1

1. HEAVY OIL

Heavy oils have a gravity between 24 and 10 ˚API and a viscosity of 100 to 100000
cp at reservoir conditions (Bybee,2011). Table 1.1 shows the typical heavy oil
viscosities and gravities. Heavy oil reservoirs are formed by microbial degradation of
conventional light crude oil reservoirs over geological timescales (Larter et al., 2008).
Unlike light oil, heavy oils have higher density, and heavy oil contains higher amounts
of nitrogen, oxygen, heavy metals and sulfur than light oil (Url 1). The reservoirs are
shallow, at low pressure and temperature and the solution gas content is low. Figure
1.1 shows parts of total oil reserves. Heavy oil , extra heavy oil and bitumen make up
to 70% of the world’s total oil reserves.

Table 1.1 – Typical heavy oil gravities and viscosities (Briggs et al., 1988).

Field Location Gravity (API) Viscosity (cp)

Bachaquero Venezuela 13 150
Emlicheim Germany 24 175
Lost Hills California 14 400
Cold Lake Canada 10 to 12 10000 to 100000

Some of the world’s largest reserves are heavy oil reservoirs. Heavy oil is often
neglected as a resource because of the difficulties and costs involved in its production
(Curtis et al., 2002). Thanks to new technological developments, investments have
increased for producing heavy oil due to reduced cost and increased consumption.
Regional oil resources data are shown in Figure 1.2. At present more than half of the
world’s proven heavy oil resources are in the South America and North America, the
other parts being divided among the, Middle East, Europe, Africa, Transcaucasia,
Russia, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia and Oceania. Some properties and
definitions are introduced in this chapter. Thus, the introduction part can be classified
into three parts which are rock properties, fluid properties and reservoir fluid types.
 2

In the rock properties part; porosity and permeability will be described. In the fluid
properties part; specific gravity, oil formation volume factor, solution gas-oil ratio,
viscosity, permeability and compressibility of oil are discussed. In the reservoir fluid
part; black oil reservoir and volatile oil reservoir are described.

CHART TITLE

Heavy
Oil sands and oil; 15%
Bitumen; 30%

Light oil;
30%
Extra heavy
oil; 25%

Figure 1.1 - Total world oil reserves (Alboudwarej et al., 2006).

1200
Discovered original heavy oil in place,

North America
1000
South America

800 Europe
Africa
BBbls

600 Transcaucasia
Middle East
400 Russia
South Asia
200 East Asia
Southeast Asia and Oceania
0
Region

The Figure 1.2 – Regional distribution of heavy oil (Meyer at al., 2007)
 3

1.1. ROCK PROPERTIES

To understand the reservoir we need to know some of its properties. In this chapter,
some of the basic rock properties are reviewed.These properties are porosity and
permeability.

1.1.1. Porosity
Porosity is the first of two essential requirement for a rock to act as a hydrocarbon
reservoir. It is usually expressed as a percentage using the formula volume of voids
which is called as pores, divided by bulk volume shown in Eq. 1.1. Porosity is
symbolized by Ø.

𝑃𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Porosity % (Ø) = ( )x100 (1.1)
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Porosity can be measured in the laboratory from cores and down the borehole using
well logs especially the sonic density and neutron logs. Occasionally it can be even
estimated from seismic data. There are the two types of porosity absolute and effective
porosity. Absolute porosity actually gives information about how much pore space
exists in the reservoir rock. Effective porosity consist of pores that are connected with
each other and fluid can flow througt the path of these pores. Effective porosity can
not be higher than the absolute porosity. Porosity is classified into two major types
according to their origin. Primary porosity is formed when a sediment is deposited, the
secondary porosity forms after deposition.

1.1.2. Permeability
Permeability is the ability of a reservoir rock to allow fluids to flow. The higher its
value the easier it is for fluids to flow. It is measured on a rock core sample in the
laboratory. When the test is done with only one fluid phase present the measured
 4

value is referred to as the absolute permeability. High porosity and high permeability
is better for production. High porosity and low permeability means a low production
rate for a long time. While a high permeability and a low porosity means high
production rate for a short time. Absolute permeability is an ability to flow fluid
through a permeable rock when only one type of fluid is in the rock pore spaces. If two
phase of fluid exist flow of these two phase is called as effective permeability.

𝑘𝑒 (1.2)
= 𝑘𝑟
𝑘
where,

k : Absolute permeability, md
𝑘𝑒 : Effective permeability, md
𝑘𝑟 : Relative permeability

The value of relative permeability of oil depends on saturation of oil and water in the
rock core sample during the laboratory flow test. It is convenient to show this
relationship by plotting relative permeability on the vertical axis of our graph and
water saturation on the horizontal axis. The range of each is from 0 to 1. In Figure 1.3,
Increasing the saturation of water in the sample the water begins to flow along with
the oil. We have both phases flowing simultaneously. So, it is measured relative
permeabilities for both the oil and water phases that for oil decreases and that for water
increases. After the oil saturation reaches the residual oil saturation, oil stops flowing.
 5

Figure 1.3 – Relative permeability curve (Alkış & Baday, 2017).

1.2. PETROLEUM FLUID PROPERTIES

Another important factor is the petroleum fluid properties to be processed in this
section. These parameters are as follows; viscosity, specific gravity, formation volume
factor, solution gas-oil ratio, and oil compressibility.

1.2.1. Viscosity
Viscosity is defined as the internal resistance of fluid to flow which is shown by µ and
its unit is centipoise. The oil viscosity is an important physical property that controls
and effects the flow of oil through porous media and pipes. It is a strong function of
reservoir temperature, pressure, oil and gas gravity, and solution gas in the oil. Below
the bubble point pressure, viscosity decreases with increasing pressure whereas above
the bubble point pressure viscosity increases with increasing pressure. Whenever
possible, oil viscosity should be determined by laboratory measurements at reservoir
temperature and pressure. Viscosity is usually reported in standart PVT analysis. If
such laboratory data are not available, there are several correlations to estimate oil
viscosity at reservoir conditions. The Figure 1.4 shows that viscosity changes with
 6

temperature. As the temperature increases the viscosity decreases for both heavy and
light oil but heay oil viscosity is much higher than the light oil viscosity.

Figure 1.4 − Viscosity vs temperature relation for Canadian oils (Speight, 2014).

1.2.2. Specific Gravity

Specific gravity of oil is defined as the ratio of the density of the oil to the density of
the water at specific conditions of pressure and temperature where it is given in Eq.1.3.
𝜌𝑜
𝛾𝑜 = (1.3)
𝜌𝑤

where,
𝜌𝑜 : Density of oil, lbm/cuft

𝜌𝑤 : Density of water, lbm/cuft

Heavy and light oil specific gravities are compared in Figure 1.5. As shown in the
figure, heavy oil density is higher than light oil.
 7

65

60

55
Density, lb/cuft

50

45

40

35

30
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Pressure, psia

Light oil Heavy Oil

Figure 1.5 – Comparision of density change with pressure for light and heavy oil.

Since the density of oil is a function of pressure and temperature, it is necessary to

designate standard conditions for reporting gravity. The standard conditions use in
petroleum industry are the atmospheric pressure and temperature of 60˚F. For this
reason, if the specific gravity is given as γₒ (60˚/60˚), which means that the density of
oil and water were measured at 60˚F at atmospheric pressure.
The petroleum industry also use another scale ˚API which developed by The American
Petroleum Institute.

141.5 (1.4)
˚API = -131.5
𝛾𝑜

Figure 1.6 shows relationship between specific gravity and API gravity. While
specific gravity increases the API gravity decreases. If API gravity decreases the type
of the reservoir fluid is change from LNG to extra heavy oil.
 8

Figure 1.6 − API vs specific gravity.

1.2.3. Oil Formation Volume Factor (FVF)

Oil formation volume factor, which shown by Bₒ, is defined as ratio of the volume of
oil at reservoir conditions to the volume of oil entering stock tank at standard
conditions. The mathematical expression of FVF is given in Eq. 1.5.

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 @ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠, 𝑏𝑏𝑙 (1.5)

𝐵𝑜 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 @ 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠, 𝑆𝑇𝐵

The main reason of change in oil volume is the dissolved gas leaving when the pressure
decrease from reservoir pressure to surface pressure. FVF changes in light oil is bigger
than heavy oil as shown in Figure 1.7, because the amount of gas dissolved in light
oil is higher than heavy oil. As seen in the figure, FVF is growing with pressure drop,
up to the bubblee point pressure. After the bubble point, FVF is starting to fall, because
the gas that is dissolved in the gas begins to evolved.
 9

𝑃𝑏

Figure 1.7 − FVF vs pressure for heavy oil and light oil .

1.2.4. Solution Gas-Oil Ratio

Solution gas-oil ratio, which shown by Rₛ, is defined as the number of standard cubic
feet of gas that will dissolve in one stock tank barrel of crude oil at reservoir condition.
The solubility of the natural gas is a function of the pressure and temperature, API
gravity, and gas gravity. A heavy oil contains less dissolved gas than a light oil. In
general, the solution gas-oil ratio varies from 0 (dead oil) to approximately 2000
scf/bbl (very light oil). At all pressure above the bubble point pressure, the solution
gas-oil ratio remains constant because no gas is evolved. Below the bubble point
pressure, solution gas is liberated and the value of Rₛ decreases with decrease of
pressure. Figure 1.8 illustrates a comparison between the 𝑅𝑠 behaviors of light oil and
heavy oil. Solution gas-oil ratio is higher in light oil as seen in the figure. The
mathematical expression of 𝑅𝑠 is given in Eq. 1.6.

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝑆𝐶𝐹 (1.6)

𝑅𝑠 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝑆𝑇𝐵
 10

Figure 1.8 − Solution gas-oil ratio (Zararsız et al., 2016).

1.2.5. Oil Compressibility

The compressibility of any fluid is defined as the relative change in fluid volume per
unit change in pressure. Oil compressibility is a source of energy for fluid flow in a
reservoir. In an undersaturated reservoir it is a dominant drive mechanism, but for a
saturated reservoir it is overshadowed by gas compressibility effects due to the
evoluation of dissolved gas. The Eq. 1.7 describes the change in the volume at which
a substance is exposed during a change in pressure while the temperature is kept
constant. The Figure 1.9 shows the relationship between oil comressibility and
pressure. As seen in the figure, the compressibility increases as the pressure decreases,
and the compressibility of the light oil is higher than the heavy oil.

1 𝜕𝑉𝑜 (1.7)
𝑐𝑜 = − ( )
𝑉𝑜 𝜕𝑃 𝑇

𝑐𝑜 : Oil compressibility, 1/psia

 11

𝑉𝑜 : Volume of the oil, cuft

𝜕𝑉𝑜 : Volume difference of oil, cuft
𝝏𝑷 : Pressure difference, psia

Figure 1.9 − Oil compressibility vs pressure for pressures above the bubble point
pressure.

1.3. RESERVOIR LIQUIDS

There are two types of reservoir liquids these are black oils and volatile oils. The
classification is given based on pressure and temperature behavior.

1.3.1. Black Oils

The name of black oil comes from black oil simulator. Black oil consists of large,
heavy and nonvolatile molecules. A typical black oil phase diagram is shown at Figure
1.10. The line 1 to 3 represents the pressure drop at reservoir conditions and constant
temperature. At line 1 to 2 the oil is undersaturated that means all gas is dissolved in
the oil. At point 2, the oil contains as much dissolved gas as it can hold. As pressure
 12

reduces from 2 to 3 additional gas evolves and this causes some shrinkage of the oil.
Gas and oil exist together in the separator. Black oil characterized as having initial
producing gas oil ratios of 2000 SCF/STB or less (McCain,1990).

Figure 1.10 – Black oil phase diagram (McCain,1990).

1.3.2. Volatile Oils

Volatile oils relatively fewer heavy molecules and more intermediates (defined as the
ethane through hexanes) than black oils. Volatile oils generally have initial gas-oil
ratios in the 2000 to 3300 scf/Bbl range, and the stock tank gravity is usually 40° API
 13

or higher (McCain,1990). Gas associated with volatile oils tends to be very rich and
similar to retrograde condensate gas.
The phase diagram of volatile oil is shown in Figure 1.11. The critical temperature is
much lower than for a black oil and it is closer to the reservoir temperature. A smaller
pressure drop below the bubble point will cause a large amount of gas to be released.
Figure 1.12 illustrates the phase envelopes for heavy and light oils.

Figure 1.11 – Volatile oil phase diagram (McCain,1990).

 14

Figure 1.12 – Phase envelope for heavy and light oils (Muaz, 2013).
 15

2. DEVELOPMENT OF A HEAVY OIL FIELD

Increase in oil consumption and continued cost reduction are the reason for increasing
production from heavy oil reservoirs worldwide. The purpose of reservoir management
is to produce the most production from a reservoir with minimum cost by using the
right information and methods. In other words, the most efficient way to produce from
the reservoir. Reservoir management uses financial, technological and human
resources while minimizing capital investments and operating expenses to maximize
economic recovery of oil from a reservoir. To collect information, use appropriate
technology, economic analyses, situation analyses and team management are the most
important parameters for successful reservoir management. Horizontal design wells
will play an important role in the production of heavy oil. The technology will play a
leading role in the development of horizontally designed wells such as 3D/4D seismic,
3D visualization, reservoir simulation and interactive reservoir management. The
reservoir management plan is shown in Figure 2.1.

1-DISCOVERY

Where is the field?

2-EVALUATION

The amount of reserves?

3-DEVELOPMENT

The production facilities design and implementation

4-PRODUCTION

Oil and gas production

5-ABANDONMENT

Site restitution

Figure 2.1 – The reservoir management plan (Url 2).

 16

If these steps could be explained briefly :

Discovery : To find hydrocarbon accumulation, geologists analyze the surface of the

earth produced by seismic echography. They construct a geological layer of the
underground surface and then identify potential reservoirs. Exploration wells should
be opened to check if the identified reservoir indeed contains hydrocarbons.

Evaluation : Estimate the initial volume of oil and gas in the reservoir. Simulate the
reservoir fluid flow behavior and optimize the field development scenario (number,
type and spacing of wells, amount of field production, etc.). An economic evaluation
is made by considering the revenue according to production estimates and estimated
development costs. If the necessary economic criteria are provided, the oil field is
developed and oil is produced.

Development : A field development plan establishes the following. Number of wells

to open to achieve production targets. Recovery techniques to produce fluids in the
reservoir. The separation systems for gas and fluids.

Production : The life of a reservoir consists of several series stages. These stages are
production increase, stabilization stage, injection stage (water, gas or chemical
products) to assist in the recovery of hydrocarbon resources and thus maintain a
satisfactory amount of production, and gradual decrease of the depletion period of
hydrocarbon production.

Abandonment : When the hydrocarbon production rate is not economical, the reservoir
is abandoned.

The following questions address heavy oil reservoir management philosophies:

1. When should reservoir management start?

2. What, how, and when to collect data?

3. What kinds of questions should be asked if we want to ensure the right answer in
the process of reservoir management?

4. Should we design a heavy oil management from the cradle to grave?

 17

5. Should we prefer total optimized design, or small pieces of the project be optimized?

6. What should be the management style to most effectively utilize heavy oil reservoir
management concepts?

A comprehensive plan for reservoir management, including a team approach, is highly

desirable. However, every reservoir may not warrant such a detailed plan because of
cost-benefit considerations (Thakur, 1997).

The most important problem in heavy oil production is the high viscosity of heavy oil.
The reduction in viscosity will result in increased production, the reduction in viscosity
can be achieved by heat application. The viscosity can be reduced by using solvent
instead of using heat. The decrease of viscosity lower than use of heat in this process.
Also,the using of solvent process is more costly than use of heat. The main heavy oil
recovery techniques, as well as the approximate API gravity ranges of applicability,
are as follows:

 Cyclic steam stimulation < 15 API

 Steamflooding 12-24 API
 Hot waterflooding 20-24 API
 In situ combustion wellbore heating 8-36 API

These methods can be used for heavy oil production (Farouq, 1974). Before the
development of the reservoir, the well spacing and economic analysis are so important
because the companies focus on earning more income.

With increasing human population and developing technology, energy need has
increased. All reservoirs can be produced with one well under normal conditions, but
this production takes a very long time. Therefore, one well would not be economical.
With hundreds of wells, the reservoir can be produced in a very short time, but this
also won't be economical. In heavy oil fields, distances between wells should be
chosen well to increase production and profit.

Wells are the underground structure where we can access the reservoir. The
development of oil and gas fields is carried out with a spacing well. The production
and injection wells, take part in a specific order of the productive formation are called
 18

well spacing. Choosing the best the well spacing density is a critical factor in justifying
the development of a reservoir system. In view of the fact that in the development of
oil and gas fields in the largest part of capital investments spent on drilling, completion,
operation and maintenance of wells. Drilling more well than is necessary on the
reservoir is unacceptable. In the same time, the number of operating wells should be
sufficient by providing a possible high rate of appropriate oil and gas production rate
and the final hydrocarbon recovery factor (Gurbanov et al, 2016).
 19

3. PREVIOUS STUDIES

In this section, the summary of two heavy oil field development is given from previous
studies.

3.1. EFFECT OF INTERSECTED WELLS CONFIGURATION ON

PRODUCTIVITY

The project was carried out by Azad Almasov in 2017. In this project, he used Rubis-
simulater and a fictional field. In this project, horizontal wells are intersected with
vertical wells for the development of a heavy oil field with 15˚ API gravity.

In this project, it is difficult to lower the pump to the horizontal wells, and since the
repair of any damage will be costly, a vertical well is placed at the end of the horizontal
well. Only the horizontal well has been perforated and the pump is placed in the
vertical well. In this work, intersected wells yielded higher production compared to
other scenarios. It was observed that the slope of the horizontal wells and the reservoir
anisotropy effect the production. In the Table 2 illustrates the the results for effects of
anisotropy and inclination for intersected wells compared to the vertical well and the
length of completion is 2000 ft.

Table 2 − Ԛ and pruduction increase for inclined and horizontal intersected wells in
horizontal anisotropy case (kₕ=100 mD; kᵥ/kₕ=0.01).

cases Ԛ(STB) Production increase comparing

with vertical well case (%)
Inclined Intersected wells(8.5˚) 87196.95 35.64
Inclined Intersected wells(5˚) 86461.29 34.5
Horizontal Intersected wells 77250.12 20.2
Vertical well 64285.46
 20

3.2. EA 2013

The project was carried out by Elçin Aktaş and Arziman Eyyubov in 2013. In this
project, they used Rubis simulater and a model field. Only vertical wells were used in
this project. ˚API gravity of oil is 11 and project life is 10000 days in this project.

Firstly, the oil field is developed with single production well at constant flow rate or
at constant bottomhole temperature. After that all production scenarios were
performed at three constant bottomhole pressure of 500 psia, 750 psia and 1000 psia.
The oil field with aquifer and without aquifer is modeled. Secondly, the oil field is
developed using multiple produciton wells at constant bottomhole pressure. Two
scenario are investigated in this project. First scenario is all wells start production at
the same time and second scenario is wells are put into production at subsequent date
intervals.

Table 3 – Recovery factor for a single well.

Single Well
Recovery Factor Without Aquifer Recovery Factor With Aquifer
Constant Flow rate 0.3% 3.2%
Constant Bottomhole Pressure 0.7% 3.7%

Table 4 – Recovery factor for three wells.

Multiple Wells
Recovery Factor Without Aquifer Recovery Factor With Aquifer
1510 ft Distance 0.7% 11%
Scenario 1
50 ft Distance 0.7% 1.5%
1510 ft Distance 0.7% 7.6%
Scenario 2
50 ft Distance 0.7% 1.4%
 21

Recovery factor for a single well and three well shown in Table 3 and Table 4.
Increasing recovery factor, less reduction in reservoir pressure and increased water
production are the results of production in a reservoir with aquifer. As a result, when
the number of wells is increased, the recovery factor will increase. Also, recovery
factor with aquifer is greater than without aquifer.
 22

NOMENCLATURE

𝜕𝑉𝑜 = Volume difference of oil, cuft

𝜕𝑃 = Pressure difference, psia

𝐵𝑜 = Formation Volume Factor, bbl/STB

𝑐𝑜 = Oil compressibility, 1/psia

𝑐𝑡 = Total compresibility, psia−1

k = Permeability, md

𝑘𝑒 = Effective permeability, md

𝑘𝑟 = Relative permeability, md

q = Flow Rate, STB/D

𝑉𝑏 = Bulk volume, cuft

𝑉𝑜 = Volume of the oil, cuft

∅ = Porosity, fraction

𝜌𝑜 = Density of oil, lbm/cuft

𝜌𝑤 = Density of water, lbm/cuft

𝛾𝑜 = Specific gravity of oil, fraction

 23

REFERENCES

Alboudwarej, H., Felix, J., Taylor, S., Baker, A., Palmer, D., Pattison, K., Beshry, M.,
Krawchuk, P., Brown, B., Calvo, R. and Triana, J.A.C., 2006. Highlighting
Heavy Oil. Oilfield Review, Vol. 18, 34-53.

Alkış, Ş., Baday, Z.M., 2017. Heavy Oil Field Development, Graduation Design
Project 1090, Petroleum Engineering Department,I.T.U. Mines Faculty,
Istanbul, p.24.

Almasov, A., 2017. Effects of Intersected Wells Configurations on Productivity,

Master of Science, Petroleum and Natural Gas Enginnering Department, I.T.U.
Mines Faculty, Istanbul.

Briggs, P. J., Baron, R. P., Fulleylove, R. J. & Wright, M. S., 1988. Development of
Heavy Oil Reservoirs. Journal of Petroleum Technology, February, pp. 206-
207.

Bybee, K., 2011. A Systematic Workflow Process for Heavy-Oil Characterization.

Journal of Petroleum Technology, March, p. 89.

Curtis, C., Kopper, R., Decoster, E., Garcia, A. G., Huggins, C., Minner, M., Kupsch,
N., Rough, E., & Waite, M., 2002. Heavy Oil Reservoirs, Oilfeld Review, Vol.
3, 30-32.

Eyyubov, A., Aktaş, E., 2013. Heavy Oil Reservoir Development, Gradution Design
Project 1036, Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering Department., I.T.U.
Mines Faculty, Istanbul.

Farouq, S.M., 1974. “Heavy Oil Recovery Principles, Practicality, Potential , and
Problems”, Journal of Petroleum Technology, May.

Larter, S., Adams, J., Gates, I. D., Bennett, B. & Huang, H., 2008. The Origin,
Prediction and Impact of Oil Viscosity Heterogeneity on the Production
 24

Characteristics of Tar Sands and Heavy Oil Reservoirs. Journal of Canadian

Petroleum Technology, 47, pp. 52-61.

McCain, W.D., 1990. The Properties Of Petroleum Fluids (2nd ed.). Tulsa, Oklahoma,
United States: PennWell Books.

Meyer, R. F., Attanasi, E. D. & Freeman, P. A., 2007. Heavy Oil and Natural Bitumen
Resources in Geological Basins of the World, U.S. Geological Survey Open-
File Report 1084.

Speight, J.G., 2014. Exploration, Recovery, and Transportation,5th ed.,The Chemistry

and Technology of Petroleum, Danvers, Massachusetts, USA, p.139.

Thakur, C. G., 1997. Heavy Oil Reservoir Management, paper SPE 39233, Fifth Latin
American and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference and Exhibition,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 30 August - 3 September.

Towson, D. E., 1997. Canada's Heavy Oil Industry: A Technological Revolution, SPE
Paper, International Thermal Operations and Heavy Oil Symposium,
Bakersfield, 10-12 February.

Zararsız, B., Çatal, B., Eren, R., 2016. Design of A Heavy Oil Field Development
Based On Well Spacing, Gradution Design Project 1062, Petroleum and
Natural Gas Engineering Department, I.T.U. Mines Faculty, Istanbul, pp. 1-5.

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