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Education is a very important tool used for economic, social as well as political

development in the whole world. It is constituted of a teacher, a learner and knowledge


which are interrelated as they all consist of the sharing of ideas or information between two
or more people. For this whole process to be effective, a teacher has to be more erudite
about the idea being shared, must be aware of the level of understanding of learners in
order to implement effective teaching and learning. A teacher can conceptualize the
teaching process by using Robert Glaser’s teaching model which aims at achieving,
entering behavior, instructional objectives, performance assessment as well as instructional
procedures. Thus, this essay will explain the interrelationship between learning, teaching
and knowledge; it will further analyze how Robert Glaser’s Basic Teaching Model can be
used to conceptualize the teaching process.

Teaching can be defined in a number of ways. Ian (1997) defined it as a set of events,
outside the learners which are designed to support internal process of learning. It can also
be defined as the act or process by which an individual imparts knowledge or skills to
another person or to a group of people (Good, Biddle & Drophy, 1974). Learning is a
change that is brought about by developing a new skill, understanding a scientific law,
changing an attitude (Jackson, 2014). It is a relatively permanent change, usually brought
about intentionally. Other learning can take place without planning, for example by
experience. However, knowledge is the information, ideas or any form of wisdom that is
shared between a learner and a teacher or any group of people (Ertmer, 1993). Thus, the
three terms are interrelated as they involve the aspects of sharing ideas between or among
people, they aim at solving and understanding problems, improving one’s current and
future situation, improving one’s economic, social and political livelihood.

The relationship between learning, teaching and knowledge is that they all involve the
sharing of information or ideas; this can be done orally, through actions and also through
experiences. This does not necessarily involve a teacher but any group of people as long as
they aim at sharing information which can bring about positive outcomes in the lives of
individuals (Bloom, 1976). In other words, the exchanging of information can be like that
of education which can be based on either formal, none formal and informal systems. Thus,
teaching, learning and knowledge have an element of sharing ideas as they mainly consist

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of listening attentively, observation and speaking, this is very important as it helps people
to handle certain challenging situations by inspiring them to work hard.

Glazer (1976), came up with the Basic Teaching Model which consists of four components
that helped him improve the effective performance of teachers and educational
productivity. These components can help a teacher to attain goals in the teaching-learning
process as they include: Instructional Objectives which deals with the analysis of
competences and skills to be achieved, Entering Behavior which describes the initial state
with which learning begins, Instructional Procedures which involves conditions that have
to be executed to produce change from the learner's initial to the competence state and
Performance Assessment; this measures and determines the short and long term outcomes
of the conditions are applied (Ibid). The model explains the relationship between teaching
and learning and provides a clear and adequate conceptualization of effective teaching-
learning process.

One of the components of Glaser’s teaching model is Instructional objectives which deals
with objectives that learners should achieve after they are done with a particular topic of
instruction (Glaser, 1976). For example, an effective teacher systematically schemes
his/her work with topics and their specific outcomes to be covered for that particular term.
Lesson plans are also prepared with specific outcomes before a lesson is presented or
taught. For example, a teacher’s lesson plan must state that by the end of a lesson, pupils
should be able to explain, critique, compare or discuss certain issues patterning a topic.
This can enhance the effectiveness of the teaching process in the sense that, a lesson plan
works as a guide to a teacher (Bloom, 1976). According to Geneva et’al (1983),
instructional objectives can also help a teacher to identify the teaching aids that can be used
in the teaching process. This depends on a topic being taught and the level of understanding
of learners, for example, a teacher can use a human skeleton to teach a Grade Ten class
about types of bones and coordination in human beings. This concept would promote
effective teaching as it gives learners a clear picture about how different bones coordinate,
lending humans ability to move and a phenotypical structure. Thus, this component is
essential in the teaching process as it entails the identification of demands that can be
placed on cognitive processes, it also requires skills and knowledge before any instruction

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is given (Glaser, 1976). This teaching process become interesting to learners as they would
be able to retain and explain concepts taught/discussed in class.

Furthermore, entering behavior is another aspect in the basic teaching model; this involves
describing the learner’s behavior from the initial stage of learning. In this aspect, learners
have certain behaviors before being imparted with any form of knowledge by a teacher; it
is therefore important for a teacher to take note of each learner’s conduct before giving
them any instruction on the teacher’s expectations (Glaser, 1976). This can be very helpful
for the teacher as he can identify how to modify the behavior of learners depending on the
character that each learner portrays; for example, a teacher can use punishment or
reinforcement on learners in order to bring about change in the final stage of their behavior.
For this to be successful, a teacher must carry out careful assessments of the learners’
strengths, weaknesses, talents and other specific as well as general abilities (Robert,
Tennyson & Park, 1980). Thus, this can help to conceptualize the teaching process as it
helps a teacher to determine the level of instruction each learner may require and increase
academic competences.

Additionally, the third component of this model is instructional procedures; this deals with
identifying the learning conditions that produce academic competences (Glaser, 1976). In
this aspect, the learning environment must be designed in a manner that will motivate
learners to take keen interest in the learning process; this can foster competences among
learners. In this way, this component can help a teacher to come up with different
techniques in his teaching process depending on the type of lesson that is being taught to
the learners. For instance, he would motivate the learners to participate in class by asking
a number of questions and giving examples on the issues related to his topic. It can also
conceptualize the teaching process by helping a teacher to identify the appropriate teaching
materials that can be used as well as procedures that can be taken to foster competence in
a classroom situation; this means a teacher has to play a major role by using different
strategies to promote effectiveness (Robert, Tennyson & Park, 1980).

Furthermore, instructional procedures can also be used differently by a teacher in that he


can also use a method known as learning to learn abilities; this is also another way of
enhancing competence among learners. For example, learners can be given questions or

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assignments which may need further research, meaning that most of the work given was
never taught in class and requires students or learners to discover new things on their own.
At times, this work can also be given to them as presentations of which they have to present
their findings to their fellow learners thereby fostering competition among themselves
(Good, Biddle, & Brophy, 1974). This is very important in that a teacher can even be able
to discover the grammar of his students and help them where they are lacking.

The fourth component of the basic teaching model is performance assessment (Glaser,
1962). It is the extent to which learning objective are being achieved by the learner
(formative assessment during the instruction) or have been achieved at the end of
instructional session or term (summative assessment). The emphasis on performance
assessment during instructional session, at the end of a lesson or at the end of a unit or
term, implies that it is a continuous process to assess leaners and needs not to occur only
at the end of a specified period. Improved teacher made tests, or available standardized
tests either criterion-referenced or norm-referenced tests can take form. The results of
performance assessment would serve purpose of feedback to instructional objectives, entry
behaviour and instructional procedures. Such feedback will show how well the learner has
achieved instructional objectives, the adequacy of entering behaviour and effectiveness of
instructional procedures.

In conclusion it can be said that Knowledge is a product of both learning and teaching.
Learning is simultaneously about individual and social processes where instructional
conversations in classroom describe the interdependent and transformative view of
internalization. Knowledge is needed for both effective learning and teaching to take place.
Robert Glaser’s model explains the relationship between teaching and learning. It can be
used to design and specify instructional objectives, develop and select instructional
materials and specify teaching-learning activities that provides a conducive teaching-
learning environment. Therefore, it is the duty of every teacher to follow this model in
order to enhance effectiveness in their teaching skills and improve the academic
performance of learners as well as modify their behavior.

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REFERENCES

Bloom, B. S. (1976). Human characteristics and school learning. New York: McGraw
Hill.

Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism:


Comparing critical features from an Instructional Design perspective. Performance
Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 50-72.

Gagne R. M. (1974). Essentials of learning and instruction. Hinsdale, Ill.: Dryden Press.

Geneva, D. Haertel, Herbert, J. Walberg and Thomas, Weinstein. (1983). Psychological


Models of Educational Performance: A Theoretical Synthesis of Constructs. 53(1), 75-91.
Spring: America Educational Association: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1170327

Glaser, R. (1976). Cognitive Psychology and Instructional Design. In D. Klahr (Ed.),


Cognition and instruction. New York: Wiley & Sons.

Good, T. L., Biddle, B. J., & Brophy, J. E. (1974). Teachers Make A Difference. Chicago:
Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Piaget, J. (1964). Development and learning. In Ripple, R. & Rockcastle, V. (Eds.).


Piaget rediscovered, 7-20.

Robert, D. Tennyson & Ok-Choon, Park. (1980). The Teaching of Concepts: A Review of
Instructional Design Research Literature, 50(1), 55-70. Spring: American Educational
Research Association : http://www.jstor.org/stable/1170030

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