.23 The FIGURE 14.4.24 The torus
spherical segment of Problem 35 (the case
25. Suppose tha t h > a > 0. S how l hal the volume of the solid of Problem 33. a= 1, b = 2 is sho wn).
bounded by the cylinde r .r' + y' =a'.
the plane : = 0. and
the pla ne .:= x + h is V = :ra'h.
26. Find the \'Oiume o f the wedge-shaped solid described in In Problems 36 through 40, ust doub/c ifllt!grals in powr coordi·
Example 3 of Section 14.3 ( Fig . 14.4.21). nat<> to find tile ••o lumcs of tit< indicated solids.
27• Find the volume bounded by the paraboloids l = x 1 + Y 1 36. The solid lies abo,·e the plane : = - 3 and below the pa 3 •
and ; = 4 _ 3.t ' _ 3 yl , boloid z = 15- 2x1- 2y2. r
U!. Find the volume bounded by the paraboloids l =X 1 + Y' 37. The solid is bounded ubove by the plane ; =
below by the par aboloid : = .r2 + yl + >'·
,I' + 4 nod
and 1 = 2x2 + 2y2 _ 1.
968 CHAPTlR 14 Multip!e lntegra't
38. The sohd lies imide the: cylinder_.: + 1 1 a .1, aN>H: the 3 Jcet-rn S\'<tem co show chat the 'olume of mate rial removed
..t )·plane. and below the plane~= .r- ~· + J. is ;bout flo.~ of the 'olume o f the sphere .
39. The 'IOiid i< bounded by the c:lliptic:~l p;\rabo!oid~: =.rl + 43. Sup~~ chat a hc:\ .1gonal hco!t: .s cu~ s~mmetric;\lly ch_rough
1ylnnd: =12 - ul - y= . the center or a sphere nr r~dJU5 - · lllc CTil"< SeCtiOn or
che hole 1< a uni t regular hc.\l).!C>n - a si~·sidet.l equiJn~u
40. ll1e solid lies inside: the ellipsoid .! c1 + .!yl ... := =SO and lar poly)!un v.·ith c:l<' h )Ide and "rJthu<- of le ng th I. Usc a
;\hove the paraboloid: = 2_r1 + 2_,.1. computer a ljtchra <y<t<.>m w ;how that the volume uf rnJ.
41. find the \'Oiumc rc:mO\cd \!o hen 3 circular hole or radiUS tcrial rcmcncd 1< a.oou t :!<J% of the ' o lumc of the sphere.
n bored S)'mmetrically thro ugh the center o r 3 srhc:r.: !To g1,c ~our nlntl'lltcr :tl)!chra sy<>tcm •. mo re '1goruus
or trldius b. IChrck: It's about 35 % or the \ Oiu me or ch.: \\OilOUI . \OU {'(lUIJ try :1 J'Cili:I~On:ll (ti ,·e·SI(kd) Of hcptag.
sphe re when o ., I anti b e 2.1 on 3 1 ()cv~n·\ttl~dJ hole. each "ith - ratltus- I. With~ unn
n. Suppo..: that 3 circular hole with radiO~ I i< CUI off-center li·s:Jcd poll con. t he Hllunu: of the matcri~l removed"
through a <phcre uf radius J The a~J< of the hc>le IS at o«·r .u•. oi 'chat of th e <rhcn:. close to the :150.:. figure
di<tance 2 from the center of the sphere Usc a computer c1ted m l'rot>lem J 1.1
]4.5 1APPLICATIONS OF DOUB LE INTEGRALS

In Sec tion 6.6 "<' di,CU~\ed th e mau m :111d rl'ntmirl (x. Yl of a plane reg ion tha t
corre>pond ' to" tlu n pl.llc ur 1.uni111r of uniform (con ~ ca nc) d e n s ity. ·ntis sp ecia l
case j, amctwhlc tn c.dcublion u,inJ! ~ingle -vari:thlc inwgr~ l ... 1\cvc nhcl ess. 1he dou.
hie int c)!r:tl provide< chc proper setting for the !!e n<·ral c;1w of a l;un ina with variable
density chat ol'cupics a hounded region I< in th e l l'·pl,me. We ' upros e that the c.lcn·
sicy of the bmina (in u nics of rna<< per unit area) at the pnint (x. yl is given hy Jhc
continuous func tion .s(.r. y).
. =
Lc:t 1' I R t. R 2· .... R .1 be an inner partitiOn of R. :md choose a point (.r; . .',' J
tn each subrectanglc R, (fig. 14.5.1). Then chc rna" u f the p:1rt of the lamina occu.
pying R, i~ approximat cly.S{.r; . y,'Jtitl,, where: 6A, dcnnlc:. the area a( R ,) of R,.
I
I
H e n ce the mass of the entire lamina is given approximately by
11,•
I •
I
I m =::: 2::: .S (.r,' . y;) A A, .
•=I
As th e no rm 11'1 of the ~nncr parti tion P appro;tch cs zero. this Rie mann sum np·
FIGUR E t4.5.1 The area element
.6A1 • a(R,).
prnachcs t~c corrcspondmg c.loublc tnt cgral over R. \Ve therefor.: tiefi n e the mass 111
o f the 13mtnn by means o f the fo rmula
"'= jj y)dA.
R
.Str. (I )
In brief,
m= j~ odA= j~ dm
in terms of the dens ity l5 nnd the m ass cleme nt
dm =o d;\ .
'lltc coordinates (x. y) of the centroid ,
defined to be • or cwter of mass, of the laminn ~re
~
Y= Ill j'f1..., ,~(.r ..
II
>) tiA
. (3)
•
-- 969
Yo u may prdcr to rc:nc:ml--cr these formulu 1:1 the fl)ml
• = ~JJ.raM.
,
1,...nU\ -• anu.• -~ are the · n th~ rc11.ion R.
a1 rra~r, al11rJ
of .r and , "•:h rrsrr.:r I <' ma!.S 1 - •
The centrl••J lt. \It\ the f'OI:'ll o! the bm1n:l ·,. he re t1 "' ou!J l-:1lln:e honLontatly tf
pbccd on the pomt of an i:e I''' ~ I Fi z. !! .5 : 1 f
lithe den\lt\ fuf'Ction ~ hJ< t h~ mr:.ff.u:: , aluc t -. 1'. then the Cl>Ordtn:ttcs ?
IIGURl 1~ S.2 A LJmo<U b.l ~'XC<i ' and\ arc indcrcndent of the <;-::-.:1f: , J!ue o~ k 1\\ h~ 'l In -u.:h a .:a•: "'.: " 'tl
1
<1''" <tnlrood {:.:nerally ta\.c ~a ltn our co~puta!H'"'- ;\lo rco ,cr. tn th1<ca<c m "'tl ha 'c the ~a me
numc r"31 ' aluc a\ the :~ re 01 A of R. 3 ~J 11 . '''~ t!:cn calkJ th<" Ct'ntrnid of the pi :an<"
r t~:ion 1<.
Gene ra\1~. "'e mu<t cakuiJic all three m:cgrals tn Eq'- (I) th rnu~h ()) 1n order HI
Ctnd the ce ntroid Cl! a!Jmtr.l Uut ~mellme\ "'eon ta;..c :d,ant.t~e of the f"tl'""n~
J_lmmrtr\ pflnnplr If the plane rc~ 11m R (C•'""'krcd w 1-..: a b min:l of con~t:lnl
dcn\11)) " ·~ mmctn.:: "'tth rc•r-;c: to the hl'c 1.-thJit"- tf R t< orned <>nl<llt<elf "hen
the r lane 1< fl >l .tl cd rhwu~h ~n ~n~le of 1'-11 awunJ the line L- thc n the cen trOid
of R he' ••n I u ·,~:_ I~<< ) r,., r u mple. the lcnumd of~ rccr~n):le ( Fi!! 1-1.5.-1) i<
the f'(>ll11 " here the rc rpcndJCUilr l>I'CC INs of tts <1Jcs mccl. !-.:cruse t he~<: l-tsccwrs
:uc ~l<o lme< of\\ mmctr. .
In the ca\t'.O! a m;nwn•ranr den<rt~ fu ncllon J, "'C rcqutrc (fnr S)mntc try)
th~t 6-as " ell n\ the tC!ll<ln '''elf - I'<' <ymmctnc nl-<>ut the f.COm c tric line I. of
symmctry. ln:tll' " c rcquuc that .lt l' l,.. AC(J) tf (as tn Fi~. I-1 .5J) the I"""''
I' and
Q nrc ·~ mme t n~all) l •..:atcJ "'rh •np.:ct w l .. Then the ccntu•iJ u( the bmina R
"'til lie on the !tnc l. of S)tnltlcl~.
FIGURE 14.5.3 A line of •yrnm~try. FIGURE 14.5.4 The centroid of

a recungle.
EXAMPLE 1 Consider the semicircul:u disk of radius a shown in fig. 1' .5.5. If it
. ~ a 1. Ih en .tiS ma<S .rs m = 1! rra 2( numen. cally equal to its area),
has coru;t:mt d cnslly
and hy symmetry its centroid C(:t. )') lies o n they-axis.. H ence:< =
0. and we need
on I)' compute
y= .!.. Jj ~- dr.t
r m
2.
R
_f fi I ,.. o,
=
=
rra ·
r.· [<r sin 0) rdrd9
rra· Jo o
2. 0 :ra
(polar coordinates)
(-cos91"o rl 3~, 3 1. = ~. 2 . 3 = 4a.

03
3:-r
n 1us the centroid of the scm~ircular lamina i~ located at the point (0. ~a /3:-r ). Note
~-E 14.S.S Th~ centroid of a th~t the comrutcd '':tlue fur y has the dt~cnst~ns o f length {because a is 3 length) ,
····~ular dtsk (b1mple 1).
as tl should. Any answe r that has other d tmc nstons would be suspect. •
-
970 CHAPT£Rl4 Multiple Integrals
·on bounded lw th e line >' = .r + 2 and

' EXAMPLE 2 r\ lamina occupies the ~eg• . 1 o f the 13mina :tt the point l'(x. \')is
r••' the parabola~- = x 2 ( Fig. JJ.5.6). :ne .:ns•f)P' from the ,·.axis-thus .S(.r. y) =·kx:
. h f th~ dtstancc o · ·
proporuo~al tot . 7squaretont) -Fi nd ~he mass and centroid of th.: lamt na .
("here k IS a postii\'C cons a ·
. t spct in the two points (- I, I) and (2. 4), so
Solution The line and the plrabo1a m er •
Eq. (I) gives m:!ss
2 • 63 r.
FIGURE l4.S.6
txampte 2.
Th~ lam1na of
= ~
1 - I
(.rl + 2.r"- X )dX = 20"·
'!hen Eqs. (2) and (3) give
-~ 20 j' j'•l k .t Jllnlx

= -li3k - 1 ,:
..
= 20
(1.,
£" [.r3y] ••+2.
' ·' . - 1
,..,.
dx
,
20
-
jl . + 2.t)- x ) d.t - 2063 . ~5 = ~:7
(x
j -
63 -1
3'=-20.-j j 63k
2
-1
J
•'
+2
kx 2 ydydx= 6.)~J- 1 2·r·y
20 l l ].
1 , 2 +2
, • ••
1012. 3 ~ 6 -~ . 531_ 11 8
= -;- (x + ·h + 4x - .t J clx - 63 35 - 41) .
6, -1
·nutS the lamina of this example has mass 63k/20. and its centroid is located at the
point(;. '1:>. •
1 EXAM PLE 3 A lamina is shaped like the first-quadrant quarter-circle of radius a

~hown in Fig. l-1.5.7. Its density is proportional to di,tancc from the origin-that is.
its dcnsi t )' at (.r. •·) is ~(x . y) = 1.. ix r
2 + y: = k (\\here k is a po$i ti,·e constant). Find
its ma~s ami centroid.
Solution First \\t! change to polar coordin~tcs. b.:cause both the shape of the llound·
ary of the lamina and the formula for its density su~gest that thi ~ will make the
computations much simpler. Equation (I) then yie lds the mass to he
FIGURE l 4.S.7 rlndlng mass and

centroid (Example 3).
=k
1n(2 ['3 ]" - r
3
=k 1.•/2 -aI 3 dO=~. 3
0 • ;0 u 3 (i
1\y symme try of the lamina and its density functio n. the centroid lies o n the line
y = .t. So Eq. (.'\)gives
_x=y=-
_ I
m
fl.R
y~ d,\=~ 6
k :ra3 0
1"'21ao kr3 si n 9drd9
_
-
6
~a3
1•!2
o
[4'• sm· O 1 ]"
d O= ::--3.71
6 a4 • 11 3a
sin Od O= 2-.
,..o .. a .. o rt
Thus the: given lamina ha.s mass !k:ral; its centr ·d · d he point
(3a/2~. 3a/2.-.r). 6 01 ts 1ocate at t •
IIppi UlJOtU o' Double ln~t9"J 1 S SECTION 14.5 971
~olume and the First Theorem of Pappus

d~ow "'•~ c.1n gl\ e 3
1h~ first th~orem of
more general r roo! o f P3rru' " h'rc h " -:IS
tSCU,\Cd from a srn~tlc.,anabl: ' '~"';x>int in ~ton 6 6
.... A
~ I RST THEOREM OF PAPPUS Volume o f Revolution

Sup~e tha t a pl ane region R i\ re\oh ed aro und 3n a 'ti< in it< p lant" (Fi~. J.l.5.S).
~eneratrng ~ \ Oiid of re, olution "'i!h ,·olume \ '. 1\ <sume that th e :nis dC'CS not
tntcrscct the intcrtor o f R. Then the \ Oh:me
\'=A · d
fiGURE 14.5.8 A ~lid of volume
v. " d 11 g•nerat~ by th,. ar~.s of the sol idi \ the product of t!le are.a A of R a,-d the d1<1.1n.:c J tn,ek d hy the
, ,. rtsctntrOO of two functJons. cytmdriol ~.
PROOF In Section 6.6wc !reared the spccialcasc ofn ' ertic:~llysimplc region of the
form illustrated in Fig. 1-1.5.9 and the correspond ing ' o lumc u( re volution i llu~tratc:d
in rig. I ~ .5. 10. M or.: gcn.:rally.l: t 'P = {H 1 • R: • . .. • R ,Jl>c an inn.:r partition of f<.lcl
(.r; . .r;> b.: the c.:nt.:r or the rectangle R,. a nd kt ~A 1 denote the area o f R, . ll1c n. by
the formula fo r th e vnlurnc of a cylindrical shell (Eq . ( I) in Section 6.3). the volume
obtained by revolving the rectangle H1 in a cirdc of radiu~ .r; around the }'·axis (for
inst~nce) is L~-11, -2:u; A t\ 1 • ll rncc the volume of the entire ~ol ld o f revolution is
given approximately by
v ;:; L• ~ v, = L2;r.r;
•
AA, .
••• ••1
We see here a Riemann sum appro:rimatin~t rhe integral
\' = !~2:rxdA=2..TA · *J~xdA=2:tA ·x

(using Eq. (2) with .S = I ). But d = 21r r is the d ist ance traveled by the centroid.
50
we conclude thnt V-A · d . as desired. ~
~!~URE 14.$.11 A sphere of EXAMPLE 4 Find the v~lumc V of t.he sphere of rndius a genernted by revolving
~~•. o g~nerattd by revolving a around the x-axis the semtcucular regton D of Example 1. See Fig. 1~.5. 11.
IOrcular region ot uea
At 1 rr
t'lo l ' around iu dameter on 1
Solution The area of Dis A= i:ra • and we found in Example I that y == 4a/3:r.
c., ··~•11 (uample 4). The Hence Pappus's theorem gives
, . · tro1d of the stmiclrcle travels
Crtt~ of circumference
d'Ot1g '
"2., v.
_ -Ia :ral 4
V=2:ryA=2:t · -
3JT
· - = -JTal.
2 3
+
EXAMPLE 5 Consider the circu lar d isk o f Fig. 1-t5. 12. with ra dius (I and center Jt
the point (/l. 0) "'i th 0 < a < b. find the vol ume \1 of th~ solid to rus ge nerated bv
revolving this disk a round they-axis. Such a to rus is shown in Fi!!. 14.4.2-t ·
;-- Solution The centroid o f the circle is at its ce nt e r (b. 0). sox= h. He nce the ce ntroid
is revo lved through the distanced = 2:rb. Conseque ntly.
, ,
i,. l;rlt
,
=
V :: d. r\ 2:r b - ~(I - = ~7 ·a·b.
FIGURE 14. S.12 Rotating the

circuldf disk around the y-a•is to
:Sate that this result is dimensionally correct. •
ge nerated a torus (h ample S).
Surface Area and the Second Theorem of Pappus
Centroid< of plane wn·es ar~ defined in analogy wi th centroi d' o f plane regions, so
we shall prc<cn t this topic in les< detail. It "ill suffice fo r us to trea t only the case of
cons tant density .; "' I (such as a thin" ire " ith uni t m ass per un it kngth) . Titcn the
n
ccn troitl Cf. of the plane Ctll"e cis defined by the formulas
--•==-11 xds. - 11
s ('
y= -
.f c
y ds 1-'l
whe re sis the arc len gth of C.

. _Titc r;tca ning of the integrals in Eq. (-I) is tha t of the nota tion of Se ction 6.4.
lnatts. ds 1< a symholto he re placed (hcfore the integra l is eva luated) with either
l +(~;Ydx d.r=Jl +C:~) dy.

2
cis= or
depending on whc_th cr Cis a smooth a rc of the form y == f (x) or one of the form
x = g(y ). Alternatively. we may ha\'C
ds = V(dx) Z+ (dy )2 = (~~ Y+ (~~-ydr

if C i~ presented in p:lramctric form. as in Sectio n 10.5.
EXAMPLE 6 Let 1 denote the upper hal£ of the cir ·/ ( .

center (0. 0), represented parametrically by ' e not the d1sk) of radius tl and
X = (I CO<r,
o
. r.
y =a sm 0 ~ 1 ~ ;r .
The arc 1 is shown in Fig. 14.5.13. Find its centroid.

J Solution Note first ·' -- 0 b,., s ymmctry TI .
' tl 1at '=' I· .
arc-length element is · le arc cngth or 1 IS .r = ;ra; the
ds = V(-tl sin r)2 +(a cosr)2 dr = a dr .
lienee the second formula in (4) yields
(a. O) z
-Y = ;;-;;I 1" (a sin r)a dr = ;r~ [-cos' r]" _- -2a .
I
II
FIGURE 14.S. 11 The semicircular
arc of Example 6.
0
Titus the centroid of the semicircular . . 1

0 :r
y-axis. Note that the answer is both ~Ia~;~;~ aocated ~~ l_he point (0, 2tl j:r) on the
nd dlm~;nstonally correct. •
I
l
The first theorem of Pappus· !t·t
• s, an analog uc• ror surface area of revolution.
... 4 973
ApplicJtions of Double Integra 1s SECTION 1 .5
SECOND THEOREM OF PAPPUS Surface Area of Revo lutl~n ct

Le t t I1e p Inne curve Cbc revolved around an ax1s . .us p 1a nc• 11131dncs· not mtersc
. 1n
the c urve. l11en t he arc:1
A =l· tl
or tIC
I surface o f revolution generated i~ equal to the proc.J uct o r t h.
" length s of C
and the distance t1 traveled by the centroid of C.
I'TUJOP Let C be a smooth arc paramctritcd by x == / (1 ). y = g(t ), ~1 :2 1 ~ b. :~~

is revolved around the .v·:uis (for instance), then iby Eq~. (4) and (8) m Section ·
the resulting sur"facc area of revolution is given by
A=
1•
I~
2rrxds = 2rr.<·-I
J
!•
l• o
xds
= 2rrs · x (where lis = j[/'(l)f + (11'( 1) )

2
dt)
(using Eq. (4)). Dot d = 2rr:r is the distance travele d by the centroid , so we sec th.at
A = s · d. and this concludes the proof. ~
EXAMPLE 7 Find the s urface area A o f the sphere of radius a generated by revo-
lving around the x-axis the semici rcular arc of Example 6.
Solution Uceausc we found that y = 'liz f rr and we know tha t s = rra, the second
theorem of Pappus gives
= 2:ry.r = 2;r • -2" · rra =4Jra 2 .

A
:r ·•
EXAMPLE 8 Find the surface nrea A or the torus of Example 5.
Solution Now we think of rc•·olving :.ro und the y·axis the circle (not the d isk ) of
ra di us u ce nt ered at the poin t (b . 0). Of cour~c. the centroid of the circle is loca te d
a t its center (h. 0): this follo" s from the symmct ry princip le o r can be '"erified hy
using computations such as those. in Example 6. l-Ienee the dist:mcc tra••elcll hy the
ce ntro id is d = 2:rb. Because the circumference of the circle iss== 2;r,., the second
theorem of Pappus gives
;\ = 2ttb · 2Jrlr =4 ... 2a!J.

•
Moments of Inertia
Let Rhea plane lamina a nd L a straight line that m ay or may not lie in the .ty· planc.
The n the momt"llll of lnerli• I of R around the axis / . i< defined to be
(5)
v.he rc I' c r<x. y ) denotes the pcrpcru.l icular distance: 111 L I rom the point ( r , y)
o f U.
The m m t imJIOrta nt case i' th:Jt in which the axis uf re•·ulutinn i~ th e • .. · .
f - . • .1,., so
I' = , = J~l + > ( h~ 1-15 1~). In tim C:J\C we call I "' l o th e ......., lllunwnt or
int"rtiJ uf the htmma U. llru\ the polar ntcnn~n t uf rrt~ fha ul U ;, d e tine d tu he
~6)
9 74 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integral!
It follo\\"5 t hnt
fo =I,~ 1_..
where
(7)
and
I,= ~~x:dm = ~~.r:~dA. (II)
I Jere I, ·~~the mo ment of ·mcrua · o f t h e 1an 1 I·n~• around th e .r-axi~ :~nd / , is its moment
of inertia aro und the 1'·3xis. . . '· · . · . . • . f
. . I' at' on of moments of inertia ln\'o ln:s "Ill' IIC 'Ill'£> o tO·
rtant app IC. t ( II , c r ' n' 1) w' th
· t\nc Impo·<• • 1~r dt.<k
tntl(>tt . o n<iuer a ctrcu"
•
. th·•1t i< r.:\'oh·ing
•
- arou nd tts .co.:n tt:r ftc. ' 1;,11 1 • · I•
FIGURE. 14.5 . 1S TI1e rot.ltlng do!~. d d . ccond A ma<< .:kmcnt elm attli~tanco.: r 1om t l c on gm
an!!ubr ~pee "' ra tans per •. · '- S) ' lhus the kim:tic e nergy of the
is rnnvin!! wi1h (linenr) vcloctty ,. = ' "' (Fi!'. 14.5 · 1· · ·
mass clement is
Summing by integration over the whole di sk. we find that its kinetic energy due to
rota lion at angulnr speed w is
KEro< = J~ ~w2 r 1 tim= ~w 2 ~ r 2 rim: J

(9)
Beca use linear kineticen erc" has the formula .- E = ~ m.?. Eq. (9) suggests (correctly)
!ha t moment of inerti:1 i.~ th~ rotalional an:~ Iogue of tn:IS'-
EXA MP LE 9 Compule /, for a lamina of constant dc n~i ty cS a I th a t occupies the

region bounded hy Ihe curves x = :!: ~-·. - I ::; )' ~ I ( Fig. I4.5. I 6 ).
Solu tion Equation (7) gives
FI GURE 14.5. 16 The l.lmlna of 11'' 11[xy ..-,,t 1' 4
Example9. I, =
1
- · _,.
ldx d y =
- J
2
]'
...
ely=
- J
2y6 dy= -.
7 •
1l1e region of Example 9 resembles the cross section of an 1 beam. It is known
, that the stiffness, or resistance to bending. o f a horizon t:~ l bo.:am is proportional to
the mome nt of ine rtia of its cross sectio n with respect to a horizonta l axis th rnugh
the ce m roid of the cross section o f the beam. Le t us compare o ur 1 hcam wi th a
rcctangul:u beam of equal height 2 and equa l area
A =1 1''
- 1
1
-y•
l dxdy= ~5 -
X
The cross secti on of_sue~ a re~tangula r beam is shown in fig. 14.5.1 7. It s width is l
a nd the moment of mert ta of lis cross sectio n is
!11/S 4
1, =
1-1 -liS
y 2 dxdy=-.
15
• f4
B ccause Ih e rallo • • IS
FIGURE 14.5.17 A r~ctar>gular o ' to n IS T . we see tha t the I beam is more than twice as strong
~a m for compari1on with the as a rectangular beam o f the same cross -sectional are a . Th is strength is why 1 beams
1~am ol Examp l~ 9. are com mon!)' use d in construction.
App hu:>O<n c1 Double lnt~·als SECTlON 1•.S 975
EXAM PLE 10 Fi nd the pola r moment of inerti3 of a circul nr bminn R of radius a

o
and con! tant dem ity centered at the o npn.
Solu_t ion In C Mtesta n coordmat~ the l~ma R <XCU;Jies th e rl:~nc r egion -~ .._ f
2
:? a·: 10 pola r coordmales. thLS restion h3S the much simple r descriptio n 0 ~ r S a,
0 $ fl S 2:: . Equat ion (6) then gJ\-e$
f) = jj ,
o = {:.. [
r 2 dA
} ';) l
6r 3 dr d 9 = ~:-:,a' = ~na'.
- -
"' here m = o:ra 2

i\ the ma~s o f the circullr l.t:ninJ. •
Finally. I he radiu• or ~r•tion ; o f a lamin3 o f rn;155 n around an a 'I: is is ddined
10 be
T (10)
;= \I ; .
"' here Its t he mo me nt of inem a of the la mina around thnt :~xis. For example. th e
radii of gyrat ion .l and \ a round the , · U I\ and .<· 3 " <. re<~C1i,·cly. arc !!iven by
. fT; . fT; (II)

• = ,, ; 3 ntl ·' = \ ' ;:; .
No"' suppo<c thai thi• lamina lies an I he ri ~hl halr·pbnc , > 0 and is symnle tric n·r ou nd
the .r- a~i'- 11 it r c prc,c n~ the l.u:c: of a lenni• racquet v. ho«: handk (considered of
ncgllgthlc v. c,~ht) nlc n<h alon!! the .t -3 ~ '' from lhc on gm to the; la~:c, then the
poi nt ( i . 0) j, a t' I:IU, thlc c.tnd oJatc for the r.lcqucl's "s"' cc t \['(11 ~ th ai delivers the
ma xi mum imp:act nne.! control. (Se c l'rohkm 56.)
The d cll n11111n in Ett ( 10) is mol iva ted hy cnn,idernt ing :t plnnc lamina U ro·
lating with angulnr speed "' around the : ·a\i \ ( Ftg. 1.:.5.18). Then Eq. ( 10) yields
ltGVRt 14.5.18 A pl~ne 13mln~ lo = mi 2 •
rot.lting •round l~ r-axis.
so it follows from Eq. (9} that the kinetic encr:gy of the lamina is
KE = ! mUw>' -
Thus the kinetic energy of the rotating lamina equal' that of n single parli<:lc of
m:l~S m revolving at the distance ; from the axis o f rc,·olutio n.

1. Suppose that a plane lamina has a line of symmetry. Must the centroid of
the lamina lie on this line?
2. Must the centroid of a plane cuf\·c lie on the curve? Must t he centroid of a
plane region lie within the region? II not. provide counterexamples.
14.5 PROBLEMS
1• Probtr..., 1 through /0, find rht untmid of the plant rtgion 7. y = 0. y = x 1, x =2
bo•ndrd by thr given curves. Auumt thattht dttuiry is & el for
toe}, rtgiolt
8. y = x 1 , y =9
l • ., 0. .t = 4, )' =o. )' = 6 9. y = 0. '1 = xl - 4
1. . .. 1, .t =3, )' = 2, y = 4 10. ;r:: -2, ;r =2, y = 0. '1 .. xl +1
l.'"-1, .t = 3. Y=-2, y=4 In ProbltmJ I I through 30, find thr mass and centroid of the
(.
l .. 0, )' .. 0, .t + y =3 plant lamiM with th.- ;,dicattd shapr and dtnsiry.
s. ,.,O. y,O tl. The triangular region bounded by x "' 0, y = 0. andz+y = 1,
l . .t + 2y = 4
.,;tb &(.t. y) =xy
1•0. .
>''".t .t +y = 2
976 CHAP'T[R 14 Multiple Integrals
. bo ded b)' the righ t-hand loo p or the lcmnis.

12. lhe lllangular region o l l'roblem II. ,.i th dC.r. y ) = x1 3c The reg10n un
-· C3te r · = rosze· , ? )
' ( r ,., = ,. (Fi;:. IO:.S.-I
13. The region bounded by> c 0 and) = .I - .r1 • "-i th d(.r . y ) = y
· ·o • •- •
1-'. 11le rcg.aon bounded by .r =Oand .r =9- >:.,.i thd (.r . y ) = .r 1

15. The region bounded by the pa raholas y = .r= and .r = r.
" Jth d( r. ) l ., •)"
16. 'Ih e rc~ton o r Problem I S. "' llh ~!A . > J = .r' - ,:
17. The rc~ion hounded by the pa r•holas > = .r=and> = 2 -.r:.
"ith &It. y ) = >
18. 'Ihe region bounded by .r = 0 . .r = ~. y = 0. andy = ln.r
lo r I S .r S ~. with d(.r. )") • I - t L
-1
-- -+.---;-'
0
19. The region ho unded by> • 0 a nd y .. sin .r lor 0 :; .r :; ::.
fiGURE 14 .S.21 The
"'ith J (> • .'' ) • I lcmi nKate of Problem 35.
20. '11lc region bounded by y = 0• .r = -I. .r = I. and
y = c xp( -.r 1 ). with 6(.r . y ) • l •yl
'" f'rr>l>!rm.< Jo thm ugh .Jil. find thr mtlii nfgymtinn .i (lnd j• of
21. Tite squa re with vcrucc< (0. 0). (0 . a ), (a. a ). and (a. 0). " ilh tltr in 1Uraud /am inn arnutul tht• cnonlmnu· at'r.\:.
6( t, y) = .r + y
36. 'l11c l:t rnina of l'rnblem 2 1
22. l l •c lrian!(ulnr region hounded by the coordin ate nxcs anu
the line ,, + y = a (fl > II). wi th ~ (.r. y l = .r 1 + y 2 37. The l:~ min a of Prnhlc m 23
23. 'lltc region bo unded by y •.r' nml y = ·1: M.r. y) = y 38. The lamina ol Pro blem 2·1
U. 'I he region bounded hy .v = •' and y = 2.r + 3; 6(.r. y) = .r1 39. The la mi na of Pro blem 27
=.r
25. ·n1 e region nl l'ruhlcm ICJ.J( r. y ) 40. 'lhc la mm;t <>I Problem 33
26. TI1e semicircular region x' + _
,,: S a'. y ~ 0; S{.r. y) = y 4 1. Fin d the centro id of the lir<t qu adra nt nl the circu l :~r di<k
27. TI1c re~;ion of l'mhlcrn 26: &( r . y) = r (the rnuial polar co·
,, z + y' ~ ,: by uirect co mputa tion . a~ in E xample I.
oruinate) -'2. Apply the first theo re m of Pappus to lim! the ccntro Jdolthc
first quadrant of the circu lar d"k x ' + ,.: ~ r 1 . Usc the (acts
28.. 1llc r.:ginn hounded hy Che C1 rdtl,id \ltith rol:tr ~qual inn
thar:t = \ (hy,ymrnctry ) and that re voluti on of tht< qua ncr·
r = I + cos II; d(r, ~) = r (Fig. 14.5.19)
d isk aro und e ithe r coordtna te :IXIS t:ivc < a solid hcmi<phere
2:9. The region ins ide the circler = 2 sin 0 nnd outside the circle with \'O(umc \' = j :r r J.
r = 1;6 (.r.y) = )'
.IJ. Find the t'cntroid ol the arc tha t consist< o r the first·
~. The region ins ide the hma~on r = I + 2ros 0 and outside q uadra nt porunn o f the circle x 1 + y 1 = r 1 by d irect com·
the circle r = 2; d (r, ll) = r (Fig. 14.5.20) put at ion. as in Example 6.
-'4. Apply th~ second thcurem of Pappu< to find the centroid of
· ~-----,------~
the quarter<ircula r arc o( Problem -1 3. Note that :1 = y ( by
1 symmetry) and th:tt rot a tion o f this a te aruund either ooor·
dinatc a xi< gives a henu,pllcrc "ith ~ur(acc area,\ = hr'.
1 t•l• t'0\ 9
-'5. Show by direct computatit'n that the ccntrni<l of the triangle
with vertices (0. 0). (r . 0). and (0. It ) i~ the point (r/ 3. lt/ 3).
- t
V.:rify that thi< poi nt lies <111 the line fro m the vertex (0. 0)
to the midpo int ol the o pposit e •ide of the tria ngle and t"o·
-2 thirds of the way from the vertex to the midpoint .
- 4 L-------L-----~
-16. Apply the lirst theorem or Pappu< and the resu lt of l'ruhlcm
FIGURE 14.5.19 The ca·diod FIGURE 14.5.20 The li ma~on 45 to verify the lnrmula \' = \ :r ,.lIt fm the volume of the
o( Problem 28. of Problem 30. cone obtained by re volving th e trianj:lc aro und the y-axis.
-17. Apply the second theorem o r Pa ppu< to show that the lat·
In f"roblcm.s J I tltro Hgh JJ, find 1/u: poltlf mo mt:nt of inertt'a lo crol surface area uf the cone of l'rn hlc m 46 is A = ;rrL.
of the indiclllttllamlr~a. where L = Jrl + Jt l is the sla nt height of th<' w nc.
3 1. The region houndec by the circle r = a; 6(x. y) = r', where 48. (a) Find the centroid uf the trap.:zoid s ho "n in Fig. 10:.5.22.
n is a fixed positive integer (b) Apply the first theore m of l'appu< and the r<'Sult of
32. The lamina of f>roblcm 26 pa rt (a) to s how tha t the vo lume or the cnnic:1l fntstum
generated by rcvol\ ing the 1rapc1.0id around the y-a 1is tS
JJ. The disk bounded by r ,. 2 cos 0; 6(x. y) = k (a positive
constant)
34. 'llle lamina ol Proble m 29
Applicat ions of Double Integrals SECTION 14.5 977
S.l. t\ uniform rcctanguln r plate wi1 h h3.se IC' n}!th o. t!eight b.

and m:oss m is ce ntered :t t I he origin. Show that 1LS poll r
2
moment orinert ia is /o = fi m<n1 +- b ) .
!'.$. ll1c •cntroid of a uniform pl.1nc rq:ion i< al (0. 01. a~•d t ~e
region ha• tutal mas• m . Show th 31 its mome nt of merlin
abmu an :!Xis perpend icu lar 10 1hc .ry-pl:t nc a t 1hc poinl
( xo. )'o ) is
I = /0 + m (x,~ + )',lJ.
FIGURE 14.5.22 The tr.lf.lt'lold of
Problem 48. 55. Supf'O'C that a plane lamina con< isis o r two nn noverla pping
lami nae. Shnw that i~< po lar mome nt of inertia is the sum of
~- ,,rrly the occ.,nd th,·orcm of I'Jf'I'U' tc> show that the Iat · I heirs. U~e I hi< faCI togethe r wi th the re sul t< nf J'rohlcms 53
cr>l sutfJcc area of the conical frus tum of l'mhlcm 4 s L< and 5-l to tind the ro lar mo ment u( inertia or the T ·Sh~pcd
a " n(r 1 + r:)L. wh~rc lamina or consta nl de nsity~ .. k > 0 shown in Fig. 145.25.
I. a /(r 1 - r:l' + hl
1
is 1tHinnt hci~hl.
!0. (•l Arrly the scmnd theore m or l'a ppus to vc ri(y that the (- • • 4 ) r----+----1 ( 4 • • ,
cuf'<J >urfacc >rc> of n right circular cylinder of height h
I I
(- 4 . ) ) / " (4. )/
•nJ tx"c <Jehu" h :\ = 2Hir . (b) Exr>lain hmnh i< follows (- I.JI (1, )J
:~h.o from the result ,,( Pruh1l"m J9.
!1. (•l finJ the ccntrnid of the plane region shown in 1- 1. or 11. 01
fi~ 1..S.5.2...~. "h ich C\ln~i~t~ f'f a scmicirculJr rccinn of radius
G sinin~ JI<'P a n·cun~ul:u rq.titln or width i, :-~nd height FIGURE 14.5.25 One lam ina made of
b ,.hO<c l>3st "en the .I ·Hi.;. (h) 'I hen apply the lirst the · two simpler ones (Problem SS).
orr-m of Pappu~ iO hnd the volume ge nerated by rotating 56. A r:tcquc t con~ists ora un i!ormlamina. that oc.cupies the rc·
thi< rcg,ion >round the .t·3xis. ginn inside I he righl·h3nd loop or , : cos UJ on lhe end of =
n handle (as>umcd to be or ncgligibk m;.ss) corrc~ponding
to Ihe inte rval - I ~ ~ ~ 0 (Fig. 1-1.5.26). find 1he radius of
gyra1ion or the racquet aro und the line x = -I. Where ;.
its s" cct spot'/
T h
.r=-1
'
---:-4-::~_..,...j_
o,
(-O. (o. 0) ...
fiCUR£ 14 .S.ll Th~ plane

rtgon of Problem 51 (a).
!2. h ) U.onudcr the plane regJOn of fi!t· 14.5.24. lx1undod by

FIGUR£ l 4.S.26 TI1e racquet of Problem S6.
J 1 " 2p,. J c 0. •nd ) ~ lr = r 1(l p (p > 0). Show tlwt it•
t n t " A ~ i rl. •nd that the , < O<J tdinale of its centroid is
!
i • r . (b) L:>e Pappu>• lheorem amJ the rnuh of plrt (a )
/rt l'mb/(111.1 57 thnough 60. firttlth( ,,..,..$
m mul crntn•id (I. 'V)
to ._.,._ lhat the wlume tJf a p:uabolo•tl of re vululio n with of thr irrdkaud plt~nt l.amirw R. l C)u m.a:v wr ~irlttr a NJmpu;t'r
a!J;tbtll J _v1trm u r tilt" .tint>·· co 1inr i.ntt"]:ftlls of Fc)rnru/a ( 113) in·
ra4.~n r and hciz/11 h ;, I' .. j"r' ll.
Jitlt thrlwrl. nn•a .
, 51. /( ;, bounded hy the circle with pul.u equ.tti<>rl r • l >in ~
and hM dl"n,lty functiun .S (, . .'·) • ·' '
1----., ''·., ~.)l. /( j, t'HUOtk41 h)' t he Ci rcle "'lh f!"ll.U t q u.Hh.ll\ t c: 2 Stn t)
;~nd h." ,h;n·.,.ty fun~t h m &\ l , 1' ) ~ , \r.!~
SCI. I< t\the ' cmu.·ucub r ~t.,k bnund( J h~ t h~ t · .t\.i' ancl lh('
U jli:'Cf h.. lt of tht• cnck \\ tth f"''lar t"tlla:tl i n n, m ~Cf~O and
h:a \ tlc n\l t~ fun \."thJU•\ t • . vl • t
(II). U a' the 'rn ucu ~u1.u J1,l h..1und('d hy the , ·a \I\ and Ihe
un>e r h•ll nf the cttdc " 'th pol.u C<jUillil'n r = 2cmll • nd
f iGURE 14.S.14 Tht- h11\ den, lly fun~tum .\( • , y) .. ., : >'
rt<Jion of Probl~m S2.
14.5 P roject: Optimal Design of Downhill Hucc-Cnr Wheels

To sec mome nts of inert ia in action. suppose: th at your club is design~ng an unpowc:red
race car for the annual downh ill dcrb,·. You h:wc a choice: of sohd wheels. bicycle
''heels "ith thin spokes. or even solid spherical whccts (like giant ball bearings).
Which wheels will make the race car go the fastest?
FIGURE 14.5.27 A m1:ular obje<t rolling

down an inchr.e.
Imagine nn experiment in" hich you roll v:uious types of wheels down an incline
to ~ce which re:u;h cs the bo tt om tlw fa~test (Fi g. 1-1.5.27). Suppose thai :l wheel of
radius a antlma" M start~ from rest at the top with potential energy PE = M gh
and reaches the bottom with angula r speed"' and (linear) vc:locity v = tuv. lltcn (by
conse rvation of energy) the wheel's initial pot~.:ntial ene rgy has been transformed
into a sum KEu + KEroc of translation kinetic energy KEcr = ~Mv 2 and rotational
kinetic energy
2
, I
KE, 0 , =2/ow2
= /ov
a ,
2 2
( 1)
a consequence of Eq. (9) of this section. Thus

I 2 lovZ
.\fgiJ = 2 Mv + 2a2. (2)
Problems I through 8 explore the implications of this formula.
1. Suppose tha t the wheel's (polar) moment of inerti a is give n by
lo = kMa 2 (3)
for some constant k. (for instance, Example 10 gives k = for a wheel in !

the shape of a umform solid disk.) Then deduce from Eq. (2) that
-J +
V- - 2gil .
1 k.
(.S)
·ntus the smaller k is (and hence the smaller Ihe wh . . .

the faster the wheel will roll ,, . . • eels moment of mertla),
uO\\ II I 1te lnChnc.
In Problems 2 rhrouglr 8, take g

incline iJ 11 = 100ft.
= •3'>~ ftfs·2 l lltd fi.I'J III/Ic' that tht' vertical height of tire
2. Whyt!OI.!S it follow from Eq. (4) that 1 . , .

mum vciOI.!ity a circular wheel 'w_J,ltever_t~e w~eel s design, the maXI·
55 milh)'! can attarn on thts mel me is 80 ft/s Oust under
3. If the \\heel is a uniform solid disk (!" .
=
with /u L \fa2 what is .
' . 15
d Ike a med1eval wooden wagon wheel)
I spec vat the bono f h . .
4. Answer Problem 3 1"f th 1 . m o t c tnchne?
. c w tee I rs shaped l"k . . . .
ent1re mass in effect c ' 1 e a narrow b1cvcle ttrc wtlh rts
· . onccnt rated at the d"st f · · .
c:-ase,/0 = M 11 2. (Why?) t a nee a rom its center. In t111S
.. Triple lntegrdls SECTION 14 .6 979
5• ~.nswer Probl~m 3 if the wheel is shaped like an annular ring (or washer)
tth outer ra\lms a aud inner radiu s b.
£.tamp/~ J and Pmblcm.r -II and -11 in Secrion 1-1.7 prvvid~ rhr momeflls of immia
nudc•d 111 l'mblems 6 1/rrou~h 8. In tach of rhes~ problems. find rhc vt'lncily of rht'
"'lrrel whrtl if rene/res lht ba~lam of rhc inclfn,..
6. 'll1c "heel is n uniform solid sphere of radius n.

7. lllc ''heel i~ a \'cry thin. sphcricJI shell whose entire mass is. in effect. con·
ccntratc<l nt the \lista ncc" from its center.
fl. lllc wheel is a spherical shell \\i th outer radius a nnd inner radius
b= io.
Finally, wh at is your conclusion? Wha t is the shape of the wheels th at will yield
the fastest down hill race car?
. 1TRIPLE INTEGRALS
14 6 ll1c definitio n o f the triple integral is the thr~e-dimensional ve rsio n of th e definition
of th e double in tcgr~l of Section 14.2. Let f (x, y. z) he continuous on th e hounde d
space region T :and s uppose that T lies inside the rectangula r block R determined by
the inequalities
We divide fa. b) into subintervals of equal length 6x, fc. dJ into subintervals of equal
length Ay . and I p. q J into subin tervals of equal length A:. llli~ generates a p~nition of
R into smaller rectangula r blocks (a' in Fig. 14.6. 1). each of volume A V = A r ~)' A:.
~ / '· Let P =(T1 • T: . ... . T.ll-.: the collection of these s maller blocks that lie wholly ,. ithin
I
r '
/ T . Then Pi< called an inner partition of the region T . The nnrm I'PI of 'Pis the length
of a longe<t dia gonal of any of the blocks T,. If C.t; • .•·: . :;l is an arbitrnrily selected
.J!) point ofT. (for each i = 1. 2•. . . , n ), then the Rie mllnn •um
/, -
~ ..__ I
•
2:: /(.(. y;.:; l AI'
·-·
riGIP! 14.6.1 One l.IN, bltxk in
is an approxim.1t io n to the triple integm l off over the region T.
r rNo- ~!JOn ol ~ bound~
~""P' T. For e xample, if T i• a MJiid body with deruity functio n /. th~n such a R icn1ann
sum approxima tes its total mass. We define the triple lnl ('j!rul or f on n Thy mean<
of the cqua too n
~ onlim- u ~
!fl.
t
fC•. ''· :) dV
' '--
•-1
f(.r1' , y;. :;) tJ.I' . ( II
It ;, pro•·cd in a d vnno:cd calo:uhl' th.~t thi• '.imit uf Hict~l:lllll smn< cxi<ts n\ the nur 111
!'P I nppr 11 , 1chc' ' " "'provided tha t f t<c~tnt ~nu"'" '"~ 1 nn~l that the huuml.ll)' nf the
rcyjun T h rc:ou 111.chly wc ll ·hchn, cd . (l·or ""'·' "'"·" s uf!lo:es fur the b..•und:t~ )' o fT
con'"' uf a flltttc nurnl>c r of \ lll<l<>th >urbccs.)
t II J u,t 3 , "'' tth \lnuhk ontcgrah. we nrclrna n.I Ycompute trtp• I •
c tnlc!!ral< hy mennH>f
itcr tcd 1 ntc~:rah. If the rc11ion nf int cgr;otiOn" a rcctangui.H hlock . n. on Example 1.
3
then ,. c can ontcgtatc in any nrdcr ,. ., ,. ,, h .
980 CtiAPTER 14 Multiple Integrals
'
I EXAMPLE 1 If j(.r. y. ~)=X)

tha t sa ti sfy the inequalities
-l ~x~ l.
. + >-.. •and T consists of those points (.r. y. z) in space
< >' =
2= < 3• and 0 ~ z~ 1
(Fig. 14.6.2), then
jjj f(x.y.~)dV 1:1311 = (xy+y:)dzdydx
T = t f3[xy:+~y:2]I dydx
FIGURE 14.6.2 The re<t.angular j_ J J~ 2 ;=0
block T of Example 1, for which
- 1 ~ x ;:; 1,2 ~ y ~ 3, and
o :;; z :> l . == / l (.cy + ~>) dydx
t [ ~xy2 + ~l]
3
=
1- I 2 4 ··2 dx
t (5;zx + ~5) dx = [5
= }_1 2 5 JI 5
4x + 4x - 1 = 2 •
'11 1· · f louble intPgrals tha t we saw in earlier sec tions generalize
1e app IC3IIOnS 0 < • • • f · !J(
immediately 10 triple int egral~. H T i~ a solid body With th e density unct10n .r, >'· z).
then its mass m is given by
m = jjj odv. T
(2)
TI1e ca~c o"" I gives the mlumc

(3)
ofT. The coordinates of it s centroid are
:c =!;; JJ1 T
xodV. (4a)
y ==!;; JJ1 y!J dV, and (4b)

T
z- =..!..
Ill
1'j}T
rr :stlv. (4c)
ll1e moments or inertia ofT around the three coordinate axes are
I,= !!1 T
(y
2
+ z2)8t!V, (Sa)
11 = JJ1 (x
2
+ z2)8tiV. and (Sb)
T
I, = !!1 T
(x
2
+ y 2)oliV. (Sc)
Iterated Triple Integrals

As indicated previously. we almost always evaluate triple integrals by iterated single
integration. Suppose that the region T with piecewise smooth boundary is z-simplr:
Each line parallel to the z·axis intcrs<.lcts T (if at all) in a single line segment. In cff~ct,
this means that T can be described by the inequalities
ZJ(.r.y) ~z ~Z2(x.y), (x.y) in R,
d
r-
Triple Integrals SECTION 14.6 981

where R ·•s 1h e vertical p ro' ·
JCCI!On or T inlo the .ry-plane. ll!Cil
I tI
JJ~ f(x,y.z)liV = JJ (j ""·'
I 1
"-- I
R ~a(..I:.J)
f(x.y.z)d;)liA. (6)
In Eq. (6). we t~kc <Ill - 1I 1I

inte~r't 1• 0 - .r Y or tiA = d rtlx. depend in" o n Ihe preferred o rder of
" " n o vcr l 1tcsc t N 11 1· . • " ·
c ndpo't nts of tl . · lc Jm Hs ~ ~ (.r . y ) a nd Zl(x. )') ~ re th e z-coord ina lcs of the
If tl tc
• . 1 me s •·,n · 1 •
q; l~ llt Ill"' liCh the ,·ert kall iuc al (.t , y) uocc.:ts T ( f'ig. 14.6.3).
lc rcg 10 11 N has the description
Y1(.t) ~ Y :i Yl(X), a :i x ~ b,
fiGURE H .6.l ObtJining th~ then (integra ti ng last with respect to .r),
i:n'U ol inttgr41ion IOf l .
jjj_r {{ . n !• l j"t<.Jl f(x . y,;;)dztydx.

T
f(x , y ,;;)dV =
11 o ntr) :t(A ,y)
1lms the ~riplc integral reduc;s in Ihis case to three iterated single integrals. These
tO. a.., can (on pnnciple) be evaluated by using the funda mental theorem o f calculus.
~ XAM P LE 2 Find the mass m of the pyramid T of Fig. 14.6.4 if its de nsity funclion
ISgiVen by~ (x. y. z) z. =
Solution The regio n Tis bounded he low by the x y-planc;; =0 and nbove b y the
=:
plane 4 6 - 3x - 2v. Its ba.<c is the plane regio n R bo unded by th e .r· a nd y -a.'<cs
1
and the lme J = ~(6- 3.r). lienee Eqs. (2) and (6) yield
m -
- 121t•-l•J(216-Jo-l, :d:dydx = 121(6-l•l/2 [I-z·•]f>-l>-2y dydx
0 0 0 0 0 2 ,-o
=?
I 121t6-l•l/2 (6- 3.r- 2y)2dydx = -I 12[--(6
I
- 3x- 2y)3
] t6-l•112 d.r
- oo 2o 6 ,...,
= -1
12
1, I)
2
1 [ --(6-3x)
(6 -3.t ) 3 <i.t = -
12
1
12
4]
=6- =9.
•• o 122
2 4
IIGtJPiE 14.6.4 The pytamid T of We leave as an exercise (Problem 45) to show tha t the coordinates o f the ce ntroid
!u-.,., l , tU 114~ h th~ tNngle y. n o f the p yramid a rc give n by
(7.
i r~tt-c , 1~.
- =;;I
.r
~ 0
1'1''-3"121•-J•-z,
0 0
x: d~dydx = -2 .
5
I 1:1••-l•l/2 1•-l•-lt , cl:.dytlx 12

: u -
'l uo u
.:· c-.
5 •
If Ih e ~olid T h houmkd h y Ihe""" ~urfaccs: = : 1( ' · ,1' ) and : • ::( 1 , y) (ns in
Fig. 14.6.5) . 1hc n we c:m find the "ha~c rcp,io n" ki n ~'I· (6) as fnllc,ws. N~>tc 1hn1 the
cqul tion , 11.1 • ,1) • ; 1 ( o. I' ) tlc lc rnun c~ a vc rh<'al c)'hmlcr (nn t nccc"a nly circ ula r)
Ihal p:t'''" 1hn1Ugh 1he curve ul intersection nf the two surfa,·c'- ( Why? ) 'll1is cylinde r
intc t'>cCh t h~ , 1 · pl.tnc tn lh c bu un<lary curve C u ( Ihe pl.mc rcginn H. In es~encc, we
~UtE 14 6.S To f<nd tM
oht:un lhc cqua tiun uf the curve C by CCjUJ ting the height funct ions o f the s urfaces
--;~, cl ' · ~ the ~liOn
•. l l " I){ • ' )') tha t form the top and bottom (J( the space region T.
982 CHAPTER 14 Multiple lnle<Jra ll
FIGURE 14.6.6 The ~olid T of FIGURE 14.6.7 The circular disk R

Example 3. of ExJ mple 3.
EXAMPLE 3 Fi ourc 14.6.6 shows the sol id T bounded a h o ve by the plane Z = Y +2

· ~ = x-' + y 2. ·n1e cq u.1
and below by the"'para ho lo1d · t 1on
.c, + y·' = y + 2: tha t is. x-
, + (y - 1I) 2 = :;~
describes the bound:try circk of t he d isk R of radius ~ and with cc ~t.cr (0. in the !)
. 1
.t) ·p :me (F' 1' 7)
1g. " ·"· .
L Because
• . this dis k is no t cen tered a t the.: o n g m. the volume
integra l
is awkward to evaluate directly. In Exa mple 5 we calculate.: V by integrating in a

different ord e r. +
We may integrate first with respect to ei the r x or y if the.: space region Tis either
x -sim 111e or y-si mpl~. Such sitllat ions. as wdl as a ~-si mpl e solid. appea r in fig. 14.6.8.
•l'
For example. suppo~e that T is y-simple. so that it has a d escriptio n of the form '
y1 (x.z) ~Y ~ Y2(x .;: ) , (x.z) in R.
where R is th e projection o fT into th e x:·pla ne. ' l11en
!JJ.r
r
T
/(x.y, Z)t!V = !! ( .
R
J.Y•(.r.:)
.
.\I t • ... )
/(x , y . :.)dy
)
dA. (7)
(b) T it y-~impk
where dA = dx d z or dA = d~ cl.r ami the limits y 1(.r. z) and y (x. ~) arc the
2
·'·-coordinates of the endpo ints of the line segment in which a t ypical line parallel to
the y-axis inte rsects T . If T is .r-simple. we have
/
/
/
/
/
/
!!}_ T
f(x .y, z)d;\= !j (lR
>l(V, , )
>dy.:)
/(x. y .:.)dx
)
d;\, (8)
where dA = dy d~ or dA = d z ely and R is the projection ofT into the y:-plane. ~,

EXAM PLE 4 Compute by triple integration the volume of the rcgion T that is
=
bounded by the parabolic cylinde r x y 2 and the pla nes z = 0 and x + z = I. Also
find the centroid o fT given that it has constant density 8 1. =
COMMENT The three segments in Fig. 14.6.9 paralic Ito the coo rdinate axes indicate
that ~he regio~ T is simultaneously x-simple. y-simple. and z -simplc. We may there-
FIGURE 14.6.8 Solid~ that are
(a) z-~imple, (b) y-~imple, and
(c) x-~imple. fore tntegrate 111 any order we choose, so there are six ways to evaluate the integral.
Here are three computations of the volume V ofT.
Triple lntcgr.l h S£CT10N 14 ·6 983
,
.. . ,•,.:/j•!l.
/ \......... , ·-··
II
/------ 11.01
II . - I I
fiCUR£ 14.6.9 The reglon T ol Eumple 4 is • ·iimple,

)'somple, and z-srmple. fiCUR£ 14.6.10 lhe verh<<>l
PIC>!<'< lion ol the solid regoon T
into !he • r · piJne ( lumple 4 ,
Solution 1).
Solution 1 1l1e p~ojcction ofT intn the xy-pl~nc is the region shown in Fig. l-1.6.10.
bounded hy x =y- 3nd .r =
I. So Eq . (6) gives
:.,.•1 • I
\' :; 11111-·
1
-1 y-
,
0
chdxdy=2 1.1/1
0
, 0 - .r)t/.t{/y
,.
1
2 ,. [ I
, ( 1 2] , I •) S
= lo x- ix ,.,, Jy = 2 lo 2- y· ... 2-" dy = j5 ·
c1. OJ
\
: ... • o Solu tion 2 1l1e projcctinn ofT into the A:·planc is th<· triangle bound.:d hy the
cnordinatc axes and the line .1 +: = I (fig. 1-1.6. 11). ~~~ Eq. (7) gives
r!C.UR£ 14 6. 1 1 lht ~I
1l1l-•f.!i-..r. 11l-o-IX
:V:>«t>ot-1 ol ~ IOitd rtogoon T
,.~ ~~ ' t-;:>14~ {tump:t 4, 1
klr...,.. z) \' = 0 0
dyd:dx =2 u 0
d: dx
s
1
1
1
= 2 (r f l - x 3 ")d.r = - .
0 15
Solu tion 3 The projection nf T into the _~·:·plane is the triangle bounded lw the
y·axis and the para bob: "' I - y 1 (Fig. 1-1.6.12). so E11. (S) yidds •
I' V ..
! 11-r'/1-:
1
-1 "r
dx d:dy.
_Q\
I•-l.o, :•o tt .or
and nahu tion o f thi ' integrnlngain gh·es \ ' = {1 •
No" fo r the centroid of T. Because the region T i~ symme tric " ith rc~J'<'Ct tu
the J :- p13ne, it• ccntruitl lie• in thi\ pl.rne. tlllll ' " Y • 0. We PUt<· :r And ll\' '"Ill z
1ntcrrnttng fir1t with r c~pcct tu y: •
.i ..
I
v JJ,
j' (( t d \' •
I~ ('
~ fo fo
(' -•j,r;
- ,7 t dyJ:d t
similarly.
-=
z
_!_j'ff :dV =I:>
v JJ.T 8
-1111-•l-,fi,fi
0 0
2
:dydulx = 7·
Thus the centroid ofT is located a t the point(~. 0. ~). •

EXAMPLE 5 Find the volume or the o bltque. segm ent o1' a paraboloid
~ bounded by
the paraboloid:= x 2 + y2 and the pla ne: = Y + 2 ( Fig. 1-1.6.1.>).
Solution The g1·ven re 11.10n

· T ·IS :-s1mp
· 1e. b u 1 'I ts proJ·ection. into
• the .ry-plane • is
b d d b h h' f h tio n r2 • ,.2- \' -'- 2 Wh iCh IS a translated CIT·
o un e y t e grap o t e equa fi . T .t' h -e.s p : ct .to - but perhaps another
clc. It would be poss1blc to mtcgrate rst \~I r c ~·
choice will yield a simpler integral.
...,"""'• + v'.:- y2 ""

I',..,+y'.. '
~\ )
·,,,, ·-\-~~-...,, -- J:-y'
X
' \\~,~, I /~
\ I
)~,.,
)'
FIGURE 14.6.13 An oblique segment of a FIGU RE 14.6.14 Projection of the

paraboloid (Example 5). segment of the paraboloid into the
yz-plane (Example 5).
l11e region Tis al so x-simple. so we may integrate first with respect to .r. The
projection ofT into the y~ ·plane is bounded by the line z = y + 2 and th e parabola
2
z = y • which intersect at the points (-1 . I) and (2. 4) (Fig. 14.6.14).11le endpoints
of a line segmen t in T parallel to the x-axis have x-coordin atcs x = ±Jz-y1.
Because T is symmetric with resp<.:ct to the n -plane. we can integrate from .r = 0 to
x = Jz- y 2 and double the result. Hence T ha s volume
21y+21,f'Hi dxdztly=2 1 2 J y+2 Jz -y2 dzdy

V=2
1-1 ,., 0 -1 r'
= 2
12[2(
- 1 .)
::; : - )'2
)3'2]y+2
, . ,,
(/y = 34 - 21 (2 + y -y2)3/2
-1 .
dy
= ~ 13(2
3 -3/2 4
(? - 112)3[ 2 (/II
(comple ting the s quare; II ~)
= .\' - 2
271·'12
=-
4 -rr(l
cos4 0d0 (u =~ sin O)
27 I 3 1r 8J;r
= - · 2· - · - · - = -
4 2 4 2 32 .
In the_ final evaluatio~. we used symmetry-integrating from o= 0 to o = 1r;2 and

doubling-and then Formula (113) (inside the back cover). •
...-------------------------- Triple lntegrnls SECTION 14.6
985

1. Describe a region Tin space such that voucan calcula te its volume by iterat ed
i~tcg_ration in a t least three d ifferent. orde rs-integra ting wi th respect t ~ x
hrst 10 <>nc order. with respect to y first in another o rd e r. and finally wtth
respect to~ first. 11tc n find its volume in each of these three ways.
2. (a) Gi,-c an e xample of a ~pace regio n wh ose vo lume is most easily calcula ccd
by integrating first with respect to x. (b) Re peat, but with respect 10 Y fir st.
(c) Repeat, hut wi th respect to z first.
14.6 PROBLEMS
1
In Problmu 11 through 20, skrtclr tire solid bounded by the
~:raplts of thr given rqwtiom Tl~en find its volumr by triple
integration.
11. 2.r + 3y + l = 6.... = 0. )' =0. : = 0
1. j(1 • y. : ) = x + y + : : Tis the rectangular box 0::; x::; 2. 12. z = y. y =•'· y = 4. : c O (Fig. l~.6. 16)
o ~~· ~ 3.0~ : S t.
:. /(•..•·.:) = .r y •in:: T is the cube O:i.r :i n.O ;:i y;:i :r,
0~ : ~ :'f.
3. /C•. ~ - ;) = .r)·: : T is the rectangular block - I S x :i 3,
0~ _v ;:i 2. - 2 ;:; : ~ 6.
t f l•. y. : l = x + y.:. : : T is the rect3ngu!Jr block o r
, ..
Prcloltm 3.
!. /(l . ) . : l = .r ' : T is the tetrahedron bounded by the coor-
dJr.l:e rtan~ and the fi rst octant pa n of the pl'a ne with
e-quJuon z - .v + .: = L
4. /l1.). : )a 2.r + 3y: T is a fi rst-octant tetrahedron ns fiGURE 14.6 . 16 The surfaces of
"' Problem 5. exa:pt th3t the plane has equation Problem 12.
Zl - 3_,..,.. : :~: 6.
1
1. / l•.,. : ) =x ,:; T lies bd o" the surface : = I - x and 13. y +: = 4. y = 4 - x 1• •v = fl. : = !I
lbo' e t.!le recun gle - I ~ 1 ~ 0. 0 :; >' :; 2 in the A)'·rlanc.
14. : =_..: + y
• : = 0. X = o. y = 0 .... + y = I
1
L /I • . .•. : J =21 ... : : T l i~ below the surface with equation 1~.: = 10-.rz - yl , _..,. =..- 1. . - ::: yz.: =0
: = : - }; J!lld abo, ·e 1he rectangle - I ::1 J :; I. -2 :i J &2
L1 th< J y-plane.
J(,_ .f ~ : 1, X = 8 - z. 1, )' ;::; - J. )' = - J
t. /(c.,.:) c,
-+ ) : T i\ the: rc:gion txl..-. ccn chc: ~urbcc, 17. = = y +: = 4. y = o. : 0
.r1 • =
: "' 2 - 1: and: e , : lor 0:; >:; J (fig. l ~ .l\.1 5). 18. : = I - y 1• : = y: - I, x +: = I . .r = 0 (fig. 1~.6. 1 7)
Ill /ll. 1 • : I=:. r ;, the region between the ourf>C.:S z = Y' 19. )' = :_1 , :_ a ).1 , :C + )' + :! a 2• .\' ~ ()
r
.., == 8- ( O< - I ~ . :: 1. 20. y = 4 - x 1 - : 1• X = 0. y= ll. : = 0. 1 +; c 2
fiGURE 14 6.17 n.., surf.octs

fiGURE 14.6.1S The wild of of Prob lem 111.
Prob1~ 9.
986 CHAPTER 14 M ultiple Integra ls
In Probltms 21 through 12. asJumt thattht indicated solid has

consrant dtnsity ~ "' I.
21. Find the centroid of the solid of Problem 12.
2l. Find the centroid of the hemtspherc
23. Find the centroid of the wlid of Problem 17. FIGUR E 14.6.19 The solod
FIGURE 14.6. 18 The Inlet·
24. Find the centroid of the ~olid hounded b) ~ =I - .r'. ~ =0. secting cylinders of or intersection in
y =-l,and > = I. Problem 39.
Problem 39.
2~. Find !he ccntroJd of the \Ohd hounded l>y ~ = co~ .r . .r =
-;r /2 . = = =
.r :t / 2. y fl.: 0, and v - : I. = ' I Fi111 d the mlumc txJumlctl h y the elliptic parabolords z=
2(,, Findrhc momcnl of incnia around !he ~·axis of the solid of .. •
2.r' .~ ,.: and: = 12 - , ' - 2y·.' :"'o re II1a1 Ih'1~ soI'd .
1 proJects
l'rubkm 12. onlo ~ circubr d isk in th e l .' ·pl.rlle.
27. Find the rnument of inertia nrnund thc >·axis of !he solid .n. Find rhe \'Olume t>ou nd.:d h)' rh.: cllipric paraboloid .r=
of Pm lllem 24. ..: + ~~: and the r l:rnc ,. = 2.r + J.
28. l-i nd !he mw1wn1 of incni a a round !he :·nxi~ of !he solid -13. Find the volume of rhc dhplll'a l cone hnundcd hy : ==
cylinde r ,,.: "' y: ::i 11:. 0 ... : ... II .
=
.jxz ... 4.1 : amlthc pl.rnc.:: I . (Su,~:,~:cstiQ/1: Integrate firsr
29. fi nd !he mnmcnt of inert ia around the :·axis of !he solu.l "irh respect 10 r.J
bounded by x + y +; = I. .t = o. y = o. nnd: = 0.
.U. Find the ,·ohrnlc of th ~ rqtinn hou nded hy the paraho·
30. Fi nd the momcnl or incnia around I he : ·a~is nf !he cube loid .t = ,~ 1 ~ 2:: nnd the parabolic cylinder .r = 2- yl
wi th vertices(± t.J. :1:! I and (:!:!. 4.:!:! ). (Fig. 14.6.20).
=
3 1. Con;.idcr the oolid r arnboloid t-oundcd hy ~ .r: + y: and
rh e plane: = 1r > 0. Show rhat il$ ccnrroid lies on ir s axis of
symmetry. rwo·lhirds of the way from it$ " \'Crtex" (0. 0. 0)
to its ba<c.
32. Shu\\ that the centroid of a right circular cone lies on rhe
axis or rhe cone and three·founhs of !he way from the \'Crt ex
to the base.
In Pmblmu .1.1 tlmm,r;h .m, tl1r imlicar~tl solid has rmifon/1 tim·
sity 6 a I r111lr11 othrr,..i<<'illllirntt'll.
33. For" cut•e \\tlh edge knglh tJ. find the momenr of inertia
around one of it' edge~ FIGURE 14.6. 20 The
1urldCe1 of Problem 44.
34. lltc den>ity at r ( • . .'.:)of rhc first·nctant cube with edge
lcn~th "· I.Jces paralld 10 !he ctl(lrdin:He planes. and op·
po;,~tc ''erltccs (0. 0. Ut and (a. a. a ) i; proportional 10 rhc 45. Find !he centroid of rhe pyramid in Example 2 wilh density
square or the drs1u 11ce from I ' 10 the origin. Find the coor· 6(.r. y. :) = :.
dinate;. of the ccnrn>id of thi~ cube.
-16. Find the Centroid of t he parabolic ~Cjllllcn l (wilh dcnsily
3S. Find rhe rnomclll or i 11~r1i:r mound the :·axis of I he cube of o"' I ) in Example 5.
l'robkm 34.
36. l11c cube bounded hy the coordi nale planes nnd the planes -1:
For l'roblem s through 52. the ll l'l!rftJ:t' •·nl11r Jof the ftm rtion
x = 1. y = I. and : = I has dcnsiry J = k ~ ar the poinl / (.r , )'. Z) at pomt.f of th•· .1•
/'(x. y . <) (k is n p!hitil'c COilSianr ). Find irs ccmroid.
37. l-i nd the momcn l of inertia around the :·axis of the cu be of
Prot> lem 36.
38. Find the mome nt of inen iu around n di:un cter of n solid
1= ~ JJJ /(x. y. ~}dl'
r
sphere of radius a.
39. Find !he cent roid of Ihe first-octant region thai is int erior 10
~>·her: V i.r rhe volum e of T . For insr1111 ce. if T is tt solid ll'i!lr
denmy 6 o I. thm th~ coordi11ares y. mul ~of its amroid or(
r.
=
the two cyli ndco .r1 + 'l .. I nnd y 1 + : 1 I (Figs. 14.6. 18
the 01 eragt values of the "coordinate functions" r ,., a111l: at
and J.t.6. 19).
poims ofT. ' ·
40. Find the mome nt of incnin around the :·axis of !he solid of
Problem 39. 47. Find ~ he 3\'cragc \'3lue of t he density function 6(.r. y. : ) =:
nt pornts of the pyramid T of Example 2.
987
~~ s~ w· r" u.c ~ns c1 Eu::~l'lc:. but •1tlt de!>·

<:1\ I-=-.~ 1•1 F"~ tl:c 1 ~,1 ~ .qu1~d d•nancc of
•~i' ;"'t •• , of T !~ 1tt a-e·ro.J
H . l" a~~ a!ptn ·~o:<c t.:> f!ld lhc a•<UJC .!'-'·
.
" lt~ f 1-< tl>h
,~.... ,.., ,, la~t <>f f"lt!l" of~~"'~
iA~"t·
r of f"rot--cm 4~ fr<>m tbc oos;•n
ted l't ' ' ~ '" ""' ~ .. \til dc1mt) ''"'''t<OII
••, :'•••'•:Uu ,.,,
.., ' at t~ '~'""' '~"" 't
.&!h tr ..., •• t!w nor,:.
r I • tlw ....,lt't '" J
:1• [ ,1"- • • b (' ~ - ~' : )
tlllof >k ' ' '" 7 l .an ' '"' f • llw ••lw ... J t.:-1"
f'&
,~
lbt lll;'k I I l I
...., • ~ "'!.... ~ lmo t!w ..lC ...c f"'llllt\
:-1 In (I-, :q] . , 0.~~~~~5.)
<\ I
rnnu.lo-l I u"'f'W:
"''
0 lJ.(I l'n\jf'U: \ nhlmf'clt"' ll•t•tlna l'aJ'111>oloid
\ ,lnm<"".k • a• • 1 fMtrJ "' ll<>.tt t-,._, , ;onJ \tuJ•cJ the ~"t>k JX"iuon
(-<< '·~ I~ ... : II ••I • n. ....r , ...., " IUf r•nt-.>J.,J ,,( umro>rm tl··n'lh r.u :t
l~••t...•l·-..1 thai n... h tn an ' J I" !J~ he Jt...:o•-crcJ h..... "' J.:tcrmtnc ,,.
•nslr ••I moltn.alto>n tn t<tm• ,,, 11\. "''~-and ccntr.-.J ,,r the ni-<I~<JUC sc~mcnt"
,,, the r.a••""···J th.&t he:-• ..... , th th ••trr Itt!<' The rnn.. rl·• he tnt wJucc:d
''" th" tn•c•ttgat~<•n l•"c' :~ ccnlunn •aot arc <1111 tmrvrl•nt m mcl<.lcrn nuvol
al'\:htlc.tur<
rtGUil.E t4 6-2t llow o unifcwm solid por.abolold

""'~"' llo.at
1'-•r 1<\Uf ~1\\ n i"'f' <>MI I 1rnboloillt0 inl ~,tt~ate.let T be the three..<Jimen\10031
,,>jtJ t\'i.l<'n l'I."Un,kJ 1>.•1<"' \>1 the r·.>r~tx>lo"<l : - ,: ..- I: and ttbove by the plane
; • 11-- (1) \ +,,f., ''
here,, and/> nn· the: sm.1llc\t and large~ I no n1ero digits (rcspcc·
=
thd1) uf ~\•ur ;tuJent tt> numl-<cr. (If" t anti/>=~ then I t\ the ootid or Example 5 .)
In th.· r.~n'"' "'~ rmt,km< ~ \IU can C.\3ht31C the tnplc tntcgrals eit her b y ltnnd -
ron<ullin~ nn inte~ral table if ~"u 11 bh-m l" using a computer nlgebra s~ ste m.
1. lind the • nlume I • of the sohd ohhq uc paraboloid T. ketch n picture o f T

:mil:tr to Fit:. IJ 6. 13 Can ~ ou sec that T i< S)mmctn c ll ith respect to the
~ :·pbnc~ De -..· nt>e the t egion R tn the): -plane thJt is the vcntc:tl proJeCtio n
(\( r. 1l ti- plane region \\ill determine the :·limit.s nnd the ) ·limitS o r your
triple integr:tl t;\> in E \ atnplc 5).
~. Find the cc.x,nhnoteS (.1. y.:) Of the c.emroid C o f T (assu me that T h as
<kn<itl J • 1).
•t. Fin<l tt1 e roordin3tes or the point P nt " n ich a pla ne purallel to the original
top pl 3 ne : .. (b - ,,)y + nb is tnnge nt to the p:lr.tboloid. Also find th e
ro<•n.Jin.llcs or the pl11 nl Q in ~< htch a verucallme thro ugh in te rsects the r
HI!' 1 1.utc. A<-.:Mding to Ardtimedcs. thc centroid Co( Problem2 sho uld l ie
011 the hne PQ t\\ O·thtrds or the "JY fro m P to Q. b this so. accordi ng to
ynur romputatinns~ (Compare 11 ith Problem 31 o f this section.)
14. 7 I INTEGRATION IN CYLINDRICAL AND SPHERICAL COORDINATE~ .

Suppose th atf (.c y.:) is a co nti nuo us func:ion defined on the z-stmplc regton r.
which-because it is z-simple-<:an be dcscnbcd by
z ,(.r . y)~ z ~ z c (x. y) for (.r.y)in R
( W h ere R
· t h C prOJCCllOn
IS
· ·
0
r T 1·nto th ~p ;r1·-pla
.
nc as us ua l). We saw in Section 14.6
'
th at
::<•-Yl )
fff
j j jT
f(x,y .z )dl' =
11.R(1 .
. :(<.Yl
f(x , y.~)dz dA. (J)
If we can describe the region R more na tura lly in po!J r coord inates than _in recta?·
gu lar coordinates. then it is li ke ly that the integra tion o 1·er the plane r egton R wtll
be simple r if it is carri ed out in polar coordina tes. .
We firs t exp ress t he inne r p:Hti al inte gral of Eq. ( 1) tn terms of r and 0 by
writing
::(J, y) hZ,l•.P)
l ,,(,,1 )
f(x. y . z)dz =
Zd•.8)
F(r. 0 . : ) dz . (2)
where
F (r, 0. z) = f(r cosO. r sin 0. z) (3a)
and
Z, (r , 0) =:, (r cos 0. r s in If) (3b)
fori = ), 2. Substituting Eq. (2) into Eq . (I) with dtl = r dr d O ( imporlant) gives
l :(t ,8) )
jij_ f(x . y. :)c/1' = jj_ (h F (r. O.z)d: rdrtlO,

T $ Z,(t,O)
l,,---1
~·
J...... I '
k ( t. ~ where F. Z 1• and Z 2 arc t he functions give n in (3) and S re prese nt s the appropriate
limils on r and 0 needed to describe th e plane region R in po lar coordinaws (as
FIGUR E 14.7.1 The limits on rln
a triple integral in cylindrical d iscu s~ed in Section 1-l..l). lhe limits on: are s imply th e :·coorclinal es (in te rms of
coordinates are determined by the r and 0) of a typical line segment joining the lower and upper bo und:try surfaces
lower and upper surfaces. ofT, a s indicated in Fig. 1-U.I.
Thus the general formula for triple int egmtinn in cylindricnl coordinates is
.
/JJ( f< x. y.; )tiV =jr ff
J1,,
flrw~o . ninO. :.J rdz tlrtiO. (S)
wh~re_ U is not a region in xyz:space, but - as in Sec tion 14.4-a representation

of lmuts o n z. r. a nd o_ appropnate to describe the spact: n:gion T in cylind rical
coordmates. Defore we mtegrate. we must replace the variables x and,. \\; th rcos li
and r sin O, respectively. but z is left unchanged. 'll1C cylindrical-eoordi~a tcs volume
eleme nt
dV = rd:drt/0
,
may be regarded inform~lly as the produc t of d z and t he polar-coordinates ;~rca
e lement tfA = r tlr t/0. It IS a consequence of th e formula 6 I' = i' 6 z 6r 6 0 for the
vo lume of lhe cylindrical block sh own in Fig. 14.7.2 .
_l ntegra~ ion in_cylindrical c~ordinates is p artic ularly useful for com putations
FIGURE 14.7.2 Th~ volume of the
cylindrical block is A V = a_ssoc1ated with .solids of revolution. So tha t the limits of integration will be 1~c
16Z6f 6 11. s1mplest, the sohd should usually be placed so that the :1xis of revolu tion is the :-aXIS.
l'l:~r~ :,oo in Cy' nd·•ul •nd Spi'>(>rkal COO<d"'Jt~1 SKTIO~ 14 .7 989
" EXAMPLE 1 fi 11d 1h~ d~d
tw th. , • , - c:e_ntro1 J of the firlt-{)Ct.mt rortro n T of the rolaJ ball t>oun -
. . c . phcrc ,. - •. -a· Th ld T . ~'
• - . c so I 3p~3l'~'" fit:. P .l ..•.
· · Solut ion l..,_p 0 1 ! - 1 •
-...,· ••· _,. . _ "- ' umc 0 the fir11 octant of the solrd t>.lll is \' = ~ · j;rtl~ = . :to'.
11CColU\C t = \-- •~ b
} S}rnmct~. v.c need calcullle o n ly
- ... ..,.
--.
I
1 -.
1
-~ =: \- iff ~ 1
d \' = :-;
..Q
6
{·: {• {-~ :r tf: ertl-l
J~ }:, })
• I -....._
' :- · 0 6 1''=[!-r ca .
-- :-; .
· - r' ) c!rd-'1
.. o I) ) ~
IJGU'"! u 7.3 The r.n: cxu-,: of

N ...~ (t,•-nple 1)
= -3 l 1..,[ 1 !
-ar --r
:
1 " ••
j '
_\ -~ a • _,~~.:
d-l=-·- ·-=-.
•
:r a o 2 J , ..,o - a' .,-
.... J ~
Thu' the ccntrotd i' loc., tctJ a t the poiot (~a. ~a. ~ 0 ). O~cr..-e th~t the :m<wcr is both
plau\Jhlc and drrn.:n\ ronall y co nce1. +
EXAMPLE 2 find the ' otumc 3nd ~ntrotd of the ~olrd T th;u i.s bounded hy the
.. parnl>oloid: = b(o 1 .._ 1

.•· 1 (h > 0) and the plane:=: h (It> 0)
: Solution figu re ! ~.7.-l ma ~ c1 11 ckar tha t "' <' 11 ca the raJtu< of the circubr lop of
\
I Thy l'quat in g : = l >( r : ~ y:) = ,,: nnd: c h. llu< ~1\cs u = , l hj t> for the radius of
the circle mer v.hich the "lliJ he<. lienee Eq (-1). v.ith fCr. v.~) a l .t!i\•cs the
:•..r---.. I "Oiumc:
I'= JJJ, J \' = 1:_'[ [•, r d:tlrdflo: 1:'[ (h r - br J) tlrdO
1
= 2.~ ( -l ha·. - -I ba •) = :r
- h = ~I :ra'h
,
2 -1 2b 2
IIGUH 14.7.4 The p.>rJboloid ol
l'-11'pl~ 2.
(because a'
= h/1>).
By symmetry. the centroid of T lies on the :·a~i'- so all tha t remain• is to
compute :::
:::: 2_
V
JJJ r
:t/V::.....;.. { :,.
;'ta"'lr l o l o , ,:
f"J.•
r z d;:.drdO
2
= - ,- 1,~']," ( -1 IJ·r-
:ra·h o o 2
' - b'r)
2
l .) drdO
= - -1,- ( -I h·a·
, • - -I b·a
, 6 ) =: -h.
2
a· h -1 12 3
ag ain usin !,! the fact that a: = ?Jb. 'Blerefo:e the centroid ~r Tis located at the point
(0. 0 . j h) . A gain. this answer as both plausablc and dtmensaonally correct. +
IIC.URE 14.7.5 Volume and \Ve can sununarizc the r<:$uhs of Exomplc 2 as fo llows: The volume of a right
'""!Ioid of a right cirwlar circular paraboloid is half that of the circumscribed cylinde r (fig. 14.7.5). and its
~>araboloid in terms olthe centroid lies on its axis of S}mmetry two-tlurds of the way from the "vertex" at
""'-""'SCribed cylinder. (O. 0. 0) 10 its circular "base" at the top.
Spherical Coordinate Integrals . . .

WI en the boundMy surfaces of the regaon T of antcgrataon are spheres. cones. or
ot~cr surfaces \\i lh simple d escriptions in spherical coor~inatcs.
it is generally advan-
tageo us 10 transform a triple integral overT mto_ sphcncal.coordinatcs. Recall from
Section 12.8 that the relationship between sphcncal coordmates (p, ¢, O) (shown in
Fig_ 14.7.6) and rectangular coordinates (x. y. z) is given by

.r =p sin ¢cos e. y = p sin¢ sin 0 . : =p cos 1/). (6)
P(:q, : )
Suppose. for example. that T is the spherical block determined by the simple
inequalities
Pl ~ P ~ P2 = Pt +D.p.
ot ~¢~0:=¢1+6¢. (7)
'
As indicated bv the dimensions labeled in Fig. 1-1.7.7. this sphe ric:~! block is (if
6p. 6¢. and ~;. are small) appro.rimmely a rectangular bf~c k with dimensions 6p,
FIGURE 14.7.6 The spherical
coordinat~s ( ll. c. 0 ) of the
P1 6¢. and P: sin ¢2 MJ. Thus its volume is :~pproximately Pi sin 0: 6p 6o 6 0. It can
point P. be shown (see Problem 19 of Section 1-I.R) thJt the exact vol um e oft he spherical block
described in (7) is (8)
6 \' = p2 sin¢ 6 p AI/J 611
for certain numbers p and¢ such that !'I z l. [Ot· ~z l . :1nd (Ot.I1JI
into 11 subin terv:~ls of kngths
P: - 1'1
6p = .
II
respectively. This producc:s :1 spherical partition P of th~ sphe rical block T into k = nl
sm:~ llc r spherical blocks T1 • Tz. .... T,; sec Fig. l-1.7.R. By Eq. (R). thcrc exists a point
(p,. J,,. t), ) of the spherical block T. suc h th:l t its volume is 6 \', = tV sin¢, Ap A¢ 60.
l11c n orm !P i of P is the length of the longcst diagonal of any of the small spherical
blocks r •. r 2. .... r,.
If ex;_. y;. :;J are the rectangular coordina tes of th e point with spherical coordi-
nates (p,. ¢,. 0, ). then the definition of the triple integral as a limit of Riemann sums
as the norm iPI approaches zero gives
{{{ f(.r.y.z)dV lim ~ f(.r;.yj.z · ) 6V

= IPJ-
JJJ,. 0 L
•• t
I
1
t
= t#:~o L FCP1· ~•• ~~ >o?- sin¢, 6p 6o 60. (9)
i= l
T,
I
I
f'•1 4 8 ep $ln¢1 49
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
y
T
FIGURE 14.7.7 Tht volume ol the spherical blodc is FIGURE 14.7.8 The spherical block Td ivided Into
approximately pf m ¢ z tJ.p tJ.¢ tJ.'J. lc smaller spherical blocks.
d
v. he re
. F!p.¢.0) =/lp sinoc:os O.p sino~inll.p cos¢) 00)

I\ the result of su~tit . . . .
is 1imply a R ie· utmg Eq. (6) mto /C.r. ~. :. ). Dut the rittht·hJnd su:n tn Eq. (9)
mann sum for tne tnple integrll
1'"'J."'J.'"- F !p. o .e,p:sino dpd¢c!?.

It therefore follo·ws that"' "' P-
Jjj f (x.). :.) dV =[J.~J.'"'

1 +: ..
F (p.¢.e)p: sin¢dDd¢dfl.
~
( II)
l hus we t ransform the integral
iff
T
/ (X.) .; )d \ '
~n:~t~~her~cal coord~nates by rcplJring th e rtttln!(ubr<oordi!Uic ' ariablcs .r. y . and

'- thea r cx:pre\~aons an Eq. {li) in terms of tile srhcn.:.tl<omdan~tc ,·ariabks p .
¢,and 0. In addataon. we v.rite
dV >=,.,sin¢ dp c!¢ d:l
for the volume clement in ~phcric~J coordan3tc'l

More gcncr~ll)'. we can trJ nsform the trirle integ ral
Iff
T
/ (:t.).:.) d \'
into spherical coordinates whenever the region Tis « ntrally dmpfe.-tha t is, whe n·
eve r it has a spherical·coordinatcs description of the form
Pa(¢ , 0) ~ ¢ ~ Pl(¢ . 0 ).
(12)
If so, the n
(13)
J
The limits on pin Eq. ( 13) arc simply the p-coordinatcs (in terms of¢ and O)
o f the end points of a typical radial segment that joins the '·inner" and "oute r" pa.rts
fiCURE 14.7.9 A centrally simple o f the bounda ry ofT (Fig. 1 ~.7.9). Thus the general formula for triple integration In
rtgion. spherical coordinates is
JJJ, f (x . y . : )ti l' = jj!,. f l p sin 4> cosO. P sin<t> sin 0 . fl cos¢) p 2 sin ¢ d p dt/>dl9,
(14)
where. as before, U does not denote a region in .xyz·space but rather indicates limits
on p, ¢, and 9 appropriate to describe the region Tin spherical coordinates.
EXAMPLE 3 A solid ball r_with co~stant demity ~is bounded.by the spherical
surface with equation p =a. Usc sphen~al coordtnates to compute Its volume v and
its moment of inertia I, around the z·aXIS.
Solution The points of the ball T are described by the inequalities

O ~ p ;a a. O ;a ¢ ;a :r. 0 ~9::i 2.-r.
L
992 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integ rals
We take 1 = F "" 1 in Eq. (II) and there by obtain
V = JJJ. T
dV = 1"1o•~o•l' p2sin ¢ dpd¢>d0
= ~al rb ('sin¢ d¢d0

-' lo lo
1.:r 2 1~.. 4
= ~ 0 3 f [ -cos¢J ·• dO = ;;a 3 dO = );raJ.
3 lo <>=0 -' o
The d is ta nce fro m the typical point (p . ¢ . 0 ) of the sphe ~c _tO the z-axis is
r = p s in¢ , so th e moment of inertia of the sph.:rc arou nd that ax1s ts
1, = JJJ, r 2 J t!V = fo::.'1'[ 3

Jp•sin ¢ dpd¢d0
= ~ 00 5 f z.• r sin 3 ¢ d t/> dO

5 lo lo
2
= -:rlia
5
5 1' 0
s in 3 ¢ dtJ>= -2 :rlia 5 · 2 · -2 = -2 ma·' .
5 3 5
where m = jrra38 is the mass o f the ha ll. ( In e v::J !uating the final integral, we used
symme try and Fo rmul a ( I 13) ins ide the back cover.) 'l11e a ns we r is dimensionally
correct because it is the prod uct of mass and the square of a dist a ncc . 'l11e a nswer
i~ plausible bec:llJsc it impl ies th at. for purposes or ro ta tio nal inert ia. the sphe re
acts as if its mass were concen trate d about 63% o f the way fro m the axis to the
equator. +
r
: ~
I )
EXAMPLE 4 Find th e volume and centroid of the uniform " ice -crc am cone" C that
=
is hounded hy the cone t/> rr / 6 and the sp he re p = 2n cos </J of radius a . ll1c sphere
and the part of the cone within it arc shown in Fig. 14.7. 10.
- - - -: - . K --.:
Solution ll1c icc-crea m cone is described by the ine qualities
f-!-:i.., 0 ~ 0 ~ 2rr,
I
O ~ p ~2iiCOS¢ .
\ i / Using Eq. (13) to compute its volume, we get
: /
\ \
' I ' z- ,.,6r2a c"""'
l1
~
V = o o lo p2sin,P dpd,Pd(}
FIGURE 14.7.10 The Ice-cream

cone of Example 4 is the part of
the cone that lies within the
16
= -3:ra
3[--cos4 lat -t
~o t at t 11c mass or c is
Y = 0. \\1c may a lso =
volume. Because z = p cos 1/J th . d" · , numen· cn II y 1h e same as· 1"ts·
' e z-coor mate of the centroid of cis
z= ..!.Jrf{ Z tfV = ~ ( ' ('16 { 2acos<t> J
V Jjc 7rra3 } 0 j 0 j0 P cos t~~ sin ¢ dpdt/JdO
48a 11... r'6

= 7rr
0
Jo0 cos t/1 si n q, <idr.c..l •nd S~.al Coord Nt~ SECT10'l 1" .7 993

14 ·7 CONCEPTS: QUESTIONS AND DISCUSS IO N
l. Gt'e e \am ple~ o f tnrle mte~:,nl< th~t arc nH)<l c;l<il~ C"31U;lttd u sing
( a l C) hndrical rJthcr than rcc13.ncul;u or ~;-hcri;.1l coNJinJtcs: (b l sphc n cJ I
rather th.ln rectan!!ubr o r C\ hndn.:.1l coord:nJt~
2• D e\Crihc a tr iple intctr.llthJt ml>St c.l<th C\:llu:He 1-y u<in~ C)' lin·
\ OU C3Il
dncal coordma te\ 30.j intcgnt;m: first "llh r.:<pc~tto ,, , Then C\' 3htatc it .
3. l)c\Cribc :ttriplc: tntcgralthJt , 00-on m l><t c~th ~'.1IU3lc t-y u <in!! spheric:tl
coordinat es and mtcgratin~t fi~t ,.1 th rc-<pcctt~ eo. Then C:' JIU3lC it.
14.7 PROB LEM S

Soh t ru>Mtm\ I tlrrowgh 20 /)\ lllplr lllftJ.:IO(W fl •n C)/tn.lriCDI 1~. ltnJ the • <>lumt' 1•f the rc~"'" 1:-\)unJ~J t-.:1,,.,. b~· the
(('tJrduuHt.t Auttmr thrm,g lm 111 that t'tl( lt \o{u/ hnr llnlt tlf'IJHI)' ruat"&''-"" ; = , : "1'- ,...: JnJ :t~l\( t'-\ lhC' rbnt : - :..r
~'1t[t1\ onmhrr tlnnil )1 ·""'r tio r1 h 1prt ijtt•tl (It~ H 1.1: 1
J. finJ the \ OJume l'f thc ">JnJl'l<lllndcd nl'I<IVe h)• the rJ•ne
: ss -' and hdow h)• I he p.u :lhHiuid :. -- , : .
!. find Ihe: rc nu uul nr ch~ Mllu.l of Pr t~hlcm 1.
.l. Ocrh·e the furmul;• f111 the ' "lumc n f ~sphere uf uu.hu• a .
.a. find the momcnl nf inc fl in nruund Ihe :-:t (is nf lhc ~ol1d
;pherc nf l' rohle m 3 t:ilcn th:tllhc :·a ~is f'3"<~ 1h11>u~:,h 111 :•
«ntcr.
$. ~ind the \'Uiurnc n flhc re1:ion I h:ll lir< in, i<k t~>th the sphere
,: .,. .1·1 + ~~ ~ .I and I he cyhndc r • ' ~ y' • I.
FIGUR E 14 7. 12 The pl.>""
6. find the com mit! nf the hall' uf the tq:iun uf l'rohkm 5th31
•nd JUr•bolood ol Prol*m 14.
lies on or •huvc: l~e x ,l'· pl.mc.
7. n nd the lll:tS<o f the cylinder () :;j r :i II, 0 :i : :i h if it< dcruity
IS. find lhe •olumc of lhe r<f:l<>n bounded ahovc by lhc spher·
at (t. y. ~~ i~ ~. ical surfncc •' + >' + :' ., 2 and hclow by the pmrabolo id
II. 11nd the ,·c nt n>id of the cylinder uf l'roh lc m 7. : .. x1 +>'(Fig. IV.13)
9. fint.l the mnmcnt of merti~ around I he :·a\1<of the C) Iinder
or r roblcm 7.
10. Find 1he \ Oiumc o f the region 1hnt lie~ insick rolh 1he
1
1phcre •' + y' + :' = 4 and the cylinder x + 2.r 0 r- =
(fig. 1~.7.11 ).
FIGURE 14.7.13 The

sphere and paraboloid
of Problem 15.
16. ,, homogeneous solid cylinder ha• moss m a nd radius a .

FIGURE 14.7.11 The sphere and Show that its moment of incrti3 around its axis of symme·
cylinder of Problem 10. try i<j ma1 .
17. find 1hc momenl o f inen ia I of a homogeneo us solid righ t
II. find the volume a nd centroid o f the region bo~ndcd b)• the circubr cylinder around a d1ameter of its base. E~press 1
plane l = 0 and the p:traboloid : 9- = y• · x' - in terms of the rndius a. the height h , and lhe (constan t)
12. fi · ~-- 011 dcd b)•tho density 6 of the cylinder.
tnd the volume a nd cen troid of the rcgto n '"'
paraboloids l =x' =
+ y' and : 12 - 2r' - z.r'. 18. Find the \centroid or Q homoge neous solid right circul ar
ll. Fi111d Ihc volume of the rcgton
. bounue .• d b y the p:trabolo
' ids (')'Iinder of r•dius a and height h .
1 1 1
"'0 + y1 and : = 12-x1 -2Y •
!
'
19. Find the volume o f the region bounded by the pl a ne z=I 36. Fin d t h e mOm e nt of inertia a ro und a d iameter of the
• aseous spherica l star of Prob lem 35.
and the cone ~ = r. g h .
_ (a ) Use spherical coord inates to evalua te t e mtcgral
20. Show tha t the centroid of a homogeneous solid right circu- 37
lar cone lies on its axis three-quarte rs of the way from its
vertex to its base. J!~ 3
cxp(-p ) dV
Solv~ Prol>lmr.s 21 rlrroug!r 30 by rriplc int(grnrion in splraical

where 8 is the solid ba ll o f radius a centered at the origin.
cuordilwu·.~
(b) Let a_ 00 in the result of part (a) to show that
21. Find the centro id of a homogeneous solid hemisphere of
radius a.
22. Find the mass and centroid of the solid hemisphere x= +
y 2 + ~~ :; a 1, ~ ?; ()if its densi ty lJ is p roportio nal to distance
1:1:1: ex p (-(xz +/ + :
2 12
l ) d .t d y dz = jrr.
z from its ba se-so lJ = k: (whe re k i~ a po<iti,•e constant). JS. Usc the method of Pro bkm 37 to s how th a t
1"' 1"' 1"' + i + ~2)11~

23. Solve Proble m 19 by triple integration in spherica l co-
(x2
ordinates. ~ -re -01.:)
24. Solve Problem 20 by triple integration in spherical co- x exp(-x:- y 2 - z 2 )dxdy d z =2:r.
ordinates.
25. Find the volume a nd centroid of the uniform sol id tha t lies 39. Fi nd the average distance of poi n ts of a solid ball of radius
inside the s phere p = 11 and nhove rhe cone r = :. a fwm rhe ccn~cr o f the ball. (The definiti o n o f the average
va lue of a function p recedes Pro b le m 47 in Section 14.6.)
26. Find the momen t of inertia I, of the ' o liu of Problem 25.
40. Find the average distance of the points of a solid ball of
27. Find the mome nt of inertia a round :r tangen t line of a solid
homoge neous sphere of radiu~ n nnd tota l mass m. radius a from a tixed bo undary point of the ball .
2ij. A sphe rical shell of m ass m is bounded by the spheres p = a Problems 4/t~nd 42 provide resulrs chat are needed in the Section
and p = 2a, and its density function is 8 = p:. Find its mo- 14.5 pro jeer.
m ent of ine rtia around a diameter.
~I. A sphericJI she ll of radius a a nd negligible thickness has
29. Describe the >urfacc p = 2a sin¢ and compute the vo lume a rea density 6, so its mass ism = 4:r oa 2• Show that its mo-
of the region it bounds. ment of ine rtia about an axis of symmetry is /o ~ma 2 • =
30. Describe the surfacer> = I +cos<!> and compute the vo lume 42. A spherical shell has inner radius a , outer radius b, and uni·
of the region it bounds. Figure 14.7.14 may be use ful. fo rm density~ . Show that its m o me n t o f ine rt ia about an
axis of symme try is / 0 = ~m c2 , where m is the m ass of the
shell a nd
2 b5 - li S
c = b3 - a l '
43. A ho le of radius a < b is bored symmetric ally thro ugh the

center of a solid sphere of radius b and unifo rm density !J.
0 leaving a "ring" of mass m . Sho w th a t th e m o ment of inertia
o f this ring ahout its a xis of symmetry is fo = (3nl + 2b2 ).!,
p= I + coso
~- TI1c three cylinders .r + ,,.z = 1. x2 + ~~ = 1. and yl + z2 = 1
1
mtcl'scct as rl!ustratcd in Fig. l4 .7.15(a); Fig. l4.7.15(b)

FIGURE 14.7.14 The surface shows a .vte w dtrcctly from abo vc,looking downward a long
ol Problem 30. the ~-axrs. Find the volume of the regio n that lies within a ll
three cyhnders.
Jl. Find the moment of inertia around the x-axis o f the region
that lies inside both the cylinde r r =a and the sphere p = 2a.
32. Find the mome nt of inertia around the z-axis of the ice-
cream cone of Example 4.
33. Find the mass and centroid of the ice-cream cone of Exam-
ple 4 if its density at (x. y, z) is &(x, y.z) = z.
34. Find the moment of inertia o f the ice-cream cone of Prob-
lem 33 around the t-axis.
35. Suppose that a gaseous spherical star of radius a has density
function 6 = k(l - p 2fa 2), so its density varies from 6 = k
=
at its center to 6 0 at its boundary p = a. Show that its
mass is j that of a similar star with uniform density k. ~lGURE 14.7.1S(a) The three
t Intersecting cylinders of Problem 44.
... 14 995
lntegr4\ion in Cyi.nd'rical and Spherial Coordr.JU1 SECflO'I .7
. ; .,. •Hit
.-,;.;_--
- ..
_ _ . . __,-•
...
_'·IOIH-111!
· P4lllhl
... ,..............
;, ~:;~
,. . . ,.
.. 4
I
--~~.__
..
t·la-
f":':'J·.· . .~·-·s;.·lr.._!
~- ·
- _ _
.. -
_
· · - ....... ..
•''ti•:rtr·• ,..,," ··,·

.. , U.O«lW ....'-a.; I L. •·
.
....
,,~~"1.1;;
. ...
• 1 ~"'
~·······
r · .
•
.
,,
~·
j(
'1'1
FIGURE 14.7. 1 S(b) The view lo<>>jng

down from a point high on the z-a~il.
J~. figure 14.7.16 shows the bumry sph e re with spherkal· FIGURE 1.&. 7. 17 ~ syltt!m of Problem 47 .
r,
coordinates cqu~tion f' = + 3 cos )I) sin .S¢. U..: a co m -
puter olgehra system 10 fi nd the volume or the reg•on
enclosed by thi~ humpy •ph ere. Then ~"' d · · n : fl(" ' in¢ll\" ~nd "('0'\0 + p cru. ~-"t =c-.
( Why')]
-IS.. Con\IJc r no"' the •f'her"'3lshella :; r ;:: 1- "''th unifo rm den ·
suy 6 Shu.. tha t this 'hdl c"rts nn net f<n~·· o n a poi nt
n•a" .., l,<,.ted ot rhe f"ll~t (0, 0. c) tnritlr it- that i"- "ith
tel ~ " '!he computo!Jon .. 111 l"C the s.me a< in Pro hle m47
e xcept fur the hmlt\ o f mtc:gr .Hion on ft nnt.J ....
~9. If the eart h "<I< pcrkc ll) •phcncal " tth r3drus R =
6J70 km. w ufurm d-c n\lt~ &••lnd m.lS\ M :::::: t'T t5H'. then
(:~ecor ding to Enmplc Jj rt< rr.omcn t of tne!ll.l ohout it s
polar.,;, " o uld be I a j.\IR'. In actuality. ho weve r, m ea·
SUf(nlent.s from 'lltclhtc'S sndu::Jtc: th3t
1 ., 1.\fR' (IS)
riGURE 14.7.16 The bumpy sphere

ot Problem 45.
where l ::.. 0.371 < i·
The reason h that. instead o r having
n uniform interior. • m o re reali>tic model of the earth has
a den•c core co,·crc\1 " ith a hgb tcr mnntlc n kw thous and
-16. The bumpy sphere of Fig. 14.7.16 lookssomcwhat symmet · kilometers thick ( Fig. 1~ .7. 1 S). The density o r the co re is
rie11l. hits centroid nctually nt the origin? 6 1 ::. 11 x 101 ksfm' and that o f the mJntlc is~, ::. 5" 10·'
1
k:glm . (3) \\l th this co re-mantle modo!. calculate the mass
A rr11dtrl discov<r)' of Nr,.·toll (J>rol'rd i11 h is Principin M•the· M of the earth and its polar moment <>f inertia 1 (using
rn:nicn}h 'lZ.t the fact that tlrr ~:ravitnrimtalllrtractinn of a uniform Problem ~2) in terms o r the unknown radtus X o r the spher-
rolid sphrrr (mclr a.< all itlrali~c·d plmw) is rhr samr tu rhouglr all ical core. (b) Subst itute yuur calculated values or M and 1
0/ tl:( mau CJ/ tltt planet were COIICttrtratttl elf its centt>r. Problt:"u
in Eq. ( 15) and usc a computer algebra system to solve the
l1 and 48 il<'al •·ith this mu/11 rr/m,•d faa resulting equation for x.
tl, Consider a homogeneous spherical hall of radius a cen·
tered at the o rigin. with density ~ a nd mass M = j•al~ .
Show tllat the gravitational force F c~crtcd by this ball on
a point mass m located at the point (ll. 0. t). where r > a
(Fig. 14. 7.17), is the.: s;unc as tho ugh nil the mlss of the ball
were concentrated at its center (0, 0. 0). That is. show that
IF! = CMmf c 1 • [Suggestion: Oy symmetry you may _assume
that the fo rce is vertical. so that..-= f~ k. Set up the rntegral
F, = -1L'1•1'
0 o o
Gm &
w·
~osa Pl sin¢ dt/J dpdiJ.
Change the first variable of integratio n from¢ to ... by using
the law of cosines:
FIGURE 14.7.18 The core and mantle
w2"' P2 + c2- 2pccos ¢ . of the earth.
14 • 8 us~U~R~F~A~CE~A~RE~A~------------------~--~~~~~::::~
.
Until now our concept of a sur
f •
h
, r~r'll • _ j(x. v) of a function of two
h c g •• ,, ·. .
rt"ace defined imphc1tly by an equation
JCc
. h:l~ b~en
•
t ~
·
variables. O ccasiOn:\ II y we h:tve see n sue a su
. 1 •oduc..: the more prcc1sc
· concept of a
Kow we wJn Lto m r .
= ·' .
of the form F (x . ~· . : ) 0 .
n•Jonuc of 3 par:~mctnc curve.
. s11r.r.ace-t hc 1,,.0 ·cllnlcns1onJ 1 a u e
parametric 1
.,,,..
R
,.
• .r
FIGURE 14.8.2 Th e paramelllc
FIGURE 14.8. 1 The uv-reglon Ron
~u rf.,c <' ~ on .ryL-space.
\.vhich th~ tra.,\form ation r as dehned.
·
A p:tr:tml'lnc
S IS
. 1hc• ima"C:
f
Mlf :tn~ •'
of •'I functi on or transformation
.
f that
is ddincd on a region R in the: ut··planc (Fig. 1-l.S. I) andhas val~cs ~n xy:·space

(Fig. 14.8.2). The ima~:c umk r r of ~ach point (11 , t•) in R IS tho.: pmnt 111 xy:-space
with posi tion vector
r (tt. v) = (x(tt. t:), y(u. 1•). ;:(u. c) ) . ( I)
111c par:~ metric surface S is c:~llcd ~muot h provided that the component func·
9
tions of r h:1ve con tinuous partial dc:rivati\'t.:S with re spect to " and v and. moreover.
the vectors
or ax . iJy . iJ;: ' (2)
R
r. = :;-
ull
= (x • . y •• :.) = :;- ' + :;-J + :;-k
utl vii uu
and
or ax . (h· . a:
r. = :;- = (x • • y • • ;:.) = :;-•+ ~J + :;- k (3)
vV v ii oil 0 11
:~rc nonzero and nonparallel at each interior point of R. (Compare this with the
FIGURE 14.8.3 A rectangle in the
rO-pl6ne; the domain of the
definition of smooth parametric curve r(r) in Sectio n 10.-1.} We ca ll the variables 11
=
function z g(r, 0) of Example 1. and v the parameters for th e surface S. in analogy with the single pam meter r for a
parametric curve.
EXAMPLE 1 (a) Wcmayrcgardthegraph;: = f (x.y)ofafunctionasnparnmetric

surface with parameters x andy. In this case the transformation r from the xy-plane
to xyz-space has the component functions
.T =x. )' = )' . z. = f(x. y) . (.S)
(b) Similarly. we may regard a surface given in n·lindrical coordinates bv the graph
of z = g(r. 0) as a parametric surface with paran;eters rand 0. The transformation r
I l I I 1
from the rO-plane (Fig. 14.8.3) to xy~·spacc (Fig. 14.8.4) is then given b)'
' 1 I t I
~\
x =r cosO. y=rsin O. ~=g (r. O) .
(r COl f, r t in 8, 0) (c) We may regard a surface given in spherical coordinates bv p = lt(c/J. 8) as a parn·
metric surface with par:~m~ tc rs (/1 a~d 0 , and the corrcspondi~g transformation from
F1CURE 14.8.4 A cylindrical· the ¢0-planc to .tyz·space IS then gtven by
coordinates surface in .ryz-space
(Ex•mple 1). x = li(c/J.O)sin¢ cos0, y = h(c/J.O)si nd> sin O. : =IJ(c/>.O)co5¢ . (6)
Surface Arra SECTION 14 ·8 997
l'hc conl.'.c pt o f a r ar:unetric surfal.'e lets us trent :til these spcci:tl cnscs. nnc.l mun!
Others. wnh the same techniques.
Surface Area o f Pa ram etric Surfaces

~ '~C
011
111 ~'·:un tn define the .•urftrcc area uf the !!Cneral smooth paramet ric s~rfacc
~"en Eq ( I). \\'c hegin 11 ith an inner partition of the rcginn R- the d nrn:un of r
tnthc "''·plane- intn rcctaneks R 1, R 2• • • •• R • . c:1ch with dimen\inn~
Au and At•.
Let (II,, t•, l be the lcl\\cr lch~h.1nd corner c>f R, (as in Fig. l.t.R.5). The image of .s.
R , Undn r will not generally he a rcctanele in .ry:-space; it w1ll Junk m ore like 11
Cllll' lilnc•t rr /l.~ltrr on the ima!!c surfaceS. ~·ith r (,., u,) n\ one " ••crtcx" (Fig. 14.1!.6).
l.ct .:'.S, dcnntc the area nf thi s cu rvilinear figu re S,.
lhc parame tric cu.-·q r (11, 1·, ) and r( 111 , t•)-with parameters u and t',
rc.-sp,•ct ivcly- lic o n thc surfaceS and mee t :tt the point r( tt , 1•, ). At th i, po int of
FlGUlU H S.S The rt(t~l\g'e R, ~ntcrsccti~n.
111 Fig. l·l.l:l.7. 11cnce their vector product
1
these two curves have the tange nt vectors r. (11, . v,) and r . (tt , . t•. l shown
n~wplant.
(7)
is a vc.-ctor no rmal to S nt the !'oint r (11, . v, ).
Now suppose that both llu and Av are small. 'llten the area AS, of the c urvi·
linear fi gureS, should he approximately equal to the area A r, of the pnrallo: logrnm
" ith ndjacent sides r . (11,, v,) Au and r ,.(ll, , v,) AI' (Fig. 14.8./l). But the area o f this
para ll elogram is
AP, =Jr. (11, , 111 ) ll11 x r ,(u, . v,) A v J =IN(u,, t',) l Att A11.
This me am that the nrc:1tr(S) of the surface S should be given approximately by
• •
a(S) = LAS, :o:: L Ar,.
;.t i• J
so
•
a (S) :o:: L JN (u, , 111 )1 Au A t·.
••I
n ut this last sum iJ 3 Riemann sum for the double integral
JJ II
JN (U,I' )Jdutlt•.
" · • .1 . ' . .. ,
/•
1
FIGUil 14 1.7 n,._. vt"<lOf N norm.at

to t~ wrloK~ • t ~ u,. •· ) r tGUIU 14 I 8 Tht. .ue• o1 t~
p.lrol~loqr•m P, I\ .,, • PP<o••m.it<On
to t~ "'~• ol 1M cuMic~., I"JW~ s,
998 CHAPTER 14 Multip!e Integrals
.r. h urfat'e a reu A of the smooth parametric

We are there fo re moti,·ated to d~"llt' t e s
su rface S by
A =a(S) = J~ j;'\(u. v)lduch·= !~ 1 :~ X : : l dudv.

(8)
Surface Area in Rectangular Coordiniltcs . .

. for ( r 1· ) in the rccton R m the xy-plan c. the
In the ca~e o f the surface: = f < x · >) · • · . . • · (~)with p ara meters x a nd )'
.
componen t functtons o f r are ,0 11..
c
n bv,
the e q u:ltlo ns Ill
(in place of u and t·). Then
j
0
"
af iJf . af . •·
iir
iir
i' = - X-=
lh CJ,v
'·ar =--ax · - -a,·
il/ .
J + ....
0
ily
so Eq. (ll) takes th e specia l fo rm
(9)
EXAM PLE 2 Find the a rea o f th e e ll ipse cu t fro m the plane : =2x + 2y + I by th e
cylinder .r1 + y~ = I (Fig. 14.8.9).
Solution Jlc rc. R is the unit circle in the r.1 -p lane with area
if R
i d.rdy=:r .
so Eq. (9) gives the area of the ellipse to be
A= ij /I + zi + z; dx d y
R
=if R
J 1 +22 + 22 dxdy = if
R
3d.rdy=3:r. •
fiGURE 14.8.9 The cylinder and REMARK Compu ter-generated figures such a s Fig. 14.S.9 could not be construct~d
plane of ExJmple 2. easily witho ut using parametric surfa ces. For e xample. the 1·enical C)•linder m
Fig. )4.8.9 was generated by instructing the co mputer to plot the p ara metric sur-
face d efined on the rO-rectangle - 5 ~ : ~ 5. 0 ~ 0 ~ 2.7 by
r (:. 0) = (cos O. sin 0. : ).
Is it clear that the image of this transformati on is th e cyEnder x2 + y z = 1. -5 ~ : &5?
Surface Area in Cylindrical Coordiniltes

Now consider a cylindrical-coordinates surface:= g(r, 0) parametrized by the cqua·
lions in (5) for (r. 0) in a region R of the r O-plane. TI1en the normal vector is
j k
ar ar a~
cosO s in O
N=-
i}r
X-=
ao ar
-r sin8 rcoso a:
ao
a: . az
= I ( iJO smO - r ar cos 9
) -J ( iJO
ilz
cosO+ r aa·; sinO ) + rk.
--
Surbte A:u S£CT10N 1C.8 999
Aft er so me \imphfications. "' C find th.ll
......,. =\I,.. - ,.. (a:)=

ar - (a:)=
(! ·1 •
Then Eq. (I!) ~ields the formula
( 10)
for surface area in C) lindncal coordin.ltes.

FIGURE 14.8 .1 0 ~hcp•rt ol l h•
3 Fi nd the ~urfac:e area cut from the rar:~roloid: = , : lw the C'}'lindc: r
1
f"''~!>oloid 1 • r on~t thfo
C)~ndcrr • I ((xdmplc ) ) 11th~ 'EXAMPLE
= I (Fig. 1~.1!. 10). .
umt ~s lhe p<~n ~nralh the
pi.IM I '" I. (Why?). Solution Equa1ion ( 10) gi ' e1 area
A =1'1' J
1
1
r - ,: (u): d r d tl =!.T 1' r / 1 .+. -lr 1 tlr
•
In Exampl e .1. ) OU -. otold getl he •~me re•uh if ) OU fir<t ""'I<'~ ...r z + y: . used
Eq. (9). which j!i \'cs
and then changed to polar coordinates. In E.~.1mple .; it -. ould 1>c le\s convenient to
hegin "'ilh rectangular coordina tes.
FIGURE 1-4.8 .11 The spiral r3mp
oiE.umple 4 . EXAMPLE 4 Find the arc.l of lhc spiral ramp := £1,0 ::; r S I, 0 S (l :i :r . Thi\ i~ the
upp<r surface o f the solid sho\\n in Fig. 1-I.S.Il.
Solu tion Equation ( 10) gi"cs arc.1
A=
1'1' 0
-
V r1 +1drdll = :.:_ [, f2 + ln ( l+,f2)]:::: J .6051),
2
We avoided a trigonometric substilution by using the: table of integrals imide th e
back cover. •
IICURE 14.8.12 The torus of EXAMPLE S Find the surface area of the torus gcnc:r.1tcd by revolving the circle
uampte s.
1
{.t - b) + :z =a 2 (0 <a <b)
in the x:·plane around the :-axis (Fig. 14.8. 12).
Solutio n With t he ordinary p<>lar coordinate 0 and the angl<' 0:• or Fif:1. l -1.8. 13, the:
torus is described for 0 ~ 0 ~ 2.~ and 0 ~ 1/1 ~ 2:r by the: parametric equn tions
x =rcosO=(b+acos~)cosO,
y = r sinO = (b +a cos ¢) sinO,
:= asin~.
When we compute N = ri x r ,. and simplify, we find that

~RE 14.8,13 The cirde that
•tts ~torus of lxample S. INI = a(b+ acos¢).
1 000 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integra ls
l-Ie nee the ge n eral s urface -a r ea formula. Eq. (8), g ives area
A= 1 ·•12.. a(b + a
2
cos 1/J ) dOd t;t = 2rr a [ hl/1 +a s in V'] :"= 4rr 2ab.
We ob tained t he same resu lt in Sectio n I-tS with the a id o f Pa ppus's firs t theorem .
•
14.8 CONCEPTS: QUESTIONS AND DISCUSS ION
J. Compare the c:~lcul a t ions o f t he surface nrc a of a sphe re using (a) r ectang u-
la r coo rdin:nes: (b) cylindrical co ord inat es; (c) spherical coo rdinates. (Sec
P roblem 18 of th is section.)
3
2. We kno w tha t the ,-ol ume of a soli d ball of rad ius r is \f(r) = 5:rr and
that the a re a o f its spherical su rface is S(r) =4:r r ~ . Is it a coincidence that
V' (r ) = S{ r )? llt ink abou t a t hin spherical shell a s "volume as product of
thickncs~ and a rea."
1 4.8 PROBLEMS
1. Find the area of the portion of the plane ~ = x + 3y that ~ = ~- A pply Eq . (8) to show tha t the area of this zone is
lies inside the elliptical cyl inder with equatio n A = 2~itl la .
.t•' , .•' 14. Consider th e meridional zone of heig ht lz = c -I> that lies
- + '-= 1. nn the sphere r 2 + : = = a 2 be tween t he p la nes ~ = band
4 9
~ =c. where n ;? h < c :=; a. Apply E q. ( 10) to show th:ll th e
2. Find the area of the region in the plane~ =I + 2.t + 2y th at area nf t hi~ 70nc is A =
2nah .
lies directly above the region in the .ry·planc bo unded by
15. Find the area of the part o f the cvlindcr x= + :2= al that
=
the parabolas y .r 2 and .r y~ . = lies with in the cylinder, : = .tl + ).2 = a 2.
3. l·i nd the area of the! part of the paraboloid z = 9- .t2 - 1,2
16. Find the area o r the pan o r th e sphere r 2 + : 2 = a= that lies
that lies above the plane z =5. ·
within the cylinder r = a sin 0 .
4. Find the area of t he part of the surface 2z = .t 1 that lies
17. (a) Apply Eq . (H) to show that th e su rface area of the sur-
directly abo,·c the triangle in the xy·pl:!ne with vertices at
(0. 0). ( I. 0). and ( I. I ).
~ac~ Y =
f(x. ~). for (x . ~) in the region R o( the .r: -plane.
IS g1vcn by
5. Find the area of the surface that is the graph of : = .r + v2
fo r 0 ~ x ::> I. 0 ~ y & 2.
6. Find the area of that part of the surf3c.: of Probkrn 5 that
·
t\ = !!• I + (:-il/)1
i!x + (i-ilz
!/)2 ..
d .t d ·
lies above the tria ngle in the .ry·plane with vertices at (0. 0).
(b) State and deriv.: a sim ilar formula for the ~rea of the
(0 , I ). and ( I. I) .
surfacer==/(,·
· - --·) for (·' ...· ) an 1 reg1.o n R o ft he yc·planc.
· ttc
7. rind by integratio n the area of the part of the plane
1!1. Suppo,;e that R i~ •a rcg1 . .- on ·an t1IC ¢0-planc. Conside r the
=
2x + 3y + ~ C. that lies in the first octant.
pa rt of the sphe re P = " that corresponds to(¢. &) in R.
8. Find the area of the ell ipse that is cu t from the plane pa r.l~lc t razed by the equations in (li) with II("- 0) - n A p·
2t + 3y + ~ = 6 by the cylinder x 2 + y2 = 2. plv• E<J·. (R) to 5how 11ta t the surface arc:1 or this '"· part
- of. the
9. Find the area that is cut from the saddk-shaped surface sphere 1s ·
=
z xy by the cylinder x + y
2 2
I.=
10. rind the area that is cut from the surface z = x 2 - yl by the
A = JJ k
n 2 sin ¢ d¢ d0.
cylinder x 2 + y 2 = 4.
19. (a) Consider the usphcrical rectangle " defined by
11. Find the surface area of the part of the paraboloid ~ =
16 - x 2 - y 2 that lies abo"e the xy-planc. P =a. ¢ , ~ :; ¢2 =¢a + t.¢ . O, ~0 ;;;_ 02 = 01 + D.B.
12. Show by integration that the surface area of the conical sur- Apply the formula of p ro'IIem · 18 and the average value
face z = br between the planes z = 0 and ~ = h = ab is
~;~;~;~~~ce ~rol:alern 50 in Sectio n 14.2) to show' ttwt the
given by A = rraL. where Lis the slant height )a1 + 112 • • ' • IS sp lcrac;al rectangle is A = a= sin ¢ A"' t;.l} (or
and a is the radius of the base or the cone. some <;> 1n (¢•· ~~,)
· · (b) C o nclude from the result in" part (a)
t hat I Iac voluntc 0 f tac
1 spherical block ddincd · by •
13. Lett he part of the cylinder x 2 + y 2 = tJ 1 between the planes
= =
z Oand z h beparametrizedbyx =a cos O, y =a sin O, Pa ~ P ~ Pl = P1 + Ap.
- 1001
_..,... I(,.; -r:) smcA¢.'.'' of rJ:~ f'Jf'! of tJo~ II" rn Jurf.Ja S t1::Jr /Ju ttf>t>• <' tl:r Jquart In thr
l\ ·rlantJ,1'ln.Jt>v(..tl-l < , ~ 1. -I ~ ' :; I. (h} ~r l + l \ l~ I.
f"C>l~•. den• ( E'l ("I c-1 ~CliO!! I ~ 7 t>~ arrl}1:1,.the mea:~
.~~c t~m to the !u!l,t><>n f(M = p' on the antcnol
~. s i< the r..tnl-o-.1.-..d : .. , : - ,:,
(1' · r:l 26. SIS the CO<Ie : = \ ': + .':.
:t. \Uib<c (' ~ :'..l)ln c- . Wh~ Ill\ called a rrnchrJ
()c;.-nl'<" the n. s "the h~f'C'"''·'•J : c t .... , , •
""''~ It u p3nmctnred •• an Eq (6) ,.tth h l¢.1'!., l8. Sis t~c St'herc ,: - ,: - := =.t.
~wn¢ ShOVo thlt II\ ~vbce •ru u
A = .1, : 0 : . Fig·
art p 1~ m1y be hclp!ul In ProNt,..1 ?9 thr"'•.t k J!. 0 r.;•.mrttri: a:wn nf.o quadnc-
surfac~ u ft\t''f L.:u ;,t(T*:zr..~ s:.,th "' ('t't': 1 • <tn~ r a I am i
('(J'\h: I - \1nh: 1 = 1 to ,.!r"rr1, rhru surf.J~.-~s h' mran' <,/ tl:~·

quadtr( cur 1x r ''1ua::tl"':f li.s:t'J 111 Sn.~fl•'l1 I! .... f~•r ' uwzl ((JF•
l(>."'cJr:t:t~ H"'U (Qr; J.f.Jt' tift' r.:,,l,.:t~trh· r:,)/ ('(l.,lr~,zruJ IIJ ~ ('tlltl•
pr1:rr a[~(a, ra J \ 1:rm tn r !1lt t'o:ch Hlf.f.h' t' ( l,•rth \t/frU.f rwmrr:ra/
'o !u,.-, ttf tlu nv1 "'lC"toHt ~ 1-• .J"l.f r t
:!'1. ~ = "w cos t. ' = bu s1n ' . : = ru:: 0~u
:ii I. 0 ~ I' ~ 2.~
JO.• .a. = a ,,n ., ('('1'\'. "• lts1nM "" ,.. :aero' 11: 0 S: u S tr.
f iGURE 14 8 .14 CuUw•y
0S o S 2.'!
~ ol th~ pirxhtd toru\
of Probl~m 20 Jl. ' "'""nh uc<>< r.va l"•nh o~n• . :=c~h11; OSu S l .
() d , :r ~·
!1. The surfJC"r O( fe\ Olutoon <lht~onn! "hen ,.e IC\O(ve the
ruf\e r = fl :l. a <: < h."""'""
the:: .• , ;, i• pa ramc trucJ J!. t
0~
••JCtt\h., C'C"JJ\t. "• bcCKhu sm r.: a t' Sinttu: - I S u ~ 1,
t:l te11!15ofP (0 S /l•' 1., hnJ: (.," : ~ /o) hp .. fl : l "'"' ''· I " L<t
=
!
formula ..'1.
f(: )sintl.: "' : . Fnun Eq (!() derive the ><ll!.tcc·urea .\3. An dhp,coiJ ,. ith <em'""' a. b. ~nd c b <lcfincd by Ihe
p.1 nmctn73tion
A =
1I •
f(:l/ 1 + (f'(:lF d:d(l,
This !ormub 3j:tccs \<ith the nren o r 3 surC.cc of rc.,.olution (0 ~ ¢ :S :t .ll ~

.: ::::rCMQ
0: 21) in term~ o f the angul.or spheric, I W·

as defined in Section 6.4 Ofllln:ue, ¢ :ond 1'. U<c 3 cnmputcr .Jigc bra sy,telll to a l>-
!! Arrly the !uamuln of PwNcm IS in i><lth p:m s of this prob- pru\ itnJtc (t<l lour·pbcc occur>~) the .... or the ellipsoid
lem. (a) \ 'c n fy the lonnub A =.~ , ,: flu the ~urbcc nrcn -..ith" = .1. b = 3. and c = 2.
of 3 sphere o! raJiu~ ''· (h) Find the area of th:lt pa rt o! • 34. ( 3) Gcneralit c E' ampk S to derhc the parametric equa.
srherc of nllius a nn,l C"Cntcr (tl. 0. 0 ) th•t lies inside the tions
cone o 11{6.= .• c: (l> +arosv)cosO . .' =lb ... ucosvH•n l:l, r=csint
:.l. Arrty the result •>f l'roblcm 21 to ¥c rify the formub A -=
~, rh lor the lateral surbcc nrcn of a r ight circular C) hndcr (0 :svs 2:r. (I :: :s
r 2.1) o r the "elli ptical h orus- ohta incd by
of fldius r anll hcig.ht h. rcvolvingowunll the :·>Xi' theclhp.c (~ - I• I' Ja' +~' J~ = 1
(,.here 0 <"< b)'" the •:·plane. (h) U><: a computer a l-
~ Ar;>l)' Eq (9) to • c rify the fo rmula A =
l :r rh for the Inter:~I :gchra ;ptcm to "I'JHO>JJnn tc (tn !our·pl:acc accu racy) the:
$Urf>cc :uca of the cylinder ,,I + :~ = r 1, 0 :) ~· S lo of mJ ius nrc a or the elliptical to rus uhl ~ lllcll." in p.UI (a) ,. ith a :: 2,
r 3nd height lo .
b "' 3. and c = I. (c ) AI><> •ppro>llnatc the perunctcr of the
I• f'rob/m u 1.5 through ZS. tiS<' a wmput~r n/gcl>ra Jy.<tt m fir.\1 Itt elli pse of part (II ). Arc yuur r<~ults consisten t with l'apptU's
Plot und thm ro appro,rimau ("·ith fm tr·p lact accuntry) tilt arra theorem fm the area o f a >urhcc of rc, olutton?
14.91CHANGE OF VARIABLES IN MULTIPLE INTEGRALS

We h ave seen in preceding sections t hat we _can ev_aluate certain multiple integrals by
iran sforming them from rectangula r coonhnates an to polar o r spherical coordinates.
The technique of changing coo rdinate systems to evaluate a multiple integral is the
multivariablc analogue of substitution in a single integral. Recall from Section 5.7
that if x = g(u ), t hen
t / (x ) dx= t / (g (u))g'(u)du, (1)

where a = g(c) and b = g(d ). l11e method of substitution involves a "change of vari-
ables .. that is tailored to the evaluation of a given integral.
I'' Suppose that we want to evaluate the double integral
I s jj F(x. y) dxdy.
R
I A change of mriables for this integral is dc: tcrmined by a continuously differentiable
transformation T from the ut··plane to the xy·plane- th at is. a function T that asso-
ciates with the point (u. t:) a point (x . y ) = T(u. t•) given by ..:quati ons of the form
x= j(u, L'), y =g(u. v). (2)

•
The poi nt (x . y) is called th e image of the point (u. !') unde r the transformati on T. If
no two different points in the ll l'· plan..: have the sa me image poi nt in the .ry·planc.
then the transformation Tis said to be onc·lfl·One. In this case it may be possibh:
to solve: the equations in (2 ) for 11 and t• in terms of .r and y a nd thu s obtain the
equations
II= /t(.r' )'). t•= k (x. y) (3)
of the im·cr~c tran<rurmatinn T - 1 from the xy· planc w the lll'· plane.
Often it i~ convenien t to visua lit.e the transformation T geometrica lly in terms
of its IH'IIriT .f and 1J·C11n·cs. The u -c urH' S ofT arc the images in th e .ry·plane of the
hurizunral lin.:s in tlu.: ll t:·planc- on c3ch such curve th..: val ue o f 11 varies but t' is
FIGURE 14.9.1 Th<'
transformation T turns the consta nt. 'J11e u·cunes ofT :H.: th..: imag..:~ of the ,·erriwl lin cs in the 11 v·plane-on
rectangle S into the curvilinear each of these. the \'alue of'' varies bul 11 i; consta nt. No te that the image unde r T of
figure R. a rectangle hounded hy horizontal and ,·cnica l lin c~ in the lll'·pl:l!le is a cun ·ifinear
fig liT<' bounded by u·curvcs and l' ·Curvcs in the xy-planc (f'ig. 14.9.1). If we know th e
equations in (3) of the: in\'ersc transformati on. then we can find the u-curvcs and the
u-cu rves quite simply by writing the equations
k (x, y) = c1 (u-curve on wh ich u = C1 is constant)
and
h(x.y)=C2 (v-cur\'e on which 11 = C 2 is constant).
E,XAM_PLE 1 D_~t7rminc_ the u-curvcs and the t··curves of the transformation T

"hose mvcrse T IS spectficd by the equa tions 11 = xy, L' = x2 _ y2.
Solution lbe u-curvcs arc the hyperbolas
Y2 = v =C,
2
X - (constant).
and the v-curves are the rectangular hyperbolas
FIGURE 14.9.2 The u-curves and
X )'= II= C2 (COnStant).
v-curves of Example 1.
l11esc two familiar families of hype rbolas arc shown in Fig. 14 _9 ·2 ·
•
Change of Variables in Double Integrals
Now we shall describe the change of variables in a dou 1 . ,
to the tran sformation r specified lw the cqu·nio . ('t)\mtegral that co~responds
plane be the image under T of the ·• . . ' ns 111 ~ · et the regton R 111 the .r.r·
on R and let (S- s, I '"e ar.: g•on 5 111 11l e uv-plane. Let F(x. y ) be continuous
1' •' ' . ' • 5n L> ' n Ill OCr parti!IO f 5 · ·
dimensions ~:; 11 by· l:> v Each r 1
· •
. ' n
ec ang1e 5 IS transfon · d b 7"
° mto rectan gles each wllh
- ..
R , in the .rJ··planc (Fig 14 9 3) ll ':' ' ne Y 1nto a curvtlmcar figure
· · · . 1e 1111ages ( R 1 R R
5; thc:n constitute an inner partition of th •. 2 · • · • • • 1u~der T of the rectangles
rather than rectangles). e regiOn R (though tnto curvilinc:ar figures
Change of VMiables in Multiple lntt>grals SECTIO N 1 4 .9 1003
Lc:t (u; • u;J be the lower ldt·hand corner point o f s,. and wri te
(.r; • Yil =(f(u;. v; ). g (u;. vi ))
,, fo r its imaoe und T Th
"
.
er . e II ·CUr\'e through (.ri . y,' ) has vcloctty \'Ccto r
t• = I'J • <u •1 • v,)

• + j ~.(u;. v; ) = -il.t I + ..;.
ih' j ,
ilu Ju
nnd the ••·cUr\'e through ( ti. Yil has velocity vector
t ,. = I J'( . •, j • il.t. ily ,

• ... . . ., + llo(ll . v·) = - · + - J.
• • av a,.
'lnn~ we cnn nppro.d matc the curvil inear figure R1 by 11 pa rallelogram P1 wi th edges
that arc "copies- of the vectors 1. t.u a nd t. t. v. These edges and the appro~ m1at i ng
par allelogram appear in Fig. 14.').3.
Ou r strategy is to approxintate the area 6 A , o f the curvilinea r figure R, with
the area u ( P,) of the parallelogram!',. To calculate thi ~ apprmimat ing area. we recall
from Section 12.:\ that the area of a parallelogram spanned by two vectors a and b is
t he length In X h i of their cross t>roduct. lltercforc
f. ,\ , "=' a( I',) = l(t, l\ 11) X (1., 6v) l = 11. X t , l llu 6 v. (.S)
But
·' j k
ilx a.•
iix d)'
fiGURE 1-4.9.3 ~ ~fftct of th<! 0 au au
::-rlormouon T. We ~1tim.1t~ t h~
t. X ' • = Cu au =
0)' ay k. (5)
Cx ;)y
a••
aru ol R • T( S,) by computing 0 au
:"« l"tl d the pa·a:Celogram P,. dt• av
The 2 x 2 dete rminant on the right in Eq. (5) is called the Jacobian o f t he transfor·
mation T : n;, - n;.. after the German mathemat ician Carl Jacobi (IS0-!-1851).
who first in,est igated gener.~l changes of variables in double int e gral~
DEFINITION The Jacobian

l lte J acobian of the continuou\ly different iable transfo rmation T : If.. - If.. is
the ( rcol·v31ucd ) functl\m l t : R ; , - U <lelined by
J, (u. u) =
x, (u, r·) .t ,(ll, t•)\.
(6)
\ y. (u . l') y.(u . r·)
Another common nod particul arly suggc~tive notatton for the bcohi:m is
J( ( . \ )
lr a - -
il (u . r•)'
where the 2 , 2 patt ern rcmonJ• u~ that hoth the dcp<:nJcnt , ,,riahks , anJ, are
drlfercn lllt c.l wnh t C\I'CCIIIIIXoth the imlc~nJe nt •·ariJ!>ks 11 :tnd 1 •
H cc:~ll th.ol .,., c I'<' I'•"' " ' ' h nn onnc o p.u trtrun I.St. S; . ... , S. } of the rc ~iw1 S
in t he III'•PIJnc. "'''"the lnloi~C\ nf thc \ e rl·ct.tnglc\ r••rming 3 CUf\lhnc .rr Pll h tio n
( Ht. H: . ... , H. Iul the rcr.um R • r!S l m th.- H ·pl.rnc. :O.h1w Eq-. (.t) and (5) impl)'
th:ltl hc :u ca AA, of R, " g.rvcn •pp ro\ rrlu tcl) h~
.\A , "'l lr lu; . r; ll ..'.11 A r
in t crrm o f the abrnlutr r·alur of the J• cohian lk t erminllol ll nd the area a (S, l • t.u A t•.
l bcrd ore. .. he n '"'set up Hientlnn ' urn\ lor appro \ im.mng double tntcgral~ ,.e
r· find th at
jj
R
F(x.y)dxdy::: t
i =l
F (x,',y,')ll A ,
m
::: L F (j( 11;.t•,"). g(11;. t•,')))Jr(u;. t',") Jllu!lv
i· l
" : : jj
lr~(f.g)
F(/(ll.t').g (u.l')) llr(u,v )ldudt·.
s
This discussion is. in fact . an outline of 3 proof of the fo llowing gene ral chan,::e-or.
y
''ari:thl c~
theo rem. To ensure the existence of tht: indicated double integrals, we as-
sume that th e boundaries of hoth regions R and S consist of a finite number of
piecewise smoot h curves. (Sec Fig. l-l.9A.)
THEOREM 1 Change of Variables

Suppose th at the cuntinuou~ ly differentiable transforma tion T : R,;,, -+ R;_. takes
f" derin ~d here the bounded region S in tho: ll t'·pl;llle on10 tht: bu undt:d region R in the .ry-pbnc,
and is one-to-one from th e inte rior of S to the int.:rior of R. If F (x . y) is continuous
on R. then
fiGURE 14.9.4 The domains of
F(x, y) and F(T(u, v)) =
F( f(x, y), g(x, y)).
IfR
F (x.y)dxdy = If S
F(T(ll.v})JJr(ll, v) j dudtJ. (7)
If we write G (u . t•) = F(T(u. v )) for the result of subs tituting x(u. v) and y(11, v)
for x ami y in the original integra nd F (x. y), then the change-of-variables formula
in (7) takes th e form
{{ F(x.y)dxdy= {{ G(r1.11) lil(x.y) l dudv. (8)

}~ }~ 8(11.11)
·ntus we formally transform the integral f{R F(x. y) t/;\ by replacing the original
variabks x and y with .r ( 11, 11) and y(u. v), respectively. and writing
I
II
t/A = -
il(x.y) ldudv
lil(u. 11)
for the area clement in terms of 11 and 11.

N~tc ,the analogy between Eq. (8) and the single-variable formula in Eq. (I).
In fact,~~ g _(x) # 0 on [c. d ) and we denote by a th e smaller, and by f3 the larger. of
the two hmlls c and d tn Eq. ( 1), then Eq. ( I) takes the form
1 b
f(x) dx = 1 fJ
f(g(u))lg'(u)J du. (Ill)
Thus the Jacobian in Eq. (8) plays the role of the derivative g'(u) in Eq. (I).
~XAMP~E 2 Suppose that the 1ransfom1ation T from the r B-planc to the .ry-planc
ts determmed by the polar equ:~tions
.r = f(r, 0) = r cos O, Y =g(r. 0 ) =r sin 0.

The Jacobian of T is
~=!cosO -rsin Ol -
il(r, 0) sinO rcosO - r >0,
, s•CTJON 14.9 1005
Ch.lng~ of VariJbl~ in l.!u:t.p:e Integ•a s •
so Eq. (8) reduces to the familia r formub
fl. Fi:t. )) thdy= j~ F (rcos !l. nin f') r d r t!'!. •
. .
G rvcn a partscular doubl~ inteval JJ j!.r. , ) c!.r d ". ho" do '"' sn · . ••- d ~ f'TC>tfttC·
1
. T
· h -
live c ange of variables~ O:~e s tandard approach· is to ·chro<e- n trnns fo rm ·3tson
such that t he bounda ry o! R cc nsists of u-curves and t·-curw~ In C3~ it i< mo re con·
•
vcnscntto express u and ,. in terms of .r ar.d '· we cJ n tir.;t co mpute "' ( 11 • 1·)/ il( r • •v)
explicitly and then find the needed JJrobiJ n ; ( r .••l/ iiCu. 1 l from che formui:J
&l:t . ,·l a r11.t·l (9)

---..:__
acu.l) . - - =I.
<lt c.y)
Equation (9) is a consequence of the chain ro le. (Sec Problem IR)
EXAMPLE 3 Suppose t hat R is the pbne regio n of unit density thJt is b<wndcd hy
t he h yperbolas
:ty = I. :ty = J and

Find! the pola r mo ment of incni''
lu= JJ, (,, l +l) dx tly
,\
of this region.
Solution 11>c hypcrhc>l:ts bounding H arc 11-cu n es and •··curves if 11

2 2
.ry and v = =
:t - y , a< in Example I. \\'c can most easi ly "rile the inceg raml x 2 + y 2 in terms o f
11 anti>• by firsc noting thai
3
411
2
+ u2 = 4xzy~ + (x 2 - yl)2 = (.r 2 + iJ~ .
il(u, v)
acx. y)
= I)'
2.r
Hence Eq. (9) gives
il(x.y)
aell. v) = 2(x2 + y2) =- 2J -t.,l + •.z .
We are now ready to apply the change-of-variables theorem, with the regions S and
FIGURE 14.9.5 The
=
R as shown in fig. 14.9.5. With f' (x . y) x 2 + y 2• Eq. (8) gives
tansformati'on T and the new
rtgion Sconstructed in Example 3. lo= !J R
(x
2
+ /)dxdy =
3
t}, J1{ V4u + 2J 4uZ1 ~ v2 dudv
2 1•2
• •
t {3 I
= Js }, '2dudv =3.
•
Example 4 is motivated by an important application. Consider an engine with
an operating cycle that consists of alternate expansion and compression of gas in a
piston. During one cycle the point (p. \' ).which gives the pressure and volume of this
gas. traces a closed curve in _the p V -plane._The wo rk done by the engine-ignoring
friction and related losscs-1s then equal (m appropna te unus) to the area mc/osed
by this cun'e, called the indicator diagram of the engine. The indicator diagram for
an ideal Camot <'ngine con~ists of two isotherms x y = a. xy = b and two adiabatics
xyY = c, xyY = d, where y IS the heat capacity ratio of the working gas in the piston.
A typical value is y = 1.4.
.....
1006 CHAPTER 14 Multiple Integra ls
EXAMPLE 4 find the area of the region R bounded hy the curves .ry = I. xy = 3
' and xy 1 • = I. xyl.• = 2 (fig. 14.9.6).
Solut ion To force the given curves to be u-curves and ••-curves. we define our
1
change-of-variables
-...- tran;form:llion bv .
.. 11 = .nand I' = xy • • lltcn
(lA).r/'
.r I=(OA ).n-· 1
' = (0. 4)1'.
So
_ac_.r_•.r_> = _____ = _2.5
a (u. l') a(u.t•)/ il(.r.y) I'
FIGURE 14.9.6 Finding the area

of the region R (Example 4 ). Consequently. the changc-of-v:niablcs tiH:orcm gin·s the formula
A=!! ld.rdy=
R
JJ. z J ., -
~:.:.dudt• = 5 1n 2. •
Chnngc of Variables in Triple Integrals
'lltc changc-of-vnrianles formula for triple intc)!r:lls issimil nr IO Eq. (H). Suppose !hat
S nnd U =T(S) nrc regions that correspond unde r the w ntin uously differentiable
transformation T : R!,.w - R~.., .. '11tcn the Jaconinn ofT is I he dc lcrminnnt
il r il.r ilx
iJ u a11 ilw
il(.t.\' ,~) ily i)y ily
l r(u,v,w)= · = (10)
il(u. v. w) iJu iJ ( I il ll'
a: a= a~
au ot• on·
Then (under assumptions equivalent to those stated in 1ltcorcm 1) the change-of-
variables formula for triple integrals is -
iff R
F(x.y. : )dxdyd: = Jj
S
F(T (u.v. w)) llrlu. v.w )l duclt>dw, (11)
in direct analogy to Eq. (7) for double in tegrals. Tin t is.
jjj R
F(x,y.z)dx dyd:=jr ff G (u.u, w)lil(.r.y.:J i duclvdw,
J Js
il(u . v. w)
(12)
where G(u, v . w) = F ( T ( u. v. w )) = F (f(u v 11· ) ) ' ( 11 v 11.) ·( )) • 1 f

• . . • • • • • • , .. II , 11, h ' IS ll C UllC·
t1on obtamed from F (.r . y . :r:) upon expressing the o rigi nal varh bles r , . d • ·
terms of the new variables u. v, and"'· · · · -1 • •111 ~ 10
EXAMPLE 5 If Tis the spherical-coordinates tr:tllsforttl"ll·o . l

• ·• n !;t\'C ll 'Y
x =psinl/>cosO . J =p sin cf>sin O.
~ = pcos¢ ,
then the Jacobian of T is
~( . •)
v X, ) , .
sin
.
cf> cos
.
0 p cos </J cos o -p sin¢sin O
fJ (p ,¢, O) = sm t,fl sm O pcosl/> sin o p sin r{>cosO
cos <(> - psin ¢
0
Thus Eq. (II ) reduces to the familiar formula
jj~ F(x.y,z) dxdy dz= jjj G(p, ¢ ,0) plsincf> dpd¢ d0.
s
The sign is correct because p2 sin¢~ 0 for 1/1 in (O )
• 1'{ •
•
Clun<Jt ol V•n.tbl~ in Myltipl" lnt"9r•h SECTION 1" ·9
1007
(XAMPU G lind the ' olume CJf the solid torus R obtatncd bv rc,olving nround
the : ·t"i' the cir cular lli\k •
( 13)
in the: • : ·pbnc.
Solution ' 1111\ 1\ the toru\of Etampl e 5or Sect ton J.!./1, Le t U\" rtle II for the orlltna ry
pnl.tr comdtnatc an~c 11 • 1 for the antic v o f fi~t IJ. 13. and" for the ll1\lancc: from
the: ce nte r uf the CirCUlar dl\k dc\.Cnbcd b) the mcquahty tn ( 13) We then defi ne th e:
11 nm f<~l lllallon T hy m ea n\ of the equ.11 on\
1
,f "" f/1 + W CCX l ) CC)\ u, \ =(b .._ " CO\ l ) SIO u, : =" SIO 1'.
'Jlte ~l1he solid toru\ H i\ the image under T of the rcttJOn m "'" -sp.1ce descnbcd by
th e IOC(jU3htiC\
0 ::' u ~ 2..o: . 0 ,.. t ,. 2..~ . 0 .,. . • -:;: a
llyn routine computation, "C fmd that the Jaco h1an o fT IS
il ( A,)',:)
.,. .;. . . :. .::.. :.._:: =" (b.._"' CCX t•) .
il (u , t , ,.)
lienee Eq. {I I) "ith F (.r. . >· :) • I ytclds •olume
V n 111, ldHf)d: o:: 11-[•f (b,.· +wltost)d,.•dudu
= 2:r 1:. (~a b + ~alcoSL•) dt

2 a
=2,-r 2 2b.
which agree~ with the vnluc V = 2:rb · :ra 2 gi ven by Pappus's first theorem (Sec·
tion 1-t.S). +

14.9 CONCEPTS: QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSIO N
1. Explain why the changc-of.variablcs formula involves the absolme wzluc of
the J:tcuhian. rather than the Jacohiln itself.
2. Suppose that R i~ a given parallelogram in the .l)'·plane. Explain how to
t ran~form an integral ff11 f'(.r., y)dA into an integral over n rectangle in the
11 !'·plane.
3. Suppmc thlll your pocket computer contains a routine Co r the numerical

evaluation of double int egrals. but requires that the domain of integration
be a rectangle. Gi\'cn :m intcgrnl JJN F!x. y) di\ where R is a regio n of the
Corm 1, ~ x ~ ll.f (x ) ~ y ~ g(.r.), Llcscribc :1 transformation that convem this
integral into one th at you r pocket compuh:r can evaluate.
4. Describe a strategy Cor c\'aluating an integral ove r the region R in the
.ry·planc that is bounded by a gi ven rotated ellipse ax1 + bxy + cyl 1. =
t-liJ PROBLEMS
~ l'rohltnu I tllrouglt 6 so!l·t for .r. ond y i11 tum.! of 11 and ~. 6. 11= - -
2.r.
u=.rl-+-
2y
'"'~co . a(x, y)/8(u, v). zl + yl' yl
'"PUtt tht Jacobian
7. Let R be the paraUelogram bounded by the lines .r + y ., 1.
l...
L" "•+ )'.
l. • - y,
2
Ll= x-y
v = 3.r +,. .r + y = 2 and 2.r -3y = 2.2.r. - 3y = S. Substitute u • .r +y,
v .. 2.r.- 3y to find its area
=yfx
• • •y.
t • "2(
s.
··• +
u
•I + ' I ).
2y 1,
v .. 2(.rl -
v =.t-2yl
y) Ac: if I
ld.r d y.
8. Substitute" = .ry. r = y/.r to find the area of the first· tJ. Use elliptical coordinates x =
3r cos 9. Y = 2r sin8 to find
quadrant region bounded hy the lines y =
x • ." = 2c and the \'Oiume o f the region hounded hy the .ry·plane. the
the hyperholas.r~· =I. xy = 2 (Fig. 1~.9.7). paraboloid : = x= + y2 • and the elliptic cylinder
.f: ·'1'1
_..__=J.
9 .j
t.t Let R be the solid ellipsoid with outer boundary surface

y xl ,.1 :::
~+~+_,=!.
n- /r r
Use the transformation; = nu. y = bv.: = cw to show

that the ,·olumc of thi\ ellipsoid i~
FIGURE 14.9. 7 The region

v- JJJ ltlrdyd:=~;rabc.
It
of Problem 8.
15. Find the , olumc of th e region in the first octan t that is
9. Substitute 11 = xy, u = xy 3 to lind the area or the first· bounded by the hyperbolic cylinder' .ry = I, .ry 4: xz =I . =
quadrant region hounded by the curvesxy = 2,xy = 4 and .r~ = 9: nnd y: = ~. y: = 9. fSu~:geslion: Lc r 11 = .ry. u = .r~ .
.ry1 = 3, xy) = 6 (fig. 14.9.8). . , ,I
w = yz . and note that lt V"'= .r·y-~-.
~rrr-----------~ 16. Usc rhc transformation

r r .
.r =-cosO. y=- 5111 0,
I I
y to find rhc volume of rhc rcr,ion I( that lies between the

paraboloids : = x 1 + y 2. : = ·1(.r 1 + y 2) and the pl.1ncs
: = I. : = .1.
17. Let R be the rotated elliptical rc!!ion bounded by the graph
of x 2 +xy + y' = J. Let .r = 11 + 11 andy= 11 - u. Show that
FIGURE 14.9.8 The rC9ion

of Problem 9.
jj ~
cxp(-x 1 - .ry -l)dxtly
10. Find the area nf the first-quadrant region bounded by the

curves y =.r'. y "' 2.r' am.l x = >·'.A = 4 y 1 (fig. t4.9.9).
[SugguliotL' Le t y = ux 1 and x = uy'.)
~2 Jj s
exp( -Ju 1 - ol)tlu du.
Then substi tute u = r cos 0.11 = ./3 (r sin 0) to evalua te the

latter integral.
18. From t ~e chain rule and (rom th e following property of
deten:nmants, deri"c the relation in Eq. (9) between the
Jacobtans of a transformat ion and its inverse.
0
1 b, ,,nl b:/ l"1n1 + b,cz tJ 1b 1 + b 1d11
/ Ct dt ' Cz tf1 = fi)CI + Cztfl b1 c 1 + tf1<f1 '
19. Change to spherical coordinates to show that. fork > 0•

•
1:.,1: 1:~ Jxz + yl + zl
00
FIGURE 14.9.9 The region
of Probltm 10.
11. Use the method of Problem 10 to find the area of the first·
quadrant region bounded by the curves y = .r1 • y = 2<1 x exp( -k(.r
2
+ y 2 + z2)} dx dy tlz = ~~.
and .r = yl, .r .. 4yl.
20. Let R be the solid ellipsoid with constant density o and
12. Let R be the first-quadrant region bounded by tbe circles boundary surface
x' + yz - 2• . .r 2 + y1 = 6x and the circles .r 1 + y 2 = 2y. A 1 • yZ z:
.r' + y' = 8y. Use the transfonnation "I ..- b' + cl I. =
2c 2y
u --
- xl + yl'
11=----- Use. ell_ipsoidal coordinates x .. tlpsin6cos0. >' =
xl + y'
bpstn¢sm8, z =
cpcos¢ to show rhat the mass of R is
to evaluate the integral M = ~ ;r oabc.
JJ• (xl : yl)l dx dy.

21 • Show th~t the moment of inertia of the ellipsoid of J>roi>-
lem 20 wnh respect to the z·axis is 1, .. j M(ol + b1) •
Chapter I.e R~ ~""tlOru. ConctpU. R~u!u 1009
• •-• 12 thmugh 26. uu o ro,pu ru a/ .. 1,
ft"~"·• ··· h . d. , r ra J)JI<"nt
I• a"') rn find I <" m rcated C("ntro irlt and to lhO'Io· th~t
llf ~((elf .' ftlom~IUJ of
'"'r.a-
.:!. ,..e cc:niiOid o f the plane 1eg10n o f Problem R(IIog. l 4.9.7 )
.... (Q) =:3 J.'J.'> I - 1 . • J c t!~
> t• , •
z_\ "fbe centro id or the plane regio n o f Pr oblem 9 ( Fitt- 14. .8)
9 (c) Firully. u-.e the tran, fomutio n T 1( , - u;.
J e lin c..S
;t lb<centrood of the plane reg:on o f Problem 10 (Fig.. K 9 . by A = !sin wl '(cos, l . , = Uon t l let"-' ' to <'J lu ~IC' the li·
91 nal u::e~ul on !"lrl (b) a nJ therd:·~ <>1-tJ on ( ukr·s rc,ult
..-..moment of 1net113 around each coord 10 , 1
1.1. ..~ •
solid elli~md o f f' rohlem 20
~ e au s o 1 the
th3 t Cl1 o=.• : eo A.< ind.:atC'J " ' f-i~ p '110. the trJ n<f<•t·
mu ion T came <the ontcriN of the tll.ln)!k 0 ~ u S IT r-) - t•.
;6. lbc ~n1ro1d of the ~olod nl Pmble m 16 and its moments of 0 ~ I ~ :. r.. tn the ll t'•piJnc M< ·lo.<lnC tO the ontC rtOI Of the
onerlll around the comdrnatc a_, e,. unot "GtUrc in the •>··r u ne.
!1 Write the tri ple mtegrnl that & 1\'Cl> the a\·erage d ist {
•. I'd 1 . ancc o
...,ints
, .~
of the so
. ' e hp<o
. rd o f Proble m 20 from th ·
e ongm.
Then approxrmate that mtegral 1r1 the ca-..: a 4• b J. = =
and c = 2.
problmu 18 am/.20 ou~line th f us~ of do 11ble intfgralJ 10 nta/uat~

rhr famOILf infimtt >r fi("S
"" 1 I I
{ (2) = L••• 1 = I
n
+ - + - + ...
2' 31
,..~ntiontd tarlitr in the St•ctinn 11.5 proju t Thru probltnu ar, • •

t..:l(d on o calculation prrunttd l>y Dor k 1/u.'·l~bmurk 1n hu artt· I
rlt "Simi/amy in lmllit>IUtlitv /'roof< for :1. In 2 . { (2). and ( ( 31. • f iGURE 1<4.9.10(• ) Hori.!ont.tl ll-hnc\ in th!!
The America n Mathcma t ic~l M on thly ( Marclo201)1 ). Ul-1.11. dom•ln of l~ tt•m formJtion T.
l!l Substitute the geome tric 5e ric • fM (I - Ay) " 1 to ohow that
1'1'
0 0
-, - 1 - tl.t d y c {(2).
- .ry
nsuming l h~ v3lidity <>ltcrmwi>c inte~?.ration of the rCjUit ·
ing~>erics in power> o f zy. -
~. (3) First find a commo n dcno minntor in the integr:tnd. thc n
make the ~ubstitution " "' .r 1 • o• : y 1 to sho"' thot
1'1'( 0 0
- I-
1 - .<>'
- - I- ) dA d•• :: -{(2).
l +x.v ·
I
2
(b) Add the equation in pan (o) nnd the identit)'
1'1'(- + - -
0 0
1
1 -zy
I
l +.ry
) dxd•· = 2
·
1'1'
0 0
I , ,tl.rdy
1 -z· _..-
f iGURE 14.9.10( b) Their imJ 9e u<u~s
in the ra09e olt.h e lronslorm.~toon T.
CHAPTER 14 REVIEW: DEFINITIONS, CONCEPTS, RESULTS
r,. tht {ollo ...·ing list as a Rtlidr to ronupts that yo11 may nr.-d 8. E••aluation of triple intc~r:tls by iterated ~in~tlc intc ·
lornUw. gr:11ion
• Definition of the double integral a~ a limit of Riemann sums
1 9. Ap['licatio ns o f triple integrals to tlnd volume. m•ss. cen ·
l. E•aluauon of do uble integrals by ite rated single integration troids. and moments of inertia
ll:\c 0 ( the double integra! tO lind the volume between IWO 10. Transformation of the triple inle)!ral JJJ J<x. )', :)t!V
into cylindrical :ond spherical comJiMtes '
' 'Jtlaces aho,·c a given plane regio n
t 'transformation of the d ouble integral JJ,
f(x • Yl dA into ll. The s urface area or 3 parametric • urfacc
P<llar COord mates 12. The area of 3 surface: = {(.r, y) for (x . y) in the plane
!. ApPfication o f double integrals to lind mas.'l. centroids. and region R
I. lrloments of inert ia or plane laminae 13. llle Jacobian o f a trans formation of roor<linatcs
7
lhet~o~o theorems o f Pappus 14. The tr:tns forrnation o f :l douhle Or triple integral COrTe•
· Definition of the triple integral u a limit or R iemann sums sponding to a gi>-en change of variahles
101 0 CHAPTER 14 M ultiple Int egrals
CHAPTER 14.. MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS -. - -·

In l'rohlc•m J I rlrmul'h 5. i'mlunrr tht! ~<i•·rn integral by first rc· In Pmhlmu /6throuslr 10. find tlr~ mo.ts om/ umroid ofa plan~
1-asin" tlrr onla of im t•grorion. lam inn ...uh rhc gi•·m shape ami dt!IUiry 6.
1'!'
16. TI1c rccion lxlund~d by y = x= and x = y : 6(.t. y) = .r 2 +yl
1
I. ,, ... d y • • d ,
I 11. The rq: ion bo unded by x = 2)" an .\" = x -4: .S(.r, y) == yl
0 •"' ./i+?
1'1'
18. The rc~;:ion J--e tween _,.= lnx and the.r-axisovcr the inte rva l
2. sin-
- .r dxdy I i£ r ~ c: J( l, 1·) = 1/.r
0 1 ... 19. The circle !xlunded by r = 1 cos 0: tl(r. B) = k (a constant)
3. 1' J' c x p<-l> dydx

20. The re~1on of Prohkm 19: J(r. lll = r
21. Usc the tirst theorem of Parrus to find the y-coordinntc of
1•1• cos~·4 dyd.r

the ccntro:J of the upper half of the ellipse
-l .r ,.-
"1.1·,
{"....
- -~=1.
0 ,: J
n= b·
.,, .v cxp(
)r
2
)
cl.rtly Emplo~ the facts that thc arca of this semiellipsc is A =
0 Ji X :wb/1 and the •·olumc of the ellipsoid it gene rates " hen
. .1 ~ I ' = •~ .ill I'
rnt:th.· d :lHlUih I t hC.: .t ·:lX I~ 'J"' .
ti. The d o uble intcgrnl
12. (a) l hc the fir$! thco n:m of I'.I J'JlUS to fi nd the cent roid of
,.-•
-dvd r
lhc fir,t·tlu.u.Jr.lnt r\')f l it.Hl of the annular ring with bound·
ary cncle~ ,: - ,.: = ,: and x= T -": = b: (" here 0 < a < b).
y
(b) Sho" th.1 tthc lim1tin!! position of this centroid as b - a
i< the centro id of .1 qu .utcr-circular a rc. as we found in Prob-
is an improper in tegral mer 1hc unbounded rcr,ion 1n thc
lem ol-l uf S<·ct1u n l·l 5 .
tina <tU.Idrunt hct\\cen the line~ ,. = < nnd 1 0. ;\\\Um·
in!' that it i- valid (it is) to rc1cr'<: the nnkr uf rntrj:rarion. 23. Find the centrtlld of the regron in the X,l'·pla ne bounded by
c•·.,luntc th i' inlcj:ral by integrating first 111th rc~pcettu.r. the x-.nl< and thr paraoola ." = -l- x 2 •
7. Find the •·olurnc of the ;,olid Tthat hes below the: p.truboloid u . Find the • olumc of the 'olid that lies below the pa rabolic
~ = .r1 + ,.: and a hove the trinn):lc R in the .<,> ·plane that cylinder : "' r= .1nd nhovc the triangle in the r y·p1.1nc
hn< vertices ut (0. 0. 0) , (I. 1. 0) . and (2. 0. 0). bounded by the coordi nate axes and the line x + y = 1.
II. Fi nd hy integrat ion in cyl ind ric:ll coordina tes the volu me 25. Usc cylindrical coo rd inates to lind the volume of the ice·
cream cone bou nded a bow by the sphere x l + yl + z2 = 5
ho
,
x· - ,,...
.
unded by t he paru bolo ids 4 = 2.r 1 + 2y1 nnd 4 "' 48 -
and be low by t he cone ~ 2 = J.r=
+ y l.
9. Usc integration in sphe rical coord mn tcs to find the volume 26. Find the volume and centroid of the icc-cream cone
nod cc:nt roid o f th e solid region that is inside t he sphere bounded above by the sphere p = a and below by the cone
f1 = 3. hclow the co ne¢ = :r /3. and nbove the .ry·planc ¢=:r /3.
¢ = :r/ 2. 21. A homogeneous solid circular cone has mass M and base
10. Find the •·olumc of the solid bounded by the elliptic radius n. Find its moment of inertia around its axis of
paraboloids ~ = x 2 + 3y2 and 4 = 8 - x= - 5,> 2• symmetry.
II. Find the volumc bounded by the par:1boloid y = x 2 + 3zz 28. Find the m~ss of the first octant of t he ball f1 ~ a if its density
nnd the parabolic cylinder y = .: - ~~. at (.r . y. ~) rs 6(x. y. : ) = xy:.
12. Find the volume of the region hounded by th e parabolic 29. Fi nd the moment of inert ia around the .r·a xis of the ho·
cylin<lcrs ~ = .r 2, ~ = 2 - .r 2 and the p13nes y = 0. y + ~ = 4. mogencous solid e llipsoid with unit densitv a nd bou ndary
su~~ ·
IJ. Fi nd the volume of the regio n bo unded by the elliptical
=
cylinder y 2 + -1~ 2 4 and the planes x = 0, .r = y + 2. .t l yl ~2
14. Show that the volume of the solid bo unded by the elliptical t1 1 + b 2 + c! =I.
cylinde r 30. Find the volu me o f the regio n in the first octant th at is
~~nded by the sphere p ="·the cylinder r = 0 , the plane
• -a, the .r~·planc, and the yz-plane.
Jl. Find the moment of inertia arou nd the z·axis o f the ho-
and t he planes ~ = 0, ~ =
h • x (where h > a > O) is mogeneous region of unit density that lies inside both the
V .. :robh. sphere p = 2 and the cylinder r = 2 cos e.
15. Let R be the first·QU3dunt region bounded by the curve In Problmu Jl throw>/ 3 , . .
x• + .r 2y 2 = y 1 and the line y = x. Usc polar coordinates to . ~ ' " • a vo1rn nc rs g~ncrored by rt••ol•·mg
a p Ian r r ~gron R ar01 d .
evaluate . Ill on a.ttS. To fin d the volum e, set up a
doubll! 1111egro/ over R b 1 · d
. . . Y f t'VO vmg on area flem em d A aroun
t Irc rrulzcmrd lUIS to o"t~rnrore
!!. II
.,
I
., dA .
(I+ x· + y•j2 32. Find the vo lume of th
h . .
• 0 ..
• O 1ume e1emt'/11 d V
I'd · .
e so t obtatned by rc\'o lving nro un
t e Y·axts the regton inside the circler= 2a cosO .
d
finJ I h 0
~ , 1ume of 1he •olod oblamec.l bv re•ol
. • •rn g ar ound
_l.l <i< lhr re~ron enc1m ed by Ihe cnrd 1u 1d ~. Apply lhe formula of Prot>km .19 10 compute lhe atc3 o f
t~( ' '" ' • 1 4 C(.l \ ll
·:_I(hC \('1Un1C uf Ihe •••lod l<'tU\ Obl~rnecJ h\' . Ihe plrl Of Ihe C) hnder r ,. a s::1 !' lhlti.N 1nS1d<: Ihe srhere
_u. fuw, •l 0 .., r :;, II arounlllhc lone 1 ., - b II> I ~ ' l( \ Ohrn' ,: +:: -=a: .
thC ul" • • - n. 51• Find the rot.r moment of oner111 of the f\r<t ·quJdranl re·
me 1h.11 the wru' of l'wblem :4 hat un f
·'·~ """ f ' o rm den·
Ill) J fonJ ,,, m••onenl u onc rll• awund , 1, n•l urn l axl\of
pon n! ronuant densoty 6thll is roun..led h) the hyperbol3S
.r. y • 1. • y • J tlnc.J .~ : - )': c 1. .: - v=., -'·
i)OIJliC lf)'·
! 2.. Suh\tttute" a J. - J Ano! • c .r - ) tot\ 3lU3te
~·-• l(lrlon>u~lt J: tfr11l "lilt average dl\l~nce Th
f'nX•' • . T . ( " I'''"
J/ltd~tt, Ol[ rlzr I'"'"' I • •· ' >)from lhc poinl.J of rl
Iff ~ ,. 1rh ~ttJ A '-' .lrfir:r•i lll t >c '' p 41!c
"!""' ~
i1 =; JI• ,/(t - .,)' + () - )'o)l dA . "'here R 1s rounded b~· Ihe coon:!on31< n\es and the line
.t +vm l.
!.). l:\C clhf"'Odal et)()r.Jonltcs ' ~ao sinoco<c~ . y=
Tl:t ••t'~.~~ t!otra~rt "' a pmr.l \ to. •o. ;ol {tom rl~t poorolJ of a bp iln c "" rl. : ~ (p cos c to find Ihe m>« of the solid
Jf"~~r t'f,cicm f.\' ,/tJitfffl tuwlngotoly clh~d
)1. Sh•"" lhJI the. aver•F.C ll l\ lancc u f Ihe ro•nl! uf ft dotk of
uJIU<CJ fr••m '''cente r·~ 2.r (.l
~1. Sh•>"' 1ha1 lho• a• cra j:c Jl\l ancc of Ihe I'"'"'' of a d o<l of
uJ•u' a hum a fhcol I'""" nn j[, hnuntlal\ i< J !tof<},, .
if 111 den<oly l it he point ( • . v. :l i<!liven hy
)S. t\ c1tdc o•f ~:otliu nnJ l:onrc nl 10 n Cllcle nf
nd1u< ~. find lho· 3 \ Cl 3):e dl\l3nCc nf Ihe poinlof langency
fr••m lh< f'l>~nl< thai lie h ·lwo·c n lloc '"" corclc,,
.)'!, Sh•'" lh3tlhc avcr n~c <h,l.lllce nf Ihe P<•inls of 3 •pheual
1>.111 .,f rnolnl< a h nm it< crnlcr i< ~~ ~~. ~4. Lc1 R be lhe firt~·qu>drJnt region houn<lc<l by the
._,, Sh•'"' !hal l he avcr:I}:C <l"t:rno·c of Ihe poinl< nf n spherical lcmni\Catc\ , : • lcm!t) . ,: • .& ct'h'U' :1nd r 1 a )sin20 .
~JII <>f u dou< c1 !rum a 11\cJ point on il' surl•C"e i< f>n /5 , : .. 4 >rn :!i~ (Fig. 14.:-.l r.l ). Show 1h' ''" orca i<
~1. A •rhcrc <•f radiu> 1 i' interior In and tan ge nt 10 n sphere of
13Jou< "· Find Ihe :over a}:<' <li,lnnce of the poinl of lnngrncy
frnm the \CI nf allpui nl~ bc l\\ ecn Ihe 1\\n >phcrcs.
C. t\ righl circubr come ha' r:odiu < R nnd hci~hl /1 , Find the
>'Cf3jte do,lancc <•f poinl' nf the cunc fro m its vertex . (SIIKJ:t:tlloro: Define the uansformallon T from Ihe uc·plane
to Ihe •O·plnne by r1 = uor: cos 20, rl .. u 1il sin 20. Show
!.\ Find the surface nrc:r of lhe pari of the paruholoid : "' first lhM
10- , : that lies l>el"'ccn Ihe N o planes: = I and: ~ 6.
«. FinJ the surface llr<"3 of Ihe pari of Ihe surf3ce: = y1 - .r 1 "
-&IV- ,
I ,.•n
lhJI i> insiJc Ihe cylinder ,: + _.. : = 4. r·=
w+ u (I = l arct>n ~.
!.\ Let .~~ Ihe surf3ce Mea of the wnc on Ihe sphere p = a be·
,.. ecn Ihe r lanes; = :, and; = ;:(where - a :i ; , < =: :i a). 'The n sho'"' lh31
L'>c the formula of l'roblcm 18 in Sccuon 1-1.810 show Ihat
3(r, 0) I
A = 2:-:ah. ~here h = ::- : 1 •
u(u, u) = - 161-(u + ~>'" .J
46. ~ind Ihe surface arc3 of Ihe pan of lhe sphe re p = 21hal is
Wide the cylinder x= + >: = 2-t.
fl. Asquare hole wilh side len~th 2 is cui through a cone of
tdghl 2 and base radius 2; Ihe centerline of lhe hole is lhe
l\is of symmclry of 1he cone. Find the area of Ihe surface
rcmo,·ed fromlhe cone.
~ l\umerically approximale 1he surface area of lhe part or
t~e P•l~abolic cylinde r 2: = .rl 1hn1 lies inside 1he cylinder
•-r =l.
49
• A "fence" of variable height lt (r) stands abol'e lhc plane
cune (.t(r). y(r)). Th U5 Ihe renee has 1he paramelrizalion
\~ • (r).)' = )'(1), ~ = : foraSr S b.O:l::lh(r). Ap-
•
P > Eq. (8) o r Seclion 14.8 10 show thai the are a of Ihe
fence is
FIGURE 14.MP.1 The region R of

Problem S4.
b
55. A 2-by-2 square hole is cut symmetrica lly thro ugh a sphere in part (a) is ,\ = 4~r ( ../3- I ) . (St~gg<"srion: First integrate
of radius ../3. (Sec Fig.. 1-t.~·IP.2.) (a) Show that the total by parts. the n substi tute x = ./2 sm 0.(
surface area of the two pieces cut from the sphere is 56. Sho w that the volume enclosed by the surface
A= J.' s../3 arcsin( ~ )

o 3 - .r·
dx .
is V = fs :r a1 • (Sug.s:csrion: Su bstitute y = b sin1 0 .(

57. Show that the volume enclosed by the surface
6
is V -- ..L
210
oocsrion: Substi tute y = b sin 0. (
a 1 . (Su. ,.,(')
58. Find the ave rage of the .rqllare of the distance of points
of the solid ell ipsoid ( x /t<) 2 + { y /b) + (:/cl ~ I from the
2 2
FIGURE 14.MP.2 Cutting a o rigin .

square hole through the 59. A cube C of edge leng th I is ro tated aro und a line pass·
sphere of Problem 55 . ing th ro ugh two o pposite ve rtices. there by sweepi ng out
a solid S of revo lution. Find th e vo lume of S. (Answer:
Then usc Simpson·s rule 1o nppro•imate thi\ integral.
(b) (Dinicult! ) Show that th e exact va lue of the integrnl ;rj../3 :::: 1.8138.)
•
-----~· ~
.. j
'\
JfDOR CALCULUS I
I tion was finished. Ceres w:~s soon spotted in the precise

t is customa rv to list
Archimedes. · l\ev.1on. location he had predicted. All t his made Gauss famous
and Carl Friedrich Gau~s as a mathematician and ast ronomer nt the age of 25.
as hi~tory's three preemi· In 18()'; Gau<s N-came director o f the as tronomica l
nen t mathematicians. Gauss obsc r•at orv in Gottin~cn. where he rema ined until his
was a precocious infant in a death. His ·published ~·or I: thereafter dealt mainly with
poor and uneduca ted familv. physical science. althoufh his unpublished papers show
li e learned to calculate be· that he con tinued to v.·ork on tlleoretic:tl mnthcmatics
fore he could talk and tau£ht ranging from mfinite series and special functions to no n·
himself to read before he· Euclidean ~come try. His " or k on the shape of the t!arth 's
ginning school in his nati"e su rface c<t~hli<hcd the new subject of differential gcom·
Urunswick. Germany. At age ctry. and his ~ tlldics nf the c:mh's ma gnetic and grav-
I -l he was .alrc:lCI)' f:un iliar itational fields invohcd results such as th e divergence
with elementary geometry. theorem (Section 15.6).
C. F. Gms (1777- 1855) nlgehra. and ana ly~is. By age Tne concept of curved space-time in i\ll>crt
IS. when he e ntered the Uni· Einstein's general relativi ty theory traces b~ck to th e
1·m ity of G6ttingcn, he had disco\'ercu empirically the disco1·e ry of non-Euclidea n geometry and Ga uss'$ early
primt numbn theort•m. which implies that the num· investig~tions of differenti al geomet ry. A current applica-
1-er of primes I' between I and " is about " f {lnll). tion of rcl~ti\'ity theory i< the study of bl ack ho les. Space
This theorem was not proved rigorously unt il a century is itselif thought to be severely warped in the vicinity of
l:!!.:r. a bbck hok. with its immense gravita tional attraction,
During his first yt!ar at university. Gauss discovered and the mathematics required to a nalyze such a si tua ti o n
\cnditions for the ruler-and-compass construction of reg· begins with the vector calcuJus of Chapter 15.
u:ar polygons and dcmonstratt!d the constructability of
the regular 17-gon (the first ad \'ance in this area since the
loi:nilar constru-ction of the regu lar pentagon in Euclid's
Elemrnts 2000 years t!arlicr). 1n JSO I Gauss puhlishcd his
great treatise DistJuisitio11 es arithmeticae. which summl·
~.z~d number theory to that time: ;md se t the patt ern for
nllletccnth-cc:nturv research in that area. This book estab·
l~h~d Gauss as a ·mathematician of uncommon sttllure,
~ut another C\'ent thrust him into the public eye. On
~~~31)'. I. 1801. the new nstcroid Ceres was obscr\'ed,
t 11 d1sappc:ared behind the sun a mo nth later. In the
foJ•o11
' lng· weeks. astronomers searched the s k· 1·es ·111 vam·
f?r Ceres· reappea rance. It was Gauss who developt!d
~e method or least-squares approximations to predict
t,~ asteroid's future orbit on the basis of a handful or Schematic of mass swirling into a supermossive black
~rvations. Wht!n Gauss's three-month long computa·
0
hole at the center of the Milky Way gala•y.
1013
1014 CHAPTER 15 Vector Calculus
. 1 VECTOR FIELDS
15 1 Th is chap te r is d evoted to to pics in the ca lculus of vector fie lds of importance in
science an d e nginee rin g. A ,·ector field defined o n a re gion T in space is a vector-
va lued function f that associa tes wi th eac h po int (x . )' • .:) ofT a vector
F(x. y. : ) =iP (x. y. : ) + j Q(x . y. z) + kR (x. y . z) . (I)
We may mo re b ri efly describe the vector fi e ld F in te rms of its component functions

P. Q. a nd R by writing
f = P i + Qj + R k or F = (P.Q.R ).
Note that the co mpone nts P. Q, a nd R of a vecto r func ti o n a re scalar (real-valued)

fu nct ions.
A 'ector field in the plane is similar exce pt tha t neithe r z-components nor
: ·coo rdi na tes a n.: involved. l lws a vecto r fie ld o n th e pla ne reg io n R is a vector-
val ued funct io n F t h~ t :~;scx:iates with each po in t (x . y) of U a vecto r
F(x. y ) = iP(x . y) + j Q(x . y ) (2)
nr. briefly, F = Pi + Qj nr F = ( P. Q ).
It is usdul to be.: able to visualize a g iven vec tor fie ld F. One common way is to
s~e tch a co llec tion of typical vec10rs FC.r. y) . each represe nted by an arrow o f length
IHx. y)l and loc:~ted wit h (x . y) as its ini tia l po int. 'llris procedure is illustrated in
Example I.
EXAMPLE 1 Describe the vector field f (.r. y) =xi + yj .

Solution Fc~r each point (x , y) in th<.: coo rd inate pla ne, F(x, y ) i.s simply its position
vec tor. It po111ts threctly awa y from the o rigin and has leng th
JF(x, y ) l = Ixi + yj l = J x 2 + y2 = r,
equal to the dis ta nce from the origin to ( x. y). Figure 15 1 I h
vecto rs representin g this v..:ctor fi eld. ,. • . . s ows some typical
•
Among the most im porta nt vector fields in r . · . . ·
fie lds. Imagine the steady flo w o f a tluid s uch ~s the app ICalloi~S a re -.. e Joc1ty vector
· " \'>-ater m a nver o r tl1e n l ·· d
B .,. astead)'fto ... wc mea' n tl1at
' tire ,.e1ocny
· vecton( t . · ) ft h fl . ! 11 .Sv an\ln ·
FIGURE 15 .1.1 The vectorfield each point (x. y. :) is im.lcp.:ndcnt of ti~le (althou~il) . , o • c u_ll . owmg thro ugh
F(x, y) = xl + yJ. x ' y. and:), so the p:rtt..:rn of the flo w remains co "' not nc.: cessan ly llltkpcndent of
vector ricld of the fluid fl ow. nstant. Then ' '(x. y, : ) is the nlodty
EXAMPLE 2 Suppose that the horizontal XI'·>! . . . .

of wate r that is revolving (rat he r like a 1 . • I anc rs covered wnh a tlun sheet
1
' w ur pool) around th · · ·
angu Ia r speed t<> radians per second in tl ., ' e ong111 With constant
. d . lc counterclockw·1s 1• • .
assoc1ate velocity vector field. e <1rcctJon. Dcscnbe the
Solution In this.case we . have 'a two-dim ensronal

. vector fiIC ld ~· (x, y). A t each pomt
.
(x. )' ) t I1e water IS movmg with speed 11 _
2 - rtJ) a nd ta nge 11 r· · 1 h · ·
r = v'x + y 2 . lltc ve ctor field Ja to t e carcle of rad1us
v (x , )') =w(- yi + xj ) (3)

has length rw and points in a genera lly c
ounterclockwise direction, and
v·r=w (- yi+ xj ) ·(xi+ yj ) =0.
FIGURE 15.1.2 The velocity
vector field v(x, y) = w(-yl + xJ), ~o. ,. is tang<.:~! to the circle just memioned • .
drawn for w = 1 (Example 2). IS Illustrated 111 fi g. I5.1.2.
•
· lbe vclocuy field d e termined bv Eq. (3)
•
\'ector flc!d1 SECTION 15.1 1 015
•\ I I I
I'-'
I, ., / /
/.-'~-
--•, '
-
' I I I / /
- ''
, , . -.•
...... _, _, / ; 1-- "
• /
-- -- . ' ' \
\
• . . - - I
.... I
I
y ' I
,- / ;
' •
I I
~ -
-.... I
I
\,. - · ·
' ' .. I. .
" • l
' ' /
/ / I I \ \
' ' ,,' ,... ~ -_ _,//
...
\ '
/
/ I I I I
\
f.ICURE 1S.1.3 ~ VffiO< f iGURE 1S.1.4 Th<.'v«lor

l•eld J = .d + r l field J = - t l ... •I
~EM ARK . Mcxt computer ~l~ehra 5)-stems h:we the f.lci litl to plot vcct11r licld 'i. For
ansl:t nce.elther lhe.l/ap/rcommand !\elc!plott (x, y) , ·•• • J •. l . y . -2 .. 2 1 or
the Mmlrrmatitn command PlotVectorrlelc!( ( x ,y). (x. - l,l), (y, · l , l ) I
gcnc ral c\ a compute r plol hkc rsl(. 15.1..1 of the vee~ or lidJ F = •I + 1j t>f E "'"ll'k I.
n . . .
tc computer hns !>Calt:d I he vccton lo ~ li,ed m:n mn1m len~tth so !hal the k n!!th
n.f each vector as plotlcd ;, prnportJnnallo it< actu.o l lcn,:lh. l·i l'urc 15.1..1 ~hnws a
Stm olar computer plot of the vector field f' =-
yi .._ .r j of Example 2.
Equally important in phy1ic.11 npplicn linn• .ore forn· fic'!d< Suppt><c th at <orne
circumstance (perhJ I" gr:tvitational or dectrical in ch.u Jeter) c.1u,es a fl)ret· F ( t. y. :)
to act on a partick whe n it is placed i'lt the: point (.c . y. ~). TI1c n '"' c ha -.·c 3 furcc
fie ld F. Exam ph: 3 deals with what is perhaps t he mo~ l common force fie ld percei ved
by huma n beings.
r EXAMPLE 3 Suppose that a mass .If is fixed al th~ origin in space. When a particl e
\ I I of unit mass is placed at the poi nl (.c. y. : l other !han the ori~:in . il is subjected ton
,',II;~, force f (x. y. ~)of gravitational att rnction directed to" :ord lhc rna\s !If a l !he origin.
,,,\//,.,.,. By Newton's inve rse-square law of !!ravitalio n. the magnitude of I' i' F = GMj r2.
~--......._\/ ___ _ =
whe re r /xl + yl + : 2 is the le ngth of the posilion vector r =xi + yj +: k. It
follow~ immediately that
kr
r(.r. ~·. : ) =- , J' (4)
where t = G M. because this vector has both the correct magnitude and the correct
direction (toward the ori)!.in. for f' is a multiple of - r). i\ force field of the fo rm in
Eq. (4) is called an i11 vrrse-square force field . Nolc tha t f'(.c. y. z) is not defined at
fiGURE 15.1.5 An inverse-square the origin and that iFI - +oo as r - o•. figure 15.1.5 illustrates an invc rse·squarc
fore~ field (Example 3). ~~ ~ld. •
The Gradient Vector Field

In Section 13.8 we introduced the gradic~t vecto r of the differentiable rcal·valued
·on j(.r . ..1-. ..•). It is the veclor V f defined as follows:
f unc t t
cJf :•r
V '~ i -+ J ·.;... + k - .
ilf
(S)
j th fly il:
The artial derivatives on the right -hand side of Eq . (5) are evaluated at the point
(.r. / :).Titus Vf(.r. y. z) is a ve: tor field: It is the gradient wet or field of_rhc function
and is sometimes denoted hy grad 1: A~cord~ng to lltco_rcm I. of Scctton 13.1!. ~he
fvector "v f(r· • )'· ..·)points in the d1recuon tn. wh1ch the .maxunal d1rccuonal dcnvauve .
( . z) is obtained. For examplc.tf /(:r. y. : ) ts the temperature at the pomt
o ff at :r.y. . · "/( ·
·n space then vou should move in the d1recuon v ;r, y . z) m or er to warm
d
(:r.y. z) I ' •
up the most quickly.
1 016 CHAPTER 15 Vector Calculus
/ I I I I
//I I I
•
I
I
\ \ \
\ \ ", ,,
" In th e case of a two-variable scalar function f(x, y) we s uppress the third com.
ponent in Eq. (5). so V f = (f,. f 1 ) = f, i + J,.j defines a plane vec tor field.
/ / ; I I I \ ' \ ', ......
.- ., , ' ' • =
--. • , .' .' --
' ... EXAMPLE 4 With f(x , y) = x2- y2, the gradient vector field Vf 2xi- 2yj
y
--.
... .... .. '' ' . . ,. --
'
, ,
plotted in Fig. 15.1.6 should remind you of a contour plot ncar a saddle point. +
• I I
ll1e notation in Eq. (5) suggests the formal expression
,,,
' .. ' ' \
\
I
I
I I
I I I I/
I//
a a a
'\ \ \ I
•
I I I I I V= i - + j - + k-.
ax ay az
(6)
FIGURE 15.1.6 The gradient It is fruitful to think of V as a vector differential operatOr. That is, V is the operation
vector field V f = 2x l - 2yJ of that, when applied to the scalar function f, yields its gradient vector field Vf. This
Example 4.
operation behaves in se"eral familiar a nd important ways like th e operation D, of
single-va ri able differentiation. For a familiar example of this phenomenon, recall
that in Chapter 13 we found the critical points of a function f of several variables
to be those poin ts at which V f (x. y. :) = 0 and those at which V f(x, y. z) does not
exist. As a computationally useful instance, suppose that f and g are functions and
that a and ba re constants. It then follows readily from Eq. (5) and from the linearity
of part inI differen tiation that
'\l (af + bg) =a Vf + b V g. (7)
Thus the gradient ope rator is linear. It also sati sfies the product rule, as de monstrated
in Example 5.
EXAMP LE 5 Given the differentiable functions f(x. y , :) and g(x, y , z) , show that
"V (fg) = f V g + g Vf. (8)
Sol~t~on We apply the definition in Eq. (5) and the prod uct rule for partial differ·
enttallon. TI!Us
vu8 > = i a~Jg> + j a(fg) + k au.r:>
tlx ay ilz
= i(/g, + gf,) + j (/gy + g/y) + k(fg, + gf:)
= f · (ig, + j gy + kg,) +g ·(if, + j/y + kf:) =JVg + gVf,
as desired.
•
The Divergence of a Vector Field
Suppose that we arc gi,·en the vector-valued function
F(x. y. z) = i P (x, y, ~) + jQ(x, y, ~) + k R(x, y, z)

with differentiabl e compone nt functions p Q d
the scalar function div F defined as foll ows:' ' an R. ll1en the d h ·crgcncc off is
di"F="il· l,.=~
., + ilQ +ilN
- (9)
" ·' ily il:.
Here div is an abbreviation for "diver en " .
consistent with the formal expression f~ ;..c: •Ellld the alternative notation V • F is
· r v 111 ·q. (6). That is,
V·F =/ ~ ~
\ax ' <h"a,i) ill'
· (P,Q.R)=-+_Q..t.aR
a
. - ilx il v . ilz .
We will sec in Section 15.6 that if vis th . •
then the value of div vat the point ( . c v.e 1ocny vector field of a steady fiuid flow.
. · . x • J • z) 1s cssemiall h .
at wh tch 11 uu.l mass IS flowing away (or "diver . .. Y t c net rate per umt volume
gmg ) from the point (x. "· z).
V~tor F'odd1 SECTIO'I t S. l 1 01 7
EXAMPLE 6 If 1h
e vector field F ts
· SJI·en
· by
Fcx. y, : ) =(M ' )i • (: sb >·)j • (xy In : )k ,

then P (x.y.;:) = u• . • .
yields · Q(x · ) ..) = : un y. and R (x. _~- . : l = x >In:. lienee Eq. (9)
div F :: .!.(
ax u
'>• a_.l:
0 . a
sm >) -'- a: (xy ln: ) =t'-'-:cosy + ; .
X \"
For instance. the value of div r at the point (- 3. 0. 2) is

V · F( -3. 0. 2l = t 0 .._ 2 cos0 .._ 0=3. •
The analogues of Eq1. (7) 3nd (S) for dh·cr gencc ;uc the formulas
~ · (a f - bG) = a ~ · r- b ~ · G (10)
and
V ·(/G) = (f){v ·G)+ (~/) . G. (11)

\~e ask you to verify these formul.u in the problc:ms. ~otc that Eq. ( II )-in which
f ts a scalar function and G is a ,-ector field- is consistent in thnt f a nd V • G are
scalar functions. whe r e~\ 'Vf and G are vector fields. so th e sum on the: ri~:ht-hand
side makes sense (nnd is a scalar function). -
The Curl of a Vector Field

The curl or the dirterent iable vector field r = PI + Qj + R k is the foll owi ng vector
field. abbreviated as curl F:
curt •• = V x •· =
a ,,j I.
fl
(12)
th a,~· a:
r Q R
When we ev~luate the formal determinant in Eq. ( 12). we: obtain
curl F = I - (aR aQ) ·(aP aR) (aQ ar)

a_,. - - + J -a: - -a.. + k -ax - -3y .
a~ {13)
Although you may wish to memorize this formula, we recommend-because you

will generally find it simpler-that in practice you set up and evaluate directly the
formal de terminant in Eq. ( 12). Example 7 sho1••s how easy this is.
EXAMP LE 7 For the vector field F of Example 6, Eq. (12) yields

j k
curl F =
il a a
ilx ily il:
.rt' : siny :ry In z
= l(x In;:- sin y) + j (- y In l) + k (-u 1).
In particular.the value of curl Fat the point (3. 1'1/2. e) is

V x f(3, 1'1 j 2.e)=21- !1rj - 3e•ll k.
•
We will see in Sectio n 15.7 that if vis the .-elocity ''ector of a fluid flow. then
the value o f the vector cu rl\· at the point (x •• y, :) (wh~r: that ':ecto r is n~~ero)
determines the axis through (x . y. : ) about whtch the flutd ts rotatmg (or whtr!ing or
"curling") as well as the angular \'clocity of the rotation.
The analoeues of Eqs. (10) and (II) for curl arc the formulas
~ V X (aF + bG) =a( V X f ) .L. b( V X G ) (14)
and
V x {/G) = (/)( V x G)+ (V /) X G (lS)
that "e ask you to verify in the problems.

·
EXAMPLE 8 If the function f (x. y. : ) has conunuo us second-order partial deri\·a-
tives. show that
curl(grad /) = 0.
Solution Direct computation yields

j k
a i) i)
V x Vf = iJ.x C!y a~
ar IJf iJf
TI1crcforc.
V x Vf= O
because of the equality of continuous mixed second-order partial derivatives.
•
1. Discuss the analogy between the differential operators
D =-
d
an
d ~
v =
.1- a + J.a
-
tlx ilx iJ y
for functions of one and two variables (respccti\•cly).
2. What arc the similarities and differences between the divergence and the
curl of a vector field?
15.1 PROBLEM S
Jn Problems I rh rottgh 10, illttstrm~ the given vecwr field I' by
skt·tdting sn-eral t)'pical•wcrors in the jieltl. March the gradient ••ector fieltl.r of the functions in l'robl~ms
II through 14 with the cnmpttter-grnermt>d plot.v ;11 Figs. 15. 1.7
I. f'(x. y) = I + j thro ugh 15. 1.10.
2. f (.r, y) = 31- 2j
J. l'(.r. y) = .r l - yj
r/ / '•
r. . . . .
I I
\ '"1
4. f (.t ' y) = 2i + .rj o.s ..... , ,
~
/ I
• • ',
' '']
..........
s. f'(x. y) = cx= + y1) 1r.(xl + yj ) y 0J- - .
. •• ' .. --
6. f'(x, y) = Cx 1 + iJ-111 Cxl + yj ) • -o.s
!- -
' ' ' ,
• --
.......
7.1'(x.y.:)= j + k t' '' '
-I .........
i i / ..........
8. f (x, y, :) =I+ j - k
f:--.,' \ I I /_.//
9. f (x. y. :) =-xi - yj -l - 0.3 0 0.3
10. f (x , y. : ) = .rl + yj +:k •

FIGURE 15 .1.7
FIGURE 15. 1.8
1019
......~ •,
'• •• ,
/
\
I
• •• I A ppl.v tilt dtfiniiiOr'.S of t raduo:~ d" r· rr"n.. .J "J '"-'' I :.~ a:.:..._
............
·'' /l ., I .I
.,,
. ., • I •
/
• luh :ht ldtr:n:tt t u: Pro~ ft..,._, : .(. r~"'t"' ~ ;. _;1. ,, " ~ :c...J.: c .;:-.J ~
:
,:-- . . - -1' -~
' Qj .. ..' .
• ' • •
I
..
/
d •• ·"' c-nnsran:u.. 1ar.:J t da:o:t :Jr:•t ( • tr::lJ
~ " o·· · •t t ..·....
· '-·· ~...
- _.
-, • .._ ...•.~.
.
[- -
~ - - 1
y
• -- ..
;
"l
. - --:
. - -~
· "'•
and r and c drr:o:< t!:~rt rrr..::..:!:J:c \ tr'!:'' -~(.:.is.
4
t " : ,-
- 1:_..... .,
..
t,.... .. •
• • . -
• • ' ..
•
i " ; , . • .... 1
• • ·.
25. "' laJ - b, i =a ' f - b ' g
26. ' ·tar - bG a = c "' . r - t."' . G
.:: .. . · I
/
..
, • • •
0
'I ~
:
~
1 .
0
. .. ..
OS
'•
27. "' x (a f - !:G1 = a (' x f' l - b l"' x G1
l8.. "' · 1/ G t = 1/lt' · G • - <"'fl · G
29. ... Y (/ G I = If>< ' x G a- t' f l X G
riGURE 1S.1.10
fiGURE 1S.1.9
.30. ... (L) t
= t ..., -. I
t·
'f
11. /l <.)'l :: X ,\ ' 31. "' · l f Y G t = G· <' x fl- f · t ' x Gl
t:. /( 1, 1 ) = lJl + y' £ ua':>luh tl:t 1drn:w r J m frr>~!mu 3: ti- 'C'"S~ .:J un.lu :/:~ .U·
L\ / I I. ) )= ~in ~ (;r:
+ yl) sumpr11m r.J-.ar r;,r sc<=!~ , f:u.cr: .. ,.J 1c •.J t c ·..! :J:r , = ••· f.r:.t r
2 2 ort ~ rcr co r:tinunuJI\· d1{.1rr~n n.: f:,:~
(t / (1. yl =sin \<Y - x )
Jl. dl\ I rut! f I : 0
I• Pmblrms 1$ tltrr>u~lr 2~. colculart tilt tlivtr/ltflrr mtd curl of ~J. dl\ l "'/ J I .. I dl\'(, t l - ' dt\ I ' fl - ~, ,/l · <' d
:1-.t gi> rn •·•·rtor field I·. ~. dl\ ("'f X ' ( I = 0
Ll. f(J, y.:)c: xl + >l + : k \'orfy tht ldtntttt(J ll1 rrnf>!t,.,..J .t5 rhrc'IJ~Il J-4 , ir: " hh.·h • ;, Q
t6. F( <. y,:) • 3xl - 2)-j - ~: k COnJtunt ' t Cl.Or. r = ~ i - 'J-; \. . a.r..J r • r p,,.,..,.!trYU J ... t: '1.1 .'.~
Imply rhar l>urh th< dt> agrna ar:.l rl:r c:u l o/ •111 :m rrsr·.<•;:wrr
17. flr. )·.:)=)·: l +x: j + .tl'k \'rcro r {rtltl 'anu h idtr.llca/1•
t1 fl• .r.:l c: x11+ y1j + := t. 35. ' · r = 3 and ' x r~0
t9. !'( t . y. :l "'xy:l ... .•·: :J + :x 1 k 36. V · (a x r ) =0 and ' x t• x r) = ~*
!1. fl•.y. : t.,. ( 2.. - y)i + (3y - 2: )j ... (7:- J;r )k 37. ... . ,,
.!.. = 0 3S. ,, . o
.,. x!..
!1. fl• .y. :) = ()': + : 1 )1 + (r: + :=)j + (x1 + yl)k
!.!. fit. y. : ) • (r'' sin y)j + (r" cos : l k
39. Vr = ~, -40. ' ( ,~)- _ ,,
!_
l.\ F(t . y. :) "'(r +si n y:)l + ()' + sin.r: )j + (: + ~inxy)k

.u. "' · (rr) = 4r
~!. "' ·(' r ) = :
'
r r
!t f (x. y. : ) = (.t :t - •)1+ (y) ln .r )j + (zcO>hy)k
~3. V (ln r ) = ~ 10
r· .U. "'<r 1 = IOr ' r
J5.2 \ LINE INTEGRALS

J:
The single integral f(x) d x might be described as an int egral along the .r·axis. \\'e
now define intt:grals alon g curves in space (or in the plane). Such integrals are called
fine integrals (although the phrase -curve integrals .. might be more appropri::nc).
To motivate the definition of the line int.:gral of the iunctionfalonethc smooth
space cun·e C with parametrization -
x = x(r), )'=)'(I ). z= : (I} (I)
for a ;a 1 ~b. we: imagine a thin wire shape~ like: C ( Fig. 15.2.1 ). Suppose that f (.t. ) . :)
A
denotes the density of the wire at the p~mt (x. Y. :). measured in units of mass per
unit length- for example. grams per ccnllmctc r. Then we expect to compute the Iota!
1
mass 111 of the cun•cd wire ns some kind of integral of the function f. To appro.timnre
171 , we begin \\ith a partition
lltuR£ 1
~ity , 5.2.1 A wire ol variable a =r0 < 11 < 12 < .. · < r•• 1 < r. = b
(
~t c'~ the ~ha~ of the smooth
l"''t.t 1'om A (where r = o) to B of[a. b) into n subinten·als. all with the same length AI (b-a) / n . These subdivision =
"b), points of [a. b) produce. via our parametrization. a physical subdivision of the wire
1020 CHAPTER 15 Ve<tor Calculus
P,. ... ,
'" .I b • '•
FIGURE 15.2.2 The p~rt1tlon of the interval (~. b)

determinei a related partition of the curve C mto
short arcs.
into short curve segments (Fig. 15.2.2). \\'e let P, denote the poi~t.(~(r,). >'.(l.). z(r,))
for; = 0. 1. 2.... . n. Then the points Po. P1• •• • • P. arc the subdtvts!On potnts of C.
From our study of nrc length in Sections 10.4 and 12.6. we know that the arc
length t:.s, of the segment of C from P. - t to f', is
[x'(r)J2 + [y'(l)j2 + [z' (t)F dt
= \ [x'(r;>F + [y'(r,•)j2 + [z' (t,'))2 t:. r (2)

for some number r; in the interval [r, _, ,r,). This is a consequence of the ave rage value
theo rem for integrals of Sectio n 5.5.
Denote x(r,') by x; and simil:!rly de.: line y,' and~;. If we.: multiply the density of
the wi re at the point (x,'. y,' . z; ) by the length t:.s; of the segment of C containing that
point, we obtain an estimate of the mass of that segmen t of C. So. after we sum o1·er
all the segmen ts, we have an estimate of the total mass m of the wire:
•
m ""' 2:
,_, f(x(t,' ). y(t,') . z(t,')) 6.$1•
1ne limit of this sum as t:.r _. 0 should\><! the.: actual mlss m. ll1is is our motivation
for the definition of the line integral of the function f along the cu rve C. de noted
by
jc
f(x. y.z) ds.
DEFINITION Lin~ Integral o~ a F~nction along a Curve

Suppose thllt the function j (x. y. ~ ~ tsdetmed at each point of t he smooth curve C
parametrized as in (I). 'lnen th e line inll'~ral nr I ulnn~ c is defined by
1 j(x. )'. :) ds = l!~o t f (x(t;>. y(rtJ. z(tt)} t:.s,. (3}

c
provided tJa:ll this limit exists.
·- ·
REMARK It ca~1 be shown that the limit i.n (3) always exists if the function/is conti11·
uous at each potnt of C. Recall from Section 10.4 that the curve Cis smooth provid~d
~~------------------
1
1021
Une tnteqrart SECTION 15-2
tha t tf1e com"<'nc

,-- n1funct10ns
· . . d · 11 · · s th:t t
1n II \ plrnmct ri1..11ion h3\C continuou< cnv:~ ' c
a re ne ve r simultaneously 7cro.
. Wh e n v. c su1~iltutc
· Eq. (2) into Eq. (.3). we rccogni1c- 1hc re<tJit n~ the 1·11111·1 0 (
a Rlc m~n n sum. Therefo re
in Th u< v.c may naluate the line mtcgJ31 fc /( r. y. ~ ~ell t>y c!tprcssing. everything
term< o f the paramete r r. mdudmg. the symN>Iic arc·kng:th <"Iemen!
dJ =\ l(dx); + (d")! + (d~)l

dt dt dt cfJ.
~sa con_~quencc. the ri gJH ·hlnd <1de in Eq- (J ) is eva lul led ns em ordinary .Jin,t;l<'
wrth rrJput tn thr r ral wariablr r.
111/Cf(ral
Line Int egra l with R<-\(H' <t to Me Leng th

11cc:au•<· of th~ "rr< .u .tn(c nf lh t· .uc . kn~lh cl~m~nl d• in Fq (-I). lh,· linc i n tq~ ral
fr ft • . .'. :1 do '' •ollll<'llmc• calkd the li n(' inf(')!rul ur tlw tunct iun/ nlth rr•lli'fl
In nn· lc n~:th nlunl! 1111' cun c ('.
1\ curve C thJ t lies in the ~y·pla nc may be regarded a< a space curve for wh ic h
: land ; ' (I) ) arc zero. In thi\ cn<c we simply suppre<< the varia hk : in Ect. (-I) ond
write
(5)
FIGURE I 5.2.3 The vertical strip with base

dl and height l(x, y) has area dA c
1(•. y) ds, ~o th~ whole fenc~ with base
' curve C has area A = j dA = 1 I(•. y)ds.
In the case that fis positivc·valucd. Fig. 15.2.3 illustrates an interpretation of the line
integral in Eq. (5) as the area of a "fence" wh~e base is the curve C in the .ry·planc.
with the height of the fence ab<w c the point (x. y) given by f (x. y) .
EXAMPLE 1 E\·aluate the line integral

jxyd-~.
c
IIClJRE I where Cis the: first-quadrant quartcr·circle of radius 1 parametrized by .x = cos r. y =
01 '"- 5.2.4 The quarter·<irdl!
""lllple I. sin 1, 0 ~ 1 ;;; rr /2 (Fig. 15.2.4).
Solution Here
ds = J( -sin 1)2 +(cos 1) 2 d1 =dl ,
so Eq. (5) yields
( xyds=J_~'"
12
.
COSIStntdl=
[ 1 sm-r
. , ]" 1
=:z· +
Jc r-o 2 o
Le t us now return to the physical wire and denote its density f~nction by
~ (x, y, : ). The mass of a small piece oi length t.s is Am= 8 As, so we wnte
dm = .S(x, y, : ) ds
for its (symbolic) element of mass. Then the mass m o f the wire and its centroid
(:f. y. Z) are de fined as follows:
m= j dm = j ods. x= .!.j xdl11,

111 c
c c
(6)
f = _!.
mJc
f ydm . : = _!_
Ill
jc zdm .
Note th e analogy with Eqs. (2) and (4) of Sec tion 14.6. The moment of inertia of the
wire aro und a given axis is
I = jp 2
d111. {7)
c
where p = p(x, y, z) denotes the pc: rpcndicu lar distance from the point (x, y. z) of
the wire to the axis in question.
EXAMPlE 2 Find the centroid of a wire that has density 6 = kz and the shape of
the he lix C (Fig. 15.2.5) with pa rame triza tion
x = 3 cos t. y = 3 sin 1, z = 4t, 0 ;:;; 1 ;:i rr.
Solution lltc mass element of the wire is
dm =o ds = kzds =4kl V{ -3 sin r) 2 + (3 cos1)2 + 42 dl = 20k r d1.
Hence the formulas in (6) yield
111 =~otis= 1~ 20kld1=10krr2;
x=-
- 1
Ill
1c oxds=-
1
10k;r2 0
1" 60kiCOS idl
26 [ COSI
= ;r . ]''
+ ISllll 12
=--":<-1.22·
FIGURE 15.2.5 The helical wire of 0 ;rr 2 •
Example 2. Does the centroid
(-1.22, 1.91,8.38)1ieon the
wire?
- 11 oy
Y= -
"' c
ds = - 1
10k ;r2 o
1"
60k t sin 1 d1
6 [ SIOI-ICOS/
= rrl . ]" 6
O =;":<1.91;
f = _!. f ozds=__!__
mJc 10krr2
r 80kr
lo
2 t11
8 [ 1 3] " Srr
= rr2 31 o = 3 ":<8.38.
So the centroid of the wire is located close to the point {-1.22, 1.91, 8.38). •
s1
1023
line Integrals with Respect to Coordinate Variable~

We obtain a different llid of line integral by repbcing :.J, in Eq. (3) wi th
t...r, =.r(l,) - .r(r,_1) =.r'(r;> 61 .

The line integral of f along C " ith re!pectto .r is d efined to be
fc f C.r. y. :>c.r = lir:1 {-- t <.r(l,"). )'{1,' ). : (l,' )l :..r,.

!..1 -~ L-
;. t
Thus
Jc
/(.r. :r. : )d r = J.t• /(.r(/),.'(1). : (l))r'(lldl.
(Sa)
Similarly, the line Integrals of f along C ... lth respect to y nnd "ith respect to : arc
given by
~ /!<. ). : 111.' =J.' jtrtll. .' l' l. : t rll,, 't l)</1 (81>)
and
=r
1 c
/(l. ).: l.J:
}"
/( fltl ,yll).:trll:'( t ) dr. (fie)
.
• The three integrals in (8) typically.occur together. If P. Q. and R nrc continuous
functions of the ,·ariables x, y. and z. then we " rite (indeed. d(jirr')
1/'tl.r + Qdy + Rd: =

c
1c
Ptl.r + 1
c
Qfl)' + 1
c
Rtf:. (9)
REMARK Although it would tx: natural enough to write fc ( P dA + Q dy + R d :) on

the right-hand side in Eq. (9). the parentheses are customarily omitted. Indeed. in
more ad,•anced \'ector calculus the diffewrrial fo rm P dx ..._ Q dy + R d; is regarded
as n single object that "hangs together" all by itself. For instance. one may ; ee the
=
abbreviations w P dx + Q dy + R d: for the differential form and f c w for the line
integral.
The line integrals in Eqs. (8) and (9) are e\'aluated by expressing .r, y . :.. dx, tfy,
nnd tfz. in terms of 1 as determined by a suitable parametrization of the curve llle c.
result is an ordinary single-\'ariable integral. For instance. if Cis a parametric plane
curve parametrized over the intcrval[a. b) by r(r) = (.r (r). y(l )),then
£I' d.r + Q dy = t[ P(.r (l). y(t)) · .r'(l) + Q (.r (l), y(r)) . y'(l)) dt.
EXA MPLE 3 Evaluate the line integral
jc ydx+zdy+xdz,
where Cis the parametric curve .r = 1, y = 11 ,z = 13 , 0 a1 ~ 1.

y
Solution Because dx = dt, dy = 2t dr. and d z = 3r 2 dr, substitution in terms of r
A yields
jy
C
dx + zdy + x dz = 1'
O
2
r2 dr + r3(2r dr) + r(3r tit)
I
= 1'(rz +313 +2t4)dt= (jr3 + ~~4 + ~~5L = ~· •

X
The given parame triza tion of a smooth curve C determines an orientation or

"positive direction·· a lo ng the curv.:. As the pa rame te r r increases fr_om t =~~tot= b,
)' the poin t (.d r ). y(r )) moves a long the curve from its initia l point A to liS tcrrnmal point
B. Now th ink of a curve - C with the opposite orientation. This new curve consists
of the sa me points as C, bu t th e pa rame triza tion of - C traces these points in the
opposite directio n. from initial poi nt B to terminal point A (Fig. 15.2.6). Because the
arc-length differen ti al ds = J !x'(r)F + !y'(r)j2 + [i:'(l)j2 dr is a lways positive (the
square root is posi tive). the val ue o f the line integral with re spect to arc length is not
affected by th e reversa l o f o rienta tion. That is.
•
j
-C
f (x . y .z)ds = jC
f(x ,y.z)c/s. (10)
FIGURE 15.2.61 f ds =
-C
In contrast. the signs of the derivatives x'(l) , y'(r). and z'(t) in Eqs. (Sa), (8b), and
{ fdsbutj Pdx+Qdy = (Sc) are cha nged wh en the direction of th e parametrization is reversed, so it follows
lc -c
-1 Pdx+ Qdy.
that
J-c Pdx+Qdy+ Rth= - { Pdx+Qdy+Rdz.

.Jr
(11)
Thus changing the orientation of the curve changes the sign of a line integral with
respect to coordinate variables, but does not affect the value of a line integral with
respect to arc length. It is proved in advanced calculus that, for either type of line
integral. two one-to-one parametrizations of the same smooth curve give the same
value if they agree in orientation.
y
EXAMPLE 4 1l1c parametrization x = I + 8t, y = 2 + 61 (0;::; r ;::; 1) of the line
8(9. 8)
segment C from A(1.2) to 8(9.8) in Fig. 15.2.7 gives dx=8dt, dy=6dr. and
=
ds lOdr. Hence we e asily verify that
~ xyds = l + (l 8t)(2 + 6t) · 10dr = 290
A(!, 2) and
X
~ydx + xdy = 1 1
[(2+61) ·8+ (1 +8t) -6]dt=70.
FIGURE 15.2.7 The line segment The parametrization x =

9 - 4r, y = 8 - 3r (0 ;::; r ;::; 2) of the oppositely oriented
of txample 4. segment-~ fron_1 8(9,8) to A(l,2) givest/x = -4dt,dy =
-3dr, andds 5dt, =
and we eas1ly venfy that
j-C
xyds = 10
2
(9-4t)(8-3t)·5dt=290,
whereas
j-c ydx +xdy = 1 2

[(8- 31) · (-4) + (9-4t). (-3))tir=-70.
•
If the. curve C consists of a finite
. number
• of smooth curves JOme
· · d at conscc utl·,,e
corner pomts. then we say that CIS p1ecewise smooth In sue! . h , lue of a
I.me ·mtegra1a 1ong C"JS d e1-med to be the sum of its values
• · 1 a case t e 'a
along the smooth segments
Un~ tnt~rals SECTtON 1 S.2 1025
of C. For im tanc:e "-i th 1h .
have ' e pu:c;e~~oise smooth curve c = C 1 + C~ of Fig. 15.1.8. we
fc f( x, y . :) ds -- J
c, . c,
/( x , y. : )ds = J c,
f( x . >· : ) ds ~ J c,
/(:r.. y.; )d s.
EXAMPLEs E
·valuate the hoe integral
7
) . ~)
J c
)dx ~ 2.zdy
fo r each of t hese three cur.-es C ( Fig. 15.2.9):
8 (2,4)
c,
Cl
lh . .
Thc s\raJgh t hne segment in the plane from A ( I. l) to 8 ( 2. ~):
c, an~ P a ne path from A 0. I) to 8(2. .;) along t he graph of t he parabol:l > = x~:
C3 The Mraight line in the plane from A(!. I) to Q(2. I} follo\l ed hphe str:~igh t
hne from Q (2. 1) to 8(2. -'>·
Solution ·n1 e stra·tght I'me segment C from A to JJ can he p:uamc m.zcd by .r = I + I.

1
Y = I + 31. 0 ~ 1 ~ !. lienee
• Jc,
ydx + 2z dy ... 1'
1
(I+ 31)tll + 2(1 + r}(3tf1 l
IIGURE 1S.2.9 The three aru of

h 1mple S.
= ln~9,)dl=~ ·
Next. the a rc C2 u f the parabola y "' .r l from,, to lJ i' " scl f·par:~mc tri ting" : It
=
h ns the p:lrame trization x x. y = .rl. 1 ~ " ~ 2. So
1 n
!
1
(x 2 )(dx) ~2(.r)(2.z dx)= f
C:
ytlx +2.tdy = 1I l1
Sx 1 d.<=-.
3
Fin ally. along the straight li ne segment fro m ( I. I ) to (2 . I } we have v,. 1 and
(because y is a constant) dy = 0. Along the vertic~! se gme nt fro m (2. I ) t~ (2. 4) we
=
h ave x !!! 2 and d x 0. Therdorc
f
c)
y dx + 2:r dy = 12
.aa l
{(l )(dx) + (2x)(O>} +f.' y• l
{(y)(O) + (4)(tly)J
= 1 2
••1
1 dx +f.' r• l
4 dy = 13.
•
Example 5 shows that we may well obtain different values for the line integral
from A to 8 if we evaluate it along different curves from A to 8. Thus this line
integral is pallt·deptndtnr. We shall give in Section 15.3 a sufficient condition for the
line integral
Jc
Pdx+Qdy+Rdz.
to have the same value for all smooth or piecewise smooth curves C from A to 8.
and thus for the integral to be independent of path.
line Integrals and Vector Fields

Suppose now that F = PI+ Qj + R k is a force field defined on a region that contains
the curve Cfrom the point A to the point 8. Suppose also that Chasa parametriUltion
r(t) = lx(t) + jy(t) + k :(l), 1 in {a. b).
FIGURE 15.2. 10 The componen t o f F along Clrom

P,_, toP, is F· T.
with a non;rrn velocity vector

tlA • t! r d~
,. = i dr + J rlr + k dr ·
11tc speed as~ocia t cd with this veloci ty vec to r is
Recall from Section 12.6 that the unit umgm t vecwr to the curve C is
I
T =-= -
v (dx. d y • -d~ k) .
- •+-J+
,. u dt dr tit
We wa nt to approximate the wo rk IV do ne by the fo rce field F in mo ving a
particle along th e c urve C from A to IJ. Subdivid e Cas indicated in Fig. 15.2. 10.
111ink of F movin g th<: p:uticlc from P,_ 1 toP.. two consec utive division point s o f C .
The work t:. IV, do ne is approxima te ly the produc t of th e di stance t:. s, from P,_ 1 to
P, (m easured a long C) a nd the tnngential compo n e n t f. T of the force F at a typica l
po int (x(r,' ), y(r,' ). z(t,')) be tween P,_ 1 and P, . 11ms
t:. ll',::::: F(x (t,' ) . y(tj) . ~( r,' )) • T (t,') t:. s, ,
so th e totnl wo rk IV is gi,·en approxima tely by

•
II' ::::: L F (x (t;'). y(l; ). ; (tt" )) · T (t,') t:.s, .
1•1
This approximation suggests that we define the work IV ns
w= jc r:.Tt!.r. ( 12)
Thus work. i~ tire integra/with respect to arc length of tire tangemial componellf of the
fo rce. lnt ulttvely, we may regard dlV = F · T ds as the ir. finitesimal element o f work
done by the tangential comp~ne~t F ·To~ the force in moving the particle along the
arc·length element ds. The hne mtegral m Eq. (12) is then the "sum" of all these
infinitesimal elements of work.
It is customary to write
r =xl+yJ +zk and dr .. l dx+ j dy+ k dz,

Une Integrals SECTION 1S.2 1027
so
T ds = d r.
With this notation, Eq. (1 2) takes the form
II' = 1c f · dr ( 1.3)
that is common in engineering and physies te~ts.

r . To. evaluate the line integral in Eq. (12) or (13). we e ~ press its integra nd and
tmlt of tntegration in t e rm~ of the parameter r. as usual. Thus
W =1 f' · T d1
.(Pt ""Qj .4.Rk) · -(- • +~ J +- k)vdr

c
=
1 4
. I
I'
dx .
eft
d\• .
dt
d~
eft
=1 •
b (
P- +d.f
dt
+ Q~
d\•
dt
R-
d:)
tit
dt .
Titercforc,
IV = Jc Pdx + Qdy+ Rd: . (14)
Titis computation reveals an important rel ation between the two types of tine in te-
grals we have defined here.
THEOREM 1 Equivalent Line Integrals

Suppose that the vector field F = Pi + Qj + R k has continuous component func-
tions and that T is the un it tangent vector to the smooth curve C. Then
1 c
f·T ds = 1 c
l'd.t + Qdy+ R d:. (15)
REMARK If th e orientation of th e curve Cis reversed, then the sign of the right-
hand integral in Eq. (I 5) is changed according to Eq. ( 11 ). whereas the sign of the
left -hand integral is ch:mgcd because T is replaced with - T .
EXAMPLE 6 The work done by the force field F = yl + :j +xk in moving a particle
from (0. 0. 0) to (1,1. 1) along the twisted cubic x = r, y = r2,::: = rl is given by the
line integral
IV =1 c
F·dr = 1c
F·Tds = 1 c
ydx + zdy +xdz,
a nd we computed the value of this integral in Example 3. Hence w = ~· •
EXAMPLE 7 Find the work done by the inverse-square force field

kr k(.x l + yJ + zk)
F(.x, y, z) = r l = (x2 + yl + zl)l/2
in moving a particle along the straight line segment C from (0, 4, 0) to (0, 4 , 3).
b
Solution Along C we have x = O, y = ~.and;: varying from 0 to 3. llJUs we choose

z as the parameter:
xs 0. y s ~. and ;: = z. 0 :;; : ~ 3.
Becausedx = 0 = dy. Eq. (I ~) gives
\\1 =
f k(xdx + ydy + :dz)
, ' ;:·)-
(x·+,··-'- , Jf '
c -
1J
=
(J k·
lo (16 +~z>Jtzd==
[ -k
J J6 +:z o =zo·
k
•
~ 15.2 TRUE/ FALSE STUDY GUIDE
I. Contras t the d~linitions of Jc 1 ds a nd Jc I dx wh_c rc.: C is a smoot h cu~ve
111 ~r~ ce. Descnhc phys1cal mc~sureme nts appropnate to both types of hnc
intq:ra l~. E.xplai n ''h)' one de pe nds on the orie ntation o r direction of inte-
gration :~long the curn: Cam! the o thc:r d o t: s not.
2. Explain the rela tion be tween the line integrals
JF· Td.r anti jrtlx+ Qdy+Rd;:.

c c
In what way does each depend on the o rie nt a tion of the curve C?
15.2 PROBLEMS
In Probl~ms I tltrouglt 5. evaluate rite line integrals In l'rublmtS II through 15, evaluate the line imegral
1 c
f(x . y)ds. 1c
f (x.y)dx. and 1
c
f(x.y)c/y
c
1 F·Tds
along rite indicated path C.

along th~ indicated paramrtric Ctlfv~.
1. J(x.y)=x 2 +yl; x = 4t -l. y=3t+l . -t :; r ~ l
11. F(x,y.z) = : l+xj -yk: Ci>parametrizedbyx = r,v = t 2,
z=r 3 . 0~ r :; t. '
2. f(x . y)=x; .t =r. y= r2• O~ r ~ l
12. F(x . y , : ) = yd + x: j + xyk: Cis the straight line se2ment
3. f (x. y) = x + y; x = e' +I. y = e' - I. 0 ~ r ~ In 2 from (2. -I. 3) to (-I, 2. -1). -
4. f(x, y)=2x -y; x =sint ,y=cost, O~r :;i ~r /2 13. F(x.)-.~} = yi -xj + z k :x = sint,y = cosr,z = 2r.
S. f(x.y) =xy ; x=3t,y=r', O~r~I O ~ y~:r.
14. f (x, >'· Z) = (2x + 3y)i + (3x + 2y)j + 3z 2k: Cis the path
In Problems 6 through /0, evaluate from (0. 0. 0) to (4. 2, 3) that consists of three line se~ments
parallel to the .<·axis. the )'·axis. and the =·axis. in thai order.
/. P(x. y)dx + Q(x , y)_dy. IS. F(·t • y· · ••)- · ·'J .,.. 2xyz k : C is the path from
c -.,.•"21 "'· A'
(-1. 2. -2) to (1, 5, 2) that consists of three line segments
=
6. l'(x. y) xy, Q(x, y) = x + y; Cis the part of the gmph of parallel to the •·a• • ., 1'·•
s the x-ax1·s, an d t he y -ax1s,
. 1.n that order.
y = x 2 from (-1. I ) to (2. 4)
In Prob/enu 16 thro ugh 18. evalllate
7. P(x. y ) = y 2• Q(x. y) = x ; Cis the part of the graph of
x = y 3 from (-1. -I ) to (1.1)
8. /'(.< , y) = y../X. Q (x , y) ~ x../X; Cis the part o( the graph
1c
f(x, )',Z)lfS
of y: = x 3 from ( I. I) to (4, 8 ) forrhe given fimction f (x . y. z) and the givt'n pmlt C.

9. P(x . y) = x2 y, Q(.<, y) = xy3 ; C consists of the line seg· 16. f(x y •)-x)···
· ·• - " c ·1s t h e stra1ght
.
line segment from
ments from (-I. I) to (2, I) and from (2, I) to (2. 5) ( I. - I. 2) to (3. 2. 5).
10. P(x. y) = x + 2y. Q(x. y) = 2< - y: C consists of the line 17• /(x,y.z)
segments from (3. 2) to (3, -I ) and from (3. - I ) to ( - 2. - I) 0 ~ t S l.
= 2x +9xy; Cis the curvex = 1• y-- r2 , ,• = t l,
Une lntt9rals SECTlON 15.2 1029
• ,: .ry:C isthcclliptica lhelixx = 4 c<X 1 , ,
l / (r . .•·· 1 • /2 •J'"9 i!nt, 3J. Imagine an infinnelv JonJ:and untfc>rrrJv ch:u!_!cd " i re th:u
I· 1 0 S I :1 ~:r .
·• I.
• d the centroid of a unifo rm t han ,.i re shaped I'L coincid.~ .., nh thc ::aus.'n: elcctn: C:.;..e that tt e~erts on
tt fin . 1 1+>'1 =al , a > 0 y"'O • ~e the a Untt c:harge at thc pon:t h . 1 1"' 10.01 in the c.•·piJne is
micnc c .r • " •
sC f. .
he rnomcn ts n merua around the .t · and
l(l. ft11 d 1 }'·axes of the . t ( d ~ ) JI
• . ire of rroh1em 19· F(.r .v)= . • .
. p + ~·
the mas\ and centroid of a wire that ha1 con• t d
fi d
•·~ .'" ~ _ i 3 nd ·tHh ape d l'k
t e t he hel ·u .r = 3 C<X 1 ' ant .en- Find L'le "'Orl: done b\· r in mo•lnll a untt ch.u~e 3lons
sttY - <
• ., ~r.O :l l a 2:! .
•> = 3 " " t, the stnigh t line scgme~t from ( J) ( 1~01 to ( 1. 1). (b) ( l.fl
10(0. 1) .
J.
,, •fi nd the morncnt. of in. ertia 1, = c (x l ... >,2) dm a roun d the
... :.,xis of the he heal wtrc of l'rohlcm 21. .}.l Shov. that if f in cons:.~nr foro: field. then it doc<rcro work
on a panicle that mo•es o::;:e unifc>rmh· counterci!'Ckwise
1.1. ,.., • ire sha~Xd
, lidke the
. ,
first·quadrant ponion of th . c!~
•. e or • around the unit Ctrrle in the 1 '·rl3ne. .
1 1 : + z =" a· h3S ensoty o = <X } at the point (.r. y). Find its
J.!. Sho.. th3ttf f = t r = l (.r i - •JI. then r dl1CS zero ... a rk
013 \1. centroid. and moment of inertia around each coordi·
on a p:1nicle I hat mo'es or.'~ untft,rmlv counre rcl.x:k" ise
n31c axis.
around the umt cin:le in rhl' • •··pla ne..
l! A ..ire is shaped ltk e th~ arch x = t - sinr. Y= 1 - C<X t
J6. Fi nd L'le -. orI: done J:., the foro: licld t' = - 'I+ oj in mo,··
(0 ~ 1 :; :z.,.) of ~ cyclotd C and has constant density
tng a particle counle.;lod:,. uc once :uounJ the unit cin:Je
l (.r. yl 11 k. find II~ mass. ccntrotd. and moment of incr· tn the .r ~ ·pbne.
tia I, " fc y1 tim aroun d the x ·Ui\.
37. l.ct C he acul\e on rhe unit sphere 1: + ,.: ~ := = 1. E ~ plain
l~ A "ire is shaped like the nstmid .r = ccxl '· y., sin, 1 "' hy the invcf'C·<quare fllrcc field of Example 7 do.:s u ro
(0 ~ r :; 2:r) and has constant density A(x, y) • 4. find its "'Ork in mm1ng D p.u11cle alon!l C
moment of incnin fo = J,<x
1
+ >1 Jdm a round t he origin.
111 r ml>/rmt .1~ lhfi"'Ch 4 0. th~ /:U rJI ('UM(' C jmfl< tltr flO/lit~
Thr artragt cllllanu Ti fmm tltt' fi.rrd poim P to poinu of the I' anrl Q in tht • ' ·f'l""' n., f"llllt p rrrrr<rnl< tltr /!If' of (I
f'Jia!llrtrf:rtf Cllfi' C C is tft•fined by lrrt · llm y /n.,/dm~:. 11111/ (! u a pmnl on tltr ~:mrmtllfU ft f rom thr
- If
V =-
s
c
D {,t,\•)ds
.
bll >t of li:r bru!tlmJ>: A l .<(~ lh
(I" '
>illft Joltllf>t'tl hJ..r tltt
!'"'""tlidt~ tlown " fri(lt on/,•ss
r C fmm I' In (J u~tln thr mJiurm·r of
the gravrUJtro flfJ/ fmrr I' = -1 Sllj l11 '"ch pml>lrm ,.,,.,.,. tlwt f
d urJ t-'rf' JDmC' amount uf .,. o rk. un tltf' ,,,.,w,. \Y - 15000 h ·lb,
•f.trt sis tltt ltngtlt of C and D (x . y) tlmott·s the diHtmu from
Pra tilt ••ariabl~ po i111 (x. y) of C. Itt /'robl~ms 16 tl~rrlltl(h 31.
as if Itt or >hr had tfrop~tf s1Ta1gh1 do..,. '" rhr II"'"'"'·
comp11rr rh' tll'l'rtlge d isttm ct', e.raclly if pos.ribl<'. l'l.<~ by using :Ill. C is the •tr~ight line scgmcn l y =·• from l' (liMI. l O()) to
a romplllrr algebra sysrcm to find it (eitltrr sym bolically or, if Q(O. 0).
ttrruGr): numuically}. 39. C is the circul31 arc .r = 100 stn 1, y = lfXleo< r from
!6. USt the sta ndard trigonometric pnrametrization of 3 circle P(O. 100) to Q(lOO. 0).
C of u dius a to verify that the average distance of points 40. C is the p~rab<1l ic nrc y = .r: /l (X) from /'( 100. lOll) to
of C from its center is 0 =a. Q (O,O).
!7, find (exactly) the avcr3gc distance from the point (a. 0 ) 41. Now suppose that the ltJO.h ten·story building of l'sob-
IO points of the circle of radius 11 ccnrercd at the origin. lems 38 through-lOis a arcular to"'cr " ith a radtw. of 25 ft.
(Suggwion: Use the law of cosines to li nd D(x. y).) nnd the tire·cscnpc slid~ is a sp11al (hd ical ) ramp that en·
ci rcles the tower once eve~ t-. nlloors. Use a hnc integral
28.. find the average distance (rom th e origin to points of the
to cornputc the " ork done by the ~ra,itational force field
C)'cloidal arch of Problem 24. F = - 200k nn a 2M·Ib pe rson v.ho slides down this (fric·
29. find the a•·erage distance from the origin to poin ts. of the tionlcss) ramp from the top or the ~uilding to the j!round.
><troid of Problem 25. 42.. 1\11 electriC current I in :1 lo ng str 3tg_ht u ire generales :t mug-
ll find the average distance from the origin to points of the netic field R in the space surroundmg the: wtrc. 1ltc vector
helix of Problem 21. R i\ tangen t to any Ctrclc! C that i~ centered on the wire
and lies in a plane perpendicular to th~ wire. Ampert•'s law
ll Thespiral parame trized by x = ..-• cos r. y = ~-· sin r starts
in1plics that
ar (I. 0) ,.hen r = 0 and closes in on the origin a~ t - cc.
ul( improper inregrals to calculate the average distance
from the origin to po ints of this spiral.
3!. find the work done by the inversc·square force field of
Etarnple 7 in moving a particle from ( I , 0. 0) to (0. 3. 4>· where Jt is a certain electromagnetic constant. Deduce from
lnregrate first along the line segmen t from 0:0. O) 10 this fact that the magnitude B = IBI or the magnetic field
(~.0.0) and then along a path on the sphere wtth ~qua· is proportional to the curre~t I and inversely proportional
ltOn il + y2 + ~~ = 2S. The second integral is automaucally to the distance r from the wtre.
tcro. (Why'?)
]5.3 1THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM AND INDEP ENDENCE OF PATH

The fundamental theorem of calculus savs. in effec t. that diffe re nt ia tion a nd inte·
gration arc inverse processes for single_,.;riable functions. Specifically, pa rt 2 of the
fundamental theorem in Section 5.6 implies that
lb G' (c) dr = G (b)- G (n) (I)
if the derivati\'C G' is continuous on [n. b). Theorem I he re can be interpreted as

saying that ··gradient \'ector differentiation" a nd "line in tegration " are. si milarly,
inverse processes for multi,·ariablc funct ions.
T H EOREM 1 The Funda m e ntal Th eorem for Line In t egrals

Let f be a function of two or three variables and let C be a s moo th c urve para-
metrized hy the 'cctor·\'alued funct io n r (r ) for a ~ c ~ b. If [is conti nuo usly differ·
entiablc at each point of C. then
1 c
vf · dr = j(r (b))- /(r (ll)). (2)
1'/lOOF Wcwnsidc r the three-dimensional ca~e /(.r. y . ~)illus t ra ted in Fig. 15.3.1.
ll!Cn 'V/ = (iJfjiJx. ilfj(}y. iJf/ilz). so ·n1eorcm I in Sectio n 15.2 yields
'Vf · dr = 1 IJf dx+ ilf d y+ IJf d:
1c c ax iJy a:
8 -1
- •·(ar
- --r --+
ox oy dr
d:)
of -
t~.r . ilf d y
- dr iJ;: dr
de
· •
y
~y th~ multivariablc chai n r ule (Sect ion 13.7), the integrand he re is the d eriva·
live G (c) of the com posite functio n G(c) = /( r(r )) = j(x(r). y (c), z (r)) . 111c rcfore it
follows that
FIGURE 15.3.1 The path C of

Theorem 1.
1c
'Vf · d r = lb •
G'(r)dc = G(b) - G(a) (by Eq . (1))
= / (r (b)) - / (r (a)).
and so we have established E q. (2). as desi red.
REMARK Ir we write A a nd B for the endpo ints r (a ) and r (b) o f C th ., E (')

takes the form • e n q. -
1 c
'Vf·dr = /(8 )-/(A), (J)
which is quite similar to Eq. (1).
EXAM PLE 1 If
k k
f(x . y , z) = --=
r J x2 + y 2 + z2
then a brief co mputation shows that Vf -- F 15
· 11•c. mvcrse-square
· fo rce fi eld
f (x. y. ~) = k(xi + yj + ~k)
(x2 + y2 + z2 )3/1
of Example 7 in Section 15.2, where we calc 1 .
by the force field F in moving a part icle alo nu ~ted d_•rcctl_y the work II' = k j 20 do_ne
A (0. 4, 0) to the point JJ(O, 4, 3). Indeed u . g a stra•gh t hne segme nt from the pomt
• smg lbeorcm 1 we find that the work done
1031
Tht Fundarrl1!ntal Thi!Oftm and lndt~nd~ct of Path SECTION 15· 3
by F in movin~ ~ p~rtic:le along any smooth path from A to 8 ( th't does n o t p3SS
through the ongm) 15 given by
W= jc f ·dr = jc V f · d r
=/CO. .:. 3) - / (0. .:. 0) (b~ Eq. (3)}
=( -D- (-~) =1~· •

Independence of Path
We nex t apply the fundamental theorem fo r line inteu:~ l.s to d iscuss the qu es tio n
whe ther the integral -
jc t' · T ds= jc f· d r = jc Pd.t+Qdr + Rd~ (.S)
(where F = ( I'. Q, R)) has the samt mlt•t Cor any two curves with the s:~ me initia l
nnd terminal points.
DEFINITION Independence of Path

·n 1c line integra l in Eq. ( -1 ) is said to he inclc·pendent or pnth In thl' re~:lo n D
prO\'ided th:Jt. given any 1wo point~ A and II of D.the inte!!ral has the same \':Jiue
along every piecewise smooth curve. or path. in D fro m A to 8 . In this case we
may write
~ t' ·Tds =LB F·Tds (S)
because the value of the integral depends only on the points A and B. no t on the
particular choice of the path C joining them.
For a tangible interpretation o f independence of path. let us think of walking

along the curve C from point A to point 8 in the plane where a wi:ld with velocity
vector w (.t. y ) is blowing. Suppose that when we are at (.t . y). the wind exerts a
=
force F k w(.t. y) on us. k being a constant that depends on our size and shape ( and
perh3ps other factors as well). Then. by Eq. ( 12) of Section 15.2, the amount of work
the wind does o n us as we walk along Cis given by
W= 1 c
f·Tds = k 1c
w·Tds. (6)
This is the wind's contribution to our trip fro m A to B. In this context. the q uestion
of independence of path is whether or not the wind's wo rk IV depends on whidr path
we choose from point 1\ to point B.
EXAMPLE 2 Suppose that a ~tea_dy \\ind ~lows toward the northeast v.ith velocity
vector w = 101 + 10j in fps umts: rts speed IS lwl = IOJ2 "=' 14 fils-about 10 mi/h.
Assume that k = 0.5, so the wind el!crts 0.5 lb of force for each foot per second of
=
its velocity. Then F Si + Sj . so Eq. (6) yields
W= j (S.S) ·T ds = j Sdx + Sdy (7)

c c
for the work done on us by the wind as we walk along C.

. . _ lOt ,. : :lOt (0 ~ x :i I) from (0. 0) to
For instance. if C 1s the straight path .r - •·
(10. 10) . th en Eq. (7) gives
1
II"
t
= Jo 5 . IOdt +_ :l ·
r
i0d1 = 100 Jo
1 dt = 100
0
.
ft-lb of work. Or. if Cis the parabol~c path ~.t • 0 cl) vields
point (0. 0) to the same terminal potnt (IO. 1 1· 1 en · ·
y;
1 : < r < 10 from the sa me initial
Eq.
1-
II• -- 0
IO
:l d r -•
. .
). . ~I -·• d • -
)
A -
110(5
0
1
+X) t.r
- ['r
- -· ' :!
4- !.r:]IO0 = 100
\\' • <h:tll "ec th at it follows from llteorem 2 or
f1-lb of work. the same ~· hdon~. • ·( - ). ·. !Gpendent o f p:u h. so the wind does
this section that the line tnl<~&ral Jn Eq. 1 15 me~ +
100 ft ·lh of work along any p:llh from (O. 0) 10 (IO. 10 ).
1 __ 2 r . _ 2.r ' . 1lt i~ wind i~ blowing counterclockwise

EXAM PLE 3 Suppo<e that " -: · ' . J_ • • •• (O O) With k = 0.5 as before.
around the origin. a< in a hurncanc wrth li S"~"' .1t · ·
f =-y i + .rj , so th e wor k integral i<
II'= j F·Td.s= j - yd.r +xrly. (8)

c c
If we walk from (10.0) to (-10. 0) along th e s~ra i ght rath Cr ~hro ugl~ thc.eye of
the hurric:t nc. then the wind is always pcrpcnc.lrcular to our tllttt tangen t vector T
(Fig. 15.3.2). lienee F · T = 0. and therefore
FIGURE 15.3. 2 Around and

II' = j f·T ds= j -yd.r + .rr/y=O.
c. c.
through the eye of the hurricane
(Example 2). Dut if we walk alone the se micircular path C: ~h own in Fig. 15.3.2. th en w
remains tange nt to ou r path. so F · T = If ! = 10 at each poi nt. In this c.1 c.
"' =! - ydx+xtly =
c, c,
j
f·T rl.s= IO · IO:r= IOO:r.
111e fact that we get different values along different path~ from (10, 0) to ( - 10. 0)
sho\\s that the line integral in Eq. (S) is no / independent of path. +
1lteorcm 2 tells us when a given line in tegral is independent of path and when
it is not.
THEOREM 2 Independence of Path

llte line integral fc f · T ds o r the continuous vector field 1-' is independent of path
in the plane or space region D if and only ifF = V I for some function 1defined
on /J.
/'JWOF Suppose th at F = V f = (i)ffiJx, ilf/ !Jy. !Jf/()~) and th at C is a piecewise

smooth curve from A to 8 in D paraml!trizcd as usual with parameter 1 in [a . b j.11tcn
the fundamental theo rem in the form in Eq. (3) gives
jc F- T dt= jc "Vf· Td.r-= jc "Vf·d r = f(ll)-1{1\ ).

1ltis result shows tha t the val ue of the line integral depend s only on the points A and
/J anc.J is th erefore independe nt Of the choice Of the particulnr path C. lltis prO\'CS
the if pa rt of'flteorem 2.
To prove the only if part of Theorem 2. we su ppose that th e line integral is
indepe ndent of pa th in D. Choose a fued point Ao = A o(.t o. Yo. : o) in D. and let
~ fundamental Th~rtm and ~~~ndtnct of Path SECTlON 1S.3 1033
n· == B(x · y. t ) be an :ubitra . · · . 8 ·n D \\C
define the fun,.. · f b I) pomt an D. G tven anv p3th C from ,\ o to I •
-.ton v• m•a
· - n~ o f t he equauon
. •
( 1 , _,,
f (x. y.:) =J c
f·T d1 =
1 (C;t.... =.,t
f" · T ds. (9)
Beca use of the hvnnth · f . )

d d · .-- ests o Independence of plth. the resultim: ,·aluc of /(.r • Y·:
epe n s only on (J: . ·) d -
"t . · ~ ·- an not on the particular plth C used
we wri~' 'enfy that 'iif = r . sup~ that r "" P i + Qj T R k . To ~how that iJff iJ.r = r ·
f (.r +h.y.:) - /(J: .y.:) = J'•·• •.:•

(lf ... :..;l
F·Tds- j ''·'·''
· ·-~ ·""':al
f"·T ds
= r··•·'·''
I • ' .: )
F · T ds.
l.n the last integral. we may take the path of intC!;r:ltion to he the parame trized
h?c segment /. from ( t. ).:) to ( t +h.). : ) defined bv ¢(1)= ( • + rll.y. : ). 'Iltcn
1> (r l = (II· 0. 0) =hi. \0 the umt tans:ent , ector is T= i. Al~o. d r d: = 0. so =
=
rls d.1 = It dt alo ng this p;l!h. Therc!~re .
f (x + lt. y.:) - f ( t .y.:) = £ f · T dJ = fo'r(¢(t))hdt
= h l' (o(i )) = It l'( r + ilt. -"· :)

fo r some i betwee n() and I ( by the average value theorem fo r single-,ariablc integrals
in Section 5.6). It follows that
iJf . f (.r+ lt.y. z) - /(J:,y.:) . •
-ax = h-.0
1tm h = ~-o
hm f' ( r + tit v •)
t • t ...
=l' (.r •
)' · )
• ,..
by th e continuity of I' . It follows simil:~rly that ilf f3y = Q :m d iJffil: = R. ~o 'iif == F

a s desired. ~
For a first application of 111corcm 2. conside r the force field f ' yl + .rj that =-
co rresponds to the counterclockwise wind discussed in Example 3. Because the line
integral fc F · T ds is norindependent of path in any plane region that eithe r includes
or encloses the ori!lin. it follo" s that t' is not the grad•ent uf a ny scalar function f.
By cont rast. the force field F =: 5i + 5j. which corresponds to a con~tant wind
b lowing northeast, is oh\'iously the gradient o f the funct ion f (x. y) = S.t + 5 y. 11tere·
fo re lncorem 2 implies that the: line integral fc F · T <Is is independent of path in the
entire plane R 2 •
Similarly. the inverse-square fo rce field 1-'(.r. y.:) =kr/ r 3 o f Example 1 is the
gradient of the function f (x. y. <:) = - kfr (w~c~e r = J x 2 + y 2 + ;:1 ) . Hence Theo·
re m 2 implies that the line integral fc F · T ds •s mdepcndcnt o f path in R 3 minus the
origin.
Comervative Vector Fields
DEFINITION Conservative Fields and Potential Functions

llte vector field F defined on a region D is con~er~atl~e provided that there exists
a scalar function 1defined on D such that
F=Vf (10)
at each point of D.ln thiscasefis called a potential function for the vector field F.
-
For instance. Example I implies that ICx. y . :) = -k/ r is a potential function

2 2 2
for the inve rse·squa re force field F(.r. y. : ) = kr j r 3 (where r = /r + y + : ).
COMMENT In some physical applications the sc:.la r function I is called a potential

function for th e vector field F pro,·idcd th:ll F =- 'VI.
If the line integral fc F. T ds is known to be independen t of path. then TIJCorem

2 guarantees th at the vector field F is conse rvative and thnt Eq. (9) yields a potential
r
function for F. In this case-beca use the: 1'3)Ue of th e integral docs not depend on
the specific curve C from A to 8-we may 11 ell \\Tile Eq. (3) in the fo rm
1 8
F · T ds = 1 8
'VI · dr =l(ll )-I(A } (11)
that is still more rem iniscent of the ordinary fundamental theorem.
EXAMPLE 4 Find a potential function for the conservative vector field
F(x. y) = (6ry- .' ·3)1 + (-l 1· + 3r2 - 3xy )j .

2 ( 12)
Solution 13ccn u ~c we nrc give n the informa tion that F is a con~ervative fie ld. the
line integral J F · T til is indepe nden t of path by Titcon: m 2. ·ntcrefore we may :1pply
Eq. (9) to linu a scala r potenti al function f Le t C bt: tlw straight-line path from
A (0. 0) to II ( r1. Yl) parametrized by .c = x1 r. y = y 1t. 0 ~ r ~ l. Titt:n Eq. (9) yield~
f(xt. 1
ytl =
11
F · T ds
=1
8
(6xy - /)dx + (4y + 3x 2 - 3x/)dy
=[ (6x1y1r 2 - yrr3)Cx1dt ) + (.ty•r + 3x~r 2 - 3x 1yrr 3)(1•1dr )

=[ (4yrr + 9xfN 2 - 4.c 1 y~r 3 ) dr
= [2ylr2 + 3xlylr3- Xl)'ft']~ = 2yr + 3xfyt- XI)'?.
At this point we delete the subscripts. beca use (x . ) · b' ·
plane. Thus we obtain the potential function I· >I IS an ar ltrary pomt of the
f(x. )') = 2y 2 + 3.r 2 y- xyl
. I to obtam
for the vector field F in Eq. ( 12). As a check · we can dl'fferent1me .
a1 1 of
oy = 4y + 3x2- 3xy2.
ax =6xy- )'.
•
Out how did Wt: know in advance tint II . , .
conservntive'? 'll1c answer is provided bv 'I;
l c vector held I· m Example 4 was
on Green's theorem is outlined in th.. ne'xt co~em ; a proof of this theorem based
5CCIIOn.
1 3
~ ·
TH EOREM 3 Conservative Fields an I p .

Suppose that the vector field f = Pi . Q. . c . ote nha~ Functions
rectangle R in the x y-pla ne Then F i;conJ IS con.tln~ouslr differentiable in an open
. · servallve 111 R , d h .
f uncuon /(.c. y) defined on R-if and on! , ·r , -~n ence has a potential
} I ' at each pomt of R
aP aQ •
i1y =a;· (13)
,...
I
1035
T~ funda-nenu l Th«l<tm and lnde~ndence ol Pa th SECTlON 15· 3
Observe that the vector field f in Eq. ( 12). where P(:c. y) = 6.xy - >.J nnd
QCx , y) =
4 > + Jxl - 3xy 1 • satisfiesthc criterion in Eq. ( 13) b<:c:!USC
-aP = 6.r -3 r-' =il -

Q.
ay . ax
' su f •ICicnt
When th ~s r. · · ·ISs~ (sijed
condition for the exis tence o f 3 potenti:~l funcuon 1 • ~·.
the
method l ll~tratcd in Example 5 is ~uallv an easier "3v to find a poten!l:l l fun~u on
th an the evaluation of the line intt>gral in. Eq. (9)-the ~cthod us erl in Example ..t
EXAMPlE 5 Given
P(.r,y)= 6.cy - y 3 and Q(.r.y) = ~_,· +J.r 2 - 3:cl.

note that P and Q sJt isfy the co ndition cP/ay = a Q/ CJ.r. Find :1 potentia l fu nction
f(x. y) such that
ar iJf ' , ( 14)

- = 6.r v -\.l
o.t . • and
a_.. =~y + Jc·- 3.t\··
-
. .
Solutio n Upon integrating the tint o f these cqu.1 tions with respect to x. we ge t
(IS)
where {(y) i~ nn ~arbitrary (unction· of y alone: it act~ n~ a ~con~t ant of int cgrati ~n··
with respect tn .t. bccau\c it~ dcri,·atlve with respect to_. is zero. We nex t dctcrrnmc
;(y) by imposi ng the second condi tion in ( ! ~):
'iJf , , ' , .,
- =3r -3.cy· +( (y)= ~y+Jc·- 3.cy·.
iJy
It fo llo ws tha t ~ '(y) = -l y, so ((y) = 2y2 + C . When we set C = 0 and s u bstitut e the
result into Eq. (15 ). we get the same po tentia l function
f(.r. y) = 3.r' y- .r y3 + 2y 2
thnt we found by entirely different methods in Example 4. •
Conservative Force Fields and Conservation of Energy
Given a conservative fo rce field f. it is customary in physics to introduce a minus
sign and write f' = - V V. ll1en l' (.r. y. ~) is called the potential energy at the point
(.t , y. ~ ) .With f = -V in Eq. (II). we have
' II'= 1 8
f·Tds = V(A ) - V ( B ). (16)
and this means that the work W done by Fin moving a particle from A to 8 is equal
to the tfr crease in potential energy.
Here is the reason why the expression conservative field is used. Suppose that a
particle of mass m moves from A to 8 under th e in~uence of the conservative force
f. with position vector r(r) , 11 ~ r ~ b. Then Newtons law F(r(t)) == m r'' (r) == m v'(t)
=
with dr = r'(t) dr v(r ) dr gives
1 8
F·Tds = lb mv' (r)·v(r)dr
= t mD,[~v(r) • v(l)]dr= [~m(v(t)jl[.

Thus with the abbreviations VA for v(a) and t•o for v(b), we see that
8
I I
1A f·dr= 2m( vs) 2 - m(vA) 2•
2 (17)
1036 0 1,\PTE R IS Ve<tor C.!lculu1
By ~qu:u in!; the right·h :~nd ~ides o f Eqs. ( II\) ~nd ( li). we get the formula
! m {l'.): + 1'(:1) = ~m(t·B): + 1'(8). (18)
ll1is i\ the llw of con,N• ntion or mt'chanic-:11 cncr~· fo r a particle moving under the
influence <>f ~ cor:st·n·,ui•··· force field: Its totnl energy- the sum of its kinetic ene rgy
! nil': :1nd its potcn ti:JI cnc rg~· 1 '-rem:~i ns conswnt.
EXAMPLE 6 If" <! t:Jke J. = G .lfM in the c:~lcu!Jtion in Example I. we see that the
invcr$C·squ:uc gr:n•it:~t ion:1l force
G .\f t'l r
F(.r • ."· : ) = - - ,J.,.-
(exerted on 3 m:t'-( plrticlc m by a m:~ss .If fi~cd a t the origin) is the negative of the
gradien t of the po tential cncq:y function
G .lfm
l '(r, ."· : ) = - --.r
I knee Eq. ( ll') irnphcs tha t the total em:rgy of the m:1ss plrticle moving with velocity
t' a t dt~tan,·e r from the ongin i~ the o:o nst:m t
I , G.lfm
t: = - 111l'' - - -.
2 r
It foll,m$ (fM imt:tn<·c) th:ll if- f<>r \\hJtcvcr re:~son-thc particle approaches the
urigin (r - 11). the n its •cloci ty IIlli( ! increase without b ound (t• - +oo). +
0 15.3 TRU E/ FALSE STUDY GUIDE

I. Giv.- ~..:vera! cxampk~ of line integra ls th:~t arc I ll)/ independent of the path.
:!. Give several cxampks of a vector Held F and a closcd path C such that
1 C'
F·T ds # 0.
~. Give sc,·cral examples <>f vector fields that are not conservative .
.
. 15.3 PROBlEMS
D<t<mtiru h'ho•thcr thr ,.,.,.,.,fir!.Is in l'ml>lrm• I throu.~h 16 art• II. = (.r cosy+ sin y)i + (y cos .r +sin .r}j
l'(.r . .")
cotr.~en·nti\'(".
Find poto:tia! functions fn r thosr tluu art• C(llt$c~n·a·
1i1·e (t·ithu by in.rpation or by ll.<ing thr mrthml of E.mmpt.• 5). 1!. rex . y) = t' •• tc.•.v + y )l + (.t y + .t)j)
l. l''(.• . .'') = ~~·· 1· ~ ... )l + (J t + ::!y)j D. n •. yl = <.'•'.''~ + y'}i + (3AJ ..,2 + .•·' + 4xy3)j
!. r(.r . y) = (·h - y)l + (6y- .<)j 14. l'(r . .") = V ' si n y + tan y)l + (e' cosY+ x sec! y)j
3. F(.t . .'') = (3.<1 + ~.,.:)i + ( ~t y + tiy 1 )j 2
15.1'(.r, y)= ( •_3y') t + (2y_ .r 2 • 1 )·
= (2.•·y' + .h 1 )1+ (~< y + 4y')j >' •
1
4. F(.r . .'') .t
l
' ... .v'
- ... -
.j"j J
~- t'( t, y) = (2y + sin 2.• )i + (3 r + c.•s Jylj
16 J'( •) - 2xsr. - 3yS/~ J y S/3 - ') S/2
• .r • .> - " ' I+ _, j
6. F(.r. yl = (·I,:,,. - 5/)1 + (.r~ - 2th.r ~)j lr·'·y-ll 3.r3!l yS!~
7. F(.r . .•·>= (r' + ; ) I + Cy 1
+ In .r)j In l'ml>f,•m.t 17 tlrmt 1 o/1 20
• • •'
I
• npp )' the metho d of E.rnmple 4 to
/lltd.aptll<'lltl<ll f~tnction fo r tht• i~:di<'tltt'd w:ctor frdd.
II. t'(.r. y) = ( I + y<")l+(2y+.u")j
17. 11lc vector ficiJ of Problem 3
9. t '(.r,y) = (cos .r + ln y)l + (~ +<'')J Ill. '11tc vector ticl,t of Prohlcrn 4
x+y 19. '11lc wctor fidJ of l'rnhlern iJ
10. F(.t, y) = ( r + nrct3n y)l + ~ j
I + y• 20. The vector tield or Prohlcrn 8
,_,]/th rough 26, Jhowrhattht /IIVtn 1• • Cr~·s Theottm SECTION 15.-4 1037
prob~<•·- . 111 r lllt~gro/ h
I~ 'r.tof path mthr tf111Tt .ty ·plant,thrn calcul I ' In ·
Jr.f'"'t . l
~frJo.rl"'t integra ·
a r lr.~ 'alue l-l ut F<.t.y. ;: ) =
Iunction 1 bv
1 ~; _ ex~.._ J )j .._ ( <J .._ l )k. Define the
l....
.~ l
(,: ~ l t y)d.t + ( r + 2..))d)
ll.
1 11
'
1<~.,.:1 = 1 I' · T JJ.
1!.
£.. (2.r- 3y) dx + (2)- 3.r )dy
DetcrCJine 1 b. e,;!ua:ins:
"'I= f. . -
,;.is
c
• i:ere Cis the llt3i2!1t line ~t..-ncnt frorr. (0. 0. 0> to ( r . .'. : l
l:r.e ~;~te;:r~ l. then shov.· that
.
3~. Let /t.r.;r) = t.ln ' 'hl.r l. v. hich if • >0 equ:ll.s the pol3r
angle e for the roict ex . .>l. (a) Sho,. tlut
-• I • ~J
f = "'l= r··, ,... .
:5. [t
'"
1 • l ZI
(\iny + ycosx)dx + hin.r + .rro<.y)dy
~
(b)Sur~ rhatA ( r 1 • • 1 ) (r1 .t',JnnJHr r1 • ·~ l Cr:.ll:>

= =
11.·11
are tv.o point! in t~e np,t h.llf·r b nc , ' l l anJ that C i< n
~
1(1101
(r• + Y<'')<l.r + (c' + u')tl y lmoorb rune from A to /1. E ~rllr n "h) ct f••ll'" ' ' fwm the
fundamental theorem f,,r lone cntc~ral< that fc.
F · T d < ""
find apmmtit~lfuncrirm for c'tiCIJ oftire C'OIIfrrvmiv• vrctor /i•ltl• 0:-11,. (c) Sur~ I hat C 1 "the urr-·r half of th e unit ci rcle
"' P1Ciblt'l1u 27t!J ro,Kh 2'1. from II. 0) to (- I. 01 •ntl thJt C: i< the lc"' "r half. nriented
al•o from ( 1. OJ to ( - 1. 01. Show that
+ xy k
l7. f (z.y.<) = y~ l -~xtJ
!8. f(z, y, Z) = (lr- y- t )l + (2y - x)j + (2: - x)k j •··
c,
T dz= .• v. hcrea< j(:
·· · T cfr • -n .
l'J, f (s . y. :1 = (_vcos:- y:•' )I + ~r COH - :r')j - (<y sin: +
yr')k
\\'h y docs'"" not contr><.l>ct the fund.une ntnl theorem'!
JO. Let f (.r . y) c ( - yl ·~ x j ){(x 1 + y1 ) for x nnd y no t both zero. 36. Let f = krf r' be lhe cnvcr\C·squ.:ue f<'rcc t\cld of E.am·
Calculate the values of pie 7 in Section 15 l . Sho"' lh.lt the 10 o rl du ne hy t' in mov.
jc F ·Ttl s
ing a pa rt icle from a pornt at dr<tance r 1 from the origin to
r,
n point at distance from the o ng.>n ;, Jiven by
along both the upper and the lo wer halves o f the circle z 1 +
.vi = I from ( I, 0) to (-I. 0). Is the re a function 1 = l<x, y)
defined for x and )' not both 1c1o such that V1 = F? Why?
37. Suppose that an ennh ntellite with mass m = 10000 k g
ll S!!ow that ifthe force field f' = PI + Q j is conservative. then travels in an elliptical orbit "' ho~ apogee (fan hest point)
ar tay = 3Qtax. Show that the Ioree field of Problem 30 and perigee (dns<st point ) are. re.pcctivel)·. 11000 k m
s.atisfies the condition 3 P{ay = aQtax but nevertheless is and 9000 km from L~C center or the e•nh. Calculate the
not conservali\'"c:.
work d one against the eanh's gra,'iutional force field
31. Suppose that the force field F = P I + Q j + R k is ronser· f=- GMm r f r' in lifllng the utcllitc fro m perigee to
•·ati•·e. Show that apogee. Use the ''alucs .II =
5.97 >< 10:' kg fo r the mau
ap ao aP aR aQ aR of the eanb and G = 6.67 >< 10·" l"·m 2.' kg2 for the univer·
Slll gravitational constant.
ay =a;· a: =a;· and a? .. ay.
ll. Apply Theorem 2 and the result of Problem 32 to show that 38. Calculate the work that must bt done against the sun's
gravitational force field in transponing the satellite of
Problem 37 from the earth to ~!an. Use the values M ~
j uy dx +x 1dy + y 1 dz 0
1.99 >< 10' kg for the mass ofthesun. rr = !.SOx 101 km for
c the distance from the sun to earth, and r,. .. 2.29 " !OS km
• is not independent of path. for the distance from the sun to Man.
15.4 ~GREEN'S THEOREM

Green's theorem relates a line integral aroun~ a sim~le closed plane curve c to
an ordinary double integral ovc~ ~he plane regwn. R wuh boundary c. [The curve
C parametrized by r : [a, b]-+ R ts called dosed tf r (a ) = ~ (b) and simple if it has
no other "seif-inte rsc:ctions."] Suppose t.h at the c.un·e C .rs piecewise smooth- it
co nsists of a fini te number of parametric arcs Wtth conttnuous nonzero velocity
Th C has 3 unit tangent vecto r T everywhere: except possibly a t a fini le
vectors. en .. cl •· • d ' ·
number o f cornu pointS. The poslli\'e, or roun1er oc.. wL~e. trec t:on along Cis th e
1 038 CHAPTER 15 Ve<tor Calculus
direction determi ned by a parametrization r (r) o f C such rhat th e region R rem.ains

o n the left as the point r ( r ) traces the boundary curve C. ·n 1at is, the vector obtamcd
from the uni t tangent ,ector T by a coun tercloc kwise rotation throug h 90• always
points inro the region R ( Fig. I SA. I). 11te bou nd ary curve Cis said to be posith·ely
oriented if it is equipped with such a parametrization. ·n,e symbol
iPdx+Qdy
c
th en denotes a line in tegra l around C in the posit ive dirccti o n- thnt is. using a para-
FIGURE l S.4.l Positive metrization consi~ten t with the posiri,·e orientation o f the c urve.
orientation of the curve C: The The follo"ing result first app.:arcd (i n an equ i,·a lcnt fo rm) in n book let on th e
region R w ithi n Cis to the left of application~ of mat-hema tics to c kc tricity and magnetism. puhli~ hcd priv:llcly in 1828
the unit tangent vector T. by the self-ta ught Englis h mathematica l physicist George Green ( 1793-1 84 1}.
GREEN'S THEOREM
Let C he a po~i ti vely o ri e nt ed piecewise-smooth simple closed curve tha t bounds
th e region R in th e pla ne. Suppose that the func tions P (x . y) a nd Q(x . y) have
contin uous first-order pa rti a l deri vative~ on R. ·n,en
iC
l'dx + Qdy = f)_ (-.-- -ill') dA.
R
i•Q
cJ.r ,Jy
(I)
PROOF First we give a proof for the case in which the region R is both horizontallv
simple ami vertica ll y simple. Then we indi cat e how to extend th e result to mor~
genera l re gions.
Recall from Section 14.2 that if R is vertica lly simple. then it has a d esc ription
of th e form !11 (.r) ;£ Y;:; g:(J). a ;a x ::l b. The boundary curve Cis then th e union of
the four arcs C1. C2. C3. and c. of Fig. 15.4.2. positivel y o rie nted as indicated there.
Hence
f c
l'dx = 1c1
Pdx + 1
c:
Pdx + 1 c,
Pclx + 1 c,.
Pdx.
• b The integrals along bot~ C2 a nd c. are zero, because on those two curves x(r) is
constant , so that d.r = x (I) dr = 0. 1l1Us we need compute 0 1 th · 1 1
c 1 and c3 . n Y e mtegra s a ong
FIGURE I 5.4.2 The boundary
lltc poi nt (.r . Kl (.r}) traces Ct as x increases fro m 0 to b 1 1 ·
(.r. g2 (.r)) trnces CJ as .r dec rem.:~ from b to a. H ence
curve C is the union of the four
arcs Co, C2, C1 , and c•. • w tereas t l C polllt
f Pdx = J.bP(x, 8 t(.r}) t/.r + 1"P(.r, g2(.r))dx

c • h
= - !.b[P (x • 82(X))- l' (x, 8t(x))) dx = - !.bi g,(z) (J p dy dx

a g, (x) (Jy
by the fundamental theorem of calculus. Thus
lcj Pdx=-j'fjR ~dA. (Jy (2)
In Problem 36 we ask you to show in a similar way that
i c
Qdy = +j'Jr aQ
rJx
R
ciA (3)
if the region R is horizontally simple We th b .

Green's theorem, by adding Eqs. (2) a~d (J). en ° tam Eq. (I). the conclusion~
Gr~en's Theor~m SECTION I S.-4 1039
Th~ C'Ompletc proof of G rec-n·s theorem fo r more I!Cnc r:~l rcg1·ons 1·s he
sror.: {1f a 1
• d the
. ) On
dil'jd ·d .. n c cmcnt:n y text. nut the typical re~:ion R that appears in practice ca n be
( Into •m 1lk·r rc · fl. - · lly
simp!~ G · . • ~IOn< ' · R : .... . .R' th:\l arc both vcrticalll' nnd ho nzontn
· ~- tr~<·n ' th<·nr · f h · . · 1 ld f r
C:IC' ~
• h o f t h c r~~an~~~ • R then fnllows from the fact tha t It 10 S 0
Rt n1R liT I l' rcg1on
r: · I· : .... . R,.(Sce Problcm 37)
th o r example. " c c:tn di1·idc the horscshoc-shnp. cd rc nion R of Fig. 15.4.3 into
<' 11\o T<'\!1011' fl. · t fl.' · II ·
•• 1c \\•c •also•., 11r.m, :. hot h uf which nrc hnriw uta"'ll)• simple nnd ve ruca h>
stmp 1 1 ·1 f
· of' R ~· ' •' ~'11 <' the huuudary C u f U nccordin l'iy
I)<.>unl!arv c ~
:1nd write c, U D 1 or t c
G · ·.
th · . 1 .mu : U 1>: fur I he boundary of R: ( Fig. 15.4.3). App lyang rc c n s
corc m S(pa ratcly to the regions f/. 1 and R:. we get
flGURI t S.4.] Ot'Compos•09 th~

-<tl Rinto two hon:on:JIIv Jnd f Pdx + Qtly = !! (iaxl Q- il~)
"> t!A
.,.. ' SliT'P~ rtglons b) usong ·'
""
,.:-•" c,vn, ~.
an d
j<':u ll:
P dx + Q.ty = JJ R:
(aQ
J .r
_ a~)
a)
dA.
\\'h.en we add these tW(l equations. the result is Eq. ( 1). G reen's theorem fo r the
rcp on R, bccau~c th~ two line integrals nlong D 1nnd f) l cance l. Thi\ occurs because
D1 nnd D: rcprcsl'nt the same cur\'c with opposite orientations. so
jo, l'dx + Qdy =- jo, P d.r +Qdy

by Eq. (II ) o f Section 15.2. 1! the refore follows that
RC~~ IS." " t..IJ 'l)' •mponant

j Ca\..Da\..C •UO•
l'dr + Qdy=f
<"tUC:
P dx+ Q d y= f
C
Pdx + Q dy.
"'~ o-. be d«ompo~ into
>c~ rrg-oru by tn.ng on~ ot Simibrly. " e could estabh~h Green's theorem for the region shown in Fig. 1 5.4 .~ by
"'''t ~~ di,i ding it into the four simrlc regions indicated there.
EXAMPU I Use Gree n's theo rem to evaluate the line int.cgral
1 ('
(2y + J 9 + x>) dx + (5x + rm""') ely.
" here Cis th e positively orient e-d circle x 2 + y2 = 4.
Solut ion With /' (x. y) = 2y + ~ and Q(.r. y) = 5t + r ••<Ul'l>. we see that
aQ - ar = 5 - 2 = 3.
ar ily
lk o u}C C bou nds R. a circular d i\k with :Ire:~ ·b . Green's theorem therefore implies
that the ghcn line integral is equa l to
ff• 3 riA o 3 · 4.'! ., llT. •
RfMA.RK Su ppo'e that the force llcld f' is dell ned by

f'(x . y ) • (2y + J 9 - x ' )I + (5r + t"'"• ')j • P( t . )') I + Q (.t . y) j.
un·ng th e not~ t ion 1n Eumplc. I . 'l11en ( 3\ in Section
. 15.~ ) the wo rk . II' done bv• the
force field f' in mol'ang• parti cle count erclockw1\e once aro und the cu cle c of radius
2 n ~I\ en by
"'•i F·Tds•t Pdx • Qdy • fl. (~~- ~) dA •fl. 3dA •12.-r

11 in Eumple I.
h
1040 CHAPTER 15 Vector Cafculu~
1
EXAMPLE 2 Evaluate the line integral
~ 3xydx + 2f2 dy.

c
whe re Cis the posi ti vely oriented boundary o f the region R s hown i~ Fig. 15.4.5. It
=
is bou nd ed abo ve by th:: line y .f and below by the parabo la Y = x· - 2f.
Solution To evalua te the lin e integra l direc tly. we would need to pa rametrize se pa-
rately the line and th e parabola. l ~tead. we apply Green 's theorem with P (x • )') =
3xy a nd Q(x. y ) = 2f", so
ii Q aP
- - - = 4x - 3x = x.
iix !Jy
FIGURE 1S.4.S The region of
Example 2. Then
i3xydx+2f~dy= jjxdA
C R
In Examples I and 2 we found the double integr:~l e asie r to evaluate directly

than the lim: integra l. Someti mes th e si tua tion i5 the n:verse. ·n1e fo llowing conse-
quence of Green's thcorl'm illustra tes the tl'c hnique of evaluat ing a double integral
JJRf(x . y )t/A by converting it int o a lin~ int egral
ic
Pdx + Qdy.
To do this we must be able to find functions P (x. y ) and Q(x. y ) such that
iJQ iJ P
- - -=f(x.y).
ox 0)'
As in the proof of the following result , this is sometimes easy.
COROLLARY TO GREEN'S THEOREM

The area A of the region R bounded by the positively oriented pieceY.ise·smooth
simple closed curve Cis given by
A=~~ -ydx+xdy=-
c
i.
c
ydx= J
~
xdy. (4)
PROOF With P(x. y) = -y and Q(x, y ) =0, Green's theorem gives

-f_ydx=JJ ldA=A.
C R
Similarly, with P(x, y) a 0 and Q(x, y) = x, we obtain
fxcly=jj ldA=A.
C R
The third resu.lt may be obtained by averaging the left· and right-hand sides in the
last two equauons. Alternatively, with P(x. y) = -y/ 2 and Q("x. y) = x j 2. Green's
1041
Grffl''s ~rem SECTION 15 .4
theorem gives
~i -yd~+:cdy= f~G+Dd.~="· -<
EXAMPLE 3 Apply the corolllrv to Green's theorem to find the nrc:~ A of the
region R bounded by the ellipse ;cif a: .,. yl/ b: = I.
Solution With the parametrization~ = 0 cos 1. ,. =b sin 1. 0 ~ r ~ 1::-. Eq · (4 ) gives
A= i ;c dy = 1~• (a cos l )(b cos 1 dl)
1 1~ (1 +eos2r)dl = :rab .
= -ab
2 0
•
fiGURE 15.4.6 An annular . By usi ng the technique of subdi vidinl! 3 rel!ion into simpler ones. we can extend
re9ion-the boundary cons•sU of Green's theorem to re2ions with boundari~s that C'Onsist of two or more sim ple closed
twO simple closed curves, one curves. For example. ;onsidcr the annula r region R of Fig. J;;..t.6. "ith bou ndJry C
witllin the other. consistin g of the two simple cla<cd curws c, and C:. l11 .:- po~it ive direction alo.n!!
C-thc direction for which the reeion R al" 3 \'$ lies on the left-is co untcrclockw1sC
on the out er curve C1 but clockwi<c on the in.ncr rurve C;.
We divide R into two region< R 1 and R: by using two crosscuts, as sho~vn
in Fig. 15.4.7. Applying Green's theorem to each of th ese subregions. and notmg
cancellation of li ne integrals in opposite dir~c t ions along the crossc uts. we get
fl. (aQ il l' ) fJ. (aQ aP) + fj (iJQ- - aP)

R
-
iJx
- -
ily
dA = -
Ko
-
a~
- -
ily
dA
R:
iJx i'ly
dA
i + f + =
c,
( P dx Q dy)+
c,
( Pd:c Qdy)
IICURE 15.4.7 Two crosscuu

convert the annular region into
f + c
= Pdx Qdy .
t~e tmion of two ordinary regions
A, and Rz, each bounded by a Thus we obtain Green's th~orem for the gi,•en region R. What makes this proof work
singledosed curve. is that the opposite line integrals along the two crosscuts cancel each other. You may,
of course, use any finite number of crosscuts.
EXAMPLE 4 Suppose that Cis a positively oriented piecewise-smooth simple closed

curve that encloses the origin (0. 0). Show thJt
-yd.r +xdy
ic .t
2
+ .,..• =2,'1',
and also show that this integral is z.ero if C does nor enclose the origin.
2 2
Solution With /'(.r. )') = -y/(.r + .'' ) and Q(.r . .") = .r f(.r2 + .'·2 ). a brief compu-
tation gives iJQ/ih- IJI'foy :" 0 whc~ ·~ andy are not both zero. If the region R
bounded by C docs not contam the ongm. then I' and Q and their derivatt·~
continuous on R. Hence Green. ·s. I heorem ·unp r·1cs that the integral in (jUcstion
• · es. are
~~~RE 1S.4.8 Use the small h 1s zero.
(Ex e c. ij Cencloses the origin u c does cncIosc 1h_e ongm. t ~n ':''e enc.1ose the origin in a small circle Cu of
atnple 4). radius c1 so small that c. hes wholly wuhm C (fig. 15.4.8). We pararnctriz, tl · . I·
. 0 < < "· Th G • c us Ctrc c
by~ = a cos 1, y = a s1~ r, = t = ..,'1'. en reen s theorem, applied to the re ion
R between C and c•. g•vcs g
1 -yd;c +xdy
]'_ .r2 + y2
_ 1
J:c.
-y d.r +~dy
.r 2 + ,.2
-jj
- OdA ==0.
C . R
IMPORTANT llu: reason for the minus sign on the left-hand side ·1 th f
the positive orientation of c. with respect to the region R is clockw'ts ~ ( c. a~t that
c as tndtcated
. · n d e termines a counterclockwise
in Fig. 15.4.8). whereas the sele.cted parametnzatto
o rienta tion o f c•.
There fore.
f_ - yd:r + :rdy = i - y~r +~ dy
c ;r2 .._ y2 lac~• ( :~ s~n:~(-a sin t dt ) + (a cos t )(a cost dt)

= 0
(a cos r ) Z +(a sin r ) 2
= rob ldr=2.•.
Jo •
REMARK The result of Example.! can be interpreted in te rms of the po lar-coordinate
angle (} = arctan(y/ :r). Because
-Yd:r +.rdy
dB= . • ,
X"' +.\' ..
the line integral of E~ample -l measures t he net change in 0 .as w~ go ar~und t~e
curve C once in a coun tcrclock\\ise direction. l ois ne t c ha nge ts 2:r tf C enc oscs t e
origi n and is zero othe rwise.
PROOF OF TIIEOIWM 3 I N SECT/0 .\ ' l!i.J We now s ke tch a proof that_if the
,·ector fie ld F = Pi + Qj i5 continu ously d iffcrcntiah lc in a n o p e n rec tnnglc ~ tn the
.ry -planc. then F i .con~crva t ivc in R if and only if iJ Pt ay = aQ/Jx at cach_pomt of R.
First suppo~c tha t F is conse rvative in R. Then there cx tsts n functton f (x. y )
defined on R such that
ilf . Jf . p · Q ' F
VJ = - t + -J= •+ J =·
ilx iJy
:u each point of R. The n I' = ilf/C! x and Q = fJ/ /oy. so it follows that
aP a ( of)
ay = 0)' il.r
<N iJ 2f
= ily iJ.r = ox iJy = CJ.r
a (a1oy ) = aaxQ.
as desired. The equality in th e midd le-where the order o f partial differentiation is
reversed-fo llows from the equality o f mixed second-ord e r partial derivatives of a
fun ction whose second-o rder partial derivatives are co ntinuo us.
:-/ext. for the conve rse. suppose tha t aI' fJy =a Q/Cx a t e ach point of R. If we
can show that line integrals of I' arc independe nt of the pa th in R. then it will follow
from l11eorem 2 in Section 15.3 that F is conse rvath·e in R. as d esired. So let C and
1
C2 be two smooth paths in R with the same initial p oint A and the same terminal
point B. ant! let C = C t U ( -C2) be the closed path that first follows Ct from A to B
and then follows thc n:vcrscd path -C2 from B back to A. H C is a simple closed
path (one with no crossing po ints) and Dis the region bounded by
theorem gives
then Green's c.
,{ t··Tds = JI'dx + Qdy= jrf

Jc J~ }0
(oQ- 0 ~)dA=O
ilx il>
because of the hypothesis that iJ Pfily =oQ/iJx. But then
f_c F ·Tds =1c, F· T ds + j- c, I'·Tds = 1c, f. Tds -1c, F·Tds=O.
Thus we may conclude that
1 c,
F · T ds= 1 c,
F-Tds
for two such smoo~h pat!ts Ct and Cz that together form a simple closed path. The
more gen~ral ca.sc m w!uch C has ~nitely many self-intersections can be treated by
decomposmg C mto finitely many stmple closed paths. Then the line integral around
4 1043
Green's Theorem SECTION 15 •
each of these simple cl05ed paths is zero, so it follows by addition that
f_ F·Tds=O.
c
as nee~ed to conclude that line in tegrals of F are independent of the path. a nd h~·~·~~
!hat F 15 co.nsen-ative. A complete proof would require discussion of the P0551 1 1 1
that C has mfimtely many self·intersection!.
The Divergence and Flux of a Vector Field

;> ~ow let us consider the stead,· flow of a thin la\'er of fluid in the plane (perh:lps like
/
'
/ a sheet o f water spreading a~oss a floo r). Le t ;.Cr . y) be its ,·elocity \'ector field and
Hx · )')be the density of the fluid at the point (x. y). The term Stt>adyfiow means tha t
v and li depend onh· on x and , and not on time t. \\'e want to compute the rate a t
which the fluid flo~s out of th.e region R bounded by a positi,·ely oriented simple
R :losed cun-e C (Fig. 15.-1.9). We seek the net rate of o utflo w- the actu al outflow
minus the inflow.
c Le t As, be a short sce.menl of the cur\'e C. and kt (x t• . •,.•l ) be a n endpoin t of C.s,• .
... •
Tite n the area of the portion of the fluid that flows out of R across ~s, pe r u ni t 111n e IS
approximate ly the area of the parallclo~rnm in Fig. 15..1.9. This is the p:~r:tllclogra ~
spanned by the segment ~s, and the \'ect or,., = v(.r;. y;>. S u pp<l~c that n, is th e umt
IIGURE 15.4.9 The area of the
paraflelogram approximates the
norma l vector to C at the point (.rj. y;). the norm:~! tha t points o u: of R. ll1en the
fluid flow across 6!, In unit time. area of this para llelogram is
where 0 is the angle between n, and v1•

We multiply this area by the densit y o, = 6(xj. y;) and then add these terms
over those values of i that correspond to a subdivision of the en tire cu rve C. This
gives the (net) total mass of fluid leaving R per unit of time: it is appro xima te ly
• •
L o, v, • n As = L
1 1 F, • n, As1 •
1= 1 1·1
=
where F o•·. llte line integral around C that this sum approximates is ca lled the
llGURE 15.4.1 0 The flux ¢> of the flux of the vector field F across the cun·e C. Thus the flux <!> of F across C is given
vtctor field F across the curve C Is by
tht net outflow minus the net
inficw.
<!> = /: F·n <ls. (5)
c
where n is the outer unit normal \'ector to C (Fig. 15.4.10).

In the present case of fluid flow with \•elocity vector v, the flux<!> ofF= ov is
the rate at which the fluid is !lowing out of U across the l>o undary curve<.:, in units of
mass per unit of time. But the same terminology is used for an arbitrary vect or field
F = Ml + .Vj. For example. we may speak of the flux of an electric or gravita tio nal
field across a curve C.
From Fig. 15.4.11 we see that the o~ter unit normal vector n is equal toT X k.
The unit tangent vector T to the curve C 1s
1 (·dx
T= ~ 1 dt
,ely)= .dxds . J. dyds
+ J dt 1
T
because v = ds f dt . Hence
liCUR£ 1
tll~r . S.4.11 Computing the
un,t"
illeunit ta ormal vector n from
ngent vector T.
n=TXk=(l~; +j~~) X k.
1 044 CHAPTER I.S Vector Calculul
llut i x k = - j and j x k =i. Thus \\C find th:Jt

dl' d.r (6)
n = i....:... - j - . '
ds ds
Sub<itituting the expression in Eq. (6) into 1hc fl ux integral of Eq. (5) gi\•cs
r
jF . n ds =
r
(.\lh· j .\'j). (~ ~~ -j ~;)
ds dx + .If dy. =i-t\'
· G rcc n·s theore m to th c 1ast r·me ·m 1eg r~J
Applytng - -Nand Q = .lvl. we I!Ct
.. ,,,· th P- ~
j F· n ds= jj ( ~·~ + ~~' )dA (7)

C R
for the flu~ of F = .\l i -'- Xj a: ro!\S C. . .

The ~c:tla r functi on ;; \f .. r - ax ta \· th:ll appears in E 4· (7) IS the dn·ergcnce or
the t "-O·<hmcn~ 10 n 3 1 \ CCtor field f = ,\f i .._ ,\'j as d.:fined in Section 15. 1 a nd denoted
hy
;u t aN
di ,· f = 'I;" · F = - + -. (II)
il.r ily
\\11c11 we suh\tillHe Eq. (S) into Eq. (7). we oht:~in n ••ector form of Green's
th cu rcm:
iC
F · n ds = JJ ~ · FdA.
II
(9}
with the undc r~t anding thai n is the nura unit normal to C. 1l1U~ the flux of a vector
field across a pusitivcly orien ted simple clm cd curve Cis equal to th e double integral
o[ its divcrbcncc over t he region 1\ huumlcd by C .
If thc di ~k N wi th area a (I<) is bounded by a posi tive ly orie nted circle C with
FIGURE 15.4.12 The circuiJr di)k
R of rJdius r centered at (.<o. ro). radius rand center (.rn. Yo) (Fig. 15 ..!.12). then th e Olve rage value prope rty of double
integrals (~c:c l' rohlcm 50 in Section IJ.:!) gi ves
{
C:.
F ·n ds = !! R
V'·F tiA=( V' · F (x,Y))·a( H )
for some point (:f. Yl in R. We :tssume th at F is continuously difrercntiablc, so it

follows that
v . f'(.'f. Yl __. v . F(.ro. yo) ilS (x. n- (.to. Yo) .
If we first divide hoth sides by a(R) = ;r r 2 :tnd then take the limit as r - O, we sec
that
1
V · FLru. Yul = lim - - .
,_II :rr• J:J,c. F ·ntis ( 10)
because (.f , f) - (xo. y0 ) as r - 0.

'". tlw case o~ our original lluid flow. with F == <lv. Eq. ( 10) implies that the value
of V · ~ at C1o. Yo) ts a meas ure of the rate at which the fluid is "diverging awav" from
the pomt (x0 • y0 ). •
EXAMPlE 5 :m e vector field F = -yl + .rj is the velocity field of a stead\'·Statc:

countcrclockwrsc rotation around the origin. Show that the flux of F across any simple
closed curvc C is zero (Fig. 15.4.13).
Solution 'Ihis follows immediately from Eq. (9) because

FIGURE 15.4.13 The flu• f F · n ds
of the vector field F= - yl + ~1 ... F' a a
acron the curve Cis zero. v • ==-(-y)+ -(.r)=O.
ax ily •
1045
Green's Theorem SECTION lS.4

15 .4 CONCEPTS: QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION
1• Sketch several different examples of bounded plane regions with mul.ti~le
boundary curves. In each case indicate how to introduce crosscuts to dtvtde
the. given
. rA"gton
· R ·mt(l a umon
. of sm1plcr
. .
rcgwns R t· R 2· • · • • R 1 • each of
whtch ts bounded by a si ngle simple closed cun •c, so that
jj /(x .
R
y)dl\= t (!!
1•1 R.
j(x,y)dA).
2. Sket.ch several examples of smooth closed paths in the plane t.hat have
sclf·mtersections. In each case indicate how to decompose the gtven self·
intersecting path C into simple closed paths C1, C 2••• . , c, so that
1F·Tds= t (l i'·Tds).
c 1•1 c.
15.4 PROBLE MS
r.Fn>~:..,...s I t.r.roush 1~.apply Grun 's thro r<m to tvaluare tht In Probltm! I3 through I6, uu the corollary to Grten 's thtottm
.-:t$':1 ro find tht arta of tht indicattd regio,..
J c
Pdx T Q dy
13. The circle bounded by .< = a cos t. y = a sin r. 0 ~ r :l 21r
14. The region between the x·nxis a nd one arch of the cycloid
wit'h parametric equations x o a(t -sin 1), y = a( I -cos I )
'""'""'.! :J:r spn:i,".rd pomn·rly orimtrd clout/ curvr C. 15. The region bounded by the nstroid with para metric equa·
= ' - , :. Q(.r , y) = y + .r 2: Cis the square with lions x = cos1 1, y = sin' I, 0 ~ r ~ 2:r
··=
L f lt .J)
1=: I.=: l ).
!. !'It , ] 1 = :r' - J'".
Q (.r . y) =
-l.cy; C is the boundary of the
16. The region between the graphs of y = x 1 and )' = x 1
In Prob /uru / 7 through 20, use Grren's thtormr ro calculate ihc

ttn" fle t>o-"n-ded by th e li ne s .r = 0. )' = 0. and .c + y = l .
work
l f r.; . .' ) = ! -r' . Q!>. )'l = 2.c 2 -cosy; Cis the boundary
Clf ~ ll'..tngle ,.ith \ eftlCeS (0. 0). ( l . 1) .. and (2. 0). IV=i F· T ds
l ' " · ,, a , : - , .: . Q!.c . y) = xy; cis the boundary o f c
~ ~<.po:J oour.ded b) I he line )' X and the par>bo1a = done b)· tht giv.-n forcr fidd F In mMing a partidr counrt·rclock·
'= l' . wi.rt t111 c~ armuhl lh~ indic(J/t'd curv~ C.
!. '"·'' = -r -
expk'J. Q !x .y) = arctany; Cis the
~ty ol tht reg.oon bet,. een the parabolas y c x 2 and
17• •. = - 2yi + Jrj and C is the cllip-<c x' / 9 + y' 1~ = 1.
1
18. F = (y' - ' )I + 2.cyj nnd C i• I he circle .c1 + r' = 9.
'= r. 1
19. f = 5,: y 1+ 7> 1
.v'Jand Ci" the triangle -.ith vcrt icc '(O. 0 ) ,
2
l fu. , ) = J~ . QI • . J l = 2.c - 3,-: C h thecirdcx 2 +y =9.
(3 . 01. and (0, 6).
1. f tq ):: , _ 1 . Q(I . y ) ,. , : C i1 the: houndny of thc
20. t ' = '.''' 1+ 3•'.' l and C i< the boundary o f the scmi<:trcu·
'<poo 1-tt.. cc-n the l·Ui\ and the ~np h o f)' = l inx fo r
lnr di'k huundcd h)' the x·:uis :1nd the cir<"ular nrc v ,.
o~ , ~ ~.
J.l="7l' ~ 0.
l f tx. •I., r ' 1; , 1 , Qf>,}) c r ' WI); C " the nght· h:ond
icnp o! tb.: rJ•rh Of the pobr eq~3UIX1 , : • 4 CJ,.. If. In /'rofP/t'nn 21 tl~rouxlr 14. UJt' G r,-rnl thr<•rttm in tht , t e te,
form /11 l:q. (Q) to mlm!JU thnouO.·ilfll f.:<r
=
J. ' .(• . .•) y'. Q (, , ) J • J ), C " the c1J1.poc: ,. llh cq u>lion
,.,'9 - ~J /~ I.
1l ' '• . H ~
=
• 10 + , :,. Q( >. ) ) .. arrun x; C i• the o•·•l ••th
·~ .. f r
f' · n <lr
~ut¥.le J ,, ·' ' :m: I.

IL ,t =.,. Q!
rl>t• '1
-
r.) ) • , :; c ;, the fin t -<juudrant Ioop o I of tht 1:'""' 'rrtor firM

(/onrd r urvt C.
Ql'f tJU thr im.Jk arrd /XHirwdy cmrnt( d
rr·~h o f the r o!ar cqu.uon , • " n 211
tt , !I. f • 1-ol + 3)j •nd C i• the d1ipoe of !'! ol>tcm 17.
_, l, Q \ ' . J ) a
I }I '" _ J ! ; C t> the c:WJ10id W>l!h J'l lfU
..... ~ , . 1 + co.6. l !. t' • • ' I + >1j und C " the mcle CJf l'robkm 18 .
23. F = (3r-"- y'i+?JI +( 2y - ~)j and Cis the triangle theorem (Eq . (4 )) to find the a re3 o f .th i~ loop. (SuggrJ·
of Problem 19. rion: Set 1 =r.r to disco ,er n pa ramctnzato o n o f t~c . loop.
To obtai~ the area of the loop. use ,·a lues of r that he tn the
U. F = C3.K,1 1 - ~.K )I + (3x 1 y - 4.v)j and C is the closed curve intef' al (0. 1J This gi' cs the h alf o f the loop that hcs below
o f Problem 20.
the line~ = x.)
!S. Suppose that fis a N !ce d ifferent iab!e scalar fune~ion o f x ~ Find the area bounded by one loop o! the curve x =sin 2r.
and y . Show that
,· = sin:.
V 1f=d iv( V/)= ;,:~ - ~:~ . 3::. Let 1and !I be functions with con tinuou< <ccond·ord: r. par.
Jx· "-'. tial tkn,ati, cs in the rt·gion R h<1unded by the posttolcl~·
ori~nted l'"··c.:11isc-smooth simple closed CIIT\C C. Apply
26. Show th at/ ( r. J) = ln(x 2 + .1 1 ) sattsfies Lapi3«'Hquation Green's theorem tn -.·cwr furmtu s h o " t hat
1
V ! = 0 except at the poin t (0. 0).
17. Supp<Ke I hot f and g ore '" icc ·diHcrentioblc functio.-.s.
Show tha t
V g "' II V :/ + ~ , ,. '·~·
2 1
V (/R) ., I It was this form ul.o ra ther tha n Green's theorem itself that
appcJ rcd m Green '> bvuk of 11'23.
2K. Suppo~e that the function /!• ..') i~ t"icc conttnuou,ly
differe ntiable in the region /( hounded by the rositt,cly 36. Comrl~tc th<" proo f nf th e simple ca<c of Green's theorem
oriented picccwi~c·~mooth cu r"c C. J'ro, c tha t by sho" "'!! dort•ctl) that
f c
Df d y- at dx =
a.r a.1· J! ~
't' :/ ' ' ·' dy.
;JQ
- dtl
i),r
29. Let f? be the plane re ginn with nren A enclo~cd by the pos·
iti\'e ly oriente d piccewise·smooth simpk clo<rd euf\e C. if the r.:gio n R is horiwnw lly <imple.
Usc Green's theorem to show that the coordinates of the 37. Suppo•c lh.ll the l'OIItHkd plane regio n N is divided into
centroid of R arc the nonu1c rl.opping subregions R 1 • R ; . .. . , f/, . If Gree n's
theorem. Eq. ( I). hold, for each of these subrq:ions. explain
.i' = _!_ 1 x 1dy. J=-2., 1
2A f_ it!x.
2A }~(' why it follo11s that Green's theorem ho lds fo r R. State care·
c fully :'!ny 3<.;;:ump1 ions rh:a t you nt.!cd to m::akC'.
30. Use the res ult of Problem 29 to find the centroid of (a) a
J8. (a ) If Cis the hne segment from ( r 1 .y1 ) 10 (.r: ..l·:).showby
semici rcular region of radius a: (h) a quaner·circular region direct c1·aluation of the line integral tha t
of radius a .
3 1. Suppose: th3t a 13min3 ohapcd like the region o f Probkm 29
has constant dcns uy ~. Show that its moments of inertoa
around the coordtnatc axes are
f, =--~
c
3
f )Jt fX , (b) Let (0. 0). Cr,, ."1). and (.f: • .1':) he the ''ertices of a tri·
angle ta ken in countc rclockwi•e order. Deduce from pa rt
(a) and Green's theorem thJ t the nrca of this triangle is
32. Use the result of Problem 31 to show tha t the po lar mo-
men t o f inert ia lu = I, + I , of a circuiM l:omin:o o f radius
"' =!<.'t."2 - ·".!)'J).
a. ccntt•rcd at the ori~in and o f cun~t.ont density <5. is JM a1, 39. Usc. the resuh of Problem l'l to find th e Mea of (:1) the
where ,\( i• the mass or the lamina. - equ olate r~l tr! a~gle wnh "ertice~ ( 1.0). (co~ j n.sin j n l.
and (co' J:T. son J:T): (b) the regula r pc ntason "ith l'erllces
33. The loop o f the folium of Descartes (with equation .r 3 + y' =
(1.0). (co,j:r. sin j .,. ). (cosj ., ., sin !rr). (cus•n . sin ~.,. ).
3xy ) appears in Fig. 15.4.14. Appl y the corollary to Green's
a nd (t"os ~ rr. sin ~,,.) . ' 3 l
.W. Le! T !Jc a o ne·to-one trnn~formm i on fro m th e rt•gion S

(w~ th bo undary curve J) in the ttt··pl:onc to the region R
1
(wuh bo undary curv.: C) in the xy·pla nc . ll1c nthc chrongc·
of.vnnables formula in Section 14.9 implies that the a rea A
of the region R is given by
, , ' y• tx j'J~r tlxtly =j'}sr l~ ldrulu.

i!(tt . 11)
( II )
Esta?lish thi' formula by carrying uut the fo llowing steps.

(a) Us~ Eq . (~) to conl'e rt the left·hand s ide in Eq. (I I) to
a lone ontegra l around C. (b) Usc the coordinate functions
x (u. 11) and .'' (u. t •) o f the transforma tion T to con,·~n the
FIGURE 15.4.14 The loop o f Problem 33. line integra l in part (a) to alineintcgra l around J . (c) Apply
Green's theorem to t he line integral in p:!rt (b).
is normal to Sat the point r (11, v) and tJ.S; = jN(11 1 , t:1)i tJ.11 tJ. v is the area of the
parallelogram P, that is tange nt to the surfaceS at the po int r (111. v1 ).
If th e surfaceS also has a density function j(x. y. : ), then we can approximate
the total mass m of the surface by first multiplying each parallelogram ~rea tJ.S, in
Eq. (I) by the d ensity j(r (111, v, )) at r (11,. v1) a nd th en summ in g these estimates over
a ll such parallelograms. Thus we obtain the approximation
m "=' L• j(r (111, t•1)) tJ.S, =L

•
j(r(u 1, v1 )) jN(111, t:,) l 611 tJ.v. (3)
1= 1 1=1
11tis approximation is a R iemann sum for the sur fucc lntcgr nl o f t h e function f o,·er
t he surface S, denoted by
jj f(x, y. z)dS = j j
S D
f (r (ll. v)) IN(u. v)l d11 dv
= rr f (r (ll, v)) I~ X il rIdu dv. (4)

JJ.D a11 a11
To e va lua te the surface inrcgral ffs f(x. y . z) dS, we simply use the paramctriza·
tion r to express the variables x, y. and z in terms of 11 and v and forma lly replace the
surface nren element d S wit h
dS= IN(11,v) l d11d v = iIlr ilrl

-
ou X -
ilv
d11dv. (5)
Expanding the cross product determinant in Eq. (2) gives
il r () r iJ(y . :) . iJ(z.x) j CJ(x . y)

.N = - X -= - - 1+ - - + - - - k (6)
il11 il v il(u, v) il(u , v) il(u, v)
in the Jacobian notation of Section 14.9. so th e surface integral in Eq. (4) takes the
form
Jj s
/C.•. y, :) tiS
= ( { / I r(u. ••). y(ll. 1'). :Cu . t•))

J}II
vi[ :J]:+ [
:IC y ·
ol (u . I ' )
:•c:. xl]
ol( 11, 1' )
2
+ [ il(x . .r>] :du " " ·
iJ ( II, II)
(7)
·nti~ forrn.ula converts the sur~ace integral in to an ordilwry tlmtble int<'gral ovc:r the
rcgwn V 111 the uv-planc, and ts analogous to the formula (Eq. (4) of Section 15.2)
1 c
f(x. y. z)tl.t = [" j(.r(r), y(t), :(r))
.• (d.c):
-
<It
+ ( -"-")~
tlr
+ ( -dr
"~)~ dr
that convert~ a line integral. into an ordinary singl e in tegral.
I~ tlw tn:r~ortanl spcctal case .o r a s urfaceS tkscrihecl as a graph~ = IJ(.r. y) of
a funclto n h deft ned on a rcgton [) 111 the xy· planc, w~; may usc x and ,. (rather than
II and ")as the para rn~: tcrs. lltc su rface area ch:mcnt the n takes the f~rm
d s = \/ ' ... ( ''"

ax
)1+ ( ""
ily
)~ d . ''-' (8)
1047
(" here" i< • ~~~~'• tr:teten. Your tult here i1tot":slculatc

th~ aru A, ol t!!e re£t~ bound~ b~ tla s k'll'p Dcgtn hy
tubst:tuting "! = l l to.dtS..CQ\(f th e r.lr3metrtL3tto n
• ( ....... . .,..
I I
~ =
f2t: - 1): '
r~· - t - I .
•_
· -
(J, + l l r" 1
r"· 1 - I 10 S r < X )
J
11 l
of the loop. A ror.:.;-uter ai~et-r.-a ~~'t<m m.l~ IX" u•dul tn

sho.. ir.g ~~-ll "'"!! t!\:s pal.lmetruauon the .1rc:s fo rmula tn
Eq (~) of t~:s sc-t:JOr. ~,d.!!
You ca:> r.o,. okubte A. ror " = 1. : . ·' · . ; ~ ou should

l •
bd t!ut A , = •- L ( IA\\ou necJ a enmputrr .t l~chra S)'<·
tern f<'t thi1' ) But ihe '"'P'•'i"''
•ntq;r:.l in Fq (I ~ ) !hould
,,_. ) 0\1 r.lU-"'. Qed: ) OUr re<ult !-) <.tkuf.llm): (.tnd then
rtGUR £ 1S.-4 .1S The lust-quadrant d<>U!-ftng) the UC> of the fO" et h:tff •>flftL• f•><tp indiC'ated
loop ol the ')<'ncr ahzcd lohurn. in Fi,;.. 15 ~- l~thts tM <>h<s only the mtq;r.tl lr.Htt r • 0 to
l co l. (\\'h) ~ )
JS.SISURFACE INTEGRALS
t\ .I ta faa imc~:rnl is to surfaces in space what a hne (or '"cur-e") int egral is tn cur"cs in
the plnnc. Con•idcr a cur"cd. thin meta l sheet sh.1~d like the sur laceS. S uppose tha t
th is sh eet ha~ \'arinhlc llcn~ity, gi,·cn at the point Cx.). ~ ~by the known continuous
function f( x . y. ~)in units such :u grams per Mjuarc centime ter or surface. We wan t
to lie fi ne the surfnee integra l
Jj f(x. y.~) dS
l
in such n way thnt-upon evaluat ion-it gi ..cs the total mass of the thin metal sheet.
In case f (r. y, : ) o I . the numcric-31 \':tlue of the integral should also cqu:tl the surface
• area of S.
A s in Section 1-1.8, \\C assum e that Sis 3 smooth parametric surface described
by the function or transfom1ation
r(u, t·) = (.r(u. t•). y (u, t') , ~(u. t•)) =xi + yj + ~k
~ - - I
t :~·-'·
~·
~
,.• '
..........
/
for (11, t·) in a rc~tion Din the ut•·plJne. \\'c suppose through out that the co mponent
function~ orr have continuous partial deri\'ati' es and al~o that the vectors r. = <Jr tau
=
and r , J rja1• arc nonzero and nonparallel at each interior point of D .
r(a.,.. t,l Recall how "e computed the ;urface area A of Sin Section I-tS. We began with
an inner partition of l> consisting of n rectangles R,. Rl • . ... R •• each A11 by Au in
si7 e. 11lc images under r of the rectangles are cur\'ilinear figwn:s filling most or all of
fiGURE IS.S. 1 Approxim~tlng
the su rfaceS. and these pieces o f S arc lhemsel"es approximakd by parallelograms
SUMo~tt are~ with parallelograms. r, of the sort shown in Fig. 15.5.1. 'lhis ga\'c us the a pproximation
n n
A"" L AS,= L IN(u,, t•;) l Au Av, (I)

i•l f 2 t
where the vector

j k
Jr it.\' Jy i);:
ilr
N =-X- = Ju au Ju
ilu 3t· (2)
ax il.\ a~
-il t• Jt· Jl'
-~
5 1049
Surface Integrals SECTION 15·
(as in Eq. (9) of Section 14.8). The surface integral off overS is then given by
+ (~)
1
jj f(x.)·.~)dS = jj j(x.y.h(x.y)) 1
+
ill!)!
( il.r iJy
d:c dy.
(9)
s (J
Cent ro1'dsa nd moments of incnia for surfaces arc compute d ln . .th e s:~me
· much 1
way as for curves (see Section 15.2) using surface inte11.rals in place of hnc mtegra s.
For example. suppose that the surf~cc S has dcnsitv i(r y •) at the point (x. >'· ~)
and t0 t a1mass'"· Then the ~-component 'f of its centroid
' : ' and '• ·liS momen t of incrua
I, around the ~-axis are given by
f=! j~ z6(x, y, z)dS and 1, =j~ (.r 2 + l>H.r. >'· z)dS.
EXAMPLE 1 find the centroid of the unit-density hemispherical surface

z=Jaz-xz-yz, x 2 +yl~ a 2 •
Solution By symmetry, :X = 0 = y. A simple computation gives aztax = -x/ z and
aztay = -yfz, so Eq. (8) takes the form
dS =VI+G;Y + (:~,Y d.rdy= I+ GY + (~Y d.rdy
I 2 + y 2 +z 2 dxdy= a
= -v.r
l.
- d.rdy .
z
Hence
1
f= - - 2
2:ru
JJ z · ~z
0
1
dxcly = - -
2:ra
JJ 0
I d.fll y= ~-
2
Note in the final step th:ll Dis a circular disk of radius a in the x y-plane. This simplifies
the computation of the last integral. •
EXAMPLE 2 find the moment of inertia around the z-axis of the spherical surface
x'+ y2 + ~2 = a2 , assuming that it has constant density[, = k.
Solution ll1c spherical surface of radius a is most easily parametrized in spherical
coordinates:
x =a sinQ'Jcos9, y =a sin cfl sin 9. Z =a COSt/>
for 0 ::; tf> ::; :r and 0 ~ () ~ 2~r. Hence the sphereS is defined parametrically by
r (cfl. 0) = i a sin¢cos0 + j a sin¢sin9 + ka cost/>.
As in Problem 18 of Section 14.8, the surface area clement is the n
tiS= I :~ x :~I= a2 sinQ'l d4> dO.

Because
it follo"'-s that
1, = jj (.r 2 + i> 6 d S = 12.•1~ 2 2
k(a sin ¢) a 2 sin cfl dd> c/0
s
= 2;r . ka 4 • 2 Jo
,.{2 sin Q'Jc/~ = 4lfk a
3 4 2
· 3 (by integral formula 113)
2 2
= J2 ..bka2 -a 2 =3ma.
using in the fina l step the fact that the mass o f the spherical s urface with de nsity k is
m = 4.7ka2. Is th is result both plausible and dimensionally correct? •
Surface Inte gra ls With Respect to Co ordina te Ele m e nts

The surface integral ffs f<x. y. : )dS is an integral rcspcrl tn su rface a rea, and thus
is analogous to the line integral fc f(x. y ) ds with respect to arc length. A second
type of surface integral of the form
J!
·vr
Pdyd: "- Qd:dx "- Rd.rdy
s
l>P
is analogous to the line integral fc P dx- Q dy with r~spcct to coordina te va riables.
~ The definition of the integral ffs Rtl.r dy. for instance- with R(x . y . :) a scalar
functi on (instead of f) and Jxd_,. an area ckmcn t in the .ry·pl~nc (i nstead of the
..
I I I 1
I I I I
I,
.,
t, area elcm~nt tiS on the surface S}-i~ muth·atc d by n:plac ing the area c leme nt
I I
I I
It
It
6S, = f;-./(u,. t ', ll ou o ,. in the Ric:mann sum in Eq. (J) wi th th e.: area t>S, cos y of its
I 1 l1
projection into the xy·pl:lne ( Fig. I:'.5.1). lltc resu lt is the Ri e mann ~urn
:: I: '
·'
I 1
0'.,\S,Co\ y
I t
t'• '
f? (r(u; . v,) ) cosy Jl'\ (u, . t•, Jl t:.u o t' "=' jJ
n
R (r(u . I')) cos y (N (u . to) I d 11 d v. (10)
FIGURE 1S.S.2 Finding the area To calculate the fac tor cosy in Eq. ( 10). w..: conside r the.: un it no rmal vector
of the projected p arnllclogrnm.
N
n =I ='I I= icosa + j co~fi + k cosy ( 11)
with directio n cosines cos u . cos{J. and cosy. Usi ng Eq. (6) w t: find tha t
. N· i I iJ(\' . ~)
cos a = n • 1 = - = - - · - and. sim ila rl y.
1:-.11 INJ il(u . t•)
I iJ(: ..t ) I iJ(x, y)
cos,,11, = - - -. cosy= - - - . (ll)
)/'If iJ(u. v)
JN( il[ 11, 11)
Substitution for cosy in (10) now yields the definition
11 s
R(x . y . z)dx dy = 11 s
R(x.y. z)cosydS
=
!'1 D
iJ(x. y)
R(r(u. 11)) -
iJ(11, 11)
tlu d 11. ( 13)
Similarly, we defin e
11 s
P(x.y. z) dydz =If s
P (x,y . z) cos adS
-!'1
-
0
f'( r ( u .11)) -o(y , z) d u dv
il(u , v)
( 14)
a nd
Ifs Q (x . y.z) dz dx=j'f Q(.r,y, z)cos{J d S

Js
-!'1
-
D
Q (r ( u. v )) -<l(t • •<) dll dv.
il(u , v)
( 15)
Note TI1c symbo ls z and x appea r in the revers 0. f 1 · . .

It is important to write them in th e a phnbc ttca l order 111 Eq. (15).
e correct order because
-iJ(x.-Z)=
i)(u. v)
IX· I I' "I= - ,---(
z.
Xu _ '"
Zv - - X
ac ))' "-1r
x
4, X
II " "1 U, tJ
CTlON 15.5
1051
Surface lntcgrJIS SE
ll1is implies th at
i~ f(x, y, ~)dxd: =-if f(x. ~·. :)d~dx .

In an d'
.
d · s . 1 r · written simply
or mary oublt' mregrnl. the order in" hich the d1ffcrentta Sa c . . . 11c
1 nd·
•ca cs t1 c or er of mtegra tion. But in a surftZu integral. II •nst7•·1d 1nd•cates
t 1 d · · · . ( t13)
ordo.:r of appearance of the corresponding variables in the Jacob.ans 10 Eqs.
through (15).
The three integrals in Eqs. (13) through (IS) typically occu r together. and the
general surruce intc~:ral with respect en coordinate urea clements is the sum
i£ l'dyt/z + Qd:dx + Rdxdy = i~ ( Pcosa + Qcosfj + Rcosy)dS; ( Jtl)
tha t is,
J! s
Pdydz + Qdrdx + Rdxdy = Jj
l)
(r iJ(y. :)
iJ(u • v)
+ Q~ + R a((x. y))) dudv.
iJ(II,tJ)
0
"·"
( 17)
Equation ( 17) gives the evaluation procedure for the surface integral in Eq. ( 16):
Substitute for .r. y. z. and their derivatives in terms of u and 11, then integrate over
the appropriate region D in the ,,.,.plane.
The relation between surface in tegrals with respect to surface area and with
respect to coordinate areas is somewhat analogous to th e formula
Jc F·T ds = Jc l'dx+Q tly+ Rdz
relating line integrals with respect to arc length nnd with respect to coo rd inates.
Gi\'cn the \'ector field f =Pi+ Qj + Rk. Eq. (11) implies that
f · n = f'cosa + Qcosfl + Rcosy, ( IK)
so the equations in (12) yield
if t ' · n dS =if l'dytl~ + (!<l~tl.r + N tlxdy . (19 )

' '
Only the sign of the: ri~ht ·hand surface integral in Eq. (19) depends on the
parametrization of S. ·n1.: unit normal vector on the 1.:ft·hnnd side i~ the \'ector
provided by the parametrization of S via the equations in (12). In tho: case o f a
surface given by z =l1 (x. y) . with x andy used as the parameters u and u. this will be
t he upper normal. as you "ill sec in Example 3.
EXAMPLE 3 Suppose that Sis tht.: surface : = h(x. y), (x . y) in/). Then show that
'f
J 15
Pdytl~+Qdzdx+Rdxtly=iJo (-1':~ - Q:~.. +R)dxdy, 1
(20)
where P. Q. and R in the second integral arc evaluated at (x. y. il(.t. )')),
Solution TI1is is simply a matter of computing the thre e Jacobians in Eq. (l7)
with the parameters x and y. We note first that iJxj:Jx =I== IJyjiJy and th at
ax;ay = 0 = IJyfiJx. Hence
a(y. zl = IY• y,, __az iJ(z. x) = lz, z,, == _ az
a(x. )') z. z, - ax. il(x.y) x, x, ay'
and
jx, x,l =I.
o (.t . y) =
a(x . y) y, )'
'
Equation (20) is an immcdi:ltc consequence. •
The Flux of a Vector Field .
. .
O ne of the most important apphca11ons o f sur face ·m 1egrals involves the compuftation S
of the nux of a ,·ecto r fie ld. To de fi ne the nux of the \'CCtor field f acros s 1f11e sur ~ce ·
WC'"tSSUmP tha t 5 has 31111il norm al \'CC tOr til C ld n I hat ' c conunuous
' \ ·ari's . d (1'I ' rom· potnt b/to)
Poi '
nt of '
S. This cond ition excludes from our const 'd .
cra t'
ton onc·stdc
. . nononenra
bl f e.
- - If .S" . "td 'd (onmta e) su r ace.
surfaces. such as the ~11lbius strir of Fig. 1"·"·3· . 15 ~,1' \0 ~ i "a closed su rface (s uch
th en there arc two posstble choJccs for n. For examp c. 1 s .h h
I ,
as a torus or sphe re) tha t separa tes space. t len \\ C may·. ·choose for n e ll• er) tThe ou ter
't
normal vector (a t each point of S) or the inner normal ,·ector (Fig. ·~· 4 · c unt.15
normal vector defined in Eq. ( II) may be eithe r the outer no~ma l or the mncr normal,
wh ich of th e two it is de pends on how S has been para metnzed.
.I·"•' outer normal
.
n
(\
'
. ••
111 IOIICf fh •ln t.:•f
FIGURE 15.5.3 The Mobius strip is an

----
FIGURE 15.5.4 Inner and outer
exa mple of a o ne· sided surface. normal vectors to a two-sided
closed surface.
To dcline the concept of nux. suppose that we are given the vector field F.
the orientablc surface S. and a continuous unil normal vector field n on S. l11en. in
:malogy with Eq. (5) in Section 15.4, we define th e flux <l> ncrnss S in the direction
uf II by
<l>= jjs f'·ndS. (21)
r For example. if F= O\', where ,. is the veloci ty vector field corresponding to the steady
now in space of a fluid of density 8 and n is the ow er unit normal vector for a closed
surfaceS that hounds the space region T,thcn the !lux det ermined by Eq. (21) is the
/ -...... " net r:ate of !low of the lluid ow of T across its boundary surface S in units such as
L~----
s grams per second.
·•
} - - - - 7 - ----;;y
EXAMPLE 4 Calculate the nux Jf5 F·ndS,whcreF =~·ando kandSisthc
ical surface of radius a with c4uation z = Ja 2 - x2-
hemispher-
with outer unit normal
y2
vector n. (Sec Fig. 15.5.5.)
Solution If we think of F= t·ok as the velocity vector field of 11 nuid that is flowing
FIGURE 15.5.5 The hemisphereS
of Example 4. upward with constant speed t·o. then we can interpret lhc !lux in question as the
rate of now (in cubic centimeters per second, for example) of the lluid across S.
To calculate this flux, we note that
.ti+yj+zk I.
n = Jx2 + y2 + z2 =;<xr + yj + zk).
f
1053
Surface Integrals SECTION lS.5
Hence
I t'O
f·n =~:ok· - (x i + yj+ zk) = -z.
a a
so
!~ f·ndS =!~ :: dS.
If we introduce spherical coordinates 4 = a cos¢. d s = a 2 sin ¢ dt/1 dO on the h e mi-

spherical surface. we ge t
r r
!!.s F·ndS
lJ() 2.T
=-;:; io io
(2
2
(acos¢)(a sin ¢)d¢d0
thus
2
jj F·ndS = 1Ta t'Q .
s
2 2
This last quanlity is equal to the flux ofF = t'Q k across the disk x 2 + y ;:! o
of area 1Ta2 • If we think of the hemispherical region T bounded by th e hemisphere
Sand the circular disk [) that forms its base. it should be no surprise that the rate
of inflow of an incompressible fluid across the disk [) is equal to its rate of outflow
across the hemisphereS. +
EXAMPLE 5 Find the llux of the vector field F = xi+ yj + 3k o ut of the region T
bounded hy the paraboloid z = x2 + y 2 and the plane z = 4 (Fig. 15.5.6 ).
Solution Let S1 denote the circular top. which has outer unit norm~ I vector n 1 = k.
Let S2 be the parabolic part of this surface. with outer unit no rmal vector n 2 • llte flux
across S 1 is
because S1 is a circular disk of radius 2.

Next. the computation in Example 3 gives
,
N =
( -il.t'-ay'l
<lz az ) =<-2x.-2y.l)
litURE 1S.S.6 The surface of
U."'t>itS.
= =
for a vector normal to the pa raboloid z .<2 + y2. Then n N/INI is an upper- and
thus an innu- unit normal vector to the surface Sz. lltc unit omer normal vector is.
=
therefore, n2 - ~ = - N~INI . opP?site ,to th~ dirc~tion of N =
(-2<. -2y. 1). With
parameters (x. y) tn the ctrcular dtsk x· + Y ~ 4 m the x y-plane, the surface-area
clement is JS = !Nidx tly. 111crcforc. the outward tlux across Sz is
!'{is, t'•nzdS= -jrf F-ndS=-j'f

is, in
•··~INi dxdy
INI
=- Jf 0
F·Ndxtly=- jj (.t.y,3)·(-2x,-2y.1)dxdy
/)
=- jj(3-2x~-2y 2 )dxdy.
D
· D of ra d"tus 2-so that 3 - 2x 2 - 2y 2 --

We change to polar coordinates in the d1sk
3- 2r 2 and dx dy = r dr dB- and find that
2
rf
j Js, f·n zdS= Jo f!J: ( (I 3 z] 4
Jo (2r1 - 3)rdrd8=2:r ir - ir o =
4
1f.
Hence the totaJ Dux of F out ofT is I6:r ::::: 50.27. •

· 1 app ,.tea t.ton o r flu···' 1·5 to the flow o f heal. hwhich is mathe-
' \ not h er p h rstca
· · · • s
maucal11· qUite stmilar to the flow of a flU!"d . uppose tha• t •a bod}" as temperature h .
u = u(x.· y. ~ ) at the pomt· (.r. y. ~). Expc:runents
· ·tn d "tcu~t c• th •at the flow of ea t m the
body is described by the heat-flow l"ector
q=-K'Vu. (22)
"llle number K - normallv. but not always. a constant-is th e hear condt~cth·iry of the
body. lnc ,·ector q po ints in the direction of hea t flow. an_d its le ng th ts the. r~t-e of
ll ow of hea t across a unit :1rca nornu l to (). ll1is !low rat e ts mc:l~ur.:d ~~ umts such
ns ca lories per second per square centimeter. I[ Sis a clns..:d ~urfacc wtthm the body
bounuing. the solid n:gion T a nd n denotes the outer tmit normal vecto r for S, then
JJ q·ndS=-JJ K'Vu·n .d S (23)

s s
is the net rate of hea t flow (in c.1lorics per second, for exam ple) out of the region T
ncross its boundary surfaceS.
EXAMPLE 6 Suppose that a uniform solid ball 8 of radi us R is centered at the origin
(fig. 15.5.7) and that the temperature u within it is given by
u (.r. y. ~) = c(R'- .r' - y 2 - ~ 2 ).
·Illus the temperature of B is maximal at its center and i:o; 1.ero on its boundary. find
the rate of How of heat across a sphereS of radius a < R centered at the o rigi n.
Solu tion Wri ting r = .ri + yj + zk for the position vector of a p oin t (x, y. z) of B.
we find that the heat flow vector q in Eq. (22) is
() == -K Vu =- K · c(- 2xi - 2yj - 2~;k) =2 Kcr.
Obviously the outer unit normal vector n at a point (x. y. 1:) of the spheres is n = rfa,
FIGURE 1S.S.7 The solid ball8ol so
Example 6.
q· n =2K c r · ~ =2K ca
a
2
because r · r = a at points of S. lnercfore the heat flow across the sphere s (with
area A (S) = 4rra 2 ) is
jjs <1 · n dS = jjs 2KcadS=2Kca-4rra =R K crrn3. 2

•
Still other applications of flux involve force fields rather than now fields. For
example, suppose that F is the gravitational field of a collectio n of lixed masses in
space,
•
so F(r) IS the net
.
force
•
exerted on a unit mass located a t r . 'Inen G IIUS·s'S· ta " · for
mvefrse-s~uare grav•tatJOnal fields says that the (outward) flux of F across the closed
5
sur ace ts
¢> = jjs f · n dS=-4JTGM (24)
where M is the total mass enclosed by Sand G is the universal gravitational constant.
Surface Integrals SECTlON 15.5 1055
G auss's law also n r . .
r o f a charge 1 PP tes to tnverse-squarc electric fie lds. The e lcctrtc field at
· q ocntc d at the 0 · · ·
m mk.s u n its (ch . n gtn ts E = qr/(4:Holr)3) where to "" · · x
s 85 10- 12
(ou tw a rd) n u x ~~r~e m co ulombs). The n G all5s's la~· for ~lectric fields says tha t the
a cross t h e closed su rface S is
¢> = !!. s
E·n dS = Q
Eo
(2.5)
where Q is the net ( ·· .

POStllvc mmus negative) cha rge e nclosed by S.

15 5
· CONCEPTS: QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION
1• Expla in why a n intc~tral of the fo rm JJ 1 rfS is de fined e ven if Sis a s urface
such as the Mo bius s tri p in Fi g. !5 .5.~which hn~ no continuo u~ unit no rmal
~·ector fie ld d efined o n the entire surface. Can the :\lobius s tri p be subdivid ed
tnto parametrized surfaces that tlo have continuous unit normal vector fields?
2. Explain why the value of a surface intej!ral "' ith respc:c tto surface; a rea d ocs
no t de pe nd o n the o rienta tion- that is. th e direction of the n o rma l vecto r
N = r, X r., pro vi(k d l>y the s ur face parame tri 7ation-whc rcas the value of
a ~urrace intcgm l wi th respect to coordina te nrc a clcmco ts does d e pe nd o n
the orie nta tion or the s urface.
15.5 PROBLEM S
h Prob!nr.J I thro ugh 6. ~· aluar• til• S tlf fa<"• integral 1!. S is the part of the sphere x1 + y 1 + z' =25 thntlics outs ide
ff
1
flq. : )dS. the t')·tindc r .r 2 + y 2 = 9.
l /IJ. y, ; ) =X.>. y; 5 j, the first-octan t part Of the plane
In Pwblmu 13 thro11gh 18. ~··aluar~ tlz~ Sl4f/llct inr~gral
r- y -:=1. J/1 f · n tiS. K:hut n u tilt up-..·ard-polnttng un11 norm.3.1 ' "t'C·
:. / (•. J.: I = x)·:; Sis the triangle "'ith ,·cniccs (3.0.0). tor to th~ gi•·m surfort S.
.0.: 0). and (0. 0. 6) . l.l. F =•I + yj : Sis the hemisphere z = J9- x' - yl .
l '"· •. , , = .• - : ~ 3;
. s i• the •part •o f the
9 ptonc <a 2.< + 3y 1~. F = x i + yj + : k: S is the ftrst-<>eta nt pan o r the plane
t)-.ulies L"Uide the cylinder :r· + y- =. lr + 2y+ l = 3.
( /0. ,. : I =:=: sis the part or the cone! - Jx' + y' that 1.5. f' • 2yj + 3: k; S ist hc port of the pl3nc;: =3r + 2 thJt lies
ba t.~1i~~ ~c cylinder ..r: - >1 =4 . within the cylinder x 2 + y 2 ~ -l.
!. I ' · •. : I= X T ... I :s is the pan or the 1paraboloid l = 16. F =:
k: Sis the upper h>lf of the spherical surb ct p = 2.
•' - ,.: that U:. ins.de the cylinder x 1 + y 4. = (Suggf.ltl()rt: Usc >pherical coordinates. J
l /u .J . : l = ex' + rJ:: Sis the hemisphere:= .j,-1---x""'--- >'·'. 17. t' . yl - xj: S is thc pn11 or the cone ;: .. r th31 1ics within
the cylinder r = 3.
It Prob!<nu 7 tJ:rou~h 12. find th e m om ent of intrt~a 18. F co le i .._ 2yj + J k: S is the part of the paraboloid ;: =
if.'x; - r) s
d of rJ:e li" en Jt.lffau s ...
;rh rt spn t to the :-a.ro.< 4- x' - ).l that li.s Abo"C the xy·planc.
)~t tJ-At S fuu CO"--Iart/ dautt} 6 • J.
In J'roblmu 19 ohrough 14. ralculalt rh• out><·ard ftu..t of rh~
7. 5 li &.e pan of the plane Z ~ X + 'f that heS inside the ,,,r,.~ fi,/,1 F
ar ron zht S:H"t'n c'lostd sru/ilC~ S.
C)!J~der .r: - .,: = 9. 19. f • xl + 2 yj + 3;: k: S i<thc hu und:.ry o f the fi"t -octont unit
·
l SISthepanofthesurfacez,.xyth•t I'testMt
· 'de the""linder
., cubc with oppu<itc \ c tticc< tO. 0 . 0) and (1 , t , I ).
,: -r D 25.
211. t' • 2.11- 3yj +: lo.;S i< the bound:ny oft he sohd hcm1sphe rc
, , 1 h 01 I' s between rhe
· S lllh•n•nofth•,.,.I.Jnde
- ,.... . - -, rx'~ •· t =
te h "'Iinder O ~:~ J.. _ _. : - y: .
1'4~ J = -I and ) • I. As par>meten on t e . ,
~\C 1 and the polar angular coordmote tn
. the x ••· plane. 11. f • .I - yj; S is the houmbry of the >olid fir>t·octa nt
pyramid bounded by the coordinate plxnes a nd the planc
ll s
ttc pan of the cone z. •
t\
J 1 .: that )les between
s +J Jr + 4y+ t = 12.
~planes : = 2 and : '" S. :z. f' ., 2x l + 2) j + 3k;S iHhc houndary of the solid parabolo id
IL • p>n of the sphere x·, + 1, + •, l =25 that lies abo"e
sll lne rounded by the t y·pl>ne and ;: "' 4 - .t 1 - y2 •
~ ~"": = 3.
1056 CHAPTER 15 V~tor Ci!lcu!u~
23. f ' = ~ 2 k : S is the bounda ry of the solid bounded by the l'\ O!uar~ til~u int~graU. symbo liwlly if ponibl<:. numrricolly if
pa raboloids ~= x 2 -'- y: and : = l R- x2 - yl. = =
r:rc(Jsary (k·ith the numuical va!t~rs a 4 . b 3. an d c = 2 of
24. I'= x i + 2y j + 3: k : S i~ the bounda ry ofthesolidbou nded
2 2 2 rhr gi1·en pt:rtunrren ).
2
by the cone: = J_,:
+ y: and the pl~ne ~ 3. = 37. S is the e lliptic paraboloid : = (._r fal' + ()f bl with
pa rametrization ' =au cos t' , .'' = bu stn ' '· ~ = u ·. 0:) u ::! c.
25. The fir~Hxt :ont pa rt o f the sp herical s urface p = aha..~ unit
0 ;it· ::! !:r.
d e nsity. Find its ce ntroid . 2
38. S is the ellip<oid (.r / a ) 2 + (yfb )2 + (: / c) =I with para-
26. l hc co nica l su rface ~ = r. r :; o . ha~ constant dc nsiw 6 = t . metnzation x =as:inu cos r·. )' =bsin u sin t' , .:= c cos u,
!find its centroid and its mo me nt of inerti a around th~ ~-axi5-
O~ u $."!. 0~r~ ~.:r.
r • r ~ a , has constant den$ily .!,
2
27. ll>e paraboloid z = fi nd 39. S is the h.-rct\x)Joid (.rj a); + (_r/bl: - : 2 = I wi!h para-
its ce ntro id a nd momen t o f in ert ia around the ~-a~''-
=
mctrill!io~-' = a ro5h u cos,._ y b cosh u si n t•, ~ = sinh u,
U . Find the centroid of the pa rt o f the spherical surfJce p = a -c :i w ~c. O;lr~ 2:r . See Fi!!- 15.5 .1\. whe re the 11-<:ur-vcs
th ai lies with in the co ne r = .:. are hypcr t>ol,ts and 1hc •·-cu rves are e ll ipses.
29. Find the ce ntroid o f the pan of the spherical sur-
face x 2 + y 2 + z2 = 4 that lies both inside the C\hr.dcr
x2 + y' = 2x and abo ve the x y -plane. •
30. Suppnse that the toroidal smf:~ ce o f Example 5 of Sec-
tion 14.X has uniform den<ity and tutal nta" M . Shnw thai
its moment of ine rtia arnundl the ~-;u i < i• j M<J.-12 + 2J>l).
lfl l ' ro/Ji t'IIL'f J I ond 32, IUt' a talrl.· o fin tC',s;ralt o r a romputer oiJ:f·
bra s ystl'lll ti/m:Ct'.\'Sllry ) t tJ fin d th r momrnr ofint rtin arnuruJ thr"
t·11.ris ofth~ given .mrf tJct' S. AJ\'I.rm r that S Juu coru mn t demit)•
6 .. I.
31. Sis the part of the paraho lic cylinde r: = -t - y 1 tlw t lies
ins itlc I he rectan~;ular cylindc r - I ;i • ;i I. - 2 :l y ;i 2. fiGURE 1 S.S.8 The hy~ rboloid
32. Sis the pan o f the parabolo i<! ~ = -l - x' - y2 that lies inside: of Problem 39.
the square cylinder - I :; .< S I. - 1 :l y :i I.
40. The Mobius strip in Fig. 15.5.9 was gene ra ted by plotting
33. LetS de no te the surf:occ ~ = for ( x. y) in the region
/r ( r .••·) the points
f) in the ·' y· pbnc, and le i y be the angle be tween k and the:
upper normal vector N 10 S. Pl'uvc that y = (4 + 1 cos ~0 ) sin 0.
z = 1 sin iO
j j / (x. )'. !)dS = j j j(x . .1', h(x. y)) sec y clx ely .
for -I :l t ~ I. 0 ;i 0 ~ 2:r . T hi' M obiu< stri p has width 2 and
.t s
a circula r ce nterl ine of rad ius 4. Se t up integrals giving its
3-$. Find a formula for area a nd moment o f inertia ( assume constant dens ity & "' I)
JJ.I
1' d y d z. +Q dzdx + Rd.<d)'
around the ~ -axis. a nd usc a computer algebra system 10
C\'aluate them numerically.
analogous to Eq. (20). but for the case of a surfaceS de-

~eribed c•plicitly by x = lr (y . ~).
JS. A uniform solid 1>.111 has radius 5 and its temperature u is
propotlional to the square oi the distance from its ce nter,
with u = tOO at the lx) undary of the ball. If the heat conduc-
livity of the ball is K = 2. find the rate of flow of heat across
a concentric sphe re nf radius 3.
FIGURE IS.S.9 The Mobius
36. A unifmm solid cylinder has radius 5 and height 10. and strip of Problem 40 .
.il~ temperature " is proportional to the square of the dis-
't ancc from its vertical axis, with 11 = 100 at the outer curved 4 1. Consider a homogeneous thin spherical s hells of radius
'b oundary of the 9 ·linder. If the heat conductivity of the o ccntcre~ at the origin. with density & and to tal mas.<
cylinckr is K = 2,1ind the rate of tlow of heat across a con- M = 4:ra·~ - A panicle of mass m is located at th~ point
centric cylinder of radius 3 an d height 10. (0. 0 . c ) wuh ,. > 11. Usc the method and notation of l'roh·
lem -ll of Sect ion 1-1.7 to show that the gra ..it;Hio nal force
In Prol>lmt5 37 rhro11gh 39. Selllf' illlegrals givinx rh~ area and
momell/ ofinertia armmd the z-a.ri.< ofrhl' gi•·en surfaceS (asswn- of attrnellon between the particle and the spherical shell is
ing rluu S has ccm.fllml <lensity li a I). Usr a computer algdm1
.vr\·ti!lft-dS il/u.ttratt.•tl in tire projrc:t matt•rial for thi.f st·crion - to
F-
- fj -;;T
Gm~ d .s• = GMm
---;-- .
s c-
The Divergence Theorem SECTION 15.6 1 05 7
11
0 lS.S l'roject: Surface I 1
Fi n cgrnls nnd Rocket Nose Cones
I
•sure 15.5.1 0 sho~-s a ( . .
' curved) nose coneS of height h = 1 altached to a cyhndncal
I
rocket of rad·
density d ( IUS .' = I that 15 . movmg· downward with vcloci t,· ,. thro ugh atr · of
or, equivalently the k · . • · • d)
In the Princ;11 • M ' . roc ct IS stattonary and the ~iris st rcam ong upwar ·
1
the force of · ta . at tcmnuca Newton showed tha t (u nder plamthlt: . · ·)
:t!'.~umptlons
atr reststance the k · · · ' d 1 ·
proportional both 10 th roc et expcnenccs 1s govcn by F ~ 2:rR 6o•· . an t 1us ts
coefficient R · . e densuy of the :1ir and to the square of its velocity. l'hc drag
IS gtven by the SUrf~CC integral
R=;. jj cos ¢dS.

1
T where <1> is the angle bet ,

Th .
h . s ,
v.ecn 1 e una normal n and the direction of mot ton.
var1abl 7mtcgrals involved in Problems I through 5 of this project reduce to sing!e-
m•. t • e1•.n11tcgrals lhat .you should be able to c:valuate by hand. The CD-ROM project
" ,1 ena I US! . rates the usc• o ( a computer algebra system for the cvaluatton
· bot h o f
nose cone mtcg•rals'' and o r more general surface• integra ls.
11tttt1
•
1
• H.the surfaceS of the nose cone is obtained by revohing the curve y = y(x ),
Wtth y(O) = 0 and y( I) = I, around th ey-axis. usc th e fact that cos¢ = dx / ds
to show that
llGUiE 15.5.10 The noie coneS
d hejgl\t hand radius r. R == {' 2.r dx
fo I + [>•(.r)jl ·
Use this integral to calculate the numerical value of R in the p:Hticular cases
that follow.
11 2. Y = x. so that S is an actual cone with 90' vertex angle.
3. y = I - JI=X!, so Sis a hemisphere.
4. y = x 2 • so S is a paraboloid.
5. For th e flat -tipped conical frustum nose cone illustrated in Fig. 15.5. 11 (still
with r = h = 1), show that
R = cos 2 a- 2 cosa sin a+ 2sin2 a
where a is the indicated angle. 'Then show that this drag coefficient is minimal
when tan 2u = 2.
If you compare your numerical results, you should find that
• the cone and hemisphere offer the same resistance;
• the paraboloid offers less resistance than either; and
• 1he oplimal flat-tipped conical frustum offers still less!
In an eAvt~ordinary
.a
tour de force, Newton d~termined the nose cone with mini-
. h · 1 11 · d d
mum possible air resistance, allowtng bo~ da.etrcbodu
rGURE 1S.S.11 The flat-tipped
ilr. ttone.
1
1 Lion connecting the tip to the cy tn nca
1
ar art ~p an k a curvecsurfacc
Yo .t e roc et-see . Henry
of reso u •N 1 n·s Nose-Cone Problem:· The Mathfmattca Journal? (Winter 1997),
Edwards. ' e\\ o
PP· 75-82.
J5.6 ~THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM . to surface integrals what Green's theorem is to line intc·
The divergence theorem IS urface integral over a closed surface into a triple int egral
grals. It lets us conve~ a s 0 r vice ve rsa. The divergence theorem is known also as
over the enclosed reg!on. •astern European countries it is called Osrrogradski's
Gauss's theorem, and 10..so~e c of mathematics" Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855)
theorem. The German pnnce force fields; the Russian Michel Ostrogradski (I SOl-
used it to study inverse-squ;re Both did their work. in the 1830s.
. t dy beat uow.
JS6l) used 11 to s u
1 058 CHAPTER 15 Vector ulculus
The su rface S is called picccnis e s mooth if it co nsists of 11 finite number of

smooth pa rame tric surfaces. II is called closed if it is the boundary o f a bounded
region in space. For example. the bound ary o f a cu be is a closed pi~cewi.se smooth
surface. as arc the bou ndary of a p~Tamid :1nd the bound:!!)' of a sohd cylinder.
THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM

Supp<Xc that Sis a closed piece"·ise smooth surface tha t bounds the space rc~ion
T and le t the owa unit normal , ·ector field n be con tinuous on each smooth ptecc
of S. If the vector field F is co ntinuo usly d iffc:re ntiab lo.: on T, then
jj S
F·n dS = JJJ. T
, . F t/1'.
(I)
Equation (I) i~ a three-dimensional analogue of the vector form of Green's

th eorem th at "'C saw in Eq. (9) of Section 15.-l:
i
('
F · n ds =jj ~ ·F riA.
~
wh e re F i~ a vector field in the pl:•nc, C i~ a piecewise smooth c urve that bounds

the plane region U. and n i~ th e ou te r unit norm al vector to C. The le fl -hand side of
l!q. ( l) is the nux of F acro'>s Sin the direction of the outer unit normal vector n.
Rcc:1ll from Section 15. 1 th:ttthc dilwf.:r'fiCt' ~ · F o f the vector tic.:ld F = Pi +
QJ+ R k is gi \'cn in the three-dimensional ca'>e by
. iJ P ilQ iJ R
dtv f =~· f =-
a.. +.1y
- + -.
:J:
(2)
If n is give n in terms of its direction cosines. a<; n = (cusa. cos{J. cosy}, then (by
Eq. (II!) in Section 15.5) we can 14Tite the divergence theorem in sca la r form:
jisf ( Pcos a +
r Qcos{J + Rcos y)dS =Jr f f
} }7
(iJ('
a.r
+ iJ Q
ay
+ iJR) dV.
a:
(3)
. It i~ best to p:uarnetrize Sso tha.t the norm al vector given by the parametrization
IS the outer no rmaL 11•en we can wrue Eq. (3) en tirely in Cartesian form:
J•,\Jl1'J,\I.
. rROOF OF TilE DIVEUGENCF• T//EOR/·' • .t•'1 \Ve s ha II prove t I1c
d1vcrgence
· 1 . · 1 theorem o nlv
• : for the case
. in which th e rcc'•on T ·t.5 s·111111 1t ~ncous 1y r-
s unp e.> ·Stmp e. and , -sunple. 11us guarantees tha t every s traight 11•11 e p . II 11
coo d ' t • • • • ar.1 e o a
r tna e axts Intersects T. tf at all, in a single point or a single line sc men! It
suffices for us to denve separa tely the equations g ·
j ~ P tlydz = jj~ ~; dV,

j~ Q dzdx = jj~ ~; dV, and (5)
jjs Rdxdy=jrrr a~dv.

J1 a, 7
Then the sum of the equations in (5) is Eq. ( 4 ).

The Divergence Theorem SECTION 15.6
1059
FIGURE 15.6.1 A l·Simple space region bounded

by the surfaces s,, S1 , and S1•
Because T is z·simple. it has the description

Zl (.t, )') ;;! : ~ :2(x, )')
for (x. y) in D. the projection or T into th e xy-planc. As in fig. 15.6 .1. we denote the
=
lower surface z : , (x. y ) or T by 5 1, the upper surface z = : 2(x. y ) by 52 • an d the
lateral surface between S1 and 52 by 53 • In th e case or some simple surfaces. such as
a spherical su rface, there may be no surface S3 to consider. But even if there is.
jjs1 Rdxdy = jjs) RcosydS = O. (6)
=
because y 90' at each poin t or the vertical cylinder 53 •
On the uppe r surface S2 , the unit upper normal vector corresponding to the
parame trization z = z2(x, y) is the given outer unit normal vector n , so Eq. (20) of
Section 15.5 yields
Jjs, lldxtly= Jj/) R(.t,)',Z2(x,y))dxdy. (7)
nut on the lower surface s,, the unit upper normal vector corresponding to the pa ra-
metrization z = z1(x, y) is the inner normal vect or - n. so we must reverse the sign .
TIIUS
jj
S1
R dxdy=- jj R(x, y. zt(x , y)) dxdy .
D
(8)
We add Eqs. (6). (7), and (8). The result is that
j~ R dxdy = ~~ [R(x,y,z2(x,y))- R(x . y,z ,(x,y)))tlxdy
= jr f ( {"''·'' oR dz) dx dy .
jD l:o(•.yl /J:
Therefore
j1rf
5
Rdxdy= J/1 ~~ r ~
dV.
This is the third equation in (5), and we can derive the other two in the same
way.
·~
1060 CHAPTER 1S Ve<tor Calculus
f 'GUIIE I S.6.2 The re<JIOI'I of E.Jumple I.
EX AMPLE 1 Let S be the surbce ( u ith outt'r unit nurmll \'Cc tor n ) of the rq:ion
T bounded !'>) the: plan~ : = 0. , = 0. y = :::.and th e p:u:tholic cylinder: I - .r
2
=
(Fig. 151i.2) Apply the d1\cr~cnce th<.'orem to compute
//_ F· n dS
s
gi,·cn F = (t -'-C<ny)i + (\ + <in : )j - C: -r')k.
Solution To C\':t lu at c the <u rf.w: tntc~ral d1rcctly wuu ld he n lcn!,:thy pwjc.:ct. llut
div F = I + I + I = J. <O u c c.1n apply the dl'cq:cncc th cor.:m easily:
jj j
F ·n dS= iffr d1,· F dl ' = jjjr J dV.
\\'c cxonun c lit'!· J5.6.2 to find chc limit., (,:•r the! \ Oiunlc intcgrnl and thu~ nhtni n
jf s
I' · n dS = 1:i.lLl-•' J d: " ·' 111 211
=1 1
( I - r ) tl r = R. •
EXAMPLE 2 Lc:t S be the surface of the sohd cyl111dcr T b(lundci.l by the planes
: = 0 and z = 3 and the cylinder .r: -'- ~: =
-1. Calculate the outward flux
JJ s
F·n dS
given r = (.r 2 + y 2 + z2 )(.r i + yj ... : 1.:).
Solut ion If we denote by P. Q. and R the component functions of the vector field F.
we find that
iJP , ' 2 '
iJ.r =2.r · X+ (.t· + y·+: ) . ( =J.r' + y2 + z2.
Similarly.
aQ • z ,
-=Jr
iJy
+ z + x- and
so
d iv F = 5(x 2 + i + ,z).
Therefo re the divergence theorem yields
Jj S
F·n dS= iff T
5(x2+y2+:2)dV.
Using cylindrical coordbates to evaluate the triple integral. we get
~~ F·n dS = 1"1 1
2 2 3
5(r
2
+ z2 ) rdzdrd9 '
= IO:r Lz [r z + ~r:
0
3
3
3]
3
:•0
dr
(
= 10:r}0 (Jr +9r)dr=lO.T
3 [3;{ +~rlL=JOO.T.
4 2
+
The Divt'rgence Theorem SECTION 15.6 106 1
EXAMPLE 3 Suppose th at the space region T bounded hy th e smoot h

surfaceS with a na · .. . - .
i~
to S Show
clo~cd
,. rnmetn7.1tlon that g1ves the ou ter unat nor111:1 1 vec tor ·
that the volume V of T is given by
V == ~ jfs xdyd: + y d: d.t +: dxdy. (9)
Solution Equation (9) follo....-s immedi:tteh· from Eq. (J) if we take /'(.r. ·' ; :) ~-' ·
g<x •
>'i •>. =>'· and
0
R(x.
y, : ) = :. For example. if Sis the sphe rical surface r + r +
• = wnh volume 1' . surface area A. and outer unit normal vector
n ::: (cosa,cos/J.cosy) = - . ~\' . -: ) .

X
( a b c
I hen Eq. (9) )'iclds
V = ~Ifs x d y d: + y d: dx +: dxdy
= ~ jf (x cos a+ ycosfj + z cosy) dS
s
=j
I jrisf xl + y2 + .2tiS= jaI ;ri fs I tiS = JaA.
•
I
0
You shou ld confirm that this result is consist en! wi1h the famil ia r formula~ V = :j1ro 3
nnd A = 4rra2. •
EXAMPLE 4 Show tha t the divergence of the vector field F at the point /'is given
by
V · I'CI'> = lim __!__ f

• - 0 I'( 8 ,)
;ri >.
f . n ,/S. (1 0)
where S, is the sphere of radius r centered at P and 11 (8, ) = jrrr3 is th e volume o f

the ball 8 , that the sphere bounds.
Solut ion TI1e divergence theorem gives
Jf S,
F · n dS = jjj B~
V ·F dV.
Then we apply the 3\'erag.: value property of triple integrals, a result analogous to
the double integral result of Problem 50 in Section 14.2. 'This yields
Iff H,
V·f dV=(V·FO'>I ·t•(B,)
for some point p of n,. We assume that f is continuously differentiable, ~0 it follows

that
V. f cP)-+ V · f (P) as P- P.
Equation ( IO) follows after we divide both sides by 1'(8,) and then take the limi t as
r .... 0.
•
.
for mstnnc e . suppose that F = ~ ,. is. the
h vector
. field of a· Ouid now. We can •
. E (IO) 3 5 sa)·ing that V · f (P) IS I e net rate per umt volume that Ouid
mterpre. t q. 1.
• ") f
(or "d 1•vergmg rom the po'nt P 17o th '
• , ., r
·
IS reason the PO lilt p
mass 1s no .... ng a~ra~ F(P) ,. 0 but a sink if v · f (P ) < 0.
I
is called a source 1 v •
1062 CHAPTER 1S Ve<tor Calculus
Heat in 3 condu cting bod y c:~ n be trea ted m a thematica ll y ns though it we re a

fl uid no"in~t t hrou~th the bod\'. ~!i<ecll3neous Problem< 25 through '27 a t the end of
thiHhaptc r- ask yo~ to :~pply ihe di't: rfcncc theore m to sho w that if" == u_<.r. y . :.r)
i~ the temperature at the poin t (.r . •'. : .1 :ll the time r in a bo dy thro ugh wh 1ch heat is
flo \\ing. then the function u mUSt SJtisfy the t:q uation
<i"u a:., a=u I ilu ( II )

- ~ -
ax= a_,.: ... -=
a:= /-·
. -i)r .
"he re k is a con<tant (t he rhtm:.11 tiifliiJn·irv of the boJv) . l11is is a partial tliffuem ia/
rquatim1 c:tlled rhc h e:~t c:r1uatio n.l fhoth the i ni ti al te~pc:r3 turc: u (.r. , .. :. 0) and Ihe:
tcmrcra turc on the l'<)Und.:tn of the Nxh ;u,· c.hc:n. th ~..·n its interior tcn1pc r:.tures :tt
fu ture ltnlC' arc dctcmuncd 'toy th~ heat .eyualion. ,\ brgc p.t rt o f advanced a pplied
ma thematics consi\tS of technique~ fo r sol\'ing sud t p.tn ial thffc rc nti al equations.
More General Re g io ns and G c1 uss'5 Law

\Vc ca n C\t.t bll<h the t],,·cr j:c ncc theorem for mor<.: ge ne ral rl'~tio ns by th <.: device: o f
I' / . ./
; : ..·
su hd i' 1ding 7' uHn <unrkr rcpo n<. rcr.u~n' for" hich the prcced ing p roof holds. Fo r
e xam ple. '"1'1'"''' tlut T i' the <hell 1'-e twccn the conce ntric sphe rica l surfaces 5,,
/ : / . a nd S,, o f rad i1 o and 1•. "it h II· o .-:h. ·ntc co,)rdin.llc p b nc< separat e T into eight
rcfi' "'' 7'1. T~ . ... . r,. each ' hapcu :t< 111 fi!,; !5.(d. Let I:, d c nntt.' th e boundary of
/
·1 ,' \
• # d ~ ·· 7i anJ le t n, he the o uh.:r unit nc)rm:d vector h ) I:, . \\'c: e1 pp ly t ht~ divergence theorem
1 ,' _.-r '\ :
I _::..;.. - - : to each of these eight re gions a nd o btatn
-- I'
-------7-
•. -"'r" ..... ~-
•
: )
•. ~-·'1. I , ,,._J
t !!1
I '•• ......
, ,.,.. !
/' ---1T..
/
!!1 T
V·ft! V =
I•J f.
, .frfV
s
f iGURE 15.6. 3 One O<tJ nt of the
shell between S., and s•.
='£/1••1 t.
f · n , dS (di, c rgc nce t heore m)
JJ
==
s..
f ·n. dS + !1 s.
f·n • dS.
I krc we write n, fo~ the inner no rmal vector on Sa and " • for th e outer norm al vector
on s•. TI1e b st cgual lt )' ho lds because the surface integrals o ver the internal hounda
surfaces
. (the .sur faces in the coordinate planes) ca ncel in p·•1irs-thc . r10 r n1a 1s nrc
'ry
oppos1tc ly onentc~ th~ re. As the t>oundary S of T is the union o f the 5 hc ric~l
surfaces s.
and s•.
11 now follo ws that p
This is th e dive rge nce theore m for the spherical shell7'.

. .In a sim ib r mann er, the d i,·crgencc theorem c•n .. be cs " t a bl 'IS h e d f o r a reg1·on T
.lll:lt . " bounded by two smooth closed surfaces 5 t a nd 2 Wlt h 1 mtcno r to s .· s · · s,
as
tn F1g. 15.6.4. "here n i and n 2 denote the outward·po · ' 1'11 t·1n"" um· 1 norma1 vectors · · to
the• two surf~ccs.. 1 ll1cn the boundary• SofT is the union o r 1 am1 ..",. and the outer s· •
un1t norma vector field n .onS . co nsists of - n 1 on the inn s ·'
c . ur .tee 51 an " 'on t he
·r f· d
outer sur f ace s~ ( bot h pomllng ou t o fT) Hence th . d' . . •
form · c t\crgence theorem takes the
fiG URE 15.6.4 Nested closed

surfaces s,
and S2 •
ffi"ii·f'dV= J~ f<' · n dS=f1 Sz
F · nzdS- {{ f·n l dS.
JJs.
( 12)
-
~
I The Divergrnce Theor@m SECTION 1S.6

1063
For ex amp1e. \UpJXXe that t' = - G Mr/lr'J is th~ inverse-(quarc cravttauon. · · al
forcc fi1c:ld of a m \f 1 · 1
~ • 21
- ~ f - 0
exec . 1 a . a\\ ' ocate d at the origin. According to i'roblem • v • • -
d ' p 1 t_heoogtn. II S ts a ~mooth surface endosin2 M and s. i~ a small sphere of
ra HI\ ( I ~·tthtn S c:nclo<.ing .\1, it then follows from Eq-. ( 12) that (with n d en oti ng th e
outer Untt norm al on each surface)
ifs F" -n dS =if 5,

l' · n dS
=
JJ GM r · -r d S =GM
---c-
lriJ
--
lrl al
JJ lcJS : -ol:rG .\1. (13)
s. .s..
Thus ':'e have cs tabli5hed Gauss's law (Eq. (2.-1) in Section 15.5) for the special case
of a stnglc point rna\,. lhc more general ca\c of a collc:ction of p<1in t m:~sscs '' ithin
Scan be cstabli~hed by enclosi ng each in its o"'n sm:1ll sphere. If we replace the
constant GM in Eq. (13) \loith Q/~:T fo. we obtain simi la rlv Ga uss's lnw
fjs E · n dS= Q
fo
( 14)
for the inverse-square electric Held F. = Q r/(~.H olriJJ of n ch:trge Q lying within S.
Another impre\\ive conscquc;ncc or the divergence theorem is ,\rchimc dcs'
law or buoyancy: sec Problem 21 here and Problem 22 of Section 15.7.
G 15.6 TRUE/FALSE STUDY GUIDE

I. "lhc third equation in (5) i~ establi~hed in the "'proof of the di,·c rgence the-
orem" included in thi5 section. What changes in th e de rivation would be
required to establish the first and second equation~ in {5)?
2. Let S1 and S2 be piecewise s mooth surfaces in sp.tcc with S1 lying interior to
S2• Under what conditions Qn the \'ector field F can we conclude that
if S1
F · n ciS = JJ S:
F · n dS'/
=
If f' - krflrJ3 is an inverse -square force field directed toward the o rigin.
under what conditions on St and Sz can we conclude that the two flux integrals
are equal?
1S.6 PROBLEMS
!• P•oblt~~u l tilrouglt 5. \'~rify the dil•trg~lfu 11t~orrm by dir«l tetrahedron bounded by the three coordinates planes a nd
tc"'I"'1Wron of borh rloe mrface /megral and tlo~ triple• im~grill the plane .t + y + : = I.
•'£• 1/J. /11 fl()l>/om 6 through 14. r-sr rlr~ di•·erg.nce theorem ro evo/-
l r,"' Ji + >'l + zk: S is th e spherical surface wilh equation J
untr fs F . n tl S. whtrt n is tht own unit normal vrrror ro rlrt
' +r' ... :' = I. surfaa S.
L ~" lrtr. "here r = l i

+ yj + t k: sis the spherical 1urbce 6. f , xJI + y:j + : 2k: Sis the surface of Problem 3.
~h equation x' + y' + ~~ = 9. 1. f ., xJI + y'j + : 1k: Sis the 1urface o.f the cylinder bounded
~~Ji + Yl + z ~: S i\ the surface of 1bc cube bounde~ by by A 2 + y1 = 9, : = -I, and z = ~.
1
hrec cuordonalcs planes and tbe three planes x - 2 · 8. f ., (.• '.., >1)(xl + >i):S i.s I he 1urface oft he re&ion bounded
=
', r • ' l1+
1 •2. ind . .. 2 by the plane : 0 and the paraboloid z = 25 - x l _ yl.
.
'
Y: J1+ xz k: Si~ the surface of Problem 3. 9, f :: (.r + r '') l + (y +sin .r~)j + (cos x >·)k: S iHhe surfnee
1
, r" I1 +y)l + (y + :Jj + (z + x)k; sis the surface of the of Problem 5.

10. F. := (.ry1 + ~-·~in :)i + Cx2 y + ~ - ·cos : )j + (tan - 1 .r_v )li : up coord .m:t 1~s so th• t rv><ltr'vc v:llues o f : arc measured
o.1 , • .,.._
S i' the ~urhce of the region hounded by the paraboloi d do.,.n ... art! from the surface. The n the pressure nt de pth:
z = .rl .-. / ~nd the plane: = 9. =
is P 6g : . '11!c buoyant force e xerted on the body by the
11. E' == (.rl+) 1 +:2 Hx i +> J +: k): S isthesurfaceof P roblem R fluid is
12. t'"' t /lt l. where r = x l + ) j +: L: Sis the sphere p = 2 o f

r adius 2 cente red a t the origin.
11 =- jj s
r n dS.
13. I':= .rl + yj + 3k: S i\ the boundary o f the region bounded

b y the r~raboloid;; = x 2 +)land the plane: = ~ ( \\'hy~) Appl~· the result of Prnhkm 2~ to show tha t ll =
-II' L. " here II' i< the" ci~ht of the llu•J d ispl"cd hy the
H. f ' = !.t 1 + r' )l +.r 1 yj .,_ (IIO X}') k :5i~ the ooundaryofth:: N><h n cc:lUSC : is rnc:lsurcd d t111 nll 3!d. the \ 'l'Ctor II IS
r egion bounded by the parabolic~ Iinder : = 4 - .r1 and
dllc~:~J ur~~o ard.
t he pla nes y = 0. t = 0. and )' - l = 5.
22. Le t r = r . ,... : ). Ic:t ro = ( ,,,. ·' "'· zo) bc a fi.~ cd point. a nd
IS. The l.apladan o f the twicc·diffe rcntiablc 'IC.ll2: function f
i~ define d to be V 2f = d iv(grad/) = V · Sho•.w that Vf. sur~c th:ll
r - r1l
l ill/ (Jlf <Jlf n r.... :l =lr - , •.
r:1
V f = - + - + -•.
a,l ">·' a:·
Shc>~~o• that d1v F = () e 'ccp t at th<' point r ,.
=
ltl. Let ilfl an V f · n de no te th e di rectional dc riva ti'c of the
2.1. Apr!) the dJICr£cn.:e theorem to com pute th e outward
:sca lar fu nction f in the d.rcction of the nutcr unit normal
vector 11 let the surfaceS th:tl bound' the rc!!ion T. Shu"' nu,
tha t
Jjs ~~ tiS = iff VfdV. 1

J! f· ndS.
l
r
"' here f ' = 1r:r. r = ri + .''J + : 1.. :rn d S i' the surface of
l'rohlcm !( fSu:;-~«11<>11' Integrate in cy lind rica l cc>ordinatc~o
Uu rlrc· 11oflltitm nf Pmbh•ms 15 1md 16 i11 Prohlt-m< 17
li r.t wtth rc~rcct ro , .1nd then " ilh re5pcct to : . Fo r the
t hTOII!(h I'J.
IJHc:r intc,gratJon. m.1 ke a tr•gononH.: tric sub~1 i lution :md
17. Suppo<c that V 1f a () in the region T with boundary sur- then consult Eq. (9) of Sccuon S.) for the anridc rrvativc
face S. Show thnt of sec> t•.J
jj J~~dV= JJJ IVfl2 dV.

24. A"umc tha i Gau<s'> bw in ( IJ) hold' for a u nifo rm solid
ball of n"'" .II n·ntcrcd nt lhc o rre in. Also assum e bv syrn·
S T mc trv I hat the fo rce f exe rted by- this mass o n a n c~terior
111. Apply the divergence theorocrn to f = f Vg to establish pa rti~le of unit ma>~ 1S directe d to~~o ard the o r igin. Apply
Gn•cn's fir. I idrnlity. Gaus<'s b w "'ith S bcm~ ~ sphe re of r:l<.l iu< r to show that
WI = G .\lf r' at cadt point of S. ·nru< it fo llows tha t the
jjJ ~~ dS= Jjj<fV'g+ "V'f· Vg)t/V. solid ball acts (gravitationally) like a single pni nt ·mas' M
c o nrc:ntra ted nt it!. cent er.
s 7
25. Let f' he the gravitatjo nal fo rce field due to a uniform dis·
19. 'I ntercha nge f and g in Green's first identity (l'robkrn 18)
1rihution of ma" in the >hell bounde d by the conce ntr ic
10 establish Gr~•n's second identity,
spherical surfaces,. =a and p = b > a . Apply G auss's law
in ( 13). with S l"'ing the sphere p "' r < a. to sho w that t• is
zern nt all point< interior to thi> spherica l shell .
26. Conside r a solid <pherica l ball of rad ius a and cons !ant den·
sity .S. Apply G a uss's law to show that the t:ravirational
2(). Suppose that fis a differen tiable sc~lnr fun ction defined on rorcc o n a particle of un it rna~" loc~llcll at a dist.l rtc:c r < a
1hc region T of space and that S rs the boundary ofT. l'rovc from the cente r of the ha ll i• given by F = G M ,f r '. where
t hat .-.,t, = j :rdrJ i'\ the mass enclosed by a ~phcrc n f radius r.
Jj tiS =JJ1Vf dV.
S
f n
T
1bus the rna« at a gre ate r distance from the center of the
ball e~ens no net gravitational fo rce o n the part ide.
l7. Con>idcr an infinitely long vertical str;, ight ~~oire wi th a uni·
[S11ggt•stion: Apply the dive rgence thc<rrcrn to f= f a. form po>ilivc charge of q coulombs per me te r. As,umc by
,..here a is an arbitrary constant vector. Note: Integrals symmctr)' that the electric field vector f. is a t c:•ch point
o f vector·valued functions are ddined by compone ntwisc of space :1 hori1onta l radial vector directed awav (ru m the
integration .I wire. Apply G a u<s's l:lw in (14 ). "il h S being a cyiin<kr with
the wire as its axis. to show tha t lE I = q / (2.H0 r ). lltus the
21. ;1rcltimt·dt>s' Lnw of Buoyancy Let S be the surface of electric lie ld intensity is inversely proportional to d istance r
,. body T submerged in a Hui'd or consta nt dcmity 6. Set from the wire.
Stoke~· Theorem SECTION 1~- 7 l 065
~ TOKES ' THEOREM
15.7 In Section 15.4 we gave Green's theorem.
f_(" Pd.t + Qdy=jrf}R (iJQ- iJ P)dA.

ox 0}
(I)
10 a vector fonn that is cquivalcnt ton two-dimensional version of the divergence

theorem. Another vector fonn of Green's theorem involves the curl of n vector field .
Recall from Section 15.1 that ifF= p i + Qj + R k is a vector field. then curl F is the
vee tor lie ld given by
j k
curl f = V x I' =
a a a
iJx ily iiz
I' Q R
= (iilyJ R_aQ)
i) z
i+(aP _ aR)J+(aQ_ aP)"·
az il.t ax ay
<2 >
"The k-cornponc nt of V x F is the integrand of the tloublc integral in Eq. (I).

W.: know from Section 15.2 that we can write the line integra l in Ec1. (I) ns
i
c
l'·Tds .
where T is the posi tive-directed unit tangent vector to C. Consequen tly. we can
rewri le Green's theorem in the form
i C
f·T ds= jf R
(curl f )· k c/1\. (3)
S tokes' theorem is the generalization of Eq. (3) that we get by replacing the
plane region R with a lloppy two-dimensional version: an oriented bou nded surfaceS
in three-dimensional space with boundary C that consists of one or more simple
)" dosed curves in space.
An orit•nlcd surr:1rc is a pi::cewisc smooth surface S together with a chosen
unit normal vector licld n that is continuous (that is. cont inuously turning) o n each
smooth piece of S. "ll1c positi ve orientation of the bountlary C of ;m oriented surface
f!CURE 15.7.1 Ve<tors. surface, S corresponds to the unit tangen t vector T such tha t n x T always points into S
rd boundary curve mentioned in (Fig. 15.7.1). Check that for a plane region with unit normal vector k. the positive
~ su:ement o f Stokes' theorem. orient at ion of its outer boundary is counterclock"ise.
STOKES' THEORE M
Lets be an oriented. bounded, and piecewise smooth surface in space with pos-
ilivelv oriented boundary C and unit normal vector field n. Suppose that T is a
pOSitively oriented unit \"ector fiel_d tangcn~ t? C. If the vector field f is continu-
ously differentiable in a space rc g1on conta10mg S, then
1 f·T .d s=
Jc
Jfs (curl t' ) ·nt/S. (4)
Tbus Stokes' theorem means that the line im:gral around the boundary curve
of the rangemia/ compnnelll of f ectualf the surface mtegral of the normal componem
of curl f . Compare Eqs. (3) and(~).
lllis result first <lppear.:d pubhcly ~sa pro~lcm ?Oscd by G~orgc Stokes (18 l9-
. • ·xamination for C;unbndgc Umvcrsuy students 10 1854. It had been
1903) on
• a pmc c.l·tt ' er to Stokes from the p hys1C1st
· · \V"ll"
1 1am Thomson (Lord Kelvin
stated m an 1850 c · '
1824-I907).
1066 CHAPTER 1 S Vector Calculus
In .terms of the components of F = pi+ Qj +R k nnd those. or. curl fo'. we can
recast Stokes' theorem-with the aid of Eq. (19) of Section 15.5-m us scala r fo rm
t P d.r + Q dy + R d~
c= fl.s (aRay ial Q)
- - - dyd; + - - - tft,tfx+
z
(ill' a~
ilR)
a.r
- -a.
(aQ
nx
<J I') d I.
>
XI) . (5)
I !ere:. as u'ual. the parametrization of S must corre~pond to th e given unit normal

vector n.
To prm·c Stokcs'thcnrcm. we need only c~tahlish th e equa tion
.[Pax =
Ic
j'fJ. (aP·': d~tlx- iJayP d.r dy) (6)
s
and the corresponding two equations that arc the Q and R "components" of Eq . (5).
Equation (5) itself then follows by add ing the three rcsul".
/'AUT/AI- J>ROOF Suppose first that Sis the graph of a func tion;= j(.r. ·' ). (,r. ,\')
: •/(t., y} in D. where S ha~ an uprcr unit norma l vector and D is a region in th e .r.-·-planc
bounded by the simple closed curve J ( Fig. 15.7.2). 1l1c n
fc =f.Pdx
J
l'(.r.y.J(.r,y)) d.r
==f. p (.r.y) dx [where p (.r.y)"' /' (.t.). j(A . .'lll

J
= - j' ( ap dxdy
)
(by Green's theorem).

JDJy
We now usc the chain rule to c ompute ilp f::ly :ond ftnd that
FIGUR£ 1S.7.2 ~ surface 5. i ("

p dx =- j'}(• (~o\'/' + ~a-(' ;~,.ii~) dCCI,\.
0 . ... .
:"ext. we usc Eq. (20) of Sectio n 15.5:
JJs l'd)d~ + Qd:dx + Rd.rdy=

!'! (
,
tl: ,, .
- 1' - - Q ..::.+ R
ih ih
)
/rd•
1
In thi< cqultion we rcpi::Jcc I' with 0, (l with 'J l'f a;. a nd R "llh -,1/' f ,ll.
!'! (
j
JJ·I' .l; d.; - ~
-;-
I"
i) f>
.J)
tltdy ) : !'! (
/}
;1-
:.: .J\
:1 /' ).t • •t. .
- .1 -/' ....:.--
1, \ '
(li)
Finally.. we compare E~~ (7) and (i<) and sec: t h.11 " C: h .l\1.' c,t.lhli,hcJ E<! (o)
Jf WC C:ln Wfrt C the \ lltfa ,·c .~ 111 tit~ fmrn~ \' ,... o"'•' '\ I , ..•) •111J 1 " h'l \.;,
) tl
lc:'I\ \\ Ct...ln
dc11•c the (1 and U "'""'l'' "'e nt\ " of Et1. ( ~ )an nouda thl" , 1111.. ,, 11 I I
. .· ~ ... • . 11 , f'r"" C\
•
••f
~t ole\ th culclll llll th~ ' l'e•·aal•·;" c• a \ 111!.1\' l' S that ·
l' •lfl t~· •. , ,.,. t 1
., 1• 1 1 <II C< ,1\ .q~r.tp I
t
1n alltl11 ec (tH IIdlnat t tht et:lll itt\. Stt~kn' l).,- ,"c:"' 1111\ •
the n t·~ .. , , 1
..,.. ... C1h ~.·,1 hl a more
pcner:tl mac ntc d \U rl4~c hy th e nuw-l.omoll:or lltc th,><l nf '"t'<ll\tltrl, t ·
l •• I IOhl 'UIHf'11.:t
\UI(dCe\, to c:ot h 11( v.luda the prcccdan1~ p ru11f '' apph,·.ablc ~
EXA M I'll I Appl y Stol e•' th em em 111 ev:~lu.•t c
f r
I' ·Ttll.
v. here C i< the elliJ»e in which the pl~nc: ~ ) + 3 an tcn;cct< the t'\ Iind e r l ~ l • 1
1 1
Onent the ellrJ»e countcrclock -. i>c 3\ vic.,. ed from nho• e ll l c I'( •) nnd
3z i- Srj -2) k. ' · '"
Sto\es' Tht'O('Ml SECT10'1 15•7 1067
0Solution lhe plane. cvlinder II. ·~d . Fi I~ - ~ Th~

th rn l'rkntJtion
fC
.corr~sponds . ·-· e tpsearrear m tt. · ·'- · _ lr . •
to the upward unit no rmal 'ector n ;, ( - j - k l '.: I<' the- c- t!'ll-:t 1
=
rcgron S tn the plane: Y + 3 bounded by C :"o "·
j k
curl F = a a
-il:il = -.:i ~ .~j - :'li:.
a.r ily
3: S.r - 2··
so
(curi F ) · n = (-2i + 3j +5k >· ~~-j ~ Ll= -~~ ~ :' = , :.

Hence by Stokes' theorem.
l' ) ·n dS: 1{ /~ dS: ,If.arc:a(S)= 1::.

~GURE 1s.7.3 The ellipse of
;..ample 1. f_c f·Tc/s: j/_<curl
s Js
because we can sec from Fig. 15.7.J that Sis nn ellip$<: " ith ~cmia'(t"S I and ,J 1. Thu~
its area is ;r ./2. +
EXAMPLE 2 Apply Stokes' theorem to evaluate
jj_s C' x F ) • n d S.
where F = 3: I+ 5xj - 2yk and Sis the part of the parabolic surf:u:e : = .x= + y: that
lies below the plane: = 4 and whose orientation is gin·n by the upper unit norm:el
vector (ng. 15.7.-l ).
Solution We pa ramet rize the boundary circle C of S b~· .• :: :' c~ 1, y = :'$in r.: = .s
forO ~ r ~2rr. lhcndx - 2sinrdr.dy 2cosrdr.and d: O. SoStokes' theorem
yi.:lds
= = =
JJfj_cv
s
x f )· n dS= { f · T ds=
c
f c
3: d.r+5.xdy-2yd:
{ 2.'
IICUat 15.7.4 The parabolic = Jo 3· 4 ·(-2sin r dr)+5·(2cos r)(2cosrdr)+2· (2sinr)· O
l~ll:!cf E~<.~mple 2.
rh
= 1 ~
(-2-lsinr + 20cos r)dr
2
= lo (-2-lsin r + 10 + 10cos2r) dr
2.'
= [24cos r + !Ot+5sin 2r ] =20:r.
0
•
JUS! as !he d ivcrg•cncc theorem. yields aI physical
. I . interpretation
. of di,· F [Eq. ( 10)
of Section 15.6/. Stokes' theorem ytc~s a p l}'~tca. ~~~e~~~c t~~~~n ,~f n;rl. t'. l~·r s, he
1
a circular disk o f radi us rand area ll( ,) =l ;rrc, c~n chrc a .. ell'<ltnt , tn sp:lc~· and
. 1:tr to the (fixed) un it vector• n.h ct , r><! dt ehposm ve y o ru:mell bound an·
n.•rpcnd1cu ·
•·.-
ctrcle of S, (Fitg. 15 ·7 ·5). Then
. Stokes 1 eorem an I c nveragc value proper!\· · of
double integrals together gtvc
1 f · T ds== jj (Vxf ) ·ndS=a(S,J[ Vxf(P))· n

l'c. s.
1068 OIAPTER l.S V<>ctor Calculu s
for some point p o f s,. We a ssu me th at f is continuo usly d ifferen tiable Ill f', so it
follows that
V x F(i') _. V X F(/') as 1' - • P.
If we lirst divide both sides by n(S,) and then take the li mit as r - 0, we ge t
fV X . -I
f {l')j ·n = hm ~
c I·' · 'I' <S.
I (9)
r- 0 ;r r 2
c.
l oCJnation (9) h:1s a rwtur:1lphysica l meaning. Suppos e that t' = l> v. where v is
t he ,·cJol'ity ,.c,tor licld of the s rcatly-statc n ow of n fluid with con~tant dcns 11y .!.
ll1cn 1hc va lue of the in tegral
r(C)= ~ F·T c/s ( I OJ

c
measures !he ra te of flow of fluid rna~~ around the curve C and is !hercfore called
the cimrlution of F :iround C. We sec from Eq. (9) that
r cc,)
[V x F( l')j ·l1 o:: - rrr -,..
if C, is a circle of very sm:1ll radius r n:nlcred at I' and perpe ndicula r to 11 . If ir s ho uld
happen that V x f ( P ) # 0. it follo"s that r(C,) is grc:llcs l (for r fixed a nd sma ll)
" hen I he un it ve ctor 11 po inrs in!hc dirc<.:t iun of v x F< /').I lencc the line lhrough P
( dc lcrmincd hv '\' x f ( / ') is !he a.xi; abou l wh id1 the flui<l nca r I' is rcvolvi n)! !he mus t
rapid!}·· A tin;· paddle " hee l p laceJ in the fluid :11 P (see Fig. 15.7.6) would ro tat~ the
fastest if its a'is lay ;rlon!; thi~ line. II fo llows from ~li<ccll ~ ncou< Prnhlc:m 32 at the
end of th i' chapte r th~ t fcur l FJ= cScv in the ca<c of a fluid rc n1l"in!! <t cadi l ~ around
a fixed a'is with ,·o n,tant an)!UI.tr speed '" (i n radians per second). 11JU.; 'x
Ft /')
indicates bot h !he di rccti<rn mrcl ra te of rot a tio n of the lluid nca r 1'. Occ.;m<c o f this
inlcrprc t;t I ion. some olde r b<•••ks u<c t h~ no ta tio n " ro l F" for I he c ur I. an a hbrc \'ia lion
r.c; URE. 1S.7.6 Th~ pldd1~-whffi
thai has dis:~ppca rcd from general u<c.
in:r:rpre-t.o:iotl of curl f .
If '\' x F = 0 everywhere. then the flu id !low nnd !he \'<'ctor ticltll F arc said
t o 1:1<! irrolallnrtal. A n rntin ite,imal s traw placed in :~n irrot:ttiona l tluid il<l\\ wou!J
be transbtc:J par;~ lid to it<clf wi thmll rota ting. A n:ctor lic ld F <klincJ <111 n simp!~
co nnected region n is irrnta tiona l if nml on ly if it i' con>cr,·~ti \'c. "hi,·h in turn 1~
true if and only if the line in tegrnl
1 F·Ttii
('
;, independent o f the pa!h in D . ('ll1c rc,~iun f) i< s.oid tn be s implr cunnt><·tt•d if e \ cf\'
\implc cfo,cd curve in /) c.m h,· cunrin twu'l)' s ltnon k 111 a Jl<•int ." hilc •t n' ino: in<id~
/) 'lltc inte rior of atoru <i~ tilt na rn plr of a <p.occ IC)!illn!ha t 1< "''I s impl\' ~·nn'rwctcJ
It is rruc:. l hOU)'h not oh\'iouoc, lh.tt :til)' pi ... . ,.... ,,j,t: ~mrh.llh simp!\~ l'kh~J t;."unc 11l 3
simply cunncctc<l rcf:iun /) h th e huund .u) uf n poccc \\ a5c 'nwuth <1rae nt c<l >Urbcc
rn /J.)
TII EO I'I ( M 1 Co mcrv11t lv~ 11nd lrrot atlor1 ,,1 Fields

Let ,. I><: a \ rt' !C)f ltel<l " ilh ''." 'tinunu, lil\l ·<lltlcr r-•rt r:tl dCfl\',tli\ C\ in (I <imply
cunne <te d re f''"" /1 111 >p.acc I hen the \ ector hdcl 11 I• irrot altclll.ll if ~ 111 ct only if
it" con,crv:atl\c ; that"· V x I' .. tl in /I if ond only a( t' .. V ¢ fnr ~untc -cni.H
functmfl ¢ ddllicJ "II IJ.
O UT/.1.\ 'f: OF I~\ /(T/;\1. /'/rOO f ' A complctt• p rouf r•f the t/ p.tt t uf ·n 1cnrcn>
I i\ t'3\~: h) E u mplc R o f Sccttc)n I ~. 1 , V X ( '\'¢ ) a ll fn r oln y "" ic·c.Jaf(cr<·n tubk
sc:1lar funct ion ¢ .
Stole~· Theo<em SECTION I S.7 1 069
Th ··~nptlon
II e re is a dc.- . . of ho ·
. en rem I. '' ~sun1 e that •. . . w ""~ m1gh1 sho w the: un/y if part of the proof o f
ITTolallonal. Let /'oCr~. y11 • ;:o) be a fixed poin t of D .
11
Given an a rbitrary nn· p
. ,-~rnt (x ,. · ) o f D
·· · • . " e would lik e 10 define
¢(x.,>·. : ):: 1 ('

f ·Td.r, ( II)
II here Cl is a path in D from 1'. • '

Po t oP -..·ould ~i" 1h• o lo I . Bm we m ust show that any otltt!r path C: from
We " c c samf 1al ue for ¢(.r 1 · )
ass ume. as sugg d . . .. . • . .
U~£ IS.7.7 Two paths from endpoint~ Let C _ C estc h~ Fig. 1:>.7.7. that C1 a nd C 2 intersect only at thc1r
FlG p in the simply connected
/ ) !D • 0 and then fo lio" -h 1 u ( -C~) be the closed path I hat first fo llo ws C 1 fro m l'o lo P
s;-.ICt ~1()(1 'S I e rCI'crscd path C f ·
•
t ha t the orient d 1 - : rom r !"lack to P.,. The n 11 c~n 0.,• s h o"n
'
Stokes· thcorc c ChO<c~ cunc: C bounds an orien ted surfa ceS con tained in D. a nd
m t en g1ves
~ I
· · · T ds - j
C:
f·Td.r :: j
JC
F ·Tds= ff (V x F ) ·n dS=O
JJS
because o f the hl·poth · 1 ,. • •
. . . . em l1 n1 v X f "' O. l hisshows tha t the line in legr:t l f. F · f ds
I~ tndependrnt nf rl · d · c .
pa I. JUSI 35 cs1rc:d. In f'roblem 21 we ask you to comple te thiS
~roof by ~ho-..ing that the function¢ o f Eq. ( 11) is 1he one whose existen ce is claimed
rn Theore m I. llrat is. f' = V¢. ~
=
EXAMPLE 3 Show lha tthc veclor field F Jx 2i +S;2j + IOy:k i-1 irrowtio nal. Then
n
find a putc ntial fu nction ¢(x. y. such that V ¢ = .-.
Solut ion To sho w that F is irrotational. we calculate
I j k
V X t' =
a a a = (10:- JOdi= 0.
ilx ay ilz
J.rl 5:2 lOy:
lienee 1lreorem I implies th:11 f' has u pote ntial function 1/>. We can a pp ly Eq. (II)
c
to find explicitly. If C 1 is the straight line segment from (0. 0. 0) to (u. 11, w) that is
=
pa rame trized by x = ur. y 111, t = wt for 0 :;; r !i I. the n Eq. (I I) yields
1
¢(u. v, w) = 1 t' · T t!s= f"'·•·· 3.r 2 dx+5z 2 dy +l0yzdz
Co J,o,O.O)
= 1.
1-4
1
(3ulrl)(udt) + (5w 2t 2)(udt) + ( IOutwt)(wdt)
and thus
¢(u. v. w) =U ' + Suw·.'
. ·b'tr•"" point of space. we hal'e found that 4> (x . y. :)
h "'-32,._5.2
=
But because ( u • l . w)ISanart-J
. f r As n check, we note t at"'' - .r ..., - , • an d
1
1
3 + 5" . 2 1•s a sea1ar potenua . o rd · +
x ••
¢ · = l Oy:. so
=
V 0 f as destrc ·
'
• . h , Jocit)' field of a steady fluid flow that is both
hal V I.S I C \C · • h
lic.atlon Suppose 1 . the density 6 of the flurd IS constant. Suppos_e I at
~PP . nl and incomp ressible-.. a re ion r. Then. because of conscrvallo n of
II~otatJOn 1 cd surface that bound> . ~e mass of fluid "ithin S remains constant.
s 15 anv c os
• e nu.~ o f,. across
S must be zero.
mass. I h
1070 CHAP'Tll! 1 S Vt<tor C.'cu't.-l
jjjr d in dl'= jjs . . n t!S=O.
Bec:a u~ thi~ hole!\ fo r t:n•· r~zion T. it follo"'s frc>m the: U\UJI ;t•er:rge ' 'Jiuc property
argumen: that dt\' ' = () ~,e,:;.-..here. The ..::rbr {unc-tion c pro,ided hy Theo rem I.
fo r "' hich ' = , ¢,I\ c:rl!ed.the .-l'locit~ po t rnti~l o f the nuid no w. We substit ute
"= ' ¢into the cqu.:rtion dl\ ' = 0 anJ lh~reby obtain
a=c a=c il=¢ (12)
di.-(, ¢ ) = - . -----;- - . :=0.
il •· d)" J;·
Thu\ the \ elocll~ r')lentill C of an irrOL11 ion.ll anJ ineomprc:«ihlc nuid no w satisfies
Lop/au • qu.J''"''
La;>!.11:c 'e<patr<>n ar;-ea~ rn numc:rou< other :tpphc:ruon.\. for example. con·
\ider a he1ted 1><-..h •"•....: :..-m;-er3ture fun::tton u = u t ' · '.:)is independent o f
trmc I lhen •w ir .. (I'" the h~3t equltwn. Ett (II) ur Sc:C1t00 15.6. shows that the
"stead) ·\tlte tem;-enturc· funcuon u( , . '. : l <Jtt<rice\lif.tltnn< in a numlxr ul :~rc:t<. includrng acoust ics. ac rody·
n:r rnk'\, clcwum.rvnctt•m. mrtcowlo!(y. anJ occanorraphy Indee d . the en ti re sub·
jcct of ' cl tnt calculu' \tern' hi\tnn;;,ll: from tl\ m.uhcm.tticu l applications rather
than !rum .tll'\trJ<tlll.tthcnMtt~al cun\tJ~rJtlon~ I he m odern form of the s ubject is
due pnmJrtl~ tu J. Willa rd G tbtx(IX39-190J).thc fiN J!le.ll Amc rtcan ph ysicist. and
the En)!li>h clcctrrcal cngtnccr Olt,cr I ka\t\tdc ( IXStl-1\125).

15.7 CO NCEPTS: QUESTI ONS AND DISCU SSION
I. ·nrc /' "component " of Eq . (5) was establish ed in the pa rtial proof o f Sto ke s·
th eorem included in this section. What ch:mge~ in the de rivatio n wo uld be
rcquimt tn c~tahli<h the Q and f< "compo n e nt <" of Eq. (5)?
2. Suppti\C tha t C r and C2 a re piecewise sm ooth closed c u r\'cS in s pace, e:lch
bcmg the boundary o{ a pa rame triLcd piecc" i'c >mou th di\k. ( D o 1 and c
c, then ncccs<anl~. form the bounda ry of some cur .. ilinear a nnular ring? )
Under what condtttons on the vector field t ' can w e conclude tha t
f_
Ca
F · T ds = i
C:
F · T tis?
15 .7 PROBLEMS
In f roblt•Jru I rltmuglt 5, ''" Stokrs' th,orrm for tltr t>•aluntion 3. F = (.ry, -,2. arctan .r 1 ): Sis the part o £ the paraboloid: =
of 9- .< 2 - r above the .ry-plane and with uppe r u nit normal
vector.
j jccurl f l ·n d S.
s =
"- F = yli + .r zj + .ry k: Sis the part of I he cylinder zl + vl 1
1. f a 3) 1 - 2..J + xy: k : S is the hemisphcric31 surflce: =
=
t>etween the two planes z = 1 and z 3 and ~~oith out~r unit
normal vector.
J~- x' - y' with upper unit normal vector. J
S. F = (yz. - .r :. : 1 ) : S is the part of th e cone : = x' + y'
2. f =2.rl+lrj + t'k: Sisthcpanof L~cparaboloid: .. x'+ >.l bc~ ..·e.e n th e two planes l =
I and : = 3 and with upper
below the plone: = 4 and " itb upper unit normal vector. untt normal vector.
Stokes' Theorem SECTION 15.7 1071
rems 6 rhroux" I 0, U.S( Stokes. th~orrm 10 I!VQ/uar
~~b I! that
f_ F ·T ds .
('
f_
c
¢ T ds= J!s
n x V ¢ dS.
6. f :dyl - 2$j + 3yk : Cis the circle xl + y2 9• 4 = = -1, )Suggarion: Appl)' Stokes' theorem with f' ¢•. where • =
oriented counterclockw1 ~e as \'tewed from above. is an arbitrary constant vector.)
f " 2: ; + xj + 3y k: C i~ the ell ipse in whkh the pla ne z = x 19. Suppose that a and r are as in Problem 15. Prove that
1 ' der x l + Yl
meets the cy J1n =.
4
oncnted counterclockwise
J!
0 0
35 •·icwed from above.

f_<a x r) ·Tds=2a · n dS.
S. f = yl + : j + • k: C is the boundary o f the triangle with ver· c s
tier-< (0. 0. {1), (2. 0.0), and (0. 2. 2), oriented counterclock-
20. Suppose that Sis a closed surface that bounds the region T .
"'i liC as viewed (rom above.
J•ro,·e that
9• f = (y-x . x - : . x- y ): Cis the boundary o f the part of the
=
plane x + 2y +: 2 that lies in the fim octant. oriented
counterclockwise &s viewed from above. JJ S
n x F' dS = JJJ T
V x f d V.
10• f = / i + : j + x k:1 Cis2the intersection of the plane z = y

2 2
)Sugg~stion.: Apply th.: divergence theorem to t ' a." here
3 nd the cylinder x + y = 2 y , oriented counterclockwise
X
3s ,;c,. cd from above.

1 is an arbitrary constant ' cc.tor.)
In Problo:•m.<I I throug/t f.l, first .r how tl:at thr given vrctor fidrl REMARK The formulas in Problem 20. the dil'crgencc
r iJ irroltltinnlll; then llpply thr m t thod of E.wmplr J to fmd a theorem. and Problem 20 of Section 15.6 nil fit the patte rn
pormtial fun ction C = ¢ (x . y, :) for f .
n. r ~ Oy- 2rli + O.t + :lj + C.v - 2xlk Jj nO ( )dS s Jjj V O ( ) t/ V,
U. f = <3i - !Ox: 2 ) i + 9 t y 2j - ! Ox 2: k S T
JJ, t' = (3e' - 5ysin x)l + (5cos.r )j + (17 + 3.u' )k where 0 denotes either ordin.11y multiplication, the d ot
product, or the vector product, and eit he r a sca lar function
U. f = r 3r, where r =x i + yj + : k and r = )rl or a ''ector-valued function is placed "ithin th e p arentheses.
~- Suppose th3t r = xl + yj + z k and that a is a con" ant vecto r. as appropriate.
Show th M 21. Suppose that the line integral Jc F · T rls is independen t of
(a) V · (a x r) = 0: path. II
=
(b) V x (a X r) 2a :
(c) V · )(r·r)a) =2r · a: ('
¢(x.y.z)= } ,., t ' ·l'ds
(d) V x l<r · rl• ) = 2(r X a).
16. Prove that
as in Eq. (II), show that V ¢ =
1'. (Suggestion: If L is the:
jJs (curll' ) ·ntiS
line segment from (.r . y . z) to (x + ll.x . y. z). then
....
hls the s3me •·aluc fur a ll o riented surfaces S that have the
'-lme oriented boundary c urve C.
¢(x + ll.x. y , z)- ¢(x . y,:) =
J L
F' ·Tr/.r =
! •
l' dx .J
22. l etT be the submerged body of Problem 21 in Section 15.6,

17. Suppose that S is a closed surface. Prove in two different
"i th centroid
•ays that
jJ (curl t") ·n dS = O:
ro o~ J/1
T
r d V.
s The torque about ro of Archimede$' buoyant fo rce

(a) by using the uive rgcncc theorem. with T the region B = - IVk is given by
bounded outside by s. and (b) by using Stokes' theorem,
,.ith the aid of a simple closed curve Con S.
Lint inr.gra&., surfacr inugral.~ and triple integrals of v~cror·

'''1•ed [ullctions art drjint!d by componenrwise Integration. Suclr (Why?) Apply the result of Problem 20 of this section to
II'JtgraiJ app~ar in Pro!:Jl~tns I 8 tlrrouglr 20. prove that L = 0. It follows that B acts :llong the ve r-
tical line througll the centroid r0 of the submerged body.
ll Suppose that C and S are as descritxd in the statement
(Why?)
of Stokes' theorem and that ~ is a scalar function. Prove
10 7 2 CtiAPTER 1S Vettor Calcului
• • ,. t
...........
. .: ..
,
~
.. - I" • •
~ .,'
CHAPTER 1 ~REVIEW: DEFIN_ITiqNS, CONfEPT~, RESULTS . :
•'
~
..
I ~
:. ,• ,._ L ol" ' • ••.

~
# 1 . ._
Uu th~ fol/owinx lu t a.s a guid" to crmupu tluJt JOu rr.a;r r:u.d 8. Def:nition and cv~nu~tion of the surface integral
to rrvirw.
I. !l)cfinition nnd evaluatio n o f the lin e integral Jj s
f Cc y. : )t!S
J f lx.y.z)ds 9. Ddimtion ~nd e,aruation of the surfac.: intcgml

c
2. Definition amJ e valuation of the line integral
J! s
pJ,·d: ... Qd:d c+R tl.rtfy
J
c
Pdx .._ Q dy + R d;;
10. Rcl.ltionship J:.ct,.~..:n the t"o tyrcs o f su rfnee integrals: the
0U\ O( J \CCtllr ticJJ .l~rOS.S 3 $U r (.u:c
II The do,cr~:cncc them om in \CCtor a nd in scalar notation

. .
3. Hclationship lx: twcen the tv.o t)'pc~ of hnc ontej!rals: the 12. The curl t>f J \ eCtor ticld
line inte~tral o f the ta ngential compon<·nt of a ,·ector field L'-. Stn\..r'\'th<"t,rcm an ' ector nnJ in sc:t lar nota tion
4. Line inte y,ra h and independence o f r~th 14. lhe corc:ul,ot~<m ol " \ ector fie ld nruund a simJ'Ie closed
5. Green's theorem CUf\C
6. Flux and the vector lor111 of G occn's theorem 1 ~. l'h)\I;:JI on tcrrret.llion of the divergence and the curl of a
7. ·noc divergence ol a vccoor fickl >ector field
'cHAPTER 15 MiscELLANEous
. PROBLEMS
.. . ··· ~- ' .. .1 .. •~ ..;
. '- ~
I. Evnlu:u c the line intcgrol 6. Apply Theorem 2 of Section 15.3 to show thai the line
integral
j (.•' + i>ds. j y 2 dx + 2xydy + z til
c c
whe re Cis the str:li&ht line segment from (0. 0) to (3. 4). (rom the fixed point A to the fixed poi nt 8 is independent
2. Evaluate the line intcgul of the path C from A to R.
7. Apply Theorem 2 of Section 15.3 to show that the line
j y 2 dx + x2 dy. integral
c
where Cis the part of the gr:tph of y =x 2 from (-1. I) to
(I. I).
3. Evaluate the line integral is not independe nt or the path C fro m (0. 0) to (I. 1).
8. A wire shaped like the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 • z 0 has eon- =
j F·T d.r, stJnt density and to ta l mass M. Find its moment of inertia
around (a) the :-axis; (b) the x -axis.
c
where F =xi+ yj + zk and Cis the curve x = r". y = r,
9. A wire shaped like the parabola y = l.r
2 , 0 ~ x ;;i 2. has den·
sity function <I = x . Find its mass and its moment of inertia
z = t' -'.O~t ~ ln2. around the y-axi$.
4. Evaluate the line integral 10. Find the work done by the force field t' = d - xj + yk in
jc x)•zds.
moving a particle from (1. I. I) to (2. 4. 8) along the curve
y =.tl.l = .r'.
11. Apply Green's theorem to evaluate the line integral
..-here C is the path from (1 . 1. 2) to (2. 3. 6) consisting of
three straight line segments. the first parallel to the x-axis.
the second parallel to the y-uis. and the third parallel to
t c
2
x ydx +xy 2 dy.
t.he ;;-axis. where C is the boundary of the region between the two
s. Evaluate the line integral curves y = x 1 and )' = 8- x'.
1../i dx + ./i dy + y2 dz,

U. E'·aluatc the line integral
c: ~ x 2 dy,
'"·here Cis the curve x = 1, y = r'".z = r1,0;:!t ;;i 4. c
Chapter 1 S Mi~cell~nt'OuS Problems
1073
. thec:trdioidwithpolarcquationr = l +c~O b d sstnncc of a

C of the surbce S. Then show that the a•erag.e •
• b•-rc 1L!·n2 G reens
• 1hcorem an d t hen changmg
· to pol
• y
• of n spherical surface of rae1sU$ a from nl 1 1
sI''""
F.rs11rr ~~ • ar fixed poont
ordinateS. 1 l of the surbce is ja. .
"" C t>e the circle -r + Y = I and C1 the circle . h f the t'qUlt iOn
21. SuProse that the surface S ss the !!rap 0 ,·e
t.J. Lt 1 1, + ,.: -= 9. Sho" th~t if F = x 1 yl - xy1j . then =
x g(y. zl Co r ly. :) in the r<'gion D o ft he y:-pl:sne. rro
11
(1 ~
fc, f · n ds = f. f · n ds
that
..here"
is an outer unit normal in the plane.
c,
JJ s
Pdyd: +Qd:dx+Rd.rdy
c boo the straight line segment from (xs. y1) to

11 (ll
!XI
( I!· y:).
Show that = JJ (P _ (l ~~- R~;) dydz.
1-y
c
dx .._ X d y: x l)'l- XlYI ·
0
22. Sup~ that the surface S is the graph of the cqu.uion

y = g(x. z ) for (.r. :I in the region D o f the -r:·pl:lne. Prove
(b) Suppose that the venice~ of a polygon arc (x1, y1). that
(r: . .r:l.. ... (.r•. y, ). named sn countercloekwis.: order
~und the polytton. Apply the result in part (a) to show
:~:tthe area of the polygon is
!Jf(x.y.:)dS =JJ /(A,g (.r,: ).:)S<'Cfltl rtl:.
s 0
"=2I 2:::• c.r, y.. , - .... ,,.). .,.here sec{!= Jt + (Jyfu x)' + (oy f\1:1'.
••I l l U:t T be a region in SJXIce "' ith \'Oiumc \' , bound.sry sur·
.. hcrex., 1 -= .rs and >·· I= ) I· faceS. and centrmd cr. J, ;). Use the tlivergencc theorem
15. Suppose that the line integral J,; I' dx + Q tly is indepcn- to show thnt
cl<nl of the path in the plane rcg1on D. Prove that
~ Pdx + Qdy=O
c 24. A pply the result o f Problem 23 to find the centroid of the
for e•~ry pie~wise smooth simple closed curve C in D. solid hemisphere
16. Use Grec:n·s theo rem to prove that
: i: 0 .
fc
l' tlx+ Qdy:aO l'rol>fmLr 25 tlrrou~:ls 27 outlinr th~ de'fi•·atimr of tlor lor111 <'qun-
tinn for a hady with ttmpcrmurc u • u ( \' . f, ;. . t) Dl tltt! paint
(x , y . .:) at timr 1. DcmHc by K iu lu·m contlucti•·ity and by c its
for every piecewise smonth simple closed curve C in the hrm CtlfltiCity, hlllh a.nwn<'d cmutnnt. and lrt k = K /c. L<'r 8 I><'
pl1ne region D if and on ly if ii P/ily = ii Q fil x at each point a small solid ball witlun rh<' body. ami lrt S tfmorr thr bmmdary
of D. sphrrc of IJ.
17. Evaluate the surface integral 15. Deduce from the dl\·ergcnce theorem :tnd Eq . (23) of Sec-
tion 15.5 that the rule of heat now across Sin I~> 8 is
jj J
(x 2 + i + 2zl dS.
2
" hereS is the part of the paraboloid z = 2 - x2 - y that
hesabo• e the xy·plane. 26. The meaning or heal cap~city is th:11, if Aw is small. then
IS. Suppose that t• = (.rl + 11 + zl )(x l + yj +z It) and that S i\ (<' ou) A Vcalories o f heat arc required to raise the tern·
~spherical surface x l + y2 + z2 = a1 . Evaluate perature of the \'C>Iume 6 V by Ou dc~tr~es. It follows thai
the rate lll which the volume A V is absorbing heat i<
jjs r · n dS c(aw/at) A \' . (Why?) Conclude that the rate o f hea t flo w
into 8 is
' ithoul :lc:tu3.1Jy performing nn Jntidiffcrc:ntiatio n.

U, LetT be the solid bounded by the paraboloids
' = .r 2 + 2l and '= 12-...... ~ _l 1

- Y• 27. Equate the results o~ l'roblcm 25 a nd 26, apply the awrugc
value propo: rty o f tnplc integrals, and then t:ske t he limit
lnd suppose that f = .ri + yj + z lt. find by evnluntion of as the radius of the b:tll Jl :spproachcs tcro. You should
•urtace integrals the outw:srd flux o ff' across the bound ary thereby obtain the heat cquatiun
Of T
~ c· . au ,
, "'e a reasonable definition-in te m•S of a surface - = k v·.,
ar ·
II1Ltgral-or the average d istance of tbc point P fro m points
10 7 4 CHAPTER 15 Ve<tor Calculus
28. Fo r a mady·Jtalt temperature f1l11aion (o:-:e tbat is inde- 'e!ocitv o f the point v.;th position vector r is ... = w x r,
pendent of timer). the heat e quation recuces to Laplace's "' h~~e 'w = w.:u is the an£ular .elocity vector. ~Ole tha t
e quation. !• = ~o.· r. si:li'. where ii is-the angle betwee n r a nd w. (b)
t.;se the (Jet thJt • = w x r. established in p3rt(a).to show
that curl • = 1w .
.13. Consider an incompressible fluid flo.-ing in space ( no
sources or s1nks l wi th , ·ariJble dcmity J( r . y. :.r) a nd ve-
(a) Sup~e that u, and u; a re t .. o so!~tions o : Lap!Jt"e'i !o--it\' fidd ' (.t. ._ ~.r ) . Let 8 J:.c a smlll ball v.i th radius
c quntion in the region T and that u 1 a~d u; avee o:t it.s r Jnd spheric:1l ~urface S centered at the point (.ro. Jo. =<J).
boundary •urface S. Apply Problem li o : Section 15.6 to
Then the .lmOU!lt of fluiJ .-i thin S lt time tis
the function f = u : - u; to c oncl ude that ' f = 0 J! ea~h.
poin t of T. (b) From the facts that 't1j = 0 tn T an<! f a 0
o n S. conclude that f ., 0. !!.0 u1 = u,. Thus t!:e stead\- Q (r ) =Jjj 5dl'.
a
s tate temperatures within r egJOn are drrumir.rd by tbe •
boundary-value temperatures. JnJ diffe rentia tion unde r the inte&ra l sign yields,
29. Supf'O'C that r = • I + >l + ~ k and that ¢ 1r ) i< a S<a!J r
funct ion of r= jrj. Compute
o·cr> = j j j ~~ "''·
(a) 't1</>(r ); ~
{b) div l¢1r)rl:
(c) cu rl l¢1r )rl. (a) C<,n<iJ< r fluid flow"''""-' S to gel
3(). Let S be the Ul>per hall o f th e toru• ohtained b• r e•ohon~
oround the ~-axi5 the circle (y -r. l' + :' = /> 1 (a~ h > 0) rn
the y;·pbnc, wit h uppe r uni l norma l • ector. l lc<.:11~ how
Q ' (r) =- Jj J
J •• ·II dS.
to suhdividc S to c<tahli<h Swkr•" 1hcurcm fnr it. lin-.· arc

the twn hound:ory circles or icnl~d ? whc!rt" n •~ the ou ter urut normal Vt.'Cinr to S. Nnw :apply the
dJ,c!'tgcnce lh~Drcm In conve-r t rlu.; into n volurnc integral.
31. c xpb in ,. hy the method of suh<l1vi•ion is not sultiricnt
(h) Equ.uc your two v<'lum~ '"'"!!'"Is lor (! ' (r ). apply the
to cswhlish Slokc<' theorem lor the J\Hibius str ip o f
mean v:oluc theorem fur inlc~rals. and finally t3kc limits as
R g. 15.5.3.
r - 0 l o oh l.lin the C"nnlirmity ("CIIItltion
3:!. (a) Suppose that a fluid o r a ri~tid body is rotaling -. ith an·
gular speed w radi3ns per second around the line thro ul!h ilS
the mittin dctem1ined by the unit vecror u. Show that the
ar + 't1· 1hl = O.
INDEX
------
Entries in bold typ.: indicate the page (or pages) where a term is formally defined.
Area: of points o f ci·cle !rom rts renter.

v.;tltin astro rd. 651! (l'robkm 29). 1029 ( l'ro llkrn 26 )
A~i\:~1, r\•ti Hl-l5 ( l'roblcrn 15) of points or cucle from a fhcd po:nt.
.~~lll<""''crgcnct. 731. 73! . 733 within car dH01d. t\3S. %6 (l'rohkm 3) . w:~ ( l'rohlcm 27)
11nrli~s con,·crgcncc. 7,:\1 \176 ( l'rohkm ~X) Of f"'iOt' O( ((10C frum \ c rtC'C,
aoJ rt3rr>n~cments. 733 nl circle. M·l . 657. '}(~, (l'rnbkrn 1- 2). IIlii ( l'rcol•lcm ~2)
At-solute temperature. A·l 3 (f't·oblcm 33) 1(~15 ( l'ruhlcm 13). J\ · 15 o r roinl\ or cuhc from ('Orne r.
A~~.:e \ llue. A·! hounded h y cycluid. (>55. 9~7 ( l'rc>hlem 5J)
AtXtltfntJon \CCtor. go7 !fi-lS ( l'ro hlcm I~ ) of roir.t ~ of did: h om center,
oorm:al. t3ng(nttJI comJXlncnt'i. 8!! of clh~e. 65R ( l'rohlcm 25). t(}IJ I() I I ( l'roblcm 36)
u JiJl. u ansvcrsc COI11('~tHtcnc s. 82.5 within fo lium ol Dc<clrtc-. 6ro ( Problem o r f'Oints o r dilk h um lhcd boundary
AJJ.;oon f\umul:s Rl ). 111.16 ( Pro\>km 33) point. I0 II ( Pro b lem 37)
lor >tn< anJ CO>tnc. 75:l. A · l·t. fo rmul as. A-13 A\etage rate ol change. \10.~
A·IS ( Prol>lcms ~ l-l2) \\i thin gc:ncrahzcd folium. Ave raRe value of funcho n. IJM
for tJnscnt . 712 ( Proble m 52). IQ.l7 ( l'robkm ~l) -''eragc value propcrt~ of dou ble intcsr>ls.
A·IS (l'roblcm 211) by G roen's theo rem. J().l(). 954 ( Problem 50)
A.lll~JI. 1005 1073 (Problem I~) ,,..,·e r-ase "' ;~luc thc:ou:m, CJ.S.J
.Lt.~cJ Ctllc-t.ltu of Srl"tral \ 'ariabltJ "ithin lemnisclte. •)76 (Prob lem 35)
(Ed,.ards. 1 99~). 924 within limn~on . <J66 ( l'rohlem 7). 8
A-lnmc hou~. 7 (Problem 55) 976 ( l'robkm 30)
·""Y ~;net tons. i /i.l.-766 ol pnrollclugum. 7YI O:" ic unit ' 'ectors.. 18 1
Aao:.,e. ns in plt>metric fo rm. 65~ O>ttk of H :rmng<. 667
Atr•:J!m (of Ptolemy). 77 1 or pint or lnnd . 795 ( l'roblems 23-26) Road shdinR do-. n ~ire. 6-10
·'"~<r::au.,g senes. 7211 in f'OI3 r e<>Ofllin>IC'- 63~0 lkam . R96 ( l'roblcm 42)
r<marndcr estimate. 730 o l polygo n. 1073 ( Problem I ~ ) Beckmann. l'eter. 71 1
t~t. '~ o f regular pcntlgon. 1!46 (Problem 39) Uerno ulh. Jean (Jotn. J<>h:tnnes)
~"~"""•.Ja,.·. 1029 (l'roblcm 42) o! triangle. 791.7% (Problem 35). ( 1667-17 :_~). 6-10
A.1 algonthm !or the C>fculation o f" ; &!5 ( Problem 5). Bessel !unctio n. 7~9 (l'roblems 57-60).
71 2-713 I 046 (Problems 38-3'1) 767 (Pro ~lcm :~ )
Ang.!ar momentum. Rl4 (Problem ~2) v.ithin tv. o cirdes.%6 (Problem 5) o! order I (J.tx )). 7~9 (Problem 57)
"''l: bet" :en planes. 7'.1'J
Allglc o! mchnatton (of line ) . A·IO
within lWO lclllOISC3lCS,
1011 (Problem~)
o l order zero (Jo( <l). 7~.l
Oilliord tab le. 66.~
A;t<ry'. Roger. 722 Anthmclic mean 3nd root·squ:u c mean, llinomialscrios. 7.U. 7~9 (Ptobl<m 67)
" 'pLed Cl>\imum·minimum problem!.. 93 ( Prohlem 37) DIJck hok. 10 13
8~&5 Arithmetic-geometric mean inequality. llo>s. R. P.. Jr.. 6'lS
~·proacn cu" e. 823 926 ( Pmhlem 62) Oolz.,m>-\\'ctct ma" rhcorcm.,\-26
"ltnph, 817. ~6 (Prob lem 28-29) Amoid. 658 ( Pr oblem 29). 1(}15 (Problem IS) llo n QmCa:l n nl:,.). 00)
IMtoiJ. 6\~ ( Prol>!cm 30) lcngrh. (151\ ( Pro!'lem :>II) Ro ,...etn. J<>nath an M . 713
.\tc r>r•mert~c form. 65~ sutfacc JtrcJ of rcVfllution. llo rv. ern. l'crerll . 713
.\tt·lcngrh luncttun. 817 6511 ( l'rublem 31) llounce cucffl.:rcnt. 7(1(1 ( Problems 6-1-65)
...,~"'•6th parnmcrri>ot ion. 818 t\ i lrOnnmic:tl unit (At "), M7 llo un<led monotonic '\Cqucnce pro ptny. 683.
":nocc 1 W17-21~ oc.). i\tlant> (Georgia). ~ (Probl<m 56) Cl.'\9, 715. :\ ·2~
~2 ( Problem 3')). 71 I , Atrn ( u nit o l rrc<>ure ). i\·~2 lluuntled 1•l>ne rc>ian. 947
• 987. ton A\e!lRe distance. 10 11. 10~ 1\ounded >e t o r real n umt>ers. A ·!.l
~ling r oraooloid. 91!7 fro m orrgin tc> a>rruid, 10:•J (Problem 29) Oo) k "• law. A·~ . ,\ .~ ( PTOhlem 37)
of b uoyancy. 1063. !wm origin h> q clord. JO.!'J (Problem 28) llrachl\l('Chro n e rrob lcm. ~(,
from orrgtn tn helix. 101? (l'roblern 30) 1\r>he. Tycho (15-U>-1601). n1
1()6.1 ( Prohlcm 21).
from pornt w sur!J«. 1013 ( Problem 10) Orunnian hok, .H"(' l hHf011lC30 ring'
1071 (Problem "'2)
':>oral, 637 (Problem 50). - or point< u! ball !rnm renter. Btu ( unit o r hear en"~> ). A~2
9'~ ( Problom 39). Dumpy sphere. ~~ :l'rotlkm M)
~2 I Proble m 39). ~. toll ( l' rot>lem 39)
651 ll'roble m 37). ccnuuid . <)o.J~ (Pr,tllcm ~6)
ol points o! tull fro m fi•cd l>ounduy volume. 9'1~ ( l'roblcrn 45)
65&I Problem 21).
puint. 99~ (l'roblcnt40). Butterfly c urve. 6~
""'l.1gcn•.,. &.17 U'robltm ~8) 10 11 (l'robkm ~)
·• oaylor series. 71 2 "lluttcrfly Curve. The." 1>3-1
1-1
f-2 INDEX
c IOCU\. 627 D
~cncrator. fo2fo
r:ol (unit of he31 rnerl(y). /\-~ 2 in ('<ll;or cc~ >rJm al~'.l\74 O:o<e. Z11chari:" (1 ~2-J.-I SM ). 7! 2
O.kulu s o f •·oriO!ion-.. ~9 revkw. t\79 Dcp<·nclc nt •·• roJhlc, K'lll
O. nJ jZa mc, 701-7112 a< 'CC11o n\ u( t'i'lfiC. A ·J9 Derivative:
Cardioid. 6.'2. 6J~. IIJ6 (Problems 41--42). Connected pl:tnc rc.:~mn (arc'-' i.\C), tlircctron:ol. !107
(137 (l'rnhlcm W). I\3S. '1.~~ (I' H•hk m 50 ) partoal. ~.1!
f•-;(1 (l'rnhkm 65) Con.S<r\'311un ur UH.'l'h.IUIC!ll of \ CCtor· ..·alul.'d functio n. IeOS
arc le n2th. 1\51, cnt.:U!\', IU.tfl Oerh·aii\C \'C:Cior. l(.f •~
sur'face"' area uf ri!'\'Olutiun. {)56 Consc:rva lr\C a~J llf tH:ation.al vec tor O c.ca rrc-.. Rt·ne ( 1190- IMU). ti2J. 62~. A -6
Cam nt c ngonc. ICXI5 licld" 1(1(,~ f<>hu m, 6511 (Pwbkm .10).1\5R (Pm~ lcm
Cartcsi:~n cuHh.hn:uc )\~.tc:m. A-6 Con.~rv3lwc H"ChH fidJ. 10.'..1 .17). (,<II (rrol•lcm 8 1). 901 ,91 5
Cath<Xlc-rnv tulx-.141S • ongm for h:rnunt•h'£~. 1035 Dclc..'"fOlHl.lnl. m
C ouchy. 1\u~uslln L""" (17~'1- 1857). nnd porcnri:ol fun<t ion ( theorem). ! 03~: OOJ!!"'' " " n f rhom~ll'- ~16 ( l'rnhkm I~)
i\-::S. A·-'6 (('r<>t>f), 1().12- 1~3 D occ g:ooooc. (>W.. 7(.1(1 ( Prohlcno 6'1). 70!
Cauchy >rquc ncc. A-!7 Consrraint. 918 Dirfcrc..·ncc nf ...~, ,, r, 77J
Cauchy's mean •·nluc theorem. /\ -31\ Continued (rJction.li</1. 76.~ (l'wbl~m ~ 7). Diff<r.:nll>hk (mulll• .on:ohlc) funcrion. K<J.I
Cauchy·SChW317 ii1CIJUa1ity, 769 ( Prc>blcm n5) D otrcrenro>L ll.~9 . X'l!. H'l.l
787 ( Pro!>lcm 5.~). Con11 nuuy· Diffcre nrial fo rm. 102.1
'13~ ( Prnhlom 52) of muhov3ria~lc function. MZ Jlofferenti3l ~,·on~t·lly. !013
Ccl~ti>l mcch.1nK-.. 1'19 of \ C't'hJt·\·alucd function. ~J4 IJiff<:fCOllllH)O Jtld lfllt'grauon o( J"''tto Cf
Cd siu•- f ahrenhcit relatio nship, Continuity cquarinn. 1117 ~ (l'roblcm 33) '"" "'· 7-15- 747
,\ ·5 ( Pr<>hlcm JS) <.:omiuu-..usl_:. c!tffcrcnll.:abk Dtfft:rcntlltionc,r \ l'flvr·VJJucd runcrions. 806
Ccnt<r of curv:oture. 820 functoon. ~ 9J D1Hph3nlu' Ulotllll A n . 250), 623
C entrally sompk rc~ion. 991 Contuur c urH~. JiCSJ Dm:ct...·d hm; ~c~:rnl'flt. 772
Centroid . 969 Cnn ..·ergrnc.·. c tJ( s<."quenn.· . Ml.S J)n('Ci il)n :trt~k~. n1~incs.. 7H-a
or bumpy sphere. ?95 ( l'roblcm 46) C'nnrdinJle ~~~t'" in ~r...:tcc, 71H D~rr c-riona l tlcriv~ui ..·c. 907
o f cone. 986 ( Problem 32), Cnnrdmlt(' function\. 6JJ cakur:uinn. YfPJ
9')~ ( l'whlcm 20) Coordinate: plane. A--6 0 111cnminan1. ll27
of cyclllidJI " ire. 10::'9 ( Prol-lcm 2~) Coordin :11c r lanc!.. 77'J ni W(lii\JU Ont'S o ruJmJt•trcat" (Gauss. JSO J),
o f cy !onde r. 9QJ (Problem 18) Coordm:trc..·' ,-\ -6 Ill!}
of hcmosphcrc. 9"-fl ( Prohkm 22). C<>pc:micu ... ~KOIJS ( 1~73-15-lJ). nJ D1~tancc, ;\·!. A 4i
9<~ (l'n•hlcm 21) Cvplanar pouH').. 7~3 berwccn line'- NS ( Problem 3 1).
o ( ..iC'c<rcam ct~ne.... W2. Corc -man ll(' nHl-Jcl of c:Jrth, 9n ( Problem t\5 ).
1010 ( l'roblcm 26) WS ( Prvhkrn 49) 93-l ( l'rohlcm 26)
o f la mina, 9611 Crirical poonr. lt.~ l bet .. ccn parallclplancs.lill! ( Problem
of par•bol01d. 'l~> (l'roh lc m 31) C rc" < prc>du<t (nf VCCIO" ). 7AA 5R). X·th ( Pruhlcno 15)
o f pl>ne curve. Yn al~chraic rrnpc..·rliC\. 71)2 o rigin tu plane, ~- t.S-~6 (l 'rnhlcno JJ)
of Kmicucular d1.sk. 96Q not aw>ciari,c. 79J ( f'whlcm I I) point to lin<. 1"-~ ( l'rnhlcm f.f>).
o f solid, 9110 nm cnmmuratJ\c, 7'Xl. 7'12. 195 (l'r.•~lem :!'-!)
of wire. 10!2 N5 11'ruN <m 27) point tO p l:on.:-. 7')~ ( l'rohlcm .10).
Ccrr< (aSleroid). 10 1J geomctrjc )i!!nlficam:c. 790 I'll~ ( Prot-1.:-m ~J ).
Chain rule (mul:ivan• ble). 897 lengrh. 790 I'll• ( l'wt•km I~)
and f'J r.Jid \ CCIUI\, 791 DI\UlnCe fortnul..t {10 'pace), "179
genera l. !iY'J
m.1tril fo rm. 90::' -903 rcrrcnd.cu!Jrily, 71\S Di ..·crgt"nc..:c. IUI6. Jh. a~
proof. 9'J3 Crt><'ICUI , J ~ll iJ cntH k•, ( ~ ilh c-url :and f_r:•Uil·nl).
Ch•"~< o! voroohle• in triple inte~rol-.. IIJO(>
Cube. rof.liC'cJ. ""·~c, out \·olume. Hll9 (l 'rublcnh ~S---14)
101 : ( f'wblcm 59) 01\ c rgcn~< t hcnrcm. 11113. 1057. 105.~
Ch•ngc-ol -•·oroohlc< t heorem. I ()).I
Chord (longur) of sp here. ?JR ( l'roblem J2) Curl. 1017 pani>l rroo[. lll~!t- 111511
itlcn titocs (with tli• c rgcncc a nd ~radionl). 0:--IA To" cr ( ,.; in~· r .ork. l'c rrh). ~~
Circle: 1019 ( l'rol>lcno< 25--1-1)
area, f>.l::' ( Problem 37). ~~- fo57. /\ ·15 Dooecabed'"l do<. ~Ill
area wnhon th ree, fwZ (l'whfcm 39)
Cu rvarurc. M18. 1119. 8ll n..g saJ<IIc. Y.l.lc PrllNcm .131
ar innwoo n poult, 8-17 (rrohkm ~2 ) Do~ ,Jc.l. 7:<7 ( l'ro~lcrn 51\)
or<:umfcrence. A· l5 in rotor coordinate-.. 8-1 7 (l'rublcm J 7)
p.~-ramcrric c4uat~tJn~.b.SJ
D orn:1in (of mulla\'.tri.lhk functil'n), 8!o0
of • pace cur><\. 1!21--1!2: l>tH produc1 (••f 'c..~.,·~tu,). 7M!
polar cquauon. '>JO. I)JI. fJJ2.
631> ( l'rubl<m• 37. 39-40 ) Cu•r. t\46 t1 lgchmk p h·~~ICU.:).. 7S~
Cycloid. f\.1~. r.sJ (rrohlcm 3R). )tCOmc trk intL'rprclation, 7SJ
rccun~ubr e q uarion. 632 1112q ( Prn hlcm 2~) Uc" llf HI \'c..'ChH
C orel< o f cur> • rure. II:!O arc kn~tb. MS Dnubk hc·l,._ M.l
Circula rion, 10611 arc> un<lcr ar~h. 655. JO-l S (Problem 14) Dnuh/r lfr/1> . Tl..- ( J.orn<> D. W.ot\On,
O cNd cur>·e. /037 /Ilea of r<\Hiutin n. 651! (l'mhlcms I <11,~ ). ~11-1
s<mplc. 1037 2J . JS) D ouble int<~tml. 'IJII. '1-111
Q ooc:d rnrc rv•l. A·J a1 brachhruc:hronc, (;..1.6 3\'<r3~c •.rluc propc:rry. <I~ (Problem SO)
CN To,. cr (Toron ro). 781> 8t'On1C: tric C00\1tu..:tion of ta ngent, (\'3l u.1 tum, QS()
Coin to-s game. 700 ( Problem• 1\8-0?) 6511 ( l'r.,hlcno .1.1) propc:rloC\, 94 7 (l' rt' hkms 3~). 952
Coi!Jncu potnU. ~.5 ( Problem 4) puametric equation,_ t\4S D ou ble-•nglc fnrmulu. A-JJ
Colorado. 8.53 surlacc .uta of rc \ olurion,
Compl<tcncn adorn. A·Z4 6SR (l'ro hlcm J~)
Component o f a olo ng b. 715 volume o f re•·olutoon. E
Component••~ d iffc re nti>lion, 805 6.S9 (l' roblcm 39),
Cone: 680 (Problem 67) ~- 696. 1r11. 111. n J. 7J I
&enc tator. 626 Cylinder. IJI Irration a lity, 76Q(Problem t\3)
na~626 clliptic.IJZ ~· . 7(H
• n h ~quare bole. l Ol l ( Problem 47) Earrh orbn. IUO (Prohl<m .SS)
par2bolic. IJZ
Conic teetion. 62J. 6!-1. 6~: su abo ruling. Ill Earrh utdlite. JOJ7 (Problem< 37-.~)
EJIJpte, Hyperbola. ParabolA Eccentncity. 626. 627
Cylindric.1l coordinate'- 8l8
ecunuicity. 626. U7
,\\~'ell (IS19-1955). 10\3
INDEX 1-3
. Foc:us (of conic ~ion). 627
fPt(\:1. / D•fftrtntinl a11d lr.ttgral Cakulu.s
Fohum of Descartes.. 650 (Problem 30) of functioo. 851
v-r.:s~> ~J).617 ( Prot-lcm 75)
11 ~~(Problem 81), 829 (Probiem ? f ~aramct11c cu"·c. Mol
' 6!('. 617. 66-1 . . ). 901.915. 1().16 (Problem 33) G ravotallonal anr>Cliun by spherical ballOt
~. 11131;,c Jelimuo n. 668 . 3~
lco&th, 658 (Ptoblcm 37)
~~ic:ltl'>I\S to pl.tnet>r)' o tbm., f67-«>8 shdl. 9'15 (l'roblcms 47--IS). 1056
. gcnc ralw:d, IG-17 (Problem 41) (l'ro~lcm ~I ) . I ()(>.I (l't ub!em 2~)
':.,. \tn2th. f6 1 Fuhum·hkc cun•c. 651 (l'roblem 41) Greate11 1\Wo cr t-ound. ,\ .u
1
" tJ' ( l'tOI>km 25). I ().II KIOI·pouml. 786 G reek alphabet. i\-1-1
con•< sectio n. 6'6
at(:L
• Force. A-ll Green. Gcor,c 111'>3· 11'-11 ). 103S
~metet. 6SO ( Ptoblcm 11) perpendicub r to d irection or~:... Green·, fi"t•<lcnury. IOM ( l'roblem IS)
ctc-"1rh. 66-1 """ .........n. G reen:s sccon<.l i<lentuy. \~ ( l'robkm 19)
"""(Problem 51)
e:tcntOCII). 6M f o rce field. 1015 Greens thcoren. 103!1
fc>eUS. 66-' inversc·squue. lOI S corollary (uca). 10.:0. \073 (Probl<m l.t)
l:t~St.lowcst poi nts. 917 (Ptob em 52). Four-leaved rr)SC. 632. 637 (l'roblcm ~?)
...cctur form. 1~
913.925 (Problem ~2). b59 ( Ptoblcms ~~) • Grc:enwich (En&land). Sl2
9~6 (Problem IJO) Function: Gyrat1on ( radiu• of), 975
03,or. minor >liS. 66~ continuous\~ drlferentilble, 893
rcnmctct. 661.757 (Problem• 6~ . 62). d~pendcnt , tndcpemlcnt -ariab!e. 851 II
\COl ( Ptublcm >I) d rllerenll>hlc (multrvariablc) 1!')4
roints clo-.est 10 origm. domain, RSO ' 1lall·angl< form•l•'l. i\· 14
925 (Ptnblem• :;s. 43) ma1.imum. minimum '3.lut. m Halley. Edmund (165(>..\142). 667
tcflc<tion property. 66..'\. of n vari~blc<, 865 llallcy's romet.!-.67
67:\ ( Ptob\cm 81) not integrahlc. A-33 llardy.G. 11 (1877· 1~47). 681
~emr>«S. 61\5 trittnnomctric. sa· Trigonometrtc Harmo nic equ>tion. <lOS ( l'roblcm 3!1)
\~rt:,. 665 functions Harmonic luncroon. m ( Probkm 69).
D!l~id. 833 of twn, three ..-anable'- 8~ 87~ ( Pwblem 70)
wrfJ('C: area. 6S.'\ (l'rohkm 25) vector-valued. Ill» llarr.~onoc ..:rie~ b'n. 717.736
• oh.:me. 960 (Ptoblcm ~). Fund~mental idcnllty of trigonnmctry. A·l4 di"Cr%cncc. 697
ltxlS ( Ptoblem 14) Fundamental theorem of calcu1u5.. 939 )\ow ~h,crgcnce. &.m
Er.\f501d of re•olution. i\33 for line inter,rals. 1030 1Llt•urf•cc. !l56
El!r,<oot.ll coordmates. IOOS (Problem 20). lor vector-valued functions. &l'J Ileal cap>cit). 1073 (Problem 26)
1011 ( Ptoblem 53) llc>t comluC1hll). 1 0~
llc>t cqu•tion. 1116!. 1074 (Prohlem 28)
El!lj'lic mtegral. 660 G dcrivahon. \07~ ( l'rol•lcm< 25-27)
£l!:;o:l<aI cone. IU-' one-<limen!ionol. ~;(, (Prot>lcm 55).
Elh?ttcal p>raboloid. ~ S77 (Pwbkm 61).
g. i\-42
Et:;'l.oltonn.. 1001 (Problem:>!) Galilci. G alilco (1~1~2). ~ 937 (l'wblcm 10)
Et•tm>.bll y. su Euler's con\lant two-damen!ion:sl. S#(, (r rob!cm 56).
E.~dc. 771 G amm> functio n. 7.t9 (l'roolcm ~) '137 (1'roblcm II )
E~~d01<l. 652. 6l!O ( Ptoblem ~) Gauss. Cnrl Friedrich (1777- 1855). 1013. Ileal flo v.. 1054
E,..,::uc:-..,d. 652.. Nl() ( Problem 54) 1057. A·2t; l!e.-"rJc. Oli•cr (18541-1925). 1070
~·.:.>ht~ u! •«tor'>. 773 Gauss's law. 1061- 1063. \()6.1 ( l'roblcms Hchoccutr1C)\~t..:m. 711
E.;::: lion o( 13ngcm plane. 872 2-1- 27) llcli •. S(}.l. Rl'i
E.;m•>~cnt hnc m tcgr3IS. 1027 lo t electric tleld.\. 1055 I lcp13;nnJI h"l<. %R ( l'rnl>lcm ~3)
C ~Jtt rrwt (unchun fo r invc~·~quare £-f3\ itation.J.l lleron·, lt•rmul.>. '1'.5 ( l'rnblcm ;16)
&tor an hncar >rpro.,ma tion. I!Vl lleu~tonJI hole. •Jrl.!l (ProNem ~')
ficiJ-. I ()5.1
&tor ru.~CII<>n .•,,~ ( Eumple 5) Gouss's theorem (divergence theurcm). 1057 lligh all rollutl<'Cl Ioree>~!. s~
Elr=a~-. 7!11 1/istc>l) of rr . A (Pe ter ll.:ckmann). 711
General choin rule. 899 llolc (squ>t<) thruu;th cone.
Ealtr. Lconlurd ( li07-l1R3). 681.722. ~9 Geometric series. 6(J4 lOll (1'1\>~lcm ~7)
Er:l<t'sconstonl (y). 721 ( Proble m 50). ratio. ~ !Iole through C) rn.lcr. 9roiJ ( l'roblcm ~3)
736 ( Probkm 6 1) sum. 69~ llolc lhrou~h <p'tcrc. ~~ ( Prot•lcm 55).
EtJct·s lormula. 711 . 713 Gcosvnchronous orbit, 828 96o (rrul•lcm< 51- 53). 9(>1,
~ence: Gihh<. Jo•i•h Willard (1839-1903). 1000 %.'t (l'rohlcm< ~ \-13).
o! <kfin11e Integral. A-29 tbrou?,h A -33 G l:1s< l"'nc. 700 ( Problem 71) m (f mhlcm ~3).
of C:oub!e inteval. ~ G lob>I extrema. 8'18. 8'79 1011 (Prohlcm 55)
types. 881 1lorizont>lly sintplc rc~ion. '»9
r Gradient 'ectot . 119! . 910
annlogv with J), , IJI6(l'roblcms
tlors<ro"' cr. 786
Huylcbrouc\'.. 0111<. 1009
. 3~38). lOIS H• akuta~e (corrct). 67S (l'robl<m 17)
Fthrtnhtit·Ccbius con'•tnion. in C)'lindrici•l ccXlrdlmttc ~ ll~rerl><>lo. t.:·.t.~ (l'toblcm 35)
t\ ·5 (Problem 38) 937 t 1'toblem 1~) • •rrh<>t•<>'"· 6;3~7~
Fant•~.ks (Ail•b. -sonh to the Fcturc"'). idenlltiCS (wolh ,h><rgcnCC >nd CU ) r\), branches.. !L6. 61S. 669
Sou ( Proble m• 57- 59) 101'1 ( l'rublems 25~ as con•.: KC'luln, 6~6
~-ms. Fronk A . 6Nl ( Problem 55) •
intcrpr c t~1iun , ,.gm 1 ·
"ficaocc •
91'
- cOnJUSll< 1 \1\.610
) . Tt!ll!'lt II 63-1 linearitv. 1016 con)\rucuon of roinl.s thereon.
~=.a~ Pierre de (1601-16M). 623.62~ as no~•l •ectot. 913 t-!10 (Ptoblcm 76)
F;etl!lat' "la<t theo rem.- 623. 722 and proJuctrule. 101 6 diflcrcncr definition. 678 (Problems
:bona;a. Leona rdo (of Pisa; 117f1!-poJI Gr>di<nt • ector field. IO I ~ 81-88)
12!Q). 683 diverge~"~· 1° 16 • (1863-l~l). directrix. ~
J.tt a!Jo ~que nee Gran,-.11<. \\ ilium ;\nthoo~ eccentricit). 668
firure.,rgtt cu:-ve. 633.631 (Ptoble:n 52). 677 (Problem 75) focus. 668
M2 ( Problem 3~). rc!leClion tropcny. 673,
Gtapb: . · d· 1 678 ( Ptoblcm 81)
Fn YJl ( Pto blcms 50-Sl) of equatio n 1n C):lln nc!. 9 ui~ 669
~b'ed ra.e. 637 (Pto blem 51) coordin>te!.. ...,
. . polu coordlnatdo.
630 transvcne
:,~~ :,.rabo'oid 'Xi vertex. 669
11 of equat!on !" th e variables. 710. 1130
~• (<>! 'octot f.c~d). 10..3 of cqUlliOR 10 rc
><:au surlo~ IO!l
1.4 INDEX
H)·perbohe p.3r•boloid. &36 Toylor,su T•ylor series 1..1pl3ee cquatoon:

thrce-dorrcnsional. 877 (Prol•lcm 00).
H)'p<rboloid: telescoping.~- iOO (Problems 50-60)
1070. 107~ (Problem 28)
of one shert. KJ~ term. 691
of two sheet<. 3J~ ltrmwi'c :uJdicion 3nd t"'o·domcnsi<>ml. !\71 ( Prohl<m 69),
l t~lfo ( l'rnhlcm 26)
Hypocycloid. 6~1 (Problems ~36). multiplication. 695
680 (I'Toblem 68) su tllso l)o"':er series.. etc. uplaci:Ul . 111{o4 ( PnoHcrn 15)
of fnur cu<p<. '" A>lroid Inner l''" " tion. 9~7 L1111uuc :omf lomJ!ituJc. R.12- 8-13
Jt ypou oehoi<l. C>32 norm. 9 ~7 1..1" of t'(ln,cn·attnn of an~ufa r
nt01nl'111llnl, ~ 1 4
SciCCIIOII, 9n
t....1~ o( con"e r,·alinn of mcc:hanicnl
ln~unt•ncou< mtc of ch3nge. 869. 908
I lntcgr•hlc func1i<>n. 9~H encr2' ·· 10.16
lntegrnl L;\\lo' of Cc:'Kint-~)~.~. A--W
i . 711 douhle. 9-10. 9-18 L.1w t1f 'line<.. ;\ ·-lJ
I. 775. 7lll cvolu~tion. 950 U M I ·!-qUOfCS •pp10\lffi3110n\. 1013
I t-eam. 97~ c<o<tcncc. f\-29 through f\-33 l..ea.sl·iqU:&rcs Hnught bne.
Icc trn. 925 (Problem ~) otcrated. 9~! 9.\ll ll'wh!<rn S I)
lcec•p'trot>r). 810 hn~. IO!U Lc.nl UJ"~' l"•'UnJ. (,•Hl . ,\ .lJ
Ideal ~as I•"'· 1\!-11. gn (Problem 63). mulllplc. 9-10 U:.:lSt uprcr t'<tUruJ prup<.·ny. 6-'<'). A ·2-l
'lOS (l'robkm 37) f>.HII• I. 9~ I.A'I-e>guc. lfenro ( IS'i5-l9J I). 939. A-33
l mph<'ll functmn theorem. 901 tropl<. 979 l...tfmH wt If 1.rlc ul ,(f''f fonctituu ( La~trangt.
lmph<1t I'JII o"l •loff<renll>llon. 901
lncrem<nt. IIS9. MQ2. A·7
lntcgrnlt«t. 716
lncr!!tJI h:O'il rt·m~~ndcr <"'timate. 718
1-'"'''· s.l'l
Ltihni1. G ..11r11ed Wofhclm (16-lf>-1716).
lndcr cnJcncc or ra th. 1031. 1032 l nte~t3110rl' r,.u,, A·~~
lndeJ>en,lcnt vamblc. M'll! trirle. 97~ lcobn u "" croc' 7 1 ~. 7l'1 (Ex3nlplc 1).
lndocator di>gram. 1005 trirle. in cylindric:ol coordonatcs. 988 7()~) (l'rPbk nl 6= )
lnequ3liucs. ,, . , triple. 1n )phcric:tl rot'lrdinatcs. 991 Lc:mru~._lh.', ()J:. 6Jf1 ( Problem JS).
•oh ong. A·3 nf vector-valued functions. ~09 -8 11 t,,n (Prut,lcm -16)
l nequ:.lity (uithrnctic·geometric me:tn). lnt<rc>l (compound). 6S3 surf.1cc a1t:1 tlf rc\'olurum. t.5S (Problem
9~ ( Problem 62) I nterior r\uint , H79 )2). fo.'<fl ( Prohkm M )
lnfinlle prtl<luct. 7(\.q ( l'roblcm• ~ 9-50 ), l ntcrmcdiJ1r ''·tluc propctt~·. i\·25 Lensth. i\-41
i69 ( Prc>blem ~) ln1('rmctha1c v:.riahle. m or e-rn" pmdu('1. ~
Infinite udk~l. 61<:!. 691 ln1rr.;ccuon (Pf '-C'I\), ,\-~ or smuuth arc.lt 17
Infinite sequence. AA2 lntcrval. A-3 of \ C:Cto r. n :z.. 7SO. M5
bound«!. 688 ln,·crsc·squ>r< !ortt field. 1015. Lcmn~r.:uJ. ut St . J'c:lc:n.burg
con\ ttgc:r.t. d.J\~r~ent. 68-1 lillY ( l'rubkm< 37-.l.~). 1030. Ltvcl cunc. ~J
Fibonom. 6KJ. 6-W (Prob:ems 55-56). 1037 ( l'roblcm 36) Lc:\•t l ~urf.u.·c:. Lt.a
76S (Problem -18) l n\'trK·t.quarc IJ" of grJ\1lJ.tional attrJC1ton. 1'1 l<~llt.ol'> rule. A ·36
incn:uing. d«te.utng. etc.. 683. A•l-' 11:.~l).~!h, 1 0~ rtU<>I. A •),
and I"IIOrotal's rule. 687 Involute of circle. 6~q ( Problem• J()-.12) l.im>tnn. fl36 (Problems 38. 4>-l-1). 639,640,
limit. 6M lrr:uional numt"C'r. A· I 65~ (?rohlem• 47--!S)
limit law<. 685 lrr~tatoonal field. 11)(oll Limit:
limits of functions and seq uences. 687 and conscn·aU\ ( llcld. 1068 or /! • l. A· I9
monotonic. 688. A·24 h obor. iM>thc rrn. IL(4. 1005 uf j (.t. y). M l
• th term. 682 h opcromctric problem. 8-19 lntultl\ C: ade3 • .S60
recunhel)' defoned. 683.690 (Problems Isothermal coonprcssivity. laws ( nouhl\·3ri3blc). S6~-S6J
5~-'>'l ), 691 906 (rrohlcnn 5&-57) pruub of lumt 1.\w~ A·20 through t\ ·:!3
remari•ble. 691 (Problem 6-1) uniquonc>~ ,\ .:!J (Prohlcm I I )
squceu law. 685 J of •·ector·,·nlued function. 804
substnuuon Ia ... 685 Limo! roint. i\ •: 6
Infinite sene-. 691 J. n s. 1111 Une:
abwllurel) con>ergent. 731-733 J.1cobo. Carl ( 1~- 1 851). 1003 •nttle of ondonatinn. A· IO
alternoton1- 7lll Jacobian. 1003 parl.mctnc c-.qual if'OS.. 796
a!tcrnaun! b .. tmonk. 728. krk.ll23 point·>lorc cquJtion. A-9
7.'6 (Problem 61) Joule (J. un11 of ,.ork). 7S6. A-ll ~lopc ·mtc:r-:crt c~uatton. A·9
btnornul. 74~. ; J9 !Problem 6'7) Jupotcr (plonet). 667. 830 (l'roblcm 62) S)n1mclric equ..ttion,_ 791
compari\00 test. i'J \ C(hU C41U.lCIOO, 796
condlloonall) con•·crgtnt. 732 line inte~rnl. 11! 0
con vt rJ_enr. d1vrrgent. 692 K C'JUI\'Aknt, 1027
dl\crgcntto onfimt)·. 691! hmd.uncnl:l l ther'~rc m of
dovergent by O>Cdi3110n. 6?8 k , 7HI
:<~lcu lu s. 10..10
UomtnJ IJOn. 7ll l:•hnutck (cnnoct). 6711 (Problem 77)
p:ll lh lq>cnJcnt. p.oth -indqxndcnt.
e"cntu1lh the \Jtmc. 698 Kec no>ry, llrcndun . 7Wo
ltJl.~ . 10.\ J . IOJ1
gcomctnC. 644. .Ju abo Gtomclric ~<rin Kepler. Juhann.- 11571- l(o.\0). f>l-1. 771, R2S
~ ith rnpc.:t 14 • arr le ngth. 10! 1
harmon1c. f.R7. u r a/.10 U.armonic: '-Cries Kepler'< IJw< nf 1•l:on<ta ry mot inn, 771.825 "'lh tnpc..·.:t HJ ,., "'•1d111.11e
intcgn l lc\1, 716 \Ccond. h7 7 (l'roblcm 6'1), 67X( I'T o~lc m
~·:tri,.blc. IO!J
W>J, X1h. 830 ( l'roblem 56)
lomot compan\Or1 te11, 725 Linr;~r ilf'l''''''IHllliun. 1«90
nth ponool ~urn. 69Z Key (to rever>~ng urdetul onte~trat ion). 951 trrnr. IC9.\
nth term. 6'11 Konchc energy uf rotation. 97~ Unc::u ~•rrru\ln\auon thC'Ofcm. 8Q.l
11 th-term tc>t for dovcrgence. 696 Kh -. Ju Osculum
r ruot. """''
po>o ll~·tcrrr~ 7 1$ l..mc:u cc•m~n.ttlon of vectors. n!t
J>"Cne<.717 L u neat equato...,, 62~
ratiO t« t. 733 L•nc· thrcough ·l"llnt mcL~od.l!&S
rtlrnn,cmc nl, 726 Labrodor Sc• . 673 l.i>'-')00> curve, ~. 6W !Problem 53)
roo< tnt,~ ugnnsc. J.-ph I.Duis (173&-1813). ~9. ?18 Littk,.•• >J. J E. ( 11!85- JQ77). Ml
""qucna: ol panoal tum'- 602 me thod of t.av ange multipliel'1. 918 u >eal extremum, 879
•um. "Z Lagrange multiplier. 91 9 findonJ!.IU+'l-l!l_ll
INDEX 1-5
Mysruiwn CoJmographicum ( Kepler.
. 6l~ . "2 (Problem 41 ). 6-19, 1596). 771 oriented. 1024
~Ill- ic <p1ral. V"' piece wise smooth, 1024
3jl
IJ.~'n:hm65l (Problcnl 59). 727.
;(Problems 5 • N
smooth. 646
tangent line. 646
1):. i1~ ~ (Problem 61).
7
3616~ (Problem 62). 1009
Parametric equations. 643, 803
n·dimensional sp;tce, 86S Parame tric polar coordinates. 656
Problem 66) Nappe. 626 Parametric surface. 996
L,J. ;69 1~, S.:.l (f'roblcm 62) im3ge, 996
Lll""""· • -· 0 f phcrc. 93l! (Problem 32) National actuarial examination
, ""'~' ch•>rJ sR•)'IIlOnd ( 1RS0- 1965). 6TI 677 ( Problem 76) ' smooth, 9%
.... . > . 1\lllt:lm " - Nega tive angle. A· U Partia l derivativc,868. 873~'!75
1.<'"~'·'· ,~ (ColorJdo). 8)3 Negative of vecto r. 774
LC<'f5 .P<· •<~) (l'rohlc m 55)
vv-
geometric in:erprctation. 870
I cur\'C. l'estcd interval rror>crty. A -25 not:~t ion. S6.S
IP'n . 651 (Problem 38)
u-•odrom<. Nested radical, ur Infinite radical second and highe r order, 874-875
t-ound A·!J Parti3l differential cquotion. 1062
l,.·cr •·1 g:;o (Problem 59) New York , 8-12. 8-14 ( Problem 62)
t.unlrord. Newfoundland. 673 "Panial sums of infinite series- and how they
Newlo n, Sir haac (1f.>.l2- 1727), 624,646.667. grow,"69S
7 10. 7-1·1, 757 (Problem 51 ). 712, Partition, 940
825.995, 1013, 1057, A·28 inner, 979
11acOu<r. C. lt. A· 38 • Newton (N. unit or force). A-41 norm. 940. 979. 990
• h·n J,,hn (16."0- 17) 1). 712 selection. 940
1 Ne .. ton's first law of motion.
~,:',;u~n. Colin (169&-1746). 710 sphericaL 990
, __, . 710 74' 815 ( Problem f())
vdaurin ~e ncs. . . • Path. 1031
Newton's law of gravitatro n. 825,826
~i~~"' (india), (,~ I "Ne"ton's Nose-Cone Problem" (Edwards- Pendulum. 6-1-1.896 (Problems 3~0),
\l><n•tuJc,Jrr Vc(lor (length) A-5 (Problem 4())
1997). 1057
\t;nJcl~rflt. ncnoit. (,23 l'cnlagon area. IQ.l6 (l'roblcrn 39)
Newto n's second law or mm ion. 808
~!<1:'1dclbrot set. 623 l' cntagonJI hole, 96S (l'rohlem 43)
Non-Euclidean ~cometry, 1013
lll\\ A-11 Perimeter of cHip", 757 (l'roblcms 61 , 62)
of n clnidal wire, 1029 (Problem 24) Nonoricnlahle surface, 1052
Nonterminatmg decimal e xpansion. A·l Periodicity (of trigonometric
oflamin•. 9<>8 function). A -16
of wlid, ~0 North Polc.lSIO, 84-1 (Problem 59)
Nose cones, 1057 Perpendicul.1r line' A -10
ofwire. IOI9, 1022 Perpend1cular ,·ectM lest. 7S3
~hximum. minimum value of
l'erpendicularity of eros.<product. 788
function, 878 0 Penh (Au!lralia). !o/J.:
existence. 879, A-26 Jt,681.6SJ. 696. 711. 712. 714(l'roblem5J),
glob•! (absolute). 878 Oblique segment of paraboloid, 9S4 no.
719. 72 I. 7-19 (l'roblems 56,
local (rdati,·e). 87'J Octant (first), 779 63). 100'1, A-1
problems, 88-1-SSS (ut also kry words Ohm's law. A -5 (l'robkm 39) Pic:cc"ise smooth cur. c. JOU
in !latmletlt ofproblrm) Onc-lo~nc transformation, 1002 Piecewise smooth surface. 105M
ll<an (arithmclic and root-square). inverse, UHl2 clostd , 10."11
938 (Problem 37) Op.:n interval. A-3 Pinched torus, 1001 (Problem 20)
,\!1-.an:q'" anaiJtique ( Lagrange, 1788). 8-19 Ordinate. A -6 Pbne:
lle;!ian (of triangle). A· U (Problem 30) Oricntabk surface, 1052 normal '·ector, 79!1
lkr:u~ (pbnet), 678 (Problem 78). 827, Orientation (of cun·c), 102-t scalar equa1io1. 798
&.lO (Problem 57) Oriented surface. 1065 tangent to sur.acc, 87!
Mc:idian, 8-a!
Origin, A·6 v~cto r r:qu:n icn. 798
Mcndionalzone. 1000 (Problem H) Osculating circle. H20. 825 Plane analytic geomctr)'. 62J
I!<IJ, 956
Osculating plane.~ (Problem 2-1) Point -slope cqu:~tlon , A-9
Mr~r.an<. 708 (Problem 70) Polar coordinates. 629
Osculum , 820
~!ethod of bi><ction. A-26 ongular coord:na le. 629
Ostrogradski. Michel (1801- 1861). 1057
· 1' thod of Lagrange multipliers 918 polar axis. 629
~:ld;>o<n! . 7!10. 8.l5 (Problem 1).',\ -7 pole. 629
· ~d;!Otnr approximation. 9.SO p radi,, l coordinne, 629
~htL C•o:gc. 713
Polar curves >s parametric curves, 648
. lot>IUsstnp. 1052. 1055. 1056 (Problem 40) Poppus: Pol3r equation. 630
1, l074(Proble m3 1) ' first theorem. 971 Polar ic<cop. 810
.o:::eru of force. 794 second theorem. 973 l'ollr p>ttilion. %1
liO<ttn! or inenia. 973 Parabola. 626.627.661,677 (Problems 67. 75) no rm, 96 1
or «lne. 1010 (Problem 27) axi,, 662 Polar IO<tanglc. % 1
~; <1lbe•.91!6 (Problems 30. 33) as conic seerion. 626 Polygon ore:~, 1073 (l'roblem 14)
.; cyclotdat wire, 1029 (Problem 24) directrix. (>61 l\1lyno mi.ll :tpproxim3Cion\. 70'3
· C)'lmder. 986 ( Problem 28). focus. M1 ' " ttl.<o Ta)'IOr polynomial
~·- 993 ( Problem 16) reflection property, 663 l'olyn<'rnials continuous, 863
~"'•.973
and tangent hne, 677 (l'robfcm 67) Position or ship at Y-a, 673
or ><>lid. 9!10
or r vertex. l.tll 1\>Silion vcrwr. 772, 71l0, SO-t
"'<l sphere. 986 (Problem 38\.991, Parallel fine>. A · IO Positive an~lt!. A-14
of.: 993 ( Problem 4) · Par311cl plane>. 7') '} Positive direction (on cuf\ e). 10.17
Yrm... lrr:, lOll
· ·••r ..ddt <n8. 930. 93-1 (l'roblem 32) Parallel rcsi.tors. 937 (Problem 17), l'ost ortice, RS7 ( Problems ~7-18)
0
!o10oo orbit '. 938 (!'roblcrn 3J) Potential energy. 10JS
l!O!'On of Ptrunctcr. 757 (l' roblem 62) Parallelogram arc>. 791,847 (Problem 36) Potential !unctmn. IO.l3, 103J
ce P'<>J<<IIic!.. lllt -813 Parallelogram <h:tgonal<. 77S ( Problem 53) Pound (lb, unit of force). A-41
ntrat fo fi
eon,, rcc dd. 8 15(Problcm62) l'arallclogram law (of vector addition). 773 1\>wer. 786, A-ll
' nt 'P<ed. 814 ( Problem 40), Parameter. 6-1.1 1\.>" ·er seric!l. 7.\ 7
~,.h C 815 fl'roblcm 55) Parametric cu rvt.•, 643, 803 adding and m•lliplying. 752
onolt-. acccle r;nio n. coordinat e runction~ 803 convergence, 738
Uti! .~16 ( Problem 66) "'i th d•!fcrenl parametrizations- 6-13 to define functions. 764-766
<>rrn c~rcular, 81 5 ( Problem 61) groph, 6-IJ di!!erentiotion. integration. 745-747
1-6 INDEX
Powe r series (Cont.) Riema nn hypothesis. 722 Spherical coortlin rrtc•. 11-W
identitr principle. 159 R iemann • um. 9-10. 947,979 Spherical partit ion. 9')(1
3nd indetrrmin3te forms. 753 gencralilcd. A-3-1 norm. 990
intcrv• l ur con ver~encc. 738. 741 Ricmonn zeta fu nction. 722. A·211 Spiral of A rchimede'- 637 (Prohlem 50),
in P<'"<rS uf .<-c. 74 1 Rise. A·7 &12 (Prol>lcm 39), &lS.
radius o f C(>nvcrge ncc. 7.\8, 741 Rocket nose cone. 1057 651 (Prohlcm 37)
t cprc >cniJiiun<lf /(>), 741 R ocky Mountain !">tiona! Park ore lcn~th. 65R (Problem 27)
~'lu1h'n or d1Urrcn1ial cqu.arions.. (Cnlu13Ju). 85J curv.1tlJre.IW7 (Problem 4R)
7~~ -76) Root ·~qu;uc nu:.1n an~J arithmclic mc3n, Spirnl romp 3re3. 9'19
f~~r tan r , 767(Prohlcm 25) 93.~ (l'rnhkrn 37) Spring. Da,·id. <n7 (Prohlem &1)
Prime intCj:<r.l\.~.\ A·29 Rose (roiJr curw). I•J2 ./2. 69 1 ( f'roble rn {,~). 696. A- 1
Primt' numt'Cr lhrort-m. 1013 Rotating culx-. 1012 (Prohlem 59."'" ~osy!) ./5. 7(,Q ( f'mhkrn 6~)
Prin~ of m:lthcm.lliC"S.. srr \,:1us.s Ruler-•nd<ompa\S construction\, 1013 Stirling's >eric-.. 76~1 (Problem 61)
Pri ncipal unit nnrm•l ,.ee1or. lllll.lt2 1 Run. A·7 Stokc'<, Gco r£c (11!19- 1903).1065
l'rtnrtpio Morhrm•wecr. n2. 1!25. 9'15. 1057 Sto kc•' thcorem. 1065
Projcctik rJngc. M>-1. 6n (Probl<ms 72-74).
~>'% (l'rot•km 41 ) s I"" ial proof. 1(166
Strophnid.li80 (Prol>lem 80)
J~~ also TraJectt>n ·
S>tldlc point. 8J6. 9211 Submarrne e xampk. 810
p-seri<!.. 717 ·
St. John'• (Ncwfuundland), 67.l Surface. 11.10
1'tolcmy (Oaud•us Ptol<mlleU!.. orkn table. nonorientable. 1052
c. m~-c. 170). n1 St. f'ctcr,hurg ( Ru« ia ). 84-1 ( l'rohle ms 57-59)
SJn Fr>nci,co. !W-1 (Ptohlem 56) oriented . I 065
1')1h>gorcan theotem. 1!47 (Problem 51). piecewise smooth. I OS8
A-6, A - IJ S>tcllitc (communrcations). 828
sa .. null rtOblem. 920 of fC\'Oiution. IUl
convcnc:. A·7
Scal:u . nz trace. 831
Surface area:
Scal.11 3<-r<lerat ion. 807
Q Sca!Jr multiple (of \'ector). n4 or cone, 976 (l'ruhlcm 47)
Scallt prwucl. su \'ector. Dot ptO<Iuct in cylindric.nf cvnrtlin:lle-'- 99tt-999
Scnlar triple product . 79!, 795 (l'rovkm 28) of tllipsoid. 651! (Problem 25)
Quodrotic furm. 931,932
Q u>dric surfJce, IUJ and n~lumc llf p:uaU dc:pip~:lf, 79.1 of ell ipticaltnru'- 1001 (Problem 34)
Qu>drilatcr3 L ns(Problem 54) Scher I.'; minirn:tl •urf:rn·. S77 (rrnbkm 61!) of mcridtonalmnc. WOO ( Problem 14)
Second deri,·lti'c lt'"l for j( ' . ·' ), 927 in p:.rametric ft-~rm. 65-:
Scqucn(·r. 'u Infinite \C'qucnrc of p inched torus. 1001 ( l'roblem 20)
R Serie\. J4't' ln rinarc ~cn4..,_s in rcctan~ufa r coordmJIC''S. WS
Seventeen-side,! hule, %8 ( Prohle m 43) of rotat<J astruid. 65S ( l'mblcm 31)
R acquet. 975. 9n (l'rohlem 56) Sh:rrk ;wimmin ~. 9.17 (l'roblem 26) of rota ted c.~t<lioiJ. 656
Radral component o f accckr3tion. 8!5 Shift uf inJcx of sununJttOn. 760-761 of rot>tc<l <')'<"luid. 658 (l'roblcm ~4 )
Radi:ol COl>rdtoa!e. 629 Shock-.••< hthotnl"~- MS o r Wilted lcrnni-cotc. 6SS (Problem 32)
Radi•JJ~ s•mrk rcg•on. 963 Side cowJ•Uon • .su Cofl\trJmt of ~mooth paramclric sur13n:, 998
R ad1;,n mc:a.~urc. A·15 "Similarity in l rr3tion.rhty l'tO<rfs for 11 , In 2. or sphere. 65~. <J7J
R.ld iu~ or CUr\aturc. fCl() {(2). and C!Jl."' IIX'J '"'"I'·
o f •piral 'JW
R odiu• of gyr.ton n. '175 Simple ci05Cd cur> e. 1037 <lf tnru<. 65$ (Prnhkm 2$), 973. 999
R aft (mnemonic). 8-10 Simply connce1cd trj!ion. 1068 Surface intepal. ~~~. 105 1
R ailruad track.IC'l (Problem 55). Sin~. 1061 surface area ekment. 104.'1
~ 7 (Prnhkm ~ 9) S~cw hne!l, 797,1\.15 ( l'rnhlem I 0), Sw«t spot. •175, 9n (Ptohlcm 56)
Rain gutter.~ ( Prnhlcm 59) 927 (Problem 65 ). Symmetry prurciplc. %9
Ramanujan. Snn1>aY ( IXK7-1920). 681.713 93-1 (l'rol-lcm 26) S)·nt met ry p ropert ies.. 625
'"Ram.>nujan and pt.-713 Slop.:. A ·7 in polar cuordinate!., 632
R ange of projee1rk. 6n (Problem• 12-7~ ). or horizontal hnc, A.S
li'J'> I Probkm ~ II or r•arullellincs, A -10 T
R•tional numi'c:r . liJS. 7W ( Problem• of rcrrcndicuiM hne$. A -10
JS-:31. A· l of vruic:.l linc, i\·8 T:mgcnt lute. W5
R eall10c. Real numi'c:r. A -1 Slope·intrreept equ>tion. ,\ -9 T•ngentpl•nc. l!7.!.. 9 1J
Rcarungcmcnt uf 1ntinitc s.cric\. 726. Slug (unit uf rna\\), A-ll OlHm.al \CC1or. S7J
i)7 ( Prublem> 6}-{>5) Smith. f'erccy Fr:rnklyn ( 11\67- 1'>56). 677 Tangrnt vr~h•r. 805
Rec1Jngular coordtnate >)'1tcm. A -6 Smooth rurve. surfarr. 646, \104, llryh>r, llr.~·• e (1(,~~- 1 731). 707
Reeunsul.r coordm•tn in >p<>ee. ns. T19 '1'16. 1()~) Tllylur r<>l)'lt•>tlliJI, 70.5
COO<dln>le UC\, TT8 Solar p.1nri.IISO w11h rrm ~undcr. 707
lir>t octant. T19 "Solutron of • Cakulu• Problem on M inim>! Tllylor ""tie!., 701!
nght·handcd. m Vulurnc," Y27 (f'roblcm M)
S.>urcc. 106 1
3rC'\In '. 747
Rerurrencc re!Juon. 76/J or<-.inh x. 761l (Prohlem 59)
Renecting tciMCOpe. 673 Spurn/ /'unr/IOfU (A ndrrou, A•ke)', arctan o. 71 ~. 7.16
Regubr pol~gon.,1 01J ontl Roy. I'JY?). n~ 00. '. 710. 7.\7
Remau11Jcr (an inlinue KnM). 711. 730 Spced,IKI7,1118 ca.h • . 714 ( Ptuhkms ~3-14 ). 7~2
a lternati.".g "'""estimate. 7.30 Sphere. 7110 r'. 70'-1, 7J 7
eitlmaling.. 7:6 bumpy. 1\.l-1 ( Pro l•lem 64) rcprc,cnta t ion o r /(•1. 7~1
integultcsr c>!ll!Utc. 718 longnt cho rd. 9.18 ( l'roblcm 31) • in •· 710. 737
Rcpc•ting dcc:mJI. ~- 700 ( Problcnu surf• ct orca. 654, '173 sinh•. 71~ ( ProblemHJ...I4). 7~3
JS.-:3). A ·l volume, 65~. 9Hl (Problem 39). tonhJ. 71>9( 1'wblcm ~)
Rc•crdnJ order of intcgr• tion. 9SI-9S2 '16 7 ( l'rohlem 23 ). 971, Taylo r'• rvrmulo. 707 , A -Jll
k<). 951 9'13 (Prot>lcm 3) Tennis racque t. '175. 977 ( Problem 56)
Re>1e-a of conrc .cct:or.._ 679 Sphere with hole. 8-1-1 (Problem 55). Ttrmonating d cClmJ iet p• nsion. A ·l
Rbombu\. A •U (Problem 28) 960 ( Proble m> 51-53).~. Tttrahcdron. 7S.~ (ProNtrn 69).
diagon• ls. S.U., ( Problem 18) 968 (Problem> 4143), ll-l7 (Prohlcm 51)
Riemann. G. f Bernhard (1826-1866), ~(Problem 43) Thh>ri~ dt~ ft~n(lfunJ ungJy tiqutJ (usr•n~c.
939. A -28 Spbcrical block. 990 1 797). ~Q
INDEX 1-7
•·-curve, IOOl O( ublique SCjtffiCnt Of pJmboloid. 984

.r /njinilf Srrirs
V~r.·ctor. H"CU'r CIU30iity. 772 in p.trl mctric form. 65.1
. "',tArP/:fol!on1971).7.•
"' '2
at-cc lcr~liun. 807 o f pyrlmid. 793
[)•"' (K. Kn~rPM, o f re~tion wtthin sphere ant.! cylinder.
1
Jl dJ(U"' II)'• • ~ ( prohkrn< S(>-~7)
>nglc "c twecn, 7lCJ
hi-en in~ anj:lc. 787 (l>ro!>lcnt 6-1 ) 'J'IJ (Problem 10)
1t<fll' l<•i""''''1)· J t:ch•in. 1'\14- 1907).
lt''''" 111111~"' (L"' rumr<mcnt or a along b, 711S within rorJtrd C)'Cimd. 659 (l'roblcm 39)
swcpr out b~ m1a11ng cube.
11>'"'"'"'
' lllhl £..17 (Prohl<m• .t.'!- N ),
Cl11tlf'<li1CUt~ 771
"'"' pr uJ ucl • .1~ Cross product 1012 ( Prohlcm 5Y}
1J1rt<·I<•,,d
~~"""'
(l't>lblc111< J .1-14 ) ,Jillcrcn.:c. 774 of solid of rc, olu rion (pJrJmctric form).
{i ~"(,
(fl"'J~IJ). , :-;, tlirecli<•n nn~lc" 78-1 6~-1
""''=' "sll (rr.o~>~<n• Jl)
f,.r;u<. IW• tl'rol•k"" ;10-32)
durcci,'ln c,,;inr:'- 78-1 of srhcrc. 6.\.l. 960 (Problem 3'J}. 971.
J~ ll prt)JU~I. 7~2 I)Q; (Prol->lern 3)
f."''(Y.I,Jj (1'"•1•1<111 6J) C<IUJiit)', 773. 7~1 or spheric~ I SCJ!nlCI\1 , 1}67 (Problem J .l)
f,"'-~ (l'rohkm 3-l)
1(01
1
cOW""' · ( crtra 1011 (Pwhkm H) length , 77~. 7SO of tctt3hffiron. 9(-.rl (Problem J5)
,rncnl o In . 0) nt·~ativc nl. 77~ " i lhin rhrcc C) hndcr<. •Jil.l (Problem .1.1)
m~ ·d I(~ II (l' rllhlcm 2
I' ' . ,,. n..<S ( l'r<•~l•m 2~). 97). m nprx><ite rlirccuon. 77~ or tOfU$. 967 (l'rohkm )5), 972. 1007.
1·'1"'"' ~ ,; 1011 1011 (Problem .J.l)
\ ()IUnl(, 1 '··
par>llcl. 7Kl, 7ll7, 7Y I 101 1 (Pro h k m 34)
' parn llch>~ram law or addition. " i thin '"o C)'lindcrs. 960 (Prot>lcm 37)
•hnt int<~r>l in the t><mk. o f " edge. 951. 967 ( Problem 26)
roe. 9/. (l'rot-km 5(>) 773. 781
rcrf'<'ndrcul". 7liJ
7irJtdr fi>rrr.IOS7 posiuon, 7811
~·'•cto"· ol projectile, f.<>J. RII. w
1
• • gp (l'rol>lcm< 4.1-1~). resolution into C(lmponenl!.. 776
8-!1> (Problem 20) same d ircnion. 77~
,.,,,.u.s.n77 (l'r<•l•kms 72-74), U4 <e3ln r mu ltiple. 77~. 7Ml Wat<nn. J.1mcs 0 . ~I
TD.'I¢oJ<1lllUOn (of coor<linote pl.tnc). 901. srolar triple pmducl, 192 Wan ( W, unit of r<Jwcr). i\-41
1001 111 SJ'3~. 7SQ-7S,S \\'a•c equ.1l•on (onc-dimen<ional).
defl' ah\' C matrix. 902 ~urn. 77J, 7H l ~77 ( Pw'>lcnt< 57. 59)
i:1att. 90!. 1002 turquc, 7\1~ W<t>er, Wilhe lnt (1~~1-1891 ), A·2R
bvc-1'10. 1002 tri.mglc low of addition. 773 \Veilcy•ille (:-Jc,. (mmdland), 673
OOC·IO-<lllC:. 1002 uni t, 774, 7!11 -Wheel> on \\'heel< on \\'hcci<-Surpnsing
Tn.'!Wtioo principle. 62.S ••cl<><"ity. II07 S) mmctry.- 660 ( l'r obkm 55)
Tf!:!S'tnc component of :uxdcnuion. 8!..~ Wlmpcnng Galler}. 61\S
""'· 71J
Tr<!ool hot. SOJ v.,etor alge"rn, 773-775. 777 (l'rnblcm< \\i fc -... J\ n(.)rc". (,2)
Trun~· ;19- 1 ~). 781. 792 Work. 785, 1026, A-ll
J:u. 7'JI.SJ5 (l'rohkm 5) Vcc1ur dilfcrcnll:tl Of'<'ralor. 1016
•o«ril>cd 10 circle, 925 (Prohlem 37), Vector field. 1 0 1~
9;\.~ (Prohlcm 3~) component function. 101 4 X
T:unpc L,equ>lir~. 787 (l'robkm 59). A·2. cnn~ n'ativc. JOJ .l
A·5 (l'rot>k m< 45- 16) curl. 1017 .r· 3.t U.. A -6
Trilnf'c I•~· (1\f vector addirion ), 773 divergence. 10 16 .r -coonhn..lre, A ..()
-roct '""~"'' ' 95> ( l''robl~ms l-5) nu•. 111-1.\ , 1052 <<UI\C, 87(1
T:ljODOmc!InC ((lt mul:t\ 1\-13 irrot.JIIon.:al. !068 x-simplc region. 9Sl
Tngonom~tnc function' A-13 (triangular). ami pot< nllal !unction. 1033
A·U (mcular) VcC'IOr furm or Green's theorem. 104-J
l'l¢c Integral. 97'1 Vcrlur· producl, JC'~ Cross product
y
lll <)hndncal coordina tes. 9l!S Vector l r.plc l""'Juct, 7'16 (T'roblem 32)
lll>phcriral coordinates. 991 VccWT·\r3Jucd funct 1o n. XO_. )'•3XiS. 1\ -6
l'OOoo4. 6.' !. 6110 (Problem 63) C'OnlHIUII\ . MS y<OOrdin3tc. A -6
T)<ho,ur Brahe tJc rhaii\';. IUl!'i y <urve. 871
u Jirui1. SOJ y ·intcrccpl. A ·9
Velocity ('<llenriol. 10711 y·simplc region, 9Sl
11
Velocity vecror. m. 807
<lln'c. 100" apparent. 77ri
l' •
r~!.<>nn CO:lunuuy, A-31
. . (of ><!>), A -4
true. 778 z
L:ill bi Velocity •ector field. 1 0 1~
L'>ira "":""'vector, 1146 (Problem 30) Vertic>lly simple region, \1-19 uno ol Elea (490-:30 ~.c.), 682
l'o:t ,108-nl •cctor. 818, Al l Volume. 940. 95~. Yl!O u ro. 737 (Prohlcm65)
t:s. Sr«1or. ns, 7111 bel"'"" t" Osurf><e>. 957-958 uro \'ector. 71.1
L' O'!c, 61.11 within bumpy •phere. 995 (Problem 45) {(2). 719.722. 747. " 0 (l'roblcm 6S).
'P<r bound. 690. A·ll of cone. 976 (l'rohlern 46) 100<1 (Problems 28-29)
\' of ellipsoid, 9(.0 (Probl<m 40), {(3). 72~. 1009
II'OS (l'rohlem 14) {( ~ ). 72l
v..:._.,. rum formula~ A-13 C(6), 72~
..., ~1 v,-., ~ 700 (Probi<m 67}
1 of -,cc-cream cone." 967 (Probl<m 19). { (8). 722
937 (~uat•on, 877 (Problem 67).

992. 1010 (Prnblcms lS-26) {(n). 72~
obkm Ill) by ileratrd Integration. 955-957 :·•implc, 9SIJ

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1 CHAPTER 1 FUN CTIONS, GRAPHS, AND MODELS 1

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l CHAPTER 3 THE DERIVATIVE 101

3.5 Maxima and ~linima of Functions on Clo~.:d l ntcn·als 142

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