FALLACY

1. Meaning

 From the Latin word “fallere” which means to deceive or to lead astray
 A fault in argument
 An erroneous reasoning that comes from false premises or irrelevant conclusion which
seems to be correct
 A form of deception coming from an argument that is lacking in basis or evidence which
we cannot easily detect without paying close attention to it

2. Kinds

Fallacies of Ambiguity – meaning of words or phrases creates a different meaning in the

conclusion; a certain statement or argument is not clearly stated.

a. Amphiboly – the structure of the statement allows it to have two different meanings

Example: Amazed by the performance, the clowns entertained the audience.

b. Equivocation – appears when the meaning of a particular word in a premise is different in use
as given in the other premise; same term is used in two different ways

Example: A star is a heavenly body visible in the night sky;

Anne Curtis is a star;
Therefore, Anne Curtis is a heavenly body visible in the night sky.

c. Accent – suggests a meaning different from the actual content of the proposition

Example: You are now difficult to reach because you are already rich.

d. Composition – assumption that the whole has the characteristics of its parts

Example: “My favorite Nike bag is expensive. It means that all Nike bags are expensive.”

e. Division – one assumes that all parts have the characteristics of the whole

Example: Filipinos are hospitable. I am a Filipino so I am hospitable.

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Fallacies of Relevance – committed due to the premises that are not significant to their
conclusion in an argument; premises have no relationship to the conclusion

a. Argumentum Ad Hominem – called argument against the man; one uses an argument that
focuses on attacking the person (personality, character, status or belief) or the opponent in the
issue rather than on the issue; known to us as black propaganda, character assassination,
mudslinging, expose, bomba, mura or kabastusan.

Example: “Pres. Estrada believes that charter change is not the solution to corruption and
poverty. He is a known womanizer. So why should we believe him?”

b. Argumentum Ad Ignorantiam – called argument to ignorance; argument is wrong since it

has not yet been proven as true, or it is true since it is not yet proven to be false.

Example: “Nobody has proved that using condoms is unsafe. Thus, it must be safe.”

c. Argumentum Ad Verecundiam – called appeal to authority; committed when someone,

instead of defending the issue, seeks to use the opinion or stand of another who has a good
reputation or authority, but not on the said issue.

Example: “Our family lawyer warned me about the dangers of engaging in premarital sex. From
now on, I will stop having intercourse with my girlfriend.”

d. Argumentum Ad Populum – appeal to people; committed when one argues using expressive
language or other devices to excite passion (enthusiasm, happiness, anger, hate, lust or fear) of
the people or crowd; conviction of the heart.

Example: “Buy Myra 400-E so you can be beautiful inside and out.”

e. Argumentum Ad Misericordiam – called the appeal to mercy; soliciting the sympathy or

pity of the listener.

Example: “Sir, please give me a passing grade. My father is dying. I will now be the one to carry
the burden of feeding my small brothers.”

f. Argumentum Ad Baculum – called the appeal to force; purpose is to scare people to accept
or to be convinced about something.

Example: “We should follow our boss even if he is wrong because if we don’t, we will lose our
jobs.”

g. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc– called false cause; effect is attributed to an inadequate cause.

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Example: “Eugene is the class valedictorian of his class. His parents were also valedictorians
when they graduated in high school.

h. Non Sequitor or Ignoratio Elinchi – called the argument of ignorance of refutation or

irrelevant conclusion; conclusion is drawn from the premises which are not related to it, that
instead of proving the issue, it rather ignores or misses the point.

Example: “The root cause of the increasing number of OFW’s in the Middle East is the
widespread corruption in all the government offices and agencies.”

i. Hasty Generalization – the size of the sample is too small to support the conclusion

Example: Kobe Bryant, who is an NBA player, is a sharp shooter. Thus, all NBA players are
sharp shooters.

j. Slippery Slope – an illegitimate use of the “if-the” operator.

Example: “If you don’ study, then you won’t graduate, and then it would be impossible for you
to find a job and finally, you will end up living in the streets.

k. Affirming the Consequent – any argument of the following form is invalid:

If A then B;
B;
Therefore, A

Example: If I am in Toronto, then I am in Canada;

I am in Canada;
Thus, I am in Toronto.

l. Denying the Antecedent– any argument of the following form is invalid:

If A then B;
Not A;
Therefore, not B.

Example: If I am in Toronto, then I am in Canada;

I am not in Toronto;
Thus, I am not in Canada.