Basic Concepts 1

The study of Human Performance and Limitations is relatively new concept

in pilot training. lt was introduced in the 1980s in response to evidence
that accidents and incidents were being caused or partially caused by the
attitudes and ignorance of individuals and organisations. The results of ten
years of education and discussion have made the cockpit not only a safer but
also a more pleasant place to operate.

The pilot-in-command has overall responsibility
for the flight, but everyone in aviation is
responsible for flight safety. The line of
responsibility runs straight down from national
and international regulatory authorities through
operators, engineers, operations personnel,
aircraft cleaners and pilots.
Human Factors training is now both an
ICAO and a JAA requirement
The role of the regulatory authorities is to set in
place operating systems that create an
environment where flight safety issues can be
reported without fear of censure and freely
analysed and discussed. For this exercise to be
successful, mechanisms must exist for decisive
remedial action to be taken free from political and
commercial pressures.
Pitot Error in Accidents
According to one source used by the examiners,
aviation is the safest form of mass transport with
only about 50 accidents around the world each
year. This information may be slightly out of
date as IATA statistics for 2004 indicate double
that figure, an accident rate of one per million
movements.
As long ago as 1940 studies into the causes
of aircraft accidents showed as many as 70%
Although the aircraft commander has overall
responsibility for the flight the term "human error"
encompasses errors by regulators, managers,
engineers, pilots, in fact any person involved.
Many accidents have historically been attributed
specifically to "pilot error" as a convenient cause,
often because after the accident the pilot was not
in a position to argue the case.
7A% of accidents are attributed to human
errors
Modern investigators are less ready to accept that
any one individual can be blamed for an accident
which occurs as a result of a long chain of
circumstances. They prefer to take the view that
if any one link in the chain had not been made the
accident may have been avoided" This does not
absolve pilots from blame but adds the
consideration that there may have been other
contributing factors.
A long term study in the Royal Air Force has
attempted to classify the factors contributing
to human error in accidents into three broad
categories, which often overlap with more than
one factor present in each case. Each of these
broad groups, the predisposition of the individual,
the immediate cause of the accident and the
enabling factors were split into sub-categories
and the percentage of accidents which involved
the factor was calculated. A table summarises
the results is shown in figure 1.1.

to75% were caused by human errors, later

studies in the 1970s indicated the proportion
had remained substantially unchanged over the
intervening decades.

Human performance & limitations 1.1

 1 Basic Concepts

,
H
i

Personality 22%
i

20%
I l-ife Stress
Enabling Factors
Ergonomics
14%

22%
E
.
]l

1,

li
- ..-
Training and Briefing

..... -.
Administration
lmmediate Causes
:
18%
17% E
, Acute Stress :
25% Figu re "l .2

18%
At the centre of the SHELL model is the Liveware,
.'
Distraction 16% the people. This 'Liveware' relates with Software,
:'
i ' - l
Hardware, the Environment and other Liveware.
False Hypothesis ,
13%
A diagram of the SHELL model is shown in figure
i'-.--
r Disorientation 12o/o 1.2, with Liveware in the centre. We will look at
,'
each interface in turn.
r
i...... .. ....
Visual lllusion :
12%

Liveware/Llveware
Figure 1.1

Once the causes of human error are identified

then they can be tackled in turn and together to
reduce their effect. Sometimes new systems are
designed, the introduction of Ground Proximity
Warning Systems (GPWS), for instance, led to
a marked reduction in accident rates. Before
H
training, human error rates are typically one in
every hundred actions. After methodical training
human error rates can typically be reduced to one
ffiffi
error occurring in every one thousand individual
actions.
ffiffi
The SHELL Modet
Figure 'l .3

A conventional model of human factors

interfaces considers the relationship
the buzzwords of hardware, software,
and the environment. This model is named
the first letters of the buzzwords, the SHELL
SHEL model.
between This represents the interaction between people
liveware and might include the relationships between the
after crew themselves, communication with Air Traffic
or Control (ATC), operations and management.
ln order to reduce communications problems
English has been adopted as the common
language in international aviation. Despite this,
examples of failure of the LL interface are legion,
and many will be discussed later.

1,2 Human performance & lirnitations

 Basic Concepts 1

Liveware/Software types. Direction of control movement must be

considered as must the design of the controls.

Perhaps the best example of successful LH

design is the, now standard, design of the

H undercarriage selector, lt is always wheel

shaped, moving it down selects the gear down,
rnoving it up selects the gear up, simple but

H
essential.

Environment/Liveware

E H
tr
Figu re 1.4

The interaction between people and software,

not just computer software but also charts,
checklists and manuals. A well designed SL
interface would ensure there is no room for
misunderstanding. Written instructions must be
clear and unambiguous, symbols standardised
and as instinctively understandable as possible
and books and computer programs must be easy
E
Figure 1.6
to use.

An enormous area of concern. The environment

Liveware l{ardware affects the fitness of the pilot to operate the
equipment around him. lncluded in the LE
interface are the effects of hypoxia, heat and cold,

H
radiation, toxic substances, and weather.
i

Liveware

H H
E H
E
Figure 1.5

The hardware referred to is the mechanical

environment around the pilot. Switches and
controls must be easy to use and, wherever
possible, standardised between aircraft Figu re 1 .7
j

Human performance & limitations 1.3

1 Basic Concepts

At the centre of the model and the centre of our

concern is the Liveware, the pilot. To properly
understand the working relationships in the
SHELL model we must understand a little of how
the human body works. The following chapters
take us through a consideration of aviation
physiology, the human body and how it relates
to the environment, and into psychology and the
workings of the mind.

(-

1.4 Human performance & limitations


The normal working of the human body can be affected not only by illness
and by its general condition but also by changes in the environment. We do
our best to minimise environmental changes but inevitably have to consider
the effects of atmospheric pressure and acceleration as additional factors in
flight.
This chapter examines the respiration and
circulatory systems of the body and how they
are affected by flying, later chapters consider the
nervous and the sensory systems, health and
medication.
The Gas Laws
The behaviour of gas as volume pressure and
temperature change can be expressed in a series
of 'laws' named after their discoverers.
Boyte's Law
States that the volume of a gas is inversely
proportional to its pressure:
Votume"#
or
Volume x Pressure = Constant
This means that as pressure increases, volume
decreases.
Charles'Law
States that the volume of a gas varies directly
with temperature.
Volume q Temperature
This means that as temperature increases,
volume increases, if pressure remains constant.
Human performance & limitations
Respiration and Circulation 2
Dalton's Law
States that the pressure of a mixture of gases
is the sum of the partial pressures of its
constituents. In other words, since 21% of the
atmosphere is oxygeh, then 21% of atmospheric
pressure is due to the oxygen. Dalton's Law
is sometimes referred to as the Law of Partial
Pressures.
Henry's Law
States that the amount of gas dissolved in a liquid
is proportional to the pressure of that gas over the
liquid.
Fick's Law
States that gas will diffuse from areas of high
concentration to areas of low concentratron.
Fick's Law is sometimes referred to as the Gas
Diffusion Law.
The Gas Diffusion Law - gas diffuses from
areas of high concentration to low
How We Breathe
We use the muscles of the chest and the
diaphragm to draw air into our lungs and
subsequently expel it" lnside the lungs oxygen
is transferred into the bloodstream and carbon
dioxide removed. The circulatory system carries
the gases in the blood to and from the tissue.
Figure 2.1 shows the arrangement of the
respiratory system. The trachea, which we know
as the windpipe, branches into the bronchial
tubes which branch again repeatedly getting
smaller each time, allowing air to be distributed
throughout the lungs.
2"1
2 Respiration and Circulation

CoNlarbone Trachea

.#6f$qf Ftfl

Bronchial Left Lung in

Tube Cross Sectian

Right
Lung
Ribs

Heart Cavity
lliaphragm

Figure 2.'l

ln normal breathing, the active movement is

inhalation as the ribs or more particularly the
muscles between them, the intercostal muscles,
and the diaphragm expand the chest cavity and Brcn*hiatTube

draw air into the lungs.

When breathing is shallow most of the movement

comes from the diaphragm, when breathing is
deep the intercostal muscles have a greater role.
Once the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm
are relaxed, the air in the lungs is exhaled.
External respiration at rest occurs between twelve
and sixteen times a minute.
At the end of the finest bronchial tubes are
bundles of small globular structures called alveoli.
The walls of the alveoli are only one cell thick and Figu re 2.2
are surrounded by fine blood vessels. This is
where the gas transfer actually takes place.

Gas transfer takes place in the alveoli

2.2 Human performance & Iimitations

 Respiration and Circulation 2

The resting tidal volume is the volume of air going

Lung Volume
The total lung capacity (approximately 6 000 ml)
is made up of a vital capacity and the residual
volume. The vital capacity is the difference
between the capacity of the lungs after maximum
inhalation and the capacity remaining after
maximum exhalation; approximately 5 000 ml.
The volume remaining after maximum exhalation
is the residual volume; approximately 1 000 ml.
The total lung capacity may also be divided
into the inspiratory capacity and the functional
residual capacity.
The inspiratory capacity is made up of the
resting tidal volume and the inspiratory reserve
volume.
in and out of the lungs during normal respiration.
When working the body demands more oxygen
and breathing increases in rate and depth. The
additional volume of air inhaled when the body is
working is referred to as the inspiratory reserve
volume.
The tidal volume, is about 0.5 litres at rest
The functional residual capacity is the volume of
air in the lungs when the body is at rest and
normal expiration has occurred; this comprises of
the expiratory reserve volume (which can be
pushed out with maximum active contraction of
the expiratory muscles) and the residual volume,
which will always remain in the lungs.

6000 ml
Resting tidal volume

5000 ml

lnspiratory lnspiratory
reserve capacity
4000 ml
volume
Vital
capacity
3000 ml

Expiratory
2000 ml
reserve
volume Functional
residual
1000 ml capacity
Residual
volume

Figure 2.3

Human performance & limitations 2"3

2 Respiration and Circulation
Gas Transfen
ln the alveoli gas molecules will flow naturally
from areas of high concentration to areas of low
concentration. Oxygen, O, molecules pass
through the cell walls into the blood where they
combine with haemoglobin molecules in the red
blood cells or corpuscles to form oxyhaemoglobin
molecules which give blood its red colour. The
more oxygen there is in the lungs the more
oxyhaemoglobin there will be in the blood.
Oxygen is carried to the muscle tissues where
it is metabolised to provide energy for the body,
the waste product is carbon dioxide, COr. The
metabolism of oxygen with carbohydrates in the
cells is called internal respiration.
Oxygen is carried in red blood cells
Waste carbon dioxide molecules are carried from
the tissues of the body dissolved in the colourless
blood plasma as carbonic acid. The plasma
transports the carbon dioxide to the lungs where
it is passed out to the atmosphere through the
walls of the alveoli.
Carbon Dioxide is dissolved in the blood
plasma
The rate of breathing is controlled by both the
amount of oxygen in the body and by the amount
of the carbon dioxide waste product, but the CO,
concentration is more significant. Excess carbon
dioxide in the blood reacts with the nervous
system to increase the rate of inhalation and
exhalation.
2.4
CO, changes are more significant in
controlling breathing rate than changes in
o2
Unfortunately there is another gas, carbon
monoxide, CO, which is created when oxygen is
burnt in a confined space, that bonds with
haemoglobin more effectively than oxygen itself
to form carboxyhaemoglobin. This means that
anyone breathing carbon monoxide would not
take in adequate oxygen and also would not get
the automatic reaction of panting caused by a
build up of COr.
s high, G?rbon
monoxide can have a severe effect on
abilities in a short time
Carbon monoxide poisoning is insidious, rapidly
leading to a loss of consciousness and death. An
indication of the cause of incapacitation is the
bright red colour of the blood with
carboxyhaemoglobin in it, this leads to the
characteristic flushed look of those suffering from
carbon monoxide poisoning. The symptoms of
carbon monoxide poisoning are headache,
breathlessness, impaired judgement and eventual
unconsciousness.
Carbon monoxide poisoning is treated by
providing the casualty with 1A0% oxygen.
Human performance & limitations
 Respiration and Circulation 2

The Circulatory System

Blood is pumped around the body by the heart.

Blood vessels coming from the heart are called
arteries, those returning to the heart are called
veins. The arteries branch through the tissues
becoming smaller and smaller until the walls are,
once again, ohly one cell thick. These very fine
vessels permeate the body tissues and form the
link between the arteries, the arterial system, and
the veins, the venous system. They are called
capillaries.

Arteries carry blood away from the heart

Donsal Aorta

Vena Cava
Pulrnonary
Pulmonary Artery
Vein

Figu re 2.4

Human performance & limitations 2.5

2 Respiration and Circulation

The main vessel from the heart to the rest of
the body runs down the inside of the spine and
is called the aorta. The main vessel back into
the heart is the vena cava. Vessels going from
the heart to the lungs and back are called the
pulmonary arteries and veins respectively.
The heart has four internal chambers. The
main and very muscular chambers are called
ventricles, the upper and weaker chambers are
called the left and right atrium or, collectively, the
atria.

The main artery is the aorta

The heart itself is a complex ball of muscle that

needs a good blood supply. The vessels that
supply the heart from the aorta are called the
coronary arteries, the coronary veins take blood
back to the vena cava.

The coron ary arteries supply the heart

with blood

Failure of the coronary arteries, for instance

because of coronary heart disease, means the Figure 2.5
heart cannot get enough oxygen to work properly.

Darsal Aorta Vena *ava

Pulrnonary
Artery

Fulmsnary
Veins

Right
Atrium

Left
Atrium

Left Ventricle
Right lfentricle

Figu re 2.6

2.6 Human performance & limitations


The major contraction of the heart is a contraction
of the ventricles. Blood is pumped from the
right ventricle through the pulmon ary artery
to the lungs. Blood returning from the lungs
collects in the left atrium whence it is injected
into the left ventricle. The power stroke from
the left ventricle pumps the blood into the dorsal
aorta. Both ventricles contract together and
both atria contract together to give the heart its
characteristic rhyth m.
The rate of heart contraction, the pulse rate, is
about72 beats a minute for a body at rest. The
pulse rate is controlled by the nervous system
which reacts to the amount of glucose in the
blood, the amount of exercise, the amount of
carbon dioxide and the hormone adrenaline.
The cardiac output is stroke volume x
heart rate, about 5 litres a minute for an
adult at rest
Each beat of the ventricle pumps about 70 ml of
blood, the stroke voluffie, so the cardiac output,
which is heart rate x stroke volume, is about 5
litres a minute. A normal range would be 4.9
litres to 5.3 litres a minute.
The arterial blood pressure is sensed by bundles
of nerves in cavities called sinuses. There are
a pair of sensors in the main arteries to the
brain and another on the aorta, at the top of the
heart. These are the carotid sinus and aortic
arch pressoreceptors, collectively known as
the arterial pressoreceptors. Blood pressure
is regulated by the brain, varying the amount of
secretion of two hormones in response to signals
from the pressoreceptors" The amount of the
hormones secreted, controls the narrowing of the
arteries, which in turn affects the blood pressure.
Pressoreceptors may also be referred to as
baroreceptors.
The systolic blood pressure is the pressure in the
arteries as the ventricles contract, the diastolic
blood pressure is the pressure in the arteries
when the heart is relaxing between beats, both
are measured in rnillimetres of mercury, mmHg.
Standard values for a young adult at rest are
100 mmHg and 60 mmHg respectively, 100/60.
Limits are regarded as 160 and 100 mmHg
respectively, 1601100.
Human performance & limitations
Respiration and Circulation 2
As people get older higher blood pressures are
normal, a quick rule of thumb is that the systolic
pressure is 100 plus your age in years. For a 30
year old individual 130/70 would be reasonable"
Norm al values forblood pressure are
100/60 and the upper limits are 160/100
When blood pressure is measured during a
medical examination it is a measure of the arterial
pressure in the upper arm which is equivalent to
the pressure in the heart.
The Connposition of Btood
Blood is a colourless plasma wrth red and white
corpuscles and platelets carried in it. The red
corpuscles glve it its colour and contain the
haemoglobin which carries the oxygen. White
blood corpuscles are larger but less commoh,
these fight infection" Platelets help the blood
coagulate in the air so that wounds can start
to heal. The plasma itself is a salty fluid which
carries carbon dioxide in solution. The carbon
dioxide in solution forms a weak carbonic acid
which also helps to maintain the acid balance in
the blood.
Anaemia is caused by a reduction in the amount
of haemoglobin available; which reduces the
ability of the blood to transport oxygen. The
afirount of haemoglobin available may be reduced
by either a reduction in the number of red blood
cells or a reduction in the concentration of
haemoglobin in the red blood cells.
l'{ypoxia
Hypoxia, sometimes called anoxia, occurs when
the body is short of oxygen. The amount of
oxyhaemoglobin in the blood depends not on the
percentage of oxygen in the ail but the amount of
oxygen in the lungs. This means low external air
pressure can cause hypoxia as can a change in
the proportion of the gases in the lungs.
Hypoxia is shortage of oxygen
2.7
2 Respiration and Circulation
The amount of oxygen in the air can be described
as its partial pressure in mmHg, millimetres of
mercury. At sea level the standard atmospheric
pressure is 760 mmHg but only 160 mmHg of
the total is from oxygen. We would therefore
describe the partial pressure of oxygen in the
atmosphere at sea level as 160 mmHg.
As altitude increases the partial pressure
of oxygen in the atmosphere falls with the
atmospheric pressure but not at a constant rate.
The rate of change of pressure is greatest as we
climb from sea level and decreases with altitude.
21%of the atmosphere at sea level is
oxygen. External pressure changes are
greatest at low level
The atmosphere is made up of 78% nitrogen (Nr),
21% oxygen (Or) 0.03o/o carbon dioxide (CO2),
0.9% Argon, moisture, solid particles and traces
of other gases. Crucially the effect lowering of
external air pressure is exacerbated by the
relatively constant partial pressures of carbon
dioxide and water vapour taking up space in the
lungs. At sea level, even though the percentage
of oxygen in the atmosphere is about2l% in the
lungs only 14.5% is oxygen and the partial
pressure of oxygen in the lungs is 100 mmHg.
14.5o/oof
ll9 air in the lungs at sea level is
oxygetr, 100 mmHg partial pressure
We have two effects, then. As altitude increases
the partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere
falls, however, the proportion of oxygen in the
atmosphere remains the same. Also as altitude
increases the partial pressure of water vapour
and, to an extent, carbon dioxide in the lungs
remains the same, reducing the partial pressure
of oxygen in the lungs still further.
This is an application of Dalton's law
The human body is extremely sensitive to
reductions in the partial pressure of oxygen in the
lungs. A reduction in cabin pressure to an
equivalent altitude of I 000 ft, a partial pressure
in the lungs of 65 mmHg of oxygen, produces a
detectable impairment of mental performance. A
small deterioration in performance is acceptable
and healthy people are able to compensate for
altitudes up to 10 000 to 12 000 ft, above this
2.8
height the risks become progressively more
serious, short term memory is affected early on.
At 18 000 ft the partial pressure is half that at sea
level, about 50 rnmHg and unconsciousness
occurs at about 35 mmHg of oxygen in the lungs,
equivalent to prolonged exposure to altitudes
between 20 000 an d 25 000 ft.
Do not operate above 10 000 ft cabin
height without oxygen
The solution to this problem is to design
equipment to keep the partial pressure of oxygen
in the lungs adequate.
Above 10 000 ft cabin altitude it is necessary to
increase the proportion of oxygen supplied to the
lungs gradually up to 100% oxygen at between
33 700 and 40 000 ft.
Above 40 000 ft 100o/o oxygen alone is insufficient
and it must be supplied under pressure to the
oxygen rnask. This is the uncomfortable, and
thankfully rare, pressure breathing. Now the
normal breathing process is reversed, as the
mouth is opened oxygen rushes into the lungs
under pressure and it must be exhaled by force.
Air can be used up to 10 000 ft then
oxygen mix up to 33 700 ft. Above this
100% oxygen to 40 000 ft then pressure
breath ing
lf the oxygen supply system fails the normal
reaction to lack of oxygen, panting, does not
appear because, although the body may be short
of oxygen, there is no excess of carbon dioxide.
As with carbon monoxide poisoning the onset of
hypoxia is insidious and can be recognised only
by being very aware of the symptoms.
Hypoxia does not lead to shr crtaqe of
breath
Human performance & limitations

Hypoxia affects the brain first. The symptoms of
hypoxia are:
I Difficulty in concentrating
I temperature is allowed to fall and less oxygen is
lmpaired judgement, Mood changes, euphoria
Euphoria may be experienced above
10 000 ft
I Drowsiness and lethargy
I Light headedness, dizziness, nausea
r Loss of muscular co-ordrnation
r Pallor and cyanosis, blueing of the fingertips,
caused by low oxyhaemoglobin levels
t Failure of the basic senses, especially colour
vision, which becomes affected by as little as
8 000 ft
Night Vision is affected above 8 000 ft
I Unconsciousness, coma and death
The onset of hypoxia can be hastened by many
factors, the most important of which are:
t Exercise
I Cold
t lllness
I Fatigue
r The use of drugs, including alcohol
r Smoking
The last of these, smoking, leads to inhalation of
carbon monoxide which, as we have mentioned
before, binds to haemoglobin blocking oxygen
transfer. Smoking can raise the physiological
altitude by four to five thousand feet above the
actual cabin altitude as the ability to transfer
oxygen is reduced by 4% to 1 A%.
A heavy smoker can become hypoxic at
6 000 ft
Human performance & limitations
Respiration and Circulation 2
Cold increases the body's demand for oxygen
which is required to 'burn' carbohydrates in
order to generate heat to keep the body warm"
lf the person becomes unconscious the body
required for the brain to function.
The time of useful consciousness (TUC) is the
length of time during which an individual can
act with both mental and physical efficiency
and alertness; measured from the moment
at which he/she is exposed to hypoxia. The
TUC varies with altitude, approximate times of
useful consciousness for sudden disconnection
from a sea level partial pressure are shown in
the table below. TUC for people doing light to
moderate work, sometimes called the Effective
Performance Time (EPT) fall by 40o/o so at
25 000 ft it would be 70 to 150 seconds.
The time of useful consctousness at
a-
25 000 ft when moderately active is two
and a half minutes
Times of Useful Consciousness for people
already short of oxygen because they have been
flying at a cabin altitude of 7 000 ft to I 000 ft are
half of the tabulated values.
TUC for Sudden
Altitude Disconnection from
Oxygen
18 000 ft 30 minutes
22 000 ft 4 lo 8 minutes
25 000 ft 2 to 4 minutes
30 seconds to 1
30 000 ft
minute
35 000 ft 15to 30 seconds
43 000 ft 8 to 12 seconds
Figu re 2.7
2"9
2 Respiration and Circulation
Blood donors increase their susceptibility to
hypoxia. Aircrew are recommended not to give
blood, if they do they should wait 24 hours before
d uty.
Blood donors have increased
susceptibility to hypoxia
Sensitivity and reaction to hypoxia varies from
person to person.
Hyperventi[ation
An unwarranted increase in the rate of breathing
can lead to a reduction in the amount of C0, in
the blood which changes the acid balance in
the plasma. This in turn leads to a reduction
in the diameter of the arteries supplying the
brain, the resulting lack of oxygen can lead to
symptoms that are remarkably similar to hypoxia.
Hyperventilation can be caused by hormonal
responses to anxiety and motion sickness and
by a physical reaction to vibration, heat, high
acceleration, pressure breathing or other extreme
environ mental pressu res.
Hypoxia and hyperventilation are difficult
to distinguish
The symptoms of hyperventilation are:
il Dizziness
r Tingling of the extremities
x Visual disturbances
n Hot and cold flushes
r Anxiety
r lmpaired performance
I Loss of consciousness
Dizziness is an early symptom of
hyperventilation
The point to notice is that hyperventilation is
largely self correcting. The ultimate symptom is
to lose consciousness at which point the body's
automatic controls take over to restore normality.
For this reason, if there is any doubt about the
diagnosis, treat hypoxia.
214
Treat for Hypoxia if there is any doubt,
100% oxygen and descend below 10 000 ft
Hypoxia untreated kills, whereas hyperventilation
untreated leads to a short period of
unconsciousness. If hyperventilation is positively
identified a reduction in the rate and depth of
breathing will control the symptoms, some
authorities recommend the patient breathe into
and intale from a paper bag to increase the
amount of carbon dioxide in the lungs.
Anaemia is a medical condition where the body
has too few red blood cells. This leads to the
characteristic anaemic pallor and a limited
capacity to transport oxygen. Anaemic Hypoxia
is the lack of oxygen resulting from anaemia.
Circulatory shock is a failure of the blood supply.
A heart attack would lead to circulatory shock.
Decom pression Sicknesg
lf prolonged periods are spent at high altitude
dissolved gases in the blood, particularly nitrogen,
can emerge into the body as bubbles of gas - this
is an application of Henry's law. Decompression
sickness can occur even when the oxygen supply
is adequate and may appear some time after the
flight is complete.
Decompression sickness can occur even
if the oxygen supply is adequate
Depending on where the bubbles form the
symptoms will vary in nature and severity. The
possible symptoms, known to divers, include.
I The bends - pain in the joints, possibly severe
I The creeps - itching of the skin, possibly
accompanied by a rash. Caused by nitrogen
bubbles under the skin.
n The chokes - pains in the chest and a hacking
coug h.
I Partial loss of vision
I Paralysis of limbs
I The staggers - collapse leading to
unconsciousness and death
Human perforrnance & lirnitations

Decompression sickness is unlikely at cabin
altitudes below 18 000 ft and rare below 25 000 ft
and is therefore equally rare in modern aviation"
Decompression sickness is exacerbated by high
altitudes, duration of exposure, age, excess body
weight and recent diving activity. The last, a
leisure activity, can be easily controlled. Pilots
are prohibited from flying within 24 hours of scuba
diving or diving below 30 ft without air"
The bends are caused by gas bubbles in
the ioints. No scuba diving at all within 24
hours of flying
lf a casualty with decompression sickness is to be
treated he is placed in a compression chamber on
100% oxygen and kePt warm.
lmmediate Actions on Loss of
Pressurisation
lf pressurisation is lost the first action should
be to don oxygen masks and to select 100%
oxygen. The aircraft should then be put into a
rapid and controlled descent to at least 10 000 ft
cabin altitude. Seat belt and no smoking signs
should be turned oh, cabin crew should return
to their seats. lf it is impossible to descend to
a lower altitude be alert for the symptoms of
decompression sickness aS this may occur even
if the supply of oxygen is adequate.
Get on oxygen first, then start an
emergency descent
Rapid decompression may lead to a cabin altitude
as much as 5 000 ft higher than the actual
altitude, the pressure drops because of the
venturi effect as the air is sucked out of the cabin.
Very occasionally rapid depressurisation can
cause lung damage. This can be avoided by
breathing out during the depressurisation.
Human performance & limitations
Respiration and Circulation 2
The Effects of Acceleration
The human body is adapted to live under normal
gravity conditions, known as 1 G. Manoeuvring
in flight can lead to forces acting on the body that
increase or decrease the apparent weight.
Acceleration can be sub-divided into linear, radial
and angular acceleration.
t Linear Acceleration occurs in crashes and
crash landings and buffeting
il Radial Acceleration occurs when the aircraft
turns about a distant axis, e.g. a loop or a
level turn
I Angular acceleration occurs when the rate of
rotation changes, a change of roll rate.
The last of these only affects the senses of
balance and will be discussed separately. The
first two can increase the apparent weight of
the body, this effect is quantified by comparing
the forces on the body to the normal force of
1 G" A doubling of the apparent weight could be
described as a force of 2 G"
The body, unaided, Gf,n tolerate betwe en 7
andSG
The direction of action of linear acceleration is
described using a three axis system based on the
alignment of human spine. z is the vertical axis,
along the spine, x is the fore and aft axis and y is
the lateral axis. Positive and negative signs are
used to specify direction along each axis.
Acceleration up is +Gz, forward is +Gx, to the
right is +Gy; down is -Gz, back is -Gx and left is
-Gy.
The body can tolerate short term exposure to
as much as 25 G in the vertical axis, described
as +25 Gz, and 45 G in the forelaft axis. lf the
acceleration is sustained the limits of tolerance
are much less" Forces in excess of +1 Gz
drive the blood to the lower part of the body,
especially the legs. As forces approach +3.5 Gz
in a relaxed person the lack of blood to the eyes
and brain cause tunnel vision, loss of peripheral
vision, 'greying out' of vision and ultimately
u nconsciousness.
2.11
2 Respiration and Circulation

Clamping the leg and stomach muscles reduce

this effect and can delay the onset of loss
of vision and unconsciousness to 7 or 8 G,
techniques like this are tiring and necessarily
short term. Military pilots that routinely
experience high G are fitted with anti-G trousers
that are inflated with bleed air to pressurise the
legs under G. Some fighter aircraft such as the
F-16 have reclining seats to further improve G
tolerance

Physical stature affects G tolerance, particularly

in the vertical plane. Tall people are more
susceptible than short people.

Short people can tolerate more vertical G

Tolerance of high G environments is reduced by

hypoxia, hyperventilation, smoking, low blood
sugar, heat and alcohol consumption.

Negative G occurs more rarely in normal flight

and the body is less tolerant to it. Negative forces
approaching -3G will increase blood pressure in
the head and brain leading to facial pain, bursting
of small blood vessels in the face and the forcing
up of the lower eyelid to cause 'red out' of vision.

Negative G is rarer and is tolerated less

For classification purposes accelerations are

dlvided into 'long duration' (more than one
second) and 'short duration' (less than one
second, essentially, impact acceleration forces).

2.12 Human performance & limitations

 The Hazards of High Attitude Operation 3

Operation at high altitudes, in excess of 35,000ft, requires consideration

of some particular natural phenomena, high concentrations of ozone, the
damaging effects of solar and cosmic radiation, ultra-violet light, low humidity
and, in the unprotected cockpit, very low temperatures.

0zone penalty on the aircraft and are rarely fitted. There

is evidence that higher cabin humidity reduces
the severity of the symptoms of ozone poisoning.
Ozone, O' is a variant of oxygen produced by
the actron ol solar ra0ratton on hrgh a\trtuOe
oxygen. lt is a toxic gas that damages the lungs Ozone is usually destroyed by the
by irreversibly destroying the elasticity of the lung press u risation process
tissue, ? condition known as emphysema.
Radiation
Ozone is a poison
Radiation from space, called cosmic radiation,
Little ozone is present in the troposphere but
and damaging radiation from the sun become a
concentrations rise rapidly above the tropopause,
more serious problem at higher altitudes where
increasing with altitude and at its greatest
less has been absorbed by the atmosphere.
concentrations in winter and spring. As the
Recent studies have indicated that a four hour
tropopause is much lower over the poles than at
flight above 35 000 ft equates to the same
the equator the risk from the effects of ozone is
radiation dose as a full chest X-Ray. Cosmic
greatest on trans-polar flights.
radiation increases significantly during sun
storms, periods of high sunspot activity, which are
Ozone is a potential danger
v between forecast using the NOTAM system.
40 000 ft and 75 000 ft
Radiation carries with it a risk of cancers. The
The symptoms of ozone poisoning are dryness of issue of the long term medical effect on aircrew is
the nose and throat with irritation causing just starting to be explored by doctors and in the
coughing and a discomfort in the chest" Severe courts.
poisoning can cause breathing difficulties, heart
There is a requirement in JAR OPS for the
strain and sometimes death. The concentration
operator to monitor cosmic radiation. Dedicated
of ozone in the atmosphere is more significant
cosmic radiation monitoring equipment must be
than the length of time exposed to it. The FAA
carried on aircraft operating above 49 000 ft.
have set a concentration limit of 0 .25 parts per
million by volume (ppmv) for commercial flights,
occasional peaks of 0.57 ppmv have been Blue and UV Light
recorded on polar flights.

Ozone is partly destroyed by the high
temperatures created in the compressors of jet
engines. As cabin air is taken from engine bleeds
downstream of the compressor, this removes
most of the problem, particularly in the low
bypass ratio engines of high altitude aircraft such
as Concorde. Aircraft with lower compressor
temperatures require catalytic converters and
carbon filters to reduce the ozone concentration
to an acceptable level" These lmpose a weight
At altitude the light is much brighter than at
sea level, an effect that can be worsened by
reflections from very white clouds. lt contains
considerably more high energy blue light and
Ultra Violet light than normal and can damage the
retina over a period of time.

Human performance & limitations 31

3 The Hazards of High Attitude 0peration

Relative humidity levels of 40 to 60% are

UV light can damage the retina considered comfortable. Pressurisation air may
have a RH of as low as 3%. Low RH can cause
a drying of the mucous membranes of the eyes,
Pilots should always wear appropriate sunglasses nose and throat leading to discomfort. Notice
at altitude for protection. They should the similarity between the symptoms of ozone
t poisoning and low humidity. Relative humidities
Be impact resistant with thin metal frames
of less than 30% have also been shown to
t Have good optical quality, refractive class 1 encourage the survival of viruses and bacteria.

I Have a luminance transmittance of 1 O-15%

Low Humidity creates the same symptoms
il Meet filtration standards similar to BS 2724 as ozone poisoning

The effects of low relative humidity can be

Sunglasses for UV protection should
have'reasonable luminance transmission
qualities'
Photochromatic or phototropic sunglasses which
vary in darkness and light transmission are not
generally permitted for use by pilots because they
do not react quickly enough to changes in light
level. ln addition, most aircraft windows have a
degree of uV filtering which would prevent
photochromatic sunglasses changing shade.
countered by drinking larger amounts of fluid than
normal avoiding diuretics like tea, coffee and
alcohol and by the use of lip salves and
moisturising sprays. Older aircraft may have
humidifiers fitted to raise the cabin RH to
comfortable levels, these are often removed by
operators to save money.
Humidity is kept low because of the cost
of operating humidifiers

Low Humidlty Very Low Temperatures

Humidity means the amount of water vapour in Body heat is generated by the metabolism of
the air. As the amount of water vapour in the air oxygen with carbohydrates in the tissues. Very
increases eventually the air becomes saturated low temperatures require higher than usual
and water condenses aS mist, cloud or dew. levels of metabolism and therefore higher than
As the temperature is lowered the amount of usual amounts of oxygen. Exposure to low
water vapour the air can hold is reduced. The temperatures increases the susceptibility to
proportion of water vapour in the air to the amount hypoxia.
that it could hold at saturation expressed as a
percentage is called the relative humidity (RH).
Very low temperatures increase the
At high altitudes the temperature is very low and susceptibility to hYPoxia
therefore the amount of water vapour the air can
hold is also very low. Nevertheless, before the air
enters the aircraft engines the relative humidity
may well be quite normal, perhaps 50Yo. Once
the air is heated to temperatures acceptable for
the aircraft cabin, the capacity of the air to hold
water vapour is increased dramatically but the
amount of water vapour itself is not, this means
the RH falls to verY low levels.

Relative humidity of cabin air is very low

32 Human performance & limitations

 The Nervous and Sensory Systems 4

Our five familiar senses are sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste. Our
perception of the environment is made up of our reaction to inputs from all
five. Not all senses are treated equally by the brain, sight is by far the most
significant. What we think we see can often override all other perceptions.

The Eye

The eye is the organ of vision. The eyeball

is filled with watery fluids, called vitreous and
aqueous humour, that maintain the shape of the
eye. The front, the cornea, is transparent and
a coloured iris can open and close to vary the
amount of light that gets in through the pupil.

Retina

Cornea

Pupil Fovea

Aqusous Humour
Optic Hervs
Lens
Blind $pot
Vitreous Humour

Figure 4.1

Human performance & limitations 4.1

4 The Nervous and Sensory Systems
Behind the iris is a flexible lens that can be
stretched to change its shape for fine control of
focus.
Light is focused by the lens on the retina where
it is converted into electrical impulses. These
impulses are transmitted to the brain stem, ?h
area at the base of the brain which receives
signals from various sensory sources. From the
brain stem they are routed to the visual cortex
where information from both eyes is interpreted.
Visual information is also routed to the cerebellum
which receives many sensual inputs to control
movement and balance.
Accornrnodation
Light is refracted by the eye to fall on the retina.
Although most of the refraction takes place at the
cornea, the shape of the lens can be adjusted
by a small ring of muscle around it, the ciliary
muscle, to adjust the focus" The ciliary muscles
contract to make the lens form a more spherical,
fatter shape when looking at close objects and
relax to allow the lens to become a flatter shape
when looking at distant objects. This process is
called accommodation.
Most of the refraction takes place at the
cornea
Ciliary muscles
&
Light from a distant object
F
Light from a close object
f distinguish at 6 m what a normal person could
Figu re 4.2
4.2
Rods and Cones
The light sensitive cells on the back of the retina
are called rods and cones, after their shapes.
Rods work in low light conditions but are not
sensitive to colour. They are distributed across
a large area at the back of the retina and are
used for peripheral vision and to see in dim light.
They are not colour sensitive and provide what is
known as scotopic vision, from the Greek which
means 'dark-seeing'.
Rods are for peripheral vision and not
colour sensitive
Cones only react to bright light and are colour
sensitive. They are mainly concentrated at the
point that most light naturally falls, the fovea and
give the sharpest vision. As you move away from
the fovea the visual acuity, the clarity of vision,
falls. Cones provide what is known as photopic
vision,'light-seeing'.
Cones are for sharp colour vision and are
near the fovea
VisuaI Aculty
Visual acuity is measured by comparing an
individual's sight to the eyesight of a normal
person at a range of 20 ft. lf you are normal your
vision would be described as 20120 meaning you
can see at20 ft what a normal person can see at
20 ft. Visual acuity has now been metricated in
everything but everyday use so 6 m replaces 20 ft
and 20120 vision is now 6/6 vision"
lf the ratio, expressed as a fraction, is greater
than 1 the visual acuity is better than normal.
A visual acuity of 614 would indicate you could
only distinguish at 4 m. Similarly an acuity of
6/9 represents a poor score, normal people can
detect at 9 m what you cannot distinguish above
6m.
Human performance & limitations
 The Nervous and Sensory Systems 4
Regardless of an individual's inherent visual
acuity the clarity of vision will be affected by:
I The amount of light available
I binocular vision. Monocular cues, cues that will
The size and contours of an object
I The distance an object is from the viewer
I The contrast of an object with its surroundings
I The relative motion of a moving object
r The clarity of the atmosphere
The Visuat Fietd
The field of view of each eye, defined as that
portion of the world visible to a station ary eye,
is about 12A'left to right and about 150' up and
down, limited in both cases by the tissues of
the face. There is an overlapping area of 60' in
the centre of the field where binocular vision is
possible.
Within the binocular area each eye has a blind
spot about 5" wide where the optic nerve leaves
the eyeball and there are neither rods nor cones.
The brain normally compensates for this with the
data from the other eye and 'fills in the blanks'.
The area of cone vision in the fovea, sometimes
called central vision, where visual acuity is
greatest is only about 1' wide. The remaining
peripheral vision is very sensitive to movement
having been evolved to detect predators and prey
but cannot distinguish detail.
Human performance & limitations
Depth Perception
Short-range depth perception is helped at ranges
of less than a metre by the stereoscopic effect of
work with only one eye, are more significant"
These include
I Parallax. Head movements cause distant
objects to move relative to each other
I Perspective. Converging parallels such as
railway lines, roads and the edges of runways
t Relative size. Distant objects are smaller
t Relative motion. Closer moving objects move
faster in angular terms
I Overlapping contours. Objects in front of
others must be closer
t Aerial perspective. The scattering of light
makes distant objects appear bluer
The last five of these cues depend entirely on the
interpretation of the brain. This means it could be
confused if, for instance, railway lines were not
parallel as expected. The expectations the brain
has about everyday life can create some curious
optical illusions.
Colour Vision
Colour is detected by the cones in the retina. lt is
believed there are three different types of cones
each detecting red, green and blue light. The
nervous signals sent to the brain that represent
these three primary colours are mixed by the
brain to show us colour as we see it.
Colour blindness is a genetic defect of one of the
cone types that prevents individuals distinguishing
certain colours, the most common being red/
green colour blindness. Colour blindness occurs
in about 7% of men but only in 0 .1% of women.
Golour blindness is more likely in men
4.3
 I+ The Nervous and Sensory Systems
Night Vision
The eye adapts to reducing amounts of light in
two ways. The first and most rapid response is
to dilate the pupil and allow more light in. The
second response is chemical within the rods and
cones as they adjust to lower light conditions.
Cones adapt fastest, becoming fully adapted
within 7 minutes but full rod adaptation will take
another 30 minutes even after exposure to a brief
flash of bright light. Adaptation the other way,
from night vision to day vision, takes only a few
seconds.
The dilation of the pupil can alter the amount of
light falling on the retina by a factor of five but the
adaptation of the photoreceptor cells, the rods
and cones, can cope with light levels 150 000
times as weak as full daylight.
It is also worth noting that rods are sensitive to
shorter wavelengths of light. This means that in
very low light blue objects are more likely to be
seen than red, although neither will be in colour.
Cockpit lighting at night is sometimes red light
because it will affect the rods used for night vision
less than white light. lt is generally assumed,
however, that the advantage of good night vision
is less important than the ability to see in colour.
Night vision is reduced by even mild hypoxia and,
because of that, smokers tend to have worse
night vision than non-smokers.
Certain vitamins are needed for good night vision.
Vitamin A is certainly required and possibly
vitamins B and C. An excess of any vitamin will
not help. There is no point eating carrots, this
was wartime propaganda used to cover up for the
radar fitted to night fighters.
Some vitamins help, overdoing it makes
no difference
4.4
The Ear
Hearing
The human ear has a range between 20 Hz
and 20 000 Hz in an adult, within this range it is
most sensitive to sounds between 750 Hz and
4000 Hz. To put these numbers into a familiar
context the tone heard at the outer marker of the
ILS is 400 Hz and at the inner marker 3000 Hz.
The ear drum forms the junction between the
outer and middle ear. Sound waves, which are
compression waves in the air, are collected by the
outer ear and directed onto the eardrum which
vibrates. Three small bones in the middle ear
called malleus, incus and stapes, collectively the
'ossicles', pick up the vibrations, condition them
and relay them to a window in the fluid-filled inner
ear, the cochlea.
The ossicles are in the middle ear
The cochlea is in the inner ear
The cochlea is a coiled up and gradually
narrowing fluid filled tube. Nerve cells along the
tube react to different frequencies and send
signals that will eventually be interpreted as
sound to the brain along the cochlear nerve.
The eustachian tube is connected to the
passages of the nose and throat to equalise
pressure between the middle ear and the outer
ear, the atmosphere. lf the eustachian tube
is blocked as a result of a cold or respiratory
infection there is a risk that the ear drum will
rupture, a particularly painful event and one of the
many reasons that you should not fly with a cold.
The intensity of sound is measured in decibels
(dB) on a logarithmic scale" Because the scale
is logarithmic, not linear, a small increase of
decibels represents a large increase of the
intensity of the sound. An increase from 30 dB to
33 dB would represent a doubling of the intensity.
High levels of noise can lead to temporary
hearing loss, called Noise lnduced Hearing Loss
(NIHL), and ringing in the ears. The extent of the
loss depends on the intensity, the frequency and
the duration.
Human performance & limitations
 The Nervous and Sensory Systerns {*

Ossicles
$erni-circular
Canals

Cschlea

Eustachian
Tube
Hardrum

W
0uter Har Middle Ear lnner Ear
Figure 4.3

Temporary hearing loss is unlikely at noise levels Balance

below 90 dB, at 120 dB there will be localised
discomfort in the ear, 140 dB produces pain and
the eardrum may be ruptured above 160 dB.
Prolonged exposure to noise levels that produce
temporary hearing loss will lead to permanent
deafness at higher frequencies with a pronounced
loss at 4000 Hz"
The sense of balance comes from the vestibular
apparatus of the inner ear, the semi-circular
canals, the utricle and the saccule.
The three semi-circular canals are arranged at
right angles to each other, the proper word is
orthogonal, to sense angular acceleration.

Each fluid filled semi-circular canal has an

Prolonged exposure to more than 90 dB arrangement of sensory hairs holding a gelatinous
can cause permanent damage flap. As the head moves the fluid tends to stay
where it is and displaces the flap, the hairs sense
Conductive hearing loss is the term given to the displacement and send signals to the brain via
hearing loss caused by a failure of the sound the vestibular nerve.
conducting elements of the middle ear, the
eardrum and the ossicles, and is most likely to be
the result of an infection of the middle ear or an
accumulation of natural wax in the outer ear.

Presbycusis is the name given to the general loss

of hearing ability with age. Once again high tones
are affected first and the effect can combine with
NIHL to produced serious problems for pilots as
they approach middle age"

Human performance & limitations 4.5

4 The Nervous and Sensory Systems
$emicirclar
Csnals
Figu re 4.4
At the base of the semi-circular canals the utricle
and saccule, together called the otolith organs,
have sensory hairs with chalky deposits at the
free end. The chalky deposits are affected by
gravity and other linear accelerations, the hairs
bend and the nerve cells at the base send signals
to the brain that are used to interpret orientation"
The otoliths are the utricle and saccule
Sensory Thresholds
Not all stimuli will activate the sensory cells, the
receptors, and the brain does not always notice
inputs from the receptors.
There is a threshold at which a receptor reacts
to a stimulus called the absolute threshold. Just
because the absolute threshold is exceeded
it does not, however, mean that we actually
experience the stimulus. The receptors in the
eye will respond to the smallest quantity of light
and those in the ear to movements in the air
only slightly greater than the movement of the
molecules themselves but we rarely, if ever,
notice changes this small.
The increase in stimulus required for us to notice
a change is called the difference threshold or,
more commonly, the just noticeable difference
(j.n.d.). The j.n.d. is not a constant but a
proportion. lf, for instance, it required two extra
candles to be lit in a room of ten candles to notice
an increase in brightness then twenty extra
candles would be needed if a hundred were lit.
4.6
The implication of this is that changes above
the absolute threshold but below the j.n.d can
occur and not be noticed. ln flight small changes
in attitude and velocity can build, unnoticed, to
extreme changes in alrcraft attitude.
The Nervous and Endocrine
Systems
The sensory cells in the organs of balance,
hearing and sight produce electrical impulses
from chemical changes in response to stimuli. As
we have seen different sensory cells, receptors,
react to different stimuli producing and electrical
impulse when a particular sensory threshold is
exceeded.
The inputs from are passed atong nerves,
called sensory nerves, to the brain. The nerves
themselves are made of bundles of cells called
neurons or neurones which use electrochemical
signals to transmit information. Where neurons
join there is a small gap between them called a
synapse which the signal has to jump using an
electrochemical signal.
Figure 4.5
The sensory nerves pass signals to the splnal
column and thence to the brain along relay
neurons. The brain, which is itself made up of a
mass of neurons, processes the information and
if any action is required signals are sent to the
glands and muscles along motor neurons.
Human performance & limitations
 The Nervous and Sensory Systems
The Central Nervous Systern
The brain and spinal column are together called
the central nervous system (CNS). The CNS is
made up of white matter, which is mainly the ends
of the neurons, grey matter, the cell bodies, and
the cerebrospinal fluid circulating around the CNS
retained by the meninges membrane and also
present in a canal inside the CNS.
Serebellurn
ldedulla 0blongata
Figu re 4.6
The brain itself developed in zones as we
evolved" The most primitive parts are:
I The medulla oblongata which controls
automatic activities such as breathing and
heart rate
t The hypothalamus which controls water
balance and temperature
I The pituitary gland which controls growth,
blood pressure, blood sugar level the thyroid
and adrenal glands and ovaries or testes
I The cerebellum which controls balance and
posture.
The larger, heavily folded, cerebral cortex is
evolutionarily more advanced and is responsible
for memory, imagination, thought, sight, sound
and taste.
Human performance & limitations
t+
The Periphera[ Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system consists of the
sensory and motor nerves running to and from
the central nervous system. These can be
divided into:
I The nerves which control the voluntary
activities of the body, primarily controlled by
the cerebral cortex. This is sometimes called
the somatic nervous system
il The nerves which control the involuntary
activities such as heart beat controlled
primarily by the medulla oblongata. This is
sometimes referred to as the autonomous or
vegetative nervous system
The Endocnine System
The glands of the endocrine system provide self
regulating control of many of the body processes
by secreting hormones into the bloodstream in
response to chemical and nervous stimuli. The
'master gland' is the pituitary at the base of the
brain which controls the:
t Thyroid and Parathyroid glands to regulate
metabolism and growth
I Adrenal glands to produce adrenalin
il Pancreas to control blood sugar levels
I Testes or ovaries to produce sexual hormones
4"7
 4 The Nervous and Sensory Systems

Body Tem peratu re Controt

The human body core temperature must be

maintained between 35'C and 38'C ('normal'
temperature is 37"C). There are various
mechanisms available which enable the body to
loose heat in warm environments and retain or
generate heat in cold environments.
.T' t'11':r-:':r1::"r1:: r": -a:'r,,t'*dfdid:' r1"rL:.iai: r,tfft=t.r ;ria.r'r.r"raj
i,.,.,:,,
i;

Desired Effect Mechanism

i:'
:il

;
i
! \r^^
Vasoconstriction
-^1-:^&:^- of
^3 i

vessels
:i:

skin
i

Reduction of surface
Decreased Heat Loss i

area (curling up etc) i

Behaviour response i

(put on more clothing)

i';
iil
i i

i i lncrease muscle tone i

lncrease Heat Shivering and

Production increased activity

i lncreased food intake

F--

D€sirea tsTTeCt Meehanisffi

.t#iwj!'j,]!rl!!i";l,fu

lncreased Heat Loss Vasodilation of skin

,
i VeSSelS

Sweating

Behaviour response
i (take off clothing)
i Decrease Heat Decrease muscle tone
I Production
Decrease voluntary
I

I
t
1

I
activity
I
1

I
Decreased secretion
i
of epinephrine -
t

I
t
t
a hormone which
affects nutrient
1

i
t
I
I metabolism

Figu re 4,7

4.8 Human performance & limitations

 lntegrating the Sensory Systems 5

The brain takes the inputs from the peripheral nervous system and attempts
to make sense out of the according to remembered models of the world
around it. When data is incomplete missing sections are filled in to create a
comprehensible picture rather than leaving the data incomplete.

,.trtP -

t
{t*
Xtsl
tF Fe*
#a
t

*\dt-

t* s
#df {E-
J-
=r--- -
- ->r

* J * ** *
F **
frp
il:- **
b *
#
"rt"; -t **
r*
ry,

{*$
{ffi*
l*'an*

#'s
tht *.F
$

u *
** {
F^d_ A
**'

Figure 5.1

It takes perception to make meaning emerge from

what at first seems a random collection of spots,
once you realise what is in the picture it is almost
impossible not to see it.

Human performance & limitations 51

5 lntegrating the Sensory Systems

Visual lttusions
When the brain's mental model of the world
differs from the real world, it is classed as
an illusion. The brain judges information
comparatively, not on its own merits. Thus we
make decisions about distance because distant
-
objects appear smaller than close objects, distant
objects appear less clear because of dust and
-
pollution in the atmosphere, distant objects move
less in relative terms.

Consider the diagram below, each of the central

circles is the same size but our brains decide
the one on the left is bigger, this is the illusion of m
comparative size.
m

Figure 5.3

o
Because the brain judges information
comparatively, even the natural movements of the

oo Ju eye can cause an illusion. Solitary lights at night

Figure 5.2
Having no other clues a military pilot flying over a
snow covered landscape in Scandinavia judged
his height to be 250 ft from the height of the
pine trees he passed over. Catching sight of an
escaping rabbit he then discovered to his horror
that the trees were seedlings and not fully grown.
His actual height was about 30 ft. The illusion
was caused by his expectation of size"
Our perception of perspective can also cause
illusions. No matter how we look at figure 5.3, the
upper of the two lower lines looks longer. Even
knowing the lines are the same length cannot
overcome the power of the rules of perspective.
such as stars or aircraft lights can, after a short
time, appear to wander in different directions
because the brain lacks enough background
information to decide the light is station ary and
compensate for the movement of the eye. This is
called auto kinesis.
Vlsuat Cues and lllusions on Landing
Probably the most important visual task the
pilot is faced with is the landing phase of flight
which can be split into the initial judgement of
the correct glideslope, maintaining the glidepath
during the approach and the final landing"
The initial judgement of the correct glidepath
can be made in several ways. Principally we fly
set patterns such as visual circuits to arrive at
the right point in space and then our judgement
is confirmed, or not, by the lights of precision
approach path indicators (PAPls) and visual
approach path indicators (VASls).

5.2 Human performance & limitations

 lntegrating the Sensory Systems 5

Figure 5.4

When these aids are not present we fall back to

assessing our visual angle of approach relative to
the horizon. lf there is no visible horizon because
of bad visibility we tend to estimate where it would
be by extending the sides of the runway to the
'vanishing point'.

The correct approach angle on a down sloping

runway looks too low without the horizon in sight
Figure 5.5

This is where it can go wrong. Sloping runways

can produce incorrect estimates of the location
of the horizon and lead to inaccurate judgements
of the glide angle. Up sloping runways will tend
to make you feel high and therefore approach
from too low an angle, down sloping runways the
reverse-

Human performance & limitations 53

5 lntegrating the Sensory Systems

A particular effect, called the black hole effect,

occurs during approaches on dark nights without
visual references" Under these circumstances
the runway can appear much closer than it is.
The loss of a C-130 in northern Canada several
years ago was attributed to this illusion when it
struck terrain well short of the runway on a dark
night.

The black hole effect can be exacerbated by rain

on the windscreen which tends to make the pitot
feel too high on the approach. When penetrating
mist or fog an illusion of pitching up can occur
and can cause the pilot to steepen an approach
quite abruptly
Figure 5.6
lf a pilot has no information about the dimensions
of a runway or the nature of the terrain under
Having established the glide angle, the pilot aims
the approach he should make an instrument
for the visual aiming point and tries to maintain
approach and be aware of the illusory effects that
the angle of approach. lf the eyes are fixed
could be induced.
on the aiming point and the approach angle is
constant, the aspect of the runway will remain the One final landing problem which is not strictly
same and there will be even visual textual flow an illusion can occur purely because of the size
away from the aiming point. of modern transport aircraft. When the aircraft
lands the wheels are some hundred feet behind
ln the final stages of the approach, just
and sixty feet below the cockpit and will hit the
before landing, the pilot needs to make height
judgements. The first clues are taken from the ground before the runway unless the chosen
visual aiming point is well in. For this reason, and
apparent speed at which the ground texture is
others, visual approaches on large aircraft are
passing the aircraft (closer is faster) and the size
flown to aim to touchdown about 300 m in from
of known objects (pine trees again). lf these
the threshold.
are not available such as during approaches
over water or snow or at night then the apparent
size or width of the runway is used. Here again,
unusually narrow or wide runways can create
a visual illusion resulting in incorrect height
judgement. One purpose of approach lighting
is to provide the pilot with visual cues in the
undershoot to enable accurate height judgement.

When converting to a large aircraft pilots

will tend to taxy too fast

When approaching a runway that is narrower than

usual it may appear that the aircraft is higher than
it actually is. lf this is not appreciated, the pilot
will tend to fly a lower approach than normal. Figu re 5.7
Runways significantly wider than those normally
used will give the pilot the impression of being
lower than normal, and will increase the risk of This is why both the visual aiming point and the
levelling out high and causing a hard landing or ILS glidepath aerial are at the same place.
even an overshoot of the runway.

5.4 Human performance & limitations

 lntegrating the Sensory Systems
Visua[ Search and Mid-Air
Cotlisions
lf two aircraft are going to collide then, assuming
constant speeds, they will maintain a constant
relative bearing to each other even if climbing or
descending right up to the point of collision.
This means that any aircraft that are not collision
risks will move across the field of view and,
because of the movement, be easy to spot but
the aircraft that are going to hit you will remain
stationary in the windscreen.
An aircraft on a collision course has a
constant relative bearing
Figure 5.8
A second problem is that an aircraft on a collision
course remains a relatively small object until
the last fraction of a second before impact. The
diagram below shows the apparent size of an
aircraft on a head on collision course at a closing
speed of about 800 KT. Until as little as one and
a half seconds to impact the aircraft is so small as
to be almost invisible.
Thus we can see that the most crucial aircraft to
identify, the one on a collision course, will remain
a very small, apparently station ary,object in our
field of view until it is too late to take avoiding
action.
We must also remember that only the central part
of the fovea has high visual acuity and the eye
must therefore scan across the field of view to
be sure of seeing fine detail" The eye naturally
Human performance & limitations
5
moves in a series of jerks or saccades with a
period of rest between each saccade. A saccade/
rest cycle takes about a third of a second.
A saccade cycle takes about a third of a
second
There is a final consideration. Without anything
to focus on the eye will relax to a natural focal
point some one to two metres away, just outside
the cockpit, making the pilot effectively short
sighted. Unless the eye is forced to focus on
distant objects such as clouds this empty field
myopia can mean that otherwise visible targets
are not identified because they are blurred and
out of focus.
3,0 sec
*- 1,5 seo
0,1 sec
Figure 5.9
This combination of factors make visual collision
avoidance particularly difficult. The solution, or at
least part of the solution, is to discipline the pilot
to keep a lookout that moves deliberately around
the field of view in overlapping sectors of about
10' focussing on distant objects to avoid empty
field myopia. At night, as most of the vision is
peripheral, it may help not to look directly at lights
but to look just to one side of them" ln practice
radar services and TCAS systems supplement
the visual lookout.
Avoid resting the eye, make as many eye
movements as possible
5.5
5 lnteErating the Sensory Systems

Spatiat 0rientation

Fgrceived '1 '

origntation in ,,'.: ,
t"'
',
-
SPSCS,,.,,,.,''''ul1i
-': ll
''
"'.-.,,******uuuo*,+i*li
. ^ .., .
'..

--J

Perceived
arientatlnn
aircraft

Figure 5.10

The vestibular senses do not in themselves allow

the brain to determine spatial orientation but are Subcutaneous pressure receptors sense
used with other senses and memory to form an spatial orientation but the visual sense is
overall picture. Both on the ground and in the the most powerful
air the visual sense is relied on most. lf there
are not enough visual cues to form a model of
the situation the brain falls back on memory and
experience, trying to make sense of the vestibular Somatogravic illusions cause pitch to be
inputs. sensed under acceleration
ln the same way that visual illusions can
occur as the brain mlsinterprets inputs so
vestibular illusions can occur. A favourite is the
The visual sense is the most powerful for
somatogravic illusion "
spatial orientation

56 Human performance & limitations

 lntegrating the Sensory Systems
A*se{*.r6ti*n
Weight Resultant 'St'eigfit
The reality Ths,iliusi*n
Figure 5.1 1
This happens as an aircraft accelerates. The
pilot experiences a force pushing backwards
which, when combined with the normal sensation
of weight from gravity, produces a resultant
force that can produce a sensation that the
aircraft is climbing. lt is worth noting that the
pitching errors on an air driven artificial horizon
under acceleration act in the same sense as the
somatogravic illusion and can appear to confirm
that the illusion is reality
Linear acceleration makes you think you
are climbing
A second vestibular illusion is concerned not with
pitch but with roll, the somatogyric illusion. lf the
aircraft enters a balanced turn, very slowly the roll
rate may be below the detection threshold of the
semi-circular canals and not be sensed. Once in
the balanced turn the pilot will sense neither roll
nor yaw and can perceive his orientation as wings
level. Perhaps recognising the situation the pilot
now rolls wings level at a rate capable of being
sensed by the semi-circular canals. Now,
although clearly in a wings level attitude, the pilot
feels as though he is banking. This is commonly
called 'the leans'.
A similar illusion can occur after a developed spin.
On recovery the brain senses the change in rate
of turn and interprets as a spin in the opposite
direction. Visual references, if you have them,
sort the brain out.
Human performance & limitatlons
S
The ear's balancing mechanism can be
stimulated without any change in the rate of turn
of the aircraft. lf a person moves their head
during a steady turn an illusion can arise from
what is referred to as cross-coupled stimulation
(Coriolis) of the semi-circular canals of the ear.
This is also a cause of vertigo (see below).
A pilot recovering from a spin may have
a strong sensation of turning in the
opposite direction
Disorientation will occur when the information
from the eyes and the information from the
vestibular apparatus does not agree.
The conditions predisposing to spatial
disorientation are:
il Transferring from VMC to IMC
* Trying to fly VMC when external conditions
are unreliable
n After aerobatics, especially at the end of
spinning or rapid rolling manoeuvres when
you feel you are spinning in the opposite
d irection.
t Moving the head when the aircraft is turning
(Coriolis effect)
t Lack of flying practise; especially lack of
instrument flying practise
ilil After formation flying, when transferring to
normal references
The primary way to combat disorientation is to
trust your instruments over your senses. The
proprioceptive or 'seat of the pants' sense is
particu larly un reliable.
Disorientation may be avoided to an extent by
never flying when under the influence of alcohol
noting that it may contrnue to affect the inner
ear for several days after drinking, by avoiding
rapid head movements when manoeuvring and
by choosing reliable visual references to help
overcome the false mental picture.
57
5 lntegrating the Sensory Systems
Motion Sickness
Although disorientation arises from the brain
misinterpreting conflicting data a more subtle and
prolonged mismatch between the inputs, either
between visual and physical inputs or between
physical inputs and perception confuses the brain
and causes motion sickness. Motion sickness is
a normal reaction to confusing stimuli, everybody
can suffer from it if adequately provoked. When
motion sickness happens in flight it is called air
sickness.
One form of 'mismatch' can happen when the
body is exposed to unfamiliar stimuli. This is
why air sickness is more common in passengers
and during flying training and less common in
experienced pilots. Another possibility is that
visual references do not match up to the physical
stimuli, you are more likely to get motion sickness
reading a book than looking out of the window.
Air sickness can also occur when the body,
specifically the skull, is vibrated at low
frequencies, less than 0.5 Hz. This is common in
chop or turbulence and creates vestibular signals
which confuse the brain.
Motion sickness can cause nausea, salivation,
vomiting, hyperventilation, apathy, drowsiness,
pallor and cold sweats. Not all symptoms come
at once and the sufferer will often only experience
mild nausea.
Familiarity helps to reduce the onset of the
symptoms and some relief can be obtained by
keeping the head still. Closing the eyes can help
to remove a conflicting visual input, unfortunately
impossible when handling the aircraft. On the
plus side concentration on a task, such as flying
accurately, can also reduce the symptoms.
Consumption of more than small amounts of
alcohol, once again, can increase susceptibility
for several days"
Medication can help but affects
performance. Hyoscine is the most
common drug used
58
Vertigo
More common in everyday life, and particularly
on tall buildings, vertigo is the ultimate sensation
of spatial disorientation when the surroundings
appear to whirl dizzily, there is a sense of loss
of balance and, in extrerne cases, nausea and
vomiting.
Vertigo can be caused by infection in the
inner ear
On single engined propeller driven aircraft bright
sunlight flashing through the blades can induce
the sensation of vertigo, called flicker vertigo.
The same sensation, which is nearer to epilepsy
than disorientation, can happen with flickering
lights from other sources, such as strobe lights.
Frequencies of 4 to 20 flashes a second and
higher cause most problems. Different individuals
have differing susceptibility to flicker vertigo as
they do to epilepsy, in the case of the propeller it
can be avoided by changing the rpm or avoiding
looking through the disc.
Flicker vertigo can be caused by bright
sunlight seen through a propellbr. littre
flicker effect is caused by strobes, turn
them off
Vibration
Apart from causing motion sickness, vibration at
low frequency can have other effects. Symptoms
are determined by both the frequency and
amplitude of the vibration and may include.
t 1-4Hz I nterference with breathing
| 4-10H2 Chest and abdominal pain
t 8-12H2 Backache
I 10-20H2 Headaches, eye strain, pain in
the throat, speech
disturbance & muscular
tension "
Vibrations between 1 Hz and 20 Hz cause
discomfort
Human performance & limitations
 Heatth in Aviation 6

Aviation is an abnormal way of life for the human body. Passengers can
cope with the unusual demands on their system because they are in a
sedentary role and are only exposed to the environment for short periods.
Aircrew, on the other hand, must be aware of the health implications of their
jobs both in terms of their immediate fitness to complete a task and the
longer term effects of their chosen career on their bodies.

Com rnon il't i rl0r Ai trnents
Cotds and Ftu
Most people will recognise the feeling of lethargy
and the difficulty in concentration associated
with the common cold and the early stages of flu.
These symptoms alone seriously impair a pilot's
performance.
Apart from the general malaise associated with
colds and flu there are other considerations"
Tissue inflammation can block or partially block
the narrow eustachian tube that connects the
middle ear to the environment through the nose
and throat.
lf the tube is partially blocked it may let air out
during the climb as the external pressure reduces
but, like a valve, not allow it back in during the
descent. This barotrauma, or pressure trauffi?,
can be agonisingly painful and can eventually
lead to a ruptured eardrum. lt is sometimes
referred to as otic barotrauma, barotrauma of the
ear.
A cold can cause barotrauma in the
middle ear in a descent
lf the eustachian tube is partly blocked it
sometimes helps to pinch the nose between the
fingers and blow to equalise the pressure.

*ardrurR

Blocked
Eustachian
Tube

L} outirrar
\ff
Mifdllt*
Figure 6.1

Human performance & limitations 6.1

6 Health in Aviation

Alternatively, chewing, yawning or swallowing can Gastritis is an inflammation of stomach lining

cause the small muscles around the nasal end that may be caused by diet. Once again it pays
of the eustachian tube to contract and help it to to be careful what you eat. Older people may
open. experience chronic gastritis that is unrelated to
diet.

Gastro-enteritis is more severe, usually caused

by food poisoning, and can result in vomiting,
cramps, diarrhoea and nausea. Gastro-enteritis
usually subsides naturally within 72 hours,
if it persists it may be caused by a serious
Fro*tal $inus infection such as salmonella and need further
$phenoid $iltlls investigation.

"Traveller's diarrhoea" subsides within

two to three days

The risk of food poisoning can be reduced by

Figu re 6.2
Similar inflammation can block the narrow
entrances to the nasal sinuses behind and below
the eyes. Once again this can lead to barotrauma
and disabling pain in the descent.
drinking bottled water and eating in reputable
establishments when away from home. Parasitic
worms can also lnfest dirty water. Be careful that
ice in drinks has been made from similarly pure
water and avoid foods that are particularly prone
to bacterial infection such as unwashed fruit, ice
cream and shellfish.

Loperamide (imodium) controls diarrhoea

Blocked sinuses cause barotrauma in the but you are not fit to fly
descent

Teeth
Healthy teeth do not contain air pockets but
diseased or badly filled teeth may. ln flight the
expanding gas causes pain, aerodontalgia. Good
oral hygiene and dental care should prevent this.

Stomach and Gut

When we swallow air is taken in with the food to
the stomach and gut. At the lower air pressures
experienced in flight, the gas expands and can
be vented by belching or through the anus.
Occasionally gas is trapped in the small intestine
too far from either end of the gastro-intestinal
system to be naturally vented and can cause pain,
In extreme cases leading to fainting. Barotrauma
in the gut can be minimised by avoiding fizzy
drinks, beer, beans and spicy foods before flight.

6,2 Human performance & lirnitations

 Health in Aviatlon 6

VisuaI Defects Hypermetropia is long sightedness. lt is

Myopia and Hypermetropia
The eye focuses light on the retina with the
cornea and the lens. About7}o/o of the bending
takes place at the cornea and 30% at the lens.
Although defects in the cornea and lens can
affect the quality of vision most visual defects
result from the shape of the eyeball, being either
too long or too short.
v takes place
70% of the bendingY of light I at
thecornea
caused by a short eyeball and corrected
with a convex lens
Pilots with spectacles or contact lenses are not
excluded from flying provided their corrected
vision is adequate to read small print at 30 cm
and to read 6/9 in each eye, approximately
equivalent to one line up from the bottom on the
optician's chart at a distance of 6 m. lf contact
lenses or spectacles are used a spare pair of
spectacles must be carried.
The minimum uncorrected vision must be
6/9 in each eye

l{orma}Ey*
Presbyopia
The ability of the eye to adjust focus with the lens,
accommodation, varies with the elasticity of the
tissue and this in turn reduces with age. Above
$hort Eyebalt
long *ighted cr the age of 45 the lens is unable to accommodate
hypernetrnplc
fully and a form of long sightedness called
presbyopia develops. This normally becomes
apparent as a difficulty reading in poor light or
i-ong Eyeball
when tired. A weak convex lens or half moon
shart $ghted ar
myopic
glasses will usually correct this.

Presbyopia is long sightedness caused by

lack of elasticity of the eyeball in middle
Figure 6.3
age

Short and long sightedness can be corrected with
spectacles or contact lenses. Short sightedness
requires concave lenses to increase the bending
of the light and long sightedness requires convex
lenses.
Myopia is short sightedness. lt is caused
by a long eyeball and corrected with a
concave lens
lf a pilot is both near and short sighted, perhaps
short sighted when young and then presbyopic in
later life, them bifocal spectacles are the answer.
Bifocal contact lenses may not be used by pilots.
lf spectacles are used varifocals are not
recommended, the two lenses for long and short
sight correction should be clearly defined.
Astigmatism
Although rarer than near or long sightedness
defects of the lens or cornea can also affect
vision. Where either or both of these do not have
a smooth and symmetrical surface there is a
difficulty in focussing called astigmatism. This
is often not recognised by sufferers but can be
compensated for with corrective lenses.

Human performance & limitations 63

6 Health in Aviation
Gtaucoma and Cataracts
The aqueous humor that maintains the shape of
the eyeball is continuously replaced with fresh
liquid. ln some instances it is replaced faster
than it is removed and the pressure in the eye is
increased possibly leading to damage of nerve
fibres and ultimately loss of vision. This condition
is called glaucoma.
The lens gradually discolours with age. As the
process slowly continues the lens can become
completely opaque and sight is progressively
lost. The remedial action is surgical, remove the
lens. This restores vision although the ability to
accommodate is lost.
Flash Btlndness
Lightning flashes near the aircraft at night can
cause temporary blindness. lt is normal to turn
cockpit lighting up to maximum brightness,
sometimes selecting special fluorescent
'thunderstorm lights', in order to acclimatise the
eyes to bright lighting and reduce the contrast of
the lightning flash. lt may be possible to continue
to look inside the cockpit, or even use curtains, to
avoid the effects of a lightning flash"
Blood Pressure
The normal limits of blood pressure are 100/60 to
1601100 with, as a rule of thumb, pressure rising
with age so that the systolic pressure is about
100 + your age in years. The example quoted
before was that 130170 would be reasonable for
a 30 year old. Blood pressure that is too high,
hypertension, and blood pressure that is too low,
hypotension, can both cause serious problems.
Low blood pressure, hypotension, is normally
transitory but will lead to reduced blood flow to
the brain and heart and can consequently cause
pallor, fainting and, in extreme cases, death.
There are three causes of real hypotension. The
most fatal cause is haemorrhage or blood loss
following accident or disease. The higher centres
of the brain can be affected by lower blood
pressure, causing fainting as a response to strong
emotion, in an otherwise healthy body. lt is worth
noting that the cause of fainting during or after
giving blood is the emotional reaction, not the
blood loss, half a litre or so makes little difference.
Mild hypotension can also be present in the
6"4
general population purely because of genetic
differences and can disqualify a pilot from gaining
a medical as such an individual is at greater risk
of fainting in flight.
The symptoms of hypotension can also be
produced by excessive positive G. Blood pools in
the legs and lower abdomen and blood flow to the
brain and heart becomes lower. This is not true
hypotension.
High blood pressure, hypertension, is more
common and can be more permanent. Blood
pressure varies throughout the day and will be
higher during periods of physical activity and
emotional stress. Persistent high blood pressure
is more worrying because it increases the stress
on the heart and increases the probability of heart
attacks, kidney failure and strokes.
Hypertension can be treated by moving to a low
salt diet, giving up smoking, reducing obesity and
mild exercise. lt can also be treated with drugs
such as beta blockers some of which allow flying
to continue.
Coronary Disease
The heart depends on the coronary arteries for
its blood supply. A failure of the blood supply
as the arteries narrow with age or disease will
cause angina in times of physical or emotional
stress. The symptoms of angina are a pain in the
chest and possibly the left arm and shoulder that
dies away on resting. Angina indicates a serious
impairment of the blood flow to the heart and may
lead to gradual, or occasionally sudden, heart
failure.
Angina is an early indication of heart
disease
lf the coronary arteries are suddenly blocked,
perhaps by a thrombosis or blood clot, then the
effects are more severe leading to sudden heart
failure. The symptoms of heart failure are the
chest pains of angina together with nausea,
vomiting, sweating, weakness and shortage of
breath. Unless resuscitated, heart failure will lead
to death. ln the United States statistics suggest
that 80% of heart attack victims that reach
hospital recover and are later discharged.
Human performance & limitations

Even after recovery from a heart attack it is likely
that a section of the heart muscle will have died
because of lack of blood flow. This is called
myocardial infarction, the term is also used to
describe a heart attack.
The risk factors for developing coronary heart
disease are, in order, family history, smoking, high
blood pressure, high blood cholesterol, lack of
exercise and diabetes.
The highest risk factor for heart disease is
family history, then smoking
Exercise should be taken three times a week for
twenty minutes such that the heart rate is
doubled. Although stress and obesity may raise
blood pressure there is not direct link between
these factors and heart disease. Similarly it is
difficult to link alcohol and certain dietary
variations with heart disease; in fact some studies
indicate that alcohol in moderation may reduce
the risk of heart disease.
0besity
Some authorities define obesity as excess body
fat resulting in a significant impairment of health
from a variety of diseases notably hypertension,
heart disease and diabetes. The best medical
attempt to define obesity makes use of a Body
Mass lndex (BMl) obtained by taking the weight
in kilogrammes and dividing it by the height in
metres, squared. A resulting BMI of over 25 is
regarded as overweight and over 30 is obese.
BMI is weight in kg divided by height in
metres squared
Example:
A man is 1.83 metres tall and weighs 82 kg. He is
a) below normal weight
b) normal weight
c) above normal weight
d) obese
Solution:
rhe'*'
: 11;l,3:'
Human performance & limitations
Heatth in Aviation 6
and therefore his weight is in the normal range.
Genetics play a major role in obesity, some
people are just naturally fatter than others. On
the other hand, some people eat more than
others and, if the calorific intake is greater than
the energy burnt then, in simple terms, the excess
is stored as fat. The rate at which energy is burnt
off is called the metabolic rate, the mechanism is
the metabolism.
Diseases associated with obesity
are gout, hypertension, diabetes and
osteoarth ritis
Apart from the major medical risks detailed above
obesity increases the likelihood of suffering from
gout, from disorders of the joints, reduces G
tolerance and increases susceptibility to hypoxia"
ln an effort to reduce the BMI crash diets are
often embarked on. These tend not to work
as the reduction in food intake is matched by
a reduction in metabolic rate resulting in little
change in the fat deposits.
When a diet is combined with exercise the
metabolic rate is kept higher and even those who
are genetically prone to obesity can reduce their
weight.
Diet
A healthy diet includes a balance of fats,
carbohydrates and protein combined with trace
elements which are naturally found in common
foods. ln simple terms too much of anything
is bad for you. The United States National
Research Council has produced a list of dietary
recommendations which are generally accepted.
I Reduce fat intake to 30% or less of calories.
Reduce saturated fatty acid intake to less than
1A% of calories and the intake of cholesterol
to less than 300 mg daily
I Every day eat five or more servings of
a combination of vegetables and fruits,
especially green and yellow vegetables and
citrus fruits
r lncrease the intake of starches and complex
carbohydrates by eating six or more daily
6.5
6 Heatth in Aviation
servings of a combination of breads cereals
and legumes
I Maintain protein intake at moderate levels
I insecticide. There are several anti malarial drugs
Balance food intake and physical activity to
maintain an appropriate body weight
I Alcohol consumption is not recommended.
I Limit daily salt intake to 6 g or less
t Maintain adequate calcium intake
r Avoid taking dietary supplements in excess of
these recommendations
il
Maintain an optimal intake of fluoride,
particularly while the teeth are developing
The body gets its energy from
Carbohydrates & Protein
Poor attention to diet can leave a pilot with low
blood sugar or hypoglycaemia which causes
nausea, fainting and low G tolerance" Eating
normal balanced and regular meals, should avoid
any possibility of hypoglycaemia.
Tropica[ and Epidemic Diseases
Low standards of hygiene, poor quality water
supplies and insect bites can increase the
possibility of catching unpleasant diseases in
tropical climates. Basic precautions such as
drinking bottled water and ensuring food has
been properly prepared can reduce the nsk of
disease.
Malaria
The biggest killer disease in the world today is
malaria, an infection by a single cell parasite
introduced into the body by the bite of the female
Anopheles mosquito which breeds in stagnant
water.
Malaria is the world's biggest killer
disease
The symptoms of malaria are similar to flu but can
lead to fever and death if untreated. Once
infected malaria never really goes away and
sufferers can have relapses years later.
6.6
By far the best way to avoid malaria is to avoid
mosquito bites. Wear long trousers and long
sleeved shirts, sleep in air conditioned rooms
with mosquito nets and use insect repellent and
available but these often become ineffective as
the parasite develops resistance. Ouinine is a
traditional medicine and is used in tonic water,
originally as a medicine. Halfan is a 'morning
after pill' designed to be taken as the symptoms
of malaria develop which is becoming more
widely used, there may be some side effects that
keep you off flying for a few days.
Yeltow Fever, Polio and Typhoid
Yellow Fever is insect borne but there is effective
protection available by vaccination. lt is so
effective that yellow fever vaccination remains a
condition of entry to some countries and is certain
to be required for aircrew. Polio and typhoid can
be vaccinated against with considerable success.
Gamma-Globulin treats Hepatitis A
Hepatitis
The Hepatitis A virus is contracted by eating food
or drinking water that has been contaminated
with human faeces. Hepatitis B and C fall into
the category of sexually transmitted diseases,
the Hepatitis B virus transmission is from bodily
fluid exposure, which includes blood, semen and
saliva and the Hepatitis C virus is transmitted
only by exposure to an infected person's blood.
Hepatitis A and B can be vaccinated against.
Hepatitis.B o_r G..grn ca.lght from
_be
improperly sterilised needles
Cholera
Cholera is a disease spread by dirty drinking
water. Vaccination has little benefit for the
individual although it may help prevent the
spread of the disease. Routine cholera
vaccination, every six months, is now regarded as
unnecessary and the best course of action is to
avoid contaminated water.
Human performance & limitations

Tetanus
Tetanus (or lockjaw) is a disease caused by a
bacterium, Clostridium tetani, entering the body
via a wound. Untreated it causes muscular
spasms and, possibly, death. There is a vaccine"
Sexuatly Transm itted Diseases
There is a very high incidence of STDs in
undeveloped countries. AIDS is the most widely
publicised and is endemic in central Africa and
some parts of the Far East. Although AIDS
grabs the publicity, other STDs, such as Hepatitis
C, Herpes and Chlamydia can be extremely
embarrassing and, in some cases, fatal. The best
advice is to avoid sexual encounters overseas.
Clgarettes, Coffee, Drugs and
Alcohot
Cigarettes
Smoking tobacco in the form of cigars, cigarettes
and pipes affects the respiratory system, the
blood supply, reduces the resistance to hypoxia,
reduces G tolerance and adversely affects
night vision. lt is very unusual to be allowed to
smoke on the flight deck, even if it is permitted a
courteous pilot will not do so"
There are three significant components of
tobacco smoke:
Nicotine is the substance which gives
smokers "satisfaction" but it is
also addictive.
Tar clogs the lungs and causes
cancer ('carcinogenic' ).
Carbon attaches to haemoglobin more
Monoxide vigorously than O,
and causes hypoxia to occur at a
lower altitude than normal.
Coffee and Caffeine
Because of the low humidity in pressurised
aircraft it is tempting to drink tea, coffee or cola
almost continuously but these drinks all contain
caffeine. Excessive caffeine intake can, in the
short term, lead to a general feeling of sickness,
Human performance & limitations
Heatth in Aviation 6
shaking hands and can affect sleep patterns. ln
the long term there is evidence that it increases
the susceptibility to cardiovascular diseases.
For pilots the recommended daily allowance of
caffeine is 200-250 mg. A typical cup of in-flight
coffee would contain 60-70 mg but a large cup of
strong filter coffee could contain 100 -115 mg of
caffeine" As a rule of thumb the limit is about four
cups of coffee a day. Most experienced pilots
drink bottled water or tonic water in flight.
Alcohol
The damaging effects of alcohol are well known.
Beer, wine and spirits contain ethyl alcohol which
acts as a depressant on the central nervous
system.
Once swallowed the alcohol passes from the
stomach to the blood and starts to affect the
higher levels of the brain as a tranquilliser making
the person more relaxed and less prone to worry.
Both of these lead to a decrease in alertness.
Higher concentrations of atcohol in the blood will
begin to affect the areas of the brain that control
motor functions and the ability to speak and move
in a coordinated fashion is lost. The highest
concentrations will affect the entire brain and
ultimately lead to unconsciousness and death.
Alcohol intake is measured in units of alcohol
where a unit is the equivalent of a half pint of
normal strength beer or a standard measure of
wine or spirits. Damaging levels, that is to say
levels that will cause some physical damage to
liver, heart, brain blood cells or other organs in
50o/o of the population, are surprisingly low at
30 units a week for men and twenty for women.
Putting this into perspective this means an adult
male will be at risk of physical damage if he
consumes more than five bottles of wine a week
or drinks two pints a day. These are damaging
limits, safe limits are lower at 21 to 28 units a
week for men and 14 to 21 units a week for
womeR.
30 units a week are damaging for men ,20
units a week are damaging f; women'
When social drinking develops into dependency
alcoholism can be difficult to spot. Most
alcoholics disguise their alcoholism very
6.7
6 Health in Aviation

effectively, at least in the early stages. The World

Health Organisation (WHO) defines alcoholism as
the excessive use of alcohol repeatedly damaging
a person's physical, mental or social life. The
most important characteristic of an alcoholic's
drinking is loss of control either in a chronic
progression to destructive dnnking patterns or
regular uncontrolled binges.

Warning signs of an individual developing

problems with alcohol are regular solitary
drinking, gulping the first drink, lack of control,
morning shakes and memory loss. Alcoholics
usually refuse to admit their dependency until it
is more than obvious to all around them. Once
alcoholism is admitted the treatment is regular
counselling, usually in self-help groups such as
Alcoholics Anonymous, and total abstinence.

Many regulatory Authorities will allow a

recovering alcoholic to continue flying, subject to
regular blood tests.

The Law and Assoclated Guldelines

Blood alcohol content is measured in milligrams
of alcohol per hundred millilitres of blood,
expressed as mg/100 rnl or mg%. Studies have
shown that the smallest levels of alcohol in the
blood will affect performance but, because blood
alcohol levels rise and fall with diet and not only
drinking, a value judgement has to be made about
what level is acceptable.

15 mg 1100 ml is the equivalent of a small bottle

or half a pint of beer or an EU measure of spirits,
a unit of alcohol. Legal limits for driving are set
between 50 mgl100 ml and 80 mg 1100 ml, the
top limit being the equivalent of roughly two and a
half pints of beer. The body breaks alcohol down
at the rate of about 15 mg/100 ml an hour so two
and a half pints can be disposed of in about five
or six hours. Alcohol dissipates more slowly from
the inner ear and can adversely affect balance
some hours after this.

Alcohol is broken down in the body at a

rate of about 15 mgl100 ml an hour

Recent research has confirmed that blood alcohol

concentrations as low as 40 mgl100 ml are
associated with significant increases in errors
committed by both inexperienced and
experienced pilots.

6.8 Human performance & limitations


Early regulations avoid the decision, specifying
that one cannot operate an aircraft while one's
performance is adversely affected by drink or
drugs. ICAO, for instance, specify in Annex
2 to the Chicago Convention that "No person
whose function is critical to the safety of aviation
(safety-sensitive personnel) shall undertake
that function while under the influence of any
psychoactive substance, by reason of which
human performance is impaired. No such person
shall engage in any kind of problematic use of
substances".
National restrictions can be slightly more specific,
the UK Air Navigation Order (ANO) states in
Article 52"A person shall not, when acting as a
member of the crew of any aircraft... be under the
influence of drink or a drug to such an extent as to
impair his capa\city to act."
JAR-OPS 1.085 is both general and specific. lt
states that:
t A crew member shall not perform duties on
an aeroplane while under the influence of any
drug that may affect his faculties in a manner
contrary to safety
I A crew member shall not consume alcohol
less than 8 hours prior to the specified
reporting time for flight duty or the
commencement of standby
Not even a small amount of alcohol may
be consumed with 8 hours of duty
il A crew member shall not consume alcohol
during the flight duty period or whilst on
standby
n A crew member shall not commence a flight
duty period with a blood alcohol level in
excess of 0.2 promille
The final requirement uses the unit 'promille'
which means less than 0.2 parts per thousand, a
figure that approximately equals 20 mg of alcohol
per 100 ml of blood.
Human performance & limitations
Heatth in Aviation 6
Drugs
The regulations that cover alcohol use also, to
an extent, cover drugs" Recreational drug use
should be avoided by aircrew but other non-
prescription drugs can affect the body in flight. lt
should also be noted that alcohol can intensify the
effects and side effects (e.g. drowsiness) caused
by some drugs.
Anti-histamine drugs are used to treat insect
bites, rashes, allergies, hay fever and in cold
cures. The side-effects include drowsiness,
impaired depth perception, dry mouth,
headaches, nausea, and lack of balance and
co-ordination. Only very small doses of anti-
histamines in the form of cream or as very mild
anti-allergic drugs are acceptable for aircrew, any
treatment above the absolute minimum should
be checked with a doctor experienced in aviatton
medicine.
Anti-histamines cause drowsiness, ?spirin
can cause gastric bleeding and Imodium
can cause blurred vision
Aspirin can cause gastric bleeding, imodium can
cause blurring of vision, sedatives such as
barbiturates and sleeping pills such as mogadon
or temazepan reduce levels of alertness and
should not be used in the 24 nrs before duty other
than under medical supervision. Stimulants like
amphetamines and diet pills cause the opposite
symptoms of overconfidence and recklessness
and are equally incompatible with flying.
Antibiotics have only mild side effects but their
use indicates a severe infection which in itself
would make a pilot unfit to fly"
The guidelines are simple:
I Do not self medicate, even with 'over the
counter' products
I Do not fly if you are unfit
I Seek informed medical opinion if taking
medication
Anaesthetic
A pilot should not fly within 12 hours of receiving
a local anaesthetic and 48 hours of receiving a
general anaesthetic.
69
6 Health in Aviation

Toxic Substances and Dangerous
Goods
Under normal circumstances aircrew should not
be exposed to toxic substances in the course of
their jobs.
Passenger aircraft built in the US and UK after
1987 have fire retardant covers fitted to seats as
standard, older aircraft do not. Some individual
operators have installed fire retardant seat covers
on their aircraft as the aircraft are refurbished.

JAR-OPS Subpart R details the requirements

to be met when carrying dangerous goods
and accepts that some dangerous goods are
carried 'for operating reasons'. lt lists batteries,
fire extinguishers, first-aid kits, insecticides, air
fresheners, Iife saving appliances and portable
oxygen supplies as examples.

ln the event of fuel or any other toxic, or

potentially toxic, substance coming into contact
with the skin, it should be flushed off with copious
quantities of water. The initial use of soap will
remove the natural protective oils found on the
surface of the skin.

The same section of JAR-OPS lists the

requirements to carry dangerous goods as cargo.
Specifically it requires the operator to ensure that
adequate training has been given to all personnel,
that procedures are in place to ensure safe
handling of dangerous goods and documentation
is correct and complete.

Dangerous goods carried as cargo may include

inflammable materials, explosives and corrosives
as well as toxic chemicals. Mercury is worthy of
special mention as it is a corrosive fluid that will
eat into the aircraft structure and also gives off
toxic fumes.

Many components of the aircraft itself give off

toxic fumes such as hydrogen cyanide when
burnt, particularly the insulation on electrical
wiring and the polyurethane foam used in cabin
furnishings. The fumes from burning seat
materials and panels is dense, black, toxic and
disabling and is a major cause of fatalities in
otherwise survivable accidents. ln 1980, 301
people were killed by the effects of smoke in
a cabin fire in an L1011 while stationary on the
ground in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. ln 1985 57
passengers and crew died, again on the ground,
in a cabin fire following a B-737 rejected take-off
at Manchester, England. Here again the effect
of smoke was a critical factor in the number of
fatalities.

6.10 Human performance & limitations

 Heatth in Aviation 6

lncapacitation in Ftight at a stable phase of flight and is often short-lived.

The common causes of either partial or total
in-flight incapacitation, most of which we have
previously discussed, are:
I a pilot flying the aircraft. There is also a natural
Gastro-intestinal disorders
r Physiological stress caused by fatigue, dieting
etc.
t Blocked sinuses
t Congested eustachian tubes
t Carbon monoxide poisoning
I HYPoxia
It has been noted that when subtle incapacitation
has been introduced into training exercises in
flight simulators it has sometimes resulted in a
crash. This reflects the difficulty of recognition of,
and response to, a serious performance failure of
reluctance to take away control from another
qualified pilot. Nevertheless, such intervention,
even by a junior member of the crew, may
sometimes be necessary.
lnsidious incapacitation is the most
dangerous

t Bladder problems or kidney stones

I Heart attacks
il The side effects of medication
I Epileptic fits

The most common cause of incapacitation

is gastro-intestinal disorders

It is important to distinguish between fits, which

are associated with epilepsy, and faints" An
epileptic fit or seizure can be anything from a
period of 'absence' or loss of attention to a full fit
characterised by loss of control of the limbs. A
faint, or syncope, is a temporary loss of
consciousness caused by lack of blood to the
brain.

Treatment for incapacitation in crew or

passengers is, if possible, to move them to a
place where they cannot harm themselves or
others, give oxygen if in doubt, place in the
recovery position if unconscious and land as soon
as possible" Pilots that become incapacitated in
flight are strapped into their seats with their arms
constrained because of the difficulty of moving
them.

On larger passenger aircraft it is likely that the

passenger list will include a doctor, hurse or
paramedic that may be able to assist the crew.

Gradual or insidious incapacitation may be

unnoticed by the other pilot or crew members and
is probably under-reported as it usually happens

Human performance & limitations 6.11


Most aircrew will be asked to work anti-social hours, long haul crews will
experience the additional effects of jet lag. By understanding how our
body reacts to these disturbances rest can be planned to be as effective
as possible. JAR-OPS Subpart Q lays out crew duty limitations, these are
repeated in company Operations Manuals.
Clrcadian Rhythrns and
Teitgebers
The body naturally works to a daily cycle,
called a circadian rhythm. Without any external
influences the circadian rhythm is about 25 hours
long, slightly longer than a day. The circadian
'day' is controlled down to 24 hours by external
influences such as night and day and social
patterns like meal times. The external influences
are called zeitgebers, a name which in German
means 'time givers'.
lnternal rhythms are endogenous
rhythms. ihe natural perioO of a circadian
rhythm is 25 hours. Endogenous rhythms
are synchronised by zeitgebers
Figu re 7 ."1
Body temperature follows a rhythm throughout the
day being lowest at about 5:00 am and highest
at about 6.00 pm whether or not the individual is
asleep.
Human performance & limitations
Steep 7
The circadian rhythm controls patterns of sleep
and wakefulness as well as body temperature.
Under normal circumstances these two
rhythms work together so that the lowest body
temperature, about 36.2oC, coincides with
the time that it is hardest to stay awake, about
5:00 am, and the highest temperature, around
36.90 occurs at about 6:00 pm.
Body temperature varies from 36.90 in the
evening to 36 .2o in the morning
Although time spent awake is an important factor
in determining the readiness for sleep the
circadian rhythm also is important" Sleep comes
easier and lasts longer when the body
temperature is falling and becomes harder as the
body temperature rises"
The circadian rhythm also affects our
performance at different tasks" Simple jobs
involving visual searches and manual dexterity
follow the pattern of body temperature with
efficiency improving through the day and
declining at night to a low point just before dawn.
Performance on short term memory tasks, like
remembering names and telephone numbers,
declines through the day from an optimum in the
morning and tasks that require active thought
such as verbal reasonlng and mental arithmetic
are completed with peak efficiency at mid-day.
Performance of simple tasks is worst at
dawn and best in the early evening
7.1
 7 Steep

Steep Credits

lsolated from the circadian rhythm sleep patterns

can be considered in terms of credit points
Two points for each hour of sleep, one lost
accumulated while sleeping and points lost while
for each hour awake, maximum lG points
awake. Each hour asleep creates two sleep
credit points and each hour awake removes one
point.

,g*x i& #+- s

$wi+iS@ #ffi##
Figu re 7 .2

ln the case shown in figure 7.2 eight hours

asleep from 2300 to 0700 builds a sleep credit
of 16 points. Sixteen hours later having burnt off
sixteen points at 23A0 the body is ready for sleep
again.
The sleep credit and deficit idea also explains
how short 'naps' can help shift workers. lf the
person in the example above had to start work
at 2300 instead of going to bed, then six sleep
credit points could be gained by sleeping for three
hours in the early evening, theoretically extending
the working day to 0500 the next morning. ln
practice, as we have seen, the circadian rhythm
interferes with this ideal model and inadequate
sleep patterns can end up with negative credits
over a period, a sleep deficit.
The timing of sleep is the most critical
factor infliencing sleepr duratioll. Naps
'
help shift worfer-s
The Nature of Steep
There are five stages of sleep, four of which are
classified as slow wave sleep and creatively
named stage 1 sleep, stage 2 sleep, stage 3
sleep and stage 4 sleep. The fifth special type
is associated with dreaming and called rapid eye
movement (REM) sleep.

72 Human performance & limitations

 Steep 7

Sleep has been described as a healthy Stage 1 sleep is transitional. Stages 2 to 4

state of inertia or unresponsiveness show increasing delta activity

The stages of sleep are defined by brain activity While the subject is drifting into deeper sleep
measured by an electroencephalogram (EEG). other changes can be detected in the body.
Brain activity is rhythmical and can be divided into Stage 1 sleep shows muscle activity and rolling
characteristic patterns, the most important for us eye movements which decrease markedly in the
are alpha, beta, and delta rhythms. deeper stages. Eye activity is measured with an
electrooculogram (EOG) and muscle movement
with an electromyogram (EMG).
Awake
The final stage of sleep, REM sleep, is peculiar.
The brain activity is the same as you would
stagel @ get from an individual that is awake, a mixture
of alpha and beta rhythms with no delta
activity. The eyes twitch rapidly (REM) but the
Stage 2
muscles are completely relaxed. REM sleep
is alternatively known as paradoxical sleep
$tage 3 * because, apart from the relaxed muscles and the
closed eyes, it is as if the person is awake.

$tage 4
The Cycles of Steep
During a typical night's sleep an individual will
Paradoxical sr REM sleep initially descend fairly rapidly into stage 4 sleep"
After about 90 minutes in total and 40 minutes
3l*r at stag e 4 the level is raised to stage 2 and
the first bout of REM sleep occurs for about 10
Figu re 7.3
minutes" The 100 minute cycle then repeats itself
throughout the night with stage 4 sleep becoming
less common and REM sleep longer. A typical
There are five stages of sleep, Stages 1 to night's sleep will contain four or five REM cycles
4 and REM and, in total, about 50% of it will be stage 2 sleep.

Alpha rhythms are slow oscillations of 8 Hz to

13 Hz and are associated with a relaxed person,
When woken from slow wave sleep,
usually with the eyes closed. Beta rhythms are
sensations such as being crushed can be
more agitated and lower amplitude and are seen
remembered
when a person is alert and actively thinking.
Delta rhythms are slow, high amplitude rhythms
associated with deep sleep. REM sleep is also called paradoxical
An individual that is awake displays predominantly or paradoxic sleep. Paradoxic sleep
beta wave activity. ln stage 1 sleep the beta
increases during the night. A sleep cycle
activity is replaced with the alpha waves is 90 minutes long
associated with relaxation. ln stage 2, 3 and
4 sleep the alpha waves have gradually lower
amplitudes and are progressively replaced in turn
with delta waves so that by the time stage 4 sleep
is present nearly all the activity is delta.

Human performance & limitations 73

7 Steep
&wmkm
*-?{?dR ry-SfBfT
.fl ,;t#-{# .d,*4#}"j
ffiffiffi
sleep
Figu re 7 .4
Although REM sleep is associated with dreaming
dreams can occur in slow wave sleep" Dreams
during slow wave sleep appear to be more
associated with situations and sensations, such
as being crushed, and can be nightmares. lt is
during slow wave sleep that sleepwalking takes
place. During REM sleep more active emotionally
coloured dreams occur.
When woken from slow wave sleep
sensations such as being crushed can be
remembered
Slow wave sleep and REM sleep appear to have
different functions. Slow wave sleep increases
after exercise and is associated with the
restoration of the body and the reconstitution of
neuron energy reserves. REM sleep seems to be
a way of strengthening and organising memory,
there is more REM sleep when you are learning
new skills.
Paradoxic sleep strengthens the memory.
Slow wave sleep is related to body
restoration
lf the body is deprived of either form of sleep it
tends to make up for it the following night, this
tends to reinforce the idea that the body needs
7"4
f\4 r1f,% ftst,S"-r\ st*}fbs't ft.dfi{1
t#
L* fi # # jflLFe"$ ful#'#W ["f ,4$# i*$ tjfhffrBf\ fl1".{*ii'ir\
##fu] {J#$"$tj +'"+'*Ir.ior,sq
# f ##
both types of sleep. An early call can, for
instance, reduce the REM sleep. The next night
there is more REM sleep to compensate possibly
leading to a reduction in slow wave sleep and
tiredness in the morning.
The Required Am$unt CIf Steep
The amount of sleep needed varies from
individual to individual, the bottom line is that you
should sleep as much as you need" Lack of sleep
causes low alertness and reduced performance
but, as we have mentioned, the body tends to
be self-compensating and in the end it catches
up with even the most disturbed sleep patterns.
'Tiredness' is a subjective sensation which is
reflected in hypovigilance or in poor management
of intellectual capabilities.
Most people sleep for eight to nine hours
a night
UK charter pilots report an average of 6 .25 hours
sleep a night before duty days and 7.11 hours
before rest days. ln general women sleep longer
than men but have more sleep problems. Older
people need less sleep but the flexibility of the
sleeping pattern is reduced making shift work
more difficult to accommodate to.
Human performance & lirnitations

Older people sleep less and have less
REM sleep
Jet Lag
Properly called circadian dysrhythmia, jet lag
occurs when the body is moved to a different
time zone where the circadian rhythm is out of
synchronisation with the zeitgebers of night and
day. External influences occurring, ?s far as
the body is concerned, at unusual times lead to
disrupted sleep and an eventual sleep deficit.
The body's circadian rhythm will adjust to the
new zeitgebers at a rate of one to one and a half
hours a day, varying between individuals. As
the circadian rhythm naturally runs long at25
hours it is marginally easier to acclimatise to
time zone changes when travelling west than it
is when travelling east. lf the stay overseas is a
long one it may be worthwhrle allowing the body
to re-synchronise. lf it is a short one it is better
to try and reduce the influence of zeitgebers by
sticking to normal sleep patterns in darkened, air-
conditioned hotel rooms.
The body adjusts at one to one and a half
hours a day
Rostering patterns can exacerbate the problem.
Most flights from Europe to the United States
leave around mid-day and arrive back in the early
morning" A schedule between Heathrow and Los
Angeles might read like this with times in both
UTC (Z) and local (L):
Human performance & limitations
Steep 7
Depart LHR 100A Z 1000 L
Arrive LAX 21AA Z 1300 L
Depart LAX 22AA Z M00 L
Arrive LH R 070 A Z 0700 L
The crew rostered to fly outbound from the UK
will come on duty at about 0800 and will probably
be fully rested. By the time they arrive at their
hotel in LA it will be 2200 UK time and they will
be ready for sleep. They will have to be ready to
work again at 2000 UK time the following night
and will also have to stay up all night.
Westbound trans- Atlantic flights are
easier to cope with than the Eastbound
'red-eye'
So how do they arrange their rest? lf they sleep
immediately they will be too tired to work
effectively the following night, the obvious solution
seems to be to sleep immediately for a shorter
than normal period and rest again before duty"
This would mean, possibly, sleeping from 2300
UK time to 0600 UK time, being awake from 0600
to 1500 and sleeping from 1500 to 1900. The
sleep credit graph is shown in figure 7.5 on the
next page
The difficulty with this plan becomes clear when
one considers the local time, it has the crew
awake from 2200 L to 0700 L, all night. While it
is possible to sleep in the daytime in a darkened
room it is harder to stay awake all night in a
strange city with little to do.
This style of schedule is particularly punishing"
Many experienced crews would prefer to have
14 hours on the ground rather th an 24 because it
simplifies the sleep pattern.
7.5
7 Steep
ffi$ ffi
Figu re 7 .5
Sleep Hyglene
A lack of sleep induces causes an increase in
fatigue, concentration and attention difficulties,
the risk of sensory illusions and mood disorders.
All these lead to a reduction in performance.
lf the body really needs sleep, in sleep deficit,
it is possible to fall asleep in the most unusual
places. For aircrew that are trying to plan sleep in
sleep credit or at times when the circadian rhythm
does not easily permit sleep the following may be
helpful:
I Avoid drinks containing caffeine before resting
t Avoid mental stress and physical exercise
before resting
r Avoid napping in the period before planned
sleep
t Try a hot milky drink, light reading or
relaxatron techniques
Drugs in the benzodiazepine group are
prescribed by doctors to control sleep disorders.
Many of these are unsuitable for aircrew, the
current drug of choice is Normison but it must be
taken under prescription and the doctor must be
aware that it is to be used by aircrew.
7,6
Alcohol should not be used as an aid to sleep.
Although it does induce sleep there is a marked
reduction in the amount of REM sleep and early
waking is likely. After a night of alcohol-induced
slumber one does not feel rested.
Sleep Disorders
Narcolepsy is a disorder that causes people
to drop off to sleep at any time of day, even
when in sleep credit and even when driving or
flying
Sleep apnoea causes people to stop
breathing for periods varying from a few
seconds to up to a minute during the night
Sleep walking (somnambulism) and sleep
talking (somniloquism) are common in children
and less common in adults. When they do
occur they cause little problem
Clinical insomnia is the inability to sleep even
in normal favourable conditions
Situational insomnia is the inability to sleep
because of disrupted working and resting
patterns. Situational insomnia is the sleep
problem most frequently reported by aircrew.
Human performance & lirnitations
 lnformation Processing I

The human brain is extraordinarily fast and efficient at processing

information. Stimuli detected by the senses are given attention, recognised
and acted upon within a few seconds - sometimes very much quicker.
The ease with which the brain accomplishes this feat belies the incredible
complexity of the task.

trajectory and speed estimates and modified

The lnforrnation Processing
System
Take for example the processes involved in
catching a cricket ball, hardly the most complex
of human activity. Special movement sensors in
the eye detect movement. This alerts the brain
to direct its attention to the moving object. In
microseconds the object is identified as a ball.
This involves accessing memory to call up a host
of relevant information, including colour, size,
shape, weight, hardness, the level of threat and
the range of appropriate actions for dealing with
it
The ball continues to be tracked by the eye while
the brain calculates its trajectory and decides
whether to ignore it, to catch it or to avoid it
altogether. lf the brain decides to catch the ball,
action programmes are initiated to extend the arm
and fingers. The extension of the arm is then
continuously monitored, cornpared with revised
appropriately. As the ball enters the hand a reflex
action closes the fingers around it. This entire
process may take less than a couple of seconds.
By comparison even the most advanced
supercomputers would struggle to complete just
the identification task within the same time period.
Not surprisingly, different theories propose
different models to explain how the brain
processes information. While some models insist
on a multichannel (parallel processing) system
others emphasise the serial characteristics
of processing. ln the above example, the
identification and tracking of the cricket ball is
probably done simultaneously. On the other hand
we can't concentrate on the ball and something
else at the same time. There are obviously some
elements of processing that can only be handled
one event at a time. This processing bottleneck
occurs when conscious attention must be devoted
to the task.

,,#*#T$#f",$*T

Figure 8.'l Functional model of information processing

Human performance & limitations 8.1

S lnformation Processing
The model above is a simplified representation
of the processes involved. Stimuli are detected
by the senses and attract attention. Depending
on the level of attention generated the stimulus
is either processed and acted on consciously, is
ignored, or directly causes a motor programme to
be executed. For example, an incoming cricket
ball will trigger an automatic response to duck or
at least flinch.
While reactions to many stimuli can be handled
simultaneously a significant bottleneck occurs
when conscious decisions have to be made
before action is taken.
The central decision maker constitutes a
bottleneck in the information processing
system
Vigilance
An individual's performance at a task depends
on his state of alertness which could also be
described as his state of arousal or vigilance.
Some tasks, usually the more intricate ones, are
better performed at a low state of arousal and
some, less complex, tasks are best carried out
when levels of arousal are higher. The diagram
below shows how performance varies at differing
levels of vigilance.
Sf;flfEcuit tssk ffiasy tssk
*_-
*ffi
Figure 8.2
8.2
Vigilance levels will vary throughout a flight. The
body uses hormones such as adrenalin to adapt
itself to the task and to provide the appropriate
level of arousal. In the cruise, for example,
the level of vigilance is low to preserve energy.
Consequently, the level of attention devoted to the
instrument scan is relaxed. Conversely, on final
approach the level of arousal is much higher and
much more attention is devoted to the instrument
scan and other cockpit tasks.
An optimal level of arousal is required for
best performance. Both over-arousal and
under-arousal will degrade performance
External factors can adversely affect the state of
arousal and therefore the performance. An over
aroused individual, perhaps coping with an
emergency, will not fly as precise an approach as
he could. An under aroused individual, possibly
suffering from sleep deprivation, will also turn in a
less than adequate performance.
0ver-ArousaI and Under-Arousal
The causes of over-arousal are.
t High workload
I Environmental stressors such as heat and
noise
; Emergencies
The effects of over-arousal (hypervigilance) are:
t Reduced ability to perform calculations
r Disproportionate narrowing of the attention
n Narrowing of the visual field impairing visual
look-out
Tendency to complete tasks faster but less
accurately
Reduction of mental resources
Reliance on automatic patterns of behaviour
Human performance & limitations

The cause of under-arousal (hypovigilance) is
fatigue generated by.
t Sleep deprivation
r that was not being closely monitored" Having
Over work
The effects of under-arousal are.
I Reduced levels of performance on routine
tasks
I Behavioural changes
I lnability to prioritise between tasks
I Loss of speed and accuracy
Under-arousal is also called hypovigilance
Hypovigilance can be reduced by careful
rostering and attention to sleep patterns. lt is
worth noticing that the effects of these factors can
sometimes cancel each other out. For example, a
tired pilot will work better in a noisy environment,
at least for a short time.
Attention
The human brain is limited by its processing
capability, in particular its limited ability to
consciously deal with several events at the same
time. lt copes with the huge volume of data
arriving from different sources like the ears, the
nose, the eyes and the proprioceptive senses by
sub-consciously monitoring all the 'channels' and
assigning conscious attention to information only
when necessary.
Auditory stimuli, such as a fire bell, are more likely
to attract attention than visual stimuli but research
has shown that responses to auditory stimuli are
likely to be less accurate.
Auditory stimuli attract attention faster
than visual stimuli but tend to result in a
less accurate response
Human performance & limitations
lnformation Processing B
One effect of the attentional mechanism can be
can be seen in everyday life. ln amongst the
general conversation at a party one may well
hear one's name mentioned in a conversation
heard the stimulus the brain is able to 'replay' the
conversation just before it that would otherwise
have been lost. This selectrve attention is often
called the cocktail party effect.
The cocktail party effect - the ability
to pick up relevant information
unintentionally
Apart from recognising our name or callsign,
some stimuli such as loud noises, flashing lights
and unusual vibrations are particularly good
attention getters and are therefore used as
warning stimuli in the cockpit. This is particularly
the case during the cruise when the pilots'
instrument scan may be relaxed. Under these
circumstances an illuminated caption on the
instrument panel is much less likely to attract
attention than an audio warning.
Audio cockpit warnings are a more
effective n'attention grabber" than visual
warnings especially during low workload
periods
lf selective attention were to narrow the field of
attention to the exclusion of all other stimuli, an
individual's overall performance would suffer. To
take a primitive model, if the stone-age hunter
concentrated entirely on his prey and did not also
keep an eye open for predators he would not
survive. lt is necessary not only to concentrate
on the primary activity but also to automatically
monitor many peripheral 'channels'. This ability to
subconsciously monitor more than one channel is
what we commonly refer to as divided attention.
Over-arousal reduces the ability to divide
attention.
8.3
B Information Processing
An attentional mechanism is required
because human processing capacity is
limited
Modern models of human information processing
emphasise the fact that there is one central
decision maker. The decision maker is only able
to deal with one set of decisions at a time.
However, other actions may be carried out
subconsciously and other may be attended to by
rapidly switching between each. This creates the
illusion that the brain can deal with many different
actions simultaneously. Although we can
evidently walk and talk at the same time, walking
actions are carried out subconsciously and only
the talking element is dealt with by the central
decision maker.
The brain can only deal with one decision
at a time
This crucial limitation for human information
processing carries many implications for the
nature and causes of error, many of which will be
examined later in the section.
Coping With Many Tasks
Flying an aircraft requires attention to multiple
tasks. The primary task is to control the aircraft
but a number of secondary tasks such as talking
on the radio, communicating with other crew
members and operating aircraft systems demand
attention.
Given the limitations of the central decision
maker, multiple tasks can only be coped with
by priontising and rapid switching. The amount
of spare capacity for the secondary tasks
depends on the amount of attention required for
the primary task. This in turn can be reduced
by ample training and good cockpit design. To
reduce the amount of attention required for
secondary tasks standardised R/T procedures
and Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)
are used. The less active thought required for a
secondary task the less capacity it will take up.
B4
Perception
The Process of Perception
Perception is the means by which information
is acquired from the environment by the sense
organs and translated into experiences of objects
and events through images, touch, sounds and
smells and temperature.
The basic principles governing how objects are
organised and perceived were formulated in the
early part of the 20th Centu ry and are known as
the Gestalt Laws. These 'laws' are concerned
with the structural or organisation al arrangements
of elements that influence the way in which
we perceive things. For example, elements
which are closer together tend to be seen as a
group, as do elements which are sirnilar. These
laws begin with the distinction between what
is seen as a figure or object and what is seen
as the background. lllusions can occur when
it is not clear what is the figure and what is the
background.
Gestalt theory deals with our perception
and organisation
As we have already discovered perception is not
a straightforward mechanical process. lmages
formed on the retina, for example, are not simply
transmitted and replayed somewhere in the brain
like some internal cinema. lnstead the brain
actively interprets the pieces of visual information
arriving from the eye and uses them to construct
a mental model of the world. The mental model
is constructed, modified and refined by applying
previous knowledge about the world"
The brain uses previous knowledge to
interpret the lnformation receiv"dny the
senses. This is used to construct mental
models of the world
For example, if you walk into a room and spot a
television you will subconsciously make many
assumptions about what you are seeing. From
your initial angle of view you may see just the
front face (the screen) and perhaps a small
portion of one side. But even though you haven't
seen this particular television set before, you will
perceive the object as a solid 3-dimensional
Human performance & limitations
 lnformation Processing I

entity. Furthermore, you will know that the image
on the screen is artificially projected and is not
simply a window looking into another room" You
will also subconsciously ascribe many other
characteristics to the object, such as how it feels
to touch, how heavy it is, how valuable it is and
how fragile it is. lndeed your brain will make
similar assessments for all the objects in the
room, rapidly building up a mental model of the
scene. lf the TV happened to be an elaborate
dummy, your mental model of the room would be
inaccurate and you would be suffertng from an
illusion. An illusion caused by the
misinterpretation of sensory inputs is called a
'cognitive illusion'.
The information received by all our senses is
subjectively interpreted. When we listen to a
stereo Hi-Fi we perceive the sound as coming
from between the speakers" Marble feels colder
to the touch than wood - even though the two
objects are equally warm. Wine may taste sweet
or sour depending upon what we are eating at the
time.
70% of the information we process enters
via the visual channel
Using these examples we can see that the world
we perceive may or may not correspond with
reality. lf we enter the room and fail to spot that
the TV set is a model rather than real, our
perception of the room will not correspond to
reality even though the scene will feel 100% real
to us.
Perception is a highly subjective process
lines, patterns and planes as a cube-like solid
structure. Top-down processing completes the
model by ascribing qualities to the structure such
as glass fronted, with plastic sides, heavy, fragile,
expensive, and producing an artificial picture"
Bottom-up processing uses sensory
information to start building a mental
model
Throughout the perceptual process the brain
takes cues from the information arriving at our
sensory organs to make inferences that go far
beyond what our senses can actually tell us. This
is particularly true of depth perception.
Unfortunately the cues themselves are drawn
from past experience and can lead us to make
false assumptions.
Top-down processing uses previous
knowledge to modify the mental model
It is also important to understand that the
perceptual process is very dynamic. When
confronted with a new or ambiguous scene the
brain quickly constructs a model and applies it.
But rather than leaving it at that, the brain checks
the model to test whether it corresponds with
reality. lf the model is faulty it re-adjusts it until it
fits with what it perceives to be reality. This
happens so automatically that we often don't
appreciate what is going on.
This active process can be demonstrated easily
by using an ambiguous image. Look at the cube
in figure 8.3:

Mental models are constructed using a

combination of bottom-up and top-down
processing. Bottom-up processing is the
element of processing which directly depends on
external stimuli. Top-down processing uses
information gleaned from previous experience to
impose elements of a mental model on the
sensory information received. ln this case
information processing is influenced by our
expectations, knowledge and even the context in
which the information is presented.

ln the above example, bottom-up processing

refers to the way in which the brain uses the
Figure 8.3
retinal image formed by the TV to interpret the

Human performance & limitations B5

B lnformation Processing
The X can be seen either as marking the top left
corner of the front face or the top left corner of the
rear face of the cube. Keep staring at the image
and notice how your brain automatically switches
between the two possibilities. Because the cube
has been drawn with the "back" and "front" faces
exactly the same size, the brain can't resolve the
ambiguity and so can't construct a mental model
that works. For as long as you stare at the picture
the image will continue to change as the brain
tries in vain to decide what it is looking at.
lf mental models are fallible one might reasonably
ask why the brain has evolved such a system.
The answer lies in the enormous complexity
of the perceptual process. Because we take
perception so much for granted we sometimes
forget what an enormously complex task it is.
Distinguishing figure frorn background, near
objects from far objects, fast objects from slow
objects, music from noise all in real time with
each element perhaps continuously changing
is a formidable challenge. This highly complex
processing task is something that even the most
advanced computing hardware and software is
only just beginning crudely to emulate.
The process of constructing mental
models is very dynamic
One particular advantage of using a mental model
to interpret visual sensory information is our
ability to apply visual constancy to the images
we see. Our brains automatically cope with
apparent changes in size, detail and colour of
familiar objects.
The principal disadvantage of mental models is
that they are largely based on past experience"
To some extent, we perceive what we expect to
perceive - not necessarily what is actually there.
This is sometimes referred to as expectancy or
perceptual set and can cause problems when
we first encounter something new or unfamiliar.
Mental tggels can
?" influen"gd.by what
we expect to see or hear. This is known
as "expectancy" or "perceptual set"
ln summary, mental models allow the brain
quickly to interpret the vast amount of conflicting
perceptual information arriving at the senses.
They also help efficiently to sort out the
86
information into a readily understandable form. ln
other words they are a very efficient way of
meeting the processing challenge.
The drawback is that errors can be made at each
stage of the process.
Because sight and sound are the two most
important senses associated with flying, this
chapter will tend to concentrate on these.
Nevertheless it should be understood that all the
senses have a part to play in the operation of an
aircraft.
VisuaI Constancy
Because mental models are "constructed", reality
and our perception of reality may not correspond
exactly. Unless we had physically checked the
model TV in the above example our mental model
of the room would not correspond to reality.
The most vivid example of how the mental model
differs from "reality" can be seen in the brain's
automatic ability to impose visual constancy on a
scene. Visual constancy is the brain's ability to
perceive an object as the same object throughout
a wide variety of viewing condltions.
When you spot someone well known to you he
or she will tend to appear much the same on
each occasion - apart from obvious superficial
changes in appearance. However, this apparent
constancy is not at all an accurate representation
of what the eye is actually seeing. The
information registered on the retina will change
considerably from moment to moment"
Visual constancy is the process of
recognising famlliar objects even in
unfamiliar conditions
For example, the physical size of the person's
image on your retina will change considerably
with distance but the brain automatically scales
up and scales down the image - this is known as
size constancy.
Colour will also vary significantly under different
lighting conditions. Nevertheless we perceive
familiar objects as always having the same colour.
To your eye a familiar person will not change
colour as s/he walks out into sunlight from an
artificially lit room. Similarly, white paper will
always look whiter and brighter th an a lump of
Human performance & lirnitations

coal, even though coal in bright light may actually
be reflecting more light than white paper in a dark
room - this is known as colour and brightness
constancy.
Furthermore, the shape of a familiar face will
change constantly depending on the angle from
which it is viewed. But to your eye the face is the
same face from whatever angle it is viewed - this
is known as shape constancy.
Your brain constructs a mental model of what the
scene should look like rather than what it does
look like.
Size constancy is particularly important in
aviation. ln initiating the landing flare a pilot
will be using retinal size as one of the cues for
judging height above the runway. But to use and
understand this information s/he must already
have an idea of what a runway looks like at the
flare height. This idea comes from a store of
knowledge (a mental model) of what the runway
looks like in the final stages of the approach. lf
reality unknowingly conflicts with the model, for
example during an approach to an unusually
wide or narrow runway, the conditions are set for
a breakdown in the effectiveness of the mental
model and a subsequent heavy landing.
Size constancy plays an important part in
the final stages of a visual approach
It is not important that you remember the various
constancies, but you should understand that what
you are "seeing" is not an exact representation of
the image falling on your retinas.
Visuat Cues
We mentioned that the brain uses cues to make
inferences about what it is seeing. The most
notable example of using cues to make inferences
occurs in the visual perception of depth. When
we open a door and step outside the image of
the outside world forming on the retina is two-
dimensional. Without a mental model of the
world constructed using the visual cues available
to us we would not be able to perceive its
three dimensions" To perceive depth we use a
combination of retinal and our knowledge about
actual size, level of observable detail in "near"
and "far" objects, convergence of lines, parallax
differences between the two eyes etc.
Human performance & limitations
lnformation Pnocessing I
For example, we tend to perceive objects which
are hazy and indistinct in colour as distant" Clear,
well-defined objects as interpreted as being close
up. Fog or mist can dramatically affect our depth
perception. Because mist obscures colour and
detail, objects appear further away than they
actually are. This can give rise to extremely
dangerous illusions as, for example, making a
circling approach to a runway in hazy conditions
in a mountain valley" Mist would obscure detail on
the valley sides making them appear further away
than they actually are and leading the pilot to the
false assumption that his horizontal clearance
from the hill side is adequate.
Depth perception is driven primarily by
the size and clarity of the object. Misty
conditions will tend to make objects
appea r farther way than they are
A common illusory problem in visual cruise flight
is the evaluation of relative altitude. Mountains at
a distance which appear above the aircraft will
often pass well below it. At a distance an aircraft
which appears to be at a higher level may
eventually pass below your aircraft. Two aircraft
with a separation of 1 000 ft may appear to be at
the same altitude; both pilots can then take
avoiding action which could result in a collision
Another visual cue that we discussed in an
earlier chapter is the texture of the runway
surface. The amount of texture detail perceived
and the way it flows away from the impact point
gives us valuable cues for judging height. When
texture cues are absent height judgement can
be extremely difficult. This is why it can be
extremely difficult to land a seaplane on a glassy
smooth lake.
Texture flow is an important visual
cue used during the final stages of the
approach
87
S lnformation Processing
Figure 8.4
Similarly, we instinctively use relative movement
to make judgements about our speed. Because
the ASI is useless at typical taxiing speeds we
judge our speed by the rate at which objects
move in our peripheral vision. This can lead to
errors when converting to a much larger aircraft.
A Cessna pilot would be likely to underestimate
his taxiing speed in a 747 because his greater
distance from the ground would reduce the
relative motion of external objects.
When converting to a large aircraft pilots
will tend to taxy too fast
Visual cues work well when the cue is based on
valid information. Accidents can happen when
visual cues are based on invalid information. A
classic incident occurred when an RAF Jaguar
pilot made a visual approach to a familiar runway
ln winter. Snow had recently been cleared from
the runway but, unbeknown to the pilot, only the
centre section of the runway had been cleared.
The dark, cleared patch changed the aspect ratio
of the visible portion of the runway. Assuming
that the whole runway was visible, the picture
presented to the pilot led him to believe that he
vvas higher and further away than he actually was
- with expensive consequences!
B8
liirfft**Titr{lf*
Figure 8.5
Perceptual Set CI!' Hxpectancy
Perceptual Set, also known as expectancy is
defined as a bias, predisposition or readiness to
perceive particular features of a stimulus. Set
works in two ways: as a means of selecting
pertinent information and as a means of
interpreting i nformation.
Expectancy is a predisposition to perceive
particular features of a stimulus
Our expectations of a scene help us to focus
attention on particular aspects of the sensory
information we are experiencing. ln other words
we actively select information from which to
construct the model.
The same process occurs in interpreting the
inforrnation. For familiar situations at least, the
observer knows how to deal with the information,
how to classify it and how to understand it.
To put it in an aviation context, very few
experienced pilots would interpret the sketch
over the page simply as two vertical lines leaning
towards each other"
[-{ uman performance & lirnitations

Figure 8.6
Pilots are predisposed to interpret these lines
as the edges of a runway because their past
experience has taught them that this visual cue is
highly representative of a typical runway.
Some of our perceptual models are founded on
even deeper stores of knowledge. For example,
we are so used to a world lit by sunlight from
above that our perceptual model instinctively
assumes that the light source is "at the top".
Figure 8.7 shows exactly the same series of
circles but one has been turned through 180
degrees.
Look what happens when you turn the page
upside-down. Our 3-dimensional mental model
is revised to show the centre blob as protruding
from the page.
Figu re 8.7
Human performance & limitations
lnformation Processing I
This particular perceptual set was an important
factor taken into consideration when designing
the docking target for Apollo spacecraft. NASA
psychologists realised that in space, with no
additional cues provided by gravity, astronauts
could easily misinterpret depth information when
docking with the lunar module. Consequently,
the docking target was designed to be as
unambiguous as possible regardless of the
direction from which it was lit.
Expectancy is also sensitive to the context in
which the information is received. ln the following
example the 2nd character in each series is
physically identical but takes on a different
meaning depending on the context:
A13CD
t2 13 ,4 t5
Expectancy is influenced by the context in
which the information is presented
Perceptual set is not Iimited to visual stimuli. lt is
widely thought that expectancy had a part to play
in the Kegworth disaster. ln this fatal accident the
crew of a Boeing 737 were faced with engine
failure during the final approach. Despite the
evidence of their eyes, which would have shown
them that the left engine was failing, they shut
down the healthy right engine.
As in most accidents, a number of factors
contributed to this disaster. However, during the
course of the investigation it transpired that the
crew had recently attended a routine training
session in which it was suggested that because
of the design of the air conditioning system,
mechanical failure of the right engine would be
associated with smoke and fumes in the cockpit.
There is some evidence to suggest that, because
the crew experienced smoke in the cockpit, they
allowed themselves to reach the false hypothesis
that the right engine was the one suffering the
failure.
8.9
B lnformation Processing

Expectancy also plays a particularly important
role in the audio perception of radio messages.
The conversation on the radios between ATC and
aircraft, for example, is almost incomprehensible
to an unpractised ear, but pilots cope with it quite
adequately because they know from experience
what they expect to hear. When communication
is sketchy the brain uses its past experience to
"fill in the gaps" to construct a mental model of
what it is hearing.
Expectancy has been a contributory
factor in a number of fatal aircraft
accidents
heading zero four zero until
intercepting the three two five
radial from Las Palmas VOR.
Before the ATC transmission is complete the KLM
Captain says "Yes" opens up the throttles and
holds the aircraft on the brakes until the RPM
stabilise.
1706:09 Ah roger, sir, we're cleared to
KLM RT the Papa Beacon flight level nine
zero, right turn out zero fou r zero
until intercepting the three two
five and we're now (at take-off).

Norrnally this process works well, but when
expectation overrides the actual information
received the consequences can be catastrophic.
Pilots instinctively listen for the words "departure"
and "cleared" in the ATC response to their request
to departure clearance. lf expectancy drives
the pilot to hear what he wants to hear in the
response, lives can be lost.
As the F/O was still reading back the clearance
the captain released the brakes and said "Lets
go, check thrust". This caught the F/O off balance
and during the last moments of his read-back he
became noticeably more hurried and less clear.
1706:13 We gaan.
KLM RT (Were going).

ln 1977 a KLM H-747 collided on the runway at 1706:18 OK

Tenerife with a Pan American H-747 in very poor ATC RT
visibility. The KLM aircraft had started its take-
off run while the Pan Am aeroplane was back- {706:19 No...eh.
tracking on the same runway. The transcript of PAN AM RT
the KLM Cockpit Voice Recorder revealed the
cause of the accident. 1706:20 Stand by for take-off,
ATC RT I will call you.

1705:28 As soon as the KLM captain 1706:20 And we're still taxiing down the
aligned the 747 at the end of the PAN AM RT runway, the clipper one seven
runway he opened the throttles. three six.

1706:19-23 Communications caused a shrill

fi45: F/O "Wait a minute we don't
PAN AM&ATC noise in KLM cockpit - last two
KLM CVR have an ATC clearance". Captain:
"No, I know that, go ahead ask". messages not heard by KLM
crew.
Throttles closed.
1706:25 Roger alpha one seven three
1705:44 Uh, the KLM ... four eight zero
ATC RT six report when runway clear.
KLM RT five is now ready for take off...
uh and we're waiting for our ATC
1706:29 OK, we'll report when we'r.
clearance.
PAN AM RT clear.
1705:53 KLM eight seven zero five
1706:30 Thank you.
ATC RT uh you are cleared to the Papa
ATC RT
Beacon climb to and marntain
flight level nine zero right turn
after take-off proceed with

8.10 Human performance & Iimitations

 lnformation Processing I

flA632 ls hij er niet af dan Memory

KLM cockpit (ls he not clear then?).

1706:34 Wat zeg je?

The Structure of Memory
KLM cockpit (What do you say?).
Memory is crucial to every aspect of human
1706:34 Yup functioning. Without some form of long-term
KLM cockpit storage we would be unable to learn a language
or a new skill or to develop relationships with
1706:34 ls hij er niet af, die Pan other human beings. Without some form of
KLM cockpit American? (ls he not clear that short-term storage system we would be unable to
Pan American?). remember what we wanted to commit to memory!
ln fact the implications go even deeper than that.
1706:35 Jawel. (Oh yes - empahic) Without any memory at all we would be unable to
KLM cockpit see or to hear. lmages falling on the retina would
be a blur of unconnected shapes and patterns;
1706:44 KLM started rotation. voices would be a series of disconnected sounds
- but of course you wouldn't be able to remember
1706:47 (Scream). that!
KLM cockpit
Current theories of human memory differ in detail
1706:50 Colfision. but agree on the general idea that there are
broadly three types of memory, the sensory store,
the working or short term memory and the long
term memory.

Working mOmory can be called short term

memory

The three types of memory differ in the amount of

data that can be held and in the time for which the
data can be held.

2 - 3 seconds
Figure 8.8

The KLM captain heard the words 'cleared' and

'take-off' both appearing in the reply frorn ATC.
15 - 30 seconds
Although 'cleared' only applied to the departure about 7 bits
he assumed it was also a clearance to take-off. of information
This was apparently confirmed in the ATC RT
transmission at 1706:18. 583 people died, the
whole transcript above covers just over a minute.

Unlimited informatior
held indefinitely

Figure 8.9

Human performance & limitations 8.11

I lnforrnation Processing
The Sensory Store
The most fleeting type of memory is the sensory
store. The sensory store keeps an accurate
"copy" of sensory information for a brief time
following exposure to a stimulus.
This immediate copy allows the brain to preserve
continuity of experience from one moment to the
next. Without it sensory experiences would be at
best a series of random unconnected events.
Sensory memory is specific to each sense
organ, so there is a sensory memory store for
vision known as iconic memory and a separate
sensory store for auditory information known
as the echoic memory. Approximately 70% of
information processed by humans is acquired via
the visual channel.
lconic memory allows images to be stored for
about half a second. Echoic memory stores
sounds for about 8 seconds (though there
is some evidence to suggest that this is an
underestimate).
lconic memory stores visual information
for about 0.5 seconds. Echoic memory
stores auditory information for about I
seconds
lconic memory is almost too short for us to notice
but echoic memory lasts long enough for all of us
to experience its effect. Most of us will at some
stage in our lives have used the instant playback
facility of echoic memory. For example, half way
through a radio message from ATC we may
realise that the message was intended for us.
Although we may not be able to recall all that was
said, we are often able to "play back" some of the
message from memory.
Researchers estimate that less than 1% of the
information which enters the sensory store makes
it into Working Memory.
Working Memory
Working memory is an area of memory which
holds information for about 15 to 30 seconds but
this duration can be extended through repetition
or rehearsal. lt is from this memory store that
information is transferred to permanent storage in
long term memory.
8.12
Working memory stores information for
about 15-30 seconds
Working memory is the focus of consciousness; it
holds the information you are consciously thinking
about now.
Early theories drew a distinction between short-
term memory which held information for a few
seconds and long-term memory which held
information indefinitely. Recent research has
shown that the concept of short-term memory
as a transient store is much too simple. To
distinguish between the old and the new theories
the new model of memory uses the term working
memory to describe this transient store. Some
aviation reference books still refer to short-term
memory. The correct name used to describe this
short-term information storage system is working
memory.
Working memory contains the information
you are consciously thinking about now
Working memory is a limited store that enables
information to be held for a short period of time,
for instance the time between being given an RT
frequency and selecting it on a radio.
Spatial information is held in a visual code and
verbal information in an acoustic form, each for 10
to 20 seconds. Data can be kept for longer in the
short-term memory by rehearsing lt. Because it is
easier to rehearse words than visual information,
verbal inputs tend to be retained longer than
visual images. However, rehearsing can lead to
errors such as inadvertently transposing numbers
i.e. 117"5 becomes 115.7.
The maximum number of items that can be held
in working memory is about seven. We should
think of working memory as containing about
7 slots with each slot able to contain one bit or
unit of information. A'nunit" doesn't necessarily
correspond to one letter or one sound. lf letters
are 'ochunked" into words, for example, working
memory is able to store about seven words, each
of which may contain several letters.
Human performance & limitations
B lnformation Processing
Mnemonics. Mnemonics such as FREDA
and HASELL can be used to provide cues
which stimulate recall of each item in the list.
The Mnemonic is remembered as one easy-
to-recall piece of information which unlocks
several other pieces. Mnemonics can be
seen as a form of chunking.
Over Learning. Over learning involves the
repeated rehearsal of a procedure, action
or skill. Over learning is a particularly
effective form of training and is often applied
in aviation. Hours of doing touch-and-go
landings help the pilot to memorise the
psychomotor coordination tasks as well as
the key visual cues to judging height on the
approach.
Learning
Definition of Learning and Types of
Learning
Learning is the process by which relatively
permanent changes occur in behaviour as a
result of experience. For example once you have
learned to ride a bicycle your behaviour on a
bicycle has been permanently changed. Once
a child has stuck a paper clip into a live electric
socket he is most unlikely to do it again - his
behaviour has been permanently changed!
There are a number of possible ways in
which learning may be achieved but the four
most important processes are, Classical
Conditioning, Operant Gonditioning, Learning
by Insight and Learning by lmitatioll.
Classicat Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a form of learning by
association" ln this type of learning a response
to one kind of stimulus comes to be associated
or paired with another stimulus. The classic (no
pun intended) example of this form of conditioning
was demonstrated by Pavlov's dogs.
Glassical Gonditioning r
v is passive learningY
byassociation
Pavlov was a Russian physiologist studying the
digestive system of dogs" Like anyone who cares
8.14
for dogs he was well aware that dogs tend to
drool when shown their dinner. However, Pavlov
noticed that the dogs would also start drooling
when they saw the feeding bucket and even when
the heard the footsteps of the laboratory assistant
who was coming to feed them. By ringing a bell
each time the dogs were about to be fed he
taught them to associate food with the bell"
Before long he was able to elicit drooling simply
by ringing the bell.
While plenty of pilots hear bells and some
may drool, this particular example of classical
conditioning is not a common feature of aviation.
However, classical conditioning - learning by
association - most certainly can happen. An
engine fire in flight is a very stressful experience
and usually results in raised heart rate. Because
we associate the fire bell with an engine fire the
unexpected sounding of the fire bell can also
trigger an increased heart rate - even without an
engine fire. we have come to associate the fire
bell with a stressful situation.
0perant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a more active form of
learning in which voluntary (deliberate) behaviour
becomes more or less likely to be repeated.
Operant Conditioning is a form of active
learning. E.g. "if I do this then this will
happen"
ln response to encouragement from his instructor
a student pilot becomes more likely to make the
finals RIT call at the correct point in the circuit.
ln response to strong discouragement from his
instructor a student pilot is less likely to allow
the speed to decay below target on the final
approach.
Learning by lnsight
While some psychologists have attempted to
explain all forms of human learning in terms of
classical and operant conditioning, others stress
the importance of higher mental, "cognitive",
processes in some forms of learning. ln
laboratory rats, learning may well be the result
of a simple trial and error process, but it is
reasonably obvious that humans are able to make
Human performance & limitations
 lnformation Processing I

much quicker, insightful connections between
events and desirable responses.
ln this form of learning the learner takes two
previously known concepts and in a "flash of
inspiration" associates the two concepts with
each other.
All of us will have experienced this form
of learning at some time as a sort of "aha"
moment, perhaps when we suddenly see what
the groundschool instructor is getting at, or we
suddenly understand something that we couldn't
previously get to grips with.
Learning by lmitation
We are all familiar with learning by imitation
because it is one of the most common forms of
learning used in flying training. The instructor
demonstrates the take-off and the student
subsequently imitates it. The instructor
demonstrates the actions for engine failure and
the student imitates them.
Learning by imitation or "modelling" is
frequently used in aviation
Motivation. A poorly motivated student will
not learn as effectively as a highly motivated
one. Lack of motivation can arise from
internal drivers such as impatieRce with
basic or preliminary instruction but also from
perceived grievances of unfair treatment.
Poor motivation may also be the direct result
of incompetent, dull or uninspiring instruction.
InstructionlGommunication. Poor
instructional technique, often associated with
poor communications skills, will affect the
student's ability to absorb instruction.
Sickness and Discomfort. While sickness
(including airsickness) would be an obvious
handicap to learning other forms of discomfort
are equally significant. This is particularly
so in the aviation environment where a poor
cockpit environmental conditions including
heat, noise, vibration etc can significantly
affect learning ability"
Age. There is some evidence to suggest that
learning is not as easily accomplished after
the age of about 60.

This type of learning is also known as "modelling"

Factors Whlch Affect Learning

A number of factors have been shown to affect
the speed and quality of learning. However, all
successful, learning experiences require time for
adequate preparation, odequate study tiffie,
adequate review time and adequate testing.
Some of the factors which adversely affect
learning are.

I Fatigue and Sleep. Fatigue in general is

detrimental to learning but curiously learning
immediately after sleep is significantly less
effective than learning just before sleep.
Research has shown that as little as 30
minutes sleep before learning a new task can
affect one's ability to learn.
I Anxiety. Stress caused, for example, by
the pressure of the training programffie,
the frequency of performance checks and
fear of flying will all adversely impact on an
individual's ability to learn.

Human performance & limitations 815

S lnformation Processing

The Relationship Between Motivation This relationship probably occurs because

and Perforrnance attention narrows progressively as the level of
motivation increases. For example, athletes in
lf plotted on a graph, the relationship between an Olympic final will focus on their impending
motivation and performance often takes the form performance almost to exclusion of all other
of an inverted U. The optimal level of motivation stimuli. However, increased anxiety also has
increases as the difficulty of the task increases a part to play because it impairs the ability to
- particularly when the difficulty stems from the process information.
quantity rather than the quality of the task, figure
8.10. The optimal level of arousal for a difficult Motivation is a key factor influencing
task, however, is less than for an easy one - you performance. An optimal level of arousal
would not want an excited brain surgeon Figure maximises motivation. Complex tasks
811 require a higher level of motivation than
simple ones

ffiiffleult / $arge task Because the difficulty of a task is closely related

to experience levels, we may also conclude that
an inexperienced pilot would be more motivated
and would require a higher level of arousal to
complete a given task than his more experienced
'::-:
captain.

The optimum level of motivation and

arousal is proportional to experience

Experience can make up for any reduction in

reaction times caused by age. Research has
shown that as we age response times to stimuli
tend to be slower but become more accurate.
ilii,i"i'ilii ii . i,,;iii',.iri
:f
i,:i.i,ii+

itt i

ffiamy task

'fl;

{ s+t;s*l rr$ *t**iw:atjstr"r

Figure 8.10 and 8.1 1

8 16 Human performance & limitations


Acquiring Skitts
The Phases of Learning a Skitt
Skill may be defined as acquired expertise at
a task which results in increased accuracy and
reduced errors; or perhaps more simply, the ease,
rapidity and precision of carrying out an action.
The process of acqurring expertise involves three
stages in which the learner slowly moves from
a theoretical knowledge of what needs to be
done through a phase of practice to the stage
where the knowledge is completely embedded in
procedural memory.
A good illustration of this concept is the typist
learning to touch type. The first phase of
acquiring the skill involves being taught the rules.
For example, learning which hand deals with
which part of the keyboard, and which fingers
are used to press which keys. This is declared
knowledge and the trainee typist will easily be
able to recount the rules.
The next stage involves putting the theory into
practice. The rules are applied, repeated and
rehearsed. ln this way theoretical knowledge
slowly evolves into procedures.
The final phase involves a process of
consolidation. The touch typist starts to discard
some of the theoretical procedures in favour of
shortcuts. At this stage the touch typing skills are
completely internalised. The typist will be able
to type without even thinking about it and would
have great difficulty in explaining how s/he was
doing itl
Skills are learned in three stages:
v
1. Gognitive.
2. Associative.
3" Autonomous
This is Anderson's model
Human performance & limitations
lnformation Processing I
There are many instances in learning to fly
an aircraft where these three phases can be
identified.
Gognitive Phase. This is the first phase" During
this stage the instructor will talk about the skill
which the student is about to acquire. This
discussion will usually cover the task itself, typical
errors and the target level of performance.
,As
lnstructor: the aircraft decelerates we need
to progressiyely adjust the attitude, and trim to
maintain level flight".
Associative Stage. The associative phase is
where the techniques are demonstrated, learned
and refined and where errors are gradually
reduced"
Student: "The aircraft ls decelerating so I must
remember to raise the nose, hold the attitude, and
now I must trim ta relieve the control force while
watching the altimeter to make sure that I am not
desce nding or climbing".
Autonomous/Automatic Stage. The
autonomous stage covers the process where
performance is perfected or improved and
"internalised". This is essentially a polishing up
process where performance should eventually
reach the target level.
Airline Pilot: The airline pilot is thinking about
when to lower the gear as he unconscrously and
automatically adjusts the attitude and trims while
decelerating the aircraft.
Theoretical knowledge is acquired
in the Cognitive phase. The skill is
practiced in the Associative Phase. In the
Autonomous Phase the skill is polished,
perfected and internalised
817
B I nforrnation Processing
Motor Prog ra m mes/f"lenta 1 Schema
The significance of the autonomous stage of
skill development is that many of the actions
involving routine sequences of movements
can be executed without conscious control.
Psychologists refer to these automatrc routines
as motor programmes. Usually the only
conscious decision is to initiate the skill. So for
example, when we raise the gear after take-off
we don't consciously think about all the actions
involved in leaning forward, extending an arm,
touching the control and moving it upwards. The
whole sequence has been incorporated as a
motor programme. Our only involvement in the
programme is to initiate it. Motor programmes
which can be executed without conscious thought
are categorised as skill-based behaviours.
Motor programmes are skill-based
behaviours. Motor programmes require
little or no conscious thought
A similar process happens for other sequences of
actions, mental schemas, which are not purely
motor programmes but involve a variety of
responses - as in the drill for engine failure after
take-off. Following stimuli which indicate possible
engine failure (a loud bang and yaw to the right)
the experienced pilot would automatically inltiate
a series of actions including correcting the yaw,
lowering the nose slightly, checking that the gear
has been raised, monitoring vertical speed,
checking engine instruments to confirm which
engine has failed etc" ln this example a pre-
rehearsed action plan has been initiated which
involves a combination of thought, speech and
motor coordination. Behaviours for which a
procedure has been learned are categorised as
rule-based behaviours. Rule-based behaviours
are always actioned at a conscious level.
Mental schemata are rule-based
behaviours, They describe learned
sequences of actions and behaviour such
as an engine fire drill or a go-around
procedure
818
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Moton Pragrammes
The advantage of motor programmes is that they
relieve the load on the information processing
system This is essential for many activities.
Motor programmes allow us to fly the aircraft and
talk and plan at the same time.
The disadvantage of motor programmes is that
they are vulnerable to certain types of error -
particularly at the initiation stage. ln everyday life
these can be very amusing. For example "without
thinking" we might remove the packaging from an
item of food, inadvertently throw the food into the
bin and put the packaging ln the pan. The two
motor programmes - throw in the bin and put in
the pan were both executed perfectly but initiated
at the wrong time.
Motor programmes are vulnerable to
errors at the initiation stage
While examples of this sort usually give rise to
much hilarity the same type of error in a cockpit
could easily be fatal. The captain requests "gear
up" after take-off and the first officer inadvertently
selects flap up.
Knswledge- Bassd Behaviou rs
ln addition to the two categories of skill described
above a third category covers actions for which
there are no motor programmes or procedures.
These are known as knowledge-based
behaviou rs.
Knowledge-based behaviou r req uires
evaluation of a new situation using
previous knowledge and experienie
Knowledge-based behaviours require the pilot to
evaluate a new situation and use her knowledge
and experience to make a plan" For example a
pilot confronted with an unexpectedly active
weather front ahead of the aircraft will use her
experience to make a plan to avoid the dangerous
cumulonimbus clouds embedded in the front.
Human performance & lirnitations

The Risks of Skit[-Based, Rule-Based
and Knowledge-Based Behaviour
To a varying extent each of the three categories
of skill are prone to errors.
Normally even a very automated skill such as
raising the undercarriage is monitored. After
initiating the gear-raising programme a feedback
system continuously monitors the activity. Some
elements of this feedback process are carried out
at a deep level during which information received
from the eye is used to modify the extension of
the hand and arm and the closure of the fingers
around the lever.
Other elements of feedback are carried out
at a conscious level - "yes I am going for the
gear lever and yes the IAS is within limits",
this conscious monitoring ls carried out by the
central decision maker. Problems can occur
when the central decision maker becomes
busy with another activity. ln other words the
pilot is distracted by another task. Under these
circumstances the brain may fail to monitor the
motor programme and may not notice that the
arm is extending towards the flap lever instead of
the gear lever. This type of error is common in
the cockpit.
Distraction is a major cause of error
Another error of skill-based behaviour is caused
by habit. The obvious example is the gear check
on finals. Experienced pilots are so used to
checking the gear on finals and calling "three
greens" that this can become a dangerous habit.
The pilot, especially if he is tired or is repeating
the action for the umpteenth time (as in a touch
and go detail) may automatically call "three
greens" without actually having monitored the
indications. Most experienced pilots will, at some
stage in their careers, have caught themselves
doing this.
Habit can be a major cause or error in
skill-based behaviour. This is called
environmental capture
Human performance & limitations
lnformation Processing B
Rule-based behaviours have played a major part
in making aviation activity safer. Predetermined
drills covering critical emergencies help pilots
to carry out essential actions appropriately and
correctly almost without thinking about them -
even when under considerable stress.
Rule-based behaviour, G.g. SOPs,
checklists and briefings f,"rr" played a
major role in improving aviation safety
Rule-based behaviours are not motor
programmes but are sets of rules stored in
long-term memory. As such they are subject to
same errors associated with long-term memory
including inability to recall information and
incorrect recall. For this reason rule-based
behaviours are often laid down in checklists and
are practised frequently - hence the requirement
for regular simulator sessions!
Rule-based behaviours are subject to the
same errors as those associated with
long-term memory
Because these behaviours are executed
consciously they involve the central decision
maker and so can be subject to errors caused by
overload and distraction" However, practical
experience has shown that rule-based behaviours
can be very reliable. This is why standard
operating procedures (SOPs) and checklists have
become such an essential part of aircraft
operation.
Rule-based behaviour is abandoned in
favour of knowledge based behaviour
when the rules are-identified as unsuitable
Knowledge-based behaviour is closely related to
decision-making" The errors associated with this
process are discussed in greater detail in the
following section.
819

"To err is human" is such a well-known phrase that it is sometime easy
to forget that Cicero coined it more than 2000 years ago. Nevertheless
it captures an essential truth about human behaviour. ln recent times
psychologists have elaborated on this simple observation.
They hold that it is precisely because of our
extraordinary ability to automate routine
behaviours, to concentrate on one thing despite
a host of conflicting stimuli and to instantly recall
information from a virtually limitless store of
knowledge that we commit errors. Errors are the
flip side of the coin of an exceptionally efficient
information processing system.
The Unreliabitity of Human
Behaviour
What do we mean by the term "error" and how
frequently do errors occur? A useful working
definition of error is as follows:
An error ls an occasion where a planned
segue nce of mental or physical activities fails to
achieve its intended outcome, and where these
failures cannot be attributed to random external
intervention,
The key to any definition of error is the concept
of intention" Error and intention are inextricably
bound up with each other because there can be
no error where there was no intention to carry out
the action.
Human error is relatively common. Researchers
have shown that ln simple repetitive tasks
humans make an error approximately once in
every 100 occasions.
Human behaviour invariably results in
errors
However, this error rate can be significantly
reduced (to about once in 1 000 times) given the
right conditions. Nevertheless, even this rate is
far too high to be acceptable in the aviation
industry" The acceptable rate in hardware
systems is one error in 10 million occasions"
Since it is impracticable to expect humans to be
Human performance & limitations
Human Error and Retiabitity ?
able to raise their performance levels by such an
extent is evident that the industry has to devise
ways of managing human error.
Human error rates vary from about 1
in 100 for a simple repetitive task to
about 1 in 1 000 times for a complex and
stimulating task
Unfortunately early attempts to acknowledge error
were unhelpful. As early as 1943 researchers
had estimated that approximately 7A% of alrcraft
accidents were caused by pilot error and for some
time afterwards pilot error was considered to be a
valid cause for aircraft accidents. This approach
was deeply flawed.
Firstly there is no reason to distinguish pilot error
from any other form of human error - as one
notable aviation psychologist points out, "we don't
talk of surgeon error when a patient dies on the
operating table nor do we call it mechanic error
when our car fails to run smoothly after a major
service""
Secondly, human error in itself is not a suitable
and adequate explanation for an aircraft accident.
By attributing an accident to pilot error we fail to
examine both the underlying causes of the error
and the circumstances that allowed the initial
error to develop into an accident.
This realisation is at the heart of the current
approach to human factors where the industry
now adopts a twin track approach to error.
Almost all good programmes now emphasise
the importance of reducing the occurrence of
errors and minimising the consequences of
errors.
91
9 Human Error and Reliabitity

The Theory and Modet of Human This division is known as Rasmussen's model.

Hrror
In contrast to the number of errors committed
each day there are relatively few types of error.
Earlier error models maintained that there were
just two main types of error.
il Slips - where actions don't always go
according to plan
il Mistakes - where the plan itself is faulty
Rasmusson defines errors in skill based
behaviour as routine errors
Deviation and Viotation
Earlier we emphasised that error and intention are
inextricably associated. An error can only occur
if the action was rntended and is only an error if
the actual outcome of the action differs from the
intended outcome.

Slips are actions which don't go according
to plan
Mistakes are often subtle and complex. Slips are
often quickly corrected because one of the main
functions of consciousness is to monitor activity
to detect divergences between action and
intention. However, mistakes can pass unnoticed
for a long time because the decision has been
made and tends not to be questioned further.
obviously such errors don't encompass all the
factors that cause a pilot or crew to deviate from
normal performance. ln this respect we need
to draw a distinction between unintended and
intended deviation from standards. Figure 9.1
shows the various categories of deviation with
brief examples.
Violations are intended deviations from
plan

Mistakes occur when a faulty plan is

implemented

Not surprisingly the categories of possible errors

mirror the 3 main types of skill. Errors occur at
the:

t Skill-based Level. This is the level which

relies on stored patterns of instructions (motor
programmes). Errors committed at this level
are largely connected with mis-timing, poor
coordination or inappropriate force. These
can be called routine errors.
I Rule-based Level. This is associated with
tackling familiar tasks which are governed by
stored rules At this level errors occur when
the situation is miscalculated or misinterpreted
and inappropriate rules are applied. A further
source of error can result when the correct
procedure is incorrectly remembered.

r Knowledge-based Level. This level

concerns the solving of new problems. The
individual uses his experience to analyse
the situation and devise a solution. Errors at
this level stem from resource limitations and
incomplete or incorrect knowledge.

92 Human performance & limitations

 Human Error and Retiability 9

Slips and Lapses Mistakes Mistakes Cursory pre-flight Deviates from plan to
inspections fly over friend's house
lnadvertently Omits an item Elects to fly under
raises flap in the checklist rather than Unauthorized Deliberatly flies
instead of gear around an active modifications below MDH
thunderstorm to SOP's
Exceeds aircraft limits
Occasionally lands
below minimum Non-standard take off
deiversion fuel to impress girlfriend

Figure 9.'l

The Error Chain

So far we have discussed errors in isolation but,
as so often is the case in the real world, it is
sequences of errors rather than isolated errors
that most often have fatal consequences. A
sequence of related errors is commonly called an
error chain. With the benefit of hindsight most
error chains could have been broken and the fatal
accident avoided if just one link in the chain had
been removed. Perhaps one of the most stunning
examples of an error chain leading to a fatal
accident was the sequence of events which led
to the loss of an Air N ew Zealand DC-1 0 and 257
lives on the slopes of Mt Erebus in the Antarctic.
An error chain is describes a related
sequence of errors which may lead to an
accident or incident
ln 1977 Air New Zealand inaugurated sightseeing
flights to the lt/cMurdo base area. After a long
transit south the flights would let down in VMC to
allow passengers to take photographs of the area.
Although the accident occurred on 28th
November 1979 the error chain which led to it
began almost two years earlier.
The planned route included a let down procedure
terminating overhead McMurdo base. The
let down was based on the McMurdo NDB.
Unfortunately the let down track directly over-
flew 12 450 ft Mt Erebus. Although the height
profile in the procedure allowed for the mountain,
planning such a track was poor airmanship in the
first place"

Human performance & limitations 93

9 Human Error and Retiability

BHAUFORT
ISLAND

ffi
ROSS SEA

FOINT CIF IMPACT

CAPE 4'!a MT, TERRA

-4-
BERNACCHI
CAPE
NOVA L
%
?o ROYDS

%,
%

Nautical Miles

Figu re 9.2

'lst Error 3rd Ernor

1978. ANZ acquired a new route-planning
computer and began entering all its flight plans.
When transferring the Antarctic flight plan to the
new machine an operator inadvertently entered
the wrong coordinates for the NDB used for the
let-down. lnstead of 577o53.0' E166" 48.0'E the
o53.0' E164"
coordinates were entered as 577
48.0',.
2nd Error
1978. Despite an extensive checking system the
error was not picked up.
1978. By coincidence this error resulted in the
approach/let-down track being moved 27 miles
West. The new track avoided over flying Mt
Erebus and instead allowed crews to let down
over the sea in McMurdo Sound. Because this
seemed logical and safe the crews assumed
that the new track was intentional. Coincidently
the new let down terminated overhead a small
island in the sound - again a commonsense
arrangement.
4th and sth Errors
I Nov 1979. The route supervisor gave the route
briefing for all crews involved in the summer
season of flights to McMurdo. Although the route
briefing included large-scale topographical maps
of the area the planned route was not drawn on
the maps. This was a departure from normal
practice. This error was compounded by another.
the briefing included an OHP slide of the standard

9.4 Hurnan performance & limitations


military approach to McMurdo which was flown
along the sound. The briefing officer also
displayed photographs taken on previous flights.
One clearly showed Mt Erebus to the left of track.
Nov 1979
The McMurdo NDB was withdrawn. This meant
that the procedure could now only be flown
VMC. However the DME portion of the TACAN at
McMurdo could still be used as a valuable cross-
check of position
6th Error
15 Nov 79. On a flight to the region on 14 Nov,
during the VMC let down to McMurdo the captain
noticed a discrepancy of about 17 miles between
his expected position and the TACAN DME
reading. He reported this to his fleet manager
on landing and suggested that crews should be
warned. The fleet manager was unaware of the
new incorrect route that the crews were flying
and incorrectly assumed that the captain was
suggesting that the end of the let-down track
should be changed to be overhead the TACAN
beacon rather than overhead the withdrawn NDB
(a distance of only 2.1 miles). He forwarded the
change to the navigation office.
7th Error
16 Nov 79. Although the navigation office
received the request promptly the chief navigation
officer did not get round to dealing with it until the
following week.
27 Nov 79 The captain of the fatal flight spent the
evening before the flight plotting out the final let
down track on a large scale topographical map.
This clearly showed the let down occurring over
the McMurdo Sound and ending at a small island
a few miles from McMurdo base.
Bth Error
27 Nov 79. That same evening the flight planning
staff reviewed the proposed change to the let
down track. Unfortunately they used a copy
of the original flight plan. Consequently the
chief navigation officer saw little significance in
changing the coordinates from 77' 53.0'S:166'
48.0'E to77" 52"7' S .166o 58.0' E. So in just
three years the first 7 flights had routed over
Human performance & limitations
Hurnan Error and Retiabitity 9
Erebus, the next 7 over McMurdo Sound and now
the track has moved East again to let down over
Erebus.
?th Error
29 Nov 79. The change in flight plan was not
notified to the captain of the fatal flight. The
system for signalling the "Flash Ops" message
detailing the change had failed"
1Oth Error
29 Nov 79" The flight plan was transmitted to
McMurdo ATC but instead of defining the end
of the let down track as the coordinates of the
TACAN at McMurdo the flight plan simply said
"McMurdo". The ATC controllers assumed that
the flight plan was as per normal letting down
over the sound.
1lth Error
29 Nov 79. The crew let down VMC over what
they thought was McMurdo Sound" Because of
a startling similarity in the geographical features
of Lewis Bay and McMurdo Sound they mistook
their position.
A descending cloud base and fog on the lower
slopes of Erebus conspired to produce a local
sector whiteout. Although the visibility appeared
to be 40 nm in the direction of flight the mountain
was obscured. To the crew it looked clear ahead.
The aircraft crashed into the lower slopes of
Mt Erebus at 12.49. There were no survivors.
Active and Latent Errors
ln the above case a series of latent errors
contributed to the disaster. Latent errors are
those where the consequences may lie dormant
in the system for some time. The 1st error above
is the most obvious example of a latent error.
lncorrectly programming the waypoint in
the nav database was a latent error
Latent Errors are not expected by programmers
and although they lie dormant, they will show
themselves in time but only under certain
conditions.
95
9 Hurnan Error and Reliabitlty
Active Errors are those where the consequences
of the error are felt almost immediately. For
example over-rotation on take-off in a 747 can
lead rapidly to a tail-strike.
There is also the phenomenon known as
"Murphy's Law" which states: "lf a sysfe m can go
wrong it will, sooner or later".
Hrror Generatlon
So far we have discussed isolated errors, error
types and error chains. We now need to consider
what factors give rise to errors being generated.
One important distinction is between internal and
external error generating factors. Examples of
external factors rnclude poorly designed cockpit
controls and displays. lnternal errors stem from
internal factors and would include perceptual
errors and mistakes in situation awareness.
lnternat Hrror Generation
The principal sources of error for the individual
are.
Sensing Errors. For an individual to be able to
react to an event s/he must first be able to detect
it. There are occasions where information is
present but not sensed. For example infra-red
light is all around us but cannot be seen by the
human eye. Of more relevance to the aviator
is speed. Unlike acceleratioh, speed cannot be
sensed - only inferred. Above cloud and fog,
or over a snowfield, visual cues are reduced
or obscured making it very difficulty to discern
speed.
Perceptual Errors. These were discussed in
detail in the chapter on Perception. Perceptual
errors arise when the interpretation of stimuli is
faulty. Perceptual errors will be influenced by
context, inadequate and ambiguous information,
and expectancy.
Action Slips. Action slips occur when the
wrong sequence of actions (motor programme) is
implemented. The first officer thinks he is raising
the gear when he is actually raising the flaps.
Decision-Making. Regardless of the quality
of information sensed and perceived errors
can be generated during the decision making
process. Even with a good appreciation of the
96
factors an individual may attribute undue weight
to one factor over another, leading to the wrong
conclusion.
False-Hypothesis. The false hypothesis is
one of the most dangerous sources of error.
The classic example of false hypothesis in the
Erebus accident was the DC-10 crew believing
themselves to be on track to descend into
McMurdo Sound. False hypotheses are easy to
adopt and sometimes very difficult to relinquish.
As in the Erebus accident information which
contradicted their hypothesis was rejected
because it didn't fit with the hypothesis.
The false hypothesis error is the most
insidious and dangerous of error types
Distraction. When attention is diverted it is
switched from the current information processing
task to another. When attention is switched rn
this manner false assumptions are often made
about the aspects of the flight which are now
unattended" ln 1972 an L 1011 crashed into the
Everglades. The CVR subsequently revealed that
the entire flight deck crew plus an additional
captain qualified on type had become
preoccupied with changing the bulb in the landing
gear indicator. The captain, first officer, engineer
and visiting captain all assumed that the aircraft
was under control as they worked on the relatively
insignificant gear indication problem.
Motivation and Arousal. An unmotivated or
under aroused individual is likely to commit more
errors than a motivated one. Complacency
towards the end of a long flight - after almost
completing the job - can result in a reduction in
both motivation and arousal. This phenomenon
is known as "End deterioration effect" or "Home-
itis".
'-End deterioration effect" - complacency
towards the end of a task
ExternaI Error Generation
The sources of external errors are often best
examined in the context of the SHEL model
Human performance & limitations
 Human Error and Reliabitity 9

Liveware-F{ardware Liveware-Software
The interface between liveware and hardware Liveware-software problems can occur when
is still a source of errors though perhaps not as checklist and operational manual are poorly
much as in the early days of aviation. Where the written or poorly indexed. One expert cites a
hardware is poorly matched to the human, errors classic example where a departure plate was
can and will occur. The 3-needle altimeter was drawn so that the SID number could be mistaken
one of the classic examples of poor design that for the initial departure heading.
led to accidents. ln more recent years pilots have
criticized EFIS/ECAS displays because although
they present some relevant information (e.9.
highest engine temperature and lowest pressure)
they fail to show patterns and trends. The
classic "iron-dial" display of engine parameters
comprised rows of 4 analogue dials showing EGT,
RPM, Oil Pressure and Temperature and Fuel
H
Flow. A quick glance at the panel was enough
to check engine health because if any engine Hffi
E
was unhealthy its pattern of needle positions was
immediately recognizable as being at odds with
the others. A more detailed discussion of the L-H
interface is included in the section on flight deck
ergonomics below.
Figu re 9.4

Software can also be written so that it operates

in different modes. Systems with different
HHH modes of operation generally represent bad
interface design because a user can forget what
state the system is in, input an action and get

Hffi an unexpected or undesired response. This is

known as mode error.

E Mode errors are features of some

automated systems

Figure 9.3
Liveware-Environment
Physical and psychological stressors significantly
increase the probability of errors being generated.
Noise, vibration, temperature and heat are all
environmental factors which need to be carefully
controlled. Environmental factors also include
work patterns and shifts" Work and rest patterns
that fail to take account of sleep disturbance and
jet lag are likely to encourage a high incidence
of human error. Equally important are the softer
environmental factors such as corporate ethos. A
poor working environment will affect motivation
which in turn will increase the likelihood of errors.

Human performance & limitations 9.7

9 Human Error and Retiabitity

Strategies for Coping with

H
Hurnan Error

Error Management Programmes

One strategy for dealing with human error is
ffiffi the Zero Defect Programme where attempts
are made to eradicate errors altogether by

E encouraging very high levels of motivation and

Figure 9.5
Liveware-Liveware
Deficiencies in teamwork and crew cooperation
can have disastrous results. This is why so much
effort is now focused on MCC and CRM issues.
There are numerous examples where a poor
relationship between captain and first officer or
poor communication between the two has led to
disasters. This area is discussed in greater detail
in the section on cockpit management.
imposing a rigid regime of training and checking.
This concept is fundamentally flawed in its
belief that human error can be eradicated. lt is
simply not possible to maintain very high levels
of motivation indefinitely. Furthermore the
philosophy ignores the fact that some errors, ?s
we have already seen, are induced by equipment
design and other external influences. The usual
end result of a zDP programme is a reduction in
the reported number of errors!
Zero defect programmes are conceptually
flawed in their belief that human error can
be eradicated
A less radical approach, the Error Gause
Removal Programffie, concentrates on reducing
errors by trying to anticipate when, where and
how they might occur. ECR teams frequently

H
meet to discuss specific scenarios where errors
might arise and to agree on procedures and
techniques to reduce the risk.

Another approach has been to remove the human

from the system altogether. lf the human is

ffiffi removed, so too is human error. This strategy

works to a certain extent but is not a complete
panacea. Automation is a good way of dealing
with routine and repetitive tasks - precisely those
ffiffi that are performed badly by humans. Some
tasks, however, such as detecting unusual
sounds, smells or other sensory inputs are better
Figu re 9.6 performed by humans than by machines.

Although humans and machines have different

strengths they also have different weaknesses.
Machines are prone to sudden overload
breakdown whereas humans are much more
likely to break down under a gradual overload.

Figure 9.7 shows which tasks are better suited to

human or machine.

98 Human performance & limitations

 Human Error and Reliabltity 9

lnductive ,
,

,,i Reasafling,
' .r.",.i,+.,". . :., . i
"" ,,
+r..,1.:.r!.:..

Error
Sorrgction,,' ''
-"ft ',;+,; ..r. +'. r. 'n
' '";::'zr

lntelligenr*

ffionitoring
Deductive rea$oning
Speed
Power
Sonslst*n*y
'ffi
Complex acfiiyifigs,,
Short term ffiGrfisry
Conrputatigft.,.,, .

Figu re 9.7

A more profitable approach to error management Gross-Monitoring. Cross checking

adopts a twin-track approach which between two or more crew members is a
simultaneously concentrates both on reducing the long established method of reducing errors.
causes of error and reducing the consequences However recent research has cast some
of errors. doubt on how effective this technique is"

Strategies for reducing the causes of error revolve Machine Monitoring Systems. Systems
around addressing the weaknesses in all the may be incorporated to monitor human
areas of interaction mentioned in the External performance and to warn when dangerous
Error Generation section. Because over learning situations are developing. lncluded in this
has been shown to be such an effective way of category are ground proximity and collision
making skills resistant to stress and error, much avoidance warning systems.
emphasis is placed on training, re-training and
performance checking. When a system is set up so that the
consequences of an error will not jeopardise
Strategies for reducing the consequences of error safety it is said to be 'tolerant to error'. The
include: reverse, 3 systern where a single error can
cause a disaster, is said to be 'vulnerable to
I Reversible Errors. The scratch pad system e rro r'.
on flight management computers allows pilots
to check their entry before committing it to the
system. A well designed system is tolerant to error
r Error Prevention. Some systems are
designed physically to prevent errors being
made. The most obvious example being the
weight-on-wheels switches which prevent the
undercarriage from being selected up while
the aircraft is on the ground.

Human performance & limitatlons 99

9 Hurnan Error and Retiabitity

Ftight Deck Ergonomics
One very important strategy for reducing both
the causes and consequences of human error is
the physical design of the flight deck. Flight deck
ergonomics has become a subject for serious
study in its own right but much of the current
design philosophy stems from lesson learned the
hard way.
The guiding principle of flight design is that the
environment should be made to fit the pilot and
not the other way round. Measurements of the
human body, anthropornetry, are used to make
sure that this is so. The measurements fall into
two camps, static anthropometry which rneasures
limb lengths and dynarnic anthropometry which
measures reach and clearances.
When anthropometric tables are being compiled
only a specified sample of the population is used,
there is no point designing aircraft that children
and pensioners can fly.
position to ensure that his eyes are positioned at
the datum point.
This point then becomes the reference for all
other aspects of the cockpit layout including the
reach distance to controls and control panels.
Transit marks are often provided near the
windscreen to help the pilot achieve the correct
position. lt is assumed that this position ls
maintained for the whole flight although it is most
critical on the approach when a low eye position
will mean the view of the approach lighting is
obstructed by the coming and a high eye position
will mean you cannot see the instruments
properly.
The eye should be at the design eye point
throughout the flight

Static and dynamic anthropometry of a

specific sample of the population is used

Seat Design
Flight deck crew seats should be fully adjustable
and include an adjustable lumbar support.
The lumbar support should push the spine
into a comfortable shape, which ensures that
compression loads on the discs that make
up the spine are evenly spread across each
Figure 9.8
disc. lf there is no lumbar support, or a poorly
adjusted lumbar support, there will be uneven
loading on the discs, which causes tension in the
muscles and ligaments resulting in back ache.
lnstrument and Disptay Design
It is, therefore, essential that the crew seats Analogue or moving pointer instruments are best
are maintained in good condition and correctly suited to displaying qualitative information, for
adjusted by each crew member using them. instance the altimeter needle shows how quickly
the altitude is changing. Digital instruments show
Design Eye Point this badly as they become a blur of numbers but
show exact quantitative amounts more accurately.
The pilot should have an adequate view both Many instruments combine both analogue and
of the controls and displays and of the outside digital displays to get the best of both worlds.
world - ideally with the absolute minimum of head
movement. ldeally, all flight decks should be the same so
that there are no errors induced by different or
All modern flight decks are designed around an differently placed instruments" The standard
eye daturn, reference view point or design eye instrument panel is based on research conducted
point. Having specified this point the designer by the RAF in the 1930s. The T shape reflects
assumes that the pilot will adjust his seating

910 Human performance & limitations


the relative importance of the instruments and the
helps the pilot to maintain a radial scan centred
as always on the attitude indicator.
ldeally, all flight decks should be the same
Figure 9.9
Modern glass cockpit displays don't quite follow
this pattern. Nevertheless their design is based
on the same principles" The attitude indicator is
central to the display with speed, direction and
altitude readouts located around it.
Figure 9.10
While modern displays still give rise to
occasional design controversy none fall into the
pitfalls experienced with earlier generations of
instruments. The classic case of poor design was
the th ree-point altimeter.
Human performance & limitations
Hurnan Error and Retiabitity 9
This altimeter used 3 needles to display 100s,
1 000s and 10 000s of feet. Because the
10 000 ft needle necessarily moved slowly and
over a small scale pilots regularly misread their
height by 10 000 ft. Fortunately fundamental
design error on this scale is rarely seen in a
modern instrument display. The least ambiguous
analogue altimeters use a needle to indicate 100s
of feet and a digital read-out of height.
Multi-pointer altimeters are slower to read
and more likely to be read in error than
digital and pointer altimeters
Multi-pointer Digital and pointer
Figure 9.1 1
Design of Controts
The design of controls is equally important and
considerable effort is invested to ensure that their
operation is both intuitive and, ?s far as possible,
standardised between aircraft.
For example most altimeter sub-scale setting
knobs operate in the same intuitive sense. A
clockwise rotation of the knob results in an
increase in subscale reading and a clockwise
movement of the needle.
As a further safety measure critical controls are
also made to look different to help to ensure that
each is easily identified. This design feature is
most evident in the appearance of the landing
gear and flap levers. The flap lever is shaped like
a flap and the landing gear lever is shaped like a
wheel"
9.11
9 Human Error and Retiabitity
Similarly the operation of switches is relatively
standard between aircraft. The ON position is
always "up" and the up position is always relative
to the pilot's viewpoint - except on helicopters.
Figu re 9."12
Unfortunately there are still instances where
control functions are not standardised between
aircraft. Light aircraft fuel systems are a case in
point, see below, and the danger of confusing one
aircraft system with another is self-evident.
Figure 9.13
Design of Checktists and Documentation
Care and attention has also been given to the
design and layout of checklists and other flight
documentation" A summary of the important
principles is given.
t Typeface. Whlle uppercase can be used to
denote urgency and importance excessive
912
use of uppercase characters reduces
readability
Colour. Colour can be used to denote
urgency but is often incompatible with flight
deck lighting regimes. Red floodlighting
would, for example, make red checklist print
unreadable
lndexing and layout. A logical and
unambiguous indexing system is essential.
Page and paragraph numbering is more easily
recognisable than lettering. Particular care
has to be taken in indexing emergency and
abnormal procedures. ln the 1980 L1011
disaster at Riyadh the crew spent 3 minutes
trying to locate the aft cargo hold smoke
warning procedure because the drill was not
obviously locatable
n Diagrams and Charts. Complex information
is often much better represented in diagrams
and tables
Checklists should use upper and lower
case fonts
Warning Systems
The overriding principle of warning system design
is that the warnings should be attention getting
without being startling This can be achieved
either by flashing lights or audio warnings or a
combination of both.
Warning systems should be attention
getting
Warning systems serve two main functions; to
alert and to inform. For example most
commercial aircraft have a system to alert the
crew when an action has not been carried out
- for example the ground proximity warning will
activate if the landing gear is still retracted. The
informing function draws the pilots' attention to a
change in status as in a low oil pressure warning.
Usually warning systems use a common alerting
mechanism such as master caution caption and
associated audio warning" This alerts the crew to
a warning which is then explained or displayed on
a warning panel.
Human performance & limitations

Unfortunately warning systems are not always
completely unambiguous and the sheer number
of possible warning in a complex aircraft can itself
lead to confusion.
All warnings should be taken seriously but none
acted upon until the problem has been positively
identified.
Summary of Design Principles
While there are some differences in approach to
design philosophy there are a number of general
design principles upon which most designers are
agreed.
Positioning and Sequencing" lmportant
controls are always placed within easy reach.
Controls used in particular sequence are usually
positioned to follow the sequence. Controls
used simultaneously (e.g. throttles) are grouped
together.
ldentification of Controls. Controls are made
to look and feel different to make it easier to
distinguish between them.
Spatial Relationships. Displays and controls
are positioned to reflect the same spatial
relationship. E.g. the throttle for the left engine
is on the left; the engine rnstruments for the left
engine are on the left and are grouped with the
left throttle.
Display Golour/Symbology. Colours are
used in a relatively standardised way to denote
functions and importance. E.g. red is used
for danger and critical malfunction; amber is
used for caution and warning; white is used for
information; green is used to denote correctly
function systems. Warning devices are often
arranged to flash as a further aid to attention
getting.
Guards and lnterlocks. Critical controls are
often guarded, as in the case of the fire bottle
switches, or interlocked as in the case of the
landing gear lever.
Standardisation. Where possible the position
of important controls is standardized between
different aircraft and aircraft types.
Human performance & limitations
Human Error and Retiabitity I
Decision Making
Errors also frequently occur as a result of faulty
decision-making. As mentioned above decision-
making is a knowledge-based behaviour and is
influenced by a variety of factors including poor
or incomplete knowledge or incorrect weighting
given to information.
Decision Making Concepts
A decision is where a choice is actively made
between one or more courses of action.
Once information has been sensed and
perceived, decisions often have to be made. lf
information reaches the eye that a cricket ball
is rapidly heading towards one's head, a quick
decision has to be made to duck. ln this example
the decision is made to initiate a very rapid
response.
ln less pressing circumstances, the information
may simply be held in memory while the problem
is worked on. For example, you perceive that
your aircraft is heading for a very active frontal
system. This information is held in memory while
you decide your choices: to turn back, to achieve
vertical separation or to navigate around the
problem area.
The decision making process involves 8 stages:
I Activation - the information is sensed
t Observation - the information is studied
r ldentification - components of the information
are recognised
I lnterpretation - the brain makes sense of the
information
I Evaluation - the brain forms a series of
responses
I Goal selection - the best option is chosen
I Procedure selection - the best way of
implementing the option is chosen.
I Execution - the procedure is carried out
For complex problems every stage of the process
will be worked through - albeit sometimes very
rapidly. For simpler or very familiar probleffis,
913
? Hurnan Error and Retiabitity

like seeing a cricket ball heading towards you,

the brain has the ability to respond very quickly
Decision-ln?king errors are made more
indeed by jumping instantly from observation to
likely by:
execution. The same process of lntuitive leaps
Stress
can be used to jump from any point between
Time pressure
Activation and Evaluation side to any point
Distraction
between the Goal Selection and Execution.
Peer pressure
Errors can occur at any of the 8 stages of the Economic pressure
decision-making process. At the knowledge Self-imposed pressure
and rule-based levels a pilot might, for example,
misidentify or misinterpret the information he is
receiving. Knsw**dge"hased

Alternatively he may incorrectly evaluate the

information - placing too much emphasis on lndentification

one fact over another. Finally he may correctly ffi#fi**hmssd

evaluate a situation but make the wrong choice Observation

on how to deal with it. For example a pilot sees a

very active thunderstorm ahead and decides to fly Sk*$fi"bassd
under it rather than around it.

Errors are more lrkely when the decision-maker is: Normal decision.making process
-***e
* * * *b of a jump from an instantly
t Fr Example
Under physiological or psychological recognisable situation to required action
stress. E.g. stress caused by poor cockpit **'S> Almost instantaneous relex-like reaction
environmental conditions or domestic worries
brought to the cockpit Figu re 9."14

r Under pressure to make the decision very

quickly. E.g. on final approach at night to the
emergency runway (a parallel taxiway) which
is very close to, and looks very much like, the
main runway. Distracted or overloaded by
other tasks
(**.
t Unduly influenced by peer pressure and/
or opinion. E.g. an under confident captain
leaning heavily on the opinions of his first
officer

Under operational/economic pressure. E.g. a

captain who is trying to expedite a turn-round
away from base to ensure that he gets back
within crew duty time

Under self-imposed pressure. E.g. a pilot who

is determined to make up lost time to arrive on
time at destination "come what may" - just to
prove to him/herself and others that it can be
done

g
"14 Human performance & limitations
 Cockpit and Crew Managernent l0

Error is an essential and unavoidable consequence of human behaviour.

Consequently it is vitally important that a professional pilot continuously
monitors his or her own performance. The conditions for creating high error
rates occur regularly in professional aviation - there is always commercial
pressure and pilots often suffer from fatigue and stress.

Furthermore, the false hypothesis error - perhaps
the most dangerous of all error types - can
happen at any time.
Safety Awareness
t Mentally step-back from the situation
occasionally to think about how and why
current actions fit into the bigger scheme of
things
I Test hypotheses against known and new facts

A breakdown in SA opens the path to false

One of the best defences against errors is
to maintain situational awareness (SA).
Situational awareness refers to the process
of maintaining an accurate mental model and
requires conscious effort to maintain. The pilot
who becomes too absorbed in detail may miss
the bigger picture. For example an inexperienced
F/O might be so absorbed in correctly configuring
the aircraft for landing that he fails to take into
account that there are 7 aircraft ahead. The
resulting long flog downwind and across extended
base leg with the flaps and gear down is costly
both in terms of pride and fuell
Situational awareness is one of the best
defences against error
There are a few simple guidelines which may help
a pilot to maintain SA. The situationally aware
pilot will:
r Gather as much information as possible from
a variety of sources before making a decision
hypotheses, poorly sequenced actions,
inappropriate actions and a feeling of being
"behind the drag curve" i.e. always trying to catch
up with the aircraft.
One classic symptom of loss of SA is when it
becomes increasingly difficult to reconcile new
information with the "known" facts. lf you start to
experience this, suspect the "known" facts rather
than try to fit the new ones in.
lf you start to lose SA first try to off-load some
of the immediate pressures. Trim the aircraft
properly or engage the autopilot to relieve
the workload" Try to integrate all sources of
information: from the radio, the navigation aids,
the visual scene etc to construct an internal
"visual" plot of the situation.
The pilot who actively works to give herself
time to think stands a much greater chance of
maintaining situational awareness.

t Take time to make decisions and resist the

temptation to jump to conclusions
I Consider all possible interpretations of
information before arriving at a conclusion
t Try to maintain a running 3-dimensional
mental plot of where the aircraft is and how it
fits into the pattern of events

Human performance & limitations 101

10 Cockpit and Crew Management
The Multi-Crew Concept
Thankfully, in commercial aviation a pilot is often
not left to shoulder the burden of operating the
aircraft alone. The multi-crew concept goes
much farther than simply ensuring redundancy.
The objective of a multi-crew cockpit is to ensure
a proper division of responsibility and sharing of
the workload. This helps to ensure that neither
crew member becomes overloaded to the point
where s/he loses SA. lt also (in theory at least)
guards against an individual crew member
adopting a false hypothesis or inappropriate
course of action.
The fundamental elements of the multi-crew
concept are cooperation and communication.
ln an ideal situation, crew-members with
compatible personalities would be constituted as
permanent crews. This would certainly help to
promote both cooperation and communication.
However, commercial pressure and rostering
limitations means that this is rarely, if ever, a
practicable option. To compensate for this and to
facilitate good cooperation and communication,
airlines standardise as much as possible the
division of responsibility between crew members
and the method of operation of the aircraft.
These standards are usually laid down as
standard operating procedures (SOPs) which
are supported by crew briefings and checklists.
Crew tsriefing
The purpose of a crew briefing is to refresh crew
member's memories of the actions to be taken
during an impending critical phase of flight. The
briefing formalises and re-states:
I The division of responsibilities between crew
members
I The planned sequence of events, including
deviations from normal procedures
I The routine factors to be considered
I Actions in the event of an emergency
t Special considerations relating to technical
serviceability issues, weather, terrain,
aerodrome abnormalities etc.
10.2
r Pre take-off and pre-landing briefings are
considered so important that they are a
mandatory requirement for UK crews.
Checktists
The proper disciplined use of checklists is
essential for safe flight. Unfortunately, poor
checklist discipline has led to many fatalities. ln
1987 an M D-80 took off from Detroit but crashed
almost immediately killing 156 passengers and
crew. Subsequent investigation revealed that the
pre-flight checklists were either not done at all
or done incorrectly. The crew had omitted to set
the flaps and slats. Depressingly, this airline had
a history of poor checklist discipline which was
known both to the airline's management and the
FAA
Checklists and proper checklist discipline are
essential not least because they ensure that
the aircraft is operated in accordance with the
manufacturer's recommendations. As well as
this vital requirement checklists carry other very
significant advantages; in particular they:
I Reduce the risk of forgetting to carry out vital
actions
I Ensure that checks and susequent actions are
carried out in the correct sequence
I Appropriately schedule checks for periods of
low workload
t Are designed to be intuitive and ergonomic
- i.e. working from left to right around the
cockpit
I Encourage cooperation and cross-checking
between crew-members
Checklists may be in the form of hand-held cards
or may appear on display screens. Checklists
usually take the form of a to-do list in which
actions are carried out as the checklist is read-out
or are presented as a verification list which is read
out to confirm that actions have been completed.
Human performance & limitations
 Csckpit and Crew Management
Proper checklist discipline is essential.
Checklists are an example of rule-based
behaviour so the most common error will
be forgetting or missing items
ln both methods a challenge and response
system is used. SOPs will dictate who does the
challenging and who does the responding. For
vital checks both pilots may be required to check
and respond.
To reduce the risk of action slips when carrying
out checklist items it is advisable physically to
point to the cockpit item before implementing the
action.
Group Dynamics
Cooperation
Cooperation between crew members is one
of the twin pillars of the multi-crew concept.
Cooperation is distinct from coaction in
that it implies an active helpful process of
communication and sharing. For example, the
simultaneous inputting by captain and F/O of flight
plan data into each FMC is coaction but involves
no cooperation.
The degree to which members of a crew will
cooperate with each other depends on a number
of factors including the individual personalities of
each crew member" Most of us will have heard
of terms which describe various aspects of group
behaviour. For example we will be aware of
the adverse effects of a personality clash and
the powerful influence of peer pressure. The
breakdown of crew cooperation has led to many
fatal accidents so not surprisingly the study of
group dynamics has been of particular interest
to aviation psychologists.
Human performance & limitations
10
Group Behaviour
A group may be defined as two or more
individuals with shared characteristics, goals,
values and motives which set them apart from
others" An aircraft's crew comfortably falls into
this definition.
Groups can have a profound influence on a
group member's attitudes and behaviours - not
always for the better. A boisterous group of
adolescent males may encourage an individual
to do something irresponsible which he later
regrets. Alternatively the mere presence of a
senior training captain may encourage a lax F/O
to perform his checks meticulously!
Advantageous group behaviour can be assessed
in terms of the level of cooperation exhibited.
A group with a high degree of cooperation
between members has synergy. Groups with
a high degree of synergy tend to be cohesive,
in other words group members have a strong
desire to support each other. For obvious
reasons this form of group behaviour can be
most advantageous in a cockpit. A synergistic
and cohesive crew can work well together to
solve problems and even out the workload.
Furthermore a good group will tend to arrive at
better decisions than individuals.
Groups are likely to arrive at better
decision than individuals
On the other hand, some natural forms of group
behaviour can be very dangerous. One
particularly dangerous trait is the tendency of
some groups to adopt a false consensus. This
process is known as groupthink and occurs
when individual members display extreme
conformity to a group for the sake of conformity
alone. Group members are afraid to go against
the grain of thinking of the group with the result
that the group may adopt a patently undesirable
course of action.
Groupthink is marked by five features:
I The group making the decision is usually very
cohesive
I The group tends to be insulated from external
information
1 0.3
10 Cockpit and Crew Management
r The decision-makers fail to systematically
examine all the possibilities
I The group is under pressure to reach a
decision
I The group is nearly always dominated by a
very directive leader
A further undesirable characteristic of groups is
their tendency to arrive at riskier decisions than
would otherwise have been taken by individual
crew members. Risky shift, as it is known, can
Iead a crew to pursue a course of action that
can lead to disaster. Risky shift differs from
groupthink in that the group makes a conscious
decision to adopt the riskier approach. The
reasons why this happens can vary, but bravado
is rarely far from the cause.
Risky Shift: t"Td.to.".dopt riskier
9.roup."
courses of action than individuals
Groupthink can be avoided if the captain adopts a
slightly neutral role and avoids stating his/her
opinions too forcefully. This should discourage
any tendency for the F/O to act like a "yes man".
The captain should encourage the F/O to give his
own views and be seen to consider them
carefully.
Other factors which influence an individual's
behaviour within a group include:
I Conformity. The urge to conform to
group norms can be very strong indeed.
Experiments have shown that group members
will deny the clear evidence of their own eyes
just to conform to the group view.
t Gompliance. Compliance refers to the
likelihood of an individual to comply with
a request. lndividuals are more likely to
comply with an otherwise unreasonable
request if a preceding request was even more
unreasonable!
The opposite of 'Groupthink' is the 'Self-centred'
flight deck where each crew member does their
job independently without reference to other crew
members. This can result in the duplication of
some actions and the omission of others; both of
which are potentially hazardous. 'Coaction', on
the other hand, may be described as a form of
rc.4
co-operation which involves working in parallel
towards a common goal.
Cornmunication
Communication is the exchange of information
between individuals. For communication to take
place there must be a transmitter, a message and
a receiver so, by definition, communication can
only take place between two or more people.
Communication serves four main functions
categorized below:
I lnstrumental communtcation has the
objective of obtaining something: 'pass me
the latest TAF please"
r lnformative communication is concerned with
discovery or explanation. "We need to ask
for a revised approach time because u/e are
getting a bit short on fuel"
t Ritual communication forms part of a
ceremony or cultural habit. "Good morning
captain"
I Persuasive communication has the objective
of changing an attitude or behaviou r: "Take
your hand off that bloody flap lever!"
Communication can be one-way, as in the
example of persuasive communication above,
or it can be two-way e.g. when captain and
FIO discuss options for an approach. TWo-way
communication is usually more effective and is an
essential part of the process of explanation and
discovery involved in informative communication.
We tend to think of communication as a process
of speaking and listening but that ignores the
significant influence of non-verbal communication.
Eye contact, or lack of it, facial expression,
body posture and orientation are used to reduce
ambiguity, add emphasis or convey additional
meaning to words and phrases.
The term "metacommunication' means
communicating about the communication.
An example of this would be saying 'l am
surprised and also looking surprised. The non-
verbal message, the metacommunication, is
reinforcing and confirming the verbal message.
It is estimated that approximately 75% of
communication is achieved in this manner.
Although the presence of body language is
Human performance & limitations
 Cockpit and Crew Management
important the lack of it places greater emphasis
on effective verbal communication. The side-
by-side seating arrangement in a cockpit tends
to reduce the effectiveness and impact of body
language.
Conflict is often the result of poor communication.
Conflict between crew members is referred to as
'i nter- persona I confl ict'.
Poor communication can also be the cause of
an individual holding conflicting opinions about
a situation. He is able to see both sides of the
argument, both opinions, or both solutions to a
problem as being equally correct and this causes
an internal conflict within the individual which
does not involve anyone else. This is known as
'intra-personal confl ict'.
A number of factors influence the effectiveness
and reliability of communication including:
I lntelligibility. Poor radro receptioh, hurried
or garbled speech or sloppy phrasing can lead
to misunderstandings. Verbal communication
should be clear, unhurried and precise.
I Ambiguity. Accidents have been caused
by ambiguous or sloppy phrasing, most
notable of which was an accident at Nairobi
when the crew misinterpreted the instruction
"descend 2 75C^ as descend to 750. Clear
enunciation, standardised R/T calls and
standardized words all serve to reduce the
risk of misinterpretation.
I Uniqueness. Similar sounding call signs can
lead to crews believing that an instruction for
an other aircraft was intended for them.
I The Amount of lnformation. Short-term
memory can only retain approximately 7 items
of information. Long or complex clearances
clearly invite the risk that some items will be
forgotten. Writing down the clearance as it
is received and carefully reading it back can
help to ameliorate the problem.
r Using a Mixture of Languages. Despite
ICAO's insistence on the use of English as
the standard international language of the air,
many air traffic control services are tempted
to revert to their own language when speaking
to pilots of their own nationality. This was
a pivotal factor in the 1976 Zagreb mid air
collision between a BEA Trident and an lnex-
Human performance & limitations
10
Adria DC-g. Both pilots were cleared to FL
330 by the same controller but crucially the
clearance to the DC-g was given in Croatian
leaving the British crew with no chance of
picking up the error.
I ln the particular context of aviation, with its
attendant problems of poor radio reception
and heavily accented speech, the adoption of
a professional language has greatly helped
to improve communication. ICAO has been
particularly active in formulating a clear,
unambiguous and structured language for
use in the air. These rules are detailed in
PANS-ATM
I Team Leadership and Team Membership
Leadership is the process of influencing the
thoughts and behaviour of others through one's
ideas and actions. By a comblnation of example
and persuasion coupled with good understanding
of team and goal needs a leader will initiate
change.
ln the artificial circumstances of a designated
flight crew, the captain is the appointed person in
authority even though she/he rnay not possess
many of these leadership traits. This can lead
to obvious difficulties within a group and calls for
team members to exercise good followership to
ensure that conflicts do not arise
A good follower enhances team strength by
contributing ideas, providing support and
responding appropriately and helpfully towards
the leader.
Leadership style has a profound influence on
the nature of a group. lnteractive style - the way
in which an individual acts towards others - is
particu larly relevant.
1 0.5
'l
0 Cockplt and Crew Managernent
The authoritarian style stems from authoritarian
personalities. Such individuals tend to be
excessively obsequious to their superiors (in
power and status) while being excessively strict
with their subordinates. An authoritarian captain
will tend to be dogmatic, and assertive. He
will tend to underestimate the value of his F/Os
opinions and overestimate his own. He is usually
unreceptive to criticism and tends to be inflexible
and dogmatic. Clearly this leadership style is
highly undesirable because it discourages a team
approach.
A second equally undesirable train is the
paternalistic style" A paternalistic individual
will be highly conscious of his status and
position and, like the authoritarian personality,
will not welcome any attempt to question his
decisions. Unlike the authoritarian personality
the paternalistic captarn will praise his crew
provided they carry out his orders. This results
in crew members believing that their contribution
is undervalued. Roger Green in his book Human
Factors for Pilots describes one extreme example
of the paternalist.
P+G- Too Democratic
Will establish good relations but has too
little concern for task. Will leave others to
do the work and will let others have their
way to avoid arguments.
Corners may be cut"
P-G- Laissez-Faire
Cares little for the flight or the crew"
Generates poor group perfomance,
bends the rules and lowers morale.
Such individuals are usually old
frustrated pilots who have been passed
over for promotion and are awaiting
retirement.
ffi*
Figure 10.1
10.6
The authoritarian leader tends to be
dogmatic, assertive and unreceptive
to criticism. The paternalistic leader is
highly conscious of his status. He will
praise unquestioning obedience but will
not brook dissent
After a well known near accident, the captain
involved described the nature of his relationship
with other crew members as "relaxed but without
undue familiarity", and explained that he had a
drill for establishing this relationship. Before the
flight he would tell the crew that he was Jesus
Christ on the flight deck, but that even Christ
needed twelve disciples, and they were hr's.
Like personality, interactive style can also be
usefully quantified as a combination of two
factors: task orientatton and person orientation.
Task orientation refers to the degree to which an
individual is committed to the goal/task above
all other things - the G (Goal) factor. Person
orientation refers to the degree to which the
individual is committed to satisfying group needs
- P (Person) factor. The interplay between the
two characteristics is shown in the diagram below.
P+G+ ldeal pilot
Balanced concern for the effecient
operation of the flight and the well'being
of the crew. Will exercise power to
maximise the respect and commitment
of the crew. Will engender a positive
attitude which will encourage crew
memebers to give of their best"
ffi*
P-G+ Too Autocratic
Overly concerned with the efficient
conduct of the flight. He will ignore the
feelings, thoughts and attitudes of the
crew. He will generate a cool atmosphere
and ignores the expertise of the crew.
Crew members will be reluctant to voice
opinions.
Human performance & limitations
 Cockpit and Crew Management
We can quickly see from the diagram that the
ideal pilot is both goal and person oriented i.e.
P+G+. For non-urgent decisions a good captain
will, for example, encourage views and opinions
from his crew before expressing his own. This
involves the crew and encourages them to
contribute to the declsion-making process without
fear of ridicule or rebuttal.
The ideal pilot is task and goal oriented
(P+G+)
Ability, Status and Role
lnteractive style is not the only factor which
determines the contribution of each team
member. Team members will place a greater or
lesser value of individual's contributions according
to perceived ability, status and role. lndeed,
in a team comprising strangers (i.e. a rostered
crew) ability, status and role are among the
most important factors involved in forming an
understanding between relative strangers.
Ability, status and role are some of the
most important factors in forming and
understanding between relative strangers
Perceived ability is inextricably tied with status.
ln the arrline environment status is indicated by
the amount of gold braid on the shoulder. A junior
F/O will have much more difficulty in voicing
reservations to a very senior captain than would
another captain" However, the opinions of an F/O
who is perceived to be very competent are more
likely to be received favourably by the captain.
The differences in status are sometimes
described as the cockpit authority gradient.
ln addition to the Laissez-faire and Autocratic
gradients described earlier, in an ideal cockpit
a Synergistic gradient would be the most
preferable, where all parts of the crew are
working together towards a common aim.
A very steep gradient exists between a very
senior captain crewed with a very junior F/O. ln
these circumstances a high status individual
is more llkely to be persuasive and to carry his
view than one of low status; in this tnstance little
genuine teamwork will be involved in the decision
making process.
Human performance & limitations
10
Perhaps the most extreme example of this
phenomenon was the case of the F/O of a
twin prop commuter aircraft. The flight was
commanded by a manager/captain who was
known to be "difficult" and crewed by an F/O
still in his probationary period. Because of
operational delays and changes the captain was
particularly irate during the last flight of the day.
On final approach the F/O received no response
when he carried out the pre-landing checks.
The FIO didn't dare to question or challenge the
captain but instead left him to get on with it. The
aircraft crashed short of the runway with the
F/O still reluctant to intervene. It subsequently
transpired that the captain had died during the
approach !
A steep cross-cockpit authority gradient
is highly undesirable because it inhibits
the junior member from making valuable
contributions
A much shallower gradient is likely to exist
between a middle ranking captain and an
experienced first officer. Consequently decisions
are more likely to be reached following frank and
professional discussion.
Problems can arise even when two captains
fly together. The non flying pilot is usually
very reluctant to question the decisions of the
operating captain. ln this case the reluctance is
driven by notions of courtesy and etiquette rather
than fear.
A very shallow authority gradient can also
be dangerous. ln this case neither pilot
' IpointingY out
wishes to offend the other by
errors and omissions
The final closely interlinked factor is Role. Once
Individuals have been assigned roles they
sometimes find it very difficult to break out of
them even when circumstances dictate that they
must. Thus a FIO may be very reluctant to take
control from the captain even when the captain is
plainly performing dangerously.
10 7
 10 Cockpit and Crew Managernent

The Oualities of a Good Leader

Quality of leadership will depend on a number of
factors:

t Good judgment

I lntelligence
I A strong sense of responsibility
I Demonstrated achievements
t Cooperative and understanding

A good leader will:

t Motivate the team members

I Reinforce good behaviour with praise

t Demonstrate appropriate performance
standards and behaviour by personal example
I Strive to maintain group cohesion and
effectiveness
I Manage resources efficiently and competently

1 0.8 Human performance & lirnitations


Some understanding of personality and attitudes is essential for professional
pilots. ln a survey of 249UK pilots, 54o/o said that the major obstacle to
cooperation was the unacceptable behaviour of the other pilot. 93o/o of the
F/Os interviewed and 74o/o of the captains preferred not to work with certain
individuals. 30o/o cited "personality differences" as the main reason for
problems.
Clearly personality and attitudes
have an important part to play in
constructing a safe and efficient
cockpit environment.
Personatity and Attitudes
We all think we know what we mean when talking
about personality but psychologlsts have found it
very difficult to define the term.
One psychological definition describes personality
as "all stable behavioural characteristics
associated with an individual" another describes
it as "cons,stent individual differences at the
emotional and motivational level".
Personality is best defined as "the stable
behavioural characteristics associated
with an individual"
ln the rather more pragmatic circumstances of
aviation psychology, we can use a working
definition of personality as "the stable behavioural
characteristics asso ciated with an individuaf"
These characteristics are variously known as
traits or factors.
The concept of attitudes is equally resistant to
an easy definition. Perhaps the best working
definition of an attitude is a predisposition
to behave in a certain way. ln other words
attitudes provide us with ready-made reactions
to and interpretations of events. This is a similar
concept to mental schema.
An attitude is a predisposition to behave
in a certain way towards certain events
Human performance & limitations
Personality 11
Unlike personality, attitudes are not unique to an
individual. While many people may share broadly
the same attitude (for example a positive attitude
towards flying) "personality" refers to the unique
combination of behaviours, traits and attitudes
that can be used to define an individual.
An individual's personality forms under a variety
of influences. Some elements are innate - part of
an individual's biological make-up - whilst others
are formed as a result of childhood experiences.
Personality continues to be shaped in adulthood
as a result of both peer group and cultural
influences.
Personality Factors
One of the most practicable and pragmatic views
of personality is that every individual can be
quantified in terms of a combination of traits or
personality factors. For example, most of us will
be familiar with the concept of introversion and
extroversion.
According to the proponents of this theory, each
personality factor can be measured - preferably
through questionnaires - and the results used
to make predictions about the likelihood of
an individual behaving in certain ways. This
approach has been widely adopted by the
aviation industry and is frequently used as part of
the pilot selection process.
Personality questionnaires are one of
the most reliable means of assessing
personality
Perhaps the best known personality factors model
is the one proposed by Hans Eysenck in the late
1940s following extensive research on 700
"neurotic" soldiers returning from the war.
11.1
 11 Personality

Eysenck proposed a two-dimensional model Eysenck's 2-Dimensional Model of

where personality could be defined as resting
somewhere on two spectra: stable-unstable and
Personality
i ntrove rted - extrove rted .
Eysenck described a typical unstable character
as.
Unstable characters would tend to be moody,
touchy, anxious and aggressive while stable "an anxious, worrying individual, moody and
personalities would be even-tempered, calm and frequently depressed; he is likely to sleep
carefree. badly. He r's overly emotional, reacting
too strongly to a// sorfs of stimuli and finds it
Unstable individuals tend to be moody, difficult to get back on an even keel after each
anxious and aggressive. Stable emotional ly arousi ng experience."
individuals are even-tempered and calm
By contrast a stable character is one who:
lntroverted types would be passive, careful and "tends to respond emotionally only slowly and
unsociable while extroverts would be active and generally weakly and to return to baseline quickly
outgoing. According to Eysenck, precise after each emotional arousal; he r's usually calm,
personality characteristics would depend on even tempered, controlled, u nworried",
which particular combination of factors an
individual possessed. Figure 11 .1 shows the two When compared to introverts, anxious extroverts
dimensions In detail. lt can be seen that an tend to have more flying accidents stemming from
unstable extrovert might be excitable, changeable risk taking. on the other hand the rigid and sober
and impulsive while a stable introvert would be characteristics of the anxious introvert means that
peaceful and controlled. he tends to perform less well when confronted
with unusual emergencies.

High N
Ufi$fAs
m*mdy f**xc*ty
m**f***
r$gid

''* $ffi
pewmEmist$c *fumrxgemb{e
r*s*rw#d ,

'

il ,.
.-l

qxrtsmsimh*w mptir*$stfc
qwiet
::"' mgtfi*g
, ..: ...

Low E INTROVERTED High E

pu*u**
gmrefa*fi 1,,
*wtffi**mg
tfuma*ghtfe,rf l

tm$kyt$ve
p*ac*fu$ ' , flg$ps$?$$wffi
cmrtfn*$$ed e**y qw$mW
rwglmmgs

*wem"t*r*pened smnefrgw

cm&m *ruft ,lt '#' ##

sT#tstE

Low N
Figure 1 1.1

11 2 Human performance & lirnitations


Anxious extroverts tend to have more
accidents
ln terms of pilot selection we can see that the
stable extrovert is the personality most likely to
have desirable pilot qualities.
The ideal pilot is a stable extrovert
ln subsequently refining his theory, Eysenck
added a third dimension Psychoticism which was
used to describe tendencies associated with
psychiatric illness lt should go without saying
that individuals with a high degree of psychoticism
are very unsuited to flying!
Psychotic tendencies are completely
incompatible with flying and will lead to
the loss of flying licence
Eysenck's 2-dimensional model is now rather old
hat. Most psychologists now agree that
personality should be defined rather less crudely
using more factors. Although some theorists
have argued for as many as 16 discrete factors
the broad consensus of opinion has settled on
five fundamental factors to describe personality"
These are often known as the big five and
comprise:
It Extroversion
I Agreeableness
I Conscientiousness
r Neuroticism
t its ingredients. Using personality questionnaires
Openness to Experience
The Hr,rmanist Approach to
Personality
While the factors approach to personality is
particularly popular with the HR departments of
large organisations, other psychologists have
argued against such a simplistic and mechanistic
approach to describing something as complex as
human personality.
Human performance & Iimitations
Personatity 11
Setf Concept and ldea[ Selt
One humanist approach to personality
emphasises the importance of self-concept
and ideal self. Self-concept is how people
see themselves, while ideal self is how an
individual would like to be. This view of
personality concentrates on the importance of the
discrepancy between ideal self and self-concept.
Normal well-adjusted people tend to have much
less of a discrepancy between their self-concept
and ideal self than those who are maladjusted or
un happy.
The most efficient and adaptable
individuals are those who have little gap
between how they are and how they would
like to be
ln a study of US Air Force officers it was found
that those with little discrepancy between the two
concepts tended to be outgoing, efficient,
cooperative and adaptable. Those with a
relatively large gap between their ideal self and
self-concept tended to be unfriendly, confused,
awkward and slow.
One could perhaps infer from these finding that,
for example, promotion from first-officer to captain
would result in an individual's self-concept moving
closer to his or her vision of ideal self. This in
turn should lead to a more relaxed and balanced
outlook on life.
hdotivation, Performance and Self-
Discipline
So far we have discussed personality in terms of
we could probably make judgements about an
individual's likely responses under pressure, how
she might be likely to act in team situations and
perhaps even her likely leadership style. But this
approach can only tell us about an individual's
potential, it cannot give us an insight into how she
will actually perform in the work place.
Two pilots of equal intelligence, experience and
qualifications may well achieve entirely different
standards or performance in the air. What makes
them different is their motivation towards the
task.
11 .3
11 Personality
ln his book 'Human factors in Aviation' Frank
Hawkins succinctly summarised this very
important dimension:
What drives or induces a person to behave
in a particular fashion is called motivation
Motivation is the difference between what a
person can do and what a person will do. /f is the
internal force which initiates, directs, susfa ins and
terminafes all important activities. lt influences
the level of performance, the efficiency achieved
and the time spent on an activity,
Motivation is the difference between what
a person can do and what a person will do
As Hawkins points out, if we exclude reflex
actions hardly any human activity, including
learning, occurs without a motivating drive.
One classic model of human motivation depicts a
hierarchy of needs. At the most basic level is the
need for survival, followed by the need for safety,
love and belonging and esteem. At the top of the
pile is the need for "self actualisation". This last
need is the desire to fulfil one's full potential. A
musician must make music, a poet must make
poetry and pilot must fly. This hierarchy of needs
is sometimes depicted as a pyramid, figure 11 .2.
Discovering and fulfi lling
one's true potential.
The need for a sense for a sense of
worth, self-esteem. lncludes respect
for others and self-confidence.
To need to love, feel loved
and the need to have a
sense of belonging"
The need for a predictable
environ ment relatively
free from phsicaland
mental stress.
The need for water,
food, clothing, sleep.
Figure 1 1.2.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
According to this theory, motives at the bottom
of the pyramid are aroused first and must be
satisfied first. Only once these motives have
11 .4
been satisfied will the individual turn to satisfying
the needs of the next layer. These bottom level
needs are primarily physiological and tend to
concentrate on reducing deficiencies. As one
progresses towards the top level of the hierarchy
the needs become psychological and tend to
concentrate on promoting personal growth.
As we develop into adults our motives become
much more complex and are internalised to such
an extent that they become an integral part of an
individual's personality.
Research has shown that people operating at
the top of the pyramid tend to be autonomous,
uninfluenced by pressure to conform, have a
healthy respect for others and a clear moral
outlook. At the most superficial level it should
be evident that an unfulfilled pilot rnight lack
self-esteem or may be overly keen to conform to
group pressure.
Motivation levels will vary with time and with
changing circumstances. While we might expect
a young line pilot with his sights set on early
captaincy to perform to the very best of his
ability on every flight, the same might not be true
of a passed-over first officer in his last year of
employment.
Motivation levels will vary over time.
The least motivated pilot is likely to be a
passed-over FIO awaiting retirement
Another classic model of motivation , Herzberg's
2-Factor Theory, describes 2 fundamental
components:
r Motivation Factors associated with job
satisfaction which encompass such elements
as sense of achievement, advancement,
recognition, the degree of responsibility given
to the individual and the type of work in which
s/he is engaged
r Hygiene Factors which are primarily
associated with job dissatisfaction" These
include staff relations, personnel policy,
salary, job security and working conditions
ln practical terms this means that factors such
as pay, allowances, rest periods and rostering
arrangements etc, if properly addressed will do no
more than prevent pilots from feeling dissatisfied.
ln stark contrast, the factors that will actively
Human performance & limitations

promote strong motivation towards the job are
things like the opportunity for promotion, the
percerved status of pilots within the airline and the
quality of flying available.
Pay and conditions are not positive
motivating factors - but poor pay and
conditions can be de-motivating
The important point to note is that, beyond a
certain level, further increases in pay and
allowances and privileges will not contribute to
increased motivation. People are motivated to do
a job because they feel that the job is worth doing
in its own right and not because it pays well.
Motivation also stems from the goals that
individuals set themselves. For example an
ambitious young pilot may set himself the goal
of becoming the chief pilot. A less ambitious
first officer may set himself the goal of becoming
a captain. While goals are usually a source
of healthy motivation and a spur to improved
performance, Uhrealistic goals can lead to
problems. An individual who sets himself an
unachievable goal may become frustrated and
irritable and under perform.
Motivation is determined by the goals an
individual sets herself and the ethos of
the company in which she works
Motivation is also significantly affected by the
working ethos of the company. Even a highly
rnotivated and conscientious pilot will find it
difficult to maintain his high professional
standards in a company where discipline is lax
and company standards are low. Conversely a
pilot with poor self-discipline will perform more
professionally in a company with strict standards.
Corporate slackness and indiscipline has been
cited as a contributory factor in at least two major
fatal accidents in the US.
Surprisingly, job satisfaction does not necessarily
correlate with improved performance" A very
lax corporate regime may be less stressful
and demanding but is unlikely to guarantee the
highest levels of performance in the cockpit.
Human performance & limitations
Personality 11
Gorporate indiscipline has been cited as
a contributory factor in at least two fatal
airline accidents
Clear precise and acceptable goals, which strike
the right balance between achievability and
challenge, are the best way of motivating
individuals to perform.
Boredom can have a very negative influence
on motivation and performance. But of course
boredom is another way of describing the
absence of goals and challenges.
Positive reinforcement in the form of praise and
negative reinforcement in the form of criticism
when used appropriately can be useful method of
improving management tools. Not surprisingly an
overly critical captain is likely to be just as de-
motivating for a pilot as an overly lax one.
Hazardous Behaviours and Attitudes
Six behavioural traits have been found to be
particu larly hazardous to aviation.
I Anti-authoritarianism. A natural antipathy
towards regulations and people in positions
of responsibility is inherently unhealthy.
lndividuals who are anti-authoritarian are
frequently scornful of new regulations and
openly critical of their superiors. Such
behaviour can lead to disregard of regulations
and procedures.
r lmpulsiveness. lmpulsive behaviour is the
result of an inability to stem and control urges
and impulses. An impulsive individual may
jump to conclusions, initiate action without
due thought for the consequences and tend
to rush at problems. Such behaviour is
highly undesirable especially in emergency
situations.
I Sense of invulnerability. lnvulnerability is
an unhealthy form of egotism and stems from
a misplaced belief in ones own ability to avoid
mishap. "lt will never happen to me". A sense
of invulnerability tends to reduce awareness
of risk and is likely to manifest itself in
unnecessary risk taking.
11 5
11 Personatity
I

Excessive self-esteem. Otherwise known

as pride, conceit and arrogance. Such
individuals are likely to try to outdo their
peers, taking unnecessary risks to prove their
superiority. They are also less receptive to
suggestion and advice. Such individuals are
particularly likely to exhibit poor self-control
and an indifference to rules, regulations and
others.

Resignation. Resignation refers to a

tendency to underestimate one's influence on
the outcome of events. Resigned individuals
tend to try to avoid making decisions and
assuming responsibility. ln emergency
situations this can manifest itself as a fatalistic
attitude to events and, in extreme cases,
withdrawal from participation.

Complacency. Complacency is a dangerous

combination of confidence and contentment.
It can lead to reduced risk-awareness
and is often associated with higher levels
of experience and over familiarity with
procedures. The early stages of complacency
are marked by a reduced desire to remain
proficient. Complacency often takes the
form of a gradual and subtle deterioration in
awareness and performance. Complacent
pilots are more likely to "cuff it" and to fail to
make adequate contingency plans.

11.6 Human performance & limitations

 Human Overtoad and Underload 12

The effect of arousal on performance was discussed in a previous chapter.

A certain level of arousal is a positive influence on performance. Figure 12.1
shows that as arousal becomes more acute performance deteriorates. An
extremely aroused/anxious pilot will perform significantly less well than one
who is optimally aroused.

For example the sympathetic nervous system

Arousal, Stress and the General will increase heart rate in response to physical
Adaption Syndrome exercise. At the same time the parasympathetic
system will work to reduce the heart rate to the
minimum necessary to cope with the demand for
oxygen" Depending on the amount of physical
ffiiffiaufit I $arg* task activity involved, the two systems will reach a
balance at the point where the increased demand
ffasy task for oxygen is exactly matched by the increased
volume of blood being pumped by the heart.
f--

The parasympathetic nervous system is

responsible for reducing arousal

Without the sympathetic system the heart would

L#'s#{ .#f l$rt"nt${+;t?
Figure 12.1
The significance of arousal in a chapter devoted
to the discussion of stress, is that arousal is one
of the physiological responses to stress. The
effect of stress on human performance is often
measured through this intermediate factor.
Arousal is a physiological response to
stress
The arousal mechanism is part and parcel of the
autonomic nervous system (ANS). The ANS
controls the involuntary activities of the body such
as the beating of the heart. lt comprises two sub
systems, the sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous systeffis, which work in opposition to
each other to produce a balanced response"
The sym,pathetic nervoys system js
responsible for increasing arousal
fail to increase its rate in response to exercise
and without the parasympathetic system any
*r *nxi*fu increase in physical activity would result in a
disproportionately large increase in heart rate.
The interplay between the two systems always
works to produce a physiological balance - a
process known as homeostasis.
The classic example of a desirable response
from the ANS is the fight or flight reflex which
is part of the general adaption syndrome.
When confronted with a threatening situation the
ANS automatically prepares the body for instant
physical action. The more noticeable symptoms
include.
I lncreased heart rate
I lncreased respiration rate
t Tensing of the muscles
I Reduced production of saliva
I Blood diverted from the digestive system to
the brain
These physiological changes prepare the body
either to face the threat and fight, or to run
away. ln either case intense physical activity is

Human performance & limitations 12.1

12 Human 0verload and Underload
anticipated. This phase of the response is known
as the alarm reaction.
lf the source of stress is not removed the body
enters the resistance stage of the response. At
this point the parasympathetic system begins to
help the body to recover from the initial reaction
and begin to cope. This phase is marked by a
reduction in physical symptoms but a marked
increase in hormonal activity and glucose
production. lf the source of stress is removed
blood sugar levels will slowly return to normal.
lf the source of stress remains the body enters
the final stage of the response known as
exhaustion. The brain overndes the body's
natural physiological urge to return to normality
and instead continues to produce an excited
response. However, at this stage the body's
resources are beginning to be used up and blood
sugar levels drop dramatically. lt is this stage
that causes physiological disorders such as
hypertension, heart disease, asthrna and ulcers.
There are 3 phases of response to a concentration
stressor:
1. Alarm reaction
2. Resistance
3. Exhaustion
These three stages of response are collectively
known as the general adaption syndrome or
GAS
A strong physiological response to
an immediate physical threat is highly
desirable
We can see that stress is very much a two edged
sword. On the one hand a strong physiological
response to an immediate physical threat is a
highly desirable response. Similarly a moderate
amount of stress makes us feel excited, sharp
and alert and relishing the challenge. lt focuses
our attention, increases vigilance and provides us
with some of the energy we need to maintain our
interest in the world around us. lndeed, a
complete absence of stress, a situation known as
underload, can be positively harmful e.g. being
so relaxed that you fail to notice the very high sink
rate building up in the final stages of the
approach.
122
A complete absence of stress is usually
undesirable
On the other hand very high levels of stress can
lead to anxiety and a reduction in performance.
Furthermore prolonged exposure to a stressful
stimulus can lead directly to physical problems.
This is because the vast majority of stressors in a
modern society require mental rather than
physical solutions. ln these circumstances the
physical preparation for fight or flight is entirely
inappropriate. For example the fire bell sounding
during the cruise will require a mental response
with some very limited physical action e.g.
operating the engine bay extinguishers. But in
the cramped confines of the cockpit the body has
no way of dissipating the nervous and physical
energy created.
Prolonged exposure to stress can
cause physical illness. Anxiety affects
judgement, attention, memory and
Stress and the Causes of Stress
Like many psychological concepts stress has
proved to be remarkably resistant to academic
definition. lt is certainly beyond the scope of this
syllabus to discuss the merits of various attempts
to define it. For practical purposes we can define
stress as a heightened state of arousal caused
by stressors in the environment.
Both good things and bad things cause
stress. Only bad events however, are
perceived as stressful
a-
To complete the circular description we can
define stressors as any event or situation that
induces stress.
Stressors come in a variety of formats ranging
from purely physical stresses stemming from a
physically uncomfortable environment (too hot,
too cold) to purely psychological stresses like, for
example, the stress caused by bereavement.
Human performance & limitations
 Human Overload and Underload 12

Heat
Noise
Vibration
Low humidity Death of spouse Lack of control / disruption to routine
Disruption of circadian rhythm Divorce Rostering
Separation Anxiety about courses / checks
Death of a family member Home / work interface
Personal injury Gareer and achievement
Marriage lnsufficient flying
Marital reconci iation
I
Lack of responsibility
Pregnancy lnterpersonal problems
Sex difficulties Management issues
Changes in finances Fatigue and flying patterns
Arguments with spouse
Large mortgage
Large loans
Child leaving home
Trouble with in-laws
Spouse begins / ceases work
Revision of personal habits
House move
Vacation
Christmas

Figu re'12.2

There are many ways in which stressors can be
categorised: by cause, by situation or by effect.
One possible set of categories is shown in figure
12.2 together wrth a list of some the principal
causes of stress.
The main cause of stress for airline pilots
is the lack of control and disruption to
their lives
Anxiety, Obsessive and Phoblc
Disorders
Stress may also be caused by irrational fears.
Generalised anxiety disorder is a condition where
sufferers live in constant tension and worry for no
rational reason. Obsessive-Compulsive disorders
arise when individuals are obsessed with, for
instance, their work and allow few intrusions.

ln a flight deck scenario this could be a pilot

The table of stressors in figure 12.2 was compiled
by an American psychologist and represents a
possible ranking and weighting of various life
stressors for Americans. lt is likely that a similar
survey of European individuals would reveal
differences in the order and weighting.
Nevertheless, it is a useful guide to the
significance of various stressors in everyday life.
who checks the flight plan, met and other
documentation far more often than required
or is reasonably necessary. Phobic disorders
are irrational fears; e.g. claustrophobia (fear of
enclosed spaces), acrophobia (fear of heights),
zoophobia (fear of animals), arachnophobia (fear
of spiders). By the time a pilot has a professional
licence issued he/she should have overcome any
relevant irrational fears. However, an amazing
number of pilots suffer from acrophobia away
from the aviatlon environment and will not climb
ladders or go near the edge when at the top of tall
buildings. All of these disorders tend to increase

Fluman performance & limitations 12"3

12 Human Overload and Underload

stress levels but will not prevent a pilot from flying

except in extreme, but treatable, cases.

12.4 Human performance & limitations

 Hurnan 0verload and Underload 12

31 Change in work hours or conditions 2A

32 Moving house 20

33 Moving school 2A

34 Change in recreational activity 19

35 Change in church activity 19

36 Change in social activity 18

37 Small mortgage 17

38 Change in sleeping habits 16

39 Change in number of family get-togethers 15

40 Change in eating habits 15

41 Vacation 13

42 Christmas 12

43 Minor violations of the law 11

Figure 12.3

lndividual Response to Stress

Death of a spouse creates the highest
level of stress
It is important to understand that there is no
particular significance to the way in which the
stressors have been categorised. Stress has a
variety of causes and can originate from
pressures at home, at work and in the cockpit. lt
is true to say however, that the aviation industry
has more than its fair share of stressors.
Environmental stress is a significant factor in
aviation. Excessive heat, noise, vibration and low
humidity all contribute to stress. More importantly
this form of stress can result in reduced
resistance to other stressors. For example, a
crew subjected to continuous noise and vibration
are less likely to cope well with a subsequent
emergency.
Environmental stress lowers an
individual's tolerance to other forms of
stress
lndividuals respond to psychological stress quite
differently. For example one pilot may relish the
challenge of getting to grips with a new aircraft
type while another, equally capable, pilot may
find the experience very stressful" The key to
these differences lies with the individual's internal
perceptions about their ability to deal with the
situation.
lndividuals respond to stress in different
ways
When a potentially stressful situation arises,
individuals evaluate both the stressor and their
perceived ability to deal with it. lf the individual
perceives (rightly or wrongly) that he is unable to
deal with the situation he will experience a
relatively high level of stress. On the other hand,
if the individual perceives that the situation is
within his capabilities he will experience little or
no stress. ln practical terms, Efl under confident
pilot will be more stressed about converting to a
new type of aircraft than a confident pilot of
comparable ability.

The evaluation process is constantly modified

with experience. Consequently, a potential
stressor (changing aircraft type) may not be as

Human performance & limitations 12.5

12 Human Overload and Underload
stressful in future. lf the under confident pilot in
our example above found that the type conversion
course was actually well within his limits he would
be much less likely to feel as stressed when next
changing to a new aircraft.
The Effects of Stress and Stress Overload
The potential effects of stress can be classified
under four areas:
I Physiological. Physiological effects include
the short-term effects of acute stress such
as increased heart rate, increased blood
pressure, perspiration, flushed skin, dilated
pupils and fast breathing, and the long-term
effects of chronic stress such as ulcers and
heart disease. Physical illness stemming
from psychological causes is known
psychosomatic i ll ness.
Ghronic stress can result in physical
illness
r Behavioural. The immediate behavloural
response to stress includes restlessness,
nervousness, trembling and excitability or
anxiety. Further effects can include loss of
appetite and excessive drinking and smoking.
These are primarily psychological stress
reactions.
t Cognitive. Stress can have a profound effect
on the brain's ability to process information.
The principal symptoms include forgetfulness,
inability to concentrate, poor attention span,
inability to make decisions and prioritise, and
difficulty in relaxing or switching off.
I Personality. Chronic stress can lead
to temporary (but long-lasting) changes
in personality. lndividuals can become
depressed, moody, permanently anxious,
tired, tense, tearful and irritable.
Unfortunately stress is a cumulative effect. A
combination of domestic stress and pressure
at work can accumulate to the point where an
individual is overloaded with stress. Under
extreme circumstances this can result in what is
sometimes referred to as a "mental breakdown".
A more insidious problem is that highly stressed
individuals become more accident-prone as they
reach their "break point" and their performance
degrades.
12.6
Stress is cumulative. Domestic stress
can lead to a decrease in professional
performance - affecting concentration
and decision-making ability
Strategies fsr Coping with Stress
The ability to cope appropriately with stress is
an essential attribute for the professional pilot.
Coping is the process of identifying the cause of
stress and then either adjusting to the stressful
situation or removing oneself from the situation
altogether. lndividuals develop different methods
for coping, some of which are useful and positive
and some of which are unhealthy and hazardous.
Stress management is achieved by
identifying th; cause of stress anO tn"n
developing a strategy to cope with it
Coping strategies can be broadly divided into
three categories:
Action Coping. Action coping refers to a
dynamic process where the individual takes
positive action to cope with the source of stress.
This can include removing oneself from the
problem (ejecting from a burning aircraft or not
turning up for work) addressing the problem
(carrying out the fire drill) or altering the situation
so that the demands are less onerous (refusrng
to agree to the new rostering arrangement). The
common theme in all these approaches is that
the individual is reducing the size of the Actual
Demand.
Absenteersm ls an extreme form of action
aa
coping
Cognitive Coping. Cognitive coping involves
reducing the Perceived Demand and thereby
reducing the psychological impact of the stressor.
The healthy method involves rationalising the
problem to bolster one's confidence. "Yes I can
do this - it's not as difficult as it seems"" Seeking
advice from a friend or a professional counsellor
can often help greatly in rationalising problems.
The unhealthy method involves denial or
repression where the individual completely
ignores the problems or fails to acknowledge that
it exists. ln aviation circumstances this
Human performance & limitations
 Hurnan Overtoad and Underload
occasionally occurs when an individual is already
heavily overloaded.
Counselling, either by a friend or by
a professional, is useful and valuable
method of cognitive coping
Symptom-Directed Coping. This method
involves treating the symptoms rather than the
cause of stress. This may include the use of
alcohol, drugs or tobacco to reduce the
psychological stress. A healthier alternative
would be to dissipate the stress through physical
exercise and/or mediation techniques. This may
be the only option where the causes of stress are
simply not addressable e.g. bereavement.
Managing Stress
Fitness Programmes. Regular exercise will
dissipate tension caused by stress. Furthermore
chemicals released during physical exercise
(endorphins) will help to promote a feeling of well-
bei ng.
Relaxation Techniques. Meditation, breathing
exercises, biofeedback techniques and even self-
hypnosis are thought to have a beneficial effect.
Counselling. This need not include professional
counselling. Seeking the advice of a good
friend or colleague can be equally effective.
Counselling allows others to influence one's
perspective of a problem. ln other words it is
method for diminishing Perceived Demand and
increasing Perceived Ability. Advice from third
parties can also help in devising new or more
effective action coping strategies.
Ghronic fatigue is a cumulative process
caused by eitended periods of excessive
workload and inadequate rest. Stress
management programmes centre on
developing appropriate coping strategies
Human performance & limitations
12
Fatigue and Fatigue Management
Fatigue is a very general term used to describe
everything from a state of mental exhaustion to
physical tiredness resulting from exercise. Rather
than trying to arrive at an all-encompassrng
definition it is perhaps more useful to describe
fatigue in terms of its four main causes.
I lnadequate Rest. Fatigue caused by
inadequate rest is what we commonly refer to
as tiredness. For example the tiredness we
feel after a bad night's sleep
I Disruption of Circadian Rhythm"
Commonly known as jet lag this is the
fatigue we experience when the body's
natural patterns of sleep and wakefulness are
disrupted over a period of days
t Excessive Muscular Activity. Physical
tiredness, the tiredness we feel after physical
activity
t Excessive Cognitive Work. Mental
tiredness or exhaustion following a
prolonged period of mental workload. For
example following a gruelling day of ATPL
examinations
Environmental factors have also been shown to
cause fatigue. Low humidity, vibration and noise
are all potentially fatiguing.
Another useful concept in discussing fatigue and
its effects is to distinguish between two types of
fatigue. chronic and acute.
Chronic Fatigue: Chronic fatigue extends over
a long period and often has a psychological
cause" lt can be brought on by continuous
strain due to domestic or work pressures, or an
underlying disease. Fatigue of this type can
also be responsible for physical discomfort, such
as, stomach disorders, intestinal problems and
general aches and pain throughout the body. lt
can also lead to emotional illness.
Acute Fatigue: Acute Fatigue is usually short
lived and is accepted as a normal part of
everyday life. lt is weariness felt after excitement,
lack of sleep, the effects of unusually loud noise
or after a period of strenuous activity. Relaxing or
sleeping are the normal cures for this condition.
12"7
12 Human 0verload and Underload

Whatever its causes and effects, fatigue is
a major issue in aviation. ln a study of US
pilots 93% reported that fatigue was a problem
and 85% claimed to have felt "extremely
tired" or'nwashed out" during the previous 30
days. A NASA study in 1981 revealed that
performance decreases caused by fatigue
resulted in "substantive potentially unsafe aviation
conditions". Both chronic and acute fatigue cause
a significant decrease in performance.
Some of the effects of fatigue are:
r Reduced ability to carry out tasks involving
calculation
r Reduce vigilance
I Mood changes
I Behaviour changes
The most important factor in reducing fatigue
is intelligent and considerate rostering.
Psychologists have been able to demonstrate a
positive correlation between rostering pattern and
fatigue. Unfortunately the computer programmes
so often used to schedule crews fail to take into
account circadian rhythms and personal tolerance
to fatigue.
Given that the pilot usually has little influence over
rostering, practical fatigue management needs
to concentrate on ways of delaying the onset of
fatigue. some useful techniques are listed below.
I Try to ensure an adequate period of
undisturbed sleep before a long trip
t Eat and drink in moderation before sleep and
avoid alcohol and caffeine. Alcohol affects
the quality of sleep and induces early waking

I Reduced motivation
I During the cruise try to do stretching
exercises and unwind by chatting
I Poor self-monitoring leading to lack of
I
awareness of deteriorating performance Caffeine can be used to increase alertness
but the effect only lasts for 3-4 hours and its
These symptoms can appear even following diuretic effect is unwelcome in a low humidity
relatively small disturbances in sleep patterns. environment
I Bright light helps the body to re-adjust its
Managing Fatigue circadian rhythm.
The major source of fatigue for pilots is sleep
loss or disturbance of the circadian rhythm.
The strategies for coping with fatigue focus on
addressing these issues.

Intelligent and sensitive rostering is

the most important factor in combating
fatigue

Sleepiness is a very good indication that

performance is reducing. Taking a short nap
while on task may not be a good technique.
Studies have revealed significant performance
decreases for as long as 20 minutes after a quick
nap. This of course has to be balanced against
the possible decrease in performance that would
occur if a nap wasn't taken.

\l

12.8 Human perforrnance & limitations

 Advanced Cockpit Automation 13

Although we tend to think of automation as being a relatively recent

phenomenon, it has in fact been an integral part of the development of
aircraft since the earliest days. As well as the obvious example of the
early heading and height hold "autopilots", other primary systems have
also benefited from automation. The fuel control units found in second-
generation jet engines automatically scheduled fuel to avoid surges. This
dramatically reduced the incidence of over fuelling surges on go-around.

Similarly, cabin pressurisation systems have been 2. Economic Benefits

automated almost since their inception using
simple servo feedback systems thus avoiding
the need for pilots constantly to adjust cabin
pressure"
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
The modern notion of automation - the glass
cockpit, fly-by-wire, FMS etc - is the next logical
step towards closer integration of increasingly
complex systems. Though some have argued
that automation is being introduced for
automation's sake there are at least three good
reasons to justify it.
I " Safe Extension of the 0perational
Envetope
Modern airliners are designed primarily to be
highly efficient in the cruise. To satisfy the
aerodynamic requirements these aircraft are not
particularly easy to fly manually. Sophisticated
autopilots relieve the pilots of an otherwise
unreasonable workload. They also tend to fly the
aircraft more smoothly than humans. Coupled
autopilots anticipate heights and headings
allowing for smoother height and heading capture
thus increasing passenger comfort. More
Flight management systems are significantly more
fuel-efficient than humans. Depending of the type
of flight, fuel savings of between 3% and 5% are
regularly achieved. This amounts to significant
savings over the operating life of an aircraft.
3. Workload Reduction
Automation can relieve pilots of much of the
routine workload, allowing them to concentrate
on higher-level considerations. For example, an
autopilot can considerably reduce the workload
when pilots are dealing with a serious emergency
such as an engine fire. By delegating one task to
the automatics the crew can free up capacity to
work on the problem.
A further related advantage is the extensive
integration of information that automatic cockpits
permit. The classic example of this is the
glass-cockpit version of the horizontal situation
indicator. Weather, navigation and heading
information all coalesce in one display. This
potentially makes it easier for the pilot to improve
his situational awareness. lnstead of scanning
four or five separate instruments, all the relevant
information is incorporated in one.
Automation can help to reduce some
aspects of workload
r

importantly advanced automation allows crews

to operate safely in areas of the envelope that
would otherwise be unattainable. Cat lll landing Disadvantages
systems are the obvious case in point. The safe
Unfortunately, highly automated cockpits carry
human limit for an IMC approach is probably
their own inherent disadvantages. The clue to the
not much less than a DH of 250 ft. By contrast,
problem lies in figure 13.1 which we met before in
autoland systems allow crews to operate safely in
the section on error.
near zero visibility.

Human performance & limitations 13.1

13 Advanced Cockpit Automation
Error
Correction
t
t,.r,,.r"...0*.a,or,+.i.:.,.,
:,
lntelligense
Figure 13.1
As we discussed before, humans are inherently
bad at some tasks, one of which is monitoring.
The irony of automation is that by reducing the
active involvement of the pilot, the emphasis
placed on monitoring increases - the very thing
that humans are least effective at doing.
Other disadvantages of automation are:
Reduced Vigilance
ln a manually flown aircraft the pilot is "in the
loop". ln other words he is actively involved in
the conduct of the flight. lf he takes his hands off
the controls or ceases to monitor the navigation
instruments, the flight will rapidly diverge frorn
plan. This inevitably leads to a high state of
vigilance and attention to the task - as any
candidate who has taken his lR will testify! ln a
highly automated cockpit the aircraft will quite
happily fly the majority, if not all, of the flight plan
without the aid of the pilots. The pilots are "out of
the loop" in an automated cockpit and this lack of
critical involvement inevitably leads to a reduction
in vigilance"
13"2
llfianitoring
Deductive rea$oning
Speed
Power
Conslstency : ::
Com plex activitlf,lfl,,.
Extensive automation can lead to pilots
being out of the loop
Reduced Situation Awareness
ln a manually flown aircraft the pilot constructs
his mental picture of the flight from a variety of
disparate sources. He will look at the VOR/DME
and compare its reading to his current heading,
estimated track and position on the chart, he will
re-check that the altimeter is set to 1013 before
comparing his current flight level with the planned
level. He will use his present position to visualise
the time to go before the ILS localiser comes live.
ln other words there is an active process involved
in building situational awareness. This is not the
case in the glass cockpit where the situation is
presented "on a plate".
This lack of active involvement in constructing the
mental picture can lead to subsidiary problems"
Because the sltuation has been constructed
by the machine and not the man, the pilot may
struggle to re-engage with the situation after a
period of passive monitoring.
Human performance & limitations
 Advanced Cockpit Automation
The modern ooglass cockpit" can lead to
pilots becoming bored and complacent
This can lead to confusion about what the
display is telling him and can cause blinkered
concentration as he struggles to interpret the
information.
Reduced Workload
lronically, reduced workload - one the main goals
of automation, can lead to reduced performance.
The graph of performance versus stress
graphically illustrates that for peak performance
humans need at least some element of stress.
System Opacity and Lack of Mode
Awareness
A highly automated flight management system
can be operated in a number of different modes.
The cockpit indications for each mode are
sometimes not immediately apparent and this
can lead to a lack of mode awareness. lncorrect
appreciation of the operating mode has led to at
least one fatal accident"
Automated systems filter the information
presented to the crew. This can lead to a
lack of awareness of what is really going. For
example a filtered display showing highest engine
temperature and lowest engine pressure may
fail to alert the pilot to an undesirable trend. No
2 may currently be running hottest but by how
much? lf the No 1 EGT is rising slowly and oil
pressure falling slowly the crew will not be alerted
to the problem or be aware of this undesirable
trend.
Automation Com placency
Advanced automation has become a victim of its
own success. Because automatic systems have
proved to be so reliable, pilots tend to place a
lot of faith in the system - too much so. lndeed,
with the automatic system "in charge" some of
the onus of responsibility for the conduct of the
flight inevitably but surreptitiously slips from the
crew. This phenomenon is known as automation
complacency. The crew tend to become
passive monitors of the system and fail to actively
question its performance.
Human performance & limitations
13
ln a manually flown aircraft the pilot is very much
"in the loop"" He will frequently question his own
assumptions and interpretations because he is
acutely aware that he can make mistakes. "Have
/ se/ected the right DME? What was that height I
was cleared down to? Am I accurately flying the
approach procedure?" Unfortunately, crews often
fail to examine the performance of the automatics
quite so rigorously. The DC-10 crash on Mt
Erebus has echoes of some elements of this
problem.
Working Concepts
The key to the problem of living with, and
managing, automated cockpits starts with an
understanding and appreciation of the potential
pitfalls explained above. The solution centres on
taking measures to get back into the loop. There
are a number of ways of doing this, some of which
are listed below:
I Active participation in building the mental
picture is essential. For example raw
navigation data (DME arcs and VOR bearings)
could be used to construct a mental or
physical plot of approximate current position.
Comparing this with the display would provide
a valuable common sense check as well as
helping to build good situational awareness
I Mental exercises during low workload phases
can help to maintain alertness. E.g. using
mental arithmetic to calculate the time to go to
the next reporting point
I Regular switching between display modes will
increase the information available and permit
comparisons between sets of information to
reveal discrepancies
I Verbal cross checking (e.9. altitude checks in
the descent) will improve monitoring of vital
information
t Regular manual practice, particularly the
approach and landing, will help to retain basic
flying skills
I Simulator details rehearsing reversion ary
modes and subtle display failures will help
to increase awareness or insidious failure
modes.
13 3