Topic: Human Development

What is Human Development?

The term development means a progressive series of changes that occur as a result of maturation and experience. Development does
not consist merely of adding inches to one’s height or improving one’s ability. It is a complex process of integrating many structures and
functions.

GOAL OF DEVELOPMENT

The goal of development is to enable people to adapt to the environment in which they live. To achieve this goal, self-realization
sometimes called self-actualization is essential.

How does life begin?

New life begins with the union of a male sex cell and female sex cell. These sex cells are developed in the reproductive organs, the
gonads. The male sex cells spermatozoa (singular: spermatozoon). Are produces in the male gonads, the testes, while the female sex cells the ova
(singular: ovum) are produced in the female gonads, the ovaries.
Male and female sex cells are similar in that the contain chromosomes. There are twenty-three chromosomes in each mature sex cell, and each
chromosome contains genes, the true carriers of heredity

What is Ovulation?

It is preliminary stage of development limited to the female sex cells. It is the process of escape of one mature ovum during the
menstrual cycle. It is believed that the two ovaries alternate in producing a ripe ovum during the menstrual cycle.

After being released from one of the follicles of the ovary, the ovum finds its way to the open end of the ovary; the ovum finds its way
to the open end of the Fallopian tube nearest the ovary from which it was reloaded. Once it enters the tube, it is propellers along by a combination
of factors: cilia, or hair like cells which line the tube; fluids composed of estrogens from the ovarian follicle and a mucus from the lining of the
tube; and rhythmic, progressive contractions of the walls of the tube. When the length of the menstrual cycle is normal, approximately twenty-
eight days, ovulation occurs between the fifth and the twenty-third days of the cycle, with the average on the eleventh day.

What is Fertilization?

It is generally believed that fertilization takes place within twelve to thirty-six hours and usually within the first twenty-four hours
after the ovum has entered the tube. During coitus, or sexual intercourse, spermatozoa are deposited at the mouth of the uterus. Through strong
harmonic attraction that are drawn into the tube, where they are aided in making their way up by rhythmic muscular contractions.

After a spermatozoon has penetrated the ovum, the surface of the ovum changes in such a way that no other spermatozoon can enter.
After the sperm cell penetrates the wall of the ovum, the nuclei from the two cells approach each other. There is a breakdown in the membrane
surrounding each nucleus, and this allows the two nuclei to merge. Thus the species number of chromosomes, forty-six, is restored, with one half
coming from the female cell and other half coming from the male cell.

Heredity

Is the transmission of genetic characters from parents to offspring. It is the process and result of the process by which the
characteristics or traits of a living organism.

Traits

a. Dominant Traits – are those traits phenotypically manifested, these are the traits observable from the outside.

b. Recessive Traits – these are the traits that will not be produced when paired with the dominant gene.

DOMINANT TRAITS RECESSIVE TRAITS

Brown Eyes Blue Eyes

Curly Hair Straight Hair
Normal Hair Baldness
Normal Sight Night Blindness
Normal color vision Color Blindness
Normal Coloring Albinism (lack of color pigment)
Extra fingers or toes Normal Finger
Dwarfed Limbs Normally-proportional limb
The Nature of Heredity
Gregor Mendel, an Augustinian monk laid the foundation for the study of heredity. He formulated the Three Mendellian Laws of
Heredity:

a. the Law of Unit Characters – the various characters are transmitted as distinct, individual entities.

b. The Law of Dominance – that if two contrasting traits in two purebred organisms are crossed like, like shortness or tallness, only one character
will appear in the hybrid, the dominant one; the invisible one, the recessive.

c. The Law of Segregation – that the characters segregate and recombine independently in each generation, in the crossing of hybrids, the
dominant and the recessive traits being inherited in ratios worked out by Mendel in different instances which sometimes result in incomplete
dominance.

Chromosome and Genes

Genes

 Are chemical packets contained in chromosomes and re too small to be seen under the microscope
 They are the carriers of hereditary units and are able to duplicate themselves
 Genes are also able to control the chemical processes of a cell, determining the kind of tissue to be formed.
 Genes work in pairs

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

 They are the tiny molecules found in every living cell

 It carries information like a code consisting of four basic control chemicals – adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine
 Is able to reproduce itself in exactly the same way in the millions of cells in the body
 It also accomplishes the protein manufacture within the cell- essential in providing blood and muscles to the body.
Cell and Cell Division

 Cell is composed of living matter called cytoplasm enclosed in a cell wall

 Within the cytoplasm is a smaller body called the nucleus
 Nucleus contains paired genes stringed like chains and each of such string of genes is called chromosome
 Chromosome comes in pairs
 In mitosis, each gene duplicates itself
Chromosomal Aberrations

 Non disjunction, chromatids fail to separate in meiosis, one germ cell having both chromosomes of the pair and the other
 Translocation, chromosomes pair off by twos in the center during meiosis. If a piece of one chromosome pairs off with another not its pair,
parts of two chromosomes of different pairs may exchange.
 Deletion, a broken piece of chromosome may get lost and deletion occurs in one chromosome.

CHROMOSOME TOTAL

Normal Male 2 x 22 + xy 46
Normal Female 2 x 22 + xx 46
Down’s Syndrome 2 x 22 + 1 + xx or xy 47
Turner’s Syndrome 2 x 22 + x 45
Klinefelter’s Syndrome 2 x 22 + xxy 47

4. Mongoloid Idiocy or Down’s Syndrome

- may be the result of Nondisjunction. It is characterized by severe mental retardation and a peculiarity in the folds of the eyelids.

Fig. 1. Growth of the Down's Syndrome Fetus Compared with Normal (redrawn after Benda [2])
Prenatal development from 4½ weeks to birth. The upper line represents normal development. The lower line represents the
deceleration of normal development and differentiation seen in Down’s Syndrome
Source: www.altonweb.com/cs/downsyndrome

Down’s syndrome
Source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/exhibitions/lifecycle
5. Turner’s Syndrome
- Is characterized by retarded growth and sexual development. This results in individual with 45 chromosomes. There are unable to bear offspring
and are often mentally retarded.

6. Klinefelter’s Syndrome
- Occurs in apparent males and characterized by consistently small testes- hence sterility, sparse by body hair, female – like breast development
and mental retardation.

See also: http://www.focalpress.com/companions/0240804155/crack/crack1.htm

Turner’s and Kleinfelter’s Kareotype

Source: http://bellarmine.edu/tietjen/HumanBioogy/bills_developmental_abnormalities.htm
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is a set of birth defects caused by heavy consumption of alcohol during pregnancy. Children with this
condition typically have a misproportioned head, facial deformities, mental retardation, and behavioral problems. FAS is the leading
known cause of mental retardation in the Western Hemisphere.

Source: encarta.msn.com/…/Fetal_Alcohol_Syndrome.html

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

A. PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT

This period, which begins at conception and ends at birth, is approximately 270-280 days in length or 9 calendar months.

Before Fertilization:
 An egg (a living, human cell) is released from a woman's ovary during ovulation. The unfertilized egg is quite active. If it remains
unfertilized, it will die within 24 hours.
 Several hundred million sperm (also living, human cells) are released during ejaculation. The sperm are active swimmers.
At Fertilization:
 A single sperm succeeds in penetrating the egg. About 20 hours later the nucleus of the sperm fuses with the nucleus of the egg,
forming a single cell called a zygote.
 The fertilized human egg has the same basic cellular chemistry as all other living things. Comparing our DNA with that of apes, we
find 99% of our genes are identical.
At 2 Weeks' Gestation (from Conception):
 A change in the zygote occurs which ends its capability of splitting into twins: "singularity" is achieved.
 Pregnancy (with its hormonal changes) begins when and if the zygote implants in the woman's uterus.
 Because of abnormalities, nature has aborted about 55% of all fertilized eggs by this point. Another 12% or more will spontaneously
abort sometime after.

At 12 Weeks' Gestation (from Conception):

The second trimester of pregnancy has begun.
External genital organs begin to differentiate.
The fetus weighs about one ounce. Frontal prominence, Maxillary swelling, Mandibular swelling
More kinds of reflex movements appear. The brain Fetal Face, weeks 4-10.
is not yet well enough organized to control
movements or form even the most basic
perceptions. It will not be for some time.
Most miscarriages and about 96% of abortions have
taken place by this point.

At 16 Weeks' Gestation:
 The body of the fetus grows dramatically. It weighs about 6 ounces.
 Its organs continue to grow and differentiate.
 It has no awareness (including no awareness of pain), because the part of the brain that deals with thought and perception, called the
neocortex, has not yet begun to develop the necessary interconnections.
 The fetal health test amniocentesis is performed on a small percentage of pregnant women at this point. Less than 3% of such tests
result in abortion.
 The pregnant woman will soon begin to feel the fetus' movements for the first time.
At 20 Weeks' Gestation:
 The rate of fetal growth is slower.
 Its internal organs continue to mature. The lungs remain immature.
 The eyelids are completely fused.
 In the fetal brain, the first few synapses or connections begin to form among the nerve cells in the neocortex, with the greatest part of
the process of interconnection yet to follow.
At 24 Weeks' Gestation:
 This is the beginning of the third trimester of pregnancy.
  The interconnection or "wiring up" of the fetal brain has begun. The nerve cells of the neocortex begin to synapse with nerve cells
from the thalamus, which is the relay point for the body's sensory input. Bursts of recognizable brain waves start to appear among the
random signals.
 The earliest point at which a fetus can possibly survive outside the womb is about 23-24 weeks of gestation (500 grams or
approximately 1 lb.). At this stage the chance of survival is low and the risk of impairment and disability quite serious.
 Scientists say that this point of survivability will not change in the foreseeable future, because the fetal lung does not mature
sufficiently to permit even mechanically-assisted breathing before week 23-24 of gestation.
At 28 Weeks' Gestation:
 The eyes are open. The body begins to fatten.
 The greatest degree of interconnection of the neocortex of the brain begins rather abruptly at about the 28th week. Fetal wakefulness
and sleep periods begin to appear. Brain wave EEG patterns are about to change.
 This point has been called the onset of cognitive awareness or brain life.
 The lungs are maturing, which increases the chances of survival in the event of premature delivery.
 A miscarriage at this stage is called a stillbirth.
At 32 Weeks' Gestation:
 Brain waves are more organized.
 The fetus continues to grow and gain an increased amount of fat.
 The fetus is well enough developed so that, if born, it has a 90% chance of survival.
At 36 Weeks' Gestation:
 The fetus will soon be ready to be born.
Birth (38 Weeks' Gestation):
 Birth is a multi-stage process.
 The fetus leaves the woman's body, comes into the world, breathes for the first time, uses new senses and organs, and exists
independent of its mother. When a baby is born its voice is heard, and within hours of being born there is a necessity to communicate.
 Birth marks a critical point for both infant and mother. Birth is the moment of social membership into the family, community, culture,
and, ultimately, history.

Source: http://cbctrust.com/PRENATAL.html
 Development of a Fetus
Source: http://www.nsnet.org/nsfas/toxicsubstances.html

B. INFANCY

Infancy, or the period of the newborn, is the beginning or the early period of existence as an individual. The word Infant derives from
the Latin in-fans, meaning unable to speak.

It is commonly used as a slightly more formal word for baby (the youngest category of child). A newborn infant is known as a neonate
(neonatal) after the final stage of gestation.
Infants are usually treated as special persons. Their social presence is different from that of adults, and they may be the focus of attention.

Developmental Milestones in Infancy

Infants develop motor skills in a highly predictable sequence, but they differ in the age at which they achieve these skills. The bars in this chart
show the age span at which most children reach a particular developmental milestone. Some children will attain these milestones earlier or later
than the ranges shown.

Reflexes of a New Born Child

Reflex – relatively simple, involuntary and unlearned response to stimulus; may disappear after sometime due to lack of use

 Babinski reflex – fanning out of the toes when the sole of the foot is touched.

 Darwinian/grasp reflex – grasping tightly any object placed in its hand

 Moro reflex – elicited when infants suddenly lose support for their neck and head

 Startle reflex – activated when baby hears a loud noise or is suddenly touched

 Sucking reflex – displayed whenever soft palate of the mouth is touched

 Rooting reflex – baby turns head towards the source of stimulation to his mouth

 Stepping reflex – walking if held in an upright position titled slightly to one side and permitted to touch

 Swimming reflex – swimming movements when submerged into water with stomach down

C. BABYHOOD

Babyhood occupies the first 2 years of life following the brief two-week period of infancy. There is a gradual buy pronounced decrees
in helplessness. Babyhood is an age of rapid growth and change.

Babyhood developmental task

 Learning to take solid foods

 Learning to walk
 Learning to talk
 Learning to control the elimination of body wastes
 Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
 Getting ready to read
 Learning to distinguish right and wrong and beginning to develop a conscience

D. EARLY CHILDHOOD

Childhood begins when the relative dependency of babyhood is overt at approximately the age of 2 years and extends to the time when
the child becomes sexually mature at approximately 13 years for the average girl and 14 years for the average boy.

E. LATE CHILDHOOD
 Late childhood extends from the age of 6 years to the time the individual sexually
matured. During the last 2 years of childhood marked physical changes takes place and these,
also, are responsible for changes in attitudes, values and behavior as children prepares
physically and psychologically for adolescence.

The word puberty is derived in the Latin word pubertas, which means “age of manhood” it refers to the physical rather than the
behavioural changes which occur when the individual becomes sexually mature and is capable of producing offspring.

G. ADOLOSCENCE

The term adolescence comes from the Latin word adolescere, meaning “to grow” or “to maturity”. Psychologically, adolescence is the
age when the individual becomes integrated into the society of adults, the age when the child no longer feels that he is below the level of his
elders but equal, at least in rights… this integration into adult society has many affective aspects, more or less linked with puberty… it also
includes very profound intellectual changes… these intellectual transformations typical of adolescent’s thinking enable him not only to achieve
his integration into the social relationships of adults, which is in fact the most general characteristics of this period of development.

H. Early Adulthood

It extends from age 18 to approximately age 40, when the physical and psychological changes which accompany the beginning of the
loss of reproductive capacity appear.

I. Middle Adulthood

Middle adulthood, or middle age, begins at 40 and extends to age 60, when both physical and psychological decline become apparent
in the average person.

J. Late Adulthood or Old Age

Late adulthood or old age begins at 60 and extends to death. While physical and psychological decline speed up at all this time,
modern medical techniques as well ad careful attention to clothing and grooming, enable many men and women to look, act, and feel much as
they did when they were younger.

Source: Elizabeth Hurlock, Developmental Psychology

Revised NATURE VS. NURTURE

By: Shady Guirguis
April 26, 2004
NE 24

The nature versus nurture issue has been around for ages, and scholars have still not concluded which of the two has a greater effect on a person.
Nature, referring to heredity, and the nurture, referring to the environment, are two very reasonable explanations to why we are the people we are
today. This debate over whether nature or nurture has a bigger effect on us has been argued and supported very well for both sides. Each side
stresses very important details and good explanations for why nature, or nurture, controls how we develop. Experimentation and research has
been conducted on these two sides, and each is supported with good theories as to why nature or nurture is the important influence on us.

Nature is believed to be what determines our personalities, looks, and other things because it's all genetically passed down. Any matter
concerning traits relies upon the concept of inborn biology.

It has been concluded that a newborn doesn’t have a blank slate of personality, but does have a set of inherited traits. Tests have been done at the
University of Wisconsin to show that temperaments of an infant are influenced more by biology than experiences with their siblings.

In a way, our nature is our genetic gift, which gives us physical traits such as hair color, eye color, and form of the body. It does also determine
the kinds of emotions and motivations we will experience, which can be endless. Any new emotion is not possible to experience unless there is
change to our genetic material. So in a way, genes give us certain traits or behavior characteristics; but it’s all a matter of whether or not we carry
out our certain inherited qualities. And our environment (nurture) can sometimes make that choice for us.

The other side of the debate claims that nurture is the cause to our behavior as well as characteristics. Even though genes are what give us that
certain spunk to our personality, the environment has the power to alter it and make us into the exact opposite, as some say. Even the way that
certain children are brought up can change how they turn out.

One comparison of how much the environment affects a child's development was done on tomatoes. Tomato seeds have certain genes in them, but
what they grow into will be the same no matter what, and because of those genes in each seed, one may be destined to grow better than others.
But if random seeds with different genes were split up into two groups, with different environments, it is likely that the quality of the tomato
would differ.

One group would have all the benefits to help them grow better, such as water, sunlight, good soil, and extra care. Whereas group two would be
given bad soil, not enough sunlight and water, and no extra care. These differences in their environment would definitely change the outcome of
the tomatoes because group one would turn out a lot better than those in group two. It's a matter of what kind of influence they receive to turn out
a certain way. "Bad soil" can alter how something may develop, such as humans.

Different ethnicities have different expectations of how their child is to perform in school. We are perfect examples of the tomatoes because we
all aren’t in bad soil, but some of us have higher expectations and environments, so we turn out differently than others.

Asian families have higher expectations of their children when it comes to schoolwork. They are automatically expected to do well and excel
academically at everything. This higher rate of expectations, and their environment with their parents, ultimately may lead to higher success for
them in the near future. The way that Asian kids can be more successful, or even less because of all the pushing that they receive, is different
from how other children turn out due to lower standards expected.

Along with having standards set for us in our environment, family surroundings can also affect a child. The family a child comes from is crucial
to their development, thus, giving the nurture argument another reason why environment is important.

Some authors know this, such as one who wrote this statement:

"Children who grow up in a household with only one biological parent are worse off, on average, than children who grow up in a household with
both of their biological parents, regardless of the parents' race or educational background, regardless of whether the parents are married when the
child is born, and regardless of whether the resident parent remarries."
As our nature is a type of genetic endowment, nurture is the experience we have during our lifetime. But it's a little different from a regular
experience because it resonates with our motivations and emotions, and acts like our inner eye.

Nature and nurture are tied in together in ways that many of us do not see, and it's an ongoing confusion as to which one creates a person's
personality, looks, etc. I have an eclectic view and say that nature and nurture are both important influences to a person as they are developing
their traits. Our genes are important because what we have inherited is essentially the basis of what kind of person we are, but the environment
can alter and develop a person even more.

Nature and nurture are both important to acquiring or altering traits in a person. One or the other doesn't work dominate; there needs to be both
heredity and environment to answer this long debate.

It seems that this battle between nature and nurture will go on forever because both sides can be easily backed up with supporting information as
to which is more important.

Nurture has a larger effect on us than does nature. Nurture is the characteristic builder that we gain as we grow up. It is what defines our nature
and makes us who we are. Nurture cultivates our nature, and it is the main regulator of our being.
Source: http://www.nuc.berkeley.edu/courses/classes/NE-24

Erikson’s Eight Stages of Development

Stage Age Changes in social relationship

Trust and Mistrust 0-8 months Relationship to mother

Autonomy and Doubt 18 months to 3 years Family, Father, Relatives
Initiative and Guilt 3 to 5 Peers, Community Members
Industry and Inferiority 6 to 12 Teachers, Classrooms, Clubs
Identity and Role Confusion 13 to 18 Adventures beyond home/school
Intimacy and Isolation 18 to 30 Selection of significant other
Generatively and Self-absorption 30 to 55 Giving to the next generation
Integrity and Despair 55 Decreasing social contacts

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

1. Sensorimotor stage (birth - 2 years old)--The child, through physical interaction with his or her environment, builds a set of concepts about
reality and how it works. This is the stage where a child does not know that physical objects remain in existence even when out of sight
(object permanance).

2. Preoperational stage (ages 2-7)--The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and needs concrete physical situations.

3. Concrete operations (ages 7-11)--As physical experience accumulates, the child starts to conceptualize, creating logical structures that
explain his or her physical experiences. Abstract problem solving is also possible at this stage. For example, arithmetic equations can be
solved with numbers, not just with objects.

4. Formal operations (beginning at ages 11-15)--By this point, the child's cognitive structures are like those of an adult and include conceptual
reasoning.

Source: http://www.psy.pdx.edu/PsiCafe/Areas/Developmental/CogDev-Child/

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

1. Oral Stage (Age 0 - 1.5)

Erogenous Zone in Focus: Mouth

Gratifying Activities: Nursing - eating, as well as mouth movement, including sucking, gumming, biting and swallowing.

Interaction with the Environment: To the infant, the mother's breast not only is the source of food and drink, but also represents her
love. Because the child's personality is controlled by the id and therefore demands immediate gratification, responsive nurturing is
key. Both insufficient and forceful feeding can result in fixation in this stage.

Symptoms of Oral Fixation:

 Smoking

 Constant chewing on gum, pens, pencils, etc.

 Nail biting

 Overeating

 Drinking

 Sarcasm ("the biting personality") and verbal hostility

2. Anal Stage (Age 1.5 - 3)

Erogenous Zone in Focus: Anus

Gratifying Activities: Bowel movement and the withholding of such movement

Interaction with the Environment: The major event at this stage is toilet training, a process through which children are taught when,
where, and how excretion is deemed appropriate by society. Children at this stage start to notice the pleasure and displeasure
associated with bowel movements. Through toilet training, they also discover their own ability to control such movements. Along with
it comes the realization that this ability gives them power over their parents. That is, by exercising control over the retention and
expulsion of feces, a child can choose to either grand or resist parents' wishes.

Anal Fixation
  Anal-Expulsive Personality: If the parents are too lenient and fail to instill the society's rules about bowel movement
control, the child will derive pleasure and success from the expulsion. Individuals with a fixation on this mode of
gratification are excessively sloppy, disorganized, reckless, careless, and defiant.

 Anal-Retentive Personality: If a child receives excessive pressure and punishment from parents during toilet training, he
will experience anxiety over bowl movements and take pleasure in being able to withhold such functions. Individuals who
fail to progress pass this stage are obsessively clean and orderly, and intolerant of those who aren't. They may also be very
careful, stingy, withholding, obstinate, meticulous, conforming and passive-aggressive.
3. Phallic Stage (Age 4 - 5)
Erogenous Zone in Focus: Genital

Gratifying Activities: Masturbation and genital fondling

Interaction with the Environment: This is probably the most challenging stage in a person's psychosexual development. The key
event at this stage, according to Freud, is the child's feeling of attraction toward the parent of the opposite sex, together with envy and
fear of the same-sex parent. In boys, this situation is called the "Oedipus Complex" (aka the Oedipal Complex), named after the
young man in a Greek myth who killed his father and married his mother, unaware of their true identities. In girls, it is called the
"Electra Complex".

Boys, in the midst of their Oedipus Complex, often experience intense "castration anxiety", which comes from the fear of
punishment from the fathers for their desire for the mothers. Girls' Electra Complex involves "penis envy". That is, according to
Freud, the girl believes that she once had a penis but that it was removed. In order to compensate for its loss, the girl wants to have a
child by her father. Success or failure in the Oedipus conflict is at the core of either normal psychological development or
psychological disorder. If a child is able to successfully resolve the conflict, he or she will have learnt to control their envy and
hostility and begin to identify with and model after the parent of their own sex, and are ready to move on to the next developmental
stage.

Phallic Fixation:

 For men: Anxiety and guilty feelings about sex, fear of castration, and narcissistic personality.

 For women: It is implied that women never progress past this stage fully and will always maintain a sense of envy and
inferiority, although Freud asserted no certainty regarding women's possible fixations resulting from this stage. Similarly,
Freud admitted uncertainty on the females' situation when he constructed the "penis envy" theory in the first place.

4. Latency (Age 5 - puberty)

Erogenous Zone in Focus: None

Interactions with the Environment: This is a period during which sexual feelings are suppressed to allow children to focus their
energy on other aspects of life. This is a time of learning, adjusting to the social environment outside of home, absorbing the culture,
forming beliefs and values, developing same-sex friendships, engaging in sports, etc. This period of sexual latency lasts five to six
years, until puberty, upon which children become capable of reproduction, and their sexuality is re-awakened.

5. Genital Stage (From puberty on)

Erogenous Zone in Focus: Genital

Gratifying Activities: Masturbation and heterosexual relationships

Interaction with the Environment: This stage is marked by a renewed sexual interest and desire, and the pursuit of relationships.

Fixations: This stage does not cause any fixation. According to Freud, if people experience difficulties at this stage, and many people
do, the damage was done in earlier oral, anal, and phallic stages. These people come into this last stage of development with fixations
from earlier stages. For example, attractions to the opposite sex can be a source of anxiety at this stage if the person has not
successfully resolved the Oedipal (or Electra) conflict at the phallic stage.
Source: http://psychology.about.com/library/weekly/aa111500b.htm

Kohlberg’s Moral Development

Levels of Moral Development:

Level 1: preconventional morality

Stage 1: Individual obeys rules in order to avoid punishment.

Stage 2: Individual conforms to society's rules in order to receive rewards.

Level 2: conventional morality

Stage 3: Individual behaves morally in order to gain approval from other people.
Stage 4: Conformity to authority to avoid censure and guilt.

Level 3: postconventional morality

Stage 5: Individual is concerned with individual rights and democratically decided laws.
Stage 6: Individual is entirely guided by his or her own conscience
Source: http://www.dushkin.com/connectxt/psy/ch03/kohlberg/mhtml
STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

1. PRE-NATAL PERIOD ( 0-280 DAYS/ 0 – 40 WKS.)

2. INFANCY PERIOD ( 0 – 2 WEEKS)

First 30 minutes of Life – Partunate

3. BABYHOOD ( 2 WEEKS TO 2 YEARS)

4. EARLY CHILDHOOD ( 2 TO 6 YEARS)

5. MIDDLE CHILDHOOD ( 6 TO 9 YEARS)

6. LATE CHILDHOOD ( 9 TO 12 YEARS)

7. ADOLESCENT STAGE ( 13 – 19 YEARS)

8. EARLY ADULTHOOD (18 – 40 YEARS)

9. MIDDLE ADULTHOOD ( 40 – 60 YEARS)

10. LATE ADULTHOOD ( 60 – 90 YRS.)

11. OLD AGE ( 90 – YRS ALIVE! )

12. DEATH ( LIFE CESSATION)