Energy 36 (2011) 5233e5238

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Chillers energy consumption, energy savings and emission analysis in an

institutional buildings
R. Saidur a, b, *, M. Hasanuzzaman a, b, T.M.I. Mahlia a, c, N.A. Rahim b, H.A. Mohammed d
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malaya, Faculty of Engineering, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
b
Centre of Research UMPEDAC, Level 4, Engineering Tower, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Syiah Kuala University, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Km 7, JalanKajang-Puchong, 43009 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Chillers consume more than 40% of the total energy used in the commercial and industrial buildings for
Received 20 August 2010 space conditioning. In this paper, energy consumption by chillers and chilled water pumps, condenser
Received in revised form pumps and fan motors has been estimated using data collected by a walkthrough energy audit for the 16
17 May 2011
faculties of the University of Malaya. It has been estimated that chillers and motors and pumps used in
Accepted 15 June 2011
Available online 20 July 2011
chillers consume 10,737 MWh (i.e. 51% of total energy consumption) of electric energy for different
percentage of loadings. As chillers are major energy users, variable speed drives are applied in chillers to
reduce their energy consumption. It has been estimated that about 8368 MWh annual energy can be
Keywords:
Chiller
saved by using efficient chillers at different loadings. It has also been found that about 23,532 MWh
Energy saving annual energy can be saved for chilled water supply pumps, condenser pumps and cooling tower fan
Variable speed drive motors by matching required speeds using variable speed drives for 60% of speed reduction. About
Emission reductions 1,274,692 kg of CO2 emission could be avoided for using energy efficient chillers at 50% load. It has been
also found that about 2,426,769 kg CO2 emission can be reduced by using variable speed drives for 60%
speed reductions. Payback periods found to be only few months for using variable speed drives in chilled
water pumps, condensers and fan motors.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Chillers are the major energy consumers in central air condi-
tioning systems. In commercial buildings, where air-conditioning
systems account for almost half of the total electricity consump-
tion, chillers end up being the single biggest consumers. Therefore,
their efficiencies has a significant effect on the overall energy
performance of these buildings [1]. The chillers are major energy
users (i.e. 42% of total end use consumption) for a typical end use
consumption [1,2]. It is also found that chillers consume about 40%
of total air conditioning energy use [3,4]. It was also reported that
21% of total operating costs are spent for chillers and pumps as can
be seen in Fig. 1.
Water-cooled chillers having efficiency of 0.9 kW/RT were
common in the 1970s. Efficiencies of these chillers have improved
over the last 30 years and the average chiller efficiency is about
0.50 kW/RT [5]. Improving energy performance of chiller plants is
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ603 79674462; fax: þ603 79675317.
E-mail addresses: saidur@um.edu.my, saidur912@yahoo.com (R. Saidur).
of current interest because this usually presents the greatest energy
saving opportunity for air conditioning systems in buildings.
Advances in variable frequency drives for energy efficiency evolve
use of variable speed control for chiller compressors, chilled water
pumps, condenser pumps and cooling tower fans [6]. Electric
motors are over 90% efficient when running at their rated loads.
However, they are very inefficient at part loads. Normally, motors
operate more efficiently at 75% of rated load and above. However,
motors are very inefficient when they are operated lower than 50%
of rated load. Due to the reactive current increase at low loads,
power factors are also decreased [7,8]. In such cases, VSDs can be
used to match load requirements so that energy consumption can
be reduced. From the study carried out by Saidur et al. [9], found
that variable speed drives are good candidates to match the load
requirements and consequently will save huge amount of energy,
lower utility bills and protect the environment from harmful
pollutants.
Since cooling load of a building is changed throughout its
occupied period, chillers tend to operate frequently at part load.
This kind of operation will cause chiller efficiency to drop, and the
drop becomes considerable when the set point of condensing

0360-5442/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.energy.2011.06.027
5234 R. Saidur et al. / Energy 36 (2011) 5233e5238

VSD has been applied successfully to perform capacity modulation

Nomenclature for chiller compressors. Flake [17] conducted extensive reviews on
the applications of variable primary flow for chillers. Author carried
AEC Annual energy consumption of chillers (MWh) out parametric modelling studies on chilled water pumping system
AES Energy savings with the application of VSD (MWh) and found that the variable flow could reduce the total annual plant
BS Bill savings (US$) energy use by 2e5%, first cost by 4e8%, and life cycle cost by 3e5%
C Cooling capacity of chillers (RT) relative to the equivalent primary systems. It is expected that the
CT Cooling tower results presented in terms energy savings and associated emission
EF Emission factor (kg/kWh) reductions with the application VSDs in chillers and their compo-
Emnp Emission for a unit electricity generation (kg) nents will be useful for policy makers, energy users, researchers to
ER Amount of emission reductions (kg) create awareness and practice and apply energy savings measures.
LF Load factor
N Number of chillers or motors
P Power rating of pumps and cooling tower fans (kW) 2. Methodology
PEn Percentage of electricity generation by fuel type n
(%) This section explains the audited buildings, data collected, and
SSR Percentage energy savings associated certain approaches used to estimate chillers energy consumption, savings
percentage of speed reduction (MWh) and emission reductions by using VSDs in chillers, chiller and
UEP Average unit electricity price (US$/kWh) condenser pumps and cooling tower fan motors. Formulations to
UH Average usage hours estimate the payback periods and economics of energy savings for
VSD Variable speed drives using VSDs in chillers and their components have been shown as
h Chiller efficiency (kW/ton) well. These are elaborated below.

2.1. Walkthrough energy audit

temperature is fixed at a high level while outdoor temperature is
low. It is therefore accepted that improving the part-load efficiency
of chillers is the cornerstone for building energy effectiveness
[6,10,11].
It is worth widening the use of variable speed drives (VSD) for
chiller systems and their components to operate as efficiently as
possible [12]. Applying VSDs to cooling tower fans with optimized
control could make a 5e8% improvement in energy performance
[13,14]. Qureshi and Tassou [15] and Tassou and Qureshi [16] made
a review on the use of VSDs for chiller systems. They confirmed that
Before conducting a walkthrough energy audit in the 16 facul-
ties/academic institutes, the following preparations had been
made. A meeting was held with the appropriate technician who is
familiar with the physical conditions and day-to-day operation of
the air-conditioning system in a faculty. The purpose of the meeting
was to identify areas where auditors’ attention should be focused
during the walkthrough audit. The well-prepared questionnaire
and checklist were made for the walkthrough energy audit and met
with the technician to get the important data about the air-
conditioning system in a faculty.

Process water pumps

Support 3% 4%
Process tools 39%
DI water 5%

Nitrogen plant 5%

Fans 6%
Support
Process water pumps
DI water
Nitrogen plant
Fans
Recire and make-up
Fans

Recire and make-up

fans 17%

Chillers and pumps

21%

Fig. 1. Magnitude of operating cost of end uses equipment in a semi-conductor industry [3].
 R. Saidur et al. / Energy 36 (2011) 5233e5238 5235

Table 1
Energy consumption in different faculty and chiller of University of Malaya.

Total energy Number of Number of Chiller energy Chilled water, Total chiller
consumption RT 14 Chiller RT 25 Chiller consumption condenser pumps systemenergy
(MWh/year) and cooling tower consumption (%)
fan motorsenergy
consumption

MWh/year % MWh/year %
Academy of Islamic Studies 2901 23 6 593 20 911 31 51
Academy of Malay Studies 613 4 2 133 22 192 31 53
Faculty of Built Environment 885 5 4 214 24 292 33 57
Faculty of Languages and Linguistics 716 6 1 137 19 218 30 49
Faculty of Economic and Administration 1080 11 1 225 21 370 34 55
Faculty of Engineering 10381 68 35 2297 22 3295 32 54
Faculty of Education 1520 10 3 270 18 410 27 45
Faculty of Dentistry 1594 10 5 333 21 479 30 51
Faculty of Business and Accountancy 3033 21 8 621 20 920 30 51
Faculty of Medicine 7924 52 21 1575 20 2319 29 49
Faculty of Culture Centre 165 2 0 35 21 61 37 58
Faculty of Sports Centre 884 6 2 168 19 253 29 48
Faculty of Science 11289 78 30 2316 21 3426 30 51
Faculty of Computer Science and 5011 37 10 966 19 1477 29 49
Information Technology
Faculty of Arts and Social Science 3551 22 8 639 18 950 27 45
Faculty of Law 859 5 4 214 25 292 34 59
Total 52406 360 140 10737 20 15865 30 51

2.2. Energy audit data
All the faculties in University of Malaya use central air condi-
tioning systems for space conditioning for lecture halls, labora-
tories, offices, and lecturers’ rooms. It has been found that central
air conditioners are operated with 14 RT and 25 RT chillers. As
chilled water supply pumps, condenser pumps, and cooling tower
fan motors are the components of chillers systems, their specifi-
cations have also been collected. The most important data that
have been collected during the walkthrough energy audit are:
number of chillers, chilled water pumps, cooling tower fan motors,
their cooling capacity, power rating, monthly energy billing data
and operation time. In this study, the average usage and electricity
bill are considered as 3632 h/year and 0.064 US$/kWh respec-
tively. From the survey data, it is found that chillers are operated
about 18 h/year at 25% load, 1570 h/year at 50% load, 1278 h/year
at 75% load and 767 h/year at 100% load, respectively. Using this
data, an analysis has been carried out to estimate energy
consumption, energy savings, cost-benefit analysis and emission
reductions associated with the energy savings. The most pertinent
data that have been collected through this walkthrough audit are
presented in Table 1. Moreover, chillers efficiency and operating
hours at different loads and some other related data have been
collected from other sources [18] as this data is necessary for an
analysis.
As all these are variable torque applications, the power required
(to drive the pumps or fans) varies to the cube of the speed and,
therefore, large power reductions result from small reductions in
speed. The most common method is to modulate the speed of the
motors of pumps and fans to vary their capacities using VSDs [19].
Variable-frequency drives provide continuous control, matching
motor speed to the specific demands of the work being performed.
Variable-frequency drives are an excellent choice for adjustable-
speed drive users, because they allow operators to fine-tune
processes while reducing costs for energy and equipment mainte-
nance in heating, ventilating and air conditioning of buildings
[5,20].
VSD installations can increase energy efficiency (in some cases
energy savings can exceed 50 percent), improve power factor and
process precision, and provide other performance benefits such as
soft starting and over-speed capability. They also can eliminate the
need for expensive and energy-wasting throttling mechanisms
such as control valves and outlet dampers [19].
2.3.1. Mathematical formula
Energy used by chillers can be estimated using Eq. (1) [5]:
AECchillers ¼ N  UH  C  LF  h (1)
Similarly, energy consumption by pumps and motors can be
expressed as [21]:

AECpumpsCT ¼ N  UH  P  LF (2)
2.3. Pumps and motors energy savings using variable speed drives Table 2 shows the number of pumps and cooling tower fan
(VSDs) motors with their power ratings to estimate their energy
consumption.
Many building systems are designed to operate at a maximum
load. However, most building systems are operated at full load only
for short periods of time. This often results in inefficient operation Table 2
Number of pumps and motors for chilled water supply and cooling tower.
of many systems over long periods of time. Most such inefficient
operations are encountered in air-conditioning systems in build- Type of motors Total number Power rating (kW)
ings that are normally sized to meet peak load conditions that occur Chilled water supply 360 5.5
only for short periods during the normal day. The efficiency of such 140 7.5
systems can be improved by varying their capacities to match Cooling tower 500 5.5
Condenser water pumps 500 3
actual load requirements.
5236 R. Saidur et al. / Energy 36 (2011) 5233e5238

Table 3
Chillers energy consumption and energy savings analysis at different loadings.

Energy use (MWh) without VSD Energy use (MWh) with VSD Energy savings (MWh)

Chiller capacity, RT Load 25% Load 50% Load 75% Load 100% Load 25% Load 50% Load 75% Load 100% Load 25% Load 50% Load 75% Load 100%
14 64 4273 3156 1817 10 1385 1546 1430 54 2888 1610 387
25 44 2967 2192 1262 7 962 1074 993 37 2006 1118 268

2.3.2. Mathematical formulations to estimate energy savings using
VSDs
There are many ways of estimating the energy savings associ-
ated with the use of VSDs for industrial motors for a range of
applications. This paper used the method found in [22].
Annual energy savings for chillers with VSD in reducing cooling
load requirements can be expressed as [23]:
AESchillerVSD ¼ ðAECchillerwithout VSD  AECchillerwithVSD Þ
Energy use in fans and pumps varies according to the speed
raised to the third power, so small changes in speed can result in
very large changes in energy use. Chilled water supply pumps and
cooling tower fan motors energy savings using a VSD can be esti-
mated as [24,25]:
AESVSD ¼ N  P  UH  SSR
SSR- Percentage energy savings associated certain percentage of
speed reduction. The potential energy savings associated with the
speed reduction using VSDs for pumps and motors which is taken
from Ref. [22]. The data was then used to estimate pumps and
motors energy savings using VSDs.
The bill savings (US$) associated with the energy savings can be
estimated as [24]:
BS ¼ AES  UEP
2.3.3. Formulations of emission reductions associated with the
energy savings
It is known that CO2, SO2, NOx and CO are generated when fossil
fuels are burned to produce power. The amount of emission that
can be reduced associated with the energy savings can be estimated
using the Equation [26]:

ER ¼ AES  PE1  Em1p þ PE2  Em2p

þPE3  Em3p þ . þ PEn  Emnp
The percentage of electricity generation based on fuel types are
16.76% from coal, 2.4% from petroleum, 53.2% from gas and 27.6%
from hydro. Emission factor for per unit electricity generation are
taken from ref. [26]. Based on the given data, the emission reduc-
tions can be calculated as function of energy savings.
the chillers energy savings has been estimated and presented in
Table 4. From the table, it has been observed that more utility bills
can be saved for chillers loading at 50% and 75% as chillers are
operated longer at these loadings. Table 4 shows the payback
period for using VSDs to reduce chillers energy consumption. It has
been observed that payback periods at 50%e100% loadings are
economically very viable as payback period is very short (i.e. only
few months).
Using Eqns. (2) and (4) and data from Table 2, energy savings,
(3) bill savings and payback periods for different percentage of speed
reduction using VSDs for pumps and cooling tower fan motors
have been estimated and presented in Tables 5e7. It has been
observed that more energy and bills can be saved at higher
percentage of speed reduction using VSDs in pumps and cooling
tower fan motors. It was also found that use of VSDs in energy
savings for pumps and fan motors is economically very viable as
payback periods are very short. It also may be mentioned that
(4)
use of VSDs in reducing energy consumption is economically
viable if payback period of an implementation strategy is lower
than the life span of the system as has been found in literatures
[27,28]. They reported that the payback period of using VSDs
for different sizes and categories of motors ranges from 0.4 to
1.5 years.
Using Eq. (6) and data from Tables 3 and 5, emissions reduc-
tions associated with energy savings for chillers pumps and fan
motors have been estimated and presented in Tables 8e9. It may
(5) be mentioned that these savings has been estimated for only one
higher learning institute in Malaysia. There are about 70 higher
learning institutes in Malaysia and there is huge potential for
energy savings in chillers and their components. Moreover,
energy use of chillers can be saved by other energy savings
options such as use of absorption chillers and thermal ice storage
to shift peak time energy consumption to night time thermal
energy storage.
Based on results presented in Table 8, it has been estimated that
about 1,274,692 kg of CO2 can be reduced for 50% load for using
efficient chillers. This is the maximum amount that can be reduced
as efficiency is low at this part load operation. Similarly, 928,368 kg
(6) of CO2emission can be avoided for 75% load for using efficient
chillers.
It has been estimated that about 11,777,380 kg of CO2 can be
reduced when 60% of the motor speed can be reduced using VSDs.
As higher speed reductions results in more energy savings, this
amount is the highest savings that can be made for motors and
pumps used in chilled water systems.

3. Results and discussions

Table 4
Bill savings and payback period for using VSDs in chillers.
Using Eqns. (1) and (3) and data from Table 1, energy
Bill savings (US$/year) Payback period (year)
consumption by chillers at different percentage of loadings has
been estimated and presented in Table 3. From the table, it has also Load Load Load Load Load Load Load Load
25% 50% 75% 100% 25% 50% 75% 100%
been observed that more energy can be saved at chillers loadings of
50% and 75% as major share of chillers operation time is spent at 3411 184,843 103,058 24,740 7.33 0.14 0.24 1.01
2369 128,363 71,568 17,181 10.55 0.19 0.35 1.46
these loadings. Using data from Table 1, bill savings associated with
 R. Saidur et al. / Energy 36 (2011) 5233e5238 5237

Table 5
Savings (MWh) with VSD for chilled water, condenser pumps and cooling tower fan motors.

Quantity Motor power (kW) 10% speed reduction 20% speed reduction 30% speed reduction 40% speed reduction 50% speed reduction 60% speed reduction
360 5.5 1582 3164 4387 5250 5969 6400
140 7.5 839 1678 2326 2784 3165 3394
500 5.5 2197 4395 6093 7291 8290 8889
500 3 1199 2397 3323 3977 4522 4849

Table 6
Bill savings for pumps and cooling tower fan motors using VSDs.

Bill savings (US$) at different speed reduction

Power rating (kW) 10% speed reduction 20% speed reduction 30% speed reduction 40% speed reduction 50% speed reduction 60% speed reduction
5.5 100,485 200,969 278,617 333,426 379,101 406,506
7.5 53,287 106,575 147,751 176,817 201,039 215,571
5.5 139,562 279,124 386,968 463,092 526,530 564,592
3 76,125 152,250 211,073 252,596 287,198 307,959

Table 7
Payback periods for pumps and cooling tower fan motors using VSDs.

Payback periods at different speed reduction

Power rating (kW) 10% speed reduction 20% speed reduction 30% speed reduction 40% speed reduction 50% speed reduction 60% speed reduction
5.5 0.18 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05
7.5 0.47 0.24 0.17 0.14 0.12 0.12
5.5 0.13 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03
3 0.11 0.06 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03

Table 8
Amount of emission reduction at different % of chiller loadings using efficient chiller.

Chiller capacity (RT) Emission, kg For 50% Load Emission, kg For 75% Load Emission, kg For 100% Load

CO2 SO2 NOx CO CO2 SO2 NOx CO CO2 SO2 NOx CO

14 752,203 4503 2121 458 548,012 3280 1545 333 193,681 1159 546 118
25 522,489 3128 1473 318 380,356 2277 1073 231 134,125 803 378 82

Table 9
Emission reductions associated with energy savings by using VSD.

Motor Emission reductions (kg) for 20% speed Emission reductions (kg) for 40% speed Emission reductions (kg) for 60% speed
power (kW) reduction reduction reduction

CO2 SO2 NOx CO CO2 SO2 NOx CO CO2 SO2 NOx CO

5.5 1,583,580 9479 4466 963 2,627,303 15,727 7409 1598 3,203,151 19,174 9033 1948
7.5 839,777 5027 2368 511 1,393,267 8340 3929 847 1,698,640 10,168 4790 1033
5.5 2,199,417 13,166 6202 1338 3,649,032 21,843 10,290 2219 4,448,820 26,631 12,546 2706
3 1,199,622 7181 3383 730 1,990,361 11,914 5613 1211 2,426,769 14,527 6843 1476

4. Conclusion and cooling tower fan motors by matching required speeds

Following conclusions can be drawn from this study:
C Energy used by chillers, chilled water pumps and motors have
been estimated and found that on an average these elements
of a central air condition system consume about 51% of the
total energy consumption of an institutional building.
C It has been found that highest amount of annual energy (i.e.
4894 MWh) can be saved using energy efficient chillers at
different 50% loadings with payback periods of less than
a year. Corresponding bill savings found to be about
US$313,206 for this savings. This will also reduce 1,274,692 kg
of CO2 emission pollution.
C It has also been found that about 23,532 MWh of energy can
be saved for chilled water supply pumps, condenser pumps
using VSDs for 60% of speed reductions. This is the highest
amount of savings found in this analysis for chilled water
components used in a central air conditioning system. Cor-
responding energy bill savings estimated to be about
US$1,494,628 for this savings. Payback periods for this
savings found to be only few months which indicate
economic viability of this energy savings strategy.
C It has been also found that CO2 emission can be reduced by
using VSD about 2,426,769 kg for 60% speed reductions.
C It may be recommended that other energy savings options
such as use of thermal ice storage to shift peak usage, use of
absorption chillers, chillers sequencing and implementation
of minimum performance standard with economic analysis
can be carried out in order to reduce chillers energy use and
associated emission reductions.
5238 R. Saidur et al. / Energy 36 (2011) 5233e5238
Acknowledgement
This research was carried under the High Impact Research Grant
(HIRG) scheme. The authors would like to acknowledge the Vice
Chancellor, University of Malaya for providing the financial support
under the HIRG scheme.
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