Anda di halaman 1dari 21

Physics 214 Solution Set 1 Winter 2017

1. The energy and the linear momentum of a distribution of electromagnetic fields in vacuum
is given (in SI units) by
ǫ0
Z
U= ~ 2 + c2 B
d 3 r (E ~ 2) , (1)
2
Z
~
P = ǫ0 d3 r E ~ ×B ~, (2)

where the integration is over all space. Consider an expansion of the electric field in terms of
plane waves:
X Z d3 k h i
~ ~ ~ i(~
k·~
r −ωt)
r , t) =
E(~ 3
E0 ( k, λ) ǫ̂λ ( k) e + c.c. , (3)
λ
(2π)

where E0 (~
k, λ) is a complex amplitude and c.c. stands for “complex conjugate” of the pre-
ceding term. The polarization vector satisfies:
ǫ̂λ (−~
k) = ǫ̂∗λ (~
k) . (4)

~ can be written as
(a) Show that P
2ǫ0
X Z d3 k
~ =
P |E0 (~
k, λ)|2 k̂ . (5)
c λ (2π)3

Note that all time dependence has canceled out. Explain.

Consider the Coulomb gauge, where ∇· ~ A ~ = 0 [cf. eq. (6.21) of Jackson]. In the absence of
external sources (ρ = J~ = 0), we also have Φ = 0 [cf. eq. (6.23) of Jackson]. Using eq. (6.9)
of Jackson, the electric and magnetic fields are given by,
~
~ = − ∂A ,
E ~ =∇
B ~ ×A
~. (6)
∂t
If we write
d3 k h ~ i(~k·~r−ωt)
Z i
~ r, t) = ∗ ~ −i(~
k·~
r −ωt)
A(~ ~
a ( k) e + ~
a ( k) e ,
(2π)3
where ω = kc and X
a(~
~ k) = aλ (~
k)ǫ̂λ (~
k) ,
λ
then the vector amplitudes in the plane wave expansion of the electric and magnetic fields,
obtained from eq. (6), are given by:

~ 0 (~ 1
E a(~
k) = ikc ~ k) , ~ 0 (~
B k) = i~ a(~
k ×~ ~ 0 (~
k) = k̂ × E k) , (7)
c
1
where X
~ 0 (~
E k) = E0 (~
k, λ)ǫ̂λ (~
k) .
λ

That is,
~ r , t) = 1 d3 k h ~
Z i
i(~
X
B(~ ~
E0 (k, λ) k̂ × ǫ̂λ (k) e k·~
r−ωt)
+ c.c. . (8)
c λ (2π)3
Inserting eqs. (3) and (8) into eq. (2) [taking care to employ different dummy variables in
the sums and integrals], and expanding out the resulting expression,

ǫ0 X X
Z
′ ′ ~ ~′
d k d k d r E0 (~ k, λ)E0 (~ k) × [k̂ × ǫ̂λ′ (~
k , λ′ ) ǫ̂λ (~
~ 3 3 ′ 3 ′ ′
P = 6
k )]ei(k+k )·~r e−i(ω+ω )t
(2π) c λ λ′
′ ′ ′ ~ ~ ′
+E0∗ (~
k, λ)E0∗ (~ k) × [k̂ × ǫ̂∗λ′ (~
k , λ′ ) ǫ̂∗λ (~

k )]e−i(k+k )·~r ei(ω+ω )t
′ ′ ~ ~ ′
+E0 (~
k, λ)E0∗ (~ k) × [k̂ × ǫ̂∗λ′ (~
k , λ′ ) ǫ̂λ (~
′ ′
k )]e−i(k−k )·~r e−i(ω−ω )t

−i(~
k−~
′ ′ ′
∗ ~ ~ ′ ∗ ~ ′ ~ k )·~r i(ω−ω ′ )t
+E0 (k, λ)E0 (k , λ ) ǫ̂λ (k) × [k̂ × ǫ̂λ′ (k )]e e , (9)


where ω ≡ kc and ω ′ ≡ k ′ c. In our notation, k ≡ |~ k| and k ′ ≡ |~
k |.
We may now perform the integral over ~ r , using
1
Z
i(~
k±~
′ ′
3
d 3
r e k )·~
r
= δ 3 (~
k ±~k ), (10)
(2π)

and then use the delta function to integration over ~
k . Then eq. (9) reduces to
d3 k

ǫ0 X X
Z
~
P = −E0 (~
k, λ)E0 (−~ k) × [k̂ × ǫ̂∗λ′ (~
k, λ′ ) ǫ̂λ (~ k)]e−2iωt
c λ ′ (2π)3
λ

−E0∗ (~
k, λ)E0∗ (−~ k) × [k̂ × ǫ̂λ′ (~
k, λ′) ǫ̂∗λ (~ k)]e2iωt

+E0 (~
k, λ)E0∗ (~ k) × [k̂ × ǫ̂∗λ′ (~
k, λ′ ) ǫ̂λ (~ k)]

+E0∗ (~
k, λ)E0 (~
k, λ′ ) ǫ̂∗λ (~
k) × [k̂ × ǫ̂λ′ (~
k)] , (11)

where we have used eq. (4) to write:1


′ ′ ′ ′
ǫ̂λ′ (~
k )δ 3 (~ k ) = ǫ̂λ′ (−~
k +~ k)δ 3 (~ k ) = ǫ̂∗λ′ (~
k +~ k)δ 3 (~
k +~
k ). (12)

We can now use the vector identity,

k) × [k̂ × ǫ̂∗λ′ (~
ǫ̂λ (~ k)] − ǫ̂∗λ′ (~
k)·ǫ̂∗λ′ (~
k)] = k̂[ǫ̂λ (~ k)[k̂·ǫ̂λ (~
k)] = k̂ δλλ′ , (13)
′ ′ ′ ′
1
Recall that for any well-behaved function f (~
k, ~
k ) we have f (~
k, ~ k )δ 3 (~
k ±~ k ) = f (~
k, ±~
k)δ 3 (~
k ±~
k ), due to
′ ′ ′ ′
the presence of the delta function. For example, ω ′ δ 3 (~
k ±~
k ) = k ′ c δ 3 (~
k ±~k ) = kc δ 3 (~
k ±~k ) = ωδ 3 (~
k ±~
k ),
since | ± ~
k| = k.

2
using the properties of the polarization vector,

k̂·ǫ̂λ (~
k) = 0 , and k)·ǫ̂∗λ′ (~
ǫ̂λ (~ k) = δλλ′ . (14)

Using eq. (13) allows us to perform the sum over λ′ in eq. (11), which yields

d3 k
 
ǫ0 X
Z
~
P = ~ ~
k̂ −E0 (k, λ)E0 (−k, λ)e −2iωt ∗ ~ ∗ ~
− E0 (k, λ)E0 (−k, λ)e2iωt ~ 2
+ 2|E0 (k, λ)| .
c λ (2π)3
(15)
~
Noting that ω = kc and k̂ ≡ k/k, it follows that
Z
d3 k k̂ E0 (~
k, λ)E0 (−~ k, λ)e−2iωt = 0 ,

since the integrand is an odd function under ~


k → −~ k. Hence, eq. (15) yields

2ǫ 0
X Z d3 k
P~ = k̂ |E0 (~
k, λ)|2 , (16)
c (2π)3
λ

which confirms the result of eq. (5).


Note that P~ given in eq. (16) is explicitly time-independent. This is simply an expression
of the conservation of momentum, dP ~ /dt = 0. This is a consequence of eq. (6.122) of Jackson.
Since ρ = J~ = 0 for a free electromagnetic field, we have P ~ mech = 0, in which case

dP~ P~ field I ↔
= = da n̂· T = 0 ,
dt dt S


where T is the Maxwell stress tensor. The unit vector n̂ is the outward normal to the surface S,
where S is the surface of infinity. For any finite energy field configuration, the stress tensor
vanishes at the surface of infinity and we recover dP~ /dt = 0 as expected.

(b) Obtain the corresponding expression for the total energy U. Employing the photon
interpretation for each mode (~ k, λ) of the electromagnetic field, justify the statement that
photons are massless.
The total energy is given (in SI units) by
ǫ0
Z
U= ~ 2 + c2 B
d 3 r (E ~ 2) . (17)
2
We first compute
h
1 XX
Z Z
2 3
i
i(~k+~
′ ′ ′
~
E d r= d 3
kd 3 ′ 3
k d r E0 (~k, λ)E0 (~k , λ ′
) ǫ̂λ (~k)·ǫ̂λ ′ (~k ) e k )·~r −i(ω+ω ′ )t
e + c.c.
(2π)6 λ ′
λ
h ′
i
′ ~ ~ ′
+ E0 (~ k, λ)E0 (~k , λ ) ǫ̂λ (~ k)·ǫ̂λ′ (~
∗ ′ ∗ i( k− k )·~
r −i(ω−ω ′ )t
k )e e + c.c. ,

3
where the computation is similar to that of part (a). Integrating over ~ r and using eq. (12) as
we did in part (a), it follows that
Z
2 3 X X Z d3 k  
~
E d r= ~ ~ ′ ~ ~
E0 (k, λ)E0 (k, λ ) ǫ̂λ (k)·ǫ̂λ′ (k) e−2iωt ~ ∗ ~ ′ ~ ∗ ~
+E0 (k, λ)E0 (k, λ ) ǫ̂λ (k)·ǫ̂λ′ (k) + c.c. .
λ λ′
(2π)3

Summing over λ′ using eq. (14), we obtain


Z
2 3 X Z d3 k h i X Z d3 k
~
E d r= ~ ~
E0 (k, λ)E0 (k, λ) e−2iωt
+ c.c. + 2 |E0 (~
k, λ)|2 . (18)
(2π)3 (2π)3
λ λ

Next, we compute c2 B ~ 2 d3 r. The only difference in the computation compared to the


R
′ ′
one above is that ǫ̂λ (~
k) is replaced by k̂ × ǫ̂λ (~ k ) is replaced by k̂ × ǫ̂λ′ (~
k) and ǫ̂λ′ (~

k ). Thus,
′ ′
instead of obtaining the factor ǫ̂λ (~ k)·ǫ̂λ′ (~
k ) δ 3 (~
k +~
k ) after the integration over ~ r , we now
have [cf. footnote 1]:
′ ′ ′ ′ ′
k)]·[k̂ × ǫ̂λ′ (~
[k̂ × ǫ̂λ (~ k )] δ 3 (~
k +~
k ) = [k̂· k̂ ][ǫ̂λ (~ k )] − [k̂·ǫ̂λ′ (~
k)·ǫ̂λ′ (~ k )][k̂ ·ǫ̂λ (~
k)] δ 3 (~
k +~
′ ′ ′
k)

= −ǫ̂λ (~ k)·ǫ̂λ′ (−~k) + [k̂·ǫ̂λ′ (−~ k)][k̂·ǫ̂λ (~
k)] δ 3 (~ k +~

k)

k)·ǫ̂∗λ′ (~
= −ǫ̂λ (~ k) δ 3 (~
k +~
k ),
′ ′
k)·ǫ̂λ′ (~
after using eqs. (12) and (14). Similarly, instead of obtaining the factor ǫ̂λ (~ k ) δ 3 (~
k−~
k)
after the integration over ~r , we now have:
′ ′ ′
k)]·[k̂ × ǫ̂λ′ (~
[k̂ × ǫ̂λ (~ k )] δ 3 (~
k −~ k)·ǫ̂∗λ′ (~
k ) = ǫ̂λ (~ k) δ 3 (~
k −~

k ).

Hence, it follows that:


d3 k h ~ X Z d3 k
Z XZ
2~ 2 3
i
c B d r=− ~
E0 (k, λ)E0 (k, λ) e −2iωt
+ c.c. + 2 |E0 (~
k, λ)|2 .
(2π) 3 (2π) 3
λ λ
(19)
Adding eqs. (18) and (19) yields
X Z d3 k
U = 2ǫ0 3
|E0 (~
k, λ)|2 . (20)
λ
(2π)

Note that U given in eq. (20) is explicitly time-independent. This is simply an expression
of the conservation of momentum, dU/dt = 0. This is a consequence of eq. (6.111) of Jackson.
Since ρ = J~ = 0 for a free electromagnetic field, we have P~ mech = 0, in which case

dU Ufield
I
= = − da n̂· S ~ = 0,
dt dt S

where S~ is the Poynting vector. For any finite energy field configuration, the Poynting vector
vanishes at the surface of infinity and we recover dU/dt = 0 as expected.

4
Finally, consider a fixed wave number vector ~
k0 , for which E0 (~
k, λ) ≡ E0 (λ) δ 3(~
k −~
k0 ).
Then, eqs. (16) and (20) yield

~ = k̂0 2ǫ0 k̂0


X X
U = 2ǫ0 |E0 (λ)|2 , P |E0 (λ)|2 = U.
λ
c λ c
That is, U = P c. Comparing p
this result to the relativistic relation between the energy and
momentum of a particle, E = p2 c2 + m2 c4 , we conclude that photons are massless.

2. [Jackson, problem 7.4] A plane-polarized electromagnetic wave of frequency ω in free space


is incident normally on the flat surface of a nonpermeable medium of conductivity σ and
dielectric constant ǫ.
(a) Calculate the amplitude and phase of the reflected wave relative to the incident wave
for arbitrary σ and ǫ

We take the wave to be traveling in the z-direction. Note that “a plane-polarized wave” is a
synonym for a linearly polarized wave. Without loss of generality, we shall assume that the
wave is linearly polarized in the x-direction. That is, we take the incident wave to be
~ = E0 x̂ ei(kz−ωt) ,
E
and the reflected wave to be
~ ′′ = −E0′′ x̂ e−i(kz+ωt) .
E
For normal incidence with the reflected wave polarized parallel to the plane of incidence (with
µ1 = µ2 = µ0 ), eq. (7.42) of Jackson yields (in MKS units),
p
E0′′ n2 − n1 ǫ2 /ǫ0 − 1
= =p , (21)
E0 n2 + n1 ǫ2 /ǫ0 + 1
where the index of refraction is
r
ǫi µi ǫi
r
ni = = , for i = 1, 2.
ǫ0 µ0 ǫ0
Since the incident plane wave propagates in free space, we identify ǫ1 = ǫ0 and µ1 = µ0 . By
assumption, the reflecting surface is nonpermeable (i.e., µ2 = µ0 ).
We can take the conductivity σ of the medium in region 2 by writing [cf. eq. (7.57) of
Jackson]:

ǫ2 = ǫ + ,
ω
Hence, eq. (21) now becomes, r
ǫ iσ
′′ + −1
E0 ǫ ǫ0 ω
=r 0 . (22)
E0 ǫ iσ
+ +1
ǫ0 ǫ0 ω

5
To simplify this expression, we shall write
ǫ iσ
+ = reiθ ,
ǫ0 ǫ0 ω
where 0 ≤ θ ≤ 12 π (since ǫ, ǫ0 , σ and ω are all non-negative quantities). Taking the real part
of this equation, we see that
ǫ
= r cos θ . (23)
ǫ0
Furthermore, s 
2 2 r
σ2

ǫ σ ǫ
r= + = 1+ 2 2 . (24)
ǫ0 ǫ0 ω ǫ0 ǫω
It then follows that −1/2
σ2

cos θ = 1 + 2 2 .
ǫω
We can therefore write
E0′′ r 1/2 eiθ/2 − 1
= 1/2 iθ/2 , (25)
E0 r e +1
and ′′ 2 1/2 iθ/2
E0
= (r e − 1)(r 1/2 e−iθ/2 − 1) r + 1 − 2r 1/2 cos(θ/2)
= .
E0 (r 1/2 eiθ/2 + 1)(r 1/2 e−iθ/2 + 1) r + 1 + 2r 1/2 cos(θ/2)
Noting that  
2 1 1 ǫ
cos (θ/2) = 2 (1 + cos θ) = 2 1 + ,
ǫ0 r
we obtain s  
ǫ
′′ 2 r + 1 − 2 r +
E0 ǫ0
=
E0 s  , (26)
ǫ
r+1+ 2 r+
ǫ0
with r given by eq. (24).
To determine the complex number E0′′ /E0 , we write
E0′′ E0′′ iα

= e .
E0 E0
To determine α, we use eq. (25) to write
E0′′ (r 1/2 eiθ/2 − 1)(r 1/2 e−iθ/2 + 1) r − 1 + 2ir 1/2 sin(θ/2)
= 1/2 iθ/2 = .
E0 (r e + 1)(r 1/2 e−iθ/2 + 1) r + 1 + 2r 1/2 cos(θ/2)
It then follows that s  
ǫ
2 r−
Im(E0′′ /E0 ) 2r 1/2 sin(θ/2) ǫ0
tan α = ′′
= = ,
Re(E0 /E0 ) r−1 r−1
after using sin2 (θ/2) = 21 (1 − cos θ) and making use of eq. (23).

6
By definition, the reflected wave is given by
′′
E
~ = −E0 x̂ e
E ′′ ′′ −i(kz+ωt)
= 0 E0 x̂ ei(α+π) e−i(kz+ωt) ,
E0

after writing eiπ = −1. Hence, the amplitude of the reflected wave is
 s   1/2
ǫ
r + 1 − 2 r +
ǫ0 


  E0 ,
 s  
ǫ 


r+1+ 2 r+
ǫ0

and the relative phase of the incident and reflected wave at the interface (z = 0) is2
p !
2 (r − ǫ/ǫ0 )
φrel ≡ α + π = π + tan−1 , (27)
r−1

where r
ǫ σ2
r= 1+ . (28)
ǫ0 ǫ2 ω 2

(b) Discuss the limiting cases of a very poor and a very good conductor, and show that
for a good conductor the reflection coefficient (ratio of reflected to incident intensity) is ap-
proximately
ω
R ≃ 1−2 δ, (29)
c
where δ is the skin depth.

First, we discuss the poor conducting limit, σ ≪ ǫω. It is convenient to introduce the
dimensionless ratio,
σ
λ≡ .
ǫω
Then, eq. (28) yields
ǫ
1 + 21 λ2 ,

r≃
ǫ0
Using eq. (26), we identify the reflection coefficient as
q
ǫ 1 2 ǫ 1 2

′′ 2 (1 + λ ) + 1 − 2 1 + λ
p 2 1 2
p p 1

E0 ǫ0 2 ǫ0 4 ( ǫ/ǫ0 − 1) + 2 λ ǫ/ǫ0 ǫ/ǫ0 − 2
R ≡ ≃ q = p p .
E0 ( ǫ/ǫ0 + 1)2 + 12 λ2 ǫ/ǫ0 ǫ/ǫ0 + 21
p
ǫ
(1 + 1 λ2 ) + 1 + 2 ǫ 1 + 1 λ2
ǫ0 2 ǫ0 4

2
We are assuming that ǫ > ǫ0 in which case r > 1 and the complex number E0′′ /E0 lies in the first quadrant
of the complex plane where both its real and imaginary parts are positive. In this case 0 < α < 21 π.

7
Expanding out the denominator, we obtain after some algebra,
′′ 2 p !2  
ǫ/ǫ − 1
r
E0 0 2 ǫ 1 − 3ǫ/ǫ0 4
R ≡ = p 1 − 21 λ + O(λ ) .
E0 ǫ/ǫ0 + 1 ǫ0 (ǫ/ǫ0 − 1)2

Similarly, eq. (27) yields p


λ ǫ/ǫ0
φrel ≃π+ + O(λ2 ) ,
ǫ/ǫ0 − 1
under the assumption that λ(ǫ/ǫ0 − 1)−1 ≪ 1.3
Next, we consider the limit of a good conduction, corresponding to σ ≫ ωǫ. In this limit,
σ
r≃ ≫ 1.
ǫ0 ω
Hence, eq. (26) yields
′′ 2 √ p r r
E0 r − 2r 1 − 2/r 2 2ǫ0 ω
R ≡ ≃ √ ≃ p ≃1−2 ≃1−2 .
E0 r + 2r 1 + 2/r r σ
Introducing the skin depth, r
2
δ≡ , (30)
ωσµ
we see that (using µ = µ0 ) that
′′ 2
E √ 2ωδ
R ≡ 0 ≃ 1 − 2ωδ ǫ0 µ0 ≃ 1 − , (31)
E0 c
after making use of the relation ǫ0 µ0 = 1/c2 .
Employing the same approximation (r ≫ 1), it follows that
r r
−1 2 2 ω
φrel ≃ π + tan ≃π+ ≃ π+ δ.
r r c

3. [Jackson, problem 7.6] A plane wave of frequency ω is incident normally from vacuum on
a semi-infinite slab of material with a complex index of refraction n(ω) [n2 (ω) = ǫ(ω)/ǫ0 ].
(a) Show that the ratio of the reflected power to the incident power is
1 − n(ω) 2

R = , (32)
1 + n(ω)
while the ratio of power transmitted into the medium to the incident power is
4 Re n(ω)
T = . (33)
|1 + n(ω)|2

3
By assumption of the problem, ǫ 6= ǫ0 . So we see how small λ must be in order for the first order
approximation of the arctangent to be valid.

8
The derivation of the Fresnel equations holds for complex index of refraction, so we conclude
that for a wave incident normally to the plane (with µ = µ0 ), eq. (7.42) of Jackson gives,
E0′′
 
n(ω) − 1
=± ,
E0 n(ω) + 1
where the plus (minus) sign refers to the incident wave polarized parallel (perpendicular) to
the plane of incidence. As in the previous problem, we shall assume that the incident wave
is traveling in the z-direction and is linearly polarized in the x-direction. Then, the incident
and the reflected waves are given by,
~ = x̂E0 ei(kz−ωt) ,
E
~ ′′ = −x̂E0′′ e−i(kz+ωt) .
E

The corresponding magnetic fields are obtained using

B~ = √ǫ0 µ0 k̂ × E ~, ~ ′′ = √ǫ0 µ0 k̂′′ × E


B ~ ′′ ,

where k̂ = ẑ and k̂′′ = −ẑ for normal incidence. Hence,

~ = ŷ E0 ei(kz−ωt) ,
B
c
′′
~ ′′ = ŷ E0 e−i(kz+ωt) ,
B
c

after using ǫ0 µ0 = 1/c.
The (complex) Poynting vector points in the z-direction,
1 ǫ0
r
1 ~ H
Sz = 2 Re(E× ~ )z =

|E0 |2 ,
2 µ0
~ = µ0 H.
after using B ~ Similarly,

1 ǫ0
r
Sz′′ =− |E0 |2 .
2 µ0
Hence, it follows that ′′ ′′ 2
n(ω) − 1 2

Sz E0
R = = = ,
Sz E0 n(ω) + 1
which is equivalent to eq. (32).
Next, we consider the transmitted waves,
~ ′ = x̂E0′ ei(k′ z−ωt) ,
E (34)
~ ′ = ŷ √ǫµ0 E0′ ei(k′ z−ωt) ,
B (35)

where k ′ = kn(ω) = (ω/c)n(ω).

9
For normal incidence (with µ = µ0 ), eq. (7.42) of Jackson gives,

E0′ 2
= .
E0 n(ω) + 1

The (complex) Poynting vector at the interface (i.e., at z = 0) points in the z-direction,

ǫ
r
′ 1 ~ ~ ∗ 1 ′
Sz = 2 Re(E×H )z = 2 |E0 | Re = 12 |E0′ |2 Re n(ω) , (36)
µ

after making use of, r


ǫµ ǫ
r
n(ω) = = .
ǫ0 µ0 ǫ0
Thus, it follows that ′ ′ 2
S E 4 Re n(ω)
T = z = 0 Re n(ω) = , (37)
Sz E0 |n(ω) + 1|2
in agreement with eq. (33). Note that as expected,

|n(ω) − 1|2 + 4 Re n(ω)


T +R= = 1.
|n(ω) + 1|2

~ ·D
(b) Evaluate 21 Re iω E ~∗ −B~ ·H
~ ∗ ) as a function of (x, y, z). Show that this rate of
 

change of energy per unit volume accounts for the relative transmitted power T .

~ ′ = ǫE
Using D ~ ′ , it then follows (for µ = µ0 ) that,


~ ′ ·D
E ~ ′∗ − B
~ ′ ·H
~ ′∗ = ǫ∗ E ~ ′∗ − 1 B
~ ′ ·E ~ ′ ·B
~ ′∗ = ǫ∗ |E0′ |2 ei(k′ −k′∗ )z − ǫǫ∗ |E0′ |2 ei(k′ −k′∗ )z ,
µ0

where the factors of µ0 have cancelled. We next observe that ǫǫ∗ = |ǫ|2 = ǫ20 |n(ω)|4 and

k ′ − k ′∗ = k n(ω) − n∗ (ω) = 2ik Im n(ω) ,


 
(38)

where k = ω/c. Hence,

~ ′ ·D
~ ′∗ − B
~ ′ ·H
~ ′∗ = [n∗ (ω)]2 − |n(ω)|2 ǫ0 |E0′ |2 e−2kz Im n(ω) .

E (39)

Noting that

[n∗ (ω)]2 − |n(ω)|2 = [Re n − i Im n]2 − (Re n)2 − (Im n)2 = −2i(Re n)(Im n) − 2(Im n)2 ,

it follows that
1 ~ ′ ·D
~ ′∗ − B
~ ′ ·H
~ ′∗ ) = ωǫ0 |E0′ |2 (Re n)(Im n)e−2kz Im n(ω) .
 
2
Re iω(E (40)

10
The complex Poynting theorem for harmonic fields states that for J~ = 0 [cf. eq. (6.134) of
Jackson], Z I
~ ′ ~ ′∗ ~ ′ ~ ′∗ ~ ′ · n̂ da ,
1
 3
2
iω E ·D − B ·H d x = − S
V S

where S~ =
′ 1 ~
(E×H ~ ) is the complex Poynting vector and n̂ points out of the volume V .

2
3
If we decompose d x = da dz, where da is the infinitesimal area element transverse to the
z-direction, and identify n̂ = −ẑ, then we can write,
Z ∞
1 ~ ′ ·D
~ ′∗ − B
~ ′ ·H
~ ′∗ ) dz = Re Sz′ .
 
2
Re iω( E (41)
0

We interpret 21 Re iω(E~ ′ ·D
~ ′∗ − B
~ ′ ·H
~ ′∗ ) as the rate of change of energy per unit volume.
 

Using eq. (40),


Z ∞ Z ∞
1 ~ ′ ~ ′∗ ~ ′ ~ ′∗ ′ 2
e−2kz Im n(ω) dz = 12 ǫ0 c|E0′ |2 Re n ,
 
2
Re iω(E · D −B · H ) dz = ωǫ0 |E0 | (Re n)(Im n)
0 0

after using k = ω/c. Physically, this quantity is the transmitted energy flux (i.e. energy per
unit time per unit area). The transmission coefficient T is simply the ratio of the transmitted
energy flux to the incident energy flux.
In part (a), we made use of eq. (7.13) of Jackson, which states that the incident energy
flux (which Jackson calls the energy flow) is given by,

1 ǫ0
r
~
S · n̂ = |E0 |2 .
2 µ0

Hence we can identify


ǫ0 c|E0′ |2 Re n
T = p .
ǫ0 /µ0 |E0 |2

Finally, using ǫ0 µ0 = 1/c, we end up with
′ 2
E
T = 0 Re n(ω) ,
E0

in agreement with eq. (37).

(c) For a conductor with n2 = 1 + i(σ/ωǫ0 ), where σ is real, write out the results of parts
(a) and (b) in the limit of ǫ0 ω ≪ σ. Express your answer in terms of δ as much as possible.

Calculate 21 Re(J~ · E)
~ and compare with the results of part (b). Do both enter the complex
form of Poynting’s theorem?

Using

n2 (ω) = 1 + , (42)
ωǫ0

11
under the assumption that ǫ0 ω ≪ σ, we insert eq. (42) into eq. (21) and obtain,
r 2

′′ 2 1 + − 1
E0 ωǫ 0

R = = r .
E0 1 + iσ + 1

ωǫ0

This result precisely matches the result obtained in problem 2(a) after setting ǫ = ǫ0 in
eq. (22). Thu, we can make immediate use of eq. (31) to obtain.
′′ 2
E 2ωδ
R ≡ 0 ≃ 1 − ,
E0 c

where the skin depth δ is defined in eq. (30). Moreover, since T + R = 1, it follows that

T ≃ δ.
c
In class, we noted that in the limit of σ ≫ ǫ0 ω, we have
ω 1+i
k = n(ω) ≃ .
c δ
It then follows that
c
Re n(ω) = Im n(ω) ≃ . (43)
ωδ
Inserting this result into eq. (39) then yields,
′ 2 2
1 ~ ′ ·D ~ ′∗ = ǫ0 |E0 | c e−2z/δ ,
~ ′ ·H
~ ′∗ − B
 
2
Re iω(E
ωδ 2
after using k = ω/c. The expression above is further simplified after using eq. (30) and
c2 = 1/(ǫ0 µ0 ),
1 ~ ′ ·D
~ ′∗ − B
~ ′ ·H
~ ′∗ ) = 1 σ|E0′ |2 e−2z/δ .
 
2
Re iω(E 2
(44)
Next, we use J~ = σ E
~ ′ and compute,

Re J~ ∗ · E
~ ′ = 1 σ Re E
~ ∗ ·E
~ ′ = 1 σ|E0′ |2 Re ei(k −k
′ ′∗ )z
1
2 2 2
= 21 σ|E0′ |2 e−2z/δ (45)

after using eqs. (34) and (38) and expressing the result in terms of the skin depth [cf. eq. (30)].
The complex Poynting theorem [see eq. (6.134) of Jackson] states that
1 ~∗ ~ ~ S~ + 1 iω(E
~ ′ ·D ~ ′ ·H
~ ′∗ − B ~ ′∗ ) = 0 .
2
J ·E + ∇· 2
(46)

We therefore compute [cf. eq. (36)],

~ = Re ∂Sz = 1 |E0′ |2 ǫ0 ∂
r
~ S
Re ∇· Re n(ω) e−2z/δ . (47)
2
∂z µ0 ∂z

12
In light of eq. (43),
∂ −2z/δ c
Re n(ω) e = − 2 = −µ0 cσ ,
∂z ωδ

after using eq. (30). Inserting this result back into eq. (47) and putting ǫ0 µ0 = 1/c, we end
up with
~ S
Re ∇· ~ = − 1 σ|E0′ |2 e−2zδ . (48)
2
Adding up eqs. (45) and (48) yields
1
Re J~ ∗ · E
~ ′ + ∇·
~ S~ = 0,
 
2

which cannot be consistent with the complex Poynting theorem given in eq. (46) in light of
eq. (44).
The resolution of this paradox is as follows. Returning to the complex Poynting theorem
given by eq. (46), there are two equivalent methods for treating the conducting medium.
~ ′ = ǫ0 E
1. D ~ ′ and J~ = σ E
~′

or
 
~′= iσ ~ ′
2. D ǫ0 + E and J~ = 0.
ω
In method (1), the conduction current and charges are designated as “free”, whereas in
method (2) they are designated as “bound” (and therefore incorporated into D). ~
The paradox encountered above arises because we used both D ~ ′ = (ǫ0 + iσ/ω)E
~ ′ and
J~ = σ E
~ ′ simultaneously (which double counts the effect of the conduction current in the
energy budget). In method (2), the 12 Re J~ ∗ · E~ ′ in eq. (46) is absent. Using eqs. (44) and
(48), which we rewrite below,
1 ~ ′ ·D ~ ′ ·H
~ ′∗ − B ~ ′∗ ) = 1 σ|E0′ |2 e−2z/δ ,
 
2
Re iω(E 2

~ S
Re ∇· ~ = − 1 σ|E0′ |2 e−2zδ , (49)
2

we see that
~ S ~ ′ ·D
~ + 1 iω(E ~ ′ ·H
~ ′∗ − B ~ ′∗ ) = 0 ,
 
Re ∇· 2
(50)
which is consistent with the complex Poynting theorem [cf. eq. (46)] with J~ = 0.
Note that in method (2), we can write
~ ′ ·D
iω E ~ ′ ∗ = iωǫ0 E
~ ′ ·E
~ ′ ∗ + σE
~ ′ ·E
~ ′ ∗ = iωǫ0 E
~ ′ ·E
~ ′ ∗ + J~ ∗ · E
~′,
~ ′ in the last term above. Thus, we can rewrite eq. (50) as
after identifying J~ = σ E
Re 1 J~ ∗ · E
~ ′ + ∇·
~ S~ + 1 iω E
~ ′ ·(ǫ0 E
~ ′ )∗ − B
~ ′ ·H
~ ′∗ = 0 .
 
2 2

This result is consistent with the complex Poynting theorem applied to method (1), where we
~ ′ = ǫ0 E
identify D ~ ′.
We conclude that in both methods (1) and (2) for treating a conducting medium, the
complex Poynting theorem is indeed satisfied.

13
4. [Jackson, problem 7.27] The angular momentum of a distribution of electromagnetic fields
in vacuum (in SI units) is given by

1
Z
~
L= d3 r ~ ~ × B)
r × (E ~ , (51)
µ 0 c2
where the integration is over all space.
(a) For fields produced a finite time in the past (and so localized to a finite region of space)
show that, provided the magnetic field is eliminated in favor of the vector potential A, ~ the
angular momentum can be written in the form
" 3
#
1
Z X
~ =
L d3 r E~ ×A~+ Eℓ (~ ~ ℓ .
r × ∇)A (52)
µ 0 c2 ℓ=1

The first term above is sometimes identified with the “spin” of the photon and the second with
the “orbital” angular momentum because of the presence of the angular momentum operator
~ op = −i(~
L ~
r × ∇).

The magnetic field can be written in terms of the vector potential, B ~ =∇ ~ × A.


~ Hence,
we need to evaluate ~ ~ × (∇
r × [E ~ × A)].
~ Using the Einstein summation convention, where
there is an implicit summation over a pair of identical indices, we can write4

a × ~b)i = ǫijk aj bk ,
(~

where the indices take on the values i, j, k = 1, 2, 3 and there is an implicit sum over j and k.
The Levi-Civita tensor is defined as

+1 ,
 if (i, j, k) is an even permutation of (1, 2, 3),
ǫijk = −1 , if (i, j, k) is an odd permutation of (1, 2, 3),

0, otherwise.

Thus, it follows that


~ ∇× ~ A)]~ ~ ∇×~ A)]
~ k = ǫijk xj ǫkℓm Eℓ (∇×
~ A)
~ m = ǫijk xj ǫkℓm Eℓ ǫmpq ∇p Aq ,

~
r ×[E×( i
= ǫijk xj [E×(

where ~
r ≡ (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and ∇p ≡ ∂/∂xp . We now employ the following ǫ-identity,

ǫkℓm ǫmpq = δkp δℓq − δkq δℓp .

Hence, it follows that


~ × (∇ ~ × A)]
~

r × [E
~ i
= ǫijk xj Eℓ (δkp δℓq − δkq δℓp )δℓp = ǫijk xj Eℓ ∇k Aℓ − ǫijk xj Eℓ ∇ℓ Ak . (53)
4
In this calculation, all vectors of Euclidean three-vectors. Consequently, we do not distinguish between
upper and lower indices. All indices will be written as subscripts in what follows.

14
We recognize ǫijk xj Eℓ ∇k Aℓ = Eℓ (~ ~ i Aℓ which corresponds to the second term in eq. (52).
r × ∇)
To obtain the first term in eq. (52) will require an integration by parts. That is, we first write:

ǫijk xj Eℓ ∇ℓ Ak = ǫijk [∇ℓ (xj Eℓ Ak ) − Ak ∇ℓ (xj Ek )] ,

which is an identity that follows from the rule for differentiating products. Next, we note that
~ × A)
ǫijk Ak ∇ℓ (xj Eℓ ) = ǫijk Ak [xj (∇ℓ Eℓ ) + Eℓ (∇ℓ xj )] = ǫijk Ak Eℓ δℓj = ǫijk Ak Ej = (E ~ i,

~ E
where we used δℓ xj ≡ ∂xj /∂xℓ = δℓj and ∇ℓ Eℓ = ∇· ~ = 0 (in vacuum). Thus, eq. (53) yields
the vector identity,
~ × (∇
~ × A)]
~ ~ i Aℓ + (E
~ × A)~ i − ǫijk ∇ℓ (xj Eℓ Ak ) ,

~r × [E i
= Eℓ (~
r × ∇) (54)

where there is an implicit sum over the repeated index ℓ.


When we integrate over all of space, we can use the divergence theorem [given in the inside
cover of Jackson’s textbook]:
Z I I
3
d r ǫijk ∇ℓ (xj Eℓ Ak ) = da ǫijk nℓ xj Eℓ Ak = ~ (~
da n̂· E ~ i = 0,
r × A) (55)
V S S

where nℓ is the outward normal at the surface S and S is the surface of infinity. Since the fields
are assumed to be localized to a finite region of space, the integral above vanishes. Hence,
~ =∇
inserting the results of eqs. (54) and (55) into eq. (51) [after putting B ~ × A]
~ immediately
yields " #
Z Z X3
d3 r ~
r × (E~ × B)
~ = d3 r E ~ ×A ~+ Eℓ (~ ~ ℓ .
r × ∇)A
ℓ=1

Therefore, eq. (52) is proven.


REMARK: The identification of
1
Z
~ spin
L = ~ ×A
d3 r E ~, (56)
µ 0 c2
as the spin angular momentum is problematical, as eq. (56) is not invariant under gauge
transformations. In fact, a gauge-invariant expression for the spin angular momentum can be
constructed that reduces to eq. (56) in the radiation (Coulomb) gauge.5

(b) Consider an expansion of the vector potential in the radiation (Coulomb) gauge in
terms of plane waves,
X Z d3 k h i
~ ~ ~ i(~
k ·~
r −iωt)
A(~r , t) = 3
ǫ̂ λ ( k)aλ ( k)e + c.c. . (57)
λ
(2π)
5
See e.g., Iwo Bialynicki-Birula and Zofia Bialynicki-Birula, Journal of Optics 13, 064014 (2011) and
references therein.

15
The vectors ǫ̂λ (~
k) are conveniently chosen as the positive and negative helicity polarization
6
vectors
1
ǫ̂± = ∓ √ (ǫ̂1 ± iǫ̂2 ) , (58)
2
where ǫ̂1 and ǫ̂2 are the real orthogonal vectors in the plane whose positive normal is in the
direction of ~
k.
Show that the time average of the first (spin) term of L ~ can be written as

2 d3 k ~ h
Z i
~ spin =
L k |a+ (~k)| 2
− |a− (~k)| 2
.
µ0 c (2π)3

Can the term “spin” angular momentum be justified from this expression? Calculate the
~ and compare.
energy of the field in terms of the plane wave expansion of A

In the Coulomb gauge, the electric field is (in SI units):

~
∂A X Z d3 k h i
~ ~ ~ i(~
k ·~
r −iωt)
r , t) = −
E(~ =i 3
ω ǫ̂λ ( k)aλ ( k)e − c.c. , (59)
∂t λ
(2π)

where ω = ck and k ≡ |~ k|. Note that due to the overall factor of i, we must subtract the
complex conjugate inside the square brackets in order to ensure that E(~ ~ r, t) is a real field.
Inserting eqs. (57) and (59) into eq. (56) and expanding out the integrand, we obtain:

1 i XX
Z
′ ′ ~ ~′
~ k)×ǫ̂λ′ (~
ω d k d k d r [ǫ̂λ (~ k)aλ′ (~
k )]aλ (~
3 3 ′ 3 ′
Lspin = 2 6
k )ei(k+k )·~r e−i(ω+ω )t
µ0 c (2π) λ λ′
′ ′ ~ ~ ′
k)×ǫ̂∗λ′ (~
+[ǫ̂λ (~ k )]aλ (~
k)a∗λ′ (~

k )ei(k−k )·~r e−i(ω−ω )t
′ ′ ~ ~ ′
k)×ǫ̂λ′ (~
−[ǫ̂∗λ (~ k)aλ′ (~
k )]a∗λ (~

k )ei(k−k )·~r e−i(ω−ω )t

′ ′ ~ ~′
k)×ǫ̂∗λ′ (~
−[ǫ̂∗λ (~ k)a∗λ′ (~
k )]a∗λ (~

k )ei(k+k )·~r e−i(ω+ω )t ,

where ω = kc and ω ′ = k ′ c.
We may now perform the integral over ~ r , using eq. (10), and then use the delta function
~ ′
to integrate over k . The end result is

ωd3k

i XX
Z
~
Lspin = k)×ǫ̂∗λ′ (~
[ǫ̂λ (~ k)]aλ (~ k)×ǫ̂λ′ (~
k) − [ǫ̂∗λ (~
k)a∗λ′ (~ k)aλ′ (~
k)]a∗λ (~ k)
µ 0 c2 λ ′ (2π)3
λ

~ ~ ~ ~
+[ǫ̂λ (k)×ǫ̂λ′ (−k)]aλ (k)aλ′ (−k) e −2iωt ∗ ~ ∗ ~ ∗ ~ ∗ ~
− [ǫ̂λ (k)×ǫ̂λ′ (−k)]aλ (k)aλ′ (−k) e 2iωt
.

(60)
6
Jackson omits the overall factor of ∓ in the definition of ǫ̂± . I prefer to maintain this phase convention,
but you are free to choose any convention that suits you.

16
However, the last two terms above vanish when integrated over ~ k, since the corresponding
~ ~
integrands are odd functions of k. For example, under k → −k, ~
XX XX
k)×ǫ̂λ′ (−~
[ǫ̂λ (~ k)aλ′ (−~
k)]aλ (~ k) e−2iωt −→ k)×ǫ̂λ′ (~
[ǫ̂λ (−~ k)aλ′ (~
k)]aλ (−~ k) e−2iωt ,
λ λ′ λ λ′
XX
= [ǫ̂λ′ (−~ k)]aλ′ (−~
k)×ǫ̂λ (~ k)aλ (~
k) e−2iωt ,
λ λ′
XX
= − k)×ǫ̂λ′ (−~
[ǫ̂λ (~ k)aλ′ (−~
k)]aλ (~ k) e−2iωt ,
λ λ′

where we interchanged λ and λ′ in the penultimate step (which is justified since these are
dummy labels that are being summed over), and used the antisymmetry of the cross product
in the final step. Note that ω = |~ k|c does not change sign when ~ k → −~ k. Hence, eq. (60)
simplifies to

i X X Z ωd3k  
~ spin =
L [ǫ̂λ (~k)×ǫ̂λ′ (~

k)aλ′ (~
k)]aλ (~ ∗ ∗
k)×ǫ̂λ′ (~
k) − [ǫ̂λ (~ k)]aλ (~

k)aλ′ (~
k) .
µ 0 c2 λ ′ (2π)3
λ
(61)
Using the definition of the polarization vectors given in eq. (58), it is straightforward to verify
that7
k) × ǫ̂∗λ′ (~
ǫ̂λ (~ k) = −iλ k̂ δλλ′ , for λ, λ′ = ± . (62)
This result allows us to sum over λ′ in eq. (61). Both terms in eq. (61) contribute equally and
the end result is:
2 d3 k ~ 
Z
~ k |a+ (~
k)|2 − |a− (~
k)|2 ,

Lspin = 2 3
(63)
µ0 c (2π)
after using ω = kc and ~ k = k k̂. Note that L ~ spin is time-independent and thus conserved. This
is a stronger condition than the conservation of angular momentum, which only requires that
the sum L ~ =L ~ orbital + L
~ spin is conserved. Eq. (63) implies that the spin angular momentum
of the electromagnetic field is separately a constant of the motion.8 If we interpret each mode
(~
k, λ) as a photon, then the two possible photon spin states (in a spherical basis) correspond
to positive and negative helicity, i.e. states of definite spin angular momentum in which L ~ spin
points in a direction parallel or antiparallel to the direction of propagation k̂, respectively.
7
To prove eq. (62), use the fact that ǫ̂1 × ǫ̂2 = −ǫ̂2 × ǫ̂1 = k̂ and ǫ̂1 × ǫ̂1 = ǫ̂2 × ǫ̂2 = 0.
8
Indeed, Jackson only asks that we show that the time-average of L ~ spin is given by eq. (63). In such a
calculation, the last two terms in eq. (60) are immediately set to zero when taking the time-average since the
time-averaged values
1 T ±2iωt
Z
he±2iωt i = e dt = 0 , when ω 6= 0 ,
T 0
where T = 2π/ω is the time for one oscillation cycle. The case of ω = 0 corresponds to ~
k = 0, in which case
the last two terms in eq. (60), when summed over λ and λ′ , are each manifestly equal to zero, since eq. (58)
implies that ǫ̂λ (~
k)× ǫ̂λ (~
k) = 0 for λ = ± (and the cross-terms vanish). However, our result above is more
general since no time-averaging is required to obtain eq. (63).

17
It is instructive to consider the energy of the electromagnetic fields, which was obtained
in problem 1. In particular, eq. (20) yields
X Z d3 k
U = 2ǫ0 3
ω 2 |aλ (~
k)|2 , (64)
λ
(2π)

where we have used eq. (7) to write E0 (~ k, λ) = iωaλ (~k). Consider a fixed mode of positive
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
helicity (k0 , λ = +1). Then, aλ (k) = a+ (k0 )δ(k − k0 )δλ,+1 , in which case eq. (64) yields
2ǫ0 ω02
U= |aλ (~
k0 )|2 ,
(2π)3
and
~ spin = 2 · 1 ~
L k0 |aλ (~
k0 )|2 =
2ǫ0 ω0
k̂0 |aλ (~
k0 )|2 ,
µ0 c (2π) 3 (2π)3
after using ǫ0 µ0 = 1/c2 and ~k0 = (ω0 /c)k̂0 . That is,

~ spin = λ U k̂0 ,
L for λ = +1 . (65)
ω0
For a fixed mode of negative helicity (~
k0 , λ = −1), we again obtain eq. (65) with λ = −1. For
a single photon of frequency ω0 , quantum mechanics states that U = ~ω0 , and eq. (65) yields
~ spin = ±~k̂0 ,
L
corresponding to a spin-one particle of helicity ±1, with its spin parallel or antiparallel to the
direction of propagation k̂0 .

5. (a) Assume that the vector potential in the Lorentz gauge is given by:
~ x , t) = A0 (x, y)(x̂ ± iŷ)ei(kz−ωt) ,
A(~ (66)
where A0 (x, y) is a very slowly varying function of position. “Slowly varying” means that the
second spatial derivatives of A0 (x, y) can be neglected; however, one must not neglect first
derivatives of A0 (x, y). Derive the approximate forms for the electric and magnetic fields given
in Jackson, problem 7.28,
   
~ i ∂E0 ∂E0
E(x, y, z, t) ≃ E0 (x, y)(x̂ ± iŷ) + ±i ê3 eikz−iωt , (67)
k ∂x ∂y
~ √ ~
B(x, y, z, t) ≃ ∓i µǫ E(x, y, z, t) , (68)
where x̂, ŷ and ẑ are unit vectors in the x, y and z directions, respectively.

The Lorenz gauge condition (in MKS units) is

~ A
∇· ~ + 1 ∂Φ = 0 .
c2 ∂t
18
Using eq. (66),  
~ A~= ∂A0 ∂A0 1 ∂Φ
∇· ±i eikz−iωt = − = 0.
∂x ∂y c2 ∂t
Integrating, we get
ic2
 
∂A0 ∂A0
Φ(~
x , t) = − ±i eikz−iωt , (69)
ω ∂x ∂y
where we have dropped the integration constant without loss of generality, since the scalar
potential is only defined up to an additive constant.
The electric and magnetic fields are given by

~
E ~ − ∂A ,
~ = −∇Φ ~ = ∇×
B ~ A~.
∂t
Plugging in eqs. (66) and (69),
2
 
~ ≃ kc
∇Φ
∂A0
±i
∂A0
ẑ eikz−iωt ,
ω ∂x ∂y

where we have dropped second spacial derivatives of A0 and

~
∂A
= −iωA0 (x̂ ± iŷ)eikz−iωt ,
∂t
If we define E0 (x, y) ≡ iωA0 (x, y) and make use of ω = ck, we end up with,
   
~ i ∂E0 ∂E0
E(x, y, z, t) ≃ E0 (x, y)(x̂ ± iŷ) + ±i ẑ eikz−iωt .
k ∂x ∂y

Next, we evaluate
 
x̂ ŷ ẑ
 
 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
~
B(x, ~ A
y, z, t) = ∇× ~ = det  
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 
 
A0 eikz−iωt ±iA0 eikz−iωt 0
   
∂A0 ∂A0
= ∓i (x̂ ± iŷ)ikA0 (x, y) − ±i ẑ eikz−iωt ,
∂x ∂y
√ ~
= ∓i ǫ0 µ0 E(x, y, z, t) , (70)

after using E0 (x, y) ≡ iωA0 (x, y) = ickA0 (x, y) and ǫ0 µ0 = 1/c. Finally if the electromag-
netic waves are propagating in a simple nonconducting medium where D ~ = ǫE ~ and B ~ = µH,
~
the eq. (70) is modified by simply replacing ǫ0 and µ0 with ǫ and µ, respectively.

19
(b) [Jackson, problem 7.29] For the circularly polarized wave given by eqs. (67) and (68),
with E0 (x, y) a real function of x and y, calculate the time-averaged component of the angular
momentum parallel to the direction of propagation. Show that the ratio of this component of
angular momentum to the energy of the wave in vacuum is,
L3
= ±ω −1 .
U
Interpret this result in terms of quanta of radiation (photons). Show that for a cylindrically
symmetric, finite plane wave, the transverse components of angular momentum vanish.

The angular momentum density of the electromagnetic field is given by [cf. problem 6.10 on
p. 288 of Jackson].
L~=~ x×~ g = ǫµ ~
x × (E~ × H) ~ .
Using the vector identity,
~ × H)
x × (E
~ ~ = E(~
~ x · H)
~ − H(~
~ x · E)
~ ,

The z component of the angular momentum density (denoted below by L3 ) is given by


 
L3 = ǫµ x(Ez Hx − Ex Hz ) + y(Ez Hy − Ey Hz ) . (71)

The results quoted above assume that E ~ and H~ are real fields. Thus, taking the real part of
the fields given in eqs. (67) and (68), we have
Ex = E0 cos(kz − ωt) , Ey = ∓E0 sin(kz − ωt) , (72)
 
i ∂E0 ∂E0
Ez = − sin(kz − ωt) ± cos(kz − ωt) (73)
k ∂x ∂y
ǫ
r
Hx = ± E0 sin(kz − ωt) , Hy = E0 cos(kz − ωt) , (74)
µ
r  
i ǫ ∂E0 ∂E0
Hz = ± cos(kz − ωt) − sin(kz − ωt) , (75)
k µ ∂x ∂y
~ = µH.
after using B ~ Inserting the above results into eq. (71) yields.
 
ǫ√ ∂E0 ∂E0
L3 = ∓ ǫµ xE0 + yE0 . (76)
k ∂x ∂y

In the medium, we have k = ǫµ ω. Thus, we can rewrite eq. (76) as
 
ǫ ∂ ∂
L3 = ∓ x +y E02 . (77)
2ω ∂x ∂y
Next, we compute the energy density [cf. eq. (6.106) of Jackson],
~ 2 + µ|H|
u = 12 (ǫ|E| ~ 2) .

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As in part (a), we shall assume that E0 (x, y) is slowly varying so that we can neglect the
second spatial derivatives of E0 . That is we may discard terms proportional to (∂E0 /∂x)2 ,
(∂E0 /∂y)2 and (∂E0 /∂x)(∂E0 /∂y) as compared to terms proportional to E02 . In particular,
~ 2 and |H|
in evaluating |E| ~ 2 , we can drop the contributions from Ez and Hz . Hence,
  
2 ǫ 2
1
u ≃ 2 ǫE0 + µ E = ǫE02 .
µ 0
Finally, we compute the total energy and the z-component of the total angular momentum,
Z Z
U = d x u = ǫ d3 x E02 (x, y) ,
3

 
ǫ ∂ 2 ∂ 2 ǫ
Z Z Z
3 3
L3 = d L3 = ∓ d x x E0 + y E0 = d3 xE02 (x.y) ,
2ω ∂x ∂y ω
after integrating by parts and using the fact that E0 (x, y) vanishes when |x|, |y| → ∞. We
conclude that
L3 1
=± .
U ω
The interpretation in terms of the photon is clear. Since a photon has an energy U = ~ω,
it follows that L3 = ±~ for the photon. The two possible signs correspond to positive and
negative helicity.
To complete the problem, we compute the x and y components of the angular momentum
density (denoted below by L1 and L2 ).
 
L1 = ǫµ y(Ex Hy − Ey Hx ) + z(Ex Hz − Ez Hx ) ,
 
L2 = ǫµ x(Ey Hx − Ex Hy ) + z(Ey Hz − Ez Hy ) .
Inserting the fields given in eqs. (72)–(75), we end up with
r 
ǫ 2 1 ǫ ∂E0
r
L1 = ǫµ E y± E0 z ,
µ 0 k µ ∂x
 r 
ǫ 2 1 ǫ ∂E0
r
L2 = ǫµ − E x± E0 z .
µ 0 k µ ∂y
By assumption, the plane wave is cylindrically symmetric, which implies that
E0 (x, y) = E0 (−x, y) , E0 (x, y) = E0 (x, −y) .
Thus,  
ǫ z ∂ 2
r Z
3 2
L1 = ǫµ d x yE0 (x, y) ± E (x, y) = 0 ,
µ 2k ∂x 0
since the integrand is an odd function under x → −x, y → −y. Likewise,
 
ǫ z ∂ 2
r Z
3 2
L2 = ǫµ d x −xE0 (x, y) ± E (x, y) = 0 .
µ 2k ∂y 0
Hence, we conclude that for a cylindrically symmetric finite circular polarized electromag-
netic wave, L1 = L2 = 0 and L3 = ±U/ω.

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