Chapter 5.
7
EVALUATION AND PRODUCTION SUPPORT
D ONALD E. R ANTA
The value of geologic data gathered at mineral projects or
mines lies in their effective use by other evaluation or production
specialists. Little benefit is gained from accurate geologic infor-
mation and sound geologic ideas if data are not properly organ-
ized and presented and if reports documenting the results are
poorly written. Thus written and oral communications of geo-
logic information are essential to guide the evaluation process
and to achieve production goals.
Geologic data and interpretations form the foundation for
both mine evaluation and mine production by providing essential
information for estimating ore reserves and for mine planning
and process design. Proper geologic work requires a keen aware-
ness of and an ability to anticipate the technical requirements of
geotechnical engineers, hydrologists, mining engineers, metallur-
gists, and other technical specialists who all rely on the geologic
data and samples. Presentation of pertinent data in a usable
format and frequent communication of new geologic knowledge
to the other technical specialists are integral parts of the geologic
program.
Geologic support for other specialists involved in mine evalu-
ation and production includes the following (Ranta et al., 1984):
1. Gathering and assessing geologic data and samples for
geotechnical analysis.
2. Collecting groundwater data for hydrological investiga-
tions.
3. Defining the ore body and high-grade areas for mine
planning; exploring for additional ore bodies and other materials
in the district.
4. Identifying ore types and collecting samples for metallur-
gical testing.
5. Evaluating geologic characteristics and ore potential of
sites designated for waste dumps, a mill, leach pads, shops,
offices, and associated facilities.
6. Assisting with land, legal, environmental, and permitting
studies.
5.7.1 GEOTECHNICAL SUPPORT
Geotechnical engineers assist in mine planning and opera-
tions by collecting, interpreting, and applying geologic data to
the solution of mine engineering problems. Geologists support
this effort by collecting additional geologic data specifically use-
ful to the engineer as well as standard geologic information.
Geotechnical engineers use the data in helping to select a mining
method, to design the mine, and to define and mitigate potential
ground stability problems.
Geologic data most useful for initial geotechnical analysis
consist of descriptions and map and section representations of
rock types, structures, and alteration, which could be considered
the “geologic model” of an ore deposit. First, ore types, wall
rock, and overburden are separated on maps into structural
domains and then physical characteristics are used to define rock
strengths and rock mass fabric within each domain. Separate
structural domains occur between major faults, which are the
zones of greatest weakness, and are partly dependent on lithology
and alteration. Structural domains are initially determined by
the geotechnical engineer through review and analysis of the
basic geologic data, including geologic maps, drillhole logs, and
interpretive geologic sections and plans.
Rock strengths are determined by rock substance between
structural discontinuities and by fracture strength. Rock mass
fabric elements include faults, joints, bedding, veins, and folia-
tion (Stewart and Sacrison, 1984). These types of data are used
to establish classification systems in predicting and mitigating
potential ground stability problems.
Additional geologic data collected specifically to support the
geotechnical programs include estimates of rock competency and
hardness, photographs of unsplit core that has natural fractures
marked, representative rock or whole core samples for laboratory
testing of physical strength, measurements of fracture character-
istics in core and bedrock, and records of various water levels
and flow rates. Engineering logs of fracture characteristics per
unit interval of drill core often include the following: core recov-
ery percentage, maximum length of unbroken core, fracture fre-
quency, rock quality designation (RQD), and rock competency
estimate. Noting the fracture orientation, fracture-filling mate-
rial, and vein-filling material is also important. Monitoring of
geotechnical equipment for evidence of ground movement in a
mine is often the responsibility of the geology department. These
data are collected by the geologic staff for use by the geotechnical
engineer. According to Pillar and Drummond (1975), “the best
information on the strength characteristics is obtained when the
geologist logging the core can see the interrelationships of the
various physical features and can make the appropriate nota-
tions.”
5.7.2 HYDROLOGIC SUPPORT
Hydrologists have the responsibility of locating sources of
both process and potable water for the mine operation. Several
superior mineral deposits in desert regions are not “ore” bodies
because of a lack in the quantity or quality of local water. Other
deposits are not viable because local rainfall or groundwater
inflow exceeds economic pumping capacity. Either too little or
too much water is a hydrological problem that often is a function
of the local geologic setting.
Geology is helpful, and often essential, in locating available
sources of water. Water encountered during exploration drilling
or in underground workings should be noted for location and
measured for flow rate, pH, various dissolved solids, and temper-
ature. Water courses should be correlated with known geologic
features, especially structures or aquifers, to predict potential
water source or problem areas. Surface water flow, springs, and
seeps should be noted and plotted on maps, and measured, if
possible, as a part of routine geologic mapping.
The mine planning department must have a reasonably accu-
rate estimate of groundwater flow that will be encountered in
open pit or underground mine development. Dewatering by a
series of wells may be required in advance of the development.
An accurate estimate of the time and costs of dewatering or of
water development is necessary for proper planning.
 EVALUATION AND PRODUCTION SUPPORT
5.7.3 MINE PLANNING SUPPORT
Mine planning engineers require definition of the location,
size, shape, attitude, boundaries, and internal grade distribution
of a mineral deposit for mining method selection, mine layout
and design, and production scheduling. Tonnage and average
grade above various cutoff grades of the geologic resource must
be accurately estimated with a high degree of confidence.
Through a detailed mine plan, a large portion of the geologic
resource is designated as the minable “ore” reserve. Delineation
and reserve estimation of high-grade zones as the most valuable
portion of the ore deposit is especially important in selection of
an initial mining area. Any changes in ore body configuration
resulting from new drilling and sampling results must be quickly
reported to mine planning engineers. Geologic resource data can
be transmitted by sets of grade zone sections and plan maps that
should be at the same scale as mine planning maps. A complete
computer database of sample, assay, and pertinent geologic data
in a format compatible for mine planning also must be transmit-
ted. A reliable inventory of all mineralization should be esti-
mated, also noting inferred resources and additional exploration
potential. Ore types, such as oxide, sulfide, mixed oxide and
sulfide, strong argillization, strong silicification, etc., should be
identified to ensure proper production scheduling and blending,
if needed. Chemical analyses for a variety of elements should be
carried out on representative samples of ore and waste to identify
potential byproducts and contaminants.
Potential byproducts should be considered in an equivalent
grade model if their value could have significant economic im-
pact on the mining operation. Unusual groundwater flow, faults,
alteration, or rock types that may affect ground stability and
mine design also should be located and described. Types and
thickness of overburden, sharp assay boundaries, and post-
mineral dikes and faults are identified to provide information on
grade discontinuities that may limit mining recovery of ore or
cause dilution. This detailed information is used by the mine
geologist for grade control on benches or in stopes. Selective
mining is largely dependent on a thorough geological under-
standing of a deposit. Specific gravity measurements of the vari-
ous ore and waste types are made to determine their tonnage
factors for converting volumes to short tons (tonnes). Specific
gravity measurements are also needed for deposits having highly
variable rock densities, for the selection of haulage equipment,
and in planning production schedules.
Long-term planning can benefit from knowledge of addi-
tional ore bodies and potential ore bodies in the district. Discov-
ery of new deposits could change the following: sequence of
development and mining, optimum production rate, economies
of scale, and mine life. If a significantly better deposit were
found, the overall operation could be substantially improved.
Also transmittance of the ore deposit data to an associated explo-
ration group could benefit the entire company. Continuing explo-
ration in and near the existing deposit is a vital function of the
geological department.
5.7.4 METALLURGICAL SUPPORT
Ore types, which may behave differently in ore processing,
must be identified and defined for the deposit according to their
geologic characteristics. The various ore types should be plotted
on sections and plan maps to show their spatial distribution
throughout a deposit and transmitted to the metallurgist as the
data become available for his/her short-term planning. An initial
indication of the proportions of various ore types in a deposit
361
can be determined by summing the cumulative drillhole footage
of each ore type and calculating their percentages in the deposit.
Composite samples of the various ore types are first identified
and then assembled by a geologist, in close coordination with a
metallurgist, to ensure that the samples are representative of
the entire deposit (or selected portions of the deposit) and are
adequate for bench-scale metallurgical testing. Samples of ore
are usually collected from coarse rejects or cuttings resulting
from drillhole samples that have been prepared for assaying.
Other samples for testing can be collected from surface trenches,
outcrops, mine benches, or underground workings. All coarse
rejects of drillhole samples from a mineral deposit should be
retained for possible metallurgical testing. If larger bulk samples
are required for pilot plant-scale metallurgical testing, then
large-diameter drillholes, test pits, or underground exploration/
development workings into geologically specified areas may be
necessary. The bulk samples should be representative of all the
deposit or, at least, of the most important ore types.
Geologic characteristics that define various ore types include
lithologic type, alteration type and intensity (e.g., argillization
vs. silicification), mineralization type and intensity, sulfide vs.
oxide, etc. Detailed mineralogic investigation of a deposit is
necessary to define the ore types. Of the various ore types, unusu-
ally hard or soft rocks and deleterious trace elements, minerals,
or rock types should be identified to help alleviate potential
processing problems. Detailed information on the ore and
gangue minerals, such as mineral assemblages, grain sizes and
shapes, and textural relationships (e.g., interlocking or coating)
should be described for the metallurgist. Potential byproducts
should be considered and evaluated. Routine spectrographic
analyses of representative samples will help identify potential
byproducts and deleterious trace elements. Mineralogic exami-
nation of the intermediate materials resulting at different stages
of the processing is often beneficial in determining how to im-
prove metallurgical recovery.
5.7.5 LAND AND LEGAL SUPPORT
Initial support for land and legal aspects of a project in the
United States can be provided by establishing mineral “discover-
ies” (valuable minerals in place) on all claims within the mineral-
ized area, thereby validating the claims in accordance with the
mining law. In addition, an evaluation of the mineral potential
and “mineral-in-character” of areas designated for plant sites,
waste dumps, tailing ponds, leach dumps, and ancillary facilities
is necessary from both the engineering and permitting aspects of
a project or expansion of a mine. The project or mine geologist
should make recommendations for acquisition or disposition of
property and evaluate nearby property submittals. Patenting of
claims requires significant geologic input.
5.7.6 ENVIRONMENTAL SUPPORT
Identification of environmental geology hazards, such as
potential landslides, flood plains, avalanche chutes, and active
faults, can help avoid risk-prone areas in siting surface facilities.
Environmental baseline studies and permitting often require geo-
logic input. Environmental engineers require data on deleterious
trace elements that may be naturally leached from waste dumps,
tailings, or mine workings. Final reclamation of the entire mine
site may be partly controlled by geologic conditions, such as acid
leachate from the mine or dumps, or the future preservation of
a low-grade resource. Because the exploration or project geolo-
gist is often the first company employee to reside at a property,
362 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
he may be aware of valuable historical, political, sociological,
and geographical information to pass on to the environmental
and permitting specialist.
More generalized discussion of several of these topics is
found in Sections 3 and 7.
REFERENCES
Pillar, C.L., and Drummond, A.D., 1975, “Importance of Geological
Data in Planning Underground Ore Extraction,” CIM Bulletin, Vol.
68, pp. 114-116.
Ranta, D.E., Noble, A.C., and Ganster, M.W., 1984, “Geology and
Geostatistics in Ore Reserve Estimation and Mine Evaluation,”
Mine Feasibility—Concept to Completion, Short Course, Northwest
Mining Association, Spokane, WA, 58 pp.
Stewart, D.R., and Sacrison, R.R., 1984, “Geological Engineering—A
Bridge Between Geologist and Miner,” Applied Mining Geology,
A.J. Erickson, Jr., ed., SME-AIME, New York, pp. 155-174.