ENGI 9625 - Environmental Impacts of

Offshore Oil and Gas Operations

LECTURE 7
Drilling Waste Management,
Environmental Regulations,
Environmental Impact Assessment,
amd Environmental risk assessment
Instructor: Hongjing Wu, Ph.D.

Faculty of Engineering & Applied Science

Tel: +1(709)864-4764
Email: hjwu@mun.ca
Figure 7.1 Nature, structure, and succession of biological effects and responses 2
to different types of stress impacts of the offshore oil and gas industry
 1. Drilling waste management
 Treatment of drilling waste
 Drilling waste treatment system
o Treatment of drilling waste  mud de-watering, solid
separation/control, and water treatment
o For example  a successful drilling waste treatment system
 pH control section  reduce pH to neutral level  precipitation
of heavy metals
 Centrifuge and settling pond  remove solids
 Thickener  combine the thin layers of small floating particles
into large heavy solids  settle quickly
 Water treatment section  wastewater has suitable quality to be
discharged into the environment

 Solids control system (SCS)

o For fluid recycling and minimize discharge to surroundings
o Mainly consists:

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  Primary and secondary (mud cleaner) shale shakers for initial
separation  large drilling cuttings from drilling fluid;
 Drying shale shakes or centrifuge  recover drilling fluid from
cuttings waste stream
 High G shale shaker  recover fine solids from drilling fluid
 Centrifuge  increase solid removal 30-40%
 Sand traps  deep settling tanks, no agitation

 Field treatment of sump fluid

o The field treatment of sump fluid consists of the following steps:
 Oil removal  clarification water treatment  final clarification
 pump out and disposal

o Oil removal
 The oil  skimmed off the surface of the sump using a light
mechanical skimming device
 Addition of surfactant  ease the skimming removal process
 A simple way  burning off the oil, but  create a fire hazard
and air pollutants 4
  The removed oil
− collected in drums and sent to oil recovery facilities
− Disposal in secondary pits or land spreading  not
practiced, due to  their potentially adverse effects on
surface water and ground water quality

o Pre-clarification
 It is desirable prior to the water treatment step and especially 
if the suspended solids content is considered to be high
 It can be accomplished  dispersing flocculants and coagulants
into the sump water
 A truck  mounted pumping and solution circulating unit 
equipped with a floating mixer
 The fluid in the sump
− Circulated by the pump
− Mixed thoroughly with the flocculants added
− While the floating mixer is used  to stir the sump contents
− And then, the sump fluids are allowed  to settle for
sometime  solids particles/settle to the bottom of the sump 5
  Upon clarification  as much as 60% of the total sump fluid
can be recovered as solids free water layer

o Water treatment
 Required to render the sump water non toxic
 Involves addition of chemicals  to reduce the levels of toxic
components
 The equipment used for the pre-clarification steps  can
also be utilized in the water treatment step
 pH control
− Sump water pH is usually high  reduce
− the removal of heavy metals
 The concentrations of chloride, sulphate and phosphate ions
in the sump water  selection of the acid to be used

o Final clarification
 required to remove additional suspended solids
 The treatment process is exactly the same as  pre-
clarification process 6
o Pump out and disposal
 After the final clarification step  the sump fluid is tested for 
toxicity and concentration levels of other contaminants
 If it meets the surface water disposal standards  it can be
disposed of on the land adjacent to the lease
 Regulatory approval  required
 About 50 to 60% of the total fluid  can be pumped out as more
or less “clear water”

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 Waste disposal methods
 Pit Burial
o  the cheapest option of sump fluid disposal
o  involves capping-off the sump pit
o An impermeable liner  makes the pit impermeable
o Considerable long term risks
 For economic reasons  clay liners are preferred over high
density polyethylene (HDPE) or polyvinylchloride (PVC) liners
 Clay liners  are not totally impermeable
 Permeation rates through the PVC or HDPE liners  very low
− E.g., permeation rate of brine through the clay liner of a pond
operated by imperial oil near Red Deer was found  2.1 ~
3.0 X 10-6 cm/s
 Over the long term  must expect pits with liners to leak their
contents into ground below

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 Trenching
o Deep but narrow trenches are dug with the use of a backhoe
o The trenches are then partially filled with sump fluid
o Soil is the pushed back into the trench
o The fluid is absorbed into the soil rather being capped
o Problems
 Like the pit burial  risk of groundwater contamination
 When trenches intersect permeable sandy or gravel formations
 the fluids may leak out  cause ground water contamination

 Squeezing
o Literally involves the squeezing of the fluid in the pit by a bulldozer
 pushing in fill materials from one end of the sump
o The fluids  are expelled at the other end of the pit and are
contained in a second but smaller pit
o The fluid from the second pit  squeezed into a third pit
o The fluids are mixed with the soil on the lease area  are later
covered with top soil  potential soil and ground water
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contamination
 Land spreading (land treatment or land farming)
o Commonly used for  the treatment of municipal sludges
o Relies on  natural to render the waste materials harmless 
biological, chemical and physical actions
 Fluids spread on the land surface are exposed to air  facilitate
bacterial degradation of some of the contaminants
 Especially for water based drilling wastes
o The waste material should be compatible with the soil  in terms of
its pH
o To reduce adverse impacts on the soil  minimize chlorine, sodium
and oil content

 Deep well injection

o Similar to deep well injection of produced water
o Waste drilling fluids  injected into deep formations  where they
cannot contaminate the underground safe drinking water
o Among all the above options, deep well injection is perhaps  the
best option from environmental point of view
o It represents  the only on-site disposal method currently available
 provides zero discharge 10
o Injection of drilling cuttings, require additional processing
 Solid cuttings  are removed from the drilling fluid using
conventional solids separation equipment
 Mixed with water in a mixing tank in approximately one to three
ratio  to form a pumpable slurry
 A specially modified centrifugal pump or a mechanical grinding
equipment is then used  to reduce the particle size
 The homogeneous slurry is then conditioned  to specified
properties either by adding a viscosifier or thinner
 Then be injected either through the wellbore or though the
annular space between a string of casing and the formation
 Incineration
o Oil based drilling wastes  cannot be disposed of using the
conventional means  can be incinerated in a waste disposal
facility or in portable incinerator units
o Water based muds  the costs associated with incineration are too
high
o Problem  air emission, residues 11
2. Environmental Regulations and management
 Role of any environmental regulatory body
o To protect  plants, animals, humans, wildlife, aquatic life, and the
environment from the negative effects of pollutants and toxic substances
o To provide  maximum levels of contaminants that can be released into
the environment
o To regulate  the production and distribution of commercial and
industrial chemicals in order to  ensure that chemicals made available
for sale and use to not harm human health or the environment
o To create  databases and documents  further the knowledge of the
people about the effects and prevalence of such substances;
o To provide  lists of hazardous substance

 Examples
o Reduction of emission
 Governments (e.g., California) have reduced emissions of benzene,
toluene, and other toxins from mobile sources  by requiring the
use of reformulated gasoline
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o Accidental releases, including leaks and spills
 USEPA  established regulations under the Clean Air Act 
requiring certain facilities to implement risk management programs
 help prevent accidental releases of toxic chemicals
o Chemical Abstract Service (CAS) http://www.cas.org
 Database for regulated and hazardous products
− World’s largest collection of chemical substances information
− Help you identify 22 million organic and inorganic substances

 Canadian environmental regulations (Air and Water)

 Federal and provincial regulations
o Water management within provincial boundaries  provincial
jurisdiction
o The constitution allows the federal government to exercise jurisdiction
over water resources management in matters involving:
 International, and
 Inter-provincial boundaries
o In addition, federal government has jurisdiction over  fisheries and
navigation which may involve some management of water resources 13
 Canada Water Act
o Proclaimed in to law  September 30, 1970
o To provide for the management of Canada’s water resources and
their conservation, development and utilization to ensure  their
optimum use for the benefit of all Canadians
o It deals with multipurpose water resource development  where
effects cut across several jurisdiction
o Part I
 It authorizes the federal Environment Minister, either directly or in
co-operation with any provincial government, institution or person,
to conduct research, collect data, and establish inventories on any
aspects of water resources
 e.g., Environment Canada, in collaboration with Saskatchewan
Environment, conducts  routine water quality and flow
monitoring in Saskatchewan and maintains  computerized
database.
o Part II
 It is more directly related to  water quality management issues

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  It allows for federal – provincial agreements  manage water
quality
 It provides for establishment of joint federal-provincial agencies 
to plan and implement water quality management programs
agreed by the two levels of government.
o The act also allows the federal environment minister  to act
unilaterally and impose an agreement with the approval of the
Governor in Council if agreements between the federal and provincial
government can not be reached after all reasonable efforts have been
made.

 Inter-provincial arrangements
o Many rivers and streams  flow across provincial, territorial and
international boundaries
 For example  the Milk River crosses into the United States and
the Slave River passes into the Northwest Territories in Alberta
 This allows  Albertans to have access to fresh water of the
highest possible quality
 At the same time  it is also the responsibility of the Albertans 
to protect the quality of this water for the downstream users.
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 Clean Water Act
o Water contaminant is defined in the Clean Water Act as 
 “Any solid, liquid, or gas, or a combination of any of them, in
water”, or
 “heat in water, resulting in a change in the temperature of
surface water or underground fresh water”
o A Water Contaminant become Water Pollution only if 
 It is in excess of the permissible concentration prescribed by the
regulations for that water contaminant, or
 There is a change of the temperature of water in contravention
of the regulations
o Section 17(1) of the Act prohibits the discharge or deposit of a water
contaminant in the following water bodies 
 A water course, surface waters, and underground fresh water
 Where the contaminant  is likely to degrade, alter or form part
of the process of degradation or alteration of the chemical and
biological quality of water so that  the water is or is likely to be
rendered harmful to human health or life, fish, wildlife, livestock
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or plants.
 Clean Air Act
o The current major pieces of legislations regulating the quality of air
 The Clean Air Act of Alberta  received royal assessment on
April 16, 1971
 The Clean Air Act of Canada  two month later, became law of
the land
o The first air quality legislation in Alberta
  was developed in response to air pollution problems
associated with sour gas development
 The Petroleum and Gas Conservation Board (predecessor of the
ERCB)  required oil and gas operations to meet
“environmental controls related to hydrogen sulphide emissions
to forestall complaints regarding noxious odours” (ERCB, 1972)
 Then, the department of Health (later the Department of
Environment) issued  more comprehensive air quality
regulations in 1961.
o Air contaminant 
 Any solid, liquid, or gas (the federal act also includes odor) or
combination or any of these emitted into the ambient air 17
  The provincial Act specifies  these emissions must result
directly or indirectly from human activities
o Air pollution
 Alberta Clean Air Act
− The presence in the atmosphere of any contaminant in
excess of the permissible concentration prescribed in the
regulations for that air contaminant, or
− The presence of any air contaminant having an offensive
odor, regardless of its concentration
 Canada Clean Air Act
− A broader definition of Air pollution
− Defines air pollution as  a condition of the ambient air
resulting from the presence of air contaminants, which
 Endangers  the health, safety, or welfare of persons,
 Interferes with  the normal enjoyment of life or
property,
 Damages  plant or animal life or property
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 Canadian Environmental Regulations (Hazardous Materials)
 The Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA)
o  came into force on June 30, 1988
o Jurisdiction
 Hazardous materials primarily fall under  provincial jurisdiction
 However, when the effects of hazardous materials such as a
spill crosses interprovincial or international boundaries  the
main responsibility will lie with the federal government
o “Cradle to grave” policy
 Before CEPA became law  previous environmental legislation
dealt with toxic substances at their point of ultimate release into
the environment
 The CEPA now  controls and monitors toxic substances
during their entire life cycle starting with their production,
transportation, storage, utilization, and ultimate disposal.
o Part II  deals with “Toxic substances”, the Act provides control for:
 Assessment of substances to determine whether they are or
may become toxic
 A list of toxic substances, 19
  A list of priority substances which are to be given priority in
assessing their potential of becoming toxic
 Use of toxic substances,
 Actions to be taken when toxic substances are released
 Liability for costs of emergency measures, and
 Remediation
o The Act also allows  public intervention in the following forms:
 Any member of the public  may make a request to add a
substance to the priority substance list,
 Any member of the public  may appeal ministerial determinations,
orders or regulations,
 Any member of the public who knows that a release of toxic
substances has occurred or is likely to occur  may report that
information to appropriate authorities, and have his or her identity
kept confidential, and
 Two adults who believe that an offense has been committed under
the Act  may request an investigation of the offense
o In the province of Alberta legal control of hazardous waste is provided
mainly by: Hazardous Chemicals Act (1980), Hazardous Waste 20
Regulation (1987) -repealed
 Regulations related to petroleum operations
 Environmental strategy of developing offshore oil and gas resources
 Balance of current and future interests
 Possibilities of using alternative sources of energy
 Natural conditions
 Other ecological, technical, and economic considerations.
o The central place in modern systems of environmental control and
regulation  ecological standards, including two types:
 Effluent guidelines  composition and volumes of discharges
 Water quality-based limits  quality of natural water

Table 7.1 Major

permitted discharges
and potential impact-
causing agents
associated with offshore
oil and gas exploration
and production

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 Energy Resources Conservation Board (ERCB)
o  established by the Energy Resources Conservation Act  to
administer the Oil and Gas Conservation Act and other regulations
as delegated to the ERCB
o One of the stated responsibilities of the ERCB  control pollution
and ensure environment conservation in the exploration,
processing, development and transportation of energy resources
and energy.
o Section 10 of the Oil and Gas Conservation Act permits the ERCB
 to make regulations to achieve its environmental and
conservation objectives with relation to petroleum operations. There
regulations must be approved by the Minister of the Environment.

 Surface disposal of drilling fluid

o  governed by ERCB Interim Directive ID-OG 72-2
o According to this directive drilling or sump fluids may be disposed
on the lease is permissible provided:
 The entire contents of the sump  are confined to the lease

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 The sump(s)  contain less than a total of 6,000 barrels of
fluids.
 Disposal of more than 6,000 barrels on the lease  requires
approval of ERCB which may be granted provided the entire
contents are confined to the lease and fluids are treated and
detoxified
 The lease  more than 300 feet (100 m) far away from the
normal high water mark of a body of water, permanent stream or
potable water well.
 Notice of at least one week must be given to the ERCB area
office (for private land) and AENR (Alberta Energy and Nature
Resources) area office (for public land)
 Disposal of drilling fluids to off-lease land areas is allowed if the
fluids meet the following criteria

Chloride content 1,000 mg/L Maximum

Sulfate content 2,000 mg/L Maximum
Total dissolved solids 4,000 mg/L Maximum
pH 5.5 to 8.5
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Trout survival test 96 hrs
o Approval must be obtained from the ERCB or AENR authorities. Any
request for approval must be accompanied by:
 A description of the sampling procedure,
 A general description of the method of treatment of the sump fluids
 An analysis of a representative sample of the treated sump fluids
 The location of the disposal area and the volume of sump fluids to
be disposed of
 A brief description of the surrounding area
 In the case of disposal to private lands, a statement that the
landowner’s permission has been obtained to dispose to the off-
lease site

 Subsurface disposal of drilling fluids

o Appears to be  the best option for the disposal of untreated drilling
waste materials and was encouraged by the ERCB
o The interim Directive ID 81-1  issued by the ERCB in March of 1981
 The ERCB will permit industry  to dispose of drilling fluids not
only in unsuccessful holes but to any wells where subsurface
disposal of drilling fluids is feasible 24
  The ERCB will consider such disposal as  part of the drilling or
completion program for a well
 Subsurface disposal can be carried out subject to the following
conditions:
− Permission of an ERCB representative  must be obtained
before any disposal operation commenced whether located
on private or public lands
− The disposal zone  shall be depth not less than 600 m
− The disposal zone  shall be known not to contain
hydrocarbons within two kilometers of the intended disposal
well
− Formation water of the disposal zone shall not  have a total
dissolved solids content of less than 20,000 ppm (to protect
any potentially potable water)
• Most national governments have passed environmental assessment
legislation  requires that an environmental Impact Assessment
(EIA) be carried out prior to the development of specific types of
projects.
• E.g. Canada, the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act (CEAA)
identifies when an EIA must be done, how it must be done, and how
25
it is approved.
 3. Environmental impact assessment
 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
An environmental impact assessment is a planning tool  used for
identifying, predicting and communicating information about the
environmental effects (on the environment and human health) of a
proposal. It is designed to:
 Anticipate and prevent environmental problems
 Identify ways to increase environmental benefits
 Support informed decisions on project options and trade-offs
 Integrate environmental considerations into the planning, design
and construction of projects at all scales

 Philosophy and Objective

o The philosophy of EIA:
 EIA is designed as a preventive measure
 EIA should be introduced early on in the planning processes
 Broad public participation should ensure wide acceptance of
projects implemented 26
o The objectives of the EIA are:
 To disclose significant environmental effects of proposed
projects to decision-makers and the public
 To identify ways to avoid or reduce environmental damage
 To prevent adverse environmental impacts by requiring
implementation of feasible alternatives or mitigation measures
 To disclose reason of approvals for the projects with significant
environmental impacts to the public
 To foster interagency co-ordination and enhance public
participation
 To document and ensure that environmental aspects such as
potential physical, biological, social and health effects are
addressed for the planned activity
 Potential problems are foreseen at the appropriate stage of
project design
 EIA should be envisaged as an integral part of the planning
process and initiated at the project level from the start
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 EIA Around the World
o EIA systems vary by each country and agency, and each system
holds their own unique characteristics.

o EIA in U.S.
 Environmentalism started in the 1960s  Silent Spring (1962)
 U.S. National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) in 1969 was the
first formal system of EIA
 Environmental concerns have been considered in the decision-
making of federal government agencies:
− Any adverse environmental effects which cannot be avoided
− Alternatives to the proposed action

o EIA in Canada
 Introduced in 1973 with the passing of a federal cabinet
directive.
 Canadian Environmental Assessment Act (CEAA) was passed in
1992 and came into force in January 1995.
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o EIA Implementation in Europe
 Directive 85/337/EEC on the Assessment of the Effects of
Certain Public and Private Projects on the Environment, “EIA
Directive” was adopted in July 1985.
 The EIA Directive defines a project as:
 The execution of construction works or of other installations
or schemes
 Other interventions in the natural surroundings and
landscape including those involving the extraction of mineral
resources
 Member States had until 3 July 1988 to implement its
requirements:
• France 1976 Belgium 1985
• Spain 1986 Netherlands 1986
• Italy 1988 Denmark 1989
• Germany 1990 Portugal 1990
• Greece 1990 UK 1990
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 EIA Procedure
o EIA is a systematic process that examines the environmental
consequences of development actions, in advance. The stages of
an EIA process depend upon the requirements of the country or
donor.
o Most EIA processes have a common structure and the application of
the main stages is a basic standard of good practice.
o The EIA consists of eight steps  equally important in determining
the overall performance of the project.
 Screening: First stage of EIA, which determines whether the
proposed project requires an EIA and if it does, then the level of
assessment required.
 Scoping: This stage identifies the key issues and impacts that
should be further investigated. This stage also defines the
boundary and time limit of the study.
 Impact analysis: This stage of EIA identifies and predicts the
likely environmental and social impact of the proposed project
and evaluates the significance.
30
 Mitigation: This step in EIA recommends the actions to reduce
and avoid the potential adverse environmental consequences of
development activities.
 Reporting: This stage presents the result of EIA in a form of a
report to the decision-making body and other interested parties.
− An EIA report may be known by several other names such
as: Environmental impact assessment (EIA); Environment
impact statement (EIS); Environmental statement (ES);
Environmental assessment report (EA report); Environmental
effects statement (EES).
 Review of EIA: It examines the adequacy and effectiveness of
the EIA report and provides the information necessary for
decision-making.
 Decision-making: It decides whether the project is rejected,
approved or needs further change.
 Post monitoring: This stage comes into play once the project is
commissioned. It checks to ensure that the impacts of the project
do not exceed the legal standards and implementation of the
mitigation measures are in the manner as described in the EIA
report. 31
 EIA report
o The assessment report must be informative, clear and concise to
enable decision makers to quickly and easily understand the
environmental implications of the proposed project.
o At a minimum, the document should contain:
 A description of the proposed activity
 A description of the potentially affected environment, including
specific information necessary for identifying and assessing the
environmental effects of the proposed activity
 A description of practical alternatives as appropriate
 An assessment of the likely or potential environmental impacts of
the proposed activity and alternatives, including the direct,
indirect, cumulative, short-term and long-term effects
 An identification and description of measures available to
mitigate adverse environmental impacts of the proposed activity
and alternatives, and an assessment of those measures
 An indication of gaps in knowledge and uncertainties which may
be encountered in compiling the required information
32
  An indication of whether the environment of any other State or
areas beyond national jurisdiction are likely to be affected by the
proposed activity, and possible alternatives
 A brief non-technical summary of the information provided under
the above headings.

o Contents of EIA Report:

 Executive Summary
 Policy, Legal and Administrative Framework
 Description of the Environment
 Description of the Proposed Project
 Significant Environmental Impacts
 Socio-Economic Analysis of Proposed Projects
 Analysis of Alternatives
 Mitigation Action/Mitigation Management Plan
 Environmental Management and Training
 Environmental Monitoring Program
 Public/Community Involvement
 Conclusion and Recommendation 33
 EIA Methods and Techniques
o Environmental impact factors/Areas of consideration varies
according to the type of project, development, or action under
evaluation. Generally, consideration should include:
 Physical environmental factors
− air quality and air pollution control
− water quality and water pollution control
− noise control and abatement ...
 Social Environmental Factor
− alteration of population characteristics
− health and safety characteristics
− activity patterns …
 Economic Environmental Factor
− community fiscal posture
− alteration of land values
− Employment, tax, regional income …

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o Network Methods
 Start with a list of project activities or actions and then generate
cause-condition-effect networks (i.e. chains of events) or “impact
tree”.
 An attempt to recognize that a series of impacts may be
triggered by a project action. A “road-map” type of approach to
identify second- and third-order effects.
 A series of questions related to each project activity must be
answered. There may include, what are the primary impact
areas, the primary impacts within these areas, the secondary
impact areas, the secondary impacts within these areas, and so
on.
 Advantages:
− Displaying primary, secondary, tertiary, and higher order
impacts
− understanding the underlying relationships between
environmental components that produce higher order
changes that are often overlooked by simpler approaches
− summary form an overview of the impacts caused by the
35
project
  Disadvantages:
− If the environmental condition changes and possible
interrelationships are complex  impact networks are too
extensive and complex
− Cycles of effects may occur

o Ad hoc Method
 Ad hoc method is useful when time constraints and lack of
information require that the EIA must rely exclusively on expert
opinion.
 It provides minimal guidance for total impact assessment while
suggesting the broad areas of possible impacts and the general
nature of these possible impacts.
 When more scientific methods are available, it is not
recommended.

o Impact Checklist Method

 Combining a list of potential impact areas that needs to be
considered in the EIA process with an assessment of the
individual impacts. 36
 This approach has been adopted by a number of public agencies
since it insures that a prescribed list of areas is considered in the
assessment process.
 However, this method,
− does not provide for the establishment of direct cause-effect
links to the various project activities, and
− is weak to give an overall interpretation of the collective
environmental impacts
 There are four general types of checklists:
− Simple Checklist: A list of environmental parameters with no
guidelines on how they are to be measured and interpreted.
− Descriptive Checklist: Includes an identification of
environmental parameters and guidelines on how to measure
data on particular parameters.
− Scaling Checklist: Similar to a descriptive checklist, but with
additional information on subjective scaling of the
parameters.
− Scaling Weighting Checklist: Similar to a scaling checklist,
with additional information for the subjective evaluation of 37
each parameter with respect to all the other parameters
o Matrix Method
 It basically incorporates a list of project activities or actions with
a checklist of environmental conditions or characteristics that
might be affected.
 Combining these lists as horizontal and vertical axes for a matrix
allows the identification of cause-effect relationships between
specific activities and impacts.
 The entries in the cell of the matrix can be either qualitative
estimates or quantitative estimates of these cause-effect
relationships.
 Matrix method identifies interactions between various project
actions and environmental parameters and components. They
incorporate a list of project activities with a checklist of
environmental components that might be affected by these
activities. A matrix of potential interactions is produced by
combining these two lists (placing one on the vertical axis and
the other on the horizontal axis).

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o Overlay Method
 It generally relies on a set of maps of a project area’s
environmental characteristics (physical, social, ecological,
aesthetic, etc.).
 These maps are overlaid to produce a composite
characterization of the area’s environment.

o The Role of Expert Judgment

 Most method and techniques for identifying, measuring, and
assessing impacts rely on expert judgment.
 E.g. In fact, many checklists, matrices, and models used in EIA
represent decades of experience accumulated by numerous
experts.
 The experts themselves are heavily involved in all aspects of the
assessment:
− identify the potential for significant impacts,
− plan data collection and monitoring programs,
− provide their judgment on the level of significance for specific
impacts,
− suggest ways of reducing or preventing impacts. 39
 4. Risk and risk assessment
 Risk  The probability that a substance or situation will produce harm
under specific conditions. Risk is a combination of two factors: the
probability that an adverse event will occur and the consequences of the
adverse event.
o Petroleum industry’s production, refinery, storage, transportation, or
utilization, impact of exposure to the related chemicals and wastes on
human health or the environment  The environmental/health risk
assessment
 Risk assessment
o A systematic, analytical method used to determine the probability of
adverse effects
o To evaluate human health and ecological impacts of chemical or wastes
releases to the environment
o Collect information from environmental monitoring or modeling 
incorporated into models of human or worker activity and exposure 
concludes the likelihood of adverse effects
o An important tool for making decisions along with economic, societal,
technological, and political consequences of a proposed action. 40
 Outline for a standard risk assessment
o Introduction
o Site characterization
 Site description
 Nature and extent of contamination
 Selection of chemicals of potential concern
o Characteristics of key chemicals
 Environment fate and transport
 Toxicity/hazard evaluation
o Exposure assessment
 Routes of exposure
 Quantitative exposure assessment
 Evaluate risk
o Risk characterization
 Comparison with criteria
 Current use scenarios
 Future use scenarios
41
  Environmental risk evaluation
 Risk assessment uncertainties
o Conclusion
o References

 Risk assessment methods

o Common exposure parameters  exposure assessment
o Exposure assessment can be generally summarized by the equation

CM × IR × EF × ED
CDI =
BW × AT (1)

o Where, CDI= average daily intake of the chemical

(mg/kg(bodyweight)/day); CM= chemical concentration in the intake
media (mg/g, mg/L, or mg/m3); IR = intake rate for the media (g/day,
L/day, or m3/day); EF = frequency of exposure (days/365 days); ED=
exposure duration (years); BW = body weight (kg), AT= averaging
time (years). 42
o Exposure duration
 the time period (in years) that an individual may be exposed to
the chemical
 EPA
− The average length of time an individual in US remains at a
single residence  9 years
− Reasonable maximum value of for residential use  30
years
− Occupational exposure or current exposure to trespassers 
shorter exposure durations

o Exposure frequency
 To estimate maximum exposure levels  information or
assumptions about the frequency of the exposure event
occurring must be developed
 As a default assumption  assume daily exposure for such
things as water intake, inhalation exposure etc., under
assumptions that certain individuals will be at home daily.
− EPA currently assumes exposure will occur for 350 days/year 43
  Many studies  used different values for site exposure
− Kimbrough et al.  people would only come in contact and
ingest soil for 6 months/year
− Schaum et al.  exposure could occur for anywhere
between 247 and 365 days/year for an average of 118
days/year in the coldest part of the United States
o Body weights
 EPA uses  average body weight in exposure calculations
 The average adult weighs  approximately 70 kg (140 lbs)
 Children between the ages of 1 and 6 weigh  approximately 15
kg
 Children between the ages of 6 and 11 weigh  approximately
30 kg
o Averaging time
 For non-carcinogens  the averaging time is assumed to be
equal to the exposure duration
 For carcinogens  the dose is averaged over the lifetime of the
individual  assumed to be 70 years
44
o Different exposure assessments
 Air, water, soils and sediments, food, and occupational exposure
 Similar equations

 Risk calculation
o Potential health risks of individuals from exposure to contaminants 
Risk = Exposure × Toxicity (2)
 Risk  the probability of getting impact (cancer) under the
conditions presented in the assessment
 Compared with target risks levels established by regulatory
agencies  to determine if the risk is significant
o Standard calculations
 Cancer risk  linear low-dose model (for risks below 10-2)

Risk = CDI × CSF (3)

 Cancer risk  one-hit high-dose model (for risks over 10-2)
Risk = 1 − Exp(−CDI × CSF) (4)
 Where, CDI = daily intake of the chemical (mg/kg/day); CSF =
Cancer slope factor (mg/kg/day)-2
45
o Reference dose (RfD)
 A numerical estimate of a daily oral exposure to the human
population, including sensitive subgroups such as children, that
is not likely to cause harmful effects during a lifetime
 Generally used for health effects that are thought to have a
threshold or low dose limit for producing effects
 Measured in unit of  milligrams per kilogram of body weight
per day (mg/kg/day)
 Determination
− When valid human toxicological data are available  it forms
the basis for reference dose
− When human exposure data are not available  the animal
species believed to be most sensitive to the chemical of
concern is used to determine  the lowest level at which an
adverse effect is detected, often called “lowest observable
effect level” (LOAEL)
− Similarly, “no observable adverse effect level” (NOAEL)  is
the greatest test-dose level at which no adverse effect is
noted
46
  Adjustment to human RfD
− When animal data are used the reference dose for human
populations  adjusted by extrapolation factors to convert the
NOAEL or LOAEL into a human subthreshold or reference does

LOAEL/NOAEL
RfD = (5)
FA × FH × FS × FL × FD
− Where, FA is an adjustment factor to extrapolate from animal to
human populations; FH is an adjustment factor for differences in
human susceptibility; FS is an adjustment factor used when data
are obtained from subchronic studies; FL is an adjustment factor
applied when the LOAEL is used instead of the NOAEL; and, FD
is an adjustment factor applied when the data set is dubious or
incomplete

o Example 1:
In a 3-month subchronic study in mice, the NOAEL for tris (1,3-dichloro-
2-propyl) phosphate was 15.3 mg/kg body weight per day; the LOAEL
was 62 mg/kg at which dose abnormal liver effects were noted. If each
of the adjustment factors is equal to 10, calculate the reference dose for
this chemical. 47
o Hazard quotient (HQ)
 To evaluate possible risk from exposure to noncarcinogenic
contaminants  CDI is divided by the health criterion value (the
reference Dose or RfD) to give the hazard quotient (HQ):

HQ = Exposure Dose/Reference Dose = CDI/RfD (6)

 Where, CDI = daily intake of the chemical (mg/kg/day)
 If the CDI-RfD ratio (the HQ)  less than 1  the contaminant is
considered unlikely to pose a health hazard to individuals expose
under the given scenario
 i.e. if the daily intake or dose is below the health criterion

o Example 2:
An adult has drunk water from a well contaminated by xylenes for 30
years. The concentration of xylenes in the groundwater is 2.5 mg/L
and RfD value is 0.2 mg/kg/d as recommended by U.S. EPA.
Calculate the health risk of an adult for drinking the groundwater.
48