Management Systems
and
Direct Digital Control
iii
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Panke, Richard A.
Energy management systems and direct digital control/Richard A.
Panke.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-88173-395-4 (electronic)
1. Buildings--Energy conservation. 2. Buildings--Electric equip-
ment. 3. Digital control systems. I. Title.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
iv
Contents
Chapter Page
1 Introduction .................................................................................. 1
2 EMS Overview ............................................................................ 9
3 Hardware/System Components ............................................ 15
4 System Architecture .................................................................. 27
5 Direct Digital Control (DDC) ................................................. 35
6 Networking ................................................................................ 47
7 Software/Application Programs ............................................ 65
8 Communication Protocol ......................................................... 79
9 Operator/Machine Interface ................................................... 99
10 Savings/Cost Estimating ........................................................ 111
11 Sequence of Events ..................................................................119
12 Selection/Expansion ............................................................... 125
13 Installation/Commissioning ................................................. 129
14 Training/Operation/Maintenance ....................................... 137
15 Fire Alarm/Security ............................................................... 143
16 Design/Drawings/Specifications ......................................... 147
17 Intelligent Buildings ............................................................... 175
Appendix A Glossary of Terms ............................................................ 179
Appendix B Controls Symbols ............................................................. 191
Appendix C EMS Manufacturers ......................................................... 197
Appendix D List of References ............................................................. 199
Appendix E Metric Conversion Guide ............................................... 200
Appendix F Sample EMS Problem ..................................................... 203
Appendix G EMS Articles ..................................................................... 209
Appendix H Remember! ........................................................................ 228
Index .................................................................................................... 233
v
INTRODUCTION 1
Chapter 1
Introduction
EMS DEFINED
1
2 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
Direct Digital Control (DDC), although used for years in the pro-
cess industry, entered the HVAC industry in the late 1980’s. DDC utilizes
a programmable microprocessor as the primary controller. The HVAC
system variable (temperature) is measured by electronic sensors. The
control functions are performed by a microprocessor which transmits an
electronic or transduced pneumatic control signal directly to the con-
trolled device (damper or valve actuator).
DDC is a form of closed-loop control. The term “Direct” means the
microprocessor is directly in the control loop and the term “Digital”
means control is accomplished by the digital electronics of the micropro-
cessor. As opposed to electronic controls, which are much like pneu-
matic controls where each controller handles one control loop in a fixed
manner, DDC can control numerous control loops and be repro-
grammed for different control functions without hardware changes (see
Figure 1-4).
Distributed DDC consists of several DDC units located throughout
a building complex. Although, each DDC can operate independently,
they are all connected to a central operator station for centralized control
and monitoring. A measure of a true distributed DDC system is whether
the remote DDC units continue to perform full control and energy
management, without the central operator station (see Figure 1-5). DDC
will be covered in greater detail in Chapter 5.
Refer to Table 1-1 for a comparison of pneumatics and DDC.
4 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
——————————————————————————————————————————————
Reliability • Proven reliability over many • Proven reliability in process DDC
AND
——————————————————————————————————————————————
Flexibility • Changes or additions require • Programmable controller. DDC
new or different controllers • New control strategies defined at central.
re-piping and often wiring, and • New control easily added.
then recalibration.
——————————————————————————————————————————————
Ease of Use • All operator interaction at • Full English language reports. DDC
local control panels. • Color Graphic Displays
• Can read temperatures and • Automatic Records of all control
change set-point. strategies.
——————————————————————————————————————————————
Life Cycle Cost • Requires regular recalibration. • Easy to maintain. DDC
• Modification and expansion • Easy to modify.
require additional controllers. • Easy to expand.
——————————————————————————————————————————————
Cost to Add Energy • Each new function usually • New functions are easily defined DDC
Management requires additional equipment by operator.
and labor.
——————————————————————————————————————————————
7
8 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
EMS OVERVIEW 9
Chapter 2
EMS Overview
HISTORY
Class I Systems
These consist of small monitoring and control systems that can be
used in buildings with floor areas up to about 100,000 ft2. The basic
component is a microprocessor preprogrammed to start/stop different
9
10 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
Class II Systems
These systems are similar to those in Class I except that they can
serve larger buildings and some building complexes. The available soft-
ware packages provide functions such as: executive and operating in-
structions, scheduled start/stop operations, load rotation and shedding,
control points resetting, optimization of start time, enthalpy optimiza-
tion, and fire alarm and life-safety system monitoring.
These systems can usually monitor about 2000 addressable points.
When these systems are used for a group of buildings or building com-
plexes, the central control facility is connected to remote data gathering
panels by means of one or more types of data communication links.
Because more than one data gathering panel is served by a central facil-
ity, each panel is allotted an equal amount of time in direct communica-
tion with the central facility.
FUNCTIONAL CAPABILITIES
In his zeal to conserve precious fuels and keep down growing fuel
bills, the engineer often specifies the latest and most advanced EMS.
What he gets is likely to be a much more complex system than is really
necessary, one capable of performing an unneeded variety of sophisti-
cated operations.
How can this be avoided, and what steps must be taken to prop-
erly specify a system to assure that he gets exactly what is needed—no
less and no more?
Following is a brief list of events that should serve as a guide to the
overall EMS project (covered in greater detail in Chapter 11):
1. Initial Concept
2. Information Retrieval
3. Candidate Buildings and System Selection
4. Field Survey
5. Design
6. Contract Documents Preparation
7. Contract
8. Installation and Training
9. Acceptance
10. Operation and Maintenance
FUNCTIONS
• Hot Water Reset: Reset hot water from outdoor air temperature.
Chapter 3
Hardware—
System Components
here are five basic components that are used in energy man-
SENSORS
Thermistor
Thermistors are a semiconductor made from combinations of
nickel, manganese, copper and other metals. They offer a fast response,
are good for small spans, and are a relative low cost sensor.
Disadvantages include very non-linear, poor interchangeability,
and not suitable for wide spans. Their accuracy is ± 0.4°F of span.
Thermocouple
Two wires of two dissimilar metals joined to form a junction are
seldom, if ever, used with modern EMSs. They can operate over a wide
temperature range however their interchangeability and repeatability
are poor. They also have a low output sensitivity.
Relative Humidity
The principle of operation of a capacitive relative humidity sensor
is a small capacitor consisting of a hygroscopic dielectric material placed
between a pair of electrodes. Most capacitive sensors use a plastic or one
micron thin polymer as the dielectric material, with a typical dielectric
constant ranging from 2 to 15. When no moisture is present in the sen-
sor, both this constant and the sensor geometry determine the value of
the capacitance.
HARDWARE—SYSTEM COMPONENTS 19
Pressure
The most common use is a pressure-electric (PE) switch where a
fluid pressure activates electrical contacts in the device. Differential PE
switches can be used to sense the flow of a fluid in ducts and in pipes.
There are also pressure to electric transducers which will produce a
proportional output electrical signal change relating to a varying input
pressure.
Devices are also used to measure static pressure in systems to con-
trol fluid flow. Pressure should never exceed the calibrated range of the
instrument.
Flow
These devices measure flowrate, converting kinetic energy to a
pressure differential. Measured differential pressure typically varies
from a few inches of water to 10 or 20 psi. See Figure 3-2 for flow sen-
sors.
Accuracy or uncertainty is considered to be comprised of two com-
ponents, that due to the systematize error and that due to the precision
or random error. For direct calibration of the overall meter system which
includes the differential pressure transmitter system, the upstream and
downstream piping and suitable flow straightener, best accuracy is esti-
mated to fall within the approximate range 0.2 to 0.5 percent.
A vortex shedding meter, on the industrial scene since 1970, oper-
ates on the principles that the frequency of vortex shedding for fluid
flow around a submersed object is proportional to the fluid stream ve-
locity. Flowrate is measured by detecting this frequency. A big advan-
tage for a building EMS application is that accurate measurement of the
probe output is a much simpler measurement task than accurate mea-
surement of a differential pressure type meter.
20 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
kW Meters
kW Meters or watt hour meters are used to measure kW and kWh.
Input voltage must match the meter rating. Meters can be solid state
with non-resettable electromechanical display for local indication of
kWh and a contact closure for remote signaling to an EMS. Watt hour
transducers are also available which measure true watt-hours and pro-
vide a pulse output to drive counters or can signal an EMS.
ACTUATORS
FIELD PANELS
Uncoded signals from sensors are received, coded, and sent to the DDC
microprocessor. Conversely, coded information is received from the
DDC, decoded, and sent back to the actuators. The number of control
points that can be accommodated by a DDC panel varies from 4 to 200.
“Intelligent” or “smart” DDCs have their own microprocessor to process
information and respond with instructions.
Many field panels are manufactured with a built-in keyboard and
visual display. This is an item that should be specified for (at least) the
primary or master panels located throughout a facility. If the panel is not
equipped with this feature, maintenance workers will have to rely on a
portable operator interface device which are cumbersome and easily
“left behind.”
Refer to Chapter 5 for additional information on digital controllers.
Pressure-electric relays
Pressure-electric switches
Valve actuators
Damper actuators
Electro-pneumatic
Motor Driven Servo
Electro-pneumatic Transducer
Chapter 4
System Architecture
This type of system has a central computer and can control a large
number of input-output points ranging from 50 to more than 2000 per
system. Field interface is provided by field panels that have limited
intelligence.
These systems are capable of performing all EMS functions, al-
though, not all systems use all functions. The central computer uses
varying amounts of software storage, and tape or disc storage can be
added to increase data-handling capacity. Operator access through a
fixed terminal keyboard is routine. An alarm/logging printer is often
provided.
27
28 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
BASIC ARCHITECTURE
Trane Architecture
Figure 4-2.
SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
Figure 4-3.
Barber Colman Architecture
31
32 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
Controls Architecture
Figure 4-4. Johnson
OPERATOR
DMS 350 SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
WORKSTATION
IBM PC
RS 232 PORTS (2) DMS 350
PRINTER
DATA HIGHWAY
CC TO OTHER
DMS 350’s (32 MAX)
SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
TO OTHER
TO OTHER
DISTRIBUTED
DISTRIBUTED
CONTROL
CONTROL
MODULES
MODULES
(32 MAX) DCM
DCM (32 MAX)
FANS
4 CO BOILERS 4 CO
6 AI 6 AI
4 CI RS 485 FILTER STATUS 4 CI RS 485
SLAVE TRUNK SMOKE DETECTOR SLAVE TRUNK
TEMPERATURE
5 PO
6 AI HUMIDITY 6 AI
5 PI
PRESSURE
DAMPER
5 PO
5 PO PNEU. SENSOR
5 PI
5 PI VALVE
Chapter 5
INTRODUCTION
mode input that is either on or off at any given time, such as a motor
status, filter status, or contacts with an electrical demand meter.
Controlled devices are connected to the computer using digital and
analog outputs. A binary output is a two-mode output, either on or off
at a given time. The time duration of either mode can be computer
controlled to vary between a fractional part of a second to a full on or
full off. A binary output could control a fan or pump motor or a lighting
circuit. Using pulse-width modulation, it could also control a valve or
damper actuator. Pulse-width modulation used bi-directional (open/
close) pulses of varying time duration to position controlled devices
exactly as required to satisfy demand. Wide pulses are used for major
corrections, such as changes in setpoint or start-up conditions. Pulse
width becomes progressively shorter as less correction is required to
obtain the desired control setpoint.
Analog output is a variable output that might range, for example,
between zero and ten volts. This is not usually needed with direct digital
control because pulse-width modulation, using binary outputs, is a sim-
pler and more accurate technique directly compatible with the binary
form the computer uses internally to store information.
Control of valves and dampers is very accurate with DDC because
of proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control, perfected years ago in
the process control field. PID control techniques provide fast, responsive
operation of a heating valve, for example, by reacting to temperature
changes in three ways: the difference between setpoint and actual tem-
perature (proportional), the length of time the difference has existed (in-
tegral), and the rate of temperature change (derivative) (See Figure 5-1).
PID saves energy and increases accuracy at the same time by eliminating
hunting and offset by decreasing overshooting of a given temperature
and minimizing the amount of time required to settle at the desired tem-
perature.
Once connections to the equipment (analog and binary inputs and
outputs) have been made, the DDC microprocessor must be given in-
structions to operate the controlled devices. These instructions are in the
form of software programs (application packages) with various control
options and setpoints, all of which reside in the microprocessor’s
memory.
Software, though, is what primarily determines the ultimate capa-
bility of a DDC system. The changeable portions of a computer’s
memory provide a user flexibility of control far greater than that avail-
DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL 37
Proportional-
Integral-Derivative
Control
One of the most
common terms
heard in connection
with today’s Direct
Digital Control sys-
tems is “PID”; an
acronym for Propor-
tional-Integral-De-
rivative control. An
intimidating sound-
ing term, PID simply
refers to the 3 types
of control action that
are used in the con-
trol of modulating
Figure 5-1a equipment such as:
valves, dampers,
variable speed devices etc. Surprisingly the concepts behind the 3 control ac-
tions are quite straight forward and easily grasped. Gaining an understanding of
PID and its usage in control systems will provide a valuable insight into the
operation of modulating control loops.
Proportional Control - the P of PID—is a technique where a control signal
is produced based on the difference between an actual and a desired condition
(i.e. a setpoint and an actual temperature). This difference is known as the
“error.” The control device creates an output signal that is directly related to the
magnitude of the error, hence the name Proportional control.
Basic Proportional control is typical of that found in conventional closed
loop temperature control systems. The weakness of Proportional Control is that
it requires the existence of a significant error condition to create an output signal.
Because of this, proportional-only control can never actually achieve the desired
condition. Some small amount of error will always be present. This error is re-
ferred to as the OFFSET of the system.
Integral action is directed specifically at the elimination of Offset. Because
the magnitude of an offset is relatively small, it cannot generate a significant
change in the control signal by itself. An integrating term is used to look at how
long the error condition has existed, in effect summing the error over time. The
value produced by this summation becomes the basis for an additional control
(Continued)
38 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
signal, which is added to the signal produced by the proportional term. The result
is that the control loop continues to produce a control action over time, allowing
it to eliminate Offset.
With Proportional-Integral control we have the ability to:
1. Respond to the presence of an error in the control loop.
2. Relate the magnitude of the control signal to the magnitude of the error.
3. Respond to the existence of offset over time to achieve zero error or
setpoint.
Figure 5-1b shows the control response typically produced with Propor-
tional-Integral control. The significant difference is the elimination of Offset once
the system has stabilized.
At this point one other major factor often present in modulating control
loops still needs to be addressed. That factor is Overshoot.
Overshoot refers to the tendency of a control loop to over compensate for
an error condition, resulting in a new error in the opposite direction.
As an example, consider a room with a setpoint of 72 degrees and an
actual temperature of 68. A proportional controller would respond to this error by
sending a control signal of some magnitude to the damper supplying warm air
to the room. As the room heats up the magnitude of the control signal to the
damper is reduced, but not until the room reaches setpoint would the control
signal eliminate further
heat input by closing the
damper. At this point PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL CONTROL
however the thermal in-
ertia of the room causes
the temperature to con-
tinue to rise for some
period of time. The re-
sult is that the room
“overshoots” the set-
point becoming warmer
than desired. The room
now requires cooling in
order to return to set-
point. The Overshoot
phenomenon not only
impacts comfort but also
results in energy waste
due to overheating and
overcooling. Derivative
action (the D in PID) is
Figure 5-1b
(Continued)
DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL 39
ADJUST COMMANDS
ADVANTAGES
3. Failure of the central operator station computer does not upset the
individual control units because satellite microprocessors are pro-
grammed to stand alone in such cases.
Chapter 6
Networking
47
48 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
1. One-time installation.
2. Widespread access.
3. Application independence.
4. Excess capacity.
5. Easy maintenance and administration.
No Single Standard
Due to the continually changing status of LANs and competi-
tive nature of the vendors, a variety of local area network stan-
dards exist — both official and de facto. The situation is improving,
however, because even the dominant suppliers who have been
protecting their proprietary interfaces are being pressured by a
maturing market to release interface specifications.
Diverse Requirements
The communications needs of a modern office building in-
clude voice, video, high-speed data, low-speed data, energy man-
agement, fire alarm, security, electronic mail, etc. These systems
present transmission requirements that vary greatly in terms of
data rates, acceptable delivery delays, reliability requirements, and
error rate tolerance.
defines the logical topology (that is, the order in which the token is cir-
culated). A token passing bus, shown in Figure 6-3, has more operational
flexibility because the token passing order is defined by tables in each
station. If a station (for example, a printer) never originates communica-
tions, it will be a termi-
nate-only station and
need not be in the poll-
ing sequence. If a sta-
tion needs a high prior-
ity, it can appear more
than once in the polling
sequence.
The forerunner of
token passing networks
in the U.S. is the At-
tached Resource Com-
puter Network,
ARCNet, developed by
Datapoint Corporation. Figure 6-2. Token Passing Ring
Initially, the network
and protocol were kept
proprietary, but the data link protocol, interface specs, and even inte-
grated circuits were made publicly available in 1982. Functionally, the
ARCNet is a token passing bus, but the physical topology, shown in Fig-
ure 6-4, is a hybrid bus/star. Rather than distribute taps along a linear bus
as suggested in Figure 6-3, the ARCNet uses hubs with individual ports
to connect Resource Interface Modules (RIMS) to the transmission media.
The hub based architecture is an effective means of controlling the
signal quality because the hub isolates each RIM port from the main
coaxial cable. Unidirectional (one-way) amplifiers in the hubs provide
zero insertion loss and suppress reflections because only one direction of
transmission is enabled at a time. Amplifier switching is possible be-
cause a token passing network only transmits in one direction at a time.
The ARCNet interconnects the hubs and RIMs with RG62 coaxial
cable using baseband transmission at 2.5 Mbps (baseband vs. broad-
band: limits on baseband include less than 10 Mbps, low frequency,
twisted pair/coax less than 2 miles; limits on broadband include greater
than 10 Mbps, digital and analog, and long distances). Although 2.5
Mbps is a relatively low data rate, ARCNet uses inexpensive coax and
can be configured (laid out) with as much as four miles between sta-
tions. The cable length between a hub and a RIM is limited to 2000 feet,
but a four-mile span can have up to a maximum of ten hubs in a series
path.
Local area network standards (as with other communication stan-
dards) get established in two ways: by dominant manufacturers who
attract plug compatible competitors, and by official standards organiza-
tions. The leading official standards organization for LANs in the U.S. is
the IEEE 802 Standards Committee. This committee has several working
groups responsible or establishing these LAN standards:
MEDIA/TRANSMISSION METHODS
Transmission Methods—General
A number of different transmission systems and media can be used
in an EMS for communications between the field panels and Central
NETWORKING 55
Twisted pairs
A twisted pair consists of two insulated conductors twisted to-
gether to minimize interference by unwanted signals.
Twisted pairs can carry information over a wide range of speeds
depending on line characteristics. To maintain a particular data commu-
nication rate, the line bandwidth or the signal to noise ratio may require
adjustment by conditioning the line. Twisted pairs are permanently
hardwired lines between the equipment sending and receiving data, or
switched lines routed through the telephone network. Switched lines
have signaling noise, such as ring signals within the data bandwidth,
that can cause impulse noise resulting in data errors.
The nominal bandwidth of unconditioned twisted pairs is between
300 and 3000 Hz. For each Hz of available bandwidth, 2 bps can be
transmitted. A twisted pair with a bandwidth of 2400 Hz can support a
4800 bps data rate.
Hardwired twisted pairs must be conditioned in order to obtain
operating speeds up to 9600 bps. Data transmission in twisted pairs, in
most cases, is limited to 1200 bps or less.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable consists of a center conductor surrounded by a
shield. The center conductor is separated from the shield by a dielectric.
The shield protects against electromagnetic interference. Coaxial cables
can operate at data transmission rates in the megabits per second range.
Attenuation becomes greater as the data transmission rate increases. The
56 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
100 points or as many as 100,000 points. This allows over a single pair of wires on the Host LAN in a multi-
for centralized command and control of many widely tasking/multi-user environment with one or more con-
distributed processes with unprecedented reliability and troller LANs.
speed. Utilizing the Host LAN structure, one or more
work stations may communicate with over 1,000 re-
OVERVIEW mote controller LANs, each capable of supporting 63
The System 7000 is based around the use of Distributed Control Units.
multiple “token passing” LANs functioning in a tiered The Host LAN, as well as the controller LAN
environment. This open ended architecture allows the utilizes a CSI proprietary protocol for LAN communi-
system to support hundreds of terminal work stations cations. Equipment not designed for direct communi-
and tens of thousands of points with response times cation with the LAN must utilize a “gateway” or TAP
not found in today’s systems. into the LAN. These firmware specific TAPs provide
for messaging, protocol conversion, AA/AD (Auto An-
swer/Auto Dial) and much more.
57
58 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
of ARCNET in their systems, the ARCNET Trade Association was formed to provide a user
forum for maintaining standards, coordinating connectivity issues, and charting future
growth. ARCNET has now become a de facto industry standard, with over 1,000,000
connected devices worldwide.
TOKEN BUS
In ARCNET, devices connected to the network are called nodes, which are ad-
dressed from 1 to 255. Access to the network is controlled by a “token” which is passed
around the network, going from each node to the node with the next address. When a
node has the token, it may broadcast a message to any other node before passing the
token on. This message is received simultaneously by all other nodes, but only responded
to by the node to which the message was addressed. This scheme allows all devices on
the network to operate on a peer-to-peer basis, which means the network is not dependent
on any single device for nodes to share information. Token passing is also deterministic,
which means that the maximum amount of time it takes for a message to be sent from one
node to another is predictable, even under heavy communication traffic conditions. It also
guarantees that every node has access to the network on an equal basis.
ARCNET is self-configuring. If a node should fail, it is automatically removed from
the token passing sequence so that communication is maintained uninterrupted among the
remaining nodes. When a new node is added, or a failed node recovers, ARCNET imme-
diately recognizes the node and adds it into the token passing sequence. Should the
communication trunk be severed, both halves of the network are automatically
reconfigured Into two separate networks, each with the ability to maintain peer-to-peer
communications among the connected nodes.
Network Control Units and Operator Workstations are ARCNET nodes in Metasys.
NCUs optionally have an ARCNET communication circuit integrated within the Network
Control Module. For an Operator Workstation, an ARCNET communication card is installed
in a PC to allow the computer access to the network. ARCNET cards are manufactured
by both Johnson Controls and other vendors.
60 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
2 twisted pairs
= 4-wire ckt.
COAXIAL CABLE
INNER CONDUCTOR
OUTER COATING
INSULATION
OPTICAL FIBER
CLADDING
ELECTRICAL
ELECTRICAL
SIGNAL
SIGNAL
LIGHT LIGHT
CORE DETECTOR
SOURCE
Power Lines
Data can be transmitted to remote locations over electric power
system lines using carrier current transmission that superimposes a low
power RF signal, typically 100 kHz, onto the 60 Hz power distribution
system. Since the RF carrier signal cannot operate across transformers,
all communicating devices must be connected to the same power circuit
(same transformer secondary and phase) unless RF couplers are in-
stalled across transformers and phases permitting the transmitters and
receivers to be connected over a wider area of the power system.
RF
Modulated RF can be used as a data transmission method with the
installation of radio receivers and transmitters. The use of RF must be
coordinated with the communications department to avoid interference
with other facility RF systems. MODEMS must be provided at each re-
ceiver-transmitter location. FM is used in most cases because it is not
susceptible to amplitude related interference.
Fiber Optics
Fiber optics uses the wideband properties of infrared light travel-
ing through transparent fibers. Fiber optics is a reliable communications
media which is rapidly becoming cost competitive when compared to
other high speed transmission methods. It is best suited for point-to-
point high speed data transmission.
The bandwidth of this media is virtually unlimited, and extremely
high data transmission rates can be obtained. The signal attenuation of
high quality fiber optic cable is far lower than the best coaxial cables.
Repeaters required nominally every 2000 feet for coaxial cable, are 3 to
6 miles apart in fiber optic systems. Fiber optics must be carefully in-
stalled and cannot be bent at 90° right angles. Additional benefits in-
clude features such as space savings in conduits and freedom from EMI
interference. However, on the other hand, splicing is difficult and there
is the requirement of convertors to get off the fiber optic network.
See Table 6-1 for a comparison of transmission methods.
62
MODEMS
phase modulation (PM), the amplitude and the phase, respectively, are
increased or decreased accordingly. The amount of data coded on the
signal can be increased by selecting four or eight values (or more) for the
characteristic being modulated; this is not generally done with FSK.
With broadband modulation more than one signal can be sent at one
time and data can be transmitted in both directions simultaneously.
EMS terminology also includes pulse width modulation (PWM).
PWM is a means of directly transmitting digital information; the infor-
mation is never coded in binary form and MODEMs are not involved.
PWM is used with direct digital control systems and is discussed under
Chapter 5.
The speed of data transmission is measured in bits per second,
which are single binary digits, or in bauds. For EMS applications, one
baud is one bit per second, and speeds of 300, 1200, and 9600 baud are
used. High-speed MODEMs (9600 baud) are normally used when trans-
mission is confined to one building. Lower speeds are used between
buildings; 1200 baud is the prevalent speed.
To summarize, by modulating and demodulating the characteris-
tics of a carrier wave, MODEMs impose and extract data onto and from
wave forms transmitted over the data transmission media. There are
two classes of modulation: baseband, used to transmit minimum
amounts of data short distances; and broadband, used for longer dis-
tances and larger amounts of data. While there are three types of broad-
band modulation, the one most often used with EMS is frequency shift
keying. Data transmission speeds can also vary; the speeds most com-
mon for EMS application are 9600 baud within buildings and 1200 baud
between buildings.
SOFTWARE/APPLICATION PROGRAMS 65
Chapter 7
Software/Application
Programs
INTRODUCTION
PROGRAMS
Scheduled Start/Stop
The scheduled-start/stop program consists of starting and stop-
ping equipment based on the time of day and day of week. Scheduled
start/stop is the simplest of all EMS functions to implement. This pro-
gram provides potential for energy conservation by turning off equip-
ment or systems during unoccupied hours. In addition to sending a
start/stop command, it is important to have a feedback signal indicating
the status (on-off or open-closed) of the controlled equipment. The feed-
back signal verifies that the command has been carried out and provides
the EMS operator with an alarm when the equipment fails or is locally
started or stopped.
65
66 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
Optimum Start/Stop
The scheduled start/stop program described can be refined by
automatically adjusting the equipment operating schedule in accordance
with space temperature and outside air (OA) temperature and humidity.
HVAC systems are normally restarted prior to occupancy to cool down
or heat up the space on a fixed schedule independent of OA and space
conditions. The optimum start/stop program automatically starts and
stops the system on a sliding schedule. The program will automatically
evaluate the thermal inertia of the structure, the capacity of the HVAC
system to either increase or reduce space temperatures, and OA condi-
tions. This accurately determines the minimum time of HVAC system
operation needed to satisfy the space environmental requirements at the
start of the occupied cycle, and determines the earliest time for stopping
equipment at the day’s end.
(Application notes.) The optimum start/stop program operates in
conjunction with the scheduled start/stop program, day/night setback,
and ventilation/recirculation programs.
Duty Cycling
Duty cycling is defined as the shutting down of equipment for
predetermined short periods of time during normal operating hours.
This function is normally only applicable to HVAC systems. Duty cy-
cling operation is based on the presumption that HVAC systems seldom
operate at peak design conditions. If the system is shut off for a short
period of time, it has enough capacity to overcome the slight tempera-
ture drift which occurs during the shutdown period. Although the inter-
ruption does not reduce the energy required for space heating or cool-
ing, it does reduce energy input to auxiliary loads such as fans and
pumps. Duty cycling also reduces outside air heating and cooling loads
since the outside air intake damper is closed (under local loop control)
while an air handling unit is off.
(Application notes.) (1) The duty cycling program is used in con-
junction with demand limiting, schedule start/stop, and optimum start/
stop programs. (2) Duty cycling is not advisable for variable capacity
loads such as variable volume fans, chillers, or variable capacity pumps.
SOFTWARE/APPLICATION PROGRAMS 67
Demand Limiting
Demand Limiting consists of shedding electrical loads to prevent
exceeding an electrical demand peak value (target). This prevents an
increase in electrical rates where demand oriented rate schedules apply.
Peak demand contract values are established by the utility company
using fixed demand intervals, sliding window intervals, and time of day
schedules. Many complex schemes exist for reducing peak demand bill-
ings; however, all schemes continuously monitor power demand and
calculate the rate of change of the demand value in order to predict
future peak demand. When the predicted peak exceeds present limits,
predetermined scheduled electrical loads are shut off on a prescheduled
priority basis to reduce the connected load before the peak is exceeded.
(Application notes.) (1) The demand limiting program is used in
conjunction with the duty cycling program to prevent any one load from
being cycled on or off during the wrong time interval or an excessive
number of times. (2) The demand limiting program is also used in con-
junction with scheduled start/stop and optimum start/stop programs.
Day/Night Setback
The energy required for heating or cooling during unoccupied
hours can be reduced by lowering the heating space temperature set-
point or raising the cooling space temperature setpoint. This applies
only to facilities that do not operate 24 hours a day. Space temperature
can be reduced from the normal 65°F winter inside design temperature
to a 50°F or 55°F space temperature during the unoccupied hours. In
space that require air conditioning during unoccupied hours, the normal
temperature setting can be reset upwards to a temperature that is com-
patible with the space special requirements. OA dampers for the HVAC
system are closed when the equipment operates during the unoccupied
periods in order to avoid imposing additional OA thermal loads.
(Application notes.) (1) The day/night setback program operates
in conjunction with the scheduled start/stop and optimum start/stop
programs. (2) Space temperature sensors must be located to preclude
freezing during the night setback period.
Economizer
The utilization of an all outside air dry bulb economizer cycle in air
conditioning systems can be a cost effective conservation measure, de-
pending on climatic conditions and the type of mechanical systems. The
68 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
dry bulb economizer cycle utilizes outside air to reduce the building’s
cooling requirements when the outside air dry bulb temperature is less
than the required mixed air temperature. The changeover temperature at
which outside air is used for cooling is based on the outside air dry bulb
temperature (enthalpy changeover point is determined by the total air
heat content.) When the outside air dry bulb temperature is above the
changeover temperature, the outside air dampers, return air dampers,
and relief air dampers are positioned to provide minimum required out-
side air. When the outside air dry bulb temperature is below the
changeover temperature, the outside air, return air and exhaust air damp-
ers are positioned to maintain the required mixed air temperature. This
program can also be used to compare the dry bulb temperatures of out-
side air with return air: whenever RA temperature is less than OA tem-
perature, OA dampers close to a minimum position. Separate setpoints
can be provided for each HVAC system. Refer to example in Table 7-1.
(Application notes.) This program cannot be used where humidity
control is required, or when the enthalpy program is selected.
Enthalpy
The utilization of an outside air enthalpy program can be a cost
effective energy conservation measure, depending on climatic condi-
tions and the type of mechanical system. The enthalpy cycle utilizes
outside air to meet the building’s cooling requirements when the en-
thalpy (total heat content) of the outside air is less than that of the return
air. When the outside air enthalpy is less than the return air enthalpy, the
outside air and return air dampers are allowed to modulate to admit
sufficient outside air to minimize cooling requirements. When the out-
side air enthalpy is greater than the return air enthalpy the outside air
dampers, return air dampers, and relief air dampers are positioned to
provide minimum required outside air.
(Application notes.) The enthalpy program cannot be used when
the economizer program is selected.
ture upward until it equals the discharge temperature of the reheat coil
with the lowest demand. Where humidity control is required, the pro-
gram will prevent the cooling coil discharge temperature from being set
upward. For air conditioning systems, where reheat coils are not used, the
program will reset the cold deck discharge temperature upward until the
space with the greatest cooling requirement is just satisfied.
(Application notes.) This program operates in conjunction with
the chilled water reset program.
Chiller Optimization
The chiller optimization program can be implemented in chilled
water plants with multiple chillers. Based on chiller operating data and
the energy input requirements obtained from the manufacturer for each
chiller, the program will select the chiller or chillers required to meet the
load with the minimum energy consumption. The program must follow
the manufacturer’s start-up and shutdown sequence requirements. In-
terlocks between chilled water pumps, condenser water pumps, and
chiller must be in accordance with the chiller manufacturer require-
ments.
(Application notes.) The software inputs described may not be
required in every case. The designer must study the existing or new
system to determine which of the parameters are necessary. Care must
be observed when providing automatic start/stop of chillers in lieu of
operator supervised startups.
Lighting Control
Time scheduled operation of lighting consists of turning on and off
lights, based on the time of day and the day of the week. Additional off
commands may be generated at regular intervals to assure that lights are
off (relay operated zoned lighting only). An alternative to this program
is to initiate only the off function and require that the lights be turned
on manually. Emergency lighting is not to be controlled by this program.
(Application notes.) The lighting control program is used in con-
junction with the scheduled start/stop program.
SPECIAL APPLICATIONS
Fan Laws
1. The volume of air delivered by a fan (CFM) varies in direct propor-
tion to the fan speed (RPM). CFM = RPM
Table 7-2. Functional Capabilities of Energy Management System
——————————————————————————————————————————————
Function Terminology
——————————————————————————————————————————————
Turn off equipment when building is unoccupied according Start/Stop Control
to a set schedule.
Restart equipment at the latest possible time before reoccupancy. Optimal Start/Stop
Use “free cooling” from outdoors when temperature is suitable. Economizer Control
Provide more sophisticated economizer based temperature Enthalpy Control
and humidity.
Reduce excessive heating and cooling in HVAC systems. Supply Temperature Reset
Balance chiller operation to required loads Chiller Optimization
Balance boiler operation to loads and control combustion air. Boiler Optimization
CFM = RPM
50% = 50%
2. Power required (HP) varies as the cube of the fan speed (RPM).
HP = (RPM) 3
13% = (50%)3
(of the power)
51% = (80%) 3 (reduce 20%)
2. The power required to drive a fan motor (HP) varies as the cube
of the fan speed (RPM). HP = (RPM)3
VSDs, when applied to fan systems, can be utilized with the duty
cycling or demand limiting software features by receiving a 20% or 50%
speed signal from the EMS, thus reducing power consumption by 50%
or 87% respectively. This avoids the need to cycle the fan OFF.
When fans are cycled OFF-ON, there is premature wear and tear
on the mechanical equipment. Belts and pulleys wear out sooner;
starter/contactors receive excessive wear; and automatic valves and
dampers cycle excessively. There is also a complete disruption of air
movement in occupied spaces which causes a distraction each time it
occurs and may even violate code requirements for specified ventilation
rates inside occupied areas.
% OA = RA ± MA (or) MA ± RA
RA ± OA OA ± RA
78 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
Chapter 8
Communication Protocol
PROTOCOL DEFINED
Proprietary
A protocol developed by a company for the exclusive use of that
company’s customers. Most current building control, fire alarm, and
security protocols are proprietary.
Open
An open protocol is one which is in the public domain, and users
are provided information and documentation necessary for its imple-
mentation. As an example, Xerox made Ethernet and open protocol, as
did International Business Machines with its GPAX D protocol. How-
ever, it is possible to end up with too many “open protocols” and a loss
of control over them.
Standard
An open protocol adopted and endorsed by a voluntary standards
organization, or government agency. Such a standard protocol may in-
clude certification. IEEE based its 802.4 Standard on the Ethernet proto-
79
80 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
col. It may take too long for vendors to agree on a single standard, there-
fore, more than one standard will be needed.
Protocol discussion issues might include:
GUIDELINES
International standards are being developed which are defined by various levels.
X.25 has been approved through level 3.
PYROTRONICS ROBERTSHAW GE
FIRE HVAC LIGHTING
PROTECTION CONTROL
ANEMOSTAT
SCHLAGE FUME
SECURITY HOOD
IBM
TOKEN
RING
LAN
Five Presenters
• Uses a common, easy to learn, mouse-driven graphical interface built around IBM’s
Presentation Manager software.
• Displays multi-window, real-time applications for different systems at the same time.
• Supports multiple users through PS/2* workstations over the token-ring network.
• It will provide “gateways to let new systems into the fold.” So,
rather than presenting a handicap to owners of existing systems,
BACnet will increase the potential of their systems.
By Vito Racanelli
standard protocol, and that he was “fairly optimistic” about the timely es-
tablishment of a standard.
At EUN’s panel discussion on EMS standardization last Monday,
Newman said that a standard could probably be developed in one to three
years. Other panelists from such EMS vendors as Honeywell Inc., Minne-
apolis; Johnson Controls Inc., Milwaukee; MCC Powers, Northbrook, Ill.;
Novar Controls Corp., Barberton, Ohio; and The Trane Co., LaCrosse,
Wisc., said that their respective companies would support Ashrae’s efforts
to define a standard communications protocol. A transcript of the panel
discussion will appear in the March edition of Energy User News Maga-
zine.
EUN reported last year that EMS manufacturers such as Honeywell,
Johnson and MCC Powers were generally skeptical of current software ap-
proaches to linking disparate EMS systems to a single host computer, cit-
ing what they considered a limit to the amount of control functions that
could be shared by systems linked to a host by software (see Feb. 24, 1986
EUN, page 1, and March 3, 1986 EUN, page 9). Terry Weaver, vice presi-
dent of the Electronic Systems and Services Division of Johnson Controls,
said at that time that forming a standardization committee within the in-
dustry would be the most positive step toward a standardization of EMS
protocols.
The committee’s purpose is specifically to define the content and for-
mat of messages communicated between computer equipment used for the
digital monitoring and control of building HVAC systems.
Newman’s nomination as chairman of the new committee is subject
to approval by the Ashrae Standards Committee, which will convene in
three months.
No one has been named to the new committee, according to
Newman. However, he added that the committee will be made up of 5 to
13 members from EMS manufacturers, the National Board of Standards,
the National Research Council of Canada, Ottowa, and users.
The committee will then prepare the technical content of the stan-
dard and make it available for public review.
Users interested in participating in the committee should contact H.
Michael Newman, Ashrae Standard Project Committee, 135 P, 1791 Tullie
Circle, NE, Atlanta, GA 30029.
88 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
By Richard Mullin
USER 1 USER 2
APPLICATION Handles the actual interface with the user’s application program. APPLICATION
NETWORK Establishes logical circuits and routing between two machines. NETWORK
DATA LINK Controls orderly access to the physical medium. DATA LINK
PHYSICAL Transmits and receives individual bits on the physical medium. PHYSICAL
Figure 1—In the OSI model, each computer has equivalent data commu-
nication software with layered or hierarchical functionality. Each layer
communicates logically with the corresponding layer in. the other ma-
chine. A “user” is an application program with the need to communicate
with another machine.
adopted by many organizations. Two well known protocols of this type are
the Manufacturing Automation Protocol (MAP) and the Technical and
Office Protocols (TOP). The U.S. government has adopted the OSI model in
its approach to Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS) and has
released an OSI procurement policy called the Government Open Systems
Interconnection Profile (GOSIP), Other national governments have begun
to develop their own GOSIP programs. Many local area network products
are built on the lower layers of the OSI model, and many computer com-
panies are modifying their networks to become OSI compatible or to build
bridges to permit connection to OSI networks.
This movement to embrace OSI is a good reason to look at the OSI
architecture but, by itself, is not reason to adopt it for EMCS standards.
Why is there so much interest in OSI? What are the benefits? What are the
costs?
94 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
• Lower hardware cost due to economies of scale. The lower layers will
be implemented in silicon. Large quantities of chips for this purpose
will be manufactured for the computer industry, and the HVAC&R
industry can use the same chips.
USER 1 USER 2
APPLICATION Handles the actual interface with the user’s application program. APPLICATION
PHYSICAL Transmits and receives individual bits on the physical medium. PHYSICAL
References
ASHRAE 1987. “Minutes of SPC 135P Application Services Working
Group. December 10, 1987,” SPC 135P AS-OO3.
Chapter 9
Operator/Machine
Interface
99
100 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
GRAPHICS
Color graphics provides the user with EMS point information dis-
played on customized dynamic color graphics. Use of static graphics or
35 mm slides is not recommended. The system, upon command, will
display the current measured variables associated with the equipment
or area. Off-normal conditions and alarms will be displayed instantly.
Alphanumeric data would be a standard feature as well as the associ-
ated keyboard including all standard ASCII characters.
Refer to Figure 9-1 for typical graphic displays.
The printer should be an 80-column hard copy type interface that
supports full graphic features and is rated at no less than 100 cps. Stan-
dard form fold paper with tractor feed would be required. IBM
Proprinter II or equal should be considered.
DATA UTILIZATION
PACKAGING
With most systems you can oversee your entire operation from a
central location regardless of whether you manage a single building or
multiple buildings. By creating this central operators station, you can
supervise regular and emergency maintenance, monitor intrusion and
fire alarm, control temperature, generate financial an operational data
and much more.
Many EMSs do not, by definition, require a PC connected to it to
operate. This would be considered a stand-alone system. The EMS
OPERATOR/MACHINE INTERFACE 101
(Continued)
102 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING
Although EMS vendors may use different names for the method
they use to program their systems, the two basic names or types are line
programming (or textual language) and control block technology.
In line programming, a series of statements leads the programmer
through a control sequence. Refer to following example:
2. On/Off Control a. Scheduled operation Run equipment only when needed; defer low
priority loads to off-peak periods.
b. Demand limiting:
(1) Load shedding Equipment shutdowns in reverse priority order.
(2) Duty cycling Rotating brief outages among selected loads.
——————————————————————————————————————————————
106 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
and control flow are used by connecting blocks with arrows pointing in
the direction of flow. In general, no special software language experience
is required since each control block has a direct pneumatic equivalent.
Refer to following figures 9-2 and 9-3.
Chapter 10
Savings/Cost Estimating
111
112 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
ting off the fans at night can save a lot of energy money. If fans must run
continuously, then variable speed drives should be installed and
through the DDC-EMS, reduced to half speed (thus saving 85% of the
power) during no or low occupancy periods.
Load cycling has been a popular function of an EMS but be aware,
the savings of 50% reduction in electricity consumption (fan ON 10
minutes, then OFF 10 minutes) will not offset the added maintenance
costs that will appear over time (usually within a year). Motors and
drives are built for continuous operation. Each time a fan system is
turned on/off, belts and pulleys wear, starters are being abused, auto-
matic valves, dampers, and controls are continually cycling; so how
much money will actually be saved? It could amount to a transfer of
dollars from electrical energy savings to maintenance costs.
Controllable loads will be either critical or noncritical. Critical
loads are those that cannot be interrupted, deferred or reduced; noncriti-
cal loads can be altered without adversely affecting the function of the
facility. Once the controls have been identified and the critical and non-
critical areas delineated, the specifying engineer will know what he has
to work with and what the magnitude of energy consumption is, and he
can proceed to the selection process.
Maintenance savings available by utilizing the latest state-of-the-
art DDC-EMS are significant. Older control systems, both computer-
ized and conventional, often had annual maintenance costs of 10-15%
of the initial capital cost. (A $250,000 EMS required a annual mainte-
nance contract of $28,000.) The current DDC-EMS maintenance costs
are in the area of 2-4% of capital cost. In spite of this lower cost, it is
advisable NOT to enter into an annual maintenance agreement. The
2-4% generally requires no maintenance at all, but rather a replace-
ment factor if something should fail. Almost like maintenance on a
light bulb … if it fails, replace it. This is obviously over-simplified.
The owner of EMS should provide for proper training of their main-
tenance staff so that most routine tasks can be handled in-house. It is
important, however, to maintain a regular contact between the vendor
and the system. A typical agreement might include six (6) one-day
inspections per year.
Energy Management Systems in general will save 5-10% of annual
electricity costs when only start/stop scheduling, optimized start/stop,
demand monitoring and limiting, and night set-back are used. In other
words, these savings result without either lighting control, chilled water
SAVINGS/COST ESTIMATING 113
reset, condenser water reset, or chiller optimization. But these are sav-
ings which normally result in existing buildings even where the build-
ing operators have been very energy conscious. These systems can im-
prove upon normal manual operation and can save on demand charges
where manual or time-clock operation can not. For example, if:
3 × $ 62,749 = $188,247
3 × $125,497 = $376,491
(1 hour)(5)(52)(1000)(.6)($.02772) = $4324
condenser water pump, and cooling tower is started with a time clock.
Additional chillers are started or stopped manually by the building
operators. Building operators normally leave the chilled water tempera-
ture at the design setting. Condenser water temperature is controlled to
the lowest permitted by the chiller manufacturer.
Discussion: The building operator will have to start and stop chillers
for both day and evening use, based on the judgment of the operator. Spe-
cific starting and stopping sequences in an EMS program can save a large
number of hours of chiller operation, compared to manual procedures.
Many building operators begin the day by automatically starting 2 or 3
chillers at the same time on the hottest summer days and let them run all
day. So the start/stop/selection procedure is important for savings.
Second, building operators normally do not change the leaving
chiller water temperature of each chiller, even though that temperature
is only required for the few days of the year that meet or exceed design
conditions. An EMS can continually adjust the leaving water tempera-
ture, for a savings of over 1% for each degree the temperature is raised.
Third, condenser water temperature can be continually reset by an
EMS in the same manner as the chiller water temperature, with a similar
savings. An EMS can also reset the condenser water temperature by the
ambient or outside wet bulb temperature and cycle off tower fans as the
condenser water temperature approaches the outside wet bulb tempera-
ture, saving additional fan horsepower.
Fourth, an EMS can be designed to provide demand control for
chillers. In addition to the savings possible through proper chiller selec-
tion to meet the instantaneous load, as already discussed, the demand
limiter on each chiller can be used to set up digital outputs for stepped
load capacity shedding of each chiller.
Refer to Figure 10-1 for an energy audit checklist.
There is no way to provide demand monitoring and control or limit-
ing through local conventional controls. This function can only be pro-
vided through a microprocessor based DDC-EMS.
Peak demands may be classified as being of three general types:
• Daytime peaks
• Random peaks
SAVINGS/COST ESTIMATING 115
Sixteen electric hot water heaters (52 gallons and 6 kW each) and
sixteen 1/12 HP circulating pumps make up the hot water system.
Each normally cycles on as required to maintain a set leaving water
temperature, and the circulating pump runs continuously unless
turned off.
1. General Cost
— Estimation — System testing/acceptance test
— System engineering — Training
— Shop drawing preparation — Maintenance
Field equipment would consist of the DDC panels and any re-
quired sub-panels. The DDC panels (depending on size-number of
points capacity) could be in a range of $2,000 to $5,000 each. Current
DDC panels are constructed so that all point hardware is universal …
inputs and output can be easily converted in the field.
Sensor costs vary depending on location, type, use, and accuracy
requirements. In general, a digital/relay would be $100; an analog in-
put/sensor $150; a transducer $250. Additional items to consider include
the electric utility meter and any run-time sensing equipment.
Actuators would generally be pneumatic or electric with costs at
and $200 and $400 respectively. In the past, control devices included
receiver controllers, pilot positioners, servos, and other items required to
make the EMS function. Today all control is with DDC which, for the
most part, eliminates these devices.
Wiring and cable cost will vary and is a function of the number of
connected points. Some wiring may require conduit. Control piping will
require copper or polyethelene tubing. Average cost across the board
might be $100 per 100' including labor.
The transmission system will depend on the manufacturer of the
EMS. Some may use phone lines between field panels while some may
use their own LAN configuration. Inter-Connecting within a single
building may cost $5,000.
In the above cost descriptions, realizing they are certainly not sci-
entific, but figuring 6 field panels with 200 sensors and 50 actuators (40
points/panel) for a total of 250 points, the cost totaled $140,000 or $560
per point. This is in line with EMS projects bid in the late 1980’s.
After figuring the savings, the engineer must calculate the project
payback. Generally, this is done on a simple payback method. If the
calculation indicates that payback will take more than five years, there
probably are too many items included in the project that may be nice to
have but are not energy- or cost-effective. If the paycheck indicated is
more than five years, the engineer should re-evaluate the system.
The specifying engineer should keep the EMS system simple but
make it effective—do what is needed and forget the extras. It is impor-
tant to justify everything that must be included. With the pace of current
technological developments, it may be both extravagant and wasteful to
specify a system whose components will become obsolete before they
are put to use.
SEQUENCE OF EVENTS 119
Chapter 11
Sequence of Events
INITIAL CONCEPT
• How much energy can you save? Some EMS suppliers say that
energy savings will be 25-35%. In general, real savings are in
the range of 10-14%.
• Call other EMS users to find out the pros and cons of their
EMS.
119
120 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
INFORMATION RETRIEVAL
This step in the process should include floor plans, HVAC system
diagrams, temperature control schematics, wiring diagrams, lighting
levels, and utility bills for the previous year (preferably previous three
years). As you examine the electric bills, and especially the demand
charges, you may see that the demand portion is as much as 40% of the
bill charges. The question then is, how much can this demand be re-
duced?
FIELD SURVEY
CONTRACT
INSTALLATION
ACCEPTANCE
be provided with manuals from the contractor and some type of on-call
troubleshooting arrangement with the contractor should be established
so that the personnel at least can have their questions answered.
Maintainability of a system depends on the manufacturer’s or
supplier’s ability to support the facility’s in-house maintenance efforts
through training programs and manuals and, equally important, if not
even more so, to make available professionally trained maintenance
personnel. Whenever possible, the facility should check the
manufacturer’s references to determine whether other users of the pro-
posed system are satisfied with the maintenance services provided by
the manufacturer.
Chapter 12
Selection/Expansion
All to often, prospective EMS buyers are lulled into a sale with
all of the color and promises of a full blown system. Maybe a
smaller simple-to-operate EMS will suffice.
125
126 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
9. *Can the EMS operator communicate with the system for day-
to-day operation in English language?
10. How much control over the system software does the manu-
facturer have? Do you have?
12. Must you contact the manufacturer every time you want to
consider an update program or when you want to create a new
application program?
13. What are the costs for the various features, changes, source
codes, updates?
14. What are the maintenance costs for 1 year? For 5 years?
15. What are the system components prices? What are the labor
rates?
17. How thoroughly will the system be checked out after installa-
tion (prior to the start of the normal 1 year guarantee period)?
128 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
INSTALLATION/COMMISSIONING 129
Chapter 13
Installation/
Commissioning
129
130 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
MATERIALS
INSTALLATION
• Mounting of panel(s)
ON-SITE SUPERVISION
AS-BUILT DRAWINGS
Overview
Before the SEVEN (7)-day acceptance test may begin, the EMCS
must be completely operational including the following:
INSTALLATION/COMMISSIONING 133
4) Displays shall be built for each logical air handling system, boiler
systems, chiller, etc.
12) A trend on one panel shall be set up for a point from another
panel. This point shall also be trended in its own panel for the
same intervals. Comparison of the two trends will indicate if any
communication problems are occurring during the SEVEN (7)-
day test.
134 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
13) Related DIs and DOs shall be connected to show alarm condition.
7. Printer shall be left on for complete SEVEN (7)-day test. All print-
outs will be kept for review at completion of list. An alarm printer
shall be supplied by the Contractor if none is supplied in this
contract.
Documentation
The following documentation must also be in place before comple-
tion of SEVEN (7)-day test and Substantial Acceptance is granted:
1) Panel layout sheets complete with point name, point address and
wire identification number. One copy attached to each respective
panel door.
2) All points tagged with point name, point address and panel num-
ber.
10) All of the above information, with the exception of #2 (point tags)
shall be bound and presented in FIVE (5) manuals to be left on
site.
Once the basic above requirements are met and all other features
of the system are complete and acceptable, Substantial Completion shall
be granted. A deficiency list shall be prepared and holdbacks applied.
All deficiencies shall be corrected prior to Total Performance. Warranty
shall start from the date of Total Performance of the work.
136 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
TRAINING/OPERATION/MAINTENANCE 137
Chapter 14
Training/Operation/
Maintenance
TRAINING
137
138 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
OPERATION
MAINTENANCE
Chapter 15
Fire Alarm/Security
A
n automatic fire alarm system-FAS (typically made up of
smoke detectors, manual pull stations, audible and visual
warning devices, and a fire alarm control with remote notifi-
ation capability) can provide early warning of a developing fire. In all
situations, the installation of such a system is for the primary purpose
of life safety. When a fire strikes, instant detection coupled with a
prompt and suitable action is vital if the safety of people and property
is to be maintained. It is recommended that system inspection and test-
ing be scheduled monthly or as required by national and/or local fire
codes. Adequate written records of all inspections should be kept.
Given these parameters, along with the fact that FAS have ad-
vanced over the past several years from hardwired to multiplexed to
computer controlled, a question confronting building owners is: “do we
want to have this system stand alone or do we want to combine the FAS
with an EMS.”
Points to keep in mind while addressing this issue include:
1. Has the microelectronics and local area network (LAN) data com-
munications industries advanced far enough in reliability to allow
the combination of two separate systems?
2. Will the response speed in reporting both the first fire alarm and
successive alarms be compromised as the FAS and EMS both try to
communicate at the same time with a central operators station?
143
144 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
3. Will the same operator monitor both the EMS and FAS (FAS may
require 24 hour per day monitoring)?
5. EMSs do not require the rigid attention and regular testing and
maintenance that a FAS requires. Testing and maintenance of an
FAS will have to be strictly adhered to.
7. The communication protocol must be the same for both EMS and
FAS. Individual manufacturers in each separate field do not share
the same protocol; how can we expect manufacturers in separate
fields to share this information?
Peripherals:
• Color graphics system displays floor plans, text message and flash-
ing alarms of initiating devices.
Chapter 16
Design/
Drawings/Specifications
147
148 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
use. Specific equipment such as fan and pump motors, chillers and other
energy users must also be taken into account.
During the field survey, on a small-scale set of floor plans, all
major equipment should be located. Then, with the assistance of oper-
ating/maintenance personnel, all those items which are thought to need
repair and/or replacement, should be identified. It should also be deter-
mined which of the many energy-consuming devices can be controlled.
Some processes simply cannot be remotely and automatically controlled.
Equipment capacities, (measured-not specified), hours of operation,
maintenance, and operating procedures should all be recorded.
The connected load and maximum electrical demand must be care-
fully studied. A building may have 100 kW of connected load, but this
total is rarely, if ever, used. Generally 70 percent or less, and sometimes
as low as 25 percent, of the connected load, may be used at any one time.
Over the period of a year, the electrical demand will vary depending on
the weather, the building’s function and the processes involved.
Existing control systems in a building must be carefully analyzed
and defined. The basic energy conservation controller—the time clock—
will no doubt appear in this audit.
Air conditioning equipment is controlled in several ways, includ-
ing hot and cold decks, mixing dampers, outside air cycles and econo-
mizer control cycles.
If modulating outside-air/return-air dampers are already part of
the system, it will be less expensive to convert to a DDC-EMS. However,
if there is only a minimum or fixed outside-air system, it may be costly
to add an outside-air cycle. Duct openings would have to be cut into the
walls, existing ductwork may have to be rebuilt, powered exhaust and
recirculating air system may have to be added, and so on. A number of
energy (or media) control possibilities exist: a modulating valve, an
open-and-close valve, a 3-way bypass, primary/secondary pumping
loops, etc.
The building may already be equipped with compressed-air-actu-
ated pneumatic controls, or voltage-actuated electric controls that cause
control apparatus to modulate, or electronic controls that operate valves
or dampers. The problem then is integrating already existing control de-
vices with a new EMS. Major changes may be required for compatibility.
The prices for EMSs vary in order of system magnitude. The speci-
fying engineer must know exactly what is needed before deciding on
such a system. If a $50 remote clock can do the job, there is no reason
DESIGN/DRAWINGS/SPECIFICATIONS 149
EXISTING CONTROL
SCHEMATIC
VT 130H
REF
IRF Jumper Position
4 – 20mADA
JP9 “5V” side
REF OV
JP10 Side with no
mark
4. System Listing
EMS to conform to UL 916 (EMS) and fire ratings (if applicable).
5. Continuity of Service
Contractor shall maintain continuous services. (3) days notice if an
interruption is necessary. Existing controls and time clocks are not to be
disconnected until EMS is 100% operational.
6. Equipment Access
Install equipment for access to maintain and service.
9. EMS Requirements
Describe in detail EMS central operator station, field panels, soft-
ware, input/output devices (sensors, relays, transducers), transmission
system, LANs, phone connections, portable devices.
DESIGN/DRAWINGS/SPECIFICATIONS 165
12. Wiring
Describe how and where wiring is to be performed including wir-
ing size, conduit requirements, wire molding, and any special circum-
stances.
16. Compliance
If bidder is not in full compliance, a written document is to be
submitted with bid showing non-compliance items.
17. Drawings
EMS block diagram, site plan, floor plans with equipment loca-
tions, HVAC flow diagram.
16-11. AH Unit/Wiring
DESIGN/DRAWINGS/SPECIFICATIONS 169
170 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
16-12. AH Unit/Hardware
DESIGN/DRAWINGS/SPECIFICATIONS 171
172 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
Chapter 17
Intelligent Buildings
175
176 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
CRTs give off about three times as much heat as a person, says one
designer. Intelligent buildings typically have greater cooling require-
ments.
Smarter Still
Buildings may get even smarter in the future through integration
of processors, voice recognition and more extensive use of fiber-optic
networks.
In 1984 a fiber optic network cost about 50 cents per ft. compared
to 10 cents per ft for standard wiring. Connection charges, about $12 per
strand, were about $50 per strand three years ago. Some say, however,
that devices needed to move data on and off the fiber optic network still
add to costs. Fiber optic installation costs are coming down and techni-
cal wrinkles are being ironed out however. Another frontier is voice
recognition. The same type of processors that allow telephones to con-
vert analog voice patterns to digital signals could be used to allow the
building’s occupants to tell elevators what floor to go to or to turn up
the air volume in a room. Should the occupant say please? “It depends
how smart the building is.”
There are many technological developments that are changing the
ways of the HVAC controls industry.
Appendix A
Glossary of Terms
179
180 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
Baud: Unit of signaling speed. The speed in baud is the number of dis-
crete conditions or events per second. If each event represents only one
bit condition, baud rate equals bps. When each event represents more
than one bit (e.g. dibit), baud rate does not equal bps.
Bit: An acronym for binary digit. The smallest unit of information which
can be represented. A bit may be in one or two states, represented by the
binary digits 0 and 1.
BPS (Bits per Second): The base unit of data-transmission rate. Kbps for
kilo (thousands of) bits per second; Mbps for mega (millions of) bits per
second.
Bus: A data path shared by many devices (e.g. multipoint line) with one
or more conductors for transmitting signals, data, or power. In LAN
technology, a bus is a type of linear network topology.
Clock: A device or a part of a device that generates all the timing pulses
for the coordination of a digital system. System clocks usually generate
two or more clock phases. Each phase is a separate, square wave pulse
train output.
Deck: In HVAC terminology, the air discharge of the hot or cold coil in
a duct serving a conditioned space.
Demand: The term used to describe the maximum rate of use of electri-
cal energy averaged over a specific interval of time and usually ex-
pressed in kilowatts.
Disk Storage: A bulk storage, random access device for storing digital
information. Usually constructed of a thin rotating circular plate having
a magnetizable coating, a read/write head and associated control equip-
ment.
Duty Cycling: The process of turning off electrical equipment for prede-
termined short periods of time to reduce consumption and demand.
Local Loop Control: The controls for any system or subsystem which
exist prior to the installation of an EMS and which will continue to
function when the EMS is non-operative.
Memory: Any device that can store logic 1 and logic 0 bits in such a
manner that a single bit or group of bits can be accessed and retrieved.
Trunk: A single circuit between two points, both of which are switching
centers or individual distribution points. A trunk usually handles many
channels simultaneously.
Control Symbols
Capacitor Contact, NC
191
192 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
Manual switch
Motor
Humidistat, room
Limit switch
Needle valve
Opposed-blade damper
Logic relay (for modulating control)
194 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
Overload actuator
Pressure switch, NC
Parallel-blade damper
(for two-position control) Propeller fan and motor
Pushbutton, normally
Point of solid contact, closed (PB, NC)
as to a device case or baseplate
Pushbutton, normally
open (PB, NO)
Pressure gage
Relay
Spring (where
Resistor identified as such)
Reversing relay
Static pressure controller
Sequencing controller
Steam trap
Smoke dettector
Thermal expansion
valve, thermostatic
Solenoid valve; solenoid valve, two-way expansion valve
196 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
Thermostat, room
Transformer coil
Appendix C
EMS Manufacturers
197
198 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
TRANSFERS OF OWNERSHIP
Appendix D
References
TEXTBOOKS
MONTHLY MAGAZINES
199
Appendix E
200
Cubic inches per minute (in.3/min.) Cubic centimeters per sec. (cm3/s) 0.2731
Cubic feet per minute (ft3/min.) Cubic centimeters per sec. (cm3/s) 471.9474
AND
*Flow Cubic feet per minute (Ft3/min.) Cubic decimeters per sec. (dm3s) 0.4719
Cubic feet per minute (ft3/min.) Cubic meters per sec. (m3/s) 0.4719 × 103
Cubic feet per minute (ft3/min.) Cubic Meters per hour (m3h) 1.6990
Std. cubic feet per minutes Cubic meters per hour 1.607
SCFM 60°F, 14.7 PSIA (m3h 0°C, 1.01325 bar)
Std. cubic feet per minute Cubic meters per hour 1.695
SCFM 60°F, 14.7 PSIA (m3/h 15°C, 1.01325 bar)
Gallons per minute
DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
t F + 459.67
Degrees Fahrenheit (°F) Kelvin (K) tK =
1.8
——————————————————————————————————————————————————
(Continued)
201
202
——————————————————————————————————————————————————
Work (Energy) Btu (Btu) Kilojoule (kJ) 1.0551
Foot pound (ft.-lb.) Joule (J) 1.3558
Watt-hour (W-hr.) Kilojoule (kJ) 3.6000
——————————————————————————————————————————————————
* Since standard and normal cubic meters (STD m3 and Nm3) do not have a universally accepted definition, their reference
pressure and temperature should always be spelled out.
** In commercial and everyday use, the term weight almost always means mass.
DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
APPENDICES 203
Appendix F
C.T.
AHU-2
AHU-1
CHILLER
DDC PANEL
Specs
SF: scheduled start-stop, status, run time
RF: status, run time
Mixed air: damper control, low limit, enthalpy control
Discharge air: cooling coil control, high limit
Return air: temp., humidity
Outside air: temp., humidity
Space temp.
3
Figure F-3. AHU-1 and AHU-2
APPENDICES 205
4
206 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
DDC PANEL
Specs
CW Pump: start-stop, status, run time
Cond. W Pump: status, run time
Chiller: status, run time
CWS, CWR, COND WS & R: temp.
CT Fan: status, run time
5
Figure F-4. Chiller System
APPENDICES 207
6
208 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
8
Total estimated savings:
9
Payback = Cost = $ = = Years
Savings $
APPENDICES 209
Specs
SF: scheduled start-stop, status,
run time
RF: status, run time
Mixed air: damper control, low limit, enthalpy control
Discharge air: cooling coil control, high limit
Return air: temp., humidity
Outside air: temp., humidity
Space temp.
Specs
CW Pump: start-stop, status,
run time
Cond. W Pump: status, run time
Chiller: status, run time
CWS, CWR, COND WS & R: temp.
CT Fan: status, run time
8
Total estimated savings:
Cost = $14,690 =
9 Payback =
Savings $3,495
4.2 Years
APPENDICES 215
Appendix G
EMS Articles
From Engineer’s Digest
By Richard A. Panke,
senior mechanical engineering specialist,
University of Wisconsin
215
216 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
EMS technology.
2. Temperature sensors, such as resistance temperature detectors
(RTD) or thermistors. These can remain just where they are now. How-
ever, if your old system used thermocouples, you will have to replace
them.
3. Humidity sensors, which may be a wet-bulb type or some type of
moisture-sensitive membrane.
These probably should be replaced with the newer, factory-calibrated
capacitive type, In any case, the old ones probably were 10 percent out
of calibration within six months after you installed them. If you used
them for enthalpy control on HVAC systems, they required re-calibra-
tion twice a year or else the enthalpy control cycle became ineffective.
4. Pressure instruments, such as differential pressure and pressure
sensors. You will have to field check these for the proper output propor-
tional signal (usually 4-20mA). Even if you must replace them, you can
leave the sensing lines and final connections as they were installed.
5. Relays, contactors, flow switches and current transformers. These can
be retained and, most likely, will not require any attention.
6. Connecting wires between sensors, relays and other hard-wired
devices. These most likely can be reused.
7. Existing field panels possibly are two or three times larger than
the new system’s panels. Most engineers and technicians decide to re-
move these old panels, along with all of the internal electronics. They do
so since, if they reuse the panel, they would remove most of the internal
equipment anyway.
8. Auxiliary field panels that contain interface devices, such as pres-
sure-electric switches, solenoid air valves or transducers. These can be
retained and incorporated into the new EMS.
9. Actuators, especially those that are pneumatic. These can remain
in place, along with the air lines. You will have to remodel or replace
electronic or electric actuators if the required input signal does not
match the output signals of the new EMS. At a minimum, you should
inspect them for proper operation.
Having determined the requirements of a replacement EMS, it is
really quite simple for the EMS consultant to sort through the existing
“as-built” EMS diagrams and determine which hardware items to keep.
Reusing a reasonable amount of existing hardware could result in a
replacement system costing 25 to 30 percent of the original EMS instal-
lation cost.
218 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
the network is determined by which station has the token (or message).
Only one station at a time—the one with the token—is given the oppor-
tunity to seize the channel. The token is passed from one idle station to
another until a station with a pending message receives it. After the
message is sent, the token is passed to the next station.
• Token passing ring: A closed loop that describes the order in which the
token is circulated.
• Token passing bus: More of a straight path topology that has more flex-
ibility because the token passing order is defined by tables in each sta-
tion.
• ARCNet: Developed by Datapoint Corp., stands for Attached Resource
Computer Network and functionally is a token passing bus.
Additional EMS terms include: open architecture, seamless de-
sign, fully integrated, robust software, tiered environment, gateway,
RS485 and many more.
EMS manufacturers should be required to use a common “lan-
guage.” Maybe the entrance to the data communication world will force
that to become a reality.
One final point. In addition to looking over the glossy handouts,
be certain that you obtain the specifications for each product and overall
system architecture. Then, you can start to make comparisons among
different product lines.
-
222 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
Retrofit options
If you already have an EMS, you should consider an alternative to
APPENDICES 223
equately. Also, you will not have the added maintenance associated with
humidity-dependent systems.
A reduction in EMS maintenance. Isn’t that a common goal?
By Richard A. Panke,
senior mechanical engineering specialist,
University of Wisconsin
Today’s central
energy
management
system
operator
workstation is
simpler than
earlier ones.
New worksta-
tions use only
a personal
computer, a
printer and a
mouse.
The EMS contractor shall return six months after the final EMS testing
and acceptance period for not less than 16 hours to review operating
procedures with the EMS manager and operators. One eight-hour review
also shall be held at the end of the one-year guarantee period.
duct pressures, pitot tube traverse, air capture hoods, vane anemom-
eters, fan and motor speeds, and drive parts.
• Monitoring and interpreting water system performance by using
pump pressures, differential system pressures, flow meters and balanc-
ing valves.
normal operation, and procedures for safely starting and stopping the
system manually. It also should mention how to return to existing sys-
tem operation if the need arises.
Appendix H
Remember!
EMS/DDC MILESTONES
2. How long has the installer been in business installing EMS sys-
tems?
4. How much control over the system software does the manufac-
turer have? Do you have?
5. Must you contact the manufacturer every time you want to con-
sider an update program or when you want to create a new ap-
plication program?
6. What are the costs for the various features, changes, source codes,
updates?
8. What are the prices for system components? What are the labor
rates?
10. How thoroughly will the system be checked out after installation
(prior to the start of the normal 1-year guarantee period)?
2. What are your people capable of doing—not what you would like
your people to be capable of doing.
3. What will your costs and savings ultimately be—not what some
salesman has projected or promised.
238 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
INDEX 239
Index
A enthalpy 68
acceptance 123 ethernet 50
actuators 22
adjust commands 42 F
advantages of DDC 42 field panels 23
ARCNet 52, 58 field survey 121, 148
audit 115 fire alarm 15
front end 27
B functions 12, 105
block diagram 155
boiler optimization 71 G
glossary of terms 179
C graphics 100
chiller reset 72
coaxial cable 60 H
communication 90 history of EMS 9, 11
contract 122
control room 154 I
coordination 131 information retrieval 120
installation 122, 130
D
data collection 147 L
demand limiting 67 lighting control 74
direct digital control 3, 35 local area network 186
distributed EMS 28
documentation 134 M
duty cycling 66 maintenance 140
manuals 230
E manufacturers 197
economics 67 milestones 234
economizer 67 modem 63
239
240 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
N R
networking 47 reheat coil reset 70
retrofit 222
O
operation 123, 139 S
optical fiber 60 schematic 151
optimum start/stop 66 security 15
outside air 77 selection 125
sensors 15
P software programming 104
P.I.D. 37 specification 163
pitfalls 235 standard techniques 82
pneumatic controls 1 system design 121
point table 150 T
problem 203 testing 132
programs 65
token bus 132
proportional control 37 training 137
protocol 79, 86 transmission methods 54
Q V
questions to ask 236 variable speed drives 74, 76