A REVIEW OF FACTORS A F F E C T I N G TOUGHNESS IN

WELDED STEELS

H. W. KERR

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada

(Received: 4 June, 1975)

A BSTRA CT

This review paper discusses the local toughness at various positions within a weldment
in plain carbon, carbon-manganese, microalloy and low-alloy ferrite steels. Single
pass weldments in such steels, which are austenitic where temperatures during welding
exceed the critical values for that steel but which transform to other phases at lower
temperatures, can be divided into six zones--subcritical heat-affected zone (HAZ),
inter-critical HAZ, grain.refined HAZ, grain-coarsened HAZ, partially molten zone
and weld metal.
Microstructural and compositional factors which affect toughness are qualitatively
reviewedfor each of these zones, in both as-welded and heat-treated conditions. Some
areas which require further research are pointed out.

INTRODUCTION

Steels may be classified from their compositions as follows:

1. Plain carbon or carbon-manganese steels:

(a) rimmed
(b) semi-killed
(c) fully killed by silicon additions
(d) fully killed by silicon, grain refined by aluminium
2. Microalloy steels (containing small amounts, often less than 0.1%, of such
elements as niobium and vanadium).
3. Low alloy steels (less than 5 % alloy additions).
4. High alloy steels (greater than 5 % alloy additions).
119
Int. J. Pres. Ves. & Piping (4) (1976)--© Applied Science Publishers Ltd, England, 1976
Printed in Great Britain
120 H . W . KERR

These classifications are not rigid; for example, 'microalloy' steels often contain
other alloying elements, such as molybdenum and manganese. Some classifications
may be further subdivided. For example, an alloy steel may be purchased in one of
the normalised (Norm), normalised and tempered (Norm-T) or quenched and
tempered (Q-T) conditions, depending on the strength and toughness requirements.
Ideally, the welding procedure for every steel could be presented in a simple set
of references. Some general t and specific z recommendations are available, but even
for one welding process these recommendations sometimes suggest that the steel
producer be consulted. Different processes, electrodes, or flux compositions affect
the properties by changing the weld metal alloy and impurity content, cooling rate
or heat-affected zone (HAZ) width. For the same welding parameters, different
welding geometries or dimensions affect cooling rates and restraint, and thus may
affect general recommendations.~ Hence, when pressure vessels are constructed,
the welding procedure must be demonstrated to meet certain specifications.
Microstructurai variables are more limited. Different welding processes may
produce essentially the same microstructure in different steels. The mechanical
properties are related to microstructure and composition.
Correlation between microstructure and properties, in this case toughness, is
often simpler than trying to correlate properties to the large number of welding
processes and parameters. Microstructural examination of a weld is therefore
useful when attempting to optimise the toughness.
Unfortunately, the understanding is not yet very quantitative. For example, a
quantitative relation between ferrite grain size and nil ductility transition (NDT)
temperature is available for mild steel. 3 Alloying elements change this relation, but
the quantitative effect of a single element also depends on: (i) possible interactions
with other elements, such as carbon or nitrogen; (ii) the absence of other micro-
structural changes, such as a change in pearlite or martensite fraction. In a weld, a
quantitative effect on toughness may be due to a combination of factors, including
compositional change (especially in weld metal), grain size change, introduction of
new phases due to cooling rate changes, etc. Very few studies of welds report grain
size. More regression analyses are required to quantitatively predict effects of weld
microstructure on toughness.
This review does not quote quantitative effects, for two reasons. First, in order to
present a quantitative result a large number of parameters must be defined, including
initial compositions and microstructure, welding process and heat input. One or
more of these parameters, e.g. initial grain size, is often not given by the original
authors. The quantitative result may not apply to different initial microstructures
or compositions, and may be misused. Second, presentation of quantitative results
makes the qualitative trends more difficult to follow. Readers are advised to consult
the individual papers for quantitative results.
In this review certain aspects of toughness will be ignored. High alloy steels are
omitted. Residual tensile stresses reduce the toughness of welds, but correlation of
 FACTORS AFFECTING TOUGHNESS IN WELDED STEELS 121

weld procedure to residual stresses in large welds or components will not be

discussed. Most of the references employ small-scale tests, such as Charpy-V or
other fracture toughness tests. Different small-scale tests do not always show exactly
the same trends, 4 because they employ different specimen sizes and testing con-
ditions. For example, the Charpy-V test uses impact loading whereas the crack-
opening-displacement (COD) test is slower. Despite its limitations, the Charpy-V
test has been employed in many toughness investigations. Even for weld procedure
tests it is still widely specified, 5 with other tests recommended only where Charpy-V
specifications cannot be met.6
Because of the narrowness of the HAZ in many real welds, simulated HAZ's
have been made by heating a specimen to a specified temperature and cooling in a
given manner. Although this illustrates the effect of microstructure on the properties
of a simulated zone, the significance of this zone may be overestimated because of
the restraint of adjacent zones in a real weld. This factor will not be discussed further
here, but should be considered in applying these results to any real weldment.
The review is organised according to the weldment zone, rather than the type of
steel, since different steels often have very similar structures in a given zone.

WELDMENT ZONES

A weldment is generally divided into two zones; the weld metal (WM) and the
heat affected zone (HAZ). Around the weldment is the unaffected base metal (BM).
A single pass weld of a steel which transforms to austenite at elevated temperatures
may be subdivided according to the maximum temperature reached (Fig. 1).
(1) Subcritical HAZ--the zone heated to temperatures just below the AC1.
Temperatures in this zone may temper martensite or bainite, and will spherodise
pearlite, and facilitate the redistribution of dislocations.
(2) Inter-critical HAZ--regions relatively rich in carbon transform to austenite.
(3) Grain refined HAZ--regions entirely transformed to austenite have a fine grain
size initially.
(4) Grain coarsened HAZ--at higher austenitising temperatures or longer times
the grain structure can coarsen significantly. In some steels carbides, nitrides or
oxides may initially slow the grain growth process. The amount of grain growth
thus depends on composition, as well as heat input. The grain coarsened HAZ is
close to the weld metal, and its composition may change by such processes as
hydrogen diffusion from the liquid metal or carbon diffusion into the liquid metal.
(5) Partially molten zone--because of the range of melting temperatures, a
partially melted layer is present.
(6) Weld metal--all of this material has first frozen and then transformed at
least once in the solid state. In multipass welds the region close to a subsequent pass
transforms again into austenite, often refining the grain size without allowing much
122 H . W . KERR

grain growth. Thus such 'weld metals' contain refined and as-deposited grains.
Close to the weld surfaces only as-deposited weld metal is present.

HEAT AFFECTED

/I II I I II I
BASE BASE
I 4i (r3 (12 (" 1 ("
MATERIAL MATERIAL

I, 1
t 2 4

L+8
LIQUID

8J
y+8

a.

i--

ol + Fe 3 C

PER CENT CARBON BY WEIGHT

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the zones of a weldment in transformable steel, correlated to the
phase diagram.

TOUGHNESS OF WELDMENT ZONES

The factors affecting the toughness of these zones will be reviewed, including their
relative importance for the different classes of steel.

Sub-critical H A Z
This zone embrittles, especially in rimmed or semi-killed ferritic steels, 4. 7, x~ by
 FACTORS AFFECTING TOUGHNESS IN WELDED STEELS 123

strain ageing due to interstitial elements. The strain ageing effect is affected by the
free interstitial content, the thermal cycle, and the plastic strain. Less embrittle-
ment is found in fully silicon killed and aluminium treated steels 9,11 - ~3 in which
much of the oxygen and nitrogen are tied up as oxides and nitrides. The embrittle-
ment in this zone appears to be less in a fine-grained base material 9" ~ (Fig. 2).
Unfortunately the reported aluminium contents are not consistent in references 9
and 11, but the reported free nitrogen contents are very close, suggesting that the
embrittlement may be partly a grain size effect. The subcritical HAZ of Norm-T

l.O0

STEEL A
---- STEEL B

Oq5

E
o5c- RENT
,.., M A T E R I A L S ~
o
o
SUBCRITICAL~// ; -I
HAZS / ~ /

[
.S Y"
I- I I-- F 1 I
IOO 120 140 160 180 220 220
TEST TEMPERATURE (K)
Fig. 2. COD subcriticai HAZ results for steelswith: (A) 0.15 wt % C, 1.07wt % Mn, 0-2 wt % Si,
33/~m initial grain size, and: (B) 0'14 wt % C, 1"23 wt % Mn, 0"06 wt % Si, 24/~m initial grain
size (after reference 9).

low alloy steels is less embrittled than other zones. 11 This zone does not appear to
have been widely tested in microalloy steels. Charpy tests 37 have shown the
toughness to be maintained in such steels up to at least 873K, but steels containing
Nb without Al may be more sensitive to strain ageing because Nb has less affinity
for nitrogen. 1 ~ In martensitic steels any strain ageing appears to be overshadowed
by the tempering which this region undergoes. ~1.14 Fully-killed C - M n steels are
generally tougher in this region than in the base material due to pearlite
spherodisation.
124 H.W. KERR

The narrow width of the HAZ in a real weld (as opposed to a simulated HAZ)
makes a study of this region difficult. COD tests using notches pre-cut in plates
before welding show increased embrittlement s - ~3 because concentration of strain
at the notch root increases strain ageing. In a real weld, however, strain ageing
would be less unless the region contained a crack which gave similar results, 11 for
example, in a multipass weld containing microcracks which is heated to the
appropriate temperature during a later pass. The embrittling effects of strain ageing
are removed by heating to 875 K 1°, close to the maximum temperature in many
stress relief treatments.

Intercritical H A Z
This region sometimes shows poor toughness in both ferritic s'11'15'16 and
martensitic/bainitic steels. 14,17 - ~9 The regions which transform first to austenite
contain higher than average carbon condentrations, either because they started as
pearlite or because austenite nucleation is favoured at tempered carbide/ferrite grain
boundaries. 19 On cooling, the higher carbon concentration may favour upper
bainite, rather than pearlite, in a ferritic steel,~ 5 or a martensite containing more
carbon than in a homogeneous alloy steel. 19 Toughness varies within this zone; in a
simulated HAZ of a martensitic steel toughness was found to be a minimum when
approximately 60 % of the structure transformed to austenite, 19 but this variation
would be measurable only in very high heat input welds. As the structure formed
depends on cooling rate, heat input and pre-heat are important factors. In ferritic

1.4 k O ' / m m
5C-
----- 1.9 k J ' / m m
2"4 k J / mm
40-

bJ
m

30 7 /."J/

uJ IO-
z

I I I I t [ I [
0 160 180 200 2 2 . 0 240 260 280 300 320
TEST TEMPERATURE (KI
Fig. 3. Notch impact strength of intercritical regions in a martensitic steel heated to 1100 K,
cooled at rates corresponding to the indicated welding heat inputs (after reference 19).
 FACTORS AFFECTING TOUGHNESS IN WELDED STEELS 125

steels, if the pearlite is finer after, than before, welding, toughness is increased, 15
but the appearance of upper bainite decreases the toughness. Increased ferrite grain
size may decrease toughness in this region, is In a martensitic steel, increasing the
heat input resulted in poorer toughness 19 (Fig. 3), but it is not clear whether this
is related to the appearance of new phases, such as bainite, or to an increased
austenite grain size. 18
Steels containing either Nb or Nb and V showed small toughness decreases
when heated to 973-1073 K, but steels containing Nb, V and Mo showed significant
embrittlement when heated to this temperature range, for unexplained reasons. 37
Stress relief improves the inter-critical zone toughness if the zone contains
martensite. 17 Upper bainite is more difficult than martensite to temper. 8 As
discussed later, stress relief treatments may embrittle alloy steels, particularly in
other zones.

Grain-refined HAZ
Fine grain structures are tougher than coarse grain structures. At low tempera-
tures where fracture occurs by cleavage, cracks are more difficult to propagate with
finer grain sizes, either because of the direct influence of the grain size in a ferritic
steel, 2° or because a finer austenite grain size results in finer bainite or martensite
colony widths in higher alloy steels. 21 At higher temperatures (above the NDT)
cracks are initiated at carbides or sulphides, nucleating voids which grow together
to allow ductile crack propagation. 21 In this case, fracture energy depends less on
grain size. Since a smaller austenite grain size may affect the transformation product
by increasing the number of grain boundary nucleation sites for high temperature
products, the toughness may be changed indirectly for both low and high testing
temperatures.
Auto-tempering martensites, which are formed at a sufficiently high temperature
that they temper on further cooling, are tough. In martensitic steels the substitution
of upper bainite for an auto-tempering martensite reduces toughness, 8.19,21,22
especially when the fracture is by cleavage. 21 In one investigation, 17 embrittlement
of the grain refined region compared to parent Q-T and Norm-T steels was
attributed to untempered lower bainite. In this case, a decreased high temperature
('upper shelf') toughness may be due to a high density of carbides to nucleate voids.
In ferritic C-Mn steels the toughness of the grain-refined HAZ relative to the
base material (BM) depends on the BM grain size. Materials with a coarse initial
grain size, such as rimmed or semi-killed steels, may show increased toughness in
the grain refined zone, despite the appearance of upper bainite.1 s With a finer
initial grain size, as in fully silicon-killed or aluminium-treated steels, the grain-
refined zone is less tough than the BM, due to grain size effects and the formation
of upper bainite 11.12.15 (Fig. 4).
The grain-refined zone of some microalloy steels is less tough than the BM, but
the grain-coarsened zone is always embrittled more. 37
126 H. W. KERR

- - BSI5
- - - - BS 1501 I / // /

I00 -

/
80-

! /,,'/ /
>-.
(.9
tw
i,i
Z 60-
hi

hi
tn 40-
E
0
(/)
n~
(Z
20-
i /::."/ j
/
/

1 1 J I I 1 1 I
22O 240 260 280 ~ 320 340 360
TEST TEMPERATURE (K)

Fig. 4. Charpy-V results of the.base metal (BM) grain refined (g.r.) and grain coarsened (g.c.)
zones of BS ! 5 ste~l (0"21 wt % C, 0.065 wt % Si, 0"89 wt % Mn) and BS 1501 steel (0.19 wt % .C,
0.23 wt % Si, 0.64 wt % Mn, 0.14 wt % Ni, 0.12 wt % Cr). BS 1501 has a finer BM gram size
(after reference 15).

Grain-coarsened H A Z
This zone often suffers the most serious deterioration in toughness. The results
will be presented for individual classifications of steel.

Plain C or C - M n steels: Although the grain-coarsened zone is considered as one

region, the structure varies within it due to higher temperatures giving both
increased grain diameters and faster cooling rates after welding. 23'24 In a steel
containing 0.17 wt % C, 1-36 wt % Mn, the ferrite concentration was a maximum
near the fusion boundary, but the other phases--upper bainite, lower bainite and
martensite--all showed maximum concentrations some distance from the fusion
boundary (Fig. 5). The ferrite near the fusion boundary was caused by decarburisa-
tion via the liquid weld metal, and is probably a c o m m o n occurrence since m a n y
filler metals have lower carbon contents than the BM. Consistent with other studies,
the maximum and average martensite fractions were reduced at higher heat inputs,
due to the resultant decrease in the cooling rate, and martensite was replaced by up
to 20 % ferrite (along former austenite grain boundaries) and by up to 45 % upper
 FACTORS AFFECTING TOUGHNESS IN WELDED STEELS 127

bainite. Except for the lowest carbon content (0.11 wt %), less than 10% lower
bainite was present. The maximum hardness was increased with increased BM
carbon content due to an increase in both martensite fraction and intrinsic mar-
tensite hardness. Since high carbon martensites are not tough, weldability is often
related to carbon content or 'carbon equivalent' (CE), 2 s. 26 higher C E implying
lower weldability. For C - M n steels, the CE is generally given as %C + %Mn/6.25
There is a gradual change in martensite with carbon content; low carbon martensite
is 'lath' o r 'slipped' martensite, containing high dislocation densities, whereas high
carbon martensite is internally twinned individual martensite plates. Although the

1.0

0°8

O.D
.fg•,•r• -w,. v X ° . , , ,, Ir¢'~"~

MARTENSITE

..=: o LONGITUDINAL SECTION

0.4 • TRANSVERSESECTION
.,J
• ARITHMETIC MEAN OF FIVE
0°2 LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS
o
t-.-
Z
,.,., O J ' I I
50 100 150 200 250
0o20, I I I I

o FERRITE
,,,,. 0.15 • UPPERBAINITE
. • LOWERBAINITE
""~=~
N 0o 10!:

N 0.05

0
50 100 150 200 250
OISTANCE FROM FUSION LINE, ~m

Fig. 5. Constituents in the coarse-grained HAZ in a steel containing 0.17 wt % C, ! .36 wt % Mn,
0-42 wt % Si, 0.019 wt % S, 0.020 wt % P, 0.033 wt % AI, welded with a heat input of 0'9 kJ/mm. 24

trend of increased hardness with martensite percentage is well established, a plot of

hardness versus martensite fraction for different carbon content is not simply a
straight line. 2a Thus, for different steels, hardness is not an accurate indication of
toughness. The detrimental influence of twinned martensite puts a lower limit on
heat input for welding of many C - M n steels. 1
In addition to embrittlement by martensite, the coarse-grained zone may
embrittle due to H diffusion from the weld metal into the H A Z , embrittlement
increasing with increased H content, 24.26., 8 at least at temperatures above 173 K. 29
128 H.W. KERR

The same steel welded with constant welding conditions may thus vary in toughness
if electrodes having different H contents are used. 24 Shielded metal electrodes
covered with cellulosic materials give higher H content than basic electrodes, and
rutile and acid electrodes give intermediate amounts. An upper limit on heat input
controls the diffusion of H into the HAZ. Lower limits on preheat and interpass
temperatures allow H to diffuse out before critical stresses are reached. 1,3o For a
given H content, susceptibility to cracking depends on the microstructureZ8;
twinned martensite is more embrittled than slipped martensite. Since increasing
Mn or C lowers the martensite start temperature, favouring twinned martensite,
both increase the sensitivity to H cracking.
Embrittlement by martensite and hydrogen dominate at low heat inputs. High
heat inputs not only permit faster diffusion of H, but also increase the austenite
grain size, producing coarser products3°; coarse polygonal ferrite grains ('allo-
triomorphs') at austenite grain boundaribs, acicular Widmanstatten structures and
upper bainite growing from boundaries of austenite grains, t ~, ~5.31
Steels in which less grain growth occurs for a given welding procedure remain
tougher. A small amount of alloying addition may restrain growth (Fig. 4).
Aluminium-treated steels maintain better resistance to cleavage than rimmed or
silicon-killed steels since A1N particles restrain grain boundary motion up to
approximately 1,525 K. 11 Because a large number of small pinning particles are
required to make this mechanism effective, Si-killed steels apparently do not retain
finer grains than rimmed steels, despite the larger likelihood of slag particles.
The post weld heat treatment (PWHT) required to restore toughness depends on
the heat input. An excess heat input giving large ferritic products would require
normalisation, but in large structures this is not always feasible. In electroslag
welds, which have a very high heat input, local normalisation has been attempted
with some promising results. 32 After too low a welding heat input or preheat,
resulting in martensite, and possibly H, embrittlement, heating to approximately
875 K increases the toughness by tempering and reducing both H content and
residual stress. 26 Stress relief treatment should be limited to approximately 875-
900 K (775-825 K for normalised C-Mn steels), and time at temperature might be
reduced below that specified in many codes since most of the stress relief occurs
during heating. 33 A low heating rate, even below 575 K, is recommended to
minimise thermal stresses.

Microalloy steels: As in the plain C-Mn steels, microalloy steels are often most
embrittled in the coarse-grained HAZ, s but in some cases the HAZ is tougher than
the parent material, at least with heat inputs up to those employed in electroslag
welding 35 (Fig. 6). Microalloy steels are strengthened by precipitation of fine V or
Nb carbides, nitrides or carbonitrides. 36 In weldments, the presence of both V and
Nb, although giving increased upper shelf energy, also results in a greater increase
in the transition temperature than Nb alone, 37 possibly due to solid solution
 FACTORS AFFECTING TOUGHNESS IN WELDED STEELS 129

hardening. Cooling rates in the HAZ are apparently too rapid to allow significant
precipitation. 37'3s The microstructure of this zone is coarse Widmanstatten or
upper bainite, and toughness is maintained only because of the low C content
(often less than 0.1 wt %). In these steels, faster cooling rates give harder but
tougher structures (Fig. 7). Reduction of the Mn content increases toughness by
promoting a polygonal ferrite structure. 39
Many microalloy steels have a low S content (less than 0.01%) with rare earth
control of sulphide morphology 34 to increase the upper shelf energy. C-Mn steels
with low S contents show increased sensitivity to H embrittlement 4° but micro-
alloy steels apparently do not.

I'0- /~MA
E
e o.a-
z
O
/
~ 0.6--
o/
i0.4 --

e,- E

° , , ., °; J
z I I I
210 220 250 ?-40 250 260 270 280 290 500
TEST TEMPERATURE (K)
Fig. 6. Notch root contractions in impact tests of steel containing 0.04 wt % C, !-44 wt % Mn,
0.024 wt % Nh, showing the results for the base metal (BM) and HAZ after using shielded metal-
arc (SMA), submerged arc (SA) and electroslag (ES) welding processes.

Since the growth of precipitates causes a decrease in the transition temperature, 3

a recommended maximum stress relief temperature of 723 K after low heat input
welding aa should improve toughness while maintaining a high yield stress. In some
low alloy steels containing V, precipitation of fine vanadium carbides within the
grain, and coarser carbides at grain boundaries, leaves a soft denuded zone which
can crack, 41 but it is not clear whether this occurs without the other alloy additions,
such as Mo. In high heat input welds of microalloy steels, PWHT has no effect. 3a
Many microalloy steels contain small amounts of Mo (less than 0-5 %) and/or Ni
(less than 1%). Nickel increases toughness in ferritic steels, 16 due to possibly
130 H.W. KERR

reduced pinning of dislocations 2° or by changing the electronic nature of the

atomic bond, making it less directional. 42 In Iow-C microalloy steels, the addition
of Ni promotes slipped martensite rather than upper bainite in the HAZ, increasing
toughness below a certain heat input (Fig. 7). 39 Mo may have the same effect, 39
but in Mo-Nb--V combinations 0.5% Mo reduces the toughness of the coarse-
grained H A Z by retaining V in solution rather than having it partially precipitate 37
(Fig. 8). The final cooling rate during production of the steel also affects the H A Z
toughness of V - N b , M o - N b and M o - V - N b combinations, by unknown changes
in precipitation or other small transformation products since optical microscopy
showed no differences. 3s A fine-grained ferrite structure with higher toughness
can be promoted by other alloy additions in microalloy steels. 34 Such a structure is
discussed in the section below on weld metal.

240
0.07 ~t. % C--

220 0.07 - 0 " 0 9 ~t. %C

v •8 - 0 ~t, %Ni

E 200
E 0.04 cot %C
0
II

¢0
180

160--
I .1 [ 1 I t
160 180 200 220 ::)40 260 280 300
VICKERS HARDNESS

Fig. 7. Temperature at which critical COD is 0.1 mm versus Vicker's hardness for steels contain-
ing approximately 0.025 wt % Nb, 0.07 wt ~o V and the indicated C and Ni contents. The vertical
arrows indicate the result for a heat input of 3 kJ/mm. Larger heat inputs give lower hardness
(after reference 39).

Low alloy steels: A given alloying addition may have different effects: (i) in
different concentrations, (ii) for the same concentration following different heat
treatments and (iii) in combination with different alloying elements. 2° It is not
possible at present to understand all the combinations and their effects on the
coarse-grained HAZ, but, in addition to the factors already discussed, certain
trends and combinations are evident.
 FACTORS AFFECTING TOUGHNESS IN WELDED STEELS 131

Many low alloy additions increase hardenability by making more difficult the
nucleation and/or growth of the higher temperature transformation products, such
as ferrite and bainite. Their influence on toughness in the coarse-grained HAZ
depends on the amounts and types of the various phases which form, which, in
turn, depend on C content, heat input, cooling rate and initial grain size. As
described earlier, low C (or slipped) martensite is generally tougher than upper

300
28O-- --- 0 Mo m',n~
260-- 0"24 Mo
240-

,8o-
tw
//" /'7
O 16C-
m ii I
~[ 1 4 C - II G

i~ 1 2 0 - /1 // /
:,=- ,/ //
hi

w
80- /
// / /
20- "/ i'/
I ] I 1 I I
150 170 190 210 230 250 270 290
TEMPERATURE (K)
Fig. 8. Charpy-V impact results for base metal (BM) and coarse-grained HAZ (CG) in steels
containing approximately 0'1 wt ~ C, 0.25 wt ~o Si, 1.5 wt ~ Mn, 0.04 wt ~ Nb, 0.035 wt ~o V
and indicated wt ~ Mo (after reference 37).

bainite. Thus, if the major strengthening is due to the presence of slipped martensite,
too high a heat input may reduce the toughness at low testing temperatures. This
has been shown for the coarse HAZ in a number of Q-T steels, containing various
combinations of some or all of Ni, Cr, Mo, V, Zr and B. 8'11'17'19'21"25'39'44
An example is shown in Fig. 9. Even with increased carbon contents (above
approximately 0.2 wt ~ ) when the steel is strengthened by a mixture of martensites
132 H.W. KERR

or by martensite and bainite, as in N i - C r - M o steels, high heat input will reduce the
low temperature toughness when the bainite fraction becomes too large, z 8.2 ~. 23.43
The additional mechanisms of grain growth restriction (via AI, V or Ti), and of Ni
changing the fundamental plastic flow properties, help to maintain good low
temperature toughness with high strength in some steels. 1 ~ Ni appears to decrease
the sensitivity to H embrittlement, 2 a possibly due to formation of slipped martensite
rather than upper bainite. With strong carbide formers, large carbides or carboni-
trides may be difficult to dissolve completely in the HA7, 38 decreasing harden-
ability. Thus, in low alloy steels, the CE equation can differ, depending on exact
composition and heat input. 11,25.2 6 , 4 5 Some of the CE equations are:

8c

I'~ / f t~'"
60- / /

/ 1'4kd/mm--',~~ "~'~"
On" 40 -- / 1"8kJ/mm~ ' ~ ' ~ ' / / /

on," 20- ~-"'~ ~ ,.,.i . i ~-2.4kd/mm

LIJ ~ "
I t I I I L I I
160 180 200 22C) 240 260 280 300 320 340
TEMPERATURE (K)

Fig. 9. Charpy-Vimpact results in base metal (BM) and specimens heated to simulate coarse-
grained HAZ structures for the indicated welding heat inputs in a steel containing 0.18 wt % C,
0.92 wt ~ Mn, 0.77 wt ~ Si, 0-74 wt ~ Cr, 0-11 wt .%oZr, 0"24 wt ~ Mo and 0.012 wt ~0 B
(after reference 19).

9/oMn 9/pSi %Ni + %Cu %Cr + %Mo + ~oV (ref. 11)

C E = %C+ - - U - + - U + 15 + 5

~Mn ~Ni ~oCr ~Cu ~Mo ~V (ref. 25)

CE= ~C+-~+--~-+-]-~--+ 4---~- 5---6--- 10

~Mn ~Ni ~ C r + Mo ~Cu (ref. 39)

CE= ~C+ ----g--- + --~--6-- + 10 +--'-~

In ferrite-pearlite structures, i.e. Norm or Norm-T steels, the effects again

depend on C content, as well as on combinations of alloy additions. Low C (less
than 0.1 wt ~o) steels are less likely to form brittle H A Z ' s at low heat inputs since
 FACTORS AFFECTING TOUGHNESS 1N WELDED STEELS 133

slipped auto-tempered martensite forms, rather than upper or lower bainite.

Increased (approximately 0.1-0.2 wt %) C content results in several possibilities,
depending both on the BM and the welding procedure. High C martensite, due to
fast cooling rates, reduces low temperature toughness, 8"11 even though the
martensite may be found only in islands between ferrite needles, for example in a
0.1 wt % C-0.3 wt % Mo steel. 31 As in C-Mn steels, both lower and upper limits
on heat input may be desirable if high C martensite is likely. Norm or Norm-T
low alloy steels may be embrittled at high heat inputs due to Widmanstatten ferrite
and/or upper bainite, s' 15.17 An intermediate heat input may increase toughness
due to formation of a mixture of lower bainite and martensite, s. 31
Post weld heat treatments of low alloy steels may be either beneficial or detri-
mental to the toughness, depending on the alloy, welding procedure and PWHT
conditions. Multipass welding often results in tempering of previous pass HAZ's,
but not necessarily in a reproducible fashion. 22 In both martensitic and bainitic
structures, tempering would be expected to increase the toughness 22 by allowing
the formation of fine carbides and the re-arrangement of dislocations. In low alloy
steels, however, the structure is sometimes more resistant to tempering. For
example, alloy carbides in bainite are more difficult to redissolve than cementite,
so that the toughness is not changed by a standard stress relief treatment. 8
Alternatively, a fine dispersion of alloy carbides may form during tempering
(secondary hardening), reducing toughness in some cases. 17.22 In severe cases,
this leads to 'stress relief cracking'. As mentioned earlier, this phenomenon appears
to be due to precipitation of fine carbides (often involving Mo and/or V) within the
grains along with coarser carbides at grain boundaries, leaving a relatively denuded
zone adjacent to the large carbides. Since this denuded zone is weaker it may crack
by loealised flow. This mechanism has been reviewed recently41'46 and the
possibilities in various steels will not be discussed in detail here. Because different
steels have different precipitation kinetics, the maximum recommended stress relief
temperature varies. 33 In general, the elements Cr, Mo and V cause the most
cracking, 46 in combination with C, but especially for high temperature service
applications, these elements cannot easily be replaced by others. 47 Stress relief
cracking is also related to 'creep embrittlement'4~ ; cracking in the HAZ of steels
at elevated service temperature.
Low alloy steels are also sometimes subject to 'temper embrittlement' when they
are held at, or cooled too slowly from, the stress relief temperature.22 Various
impurities in combination with alloying elements segregate to previous austenite
grain boundaries, allowing easier fracture propagation. The recent review of this
process is recommended. 41

Partly molten HAZ

Because this zone is usually very narrow, its influence is limited. Its narrowness
also makes it difficult to measure its inherent properties. Angled or specially placed
134 H.w. KERR

notches have been used to test this z o n e , 39"4s'49 particularly for high heat input
processes, such as electroslag or submerged arc welding, where both larger HAZ
grains and wider HAZ's make this zone more important. Even with S content
below 0.02 wt %, embrittlement close to the fusion surface has been reported due
to a S-containing film in a low C, Nb treated (microalloy) steel. 35 Various elements,
for example Cu, S, C and P, may contribute to liquation, s. 5o. 52 which will be more
evident in multipass welds than single pass welds if the welding process introduces
the guilty element. 51. s2 Since the liquid adjacent to the solid metal is not easily
mixed, completely melted zones may show similar effects and be mistaken for this
zone. 53

Weld metal
In addition to many of the HAZ phenomena discussed, other effects influence
the toughness of the WM.
Effects of gases." Shielded metal-arc welding gained acceptance when low H
electrodes were developed. 7 Hydrogen must be limited in the WM, 54 as recognised
by welding codes and procedures. Low O and N contents also improve WM
toughness, for at least two reasons. Large quantities of oxides, nitrides or other
brittle phases nucleate microvoids or cracks, lowering the upper shelf energy, s 5- s 7
Dissolved O or N restricts dislocations, limiting the plastic strain. In shielded metal-
arc welding both N and O may enter the weld pool due to incomplete shielding,
but N appears to dominate. 5s In flux-cored, self-shielded metal-arc welding,
nitride formers (such as AI and Ti) are claimed to remove N effectively. 59 In
gas-shielded metal-arc welding increasing the N 2, 02 or CO2 content of the shielding
gas decreases toughness, 6°'61 but the dissolved gas content also depends on
welding current and voltage. 62 Oxide and nitride formers are used to remove these
elements, but the optimum amount depends on shielding gas and welding con-
ditions 59.6 a ; too little does not remove the gases, too much leads to embrittlement
by the dissolved alloying elements, as discussed later. In submerged-arc and
electroslag welding the flux protects the weld pool from the air, but oxygen may
enter by the reduction of certain oxides (Fig. I0). This has led to the use of basic
fluxes, although the equation for calculating basicity sometimes differs. 59'6'*'69
An important implication is that addition of alloying elements via the flux may limit
toughness because of the simultaneous addition of oxygen. 64.65
Effects of grain structures." Columnar grains nucleate on the coarse HAZ grains
and grow into the centre of the weld. In a single pass weld, depending on the
geometry of the weld pool, this may leave a central plane or line where the W M
grains meet. This plane or line is subject to 'hot' cracking due to segregation of
certain elements, 26, 5o. 52 and is also weaker. 70 In non-ferrous materials a transition
from columnar to equiaxed solidified grain structures is known to reduce centre
line cracking, but control of solidification grain structures in ferrous materials may
be more difficult. In multi-pass welds the grain structure is refined where the
 FACTORS AFFECTING TOUGHNESS IN WELDED STEELS 135

temperature is high enough to form a completely austenitic structure. Charpy-V

tests of multi-pass welds usually include a mixture of solidified and refined structures,
and the results depend on the orientation and location of the notch. When the
notch is normal to the weld surface, the test may show lower toughness; experi-
mental scatter is found to increase if the notch is located close to a plane where
succeeding passes end. s7 Even for this notch orientation, the toughness usually
varies in thick, welds, with the toughest metal near the top of the weld, since
central passes undergo more grain growth and strain ageing. 4.71 When the notch
is parallel to the weld surface, a lower toughness is measured when the notch is in
as-solidified rather than grain-refined material. 7 At present, the Charpy-V specifica-

2O0

180

160 -- Si=0.16 ,,"

0 = 0 ' 0 2/ 9 /
140 -- ///

' 120 -
"I,g / fSi = O" 2 4 /--
,m / / 0 = 0.023 /
I00
(o - I/ / Si = 0.:52 /// /
m.¢ 80 -- / / 0 = 0.024// = /
/ / / Si 1.04/
)- 60
/ / _/- o=o. y
(.9
a-
'- 40
z
hi
2O _ - >" 0=o.o89

I [ I [ I I I
200 220 240 260 280 300 320 540
TEMPERATURE (K)

Fig. 10. Charpy-V impact results of mild steel weld metal containing the indicated weight
percentages of silicon and oxygen (after reference 57).

tion appears to be aimed at reducing scatter in a few test results,: rather than
attempting to determine what the lowest meaningful toughness might be. The
interpretation difficulties for Charpy-V tests of weld metal is one of the reasons used
to justify full thickness tests. 7
Microstructural and alloying element effects: Certain elements increase the
freezing temperature range, possibly leading to hot cracks, formation of brittle
phases or weakening grain boundaries, all of which can lower notch toughness of
the WM. 2 s. s o - s 2 In Fe-C and Fe-Ni alloys, the amount of microsegregation of P
and S, both of which increase hot cracking, is sharply reduced when the primary
solidification phase is ferrite rather than austenite, since the solubilities of P and S
are much larger in ferrite. 7 2
136 H . W . KERR

Alloying elements also affect the notch toughness of WM by solid solution

hardening or by affecting the microstructures resulting from the solid-state trans-
formation. Unfortunately, it is often difficult to sort out the influence of an element
since more than one change can result. More work is needed in this area, because
the WM becomes more critical as the strength is increased. 5 5 Even in 'mild steel'
welds, increased strength of the WM is achieved by alloying additions. The C
content is often different from that of the BM and HAZ. 7' 16,2 5 This makes it less
meaningful to separate the results according to base material. Many of the in-
vestigations of alloying additions ignore the possible effects of gaseous impurities
described above, making them partly suspect. Even when the N, H and O contents
are given, interpretation of the results is limited if only the total content is deter-
mined, not the dissolved and reacted concentrations, although both tend to increase
with total content. 6 5 Despite these difficullties, however, in combination with the
alloying and microstructural effects in the HAZ, certain trends are apparent.

eel
WITHOUT P.F

----- WITH P.F

m
n,,
0
(0

).- 5O
n,.
hi
Z
U.I
[ t I [ I
o.010 0.020
(at. % Ti IN WELD METAL

Fig. 11. Energy absorbed at 250 K in Charpy-V tests for steel weld metal containing various
percentages of titanium, with and without proeutectoid ferrite (P.F.) (after reference 37).

Ferrite nucleates (at high temperatures) first on austenite grain boundaries.

Especially at high heat input, i.e. decreased cooling rate, the austenite grain
boundaries are outlined by ferrite, 6% 69.7 o. ~3 which then grows into grain centres
as coarse Widmanstatten at low cooling rates or upper bainite at higher rates. In
general, poorer toughness results from coarser ferrite structures, 37'73 o r more
proeutectoid ferrite 37,63,~° (Fig. 11). As in the coarse HAZ, upper bainite has been
shown to give poor WM toughness even without grain boundary ferrite. 57 For
many ferritic steels a fast cooling rate for the weld metal gives a fine structure of
interlaced, acicular ferrite within the grains. Terminology and identification of fine
intragranular structures are confusing at present. Similar structures have been
 FACTORS AFFECTING TOUGHNESS 1N WELDED STEELS 137

labelled 'acicular ferrite', 5 s. s 7.63,7 o, ~4 'alpha or modified alpha ferrite', s s 'massive

martensite 's~ and 'fine or lower bainite'. 37 The most recent study found a tetra-
gonal crystal structure, 6~ but more work is needed in other materials to test the
generality of this observation. There may be different structures, e.g. massive
martensite and lower bainite, with similar as-welded toughnesses. These tough
structures are promoted by faster cooling rates since, under these conditions, they
nucleate before any grain boundary products can grow into the grain centres. Fine
intragranular products are promoted by certain alloying elements (Nb 74, Ni 57,
Ti s3, Mn 69, Cr 37 and M074).
Several factors may account for the undesirability of proeutectoid ferrite. With
increased hardness of the intragranular structure the strain will be more con-
centrated at proeutectoid ferrite, resulting in increased embrittlement. 2s Brittle
structures, such as pearlite and twinned martensite, have been observed at the edge
of proeutectoid ferrite. 6~ Increasing the fraction of proeutectoid ferrite may result
in larger fractions of brittle phases due to rejection of more carbon. In some cases
other alloying elements may be rejected which might increase toughness--for
example by replacing twinned martensite with slipped martensite.
Above a certain percentage most alloying elements reduce the toughness ~3
(Fig. 11). This can be due to solid solution hardening, ss.63 or the formation of
more carbides. 7°.73 The source of the alloying element must also be taken into
account. When the Si content, for example, is higher than in either the base or filler
metals, 73 Si must have been reduced from oxides, thus increasing the O content. 64
The reduction is a function of arc voltage, current and welding speed. 6 s
Optimising toughness in the weld metal in microalloy steels requires considera-
tion of various possibilities. Assuming that a microalloy filler is used, increased Nb
increases the yield stress but decreases the WM toughness by forming precipitates
and restricting dislocation recovery mechanisms in the WM. 7 s Less than 0.01 wt %
Ti can increase toughness (Fig. 11) by either refining the ferrite grain s i z e 37 o r
reducing the dissolved O content. Even though Mo promotes twinned, rather than
slipped, martensite it increases toughness,37, 74 apparently by better distributing
martensitic phases, rather than allowing them to form at solidification and trans-
formation boundaries. Both Nb and Mo decrease the proeutectoid fraction. 74
In QoT steels, a martensitic or bainitic WM is necessary to match the BM
properties. As in the HAZ, the heat input must be limited to avoid high temperature
transformation products. H content must also be strictly limited because of the
sensitivity of the structure to embrittlement, z s, 2 s, 54 With increased alloy content
more attention must be paid to dilution of the WM at high currents to maintain
hardenability. ~6 At least some of the filler metals employed for Q-T steels result in
upper bainite, but this structure has an acceptable toughness when tempered by the
proper PWHT. 77 Other compositions give self-tempering martensite, and numerical
analysis of the effects of various elements has been used to guard against stress relief
cracking while giving tough stress-relieved welds.: s
138 H.W. KERR

Many of the effects of PWHT, such as reduction of stresses and tempering of

martensites and bainites, are found both in WM and HAZ. In multi-pass welds
possible grain refinement or other effects may be modified by certain elements
(e.g. AI, Mn/Si ratio, 57 Si, 5 5 Ti, 37,6 3 N, 60 Nb, 7 5 and unexplained flux effects 67).
When multi-pass welds are first welded halfway from one side, welding of the second
side lowers the toughness of the first in ferritic steels, apparently due to a change
from discrete to pearlitic-type arrangements of carbides. 7 9 The tempered toughness
depends on the as-welded structures. Proeutectoid ferrite remains unchanged, but
tempered lower bainite or other fine intragranular products are tougher than
tempered twinned martensite, which is tougher than tempered upper bainite. 2a In
microalloy steels, Nb carbonitrides have been claimed to allow good tempered
toughness by permitting dislocation rearrangement without grain growth, 75 but
marked precipitation hardening, especially, in conjunction with Mo, is very detri-
mental. 74 Further correlation of toughness measurements with microstructural
observation is needed to completely clarify the situation in steels containing several
alloying elements.

SUMMARY

Weldments in steels which are austenitic only at high temperatures may be divided
into six zones, according to the maximum temperature reached. Microstructural
and compositional factors which affect the toughness of each of these zones have
been reviewed qualitatively. It is not yet possible to quantify the various effects.
Some of the factors affecting toughness occur in only one zone in a single pass
weld. Examples are strain-ageing due to interstitial oxygen or nitrogen in the
subcritical zone, and a central line or plane in the weld metal. In multi-pass welds
these factors may affect various regions. Other factors affect toughness in various
zones of a single pass weld. Example are: (i) dissolved hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen reduce toughness, but the effect of a certain gas content also depends on
the microstructure; (ii) twinned martensite is less tough than slipped martensite;
(iii) a uniform fine-grained structure, which may be either ferrite or massive
martensite, has good toughness; (iv) upper bainite and coarse ferrite at former
austenite grain boundaries reduce toughness.
The relation between alloying additions and toughness in welds is complex, since
the effect of a single element depends on : (i) the maximum temperature reached;
(ii) the cooling rate and (iii) what other alloying elements are present. The effects of
some elements have been discussed for each zone of a single pass weldment.
Post weld heat treatments are generally beneficial, since they reduce residual
stresses and temper martensite and (sometimes) bainite. Cracking can occur in
some alloy steels during PWHT; welding procedures which reduce stress can reduce
this problem.
 FACTORS AFFECTING TOUGHNESS IN WELDED STEELS 139

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This review was written while I was on sabbatical at C h a l k Ri v er N u c l e a r

L a b o r a t o r i e s , A t o m i c Energy o f C a n a d a Ltd. I a m grateful for the c o m m e n t s and
e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f several persons there, particularly W. Lan g f o r d , R. R. H o s b o n s
and W. Evans.

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