Technical Handbook
of
Bar Products
www.wmetals.co.nz
TECHNICAL SERVICES 1800 818 599
Email: tech@atlasmetals.com.au
LIMITATION OF LIABILITY
The information contained in this Handbook is not intended to be an exhaustive statement of all
relevant data applicable to special and general steel products. It has been designed as a guide
for customers of Wakefield Metals. No responsibility is implied or accepted for or in conjunction
with quality or standard of any product or its suitability for any purpose or use.
It is the responsibility of the user to ensure product specified is fit for the purpose intended.
All conditions, warranties, obligations and liabilities of any kind which are or may be implied or
imposed to the contrary by any statute, rule or regulation or under the general law and whether
arising from the negligence of the Company, its servants or otherwise are hereby excluded except to
the extent that the Company may be prevented by any statute, rule or regulation from doing so.
1 PRODUCT PROGRAM 3
2 STOCK RANGE 15
4 PRODUCT DATASHEETS 27
The Department establishes and maintains the quality standards for product supply from mills and
conducts a testing program to ensure product sold by Wakefield Metals meets those standards.
Customers are invited to take advantage of the technical service provided by Wakefield Metals; all
enquiries can be directed to:
Freecall: 0800 ALL METALS
Email: inquiries@wmetals.co.nz 5
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
1.4 WEBSITE
www.wmetals.co.nz has a lot to offer, including more information about our company, products
and services, however it is the quantity and quality of our technical and product information that
makes our site unique. As it contains some of the information from this technical manual, we
believe there is no other Australian website that contains such detailed and practical information
for Engineering Products.
Free machining steels are steels to which Sulphur and Phosphorus are added, hence they are called
resulphurised and rephosphorised steels. The role of adding Sulphur is to create manganese sulphide
inclusions which are very soft and act as an internal lubrication during the machining operation.
The role of rephosphorising is to create embrittlement of the ferritic matrix in order to give rise to
“micro-cracking” which improves chip breakability and dimensional stability during machining.
Lead is also added to some free machining steel as lead particles in steel also act as an internal
lubricant. It must be mentioned that additions of sulphur and lead have detrimental effects on hot
workability, weldability, and formability. Elongated manganese sulphide inclusions also impair
transverse ductility and toughness. Therefore, the use of machinability enhancers (especially sulphur)
may have to be restricted for safety critical applications of engineering steels where functionality is
the primary consideration.
The addition and combination of sulphur and lead in a low carbon free machining steel is very
effective in reducing the cutting loads. The lead addition to free machining steels also contributes to
reducing the height of the ‘built-up-edge’ on the tool while maintaining its effectiveness in protecting
a high speed steel cutting edge. Leaded free-machining steels are very suitable for machining at
extremely high speeds (surface speed > 400 m/min).
6
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
From the perspective of component manufacture, it is usually desirable that the steel assumes roughly
the same mechanical properties over the component cross-section after heat treatment. For small
sections this can be achieved with unalloyed steels (like 1045), for medium sized sections Cr-Mo steel
are required (like 4140) and for very large sections only Cr-Ni-Mo can give the desired properties.
The combination of high strength and high toughness in through-hardening steels is the result of
achieving a 100% martensitic structure in the steel after quenching. This structure is very hard
and will be tempered by reheating the steel again to a lower temperature in order to decrease
hardness and improve ductility and impact properties of the steel. The final strength and ductility of a
through-hardening steel depend on the tempering temperature and time chosen. Generally through-
hardening steels are tempered in the range 500 – 700°C. With a higher tempering temperature,
the final strength decreases and the final ductility of the steel increases. These effects are shown in
the tempering diagram for each steel grade.
A nearly 100% martensitic structure can be achieved with 4140 steels up to approximately 120mm
diameter bar. For larger sections Wakefield 6582, 4340 or Wakefield 6580 are required to achieve
a near 100% martensitic structure. It should be noted that if unalloyed steels like M1030 and 1045
are heat treated, they cannot transform into a near 100% martensitic structure. The ductility and
impact properties of the retained pearlitic-ferritic micro-structure will greatly deteriorate when
increasing the tensile strength of these steels by heat treatment.
Good through-hardening steels exhibit a high degree of cleanliness, particularly in regards to non-
metallic inclusions and need careful balancing of chemical composition in order to react uniformly
to heat treatment.
holding the steel at the appropriate temperature and then quenching the steel and subsequently
tempering it at a low temperature.
After case hardening a component is characterised by a surface with high hardness and a relatively
soft core zone which has good toughness. Typically surface hardness of 57 – 63 HRC can be
achieved, whilst the carbon content in the surface layer has increased to approximately 0.7%.
Case hardening of plain carbon steels is possible, but such steels have poor core strength and the
application is limited to low-stressed and small components.
If a component is subject to high stresses, then apart from a high surface hardness for wear resistance
purpose, strength of the core is also needed. For such applications alloyed case-hardening steels are
needed. Alloyed case-hardening steels have better through-hardening properties and hence as a result
of the heat treatment the core areas will also be affected. In order to maintain the toughness of the
core, thus avoiding the risk of brittle fracture at the higher tensile strength levels, Nickel is added as an
alloying element. Nickel also contributes to retaining toughness in the surface area after
carburising. Cr-Ni-Mo case-hardening steels, like Wakefield 6587 and Wakefield 6657, have
been developed to ensure good wear resisting properties in the case whilst have high strength and
toughness in the core area even in very large cross-sections.
Good case-hardening steels exhibit a high degree of cleanliness, particularly in regards to non-
metallic inclusions, and need careful balancing of chemical composition in order to react uniformly
to heat treatment. The quality of case-hardening steels shows also in their fine-grain stability. Fine-
grain stability results in low distortion of the component after the case hardening process. Good
mills achieve fine-grain stability through control of aluminium and nitrogen content.
1.9 STAINLESS STEELS
1.9.1 MAIN GRADES STOCKED
303:
Wakefield 303 represents the optimum in machinability among the austenitic stainless steels. It is
primarily used when production involves extensive machining.
Wakefield 303 is generally available as a and new generation 2 with machinability significantly
higher than that of the standard 303.
304:
Wakefield 304 is dual certified as grades 304 and 304L.
Grade 304 is the standard “18/8” stainless. It has excellent
forming and welding characteristics. Grade 304L, the low
carbon version of 304, does not require post-weld annealing
and so is extensively used in heavy gauge components.
316:
Wakefield 316 is dual certified as grades 316 and 316L.
Wakefield 316 is the standard molybdenum-bearing
stainless steel, second in importance to 304 amongst the
austenitic stainless steels. The molybdenum gives 316 better
overall corrosion resistant properties than Grade 304,
particularly higher resistance to pitting and crevice
corrosion in chloride environments. It has excellent forming
and welding characteristics.
9
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
420:
Wakefield 420 stainless steel can be hardened by quench-and-temper heat treatment. It contains a
minimum of 12 per cent chromium, just sufficient to give corrosion resistance properties. It has good
ductility in the annealed condition but is capable of being hardened up to Rockwell Hardness
50HRC, the highest hardness of the 12 per cent chromium grades. Like all martensitic stainless steels
its best corrosion resistance is achieved when the metal is hardened and surface ground or polished.
Variants of grade 420 are available with different carbon contents; these are designated as 420A,
420B, etc.
Atl
431:
A heat treatable martensitic, nickel-bearing grade with the best corrosion resistance properties of all
the martensitic grades. It has excellent tensile and torque strength, and good toughness, making it
ideally suited to shafting and bolt applications. It can be hardened to approximately 40HRC.
Wakefield 431 is generally available as a new generation with machinability significantly higher
than that of the standard 431.
2205:
Wakefield 2205 is the most widely used duplex (ferritic/austenitic) stainless steel grade. It finds
applications due to both excellent corrosion resistance and high strength, which is about double
of that of the austenitic grades 304 and 316. The duplex structure also results in excellent
resistance to stress corrosion cracking.
UR52N+:
UR52N+ is one of a group of “super duplex” grades, combining high strength with exceptional
corrosion resistance. The addition of copper to this grade gives it greatly improved resistance to
strong reducing acids, particularly sulphuric acid. UR52N+ is also very highly resistant to pitting/
crevice corrosion in high chloride, hot environments. Its duplex structure also results in excellent
resistance to stress corrosion cracking.
630:
630 is a precipitation-hardening steel that has a combination of high hardness and strength after
suitable heat treatment. It has corrosion resistance similar to Wakefield 304. Grade 630 is
often referred to as 17/4 PH.
Austenitic Generally No Very High High By Cold Work Very High Very High Very High Very High
Martensitic Yes Medium Medium Quench & Temper Low Low Low Low
Precipitation Age Medium
Yes Medium Medium Low Low Low
Hardening Hardening to Low
NOTES:
1) Attraction of the steel to a magnet. Note some austenitic grades can be attracted to a magnet
if cold worked.
2) Varies significantly between grades within each group. e.g. free machining grades have lower
corrosion resistances, those grades higher in molybdenum have higher resistances.
3) Measured by toughness and ductility at sub-zero temperatures. Austenitic grades retain ductility to
cryogenic temperatures.
11
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
12
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
Chrome bar 4140 HT is used when high yield strength for medium to high stress applications is the
dominant design parameter. Chrome bar 1045 induction-hardened is used when surface hardness
(55-65 HRC) is the primary design criterion and lower strength of the core is acceptable.
As aluminium is naturally a very soft metal, some aluminium alloys can be subjected to a heat
treatment process in order to increase the final mechanical properties. This heat treatment is called
precipitation hardening or age hardening: 2xxx, 6xxx and 7xxx alloys can be strengthened by
precipitation hardening, or ‘ageing’.
Small, finely dispersed precipitates are formed during this heat treatment, which significantly
increase the strength of the alloy. Temper designations are used to indicate whether an alloy has
undergone any heat treatment. Temper designations are also used to indicate whether the alloy has
been subjected to cold-working after extrusion.
14
1. PRODUCT PROGRAM 2. STOCK RANGE
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
Wakefield Metals stock 1700 different bar products. The table gives an overview of the stocking program.
Product Section Finish Condition Size Range Metric Imperial # of Sizes
16.0x3.0mm
U1004 Flat CD x x 20
– 100.0x5.0mm
4.76 - 152.40mm
Round CD/SMTP x x 65
9.52x4.76mm –
M1020 Flat CD/SMTP 152.40x25.40mm x x 40
Square CD/SMTP 25.40 - 101.60mm x x 10
M1030 Round CD/SMTP 6.0mm - 130mm x x 60
Round CD/SMTP 4.76 - 152.40mm x x 85
1214FM Hex CD/SMTP 6.35 - 76.20mm x x 50
Square CD/SMTP 4.76 - 100.0mm x x 30
Round CD/SMTP 3.97mm - 90.0mm x x 60
12L14FM Hex CD/SMTP 7.94 - 55.00mm x x 55
Square CD/SMTP 12.70 - 70.0mm x x 15
1045 Round BLK AR/NOR 36 - 455mm x 60
Round SMTP AR 10 - 110mm x x 65
1040/1045
Round CG AR 25.40 - 130.0mm x x 15
Round BLK H&T 16 - 220mm x 35
Round CD/SMTP/PLD H&T 6.35 - 450mm x x 100
4140
Round CG H&T 12.70 - 110.0mm x x 25
Hex CD H&T 24 - 55mm x x 10
4340 Round BLK/PLD H&T 38 - 320mm x 55
6582 Round PLD H&T 80 - 380mm x 25
6580 Round BLK H&T 40 - 200mm x 30
8620H Round CD/PLD ANN 35 - 90mm x 10
6587 Round BLK/PLD ANN 50 - 360mm x 40
6657 Round PLD ANN 30 - 185mm x 25
EN39B Round PLD ANN 90 - 200mm x 10
20MnVS6 Hollow CD/BLK AR 32x16mm - 419x319mm x 160
4140 Hollow CD/BLK H&T 45x32mm - 200x140mm x 40
316 Hollow CD/PLD ANN 32x16mm - 250x200mm x 40
Round CD/SMTP ANN 4.76 - 63.50mm x x 40
303
Hex CD ANN 9.53 - 31.75mm x 15
304 Round CD/STP/PLD ANN 4.76 - 203.20mm x x 80
316 Round CD/STP/PLD ANN 4.76 - 350.0mm x x 110
316 Hex CD ANN 9.35 - 57.15mm x 35
316 Square CD ANN 6.35 - 40.0mm x x 15
431 Round CD/SMTP/CG H&T 6.35 - 116.0mm x x 35
2205 Round CD/CG ANN 12.0 - 101.60mm x x 25
Cast IronU250,U300 Hollow RM AC 60x40mm – 300x180mm x 55
Cast Iron U250, U400, U500 Round BLK AC 40-400 x 36
Chrome Bar 1045 CG/CR IND HARD 19.05 - 101.60mm x x 10
Chrome Bar 4140 CG/CR H&T 25.00 - 101.60mm x x 35
Hydraulic Line Tube Hollow ASTM A179 6.40x0.90-50.80x4.88mm x 55
Alloy 2011 Round, Hex and Square in CD/EX 10 – 200mm x x 45
Alloy 6262 Round, Hex and Square in CD/EX 10 – 120mm x 30
Finish: CD = cold drawn, SMTP = smooth turned and polished, PLD = peeled, CG = centreless ground, BLK =
black, RM = rough machined, CR = hard chrome plated, EX = extruded
Condition: AR = as rolled, AC = as cast, ANN = annealed, H&T = hardened and tempered, IND HARD =
17
induction hardened, NOR=normalised
3. PROPERTIES OF STEEL GRADES COMPARED 4. PRODUCT DATASHEETS
Wakefield METALS ♦TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
Product C Mn Si S P Cr Ni Mo Other
Al: 0.015-0.030
V: 0.08-0.13
2205 ≤0.03 ≤ 2.00 ≤1.00 ≤0.020 ≤0.30 21.0-23.0 4.5-6.5 2.5-3.5 N: 0.08-0.20
Cu: 0.5-3.0
UR52N+ ≤0.03 ≤1.50 ≤ 0.80 ≤0.020 ≤0.035 24.0-26.0 5.5-8.0 3.0-4.0
N: 0.20-0.35
21
22
ATLAS SPECIALTY METALS � Technical Handbook of Bar Products
3.2
1214FM ≤ 0.15 0.95 S = 0.32, P = 0.08 Free Machining Low-strength but highly machinable steel for repetition engineering
S = 0.32, P = 0.08, Free Machining Low-strength steel suitable for high-speed machining in repetition engineering
12L14FM ≤ 0.15 1.15
Pb = 0.25 environment
Al = 0.022, Medium-high stress, a lternative to 1045 and 4140 , very good weldability and
Micro900 0.38 1.35
Ti = 0.013, V = 0.11
Micro-alloy
machinability
4140 0.40 0.90 0.90 0.25 Through Hardening Medium-high stress in smaller cross-sections, has good fatigue properties
4340 0.40 0.75 0.80 1.80 0.30 Through Hardening Permanent/fluctuating stress, larger cross-sections
Permanent/fluctuating stress, larger cross-sections with high core strength;
6582 0.34 0.65 1.50 1.60 0.25 Through Hardening
preferred alternative to 4340
Highest dynamic stresses, excellent fatigue properties,, p r e f e r r e d a l t e r n a t i v e t o
6580 0.30 0.45 2.00 2.00 0.40 Through Hardening
En25/En26
Hy-Tuf 0.25 1.35 0.30 1.80 0.40 Si = 1.50 Through Hardening Medium stresses combined with high ductility requirement
En25
LOW-ALLOY
0.30 0.60 0.65 2.55 0.55 Through Hardening Highest dynamic stresses
En26 0.40 0.60 0.65 2.55 0.55 Through Hardening Highest dynamic stresses
8620H 0.20 0.75 0.55 0.55 0.20 Case Hardening Small diameter transmission parts, medium-low stress exposure
6587 0.18 0.65 1.65 1.55 0.30 Case Hardening Transmission parts subject to highest stresses and wear conditions
6657 0.14 0.45 0.95 3.25 0.20 Case Hardening
Parts subject to highest stresses and wear conditions, high core strength and toughness
required, preferred alternative to En36A, can replace En39B in certain applications
En36A 0.13 0.50 0.85 3.35 Case Hardening Transmission parts subject to highest stresses and wear conditions
En39B 0.15 0.40 1.20 4.10 0.20 Case Hardening Parts subject to highest stresses, high core strength and toughness required
XP1600 0.25 1.60 2.00 Cu, Nb, Ti Wear Resistant Highest dynamic stresses combined with abrasive wear environment
Free Machining
303 0.07 ≤ 2.00 18.0 8.0
Austenitic
Repetition engineering for general parts manufacture
304 0.05 ≤ 2.00 19.0 8.0 Austenitic Stainless Food processing, fasteners and springs
316 0.05 ≤ 2.00 17.0 10.0 2.0 Austenitic Stainless More corrosion resistance required than 304 in similar applications
STAINLESS
420 0.2 ≤ 1.00 13.0 Martensitic High-strength components in fluid applications like shafts and sleeves
431 0.15 ≤ 1.00 16.0 1.9 Martensitic High-strength shafts, fasteners with higher corrosion resistance than 420
329 0.03 ≤ 1.00 25.0 3.5 1.5 Duplex Medium stress with excellent corrosion resistance required
2205 0.02 ≤ 2.00 22.0 5.5 3.0 N = 0.15 Duplex Medium stress with excellent corrosion resistance required
UR52N+ 0.02 ≤ 1.50 25.0 6.8 3.5 Cu = 1.8, N = 0.30 Super-Duplex High-stress with excellent corrosion resistance required
Please note that this chart gives a summary only. Refer to the individual Atlas datasheets for further details.
Page 22
tl t l
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
40mm diam.
1000
250mm diam.
800
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600
400
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M1020 and M1030 have typical min. 0.2% proof stress values of 290MPa and 300MPa
respectively in cold drawn condition for 40mm diameter bar. Cold drawn bar in these grades is
available up to100mm. Cold drawn bar of 100mm diameter would generally have a 30MPa lower
min. 0.2% proof stress than 40mm bar.
Wakefield 1045 in hot rolled condition has a typical 0.2% proof stress value of 305MPa min. for
40mm. As this grade has a relatively uniform, mixed ferrite-pearlite microstructure, this value is
typical for all sizes up to a 100mm. Wakefield 1045 bar in 250mm diameter would typically
have a min. 0.2% proof stress value which is 30MPa lower than that of 40mm bar.
Quenching and tempering of Wakefield 1045 is reasonably effective for small diameter bar but
not so for large diameter. Due to lack of alloying elements the through-hardening response of
Wakefield 1045 is quite shallow. The graph shows that in 40mm bar an increase in 0.2% proof
stress of over 100MPa or 35%-40% can be achieved by a heat treatment. Heat treatment of a
250mm section shows only a marginal increase in strength though. It should be stressed, that
hardening and tempering of Wakefield 1045 adversely affects the impact properties of the steel
no matter what size the cross-section.
Wakefield 4140, Wakefield 4340, Wakefield 6582 and Wakefield 6580 are all alloyed
through-hardening steels. As can be seen in the graph the advantage of Atlas6582/4340 over
Wakefield 4140 lies in greater hardenability and the significantly higher min. 0.2% proof stress
that can be achieved in larger cross sections. Wakefield 6580 is the ultimate through-hardening
steel that gives extremely high 0.2% proof stress for small cross-section whilst, as can be seen in
the graph, a 250mm cross section still has a 0.2% proof stress of 800MPa min. 23
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
Austenitic stainless steels, like Wakefield 303, 304, 316 and 321 have the lowest 0.2% proof
stress of all the steels shown in the graph. The values shown in the graph are for hot rolled and/
or turned product in the annealed condition. The low 0.2% proof stress should be seen in
connection with the extremely high ductility of stainless steels. The tensile strength of these
stainless steel products would be comparable to that of Wakefield M1030.
It should be noted that for all austenitic grades, annealed cold drawn bar (normally up to 25.4mm
diameter) has a 0.2% proof stress that is considerably higher and typically is at 380MPa minimum,
but can be significantly higher than this.
Martensitic stainless steels like Wakefield 410/416 and Wakefield 431 have the highest strength
of all stainless steels, particular Wakefield 431 for which the 0.2% proof stress is almost three
times as high as that of Wakefield 304/316. This is particularly interesting as Wakefield 431
also possesses reasonable corrosion resistance properties and good toughness. As can be seen in
the graph, unlike the alloy through-hardening steels, the 0.2% proof stress of martensitic stainless
steels does not drop substantially as the diameter of the cross-section increases. This is because
the martensitic stainless steels have a hardenability that is exceptionally high, which is shown by
the shape of the Jominy curves.
In case a strength even higher than this is required it may be necessary to use a precipitation-
hardening stainless steel such as Wakefield 630, but this implies a sacrifice in corrosion
resistance as compared to a duplex or a super-duplex stainless steel.
Often and mistakenly, the tensile strength of a material is taken as the sole indication of its performance
capability. A combination of strength and toughness is the true characteristic of a good steel. This is
particularly true when the properties of carbon and alloy through-hardening steels are compared.
Toughness is a major design criterion when semi-brittle or brittle fracture needs to be avoided.
The graph below shows the minimum 0.2% proof stress and the minimum impact values for grades
Wakefield 1045, Wakefield 4140 and Wakefield 6582.
It can be seen that with Wakefield 1045 only limited strength levels can be achieved and the impact
60 Wakefield 1045
Wakefield 4140
55
min. Charpy Impact Value (J)
Wakefield 6582
50
45
40
35
30
25
values are indicative
for bars 40-100mmm
20
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
properties of this grade greatly deteriorate when hardened to higher strength. At comparable
strength levels the minimum toughness of Wakefield 4140 is about three times higher than that of
1045.
The graph shows that the toughness of Wakefield 4140 decreases when hardening the steel to a
greater strength, but still remains at a reasonable level. If good toughness is required at higher
strength levels the application of Wakefield 6582 or Wakefield 6580 needs to be considered.
With 6582 an approximately 50% higher strength can be achieved whilst maintaining the
toughness of the material.
The strength and toughness of the core after case hardening are among the most important properties
of engineering steels. For case-hardening steels that are applied in low stress situations the case
hardness and depth of the case is the most important criterion. Once the component operates in an
environment of substantial static stresses, core strength also becomes an important variable. If in
addition, dynamic stresses are present, the toughness of the core then also becomes important.
The core strength of a case-hardening steel depends, just like a through-hardening steel, on the
hardenability of the steel as expressed in the Jominy diagram (see product datasheets contained
in this handbook). After carburising of the surface layer the steel is quenched and subsequently
tempered. A major difference between case-hardening steels and through-hardening steels is the
tempering temperature. Case-hardening steels must be tempered at very low temperatures (150
– 200°) in order to retain the high hardness of the carburised layer achieved after quenching the
steel. Because of the low carbon content in the core section, the steel maintains some ductility even
at such low tempering temperatures.
As for alloyed through-hardening steels, a higher alloy content is needed to ensure a deeper
hardening. The following graph shows the tensile strength after the case hardening operation for
Wakefield 8620H, Wakefield 6587 and Wakefield 6657. It shows that Wakefield 8620H can
achieve high core strength in small cross-sections, but the core strength quickly drops off as the
cross-section gets bigger. Wakefield 6582 and Wakefield 6657 have excellent hardenability
response and can achieve high core strength at larger diameters.
If a component is applied in an environment of high dynamic stresses and has to be able to
Wakefield 6657
63mm
Wakefield 6587
Wakefield 8620H
Wakefield 6657
30mm
Wakefield 6587
Wakefield 8620H
Wakefield 6657
11mm
Wakefield 6587
Wakefield 8620H
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
withstand sudden impact and fluctuating stresses in various directions, the toughness of the steel
becomes a significant parameter. The toughness of the case-hardening steel is related to the ability
to withstand sudden high impact and to the level of fatigue strength.
The graph below shows the ductility of the core after the case-hardening operation for Wakefield
8620H, Wakefield 6587 and Wakefield 6657 in various diameters. It shows that Wakefield
8620H and Wakefield 6657 generally have a higher ductility than Wakefield 6587.
If a high core strength is required and toughness also needs to be maximised, then Wakefield
6657 needs to be considered. Wakefield 6657 is a tougher steel than Wakefield 6587 due to its
higher nickel content. The nickel content also increases the toughness of the case layer.
12
10
8
Elongation (%)
0
Wakefield Wakefield Wakefield Wakefield Wakefield Wakefield Wakefield Wakefield Wakefield
8620H 6587 6657 8620H 6587 6657 8620H 6587 6657
26
3. PROPERTIES OF STEEL GRADES COMPARED 4. PRODUCT DATASHEETS
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
4.1.1 INTRODUCTION
Wakefield M1020 carbon steel bar is a merchant grade plain carbon steel bar containing
nominally 0.20% carbon. Wakefield M1020 has wider chemical composition limits than grade
1020. Grade M1020 is supplied based on it meeting specified chemical composition
requirements only.
4.1.2 RELATED SPECIFICATIONS
Bar in grade M1020 is supplied in accordance with the requirements of AS1443 Grade M1020
C Si Mn P S
0.15-0.25 ≤ 0.35 0.30-0.90 ≤ 0.050 ≤ 0.050
Wakefield M1020 is not a case-hardening steel, however, it may be case hardened by the blank
carburising process. It should be taken into account that Carbon content varies between 0.15% and
0.25%, therefore the result of the blank carburising process may greatly vary. If surface
hardening is critical then the test certificate should be checked. Wakefield M1020 is not suitable
for through-hardening, flame or induction hardening due to the low carbon content of this steel.
4.1.7 WELDING
M1020 can be readily welded by all conventional welding processes, MIG, TIG, MMAW etc.
Pre or post heating is normally not necessary as part of the welding procedure. Preheat heavier
sections. Do not weld components after blank carburising.
1214FM Where welding and bending are not required and improvement in machinability is required.
Where higher strength is required and welding and bending may be required. Pre and post heat may be
M1030
required as part of the welding procedure, whereas M1020 can be readily welded without pre & post heating.
Further increase in strength required above that of M1030, and the lower ductility and toughness of 1040/1045
1040/1045
can be tolerated. Welding of 1040 or 1045 requires pre & post heat as part of the weld procedure.
30
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
C Si Mn P S
0.25-0.35 ≤ 0.35 0.30-0.90 ≤ 0.050 ≤ 0.050
>16mm to 38mm
Cold Drawn 540 min 430 min 11 min 160 min
inclusive
>38mm to 100mm
520 min 410 min 12 min 154 min
inclusive
Hot Finished
or Turned All sizes to 260mm 500 min 250 min 20 min 147 min
and Polished
The tempering temperature range in the table refers to tempering after quenching. For tempering
after a blank carburising process a temperature range of 150-250°C is appropriate.
32
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
C Si Mn P S
0.43-0.50 0.10 - 0.35 0.30-0.90 ≤ 0.040 ≤ 0.040
Cold Drawn >16mm to 38mm inclusive 650 min 510 min 8 min 195 min
>38mm to 80mm inclusive 640 min 500 min 9 min 190 min
As rolled/Turned
All sizes to 260mm 600 min 300 min 14 min 179 min
and Polished
Wakefield 1045 Bright Bar can be supplied as D6 or T6 (or equivalent) with guaranteed
mechanical properties on special order request. Wakefield 1045 Black Bar can be supplied in
the normalised condition with guaranteed mechanical properties on special order request.
Hot-rolling surface defects are retained in cold drawing. For bright bar in the range of cold drawing
(up to 50mm) it is essential to take machining allowance into account. Peeled bar is generally free
of surface defects. A certain allowance for surface defects is recommended however, as minor
defects are permitted by the various national standards (AS, JIS, EN etc.).
The following temperature ranges are applicable for the respective heat treatment operations.
Full Annealing Normalising Hardening Quenching medium Tempering
800 - 850°C 840 – 880°C 820 – 860°C Water or Oil 550 – 660°C
34
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
Hardenability of 1045
Typical Jominy Test Results
60
Rockwell Hardness (HRC)
50
40
max
min
30
20
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 13 15 20 25 30 40
4.3.11 WELDING
Wakefield 1045 can be welded by all conventional welding processes, MIG, TIG, MMAW etc.
Pre and Post heating (also in light sections) are required as part of the welding procedure so as to
avoid cracking.
Where a lower tensile and yield strength grade is acceptable. If grade M1030 is used as an alternative then
M1030
pre and post heat would normally still need to be used, particularly in heavier sections.
Further increase in strength required, plus guaranteed tensile properties are a requirement. Better impact
properties are required. Higher core strength required. Welding of grade 4140 would not normally be
4140
recommended. In case of attempting to weld this grade guidance from an experienced and qualified welding
engineer must be sought.
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TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
4.4 1214FM: FREE MACHINING BRIGHT CARBON STEEL BAR Colour Code: Rose Pink
4.4.1 INTRODUCTION
Wakefield 1214FM is a free machining, resulphurised carbon steel bar containing nominally
0.14% carbon. Wakefield 1214FM has similar chemical composition as the grade 1214.
Wakefield 1214FM is supplied based on it meeting specified chemical composition requirements
only.
4.4.2 RELATED SPECIFICATIONS
Free machining bar Wakefield 1214FM is supplied as per one of the following alternative
standards.
AS1443 grade 1214,
ASTM A108 grade 1213 or grade 1215,
The grades are characterised by high and consistent machinability and the ability to be electroplated.
Grades can be interchanged without problems and no marked changes are to be expected by the
user. Grade 11SMn37 has the highest machinability of these alternatives.
Cold Drawn >16mm to 38mm inclusive 430 min 330 min 8 min 126 – 210
>38mm to 100mm inclusive 400 min 290 min 9 min 119 – 200
Cold Finished/
To 260mm inclusive 370 min 230 min 17 min 105 - 154
Turned and polished
Wakefield 1214FM can be supplied with guaranteed mechanical properties on special order request.
36
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
All hexagon bar and all square bar is cold drawn. Flat Bar is cold drawn and supplied sharp-
edged.
37
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
Grade C Si Mn P S Pb
The grades are equally characterised by very high and consistent machinability and the ability
to be electroplated. Grades can be interchanged without problems and no marked changes in
machinability are to be expected.
12L14FM can be supplied with guaranteed mechanical properties on special order request.
4.5.6 WELDING
Wakefield 12L14FM is not suitable for any welding. Lead fumes originating during the welding
operation constitute a health hazard.
39
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
C Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni
0.37-0.44 0.10-0.35 0.65-1.10 ≤ 0.040 ≤ 0.040 0.75-1.20 0.15-0.30 --
Wakefield 4140 can be re-heat-treated to higher strength or tempered back to lower strength
levels than those supplied as standard. Assistance with heat treatment should be sought from
reputable heat treatment companies
Hot-rolling surface defects are retained in cold drawing. For bright bar in the range of cold drawing
(up to 50mm) it is essential to take machining allowance into account. Peeled bar is generally free
of surface defects. A certain allowance for surface defects is recommended however, as minor
40 defects are permitted by the various national standards (AS, EN, etc.).
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
Hardening
Tempering Diagram 4140 Components should be heated
typical values for 30mm section slowly to 850 to 860°C, held
100 until uniform, then quenched
vigorously in oil (or polymer
Tensile Izod with an equivalent quench
1600 Strength impact 90 rate to between 80 to 110°C).
Polymer quenchants have
Tensile Strength and 0.2% Proof Stress (MPa)
4.6.9 WELDING
Welding is not recommended because of the likelihood of quench cracking occurring. If welding
must be carried out, pre-heat to 200 to 300°C and maintain this while welding. Immediately after
welding stress relieve at 500 to 600°C.
41
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
Hardenability of 4140
Typical values according to AS 1444
65
60
Rockwell Hardness (HRC)
55
50
45 max
min
40
35
30
25
0 1.5 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
42
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo
0.30-0.38 ≤ 0.40 0.50-0.80 ≤ 0.035 ≤ 0.035 1.30-1.70 1.30-1.70 0.15-0.30
The third column in the table above shows the mechanical properties of Wakefield 6582 and the
closest mechanical properties designation according to AS 1444-1996 for reference purposes.
4.7.5 CONDITIONS OF SUPPLY – TOLERANCES AND INSPECTION
Wakefield 6582 is supplied hot rolled (black) or cold finished in the as heat treated condition.
Wakefield 6582 Black is supplied with very tight tolerances in order to reduce machining
allowances to a minimum. Dimensional tolerance better than 1/2 DIN 1013 (up to 210mm, DIN
1013 for sizes over 210mm). Depth of surface defects max. 0.50mm (all sizes). Out of
straightness tolerance: 40 - 100mm diameter 2mm/m; 100 - 210mm diameter 2.5mm/m.
Wakefield 6582 Bright is supplied cold drawn with tolerance h10 for sizes up to 25mm. Bars
with diameters 25 to 75mm are supplied cold drawn to h10 or peeled to k12. Bar diameters
76mm to 210mm are supplied peeled to k12 and sizes over 210mm are peeled to a -0/+2mm
tolerance.
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TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
4.7.6 MACHINING ALLOWANCES FOR Wakefield 6582 ROUND BAR (MM ON DIAMETER)
Black (hot rolled or forged) Bright (drawn or peeled bar)
Bar diameter (mm)
part length <120mm part length >120mm part length <120mm part length <120mm
≤ 50 1.4mm 1.4 + 4mm/m 1.0mm 1.0 + 4mm/m
> 50 ≤ 100 1.7mm 1.7 + 4mm/m 1.0mm 1.0 + 4mm/m
> 100 ≤ 160 2.0mm 2.0 + 5mm/m 1.0mm 1.0 + 4mm/m
> 160 ≤ 210 2.3mm 2.3 + 5mm/m 1.5mm 1.5 + 4mm/m
> 210 ≤ 450 - - 1.5mm 1.5 + 6mm/m
e.g. an Wakefield 6582 Black 180mm diameter bar with a length of 500mm requires a
machining allowance of 2.3mm + 0.5x5mm = 4.8mm and therefore cleans up to 175.2mm.
All bars have been subject to ultrasonic inspection (to AS1065 level 2).
4.7.7 APPLICATIONS
Parts exposed to high permanent or fluctuating stresses. Applications where excellent fatigue and
toughness properties of the material are required. Typical components include gears, planetary
gears, pinions, crankshafts, eccentric shafts, axles, bushes and sleeves.
Tensile
Strength
70
Tensile Strength and 0.2% Proof Stress (MPa)
Reduction
Elongation (A%), Reduction of Area (Z%)
1400
of Area
60
Proof 50
1200
Stress
40
1000
30
20
800
Elongation 10
600 0
400 500 600 700
44
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
4.7.10 WELDING
Welding is not recommended because of the high hardenability of this steel and hence the likelihood
of embrittlement in the heat affected zone and connected danger of quench cracking. If welding
must be carried out, pre-heat to 200 to 300°C and maintain this while welding. Immediately after
welding stress relieve at 550 to 650°C.
65
60
Rockwell Hardness (HRC)
55
max
min
50
45
40
0 1.5 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
45
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
The third column in the table above shows the mechanical properties of Wakefield 4340 and the
closest mechanical properties designation according to AS 1444-1996 for reference purposes.
Hot-rolling surface defects are retained in cold drawing. For bright bar in the range of cold drawing
(up to 50mm) it is essential to take machining allowance into account. Peeled bar is generally free
of surface defects. A certain allowance for surface defects is recommended however, as minor
defects are permitted by the various national standards (AS, EN, etc.).
46
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
HARDENING
Heat components slowly to
850°C, hold until uniform then
Tempering Diagram 4340
typical values for 30mm section
quench vigorously in oil (or
polymer with an equivalent
100
quench rate) to between 80
Hardenability of 4340
Typical Jominy Test Results according to AS 1444
65
60
Rockwell Hardness (HRC)
55
max
min
50
45
40
0 1.5 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Lower cost and better availability in a range of sizes. However, in general slightly lower impact properties
4140 achieved when heat-treated to similar strength levels as 4340.
6582 Superior impact properties and through-hardening when heat-treated to similar strength levels as 4340.
Substantially higher yield strength achievable, especially in larger sections, when heat treated to similar impact
6580
properties as 4340. Higher toughness is also achieved in 6580.
48
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
The third column in the table above shows the mechanical properties of Wakefield 6580 and the
closest mechanical properties designation according to AS 1444-1996 for reference purposes.
e.g. a 180mm diameter bar with a length of 500mm requires a machining allowance of
2.3mm+0.5x5mm = 4.8mm and therefore cleans up to 175.2mm. 49
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
56
54
Rockwell Hardness (HRC)
52
50
max
48 min
46
44
42
40
0 1.5 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
distance from quenched end (mm)
4.9.9 WELDING
Welding Wakefield 6580 would normally be avoided as this grade has a very high
hardenability and therefore embrittlement in the heat affected zone will occur. If welding is
unavoidable pre-heat to between 200 to 300°C, maintain this temperature during the welding
operation and stress relieve at 550 to 600°C immediately after welding.
50
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
Tensile
1400
Strength
Reduction 50
of Area
Tensile Strengthand 0.2% Proof Stress (MPa)
1300
Proof
1100 Stress
30
1000
900 20
800
Elongation 10
700
600 0
500 550 600 650
Tempering Temp (˚C)
4.9.11 APPLICATIONS
Parts exposed to highest dynamic stresses. Applications where excellent fatigue properties of the
material are required. Typical components include gears, planetary gears, drive pinions, shafts,
bushes and sleeves. Bars with diameters up to 40mm have hardness of 44/45 HRC in the rim
area and given the high toughness of the material Wakefield 6580 will perform well in
applications where currently induction hardened components in grades 4140 or 4340 are being
used.
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TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
* the choice of cooling medium depends on the desired final properties and geometry of the section
to be case hardened and the effect of the cooling medium, given the hardenability of the steel.
After final machining, heat in carburising atmosphere (blank carburise) to 880 to 960°C and hold for
sufficient time at temperature to produce the required case depth. The time at temperature during the
blank carburising process determines the depth of case achieved.
After completion of blank carburisation treatment, re-heat to 860-900°C, hold until uniform and then
quench in oil as rapidly as practical.
A refining treatment is necessary to improve the structure of the case and its hardness. Heat slowly to
780-820°C, hold until uniform and then quench in oil.
Single quench treatment may also be possible where components are quenched directly from 820
to 840°C.
Minimum tempering time is 1 hour, but a tempering period of 1 hour per 25mm of section is
recommended. If the steel is to be direct hardened, in general, a carburising temperature of 950°C
should not be exceeded. After case hardening a typical case hardness of 61 HRC can be achieved.
52
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
45 45
40 40
35 35
max max
min min
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
0 1.5 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 1.5 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 20 25 30 35 40
distance from quenched end (mm)
distance from quenched end (mm)
4.10.8 WELDING
Pre-heat welding area to 250-450°C and maintain this temperature while welding with a low
hydrogen electrode. Cool at a maximum rate of 100°C per hour. Weld before carburising.
4.10.9 APPLICATIONS
Small diameter gear parts exposed to low-medium stress. Typical components include gears, planet
wheels, drive pinions, shafts.
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TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
* the choice of cooling medium depends on the desired final properties and geometry of the section
to be case hardened and the effect of the cooling medium, given the hardenability of the steel
The minimum tempering time is 1 hour, but a tempering period of 1 hour per 25mm of section is
recommended. If the steel is to be direct hardened, then in general, a carburizing temperature of 950°C is
not to be exceeded. After case hardening a typical surface (case) hardness of 62 HRC can be achieved.
Gas carburizing for 2 hours at 925°C results in 0.8mm case depth, whilst carburizing for 24 hours at
925°C results in 3.1mm case depth.
4.11.6 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AFTER CASE HARDENING
The following table shows the typical mechanical properties achievable in the core section of
various diameters after carburizing, hardening and tempering.
Yield Strength Tensile Strength Impact Value (DVM)
Diameter (mm) Elongation (A%)
(MPa) (MPa) (J) min.
11 835 min 1180 - 1420 7 min 41
30 785 min 1080 - 1320 8 min 41
63 685 min 980 - 1270 8 min
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TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
4.11.7 WELDING
Pre-heat welding area to 250-450°C and maintain this temperature while welding with a low
hydrogen electrode. Cool at a maximum rate of 100°C per hour. Weld before carburising.
45
Rockwell Hardness (HRC)
40
max
min
35
30
25
0 1.5 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 20 25 30 35 40
distance from quenched end (mm)
4.11.9 APPLICATIONS
Gear parts exposed to highest stresses and wear conditions. Typical components include gears,
planetary gears, plate wheels, drive pinions and shafts.
55
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
Grade C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo
En36A 0.10-0.16 ≤ 0.35 0.35-0.60 ≤ 0.040 ≤ 0.040 0.70-1.00 3.00-3.75 --
6657 0.11-0.17 ≤ 0.40 0.30-0.60 ≤ 0.035 ≤ 0.035 0.80-1.10 3.00-3.50 0.10-0.25
* the choice of cooling medium depends on the desired final properties and geometry of the section
to be case hardened and the effect of the cooling medium, given the hardenability of the steel
Gas or pack carburise at 900 to 950°C to ensure the correct depth of hardening. Ideal carbon
potential is 0.9%. When pack carburising, use a mixture of old and new crystals to avoid over
carburising.
After carburising, cool to 830°C and direct quench or cool to ambient temperature, reheat to 830°C
and quench. Components may be quenched in oil or equivalent polymer or mar-quenched into
neutral salts at 150°C to 250°C, then air-cooled. There is no advantage in double quenching, but if
required core refine by oil quenching from 835 to 865°C. A refining treatment is then necessary to
improve the structure of the case and its hardness. Heat slowly to 780 to 810°C, hold until uniform
and then quench in oil.
The minimum tempering time is 1 hour, but a tempering period of 1 hour per 25mm of section is
recommended. If the steel is to be direct hardened, then in general, a carburizing temperature of
950°C should not be exceeded.
56
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
45
En36A 19 1000 min 9 min 35 min
40 6657 11 1230 -1480 9 min 35 min
max
35 6657 30 1030
min -1330 10 min 35 min
30
6657 63 880 -1180 11 min 43 min
With
25 6657 a typical case hardness of 62-63 HRC can be achieved.
20
4.12.7 HARDENABILITY
0 1.5 3 5 7 9 11 13DIAGRAM
15 20 25 30 35 40
distance from quenched end (mm)
Hardness Limits for Jominy test Hardness Limits for Jominy test
Typical values for En36A according to AS 1444 (X3312H) EN 10084 specification for 14NiCrMo13-4 (1.6657)
50
Rockwell Hardness (HRC)
40 40
max max
35 min 35 min
30 30
25 25
20 20
0 1.5 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 1.5 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 20 25 30 35 40
distance from quenched end (mm) distance from quenched end (mm)
Pre-heat welding area to 250-450°C and maintain45this temperature while welding with a low
Rockwell Hardness (HRC)
30
Gear parts exposed to highest stresses and wear conditions. Typical components include gears,
planet wheels, drive pinions, shafts, bushes and sleeves.
25
Results in high core strength and excellent
toughness in the components and is very suitable for parts
20
with5 large
0 1.5 3 7
diameter.
9 11 13 15 20 25 30 35 40
distance from quenched end (mm)
57
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
4.13.1 INTRODUCTION
Micro-alloy steels are principally carbon steels with very small additions of alloying elements such as
Vanadium, Titanium and Aluminium. Micro-alloy steels have mechanical properties in the as-rolled
condition similar to those of heat-treated steels (4140, 1045). Therefore they offer a cost-reducing
alternative to heat treated steels.
Micro-alloy steels assume their specific properties through so called thermo-mechanical rolling.
In this process the forming temperature and the cooling speed in between and after the forming
process steps are designed to produce the enhancement of the mechanical properties. Involved are
mainly the precipitation of V and Ti-carbides and formation of a very fine grained ferritic-pearlitic
microstructure during the cooling process. In addition Mn and Si play a role in the crystalline
network and optimally a pearlitic structure low in Carbon is formed during the cooling process.
Microalloy-steels are truly high-tech steels in which alloys have been partially replaced by minute
process control.
C Si Mn P S Al Ti V
4.13.4.1
Tensile Strength 0.2% proof Impact Value K
Diameter (mm) Elongation (%) Hardness (HB)
(MPa) stress (MPa) U (J)
up to 150 incl 850 – 1000 600 min 13 min 30 min 245 – 295
On special customer request Wakefield Micro900 can be supplied in the as-rolled condition
without thermo-mechanical treatment. In this case the product has no specified mechanical
properties but strength and hardness are generally lower than in the thermo-mechanically treated
condition. If the product is to be forged, then Wakefield Micro900 should be supplied in the
plain as-rolled condition and the appropriate mechanical properties will be achieved through the
forging process and subsequent controlled cooling.
58
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
Hot-rolling surface defects are retained in cold drawing. For bright bar in the range of cold drawing
(up to 25mm) it is essential to take machining allowance into account. Peeled bar is generally free
of surface defects. A certain allowance for surface defects is recommended however, as minor
defects are permitted by the various national standards (AS, EN, etc.). A minor sulphur addition to
this grade gives significantly improved machinability.
4.13.7 FORGING
Components are to be forged at 1200°C ± 30°C. Forging finish temperature of the part should be
in the range of 1000 – 1100°C. Down to a temperature of 600 – 650°C a controlled cooling is
to be applied depending on the weight of the part as shown in the table.
Cooling speed
Weight of part (kg) ≤ 1.5 1.5 – 3.5 3.5 – 7.5 7.5 – 15.0 15.0 – 25.0
°C/min core 90 80 60 47 40
4.13.9 WELDING
Under certain conditions the material can be fusion welded. It is recommended to consult a welding
expert concerning the most suitable welding procedure.
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TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
The sulphur addition which is responsible for the improved machining and galling characteristics of
303 lowers its corrosion resistance to below that of 304. As for other austenitic grades the structure
gives 303 excellent toughness, although the sulphur in 303 reduces its toughness slightly.
These comparisons are approximate only. The list is intended as a comparison of functionally
similar materials not as a schedule of contractual equivalents. If exact equivalents are needed
original specifications must be consulted.
4.14.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Specification values in %, according to ASTM A582/A582M
Grade C Mn Si P S Cr Mo Ni
303 ≤0.15 ≤ 2.0 ≤1.00 ≤ 0.20 ≥0.15 17.0-19.0 -- 8.0-10.0
Note that ASTM A582M only specifies hardness – tensile properties included above are not
guaranteed and for information only. Drawn bars, generally up to 25.4mm diameter have higher
strength values. Proof (yield) stress values in particular are significantly higher and the percentage
elongation lower.
4.14.5 CONDITION OF SUPPLY – TYPICAL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Mean Coefficient of Thermal
Elastic Thermal Conductivity Specific Heat Electrical
Density Expansion
Modulus 0-100°C Resistivity
(kg/m³) 0-100°C 0-315°C 0-538°C at 100°C at 500°C
(GPa) ( J/kg.K) (nΩ.m)
(mm/m/°C) (mm/m/°C) (mm/m/°C) (W/m.K) (W/m.K)
7900 193 17.3 17.8 18.4 16.3 21.5 500 720
4.14.8 PROCESSING
As well as reducing the corrosion resistance, the sulphur additions in 303 also result in poor
weldability and reduced formability compared to Grade 304. Sharp bends should not be attempted
in 303. A practical compromise alternative may be a 304 Ugima Improved Machinability grade
- this does not machine as readily as 303, but does offer better formability (as well as excellent
weldability and significantly better corrosion resistance).
Other tolerances may be supplied for more critical applications upon enquiry.
For 303 and303 detailed set-up tables are available on request, specifying machining
parameters (surface speed, feed rate, depth of cut and type of tool) for high-speed steel tooling
and carbide insert tooling for the most common machining operations (roughing, finishing,
drilling, parting-off etc.). Machinability assistance is available for optimal set-up and problem-
solving for specific machining jobs.
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TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
Forging Annealing
4.14.12 WELDING
Not generally recommended but, if unavoidable use Grade 308L or 309 electrodes. AS 1554.6
does not pre-qualify welding of 303. Welds must be annealed for maximum corrosion resistance,
but even then poor mechanical and corrosion properties will result.
62
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
These comparisons are approximate only. The list is intended as a comparison of functionally similar
materials not as a schedule of contractual equivalents. If exact equivalents are needed original
specifications must be consulted.
4.15.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Specification values in %, according to ASTM A276
Grade C Mn Si P S Cr Mo Ni N
304 ≤0.08 ≤2.0 ≤1.00 ≤0.045 ≤0.030 18.0-20.0 8.0-11.0
304L ≤0.03 ≤2.0 ≤1.00 ≤ 0.045 ≤0.030 18.0-20.0 8.0-12.0
Atlas304 bar is generally stocked in “Dual Certified” form. These products have chemical and mechanical
properties complying with both 304 and 304L specifications. Such dual certified product does not meet
304H specifications and may be unacceptable for high temperature (over about 500°C) applications.
4.15.4 CONDITIONS OF SUPPLY – SPECIFIED MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Values below are specified values according to ASTM A276, condition A, for cold finished 304 bars.
Tensile Strength 0.2% proof stress Elongation Reduction of
Diameter (mm)
(MPa) min (MPa) min (% in 50mm) min Area (%) min
≤12.70 520 310 30 40
>12.70 515 205 30 40
Cool rapidly after annealing. Wakefield 304 cannot be hardened by thermal treatment.
4.15.11 WELDING
Excellent weldability by all standard fusion methods, both with and without filler metals. AS 1554.6
pre-qualifies welding of 304 with Grade 308 and 304L with 308L rods or electrodes (and with their
high silicon equivalents). Heavy welded sections in Grade 304 may require post-weld annealing for
maximum corrosion resistance. This is not required for Grade 304L.
These comparisons are approximate only. The list is intended as a comparison of functionally similar
materials not as a schedule of contractual equivalents. If exact equivalents are needed original
specifications must be consulted.
4.16.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Specification values in %, according to ASTM A276
Grade C Mn Si P S Cr Mo Ni
316 ≤ 0.08 ≤ 2.0 ≤ 1.00 ≤ 0.045 ≤ 0.030 16.0-18.0 2.0-3.0 10.0-14.0
316L ≤ 0.03 ≤ 2.0 ≤ 1.00 ≤ 0.045 ≤ 0.030 16.0-18.0 2.0-3.0 10.0-14.0
Atlas316 bar is generally stocked in “Dual Certified” form. These products have chemical and mechanical
properties complying with both 316 and 316L specifications. Such dual certified product does not meet
316H specifications and may be unacceptable for high temperature (over about 500°C) applications.
4.16.4 CONDITIONS OF SUPPLY – SPECIFIED MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Values below are specified values according to ASTM A276, condition A, for cold finished bars.
Tensile Strength 0.2% proof stress Elongation Reduction of Area
Diameter (mm)
(MPa) min (MPa) min (% in 50mm) min (%) min
≤12.70 620 310 30 40
>12.70 515 205 30 40
For 316 and 316 detailed set-up tables are available on request, specifying machining
parameters (surface speed, feed rate, depth of cut and type of tool) for high-speed tooling and
carbide insert tooling for the most common machining operations (roughing, finishing, drilling,
parting-off etc.). Machinability assistance is available for optimal set-up and problem-solving for specific
machining jobs.
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TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
Forging Annealing
Cool rapidly after annealing. Wakefield 316 cannot be hardened by thermal treatment.
4.16.11 WELDING
Excellent weldability by all standard fusion methods, both with and without filler metals. AS 1554.6
pre-qualifies welding of 316 with Grade 316 and 316L with Grade 316L rods or electrodes (or
their high silicon equivalents). Both can be applied for Wakefield 316. Heavy welded sections do
not require post-weld annealing for maximum corrosion resistance. Grade 316Ti may also be
used as an alternative to Wakefield 316 for heavy section welding.
67
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
These comparisons are approximate only. The list is intended as a comparison of functionally
similar materials not as a schedule of contractual equivalents. If exact equivalents are needed
original specifications must be consulted.
4.17.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Specification values in %, according to ASTM A276
Grade C Mn Si P S Cr Mo Ni
After annealing execute a slow furnace cool to 600°C and then air cool.
The tempering range 425 – 600°C should be avoided.
4.17.11 WELDING
Pre-heat to 150-320°C and post-heat at 610-760°C. Grade 420 coated welding rods are recommended
for high strength joints, where a post-weld hardening and tempering heat treatment is to be carried out.
If parts are to be used in the “as welded” condition, a ductile joint can be achieved by using Grade 309
filler rod. AS 1554.6 pre-qualifies welding of 420 with Grade 309 rods or electrodes.
4.17.12 APPLICATIONS OF ATLAS420
Shafts and axles, pump components. Valve cones. Surgical instruments. Needle valves. Shear blades.
4.17.13 POSSIBLE ALTERNATIVE GRADES
Grade Why it may be chosen instead of Atlas420
410 Only a lower hardened strength is needed.
416 High machinability is required, and the lower hardened strength and lower corrosion resistance of 416 is acceptable.
440C A higher hardened strength or hardness than can be obtained from 420 is needed.
Variations of 420 are available to special order often identified as 420A, 420B etc. These offer higher
“specials”
hardness, corrosion resistance and machinability for particular applications. 69
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
Martensitic stainless steels are optimised for high hardness, and other properties are to some degree
compromised. Fabrication must be by methods that allow for poor weldability and usually also
allow for a final harden and temper heat treatment. Corrosion resistance is generally lower than the
common austenitic grades, and their useful operating temperature range is limited by their loss of
ductility at sub-zero temperatures and loss of strength by over-tempering at elevated temperatures.
These comparisons are approximate only. The list is intended as a comparison of functionally
similar materials not as a schedule of contractual equivalents. If exact equivalents are needed
original specifications must be consulted.
Grade C Mn Si P S Cr Mo Ni
431 ≤0.20 ≤ 1.00 ≤1.00 ≤ 0.040 ≤ 0.030 15.0 – 17.0 -- 1.25 – 2.50
431 is generally stocked and supplied in “Condition T” to AS 1444 or BS 970, with specified
tensile strength of 850 - 1000MPa. Yield and elongation are typically in conformance with the
limits listed above.
ASTM A276 only lists a Condition A version of Grade 431; the annealed hardness listed above
is the specified maximum. 431 is only rarely stocked in annealed Condition A.
70
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
Performance is best with a smooth surface finish, in the hardened and tempered condition.
Other tolerances may be supplied for more critical applications upon enquiry.
71
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
Process Anneal - heat to 620-660°C and subsequently air cool. Full annealed is not a practical
option.
Hardened by heating to 980-1065°C, holding for about 1/2 hour then quenching in air or oil. Pre-
heating at 760-790°C may be useful for complex parts or those already hardened. Temper to suit
mechanical requirements, at temperatures as indicated in the table.
The tempering range 425-600°C should be avoided due to reduced impact toughness, although the
effect is less marked than in most other martensitic grades.
Refer to the following table for mechanical properties achieved at various tempering temperatures.
4.18.11 WELDING
Welding is difficult due to the risk of cracking. A pre-heat of 200-300°C is recommended prior to
welding. Grade 410 filler rod can be used, but Grades 308L, 309 or 310 will provide more ductile
welds, so long as matching properties are not required. Post-weld heat treat at 650°C.
72
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
These comparisons are approximate only. The list is intended as a comparison of functionally
similar materials not as a schedule of contractual equivalents. If exact equivalents are needed
original specifications must be consulted.
4.19.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Specification values in %, according to ASTM A276
Grade C Mn Si P S Cr Mo Ni N
2205 (S31803) ≤0.03 ≤ 2.0 ≤1.0 ≤0.030 ≤0.020 21.0-23.0 2.5-3.5 4.5-6.5 0.08-0.20
2205 (S32205) ≤0.03 ≤2.0 ≤ 1.0 ≤0.030 ≤ 0.020 22.0-23.0 3.0-3.5 4.5-6.5 0.14-0.20
Cool rapidly after annealing. Wakefield 2205 cannot be hardened by thermal treatment.
4.19.10 PROCESSING
The high strength that makes 2205 useful in many applications also reduces its machinability.
The high work-hardening rate further decreases the machinability of 2205. Cutting speeds are
approximately 20% slower than for a standard grade 304.
The high strength of 2205 also makes bending and forming more difficult; these operations will
require larger capacity equipment than would be required for austenitic stainless steels. The ductility
of 2205 is less than that of an austenitic grade (but is not low when compared to most other structural
materials), so severe forming operations, such as cold heading, are not generally possible. If severe
cold working is required it is recommended that intermediate annealing be carried out.
4.19.11 WELDING
Weldable by all standard methods, but should not generally be welded without filler metal as this may
result in excessive ferrite. AS 1554.6 pre-qualifies welding of 2205 with 2209 rods or electrodes
to ensure that deposited metal has the correctly balanced duplex structure. Nitrogen added to the
shielding gas will also assist in ensuring adequate austenite in the structure. Heat input must be kept
low and no pre- or post-heat should be used. The lower co-efficient of thermal expansion of all duplex
stainless steels compared with austenitic grades reduces distortion and associated stresses.
4.19.12 APPLICATIONS OF 2205
Chemical processing, transport and storage. Oil and gas exploration and processing equipment. Marine
and other high chloride environments. Pulp & Paper digesters, liquor tanks and paper machines.
4.19.13 POSSIBLE ALTERNATIVE GRADES
Grade Why it may be chosen instead of 2205
904L Better formability is needed, with similar corrosion resistance and lower strength.
UR52N+ Higher resistance to corrosion is required, eg resistance to higher temperature seawater.
6%Mo Higher corrosion resistance is required, but with lower strength and better formability.
316L The high corrosion resistance and strength of 2205 are not needed… 316L is lower cost.
329 Similar corrosion resistance and mechanical properties but higher machinability.
74
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
These comparisons are approximate only. The list is intended as a comparison of functionally
similar materials not as a schedule of contractual equivalents. If exact equivalents are needed
original specifications must be consulted.
4.20.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Specification values in %, according to EN10088-3, 1.4507
Grade C Mn Si P S Cr Mo Ni Cu N
UR52N+ 1.4507 ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ 24.0-26.0 2.7-4.00 5.5-7.5 1.00-2.50 0.15-0.30
These comparisons are approximate only. The list is intended as a comparison of functionally
similar materials not as a schedule of contractual equivalents. If exact equivalents are needed
original specifications must be consulted.
max 0.4 0.7 6.0 0.30 0.6 0.6 each ≤ 0.05, total ≤ 0.15
Tensile strength, proof stress and elongation are guaranteed values as specified by EN 754-2 for
cold drawn bar, resp. EN 755-2 for extruded bar. The requirements as per AS1865/1866 are
within the limits of EN 754/755. Typical hardness is quoted for indication purposes only.
77
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
2030 When free machining alloy is required and better mechanical properties are needed than 2011 offers.
When alloy is needed with good machinability and similar mechanical properties as 2011, but good corrosions
6262
resistance and/or anodising properties and/or weldability are required as well.
79
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
These comparisons are approximate only. The list is intended as a comparison of functionally
similar materials not as a schedule of contractual equivalents. If exact equivalents are needed
original specifications must be consulted.
4.22.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Specification values in %, according to AS1865/1866
Alloy 6262 Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Ti Pb Bi Others
each ≤ 0.05,
Min 0.4 0.15 0.8 0.04 0.4 0.4 total ≤ 0.15
each ≤ 0.05,
Max 0.8 0.7 0.40 0.15 1.2 0.14 0.25 0.15 0.7 0.7 total ≤ 0.15
Ultrasonic inspection normally involves the use of a piezo electric transducer which is both a
transmitter and receiver of ultrasound. The transducer must be coupled to the item to be inspected,
as ultrasound at the frequency used is not transmitted in air. Coupling of the transducer to the item
under inspection may be achieved in two main ways: In the case of the contact inspection method
a coupling medium (oil or wall paper paste, or similar) is used. The other common process used is
immersion testing where the component or material under inspection is immersed in a water bath
and ultrasound is transmitted through the water and into the component. (Corrosion inhibitors are
normally added to the water bath where immersion testing is involved).
Flaw Echo
Defect
Back wall
A proportion of the ultrasound is reflected back at interfaces such as the coupling medium /
material interface, but the majority of the ultrasound should ideally be transmitted into the material
/ steel under inspection. Ultrasound is reflected from the back surface (back wall) of the item under
inspection and off any planar discontinuities that may be present in the steel. (Note: to be able to
detect any the discontinuities present in the steel matrix the acoustic properties of the discontinuity
must be different to those of the defect free steel).
The transducer (as described above) comprises of a piezo electric crystal. Initially, the piezo
crystal converts electrical energy to ultrasound which is transmitted into the item under inspection.
Ultrasound reflected back to the crystal is then converted to electrical energy and this signal is
amplified, and in turn the signal is monitored on a cathode ray tube or digital display screen. The
time base can be calibrated providing information on the location of defects in relation to their
position between the front and back wall of the item under inspection. Also using relative reflectivity
(at known gain setting and beam path lengths) it is possible to determine the size of discontinuities
present. An experienced ultrasonic technician can accurately map the location, size and shape of
discontinuities that may be present. Based on the location, size, shape / geometry of a discontinuity
it may then be categorised as a defect
An analogy is sometimes used to help describe the ultrasonic test method. Imagine being in a
darkened room and a torch light producing a diverging beam of light is allowed to shine on a sheet
of A4 paper. Where the sheet of paper is presented at right angles to the diverging beam of light
more light energy is reflected backwards. If on the other hand the sheet of paper is placed in the
light beam and placed parallel to the diverging beam of light (i.e. edge on) then very little light
is reflected backwards. Similar principles apply to ultrasonic testing in that a diverging beam of
ultrasound is used and discontinuities that present themselves at right angles to the ultrasonic beam
may be detected (assuming a large enough reflectivity applies), while those that present themselves
with their plane parallel to the ultrasonic beam are very difficult or impossible to detect.
Therefore, scanning methods may involve the use of normal and / or shear wave probes. A normal
“0°” probe essentially directs ultrasound into the component under inspection normal to the surface
(i.e. at right angles to the surface). A shear wave probe on the other hand directs ultrasound into
the component at an angle. Common angles might be in the range 30° through to around 60°.
Ultrasound may be diffracted and bent as it moves between material having differing acoustic
attenuations, (this is similar to light through a prism). Also ultrasound changes velocity depending
on the material through which it is travelling. The formula V=fl, where V=velocity, f = frequency and
l = wavelength may be used by an ultrasonic technician. Ultrasonic probes are normally identified
with the following basic information: Frequency (MHz), Diameter and Angle. Please note that the
information provided above is not meant to be exhaustive, rather it is an introduction to the some of
the major principles of the ultrasonic test method.
All rolled and forged steel products contain microscopic discontinuities, such as non-metallic
inclusions. Volumetric discontinuities such as voids or cavities may also be present, originating from
shrinkage or gas porosity. In addition, surface discontinuities or defects such as cracks or seams
may be present, remnant from hot processing of billets or created during heat treatment.
The issue is: when does a discontinuity become a defect? Discontinuity size and shape, frequency of
occurrence, distribution and location all need to be considered. Rejection or acceptance of discontinuities
also depends on the application of the component. The loss of effective cross-section due to the presence
of any discontinuity, loss of strength due to fatigue, and implications of sudden impact are all relevant
considerations.
Ultrasonic inspection is a non-destructive testing method used to locate volumetric discontinuities
and to determine their size, geometry and frequency of occurrence. 85
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
Products benefiting from inspection: 4140, 4340, 6582, 6580, 6587, 6657 and 8620H.
86
6. HEAT AND SURFACE TREATMENT OF STEELS 7. MACHINABILITY AND MACHINABILITY DATASHEETS
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
A large variety of heat treatments can be applied to steels - this feature is one of the reasons that
steels are such versatile engineering materials. The most common heat treatments are:
Steel produced by hot rolling, and allowed to cool from the rolling temperature without strict control.
No separate heat treatment operation is applied, but this approximates a normalised condition.
Bars larger than about 250mm (it varies between steel mills) cannot be hot rolled to final size;
these are hot forged in a large forging press. Again the bars are shipped without subsequent heat
treatment. This condition is only used for steels destined for fairly non-critical applications.
6.2 ANNEALING
Full annealing:
- consists of heating the steel to its austenitizing temperature (approx 890°C for 0.2% carbon steel,
and 840°C for 0.4% carbon), holding it until temperature uniformity is achieved, and then cooling
slowly to a low temperature. The cooling rate is most critical through the transformation range
(around 850°C for a 0.2% carbon steel, and 815°C for 0.4%C). Cooling is usually in the furnace
and so the heat treatment cycle time is quite long.
Sub-critical annealing:
- (or stress-relief annealing) uses a lower temperature (typically 550 – 650°C) and shorter cycle time.
This operation is used when the heat treated component does not have to be in softest condition.
This treatment is to remove residual stresses remnant from heavy machining or other cold work.
Spheroidise annealing:
- is a treatment where the steel is held just below the lower critical temperature (around 700°C) for
a prolonged period, or alternatively heated and cooled to just above and just below the lower
critical temperature. This treatment is only used for steels requiring maximum ductility, such as
those for cold heading to make bolts.
Solution Treatment:
- The annealing process carried out on austenitic stainless steels; solution of all phases in the
material at a very high temperature (generally about 1050°C), followed by rapid cooling to
prevent precipitation.
Stabilisation Treatment:
- is an optional secondary treatment of stabilised austenitic stainless steels (grades 321, 347 and
316Ti) to ensure all carbon is precipitated as titanium or niobium carbides. The temperature is
about 820 – 900°C.
6.3 NORMALISING
Normalising is achieved by heating to a slightly higher temperature than annealing, and then
cooling a little quicker - generally in still air. The microstructure produced is a fine, fairly soft
structure of pearlite, and (depending upon carbon content) probably some ferrite. The result is a
slightly stronger and harder steel compared with the annealed alternative. In low carbon steels
normalising also results in a better machining steel compared with annealed.
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TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
6.4.1 HARDENING
Hardening of steel is achieved by cooling quickly from the austenitising temperature (around 850°C
– 900°C). At this temperature the structure of most a steels is pure austenite. Most steels transform to
some other structure (or “phase”) when cooled from this temperature, depending upon the cooling
rate, and it is these phase changes that generate the various heat treated conditions. Only austenitic
stainless steels and austenitic manganese steels retain their austenitic structures when cooled down
to room temperature. They cannot be hardened by quenching.
The result of fast quenching of low alloy steels is a metallurgical structure called martensite, a very
hard but brittle phase. The hardness of a martensitic steel depends upon the alloy content – the most
significant element is the carbon content, with higher carbon content steels being able to be made
much harder, as shown in the graph below. Very low carbon martensites (less than about 0.1% C)
are relatively low hardness and quite tough. It follows that mild steel, or other low carbon steels,
cannot be hardened to high hardnesses. A medium carbon steel such as 4140 results in a hardness
of up to about Rockwell C 60 (60 HRC) in the fully hardened condition. Higher carbon contents – up
to about 1.0% C will result in as-quenched hardnesses of up to about 70 HRC. Cutting and metal
working tools are almost always made from high carbon steels, so that the required high hardness
can be achieved in heat treatment.
Hardness of Martensite
80
70
Rockwell Hardness C
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20
Carbon (%)
The cooling (also called “quenching”) is carried out in various cooling media, with various cooling
rates achievable. Quenching into brine (salty water) results in a very fast cool, plain fresh water
gives a slightly slower cooling rate, and quenching into oil gives a slower rate again. Simply
removing the hot steel from the furnace and cooling it by blowing air past it is slower still. A polymer
quench is a synthetic water mix, with various cooling rates available.
“Hardenability” is the ability of a steel to be hardened through a section thickness. The graph
above assumes that the resulting microstructure is 100% martensite, but for each steel composition
90 there is a critical cooling rate which must be achieved if the structure is to be fully martensitic.
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
A slower cooling rate than critical will result in a mix of transformation products, possibly including
ferrite, pearlite and bainite in addition to martensite. Steels with high hardenability will transform
to 100% martensite at a slower cooling rate, and hence can be hardened through heavier sections
than can lower hardenability steels.
The hardenability of a steel is related primarily to its alloy content and grain size. Elements that
increase hardenability are chromium, manganese, molybdenum and vanadium. Carbon plays a large
part in determining hardness, but has only a minor effect on hardenability.
Hardenability of 4140
Typical values according to AS 1444
65
60
Rockwell Hardness (HRC)
55
50
45 max
min
40
35
30
25
0 1.5 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
This test can also be used to specify hardenability of steel. Specifications for low alloy steels set
down limits for hardenability by defining a maximum and minimum hardness at each distance from
the quenched end, and the result is graphed as in the hardenability band for grade 4140. A Jominy
test for a Heat of 4140 should give results between the two lines plotted on this graph.
The results of this test also show what happens in the real heat treatment situation, where a bar is
quenched with the intention of fully hardening it; the Jominy curves show that steels with only small
alloying additions have low hardenability and so don’t harden far along the Jominy sample and
also do not harden through large bar diameters. 91
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
6.4.2 TEMPERING
Although as-quenched martensite is hard it is also quite brittle. The brittleness can be reduced (and
toughness increased) by “tempering” - a second heat treatment involving heating the hardened
steel to an intermediate temperature. This results in a trade-off between strength and toughness.
Tempering is almost always an essential second step … as-quenched martensite is usually too brittle
for practical service applications. The response of a quenched (fully martensitic) steel to tempering
is quite predictable; the higher the tempering temperature the more the hardness, tensile strength
and proof stress are reduced, and the more the toughness (impact), elongation and reduction of
area properties are increased. A tempering curve for low alloy steel 4140 is shown below.
This diagram indicates the typical mechanical properties (tensile strength, yield point or proof
stress, elongation, reduction of area and Izod or Charpy impact resistance) to be expected when
the steel is quenched from the correct hardening temperature and then tempered at the nominated
temperature. This diagram is typical for grade 4140, but compositional variations between
individual heats will have some influence on the outcome. Other conditions such as hardening
(austenitising) time and temperature and sample size also have an influence on the properties of
the tempered product. For many steels (including 4140) there is a substantial drop in Izod impact
strength in the range 200 to 450°C so this tempering range is usually avoided.
This data assumes that the steel is fully hardened, i.e. that it was quenched in the hardening heat
treatment sufficiently fast that the structure was converted to martensite right through to the centre.
A steel which is not cooled sufficiently fast transforms to some other products, in addition to martensite,
towards the bar centre. Such a structure is said to be “slack quenched”, and although it may exhibit
the same strength or hardness as a correctly hardened and tempered structure its toughness and
ductility will be inferior. If the component being produced is not able to be fully hardened through
the required section thickness, then another steel grade, with higher hardenability, should usually
be selected.
Tensile Izod
1600 Strength impact 90
Tensile Strength and 0.2% Proof Stress (MPa)
80
1400
70
Proof
Stress
and Izod Impact (J)
Reduction 60
of Area
1200
50
40
1000
30
20
800
10
Elongation
600 0
400 500 600 700
92
Tempering Temp (∞C)
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
6.7 NITRIDING
In this process atomic nitrogen is diffused into the steel surface, similar to the carbon diffusion
of carburising. The treatment temperature is much lower than for carburising, in the range 500
– 600°C, but for generally longer times – up to 100 hours, depending on the steel being treated
and the desired case depth. Under these conditions very hard nitrides form at and near the steel
surface. Steels suitable for nitriding contain the nitride-forming elements aluminium, chromium,
molybdenum or vanadium. Steels containing aluminium will form very hard but thin cases, while
those with chromium will form slightly softer and deeper nitrided cases. Plain carbon steels do not
respond well to nitriding.
As the nitriding temperature is comparatively low this treatment results in less distortion, and volume
changes are low because there is no phase transformation. The normal process is to harden and
temper the component first to achieve the required core properties, followed by machining and
finally nitriding.
94
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
Gas nitriding is usually carried out in an atmosphere of ammonia, which dissociates to nitrogen and
hydrogen at the treatment temperature. Over-nitriding results in a thick layer of iron nitrides on the
steel surface – called the “white layer” because of its appearance through a microscope. The white
layer has a detrimental effect on fatigue life so is usually either removed or the nitriding process
controlled to prevent its formation. Some proprietary nitriding processes have become available,
offering precise control over case depth and hardness and freedom from white layer.
6.7.1 CARBONITRIDING
This process involves the diffusion of both carbon and nitrogen into a steel surface, so combines
carburising and nitriding treatments. The process is performed in a gas furnace using a carburising
gas such as propane or methane, mixed with several percent of ammonia, which is a source of
nitrogen. The process is well suited to continuous furnace operation, and results in case hardnesses
of 60 – 65 HRC and depths of about 0.08 – 0.8mm. Carbonitriding is performed at 700 – 800°C,
followed by a quench into oil or by gas. Distortion is likely to be less than for carburisation but more
than nitriding. Unlike nitriding this process can be applied to plain carbon steels.
In this section general guidelines are given for the machining of the bar product stocked and
marketed by Wakefield Metals. This concerns carbon and alloy steels (section 7.2), stainless
steels (section 7.3) and aluminium alloys (section 7.4).
The term machinability includes all those properties which are relevant for the machining and
cutting process:
Machinability should not be regarded as a material property which can be expressed in a number
or a single parameter. It is a very complex technological construct. The machinability depends both
on the general physical and chemical properties of the material used, as well on the fabrication
process used to produce the material itself, hence we talk about IM or improved machinability
products that are produced in a way to make them more machinable.
The parameters influencing machinability and the outcome of the machining process are shown in
the figure below.
MACHINABILITY PARAMETERS
MACHINING INPUT
CHIP FORM SURFACE WEAR CUTTING FORCE
PARAMETER
Process relates to the type of machining process (turning, milling, etc.) and the kinematical
arrangement of the tools, this is the most important element governing the outcome of a machining
operation. As mentioned, different materials vary in their machinability and the way they behave
under different cutting conditions. For example, stainless steels should be machined with high feed
rate and depth of cut in order to counter work-hardening that occurs. Aluminium alloys should
generally be machined with maximised surface speed in order to counter the tendency for build-
up on the cutting edge. Guidelines for “feeds and speeds” are given in the following sections.
Tool materials should carefully selected, matching the material that is to be machined. Here again
important differences exist between materials: coated carbide inserts work very well for carbon and
stainless steels but are not recommended for aluminium, as titanium (coating layer usually being
titanium nitride) has a chemical affinity for aluminium and will hence quickly dissipate and make
the tool surface softer. 99
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
The cutting parameters given in this section are recommended ranges which have to be adapted to
the specific operating conditions which include factors like tool geometry, machine condition, length
and stability of the workpiece and coolant.
M1020
1045
1214FM
4140
6582
2600 – 2800
4340
8620H
6657
7.2.2 TURNING
7.2.2.1 General Information
The main parameters of any turning operation and their interaction are shown in the diagram
below. tool
f : feed (mm/rev)
Rotating
speed
ap : depth
of cut (mm)
The rate of metal removal is one of the principal variables influencing overall productivity of the
turning operation.
The achievable rate of metal removal is limited by the amount of heat generated during the turning
operation. Research has shown that 99% of the energy that is put into the cutter, feed and speed
is transformed into the form of heat, mainly through deformation of the chip and friction between
the chip and the face of the tool. Therefore, the more energy that is put into the cut, the more heat
is produced. Generally coolants are used to dissipate the heat generated. Chips are cut from the
material which is slightly ahead of the front of the tool and this area is the primary shear zone.
The forces exerted by the cutter on to the workpiece create plastic deformation in this area, which
allows the material to yield to the cutter. Then there is a secondary shear zone that forms where
the chip slides up the face or front side of the cutting tool. This is the hottest area of the machining
operation and temperature in this area can rise to 1,200°C. A third shear zone is located under
the leading edge of the cutter. This zone is formed by springback material at the bottom of the cut
that was depressed as the primary shear zone yielded. These three areas of heat generation are
shown in the drawing below.
Heat Source Q
workpiece
Optimising the metal removal rate therefore needs to be balanced against the negative aspects of
excessive heat generation: shorter tool life and break-down of the tool. Generally, for carbon and
alloy steels this is less of an issue than for stainless steels, which have a very low thermal conductivity
and more heat tends to build up around the tool.
Contemporary tool making companies offer multi-layered inserts for improving its heat resistance.
Usually there is a top-layer of TiN (titanium-nitride) which enhances the frictional properties of the
insert surface. The second coating is made of aluminium-oxide (Al²O³). This coating protects against
excessive thermal overload.
Nickel and Molybdenum-containing alloy steels like Wakefield 6582, 6587, 6580, 6657 and
En39B, tends to show some work-hardening. This work-hardening is quite small when compared
to the work-hardening of austenitic stainless steels. Still, it is seen as advantageous to select a
depth of cut and feed rate to ensure that the actual cutting edge penetrates the material past the
hard zone. This should especially be borne in mind when machining alloy steels with relatively
high nickel content such as 6657 and En39B. 101
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
102
TLAS SPECIALHANDBOOK
ATECHNICAL TY METALS � Technical
OF BARHandbook of Bar Products
PRODUCTS
TLASMILLING
A7.2.3 SPECIALTY METALS � Technical Handbook of Bar Products
7.2.3 MILLING
7.2.3.1 General Information:
7.2.3.1 General Information:
A T.L3 Afollowing
The
7.2 SMSILPLIENC
GIALTY METALS � Technical Handbook of Bar Products
formula are applicable to milling operations.
The following formula are applicable to milling operations.
7.2.3.1 General Information:
TLASremoval
AMetal SPECIArate
LTY METALS � Technical Handbook of Bar Products
Metal
7.2.3 removal
MILLINrate
G
The following formula are applicable to milling operations.
Q
7.2.3.1 =General
ae ·Information:
ap · vf (mm3/min)
Metal
7.2.3 removal
MILLINrate
MILLINGG
Q =General ap depth
aea=e radial · vf of cut(mm
·Information: (mm) /min)
The following formula are applicable to milling operations.
3
7.2.3.1
Metal removalarate
p = axial depth of cut (mm)
The following formula are applicable to milling operations.
vf = table travel (mm/min)
Q = aea=e radial
Metal removal rate
· a p · v
depth
f (mm
of cut (mm) /min)
3
ap = axial depth of cut (mm)
Cutting Q · aptravel
=avfea==etable · vf (mm/min)
(mm(mm) /min)
3
speed radial depth of cut
vn= ·table
D travel (mm/min)
ap = axial depth of cut (mm)
vcspeed
=speed
afe = radial depth(m/min)
of cut (mm)
a318
Cutting
Cutting
= axial depth of cut (mm)
vn
f = ·table
D travel (mm/min)
p
v =n = revolutions per(m/min)
318
Cutting cspeed
minute (rev/min)
n·D
D = diameter of the cutter (mm)
vc =n = revolutions per(m/min)
Cutting speed
318 minute (rev/min)
Feed speed (ornTable
· Dtravel speed)
D = diameter of the cutter (mm)
vc = (m/min)
n =318
revolutions per minute (rev/min)
vf = (or
Feed speed Dn=Table
·diameter
z travel
· fz speed)
(mm/min)
of the cutter (mm)
n = revolutions per minute (rev/min)
Feedvfspeed
= n==Table
·RPM
zTable
· (rev/min)
fz travel
(mm/min)
n
D diameter of the cutter (mm)
z = number of teeth
Feed speed (or travel speed)
(or speed)
fz = feed per tooth (mm)
vf = (or
Feed speed n Table
· z travel
· f speed)
n = RPM (rev/min)
z = numberzof teeth
(mm/min)
fz = feed per tooth (mm)
vf revolution
Feed per = nn= ·RPM z · (rev/min)
fz (mm/min)
z = number of teeth
fz = feed per tooth (mm)
f = znz==·number
fz (mm/rev)
RPM (rev/min)
Feed per revolution
of teeth
fzz==feed per tooth
number (mm)
of teeth
f = zfz ·= ffeed
Feed per revolution
z per (mm/rev)
tooth (mm)
z = number of teeth
f= zfz ·= ffeed (mm/rev)
Feed
Feedperper
revolution
z per tooth (mm)
revolution
Page 103
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TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
.27.2.4.1
Cutting General Information
.4 speed
Cutting speed
7 DRILLING
The main formulas for drilling operations are the following:
n·D
vc =
Cutting speed (m/min)
318
7.2.4.1 General Information
n·D
The main formulas for drilling operations are the following:
vcspeed
= (m/min)
n =318
Cutting
revolutions per minute (rev/min)
Dn · D of the drill (mm)
= diameter
vc =n = revolutions per(m/min)
318 minute (rev/min)
D = diameter of the drill (mm)
Feed speed
n = revolutions per minute (rev/min)
Feed vfspeed
= Dn=·diameter
Feedspeed f (mm/min)
of the drill (mm)
v = nn= ·RPM
f
Feed speed
f (rev/min)
(mm/min)
f = feed per rev. (mm/rev)
vf = nf n==feed
·RPM
f per(mm/min)
(rev/min)
rev. (mm/rev)
n =Rate
Metal Removal RPM (rev/min)
f = feed per rev. (mm/rev)
Q = 250 · D · f · vc
Metal Removal Rate
(mm3/min)
Q = 250 ·D·f ·v
Rate of the cdrill (mm)
D = diameter (mm /min) 3
Metal Removal Rate
Metal Removal
f = feed per rev. (mm/rev)
Q = 250 · D · fof ·thevcdrill (mm)
vc = cutting speed (m/min)
D = diameter (mm3/min)
f = feed per rev. (mm/rev)
vc = cutting speed (m/min)
D = diameter of the drill (mm)
f = feed per rev. (mm/rev)
vc = cutting speed (m/min)
Page 105
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Page 105
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105
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
Cutting Speed Feed Rate (mm/rev) for various drill diameters (mm)
Product
(m/min) 2-3 4-6 7-10 11-15 16-20 21-32
M1020
M1030 70 – 90 0.03 – 0.06 0.10 – 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.35 0.40
1045
1214FM
90 – 110 0.03 – 0.06 0.10 – 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.35 0.40
12L14FM
4140
4340
8620H
6657
U250 80 – 100 0.08– 0.12 0.18 – 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.50
Standard drilling parameters for INDEXABLE CARBIDE INSERT drills, for drilling with external
coolant supply and P25-P40/K40 type tool.
Feed Rate (mm/rev) for various drill diameters (mm)
Product Cutting Speed (m/min)
< 25 25 – 40 > 40
M1020
1045
1214FM
180 – 330 0.05 – 0.10 0.08 – 0.18 0.10 – 0.20
12L14FM
4140
4340
8620H
6657
106
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
7.2.5 PARTING-OFF
Surface Speed (m/min) for various feed rates (mm/rev)
Product
0.05 – 0.10 0.10 – 0.25
M1020
M1030 140 – 180 110 – 150
1045
1214FM
160 – 220 130 - 170
12L14FM
4140
6582 90 – 120 80 – 100
4340
6580 70 – 90 60 – 80
8620H
6587 120 – 150 100 - 140
6657
U250 120 – 160 100 – 140
U400 110 – 150 90 – 130
ROUGHNESS
CUTOFF LENGTH SPACING
WAVINESS SPACING
Deviation of surface shape from a straight line can be classified into two groups:
• Waviness • Roughness
Waviness refers to a low frequency wave-like pattern in the surface as shown in the picture above.
Once the wave pattern is filtered out surface roughness is the deviation of the actual surface from a
reference line. The so called cut-off length is used to discriminate between waviness and roughness,
a common cut-off length for industrial purposes is 0.8mm. 107
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
The following formulas show how the theoretical surface finish can be calculated.
f milling
2
for
Theoreticalsurface finish operations:
7.2.6.1operations:
r − r − ×1000
2
Theoretical surface finish for milling
2 2
r −Ra r=2 − f ×1000
2 2
Ra =
Ra = surface 2 roughness in µm (micrometers or microns)
r = nose radius of the tool in mm
Ra
Ra = surface roughness in µm f
=rsurface =
= nose radius feed
roughness rate
of the in in
µm
tool mm/rev
in (micrometers
mm or rate
f = feed microns)
in mm/rev
(micrometers or microns)r = nose radius of the tool in mm
f = feed rate in mm/rev
7.2.6.2 Theoretical surface finish for turning operations:
Theoretical surface finish for turning operations:
× 1000
f
2
7.2.6.2
Ra =Theoretical surface finish for turning operations:
f × 1000(24 × r)
2 (24 x r)
Ra =
Ra = surface roughness in µm = nose =radius
r Ra (24 × r)
surface roughness
of the tool in mmin µm f = feed rate in mm/rev
r
Note: to convert micrometer into microinch, multiply by 39.4;=tonose radius
convert of theinto
microinch toolmicrometer
in mm multiply by 0.0254.
Ra reference
= surface f
roughness = feed rate in mm/rev
in µmand turning operations at various
The following table gives some values Ra for milling
r = nose radius of the tool in mm
Note: to convert micrometer into microinch, multiply by 39.4; to convert mic
feed rates and nose radiuses.
f = feed rate in mm/rev
by 0.0254.
Theoretical Surface Finish Ra (µm)
Note:Operation
to convert micrometer into microinch, Milling
multiplyOperation
by 39.4; to convert microinch into
The following table gives some reference values Ra for milling and turning o
Turning
by radius
0.0254.(mm)
and nose radiuses.
Feed rate
Nose Nose radius (mm)
(mm/rev)
The following table gives some reference values Ra for milling and turning operations
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
0.05 0.26 and nose 0.09
0.13 radiuses. 0.07 0.39
Theoretical Surface Finish Ra (µm)
0.20 0.13 0.10
0.10 1.04 0.52 0.35 0.26 1.57 0.78 0.52 0.39
Turning
1.76 Operation Milling
Theoretical Surface Finish Ra (µm)
0.15 2.34 1.17 0.78 0.59 3.55 1.17 0.88
0.20 4.17 2.08 1.39 Feed rate
1.04 6.35 Nose
3.14radius (mm)
2.09 1.56 Nose r
(mm/rev)
0.25 3.26 2.17 1.63 Turning Operation
0.4 0.8
4.91
1.2
3.26
1.6 Milling Operation
2.45
0.4 0.
0.30 4.69 Feed rate 2.34
3.13 Nose radius (mm)
7.09 4.71 Nose radius (mm)
3.52
(mm/rev) 0.05 0.26 0.13 0.09 0.07 6.27 0.39 0.2
0.100.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0.4 0.8 0.71
0.40 8.33 5.56 4.17 12.70 8.39
0.50 8.68 6.51 1.04 0.52 0.35
13.17 0.26 9.83 1.57
0.15 2.34 1.17 0.78 0.59 3.55 1.7
108
0.05 0.26 0.13 0.09 0.07 0.39 0.20 0.1
Theoretical Surface Finish Ra (µinch)
Revolutions
(RPM) for per minute (RPM) for selected
cutting diameters
speeds and cutting speeds
7.2.7 SURFACE SPEED – RPM CONVERSION CHART
Revolutions per minute selected diameters and
4255
0
50 255 320 480 640 960 1275 1915 2550 3185
63 205 380 320
510 400
760 600
1015 800
1520 1195
2025 1595
2530 2
80 160 5 0
200 300 255
400 320
600 480
800 640
1195 960
1595 1275
1995 1
100 130 6 3
160 240 205
320 255
480 380
640 510
960 760
1275 1015
1595 1
125 105 8 0
130 195 160
255 200
385 300
510 400
765 600
1020 1275800 1
150 85 10110
0 160 130
215 160
320 240
425 320
640 480
850 1065640
175 75 1295
5 140 105
185 130
275 195
365 255
550 385
730 910510
200 65 1580
0 120 85
160 110
240 160
320 215
480 320
640 800425
250 55 1765
5 100 75
130 95
195 140
255 185
385 275
510 640365
300 45 2055
0 80 65
110 80
160 120
215 160
320 240
425 535320
Related
Relatedformula
formula
n = 318 · vc
D
vc = cutting speed (m/min)
n = revolutions per minute (rev/min)
109
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
Conforms to standards: ASTM A276 Grade 303 – EN 10088–3 : 1.4305 X8CrNiS18–9 – AISI 303
7.3.1.1 Cutting parameters for classical machines, multi–spindle, single–spindle screw machine:
* Second choice possible HSS Tools Carbide tool
Machining Depth of cut Cutting speed Feed Type Cutting speed Feed Type of
operation or width (mm) (m/min) (mm/rev) of tool (m/min) (mm/rev) tool
1 45.5 – 55.5 0.13–0.2 145 – 215 0.13–0.2 P10-M10
Ø Bar ≤
2 39.5 – 45.5 0.15–0.25 120 – 155 0.15–0.25 P20-M20
25.4mm 3 33.5 – 42.5 0.17–0.30 S4–S5 120 – 145 0.17–0.30 P25-M20
REMARKS ON TOOLING:
The use of coated tools (tips or insert) increases the tool life by 20% to 50% using the same cutting parameters,
or it increases the cutting conditions (speed) by 10% to 15% using the same tool wear. We recommended a
TiN coating (PVD or CVD).
110
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
DRILLING:
1. The quality of the cutting lubricant is important. There must be a large quantity (pressure+steady flow) coming
through regularly. On the large drills, it is recommended to use drills with oil holes (internal lubrication).
2. The cutting conditions recommended are valid for a depth of drilling equal to 4 x f maximum.
3. We would advise you use drills with a pointed angle of approximately 118°.
LUBRICANT:
We recommend lubricant with extreme pressure additives.
111
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
7.3.2 303XL
C = 0.07 % max Cr = 17.0 - 18.0 % Ni = 8.2 – 9.5 % Mn = 1.5 – 2.0 % S = 0.35 – 0.40%
REMARKS ON TOOLING:
The use of coated tools (tips or insert) increases the tool life by 20% to 50% using the same cutting parameters,
or it increases the cutting conditions (speed) by 10% to 15% using the same tool wear. We recommended a
TiN coating (PVD or CVD).
112
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
2 100 – 200 165 – 230 165 – 440 0.15 – 0.37 P20 – M20
Ø Bar ≤ 25.4mm
3 80 – 170 130 – 195 155 – 390 0.17 – 0.47 P25 – M25
TURNING
1 130 – 320 180 – 440 260 – 590 0.13 – 0.27 P10 – M10
Ø Bar > 25.4mm
3 100 – 230 130 – 365 210 – 485 0.25 – 0.47 P20 – M20
6 80 – 185 120 – 295 160 – 370 0.27 – 0.57 P25 – M25
1 90 – 170 110 – 200 120 – 230 0.04 – 0.12 P20 – M20
DRILLING:
1. The quality of the cutting lubricant is important. There must be a large quantity (pressure+steady flow) coming
through regularly. On the large drills, it is recommended to use drills with oil holes (internal lubrication).
2. The cutting conditions recommended are valid for a depth of drilling equal to 4 x f maximum.
3. We would advise you use drills with a pointed angle of approximately 118°.
LUBRICANT:
We recommend lubricant with extreme pressure additives.
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TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
7.3.3 304/304L
C = 0.03 % max Cr = 18.0 – 20.0 % Ni = 8 – 12 %
REMARKS ON TOOLING:
The use of coated tools (tips or insert) increases the tool life by 20% to 50% using the same cutting parameters,
or it increases the cutting conditions (speed) by 10% to 15% using the same tool wear. We recommended a
TiN coating (PVD or CVD).
114
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
7.3.4 316/316L
C = 0.03 % max Cr = 16.5 – 18.5 % Ni = 10 – 13 % Mo = 2.0 – 2.5 %
REMARKS ON TOOLING:
The use of coated tools (tips or insert) increases the tool life by 20% to 50% using the same cutting parameters,
or it increases the cutting conditions (speed) by 10% to 15% using the same tool wear. We recommended a
TiN coating (PVD or CVD).
116
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
The relative softness of aluminium also creates problems in machining, such as the low chipability –
the tendency to form long stringers of chips – and the ‘sticky’ behaviour – the tendency of aluminium
part to stick to the cutting tool.
This build-up phenomenon is mostly present at low cutting speeds, when a false cutting edge of the
cutting tool is formed by material sticking on to the tool. The build-up can be reduced by:
Ceramic cutting materials (i.e. Cermet) are not recommended for machining aluminium since the
matrix of this material has a chemical affinity for the aluminium thus making it difficult to achieve a
satisfactory operating life.
Whilst uncoated carbide inserts in grades K01 and K10 are recommended for machining aluminium
machining bar, coated carbide inserts have proved to be unsatisfactory. Titanium compounds (TiN)
are mostly used as coating material and titanium has a chemical affinity with aluminium. Therefore,
titanium diffuses out of the hard coating so that this soon loses its effectiveness.
Tools made out of high-speed steels offer the following advantages: high toughness, high bending
strength, ease of working, low price. Toughness is important, especially since the slim form of the
cutting tool typically used for cutting aluminium has a higher tendency to break than tools with a
negative geometry (as are typical for cutting steel). HSS tools suitable to be used with aluminium
machining bar and an acceptable tool operating life can be achieved.
Diamond tools have substantially longer operating lives compared to carbide-tipped tools, but also
higher precision and better operating stability. Currently polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tools are
widely used for machining aluminium alloys. PCD tools have cutting properties which are much
superior to those of carbide tools. Diamond tools also allow for extremely high machining speeds
(Vc > 1000m/min).
As for machinability, aluminium alloys have been classified into four groups. The standard stock
alloys marketed by Wakefield Metals – 2011 and 6262 – are all part of group 2.
Group 2 consists of hardened aluminium alloys with Silicon content lower than 10%. Generally
these alloys are very machinable due to their high hardness compared to other alluminium alloys.
Depending on the alloy machining speeds vary from medium to high. All the alloys of group 2 are
short-chipping.
124
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
7.4.2 TURNING
The guidelines for machining with uncoated carbide inserts are shown in the table below.
Feed Rate Cutting Speed
Product Depth of cut (mm) Tool
(mm/rev) Coated Carbide (m/min)
3–4 0.75 – 1.00 220 – 250 Roughing (K10)
2011 1–2 0.40 – 0.65 300 – 350 Medium (K10)
0.1 – 0.4 0.05 – 0.20 400 – 500 Finishing (K01-K10)
7.4.3 MILLING
The machining parameters in the tables below are for use of cutters with indexable uncoated
carbide inserts.
Feed per Tooth Cutting Speed
Product Operation Tool
(mm/rev) Coated Carbide (m/min)
7.4.4 DRILLING
The type W-drills with a point angle of 140° and a helix angle between 30° and 40° are most
suitable for aluminium. It is generally recommended to use drills having keen cutting edges and
polished surfaces for aluminium. A high polish in the flutes minimises friction and thus reduces
material buildup. Since the cutting speeds (ca. 100 m/min) used while drilling are small, the danger
of material buildup is large. Aluminium can be drilled using larger feeds than for drilling steel.
Standard drilling parameters for SOLID CARBIDE drills, for drilling with internal coolant supply.
Feed Rate (mm/rev) for various drill diameters (mm)
Product Cutting Speed (m/min)
2–3 4–6 7 – 10 11 – 15 16 – 20 21 – 32
2011
90 – 110 0.12 0.22 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.55
6262
Standard drilling parameters for INDEXABLE CARBIDE INSERT drills, drilling with external coolant
supply.
Feed Rate (mm/rev) for various drill diameters (mm)
Product Cutting Speed (m/min)
< 25 25 – 40 > 40
2011
200 – 325 0.08 – 0.12 0.11 – 0.27 0.11 – 0.27
6262
125
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
AS 1654 / ISO 286 nominal size tolerances for round bar (µm)
Nominal Bar Diameter (mm)
Tolerance Over Over Over Over Over Over Over Over Over Over Over Over
Grade 3 6 10 18 30 50 80 120 180 250 315 400
Up To
3 Up To Up To Up To Up To Up To Up To Up To Up To Up To Up To Up To Up To
IT
6 10 18 30 50 80 120 180 250 315 400 500
5 4 5 6 8 9 11 13 15 18 20 23 25 27
6 6 8 9 11 13 16 19 22 25 29 32 36 40
7 10 12 15 18 21 25 30 35 40 46 52 57 63
8 14 18 22 27 33 39 46 54 63 72 81 89 97
11 60 75 90 110 130 160 190 220 250 290 320 360 400
12 100 120 150 180 210 250 300 350 400 460 520 570 630
13 140 180 220 270 330 390 460 540 630 720 810 890 970
14 250 300 360 430 520 620 740 870 1000 1150 1300 1400 1550
15 400 480 580 700 840 1000 1200 1400 1600 1850 2100 2300 2500
16 600 750 900 1100 1300 1600 1900 2200 2500 2900 3200 3600 4000
Example 1: 45mm h8
"h" is a minus tolerance Max. diameter = 45.000mm
Min. diameter = 44.961mm
129
TECHNICAL HANDBOOK OF BAR PRODUCTS
100 105 335 340 357 36.3 1149 580 610 55.7 2030
105 110 350 345 362 37.0 1165 585 615 55.9 2052
110 115 373 350 367 37.5 1183 590 621 56.3 2073
115 120 388 355 373 38.1 1201 595 626 56.6 2091
These conversions should not be used to determine compliance with specifications. This table does not apply to austenific stainless steels.
120 126 403 360 378 38.7 1217 600 631 56.8 2109
Note: Conversions between hardness scales and particulary conversions between hardness and tensile strength are approximate only.
125 131 418 365 384 39.2 1234 605 636 57.1 2132
130 137 438 370 389 39.7 1251 610 642 57.4 2152
135 142 456 370 389 39.7 1251 615 647 57.6 2169
140 147 471 375 394 40.2 1271 655 58.0
145 152 488 380 400 40.8 1290 660 58.3
150 158 504 385 405 41.3 1305 665 58.5
155 163 525 390 410 41.8 1320 670 58.8
160 168 539 395 415 42.3 1338 675 59.0
165 173 557 400 421 42.8 1353 680 59.2
170 179 572 405 426 43.3 1371 685 59.4
175 184 591 410 431 43.7 1389 690 59.7
180 189 607 415 436 44.2 1407 695 59.9
185 194 625 420 442 44.7 1427 700 60.1
190 200 640 425 447 45.1 1445 705 60.3
195 205 660 430 452 45.4 1461 710 60.5
200 210 678 435 457 45.9 1478 715 60.8
205 215 693 440 463 46.4 1494 720 61.0
210 221 708 445 468 46.7 1512 725 61.2
215 226 724 450 473 47.1 1532 730 61.5
220 231 744 455 478 47.6 1550 735 61.6
225 236 761 460 484 47.9 1571 740 61.8
230 242 20.7 776 465 489 48.3 1591 745 61.9
235 247 21.7 791 470 494 48.6 1611 750 62.1
240 252 22.7 810 475 500 49.1 1630 755 62.2
245 257 23.7 827 480 505 49.5 1644 760 62.5
250 263 24.5 844 485 510 49.8 1665 765 62.6
255 268 25.3 859 490 515 50.2 1685 770 62.8
260 273 26.2 877 495 521 50.5 1704 780 63.3
265 278 26.9 896 500 526 50.8 1724 790 63.6
270 284 27.6 912 505 531 51.1 1744 800 64.0
275 289 28.4 927 510 536 51.5 1764 810 64.4
280 294 29.2 950 515 542 51.8 1782 820 64.7
285 300 29.8 965 520 547 52.0 1801 830 65.0
290 305 30.5 980 525 552 52.4 1818 835 65.1
295 310 31.0 995 530 557 52.8 1838 840 65.3
300 315 31.6 1015 535 563 53.1 1855 850 65.6
305 321 32.3 1033 540 568 53.4 1873 860 65.9
310 326 32.8 1048 545 573 53.7 1893 870 66.1
315 331 33.4 1063 550 578 54.0 1916 880 66.4
320 336 34.0 1083 555 584 54.3 1934 890 66.6
325 341 34.6 1101 560 589 54.6 1952 900 67.0
330 346 35.2 1116 565 594 54.9 1973 910 67.2
335 352 35.7 1131 570 600 55.2 1995 920 67.5
132 340 357 36.3 1149 575 605 55.4 2013 930 67.7