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nown at school as "Einstein", Hawking was not initially successful
academically.[51] With time, he began to show considerable aptitude
for scientific subjects and, inspired by Tahta, decided to read
mathematics at university.[52][53][54] Hawking's father advised him
to study medicine, concerned that there were few jobs for
mathematics graduates.[55] He also wanted his son to attend
University College, Oxford, his own alma mater. As it was not
possible to read mathematics there at the time, Hawking decided to
study physics and chemistry. Despite his headmaster's advice to wait
until the next year, Hawking was awarded a scholarship after taking
the examinations in March 1959.[56][57]

Undergraduate years
Hawking began his university education at University College,
Oxford,[24] in October 1959 at the age of 17.[58] For the first 18
months, he was bored and lonely – he found the academic work
"ridiculously easy".[59][60] His physics tutor, Robert Berman, later
said, "It was only necessary for him to know that something could be
done, and he could do it without looking to see how other people did
it."[3] A change occurred during his second and third year when,
according to Berman, Hawking made more of an effort "to be one of
the boys". He developed into a popular, lively and witty college
member, interested in classical music and science fiction.[58] Part of
the transformation resulted from his decision to join the college boat
club, the University College Boat Club, where he coxed a rowing
crew.[61][62] The rowing coach at the time noted that Hawking
cultivated a daredevil image, steering his crew on risky courses that
led to damaged boats.[63][61]

Hawking estimated that he studied about 1,000 hours during his three
years at Oxford. These unimpressive study habits made sitting his
finals a challenge, and he decided to answer only theoretical physics
questions rather than those requiring factual knowledge. A first-class
honours degree was a condition of acceptance for his planned
graduate study in cosmology at the University of Cambridge.[64][65]
Anxious, he slept poorly the night before the examinations, and the
final result was on the borderline between first- and second-class
honours, making a viva (oral examination) necessary.[65][66]
Hawking was concerned that he was viewed as a lazy and difficult
student. So, when asked at the oral[clarification needed] to describe
his plans, he said, "If you award me a First, I will go to Cambridge. If
I receive a Second, I shall stay in Oxford, so I expect you will give me
a First."[65][67] He was held in higher regard than he believed; as
Berman commented, the examiners "were intelligent enough to realise
they were talking to someone far cleverer than most of
themselves".[65] After receiving a first-class BA (Hons.) degree in
physics and completing a trip to Iran with a friend, he began his
graduate work at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, in October
1962.[24][68][69]

Graduate years
Hawking's first year as a doctoral student was difficult. He was
initially disappointed to find that he had been assigned Dennis
William Sciama, one of the founders of modern cosmology, as a
supervisor rather than noted Yorkshire astronomer Fred
Hoyle,[70][71] and he found his training in mathematics inadequate
for work in general relativity and cosmology.[72] After being
diagnosed with motor neurone disease, Hawking fell into a depression
– though his doctors advised that he continue with his studies, he felt
there was little point.[73] His disease progressed more slowly than
doctors had predicted. Although Hawking had difficulty walking
unsupported, and his speech was almost unintelligible, an initial
diagnosis that he had only two years to live proved unfounded. With
Sciama's encouragement, he returned to his work.[74][75] Hawking
started developing a reputation for brilliance and brashness when he
publicly challenged the work of Fred Hoyle and his student Jayant
Narlikar at a lecture in June 1964.[76][77]

When Hawking began his graduate studies, there was much debate in
the physics community about the prevailing theories of the creation of
the universe: the Big Bang and Steady State theories.[78] Inspired by
Roger Penrose's theorem of a spacetime singularity in the centre of
black holes, Hawking applied the same thinking to the entire universe;
and, during 1965, he wrote his thesis on this topic.[79][80] Hawking's
thesis[81] was approved in 1966.[81] There were other positive
developments: Hawking received a research fellowship at Gonville
and Caius College at Cambridge;[82] he obtained his PhD degree in
applied mathematics and theoretical physics, specialising in general
relativity and cosmology, in March 1966;[83] and his essay
"Singularities and the Geometry of Space-Time" shared top honours
with one by Penrose to win that year's prestigious Adams
Prize.[84][83]

Career
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1966–1975
In his work, and in collaboration with Penrose, Hawking extended the
singularity theorem concepts first explored in his doctoral thesis. This
included not only the existence of singularities but also the theory that
the universe might have started as a singularity. Their joint essay was
the runner-up in the 1968 Gravity Research Foundation
competition.[85][86] In 1970 they published a proof that if the
universe obeys the general theory of relativity and fits any of the
models of physical cosmology developed by Alexander Friedmann,
then it must have begun as a singularity.[87][88][89] In 1969,
Hawking accepted a specially created Fellowship for Distinction in
Science to remain at Caius.[90]
In 1970, Hawking postulated what became known as the second law
of black hole dynamics, that the event horizon of a black hole can
never get smaller.[91] With James M. Bardeen and Brandon Carter,
he proposed the four laws of black hole mechanics, drawing an
analogy with thermodynamics.[92] To Hawking's irritation, Jacob
Bekenstein, a graduate student of John Wheeler, went further—and
ultimately correctly—to apply thermodynamic concepts
literally.[93][94] In the early 1970s, Hawking's work with Carter,
Werner Israel and David C. Robinson strongly supported Wheeler's
no-hair theorem, one that states that no matter what the original
material from which a black hole is created, it can be completely
described by the properties of mass, electrical charge and
rotation.[95][96] His essay titled "Black Holes" won the Gravity
Research Foundation Award in January 1971.[97] Hawking's first
book, The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time, written with George
Ellis, was published in 1973.[98]

Beginning in 1973, Hawking moved into the study of quantum gravity

and quantum mechanics.[99][98] His work in this area was spurred by
a visit to Moscow and discussions with Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich
and Alexei Starobinsky, whose work showed that according to the
uncertainty principle, rotating black holes emit particles.[100] To
Hawking's annoyance, his much-checked calculations produced
findings that contradicted his second law, which claimed black holes
could never get smaller,[101] and supported Bekenstein's reasoning
about their entropy.[102][100] His results, which Hawking presented
from 1974, showed that black holes emit radiation, known today as
Hawking radiation, which may continue until they exhaust their
energy and evaporate.[103][104][105] Initially, Hawking radiation
was controversial. By the late 1970s and following the publication of
further research, the discovery was widely accepted as a significant
breakthrough in theoretical physics.[106][107][108] Hawking was
elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1974, a few weeks
after the announcement of Hawking radiation. At the time, he was one
of the youngest scientists to become a Fellow.[109][110]

Hawking was appointed to the Sherman Fairchild Distinguished

visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology
(Caltech) in 1970. He worked with a friend on the faculty, Kip
Thorne,[111] and engaged him in a scientific wager about whether the
X-ray source Cygnus X-1 was a black hole. The wager was an
"insurance policy" against the proposition that black holes did not
exist.[112] Hawking acknowledged that he had lost the bet in 1990, a
bet that was the first of several he was to make with Thorne and
others.[113] Hawking had maintained ties to Caltech, spending a
month there almost every year since this first visit.[114]

1975–1990
Hawking returned to Cambridge in 1975 to a more academically
senior post, as reader in gravitational physics. The mid to late 1970s
were a period of growing public interest in black holes and the
physicists who were studying them. Hawking was regularly
interviewed for print and television.[115][116] He also received
increasing academic recognition of his work.[117] In 1975, he was
awarded both the Eddington Medal and the Pius XI Gold Medal, and
in 1976 the Dannie Heineman Prize, the Maxwell Prize and the
Hughes Medal.[118][119] He was appointed a professor with a chair
in gravitational physics in 1977.[120] The following year he received
the Albert Einstein Medal and an honorary doctorate from the
University of Oxford.[121][117]

In 1979, Hawking was elected Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at

the University of Cambridge.[117][122] His inaugural lecture in this
role was titled: "Is the End in Sight for Theoretical Physics?" and
proposed N=8 Supergravity as the leading theory to solve many of the
outstanding problems physicists were studying.[123] His promotion
coincided with a health crisis which led to his accepting, albeit
reluctantly, some nursing services at home.[124] At the same time, he
was also making a transition in his approach to physics, becoming
more intuitive and speculative rather than insisting on mathematical
proofs. "I would rather be right than rigorous", he told Kip
Thorne.[125] In 1981, he proposed that information in a black hole is
irretrievably lost when a black hole evaporates. This information
paradox violates the fundamental tenet of quantum mechanics, and
led to years of debate, including "the Black Hole War" with Leonard
Susskind and Gerard 't Hooft.[126][127]

Cosmological inflation – a theory proposing that following the Big

Bang, the universe initially expanded incredibly rapidly before
settling down to a slower expansion – was proposed by Alan Guth
and also developed by Andrei Linde.[128] Following a conference in
Moscow in October 1981, Hawking and Gary Gibbons organised a
three-week Nuffield Workshop in the summer of 1982 on "The Very
Early Universe" at Cambridge University, a workshop that focused
mainly on inflation theory.[129][130][131] Hawking also began a
new line of quantum theory research into the origin of the universe. In
1981 at a Vatican conference, he presented work suggesting that there
might be no boundary – or beginning or ending – to the
universe.[132][133] He subsequently developed the research in
collaboration with Jim Hartle, and in 1983 they published a model,
known as the Hartle–Hawking state. It proposed that prior to the
Planck epoch, the universe had no boundary in space-time; before the
Big Bang, time did not exist and the concept of the beginning of the
universe is meaningless.[134] The initial singularity of the classical
Big Bang models was replaced with a region akin to the North Pole.
One cannot travel north of the North Pole, but there is no boundary
there – it is simply the point where all north-running lines meet and
end.[135][136] Initially, the no-boundary proposal predicted a closed
universe, which had implications about the existence of God. As
Hawking explained, "If the universe has no boundaries but is self-
contained... then God would not have had any freedom to choose how
the universe began."[137]

Hawking did not rule out the existence of a Creator, asking in A Brief
History of Time "Is the unified theory so compelling that it brings
about its own existence?"[138] In his early work, Hawking spoke of
God in a metaphorical sense. In A Brief History of Time he wrote: "If
we discover a complete theory, it would be the ultimate triumph of
human reason – for then we should know the mind of God."[139] In
the same book he suggested that the existence of God was not
necessary to explain the origin of the universe. Later discussions with
Neil Turok led to the realisation that the existence of God was also
compatible with an open universe.[140]

Further work by Hawking in the area of arrows of time led to the

1985 publication of a paper theorising that if the no-boundary
proposition were correct, then when the universe stopped expanding
and eventually collapsed, time would run backwards.[141] A paper by
Don Page and independent calculations by Raymond Laflamme led
Hawking to withdraw this concept.[142] Honours continued to be
awarded: in 1981 he was awarded the American Franklin Medal,[143]
and in the 1982 New Year Honours appointed a Commander of the
Order of the British Empire (CBE).[144][145][146] These awards did
not significantly change Hawking's financial status, and motivated by
the need to finance his children's education and home expenses, he
decided in 1982 to write a popular book about the universe that would
be accessible to the general public.[147][148] Instead of publishing
with an academic press, he signed a contract with Bantam Books, a
mass market publisher, and received a large advance for his
book.[149][150] A first draft of the book, called A Brief History of
Time, was completed in 1984.[151]
One of the first messages Hawking produced with his speech-
generating device was a request for his assistant to help him finish
writing A Brief History of Time.[152] Peter Guzzardi, his editor at
Bantam, pushed him to explain his ideas clearly in non-technical
language, a process that required many revisions from an increasingly
irritated Hawking.[153] The book was published in April 1988 in the
US and in June in the UK, and it proved to be an extraordinary
success, rising quickly to the top of best-seller lists in both countries
and remaining there for months.[154][155][156] The book was
translated into many languages,[157] and ultimately sold an estimated
9 million copies.[156] Media attention was intense,[157] and a
Newsweek magazine cover and a television special both described
him as "Master of the Universe".[158] Success led to significant
financial rewards, but also the challenges of celebrity status.[159]
Hawking travelled extensively to promote his work, and enjoyed
partying and dancing into the small hours.[157] A difficulty refusing
the invitations and visitors left him limited time for work and his
students.[160] Some colleagues were resentful of the attention
Hawking received, feeling it was due to his disability.[161][162] He
received further academic recognition, including five more honorary
degrees,[158] the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society
(1985),[163] the Paul Dirac Medal (1987)[158] and, jointly with
Penrose, the prestigious Wolf Prize (1988).[164] In the 1989 Birthday
Honours, he was appointed a Companion of Honour (CH).[160][165]
He reportedly declined a knighthood in the late 1990s in objection to
the UK's science funding policy.[166][167]

1990–2000
Hawking outside, in his wheelchair, talking to David Gross and
Edward Witten
Hawking with string theorists David Gross and Edward Witten at the
2001 Strings Conference, TIFR, India
Hawking pursued his work in physics: in 1993 he co-edited a book on
Euclidean quantum gravity with Gary Gibbons and published a
collected edition of his own articles on black holes and the Big
Bang.[168] In 1994, at Cambridge's Newton Institute, Hawking and
Penrose delivered a series of six lectures that were published in 1996
as "The Nature of Space and Time".[169] In 1997, he conceded a
1991 public scientific wager made with Kip Thorne and John Preskill
of Caltech. Hawking had bet that Penrose's proposal of a "cosmic
censorship conjecture" – that there could be no "naked singularities"
unclothed within a horizon – was correct.[170] After discovering his
concession might have been premature, a new and more refined wager
was made. This one specified that such singularities would occur
without extra conditions.[171] The same year, Thorne, Hawking and
Preskill made another bet, this time concerning the black hole
information paradox.[172][173] Thorne and Hawking argued that
since general relativity made it impossible for black holes to radiate
and lose information, the mass-energy and information carried by
Hawking radiation must be "new", and not from inside the black hole
event horizon. Since this contradicted the quantum mechanics of
microcausality, quantum mechanics theory would need to be
rewritten. Preskill argued the opposite, that since quantum mechanics
suggests that the information emitted by a black hole relates to
information that fell in at an earlier time, the concept of black holes
given by general relativity must be modified in some way.[174]

Hawking also maintained his public profile, including bringing

science to a wider audience. A film version of A Brief History of
Time, directed by Errol Morris and produced by Steven Spielberg,
premiered in 1992. Hawking had wanted the film to be scientific
rather than biographical, but he was persuaded otherwise. The film,
while a critical success, was not widely released.[175] A popular-
level collection of essays, interviews, and talks titled Black Holes and
Baby Universes and Other Essays was published in 1993,[176] and a
six-part television series Stephen Hawking's Universe and a
companion book appeared in 1997. As Hawking insisted, this time the
focus was entirely on science.[177][178]

2000–2018
Stephen Hawking sitting in his wheelchair inside
Hawking at the Bibliothèque nationale de France to inaugurate the
Laboratory of Astronomy and Particles in Paris, and the French
release of his work God Created the Integers, 5 May 2006
Hawking continued his writings for a popular audience, publishing
The Universe in a Nutshell in 2001,[179] and A Briefer History of
Time, which he wrote in 2005 with Leonard Mlodinow to update his
earlier works with the aim of making them accessible to a wider
audience, and God Created the Integers, which appeared in
2006.[180] Along with Thomas Hertog at CERN and Jim Hartle, from
2006 on Hawking developed a theory of "top-down cosmology",
which says that the universe had not one unique initial state but many
different ones, and therefore that it is inappropriate to formulate a
theory that predicts the universe's current configuration from one
particular initial state.[181] Top-down cosmology posits that the
present "selects" the past from a superposition of many possible
histories. In doing so, the theory suggests a possible resolution of the
fine-tuning question.[182][183]

Hawking continued to travel widely, including trips to Chile, Easter

Island, South Africa, Spain (to receive the Fonseca Prize in
2008),[184][185] Canada,[186] and numerous trips to the United
States.[187] For practical reasons related to his disability, Hawking
increasingly travelled by private jet, and by 2011 that had become his
only mode of international travel.[188]
Hawking with University of Oxford librarian Richard Ovenden (left)
and naturalist David Attenborough (right) at the opening of the
Weston Library, Oxford, in March 2015. Ovenden awarded the
Bodley Medal to Hawking and Attenborough at the ceremony.
By 2003, consensus among physicists was growing that Hawking was
wrong about the loss of information in a black hole.[189] In a 2004
lecture in Dublin, he conceded his 1997 bet with Preskill, but
described his own, somewhat controversial solution to the information
paradox problem, involving the possibility that black holes have more
than one topology.[190][174] In the 2005 paper he published on the
subject, he argued that the information paradox was explained by
examining all the alternative histories of universes, with the
information loss in those with black holes being cancelled out by
those without such loss.[173][191] In January 2014, he called the
alleged loss of information in black holes his "biggest blunder".[192]

As part of another longstanding scientific dispute, Hawking had

emphatically argued, and bet, that the Higgs boson would never be
found.[193] The particle was proposed to exist as part of the Higgs
field theory by Peter Higgs in 1964. Hawking and Higgs engaged in a
heated and public debate over the matter in 2002 and again in 2008,
with Higgs criticising Hawking's work and complaining that
Hawking's "celebrity status gives him instant credibility that others do
not have."[194] The particle was discovered in July 2012 at CERN
following construction of the Large Hadron Collider. Hawking
quickly conceded that he had lost his bet[195][196] and said that
Higgs should win the Nobel Prize for Physics,[197] which he did in
2013.[198]

Hawking holding a public lecture at the Stockholm Waterfront

congress centre, 24 August 2015
In 2007, Hawking and his daughter Lucy published George's Secret
Key to the Universe, a children's book designed to explain theoretical
physics in an accessible fashion and featuring characters similar to
those in the Hawking family.[199] The book was followed by sequels
in 2009, 2011, 2014 and 2016.[200]

In 2002, following a UK-wide vote, the BBC included Hawking in

their list of the 100 Greatest Britons.[201] He was awarded the
Copley Medal from the Royal Society (2006),[202] the Presidential
Medal of Freedom, which is America's highest civilian honour
(2009),[203] and the Russian Special Fundamental Physics Prize
(2013).[204]

Several buildings have been named after him, including the Stephen
W. Hawking Science Museum in San Salvador, El Salvador,[205] the
Stephen Hawking Building in Cambridge,[206] and the Stephen
Hawking Centre at the Perimeter Institute in Canada.[207]
Appropriately, given Hawking's association with time, he unveiled the
mechanical "Chronophage" (or time-eating) Corpus Clock at Corpus
Christi College, Cambridge in September 2008.[208][209]

During his career, Hawking supervised 39 successful PhD

students.[2] One doctoral student did not successfully complete the
PhD.[2][better source needed] As required by Cambridge University
regulations, Hawking retired as Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in
2009.[122][210] Despite suggestions that he might leave the United
Kingdom as a protest against public funding cuts to basic scientific
research,[211] Hawking worked as director of research at the
Cambridge University Department of Applied Mathematics and
Theoretical Physics.[212]
On 28 June 2009, as a tongue-in-cheek test of his 1992 conjecture that
travel into the past is effectively impossible, Hawking held a party
open to all, complete with hors d'oeuvres and iced champagne, but
publicised the party only after it was over so that only time-travellers
would know to attend; as expected, nobody showed up to the
party.[213]

On 20 July 2015, Hawking helped launch Breakthrough Initiatives, an

effort to search for extraterrestrial life.[214] Hawking created Stephen
Hawking: Expedition New Earth, a documentary on space
colonisation, as a 2017 episode of Tomorrow's World.[215][216]

In August 2015, Hawking said that not all information is lost when
something enters a black hole and there might be a possibility to
retrieve information from a black hole according to his theory.[217]
In July 2017, Hawking was awarded an Honorary Doctorate from
Imperial College London.[218]

Hawking's final paper – A smooth exit from eternal inflation? – was

published in the Journal of High Energy Physics on 27 April
2018.[219][220]

Personal life
Eddie Brock
EddieBrock.jpg
Eddie Brock as Venom in The Amazing Spider-Man #300 (May
1988). Art by Todd McFarlane.
Publication information
Publisher Marvel Comics
First appearance As Eddie Brock:
Web of Spider-Man #18 (September 1986)
As Venom:
(cameo appearance)
The Amazing Spider-Man #299 (April 1988)
(full appearance)
The Amazing Spider-Man #300 (May 1988)[1]
As Anti-Venom:
The Amazing Spider-Man #569 (October 2008)
As Toxin:
Venom #17 (May 2012)
As Sleeper:
Venom First Host #3 (August 2018)
Created by David Michelinie
Todd McFarlane
In-story information
Alter ego Edward Charles Allan Brock
Team affiliations Sinister Six
Revengers[2]
Savage Six
Notable aliases Venom, Anti-Venom, Toxin, Sleeper
Abilities Alien symbiote grants:
Superhuman strength, speed, agility, and durability
Ability to cling to most surfaces
Organic webbing
Limited shapeshifting and camouflage
Symbiote's autonomous defense capabilities
Undetectable by Spider-Man's "Spider-sense"
Eddie Brock is a fictional character appearing in American comic
books published by Marvel Comics. The character was created by
David Michelinie and Todd McFarlane, and his earliest appearance
was a cameo in Web of Spider-Man #18 (September 1986),[3] before
making his first full appearance in The Amazing Spider-Man #300
(May 1988)[1] as the original and most well-known incarnation of
Venom. The character has since appeared in many Marvel Comics
publications, including his own series Venom. Introduced as a villain
of Spider-Man, the character becomes an anti-hero, working with and
against superheroes.

In the original version of the story, Eddie Brock is a journalist who

exposes the identity of a serial killer only for the real killer to be
caught by Spider-Man, thus he accused the wrong man. Disgraced
and suicidal, he comes into contact with an alien Symbiote, rejected
by Peter Parker. The Symbiote bonds with him and they become
Venom, together seeking out revenge against their mutual enemy.
Though he repeatedly comes into conflict with Spider-Man, he also
attempts to operate as a hero, albeit a violent one, seeking to save
those he deems "innocent". In 2008, after being separated from the
Venom Symbiote, he gains a new Symbiote to be the anti-hero Anti-
Venom until that symbiote is sacrificed to help cure the "Spider-
Island" epidemic during the 2011 storyline. In 2012, he was bonded to
the Toxin symbiote. Though he is a human with no powers, the
Venom Symbiote suit bestows upon him a range of abilities including
many of the powers belonging to Spider-Man, the Symbiote's original
host.
Debuting in the Modern Age of Comic Books, the character has
featured in other Marvel-endorsed products such as animated
television series; video games; merchandise such as action figures,
and trading cards; and feature films in which he is played by Topher
Grace in Spider-Man 3 and by Tom Hardy in the 2018 film Venom.
This incarnation of Venom was rated 33rd on Empire's 50 Greatest
Comic Book Characters,[4] and was the 22nd Greatest Villain on
IGN's 100 Greatest Comic Villains of All Time.[5] Comics journalist
and historian Mike Conroy writes of the character: "What started out
as a replacement costume for Spider-Man turned into one of the
Marvel web-slinger's greatest nightmares."[6]

Contents
1 Publication history
1.1 Creation and conception
2 Fictional character biography
2.1 Backstory
2.2 Venom
2.3 Anti-hero
2.4 Return to villainy
2.5 Cancer and post-Venom
2.6 Anti-Venom
2.7 Bonded to Toxin
2.8 Return as Venom
3 Powers and abilities
3.1 As Venom
3.2 As Anti-Venom
4 Reception
5 Other versions
6 In other media
6.1 Television
6.2 Film
6.3 Video games
6.4 Novels
7 References
8 External links
Publication history
See also: Venom (comic book) and List of Venom titles
Creation and conception
Writer David Michelinie and artist Todd McFarlane are generally
credited with the character's creation, based on a number of plot ideas
and concepts from various other creators. The question of who created
the character of Venom became an issue of contention in 1993 when
Michelinie wrote to the comic book industry magazine Wizard, which
had referred to Michelinie in issue #17 as "co-creator" of Venom. In
his letter, printed in issue #21 (May 1993), Michelinie wrote that he
was the character's sole creator, while saying also he believed that
without McFarlane the character would not have attained the
popularity it did.[7]

First cover appearance of Venom as depicted by co-creator Todd

McFarlane
Writer Peter David corroborated Michelinie's view in his "But I
Digress" column in the June 4, 1993 Comics Buyer's Guide, in which
he stated that Michelinie discussed the ideas behind the character with
him at the time of its creation. At that time, David was the writer on
The Spectacular Spider-Man and wrote the "Sin Eater" storyline from
which Eddie Brock's backstory would be derived, well before
McFarlane was assigned to the art duties on Amazing. Because the
artist who illustrates a character's first published appearance is
generally credited as its co-creator (especially if that artist is the one
who designs the character's visual appearance),[8] Venom represents
a complex situation, because the costume from which Venom's
appearance is derived was not designed by McFarlane.[9]

Erik Larsen responded to Michelinie's letter with one of his own that
was printed in Wizard #23 (July 1993), in which he dismissed
Michelinie's contributions to the character, arguing that Michelinie
merely "swiped" the preexisting symbiote and its powers to place it
on a character whose motivations were poorly conceived, one-
dimensional, unbelievable, and clichéd. Larsen also argued that it was
McFarlane's rendition of the character that made it commercial.[10]

The preexisting elements that dealt with the symbiote costume

itself—to which Michelinie did not contribute—have also been noted.
The original idea of a new costume for Spider-Man that would later
become the character Venom was conceived of by a Marvel Comics
reader from Norridge, Illinois named Randy Schueller.[11] Marvel
purchased the idea for $220.00 after the editor-in-chief at the time,
Jim Shooter, sent Schueller a letter acknowledging Marvel's desire to
acquire the idea from him, in 1982. Schueller's design was then
modified by Mike Zeck, becoming the Symbiote costume.[12] For
example, Shooter came up with the idea of switching Spider-Man to a
black-and-white costume, possibly influenced by the intended
costume design for the new Spider-Woman, with artists Mike Zeck
and Rick Leonardi, as well as others, designing the black-and-white
costume.[9]
Erik Larsen, who followed Todd McFarlane as artist on Amazing
Spider-Man, added the long tongue and drool to Venom's appearance.
Writer/artist John Byrne asserts on his website that the idea for a
costume made of self-healing biological material was one he
originated when he was the artist on Iron Fist to explain how that
character's costume was constantly being torn and then apparently
repaired by the next issue, explaining that he ended up not using the
idea on that title, but that Roger Stern later asked him if he could use
the idea for Spider-Man's alien costume. Stern in turn plotted the issue
in which the costume first appeared but then left the title. It was writer
Tom DeFalco and artist Ron Frenz who had established that the
costume was a sentient alien being, and that it was vulnerable to high
sonic energy during their run on The Amazing Spider-Man that
preceded Michelinie's.[13] Regardless, Peter David's position is that
Michelinie is the sole creator, since the idea of creating a separate
character using the alien symbiote was Michelinie's, as was Eddie
Brock's backstory, and that without the idea to create such a character,
the character would not have existed.[9]

In an interview with Tom DeFalco, McFarlane states that Michelinie

did indeed come up with the idea of Venom and the character's basic
design ("a big guy in the black costume"). However, he contends that
it was he (McFarlane) who gave Venom his monster-like features. He
claims; "I just wanted to make him kooky and creepy, and not just
some guy in a black suit."[14]

This dispute arose at a time when the merits of artists as collaborators

and writers were being debated in the industry, a discussion prompted
by the popularity of artists such as McFarlane, Larsen, and other
founders of Image Comics.[15][16]
Venom's existence was first indicated in Web of Spider-Man #18
(Sept. 1986), when he shoves Peter Parker in front of a subway train
without Parker's spider-sense warning him, though only Brock's hand
is seen on-panel. The next indication of Venom's existence was in
Web of Spider-Man #24 (March 1987), when Parker has climbed out
of a high story window to change into Spider-Man, but finds a black
arm coming through the window and grabbing him, again without
being warned by his spider-sense.

The character would remain unseen and inactive until Amazing

Spider-Man editor Jim Salicrup required a villain for that book's
300th issue, and Michelinie suggested a villain consisting of the alien
symbiote grafted onto the body of a human female; seeking revenge
for the deaths of her husband and miscarried baby who would
accidentally die as the unfortunate result of Spider-man battling
another supervillain. Salicrup accepted the suggestion, but changed
the character to a male, and the female character's plot was also
abandoned.[citation needed] Michelinie then devised the Eddie Brock
identity. Michelinie contends that the plots for issues #298–299, as
well as the visual descriptions of the character, were written and
bought by Salicrup before McFarlane was ever assigned to the
book.[citation needed]

Fictional character biography

Backstory

Left: Brock bonding with the symbiote. Right: Brock's cameo

appearance as Venom in Amazing Spider-Man #299
The 1993 limited series Venom: Lethal Protector describes Brock's
history before bonding with the symbiote. As a child, Edward Charles
Allan Brock[17] is raised in a Roman Catholic household in San
Francisco. Eddie's mother dies from complications during his birth
and as a result his father is cold and unaffectionate towards him.
Eddie excels in academics and sports in an attempt to earn his father's
approval but does not succeed. In college, Brock switches his major to
journalism after reading an article on the Watergate scandal. After
graduating, he moves to New York City and obtains a job as a
journalist for the Daily Globe. Though he proves himself to be a
highly-talented journalist, his father still only treats him with
indifference.[18]

As a reporter, Brock investigates the serial killer Sin-Eater and is

contacted by Emil Gregg, who claims to be the killer.[19] Pressured
by the authorities to reveal the killer's identity, Brock writes an
exposé announcing Gregg as the Sin-Eater. However, the real Sin-
Eater is caught by Spider-Man and Brock is revealed to have been
interviewing a compulsive confessor. Brock is fired from his job in
disgrace and divorced from his wife. Unable to find reputable work,
he is forced to work for tabloid magazines[19] and his father ceases
communication with him entirely.[18] Brock becomes obsessed with
gaining revenge against Spider-Man, blaming him for catching the
real Sin-Eater. Brock takes up bodybuilding to reduce stress but his
anger and depression remain.[19] Meanwhile, Spider-Man uses the
sound of bells at a church to remove his symbiote costume after
realizing it is attempting to permanently bond with him.[20] His
professional and personal life shattered, Brock contemplates suicide
and goes to the same church, where he prays to God for
forgiveness.[19] The Symbiote, having waited in the rafters of the
church since leaving Spider-Man, senses Brock[21] and bonds with
him, granting him powers equal and greater to those of Spider-Man,
and imparting knowledge of Spider-Man's secret identity.[19]

Venom
Venom begins a campaign of torment against Peter, who is still
unaware of his existence. He first pushes Peter in front of a moving
subway without activating his spider-sense,[22] and later terrorizes
Spider-Man's wife Mary Jane.[23] Venom baits Spider-Man to his
apartment for their first confrontation, where Venom reveals his true
identity to Spider-Man, claiming "You may call me Venom, for that's
what I'm paid to spew out these days!" Spider-Man discovers that the
Symbiote has completely bonded with Brock and cannot be killed
without also killing Brock. Eventually Venom is tricked into
weakening himself by expending too much webbing until the suit
lacks enough material to produce more.[19] Venom is incarcerated in
the Vault, from which he makes repeated escapes and escape
attempts, only to suffer defeats and returns to the Vault.[24][25][26]

Brock eventually fakes suicide and escapes after being taken to the
morgue.[27] During a battle with Spider-Man, the Symbiote is
seemingly killed by the plague-inducing villain Styx, giving its life to
protect Brock. Brock is incarcerated and Spider-Man disposes of the
Symbiote's remains.[28] The Symbiote survives by entering a
comatose state to fight off the illness[29] and it returns to Brock,
enabling him to again escape from jail. During the escape, the
symbiote asexually reproduces and leaves behind its spawn.[30] The
offspring quickly bonds to Brock's cell mate, Cletus Kasady, creating
Carnage.[30][31] Venom abducts Spider-Man and transports him to a
remote island to do battle. Spider-Man fakes his own death to
convince Venom that his vendetta is over. Venom, content with the
outcome, resigns himself to life on the island.[32] Spider-Man
eventually faces Carnage but is unable to defeat him. Spider-Man is
forced to ask Venom for help, promising him freedom in
exchange.[33] However, after they defeat Carnage, Spider-Man
betrays Venom (who had also resumed his plan of revenge and tried
to throttle the arachnoid hero to death) by summoning the Fantastic
Four and sending him back to prison.[34]
Anti-hero
After seeing a photo of Spider-Man's recently returned parents, Brock
escapes from prison,[35] and kidnaps them.[36] During the resulting
fight, Brock's ex-wife Anne Weying is nearly crushed under a falling
ferris wheel, but Spider-Man saves her. Seeing this act, Venom makes
peace with Spider-Man.[37] In Venom: Lethal Protector (1993),
Venom moves to San Francisco and acts as the protector of an
underground society of homeless people.[21] He is later taken
prisoner by the Life Foundation who harvest the last five spawn
within the symbiote to create super-powered policemen and Brock is
forcibly separated from the symbiote.[38] With Spider-Man's help,
Brock is reunited with the symbiote and they seemingly destroy his
spawn, Phage, Lasher, Riot, Scream and Agony, before escaping.[39]
After saving the homeless people, Venom is accepted into their
society and remains their protector.[40]

In the 1993 crossover "Maximum Carnage", Carnage reemerges and

begins a massacre in New York City, and Brock returns to help,
feeling responsible. Venom finds he is no match for Carnage, and
seeks help from Spider-Man, but Spider-Man refuses to work with
Venom's violent methods.[41] Venom, accompanied by Black Cat,
Cloak, Morbius and eventually a desperate Spider-Man,[42]
repeatedly confront Carnage and his allies.[43][44][44][45][46]
Venom ultimately tackles Carnage into high-voltage generators,
rendering Carnage unconscious and allowing his capture by the
Avengers. Brock goes into hiding.[47]

Brock returns in the 1994 limited series Separation Anxiety, in which

he is captured and separated from the symbiote for a government
research project. Venom's spawn: Phage, Lasher, Scream, Riot, and
Agony are revealed to still be alive and arrive to free Brock,[48]
seeking his help to gain control over their symbiotes.[49][50] Brock is
ultimately reunited with the symbiote, but the experience forces him
to evaluate his relationship with the costume.[51] The 1995 "Planet of
the Symbiotes" event continued the narrative from Separation
Anxiety, with Brock forcing the symbiote to leave him, concerned
about how much influence it may be having on him.[17] The
symbiote unleashes a telepathic scream of sorrow and pain that
attracts the other members of its species to Earth.[17] The story
follows the efforts of Brock, Spider-Man, and Scarlet Spider to stop
the invasion and defeat an escaped and empowered
Carnage.[52][53][54] Brock is forced to bond completely and
irrevocably with the symbiote in order to inflict psychic trauma on the
symbiotes, causing them to commit suicide.[55]

Return to villainy
When Ann is shot by a new Sin-Eater, Brock forces the Symbiote to
bond with her to heal her injuries.[56] In the process she temporarily
becomes She-Venom but Brock demands the Symbiote return after
Ann loses control and kills a pair of muggers, leaving Ann
traumatized.[57] Brock helps kill the new Sin-Eater.[58] Ann is taken
into custody by the police as they try to hunt Venom and Brock sends
her his Symbiote so she can escape.[59][60] As She-Venom she again
struggles to control herself, with Brock, Weying and current Spider-
Man Ben Reilly becoming caught in the middle of a joint DEA/FBI
operation against a major drug smuggler when Weying and Brock
rendezvous at the same location where the drug group are
meeting.[61] When Brock takes back the Symbiote, Anne tells him to
keep himself and the Symbiote away from her after witnessing his
brutality against the criminals.[62]

Brock is captured in his sewer hideout and put on trial, with Matt
Murdock acting in his defense, his symbiote held in check by a
chemical inhibitor.[63] Cletus Kassady is called as a witness, but
when the case becomes heated both Kassady and Brock overcome
their inhibitors.[64] Venom, Spider-Man, and Daredevil team up and
subdue Carnage. However, before the trial can continue Venom is
unexpectedly taken into custody by a secret government organization
offering him amnesty in exchange for him becoming their agent.[65]
Though Venom at first enjoyed his newfound immunities, he left after
being abandoned during a dangerous mission.[66] After receiving a
head wound, Eddie suffers amnesia. He is later separated from the
symbiote, which is presumed killed by the government Overreach
Committee.[67]

The symbiote survives and tracks down the amnesiac Brock, turning
him into Venom again. Venom infiltrates Ravencroft prison seeking
Carnage and absorbs the Carnage Symbiote.[68] Brock temporarily
joins the Sinister Six to get Spider-Man but after being betrayed by
them,[69] he begins hunting down the members for revenge. He
ultimately cripples Sandman by biting him and taking out a chunk of
his mass, leading to Sandman's apparent death.[70] He also causes
serious wounds to Electro and Kraven the Hunter.[volume & issue
needed]

Venom's rivalry with Spider-Man is renewed when Ann, who lives in

fear since bonding with the Symbiote, commits suicide after seeing
Brock become Venom. Venom however, believes Spider-Man
swinging by Ann's window in his black costume to be the cause.[71]
Before he can take revenge however, the Symbiote is forcefully
removed from him by the human/alien hybrid Senator Ward in order
to learn more about symbiosis.[72] An alien race, secretly operating
within the United States government, clones the Venom symbiote.
Venom absorbs the clone, gains its knowledge, and decides to carry
out the aliens' orders.[73]