Foundation of Education
1. Anthropology is the study of mankind (anthropos).
Etymologically, anthropology comes from the word
anthropos meaning man and logos meaning
knowledge. Anthropology looks at humans as
something complex in terms of physical, emotional,
social, and cultural complexity. Anthropology also
refers to the science of humans and their culture. Since
anthropology is one of the social sciences, of course it
is a necessity, and undoubtedly very important
considering humans as social creatures cannot
possibly loose interacting with each other. Studying
anthropology will create tolerance and a peaceful life.
Being unable to understand each other has resulted in
prejudice, quarrel, brawl, and even war. Differences
are often considered a threat, but when managed
properly, they that could be a beauty, like a variety of
colorful flowers in a garden.
Social Sciences: - Anthropology studies social,
economic and political aspects of man, which is why
anthropology is related to sociology, economics and
political science. Anthropology’s relationship with
sociology is very close. Both the disciplines study
social aspect of man such as marriage, family, kinship,
group, institution, association, community, band,
tribe, caste, peasants etc. Because of this commonness,
social anthropology is regarded as comparative
sociology. However, the two disciplines differ in their
focus and approach.
1. Anthropology is more concerned with simple tribal
societies, whereas sociological preference is modern
societies.
2. Anthropology studies origin and biological
characteristic of man, whereas sociology ignores the
study of biological aspect of man.
Anthropology and Economics: - Both the disciplines
look into economic aspects of man, however
differently. Anthropology studies economic aspect of
man in simple tribal societies from non-economic
(socio-cultural) point of view. On the other hand,
economics studies economic activities of modern
societies from economic point of view (demand and
supply, profit and loss etc.)
Anthropology and Political Science: - Both the
disciplines study political aspect of man, however in
different ways; Anthropology studies political aspect
of man in simple tribal societies from non-political
(socio-cultural) point of view, on the other hand
political science studies political activities of modern
societies from political point of view in terms of
legislative, executive, and judiciary.
Anthropology and Behavioral Science: Anthropology
is closely related to behavioral sciences especially
psychology. Anthropology and psychology, both study
behavior of man, socialization process, culture and
personality etc. However, in the study and analysis of
behavior of man, both disciplines differ as follows. The
focus of anthropological study is culture and from the
study of culture, inference is drawn regarding
behavior of man. On the other hand, psychology
studies behavior and from the study of behavior,
inference is drawn regarding culture. A man behaves
in a certain way because he might have come from
such and such cultural background.
Anthropology and Life Science: - Since anthropology
studies origin and biological characteristics of man,
that is why, anthropology is related to life science such
as zoology and botany. Botany studies how existing
plants evolved from pre-existing plants and their
present functioning. Zoology studies how existing
organism including man evolved from pre-existing
organism and their present functioning. Anthropology
is mainly concerned with how present human evolved
from past human ancestors (Fossil men) such as
Ramapithecus, Australopithecus, Homo erectus and
Neanderthal. Mendel’s Laws developed on Pea plant
(in Botany) are very useful in anthropology for
understanding human similarities and differences.
Biological advancement such as DNA finger printing,
Recombinant DNA technologies are useful in
anthropology for the study of prevention and cure of
human diseases.
Anthropology and Medical Science: - Both medical
anthropology and medical science are concerned with
the study of health and disease, however differently.
Medical anthropology studies health and disease in
primitive societies in socio-cultural dimension. It
involves the study of sorcery, witchcraft, black magic,
ritual practices, and herbal medicine in order to
understand health and disease in tribal societies. On
the other hand, medical science studies health and
disease of modern societies in term of biological
factors- bacteria, virus, protozoa etc.
Anthropology and Earth Science: - Anthropology is
related to earth science i.e. geography and geology.
Both anthropology and geography study man-
environment relationship. Geography studies
environment and its impacts of man’s social, cultural,
economic, political and biological aspect. On the other
hand, anthropology studies man and his behavioral
impacts on environment in term of deforestation,
pollution etc. which further damages the quality of
human life, longevity etc. by inflicting man with new
diseases.
Anthropology and Humanities: - Science and
humanities, although have exclusive approaches, but
both come together in anthropology. The humanistic
side of anthropology is evident in its concern with
other culture’s language, values and achievement in
arts and literature (oral literature, among the people
who lacks in writing). In those aspects, anthropology
is close to humanistic disciplines such as literature,
history, fine arts etc., however anthropology differs
from these disciplines in the way of studying the
aspects in scientific manner. Anthropologists try to
understand the humanistic aspects of other cultures
by observing them from their eyes, living throughout
with them, sharing their joys and suffering their
deprivation including sickness. Anthropology has
amassed about human frailty and nobility – the study
of humanities as any other humanistic discipline.
2. Civilization is the state of condition of persons living
and functioning together, jointly, cooperatively so that
they produce and experience the benefits of so living
and functioning jointly and cooperatively. The word
"civilization" derives from the Roman word for "city".
It implies a society involving cities, and cities involve
people living and acting together, jointly,
cooperatively, interactively. That as counter-posed to
people living singly or in very small units, on their
own, individually, independently.
Thus, civilization involves social cooperation, that is
the opposite of individualism's "rugged
independence" with its competitive survival of the
fittest. Civilization involves joint survival via joint
action. Only civilization is capable of providing
improved quality of life: security, material abundance,
the arts, culture, the possibility of individual
fulfillment and of happiness.
Individualism pursues return to the original state, the
opposite of civilization, the consequent survival
competition, the state of the animals unable to
function in any mode other than the competition for
survival.
The future of mankind is civilization. Civilization
builds on our only real biological advantage --
intelligence and rationality. Civilization implies,
means, requires: society, communal action, social
sharing, "socialism" and, ultimately, communism, the
full cooperative sharing with our fellow persons.
Human society must, and it therefore will, so become
or we will regress to the animals from which we came.
3. Legal Bases of Foundation of Education
1987 Philippine Constitution
ARTICLE XIV
EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, ARTS,
CULTURE AND SPORTS
Section 1. The State shall protect and promote the
right of all citizens to quality education at all levels,
and shall take appropriate steps to make such
education accessible to all.
Section 2. The State shall:
(1) Establish, maintain, and support a complete,
adequate, and integrated system of education relevant
to the needs of the people and society;
(2) Establish and maintain, a system of free public
education in the elementary and high school levels.
Without limiting the natural rights of parents to rear
their children, elementary education is compulsory
for all children of school age;
(3) Establish and maintain a system of scholarship
grants, student loan programs, subsidies, and other
incentives which shall be available to deserving
students in both public and private schools, especially
to the under-privileged;
(4) Encourage non-formal, informal, and indigenous
learning systems, as well as self-learning,
independent, and out-of-school study programs
particularly those that respond to community needs;
and
(5) Provide adult citizens, the disabled, and out-of-
school youth with training in civics, vocational
efficiency, and other skills.
Section 3. (1) All educational institutions shall include
the study of the Constitution as part of the curricula.
(2) They shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism,
foster love of humanity, respect for human rights,
appreciation of the role of national heroes in the
historical development of the country, teach the rights
and duties of citizenship, strengthen ethical and
spiritual values, develop moral character and personal
discipline, encourage critical and creative thinking,
broaden scientific and technological knowledge, and
promote vocational efficiency.
(3) At the option expressed in writing by the parents
or guardians, religion shall be allowed to be taught to
their children or wards in public elementary and high
schools within the regular class hours by instructors
designated or approved by the religious authorities of
the religion to which the children or wards belong,
without additional cost to the Government.
Section 4. (1) The State recognizes the complementary
roles of public and private institutions in the
educational system and shall exercise reasonable
supervision and regulation of all educational
institutions.
(2) Educational institutions, other than those
established by religious groups and mission boards,
shall be owned solely by citizens of the Philippines or
corporations or associations at least sixty per centum
of the capital of which is owned by such citizens. The
Congress may, however, require increased Filipino
equity participation in all educational institutions. The
control and administration of educational institutions
shall be vested in citizens of the Philippines.
No educational institution shall be established
exclusively for aliens and no group of aliens shall
comprise more than one-third of the enrollment in any
school. The provisions of this subsection shall not
apply to schools established for foreign diplomatic
personnel and their dependents and, unless otherwise
provided by law, for other foreign temporary
residents.
(3) All revenues and assets of non-stock, non-profit
educational institutions used actually, directly, and
exclusively for educational purposes shall be exempt
from taxes and duties. Upon the dissolution or
cessation of the corporate existence of such
institutions, their assets shall be disposed of in the
manner provided by law. Proprietary educational
institutions, including those cooperatively owned,
may likewise be entitled to such exemptions, subject
to the limitations provided by law, including
restrictions on dividends and provisions for
reinvestment.
(4) Subject to conditions prescribed by law, all grants,
endowments, donations, or contributions used
actually, directly, and exclusively for educational
purposes shall be exempt from tax.
Section 5. (1) the State shall take into account regional
and sectoral needs and conditions and
shall encourage local planning in the development of
educational policies and programs.
(2) Academic freedom shall be enjoyed in all
institutions of higher learning.
(3) Every citizen has a right to select a profession or
course of study, subject to fair, reasonable, and
equitable admission and academic requirements.
(4) The State shall enhance the right of teachers to
professional advancement. Non-teaching academic
and non-academic personnel shall enjoy the
protection of the State.
(5) The State shall assign the highest budgetary
priority to education and ensure that teaching will
attract and retain its rightful share of the best
available talents through adequate remuneration and
other means of job satisfaction and fulfillment.
Section 6. The national language of the Philippines is
Filipino. As it evolves, it shall be further developed and
enriched on the basis of existing Philippine and other
languages.
Section 10. Science and technology are essential for
national development and progress. The State shall
give priority to research and development, invention,
innovation, and their utilization; and to science and
technology education, training, and services. It shall
support indigenous, appropriate, and self-reliant
scientific and technological capabilities, and their
application to the country's productive systems and
national life.
Section 11. The Congress may provide for incentives,
including tax deductions, to encourage private
participation in programs of basic and applied
scientific research. Scholarships, grants-in-aid, or
other forms of incentives shall be provided to
deserving science students, researchers, scientists,
inventors, technologists, and specially gifted citizens.
Section 12. The State shall regulate the transfer and
promote the adaptation of technology from all sources
for the national benefit. It shall encourage the widest
participation of private groups, local governments,
and community-based organizations in the generation
and utilization of science and technology.
Section 13. The State shall protect and secure the
exclusive rights of scientists, inventors, artists, and
other gifted citizens to their intellectual property and
creations, particularly when beneficial to the people,
for such period as may be provided by law.
Section 14. The State shall foster the preservation,
enrichment, and dynamic evolution of a Filipino
national culture based on the principle of unity in
diversity in a climate of free artistic and intellectual
expression.
Section 18. (1) The State shall ensure equal access to
cultural opportunities through the educational
system, public or private cultural entities,
scholarships, grants and other incentives, and
community cultural centers, and other public venues.
(2) The State shall encourage and support researches
and studies on the arts and culture.
Section 19. (1) The State shall promote physical
education and encourage sports programs, league
competitions, and amateur sports, including training
for international competitions, to foster self-
discipline, teamwork, and excellence for the
development of a healthy and alert citizenry.
(2) All educational institutions shall undertake
regular sports activities throughout the country in
cooperation with athletic clubs and other sectors.
4. Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013
AN ACT ENHANCING THE PHILIPPINE BASIC
EDUCATION SYSTEM BY STRENGTHENING ITS
CURRlCULUM AND INCREASING THE NUMBER OF
YEARS FOR BASIC EDUCATION, APPROPRIATING
FUNDS THEREFOR AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES
Likewise, it is hereby declared the policy of the State
that every graduate of basic education shall be an
empowered individual who has learned, through a
program that is rooted on sound educational
principles and geared towards excellence, the
foundations for learning throughout life, the
competence to engage in work and be productive, the
ability to coexist in fruitful harmony with local and
global communities, the capability to engage in
autonomous, creative, and critical thinking, and the
capacity and willingness to transform others and one's
self.
For this purpose, the State shall create a functional
basic education system that will develop productive
and responsible citizens equipped with the essential
competencies, skills and values for both life-long
learning and employment. In order to achieve this, the
State shall:
(a) Give every student an opportunity to receive
quality education that is globally competitive based on
a pedagogically sound curriculum that is at par with
international standards;
(b) Broaden the goals of high school education for
college preparation, vocational and technical career
opportunities as well as creative arts, sports and
entrepreneurial employment in a rapidly changing
and increasingly globalized environment; and
(c) Make education learner-oriented and responsive,
to the needs, cognitive and cultural capacity, the
circumstances
and diversity of learners, schools and communities
through the appropriate languages of teaching and
learning, including mother tongue as a learning
resource.
SEC. 3. Basic Education. - Basic education is intended
to meet basic learning needs which provides the
foundation on which subsequent learning can be
based. It encompasses kindergarten, elementary and
secondary education as well as alternative learning
systems for out-of-school learners and those
with special needs. '
SEC. 4. Enhanced Basic Education Program. - The
enhanced basic education program encompasses at
least one
(1) year of kindergarten education, six (6) years of
elementary education, and six (6) years of secondary
education, in that sequence. Secondary education
includes four (4) years of junior high school and two
(2) years of senior high school education.
Kindergarten education shall mean one (1) year of
preparatory education for children at least f,ve (5)
years old as a prerequisite for Grade 1. Elementary
education refers to the second stage of compulsory
basic education which is composed of six (6) years.
The entrant age to this level is typically six (6) years
old. Secondary education refers to the third stage of
compulsory basic education. It consists of four (4)
years of junior high school education and two (2)
years of senior high school education. The entrant age
to the junior and senior high school levels are typically
twelve (12) and sixteen (16) years old, respectively.
Basic education shall be delivered in languages
understood by the learners as the language plays a
strategic role in shaping the formative years of
learners. For kindergarten and the first three (3) years
of elementary education, instruction, teaching
materials and assessment shall be in the regional or
native language of the learners. The Department of
Education (DepED) shall formulate a mother language
transition program from Grade 4 to Grade 6 so that
Filipino and English shall be gradually introduced as
languages of instruction until such time when these
two (2) languages can become the primary languages
of instruction at the secondary level.
For purposes of this Act, mother language or first
Language (LI) refers to language or languages first
learned by a child, which he/she identifies with, is
identified as a native language user of by others, which
he/she knows best, or uses most. This includes
Filipino sign language used by individuals with
pertinent disabilities. The regional or native
language refers to the traditional speech variety or
variety of Filipino sign language existing in a region,
area or place.
SEC. 5. Curriculum Development. - The DepED shall
formulate the design and details of the enhanced basic
education curriculum. It shall work with the
Commission on Higher Education (CHED) to craft
harmonized basic and tertiary curricula for the global
competitiveness of Filipino.
METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH
Correlational research describes what exists at the
moment (conditions, practices, processes, structures
etc.) and is therefore, classified as a type of descriptive
method. Nevertheless, these conditions, practices,
processes or structures described are markedly
different from the way they are usually described in a
survey or an observational study. Correlational
research comprises of collecting data to determine
whether, and to what extent, a relationship exists
between two or more quantifiable variables.
Correlational research uses numerical data to explore
relationships between two or more variables. The
degree of relationship is expressed in terms of a
coefficient of correlation. If the relationship exists
between variables, it implies that scores on one
variable are associated with or vary with the scores on
another variable. The exploration of relationship of
the relationship between variables provides insight
into the nature of the variables themselves as well as
an understanding of their relationships. If the
relationships are substantial and consistent, they
enable a researcher to make predictions about the
variables. Correlational research is aimed at
determining the nature, degree and direction of
relationships between variables or using these
relationships to make predictions. Correlational
studies typically investigate a number of variables
expected to be related to a major, complex variable.
Those variables which are not found to be related to
this major, complex variable are omitted from further
analysis. On the other hand, those variables which are
found to be related to this major, complex variable are
further analyzed in a causal-comparative or
experimental study so as to determine the exact
nature of the relationship between them. In a
correlational study, hypotheses or research questions
are stated at the beginning of the study. The null
hypotheses are often used in a correlational study.
Correlational study does not specify cause-and-effect
relationships between variables under consideration.
It merely specifies concomitant variations in the
scores on the variables. For example, there is a strong
relationship between students’ scores on academic
achievement in Mathematics and their scores on
academic achievement in Science. This does not
suggest that one of these variables is the cause and the
other is the effect. In fact, a third variable, viz.,
students’ intelligence could be the cause of students’
academic achievement in both, Mathematics and
Science.
Causal-comparative research is a type of descriptive
research since it describes conditions that already
exist. It is a form of investigation in which the
researcher has no direct control over independent
variable as its expression has already occurred or
because they are essentially nonmanipulable. It also
attempts to identify reasons or causes of preexisting
differences in groups of individuals i.e. if a researcher
observes that two or more groups are different on a
variable, he tries to identify the main factor that has
led to this difference. Another name for this type of
research is ex post facto research (which in Latin
means “after the fact”) since both the hypothesized
cause and the effect have already occurred and must
be studied in retrospect. Causal-comparative studies
attempt to identify cause-effect relationships,
correlational studies do not. Causal-comparative
studies involve comparison, correlational studies
involve relationship. However, neither method
provides researchers with true experimental data. On
the other hand, causal-comparative and experimental
research both attempt to establish cause-and-effect
relationships and both involve comparisons. In an
experimental study, the researcher selects a random
sample and then randomly divides the sample into
two or more groups. Groups are assigned to the
treatments and the study is carried out. However, in
causal-comparative research, individuals are not
randomly assigned to treatment groups because they
already were selected into groups before the research
began. In experimental research, the independent
variable is manipulated by the researcher, whereas in
causal-comparative research, the groups are already
formed and already different on the independent
variable. Inferences about cause-and-effect
relationships are made without direct intervention, on
the basis of concomitant variation of independent and
dependent variables. The basic causal-comparative
method starts with an effect and seeks possible
causes. For example, if a researcher observes that the
academic achievement of students from different
schools. He may hypothesize the possible cause for
this as the type of management of schools, viz. private-
aided, private-unaided, or government schools (local
or state or any other). He therefore decides to conduct
a causal-comparative research in which academic
achievement of students is the effect that has already
occurred and school types by management is the
possible hypothesized cause. This approach is known
as retrospective causal-comparative research since it
starts with the effects and investigates the causes. In
another variation of this type of research, the
investigator starts with a cause and investigates its
effect on some other variable. i.e. such research is
concerned with the question ‘what is the effect of X on
Y when X has already occurred?’ For example, what
long term effect has occurred on the self-concept of
students who are grouped according to ability in
schools? Here, the investigator hypothesizes that
students who are grouped according to ability in
schools are labelled ‘brilliant’, ‘average’ or ‘dull’ and
this over a period of time could lead to unduly high or
unduly poor self-concept in them. This approach is
known as prospective causal-comparative research
since it starts with the causes and investigates the
effects. However, retrospective causal-comparative
studies are far more common in educational research.
Causal-comparative research involves two or more
groups and one independent variable. The goal of
causal-comparative research is to establish cause-
and-effect relationships just like an experimental
research. However, in causal-comparative research,
the researcher is able to identify past experiences of
the subjects that are consistent with a ‘treatment’ and
compares them with those subjects who have had a
different treatment or no treatment. The causal-
comparative research may also involve a pre-test and
a post-test. For instance, a researcher wants to
compare the effect of “Environmental Education” in
the B.Ed. syllabus on student-teachers’ awareness of
environmental issues and problems attitude towards
environmental protection. Here, a researcher can
develop and administer a pre-test before being taught
the paper on “Environmental Education” and a post-
test after being taught the same. At the same time, the
pre-test as well as the post-test are also administered
to a group which was not taught the paper on
“Environmental Education”. This is essentially a non-
experimental research as there is no manipulation
of the treatment although it involves a pre-test and a
post-test. In this type of research, the groups are not
randomly assigned to exposure to the paper on
“Environmental Education”. Thus, it is possible that
other variables could also affect the outcome
variables. Therefore, in a causal-comparative
research, it is important to think whether differences
other than the independent variable could affect the
results. In order to establish cause-and-effect in a
causal-comparative research, it is essential to build a
convincing rational argument that the independent
variable is influencing the dependent variable. It is
also essential to ensure that other uncontrolled
variables do not have an effect on the dependent
variable. For this purpose, the researcher should try to
draw a sample that minimizes the effects of other
extraneous variables. According to Picciano, “In
stating a hypothesis in a causal comparative study, the
word “effect” is frequently used”.
Experimental designs are said to be the approach for
obtaining information about causal relationships
(Robson, 1993), allowing researchers to assess the
correlation (relationship) between one variable and
another. A principle factor of such designs is that one
element is manipulated by the researcher to see
whether it has any impact upon another. The element
being manipulated by researchers (e.g. introducing a
teenage pregnancy preventative intervention) is
known as the independent variable, whereas the
change (or outcome) resulting from the
implementation of the independent variable (e.g.
teenage pregnancy rates) is the dependent variable.
Hypothesis and assumption are concepts that are
similar in nature and are used commonly in research
and experiments. A hypothesis is a theory that seeks
to explain a phenomenon or a set of phenomena.
Scientists or researchers make up hypothesis to see if
they hold water. They conduct a number of
experiments and test this hypothesis, and if the
hypothesis indeed proves correct, it is deemed to have
become a theory. There is another word called
assumption that is similar in meaning and confuses
readers. This article attempts to highlight the
differences between hypothesis and assumption.
What is Hypothesis?
Something that has yet not been proved to classify as
a theory but believed to be true by the researcher is
labeled as a hypothesis. A hypothesis is merely a
proposition that is presented or put forward by a
scientist to explain a natural phenomenon. It does not
become a theory until it is proved and tested under
different conditions and circumstances. At best, it is an
assumption that has been made working. It is rather
correct to call a hypothesis a theory that needs
verification and investigation. Any statement that is
put forward for the sake of argument to support an
occurrence or phenomenon is called a hypothesis.
What is Assumption?
Making assumptions on the basis of looks and
appearance of a person is common. We take for
granted the qualities in a person on the basis of his
skin color, hair color, and physique. We take for
granted qualities that are mere assumption and no
more. An assumption is any statement that is believed
to be true. Many times, people pay dearly when they
jump to conclusions based upon their assumptions.
Thinking about the feelings of others is merely
assumption as there is no way to tell what a person is
thinking or feeling.
What is the difference between a Hypothesis and
Assumption?
• Hypothesis is an argument put forward to explain a
phenomenon or sets of phenomena
• Hypothesis is not a theory until it has been proved
and verified under different circumstances
• Anything taken for granted is an assumption, and a
hypothesis is at best a working assumption
• Hypothesis is a theory in waiting as it can be called
theory only after verification
What is an Interview?
An interview is a conversation for gathering
information. A research interview involves an
interviewer, who coordinates the process of the
conversation and asks questions, and an interviewee,
who responds to those questions. Interviews can be
conducted face-to-face or over the telephone. The
internet is also emerging as a tool for interviewing.
When is an Interview an Appropriate Research
Method?
Interviews are an appropriate method when there is a
need to collect in-depth information on people’s
opinions, thoughts, experiences, and feelings.
Interviews are useful when the topic of inquiry relates
to issues that require complex questioning and
considerable probing. Face-to-face interviews are
suitable when your target population can
communicate through face-to-face conversations
better than they can communicate through writing or
phone conversations (e.g., children, elderly or
disabled individuals).
Types of Interviews
Interviews can be designed differently depending on
the needs being addressed and the information. They
can be grouped into three types:
Structured interviews: In a structured interview,
the interviewer asks a set of standards,
predetermined questions about particular topics, in a
specific order. The respondents need to select their
answers from a list of options. The interviewer may
provide clarification on some questions. Structured
Interviews are typically used in surveys (see our
“Survey Research Methods” Tip Sheet for more
information).
Semi-structured interviews: In a semi-structured
interview, the interviewer uses a set of predetermined
questions and the respondents answer in their own
words.
Some interviewers use a topic guide that serves as a
checklist to ensure that all respondents provide
information on the same topics. The interviewer can
probe areas based on the respondent’s answers or ask
supplementary questions for clarification. Semi-
structured interviews are useful when there is a need
to collect in-depth information
in a systematic manner from a number of respondents
or interviewees (e.g., teachers, community leaders).
Unstructured interviews: In an unstructured
interview, the interviewer has no specific guidelines,
restrictions, predetermined questions, or list of
options. The interviewer asks a few broad questions
to engage the respondent in an open, informal, and
spontaneous discussion. The interviewer also probes
with further questions and/or explores
inconsistencies to gather more in-depth information
on the topic. Unstructured interviews are particularly
useful for getting the stories behind respondents’
experiences or when there is little information about
a topic.
Interview Guide
Before conducting interviews, you need an interview
guide that you can use to help you direct the
conversation toward the topics and issues you want to
learn about. Interview guides vary from highly
scripted to relatively loose, but they all share certain
features: They help you know what to ask about, in
what sequence, how to pose your questions, and how
to pose follow-ups. They provide guidance about what
to do or say next, after your interviewee has answered
the last question. A good interview guide also
acknowledges four important facts of human social
interactions that influence what people are likely to
say to you. These four facts are: (1) Research
questions are not the same as interview questions; (2)
People's espoused theories differ from their theories-
in-use; (3) Interviews are social occasions; and (4)
Testimony by itself is relatively weak form of
evidence. This guide to interview guides offers some
techniques for accommodating these four important
facts.
1. Research Questions aren't Interview Questions
The first important fact of interviewing is that
research questions are not the same as interview
questions. Your research question describes the issue
you want to learn about, but you rarely can learn
about that issue by asking others that literal question.
If you want to learn why students bully one another,
you can't just ask them, "Why do you bully him," or
"Why do you think he bullies you?" Research
questions are usually too broad to serve as productive
interview questions. Once you have a research
question, you must devise a data collection plan that
will help you gather credible evidence, or clues, that
are relevant to your research question. Your interview
guide is your data collection plan. My human caretaker
has posted a sample of an interview guide to show you
how you move from research questions to interview
questions.
2. If you ask a question, they will answer it
The second important fact about interviewing is that
people will answer the questions you ask them, even
if they have never really thought much about your
topic. If they agree to be interviewed, they will
continue to try to be helpful by offering whatever they
can about your topic, even if it means inventing
answers or exaggerating how much they have thought
about your question. This means that the "evidence"
you are gathering may not very accurately reflect real
views. So you need to think about ways to pose
questions that don't elicit overly-helpful responses.
One strategy that helps a lot is to have a collection of
probes ready to use as needed. A probe is a follow-up
question, designed to get the interviewee to clarify or
elaborate what he or she has just said. I have another
page that gives several ideas about types and formats
of probes.
Approach your question from the side
One way around this is to approach your topic
sideways. For instance, suppose you are interested in
whether or how teachers use research. If you ask them
to speak specifically about this issue, they will try their
best to come up with some uses, refer to studies they
have read and talk about how they have responded to
those studies. These responses will give you an
inflated notion of the degree of reliance on research.
An alternative approach would be to ask how they
make decisions about particular things-things where
research could have been useful--say, deciding
whether to promote a student or retain him in grade,
or whether to use cooperative groups or not, and then
probe extensively for where they got their ideas when
they made that decision. If you are lucky, they will
refer to research studies when they answer these
probes.
3. Espoused Theories Differ from Theories in Use
The third important fact pertinent to interviewing is
that people hold two sets of ideas about the world:
Their espoused theories and their theories-in-use.
Espouses theories are the things they believe they
believe, though they may not always act on those
beliefs. Theories-in-use are the ideas that actually
guide their daily actions. Think of the person who
loves mankind but can't stand his neighbor, or the
teacher who believes all children can learn except two
particular students in her classroom.
This fact creates a problem for your interview. Your
task is to learn their theories in use, but they may be
unaware of those. Instead, they will offer you their
espoused theories. The best way to learn theories in
use is to ask about concrete examples rather than
about general principles. Here are some ways to do
this.
Ask about Hypothetical examples or vignettes
Suppose you are interested in how students respond
to teachers' disciplinary actions. Instead of asking
them to tell their general philosophy about discipline,
give them two or three specific examples of
disciplinary moves and ask how they would respond
to each one, and why. Vary your hypotheticals to
capture the variety of disciplinary actions you are
interested in.
This general strategy, by the way, works for surveys as
well as interviews. Here is a survey of teachers done a
few years back on how teachers think about
technology. Note the way the authors get at the kind of
pedagogy that teachers’ value.
Ask about specific things they have done
Suppose you are interested in learning what kind of
homework teachers normally assign. Instead of asking
teachers what kind of homework they normally
assign, ask them to bring you three specific instances
of homework they have assigned this week. Then
organize your interview questions around these
specific instances.
Or, suppose you are interested in knowing how often
teachers ask their students to work in groups during
math class. If you ask them about their average or
typical use of groups, they may over- or underestimate
how frequently they do this because the practice may
be part of their espoused theories of teaching. Instead,
ask them whether they used groups during any math
classes this week, and then ask why, or why not, and
probe for the details of what motivated them to
engage in or avoid this practice at these particular
times.
Or, suppose you are interested in how teachers use
technology in their teaching. Instead of asking them
about their general use, ask them when the most
recent use was and then interrogate them about that
specific event.
Use Stimulated Recall
There may be times when you suspect that teachers
may not be completely aware of their own actions, or
that students may not recall all the details of even a
recent experience. You can stimulate their recall by
showing them a videotape of the event you want to
discuss in the interview. This is called "stimulated
recall." The videotape stimulates their memory and
helps you get more detail. The idea is that, by
reviewing the tape, teachers and students will recall
more details of what they were thinking and what they
were trying to do at any given moment. Ask them to
explain what was going on, what they thought about it.
Ask them why they responded as they did.
4. Interviews are Social Occasions
The fourth important fact about interviews is that they
are social occasions, and you cannot avoid the social
interaction that occurs during an interview. There are
two sides to this. On one side, the interviewee will
want to put his best foot forward. He or she will want
to be perceived as caring, thoughtful, reasonable, or
justified. Even if your interviewee is willing to discuss
sensitive areas, there will be a tendency to put them in
the best light possible.
On the other side, virtually everything about you
conveys a social message to your interviewee. Your
clothing and mannerisms convey your position in life
and perhaps your social attitudes as well. Regardless
of whether they perceive you as an educator, a liberal,
a child advocate, or a stuffy academic, they will tailor
what they say to be more acceptable to the person
they see as their audience.
You can add to or reduce these tendencies by your
mannerisms. Your facial expressions, head nods, and
verbal "um-hmm's" convey approval or disapproval of
what the interviewee is saying. If you respond
effusively to some of the things they say, you will
encourage more of those things in their responses. If
you furrow your brow, express sympathy with their
plight, you encourage them to adopt that posture.
This doesn't mean that every interviewee is purposely
deceptive or devious. In fact, just the opposite. These
things occur naturally in every human conversation as
people reach out to one another and try to find
common ground. But the tendency to reach out and to
find common ground can create problems in an
interview, for the purpose of an interview is to learn
what the other person would think if you weren't
there asking him.
The best defense against social processes is not to
accept people's initial answers to your questions.
Don't take their first answers as a final answer. Design
your interview to challenge their claims. You don't
have to be hostile to do this, but you do need to think
about it how to do it without being hostile. Here are
some strategies:
Ask for Elaboration
When a person says he wants to accomplish X, push
for more detail on about why. Ask things like "Why
was that important to you? What would happen if you
didn't do X? Or, conversely, if they say they were afraid
to do Z, or wanted to avoid Z, ask what would be wrong
with Z, why would Z be a problem, what would happen
if they did do Z.
Ask about Opposing Ideas
When your interviewee says she wanted to do X, or to
avoid Z, you can also challenge her thinking by posing
the opposite idea. Say, for instance, "Some people
think it is important to do Y. What do you think about
that?" Or say, "Last week I interviewed a teacher who
said she thought Y was more important than X. What
do you think about that?"
Ask if their Rationale is All-encompassing
Often interviewee explain their actions by saying they
were required to do something. For instance, a teacher
may say she taught this content because it would be
on the test, or a student may say he did something
because the teacher told him to. These explanations
move responsibility for actions to some other location.
They give the impression that the person's actions are
entirely determined by the demands of the situation
or the demands of another person. You can learn more
about how they decide what to do by asking them if
they always do whatever the requirements are. Does
the teacher always teach whatever is on the test, does
the student always do whatever the teacher says to
do? Chances are, your interviewee will say no to this
question, so that you can then ask why they followed
the rule in this specific situation. You can ask about the
situations when they don't do what is required, or how
this situation differs from others.
Ask your interviewee if he or she would respond
differently, or act differently, under specific other
conditions. Ask, for instance, how they would have
responded at some earlier point in their career, or
how they would have responded if another teacher
had done this, or how they would have responded if
they were teaching at another grade level.
These questions are all called "probes." You begin with
a stem question about a particular event--what
happened, why, how did you respond, etc., and then
you probe further. The idea of all these probes is to get
past their espoused theories and their notions of what
will sound good to you, and into the real details of their
thoughts and practices. You want to get your
interviewees away from gross generalities and learn
the exceptions to their own rules, the nuances, the
counterpoints and the "other hands."
5. Testimony alone is weak evidence
The fifth important fact about interviewing is that
testimony from interviews is perceived by others to be
a relatively weak source of evidence. Advocates of
qualitative research generally argue that you need
multiple sources of evidence in order to make a claim.
For instance, you can't conclude that teachers were
skeptical about a new policy if the only evidence you
have is their word for it. The best solution to this
problem is to rely on multiple sources of evidence. For
instance, look at what they say to you in the
interviews, what they say to peers in staff meetings,
and what they do in their classrooms. The process of
reconciling these various sources of evidence is called
triangulation.
If your study is based entirely on interviews, you can't
triangulate among multiple sources of evidence in the
way that qualitative researchers advocate. However,
you can try to get multiple "takes" on the same issue
through an interview. For instance, to learn teachers'
views on a new policy, ask one line of questions
directly about the policy, another line of questions
about a related issue, slipping some references to the
policy into that line, and a third line of questions about
practices that are relevant to the policy as well.
Many of the suggestions offered above, in regard to
other basic truths of interviewing, will also help here.
For instance, if you ask people about two or three
vignettes, or about two or three specific experiences,
you can treat each of these events as one source of
evidence and you can compare them. If you ask people
about opposing ideas, or what would happen if they
didn't do what they thought they should, you are
obtaining multiple sources of evidence.
Sometimes you can obtain multiple sources of
evidence simply by rephrasing the same question so
that you emphasize a different aspect of it.
Researchers have found, for instance, that people
respond differently to questions about probability
depending on whether the odds are described in
positive or negative terms: One question asks if they
would bet when the odds were one in ten that they
would win, another asks if they would bet if the odds
were nine in ten that they would lose. The odds are the
same in each question, but responses differ because of
the emphasis. It doesn't hurt to re-ask the same
question with different phrases or from different
perspectives.
Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of
a series of questions (or other types of prompts) for
the purpose of gathering information from
respondents. Although questionnaires are often
designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this
is not always the case. Questionnaires have
advantages over some other types of surveys in that
they are cheap, do not require as much effort from the
questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often
have standardized answers that make it simple to
compile data. However, such standardized answers
may frustrate users. Questionnaires are also sharply
limited by the fact that respondents must be able to
read the questions and respond to them. Thus, for
some demographic groups conducting a survey by
questionnaire may not be concrete.
Question type
Usually, a questionnaire consists of a number of
questions that the respondent has to answer in a set
format. A distinction is made between open-ended
and closed-ended questions. An open-ended question
asks the respondent to formulate his own answer,
whereas a closed-ended question has the respondent
pick an answer from a given number of options. The
response options for a closed-ended question should
be exhaustive and mutually exclusive. Four types of
response scales for closed-ended questions are
distinguished:
 Dichotomous, where the respondent has two
options
 Nominal-polytomous, where the respondent
has more than two unordered options
 Ordinal-polytomous, where the respondent
has more than two ordered options
  (Bounded)Continuous, where the respondent
is presented with a continuous scale
A respondent's answer to an open-ended question is
coded into a response scale afterwards. An example of
an open-ended question is a question where the testee
has to complete a sentence (sentence completion
item)
Statement of the Problem
Research is a systematic investigative process
employed to increase or revise current knowledge by
discovering new facts. It can be divided into two
general categories: (1) Basic research, which is
inquiry aimed at increasing scientific knowledge, and
(2) Applied research, which is effort aimed at using
basic research for solving problems or developing
new processes, products, or techniques.
The first and most important step in any research is to
identify and delineate the research problem: that is,
what the researcher wants to solve and what
questions he/she wishes to answer. A research
problem may be defined as an area of concern, a gap
in the existing knowledge, or a deviation in the norm
or standard that points to the need for further
understanding and investigation. Although many
problems turn out to have several solutions (the
means to close the gap or correct the deviation),
difficulties arise where such means are either not
obvious or are not immediately available. This then
necessitates some research to reach a viable solution.
A statement of the problem is used in research work
as a claim that outlines the problem addressed by a
study. The statement of the problem briefly addresses
the question: What is the problem that the research
will address?
What are the goals of a statement of the problem?
The ultimate goal of a statement of the problem is to
transform a generalized problem (something that
bothers you; a perceived lack) into a targeted, well-
defined problem; one that can be resolved through
focused research and careful decision-making.
Writing a statement of the problem should help you
clearly identify the purpose of the research project
you will propose. Often, the statement of the problem
will also serve as the basis for the introductory section
of your final proposal, directing your reader’s
attention quickly to the issues that your proposed
project will address and providing the reader with a
concise statement of the proposed project itself.
A statement of problem need not be long and
elaborate: one page is more than enough for a good
statement of problem.
Qualitative Research
Leadership scholars seeking to answer questions
about culture and meaning have found experimental
and quantitative methods to be insufficient on their
own in explaining the phenomenon they wish to study.
As a result, qualitative research has gained
momentum as a mode of inquiry. This trend has roots
in the development of the New Leadership School,
(Conger, 1999; Hunt, 1999), on the recent emergence
of an approach to leadership that views it as a
relational phenomenon (Fletcher, 2002), and on the
increased recognition of the strengths of qualitative
inquiry generally.
Shank (2002) defines qualitative research as “a form
of systematic empirical inquiry into meaning” (p. 5).
By systematic he means “planned, ordered and
public”, following rules agreed upon by members of
the qualitative research community. By empirical, he
means that this type of inquiry is grounded in the
world of experience. Inquiry into meaning says
researchers try to understand how others make sense
of their experience. Denzin and Lincoln (2000) claim
that qualitative research involves an interpretive and
naturalistic approach: “This means that qualitative
researchers study things in their natural settings,
attempting to make sense of, or to interpret,
phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to
them” (p. 3).
The advantages of doing qualitative research on
leadership include (Conger, 1998; Bryman et al, 1988;
Alvesson, 1996):
 flexibility to follow unexpected ideas during
research and explore processes effectively;
 sensitivity to contextual factors;
 ability to study symbolic dimensions and
social meaning;
 increased opportunities
o to develop empirically supported new
ideas and theories;
o for in-depth and longitudinal
explorations of leadership
phenomena; and
o for more relevance and interest for
practitioners.
THE NATURE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
While quantitative and qualitative inquiry represent
two legitimate ways to investigate leadership,
researchers using one or the other tackle empirical
research differently. Everet and Louis (1981) clarify
the assumptions that ground each by distinguishing
two research stances: “inquiry from the outside”, often
implemented via quantitative studies and “inquiry
from the inside” via qualitative studies.
These approaches differ in the degree of the
researcher’s immersion in terms of experiential
engagement, direct contact with the subjects, and
physical involvement in the setting. In the “inside” or
qualitative approach, the researcher aims for a holistic
picture from historically unique situations, where
idiosyncrasies are important for meaning. The
researcher uses an inductive mode, letting the data
speak. In contrast, traditional “outside” or quantitative
researchers aim to isolate the phenomenon, to reduce
the level of complexity in the analysis and to test
hypotheses derived previously.
Shank uses two metaphors to differentiate these ways
of ‘seeing’ in research. One metaphor is the ‘window’,
to look through to get an accurate view of a subject.
Microscopes are windows that help to do inquiry from
the outside. The researcher tries to correct for
smudges (to avoid bias) or to clarify in what ways the
window is flawed (to identify error). This image
corresponds to mainstream leadership research, and
requires simplification and standardization of
complex observations. In contrast to the window, the
‘lantern’ metaphor helps “shed light in dark corners”
(Shank, p.11). This image characterizes qualitative
researchers as “discoverers and reconcilers of
meaning where no meaning has been clearly
understood before” (Shank p. 11).
The approaches to inquiry described with the
window, inquiry from the outside, and by extension,
quantitative research, are best known as logical
positivism and post-positivism.
The lantern, inquiry from the inside and qualitative
research, represent an approach known as
interpretivism (Crotty, 1998; Denzin and Lincoln,
2000). Historically, the strong hold of quantitative
methodologies in leadership studies can be explained
by the dominance of the fields of social psychology and
organizational behavior which have been highly
influenced by positivism (House and Adytay, 1996;
Parry, 1998; Podsakoff, 1994).
Quantitative Research
Research methods in education (and the other social
sciences) are often divided into two main types:
quantitative and qualitative methods. This book will
discuss one of these two main strands: quantitative
methods. In this chapter we will have a look at what is
meant by the term quantitative methods, and what
distinguishes quantitative from qualitative methods.
When you think of quantitative methods, you will
probably have specific things in mind. You will
probably be thinking of statistics, numbers – many of
you may be feeling somewhat apprehensive because
you think quantitative methods are difficult. Apart
from the last, all these thoughts capture some of the
essence of quantitative methods.
The following definition, taken from Aliaga and
Gunderson (2002), describes what we mean by
quantitative research methods very well: Quantitative
research is ‘Explaining phenomena by collecting
numerical data that are analysed using
mathematically based methods (in particular
statistics).’
Let’s go through this definition step by step. The first
element is explaining phenomena. This is a key
element of all research, be it quantitative or
qualitative. When we set out do some research, we are
always looking to explain something. In education this
could be questions like ‘why do teachers leave
teaching?’, ‘what factors influence pupil achievement?’
and so on.
The specificity of quantitative research lies in the next
part of the definition. In quantitative research we
collect numerical data. This is closely connected to the
final part of the definition: analysis using
mathematically based methods. In order to be able to
use mathematically based methods our
data have to be in numerical form. This is not the case
for qualitative
research. Qualitative data are not necessarily or
usually numerical, and therefore cannot be analysed
using statistics.
Therefore, because quantitative research is essentially
about collecting numerical data to explain a particular
phenomenon, particular questions seem immediately
suited to being answered using quantitative methods:
■ How many males get a first-class degree at
university compared to females?
■ What percentage of teachers and school leaders
belong to ethnic minority groups?
■ Has pupil achievement in English improved in our
school district over time?
These are all questions we can look at quantitatively,
as the data we need to collect are already available to
us in numerical form. However, does this not severely
limit the usefulness of quantitative research? There
are many phenomena we might want to look at, but
which don’t seem to produce any quantitative data. In
fact, relatively few phenomena in education actually
occur in the form of ‘naturally’ quantitative data.
Luckily, we are far less limited than might appear from
the above. Many data that do not naturally appear in
quantitative form can be collected in a quantitative
way. We do this by designing research instruments
aimed specifically at converting phenomena that don’t
naturally exist in quantitative form into quantitative
data, which we can analyze statistically. Examples of
this are attitudes and beliefs. We might want to collect
data on pupils’ attitudes to their school and their
teachers.
These attitudes obviously do not naturally exist in
quantitative form (we don’t form our attitudes in the
shape of numerical scales!). Yet we can develop a
questionnaire that asks pupils to rate a number of
statements (for example, ‘I think school is boring’) as
either agree strongly, agree, disagree or disagree
strongly, and give the answers a number (e.g. 1 for
disagree strongly, 4 for agree strongly). Now we have
quantitative data on pupil attitudes to school. In the
same way, we can collect data on a wide number of
phenomena, and make them quantitative through data
collection instruments like questionnaires or tests. In
the next three chapters we will look at how we can
develop instruments to do just that.
The number of phenomena we can study in this way is
almost unlimited, making quantitative research quite
flexible. However, not all phenomena are best studied
using quantitative methods. As we will see, while
quantitative methods have some notable advantages,
they also have disadvantages, which means that some
phenomena are better studied using different
(qualitative) methods.
The last part of the definition refers to the use of
mathematically based methods, in particular
statistics, to analyze the data. This is what people
usually think about when they think of quantitative
research, and is often seen as the most important part
of quantitative studies. This is a bit of a misconception.
While it is important to use the right data analysis
tools, it is even more important to use the right
research design and data collection instruments.
However, the use of statistics to analyze the data is the
element that puts a lot of people off doing quantitative
research, because the mathematics underlying the
methods seem complicated and frightening.
Nevertheless, as we will see later on in this book, most
researchers do not really have to be particularly
expert in the mathematics underlying the methods,
because computer software allows us to do the
analyses quickly and (relatively) easily.

Related Literature
One of the first few parts in writing a research paper
is the review of related literature. When I was still a
student, this section just intimidates me as it sounded
like it requires a lot of reading and writing. True
enough, it does.
However, the review of related literature anchors
your research in the academic field that cradles your
research topic. It reveals historical information,
trends, and research gaps. A literature review is not
just a collection of summaries of published materials
that are related to your topic. It requires organization,
analysis, and synthesis.
Furthermore, a review of related literature is still an
essay. An essay declares a specific point. This holds
true in writing a literature review. You should have a
claim with regards to the synthesis of topics, research
methodology, findings, and limitations of the
academic materials you have collated.
If you will be writing a review of related literature for
your research paper, you most likely have clearly
defined your topic and research problem. With this,
you can already begin your review.
Search, research, and read
In searching for related literature, you should
determine the scope of your review. What research
material will you include? How can you have access to
such materials? You should also identify the
publication date of your research materials.
Most research papers nowadays utilize contemporary
research materials as to ensure the relevance of the
data they present. However, you can still include
classic works if you wish to establish the historical
context of your topic.
Still, you need to be realistic. Research paper writing
is usually time bound. Collate research literature that
you will be able to scan through within the given
period of writing your research paper. Also, consider
the availability of the research material.
When you read a research material, be critical of its
references as you can use this as a source of more
research materials.
Take notes and annotate
You should take note of the bibliographic information
of your research materials. If you already know the
citation style to use for your paper, then it would help
if you follow the citation style in your annotation. This
will save you time when you need to list your
references.
Take note of crucial sections from your research
materials such as historical facts, related concepts,
theoretical framework, methodologies, findings,
significance, limitations, and recommendations. You
can organize these pieces of information through a
spreadsheet for easier analysis.
Analyze and synthesize
In doing the analysis and synthesis of the information
you have gathered, look for patterns, gaps, and issues.
If you see a certain author multiple times in various
literature, then that author will be worth further
scrutiny. Why is the author recurring in different
secondary sources? Find similarities, differences,
strengths, and weaknesses.
Developing your claim
After analyzing and synthesizing your materials, you
can now develop a claim about what you have
discovered. Your claim can be about a critical
emerging pattern about the methodology being used
in the in studies with a similar research problem.
Make sure that you can logically defend this claim
using the information you have derived from your
research.
Doing research and writing a review of related
literature requires scrutiny and critical thinking.
That’s why it is advisable for you to select a topic that
genuinely interests you. With this, you will develop a
natural curiosity about the topic. In effect, finding
more information about it will be enjoyable for you.
Dependent Variables
A dependent variable is also called an outcome or
response variable and represents the outcome of a
treatment. The dependent variable should be chosen
so that one can make a conclusion about the treatment
in relation to the professed goal. It is expected that this
dependent variable will show different outcomes for
the different experimental conditions. If the goal is to
develop an information system that helps people with
weight loss, the dependent variable should reflect this
goal and allow the researchers to draw conclusions
about losing weight with help from the information
system that is being evaluated. For example, the
weight lost after 1 month could be the dependent
variable. For the persuasive text messaging system
described above, it is expected and hypothesized that
participants will lose more weight with the text
messaging system than without.
A good evaluation will have complementary measures
to assess the impact of a treatment. When the
outcomes of complementary measures point in the
same direction, for example, that a system is user
friendly, this provides a much stronger evaluation and
the researcher can be much more confident about the
conclusion. Moreover, such additional measures often
are useful to help explain unexpected results of using
the system. Keep in mind that each analysis will
evaluate the impact of the conditions, the independent
variable, on one outcome measure, the dependent
variable, at a time.
When choosing a set of evaluation metrics, it is
important to include existing metrics decision makers
are already familiar with when possible. Regardless
whether the decision makers are the future users, the
buyers of the software or fellow researchers, metrics
used for many years or in many evaluations are more
likely to be well understood and accepted as part of
the decision-making process.
Naturally, relying solely on metrics that have been
used historically is unwise. Evaluations should include
the metrics that are most relevant to the study. For
example, if one designed a system for online
appointment scheduling, the clinic where the system
will be tested will most probably already keep track of
the number of people who do not show up for
appointments. Obviously, they will be interested in
seeing the effects of the system on such a well-known
metric. In addition, it may be quite reasonable to
measure the number of changes in appointments and
the associated costs. A new system may not only affect
no-shows but also the time needed for rescheduling
existing appointments.

Independent Variable
The term independent variable means the same as
treatment or intervention and signifies a “causal event
that is under investigation”. The independent variable,
manipulated by the researcher, describes what is
expected to influence the outcomes.
A treatment is a specific condition of this independent
variable. The goal of a user study is to compare the
outcomes for different treatments. The independent
variable is connected to the dependent variable, which
measures the outcome, by means of the hypotheses. A
simple hypothesis is a prediction of a causal effect of
the independent variable on the dependent variable:
depending on the condition of the independent
variable a different outcome is predicted for the
dependent variable.
A user study can have one or more than one
independent variable and, in this case, each variable
represents a treatment that can be controlled and
systematically manipulated by the researcher. Studies
with more than one independent variable are more
complex to execute, analyze and interpret. The
number of variables also affects the number of
participants that need to be found for the study.
Usually, more independent variables will mean that
more subjects are needed. However, in some cases
subjects can participate in multiple conditions.
In medical informatics, many studies will evaluate the
impact of one independent variable only. This
independent variable includes a new or improved
information system that is to be compared with other,
older approaches. For example, assume a researcher
has designed a persuasive text messaging system that
uses text messaging to encourage obese people to lose
weight. The system sends messages a few times a day
about possible activities that are suitable given the
day of the week and the weather forecast. The goal is
to help people lose weight by encouraging them to
engage in physical activity. The study will test whether
the persuasive messaging system is more effective
than, for example, meetings with a dietician. However,
it is possible to consider other independent variables.
In this example, the researchers suspect that the
system will be more suitable for younger users
because most already love using their mobile phone.
So, the researchers also want to compare older and
younger people, which can be defined as a second
independent variable.