Dave Lawrence P.

Lagatuz BIO402

1. Name the protecting membranes of the heart. How is the heart protected by these
membranes?

The pericardium is responsible for protecting the heart. It is a fluid-filled sac that covers the
heart and ends of the aorta,venae cava, and the pulmonary artery. It also maintain the position of
the heart within the chest cavity, prevents the heart from bloating, limits the motion of the heart,
reduces friction, and defends against the heart infection.

Pericardium is divided into fibrous, parietal, and visceral. Fibrous pericardium covers the heart.
It gives an external defensive layer that is joined to the sternum by sternopericardial ligaments.
Stringy pericardium keeps the heart contained inside the chest depression. It additionally shields
the heart from a disease that could possibly spread from close-by organs, for example, the lungs.

Parietal pericardium is the layer between the fibrous pericardium and visceral pericardium. It
joins with fibrous pericardium and gives an extra layer of protection for the heart.

Visceral pericardium is both the internal layer of the pericardium and the external layer of the
heart wall. Also called as the epicardium, this layer ensures the internal heart layers and
furthermore aids the production of pericardial liquid. Epicardium comprises of connective tissue
flexible fibers and (fat) tissue, which help to give foundation and secure the internal heart layers.
Oxygen-rich blood is provided to the epicardium and internal heart layers by the coronary supply
routes.

2. Name the most common congenital heart problems. Describe each.

Congenital heart problems
Ventricular septal defect
Atrial septal defect
Tetralogy of Fallot
Description
It's the most typical nonheritable heart defect among
newborns. VSDs are small- to large-sized holes
between the lower chambers of the heart.T hey
are usually diagnosed because of the presence of
a murmur (an further sound detected once paying
attention to the heart with a stethoscope
Another common inborn heart defect. This
condition is an abnormal hole abnormal hole
between the upper two chambers of the heart, within
the space referred to as the atria. There are
four forms of ASD holes, betting on their
position on the septum – the wall that divides the
two sides of the guts. In most cases, infants with
ASDs are well.
A relatively common heart abnormality that
physicians sometimes diagnose throughout the fetal
period or shortly when the kid is born. The hallmark
feature of TOF is associate abnormal position or

Single ventricle defects
orientation of the ventricular septum, with a
hole observed between the two lower heart
chambers. The semilunar valve disallow this
hole rather than coming back directly out of the
left ventricular outflow tract; next, the blood
flow starting up of the right ventricle is blocked.
This condition is characterised by a large type
of inborn anomalies that usually lead to the patient
having only one working ventricle or "pumping
chamber" rather than two

Pulmonary valve stenosis
This category of heart defect represents any kind
of obstruction to blood flow going from the
right ventricle to the lungs. In some cases, the
obstruction is present within the semilunar
valve itself, either from an abnormally tiny structure
or because of the fusion of one or two of the valve
leaflets, that are flaps that enable blood to flow
forward and shut to stop blood from flowing
backward. The extent of obstruction is also below
or higher than the valve.

3. Discuss the blood supply of the brain. What is the Circle of Willis?
The brain gets blood from two sources: the interior carotid veins, which emerge at the point in the
neck where the regular carotid supply routes bifurcate, and the vertebral arteries.The interior
carotid supply routes branch to shape two major cerebral arteries, the front and center cerebral
veins. The right and left vertebral arteries meet up at the level of the pons on the ventral surface of
the brainstem to form the midline basilar artery. The basilar vein joins the blood supply from the
internal carotids in an anterior ring at the base of the brain (in the region of the nerve center and
cerebral peduncles) called the circle of Willis. The back cerebral arteries emerge at this
conjunction, as complete two little connecting arteries, the posterior and anterior arteries.
Conjoining the two major sources of cerebral vascular supply by means of the circle of Willis
apparently enhances the odds of any area of the cerebrum proceeding to get blood in the event that
one of the real arteries winds up blocked.
The circle of Willis is the terminal parts of the vertebral and interior carotid arteries all
anastomose to frame a roundabout vein.It makes sure that the flow of oxygenated blood continues
without interruption. It forms a repeated for collateral circulation in cerebral circulation.It serves
as a safety pull for the brain to ensure that it is not precarious at the top.It is composed of internal
carotid artery, anterior cerebral artery, anterior communicating artery, posterior cerebral artery,
and posterior communicating artery.

References:

https://health.usnews.com/health-care/patient-advice/articles/2018-06-26/8-of-the-most-
common-congenital-heart-defects
https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1877617-overview
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11042/
https://teachmeanatomy.info/neuro/vessels/arterial-supply/