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UNIT 2 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

(CONTROL GROUP DESIGN AND


TWO FACTOR DESIGN)
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Experimental Design
2.3 Basic Elements of Valid Experimental Design
2.4 Types of Designs
2.4.1 True Experiment
2.4.2 Control Group Design
2.4.2.1 Types of Control Group Design
2.4.2.2 Pretest Posttest Control Group Design
2.4.3 Solomon Four Group Design

2.5 Two Factor Design


2.5.1 Main Effect and Interaction Effect
2.5.2 Graphical Presentation of Main Effect and Interaction Effect
2.5.3 Two Factor, Multi Level Factorial Design

2.6 Uses of Factorial Design


2.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Factorial Design
2.8 Let Us Sum Up
2.9 Unit End Questions
2.10 Suggested Readings

2.0 INTRODUCTION
Psychologists make decisions about hypothesised relationships between independent
and dependent variables based upon observations of behaviour. One way to
organise the observational process is to employ an experimental design.
This unit tries to acquaint you with control group design and two factor design
(factorial design) which are used as true experimental design in psychological
researches. It begins with the nature and basic elements of experimental design
and focuses on the terminology of experimental design. Further, you will find the
description of control group design and three types of control group one as post
test only, one as control group design, and one as pretest posttest control group
design and one as Solomon four group design with relevant examples.
Moreover this unit continues with the discussion of the factorial design in which
you will study the nature of factorial design. This will provide answers to the
questions like how can you sketch a layout of factorial design, how basic
terminology of experimental design are worked out, how can you study the main
effect and interaction effect of the different variables and how can you interpret
your result with the help of graphical presentation. Finally, advantage and
14 disadvantage of factorial design are described.
Experimental Design
2.1 OBJECTIVES (Control Group Design and
Two Factor Design)
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
 Explain experimental design;
 Describe types of control group design;
 Distinguish posttest only, control group design with pretest posttest control
group design;
 Interpret main effect and interaction effect theoretically and graphically;
 List advantage and disadvantage of factorial design; and
 Draw the layout plan of various types of control group design and factorial
design.

2.2 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN


The term “experimental design” may be used in two different ways (Kirk, 1968).
i) It may be used to refer to the sequence of steps necessary to conduct an
experiment (stating the hypothesis, detailing the data collection process, and
so on).
ii) It may be used to refer to the plan by which subjects are assigned to
experimental conditions.
The experimental design is relatively simple, as for example, when one group of
subjects is exposed to an independent variable and another is not. On the other
hand, it may be much more complex, involving two or more than two independent
variables and repeated measurements of the dependent variables.
The overall blueprint of the experiment is called experimental design. It contains
the specification of the plan and structure of the entire experiment. For the sake
of precision, the variables and their measures are defined and specific instructions
for the experimental conditions are clearly written. A good experimental design
minimizes the influence of extraneous or uncontrolled variation and increases the
likelihood that an experiment will produce valid and consistent results.

2.3 BASIC ELEMENTS OF VALID


EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
a) Factor: The independent variables of an experiment are often called the
factors of experiment. An experiment has always one factor, or independent
variables, otherwise it would not be an experiment. It is possible for an
experiment to have more than one independent variables. To have an
experiment, it is necessary to vary some independent variable, or some
factors.
b) Level: a level is a particular value of an independent variable. Level refers
to the degree or intensity of a factor. Any factor may be presented in one
or more of several levels, including a zero level.
c) Condition is the broadest term used to discuss independent variables. It
refers to a particular way in which subjects are treated.
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Research Designs d) Main effect: Main effect is the effect of one independent variable, averaged
over all levels of another independent variable.
e) Interaction; when the effect of one independent variable depends on the
level of another independent variable.
f) Treatment: the treatment is used to refer to a particular set of experimental
condition. For example 2X2 factorial experiment, the subjects are assigned
to for the treatment. In experiments, a treatment is something that researchers
administer to experimental units.
Two particular elements of a design provide control over so many different threats
to validity that they are basic to good experimental designs; (1) the existence of
a control group or a control condition and, (2) the random allocation of subjects
to groups. Random allocation ensures that the groups will be equal in all respects,
except as they may differ by chance and control over the internal threats to
validity; allows one to conclude that dependent variable is associated with
independent variable and not with any other variables.
In discussing experimental design, Campbell & Stanley(1963) have used some
symbols with which a student/reader is expected to be acquainted.
 R: Random selection of subjects or random assignment of treatment to
experimental groups.
 X: Treatment or experimental variable which is manipulated. When treatments
are compared they are levelled as X1, X2, X3 and so on.
 O: Observation or measurement or test. Where there is more than one O,
an arbitrary subscript O1, O2, O3 and so on, is used.

2.4 TYPES OF DESIGNS


Designs can be classified into a simple three fold classification by asking some key
questions. First, does the design use random assignment to groups? If random
assignment is used, you can call the design a randomized experiment or true
experiment. If random assignment is not used, then you have to ask a second
question: Does the design use either multiple groups or multiple waves of
measurement? If the answer is yes, you can be labeled as quasi-experimental
design. If no, you can call it a non-experimental design. This threefold
classification is specially useful for describing the design with respect to internal
validity.
Now, let us understand true experiment before we go to explain control group
design and two factor design.

2.4.1 True Experiment at Design


The experimenter has complete control over the experiment: the who, what,
when, where, and how. Control over the who of the experiment means that the
experimenter can assign subjects to conditions randomly for example we can put
‘A’ in example 1, ‘B’ in example 2, ‘C’ in example 1, ‘D’ in example 2 etc.
Control over the what, when, where, and how of the experiment means that the
experimenter has complete control over the why the experiment is to be conducted.
True experiments include two major types of experimental designs: A) single
factor design (between subjects and within subjects), B) two factor design (factorial
16 design)
Experimental design differs in relation to research purpose. Control group designs Experimental Design
(Control Group Design and
are also called true experimental design. A discussion of control group design and Two Factor Design)
two factor design are given below.

2.4.2 Control Group Design


Description
Two parallel experiments are set up, identical in all respects except that only one
includes the treatment being explored by the experiment. The people in both
groups should be similar. Ideally, these are selected and assigned randomly, though
in practice some groups come as one (such as school classes) or are selected on
a pseudo-random basis (such as people on the street).The control group may
have no treatment, with nothing happening to them, or they may have a neutral
treatment, such as when a placebo is used in a medical pharmaceutical experiment.
2.4.2.1 Types of Control Group Design
There are four types of control group design which are described hereunder:
Post-Test Only, Equivalent Group Design
This design is the most effective and useful true experimental design, which minimizes
the threats to the experimental validity. This design can be diagrammed as given
below.

R1 X O
R2 O

In the above design are two groups. One group R1 is given treatment (X), usually
called the experimental group, and the other group R2 is not given any treatment
and R2 is called the control group. Both groups are formed on the basis of
random assignment of the subjects and hence, they are equivalent. Not only that,
subjects of both groups is initially randomly drawn from the population (R). This
fact controls for selection and experimental mortality. Besides these, in this design
no pretest is needed for either group, which saves time and money. As both
groups are tested after the experimental group has received the treatment, the
most appropriate statistical tests would be those tests which make a comparison
between the mean of O1 and O2. Thus either t- test or ANOVA is used as the
appropriate statistical test.
Let us take an example. Suppose the experimenter, with the help of the table of
random numbers, selects 50 students out of a total of 500 students. Subsequently,
these 50 students are randomly assigned to two groups. The experimenter is
interested in evaluating the effect of punishment over retention of verbal task. The
hypothesis is that punishment enhances the retention score. One group is given
punishment (X) while learning a task and another group receives no such punishment
while learning a task. Subsequently, both groups are given the test of retention.
A simple comparison of mean retention scores of the two groups is carried out
through the t- test which provides the basis for refuting or accepting the hypothesis.
The only problem with the post-test is that there is no direct indication of what
actual change is found in the treatment group. This is corrected by measuring them
before and after the treatment. The control group is still useful as additional
factors may have had an effect, particularly if the treatment occurs over a long
time or in a unique context. 17
Research Designs 2.4.2.2 Pretest- Posttest Control Group Design
This is also called the classic controlled experimental design, and the randomized
pre-test/post-test design because it
1) Controls the assignment of subjects to experimental (treatment) and control
groups through the use of a table of random numbers.
This procedure guarantees that all subjects have the same change of being
in the experimental or control group. Because of strict random assignment
of subjects, it is assumed that the two groups are equivalent on all important
dimensions and that there are no systematic differences between the two
groups.  Researchers may substitute matching for random assignment.  Subjects
in the two groups are matched on a list of characteristics that might affect
the outcome of the research (e.g., sex, race, income). This may be cheaper
but matching on more than three or four characteristics is very difficult. And
if the researcher does not know which characteristics to match on, this
compromises internal validity.
2) Controls the timing of the independent variable (treatment) and which group
is exposed to it.
Both groups experience the same conditions, with the exception of the
experimental group, which receives the influence of the independent variable
(treatment) in addition to the shared conditions of the two groups.
3) Controls all other conditions under which the experiment takes place.
Nothing but the intervention of the independent (treatment) variable is assumed to
produce the observed changes in the values of the dependent variable.
The steps in the classic controlled experiment are:
1) Randomly assign subjects to treatment or control groups;
2) Administer the pre-test to all subjects in both groups;
3) Ensure that both groups experience the same conditions except that in addition
the experimental group experiences the treatment;
4) Administer the post-test to all subjects in both groups;
5) Assess the amount of change on the value of the dependent variable from
the pre-test to the post-test for each group separately.
These steps are diagramed as follows:

R O1 X O2
R O1 O2

This diagram can be expanded upon as in the following table:

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Table: Diagram representing experimental design Experimental Design
(Control Group Design and
Scientific 1st observation Exposure to the 2nd observation Two Factor Design)

Random (measurement) Treatment (X) (measurement)


assignment of of the (independent of the
Subjects to: dependent variable) dependent
variable O1 = variable O2 =
Pre-test Post-test
Experimental Experimental X Experimental
Group Group’s Group’s
average score average score
on the on the
dependent dependent
variable variable
Control Group Control Control Group’s
Group’s average score
average score on the
on the dependent
dependent variable
variable

The difference in the control group’s score from the pre-test to the post-test
indicates the change in the value of the dependent variable that could be expected
to occur without exposure to the treatment (independent) variable X
Control group Post test scores – control group Pre test scores = control group
difference
Experimental group pre-test score – Experimental group post-test scores = the
difference obtained as a result of independent variable.
The difference in the experimental group’s score from the pre-test to the post-test
indicates the change in the value of the dependent variable that could be expected
to occur with exposure to the treatment (independent) variable X.
(Experimental group – (Experimental group = (Experimental group difference
pre-test score) post-test score) on the dependent variable)
The difference between the change in the experimental group and the change in
the control group is the amount of change in the value of the dependent variable
that can be attributed solely to the influence of the independent (treatment) variable
X.
Control group difference – experimental group difference = difference attributable
to X (the manipulation of the independent variable)
This design follows all the same steps as the classic pre-test/post-test design
except that it omits the pre-test. There are many situations where a pre-test is
impossible because the participants have already been exposed to the treatment,
or it would be too expensive or too time-consuming. For large groups, this
design can control most of the threats to internal and external validity as does
the classic controlled experimental design. For example, it eliminates the threat
to internal validity of pre-testing by eliminating the pre-test. It may also decrease
the problem of experimental mortality by shortening the length of the study (no
pre-test). For small groups, however, a pre-test is necessary. Also, a pre-test is
necessary if the researcher wants to determine the exact amount of change
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attributable to the independent variable alone.
Research Designs For many true experimental designs, pretest-posttest designs are the preferred
method to compare participant groups and measure the degree of change occurring
as a result of treatments or interventions.
Pretest-posttest designs grew from the simpler posttest only designs, and address
some of the issues arising with assignment bias and the allocation of participants
to groups.
One example is education, where researchers want to monitor the effect of a new
teaching method upon groups of children. Other areas include evaluating the
effects of counseling, testing medical treatments, and measuring psychological
constructs. The only stipulation is that the subjects must be randomly assigned
to groups, in a true experimental design, to properly isolate and nullify any nuisance
or confounding variables.
Problems with Pretest-Posttest Designs
The main problem with this design is that it improves internal validity but sacrifices
external validity. There is no way of judging whether the process of pre-testing
actually influenced the results because there is no baseline measurement against
groups that remained completely untreated. For example, children given an
educational pretest may be inspired to try a little harder in their lessons, and both
groups would outperform children not given a pretest, so it becomes difficult to
generalise the results to encompass all children.
The other major problem, which afflicts many sociological and educational research
programs, is that it is impossible and unethical to isolate all of the participants
completely. If two groups of children attend the same school, it is reasonable to
assume that they mix outside of classrooms and share ideas, potentially
contaminating the results. On the other hand, if the children are drawn from
different schools to prevent this, the chance of selection bias arises, because
randomization is not possible.
The two-group control group design is an exceptionally useful research method,
as long as its limitations are fully understood. For extensive and particularly
important research, many researchers use the Solomon four group methods, a
design that is more costly, but avoids many weaknesses of the simple pretest-
posttest designs.

2.4.3 Solomon Four Group Design


The Solomon four-group design developed by Solomon (1949) is really a
combination of the two equivalent groups designs described above, namely the
posttest – only design and pretest – posttest design and represents the first direct
attempt to control the threats of the external validity. This design may be
diagrammed as shown below:
R O1 X O2
R O3 O4
R X O5
R O6
It is clear from this diagram that in this design four-groups are randomly set by
the experimenter. In this design two simultaneous experiments are conducted and,
20 hence the advantages of replication are available here. The effect of X treatment
is replicated in four ways: O2>O1, O2>O4, O5>O6 and O4>O3. This design Experimental Design
(Control Group Design and
makes it possible to evaluate the main effects of testing as well as the reactive Two Factor Design)
effect of testing, thus increasing the external validity or generalisibility. The factorial
analysis of variance can be used as the appropriate statistical test. Because the
design is complex from the methodological as well as the statistical point of view,
it is less preferred to the above two true experimental designs.
Self Assessment Questions
True or False
1) Random assignment of the subjects is necessary for the control
group design. T/F
2) Control group design has a strong level of external validity. T/F
3) Pretest Posttest designs are most preferred method to
compare the participants groups as compared to posttest only,
control group design. T/F

2.5 TWO FACTOR DESIGN


Until now, only those designs were considered in which the researcher studied the
effect of one independent variable. Forthcoming discussion focuses on true
experiments with factorial design in which two variables or factors are manipulated
simultaneously. Experiments in which two or more variables are manipulated are
designed as factorial experiments. Factorial experiments are the expansion of very
popular post test design to study two independent variables simultaneously. These
expanded true experiments are called factorial experiments.
A factorial design is often used to understand the effect of two or more independent
variables upon a dependent variable. Factorial experiments permit researchers to
study behaviour under conditions in which independent variables, called in this
context factors, are varied simultaneously. Thus, researchers can investigate the
joint effect of two or more factors on a dependent variable.
The factorial design also facilitates the study of interactions, illuminating the effects
of different conditions of the experiment on the identifiable subgroups of subjects
participating in the experiment. A factorial design is which two or more variables,
or factors, are employed in such a way that all the possible combinatiosn of
selected values of each variables are used. In the simplest case we have two
variables, each of which has two values or level. This is known as two-by-two
(2*2) factorial design because of the two levels of each variable. The 2*2 design
makes four combinations that you will understand via underneath layout:
Layout of 2*2 Factorial Designs
Factor A (Arousal level)

Factor B A1 A2
(Task complexity) (high) (low)

B1 (simple) A1 B1 A2 B1
B2 (complex) A1 B2 A2 B2

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Research Designs Let us take an example to illustrate the meaning of factorial design.
Suppose the experimenter wants to know about how do the level of arousal and
task difficulty affect the task performance. Obviously, there are two independent
variables or factors. One is ‘arousal level’ and the other is ‘task complexity’. You
can denote the first independent variable as A and second independent variable
as B.
The dependent variable is task performance. Further, suppose the arousal level
is manipulated in two ways: high arousal and low arousal - these are two levels
of A. Let the high arousal be A1 and low arousal A2 . Similarly the task complexity
is manipulated in two ways: Simple and Complex Task. Let the simple task be
called B1 and the complex task be called B2. Now you see that both independent
variables have been manipulated in two ways. The resulting factorial design is
2*2.
In the simplest form, with two levels of each independent variable there would be
four groups of randomly assigned participants. They would receive treatments that
represent all possible combinations of the two levels of arousal high and low and
the two levels of task complexity simple and complex. This design is known as
a 2*2 factorial experiments with 2*2=4 groups in all. In the notation system we
have been using all along, the design for this factorial experiment could be
diagrammed as follows.

G1 R XA1B1 O1
G2 R XA1B2 O2
G3 R XA2B1 O3
G4 R XA2B2 O4

The hypothesised outcome of this study would be O2 > O1 and O3 > O4. That
is, the prediction would be that performance on the simple task would be better
under conditions of high arousal, while performance on the complex task would
be worse under conditions of higher arousal – an interaction or interactive effect
of the two independent variables.
Factorial experiments can also be represented in another way. Our hypothetical
experiment, with two independent variables each represented by two levels, could
be diagrammed as follows:
Task Complexity A
SimpleA1 ComplexA2

Arousal LowB1 GA1B1 GA2B1


Level B
HighB2 GA1B2 GA2B2

The four cells in this 2*2 table represent the four possible combinations of
treatments in 2*2 factorial experiments.

2.5.1 Main Effect and Interaction Effect


To understand the technical term main effect and interaction effect, it is necessary
to present the mean values for the four experimental conditions which are given
22 below. These are hypothetical data to illustrate the main and interaction effect.
2*2 Factorial Design on Arousal Level and Task Complexity Experimental Design
(Control Group Design and
Two Factor Design)
Task Complexity A Raw Means
(Effect of B)
Simple (A1) Complex (A2)

Arousal Low (B1) 9.0 11.8 10.4


Level B
High (B2) 6.2 14.4 10.3
Column Means 7.6 13.1
(Effect of A)

You can see that data in two left cells are performance of condition A1 that is,
the two simple task. Data in two cells on the right side are the performance of
condition of A2 that is, the two complex task. Therefore, we can average the data
in the two left cells and find average performance to simple task is 7.6, as shown
below the left column. Similarly, averaging the data in the two right cells gives the
average performance to the complex task, 13.1. Because 7.6 and 13.1 were
obtained by averaging the columns of the table, they are called the column
means. Looking at the column mean, we find that the complex task appear to
have taken more time than simple task. Therefore, it can be concluded that
complex task takes more time.
The effect of arousal level on performance in terms of time taken can be seen
by looking at the rows of the table. The two upper cells shows the performance
of condition B1 and the two lower cells show the performance of condition B2.
Averaging across the rows, you find that average performance in the low arousal
condition was 10.4 and the average for the high arousal was 10.3. Because 10.3
and 10.4 are obtained by averaging across the rows of the table they are called
the rows means. From the rows means it can be concluded that arousal difference
makes no difference at all to performance but when arousal combines with the
task complexity it is clear that arousal makes a big difference. However, the
nature of that difference becomes clear only when both independent variables are
taken into account.
It is now obvious that the factorial designs tell us the effect of each independent
variable individually. It indicates effect of arousal on performance and the effect
of task complexity on performance. These are the effects we would observe in
separate univariate experiments. These effects are known in statistical terms as the
main effects of independent variables. A main effect is the effect of one independent
variable averaged across the levels of the other independent variable.
Factorial design also tells us about the joint effect of two independent variables
or interaction between the two variables. These variables interact if effect of one
variable depends on the level of the other. You can see the interaction in the above
cited example here because effect of arousal depends on the task complexity.
(refer to graphs given below)

2.5.2 Graphical Presentation of the Main Effects and


Interaction Effect
The main effects are the task complexity and level of arousal and the interaction
effect is the combination of task complexity and level of arousal.
23
Research Designs From Multivariate Statistics: Concepts, Models and Applications
David W. Stockburger
Main Effect of Task Complexity Main Effect of Level of Arousal

Interaction Effect of Task Complexity and Level of Arousal


On Task Performance in Terms of Time and Completion
(http:// www.psychstat.missouristate.edu/multibook/mult09.htm)
Fig. 1 : Graphical Representation of Main Effect and Interaction
Effect
Interpretation
Graph of study 1 and study 2 shows the main effect of task complexity and level
of arousal on performance in terms of time taken. It is clear from the study1
results that complex task takes more time than simple task and study 2 results
reveals that arousal level makes no difference on performance. Further, one point
might be clarified by looking at the graph rather than tables of mean concerns the
concept of an interaction. The graph for study 3 shows the interaction between
task complexity and arousal. The fact that the two lines on that graph, for the
simple and complex task groups, are not parallel to one another suggests that
there is an interaction. Whether the line diverge, converge, or even cross, whenever
they aren’t parallel, the variables interact. If the lines are parallel, it shows
absence of a statistical interaction,

2.5.3 Two Factor, Multi-Level Factorial Design


24 The type of factorial design that we have discussed above is one in which there
are two independent variables, each having two levels. Hence, it was referred to Experimental Design
(Control Group Design and
as a 2*2 factorial design. Likewise, a factorial design with two independent Two Factor Design)
variables may be of a 3*2, 3*3, 4*3, 4*4 etc. In this way a generalised factorial
design for two independent variables may be written as K*L factorial design in
which K stands for the first independent variable and L stands for the second
independent variable. The value of K and L indicates the number of ways in which
the first and the second independent variables have been manipulated. These
ways are known as levels of the independent variable. Thus, a 3*2 factorial
design indicates that the first independent variable has three levels and the second
independent variable has two levels. In this design there will be six experimental
conditions. A 3*3 design similarly indicates that each of the two independent
variables has three levels.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Factorial designs are used to study the main effect and interaction effect
of two or more independent variables. T/F
2) Main effect of one variable is the effect of one variable averaged over
our all the levels of other variables. T/F
3) Through the raw means and column means researcher can explain the
interaction effect of independent variable. T/F
4) When the two lines are not parallel on the graph it indicates that there
is no interaction. T/F
5) In 2*2 factorial design, there are two independent variable and each
having two levels. T/F
6) When effect of one independent variable depends on the level of another
variable it is known as
a) Main effect
b) Reaction effect
c) Interaction effect
d) Joint effect
7) Which of the following is an advantage of controlled experimental design
a) Findings are easily applied to settings outside the laboratory.
b) They always use random sampling in choosing research participants.
c) They rarely need to be evaluated with respect to ethical concerns.
d) They provide a strong basis for drawing causal inferences.
8) Which statement is not correct in relation to factorial design
a) Factorial design is a kind of non-experimental design
b) Two or more independent variables are manipulated in all possible
combinations.
c) The factorial design enables the experimenter to study the independent
and interactive effect of two or more independent variable.
d) In factorial design as far as possible two groups of subjects is preferred. 25
Research Designs
9) If the experimenter wants to study the independent effect as well as interactive
effect of two or more independent variable. Then he uses
a) Solomon four group design
b) Randomized one way Enron design
c) Factorial design
d) Pretest posttest control group design
10) Which one of the most suitable statistical test is used in randomized block
design?
a) t-Ratio
b) ANOVA
c) Pearson r
d) Multivariate analysis

2.6 USES OF FACTORIAL DESIGN


Factorial Designs can be used to:
 Identify which factors have the most important effects on the response.
 Decide whether further investigation of a factor’s effect is justified.
 Investigate the functional dependence of a response on multiple factors
simultaneously (if and only if you test many levels of each factor).
 Find out whether specified factors influence response to a given treatment
 See whether two factors interact with each other.
 Optimise response in screening experiments.
 Reduce the chance of missing an effect because the chosen material is
insensitive.

2.7 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF


FACTORIAL DESIGN
The factorial experiments have several advantages over single independent variable
experiment:
1) In a factorial design two or more than two independent variables are
simultaneously manipulated whereas in a single independent variable
experiment as its name implies a separate experiment is designed to study the
effect of independent variable. Thus a factorial experiment provides economy
of time labour and money.
2) The factorial experiment also permits the evaluation of interaction upon the
dependent variable. In a single independent variable experiment one cannot
evaluate the effect of the interaction of the independent variables because
only one independent variable is manipulated at a time.

26
3) The experimental results of a factorial experiment are more comprehensive Experimental Design
(Control Group Design and
and can be generalised to a wider range due to the manipulation of several Two Factor Design)
independent variables in one experiment. From this point of view the single
IV experiments suffer a major setback.
4) In factorial experiments there is an additional gain occurring due to the
hidden replication arising from the factorial arrangement itself.
Disadvantages
Despite these advantages, factorial design has some disadvantages which are as
follows:
1) Sometimes the experimental setup and the resulting statistical analysis become
so complex that the experimenter may wish to drop this design and return
to a single IV experiment. This is especially true when more than three
independent variables each with three or more levels are to be manipulated
together.
2) In factorial experiments when the number of treatment combinations or
treatments becomes large, it becomes difficult for the experimenter to select
a homogeneous experimental unit (or subject).
3) Sometimes, it happens that some treatment combinations arising out of the
simultaneous manipulation of several independent variables becomes
meaningless. Then, the resources spent in those combinations are simply
wasted.

2.8 LET US SUM UP


The overall blueprint of the experiment is called experimental design. Basic elements
of experimental design are choice or existence of control group and allocation of
the subjects randomly to both the groups. Factors, levels, condition, treatment,
main effect and interaction effect are the basic terms which are used in experimental
design. Broadly true experiments are classified into the two categories i.e. single
factor design and two factor design. Control group designs are used as true
experiments in psychological research. Control group provides a standard against
which to compare the effect of the particular variable. Post test only, equivalent
control group design and pretest posttest control group design are the major
types of control group design. Control group designs are mostly used when the
researcher wants to study the effect of one or two independent variable on the
dependent variable.
A factorial design uses all combinations of two or more independent variables,
each having at least two levels. Factorial designs are employed when one wants
to study the interaction effect of two or more independent variables. A factorial
design may save time by studying more than condition per experiment or it may
be used when ruling out more than one rival hypotheses or when one is interested
in possible interaction between the independent variables. In a factorial experiment,
the main effect of one variable is the effect of that variable averaged over all the
levels of the other variables. An interaction exists between two independent variables
when [independent]. Variable A has a different effect on the dependent variable
when it is combined with one level of [independent] variable B than with another
level of B. If the graph of a factorial experiment has non parallel lines; there is an
interaction between the variables.
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Research Designs
2.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) Explain experimental design method in research? Discuss the basic elements
and types of experimental design.
2) Differentiate between pretest only, control group design and pretest posttest
control group design.
3) Describe factorial design method in research? Discuss 2*2 factorial design
with relevant examples.
4) Explain the meaning of following in context of experimental design;
a) factor
b) levels
c) main effects
d) treatment
5) Discuss the contraction of interaction with examples.
6) How many variables? And how many levels of each would be investigated
in the following factorial design.
a) 2*2
b) 2*4
c) 2*3
7) Write advantages and disadvantages of factorial design.
Answer to SAQs
True of False: 1. (T), 2. (F), 3. (T), 4. (T), 5. (T), 6. (F), 7. (F), 8. (T)
Multiple choice: 1. (c), 2. (d), 3. (a), 4. (c), 5. (b)

2.10 SUGGESTED READINGS


Campbell D.T & Stanley, J.C (1963). Experimental and Quasi-Experimental
Designs for Research. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Kirk, R.E. (1968). Experimental Design: Procedures for the Behavioural
Sciences. Belmont: Calif Brooks/Cole.
Solomon, B K (1949). An Extension of Control Group Design. Psychological
Bulletin, 46,137-50 .
Broota, K.D. (1997). Experimental Design. New Age International, New Delhi

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