Module 1 - Basics of Soil Mechanics Finished (Compatibility Mode)

Basic Soil Mechanics
BASICS OF SOIL
MECHANICS
NPTEL course 1 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras-36
Syllabus
Module 1 : Basic Soil Mechanics: Basic soil properties, correlation between
engineering parameters, geotechnical investigation, bore log. (10hrs.)
Module 2 : Pile foundation: Jacket main piles, skirt piles, driven piles, drilled and
grouted piles, steel and concrete piles, axial capacity, point bearing and skin friction,
factor of safety, lateral load on piles, p-y, t-z and q-z curves, pile group effect, scour
around piles, seabed subsidence and design of piles against seabed movement,
negative skin friction, cyclic degradation, main pile to jacket connections, skirt pile to
jacket connections, API RP 2A provisions. (12 hrs.)
Module 3 : Pile Installation: Minimum pile wall thickness, pile handling stresses,
static and dynamic stresses, pile stickup, stresses during stick up, wave and current
loads, hammer selection, pile driving stresses, wave equation analysis, pile driving
fatigue, API RP 2A guidelines. (8 hrs.)
Module 4 : Pile Testing: Working load test, ultimate load test, pile monitoring during
driving, pile integrity testing, high strain dynamic testing, rebound method. (4 hrs.)
Module 5 : Special foundations: Mud-mats: bearing capacity, sliding stability, over-

turning stability, short term and long term settlements, factor of safety; Bucket
foundation; Suction anchors; Gravity foundation. (6 hrs.)

Module 1 : Basic Soil Mechanics
 Need of Foundations for structures  Topographical Features of the Sea floor
 Coastal Structures  Soil Formation Process
 Sea Walls  Types of Marine Sediments
 Ports and harbors  Ground formation types
 Jetties  Cohesion less soil
 Offshore Structures  Cohesive soil
 Fixed Structures  Rock
 Floating Structures  Basic characteristics of soil
 Gravity structures  Engineering Properties
 Construction of Foundations  Grain size Distribution
 Shallow foundations  Atterberg limits
 Deep Foundations  Density
 Code Provisions  Strength properties
 IS 2911  Soil investigation
 API RP 2A  Bore hole depth and location
 Foundation Design Methods  Drilling Log
 Testing Based Methods  In-situ testing
 Engineering Based Methods  Laboratory testing methods
 Empirical Correlations

Need of Foundations for Structures
The man made structures built on earth crust requires to transmit the
loads to the earth crust without hindering the performance of the
structure for which it is built. The loads need to be transmitted to the
ground or bearing stratum without failing both the structure and the soil.
It can be
observed from
the figure that
the type of
foundation can
vary with type of
structure and the
sub-soil
conditions at the
site.

Foundations for Coastal and Offshore Structure
Foundations for offshore and coastal structures can be broadly classified into three
major categories.
Jetty Structures
The name jetty is some times had its name from the concept of the structure jetting out
from the coastline. These structures are built distance away from the coastline where in
sufficient water depth is available for berthing ships and vessels.
Quay Walls
Quay walls are primarily a earth retaining structures near the coastline for allowing the
ships and berthing vessels to approach and berth. Historically, the ports and harbour
structures have been built in India and abroad using retaining wall concept from British
period.
Offshore Platforms
Offshore platforms are structures primarily steel structure although in some cases
concrete gravity structures are also used. These platforms are normally supported on
large diameter steel piles driven into seabed for sufficient depth.

Coastal structures
Coastal structures are used for various man made activities in the
coastal region such as
 Sea walls for protecting the coast against erosion.
 Breakwaters for sheltering man made activities and also to protect
the coast against action from waves.
 Jetties for berthing ships for offloading liquid cargo
 Fishing harbours for berthing and station keeping the small crafts
 Commercial harbours for offloading containers and solid cargo

Sea Walls
Sea wall is a gravity structure built of concrete or stones to protect the coast from
sea waves. The action of sea waves may erode the coastline thus endangering the
livelihood of people living in the coastline.

Jetty Structure Near coast
Twin VLCC (Very Large
crude carrier) jetty designed
to berth 320,000 DWT oil
tankers for unloading crude
oil.
It can be seen from the

picture that the jetty is
located away from the
coastline by sufficient
distance where the required
water depth is available so
that such large ships can
arrive and berth.
A jetty is a structure constructed near the coastline to berth a sea going
vessel, oil tanker or container ship. The ship may unload / discharge solid
and liquid cargo to the shore via this facility. The jetty structure may be
connected to the land by approach bridge or by subsea pipelines for
conveying the cargo.
Jetty Structure Away from coast
An island jetty designed to
berth 20,000 DWT liquid
cargo tankers for unloading.
It can be seen from the

picture that the jetty is
located far away from the
coastline by sufficient
distance where the required
water depth is available so
that such large ships can
arrive and berth. No
approach bridge is provided
in this case and is
connected to shore by
subsea pipelines.
An island Jetty is a facility located very far from the coast and is not
connected by approach bridge or approach trestle.
Multi-purpose Harbour (All weather)
Multi-purpose harbour well protected by breakwater from sea action.

Bulk Terminal protected by Bar Breakwater
Two jetty structures
Break water connected by approach
bridge to the shore
designed to berth 190,000
DWT, 210,000 DWT vessels
for discharging bulk
products.
The jetties are located

approximately 600m from
the shore and is protected
by a bar breakwater against
sea waves.
A bar breakwater is built to protect the jetty facility from incoming wave from
a particular direction.

Construction of bored in-situ concrete piles

Construction of Bore-in-situ Concrete Piles
Bored concrete piles for marine structures are generally constructed with casing or
liners. These liners act as a shuttering and enclose the concrete. The construction
sequence is illustrated in the figure.
 The liner is driven to depth until the soil is loose or collapsible in nature. The
liner is normally not used as part of the structure.
 The soil inside the casing is removed either by chisel and grab. When the soil
is hard or rocky, auger boring may also be used.
 When the boring reaches the liner end, betonies slurry may be used to
stabilize the soil below the liner depth.
 Upon the depth of target penetration is reached, the reinforcement cage (pre-
fabricated) can be lowered in to the liner. The reinforcement cage may installed
in segments if one length cannot be installed in single piece due to weight
limitation or length limitation due to handling equipment
 Concrete can be filled inside the liner from the bottom of the bore using tremie
method. During this process, the slurry flow out due to replacement.
 Tremie is a pipe lowered in to the hole and the concrete is pumped from the
top.
Diaphragm wall is a
vertical barrier
constructed near the
water front to prevent
the soil from sliding
and collapse.
Normally, the soil on

the water front area is
dredged after the
construction of the
wall.
The wall shall be designed against all possible loads arising from earth pressure,
hydrodynamic, hydrostatic, mooring, berthing and surcharge loads.
The construction of these walls is by dry excavation with or without bentonite slurry
and filling the hole with reinforcement cage and concrete.
Anchored diaphragm
wall uses the similar
concept except that
the top end of the wall
is anchored into a
dead man anchor or
other types of
structures.
The position of the anchor point is very essential to the stability of the system. The
active pressure zone of anchor shall not overlap with the passive pressure zone of
the diaphragm wall.

Relieving Platform, is
an extension of the
diaphragm wall with a
piled structure at the
back.
This is done to relieve

the horizontal load on
the diaphragm wall from
the surcharge load.
The surcharge load is

transferred to the piles
and diaphragm wall
vertically.
The bending stiffness of the pile can be taken in to consideration for the design of
the diaphragm wall.

This is very similar to
the relieving platform
at the back.
This is preferred as the

pile will always be in
compression.
Otherwise, the design

consideration is very
similar to the diaphragm
wall.
The surcharge load beyond the diaphragm wall needs to be taken into consideration
if applicable in this case.

Gravity Wall was
predominantly used in
early 60’ and 70 where
in the construction of
diaphragm walls were
difficult due to
unavailability of
equipment.
The construction of
the gravity wall using
the precast block
concepts with shear
lock between blocks.
Normally construction is done in dry condition by excavating a trench and
placement of blocks in order before dredging on the water side.
Since the precast blocks are used, construction can also be done in wet condition
under water.
Typical gravity wall with back fill

Approach bridge
with steel or
concrete piles.
The piles can be

vertical or raked
in case of steel
piles.
Concrete piles are

always vertical.

Offshore Platforms
What is an Offshore Platform ?
Offshore platforms are structures installed in shallow/deep water for drilling and
production of hydro-carbons (soil and gas) from seabed.
Primarily, they support the drilling and production equipment.
How are they constructed and installed ?
The offshore platforms are normally pre-fabricated and installed on to seabed. These
structures are fixed to seabed by means of pile foundation.
Though other forms of offshore structures exist such as floating, or gravity types, fixed
platforms with piled foundations are very common in shallow water depths.

Offshore Structures
Spectrum of offshore structures concepts developed over the last century. These
concepts range from fixed and floating structures.
Fixed structures are those resting on seabed with pile foundations transferring all
gravity and environmental loads to seabed.
Floating structures are those floating on water with gravity loads supported by
buoyancy and the environmental loads transferred to seabed by mooring system
and anchor foundations.
A fixed Offshore Platform with deep pile foundation
The pile foundation is suitably located at corners

to derive maximum advantage from the spacing.


TLP WITH GRAVITY ANCHOR
Tension Leg Platform (TLP) is a floating hull,
usually supported on four columns and
pontoons.
The columns are connected to hull through

vertical tethers and anchored to seabed with a
pretension. The pretension is achieved from the
excess buoyancy.
The gravity loads from the hull and the topsides

are supported by buoyancy from the hull similar
to the ships.
TLPs are very common for deep water

applications for drilling and production in excess
of 1000m water depth.

TURRET MOORED FPSO WITH PILED ANCHOR
D R IL L IN G /S U B S T R U C T U R E FPSO is a Floating
P IP E R A C K
PROCESS
P O W E R G E N E R A T IO N
LQ
Production, Storage and
O FF-
L O A D IN G
H E L ID E C K Offloading ship for oil and
gas projects.
TURRET +
M O O R IN G THRU STER S
An FPSO is a ship shaped
structure that supports the
equipment and facilities for
oil and gas production.
Turret Mooring system comprise of a swivel joint which makes the ship to rotate
about the bearing and mooring connected to the seabed.
The Mooring lines are connected to the seabed with anchor foundation.

Jackup Rigs
Movable Jackup is a semi-fixed
Drill Floor structure with floating hull.
Jackups are predominantly

used for drilling though in
some cases, it is also used
for production in marginal
field
Jackups are supported on

legs conventionally lattice
frames or tubular
construction.
A jackup rig drilling a well through an existing wellhead platform using a cantilever
rig floor. The jackup rig is supported on to seabed through legs fitted with large mat
foundation called Spudcan.


Types of Foundations for fixed Offshore Structures

Loading on Foundations
The loads on foundations are same as that on the structure for most class of structures.
Exception being the earth retaining structures such as quay walls have predominant
lateral earth pressure.
Offshore and coastal structures carry following loads
 Gravity Loads (dead load, live load)

 Environmental loads such as wind, wave, current
 Earth pressure
 Seismic forces
 Mooring and Berthing loads
The relative magnitude of lateral loads to gravity loads in case of onshore structures is
very small. However, for coastal and offshore structures, the lateral loads are very
large.
Hence design of foundations for the coastal and offshore structures, the lateral capacity
and its interaction with gravity loads needs to be carefully considered.

Load Transfer Mechanism pile foundations

Load Transfer Mechanism

Gravity Foundations
Gravity foundations are suitable
at locations where the bearing
stratum is close to the seabed
surface.
The gravity loads are resisted by

bearing while the horizontal loads
are resisted by passive reaction.
The effect of over turning

moment caused by horizontal
loads is to be resisted by self
weight and ballast at appropriate
side to generate the counter
acting moment.

Classification of piles
Piles can be classified into following categories
 Displacement piles
 Driven Precast concrete piles
 Driven Steel tubular piles (open ended)
Piles (either concrete or steel) that are driven in to the ground using
hammer by displacing the soil around are called “displacement piles”.
 Non-displacement piles
 Bored cast in-situ concrete piles
 Drilled and grouted steel piles
Piles (either concrete or steel) that are installed in to the ground after the
boring using drilling equipment and filled with cement grout are called
“non-displacement piles”.

Soil profile transition from onshore to offshore
The soil strata for
each layer is clearly
visible from the figure.
It can be noted that

the layer depth varies
considerably along
the distance from one
bore hole to another
bole.
This needs to taken in

to account while
designing foundations
The combined profile along the bore hole gives stratification of the soil.

Soil profile at Onshore site
Loose to medium sand
medium sand
Dense sand
Pockets of clay
Rock

Foundations Design Methods
The design of foundation for offshore and coastal structures is similar to any onshore
structures except that the special emphasis should be given to design against the lateral
loads.
What is a foundation design ?

The transmission of vertical and horizontal loads to subsoil strata with acceptable
vertical and lateral soil deformation and safety margin.
Engineering Based Design

Engineering based design is evaluate the soil characteristics including its strength and
deformation properties under various forms of loading such as gravity and
environmental loads. The characteristics could be obtained based on soil sampling /
testing using in-situ and laboratory based methods. The draw back of this is the
reliability of the method to predict the strength and deformation characteristics.
Testing Based Design

The foundation design based on prototype testing is commonly used in onshore
structures for several decades and proved to be reliable but expensive. Further, the
method offers wide variety of testing that may be used in combination with the
engineered foundation.

Engineering Based Design
Deep foundations such as pile foundation, the load is planned to be transmitted to a
bearing soil strata found at larger depth. In this cases, the testing becomes difficult and
expensive. In many occasion, the design will be based on derived soil parameters from
small scale in-situ or laboratory testing. The procedure is explained as below.
a. An assessment of soil stratification at the proposed location of the structure is carried out
using the drilled bore hole and following physical and geological parameters shall be
obtained.
• Geophysical parameters such as colour, density, grain size distribution etc.
• Geological information
• Shear strength characteristics
• Deformation characteristics
b. Spatial variation of soil strata at the site is assessed by conducting bore hole tests at
several locations at a specified spacing and depth. The spacing and depth of bore hole
depends on the size and magnitude of the structure and the load transmitted respectively.
c. A design soil profile is derived from the assessment including the soil bore hole data and
historical information at the site.
d. The foundation load carrying capacity and its load deformation characteristics are obtained
using basic soil mechanics principle.
e. A suitable factor of safety is applied on to the calculated load carrying capacity and is used
as the allowable strength of the foundations.
f. As installed load carrying capacity may be estimated if required based on information
gathered during the installation.
CODE PROVISIONS
Foundations for coastal/offshore application can be designed in accordance with

following codes
 Driven Steel Piles – API RP 2A

 Bored cast in-situ piles – IS 2911
 Bored cast in-situ pile in rock - IS 14593
 Diaphragm wall – IS 9556.
 Block works – IS 9527 part 6.
Some provisions of foundation design can also be noted from various codes of
practice for Port and Harbour structures.
 IS 4651 – Planning and Design of Port and Harbours.

 IS 9527 – Design and Construction of Port and Harbour Structures
 BS 6349 - Maritime Structures.

Topographical features of sea floor
The sea floor can be divided into following three major areas
- Continental margin
- Ocean floor
- Oceanic ridge
The major oil and gas activities are focused in the area of continental
margin which occupies almost 20% of the total ocean area. The
continental margin can be sub divided as
- Continental shelf
- Continental slope
- Continental ridge
The water depth of the continental margin extends upto 500 mm

followed by continental rise reaching a distance of 100km from shore.

Topographical features of sea floor


Soil Formation Process
Soil particles are formed from weathering or breakdown of larger rock

mass. The break down process can be classified into following
processes.
a. Biological process
b. Mechanical process
c. Chemical process
Biological process includes the following factors which disintegrate the

rock.
a. Change in the chemical structure of the rock (bio-chemical).

b. Growth of plant roots into cracks in rocks causing block
disintegration due to pressure excerted by roots.
c. Burrowing of animals.

Mechanical processes includes
a. Weathering of rocks due to precipitation, heat and cold.
b. Weathering of rocks due to Frost formation in voids and expansion
forces causing the rock to break.
c. Insulation weathering due to repeated heating and cooling of rocks
leading to alternate expansion and contraction.
d. Salt weathering solutions of salt evaporate and crystallise in
confined space and expansion of crystal weaker the rock and
disintegrate.
Chemical processes includes
a. Oxidation of ferrous compounds present in the rock masss causing
disintegration.
b. Carbonisation and solution of rock
CaCo3 + H 2Co3 → Ca ++ + 2 HCO3
Calcite Carbonic acid Calcium Calcium bicarbonate
CaMg ( Co3 )2 + 2 H 2Co3 → Ca ++ + Mg ++

+ 4 HCO3
Dolomite Carbonic acid Calcium Magnesium Calcium bicarbonate
Marine sediments
The seabed in the continental margin is primarily made of sediments
having thickness as much as 1 to 2 m.
The marine sediments are composed of territorial material from land

and substances extracted from solution by biological or chemical
processes.
The primary means of transport from land to ocean is river, though

glaciers, wind also from part of the process. Sediments can be classified
as
- Lithogenous particles
- Biogenous particles
- Hydrogenous particles.

a. Lithogenous particles: which are primarily silicate mineral grains
derived from the breakdown of silicate terrigenous rocks during
weathering; volcanoes may also be sources of lithogeous particles.
b. Biogenous particles: which are insoluble remains of bones, teeth

or shells of marine organisms.
c. Hydrogenous particles: which are formed by chemical reactions

occuring in sea water or within the sediments; manganese nodules
are the most prominent example of this particle type. These nodules
usually form at extremely slow rates of between 1 and 100 mm per
million years.

Ground Formation Types
 COHESIONLESS SOIL
 Sand
 Gravel
 COHESIVE SOIL
 Clay
 Peat
 Organic soil
 ROCKY
 Sedimentary
 Granite
 Sandstone
 Limestone

Particle size and shape
Rounded Subrounded
Subangular Angular
Sand & gravel- Generally formed by

mechanical weathering- bulky particles
Clay particles are like sheets!
Angle of repose
The angle of repose or the critical angle of repose of a granular
material is the steepest angle of descent or dip of the slope relative
to the horizontal plane when material on the slope face is on the
verge of sliding. This angle is in the range 0°–90°.

Angle of repose Material (condition) Angle of Response (degrees)
Ashes 40°
The angle of repose various Asphalt (crushed) 30-45°
materials is given in the table Bark (wood refuse) 45°
Chalk 45°
Clay (wet excavated) 15°
Clover seed 28°
Coconut (shredded) 45°
Coffee bean (fresh) 35 - 45°
Earth 30 - 45°
Flour (wheat) 45°
Granite 35 - 40°
Gravel (loose/dry) 30-45°
Gravel (natural w/sand) 25 - 30°
Sand (dry) 34°

Sand (water dilled) 15 - 30°
Sand (wet) 45°
Snow 38°
Wheat 28°

CLAY STRUCTURES
Dispersed Flocculated
Natural
Book house Turbo stratic
Clay particles have predominantly sheet like shape with flattened face !.

Basic Characteristics of Soil
Soil type Term Field test
Sands, gravels Loose Can be excavated with a spade; 50 mm wooden peg can be
easily driven
Dense Requires a pick for excavation; 50 mm wooden peg is hard to
drive
Slightly cemented Visual examination; pick removes soil in lumps which can be
abraded
Silts Soft or loose Easily moulded or crushed in the fingers
Firm or dense Can be moulded or crushed by strong pressure in the fingers
Clays Very soft Exudes between the fingers when squeezed in the hand
Soft Moulded by light finger pressure
Stiff Cannot be moulded by the fingers; can be indented by the
thumb
Very stiff Can be indented by the thumbnail
Organic, peats Firm Fibers already compressed together
Spongy Very compressible and open structure
Plastic Can be moulded in the hand and smears the fingers

Basic Characteristics of soil
Homogeneous Deposit consists essentially of one soil type
Interstratified Alternating layers of varying types or with bands or lenses
of other materials (an interval scale for bedding spacing or
layer thickness can be used)
Homogeneous A mixture of soil types
Weathered Coarse particles may be weakened and may show
concentric layering
Fine soils usually have crumb or columnar structure
Fissured (clays) Breaks into polyhedral fragments along fissures (interval
scale for spacing of discontinuities may be used)
Intact (clays) No fissures
Fibrous (peats) Plant remains are recognizable and retain some strength
Amorphous Recognizable plant remains are absent
(peats)

Engineering Properties
Engineering properties are  Particle Size Distribution
characteristics of material that  Atterberg Limits
defines their size, ability to  Liquid Limit
deform and resist external  Plastic Limit
forces.  Plasticity Index
 Density
These properties are required to  Dry Density
determine whether a particular  Bulk Density
soil layer has the ability to  Specific Gravity
transfer or bear required loads  Strength
from the super structure.  Shear Strength
 Angle of internal friction
These include its deformation  Poisson Ratio
characteristics as listed.  Modulus of Elasticity

Particle Size Distribution
Particle size distribution plays a major role in classification, strength
and its stress – strain characteristics. Typically, more uniform grain size
will have larger voids whereas the mixed particle sizes fill the gap
between the larger particles and thus reducing the gap and voids,
increases the strength.
The finer the particles, the structure of the soil is sensitive to the
moisture content and thus highly influenced by the amount of moisture.
On the other hand, larger the particle size, the arrangement, inter
particle friction becomes the influential parameters.
Particle Size distribution can be established using simple sieve analysis

technique. Various sieve sizes are used.
< 0.002mm – Clay

0.002mm to 0.06mm – Silt
0.06mm to 2mm – Sand
2mm to 60mm - Gravel
Sieve Analysis
Particle size distribution can be obtained
by passing the soil through set of sieves
with different mesh size.
The sieve sizes available in IS or BS

codes are listed below.
1– 63 μm
2 – 212 μm
3 – 600 μm
4 – 2 mm
5 – 6.3 mm Sieve analysis
6 – 20 mm
7 – 62 mm
Percentage of soil by weight passing through each sieve is noted.

Particle size distribution curve

Particle size distribution parameters
A particle size distribution curve can be used to determine the following
parameters
1. Effective size (D10): This parameter is the diameter in the
particle – size distribution curve corresponding to 10% finer.
The effective size of a granular soil is a good measure to
estimate the hydraulic conductivity and drainage through soil.
2. Uniformly coefficient (CU): This parameter is defined as
D60
CU =
D10
where D60 = diameter corresponding to 60% finer.
3. Coefficient of gradation (CC): This parameter is defined as
D302
CC =
D60 × D10
Well, poorly and gap graded

Comparison of particle size distribution
Soil D10 D30 D60 CU CC

A 0.47 3.5 16 34 1.6
B 0.23 0.30 0.41 1.8 0.95
C 0.003 0.042 2.4 800 0.25
BS Sieve Particle size * Percentage smaller
Soil A Soil B Soil C Soil D
63 mm 100 100
20 mm 64 76
6.3 mm 39 100 65
2 mm 24 98 59
600 μm 12 90 54
212 μm 5 9 47 100
63 μm 0 3 34 95
0.020 mm 23 69
0.006 mm 14 46
0.002 mm 7 31
* From sedimentation test

Consistancy of Cohesive Soils
Depending on the amount of moisture content in the soil, soil
may behave as solid, semi-solid, plastic and liquid.
Plasticity Index (PI)= Liquid Limit – Plastic Limit
Determination of natural moisture content will provide

information about the behaviour of soil under loading.

Liquid and Plastic Limit
Depending on the amount of moisture content in the soil, soil
may behave as solid, semi-solid, plastic and liquid.
Liquid Limit (LL) is the moisture content beyond which soil start
behaving as a fluid. This is the upper limit of the moisture content. Two
methods can be used to determine the liquid limit.
a) Liquid Limit Test Device (Crank and a cup)

The soil sample is placed on the cup and groove of 12.7mm is made at
the centre with a pat. The cup is made to fall on the base using the
crank. The moisture (wn) content corresponds to 25 blows is called
Liquid Limit. 0.121
N
LL = wn  
 25 
b) Fall cone Test
A cone with 30 degree apex and 0.78N weight is allowed fall on the soil
mass. The moisture content corresponding to 20mm penetration is
termed as Liquid Limit.
Equipment for determining liquid limit
Crank
Counter
Cup
Cone
Casagrande’s Apparatus Fall cone Apparatus

Determination of Liquid Limit by Casagrande Apparatus
 The cup is filled with soil mixed with specific moisture content and a 12.7mm
groove is made with pat.
 The crank is rotated until the soil on either side of the groove flows and joins.
 The moisture content is noted.
 The test is repeated three to four time with different moisture content.
 The results of the tests are
plotted in a semi-log graph.
 The moisture content that

corresponds to 25 blows is
noted as the liquid limit.
 The geometry of the groove

and the test procedure is
given ASTM D-4318.

Determination of Liquid Limit cone penetration method
 A fall cone of weight 0.78 N with an apex angle of 30 degrees is allowed fall on
the soil sample in a container.
 The cone is allowed to penetrate for a period of 5 seconds.

corresponds to 20 mm
penetration is noted as the
liquid limit.
 The geometry of the cone

given BS 1377.

Shrinkage Limit
Shrinkage limit is the
moisture content below
which the soil mass
volume does not reduce
any further.
The soil mass reaches

its equilibrium.
The test procedure is

described in ASTM D-
427.

Plastic Limit Determination
Plastic Limit (PL) is defined as the moisture content (expressed in %) at
which the soil crumbles when rolled into threads of 3.2mm. This limit is
the lower limit of the moisture content.
Plastic Limit can be determined by rolling ellipsoidal lump of soil mass by

hand into 3.2 mm threads on a glass plate. The lower limit below which
the soil crumbles is termed as plastic limit. The complete procedure is
described in ASTM D-4318
A B C D

Determination of Plastic Limit by Cone penetration method
 A fall cone of weight 2.35 N with an apex angle of 30 degrees is allowed fall on
the soil sample in a container.
 The cone is allowed to penetrate for a period of 5 seconds.

corresponds to 20 mm
penetration is noted as the
plastic limit.
 The geometry of the cone

given BS 1377.

SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Classification of soil based on engineering properties of soil helps in identifying
the type and associated strength properties. Various properties used in the
classification are listed below.
 Grain size Distribution (D10, D50, D60 and D30)

 Uniformity coefficient (CU)
 Coefficient of gradation (CC)
 Liquid Limit (wL)
 Plastic Limit (wP)
 Plasticity Index (PI)
Following system of classification will be used in the classification.
 Unified Classification System

 Plasticity charts for fine grained soils

Criteria for grading and classification
Following symbols will be used in the classification.
Primary Letter Secondary Letter
G : Gravel W : Well graded

S : Sand P : Poorly graded
M : Silt M : With non-plastic fines
C : Clay C : With plastic fines
O : Organic Soil L : Of low plasticity (wL< 50)
Pt : Peat H : Of high Plasticity (wL > 50)
Typical examples
Well graded sand (SW) Silt with fines (MC)

Poorly graded sand (SP) Silt with low plasticity (ML)
Organic Clay with low plasticity (OL) Silt with high plasticity (MH)
Clay with low plasticity (CL) Peat (PT)
CRITERIA FOR ASSIGNING GROUP SYMBOLS
Coarse- Gravels Clean gravels CU ≥ 4 and 1 ≤ CC ≤ 3 GW
Grained Soils More than 50% of
More than 50% coarse fraction Less than 5% fines CU < 4 and/or 1 > CC > 3 GP
of retained on retained on 2mm
Gravels with fines PI < 4 or plots below “A” line GM
BS sieve 63 μm sieve
More than 12% fines PI > 7 and plots on or above “A” line GC
Sands Clean sands CU ≥ 6 and 1 ≤ CC ≤ 3 SW
50% or more of
Less than 5% fines CU < 6 and/or 1 > CC > 3 SP
coarse fraction
passes 2mm sieve Sands with fines PI < 4 or plots below “A” line SM
More than 12% fine PI > 7 and plots on or above “A” line SC
Fine-Grained Silts and Clays Inorganic PI > 7 and plots on or above “A” line CL
Soils Liquid limit less PI < 4 or plots below “A” line ML
50% or more than 50 Organic Liquid limit - oven dried OL
passes BS < 0.75; OH zone
Liquid limit - not dried
sieve 63 μm
Silts and clays Inorganic PI plots on or above “A” line CH
Liquid limit 50 or PI plots below “A” line MH
more Organic Liquid limit - oven dried OH
< 0.75; OL zone
Liquid limit - not dried
Highly organic Primarily organic matter, dark in color, and organic odor. PT
soils

UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
Name Laboratory criteria
Group Symbols Fines (%) Grading plasticity
Coarse Gravel Well graded GW 0–5 CU > 4 Dual

grained (more Gravels, symbols
(more than 50% sandy gravels, if 5 – 12%
than 50% of coarse fines.
larger fraction of with little or Dual
than BS gravel no fines symbols
sieve 63 size) Poorly graded GP 0–5 Not if above
μm) satisfying A-line
gravels, sandy
GW and 4 1
gravels, with < PI < 7
require-
little or no fines ments
Silty gravels, GM >12 Below A-
Silty sand gravels line or
PI<4
Clayey gravels GC
clayey sandy >12 Above A-
gravels line and
PI > 7

Contd…
Name Laboratory criteria
Group Symbols Fines (%) Grading plasticity
notes
Coarse Sands Well graded GW 0–5 CU > 6 Dual
grained (more sands, 1 < CC < 3 symbol
(more than 50% Gravely sands, s if 5 –
than 50% of coarse 12%
larger fraction of with little or fines.
than 63 gravel no fines Dual
μm BS size) Poorly graded GP 0–5 Not symbol
satisfying s if
sands, gravelly
GW above
sands, with A-line
require-
little or no fines ments and 4
< PI <
Silty sands SM >12 Below A- 7
line or
PI<4
Clayey sands SC >12 Above A-
line and
PI> 7

Name Group Symbols Laboratory criteria
Fine grained Silts and clays Inorganic silts, silty ML Use plasticity chart
(more than (liquid limit less or clayey fine sands,
50% smaller than 50) With slight plasticity
than 63 μm
BS) Inorganic clays, silty CL Use plasticity chart
clays, sandy clays
Highly organic Silts and clays of low plasticity
soils (liquid limit less
than 50) Organic silts and OL Use plasticity chart
organic silty clays
of low plasticity
Inorganic silts of high MH
Use plasticity chart
plasticity
In organic clays of CH
plasticity
Organic clays of high OH Use plasticity chart
plasticity
Peat and other highly Pt Use plasticity chart
organic soils

PLASTICITY CHART
PI
%
PHASE DIAGRAMS

Saturation ratio
The degree of saturation is the ratio of the volume of water to the
total volume of void space
Vw
Sr =
Vv
Sr = Degree of saturation
Vw = Volume of water
Vv = Total volume of void space
For marine soils, the saturation ratio will be 1.0 and is
called fully saturated soil.

Void ratio and Porosity
The void ratio is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of
solids and the porosity is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume
of the soil.
Vv
e=
Vv n=
Vs V
e = void ratio n = Porosity
Vv = Total volume of void space Vv = Volume of voids
Vs = Volume of solids V = Volume of the soil
n
The void ratio and the porosity e =
are inter-related as follows:
1 − n
e
n =
1 + e
Bulk Density and Specific Gravity
The bulk density of a soil is the The specific gravity of the soil
ratio of the total mass to the total particles is given by mass of
volume. solid (Ms) and volume of soilds
(Vs)
M
ρ=
V
ρ = Bulk density Ms ρs
Gs = =
M = Total Mass Vs ρ w ρ w
V = Volume G s = Gravity of soil particles
For a fully saturated soil (Sr = 1) ρ s = Particle density
Gs + e
ρ sat = ρw
1+ e
Unit weight
The unit weight of a soil is the ratio of the total weight (a force) to the
total volume
W Mg
γ= =
V V
In which M is the mass of the soil, g is the gravitational acceleration
an V is the volume of the soil.

Apply in the case of unit weights
Gs (1 + w)
γ= γw
1+ e
Gs S r e
γ= γw
1+ e
Where a soil in-situ is fully saturated the solid soil particles (volume
γ
1 unit, weight Gs w) are subjected to upthrust ( γ w
Gs γ w Gs − 1
γ =
,
= γw
1+ e 1+ e
i.e. :
γ , = γ sat − γ w

Various forms relationships for γ, γd, and γsat
Moist unit weight (γ) Dry weight (γd) Saturated unit weight (γsat)
Given Relationship Given Relationship Given Relationship
w, G, e (1 + ω ) Gγ ω γ, w γ G, e (G + e) γ ω
1+ e 1+ ω 1+ e
S, G, e ( G + Se ) γ ω G, e Gγ ω G, n (1 − n )( G + n ) γ ω
1+ e 1+ e
w, G, S (1 + ω ) Gγ ω G, n G, ωsat  1 + ωsat 
Gγ ω (1 − n )   Gγ ω
ωG  1 + ω sat G 
1+
S
w, G, n G, w, S Gγ ω e, ωsat  e   1 + ωsat 
Gγ ω (1 − n )(1 + ω )  ωG 
1+    γω
  ωsat   ωsat 
 S 
eS γ ω  1 + ωsat 
S, G, n Gγ ω (1 − n ) + nS γ ω e, w, S n, ωsat n γω
(1 + e ) ω  ω sat 
eγ ω  e 
γsat, e γ sat − γd, e γd + γω
1+ e  1+ e 
γsat, n γ sat − nγ ω γd, n γ d + nγ ω
γsat, G γd, S  1
(γ sat − γ ω ) G 1 −  γ d − γ ω
 G
( G − 1)
γd, ωsat γ d (1 + ωsat )
Void ratio, moisture content, and Dry Unit Weight for Some Typical
Soils in a Natural State
Type of soil Void Natural moisture content in Dry unit weight, γd

ratio, e saturated state (%)
lb/ft3 kN/m3
Loose uniform sand 0.8 30 92 14.5
Dense uniform sand 0.45 16 115 18
Loose angular - grained 0.65 25 102 16
silty sand
Dense angular – grained 0.4 15 121 19
sand
Stiff clay 0.6 21 108 17
Soft clay 0.9 – 1.4 30 – 50 73 - 93 11.5 – 14.5
Loess 0.9 25 86 13.5
Soft organic clay 2.5 – 3.2 90 – 120 38 – 51 6–8
Glacial till 0.3 10 134 21

Relative density
The term relative density is commonly used to indicate the in situ
denseness or looseness of granular soil. It is defined as
emax − e
Dr =
emax − emin
Where
Dr = relative density, usually given as a percentage
e = insitu void ratio of the soil
emax = void ratio of the soil in the loosest state
emin = void ratio of the soil in the densest state.
Relative density (%) Description of soil deposit
0 – 15 Very loose
15 – 50 Loose
50 – 70 Medium
70 – 85 Dense
85 - 100 Very dense

The relationship for relative density can also be defined in terms of porosity, or
nmax nmin n
emax = emin = e=
1 − nmax 1 − nmin 1− n
Where
nmax and nmin = porosity of the soil in the loosest and densest conditions,
respectively. Substituting the above equations, we obtain
Dr =
(1 − nmin )( nmax − n )
( nmax − nmin )(1 − n )
By using the definition of Dry Unit Weight, we can express relative density in
terms of maximum possible dry units. Thus,
Where
γd(min) = dry unit weight in
 1   1  the loosest condition
  −  
 γ d (min)   γ d   γ d − γ d (min)   γ d (max)  (at a void ratio of emax)
Dr = =   γd = in situ dry unit
 1   1   γ d (max) − γ d (min)   γ d  weight (at a void ratio
  −   of e)
γ γ
 d (min)   d (max)  γd(max) = dry unit weight in the
densest condition (at a
void ratio of emin)
SOIL INVESTIGATION

SOIL INVESTIGATION
Soil investigation for a development site either onshore or offshore
consists of the following.
 Planning and site work
 Equipment
 Boring and Sampling
 Bore Holes
 Location
 Depth
 Numbers
 Spacing
 Field Tests
 Laboratory Tests
 Strata profile
 Design soil characteristics
Equipment
Depending on the type of soil stratum encountered, boring and testing equipment
shall be selected.
For example, rocky formation require a drill system whereas for soft clay or sandy
material, wash boring system is sufficient.
Similarly, split spoon barrel is good for extracting a undisturbed soil sample clay
layers while extraction of undisturbed sample may not be feasible in sandy layers.
Hence for sandy layers, in-situ testing shall be planned.

Boring and sampling
Boring to the necessary depth shall be carried out using the appropriate drilling
equipment.
Sampling the soil at each layer shall be pre-planned so that the drilling can be
stopped and the bore hole cleaned before taking samples. Similarly, the in-situ
testing along the depth of the boring shall be carried out.
Bore hole Location and numbers
Bore hole location shall be as near as possible to the proposed foundation location
to avoid variation of soil properties.
For example, for a fixed jacket type of structure consisting of pile foundations at four
corners, at-least one bore hole shall be drilled at the center of the jacket.
Typical jacket base width in shallow water (depth less than 200m), is around 50 to
100m. Hence if a bore hole is drilled at the geometric center of the jacket, the
distance to the piles from the bore hole will be less than 50m.
Though, one bore hole each the foundation location may be appropriate but
expensive. In some cases, two bore holes one each opposite corner may indicate
the profile of the soil t the site which may prove to be useful.
Hence the number bore holes and their location shall be evaluated carefully with
regards to the risk of soil variation at the site.

Bore hole Location and numbers
The bore hole location for offshore projects with more than one platform is shown in
figure below. Usually the bore hole is planned at the centre of the jacket.
Three bore holes are planned for the project.
Proposed Pile
Platform 1 locations
Platform
3

Typical Boring System
Typical wash boring equipment

and arrangement is shown figure.
A diesel engine with crank

mechanism will be used to lift and
hammer the casing to drive.
Once the casing is driven to the

required depth, the removal of soil
from within the casing will be
carried out using wash boring
system.
When undisturbed soil sample is

required, the split spoon sampler
will be used to extract.

Marine Bore Hole
Bore hole in offshore requires special attention as the drilling will be carried out by
floating vessels or ships. Mooring system for the floating systems shall be sufficient to
restrict the motion within permissible limits of the drilling system.
For very deep water, the drill system shall be positioned by Directional Positioning
System (DPS) using thrusters. No mooring system will be deployed.

Bore hole log
Bore hole log is a first information report of the data collected while the drilling is in
progress and immediately after the completion. Following information may be
included.
 Soil type such as sand, clay, silt or rock (or combination of the types)
 Visible information such as colour, fissures, etc
 In-situ testing results such as SPT, vane shear data, cone penetration data
Some times, the bore log may also be updated with information from initial testing of
soil samples including the following parameters.
 Density
 Grain size distribution
 Shear strength
 Angle of internal friction



Marine cone penetration system
Dimensions of Platform: 18mx8m
Control room Counter weight = 10 ton

Diameter of Counter weight = 3.4 m
Counter Weight - Tower

SOIL TESTING METHODS
Field tests are the one carried out in situ condition. This is
preferred when undisturbed soil sample cannot be retrieved due
to granular nature of soil.
 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

 Field Vane Shear test
 Cone Penetration Test
Laboratory Tests are performed on soil samples (undisturbed)

taken out of bore hole.
 Direct Shear Test

 Tri-axial Shear Test
 Unconfined Compressive Strength test
Cone Penetration Test Cone resistance (MPa)
Sleeve friction
(MPa)

geosystems.ce.gatech.edu
Standard Penetration Test
 50mm External Diameter
35mm internal Diameter Split
Barrel Sampler – 650mm
length is driven to the soil.
 65 Kg Hammer is dropped
from a height of 760mm
 Number of Blow for 300mm

penetration is called SPT “N”
Value. It indicates relative
strength of soil
 Empirical correlation between

SPT N and other strength
parameters available.

SPT Test Procedure
The procedure of conducting the SPT test is very

simple.
 The casing pipe is driven into the ground to the
necessary depth below which the SPT is planned
to be conducted.
 The soil inside the casing shall be removed using
any one of the boring method.
 The drill rod with split spoon sampler assembly
shall be lowered and inserted in to the soil by
150mm.
 The SPT hammer together with anvil assembly is
placed on top.
 The number of blows of the standard hammer
required to penetrate two consecutive 150mm
penetration is called “SPT N”.
VANE SHEAR TESTS
 Two types available
 Field Vane Shear
 Laboratory Vane Shear
 Principle is same but only the size of
equipment is different
 Method based on shearing a circular
soil surface and relating it with the
torque applied
 Gives the Undrained shear strength
of soil, mostly fine grained cohesive
soil.
 The disadvantage of the method is
pre-determined shearing plane which
may not be the weakest plane in the
soil for natural failure

VANE SHEAR TEST
The failure surfaces can be divided into outer
surface and the two end surface. The total
resistance is take as
T = Touter + 2Tend
d   πd 2  2 d 
T = (π d )hC u   + 2    C u
2  4  3 
 d 2h d 3 
T = πCu  + 
 2 6 
T = Torque at failure
Cu can be found once
d = overall vane width the torque is measured
h = vane length
Cu = Undrained shear strength

Shear strength from direct shear test

DIRECT SHEAR TEST PROCEDURE
Direct Shear test can be performed on cohesive or cohesion less soil

such as sand. The specimen size is usually 20 to 25 cm2 in cross
sectional area (A) (plan) and 25 to 30mm in height.
Tests can be carried out using either stress control method or strain
control method.
In stress control methods, the horizontal force (T) applied is
incremented equal in each step until the specimen fails where as in
strain control method, the constant rate of horizontal displacement is
applied to the specimen.
The horizontal displacement is measured by dial gauge and the vertical

force applied is measured by load cell. The test is repeated several times
with different vertical force (N).
Stresses at failure on the soil sample can be calculated as
Normal Stress = σ = N/A and Shear stress = τf = T/A

DETERMINATION OF φ FROM DIRECT SHEAR TEST
The test results i.e. the
horizontal load and
vertical load is converted
in to shear and normal
stresses for each test.
The shear strength

parameter (φ) is obtained
from the graph and it
can be expressed as
τ f = σ tan φ
τ f 
φ = tan  
−1
σ 
The value of (f) thus obtained is called angle of internal friction of soil.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
The disadvantage of this method is

pre-fixing of the failure plane. The
plane determined by the test
equipment may not be the weakest
and hence the results may not reflect
the actual failure load.
The foundation design requires the soil – foundation friction angle called
“ δ” and not the φ angle in many cases. The shear strength along the
soil – foundation interface may include “adhesion” (Ca) as part of the
resistance and this can be different for different materials of foundation
such as steel, concrete or timber. This can be easily determined using
direct shear test by replacing the bottom part with the foundation
material.
The relationship can be written as
τ f = Ca + σ tan δ
DETAILS OF TRIAXIAL TEST APPARATUS

TRIAXIAL TEST PROCEDURE
Triaxial is one of the reliable test method for undisturbed soil samples and
it can offer the relationship between stress and strain of the soil as well
as the failure plane is natural along the weakest load path.
Test is conducted on a soil specimen of 36mm diameter and 76mm length
encased in a thin rubber membrane. The specimen is placed inside a
cylindrical cell with top and bottom porous plates for drainage of water
from the specimen during drained tests.
The test is conducted with external space between the specimen and the
cell filled with water under pressure. The normal load at the top of the
specimen is applied with load cell. Tests can be performed using dead
weights or hydraulic pressure using stress controlled methods or strain
controlled methods. Following categories of tests can be performed.
 Consolidated Drained Test (CD)
 Consolidated Undrained test (CU)
 Unconsolidated and Undrained test (UU)

Triaxial Testing Apparatus
Unconfined Compression Test Triaxial Test

Types of Triaxial Tests
σc Deviator stress
(Δσ = q)
σc σc σc σc
σc
σc+ q
Stage 1
Stage 2- shearing
Is the drainage valve Is the drainage valve
open? open?
Yes No Yes No
Consolidated Unconsolidated Drained Undrained

sample sample loading loading
Types of Triaxial Tests
Stage 1 Stage 2
Under all-around cell pressure σc Shearing (loading)
Is the drainage valve open? Is the drainage valve open?
Yes No Yes No
Consolidated Unconsolidated Drained Undrained
CD UU
CU

Marine Soil Samples and shear strength
The soil in marine conditions are always subjected to undrained loading
condition as the hydrostatic pressure is equal all around. Hence usually
Unconsolidated Undrained test (UU) are very common.
The difference between Consolidated and Unconsolidated tests is the
application of cell pressure with or without drainage respectively during the
process of increasing the cell pressure from zero to test pressure.
The difference between Drained and Undrained tests is the drainage of
water from soil is allowed or not during the application of deviator stress or
normal load on the sample.
The tests for each type of soil sample shall be repeated for at least three
times with varying cell pressure (σc). Using Mohr circle, each set of results
(σ3=σc) and (σ1=σc+q) is plotted and the tangent line of semi-circles of all test is the
plane of envelope.
The intercept of the line with the vertical axis is the undrained shear
strength (Cu) and the slope of the failure envelope is the angle of internal
friction (φ).
Establishment of Shear strength parameters from triaxial test
σ1 = σ3 + (Δσ=q)
σ3
φ
Mohr – Coulomb
Shear stress, τ
failure envelope
Cu
σ3a σ3b σ3c σ1a σ1b σ1c σ

Unconfined Compression Test
Unconfined compression test is normally
conducted on saturated clay and rock
samples.
The cell pressure is not applied and the
specimen is applied with rapid axial load
until shearing failure occurs.
The soil specimen is applied with major
principal stress s1 and the shear
strength is independent of the cell
pressure. Hence the test is not repeated
except for reliability purposes.
The relationship between undrained shear strength and the and applied pressure can
be taken as
In case of rock, the principal stress σ1 is
σ q
τ f = 1
= u
= C u
taken as the unconfined compressive
2 2 strength (qu).
Quick estimation of shear strength
Other instruments that can be used to estimate the shear strength of clay soil is
(a) Pocket Pentrometer and (b) Torvane shear device.
Pocket Penetrometer Torvane shear device

EMPIRICAL
CORRELATIONS

SPT N CORRECTION FOR STANDARD ENERGY
Since the SPT values are influenced by the hammer efficiency, bore
hole diameter, sampling method and rod length etc., it is essential to
correct them to use with the design.
N η H η Bη Sη R
N 60 =
60
Where
N60 = Standard Penetration number corrected to field conditions with
60% energy as the base
N = SPT ‘N’ value obtained from field test.
ηH = Hammer efficiency (%)
ηB = Correction for bore hole diameter
ηS = Sampler correction
ηR = Correction for rod length

CORRELATION WITH SPT N60 OVERBURDEN PRESSURE P 0'
Since the SPT values are obtained after the overburden soil is removed,
the measured SPT values needs to be corrected to account for the same.
( N1 )60 = C F N 60
Where
(N1)60= corrected N60 value to standard overburden pressure = 95.6 kN/m2
N60 = SPT ‘N’ value obtained from field test.
Method 1 Method 2
  1.92   ' 2
  P0
(
CF = 0.777  log10 '   P0 in MN/m2




) CF =
1 + 0.01 P0'
( P0' in kN/m2 )
CF shall be less than 2.0. As the depth increases, the overburden pressure
increases and the CF value decreases.

Empirical values for ø, Dr, and unit weight of
granular soils based on the SPT
Description Very loose Loose Medium Dense Very dense

Relative density Dr 0 0.15 0.35 0.65 0.85
SPT N70: fine 1–2 3–6 7 – 15 16 – 30 ?
medium 2–3 4–7 8 – 20 21 – 40 > 40
coarse 3–6 5–9 10 – 25 26 – 45 > 45
ø: fine 26 – 28 28 – 30 30 – 34 33 – 38
medium 27 – 28 30 – 32 32 – 36 36 – 42 < 50
coarse 28 – 30 30 – 34 33 – 40 40 – 50
λwet, (kN/m³) 11 – 16 14 – 18 17 – 20 17 – 22 20 – 23

DENSITY INDEX OF SANDS
N Value Classification Dr (%) (N1)60

0–4 Very loose 0 – 15 0–3
4 – 10 Loose 15 – 35 3–8
10 – 30 Medium dense 35 – 65 8 – 25
30 – 50 Dense 65 – 85 25 – 42
> 50 Very dense 85 – 100 42 – 58

CONSISTENCY OF SATURATED COHESIVE SOILS
Consistency N 7, 0 Remarks
Verysoft 0–2 Squishes between fingers
when squeezed
3–5 Very easily deformed by
Young
Soft squeezing
clay
NC
Medium 6–9
Stiff 10 – 16 Hard to deform by hand
squeezing
cemented
Increasing
Very stiff 17 – 30 Very hard to deform by
Aged /
OCR
hand
Hard >30 Nearly impossible to
deform by hand
Over consolidation ratio (OCR) is defined as the pre-consolidation

pressure to the present effective vertical pressure. It is an indication
of soil consolidation in the past.
EFFECTIVE OVERBURDEN PRESSURE

CORRELATION WITH SPT ‘N’ VALUES
Shear strength of clay can be related to SPT ‘N’ value (N60) as below:
Cu = 3.5 to 6.5 N 60 in kN / m 2
≈ 4.4 N 60
Where
N60 = SPT number obtained from field.
Similarly, SPT and unconfined shear strength can be related as below.

SPT N60 Consistency Unconfined Compressive strength qu(kN/m2)
0–2 Very Soft 0 – 25
2–5 Soft 25 – 50
5 – 10 Medium Soft 50 – 100
10 – 20 Stiff 100 – 200
20 – 30 Very Stiff 200 – 400
>30 Hard >400

CORRELATION OF N60 WITH φ′
Three relationship exists for φ′ value with N60 and (N1)60 as
described below.
Peck (1974)
2
φ ' = 27.1 + 0.3( N1 )60 − 0.00054 ( N1 )60  in degrees
Schmertmann (1975) 0.34
 
 N 60 
φ ' = tan −1   in degrees
 P0' 
 12.2 + 20.3 P 
 a 
Hatanaka & Uchida (1996)
Where
φ′ = effective soil friction angle (degrees)
φ ' = 20 ( N1 )60 + 20 in degrees P 0' = effective overburden pressure (kN/m2)
Pa = atmospheric pressure (kN/m2)

Correlation between Es with SPT and CPT results
Soil SPT CPT
Sand (normally ES=500(N+15) ES=2 to 4qc
consoildated) 2
ES=(15000 to 22000)ln N ES=(1+ Dr )qc
ES=(35000 to 50000) log N
Sand (saturated) ES =250(N +15)
Sand (over ES =18000+750N ES=6 to 30qc
consolidated)
ES(OCR) =ES(ne) (OCR) 1\2
Gravelly sand and ES=1200(N+6)
gravel
ES=600(N+6) N ≥ 15
ES=600(N+6)+2000 N>15
Clayey sand ES=320(N+15) ES=3 to 6qc
Silty sand ES=300(N+6) ES=1 to 2qc
Soft clay - ES= 3 to 8qc
Clay Using the undrained shear strength Cu in units of Cu
IP > 30 or organic ES= 100 to 500Cu
IP < 30 or stiff ES= 500 to 1500Cu
ES(OCR) =ES(ne) (OCR) 1\2
Range of values of modulus of subgrade reaction
Use values as guide and for comparison when using approximate equations
soil ks (kcf) ks (kN/m3)

Loose sand 30-100 4800-16000
Medium dense sand 60-500 9600-80000
Dense sand 400-800 400-800
Clayey medium dense sand 200-500 32000-80000
Silty medium dense sand 150-300 24000-48000
Clayey soil:
qu<200 k Pa (4-ksf) 75-150 12000-48000
200< qu<400kPa 150-300 24000-48000
qu>800kPa >30 >48000

MOHR-COULOMB
FAILURE THEORY

THE MOHR-COULOMB FAILURE CRITERION
The shear strength of a soil at a point on a particular plane was
originally expressed by Mohr failure envelope using normal stress and
shear stress on the plane at the same point.
Coulomb proposed a linear function
of the normal stress with shear
stress as a failure criteria on the
plane at the same point.
τ f = c + σ f tan φ
τ f = Shear Strength
σ f = Normal Stress
c, σ = Shear Strength Parameters

Effective Stress Principles
In accordance with Terzaghi’s fundamental concept that shear stress in
a soil can be resisted only by the skeleton of solid particles, shear
strength is expressed as a function of effective normal stress:
τ f = c'+σ f ' tan φ ,

c' , φ ' = Shear Strength Parameters in
terms of effective stress
Throughout the course only total

stress concept is used and all the
parameters like φ’ and c’ are used
with symbols φ and Cu but the
effective overburden stress is
denoted as po’ and the effective
unit weight is noted as γ’
Relationship between principal stresses
Inclination of failure plane in soil with principal plane
φ' ad
∠bad = 90 + θ o '
θ = 45 + = sin φ '
2 fa
σ 1' + σ 3'
fa = fo + oa = c cot φ +
' '
2
σ 1' − σ 3'
ad =
2
σ 1' − σ 3'
sin φ ' = 2
σ 1' + σ 3'
c ' cot φ ' +
2
Rearranging the terms, we get
 1 + sin φ '  '  cos φ ' 
σ =σ 
1
' '
3  + 2c  ' 
 1 − sin φ '
  1 − sin φ 
Substituting the following trigonometric identities
 1 + sin φ '  2  φ' 

 ' 
= tan  45 + 
 1 − sin φ   2 
 cos φ '   φ' 

 ' 
= tan  45 + 
 1 − sin φ   2 
The relationship between the vertical and horizontal stresses within a
soil mass is expressed as
 φ '
  φ '

σ 1 = σ 3 tan  45 +  + 2 c tan  45 + 
' ' 2 '
 2   2 
LATERAL EARTH
PRESSURE THEORY

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE
φ' θ =φ' φ'

θ = 45 + θ = 45 −
2 2
(a) Active (b) At Rest (c) Passive

EARTH PRESSURE AT REST
EARTH PRESSURE AT REST HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
Po' = γ ' z Po = γ ω z
k o = 1 − sin φ ' for sand ko = 1
 PI % 
k o = 0.44 + 0.42   for clay
 100 
ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE
Active earth pressure on a soil mass may occur due to movement of
wall away from the soil mass causing the horizontal earth pressure to
reduce when compared to the horizontal pressure at rest
CD CD
sin φ ' = =
AC AO + OC
σ v' − σ a'
CD =
2
AO = c ' cot φ '
σ v' + σ a'
OC =
2
σ v' − σ a'
sin φ ' = 2
σ v' + σ a'
c ' cot φ ' +
2
Rankine’s active earth pressure distribution

σ v' + σ a' σ v' − σ a'

c ' cos φ ' + sin φ ' =
2 2
or 1 − sin φ ' cos φ '

σ a' = σ v' − 2c
1 + sin φ ' 1 + sin φ '
where σ′1 = vertical effective overburden pressure = γ’z
1 − sin φ ' 2  φ '

= tan  45 − 
1 + sin φ '  2 
and
cos φ '  φ '
= tan  45 − 
1 + sin φ '  2 

Active Earth Pressure coefficient
 φ'  φ'
σ a' = γ ' z tan 2  45 −  − 2 '
c tan  45 − 
 2   2 
 φ'
and σ = σ tan  45 −
' ' 2
For cohesion less soils, c’=0 a v 
 2 
The ratio of σ′a to σ′v is called the coefficient of Rankine’s active earth
pressure, Ka,
σ a' 2  φ'
K a = ' = tan  45 − 
σv  2 

PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE
Passive earth pressure on a soil mass may occur due to the wall
moving towards the soil mass causing horizontal pressure increase
when compared to the horizontal pressure at rest.
CD CD
sin φ ' = =
AC AO + OC
σ 'p − σ v'
CD =
2
AO = c ' cot φ '
σ 'p + σ v'
OC =
2
σ 'p − σ v'
sin φ ' = 2
σ 'p + σ v'
c ' cot φ ' +
2
σ 'p + σ v' σ 'p − σ v'

c ' cos φ ' + sin φ ' =
2 2
1 + sin φ ' cos φ '
or σ 'p = σ v' + 2c
1 − sin φ ' 1 − sin φ '
where σ′v = vertical effective overburden pressure = γ’z
1 + sin φ '  φ'

= tan 2  45 + 
1 − sin φ '  2 
and
cos φ '  φ '
= tan  45 + 
1 − sin φ '  2 
Passive Earth Pressure coefficient
 φ'  φ'
σ 'p = σ v' tan 2  45 +  + 2 c ' tan  45 + 
 2   2 
 φ'  φ'
= γ z tan 2  45 +  + 2 c ' tan  45 + 
 2   2 
 φ'
For cohesion less soils, c’=0 and σ = σ tan  45 + 
'
p
'
v
2
 2 
The ratio of σ′p to σ′v is called the coefficient of Rankine’s passive earth
pressure, Kp,
σ 'p 2  φ'
= K p = tan  45 + 
σv '
 2 

Rankine’s Passive earth pressure distribution

LOAD TRANSFER FROM STRUCTURES TO GROUND


Module 1 - Basics of Soil Mechanics Finished (Compatibility Mode)

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Module 1 - Basics of Soil Mechanics Finished (Compatibility Mode)

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Basic Soil Mechanics

NPTEL course 1 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

Module 5 : Special foundations: Mud-mats: bearing capacity, sliding stability, over-

NPTEL course 2 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

NPTEL course 3 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

NPTEL course 4 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

NPTEL course 5 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

 Sea walls for protecting the coast against erosion.

 Breakwaters for sheltering man made activities and also to protect

the coast against action from waves.

 Jetties for berthing ships for offloading liquid cargo

 Commercial harbours for offloading containers and solid cargo

NPTEL course 6 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

NPTEL course 7 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

It can be seen from the

It can be seen from the

Multi-purpose harbour well protected by breakwater from sea action.

NPTEL course 10 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

The jetties are located

NPTEL course 11 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

NPTEL course 12 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

Normally, the soil on

NPTEL course 15 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

This is done to relieve

The surcharge load is

NPTEL course 16 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

This is preferred as the

Otherwise, the design

NPTEL course 17 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

NPTEL course 19 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

The piles can be

Concrete piles are

NPTEL course 20 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

What is an Offshore Platform ?

Primarily, they support the drilling and production equipment.

How are they constructed and installed ?

NPTEL course 21 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

The pile foundation is suitably located at corners

NPTEL course 23 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

NPTEL course 24 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

The columns are connected to hull through

The gravity loads from the hull and the topsides

TLPs are very common for deep water

NPTEL course 25 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

NPTEL course 26 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

Jackups are predominantly

Jackups are supported on

NPTEL course 27 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

NPTEL course 28 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

NPTEL course 29 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

Offshore and coastal structures carry following loads

 Gravity Loads (dead load, live load)

NPTEL course 30 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

NPTEL course 31 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

NPTEL course 32 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

The gravity loads are resisted by

The effect of over turning

NPTEL course 33 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

Piles can be classified into following categories

NPTEL course 34 Prof. S. Nallayarasu

It can be noted that

This needs to taken in