OXJORD
UNIVERSITY PRES S
OXTORD
UNIVERSITY PRES S
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed i n the Unite d States of America
This page constitutes a n extension of the copyrigh t page .
ix
x Acknowledgments
N.I.H.
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Contents
Foreword, xv
Introduction, 3
1. Harlem: Capita l o f the Blac k World, 13
2. Th e New Negro, 52
3. Heart of Darkness, 84
4. Art: The Black Identity, 13 7
5. Art: The Ethnic Province , 190
6. White / Black Faces—Black Masks, 244
Epilogue, 302
Notes, 310
Index, 325
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Foreword to Updated Edition
by Arnold Rampersad
xv
xvi Foreword
its peculiar charm, or charisma, persists. Like the kindred if
richer, more glittering, and overwhelmingly whiter social world
in an d aroun d Ne w York Cit y that F . Scott Fitzgeral d con -
jures up in The Great Gatsby, the Harlem Renaissanc e float s
in our imagination i n an aura of glamour and mystery, on the
one hand, and , o n the other—a s i s also true of the worl d of
The Great Gatsby —corruption an d tragedy . On e reaso n fo r
this persistence, a t least for black Americans, is the fact that
the era was probably the first in their long, hard history tha t
could b e plausibl y associate d wit h th e ter m "glamour. " It s
uniqueness in this sense has contributed to the air of mystery
that surround s it . Huggins' s Harlem Renaissance aime d t o
penetrate tha t air o f mystery, and di d so successfully even if
some questions remai n unanswere d and unanswerable .
What happened to spark in New York City such an unprec-
edented outpourin g amon g black Americans o f literature,
music, painting, an d sculpture , alon g with a correspondin g
upsurge i n politica l consciousness ? When , more or less, di d
the movement begin? When, more of less, did it end? How did
its main figures respond a s individuals to its challenges an d
opportunities? Which primary factors sustained its successes,
and which factors led to its demise? What did all of that glam-
our ultimately mea n for black America? Were there implica-
tions for America as a whole? How did its success and failures
affect th e histori c desir e o f blacks t o lif t themselve s ou t of
slavery an d Jim Cro w and into a permanent positio n of dig-
nity, freedom, affluence, an d creativity? And, looking back, do
we account the era a success on the whole, or mainly an illu-
sion of social progress that, upon closer inspection, underscore s
the powerlessnes s o f blacks in white America?
For a long time th e puzzle s and mysterie s o f the Harle m
Renaissance wen t uninvestigate d in an y systematic way by
blacks or whites. Th e traditional neglec t of black America as
a subjec t had muc h to do with this positioning of the er a on
the peripher y o f our sense of history. Equally important wa s
Foreword xvi i
3
4 Harlem Renaissanc e
13
14 Harlem Renaissance
they als o brough t wit h the m th e spiri t o f the Jaz z Age. They,
along wit h thei r whit e contemporaries , ushere d i n th e libera -
tion o f the 1920s . Harle m for blacks, like New York for whites,
was synonymou s with opportunity , th e releas e o f the individ-
ual spirit . Fo r some , i t mean t the possibilit y t o writ e o r t o b e
near thos e wh o did. No t a few quickened t o th e excitemen t of
the musica l stage an d th e effervescenc e o f sophisticated an d ri-
bald nightlife . Fo r all—blac k an d white—Ne w Yor k wa s th e
occasion fo r breakin g awa y fro m smal l tow n life , th e restric -
tions of family control , an d fo r growing up.
Langston Hughe s belonge d t o Harle m even befor e he came.
In th e Jun e 192 1 issu e o f Crisi s ther e appeare d Hughes' s first
published poem , "Th e Negr o Speak s o f Rivers. " Hughe s ha d
been writin g sinc e hi s hig h schoo l day s i n Cleveland , bu t hi s
literary beginning s wer e i n Crisis . Afte r hig h school , Hughe s
lived i n Mexic o with hi s father , a wealth y ranche r an d mine r
who ha d littl e sympath y fo r th e arts . Wha t i s more, th e elde r
Hughes ha d a quite violen t hatre d o f Negroes. I t wa s perhaps
in defianc e o f hi s fathe r tha t Langsto n Hughe s nurture d hi s
warm an d dee p interes t i n th e Negr o common people an d a n
art tha t woul d speak thei r spirit . Langston' s father wanted him
to g o t o Switzerlan d t o b e traine d i n engineering , bu t th e
young man ha d hear d o f the famou s musica l Shuffle Along and
he wante d t o g o to Harlem . "Mor e tha n Paris , o r th e Shake-
speare country , o r Berlin, or the Alps , I wanted t o see Harlem,
the greates t Negr o cit y i n th e world. " S o he convince d hi s fa-
ther tha t Columbi a Universit y coul d trai n hi m a s well a s any
European school . H e neve r like d Columbia , bu t Harle m made
him glad. 8
For Hughes , Harle m wa s t o b e th e cente r o f hi s life , th e
black peopl e ther e th e mai n source o f his literar y inspiration .
Another poet , Claud e McKay , used Harle m in a different way ,
but use d i t nonetheless. McKa y had grow n up in the rura l hills
of Jamaica, an d worke d i n the constabular y as a young man in
Harlem: Capital of the Black World 25
Kingston. Hi s firs t literar y succes s wa s wit h poem s writte n i n
the Wes t India n dialect . Bu t hi s native islan d wa s too small a
field fo r him . A travelin g troup e o f Negr o theate r peopl e
turned McKay' s eyes to New York and Harlem . McKa y spent a
time workin g i n railroa d dinin g cars , bu t Ne w Yor k an d th e
black cit y withi n Ne w Yor k continue d t o pul l him . Whil e
much o f hi s writin g wa s intensel y expressiv e o f Harlem , h e
nevertheless manage d t o remain outside an d independen t o f it.
White intellectual s wer e hi s main support an d hi s primar y in-
tellectual association . Fran k Harri s o f Pearsons gave hi m hi s
first real suppor t i n thi s country . During much of the 1920 s h e
was o n th e editoria l staf f o f Ma x Eastman' s Liberator, where
he worke d wit h Crysta l Eastma n an d clashe d wit h Michae l
Gold. And, later, althoug h h e remaine d i n Europ e fo r much of
the late 1920 s an d 1930s , Harlem continued t o be an important
focus fo r his writing. H e wa s to be on e o f those who would try
to describ e th e essential s o f Harlem in a novel. 9
Liberation wa s the magnet that drew Regina Andrews, a pert
olive-skinned girl , wh o escape d fro m Chicag o t o discove r he r
race an d he r womanhood . He r fathe r wa s a lawyer in Chicago,
and Regin a foun d i t difficul t t o fi t int o th e comfortabl e an d
complacent middle-clas s societ y tha t wa s expecte d o f Negro
young ladies . I t wa s no t tha t Ne w Yor k wa s mor e congenia l
than Chicag o t o Negroes . A libraria n wit h experienc e i n th e
Chicago publi c libraries , sh e ha d foun d i t eve n mor e difficul t
in New York until sh e was placed in the 135t h Street branc h of
the Ne w Yor k Cit y system . No t tha t Ne w Yor k wa s kinder ;
rather, Harle m wa s fille d wit h youn g Negr o me n an d wome n
who wer e writin g an d singin g an d dancin g an d paintin g an d
acting, an d sh e wa s i n th e mids t o f it all . He r plac e a t th e li -
brary pu t he r i n clos e touc h wit h th e youn g artists. Sh e made
her apartmen t a n uptow n salo n wher e al l o f the intellectual s
came. (He r apartment , indeed , wa s describe d i n Car l Va n
Vechten's Nigger Heaven.) A s to many a youn g girl, whit e or
26 Harlem Renaissance
52
The Ne w Negro 5 3
Dream Variatio n 7
To fling my arms wide
In some place of the sun,
To whirl and to dance
Till the white day is done.
Then rest at cool evening
Beneath a tall tree
While night comes on gently,
Dark like me
That is my dream!
To fling my arms wide
In the face of the sun,
Dance! whirl! whirl!
Till the quick day is done
Rest at pale evening. . . .
A tall, slim tree. . . .
Night coming tenderly
Black like me.
68 Harlem Renaissance
Yet D o I Marve l 8
I doubt not God is good, well-meaning, kind,
And did He stoop to quibble could tell why
The little buried mole continues blind,
Why flesh that mirrors Him must some day die,
Make plain the reason tortured Tantalus
Is baited by the fickle fruit, declare
70 Harlem Renaissance
If merely brute caprice dooms Sisyphus
To struggle up a never-ending stair.
Inscrutable His ways are, and immune
To catechism by a mind too strewn
With petty cares to slightly understand
What awful brain compels His awful hand.
Yet do I marvel at this curious thing:
To make a poet black, and bid him sing!
If W e Mus t Di e ! 0
If we must die, let it not be like hogs
Hunted and penned in an inglorious spot,
While round us bark the mad and hungry dogs,
Making their mock at our accursed lot.
If we must die, O let us nobly die,
So that our precious blood may not be shed
In vain; then even the monsters we defy
Shall be constrained to honor us though dead!
O kinsmen! we must meet the common foe!
Though far outnumbered let us show us brave,
And for their thousand blows deal one deathblow!
What though before us lies the open grave?
Like men well face the murderous, cowardly pack,
Pressed to the wall, dying, but fighting back!
Afro-American Fragmen t 17
So long,
So far away
Is Afric a
Not even memories alive
Save those that history books create ,
Save those that songs
Beat back into the blood—
Beat out of blood with words sad-sung
In strange un-Negro tongue—
So long,
So far away
Is Africa .
Subdued and time-lost
Are the drums—and yet
Through some vast mist of race
There comes this song
I do not understand,
This song of atavistic land,
Of bitter yearnings lost
Without a place—
So long,
So far away
Is Africa' s
Dark face.
The Negro , for sufficien t reason , has fel t himsel f outside Ameri -
can society . An d white Americans, on the othe r hand , while in-
tent o n excludin g Negroe s fro m th e mainstrea m o f American
life, wer e nevertheles s diml y conscious o f the blac k man within
it. "Negroes, " a s Henr y Ma y has said , "lik e whit e Southerners ,
had t o brea k int o th e dominan t respectabl e cultur e o f the da y
before the y coul d brea k ou t o f it. " * Ye t th e black-whit e rela -
tionship ha s bee n symbiotic ; black s hav e bee n essentia l t o
white identit y (an d white s t o blacks) . Thi s interdependenc e
has bee n to o profoun d t o b e measure d b y th e simpl e metin g
out o f respectiv e contribution s t o America n culture . White s
have neede d black s as they have needed th e blackfac e minstrel
mask—a guis e o f alte r ego . An d blacks—sensin g thi s psychi c
dependency—have bee n al l to o willin g t o join i n th e charade ,
hiding behin d tha t minstre l mask, appearin g t o b e wha t whit e
men wante d the m t o be , an d findin g pleasur e i n the deceptio n
which to o ofte n wa s a tric k o n themselves . Th e wa y tha t th e
Negro has bee n use d b y whites , and th e wa y he has permitte d
himself t o b e used , expose s th e dee p mora l tensions tha t hav e
84
Heart o f Darkness 8 5
through i t all . "A h sho ' wil l sho w yo u som e lovin ' daddy , sh e
promised." Th e reade r ca n onl y suppose tha t sh e did, becaus e
the Creepe r doe s no t appea r agai n unti l th e en d o f th e book .
But hi s ver y absenc e make s hi m hove r ove r th e centra l story .
The plo t tell s th e stor y o f Mar y Love , a prim , proper , an d
pretty Harle m libraria n wh o fall s tragicall y i n lov e wit h a
would-be writer , Byro n Kasson. Byron ha s just graduate d fro m
The Universit y o f Pennsylvania , an d whil e h e ha s onl y pub -
lished shor t thing s i n Opportunity, h e wa s told a t colleg e tha t
he ha s promise . " I kno w wha t the y meant , h e added , prett y
good fo r a coloure d man. " Mary' s prudishness , sexua l self-con -
sciousness, an d self-restrain t an d Byron' s petulanc e an d self -
doubt, i n tim e destro y whateve r promis e thei r lov e had . Fo r
Mary, unlik e mos t o f th e Negroe s sh e see s aroun d her , take s
love an d se x quite seriously , whic h i s no t t o sa y passionately .
She expects , consisten t wit h conventiona l canon s o f the mora l
order, t o giv e herself—beyon d passio n o r lust—t o a ma n
whom sh e ca n hono r an d liv e for. Until Byron, no ma n i n Har-
lem ha s mad e th e grade , especiall y no t Randolp h Pettijohn ,
the Bolit o (numbers) King, wh o i s relentless i n pursui t o f Mary
as a " 'spectable 'ooman " t o wife . Pettijoh n i s definitel y out o f
the question ; i t ma y b e a clas s matter . H e mad e i t th e wron g
way: hot-do g stan d t o number s t o wealth . An d h e doe s no t
speak goo d Englis h th e wa y Mar y an d he r friend s do: "Ah ain'
got n o eddicatio n la k you , but A h got money , plenty o f et, an '
Ah go t love. " Tha t i s n o wa y t o captur e a gir l lik e Mary .
Byron, o n the othe r hand , ha s th e def t touc h o f innocence :
Elegant Ed
Brown Brothff*
Marcus Garvey
on parade .
Schomburg Collection, New York Public Library
Langston Hughes,
a voung poet.
Countee Cullen.
YaU- University Library
Claude McKay .
Photograph by Carl Van ¥echten.
Aaron Douglas.
Photograph b y Carl Van Vechten.
Yaia University Library
Nella Larsen .
Photograph b y Carl Van Vechten.
great favorit e among those whites who went i n for Negro prod-
igies." Sh e lived u p t o thei r expectations . "I t seldo m occurre d
to an y o f her patron s tha t sh e di d thi s wit h tongu e i n cheek. "
As Thurma n portrayed her , Zor a (Sweeti e May) , given a white
audience, "woul d launc h fort h int o a sag a o f the littl e all-col -
ored Mississipp i [Florida ] tow n wher e sh e claime d t o hav e
been born . He r repertoir e o f tale s wa s earthy , vulgar , an d
funny. He r darkie s alway s smile d throug h thei r tears , san g
spirituals o n th e slightes t provocation , an d performe d buc k
dances whe n the y shoul d hav e bee n working. " She was a mas-
ter o f dialect (Zor a Hursto n collecte d Souther n Negr o folk ma -
terials fo r he r graduat e wor k a t Columbi a University) , and a
great storyteller . He r grea t weaknes s wa s carelessnes s o r indif -
ference t o he r art . "Bu t Sweeti e Ma y kne w he r whit e folks. "
" 'It's like this. . .. I have to eat. I also wish to finish my ed-
ucation. Bein g a Negr o write r thes e day s i s a racke t an d I' m
going t o mak e th e mos t o f it whil e i t lasts . Sur e I cu t th e fool .
But I enjo y it , too . M y ultimate ambitio n . . . i s to becom e a
gynecologist [Anthropologist] . An d th e onl y wa y I ca n liv e
easily unti l I hav e th e requisit e trainin g i s to pos e a s a writer
of potential ability . Voila! I ge t my tuition pai d a t Columbia . I
rent a n apartmen t an d hav e al l th e furnitur e contribute d b y
kind hearte d o'fays . I receive d bundle s o f grocerie s fro m var -
ious source s severa l time s a wee k . . . al l accomplishe d b y
dropping a discree t hin t durin g a n evening' s festivities . I find
queer place s fo r white s t o g o i n Harle m . . . ou t o f the wa y
primitive churches , sidestree t speakeasies . The y fal l fo r it .
About twic e a yea r I manag e t o sel l a story. I t i s acclaimed. I
am a geniu s i n th e making . Thank Go d fo r thi s Negr o literar y
renaissance. Lon g ma y it flourish!'" 23
Langston Hughe s like d Zor a Hurston , an d hi s repor t o f her
in Th e Bi g Se a reflects his affection'an d amusement . O f cours e
Hughes wa s neve r unkin d o r critica l abou t anyone , excep t hi s
father, perhaps . Bu t h e to o remembere d he r succes s i n gettin g
132 Harlem Renaissance
things fro m whit e people , "som e of whom simpl y pai d he r just
to si t aroun d an d represen t th e Negr o race for them, sh e did i t
in suc h a rac y fashion. " "T o many o f he r whit e friends , n o
doubt, sh e was a perfect 'darkie, ' i n the nic e meaning they giv e
the term—tha t i s a na'ive , childlike , sweet , humorous , an d
highly colore d Negro. " Whe n sh e graduated fro m Barnard , she
took a n apartmen t o n Wes t 66t h Street , nea r th e park . "Sh e
moved i n wit h n o furnitur e a t al l an d n o money, but i n a few
days friend s ha d give n he r everything , fro m decorativ e silve r
birds, perched ato p the line n cabinet , dow n to a footstool. And
on Saturda y night , t o christe n th e place , sh e ha d a hand-
chicken dinner , sinc e sh e ha d forgotte n t o sa y sh e neede d
forks." 24 Makin g it was simpl y cleverness an d personality .
Zora Neal e Hurston' s recollection s i n he r autobiography ,
however, mak e it har d t o imagin e her relation s wit h he r whit e
patrons a s a n act , a "put-on. " Th e patronnes s sh e share d wit h
Langston Hughe s an d Louis e Thompson , sh e calle d "God -
mother." They share d a mystical primitive bond: "She wa s just
as paga n a s I. " Unde r th e guis e o f a n extrasensory , spiritua l
union, Mis s Hursto n woul d tak e chiding an d criticism : "You
have broke n the law . . . . Yo u are dissipatin g you r power s i n
things tha t hav e n o rea l meaning . . . . Kee p silent . Doe s a
child i n th e wom b speak? " Zor a Hurston , Langsto n Hughes ,
and other s woul d rea d thei r wor k to thei r patron . She knew
what wa s goo d an d right ; sh e ha d a primitiv e instinc t yo u
might say . "Godmothe r coul d b e a s tende r a s mother-lov e
when sh e fel t tha t yo u ha d bee n righ t spiritually. " Bu t wha t
her instinct s told he r wer e false , wer e false : " 'That i s nothing!
It ha s n o sou l i n it . Yo u have broken th e law!' " "Godmother "
was a ruthless critic of what she thought t o be pretens e an d ar -
tificial. Zor a Hursto n di d no t questio n thos e instincts , no r di d
she reall y wonder abou t ar t an d artifice .
"Godmother" wante d wha t wa s authentic , rea l folk , i n he r
Park Avenu e apartment. Th e contras t migh t hav e give n Mis s
Heart o f Darkness 13 3
137
138 Harlem Renaissance
late th e uncertaintie s o f newnes s int o wha t ha s bee n under -
stood a s traditional . Foreig n o r native , on e soone r o r late r
would fin d comfor t in ethni c identification .
Negroes, too , wer e t o discover , afte r th e decade s o f struggle
following emancipation , tha t th e Americ a the y wante d t o ge t
into wa s a spiritual "nowhere. " The y bega n th e searc h fo r their
own selves . Th e ques t wa s intensifie d becaus e o f th e genera l
postwar uncertainties , becaus e America n intellectual s gener -
ally wer e displease d wit h th e manifestation s of American cul-
ture, an d wer e themselve s i n search—i n Pari s an d elsewher e
—for themselves . I t wa s a hard , perplexin g tas k fo r Negroes .
Unlike th e immigrant , the Negr o as a nativ e American did no t
have read y a t han d th e surfac e manifestation s of a forme r cul -
ture which , n o matte r ho w dilute d an d distorted , coul d serv e
as a lin k wit h th e past . No r coul d th e Negr o easil y imagin e a
place wher e hi s histor y began . Th e Italia n o r th e Gree k o r
Serb coul d kno w of a villag e o r a place t o whic h h e coul d re -
turn (t o visit ) wher e hi s famil y woul d stil l b e remembered ,
where, indeed , hi s famil y stil l lived . Hi s imaginatio n coul d
work himsel f bac k int o th e community , the toug h an d auster e
life, an d eve n th e oppressio n o f gentry, o r Turks , o r Cossacks .
And whil e h e reconstructe d it , h e coul d congratulat e himsel f
on th e distanc e tha t h e ha d place d betwee n himsel f an d tha t
past. Steel , railroads , coal , business , cities , wer e th e presen t
stuff o f his life, no t th e grudgin g and churlis h hills of his home-
land. Bein g American for many immigrants meant bein g a par t
of progres s an d th e future , wit h a stron g an d rea l sens e o f a
different past .
Negroes, o n th e othe r hand , ha d n o suc h clea r sens e o f th e
past; i t was a general an d abstrac t thing , slavery. Those whos e
past wa s norther n wer e lik e th e othe r undifferentiate d cit y
dwellers withou t th e possibilit y o f havin g "firs t family "
identification—they wer e Yankee s an d nativ e sons withou t th e
attendant self-satisfaction . And thos e fro m th e Sout h could sel -
Art: Th e Black Identity 13 9
Mother t o So n 10
Well, son, I'll tell you:
Life for me ain't been no crystal stair.
It's had tacks in it,
And splinters
And boards tor n up,
And places with no carpet on the floor —
Bare.
But all the time
I'se been a' climbin' on,
And reachin" landin's
And turnin' corners ,
And sometimes goin' in the dark
150 Harlem Renaissance
Where there ain't been no light.
So, boy, don't yo u turn back.
Don't you set down on the steps
'Cause you finds it's kinder hard.
Don't you fall now —
For I'se still goin', honey,
I'se still climbin',
And lif e for me ain't been no crystal stair.
America n
Although she feeds me bread of bitterness,
And sinks into my throat her tiger's tooth,
Stealing my breath of life, I will confess
I love this cultured hell that tests my youth I
Her vigor flows like tides into my blood,
Giving me strength erect against her hate.
Her bigness sweeps my being like a flood.
Yet as a rebel fronts a king in state,
I stand within her walls with not a shred
Of terror, malice, not a word of jeer.
Darkly I gaze into the days ahead,
And see her might and granite wonders there,
Beneath the touch of Time's unerring hand,
Like priceless treasures sinking in the sand.
But Aunt Hager was not simply a religious woman who aban-
doned joy. 12 He r fait h ha s bee n he r joy . "Sand y remem -
bered hi s grandmothe r whirlin g around i n fron t o f the alta r a t
revival meetings i n the mids t of the othe r sisters, he r fac e shin-
ing with light , arm s outstretched a s though al l the care s o f the
world ha d bee n cas t away. " Onl y Temp y full y reject s thi s
Negro gif t o f joy an d laughter , and sh e has become enslave d t o
utter materialism . Hughe s wante d th e reade r t o understan d
that Sand y had absorbe d th e uplif t an d th e mora l characte r of
Aunt Hage r whil e stil l bein g possesse d b y th e spiri t an d
beauty o f the Negr o genius . I t wa s thi s combinatio n tha t wa s
the Negro' s hope , i n s o far a s Sandy was the future .
The conventiona l America n ethic prove d inadequat e i n sev-
eral significan t ways when i t was applie d t o th e Negro . I n th e
first place i t was racist. Fo r th e "Custodian s o f Culture," 1 3 th e
Negro wa s no t central . H e wa s a n aberration , a kin d o f Cali-
ban i n a demi-paradise . Whe n th e critic s an d commentator s
considered culture , the y use d Anglo-Saxo n models; America n
literature an d ar t i n th e prewa r year s wer e judge d mainl y in
terms of English models. I f white Americans were merely cous-
ins t o tha t Englis h tradition , blac k American s coul d onl y b e
curiosities. I n th e secon d place , conventiona l values were opti-
mistic. Whil e they migh t b e heavil y moralistic, an d whil e one
might find beauty in the persistentl y moral life without reward ,
the basi c assumptio n wa s tha t progres s wa s inevitabl e and ,
being th e signatur e o f God , tie d t o th e mora l life . Whateve r
Art: Th e Black Identity 15 5
with Christianit y tha n "Heritage. " And while the latte r i s prob-
ably th e author' s bes t know n work, the forme r is far the bette r
poem fo r it s clarity . Actually , even hi s struggl e wit h fait h wa s
emblematic o f a fa r deepe r an d mor e traumati c rebellio n
which hi s trainin g i n th e gentee l conventio n ill-equippe d hi m
to handle . Bot h a s a perso n an d a poet , Culle n trie d t o fre e
himself o f an unusuall y close relationship with hi s adoptiv e fa -
ther, a minister. Hi s personal rebellio n wa s sligh t an d genteel .
Searching always—an d futilely—fo r a n adequat e persona,
Cullen toye d wit h th e self-imag e of th e paga n poet . Eve n so ,
his prett y dictio n neve r quit e matche d th e desire :
So long,
So far awa y
Is Afric a
Song o f th e So n 23
Pour O pour that parting soul in song,
O pour it in the sawdust glow of night,
Into the velvet pine-smoke air to-night,
And let the valley carry it along.
And let the valley carry it along.
O land and soil, red soil and sweet-gum tree,
So scant of grass, so profligate of pines,
Now just before an epoch's sun declines
Art: Th e Black Identity 18 1
Thy son, in time, I have returned to thee.
Thy son, I have in time returned to thee.
In time, for though the sun is setting on
A song-lit race of slaves, it has not set;
Though late, O soil, it is not too late yet
To catch thy plaintive soul, leaving, soon gone,
Leaving, to catch thy plaintive soul soon gone.
O Negro slaves, dark purple ripened plums,
Squeezed and bursting in the pine-wood air,
Passing, before they stripped the old tree bare
One plum was saved for me, one seed becomes
An everlasting song, a singing tree,
Caroling softly souls of slavery,
What they were, and what they are to me,
Caroling softly soul s of slavery.
dwarf i n himself. He, lik e a son, despite all , mus t learn t o lov e
his father—fles h o f hi s flesh , bloo d o f hi s blood—t o b e a man .
Of all o f these effort s t o defin e a Negro identity , Jea n Toom -
er's seem s the mos t profound and provocative . Attempt s to find
black model s i n conventio n an d th e Protestan t Ethi c wer e un -
satisfactory becaus e the y ha d t o ignor e th e realit y o f actua l
black people . The y inferentiall y place d a n onu s o n Negroes t o
conform t o standards of behavior an d "civilization " whic h wer e
beyond th e wisdo m o f norma l life . The y containe d withi n
themselves ready-mad e failur e an d necessar y self-depreciation .
But th e reversa l o f conventiona l standard s offere d n o bette r
choice.
The Negr o intellectual' s fascinatio n wit h primitivis m wa s
filled wit h ironies . Contrar y t o assertion s o f th e soul-commu-
nity o f blacks , th e America n Negroe s ha d t o learn t o appre -
ciate th e valu e o f African ar t an d culture . To o ofte n the y wer e
taught b y European s fo r whom Africa ha d a powerful, but lim-
ited, significance . When post-impressionis t painters , sate d wit h
the traditio n o f the academie s an d despairin g o f fresh insight s
and statements , viewe d Africa n sculpture , the y discovere d a
wind tha t woul d blo w throug h th e galleries , museums , an d
academies; i t opene d windows . I t wa s liberatin g fo r these me n
who stoo d squarel y o n a traditio n an d wh o woul d neve r
wholly abando n it . Bu t whe n th e blac k America n intellectua l
got the news , h e wanted t o b e able t o identif y completel y with
Africa, t o fin d hi s traditio n there . No w tha t wa s quit e fanciful .
Consider, too , th e Negr o Aaron Douglas learnin g techniques of
African ar t fro m th e Bavaria n Winol d Reiss . Whil e Dougla s
used th e technique s h e learne d i n thi s association , Africa n ar t
had littl e lastin g influence.
No les s ironic i s the stimulatin g effec t tha t America n "primi-
tives" had o n Africans . I f we ar e to believe th e testimon y of Af-
rican intellectual s lik e Presiden t Leopol d Sengho r o f Senegal,
Harlem writer s (particularl y Claud e McKa y i n Banjo) gav e
188 Harlem Renaissance
them a sens e o f direction . The y looke d t o American s fo r cul -
tural leadershi p a t th e sam e tim e tha t American s lik e McKay
were searchin g abroad . What th e Africa n intellectual s got fro m
books lik e Banjo wa s th e injunctio n to asser t ethni c integrity .
This wa s no t a uniqu e messag e i n tha t ag e o f self-determina-
tion an d proliferatin g nations . I t wa s special, however , i n tha t
it rejecte d th e natura l supremac y o f European civilizatio n an d
championed th e superio r humanit y o f Africa n culture . Thi s
message coul d mea n far les s t o American Negroes than i t coul d
to Africans , becaus e th e Senegalese , th e Ibos , th e Ashanti ,
though colonials , ha d som e cultura l integrit y an d a traditio n
from whic h t o work . Tha t wa s precisel y wha t American s were
looking for ; lackin g it , the y wer e thrus t bac k upo n them -
selves.24 Th e whit e expatriate s o f the 1920 s ha d a remarkably
similar experienc e i n Europe . Fo r a s they explore d Europ e fo r
meaningful culture , Europea n intellectual s wer e turnin g t o
America.25
The primitivis m of Counte e Culle n an d Claud e McKa y wa s
very romanti c an d reste d o n ver y superficial knowledge of Af-
rican life . Cullen' s "Heritage, " wit h rai n beatin g incessan t
rhythms on hi s "body's street, " i s only slightl y mor e intelligen t
than Vache l Lindsay' s "Congo. " Whateve r McKay' s fantas y
was, Africa n triba l lif e i s i n realit y very forma l an d obligator y
to it s members . Jake or Banj o coul d no t survive , fornicatin g at
their pleasur e an d servin g no social function. McKay' s personal
irony i s that i n the las t year s o f his life , hi s mind an d bod y de -
teriorating fro m disease , h e thre w himsel f o n th e mos t tradi -
tional institutio n o f hi s despise d Europea n civilization , th e
Roman Catholi c Church. 26
For th e purpos e o f ethnic identity , primitivism is peculiarly
limited. I t i s especiall y a mal e fantasy . I t i s easie r t o imagin e
men a s roustabouts , vagabonds , bums , an d heroes , harde r t o
draw sympatheti c female s whos e whol e existence i s their bod-
ies an d instinct . I t i s als o difficul t t o creat e th e illusio n of de-
Art: Th e Black Identity 18 9
190
Art: Th e Ethnic Province 19 1
"Feral Benga."
Bronze b y Richmon d Barthe.
Culver Pictures
Brown Brothers
Miilon Mellzer
Fletcher Henderson .
Bessie Smith.
Photograph b y
Carl Van Vechten.
tttman Brothers
Charles Gilpin
in Th e Emperor Jones.
Culver picturfes
Rose McCI/e^^-^/i^WKiWi/Bowm,
ftrflwn Brothers
Paul Robeson,
Photograph b y
Carl Va n Vecbten.
"Forever Free,"
Lacquered woo d sculpture
by Sargent Johnson,
If Yo u Shoul d C o 8
Love, leave me like the light,
The gently passing day;
We would not know, but for the night,
When it has slipped away.
Go quietly; a dream
When done, should leave no trace
That it has lived, except a gleam
Across the dreamer's face .
After th e Winte r 10
Some day, when trees have shed their leaves
And against the morning's white
216 Harlem Renaissance
The shivering birds beneath the eves
Have sheltered for the night,
We'll turn our faces southward, love
Toward the summer isle
Where bamboos spire the shafted grov e
And wide-mouthed orchids smile.
And we will seek the quiet hill
Where towers the cotton tree,
And leaps the laughing crystal rill,
And works the droning bee.
And we will build a cottage there
Beside an open glade,
With black-ribbed blue-bells blowing near,
And ferns that never fade.
Baptism 13
Into the furnace let me go alone;
Stay you without in terror of the heat.
I will go naked in—for thus 'tis sweet—
Into the weird depths of the hottest zone.
I will not quiver in the frailest bone,
You will not note a flicker of defeat;
My heart shall tremble not its fate to meet,
My mouth give utterance to any moan.
The yawning oven spits forth fiery spears;
Red aspish tongues shout wordlessly my name.
Desire destroys, consumes my mortal fears,
Transforming me into a shape of flame.
I will come out, back to your world of tears,
A stronger soul within a finer frame.
Reapers is
Black reapers with the soun d o f steel on stones
Are sharpening scythes. I see them place the hones
In their hip-pockets as a thing that's done,
Art: Th e Ethnic Province 22 1
And start their silent swinging, one by one.
Black horses drive a mower through the weeds,
And there, a field rat, startled, squealing bleeds,
His belly close to ground. I see the blade,
Blood-stained, continue cutting weeds and shade.
Black Mari a 18
Must be the Black Maria
That I see ,
The Black Maria that I see—
But I hope it
Ain't comin' for me.
Hear that music playin* upstairs?
Aw, my heart is
224 Harlem Renaissance
Full of cares—
But that music playin' upstairs
Is for me .
Babe, did you eve r
See the sun
Rise at dawnin' ful l o f fun?
Says, did you ever see the sun rise
Full of fun, ful l o f fun ?
Then you know a new day's
Done begun.
Black Maria passin' by
Leaves the sunrise in the sky —
And a new day,
Yes, a new day's
Done begun !
Hope 19
Sometimes when I'm lonely,
Don't know why,
Keep thinkin' I won't b e lonely
By and by.
Advice 20
Folks, I'm telling you
birthing is hard
and dying is mean—
so get yourself
a little loving
in between.
Memphis go
By Flood or Flame;
Nigger won't worry
All de same—
Memphis go
Memphis come back,
Ain' no skin
Offde nigger's back.
All dese cities
Ashes, rust.. . .
De win' sing sperrichals
Through deir dus'.
244
White I Black Faces —Black Masks 24 5
Walker though t tha t Africa n theme s wer e a way out . Yet , they
too had t o be adapte d t o the America n stage an d mad e "inter -
esting an d entertainin g t o America n audiences. " Tha t wa s a
"catch" that mad e rea l escap e impossible .
Bert William s waited i n vai n for George Walke r t o recove r
from hi s illness . Th e tea m ha d develope d a modern expressio n
of th e classica l "darky " comics—Georg e Walke r a s th e sleek ,
smiling, prancing dandy , an d Bert Williams as the slow-witted ,
good-natured, shufflin g Negro—heir s t o th e Dand y Jim s an d
the Ji m Crows o f the mid-nineteent h century . Withou t Walker,
Williams drifted . H e wen t ou t alon e i n Mr . Lode o f Kole
(1909), whic h wa s t o b e hi s las t Negr o show . H e joine d th e
Ziegfeld Follies i n 191 0 an d remaine d wit h tha t sho w fo r te n
years. I n 1920 , William s wa s the sta r o f the review , Broadway
Brevities, and i n 1922 , sufferin g fro m wha t wa s to prov e a fatal
illness, h e too k th e star' s rol e i n Th e Pink Slip (late r Under th e
Bamboo Tree). Fallin g il l o n th e roa d tri p o f this las t produc -
tion, h e was returned t o New York City, where h e died , March
4, 1922 . Durin g thi s tim e a s a singl e performer , Williams re -
flected continuousl y o n hi s dea d partne r an d th e tea m whic h
had bee n reachin g fo r a perfectio n o f th e blackfac e comedy .
Walker ha d no t onl y been entertaining , but h e had als o been a
very intelligen t an d purposefu l man . H e ha d see n unerringl y
into the racia l implication s of traditiona l blackfac e comedy ,
and h e sa w th e tea m a s movin g blac k performer s ou t o f th e
narrow, racis t restraint s o f conventiona l theater . I t ma y hav e
been a n illusion , bu t th e tea m share d it . William s could find
no partne r t o tak e Walker' s place , an d i t seem s tha t h e los t a
sense of his own purpose i n the year s following Walker' s death .
Yet, i t wa s i n thi s period , whe n William s was performin g as
a singl e i n th e Ziegfeld Follies, that h e achieve d th e greates t
popular acclaim ; th e Ber t William s of thi s perio d i s mos t re -
membered. No r should i t be surprising , for he brought hi s style
of loose-limbe d danc e an d pantomim e an d plaintive-voice d
284 Harlem Renaissance
Or, again , Ber t William s woul d sin g "Wh y Ada m Sinned. " 3S
White I Black Faces —Black Masks 28 5
302
Epilogue 30 3
INTRODUCTION
1. Jame s Weldo n Johnson , Black Manhattan, Ne w York , Knopf ,
1930, pp . 156—59 . Bu t eve n th e mos t enthusiasti c champio n of
the renaissanc e wa s sobered by the depression. See Alain Locke,
"Harlem: Dar k Weather-Vane, " Survey Graphic, XXV (August
1936), pp. 457-58. I am indebted t o Mr . John Samue l Jordan, a
graduate studen t a t Columbi a Teacher' s College , fo r bringin g
this article t o my attention.
CHAPTER 1
1. Jame s Weldon Johnson , Autobiography o f a n Ex-Coloured Man,
New York , Hill an d Wang, 1960 , pp . 103-9 , describes the early
Negro cabaret s i n Ne w Yor k City . Se e also , Johnson , Black
Manhattan, pp. 75-77.
2. Ther e ar e severa l description s o f th e emergenc e o f blac k Har -
lem. Johnson , Black Manhattan, chap . 13 ; Set h M . Scheiner ,
Negro Mecca: A History of the Negro in New fork City,
1865-1920, New York , Ne w Yor k Universit y Press , 1965 , pas -
sim; Gilber t Osofsky , Harlem: Th e Making o f a Ghetto, Negro
New fork, 1890-1930, New York, Harper an d Row , 1966, espe -
cially pp. 81-123.
310
Notes 31 1
CHAPTER 2
1. Henr y F . May , Th e En d o f American Innocence: A Study o f
the First Years o f Ou r Ow n Time, 1912-1917, Ne w York ,
Knopf, 1959 , for a n excellen t interpretatio n o f assumption s o f
the generation o f Americans who went into World Wa r I.
2. W . A . Domingo' s articl e appear s i n Messenger, H I (Augus t
1920), pp. 73-74.
3. Arthu r W. Little , From Harlem to the Rhine, chaps . 4 7 and 48 ;
John Hop e Franklin , From Slavery t o Freedom, Ne w York ,
Knopf, 2n d ed. , 1960 , pp. 453-62 , for the experienc e o f Negro
military in Europe .
Notes 31 3
CHAPTER 3
1. May , End o f American Innocence, p. 86 .
2. Osca r Handlin , Th e Americans, Boston , Little , Brown , 1963 ,
chap. 17 , for an interesting discussion of these questions .
3. May , End o f American Innocence, pp. 232—36 .
4. Pau l Morand , Ne w York, Ne w York, H . Hol t an d Co., 1930, pp.
269-70.
5. Car l G . Jung , "You r Negroi d an d India n Behavior, " Forum,
LXXXIII (Apri l 1930), pp. 193-99.
6. Seymou r Krim , Views o f a Nearsighted Cannoneer, New York ,
Excelsior, 1961 , pp. 44-58; Milto n "Mezz" Mezzrow, Really th e
Blues, New York , Ne w American Library, 1964 ; see a more re -
cent accoun t i n Norma n Mailer , Th e White Negro, Sa n Fran -
cisco, Cit y Lights , 1969 . Originall y i n Dissent, I V (Summe r
1957), pp. 276-93.
7. Hughes , Th e Bi g Sea, pp . 268-72 . Edward Lueders , Carl Va n
Vechten, New York, Twayne, 1964, is a good literary biography
and les s academi c tha n tha t author' s Carl Va n Vechten an d th e
Twenties, Albuquerque , Universit y of New Mexic o Press, 1955.
By fa r th e bes t biograph y o f Va n Vechte n an d hi s time s i s
Bruce Kellner , Carl Va n Vechten an d th e Irreverent Decades,
Norman, Universit y o f Oklahoma Press , 1968 . I hav e use d Va n
Vechten's intervie w fo r the Columbi a University, Columbia Oral
History i n 1960.
8. Harol d Cruse , Th e Crisis o f th e Negro Intellectual, Ne w York ,
Morrow, 1967 , p. 35 . Crus e think s that Harle m ultimatel y pai d
the greate r price . Hughes , Jame s Weldo n Johnson , an d Va n
Vechten's biographers think he gave more than he got.
9. Va n Vechten' s judgment s abou t ar t an d cultur e ar e ver y wel l
treated i n the biographies previousl y cited.
10. Ne w York Evening Post, December 31 , 1921 ; Carl Va n Vech-
ten, Excavations, New York, Knopf , 1926 , pp. 57-80 ; Lueders ,
Carl Va n Vechten, pp . 55-57 ; Kellner , Carl Va n Vechten, pp .
180-82.
11. Edmun d Wilson, "Violets from th e Nineties, " in Shores of Light,
New York, Vintage, 1961, pp. 68-72.
12. Davi d Daiches , Some Late Victorian Attitudes, Ne w York , Nor-
ton, 1969.
Notes 31 5
CHAPTER 4
1. Rober t A. Bone, Th e Negro Novel in America, New Haven, Yale
University Press , 1965 , however , attempt s t o evaluat e blac k
writers in terms of this dichotomy. See also Irving Howe , "Blac k
Boys and Native Sons," Dissent, X (Autumn 1963), pp. 353-68 ,
and Th e Ne w Leader, XLVI I (Februar y 3 , 1964) , pp . 12-22 ,
which attempts t o answer Ralph Ellison's criticism . Ellison' s crit -
ical essa y an d fina l rejoinde r appea r i n hi s Shadow an d Act,
New York, Signet, 1964, as "The World in a Jug," pp. 115-47.
2. Edwi n S . Redkey, Black Exodus: Black Nationalist an d Back-to-
Africa Movements, 1890-1910, Ne w Haven , Yal e Universit y
Press, 1969 ; as wel l a s tha t author' s "Th e Flowering o f Black
Nationalism: Henr y M . Turne r an d Marcu s Garvey, " i n Hug-
gins, Kilson , an d Fox , eds., Key Issues, Vol. II, pp . 107-24 ;
Cronon, Black Moses; E . U . Essien-Udom, Black Nationalism: A
Search for a n Identity i n America, New York , Dell , 1964 ; Theo-
dore Draper , Th e Rediscovery of Black Nationalism, New York ,
Viking, 1970.
3. Se e May , End o f American Innocence, pp. 9—51 , but especiall y
p. 51, for definition.
4. Pau l H . Buck , Road t o Reunion, Boston , Little , Brown , 1937;
see als o Willia m R . Taylor , Cavalier an d Yankee: Th e Ol d
South an d American National Character, New York , Braziller ,
1961. Me n like George Washingto n Cable wer e a s much stifle d
by norther n indifferenc e an d publishers ' hostilit y a s by souther n
anger.
5. Se e the brillian t descriptio n an d analysi s of Uncl e Tom a s Mrs.
Stowe's "Blac k Christ " i n Kennet h S. Lynn , Mark Twain an d
Southwestern Humor, Boston, Little, Brown , 1959, pp. 107—11 ;
also Ellen Moers , "Mrs. Stowe's Vengeance," Th e Ne w York Re -
view of Books, XV (September 3, 1970), pp. 25-32.
6. Johnson , Autobiography of an Ex-Coloured Man, p. 190.
7. Bone , Th e Negro Novel, wrongl y stresses tha t th e protagonis t
was plague d wit h guil t fo r hi s cowardice . Thi s clearl y wa s no t
Notes 31 7
CHAPTER 5
1. Thi s attitud e persists , strangel y i n th e mind s o f white critic s o f
Negro writers . I t i s a t th e botto m o f Irvin g Howe' s exchang e
with Ralp h Ellison (se e Chapte r 4 , footnot e 1) . See also Robert
Bone's treatment o f this question; not e especiall y hi s assessment
of Frank Yerby.
2. Althoug h differen t i n man y ways , i t i s interestin g t o compar e
The Rise o f David Levinsky, 1917 , with Th e Autobiography o f
an Ex-Coloured Man. In bot h novel s acceptance an d succes s i n
American society come at the cost of a rich cultural heritage .
3. Alai n Locke, "Art or Propaganda?" Harlem, I (Novembe r 1928) ,
P- 12'
4. Langsto n Hughes, "Negro Artis t an d the Racia l Mountain," Na-
tion, CXXII (June 23, 1926), pp. 692-94.
5. Georg e S . Schuyler, "Negro-Ar t Hokum," Nation, CXXII (Jun e
16, 1926) , pp. 662-63. Schuyler resented tha t th e editor, Fred a
Kirchway, solicite d Negr o opinio n abou t hi s articl e befor e sh e
printed it . " I thin k a n edito r ough t t o b e abl e t o mak e up hi s
mind, o r he r mind , abou t wha t they'r e goin g t o carr y withou t
questioning everybod y in town." George S . Schuyler's interview
for th e Columbia Oral History, pp. 76-77 of typescript.
6. Fro m Color, p. 68.
7. Ibid. , p. 106.
8. Ibid. , p. 78.
9. McKay , Harlem Shadows, pp. xx—xxi.
10. Ibid. , p. 20.
11. McKay , A Long Way From Home, pp. 18-19.
12. Fro m Selected Poems of Claude McKay, p . 38 .
13. Fro m Harlem Shadows, p. 52.
Notes 31 9
CHAPTER 6
1. Hutchin s Hapgood , Th e Spirit o f th e Ghetto, Ne w York ,
Schocken, 1966 , pp . 118-75 . Althoug h first published i n 1902 ,
this remains the best description o f the Yiddish stage.
2. Thi s backface parallel t o traditional America n comic types seems
obvious, bu t n o on e t o m y knowledg e ha s observe d i t an d ac -
cepted th e implications . Fo r the standar d interpretatio n se e Carl
Wittke, Tambo an d Bones, New York , Greenwood , 1968 . Fo r
the bes t discussion see Hans Nathan , Da n Emmett an d the Rise
of Early Negro Ministrelsy, Norman , Oklahoma , Universit y o f
Oklahoma Press , 1962 . Fo r discussion s o f the traditiona l comi c
types see : Kennet h S . Lynn , Mark Twain an d Southwestern
Humor; an d Constanc e Rourke , American Humor, Ne w York ,
Doubleday, 1953 .
3. To m Fletcher , Th e To m Fletcher Story: 10 0 Years o f th e Negro
in Show Business, Ne w York , Burdge , 1954 ; Johnson , Black
Manhattan; Johnson , Along this Way; Loften Mitchell , Black
Drama, The Story of the American Negro in the Theatre, New
York, Hawthorne , 1967 ; al l includ e goo d genera l discussion s o f
the history of the Negro in the theater .
4. Osca r Handlin, The Americans, chap. 1 7 is suggestive.
5. Nathan , Da n Emmett, passim, give s detaile d description s whic h
makes thi s point. Notice , here , th e animalisti c an d savag e char -
acteristizations an d th e us e o f animal bone s fo r instruments. Se e
also, th e numerou s "Ho w t o pu t o n a Minstrel " books lik e tha t
of Fran k Dumont , Th e Witmark Amateur Minstrel Guide, Chi-
cago, Witmark and Co., 1899 .
6. France s Trollope , Domestic Manners o f th e Americans, Ne w
York, Vintage , 196 0 wa s firs t publishe d i n 1832 . Mar k Twai n
pointed ou t tha t sh e had bee n taken in by just the kin d of back-
Notes 32 1
325
326 Index
Emmett, Danie l D. , 248, 266 , 278 ; Fisher, Rudolph , 118-21 , 127 , 172 ,
see also Blackface minstrels 200, 243 ; satirized , 193 ; so -
Emperor Jones, Th e (O'Neill) , 116 , cial satir e of , 120-21 ; Va n
293, 296-9 8 Vechten, 9 5
Employment opportunitie s (Worl d Fisk Jubilee Singers , 75
War I) , 36, 37 Fisk University , 17, 19, 288
English literature (influence), 63-6 4 Fitzgerald, F . Scott, 52
Enormous Room, Th e (Cummings) , Fletcher, John Gould, 229
116,180 Fletcher, Tom , 260-261 , 262-63 ,
Ethnic, se e Art , Provincialism, an d 268; "coon " songs, 277
Theater Flower Beneath th e Foot, The (Fir-
Europe, Lt. James, 55-56 bank), 95
European civilizatio n (i n Banjo), Flute Bo y (Barthe), 166
187-88 Folk, 132-33
Ewing Lectures , 1967 , 96 ; se e Folk art : L . Hughe s an d S . Brown,
also Daiches, Davi d 222-27; jazz , 10-11 ; J . W .
Exile's Return (Cowley), 60-61, 139 Johnson's God, 230; spirituals ,
Exotic, the , 156 , 189 , 181 , 305 ; 10
Harlem, 85-86 , 89-92 ; Va n Folk traditions (Ne w Negro), 72-78
Vechten, 95-96 Folklore, 131 ; A . H. Fauset, 73-74 ;
Expatriates, 61, 188 , 196 , 234-3 6 J. C. Harris, 73-74; Z. N. Hurs-
ton, 74-75; theater, 292
Faulkner, William , 100, 30 1 "For Joh n Keats, Apostle of Beauty"
Fauset, Arthur Huff, 73-74 , 75 , 76 (Cullen), quoted, 207
Fauset, Jessie, 146-48, 160, 23 7 Forever Free (Sargen t Johnson) ,
Federal Ar t Project , W.P.A. , 167 , 168; se e also illustrations
169; se e als o W.P.A. , an d Formalism, 220 , 232 ; Cullen , 207 ;
Works Progres s Administra - Hughes, 221-22; McKay , 215
tion Four Hundred , 270-7 4
Feral Benga (Barthe), 166-167 ; see Frank, Waldo, 11 6
also illustrations Franklin, Benjamin, 85, 252, 257
Fetiche et Fleurs (Palmer Hayden), Frazier, E . Franklin, 28
167 French Army , se e 369t h Infantr y
Ficke, Arthu r Davidson, 22 9 Regiment
Fielding, Henry , 120 Freud, Sigmund , 7, 155-56, 300
Fields, A l G., 28 0 Freudianism, 87-88
15th Infantr y Regimen t (Ne w "Fruit o f th e Flower " (Cullen) ,
York), see 369th Infantry Regi- quoted from, 16 3
ment Fuller, Meta Warrick, 165,196, 199
Fine, Rabb i Stephen, 2 0
Fine Clothes t o th e Je w (Hughes) , Garvey, Marcu s A., 22 , 34, 35 , 41 -
78 47, 48 , 50 , 140-41 , 155 , 176 ,
Fink, Mike , 249 , 273 ; se e als o 269, 304 , 305 , 306 , 32 1 not e
Comedy 17; an d critics , 44-45 ; K u
Firbank, Ronald, 113 , 11 5 Klux Klan , 47 ; Liberi a colon -
Fire (magazine), 169, 191,240-4 1 izing scheme , 45-46 ; se e als o
Fire i n th e Flint (Walte r White) , illustrations
99 Galsworthy, John, 240
Firecrackers (Van Vechten), 9 7 Garland, Hamlin , 198
332 Index