Universidad Austral de Chile

Facultad de Filosofía y Humanidades

Escuela de Pedagogía en Comunicación en Lengua Inglesa

Lead Advisor: Mg. Eduardo Roldán Yañez.

Visual Aids in English Language Teaching

Seminario de Tesis para optar al Título de Profesor en Comunicación en Lengua Inglesa

y al Grado de Licenciado en Educación

Pamela Carrasco Muñoz

Nury Miranda Hidalgo

Valdivia – Chile
2013
 i

Acknowledgments

Pamela:
Many people contributed to the construction of this research paper and they deserve to be

thanked for. First of all, I would like to dedicate this work and thank my parents María Angélica

and Oscar for giving me their unconditional support especially through the hardest times. Similarly, I

want to thank my three brothers Patricio, Oscar, and Rodrigo, for being part of this process, making

it livable by giving me their friendship and enjoyable moments. Likewise, I express my gratitude to

my beloved Antonio, for the love and support he gave me even though the hard circumstances we have

undergone. I also want to extend thanks to Marianela and Facundo, my boyfriend’s parents, for their

invaluable help throughout the good and the bad situations. Finally I thank my little daughter who

is the greatest reason to reach my objectives.

Nury :

I want to dedicate this achievement to my sweet daughter Lía for being my light throughout

this long journey. I want to thank my thesis partner Pamela for her support, patience, companionship

and advice.

I would like to thank all the great teachers I had during my life who were my role models

and inspire me to choose the path of teaching

We would like to gratefully thank Mr. Eduardo Roldán for his mentorship and guidance.
Table of Contents

Page

Acknowledgments i

Abstract ii

Introduction 1

Antecedents 3

CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 5

1.1. State of the Art 5

1. 1.1Visual Aids in Chile 5

1.1.2 Oral Communication in Chile 6

1.2. What Visual Aids are 10

1.2.1Visual Aids in the Teaching-learning Process 13

1.2.2 Development of Skills 18

1.2.3 Receptive and Productive Skills: Listening and Speaking 20

1.2.4Design of Visual Aids and Advantages 24

1.3Oral Communication. 28

1.3.1 What is Oral Communication 28

1.3.2Oral Communication in English Language Teaching 30

1.3.3The Role of the Teacher 32

1.3.4 Free Oral Production 34

1.4 Comprehensible Input 35

1.4.1Pre-modified Input 37

1.4.2Interactionally Modified Input 38

1.4.3 The I+1 Hypothesis 40

1.4.4 Comprehensible Input in EFL Classroom 41

CHAPTER 2: DISCUSSION 44

2.1 Visual Aids, Oral Communication and Comprehensible Input; Relationships 44

2.1.1 Visual Aids Patterns 45

2.1.2 Oral Communication Patterns 46

2.1.3 Comprehensible Input Patterns 47

2.2 The Teaching-learning Process from the Oral and i+1 Perspective 47

2.3 The Role of the Teacher and Free Oral Production from Oral and i+1
49
Perspective

Conclusions 52

References
 ii

Abstract

This research paper was conveyed to determine how visual aids are used and

benefit English language teaching. Likewise, two concepts were identified: oral

communication and comprehensible input whose main concern is to conclude how they

and visual aids can be related to each other to hone and improve oral skills in the process

of English language teaching and learning. Different theories and authors support the

hypothesis about the incorporation of different and varied visual aids due to great

amount of comprehensible input it offers when learning English. In this sense, the above

mentioned concepts can cover the contents that the Ministry of Education demands in

English language lessons to enhance oral skills.

Key words: Visual Aids, Oral Communication, Comprehensible Input, Teachers’ Role,

Foreign language Acquisition.

 1

Introduction

The English language plays an essential role in society owing to the fact that it

has become a valuable international language tool (Crystal, D., 2003). It has become an

important component of living in society and its relevance comes from the necessity to

communicate with each other in this global village and the wide range of opportunities it

offers. Chile is not exempt from this phenomenon, and it is well known that many

changes are taking place in the Chilean educational system in relation to the skills and

competences that students must achieve to succeed as English language learners.

According to the Ministry of Education (MINEDUC) “Communicative skills, especially

in this level, are fundamental tools that students should develop and implement to

achieve the expected learning outcomes”1 (MINEDUC, 2013, p. 15).This is the reason

why in Chile there is a special awareness of the importance of learning English as a

foreign language (EFL). As it has been reported, most of Chilean students are far from

achieving the level that MINEDUC expects them to reach (MINEDUC as cited in Bravo

& Villalón, 2011). In this regard, the teaching of English has undergone some

modifications which attempt to train students who are capable of communicating in the

target language (MINEDUC 2009; Unidad de Curriculum, ICF.2009). Therefore, the

emphasis is in the development of communicative skills despite the required

improvements in the entire EFL Chilean praxis.

It is well known that visual aids are beneficial in English language teaching and

make it comprehensible is one of the main aspects to consider in this paper. In spite of

1
Las habilidades de comunicación, especialmente en este ciclo, son herramientas fundamentales que los
estudiantes deben desarrollar y aplicar para alcanzar los aprendizajes propios de cada asignatura”
(Ministerio de Educación, 2013). Translations were made by the researchers.
 2

the amount of work related to visual aids, when the teaching of oral production is

complemented with oral comprehensible input, students can feel more comfortable in

their classrooms. Previous work have been made in Chile to teach grammar through

visual aids, despite this, using visual aids to enhance oral skills is not mentioned in the

work “On the Possibility of Teaching English Grammar through Visual Aids. You Will

See What We Mean” (Bravo, Gonzalo. & Villalón, Margarita, 2011).Visual aids offer

many advantages (Vale & Freunteun, 1995; Meredith, 1947) and can improve students’

development of oral skills since they provide students with real life simulations.

The main objective of this paper is to examine how the use and integration of

visual aids in EFL classrooms enhance and foster oral communication in English

language learning. The sections of the paper are organized as follows: Chapter 1 refers

to the context in which visual aids are used in Chile and how they foster oral skills

comprehensibly. To reach this, the present paper will illustrate different authors’ ideas

focusing on the significance of incorporating visual aids with comprehensible input. The

concepts visual aids, oral communication and comprehensible input will be described

and defined separately to give the readers a wide understanding. Chapter 2 will offer a

discussion on the relevance of the relationships of the aforementioned concepts. Finally,

conclusions, suggestions and further research are presented.

The literature review was designed with the objective of improving and fostering

the communicative skills and competences that XXI century students need to develop

following the contents the Ministry of Education suggests in the current English

Curriculum.
 3

Antecedents

Research Questions:

1- To what extent do visual aids benefit the English language teaching in EFL

classrooms?

2- Which concepts can be related to visual aids in order to complement the process

of language teaching?

Hypothesis:

Visual aids as essential tools in the teaching-learning process can enhance

students’ oral skills in EFL classrooms.

General Objective:

• To determine the implications and the benefits that visual aids have when they
are properly integrated in English language lessons.

Specific Objectives:

1.- To select the principles that will guide the literature review describing the theoretical
aspects which support the use of visual aids in the process of English language teaching.

2.- To discuss and relate the main components of the research to support the benefits of
using visual in English language teaching.
 4

Justification:

Nowadays, the teaching of English language must respond according to the

development of updated teaching techniques. It is known that learners need extra

instruction for them to understand better contents, and comprehend a second language.

When teaching English, educators must find ways to exemplify and clarify contents to

reach different kinds of learners. For this reason, the design and management of visual

aids take an important role for the development of linguistic skills in the target language

inside the EFL classroom. As Cauley (1954) states, with a broader, richer and more

functional concept of the purpose of teaching of English in mind, the search begins for

material around which a problem or unit involving the use of English skills can be built.
 5

CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

1.1 State of the Art

1.1.1 Visual Aids in Chile

Nowadays the Chilean Ministry of Education has made a great effort to provide

public schools with appropriate materials. For instance, manifold kinds of games, stories

full of pictures, didactic text books, and images for students to learn. In regard to the

educational material, it can be said that the MINEDUC has also created audio-visual

material due to the effective impact they have on students. This visual support consists

of high technology devices with the main purpose of supporting better learning which

also motivates the continuous updating of them. According to ReCrea (2013), a

publishing company, these new visual elements have to be entertaining, mixed with

learning elements, innovating and interesting for the students.

The Ministry of Education has also made emphasis on the kind of educational

audiovisual aids that are being created, including games and softwares that motivate

children and have them interested in such a way that they utilize them correctly so that

the main purpose of enhancing the learning process can be accomplished. ReCrea also

emphasizes that one of the mayor necessities that audiovisual aids must satisfy is to have

the capability of addressing the different stages learners go through (2013).

How appealing the educational material is, is an important factor. In this sense,

one can say that if the material is not motivating for students they may lose interest and

the purpose of the material may be lost. The importance of the designed material for

children and teenagers is also essential (ReCrea, 2013). In regards to the kind of visual
 6

aids, the Ministry of Education considers essential the kind of supplies that are presented

to the students, and as they usually do not know how to read, the material needs to be

“plenty of sounds, simple and easy to comprehend” (ReCrea, 2013). The creators of

these educational materials also emphasize the fact that if they want to succeed with the

material for adolescents, they must focus on the context of the students, they must feel

identified and the stories must be real. This company also mentions that another

possibility is to make those materials interactive motivating the participation of the

students (ReCrea, 2013).

Educational material creators have also thought about the educators when

designing visual aids. Teachers of English use videos and other devices to present and

contextualize situations in which the vocabulary can be used in such a way that students

can appreciate the real setting in which they can use the contents (ReCrea, 2013). It is

not a surprise that the schools which have used these materials have obtained good

results because the students learn more and adapt the contents to real life situations.

1.1.2 Oral communication and visual aids in Chile

Chile is growing in all senses, economically, socially, technologically and

especially in education. It is worldwide known that English is essential nowadays and

Chile has intended to be inserted in an increasingly globalized world in which a certain

level of English proficiency is an indispensable element. There are certain competences

people must develop in order to take part of this globalized world. The MINEDUC

(2013) states that “Through English, it is possible to gain admission to a great range of

information, and by means of the mass media to know other cultures and realities” (p.
 7

30)1.Therefore, the competences to develop in education are focused on oral

communication.

Language learning comes from the necessity of all the aforementioned. In

education, English has taken an important part of the curriculum where the teacher, the

students and the contents are the main components. Therefore, “there is a didactic

triangle that should allow students to construct their own knowledge, a process that is

not always easy to grasp and produce autonomously” (Díaz, C., 2011). Crooks, 2003, (as

cited in Díaz, 2011) states:

“The purpose of teaching English as a foreign language via Chilean public

education, semi-public and private education is to give students a linguistic tool

that can enable them to understand and communicate information, knowledge

and technologies as well as to appreciate other cultures, traditions and ways of

thinking”. (para. 4)

One of the major issues when teaching a foreign language is how to prepare

learners to develop their linguistic competences and enable them to use the language.

The Chilean curriculum is concerned with the development of skills “according to the

methodological and communicative approach” (MINEDUC, 2013, p. 34) to enhance

students’ competences. The English curriculum establishes that: “by means of the

development of communicative skills, our students will have the possibility of acquiring

the necessary tools to get access to information and participate in communicative

1
Por medio del inglés, es posible acceder a una amplia gama de información a través de los medios de
comunicación y de las tecnologías, y conocer otras culturas y realidades. (MINEDUC, 2013)
 8

situations, through conversations, reading and writing” (MINEDUC, 2013, p. 30)2. This

means that with the enhancement of the communicative skills students will be able to

use their knowledge and will be part of communicative in situational contexts nowadays.

In relation to the communicative skill the English curriculum (2013) contends

that “the development of oral skills […] opens the possibility to start using English to

communicate information and to interact with the language in meaningful and familiar

situations of daily life and personal interests” (p. 30)3

One of the tools that can be used to enrich the Chilean English language lessons

is the use of visual aids. The Chilean curriculum also proposes that “to develop and

present information through the use of text processers, presentations (power point)

graphs, tools and audio and visual applications” (MINEDUC, 2013, p. 15)4.

The contents proposed by the Ministry of Education are topics appealing to the

students’ level, but they also consists of grammar and structures that the students should

be able to show and manage. In this regard, the curriculum indicates that “grammar

should be taught contextualized through interesting contents, relevant and motivating,

available to interact and communicate” (MINEDUC, 2013, p. 34)5. All these suggestions

2
Mediante el desarrollo de las habilidades de comunicación del idioma inglés, nuestros estudiantes
tendrán la posibilidad de adquirir las herramientas necesarias para acceder a la información
y participar en situaciones comunicativas de esta lengua, tanto por medio de conversaciones como
de la lectura y la escritura. (MINEDUC, 2013).
3
El desarrollo de las habilidades de producción oral y producción escrita en estos niveles les abre la
posibilidad de comenzar a usar el inglés para comunicar información e interactuar en el idioma en
situaciones comunicativas cercanas y familiares, de la vida diaria y de su interés personal. (MINEDUC,
2013)
4
Desarrollar y presentar información a través del uso de procesadores de texto, presentaciones (power
point), gráficos, y herramientas y aplicaciones de imagen, audio y video. (Chilean English Curriculum,
2013)
5
La gramática debe enseñarse en forma contextualizada por medio de temas y contenidos interesantes,
relevantes y motivadores, y estar al servicio de la interacción y la comunicación
 9

help the teacher conduct and guide (Harmer, J. 2007) the teaching process in benefit of

the students and their learning progress, with the final purpose of enhancing their

communicative skills in English language.

At Universidad Austral de Chile, some researchers have carried out some

investigations about these topics as well. For instance, in relation to visual aids, there is

a proposal called “On the Possibility of Teaching English Grammar through Visual

Aids: You Will See What We Mean” (Bravo, G. & Villalón, M., 2011). This study

attempts to teach grammar through visual aids since the Ministry of Education

emphasizes the Communicative Approach. Another research paper “The Impact of

Multisensory Teaching Material on Elementary Schools Students’ English as a Foreign

Language Acquisition Process under The Focal Skill Approach” (Bennett, D. & Zubber,

k., 2012) looks for acquiring English through the use of multisensory teaching materials,

but it is not directly focused on communicative skills. It can be said that visual aids have

always been an issue of investigation for all the benefits they offer but not all of them

intended to foster oral skill specifically.

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1.2 What Visual Aids are

This section refers to the contributions and descriptions some authors give to the

concept of visual aids it description and classification. Visual aids have been used since

the beginning of learning and teaching. Most early reviews were concerned with the

meaning of visual aids. As there are many authors who refer to visual aids, this literature

review attempts to define them from manifold different points of view, thus provide the

audience with complete and varied information. Moreover, this paper defines visual aids

in different aspects; use, design, function, and the advantages of using them in the

teaching-learning process. Gilbert Weaber and Elroy Bollinger (1949) define visual aids

as “any specifically prepared drawing, illustration, model, motion picture, film strip, or

other device that will expedite learning through the sense of vision” (p. 1). Current

thinking contends that “[. . .] educational media or aids refer to all forms of information

carriers that can be used to [. . .] store, preserve and transmit or retrieve information to

promote and encourage effective teaching and learning activities” (Babalola, B., 2013, p.

108). Therefore, visual aids yield in improving the teaching-learning process. Visual

aids are intended to help both the teacher and the students in order to make the contents

better understood, to contextualize vocabulary and make it meaningful for the learners.

In this respect Yi-Hsun Lai (2011) maintains that using visual aids “not only stimulate

students’ learning interest, but students can also interact with these visual aids, and can

relate them to their past experience or their daily life experience” (p. 3). This leads us to

confirm that using visual aids properly in the teaching-learning process stimulate

students to participate and be familiarized with their own experiences.

 11

Not exempt of defining visual aids, M, Jessa (2008) claims that they “refer to graphs,

maps, pictures etc. used as aids in learning” and these can be separable into four

categories:

- NON-Projected 2D: wall board, roll-up board, picture, poster, chart, cartoon,

cue sheet, flannel board, flash card

- NON-Projected 3D: cut-out, model, mock-up, puppet, marionette, diorama,

vocabulary wheel, keyboard, teaching machine

- Projected 3D: slide, transparency sheet, film strip, microfilm, videocassette,

CD

- Verbal: text book, supplementary reader, workbook, magazine, document,

duplicated materials, reference book, newspapers, and clippings. (p. 93)

Regarding this categorization Callista (1938) suggests how visual aids contribute to the

teaching-learning process pointing out that visual aids firstly “provide for the learner a

concrete picture of the situation in question” (p. 4). Visual resources accompany what is

verbally said and help to understand ambiguous situations. Moreover, the school and the

teacher must provide interesting sources to offer attractive educative experiences to the

students. Callista (1938) also asserts that “another significant value of visual aids is

economy of time” (p. 3). Teachers in general must be aware of the time while teaching,

and in order to make use of it according to the contents and the learning outcomes it is

necessary to manage every single activity and save as much time as possible in order to

fulfill the objectives of the lesson.

M. Aina (2006) establishes useful characteristic of visual aids and makes

suggestions to prepare and use them inside the classroom. The author includes some
 12

features of visual aids as well. The characteristics Aina (2006) contends are the

following:

- The pictures, maps and charts should be attractive and with suitable colors.

- Writing must be large enough and clear enough to be easily read from the

back of the class.

- The charts and posters should be accurate in spacing and planning.

- The figures and the letters should be well formed.

- Objects and pictures should be big enough for children to see from their

sitting places.

- There should be a great deal of pictures or materials to go round the children

if possible.

- Apparatus must be accurately prepared and be ready before the lesson.

- Let all pupils first see any materials or apparatus before individuals or age

group can see [them].

- All pictures on the television must be clear and the radio should have a clear

sound.

- When preparing apparatus, the correct, accurate language and spelling must

be considered. (p. 28)

Aina (2006) also outlines that these characteristics are essential when using visual aids

properly because they “transmit information in such a fashion that will modify the

attitude, habits and practices of students” (p. 35). The fact that the students are interested

in an activity provides teachers with a useful tool that teachers must take advantage of.
 13

This section alluded to visual aids in general; its categorization, characteristics,

definition, usage and some other interesting features that some authors such as: Callista,

Aina, Jesa point out. Next, visual aids are going to be defined from the perspective of

the teaching learning-process.

1.2.1 Visual Aids in the Teaching-Learning Process

This section makes mention of the process where teaching and learning can be

improved through the use of visual aids. Moreover, it makes reference to how students

and teachers are benefited with this improvement in EFL classrooms. Students not only

need to be told about specific topics, but they also need to verify the information

according to what they have lived or experienced. The presence of visual elements in

today’s teaching and learning is increasing as the integration of images and visual

presentations with textbooks, instructional manual, classroom presentations, and

computer interfaces broadens (Benson, 1997; Branton 1999; Dwyer as cited in Kleinman

& Dwyer, 1999). Earlier thinking however, does not disregard this theory, but asserts the

idea based on its magnitude as “visual aids in the teaching-learning process contribute

significantly and allow students and teachers to fulfil their goals by using them properly”

(Callista, 1938, p. 4).

The teaching-learning process is two-sided ( Wilhelm, J., Dube, J., Baker, T., 2003);

it needs the teacher as well as the student. Not only can the teacher guide this whole

process on his/her own, but s/he also needs an audience willing to give feedback. The

student’s concern should be receiving information, constructing knowledge, and

expressing outwardly personal ideas. This teaching-learning process is an active non-

 14

stop phenomenon where “the teacher is the skilled workman and any good visual aid is

merely a tool which the teacher and a group of children can use intelligently in a

learning situation, so as to achieve the desired objectives” (Callista, 1938, p. 5). This is

the reason why teachers need to do their best to retrieve as much as they can from their

students, especially when teaching English as a foreign language. However, this must be

accompanied by a proper environment as the study Towards a Comprehensive School

Health Program contends that “The school environment must provide for enrichment as

well as remediation for optimal learning” (The Health Curriculum Guide, 2013, p. 1). In

this sense, the teacher is the main responsible providing the best atmosphere inside the

classroom, and make students feel comfortable to participate.

EFL stands for English as a foreign language, which refers to the English language

spoken in a country where it is not official, as it is the case of Chile. In this country to be

a teacher of English is a difficult task, not only because of the language itself, but also

due to the lack of exposure to the language. Hence, teachers must draw on other sources

at the moment of performing their work using as many available possibilities as they can

to enrich their labor. Yu Ren Dong (2004) states that “we need to lighten the language

load of the text for our [non-native English speaking] students using whatever we can,

including physical movements, facial expressions, drawings, and real objects” (p. 205).

From this, it can be said that teachers must include extra visual resources to give life to

what it is said and taught.

Visual aids in teaching English have an important function in educating students and

using them in every single class brings several benefits to teachers as well as to learners.

Callista (1938) reports that “Visual methods not only increase efficiency of teaching [. .
 15

.] when properly used” (p. 5). Consequently, one can assume that visual aids mean a

significant tool for both students and teachers: students learn effectively and teachers

save time to fulfill all the topics to be taught.

Any idea or information can be perfectly conveyed by visual material without using

necessarily verbal communication. Because of this, visual materials become an

indispensable instrument that gives ease at the moment of learning a language or

understanding something that implies verbal communication. This occurs because the

brain will withhold more information when using dual input during the learning process.

“Learning is the result of integrating all information perceived and processed. This

integration takes form in structural modifications within the brain” (Organization for

Economic Co-operation and Development, 2007, pp. 25-26). The brain lateralization

process explains that each hemisphere of the brain has different capabilities according to

cognitive functions. Visual input reinforces language learning and makes that both

hemispheres work together, thus improving the learning process. M. Hunter and E.,

Torrance (n.d.) claim the following:

“Schools favor left brain-dependent activities, like the fact of always sitting,

learning algebra, etc. Favoring the right hemisphere would include allowing

students to stretch out, learn geometry, etc. These remarks led to the methods

that engage the two hemispheres, some even going so far as to reinforce

activities related to the right hemisphere. An example of these new methods

is “show and tell.” Instead of merely reading texts to the students (left

hemisphere action), the teacher also shows images and graphs (right
 16

hemisphere actions). (Organization for Economic Co-operation and

Development, 2007, p. 9)

Nonetheless, recent study has pointed out that “It's absolutely true that some brain

functions occur in one or the other side of the brain. Language tends to be on the left,

attention more on the right. But people don’t tend to have a stronger left- or right-sided

brain network” (Jeff Anderson, 2013 as cited in The Huffington Post Newspaper, para.

4). This basically means that people can use both sides of the brain for the same

cognitive functions that were used to be assigned just to one side of the brain.

Other theories have come out regarding visual communication in learning. For instance,

David Sless (as cited in Canning-Wilson, C., 1999) conceived the term of the Thinking

Eye to explain the relationship between the functions of the brain and the eyes when

learning. The author suggests that vision and thinking are just one process in which none

of those concepts can be separated one from another. To support this statement,

Canning-Wilson (2001) argues that “the eye is not [biologically] separated from the

brain [and] they are part of the same organ” (para. 25).

Both theories The Thinking Eye and The Brain Lateralization point out two different

perspectives of the vision and thinking process which converge in the fact that visuals

enormously contribute to one’s understanding when learning, and facilitate the

conceptualization of abstract ideas, thus producing a mental image of something

concrete. Canning-Wilson (1989), in trying to find out why sometimes people tend to

forget words when taking an exam even though they know the answer or at least have a

general idea, came to the conclusion that images can be retrieved easier in memory.
 17

Visual aids provide more and indispensable resources to students, especially for

those students who learn visually. The purpose of visual aids is to increase students’ and

teachers’ practices in the teaching-learning process, but in order to do this it is essential

to know how to use them. Callista (1938) clearly specifies that:

In order to get good results the teacher should know the different kinds of visual

aids together with their use, design and management. Visual aids are creative and

easy to use, bragging visual flexibility and brain geniality that makes them an

invaluable tool for teaching and learning English. (p. 9)

In other words, Callista (1938) intends to put across that teachers have a powerful tool

when they make the most of visual aids, not only for their own benefit, but also for the

students giving additional material for them to build new information.

In the teaching process where the teacher has to transmit what s/he knows to the

learners, it is well known that the use of visual aids gives good results in teaching

English and they have been used for a long time since “the increasing complexity of life

urges educator on to find vital, interesting and happy ways of teaching children to

understand and appreciate their environment and of stimulating their interests” (Callista,

1938, p. 3). One can infer that the student’s context is as important as their interests, the

visual aids have to make them relate their lives’ reality to make it interesting. Moreover,

“visuals can be used in any subject area when teaching about concepts as Barbara

Allison and Marsha Rehm (2007, p. 4) suggest. Under these theories, researcher can

contend that visual aids address different students and contents. In this sense, students

are familiarized with the visual aids and will be exposed to other cultures, which

undoubtedly makes the learning process meaningful and contextualized. However,

 18

Patrick Meredith (1947) states “. . . their function is not always clearly appreciated-even

by teachers who use them” (p. 61). The author also contends that there are some fallacies

such as “to suppose that visual aids can do the teacher’s job for him [. . .]” (Meredith,

1947, p. 61). Another significant assumption in the opinion of Meredith (1947) is that

visual aids are “merely a superficial and unessential addition to the teacher’s job,

making it more entertaining but contributing nothing fundamental to it” (p. 61). As one

can see, there is a down side within all the benefits visual aids provide in the field of

teaching. It depends on the teachers’ commitment to their work.

This section mentioned visual aids as a tool that can improve the teaching and

learning process through the use of them. Moreover, it made clear reference to how

students and teachers are benefited in EFL classrooms. Following visual aids are going

to be alluded in the sense of how they help in the development of students’ skills.

1.2.2 Development of Skills through the Use of Visual Aids

In this section the main point is to put forward the fact that not only visual aids are

used with a particular purpose, but also there are reasons why in teaching it is so

important to address all the students and their diverse capacities. Visual aids imply

visual methods, visual requirements and visual skills, but as teachers must know, visual

skills are not well developed in all the students from the same classroom due to the

different sensory preferences and learning styles. Visual aids can provide very useful

tools for many students but some of them might not learn by looking at pictures or

flashcards, therefore, visual aids must be carefully used in daily activities. Lai (2011)

asserts that “Visual aids enable learners to use more than one sense at the same time” (p.
 19

2). In this sense, visual aids support the learning process by addressing every student and

their learning styles.

It is recommended to include the sensory preferences as well as skills in the learning

process while using visual aids. According to Jack Richards and Theodore Rodgers

(2002) “Unlike listening and reading which are receptive skills of a given language,

speaking and writing skills are widely classified by many researchers as productive and

active skills” (p. 293). This means that speaking and writing are the two more reinforced

skills during classes, and using visual aids is not exempt of contributing in this aspect.

Neeta Sharma (2010) contends “in language learning visual aids are helpful in

developing language skills such as speaking and writing as they stimulate the learners’

sense of sight (p. 127). Visual aids can be stimulating and also enjoyable teaching

materials for the learner by increasing the attractiveness of the tasks. Moreover, visual

aids provide more and indispensable resources to students, especially for those students

who learn visually. The purpose of visual aids is to increase students’ and teachers’

practices in the teaching learning process, but in order to do this it is essential to know

how to design them addressing students skills, learning styles, among others.

To conclude the main points of this section, it can be said that visual aids are

important to address students’ skills and their diverse capacities. Therefore their learning

process is enhanced and strengthened. In the coming section receptive and productive

skills are going to be depicted.

 20

1.2.3 Receptive and productive Skills: Listening and Speaking

The aim of this section is to introduce the four language skills focusing, in

particular, on listening and speaking. As it is well known, “learning styles are the

general approaches that students use in acquiring a new language . . .” (Oxford, R.,

2003, p. 2). However, it is important to mention that “the instructor’s teaching style

should address the learning styles of the learners as much as possible” (Oxford, 2001, p.

1) since he or she is the one in charge of encouraging the students through the activities

he or she plans. This implies that teachers must attend “to the practice of the four

primary skills of listening, reading, speaking and writing because acquiring a new

language necessarily involves developing these four modalities in varying degrees and

combinations” (Oxford, 1990. p. 5). Vernier, Barbuzza, Del Giusti, Del Moral state that

“if the teacher intermixes these four language skills “EFL students are likely to become

communicatively competent” (n. d. p. 2).

The four language skills that teachers have to pay attention to while planning

their lessons “are often categorized as receptive or productive” (Nunan, D., 2003, p. 24),

what according to Broughton, Brumfit, Flavell, Hill, and Pincas, (1980), are classified as

“On the one hand, listening and reading with understanding are receptive (but not

passive) decoding skills; on the other, speaking and writing are productive, encoding

skills” (p. 66). The same authors state that a receptive skill “is involved in understanding

the message” (p. 65), what is manageable through training in the teaching process as

well as the productive skills. The Ministry of Education maintains that:

“Although these skills distinguish areas of learning they should not be developed

separately. In the context of real communication, skills occur in an integrated

 21

way, since the interaction in the language involves understanding information

and sending messages in response to the information received” (p. 31)6.

Therefore, the integration of the skills should be considered by teachers in order

to carry out meaningful and contextualized lessons.

The communicative competence movement that began in 1970s makes emphasis

on speaking proficiency (Vernier et al., n.d., p. 276). Speaking as a productive skill

cannot ensue without the receptive ones (listening and writing). These authors contend

that “students do more listening than speaking” (p. 276) what makes it crucial to define

listening skills in this chapter. Regarding the input students can obtain through the

receptive skills, the importance of acquiring a language is evidenced in many research

studies (Vernier et al., n. d.) which highlight the relevance of some approaches like the

Total Physical Response (Asher, J. 1968) and The Natural Approach (Krashen, S. &

Terrell, T. 1977) to give students the necessary input before they produce orally.

However, “it is undeniable that the emphasis has been put on speaking proficiency in the

last years” (Vernier et al., n. d.).

The development of oral production is not exempt of being associated to others

skills, as Vernier et al. (n.d.) claim “the emphasis on oral proficiency does not and

should not mean that other skill areas ought to be neglected” (p. 276). We cannot

separate them but we cannot put them together in every scenario as when we asses

listening and speaking; we should bear in mind that “the product of listening and reading

6
Aunque estas habilidades distinguen ámbitos de aprendizaje, no deben desarrollarse de manera separada.
En el contexto de la comunicación real, las habilidades ocurren en forma integrada, ya que la interacción
en el idioma implica comprender información y emitir mensajes como respuesta a la información
recibida.
 22

is not the spoken or written response” as Douglas Brown (2003, p. 118) reports. People

tend to associate productive skills as the result of listening and reading assessments, but

“the productive skills of speaking and writing allow us to hear and see the process as it is

performed” (Brown, 2003, p. 118).

On the other hand, the receptive skills are “the two more enigmatic models of

performance” in Brown’s words (2003, p. 118). The author asserts that “[one] cannot

observe the actual act of listening or reading, nor can [one] see or hear and actual

product. [One] can observe learners only while they are listening or reading” (p.118).

The result of this is what Vernier et al. (n.d.) suggest as “through reception we

internalize linguistic information without which we could not produce language” (p.

276). However, as the focus of this section is to enhance oral production listening and

speaking skills will be described.

Listening, as a receptive skill and an element in teaching and learning, “is often

implied as a component of speaking” (Brown, 2003, p. 119), that is to say, in order to

speak a language we must listen to it first. The author also contends that “a good speaker

is often valued more highly than a good listener” (p. 119). However, regarding the

aforementioned, to be a successful speaker it is necessary to succeed in language

acquisition and it “requires a person to receive and understand incoming information

(input)” (Nunan, 2003, p. 24). According to Broughton et al. (1980) “listening should

precede speaking” (p. 65), that is to say that not only the teacher needs to focus on

speaking of expecting an ideal level of speaking without working on listening or

providing listening input to the students first. The authors also mention that:
 23

At first sight it appears that listening is a passive skill, and speaking is an active

one. This is not really true, since the decoding of a message (i.e. listening) calls

for active participation in the communication between the participants. (1980, p.

65)

This means that listening skill seems to be inactive, but as the person listens, he or she

has to make different internal processes to decode the meaning of a message when the

people have a conversation and interchange ideas. As Nunan (2003) states “nothing

could be further from the truth. Listening is very active” (p. 24) since people do more

than listening they make connection to what they know, their experiences or their ideas.

English language teachers must be aware if students understand what they are

listening, and here there are components that help the listener to interpret a message:

stress, rhythm and intonation, lexis and grammar for instance (Harmer, 2007). Another

alternative is “to listen to a passage of natural English speech suitable to their level”

(Broughton et al., 1980, p. 68) or as Nunan (2003) suggests “It’s not just what they are

listening to. It’s what they are listening for” (p. 30). It is important to set a purpose, or

let students find a purpose.

As one can see, speaking or oral communication cannot be mentioned without

taking into account the listening skill. It is central to enhance one first and both at the

same time. A good listener precedes a prepared speaker ready to decode and feedback

inside a lesson, especially when learning a second language.

Regarding speaking, Josef Essberger (2013) claims that “it is the delivery of

language through the mouth” (para. 1). Speaking is usually the second language skill
 24

that we learn in our mother tongue as Essberger points out (2013, para. 2). Sari Luoma

(2003) asserts that speaking “is generally the most complex process [. . .] in the

educational context (as cited in Bougandoura, F., 2013, p. 2). The same author claims

that “speaking in a foreign language is very difficult and competence in speaking takes a

long time to develop” (p. 7). In this regard, Broughton et al. (1980) outline that:

“However good a student may be at listening and understanding, it need[s] not

follow that he will speak well. A discriminating ear does not always produce a

fluent tongue. There has to be training in the productive skill of speech as well”.

(p. 76)

In this sense, the role of the teacher is fundamental. Despite all the difficulties, the

process of teaching English should be contextualized and advantageous for the learners.

Not only skills should be developed by using visual and other resources or strategies, but

how to do this is important to reach the objectives in teaching.

The aim of this section is was to acquaint the four language skills focusing, in

particular, on listening and speaking and how these are related to visual aids and how are

fostered when including visual elements inside the classroom. In the following section

visual aids are going to be covered from the viewpoint of design and advantages.

1.2.4 Design of Visual Aids and Advantages

This section refers to what must be taken into account when designing visual aids

and advantages bearing in mind some authors’ advice and tips. The design of visual aids

must be focused on the needs of the target in order to be effective. For achieving this

aim, visual aids should be “. . . simple, relevant, and reinforce the content of the speech”
 25

(p. 1) as Gates Matthew (2009) contends. The author also asserts that visual aids “. . .

convey what words alone cannot, explain abstract concepts, aid retention of information,

and maintain audience interest” (p. 1). Regarding Matthew’s point of view, it is not

difficult to think that visual aids must be concise and give the necessary information

according to the audience or target. A recent research points out that “visuals have been

found to be especially helpful when teaching students whose first language is not

English (Carrier, 2005; Vaughn, Bos, & Schumm, 2003, as cited in Allison & Rehm

2007). In this regard, visual aids facilitate learning as it has been stated in this research.

When designing visual aids, there must be a starting point as Matthew (2009)

suggests, “there are some good design rules to follow. A rule can serve as effective

guide, but also can be a constraint . . .” (p. 5). This means that many rules help in

creating to design, but there are some rules which according to the situation may be not

necessary at all. However, the rules which this author refers to, in order to have an

effective result, are the following:

- Choosing colors: the color choice when preparing visual aids will impact the

audience´s ability to read them.

- Margins: ignoring margins might be unreadable to the audience as speakers

attempt to place too much content on a poster, slide, or overhead.

- Beyond bullet points: Less can be more. Bullet points are to serve as sign-

posts for the audience.

- Readability: when visual aids are an afterthought and created just for the

purpose of having a visual aid.

 26

- Professional appearance: the credibility can be enhanced or diminished based

on the professional quality of their visual ads. (Matthew, 2009, p. 5-7)

Matthew (2009) also claims that “the decisions you make in preparing visual aids

“. . . should always include how to best achieve these benefits while avoiding the

temptation to overwhelm your audience” (p. 9). This statement can be proved when

there is “. . . absence of planning and poorly designed visual aids . . .” (Matthew, 2009,

p. 9). Planning visual aids poorly can be easily noticed by the audience since what one

person is saying should be related with the visual aids s/he is using. Designing visual

aids is a matter of compromising with the audience and being conscious of this

compromise since what is said must be reflected on the visual aids, which also give

information about the next steps to follow. Likewise, Sharma (2010) argues that “a well-

developed language program supported by suitable, relevant and effective aids provides

a number of enriching experiences” (p. 127). In this sense, the same author claims that

this influences the development of skills.

After knowing how to design visual aids it is appropriate to set the advantages of

using them which are manifold especially when they are properly utilized inside the

classroom. When one says properly, it means that their optimal utilization leads to a side

effect: saving time as Callista (1938) suggests. In this sense Sharma (2010) also asserts

that “through such aids we can say much in a short time and in a short form what

otherwise would take a lot of time and space” (p. 127).

 27

The purpose of visual aids is to increase students’ and teachers’ practices in the

teaching learning process, but in order to do this it is essential to know how to use them.

Lenny Laskowski (1997) sets several advantages of using visual aids as follows:

- You don’t have to worry about what you’re going to say next - Your next

visual aid has your next major idea on it.

- Visual Aids allow you to move around the room –Movement helps you to

relax and adds energy to you presentations, and allow the listeners to follow

you and pay closer attention to you.

- You can have good eye contact with your audience – You can look at your

audience all the time.

- Your audience feels comfortable knowing you’re on your planned track -

well designed visual aids show that you have a plan and have properly

prepared (p. 1)

These advantages can serve people in any situation; presentations, teaching, among

others, as they “can serve as your notes when speaking” (Laskowski, 1997, p. 1).

Moreover, they establish interesting pieces of advice to be aware of when using and

designing visual aids and how it is possible to obtain good results in teaching English.

Visual aids are not easily to design and not only a set of rules come to organize their use,

but also some tips have been developed in order to prepare good and organized visual

aids in oral presentations. “In any oral communication, concrete images are always more

powerful than abstracts concepts” (Tamblyn, D., 2003, p. 214). This leads to suggest that

oral presentations must be carefully prepared.

 28

Summing up, the application of visual aids in EFL classrooms implies several

issues to take into consideration in order to address students with different

characteristics. They refer to anything which is used by teachers or students to facilitate

the language learning process. However, the role of the teacher is fundamental in this

process; it is the teacher’s duty to conduct the learning and to provide the necessary

tools. In this sense, visual aids contribute significantly in this process and in other

scenery as is oral communication process.

1.3 Oral Communication

1.3.1 What is Oral Communication?

Apart from the already mentioned concept of visual aids, this literature review

deals with another important aspect in teaching; oral communication. In a world where

everything is made by computers and communicated through mobile phones, written

communication has taken an important part of people’s lives. That it is why in this

global technological world, there are different and manifold platforms where people can

have constant oral interaction with others. Donna Swarthout (2013) defines oral

communication as “the process of verbally transmitting information and ideas from one

individual or group to another” (para. 2). This means that there has to be a need to

transmit and idea or information to somebody who is willing to receive it. Oral

communication is essential in several fields, business, mass media but more importantly,

in education.
 29

Oral production leads us to oral communication and both of them can be defined

as any type of interaction that makes use of spoken words, an interaction that is really

important and essential nowadays. It has also been pointed out that “the ability to

communicate effectively through speaking as well as in writing is highly valued, and in

demand” (Johnson, K., 2001, as cited in Diaz, 2011, para. 7).

When talking about oral skills, there are two ways in which they can be divided.

The first division is the motor-perceptive skills, which involve perceiving, recalling and

articulating the correct order of sounds and structures . . . The second division is the

interaction skills, which involve making decisions about communication and the ability

to use language in order to satisfy particular demands (Buck, 2001; Osada, 2004, as cited

in Díaz, 2011).

Moreover, David Berlo (1960) states that the purpose of communication is four-

fold and it is:

- Not logically contradictory or inconsistent with itself.

- Behavior-centered; that is, expressed in terms of human behaviors.

- Specific enough for us to be able to relate it to actual communication

behavior.

- Consistent with the ways in which people do communicate. (p. 10)

According to the previous categorization of the purpose of communication, it can be

assumed that communication is an implicitly well-designed process, where students or

any natural person can demonstrate their facilities or fallacies in language. Berlo (1960)

makes clear that oral communication is connected to behavior.

 30

Oral Communication is paramount in all processes that involve human

interaction, especially in teaching. Teaching could not be carried out without oral

communication; both the teacher and the students need to have feedback in this process.

Erik Palmer (2011) establishes that “all of our important communication is verbal . . .

Teachers hand out all kinds of materials, but how they speak in the classroom controls

the learning in the class” (para. 5). Here, the author emphasizes the importance of the

complementation of a good instruction. Not only teachers must use “all kind of

materials”, but also the instruction can be carried out if teachers make use of their oral

communicative abilities to regulate and guide the learning process inside the classroom.

According to Wan-Yu Liu (2013) “without interaction and cooperation, oral

communication loses its essence” (p. 2). In this sense the teacher and the students must

contribute to the process of English teaching where the teacher is the main facilitator but

not the main actor since oral communication is preponderant in the teaching of English.

1.3.2 Oral Communication in English Language Teaching.

This section focuses on how oral communication is accomplished inside EFL

classrooms and on what leads the teacher and the students to communicate effectively.

To start with, it is suitable to refer to oral communication inside a classroom as an

indispensable activity. It is true that non-verbal and written communications are

important, but oral communication is imperative. When teaching a foreign language,

students cannot absorb the structures, the new phonemes, and everything this process

implies without trying to produce or interact with the teacher verbally.

 31

In order to retrieve students’ ideas in classes, or just make them wanting to share

an opinion, it is necessary for them to search inside their registers and find something

that can be related to the topics which are being covered in the lesson. It is true that

contents have to be part of the lesson as well as grammatical rules and structures, but

without a context to relate them, it is useless.

This is not an easy issue to accomplish, and calls for considerable creative

thought on the part of the teacher to provide situations and stimuli that will get all

the students to make active use in a communicative way of the language they

have learnt. (Broughton et al., 1980, p. 83)

This means, when educating, teachers must be focused on what learners need or are

interested in. The main purpose of doing this is to present students enough motivational

visual incentive to accomplish the language learning in a communicative way, where the

student is capable of expressing ideas in a context that is meaningful for him/her.

Likewise, not only the teacher is involved in this process, but also the students.

A. Geetha, (2008) claims that the “teaching-learning process is a mean through

which the teacher, the learner, the curriculum, and other variables are organized in a

systematic manner to attain pre-determined goals and objectives” (para. 2). This leads us

to emphasize that both the teacher and the students at the same time of the curriculum

are needed to reach the expected outcomes and that should not be separable in this

process. Broughton et al. (1980) maintain that “He (the student) must be prepared by his

teacher for actual communication with others . . . and the teaching must develop this

competence in the learner” (p. 77). This quote attempts to deliver the responsibility to

the teacher, which cannot be denied since the teacher is the facilitator in the teaching-
 32

learning process; the one in charge of molding the oral communication skill to be

applied in different contexts, situations and purposes. Sometimes students’ oral

production is individual, they put into practice oral skills independently and therefore

they are not applying the input in the proper context or in a real situation. The English

language learning must be carefully guided and the teacher must incorporate as many

sources as s/he can; provide real situations in which the language can be used, and also

propose interesting activities for the learners to be developed in the lesson.

Broughton et al. (1980) contend, the teacher should control the students’ speech,

but when students have reached certain progress the guidance is not as rigorous as it is at

the beginning, quite the contrary, it must “culminate […] in situations where the student

is free to produce utterances appropriate to the situation” (Broughton et al., 1980, p. 76).

Once this has been reached, it is possible to conclude that oral communication in English

is a process which should be guided until every student is free to produce orally and that

the teacher’s role is not teacher-centered anymore.

1.3.3 The Role of the Teacher

Considering that the teacher is an important element in the teaching-learning

process, this section alludes to the role of the teacher in this procedure. As it is well

known that the teacher must carry out and create activities inside the classroom in order

to accomplish what Broughton et al. (1980) suggest that the situations and the stimuli are

fundamental to make students communicate what they have learnt. This means that the

teacher’s role is to provide, create and maintain an adequate classroom atmosphere, in

order to make students feel confident and comfortable enough to express their ideas. It is
 33

important, therefore, to allow learners to practice speaking as an opportunity to use the

grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary previously taught and, of course, the most

essential task is the practice of the oral skill (Bygate, 1987 as cited in Diaz, 2011). Liu

(2013) believes that a lesson based on oral communication, and if the main purpose is to

have students motivated to do it, the result will be a significant improvement and will

keep them interested.

If oral communication does not take place in the English lesson, maybe the

responsibility lies on the teacher. As it has been remarked, the teacher is the guide and if

oral communication is deficient it is because the method and activities proposed by the

teacher are failing in some points. Making mistakes while teaching may be common,

because the teacher must put into practice and test what best suits the learners’ abilities,

but to improve is a must.

There are certain mistakes teachers make while teaching that interfere in the

process of developing oral skills; some teachers still worry about teaching grammar,

memorizing concepts and reciting most used structures, they tend to adopt the method of

reading and writing, focusing mainly on developing these skills, teachers do not leave

enough time to practice what students learn orally. Instruction should be “student-

centered” Likewise, some activities have a lack of clear purpose or the “contents are not

consistent with students’ reality” Liu (2013, p. 14).

Oral communication may fail inside the classroom because of the teaching

material and the lack of interaction. On the one hand, materials need to be motivating to

catch the students’ interest and to promote communication inside the EFL classroom. On
 34

the other hand, interaction should be a matter of participation; individualism may also

interfere on the success of the oral communicative teaching-learning process. Finally,

what usually happens is that there are some students who always want to participate, and

give answers. For managing this situation, the study called “Speaking for Better

Communication” suggests that the teacher must “take the more enthusiastic students

aside and tell them you need their help” (2012). What the Ministry of Education

suggests in relation to the teacher’s role is:

“. . . the teacher has to take into account the diversity among students in cultural,

social, ethnic and religious terms, and relation to the difference between men and

women, styles and learning rhythm, and levels of knowledge. That diversity it

attached to a challenge that teachers must bear in mind” (2013, p.16)7.

Considering all the mentioned before, the teacher as an important element in the process

of teaching-leaning English has evolved according to the necessities providing

opportunities instead of the entire knowledge encouraging students to feel free to

produce in the target language.

1.3.4 Free Oral Production

This section alludes to how free oral production gives students more

opportunities to communicate naturally. Broughton et al. (1980) claims “it is important

that a student should be able to produce naturally the language which has been presented

7
En el trabajo pedagógico, el docente debe tomar en cuenta la diversidad entre los estudiantes en términos
culturales, sociales, étnicos, religiosos, y respecto de las diferencias entre hombres y mujeres, estilos y
ritmos de aprendizaje, y niveles de conocimiento. Esa diversidad lleva consigo desafíos que los docentes
tienen que contemplar. (MINEDUC, 2013)
 35

to him and which he has practiced in various more or less controlled situations” (p. 82).

Obviously, free oral production comes after orally communicating in different situations

inside the classroom which allows students to feel confident when producing in real life

and in not much controlled situations.

There are some tips a teacher can follow in favor of having an adequate context

in which student can express themselves freely. To mention some of them, it can be said

that the teacher can have his or her students to choose the topic to talk about, give

demonstrations about how to say and what to say in different situations, to give the

opportunity and time to the student to express their opinion. Other good piece of advice

is to make clear turns to speak, so students can know that they will have the opportunity

to talk and be respected when doing so (Broughton et al., 1980).

This is how free oral production’s main objective is to promote the productive

skill and moreover it enhances that students speak freely and voluntarily giving to the

teacher the chance to be a guide and lose some prominence during the lesson. It is

important to mention that the following section is going to deal with the comprehensible

input which comes to be the third main component in this research project.

1.4 Comprehensible Input

The last section in this literature review is concerned with how students should

be able to understand a message, an activity, or a lesson in spite of the language they are

learning. In teaching, this concept is called The Comprehensible Input Hypothesis. It is

impossible to talk about comprehensible input without citing Stephen Krashen who

coined this concept in his theory the Input Hypothesis which “is only concerned with
 36

acquisition, not learning” (Krashen, 1982, as cited in Ricardo Schütz, 2008, para. 11).

This means that the theory focuses on how the learner acquires a language which is

supposed to be in a natural manner to be comprehensible.

The Input Hypothesis also suggests that people acquire a second language by

means of comprehensible input. Moreover, Krashen (1982) contends that “the learner

improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives second language

'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence” (as cited in

Schütz & Cook, 2008, para. 11). In other words the student is at level “i” before

acquisition, but when he or she faces comprehensible input he or she is beyond that

level, which would be “i+1”. The Comprehensible Input Hypothesis emphasizes mainly

the fact that the teacher must use more than just his or her knowledge to make him or

herself comprehensible. It is necessary to use other sources, materials or body language

to convey what he or she wants to transmit in order to make the second language

message as comprehensible as possible. As Andrew Wright (1989) states: “non-verbal

information helps to predict what [something] might be about” (p. 137). Usó-Juan and

Martinez-Flor, (2006) claim that “processing [language] is made possible both through

non-linguistic means . . . , and through linguistic means (p. 53). One way in which non-

verbal information is represented in the classroom is through visual aids (Wright, 1989).

William Littewood (1981) asserts, “the ideal input for acquiring a second

language is similar to the input received by a child, comprehensible, relevant to their

intermediate interests, not too complex, but not strictly graded either” (p. 59). These

assumptions provide the optimal situations to acquire a language which are meant to be

relevant for every single student, as well as the activities that the teachers carry out.
 37

Krashen (1982) asserts that “the best activities for the classroom are those that

are natural, interesting and understood” (as cited in Hasan, A. 2008, p. 32). Designing

activities with these characteristics, a lesson can be successful and can make students

reach oral communication. Finally, this hypothesis states that “speaking fluency cannot

be taught directly. Rather, it “emerges” over time, on its own. The best way…to teach

speaking according to this view, is simply to provide comprehensible input” (Krashen,

1982, p. 23). This means that production is not directly taught since it emerges naturally.

Besides, it may keep students interested and willing to participate sharing valuable

personal opinions. The teacher must provide enough situations to give students the

chance to express their ideas clearly and make this scene profitable, as Hasan (2008)

points out, “a conversation in which the [learner] has some sort of control over the topic

and in which the other participants exert an effort to make themselves understood

provide valuable intake” (p. 32). In order to promote acquisition and intake, there must

be a proper environment where the learner feels comfortable and confident with the

topic to discuss, so that the comprehensible input takes place.

The literature specifies that there are two approaches to make input

comprehensible and to approach it; pre-modified input and interactionally modified

input, which will be described in the next sections.

1.4.1 Pre-modified Input

Pre-modified input, which comes to be discussed in this section, means that

“speakers modify their input to facilitate . . . comprehension” (Maleki, Z. & Pazhakh,

A., 2012, p. 128). This assumption provides non-native speakers with comprehensible
 38

input, but modified by the speaker who sends the message who also simplifies this

message as Leily Ziglari (2008, as cited in Maleki & Pazhakh, 2012) argues. This makes

modified speech be characterized with reduced complexity. The teacher wisely chooses

the material, prepares the lesson or activity with a specific intention and makes

adjustments with the main purpose of allowing students to comprehend better.

According to a study which Pica, T., Doughty, C. and Young, R. (1986) carried

out “the pre-modified input was characterized by a greater semantic redundancy and less

complex syntax, which was achieved by means of repetition or paraphrase” (as cited in

Salazar, P., n. d., p. 2). This quotation means that the teacher must paraphrase the

messages and make the use of various verbs, adjectives, and simple syntax in general, in

a manner in which students can retrieve messages from the teacher. In this manner

interaction comes to be a matter of significant comprehension where speakers can

negotiate the input as the interactionally modified input suggests.

1.4.2 Interactionally Modified Input.

The second approach is the interactionally modified input which is essential in

the “negotiation” of the input through interaction as Michael Long (1980) contends. The

opportunity for interaction between native speakers and non-native speakers does not

cause comprehension but facilitates it. In the teaching-learning process, the input

becomes comprehensible thanks to the interaction the teacher has with the learners and

how she or he uses and conveys the messages she or he wants to transmit. For instance,

at the moment of having a conversation the teacher leads the discussion depending on

the responses of the students. The purpose of the input changes as the process takes
 39

place. Likewise, Hasan (2008) maintains that “For language acquisition to be promoted,

teaching should provide comprehensible input and involve the use of modified

language” (p. 48). From this point of view, modified language avoids the input to be

comprehensible.

The stages where speakers have to “negotiate” are highly important due to the

fact that they can be an active part of the learning process and give solutions to the

possible problems they may face. Long (1980) states “negotiat[ing] interaction is

essential for input to become comprehensible” (as cited in Maleki & Pazhakh, 2012, p.

129). Ali Shehadeh (1999) also maintains that “it is through the negotiation of meaning

that both learners and their interlocutors work together to provide comprehensible input

and produce comprehensible output” (para. 3). Likewise, Canning-Wilson (2001) asserts

that:

“the visual can offer input, output and/or feedback on materials learned

[and] a learner using a visual may be more apt to give an added response

to the traditionally expected form [which] may change according to the

picture in collaboration with the task as it works as an interactive

negotiator” (para. 30)

This quotation intends to explain that not only messages can be negotiated but also the

visual elements that teachers use in their classrooms.

Other authors, who investigated the relationship between interaction and

acquisition, assert that “interaction yields to better [Non- native speaker]

comprehension” (Gass, S. & Varonis, M., 1994, as cited in Salazar, n. d., p. 4). The
 40

same authors also remark that “negotiated input make [students] [produce] fewer errors”

(p. 4) due to the chance they have to correct themselves and apply what they learn in an

appropriate context of the situation. Moreover, these authors emphasize that “students

who were given the chance to negotiate their problems in comprehension were more

successful in carrying out the directions” Gass and Varonis, 1994, as cited in Salazar, n.

d. p. 4). Therefore, in regard to the quotation, there is no doubt about the importance of

the interaction between the learner and his/her role in the process of learning. The same

study makes clear the importance of using this approach, emphasizing that “learners

receiving input through interaction would achieve higher levels of L2 comprehension

than those exposed to other types of input” (Gass & Varonis, 1994, as cited in Salazar, n.

d., p. 4). In other words, the more the students interact the more the benefits they will

get; reaching the “i+1” level which Krashen (1982) promotes.

Comprehensible input comes to be an important hypothesis in the field of

teaching of a language. That it is why it was paramount the facts of including it in this

literature review.

1.4.3 The I + 1 Hypothesis

This section deals with the “i+1” hypothesis which was coined by Krashen (1982).

This hypothesis suggests that comprehensible input should be one step beyond the

learner’s current language ability, which according to Krashen (1982) is represented by

this formula “i+1”. This means that the comprehensible input that contains i+1 is

understood by learners. In other words, this theory emphasizes that the instructions and

activities must be challenging and should encourage the learners to participate, even
 41

though they do not feel linguistically competent. It is clear that comprehensible input

plays an indispensable role in acquisition, and that this is the reason why Krashen (1982)

emphasizes a set of conditions that should be included in activities in order to make

students acquire the language. Krashen’s (1982) beliefs regarding the input hypothesis

are the following:

- The best input is so interesting and relevant that the acquirer may even “forget”

that the message is encoded in a foreign language”

- Optimal input is not grammatically sequenced (when [one] focuses on

grammatical considerations, there will be less genuinely interesting input).

- Optimal input must be in sufficient quantity . . . much time should be devoted to

supplying comprehensible input.

- It requires meaningful interaction in the target language. (as cited in Shultz &.

Cook, n. d. p. 4)

These beliefs make the learners reach comprehensible input in EFL classrooms which

will be discussed in the next section.

1.4.4 Comprehensible Input in EFL Classroom

In this section comprehensible input comes to stress the significance of using the

target language inside the classroom. Krashen (1982) maintains, “a learner must be

exposed to and understand the comprehensible input that contains language structures

beyond his or her current stage of competence which he calls i+1” (p. 21). There is not a

better way to learn something than receiving input, especially in language teaching.

However, Krashen (1982) suggests that there are other aspects to consider when
 42

acquiring a language “[the] use [of] context, our knowledge of the world, our extra-

linguistic information to help us understand language directed at us” (p. 22). Learning a

language implies more than grammatical structures; it involves learners with culture,

customs, and manifold of other features to take into account at the moment of thinking

about a language.

Not only the learner must understand what is communicated inside the

classroom, but he or she must also be able to move from stage i+1 as Krashen asserts.

The author also argues that “when the acquirer does not understand the message, there

will be no acquisition” (1982, p.57). If the teacher talks comprehensibly to the students

during lessons learners can be aware of what they are learning and increase their

understanding in the learning experience. To achieve this, it seems important and crucial

that both the teacher and the student could have an open communication in order to give

opportunities to the students to express their ideas and to know what suits them best.

In practical terms, during a lesson, comprehensible input must be accompanied

by others components such as “the use of consistent language, frequent use of visuals [. .

. ] , use of graphic organizers, concrete objects, and gestures when possible to enhance

understanding”(TeacherVision, para. 5), what is crucial for promoting comprehensible

input in every student. Moreover, Hatch (1979, as cited in Buri, 2007) has recapitulated

the aspects of simplified input which are:

- Slow rate: longer pauses, exaggerated intonation, extra volume.

- Vocabulary: High-frequency vocabulary definitions will be marked; form class

information semantic feature context information; and gestures and pictures.

 43

- Dislocation of topics; repetition and restatement; summarizes non-syntactic

utterances; fills the blank for incomplete utterances.

- Discourse: gives reply within question; offers correction. (para. 8)

The above mentioned aspects are observed when the message is modified by the

speaker, who attempts to cover the possible misunderstandings. Likewise, bearing in

mind that the input is activated through practice, this can work as a possible solution to

some unexpected events regarding the communication process.

As it has been shown, teaching is not an easy task¸ especially when the teacher is

constantly finding strategies to achieve students’ different skills of learning,

understanding and processing. The aforementioned comes to support teachers inside the

classroom in order to generate comprehensible input and to let students reach the

optimal levels as the i+1 stage is. Not only can teachers facilitate comprehension but

also pre-modified and interactionally modified input, since different speakers and

receptors are needed to modify the message and negotiate the input.

Throughout this chapter three concepts have been explained, which were defined

and supported by authors expert in those topics. Visual aids were described mainly by

Callista (1938). This Author deeply portrayed the characteristic of visual aids in teaching

and how they help in lessons as an important tool in the learning process. Oral

communication, as it was mentioned, is paramount in the process of language teaching,

especially in English learning. The role of the teacher in this process of orally

transmitting ideas and retrieving plays a fundamental task. The teacher needs to guide

activities to help students to produce and to make students be acquainted with the
 44

language little by little, until the students reach individual, voluntarily oral production.

In this chapter Comprehensible Input theory was explained by Stephen Krashen.

Comprehensible input is another key factor in English lessons especially in activity

where students need to produce and share their ideas.

 44

CHAPTER 2: DISCUSSION

Not only benefits can be mentioned in this paper, but there are some aspects that

may impede the complete realization of what it has been put forward regarding fostering

oral skills by the use of visual aids in English language teaching. Firstly, Chilean

teachers in general have a heavy work load, their functions as teachers can reach several

hours per week, leaving no time to plan meaningful and complete activities to

complement what the Ministry of Education demands. Secondly, and next to what the

MINEDUC demands. Students begin to study English when they are in 5th grade of

primary school. Thirdly, some researchers have observed that most teachers carry out

their classes in Spanish, not giving the appropriate input to the students when learning

English, and this may hinder students of receiving an appropriate amount of input to

produce English orally.

2.1 Visual aids, Oral communication, and Comprehensible input; Relationships

Throughout this paper the following concepts have been discussed: visual aids,

oral communication, and comprehensible input which come to be related in this chapter.

We all know that there are several benefits of using visual aids in the classroom, but

visual aids used solely will not have the expected impact, that is to say, to provide

comprehensible input enough to enhance oral skills in EFL classrooms. The three

elements will be related to each other and incorporated in the activities to achieve what

we have hypothesized at the beginning of this paper.

As future English language teachers, we want the best for our students, we want

to retrieve what they think and construct from their thoughts. As it has been mentioned
 45

before, there are many activities that can be implemented with visual aids, but in order to

make the purpose of the activities consistent and complete, we have decided to combine

the three main concepts defined in the theoretical framework. This will be achieved by

identifying the relationship among the concepts and their functions.

Visual aids have specific purposes in English language teaching; motivate

students and give setting to certain contents, their use can help to create a strong

communicative environment in which students feel motivated to acquire the language

and make it comprehensible and contextualized. In this sense, interested students will

pay more attention to what is being presented, and if what is being presented is

meaningful enough it will encourage them to express themselves orally and to learn

comprehensibly.

2.1.1 Visual Aids Patterns

The main benefit of visual aids is to help people to describe what they cannot

explain orally, and they can be found in several sceneries such as education, business,

among others (Laskowski, 1997). However, the major enhanced area is teaching, since

the incorporation of visual aids is necessary for reaching pedagogical purposes as well as

the teachers and students’ goals (Callista, 1938) .Visual aids as non-verbal information,

conveyed by someone while speaking, can help people to understand others’ messages

without completely understanding the verbal input in order to comprehend the target

language (Wright, 1989). As visual aids also offer input and interactive negotiations,

students will be more willing to participate in communicative situations.

 46

The relationship between visual aids and oral communication is represented by

visual scenes, that is to say, when recognizing meaning visual aids support oral

communication by giving anticipated information, or when the meaning is not explicit

and not orally communicated, (Wright, 1989). When students accomplish the purpose of

recognizing verbal communication through visual aids, where they can infer from non-

internalized concepts, means that they are one step beyond their current level: I+1

through comprehensible input (Krashen, 1982).

This is how the main concept of this literature review was defined in terms of the

benefits it has in the field of English language teaching.

2.1.2 Oral Communication Patterns

The main benefits in oral communication are consistent with the ways in which

people communicate and specific enough for us to be able to relate it to actual

communication behavior (Berlo, 1960). As it was mentioned before, oral communication

is an implicitly well-designed process where students or any natural person can

demonstrate his or her facilities or fallacies in language (Berlo, 1960). Interaction is

fundamental for accomplishing communication (Liu, 2013). It can be from one person or

group to another (Swarthout, 2013). In teaching, children expect to obtain visual input to

support communication thus the use of visual aids come to support words in terms of

their meaning in context (Piske & Young-Scholten, 2009). In this regard, learning is

controlled by the teacher´s speech together with good instructions (Broughton et al.,

1980 & Palmer, 2011). Moreover, the teacher has to prepare the students to

communicate with others (Broughton et al., 1980). To sum up, oral communication is
 47

prevailing in English language teaching together with the implementation of enough

visual aids and comprehensible input activities whose benefits are going to be discussed

later.

2.1.3 Comprehensible Input Patterns

Comprehensible input comes to be the last concept being described. This source

of language acquisition provides students with important benefits. If the teacher talks

and develops the instruction comprehensibly during his/her lessons students can increase

their understanding in the learning experience. The exposure to this situation benefits the

student immediately. In this sense, it is necessary to point out that the use of visual aids

promotes understanding which leads to acquisition (Krashen, 1982). Oral

communication is also crucial here, since the negotiation of messages and their

simplification are orally transmitted, and orally interchanged and modified. Oral

communication is directly related to comprehensible input if the lessons need to be

carried out in the target language.

The use of visual aids in general is positive and convenient; the integration of

comprehensible input and oral communication is optimal likewise.

2.2 The Teaching-Learning Process from the Oral and i+1 Perspective
The teaching and learning process which is going to be discussed may have

various components, but this time the focus will be on visual aid, oral communication

and comprehensible input. As it was mentioned before, the use of visual aids in the

teaching-learning process has increased (Brenson et al., 1997), which leads us to think
 48

that the process of teaching and learning is enriched due to the amount of input that the

visual elements provide. Visual aids are also meant to promote productive skills

(Sharma, 2010) which are based on the training once the messages have been understood

(Broughton et al., 1980). In this regard, teachers must bear in mind that if there is not

understanding there is no acquisition (Krashen, as cited in Maleki & Pazhakh, 2012)

which could eventually hinder the process of fostering students’ productive skills.

The use of compatible, congruent, and steady language in the class is crucial to

improve understanding (Buri, 2007). It is essential to point out that the messages the

students are exposed to enable them to give steps in the “i+1” stage (krashen, 1982). The

modification of messages is also important, since the way a speaker negotiates meanings

is decisive for oral interaction (Long, 1980). On condition that the teacher conveys the

messages the interaction as well as the negotiation of the emitted messages causes the

input to be comprehensible (Long, as cited in in Maleki & Pazhakh, 2012). Interaction

allows comprehension and the negotiation of messages and input let students make

fewer errors (Gass & Varonis, as cited in Salazar, n. d). In this sense, the teacher must

make use of simple structures and different verbs and adjectives to make the input be

comprehensible in a good classroom atmosphere (Pica et al., as cited in Salazar n. d.).

The teaching-learning process is also focused on the classroom objectives, and

the teacher must use a variety of strategies in order to reach every student’s learning

styles (Oxford, 2001). The teachers’ commitment is fundamental for accomplishing the

objectives; it is the support that the students require in the process. This support may

also need changes in strategies, materials, or approaches (The Health Curriculum Guide,

2013). Careful considerations should be given for providing congruence between the
 49

objectives and the students’ needs. It is also important that the environment provides

enrichment to contribute in meeting students’ aims (The Health Curriculum Guide,

2013). If the students feel comfortable, they may feel motivated to produce language

orally. The environment is also a key factor in the teaching-learning process.

To sum up, the inclusion of visual aids, negotiation of messages, interesting and

relevant input through interaction will ensure high levels of comprehension in the

process of teaching and learning, leading students to produce orally in a comfortable

environment.

2.3 The Role of the Teacher & Free Oral Production from the Oral and i+1
Perspective
In English language lessons the teacher not only “teaches”, but also she or he

plays different roles namely prompter, participant, feedback provider, controller,

organizer, assessor, tutor, resource and observer (Harmer, 2007). However, we cannot

lay aside the guiding role. Considering all the previous qualifications, the teacher

provides situations that are appealing to students (Liu, 2013) that could eventually foster

oral communication among students using the language they are learning actively

(Broughton et al., 1980). Broughton et al. (1980) and Liu (2013) conclude that teachers,

in terms of oral communication, need to guide the process of production first inside the

classroom. It is important in language teaching to base lessons on oral communication

goals to have students motivated (Liu, 2013). To achieve such goals the teacher uses

activities in his/her lessons to reach the students’ interests integrating a variety of visual

aids for the lesson not to be monotonous or just focused on one skill.
 50

It was clearly posted before that visual aids have positive aspects and beneficial

impacts on students; the more visual input the teacher provides the more enhanced his or

her students will be, in terms of oral production. Visual aids offer a range of

possibilities for teachers to do their best, and not to center the lesson in grammar

exercises and drills all the time (Lai, 2011).

In the learning process there should be an order in which the teacher first,

provides the tools to the students and stimulates them. Secondly, to give more chances to

speak in some free activities and get proficient in English (Broughton et al., 1980). Other

possibility is to have students actively choosing what they want to speak about and

participate in their own learning process, in that way the teacher makes sure that students

are taking part in the lesson.

What it is optimal in English language lessons is to provide students with

challenging comprehensible activities to go a step beyond what they know about a

specific topic. For instance, the teacher can utilize the i+ 1 theory (Krashen, 1981) and

always offer extra contents and resources to make his or herself comprehensible enough

to appeal to all students’ different learning styles, interacting and modifying the input

when necessary.

What can be remarked about this chapter is the relationship established among

the concepts. The three concepts have been associated to each other and incorporated.

We can conclude that some authors agree in some point where they establish that visual

aids are fundamental tools to be included in the lessons. In this sense, students receive

enough comprehensible input which allows them to feel secure and confident when
 51

speaking. Despite the different concepts which can be bestowed on teachers, many

authors come to an agreement in suggesting the teacher is a guide. It was markedly

stated that the role of the teacher in the teaching-learning process is indispensable to

guide and construct this process.

 52

Conclusion
This paper provides information related to the importance of considering certain

factors involved when fostering oral skills in students of English as a foreign language.

After elucidating the relevance of promoting oral communication through visual aids

and comprehensible input in Chilean EFL classrooms, and having considered the actual

context for teaching and learning, it is pertinent to withdraw conclusions and to suggest

directions for further research.

Several researches have carried out investigations in relation to visual aids and

oral communication. Most have concluded that visual aids are a source of

comprehensible input, but the amount of input depends on the quantity of visual

materials teachers offer to students in every activity. In this concern, researchers agree

that oral communication is a process which involves as much input as possible to reach

learning outcomes. Through oral communication students can improve their oral skill;

however, the role of the teacher is fundamental to make it possible. The Chilean

Ministry of Education expects students to develop communicative skills in order to

benefit from using the language in several areas such as education and technology

(MINEDUC, 2009).

According to the literature review, the main factors that influence the

enhancement of oral skills are visual aids and comprehensible input. When the

curriculum contents are provided to EFL students, by means of visual aids, the language

learning process becomes appealing and meaningful for them (MINEDUC, 2013) In this

regard, visual aids provide a natural environment to the teaching-learning process by

 53

emulating reality for English language learners which is favorable in terms of accuracy

to convey messages.

The exposure to the target language is fundamental to reach the levels of English

expected from Chilean students. Therefore, visual aids, comprehensible input, and oral

communication complement each other in a way that makes the foreign language

learning process more effective in such a way that it can contextualize the contents

proposed by the Ministry of Education.

Further Research

By researching within EFL classrooms and into teaching and learning, future

teachers should focus on improving their performance to help students to develop

communicative skills. However, one should bear in mind that teaching English not only

involves looking for the best strategies using contextualized material, but also to give

attention to students’ abilities and learning styles. Regarding this, cognitive aspects

related to the teaching-learning process should be known by teachers when addressing

students. Apart from that, the kind of resources used in the teaching-learning process,

the amount of English used within the classroom, and the teacher’s role are other factors

to consider in further research. However, there is still much more work to do in relation

to the improvement of the teaching-learning process.

Finally, it can be concluded that visual aids are practical useful tools to

encourage speaking strategies in oral communication, reinforcing oral tasks and

interaction among students learning English as a foreign language.

 1

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