Cold-formed steel structural sections are manufac- steps. The dynamic force measurements were taken
tured by using various cold forming processes such by mounting load sensing devices such as piezoelec-
as cold-roll forming, brake pressing, bend braking, etc. tric elements or strain gauges onto the test machine.
These cold forming processes bring changes into the Figure 1 shows an outline drawing of the force actions
material properties of final formed section profiles that occur during a cold rolling forming process.
due to the effect of the cold working that takes place The effects of cold forming on material properties
during the forming process, particularly at any formed of cold-formed steel members were investigated by a
bends or corners. Cold working causes strain har- number of researchers to quantify the enhanced ma-
dening of the material being formed and generally terial properties and to investigate if they could be
increases yield and tensile stress and decreases incorporated into the design process. In 1967, Karren
ductility. The level of strength increase depends on and Winter [5] at Cornell University conducted a series
the type of steel, history of cold working and method of investigations to find out the effect of cold forming
of forming used. This strength increase provides a sig- on the material properties of light-gauge steel mem-
nificant advantage which can, in some applications, bers. These investigations ranged from a type of
be used in the design process, as outlined in the AISI, simple unidirectional tensile straining of flat sheets to
BS5950 Part 5 and Eurocode 3 Part 1.3 design code more complex types of forming found in corners and
recommendations [1 – 3]. flat elements of sections. Further, these investigations
An investigation on cold-roll forming of light-gauge were extended to study the effect of cold forming on
steel sections was carried out by Kato in 1963 [4]. In the load carrying capacity of axially compressed
this research, many factors affecting the roll forming cold-formed columns [6, 7]. The results of a series of
load were investigated. The investigation began with experiments carried out showed an almost 100%
the determination of the forming action which had increase in yield stress at the formed corners. How-
taken place in the roll forming process. The forming ever the maximum increase of tensile stress at
action for a given pair of rolls was simulated in steps corners was found to be only 47% above the virgin
for static analysis by pressing the sheet metal with material. It was also found that the flat elements gain
pairs of dies shaped to bend the work into a channel, much smaller increases in both yield and tensile
and the forces involved were determined for these stress values compared to those at corners. The effect
of cold forming on the yield stress of thin gauge
carbon and stainless steel members was investigated
by Macdonald et al [8]. A series of experiments was
carried out using a standard hardness test approach
to determine local yield and tensile stresses at cold
formed corners. The results of the experiments were
compared with two design code approaches. Another
research investigation was carried out by Hlavacek [9]
where a method to calculate the increased yield
strength of a sheet to a relatively high degree of accu-
racy was proposed.
Cold-forming methods
Cold-forming is a process of transforming a flat
Fig. 1. Force actions during cold roll forming process (adapted sheet of metal into section profiles such as channel
from Kato [4])
sections by using cold rolling, brake pressing or fold-
Dr Martin Macdonald, Manoj Heiyantuduwa, prof. David ing operations as discussed in detail by Rhodes [10].
K. Harrison – School of Engineering & Computing, Glasgow Folding is the simplest process that can be used to
Caledonian University, Glasgow, UK. produce specimens of short lengths and of simple
geometry, by folding sheets into a series of bends. In
brake pressing, a section is formed from a length of
strip by pressing between two dies to form the
required profile. A typical press braking machine is
shown in fig. 2. Cold rolling is the more widely used
operation to manufacture cold-formed section profiles
with large volumes and longer lengths. The necessary
profile is formed by passing the metal strip through
successive pairs of rollers. Most of the commercially
available cold-formed products are manufactured
using cold rolling which provides consistent sections
(1)