The COLD WAR

1946-1989
 WWII Casualties
total casualties: more than 60 million
Soviet Union: 20 – 27 m. (1/3 soldiers)
China: 15 m.
Japan: 2 m.
Germany: 4 m.
Poland: 6 m.
Great Britain: 450.000
Italy: 472.000 (153.000 civilians)
U.S.A.: 419.000
European Refugees & Displaced Population: 15+ m.

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 WWII Economic Losses

Soviet Union:
- 1.700 CITIES, 70.000 VILLAGES
- 70% of INDUSTRIAL CAPACITY
- 60% of TRANSPORTATION
Germany:
- 75% HOUSES
- 90% INDUSTRIAL CAPACITY

OVERALL EUROPEAN ALLIED DEBT to USA: $13 BILLIONS

- GREAT BRITAIN: -$13.5 BILLIONS
- FRENCH CURRENCY RUINED BY GERMAN OCCUPATION
- USSR: -$9 BILLIONS
- GERMAN DEBT: 10x THAT OF 1939, CURRENCY INFLATION 7x
CONTRAST WITH UNITED STATES SITUATION AFTER WWII:
- NO DAMAGES TO ITS INDUSTRIAL CAPACITY
- FROM 1939-1946 GNP ROSE FROM $ 91 to $ 166 B
- USA DOLLAR IS THE DOMINANT CURRENCY WORLDWIDE
- MERCHANT MARINE LARGER THAN ALL EUROPEAN NATIONS COMBINED

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 1945 Geopolitical Europe

● Yalta and Potdsam agreements settled the post-War Europe,

defining the spheres of influence both of UK and USSR;
● Soviet Troops occupied East and Central European Countries;
● Germany was divided into 4 zones (Ussr; Usa; Uk, France);
● USA was in competition with UK to get a major role in Western
Europe and in Mediterranean Sea;
● France is interested on mantaining good relationship with Ussr, to
balance the UK;
● UK and France intend to defend their colonial empires, but…
● they are economically and financially dependent by the USA.

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 Occupied Germany

● Germany and Austria are divided

in military occupied zones;
● Poland got former Prussian
territories to balance its losses in
the east (to USSR);
● German industries are
dismantelled by Occupants;
● Millions of refugees fled from
East to the West Germany;
● More than 2 millions of German
women are raped by Occupants,
especially in Eastern areas;
● German scientists are requested
to collaborate with Occupants.

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 USA Containment Doctrine
The "Cold War" starts:
● Greece and Turkey crises
Civil War in Greece; USSR asks Turkey for free access to the Dardanelli (1946).
● George Kennan's "Long Telegram"
Soviet pressure had to "be contained by the adroit and vigilant application of
counterforce at a series of constantly shifting geographical and political points". (from
Moscow to the US State Department, February 1946)
● Iron Curtain
"From Stettin in the Baltic, to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended
across the Continent. Behind that line lies the ancient capitals of Central and Eastern
Europe" (Winston Churchill's speech at Westminster College in Fulton, March 5th,
1946).
● Truman Doctrine
● Military and financial support to threatened Countries, avoiding direct involvement,
after UK disengagement in Mediterranea Sea. (address to the US Congress 12th March
1947)
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 Europe 1945

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 the Marshall Plan (1948-1951)

EUROPEAN RECOVERY PLAN (ERP)

USA Secretary of State, gen. George Marshall.
The USA should provide aid to all European Nations that need it.
This move is not against any country or doctrine, but against
hunger, poverty, desperation, and chaos.
$12.5 billion of US aid to Western Europe – extended to Eastern
Europe & USSR, which did non accept it.
Western Europe development has been strictly linked to the USA
economy since then.

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 Marshall Plan in money

ERP Aid to Europe (1948-1951) = 113 bl (current €)

ERP Aid to Italy (1948-1951) = 15 bl (current €)

with the legal form of Conditioned Loans:

any beneficiary is committed
to buy needed products only from USA companies

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 German Monetary Reform (1948)
Western Allies considered a new democratic Germany a basic
point for the future of Western Europe.
After a first phase of exploitement of the German survived industry,
Anglo-American decided to include German in the ERP to rebuild
its economy.
Without informing Soviet Union, United States and Britain
introduced a new currency (Mark).
The Reichsmark and Military Mark became worthless overnight in
the Bizone.
The old Marks began to flood into the Soviet Zone so that Soviets
were forced to introduce, a couple of days later, their own
currency.
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 Berlin Blockade (1948-49)
The currency reform only applied to zones occupied by the United
States, Britain and France – not in West Berlin.
The Soviets followed the currency reform with a blockade of all
roads into the Soviet zone, making West Berlin inaccessible.
The Currency Reform of June 1948 led directly to the Berlin
Blockade and the famous airlift that saved the people of West
Berlin from starvation.
Along with the airlift came the Deutschemark, which became the
official currency within West Berlin.
After June 1948, the economic and political separation of
Germany was a reality.
It continued until the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989.
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 Two German States (1949)

from the Allied Occupation Zones to two separated German States:

(April – May 1949) FEDERAL REPUBLIC of GERMANY (West Germany)
(October 1949) GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC (East Germany

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 The Communist Threat (1948-49)
1948, Pro-communist governs were established in Hungary and
Chzech Republic after violent actions of communists.
January 1949, refusing to "subordinate themselves to the dictates of
the Marshall Plan", the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia,
Hungary, Poland, and Romania founded the Council for Mutual
Economic Assistance (COMECON).
Socialist Federal Republic of Jugoslavia (Josip Broz "Tito") is not
aligned with Ussr.
29th August 1949, First Russian Nuclear Test succeeded.
1st October 1949, People's Chines Republic proclamated in China.
Kuomintang (= Chinese nationalists) took refuge in Taiwan.

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 Military Blocks: NATO (1949)
4th April 1949, Washington D.C.
the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
is signed by 12 States
Belgium
Canada
Denmark
France
Greece
Island
Italy
Luxembourg
Norway
Netherlands
Portugal
Turkey
West Germany (FRG)
USA
UK
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 Korean War
1950-1953
Western strategists were worried about the Soviet
menace in Europe: but the first conflict with
communist Countries broke out in Asia.
Like in Central Europe, the Korean Peninsula had
been divided in two occupation zones along the 38th
parallel, giving birth to North Korea, supported by
China and USSR, and South Korea, supported by the
Usa.
In June 1950, North Korean troops attacked South
Korea, without any support by Ussr.
After a retreath to the "Pusan perimeter", UN troops
leaded by USA counter-attacked, landing at Inchon.
When UN forces get to the Yalu river border, China's
army directly supported North Korea, pulling back
western forces.
In June 1953 an armistice put an end to the war,
making the division of the Country into two States
permanent.
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 USA Security Belt (1949-1955)
Besides NATO, the
USA built up political-
military pacts all along
Soviet Union's
boundaries:
● ASO (1948)
● ANZUS (1951)
● USA-Japan (1951)
● OTASE (1954)
● CENTO (1955)
A security belt of
military basis and
n a v a l - a i r fl e e t s
surrounded USSR in
few months.

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 Israeli in the Middle East
In February 1947, Britain announced its intent to terminate the Mandate for
Palestine, referring the matter of the future of Palestine to the United Nations.
On 29 November 1947, the UN General Assembly adopted Resolution n. 181
recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish States and the
Special International Regime for the City of Jerusalem.
On 11 December 1947, Britain announced the Mandate would end at midnight
14 May 1948 and its sole task would be to complete withdrawal by 1 August
1948: Britain refused to share the administration of Palestine with a proposed
UN transition regime.
On 14 May 1948, the National Jewish Council declared the independence of the
Israeli State: Arab League did not accept it and the war was inevitable. In few
weeks Arab forces were overwhelmed by Israeli forces (air superiority).
With the armistice in April 1949, the Israeli State established itself firmly, while
around 700.000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from Palestine.

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 Palestine 1947-1948

The two States solution

following the never applied
UN Resolution 181.

Israeli State occupying

Palestine after the first
Arab-Israeli war in 1948-
1949.

Source: Atlante Geopolitico Garzanti

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 The Soviets after Stalin
5th March 1953, Stalin's death. The new premier Malenkov
announce a so-called New Course, a collective leadership
bound to direct money away from the arms race in order to
improve living standards.
In 1954, Ussr asked Western Powers to join Nato and re-unify
Germany as a neutral State: both proposals were refused by
Allied foreign ministers.
On 23 October 1954, West Germany was admitted within the
Nato: a move considered highly hostile by Soviet Union.
On May 1955, a military communist alliance (Warsaw Pact)
was established.
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 1956 - Hungarian Uprising
In a secret speech to the XX congress of the CPSU, NIkita Khrushchev
denounces Stalin’s policies and purges and removes his supporters
from the government, without executing them.
Poland refuses Soviet choice for prime minister and puts in Wladyslaw
Gomulka as his leader: he ends up to be acceptable to the Soviets.
In Hungary, the new ministry led by Imre Nagy wants to make the
country neutral: in October 1956, Russian troops were thrown out.
In November, a massive military intervention of the Warsaw Pact
stifled the rebellion, causing more than 3.000 casualties and forcing
100.000 people to abandon their country.
Nato did not intervene, clearly showing that Western Powers accepted
the Yalta's partition of Europe.

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 1956 - the Suez Crisis
On October 29, Israel invaded the Egyptian Sinai. Britain and
France issued a joint ultimatum to cease fire, which was
ignored.
On November 5, Britain and France landed paratroopers
along the Suez Canal. The Egyptian forces were defeated, but
they did block the canal to all shipping.
It was clear that the Israeli invasion and the Anglo-French
attack had been planned beforehand by the three countries.
They had attained a number of their military objectives, but
the Canal was now useless and heavy pressures from the
United States and the USSR forced them to withdraw.

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 1956 – a pivot year
Many lessons could be learnt by 1956 events:
● Usa and Ussr considered the European division in two parts

as a basic factor to avoid nuclear war;

● Cold War was a confrontation between anti-communism

and communism, but it was a way by which super-powers

control the world as well;
● European colonial powers were now being replaced by USA

military and financial stronger capabilities;

● Arab nationalism was growing up in the Middle East, fueled

by the aggressive policy of the Israeli State;

● Nationalist movements were rising in Africa and Asia as

well, starting the decolonization.

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 Decolonization
In less than
20 years, all
the european
empires in
Africa and
Asia
disappeared,
replaced by
formally
independent
but extremely
weak States,
subject to the
indirect
(economical
and military)
control by the
super-powers.

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 Vietnam War: French phase

Communist, anti-colonial, and nationalist Vietnam leader Ho Chi

Minh declares Vietnam’s independence from France in 1945.
Civil war breaks out in 1947: after seven years of fighting, in 1954
the French were crushed at Dien Bien Phu, after 55 days siege.
Geneva Peace accord in 1954 splits Vietnam in two parts, like in
Korea, at 17° parallel:
● North Vietnam – Ho Chi Minh and the communists;

● South Vietnam – French controlled.

France withdrew from South Vietnam in 1955, leaving Vietnamese

political groups to fight for power.

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 Algerian War (1954-1962)
Voting structure had given the French more power than the
native Muslim people of Algeria.
Violent clashes between the Muslims and the French people
born in Algeria (pieds noirs) immediately after the end of the war
spurred on even more Algerian nationalism.
Civil war breaks out in 1954, between Algerian nationalists led
by the National Liberation Front (FLN) and the French.
The war divides French opinion: pro-French terrorist activities
were developed in France as well (OAS). It did not end until
1962 when the new president, gen. Charles de Gaulle,
eventually grants Algeria independence.
Many Muslims who supported France either flee Algeria for
France or are massacred: guerre révolutionnaire concept to win
subversion.
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 Vietnam War (1954-1964)

Aiming to replace France in South East Asia, United States

supported Ngo Dinh Diem, a strong anti-communist nationalist.
The National Liberation Front with its military wing (Viet Cong)
make it a goal to overthrow Diem, so that Diem becomes
increasingly more repressive.
In 1963, Diem is assassinated by an army coup, supported by the
United States, who, hoping to get full control over the South
Vietnam, supported the Nguyen Van Thieu's corrupted regime.
Kennedy started a direct military engagement employing special
forces: his successor Lyndon Johnson steps up the commitment to
South Vietnam, especially after the Gulf of Tonkin incident
(02.08.1964).
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 Vietnam War (1965-1975)
1965–1973: major bombing attacks of Vietnam. Massive use of
technological superiority was not able to win on the field as
vietcong gained the minds of people.
The american body count strategy led to an ultimate . At war’s
peak, 500.000 American troops stationed in Vietnam: 58.000
Americans were killed.
1969, President Nixon gradually withdrew troops from Vietnam,
trying to involve China and Ussr in a diplomatic solution to the
conflict. Peace negotiations started in 1968, but no treaty was
defined until 1973.
1975, South Vietnamese troops evacuated the country, but were
routed by the North Vietnamese, turning all of Vietnam over to the
communists.
South Vietnam capital Saigon was renamed Ho Chi Minh City.
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 Vietnam
War
Historical
Map

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 Berlin Wall (1961)

Until 1961, East German citizen

were allowed to travel to West
Berlin, but it became difficult
after closing the border between
East and West Germany in 1952.
The Wall was erected in 1961
because more than 2,6 million
East Germans escaped to West
Berlin or West Germany from The East German government saw
1949 to 1961 (total population no other way to prevent from
of East Germany was about 17 escaping to the West via Berlin than
million!). closing the border between East
and West Berlin on August 13,
1961.
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 Cuban Crisis (1962)

As a sample of decolonization, in 1959 Fidel Castro overthrow the

corrupt dictator Fulgencio Batista, a mere puppet of Usa, whose
hostility forced Castro to shift to a socialist regime.
After an attempt to kill him and the failed Bay of Pig’s invasion,
supported by Usa (1961), Castro asked Ussr for a protection.
Due to the presence of Usa nuclear ballistic missiles Jupiter in Italy
and Turkey, along Russian south borders, Soviet leader Nikita
Khrushchev agreed to place facilities for nuclear missiles in Cuba
to deter future threats to the island, in summer 1961.
When USAF spy planes detected these facilities, in October 1962
president Kennedy threatened to invade Cuba if nuke missiles
would been shipped there by Kruschev, who, in turn, threatened to
use nukes if the US invades Cuba.

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 Cuban Crisis (1962)
The Crisis kept the whole
world in suspence for 15
days, becoming the most
famous direct Usa-Ussr
confrontation of the Cold
War.
In fact, it gave rise to a
secret deal by which
Ussr removed the
nuclear facilities from
Cuba, and Usa its Jupiter
missiles from Turkey and
Italy.
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 Arab-Israeli Wars (1967-1979)
1967. Six Days War:
Israeli got Cisgiordania,
Gaza, Golan, Sinai and
Jerusalem.
1973. Yom Kippur War:
Egypt led a surprise
attack with Syria. Israeli
reacted invading Egypt.
Usa imposed cease fire.
1979. Israeli-Egypt
Peace Treaty.
1982. Israeli occupies
south Libanon.
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 Invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968)
The new Czechian communist
party secretary, Alexander
Dubček, starts a reforming
approach (Prague Spring), not
accepted by Soviet Union
limited sovranity doctrine.
On August 22nd 1968 Warsaw
Pa c t troops enter
Czechoslovakia, encountering
a strong resistance by The United States and NATO largely
population. turned a blind eye to the evolving situation
in Czechoslovakia. While the Soviet
The human face socialism is Union was worried that it might lose an
repressed. ally, the United States had absolutely no
desire to gain it.
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 Cold War Characteristics

The "Cold War" history is characterized as follows:

● Creation of political-military organizations on both sides;
● No direct conflict in Europe and Americas;

● Asia, Middle East and Africa will be the main conflict areas

for 40 years;
● West higly industrialized world's pillar is TRILATERALISM

(special relationship among Usa, West Europe, Japan);

● Non-Aligned Countries will be theatre of indirect
confrontation among West and Communist
imperialisms,which does not tolerate "third ways".

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 Brezhnev Age (1966-1982)

On 1966, Leonid Brezhnev became the new PCUS secretary.

His long lasting power is marked by growing difficulties to tackle
and solve the main Soviet Union problems, namely:
● Demographic gap: no enough men both for factories and army;

● Collective agricolture failure: dependent on western grain exports

for food;
● Technological advancements focused on military and space
programs, but...
● … extremely poor quality standard in consumer goods;

● High rate of alcoholism;

● Inefficient and corrupt bureaucracy;

● Communist party privileged ruling class;

● Intellectual conformism and fear.

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 East-West Detente (1969-1979)
1968 – Non-Proliferation Treaty signed by Usa and Ussr.
1969 – Growing hostilities between Ussr and China after the
Invasion of Czecoslovakia (Ussuri river incident) are dividing
Communist world.
1969 – Soviet Union dialogue with RFT about "pacific
cooperation".
1971 – The Ostpolitik is promoted by the German prime minister
Willy Brandt to ameliorate relationships with Ussr.
1972 – USA/USSR Antiballistic Missiles Treaty.
1972 – Nixon opens economic relations with China.
1975 – Helsinki Agreements: both Ussr and US officially recognize
postwar European borders (including the division of Germany).
1978 – John Paul II (former archbishop of Cracow, Poland) is the
new Pope.
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 1979, a Turning Point?

Jan 1979. The new chinese leader Deng Xiao Ping visits USA.
Feb-Mar 1979. China attacks Vietnam to stop its leading role
over Cambodgia.
Apr 1979. Ayatollah Khomein (shiite) proclaims the Islamic
Republic of Iran, after the fall of pro-western shah Rezha
Palevi.
Jun 1979. The SALT II Usa-Ussr agreement is signed.
Nov 1979. Islamic Students occupy the Usa embassy in
Tehran.
Nov 1979. The republican candidate, Ronald Reagan, gains
Usa presidential elections.
Dec 1979. Soviet troops invade Afghanistan: but... why?
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 Soviet Union fall origins

Long lasting crisis of Soviet economy.

The bloody engagement in Afghan conflict (withdrawal 1988).
Islamic hostilities in southern Ussr Republics.
The new arm race started by Ronald Reagan (1981, Neutron
Bomb; 1983, Strategic Defense Initiative, so colled Star Wars).
Usa aggressive policy in Central America and Africa (Grenada
invasion, 1983).
Human Rights issues against SU.
Chernobyl nuclear accident (1986).
The Poland situation influenced by the Catholic Church:
Solidarnosc movement as a free workers' trade union.
A "blocked" system: from Andropov to Gorbaciov (1985).
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 Michail Gorbaciov (1985-1991)

Mikhail S. Gorbachev, new general secretary of the Communist Party

of the Soviet Union (March 1985), launched his nation on a dramatic
new course, based on two main concepts:
- Perestroika (restructuring) started with an overhaul of the top
members of the Communist Party. It also focused on economic issues,
replacing the centralized government planning that had been a
hallmark of the Soviet system with a greater reliance on market forces.
- Glasnost (openness) sought to ease the strict social controls imposed
by the government. Gorbachev gave greater freedom to the media and
religious groups and allowed citizens to express divergent views.
By 1988, Gorbachev had expanded his reforms to include
democratization, moving the USSR toward an elected form of
government.

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 1989 End of Communism
February: Hungarian Communists renounce "leading role" and propose
multi-party political system.
April: Polish Solidarnosc legalized again.
May: Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia declare themselves to be sovereign
June: Solidarity claims victory in Polish parliamentary elections; Tiananmen
Square massacre (CHINA).
July: Gorbachev announces that each country can take its own path to
socialism.
August: First GDR refugees leave Soviet bloc via Hungary.
September: Solidarnosc-led government takes power in Poland.
October: Gorbachev visits GDR, encourages reform and independence;
Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party disbands.
November: Berlin Wall opened; Czechoslovakian Communist government
resigns: "Velvet Revolution".
December: Vaclav Havel chosen president of Czechoslovakia; Romanians
overthrow Ceaucescu's communist regime and execute Ceaucescu.
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 1990-1991 End of Soviet Union
March 1990: Lithuania declares independence from USSR and German CDU
wins election; SED (communists) gets 16 percent of vote.
July 1990: Ukraine declares sovereignty; CPSU declares end to its monopoly on
political power.
October 1990: Unification of Germany; Gorbachev awarded Nobel Peace Prize.
December 1990: Lech Walesa elected President of Poland.
June 1991: Croatia and Slovenia declare independence from Yugoslavia;
Yugoslav Wars begin.
July 1991: Soviet Republics negotiate new union treaty; Ukraine's Supreme
Soviet declares independence; Warsaw Pact dissolved.
August 1991: Hard-line communists attempt coup in Moscow; defeated, but
spells end of USSR.
December1991: Ukraine votes overwhelmingly for independence; USSR ceases
to exist.
April 1992: Bosnia declares independence; Bosnian war begins, goes until 1996:
about 102,000 deaths.
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