Blood circulation

· William Harvey proved that the circulation system raised by Greek philosopher
Galen is wrong. He stated that Arteries and veins were part of a single
connected blood network; arteries pumped blood from the heart to the body;
veins returned blood to the heart.
· Human heart has four chambers: left atrium, left ventricle, right atrium and
right ventricle. Blood from vena cava is transported to right atrium, then
pumped to right ventricle, passing through atrium-ventricular valve; then
blood passes through semilunar valve and is pumped into pulmonary artery.
Blood from pulmonary vein is transported to left atrium and then pumped to
left ventricle and then into aorta. The left side of the heart will have a
much thicker muscular wall as it must pump blood much further.
· The double circulation: The left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood
around the body (systemic circulation). The right side of the heart pumps
deoxygenated blood to the lungs (pulmonary circulation). The reason to have
two circulation system is that lung cannot stand high pressure and pump the
blood into body.

Artery& Vein& Capillary

· artery——arteriole——capillary——venule——vein
· The function of arteries is to convey blood at high pressure from the heart
to the tissues of the body and lung.
· The structure of arteries includes tunica externa (a tough outer layer of
connective tissue), tunica media (a thick layer containing smooth muscle and
elastic fibers made of elastin), tunica intima (a smooth endothelium) and a
narrow lumen.
· The muscle fibers help to form a rigid arterial wall that is capable of
withstanding the high blood pressure without rupturing. They can also contract
to narrow the lumen, which helps to maintain blood pressure throughout the
cardiac cycle. The elastic fibers allow the arterial wall to stretch and
expand upon the flow of a pulse through the lumen. The elastic recoil helps
to push the blood forward through the artery as well as maintain arterial
pressure between pump cycle
· Coronary arteries supply oxygen and nutrients to the beating heart muscle.
· The function of capillaries is to exchange materials between the cells in
tissues and blood travelling at low pressure.
· The structure of capillaries includes basement membrane, endothelium (one
layer of endothelium cells) and a narrow lumen (one type of cells, not an
organ). It has lowest slow rate and large surface area. This structure
minimizes the diffusion path, allows more time for exchange, increases
efficiency of exchange, and brings less resistance to large molecules.
· The function of veins is to collect the blood from the tissues and convey it
at low pressure to the atria of the heart.
· Its structure includes an outer coat, smooth muscles, elastic fibers, basement
 membrane, endothelium and valve. It has far fewer muscles and elastic fibers
and it can dilate to hole more blood. The valves can prevent backflow and
make efficient use of pressure provided by muscular changes to ensure blood
circulation.

Cardiac cycle
· def: one complete sequence of filling and pumping blood. It includes
contraction (blood pump out) and relaxation (blood fill in).
· 0.0 – 0.1 seconds
 The atria contract causing a rapid but relatively small pressure increase,
which pumps blood from the atria to the ventricles, through the open
atrioventricular valves.
 The semilunar valves are closed and blood pressure in the arteries
gradually drops to its minimum as blood continues to flow along them but
no more is pumped in.
· 0.1 – 0.15 seconds
 The ventricles contract, with a rapid pressure build up that causes the
atrioventricular valves to close.
 The semilunar valves remain closed.
· 0.15 – 0.4 seconds
 The pressure in the ventricles rises above the pressure in the arteries
so the semilunar valves open and blood is pumped from the ventricles
into the arteries, transiently maximizing the arterial blood pressure.
 Pressure slowly rises in the atria as blood drains into them from the
veins and they fill.
· 0.4 – 0.45 seconds
 The contraction of the ventricular muscles wanes and pressure inside the
ventricles rapidly drops below the pressure in the arteries, causing the
semilunar valves to close.
 The atrioventricular valves remain closed.
· 0.45 – 0.8 seconds
 Pressure in the ventricles drops below the pressure in the atria so the
atrioventricular valves open.
 Blood from the veins drains into the atria and from there into the
ventricles, causing a slow increase in pressure.
· arterial blood pressure: the force exerted by blood against the wall of the
vessel that encloses it
· Systolic pressure: highest pressure in artery (contracting)
Diastolic pressure: lowest pressure in artery (end of a beat)
· Measure blood pressure: the pressure of which flow stops and resumes are the
systolic and diastolic pressure.
Heart disease (coronary artery)
· A blockage in coronary artery can lead to a heart attack (myocardial
infarction) and coronary heart disease.
· Atherosclerosis is the hardening and narrowing of the arteries due to the
deposition of LDLs (low density lipoprotein). High levels of LDLs deposited
below endothelium and form foam cells with monocytes. Inflammation response
triggers smooth muscles cells to proliferate and migrate to foam tissue
forming a plaque. Blood vessel walls thus thicken and harden.
· Cause of atherosclerosis: high blood concentration of LDLs, chronic high
blood glucose concentration and consumption of trans fat.
· Consequence of atherosclerosis: hypertension; thick and hard walls; narrowing
diameter. These increase the risk of heart disease and kidney failure.
· Risk Factors for Coronary Heart Disease: age, genetics, obesity, diseases,
diet, exercise, sex, smoking

The heart beat control

· The signal for a heart beating is initiated by a region of the heart muscle
cells (myocytes), which is called SA node (sinoatrial node) or pacemaker. It
sets the pace for the beating of heart. The SA node sends out an electrical
signal that stimulates contraction as it is propagated through the walls of
atria and then the walls of the ventricle. Artificial pacemaker is an
electronic device placed under the skin with electrodes implanted in the wall
of the heart that initiate each heartbeat.
· Medulla oblongate is called cardiovascular center, which regulates heartbeat.
It receives inputs from receptors that monitor blood pressure and its pH and
oxygen concentration.
· Nerve regulation: Two nerves connected to the medulla regulate heart rate by
either speeding it up or slowing it down:
 The sympathetic nerve releases the neurotransmitter noradrenaline (a.k.a.
norepinephrine) to increase heart rate
 The parasympathetic nerve (vagus nerve) releases the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine to decrease heart rate
· Hormone regulation: SA node responds to epinephrine and adrenalin.
The hormone adrenaline (a.k.a. epinephrine) is released from the adrenal
glands (located above the kidneys). Adrenaline increases heart rate by
activating the same chemical pathways as the neurotransmitter noradrenaline.