BS8161 - PHYSICS LABORATORY

REGULATION 2017

Dr. Pon Kalugasalam,

ANNA UNIVERSITY REGIONAL CAMPUS COIMBATORE
Maruthamalai Main Road, Navavoor,

Coimbatore– 641 046.

 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Determination of rigidity modulus – Torsion pendulum

2. Determination of Young’s modulus by non-uniform bending method
3. (a) Determination of wavelength, and particle size using Laser
(b) Determination of acceptance angle in an optical fiber.
4. Determination of thermal conductivity of a bad conductor – Lee’s Disc method.
5. Determination of velocity of sound and compressibility of liquid – Ultrasonic interferometer
6. Determination of wavelength of mercury spectrum – spectrometer grating
7. Determination of band gap of a semiconductor
8. Determination of thickness of a thin wire – Air wedge method

Date of Marks Sign of

S.No Date Name of the Experiment
completion awarded the staff

5
 Fig.1 Torsional Pendulum

Table 1.To find the time periods of the disc at different stages

Length of the suspension wire () =……….……..x10-2m

Position of the Time for 20 oscillations Time period (time for one
equal masses Trial -1 Trial -2 Trial -3 oscillation
Unit Second Second Second Second
T0 =
Without any
masses
With masses at T1=
closest distance
d1=….x10-2m
With masses at T2 =
maximum
distance
d2=……x10-2m

1
Expt.No. Date:

1. TORSIONAL PENDULUM

Aim

To determine (i) the moment of inertia of the given disc and (ii) the rigidity modulus of the material
of a wire by torsional oscillations.

Apparatus Required

1. Torsional pendulum 2.Two equal cylindrical masses 3. Stop-clock 4.Screw gauge 5. Metre scale

Formula

Moment of inertia of the disc 


2m d 22  d 22 T02
Kg .m2
T2  T1
2 2

8
Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire n 2 4
newton /metre2
T0 r

Symbol Explanation Unit

m Mass (mass of one of the cylinders) placed on the disc Kg

Closest distance (minimum) between suspension wire and the

d1 Metre
centre of mass of the cylinder

Farthest distance (maximum) between suspension wire and the

d2 Metre
centre of mass of the cylinder

T0 Time period without any mass placed on the disc Second

T1 Time period for equal masses placed at a distance d1 Second

T2 Time period for equal masses placed at a distance d2 Second

 Length of the suspension wire Metre

r Radius of the wire Metre

2
Table 2. To find the radius (r) of the suspension wire

Zero error =  …………division

Least count ( LC) = 0.01mm Zero correction (ZC)=  ZE x LC

=…………..mm

Pitch Scale Reading Head Scale Reading Observed Reading Correct Reading
S.No
( PSR ) ( HSC ) =PSR +( HSC X LC) =OR  ZC

unit 10-3m div 10-3m 10-3m

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean diameter of the wire (d)

= ……………….x10-3metre

Mean radius of the wire (r)

d
r=  ..........x10 3 metre
2

3
Procedure

One end of a long, uniform wire whose rigidity modulus is to be determined is clamped by a
vertical chunk. To the lower end, a heavy uniform circular disc is attached by another chunk. The length
of the suspension „l‟ is fixed to a particular value (say 60 cm or 70 cm). The length of the suspended disc
is slightly twisted so that it executes torsional oscillations. Care is taken to see that the disc oscillates
without wobbling.

The first few oscillations are omitted. By using the pointer, (a mark made in the disc) the time
taken for 20 complete oscillations are noted. Two trials are taken. The mean time period T (time for one
oscillation) is found.

Two equal cylindrical masses are placed on the disc symmetrically on either side, close to the
suspension wire (at the minimum distance). The closest distance „d1‟ from the centre of the mass of the
cylinder and the centre of the suspension wire is found. The disc with masses at distance „d1‟ is made to
executive torsional oscillations by twisting the disc. The time taken for 20 oscillations is noted. Two
trials are taken. The mean time period „T1‟ is determined.

Two equal masses are now moved to the extreme ends so that the edges of the masses coincide
with the edge of the disc and the centers are equi-distant. The distance „d2‟from the centre of the mass of
the cylinder and the centre of the suspension wire is noted. The disc with masses at distance „d1‟ is
allowed to execute torsional oscillations by twisting the disc. The time taken for 20 oscillations is noted
and time period „T2‟ is calculated.

Mass of one of the cylinders placed on the disc is found. The diameter of the wire is accurately
measured at various places along its length with screw gauge. From this, the radius of the wire is
calculated. The moment of inertia of the disc and the rigidity modulus of the wire are calculated using
the given formulas.

4
 CALCULATION

Time period of oscillation (without masses) T0 =……………….second

Time period when masses are at distance „d1‟ T1=…………….…second

Time period when masses are at distance „d2‟ T2=………………second

Closest distance between suspension wire and

the centre of mass of the cylinder „d1‟=………………..x 10-2metre

Farthest distance between suspension wire and

the centre of mass of the cylinder „d2‟ =………………..x 10-2metre

Mass of one of the cylinders m =………..…….…..x10-3kg

Length of the suspension wire l =…………………x10-2metre

Mean radius of the wire r =…………..……X10-3metre

Moment of inertia of the disc  


2m d 22  d 22 T02
Kg .m2
T22  T12

 =…………………. Kg m2

8
Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire n newton /metre2
T02 r 4

5
Result

Moment of inertia of the disc () = …………….kg m2

Rigidity modulus of the material of given wire ( n ) =……………Nm-2

VIVA VOCE

1. What is meant by torsional oscillation?

2. Define shearing strain and restoring couple.

3. Define simple harmonic oscillation.

4. Explain rigidity modulus.

5. Will the moment of inertia of the disc vary with the material of the wire? If so explain.

6
Fig 2. Young’s modulus by non-uniform bending method.

7
Expt. No. Date:

2. DETERMINATION OF YOUNG’S MODULUS BY NON- UNIFORM BENDING

Aim

To determine the young modulus of the given material of the beam by non-uniform bending.

Apparatus required

1. A long uniform beam usually a metre scale 2.Travelling microscope 3. Pin 4.Weight
hanger with slotted weights 5.Vernier calipers 6.Screw gauge 7.Knife edges etc.,

Formula

Mgl3
Young‟s modulus of the material of the beam (metre scale) Y  3
N/m2
4bd y

symbol Explanation unit

y Depression for „M‟ kg of load metre

M Load applied Kg

g Acceleration due to gravity m/s2

l Distance between the two knife edges metre

b Breadth of the beam( metre scale) metre

d Thickness of the beam (metre scale) metre

8
TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE READINGS

Table. 1 To find the depression (y):

Total reading (TR) = MSR+ (VSC x LC)

M = _____________x10-3 kg L.C = 0.001cm

Microscope readings Depression

Load
Loading Unloading Mean (y) for M kg
S. No (M)
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR
-3 -2 -2 -2
X10 kg x 10 m div x 10 m x 10 m div x 10-2m x 10-2m x 10-2m
1. W
2. W + 50
3. W + 100

4. W + 150

5. W + 200
6. W + 250

Mean (y) = …………. x 10-2m

9
Procedure

The given beam is symmetrically supported on two knife edges and weight hangers are suspended
at equal distance from the knife edges. A pin is fixed vertically at the midpoint of the beam. A suitable
dead load (W) is suspended from each hanger.

Using traveling microscope, the reading corresponding to the tip of the pin is taken. The load is
increased in steps of 50 gram up to 250 gram and the readings of the microscope are noted. Readings are
also taken when the load in each hanger is decreased in the same step. The readings are tabulated and
mean depression (y) is determined.

The distance between two knife edges (l) is measured. The breadth (b) of the scale is determined
using vernier caliper. The thickness (d) of the scale is determined using a screw gauge. From the
observations, the Young‟s modulus of the material of the scale is calculated.

10
 Table 2. To find the breadth of the beam (b):

Zero error =  …………division

Least count (LC) =0.01cm Zero correction (ZC)=  ZE x LC
=…………cm

Observed Reading Correct Reading =

MSR VSC
S.No =MSR +(VSCXLC ) OR  (ZC)
x 10-2 m div x 10-2 m x 10-2 m
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Mean ( b) =…………………….x 10-2m

Table 3.To find the thickness of the beam (d):

Zero error =  …………division

Least count (LC) = 0.01 mm Zero correction (ZC)=  ZE x LC
=……….mm

Observed Reading Correct

PSR HSC =PSR +( HSC X Reading=
S. No
LC) OR ±( ZC )
x 10-3 m div x 10-3 m x 10-3 m
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean ( d ) = ……………….x10-3m

11
Calculation
Mgl3
Young‟s modulus of the material of the beam (metre scale) Y  3
N/m2
4bd y

Result

Young’s modulus of the material of the beam (metre scale) = ………..newton / metre2

Viva Questions

1. What is elasticity?
2. What are elastic bodies?
3. Define young‟s modulus of elasticity.
4. What are the factors affecting elasticity?
5. What is uniform bending?

12
 Fig.3.1 Determination of wavelength of the laser using grating
Table 1. To find the wavelength of the laser source

Number of rulings in the grating (N) = 1X105 lines/meter

The distance between grating and screen (D)=……..X10-2 m

Order Xm mean Xm
S.no 
(m) NmD
LHS RHS Xm
-2 -2
unit No. x 10 m x 10 m x 10-2 m Å
1. First

2. Second

3. Third

4. Fourth

5. Fifth

6. Sixth

7. Seventh

8. Eighth

9. Ninth

10. Tenth
Mean () = Å

13
Exp.No: Date:

3 (a). DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF LASER USING GRATING

Aim:
To determine the wave length of the given laser source of light using grating

Apparatus Required:
He – Ne laser (or) Semi conductor laser, Grating, Screen, Paper& pencil

Formula:
Wave length of the given laser source of light

Xm
 A
NmD

Explanation of symbols:

Symbol Explanation Unit

N Number of rulings in the grating Lines/meter

m Order of the spectrum No unit

Xm Distance of the mth order from zeroth order Meter

D Distance between the laser grating and the screen Meter

 Wave length of the given source A°

14
Calculation

Wave length of the given laser source of light

Xm
 A
NmD

15
PROCEDURE:

To find wavelength of the laser source:

The laser source and the laser grating are mounted on separate stands as shown in Fig.3.1. A
Fixed (D) is kept between the laser grating and the screen. The laser source is switched on and the beam
of laser is allowed to fall on the laser grating. The diffracted beams are collected on the screen. The
diffracted beams are in the form of spots as shown in Fig3.1.

In the figure 3.1, the intensity of the irradiance is found to decrease, from zeroth order to higher
orders, i.e. the first order is brighter than the second order and so on. The position X 1, X2, X3 …… of the
spots belonging to the first order, second order, third order etc., on either side of the central maximum are
marked on the screen and is noted. The experiment is repeated for various values of D and the positions
of the spots are noted. Then by using the given formula the wavelength of the laser source can be
calculated and the mean is taken.

Result:

The wavelength of the given source =………………. Å

1. Define the term “Diffraction”, with its condition.

2. What is meant by grating element?

3. What is the difference between laser grating and acoustical grating?

4. List out the characteristics of the laser beam.

5. What is meant by angle of divergence?

6. Compare the angle of divergence for an ordinary beam with a laser beam.

7. Define coherence.

9. What is the difference between laser grating and spectrometer grating?

10. Whether laser beam used in this experiment is a convergent beam (or) divergent beam?

Give reasons.

16
 Fig 3.2 Determination of particle size using laser
Table 2. To find the size of the given particle:

Distance
between Ym mean
mD
S.no glass plate Order (m) d
2Ym
and screen LHS RHS Ym
‘D’
unit x 10-2 m No. x 10-2 m x 10-2 m x 10-2 m 10-6 m

1. First

2. Second

3. Third

4. First

5. Second

6. Third

7. First

8. Second

9. Third

Mean (d) = 10-6 m

17
Exp.No: Date:

3(a).DETERMINATION OF SIZE OF THE PARTICLE USING DIODE LASER

Aim:
To determine the particle size of the given lycopodium powder using laser diffraction method.

Apparatus required
1.He-Ne laser or semiconductor laser 2.Lycopodium powder 3.Glass plate 4.Screen 5.
Metre Scale

Formula

The size of the particle

mD
d meter
2Ym

Explanation of symbols

Symbol Explanation Unit

 Wavelength of the laser source A°

m Order of the spectrum No unit

Ym Distance of the mth order from zeroth order Meter

D Distance between the particle and the screen Meter

18
Calculation:

19
Procedure

To find the size of the given particle (d):

The diode laser and the size of the particle to be found are placed at appropriate distance along
with a screen as shown in fig 3.2. The laser source is switched ON and the light is made to fall on the
particle. The screen is moved back and forth until the clear image of the spectrum is seen and the
distance between the screen and the particle (D1) is noted. Due to diffraction of laser light by the particle,
different orders of spectrum are obtained as shown fig 3.2. The positions Y1, Y2, Y3…… of the spots
belonging to the first order, second order, third etc., on either side of the central maximum are noted in a
similar way as noted above. Then by using the given formula the size of the particle can be determined.

Result

The size of the given particle (d) = …………………10-6metre

VIVA -VOCE

1. What is meant by LASER?

2. What is the principle used in finding the size of the particle?
3. Is the diffraction possible if the laser light is replaced by ordinary light for the same particle?
4. What will happen to the order of spectrum, if the distance between the particle and the screen is
increased?
5. What will happen to the order of spectrum if the size of the particle is decreased?
6. Is it possible to find the thickness of your hair using experimental setup? If so justify your
answer.
7. What is the advantage of using the He-Ne laser (or) Semiconductor Laser than the CO2 laser for
this experiment?
8. What is meant by a diode Laser?
9. Can LED be used for this experiment? Give reasons.
10. Mention any two diode laser sources.

20
 Fig 3.3 Determination of acceptance angle of an optical fiber

Table 3.To find the acceptance angle of an optical fiber:

Distance from fiber and to Radius of the circular

Acceptance angle
circular image image
S. No Radian Degrees
-2 -3
d (x10 m) r (x10 m) r r 180
A  A  
d d 
1
2
3
4
5
6

Mean θ A =

21
Exp.No: Date:

3 (b). DETERMINATION OF ACCEPTANCE ANGLE IN AN OPTICAL FIBER

Aim
To determine the acceptance angle of an optical fiber.

Apparatus required

1.He-Ne laser or semiconductor laser 2.Optical fibre cable 3. Numerical aperture jig.

Formula

The acceptance angle of an optical fiber

r 180
A   degree
d 

Procedure

Measurement of acceptance angle

A known length of fiber is taken. One end of the fiber is connected to the laser source and the other
end is connected to the numerical aperture (NA) Jig a shown in fig 3.3.The source is switched ON. The
opening in the NA jig is completely opened so that a circular red patch of laser light is observed on the
screen. Now the opening in the NA jig is slowly closed with the knob provided, so that at a particular
points that circular light patch in the screen just cuts. The radius of the circular opening r of a NA jig at
which the circular path of light just cuts is measured.

The distance between the NA Jig opening and fiber can be measured directly with the help of the
calibration in NA Jig. The same procedure can be adopted for various distances between the fiber and the
opening of NA jig. The same procedure can be adopted for various lengths of fiber cables. By using the
given formula the acceptance angle can be determined.

22
Calculation:

23
Result:

The Acceptance angle of the fiber (A) =…………… degree.

VIVA VOCE

1. What is meant by “Numerical aperture” and “Acceptance angle”?

2. What is the principle used in propagation of light through optical fiber?
3. What are the parts of an optical fiber?
4. What is the type of the laser beam used in the experiment?
5. What is meant by single mode fiber?
6. What is difference between single mode and multimode fiber?
7. What is meant by step index fiber?
8. What is difference between step index and graded index fiber?
9. What is meant by bandwidth?
10. Give any four applications of optical fiber in Engineering and Medicine?

24
Fig 4.1 Lee’s Disc Apparatus to determine the thermal conductivity of a bad
conductor

Model Graph

25
Exp.No: Date:

4. Determination of thermal conductivity of a bad conductor – Lee’s Disc method.

Aim:

To determine the thermal conductivity of a given bad conductor by Lee‟s disc method.

Apparatus required:

1.Lees‟ Disc apparatus 2.Two thermometers 3.Circular disc of the specimen of a bad conductor
(ebonite or card board) 4.Stop watch 5.Steam boiler 6.Vernier calipers 7.Screw gauge.

Formula:

Thermal conductivity of the given bad conductor

MS ( d dt ) x( r  2h) 1 1
K  Wm K
r 2 1   2 2r  h 

Explanation of symbols

Symbol Explanation Unit

M mass of the metallic disc Kg

S Specific heat capacity of the material of the disc (370) JKg-1K-1

(dθ/dt) Rate of cooling at steady temperature θ2 Kelvin

θ1 Steady temperature of the steam chamber Kelvin

θ2 Steady temperature of the metallic disc Kelvin

r Radius of the metallic disc metre

h Thickness of the metallic disc metre

x Thickness of the bad conductor metre

26
 Table. 1 To find (dθ/ dt)2
θ1 = ºC θ2 = ºC

Time taken
S.No Temperature (º C)
min S
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Table 2. To find the thickness of the metallic disc (h):

LC =0.01mm ZE = …………div ZC =  ZE x LC =……….. x 10-3m

Head scale Corrected reading

Pitch scale Observed reading
Coincidence =
S.No reading (PSR) (OR) = PSR + (HSCX LC)
(HSC) OR ±( ZC )
x 10-3m Div x 10-3 m x 10-3 m
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
Mean = …………. x 10-3 m

27
Description

Lee‟s disc apparatus consists of a brass metal disc (D) suspended horizontally by three strings
from a stand. A hollow steam chamber (S) with inlet and outlet for steam is placed above. The given bad
conductor is placed between them. Two thermometers T1 and T2 are inserted to measure the temperatures
of S and D respectively.

Procedure

The experimental arrangement is as shown in Fig 4.1. Steam is allowed to pass through the steam
chamber. The temperature indicated by two thermometers start rising. After 30 minutes a steady state is
reached (i.e) the temperature of the lower disc will no longer rises. At this stage, steady temperatures θ 2
and θ2 are recorded from the thermometers T1 and T2.

Now the cardboard is removed and the lower disc is heated directly by keeping it in contact with
the steam chamber. When the temperature of the lower disc attains a value of about 10°C more than its
steady state temperature, the chamber is removed and the lower disc is allowed to cool down on its own
accord.

When the temperature of the disc reaches 5º C above the steady temperature of the disc.i.e., (θ2 +
5) º C, a stop watch is started and the time is noted for every 1º C fall of temperature until the metallic
disc attains temperature (θ2 - 5) º C.

The thickness and radius of the metallic disc is found using screw gauge and vernier caliper
respectively. The thickness of the bad conductor is found using screw gauge. The mass of the metallic
disc is found by using biscuit balance. The readings are tabulated in the tabular column.

Graph

A graph is drawn by taking time along the x-axis and the temperature along y-axis (fig.4.2).
Cooling curve is drawn. Form the cooling curve dθ/dt is calculated by drawing a triangle by taking 1º C
above and 1º C below the steady temperature θ2. Substituting this (dθ/ dt) in the given formula,
thermal conductivity of the cardboard can be calculated.

28
Table 3. Find the thickness of the cardboard (x):

LC =0.01mm ZE = …………div

Zero correction (ZC) =  ZE x LC

=……….. x 10-3m

Observed
Head scale
Pitch scale reading OR = Corrected reading =
S.No Coincidence
reading (PSR) PSR + (HSC+ OR ±( ZC )
(HSC)
LC)
Unit x 10-3m Div x 10-3 m x 10-3 m
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean = …………. x 10-3 m

29
Result

Thermal conductivity of the given bad conductor (K) = …………. Wm-1K-1

VIVA – VOCE

1. What do you understand by the term conduction, convection and radiation?

2. What is meant by thermal conductivity?
3. Name any four bad conductors?
4. What do you understand by the term steady state?
5. What is meant by “Rate of cooling”?
6. What is the use of cooling the slab and noting the time?
7. What happens to the thermal conductivity if the thickness of the given bad conductor is
increased?
8. Should the diameter of the bad conductor match the diameter of the disc (D) and the Steam
chamber (S)? Why?
9. Will there be any change in thermal conductivity if the area of cross section of bad conductor is
decreased : Justify
10. State some of the applications of bad conductors.

30
Fig 5.1 Ultrasonic interferometer for the determination of wavelength
of the ultrasound and compressibility of the liquid

Fig 5.2 Distance moved by the reflector versus crystal current

31
Exp.No: Date:

5. DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY OF SOUND AND COMPRESSIBILITY OF

THE LIQUID- ULTRASONIC INTERFEROMETER

Aim :

To determine the velocity of the ultrasonic waves in the given liquid and its compressibility by
using ultrasonic interferometer.

Apparatus required
1.Ultrasonic interferometer 2. Liquid (Water)

Formula
Velocity of Ultrasonic waves in the given liquid v = nλ ms-1
2d
Where, Wavelength   meter
x

1
Compressibility of the given liquid K  m 2 N 1
v 
2

Explanation of symbols

Symbol Explanation Unit

n Frequency of the generator which excites the crystal Hertz

λ Wavelength of Ultrasound metre

ρ Density of the given liquid kg/m3

D Distance moved by the micrometer screw metre

x Number of oscillations No unit

32
 Table 1. To find the velocity of Ultrasonic waves in the liquid :

Type of liquid = Water Frequency of the Generator (n) = 2X106 Hz

LC = 0.01 mm TR = PSR + (HSC x LC)

No of Readings for ‘x’ oscillations 2d Velocity

d= R1R2 
S.No oscillations PSR HSC TR x v = n
-3
(x) x 10 m (Div) x 10-3 m x 10-3 m -3
x 10 m x 103 ms-1
1 n

2 n+5

3 n+10

4 n+15

5 n+20

6 n+25

7 n+30

8 n+35

9 n+40

10 n+45

11 n+50

Mean (v) = ………… x 103 ms-1

33
Theory

An Ultrasonic Interferometer is a simple and direct device to determine the velocity of Ultrasonic
waves in liquid with high degree of accuracy. Here the high frequency generator generates variable
frequency, which excites Quartz Crystal placed at the bottom of the measuring cell (Fig. 5.1). The
excited Quartz crystal generates Ultrasonic waves in the experimental liquid. The liquid will now serve
as an acoustical grating element. Hence when Ultrasonic waves passes through the rulings of grating,
successive maxima and minima occurs, satisfying the condition for diffraction.

Initial adjustments:

In high frequency generator two knobs are provided for initial adjustments. One is marked with
„Adj‟ (set) and the other with „Gain‟ (Sensitivity). With knob marked „Adj‟ the position of the needle on
the ammeter is adjusted and with the knob marked „Gain‟, the sensitivity of the instrument can be
increased for greater deflection, if desired.

Procedure

The measuring cell is connected to the output terminal of the high frequency generator through a
shielded cable. The cell is filled with the experimental liquid before switching ON the generator. Now,
when the frequency generator is switched ON, the Ultrasonic waves move normal form the Quartz crystal
till they are reflected back by the movable reflector plate. Hence, standing waves are formed in the liquid
in between the reflector plate and the quartz.

The distance between the reflector and crystal is varied using the micrometer screw such that the
anode current of the generator increases to a maximum and then decreases to a minimum and again
increases to a maximum. The distance of separation between successive maximum or successive
minimum in the anode current is equal to half the wavelength of the Ultrasonic waves in the liquid (Fig
5.1). Therefore, by noting the initial and final position of the micrometer screw for one complete
oscillation (maxima- minima – maxima) the distance moved by the reflector can be determined.

To minimize the error, the distance (d) moved by the micrometer screw is noted for „x‟ number
of oscillations (successive maxima), by noting the initial and final reading in the micrometer screw and is
tabulated. From the total distance (d) moved by the micrometer screw and the number of oscillations (x),
the wavelength of ultrasonic waves can be determined using the formula λ = 2d/x. From the value of λ
and by noting the frequency of the generator (n), the velocity of the Ultrasonic waves can be calculated
using the given formula.

After determining the velocity of Ultrasonic waves in liquid, the compressibility of the liquid is
calculated using the given formula.

34
Calculation

Velocity of Ultrasonic waves in the given liquid v = n ms-1

2d
Where, Wavelength   meter
x

1
Compressibility of the given liquid K  m 2 N 1
v 
2

35
Result

i. The velocity of ultrasonic waves in the given(v) = ……… x 103 ms-1

ii. Compressibility of the given liquid (K) =………… x 10-10m2N-1

VIVA – VOCE

1. What is meant by Compressibility?

2. Explain the terms stress and strain?
3. What is the frequency range of Ultrasonic?
4. What is mean by acoustical grating?
5. Explain the principle of determining the compressibility of liquids?
6. What is meant by node and Anti-node?
7. What do you understand by the term “Over tones?
8. Is Ultrasonic wave, an Electromagnetic wave? Explain.
9. What are the various liquids that can be used for finding the compressibility using Ultrasonic
interferometer?
10. What type of crystal is thrown into vibrations in the case of Ultrasonic interferometer?

36
Fig 6.1 To set the Normal Incident Position Fig 6.2 Diffracted rays from Grating

37
Exp.No: Date:

6. DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF MERCURY SPECTRUM –

SPECTROMETER GRATING

Aim:
To determine the wave length of spectral lines, emitted by mercury light using plane transmission
grating.

Apparatus required:
1. Spectrometer 2.Diffraction grating 3. Sodium vapour lamp 4. Mercury vapour lamp 5.
Reading lens

Formulae

Sin
The number of lines drawn on the grating per metre is given by N lines / metre
n

Sin 
The wavelength of the prominent lines of the mercury spectrum is given by   A
Nn

Explanation of symbols

Symbols Explanation unit

n Order of spectrum No unit

 Wave length of mercury spectrum Aº

θ Angle of diffraction Degree

38
 Determination of wavelength of the mercury spectrum:

LC=1’ Order of the spectrum (n) = 1

N= 5.8 x 105 lines /meter Total reading= MSR + (VSC x LC)

Diffracted ray reading Difference ()

Left side or Right side Sin
Colour of spectral 
lines Vernier A Vernier B VA VB Mean Nn
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR 
Deg. div. Deg. Deg. div. Deg. Deg. Deg. Deg. Å
Violet-I

Violet-II

Blue

Bluish green

Green

Yellowish green

Yellow-I

Yellow-II

Red

Direct ray

39
Procedure

i) Adjustment of grating for normal incidence

Preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer are made. The grating (G) is mounted on the grating
table with its ruled facing the collimator. The slit is illuminated by a source of light (either sodium or
mercury vapour lamp) and is made to coincide with the vertical cross wire. The vernier scales are
adjusted to read 0º and 180 º for the direct ray .The telescope is rotated through an angle 90º and is fixed.
The grating table is adjusted until the image coincides with the vertical cross wire. Both the grating table
and telescope is fixed at this position (Fig. 6.1). Now rotate the vernier table through 45º in the same
direction in which the telescope has been previously rotated. The light from the collimator incidents
normally (perpendicularly) on the grating. The telescope is released and is brought on line with the direct
image of the slit. Now the grating is said to be in the normal incidence position (Fig.6.1).

ii) Standardization of grating (To find the number of lines drawn in the grating per meter)

The slit is illuminated by sodium vapour lamp. The telescope is released to get the diffracted
image of the first order on the left side of the central direct image. The readings are tabulated from the
two verniers VA and VB . Similarly readings are taken for the right side of the central direct image ( Fig.
6.2). The difference between the two readings gives 2θ, where θ is the angle of first order diffraction.
The number of lines per metre (N) of the grating is calculated using the given formula. The experiment is
repeated for the second order and the readings are tabulated.

iii) Determination of wavelength of the mercury spectrum

The sodium vapour lamp is replaced by mercury vapour lamp. The diffracted images of the first
order are seen on either side of the central direct image (Fig. 6.2). As before the readings are tabulated by
coinciding the vertical cross wire with the prominent lines namely violet, blue, bluish green, green,
yellow, red of the mercury spectrum the difference between the readings give 2θ, from this θ can be
found. The wavelength of each spectral line is calculated using the given formula.

40
Calculation:

Sin 
 A
Nn

41
Result

i) Number of lines drawn in the grating per meter = ……….. lines / meter.

ii) Wavelength of various spectral lines of the mercury spectrum is

V = ………..Ǻ , B = ………..Ǻ , BG = ………..Ǻ

G= ………..Ǻ, Y= ………..Ǻ, o = …………. Ǻ

R= ………..Ǻ,

VIVA- VOCE

1. How many rulings are there in the grating element given?

2. What is the condition for diffraction?
3. What is the difference between reflection and scattering?
4. What do you understand by the term least count?
5. What is the difference between transmission and reflection grating?
6. Why the sky appear red during sunset?
7. What is meant by dispersion?
8. Define Wave packet?
9. What is the use of collimator and telescope?
10. How the astronomical telescopes differ from ordinary telescope?

42
 Model Graph

1000/T (K-1)

Log I0 (A) dy
dx

43
Exp. No. Date:

7. DETERMINATION OF BAND GAP IN A SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL

-REVERSE BIASED PN DIODE

Aim

To find the width of the forbidden energy gap in a semiconductor material taken in the form a pn
– diode.

Apparatus

0-15V dc power supply, heating arrangement to heat the diode. Thermometer (0°C to 100°C).
Micrometer (0-50  ), Germanium diode.

Formula

The width of the forbidden gap is given by

E 
g eV  0 .198 x slope eV

Explanation of symbols

Symbol Explanation Unit

Is Saturation current μA

T Absolute temperature Kelvin

44
Table.1

Room temperature: _______ °C, Voltage V: _________volts, Current I: _______µ A

Temperature Temperature
S. Current I0 1000/T log I0
t T = t + 273
NO.
(µ A) (°C) (°K) (K-1 ) A
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

45
Circuit
The circuit diagram for conducting the experiment is shown in Fig 7.1. The diode is reverse
biased with the help of dc voltage obtained from a dc power supply and the current that flows through the
reverse biased diode is measured with a micrometer. A heating system (heating coil or water bath) helps
to raise the temperature of the diode. The circuit is available in a ready-to-use training board form.

Procedure

Sufficiently long wires are soldered to the diode terminals and diode is connected in to the circuit
as shown in Fig.7.1. The diode is immersed in a water bath which in turn is kept in a heating mantle. A
thermometer is also kept in the water bath such that its mercury bulb is just at the height of the diode.
The power supply is switched on and the voltage is adjusted to say ---- volts. The current through diode
and room temperature are noted. The power supply is switched off. The heating mantle is switched on
and the water bath is heated up to 100°C. The heating mantle is switched off when the temperature of
water bath reached 100°C. The power supply is again switched on and the voltage is kept at ---V. The
temperature say (100°C) and corresponding current through the diode are noted. The water bath is
allowed to cool slowly. As its temperature falls, the current through the diode decreases. As the current
falls through steps of 3µA the corresponding temperature are noted down in the table. The calculations
1000
are completed. A graph is plotted taking on X - axis and log I0 on Y – axis. A straight line such
T
Fig. 7.2 is obtained. The slope of the straight line is determined and using it in the formula, the band gap
Eg calculated.

Calculation

E 
g eV  0 .198 x slope eV

PR
= 0.198 x eV
RQ

= ______eV

Result

The width of the forbidden gap in germanium semiconductor is = ___________eV.

VIVA –VOCE

1. Define Fermi level.

2. What are intrinsic semiconductors? Give examples.
3. What are extrinsic semiconductors? Give examples

46
Fig.8. Air wedge setup-Determination of thickness of a thin wire

47
Exp. No. Date:

8. Determination of thickness of a thin wire- Air wedge

Aim:
To determine the thickness of a given fiber (or) wire (or) a sheet of paper by forming interference
fringes due to an air-wedge.

Apparatus required:
Traveling microscope, two optically plane plates, given fiber (or) wire (or) thin sheet of paper,
sodium vapour lamp etc

Formula:
Thickness of the given fiber (or) wire (or) thin sheet of paper is given by

l
t meter
2
Explanation of symbols

Symbol Explanation Unit

 Distance between edge of contact and the wire (or) paper Metre

 Wavelength of the monochromatic source of light (5893 A ) Metre

 Mean fringe width Metre

48
Table 1. To find the band width ( β )

LC = 0.001 cm TR = MSR + (VSC X LC)

Microscope reading
Width of 5 Fringe
Order of
fringes width (β)
the fringes MSR VSC TR
10-2 m (Div) x 10-2 m x 10-2 m x 10-2 m
n

n+5

n+10

n+15

n+20

n+25

n+30

n+35

n+40

n+45

n+50
Mean ()= ………… x 10-2 m

Table 2. To find the distance between the edge of contact and the material of fiber (or) wire (or)
paper

LC = 0.001 cm TR = MSR + (VSC X LC)

Microscope reading
Position of the l = R1~ R2
microscope MSR VSC TR
x10-2m Div x10-2m x10-2m
At the edge of
R1
the contact
At the edge of
material of fiber
R2
(or) wire

49
Procedure:

Two optically plane glass plates are placed one over the other and tied by means of a rubber band
at one end. The given material of fiber (or) wire (or) paper is introduced on the other end, so that an air-
wedge is formed between the plates as shown in Fig. 8.1. This set up is placed on the horizontal bed
plate of the traveling microscope.

Light from the sodium vapour lamp (S) is rendered parallel by means of condensing lens (L). The
parallel beam of light is incident on a plane glass plate (G) inclined at an angle of 45º and transmitted.
The transmitted light is incident normally on the glass plate. part of the light gets reflected at the top of
the glass plate and other part is transmitted through the air wedge and falls on the other glass plate where
it gets reflected, Interferences takes place between the light reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of
the glass plates and is viewed through the traveling microscope (M). Hence large number of equally
spaced dark and bright fringes are formed which are parallel to the edge of contact (Fig. 8.2).

The microscope is adjusted so that the bight (or) dark fringe near the edge of contact is made to
coincide with the vertical cross wire and this is taken as the nth fringe. The reading from the horizontal
scale of the traveling microscope is noted. The microscope is moved across the fringes using the
horizontal traverse screw and the readings are taken when the vertical cross wire coincides with every
successive 5 fringes ( 5, 10, 15, 20, …). The width of every 10 fringes is calculated and the width of one
fringe is calculated. The mean of this gives the fringe width( ).

The cross wire is fixed at the inner edge of the rubber band and the reading from the microscope
is noted. Similarly reading from the microscope is noted keeping the cross wire at the edge of the
material. The difference between these two values gives of „‟. Substituting „β‟ and  in the given
formula, the thickness of the given material can be determined.

50
Calculation

l
t meter
2

51
Result:
The thickness of the given material of fiber (or) of wire (or) paper = metre.

VIVA VOCE

1. What is an Air wedge?

2. What is the principle behind the determination of thickness of a wire by an air wedge
method?

3. What is Interference?

52