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Pressure Vessel

(SKG 12.2 Static Equipment)

Dr. W Pao

© 2015 INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PETRONAS SDN BHD


All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the permission of the copyright owner.
Course Outcome

1. Conceptual design of petroleum production facilities (C)


2. Investigate the risk and feasibility of production facilities (C)
3. Analyze sub-systems of production facilities using appropriate
techniques/tools (C)
4. Adapt the compliance of facilities design to industry standards
(A)
5. Appreciate the continuous challenges of production facility life-
cycle (A)
Pressure Vessels Definition

•A pressure vessel is a closed container designed to


hold gases or liquids at a pressure substantially
different from the ambient pressure.

•Pressure vessels are used to store and transmit


liquids, vapors, and gases under pressure in general.

•Because of the internal loading, stresses are


including on certain sections of the cylinder (pressure
vessel) wall.
Categories of Pressure Vessel

1. Unfired Pressure Vessel


Any enclosed vessel under pressure greater than atmospheric pressure
by any gas or mixture or combination of gases and includes any vessel
under pressure of steam external to steam boiler and any vessel which
is under pressure of a liquid or gas or both, and any vessel subject to
internally to a pressure less than atmospheric pressure.

2. Fired Pressure Vessel.


Vessels that include power boilers and other vessels that are designed
to accept heat.
Standard & Codes for PV

• American Petroleum Inspection (API)


• ASME Section VIII –Division 1 (Power Boilers) is for
fired pressure vessels.
• ASME Section VIII –Division 2 is for the unfired PV
• ASME Section VIII –Division 3 HPV
ASME Section VIII, Division 1

• Requirements applicable to the design, fabrication, inspection, testing, and


certification of pressure vessels operating at either internal or external pressures
exceeding 15 psig.
• Such pressure vessels may be fired or unfired. Specific requirements apply to several
classes of material used in pressure vessel construction, and also to fabrication
methods such as welding, forging and brazing.
• It contains mandatory and non-mandatory appendices detailing supplementary design
criteria, nondestructive examination and inspection acceptance standards. Rules
pertaining to the use of the U, UM and UV Code symbol stamps are also included.

Contents
Scope & Service Restrictions; General Requirements; Requirements for Fabrication by
Welding, Forging, or Brazing; Requirements Pertaining to Classes of Materials for
Carbon & Low Alloy Steel;Nonferrous Materials; High Alloy Steel; Cast Iron; Clad &
Lined Vessels; Cast Ductile Iron Vessels; Ferritic Steels with Tensile Properties
Enhanced by Heat Treatment; Layered Construction; High Stresses at Low
Temperatures.
ASME Section VIII, Division 2

• Requirements applicable to the design, fabrication, inspection, testing, and


certification of pressure vessels operating at either internal or external pressures
exceeding 15 psig. Fired or unfired.
• This pressure may be obtained from an external source or by the application of heat
from a direct or indirect source, or any combination thereof.
• These rules provide an alternative to the minimum requirements for pressure vessels
under Division 1 rules. In comparison the Division 1, Division 2 requirements on
materials, design, and nondestructive examination are more rigorous; however,
higher design stress intensity values are permitted.
• Division 2 rules cover only vessels to be installed in a fixed location for a specific
service where operation and maintenance control is retained during the useful life of
the vessel by the user who prepares or causes to be prepared the design
specifications.
• These rules may also apply to human occupancy pressure vessels typically in the
diving industry. Rules pertaining to the use of the U2 and UV Code symbol stamps
are also included.
Contents
General Requirements; Material Requirements; Design Requirements; Fabrication
Requirements; Pressure Relief Devices; Inspection in Radiography; Testing; Marking;
Stamping; Reports & Records.
ASME Section VIII, Division 3

• Requirements applicable to the design, fabrication, inspection, testing, and


certification of pressure vessels operating at either internal or external pressures
generally above 10,000 psi.
• Such vessels may be fired or unfired. This pressure may be obtained from an external
source, a process reaction, by the application of heat from a direct or indirect source,
or any combination thereof.
• Division 3 rules cover vessels intended for a specific service and installed in a fixed
location or relocated from work site to work site between pressurizations.
• The operation and maintenance control is retained during the useful life of the vessel
by the user who prepares or causes to be prepared the design specifications.
• Division 3 does not establish maximum pressure limits for either Section VIII,
Divisions 1 or 2, nor minimum pressure limits for this Division. Rules pertaining to the
use of the UV3 Code symbol stamps are also included.
Contents
General Requirements; Material Requirements; Design Requirements; Fabrication
Requirements; Pressure Relief Devices; Examination Requirements; Testing; Marking;
Stamping; Reports & Records.
Factory and Machinery Act 1967

Each unfired pressure vessel must have a valid Certificate of Fitness (CF) before it can
be operated. For this purpose, approval for the design of the unfired pressure vessel has
to be obtained in advance from the Department of Occupational Safety and Health
(DOSH) before it fabricated, installed or used.

Application for approval of the design may be made by the manufacturing company,
installer, supplier or owner of the unfired pressure vessel. Local manufacturers of unfired
pressure vessels must register as a manufacturer with the department.

Examples:
• Air container
• Steriliser
• LPG storage tank
• Heat exchanger
• PV at petrochemical plant
PV Categorisation

Pressure Vessel

FIRED UNFIRED

Type III Fully


wrapped with metal
Type II Hoop wrapped,
liner, overwrapped
Boiler Type I Metal, steel/aluminum unidirectional composite,
with composite
overwrapped in
cylindrical section only

Type IV Fully wrapped


with Polymeric Liner
Type V Composite
PV Type I Application

Chemical Oil/Gas Cosmetic Pharma

Biotech
Food
Design Parameters

Pmax, Vmax & Tmax

Types of Pressure Vessels


There are mainly two types of pressure vessels:

i. Spherical Pressure Vessel


• These pressure vessels are thin walled vessels.
• This forms the most typical application of plane stress.
• Plane of stress is a class of common engineering problems involving stress in a thin
plate.

ii. Cylindrical Pressure Vessel


This a vessel with a fixed radius and thickness subjected to an internal gage pressure. The
vessel has an axial symmetry. Can be both thin/thick wall.
Thin-wall PV

THIN-WALL THEORY

Thickness < 0.1R

Consequently, can treat surface as membrane with in-plane stresses. Hoop stress is:

P×r P×r
σθ = σθ =
t 2t
Cylinder Sphere

Note that the thin-wall model does not have out-of-plane stress.
Summary of Thin-wall model

Longitudinal stress

Pr
σ2 =
2t
Hoop stress

Pr
σ1 =
t
Thick-wall PV

THICK-WALL THEORY

Thickness > 0.1R

Consequently, transverse stress across the thickness cannot be neglected.

B
Radial stress: σ r = A − 2
r

B
Hoop stress: σ θ = A + 2
r
Components of PV

Head Disc/end

Flange

Support Lug

Nozzle

Bottom Disc / end


Internal/External Stress in PV

Stress

Internal External

Wind pressure and External pressure


Internal Pressure Attachment loads seismic forces • Vacuum condition
• Operating pressure Internal attachment-trays ,
• Design pressure • Blast pressure
Support grid , tube etc.
• Hydrostatic pressure • Weight or pressure
MAWP exerted on external
• MAP surface

Selfweight/content

Attachment Load
Opening Nozzle
• Nozzle loading
• Opening with
• Other attachment load-
reinforcement
Heat Exchanger, plat
(Reinforcement pad)
form etc.
• Opening without
• Lifting Lug, tailing lug
reinforcement (Self
reinforcement type nozzle )
General Formula

Note:
Formula are valid for;
• Pressure < 3000psi
• Cylindrical shell t ≤0.5Ri or P
t≤0.385 SE
• Spherical shell and
hemispherical head t
≤0.356Ri or P t≤0.665 SE
• For thicker shell refer Ref. 3
Para1.3
Different Cap

Ro

Ro
Ro =0.9 Do
Sphere / Hemisphere
2.1 S.E Head

Ro
RoMax =Do

Torispherical
Vessel Formula
Vessel Formula
Design Consideration

Requirement

Technical Economical

Customer standard Customer


specification Requirement Material Delivery Testing

Design standard
code and practice Safety Factor
Complexity Fabrication
Process

Site condition
End conditions

When we pressurize the vessel, the main body and the end caps will expand
differently due to different internal stress reaction.

Pr Pr
σ1 = σ1 =
2t 2t

Pr
σ1 =
t
Theory vs Application - cylinder

Theory ASME

Pr PR
σ1 = t=
t SE − 0 .6 P
t - thickness
Ri- internal radius of shell
P- working pressure
S- maximum allowable stress
E- joint efficiency
• Are these two different?

• Where do you think the extra terms in ASME design equation comes from?

• Why do you think the extra terms are so complicated?


Theory vs Application - cylinder

If the theory is to match operational thickness

PR PR
t theory = = ⇒ σ theory = S op E − 0.6 P
σ theory S op E − 0.6 P
1 1 σ theory t theory 
∴ S op = (σ theory + 0.6 P ) =  σ theory + 0.6 
E E R 
σ theory  t theory 
=  1 + 0.6 
E  R 
Effect due to shape/geometry

If E=1, the smaller t/R, the faster the operational stress approaches theoretical
stress value. The ASME Standard safety factor is:

S op 1  t 
=  1 + 0.6 
σ theory E  R 
Joint Efficiency, E

Double Welded Butt Joint


Fully radiographed 1.0
Spot radiographed 0.85
No radiographed 0.70

Single Welded Butt Joint


Fully radiographed 0.9
Spot radiographed 0.80
No radiographed 0.65
Materials ASME Section 8
Example

Example: A horizontal vessel, is to be fabricated from SA-516 Grade 70


material. The design pressure of the vessel is 490 psi at 600F. Assuming all
parts are double welded butt joint, determine the required thickness of the
cylindrical shell, and the end caps.

72”ID
cont

Soln:
From Table, SA-516, Grade 70, below 650F, use ASME Section VIII, Div 1,
tensile strength S=20,000, welding efficiency E=0.85, corrosion tolerance =
.25”.
490 (32 )
For cylindrical shell: t= + 0 .25 = 1 .2"
20000 ( 0 .85 ) − 0 .6 ( 490 )

490 (32 )
For end caps: t= + 0 .25" = 0 .72"
2 ( 20 ,000 )( 0 .85 ) − 0 .2 ( 490 )
Safety Appliances

Include, but not be limited to:


Rupture disk device
Safety relief valve
Temperature limit control
Pressure limit control
Major gas train controls
Low water cutoffs
Flame supervisory unit (igniter)
High and low gas pressure switches
Trial for ignition limiting timer (15 seconds)
Safety Appliances

Temperature/Pressure Relief Valve


An automatic pressure-relieving device actuated by a
static pressure upstream of the valve which opens further
with the increase in pressure over the opening pressure.
It is used primarily for liquid service.

Rupture Disk Device


A nonreclosing pressure-relief device actuated by
inlet static pressure and designed to function by the
bursting of a pressure-containing disk.
NDT Inspection of Pressure Vessel

© 2015 INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PETRONAS SDN BHD


All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the permission of the copyright owner.
NDT 1 – Dye Penetration Test

• To detect Surface Discontinuity, which are open to the surface of


nonporous metals and other materials

Advantages:
ƒ Portable

ƒ Able to inspect on a small area

ƒ Simple and fast

ƒ Sensitive for very fine cracks

ƒ Any defect size, configuration, internal structure

ƒ Can detect chemical composition

ƒ Any material, ferrous and nonferrous metals

ƒ Not affected by material magnetic properties

ƒ Orientation of the discontinuity is not a factor


NDT 1 – Dye Penetration Test

Disadvantages
ƒ External / surface defects only

ƒ Surface coating, grease, oil, dirt, and paint must be removed

ƒ Poor or rough surface affects result

ƒ Not applicable to porous material

ƒ No direct information on depth of defect

ƒ Method is often abused if not fully understood

Working Principle of DPT :


ƒ Migrating by Capillary Action into discontinuities or cavities that are open to

the surface
ƒ Reverse Capillary due to equilibrium action

ƒ Blotter effect by Developer

ƒ Contrast between the Liquid Dye and the Developer

– Colour contrast (visible under white light)

– Fluorescent (visible under Ultraviolet light)


NDT 2 – Magnetic Particle Inspection

• To detect Surface and Subsurface Discontinuity in Ferromagnetic materials

Advantages of MPI :
ƒSimple and fast technique

ƒMost sensitive technique in detecting small surface and sub-surface defects

ƒAble to detect surface discontinuities that are not open to the surface, ie. contamination of

defect internals will not affect results


ƒAble to detect sub-surface cracks up to 1.5mm below the surface

Disadvantages of MPI :
ƒCannot detect defects more than 1.5mm below the surface, ie. not able to detect internal

discontinuities
ƒApplicable only to ferromagnetic materials (steel, cast iron, ferritic stainless steel)

ƒThick surface coatings must be removed

ƒSome applications (eg. high speed rotating parts) require the parts to be demagnetized

after inspection
NDT 2 – MPI

Working Principle of MPI :


ƒ Detect the presence of magnetic fields leakage created from discontinuities
NDT 3 – Ultrasonic Testing

To detect Subsurface Discontinuity and variations in material composition

Advantages of UT :
ƒInternal defects can be detected and sized

ƒDetects planar and non-planar defects

ƒAble to pinpoint defect location

ƒNot affected by increase in thickness

ƒRequire access from one side only

ƒNo safety precautions required

ƒPortable

Disadvantages of UT :
ƒNo hardcopy of result available

ƒSpecialised skill required - technician dependent

ƒFor flaw detection of welds :

– normally not suitable for surface and near surface defect detection (dead zone)
ƒNormally not suitable for wall thickness < 3mm
NDT 3 – UT

Back surface
4" of plate echo
Initial pulse
transducer

defect

0 1 2 3 4
1.5"

front surface back surface


Time
NDT 4 – Radiography Test

To detect material defects, structural discontinuities, mechanical failures, and assembly


errors using a visual image on the interior of materials or non-accessible areas

Advantages of RT :
ƒResults in a form of a picture

ƒGood for detecting non-planar defects

– 3-D : slag inclusion, porosity


ƒShows defects in a plan view (2-Dimension)

Disadvantages of RT :
ƒRadiation hazard

ƒRequire access to both sides of specimen

ƒLimited by material thickness

ƒNot good for detecting planar defects

– 2-D : cracks, lack of fusion


ƒDoes not indicate defect depth
NDT 4 – RT
NDT Qualification

NDT operators
Jabatan Pembagunan Kemahiran (JPK)
Level I, II, III
Certification scheme for welding inspection personnel (CSWIP)
Level I, II, III
Personnel Certification in NDT (PCN)
Level I, II, III
The American Society for NDT (ASNT)
Level I, II, III
ASNT Central Certification Program (ACCP)
Level I, II, III
Failure Theory for Pressure Vessel

© 2015 INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PETRONAS SDN BHD


All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the permission of the copyright owner.
General Form of Failure Theory

• at failure:
f (σ1,σ 2 ,σ 3 ) = σ c

σ1, σ2, σ3 = principal stresses

• set safety factor X as the ratio of critical


stress σc to effective stress
σc
X=
σ
Maximum Normal Stress Criteria

• Maximum normal stress fracture criterion:


σ N = MAX (σ 1 , σ 2 , σ 3 )

• successful in predicting overload failure in


brittle materials

• set σc = σu
Tresca Criteria

• Maximum shearing stress criterion (Tresca):

σ S = MAX (σ 1 − σ 2 , σ 2 − σ 3 , σ 3 − σ 1 )

• conservative

• set σc = σo
Von Mises Criteria

• Octahedral shearing stress criterion (von


Mises):
1 2 2 2
σH = (σ1 − σ 2 ) + (σ 2 − σ 3 ) + (σ 3 − σ1 )
2

• set σc = σo
Example

A point on the free surface of a component made of 2024-T4


Al is subjected to the following state of stress: σ = 50
x
σ y = 100 τ xy = 60

What is the factor of safety using Tresca and von Mises?

Material E, GPa 0.2% Yield Ultimate Elongation Reduction


strength strength % in area %
MPa MPa
2024 T4 AL 73.1 303 476 20 35

2
σx + σy σ x − σ y  2
σ1,σ 2 = ±   + τ xy
2  2 
Example

Consider a thin-walled tube with closed ends and internal


pressure p. The wall thickness is t, the radius to mid-
thickness is r, and the ductile material has a yield strength
So. Derive an equation for the required thickness
corresponding to specified values of r and the safety factor
against yielding for Tresca and von Mises.
Fatigue of Pressure Vessel

© 2015 INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PETRONAS SDN BHD


All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the permission of the copyright owner.
Why do we study fatigue of pressure vessel?

• Majority of plant/facilities equipment are in the form of cylindrical


vessel.
• Plant receiving feed on regular basis but the feed discharge can
varied due to mass/volumetric flow rate. This is one source of
pressure fluctuation.
• Vessel are typical used for temporary storage and may be discharge
from time to time. Another source of fatigue loading.
• Calculation based on yielding model is insufficient to estimate life
expectancy of service.
Fatigue

progressive: occurs over a period of time or usage; final failure may be


very sudden.

localized: fatigue process acts over a localized area having high stresses
due to geometry, temperature, residual stresses, or imperfections.

cracks/flaws: all engineering materials contain flaws; try to minimize


and quantify the initial size of these imperfections.

fracture: the crack grows until the remaining ligament can no longer
sustain the applied stresses or strains
Features of Fatigue Failure

Occur over long periods of time


resulting in “beach marks” (aka “clam
shell marks”, or arrest lines)

These concentric rings are of


nonuniform appearance - often
curved with the center of curvature
indicating the origin.

Multiple origins result in “ratchet”


marks
3 Distinct Feature of Fatigue

Initiation site or sites


Propagation where beach marks indicate
growth
- generally flat and oriented at 90 ° to
applied stress
- very little large scale plastic
deformation seen
- local plastic deformation occurs at
the crack tip
Final fracture region
In ductile materials final fracture
orients at 45° to the applied stress
(shear lip)
Fatigue Loading Nomenclature

∆σ = σ max − σ min .... stress range = 800


∆σ
σa = .... stress amplitude
= 400
2
σ max + σ min
σm = .... mean stress = 100
2
σmin
R= .... stress ratio = -35
σ max
Situational Loading Conditions for Fatigue

600
400 1500
200
1000
0
-200
500
-400
-600 0
TIME TIME
A C σ min
R=
1000 600 σ max
800 400
600
200
400
0
200
-200
0
-400
-200
TIME TIME
B D

σmax σmin σa σm R A - Alternating, or completely reversed


A 400 -400 400 0 -1 B - Zero-to-tension
B 800 0 400 400 0
C 1600 800 400 1200 0.5 C,D- ŅFluctuatingÓtensile stress (any other
D 500 -300 400 100 -0.6 situation)
Approaches to Fatigue Analyses

Stress-based approach
traditional
analysis is based on the nominal, average stress
considers the mean stress and stress raisers
Strain-based approach
detailed analysis of local yielding that may occur at
stress raisers
Fracture Mechanics approach
predicts the rate of growth
analysis is based on K
Stress Based Fatigue Analysis

Un-notched

Stress Amplitude
Notched

104 105 106


•Rotating cantilever beam was
Cycles to Failure
used by Wöhler.
•Sinusoidal variation. • increasing stress decreases fatigue life
•Mean stress is zero. • stress concentrations drastically reduce
•Shear is zero in 4-point bending fatigue life
(lower) •infinite life in steels below a certain stress,
σe , called fatigue limit or endurance limit
Stress based fatigue curve Stress vs Life (S-N) Curve

σ a = C + D log N f
Semi-log plot

Fatigue limit
~ Half of yield
strength
For log-log plot

(1) σ a = AN B
or alternatively as
' b
(2) σ a = σ f (2N )
where the 2 equations are related by
A = 2 b σ 'f
B=b
'
σ ≈ true fracture strength in tension
f
Features of Fatigue Failure
Constant-Life Diagram
Goodman Normalized Amplitude-Mean Stress Diagram

σa σm  σm 
+ = 1 or σ a = σ ar 1 − 
σ ar σ U  σU 

σa σ a = fatigue strength (σ m ≠ 0)
Conservative approach
σ ar = fully reversed fatigue limit (σ m = 0)
σ ar
σ m = mean stress
σ uts = tensile strength

unsafe

safe

σm
σU
Modified Goodman

σa σm  σm 
+ = 1 or σ a = σ e 1 − 
σ e σU  σU 

σa Fatigue limit
σe

unsafe

safe

σm
σU
Life Estimate

σa σm σa
From Goodman + = 1 ⇒ σ ar =
σ ar σ u σm
1−
σu
B
Suppose S-N curve σ ar = AN f
(Can be other form)

Therefore:

 σm 
σ a = 1 −  AN Bf
 σu 
Example 1

The AISI 4340 steel in Table 9.1 is subject to cyclic loading with a
tensile mean stress of 200 MPa.
a)What life is expected if the stress amplitude is 450 MPa?
b) Estimate the stress amplitude vs. Nf curve for this mean value
Solution

σ m = 200 MPa; σ o = 1130 MPa; σ a = 450 MPa; σ u = 1172 MPa

b
σ ar = σ '
f (2N )
f ; σ 'f = 1758 MPa; b = −0.0977

Remember from Goodman


−0.0977 σa
∴σ ar = 1758 ( 2 N f ) = - (1) σa σm
+ = 1 ⇒ σ ar =
σa
σm σ
1− σ ar σ u 1− m
σu σu
⇒ N f = 83, 400 cycles

From (1), manipulating


−0.0977  σm 
σ a = 1758 ( 2 N f ) 1 − 
 σ u 
−0.0977
⇒ σ a = 1458 ( 2 N f )
Example 2

Ti-6Al-4V cylindrical pressure vessel with closed ends and diameter of 250mm and
wall thickness of 2.5mm.
a)What repeatedly applied pressure will cause fatigue failure in 100,000 cycles?
b)What is the safety factor against yielding?

σy = 1185 MPa, σu = 1233 MPa,


σ’f = 2030 MPa, A = 1889 MPa, b = B = -0.104,
C = 1393 MPa, D = -157

Soln
For this case, notice that the pressure is applied from 0 to Pmax

This means stress amplitude = mean stress

σa = σm
Example 2

Step 1: Calculate the principal stresses


Pr Pr
σ1 = ; σ2 = ; σ3 = 0
t 2t
1 Pr 0.125P
σ 1a = σ 1m = σ 1 = = =25P
2 2t 2(0.0025)
1 1 Pr 0.125 P
σ 2a = σ 2m = σ 2 = ⋅ = = 12.5 P
2 2 2t 4(0.0025)

Step 2: Calculate the equivalent stress amplitude using von-Mises stress

1 2 2 2
σa = (σ 1a − σ 2 a ) + (σ 2 a − σ 3a ) + (σ 3a − σ 1a ) = 21.65 P
2
Example 2

Step 3: Calculate the equivalent mean stress


σ m = σ 1m + σ 2 m + σ 3m = 37.5P
(1) σ a = AN B
Step 4: Remember this formula & data …
or alternatively as
σy = 1185 MPa, σu = 1233 MPa, (2) σ a = σ 'f (2N )
b

σ’f = 2030 MPa, A = 1889 MPa, b = B = -0.104,


where the 2 equations are related by
C = 1393 MPa, D = -157
100,000 cycles A = 2 b σ 'f
B=b
b 5 −0.104
σ ar = A ( N f ) = 1889 (10 ) = 570.5 MPa σ 'f ≈ true fracture strength in tension

Step 5: Remember Goodman and replace it with the equivalent stress we calculated

σa σm
+ =1
σ ar σ u
Example 2

Step 5: continue…

σa σm 21.65 P 37.5P
+ =1⇒ + =1
σ ar σ u 570 1233
∴ P = 14.6 MPa

Step 6: Recalculate the principle stresses and equivalent von-Mises stress

σ 1 = 731 MPa; σ 2 = 366 MPa; σ 3 = 0


1 2 2 2
σ VM = (σ 1 − σ 2 ) + (σ 2 − σ 3 ) + (σ 3 − σ 1 ) = 634 MPa = σ operational
2

σ yield 1185
Safety Factor, X = = = 1.87
σ operational 634
Fatigue Analysis based on Linear Fracture Mechanics
Stress Intensity ∆K

β may also change but generally is held constant here


Paris Equation

Paris equation.
da n
= A(∆KI )
dN
2 <n< 5 n

Material ts (MPa) n

Low C Steel 325 3 10-11


Forging
665 2.5 6.3
Steel
7000 series
310 2.7 1.6
Al
Ti alloy 835 3.8 3.4
Calculating Cyclic Life: Relation between a and N

da
= A(∆KI )n
dN

dN = A−1 (∆K I )−n da


2
a = crack length 
1 K Ic 
ao = initial crack length af =  
af = crack length at fracture π β (a f )σ 
N = number of cycles, Nf = number of cycles to failure
∆KI = stress intensity range
∆σ = stress range ∆ K I = K I (max) − K I (min)
β(a) = function of a
∆ σ = σ (max) − σ (min)

−n
∫ [β(a)∆ σ π a ] da
−1
∴N = A
Cont..

−n
N=A −1
∫ [β (a)∆σ πa ] da Early
stage
for β ≠ f(a), n > 2
 
 1 1 
N = f −1 n−2 − n−2 
 ao 2 a 2 
 
 1 1 
N f = f −1 n−2 − n−2 
Late
 ao 2 a f 2 
stage
 n 
f = 0.5(n − 2)π Aβ (∆σ ) 
2 n n

 
and
1 n-2
a= 1 where m =
2
[ao − N f ] m
−m
Example

A pressure vessel (D = 8.5cm, t = 0.2 cm) is made from 7075-T651 aluminum


(σo = 515MPa, KIc = 29MPa√m, A = 6.13x10-11, n = 3.37).
The vessel is designed to experience cyclic pressure from 0 to 5 MPa. A small
detectable flaw 0.05 cm is found on the inner wall and you can assume a
break-through condition when the crack is 80% of the wall thickness. The
cylinder is emptied 100 times per hour and the vessel is design to last 200,000
hours. Evaluate the situation.
Assume geometry factor is 1 (constant).

Soln
Step 1: Calculate Principle Stresses

Pr 5(0.0425)
σ1 = = = 106 MPa; σ 2 = 53.1 MPa; σ 3 = 0
t 0.002
Example

Step 2: Calculate equivalent max stress


1 2 2 2
σ max = (σ 1 − σ 2 ) + (σ 2 − σ 3 ) + (σ 3 − σ 1 ) = 92 MPa
2

Step 3: Final breakthrough length (leaking length)

a f = 0.8t = 0.8 ( 0.002 ) = 0.0016 m

Step 4: Check will it fracture before leak or leak before fracture


2
1  K IC 
K IC = σ π a ⇒ a =   = 0.0316 m
π σ 
Theoretical break length > breakthrough length. This shows that the vessel will
leak before break
Example

Step 6: Remember the formula



−1 
 n
n  1 
N f = 0.5 ( n − 2 ) π Aβ ( ∆σ )   n − 2
2 n
n−2 
  a 2 − a 2 
 0 f 

A = 6.13x10-11, n = 3.37; β = 1; ∆σ = σ max = 92; a0 = 0.0005; a f = 0.0016

∴ N f = 83589 cycles ~84 ×103 cycles

Step 7:
Vessel operates 100 times/hour = 100 cycles
84x103/100 = 840 hours life = 35 days.
The pressure vessel must be replaced within 1 month to avoid catastrophic
failure.
Q&A
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