The Study of Mathematics Elements of Tri

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L I B R A R Y 0 F USEF U L K No W L E D G. E.
E L E M E N T S
OF
TRIG ON O M ET R Y.
BY
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7. 2:-
(UK I
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PUBLISHED UNDER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE SOCIETY

FOR THE DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.
- LONDON :
BALDWIN AND CRADOCK, PATERNOSTER ROW,
Mid CCCXXXIII, -
LONDON:
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES,
Duke Street, Lambeth,
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ELEM ENTS
OF
TRIGON O M ETR Y.
INTRODUCTION.
The term Trigonometry is derived from the two Greek words, Totyuyov,
a triangle, and perpéo, I measure, and originally signified simply the
science by which those relations are determined which the sides and angles
of a triangle bear to each other, being called plane or spherical trigo
mometry according as the triangle was described on a plane or spherical
surface. At present, however, the term has a much more extensive sig
nification, as the science now embraces all the theorems expressing the
relations between angles and those functions of them to be hereinafter
described; the terms plane and spherical still denoting those branches
of the science immediately connected respectively with plane and spheri
cal triangles. The present treatise will be found to contain the funda
mental theorems of the science, with their applications to plane trigonometry
and to the construction of trigonometrical tables. A knowledge of these
theorems should be acquired by the student before he proceeds to the
Differential Calculus; the remainder of the subject, as a branch (and a
most important one) of pure analysis, he may, in many respects, read
more advantageously when some knowledge of the Calculus shall have
prepared him to enter on a wider field of analytical investigation.
The ancients, it is well known, cultivated astronomy with considerable
assiduity and success; but as little advance could be made in it without
a knowledge of trigonometry, their cultivation of this branch of mathe
matics was necessarily co-existent with that of astronomical science.
Little, however, of what was written by them on this subject is come
down to us. During the dark ages which overshadowed the nations of
Europe, trigonometry, in common with other sciences, seems to have
made some little progress among the Arabians, from whom it was
derived by the Europeans after the revival of literature and science among
them, about the beginning of the fifteenth century. After this period,
the attention of scientific men, in imitation of the ancients, was principally
directed to astronomy; and those to whom that science was most indebted
for its progress were those to whom trigonometry also was equally
indebted. Among the first of these may be mentioned George Purbach,
professor of mathematics and astronomy at the University of Vienna,
and John Müller, his pupil and successor, sometimes called Regiomon
tanus, from Mons Regius, or Koningsberg, a small town in Franconia,
the place of his nativity. The former was born in *:
and died
2
4 TRIGONOMETRY. [Section 1. **
in 1462; the latter was born in 1436, and died in 1476. Coper
nicus also, the celebrated astronomer, wrote a treatise on trigonometry
about the year 1500. Several others might also be mentioned, the
greater part of whom were natives of Germany, the progress of astro
nomy and trigonometry, for a considerable period after their revival
in Europe, having been due very principally to the philosophers of
that country. Vieta, a native of France, was born in 1540, and was
one of the first mathematicians of his time. He gave improved methods
of calculating trigonometrical tables, and enriched the science with a
variety of theorems. He appears to have been the first who made any
considerable application of algebra to this subject. The following
authors also wrote on trigonometry: George Joachim Rheticus, pro
fessor of mathematics in the University of Wittemburg, who died in
1576; Pitiscus; Valentine Otho, mathematician to the electoral Prince
Palatine; and Christopher Clavius, a German Jesuit. These authors
lived during the latter part of the sixteenth century.
At the period we have just mentioned, all the fundamental formulae of
trigonometry, and their applications to the calculation of tables and the
sides and angles of triangles, were well known; but the immense progress
of modern analysis has since opened a wide field for the applications of
trigonometry, beyond those primary objects of the science to which the
first part of this treatise will be devoted. Further historical notices will
be reserved, to be made in immediate connexion with such parts of the
subject as they may tend to elucidate, or render more interesting to the
student.
SECTION I.
Trigonometrical definition of an Angle—Complements and Supplements
of Angles, and of the arcs subtending them—Numerical measure of
Angular space—Sewagesimal and Centesimal divisions of the Circle.
(1.) Def. An angle, in geometry, denotes the inclination of one
straight line to another, and, in this simple acceptation, must be less
than two right angles. In trigonometry, the term has a more extended
meaning. (See Geom. III. § 2. Prop. 13. Schol.)
Let C A be a fixed line, and C a given point in it; and suppose CP
to revolve in one plane about C, coinciding
at first with C A ; then is the whole angular ~ 2^
space described by CP in its revolution
about C, called an angle, which may, there
fore, in this case, be of any magnitude
whatever; also, if with the centre C and
any radius
tending anyweangle
describe a circular
A CP, this arcarc, sub
cannot, C
according to the geometrical definition of an angle, be greater than the

semi-circumference of the circle; but, according to the trigonometrical
definition of an angle, the subtending arc may be of any magnitude,
consisting of any number of circumferences, or any part of a circum
ference.
(2) If we denote the angle ACP by A, the subtending arc by c, the
sum of two right angles by r, and the length of the semicircumference of
the circle by II,
Section 1.] TRIGONOMETRY.
the angle (;-A) is called the complement of A,

and (tri-A) supplement of A
II - -
the arc †— a . . . complement of 2,
and (II – 2 ) . supplement of 2.

(3) Prop. To express the magnitude of an angle in terms of the
subtending arc and its radius.
It is proved (see Geom. III. § 2. Prop, 33. and Schol. Prop. 34.), that
the ratio which the circumference of any circle bears to its radius, is a
constant quantity.
Let its numerical value be denoted by 2 tr.” The circumf = 2 + rad.
Also, if ACP be an angle,
which we will call A, and
with centre C and any rad.
CA we describe a semicir
cular arc APB, any angle
at C will be proportional to
the arc subtending it,
Hence
A _ _A P
2.7z AP B
- o:
T ºr r
if A P = 2 and A C = r
Therefore
A= 2. r" Z” .*.
ºr r
(4.) This equation may be made to assume a more simple form; but
before we proceed with it, we will make a few remarks on the manner in
which quantity may be estimated and expressed numerically (on which
this simplification will depend), though it might perhaps be allowed us to
assume that the student, in his progress through algebra, before entering
even on this elementary part of trigonometry, had acquired sufficient
knowledge on this subject for our purpose. We think it better, however,
to direct his attention particularly to it, because clear and distinct notions
on this point are so essential for the right numerical interpretation, not
only of trigonometrical formulae, but of those also which result from the
application of algebra to every other science; it being more particularly
our object to guard him against erroneous conceptions respecting the
numerical estimates of angles.
We may observe, then, that our estimate of quantity is either absolute
or relative—absolute when formed without reference to another quantity
of the same nature, and relative when formed by means of such reference.
Our estimate is ordinarily of the latter kind; for if we would form an
accurate notion, for example, of the length of a line, the extent of a sur
* re-3-14159..... See Geom. B. III, § 4. Prop. 34. Schol. Also art. 66 of this work.
6 TRIGONOMETRY. [Section 1.
face, or the content of a solid, we usually consider how many yards, feet,
or inches there may be in the line, how many square yards, square feet,
or square inches in the surface, or how many cubic yards, cubic feet, or
cubic inches in the solid content: thus forming a relative estimate of the
quantity proposed, by referring it to some other fixed quantity of the
same kind as a standard with which to compare it, and which may be
assumed as we please. In the relative estimate of length, this standard
may be an inch, a foot, a yard, or any other established length to which
it may be convenient to refer, and the same will hold with respect to quan
tities of any other kind.
This manner of estimating quantity relatively not only assists us in º
forming ourselves an accurate idea of the absolute magnitude or quantity
of anything, but becomes essential if we would convey that idea to the
minds of others, which is effected by expressing the relation which exists
between the proposed quantity and some other of the same kind generally
recognized as the standard to which such quantities shall be referred.
This relation is most easily and most accurately expressed by numbers:
for if we represent the standard quantity by the number one, or unity, the
quantity which is five times as large will be exactly represented by the
number 5; that which is seven times and a half as large, by 7%, or (in the
decimal notation) by 7' 5, and so on, whatever be the relation to be ex
pressed. Any quantity thus arbitrarily chosen to be represented by unity
is called the unit of that quantity; and the number expressing the relation
which the proposed quantity bears to the standard or unit is called the
numerical value of that quantity. It will manifestly depend, not only on
the absolute value of the quantity to be expressed, but also on that of the
quantity selected as the unit. Thus, if a foot be taken for the unit of
length, the numerical value of a line two yards long will be 6; but if an
inch be taken for the unit, the numerical value of this line will be 72.
Conversely, if we assume a given number for the numerical value of a
given quantity, the absolute quantity which must be represented by unity
is easily determined. Thus, if 36 be assumed for the numerical value of
a line a yard in length, a line whose length is one inch must be the linear
unit; if the yard be represented numerically by 18, a line two inches long
must be the linear unit, and so on. All this produces no uncertainty or
ambiguity in our formulae and results, provided we carefully bear in mind,
in the interpretation of them, the suppositions which may have been made
respecting the units of the quantities involved in our investigations. No
such assumptions are necessarily made in deducing algebraical results,
because the operations of algebra are altogether independent of them: if,
however, they have been made, they will affect the form of the resulting
equations, and must therefore be carefully borne in mind in the interpre
tation of such equations, or in deducing from them those numerical results
which are almost always necessary in problems of practical importance.
(5.) The equation of art. (3), to which we may now return, may exem
plify the observations of the last paragraph. This equation is
A= 27’’ Z * .*.
T T
and expresses the relation which exists generally between the angle, the
subtending arc, and its radius, no assumption having been made respect
ing the magnitude of the angle or of the line which shall be taken re
spectively for the angular and linear units. Suppose, now, we denote a
Section 1.] TRIGONOMETRY, ? -
right angle by unity, or make that angle our angular unit, and denote
also by N' the number of such units or parts of a unit contained in the -
angle of which the general symbol is A. Then, putting also for r its
numerical value,
Cº.
N’ == - 2 * -
3' 14159. . . 4".
ot.
= "6366. . . . .—
* . -
Again, if we take half a right angle for our angular unit, and N' to .
denote the number of such units or parts of the unit contained in A, we
have a
º
|
4* Q.
NW" = —
3 * 14159.—
. . . —
r
=1.2733. . . . .
7" º
N' and Nº are the numerical values of the angle whose absolute mag
nitude is denoted by A. The latter is evidently twice as large as the former;
but considering the magnitude of the angular unit in each case, it is mani
fest that each of these numerical values indicates an angle of the same
absolute magnitude.
... We may also observe that the numerical value of the angle is inde
a.
pendent of the linear unit, since the ratio + depends only on the absolute º
values of a and r, and not at all on their numerical values. It is mani

fest, for instance, that, whether a and r be estimated in feet or inches, the
. G. .
numerical fraction which expresses the value of the ratio T will, when
reduced to its lowest terms, be necessarily the same.

(6.) The above assumptions as to the magnitude of the angular unit
do not, however, lead to convenient equations expressing the relation
. Ct. .
between the numerical value of the angle and that of the ratio –,
*
since,
* - T - Ct . -
as we have seen, the numerical multipliers of --

7°
in those equations are
* 4.
not whole numbers. By following an inverse process, however, to those
above, we may assume the value of this coefficient, and determine the
corresponding magnitude of the angular unit. Thus, suppose we wished
the equation to be
Cl
N, <= 2+
then must we have
2," Z."
- 2
3 * 14159. . . .
... a r"Z = 3' 14159...."
which shows that the angular unit, in order that the above equation may
be true, must be rather less than the third of a right angle. - - - -
(7.) The simplest relation, however, between the quantities in ques

tion is
8 TRIGONOMETRY [Section 1.
in which case we must have

2rº Z"
- 1
3:TAT59. I
or 2,” A* - 3 - 14159. . .
which shows that the angular unit must in this case be rather less than
two-thirds of a right angle. Also we may observe that N, the numerical
value of the angle, becomes unity when a = r, which shows that, in order
that’the equation 2r'Z' = 3' 14159.... may be true, the unit of angle
must be that angle, the subtending are of which is equal in length to the
radius.
We have thought it better to denote the numerical values of the angle by
symbols N, N', &c., that the student may not confound them with the
absolute value denoted by A. This distinction, however, is frequently
not attended to, and the equation
N =+
r
is written
A= +
7.
In such cases it must be carefully recollected that A represents the nume

rical value of the angle, on the supposition just mentioned as to the angu
lar unit.
(8.) The value of an angle expressed by the last equation is generally
and often tacitly assumed in investigations involving relations between
the angle itself and any of its trigonometrical functions to be hereafter
described, and therefore should be carefully borne in mind by the student.
At the same time, this is not the most convenient method to adopt when
it is simply our object to express numerically the value of any proposed
angle, independent of any formulae or investigations such as those just
alluded to. For this purpose the following is much more convenient.
Suppose the circumference of the circle APB (fig. Art. 3) completed,
and divided into 360 equal portions called degrees *; each degree into 60
equal parts called minutes; each minute into 60 equal parts called seconds;
&c. The magnitude of the angle A C P is expressed by the number of
degrees, minutes, &c. contained in the subtending arc A. P. A right
angle will contain 90 of these degrees.
This measure of the angle is quite independent of the length of the
subtending arc or its radius; for if, with any other radius C A', we de
scribe another circle about C, it is manifest that the lengths of the degrees
in each circumference will have the same ratio as the arcs AP, A'P', and
therefore that the number of degrees, &c. in the one will equal that in
the other.
If we take an angle of one degree for the angular unit, 90 will be the
numerical value of a right angle, 180, of an angle equal to two right
angles, 2.5 will be that of an angle of 2° 30', 3.75 of an angle of 3° 45',
and so on.
* Degrees are denoted by the symbol (), minutes by ('), seconds by (''), thirds by
(m), &c. Thus 5 degrees 10 minutes and 15 seconds are written 5° 10' 15".
Section I.] TRIGONOMETRY. 9
(9) Having given thenumerical value (N*) of a proposed angle when

the angular unit is one degree, to find the numerical value (N) when the
angular unit is the angle subtended by an arc whose length equals the
radius.
The numerical value of an angle equal to the sum of two right angles
is 180 on the former supposition, and T on the latter. Hence, since the
numerical value of any proposed angle increases in the same ratio as that
in which the angular unit is diminished, it is manifest that
N : N° :: ºr ; 180
... N = — Nº
T
180 ;
which gives a rule for passing from the numerical value in one case to
that in another.
If an angle of one minute be taken for the angular unit, and N' denote
the numerical value in this case, or the number of minutes in the angle,
we shall have
T
N = — N'
180 - 60.
Similarly, if N' denote the number of seconds in the angle, and an

angle of one second be taken for the angular unit,
N = —.N"
180°60'60
Ex. Let N' - 1
3 * 14159265. . .
N = —
10800
- — 00029.08882. . .
(10.) If, in the equation Art. (3), we put 180 for the numerical value
of an angle equal to two right angles, and, as before, N° for the corre
sponding numerical value of A, we have
N9 – lso
T
&
r
Ex. l. To find the length of an are subtending an angle of one degree.

Since Nº = 1
sº- Tr
= Tsº r
Ex. 2. To find the length of the arc subtending an angle of 6°12' 36".
Here N° = 6. 21
_ 3. 1415 X 6' 21 × r
- Tiso.T
= . 1083 ... x r
Ex. 3. To find the number of degrees, minutes, &c. in an angle sub
tended by an arc whose length equals that of the radius.
In this case a = r
_
•. No 180 == 57 - 29578
* 3: I.TI;9. I
Or, expressing the decimals in minutes, seconds, &c.
N° – 57° 17' 44' 48’’’
***
10 TRIGONOMETRY. [Section 1. '-
The division of the circumference of a circle, which we have noticed,

into 360 degrees, &c. is called the sewagesimal division, and was that
adopted by the ancients. Soon after the restoration of the sciences in
Europe, many eminent mathematicians recommended the adoption of the
centesimal division, by which the circumference is divided into 100
degrees, each degree into 100 minutes, &c. Our countryman Briggs, to
whom mathematicians have been so much indebted for his laborious cal
culations of trigonometrical and logarithmic tables, afterwards attempted
to get this division generally adopted; and had his attempt been some
what earlier, it might probably have succeeded; but just at that period
some trigonometrical tables were published by Vlacq, of greater extent
than had been previously attempted, in which he had adopted the sexa
gesimal division; and at a time when mathematical tables were compara
tively scarce, and the methods of calculating them extremely laborious, it
was probably felt as too great a sacrifice to the advantage of the centesi
mal division to render these tables comparatively useless by its adoption,
in addition to those inconveniences respecting the works of previous
authors, which must necessarily be the consequence of a change from the
one system to the other. From whatever cause, however, the attempt to
introduce the new division of the circle failed, as did also another plan,
which was suggested about the same time for preserving the sexagesimal
division of the circle into 360 degrees, and introducing the centesimal
division of each degree into 100 minutes, each minute into 100 seconds, &c.
Another attempt was made in France at the time of the revolution to
introduce the centesimal division, which was adopted by many eminent
mathematicians in that country. Their example, however, seems to have
been little followed in other countries, but as a considerable number of
scientific works have been published in the French language in which
this division of the circle is made use of, we shall give the rules for
converting degrees, &c. in one scale to those of the other, with a few exam
ples which will best explain the advantages of the centesimal division in
the abbreviation of arithmetical computations.
(11.) Let F represent the number of degrees contained in a given angle
in the centesimal division : E the number according to the sexagesimal
division.
JE 90
F= I00
9 F
-
E = — To F - F - 1()
-
Ex. Convert 7° 15' 2" of the centesimal scale into degrees, minutes,
&c., of the sexagesimal scale.
I
Since 15' = º = . 15 of a degree
9 -:
and 2* = − = .0002 of a degree

10000
*
F = 7. 1502 degrees
F
— = .7 1502
10
Section I.] TRIGONOMETRY. 11
E = 6,435.18 degrees
60
26, 11080
60
6,64800
... E = 6° 26' 6"
(12) Again F =} E
Ex, Find the number of degrees, &c., in the centesimal scale corre
sponding to 3° 5' 33" of the sexagesimal scale.
We must first convert 5'33" into the decimal of a degree as follows:
60|33.00 -
60 5.65
'0925
..". E - 3° 5' 33”
= 3. 0925
#E= 3. 4361
= 3° 43' 61//
These examples show obviously the advantage of the centesimal divi
sion in the superior facility it affords of expressing minutes, seconds, &c.,
in the decimal notation, which is done merely by inspection, without the
labour of successive division, as in the sexagesimal scale,
SECTION II.
Definitions of certain functions of an Angle, and of the Arc subtending

il-Fundamental formula—Conventional use of the negative sign—its
utility in Trigonometry.
(13) Let C L be a fixed line passing through the given point C; and
let the line C K form the angle L C K (which we will denote by the
letter A) with C L. With any radius K.
CA describe an arc of a circle about C ~~
as centre, meeting C L in A and CK P
in P, and draw PM perpendicular to §
CA. The ratio of PM to C P is called
the sine of the angle A ; and the ratio
of C M to CP is called the cosine of
that angle; or as they are usually
Written
/
C ki A.
MP . CM
CP = sin. A ; a F = cos. A
The ratio which the sine of an angle bears to its cosine is called the
tangent of the angle.
The inverse of this ratio is called the cotangent. -
The ratio of unity to the cosine of an angle is denominated the secant ;

and that of unity to the sine, the cosecant. -
The difference between unity and the cosine is called the versed-sine.
The difference between unity and the sine of an angle is called the
coversed-sine,
Thus we have,
sin. A
= tan. A
cos. A
cos. A
s: cotan. A
sin. A
1
= sec. A º
cos. A
I
s: cosec. A
sin. A
1 — cos. A = vers. A
1 — sin. A = covers. A.
(14.) In the triangle CMP, we have

M P2 + C M2 – C P2
MP C M \?
or by definition,
#) (# + = 1 s
(Sin. A)*-i- (cos. A)* = 1

... cos. A = WT- (sin. A)*
sin. A
Tan. A Tcos. A
- sin. A
MT- (sin. A),

cos. A
Cot. A. - sin. A
Aſ I – (sin. A)*
sin. A
l -
Sec. A - cos. A
* VTET(sin. Ay:
I
Cosec. A = sin. A
Vers. sin. A = 1 — cos. A

= 1 – M I – (sin. A)*
(15.) Thus each of the trigonometrical functions of an angle above de
fined is easily expressed in terms of the sine of that angle; and in a
similar manner each might be expressed in terms of any other.
Thus we have
(sin. A)*
1 + (tan. A)*2 =
- -
1 + (cos. A)*
_ (cos. A) + (sin. A)*

- (cos. A)*
* In some treatises, (sin A)” is denoted by sin 2A. This latter notation is however
now fallen in some degree into disuse, it being used to denote an operation of a different
kind.
Section 2.] TRIGONOMETRY. 13
–
T (cos.A)*
= (sec. A)*
... sec. A = W1 + (tan. A)*.
In a similar manner we find
cosec. A = V 1 + (cot. A)*

vers. A = 1 — cos. A
l
= 1 – sec. A
_ sec. A - 1 - M. 1 # (tan.A)" - 1
T sec. A WI-F (tan.A)"
(16) The sine, cosine, tangent, &c., as above defined, are functions
of the angle, and are quite independent of the
absolute length of the arc subtending it, or of T
the radius of that are.

The following are definitions of functions of p
the arc:— - - --~~
Having a figure A C P as above, complete

the quadrant A PB, draw AT perpendicular to
the radius C A from its extremity A, meeting the
line CP produced indefinitely in T, and B t,
Pm perpendiculars to the rad. C B, meeting the
same line in t. Draw MP perpendicular to A C
and join P, A.
MP is called the sine of the arc AP C M:
CM . . . cosine . • e
AT . . . tangent . . . :
Bt . . . cotangent :
CT . . . secant . . • ;
Ct . . . cosecant !
AM . . . versed sine
I'
Bm . . . coversed sine
AP . . . chord
(17.) If we denote the length of the arc A P subtending the angle A,

by a, and that of the radius CP by r, we have
-
sin. A =_ CT,
MP sin. o.
—- -
CM COS. O.
cos. A = a E =−
sin. A M P
tan. A = ± = Gºf
_A. T. (by similar triangles
T TAC C MP, C A T
*- tan. o.
T r
- cos. A C M
cot. A = sin, A T TWTP
_ Bt
T CE
by similar #e)
CMP, C B &
cot. o.
-
SeC, A = — F —
I r
C
cos. A
%*
-
by similar triangles
CA
CM P, CAT
se C. o.
->
7"
A=–––9"
'sin. A TTF
COSec, A - -
= 5:
C B
by similar ºfe)
CMP, C B :
C0Sec. o.
*
CM CP – CM WerS. o.
ver, A = 1 - # = C P –––
PM C m
** = 1-# = 1 -;
=9B-Cºn – .
- -OR- = a
!,
B m covers, a
= EB = r
(18.) Hence, if we have *Y formulae expressing the relation between *

functions of an angle, we may obtain those for the corresponding functions
of the arc by substituting, for the former functions, their values in terms
of the latter. Thus by substitution in the equations Art, (10) we have
Sin. o.
Tan. 0 7"
7" COS. o.
ºr
sin. o.
... Tan. o. = r. -: *—
COS, a.
Similarly
COS. or .
Cot. a = r. ** *
S111. a.
Sec. o. I
r T cos. c.
Sec. w =
. Similarly
Cosec, w =
sin. o.
Vers, a . 1 —90s. "

r 7"
... Wers. a = r — cos. 2.

These equations may also be easily deduced directly from the defi
nitions of the functions of the arc by merely geometrical reasoning.
(19.) Produce the arc PA till it meet PM produced in P'. It is
manifest that PAP will equal 2. AP, and that PP will equal 2. MP; or
Chord, 2 a = 2 sin, a
= 2 r sin. A
(20.) As further examples of converting formulæ containing functions
of angles to those for corresponding functions of arcs we may take the
equations Art, (11) from which we obtain by substitution
Cos. a / sin. a \*
r - 1 -( ) 7"
... cos a = V rº-sin.” a

Sln. Ct.
Tan, a T
r V sin. a N*
1 —
r ! . . .
- r sin. a
: ... tam. a =
* — (sin, a)”
And similarly for the other eases. As further examples, also, we may
take the following, in which the formulae involving the angle A and its
trigonometrical functions will be investigated in a subsequent part of this
treatise.
w A3 A5
Sin, A = A - T53 + Tää. Tº — &c.
where the angular unit is the angle subtended by an arc whose length
equals that of the radius. See Art. (4.)
• sin. a
r — ,
Q.
(#). (;) -.
T 1.2.3 + 1.2.3.4.5
5
• gºt Cu3 Cl
..'. Sin. a = a – T2.3T. F T.2.3.4.5. - &c.
. Again, let A B be two angles, a 3 their subtending ares;

Sin. (A + B) = sin. A. cos. B -- cos. A. sin. B
sin. (a + B) sin, a cos. 8 . cos. a sin. 3
r ~ r r ºr 7"
r sin. (a + 3) = sin. a cos. 8 + cos. a. sin. 3

h (*1) If the radius CP be taken equal to the linear unit or r = 1, we
aWe
Sin. A = sin. a
by which we must understand that the number of linear units, or the
Portion of a unit, contained in MP (CP being equal to one such unit)
**presses the value of the ratio which the line M P bears to CP.
On the same supposition, -
|
cos. A ºr cos. a
tan. A = tail, a
&c. = &c. -
With this supposition, then, as to the value of the radius, it appears

that the formulae above given, as well as any others for the functions of
angles, will hold equally for the corresponding functions of the subtend
ing arcs, and that therefore we might speak indifferently of the sine, co
sine, &c., of an angle, or the same functions of the arc. Accordingly, we
find that most writers on Trigonometry have frequently used the terms
arc and angle almost indiscriminately. No ambiguity necessarily arises
from this; but as it may have a tendency to produce in the mind of the
student confused and inaccurate motions of some of the formulae which
we shall hereafter investigate, we think it advisable never to make an in
discriminate use of these terms. The functions we shall always make
use of in the investigation of general theorems are those of angles, the
definition of which we shall consider as the essential and fundamental
Oiles. -
The functions of the arc, whenever they may be spoken of, will be in
strict accordance with the above definitions.
We may observe that the chord must necessarily, according to our de
finition, be considered as a function of the arc.
It may, perhaps, be demanded,—what utility is there in thus increas
ing the number of trigonometrical terms and definitions, since, as we
have before observed, all the functions above-mentioned may be easily ex
pressed in terms of any one of them. It is not that they are all abso
lutely necessary, but they are found convenient in the varied constructions
and applications of trigonometrical formulae; and this convenience is
proportionate to the degree of complexity in the formulae themselves, or
of the cases to which they are applied.
The ancients, in whose hands the use of trigonometry was confined to
the expressing of the relations between the sides and angles of triangles,
appear to have made use only of the chord of an arc of definite radius;
and to this the Arabians seem to have added the use of the sine. After
the revival of science in Europe, trigonometry made rapid advances, and
soon came to be considered, not merely as furnishing solutions of trian
gles, but rather as a science of more extensive application, by which was
expressed the relations between certain lines drawn in and about a circle
in connexion with an angle at the centre, and these lines were denomi
mated chord, sine, tangent, secant, &c. The latter terms were then first
introduced in addition to the two first, on account of the facility which
they afforded for the expression and application of trigonometrical formulae.
At the period now alluded to, all trigonometrical investigations were
geometrical, and consequently the terms above-mentiomed were naturally
applied to lines (according to our definitions of them as functions of the
arc), rather than to the ratios of lines which they become, according to
our definitions of them, as functions of the angle. At present, however,
when algebra is so extensively applied to trigonometrical investigations,
there seems no reason why we should adhere to definitions of a strictly
geometrical character; and since, in the numberless applications of trigo
mometry to other branches of mathematics, sines, tangents, &c. are, almost
without exception, considered as functions of angles, we have thought it
better to make these definitions which render them such the fundamental
ones of the science. It will be observed that the definitions and formulae
of this section have been applied only to angles which are less than 90°,
and to arcs which are less than a quadrant, and which are considered
positive,
It will now be our object to show how these definitions and the formulae
which flow from them, for such angles and arcs, may be extended to those
of any magnitude, considered as positive or negative.
(22.) Take the angle A C P, greater
than ; and ACP, greater than T. De
scribe thesubtending arc AP, P., and from
P, P, draw P. M. P. M, perpendiculars to
the diameter A C B. The definitions of the
sines and cosines of these angles will be the
ºr
same as for the angle A C P, less than 2
with this understanding or convention ; –.

viz. that any line, as CM, measured from *
C, along CA; and any line, as MP, per

pendicular to CA, measured upwards from the diameter A C B, being
cousidered positive; then shall any line, as CMI, measured from C along
CB; and any line, as M, P., perpendicular to A B, measured downwards,
be called negative. With this understanding, the values of the lines C M,
MP, MP, will be properly represented by + C M, + MP, -í-M P, ; and
those of the lines CM, CM, M, P., M., P., by – C M. – C Me, – M.P.,
– M, P, The lines CP, CP, CP, &c. having no definite direction in
space, are always considered positive.
Then, denoting the angle A C P by Al, and A CP, by As, we have
M, _ – CM,
GEP, cos, A=-&#
Sin. Al
... a – Ms P, . cos. As = – CM, .

sin.A.--&#: TCP, .
Also, if the arc AP, and the angle A C B subtended by it, be called posi
tive, the arc A. P., measured in the opposite direction (i. e. downwards
from A), and the angle A CP, subtended by it are called negative. Thus,
denoting ACP, by — Aa, we have
M. P
Sin, (– As) = - # *; cos. (– As)
3
=#. 3.
The definitions of the tangents, secants, &c. will be the same for all
angles: thus
sin. (– Aa) I
Tan. (– A) = cos.(– As) ' sec. (- A) = cos. (ETA) &c.
(23) Again, if a., as be the arcs subtending A, As, &c. -
Sin, a1 = Mi Pl; cos, a, - —C MI

Sin, as = M, P.; cos. as = – C Ms.
The signs of the tangents *, secants, &c. of these arcs may be determined
* We have recommended the student to regard our definitions of the sine, cosine, &c.
as functions of the angle, as the essential ones of the science; and do not wish there
fore at first to distract his attention by directing it particularly to the consideration of the
somewhat complicated figure by which these lines for axes of different magnitudes are
exhibited and their proper signs determined. After having made himself, however, well
- acquainted
by means of those of the sines and cosines; according to the relations

established in Art. (17.)
(24.) The rule we have here laid down for the use of the negative sign,
with reference to the directions in which lines are measured, must not be
considered as necessary, but entirely conventional. The reader who has
mo previous knowledge of analytical geometry will necessarily have a diffi
culty in understanding, at first, the advantage to be derived from it; which
consists in the generality thus given to our investigations. Thus, suppose
we investigate the relations which exist between any of the trigonometrical
functions of two angles A and B, and those of an angle equal to their
sum A + B, in the particular case in which A and B are positive, and their
sum (and consequently each of them) is less than a right angle; then, if
it necessarily followed that the same relations would hold for angles of any
magnitude, we should have no occasion to use the negative sign in ex
pressing the values of particular lines, in order to give entire generality to
our formulae. But this will not necessarily follow, except by that conven
tional use of the negative sign above mentioned, by which this desired ge
merality is obtained in all cases. The proof we shall offer of this, as a
general proposition, will be inductive, and will develope itself as the reader
proceeds: for, in this and the following section, it will be shown to be true
acquainted with the above-mentioned definitions, he will not find the examination of the
following figure, and the construction of similar ones for other arcs, an unprofitable exer
cise. It will also qualify him for making more easy reference to other works on the
subject. The annexed figure represents the different trigonometrical lines for an arc C. P.
greater than a quadrant and less than a semicircle, as well as those for the arc A P
less than a quadrant. y
It must
arcs be observed
are measured fromthat thethe
A on tangents ofper-
line YY' all x, /
a */
pendicular to A C, and the cotangents from B,

one extremity of the quadrant A B, on the line
XX", perpendicular to YY'. Thus AT, is the
/
P Zºº,
tangent of A P, and since AT, the tangent of

A P, has been considered positive, the tangent of NF-A.
A P, will be properly represented by - A T.
Again, as Bt is the cotangent of A P, so Bt, is
the cotangent of A P, which, since Bt has been
considered positive, will be represented by - Bt..
---
T
z
Yi
The secants and cosecants of all arcs are measured along the line passing through C
and the extremities PP, &c. of the respective arcs. This line must be produced to meet
the line Y Y’ for the secant, and XX' for the cosecant. Thus CT, is the secant of A Pl,
and C t' its cosecant. They are not measured along lines having any definite direction
in space, and therefore do not appear to fall immediately under the convention above
mentioned respecting the negative sign. Their proper signs, however, are easily deter
mined from that of the cosine and sine of the same arc; since they are equal to the
square of the rad. divided by the cosine and sine respectively. We may also observe
that the signs thus determined will coincide with those which are obtained from the rule
which is sometimes given, that the secants and cosecants shall be called positive or nega
tive according as the direction in which they are measured from C is towards the ex
tremity of the arc or opposite to that direction. Thus CT, the secant of A Po is negative,
and Ct, , its cosecant, is positive.
The versed sine of AP, is A M, These lines are always measured in the same direc
tion from A along AD, and therefore are always positive, as are also the co-versed sines
Bºm B m'.
in such a number of cases of important elementary formulae as justifies

the conclusion, by induction, that the proposition is generally true. 3.
(25) The following formulae, involving B

only the angle A and multiples of a right B_Tºs P
angle, are important. N /
Take the angles DCP, DCP, ACP/o /

each equal to A C P. Draw MP, MP, /
perpendicular
Mi Po M Pll be to A D; thenso also
manifestly will
likewise. D M,
/*
iſi
--
A.
Let A represent the numerical value of

the angle ACP, the unit being the same
w - 7ſ.
as in Art. (7.); then will 2 be the nume- 19, P,
rical value of a right angle.* -
It is manifest that any trigonometrical function of the angle A, sub

tended by the arc A P, will be the same as that of the angle A + 4r'. Z”
or the angle subtended by the arc A PD Pº, A P greater by A P than the
circumference of the circle described with any radius about C. Hence
MP .
-
Sin, A = GP= . §: f º + A}by the same rule,

-
= sin. (4T + A)
= &c.
or generally sin. A = sin. (2n + + A); n being any whole number in

the series 0, 1, 2, 3, &c.
MP M, P, ..
Also
SQ sin, CP = +=
Slſº A =+ 9 P = sin. (T-A)
(2+ +"r-A)
= sin. (3r — A)
= sin. (5tt — A)
= &c.
Or generally sin, A = sin, (2n + 1.7 - A).

Again,
M P_M, P.,
CPT cF,
or sin. A = — sin. (T + A)
— sim. (2T + T + A)
— sin. (3T + A)
And generally sin. A

Also similarly,
: &c.
— sin. (2n + 1 ºr + A)
in. (2 A)
– Slm. (27" -
= – sin (ºr - Aj
= &c.
sin. A = — sin. (2n T - A)
* C M C M,
Gs) ca A =#=#|
* If A represent the number of degrees, minutes, &c., the right angle must of course
be represented by 90°. C 2
20 TRIGONOMETRY." [Section 2.
.
= — cos. A C P'
= — cos. (T – A)
Similarly we have
cos. A = — cos. (T + A)
cos. A = cos. (2T – A)
cos. A = cos. (2T + A)
Or generally
- Cos. A = cos. (2n t + A)
Also cos. A = — cos. (2n + 1. T + A).
MP CN
-
(27.) Sin. A = GF = GF = cos. (DCP) = *(; A)

T
-
= Ca−5
Cos. A =
(t +M =NC−
P
P = sin.
sin, D C P = sin. I in (; A)
T
— —
Or the sine of an angle is equal to the cosine of its complement, and vice
versä.
(28.) Tan. A =
_ cos.
sin. A sin. (2T
AT cos. (2T + A)
+ A)
= tan. (2ir + A)
= tan. (4tr + A)
= &c.
= tan. (2m. t + A);
Also,
Tan. A _sin.
Tcos. A
AT sin.
cos. (T
(ºr +
+ A)
A)
= tan. (tr + A)
= tan. (3tr + A)
= &c.
= tan. (2n + 1. T -- A)
- I l
(29) Sec. A = cos. ATT cos. (2T + A)
sec. (2T =E A)
sec. (4T =E A)
(30.) Again,
: &c.
sec. (2n + + A).
Tan. A sin. A sin. (T - A)

cos. A TT cos. (T-A)
-
— tan. (ºr — A);
Also,
Tan. A = — tan. (2ir — A)
1 I
Sec. A = cos. A T – cos (T + A)
= — sec. (T + A).
(31.) We have also
sin. A cos \g (;-A)
3–A
**-ār--ó-y
• * SII] .
º
Section 2.] TRIGONOMETRY. 21 || ||

/ºr || ||
E Cot, ſ = -
*(;-A) l
-
l
Sec, A = cos. A T sin. (; A) -
- |
r: COSec. (; A)
7"
-
(32) Again, taking the negative angle A CP" = – A, we have

Sin. ( A) _ _M
-
- CF,Pu, TCT, MP . sin. A
- -
-
CM CM
cos.. (–A) = CP/
− = −3 COS A
C P = cos.
... tan, ( – A) = — tan. A ; cot. (– A) = — cot. A

sec, (– A) = sec. A ; cosec. (– A) = — cosec. A
vers, (–A) = vers. A.
-
(33.) It will be easily seen that all the formulae of this section hold for --
angles greater than 90°, or for negative angles, as well as for those which
are positive and less than 90°.
SECTION III.
Trigonometrical Functions of the Sum and Difference of two Angles.—

Formulae resulting therefrom.
The formulae which we shall now proceed Fig. 1.
to investigate are among the most important /
of Trigonometry. -
(34.) To find the sine of the sum or dif- 6.

ference of two angles in terms of the sines jº 2. 2
and cosines of the angles themselves:— A
Let the angle ACP = A, PC Q = B;

then will ACQ = A + B. With centre C R
ſ
|
º
P_2^
\
…”
and any radius C A describe the arc. A PQ. /

L’ \
Draw MP, KG, N Q perpendiculars to CA;
QG perpendicular to CP, and FG to N Q;
Then
QN
21)
6– KMTV
+3 = sin. (A +
C Q
B)
= sin. A
Q G. -
CQ = sin. B
;
ă = cos. A
CG
GO = cos. B ;
Also z og F = } – FG c = C G K = C PM,
and the angles at F and M are right angles
CMP are similar, ... the triangles Q FG,
Now QN = N F + F Q = K G + F Q;
But by similar triangles
K. G.
G G T GF
M. P -
..'. K G =
_ M. P.
CP
C. G
FQ C M - _ C.M.G Q
GQ, CP ... Fo = −ar
M. P. C. G. C M. GQ
QN = +p = + HE
o, QN – M P C G + CC MP GQ
CP T C P C P C P’
Or sin. (A + B) = sin. A . cos. B -- cos. A sin B.
In the above case, A + B has been
taken less than 3. The construction, Fig. 2.
however, will be exactly similar, what- -
ever be the magnitude of the angles. P
In fig. 2. A+ B is greater than T, and /

A greater than ;: Proceeding exactly ſ
as in the former case, we find |s Mr
QN M P CG C M G Q. 2. -
CTP T C P : C P CP C P' o /
Or, since in this case cos. A = — CM.
C P
Sin. (A + B) = sin. A cos. B -- cos A. sin. B.,
the same form as that above deduced.
In the same manner it may be shown in any other case in which A + B
is less than 27, that by virtue of the convention established in Art. (22.),
the same formulae will be true; and since all the trigonometrical functions
of an angle are the same as for the angle increased by 27, this must hold
for angles of all magnitudes.
Sin. (A – B) = sin. (T – A – B) Art. (25.)
sin. (T – A – B)
: sin. (T – A). cos. B -- cos. (T - A) sin. B

sin. A . cos. B – cos. A sin. B;
since sin. (T-A) = sin. A Art, (25.)
and cos. (T-A) = — cos. A Art. (26.)
- -
(35.) To find the expression for the cosine of the sum or difference of
two angles:—
CN -
The value of GT, (which = cos. (A + B)) might be investigated in the

N
same manner as that of 3. or the sin. (A + B), or it may be simply
- -
deduced from the above expression for this latter quantity, in the following
manner :-
Cos. (A + B) = sin. (; — A + B) Art. (27.)

- 7
- in (G-A- b)
Section 8) TRIGONOMETRY. 23
= in (;-A) B-soº (;-A

- ºr
COS. sin, B Art. (34)
s: cos. A. cos. B – sin. A sin. B. Riº Gº
Again, º B. * º w
Cos. (A - B) = sin, ;-&-E) Sº º

& * ... ºn
= ºn(; – A -- B
---
º
:- *(; ) cos. B -- cos. (; )
– A - sin. B
= cos. A cos. B -- sin. A. sin. B. \
(36.) These formulae afford instances of the generalization effected by

the use of the negative sign. The formulae also for the difference of two
angles is such as results from the substitution of – B for B in the formulae
for the sum of those angles.
Thus
Sin. (A - B) = sin. (A + (– B) )
= sin. A. cos. (– B) + cos. A sin. (– B)
= sin. A. cos. – cos. A sin. B
cos, (A - B) = cos. (A + (– B))
= cos. A cos. (– B) — sin. A . sin. (– B)
= cos. A cos. B -- sin. A sin. B.
(37.) From what has now been stated, it appears that, with respect to
the formulae of this and the preceding section (which are the funda
mental ones of the science), we may consider as proved the proposition
in Art. (24.), which asserts that, by virtue of the convention there stated
respecting the signs of lines, all formulae which hold for angles less than
90°, hold equally for angles of any magnitude. Therefore, we conclude,
by induction, that the rule will hold in all cases *.
* The explanation here given of this conventional use of the negative sign is such as
will, we conceive, be most easily understood by the student in his earlier progress in ma
thematical investigations. The subject may, however, be placed in a somewhat different
and more general point of view. Suppose a and b to represent the magnitudes of two
known lines in the data of a geometrical problem to be solved algebraically; and let the
magnitude of a line, measured in an assumed direction from a given point along an inde
finite line given in position, be denoted by ar, the object of the problem being the determi
nation of the value of a ; and suppose the resulting equation to be a = a + b. If a be
greater than b, the geometrical interpretation of this equation presents no possible diffi
culty; the magnitude of the required line must equal the difference of a and b, and the
line must be measured in the direction first assumed. Butlet us suppose b greater than
*; our result will become r = - (b-a), and the question arises—what meaning attaches
to this negative value of a 2 Does it indicate a geometrical impossibility, and admit of
no geometrical interpretation; or does the circumstance of b being greater than a merely
present a modification of our problem, still leaving it susceptible of a geometrical solu
tion?... The latter supposition is the true one. A general rule of interpretation may be
established for all such cases accordant with the conventional use of the negative sign
explained in the text, as indicating the directions of lines; consequently the equation
* = ~ (h — a) shows that the line represented by a must be measured in a direction
ºpposite to that in which it must be measured when a is greater than 5. The reasoning, |
however, on which the proof of the generality of elementary propositions of this nature
depends, can hardly be fully appreciated by the student in his first advances in mathema
tics; and we have therefore thought it better to present the subject to him under the more
simple rather than under the more general form, referring him for the latter to our trea
tise on the Application of Algebra to Geometry. The utility of this application of the
negative sign will in all cases be similar to what we have shown it to be in trigonometry.
(38.) By addition and subtraction the following formulae are deduced

immediately from those investigated in Art. (34.):-
Sin. (A +B) + sin. (A - B) = 2 sin. A . cos. B
sin. (A + B) – sin. (A - B) = 2 cos. A sin. B
cos. (A - B) + cos. (A + B) = 2 cos. A. cos. B
cos. (A – B) — cos. (A + B) = 2 sin. A . sin. B.
(39). By multiplication we obtain
Sin. (A + B. sin. (A - B)
= (sin. A. cos. B + cos. A sin. B) (sin. A cos. B – cos. A sin. B) *
.
= (sin. A)*. (cos. B)” – (cos.,A)* (sin. B)”

= (sin. A)” (1 – (sin. B)”) — (1 - (sin. A)") (sin. B)* º,
= (sin. A)* — (sin. B)”
(40.) By division, we have from the same formulae,
Sin. (A+B) sin. A cos. B + cos. A. sin. B *
sin. (A-B) iſ sin. A. cos. B – cos. A sin. B

sin. A sin. B
º*::
_ cos. A ' ' cos. B

T sin. A sin. B ~~
cos. A cos. B - º
(dividing numerator and_denominator by cos. A cos. B). *:
tan. A + tan. B
* - T tan. A – tan. B *::
(41.) since A = ****** s

A + B A - B s:
B = ; — —;
*
s
|-
... sin. A = sin. A + B +* — B º
2 º
sin. B = sin. A + B A-B - º
2 2 .
º Expanding the right-hand sides of these equations by the formulae of º
Art. (34.), we have, by addition A
and subtraction, º
Sin. A + sin. B = 2 sin” . A
B cos. –,
—
º st
- sin. A — sin. B = 2cos(* + B . . sin. A –

— B
*
º 2 2
co, b + co, A = 2 cº, *.co.” " *|
co, B – co, A = 2i. “H” ...A . . "

(42.) From these formulae we obtain, by division,
Sin. A + sin. B_ - A + B A — B
sin. A — sin. BT tan. 2 . COt. 2
cos. A + cos. B A+B A — B º

cos RT. B = *-ā- COt. 2 ”
(43.) In formulae, Art. (34) let B = A !

Sin. 2 A = 2 sin. A cos. A

cos, 2 A = (cos. A) - (sin. A)*
==
(cos. A)” – (1 – (cos, A)')
2 (cos. A)” – 1
... 1 + cos, 2 A 2 (cos. A)”;
Also, cos, 2 A
... 1 — cos, 2 A = 2
: (cos. A)” – (sin. A)*
1 — 2 (sin. A)*
º
- 1
|
44.) Since (cos. A)* + (sim. = I,
(44.) ( º *
2 A cos. A = sin, 2A,
we have, by addition, - º
(cos. A) + 2 sin. A. cos. A + (sin. A)* = 1 + sin. 2 A

Or (cos. A + sin. A)* = 1 + sin. 2 A
cos. A + sin. A = + wi + sin. 2A;
Similarly, cos. A — sin. A = + VI + sin. 2A;
Hence, by addition and subtraction,
Cos. A = } { V1 + sin. 2 A + VI – sin. 2 A}
sin. A = * { V1 + sin. 2 A PF WT – sin. 2 Å)."
* These formulae, under the most general form which results from the algebraical
investigation of them, are -
cos. A = } { V-ET-F sin. 2 A-E VT- sin. 2 Å #

sin; A = } { VEETE sin. Z.A -E VT = sin. 2A 3
and as they may thus appear to the student to present some ambiguity, it may be as well
to point out to him how the signs are to be interpreted. The greatest value which the
quantity W 1 + sin. 2A admits of is V 2, which corresponds to 2 A = 90°. It conti
nues positive, while 2 A varies from 90° to 270°, when it becomes zero. When 2 A
exceeds 180°, sin 2 A becomes negative, and consequently v I-Hsin 2. A becomes
VT-sin. 2 A, sin. 2 A representing the numerical value; and also the quantity
W i + sin, 2A having become zero, must then become negative, since, in order to give
all possible generality to our interpretation, we must suppose it to vary continuously with
the continuous variation of A between its greatest and least algebraical values, which are
W2 and – W2, the latter corresponding to the case in which 2 A = 360°, +90°. In
the same manner it will pass back from the least to the greatest limit through zero.
The other quantity, VT-sin. 2 Å, will of course follow the same law in its change of
value,
Hence, then, if the proper signs be determined for any particular value of 2 A, they
may be easily ascertained for any other value. Suppose A very small and positive; then
must we have cos. A positive and nearly equal unity, and sim. A positive and very small,
which conditions can only be satisfied by taking the signs for this case as follows:
cos, A = } { VT-F sin. 2 A + VI – sin 2 A 3
sin. A = } { VT-F sin. 2 A – WT- sin. 2 A ;
If 2 A= 90°, MT- sin. A = 0; and therefore if 2 A be greater than 90° and
less than 180°,
cos. A = } { MT-F sin. 2A - Vi = sin. 2 A ;
sin. A = } { VT-F sin. 2A 4- VI-Tsin.2 Å #
If 2 A be between 180° and 270°, sin, 2 A is negative, and
cos. A = } { w/T= sin. 2 A – VT-F sin. 2A #
sin A = } { VT- sin. 2A + VI-F sin. 2 A
It is not necessary to state the formulae for other particular cases. The most useful
application of them will be pointed out hereafter; and as there is, in that case, no risk
of error from the apparent ambiguity of the signs, we should not have thought it necessary
to say thus much on the subject, were it not likely to be of some service in familiarizing
the mind of the student to similar interpretations in other cases.
26 TRIGONOMETRY. [Section 3
sin. A cos. A
(45.) Again, tan. A + cot. A + cos. A ' sin. A
-
2 ((sin. A) + (cos. A)*)
T2 . . sin. A. cos. A
2
-
2
-
-
sec. 2 A
(cos. A)*-(sin. AY"
Similarly, cot. A – tan. A =
2 cos. 2 A
= −sin. 2 1.
AT = 2 cot. 2 AA.
(46.) By formula, Art. (38.),

Sin. (A + B) = 2 sin. A . cos. B – sin. (A – B).
Let A = n B,
Sin. (n + 1 B) = 2 sin. n B. cos. B – sin. (n − 1 B);
and if n = 1,
Sin. 2 B = 2 sin. B. cos. B;
m = 2,
- Sin. 3 B = 2 sin. 2 B . cos. B — sin. B
= 2 cos. B {2 sin. B. cos. B ; – sin. B
= 4 sin. B (cos. B)* — sin. B.
= 4 sin. B (1 — (sin. B") ) — sin. B
= 3 sin. B – 4 (sin. B)*:
if n = 3,
Sin. 4 B = 2 sin. 3 B. cos. B — sin. 2 B ;
which, by substitution and reduction,
= (4 sin. B – 8 (sin. B)” cos. B;
similarly, we find
Sin. 5 B = 5 sin. B — 20 (sin. B)” + 16 (sin. B)*
&c.
(47.) Also, by formula, Art. (38.),

Cos. (A + B) = 2 cos. A cos. B — cos. (A – B);
and, if A = n B,
Cos. m + 1 . B = 2 cos. n B cos. B – cos. m. – I B;
Whence, by putting n = 1, 2, 3, &c. successively, we find, in a manner
similar to the above, -
cos. 2 B = 2 (cos. B)” – 1

cos. 3 B = 4 (cos. B)” – 3 cos. B
cos. 4 B = 8 (cos. B)” – 8 (cos. B)” -- 1
cos. 5 B = 16 (cos, B)” —20 (cos. B)” + 5 cos. B,
&c. &c.
(48.) To find the tangents of the sum or difference of two angles, in
terms of the tangents of the angles themselves:—
Tan. (A + B) - COS. %+.
sin. (A + B
_ sin. A cos. B + cos. A . sin. B

T cos, A. cos. B-sin. A sin. B
Section 3.) TRIGONOMETRY.
27
sin. A sin. B
cos. A cos. B
= ~ in A-. H
T cos. A cos. B
(dividing numerator and denominator by cos. A cos. B)
_ tan. A + tan. B
* T tan. A tan, B.
(49.) Similarly, we find -
tan. A — tam. B
Tu (A–B) = Hirii;
(50.) Putting B = A, in the formula for tan. (A + B), we have
2 tan. A
Tan *A = Hºy
(51.) Also, by the same formula,
__tan. (A + B) + tan. C
Tan. (A + B + C) = I – tan. (A + B) tau. C
tam. A + tan. B
_ _1 - tan. A tan. B_ + tan. C
- 1 — tan. A . tan. B
tan. C
T tan. A + tan. B
_tan. A + tan. B + tan. C — tan. A. tan. B. tan. C.
TI- {tan. A. tan. B+ tan. A. tan. C+tan. B. tan, C }
l
(52.) Sec, (A+B)
52.) Sec. - cos. (A + B) - cos. A. cos. B – sin. A. sin. B
-
I l
-
cos. A cos. B sec. A . sec. B
-
sin. A sin. B= 1 - tan. A . tan. B

cos. A cos. B
- see. A . sec. B by Art. (15
- TV. Wy-TV. Iyiº by Art (18)

This and the preceding sections contain all those formulae which may
be regarded as the fundamental ones of the science. By different combi
nations of these, an almost infinite variety of other formulae may be de
duced, the investigation of which forms an excellent exercise for the
student. Such as are of practical importance will be investigated in con
nexion with those parts of the subject to which they are immediately
applicable.
We shall now proceed to the second division of this portion of the
treatise, comprising Plane Trigonometry (by which we ascertain the
relations between the sides and angles of triangles described on a plane
surface), and also an explanation of the calculation and formation of such
trigonometrical tables as are necessary to determine the numerical values
of the quantities required, whether in Plane Trigonometry, or in any other
application of trigonometrical formulae.
SECTION IV.
Relations which exist between the sides, the Angles, and the area of Trian
gles, and of certain Quadrilateral Figures—Relations between the
Radius of a Circle, and sides, angles, &c. of Triangles, or regular Poly
gons inscribed in, or circumscribed about it.
- C
(53.) The sides of a triangle are o T

-
proportional to the sines of the _` N.

opposite angles. A. i) T;
Let A, B, C be the angles, a, b, c C
the sides opposite to them respec- -
tively of the triangle A B C. From

C draw CD, a perpendicular on (2) --~~~
the base, or the base produced, AB; _T
then - _T-
A. Is ID
- CD . - • - CD
sin. A = RG-3 sin. B (which = sin. C B D in fig. 2) = CB
. sin. A CB a
sin. B - TAC T ST
. ... ", sin. A a sin. B b
Similarly –
sin. C = —
c ; –
sin. C = —.
c
(54.) Let C be a right angle, then

- B C Cz C
Sill . A = —
A B C
-
A C b
COS as e A. - -A B - c
-
B C Q, \
tan.
an A = AC
— - W.
— A.
* TÉ
sin. B = A. C. ~ b
AB C
cos. B = BC. = *.
A B C
tam. B = AC - b.
BC &
º To express the cosine of an angle

S1CleS.
of a triangle in terms of the
By Euclid, Préps. 12 and 13, b. ii., and Geome

try, I. § 6. Prop. 37, we have
A C* = A B* + B Cº. – 2 A. B. B. D
when the angle B is acute; or Figs.1 and 2, Art. 53.
A C* = A B* + B Cº -i- 2 A.B. B. D,
when B is obtuse. |
But Hö = cos. B
... B D = B C, cos. B when B is acute,

and B D = B C cos. CB D.
= – B C cos. B (since cos. C B D = — cos. B)
when B is obtuse. !
Hence in both cases we have (denoting the sides as before)

b2 = cº -- a” – 2 accos. B
- a” + cº– b%
cos. B = 2ac
Similarly
bº + c – a . cos. C = a” + b” – c’
cos. A = 2bc 2 • *-w ºr a 2ab **
(56.) To express the sine of an angle of a triangle in terms of the sides,

we have, Art. (11)
(sin. A) = 1 – (cos.A)*
= (1 + cos. A) (1 — cos. A)
bº + c2 — a”
But 1 + cos. A = 1 + —g-
_bº + 2be 4 c – a
2bc
_ (b +c)” – a”
- 2bc 4
_ (a + b + c) (b+ c-d)
- 2
2bc
since the difference of the squares of two quantities = the product of their
sum and difference. See Geometry I. § 5., and Schol. Prop. 35. ; also
Euc, II. 5.
b” + c – a”
Also 1 — cos, A = 1 - -25.
_ a” – (bº + c – 2bc)
- 2bc
_a" – (b – c)*
2bc
_ (a + c – b)2bc
-
(a + b – c)
e
Let
a+b + c -
===== S
then b+c –a
- 2 *-
a+ c–b
a+b –c= S – c.
2
2 S. S – a
... 1 + cos. A =
bc
2. s— 5. S- c
- 1 — cos. A =
bc
4
‘. sin.”A = gº. . s. s—a. S-7. S
- 2 - - -
sin. A = . Vs. sia. S- V. S-2

Similarly
-
sin. B = ...2 v. s. s = a, s- b. s—c

——
2 — —— ~ T
in.
SIII C = - # Vs. S -
N - tºa .e S
C –
- b
U .- S
C –
- c
(57.) By Art, (43.) we have

- *A
-
2 cos. --
2
= 1 + cos. A *
- 2. S.S — a
- bc
..". cos. A
2
- Vs s—a
bc
2
Also ( 2 sin. *)
2
= 1 — cos. A
- 2s – b. S- c
—g
sin. A - S - b. S- c
2 —º-
sin A
And tan. -- = 2
COS. A
2
In the same manner are obtained,

cos. º –
2
*/s·s−.
QC
in = V/s-ºs
g--
C w -— C ====
• * = &/s·s−, ab
in 2
= x/s=a, sºab
an = V/Sº sº, a, , – A/s-ºs

S. S – b ** S. S – c.
(58.) To express the area of a triangle in terms of the sides, see figs.
Art. (63). Geom. I. § 4. prop. 26. -
Area = # A. B. C. D
A B . A C . sin. A
#
- cb . . sin. A
2
- Vs . S – a , S –5 . S– C
We may very easily obtain expressions very similar to those given

above for triangles, for the sines, cosines, &c. of angles of quadrilateral
figures, when the opposite angles are supplemental to each other, or the
quadrilaterals are such as can be inscribed in circles. As such formulae,
however, are of little utility, we shall deduce only that for the cosine of
one of the angles, and leave the others, which we shall indicate as exercises
for the student.
f
(59.) To express the cosine of an angle of a quadrilateral which may be
inscribed in a circle in terms of the sides.
#3
N
Let A B C D be the quadrilateral ; A /s N
*~e -
B C D the angles, &L 3. \

And let AB = a, B C = b, \,
C D = c, D A = d
join B D, and let B D = 3 A. d
\
D
Then
* = a *-H d” – 2 ad cos. A
Also } = 5* + c – 2 be cos. C Art. (55.)
= b” + c + 2 be cos. A ; since
C = 180° – A, and ... cos, C = — cos. A
... subtracting
0 = dº + dº — bº – c’ – 2 (ad + be) cos. A
a? -- dº — b% — cº
... cos, A. =
- 2 (ad -- bc).
(60.) By a process exactly similar to that by which the expression for
the sine of an angle of a triangle in terms of the sides is determined, we
find
- 2 >-TE===TE---
sin. A = ºriº S — a . S – b . S – c. S – d.
Where S = a + hºf - d -
tan. # - v/s – a . S- a
S - b. S – c
s = V/ºr ºf ºad ad -- bc
Area of the quadrilateral = v/ S – a .S — b. S – c. S – d
See Geom. Note to the Index, pp. 271, 272.
A general expression may aſso be obtained for the area of any quadri
lateral the investigation of which may afford a useful example to the

student. Let angle C = y, and the supplement of A = a (see fig.
Art, 59.):—
a” + dº + 2 ad . cos. a = 8*
= b” + c – 2 be . cos. y
b” + c a”-- dº _ bc. cos. Y ad. cos. a
22 - 22 - 2 H 2 - - (1).
Now
2 bo 2 ad be , ad
-+ 2*22 —- - - 2 + 2 - - - - - - )
C2);
adding (l) and (2), 2
b + c\* a – d
— — .
bc 1 + cos. y
—
1 + cos.
— a
. (3),
--
2
I
and, subtracting (1)

-
2 )
from (2),
2 ā- + ad
-
(3)
a + d \* 1 — cos. y 1 — cos. a
-
( – c. N*
2 ) +( ——
2 l - bc . —-
2
+ ad , - 2 4);
(4)
Or,
(s = o(s - a) = * : ***** ad. Hºt

and
1 — cos.
(S — b) (S — c) = be . ** + ad. Hºt" - Ururo.
&c.
... (S - a) (S — b) (S – c.) (S — d) = bº cº. 1 – (cos.

4
y)*
+ a” d” ºr + * (2 – 2 cos. a cos. y)
-
I – (cos.gº
2 -
- (e º ') + (e. * ) + º . (1 — cos. a cos. y)

.. 2 -
Cl
2
=(* º 2 * * sin: a)
im.
*(l-covaco…)
d sin. a N*
2
sin. y sin.
abcd sin. Y sin, a +
2
ad. sin. a Y”
bc. sin. bcd
- tº: x + 4* ) ++q - cos (, — »
2
= (area A B C D)” + º vers. (a – y)
... area ABCD =VG-2) (S–b) (S.–c) (S- d) — *vers (a-x).

(6].) To express the radius of a circle inscribed in a triangle in terms of
the sides of the triangle.
Let A B C be the triangle, O C
the centre of the inscribed E_*}
circle, D FE its points of con- _2<\ Te
tact with the sides, and there- 21

fore O D, O E, OF, respec-
tively perpendicular to the
sides; and let r = radius of
__1>
the circle. A. ſo f;
Area of A B C = sum of the areas A O B, B O C, and COA; and

... Art (58.)
Vs.sºsº. Sºº - . A B. Do + B c.o E + , cA.or

- (ºr: - r. S
=r 2 = 7". »
r -
S
V. S. S - a.
S
s= s.sfe
(62) To express the radius of the circle

circumscribing a triangle in terms of its sides.
Let A B C be the triangle, O the centre of
the circle; R its radius. Join A O, B O, and
draw 0 D aperpendicular on A B; then O A=
O B = R, and A D = D B = }; c. Also the
angle A O B at the centre = twice the angle A
ACB at the circumference, by Euc. III, § 20.,
and Geometry, III. § 2. prop. 14.
Na. A P – ..
Now # = sin. A op
= sin. J. A. OB
= sin. C
kc 2 —--—-—
‘. ... = , v/s.si.sº sº.
(63.) To express the relations

between the sides of regular poly
gons (such as are equiangular and
equilateral) inscribed in, or circum
scribed about a circle, and the ra
dius of the circle. Let A B C, &c.,
A'B'C', &c., be the iuscribed and
circumscribed polygons; O the
Centre of the circle. IX
OA - r
A B = a, A'B' = aſ
m = number of the sides.
Ao b = ** = A. o B
71.
o
... Ao M = ** = B o A.
}}
Then ::Ax M
*
O = sin. A O M
Or
#a
-- = Sin.
180°
r 7t,
180°
a = 2r. sin.
Aſf B
= tan. Aſ O B
Also a B
o
... a' = 2r tan.
Hence the perimeter of the inscribed figure,

180°
= ma = 2nr sin. -–
71.
And that of the circumscribed figure

09
= na' = 2nr tan. --—
7.
(64) Draw A K a perpendicular on O B

Area of the inscribed polygon = n Area A O B
Area of the circumscribed polygon = n area A' O B'

= m O B.A' B
180°
- ?? 7-2 tall.
(65.) By Art. (63.) we have (a being the side of the inscribed polygon)
Q, 180°
— - 7" Sins –
2 7.
o
F. sin.-- , if r = unity and n = 2".
Now 1 — cos, A = 2 (m. *) 2

Art. (43.)
whence (in ; ) = } – } v/
. A \º --
— (sin. A)'
- A. - −
..".
.
sin. :- = }
180°
w/2-sv/1-cm sy T
..". Sin. - -
2m T V. V 1-(nº.)
#
12"
— 2
0°
|
—7–==
-
vſ. – ºv
=Vs
- V 1–46–2./ (in. 180°N*
º)) tº r * – l cin ——
l
-sº
† 2 — 2 +2 1-(i. ...)
-V, Vºlvº gºv/2

This expression will terminate when the sign of the square root has been
. 180°Ns
separated m—l times, for we shall come at length to V. -( sin-3 )
which = 0; since by definition sin. 90° = unity, ... the circumference of
the polygon = na
(66.) It is obvious that the greater the number of sides the more
nearly will the circumference of the polygon approach to that of the
circle, and by this means we might obtain an approximate value of the
ratio (denoted by the symbol tr) which the circumference of a circle bears
to its diameter. For suppose we find, by performing the operations indi
cated in the above expression, that the numerical value of the circumference
of a polygon of s sides, and of that of another of 2s sides, agree as far as a
certain number of decimal places; then it will easily be understood that the
valueof the circumference of a polygon of any greater number ofsides will also
coincide with that in which there are s sides, to the same number of decimal
places; and consequently the same may be said of the circumference of
the circle, to which, by constantly increasing the number of sides of the
polygon as above-mentioned, the circumference of the polygon constantly
approximates as its limit. It was, in fact, by the laborious method of ac
tually extracting the square roots as indicated in the above expression that
the earlier mathematicians calculated the value of tr. About the year 1600,
Ludolph van Collen or à Ceulen, a Dutch mathematician, by means of the
same formula, and certain artifices by which he abridged the numerical
computation, determined the value of r to be between
3, 14159 26535 397.93 23846 26433 83279 50238, and
3. 14159 26535 397.93 23846 26433 83279 50289.
By means of certain series which will be given hereafter, this computa

tion can be performed with great comparative facility.
SECTION V.
Numerical Values of Trigonometrical Functions of Angles whose Magni

tude is given numerically.—Construction and Arrangement of Tables
of Natural Sines, Cosines, &c. Examples of the Use of these Tables.
THE formulae of the preceding sections express the general relations exist
ing between the quantities involved in them, without reference to their
numerical values. In the practical applications, however, of mathematics,
the determination of numerical values forms, for the most part, the ulti
mate object of our investigations; and therefore it becomes essential that
We should be able to assign such values to the different trigonometrical
functions of an angle whose magnitude is numerically given. To prevent
the labour, however, of making these numerical computations for each
particular problem, which (particularly in astronounical calculations) would
be immense, tables have been formed in which these values are tabulated, for
D 2
every angle ascending in arithmetical progression from 0 to 90°, the

common difference being some small quantity, usually one minute or one
second. Before we proceed farther with the solutions of triangles, we
shall explain the methods of computing and arranging these tables of
natural sines, cosines, &c.
Possessed as we now are of such tables, computed with great accuracy,
the detail of the methods of calculating them might, at first sight, appear
superfluous; they form, however, a useful exercise for the student, and,
moreover, it may sometimes become necessary, in investigations of a deli
cate nature, to obtain the values of the trigonometrical functions to a
greater degree of accuracy than that afforded by the tables in common
use, in which they are given to seven or eight places of decimals. We
shall now, therefore, proceed to explain these methods. The most im
portant is that by which the values of the sines of successive angles are
computed, by means of the values of the sines of those immediately pre
ceding; but there are certain angles for which these values can be com
puted independently, without ascending to them by these successive steps,
and to these we shall first direct our attention.
(67.) The numerical values contained in the following table result im
mediately from our definitions of the respective trigonometrical functions;
and it is also shown for what values of the angle these values are positive
or negative.
Angle. | Sine. | Cosine. Tan. Secant. | Cotan. Cosec. |Versinº.
0° 0 1 0 l *oo co 0
0° to 90° | + | + + + | + | + | --
90° 1 () Co CO 0 l l
90° to 180° + - - - - + +
180° 0 -1 0 —l Qo oo 2
180° to 270° — - + - + - +
2700 – 1 0 CO Qo 0 –1 1
270° to 360° | – || -- - + - - -F
(68.) Let the Z P C M = 45°, then \

since the Z at M is a right Z, M PC =
45° wº
... CM = MP { Euclid, Book 1.3
And CM 4- M P = CPs
... 2 M P = C P.
M P\?
2 (a F)= 1
or 2 (sin. 45°)* = 1
sin. 45°
=Vă
2
-
C M
And cos. 45° = -
–
M. P.
CP CP
= sin. 45°
I
-
W2
* The symbol o denotes a quantity whose value is infinitely great. See Algebra,
116, 117.
-
| * ,
. -
Section 5.] TRIGONOMETRY. aſ !

|
-
Hence also -
Tam. 45° = 1 º
(69) Let the ZACP = 60°. Join -
AP; them will the triangle A C P be º ! t
-
- -
equilateral; for : -
º'
º
CA – C P.
... Z C PA = C A P *
º
And Z C + Z P + Z A = 180° f ºn
or 60 + 2 ZP = 180°
.. ZP = 60°
andP=A
...A ZAC=
= 60°
CP Ö -
TVI A. i
º º
And the perpendicular M P on A C bisects A C in M

CM k
• CP - 2
or cos. 60° = }
Also MP3 + C M* = CP”
MP*(; "-
(#) #)-
M P \?
#)+ i =W31
... sin. 60° º
-
-
2 -
(10) sin. 30° =

= cos.
cos. 60°
(90° – 30°)
-
cos. 30° = sin. 60°.

WT3.
- 2
(71.) By Art. (46), we have -
cos. 3 A = 4 (cos. A)” – 3 cos. A

... cos. 54° a- 4 (cos. 18°)” – 3 cos. 18°
But cos. 54° = sin. 36°
= 2 sin. 18° cos. 18°. Art. (43.)
Hence substituting and dividing by cos. 18°, we have,
2 sin. 18° = 4 (cos. 18°)” – 3
= 4 (1 - (sin, 18°)*} – 3
= i º A (sin. isº)
... (sin, 18°) + # sin. 18° = }
which gives
sin. 18° =
w8–1 = cos. 72°
4 -
cos. 18° = x/TTGin. Iš);

= ~/10 - 2 v 5 = sin. 72°
4.
(72.) Thus we have, by independent methods, the sines and cosines of

18°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 72°, and 90°. Also, we have, Art. (44.), if A be less
than 45°,
sin. A = * {VI + sin. 2 A – VI – sin. 2 A}
Let A = 15°
sin. 15° = }{VI + sin. 30° - M I — sin. 30%

= }{VT. —y T}
1 |./-,
By the same formula the sine of 9° may be calculated; and

sin. 3° = sin. (18° – 15°)
= sin. 18° cos. 15° — cos. 18°, sin. 15°.
Whence sin. 3° is known ; and in a similar manner we obtain the sines
of every angle in the series 3°, 6°, 9°, 12°, &c.,...90°. The following
table exhibits these values:
"3 + 1 , , – W3–1 –
8 VT2
Sin. 3° =
*H (VF-1) – “Hºw, Iº;
* -- 4: O
sin. 6° =
!. .—
––3G/ * W5
5 – 1) + TV; — E. VE
:... 0° – 1 -—
sin. 9° = Tji=(V -
5 + 1) — 4 V5 – Vä
MT3 . . 1
sin, 12° =
-
- -ā-(V 5 – 1) + TV; VF+ Vºs

-
. c * ... —
sin. 15°. = 2 = (v 3 — 1)
sin. 18° = # (V – 1)
-
Sir! . 21° = – 8WT3 – 1. – wT3 + 1 ,—

' V' 2T : (W 5 + 1) + " *8† : MT5 - WT5
. / Tº
W3 , , – l
-
Sun . 249 = - ; (VF + 1) — 4 VT2

—
-
MT5 -
-
M 5
- - I - ---
in ºr=-H (w/ 5 – 1) + 3 M 5 + VT5

sin. 30° = #
:--
sin. 33° =
© oo VT5 + 1 (J-5 – 15
*#& 1) +Y 8– 1 J-Hº
—º- V's TV5
l - - -
sin. 36° = 2 WT2 W5 - WT5

sin. 39° == **** + 1) –VE v. Ty 5
**= -lº-piš. Vºws

sin, 48° = < cº- 1) + rº W5 IV:-
in 51 = º = (W3 + 1) wiłł W5 TV5’
sin. 54° = } (V 5 + 1)
sin. 57° = - *Hºº- + # 'V5 -
sin, 60° = -º-;

sin. 63° - #95– 1) + + V5TV=
sin, 66° - # wººd tº W5 - Vº
sin. 69° = *#46-#4 1) + (***, 5 — WT5

- I
in 13 = . . . . . . . . , 2.75 WFIW-F
sin. 75° = 2 AW T2 (W 3 + 1)
l Tº
sin, 78° - T3 (WT5 –
-
p : {}="## ---
l - l t——-
sin. 81° = TJH (V 5 + 1) + T W5 – W 5
- I --
sin. 84° = &E (vs. 1) + T = W5 = Wifi

* — WT3 I
sin, 87° - #6 -
5- or * *** Mº Fºſs
F.
sin. 90° = 1
To find the values of the trigonometrical functions of angles inter
mediate to the above we must proceed as follows:-

(73.) To find the numerical value of the sine of 1'.

2 (cos. A) = 1 + cos. 2A by Art. (43.)
2 (cos. 30°)* = 1 + cos. 60°
=1+ , *
-
r
... cos. 30°– * = C, suppose

cos. 15° = cos. † =A/ lº, = Cs
30°
. . "
os. 7° 30'- cos. y0°
lº = Cs
-
C
and so by successive bisection we find,
cos. 52" 44" s = cos. 27

300
- lº
/1+C
= .9999999674
and sin. 52 44” 4, -VI –(cos. 527 44" +)"
= .0002556254.
Now, we should find exactly in a similar manner
o
sin. *: — . 001022.4959
O
sin. º = .0005112482
o
sin. * = .0002556254.
The first of these three angles is to the second, and the second to the
third, in the ratio of 2 : 1; and it will be observed, by inspection of the
above values, that their sines are very nearly in the same ratio, and, indeed,
if we took only 8 places of decimals would appear exactly so. Hence wº
conclude that, when the angles are very small, we may cousider, without
sensible error, that the sines are proportional to the angles. Hence to
find the sine of 1' we have—
sin. 1' : .0002556254 :: 60// : 52" 44/ 1's,
whence sin. I’= .0002908882 *
and therefore
cos. 1'= .9999999577
(74.) To find the sine of 2',3', 4', &c.
By Art. (38.)
sin. (A+B) + sin. (A–B) = 2 sin. A cos. B
2
- 2 in. A 1-2 (in #)

* Comparing this value of the sine of 1' with the numerical value of an angle of one
minute, found in the example to Art. (10.), where the angular unit is that mentioned in
Art, (7.), it appears that those values coincide for at least ten places of decimals.
... sin, (A+B) = 2 sin. A — sin. (A–B) — 4 in A(in. #)

Let B = 1'; and put A successively equal to l', 2',3', &c., then—
sin. 2' = sin, 1' + (sin. 1' – sin. 0') — 4 sin. 1' (sin. 30")*
sin. 3' = sin. 2' + (sin. 2' — sin. 1') — 4 sin. 2' (sin. 30”)*
sin. 4' = sim. 3' + (sin. 3' — sin. 2) — 4 sin. 3 (sin. 30”)*
&c. = &c.
The sine of 30" is known immediately from the sine of 1'; and there
fore the value of 4 (sin. 30”)” is easily computed. This being done
beforehand, and having tabulated the values of the sines of l', 2',3', &c.,
n', then to find the sine of (n+1), take the last tabulated value, add to
it the difference between that and the preceding one, and from the result
subtract the last tabulated value multiplied by a constant quantity, the
value of 4 (sin. 30”)”.
If we wished to calculate successively the values of the series 2°, 3°, &c.,
knowing those of 1° and of 30', the same formula will evidently apply.
(75.) The values of the cosines may be calculated from those of the
sines, or they may be found as follows: since—
cos, n+ 1. A = 2 cos. A cos. m. A — cos. n – 1. A. Art. (47.)
cos. 2' = 2 cos. 1' cos. 1' – l (for cos. (1' – 1) = cos, 0 = 1)
cos. 3' = 2 cos. 1' cos. 2' — cos. l'
cos. 4 = 2 cos. 1' cos. 3' — cos. 2'
&c. = - &c.
(76.) In this manner the sines and cosines of all angles may be com
puted. It is not necessary, however, to carry the operation farther than
for 45°, since the sines of all angles less than 45° would give the cosines
of their complements, and the cosines of all such angles the sines of
their complements. - -
(77.) After we have proceeded as far as 30°, the labour of calculation

may be considerably abridged by the following formula:—
Sin, (A+B) = 2 sin. A cos. B – sin. (A–B), which gives, making
A = 30° (since sin. 30° = }).
Sin. (30°,+B) = cos. B – sin. (30°– B), and putting B equal to 1/
2, 3, &c, successively.
sin. 30° 1' = cos. 1' – sin. 29° 59'
sin. 30°2' = cos. 2' — sin. 29° 58'
&c. = &c.
Whence the values of the sines of all angles may be formed from 30° to
45°, by simply taking the difference of previously tabulated values.
(78.) Also since
cos. (A+B) = cos. (A–B) – 2 sin. A sin. B
cos. 30° 1' = cos. 29° 59' — sin. 1" (since 2 sin. 30° = 1)
cos. 30°2' = cos. 29° 58' — sin. 2'
&c. = &c.
which formula possesses the same advantage as the previous one.
(79.) The values of the sines and cosines of all angles at any given
interval, as far as 90°, having been found, the values of the tangents of the
same augles may be obtained by dividing that of the sine by that of the
cosine. Having thus calculated as far as 45°, the labour of computation

may be abridged by the following formula:
*tan. (45°-i-B) = 2 tan. 2 B + tan. (45°–B)
tan. 45° 1' = 2 tan. 2' + tan. 44° 59'
&c. = &c.
Whence the values of all angles between 45° and 90° are determined by
means of values previously tabulated.
(80.) The values of the cotangents of angles are the same as those of
the tangents of their complements, and are therefore known directly from
what precedes. Also,
l 1
sec. A = —-; cosec. A= —
cos. A sin. A
whence the values of the secants and cosecants may be computed.

(81.) When the values of the functions of successive angles are cal
culated from the previously tabulated values, it is manifest that any error
in one value will extend to the succeeding ones. To obviate this danger
it is necessary to make use of formulae of verification, by which the value
of any function is calculated by some independent method. The agree
ment of the value thus found, with that obtained by the first-mentioned
method, is the test of accuracy. Amy of the methods used in the first
part of this section might be applied for this purpose. The formulae,
sin:
cos. A
A== }} {{ V1+
V1 + sin.
sin. 2A
2A +
-E Vºl
V1 -— sin.
sin. 2A
2 A 3 A rt 44.)
(44.
are convenient, as well as that which is frequently termed Euler's formula
of verification. It is this :
sin. A + sin. (72°-i-A)—sin. (72°–A)=sin. (36°-i-A)—sin. (36°–A).
To prove this formula, we have
sin. (72°-i-A)—sin. (72°–A) = 2 cos. 72° sin. A Art. (38.).
_ W 5–1 sin. A Art. (71.).
; - 2
Also ------
sin. (36°-i-A)—sin. (36°–A) = 2 cos. 36° sin. A

= 2 (1–2 (sin. 18°)*} sin. A
(
= 2 (1–2. Xº-
16
(ſºn) sin. A
-
-
- W #1 sin. A
* This formula is easily found— 1 + tan. B
tan (sº + B) =#.

1 —tan.
tan. (459 – B) = #.
... tan, (45° 4- B) — fan. (45°–B) = (11 +
+ tan. * *...* B)
B)2 – (1–tan. B)?
E. Hº, = 2 tan 2 B,
which proves the formula.
sations.] TRIGONOMETRY. 43
From these values the truth of the formula is evident.

Another formula of the same kind, called Le Gendre's formula, may be
found in a similar manner. It is
cos, A = sin. (45°-i-A)+sin. (54°–A) — sin. (18°--A) — sin. (18°–A).
(82.) The above methods enable us, without any very serious labour, to
calculate the values of the trigonometrical functions of angles to any
required degree of accuracy, and to a greater number of decimals, if
required, than are usually found in trigonometrical tables. The labour of
calculating these values for a series of consecutive angles is also very
much diminished by the method of interpolation, which requires a know
ledge of a higher analysis than the reader of an elementary treatise like
the present can be supposed to be acquainted with. The values of any
function, as the sine, of two angles at a considerable interval, being
calculated by some of the previous methods, the values of the sines of
the intermediate angles are computed by this method of interpolation.
It has been furnished by comparatively modern analysis, at least it was
quite unknown to the first laborious calculators of mathematical tables,
as well as other convenient formulae which the progress of trigonometry
has since afforded. Industry, however, supplied the place of more com
pendious methods, and before the beginning of the sixteenth century,
tables of natural sines, tangents, &c. were already computed, very nearly
That the student
equal in accuracy to those we possess at present.
may the more readily understand the arrangement of tables of this
description, we shall give specimens of two pages extracted from
Hutton's tables. The first of these is the first page of the tables, the
second the last page.
TRIGONOMETRY. [Section 5.
0 Deg. NATURAL SINES, &c. -
* | Sine, Covers. Cosec. Tang, | Cotang. Secant. | Vers. D. Cosine. '

0 || 0000000 lºſº | Infinite., |º lºſinife. 1900,000 |000,000 || 0 || 1000000|º,
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º, 5.4.9.8% ||
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2:362 |491.10:00 || 000015 || ||º
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0.063995
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1:0000294 || 9009203
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0.095992 ºº: 104:17574 ºff 1941,094 || 0000:6. ººl | 3 |...}}}|†.
0098.900 fºllº || 101 lilä ſº | 101.10699 || 1:0000489. Q990483 ºśll ||3
0|01809
0.104718 ºlºl ||38.333033
989.5282 |Q191314|2831.343||1:0000518||0.00518
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0113444 ºf $3.149244||}}##| |$8,435.2 || 0000644||9644 || 3 ||º] |}
0.116353
(Ji 1926] §§§ 4:309||1361
9880739 83 8494.0 0, 19270 8.333,31
83-843507 ||| 1:0000677|
1.00007 ii 0900877
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0.125079 § ºf ſºlº 1994.3430 || 1:0000183 ºz. 37 |ºlº ||
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0.136713
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9860318|71:62053 3:13:99 || 0000335||1335||
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0.145439 º! ſº ºf Gº |}:ſºlº ſºlº || || |º ||
0.148348 §§§ {:}|{{{3}| ſºlº || ||19||109 || ||º]}| 3
()15]256
Q15416á
.#|º]}}}}|qlāl;73
§§§ 16 |ºl:|ºlº 1.0001144||1144||
ºsſºs | 1.0001139|ºlls; ||ºść || 8|
;|ºſº
0.157073 98.292763.66,595.015,093 63.656,41||1-0001934 0001284 9098786 &
Olă9982 §§§º ºli; }º º!:30 17 |º] }
(162890 §§§ ||...}}}}|{{{3912 ºl:38.9% ºf Q91327 ºś3| 4
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017455 57-289962 lººkº || 0001533
9001473 . 9998.477
ºś || 0.
Cosine. Vers. Secant. Cotan. Tang. Cosec. Covers. D. Sine. (
NATURAI, SINES, &c. 89 Deg.

44 Deg. NATURAL SINEs, &c.
'l Sine, | Dif. Covers. Cosec. | Tang.

o
| Cotan. Secant. | Vers. | Dif. Cosine.
-I - - -
0|5946584|9099 |3053416 | 1.4395565 9656888 | 1.0355303 | 1.390.1636 |2806603 || 2001 || 2:3393 ||3:
jºji-ji: ; ; ;|{{j}|ja|}}}|{ij}:
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§§§§ |iº ºft|iºſº |iº
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§ºs;|3008;2|11369616| 939,674|i-031999||13925197|28,8737|...}|7181-83
696.1217 3038783| 1.4365305 9696316 | 1.0313195 3929.054 |2820763 2935 | 7.7%; 3%
§§§§§ 3;|####|{:}|...}}|####|:
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|; ;ºliº
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2928932 . 7071068
Cosime. Dif. Vers. Secant. | Cotan. Tang. Cosec. cover. Dif. Sille. | *
45 Deg.
(83.) At the top of the page on the left-hand side is placed the number
of degrees, and in the left-hand column each minute of the degree, oppo
site to which are arranged the numerical values of the sine, coversed sine,
&c., of the corresponding angle in those columns, at the top of which those
terms are placed. The table proceeds thus until we come to the 44th deg.
on the top of the page, with the minutes of that degree as before in the
left-hand column. -
Also at the bottom of this last page of the table will be found Deg. 45
and the minutes of the degree arranged in a column on the right-hand
side, beginning at the bottom, so that the angles thus read off on the right
hand side are complementary to those read off at the points exactly oppo
site on the left-hand side, the values of the sines, coversed sines, &c. of the
former being found in the columns at the bottom of which those terms are
found. In each page will be found an exactly similar arrangement, which
is rendered practicable by the circumstance of the sines, tangents, &c., of
angles, being respectively equal to the cosines, cotangents, &c., of the
complements of the same angles.
It will be observed that the decimal point is omitted whenever the
numerical value is less than unity. It must, in such cases, be placed im
mediately before the left-hand figure.
Example—
sin. 0° 55' = • 01599.82
cos. 89° 11/ - * 0.1425.30
cosec. 44° 31' = 1 - 4262961
tan. 45° 17' - 1 * 0.099394
(84.) Besides the columns headed sine, tangent, &c., are two smaller
columns headed Diff, one next to that for the sine, the other next to that
for the cosine. They contain the differences between the values of the
sines and of the cosines of consecutive tabulated angles, as is easily seen *
by inspection. They are inserted for the convenience of finding the values
of the sines and cosines of angles, which are expressed in degrees, minutes,
and parts of a minute or seconds. And it must be observed that the right
hand digit of this difference corresponds to the right-hand digit of the
decimal given in the tables; so that, for example, 2088 means 0002088,
where the tables are carried to seven places of decimals. Thus, to find the
sine of 44°7'30", we have
sin. 44° 7' = 6961217 ſ omitting the
sin. 44° 8 = 6963305 láecimal point.
Diff. = 2088
And we conclude that the difference between the sines of 44° 7' and
44° 7' 30" will be half the above difference, i.e., that the differences of
the sines will be proportional to the differences of the angles. This con
clusion is not strictly accurate; but the error is not sensible (except in
particular cases) in the first seven or eight places of decimals, which are
all that are found in the tables commonly used. Hence
sin. 44° 7' = 696.1217
2088
diff. = º - 1044
sin. 44° 7' 30" - . 6962261.
To find cos. 45°11' 24"

cos. 45°11' - 7048406 Diff. = 2064
~ | B '42,
~ a
**
A.
or ºf his
, Section 5.] TRIGONOMETRY. UN W H R44 IT

- c-> ºr - *
* diff. = 2.61% - – 825 lºcº º

cos. 45° 1 1/24" – .7047581
(85.) This rule constitutes what is called the method of proportional
parts. It is easily proved as follows:–
Let A be any proposed angle expressed in degrees and minutes only ;
3 the difference between sin. (A + n") and sin. A ; A the difference be
tween sin. (A + 1) and sin. A ; the successive values of A, correspond
ing to successive tabulated values of A differing by 1', will then be those
registered in the small columns above-mentioned, headed Diff.
Now
sin. (A + n’’) = sin. A cos, n” + cos. A sim. n";
and by Art. (21), if n be not too large (as less than 60") cos.n" = 1 very
nearly: also since the numerical value of a small angle, estimated as in
Art. (7), is very nearly equal that of its sine. (See note, p. 40.)
sin. m." = numerical value nearly of the angle containing n". (See
note, p. 40, and Art. 9.)
- - 3.14159
= 1. -- . m ; and hence
180. 60.60. .
3. 14159 º
3 = sin. (A + n”) — sin. A = cos. A ISO.60.60"
3. 14 || 59
A = sin. (A + 1') — sin. A = cos. A 180. 60.60 ’
... *A =4;
60
3 = 60
+ A,
which proves the rule. A similar investigation would prove it for the
tangent, secant, &c.
(86.) It will easily appear, from an inspection of the tables, that the
proportionality on which this method of proportional parts depends, no
longer exists for the sine, tangent, or secant, when the angle is nearly
equal to 90°, or for the cosine, cotangent, or cosecant, when the angle is
very small. Thus, for example, sin. 89° 58' — sim. 89° 56' is not twice as
great as sin. 89° 58' – sin. 89° 57', though the difference of the angles is
twice as great in one case as in the other. In fact we have supposed, in
our investigation of the rule, that
sin. (A + n') — sin. A = cos. A.h
3.14159
where h = Iso.60.60" “Y” small quantity ; whereas a closer inves
tigation (very easily made by the aid of the Differential Calculus) shows that
3 = sin. (A + n') — sin. A = cos. A h – sin. A + &c., 4.
3.14159
and if k = 60,
180.60.60'
A = sin. (A + 1') — sin. A = cos. A k – sin. A # + &c.,

* Cos. 45° 12! is less than cos. 45° 11/; the difference is therefore properly negative.
2
t 8 — cos. A h — sin. A: + &c.
R - º
cos. A k — sin. A: + &c.
h
*
Now this becomes +, à only when the second and following terms in
Or
- - - -
these expansions are respectively so much smaller than the first terms,
that the value of the above ratio will not be sensibly affected by omitting
them; and since h and k are very small, this will always be the case un
less cos. A is very small, in which case the second terms cannot be
omitted without sensible error. A similar investigation would apply to
the other cases.
(87.) The values of trigonometrical functions for all angles greater
than 90°, are immediately known by the formulae of Section (II.)
(88.) If, instead of having the angle given to determine the sine or tan
gent, &c., we have these latter functions given to determine the angle, the
process will manifestly be exactly the reverse of that described above; and
if we would determine the angle with accuracy we must have recourse to | º*
the method of proportional parts, whenever the given values of the func
tion is not to be exactly found among the tabulated ones.
(89.) In determining the angle, however, from any of its trigonome
trical functions, there will be the same objection to the use of the tables of
proportional parts, as in the converse operation, in the cases above-men
tioned. There is also a second difficulty of a different nature in some
cases which may be easily explained. We have
- f e - 3.14159
sin. (A + 1') — sin. A = cos. A 180. 60 very nearly; and consequently
if cos. A be very small, the difference of the sines of two or more conse º
cutive tabulated angles may be too small to be expressed by any signi *tº
ficant figure within the first seven or eight places of decimals, in which ºs
case it will be impossible, from the common tables, to ascertain the value -
º
§
of the angle with accuracy. This difficulty will only occur with respect to
the sine when the angle is nearly equal 90°, which is the case in which the
first-mentioned objection also applies.
(90.) Hence, then, we cannot conveniently, by a table of natural sines,
cosines, &c., determine the value of the angle from that of its sine, tan
gent, or secant, when the angle is near 90°; or from the cosine, cotan
gent, or cosecant, when the angle is small. In such cases the angle must
be determined by means of some other functions.
(91.) Examples:
In Art. (53.) we have shown that
sin. B b
sin. C T c
B C being two angles of a triangle and b c the sides opposite.
Let B = 44° 3' -
C = 45° 59' 5"/

C - 23.25
sin. 44° 3'
then b = sin. 45° 59' 5". x 23.25
Section 5.] TRIGONOMETRY. m 49
_.6952858
T .71915.45 x 23.25 (by the tables),
which, on performing the numerical operations, will be found = 22.4783.
Again, by Art. (4),
in A =#v/s sº. S-7, sº

bc
Let a = 22
b = 33
c = 45
them S = 50
S — a = 28
S – b = 17
S – c = 5
bo = 1485.
l --
sin. A = 742. 5 w/50:28, 17.5

= . 521287
Whence we find by the tables,
A = 31° 25' 7//
We have stated that, at the latter end of the sixteenth century, the tables
of natural sines, cosines, &c., were brought to great perfection. In fact,
the attention of the most distinguished mathematicians of that and the
preceding century had been in succession devoted to the perfecting of
them. Their importance, at that period, will be easily understood; but
the facilities which they afforded in numerical computations were far from
meeting the demand for such facilities created by the more extensive ap
plications of trigonometry to astronomy, leading to the most tedious arith
metical operations, the labours of which were, in fact, only augmented in
proportion to the greater number of decimal places to which the numeri
cal values of the quantities involved were computed. It was natural,
therefore, that the minds of mathematicians should be much directed to
the discovery of methods for abridging the labour of arithmetical calcu
lations; and several contrivances for this purpose were invented, all of
which, however, were entirely and immediately superseded by the inven
tion of logarithms, a circumstance which forms an epoch in the history
of mathematical science.
From the mature of demonstrative science, in which we ascend from
simple elementary truths to the more abstruse propositions under the
guidance of close and accurate reasoning, and not by the devious ways
of conjecture and experiment, different men will arrive by similar
steps at the same points in the boundaries of knowledge, and, it may
be expected, will not unfrequently be endeavouring to pursue the
same paths of discovery by similar means. The same idea, the germ of
Some future discovery, may exist simultaneously more or less matured in
different minds; and the process of its development may be going on at
the same time though with different degrees of rapidity and vigour; and
consequently we ought not, perhaps, to be surprised if, in the history of
science, we meet with instances of disputed claims to priority of invention,
which, at first sight, might appear to indicate, in some at least of the con
tending parties, a want of candour and ingenuousness which it must ever
be painful to recognize among those who have otherwise assisted in dig
50 TRIGONOMETRY. [Section 6. t!!
-
nifying the human character by extending the bounds of human know *:::
ledge. The invention of logarithms was not without its disputed claim
ants; and, in fact, there seems no doubt but that some motion of it,
though little matured, did exist in the minds of several mathematicians
about the close of the sixteenth century. To these we may allow their
share of merit without lessening the tribute due to Napier, a Scotch
baron, whose claims to originality and to priority of publication have
never been doubted. He devoted himself much to mathematical pursuits,
and discovered several trigonometrical theorems, some of which are still
distinguished by his name. His great discovery of logarithms was made
known to the world in his work entitled Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis
Descriptio, which was published in 1614.
The importance of this invention could not but be immediately ac
knowledged, but can only be fully appreciated by those who are acquainted
with the applications of mathematics to plane and physical astronomy in
the present age, and the complicated arithmetical computations arising
therefrom. Without logarithmic tables, the labours of a modern observa
tory would far surpass the efforts of human industry, and, consequently,
even with all the theoretical knowledge and acquaintance with pure
mathematics, which we actually possess, the sublime deductions of the
mathematical philosopher respecting the constitution of the solar system,
could never have received that verification which can alone be derived
from the repeated and refined observations of the practical astronomer.
On the other hand, the difficulty of the invention (on which much of the
merit of the inventor will naturally be thought to depend) can hardly be
appreciated by those who have considered logarithms only under the point
of view in which they are presented to us by our improved analysis, and
which is so much more simple than that in which Napier considered them.
His methods of computing them were also much less simple than those
which we possess, and consequently the labour much greater. It would
be useless to enter into any detail respecting them ; and for the demon
strations of the general properties of logarithms, the present methods of
computing them, with the construction and use of the logarithmic tables
of natural numbers, we shall refer to our treatise on Algebra”, reserving a
place in the present treatise for the description and use of the tables of
logarithmic sines, cosines, &c.
SECTION VI.
Eaplanation of the Tables of Logarithmic Sines, Tangents, &c.

(39.) Having logarithmic tables for all the natural numbers as far
as may be necessary for our computations; and having, also, a table
of the values of the natural sines, tangents, &c., up to 90°, we may
construct a table of logarithmic sines, tangents, &c. of the same
angles by merely taking the logarithms of these values from our loga
rithmic table; a method which has been preferred by some writers, while
others have given the preference to the independent methods by which
these tables may be calculated. These latter, however, have the advantage
of not being liable to the errors which may previously exist in the other
tables, and may also serve to calculate logarithms, if required, to a greater
* See Algebra, Arts, (234–254.) and (326–337.)
degree of accuracy than those in the common tables. As they are not,
however, absolutely necessary, we shall postpone any investigation of them
to a future part of this work, to which they will more properly belong.
Description of the Table of Logarithmic Sines, Tangents, &c.
(40.) The arrangement of this table is precisely similar to that of the
natural sines, tangents, &c., as will be seen by the extracts in the two
pages at the end of this section, which are copied from Hutton's tables.
The greatest value of the sine being unity, the sines of all angles less
than 90° will be expressed by a decimal fraction, and its logarithms will
consequently be negative. This will also be the case with the cosine, with
the tangents of angles sufficiently small, and, in fact, in all cases in which
the numerical value of the function is less than unity. To avoid these
negative logarithms, ten has been added to each logarithm, or its charac
teristic has been increased by that number. This must be carefully borne
in mind in using the table. -
If the angle whose logarithmic sine, tangent, &c., is required to be

given in degrees and minutes, look for the degrees, if the angle be less than
45°, at the top of the page, and for the minutes in the left hand column;
if the angle be greater than 45°, look for the degrees at the bottom of the
page, and for the minutes in the right hand column; the logarithm of
the proposed function of the angle will be found opposite the minutes in
its proper column.
If the angle be expressed in degrees, minutes, and seconds, the method
of proportional parts must be used exactly in the same manner as in
making use of the table of Natural Sines, &c. (See Art. 84.) This will
generally give the result with sufficient accuracy.
If the angle be greater than 90°, the values of its logarithmic sine,
tangent, and secant, will be expressed by the same numbers respectively as
those of the sine, tangent, and secant of the supplement. We must, of
course, be careful to affix the proper sign + or −. The above values,
then, are easily determined from the table. The value of the versed sine
of an angle greater than 90° is not, however, so easily determinable
from that of its supplement. It may be thus found:
vers. A = 1 — cos. A
2
= 2 (in #) A
-i.
*:
... log. vers. A = log. 2 + 2 log, sin. Tº
or denoting the tabular logarithm by logº, since log, vers. A = log, vers.
A + 10, and therefore log. vers. A = logº, wers. A – 10; we have
. A
log, vers. A – 10 = log, 2 + 2 (or sin, a - 10
. A
log, vers. A = log, 2 + 2 log, sin. a – 10
A.
= .3010300 + 2 log, sin. T2 — 10
- A.
Whence therequired logarithm is found by means of the tables, Tº being
less than 90°.
E 2
4:
Examples. * *
Find log, sin. 10° 5' 22" *

log, sin. 10° 5' . - - - - = 9.2432374 º
Powº
rop' p –
= tab
tap. diff >
×*35 =
= 700s."
'30 =
- + 2602 ;
º
log, 10°
Find log,5'cos.
22"6°8'42"
. . . - - - 9.2434976 ::
Fſ.
log, cos. 6°8' • * * * e = 9,997.5069 ". ..
'D' = tab,
tab, diff 42 21 :
Prop'p diff. x − = — 136 , -
× 60 30
- -
95 . t
log, sin. 6°8' 22" . . . . . = 9.9974974 *

Find log, cot.
log, cot. 39°4' 39°4′ 12” 30" - - - e e = 10.0905978
- :
w
12.5 -
Prop' p = tab. diff. x -āj--- 25.81 × .208 = – 537 :)
º, 10. 0905441 s
! (41.) The rule for the method of proportional parts may be thus *...
proved in a manner very similar to the proof of it for natural sines, &c. º
| Let 3 = log, sin. (A + n') — log, sin. A "* -
;: A = log, sin. (A + 1/) — log, sin. A,

| then
-4 sin. (A + n’)
* = log, sin. A 3.
= log, {cos. n" + cot. A sin. m."} tº
3. 14159 nearly, Art. (9.) and note §.
= loor,
log, { 1 . IM. . --—
+ cot. A.-isºgo .
*} y,
p. 40.
- w w - 5
º,
vi º
- 3. 14159
= M cot. A ——
t. A. Isolº," nearly ;3 (Algebra, Art. 332.) *
º 3.14159
• A = M cot. A Taj. 60
§ zº, 7)
‘. — = + : 3 = + º:
"" A T 60 65 ° {{
and log. sin. (A + n") = log, sin. A + * A |
which proves the rule for the sine. In a similar manner we may prove º
it for the tangent. ſ
(42.) Thus let

3' = log, tail. (A + n') — log, tan.
tan. (A + n!")
= log, tan. A
tam. n."
l tan. A.
F '98: Tan. A tan. nº
Now, when the angle is very small, the numerical value of its tange”
Section 6.] TRIGONOMETRY. - 53
differs very little from that of its sine, or of the angle itself. Therefore
instead of tan. n” we put its approximate value
3, 14 159
m or h; thus
180, 60.60'
*! =
— log, ( tiºn. ) ( - - tan.
Uzi II • A
rae *)
= log, { (an + A +
tan. A )} (omitting higher powers of h.)
= log, { + 1 + (º }
=M
- iti •
liºn
in A. Tº near y. &
to 0# ,7%
H &fa
H !/º
-
= M.
1 + (tan.
an. A)*
A 3.14159
150.60.60’” ...------ - - - - - - - - ..."
3
A' - M
M.
1 + (tan. A)? • *---—
(tan. A) 3.14159 .
180.60.60 60
... } =; A’
and log, tan. (A + n") = log, tan. A + 3'

71.
; = log, tan. A + an A'
(43.) These rules admit of exceptions exactly similar to those which
have been pointed out in the analogous rules for the natural sines, tan
gents, &c. (Arts. 85, 86.) By means of the differential calculus it is
Very easily shown with respect to the sine, that
}%
* 3 = M. cot. A. h. — M (cosec. A)* l. 2. + &c.
k2
A - M. cot. A k – M (cosec. A)'i. + &c.
k being the value of h when n = 60, as in Art. (34;)

8 .
and as in that article the ratio of +will no longer be expressed by:
Ot # iſ cosec. A be very large, or A very small, for in such case the

second terms in the above expansions cannot be neglected, and the me
thod of proportional parts will not apply.
With respect to the tangent we find
}, 3
* = M {tan. A + cot. A}h + M{(sect. A)*—(cosec. A)*}T = + &c.
(44.) These formulae will show that the method of proportional parts will
* As this is merely introduced that nothing may be wanting in our explanation of the
tables, the reader who is not acquaint d with the elementary principles of the differential
calculus may take this expression for granted. A slight knowledge of the calculus will
enable him to deduce it; for, by Taylor's theorem, .
d (log. sin. A) h + d” (log sin. A) hº + &c
=—fx d'AZT 1.2 * *
The differentiations being performed give the above series.
not hold for the tangent when the angle is small or nearly equal 90°, and
for the sine when the angle is small. In such cases, in order to determine
the values of log, sin. (A + n”) or of log, tan. (A + n”) from the for
mulae
log, sin. (A + n") = log, sin. A + 3
log, tan. (A + n’’) = log, tan. A + 3'
we must use as many terms in the values of 6 and 3' as cannot be neg
lected without sensible error. This is a troublesome process, and should
therefore, if possible, be avoided.
(45.) In a table calculated for every minute, the above use of the
method of proportional parts, in the cases just mentioned, might lead to
the error of several seconds in the determination of the angle from its
logarithmic sine or tangent; but this is in a great measure avoided in
most tables by a table of logarithmic sines and tangents for every second
of the first two degrees, which in the determination of small angles pre
cludes any error above the fractional part of a second.
(46.) There is also another difficulty, an analogous one to which we
have pointed out in the tables of Natural Sines, &c. (Art. 89), arising from
the circumstance of several tabulated values of the logarithmic sines of suc
cessive angles not differing much from 90°, being the same, it being then of
course impossible to determine the angle exactly from its logarithmic sine.
This difficulty is of much more importance than the previous one, because
it cannot, like that, be obviated merely by an adaptation in the tables;
for it would require not only that, for angles nearly equal 90°, the loga
rithmic sines should be tabulated for every second to a sufficient number
of places of decimals to exhibit the small differences between consecutive
values, but it would also be necessary to calculate other values in each
particular problem in which the sines of such angles might occur, to the
same number of decimal places as that just mentioned, a process which
would necessarily be in general extremely laborious. Consequently angles
which nearly equal 90° are much better determined from some other func
tions than their logarithmic sines.
That this equality in successive tabulated logarithmic sines exists for
angles which are nearly 90° appears from the small value of 3 in Art. (41.)
in such case. With respect to the tangent, an inspection of the value of 6'
shows that it is never very small; and consequently the objection we have
just pointed out with respect to the logarithmic sine will not be found at
all with regard to the logarithmic tangent.
(47.) Similar reasoning will easily be applied to the other trigonome
trical functions; and we conclude that, on account of the difficulty just
stated, When the angle is small, it cannot be conveniently determined from
its logarithmic cosine or secant ; or when it is near 90° from its sine or
cosecant. The determination of the angle from its logarithmic tangent is
never liable to this objection.
Without the table which we have mentioned, in which the logarithmic
sines and tangents are given for every second of the first two degrees of
the quadrant, it is manifest that one or other of the difficulties of which
we have spoken would necessarily occur in the determination of very
small angles, which shows the importance of such a table to the calcu
lator.
In the two following pages are the extracts from Hutton's tables men
tioned in Art. 40.
, &tion 6.] TRIGONOMETRY. 55
0 Deg. Log. sINEs, &c.

l
1 Sine. Diff. Cosec. Verseds. Tang. | Diff. Cotang. Covers. | Secant. |D| Cosine. || |
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"|Cosine. Diff. Secant. | Covers. | Cotang. Diff. Tang. Verseds.) Cosec. D. Sine.
Log. Deg. 89.

**
56 TRIGONOMETRY. [Section 6. º,
44 Deg. Log. sINEs, &c.

* | Sine. Dif Cosec. Verseds. Tang. Dif|Cotang. | Covers. Secant. D. Cosine.
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z
Cosine. pº Secant. Covers. Cotang. Dif Tang. Verseds. Cosec. D. Sine.
45 Deg.
SECTION VII.
Solutions of Triangles.
HAVING in the last section explained the methods of ascertaining the nu
merical value of any trigonometrical function, we may now proceed with
the subject of Section W., and show how the general formulae there inves
tigated may be most conveniently applied for the determination of the nu
Imerical values of the unknown parts of a triangle. It will be seen by a
reference to those formulae, that all the sides and angles are determinable
if any three of them are known, except the three angles, which it is
manifest cannot determine the length of the sides. We shall begin with
right-angled triangles.
(48.) Case 1. Let the sides a, b, (Fig. Art. 2.) be given.
c = Wa” + b by Eucl. B. I. Prop. 47.
Where c is determined
tan. A = ; (Art. 2.)
log tan. A – 10 = log, a -log, b,

whence tan. A is known from the logarithmic tables.
Also B = 90° - A, and is therefore known when A has been de
termined.
Ex. a = 101
b = 103
c = w (TOT), TCI03);
= 144.257
log, tan. A = 10 + log, 101 – log, 103
10 + log, 101 = 12.0043214
log, 103 = 2.0128372
p. 56.) ... log, tan. A = 9.99.14842 = log, tam. 44° 26' 20" (See
A = 44° 26' 20//
B = 45° 33' 40tſ
(49) Case 2. Given A and c.
b = c. eos. A (Art. 2.)
a = c. sin. A
log, b = log, c + log, cos. A-10
log,Aa = log, c + log, sin. A–10
= 44° 10//
Ex, 1'
c = 170.235
log, c = 2.2310489
log cos, A = 9.8568324 (See p. 56.)
2.6878813 = log. 122.243
... b = 122.243
log, C = 2.2310489
log sin, A = 9.84.19239
2.07297.28 = log, 118.297
a = 118.297
B = 45° 59' 50tſ
(90.) Case 3. Given A and b.
a = b tan. A {Art. (54.) }

b
C =
cos. A
log, a = log, b + log, tan. A - 10
log, c = log, b – log, cos. A + 10
Ex. b = 31.76
A = 17° 12/ 51//
therefore B = 72° 47' 9//
log, b = 1.5018805
log, tan. A = 9.491.1132
.9929937 = log, 9.8399
a = 9.8399
Again,
10+log, b = 11.5018805
log, cos. A = 9.9800967
1.5217838=log, 33.249 * ,
C - 33.249 ºt.
*
We will now take the cases of oblique-angled triangles.
(51.) Case I. Given A B and a scale opposite, one of the known *
angles, as a.
C = 180°– (A+B) ºst
ºte
*a = sin.
"lºA (Art. 58) it: ,
ºst.
log, b = log. a+log, sin. B-log, sin. A ū).
* c – sin. C = si (A+B)
ºf
a "Tsin, A T “ sin. A - ºt.
łł.
... log, c = log. a+log, sin. (A+B)—log, sin. A.
(52.) Case II. Given a b with an angle A opposite to one of them.
- b
sin. B = sin. A.—
a.
log, sin. B = log, sin. A+log, b-log a

or, = log, sin. A+log, b-;-Arith'. Comp. log, a-10.
This solution gives us the value of the sine of B, but since the sine of
an angle and that of its supplement are the same, it will be impossible
to determine without other considerations which we ought to take of the
angles, which correspond to the value of the sine determined as above.
If b be greater than a, this ambiguity will exist; but if b be less than a, it
will not. For if b be greater-than a, B must be greater than A, and there
fore A will necessarily be acute, since there cannot be two obtuse angles
in a triangle; and consequently B may be acute or obtuse, and we have
nothing to guide us in the choice of the one or the other. But if b be
less than a, B must be less than A, and must therefore necessarily be
acute, which consideration removes the ambiguity.
(53.) This may be easily illustrated by means of the annexed figure.
Let A B C be a triangle in which the augle A is acute, and CB less
than AC, whose sides being given equal to a and b respectively. Now,
if we draw CB' making the same angle with A B' as C B does, the
point B will evidently fall between A and B, since CA is greater than
CB; and CB' will equal CB = b. Q

Hence the data of the problem will
apply equally to the triangle A C B'
and ACB, and the sine of the angle
opposite AC, as above determined,
applies equally to the angle C B A
and CB' A. The solution may there- …A B’
fore belong to either triangle.
(54.) The following is an example of the ambiguous case:-
Let a = 145.3, b = 178.3, A = 41° 10'
log, sin. A = 9.8183919
log, b = 2.251.1513
Arith. Comp.log, a = 7.8386329
log, sin, B = 9.9081752
= log, 54° 2' 22" or log, 125°57' 38'ſ.
Here b is greater than a, and therefore B must be greatºr than A,
which condition is satisfied by either of the above values of B. The
case is therefore ambiguous.
If we take A, as before, equal 41° 10';
a = 178.3 and b = 145, we find
log, sin. B = 9.728.6086
which gives B = 32° 21' 54", or 147° 38' 6"; but B must be less than
A, a condition which is satisfied only by the first angle. This case, there
fore, is not ambiguous.
C º The angles being determined, the side C is easily found by
aSe 1.
(56) Case III. Given two sides a b, and the included angle C.
By Art. (1) we have
- tan. A + B
&
tº –––
a – b T tan. A — B
2
A + B 180 – C
But a- - -g-- 90
A + B
therefore tan. -:
col. 3
olº
and tan.
A–
2
B – aa –
+ bb . cot. —
cot, a
log tan, A — B = log, (a — b) + Arith. Comp. log, (a + b)
C
+ log, cot. † — 10
Let A – B = D as thus determined,

A + B = 180 – C
= } łº,
* B =}}}}#}I8; – D – C
whence A and B are known.
The side C may then be found by Case I.
º!.
Tº: st
Ex. Let a = 874.56, b = 859.56
C = 91° 58' 10" gºlf
a – b = 15.
a + b = 1734. 12
C ***
# = 45° 59' 5" ſ:
log, (a — b) = 1, 1760913
A.C. log, (a + b) = 6.7609209 Wºlsº
lºt.
log, cot. º = 9.985.1111
A — B
7.922.1233 = log, tan. 28' 44, 30” “
9 = 0° 28′ 44!/.. 5
A – B = 0° 57' 29//
A + B = 88° 1' 50"
..". A = 44° 29' 397.5
B = 43° 32' 10".5
Also *- -
(M,
sin. C
sin. A ºil
... log, c = log, 874.56 + log, sin. 91° 58'10" — 10
+ A. C. log, sin. 44°29' 39".5
log, 874.56 = 2.94.17896
log, sin. 91° 58' 10"
=iog, sin, sº iſ }} = 9.9997.434
A.C. log, sin. 44°29' 39”. 5– 0.1543821
log, c = 3.0959.151
... c = 1247. 14 -
This method of determining the side c, requires the previous de

termination of one of the angles A, B, and is therefore, when it is only
required to calculate the side c, less convenient than the following method,
by which the side c is calculated immediately from the two sides and
angle which are given.
(57.) By Art. (55.) we have
C = VºI. b” – 2 ab. cos. C
This expression, however, is not adapted to logarithmic computation;
we must, therefore, give it a more convenient form for this purpose.
c = Waº – 2 ab -- bºº-2 ab (1-cos. C)
- W(a — b)* + 2 ab. vers. C.
vers. ; =(i. #)
* I am
= (a – b)
-
w/ +a+(n-:)
4 at 7 TC Nº.
since—g . C
Now, if we take an angle 0 such that

4 ab C\?
(tan, 6)*
tan, 6) = —
(a – b)* (i. )
sin. ~
2
we shall have
c = (a – b) Wºl -- (tan. 9);
= (a — b) sec. 6
* This is an instance in which the angle is too small to be determined with accuracy
from its logarithmic tangent by means of a table calculated for minutes only. The
above value is found from a table calculated for each second.
Where 9 is determined from the expression

*lºg tan, 0 = log 4 + log, a + log, b + 2 log, sin. %
And we have + 2. A . C. log,
g; (a
( — b)) – 20
log, C = log, (a – b) + log, sec. 9
Or log, C = log, (a – b) + log, sec. 9 – 10.
We will solve the last example by this method.
To find the angle 6 we have
log. 4 - 0.6020600
log, a - 2.94.17896
log, b -: 2.93427.62
2 A.C. log, a - b = 17.6478174

2 log, sin. Tº = 19.7136446
... 2 log, tan. 6 - 23.8395878

... log, tan. 6 = 11.9.197939
6 = 89° 18' 39".5
and to find c we have
log, a - b = 1.1760913
log, sec. 0 = 11.9198238
... log, c = 3.095915.1
‘. c = 1247. 14 as before.
(58.) In the first of these solutions we have to determine a small

angle, and in the second an angle nearly 90° from their logarithmic tan
gents. With a table in which these tangents are calculated for every
second, this may be done with accuracy; but if our table be computed
for minutes only, this cannot be done conveniently, because the method
of proportional parts will not apply. It may, therefore, sometimes be
desirable to avoid this difficulty, which may be done as follows:
c = Waſ H 2 ab -- bºº-2 ab (l-Ecos. C
Twſ 4 ab C\
= a + b * ~ (…) cos. 3.
4 ab C Nº. 2 .
-
Assume &#y (or %) = (sin. 6)"

then c = a + b cos. 6
log, c = log, a + b + log, cos. 9–10
By using this formula we should avoid, in the above example, the ob
jection above-mentioned.
Any of the above formulae would be theoretically sufficient for the
complete solution of the case we have been considering ; but the obser
vation we have made on the last example, will show that different formulae
will be preferable in different cases. It is the business of the analyst to
investigate these formulae, and of the computist to select that which is
most applicable to the particular circumstances of his problem. In this
selection he will be guided by such considerations as the above, or others
which experience will suggest.
62 TRIGONOMETRY, - [Section 8. §§
SECTION VIII. |Ter
Tºntººn
General Account of the Method of observing Angles.—Principles on which º, viºla
Observations are corrected.—Examples of the Measurement of Heights tº
and Distances.
tº sºrt
IN this section we shall explain the methods of ascertaining heights and Histº
distances by means of trigonometry. In the operations necessary for this Wººtt
purpose, the length of at least one line must be ascertained by actual ad {tº:
measurement, and the magnitude of certain angles by actual observation. º
(59.) The former may be effected without difficulty, when no great ac *:::::
curacy is required, by means of a string, chain, or pole of given length; MW. I.
when extreme nicety is essential, as in extensive trigonometrical surveys, iſiºn
many precautions must be taken, which, however, it is not now our object Kºgº
particularly to point out. We shall proceed to show generally how the !!! iſ:
angular distance of two points, as seen from any proposed station, may be *
observed. tº &
º
*i. |
ºt
º
(60.) Let PQ be the two points, C the position of the eye of the ob
server, the plane passing through these points being supposed to coincide
with the plane of the paper. Suppose a circular rim divided into degrees,
minutes, &c., to have its centre at C, and its plane in that passing through §§§
P and Q ; then let a line C D, moveable round C, be made to coincide
with CA, a fixed radius of the instrument (A being the point where the hiſ
graduation begins), and then the rim turned round an axis through C, **
and perpendicular to its plane, till C D be directed to P. Let C D be º
then moved till it be directed to Q, the rim remaining fixed; the graduation
at K (supposed to proceed in direction A K) will give the number of de º
grees, minutes, &c., in the angle PC Q. *||
(61.) If, instead of moving C D while the rim remains fixed, CD be “tº
supposed to remain fixed, and the rim be made to revolve till C A be §:
directed to Q, and C K be directed to P, the graduation of A K will deter *:
mine the magnitude of the angle PC Q. (lº
Nothing can appear more simple than this operation; but in cases of l
\,
|º
great nicety, where, perhaps, an error of a few seconds would be fatal to
the required accuracy of our calculations, it will be easily conceived that
many precautions become necessary to avoid such errors. The different
instruments for observing angles are, in fact, so many contrivances for
performing the operation we have described with greater facility and
accuracy than the simple apparatus above-mentioned would admit of
They all possess the graduated rim, the perfect circularity and exact
graduation of which are most essential, and though this graduating is
done in the present day with wonderful precision, it is a matter of too
much practical difficulty not to admit of some correction by methods the
principles of which are independent of mere mechanical skill.
:
(62) The most important is the principle of repetition, by which any

error in the graduation and in the reading off of the numbers of degrees,
&c., to which a single observation is liable, is divided among many repeated
observations, so that by a sufficient number of repetitions the required
angle, as far as it depends on the above circumstances, can be obtained to
any assignable degree of accuracy. This is easily explained.
When the moveable line C D has been first directed to P and them to
Q, as above described, let it be fixed to the rim at K, and then be made to
move by the motion of the rim about its axis through C till it comes again
into the direction CP. A will then have come to Kº, and L into the direc
tion C Q. Let C D be unfastened from the rim, and brought again into
the direction C Q, and therefore passing through L ; the graduation cor
responding to this position of C D will denote twice the required angle
PC Q; and if s” be the error arising from the graduation or reading off
after the second observation, and N denote the angle read off in degrees,
minutes, &c.
2. PC Q = N + s”
N s!/
PC Q =#4 + fy
or the error in the observed walue of PC Q will be º Or, more generally,

let n be the number of observations, N the degrees, &c., read off, and
suppose the circular rim to have made besides m complete revolutions.
Then the error being s",
m. P C Q = m . 360° + N
N
+ s”ºr "
P cq = *.
71.
360° + º-
71,
+ -
70.
//
and the error in the observed value of PC Q will be only :

It will be remarked that the reading off is only once necessary, i.e.,
after the last observation. It is in the application of this principle that
the peculiarity of the repeating circle consists.
(63.) Another principle of correction for erroneous graduation and
reading off, consists in taking the mean of several readings off on different
parts of the rim as the true reading. In this case the observation must
be made as described in (61.) Thus suppose the point A of the rim to
revolve till it come to K, A coming to K', the angle P C Q may then be
read off both at C and K'. In the same manner it may be read off at any
other parts of the rim.
Suppose N. N. . . . N, to be the several readings off, the true value
of the angle is taken to be
N, + Ns + — — + N,
7t,
(64.) The most common instruments for measuring angles in terrestrial

observation are the quadrant, repeating circle, and theodolite. A full de
scription of these instruments does not come within our immediate object,
which is merely to give a general notion of the manner in which the mag
nitude of angles may be observed, and to point out the principles of the
methods by which observations may be corrected. We shall merely ob
serve at present that the quadrant is simply a quarter of such a circle as
that above described, bounded by the two fixed radii CA, C B, and gra
64 TRIGONOMETRY. '[Section 8.
duated from 0 to 90°. It has the disadvantage of offering no practical

facility for the application of the above principles of correction. The re
peating circle consists of a circle like the above, mounted in a manner
convenient for its use. In the theodolite, the graduated circle is horizontal tº:
when properly adjusted, the instrument being intended for the observa [...
tion of horizontal angles only. With the quadrant, or repeating circle, |-
angles in any plane may be observed.
(65.) In order to ascertain the height of an object, it is generally much
the most convenient to observe its angular altitude, or the angle which a
line from the object to the observer's eye makes with a horizontal line.
This horizontal line being seldom exactly known, it is usual to make use
of a plumb line, which determines the position of a line perpendicular to
the horizon.
Thus, if P be the object, let the side JP
A C of the quadrant be directed to P;

then if C D be the plumb line, the
graduation of B K will give the angle
PC G, C G being horizontal.
Having thus given the student a
general notion of the methods by which
the magnitude of angles may be ob
served, we shall lay before him a few
C —k
examples which may enable him to Iy-–=<====--
judge of the best method of proceeding
in any particular cases that may present themselves.
Examples.
To find the height and distance of
an inaccessible object on a horizontal
plane.
Let the angle CAP be observed at
the station A = z. Measure A B in
the direction of the object, and let it ..-"
= a, and then observe the angle *

CBP = 8.
Let the height C P = y and the distance B C = a.
N PB sin. P A B sin, a
* AE = sin. A FE sin. (6-d)
Slil. Ot.
..". PB = a sin. (3-a)'
and y = P B . sin.[3
_, sin. a . sin. B
* * sin. (3-a) -
log, y = log, a + log, sin, a + log, sin. 3 – log, sin. (3-a) – 10;
also a = P B cos. B
sin. a . cos. 6
- E a -----
sin. (3—a)
... log, a = log, a + log, sin, a + log, cos. 3 – log, sin. (3-a) - 10.
If a 26° 30'
(3 = 51° 30'
a E
= 75 feet
a = 49.29 feet; y = 61.97 feet.
}x
2. Suppose the object D P,

whose height is required, to stand
on a hill D E. By the last exam
ple— -
A. 13 #–i.
sin. a sin. B
PC =
* Tim. (3—a)
|BC _
=: _ sin. o.(6–2)
*in. . cos (3
Let the Z CBD be observed = 'y

D C = B.C. tan. y
sin. 2. cos.g. tan. Y.
= * : —in ſº-j-
CP and CD being thus determined, DP is known
3. Suppose the plane on
which the observer is stationed
not to be horizontal. The inclina
tion (3) of A B to the horizon
may be determined by a level.
Let the angles EAP, FB P be
observed, = 2 and 3 as before.
CP = y, CB = r.
sin. C B P
y=PB sin. PC B
= PB sin.(B-3).
T.os. Tº
sin. PAB
also PB = AB.
sin. A PB
sin. (a -3).
'sin (3-a) >
sin, (2-3) sin. (3–3)

... y = a
Tecs, sin. (3–0)
log, y = log, a + log, sin. (2-3) + log, sin. (3-3)
- log, cos. c - log, sin. (3-2);
sin. C P B
Also a = B P
sin. PC B
sin. (o. –c) cos. 3
'sin (3–2) cos. 3
log, a = log, a + log, sin. (2–3) + log, cos. 3
— log, sin. (3 – c.) log, cos. 3,
66 TRIGONOMETRY. [Section 8. kit
4. To find the height of an object by

observations of vertical angles from three
stations in a straight line, in a horizontal
plane, not in the direction of the object.
Let P be the object, PD a line perpen
dicular to the horizontal plane A CD; AB C
the stations; PA D, PB D, PC D, the
three observed angles in vertical planes,
equal or 6 y respectively: and let A B = a,
B C = b, and the required height PD = y.
Then ...A.
15 -
C
A D = y cot. w; BD = y cot. 8; D C = y cot. Y.

But tº
_ A B* + B D — A Dº
cos. A B D = H, whº pºp
B Cº -- B Dº – D C2 &
cos. D B C = T: B CIB DT k;
and cos. A B D = — cos. DBC
A B* + B D — A Dº D C – B C – BD”
AB - BC
Substituting the values of these quantities as determined above, we find
3/
-
V. (cot y)* — (a +ab b)(a (cot.

+ b)
3)*-i- b (cot, a)*
5. If the side of a hill form an inclined plane whose inclination to the
horizon is - 2, to find the direction in which a rail-road must run along
the side of the hill, in order that it may have an ascent of 1 foot in every
100 feet. p
Let AP represent the rail-road, AN
the foot of the hill, PN a line on the
side of the hill perpendicular to AN;
PN vertical, and N M horizontal and
perpendicular to A.N. A M will be
the projection of AP on the horizontal
plane, and the angle MAN will de- A N
termine the direction of the rail-road.
Let this angle = 0; also PN M will be the inclination of the hill = 2.
Now if PAM TM 3
- P 1
sin. (3 = A PT TOO ~ .01
lso Sin
also sin.
M
6= A
:ſ
cot. c. =
tam. Å =: ;
Section 8] TRIGONOMETRY. , 67
sim. 6
c 2 cota * tan, {3
sin. 6 = tan, 8 . cot. 2

(tan, 6) * (sin. 3)6)”
1–(sin.
1
= —–4— = —-4—
E -
(.01)
— (.01)*
". tam, 8 E,0] {l ,000l. #
-
= .01 {1 + .00005} nearly

=. 0100005 -
, , sin, 6 =. 0100005 cot. 2

log, sin.6 = log, .0100005 + log, cot. 0.
6. To find the distance of two objects which cannot be approached, situ
ated in the same plane with the observer.
Let PQ be the two objects; A B a
line = a, which the observer can
measure, lying in the same plane with
PQ. At A let the angle PAQ PA B
be observed respectively = x and 3;
- and at 8 let the angles PAB, A B Q,
be observed respectively equal y and 3.
PA sin. PBA
PBTsin. APB
sin. Y
PA = a sin. (3+y) ... log, PA = log, a + log, sin, Y
-
A sin. Kºš - +A.C. log, sin. [3+y— 10

Q = “sin. A Q B
| sin. 3
“sin. (3 + Q A B)
- sin. 3
* “sin. (3 - Tö)
... log, A Q = log, a + log, sin. 8 + A.C. log, sin. (B- 2 + 3) – 10.
Also PQ’ = AP*-i- A Q” – 2 AP. A. Q cos. PA Q.
From the expression PQ must be determined exactly as in Arts. (56,
57, or 58,) substituting the values of AP and A Q as found above.
The distances AP, B Q, BP, are easily found from the triangles
A BP, A B Q, and then the positions of P and Q, as well as their dis
tances, are determined. If there be any other object, R situated in the
same plane, its position may be determined in the same manner, either by
observing it from A and B (if visible from thence), or from any other
stations, whose positions have been previously found. Hence it will easily
be seen how a tract of country may be mapped, provided it be not too ex
tensive; but if the extent be considerable, we cannot, on account of the
spherical form of the earth, consider objects situated on its surface as lying
in one plane, with due regard to the accuracy of our results. Conse
quently, extensive and accurate trigonometrical surveys can only be con
ducted by means of spherical trigonometry. A complete account of the
method of doing this, and of the use and construction of the instruments
for this purpose, will be given in a subsequent part of this work.
We shall here conclude the first part of our treatise on Trigonometry.
A knowledge of the theorems contained in it, with that of their appli
-a-
cation to Plane Trigonometry, is essential to enable the student to pass

on to the differential calculus and its simpler applications. The remain
der of the subject, as we have already observed in the Introduction, may
be better studied in more immediate connexion with some of the higher
branches of analysis; and on this account we conceive that it ought not,
in a well-arranged course of mathematical reading, to precede, but to
follow the calculus. This first part may be considered as forming one
complete division of the subject; and therefore the reason above stated
is sufficient for the postponement of the higher branches of it till after our
treatise on the Differential Calculus shall have made its appearance.
LONDON:
Printed by WILLIAM Crowes,

Duke-street, Lambeth,
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SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
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A UGUST US DE MORG AN,

* OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.
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SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
CHAPTER I.
PRELIMINARY DEFINITIONS.
(1) SPHERICAL Trigonometry means in strictness, the measurement of

the various triangles which can be drawn upon a sphere. In the modern
form of the science, it must be called the investigation of the relations
which exist between the several parts of a solid angle.
A solid angle is a name improperly given to the figure made by three
straight lines which meetin a point, and no two of which C
are in the same plane; as O A, O B, and O C.
In a solid angle there are six things to consider—
namely, the three limes O A, O B, and O C ; and the
three planes AO B, B O C, COA. The lines make
three rectilinear angles, AO B, B O C, COA; and the ſº
planes make three dihedral angles; each of which may tº
be determined, as usual, by drawing from a point, in the line of intersec
tion of two planes, perpendiculars to that line in the two planes. (Geo
metry, book iv. prop. 17.)
(2) In future, we shall abbreviate references as follows:—
(G. iv. 17.) refers to Treatise on Geometry, book iv. prop. 17.
(Tr. 20.) *> 55 Trigonometry, Article 20.
(St. 50.) 32 27 Study of Mathematics, page 50.
(3) We have felt it unnecessary to supply a Geometrical Treatise on
the Sphere; but we should strongly recommend the student to read that
in the ninth book of the Treatise on Geometry. Clear ideas will never
be acquired without considerable familiarity with the properties of the
sphere; to acquire which, the minimum of spherical geometry fre
quently attached to Treatises on this subject is insufficient. We shall
take it for granted that the student has some acquaintance with this part
of solid Geometry.
(4.) We should also recommend the beginner to provide himself with
such an apparatus * as here drawn; that is, a wooden . ſ "h
sphere of three or four inches in diameter, with a hemisphe- ſº h
rical cup of the same radius, in which the sphere may be ||||}
placed in any position. Any great circle (or circle which º
halves the sphere) may then be drawn through two given

points, by bringing these points down to the edge of the cup,
and drawing a pencil round the edge.
(5) In this treatise we do not consider any solid angles except those
* Messrs. Watkins and Hill, of Charing Cross, are in the habit of constructing this
apparatus, .
B 2
4 SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
in which the rectilinear angles are severally less than two right angles;
in which case the dihedral angles will also be severally less than two right
angles. And no side or angle is ever considered as negative.
(6.) If a sphere be drawn, whose centre is at the point O of the solid
angle, a portion of the surface will be intercepted by the planes AO B,
B O C, COA; which portion is called a spherical triangle. The arcs
CA, AB, BC, are its sides ; the angles made by the circles (that is, by
tangents drawn to the circles) are its angles: and these O
six parts may be used to represent the six parts of the
solid angle. For the arc AC bears to C B the same pro- P
portion as the angle A O C to the angle CO B, the radii
being the same. And since tangents drawn at A, to the
circles which meet in that point, are perpendicular to OA *
in the planes of these circles, the angle made by the tangents is that made
by the planes CO A, A O B. But it would do equally well to draw the
perpendiculars from any other point P in OA.
(7.) A spherical triangle is made only by those circles which pass
through the centre of the sphere, or by great circles. All triangles made
by other circles are not considered.
(8.) When we talk of the side of a spherical triangle, we mean, there
fore, the angle which that side subtends, at the centre of the sphere; and,
as it is an angle which we are speaking of in reality, we are liable to the
apparent confusion of calling a line an angle. Thus, we may say that the
side of a spherical triangle is a right angle; meaning thereby that it is a
quadrant of a circle, and subtends a right angle at the centre of the sphere.
(9.) But when we speak of the angles of a spherical triangle, we
always mean the dihedral angles of a solid angle. Thus, a right-angled
spherical triangle is cut off by three planes passing through the centre of t
a sphere, two of which planes are at right angles.
ſ
(10.) There is no direct affinity between the terms sides and angles, in
a plane and in a spherical triangle. In a plane triangle the sides and
angles are different species of magnitudes ; in a spherical triangle they
are the same. In a plane triangle, a side cannot be expressed in terms of
angles only ; in a spherical triangle, the sides (8) can be found when the
angles are known. A plane triangle cannot have more than one right ls
angle; a spherical triangle may have three; and so on. h
(11.) The sides of a spherical triangle are usually denoted by the §
letters a, b, c, the opposite angles by A, B, C. In the solid angle, the *
dihedral angle, made by the planes meeting in O C, is called opposite to
the rectilinear angle B OA; and the dihedral angle, formed at O C, is
said to be contained by the rectilinear angles A O C, CO B.
(12.) The angles are usually measured in degrees, minutes, and
seconds, so long as they occur only in sines, cosines, &c.; but when used
independently, they are measured as in (Tr. 7.) (St. 90.); that is, the
number chosen to represent the angle is
The arc subtended
radius
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY, 5.
CHAPTER II.
ON RIGHT-ANGLED SPHERICAL TRIANGLEs.

(13) Let A B C be a right-angled spherical triangle; or let the planes
B0 C, COA, be at right angles. From any point
Q in 0B, draw QR in plane B O C, perpendicular to
plane COA (G. iv. 18); from R draw R. P. perpendi º
cular to A 0, and join Q P, which (G. iv. 4.) is per **
pendicular to OA, and QR (G. iv. Def. 1.) is per

pendicular to PR. Hence, Q O PR is a triangular
pyramid, having none but right-angled triangles; one
angle in each of which right-angled triangles is one of
the parts of the spherical triangle—namely:
Q0R, the side a (8).
R OP, the side b.
PO Q, the hypothenuse c.
QPR, the angle A (9), because Q P and R P are perpendicular to OA.
Hence the general fractional relation
K K X L
M - T ~ VI
where K, L, and M, are any quantities whatever, gives the following;
QR _ QP, QR , that is, sin. a = sin. c sin. A
QO T Q O QP
PR _ PQ PR tam, b = tam, c cos. A
Po T PO PQ
RQ RQ RP . . tan. a = tan. A sin. b
R O T R P " T. O’
OP OP OR cos, c = cos. b cos. a.
OQ T OR O'Q’
These formulae will be readily seen from the definitions (Tr. 13.), and
from what has just been stated, to be identical relations existing among the
ratios of the sides of the pyramid PQ OR. Each of the first three has
another like it, similarly deduced from the other side: we shall range
them as follows; in which a side and its opposite angle are in the same
type, whether Roman or Italic, in the same formulae. We add two other
formulae, in which two angles enter, which we shall presently deduce. -
(14.)
C0S, c = cos. a cos. b cos. hyp. = prod. cos, of sides . . . Ri
C0S, c = cot. A cot: B cos. hyp. = prod, cot. angles. . . . R,
sin, a = sin. c sin. A
sin, b. = sin. c sin. B sin. side = sin. hyp. sin. opp. ang. . R,
tan, a tan. C cos.
tan, b = tan, c cos. A
º tan, side = tan, hyp. cos, inclº. ang. . R.
tan. a = tan. A sin. b
tan, b = tan. B sin. a
tan. side = tan, opp. ang, sin, other side Rs
cos, A = cos. a sin. B
cos. B = cos. b sin. A } cos. ang. = cos. opp. side sin, other ang. Rs
(15.) The two new formulae Rs and Rs are demonstrated as follows,

Multiply together the two in R, already demonstrated, which gives
tan. & tan, b = tan. A tan. B sin, a sin. b
tan. A1tan. BT sin.

tan. aa sin.
tan. b6 T cos. a cos, b = cos, c
- - Ly - v, v J -
by R, ; whence follows R, or cos. c = cot. A cot. B.
Again, multiply together the first in R, and R, crosswise, which gives

sin. a tan. c cos. B = tan, a sin. c sin. A
tan. a sin. c
cos, B = —. . Sirl. A
Sin. (I tan, C .
-
- . cos. c sin. A
COS, Q,
-
- . cos, a cos b sin. A
COS. (I,
= cos. b sin. A
(16.) The six formulae in (14), by repetition ten, solve all cases of
right-angled triangles. For since, in every one of them, is a distinct
combination of three, taken from among
al, b, A, B, C ;" -
and since, from out of five quantities, only ten distinct combinations of
three can be taken, it is manifest that each of the five enters, with every
other two, in one or other of the formulae; so that any two being given,
any other can be found. For example:
Given. To find. Formulae. Shape in which it must be used.
- - Sill. &
a, A C Ra Sin, C E —
l sin. A
- - tan. (Z
b R; sin. b = −-
tan. A
- - cos. A
B Re sin. B =
cos. g.
(17.) There are certain mnemonical formulae, called Napier's rules of

circular parts, which are generally explained. We do not give them,
because we are convinced that they only create confusion, instead of
assisting the memory ". We recommend the beginner to learn the six
formulae in words, as given, and not to proceed further until he can apply
them readily. To assist him, we give the parts of a right-angled triangle,
together with the logarithms of the sines, cosines, and tangents of each,
from which he can immediately see whether he is able to verify any
formulae.
General Symbol. Value, Log. sine. Log. cosine. Log. tangent.
& 139 9 3520880 | 9.9887239 || 9 - 3633641
b 29° 9 : 6855.712 || 9 '9418.193 || 9 - 74,37520)
A. 25° 27' 50" | 9 63341 13 9-9556184 9.6777929
B 67°54'42" | 9 '9668945 9 - 57.52305 | 0-3916640
c 31° 32' 53/ | 9 - 7 186769 || 9 - 9305432 9-7881336
* We carry this opinion to the extent of thinking that they have been, to many, a
serious impediment to a ready knowledge of applications to plane astronomy.
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY. 7
The last figures cannot be expected to agree. The logarithms are correct
to tenths of seconds, though seconds only are inserted in the second
column.
(18.) A small angle cannot be correctly found from its cosine (Tr. 90),
hence R, becomes useless when the angle to be found is small. But—
tan, 4 B 1 – cos. B tan. c – tan. c cos. B
* 2 ºf T.I. cos. B ºf tan, c + an ecos, E
tan. c – tan, a sin. (c — a) -
(R) T tan, c + tan, a T sin. (c + a) . . . (Tr. 40.)

sin. (c — a) A. sin. (c. — b)
...
... tam 2 5:
tan. - w/º: —
(c -- a) an: -;
tan. — E -
—
sin. (c + b) . .
R,
which may be conveniently used in this case. -
(19.) In nearly a similar way may be proved (which we leave to the

student)—
cos. (A + B)
cos. (Atº
V-º-
C "
an —
tan. 2 E – B) • * * * * * * * R.
which, though in an impossible form, is not really so, for, as we shall see,
A + B must be greater than a right angle; so that cos. (A + B) is
negative. This formula may be used when c is nearly a right angle.
When R, is to be used to find a, and a is nearly a right angle, proceed
as follows:— º
1 — tan.
tan (15°– H
= T+ tan, a . . . . . . . (T. 49.)
Assume
tan, a = sin. c sin. A = sin, a
• a 1 — sin. a 1 — cos. (90° — a)
. . . tan. ° —a = -
*(*-*) = Hºmº = Tºº-j
2 sin. (s #) -
(Tr. 43.) - 2–2 = tan.” (45 4)

2 cos. (s #) - \
*-
Hence -
* (*-4) = W tau. (45°- a) . . . . . . . . Ro

where w is to be found from the equation
tan. a = sin. c sin. A.
(20.) We give the following as exercises for the learner:—
sin. a cos. b = sin. c cos. B . . . . . . . . R
tan. * * * tan. * ~ * = ". (a — b) IR
2 sin. (a + b) ' ' ' ' ' ' ". .
2
cos (c — b) = cos, a + sin. a sin, b tan. ; A . . . . . Ris

sin. (c — b) = sin, a cos. b tam. # A. . . . . . . Ris
º
CHAPTER III.
ON OBLIQUE-ANGLED TRIANGLEs.
(21.) Most of the cases of oblique-angled triangles may be reduced to
those of right-angled triangles, as we shall afterwards see. But we shall
first supply the necessary formulae for completing the subject, and after
wards proceed to each particular case. -
* (22.)
let O A, Let
OB,AOC,
B C contain
be any spherical triangle, solid
the corresponding and o Tr. C º
angle at the centre of the sphere. From any point

R in O C draw R P and R. Q respectively perpen
dicular to O C in the planes O CA, O C B. We º
have then a pyramid, having the right-angled tri- A.
angles ORP, ORQ, and the oblique-angled triangles OPQ, R PQ; and
in each triangle of which we find one of the angles of the solid angle, or
one of the parts of the spherical triangle; namely,–
Q O R the side a. (8)
R O P . . b.
POQ . . c.
Q R P the angle C, because R P and R. Q are perpendicular to O C.
(Tr. 55.) PQ’ = P R* + R. Q” – 2 P R. R. Q cos. P R Q
= P O* -- O Q” – 2 P O. O.Q cos. PO Q
... 0 = P O* - PR*-ī- Q O* — Q R* – 2 PO. O. Q cos, c
+ 2 P R. R. Q cos. C
= OR*-- O R*–2 PO. O Q cos. c.4-2 PR. R. Q cos. C.
Dividing by 2, and reducing,
COS. c==º- + PR. R. Q cos. C
PO . O Q PO . O Q
O R, OR R. Q PR
- OQ OT + oº: F5°os. C
= cos. a cos. b + sin, a sin. b cos. C.
(23.) This formula may also be deduced as follows:–
IB
º o
C | -A
D
Draw B D perpendicular to AC, and let C D = a, B D = p.

Then D A = b - a ; whence, from Rio
cos. a cos. p- cos, & cos. (b — a cos. p = cos c
cos, a cos. c = cos. (b — a cos, a
= cos. b cos. a cos. a + sin. b cos, a sin. a.
cos. c = cos. b cos. a + sin. b cos, a tan. a.
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY,
an. a cos. C = tan, a
But, (R),
... sin, a cos, C = tam, a cos a,
- or cos, c = cos. b cos, a + sin, b sin, a cos. C.
(24.) From the preceding, by treating the remaining angles in a simi
lar mainer, we get the following formulæº
cos. a = cos. 5 cos. c + sin, b sin, c cos. A
cos, b = cos. c cos, a + sin, c sin, a cos. B} . . . . . . Ol
cos, c = cos, a cos. b + sin, a sin. b cos. C
cos. a - cos. 6 cos. c.

Or cos, A = - *
sin. b sin. c. .
cos. b – c.0S. C COS. d }
cos. B = . . . . . . Oa
sin. C sin. a
r cos. c – cos. a cos. b
COS, C tº -—ſ-
sin, a sin. b J
cos, a - cos. (b + c)
1 + cos, A = sin. b sin. C
- -
: -
. . . . . . Oa
1 — cos, A = cos. (b – c) — cos. a (, - i
sin, b sin. C.
&c. &c.
or, (Tr. 41.), b vº -
2 in “t +sin ºt; &
2 I. A -->
2 cos, *; A = sin. b sin. c :
a + b – c SIII.
- c+ a - b
2 sin.
2 - .* } - - -
m *A sin, b sin, c
Let *** * = s
whence
b +c–a
2
-,-, tº2 tº - - “tº
2
E S - C
the preceding formulae, with the ones corresponding to the other angles,
then become
O . . . . . . . . . . . .. . --
cos, “3
2 1 -
sin. S sin. (s - a
- ( - a) sin. *# A = sin. (s — b) sin. (s — c)
-
sin. b sin. C sin. b sin. c
sin. s sin. (s — b sin. (s — c) sin. (s — a)

cos. * B = s sin. G-0)
Sln, C Slil, (!
-
sin. * * B = Slil. G. SlT1. &
sin. S sin. (S - C sin. (s — a) sin. (s — b)

cos. *, C = sins sin: G = 0
sin, a sin. b
-
sin. * : C = sin, a sin. b
from which formulae may be obtained for tan. ** A &c. -

10 SpHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
(25) From O, by simple multiplication and extraction of the square * lºt
Lºſ -
r00t,
... • * * * * * e o 'º - . . Os . . . . . . * * * * * * * º
*-* *
- sin. (s — c) - sin. s
sin.Tº A sin. B = sin. FC 2 -
-
Sln. C
cos. 2
A cos. 2.A B = sin. * C.
* sim.c ºl-º-
tºl-3
in. A; B sin.
Sin. Slſ].
2
,C
7
= Slll. •
Tº
Asin *—
(*~9) Slil. Q.
cos. #l: B
2
13 COS. | C
º
- Sln.
-
*
A*
HA - :
sin. a I
- ###:
-
-
sin. (s — b)
- - Sln. S -
sin. TºA C sin. ; A =sin. B-....Tº

sin. b cos. Aº C cos. 4º A = sin. **B:
2 sin. b 2 is–
º il.
• * * * * * • * * * * Oc ". . . . . . . . . . . . "
* * * - s -
sin.(s—b sin.(s—a)
-
sin. Acos.; B=cos. C (

Sln. C.
) e. Amº B-cºcº -
Slil. C
*
|-
-
s
- sin. (s—c) - sin.(s—b) §1ſt

sin. B cos, C=cos.; A–.
Sln.Tº
(I, cos. y B sin. A C-cos.; A–.
Sill. (l, “ 1.
º'-lt
- sin.(s—a) sin. (s—c) -
sin.) C cos.; A=cos. B-. Tº “” y C sin. # A=cos. B –

sin. b
I-
Sll). (! 1*
'ºt,
*
(26.) From the two last sets we find is

sin. (A + B) = sin. A cos. * B -- cos. # A sin. A B º: |
– cos.
º 4– C / . (ºn. (s – b) + sin. (s- o) - § -
-
Slil. C łº
– º –
cos. C || 2 sin. s—b+s—a COS.
... s—b-
—- (s-a) º
“tº
2 sin. c cos, + C 2 2 ". .

cos.
cos, CC : } ( lº.
= ** * * sin. (a-b)
since 2s – a – b = c. By proceeding thus, we find t
• * ~ * * * * * e s e e s - O. . . . . . . . . . . " ' ' '

e cos. A (a-b - cos., (a+b)
sin. (A+B)=cos. C # (a-b) cos. (A+B)=sin. C *****
cos. # C coS. C
- im. ... (d— in. 4. b
sin. (A–B)=cos, + cºin. t
(4–0) cos.
sin. C
(A–B)=sin. C º • 2 *:
which may be varied, as in Os and Os. |
From O, we find the following, by simple division, º

• s e - e < * * * * * o, (Napier's Analogies). . . . . . . . . . . . -
. A (a-b) cos.J. (A–B)

tan. #
A. (A+B)=cot.
( )=cot. ,, C cos.
cos. 3 (a-b) .*
(a+b) tan.] =tan.**cos.
(a+b)=tan c-HT5%(A-FB) i.
in l (r. — in. A. (A–B) s
tam. Å (A–B)=cot. A sin. A (a-b) A (a-b)=tan.* sin. (A–F
§ ( )=cot. , C sin. (a+b) tan. A (a-b)=tan ** sin. (A+B) t
from which we find
tan. (A + B) tan. (a + b) Og |
an. (A - B) ºf tan. (a – b) .
(27.) Let v = WI-F 2 cos. a cos. 5 cos. c – cos, a -cos, F5 – cos, so

(cos. a - cos. b cos. c)?
9A
in. “A
From 0, we have sin. = 1 –
(1-cos. *b) (1–cos. ºc)"
in which 1-cos. *b is put for sin."b. From this we shall find, by reduction,
w?
- 2 * -------
sin. “A = sin. *b sin. *c'
Whence the following,

in. A
SIn, A- — 1n. If E -
-
-
sin.
II]. C E - 7)—- O
sin. b sin. C Sln. C. Slil, Q, sin. a sin. 5 " " ' "
º
sin. A sin. B sin. C Q)
H. = −F = E− = −. . . . . On º
SIII. (2 sin. b Sln. G. sin, a sin. b sin. c
Again, from O,
4 sin.s sin. (s-a) sin.(s-b) sin.(s–c)
sin, “A-4 sin. 34.2 A cos. **2 A = . Ols
sin. *b sin. *c
- -
whence, by Olo,
w = 2 Wsin, s sin. (s-a) sin. (s-b) sin. (sº-c) . . . . On
(28.) In the first formula of O, substitute the value of cos. b given by
the second, which gives
cos, a = (cos, a cos. c + sin, a sin, c cos. B) cos. c + sin. b sin. c cos. A
Remove the term cos. a cos. *c to the left side, substitute sin. *e for
1 – cos. *e, and divide by sin. c, which gives
cos, a sin, c = sin. a cos. c cos. B -- sin, b cos. A. . . . . . Ol.
sin. a. - - - -
From 0m sin, b = sin. B :-., which substitute, giving

sin. A
sin. a
cos. a sin, c = sin. a cos. c cos. B -H sin. B cos. A +
Sln,
A.
Divide by sin, a, and by this, and similar processes, we have the follow
ing formulae:–
cot, a sin. c = cos, c cos. B -- sin. B cot. A ---
cot, a sin, b = cos. bcos, C + sin. C cot. Af ' ' ' ' ' 9.
&c. &c.
(29) All the preceding formulae have been deduced from O, and are
therefore true, whatever changes may be made in a, A, &c. provided
the formula O, remain true when changed in the same manner.
Now, form the following product from O,
cos, A + cos. B cos. C,
which gives, reducing to a common denominator, and writing I — cos. *a
instead of sin. ‘a in the numerator,
(ºsa-cos.bcose) (1-cos'a)+(cos. 5-cos. c cos.a) (cos. c-cos.a cos. b)
sin. *a sin. b sin. c
Which, developed, will be seen to be
cos. a . vº - -
, or cos, a sin, B sin. C, from On.

sin, a sin. b sin, c
We have then
cos. A + cos. B cos. C = cos. a sin. B sin C,
Or — cos. A = cos. B cos. C — sin. B sin. C cos. a.
For cos. A write its equal, - cos. (T – A), and for sin, B its equal,
sin. (T – B), and so on; which gives
cos. (T-A)=cos. (T-B) cos. (T-C)+sin. (T-B) sin. (T-C) cos.(tr—a),
which is the formula in O, altered by writing supplements of angles instead
of sides, and supplements of sides instead of angles. From this change
not altering the truth of the formulae in Op and from the remark at the
beginning of this article, we deduce the following theorem:—
All the formulae hitherto demonstrated are true, if instead of sides are
written the supplements of the opposite angles, and instead of angles, the
supplements of the opposite sides.
Thus, for s we must write
tr – A –– tr- B -- "r – C 37r A -- B -- C
– Or - -
t 2 2 2
* .
A+ B + C
Let — = S.
The following table contains the various substitutions which result from
the alterations in the preceding theo rem.
tute tute
For | Substitute For Substi For Substi
a tr— A || s * -s
3 } (a + b) r— (A+B)
b - | T — B || s — a † - (s-A) # (a – b) – 3 (A–B)
c | T – C || s — b † - (s-B) # (A+B) | T — # (a + b)
A | T — a || s — c † - (s-c) # (A–B) — # (a — b)
B | T — b | a+b — (A + B) &c. &c.
C | T – c || a -b — (A — B) |
- (30.) We give some instances of the results of the change, in which the
formula deduced from O, is denoted by O'.
COS. a =
cos. A + cos. B cos. C
sin. B sin. C
- - - - -
• - -
. . O's
sin.” # a = — cos. S cos. (S – A))

sin. B sin. C f
- - - - - - - - - O'.
cos. (S-B) cos. (S-C)
cos.” . a = sin. B sin. C
&c. &c.
cos. (S – C) &c. . . . . . O's
cos. # a cos. , b = cos. C sin. C
Or, O, O, and Ois either are not altered, or one of them is changed
into another of the same set. - -
Let W = W1 – 2 cos. A cos. B cos. C – cos.” A – cos.” B – cos. C

sin. a = —-- —z, &c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . O'o
sin. B sin. C
sin. a. sin. b sin. 6 V
- •- . — . - - . O/
sin. A sin. B sin. C sin. A sin. B sin. C 11
whence W w = sin. A sin. B sin. C sin, a sin, b sin, c

i., a -- ** S cos. (S–A)
Sln,* (I = -
cos. (S-B) cos. (S-C)
sin.” B sin.” C •
O'
v 12
W = 2 W — cos. S cos. (S-A) cos. (S-B) cos. (S-C) . . O's

(31) From the above we may conclude that for every spherical triangle
which can be formed, having sides a, b, and c, and angles A, B and C, there
is another spherical triangle having sides T – A, T – B, and T — C, and
angles T – a, it — b, and T – c. (G. vſ. 7.) These two triangles are
called polar or supplemental, and the geometrical discussion of them is
contained in the reference just made.
(32.) The formulae given are amply sufficient for the direct solution of
triangles: we now proceed to give an example of all the functions of sides
and angles used, with the logarithms of their sines, cosines and tangents.
The table, as well as the idea, is taken from Delambre's Astronomy.
Symbol. Value. Log. sine. Log, cosine. Log. tangent. -
o w //
A 121 36 20 9. 93027 | 9:71939 || 0.210S9
B 42 15 14 9.82764 || 9-86933 || 9 •95830
C 34 15 3 9.75037 || 9.91729 || 9. 83308
& 76 35 36 9. 98800 | 9-36523 0.62277

b 50 10 30 9.88536 || 9 80648 || 0.07888
c 40 0 10 9-80809 || 9'88424 9.92386
#A 60 4S 10 9 •94099 || 9-68826 || 9. 25273

# B 21 7 37 9-55683 || 9,96978 || 9.58705
# C 17 7 31 9. 46903 || 9.98030 9° 48873
% a 38 17 48 9-79220 | 9.89477 | 9.89744

# b 25 5 15 9. 62737 || 9.95697 || 9- 67040
# c 20 0 5 9 - 53408 || 9.97298 9.56110
A + B 163 51 34 9.44404 || 9-98253 9-4615]

B + C 76 30 17 9.98784 || 9 36804 || 0.61980
C + A 155 51 23 9. 61175 9.96024 9.65151
a + b 126 46 6 9-90367 9: 77712 0.12654

b -- c 90 10 40 || 10:00000 || 7-49175 || 2:50824
c + a 116 35 46 9.95143 || 9'65099 || 0.300.44
# (A + B) 81 - 55 47 9.99568 || 9 - 14733 || 0.84834

# (B + C) 38 15 8 9 - 79.178 9.89503 || 9 - 896.75
# (C + A) 77 55 41 9-99029 || 9°32043 || 0.66985
# (a + b) 63 23 3 9. 95135 | 9' 65128 || 0-30007

* (b. 4 c) 45 5 20 | 9.85016 || 9-84881 || 0-00135
4 (c + a) 58 17 53 9. 92982 9.72057 | (). 20925
Symbol. Value. Log. sine. Log. cosine. Log. tangent.
o w wº
A - B 79 21 6 9 - 99.246 9 - 26665 0 - 72580

B – C 8 0 11 9. 14372 9 - 99575 9 - 14797
C – A -87 21 17 9.99954 9.66419 1 - 33534
a - b 26 25 6 9.64828 9. 95210 9' 69618

b - c. 10 IQ 20 9 - 24701 9 - 99.312 9:25389
c - a — 36 35 26 9 •77531 9-90467 9 - 87.064
J. (A – B) 39 40 33 9-80512 9-88630 || 9-91882

4. (B - C) 4 0 5 8-84375 9 •99894 8-84481
(C - A) |-43 40 39 9 •83922 9 •85928 9-97994
# (a - b) 13 12 33 9. 35890 9-98.835 9 : 37054

# (b – c.) 5 5 10 8-94769 9 - 99.829 8-94941
# (c - a) —18 17 43 9° 49681 9-97747 9 - 5 1934
S 99 3 18 9 • 9945.5 9 - 19696 0.797.59

S - A –22 33 2 9° 58376 9 •965.45 9- 6 1831
S - B 56 48 4 9 • 92.261 9 - 73842 () • 18419
S – C 64 48 15 9. 95658 9-62911 0 °32746
s 83 23 S 9.99710 9° 06142 0-93569

s - a. 6 47 32 9.07.287 9 - 99694 9 - 07593
s - b 33 12 38 9 • 73856 9-92255 9-8160 I
§ - C 43 22 58 9 : 83687 9 - 86140 9 - 97547
Log. v = 9:56600
Log. W = 9.62374
(33.) We shall now proceed to the different cases of oblique angled
triangles.
Case 1. Given the three sides, to find the three angles.
The formulae O, apply here, and give a direct solution. For instance,
let the sides of the triangle be those given in the table.
sin. # A = Vsin. (s – b) sin. (s — c)
sin. b sin. c
Log. sin. (s — b) 9 * 73856
Log. sin. (s – c) 9. 83687,
Comp. log. sin. b 0 - 11464
Comp. log. sin. C 0 - 1919.1
Sum 2) 19: 88,198
Log. sin. # A 9'94099

The angle may also be found from O, by the following process.
cos, a - cos. b cos. c
cos. A = − . . . . . 0.
sin. b sin, c
Find a from the equation,
cos. a = cos. b cos. c.
Then
COS. & - COS. à: 2 sin. , (ºr -j- a) sin. (n - a)
cos, A = - - :
sin. b sin.c sin. b sin, c
Case 2. Given the three angles, to find the three sides.

Delambré, who probably calculated more spherical triangles than any
man of his day, says he never met with this case in practice but once, and
then he could have done without it. The case may be solved by O', or
by the following formula, easily deducible from O', as the one last given
from O2, -
COS, (1 =
cos. Asin.+ Bcos. B cos. C – 2 cos. # (asin.
sin. C
+ BA)sin.
cos.C3 (r. - A)
where cos. a = cos. B cos. C.
Case 3. Given two sides and the included angle, to find the third side
and remaining angles.
To find the angles directly from the data, (a, b, and C) use Napier's
Analogies (O) }( b)
l *w- 1 ſ COS.
ºr 2 # (Q. -
-
tan. (A + B) = cot. C cos. # (a + b)

sin. (a — b)
* tan. ; (A - B) = cot. # C sin. (a + b)
| these determine # (A + B) and 3 (A - B); whence can be found,
A = } (A + B) + 3 (A – B)
B = } (A + B) — ; (A – B)
To find the side c, draw a perpendicular BD from B to A C : let
CD = a B D = p. First determine a by the equation
a_* c tan, a cos, C = tan, a . . . . . . . . R,
º b. D
A
then determine D A = a' from the equation
DA = b – a when b > a.
* or D A = a – b when a - b
21
* *
Lastly, determine c from
cos. c = cos. p cos, (b – a . . . . . . . . . . R.
cos. a cos. (b – a .
- - Since cos. p cos. a = cos. a.
COS. 32
If the angles are now to be determined, use the following formulae
co, A = ***. . . . . . . . . . R.
tan. C
sin. a.
sin. C B D =
sin. a.
sin. DBA= **** SI IT. C.
= C B D + D BA when b > a.
B = C B D – D B A when a > b
The equation
cos. c = cos. a cos. b + sin. a sin. b cos. C . . . . . . . O,
may be reduced to a logarithmic form in either of the following ways.
cos. c = cos, a cos. b + sin. a sin, b : 1 – 2 sin.” # C {
= cos. (a — b) – 2 sin. a sin. 5 sin.” # C
... 1 — 2 sin.” # c = 1 — 2 sin.” # (a — b) – 2 sin. a sin. b sin.” C
- - : ºn 2
... sin.” c = sin.” # (a — b) {1 + *#º

Find 0 from the equation in. # C
3
tan, 6 = sin.S111.(a-b) -—r
Vsin, a sin. b
which gives
sin.” + c = sin.” # (a – b) (1 + tan.*6)
; (a — b)
sin. , c = sin.
cos. 0
which can be readily found by logarithms. By using 2 cos.” c - 1

instead of cos. c. &c., but retaining the substitution of 1 – 2 sin.” A C for
cos. C, the equation Oi may be solved as follows.
- sin. l C —-
Let sin. 6 = ** – Vsin, a sin.0
cos.; (a-b)
Then cos. 3, c = cos. 3 (a – b) cos. 6
which may be proved as before.
Lastly, by the use twice repeated of the formulae
cos. a cos. V = }; cos. (4 + y) + , cos. (x - y)
sin. w sin. y = * cos, (a - y) – 4 cos. (T + y)
The equation O, becomes
4 cos. c = 2 cos, S + 2 cos. D + cos. (D + C) + cos. (D - C)
— cos. (S -- C) — cos. (S – C)
where S = a + b D = a – b
which, by substituting 1 - vers, sin, 9 for cos. 6 throughout, becomes
4 vers, c = 2 vers. S + 2 vers, D + vers. (D + C) + vers. (D - C)
– vers. (S -- C) — vers. (S - C)
which depends on a table of natural versed sines only, and requires no
logarithms.
Case 4. Given two angles and their interjacent side, required the re
7maining angles and sides.
This case occurs but seldom, and to avoid multiplying the same formulae
in different shapes, the following evident consequence of the properties of
the supplemental triangle (31) may be employed.
Let A, B, and c be the given angles and side, and let
180° — A = aſ 180° – B = b' 180° – c - C'
Let a,b', and C'be two sides, and the included angle of a spherical triangle:
find c, A and B as in the last case; then C, a, and b, the remaining parts
of the original triangle, are found from the equations
C = 180° – c' a = 180° – A/ b = 180° – B/
Case 5. Given two sides and an angle opposite to one of them, re

quired the remaining side and angles.
Previously to proceeding with this case, we point out how to find 0 from
the equation
m sin. 6 + n cos. 6 = p
where m, n, and p are given, either positive or negative.
Assume r cos. p = m. r sin. p = n
- - 71, 77
which gives tan. © = — 7" -:
*- 777, sin. ©
The first of which determines (), and the second r.
Substitute r cos, q, and r sin. © for m and n in the original equation, which
gives
r sin. (9 + p) = p
sin. (9 + (p) = #
_ p sin. © p cos. 4,
7? 777,
from which 0 + 4, and thence 0, may be found. Other forms of solution

may be given to determine cos. (9 + 4), &c.
Let the given parts of the triangle be a, b, and A.
From On, we determine B as follows:
sin. A = * B sin. B = sin. b sin. A
•
Sln. (7, sin. b Sl Il. (Z
To determine C,
cot. A sin. C + cos. b cos. C = cot, a sin, b, . . . . Ols
which can be solved as above; thus,
Let tan. p = tan. A cos. b, then sin. (C + b) = - #.
tan. b sin. 4,
To determine c,
cos. b cos. c + sin. b sin, c cos. A = cos, a, , . . . . . O,
sin. b cos. A
or let tan. © E = tan. b cos. A.
cos. b
-- COS. (I,
Then7 COS. C. tan.
- a
© Sin. C ºr cos.
—;
+ tan. b. '
Or cos. (c – p) E
cos. a
—
cos. ºp cos. b
cos. (
(C - q, ) cos. & eo
© ) E cos. b COS. %
G).
Whence (p being first found from tan, p = tan, b cos. A) c – p, and

thence c, can be found.
C
18 SPHERICAI, TRIGONOMETRY.
Case 6. Given two angles and a side opposite to one of them, required
the remaining angle and sides.
This case might be referred to the last by means of the supplemental
triangle: the direct process is so like the last, that we shall only give the
results.
Let the given parts be A, B, and a.
The side b is determined from the equation
sin. a
sin. b = sin. B sin.
– A - - - e - - e. - - - - . . O 11
The side c is determined from

cot, a sin. c – cos. B cos, c = cot. A sin. B . . . . . . . Ols
reduced as before to
tan. B."
tan. %
d = tan.
a a cos.
OS B sin. (
in. (c — %) - tan. A sin,
sin. p
and C is determined from
cos. A = — cos. B cos. C + sin. B sin. C cos. a . . . . . Ol'
cot. B cos. A
Or tan. ºp
d = COS. (l - in. ((C
sin. — %) - in. p
cos. B sin,
CHAPTER IV.
GEOMETRICAL CoNSEQUENCEs of THE FoRMULE DEDUCED IN THE
PRECEDING CHAPTER.
(34.) It will have been observed, that we have not hitherto taken any
property of the sphere for granted; we may therefore use the formulae to
deduce the various propositions treated in Book VI, of the Treatise on
Geometry. This we do rather for the illustration of the formulae than for
the theorems themselves. See (3). Many of the geometrical propositions
are, analytically considered, definitions of the limits within which the formulae
are possible; and there is no spherical triangle between some parts of
which such relations exist as would render the expressions of any of the
remaining parts impossible.
(A.) Any two sides of a spherical triangle are together greater than the
third, and all three sides together are less than a whole circle.
In this proposition we must remember (5) that no side or angle of a
spherical triangle is greater than two right angles, and that no side or angle
can be considered as negative. Now, a, b, and c being positive, not more
than one of the three
a + b – c b+ c – a c+ a- b
2 2 2 2 :2
can be negative: for, if two were negative, their sum would be negative;
but the sum of any two of the preceding is either a, b, or c. And since
a b and c are less than 180°, each of the preceding is less than 180°. The
formula
4 sin. s sin. (s — a) sin. (s — b) sin. (s — c), or vº
must be positive, and therefore can only have an even number of negative
factors. This gives the two following cases,
i. All the factors are positive, or
a+b+
sin. s positive, that is ºr:r. either & 180° or > 360°
sin. (s-a) positive, that is b + c > a
sin, (s-b) . . . . . . . c + a > b
sin. (3-0) . . . . . . . a + b > 0
II. Two negative factors, that is, one out of the three sin. (s — a),
sin. (s – b) and sin. (s — c) is negative, and sin. s is negative: which gives
sin. s negative, that is *:::::::: > 1800
Suppose sin. (s—a) negative . . . . . b - c < a

. . . sin. (s-b) positive . . . . . c -- a > 5
. . . sin. (s-c) positive . . . . . a + b > c
The second case must be rejected, for since a + b > c, that is (5) &
fortiori < 180°, and since also c < 180°, we have
a + b+ c 360°
2 < 2
< 180°
which contradicts another part of the case. Again, in the first case, s
cannot be greater than 360°, for in that case a + b + c > 2 x 360° Or
One at least of the three a, b, and c, must be greater than 180°, which is against
the definition. There remains then only the first case with this limitation,
which is the proposition asserted.
(B) The greater angle of a spherical triangle is 9pposile to the greater
side, and the sum of the angles of a spherical triangle is Śreater than
tºo and less than six right angles. Also the sum of *9 two angles is less
than the third increased by 180°.
The first part appears from Oz. Take, for instance,
in. # (o-
sin. # (A–B) = cos. C *=0
* 2
since 3 c and # C are each - 90°, their sines and cosines are positive.
Hence sin. . (A – B) and sin. (a — b) have the same sign: that is,
A - B and a ~ b are both positive or both negative.
Hence if a > b A > B, if a. º. 5 A 3 B. -
W The *maining part of the theorem we shall obtain from the Value of
*, or
- Cos. S cos. (S - A) cos. (S - B) cos. (S - C)

in which it appears that since 2s = A-F B-I-C
S - A + S – B –– S – C = S.
Of the three, S–A, S – B, S – C, only one at most can be greater than
90°, for if the first two, for example, were each S- 90°, we should have
Ot 180°90°
– --C 90°
< 0--
or Snegative,
– C <S
which is against the hypothesis. Therefore only one of the three, cos, (S-A),
* (S - B), cos. (S - C), can be negative
C 2
Therefore, by a process similar to the preceding, the only way in which

— cos. S cos. (S - A) cos. (S – B) cos. (S – C)
can be positive, (that is, can have an odd number of negative factors,) is
either when
I. cos. S is negative and the others positive,
II. cos, S positive, and one of the others, cos. (S - A) for example,
negative.
The second case must be excluded, for it is evidently impossible that
we should have at the same time
S < 90° and S – A > 90°.
Neither is it possible that S should be greater than 270°; for in that
case A + B + C would be greater than 2 × 270°, or 3 × 180°, in which
case one at least of the three A, B, and C would be > 180°; which cannot
be. We have then, in order that V* may be positive, the conditions
A + B -- C
cos, S is negative, or —g— > a right angle, < 3 right angles,
Ol' A + B + C > 2 right angles < 6 right angles;
cos. (S — A), cos. (S - B), cos. (S - C), are positive,
A+ B – C B + 2C – A C –– 2A – B
Or 2 are severally < 90°
Or A + B ~ 180° H- C
B + C < 180° + A
C + A « 180° 4- B
Corollary :-The sum of the two remaining angles of a right-angled
triangle is always greater than one and less than three right angles.
(C.) The half sum of any two sides, and the same of the opposite angles,
are either both greater or both less than 90°.
For from O,
sin. C
cos.. #4 (A + B) - cos. c cos. # (a + bb)
-
in which, since sin. , C and cos. 3, c are both positive, cos. 4 (A + B)

and cos. 3 (a + b) have the same sign. Hence also, if the sum of two
sides be 180°, the sum of the opposite angles is the same. We recom
mend the student to look for the geometrical demonstration of the whole
of this theorem.
(D.) If two sides of a triangle be equal, the opposite angles will be

equal, and the converse ; and spherical triangles which have the three
sides, or the three angles, or two sides and an included angle, or two
angles and an interjacent side, respectively equal in both, are equal in
all respects.
For in all these cases the same formulae are to be used with the same
data to find the remaining parts of both triangles; therefore the same
results will be obtained for both.
(35.) In cases 1, 2, 3 and 4, of the solution of triangles the data are
taken at pleasure, subject to very simple limitations.
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY. 2I
In cases 5 and 6, the limitations required to ensure a possible

triangle are somewhat more complicated. They are as follows:–
Let a, b, and A, be the data in case 5.
Then in all cases sin. b sin. A must be < or = sin. a. And when
b - 90° A > 90° a . . . must be . . . » b
b > 90° A & 90° * . . . . . . . . . . . .< b
b - 90° A & 90° 4 . . . . . . . . . . .< 180° – 5
b > 90° A > 90° & . . . . . . . . . . X- 180° – 5
The first is evident on inspection of
- sin. A
sin. B = sin. b :
Sln. Gº
as no sine can be > 1. The four last may be shown to follow, from the
formula
cos, a - cos. b. cos. c
cos. A = "*-------
• -
sin. b sin. c
which, since sin, b and sin. c are positive (5) shows that cos. A has the
same sign as cos. d – cos. b cos. c,
cos. A COS, g,
Or has the same sign as - COS. C.
cos. b
• * * - os. A COS. cº, -
This is impossible whenever and have different

os. b cos. b
OS. d. , - - -
signs, and cos. 5 " "umerically greater than unity; for in that case
-
*
no value of cos. c (which is numerically less than unity) can affect the
sign of the second side. Let us suppose, for instance, the first of the
above-cited cases, namely, b > 90° A > 90°, or #.
S. D
negative. Then
• - * ~ * - - - C0S. & rºar. . .
cos & being positive, if cos. a be positive, cos. 5’ differing in sign from
cos. A -
cos, 5 must be less than unity, for the above reason, that is, a > b. If
cos, a be negative, a > 90°, & fortiori > b.
Again, in the fourth case, b > 90° A > 90°, or COs. A
COs. b is positive. And
• - - - - - - C •
S.
Since cos. b is negative, if cos. a be positive, or negative, then this
COS. b
COS. G. -
must be numerically less than unity, or cos (ISOST). IS less than

o
*}, where both angles are less than 90%. Therefore a > 1809 — b
If cos. a be Regative, a is > 90°, and therefore > 180° — b, since the
latter is > 90°. In a similar way the other cases may be proved.
(36.) The case (6) may be referred to the Preceding, by means of the
Supplemental triangle, as in (33, Case 4).
(37.) The cases (5) and (6) are sometimes ambiguous, that is, there
** two different triangles corresponding to the same data.” This a ears
from the first step of the process, namely, pp
- - sin. A
sin. B = sin. b : 2.
Sln. Q.
from which we are left in doubt whether B is an angle less than 90°, or
its supplement, the sine being the same for both. To determine this
let us proceed to the next step, and find C from
cot. A sin. C + cos. b cos. C = cot, a sin, b,
not indirectly as before, but by substituting MI – sin.” C for cos. C, and
reducing the whole to the usual form of equations of the second degree,
namely, -
a " + b x + c = 0.
This gives, putting a for sin. C,
(cot.” A+cos.” b) tº-2 cot. A cot. a sin. b r-Hicot.* a sin.” b – cos.” b- 0.
When r has two positive values, (5) there are two triangles; when
one positive and one negative, there is one triangle only ; and when both
are negative, there is no triangle ; the same when both are impossible.
Leaving the reader to investigate all the preceding limitations from this
equation,
only. In we
theproceed
general to point out the cases in which there is one triangle
expression w
a arº + b a' + c = 0,
(St. 48) there is one negative root only when a and c differ in sign; that
is, in the last equation, when cot.* a sin.” b – cos.” b is negative, since
cot.” A + cos.” b is necessarily positive. This gives (dividing by the po
sitive quantity sin.”b) cot.* a - cot.” b negative, or cot. a numerically less
than cot. b ; that is tan, a numerically greater than tan. b. Hence the fol
lowing table, giving the cases in which there is only one triangle, at most”.
Conditions of the data. Cases of one triangle, at most.
a ~ 90° b >< 90° a > b
a > 90° b > 90° a > 180° — b
a > 90° b > 90° a 3 180° – b
a > 90° b > 90° a 3 b
(38.) The only remaining case in which there is one triangle only,
arises when sin. 5 sin. A = sin. a ; in which case the two triangles coin
cide in one. This happens when the roots of the last equation are
equal; though the criterion (St. 49) will be found to appear in the
more complicated form
cot.* a sin.” b = cot.” A + cos,” b.
(39.) The following general properties of right-angled triangles may be
useful, and are easily proved from the formulae prefixed.
(R).) The hypothenuse is greater or less than 90°, according as the
sides are of the same or different names: if, when both are greater or both
less than 90°, they are said to be of the same name; when one greater and
the other less, of different names.
(Rs.) The same is true of the hypothenuse and angles.
(R4.) The hypothenuse and side are of the same name when the in
cluded angle is less than 90°, and the contrary.
(Rs, Rs.) A side and its opposite angle are always of the same name.
(40.) The geometrical demonstrations of all the preceding criteria are
very simple, and should be attended to by the student. We have omitted
them, as our object is rather to illustrate the formulae than to deduce the
properties.
* Recollect that some of the conditions may comprise cases in which, as previously
shown, there is no triangle at all.
CHAPTER W.
ON THE AREA of SPHERICAL TRIANGLEs.
(41.) IN this chapter we shall suppose all angles measured by the pro
portions which the arcs bear to the radius *, though in taking out sines,
cosines, &c., the manner in which the tables are formed requires us to sup
pose them previously retranslated into degrees, minutes, and seconds.
(42.) A spherical lune is the portion of the sphere intercepted between
s C B c AC, or B A b C B. It is shewn (G. v. 25),
that the surface of a lune is that proportion of the
whole sphere which the angle made by its con
taining circles, is of two right angles. Again,
(G. III. 34,) the area of a circle, is irrº square
units, where r = 3 - 141593, and r is the radius in
linear units: and (G. v. 16,) that the surface of
the sphere is four times the area of its greatest
circle. Hence if 9 be the angle of a lune, and r the
radius of the sphere, since it is the measure of two right angles,
Area of lune : surface of sphere :: 6 : 2 tr.
8 6
Area of lune = − surface of sphere = 27 4 ºr rº = 2 () rº.
z7.
(43.) In the figure the triangles A B C and A b c together make up the

Julie whose angle is A, for Ab c is less than that lune by a triangle a b c,
where a is on the invisible side of the sphere, and a b c is in all respects
equal to A B C. Hence if E be the area of the triangle, we have
A B C + Abo = (Lune to angle A) = 2 A 7-2
BA c = (Lune to angle C) – E = 2 C re — E
ACb = (Lume to angle B) — E = 2 B rº – E.
By addition the first side gives the hemisphere or 2 T rº, and we have
2 Trrº – 2 A rº + 2 B rº + 2 C rº – 2 E
E = r. (A + B + C – T.
The factor A -- B-H C – r is called the spherical excess, being. the
excess of the sum of the three angles above two right angles.
We may (30) write the preceding formula as follows:—
E = 2 r" {S — *}= 2rº 2, where X = S – #
Then sin, 2 = — cos, S cos. X = sin. S tan. 2 = — cot. S.
(44.) From the right hand set of formulae in Os, converted as in (30)
we find for sin. X or — cos. S, the three following expressions:–
* See Penny Cyclopædia, Article ANG.I.E, for tables of reduction.

sin. ; a sin. b sin. C sin. # b sin. # c sin. A sin. # c sin. # a sin. B E

l
cos. # c cos, # a cos. # b
from which, substituting for the sine of either angle from Ou, after writ
ing 2 cos. a sin. # a for sin. a, &c. there results,
º;
sin. X = — cos, S = ——— . . . . . . . . E,
“TToos. Tacos. Tycos. a
-
# W sin. s sin. (s-a) sin. (s-b) sin. (s-c)
. . . Es
7 cos. a cos. 4 b cos. # c -
(45.) cos. 2 = sin. S = sin. , (A + B + C)

= sin. # (A +B) cos. 3 C+cos. 3 (A+B) sin, ,
From O, — cos. A (a-b) cos.”3 C+ cos. 3 (a + b) sin.” C

- cos. # c -
Expand the terms cos. # (a – b), and cos. (a + b), (Tr. 35, 36,
14, 43,)
cos.. X = sin, S =
- sin cos. c a sin. ; b cos. C
cos. # a cos. b-Hsin. , E,
4.
Divide the first of E, by E., *
- tan. ; a tan. ; b sin. C Y
tan.. 2 = — cot.
co S - 1 + tan. #*
2 * a tan,* *; *
b cos.
*_ C ' ' ' ' ' Es
(46.) In the formula directly preceding E, write 1 — sin.” # C for

cos.” # C, and reduce.
cos. 2 = cos. ## (a
( – b)) – 2 sin. 73 a sin. J.3 bD sin.”
sin # C.
cos. # c
Substitute for sin.” # C from O., first writing 2 cos. 3, a sin. a for
sin. a, &c. This gives
cos. 2 = 2 cos. a cos. # 5 cos. (a-b) — sin. (s — a sin. (s — b)

2 cos. # a cos. # 6 cos. c -
But sin. (s - a) sin. (s – b) = }; cos. (a — b) — cos. c. . . (Tr. 41)

= cos.” # (a – b) – º – ; cos. c. (Tr. 43)
and 2 cos. 3, a cos. 3, b = cos. (a + b) + cos. (a – b).
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY, 25
º The preceding numerator therefore becomes

[cos. # (a+b)+cos. # (a-b)] cos. # (a-b) — cos.2% (a-b)++ cos. c--,
= cos. 3 (a + b) cos. (a – b) + , cos. c + ,
= } (cos. a + cos. b + cos. c + 1) . . . . . . . (Tr. 41)
= cos.” a + cos.” b + cos.” c – l ;
e
... cos. 2 =
cos.” #2 acos.
+ cos.” # b ;+b cos.”
a cos. cos. cc –1 --
• . . . . Es
º 1 x=–tº–
3 cos. a cos. Wºo.I. ' ' ' . . . . E.
— COS. 2, tº
where v' is what v becomes (27) when for each angle a, b, c, its half is
substituted. But since the expressions for v at the beginning of (27)
and in Os are identically the same, v' is what the formula in Ola be
comes when } a, &c., are substituted for a, &c.; in which Case #s must
be substituted for s.
Hence
1 — cos. X = 2sin. #'s sin. # (s-a) sin. (s-b) sin. ; (s-c) E
cos. # a cos. b cos. A c º, “
(Es) I — cos. 2 =". sin. # 8 sin. # (s-a) sin. (s-b) sin. # (s-c)
3 sin. 2 Wsins aſsin. (s-a) win. (s-b) Viñº
But the first side being 2 sin.” # 2 divided by 2 cos. 3 x sin. 2, is

tan. # 2, and
sin. # 9 sin, # 9 I
*
Wsin. 9 *- W2 sin. Focos, 3 Ö - M2 Wan. 5
... tam. # 2 = Wian. # stan. (s-a) tan. (s−5) tan. (s-c) . . E,

a convenient expression for finding the area when the sides are given ; for
X
2,"being found, and the ratio of its arc to the radius (41)
X (3). 2 (41) the area is
area is
CHAPTER WI. ,-
CoNNEXION BETweeN THE ForMULE For PLANE AND SPHERiCAL

TRIANGLEs.
(47.) If a rectilinear triangle be drawn through three

points A, B, C, fixed in space, and if from the point where
the perpendiculars, bisecting the sides meet one anot.
a straight line be drawn perpendicular to the plane of th.
triangle, it may easily be proved that any point in the last
mentioned line is the centre of a sphere which passes
through the three given points. Let us call this line the
axis of the triangle.
(48.) Any point O being taken in the axis for a centre, and the sphere
being drawn, A, B, C, will be the vertices of a spherical triangle, and the
sides of the rectilinear triangle A B C will be the chords of the arcs con
taining that spherical triangle. Let the plane triangle A B C be called
the chordal triangle of the spherical triangle A B C.
(49.) We shall now cease to employ the word side to designate the
angles B O A, A O C, CO B, and shall confine it to the arcs A B, BC,
CA. That which has hitherto been called the side of the spherical tri
angle is (8) the angle subtended by the side at the centre of the sphere ;
and if the arcs B C, CA, A B, be called a, 6, y, and r be the radius of
the sphere, the measures of the subtended angles are (12)
a ſº y
r r 7.
(50.) The dihedral angles (9) are represented as before, so that, to

employ the preceding formulae with direct reference to the arcs of the
spherical triangle, we must substitute
Cº.
– for a, B. for b, * for C ;
ºr r 7.
that is O., for example, must be written

(t 6 . Cl . -
COS. Y. = cos. – cos. – -H sin. — sin. --— cos. C.

7" r 7. r *
(51.) The farther O is taken from the triangle, the more nearly will
the arcs A B, &c. coincide with the sides of the chordal triangle, and the
smaller will the subtended angles B O A, &c., become. And as this ap
proximation goes on without limit, as O is farther and farther removed,
and as the tangents drawn to the circles from A, B, C, also approach with
out limit to coincidence with the chords (6), we have the following
theorem. -
If any one of the preceding formulae be converted, as in (50), and if the

radius of the sphere be then supposed to increase without limit, the formula
which remains is true of the chordal triangle, when its sides are substi
tuted for arcs of the spherical triangle, and its angles for angles of the
spherical triangle.
(52.) To obtain what is called the remaining formula in the preceding
theorem, it will be necessary to substitute for the sines, cosines, and tan
gents, their developments derived from the following theorems”, in which
9 is an angle measured by the ratio of its arc to the radius,
63 {} -
in.
Sln 6 = 9 – 2.3 + 2.3.4.5 -- - &c. ad infin.
º -
62 6*
COS . 6 = 1 — —
2 2.3.4
-- - &c. ad infin.
-
63 295
tan, 0 = 0 ++ + T + &c. ad infin.
* These Theorems will be proved in the Treatise on the Differential Calculus.

- (53.) Let the preceding substitutions be made in the formula O, as

converted in (51); that is, for
4
COS. Y. write 1 – 1 y? ..." I 'y
T ; : + 3.1 : - &c.
which will give
; : + i +y” +. &
1 y” , 1
1 ——— — — — — —
.. "
=1--3;
** B = <+ 6.
24 B+3
U.C. - I —r" – &c -
Q -->
+*co-c-ººººo.c4 se.
7. r
Take both sides from I, and multiply by 2rº,

o'-H 62°62 + 5°–423 (o’--|3°) cos. C
Yº-a2+3°–2a3 cos. C 12 rº
+ &c.
-
in which the succeeding terms have r", r", &c., in their denominators.
By increasing r without limit, the terms which have powers of r in their
denominators are diminished without limit; rejecting these terms, there
remains
y? = 2 + 3? – 223 cos. C,
a well-known property of a rectilinear triangle, whose sides a and 3 con
tain the angle C.
(54.) The following table contains references to the Articles of the Trea
tise on Trigonometry, which contain the formulae, to which the preceding
formulae are reducible, by the process, and under the suppositions, of the
last article. It must be remembered, however, that a, b, and c, in the Trea
tise on Trigonometry, correspond to 2, 8, and y, in the results which the
student will obtain. In some cases the resulting formulae are given,
being reducible to geometrical facts too well known to be specially men
tioned in the Trigonometry.
(RL) 23 + {} = 72; (R, , R. R.) A + B = 90°; (R, , R., R.)
Tr. 54; (O, O.) Tr. 55; (O, O.) Tr. 56; (O.) Tr. 57; (Ou) Tr. 53.
(55)*. Returning to (51), the spherical excess (43) 2 S – ºr becomes
less and less, as O is removed farther from the chordal triangle, and
vanishes altogether at the limit, since the three angles of the chordal
triangle do not exceed two right angles. But the area of the spherical
triangle, or rº (2 S – (), in which the first factor increases, and the
second decreases without limit, approximates continually to the area of
the chordal triangle.
By converting E, as in (50), it will appear that the limit of 2 r" sin. X
is , a 3 sin. C. But from E, it will appear that the limit of cos. 2 is
unity, or that X diminishes without limit. Hence since the ratio of the
º
We have
its angle approaches without limit to unity as the angle is decreasedt,
in. X
limit of 2 tº sin. X = limit of 2 rº 2 *: -
- limit of 2rº X.
* The rest of this chapter must be omitted by the elementary student. - -
# See the first pages of the Treatise on Elementary Illustrations of the Differentiał
and Integral Calculus.
28 SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY. -
But the last is the limit of the area of the spherical triangle and the first
is , a 3 sin. C, a well-known expression for the area of the chordal tri
angle, a and 3 being the sides containing the angle C.
(56.) By treating the expression
cos. 3 – cos, + cos. tº
r 7" 7"
cos, C =
. 0: .
Sln,— Sln. —
B
r T
as in (53), which gives

o”--|3°–Y” - 2*-i-6 22 (3?--(3*— y”
C 2 7.2 24 r" + &c.
COS. U - 2
o: 8 o”--|3° *
Trº 1 — 6 rº + se)
and developing by the formula
*— = 1 +4+se f
1 – 4 + &c r
2 -
we find
COS.. U
C = *-i-2 8”
& 3– y” —l-
I
o'+Bº'+y"–224
dº aB*—26°y°–
£3 r* 2 y” wº + &c -
Let us now suppose r to be very great, so that the spherical triangle is

mearly plane, and its spherical excess small, and let a plane triangle be
taken whose sides are a, B, Y. This must not be confounded with the
chordal triangle. Let the angles of the latter triangle be A, B, C'.
Then (Tr. 55, 56, developing sin.” C in the latter)
2 2 2
co, c = <-tº-2
S 2 o' (3 i
4 & 6° sin.” C = 2 a.” Sº + 2 ſº y” + 2 y” 23 – 2" – 6' – Yº

whence the preceding expression for cos. C becomes
O.
cos. C = cos. C' — 6 rº sin. C" nearly,
rejecting, as inconsiderable, those terms which contain r" &c. in their de

nominators. Let C’ + z = C, then since z is small,
cos. C = cos. C'— z sin. C/ nearly
- Cz IX
whence : i. #(3 sin. C
2 E ... tº si f
nearly
But # 2 (3 sin. C' is the area of the rectilinear triangle, the sides of
which are 2, 8 and Y: which being very nearly equal to the area of the
spherical triangle, we may write 2 r" 2 for it without sensible error. This
gives
2X spherical excess
* = -ă = g-— nearly
C'! - C -
-
spherical
--
3
excess |
nearly
By proceeding in this way for the other angles, we find the following -
very remarkable theorem.

If a spherical triangle of very small curvature be flattened without
allering the length of its sides, its angles are diminished by quantities which
are very nearly equal to one another, and to the third of the spherical excess
in the spherical triangle. -
CHAPTER WIſ.
ON SPHERICAL Polygons". g
(57.) If the whole surface of a sphere be covered by spherical polygons,

- - whose sides are arcs of great circles, and if the
s
N\ chords of allofthese
the chords arcs be will
each polygon drawn, it is one
enclose plain
facethat
of
\\ a solid inscribed in the sphere; which solid will have
| as many faces as there are polygons, as many edges
--
as there are arcs in them all, and as many solid

§
šº
º angles as there are distinct angular points.
%
(58.) And if with any point in the interior of a
solid as a centre, a sphere be described, and if planes be drawn through
the several edges of the solid, and the centre of the sphere, these planes
intersect the sphere in as many arcs, the whole of which will divide the
surface of the sphere into a number of polygons, the whole number of sides
being that of the edges of the solid, and so on. If a solid be inscribed
#
inside the sphere as in (57), we shall have a second solid inscribed in a
sphere, having the same number of faces, edges, and solid angles as the
first.
(58.) Hence any relation which is found to exist between the number
of faces, edges, and solid angles of a solid which can be inserted in a
sphere, is equally true of solids which have no circumscribing sphere.
(59.) Let E, F, and S be the number of edges, faces, and solid angles
in the solid. Then the sum of all the angles of all the spherical polygons
must be 4S right angles, for every solid angle corresponds to angles of the
polygons, which are together equal to four right angles. And the total
number of sides in all the polygons is 2 E, since every edge has its arc
* This chapter may be omitted at the first reading.

common to two different polygons. This is also the total number of angles
in all the polygons.
(60.) The area of a spherical polygon of n sides
is thus found. From any angular point draw dia
gonal arcs as in the figure. These divide the polygon
into n – 2 triangles, the sum of the angles of all of
which is the sum of the angles of the polygon. If
the sums of the angles of the several triangles be
A1, As, &c., the area of the polygons is therefore (43)
r” (A - T + As — r + &c.) = 1° (B — (n − 2) tr)
where B is the sum of the angles of the polygon.
(61.) If the polygon be equiangular, and 6 be one of its angles, the
area is
rº (n 9 — (n − 2) t)
(62.) Let B, , B, , &c., be the sum of the angles of the several polygons
in (57), and m, , ms, &c., the number of sides in each. Then (60) the
sum of the areas of all the polygons will be
r” [B, — (n − 2) T + B, - (n, -2) ºr + &c.]
In which are F terms (39) similar to B, - (n, - 2) T. But
(59) B, + B, + &c. = 2 ST, n., + n, + &c. = 2E

and the sum of all the areas is the whole sphere, or 4 T r". Therefore
4t r* = rs {2 S T – 2 ET + 2 FT 3 or
S + F= E + 2
Therefore;—In every solid, the number of solid angles and faces together
exceeds the number of edges by 2.
(63.) Let the solid have F, triangular faces, F, quadrilateral faces, and
so on. Then
F = F + F, + &c. 2 E = 3 F. -- 4 F, + &c.
and the preceding theorem gives
2 S = 4 + F, + 2 F. -- 3 F. -- &c.
which gives
F, -- F + &c. = 2 (S – 2– F. - F. - &c.)
or;--the number of faces which have an odd number of sides is always
etjen.
(64.) The number of all the angles of all the polygons is 2 E; this cannot
be less than 3 S, because there must be at least three plane angles to one
solid angle.
Hence generally 2 E > 3 S except only when all the solid angles are
made by three planes, in which case 2 E = 3 S. And the signs < and >
must be understood with this limitation throughout the present article.
Applying the theorem in (62) we have S < 2 F — 4, and E -< 3 F – 6.
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY, 31
Since 2E > 3 S we have

3F,44F,4-5F46F,4-7F,4 &c. -6+3F,+3F, +4F, F6F, HF, &c.
3 F, + 2 F. -- F. - 12 + F, + &c.
Therefore F., F., F, cannot all be nothing at once; or there is no solid
entirely composed of faces of a higher order than pentagonal: and if there
be neither quadrilateral nor pentagonal faces, there must be more than four
triangles, except only when all are triangles: if there be neither triangles
nor pentagons, there must be more than six quadrilaterals, except where
all are quadrilaterals: if there be neither triangles nor quadrilaterals, there
must be more than twelve pentagons, except where all are pentagons.
(65.) In a similar way it may be shown that in solids which have four or
more plane angles at every solid angle or 2 E > 4S, there cannot be less
than eight triangles; and that in this case S < F-2 and E 3 2 F-4.
Also that in solids which have five or more plane angles at every solid angle,
or in which 2E > 5S, there cannot be less than twenty triangles; and
3 S < 2 F — 4, 3E -< 5 F – 10. Also, that a solid all whose solid
angles have either five or six plane angles, the number of solid angles
having five plane angles is neither more nor less than 12; and that it is
impossible to form a solid all whose solid angles shall contain six or more
plane angles.
'. (66.) We now proceed to inquire how many regular solids may be
formed, that is, solids, the faces of which are all repetitions of the same
equilateral and equiangular polygon. The sphere will then be covered
in as many ways by equilateral and equiangular spherical polygons.
Let F be the number of such polygons and n the number of sides in
each; which last must not be > 5 (65). Let T be the number of plane
angles which meet at each of the solid angles; then since the T angles of
the spherical polygons which lie round any point of the sphere and meet at
the vertex of a solid angle, make up four right angles, every such angle is
27 divided by T, and the sum of all the angles of one n-sided equiangular
polygon is 2 nºt divided by T. Therefore (60) the area of such a spherical
polygon is
r|[*-(–2) -l or ºr rº [+ – G –?)]
2
But F such polygons cover the whole sphere, or make up 4 it r*: which
equated to F times the preceding, gives by reduction
- 4T
F
T 2 n—(n–2) T
We must therefore look for every value of T and it, not greater than 5,
or less than 3, which will make the preceding value of F a whole number.
This will give the values of F ; we have then (59) E = } F n, and
S = E + 2 — F.
(67.) First, we inquire for the regular solids all whose sides are pen
tagons, Let n = 5; then
4T
* = 10-3T
the only solution of which in whole numbers is T = 3; F = 12; which
gives E = 30, and S = 20.

This solid is the regular dodecahedron. (Geom. p. 161, &c.)
(68.) Similarly the regular solids all whose faces are squares are deter
mined from the equation
4T
" .. " - F =
i 8 – 2T
the only solution Öf which is T = 3, F = 6; which gives E = 12, S - 8.
This is the cube. (Geom, p. 161.)
(69.) For regular solids composed entirely of triangles, we have
- -" 4T
* ,
*.
*- -
! F = -d- T
This gives the following results. (Geom. p. 161.)
T F E S Name of the solid.
5 20 30 12 Icosahedron
4 8 12 6 Octobedron
3 4 6 4 Tetrahedron
(70.) The materials of this treatise have been for the most part collected
from Puissant, Traité de Géodésie, Delambre, Traité d’Astronomie (3 vols.
4to), and Legendre, Traité de Géométrie (Brewster's translation) to all of
which works we refer the reader.
The following transformations, which, though not always possible, may

often be used with advantage, have been suggested by a Member of the
Committee. They may be very easily demonstrated. The formulae are
referred to, as in the work.
(O). Assume tan, a = Vtan. a tan. bcos, C. Then
cos. a cos. b -
cos, c = −. Or assume tan. a = tan, a cos. C;

COS.* @
COS. &
then cos. c = cos. (b — w).
OS. Jº
(O.). Assume cos. a = Mººr. COS. G.

'Then
tan.” a
cos. A = -
tan b tau, c'

(O's). Assume tan. a = Mº.
cos. B cos. C
Then
I
COS, a = −F-5.
cos,” a tan. B tan. C
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ºº
CONTENTs.
Elementary Course - e - e e e
Pagev
Table of Reference . e e o e e vii
BOOK I.
Section 1. Definitions e o • e e - e I
2. First theorems - e e s e e 4
3. Parallels e e c e - - II
4. Parallelograms - - º e e 15
* Rectangles under the parts of divided lines e e 19
* Relations of the sides of triangles - e e e 2I
7. Problems e 24
BOOK II.
Section 1. Ratios of commensurable magnitudes s e • 31
* Proportion of commensurable magnitudes º c 37

3. The general theory of proportion e - • 48
4. Proportion of the sides of triangles s e e 57
* Proportion of the surfaces of rectilineal figures º e o 62
* Of lines in harmonical progression e - e º
7. Problems e e e - e e
BOOK III.
Section 1. First properties of the circle e - e 6 e e
* Of angles in a circle e e e - 88
* Rectangles under the segments of chords e : 91
4. Regular Polygons, and approximation to the area of the circle - 99
* The circle a maximum of area, and a minimum of perimeter 106
* Simple and plane loci e e e e 112
7. Problems º e e - e
iv. CONTENTS.
BOOK IV.
Page
Section 1. Of lines, perpendicular, or inclined, or parallel, to planes . . 125
2. Of planes which are parallel, or inclined, or perpendicular, to other
planes . - - - - - 133
3. Of solids contained by planes - - - . 138
4. Problems - - - - - - 150
BOOK V.
Section 1. Surfaces and contents of the right cylinder and right cone - 156
2. Surface and content of the sphere - - - - 175
3. Surfaces and contents of certain portions of the sphere - . 179
BOOK WI.
Section 1. Of great and small circles of the sphere - - - 186

2. Of spherical triangles - - - - - . 189
3. Of equal portions of spherical surface, and the measure of solid angles 194
4. Problems - - - - - - - 203
APPENDIX. -
Part I. Of projection, by lines diverging, and by lines parallel . e 208
II. Of the plane sections of the right cone, or conic sections - 214
III. Plane sections of the oblique cone, of the right cylinder, and of the
oblique cylinder e - - e - - 229
Errata . - - - - - ". 234

Index . - - - - - - 235
* St ſº
& V (),
ſº
T iſ E.
Uniºns ſty
sº
BLEMENTARY COURSE.
IN compiling the present Treatise, the leading object hasbeen to furnish the “Library
of Useful Knowledge” with a body of geometrical information, in which nothing
might be wanting that seemed necessary or desirable, whether to the correct expla
nation and solid establishing of the science, or to its application in the different
branches of natural philosophy. Such an object, it is plain, can never be accom
plished by a mere elementary course, which has solely in view the instruction of
beginners: it implies many discussions and distinctions, many theorems, scholia,
and even whole sections of matter, which it is better that a beginner should pass by,
while he confines his attention to the few and simple but important propositions to
which perpetual reference is made, and which may be regarded as constituting the
high road of Geometry. At the same time, the purposes of instruction have not
been lost sight of; and accordingly, while the present work may be considered
sufficiently extensive to answer every useful purpose, it will be found also to
include, an elementary course of study complete in itself, by the help of which a
Pºrson totally unacquainted with the subject may become his own instructor, and
advance by easy steps to a competent knowledge of it. With this view, the
beginner has only to confine himself to the following portions of the entire work.
Book I. Prop. ; Prop. 7 37 ... h
Geometry of plane rec- 2 8 Prop. 38, omitting the

tilineal %. 147tas- 25 [9] Lemmas in
sisted by theTheory 26 {} the Schol.
of Proportion, # }} %
Definitions
Postulates
30 # º
31 "14 42
Axioms - 32 "15 43 :
Prop. * 33 16 44
3 34
35 His
17 ºs
50, omit ting the
: 36, omittingCor. [19
6 2, Cor. 3., 20 Book III.
7 and the [21 - - --
Scholium [22], omitting Of the Circle.

; 37 Cor. 2 | Definitions
10, omitting the 38 "24
23 Prop
rop. 2
1
Scholium Book II. 25 3
12 Theory of Proportion, 3. :
13 and its application [28], omitting the 6
14, as hereafter to the Geometry of general Scholium 7
altered, * #. rectiºneal Introductory part of 8, *::::::: the
omitting the Sect. 3. CI101,
5 Scholium ºn: -
29 #
xioms 30 1
17 Prop. 1 31 13
18 2 32, omitting
34
14
16 ....
20
19 4
3 Cor. 3 15
21 5 35 17, omit ting the

Scho
22 6 36 l,
vi ELEMENTARY COURSE.
Prop.
p 18
19 Prop.
p 2
3 Prop. 32
p 33 Prop. 16
17 r
20 4 34 18
21 5 35
26 6 Book VI.
27,
28' omitting
Cor. ;: 7
8 Book W. Spherical Geometry.
29 10 - -
30 11 of the Right Cylinder, Definition

31 12 Right Cone, and Prop. 1
Sphere.
32
33, omitting Cor.
44
1. and Cor. 2.
13
14
15
16
Definitions
Lem. 1
Lem. 2
2
3
4
5
l
45
46
17
18
Prop. 21 6
7
47 19 3 8
48 20 4 9
49 21 5 10
50 22, omitting the 6 11

Schol. 7 12
Book IV. 23
24
8
9
13
14
of Lines in different 25 10 15
Planes, and of So- 26 11 16
lids contained by 27 12 17
Planes. 28 13 18
29 14 19
Definitions 30 Lem. 3 20
Prop. 1 31 Prop. 15 -- 21
In the above table the propositions only are mentioned: when corollaries or
scholia are attached to any of the propositions, they are likewise to be attended tº,
unless the contrary is expressly stated. . The sections of Problems (omitting III.
64, Case 4, the solution of which depends on a lemma of the scholium following
ii. 33) will, it is apprehended, be found rather entertaining and serviceable to a
beginner than otherwise; they are not necessary, however, and are therefore omit
ted in the table. .
The demonstration of the converse part of Book I. Prop. 14., is attended with a
difficulty which is stated at some length in page 11, as we have been anxious that
the student should be fully aware of its existence. It will be bette. however, in a
first perusal, to avoid this difficulty by making, at ongº, the following assumption;
“Through the same point there cannot pass two different straight lines, each of
which
The isconverse
parallel part
to theofsame straight
Prop. line.”
14, viz. that “parallel straight lines are at right -
angles to the same straight line,” will then be demonstrated as follows :-

et A B be parallel to CD, and from any point E ºf
A B let
shall EFbebeat drawn
also at right
right angles angles to CD (12.): EF A:A
to AB. Pi—I:
For; if A B be not at right angles to EF, through the |- ſº
point E let A'B' be drawn at right angles to EF (post, 5.2, c F I)
Then,
and CDby are,
the former
each ofpart of the
them proposition,
at right angles tobecause
E F, AA BB' is parallel to C. D. But
AB is parallel to CD. Therefore, through the same point E there pass the two
straight lines A B and A'B', each of which is parallel to S.P. fut it is assumed
that this is impossible. Therefore, the supposition that AB is not at right angles
to E.F is impossible; that is, AB is at right angles to E F. •
It will be found that the Course just laid down, excepting the sixth Book of it
only, is not of much greater extent, nor very different in Point of matter from that
of Éuclid, whose “Elements” have at all times been justly esteemed a model not
only of easy and progressive instruction in Geometry, but of acº and persp
cuity in reasoning. A perusal of this work, as translated and edited by Sims”
though certainly not essential to an acquaintance with geometry, is strongly re
commended to the student, -
vii
A.
TABLE OF REFERE N C E,
Showing the Propositions and Corollaries of Simson's Euclid which are to be found in the
present Treatise, and the parts of the Treatise corresponding to them.
Treatise.
Treatise. Euclid. Treatise.
I. 42
. I. 30 IV. 3
.. 4 . III. 62
6 . 30. Cor. 4 . - 59
31 5 . 59
. 6. Cor. 1 -
6 . 32 6 . - 63
- 34
6. Cor. 1 7 - • 63
. 33 10 . - 28
- 33. Cor. 11 . 63
. 35
- 35 12 . - 27. Cor. 1
. 37 and 63
- 37
. 58 15 - . 63
. Ili. 55 15. Cor. 28
1 16 - . 63
... 3 W. 3 . ... II. 2
. 3. Cor. 4 4 - . 16
. 6. Cor. 7 . - 10
- 6. Cor. 8 - . 11
. 8. Sch.
9 . - 11. Cor. 1
10 - 11. Cor. 3
. 12
11 -
7".
12 - . 23. Cor. I
13 . - 12. Cor. 1
-
;. |7"-
32. Cor. 2.
33 -
. 55. Cor.
34 . - - 12 and 14.
Cor. 2
. 12 and 14.
Cor. 2
- 12. Cor. 1
. 12. Cor. 1
:;º.
- 54
. 15. Cor. 1
and Cor. 2
. 22. Cor.3
OF REFERENCE.
Treatise. TreatiSe. Euclid. Treatise. -
II. 54 . III. 23 XI. 28 . . IV. 22 -; -

52 © . 25 29 . • 23
IV. 1 30 . 23
31 . - 24
. 38. Cor. 3 32 • . 26
Cor. 1 D . • 27. Cor. 1
XII. 1 III. 30
2 . 33
| 8
5
6 .
8. Cor.
10
11 .
.
7. Cor. 1
7. Cor.2.
•
•
-
IV. 32. Cor. 2
. 31
. 34
34
32. Cor. 2
29. Cor. 2
V. 9. Cor. 2
4. Cor. 3,
and 9. Cor. 4
44 12 - . 5 and l0
' . Iii.i3 and 14. . Cor. 2 14 . - 4. Cor.3,
Cor. 2 and 9. Cor. 4
II. 50 18 • . 18
. III. 22
GEOM ETRY.
BOOK I. 3. A line is the boundary of a surface,
§ 1. Definitions—$ 2. First Theorems— having length ..";
4. k point is the extremity of a line,
§ 3. Parallels—S 4. Parallelograms
~$.5. Rectangles under the parts of having no dimensions of any kind—nei.
givided Lines—S 6. Relations of the ther length, nor breadth, nor thickness.
Sides of Triangles—$ 7. Problems. 5. (Euc. i. def. 4.)* A right line, or
SECTION I. Definitions. straight line, is that which lies evenly
between its extreme points.
GEOMETRY is the science of extension. When the word “line" is used by itself
The subjects which it considers are ex in the following pages, a straight line is
tent of distance, extent of surface, and to be understood.
extent of capacity or solid content, 6. Any line of which no part is
The name Geometry is derived from a right line is called a curve.
two Greek words, signifying land and to If a curve be cut by a straight
(leasure. Hence it would appear that lineintwopoints, the curveis said
the measurement of land was the most to be concave towards that side
important (perhaps the only) use to upon which the straight line lies,
which this science was, in the first in and towards the other side, con
stance, applied. Egypt is described to 2)e^.
have been its birth-place, where the anº 7. (Euc. i. def. 7.) A plane surface,
nual inundations of the Nile rendered or plane, is that, in which any two points
it of peculiar value to the inhabitants as whatsoever being taken, the straight line
a means of ascertaining their effaced between them lies wholly in that surfa.
boundaries. From the Egyptians the
8. A surface, of which no part is plane,
ancient Greeks derived their acquaint. is said to be curved.
ance with it; and, in the hands ºf this 9. If there be two
B
ºute people, it was carried, from a state straight lines in the
of comparative nothingness, to a degree same plane, which meet
of perfection which has scarcely been one another in a point,
advanced by Succeeding ages. If, how they are said to form at
ever, as a science, Geometry has made that point a plane recti A- C.
but little progress, since it was so SuG bineal angle.

cessfully cultivated by the Greeks, its The magnitude of an angle does Inot
uses have been both multiplied and ex depend upon the length of its Čegs, that
tended. In the present day it embraces is, of the straight lines by which it is A
the measurement equally of the earth
çontained, but upon the opening between
*nd of the heavens: it forms with a th. them, or the extent to which they are
*tie the basis of all accurate concil. separated the one from the other, Thus,
* in, the mixed sciences; and there the angle B A C is greater than the an
* Searcely any mechanical art, our views gle B.A. D., by the angle D.A. C.
of which may not be improved by an If there be only one angle at the point
“º with it.
he truths of Geometry are founded A, it may be denoted by the letter. A alone,
upon definitions, each furnishing at once as “the angle A ;” but if there be In Ore
angles at the same point, it becomes ne
An exact notion of the thing defined, and cessary to indicate the containing sides of
tº groundwork of aii j re each, in order to distinguish it from the
lating to it. The leading definitions are
as follows:—
* This and the like references are to Simson’s
t". A solid is a magnitude having three Euclid, the Roman ºneral indicating the book, and
lºsions—engi, breadth, and thick
S.
the other the Proposition. When the refºre... is to
a definition, as in the Present instance, or to as
*ś9m; the same is partičula.ed by the initial syl
* A surface is the boundary of a lable Def, or Ax. The mºst important definitions
*d, having length and bºth only. only, which are taken from Euclid, and stated in
nearly the same words, are here referred to,
B
2 GEOMETRY. [I. § 1.
others: thus, the angle B A C is distin In the adjoined
guished from B A D and DAC. In figure, A is a right
this case the middle letter, as A, always angled triangle ; B an
denotes the angular point. obtuse-angled trian
10. (Euc. i. def. 10.) When a gle; and C an acute
straight line standing upon another
straight line makes the adjacent angles
/* \
angled triangle.
16. A triangle is
º
equal to one another, each of them is also said to be equilateral, when its
called a right angle, and the straight three sides are equal to one another;
line which stands upon the other is called tsosceles, when only two
a perpendicular to it. of
andits sides when
scalene, are equal;
it has /id
1]. If an angle be
not right, it is called three unequal sides. D
oblique. An oblique is an equilateral triangle,
E an isosceles triangle, / ; E.
angle is said to be
acute or obtuse, ac
cording as it is less B ty
and F a scalene triangle. –
The three sides of any the same
or greater than a right angle. triangle are frequently distinguished by
in the adjoined figure, ABC is a right giving to one of them the name of base,
angle, D BC an acute angle, and EBC in which case the other two are called
an obtuse angle. the two sides, and the angular point
12. (Euc. i. def. opposite to the base is called the pertº
35.) If there betwo or summit. In an isosceles triangle,
straight lines in the considered as such, the vertea is the
same plane, which, angular point between the two equal
being produced ever so far both ways, do sides, and the base the side opposite -
not meet, these straight lines are called to it.

parallels. -
In a right-angled triangle, the side
13. A plane figure is any portion of a which is opposite to the right anglº is
plane surface which is included by aline two called the hypotenuse; and of the ºther
or lines. sides, one is frequently termed the
-
The whole circuit of any figure, that base, and the other the perpendiculār;
is, the extent of the line or limes by which ram 17. Of quadrilaterals, a parallelo
it is included, is called its perimeter. is that which has its opposite sides
14. A plane rectilineal figure is any parallel, as A B C D. A. quadrilateral
portion of a plane surface, which is in which has only two of its sides parallel
is called a trapezoid, as A B E D. -
ăluded by right lines. These right lines A parallelogram, or indeed any quadri
are called the sides of the figure, and it
is said to be trilateral, or quadrilateral, lateral figure, is sometimes cited by two
or multilateral, according as it has three, letters only placed at oppºsiº angles:
as “the parallelogram AC", “ the trape
or four, or a greater number of sides.
zoid A.E.” This plan is never adopted,
A trilateral figure is more commonly however, where confusion might ensue
called a triangle, and a multilateral from it: when used, it must always be
figure a polygon. in such a way as to avoid uncertainty;
It is further to be un thus, by “the quadrilaterºl BD” in the
derstood of rectilineal fi- A adjoined figure, either ABCD.9. ABED
gures in the present trea might be intended, whereas “the qua
ise, that the several an: -
gles are contained towards the interior of i.e. A Cº is distinct from “the
the figure; that is, thattheyhayenº such quadrilateral A.E.”
angle as the re-entering angle A in the 18. A rhombus is a parallelogram
figure which is adjoined. In other which has two adjoining sides equal.
words, their perimeters are supposed to
be convex externally. -
I. A triangle is said to be, right.

angled, when it has a right angle. Of
triangles, which are not right-angled,
... "which are therefore said, tº be
oblique-angled-an obtuse-angled tri
angle is that which has an obtuse angle;
| | || B
19. A
hasrectangle
and an acute-angled triangle is that is a parallelºgº
which a right angle. A rectangle
which has three acute angles.
y
I. § 1.] GEOMEffy,
is said to be contained by any two of its 1°, the enunciation, declaring what is
adjoining sides; as A C, which is called to be proved or done; -
the rectangle under AB, B C, or the 2°, the construction, inserting the
rectangle AB, BC. lines necessary thereto;
-
20. A square is a rectangle which has 3°, the demonstration, or course of

two adjoining sides equal. The square reasoning; —And,
described upon any straight line AB, 4°, the conclusion, asserting that the
or the square of which AB is a side, is thing required has been proved or done.
called the square of AB, or A B square, A corollary to any proposition is a
21. The altitude of a parallelogram statement of some truth, which is an ob
or triangle, is a perpendicular drawn to vious consequence of the proposition.
the base from the side or angle opposite. A scholium is a remark or observation.
22. The diagonals of a quadrilateral The object of a problem, as above
are the straight lines which join its op stated, is evidently distinct from that of |
posite angles. a theorem. If a problem be regarded,
23. If
point, through
E, in the dia-a ta
however, as demonstrating merely the
eacistence of the points and lines required
gonal of a paral in its enunciation, it becomes, for our
lelogram, A B C D, +3
Purposes, a theorem certifying the exist
t;
straight lines be -
ence of such. And hence has arisenfhe
-
drawn parallel to two adjacent sides, introduction of problems into the theo.
the whole parallelogram will be di Qf Geometry; for, the existence of the
vided into four quadrilaterals; of lines and points specified in the com.
which two, having the parts of the structions of some theorems not being
diagonal for their diagonals, are for that altogether self-evident, it became neces:
reason said to be about the diagonal;
|
sary; either to introduce distinct problems
and the two others, A E, EC, are called for the finding of such, or to point out
complements, because, together with the the certainty of their existence by the
portions about the diagonal, they com way of theorem and Corollary, as occa
plete the whole parallelogram A B C D, sion offered. -
24. A circle is a plane -

The former plan, exemplified in
figure contained by one Euclid's Elements, has been followed b
line, which is called the ſº
the greater number of geometrical
circumference, and is Writers; although the problems intro
Such that all straight duced have not, in all gases, been limited
lines drawn from a cer- * to the very few which are necessary to
tain point within the figure to the cir support the theory. To avoid thus’s.
Cumference are equal to one another. crificing unity of Purpose, and at the -
This point is called the centre of the same time not to be Wanting to the ends
circle; and the distance from the centre of practical geºmetry, the problems in
to the circumference is called the ra the present treatise have been altogether
dius, or, sometimes, the semidiameter, separated from the theorems; and the
because it is the half of a straight line requisite support has been Supplied to
passing through the centre and termi the latter, in the second of the two ways
*
nºted both ways by the circumference, above mentioned. y
which straight line is called a diameter. The existence of the followin li
The point C is the centre of the circle will be taken for granted; j º;
AB D: A B is a diameter; and AC a therefore, be referred to by the name of
radius or semidiameter.
Postul.ATEs.4
The truths and questions of Geometry passes1. Athrough
straight
twoline,
givenwhich
pº io; Or
* fºr the sake of perspicuity, stated aná
°ºsidered in small separate discourses
Called Propositions; it being proposed in ------*----------4----
them either to demonstrate something

Whigh is asserted, a proposition of which 2. A circle, which is
kind is called a theorem, or to show the ...------, **
*her of doing something which is described from a given º'

centre, C, with a given ; —º
‘.
jºired to be done, a proposition of radius, CA. \, c A.

Which kind is called a problem.
A proposition has commonly the fol *------.”
lowing parts:- - - ...” Things required 5 from the Latin 20stulo,
require, to ,
B 2
GEOMETRY. [I. § 2,
3. A point which bi of it; the two together shall be double
sects a given finite A —— B of the third magnitude. -
straight line, A B, 10. Straight lines which pass through

that is, which divides it into two equal the same two points lie in one and the
parts. - same straight line.
A.
11: Magnitudes, which may be made
to coincide with one another, that is, to
fill exactly the same space, are equal to
4. A straight line one another.
which bisects a given The converse of this last axiom is like
angle, B.A. C. wise true of some magnitudes. In what
follows, it will be assumed, with regard
to straight lines and angles; i.e. it will
be assumed that if two straight lines are
5. A perpendicular to -
equal, they may be made to coincide
a given straight line, ; with one another, and the same of two
erected from a given t
point in the same. -

angles.
-R-H
6. A straight line, which makes with SECTION 2. First Theorems.
a given straight line, A B, at a given PROP. 1. (EUc. i. Aac. 11.)
Pºint, A, an angle equal to a given rec All right angles are A.
tilineal angle, C. equal to one another.
Let the angles A B C,
DE F be each of them
a right angle; the angle
c A B C shall be equal to * *
the angle DE F.
The following truths require no steps Produce C B to any
of reasoning to establish their evidence. point G, and FE to any
It may be said of them, that no demon point H. Then, because ...
stration can make them more evident A B C is a right angle, *
than they are already, without it: they it is equal to the adjacent angle A BG
are, therefore, called self-evident truths (def. 10.); and because DE Fis a right
or arioms. They will be found of per angle, it is equal to DE H.
petual recurrence in demonstrating the Then, From E draw any straight line E K.
propositions of the following sections, and because the angle KEH is greater
than D E H, and that D E H is equal to
are therefore here premised:— DE F, K E H is greater than DEF:
Axioms.” but D E Fis greater than KE F: much
1. Things, which are equal to the more, then, is K E H greater than KE.F.
same, are equal to one another. Now, let the angle A B C be applied
2. If equals be added to equals, the to the angle DEF, so that the point B
wholes are equal. may be upon E, and the straight line BC
3. If equals be taken from equals, upon E.F.; then (ax. 10.) B G will coin
the remainders are equal. cide with E H. And, B G coinciding with
4. The doubles of equals are equal. EH, B A must also coincide with ED;
for, should it fall otherwi as E K, the se,
5. The halves of equals are equal.
6. The greater of two magnitudes, angle A B G would be greater than
increased or diminished by any magni A B C, by what has been already demon
,
tude, is greater than the less increased strated, whereas they are equal to one
or diminished by the same magnitude. another.
7. The double of the greater is greater Therefore, B A coincides with ED,
than the double of the less. and the angle A B C coincides with the
8. The half of the greater is greater angle DEF, and (ax. 11.) is equal to it.to
than the half of the less. Therefore, all right angles are equal
-
9. If there be two magnitudes, and a one another, which was to be demon

third, and if one of them exceed the strated.
third by as much as the other falls short PROP. 2. (EUc. i. 13 & 14.)
The adjacent angles, which one
• Authorities, or things having authority; from a straight line makes with another upon
Greek word.
I. § 2.] GEOMETRY. 5
one side of it, are either two right Cor. 2, Any angle of a triangle is
angles, or are together equal to two less than two right angles.
j. angles: and, conversely, if the PROP. 3. (EUc. i. 15.)
jacent angles, which one straight line
makes with two others at the same If two straight lines cut one another,
point, be together equal to two right the vertical or opposite angles shall be
angles, these two straight lines shall be
in one and the same straight line. *u. h
et the two straight
2.
Let the straightline
Afi mie with ºf
upon one side of it,
"
|
º lines A B, C D, cut
one another in the
point E: the vertical 5
E_2^
Q.
the adjacent angles : angles AED, B E C, a

A B C, AB D: these * * ** as also the vertical |
are either two right angles, or are to angles A E C, BE D, shall be equal to
gether equal to two right angles. one another.
For, if they are equal, then is each of Because the angles A E C, AED
them (def. 10.) a right angle. are adjacent angles made by the straight
But, if not, from the point B draw line A E with CD, they are (2.) to
BEperpendicular to CD (Post. 5.). And gether equal to two right angles; and
because the angle EBD is equal to the for the like reason, the angles A E C,
two angles, EBA, ABD, to each of C E B, are together equal to two right
these equals add the angle E B C : angles; therefore, (ax. 1.) the angles
therefore, (ax. 2.) the two angles E B C, A EC, A E D together are equal to the
EBD are equal to the three angles angles A. E.C., C E B together. From
E B C, E BA, A B D. And in the each of these equals take the angle
same manner it may be shewn, that the A EC, and the angle A E D is equal to
two angles A B C, ABD, are equal to the angle C E B. (ax. 3.) In the same
the same three angles. Therefore, (ax. 1.) manner it may be shown that the angles
the angles A B C, ABD, are together A EC, B E D are equal to one another.
equal to the angles E B C, E B D, that is, Therefore, &c.
to two right angles. Cor. (Euc.i. 15. Cor. 2.) If any number
Next, let the straight line A B make of straight lines pass through the same
with the two straight limes, B C, B D, at point, all the angles about that point,
the same point B, the adjacent angles (made by each with that next to it,) shall
A B C, A B D together equal to two right be together equal to four right angles.
angles: BC, B D shall be in one and
the same straight line. PROP. 4. (EUc. i. 4.)
. For, let B F be in the same straight If two triangles have two sides of the
line with B.C.: then, by the first part of one equal to two sides of the other, each
the proposition, because A B makes to each, and likewise the included angles
angles with CF upon one side of it, these equal; their other angles shall be equal,
angles, viz. A B C, ABF, are together each to each, viz. those to which the
equal to two right angles. But A B C, equal sides are opposite, and the base,
AB Dare also equal to two right angles; or third side, ºf the one shall be equal to
therefore, (ax. 1.) A B C, ABD together the base, or third side, of the other.
are equal to A B C, A B F together; Let A B C, DEF be two triangles,
and, A B C being taken from each of which have the two sides A B, XC,
these equals, the angle AB Dis equal to equal to the two sides D. E., D F, each to
ABF (ax. 3.) Therefore B D coincides each, viz. A B to D E, and A C to D F
With B.F.; that is, it is in the same and let them, likewise have the anglé
straight line with B. C. BAC equal to the angle E D F : their
Therefore, &c." other angles shall be equal, each to
...99ſ. 1. If from a point in a straight each, viz. A B C to DEF, and AC B
line, there be drawn any number of to D FE, and the A. I)
straight lines upon one side of it, all the base B C shall be
àngles (made by each with that next to equal to the base
it) shall be togeth
angles. 1 t igh
gether equal to two right EF.
T--— A For
B C if
bethe triangle
applied to à-3 #---,
ro
-
t º: the adjacent angle ABD is sometimes said the triangle DEF, so

.*.*.*Pºlementary to ABC; one angle being called
ºff. of another, when together with that that the point A may
other it is equal to two right angles, . -
be upon D, and the - -- º:

6. GEOMETRY. [I. § 2,
straight line A B upon DE, the straight equal to them; and the angle B A C
line A C will coincide with DF, because coincides with the angle EDF, and is
the angle BAC is equal to EDF. Also equal to it (ax. I 1.).
the point B will coincide with E, because Therefore, &c.
A B is equal to DE, and the point C Çor. The two triangles are equal also
with F, because A C is equal fo D F; as to surface.
and, because the points B, C, coincidé
with the points E, F, the straight line PROP. 6. (EUC. i. 5 & 6.)
B C coincides with the straight line EF If two sides of a triangle be equal to
(ax. 10.), and (ax. 11.) is equal to it; the ºne another, the opposite angles shall
angle A B C coincides with DE F, and be likewise equal; and conversely, if
is equal to it; and the angle A C B with two angles of a triangle be equal to one
the angle D FE, and is equal to it. another, the opposite sides A.
Therefore, &c. shall be likewise equal.
Cor. The two triangles are equal also Let A B C be an isosceles
as to surface. - triangle, having the side A B
Scholium. equal to the side A C ; the
It is indifferent which of the two trian angle A C B shall be equal
gles DEF be taken, although in these to the angle A B C.
triangles the side D E lie in opposite di Let the angle B A C be divided into
rections from DF; viz. to the right of it in two equal angles by the straight line
the one, and to the left of it in the other. A D, which meets the base BC in D
The same may be observed of the next (Post, 4). Then, because the triangles
proposition, and of all cases of plane tri A D B, A D C have two sides of the
angles, which are equal in every respect. one equal to two sides of the other, each
to each, and the interjacent angles
PROP. 5. (EUc. i. 26, first part of.) B AD, CAD equal to one another,
If two triangles have two angles of their other angles are equal, each to
the one equal to two angles of the other, each (4.); therefore the angle A C B is
each to each, and likewise the interja equal to A B C.
cent” sides equal ; their other sides shall Next, let the angle A B C be equal
be equal, each to each, viz. those to to the angle A C B : the side A C shall
aphich the equal angles are opposite, be equal to the side A B.
and the third angle of the one shall be From D, the middle point of B C,
equal to the third angle of the other. erect a perpendicular to B C (Post, 3.
Let ABC, DE F (see the last figure) and 5.): and, if it do not pass through
be two triangles which have the two the vertex A, let this perpendicular, if
angles A B C, A C B of the one, equal possible, cut one of the sides as A B in
to the two angles D EF, D FE of the E, and join E C. Then, because the tri
other, each to each, and likewise the angles E D B, E D C have two sides of
side B C equal to the side E F : their the one equal to two sides of the other,
other sides shall be equal, each to each, each to each, and the included angles
and the third angle B A C shall be ED B, E D C equal to one another
equal to the third angle E D F. (def. 10.), their other angles are equal,
For, if the triangle A B C be applied each to each (4.). Therefore the angle
to the triangle DEF, so that the point B ECD is equal to EBD. But EBD or
may be upon E, and the straightline BG ABD is equal to ACB : therefore the an
upon EF, the point C will coincide with gle ECD is equal to ACB (ax. 1.), the
the point F, because B C is equal to E.F. less to the greater, which is impossible,
Also the straight line B A will coincide Therefore the perpendicular at D cannot
in direction with ED, because the angle pass otherwise than through the Wertex
C B A is equal to FED, and the A: and because the triangles A D B,
straight line C A with FD, because the A D C are equal, according to Prºp. 4.,
angle B C A is equal to E FD. But, if the side A B is equal to the side A.C.
two straight limes which cut one an Therefore, &c. - -
other, coincide with other two which Cor. 1. Every equilateral triangle is
cut one another, it is manifest that the also equiangular; and conversely:
points of intersection must likewise coin Cor. 2. In an isosceles triangle ABC,
cide. Therefore, the point A coincides if the equal sides A B, A, G, be pro
with D, and the sides A B, A C, coin duced, the angles upon the other side of
cide with the sides DE, DF, and are the base B C will be equal to one an
* “Interjacent sides,” i.e. sides lying between. other; for, each of them together with
I. § 2.] GEOMETRY. - y
one of the equal angles ABC, ACB, is to EGD, . Therefore the angle EDF,
equal to two right angles (2.). which is the sum or difference of the
Cor. 3. The straight line which bi two E D G, F D G, is equal to the angle
sects the vertical angle of an isosceles EGF, which is the sum or difference of
triangle, bisects the base at right angles: the two E G D, F G D (ax. 2., 3.). But
and conversely, the straight line which E.G F is equal to B A C, because (4.) the
bisects the base at right angles, passes triangle GEF is equal to the triangle
through the vertex, and bisects the ver A B C in every respect: therefore, (ax.
tical angle. - 1.) the angle E D F is equal to the angle
Cor. 4. If there be two isosceles tri B.A. C. When G D coincides with GE,
angles upon the same base (whether G E D is a straight line, and the angles
they be upon the same side of it or upon at G and D are the angles at the base
different sides), the straight line which of the isosceles, triangle F D G ; where
joins their vertices or summits, or that fore the latter is equal to the angle at
straight line produced, shall bisect the G, that is, to the angle at A, as before.
base at right angles. For the straight Therefore, &c.
line which bisects the base at right an Cor. The two triangles are equal in
gles passes through the vertex of each. every respect. (4. & 4 Cor.)
PROP. 7. (EUC. i. 8.) PROP. 8. (EUc. i. 17.)
If two triangles have two sides of the Any two angles of a triangle are to
one equal to two sides of the other, each ether less than two right angles.
to each, and have likewise their bases Let A B C be any tri
its
equal, the angle contained by the two angle: any two of
A.
sides of the one shall be equal to the angles, ABC and ACB,
angle contained by the two sides equal shall be together less than
to them of the other. two right angles. -
Let A B C, DE F be two triangles, Bisect B C in D (Post. ET/TVă î:

having the two sides of the one equal to 3.): join AD, and pro
two sides of the other, each to each, and duce it to E, so that DE
likewise the base B C equal to the base . be equal to A D ; Tº
EF: the angle BAC shall be equal to and join C. E.
the angle EDF. Then, because the triangles A B D
At the point E in the straight line E C D have two sides of the one equal to
EF, make the angle FEG equal to the the two sides of the other, each to each,
angle A B C (Post. 6.) : take E G equal and the included angles A D B, E D C,
to BA or ED, and join G F, G D. Then equal to one another (3.), the angle E CD
because the triangles A B C, GEF, have is equal to the angle ABD or ABC. (4.)
two sides of the one equal to two sides Therefore, the two angles A B C, A C B
of the other, each to each, and the in taken together are equal to the two
cluded angles equal to one another, the angles E CD, A C B taken together
base G F is equal to A C (4.) that is, to (ax. 2.), that is, to the angle C E.
D F. Again, because in the triangle But (2. Cor. 2.) the angle A C E is less
FD G, the side FD is equal to FG, the than two right angles. Therefore, the º
angle FD G is equal to FG D (6.). For angles A B C, A C B together are less
the like reason, the angle EDG is equal than two right angles.
Therefore, &c.
Cor. 1. (Euc. i. 16.) If one side of
a triangle A B C, as BC, be produced
to F, the exterior angle A C F shall be
greater than either of the interior and
opposite angles at A and B; for either
of these angles taken with the angle
A C B, is less than two right angles,
but the angle A C F, taken with the
same A CB, is equal to two right
angles (2.).
Cor. 2. A triangle cannot have more
than one right angle, or more than one
obtuse angle.
PRop. 9. (EUC. i. 18. & 19.)
If one side of a triangle be greater
8 GEOMETRY.
[I. § 2,
than another, the opposite angle shall gether greater than B C, if A C be taken
likewise begreater than the angle oppo from each, BA alone is greater than
site to that other; and conversely. the difference of B C and A. C.
In the triangle A B C, let the side Therefore, &c.
A B be greater than .A. Cor. 1. (Euc. i. 21, part A.
al
A C, the angle A C B
shalllikewise be greater
of) If therebe two triangles
n^º A B C, D B C, upon the .E.
than the angle A B C. same base BC, and if the

vertex of one of them, as
D, fall within the other, the 5 d
Take A D equal to A C, and join two sides of that triangle will be less than
CD. Then, because AD is equal to the two sides of the other. For, if CD be
A C, the angle A CD is equal to the produced to meet the side A B of the en
angle A D C (6.). But, because the veloping triangle in E, BD and DC
side B D of the triangle C D B is pro together will be less than B E and EC
duced to A, the exterior angle ADC together, (ax. 6.) because B D is less than
is greater than the interior and opposite BE and ED together: and, for the like
angle D B Cor A B C. (8.Gor. 1.) reason, B E and EC together are less
Therefore, the angle A CD, and than B A and A C together: much
much more ACB, is also greater than more, then, are B D and D C together
A B C. less than B A and A C together.
Next, let the angle A C B be greater Cor. 2. Any side of a rectilineal figure
than the angle A B C ; the side A B is less than the sum of all the other sides.
shall likewise be greater than the side Cor. 3. And, hence, it may easily be
AC. For, A B cannot be equal to demonstrated, that if there be two rectili
AC; because, then, (6.) the angle ACB neal figures ADC, D B C upon the same
would be equal to A B C, which is not base B C, one of which
the case: neither can it be less than
wholly envelopes the
A C, because then, by the former part other, the perimeter of
of the proposition, the angle AC B the enveloping figure
would be less than A B C, which is not must be greater than
the case. Therefore A B cannot but the perimeter of the
be greater than A. C. other.
Therefore, &c.
Scholium.
PROP. 10. (EUc. i. 20.) By help of this proposition it may
Any two sides of a triangle are to be shown that a straight line is the
gether greater than the third side; and shortest distance between two points A
any side of a triangle is greater than and B. -
the difference of the other two. Let A C B be the straight line join
Let A B C be a triangle: any two of ing A and B, and A DE B any other
its sides, A B and A C, shall #. toge line drawn from A to B. In A CB
ther greater than ID take any point C;
the third side BC; and from the centre ~D
A
and any side A B A with the radius
alone shall be A
cle,Ccutting
describe
ADa EB
cir A.
greater than the iſ c
difference of B C in D; and join AD, DB. Then, be
and A C, the other two sides. cause A D and D B are together greater
Produce B.A. to D, so that A D may than A B, and that AD is equal to A C,
be equal to A C, and join C D. Then, D B is greater than C B (ax. 6.). There
because A D is equal to A C, the angle fore, if a circle be described from the
A CD is equal to A D C (6.) But the centre B with the radius B C, it will cut
angle B C D is greater than A CD: the straight line D B in some point be
therefore, the angle B C D is greater tween D and B ; and, consequently, the
also than ADC or B D C. Therefore, line A DE B in some point E which is
(9) the side, BD, is, likewise, greater in the part DE B. Join E B. Then,
than B.C. But, B D is equal to B A if A D be made to coincide with AC,
and A C together, because A D is equal and B E with B C, it is evident that the
to A. C. Therefore B A and A C to.
parts A D and E B (curvilineal or
gether are greater than B C. 9therwise) of the whole line A DE B
And, because B A and A C are to (curvilineal or otherwise) will form a
I. $2.] GEOMETRY. - 9
complete path from A to B, which is Now, the line D F falls between D E

shorter than AD E B by the intermedi and D G, because the angle E D G is
ate part D E. equal to B A C, which is supposed to
Therefore, there is no path from A to be greater than EDF. But the point F
B, the straight line ACB excepted, than may fall 1* without the triangle DEG ;
which a shorter may not be found be or 2° upon the base E G ; or 3° within
tween A and B. But, since none of the the triangle DE G.
paths from A to B can be less than of In the first case, because D G is
some certain length, there must be some, equal to AC, that is, to D F, the angle
one or more, shorter than the others. DFG is equal to the angle D G F (6.).
Therefore, the shortest path is the But the angle E FG is greater than
straight line A. C. B. From this pro D FG, and E G F is less than D G F.
perty the straight line which joins two Therefore much more is the angle EFG.
oints derives the name of the distance greater than the angle EGF. There
etween them. fore, also, the side E G, that is B C, is
Hence, also, we may C
greater than E F (9.).
infer, that of any two In the second case, A To
paths, A C B, A D B,
leading
and from A tocon-
everywhere B, *
2’sº IB
it is at once evident
that EG, that is, B C,
is greater than E F.
cave towards the straight line A B, that 3. d FTETE
which is enveloped ; the other, as
In the third case, let D F and D G be
ADB, is the shortest. For of all the paths
not lying between ADB and the straight produced to H and K. Then, because
line A B, there is mone, A D B excepted, D F is equal to D G, the angles H. F.G,
than which a shorter may not be found. KGF, upon the other side of the base of
And this is the case whether the paths the isosceles triangle DFG, are equal to
A C B and ADB be both of them cur
vilineal, or one of them, (ACB or ADB)
rectilineal.
PROP. l I. (EUc. i. 24 & 25.)

If two triangles have two sides of the
one equal to two sides of the other, each
to each, but the angle which is contained
//
by the two sides qf the one greater than one another (6. Cor. 2.). But EFG is
the angle which is contained by the two greater than H F G, and E G F is less
sides equal to them of the other, the base than K G F. Therefore much more is
of that which has the#ſº angle shall
be #. than the base of the other: the angle EFG greater than the angle
E G F, as in the first case, and the side
and conversely. E G, that is B C, is greater than E F (9.).
Let A B C, Next, let the base B C be greater than
DE F, be two the base EF; the angle B A C shall
triangles having likewise be greater than the angle EDF.
the two sides AB, For B A C cannot be equal to ED F,
A C of the one because then (4.) the base BC would be
equal to the two I equal to the base EF; meither can it be
sides DE, D F of the other, each to less than EDF, because then, by the
each, but the angle BAC greater than former part of the proposition, the base
the angle ED F : the base B C shall be B C would be less than the base E. F.
greater than the base E F. Therefore, the angle B A C cannot but
At the point D in the straight line be greater than the angle EDF.
DE, make the angle EDG equal to the Therefore, &c.
angle BAC (Post, 6.); take DG equal to PROP. 12.
AC, and join EG, G F. Then, because
the triangles A B C, DE G have two 4, straight line may be drawn per
sides of the one equal to two sides of the pendicular to a given straight line of
other, each to each, and the included indefinite length, from any given point
angles BA C, E D G equal to one ano without it ; but, from the same point,
ther, the bases B C, E G are equal to there cannot be drawn more than one
One another (4.). perpendicular to the same straight line,
Let B C be -A A F is called also the distance of the
a given straight point A from the line B.C.
line of indefinite % Cor. 4. Hence, if, from the centre A,
length,
given point amy
and Awith- -**/l
`--~ 4– c
a circle be described with a radius less
º
than the perpendicular A F, it will not
out it. A perpen- -- meet the straight line BC; if with a
dicular may be drawn from the point A radius equal to A F, it will meet B C in
to the straight line B.C. -
one point only, which is the foot of the
In B C take any point D; join AD, perpendicular; and if with a radius
and produce it to any point E, (Post. 1.). greater than AF, it will meet B C in two
With the centre A and the radius AE de points, which are at equal distances from
scribe a circle cutting B C in the points B the foot ofthe perpendicular, upon either
and C upon each side of the point D, side of it.
(Post. 2.). Bisect B C in F, and join PROP. 13:
AF, AB, AC, (Post. 3.). Them because
AB is equal to AC, ABC is an isosceles If, in two right-angled triangles, the
triangle. Therefore AF, which is drawn hypotenuse and a side of the one be
from the vertex A to the middle point of equal to the hypotenuse and a side of
the base B C, is perpendicular to the the other; or, if the hypotenuse and
base (6. Cor. 3.); that is, a straight line an adjacent angle of the one be equal to
A F may be drawn from the point A the hypotenuse and an adjacent angle
perpendicular to the straight line B.C. of the other; the triangles shall be equal
But, from the same point Athere can to one another in every respect.
not be drawn more than one perpendicu Let A B C, D E F, be two triangles,
lar to the same straight line B C. For,having the angles at B and E right an
if any other straight line AD were per gles: and first, let the hypotenuse AC
A. J*
pendicular to B C, the two angles, ADF
and AFD, of the triangle ADF, would
be together equal to two right angles,
which (8.) is impossible.
Therefore, &c.
º- ls
33. C b: t; I'
Cor. 1. If from any point A to a and side A B of the one be equal to the
straight line B C, there be drawn a hypotenuse DF and side DE of the other.
straight line A B which is not at right The triangles ABC, DEF, shall be equal
angles to B C, a second straight line AC to one another in every respect.
may be drawn from A to B C, which For, if the side A B be made to coincide
shall be equal to AB; for, the perpen with DE, which is equal to it, the right
dicular A F being drawn, and FC being angle A B C will also coincide with the
taken equal to FB, it may easily be shown right angle DEF (1. and ax. 11). There
(4.) that A C is equal to A B. fore, if AC do not coincide with DF, but
Cor. 2. Of straight lines AB, A D, fall otherwise, as DG, there will be drawn
which are drawn from A to B C upon from the point D to the line E F, upon
the same side of the perpendicular A F, the same side of the perpendicular, two
that which is nearer to the perpendicular, straight lines that are equal to one ano
as A D, is less than the other, which ther, which is impossible (12. Cor. 2.).
is more remote. For, the angle A B D Therefore, A C coincides with DF, and
or ABF being (S. Cor. 1.) less than the the triangle A B C coincides with the
exterior right angle AFC, and again triangle DEF, that is, (ax. 11.) the trian
A FD or A F C less than the exterior gles ABC and DEF are equal in every
angle ADB, much more is the angle respect.
A B D less than A D B, and therefore Next, let the hypotenuse AC and angle
also the side AD less than AB (9.). ACB of the one triangle be equal to the
Cor. 3. In the same manner it may hypotenuse D F and angle DFE of the
be shown that the perpendicular A F is other. In this case, also, the triangles
the least of all straight lines which can shall be equal in every respect.
be drawn from A to B C. For, if A B For if the hypotenuse A C be made
be any other straight line, the angle to coincide with D F, which is equal to
A B F being less than the exterior angle it, the angle A C B will also coincide
AFC, that is than A F B (def. 10.), the with DFE, which is equal to it. There
side A F is also less than the side A, B fore, if A B do not coincide with DE,
(9.). For this reason, the perpendicular but fall otherwise, as D G there will be
|
drawn from the point D to the line EF, that E M is equal to E m, and M K
two perpendiculars, which is impossible to m H. -
(12). Therefore, A B coincides with Now, it seems sufficiently evident,

D E, and the triangle A B C coincides that, the straight lines G H and FK
with the triangle DEF, that is, (ax. 11.) being at right angles to the same straight
the triangles ABC and DEF are equal line, and therefore (by the first part of
in every respect. the proposition) never meeting one ano
Therefore, &c. ther, the distance H K, of any two cor
responding points in them, neither in
SECTION 3. Parallels. creases nor diminishes, but remains al
ways equal to FG ; while, on the other
PROP. 14. hand, the lines EM and Em cutting one
Straight lines which are at right another in E, the distance M m, of any
angles to the same straight line, are two corresponding points in them, conti
parallel; and, conversely, paralled nually increases with the distance from
straight lines are at right angles to the E, and may, by sufficiently producing
same straight line; that is, if a straight EM, Em, be made greater than any
line be drawn through the two at right assigned distance, as F. G. Therefore,
angles to one of them, it shall be at the straight lines E M, Em may be pro
right angles to the other likewise. duced, so that Mm may become greater
#. first part of the proposition is than H.K. But, because M K is always
manifest; for if A B and C D be each equal to m H., M. m. cannot become
of them at right angles to the straight greater than H K, unless the straight
line E M cuts the line FD, and Em the
*—º–R line G. H.
Therefore E M and Em may be pro
o #–s duced, until they respectively meet the
lines F D and G. H.
line EF, and be not parallel, they must Hence, it appears, that AB, which
meet one another; in which case, there never meets CD, cannot but be at right
will be two perpendiculars drawn to the angles to EF: for, it has been shown,
same straight line EF from the same that any straight line which passes
point, viz. the point of concourse. But through E, and is not at right angles
(12.) this is impossible. Therefore, AB to EF, may be produced to meet C D.
cannot meet CD, though produced ever Therefore, &c. -
so far both ways, that is (def. 12.) A B Cor. 1. Any point E being given, a
is parallel to C. D. straight line A B may be drawn through
In the next place, let A B be parallel that point, which shall be parallel to a
to CD, and from any point E of A Blet given straight line CD (12. and Post. 5.).
E F be drawn at right angles to CD : Cor. 2. Through the same given
E F shall also be at right angles to A. B. point, there cannot be drawn more than
£r *l one parallel to the same given straight
line.
If a straight line cut one of
two parallels, it may be produced to cut
C F IC 13 the other likewise.
Scholium.
Through E let any straight line LM
be drawn which is not at right angles to The second part of this proposition
EF. Produce FE to G, so that EG is not supported by that cogency of
may be equal to E F, and from G draw demonstration which is said, and with
GH perpendicular to G F. Through E truth, to characterize every other part
draw lin, making the angle G E m equal of Geometry. Of the two particulars
to the angle F.E.M. In FD take any which have been assumed, one indeed,
point K. make G H equal to FK, and viz., that which regards the unlimited di
join HK, cutting the lines I, M, lm in vergency of cutting lines, seems almost
the points M, m. Then it may easily be axiomatic or self-evident. The other is
shown (by doubling over the figure, andnot equally so. It may be illustrated -
applying the straight line EF upon EG, by observing that, at equal intervals,
so that the point F may coincide with upon either side of E F, the distances
the point G, and therefore the straight of corresponding points are equal, to
line FK with GH, and E M with Em,) one another; and thence arguing, that,
from one of these to the other, the dis of them be equal; and hence, if a
tance can neither have been increasing straight line be drawn at right angles to
nor diminishing, for that, had either been one of two parallels, it may easily be
the case, since the lines are straight, shown to cut the other at angles, which
the distance of their corresponding points are equal to one another, that is, at right
would have continued to increase or to angles.
diminish. Should this, however, as we It is demonstrated in Prop. 16., that,
can easily imagine, fail to satisfy the if two straight lines be parallel, the
student, we must refer him to measure perpendiculars drawn from the points
ment for such a degree of conviction as of the one to the other must all of them
it can afford. be equal: but that demonstration itself
In fact, although it may be shown rests upon the converse part of Prop.
without difficulty, that certain straight 14., which is here in question. The
lines will never meet one another; the reader must not imagine, therefore, that
converse, viz., that straight lines, which the above assumption is at all assisted
never meet one another, must have cer by that demonstration.
tain properties, has never been strictly
demonstrated. It is agreed by Geome PROP. 15. (EUc. i. 27, 28 and 29.)
trical writers that some assumption is Straight lines which make equal
indispensable.* angles with the same straight line,
The following is, perhaps, as simple towards the same parts, are parallel:
as any that can be proposed, while it and, conversely, if two parallel straight
has the advantage also of not being lines be cut by the same straight line,
many steps distant from the proposition they shall make equal angles with it
in question. towards the same parts.
“If from two points of one straight Let the straight lines A B, C D make
line to another, there fall two unequal equal angles B E G, D F G, with the
perpendiculars, the straight lines will same straight line E F, towards the
meet one another, if produced, upon the same parts; AB shall be parallel to CD.
side of the lesser perpendicular.”
G.
Hence, if two straight lines be paral
lel, the perpendiculars drawn from the A. I. Yº -
points of the one to the other, must all

C.
* That of Euclid (the famous twelfth axiom, see fi Yº-it--—is
lä. Cor. 4.) is the converse of our eighth proposition,
and asserts that, if the two interior angles made by
two straight lines with a third be together less than Bisect E F in H (Post. 3.), from H.
two right angles... the two straight lines will meet draw H K perpendicular to CD (12),
one another, and, with the third, form a triangle,
if produced far enough. and produce KH to meet A B in L.
Simson's demonstration of this axiom rests upon Then because the angle H E L is equal
an assumption, which is scarcely more evident than to B E G (3.), and that B E G is equal to
that of the text, viz., that if the perpendiculars which
are drawn from two points of one straight line to D FG or H F K, the angle H E L is
another be equal, any other perpendicular, drawn equal to the angle H F K (ax. 1.). The
from a point of the first to the other, shall be equal to
either of them. -
vertical angles E. H. L., FH K are like
A modern geometer of great celebrity, M. Legendre, wise equal to one another (3.). There--
has, after more than one alteration, suggested,
finally, an experimental proof not very different fore, the triangles H E L and H FK
from that which is here adopted, as best suited to having two angles of the one equal to
an Elementary Treatise. He is, notwithstanding, of two angles of the other, each to each,
opinion, that the grand truth with which it is so inti and their sides H. E., H F, which lie be
mately connected, viz., that, “the three angles of a
triangle are together equal to two right angles,” tween the equal angles, also equal to
may be referred to the general principle of homo one another, are equal in every respect
geneity. Of this it is unnecessary to say more in
this place, than that it teaches us in the present (5.). Therefore, the angle H L E is
instance, that the angles of a triangle depend, not equal to the angle H K F, that is, to a
upon the absolute magnitude of its sides, but upon
their relative magnitude; so that a triangle whose right angle. But straight lines which
sides are 3, 4, and 5 times some given line will are at right angles to the same straight
have the same angles whether the given line be line K L are parallel (14.). Therefore,
an inch or a mile ; a truth which, indeed, seems to
be nearly related to the more simple truth, that an A B is parallel to CD.
angle is not increased by producing the sides which Next let A B be parallel to C D, and
contain it, and leads directly to the theory of paral let them be cut by the same straight line
iſ straight lines. But, though the principle be of
...tensive application, the reasoning by which it is G. E. F.; the angles B EG, D FG, which
...tablished has been shown to be incomplete, and are towards the same parts, shall be
j, as, if great circumspection be not used, may
even lead to fallacies, equal to one another,
& nº Cº. º
I. § 3.] GEOMETRY. ºº
2 (P. º, º* \!
1
\
º
Bisect E F, and draw the straight line the two straight lines sh
I, K, as before. Them, because L K is that side, if produced far eno-- tºº.º f. -
at right angles to CD, and that A B is

parallel to CD, L. K is at right angles
also to A B (14.). And, because, in the
PROP. 16.
Parallel straight lines are every
*MA
right-angled triangles HEL, H FK, the where equidistant ; that is, if from any
hypotenuse HE, and adjacent angle two points of the one, perpendiculars
EH L of the one, are equal to the hypo be drawn to the other, those perpendi
tenuse HF, and adjacent angle F.H. K. culars shall be equal to one another.
(3.) of the other, they are equal in every Let A B, C D .I;
respect (13.). Therefore, the angle be two parallel T
H E L is equal to the angle H F K, straightlines; and
and B E G, which is equal to HE L (3.) fromA, B, the
of AB, let —
, points I)
is equal to D F G.*
Therefore, &c. A C, B D be drawn perpendicular to
Cor. 1. When two straight lines A B, CD (12.): A C shall be equal to B D.
CD, are cut by a third, E F, the angle Join B C. Then because A C and B D
B E G, is called the exterior angle, and are perpendicular to the same straight
the angle DFG, the interior and oppo line CD, they are parallel (14). There
site angle upon the same side of the line. fore, the alternate angles A CB, D B C,
Therefore, if one straight line fall upon are equal to one another (15. Cor. 2.).
two other straight lines, so as to make Again, because A B is parallel to CD,
the exterior angle equal to the interior the alternate angles A B C, D C B are
and opposite upon the same side, those equal to one another (15.0or. 2.). There
two straight lines shall be parallel; and fore the triangles A B C, D C B, having
conversely. two angles of the one equal to two
Cor. 2. The angles AEF, EFD, are angles of the other, each to each, and
called alternate angles. And AEF is the same line, B C, lying between the
always equal to B ÉG(3). Therefore, if equal angles, are equal in every respect
one straight line fall upon two other (5.). Therefore, A C is equal to B D.
straight lines so as to make the two alter Therefore, &c.
mate angles equal to one another, those Cor. It appears from the demonstra
two straight lines shall be parallel: and tion, that if A C be only parallel to B D,
conversely. AC and B D will be equal to one another.
Cor. 3. The angles BEF, and D FE, Therefore, the parts of parallel straight
are called interior angles on the same lines, which are intercepted by parallel
side of the line. Now, when B E G is straight lines, are equal to one another.
equal to DFG, or D FE, the angles PROP. 17, (EUC. i. 30.)
B EF and D FE are together equal to
two right angles, because B E F and Straight lines, which are parallel to
BEG, are together equal to two right one the same straight line, are parallel to
another.
angles (2.). Therefore, if one straight
line, falling upon two other straight lines, Let the straight lines AB, CD be
make the two interior angles, on the same each of them : G.
side, together equal to two right angles, parallel to EF: *—i a.

º
the two straight lines shall be parallel: AB shall be pa" - i. p.

and conversely. rallel to C. D. = −i–C |H' E.
Cor. 4. (Euc.i.ax. 12.) If one straight
line, falling upon two other straight lines, For, if the straight line G H be at
make the two interior angles, on the same right angles to E F, it will be at right
side, together less than two right angles, angles to A B, because A B is parallel
to E F (14.); and, for the like reason,
.* A shorter demonstration may be had, by con: it will be at right angles to C D : there
sidering that if the angles B E G, LFG, be equal fore, A B and CD being at right angles
to one another, the two interior angles upon each to the same straightline, G H, are paral
side of EF will be together equal to two right angles; lel to one another (14.).
and, therefore, cannot be two angles of a triangle (8.),
that is A B, CD cannot meet upon either side of Therefore, &c.
EF; and hence the converse, because (14. Cor. 2.)
only one parallel can be drawn through the same Cor. Hence it appears that the qua
point to the same straight line. That which is given drilaterals into which the parallelogram
in the text, however, seems preferable, as pointing A B C D is divided in def. 23., by lines
out the connexion of the proposition with Prop. 14.,
which immediately precedes it. drawn parallel to two adjacent sides,
are likewise themselves parallelograms the exterior angle shall be equal to the
(def. 17.) two interior and opposite angles ; and
PROP. 18. the three angles ºf every triangle are
If, of two angles in the same plane, together equal to two right angles.
the sides of the one be parallel to the Let the side B C of the A. E.
sides of the other, or perpendicular to triangle A B C be produced A
the sides of the other, in the same order, to D: the exterior angle
the two angles shall be equal. A CD shall be equal to the / •'
Let AB C, DE F be 14 two, at A andand

anglesinterior and the 4–4;
B; opposite C I)
two angles in the same

three angles of the triangle A B C shall
A B, Bhaving
plane, thesides
C of the one six º' R. be together equal to two right angles.
Draw CE parallel to BA (14. Cor. 1.).
parallel to the sides \; A. Then, because AC meets these parallels,
DE, EF of the other, * the alternate angles A C E and A are
each - to each ; and &
let the sides A B, DE,
lie in the same direc-
\,
#:
2. equal; and because B D falls upon the
same parallels, the angles E CD and B
tion from the sides *. f are equal (15. Cor. 1. and 2.). Therefore,
B C, E F : the angle %.
the whole angle A CD, which is made
A B C shall be equal d up of the two angles A C E, ECD to
to the angle DE F.
gether, is equal to the angles at A and
Join B E, and produce it to G. Then, B together (ax. 2.).
because A B, D E are parallel, and GB To each of these equals add the angle
ACB : therefore, (ax. 2.) the three angles
falls upon them, the exterior angle of the triangle A B C are together equal
D E G is equal (15. Cor. I.) to the inte to the angles A CD, A C B, that is, to
rior and opposite angle A B E : and, for
the like reason, FEG is cqual to C B E: two right angles (2.).
Therefore, &c.
therefore, if these two equals be taken
Cor. 1. If two triangles have two
respectively from the former two, (ax. 3.) angles
the remaining angle A B C will be equal the of the one equal to two angles of
to DE F. other, their third angles will likewise
Secondly, let H K L be an angle, the be equal to one another.
sides of which are perpendicular to Cor. 2. (Euc. i. 26, second part of)
those of the angle A B C, each to each, Hence, if two triangles have two an
viz., H K to A B, and K L to B C : gles of the one equal to two angles
the angle H K L shall be equal to of the other, each to each, and one
A B C. Draw B M perpendicular to side equal to one side, the equal sides
BA (Post. 5.), and therefore (14.) parallel being opposite to equal angles in each,
to KH, and B N perpendicular to B C, the two triangles shall be equal in every
and therefore parallel to K. L. Then, by respect (5.).
the first part of the proposition, the angle Cor. 3. In a right-angled triangle, the
M B N is equal to HK L. But, be right angle is equal to the sum of the
cause the right angle M BA is equal to other two angles; and, conversely, if one
the right angle NBC (12), and the part angle of a triangle be
N A B common to both, the remain equal to the sum of the
ing angle M B N is equal to A B C other two, that angle
(ax. 3.). Therefore, (ax, 1.) A B C is shall be a right angle.
equal to H. K. L. Cor. 4. In a right-angled triangle, the
Therefore, &c. straight line, which is drawn from the
Cor. The demonstration of the second right angle to the middle of the opposite
case, viz. that in which the sides of the side, is equal to half that side: and, con
one angle are perpendicular to the sides versely, if this be the case in any triangle,
of the other, requires only that the angle the angle from which the straight line is
M B A be equal to NBC. drawn shall be a right angle. -
Therefore, if, of two angles, the sides For, if the right angle be divided into
of the one make equal angles with the parts equal respectively to the two acute
sides of the other, respectively, in the angles, the triangle will be divided (6.)
same order, and towards the same parts, into two isosceles triangles. And, in
the two angles shall be equal. . the converse, the triangle being made up
PROP. 19, (EUC. i. 32.) of two isosceles triangles, one of its
If one side of a triangle be produced, angles is equal to the other two.
I. § 4.] GEOMETRY. - I5
PROP. 20, (EUC. i. 32. Corr. 1. and 2.) C B D equal to one another, for they are
All the eacterior angles of any recti alternate angles (15,), the side A B is
lineal figure are together equal to four equal to CD, and the angle A B D to
right angles; and all the interior angles, CC DB (4.); and, hence, because A B D,
together with four right angles, are D B are alternate angles (15.), AB is
equal to twice as many right angles as also parallel to CD.
Therefore, &c.
the figure has sides.
For, if from any point PROP. 22. (EUc. i. 34, first part of)
in the same plane, straight The opposite sides and angles of a
lines be drawn, one after
parallelogram are equal, and its diago
the other, parallel to the mals bisect one another : and, conversely,
sides of the figure, the *f, in any quadrilateral figure, the op
angles contained by these -
posite sides be equal ; or if the opposite
straight lines about that point, will be angles be equal; or if the diagonals
equal to the exterior angles of the figure bisect one another; that quadrilateral
(18.), each to each, because their sides
are parallel to the sides of the figure, shall be a parallelogram.
Thus, the angles a, b, c, d, e, are re Let A B C D be a parallelogram (see
spectively equal to the exterior angles A the last figure), and let its diagonals
A, B, C, D, E. But the former angles C, B D cut one another in the point
E: the sides AD, B C, as also, A B,
are together (3, Cor.) equal to four right
angles; therefore, all the exterior angles CD, shall be equal to one another;
of the figure are together equal to four the angles A and C, as also B and D
right angles (ax. l.). shall be equal; and the diagonals A C,
B D shall be bisected in E.
Again, since every interior angle, to For, in the first place, that the oppo
gether with its adjacent exterior angle,
site sides, as A D and B C, are equal, is
is equal to two right angles (2.); all the evident,
interior angles, together with all the ex because they are parts of pa
terior angles, are equal to twice as many rallels intercepted by parallels (16. Cor.).
right angles as the figure has angles. Also, the opposite angles are equal, as
But all the exterior angles are, by the at D and B ; for the angle at D is
former part of the proposition, equal to equal to the vertical angle formed by
four right angles; and the figure has as CD, AD produced (3.), and the latter to
many angles as sides: therefore all the the angle B (18.).
interior angles together with four right Lastly, with regard to the bisection of
angles are equal to twice as many right the diagonals: because A D is parallel
angles as the figure has sides. to B C, the two triangles E A D, E C B
Therefore, &c. have the two angles E A D, E DA of the
Cor. The four angles of a quadri one equal to the two angles EC B, E B C
of the other, each to each (15.); and it
lateral are together equal to four right has been shown, that the interjacent
angles. sides A D, B C are equal to one another;
therefore, (5.) E A is equal to EC, and
SECTION 4. Parallelograms. E D to E B, that is, A C, B D are bi
sected in E. -
PROP. 21. (EUC. i. 33.) Next, let the opposite sides of the
The straight lines which join the éº quadrilateral A B C D be equal to one
tremities of two equal and parallel another: it shall be a parallelogram.
straight lines towards the same parts, For, in the triangles A B D, CD B, the
are likewise themselves equal and par three sides of the one are equal to the
Tallel. three sides of the other, each to each; º
, Let the straight A. therefore, the angle A B D is equal to

13.
lines AD, B C be C D B (7.), and (15.) A B is parallel to

equal and parallel, C D. And, for the like reason, A D is
and let them be join parallel to B C. .
ed towards the same Or, let the opposite angles be equal:
parts by A B, CD: A B shall be both then, because the angles at A and B to
gether are equal to the angles at C and D
equal to CD, and parallel to it. -
Join B D. Then, because in the tri together, and that the four angles of the
angles ADB, C B D, the two sides quadrilateral (20. Cor.) are equal tº four
AT), D B are equal to the two Q 3. right angles, the angles at A and B ar.
BD, each to each, and the angles A. PP, together equal to two right angles, and
(15. Cor. 3.) A D is parallel to B C. PROp. 24. (EUc. i. 35.)
And, for the like reason, A B is parallel
to C D. Parallelograms upon the same base,
Or, let the diagonals AC, BD, bisect and between the same parallels, are
º
one another in E: then, because the
triangles E A D, EC B, have two sides
of the one equal to two sides of the
other, each to each, and the included
vºy wº
equal to one another.
T
angles A. E. D., C E B, (3.) equal to one

another, the angle E A D is (4.) equal to B c B c - .
EC B, and, therefore, (15.) A D is pa

rallel to B C. And, for the like reason, Let the parallelograms A B C D,
A B is parallel to CD. E B C F, be upon the same base B C
Therefore, in each of the three cases, and between the same parallels A F,
the figure is a parallelogram. B C ; the parallelogram A B C D shall
Therefore, &c. be equal to the parallelogram E B C F.
Cor. l. (Euc. i. 34. second part of.) Because AD and EF are each of them
A parallelogram is bisected by each of (22.) equal to BC, they are (ax. 1.) equal
its diagonals; for the triangles into which to one another. Therefore, the whole
it is divided are equal to one another. or the remainder AE is equal to the
Cor. 2. The diagonals of a rhombus whole or the remainder DF (ax. 2. or 3.).
bisect one another at right angles. For Therefore, the two triangles E A B,
the triangles into which it is divided by FDC, having two sides of the one equal
either of its diagonals are isosceles tri to two sides of the other, each to each,
angles, of which that diagonal is the and the included angles E A B, F D C
base (6. Cor. 4.) equal, are equal to one another (4. Cor.).
Cor. 3. (Euc. i. 46. Cor.) If one angle Therefore, taking each of these equals
of a parallelogram be a right angle, all from the whole figure A B C F, there re
its angles will be right angles. mains (ax.3.) the parallelogram E.B CF
Cor. 4. By help of this Proposition equal to the parallelogram A B C D.
more complete notions may be acquired If the points D, E coincide, AE
of the rhombus, rectangle, and square: is the same with A D, and D F the
for, hence it appears, that a rhombus same with EF; therefore, A E and D F,
has all its sides equal to one another; being each of them equal to B C, are
that a rectangle has all its angles right equal to one another; and, hence,
angles; and that a square has all its the triangle E A B is equal to the tri
sides equal, and all its angles right angle F D C, and the parallelogram
angles. E B C F to the parallelogram A B C D,
PROP. 23. (EUC. i. 43.) as before.
The complements of the parallelo Therefore, &c.
grams, which are about the diagonals Cor. Every parallelogram is equal to
of any parallelogram, are equal to one a rectangle of the same base and alti
another. tude.
Let A B C D be A 1.1. TX
PROP. 25. (EUC. i. 36.)
a parallelogram, and
through any point E Parallelograms upon equal bases, and
in the diagonal B D /~~ between the same parallels, are equal to
let there be drawn the * * * one another.
straight lines FG, H K parallel to the Let the paral- Tt
sides B C, D C respectively: the com lelograms ABCD, -–t-º-; –

plement A E shall be equal to E C. E F GH, be upon /
Because A B C D is a parallelogram, equal bases BC,
of which B D is a diagonal, the triangle FG, and between
A B D is (22. Cor. 1.) equal to CD B. the same parallels Tº"T** *
In like manner, because F K, and AH; BG. The parallelogram A B CD
HG (17. Cor) are parallelograms, the shall be equal to the parallelogram
triangles FB E, H E D are equal to the E F G. H.
triangles K E B, G D E: therefore, Join E. B., HC. Then because E H
taking these equals from the former, (22.) and B C are each of them equal to
there remains (ax. 3.) the complement FG, they are equal to one another; and
A E equal to E C. they are likewise parallel; therefore,
Therefore, &c. E B and HC are also equal and parallel
(21), and E B C H is a parallelogram. In the second place, therefore, let the

But the parallelogram E B C H is equal triangles A B C, D B C, standing upon
to A B C D, because it is upon the same the same base B C, or upon equal bases
base BC, and between the same paral B C, B C, in the same straight line, and
lels (24.); and for the like reason EBC H towards the same parts, be equal to one
is equal to EFG H. Therefore (ax. 1.) another; and let AD be joined: A D
A B C D is equal to EFG H. shall be parallel to B C. -
Therefore, &c. For, if not, let A E (14. Cor. 1.) be

Cor. The squares of equal straight parallel to BC; and let it meet D B in
lines are equal to one another: and E. Join E C. Then, by the first part
conversely. of the proposition, because A B C,
- E B C, are upon the same base, or
PROP. 26. (EUC. i. 41.) upon equal bases, and between the
If a parallelogram and a triangle be same parallels, the triangle E B C is
upon the same base and between the equal to A B C, that is, to D B C ; the
same parallels, the parallelogram shall less to the greater, which is impos
be double of the triangle, sible. Therefore A E is not parallel to
Let the parallelo B C ; and in the same manner it may be
gram A B C D and the shown that no other straight line which
triangle E B C be upon passes through A, except AD only, can
the same base B C, and be parallel to B C ; that is, (14. Cor. 1.)
between the same pa A D is parallel to B C.
rallels AD, BC. The Therefore, &c.
parallelogram A B C D shall be double *† it is evident that the second - ||
of the triangle E B C. (or converse) part of the proposition ap
Complete the parallelogram E B C F." plies equally to parallelograms, as to
(14. Cor. 1.) Then the parallelogram triangles. .
E B C F is double of the triangle EBC, Cor. 2. If a quadrilateral be bisected
because it is bisected by the diagonal E C by each of its diagonals, it must be a
(22. Cor.); and A B C D is equal to E B parallelogram : for the two triangles
CF, because it is upon the same base, A B C, D B C (see the figure of Prop.
and between the same parallels (24.). 21.) which stand upon any one of its
Therefore, the parallelogram A B C D sides BC for a base, and which have their
is also double of the triangle E B C. vertices in the side opposite, being equal,
Therefore, &c. each of them, to half the quadrilateral,
Cor. Every triangle is equal to the are equal to one another; and therefore
half of a rectangle of the same base and A D is parallel to B C ; and, for a like
altitude. -
reason, A B is parallel to D C.
PROP. 27. (EUc. i. 37, 38, 39, & 40.) PROP. 28.
Triangles upon the same base, or
wpon equal bases, and between the same A trapezoid is equal to the half of a
parallels, are equal to one anothers and rectangle having the same altitude, and
conversely, equal triangles, upon the a base equal to the sum of its parallel
same base, or upon equal bases in the sides.
same straight line, and towards the same Let A B C D be a tra
parts, are between the same parallels. pezoid, having the side ſº-º
The first part of the A_2, in AD parallel to the side N
propositionismanifest; Jº B C. The trapezoid
for the triangles aré ABCD shall be equal to # G iſ
the halves of parallelo the half of a rectangle
grams (26.) upon the #T&Tâ’ & having the same altitude, and a base
same base, or upon equal bases, and equal to the sum of AD, B.C.
between the same parallels; and because Join A C ; through D draw D E pa
these parallelograms are equal to one rallel to A C, and let it meet the base
another (24, or 25.), the triangles, which B C produced in E, and join A. E.
are their halves, are also equal (ax. 5.).
T^*----------------------
Then, because D E is parallel to AC,
. . • To complete the parallelogram, in this case, it the triangle A CDis (27.) equal to A.C.E.
ls only º: that C F should be drawn through Therefore, the triangles A B C, A CD,
the point 9 parallel to B E, to meet A D produced
* F. The word complete, indeed, almost explains together, are equal to the triangles
*f; in future constructions it will be introduced AB C, ACE, together (ax. 2.); or, the
Without further notice, trapezoid A B C D is equal to ge
tri
18 GEOMETRY. [I. § 4
angle A B.E. But the base of the tri under those two straight lines shall be
angle A B E is equal to the sum of A D, contained as often in the given rectangle,
B C, because (22.) C E is equal to AD ; as is denoted by the product of the two
and (26. Cor.) every triangle is equal to numbers which denote how often the lines
the half of a rectangle of the same themselves are contained in the two
º base and altitude. Therefore, the trape sides.
zoid ABCD is equal to the half of a Cor. 2. The square of twice M is
rectangle of the same altitude, and upon equal to 4 times M square, because it is
*
-8.
B C.
which is equal to the sum of AD, a rectangle, in which each of the sides
contains M twice. In like manner, the
Therefore, &c. square of 3 times M is equal to 9 times
PROP. 29. M square—of 4 times M to 16 times M
square—of 5 times M to 25 times M
If the adjoining sides of a rectangle square, &c.
contain, each of them, the same straight Cor. 3. The square of 5, or 25, is equal
line, a certain number of times exactly, to the sum of 16 and 9. Consequently
the rectangle shall contain the square of the square of 5 times M is equal to the
that straight line, as often as is denoted square of 4 times M, together with the
by the product of the two numbers, square of 3 times M. -
which denote how often the line itself is Scholium.

contained in the two sides.
I,et A B D C be a From the theorems of this Section
rectangle, and let its rules are easily deduced for the men
adjacent sides A B, suration of rectilineal figures. For
AC, contain each of every rectilineal figure may be divided
them the straight into triangles; and every triangle, being
line M a certain equal (26. Cor.) to half the rectangle
number of º ex- * under its base and altitude, contains
actly, viz., A B 6 half as many square units as is denoted
#. and A C 4 by the product of the numbers which
times: the rectangle ABDC shall con express how often the corresponding
tain the square of M, 6 × 4, or 24 times. linear unit is contained in its base and
Divide A B, A C, each of them, into in its altitude. Let this linear unit be,
parts equal to M ; and, through the divi for example, a foot; and let it be re
sion-points of each, draw straight lines quired to find how many square feet
parallel to the other, thereby dividing there are in a triangle whose altitude is
the rectangle into six upright rows of 10 feet, and its base 9 feet. The rect
four parallelograms each, that is, upon angle, of which these are the sides,
the whole, into twenty-four parallelo contains 10 x 9, or 90 square feet (by
rams. Now these parallelograms are Prop. 29.); and, therefore, the triangle
all of them rectangular, because their contains 45 square feet.
containing sides are parallel to AB, AC, Hence, a rectangle is sometimes said
the sides of the right angle A (18.). They to be equal to the product of its base
are also equilateral: for any one of them, and altitude, a triangle to half the pro
as E, has its upright sides each of them duct of its base and altitude, and the
(22,) equal to a division of A C, that is, like; expressions which must be under
to M ; and its other two sides each of stood as above, the words rectangle, &c.
them equal to a division of A B, that is, base, &c. being briefly put for the num
to M. Therefore, they are squares ber of square units in the rectangle, &c.
(def. 20.), equal, each of them, to the the number of linear units in the base,
square of M. And they are twenty-four &c. By the length of a line is com
in number. Therefore, the square of M monly understood the number of linear
is contained twenty-four times in the units which it contains; and the term
rectangle A B D C. superficial area, or area, is similarly
The same may be said, if, instead of 6 applied to denote the number of square
and 4, any other two numbers be taken. units in a surface. With regard to the
Therefore, &c. measuring unit, a less or a greater is
Cor. 1. In like manner, it may be convenient, according to the subject
shown, that, if there betwo straightlines, of measurement : a glazier measuring
one of which is contained an exact num his glass by square inches, a carpenter
ber of times in one side of a rectangle, his planks by square feet, a proprietor
and the other an exact number of times his land by acres, and a geographer the
in the side adjoining to it; the rectangle extent of countries by square miles.
SECTION 5. Rectangles under the paris rectangle A C, CB, because (22.) C F

of divided lines. is equal to BD, that is to C B ; and the
figure CD is equal to the square of
PROp. 30. (Euc. ii. 1.) C B; and the figure AD to the rectan
If there be two straight lines, one of gle A B, BC. But AD is equal to A F,
which is divided into any number of together with CD. Therefore, the rec
parts, the rectangle contained by the tangle A B, BC, is equal to the rectangle
two lines shall be equal to the sum of A C, CB, together with the square of
the rectangles contained by the undi BC.”
vided line, and the several parts of the Therefore, &c.
divided line.
PROP. 32. (EUc. ii. 4.)
Let AB and C be two straight lines,
of which A B is divided into the parts The square of the sum of two lines is
AD, DE, EB: the rectangle under C reater than the sum of their squares,
and AB shall be equal y twice their rectangle.
N
to the sum of the rec- *-*-*-* Let the straight line A B be the sum
tangles under C and |
of the two straight lines. A O B
A D, C and DE, C and FTHTKTú. A C, CB; the square of
E B. ty
A B shall be greater than
Draw the straight line AF at right the squares of AC, CB,
7.
angles to A B, and equal to C (post. 5.): by twice the rectangle
complete the rectangleAG, and through A C, CB.
the points D and E draw the straight Because the straight line A B is
lines D H and E K parallel to A F divided into two parts in the point C,
(14. Cor.). Then, because D H and EK (30. Cor.) the square of AB is equal to
are each of them (22.) equal to AF, the sum of the rectangles under A B,
that is, to C, the rectangles A.H., D K, A C, and AB, B C. But the rectangle
EG are equal to the rectangles under under A B, A C (31.) is equal to the
C and A D, C and DE, C and E B. rectangle under A C, CB together with
But these rectangles make up the whole the square of A.C.; and, in like manner,
rectangle AG, which is equal to the the rectangle under A B, B C is equal
rectangle under C and A. B. Therefore, to the rectangle under A C, C B together
the rectangle under C and AB is equal with the square of CB. Therefore, the
to the rectangles under C and AD, C square of A B is equal to twice the rect
and DE, C and E. B. . angle AC, CB, together with the
Therefore, &c. squares of A C, CB; or, which is the
Cor. (Euc. ii. 2.) If a straight lime same thing, the square of A B is greater
be divided into any two parts, the rect than the squares of AC, CB, by twice
angles contained by the whole line and the rectangle A C, CB.
each of the parts, shall be together equal Therefore, &c.
to the square of the whole line. The figure shews in what manner the
square of AB may be divided into two
PROP. 31. (EUC. ii. 3.) squares equal to those of A C, CB, and
If a straight line be divided into any two rectangles, each equal to the rect
two parts, the rectangle contained by angle A C, CB.
the whole line and one of the parts, PROP. 33. (EUC. ii. 7.)
shall be equal to the rectangle contained difference of two
square
by the two parts, together with the lines less thanofthethe
The
square of the aforesaid part. is sum of their squares
Let the straight line A B be divided by twice their rectangle.
into any two parts A C, C B : the rec Let the straight lime,
difference —s
A B, be the *
In Tö
tangle under AB, B C A?-i-. C
shall be equal to the rec- of the two straight limes, A C, C B : the
tangle under A C, CB, square of A B shall be less than the
together with the square HT; squares of A C, CB, by twice the rect
of B C. angle A C, CB.
Draw the straight line B D at right * This proposition, being an obvious consequence
angles to AB (post. 5.), and equal to BC : of the preceding, might have been added to it as *
complete the rectangle A B D E and second corollary: it is of so great importance, how
through C draw C F parallel to B D. . . ever, that it seemed preferable to force it upon the
attention of the student, by placing it among the
Then, the figure A F is equal to the propositions. -
C 2
20 GEOMETRY. [I. § 5. -
Because A C is the sum of A B and together with twice the rectangle AB,
B C (32.), the square of A C is equal to BC. Therefore (ax. 1.) the difference
the squares of A B, B C, together with of the squares of AC, A B, is equal to
twice the rectangle, A B, BC: therefore the rectangle CF, that is, to the rect
º the square of A B is less than the square angle under C TY, C B.
of AC by the square of B C, together Therefore, &c.
with twice the rectangle A B, BC.
Therefore, the same square of A B is less PROP. 35. (EUC. ii. 9. and 10.)
than the squares of A C, B C, by twice The squares of the sum, and of the
the square of B C, together with twice
the rectangle A B, BC. But twice the difference of two lines, are together
double of the squares of the two lines.
square of B C, together with twice the
rectangle A B, BC, is (32.) equal to For (32.) the square of the sum of two
twice the rectangle A C, CB. There lines is greater than the sum of their
fore, the square of A B is less than the squares, by twice their rectangle, and the
squares of A C, B C, by twice the rect square of their difference is (33.) as
angle A C, C B. much less than the sum of their squares.
Therefore, &c.
Therefore (ax. 9.), the square of the
sum, together with the square of the
Cor. (Euc. ii. 8.) The square of the difference, is equal to twice the sum of
sum of two lines is greater than the their squares.
square of their difference by four times Therefore, &c.
their rectangle : for the former square is
greater than the sum of their squares by Scholium.
twice their rectangle (32.), and the latter The theorems of this section admit of
square is less than the sum of their being enunciated more briefly and per
squares by twice their rectangle. spicuously by the use of certain conven
tional signs =, +, −, x, ( ), &c. bor
PROP. 34. (EUC. ii. 5.) rowed from Algebra.
The difference of the squares of two That A is equal to B, is thus denoted:
lines is equal to the rectangle under A = B, which is read “A is equal to B.”
their sum and difference. The sum of A and B thus: A + B,
which is read “A plus B.”
****
e any two straight
*– A tº c The excess of A above B : A – B.......
i.º.º. | || “A minus B."
be produced to D, * G. E. It Twice A, four times A, &c,........2 A,
so that A D may be equal to A B, and 4 A, &c.
therefore CD equal to the sum, and The rectangle under A and B.Ax B,
C B to the difference of A B, A C : the or A B........“A, B.”
difference of the squares of A B, A C, The square of A........A.A, or A*....”
shall be equal to the rectangle under “A square; " and,
CD, C B. (A + B – C) or A + B – C signifies
Draw the straight line CH perpen that A + B – C (that is, the excess of
dicular to C D (post. 5.), and equal to the sum of A and B above C) is to be
CB; complete the rectangle C H FD; be taken as a single quantity.
and, through the points A and B, draw
AG and B E parallel to C. H. The theorems of this section may,
Then, because B E is (22.) equal to therefore, be more briefly expressed as
CH, that is, to B C, the rectangle AE follows:—
is equal to the rectangle A B, BC; Prop. 30. Ax (B+C+D) = AB+
and, because A D is equal to A B, the A C+AD.
rectangle D G is equal (25.) to the rect Prop. 31. (A+B) × B = AB+B”.
angle A. E.; and C E is the square of Prop. 32. (A+B)2=A*-i-Ba-H2A. B.
C B: therefore, the whole rectangle Prop. 33. (A–B)?=A*-i-B2–2 A.B.
C F is equal to the square of B C, to Prop. 33. Cor. (A+B)”—(A–B)*=
ether with twice the rectangle A B, BC. 4 A.B.
#. because the square of AC is equal Prop. 34. (A+B) x(A–B)=A*-B”.
(32) to the squares of A B, BC, together Prop. 35. (A+B)2+(A–B)?= 2 (A*
with twice the rectangle A B, BC; if the +B2).
square of A B be taken from each side,
(ax. 3.) the difference of the squares of be In this borrowing of its notation, may
seen the first glimmerings of the ap
A C, A B, is equal to the square of B C, plication of Algebra to Geometry. It
I. § 6.] GEOMETRY. ' 21
requires but a very slight acquaintance is equal to the rectangle B K (ax. 1.).
with the former science, to perceive at And, in like manner, it may be shewn
once, that, when the lines contain each that the square of B C is equal to the
of them some common part M. a cer rectangle K.C. Therefore, the squares
tain number of times exactly, these of AB, A C, together, are equal to the
theorems are but so many examples of rectangles B K, K C together, that is, to
its rules of addition, subtraction, and the square of B C.
multiplication. The perspicuity alone, Next, let the square of B C be equal
however, which is displayed in the above to the sum of the squares of BA, A C :
expressions, will enable the uninitiated the angle B A C shall be a right angle.
reader to form some notion of the ad For, let L MN be another triangle having
vantages resulting from a more intimate its sides, LM, LN, equal to the sides AB,
union of the two sciences, AC, respectively, and the angle at L a
right angle. Then, by the former part
SECTION 6. Relations of the sides of of the proposition, the square of M N is
Triangles. equal to the squares of LM, LN, that
is, to the squares of AB, A C, or to the
PROP, 36, (EUC. i. 47, and 48.) square of B C, and M N is equal to B C
(25. Cor.). Therefore, in the triangles
In every right-angled triangle, the A B C, L MN, the three sides of the
square of the hypotenuse, or side op one are equal to the three sides of the
posite to the right angle, is equal to the other, each to each; and, consequently,
sum of the squares of the sides which the angle B A C is (7.) equal to the angle
contain that angle ; and conversely, if MI, N, that is, to a right angle.*
the square of one side of a triangle be Therefore, &c.
equal to the sum of the squares of the Cor. 1. In a right-angled triangle, the
other two sides, the angle contained by square of either of the two sides is equal
those two sides shall be a right angle. to the difference of the squares of the
Let A B C be a
tº hypotenuse and the other side.
right-angled trian Cor. 2. It appears, from the demon
gle, having the 9 TA
stration, that if a perpendicular be
right angle, BAC: y /. > drawn from the right angle to the hypo
the square of BC § {i -
shall be equal to *
the sum of the
squares of BA, AC.
Pi`È | tenuse, the square of either side is equal
to the rectangle under the hypotenuse
and segment adjacent to that side. And
conversely, if this be the case, the angle
Upon B C, BA,
describethesquares at A must be a right angle. For, if the
CD, A E ; produce 33 E.
rectangle B C, B P, be equal to the
D B to meet E F, or EF produced, in G.; square of B.A.; then, taking the square
; through A, draw H K parallel to ofangle B P from each (31. and 36.) the rect
B P, PC, will be equal to the
Then, because the sides E B, B G, of square of A P5 and therefore, adding
the angle EB G, are perpendicular re the square of PC to each, the rectangle
spectively to the sides A B, B C, of the B C, CP, will be equal to the square of
angle A B C, these two angles (18.) are A C : therefore the two rectangles, B C,
equal to one another; and the right BP, and B C, CP, together, that is (30.
angle B E G is equal to B A C ; there Çor) the square of B C, will be equal to
fore the two triangles EB G, A B C, the squares of BA, A C, and the angle
-
having two angles of the one equal to BAC will be a right angle (36.).
Cor. 3. And hence it follows that, if
two angles of the other, each to each,
and theinterjacent sides, EB, A B, equal B A C be a right angle, the squaré of
to one another, are equal in every re the perpendicular on the hypotenuse
—
Spect, and B G is equal to B C or BD
(?) . And, because the parallelogram . A *B,ItA,isC,evident that the sides of the squar
which are opposite to A B, º *...*
AG, and the square AE, are upon the meet, if produced, in the point H. The latter part of
same base, and between the same pa the demonstration is, accordingly, equally applicable
to shew that if upon the two sides Ä B. A.C., of any
rallels (24.), A G is equal to A. E. Again, triangle A B C (right-angled or otherwise) any two
because the parallelogram AG, and the parallelograms be described whose sides opposite to
A. B, A.C. meet in a point H, and if, whom the base
ºangle KB, are upon equal bases, B C of the triangle, a parallelogram be likewise
BS, BD, and between the same pa. described,having its sides adjoining to the base equal
rallels (25.), A G is equal to KB. There and parallel to AH, the parallelogram, upon the base
shall be equal to the sum of the parallelograms upon
fore, also, ÁE, that is, the square of AB, the two sides,
22 GEOMETRY. [I, § 6.
will be equal to the rectangle under the triangle,
Let A Band
C be
C any
one A.
Segments of the hypotenuse; and that,
Conversely, if this be the case, the angle of its angles; and |
BAC will be a right angle. (See the from the angle A to i
proof of Cor. 2.) the opposite side A # Tü BA
Scholium. B C, or B C pro- i
duced, let there be i -
Among the different proofs which drawn the perpen- 4–; y \, \

have been invented of this celebrated dicular A D : the *
theorem, there is one of no little ele square of A B shall be greater or less
gance, which has the advantage of than the squares of A C, CB, by twice
pointing out in what manner the squares the rectangle B C, CD; greater, if C
of the two sides may be dissected, so as be greater than a right angle, and less
to form, by juxta-position of their parts, if it be less.
the square of the hypotenuse. It will When C is greater than a right angle,
be readily apprehended from the follow the opposite side, AB, and the perpendi
ing outline. B A C is k ity tºcular, AD, must lie upon different sides
a triangle, having the of A C ; since, otherwise, in the triangle
angle at A a right - A CD, one of the angles would be a
angle: upon the hypo-
temuse B C is described
A c right angle, and another greater than a
right angle, which is impossible (8.). For
the square B C D E, |
and through the points #Tö
~
A
the like reason, when C is less than a
right angle, the opposite side, A B, and
D, E, straight lines are the perpendicular, AD, must lie upon
drawn parallel to BA, CA, to meet one the same side of A C.
another in K, and A C, A B produced, Therefore, according as C is greater
in the points F, G. Then it may be or less than a right angle, the line BD
shewn that the four right-angled trian will be the sum, or the difference of
gles, upon the sides of the square B D, B C, CD and (32. and 33.) the square
are equal to one another; and, there of B D will be greater or less than the
fore together equal to twice the rectan squares of B C, CD by twice the rect
gle BA, A C ; also, that the figure angle B C, CD. Add to each the
A FKG is a square, and equal to the square of A D: therefore, the squares
square of B.A.--A C : and hence it of B D, A D will be greater or less than
easily follows that the square of B C is the squares of B C, CD, AD, by twice
equal to the squares of BA, AC (32. and the rectangle B C, CD. But the square
..ax. 3.). To shew the dissection of the of A B is equal (36.) to the squares of
squares, Ee and C c are drawn paral BD, AD, and the square of A C is
lel to A B, to meet B b, which is drawn equal to the squares of CD, A D.
parallel to AC, in the points c, e : then Therefore, the square of A B will be
C b is equal to the square of A B, and greater or less than the squares of B C,
Eb to the square of A C ; and the former A C by twice the rectangle B C, CD.
is divided into two, and the latter into Therefore, &c.
three parts, which may be placed (as Cor. Any angle of a triangle is greater
indicated by the divisions of B D,) so as or less than a right angle, according as
to fill up the space B C D E, which is the square of the side opposite to it is
the square of B C. greater or less than the squares of the
sides by which it is contained.
PROP. 37. (EUc. ii. 12. and 13.) Scholium.
In every triangle, the square of the When the point D coincides with
side which is opposite to any given C, there is no rectangle B C, CD, the
angle, is greater or less than the squares angle C is a right angle, and we come
ºf the sides containing that angle, by to the conclusion of Prop. 36.: when D
twice the rectangle, contained by either coincides with B, the rectangle BC, CD
of these sides, and that part of it, whicſ, becomes, the square of B C, the angle
is intercepted between the perpendicular B is a right angle, and we come to the
Jet fall upon it from the opposite angle, conclusion of Prop. 36. Cor. 1
and the given angle : greater, when the PROP. 38.
given angle is greater than a fight
angle, and less, when it is less. In every triangle, if a perpendicular
be drawn from the verté, É, the base,
* I $ 6.] GEOMETRY. 23
or to the base produced; the difference of the squares of AD, AC ; that is, the
of the squares of thesides shall be equal square of AD is less or greater than the
to the difference of the squares of the square of A C, by the rectangle BD,
segments of the base, or of the base pro DC
duced. Therefore, &c.
Let A B C be a A A.
PROp. 40.
triangle, and from -
the vertex A to the In every triangle the squares of the

base B C, or B C two sides are together double of the
produced, let there B I, (; ; To p
squares of half the base, and of the
be drawn the per straight line, which is drawn from the
pendicular AD: the difference of the vertea to the bisection of the base.
squares of AB, AC, shall be equal to the Let A B C be
difference of the squares of BD, CD. any triangle, and
For the square of BD is as much from the vertex A
greater than the square CD, as the to D, the middle
squares of BD, AD together are greater point of the base,
than the squares of CD, AD together, let there be drawn #Tº #TTT;
that is (36.), as the square of A B is the line A. D. The
greater than the square of A C. squares of AB, A C, shall be together
Therefore, &c. double of the squares of B D, D.A.
We may remark that, if the triangle From the point A to B C, or B C pro
be isosceles, the segments of the base duced, draw the perpendicular AE (i2.).
will be equal; and, that, in other cases, Then BE is equal to the sum of BD, DE;
the greater segment of the base is always and, because B D is equal to D C, E C
adjoining to the greater side, (12. Cor. is equal to the difference of B D, DE.
1, and 2.) Therefore, (35.) the squares of B E, EC
PROP. 39. are together double of the squares of
BD, DE. And the square of EA, taken
In an isosceles triangle, if a straight twice, is double of the square of E.A.
line be drawn from the verter to any Therefore the squares of BE, EA, C E,
point in the base, or in the base pro EA, are together double of the squares
duced, the square of this straight line of BD, DE, E A ; that is (36.), the
shall be less or greater than the square squares of BA, A C are together
of either of the two sides, by the rect double of the squares of BD, D. A.
angle under the segments of the base, or When A C B is a right angle, the
of the base produced. perpendicular A. E. coincides with the
Let A B C be A A
side A C. Therefore B D is equal to
an isosceles tri- i D E, and the square of B E is double of
angle, having the i the squares of BD, DE (29.Cor. 2.); also
side A B º i the square of BE (36. Cor. I.) is equal
to
andthe from
side AC,
the #-# Q Diº E to the difference of the squares of BA,
A E, that is, of BA, A C ; and hence
yertex A to any point D in the base, or the squares of BA, AE, that is, of BA,
in the base produced, let there be drawn A C, are together double of the squares
the line AD: the square of AD shall of B D, D A, as before.
be less or greater than the square of Therefore, &c.
AC, by the rectangle BD, D.C. PROP. 41.
BisectBC in E, (post. 3.) and join AE.
Then, DC is equal to the sum of DE and The squares of the four sides of a
EC ; and because B E is equal to EC, quadrilateral are together greater than
BD is equal to the difference of DE the squares of its diagonals, by four
and E. C. Therefore the rectangle BD, times the square of the straigh; line
DC is (34.) equal to the difference of which joins the middle points of the
the Squares of DE, EC. But the line diagonals.
AE is perpendicular to BC, because the Let A B C D be
base BC of the isosceles triangle is bi a quadrilateral, and
sected in E (6. Cor. 3.). Therefore, (38.) let its diagonals AC,
the difference of the squares of DE, EC, B D be bisected in
is equal to the difference of the squares the points F, E: the
of AD, AC. Therefore (ax. 1.) therect squares of A B,
angle BD, DC, is equal to the difference BC, CD, D.A., are
together greater than the squares of Operations so simple require no further
A C, BD, by four times the square of notice.
EF
Join B F, F.D. Then, becauses the PROP. 42. Prob. 1. (Euc. i. 1.)
||| base A C of the triangle BAC is bi To describe an equilateral triangle
sected in F, the squares of A B, BC are tipon a given finite straight line A.B.
(40.) equal to twice the squares of B F, From the points A, B,
º A F: and for the like reason the squares as centres, with the com- º
of CD, DA are equal to twice the mon radius A B, describe
squares of D F, A F: therefore, the two circles, intersecting
squares of A B, BC, CD, D A are to one another in C, and AK-E-)B
gether equal to twice the squares of join C A, C B.
B F, D F, together with four times the Then, because C A, /
square of A.F. But, because the base C B are each of them ..~1}^-
BD of the triangle FBD is bisected in E, equal to A B (def. 24.),

the squares of BF, DF, taken twice, are they are (ax. 1.) equal to one another,
(40.) equal to four times the squares of and the triangle CAB is equilateral.
B E, ETF: therefore the squares of A B, Therefore, an equilateral triangle has
B C, CD, D A are together equal to been described upon the given finite
four times the squares of A F, B E, to straight line AB, which was required to
be done.
gether with four times the square of EF;
that is, to the squares of A C, B D, PROp. 43. Prob. 2. (Euc. i. 10.)
(39. Cor. 2.) together with four times To bisect a given finite straight
the square of E F. line A. B.
Therefore, &c. Upon either side of A B (42.) describe
Cor. In a parallelogram, and in a an equilateral triangle: join the vertices
parallelogram only, the points E and F or summits C,D, and let CD cut AB in E.
coincide, because (22.) the diagonals bi Then, because the triangles C A D,
sect one another: therefore, in a paral C B D have the three sides of the one
lelogram, and in a parallelogram only, equal to the three sides of the other,
the squares of the diagonals are toge each to each, (7.) they are equal in every
ther equal to the squares of the four respect, and the angle A C D is equal
sides. to B C D. Therefore, the triangles
A C E, B CE, having two sides of the
SECTION 7.—Problems. one equal to two sides of the other,
each to each, and the included angles
Upon a piece of paper for a plane, equal to one another, are equal in every
with a pen,” a ruler, and a pair of com respect (4), and A E is equal to E.B.
passes, it is evident, that, first, a straight Therefore,
&c.
fine may be drawn from any one point Cor. By the same construction, a
to any other point; 2ndly, a terminated straight
straight line may be produced to any line may be drawn, which shall
length in a straight line; 3dly, from the bisect any given straight line at right
º greater of two straight lines, a part may angles.
N. B. It is evident, from 6. Cor. 4.,
be cut off equal to the less; and 4thly, a
circle may be described from any centre, that the same end will be obtained by
and with any distance from that centre. joining the point of intersection C of
any two equal circles described from the
* Although the paper be not an exact plane, nor centres A, B, and cutting one another
the pen such as may serve to draw an exact line, above A B, with the point of inter
these defects admit of being removed to any required
section D of any other two equal circles
degree, and do not, in the least, affect the accuracy of described from the same centres, and
our conclusions, with regard to exact lines and planes.
An edge which is a right line, or nearly so, (because cutting one another either above or be
it is the common section of two planes, see Book IV.) low A. B: for C, D will be the vertices of
may be obtained by doubling over a piece of paper
upon itself, and a right angle (def. 10.) by doubling
over this edge upon itself. These are both useful
isosceles triangles upon the same base.
upon occasion, especially the right angle, which is This observation may be of use when
so frequently required in geometrical constructions one of the triangles is already described,
that a case of instruments is commonly provided as in the first method of Prob. 4.
with one. Among practical mechanics it is known
under the name of the square. Parallel lines also
occur so frequently, that it is convenient to have a PROP. 44. Prob. 3. (EUC. i. 11.)
ruler expressly for drawing them, called a parallel
ruler. This may be made of two or three different To draw a straight line at right
forms, the best of which is that of a flat ruler running angles to a given straight line AB,
upon two equal rollers. Jrom a given point C in the same.
I, § 7.] GEOMETRY. 25
First method. In C A take any from

with the
thecentre C,
radius c
pointA,
equal toand makeupon
CA; CB Io
C D, describe a
A B describe (42.) the circle cutting A B
equilateral triangle in the points A, -º-; 4—
DAB, and join DC, -A C E i. i.e., AB ºff
Then, because the triangles D C A, in Then,E, and join C E.
D C B have the three sides of the one because the triangles CEA,
C E B have the three sides of the one
equal to the three sides of the other, equal to the three sides of the other,
each to each, (7.) the angle D C A is each to each, (7) the angle C E A is
equal to D C B ; and they are adjacent equal to CEB, and (def. 10.) C E is at
angles; therefore each of them is a right right angles to A. B.
angle (def. 10), and D C is at right an Second method. Draw from C to
gles to A. B. A B any straight line C A : bisect C A
Second method. Take any point D (43.) in D : from the centre D, with the
which is not in A E, and from the radius D A or D C, describe a circle,
centre D, with the radius D C describe cutting A B in a second point E, and
the circle ACE, cutting
the line AB a second time Tº:
join C. E. Then, for the same reason,
as in the second method G
in the point A: join AD, of the preceding pro

and produce it to meet the ro
blem, C E is at right an- *D
circumference in E, and v
join E C. Then because .A.
-
gles to A. B. Also, if Z
U B the points A, E coin- *s->;-R
in the triangle E CA, the cide, C A is at right
line D C drawn from the angle C to the angles to A. B.
middle of the opposite side equal to Third method. In A B take any two
half that side, the angle C is (19. Cor. 4.) points A, B, and from A, B, as centres,
a right angle, and C E is at right angles with the radii A. C., BC, describe circles
to A. B. If the points A, C, coincide, cutting one another a
D C is (12, Cor. 3.) at right angles to second time in F: join
A B. CF, and let C F cut
Third method. Take any straight A B in E. Then, be
line M, and make C A equal to four cause A C F, B C F,
times M. : from the centre C, with a are isosceles triangles
radius equal to three times M, describe upon the same base
a circle: from the centre A, with a CF, the line AB which
radius equal to five _{* joins their summits, bisects the base at
times M, describe a right angles (6. Cor. 4.); that is, C E is
second circle, cutting at right angles to A. B.
the former in D, and Therefore, &c.
join DC, D.A. Then, K. c 13 When CA is equal to CB, (which
because the square TKE
may happen, when the points A, B are
of five times M is (29. Cor. 3.) equal to on different sides of E,) the last of these
the square of four times M, together three methods is, in practice, nearly the
with the square of three times M, the same as the first. The last two methods
square of A D is equal to the squares are applicable to the case, in which the
of AC, CD ; and, therefore, (36.) the point C falls near the edge of the paper.
angle A CD is a right angle, or D C is PROP. 46. Prob. 5. (EUC. i. 9.)
at right angles to AD.
Therefore, &c. To bisectagiven rectilineal angle BAC.
The last two methods are particularly In A B take any point B: make A C
convenient, when the given point C is equal to A B: join B C : upon B C de
near the edge of the paper. scribe (42.) the equilateral A
triangle B D C, and join
PROp. 45. Prob. 4, (EUC. i. 12.) A D. Then, because the tri
angles A B D, A CD have
To draw a straightline atrigăt angles the three sides of the one
to a given straight line A B, from a equal to the three sides of 1./ | \e
given point C without it. the other, each to each, (7.) ſ ^\ N/
First method. Take any point Dupon the angle B A D is equal to
the other side of AB, and join CD: the angle C.A. D. -
Therefore, &c. centre B with a radius equal to D E,
Cor. By repeating this process with describe a circle cutting the last circle in
the halves, quarters, &c. of the given F; and join FA, FB. Then, because
angle, it may be divided into four, eight, the triangles E CD, FA B have the
&c., equal parts. three sides of the one equal to the three
Scholium. sides of the other, each to each, (7) they
are equal in every respect, and the angle
There is no construction in Plane
at A is equal to the angle at C.
Geometry, i.e. no construction practi Therefore, &c.
cable with the assistance of the right
line and the circle only, by which a given PROP. 48. Prob. 7. (EUC. i. 31.)
angle may be divided into three, five, Through a given point A, to draw a
&c. equal parts. It is true that, by the straight line parallel to a given straight
description of other lines which are line B C.
plane curves, (as the hyperbola, con Erom A to B C
choid, and cissoid,) any given angle draw any straight
may be trisected, or divided into three line A C, and at
equal parts; but such constructions, the point A make
not being effected by the two species of the angle C A D
lines which are the subject of these Ele equal to A C B
ments, are for certain reasons (to be (as directed in Prop. 47., or as in the
found in the application of Algebra to adjoined figure): then, because these
Geometry) said to be out of the range angles are alternate angles, A D is (15.
of Plane Geometry. There are, how Cor. 2.) parallel to B C.
ever, some particular cases in which, by Therefore, &c.
means of the circle, an angle may be N. B.-In the figure, equal circles are,
divided into three, five, and other num in the first place, described from the
bers of equal parts. Such is the divi centres A, C, the former cutting BC a
sion of a right angle into three equal parts. second time in B ; and the point D is
In this case we are already aware, that, then determined by describing a circle
since an equilateral triangle has its three from the centre A with the radius B C.
angles equal to one another, and the three This construction is equally short, in
taken together equal to two right angles, practice, with that of Prop.47.; and when
each of them is two thirds of a right angle. it is required to obtain the point D at as
The problem, therefore, will be solved great a distance as possible from A, may
by describing an equilateral triangle be preferred, the line AC being drawn
upon either of the legs, taken of any more obliquely for that purpose.
length at pleasure. In like manner, by
means of an isosceles triangle, each of PROP. 49. Prob. 8. (EUC. vi. 9).
whose base-angles is double of the verti To divide a given straight line, A B,
cal angle, (see book iii.), and is, there into any number of equal parts.
fore, four-fifths of a right angle, Plane Let it be required to divide A B into
Geometry enables us to divide a right five equal parts. Draw AC, making any
angle into five equal parts. But these angle with A B, and taking any distance
are only particular cases, and indicate M, set it off upon A C five times from
no general process. A to C : join CB, and through the points
of division in A C, viz. D, E, &c. draw
PROP. 47. Prob. 6. (EUc. i. 23.)
(48.) parallels to C B, cutting A B in the
At a # * point A, in a given points F, G, &c. A B shall be divided
straight line A B, to make an angle at the latter points into five equal parts.
equal to the given rectilineal angle C. Through F and
From the centre C, with any radius, IN.I. p_{- G draw (48.) F.
describe a circle, cutting the sides of _2~ f H and G. K.,
the given angle in the points DE, and al-º-fºr each of them
-àº parallel to A.C.
A hen, because
~, e. FC is a paral
lelogram, FH is equal to D C (22.);
and for the like reason G. K is equal to
join D E: from the centre A, with a E D: but ED, DC, are equal to one
radius equal to C E or CD, describe a another; therefore (ax. 1.), FH is equal
circle, cutting A B in B, and from the to G. K. But FH, G K, are sides of the
| 1 , I. § 7.] GEOMETRY. 27
DF, triangles FHB, G. KF, which have their But if C is to be opposite to one of
ſºlem angles equal to one another, each to each, the given sides as A, take C E equal to
{{Allsº because their sides are parallel (18.): B as before: from the centre E, with a
V8 tº therefore (5.), their other sides are also radius equal to A, describe a circle
ethſº equal to one another, and F B is equal cutting C D in the points D, D; and
1)|| to G. F. In like mannerit may be shown, join ED, ED. Then, if the points D, D
* if: that each of the other five parts into fall both on the same side of C with the
which AB is divided, is equalto FB or GF. angle, each of the triangles EC D will
And it is evident that, by a similar satisfy the given conditions; but if they
process, A B may be divided into any fall upon different sides, only one of
31) other number of equal parts. them, as EC D, will satisfy those con
intº Therefore, &c. ditions, and therefore that one will be
ing It is convenient to draw the parallels the triangle required.
DF, EG, &c. by making the angle A Ba, If the points D, D, being upon the
equal to B A C (47.), taking B d, de, &c. same side with the angle, coincide with
each equal to M, and joining correspond one another, which will happen when
ing points D d, E, e, &c. For the E D C is a right angle (12. Cor. 3.), there
straight lines which join the extremities is only one triangle EDC, which is the
of equal and parallel straight lines, are triangle required.
also themselves equal and parallel (21.). . Case 3. Let the given parts be three
A similar process may be recommended, sides, viz. A., - fr;
whenever a number of parallels are to B, and C. D. A

be drawn without the assistance of a From the cen- B
parallel ruler. tres C, D,with
radii equal to G ve
, PRop. 50. Prob. 9, (EUC. i. 22). A, B, respectively, describe circles inter

To construct atriangle from threeparts secting in E, and join E C, E D : then
given, of which one, at least, is a side. ECD is evidently the triangle required.
Case 1. Let -
Therefore, &c.
the given parts
Scholium.
be two angles
and a side; viz. A. le
In each of these three cases we
the angles A
B, and the side
* *, Iº have supposed the data, or given parts,
CD
to be such that the problem is possible:
and the same will be supposed in all future
If the given problems. Many of them, however, will
side is to be
C Io be found to be of that description, that,
interjacent or if the relations of the data be not con
to lie between the given angles, make fined within certain limits, the required
(47.) at the points C, D, the angles D CE, solutions will be impossible. In pro
Q DE, equal to A, B, respectively: and blems of a more complex nature than
the triangle E CD will evidently be the the present, the determination of these
triangle required. limits is facilitated by the consideration
But if CD is to be opposite to one of of loci, to be noticed hereafter (in
the given angles, as B, make at the point Book III. Sect. 6), and which may here
C, the angles D CE, ECF, equal to be explained as circumscribing the
A, B, respectively, and through D, draw range, if it be limited, within which
DE parallel to CF (48.): then the angle every particular datum confines the solu
C E D is (15. Cor. 2.) equal to the alter tion of the problem ; for it is obvious
nate angle E CF, that is, to B, and that, if a second datum cannot be satis
EQD is the triangle required. fied within that range, the two will be
Case 2. Let the given parts be two inconsistent, and the solution impossible.
sides and an angle; viz. the sides A, B, In the mean time, it may be ob
and the angle C. served, the limits of the data are in
is Iftothebegiven angle *—
included, many cases readily suggested by the
rº
known properties of the figure, or by

take CD, CE, upon -
the necessary construction of the pro
c 3D
its sides, equal to blem. It is evident, for instance, that in
A, B, respectively, Tº every case of the problem before us, there
and join D E: the are certain, limits, beyond which the
triangle CD E will solution will be impossible. This will
evidently be the tri happen in the first case if the two given
angle required. angles should be together equal to or
28 GEOMETRY. II. 37.
greater than two right angles, for there has its opposite sides equal to one ano
can be no triangle having two of its an ther, it is a parallelogram (22.); and it
gles together equal to or greater than has two sides and the included angle the
two right angles (8). The problem will same with those given; therefore, it is
be impossible in the second case, if the parallelogram required.
when the side A is to be opposite to the Therefore, &c.
given angle C, it should be less than the N. B. The same end will be obtained
perpendicular let fall from E upon CD by drawing parallels to C B, C A
(12, Cor. 4.); or again, if the given angle through the points A, B.
being right, or obtuse, the side A, which It may be observed that if A C be
is to be opposite to it be less than the equal to B C, the parallelogram is a
side B, for no triangle can have the less rhombus; if A C be at right angles to
side opposite to the greater angle (9.). B C, it is a rectangle; and if A C be
And in the third case, the problem will both equal to B C, and at right angles
be impossible, if every two of the given to it, it is a square. This problem,
sides be not greater than the third side therefore, includes the following as parti
(10.). -
cular cases; 1st, to describe a rhombus
PROP, 51. Prob. 10.
with a given side and angle; 2d, to de
scribe a rectangle with two given sides;
Given the three angles of a triangle and 3d, to describe a square upon a
(together equal to two right angles), given finite straight line.
and the perimeter AB, to construct the PROP. 53. Prob. 12.
triangle.
At the points A, 2C
To describe a triangle which shall be
B, make (47.) the equal to a given quadrilateral A B C D,
angles BAC, ABC, o
and shall have a side and angle adjacent
equal to two of the to it, the same with a given side AB
given angles, each and adjacent angle B of the quadri
to each; bisect (46.) . (0. &T B lateral.
the angles at A, B, Join A C: through
by the straight lines A c, Bc, meeting D (48.) draw DE *~ o
in c, and through c draw (48.) ca, cb, parallel to A C, to
parallel to CA, C B, respectively: the meet B C produced
triangle ABC shall have its angles equal in E, and join A. E.
to the three given angles, and its peri Then, because DE # à–ºr
meter equal to the given perimeter A. B. is parallel to AC,
The first is evident, for its sides are pa the triangle A C E is equal to AQ D
rallel to the sides of the triangle C A B, (27.): therefore A B C, A C E together
which has its angles at A and B, and are equal (ax. 2.) to A B C, A.C.D. to
therefore at C, equal to the given angles gether: that is, the triangle A, B E is
(18.). Again, because ca is parallel to equal to the quadrilateral ABC D3 and
CA, the angle acA is equal (15.) to the it has the same side A B, and adjacent
alternate angle CAc, that is to the angle angle B with the quadrilateral.
a A c, and therefore (6.) acis equal to a A ; Therefore, &c.
and in the same manner it may be
shown that be is equal to b B; there PROP. 54. Prob. 13.
fore, the three sides of the triangle a b c
are together equal to A B, that is, to the To describe a triangle which shall
given perimeter. be equal to a given rectilineal figure
A B C D EF, and shall have a side and
Therefore, &c. adjacent angle the same with a given
PROP. 52. Prob. 11.
side AB and adjacent angle B of the
figure.
. Given two sides and the included Join A C, AD, A E : through F draw
angle of a parallelogram, to construct FG parallel to A E (48.), to meet DE
the parallelogram. produced in G: through G draw GH
Let A C, B C, be the arallel to AD, to meet CD produced in
two given sides, and C }: ; through H draw H K parallel to
the given angle. From H C, to meet B C produced in K, and
the centres A, B, with 4 join A K, A H, A G.”
.B.
radii equal to B C, AC, - Then because the triangle A D G is
-
respectively, describe circles intersecting * A H is not joined in the figure, to avoid conſu
in D, and join DA, D B. . . sion : for the same reason, A M and A Lare not
Then because the quadrilateral AD joined in the corresponding figure of Prop. 55.
I. § 7.] GEOMETRY, 29
equal to the quadrilateral ADE FC53.), given figure, and the latter is bisected
and that the triangle A D H is equal to by the straight line A. N. -
A D G (27), the triangle A D H is equal Therefore, &c.

to the quadrilateral ADE F. To each Cor. 1. By a similar construction,
of these equals add the quadrilateral any part required, for example a fifth,
A B CD; therefore the quadrilateral may be cut off from a given triangle
A BCH is equal to the whole figure or rectilineal figure, by a straight line
ABCDEF. But again (53) the tri- drawn from one of its angles. For
angle A B K is equal to the quadrilate- in the case of the triangle, if the base
ral A B C H : therefore the triangle B C be divided into five equal parts
in the points D, &c. the triangles ABD,
&c. will be equal to one another (27.);
and therefore any one of them, as
A BD, will be equal to one fifth of the
given triangle. ...And hence the passage
is easy to the division of the rectilineal
figure; for it is evident (53.) that, what
- - ever be the point L taken in A K, the
A B K, is equal to the figure A B C D figure A B C D N, constructed as above,
EF, and it has the same side A B, and will be equal to the triangle A BL, and
adjacent angle B with the figure. will therefore be a fifth part of the given
Therefore, &c. figure, if A B L be a fifth of the triangle
A B K.
PROP. 55. Prob. 14. It is manifest in this case, that, if the
. To bisect a given triangle or rectili- given fractional part be such, that B L
neal figure by a straight line drawn is less than B C, the problem will be
from a given angle. - solved at once by joining A. L.
First, let it be required to bisect the Cor. 2. And hence it appears in what
triangle ABC by a straight line to be manner a triangle or rectilineal figure
drawn
Bisectfrom
(43.)theBangle
C inA.D, A
may be
parts divided into
bystraight linesany number
drawn fromofone
equal
of
and § D. Then be- its angles. -
CauSe is equal to DC,

the triangle A B D is (27.) e PROP. 56. Prob. 15.
ual to ADC, and the #-à-3. To bisect a given triangle or rectili

triangle A B C is bisected meal figure by a straight line drawn
by the straight line AD. jrom a given point in one of its sides.
Next, let it be required to bisect the First, let it be required
rectilineal figure A B CD EF by a to bisect the triangle ...A-
straight line, to be drawn from "the A B C, by a straight line 1.2%

angle A. to be drawn from the -
With the same side A B and angle B, point.D. in the side AB. 5 iſ c
describe (54) the triangle ABK, equai T. Join D.C.; bisect (43.)
tº the given rectilineal figure: bisect AB in, E: through E. draw (48.) E F,
(#3) BK in L: through f draw (43.) parallel tº DC, and join D.F. E.C. Then,
*M parallel to A C, to meet of D pro because D G is parallel to E F, the tri.
duced in M: through M. draw M N angle DE F is (27), equal to CE F; ;
parallel to AD, to meet D Ein N, and therefore D.E. F. BEF together, aré
equal to CEF, B E F together, that is
- the triangle D B F, is equal to the triº
angle C E B, or (27.) to half of the tri
angle A B C. Therefore, A B C is bi
sected by the straight line DF,
*AT5 T. † fiNext, let it be required to bisect the
* - gure ABCDE, F, by a straightline, to
join AN, A.M., A. L. Then, it may be be drawn from the point G in the side
shown, as in the last proposition, that A B. -
the triangle ABL is equal to the figure f
ABCDN ; but AB f is equal to half

the triangle AB K, that is to half of
the given figure; therefore the figure
ABC DN, is also equal to half of the
30 GEOMETRY. II. : :
Describe the triangle A B K (54.) Cor. 1. Hence, upon a given base, a
equal to the given figure, and, as al rectangle may be described which shall
ready shewn, bisect it by the straight be equal to a given rectilineal figure: for
line G. L., drawn from the point G : a triangle (54.) may be described equal
|"
join GC, GD, &c.; through L draw to the figure, and a rectangle equal to
º
(48.) LM, parallel to G C, to meet the triangle.
CD produced in M : through M. draw Cor. 2. It is evident that, with a like
M-N parallel to G D to meet D E in construction, a parallelogram may be
º N, and join G N, G. M., G. L.” Then, described upon a given base B D which
as in the last proposition, it may be shall be equal to a given triangle A B C,
shown that the figure G B CD N is and shall have one of its angles equal to
equal to the triangle G B L, that is to a given angle B D E.
half of the given figure; therefore the
latter is bisected by the straight line PROP. 58. Prob. 17. (EUc. ii. 14).
G. N. To describe a square which shall be
Therefore, &c. equal to a given rectangle A B C D.
Cor. 1. By a similar construction, Produce A B to E,
any part required may be cut off from a so that B E may be
given triangle or rectilineal figure, by a equal to B C : bisect
straight line drawn from a given point flºº
F (43.) : from A
in one of its sides. For we have but to the radius

centre F, FAwith
or " Tí | c
make CBE the same part of C B A in

FE, describe a circle, and produce C B
the first case, and G B L the same part
of A B K in the case of the rectilineal to meet the circumference in G : the
figure, and proceed as before. Square of BG shall be equal to the
If the fractional part be such that rectangle A B C D. -
B L is less than B C, the problem will Join FG, then, because FA is equal
be solved at once by joining G L. tº FE, A B is equal to the sum, and
B E to the difference, of F E, F B.
Cor. 2: And hence a given triangle or therefore
rectilineal figure may be divided into any (34.) the rectangle A B, B E,
number of equal parts, by straight lines that is, the rectangle A B C D, is equai
º from a given point
S1CleS.
in one of its to the difference of the squares of FE,
F B, that is to the difference of the
PROP. 57. Prob. 16. (Euc. i. 44.) squares of FG, F B, or (36. Cor. 1.)
to the square of B G.
Upon a given base B D to describe a Therefore, &c.
Tectangle which shall be equal to a given Cor. Hence a square may be described
triangle ABC. Which shall be equal to a given rec
From the point D tilineal figure (57. Cor. 1.). -
M. L.A. Y!
draw DE, at right an PROP. 59. Prob. 18.
gles to B D (44.): -
through A draw A E To describe a square which shall be

parallel to BD, to meet equal to the difference of two given
5 E. Edg). * * *T* squares, viz. the squares of A B, A C.
From the point C draw
E B : bisect B C in F (43.) : through F (44.) C D perpendicular to
draw FG, parallel to DE, to meet B E A B, and from the centre
in G: through G draw H K parallel to A with the radius A B, de- .A. C.
BD, and complete the rectangle DH: scribe the circle B D cut
D H shall be the rectangle required. ting CD in D: the square of CD shall
Complete the rectangles D L, D.M. be equal to the difference of the squares
Then, because GM, G D are comple of AB, A. C. For (36. Cor. 1.) the
ments of the rectangles FH, K L, which square of CD is the difference of the
are about the diagonal of the rectangle squares of A D, A C, of which A D is
DM, G D is (23) equal to GM. There equal to A. B.
fore, adding F H to each, the whole Therefore, &c.
H D is equal to the whole M F, that is, Cor. Hence a square may be dº
(26.) to twice the triangle AB F, or to scribed, which sºuth. equal to the dif
the triangle A B C ; and HD is de ference of two given rectilineal figures
scribed upon the given base B D. (58. Cor.).
Therefore, &c. PROP. 60. Prob. 19.
a GD and GL do not necessarily coincide, as in To describe a square which * *
the figure,
II, § 1.] GEOMETRY. 31
equal to the sum of two, three, or any magnitude is greater or less than a
number of given squares, viz. the fourth.
squares of A, B, C, &c. The ratio of one magnitude to
Take DE equal to A; from the point another is independent of the kind of
D, draw D F (44.) at right angles to magnitudes compared ; for it is obvious
D E, and equal to B: join EF: from that one may contain the other, or the
F, draw FG at right angles to EF, and sixth, or twelfth, or hundredth part of
equal to C ; and so proceed for the rest the other the same number of times,
of the given squares. Join EG. Then, whether they be lines, or surfaces, or
because E D F is a rightangled triangle, solids, or again, weights, or parts of
the square of EF is equal to the duration.
squares of ED, D F (36.), that is, to the It is required only for the comparison
squares of A, B: again, because E FG we speak of, that the magnitudes be of
is a right angled triangle, the square of the same kind, containing the same
E G is equal to the squares of E F, FG, magnitude, each of them, a certain num
that is, to the squares of A, B, C ; and ber of times, or a certain number of
SO On. times nearly. Upon these numbers,
G
and upon these only, the ratio depends.
Hence, it appears that this theory
F. pertains in truth to Arithmetic. The
A: use of Proportion is, however, so indis
B—- pensable in Geometry, that it has been
c usual, either to introduce its theorems
To T. into the body of the science, after the
example of Euclid, or to premise a few
Therefore, &c. of the most important of them as a
Cor. Hence a square may be de manual for reference. In the present,
scribed, which shall be equal to the sum and two following sections, the subject
of two, three, or any number of given will be discussed at a length commen
rectilineal figures (58 Cor.). surate with its importance.
Def. 1. When one magnitude is com
|BOOK II.
pared with another of the same kind,
§ 1. Ratios of Commensurable Magni the first is called the antecedent, and the
tudes—y 2, Proportion of Commen. second the consequent.
surable º 3. General 2. One magnitude is said to be a
Theory of Proportion—S4. Propor multiple of another, when it contains
tion of the sides of Triangles—$ 5. that other a certain number of times
Proportion of the surfaces of Recti exactly: and the other magnitude, which
lineal Figures — $6. Properties of is contained in the first a certain num
Lines divided Harmonically — $ 7. ber of times exactly, is said to be a sub
Problems. multiple, or measure, or part of the first.
Hence, also, one magnitude is said to
SECTION 1. Ratios of Commensurable measure another when it is contained in
Magnitudes. the other a certain number of times ex
IN the language of Mathematics, the actly.
Latin word ratio has been adopted to 3. Two magnitudes are said to be
express what is more generally under equimultiples of two others, when they
stood by the term proportion ; thus, contain those others the same number
instead of “the proportion which " one of times exactly: and the other magni
thing bears to another, we say “the tudes which are contained in the first
ratio which " one bears to the other, the same number of times exactly, are
meaning its comparative magnitude— said to be like parts of the two first.
instead of saying that A is to B “ in Thus, 7 A, 7B, are equimultiples of
the proportion of 5 to 6,” we say “in A, B ; and A, B, are like parts of 7 A,
the ratio of 5 to 6.” 7 B.
The word proportion has on the 4. Two magnitudes are said to be
other hand been appropriated to ex commensurable with one another, when
press the equality of ratios, as here a common measure of the two may be
after defined; or, as it may be here found, i. e. a magnitude which is con
less minutely explained, the case in tained in each of them a certain number
which one magnitude is as many times of times exactly.
greater or less than another, as a third In like manner, any number of mag
32 GEOMETRY [II. § 1.
nitudes are said to be commensurable, 6. The terms of the ratio of two mag
when there is some magnitude which is nitudes, are the numbers which denote
contained in each of them a certain how often a common measure of the
number of times exactly. two is contained in each of them. They
Magnitudes which have no common are distinguished by the names of anté.
measure, are said to be incommen cedent and consequent, according to the
surable. corresponding magnitudes. In the fore
Magnitudes A, B, which have one going example 5 and 6 are the terms of
common measure M, have also many the ratio of A to B, 5, the antecedent,
others, indeed, an unlimited number and 6, the consequent.
of common measures, for (as will be The terms of the same ratio of A to
shown in Prop. 1.) every magnitude B, will be different according to the
which is contained an exact number of common measure by which they are de
times in M, is contained also an exact termined ; the lowest terms being in all
number of times in A and B ; and cases those which are determined by the
whether M be divided into two, or three, greatest common measure. It must be
or any other number of equal parts, one observed, however, that no other terms
of these parts will be contained an exact can express the same ratio, but such as
number of times in M. are either the lowest, or equimultiples of
Among the common measures of the the lowest terms; for the magnitudes
same two magnitudes, there is, however, compared, can have no common mea
always one which is greater than any of sure, which is not either the greatest, or
the others, and which (as will be shown contained a certain number of times in
in Prop. 6.) is measured by every other. the greatest common measure. On
This greatest common measure is al the other hand, any terms whatever
ways to be understood when “the com which are equimultiples of the lowest
mon measure” is spoken of without terms will express the same ratio: thus,
further specification. if A contain ºths of B, it will contain
5. The numerical ratio of one mag also ºths of B, 1%ths, and, generally,
mitude to another with which it is com 3 × 72
mensurable, is a certain number, whole X 72
ths of B, where any number what
or fractional, which expresses how ever may be substituted for n.
many, and what parts of the second are The ratio of B to A has the same
contained in the first: for example, if terms with the ratio of A to B, but in an
the common measure of A and B be inverse order: thus, if 5 : 6 be the nu
contained in A five times, and in B six merical ratio of A to B, 6 : 5 will be
times, or, which is the same thing, if A that of B to A.
contain #ths of B, then A is said to have The ratio of B to A is accordingly
to B the numerical ratio “5 to 6” said to be the inverse or reciprocal ofthe
which is thus written 5: 6, or, in the ratio of A to B.
fractional form, #. - If the terms of the ratio of A to
In fact, the particular ratio of two B be equal, it is evident that the mag:
given magnitudes, whether commensur: nitudes A, B, must likewise be equal.
able or otherwise, can be conceived In this case the ratio is said to be a
only by means of the numbers which zatio of equality.
denote how often the same magnitude is Def:[7.j If there be two magnitudes of
contained, or mearly contained, in each : the same kind, and other fo, and if
without these, no idea can be formed of the first contain a measure of the second,
their relative magnitude; they constitute as often as the third contains a like mea
its measure, true or approximate.” sure of the fourth; or, which is the same
To these numbers, therefore, when thing, if the ratios of the first to, the
speaking of commensurable magnitudes, second, and of the third to the fourth be
the term “ratio” alone, i. e. without the expressed by the same terms; the first
addition of “numerical,” will be found is said to have to the second the same
commonly applied in what follows. ratio which the third has to the fourth;
and the four magnitudes are called
* The numerical ratio is accordingly designated, proportionals.
by some writers, “The measure of the ratio” of one
magnitude tº another. This term has, however, } H.9
been applied in a different sense, to which deference
is more particularly due, as it has given rise to the
word “logarithm,” of which it is the literal interpre
tation. |III. A jº
|º
II. § 1.] GEOMETRY. 33
of the fourth: also, when this is the case, ;

For example, let A B C D, and
E F G H be two rectangles, having the third is said to have to the fourth
equal altitudes, and let their bases A B, a less ratio than the first has to the
E F, contain the same straight line M. second. -
5 and 6 times respectively: divide A B, This definition can, in no case, apply

EF, into the parts Ab, &c. Ef, &c. each to the same magnitudes which come
equal to M, and through the points of under def. [7], i.e. one magnitude cannot
division draw right lines bc, &c. fg, &c. have to another the same ratio as a
parallel to AD, and EH, thereby divid third to a fourth by def. [7], and at the
ing the rectangles A B C D, E FG H, same time a greater or a less ratio than
into 5 and 6 smaller rectangles respec the third has to the fourth, by this de
tively, Abc D, &c. Efg H, &c, all equal finition. (See Prop. 9. Cor. 1 and 2.)
to one another (I.25.). Then, 5 : 6 is the Much less can one magnitude have
ratio of the rectangle A B C D to the to another a greater ratio than a third
rectangleEF GH, because A B C D and has to a fourth, and at the same time a
EFG H contain the same rectangle 5 less ratio than the third has to the fourth,
and 6 times respectively; and the same by this definition.
5 : 6 is also the ratio of the base AB 9. When four magnitudes A, B, C, D,
to the base EF, because A B and E F are proportionals, they are said to con
contain the same straight line 5 and 6 stitute a prºmº#. thus written,
times respectively. Therefore, the ratios
of the first to the second, and of the 7. e. “A is to B as C is to D.”
third to the fourth, are expressed by Of a proportion, the first and last
the same terms, and the two rectangles, terms are called the extremes, and the
and their two bases, are proportionals. second and third the means ; thus A, D
In the preceding, and in every other are the extremes, and B, C the means, of
instance of commensurable proportion the proportion A: B::C: D. The terms
als, the first two, and the second two, A and C are said to be homologous,
have a common numerical ratio: and, as also B and D ; the former being an
in every case, if two magnitudes, and tecedents, and the latter consequents, in
other two, have a common numerical the proportion.
ratio, the four magnitudes are, accord It is indifferent in the statement of a
ing to this definition, proportionals. proportion which of the ratios precedes
It is evident from the observations the other, for it is evident, that if A
on def. 6, that if four magnitudes be has to B the same ratio as C has to
proportionals, any other terms express D, C has to D the same ratio as A to B.
ing the ratio of the first to the second, Hence, A: B::C: D, and C ; D::A : B, .
must likewise express the ratio of the signify the same proportion—the only
third to the fourth. For the terms which
difference being, that the extremes of one
determine the proportion, are either expression are the means of the other.
the lowest terms, or equimultiples of Since magnitudes cannot be com
º
them (see Prop. 6. Cor. 1.): and in pared, except they be of the same kind,
either case, the lowest terms which it is manifest that the first and second
express the ratio of the first to the terms of a proportion must be of the same
#
second, and of the third to the fourth, kind, as also the third and fourth; yet the
must be the same; therefore, because first and third may be of different kinds:
any other terms expressing the ratio of e.g. 10lbs : 6lbs::15 ft. : 9ft. is a true
the first to the second must be equi proportion; for the ratio of the first to
multiples of the lowest terms, that is, the second, as well as of the third to the
of the lowest terms of the ratio of the fourth, is 5 : 3, and yet 10lbs. and 15ft.
third to the fourth, such terms express are not magnitudes of the same kind.
also the ratio of the third to the fourth 10. Three magnitudes of the same king
(see observations on Def, 6.) are said to be proportionals or in con
The same will be demonstrated more tinued proportion, when the first has to
at large in Prop. [9]. the second the same ratio which the
Def. [8]. If there be two magnitudes second has to the third. Magnitudes
of the same kind, and other two, the first A, B, C, which are in continued pro
is said to have to the second a greater portion, may be writtenthus, A : B : C,
ratio than the third has to the fourth, 7. e. “A is to B, as B to C.” In this case,
When the first contains some measure of B is called a mean proportional or geo
the second a greater number of times metrical mean between A and C, and
than the third contains a like measure 3.
C a third proportional to and B.
-
34 GEOMETRY. -
[II. § 1.
11. Any number of magnitudes of the same may be said, if, instead of three and
same kind are said to be in continued four, any other numbers whatever be
proportion, when the first is to the taken, i. e. if A be any multiple of B,
second, as the second to the third, as the and B any multiple of Č.
third to the fourth, and so on. Magni Therefore, &c.
tudes A, B, C, D, &c. which are in con Cor. l. If one magnitude measure
tinued proportion, may be thus written, another, it will measure any multiple of
A : B : C : D : &c. that other. - -
The magnitudes of such a series are Cor. 2. Hence, the ratio of A to B

said to be in geometrical progression : being expressed by certain terms, i.
and B, C, are called two geometrical as 5:6, the same ratio may be expressed
means between A and B; again, B, C, D, by any terms which are equimultiples of
three geometrical means between A the given terms, as 10 × 5: 10 x 6. For,
and E ; and so on. -
if M be the common measure which is
Also, in this case, the first A is said contained in A five times and in B six
to have to the third C, the duplicate times, any measure of M, as the fenth
ratio of that which it has to the second part, will also measure A and B (Cor. 1.)
B—to the fourth D, the triplicate ratio and will be contained in A 10 × 5 times,
of that which it has to B, and so on : and in B 10 × 6 times.
and reciprocally, A is said to have to B Cor. 3. Hence, also, reversely, the
the subduplicate ratio of that which it ratio of A to B being expressed by any
has to C, the subtriplicate ratio of that terms, as 10 × 5 : 10 x 6, which have a
which it has to D, and so on. common factor, the same ratio may be
12. If there be any number of magni expressed by any terms, as 5:6, which
tudes of the same kind, A, B, C, D, the are like parts of the given terms.
first A is said to have to the last D a For, if M be the common measure
ratio which is compounded of the ratios which is contained in A 10x5 times,
of A to B, B to C, and C to D. and in B 10 × 6 times, it is evident that
Also, if K and L, M and N, P and Q, 10 M will be contained in A 5 times,
pe any other magnitudes, and if the ra and in B 6 times.
tios of K to L, of M to N, and of P to
Q, be the same respectively with the PRop. 2. (Euc. v. 3.)
ratios of A to B, of B to C, and of C to If two magnitudes be equimultiples of
T), A is said to have to D a ratio which two others, and if these be likewise equi
is compounded of the ratios of K to L, multiples of two third magnitudes, the
M to N, and P to Q. two first shall be equimultiples of the two
Axioms. (EUC. V. Ax. 1, 2, 3, 4.) third,
1. Equimultiples of the same or of Let A and A' contain B and B'respec
equal magnitudes are equal to one ano tively three times, and let B and B' contain
ther, C and C' respectively four times; then,
2. Those magnitudes of which the as in the demonstration of the preceding
same, , or equal magnitudes are equi proposition, A and A' being equal to three
multiples, are equal to one another. times B and three times B' respectively,
3. A multiple of a greater magnitude contain C and C’ respectively 3×4 times,
i. greater than the
€SS.
same multiple of a i.e. the same number of times exactly ;
therefore A and A' are equimultiples of
C and C/. - -
4. That magnitude of which a multi

ple is greater than the same multiple The same may be said, if, instead of
of another, is greater than that other 3 and 4, any other numbers be taken, i. e.
magnitude. if A, A' be any equimultiples of B, B',
PROP. 1. and B, B' any equimultiples of C, C'.
Therefore, &c.
If one magnitude be a multiple of an Cor. If two magnitudes A, A' be equi
other, and if this be likewise a multiple multiples of two others B, B', and like
of a third magnitude, the first shall be a wise of two third magnitudes C, C, and
multiple of the third. if one of the second, B, be a multiple of
Let A contain B three times, and let the corresponding one, C, of the third,
B contain C four times; then because B the other second, B', shall be the same
contains C four times, three times B or A multiple of the other third, C/.
must contain C thrice as often, or twelve
times, i.e. a certain number of times ex PROP. 3.
actly; therefore A is a multiple of C. The A common measure M of any two
II, § 1.] GEOMETRY." 35
magnitudes A and B, measures also their shown that every one of the latter mea
sum A+ B, and their difference A-B. sures both A and B ; therefore the
For, if M be contained in A any num greatest among them is the greatest
ber of times, as 7, and in B any num common measure of A and B.
ber of times, as 4; it will evidently be PRop. 5,
contained in the sum of A and B, 7+ 4 or
11 times, and in their differ By repeating the process indicated in
ence 7–4 or 3 times, and the last proposition, with the remainder
therefore will measure their
sum and difference. *.*
and the lesser magnitude, and again
with the new remainder (if there be one)
. The same may be said, |M. and the preceding, and so on, the greatest
if, instead of 7 and 4, common measure of two given commen
any other numbers be
taken.” -
surable magnitudes A, B may be found.
, Let B, for instance, be contained in
Therefore, &c. A twice (as in the last proposition), with
a remainder R. ; let R be contained in
PROP. 4. B three times, with a second remainder
" If there be two magnitudes A, B, and Re; let R, be contained in R four times,
if one of them be contained in the other with a third remainder R, and let R, be
a certain number of times with a re contained in R, five times exactly. Then,
mainder; any common measure of the because (by 4. Cor.) the greatest com a
two magnitudes shall measure the re mon measure of A and B is the greatest |
mainder, and any common measure qf common measure of B and R, that is
º
the remainder and the lesser magnitude, (by the same Cor.) of R and R, that is, º
shall measure the greater also. again, of R, and Ra, and because Ra,
Let B be contained in Atwice being contained in itself once and a cer iº
with a remainder R, and let M be A in tain number of times in R, is the great
any common measure of A and est common measure of R, and R, it is t
B; then, since M is contained likewise the greatest common measure
a certain number of times in B, of A and B.
it is also contained a certain The same may be said, if instead of
number of times in twice B (1.)+ 2,3,4, 5, any other numbers, supposed to
and measures twice B : but it arise from a similar examination of any
also measures A ; therefore (3.) two given commensurable magnitudes, be
-
it measures the difference of A and taken. At every step of the process, the
twice B, that is R. remainder, as R, is diminished by the fol
Next, let N be any common measure lowing remainder R, or by as many
of R and B; then, as before, N mea times R2 as are contained in it, that is,
sures twice B; therefore (3.) it measures in either case, by a magnitude greater
the sum of R and twice B, that is, A. than the supposed greatest common
. . And the reasoning, in either case, is measure, to procure the new remainder
independent of the particular numbers Ra. In all cases therefore, after a num
assumed. ber of steps, which is less than the num
Therefore, &c, ber of times the lesser magnitude con -ſ-
Cºr. The greatest common measure tains the supposed greatest common
of the remainder and lesser magnitude measure, a remainder will be found which
is also the greatest common measure is equal to the greatest common measure.
of the two magnitudes. For, since Therefore, &c.
every Common measure of A and B is Cor. 1. If the process admit of being
also a common measure of B and R; continued through an unlimited numbe.
the greatest common measure of A and of steps, without arriving at aremainder
B will be found among the common which measures the next preceding, the
measures of B and R.; and it has been magnitudes which are subjected to it,
have no common measure, i. e. they aré
* The example of Euclid has been followed in incommensurable.
annexing straight lines to illustrate this and many
subsequent propositions, which are, however, not Cor. 2. By proceeding in a similar
the less to be understood as applicable to and de manner, the greatest common measure
monstrated of magnitudes generally, as is evident of three magnitudes A, B and C may be
from the language of the enunciation and demonstra
tion. found; for if M be taken, the greatest
... t The reference is here to the first proposition of common measure of A and B, and Ma
the present Book; and generally, in such references the greatest common measure of M and
as have no Roman numeral to indicate the Book, the
current Book is always to be understood. C, them because the greateº, ºmmon
36 GEOMETRY, [II. § 1.
measure of A, B and C is to be found common factor must still remain, viz.
among the common measures of M and the number which denotes how often the
C, and because every one of the latter, first is contained in the greatest common
being a measure of M, measures A and B factor.
(1.), the greatest among them, that is, Thus, the greatest common factor of
M, is the greatest common measure of 204 and 240 is 12, as found by the Rule;
A, B and C. therefore those numbers have no com
It is obvious, that in the same manner mon factor which is not a factor of 12;
the Rule may be extended to any num and if they be divided by any factor of
ber of magnitudes. 12, as 6, the quotients 34 and 40, have
Cor. 3. By help of this proposition still a common factor 2, which is the
the lowest terms of the ratio of two given number of times the factor 6 is con
commensurable magnitudes may be de tained in 12.
termined : for the lowest terms of their It is impossible to have a clear and
ratio are the numbers which denote how correct apprehension of the subject be
often their greatest common measure is fore us, without a reference, not merely
contained in each (see def. 6.). to numbers, but also to the properties
Scholium. just mentioned (see Arithmetic, art. 54,
It may be observed that the foregoing 55, 56, 57, 58, 63.).
process includes the arithmetical rule for PROP, 6.
finding the greatest common factor of
two numbers: which is to divide the If a magnitude measure each of two
greater number by the lesser, and find others, it shall either be the greatest
the remainder; the lesser by the remain common measure of the two, or it shall
der, and find the second remainder, if be contained an earact number of times
there be one ; the preceding remainder in the greatest common measure.
by this, and find the third remainder > For, in the process of Prop. 5, it was
and so on, until a remainder be found seen that every common measure of the
which is contained an exact number of two magnitudes A and B measures also
times in the next preceding ; this last the successive remainders, the last of
remainder will be the greatest common which is the greatest common measure
factor required. of A and B.
Thus, if the numbers be 628 and 272, Therefore, &c.
the successive remainders will be 84, 20, Cor. 1. The lowest terms of the ratio
and 4, of which 4 is contained in 20 an of two magnitudes being determined by
exact number of times: therefore, 4 is the greatest common measure of the
the greatest common factor of the num two, and any other common measure
bers 628 and 272. being contained an exact number of
If there be found no remainder which times in the greatest, any other terms
is exactly contained in the preceding, expressing the same ratio must be equi
until the course of the Rule produces a multiples of the lowest terms.
remainder 1, the numbers have no com . This corollary has been cited by an
mon factor but 1, and are said to be ticipation in the observations upon
prime to one another, def. 6.
The greatest common factor of two Cor. 2. The numerical ratio of twomag
numbers being thus found, if the num nitudes being given, if not already in its
bers be divided by it, the quotients will, lowest terms, may be reduced to them by
manifestly, be prime to one another. dividing the terms by their greatest com
With regard to other common factors of mon factor: for the lowest terms, being
the same two numbers, every other com determined by the greatest common
mon factor must be contained an exact measure of the two magnitudes, must be
number of times in the greatest: for it prime to one another, and there is no
is contained an exact number of times other common factor but the greatest,
in each of the remainders of the Rule, by which if two numbers be divided, the
the last of which is the greatest common quotients will be prime to one another.
factor. (See PROP. 5. Scholium.)
Hence it follows, that, any two num For example, the terms of the ratio
bers being given, there is no other com 628 : 272 have 4 for their greatest com
mon factor but the greatest, by which if mon factor: therefore, dividing them by
the numbers be divided, the quotients 4, the quotients 157 and 68 are the
will be prime to one another; for, after lowest terms in which the ratio can be
division by any other common factor, a expressed.
Cor. 3. If this Rule be applied to two mensurable with the second, the second
mumerical ratios which are differently with the third, the third with the fourth,
expressed, it will show whether they are and so on to the last, all the magnitudes
different ratios or only different forms of shall be commensurable.
the same ratio: viz. according as the Cor. 2. If two magnitudes be com
lowest terms of the two are different or mensurable with one another, and if
the same. one of them be incommensurable with
a third magnitude, the other shall like
PROP, 7. wise be incommensurable with the third.
If a magnitude A be measured by each
of two others M and N, a common mea
sure of these two may be found; and, SECTION 2.—Proportion of Commen
conversely, if two magnitudes be com surable Magnitudes.
mensurable, a magnitude may be found
which is measured by both. In the foregoing Section it has been
Let A contain M4 times, seen how the greatest common measure,
and N 5 times: them, if A t i and hence the lowest terms of the ratio,
of two magnitudes may be determined
be divided into 4x5, or 20
equal parts, M will contain (5, and 5. Cor. 3.). It has been seen,
5 and N 4 of those parts; also, that every other common measure
and, therefore, one of those 9f the same two magnitudes is contained
parts being contained an in the greatest a certain number of times
exact number of times in M, exactly, and hence that no other terms
and an exact number of times in N, is but such as are equimultiples of the
a common measure of M and N. lowest can express the sameratio (6.and
Next, let M contain a magnitude a 6. Cor. 1); which last simple relation
5 times, and let N contain the same a 4 affords an easy Rule for reducing any
times: then, if there be taken a magni #. terms to the lowest terms, and
tude A, which contains a 5× 4, or 20 ence determining whether two given
times, A will contain M 4 times, and N numerical ratios which are differentl
5 times, and, therefore, will be mea expressed be the same or not (6. Cor.
sured by each of the magnitudes M 2 and 3). -
and N. We now proceed to the theorems of

And the demonstration will be the proportion, the end of which is for the
same whatever numbers are taken. most part to show, that if two magni
Therefore, &c. tudes have the same ratio with other
two, magnitudes which are related after
PROP. 8. a certain manner to the two former, will
have the same ratio to one another with
If there be three magnitudes A, B, C, magnitudes which are similarly related
the first of which is commensurable withto the two latter.
the second, and the second with the In the demonstration of these theo
third, the first shall be commensurable rems, an illustration by particular num
with the third. bers will be preferred, for the sake of
Let M be a common the less practised reader, to the use of 4º,
-
measure of A and B, and general symbols for numbers. In fol

N a common measure of .* * lowing this plan hitherto, we have had
B and C. Then, (7) be- | occasion to observe at the conclusion
cause the two, M, N, are of each demonstration, that the steps
both of them measures of are not upon this account the less gene
Common magnitudemB, of
the same measure a t
ral, but apply equally to any other
numbers which may be substituted in
these may be found. And, because m place of the particular numbers as
measures M, it measures also A, which sumed. The same observation will be
is a multiple of M (1. Cor. 1.); and in the found equally true, and is accordingly
same manner, because it measures N,here premised with regard to particular
it measures C, which is a multiple of N.
numbers, wherever they are introduced
Therefore m is a common measure of in the following demonstrations. The
A and C, that is, A and C are com demonstrations are exactly similar,
mensurable. whatever numbers be substituted in the
Cor. 1. If there be any number of place of them; and, accordingly, the
magnitudes, the first of which is com general propositions are not less evident
38 GEOMETRY. [II. § 2.
than if the reasoning had been con Next, let any like parts, for example
ducted by general symbols. the 6ths of B and D, be taken: these
The present Section treats only of shall be contained in A and B the same
commensurable proportionals as de number of times, either exactly, or with
scribed in def. [7]. The theorems, how corresponding less remainders.
ever, (that is, all of them, the first ex Let M and N be the common mea
cepted which is expressly enunciated sures of A and B and of C and D, as
of commensurables) are likewise true before, by which the ratio 84: 5 is deter
with regard to the more general descrip mined ; and which are therefore con
tion of proportionals to be considered tained in B and D respectively 5 times,
in Section 3. Hence the brackets and in A and C respectively 84 times.
which the reader will have already And let M be divided into 6 parts each
noticed in “def.[7]" and “def.[8]," and equal to m, and N also into 6 parts each
in which the numbers 9, 10, &c. of equal to n. Then it is evident that m
the following propositions are inclosed. and n must be contained in A and C
Hence, too, the absence of all reference respectively 84 × 6 times, and in B and
to Euclid, whose theorems on the sub D respectively 5 × 6 times (1.). And,
ject of Proportion are stated not of because the sixth-parts in question, i. e.
tºniº. magnitudes only, but the sixth-parts of B and D, are con
of such as, whether commensurable or tained in B and D respectively 6 times,
otherwise, come under a more general they must contain m and n respec
definition of proportionals. In the next tively 5 times. Therefore, the parts in
Section, these propositions, (prop. [9] question are contained in A and C re
excepted) will be repeated with refer spectively as often as the number 5 is
ence to a similar general definition, the contained in 84x6, that is, the same
brackets will be removed from the num number of times exactly, if 5 be exactly
bers, 9, 10, &c., and the references to contained in 84 × 6, or the same num
Euclid will be annexed as usual. ber of times with corresponding re
mainders, if 5 be contained in 84x6
PROP. [9]. with a remainder.
If there be four magnitudes A, B, C, D, Therefore, &c.
which are commensurable proportionals, Cor. 1, Hence it appears that, if two
magnitudes and other two have a com
the second and fourth, and any like parts
of the second and fourth, shall be con mon numerical ratio, any other terms
iained in the first and third the same expressing the ratio of the first to the
anumber of times eacactly, or the same second must also express the ratio of
number of times with corresponding the third to the fourth; as was ob
remainders less than the parts. served in the remarks upon def. [7].
Let the common ratio of A to B and Cor. 2. Hence it appears, also, that
C to D be any whatever, for example, A cannot be said to have to B the same
84 : 5; and first, let the second and ratio which C has to D, according to
fourth, viz. B and D, be taken: B and D def. [7], and at the same time a greater
shall be contained in A and C respec or a less ratio than C has to D, accord
tively, the same number of times ex ing to def. [8]; as was observed at
actly, or the same number of times with def. [8]. - - -
corresponding less remainders. Cor. 3. And much less can A be said

Let M and N be the common mea to have to B a greater ratio than C has
sures of A and B and of C and D, by to D, according to def. [8], and at the
which the ratio 84 : 5 is determined; same time a less ratio than C has to D,
and which are therefore contained in B according to the same definition,”
and D respectively 5 times, and in A and
G respectively 84 times. Then, because * As the General Theory of Proportion in Section
M and N are contained in A and C 3. contains the remaining propositions of this Sec.
tion with reference to the new definitions 7 and 8
respectively 84 times, and that B and D there given, the reader may, if he pleases, pass Q1 to
contain M and N respectively 5 times; that Section, or rather, to the concluding Scholium
B and D are contained in A and C re of the present one; by which he will omit nothing
that will be cited in the future pages of this treatise.
spectively, as often as the number 5 On the other hand, it is recommended to beginners,
is contained in 84, that is, the same and such as are not curious about the general and
complete theory of proportion, to peruse with care
number of times exactly, if 5 be exactly the remainder of the present sº with the open.
contained in 84, or the same number of ing paragraphs
Section ofthey
4. ; which Section
may 3.,
do and
with then pass on of
the assurance tº
times with corresponding remainders, if no difficulty being presented to them upon that aggount
5 be contained in 84 with a remainder, in the remäinder ºf the treališe. -
II, $3. GEOMETRY. 39
II, § 2.]
Xame PROP, [10], respectively. Then, if a. and b be taken,
l: these the 35th parts (7×5) of A and B, a will
he same Equal magnitudes have the same ratio be a 5th part of M, and therefore will be
Orwill to the same magnitude: and the same contained an exact number of times in C,
has the same ratio to equal magnitudes. and b a 7th part of M, and therefore
}I) lº
For if any part, as a º
also contained an exact mumber of
lD, is 5th, of C be contained in times in C (1. Cor. I.). But any mea
isdêld.
A any number of times, sure of A is greater than the like mea
Orº (Ol.
as 4, and if B be equal sure of B (ax. 4.); therefore, of the like
jūmû, to A, the same part of measures in question, viz. a and b, C
84 times,
C will evidently be con will contain that of A a less number of
its ùh tained in B the same number of times, times than it contains that of B. There
ar's ºth
4; and therefore, 4: 5 will be the com fore (def. [8]) C has to A a less ratio
littà || mon ratio of A to C, and of B to C. than it has to B, or a greater ratio to
Aalt Again, if any part of A, as a 4th, be B than it has to A.
in Ball contained in C any number of times, as Therefore, &c.
J. All 5, and if B be equal to A, the like part Cor. 1. Magnitudes which have the
limit of B (ax. 2.) will evidently be contained same ratio to the same magnitudes
#18 (M- in C the same number of times, 5; and, are equal to one another: as likewise
therefore, 5:4 will be the common those to which the same magnitude has
! º ratio of C to A, and of C to B. the same ratio ([9] Cor. 2.)
ts || Therefore, &c. Cor. 2. A ratio which is compounded
ºCR. -
Cor. If a ratio which is compounded of two ratios, one of which is the reci
mitrii; of two ratios be a ratio of equality, one procal of the other, is a ratio of equality.
he Šāſīl; of these must be the reciprocal of the For, if there be three magnitudes of the
* exally other. For if there be three magni same kind, A, B, and C, and if the
ſlº Illill' tudes of the same kind A, B, and C,ratio of B to C be the same with the
ūng ſº. ratio of B to A, A must be equal to C:
and if A be equal to C, the ratio of B
in 84X5 in other words, the ratio of A to C,
to C must be the same with the ratio
which is º of the ratios of
of B to A : in other words, if the ratio
A to B and of B to C, one of which is
of A to C, which is compounded of the
al, ſ tW0 the reciprocal of the other, is a ratio of
ratios of A to B and of B to C, be a
tº & 0. ratio of equality, the ratio of A to B equality, (def. 6. and 12.). -
left||| must be the reciprocal of the ratio of Cor. 3. If one of two magnitudes
stſ) filt B to C, (def. 6. and 12.). have a greater ratio to the same mag
; fºliº nitude than the other has, the first
º 0%. Psor. [11]. must be greater than the other: and
'7), if the same magnitude have a greater
* thiſ Of two unequal magnitudes the greater ratio to one of two magnitudes than it
has a greater ratio the same magni
to has to the other, the first must be less
the sºlº tude; and the same magnitude has a than the other ([9] Cor. 2, 3). " ' "
º greater ratio to the lesser of the two,
| gºld For, the magnitudes A, B, -
:
t
and C, being supposed to IB c PROP. [12].
indi be commensurable, if A be Magnitudes A, B and C, D, which
eater than B, it must con have the same ratio with the same mag
Jesú tain the common measure of nitudes P, Q, have the same ratio with
m Chº A, B, and C, that is, a measure one another.
jillº of C, a greater number of For, since A, B have the same ratio
isſ } times than B contains the with P, Q, some part of B is contained
s same measure of C, and therefore (def. in A as often as a like part of Q is con
[8]) A has to C a greater ratio than B tained in P; therefore, if any other part
has to C. of Q be contained a certain number of
Again, if A be greater than B, and if times in P, a like part of B will be con
C. be any magnitude commensurable tained as often in A ([9]),
with each of them, like measures of A But, because C, D have the same
and B may be found, which are each of ratio with P, Q, some part of D is con
them contained a certain number of tained in C as often as a like part of Q
times in C. For, since A, B, and C (8.) is contained in P. Therefore, whatever
contain the same magnitude M, each of part this be, which is taken of D, and
them a certain number of times, let contained in C as often as the like part
them be equal to 7 M, 3 M, and 12 M, of Q in P, the like part of B is con
tained as often in A; that is, A : B:: tained a greater number of times in A
C : D. than it is in B, and therefore ([9]), the
Therefore, &c. like measure, N of D, will be contained
in C a greater number of times than it
Cor. 1. If A have to B the same ratio
as C to D, and C to D a greater or a is in D, that is, C will be greater than D.
less ratio than E to F, A shall have to And in like manner it may be shown,
B a greater or a less ratio than E to F. that if A be equal to B, C will be equal
For, from what we have seen ([9]) it fol to D, and if less, less.
lows, that whatever part of D it be that Therefore, &c.
is contained in C a greater or less num PROP. [15].
ber of times than the like part of F is If four magnitudes A, B, C, D, be
contained in E, the like part of B must proportionals, they shall also be pro
be contained in A the same greater or portionals when taken inversely; that
less number of times. ts, invertendo” B : A::D : C.
Cor. 2. And in the same manner it For if 7 : 5 be the common ratio of A
may be shown, that if A have to B a to B and of C to D, there will be common
greater or a less ratio than C to D, and measures M, N, the first of A and B,
C to D the same ratio as E to F, A and the other of C and D, which are
shall have to B a greater or a less ratio contained in B and D respectively five
than E has to F.
times, and in A and C respectively seven
PRop. [13]. times; and therefore 5 : 7 will be a com
mon ratio of B to A and of D to C.
If four magnitudes be proportionals, This may be stated as follows—
and if the first be any multiple or part “the reciprocals of equal ratios are
of the second, the third shall be the equal to one another.”
same multiple or part ofthe fourth ; and Therefore, &c.
conversely, if one magnitude be the
same multiple, or part, of another, PROP.[16].
that a third magnitude is of a fourth, If four magnitudes, A, B, C, D be
the four magnitudes shall be propor proportionals, and if there be taken any
tionals. equimultiples of the first and third, and
For, if A, B, C, D be proportionals, also any equimultiples of the second and
and if the second, or any part of the fourth; these equimultiples shall like
second, be contained a certain number of wise be proportionals.
times in the first, the fourth, or a like Let 4 A, 4 C be any equimultiples of
part of the fourth, will be contained the A, C, and 6 B, 6 D, any equimultiples
same number of times in the third ([9]). of B, D: and let 7 : 5 be the common
Therefore, if the second be contained in ratio of A to B, and of C to D, as in the
the first seven times, the fourth will also last proposition. Then, if the measures
be contained in the third seven times; M and N by which it is determined be
or again, if a seventh part of the second taken, because M and N are contained
be contained in the first once, a seventh in A and C respectively 7 times, they are
part of the fourth will also be contained contained in 4A and 4 C respectively
in the third once. 4 × 7 times ; and in like manner it º
Again, if A contain B seven times, be shown that they are contained in 6
and C also contain D seven times, A, B and 6 Drespectively 6 × 5 times. There
and C, D have a common ratio 7 : 1 ; fore 4 × 7 : 6 × 5 is at once the ratio of
and, in like manner, if Abe contained in B 4. A to 6 B, and of 4 C to 6 D.
seven times, and C in D also seven times, Therefore, &c.
A, B, and C, D, have a common ratio
* The Latin words “invertendo,” “alternando,”
1 : 7. Therefore, in either case, A,B,C,D “dividendo,” “convertendo,” “ componendo,” “ex
are proportionals. aequaliin proportione directá,” “miscendo,” and “ex
Therefore, &c. aequali in proportione perturbatā,” ([]5], [19], [20],
[29] Cor. l. [21], [24], [24], Cor. 2. and [36]) carry
with .them, particularly to such as are strangers
PROP. [14]. to the language, an air of mystery we should rather
have dispensed with. They are in such constant use,
If four magnitudes A, B, C, D, be however, that we cannot well do without them. They
proportionals, and if the first be greater mean no more than “by inverting,”, “ by alterna
than the second, the third shall be ting,” “...by separating,”“by exchanging,” “by com
bining.”.” by reason of equal intervals in direct pro
greater than the fourth, if equal, equal, portion,”, “by mixing,” and “by reason of equal in
and if less, less. tervals in, cross proportion;” and they serve as
For if A be greater than B, any com so many titles to their respective theorems, which are
mon measure M of A and B will be con those most frequently cited out of the whole theory
of proportion,
ll, i. II, § 2.] GEOMETRY. 41
lesin A Cor. If A, B, C, D be proportionals, Cor. Hence also, if four magnitudes

()the and if any like parts of the first and of the same kind be proportionals, and
Onländ third be taken, and also any like parts if the second be greater than the fourth,
thani of the second and fourth, these like the first will be greater than the third; if
rtham), parts will likewise be proportionals. equal, equal ; and if less, less.
eshW,
betul PROP. [17]. PROP. [19].
Magnitudes have the same ratio to
one another, which their equimultiples If four magnitudes A, B, C, D of
have, the same kind be proportionals, they
Let M, N be equimul shall also be proportionals when taken
(, ), k alternately; that is, alternando A: C
tiples of A, B: that is, let A ***
he pº M, N contain A, B the ::B: D.
tly; hiſ same number of times For, if M and N be the common mea
raiºtă respectively, as 5: then sures of A and B and of C and D, by
it is evident that if any which their common ratio is determined;
300mmſ."
A ami }
measure K of B be con then, because A and C are equimultiples
tained in A a certain num of M and N ([17]), A : C::M : N,+
which iſ: and, for the like reason, B : D::M : N.
ber of times, the like mea
it; it sure 5 K of 5 B, or N, Therefore ([12].) A : C::B; D,
dºl will be contained in 5 A, or M, the same Therefore, &c.
bé400|"
to 0.
number of times. Therefore A : B ::
M : N. PROP. [20].
fºllº
Therefore, &c,
Ajºs iſ: Cor. 1. Magnitudes have the same If four magnitudes A, B, C, D be
ratio to one another, which their like proportionals, they shall also be pro
parts have. -
portionals when taken dividedly; that
Cor. 2. If A, B, C, D be propor is, the difference of the first and second
(, ) is tionals, and if equimultiples be taken of shall be to the second as the difference
ſkillſ the first and second, and also equimul of the third and fourth to the fourth ;-
hirlm tiples of the third and fourth, these or dividendo, A-B : B:: C-D ; D.”
cºnd ºquimultiples will likewise be propor For, M and N being taken as in the
tionals. preceding, propositions, if they be con
allº
The same, it is evident, may be stated tained in A and C 7 times, and in B and
iſ sº with regard to any like parts taken of D 4 times, they will be contained in A-5
the first and second, and also of the and C ~ D, 7~4 or 3 times; and there
multiples third and fourth. fore 3:4 will be the ratio of A- B to B,
0mm0ſ.
sinthº and also of C ~ D to D. Therefore
PROP. [18]. A - B : B:: C ~ D: D.
lºsults
indº If four magnitudes of the same kind And the same may be said, when
mid be proportionals, and if the first be A and C are less than B and D respec
greater than the third, the second shaft tively.
hº Therefore, &c.
wit! be greater than the Jourth; if equal,
equal; and if less, less. Cor. 1. If four magnitudes A,B,C,D
.itſ...}
lin; H Lºſ A, B, C, D be proportionals, and be proportionals, they shall also be pro
let M and N be the common measures portionals by conversion; that is, the
riºiſ St A and B and of C and D, by which first shall be to the difference of the
their common ratio is determined; that first and second, as the third to the
is let M and N be like parts of #3 and difference of the third and fourth; or
~,
P, which are contained the same num convertendo A: A-B::C: C-D.
º ber of times in A and C respectively, For invertendo, B : A::D: C, divi
m ºf
3, (deſ...[7]). Then, because M and dendo,. A-B ; A::C-D: C, and inver
ºl. *re like parts of A and C, it is evident tendo A: A-B::C: C-D.
jº
jaº
aſſº
that if A be greater than 6, M. must be Çor. 2. If four magnitudes A, B, C, D
ſiſtſ gºater than N; and therefore also B, of the same kind be proportionais, the
pº
which is a multiple of M, greater than greatest and least of them together
ſkſ D, which is the same multiple of N shall be greater than the other tºo to
lºſſy
(ax. 3.). gether. -
ſº
ty Inthe same manner it may be shown, T-- -
g!!!'
re as
that if A be equal to C, B will be equal * The sign - placed between two letters denotes
hAſt to D; and if less, less. the difference of the magnitudes which are represent.
fºſſ Therefore, &c. ed by them, without supposing the first to be the
greater, as is the case when we write A-B by itself.
42 GEOMETRY. [II, § 2.
For, if one of the ex Cor. Hence, invertendo and com
tremes, as A, be the ponendo, (after the order of Cor. 1, in
eatest, then, because the preceding proposition,) if four
is less than A, D is magnitudes A, B, C, D be proportion
less than C ([14]), and als, the first shall be to the sum of the
because C is less than first and second, as the third to the
A, D is less than B sum of the third and fourth; or, A: A
([18]); therefore D is +B::C: C+D.*
theleast. But, because }. B C I)
A: B : : C ; D, dividendo, PROP. [22].
A–B: B :: C–D : D ; and because in If one magnitude be to another as a
this proportion B is greater than D, magnitude taken from the first to a
A–B is greater than C–D ([18]. Cor.) magnitude taken from the other, the re
Therefore, if B+D be added to each, mainder shall be to the remainder in the
the sum of A and D will be greater same ratio. -
than the sum of C and B. If one Let A, B be any two magnitudes,

of the means, as B, should be greatest, from which respectively let there be
then invertendo B : A : : D : C ; and taken the magnitudes A, B, which have
hence, as before, the sum of B and to one another the same ratio which
C, that is, of the greatest and least, is A has to B; the remainders A–A' and
greater than the sum of A and D. B–B' shall be to one another in the
Cor. 3. If three magnitudes be propor same ratio.
tionals, the sum of the extremes will be For, because A : B :: A' : B', alter
eater than twice the mean, and there mando, A: A' : : B : B'; therefore, divi
fore half the sum greater than the mean. dendo, A–A': A' :: B-B': H.; and
For, if three magnitudes be propor again, alternando, A–A : B-B': : A'
tionals, and if the mean be greater than : B', that is ([12]) :: A : B.
one of the extremes, it must be less Therefore, &c.
than the other; or again, if it be less Cor. 1: If there be any number of
than one, it must be greater than the magnitudes, A, B, C, D, &c,...in geo
other ([14] or [18]). Therefore, the metrical
two extremes are the greatest and least.
Jºº.
the differences
A-B, B-C, C-D, &c. will form a geo
Half the sum of two magnitudes, being metrical progression, in which the Sug
as much greater than the one as it is cessive terms have the same ratio with
less than the other (I. ax. 9.), is called an the successive terms of the former.
arithmetical mean between the two. For B is to C as A to B, C to D as
It appears therefore, that the arithme B to C, and so on; therefore, A-B is to
tical mean between two magnitudes is B-C as A to B, B-C to C-D as B fo C,
greater than the geometrical mean. * 1. e. as A to B, i. e. as A - B to B ~ C
([12]); and so on.
PROP. [21]. Cor. 2. And sº any number
If four magnitudes A, B, C, D be of magnitudes A, B, C, D, &c. in geo;
proportionals, they shall also be pro metrical progression, may be considered
portionals when taken conjointly; that as the differences of other magnitudes,
is, the sum of the first and second shall
be to the second, as the sum of the third
A', B', C.", D', E', &c. º
metrical progression, in which the first
a geo
and fourtſ, to the fourth ; or compo term A' is to A as A to A-B, and the
mendo A+B : B::C+D : I). -
successive terms have the same ratio

For the measures M, N remaining with the successive terms of the former.
as in the preceding proposition, that is, * It is usual, when two demonstrations are equally
being contained in A and C respectively short and obvious, to prefer that which is the most
7 times, and in B and D respectively 4 elementary, or approaches nearest to first principles.
times, are contained in A+B and C+D Now, it may be observed of this corollary, the corre,
sponding corollary of Prop. [28), and other parts of
respectively 7 -- 4 or 11 times ; and, the present section, as the theorem, miscendo, and
therefore, 11: 4 will be the ratio of A+ Prop, [25], that, stated, as is here the case, of cºm:
B to B, and also of C+D to D. There mensurable proportionals, they may, at least, as obviº
ously and briefly, be referred to def. º they may
fore A+B : B :: C+D : D, be derived from 6ther propositions. The connected
Therefore, &c. demonstrations have in this case been preferred with
a view to the next Section, where nearly all the prº
positions of this Section will be re-stated, and such
. The case is here excepted in which the magni as have been referred to def. [7], will have to be
tudes are equal to one another; for in that case it is reconsidered with reference to a more general
manifest that the arithmetical mean is equal to the definition. A similar consideration will be ; to
geometrical mean, -
have directed the arrangement of the propºsitions.
Mil.
II, § 2.] GEOMETRY, 43
ind ºn.
Cºr, lim For, if such a progression be taken, as Ato B ([11] Cor. 3.); and therefore
it iſ A', B, C, &c. in which Al is to A as A-HA! must have a less ratio ([11]) to
YO)Ori). A to A- B, and Al to B' as A to B; B+B than A+P has to B+B'; but
Sumitº then because A'; B' :: A : B, conver A+P has to B+B' the same ratio as A.
ird tº # tendo, A' A'-B':: A : A-B; but A'; to B, by the proposition: therefore A+ A'
A :: A : A-B; therefore ([12]) Aſ has to B+B' a less ratio than A has
; 0, Al A! ~ B' :: A' : A ; and because in this to B ([12] Cor. 2.); and the other case
proportion the first term is the same in which Aſ has to B' a greater ratio than
with the third, the second is equal to the
fourth ([18)], that is, Aſ-B' is equal to A,
É. to B, admits of a similar demonstra
Oſl.
Amihºrlſ But (hy Oop, 1.), '- ', º C'-D', Cor. 3. Hence, if the raig of Aſ to B'
firl || | &c., form a progression in which the be not the same with the ratio of A to B,
hºt, her. successive terms, as Al-B', B'-C', have the ratio of A+A! to B+B will lie be
mlriiſ, the same ratio with A, B, that is, with tween the ratios of A to B, and of A' to
A, B ([12]). Therefore, also, B'-C' is B'.; that is, it will be greater than the
miſſill; equal to B ([18]), and hence again Cº-D' lesser of the two, and less than the
thºſe is equal to C, and so on. In fact, the greater of the two.
withmſ: progressions A, B, C, D, &c. and Al-B',
miº º B'-C', C'-D', D'-E', &c. having the PROP. [24].
A-Ad same first terms, and the same common If there heftreemagnitudes aſſºap
in it; ratio of their terms, cannot but be hind A, B, C, and ather three A, B, C,
identical. which, taken two and tipo in order, have
;H, it the same patio, piz, A. to B the same
º,ſº PROP. [23]. ratio as A' to B', and B to C the same
If one magnitude be to another as a ratio as B to C, then ex æquali in pro
third magnitude of the same kind to a portione directā (or ex æquo) the first
jourth, the sum of the first and third shall be to the third of the first magni
shall be to the sum of the second and tudes, as the first to the third % the
jourth in the same ratio. others; or, as it may be more briefly
Let A, B be any two magnitudes, to stated,
which respectively let there be added the if A : B:: A : B
magnitudes A, B, which have the same and B : C : B : C,
ratio to one another which A has to B : then ex æquali, A. : C::A' Cº.
the wholes A+A! and B+B' shall be Let 3:4 be the common ratio of A
to one another in the same ratio. to B and of Al to B', and 5 : 7 the
For, because A : B :: A' : B', alter common ratio of B to C and of B' to
º ÅAſ * ;B h º 60m C'. Then, if B be divided into 4x5 or
ponendo, A+A' : A'::BH-B': B'; and 20 equal parts, one of these parts will
again, alternando, # : B+5::A; be contained 3× 5, or 15 times in A, and
B', that . ([12]): ; A : B, 4× 7 or 28 times in C, because 3 : 4,
There ore, &c. or 3 × 5 : *: § Cor.º #:
the
Cor. 1. Hence, if there be any mum to B, and 5 : 7, or 4 × 5 : 4 × 7 is the
ber of magnitudes of the same kind
antecedents, and as many consequents,
##; foč. And for theike º,
if B' be likewise divided into 20 parts,
and if every antecedent }. the same one of these parts will be contained 3×3
ratio to its consequent, the sum of all or 15 times in A', and 4x7 or 28 fimes in
the antecedents shall have the sameratio & Therefºre, is asſifieraß
to the sum of all the consequents. to C, º sº * to g; and, con
the same with the ratio of A to B, the
ººf,
Cor. 2. If the ratio of Al to B' be not sequently A. :&c.
C : A' ;:
, ; C,
C/,
ratio of A+Aſ to B+B will not be the or. 1: The same may be stated of
same with the ratio of A to B; but less, any number ºf
if A be to B in a less ratio, or greater, and A, B, C, D : that is
mº, A, B, C, D,
if A' be to B' in a greater ratio.
For if A have to B'aless ratio than A
has to B, A, must be less than a magni
tude P," which has to B' the same ratio then, ºn equali, AF DFCſ;D.
#
and B : C::B' : C/
and—C t; D::C'; D' ! •
*_-3
* It ishere assumed that to two given magnitudes For by the first two proportions A : C
of the same kind and a third there is some magnitude
common
which is a fourth proportional; a truth obviºus containing measure is contained in e firs , a multi l
enough in the case of commensurable proportion
r
ãº, . º#: º §:
here supposed; for if there be taken a common sure is contained in the second will be the fourth
which is contained in the
- -
itudes and
measure of the first two magnitudes
..". a a #.
often as t
al
proportional required." The case ºf general propor
tion will be noticed at prop. 23, of the next section.
; : A': C', and from this combined with respectively the same in the two series,
the third, A : D :: A' : D'; and so on any two combinations by sum and dif
for any number of proportions. ference of the magnitudes of the first
This may be stated in the following series, e.g. A+C – E and B – C+D,
words: “ratios, which are compounded shall be to one another as two similar
of any number of equal ratios in the combinations of the corresponding mag
same order, are equal to one another.” nitudes of the second series, viz. Al H
(def. 12.) C' - E' and B" – C' + D'.
Cor. 2. By help of this proposition For, because A : F :: Aſ : F (ea:
another property of proportionals may aquali); and again, C : F :: C': F, by
be demonstrated, which is commonly the proposition A+C : F:: A'+C':F';
cited by the word miscendo * viz. but E: F :: E!: F/; therefore, by the
If four magnitudes A, B, C, D be preceding corollary, A + C – E : F::
proportionals, the sum of the first and Aſ + C'— E' : F. In the same manner,
second will be to their difference, as the it may be shown that B – C + D: F::
sum of the third and fourth to their dif B – C' + D': F; therefore, invertendo
ference. and ea aequali A + C–E : B – C + D
For, since A : B : : C : D, ; : A' + C – E : B" –C' + D'. And a
componendo A+B : B :: C+D: D. similar demonstration may be applied to
And again, because invertendo B: A : : any other combinations by sum and dif
D: C, convertendo B: A-B :: D: C-D. ference.
Therefore, eac aquali A+B : A-B : : PROP. [26].
C+D : C-D, which is the property in
question. If there be three magnitudes of the
same kind A, B, C, and other three
PROP. [25]. A!, B, C, which taken two and two, but
Iftwo proportions have the sameconse in a cross order, have the same ratio, viz.
quents, the sum of the first antecedents A to B the same ratio as B' to C', and B
shall be to their consequent, as the sum to C the same ratio as A' to B'; then,
of the second antecedents to their con ex aequali in proportione perturbatá (or
sequent ; that is, if A : B : : C ; D, and ex aequo perturbato) the first shall be to
if A : B :: C': D, then A+ Aſ : B :: the third of the first magnitudes, as the
C+C': D. first to the third of the others; or, as it
Because by the first proportion A : B may be more briefly stated,
:: C ; D, and, by the second proportion, if A : B :: B': C
invertendo, B : A' : ; D: C'; ex æquali,
A : A' : : C : C': hence, componendo,
A+A! : A': C+C': C', and on account then ex æquoperturbato, A: C::A':C'.
of the second proportion, viz. Aſ : B :: For, if 3:4 be the common ratio of A
C': D, ea aequali, A + A' : B : : C -- to B, and of B' to C, and 5:7 the com:
C': D, which is the property in question. mon ratio of B to C and of Aſ to B', it
Therefore, &c. may be shown, exactly in the same man
Cor. 1. The same may be stated of any ner as in the demonstration of Prop. 24,
number of proportions having the same that the ratio of A to C is 3x5 : 4 x 7,
consequents: that is, the sum of all the that is 15:28, and in like manner that
first antecedents shall be to their con the ratio of A' to C' is 5x3: 7x4, that
sequent, as the sum of all the second is again 15 : 28. Therefore, 15 ; 28 is
antecedents to their consequent. the ratio of A to C, and also of A' to C',
Cor. 2. In like manner also it may and consequently A : C : : A' : C'.
shown (by “dividendo" instead of “com Therefore, &c.
ponendo"), that if two proportions have Cor. The same may be stated of any
the same consequents, the difference of number of magnitudes A, B, C, D, and
the first antecedents shall be to their A, B, C, D'; that is, if A : B::C': D.
consequent as the difference of the se and B : C ::B': C'
cond antecedents to their consequent. and C : D :: A': B'
Cor. 3. Hence, if there be any number then ex æquo perturbato A: D: : A' : D';
of magnitudes of the same kind A, B, C, for by the two first proportions, A : C
D, E, F, and as many others, A', B', Cſ, :: B'; D', and from this combined with
D, E, F, ; and if the ratios of the first to the third proportion, A : D :: A': D',
the second, of the second to the third, of and so on for any number of proportions.
the third to the fourth, and so on, be This may be stated in the following
* Sometimes
English words" also, andand
by sum more appropriately,
difference.” y, by
Dy the words: “Ratios which are compounded
!
^
of any number of equal ratios, but in a

II, § 2.] GEOMETRY.
|
45
reverse order, are equal to one another.” of them will have to one another a ratio
(Def. 12.) which is the same with the duplicate
PROP. [27]. ratio of A to B: and in like manner,
Ratios which are compounded of the magnitudes which have to one another
same ratios, in whatsoever orders, are the a ratio compounded of any three of them
same with one another. will have to one another a ratio which
The case of ratios which are com is the same with the triplicate ratio of A
pounded of the same ratios in the same to B; and so on.
Cor. 3. Ratios which are the dupli
order is that of [24] Cor. 1. The case, cafe,
again, of ratios, which are compounded or triplicate, &c. of the same ratio
of the same ratios in a reverse order, is are the same with one another.
that of [26]. Cor. 1. Cor. 4. In the composition of ratios
Let the ratio of A to D, therefore, be any two which are reciprocals of one
compounded of the ratios of A to B, of another may be neglected, without
B to C, and of C to D, and let the ratio affecting the resulting compound ratio.
of Al to D' be compounded of the ratios (See [10.] Cor.)
of Al to B', of B' to C', and of C' to D, Cor. 5. If the ratio of A to C be
which are the same respectively with the compounded with the ratio of C to B,
ratios of which the ratio of A to D is that is, with the reciprocal of B to C, the
compounded, but without regard to or ratio A to B will be obtained, which
der; thus, let 3:4 be the common ratio being compounded with the direct ratio
of A to B, and of B'to C), 5:7 the com B to C, reproduces the ratio of A to C :
mon ratio of B to C and of Al to B', and that is, if one ratio be compounded with
11 : 8 the common ratio of C to D and the reciprocal of another, a ratio will be
of C' to D'. Then it is evident, from the obtained, which being compounded with
demonstration of Prop.[24],that theratio that other, will again produce the first.
of A to C is 3 × 5: 4 × 7, and hence This compounding of the reciprocal is
again, the ratio of A to D, 3 x 5 x 11 : sometimes called subducting, or taking
4× 7 x 8. And on the other hand, the away the direct ratio, and the result is
ratio of A* to C' is 5x3 : 7 x 4, and termed the remaining ratio. -
hence the ratio of A to D', 5 x 3 x 11 It appears, therefore, from the pro

: 7 x 4 x 8; which is the same with position, that if two ratios be equal
3×5× 11 : 4×7×8, because 5 × 3 × 11 to one another (and therefore com
is the same with 3x5x11, viz. 165, and pounded of equal ratios having any or
7×4x8 is the same with 4 × 7 x 8, viz. der in the composition of each), and if
ſ 224.” Therefore 165:224 is the ratio
both of Ato D, and of Al to D', and con
any of the equal ratios be subducted or
taken away ([15]), the remaining ratios
sequently A : D :: A' : D'. But the ratio will be equal to one another.
of A to D is compounded of the same Scholium.
ratios with that of Al to D', without re
gard to order. The demonstrations which have been
Therefore, &c. given of Prop...[24], [26], and [27], as
Cor. 1... If there be any number of above stated of commensurable magni
ratios as those of A to B, of C to D, of tudes, are derived from a property of mu
E to F, &c., magnitudes which have to merical ratios; viz. that “if the ratio of
one another a ratio compounded of any A to B be any whatever, as 3:4, and,
two of these shall have the sameratio to again, the ratio of B to C any whatever,
one another with any other magnitudes as 5:7, the ratio of A to C will be deter.
which have to one another a ratio com mined from these by multiplying their
ſ
pounded of the same two; and, in like antecedents for a new antecedent, and
manner, magnitudes which have to one their consequents for a new consequent."
anºther a ratio compounded of any three See the demonstration of Prop. [24],
of these shall have the same ratio to one which is referred to in the demonstra.
Another with any other magnitudes which tions of Prop. [26] and [27]. It follows
*Ye to one another a ratio compounded that a similar rule may be observed with
of the same three; and so on. regard to any number of ratios which are
Cor. 2. If the ratios of A to B, of C compounded according to Def. 12; viz.
to D, of E to F, &c. be all equal to one “In all cases in which the several mu
another, magnitudes which have to one merical ratios of A to B, B to C, C to D,
another a ratio compounded of any two can be assigned, i. e. when the magni
i * See Arithmetic, art, 23.
tudes A, B, C, D, are commensurable
(8. Cor. 1.), the compound ratio, or that
of the first A to the last D, will be ex but B' is always greater than Q, be
pressed by an antecedent which is the cause it is supposed to be greater than B,
product of all the antecedents, and a which is greater than Q; therefore A′ is
consequent which is the product of always greater than P ([18]). Wherefore,
all the consequents.” Hence, also, because P is always less than A', which
a numerical ratio is frequently said to is less than A by a, P cannot approach
be compounded of two or of any other to A within the difference a, which is
number of numerical ratios, when its against the supposition. Therefore B'.
antecedent is the product of all their an cannot be greater than B. -
tecedents, and its consequent the pro Therefore, in this case, B' cannot but
duct of all their consequents: for the be equal to B ; that is, A : B::C: D.
magnitudes whose ratio it denotes will in And the other case, in which Pand Q ap
such a case have to one another a ratio proach to A and B respectively, by a
which is compounded of the ratios ex continual decrease, maybe demonstrated
pressed by those others. after the same manner; indeed in the
- -
In a geometrical progression A, B, C, same words, if the word “greater” be

D, &c. of commensurable magnitudes, everywhere substituted for “less,” and
the successive terms have a common “less" for “greater." -
numerical ratio, e.g. 5: 7; therefore, Therefore, &c. -
the ratio of A to C, i.e. the duplicate of This proposition will be found of very
A to B, is 5 × 5 : 7 x 7, the ratio of A extensive application in Geometry. By
to D, i.e. the triplicate of A to B, is 5×5 help of it, the lengths of plane curves,
× 5 : 7 × 7 × 7; and so on. and the areas bounded by them, the
curved surfaces of solids, and the con
PROP. [28]. tents they envelope, may in many in
If there be two #. magnitudes, A stances be brought into comparison with
and B, which are the limits of two others, little greater difficulty than right lines,
P and Q, (that is, to which Pand Q, by rectilineal areas, and solids bounded by
increasing together or by diminishing planes. This will be exemplified in sub
together, may be made to approach more sequent parts of the present treatise in
nearly than by any the same given dif. cases which suppose the magnitudes
jarente), and if P be to Q always in the compared to be similar, or of the same
same given ratio of G to D, A shall be form; but the use of the proposition is by
to B in the same ratio. no méans confined to these. It may be
First, let P and Q approach to A and regarded as one of the first steps to what
B respectively by a continual increase, is called the higher Geometry, and in this
so that P and Q can never equal, much view, likewise, is well worth the attention
less exceed, A and B, but may be made of the student.
to approach to A and B more, nearly General Scholium
than by any the same given difference.
And let a magnitude B' be taken” such On the proportion of commensurable.
that A : B : : C : D. Then, if B' is not magnitudes: •,,
equal to B, it must either be less than It was shown in the first proposition.
B’or greater
supposed less,than B. anyFirst,
as by let it be
difference b. of this section ([9].) that if four magn
tudes be proportionals, and if any mea
Then, because P : Q : C ; D, and A : sure of the second be contained a gº
B. : : C ; D, ([12]) A : B': : P : Q ; but tain number of times in the first, alikº
A is always greater than P; therefore, measure of the fourth shall be contained
B is always greater than Q [(18)] the same number of times in the third.
Wherefore, because Q is always less Hence it follows, that any terms ºr
than B', which is less than B by b, ..Q pressing the ratio of the first to the
cannot approach to B within, the dif second, express also the ratio o the
ference }. which is against the Sup
position. Therefore, Bſ cannot be less third to the fourth. But no terms can
express the ratio of two magnitudes ºf
than B. cept the lowest, and such as are e4.
Again, if B' be supposed greater than multiples of the lowest terms; that º'
B. take. Aſ such that A' : B'::A; B. except m, n, if m, n are the lowest terms,
Then, because Bisless than B', A is less and l x m, 1 × n, where ! is a number
than 'A' (18]), as by some, difference multiplying theiowestterms (5. Cor. 19.
... And, because A' : B': A : B, and And m & x 277
#: @:A: B, ([12]) A : B'::P: Q : - (Arith. art,80.). There
72 Tl x 72
* See note at prop. [23].' fore, iffour magnitudes be proportionals,

liki II, § 2.] GEOMETRY. 47.
Q, lº.
thank common measure of the first and second
B
and ifa and bbethenumbers of times any adding 1 to each side, A+E C+D …
- ** y
reA's is contained in them respectively, and which is the theorem cited by the Latin
greſſ, c and d the 'numbers of times any com word componendo; again subtracting
||with mon measure of the second and fourth is
Yū contained in them, ; =} The converse i from which is each.*B.º.
With;
º . that cited by the word dividendo di
is likewise true, that is, if # + the -
• --- sa, B_D
viding 1 by each side, A=G, and mul
-- ~~
mºth
four magnitudes must be proportionals :
º:)
for it may easily be shown, that fractions tiplying: into each, AU- T5'B . . . which are
-
| ſt
do not represent the same part of the
ºld whole unit, or, which is the same thing, the theorems cited by the words inver
it are not equal to one another, except tendo and alternando respectively. And.
they be reducible to the same lowest with equal readiness the rest may be
derived from the same equation. As,
terms, as * * and these lowest terms they
7? are all however sufficiently con
will express, at once, the ratio of the sidered in their several places, the re
this scholium will be confined
first to the second, and of the third to mainder of
the fourth (1. Cor. 3.). to the explanation of certain rules com
-
The same conclusion may be stated in monly practised in the treatment of pro
other words, as follows: portions, which suppose the terms A, B,
If four magnitudes be proportionals, C, D to be numbers, and are at once de
and if A, 1. D, represent those mag rivable from the equation A. C - -
nitudes numerically, that is, if A and B B TD

represent the numbers of times the unit Rule. 1. If four magnitudes, which are
of their kind is contained in the two first, numerically represented by A, B, C, D,
and if C and D represent the numbers be proportionals, the product of the ex
of times the unit of their kind is con tremes will be equal to the product of
tained in the two last, the quotient or the means, i. e. if A : B:: C ; D, Ax D
ſation; all be equal w; : and con =B x C : and conversely if Ax D = Bºx C
the magnitudes represented by A, B,
versely. - C, D will be proportionals.
This equation;=# is the founda #
For, since B = multiplying each side
tion of the theory of proportion as it by BxD, Ax D =BxC; and hence,con.
is treated in Arithmetic or Algebra, versely, dividing each side by BxD,
(see Arithmetic, art. 127 and 128) and B = D' i.e. A, B, C, D are proportionals,
leads with great facility to all the theo
rems of the foregoing section, Thus, Rule 2. The same things being sup
posed, any common factor M, which is
a," It is shown in the treatise on Arithmetic (art. found in both the antecedents, or in
61.) that the same number can have but one set of both the consequents, or in both the
prime factors: from this it follows, that ifax a-ixe
- . (1 tº . . .
(as is the case when 7=7. Arith, art, 127.), and
- antecedent and consequent of the same
-
ratio, may be expunged.

if a be prime to b, the other factor a on the first side . . . Kx M. Lºx M - - -
mºst contain h, and therefore must be of the form

!X′, where l is some whole number multiplying the
For if ºf ---B-. dividing both
whole number 6; and hence it is evident"that c is
likewise of the form l Xa, where l is the same whole
number multiplying the whole number a. Therefore sides by M.;-5. !
... [tC -
if =7. and if a be prime to b, c and d must be

or* *iſ K.M
A---- mºtº.
=** Mi' multiplying
equimultiples of a and b, that is º is reducible to 4 - - C
by dividing and d by their greatest common factor both sides by M, k = 1,
(see Prop. 5. Scholium); and hence likewise if
d c - - -
if
Or if KXM
I, XM -
C
D’ K C
I = D. for
=;, and if a be not prime toº, nor c prime to d,
the faction: and . must be reducible to the same KXM K.
Lex M T L
lowest terms by dividing { and b by their greatest Or the Rule may be thus stated:
common factor, and c and d by their greatest com -
mon factor, Expunge all common factors, except

48 GEOMETRY, [II. § 3.
they be common only to the two ex Thus if K : B :: C : D
tremes, or to the two means. For, in and B : B':: C' : D'
all other cases, if, as before, Kx M and and B'; L :: C": D"
LX M be the terms having a common by compounding the proportions, Kx B
factor, and if P and Q be the terms not §§ º, d. § C" : D xD'
: .
having a common factor, by multiplying x D", and hence by Rule 2, K : L::
extremes and means, Kx P x M = Cºx C/x C'ſ : D x D' x D'".
LXQXM, and dividing each side by
M, Kx P= Lx Q. SECTION 3.−The General Theory of
Of these three cases, the one which Proportion.
occurs most frequently is the last, viz. The foregoing theorems have been es
that in which the common factor is tablished upon the supposition that the
found in the terms of the same ratio. magnitudes spoken of are commensu
Rule 3. If there be two or more pro rable. This, however, is not always the
portions, the products of the corre case with magnitudes: there are some
sponding antecedents and consequents (examples will appear in a future page)
shall constitute a proportion. which have no common measure, and
... A C - A.f Cſ re
which are therefo said to be incom
For if B = D’ and if also B = 5? mensurable.
In the present section, the similar re
multiplying together the quantities upon lations of such magnitudes will be briefly
the left hand, and also those upon the considered; a new definition will be laid
right of the two equations, down, comprehending that already given
Ax A' CX C. (def [7]) of the proportion of commen
BxB/T D x D' surable magnitudes, at the same time
i.e. if A : B :: C : D that it does not require that the magni
and A : B'::C': D' tudes which satisfy it shall be commen
surable; and to this new definition the
Ax Aſ : B x B' :: Cºx C': Dx D'. theorems of the preceding section will
Again, if there be a third proportion be shown to apply equally as to the
All : B" :: C": D", the terms of this former.
being multiplied into those of the pre In the first place, then, it is evident
ceding, Ax A(xA"; BxB'x B":: Cºx that, incommensurable magnitudes hav
C/x C'ſ: Dx D'x D"; and so on, if ing no common part, their ratio can
there be any number of proportions. never be exactly expressed by numbers.
When this Rule is applied, the result Numbers may nevertheless be obtained
ing proportion is said to be compounded which shall serve to compare two such
of the others, and hence the rule is magnitudes A and B to any required de
called, “ compounding the proportions.” gree of accuracy.
We may observe that the compound Let B be divided into any large num
proportion commonly admits of reduc ber of equal parts, a million for ex
tion by Rule 2, on account of the same ample: then A will contain a certain
term or terms occurring in more than number of these parts with an excess
one of the component proportions. which is less than one of them, less,
If, for example, A : B :: C : D that is, than a millionth part of B; so
and B' : A :: D : C/ that if we take no account of this excess
and A": C'::B' : D", in our estimate of their relative magni
the proportion which is compounded of tude, we shall commit an error of less
these is Ax B'x A" : B x Ax C': : C x than one-millionth. And it is plain that,
Dx B': Dix C'x D": which is reducible in this manner, by dividing B into a still
by Rule 2. to A": B :: C : D". . . greater number of equal parts, the error
The terms are, however, seldom (or of our estimate may be made as small
never) so intermixed as in this example. as we please.
The end which is usually proposed in It is found, for example, (by methods
the compounding of proportions is to which will be noticed hereafter) that,
obtain the ratio of one magnitude K to if the diameter of a circle be divided into
another L by means of a number of 7 equal parts, the circumference will
intermediate magnitudes; in order to contain, not quite 22 of those parts; if,
which, K is made the antecedent of the again, the diameter be divided into 113
leading ratio of the first proportion, and equal parts, the circumference will con
i. * consequent of the like ratio in the tain not quite 355 of those parts: if into
aSüe 10,000,000, the circumference will con
II, § 3.] . . GEOMETRY." 49
tain not quite 31,415,927; and so on, cond which the third has to the fourth,
Therefore the ratio of the circumference when any like parts whatsoever of the
to the diameter is expressed by the second and fourth are contained in the
ratio 22:7 nearly; more nearly by 355: first and third the same number of times
KX}
\{}
133; still more nearly by 31,415,927 : exactly, or the same number of times
10,000,000; and so on : nor is there with corresponding remainders less than
:l:
any limit to the accuracy of this ap the parts.
proach, although there should (as is For example: let ABCD, EFGH be
º really the case) be no two numbers by two rectangles having the same altitude,
which it can be expressed exactly, and let AB, E F be their bases. Let
This consideration brings us directly the base E F be divided into any number
Cºlº.
to the only case in which, consistently of equal parts E f, &c., and the rect
#fff; with the view already taken of the sub anglé EFG H into as many equal rect
|.
ject of equal ratios, two magnitudes may angles, Efg H, &c. by lines drawn
ūsī. be said to be similarly related (or in the &
& S.M. same ratio) to two others of the same
tº
Kal
jº.
kind respectively, with which they are
incommensurable. The ratios of the for
mer to the latter, each to each, must ad
mit of being approximately represented
|| ||
A fi & jº ºf Jº
Mºſt by the same numbers, to how great an through the points of division parallet
º extent soever the degree of approxima to E. H. Then if A b, &c. be taken
ſºil tion may be carried: in other words, any equal to E f, and if straight lines be
ygº like parts whatsoever of the two latter drawn through the points b, &c. parallel
Immº" magnitudes, however minute they may to AD; the base A B, and the rectangle
it iſ: be taken, must be contained in the two A B C D, will contain, the one a certain
migº former, each in each, the same number number of parts equal to E.J. and the
mmtº of times, with corresponding” remain other the same number of rectangles
ūl. ders less than the parts. .. equal to Eſg H, either exactly, or with
|W It has been already observed that corresponding remainders less than Ef
{) |: this obtains with regard to the propor and Ejºg H. And this will always be the
tionals of def. [7]. When four magni case, whatsoever be the number of parts
tudes are proportionals by that defini: into which E F is divided. Therefore,
tion, which supposes the first two and according to def. 7., the two rectangles
second two to be commensurable, there and their two bases are proportionals,
are, indeed, some like parts of the se Def. 8. If the first of four magni
cond and fourth which are contained in tudes contain any part of the second a
the first and third the same number greater number of times, with or with º
of times without remainders; viz. the out a remainder, than the third con
greatest common measures of the first tains the like part of the fourth, the first
two and second two, and any like parts is said to have to the second a greater.
of the greatest common measures: it is ratio than the third has to the fourth
easy to perceive, however (and the same also, in this case, the third is said to
has been demonstrated at large in Prop. have to the fourth a less ratio than the
[9]), that any other like parts of the first has to the second, - -
second and fourth will be contained in

As from Prop. [9] with regard to
the first and third the same number of commensurable proportionals, so from
times, with corresponding less remain the terms of our new general definitions
ders. The following, therefore, is to be 7. and 8. with regard to the propor
considered as the general test of two tionals described in def. 7. it is at once
magnitudes A and C, having the same evident that of four magnitudes, A, B,
ratio to two others B and D, of the C, D, the first A cannot be said to
same kind with the former two re have to the second B the same ratio
spectively. which the third C has to the fourth
Déf. 7. The first of four magnitudes D, according to def. 7, and at the same
is said to have the same ratio to the se
time a greater or a less ratio than C
has to D, according to def. 8.: much
* By the word “corresponding” here used, it is less can A. be said to have to B at the
merely intended to point out the fact of there being
two remainders, i.e. a remainder in the comparison same time both a greater and a less ratio
of the two first magnitudes, and a remainder corre; than C has to D.” ---
sponding to it in the comparison of the two last. And

in the same sense the word is to be understood in
subsequent passages on the same subject. * See note at Prop. [9.]
50 GEOMETRY. [II. § 3
We proceed to the properties of this B, C will contain, also, by the supposi
more general description of propor tion, more than m' and less than m'+ 1
tionals, which will be found the same of the like parts of D, that is, the same
with those already demonstrated in the number m' of these with a remainder,
preceding Section of commensurable and this, whatever be the value of n.
proportionals. They will be considered Therefore, (def. 7.) A, B, C, D are pro
accordingly in the same order, and will portionals.
have the same numbers affixed to them. Therefore, &c.
It will be observed, also, that they are Cor. 1. The same had been expressed
stated in the same words, with the excep by saying, “if A, B, C, D be propor
tion of Prop. 9., which is little more than
another form of expressing def. 7., and tionals, and if A be greater than º B,
its corollaries, which again express the
same thing in different terms, the 2d. C shall be likewise greater D, than;
of them being, in fact, Euclid's cele
brated definition of proportionals. if equal equal, and if less less, whatso
ever values may be given to m and n:
PROP. 9, and, conversely, if this be the case with
four magnitudes, they shall be propor
If four magnitudes A, B, C, D be tionals.”
proportionals, the first and third shall Cor. 2. (Euc. v. def. 5.) Or, again,
na
of the second “if A, B, C, D be proportionals, and if
-
contain respectively ** n A be greater than m B, n C shall like

m wise be greater than m D, if equal equal,
*
and fourth, or both more than n ths, or and if less less, whatsoever values may
na
be given to m and n : and, conversely, if
both less than rº, whatsoever values this be the case with four magnitudes,
they shall be proportionals.”
may be #". to m and n ; and conversely, For n A, m B, n C, m D are equimul
if this be the case with four magnitudes, tiples of A, C, #B, *D;
and of the
they shall be proportionals.
For, by def. 7., if A contain exactly equimultiples of two magnitudes, one
*ths of B, C must contain exactly will be greater than, or equal to, or less
72 than the other, according as the corre
sponding magnitude is greater than, or
*ths of D: or, again, if A contain more equal to, or less than the corresponding
than m of the nº parts into which B magnitude of the other; and con
is divided, as m' (suppose), or m with a versely (ax. 1, 2, 3, 4).”
remainder, where m' is greater than m,
C must also contain m' parts, or m' with * “The first of four magnitudes is said to have the
a remainder, that is, more than m of the same ratio to the second, which the third has to the
fourth, when any equimultiples whatsoever of the
nth parts into which D is divided: and first and third being taken, and any equimultiples
in like manner, if A contain less than whatsoever of the second and fourth ; if the multiple
of the first be less than that of the second, the multi
*ths of. B, C will likewise contain less ple of the third is also less than that of the fourth ;
or, if the multiple of the first be equal to that of the
22 -
second, the multiple of the third is also equal to

than ** of D. that of the fourth ; or, if the multiple of the first be
greater than that of the second, the multiple of the
third is also greater than that of the fourth.”—
Next, let this be the case with four Euc. v. def. 5. -
magnitudes, A, B, C, D, whatsoever This definition of proportionals has been sometimes

found fault with as too abstruse and recondite for be
numbers be substituted for m and n: ginners;–which would not perhaps have been the
A, B, C, D shall be proportionals. case, had its connexion with the more obvious but
For, if A and C contain exactly m of confined view of def. [7] been always pointed out.
For, we have seen that a general theory of propor
the nth parts into which B and D are tion, which shall embrace indifferently all magni
divided, the four A, B, C, D are com tudes, whether commensurable or otherwise, admits
mensurable proportionals, according to of no test essentially different from that which is
here adopted. The greatest geometers in º
def. 7; and, therefore, also (by Prop. upon this part of the Elements have ever foun
[9] of the last Section, as has been al cause to admire the profoundness and sagacity of
their author. Witness the energetic testimony of
ready observed) proportionals accord Barrow, “That there is nothing in the whole body
ing to def. 7. Again, if A contain more of the Elements of a more subtile invention, nothing
than m, as m' and a remainder, that is more solidly established, ormore accurately handled,
than the doctrine of proportionals.” Euclid has,
more than m' and less than m'-H 1 parts indeed, left little in this respect, as in others, to be
II. § 3.] GEOMETRY. - 51
Cor. 3. (Euc. v. def. 7.) In like man Let D be the difference of A and B:
ner, it may be shown, that, if there be then, whether B and D be or be not both
four magnitudes A, B, C, D, and if a of them greater than C, multiples m B,
multiple of A, as m A, can be found m D may be taken of them which are both
which is greater than a multiple of B greater than C. And, because C is less
as n B, while the corresponding multiple than m B, let multiples of C be taken, as
of C, viz., m C, is not greater than the 2 C, 3 C, &c. until a multiple be found,
corresponding multiple of D, viz. n D, as p-H1.C., which is the first greater than
A has to B a greater ratio than C772has
ths
m B. Then, because m B is not less than
to D. For, A will be greater than 7, the preceding multiple p C, and because
m Dis greater than C, the two m B, m D
of thsB, but C will not be greater than together are greater than p C and C toge
º of D; that is, the nth part of B ther, that is, than p-H 1.C. But, because
A is equal to B and D together, it is evi
will be contained in A m times or more dent that m A is equal to m B and m D
with a remainder, but the nth part of together. Therefore m A is greater than
D will not be contained in C so much as p-H 1. C, and m B less than p-F I.C.
m times with a remainder. (See def. 8.) Therefore the p-F1th part of A is con
PROP. 10. (EUc. v. 7.) tained in C, not so much as m times,
Equal magnitudes have the same ratio and the p-H 10 part of B is contained in
to the same magnitude : and the same C, m times with a remainder. There
has the same ratio to equal magnitudes. fore (def. 8.) C has a less ratio to A than
For, any the same part of the same it has to B, or a greater ratio to B than
magnitude will be contained the same it has to A. (See also 9. Cor. 3.)
number of times, in equal magnitudes Therefore, &c. -
with , corresponding less remainders. Cor. 1. (Euc. v. 9.) Magnitudes which

And, again, any like parts of equal have the same ratio to the same magni
magnitudes, being equal to one another tude are equal to one another: as like
(ax. 2), will be contained the same num wise those to which the same magnitude
ber of times, with the same remainder in has the same ratio.
the same magnitude. Cor. 2. A ratio which is compounded
Therefore, &c. of two ratios, one of which is the reci
Cor. If a ratio which is compounded procal of the other, is a ratio of equality:
of two ratios be a ratio of equality, one for, A having to C a ratio which is com
of these must be the reciprocal of the pounded of the ratios of A to B and
other. (See [10] Cor.) of B to C, if the latter be the same
with the ratio of B to A, A must be
PROP. 11. (Euc. v. 8) equal to C.
Qf two unequal magnitudes, the Cor. 3. (Euc. v. 10.) If one of two mag
greater has a greater ratio to the same nitudes have a greater ratio to the same
magnitude: and the same magnitude has magnitude than the other has, the first
a greater ratio to the lesser of the two. must be greater than the other: and if
The first is evident: for of any the the same magnitude have a greater ratio
same, magnitude a part may be found to one of two magnitudes than it has to
less than the difference of two unequal the other, the first must be less than the
other.
magnitudes, which part must evidently
be Contained a greater number of times PROP. 12. (Euc. v. 11.)
in the greater thaninthelesser of the two.
In the second place, therefore, let A Magnitudes A, B and C, D, whicſ,
and B be any two magnitudes of which have the same ratio with the same mag
A is the greater, and let C be any third nitudes P, Q, have the same ratio with
*agnitude: C shall have to the greater one another. -
A a less ratio than the same C. has to For any part of B will be contained
the other B. in A exactly or with a remainder, as
T--—
often as a like part of Q is contained in
done by succeeding writers, but to follow his steps P exactly or with a remainder, because
* closely as they are able: the principies, the A : B :: P: Q, that is, as often as a
theorems, the demonstrations they are in search of
* all to be found in this one masterpiece, and for like part of D, is contained in C exactly,
the Wºost part under the simplest form. From this or with a remainder, because C : D ::
*Yºu, of course, be easily understood how large a P: Q.
ºn of the present Section is borrowed from the
9th Book of the Elements, Therefore, &c, £ 2
52 GEOMETRY. ' [II. § 3.
Cor. 1. (Euc. v. 13.) If A have to B any equimultiples whatever n B, n D,
the same ratio as C to D, and C to D a Then, according as n B is equal to,
greater or a less ratio than E to F, A or greater than, or less than m A, it
shall have to B a greater or a less ratio is plain that m A will be equal to,
than E has to F. or less than, or greater than n B ;
Cor. 2. If A have to B a greater or and, therefore, on account of the pro
a less ratio than C to D, and C to D portion, (9. Cor. 2.) m C will be likewise
the same ratio as E to F, A shall have equal to, or less than, or greater than
to B a greater or a less ratio than E n D, that is, n D will be equal to, or
has to F. greater than, or less than m C. And
this will be the case, whatever be the
PROP. 13. (EUc. v. D and C.) numbers n and m. Therefore (9. Cor. 2.)
If four magnitudes be proportionals, B, A, D, C are proportionals.
and if the first be any multiple or part Therefore, &c.
of the second, the third shall be the same
multiple or part of the fourth ; and PROP. 16. (EUc. v. 4.)
conversely, if one magnitude be the same If four magnitudes A, B, C, D be pro
multiple or part of another, that a third portionals, and if there be taken any
magnitude is of a fourth, the four mag equimultiples of the first and third; and
nitudes shall be proportionals. also any equimultiples of the second and
The first is evident from def. 7. ; for fourth : these equimultiples shall like
it is supposed in that definition that if wise be proportionals.
any part of the second be contained a cer Let m A, m C be any equimultiples
tain number of times in the first exactly, whatever of A, C, and n B, n D any
alike part of the fourth will be contained
equimultiples whatever of B, D. Take
the same number of times in the third ex K, M any equimultiples whatever of
actly. And, in the second place, if A be m A, m C, and therefore (2.) like
the same multiple or part of B that C is wise equimultiples of A, C ; also L, N
of D, A, B, C, D will be commensurable any equimultiples whatever of n B,
proportionals, and therefore ([9]) also n D, and therefore likewise equimulti
proportionals by def. 7. ples of B, D. Then, because A : B::
Therefore, &c. C: D, if K be greater than L, M will
be greater than N: if equal, equal;
PROP. 14. (EUc. v. A.) and if less, less (9. Cor. 2.). But K, M
: If four magnitudes A, B, C, D be pro are any equimultiples whatever of m A,
portionals, and ºf the first be greater m C, and M, N any equimultiples
than the second, the third shall be whatever of n B, n D. Therefore
greater than thefourth; if equal, equal; (9. Cor. 2.) m A : n B ::m C : 7; D.
and if less, less. Therefore, &c.
For, if A be greater than B, a part of Cor. If A, B, C, D be proportionals,
the latter may be found which shall be and if any like parts of the first and third
less than their difference, and which be taken, and also any like parts of the
shall therefore be contained a greater second and fourth, these like parts will
number of times exactly, or with a re likewise be proportionals.
mainder, in A, than in B : therefore,
because A, B, C, D are proportionals, PROP. 17. (EUc. v. 15.)
the like part of D will also be contained Magnitudes have the same ratio to one
a greater number of times exactly or another which their equimultiples have.
with a remainder in C than in D, that For, if m A, ºn B be any equimulti
is, C will be greater than D. ples whatever of A, B, it is evident, that
And, in the same manner it may be any part P of B will be contained in A
shown, that if A be equal to B, C will exactly, or with a remainder, as often as
be equal to D ; and if less, less. Žn times that part or m P is contained in
... Therefore, &c. ºn A with a remainder. Also, what
ever part P is of B, m P is the like part
PROP. 15. (EUc. v. B.) of m B. Therefore, A: B : : m A :
If four magnitudes A, B, C, D be pro m B (def. 7).
portionals, they shall also be proportion Therefore, &c.
als when taken inversely: that is, inver Cor. I. Magnitudes have the same.
tendo, B : A : : D : C. ratio to one another which their like
Of A, C take any equimultiples parts have.
whatever m A, m C, and of B, D, Cor. 2. If A, B, C, D be proportion
als, and if any equimultiples whatever be For, if any like parts whatever, as the
taken of the first and second, and also nth, of B and D be contained in A and
any equimultiples whatever of the third C the same number of times, m, exactly,
and fourth, these equimultiples will like or with corresponding remainders, they
wise be proportionals (12). will be contained in A-B and C-D, the
The same, it is evident, may be stated same number of times, m-n, exactly, or
with regard to any like parts taken ofthe with the same remainders. Therefore,
first and second, and also of the third (def. 7.) A-B : B :: C-D : D.
and fourth. Therefore, &c.
Cor. 1. (Euc. v. E.) If four magmi
PROP. 18. (Egc. v. 14.) tudes A, B, C, D be proportionals, then
If four magnitudes of the same kind convertendo, A : A-B :: C: C-D (See
be proportionals, and if the first be [20] Cor. 1.)
reater than the third, the second shall Cor. 2. (Euc. v. 25.) If four magni
; greater than the fourth; if equal, tudes of the same kind be proportionals,
equal ; and if less, less. the greatest and least of them together
Let A, B, C, D, be proportionals, and shall be greater than the other two to
first, let A be greater than C; B shall gether. (See [20] Cor. 2.)
be greater than D. Cor. 3. If three magnitudes be pro
For A, being greater than C, has to B portionals, half the sum of the extremes
a greater ratio (11.) than C has to B: shall be greater than the mean: in other
therefore (12. Cor. 1.) C' has also to words, the arithmetical mean between
D a greater ratio than the same C has two magnitudes is greater than the geo
to B: therefore, (11. Cor. 3.) B is greater metrical mean between the same two.
than D. (See [20] Cor. 3.)
And, in like manner it may be shown,
that if A be equal to C, B must be equal PROP. 21. (EUc. v. 18.)
to D; and if less, less, If four magnitudes A, B, C, D, be
Therefore, &c. -
proportionals, they shall also be propor

Cor. Hence, also, if four magnitudes tionals when taken conjointly; that is,
of the same kind be proportionals, and the sum of the first and second shall be
if the second be greater than the fourth, to the second, as the sum of the third
the first will be greater than the third; and fourth to the fourth : or, compo
if equal, equal; and if less, less. mendo, A+B : B :: C+D : D.
PROP. 19. (EUC. W. 16.)
For, if any like parts whatever, as the
77th, of B and D be contained in A and C
If four magnitudes A, B, C, D of the the same number of times, m, exactly, or
same kind be proportionals, they shall with corresponding remainders, the
also be proportionals, when taken alter will be contained in A+B and C+D
º
B
that is, alternando A: C : : the same number of times, m-H n, exactly,
-
or with the same remainders. There
Of A, B take any equimultiples what fore, (def. 7.) A+B : B : : C+D : D.
ever m A, m B, and of C, D any equi Therefore, &c.
multiples whatever n C, n D : then Cor. If four magnitudes A, B, C, D
(17. Cor. 2.) m A, m B, n C, n D are be proportionals, A: A+B :: C : C+D.
proportionals; and, therefore, (18.) if (See [21] Cor.)
m A be greater than n C, m B will also
be greater than n D; if equal, equal; PROP. 22. (EUc. v. 19.)
if less, less. But m A, m B are any equi If one magnitude be to another as a
multiples whatever of A, B, and n C, magnitude taken from the first to a
n D any equimultiples whatever of C, D. magnitude taken from the other, the re
Therefore, (9. Cor. 2.) A : C : : B : D. mainder shall be to the remainder in the
Therefore, &c. same ratio. -
See the demonstration of [22].

PRop. 20. (EUc. v. 17.) Cor. 1. If there be any number of
If four magnitudes A, B, C, D, be magnitudes A, B, C, D, &c. in geome
proportionals, they shall also be propor trical progression, the differences A-B,
tionals, when taken dividedly: that is, B-C, C-D, &c. will form a geometrical
the difference of the first and second shall progression in which the successive
be to the second as the difference of the terms have the same ratio with the suc
third and fourth to the fourth ;-or cessive terms of the former, (See [22]
dividendo A-B : B ; ; C-D: D, . Cor. 1.)
Cor. 2. And conversely, any number aequali in proportione directá (or ex
of magnitudes A, B, C, D, &c. in geome aequo) the first shall be to the third of
trical progression may be considered the first magnitudes, as the first to the
as the differences of other magnitudes third of the others ; or, as it may be
A, B, C, D, E, &c. forming a geome more briefly stated,
trical progression, in which the first - if A : B :: A : B'
term A' is to A, as A to A-B, and the and B : C : ; B' : C
successive terms have the same ratio
with the successive terms of the former.
then, ex æquali A. : C :: A' : C.
(See [22]. Cor. 2.) Of A, A, take any equimultiples mA,
m A', of B, B' any equimultiples n B,
PROP. 23. m B', and of C, C' any equimultiples p C,
If one magnitude be to another as a p C': then, because A, B, A, B are
third magnitude of the same kind to a proportionals, m.A., n B, m A', 'n B' are
fourth, the sum of the first and third also proportionals, (16.); and, in like
shall be to the sum of the second and manner, because B, C, B", C' are pro
fourth in the same ratio. portionals, a B, p C, n B', p C are also
See the demonstration of [23]. proportionals.
Cor. 1. (Euc. v. 12.) Hence, if there Now, if m A be greater than p C, it
be any number of magnitudes of the will have to n B a greater ratio than p C
same kind antecedents, and as many has (11.); and therefore, (12. Cor. 1.)
consequents, and if every antecedent m Aſ will also have to 7, B' a greater
have the same ratio to its consequent, ratio than p C has to n B ; that is, on
the sum of all the antecedents shall have account of the proportionals p C, n B,
the same ratio to the sum of all the C., n B (15.), a greater ratio than p C'
consequents. as to n B (12. Cor. 2.); therefore,
Cor. 2. If the ratio of Aſ to B' be not also, m Aſ will be greater than p C'
the same with the ratio of A to B, the (11. Cor. 3.). In the same manner it
ratio of A + Aſ to B+B' will not be the may be shown, that if m A be equal to
same with the ratio of A to B ; but less, p C, m Al will also be equal to p C'; and,
if the magnitudes added be to one ano if less, less. And the numbers m, p may
ther in a less ratio, or greater, if the be any whatever. Therefore (9. Cor. 2.)
magnitudes added be to one another in A, C, A', 'C' are proportionals, and
A. : C : : A' : C'.
a greater ratio.” (See [23] Cor. 2.) Therefore, &c.
Cor. 3. Hence, if the ratio of A' to Cor. 1. (Euc. v. 22.) Hence, also,
B' be not the same with the ratio of A
if A : B :: Aſ : B'
to B, the ratio of A + Aſ to B + B' will and B : C :: B': C/
lie between the ratios of A to B and of and C : D : : C : D'
Aſ to B'; that is, it will be greater than
the lesser of the two, and less than the ea: aquali A : D :: A' : D'; and the
greater of the two. same is true whatever be the number of
PROP. 24.
gºule A, B, C, D, &c. A', B', C", D',
C
If there be three magnitudes of the
same kind, A, B, C, and other three This may be stated in the following
A, B, C, which, taken two and two in words: “Ratios, which are compounded
order, have the same ratio ; viz. A to B of any number of equal ratios in the
the same ratio as A' to B', and B to C same order, are equal to one another.”
the same ratio as B' to C'; then ex Cor. 2. If four magnitudes A, B, C, D
* It is required in the demonstration of this Corol
be proportionals, then miscendo A + B
lary, by help of the proposition, as in [23]. Cor. 2., : A - B :: C + D : C ~ D. (See [24]
that to two given magnitudes of the same kind, and a Cor. 2.)
third, there may be found a fourth proportional.
The case in which the two first magnitudes are com
mensurable has been already noticed in the note PROP. 25. (EUC. v. 24.)
upon [23]. Cor. 2.; in the other case, i. e. when they
are incommensurable, we can only approximate to If two proportions have the same con
the fourth proportional as we approximate to the ratio sequents, the sum of the first antecedents
of the two magnitudes numerically, as in the opening
of this section. Since, however, such approximation shall be to their consequent, as the sum
may be continued without limit, and magnitudes can of the second antecedents to their conse
be obtained which are in a greater and less ratio to quent ; that is, if A : B : : C ; D, and if
the given magnitude, according to def. 8., we pre
sumé that there is some magnitude between them Aſ : B :: C': D, then A + A : B :: C+
which is to the given third magnitude in the same C! : D.
ratio which the second has to the first—that is,
#. magnitude which is a fourth proportional to the See the demonstration of [25].
I60, -
Cor. 1. The same may be stated of
any number of proportions having the that if m A be equal to n C, m Al will

same consequents; that is, the sum of also be equal to n C', and if less, less.
all the first antecedents shall be to theirAnd the numbers m, n may be any
consequent as the sum of all the second whatever. Therefore (9. Cor. 2.), A,
antecedents to their consequent. C, A'. § are proportionals, and A : C
Cor. 2. In like manner, also, it may be :: A' : C'.
shown (by “dividendo" instead of “com Therefore, &c.
ponendo") that if two proportions have Cor. 1. (Euc. v. 23.) Hence, also,
the same consequents, the difference of if A : B :: C ; D/
the first antecedents shall be to their and B : C :: B : C/
consequent as the difference of the se and C : D :: A': B’
cond antecedents to their consequent, ea: aquo perturbato A : D :: A': D'; and
Cor. 3. Hence if there be any number the same is true whatever be the
of magnitudes of the same kind A, B, C, number of magnitudes A, B, C, D, &c.
D, E, F, and as many others A, B, C, A!, B', C.", D', &c.
D', E, F, and if the ratios of the first This may be stated in the following
to the second, of the second to the words: “ratios which are compounded
third, of the third to the fourth, and of any number of equal ratios, but in a
so on, be respectively the same in the reverse order, are equal to one another.”
two series; any, two combinations by PRop. 27. (EUc. v. F.)
sum and difference of the magnitudes
of the first series, e.g. A + C – E and Ratios which are compounded of the
B – C + D shall be to one another as Same ratios, in whatsoever orders, are
two similar combinations of the cor the same with one another.
responding magnitudes of the second The case of ratios which are com
series, viz. At + C'— E' and B' – pounded of the same ratios in the same
C’ + D'. order is that of 24. Cor. 1.
PROP. 26. The case, again, of ratios which are
compounded of the same ratios in a re
If there be three magnitudes of the verse order, is that of 26. Cor. 1.
same kind A, B, C, and other three Let the ratio of A to D, therefore, be
A!, B, C, which taken two and two, but compounded of the ratios of A to B, of
Žn a cross order, have the same ratio, viz. B to C, and of C to D: and let these
A to B the same ratio as B' to C', and B ratios be the same rºy with the
to C the same ratio as A' to B'; then, ex ratios of C'to D', of Aſ to B' and of By
a quali in proportione perturbatá (or to C', of which the ratio of Al to D' is
ex æquo perturbato), the first shall be to compounded, but in a different order:
the third of the first magnitudes as the the ratio of A to D shall be the same
first to the third of the others; or, as it with the ratio of A' to D'.
imay be more briefly stated, For, because B : C :: A/: B'
tf A : B : : B : C/ and C : D :: B': Cſ
and B : C : : Aſ : B/ ea: aquali, B:D: AT: Cſ
ex æquo perturbato A. : C : : A' : Cº. but again, A: B :: C':D',
Of A,B and A', take any equimul Therefore eac aquo
tiples m A, m B and m A', and of C, B" perturbato . . . A: D :: A : D'.
and C any equimultiples n C, n B and And, in a similar manner, the case of
n C': them, because A, B, B', C., are ratios which are compounded of the
proportionals, m A, m B, n B', n Cſ are same three ratios in any other order,
also proportionals (17. Cor. 2.); and, may be demonstrated. For, if K, L, M
because B, C, A, B are proportionals, represent the three ratios in one order,
m B, n C, m A', n B are also propor in whatever other order they may be
tionals (16), - arranged, two of them will be found
.Now, if m A be greater than n C, it which are contiguous in both arrange
Will have to m B a greater ratio than n C ments; commencing with which two, the
has to m B (11.); and therefore, (12. demonstration will differ little from the
Cor.l.)nB'will also have ton C" agreater above. -
ratio than n C has to m B, that is, on ac Hence, again, it may be shown, that
count of the proportionals n C, m B, n B', ratios which are compounded of the
m A' (15.), a greater ratio than n B has same four ratios K, L, M, N in what
to m Al (12. Cor. 2.): therefore, also, soever orders, are the same with one
ºn Aſ will be greater than n C (11. Cor.3.). another; as for instance, in the orders
In the same manner, it may be shown K, L, M, N, and M, K, N, L: for the
latter ratio is the same with the ratio nearly than by any the same given differ
which is compounded of the same ratios ence) and if P be to Q always in the same
in the order M,K,I,N, because the ratio given ratio of C to D; A shall be to B in
which is compounded of K, N, L, is the the same ratio.
same with that which is compounded of See the demonstration of [28.] and
R, L, N.; and, for a similar reason, the the note at 23. Cor. 2.
ratio which is compounded of M, K, L, It has been already observed, that this
N, is the same with that which is com proposition is of extensive application
pounded of K, L, M, N. in Geometry, and the uses have been
And the same reasoning may be ex mentioned to which it will be found ap
tended to five, six, or any other number plied in subsequent parts of this treatise.
of ratios. The present section, or rather, the
Therefore, &c. passing from a property demonstrated
Cor. 1. (Euc. v. G.). If there be any of commensurable proportionals to the
number of ratios as those of A to B, of demonstration of the same property
C to D, of E to F, &c. magnitudes which with regard to incommensurable pro
have to one another a ratio compounded portionals, offers an immediate illus
of any two of these shall have the same tration of it ; which seems also the
ratio to one another with any other mag rather not to be passed by in this place,
nitudes which have to one another a as we here take leave of the abstract
ratio compounded of the same two; theory of proportion, to consider its
and, in like manner, magnitudes which application to the proper subjects of
have to one another a ratio compounded Geometry, viz. lines, surfaces and
of any three of these shall have the same solids; and a theory of proportion
ratio to one another with any other would scarcely appear completé with
magnitudes which have to one another a out some notice of the equality existing
ratio compounded of the same three; between the products of the eartremes and
and so on. means. In what sense this expression
Cor. 2. If the ratios of A to B, of B is to be interpreted with regard to a pro
to D, of E to F, &c. be all equal to one portion of four magnitudes of any kind
another, magnitudes which have to one A, B, C, D, was pointed out in the Ge
another a ratio compounded of any two neral Scholium at the end of Section II.;
of them will have to one another a ratio viz. that it supposes the magnitudes to
which is the same with the duplicate be commensurable, and is to be under
ratio of A to B : and in like manner, stood of the numbers which stand for
magnitudes which have to one another them. But we have seen that the term
a ratio compounded of any three of them product is sometimes also, for the sake
will have to one another a ratio which of brevity, used synonymously for rect
is the same with the triplicate ratio of A angle, as whenever the product of two
to B ; and so on. lines is spoken of, meaning the rect
Cor. 3. Ratios which are the duplicate, angle which they contain.
or triplicate, &c. of the same ratio are We propose then to demonstrate
the same with one another. generally, that, if four straight lines
Cor. 4. In the composition of ratios A, B, C, D be proportionals, (whether
any two which are reciprocals of one commensurable or otherwise,) the rect
another may be neglected, without af angle under the extremes will be equal to
fecting the resulting compound ratio. the rectangle under the means; and that
(See 10. Cor.) in such a manner as may serve to illus
Cor. 5. Hence, if two ratios be equal trate the use of Prop. 28.
to one another (and therefore com First, let A and B
pounded of equal ratios, having any be commensurable, and |
order in the composition of each), and if therefore also C and |
any of the equal ratios be subducted or D. : and let their com

taken away, the remaining ratios will be mon ratio be any what
equal to one another. (See [27] Cor. 5.) ever, as 7: 5; that is, A B & 1.
let there be
measures M,
common
N, the
|
M. N.
PROP. 28.
If there be two fixed magnitudes A and first of A and B, and the second of C
B, which are the limits of two others P and D, which are contained in A and C
and Q (that is, to which P and Q, by respectively 7 times, and in B and D re
increasing together, or by diminishing spectively 5 times. Then because A
together, may be made to approach more contains M 7 times, and that D contains
N 5 times, the rectangle AxB contains SECTION 4.—Proportion of the Sides of

the rectangle MxN, 7x5 (I.29. Cor. 1.) Triangles. --
that is 35 times: and for a like reason, Def. 13. Two straight lines are said to
the rectangle Bx C contains the rect- be similarly divided, when any two ad
angle Mx N, 5x7 or 35 times. There; joining parts of the one have to one
fore (ax. 1.) the rectangle Ax D is equal another the same ratio with the cor
to the rectangle Bx C. - responding parts of the other.
In the next placelet the straight lines,
It is evident (eac aquali), that when
A, B, and therefore also C, D, be in- this is the case, any two parts whatso
commensurable, A, B, C, D, being pro- ever of the one will have to one ano
portionals according to def. 7. Then ther the same ratio as the corresponding
(def. 7.) straight lines P and Q may be parts of the other. ---
found, which approach nearer to A and 14. (Euc. vi. Def. 1.) Two rectilineal
C, than by any assigned difference, and figures are said to be similar when they
contain like parts of B and D ; so that have all their angles equal, each to each,
by what has been just demonstrated, and the sides about the equal angles
Px D =Qx B. But Px I), and Qx B proportionals."
may be made, by increasing together, (Euc. vi. 21.) It is evident from this
to approach more nearly to AX D, and definition that rectilineal figures, which
Cx B, than by any assigned difference, are similar to the same rectilineal figure,
because, by taking the like parts of are similar to one another. (I. ax. I. and
B, D continually less and less, P and Q II, 12.)
may be made to increase towards A and 15. Homologous sides of similar
C within any assigned difference. There figures are those which lie between
fore (Prop. 28.) AxD= Cx B or BX C. equal angles, and are antecedents, or
Therefore, &c. consequents, of the same proportion.
The same will be demonstrated after 16. Two straight lines are said to be
a different manner in Section 5, to the similarly placed in two similar figures,
subject of which Section the theorem when they cut corresponding sides of
properly belongs.” the figures proportionally.
* Upon quitting this subject, the consideration of Prof 2. . 29. (EUC. vi. 2. )
(EUC, V
which has
well
gebraical
j us to so great a length, it may be
to observe why
method of the common
treating thearithmetical
same appearsor al-
in-
If a º line be drawn parallel to
le, it
the base of a triangle, -it shall cut the
sufficient for the purposes of Geometry. In the first sides, or the sides produced, proportion
place, that method does not represent the ma nitudes ally : and, conversely, f Q. straight line
themselves as constituting the proportion, but only
the numbers by which the magnitudes are measured; : * This definition, like some others to be found in
upon which account, should the method be adopted, the Elements, is excessive. To contain no more than
the task would still remain of explaining its appliga, is strictly necessary (or, indeed, than as yet has ap
tion to magnitudes in general, before it was applied peared to be ºš it should be modified as fol.
to the magnitudes treated of, in Geometry, ſº the lows. Two rectilineal figures are said to be similar,
next place, it does not furnish a general test of pro- when the first has all its sides but one proportional
portion, but distinguishes, in every instance, the two to the sides of the other, and the angles included by
cases of rational numbers and j as are irrational, those sides equal to the angles included by the corrà.
corresponding to our cases of commensurable mag- sponding sides of the other. For a figure of any num
nitudes and such asare incommensurable—a separa- ber of sides, as 6, being determined by 5 of those sides
tion which, though it has been, for the sake of sim- placed at Fº angles, it is sufficiently evident, that
plicity, admitted into the theory of the foregoing a figure of 6 sides may be constructed, which shall º
sections, is avoided in their application both by the have 5 of those sides in the same ratio respectively to
definition of Euclid, and by our similar definition in 5 sides of a given six-sided figure, and the four in
Section 3. Lastly, the arithmetical method is so cluded angles in order, equal to the four correspond
concise, that it becomes necessary to develope it in ing angles of that figure :, but it is not sufficiently
its application, and to state anew 'the important evident that, being so constructed, it will have its
rules it furnishes for the treatment of proportions; 6th side in the same ratio to the 6th side of the other
whether with the view of deriving a new proportion figure, and the two adjacent angles equal, respec
from one taken singly, or with that of combining two tively, to the corresponding angles of the other.
or more proportions in order to obtain from them a This kind of excess in a definition is, in the accu
single proportion, which, could result from neither of rate language of mathematics, always more or less
them taken alone. The manner in which it has been objectionable; especially as instances are notwanting,
attempted to supply these desiderata in the present in which it is assumed, without proof, as the foundā.
treatise, and to furnish a theory which, at the same tion of certain properties of the thing defined. Such
time that it should be complete and general, might is the case, for example, when parallel straight lines
be easily apprehended, and easily applied, is un- are defined to be such, that any two points whatsoever
doubtedly prolix, though not more so than the in- in the one are at equal distances from the other;
portance of the subject seemed to demand. The whereas, it cannot be stated a priori of two straight
embarrassments of the beginner have been obviated lines, that more than two points of the one shall beat
and (it is hoped) in a great ineasure removed by equal distances from the other. When speaking, there
the more simple theory of commensurable proportion fore, for the first time of similar figures in 32, Cor. 1,
ºf Section 2., inserted chiefly with this view : nor is it will be our care to demonstrate that part of Def
the subject left so lame and incomplete as would have 14, which is assumed, retaining it in the text as al
been the case had the general discussion of Section lowedly more concise and obvious to apprehension
% been entirely omitted, (See note at prop. [9]), than under the restricted form, -
cut the sides of a triangle, or the sides the vertex, and a point of the base, shall
produced, proportionally, it shall be pa divide the base and its parallel in the
vallel to the base of the triangle. same ratio : and, conversely, if the base
Let A B C be a triangle, and let the and its parallel be divided in the same
straight line DE, which is drawn pa ratio, the straight line which joins the
rallel to the base B C, cut the sides AB, points of division, or that straight line
A C, or the sides A B, AC, produced, in produced, shall pass through the vertex
the points D, E: A D shall be to A B of the triangle.
as A E to A. C. Let A B C be a triangle, and let the
in straight line D E, which is drawn pa
*Tº rallel to the base B C,
.A. A cut the sides A B,
A C in the points
D, E respectively:
e then if any straight
Jo E. line A F be drawn
!, c 7, c b C
through the vertex,
-
J3 “a/~l.
. By g I; 4–.C to cut the base in F is ſº G Tº
*—
Ty l,
and its parallel in G,
B F shall be to FC as D G to G. E.
Let A B be divided into any number Through F draw FH parallel to AD,
of equal parts B b, &c.; then it may be to meet D E in H. Then, (29.) D G is
shown, as in I. 49, that AC will be divided to H. G., as AG to FG, and, convertendo,
into as many equal parts C c, &c. b D G is to DH, as A G to A. F. But
lines drawn parallel to B C : also, if in D H is equal to BF (I, 22.): therefore,
A D there be taken as many parts D d, D G is to B F as A G to A. F. In the
&c. equal to B b, as can be found in it, same manner it may be shown, that GE
exactly, or with an excess less than B b, is to FC as A G to A. F. Therefore,
and if through the points d, &c. lines (12.) D G : B F :: G E : FC; and alter
be drawn parallel to B C or D E, there mando, D G : G. E. : : B F : FC.
will be found in AE, the same number In the next place let B F be to FC
of parts E e, &c. equal to C c, exactly, as DG to G. E.; and let the points
or with a corresponding excess less than F, G be joined: the straight line FG,
C c. And this will be the case, how or F G produced, shall pass through
great soever be the number of parts the point A. For, let A F (produced
into which A B, A C are divided ; if necessary) cut D E in any point
therefore, (Def. 7.) A D : A B:: A E : whatever G': then, by the former part
A. C. of the proposition, DG': G E : : B F:
Next, let A D be to A B as A E to FC, but D G : G E : : B F : FC, there
A C : D E shall be parallel to B C. fore, (12.) D G' : G! E:: D G : G. E.
For, if there be any line whatever, BC', Therefore the straight line D E is di
parallel to DE, then, by the first part of vided in the same ratio in the points G'
the proposition, A E is to A C as A D and G. But two points cannot divide
to A B, that is, as A E to A C : there the same straight line in the same ratio
fore, (18.) A C' is equal to A C, that is, except they coincide: for if H, for ex
the points C" and C coincide, and B C ample, be any other point than G in
is parallel to D E. the line D E, and if D H be less than
Therefore, &c. D G, the ratio of D H to G E will be
Cor. In the same manner it may be less (11.) than the ratio of D G to
shown, that if the sides of an angle be G. E.; and the ratio of D H to H E still
cut by any number of parallels, any two less than the ratio of D H to GE, be
parts of the one will have to one another cause HE is greater than G E : much
the same ratio as the corresponding more then is the ratio of D H to H E
parts of the other, that is, the sides will less than the ratio of D G to G. E. And
be similarly divided in the points of in the same manner it may be shown,
section (def. 13.) that if D H be greater than D G, DH
PROP. 30. will be to HE in a greater ratio than
DG to G. E. Therefore, as was before
If a straight line be drawn parallel to stated, two points cannot divide the
the base of a triangle, and be terminated same straight line in the same ratio,
by the sides, or by the sides produced, except they coincide. Therefore the
any straight line which passes through points G', G coincide, i, e, A F G is
[ll]],
Ilse, hill
ldlini, no other than a straight line, and FG In the same manner it may be shown
filly produced passes through A. that A B is to B C as DE to E F; and
the lº Therefore, &c. again, A C to C B as D F to F.E.
jºinsii; Cor. 1. If two parallel straight lines Next, let the triangles A B C, D EF
be cut by any number of straight lines have their sides, each to each, in the
dighill, which pass through the same point, they same ratio, that is, A B to A C, as D E
ſhºtſ!!
shall be similarly divided in the points of to D.F, A C to C B, as D F to FE,
section. and therefore, ex æquali, (24.) A B to
milk iſ Cor. 2. It has been seen in the course B C, as DE to EF: the triangle ABC
|AW of the demonstration that the parts of shall have its three angles A, B, C
the base are to the parts of the parallel equal to the three angles D, E, F of the
respectively in the same ratio, viz. as triangle DE F, each to each.
A G to A F, or, which is the same thing Let K L M be a triangle having its
(29.), as AB to AD; therefore also three angles K, L, M equal to the three
the whole base (23.) is to the whole angles D, E, F respectively, and its side
parallel as AB to AD; that is, as the KL equal to A B (I, 50.). Then, by the
side of the triangle to the segment next first part of the proposition, because the
the vertex which is cut off by the pa triangles KLM, DEF are equiangular,
rallel from the side, or from the side K L : LM : : D E : E F, but D E : E F
produced. ; : A B : B C, therefore, (12.) K L :
The same is at once made evident by I. M. : : A B : B C : but KL is equal to
drawing through C a parallel to A D. A B; therefore, (18.) LM is equal to
Cor. 3. It has also been seen in the B C. And in the same manner it may
course of the demonstration that a be shown that K M is equal to A.C.
straight line DE can be divided in the Therefore, the triangles A B C, K LM
same ratio in one point only. Here have the three sides of the one equal to
DE and E D are considered as differ the three sides of the other, each to each,
intº ent straight lines, viz, differing in their and are, consequently (I. 7), equal in
andſº first points. every respect. Therefore A B C is equi
PROP. 31. (EUC. vi. 4. 5.)
angular with K L M, that is, with
D E F.
ºº Therefore, &c.
lº | º
If two triangles are equiangular, they
im. Fº shall have the sides about the equal Cor. 1. Equiangular triangles are
hº angles proportionals, those which are similar (Def. 14.)
opposite to the equal angles, being the Cor. 2. Triangles which have the sides
role antecedents or consequents of the ratios : of the one parallel to the sides of the
and, conversely. other, or perpendicular to the sides of
Let A B C, DE F be two triangles the other, are similar. For such trian
having the three angles gles are equiangular (I, 18.).
A, B, C of the one Cor. 3. The same may be said of tri
equal to the three angles angles which have the sides of the one
D, E, F of the other, Å making any equal angles with the sides
each to each : the sides
about any two equal # ** *
angles A, D, shall be
/ A (EE
*
of the other towards the same parts
(I, 18. Cor.). -
proportionals, that is,

A B shall be to AC as
A
āTit
Scholium.
This is not necessarily the case with
D E to D.F. other rectilineal figures; that is, it can.
In DE, D F, or in D E, D F pro not be said, that if any two rectilineal
duced, take DG, DH equal to AB, figures be equiangular, the sides about
AC respectively; and join & H. Then, the equal angles will be proportionals.
because the triangles A B C, D GH, And the reason of this difference between
have two sides of the ome equal to two a triangle, and a rectilineal figure of four,
Sides of the other, each to each, and the or a greater number of sides, is obvious.
included angles equal, they are equal For, in the triangle, DEF, a line GH,
* Very respect (I. 4.), and the angle which is drawn parallel to one of the
G H is equal to ABC, that is, to sides E F, will cut off from the other
DE. F. Therefore, (I.15.j G H is pa sides, or from those sides produced, parts
rallel to EF, and (26.) D G : D E :: D. H. less or greater than them in the same
: DF; therefore, alternando, D G : DH proportion in which it is itself less or
§º : DF, that is, A.B.: A C :: DE greater than EF: and, accordingly, the
new triangle D G H, which is equian
gular with DE F (I.15.) has its sides angles shall be equal, each to each, viz.
respectively less or greater than the cor the angles A and F to the angles a and
responding sides of the triangle DEF, f, and their remaining sides A F, a f,
in the same ratio. But, in a quadrila in the same ratio with any other two
teral figure as G E FH, or generally any corresponding sides A B, a b : that is,
rectilineal figure, which has more than the rectilineal figures, A B C D EF,
three sides, a straight line drawn pa a b c def, shall be similar according to
rallel to one of the sides, as EF, and Def. 14.
therefore cutting, as before, the two ad
joining sides, or those two sides pro
duced, will diminish or increase those
two sides of the figure only, and even
those not necessarily in the proportion in
which it is itself less or greater than E F;
and, accordingly, the new rectilineal
figure, which is equiangular with the Join A C, AD, A E, a c, a d, a e.
former, has its sides, with the exception Then, because the triangles A B C, a b c
of three, the same with the sides of the have one angle of the one equal to one
former; while these three are diminished angle of the other, and the sides about
or increased. Therefore, although equi the equal angles proportionals, they
angular triangles have, necessarily, their are similar (32.); therefore, the angle
corresponding sides, each to each, in A C B is equal to a c b, and A C : C B
the same ratio, equiangular rectilineal :: a c : c b. And, because the whole
figures of a greater number of sides angle B C D is equal to the whole an
have not, necessarily, their sides so gle b c d, and that the angles A C B,
related.
a ch are equal to one another, the re
PROP. 32. (EUC. vi. 6.) maining angle A CD is equal to the
remaining angle a cd : also, because
If two triangles have one angle of the A C : C B :: a c : c b and C B : C D ::
one equal to one angle of the other, and c b : ca, eac aequali A C : CD :: a c : ca.
the sides about the equal angles pro Therefore (32.) the triangles A CD,
portionals, the two triangles shall be a c d are similar: and in the same man
similar. ner it may be shown that the triangles
Let the triangles A B C, DE F (see A DE, A E F are similar to the tri
the last figure,) have the angle at A angles a de, a ef respectively. There
equal to the angle at D, and the sides fore, the angles at F, fare equal to one
about the equal angles, that is, A B, another, and because the several angles
A C, DE, D F, proportionals: the tri making up the angle FA B are equal
angle A B C shall be similar to DE F. respectively to those which make up the
In DE, D F, or in DE, D F pro angle fab, the angles FA B, fab are
duced, take D G, D H equal to AB, likewise equal. Also, because A F is to
A C respectively, and join G. H. Then A E, as afto a e, and A E to A D as a e
the triangles A B C, D G H are equal in to a d, and A D to A C, as ad to a c, and
every respect (I. 4.). And, because A C to A B as a c to a b, e.v acquali
D G : D H : : D E : D F, alternando A F is to A B as a f to a b, and alter
D G : D E:: D H : D F. Therefore (29.) mando A F : a f:: A B : a b.
G H is parallel to E F: and (I. 15.) the Cor. 2. It appears from the preceding
angles D G H and D H G are equal to corollary, that similar rectilineal figures
the angles at E. and F respectively: but may be divided into the same number of
D G H is equal to B, and D H G to C : similar triangles, and that their corre
therefore the angles at B and C are sponding, or homologous sides are to -
equal to the angles at E and F, each to one another in the same ratio, each
each ; and the triangle A B C (31. Cor.) to each.
is similar to DE F. Cor. 3. It appears also from Cor. 1,
Therefore, &c. that lines similarly drawn in similar
Cor. 1. Hence it may easily be shown, figures cut the sides at equal angles, and
that, if any two rectilineal figures, as are to one another as the homologous
A B C D EF, a b c d e f, have all their sides of the figures.
angles but two equal in order, viz. B., For if the sides A B, a b of the similar
C, D, E, to b, c, d, e, each to each, and figures A B C D E F and a b c def, be
the corresponding sides about the equal divided in the same ratio in the points
angles proportionals, their remaining P, p, it may easily be shown (23) that
|l\, , II. § 4.] GEOMETRY." 61
Ach, ii. PB is top b as AB to a b, or as B C to angles, which is impossible (I. 8):

its limi b c; that is, alternando, PB : B C :: therefore, in this case, E G cannot but r
\R, ºf p b : b c. And, in the same manner, if coincide with E F, that is, the angle
ther iſ any other corresponding sides, as EF D E F cannot but be equal to the angle
ºt; and ef be divided in the same ratio in D E G, that is, to A B C.
CD}}. the points Q, q, it may be shown that Again, if the angles A CB, D FE be
Oligº Q E : E D :: q e : e d, or, invertendo, both greater than right angles, they will
that D E : E Q :: de : e q. Therefore, be together greater than two right an
by Cor. 1, the straight lines PQ and gles;–or, if they be both less than right
p q, which join the points P, Q and p, q, angles, they will be together less than
make equal angles with AB, a b respec two right angles: but, if EG do not coin
tively, and with E F, e,f, respectively, cide with EF, these same two angles will
and PQ is to p q as P B to p b, or as be together equal to the angles D GE,
A B to a b. DFE, that is, to the angles DGE, EGF,
(I. 6.) because E G is equal to EF, that
PROP. 33. (EUc, vi. 7.) is, to two right angles (I.2), —which is
Jſ, 1% If two triangles have one angle of the impossible: therefore in these cases, also,
BC, it one equal to one angle of the other, and E G cannot but coincide with EF, that
alt)0ſ: .
the sides about two other angles pro is, the angle DEF cannot but be equal
lesiºſ portionals; and, if one of the remaining to the angle DEG, that is, to A B C.
is, ſº angles be a right angle, or if they be And, because the triangles A B C,
is alſº both greater, or both less than right D EF have two angles of the one equal
C: CB angles; the two triangles shall be to two angles of the other, each to each,
} whol: similar.* -
they are equiangular (I, 19. Cor. 1.), and
10|e à. Let A B C, DEF be two triangles, therefore similar (31. Cor. 1.).
ACŞ, which have the angle at A equal to the Therefore, &c.
the ſº. angle at D, and
to th: the sides about 212
PROP. 34. (EUC. vi. 8.)
bººk two other angles, .A. In a right-angled triangle, if a per
!C). B and E, propor pendicular be drawn from the right
; it ; : tionals: then,re-
one of the if 4. G. angle to the hypotenuse, the triangles
AC) wpon either side of it shall be similar to
maining angles, āTó † I'
the whole triangle, and to one another.
mº ſºlº
him; as C, be a right Let A B C be a right-angled triangle,
the ſº angle, or if both of them, C, F, be and from the right angle A, let there
Thº. greater, or both less, than right angles, be drawn to the hy
| {00ſ. the triangle A B C shall be similar to potenuse the per
ſangº the triangle DE F. pendicular A.D.: the -
W. At the point E make the angle DEG triangles DBA. DAC ~\

equal to ABC, and let the line E G meet shall be similar to is In C.
fahº DF, or D F produced in G. Then, be the whole triangle

AF50 cause the triangles A B C, D E G have A B C, and to one another.
Jºsſ two angles of the one equal to two an Because the angles B D A, B A C are
º gles of the other, each to each, they are right angles, and because the angle at
('ll equiangular: therefore (31.) DE: E. G. B is common to the two triangles
glºr : A B : B C, but A B : B C :: DE: EF: D BA, A B C, their third angles (I.19.
therefore (12.) DE: E G :: DE: EF, and Cor. 1.) are equal to one another; and
tº: (18.) E G is equal to E F. therefore the triangle DBA, being equi
igº And first, if one of the angles A C B, angular with the triangle ABC, is simi
º ºf DFE be a right angle, whether it be lar to it (31. Cor. 1.). In the same manner
tº A C B or D FE, one of the lines E. G., it maybe shown that DAC is equiangular
E F will be at right angles to D F; and with A B C, and therefore similar to it.
& therefore, if E G do not coincide with And, because DB A, DAC are equi
EF, there will be an isosceles triangle angular with the same triangle, they are
". E FG, which has one of the angles at equiangular with, and therefore similar
mi. the base a right angle, and therefore to, one another.
(I. 6.) the other likewise a right angle, º &c.
yº and the two together equal to two right 'or (Euc. vi. 8. Cor.) The perpendi
~--—-
.* Angles which are both greater or both less than cular A D is a mean #º be
mºſ ſight angles are said to be of the same affection : tween the segments B D, D C of the
hence, instead of saying “both greater or both less hypotenuse; and either side, as A B,
& than right angles,” this proposition is sometimes
“nunciated by saying “both of the same affection.” is a mean proportional between the
|
62 GEOMETRY. III, § 5.
whole hypotenuse B C, and the seg rectangle of given altitude to its base,
ment B D, which is adjacent to it. are of perpetual occurrence in the
For, because the angles BAD, ACD, Mixed Sciences, and are commonly
are equal to one another, the sides BD, enunciated, as in the proposition, by
A D of the similar triangles BDA, ADC the word as. They constitute, indeed,
are homologous, and the angles B D A, a peculiar class, which has received
A D C are equal to one another ; there the name of Variations; one quantity
fore (31.) B D : DA :: AD or DA : DC : being said to vary as another when it
and, in like manner, because the sides increases and decreases in the same
BD, B.A. of the similar triangles B D A, proportion with that other. We have
B A C are homologous, and the angles already had one instance in a rectangle
at B equal, B D : B A :: BA : B C. of given altitude and its base. To take
another perhaps more familiar, we say
SECTION 5–Proportion of the Surfaces commonly, that the weight of a mass of
of Rectilineal Figures. lead is in proportion to its magnitude;
and the same is understood, when it is
PROP. 35. said, that the weight of such a mass is
Rectangles which have the same or as its magnitude, or varies as its mag
equal altitudes, are to one another as nitude. Again, the distance a horse
their bases. runs in a given time “is in proportion
For, if the base of one of the rect to his speed,” or “is as his speed," or
angles be divided into any number of “varies as his speed.” It is evident that
equal parts, the rectangle itself will be the use of the word as in these and the
divided into as many equal rectangles like cases enables us to avoid the fol
by straight lines drawn parallel to its lowing and similar enunciations. “The
side through the points of division. weight of one mass of lead is to the
Also, the base of the other rectangle weight of another, as the magnitude of
will contain a certain number of parts the first to the magnitude of that
equal to those into which the first base other.” “The distance a horse runs in
is divided, exactly or with an excess less a given time with one velocity, is to the
than one of those parts, and that rect distance he would run in the same time
angle will contain as many rectangles with another velocity, as the first velo
equal to those into which the first rect city to that other.” (See Arithmetic, art,
angle is divided, exactly or with a cor 136.)
responding excess less than one of PROP. 36.
them. And this will be the case what
soever be the number of parts in the Azzy two rectangles are to one another
first base and rectangle. Therefore, in the ratio which is compounded of
(def. 7.) the first rectangle is to the the ratios of their sides.
second as the base of the first is to the Let A C, EFbe two rectangles, and
base of the second; that is, rectangles let an angle of the one be made to
of the same altitude are to one another coincide (I. 1. and ax. 11.)
as their bases. with an angle of the other, HTT
Therefore, &c. as at B: the rectangle
The same demonstration has been A C shall be to the rect- as
already given, with a figure, to illus angle E F in the ratio
trate the definition of Proportionals in which is , compounded
| -
Section 3. (See def. 7.) of the ratios of A B to F 9 º'

Cor. (Euc. vi. 1 part of ) In the same E B, and of B C to B. F.
manner it may be shown, that any two For the rectangle A C is to the rect
parallelograms which have the same or angle E F in the ratio which is com
equal altitudes are to one another as pounded of the ratios of A C to EC,
their bases; or, the same may be and of E C to E. F. (def. 12.) But, be
directly inferred from this proposition, cause the rectangles A C, EC have the
for every parallelogram is equal to a rect same altitude B C, A C is to EC as
angle, having the same base and altitude. A B to E B (35.); and, in like manner,
Scholium. because the rectangles E C, EF have
the same altitude EB, E C is to EF as
Proportions of this kind, in which the EC to BF. Therefore, (27. Cor. 1.) the
two first terms stand in the same rela ratio which is compounded of the ratios
tion to the two last respectively, as, in of A C to EC, and of E C to E F, is the
the above instance, in the relation of a same with the ratio, which is com
pounded of the ratios of A B to E B, Cor, 3. If A, B, C, D be four straight

and B C to B F; that is, the rectangle lines, and A’ B, C, D' four others,
A C is to the rectangle EF in the ratio and if A : B :: C ; D
which is compounded of the ratios of and Aſ : B' :: C': D'
A B to E B, and of B C to E F. then AATE BBſ. CCW: DD'; that
Therefore, &c. is, if four straight lines A, B, C, D be
Cor. 1. (Euc. vi. 23.) In the same proportionals, and likewise four others
manner it may be shown that any two 'A', 'B', C, D'; the rectangles A A', BB',
parallelograms AC, EF, which have one C C, D D', which are contained under
angle of the one equal to one angle the corresponding antecedents and con
of the other, are to one A.
sequents, shall also be proportionals.
another in the ratio which For ratios which are compounded of the
is compounded of the ra E. same ratios are the same with one ano
tios of the sides about the ther (27). And hence it is evident, con
equal angles. For if the B G. E.' versely, that if AA, BB, CC, DD’ be
equal angles be made to proportionals, and A', B, C, D'likewise
coincide, as at B, the parallelogram proportionals; A, B, C, D must also be
AC is to the parallelogram EF in the proportionals, -
ratio which is compounded of the ratios Cor. 4. If four straight lines A, B,

of A C to EC, and of EC to E F, C, D be proportionals, their squares
that is (35. Cor) in the ratio which is A*, Bº, C2, Deshall likewise be propor
compounded of the ratios of A B to EB, tionals; and conversely.
and of B C to BF.
Cor. 2. It appears, also, from the PROP. 38. (EUC. vi. 16.)
proposition, that any two parallelograms
Whatever are to one another in the ratio If four straight lines be proportionals
which is compounded of the ratio of the rectangle contained by the eartremes
their bases and altitudes; for the rect shall be equal to the rectangle contained
angles, to which (I.24, Cor.) they are by the means; and conversely, if the
equal, are in that ratio. 'rectangle contained by two straight lines
PROP, 37.
be equal to the rectangle contained by
other two, the four straight lines
If the straight line A be to the shall constitute a proportion, in which
straighl line B in one ratio, and the the sides of one rectangle are eactremes,
straight line A' to the straight line B in and thesides of the other rectangle means.
another ratio, the rectangle A A' shall The first part of this proposition has
be to the rectangle B B' in the ratio been already demonstrated in the Scho
which is compounded of these two ratios. lium on Prop. 28., Sect. 3.; which de
This proposition is the same with the monstration the reader is here desired
preceding, which is here stated under a to consult, as depending immediately
different form, as well for the sake of upon the definition of proportionals in
rendering more obvious such references Sect. 3. à
as may be made to it under this form, as So important, a theorem, however,
to separate the following corollaries from cannot be considered in too many points
those of Prop. 36. Its demonstration is of view. The following proof, by help
accºrdingly contained in that of Prop. 36. of Prop. 35., is therefore added, being in
Cor. I. If A be to B as AZ to B', the effect the same with that of Euclid.
ºngle A Aſ will be to the rectangle Let AB, AC, AD,
BB' in the duplicate ratio of A to B. A E be the four pro- r....... B
For, it Q be taken a third proportional to portionals, of which
A and B, them, because 5 is to C as Ā the extremes AB, AE
to B, that is as A' to B, the ratio which are placed at right
1S Compounded of the ratios of A to B anglés to one ano" - A– (ſ
and of A to B' is the same with the *: and contain the "T |
ºtio of A to C, that is (Def. 11.) with rectangle B E, and | | j
the duplicate ratio of A to B. the means A C, A D --

Çºr; 2. Hence if three straight lines are placed in BA, EA -
A, B, C, be proportionals, the square of produced, and, being for that reason

the first shall be to the square of the se (I. 3.) likewise at right angles to one ano
$ond as the first is to the third; that is, ther, contain the rectangle C D. Com
the duplicateratio of two straight limes is plete the rectangle C E. Then, because
the same with the ratio of their squares, the rectangles B E, C E have the same
64 GEOMETRY. III. § 5.
altitude AE, the rectangle B.E is to the of the proposition; 35. Cor, being cited
rectangle CE as AB to AC (35.): and, in instead of 35.
like manner, because the rectangles CD, Scholium.
CE have the same altitude AC, the rect By help of this proposition the pro
angle CD is to the rectangle C E as AD portion of four lines is convertible into
to A E ; but the line AB is to AC as AD the equality of two rectangles, and the
to AE; therefore, the rectangle BE is to reverse. Thus it appears, that I. 36.
C E as CD to CE. And, because the Cor. 2. and 3., in which it is inferred
rectangles BE, CD have the same ratio that the squares of the sides of a right
to the same rectangle CE, they are angled triangle are respectively equal
equal to one another (11. Cor. 1.). to the rectangles under the hypotenuse
Next, let the rectangle under A B, and its adjoining segments, and that the
A E, be equal to the rectangle under square of the perpendicular is equal to
AC, AD; the lines AB, AC, AD, AE, the rectangle under the segments of the
shall be proportionals, A B, A E being hypotenuse, may be stated in the words
extremes, and AC, AD means." of 34. Cor., in which it is inferred that
For, the rectangles being placed as either side is a mean proportional be
before, and the rectangle CE being com tween the hypotenuse and segment ad
pleted, BE is to CE as CD to CE (10); jacent to it, and that the perpendicular
but BE is to CE as AB to AC (35.), and 7s a mean proportional between the seg
CD to CE as AD to AE; therefore (12.) 'ments of the hypotenuse. . Again, I. 38.
AB is to AC as AD to AE.” in which it is demonstrated that, in every
Therefore, &c. triangle, if a perpendicular be drawn
The principle of this demonstra from the vertex to the base, or to the base
tion is contained in 10. Cor. and 11. produced, the difference of the squares
Cor. 2., by the use of which corollaries of the sides is equal to the difference of
it may consequently be put under a the squares of the segments of the base,
more concise form. or of the base produced, may be stated
Cor. 1. (Euc. i. 17.) If three straight thus:–the base is to the sum of the sides
lines be proportionals, the rectangle un as the difference of the sides to the differ
der the extremes shall be equal to the ence of the segments of the base, or sum of
square of the mean; and, conversely, if the segments of the base produced. For it
the rectangle under the extremes be is shown (I. 38.) that the difference of the
equal to the square of the mean, the squares of two straight lines is equal to
three straight lines shall be propor the rectangle under their sum and dif
tionals. ference.
Cor. 2. It appears from the propo Many other instances will occur in
sition that rectangles which have their the remaining part of this treatise, in
sides about the right angles reciprocally which the demonstrations are consider
proportional, are equal; and, conversely, ably abridged by the use of this very
that equal rectangles have their sides important theorem.
about the right angles reciprocally pro We shall conclude the present Scho
portional. lium by applying it to the demonstration
Cor. 3. (Euc. vi. 14.) And, in the of the following Lemmas (or auxiliary
same manner, it may be shown, that any theorems) which will be found of ser
two parallelograms which have one an vice in such problems as have the sum
gle of the one equal to one angle of the or the difference of the sides of a tri
other, and their sides about the equal angle among their data. (See Book III.
angles reciprocally proportional, are Sect. 7.) It will be seen that they be
equal to one another; and conversely. long, according to our arrangement, to
For, if the equal the subject of the preceding Section; to
angles be placed ver which they should have been subjoined,
tically as in the fi had they admitted of an easy demon
gure, and the paral stration without the aid of this 38th Pro
lelogram CE becom position.
pleted, the demon- *
Lemma 1.
stration of this more j
general case will be i....; If a perpendicular be drawn from the
the same with that . " Vertex of a triangle to the base, and if
* Or we may say, “A D : AE ; : A B : A C,” in the base be equally produced both ways,
which
A case A G and AD will be extremesS, and AB,
E means, so that the base produced may be a
third proportional to the base and the
II. § 5.j GEOMETRY.
N
sum of the sides, the sides shall be to |
one another as the ºwns seg If a perpendicular be º ºf7" v.àmà

ments of the base produced. vertex of a triangle to
Let ABC be a triangle, and from the the base be equally reduce
vertex A to the base B C let there be so that the base reduced may
ğı ãº * …
- *
|
|
drawn the perpendicular AD; also let proportional to the base, and the differs
!
A ence of the sides, the sides shall be to

\ one another as the corresponding seg
ments of the base reduced.
-4– G' D C Iº The demonstration is so similar to
that of Lemma 1., that it will be readily
A
apprehended from the following outline,
with reference to the adjoined figures.
—"
i. b
-—r——-H;
& C D I' ABC is the triangle, AD the perpen
dicular upon the base, EF the base
the base BC be equally produced both
ways to the points E and F.; so that
BC may be to BA + AC as BA-HAC
#F. B A shall be to A C as ED to
Bisect BC in G: then because EB is

equal to CF, EF is likewise bisected in
G. Therefore the difference of ED, DF
is equal to twice GD. But twice GD is
equal to the difference or to the sum of
BD, DC, according as the point D is in equally reduced both ways, so that EF
BC, or in BC produced. Therefore the : B.A - A C : B C, and G is the middle
difference of ED, D F, is equal to the point of the base. Then, because BE=
difference of BD, DC, or to the sum of C F, the point G. bisects also EF, and
BD, DC, according as the point D lies ED + DF= 2 G D, that is, = BD EF DC,
in BC, or in BC produced. Again, be. according as the point D lies in BC, or in
cause AD is perpendicular to BC, the dif BC produced. Now, converting BA*-
ference ofthe squares of BA, AC is equal AC3–PD3-DC” into a proportion, as in
to the difference of the squares of B D, Lem. I, BA + AC : BD+E TC :: BD =E
DC (I. 38.) or, which is the same thing DC : B A - A C, or B A+ A C : E D +
(1.34), the rectangle under the sum and D F :: B C : B A - A C, that is, ; ; BA
difference of BA, AC is equal to the ~ A C : E F (or ED ~ D F). Therefore
rectangle under the sum and difference alternando, BA + AC : BA - AC :: ED
of BD, DC. Therefore (38.) BA-AC: +DF: ED-DF; and hence, by sum and
BD-F DC ::BD + D C : BA+AC;” difference, B A : AC :: ED : DF.
that is, since the second term is equal Therefore, &c.
to ED ~DF, and the third to BC, BA
AC : ED-DF :: B C : BA + AC, that PROP. 39. (EUC. vi. 1, first part of.)
is, ; BA-HAC: ED+D F, by the sup Triangles which have the same or
Fº Therefore, alternando (19.) equal altitudes are to one another as their
A - AC: BA+AC :: E D-D F : EI) bases.
| DF; and, by sum and difference (24. For such triangles are the halves of
Çor. 2.) 2 B A : 2A C :: 2.É D : 2D F,
that is, (17.Qor. 2.) BA : AC :: ED: DF. rectangles which are upon the same bases
respectively, and have the same or equal
Therefore, &c.
Cor. If DE be taken to AB as BA+ altitudes: , and because these rectangles
AC to BC, or, which is the same thing, are as the bases (35.), the triangles,which
are their halves, have to one another the
in a ratio which is the subduplicate of same ratio (17. Cor. 1.).
GE to GB, then the other segment DF Otherwise : As in
of the base equally produced in the op 35. it is demonstrated A.
Posite direction shall be to the other side of the rectangles, so
AC in the same ratio.
here it may, after the
same manner, be de
* The sign + denotes that the sum or difference is monstrated of the
tº be taken according to one or other of two supposed
Qases, that is, in the present instance, according as two triangles A B C, #-ā-āTä,
the point D lies in B C, or in B C produced; the sign A D E, and the two
F that the difference or sum is to be taken according
to those cases, bases B C, D E, that they º propor
tionals according to def. 7. ; I. 27, being For, if the triangles be completed into
cited instead of I. 25. parallelograms having the same equal
Therefore, &c. angles and the same sides containing
Cor. 1. In like manner it may be them, these parallelograms (38. Cor. 3.)
shown that triangles which have the will be equal to one another, because
same or equal bases are to one another they have the sides about the equal
as their altitudes. angles reciprocally proportional; and
Cor. 2. Also any two triangles are to therefore the triangles, which are their
one another in the ratio which is com halves, are likewise equal (I. ax. 5.).
pounded of the ratios of their bases and And in like manner the converse from
of their altitudes. the converse part of the same 38. Cor. 3.
Cor. 3. Wherefore if the base of one Otherwise: As of the rectangles in
triangle be to the base of another as the Prop. 38., so here it may, after the
altitude of that other to the altitude of same manner, be demonstrated of the
the first, the two triangles will be equal two triangles A B C, A DE, by making
to one another (11. Cor. 2.). the equal angles vertical, as at A, and
PROP. 40. completing the triangle A CD, that if
Triangles which have one angle of that sides
the be reciprocally proportional,
is, if A B be to AD
the one equal to one angle of the other, as A E to A C, the tri- Ig
are to one another in the ratio which is
angles A B C, A DE
compounded of the ratios of the sides will have the same ratio
about the equal angles.
For, if the triangles be completed into to the triangle A CD,
and therefore will be cº ~ºn
!
parallelograms having the same equal and, equalconversely,

to one another:
that if i>
angles and the same sides containing
them, these parallelograms (36. Cor. 1.) A B C, AD E be equal
will be to one another in the ratio which
to one another, and therefore have the
is compounded of the ratios of the sides; same ratio to the triangle A CD, A B
therefore the triangles, which are their will be to AD as A E to A C, that is,
halves, will be to one another in the the sides about the equal angles will be
same ratio. (17. Cor. 1.)
Otherwise : As in 36. it is demon be reciprocally proportional; 39, being
cited instead of 35.
strated of the rectangles, and in 36. Therefore, &c.
Cor. 1. of the parallelograms, so here
it may, after the same manner, be de PROP, 42. (EUc. vi. 19.)
monstrated of the two triangles A B C, Similar triangles are to one another
E B F, by making the equal angles coin in the duplicate ratio of their homolo
cide, as at B, and completing the trian ous sides.
gle E B C, that the tri Let A B C, D EF
angle A B C is to the tri be similar triangles,
angle E B F in the ratio and let the sides B C,
which is compounded of ic E F be homologous;
the ratios of A B to E B s
the triangle A B C 33. G. G. In TE:
and of B C to B F; 39. §-; T shall have to the tri
being cited instead of 35. angle D E F the du
Therefore, &c.
Cor. Triangles, which have one angle plicateratio of that which BC has to E.F.
Because the angle at B is equal to the
of the one equal to one angle of the other, angle at E, the triangle A B C is to the
are to one another as the rectangles triangle D E F in the ratio which is
under the sides about the equal angles compounded of the ratios of A B to DE,
(37.). and of B C to E F (40.). But, because
PROp. 41. (Euc. vi. 15.) the triangles are similar, A B is to B C
Triangles which have one angle of as DE to E F, and alternando A B :
the one equal to one angle qf the other, D E :: B C : E F; therefore the ratio
and their sides about the equal angles which is compounded of the ratios of
reciprocally proportional, are equal to A B to DE, and of B C to E F, is the
one another; and, conversely, equal tri duplicate of the ratio of B C to EF
angles which have one angle of the one (37. Cor. 1.). Therefore the triangle
equal to one angle of the other, have A B C has to the triangle DEF the
their sides about the equal angles reci §ºte ratio of that which B C has
procally proportional, O * ...,
Otherwise: Take B G a third propor one figure is to the perimeter of the

tional to B C and EF, and join A.G. other as A B to a b. - -
Then the triangle A B C is to the tri Therefore, &c.

angle A B G as B C to B G, that is, Cor. 1. Similar rectilineal figures are
(def. 11.) in the duplicate ratio of BC to one another as the squares of their
to E F. But because AB is to DE as homologous sides (37. Cor. 2.).
B C to EF, that is, (12.) as EF to BG, Cor. 2. (Euc. vi. 22.). If four straight
the triangles A BG, DEF have their lines be proportionals, any similar recti
sides about the equal angles B and E lineal figures described upon the first
reciprocally proportional: therefore the and second shall be to one another as
triangle A BG is equal to the triangle any similar rectilineal figures described
DEF (4.1.). Therefore the triangle upon the third and fourth ; and con
A B C is to the triangle DEF in the versely (37. Cor. 4.).
duplicateratio of B C to EF,
Therefore, &c. PROP. 44. (Euc. vi. 31.)
Cor. Since the duplicate ratio of two In a right-angled triangle, if similar
straight lines is the same with the ratio 'rectilineal figures be similarly described
of their squares (37. Cor. 2.) it appears tºpon the hypotenuse and the two sides,
that similar triangles are to one another the ſigure upon the hypotenuse shall be
as the squares of their homologous sides. equal to the sum of the figures upon
the two sides.
PROP. 43. (Euc. vi. 20.) For the figure upon one of the sides is
Similar rectilineal figures are to one to the similar figure upon the hypote
another in the duplicate ratio of their nuse, as the square of that side to the
homologous sides; and their perimeters Square of the hypotenuse (43.0or.l.), and
are as those sides, the similar figure upon the other side is
For it has been seen (32. Cor. 2.) that to the figure upon the hypotenuse as the
any two similar rectilineal figures AB square of that other side to the square
C.D. E. F., a b c def, may be divided of the hypotemuse—proportions havin
into the same number of similar tri the same consequents: therefore (25.)
angles by straight lines drawn from cor the sum of the figures upon the two sides
responding angles A, a ; and the homo is to the figure upon the hypotenuse as
1990us sides of these triangles, which are the sum of the squares of the two sides
the same with the homologous sides of to the square of the hypotenuse, that is
(I,36.), in a ratio of equality.
Therefore, &c,
SECTION 6–Qf Lines in Harmonica?

Vº Progression.
Def. 17. Three straight lines are said
to be tº harmonical progression when
the figures, are to one another, each to the first is to the third as the difference
each, in the same ratio. But similar of the first and second to the difference
triangles are to one another in the du of the second and third.*
licate ratio of their homologous sides. Of three lines A, B, C, which are in
herefore the triangles into which the this progression, B is said to be an har.
figure A B C DEF is divided, are to the monical mean between A and C, and
similar triangles into which the figure * This progression was called harmonical from its
q b c def is divided, each to each, in having been first noticed (it is said, by Py thagoras)
the same ratio (37. Cor. 4.) viz. in the in the lengths of chords which, having the sameº
mess and tension, produce the sounds of a certain
duplicate ratio of that which A B has note, its fifth and its octave. These lengths are as
to a b. Therefore the sum of all the 1, #, and , of which it is plain that the first is to
former is to the sum of all the latter the third as the difference of the first and second to
(23.0or. 1.) that is, the figure ABCDEF the difference of the second and third,
It is observable, that if harmonical means be
is to the figure abcde f, in the same inserted between the numbers above mentioned,
ratio. lengths will be found among them producing the
Again, because the sides AB, B C, other notes of the major scale. . .
* If a musical string CO and its parts D O, E O,
&c. of the one figure are to the homolo FO, GO, A O, B.O., c O, be in proportion to one
another as the numbers
gous sides a b, b c, &c. of the other l gº 8.- : * 3 2 3 8 r
2 5"> T2 "3 2 5-2 T-5 x +2
figure in the same ratio, the sum of the their vibrations will exhibit the system, of 8 soºnds,
former is to the sum of the latter in the which
A, musicians
B, c.” Smith'sdenote by the letters C,Art.
Harmonics, sº D, E,1, F, G,
same ratio; that is, the perimeter of the -
68 - GEOMETRY. *- [Iſ. $ 6.
C a third harmonical progressional to monically divided, when the distances
A and B. of one extremity of the line and of the
After the same manner, also, three points of division from the other extre
magnitudes of any other kind are said mity, are in harmonical progression.
to be in harmonical progression, viz. Thus, A D is said to be harmonically
when the first is to the third as the dif divided, when the
ference of the first and second to the points B, C are T.T.T.,
difference of the second and third; and so taken that
the terms harmonical mean and third A B, A C, AD are in harmonical pro
harmonical progressional are applied to gression.
them in the same sense. It will be shown in Prop. 45., that, if
18. Any number of straight lines, the line A D be harmonically divided in
or other magnitudes, A, B, C, D, &c. are the points B, C, the line D A will like
said to be in harmonical progression, wise be harmonically divided in the
when every consecutive (or following) same points: that is, that if A B, A C,
three are in harmonical progression. and A D be harmonical progressionals,
19. A straight line is said to be har D C, D B, and D A shall likewise be
Now 3 is an harmonical mean between 1 and #,
harmonical progressionals.
# the second of two harmonical means between 1
20. Four straight lines are said to be
and 3, and # the first of three harmonical means be harmonicals, when they pass through
the same point, and divide any one
tween l and 3. Again, #- is the first of two har
straight line harmonically.
monical means between 3 and #, and,”; the third
of three harmonical means between 3 and 4. PROP. 45.
In fact, taking the original progression 1, #, +,
and inserting first one harmonical mean between its
If A B, A C, AD be harmonical pro
ressionals in the same straight line,
terms, we get the progression 1, #, 3, 4, 4 ; se § C, D B, D A shall likewise be har
condly, two harmonical means between its terms, monical progressionals. (See figure of
1, 4, 3, 3, #, ºr, #; and thirdly, three har def. 19.).
monical means between its terms, 1, 3, #, Tºr, #, Because A B, A C, A D are in har
-**, +, +*s-, 4; from which progressions, rejecting monical progression, (def. 17.) A B : A D
such fractions as admit 7, 11, and 13 in the denomi. :: B C : C D ; therefore, alternando,
nator, that is, such as have other numbers entering A B : B C :: D A : C D, and, in
into their terms, besides 2, 3, 5, and their products, vertendo, D C : D A :: B C : A B.
those which remain, will represent the lengths of
strings producing, with the same thickness and ten Therefore D C, D B, D A are three
sion, the sounds denoted by C, D, E, F, G, A, B, c. straight lines, such, that the first is to
The above observation, striking and ingenious as
it is, must not, however, lead the student to suppose the third as the difference of the first
that the theory of Harmonics has any mysterious and second to the difference of the
connexion with the properties of lines harmonically
divided. Why such lengths only as are related by second and third ; that is, (def. 17.)
the numbers 2, 3, 5, and their products, produce a D C, D B, D A are in harmonical pro
gradation of sounds pleasing to the ear as those of gression.
the gamut, it is for that theory to explain; but the
discovery of these relations, by taking harmonical Therefore, &c.
means, is attributable to the simple property, that Cor. If a given line A C be divided
the reciprocals of numbers in harmonical progression
are in arithmetical progression. Thus the reciprocals in any ratio in the point B, and if A C
4 2. 8 8 l
of 1, #, #, +*r, +, +**, +, +*s-, +, that is of
-
produced be divided in the same ratio

#, #, +*r, +*r, +*r, +*s-, +*r, +*s-, +*r, are in the point D (so that DA may be to DC
as A B to B C), the whole line A D will
fractions having the common denominator 8, and 8,9,
10, 11, &c. for their numerators, that is, are in arith. be harmonically divided in the points
metical progression. And, generally, if a, b, c be in B and C. For it is obvious that DA
harmonical progression, i. e. if a1: c’: : a-b: b-c, nul is harmonically divided in the points
tiplying extremes and means, a b-a c-a c-b c, and
1 1 I 1 1 l ;1 B and C ; that is, that DA, D B, D C
ividing by a b c, - ~ - = -- ~ + i. e. --> -º'- are harmonical progressionals: there
dividing by a cº-; +7 - i.e. : :".
are in arithmetical progression. It follows as a neces fore, also, A D, A C, A B are harmoni
sary inference, that, if the lengths of the strings which
produce harmonious sounds, bear to each other a ratio
cal progressionals, and A D is divided
which can be expressed in whole numbers, however harmonically in the points B and C.
great, they may be made terms in some harmonical PROP. 46.
series; the singular resultywhich arises from this ratio
being expressed in terms involving only the numbers
If A B, A C, AD be harmonical pro
2, 3, 5, and their products, is that the whole series is
obained by the interposition only of two and of three
harmonical means between the note and its fifth gressionals in the same straight line,
and the fifth and octave ; for, # being comprised and if the mean A C be bisected in K,
in the series which results from the interposition of KB, KC, K D shall be in geometrical
three means, that of one mean may be neglected. progression ; and conversely.
In the first place, because A B : A D if M be a geometrical mean between DA

:: B C : CD, and that A D is greater and DC: and because DB x DK = M*,
than CD, A B is also greater than D K, M, and D B are proportionals.
BC, (18.Gor.). PROP. 48.
Wherefore the *—-i-----, If four straight lines pass through
point K,which A is {:
the same point; to whichsoever of the
bisects A C, four a parallel be drawn, its parts in
lies between A and B. Again, alter tercepted by the other three, shall be to
mando, A B : B C :: A D : C D : there one another in the same ratio.
fore, by sum and difference, A B-B C : Let the four straight lines PA, PB,
A B + B C :: AD - CD : A D + C I). PC, PD pass through the same point
But the first term of this proportion is P; through A, any point in PA; draw
equal to 2 KB, the second to 2K C, AC parallel to PD, and let it be di
the third likewise to 2 KC, and the vided by the other three PA, PB, PC
fourth to 2 K. D. Therefore 2 KB : into the parts A b, b c ; through c -
2 K C :: 2 K C : 2 K D ; and hence, draw B'd parallel to PA, and let it be

(17. Cor. 2.) K B : K C :: K C : KD, divided by the other three into the
that is, KB, KC, KD are in geome
trical progression.
Next, let K B, KC, KD be in geo
metrical progression, and let K A, be
taken equal to K C : A B, AC, AD
shall be in harmonical progression.
For since K B : K C :: K C : K. D,
by sum and difference KB-H K C : K B
K C :: K C + K D : K.C - KD, that is,
AB : BC :: AD : CD. Therefore, alter
mando, A B : A D :: B C : C D, or AB,
A C, A D are in harmonical pro
gression.
Therefore, &c.
PROP. 47.
parts Bc, ca; through d draw Capa
The same being supposed, DA, D K, rallel to P B, and let it be divided by
D B, D C shall be proportionals. the other three into the parts C d, da;
Because D A is equal to the sum, lastly, through a draw D b' parallel to
and D C to the difference of D K, K C, PC, and let it be divided by the other
the rectangle under DA, D C is equal three into the parts Da, a b': them, A. b
to the difference of the squares of D K, shall be to b c, as cd to B c, as C d to
KC (I. 34.). Again, because K C is a da, and as a 5' to D a.
mean proportional between K B and Because A c is parallel to PD, and
KD, the square of KC is equal to the cd to PA, A d is a parallelogram.
rectangle under KB, KD, (38. Cor. 1.). therefore (I. 22.) Pd is equal to A. c.
Therefore the rectangle under DA, D C And, by similar triangles B P d, B be,
is equal to the difference of the square of Pd: b c :: B d : B c, (31.): but Pd is
DK, and the rectangle under KB, KD; equal to A c : therefore, dividendo, A 5
that is, (I. 30. Cor.) to the rectangle D K. : b c :: cd: B c. In the same manner
DB. Therefore (38.) DA, D K, D B, it may be shown that c d': B c :: C d :
DC are proportionals. da; and again, that C d : da :: a y :
Therefore, &c. D a. Therefore the ratio of A b to b c
Cor. l. If KB, KC, KD be propor is the same with the ratio of cd to B e,
tionals in the same straight line, and if which is the same again with that of
KA be taken in the opposite direction C d to da, which is the same with that
equal to the mean K C ; D A, D K, D B of a b' to D a. And any straight lines
and D C shall be proportionals (46.). parallel to these (30.) will be divided in
Cor. 2. From this proposition it ap the same ratio.
pears that the harmonical mean D B Therefore, &c.
between two straight lines D A and It will be observed that, if the parts
DQ is a third proportional to the be considered as proceeding in a parti
arithmetical mean D K, and the geo cular direction, viz. from A towards
metrical mean M between the same B, C, D, the proportional parts are con
two. For D BxD K–D Ax D C = M2 tinually in an inverted order: thus, Ab,
70 GEOMETRY. [II. § 6,
is to b c not as Be to c d, but as cd to (12.) that is, a b is harmonically divided
B c, and so on. in the points c, d.
Cor. If four straight lines pass Therefore, &c. -
through the same point, and if a paral Cor. 1. If there be four straight lines
lel to one of them has equal parts of it harmonicals (def. 20), and if a parallel
intercepted by the other three, a paral be drawn to any one of them, equal
lel to any of the others shall likewise parts of the parallel shall be intercepted
have equal parts of it intercepted by the by the other three.
..other three. Cor. 2. And, conversely, if four
PROP. 49.
straight lines pass through the same
point, and if, a parallel being drawn to
If four straight lines pass through any one of them, equal parts of the pa
#he same point, and divide any one rallel be intercepted by the other three,
straight line harmonically; they shall those four straight lines shall be har
divide every straight line, which is cut monicals.
by them, harmonically. Thus, the two sides of a triangle, a
Let the four straight lines PA, PB, line drawn from the vertex to the bisec
PC, PD pass through the same point tion of the base, and a line drawn through
P, and let the straight line A D be har the vertex parallel to the base, are har
monically divided by them in the points monicals.
B, C: then, if any other straight line PROP. 50. (EUc. vi. 3. & A.)
a b be cut by the same four lines, the
If the vertical and exterior-vertical
angles of a triangle be bisected by
straight lines which cut the base and
the base produced, the base and likewise
the base produced shall be divided in
the ratio of the sides: and conversely.
Let A B C be a triangle; and first,
let the vertical angle BAC be bisected
straight line ab shalllikewise be divided

harmonically. #–5-3 ———S-2
Through C draw EF parallel to PA,
and let it cut PB, PD in the points by the straight line AD which cuts the
E, F respectively. Then, by similar tri base B C in D : B D shall be to DC
angles BPA, B E C, (31.) the ratio of as B.A. to A. C.
AP to E C is the same with that of Through C draw CE parallel to
A B to B C. Again, by similar trian AD, and let it meet B A produced in
gles D PA, D F C, the ratio of A P to E: then, because the angles A E C,
C F is the same with the ratio of A D A C E are (I.15.) equal, respectively, to
to D C. But, because A D is har the halves of the bisected angle, they
monically divided, A B has to B C the are equal to one another: wherefore
same ratio as A D to DC, (def. 19.): A C is equal to A E, (I. 5.). But, again,
therefore, (12.) A P has to EC the because C E is parallel to D A, B D :
same ratio as AP to CF, and (11.Cor. 1.) D C :: B A : A E, (29.): therefore B D
E C is equal to C F. : D C :: B A : A C.
And, because EF, which is parallel to And, conversely, if B D be to D C as
PA, has equal parts of it intercepted by B A to A C, A D shall bisect the ver
PB, PC, PD, if through the point d tical angle. For, C E being drawn (as
in which a b cuts PD, the straight line before) parallel to AD, because BA is
ef be drawn parallel to P B and ter. to A C as B D to D C, that is (because
minated by PC, PA, the line ef will C E is parallel to D A) as BA to Aº
likewise be divided equally in d(48.0or.). (29), A C is (11. Cor. 1.) equal to A E.
But, by similar triangles c Pb, c e d, Therefore the angle AEC is equal to
c5: că :: P b : ed, and by similar tri A C E (I. 6), and the parts of the angle
angles a Pb, afa, a , ; a d ... Pb: df in question being equal to AP C,
(of ed): therefore c b : ca:: a b : a d, A Cº respectively (I, 15.), are equal to
II. § 7.] . GEOMETRY. 71
one another; that is, it is bisected by # d. mean proportional between A B,

the line A. D.
And, in the same words, it may be Therefore, &c.
demonstrated, that if the exterior verti; PROP. 52. Prob. 2. (EUC. vi. 11.)
cal angle be bisected by the line Ad; To find a third proportional to two
which cuts the base produced in d, B d given straight lines A B, BC.
shall be to do as B.A. to A.C.; and Let A B, B C be placed in the same
that, conversely, if Bd be tod C as B.A. straight line: from the point A draw
to AC, Ad shall bisect the exterior A D, making any an
verſical angle: the letters d, e, being sub gle with A C, and Tº:
stituted for D, E, make A D equal n-T

Therefore, &c.
When the sides AB, AC are equal to to B C : join B D,
-
one another, A D bisects the base B C and through C draw

at right angles (I. 6. Cor. 3.); and Ad (I. 48.) CE parallel -
to B D, to meet A D produced in E.
is parallel to the base B C ; for A d is Then, because (29.) A B is to B C as
always at right angles to AD, because AD (or B C) to DE, DE is the third
the angle DA d is equal to the halves of proportional required.
the two angles BAC, CAE together, Therefore, &c.
that is, to the half of two right angles.
Cor. Since the ratios of B D to DC, PRop. 53. Prob. 3. (EUc. vi. 12.)
and of B d to d C, are each of them the To find a fourth proportional to three
same with the ratio of B A to A C, they given straight lines A B, BC, and D.
are the same with one another (12.), and Let the straight lines A B, B C be
B d is harmonically divided in the placed in the same straight line: from
points D, C. Therefore the two sides of the point A draw A.E, making any
a triangle, and the lines which bisect and
angle with
make A C,
AE equal IC. .**
the vertical and exterior-vertical angles,

are harmonicals (def. 20.). to D: join C
BE,draw
and .
through jº c
SECTION 7.—Problems. C F parallel to BE To
(I. 48.), to meet AE produced in F.

Def. 21. A straight line is said to be Then, because (29.) A B is to B C as
divided in extreme and mean ratio, when A E (or D) to EF, EF is the fourth
the whole line is to the greater segment proportional required.
as the greater segment is to the less. Therefore, &c.
A straight line so divided is also said
PROP. 54. Prob. 4. (EUC. vi. 10.)
to be divided medially; and the ratio of
its segments is called the medial ratio. To divide a given straight line A, simi
larly to a given divided straight line BC.
PROP. 51. Prob. l. (EUC. vi. 13.) Method 1., Draw B D making any
To find a mean proportional between angle with B C, and make BD equal to
A: join the
two given straight lines A B and B C. through CD,seve-
and ry
Let the straight lines. A B, B C be

placed in the same straight line: from ral points in which ~
the point B (I.44.) draw B D at right an B C is divided,
draw lines parallel
it g -
-
gles to AC : bisect A C to CD (I.48.); then -A-

in E (I. 43.), and from so
the centre E, with the (29. Cor.), because these lines are pa
radius E C, describe a rallel to , CD, the straight line D B,
circle cutting B D in that is, A, is divided by them similarly
i." Bī)"...nº tº. *T* * * to the given divided straight line B C.
mean proportional required. Method 2. Upon BC describe(I.42.) the
For, the angle E B D being a right equilateral triangle
angle, the square of B D is (I.36.Cor. 1.) D B C : take DE,
§" to the difference of the squares of D F each of them
EB, E D. But, because E A and E C equal to A, and join
are, each of them, equal to ED, A, B is E F ; and from D
equal to the sum, and B C to the differ through the several
ence of ED, E B: therefore (I. 34.) the points in which BC
square of B D is equal to the rectangle is divided, draw
under AB, B C, and (38. Cor. 1.) B D straight lines cut
ting E F.
Then, because DE is equal to DF, squares of D B, D E (I.34), that is, to
and D B to DC, the triangles DEF, the square of C; and A B is divided,
D B C are similar (32.): but B C is as required, in the point E.
equal to B D ; therefore E F is equal to Therefore, &c.
E D, that is, to the given straight line Cor. Hence also a given straight line
A ; and, for the same reason, the angle A B or A B produced may be so di
DE F is equal to the angle D B C : vided, that the rectangle under the seg.
therefore (I.15.) EF is parallel to B C. ments may be equal to a given rect
And, because E F, B C are parallels, angle (I. 58.).
E F, that is, A, is divided similarly to N. B. In the first case, viz. when the
B C by lines drawn from the point D point E is to be found between A and B,
(30. Cor. 1.). the problem will be impossible if C be
Therefore, &c. greater than the half of AB; for AE x
PROP. 55. Prob. 5. E B is equal to the difference of the
squares of D B, D E, which is never
To divide a given straight line, or a greater than the square of D B. The
given straight line produced,” in a given second case is not thus limited.
fratio.
Let AB be the We may remark also, that in both
cases, two points E may be found satis
given straight _* fying the given conditions, viz. one upon
line, and let the
iven ratio be
~º J’
Q each side of the point D: in the first case,
à. of the A. * B | when C is equal to the half of AB,
these two points coincide at D.
straight line P
to the straight c PROP. 57. Prob. 7.
line Q. _º `s To find an harmonical mean between
Draw AC mak- K-B-A t; given straight lines A B and A. C.
ing any angle with ivide BC in the
A B; make AC equal to P and CD point Dintheratio
*—S.–9—º
equal to Q ; join D B, and through Q of B Ato A C (55.): then, because AB:

draw CE parallel to D B to meet AB, A C :: B D : D C, the three lines AB,
or A B produced in E. Then because A D, and AC are in harmonical pro
AE is to E B as A C to C D (29.), gression (def. 17.), and AD is an har
that is, as P to Q, A B, or A B pro monical mean between A B and AC.
duced, is divided in the point E in the Therefore, &c.
given ratio. PROP. 58. Prob. 8.
Therefore, &c.
PROp. 56. Prob. 6.
To find a third harmonical progres
sional to two given straight lines A B,
To divide a given straight ling A B,
or A B produced, so that the rectangle divide AC produced in the point D
under the segments may be equal to a in the ratio of A B to B C (55.):
given square, viz. the square of C. then, because A D : C D :: A B : B C,
Bisect AB in D, and take DE such A: º C
that the square of D E may be equal ºb
to the difference or to the sum of the alternando A D : A B :: C D : B C ;

squares of DB and C (I. 59. or 60.), ac therefore (def. 17.) A B, A C, A D,
córding as A B is to be divided or A B are in harmonical progression, and AD
A. *—º-B is a third progressional to A B, A.C.
Therefore, &c. .
c
PRop. 59. Prob. 9. (EUC. vi. 30.)
——4–#
A. 1) BTE To divide a given straight line A B
in extreme and mean ratio.
produced; then, because A E is equal From A draw AC
- to the sum, and E B to the difference perpendicular to A B
of D B, D E, the rectangle under A.E, (I. 44.), and make it is,
EB is equai to the difference of the equal to the half of
* A line or a line produced is said to be divided in A B : join CB: from
a given ratio, when the segments of the line 9. of the centre C with the -
the line produced are to one another in that ratio. radius C A describe a circle cutting
By the segments of a line, produced are meant the
whole line produced and the part produced. CB in D, and from the centre B with
| II, § 7.] GEOMETRY. - 73
the radius BD describe a circle cutting actly; therefore P and Q have no com
A B in E: A B shall be divided in ex: mon measure (5. Cor. 1.).
treme and mean ratio in the point E. Therefore, &c.
Because (I.36.) the squares of CA, Now it is evident that the segments of
A B are together equal to the square of a line medially divided are magnitudes
C B, that is (I. 32), to the squares of of this description, for the greater seg
CD, D B, together with twice the rect ment E B being contained in the whole
angle CD, DB, and that the square of lime A B once with a remainder A E
CA is equal to the square of CD (I.25. which is to E B as E B to A B, it fol
Cor.); the remaining square of A B is lows, as in the preceding demonstration,
equal to the square of D B, together that A E likewise is contained in E B
with twice the rectangle CD, DB, or, once with a remainder, which is to A. E.
which is the same thing, to the square as A E to E B ; and therefore A E, EB
of B E, together with the rectangle A B, are incommensurable. -
B E, for BE is equal to D B, and A B Another instance of incommensurables

to twice CD. of this class is afforded by the side and
But (I. 30. Cor.) the square of A B is diagonal of a square. ID, A
also equal to the rectangle A B, A E, Let A B be a side, Fº
together with the rectangle A B, B. E. and A C one of the /
Therefore the square of BE, together diagonals of the C
º B
with the rectangle AB, BE, is equal to square ABCD. Pro

the rectangle A B, A E, together with duce AC to E so that <
the rectangle A B, B E. Therefore the C E may be equal to
rectangle AB, AE is equal to the square C B ; and from C A cut off C F like
of B E (1. ax. 3); and (38. Cor. 1.) wise equal to C B. Then because A. E.
A B : B E :: B E : A E, that is, A B is
is equal to the sum, and A F to the dif
divided in the point E in extreme and ference of A C, CB, the rectangle under
mean ratio. (def. 21.) A F, A E is (I. 34.) equal to the differ
Therefore, &c. ence of the squares of A C, CB, that is
Scholium. (I. 36. Cor. 1.), to the square of A. B.
Therefore (38. Cor. 1.), AF is to A B as
The parts of a line thus divided be AB to A E. But, because A B is equal
long to a certain class of incommen to B C, and that EF is equal to 2 B C,
surable magnitudes, described in the A B is contained in A E twice with the
following general theorem. remainder A. F. Therefore A B, A E
If P, Q be two magnitudes of the are magnitudes of the same kind with
same kind, and such that Pis contained P, Q in the above theorem, and are in
in Q a certain number of times with a commensurable. And because A E is
remainder which is to P as P is to Q; incommensurable with A B, and that
the magnitudes P and Q shall be incom. its part C E is equal to A B, the re
mensurable. mainder, that is, the diagonal A C, is
For, let P be contained in Q 5 times, incommensurable with A. B.
and let R be the remainder; then, be We shall conclude this Scholium with
cause R : P :: P : Q, 5 R : 5 P :: an easy method of approximating nume
P: Q (17. Cor. 2.); therefore, alter rically to all ratios of this description.
nando, 5 R : P :: 5 P : Q, and divi To explain it, let us suppose, as in
dendo, 5R-P: P :: 5P - Q : Q. But the latter instance, that there are two
P: R .. Q: P: therefore, eac aequali, magnitudes, P. and Q, and that P is
5R-P: R :: 5P-Q (or R) : P ; in contained in Q twice with a remainder
which proportion the third term is less R, which is to P as P to Q: the ratio of
than the fourth: therefore the first term P to Q shall lie between any two conse
is less than the second (14), that is, R cutive ratios of the series j : 2, 2 : 5,
is also contained in P 5 times, with 5 : 12, 12 : 29, 29 : 70, &c. the terms of
a remainder 5R-P or R, which is to R. which are formed from the two first,
as R to P. Therefore, again, R, is con by making every new term equal to
tained in R 5 times with a remainder twice the last, together with the last but
R, which is to R, as R, to R; and so one ; that is, it shall lie between I : 2
on: i.e. every following remainder is al and 2: 5; again between 2: 5 and 5:
Ways contained in the preceding 5 times
12, &c., the ratios of each successive
with a new remainder, and there is no pair approaching always more nearly to
remainder which is contained in the pre one another, and therefore to the ratio
ceding a certain number of times ex sought.
74 GEOMETRY. [II, $7,
For, since P is contained in Q twice PRop. 60. Prob. 10.
with a remainder R, Q = 2 P-FR: there Upon a given hypotenuse A B, tº
fore R : P :: P : 2 P--R ; that is, a ratio
the same with that of R to P is formed
dº .# & angled triangle, which
shall have its three sides proportionals,
by taking P for a new antecedent, and Divide ABpoint
medially
twice P together with R for a new con (59.) in the C, in
sequent.
The same may be shown of the ratio
-
and from C .º
2 P + R : 5 P + 2 R, which is formed I.44.) perpendicular
from this last according to the same
‘. '#'. }. AB A CE B
rule, viz. that it is likewise the same with in E, and from the
the ratio from which it is formed, that centre E, with the radius E A describe a
is, with the original ratio; and so on, circle cutting CD in D; join DA, DB,
Let these successive ratios be written DE; ADB shall be the triangle required.
one after another in the order in which For the triangle ADB is right-angled
they are derived: (a) R. : P ; (b) P : 2 P at D, because ED is equal to EA or EB
+R, (c) 2P+R : 5 P + 2 R; (d) 5 P4. (I. 19. Cor. 4.). Also AD2 is to DB2 as
2 R : 12 P + 5 R; (e) 12 P +5 R : 29 P the rectangle (I. 36. Cor. 2.) under A C,
+ 12 R, &c. Now, of these ratios, each A B, to the rectangle under CB, AB,
of which is equal to the ratio sought, the that is, as A C to CB (35.); and DB2
ratio (c) lies between (23. Cor. 3.) 2 P : is to B A* as the rectangle under CB,
5 P and R : 2 R, that is (def. 5.) between BA, to the square of BA, that is (35.)
2 : 5 and 1 : 2; in like manner, (d) lies as C B : B A. But because A B is me.
between 5: 12 and 2 : 5, (e) between 12 dially divided in C, A C : C B :: C B :
: 29 and 5 : 12, &c. Again, 5: 12 is B.A.; therefore (12.) A. D* : D B2 : :
formed by adding the terms of 2 × 2 : D B*: BA”, and AD : D B : D B : BA
2 × 5 to those of 1:2, and therefore (37. Cor. 4.); that is, AD, D B, BA
lying between 2: 5 (1. Cor. 3.) and 1:2 are proportionals.
approaches more nearly to 2: 5 than Therefore, &c.
1 : 2 approaches; in like manner, 12 : PROP. 61. Prob. 11.
29 is formed by adding the terms of
2 x 5 : 2 × 12 to those of 2:5, and there º a given point A, to draw a
fore lying between 5: 12 and 2 : 5, ap straight line such that the parts of it
proaches more nearly to 5:12 than 2: 5 intercepted by the legs, B C, B D, of a
does; and so on. Not only, therefore, given angle B, may be to one another in
does the ratio sought lie between the a given ratio.
successive ratios of the series 1:2, 2:5, Let the given ratio be that of the two
5 : 12, 12 : 29, &c.; but these approach straight lines P, Q, of which the latter
continually more and more nearly to is greater than the distance of A from
one another, and therefore to the ratio BE. . From A to BD draw the straight
sought. line AE equal to Q, and take AF equal
In the same manner, if P were con JA.
tained in Q 5 times, we might approxi r c.” +\{
mate to their ratio by means of the series
1, 5, 26, 135, &c. which is formed from
the two first terms by making every fol º
~k It JB F: .
lowing term equal to 5 times the last,
together with the last but one: whence to P; through F draw F C parallel to
the application of the Rule to any given B D (I. 48.), and draw the straight line
case is sufficiently apparent. A CD. Then, because A C is to AD
In the case of the medial ratio the as A F to A E (29.), that is, as P to Q,
series becomes 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, CD is the straight line required.
34, 55, &c. which is formed from the Therefore, &c.
two first terms by making every follow In the solution of this problem the
ing term equal to the sum of the two ratio is supposed to be that of two
last terms; and this is the simplest case given straight lines P, Q. If Q be less
possible.* than the perpendicular drawn from A
that the incommensurable ratios of the text are all
# onverging ratios in the text are also deriv
º: of Continued Fractions. The included in the surd formula # (m+ M m** #):
series are of the kind called recurring series, because where m is the number of times P is contained in Q;
every term has a given relation to a certain number and may therefore be readily obtained by the process
of the terms preceding it. It may also be remarked, for extracting the square root.
II. § 7.] GEOMETRy. 75
to BE, take any line Q' which is not to BD, the rectangle under BF, BE is to
less than that perpendicular, and P. therectangle under BA, BD as the square
such that P': Q': P : Q (53), and of B E to the square of B D (37. Cor. 1.
proceed with P', Q', as above, and 2.), that is, as B C to B. D. But the
rectangle under A B, B C is likewise to
PROP. 62. Prob. 12. the rectangle under AB, BD, as B C to
Through a given point P, to draw a BD (35.); therefore the rectangle under
straight line which shall pass through EB, B F is equal to the rectangle under
the intersection of two given straight A B, B C (11. Cor. 1.).
lines AB, CD, that intersection being Therefore, &c.
without the limits of the draught.* PROP. 64. Prob. 14.
Through P draw
any straight line Att Given any number of straight lines
cutting the given A. A, A, A, A, antecedents, and as
lines in the points many B, B2, Ba, B, consequents, to find
A, C ; and through a straight line such that A shall bear
any point B in A B to it the ratio which is compounded of
draw BD parallel to the ratios of A to B, A2 to B2, Aa to Ba,
A C to meet C D in and A. to Ba.
D. (I. 48.) Take P a Find (53.) the straight line P such that
equal to twice PA, B : P :: A, ; B, Q such that P : Q ::
and P c equal to A. : B, and R such that Q : R :: A, :
twice PC; join a B, B.; R shall be the straight line required.
c D, and let them For the ratio of A to R is compounded
be produced to meet (def. 12.) of the ratios of A to B, B to P,
one another in Q; P to Q, and Q to R, that is, of the ratios
and join PQ; PQ of A to B, A, to B2, As to Ba, and A.
shall be the line required. to Ba.
For, let B D cut PQ in E.; then, be Therefore, &c.
cause BD is parallel to ac, BE is to ED PROP. 65. Prob. 15. (EUC. vi. 18.)
as a P to P c (30.), that is, as AP to PC
(17.); and therefore the line PQ pro Upon a given straight line A B, to
duced (30) passes through the intersec describe a rectilineal figure similar to a
tion of A B, CD. - given rectilineal figure CDEFG.
Therefore, &c. Method 1. Join C E, C F ; at the
points A, B (I, 47.) make the angles
PROP. 63. Prob. 13. B A K, A B K, equal to the angles
To find two straight lines which shall
contain a rectangle equal to a given
rectangle, and have one to the other a
given ratio.
Let the rectangle
...in
AB, BC be the given
rectangle, and, A B D CE, CD E respectively; and because
making any angle
with B C, let B C
s --—
these two angles are, together, less than
be produced to D, * ** E 13 two right angles (I. 8.) A K, B K will
meet, if produced, in some point K
so that AB may be *
(I. 15. Cor. 4.). Again, at the points
to BD in the given ratio (53.). Join A, K, make the angles KAL, A K L
AD; take BE a mean proportional (51.) equal to the angles E C F, C E F re
between B C and B D, and through E spectively, and (as before) let A L, K L
draw EF parallel to AD (I. 48.), to meet one another in the point L: lastly,
meet AB in F; B E, B F shall be the at the points A, L. make the anglés
straight limes required. LA M, A LM equal to FC G, C F G
-
For (29) they are evidently in the given respectively, and let A M, LM meet one
ratio; and because BF is to BA as BE another in the point M: the rectilineal
figure A B K LM shall be similar to
.* This operation occurs so frequently in perspec CD EFG.
tive drawings, that it is convenient to have a ruler
expressly constructed for the purpose, called a cen For the angles of the two figures are
tralinead. Such an instrument was a desideratum evidently equal, each to each, because
among draughtsmen, until it was supplied by the in
genuity of Mr. P. Nicholson, they are the sums of corresponding
--~~
-
angles of equiangular triangles. Also, equal to CD E FG, may then be easily
because the triangles KBA, E D C are derived from I. 21.
similar, B K is to KA as DE to E C ; Therefore, &c.
and for the like reason, K.A. is to K L The last method will
as EC to EF: therefore, ex aequali, appear under a still –-
B K : K L :: D E : E F. And in the
same manner it may be demonstrated,
more simple and conve- tº
nient form, if A B be º º
that the sides about the other equal made to coincide with TT
angles of the two figures are propor CD, and B with D, as in the adjoined
tionals. Therefore, the figure described figure.
upon A B is similar to the given figure PROP. 66. Prob. 16.
CD E F G. (def. 14.)
Method 2. Place A B parallel to CD, To describe a rectilineal figure, which
and join C A, D B. Then, if A B be shall be similar to a given rectilineal
not equal to CD, CA will not be pa figure CDEFG, and shall have its peri
rallel to D B (I. 21. and 14. Cor. 2.), meter equal to a given straight line AQ.
and CA, D B will meet, if produced, in Produce C D to R, (see the second
some point P: join PE, P F, P G : figure of Prop. 65.) so that C R may be
through B draw B K parallel to DE equal to the perimeter of the given
(I. 48.), and let it meet P E in K: figure C D E FG ; take A B (53) a
through K draw K L parallel to EF, fourth proportional to C R, A Q, and
and let it meet P F in L: through L CD, and upon A B (65.) describe a
draw LM parallel to FG, and let it meet rectilineal figure A B K LM similar to
PG in M ; and join A M: the figure the given figure. Then, because the
A B K LM shall be similar to the given figures A B K LM and CD EFG are
figure CD EFG. similar, the perimeter of the first is to the
perimeter of the other (43.), as AB to
CD, that is (12.), as A Q to C R : but
the perimeter of CD EFG is equal to
CR: therefore (18. Cor.) the perimeter
of A B K LM is equal to A Q, that
is, to the given perimeter. Therefore,
AB K LM is the figure required.
Therefore, &c.
PROP. 67. Prob. 17. (EUc. vi. 25.)
To describe a rectilineal figure which
shall be similar to a given rectilineal
figure A B C, and shall have its area
equal to the area of another given recti
For, because P C : P A :: P D : P B lineal figure DEF.
(29.), that is, :: P E : PK, that is :: Find (I.58. Cor.) A.
P F : P L, that is, :: P G : P M, A M is the straight lines
parallel to C G ; and because the sides G, H such that
of the two figures are parallel, each to their squares may 5 C ††
each, they are equiangular (I. 18.) with be equal to the fi
one another. Also, because the tri gures ABC, DEF Ii
angles C D P, A B P are similar, C D : respectively : take int
D P : : A B : B P, and for the like reason K L a fourth pro

D P : D E :: B P : B K ; therefore, eac portional (53) to
aequali, CD : D E :: A B : B K. And G, H, and B C,
in the same manner it may be demon and upon K L (65.) describe the figure
I,ſº
strated, that the sides about the other K LM similar to the figure B C A.
equal angles of the two figures are pro Then, because the figure A B C is to the t
portionals. Therefore the figure upon figure M K L as the square of BC
A B is similar to the given figure. When to the square of K.L (43.), that is, (37.
A B is equal to CD, CA is parallel to Cor. 4.) as the square of G to the square
B D, and the lines E K, FL, GM, in of H, and that the figure A B C is equal
stead of being drawn to a point P, must to the square of G, the figure K LM is
be drawn parallel to C A or BD. The (18.) equal to the square of H, that is,
demonstration that the figure ABKLM, to the figure DEF: and it is similar to
so constructed, will be both similar and ABC; therefore it is the figure required.
II. § 7.] GEOMETRY. ??
PROP. 68. Prob. 18. as before, the part PB CD I, of the

given figure, is equal to the triangle
To divide a given rectilineal figure PB H, and the remaining part PAF EL
A B C.D.E F in a given ratio, by a to the triangle PH G'. Therefore, the
straight line drawn from one of its an parts of the figure are as the bases B H,
gles, or from a given point in one of H.G.' (39.), that is, in the given ratio.
7ts sides. Therefore, &c,
In the first place, let A be the given
angle from which the line of divisionisto PROP. 69. Prob. 19.
be drawn.
Given a triangle A, a point B, and
two straight lines CD, C, E, forming
an angle DC E; to describe a triangle
which shall be equal to the triangle A,
ſº so that it may have the angle D C E for
|| - 13 cy ==–––
H Tö, one of its angles, and the opposite side
sº passing through the point B.
mºl. Describe (I. 54.) the triangle A B G, In the solution of this problem we
gld equal to the figure A B C D EF, and have three cases to consider; first, when
jì) : having the side AB, and angle A B C the point B is in one of the given lines
) iſ the same with it: divide (55.) the base as CD ; secondly, when the point B is
ille ; B G in the given ratio in the point H: without the given angle D C E ; and
lar || join A C and A D : through H draw thirdly, when B is within the anglei)CE.
is tº H K parallel to AC, to meet C D pro Case l. Let the point B be in the line
(* duced in K ; through K draw KL pa CD. Take CD equal to a side of the tri
ºff: rallel to A D to meet D E in L, and angle A, and upon CD (I. 50.) describe
A}| join A L: A L shall be the line re a triangle CDF, which shall have its two
! || - quired. remaining sides equal to the two remain
ſºlº For, by the construction, which is si ing sides of the triangle A, each to each, *
º: milar to that of I. 55., it is evident, that and therefore (I. 7.) shall be equal to the
ºf the figure A B C D L is equal to the
triangle A B H." but the whole figure is
jº
equal to the triangle A B G: therefore,
the part A LE F is equal to the triangle
º E.
A HG. Therefore, the parts of the

figure areas the triangles A.B H, AHG, C B To
that is (39) as the bases B H, H G,
that is, in the given ratio.
. Next, let P be the given point in the triangle A in every respect: through F
side A B, from which the line of division (I,48.) draw FE parallel to D C : join
DE, BE : through D (I. 48.) draw DG.
is to be drawn.
parallel to BE to meet CE in G, and join
G B : the triangle C B G shall be the
triangle required.
For, because E B is parallel to GD,
the triangle GE B (I.27.) is equal to
D.E.B.: therefore, adding the triangle
ECB to each, the whole triangle GCB is
equal to EC D, that is (because E F is
parallel to CD) to FC D, that is, to the
Describe, as before, (I, 54.), the tri given triangle A.
angle A B G equal to the given figure, Case 2. Let º T} Th2"
and, by drawing AG' parallel to P G, point B be with- -
` < ,”
make thetriangle PBG'equal to A BG out the angle -
(as in I, 56.): divide (55.) B G' in the D CE. Through

given ratio in the point H. join PC B (I, 48.) draw
and PD: through H draw H K paral B D parallel to 6–5 G. E.
lel to PC, to meet CD produced in K: C E to meet C D
through K draw K L parallel to PD to in D, and by the construction pointed out
meet DE in L, and join PL. Then, in Case 1. describe a triangle D C F
having the given side D C and the given
* The line A H is wanting in this figure; and
PH is in like manner wanting in the figure below,
angle DC E, and equal to the given º
as also AG, A G’, angle A: in C F produced take the
78
GEOMETRY.
hich shall form.
oint toG BD,
j such CF
that(56.):
CG &join
Gº:BG, and wº . given
lººd: cał & D in H: C H G shall traight be
lmeS
the triangle required.

§ºuting one
another in C. ."
#. #. because C G x GF triangle
Join equal fo
is: Bi)
equal(38.),
to B that
DXCF, CF : DFG:
is, since H B CG
and a given triangle
A " we. should
& H G are (I.15.) equiangular, ... CH have had four
: HI). Therefore (39.) H F is parallel solutions, two
to DG ; and hence, as before, the trian
gles DHF and GHF are (I. 27) equal to of them corre
one another, and CHG is equal to CDF, sponding to the
that is to A. angle in which
Case 3. Let the E B lies, and One -
point B be within r^ for each of the adjacent angles; * *

apparent from the foregoing construc
fhe angle D C E. /
tions applied to the adjoined figure.
Through B (I, 48.) g/ When B D is equal to a fourth of G F.
draw BD parallel to -
E C to meet C D in /* two of these become identical; when

D, and, by the con- /* B D exceeds a fourth of CF, the same
struction pointed
in Case | out “
describe -——º--
P
two become impossible, but the other
}:{
two, viz. those which correspond to the
a triangle D C F, having the given side adjacent angles, are always possible, ex
*
CD and the given angle DCE, and equal cept when B is in one of the lines as
to the given triangle A : in CF (if it be CD. This last-mentioned position is
possible) take the point G such that peculiar: it has likewise, however, two
CG x G F may be equal to BD x C F solutions, one for each of the adjoining
(56. Cor.): join B G, and let G B pro angles.
duced cut CD in H; C H G shall be the
triangle required. BOOK III.
Join HF. Then, by a demonstration § 1. First Properties of the Circle—
which may be given in the same words
as that of Case 2, the triangle C H G is § 2. Of Angles in a Circle—$ 3. Reef
equal to CD F, that is to the given tri angles under the segments of Chords
angle A. –$4. Regular Polygons, and Ap
In this last case a solution will be proximation to . Circular Area—s'3.
impossible if B D exceed a fourth of Circle a Marimum of Area, and
CF; for then B D x C F will exceed a Minimum of Perimeter—$ 6. Simple
fourth of the square of C F, that is and Plane Loci—$ 7. Problems.
(I. 29. Cor. 2.) the square of half CF;
and no point G can be taken in C F SecTION 1–First Properties of the
Circle.
such that CG x G F may exceed the
square of half C F (56. N. B.). Def. 1. Any portion of the circum
We may remark also that, whenever ference of a circle is called an arc; and
the solution is possible in the last case, the straight line which
two points G may be found such that CG joins the extremities of
x GF = B D x C F. (56.) and therefore an arc is called the chord
of that arc.
two lines G H may be drawn satisfying
the given conditions. When B D is ex When the chord passes
actly a fourth of CF, these two points through the centre, it is
coincide with one another and with the a diameter, and the arcs
middle point of CF, and therefore the upon either side of it, being equal to
two solutions become identical. one another, are called, each of them,
If B be in one of the lines D C, E C a semi-circumference.”
produced, or within the angle which is 2. The figure which is contained by
vertical to D C F, the solution will be an arc and its chord is called a segment.
manifestly impossible.
* That every diameter divides a circle and its cir.
Scholtum. cumference into two equal parts, is evident from the
symmetrical character of the circle. The same may
Had the problem been proposed be proved by doubling the figure upon the diametº;
under the following form : “through for, every point of the circumference being at th;
same distance from the centre, the parts so applied
a given point B to draw a straight line (whether of circumference or area) will coincide.
III, § 1.] GEOMETRY, 79.
A segment which is contained by a semi PROP. 1. (EUC. iii. 2.)

circumference and a diameter, is equal
to half the circle, and is therefore called If a straight line meet the circum
a semicircle. - ſerence of a circle in two points, it shall
3. An angle in a segment is the cut the circle in those points; and the
angle contained by two part of the straight line which is
--~
straight lines drawn between them shall fall within the

circle.
from any point of the
arc of the segment to Let the straight line A B meet the
the extremities of its circumference of a circle having the
base or chord.
4. A sector of a cir
cle is the figure con
tained by any arc, and
the radii drawn to its
extremities.
5. Equal circles are those which

have equal radii, centre C in the points A and B : it
By this is intended no more than that shall cut the circle in those points, and
When the term “equal circles" may be the part A B shall fall within the
hereafter used, those which have equal circle.
radii are to be understood. That such Join CA, C B : bisect AB in D, and
Gircles, however, have also equal areas, join C D : take also the points E and F
is at once evident by applying one to in the line A B, the former between A
the other, so that their denies
coincide.
may and B, the latter upon the other side of
B, and join CE, C F.
6. Concentric circles are those which Then, because CA is equal to C B,
have the same centre. 9 A B is an isosceles triangle; there.
7. (Euc. iii. def. 2.) A straight line is fore (I. 6. Cor. 3.) CD, which is drawn
|- said to touch a circle, when it meets the from the vertex to the bisection of the
..}} circumference in any point, but being base, is perpendicular to A. B. And,
thſ produced does not cut it in that point. because C E is nearer to the perpendi'
Such a line is frequently, for brevity's gular than C B is, (I. 12. Cor. 2.) CE
| || is less than CB; therefore the point E
-: sake, called a tangent; and the point is within the circle: on the other hand,
in Which it meets the circumferenče is
called the point of contact, because C F is farther from the perpen:
dicular than C B is, C F is greater than
8. Circles are C B ; and therefore the point F is with
said to touch one out the circle. And the same may be
another, when they said of the parts about A. Therefore
meet, but do not the straight line in question cuts the cir
cut one another. cle in the points A and B.
Also, because every point, as E, of
9. A rectilineal figure is said to be A B, is at a less distance from C than
inscribed in a circle, when all; angular the radius, the part A B falls within
points are in the cir
cumference of the cir-
gle. Also, when this
- the circle.
Therefore, &c."
Cor. 1. A straight line cannot meet a
is the case, the circle circle in more than two points.
is said to be circum Cor. 2. A straight line which touches
scribed about the rec a circle meets it in one point only.
tilineal figure. Cor. 3. A circle is concave towards
, 10. A rectilineal figure is said to be its centre.
Circumscribed about
a circle, when all PROP, 2. (EUc. iii. 16.) >
its sides touch the
Circle. Also, when The straight line, which ts drawn ač
this is the case, the
Circle is said to be
?nscribed in the rec-
tilineal figure.
O right angles to the radius of a circle
from its extremity, touches the circle;
and no other straight line can touck tº
in the same point.
- GEOMETRY. t bisect ".
$0
From the point

.rsely,
chord,iſ."
it shall 6ut
A in the circum
ference of a circle ~ a"; "A B be a diam
having the centre p AT
Apf, the centre º
line
the straight
C, ie:AT be drawn |
/ X—
|
ſº hich is C; *
at right angles to
..", it ºut the
the *: A : \ jai E. at righ; º
|sº
is in the point
A T shall touch
the circle.
yº, sº
For, C A being shorter (I. 12. Cor. 3.) bisected in F.
Them, º
join CD, CE.
E
than any other line which can be drawn
F. Öſ to A T, every other point of is isoscelesdrawn from the
ºº. triangl
AT lies without the circle: therefore & F which is
vertex t
A T meets the circle in the point A but at right angles to the bº DE, º
does not cut it, that is, it touches the i.”.”hat is, D F is equal "
circle. FE. (I. 6. Cor. 3.) -
In the next place, let D E be any §§ it iſ Eise bisected in F by ſº

other straight line º through the diº Añ; the angles D FA.E.F.A
same point A: DE shall cut the circle. shall be right angles. For in the
For C A not being perpendicular to jeles triangle CDE, the straig.
DE, let CE be perpendicular to it. Then, in which is drawn from the vertex Q
because C E is less than CA (I, 12. to the middle point of the base DE
cor. 3.), the point E is within the circle. is at right angles to the base. (I, 6.
But if D be a point in D E upon the Cor. 3.)
other side of A, C D will be farther from Therefore, &c.
the perpendicular than CA; wherefore Cor. 1. A diameter bisects all chords
CD being (I, 12. Cor. 2.) greater than which are parallel to the tangent at
CA, the point D will be without the either extremity of the diameter.
circle. Therefore the straight line DE Cor. 2. The straight line which bi
cuts the circle ; and the same may be sects any chord at right angles passes
demonstrated of every other straight line through the centre of the circle,
which passes through A, except the Cor. 3. If two circles
straight line A.T. only, which is at have a common chord,
right angles to A. C. . the straight line which
Therefore, &c. bisects it at right angles
Cor. 1. (Euc. iii., 18.) If a straight shall pass through the
line touches a circle, the straight line centres of both the
drawn from the centre to the point of circles.
contact, shall be perpendicular to the Cor. 4. (Euc. iii. 4.) It appears from
line touching the circle. the proposition, that two chords of a
Cor. 2. (Euc. iii. 19.) If a straight circle cannot bisect one another except
line touches a circle, and from the they both of them pass through the
point of contact, a straight line be centre.
drawn at right angles to the touching For, if only one of the chords pass
line, the centre of the circle shall be in
through the centre, it cannot be bisected
that line.
by the other which does not pass
Cor. 3. Tangents T A, T B which through the centre.
are drawn to a circle from the same And if, when neither of them passes
point T, are equal to one another. For, through the centre, it were possible that
CAT, CBT being right-angled tri they should bisect one another, the
angles which have the common hypo diameter passing through the supposed
tenuse CT, and their sides C A, C B point of mutual bisection would be at
equal to one another, their remaining right angles to each of them, which is
sides TA, TB are likewise equal. (I, 13.) absurd.
Cor. 4. Tangents which are at the
extremities of the same diameter are PROP. 4. (EUC. iii. 15.)
parallel to one another. The diameter is the greatest straight
line in a circle; and, of others, that
PROP. 3. (EUC. iii. 3.) jich is nearer to the centre is gº”.
If a diameter cut, ally other chord at than the more remote ; also.” greater
right angles, it shall bisect it ; and is nearer to the centre than the less,
III, § 1.] GEOMETRY, 81
Let A B be a dia D shall be the centre of the circle

meter of the circle A B C. . .
AB D, the centre of Join A B and B C, and bisect them in
which is C : let D E, the points E and Frespectively; and join
FG be any two chords DE, D F. . Then, because D A B is an
to which perpendi isosceles triangle, the straight line D.E,
culars CH, C K are which is drawn from the vertex D to
drawn; and let the the bisection of the base A B, is at right
distance C H be less than C K: the angles to A B (I. 6. Cor. 3.); and, be
diameter A B shall be greater than the cause D E bisects the chord A B at right
chord DE, and the chord DE shall be angles (3. Cor. 2.), it passes through the
greater than the chord F G. centre of the circle. In the same man
Join CD, CE, C F. Then, because ner it may be shown that the straight
CA is equal to CD, and C B to C E, line DF passes through the centre of
the whole A B is equal to CD and CE the circle. But the only point through
together: but C D and D E together which each of the straight lines D E,
(I. 10.) are greater than D E: therefore DF passes, is their point of intersec
A B is greater than D. E. Again, be tion D. Therefore D is the centre of
cause C HD, C K F are right-angled the circle.
triangles, and that CD-square is equal Therefore, &c.
to CF-square, the squares of CH, HD Cor. 1. From any other point than
together (I.36.) are equal to the squares the centre there cannot be drawn to
of C K, KF together: but the square the circumference of a circle more than
of C H is less than the square of C K; two straight lines that are equal to one
therefore the square of HD is greater another, whether the point be within or
than the square of KF, that is, HD is without the circle. (Euc. iii. 7 and 8
greater than K F. And DE, FG are parts of.)
double of HD, K.F respectively, be Cor. 2. It appears from the demonstra
cause the perpendiculars C H, C K tion that if three points A, B and C be
pass through the centre (3.): therefore given which are not in the same straight
D E is greater than F.G. line, a circle may be found, the circum
Next, let the chord DE be greater ference of which shall pass through the
than FG ; it shall also be nearer to the three points A, B and C ; the circle,
centre. For, C H and C K being drawn namely, which has for its centre the in
as before, the squares of C H., HD tersection of the two lines which bisect
together are equal to the squares of A B and B C at right angles.
CK, KF together; but the square of PROP. 6.
HD, which is half of DE, is greater
than the square of KF, which is half If two circles have the same centre,
of FG: therefore the square of C H is either they shall coincide, or one of them
less than the square of C K, and C H is shall fall wholly within the other.
less than CK, that is, DE is nearer to For if the radii of two
the centre tham FG is. concentric circles be _--~~
Therefore, &c. equal to one another, it N
is manifest that every
Cor. (Euc. iii. 14.) Equal straight point
lines in a circle are equally distant from in the circum- ſº ---
s )
the centre; and those which are equally ference of the one must \ /
distant from the centre are equal to one be at the same distance _^
another. from their common cen
tre, with every point in the circum
PROP. 5. (EUc. iii. 9.) ference of the other; and therefore the
If a point be taken, from which to the two circumferences cannot but coincide,
circumference of a circle there fall more But if the radii be unequal, every point
than two equal straight lines, that point in the circumference of that which has
shall be the centre of the circle. the lesser radius is at a less distance
Let ABC be a circle, - from the common centre, and therefore
and let D be a point ta must fall within the circumference of
2–~
ken, such that the three /> the greater circle.
jºightlines dA, 5 B, ſ \/ Therefore, &c.
C drawn from the * Cor. (Euc. iii. 5 and 6.) If two cir
point D to the circum- 27 Ye 4.
& cles cut or touch one another, they can

ference, are equal to *S3 |_X^ not have the same centre.
one another: the point Tº
GEOMETRY. [III, § 1.
82
fore, the two circumferences meet One
Prop. 7. (Euc. iii. 10.)
another in the point E.
Again, let the circumference of the
cºhe §
circumferences of two circles
one another in more first circle cut the line A B produced in
than two points. -
the points F, f,circle
and letmeet
the the
circumference
For if they should have three points of the other same line
in common, those three points could AB, in the points G, g, the points F
not be (1.) in the same straight line. and G being towards the same parts, as
Therefore a point might be found also fand g : then, AG is equal to the
(5. Cor.) equally distant from the three, sum, and Åg to the difference of AB,
which point would (5.) be the centre of B C. But, because A B C is a triangle
each of the circles; that is, there would (I. 10.), the sum of the sides AB, BC
be two circles cutting one another and is greater, and their difference is less,
having the same centre, a thing impos than the side A C, that is, than AF or
sible.
Therefore, &c. Af. Therefore, A G is greater than
A F, and Ag is less than Af. But,
because (7.) the circumferences cannot
PROP. 8.
have more than the two points C, E in
If the circumferences of two circles common, it is evident that if the arcs
meet one another in a point which is C GE, C FE do not coincide, the one
not in the straight line joining their must be wholly without or wholly within
centres, or in that straight line pro the other: and the same may be said
duced; they shall meet one another of the arcs Cg E, C f E. Conse
£n a second point upon the other side quently, the arc C G E of the second
of that straight line, and shall cut one circle is without the first, and the arc
another. Çg E of the same circle within the first,
Let A, B be the centres of two circles, that is, the circumferences cut oné
the circumferences of which meet one another in the points C and E.
another in the point C, which is not in Therefore, &c.
A B, nor in A B produced: from C Cor. 1. (Euc. iii. 11, 12, and 13.)
draw CD perpendicular to A B or to Circles that touch one another meet in
A B produced, and produce C D to E one, point only, which point is in the
so that D E may be equal to D C : the straight line that joins their centres, or
circumferences shall meet one another in that straight line produced.
in the point E, and shall cut one another For, should they meet in two points,
in each of the points C, E, they would have a common chord, which
common chord would (3. Cor. 3.) be bi
sected by the straight line joining their
centres; , and, therefore, the points of
meeting being upon either side of this
straight line, the circles, as in the pro
position, would not only meet, but cut
One another.
Cor. 2. Hence, if two circles touch
one another, the distance between their
centres must be equal to the sum or to
the difference of their radii; the sum if
they touch externally, the difference if
they touch internally.
Scholium.
Join A C, A E, B C, B E. Then be We may remark that from the second
cause the triangles A DC, AD E have part of the demonstration of this pro
two sides of the one equal to two sides of position, it likewise follows that— .
the other, and have also the included 1. If a point A be taken in the dia
angles ADC, A.D.E. equal to one meter of a circle C G E, which is not
another, the base AC (I.4) is equal to the centre (see the lower figure), of all
A E: therefore, the point E is in the the straight lines which can be drawn
circumference of the circle which has the from that point to the circumference,
centre A. In the same manner it may the greatest is that which passes through
be shown, that the same point is in the the centre, viz. A G, and the other part
circumference of the other circle, There Ag of that diameter is the least; also
III. § 1.] GEOMETRY. 83
of any others that which is nearer to ference of the circle which has the
the greatest is greater than the more centre A ; and join AD, D B. Then, be
remote. (Euc. iii. 7, part of) cause A D B is a triangle, the side D B
2. If a point A be taken without (I. 10.) is greater than the difference of
a circle C G E (see the upper figure), A B, AD, that is, greater than B C : but
and straight lines be drawn from it to B C is the radius of the circle which has
the circumference, whereof one A. G. the centre B: therefore, the point D lies
passes through the centre; of those without the latter circle. And the same
which fall upon the concave circum may be demonstrated of every point in
ference, the greatestis that which passes the circumference of the greater circle.
through the centre, viz. AG; and of Also, because the arcs E C, e C of the
one circle, lie upon the same side of the
the rest, that which is nearer to the one
passing through the centre is always arcs D C, d C of the other, the circles
greater than one more remote: but of meet, but do not cut one another in the
those which fall upon the convex cir point C ; that is, they touch one another.
cumference, the least is that between the Therefore, &c.
point without the circle and the dia Cor. 1. Circles that cut one another
meter; and of the rest, that which is meet in two points, one upon either side
nearer to the least is always less than of the straight line which joins their
the more remote. (Euc. iii. 8, part of) centres. For circles meeting in a point
The parts of the circumference which which is in that straight line do not cut,
are here termed concave and convex but touch one another, as is shown in
towards the point the F. and such as meet in a
A, aredetermined point which is not in that straight line,
by the points H o
meet also (8.) in a second point upon
and K, in which _` the other side of it.
Cor. 2. Hence, if two circles cut one
tangents drawn A. g G.
from A meet the another, the straight, line, which joins
circumference,— their centres must be less than the sum,
the part H G K IC and greater than the difference of their
being concave, / radii, (I, 10.)
and Hg K convex. •
PROP. 10.
PROP, 9,
If the circumferences of two circles do
If the circumferences of two circles not meet one another in any point, the
meet one another in a point which is in distance between their centres shall be
the straight line joining their centres, greater than the sum, or less than the
or in that straight line produced, they difference of their radii, according as
shall meet in no other point; the cir each of the circles is without the other,
cumference ºf that which has thegreater or one of them within the other.
tadius shall fall wholly without the cir Let A, B be
cumference of the other; and the two the centres of
circles shall touch one another. thetwo circles,
Let A, B be and let the
the centres of line A B, Or
two circles, the that line pro
circumferences duced, cut
of which meet the circum
One another in ferences in the
the point C, points C, D.
which is in the Then, it is
line AB, or in evident that A B is equal to the sum, or
A B produced: to the difference of A C, B C, accord
and let the ra ing as each of the circles is without the
dius of the first other, or one of them within the other.
circle begreater If it be equal to the sum, then, be.
than the radius cause B C is greater than B D, the
of the other: the circumference of the sum of AC, B C is greater than the sum
first shall fall wholly without the cir of A C, B D ; that is, the distance of
cumference of the other, and the circles the centres is greater than the sum of
shall touch one another in C. -
the radii; and if it be equal to the dif
Let D be any point in the circum ference, then, for the * gason, the
84 GEOMETRY, [III, § 2.
difference of A C, B C is less than the the base A B (I, 11.) is likewise greater
difference of A C, B D, that is, the than the base D F.
distance of the centres is less than And, conversely, if A B be greater
the difference of the radii. than DE, it shall subtend a greater
Therefore, &c. angle at C : for C A B and CD E are, in
Cor. I. Hence it appears, conversely, this case, two triangles having two sides
that two circles will, To, cut one another; of the one equal to two sides of the
or 2°, touch one another ; or 3", one of other, each to each, but the base AB
them fall wholly without the other; ac greater than the base D E: there
cording as the distance between their fore the angle A C B (I. 11.) is likewise
centres is, 1°, less than the sum, and greater than the angle D C E.
greater than the difference of their radii; The same demonstration may be ap
or 2", equal to the sum, or to the differ plied to the case of equal circles.
ence of their radii; or 3", greater than the Therefore, &c.
sum or less than the difference of their Cor. In the same or in equal circles,
radii. equal chords subtend equal angles at
Cor. 2. Therefore, 19, if two circles the centre; and conversely.
cut one another, the distance of their
centres must be at the same time less PROP. 12.
(EUC. iii. 26 and 27, first
than the sum and greater than the dif parts of)
ference of their radii; and conversely,
if this be the case, the circles will cut In the same or in equal circles, equal
one another. -
angles at the centre stand upon equal

2°. If two circles touch one another, arcs ; and conversely.
the distance of their centres must be Let C, c be the centres of two equal
equal to the sum or to the difference of circles, and let A CB, a c b be equal
their radii, according as the contact is
T.
external or internal ; and conversely,
if either of these be the case, the circles ò
will touch one another. -
30. If two circles do not meet one

C _2^ c )
another, the distance of their centres
must be greater than the sum or less
/
A-T} -
\\
dº----||
than the difference of their radii, ac
cording as each is without the other, or
one of them within the other; and con angles at the centres; the arc AB shall
versely, if either of these be the case, be equal to the are a b. -
the circles will not meet one another. For if the circles be applied one to
the other, so that the centre C may be
upon c, and the radius CA upon ca, the
Section 2–Of Angles in a Circle. radius CB will coincide with cºb, because
PROP. 11. the angle ACB is equal to a c b, . Also
the points A, B will coincide with the
In the same, or in equal circles. the points a, b respectively, because the ra
greater chord subtends the greater dii CA, C B are equal to the radii ca,
angle at the centre : and conversely, the c b. Therefore the arc A B coincides
greater angle at the centre is subtended with the are a b, and is equal to it.
by the greater chord. And conversely, if the arcs A B, a b
Let C be the centre of ix be equal to one another, the angles
a circle A B D, and let A C B, a c b shall be likewise equal.
A B, D E be two chords For, if not, let any other angle a cºb' be
in the same circle, of taken equal to A C B ; then, by the for
which A B subtends a mer part of the proposition, the arc a 5'
greater angle at C than is equal to A B, that is, to a b, which is
HD E does: A B shall be absurd; therefore, the angle a c b can
greater than D E. not but be equal to A C B.
For, the radii A. C., C B being equal In the next place, let ACB, D C E be
to the radii D.C., C E respectively, equal angles in the same circle: then, ifc
C A B and C D E are triangles having be the centre of a second circle equal to
two sides of the one equal to two sides it, and if the angle a c b be made equal to
of the other, each to each, but the angle ACB or DCE, the are a b will be equal
A C B greater than D C E : therefore, to AB or DE; therefore, the arcs AB,
III, § 2.] GEOMETRY. 85
MD E are equal to one another. And, in cumference which measures an equal
like manner, the converse. angle at the centre. -
Therefore, &c. In Book I. def. 9. an angle was stated

Cor. l. (Euc. iii. 28 and 29.) In to have its origin in the meeting of two
the same or in equal circles, equal arcs straight lines in a point, and to be
are subtended by equal chords; and greater or less according to the extent
conversely (ll. Cor.). of the opening between those lines: a
Cor. 2. By a similar demonstration ºright angle was then defined; an angle
º
it may be shown that in the same or in “less” than which was said to be an acute
ſº
equal circles, equal sectors stand upon angle, and an angle “greater” an obtuse
equal arcs; and conversely. angle. We ought rather however to have
defined the obtuse angle to be greater
PROP. 13. (Euc. vi. 33, part of.) than one, and less than two right angles:
In the same or in equal circles, any for if the opening between the legs of
tº, angles at the centre are as the arcs upon such an angle be increased to a still
6: .
which they stand ; so also are the further degree, it becomes equal to two
sectors. right angles—greater than two—equal
Let C, c be the centres of two equal to three—greater than three—and, by a
circles; and let A CB, a cºb, be any an still increasing separation of one leg
from the other in the same direction,
equal to four right angles—greater than
four—and so on.
ºu An angle which is greater than two
Ad and less than four right angles is fre
A is quently called a reverse or re-entering
º angle.*
t| gles at the centre: the angle ACB shall These angles (right, acute, obtuse, and
be to the angle a cºb as the arc AB to re-entering) are all that have place in
the arc a b. -
elementary Geometry, or in the subjects

Let the angle a c b be divided into to which it is commonly applied; the am
any number of equal angles by the gles spoken of being understood never
radii ca, ce, cf. c9, and therefore the to exceed four right angles. But where
are a b into as many equal parts (12.) no such limitation, confining the mag
by the points d, e,f,g. Then, if the are nitude of the angle, is supposed, it is
AD be taken equal to ad, and if CD be plain from the considerations above
joined, the angle A CD will be (12.) mentioned, that the magnitude of any
equal to a ca; and if the are AD be angle, in general, cannot be estimated
contained in A B a certain number of from the apparent opening between the
times with a remainder less than AD, legs. Besides this opening, there is to
the angle A C D will be found in the be considered the direction in which it
angle A C B the same number of times is supposed to have been generated,
with a remainder less than A C D : and and yet further, the number of times the
this, whatsoever be the number of parts revolving leg may have coincided with
into which the arc ab is divided. There and passed by the other; for the same
fore, (II. def. 7.) the angle A C B is to apparent opening is the result of dif
º
the angle a c b as the arc AB to the ferent angular revolutions: just as the
tlé arc 'a b. -
hand of a watch is at the same appa

And in the same manner it may be rent distance from any given position,
shown that the sector A C B is to the whether it has made fifty and a quarter,
sector a c b as the arc AB to the arc ab or a hundred and a quarter, or a hundred
(12. Cor. 2.) more circuits. The traversed space
The case of arcs or sectors occurring being made up of parts which coincide,
in the same circle has a similar demon: and which do not therefore distinctly
stration. appear, the number of these parts must
Therefore, &c. be specified if we would form an esti
mate of the whole.
Scholium.
k Hence the angle at the centre of a * It has been already observed (I; 2. note) that
circle is said to be measured by the an angle is sometimes said to be supplementary, viz.
when it is considered as the supplement of the ad
are upon which it stands: and gene jacent angle to two right angles: in like manner, an
rally, any angle in a circle is said to angle takes the name of an earplementary angle,
when together with the adjoining and opposite angle
be measured by that part of the cir it fills up the whole space about the angular point.
86 GEOMETRY. [III. § 2,
This complete definition of angular an angle at the circumference upon the
magnitude is of the greatest importance same base A B: the angle A C B shall
in the higher parts of the mathematics, be double of the angle ADB.
and may be well illustrated by help of Join DC, and produce it to E. Then,
the measuring circumference. because C A is equal to CD (I. 6.), the
With the cen Q. angle CAD is equal to CD A: there
tre C, and radius fore the angle A C E, which is equal to
CA, let there be CAD, CDA together (I. 19.) is dou
described a cir ble of C D A. In like manmer it may
cle A Q Q, Qa, be shown that the angle B C E is double
and let the dia. * of CD B. Therefore the sum or differ
meters A Qa, ence of the angles EC A, E CB is also
Q Q, be drawn double of the sum or difference of the
at right angles Q3
angles C D A, CD B, that is, the angle
to one another, A C B is double of the angle A D B.
dividing the whole angular space about
the centre into 4 equal angles, each of The adjoined figure
which will be measured by a quadrant,” shows that this proof
or fourth part of the circumference. is equally applicable
Let us now suppose that the radius when the angle ACB
of the circle, being made to revolve is re-entering.
about its centre from the original posi
tion CA, is brought successively into Therefore, &c.
º
the positions C Q, C Q3, C Q3, and Cor. 1. Any angle at the circumfer
thence again, continuing its revolution, ence is measured by half the arc upon
a second time into the same positions which it stands.
CA, C Q, C Q2, C Qa, and so on. Cor. 2. (Euc. iii. 26 and 27, second
Then it is evident that the angular space
parts of, and Euc. vi. 33 part of). In
through which the radius will have re the same or in equal circles, equal angles
volved, will be, in these successive po at the circumference stand upon equal
sitions, one, two, three right angles; arcs, and conversely; and, generally, any
upon returning to A four right angles, angles at the circumference are as the
which is the whole angular space about #: ſupon which they stand. (13, and
the point C : and thence again, coming . 17.)
a second time to the same positions
C Q, C Q, C Qa, five, six, seven right
angles, and so on; which angular spaces PROP. 15. (EUc. iii. 21.)
will be measured respectively by one,
two, three quadrants, a whole circum cleAngles in the same segment of a cir
are equal to one another.
ference; five, six, seven quadrants, and
so on: and any angular spaces interme For they are halves of the same an
diate to these will be measured by cor gle, viz. the angle at the centre which
responding arcs intermediate, that is, of stands upon their common base; or,
magnitudes between one and two, two which is the same thing, they are mea
and three, three and four, &c. quadrants. sured by the same arc, viz. the half of
their common base.
Cor. 1. (Euc. iii. 31., first part of)
PROP. 14. (EUC. iii. 20.) The angle which is in a
The angle at the centre of a circle is semicircle is a right an
double of the angle at the circumference gle, for it is measured
wpon the same base, that is, upon the by half the semi-circum
- same part of the circumference. ference, that is, by a
Let A C B be any angle at the centre quadrant.
Cor. 2. (Euc. iii. 31.
C of the circle A BD, and let ADB be second part of.)
ſ
-—–---—–
* From the Latin word quadrans, a fourth part.
The angle, which is in
a segment greater than
a semicircle, is less than
a right angle; and the
angle, which is in a seg
ment less than a semi
circle, is greater than a
º
right angle; for the one is measured by
III, § 2.]
GEOMETRY. 87
*** which is greater, and t
** are which is less tha. ...; º which it jº,
*ne be drawn cuttin the c
º * - - -
97.3. If upon the base of a tº: :# ###". to #. angles which are -
• *ngle there be described a Segment of £

*. the vertex of the º i 27ted
the circle. 277 the alſº
alternate segments of -
º! Without, or within, or upon the arc Let the straight line A B touch the
of the segment, accordin as the verti circle
cal angle of the triangle is less than, or C let C there
D E inbethe point C, and from-
gºater than, or equal to the angle in drawn the straight

line C D cutting
£g
the segment, in
For it may easily be shown, (I. 8. the circle: the an

Cor. 1) that if the vertex fall within gle D C A shall Iy
the are of the segment, the vertical be equal to the

angle must be greater than the angle of ment
angle in the seg-
DFC, and *: Ts g
--
the segment, and if without it, less,

PROP. 16.
the angle D C B to the angle in the seg
ment D E C.
If any chord be drawn in a circle, the From C draw CE at right angles to the
angles contained in the two opposite tangent A B, and therefore (2. Cor. 2.)
passing through the centre of the circle :
segments shall be together equal to two let C E meet the circumference in E:
right angles.
Let A D B be a cir- Ty
take any point F in the arc of the oppo
site segment, and join C E, E.D., D F,
miſ. cle, and let it be di FC. Then, because C D E is a semi
u). vided by the chord AB A circle, the angle CD E is a right angle
into the segments AD (15. Cor. 1.): therefore the remaining
tºl B, A E B : the angles angles of the triangle CD E (I. 19.),
| || ADB, AEB contained that is, the angles DEC and D C E, are
is ." in these segments shall together equal to a right angle. But the
sº be together equal to angles D C B and D C E are likewise
| two right angles. together equal to a right angle: there
sº For the angle A D B is measured by fore the two latter angles are equal to
ºl half the arc A. EB upon which it stands the two former, and the angle D C B is
(14. Cor. 1.), and in like manner the equal to DEC, that is, to the angle in
angle AEB is measured by half the arc the alternate segment.
A D B. Therefore the angles ADB, And because (16.) the angles in the
AEB together are measured by half the two segments are together equal to
circumference, that is, by two quadrants, two right angles, that is (I. 2.), to the
and are consequently equal to two right angles D C B, D C A, the angle D C A
angles. is equal to the angle in the other seg
Therefore, &c. ment D F C.
-
Cor. 1. (Euc. iii. 22.) If a quadri Therefore, &c. -
lateral figure be inscribed in a circle, Cor. The converse is also true: that
either pair of its opposite angles shall is, if from the extremity of a chord there
be equal to two right angles. be drawn a straight line, such that the
Cor. 2. And conversely, if the oppo angles which it makes with the chord
site angles of a quadrilateral be together are equal to the angles in the alternate
equal to two right angles, a circle may segments of the circle, that straight line
be described about it. For, if the cir must touch the circle.
cle described through the three points Scholium.
A, D, B (5. Cor.) were to cut the side
B E in any other point than E, suppose The theorem which has been just
F, the angles AFB, A D B being equal demonstrated, states no more than is
to two right angles, would be equal to the contained in Prop. 15., if the tangent be
angles A.E B, AD B, and therefore the considered as a chord in which the
angle AFB to the angle A E B ; where points of section are coincident. For,
as one of them, being exterior, must if the point F be supposed to move
(I, 8. Cor. 1.) be greater than the other. up to the point C, the chord C F will
tend more and more to coincide in
PROP. 17. (EUC. iii. 32.)
position with the tangent C. B. But
... If a straight line touch a circle, and if E F be joined, them, by Prop. 15,
if from the point of contact a straight the angle D C F is always equal to the
[III. § 3.
GEOMETRY. - ºnt in which
88
E. F. Therefore when F coin
Cy
- according as theorp"...
% ..","...in without the
*: * C, that is, when º .
C F becomes & tangent at C, #º As
circle. -
D C B is equal to the ..". contem Let ABC be a cir

cle, and let the
ver, was a
º the
-
demonstration given §
- -
chords A B, CD
meet one another
that proposition, the inferent." in the point E: the
jäve been directly dº from º
The proposition (2) that the tangen angle AEC shall
is at ‘right angles to the radius IS an be measured by
half the sum or by
ising of the same kind, Oh...".
ise seen in the corollaries of the two half the difference
following propositions, and in certain of the arcs, AC,
properties of tangents which will be BD, according as
found in the next section. the point E is with
in or without the
circle.
PROP. 18.
Parallel chords intercept equal arcs:
Through B draw BF parallel to DQ,
and let it meet the circumference in F;
and conversely. then (18.) the arc FC is equal to BD,
. Let A B C be a
circle,
chords AandB, let
C D the
be º
c >B
*—
N
and therefore the arc AF is equal to the
sum or to the difference of AC, B D,
according as the point E is within or
parallel to one ano without the circle. But, because B F is
ther: the arc A. C parallel to DC, the angle AEC is
shall be equal to the equal to A B F (I.15.); and A B F is
arc B. D. measured by half the arc AF, (14.Cor.1): .
Join B C. Then, because A B is therefore the angle AEC is measured
parallel to CD, the angle A B C (I. 15.) by half the sum or by half the differ
is equal to the angle B C D : therefore ence of the arcs A C, B D, according as
(14. Cor. 2.) the arc A C is equal to the the point E is within or without the
arc B. D. circle.
And conversely, if the arc A C be Therefore, &c.
equal to the are B D, the angle When the point E is in the circum
A B C will (14. Cor. 2.) be equal to the ference, the result of this proposition
angle B C D, and therefore (I.15.) A B coincides with that of 14. Cor, 1.
will be parallel to C. D. Cor. By a similar demonstration
Therefore, &c. (18. Cor) if a chord meet a tangent in
Cor. If one of the chords, as AB, be a point which is not the point of contact,
supposed to move parallel to itself until the angle contained by them will be
the points A and B in which it cuts the measured by half the difference of the
circle coincide, as at E, the same and intercepted arcs.
its converse will be true: that is, if a The case of a chord meeting a tan
chord and tangent be parallel, they gent in the point of contact, has been
shall intercept equal arcs; and con already contemplated in Prop. 17. It
versely. may be considered, however, as included
For, because E F is parallel to CD, under the above rule, the measuring arc
the angle FEC is equal (I. 15.) to the in this case being the same by this co
angle E CD, which stands upon the arc rollary as by Prop. 17.
E D: but, because EF is a tangent,
(17.) the same FEC is equal to E D C
which stands upon the arc E.C. There SECTION 3.—Rectangles under the
fore the arc E C is equal to E D, Segments of Chords.
(14. Cor. 2.) And the proof of the con
verse is similarly varied. PROP. 20. (EUc. iii. 35.)
PROP. 19. If two chords of a circle cut one

another, the rectangles under their seg
If two chords of a circle meet one ments terminating in the points of
another, the angle contained by them section shall be equal, whether they
shall be measured by half the sum, or cut one another within or without the
by half the difference of the intercepted circle. - -
III, § 3.]
GEOMETRY.
ci º: A B C be a
rcle, and let t EC
89
E, is equal to the rectangle under

D.
A E i.
chords. A B, cº .2 Tº
Therefore, &c.
ºut, or be produced
to ºut, one another The same remark may be made here
in the point E: the “S as at the end of the preceding proposi
ºctangleunderAE. tiº; viz., that an easy demonstratiºn
E B shall be equal isCor.
likewise
1.
afforded by I.33, and I.
to the rectangleum. Cor. And hence, conversely, if two
der CE, E D.
Join AD, B.C. straight lines A B, C E cut one another
Then, because the in a point E, and if the points A, B and
º
angle EAD is equal C, be so taken, that the square of EC
ſ *
to the angle ECB be equal to the rectangle under A.E,
EB, the straight line EC shall touch
in the same segment (15.), and that the circle which passes through the
the angles at E, which are vertical (I. 3.) points A, B, C.
as in the upper figure, or coincide as in
the lower, are equal to one another, the PROP. 22. (EUC. vi. B.)
| triangles AED, CEB are equiangular.
m;
If the vertical or exterior-vertica?
É) Therefore (II, 31.) AE; Ei): Fö. angle of a triangle be bisected by a
EB, and (II. 38.) the rectangle under straight line, which cuts the base, or
| || the #. produced, the square of that
}I), AE, EB is equal to the rectangle under
C E, E D. straight line shall be equal to the
| Of Therefore, &c. difference of the rectangles under the
F; We may remark that an easy demon two sides, and under the segments of
stration of this proposition is likewise the base, or of the base produced.”
afforded by I. 39.; for the rectangles in Let A B C be a triangle, and let the
question are each of them equal to the vertical or exterior-vertical angle be
difference of the squares of the radius, bisected by the *
and of the distance of the point E from straight line ^
the centre of the circle, A D, the
, which ºft-ril–)c
Cor. And hence, conversely, if two meets base | /
straight lines A B, CD cut one another or the base
|^
\l.
/
in a point E, and if the points A, B and produced in D:
C, D be so taken, that the rectangle the square of
under A E, EB be equal to the rect A D shall be +:
angle under CE, ED; the points equal to the 2.

* C, D shall lie in the circumference
of the same circle.
difference
the rectangles
of n/
BA, A C, and
PROP. 21. (EUC. iii. 36.) B D, D.C. -
Let A E C be the circle which (5. Cor.)

If any chord of a circle be produced passes through the points A, B, C, and
to cut a tangent to the same circle, the
iet AD be produced to meet the cir
square of the tangent shall be equal to cumference
the rectangle under the segments of the in E, and join E C.
chord. Then, because the angles B.A. D,
Let A B C be a circle, and let the E A C are halves, or supplementary to
chord A B be pro the halves of the bisected angle, they
duced to meet the are equal to one another: also the angle
tangent C E in E: A BI) is equal to the angle A E C in
the square of C E the same º
iangles B A D, Demg equ •
shall be equal to
the rectangle under º #...; BA : AD :: E.A.: A Q, and
A E, E B. (II, 38.) the rectangle under B.A., A C is
Join CA, C B. equal to the rectangle under EA, A.D.
Then, because the
angle E G B is equal to the angle EAC Again, because the chords B.C., E.A.
in the alternate segment of the circle, cut one another in D (20.), the rect
(17) and that the angle at E is com * This, as is evident from the enunciation, is |
roperty not of the circle, but of a triangle, º:
mon to the two triangles EC B, E A C, §. as such to I. § 6. The required . #.
these two triangles are equiangular. tion has, however, in this and one or two §:
Therefore (II. 3i.) A E : E C :: E C : stances rendered an infringement of the classi n
EB, and (II. 38. Cor. 1.) the square of unavoidable,
|
90 GEOMETRY. [III, 53.
angle under BD, D C is equal to the EAC, B A D being equiangular, BA :
rectangle under ED, D A : therefore, A D :: E A : A C (II.3.1.), and (II. 38.)
the difference of the rectangles under the rectangle under B.A, A C is equal
BA, A C and B D, D C is equal to the to the rectangle under EA, A D.
difference of the rectangles under E A, Therefore, &c. -
|| ||
AD, and ED, DA, that is, to the square Cor. If two triangles be inscribed in
of A D (I. 31.). the same, or in equal circles, the rect
Therefore, &c. angle under the two sides of the one,
It should be observed in the case of shall be to the rectangle under the two
*
exterior bisection (see the lower figure), sides of the other, as the perpendicular,
that the bisecting line AD must, if pro which is drawn from the vertex to the
duced, cut the circumference in a second base of the one, to the perpendicular
oint E, in all cases in which it cuts the which is drawn from the vertex to the
ase B C produced in a point D ; that base of the other (II. 35.).
is, in all cases in which the sides A B,
AC are unequal. For when AB is equal PROP, 24.
to A C, the angles A B C, A C B are . If a quadrilateral be inscribed in a
likewise equal (I. 6.), and therefore circle, its diagonals shall be to one an.
(I. 19. and I. ax. 5.) equal to the halves other as the sums of the rectangles under
of the exterior angle: therefore, the the sides adjacent to their extremities.
angle C A D beingequal to A C B, AID Let A C B D be a
is parallel to BC (I.15.), and the same quadrilateral figure, A.
C A D being equal to the angle ABC inscribed in the circle
in the alternate segment, A D touches
**. and A B, CD
-
the circle in A (17. Cor.). But, when its diagonals: A B . ºc

one of the sides, as AB, is greater than ... "...”.”érº. /kº
the sum of CAx A D CŞ
the other, the angle ACB is also greater º
than ABC (I. 9.); therefore the angle and CBX B D to the
CAD, which (I. 19.) is equal to half the sum of A C x C B, ~w
sum of the two ABC, ACB, is less than and A D x D B. 15
A C B, and greater than A B C ; and Let A B, and C D cut one another in

because the angle CAD is not equal to the point E.: and, first, let A B cut CD
ACB, AD is not parallel to BC (I, 15.); at right angles. Then, because A CD,
and because the same CAD is not equal B C D, C A B, and D A B are triangles
to ABC, that is to the angle in the alter inscribed in the same circle, the per
mate segment, A D does not touch the pendiculars A E, BE, C E and DE, are
circle in A, but cuts it and meets the to one another as the rectangles A Cx
circumference in a second point E, as AD, B C x B D, CAx C B, and D Ax
Was observed. D B : therefore, (II. 25. Cor. 3.) the sum
of AE and B E, that is AB, is to the
PROP. 23. (EUC. vi. C.) sum of C E and D E, that is C D, as the
If a triangle be inscribed in a circle, sum of A C x AD, and B Cºx B D to
the sum of C Ax C B and D Ax D B.
and if a perpendicular be drawn from
the vertex to the base ; the rectangle In the next place, let A B-cut CD, but
aunder the two sides shall be equal to the not at right angles: and let the per
rectangle under the perpendicular and pendiculars Aa, B b, C c, and D d be
the diameter of the circle. drawn. Then, as before, it may be
Let A B C be a triangle inscribed in shown that A a +B b is to C c--D d,
the circle A B C ; from A draw A D as A C x AD+B C x B D to CAX
perpendicular to BC, and C B+D Ax D B. But, because the tri
AE through the centre of angles A E a, B E b, C E c, DEd, are
the circle to meet
circumference #,4–ſº
in E: the cy
equiangular, A a, B b, C c, and Dd are
to one another as AE, BE,CE, and
rectangle under BA, AC DE (II. 31.). Therefore, A a + Bºis
shall be equal to the rect to C c--D d, as AE-i-B E to C E--DE,
angle under EA, A. D. 3. that is, as A B to C D. Therefore,
oim CE. Then, because A C E is a (II. 12.) A B : C D :: A Cºx AD+BC
semicircle, (15. Cor. 1.) the angle A C E × B D : C A x C B+ D Ax D B.
Therefore, &c.
is a right angle: but ADB is likewise
a right angle, and the angle A E C is PROP. 25. (EUc. vi. D.)
equal to the angle A B D in the same If a quadrilateral be inscribed in 4
segment (15.); therefore, the triangles circle, the rectangle under its diagonals
shall be equal to the sum of the rect SECTION 4,-Regular polygons, and
angles under its opposite sides. approacimation to the area of the
Let A CBD be circle.
a quadrilateral
scribed in
in the circle . A
Def. 11. A regular polygon is that
A B C ; and let AB, which has all its sides equal, and likewise
CD be its diagonals: all its angles equal.
the rectangle under A figure of five sides is called a penta
A B, CD shall be \Z– gon; a figure of six sides a hearagon; of
º equal to the sum of ten sides a decagon ; and of fifteen sides
the rectangles under a pente-decagon. There is so seldom
AD, B C, and A C, º any occasion, however, to specify the
BD. number of sides of an irregular figure,
At the point A make the angle DAF as distinct from a multilateral figure in
º to B A C, and let AF meet CD general, that it has become common to
In º'. appropriate these names with others of
| Then, because the angle A B C is similar derivation (as by way of pre
equal to A D F in the same segment eminence) to the regular figures—“a
(15.), and that B A C was made equal hexagon,” for instance, is understood to
to DAF, the triangles A B C, A D F mean a regular figure of six sides, and
are equiangular: therefore, (II. 31.) AB: so of the rest.
BC :: A D: DF, and (II. 38.) the rect It is evident, that regular polygons,
angle under AB, D F is equal to the which have the same number of sides,
rectangle under AD, B.C. are similar figures; for their angles are
Again, because the angles B A C, equal, each to each, because they are
DAF are equal to one another, let the contained the same number of times in
angle BAF be added to each; therefore the same number of right angles (I.20.);
the whole angle FAC is equal to the whole and their sides about the equal angles
angle D A B; and the angle FC A is are to another in the same ratio, viz. the
equal to the angle D BA in the same ratio of equality. -
segment (15.); therefore, the triangles 12. The centre of a regular polygon
AFC, ADB are equiangular. There is the same with the common centre of
fore (II. 31.) A B : B D :: A C : C F, the inscribed and circumscribed circles
and (II. 38.) the rectangle under A B, (see Prop. 26.); and the perpendicular
C F is equal to the rectangle AC, B D.
which is drawn from the centre to any
Therefore, the sum of the rectangles one of the sides is called the apothem.
under A B, D F and AB, C F, that is, 13. Similar arcs of circles are those
(I, 30. Cor.) the rectangle under AB, which subtend equal angles at the centre.
CD, isequal to the sum of the rectangles Similar sectors and segments are those
under A D, B C, and A C, B D, which are bounded by similar arcs.
Therefore, &c.
Cor. Hence, a quadrilateral may be PROP. 26. (EUC. iv. 13 and 14.).
constructed, which shall have its sides If any two adjoining angles of a
equal to four given straight lines, in a regular polygon be bisected, the inter
given order, each to each, and its angular section of the bisecting lines shall be the
points º in the circumference of a common centre of two circles, the one
circle. For, by the 24th proposition, the circumscribing, the other inscribed in,
ratio of the diagonals, and by that which the polygon.
has been just demonstrated, their rect Let A B C DEF
angle is 'given: therefore, (II. 63.) the be any regular po
diagonals may be found, and (I. 50.) the lygon, and let the
quadrilateral constructed. angles at A and B r
It is only essential to the possibility be bisected by the
of the construction that of the four given straight lines AO,
straight lines, every three be greater B O ; which meet
than the fourth (I, 10. Cor. 2.). It is in some point O,
remarkable that, although the diagonals (I, 15. Cor. 4.) because each of the am
will be differentin different orders of the gles FAB, C B A is less than two right
iven sides, the circumscribing circle angles, and therefore each of their halves
as the same magnitude whatsoever be OAB, OBA less than a right angle, and
their order. (See Sect. 5. Prop. 41. the two together less than two right an
* Scholium.) gles The point O shall be the centre
º
92 GEOMETRY. III. $4.
of two circles, one passing through all and its angles standing upon equal arcs,
the points A, B, C, D, E, F, and the viz. the differences between the whole
other in contact with all the sides AB, circumference, and two of the former,
B C, CD, DE, E. F. are likewise equal (14. Cor. 2.).
Join O C, O D, O E, OF, and draw Next, let a b c defbe the figure which
the perpendiculars O a, O b, O c, Od, is included by tangents drawn through
O e, Of. Then, because the triangles the points A B C D EF: this shall like
O B C, O B A have two sides of the one wise be a regular polygon.
equal to two sides of the other, each to Let O be the centre of the circle, and
each, and the included angles O B C, join OA, OB, Oa, O b, OC. Then be
O B A equal to one another, (I. 4.) the cause a A, a B, are tangents drawn from
base O C is equal to the base OA, and the same point, they are equal to one
the angle O C B to the angle O A B. another (2. Cor. 3.). And because the
But OAB is the half of FAB, and FAB triangles A Oa, B O a have the three
is equal to D C B : therefore O C B is sides of the one equal to the three sides
the half of DCB, and the latter angle is of the other, each to each, the angle
bisected by the line O C. By a similar B O a is equal to AO a, that is, to the
demonstration, therefore, it may be half of A C B. In like manner, it may
shown that OD is equal to O B, OE to be shown that the angle BOb is equal
OC, and OF to OD. And, because the to the half of B O C ; and A O B is
angles O AB, O BA, being halves of equal to B O C, because the arc AB
equal angles, are equal to one another, is equal to the arc B C (12.); there
OB is equal to OA (1.6.). Therefore the fore the angle B O a is equal to B Ob.
straight lines drawn from O to the angu Therefore B O a, B O b are triangles
lar points of the figure are equal to one which have two angles of the one equal
another, and O is the centre of a circle to two angles of the other, each to each,
passing through those points. And be and the interjacent side O B common
cause A B, BC, &c. are equal chords to both : consequently, (I. 5.) they are
of the same circle, they are at equal equal in every respect, and B a is equal
distances from the centre O (4. Cor.) : to B 5; therefore a 5 is bisected in B.
that is, the perpendiculars Oa, Ob, &c. In the same manner it may be shown
are equal to one another, and Q is that a f is bisected in A; and it has
likewise the centre of a circle described' been shown that a B, a A, are equal to
with the apothem O a or O b for its ra one another; therefore a b is equal to
dius, and (2) touching the sides in their af. And by a like demonstration it
middle points (3.), a, b, c, d, e, f. may be shown that the other sides of
Therefore, &c. the figure are each of them equal to ab
PROP. 27. or a f. Therefore, the figure a b c def
has all its sides equal to one another.
If the circumference of a circle be di And because its angles, as a, b, are sup
vided into any number of equal parts, plements (I.20. Cor.) of equal angles, as
the chords joining the points of division AOB, B O C, they are likewise all equal
shall include a regular polygon inscribed to one another. Therefore it is a regular
an the circle; and the tangents drawn polygon.
through those points shall include a re. Therefore, &c.
gular polygon ºf the same number of Cor. l. (Euc, iv. 12.). If any regular
sides circumscribed about the circle. polygon be inscribed in a circle, a similar
Ilet the circumfe- .A.
polygon may be circumscribed about the
rence of the circle circle by drawing tangents through the
ACF be divided ºf !" angular points of the former; and con
into any number of . versely. -
equal parts in the Cor. 2. If, any regular polygon being

points A, B, C, D, E, inscribed in a circle, a tangent be drawn
F. The figure which parallel to one of its sides, and be ter
is included by the minated both ways by radii, passing
straightlines joining through the extremitiés of that side,
those points shall be such terminated tangent shall be a side
a regular polygon. of a regular polygon of the same num
For its sides being ber of sides circumscribed about the
the chords of equal circle. For, since the radius drawn to
arcs of the same cir the point of contact bisects the side
cle, are (12.Gor. 1.) equal to one another; (3. Cor. 1.) at right angles, and there
III, § 4.] GEOMETRY, 93
|t|lº,
this wi. fore also bisects the angle formed by the double of ACE, and that A B E being.
| |\ºmſ, radii passing through its extremities equal (I. 6.) to B A C is likewise double
(I. 6. Cor. 3.) it is obvious from I. 5. of ACE, A E B is equal to A B E, and
''),
that the parts of the tangent in question AB is equal to AE or EC (I. 6.). But,
rigº are equal to one another, and to the because the straight line A.E bisects the
awi im; halves of any side of the regular circum angle B A C, CA : A B :: C E : E B
issilk
º polygon of the same number of (II. 50.). Therefore CB : C E :: CE :
S1CleS. EB, that is the radius CB is medially
he diºd divided in E; and A B, the side of the
(, Thº, PROP. 28. (EUC. iv. 10. and 15. Cor.) decagon, is equal to the greater seg
isiºnſ, The side of a regular hexagon , is ment C E.
alſº equal to the radius of the circle in which Lastly, let A B be
diº fit is inscribed ; the side of a regular the side of a regular
*** decagon is equal to the greater segment pentagon incribed in
**ś of the radius divided medially ; and the the circle A D B, the
º, ſº side-square of a regular ; *s centre of which is C.
##| || - greater than the square of the radius by Bisect the angle
mº, itſ the side-square of a regular decagon A C B by the radius
}0} is tº inscribed in the same circle. C E (I. Post. 4.):
iſ A0p; First, let A B be
the side of a hexa- j}
then the arcs AE, E B measuring equal
| angles, are equal to one another (12.).
º
|.); ſº gon inscribed in the Join AE; take C F equal to A E, and
jºi. circle ADB, the cen- A join A. F. Then, because the are AE
tº tre of which is C. is the half of A B, it is contained ten
hº Oſę t! - Join C A, C B, and times in the whole circumference, and
º let A C produced the chord A E is the side of a regular
}} tº meet the circum decagon inscribed in the circle ADB.
3)\º, ference in D. Then, because the arc Again, the angle E A C being measured
A B is contained in the whole circum by half the are E B D, that is, by two
isºdel 1" ference six times, it is contained three fifths of the semi-circumference AED, is
lº times in the semi-circumference A B D, equal to the angle FC A, which is mea
**** and twice in the arc B. D. But the an sured by the arc AB, that is likewise
intº gle BAC is measured by half of the are by two-fifths of the semi-circumference
is º | BD, (14. Cor. 1.) and the angle A C B A E D ; therefore, because the trian
strºllſ' by the arc A. B. Therefore the angle gles E A C, F C A, have two sides
. sid: | BAC is equal to A CB, and the side of the one equal to two sides of the
quil"t A B is equal to BC; that is, the side of other, each to each, and the included
alcdº. the regular hexagon is equal to the ra angles equal to one another, the base
is anglº dius of the circle, AF (I.4.) is equal to CE or AC. And,
baſes: Secondly, let AB because from the vertex A of the isos
langº be the side of a regu celes triangle A C F, the straight line
lar decagon inscribed AB is drawn to meet the base produced
in the circle A D B in B, the square of A B is greater than
the centre of which the square of A.C (I. 39.) by the rectan
is C. Join CA, CB, gle CB, BF. But CF being equal to AE,
and let AC produced the side of a regular decagon, the radius
meet the circumfer- -
C B is medially divided in F, as shown in
ence in D. Then, because the arc AB the second part of the proposition; and
is contained ten times in the whole cir therefore the rectangle CB, BF is equal
cumference, it is contained five times in to the square of CFor AE (II. 38. Cor.l.).
the semi-circumference A BD, and four Therefore the square of A B is greater
times in the arc B. D. But the angle than the square of AC by the square of
B A C is measured by half of the arc AE; that is, the side-square of a regu
BD (14. Cor. 1.) and the angle A C B is lar pentagon is greater than the square
measured by the arc AB. Therefore of the radius by the side-square of a
the angle B A C is equal to twice the regular decagon inscribed in the same
angle AC B. Let the angle BAC be circle.
bisected by the line A E, and let A. E. Therefore, &c.
meet C B in E. Then, because the an
gle EAC is equal to ACE, the side EA PROP. 29.
is equal to EC; and because A E B is
equal to the two EAC, ACE, that is The area of any regular polygon is
94 GEOMETRY. [III, § 4, || ||
tºtill
equal to half the rectangle under its equal to one another (II. ax. 2.), as Affilist
perimeter and apothem. also their halves (I.6. Cor. 3.) the angles in the wº
Let A B C DE F be any regular po A OK, a 9 k. Therefore the triangles &\{ \º
lygon, O its centre, and OK, which is AO B, a o b (II.32.) as also AOK, a 0 k, PQ at .
drawn perpendicular to A B, its apo (II. 31. Cor. 1.) are similar, and AB is to (Wallo!
them: the area of the polygon shall be a b as OA to oa, or as OK took (II.3.1.). Cºr. })
equal to half the rectangle under the But, because the polygons are similar, Subiº's
#ºn O K and the perimeter ABC their perimeters are to one another as timum
AB to a b, and their areas as AB2 to abº frºntº
(II. 43). Therefore their perimeters are
to one another as OA to oa, or as OK to isld
|Erin'ſ
ok (II. 12.); and their areas as OA” to | Him
0 a-, or as OK? to 0 kº. (II, 37. Cor, 4.)
Therefore, &c. $ºly
ūtº
•r
PROF. 31. A\ diri
A J& B ---
the inst
Take A L equal to the sum of the Any circle being given, similar re that is,
sides or perimeter A B C D EF, and join gular polygons may be, the one in to DC,
O L, O.B. Then because the sides are scribed, and the other circumscribed, mildew
equal to one another, the base AL con such that the difference of their peri |time;
tains the base AB, and therefore the tri meters or areas shall be less than any Ślęſali)
angle O AL contains the triangle OAB, given difference.
(I. 27.) as many times as the polygon Let C be the
has sides. But, because the triangles centre and C A the
OAB, OBC, &c. having equal bases and radius of any given
altitudes (I. 27.), are equal to one ano circle: and let K be
ther, the polygon likewise contains the any given straight -
\\
triangle OAB as many times as it has line; there may be §§nji:
sides. Therefore the polygon is equal found two regular In
to the triangle OA L, (II. ax. 1.) that polygons of the º
is, (I. 26. Cor.) to half the rectangle un same number of lºſe
der the perimeter AL and apothem OK. sides, the one in |Slith
Therefore, &c. scribed in the cir §§§ {
cle, the other cir ‘Mallºt
PROP. 30. (EUC. xii. 1.) cumscribed about . -
The perimeters of similar regular the circle, which shall have the difference
polygons are as the radii of the in of their perimeters less than the straight
Scribed or circumscribed circles, and line K, or the difference of their areas
their areas are as the squares of the less than the square of K. - -
Tadii. -
And first of the perimeters, Let L be

Let O, O be the centres of two re a straight line equal to the perimeter of
gular polygons having the same number some circumscribed polygon; and letthe
of sides, A B, a b, any two sides, and radius AC be divided in the point D in
O K, o k lines drawn from the centres the ratio of K to L (II, 55.). Through D
draw the chord E. F. perpendicular to
C A, and draw the radius C B likewise
perpendicular to C A : bisect the arc
AB in M,” the arc A.M. in N, the are
A N in P, and so on till the point of
to
bisection fall between A and E.; let P be
.A. R. B.
the first point so falling; draw the chord
PQ parallel to E F and cutting the
perpendicular to them respectively : radius
then (26.) O A, o a are the radii of the C A in R. Then, because the
circumscribed circles, and O K, ok the double of the arc A P is contained a
radii of the inscribed circles. The peri
meters of the polygons shall be to one the* neighbourhood
The necessity of having the lines and letters in
of A clear and distinct has led the
another as OA to o a, or OK to 0 k and engraver to tax the reader's imagination somewhat
their areas as OA* to oa”, or OK? to ok?. more than was absolutely necessary in the figures of
this proposition. He is requested, therefore, to sup:
Because the polygons have the same gº that the point M bisects the arc AB, the point
number of sides, the angles A O B, ao 6 the arc A.M., and the point P the arc A.N. With
regard to the operation of bisecting the are, we should
are contained the same number of times remark that it may be effected by bisecting the angle
in four right angles, and are therefore at the centre (12.),
III, § 4.] GEOMETRY. 95
eertain number of times in the quadrant been to the inscribed polygon as Kº to

A B, it is contained four times as often M2 would have been less than Kº, be
in the whole circumference. But be cause the inscribed polygon is less than
eause the radius C A cuts the chord M2. Much more, then, is the difference
PQ at right angles, the are PA Q is between the inscribed and circumscribed
equal to the double of AP (3. and I. 6. polygons less than K square, that is,
Cor. 3.). Therefore the arc which it less than the given difference.
subtends being contained exactly a cer Therefore, &c. -
tain number of times in the whole circum Cor. 1. Any circle being given, a re
ference, the chord PQ is the side of an gular polygon may be inscribed (or cir
inscribed polygon (27.). And because the cumscribed) which shall differ from the
perimeter of this inscribed polygon is to circle, in perimeter or in area, by less
the perimeter of the similar circum than any given, difference. For the
scribed polygon as CR to CA (30.), the difference between the circle and either
difference of their perimeters (invertendo of the polygons is less than the difference
and dividendo) is to the perimeter of of the two º º
the inscribed polygon as AR to RC, Cor. 2. ny two circles being given,

that is, in a less ratio than that of A D similar regular polygons may be in
to DC, or of K to L. But even a mag scribed (or circumscribed), which shall
nitude which should have been to the differ from the circles, in perimeter or
perimeter of the inscribed polygon in the in area, by less than any the same given
same ratio as that of K to L would have difference.
been less than K (II. I8.), because the
perimeter of the inscribed polygon is PROF. 32.
less than L (I, 10. Cor. 3.). Much more, The area of a circle is equal to half
then, is the difference of the perimeters the rectangle under the radius and cir
of the inscribed and circumscribed po cumference. -
lygons less than K, that is, less than the Let C be the centre, and C A the ra
given difference. dius of any circle: from the point A let
In the next
there be drawn AB perpendicular to
place, of the areas.
LetMbeastraight
line, such that the
square of M is
equal to the area
of some circum
scribed polygon: A 13
let AC (II.55.)be
divided in d in the CA, and suppose any line AB equal to
ratio of K-square the circumference of the circle, and join
to M-square, and CB: the circle shall be equal to the tri
let C D be taken angle C A B. -
(II. 51.) a mean ; For, if not equal, it must be either

proportional between C A and C d. greater or less than the triangle. First,
Then, as before, there may be found an let it be supposed greater, and therefore
inscribed polygon whose apothem. CR equal to some triangle CAD, the base
isgreater than CD. Take Cr (II.52.) a AD of which is greater than AB. Then,
third proportional to CA and CR 5 and, because (31.) there may be circum
because CD* : CRA :: CAx C d : CAx scribed about the circle à regular poly
Çr (II, 38. Cor. 1.), in which proportion gon, the perimeter of which approaches
the first term is less than the second, the more nearly to that of the circle (AB)
third is also less than the fourth (II. 14.), than by any given difference, as BD, a.
and therefore C dis less than C. r. And polygon may be circumscribed, the pe=
because the area of the inscribed poly Himeter of which shall be less than D.
gon is to the area of the similar polygon But the area of any regular polygon is
circumscribed as CR2 to CAs (30.), that equal to half the rectangle under its peri
is (II. 35.), as Cºr to C A (invertendo meter and apothem (29.). Therefore the
and dividendo), the difference of their area of such circumscribed polygon will
areas is to the area of the inscribed po be less than the triangle CAD, less
lygon as Ar to C r, or in a less ratio that is, than the supposed area of the
than that of Ald to Cd, or of K2 to Ms. circle ; which is absurd.
Buteven a magnitude which should have Neither can the area of the circle be
96 GEOMETRY... [III, § 4.
less than the triangle CAB; for, as the ratio; viz. that of the angle at the centre
perimeter of every circumscribed poly (13.) to four right angles, are to one ano
gon is greater than the circumference ther, alternando, as the whole circum
A B (I. 10. Scholium), and therefore, as ferences (or circles), that is, by the pro
before shown, the polygon itself greater position, as the radii (or the squares of
than the triangle CAB, to which, how the radii.)
ever, it may be made to approach within Cor. 2. Similar segments of circles
any given difference, because its peri are as the squares of the radii (II. 22.).
meter may be made (31. Cor. 1.) to ap For they are the differences of similar
proach to AB within any given difference; sectors, and similar triangles, (def. 13.
so, because similar polygons may be in and II. 32.), which sectors (Cor. I.) as
scribed and cicumscribed approaching to also the triangles (II. 42.) are as the
one another more nearly than by any squares of the radii.
given difference (31.) a polygon may be PROP. 34.
inscribed approaching to the triangle
CA B within any given difference, that If K and L represent two regular
is greater than the circle, if the circle be polygons of the same number of sides,
supposed to be less than the triangle the one inscribed in, and the other cir
C A B ; which is absurd. cumscribed about, the same circle, and if
Therefore the circle is neither greater M and N represent the inscribed and
nor less than the triangle C A B, that is, circumscribed polygons of twice the
it is equal to it, number of sides; M shall be a geome
Therefore, &c. trical mean between K and L, and N
Cor. Any circular sector is equal to shall be an harmonical mean between I,
half the rectangle under the radius of and M.
the circle, and the arc upon which it Let C be the centre
stands: for it is less than the circle in of the circle, A B a
the ratio of that arc to the circum side of the inscribed
ference (13.). polygon K, C D a
radius drawn per
PROP. 33. (EUc. xii. 2.) pendicular to, and
The circumferences of circles are as therefore (3.) bisect
the radii, and their areas are as the ing A B in the point
squares of the radii. I. Then, if EF be drawn, touching the .
Let R, r, represent the radii of two circle in D, and terminated by C A and
circles, C, c their circumferences, and CB produced; EF will (27. Cor. 2.) be a
A a, their areas: then C : c :: R : r, side of the circumscribed polygon L of
and A : a R2 : re. the same number of sides. Also, if AD
For, in the first place, there may be be joined, and at the points A and B
inscribed (31. Cor. 2.) two similar poly tangents be drawn to meet E F in the
gons, the perimeters of which approach points G and H; AD and G H will be
more nearly to the perimeters C, c of the sides of the polygons M and N of twice
two circles, than by any the same given the number of sides (27.).
difference; and the perimeter of the one Now, because the triangles C A I,
polygon (30.) is to the perimeter of the C E D, CAD, C G H are severally con
other, always in the same ratio, viz. as tained in the polygons K, L, M, N, the
R to r : therefore, C: c :: R : r (II. 28.). same number of times, viz. as often as
And, in the same manner, because the angle ACD, or G CH, is contained
there may be inscribed in the circles two in four right angles, the polygons are
similar polygons, the areas of which (31. one to another as those triangles(II.17).
Cor. 2.) approach more nearly to the But the triangle CA I is to the triangle
areas A, a of the circles, than by any the C AID as C I to CD, (II. 39.) that is
same given difference; and because the (because A I, ED are parallels), as CA
area of the one polygon (30.) is always to C E, that is, again, as the triangle
to the area of the other in the same ratio, C A D to the triangle C E D (II, 39),
viz. as R* to rº, A : a R*: r2 (II. 28.). And, because CAI is to CAD as CAD
Therefore, &c. to CED, K. : M :: M. L (II. 17. Cor. 2.)
Cor. 1. Hence, similar arcs of circles and M is a mean proportional between
are as their radii; and similar sectors are K and L. -
as the squares of their radii. For such Again, because the triangle C G H is
arcs (or sectors) being to the whole cir double of C G D, and, therefore, equal
cumferences (or circles) in the same to the quadrilateral C A GD; the tri
III. $4.] GEOMETRY, '97
angle A E G is equal to the difference cumscribed figure of 8 sides to contain

of the triángles CED, CG H, and the 3.3137084989 &c. superficial units. In the
triangle A G D to the difference of the same manner, from these inscribed and
triangles CGH, C A D. But A E G is circumscribed figures of 8 sides, are to be
to AGD as EG to GD, that is, (II. 50.) obtained the inscribed and circumscribed
because the line GC bisects the angle figures of 16 sides; and so on. This
ACD, as EC to CD or CA, that is again, process leads us, after 18 times doubling
as the triangle C E D to the triangle the number of sides,” to the following
CAD (II. 39.). And, because CED is to values of the inscribed and circum
.C AD as the difference of C E D, C G H scribed polygons of 1,048,576 sides.
to the difference of C G H, C A D, L : 3.1415926535 &c. -
M :: L–N : N–M (II. 17. Cor. 2.); 3.1415926535 &c. values which
that is, N is an harmonical mean be differ from one another by a quantity
tween L and M (def. 17.). which does not appear in the tenth deci
Therefore, &c. mal place. But the circle is greater than
Scholium. one, and less than the other of these
The proposition which has been just
demonstrated, affords one of the most * In the following table of polygonal areas, suc
simple methods of approximating to the cessively computed as in the text, the letters, A, B,
C, D, &c. indicate the regular polygons of 4, 8, 16,
area of the circle: to which purpose it 32, &c. sides; and, to show the progress of the ap
may be applied as follows. proximation, dots are substituted for the figures at
Let the diameters the head of their respective columns.
AB, DE be drawn - A A lſ in. 2.
cir. 4.
at right angles to B | in. 2.8284271247
one another : the \ cir. 3.3137084989
straightlinesjoining D& C {{. 3.0644674589

cir. ... 1825.978.780
their extremities will D in. ... 124445,522
include an inscribed l cir. ...517249074
E { in. . . .365484303
square, and the tan l cir. . . .441183852
gents drawnthrough tº F in. . . .4033.3%
ić. ... ºdo
'the same a circumscribed square. Now it G ſin. . . . . 27.33%
is plain that the circumscribed square is H
leir. . . . . 17503692
{. • * - - - 51380.11
equal to 4 times the square of the radius, cir. . . . . . 6320807
and the inscribed to half the circum I { in. . . . . . 5729.404
scribed, that is, to twice the square of l cir. ..... 6025 103
the radius. Therefore, if the radius be K ſin. . . . . . 5877953
l cir. ..... 5951177
assumed for the linear unit, the inscribed L in. . . . . . . 9.14215
square will contain 2, and the circum l cir. . . . . . . . 32696
in. ... . . . .23456
scribed 4 units of area. But the in M{ cir. ...... .28076
scribed figure of eight sides is a mean N $ in. ... .. ..
proportional between them; therefore,

the number of units of area which it com:
tains, will be a mean proportional be
tween 2 and 4,- V2x4, -2.8284271247
&c. to hetenth decimal place inclusively.
And the number which is an harmo
nical mean between 4 and 2.8284.27 1247
Will, in like manner, be the number
of superficial units in the circum T{:}; ... 5
Scribed figure of 8 sides. Now, to Qf a calculation which has attracted so much atten.
find such a mean a between two num tion, it is not impossible that the student ma be
bers m, n, we have this proportion, curious enough to revise the steps, or even push it to
a still greater degree of approximation.
* : *:; m —a a — n (II. def. 17); In doing this by the method here given, his labour
will be considerably abridged by attending to the
whence, multiplying extremes and following rules.
means, m × (a:-n) = n x (m—a'); 1°. Annex, one more to the decimal places which
are required to be exactly ascertained, and with this
transposing, mac + na = 2 m n ; and additional place, mse the abbreviated modes of multi
dividing by m-n, w= * #: that is, am plying, dividing, and extracting the Square root, viz.
by inverting the multiplier, criting off successively
7m + 77
the figures of the divisor, and dividing out ºn the
harmonical mean between two numbers root is obtained to half the required number ofplaces
is obtained by dividing twice their pro (See Arith, art, 167. 185.)
2°. When the calculation has proceeded so far
duct by their sum. Thus we find the cir that (a being the difference of *
preceding poly. -
*
98 GEOMETRY. [III. § 4.
polygons: therefore, the area of the by the Greek letter ºr, being the first
circle is correctly denoted by 3.1415926 letter of the Greek word which signifies
535 as far as the tenth decimal place circumference.* For the same number
inclusively. which represents the area of a circle
This number is commonly represented when the radius is taken for unit, re
gons, and b the lesser of the two), the quotient of the as the former, and an equal perimeter; m shall be an
- &4 arithmetical mean between k and I, and n a geometri
fraction 1603? when expressed in decimals, has no cal mean between l and m.
To demonstrate this:
significant figure in the first ten decimal places, the Let AB be a side, and C the centre of any regular
harmonical mean may be found by taking half the polygon; let CD be drawn perpendicular to AB, and
sum or arithmetical mean, and subtracting therefrom join CA, CB: then CD is the
a 2. radius, h, of the inscribed cir- {E
17. Since b=3.14, &c., this rule may be used when cle, and CA the radius, l,
of the circumscribed circle.
2 a.4 does not appear in the last place but three. From DC produced cut off CE
* 3 equal to CA or CB, and join
39, And in like manner, when is not found EA, EB : from C draw CF
16 b 2
perpendicular to EA, and
in the last decimal place (or which is the same thing therefore (I. 6. Cor. 3.) bi
nearly, 7a3 in the last place but three), the geome secting EA, and through F
trical mean may be obtained by taking the arithme draw FG parallel to AB, and
2 therefore §: 14.) perpendi- A D
tical mean and subtracting therefrom #: cular to ED,2 which it cuts in
the point H.
[4°. when #1, not found in the last decimal Then, because the angle AEC is
-
tººl -
to half the
angle ACD (I. 19.), the angle, AEB, or FEG, is
place, (or 8 r2 in the last but two) neither the har equal to half the angle ACD; also, because EF is
monical nor the geometrical mean will differ appa equal to the half of ÉA, FG is equal (II. 30. Cor. 2.)
to the half of AB: therefore FG is the side of a re
rently from the arithmetical, which may therefore gular Fº which has twice as many sides as the
be taken for them.
Or, when this comes to be the case, instead of former, E its centre, EH the radius, m, of the inscribed
computing the intermediate polygonal areas, the circle, and EF the radius, n, of the circumscribed
area of the circle may be ". found to the re circle.
quired number of places by the following rule. But, because EF, is equal to half EA, EH is
“Let an inscribed polygon be the last computed; (II. 30.) equal to half ED, or to half the sum of CD
take the difference between its area and that of the and CA; that is, m is an arithmetical mean between
preceding circumscribed ; divide this difference k and l. And, again, because from the angleº
(considered as a whole number) by that powerof 2, say F of the triangle EFC, FH is drawn perpendicular to
3m, which is next less than it ; multiply the quotient the hypotenuse EC, EF is a mean proportional be
frt-l tween EC and EH (II. 34. Cor.); that is, n is a
2 — 1 mean proportional between l and m.
, and add twice the product to the area of Therefore, &c.
by-5
the inscribed polygon, placing the units of the pro Hence, beginning with the square or hexagon, we
duct under the last decimal place of the area; the may proceed, by alternate arithmetical and geometri
sum shall be the circular area required.” cal means, to determine these radii for a regular poly
Thus, in the preceding table of areas, the difference gon, the number of whose sides shall exceed any given
number; in which process it is evident that the values
between the inscribed polygon L and the circum of the radii will continually approach to one another,
scribed polygon K is 36962; the power of 2, which is and, therefore, to the intermediate value of the radius
next less, is 32768; the quotient of 36962 divided by of a circle which has the same given perimeter.
32768 is 1.128; the number by which this is to be There is yet a third theorem, nearly related to the
32768
multiplied T3' ( i —l) or 5461; the product to preceding, which may be applied to the purpose of
this approximation. -
the nearest nnit 6160; and 14215, together with the If k and 1 represent the radii of the circles which
double of this product, is 26535, which has the re are circumscribed about any regular polygun, and
maining digits in question. inscribed in it, and m an arithmetical mean between
The second, third, and fourth of these rules may them; and if k' and 1’ represent these radii for, a
be established by the assistance of the binomial theó. regular polygon which has twice as many sides as the
rem: the last is derived from the algebraical form of former, and an equal area, k' shall be a mean propor:
a series of quantities, each of which is an arithmetical tional between k and l, and Y a mean proportional
mean between the two preceding. between l and m.
* The letter ºr is, however, more generally under To demonstrate this:
stood to represent the semicircumference of a circle Let AB be a side, and C the centre of any regular
whose radius is unit; this being evidently the same polygon; let CD be drawn perpendicular to AB, and
number which represents the circumference when the join CA, CB: then CA is
diameter is assumed for unit. the radius, k, of the cir
In fact ºr represents (1), the superficial area of the cumscribed circle, and CD C
circle where the unit of superficies is the square of the the radius, i, of the in
radius; (2) the linear value of the circumference, scribed circle. Draw the
where the diameter is the unit of length ; and (3) the straight line CE bisecting
1ínear value of the semicircumference, where the the angle ACD ; in CD
radius is the unit of length. The last of these is the produced take CF a mean
meaning most commonly attached to the symbol. proportional between CA
In the method of approximation which is adopted in and CD ; from F draw FG * Gr
the text, although the principle is perhaps more ob perpendicular to CE, and
vious, the computation is not so concise as in another produce it to meet CA
method, which may be derived from the following in H.
elegant theorem. Then, because CG bisects the angle FCH, and FG
If k and 1 represent the radii % the circles
-
which is perpendicular to CG, the triangle FCH is isos.

are inscribed in any regular polygon, and circum celes (I, 5.); and, because CHXCF is equal to
scribed about it; and if m and in represent these radii CAx CD, the triangle CFH is equal to the triangle
for a regular polygon which has twice as many sides' CAD (II.40, Cor.): therefore FH is the side of a re
III, § 5.] GEOMETRY. (99.
presents also the circumference when approximate solution exhibited in the

the diameter is taken for unit, because number 3.1415926535 &c. is sufficient
the area of a circle, being equal to the for every useful purpose. If the ratio
rectangle under the semicircumference be considered as expressed by the in
and radius (32.), bears to the square teger and first ten decimal places, the
of the radius the same ratio which the error committed will bear a less propor
semicircumference bears to the radius, tion to the whole circumference than an
or the circumference to the diameter. inch to the circuit of the earth.
And hence if R be the radius of any Instead of the number 3.1415 &c. the
circle, its circumference (greater than fractions * and ### may also be con
2 Rin the ratio of ºr : 1) is =2 ºr R.: and veniently used in cases not requiring a
its area (greater than R* in the ratio of
ar: 1) is = ºr R2.
#. degree of approximation. The
rst (discovered by Archimedes) will
It remains to observe that the circum be found to fail in the third decimal
ference of a circle is incommensurable place: the other (due to Metius, and
with its diameter, for which reason their remarkably made up of the odd num
ratio can never be exactly represented bers 1, 3, 5) fails in the seventh decimal
by numbers. This was for the first time place only.
demonstrated in the year 1761 A. D. by
Lambert. During the long period for SECTION 5.-The circle a maximum of
which it was only matter of conjecture, area, and a minimum of perimeter.
the quest of the exact numerical ratio
(and that by methods not more expe In the present section it is proposed
ditious than the above) occupied many to show that of all plane figures having.
laborious calculators. Could they have equal perimeters, the circle contains the
assigned any such, it is evident that greatest area ; and consequently, of all
they might likewise have assigned the plane figures containing equal areas, has
exact value of the area of a circle, whose the least perimeter; in other words, as
radius is given, and vice versá, because it is announced in the title of the Sec
that area is (32) equal to half the pro tion, that the circle is a maximum of
duct of the radius and circumference. area and a minimum of perimeter.
But the hope of arriving at a term of the
approximation is now demonstrated to PROP. 35.
have been vain, and accordingly an exact
solution of the celebrated problem of Of equal triangles upon the same base,
squaring the circle, that is, of finding the isosceles has the least perimeter;
a straight line, the square of which and, of the rest, that which has the
shall be exactly equal to a given circle, greater
7°2772eter.
vertical angle has the less pe
impracticable. At the same time, the
Let the triangles A B C, D B C be
upon the same base TNS
B C, and between the "N
gular polygon which has twice as many sides as the same parallels A D,
former, and an equal area, C its centre, CF the
N
lº
radius, k', of the circumscribed circle, and CG the B C (I. 27.), and let
radius, l', of the inscribed circle the triangle A B C be E |Sºx
But, by the construction, CF is a mean proportional
between CA and CD; that is, h' is a mean propor isosceles: the triangle / $$.
ABC shallthan
tional between k and l. And, again, because the tri perimeter
angle CGF is similar to CDE, the triangle CGF is to
have tri- #|| % ;i
thea less
the triangle CDE as CG3 to CDs (II, 43. Cor); but,
because the triangle CGF is equal to halfchf. that is angle D B C.
tº half CDA, CGF is to CDE as half DA to DE From B draw B E perpendicular to
H. 39), or,because CE bisects the angle ACD as half AD, and produce it to F, so that EF
A+CD to CD (II. 50.); therefore (II. 12.) CG2:
CDs . . cºop, CD, and (II. 37. Cor. 2.) CG is a may be equal to E B : and join A F.
D #. Then, because the triangles BEA,
*ēan proportional between CD and cargº , that F EA have two sides of the one equal to
"is a meanºportional between
•is,Therefore, -
l and m. two sides of the other, each to each,
and the included angles B E A, FEA
This theorem is applied in the same manner as the
*ing. It is necessary to observe that CG is equal to one another, A F is equal
# * than CE, and not equal to it, as is wrongly to A B (I. 4.) and the angle FA E
Presented, in the figure: for, if P be taken a third to the angle B A E, that is, to A B C
§. to EC and ED, it may be shown that (I. 15.) or (I. 6.) A C B. But the an
CA §gºer than CE* by a square which is to P2 as
gles A C B, E A C are tº: equal to -
2 -
100 GEOMETRY. [III, § 5.
two right angles (I. 15); therefore FAE, PRop. 36.
E A C are likewise equal to two right
angles, and (I. 2.) FA, A C are in the If a rectilineal figure A B C D E have
same straight line. And because the not all its sides equal and all its angles
triangles B E D, FED have the two equal, a figure of equal area may be
sides B E, E D of the one equal to the jound, which shall have the same num
two FE, E D of the other, each to each, ber of sides and a less perimeter.
and the included angles equal to one For, in the first _&
another (I. 4.) D F is equal to D B ; place, if it have not º
and it was shown that A F was equal to all its sides equal, *t → S.
A B. But D F, DC are greater than there must be at least
FC (I. 10.); therefore D B, D C are two
which adjacent sides
are unequal. \
Tj C
greater than AB, A C ; and, B C being
added to each, the perimeter of the Let these be AB, AE, -
triangle D B C is greater than the pe and join B E: and let a B E be an

rimeter of the triangle A B C. isosceles triangle of equal area, and
In the next place, let G B C be ano upon the same base B. E. Then the
ther triangle upon the same base B C, whole figure a B C D E is equal to the
and between the same parallels, but whole A B C D E ; and because (35.)
having the angle B G C less than B D C: a B, a E together are less than AB, AE
the perimeter of the triangle G B C shall together, the figure a B C D E has been
be greater than the perimeter of the found of equal area with the figure
triangle D B C. ABCDE, and having a less perimeter.
Bisect B C in K, and join A K. Then, Next, if it have not all its angles
because ABC is an isosceles triangle, AK equal, there must be two adjacent angles
is (I. 6. Cor. 3.) at right angles to B C. A, B, which are unequal.
And, because A K bisects B C at right And, first, let the sides º
angles, it passes (3. Cor. 2.) through the AE, BC, meet one ano
centre ofthe circle which is circumscribed ther in a point P. Take
about the triangle DBC (5. Cor. 2.) Take Pa a mean proportional B
A d equal to AD. Then, because A K (II.5.1.) between PA, PB,

passes through the centre of this circle, and make P b equal to
and bisects the chord B C, it bisects Pa. Then, in the first
also the chord which passes through the place, if one of these
point A parallel to BC (3. Cor. 1.); and points, as b, lie in the cor
therefore the point d is in the circum responding side BC, that
ference of the circle. is, between B and C, join
Now, because the angle BGC is less a b : the figure ab CDE
ºº
>
than BDC, the point G must lie without shall be of equal area
the circle, (15. Cor. 3.) that is, G must with the figure ABCDE,
be some point in the line D d produced, and shall have a less pe
and does not lie between the points rimeter. For, because TN
T), d. But if it lie upon the same side of PA is to Pa as Pa or
FC with the point D, FG, GC together Pb to PB, a B joined is parallel to
must be greater (I. 10. Cor. 1.) than Ab (II. 29.). Therefore (I. 27.) the
FD, D C together; and therefore, be triangle a A b is equal to the triangle
cause FG is equal to BG, and FD to BD, B Ab, and the figure ab CDE is equal to
(I. 4.) the perimeter of the triangle GBC the figure ABCDE. And because the
must be greater than the perimeter of triangle Pab is isosceles, the angle Eab
the triangle D B C. And if it lie upon is equal to the angle C b a (I. 6. Or I, 6.
the other side of FC, FG, GC together Cor. 2.); but the two E a b, C ba are toge
will be greater than F d, d C together. ther equal to the two EAB, CBA (I. 19.),
But because the diagonals FC, D d bi of which one, viz. EAB, is the greater;
sect one another (I.22.) the figure FDC d therefore the angle E a b is greater than
is a parallelogram, and (I. 22.) the sides the other CBA. And these latter angles
F d, d C together are equal to the sides are the vertical angles of the equal trian
FD, D C together. Therefore FG, GC gles a A b, B A b, which stand upon the
together are greater than FD, DC toge same base A b : therefore (35.) the
ther, and, as before, the perimeter of sides a A, a b together are less than the
the triangle G B C is greater than the sides BA, B b together; and the figure
perimeter of the triangle DB C. a b CD E has a less perimeter than the
Therefore, &c. figure A B C DE,
GEOMETRY. 101
III, § 5.]
But, in the second place, if neither than a certain line, viz. the leastpossible
of the points a, b lie in a side of the by which, under the aforesaid condition,
figure, but both of them F the given area can be inclosed. But it
in the sides produced, is shown in the proposition that, except
take any point min BC, a figure have all its sides equal and all
and join m A. Through its angles equal, another may be found
B draw B n parallel to inclosing the same area under the same
m A, and join m n : number of sides and with a less peri
the figure n m CDE meter. Therefore, of all the above
shall be of equal area figures there is one only which is con
with the figure A B C § tained by the least possible perimeter,
DE, and shall have a less perimeter. and that one is the regular polygon (def.
The figures are of equal area, because, 11.)
B n being parallel to m A, the triangles Cor. 2. And hence a regular polygon
n Am, BAm are (I. 27.) equal to one contains a greater area than any other
another. And because the angle m n A rectilineal figure having the same num
is (I. 8. Cor. 1.) greater than the angle ber of sides and the same perimeter:
m a A,” much more is it greater than the for a similar polygon which should have
angle ba A; but the latter angle being, the same area with the figure, would
as in the preceding case, equal to a b C', have a less perimeter (Cor. 1.), and there
is (I. 8. Cor. 1.) greater than A B C ; fore (30.) a less area than the regular
therefore much more is the angle m n A polygon which has the same perimeter.
greater than the angle A B C. And PROP. 37.
hence it follows, as before, that n A, n m
together (35.)are less than BA, Bm toge Of regular polygons having equal
ther, and thatthe perimeter of the figure perimeters, that is greatest which has
nºm CDE is less than that of the figure the greatest number of sides.
A B C D E.
The two cases in which the sides AE,
Let A B, a b
be the sides of
B C are parallel, are easily demonstrated two regular po
/ c.
lygons having
equal perime
. ; let º
ºty H #
b A
º
-
the polygon
which has the
A a 0 sºn-à-i,
side a b have a greater number of sides

C than the other. The polygon which has
#-iſ In Y, the side a b shall be greater than the
other.
in a manner taken with little variation Let the sides A.B., a b, be placed in
from the preceding, and readily to be the same straight line, and so that their
apprehended by aid of the adjoined middle points may coincide, as at D.
#"...ºwhich º is drawn through
€ middle
AE perpendicular to
and point of AB perp
Then, because ab is contained a greater
number of times than AB in the common
perimeter, a b is less than A B, and the
Therefore, in every case, if a figure point a lies between A and D. From D
have not, &c. draw D C at right angles to A B, and
Cor. 1. Of plane rectilineal figures therefore (3. Cor. 2. and def. 12.) passing
having the same number of sides, and through the centres of both the poly
containing the same area, the regular gons: and let C be the centre of the
Polygon has the least perimeter. polygon which has the side AB, and .
For it is obvious, that a certain area the centre of the polygon which has the
being to be comprehended under a cer. side a b : it being supposed as yet un
tain number of sides, the perimeter of known whether DC or Dc is the greater
the containing figure cannot be less than of the two. Join C A, ca; through G
of some certain length depending on the draw Co parallel to c a to meet AD in o.
extent of the area; that is, in other words,
and lastly, with the centre C and radius
9f figures inclosing the same area, and C 0 describe the arc m n cutting C A in
having the same number of sides, the m, and, G D produced in n. Then, be.
Perimeters cannot, any of them, be less cause AB is to the common perimeter of
* The line mais not drawn in the figure. the two polygons (II. 17.) as the angle
ACB to four right angles, and the com
mon perimeter to a b as four right angles the circle (II. 35.), that is, as its peri
to the angle a c b, ea aquali (II. 24), meter to the perimeter of the polygon in
AB is to a 5 as the angle ACB to the question, or (II. 17.) as its side to the
angle a c & ; and hence, by taking the side of the latter. Again, because the
halves, (II. 17. Cor. 2.) the line AD is to polygons are similar (II.43.), they are
a D as the angle ACD to a c D, or (I. one to another in the duplicate ratio
15.) o CD. Therefore, dividendo (II. of their sides. Therefore, the circum
20.) Ala is to a D as the angle AC 0 to scribed polygon has to the other the
o CD, and invertendo (II. 15.) Da is duplicate ratio of that which it has to
to a A as the angle D C o to 0 CA. the circle, and (II. def. 11.) the circle is
Again, because the sector C no is a mean proportional between the two
greater than the triangle CD o, and the polygons.” But the circumscribed poly
sector Comless than the triangle C o A gon is greater than the circle: therefore,
the sector C no has, on both accounts, the circle (II. 14.) is greater than the
(II. 11.) to the sector Com a greater polygon of equal perimeter.
ratio than the triangle C Do to the tri Cor. A circle is greater than any
angle CoA: but the angles DC o, o CA plane rectilineal figure of the same peri
have the same ratio as the sectors meter (37. Cor.).
(13.), and the lines D o, o A the same
ratio as the triangles (II. 39): therefore
the angle D C o has to the angle o CA It may be inferred also, from the fore
a greater ratio than the line Do has to going propositions, that the circle is not
the line o A (II. 12. Cor. 1 and 2.). And less than any curvilineal figure of the
it was shown, that D a has to a A the same perimeter. For there may be in
same ratio which the angle D C o has to scribed in the latter a rectilineal figure
the angle o CA: therefore D a has to of less perimeter, yet approaching
a A a greater ratio than Do to o A, and more nearly to it in area than by any
Da is greater than Do. And, because supposed excess of the original figure
Co is parallel to ca, D c : D C :: Da: above the circle, so that, were there
Do (II. 29.); therefore D c is also such an excess, a rectilineal figure
greater than D.C. might be found greater than the circle,
But the polygons, being equal, each of and yet of less perimeter, which is im
them, to half the rectangle under the possible. This method will not, how
apothem and perimeter (29.), are to ever, carry us any further. In the fol
one another as their apothems c D, CD lowing propositions, another view is
(II. 35.): therefore, the polygon which taken of the subject, and by them it will
has the apotherm c D and side a b is be made to appear, that the circle is
greater than the other. greater than any other figure, curvili
Therefore, &c. neal or otherwise, which has the same
Cor. A regular polygon is greater perimeter. -
PROP. 39.
than any other rectilineal figure having
the same perimeter, and the same or a If two triangles have two sides of the
less number of sides (36. Cor. 2.). one equal to two sides of the other, each
PROP. 38. to each, and the angle contained by the
two sides of the first a rightangle, but
A circle is greater than any regular the angle contained by the two sides q
polygon having the same perimeter. the other not a right angle, the first tri
For let a similar polygon be circum angle shall be greater than the other.
scribed about the circle, viz. by dividing Let A B C, A. D
the circumference (or conceiving it to be D E F be two

divided) into as many equal parts as the triangles which
polygon is to have sides, and drawing have the two
tangents through the points of division.
Then, because the area of the polygon is
equal (29.) to half the rectangle under
its apothem and perimeter, and the area
sides A B, BC
of the one # > º
* It appears from this part of the demonstration,
of the circle to half the rectangle un ...ſ...}...?"...º.º.º.
der its radius and perimeter (32.); and same perimeter with the circle, the circle shall be q
mean proportional between the two polygons: a pro
that the apothem of the circumscribed position which is true, whether the polygons be,re.
polygon is equal to the radius of the gular or irregular. For whether the circumscribed
polygon be regular or otherwise, it is evident that
circle, the circumscribed polygon is to its area is equal to half the rectangle under its periº
the circle as its perimeter to that of -meter and the radius of the circle.
.III. $5.] GEOMETRY.
103
tequal to the two sides DE, EF of the diameter, incloses the greatest possible
other, each to each, but the angle ABC area, and the quadrilateral ABCD is
a right angle, and the angle DEF greater greater than EFGH.”
or less than a right . the triangle Otherwise.
ABC shall be greater than the triangle
DEF. - Let A B C D, E FG H be two qua
From the point D draw D G perpen drilaterals which have the sides A B,
dicular to EF, or EF produced. Then, B C, CD of the one, equal to the sides
because D G is (I. 12. Cor. 3.) less than E F, FG, G H of the other, each to
each; and let the angles A, B, C, D of
DE or A B, the rectangle under D G, the first lie in the circumference of a
E F is less than the rectangle under
A B, E F, or AB, BC, and therefore circle, of which the side A D is diameter,
(I. 26. Cor.) the triangle DEF is less but the angles E, F, G, H, of the other
than the triangle A B C. not lie in the circumference of a circle
Therefore, &c. of which E H is diameter: the quadri
Cor. Two given finite straight lines lateral A B C D shall be greater than
E F G. H.
with a third indefinite, inclose the
greatest possible area, when placed at 15.
right angles.
PROP. 40.
If two quadrilaterals have three sides

of the one equal to three sides of the
other, each to each, and the angles of Join E G, FH: and, as most fa
the first lying in a semi-circumference vourable to the Fig. 1.
of which the fourth side is diameter, but figure
in theEFG H
com- T
the angles of the other not so lying, the
first quadrilateral shall be greater than parison with
the other. ABCD, let one
of the angles
For if EFGH (see fig. 1) be that one fº F. H. EGH, * PH.
of the quadrilaterals which has not the the former for

angles lying in a semicircumference, of instance, be a
which the fourth side EH is diameter, right angle ;
and if G be an angle which does not so since, FH re
lie; then, joining EG, the angle EGH maining the
will not be equal to a right angle, same, the tri- H'
(15 Cor. 3.) and, therefore, if GH’ be angle E. F. H., lº
drawn perpendicular to EG, and equal and therefore
to GH, and if EH' be joined, the trian the whole figure
gle EGH' will be greater than EGH, will greater
(39.) and, accordingly, the quadrilateral (39.) be
upon this T
EFGH", which has its three sides EF, than upon the G.
FG, GH' equal to the three EF, FG, contrary suppo
GH, each to each, greater than the sition. It will - ity
- SºHº
JH'
quadrilateral EFGH. Therefore, if appear in the
a quadrilateral be inclosed by three demonstration, that it is indifferent
given sides and a fourth not given, a whether E G H be supposed less or
greater may be found inclosed by the greater than a right angle: we shall set
same three given sides and a fourth not out with supposing it to be less, and,
given, except when the angles lie in a therefore, (15. Cor. 3.) the point G to be
semicircumference, of which the fourth without the semicircle upon E. H.
side is diameter. But, because the Draw GH' at right angles to EG,
fourth side is (I.10. Cor. 2.) necessarily and equal to G H (fig. 1); and join
less than the sum of the other three, it
* If two of the given sides as FG, GH should be in
is evident that there is some certain area, the same straight line, EFG H would be a triangle,
a greater than which cannot be so in not a quadrilateral; it may be observed, however,
that the demonstration is equally applicable to show
closed, and therefore some quadrilateral that in this case EFG H is less than A B C D. We
which incloses the greatest possible area. may add that, by a similar demonstration, it appears
Therefore, the quadrilateral A B C D that any number whatever of given finite straight
lines with an º inclose the greatest possible
which has its angles lying in a semicir area when placed as chords of a semicircumference
cumference, of which the fourth side is of which the indefinite is diameter. -
EH'. Then, because EFH is a right than did the last in the series which
angle, E FH" is greater than a right was greater or less than AD; that is, wh)
angle, and therefore (15. Cor: 3.) the AD is the limit to which, in the fore they
point F falls within the semicircle drawn going process, the bases E H are made º
upon EH', as in ſig. 2. Again, draw to approach. And it has been shown, th:
FE' (ſg. 2) at right angles to FH' and besides, that the figure EFG H is in im
equal to E. F., and join E'H'. Then, creased at every step. Therefore, the
because EGH is a right angle, E' GH' figure upon the base AD is greater than
is less than a right angle, and the any of the figures EFG H. hti
oint G-falls without the semicircle upon Therefore, &c. am
}} H' (see fig. 3), as at first. It appears Cor. Three given finite straight lines ha
therefore, that if the process be repeated with a fourth indefinite, inclose the fºr:
and continued, we shall obtain in this greatest area, when placed as chords
manner a series of figures (fig. 1., fig. 2., of a semi-circumference, of which the |
fig. 3., &c.), each of which is greater fourth side is diameter. \;
than the preceding (because one of the PROP. 41. the
triangles remaining the same, the other it!
is made to have a right angle), and in If two quadrilaterals have the four
it!
which, one of the angles E FH, EGH, sides of the one equal to the four sides
being a right angle, the other is greater of the other, each to each in order, and
than a right angle, and less than a right the angles of the one lying in the cir
angle alternately. cumference of a circle, but the angles
Again, of the bases EH, EH', E' H', of the other not so lying, the first
-&c. each is of a magnitude intermediate quadrilateral shall be greater than the
between the two preceding. For, be other.
cause the square of E'H' (fig. 2) is equal Let the quadrilaterals ABCD, A B ca.
(I. 36.) to the squares of EF and FH', have the four sides of the one equal to
and that FH" is greater than FH (fig. 1), the four sides of
(because the two sides FG, G H' of the the other, each
triangle FGH' are equal to the two sides to each in order,
FG,GH of the triangle FGH, and con and the angles
tain a greater angle (I. 11), ) the square A, B, C, D lying
of E' H' is greater than the squares of in the circum
E! F, FH, or of E F, FH ; greater, that ference of a cir
is, than (I.36.) the square of E H (fig. 1), cle ABD, but the
and therefore E'H' (fig. 2 or 3) is angles A, B, c, d,
greater than E H (fig. 1). But E'H' not so lying: the quadrilateral A B C D
(ſig. 3) is less than EH' (fig.2), because shall be greater than the quadrilateral
the two sides E' F, FH" of the triangle A B ca.
E F H' are equal to the two EF, F.H.’ Through A draw the diameter A K,
of the triangle E FH', and contain a and join B K, K C : , and upon B c,
less angle, (I. 11.). Therefore, E' H/ which is equal to B C, make the tri
(ſig. 3) is of intermediate magnitude be angle B k c equal and similar to the
tween E H (ſig. 1) and EH! (fig. 2). triangle B KC, so that the sides Bk, kic
And, in a similar manner, it may be may be equal to the sides B K, KC
shown that E' H" (fig. 3. or 4) is of respectively; and join Ak.
intermediate magnitude between EH' Then, because the straight lines B c,
(fig. 2) and E' H' (fig. 3); and so on. B C do not coincide, (for if they did, the
Now A D is greater than E H, E' H', figures would coincide altogether by I.7.)
&c., and less than E H', E' H', &c., the point k does not coincide with the
because the chords A B, B C, CD, point K: but A B K is a right angle
which together subtend the semi-circum (15. Cor. 1.): therefore A B k is not a
ference of which A D is diameter, sub right angle, and (39.) the triangle BAK
tend more than a semi-circumference in is greater than the triangle BAR. Also,
the circles of which E H, E' H', &c. the quadrilateral A DC K, having its
are diameters, and less than a semi-cir three sides AD, DC, C K chords of the
cumference in those of which E H', semi-circumference upon AK, is greater
E'H", &c. are diameters. . than any other quadrilateral" A dºck,
Therefore, every successive base EH having three of its sides equal to AD, DC,
being alternately greater and less than * If d c and c k lie in the same straight line (as is
AD, and lying between the two preced nearly the case in the figure), the figure Adck will be
triangle, quadrilateral but
a not a ; in this case also
ing, approaches more nearly to AD it is less than AD C K (see note Prop. 40.) -
CK, respectively (40). Therefore, the subtend less than the whole circumfer
whole figure A B K C D is greater than ence, and a second circle in which they
the whole figure AB k cd; and, taking shall subtend more than the whole cir
away the equal triangles B K C, B k c, cumference: for the circle required will
the figure A B C D is greater than the be of some magnitude betweenthese two.
figure A b c d. It may be observed, also, that the
. Therefore, &c. order of the sides is indifferent as well
Cor. 1. If a figure A B C D E F is to to the magnitude of the required circle,
be inclosed by any number of given sides, as to the magnitude of the figure which
and if these sides be not so disposed is to be inscribed in it; for the same
that the angles may lie in the circum chord will subtend an arc of the same
ference of a circle, a greater figure may magnitude, at whatever part of the cir
be inclosed by the same sides. For, if cumference it may be placed (12. Cor. 1);
the angle E, for instance, do not lie in and therefore the arcs subtended by all
the circumference which passes through the chords will be together equal to the
the points A, B, C, join AE, CE, and whole circumference, whatsoever may
let there be constructed the quadrila be their order. And, because the same
teral ab ce, such that its sides may be chord always cuts off a segment of the
same area, the segments cut off by all
the chords will amount to the same
area, whatsoever may be their order;
and therefore the inclosed area, which
is the difference between that amount
and the area of the circle, will also be
the same. From these considerations
it appears that Prop. 41. Cor. 2. need not
equal to those of A B C E, each to each, have been qualified by a regard to the
and its angles in the circumference of a order of the sides.
circle (25. Cor.): and upon the sides ae, PROP. 42.
ce, which are equal to AE, CE, respec Of all plane figures having the same
tively, let there be described the figures perimeter, the circle contains the great
afe, cde equal to the figures AFE, est area.
CDE, respectively. Then, because, by For, if the figure A B C D EFG H
the proposition, the quadrilateral a b cle be any other than a circle, there must
is greater than A B C E, the whole be some four points in the perimeter,
figure a b c de f is greater than B A
A B C D E F.
Cor. 2. And hence, of all figures
contained by the same given sides in
the same order, that one contains the
greatest possible area which has all its
angles in the circumference of a circle.
15; - g—2
For the area inclosed by the given sides
cannot exceed a certain limit depending as A, C, E, G, which do not lie in the
upon them, which limit is the greatest circumference of a circle. Join these
possible that can be inclosed by the points, and let the quadrilateral ac e.g.
given sides, and is therefore such as by be constructed, having its sides equal
them can be inclosed. But no figure, to those of the quadrilateral ACEG, each
59 inclosed, contains the greatest pos to each, and its angles in the circumfer
Sible area, of which the angles do not lie ence of a circle (25. Cor.). Then, because
in the circumference of a circle. There (41.) the quadrilateral a c e g is greater
fºre, the figure which has its angles in than A C E G, if upon the sides ac, ce,
the circumference of a circle contains a e.g., g a, which are equal to AC, C E,
greater area than any other figure hav EG, G A, respectively, there be con
ing the same given sides. structed the figures a b c, cde, efg,gh a
Scholium. equal to the figures A B C, Čij E,
E FG, G HA, each to each, in all re.
That a circle may be imagined in which spects, the whole figure a b c def
any number of given straight lines shall will be greater than A B C D EFG,
subtend as chords the whole circum and will have the same perimeter.
ference exactly, is evident from this, that a It appears, therefore, that if a plane
circle may be imagined in whichthey shall figure be not a circle, a greater area
106 GEOMETRY, [III, § 6.
than is contained by that figure may be sponding to the first condition. But
inclosed with the same perimeter. But again, the point required must be
the area inclosed by a given perimeter equidistant from the two given points,
cannot exceed a certain limit, which that is, it must be in the straight line
limit, being the greatest possible that which bisects the distance of the two
can be so inclosed, some figure with the given points at right angles; for this, it
given perimeter must be capable of con is easily seen, (I, 6.) is the locus cor
taining. Therefore the circle only con responding to this second condition.
tains the greatest area of all figures Therefore, if this straight line be drawn,
having the same perimeter. and intersect the given line, the point
Cor. In the same manner it may be of intersection (or any of those points,
shown that if a figure is to be inclosed if there be more than one) will satisfy
by a given perimeter, of which part is to both conditions, and will be the point
be a given finite straight line, and ifit be
not made a circular segment of which
required.
If there be no point of intersection, the
:
the given line is chord, a greater may be problem is impossible.
inclosed with the same conditions, and
therefore that of all figures so inclosed
To take another instance—
Let it be required “to find a pointina
-
.
the circular segment is the greatest. certain plane, which shall be, first, at a
PROP. 43. given distance from a given pointin the
plane; and, secondly, at a second given
Of all plane figures having the same distance from a second given point in
area, the circle has the least perimeter. the same plane.”
Let the circle C have the same area Here it is evident that the locus cor
with any other plane figure F : C shall responding to the first condition is the
be contained by a less perimeter than F. circumference of a circle described about
the given point as a centre with the
given distance as radius: and again,
that the locus corresponding to the se
cond condition is the circumference of
a circle described about the second
given point as a centre with the second
Let C' be a second circle, having the given distance as radius. Therefore
same perimeter with F; then by the the points which are common to the two
last proposition, C' has a greater area circumferences, that is, their points of
than F has, that is, than C has. But intersection, if there be any, will either
the areas of circles (33.) are as the of them be the point required.
squares of their radii; therefore the ra If the circles do not intersect one ano
dius of C' is greater than the radius of ther, the problem is impossible,
C; and the radii of circles (33.) are as Such is the use of loci in the solution of
their circumferences; therefore the cir problems. We have seen also in the above
cumference of C', or perimeter of F, is example, that they serve to determine in
greater than the circumference of C. what cases the solution is possible orim
Therefore, &c. possible. Thus, in the latter example, it
will be impossible, if the distances of
Section 6.—Simple and Plane Loci. the point required from the given points
Def. 14. A locus in Plane Geometry is differ by more than the mutual distance
a straight line, circle, or plane curve, of those points, or together fall short of
every point of which, and none else in that distance: and in the first example
that plane, satisfies a certain condition. it will be impossible, if the given line,
The nature and use of loci will be being straight, be perpendicular to the
readily apprehended from the following line which passes through the two given
example:– - points, and does not pass through the
“Required a point in a certain plane point which bisects that line; for if it
which shall be, first, in a given line in does so pass, the two conditions prº
the plane ; and, secondly, equidistant posed are identical, and any point in this
from two given points in the same line will answer them.
plane.” Every locus is the limit between ex
Here, as far as the first condition cess and defect. The points upon one
only is concerned, any pointin the given side of it fail by defect, and those upon
line, but mone else, will answer. The the other side by excess, of possessing
given line is therefore the locus corre therequired property which is possessed
T
|llſ; III, § 6.] . GEOMETRY.
in k 10?
by every point in the locus. Thus, in
| mºn the case of the circle, the distance of a PROP, 44.
{\apºn point within the circle falls short of the Required the locus of all points which
With
fºr
distance of the circumference, while that
of a point without exceeds it.
ºguidistant Jrom two given points
; iſlii When a locus is merely a straightline, Let P be a point in the
º:
d (i.
it is called a simple locus; when the cir locus, and join P A, PB.
cumference of a circle, itis called a plane Then, because PAB is an
ſºlºiſ, locus; when any other curve, it is said to isosceles, triangle, if the
* tº: be of higher dimensions than the circle. base AB be bisected in C,
intº The following propositions afford ex PC joined will be at right
Wilsº amples of the two first only; and, the angles to AB (I. 6. Cor.3).
& ſº ºf three concluding propositions excepted, Therefore the point P lies
they will be found the same in substance in the straight line which
º with theorems which have been stated bisects A B at right an
before, and which only reappear in this gles; and it is easily shown, reversely,
place under a different form. that every point in this straight line is
lsº It will be observed that they are in equidistant from A and B (I. 4.); there
º, in: vestigated—a species of analytical rea fore this straight line is the locus re
pºſiº soning which has not hitherto been ex quired.
âniº emplified either in the demonstration of We may observe, that if any point Q
tip)": a theorem or in the solution of a pro lie upon the same side of the locus with
blem, but which is the method commonly A, Q A will be less than Q B; if upon
\\\\ { pursued in arriving both at the one and the other side, QA will be greater than
imsº the other, and is known under the name QB (I.1.1.).
ſº of “Geometrical Analysis.” The nature - PROP. 45.
* whº of this, as opposed to the ordinary diRequired the locus of all points which
w!!!!, dactic method of solution, commonly are equidistant from two given straight
gºtº: called that of synthesis or composition, lines AB, C D.
mº is pointed out by its name, and will be at If , the given Yº
is gº once apprehended from any of the fol straight lines be

lth: sº lowing examples. We need only ob parallel, the re- B ID
ſº serve that rather than two distinct me quired locus is evi

10t:% thods of doing the same thing, as might dently a straight
rpº at first appear to be the case, they are line, which is pa
will tº but the different parts of one full and rallel to each, and IFI Gº
perfect method; that the use of each is bisects the dis
tone & essential to a complete solution ; the tances between
le, latter (synthesis) always taking the sub them,
solutº ject up where the other leaves it; the But if not, let
ſº analysis first descending, by geometrical them meet in E, and let P be a point in
tº reasoning, from the thing proposed to the locus. Then if PA be drawn perpen
the minutest particulars of the solution, dicular to AB, and PC perpendicular to
sº and the synthesis ascending backthrough CD, PA will be equal to PC. Join
xº
sº
the same steps from these particulars to PE: then, because the right-angled tri
Yū gº
the thing proposed. It is true, that, be angles PAE, P C E have a common
\º
cause the steps in each are for the most hypotenuse PE, and equal sides PA,
part the same, occurring only in an in PC, they are equal to one another in
ſº verted order, the same principles are every respect (I. 13.), and the angle PEA
tº developed in each, and, therefore, the is equal to the angle PEC. Therefore
* detail of either (more especially the syn the point P is in the straight line which
iſ ſº thesis) commonly furnishes a satisfac bisects the angle A E C: and, reversely,
º tory view of the question; for which rea it may be shown that every point in this
º son, and for the sake of brevity, one is straight line is equidistant from AB and
.#
usually given to the exclusion of the CD (I. 13.): therefore, this straight line
º other. The student will, however, find is the locus required.
mº himself amply repaid by entering into If any point Q lie upon the same side
both, and he is recommended, after fol of the locus with the straight line AB,
* lowing the analysis of the problems of its distance from A B will be less than
the present section, to supply in each its distance from C D ; if, upon the
. case where it is omitted, the synthesis other side, its distance from A B will be
necessary to complete the solution. greater than that from CD.
º: - S --- ~~
PROP. 46. the point P is in the circular arc passing
through C, and having A B for its
Straight lines being drawn from a chord (15. Cor. 3.): and, reversely, it
iven point A to a given straight line may be shown that every point in this
C, required the locus of all points arc has the given property (15.); there
dividing them in the same given ratio fore it is the locus required.
Let A B be any ^. If Q be any point upon the same side
straight line drawn -
of the locus with AB, the angle A QB
§: . . . .
ivided in the given
ratio in the point D ; 4
~.*
7 -
will be greater than A C B ; if upon the
other side, less.
PROP. 49.
and let P be a point * Required the locus of the vertices of
in the locus. Then, because AP is to
PC in the same ratio as A D to D B, all triangles upon the same base AB,
DP joined is parallel to B C (II. 29.). having the side terminated in A greater
Therefore the point P lies in a straight than that terminated in B, and the dif
line drawn through D parallel to B.C.: ference of the squares of the sides equal
and reversely it may be shown that to a given square.
every point in this straight line has the Let P be a point
given property (II. 29.); therefore it is in the locus, and
from P draw P C at Q/P
the locus required.
If Q be any point on the same side of right angles to AB,
the locus with A, it will divide the line or A B produced.
A C which passes through it, in a less Then, because the K–
ratio than that of AD to D B : if upon difference of the
the other side, in a greater ratio. squares of AC, B.C
is equal to the dif
PROP. 47. ference of the squares of AP, BP (1.38),
Required the locus of the vertices of the difference of the squares of AC, BC
all equal triangles, upon the same base is equal to the given square; and the
A B, and upon the same side of it. point C may be found (I.34) by taking
Let A B C be c P
AD (II.52) a third proportional to AB
any triangle, upon TV Q
and the side of the given square, so that
the rectangle under AB, AD may be
the given side of (II.38. Cor.l.) equalto the given square,
the base, and hav
. .#
ing the given area,a and bisecting BD in C.” And it may
P be A. B.
be shown, reversely, that if from the
point in the locus. Then, because the tri point C so taken, PC be drawn per
angle PAB is equal to CAB, PC joined pendicular to AC, every point in PC
will satisfy the given condition; there
is parallel to A B (I. 27.). Therefore fore P C is the locus required.
the point P lies in a straight line drawn If Q be any point upon the same side
through C parallel to A B : and, re
of the locus with the middle point of
versely, it may be shown that every
point in this straight line has the given A B, the difference of the squares of
Q A, Q B will be less than the given
roperty (I. 27.); therefore it is thedifference; if upon the other side,
ocus required.
If Q be any point upon the same side greater. For, if a perpendicular QE
be drawn from Q to A B, and E F be
of the locus with AB, the triangle QAB taken equal to E B, the difference of
will be less than C A B; if upon the the squares of Q A, Q B will be equal to
other side, greater. the rectangle under A B, AF, (I. 39.)
PROP. 48. which is less or greater than the rectan
gle under A B, A D, according as the
Required the locus of the vertices of position
all triangles having equal vertical an two of Q is one or the other of the
just mentioned. -
gles, upon the same base AB, and upon The figure represents the point C in
the same side of it.
Let A C B be the AB produced; if, however, the given
given vertical angle, square be sufficiently small, the point C
and let P be any may lie between A and B.
PROP. 50.
point in the locus.
Then, because the Required the locus of the vertices of
angle at P is equal all triangles upon the same base AB,
to the angle at C, * See also I. 39.
having the sum of the squares of their sum of the angles A PB, BPX, that is
sides equal to a given square, to the half of two right angles (I.2.) or
: Let
be thethesquare
given square
of C, P
to one right angle. And because D Pa
is a right angle, the point P lies in the
and let P be a point /7 circumference of a circle described upon
in the locus. Bisect
#. in D, and join PD.
en, because the base
º IP B
the diameter D d. (15. Cor. 3.)
And reversely, if P be any point in
the circumference of this circle, PA shall
AB of the triangle
P A B is bisected in
—’ be to P B in the given ratio. For, take
C C the middle point of D d, that is, the
D, the sum of the centre of the circle, and join C.P. Then,
squares of PA, PB is equal to twice because A D is to D B as Ald to d B,
the square of PD, together with twice the line A d is harmonically divided in D
the square of DA (I. 40.) But it is also and B (II. def. 19, page 68); and because
equal to the square of C. Therefore twice the harmonical mean D dis bisected in C,
the square of PD is equal to the dif (II. 46.) C A, CD and CB are propor
ference between the square of C and tionals: also, C D is equal to C P:
twice the square of AD, that is, if twice therefore, in the triangles ACP, PCB,
the square of D E be equal to the same A C is to C P as C P to C B ; and
given difference, to twice the square of consequently (II. 32.) the triangles are
DE; and the point P lies in the circum equiangular. Therefore (II. 31.) PA is
ference of a circle described from the to P B as A C to C P, that is, as AC to
centre D with the radius D. E. And it CD, or (because CA, C D, and C B
may be shown, reversely, that every are proportionals) as A D to D B (II.
point in the circumference of this circle 22. Cor. 1.).
satisfies the given condition (I. 40.); If any point Q be taken within the
therefore it is the locus required. locus, Q A will be to QB in a greater
If Q be any point without the circle, ratio than that of A D to D B ; if with
the sum of the squares of Q A, Q B out it, in a less ratio. For, if A B be di
will be greater than the given sum; if vided in E in the ratio of A Q to Q B,
within it, less. For QD” will be greater and if A B produced be divided in the
than PD* in the former case, and less same ratio in e, then, joining Q E and
in the latter; and therefore the sum of Q e, the angle E Qe will be a right an
the squares of Q A, Q B will be (I. 40) gle, as is above shown. And if one of
greater than twice the sum of the squares the points E, e lie between D and d, the
of PD, DA, that is than the given sum, other will also lie between D and d ; for if
in the former case, and less in the latter. AE is to EB in a greater ratio than AD
to D B, which is the case when E lies
- PROP, 51.
between D and d, A e will be to e B in
Required the locus of the vertices of a greater ratio than A d to dB, which
all triangles upon the same base AB, is the case (as may easily be shown) only
having the side terminated in A greater when e lies between D and d: and con
than the side terminated in B, and their versely. Therefore, if the point Q be
ratio the same with the given ratio of within the locus, and the angle DQ d
AD to D B. (by consequence) greater than a right
, Let P be a point in the locus. Di angle (15. Cor. 3.), that is, than E Q e,
vide AB produced (II.55.) in the point the point E cannot lie otherwise than
between D and dº; and consequently the
ratio of A E to E B, that is, the ratio of
A Q to Q B, must be greater than the
ratio of A D to D. B. In the same man
"IX.
ner it may be shown that, if the point Q
lie without the locus, AQ will be to QB
in a less ratio.
d, so that A d may be to dB as A D to Cor. If there be taken in the same
D B, and join P Á, PB, PD, Pd. straight line, and in the same direction
. Then, because in the triangle PA B from a common extremity, three harmo
the straight lines PD, Pd divide the nical progressionals, and if upon the
base and the base produced in the ratio mean progressional for a diameter, a
of the sides (II.50) they bisect the ver circle be described, the distances of any
tical and exterior vertical angles: there point in the circumference from the
fore the angle DP d is equal to half the other extremities of the first and third
110 GEOMETRY. ' [III. § 6. |
shall have to one another always the KPQ : this circle shall be the locus re
same ratio, viz. that of the first to the quired.
third. For, let P be any point in the circum
Scholium. ference of the circle KPQ ; join PA,
draw the tangent PT to the circle BCD,
The last proposition may be stated and join PE, cutting the circumference
thus: “Required the locus of all points BCD in L; join also GP, and draw
P, the distances of which from two PM perpendicular to AE.
given points A and B, are to one another Then, by Prop. 51, because the circle
in a given ratio.” And it has been shown KPQ is described from the centre F
that the locus is a circle in every case in with the radius FK, which is a mean
which the given ratio is not that of equa proportional between FA and FG, and
lity; and in that particular case it is that P is a point in the circumference
(44.) a straight line which bisects AB KPQ, PA is to PG as AK to KG, or as
at right angles. Under this form it FA to FK (II. 22. Cor. 1.) because FA,
readily suggests two other questions of FK and FG are proportionals. Therefore
the same kind, which likewise lead to also PA* is to PG3 as FA2 is to FK”, or
plane loci, and are at the same time so as FA to FG (II. 37.). And, because
elegant and so nearly related to that we PA2 : PGs :: FA : FG,
have been discussing, that they claim PA2x EG : PGs x AE::FA x EG :
some motice in this place. FG x AE (Rule 2. Scholium, II. [28])
First, then, let it be “required to find Therefore, convertendo PA2x EG :
the locus of all points P such that the PGºx AE-PA2x EG::FAxEG : FG
distance PA from a given point A, and × AE–FA × E.G. (a) But, because PAs
the tangent PT drawn to a given circle =PE* + AE2 + 2 AEx EM (I. 37.)
PCD are to one another in a given PA2x EG = PE2xEG+ AE2 x EG+
ratio.” 2AE × EM × EG ; and, for the like rea
Take E the centre of the given circle; SOn,
join AE; and, if PA is to be greater PG2 x AE = PE2 x AE-HEG2 x AE-E
than PT, produce AE to F (II. 55.) so 2AEx EMx EG ; therefore PGºx AE
that AF may be to FE in the duplicate PA2x AG = PE2 × AE–PE2 x EG, +
of the given ratio.(fig. 1); but, if PA is EG2 × AE-AE2 × EG, that is, = PE*x
to be less than PT, produce EA to F so AG – AG x AEx EG.
that AF may be to FE in the duplicate of Again, because FG is equal to FE-E
the given ratio (fig. 2.); take EG (II. 52.) EG, FG x AE is equal to FExAE+
a third proportional to EA and ED, and EG x AE, that is, to FEx AG+FEx
EG-EEG x AG+EG2, because AE is
Fig. 1. equal to AG+EG ; and, in like man
ner, because FA is equal to FE-HEG-E
AG, FAx EG is equal to FExEG+
EG2+EG x AG; therefore, FG x AE
—FAx EG is equal to FEx AG.
Therefore, substituting these values
instead of the second and fourth terms
of the proportion, (a),
PA3 × E. G. : PE2 x AG – AG x AEx
EG::FAx EG : FEx AG, and hence,
(Rule 2. Scholium, II. [28]).
PA2 : PE2 – AEx E G :: FA : FE,
that is, because AExEG is equal to ED"
(II. 38. Cor. 1.), and PE2–EDs is equal
Q P to PE2–ETs or PTs, PA: ; PT:
FA : FE. Therefore PA is to PT in
\ the subduplicate ratio of FA to FE, that
iſ TATM RTD GTi, is in the given ratio; and the circum
ference KPQ is the locus required.
C
If the given ratio be the ratio of equa
P. lity, the difference of the squares of PA,
PE will be equal to the square of ED;
FK a mean proportional (II.5.1.) be and therefore the locus is a straight
tween FA and FG ; and, from the centre line (49.) cutting AE at right angles, and
F with the radius FK describe a circle may be determined as in Prop. 49.
GEOMETRY, -
- But the circle NPQ stands relate: º

each of the circles ABC, DEF, with. º
corresponding points M, L, in the safah
manner in which KPQ is related to
BCD in the preceding locus. For,
WIA.
`
_^
|
with regard to ABC, because GB is
perpendicular to BR, which is the dia
meter of the semicircle BLMR, GB
touches the semicircle (2.) at B, and º
*
therefore (21.) GB2 is equal to GL x
Secondly, let it be “required to find GM, that is, GL a third proportional to
the locus of all points P such that the GM and GB, or GC; and KN was
tangent PA, drawn to a given circle made a mean proportional between
ABC, and the tangent PD drawn to a KL and KM. And, in the same man
second given circle DEF, may be to one ner, with respect to the other circle
another in a given ratio. DEF, HM is a third proportional to
Take G, H the centres of the two cir HL and HF ; and KN was made a
cles; join G H, and produce it on the KM. Therefore, by the last question,
mean proportional between KL and
PA* is to PM2 as KG to KM ; and PL”
is to PD* as KL to KH. Also, because
KL, KN and KM are proportionals, PMA
is to PL2 as KM to KL. (51.) There
fore the ratio of PA* to PDs is com
pounded of ratios which are the same
with the ratios of KG to KM, KM to KL,
and KL to KH, that is, it is the same
side of the lesser circle to O so that OG with the ratio of KG to KH (II. 27.);
may be to OH as the radius GC to the and PA is to PD in the subduplicate
radius HF (II. 55.): upon OG describe ratio of KG to KH, that is in the given
a semicircle cutting the circle ABC in ratio. Therefore the circle NPQ is the
B, so that OB and BG being joined locus required.
may be perpendicular (15. Cor. 1.) to one If the given ratio be the ratio of
another, and therefore OB a tangent at equality, the difference of the squares
B (2.); and from H to OB (produced p
if necessary) draw the perpendicular
HR. Then, because HR is parallel to
GB (I. 14.) HR is to GB as OH to OG
(11.30.COr.2.), that is, as HF toGC; and,
because GB is equal to GC, HR is equal
to HF. Therefore R is a point in the
circle DEF; and because ORH is a
right angle, OB touches the circle DEF
in R. Upon BR describe the semicircle of PG, PH will be equal to the differ
BLMR cutting GH in the points L and ence of the squares of GC and HF ;
M; and if PA is to be greater than and therefore the locus is a straight line
PD, produce GH to K (II.55.) so that (49.) cutting GH at right angles, and
GK may be to HK in the duplicate of may be determined as in Prop. 49.
the given ratio (as in the figure); but, The first of the two loci we have thus
if PA is to be less than PD, produce discussed is manifestly the same which
HG to K (II. 55.), so that GK may be satisfies the condition that A and E
to HK in the duplicate of the given being two given points, and ED* a
ratio; take KN (II.5.1.) a mean propor given square, PA” shall be to PE*—
tional between KL and KM, and from ED2 in a given ratio; and the second,
the centre K with the radius KN describe the same which satisfies the condition
the circle NPQ ; this circle shall be that G and H being two given points,
the locus required. and GCA and HF", two given squares,
For, if P be any point in the locus, PGº-GC* shall be to PH2—HFs in a
and if the tangents TPA, and PD be given ratio.
drawn, and PI, PM joined, PA* will
be to PD2 in the ratio which is com PROP. 52.
ounded of the ratios of PA* to PM*, A point. A being given within or
M2 to PL2, and PLA to PD2, (II.def. 12.) without a circle B DE, and in every
1 12 GEOMETRY. [III. § 7,
chord MN which passes through it, a passes through it, tangents being drawn
second point P being taken such that the intersecting in P; it is required to find
chord produced may be divided by these the locus of the points P.
two points and the circumference har I,et C be the centre of the circle, and
monically; it is required to find the let CA, produced if necessary, meetthe
locus of the points P. circumference in B: take C F a third
Let C be the centre of the circle, and proportional to CA, C B : join PF, PC,
let C A, produced if necessary, meet the CM, CN, and let PC cut M N in Q.
circle in B: take C F a third propor Then, because PM is equal to PN
tional to CA, CB, (II.52.) and join FP, (2. Cor. 3.), and CM to CN, MN is bi
FM, FN. Then, because CF, CB, CA sected by PC at right angles (3. Cor. 3.).
are proportionals, and that CE is equal And, because C N P is a right angled
to CB, the straight lines EA, EB, EF triangle (2.), and that from the right
are in harmonical progression (II.46.). angle N, a perpendicular N Q is drawn
And, because upon the mean EB, the to the hypotenuse, the rectangle under
circle EDB is described (51. Cor.), AM CQ, CP is equal (I.36. Cor. 2.) to the
is to M Fas AN to NF. Therefore, alter
mando, (II. 19.) A M : A N :: MF; N. F.
But by the supposition that P is a point
of the required locus, MP.: P N :: AM
: AN, that is, :: MF: NF: therefore,
in the triangle FMN, both the base
M N and the base produced , are
divided in the ratio of the sides.
square of CN, that is, to the square

of CB, or to the rectangle CA,
CF (II. 38. Cor. 1.). Therefore
(II. 38.) CQ is to CA as CF to CP,
and (II. 32.5 the triangle CFP is equi
‘in
angular with the triangle C Q A. There.
Consequently, as was shown in the fore C F P is a right angle, and the
like case in the demonstration of the last point P is in a straight line drawn
proposition,
gle, the angle
and the point P liesAFP
in a isstraight
a rightline
an through the point F perpendicular to
CF. It is easy to reverse the reasoning,
drawn from the point F perpendicular to and to show that every point in this
C. F. It is easy to reverse the reasoning, straight line satisfies the given condition.
and to show that every point in this Therefore this straight line is the locus
straightline satisfies the given condition. required.
Therefore this straight line is the locus £or if the diameter of a circle, and
required. the diameter produced, be divided in the
Čor. If the diameter of a circle, and same ratio, or, which is the same thing,
the diameter produced, be divided in the (II. 45 Cor.) if the diameter produced be
same ratio, or, which is the same thing, divided harmonically, and if tangents bº
(i.i.45 Cor) if the diameter produced be drawn at the extremities of any chord
divided harmonically, any chord which passing through one of the points of di
passes through one point of division shall vision, they shall intersect one another
be divided harmonically by the circum in the perpendicular to the diameter
ference and the perpendicular to the which is drawn through the other point.
diameter which is drawn through the
SECTION 7.—Problems.
other point.
PROP. 53. PROP. 54. Prob. 1. (EUc. iii. 30.)
A point A, being given within or To bisect a given circular arc A.C.B.
without a circle B DE, and at the ea Let C be the required point of bi:
premities of every chord M N which section: take D. the middle point of
III. $ 7.] GEOMETRY. 113
AB, and join CA, CB, CD. Then, Since the straight
line which bisects a c
because the arc CA C
is equal to the arc chord at right angles
CB, the chord CA (12. /*TN passes through the K
centre of the circle, "" £, is
Cor. 1.) is equal to the K-5–A
chord , C B : and, be two such straightlines
cause the triangles CDA, CDB have will cut one another in the centre.
the three sides of the one equal to the Therefore, in the arc A. C B take any
three sides of the other, each to each, point C; join A C, CB; and bisect A C,
the angle CDA is equal to CDB : there C B at right angles by the straight lines
fore, the line CD bisects AB at right DE, FE: the point E in which they
angles. Therefore reversely, bisect the cut one another is the centre of the arc
chord AB at right angles by the straight A C B. (See also Prop. 44.)
line CD, and the given arc ACB will be Cor. (Euc. iii. 25.) Hence, any arc of
bisected in C. a circle being given, the circumference
Therefore, &c. may be completed of which it is a part.
Cor. Hence, a given arc may be
divided into 4, 8, 16, &c. equal parts. PROP. 56. Prob. 3. (EUC, iii. 17.)
Scholium. From a given point A, to draw a tan
The practicability of a geometrical gent to a given circle B D E.
division of a circular arc into any num 1. If the point A
ber of equal parts, implies that of the be in the circumfe- |F
angle at the centre (12.) into the rence of the circle,
same number of equal parts; and vice find the centre C D
versá. It has already been stated that (55.), join C A,
in the cases of 3, 5, &c., equal parts, and from A draw E.
the division of the angle cannot be ef A F perpendicular
fected by a plane construction; and the to CA. Then, because A F is drawn
same is to be understood of the circular perpendicular to the radius at its extre
arc (1.46. Scholium). We may observe mity, it touches the circle (2).
that the problem of trisecting an arc 2. If A do not lie
has been put under the following form, in the circumference, 9
which gives it an appearance at first of let the line A B be
being much easier than upon examina assumed as the re- c
tion it is found to be. quired tangent. Find

“From a given A. -
the centre C, and join E
point A in the cir. C A, C B. Them, be
cumference of a \e cause AB is a tangent, the angle CBA is a
given circle ABD B D. Q. right angle (2. Cor. 1.), and the point B
to draw a straight lies in the circumference of a circle of
lime APQ such that which A C is diameter (15. Cor. 3.)
the part PQ, which Reversely, therefore, upon A C as a dia
is intercepted between the circumference meter describe a circle cutting the given
and a given diameter BD produced, shall circle in B, and join A B : A B is the
be equal to the radius CA.” tangent required.
For, if this be done, the arc PD will We may observe that in this case
be found, which is a third of the given there are two points of intersection B
arg AB ; because, PQ being equal to and therefore two tangents. The same
PC, the angle PCQ is equal (i.ej to the may be said, indeed, of the former case.
§ngle PQC, and therefore, the angle but there the two touch in the same
QPA or CAP is equal to twice PCQ lº,
and are parts of the same straight
(I.19), and ACB, which (I. 19.) is equal Ine.
to CAP and PQC together, is equal

to three times PCQ, that is, the are PROP. 57. Prob. 4.
* y equal to three times the arc PD To a given circle A B D to d
PROP. 55. Prob. 2. (EUC. iii. 1.)
tangent,
gºver whichline
straight shall
E Fbe parº". 0.
Gº,
To find the centre of a given circular Find the centre C (55); from C
arc A. C. B. CE perpendicular to Éir ãº,º
I
let CE, produced if upon opposite sides of the line joining
necessary, cut the cir the centres, the like reasoning will lead
cumference in P. to a construction which differs from
Then, if PQ be drawn that of the first case in this only, that
arallel to EF, it will C E is equal to the sum of the radii.
e at right angles to We may remark that in each of the
the radius C P (I, cases there are two tangents c E, and
I4.); and therefore two common tangents parallel to them
(2.) will be the tan respectively.
gent required. PROP, 59. Prob, 6.
PRop. 58. Prob. 5.
To draw a straight line, which shall To describe a circle, which shal!
º each of two given 1. (Euc. iv. 5.) pass through three
circles A B D, given
a 0 (1.
points not in the same straight
Let A a be assumed as the common line; or h
2. pass through two given points,
tangent required: and first, let it touch and #. a given
the circles in the points A, a which lie
ºfº,
0?'
3. pass through a given point, and
upon the same side of the line joining touch two given straight lines; or
their centres C, c. 4. (Euc. iv. 4.) touch three given
straight lines not parallels.
1. Let A, B, C be the three given
points, and let the point P be assumed
for the centre of the required circle.
Then, because P is Ib
equidistant
and B, it isfrom A
in the Tºx
A
Join C A, ca; and from c, the centre straight line which * G

of the lesser circle, draw c E parallel bisects A B at right
to A a to meet C A in E. Then, be angles (44.); and
cause C Aa (2, Cor. 1.) is a right angle, for a similar reason,
C E c is likewise a right angle (I, 14.), it is in the straight
and C E will touch in the point E the line which bisects BC at º angles.
circumference of a circle, described Therefore, reversely, to find the point P,
from the centre C, with the radius C E, bisect AB, BC atright angles (I.43. Cor.)
which is equal to the difference of CA, by the straight lines DP, EP, which in
EA, that is (I. 22.) to the difference of tersect one another in P: and, from the
the radii C A, ca. centre P with the radius PA, describe
... Therefore, reversely, from the centre a circle; it shall pass through the points
C with a radius equal to the difference B, C, and shall be the circle required.
of the radii C A, ca, describe a circle, 2. Let A, B be the two given points,
and from the point c draw a straight and CD the given straight line. Sup
line (56.), touching this circle in the ose the circle to be described, and that
point E.: join CE, and produce it to meet it touches C D in P: also, let A B
the circumference ABD in A; draw c a produced meet CD in C. Then, be
parallel to CA, and join A a Aa is the A.
common tangent required. When the cir
cles are equal, CA and camust be drawn, Tx - A
each of them, perpendicular to C c. In
this case the common tangent A a is
evidently parallel to C c.
2. If the points of contact are to lie o: ºb P c P ad
cause C P touches, and C A cuts the cir

cle, the square of C P is equal (21.) to the
rectangle under CA, CB. Therefore,
reversely, take CP a mean proportional
between C A, C B, and describe a cir
cle through the points A, B, P; it shall
be the circle required.
We may remark that in this case,
there may be described two circles,
| } III. $ 7.] GEOMETRY 115
i; each of which passes through the two In both cases we may observe that
&
given points A, B, and touches the there are two circles which satisfy the
ſ||
given straight line CD, viz, one for a given conditions, corresponding to the
iſ point P upon the right hand of C, and two points in which the circle which is
another for a point P upon the left described from the centre G with the ra
hand of C. dius G E cuts the line F.A.
i If A B be parallel to CD, the point 4. Let A B, B C,
#1 P will be in the straight line which bi CD be the three
sects AB at right angles, (3. Cor. 1.) given straight lines,
of which not more
and being found accordingly, the circle
may be described as before, than two are paral
3. Let A be the given point, and B C, lel, and let these
|W DE the given straight lines. Produce two be cut by the
| B C, DE to meet one another in F; third in the points
y
join FA; draw FG bisecting the angle
| BFD (I.46.): in FG take any point Assume the point P for the centre of
G, and from G draw GE (I. 45.) per the circle. Then, because P is equi
pendicular to FD; from the centre G distant from AB, B C, it is in the
with the radius GE describe a circle straight line B P which bisects the an
cutting FA in H : join HG, and gle ABC (45.); and, for a similar reason,
through A draw AP parallel to H.G. it is in the line PC which bisects the
6||
to meet FG (produced, if necessary), in angle B C D. Therefore, reversely, to
P (I. 48.): the circle described from find P, bisect the angles at B and C by
ić straight lines meeting in P: from P
(k draw PQ perpendicular to A B (I. 45.),
and from the centre P with the radius
PQ describe a circle: it shall be the
circle required.
If A B, CD are parallel, two circles
(and two only) can be described, each
touching the three given lines : but
if no two of the straight lines be paral
the centre P with the radius PA shall lel, four circles may be described which
be the circle required. -
shall satisfy this condition, viz. one
For, if PD be drawn from the point within the triangle included by the
P perpendicular to FD, PD will be given lines, and three others touching
parallel to G E (I, 14.), and, therefore, the sides of that triangle externally.
(II. 30. Cor. 2.) GE will be to PD as GF Scholium.
to PF: but, because G H is parallel to
PA, G F is to PF as GH to PA: The problem of describing a circle
therefore (II, 12.) G E is to PD as GH about a given triangle (Euc. iv. 5.) be
to PA; and in this proportion the first longs to the first case, that of inscrib
term GE is equal to the third G. H.; ing a circle, within a given triangle
therefore also (II. 18.) PD is equal to (Euc. iv. 4.) to the last case of this pro
PA. Therefore, the circle which is de position. The second and third cases
scribed from the centre P with the ra are modified by supposing a point and a
dius PA passes through the point D; tangent passing through it to be of the
and it touches the line D E in that data. Thus, the second becomes “to
§ because PD is at right angles to
E (2.): therefore (45.) it also touches
describe a circle, which shall pass
through two given points, and touch a
the line B C.* given straight, line in one of those
... The case in which B C is parallel to points,” and the third “to describe a
DE differs from the foregoing in this circle, which shall touch two given
only, that FG must now be drawn straight lines, and one of them in a
parallel to B C or DE, and bisecting given point.” The modified solutions
the distance between them (See 45.). corresponding are too simple to detain
T--—— us here: that of the first occurs in
+ When the point A is in FG, or in FG produced, prob. 7.
tº solution here given must be modified by joining Instead of touching one, two, or three
§§perpendicular
drawing AIX parallel to H.E, and erectin
to F D ; which gives the centre
given straight lines as in the problem
; before. , When A is in one of the given lines, as we have just considered, it may be re
BC, the solution takes a still more simple form. *
quired to describe a
2
which shall
116 GEOMETRY. [III. $7.
touch one, two, or three given circles, after a similar manner; viz. by describ
or which shall touch both a straight ing a circle which shall touch the given
line and a circle, or two straight lines straight line in the given point, and like
and a circle, or a straight line and two wise pass through a point assumed in
circles, and at the same time pass the circumference of the circle, and then
through one or two given points, as proceeding as in the proposition.
the other data may happen to admit. 2. To describe a circle which shall
The six new problems of contact which pass through a given point A, and
are thus suggested are too remarkable touch two given circles B C D, E FG.
to be passed over without further no Suppose that the required circle is
tice; they are accordingly here sub described, and that it touches the given
joined. circles in the points D, F respectively:
1. To describe a circle which shall join D F, and since the straight line
pass through two given points A, B, D F cannot touch the given circles in
and touch a given circle CD E. the points D, F, (because then it would
In the circumference C D E take any
point C, and describe (59.), a circle 2–% I
which may pass through the three
points A, B, C ; then, if this circle
meet the circum
ference C D E in >ſys /
T.
no other point, it A
is the circle re
quired: but if it
do, let that other B touch the required circle A D F in the
point be D : join same points, which (1. Cor. 2.) is absurd)
A B, C D, and let it be produced both ways to meet the
let them be pro circumferences a second time in the
duced to meet in points C, G respectively: take H, K, the
F: from F draw centres of the circles B C D, E FG, and
FG, touching the join H K, HD, K F, KG : then, because
circle CDE (56.): the circle A D F touches B C D in D,
let G be the point and EFG in F, the radii HD, KF
of contact, and F
produced (8. Cor. 1.) will meet in its
describe a circle (59.) passing through centre, L ; and, because K G F, LFD
the three points A, B, G. Then, be are isosceles triangles, the angle KG F
cause the chord CD of the circle . is (I. 6.) equal to KFG, that is (I. 3.)
CD E meets the tangent G F in F to L FD, that is again (I. 6) to LD F
(21.), the square of G F is equal to the or (I. 3.) HD C : therefore (I. 15.) KG
rectangle C F, FD, that is, to the is parallel to HD, and, consequently, if
rectangle A F, F B (20): therefore the circles B C D, EFG be equal,
(21. Cor.) G F touches also the circle H K, D G will be parallel (I. 21.), or if
A B G, and, consequently, the circle one of them, as B C D, be greater
A B G touches the circle CD E (2. Cor. than the other, H K and D G will meet,
2 and 9.), and is the circle required. if produced in some point M. In the
If A B and C D be parallels (which latter case, draw M B touching the
will be the case when the line which bi circle B C D in B (56.), join H B, and
sects A B at right angles passes through from K draw K I (I. 45.) perpendicular
the centre of the circle CD E), a tan to MB, and therefore (I, 14.) parallel
gent FG is to be drawn parallel to to H B : then, because K I, H B are
A B or CD (57.), and the circle A B G, parallel, KI : H B::KM : H M (II.30.
being then described as before, will be Cor. 2.) that is, ; ; K G : H D, because
the circle required. KG, H D are parallel: but H B is
It is evident, in each case, that there equal to HD; therefore (II. 18.) KI is
are two tangents FG, and two circles equal to KG, and I is a point in the cir
A B G corresponding to them, one cumference of the circle E FG, and (2)
touching the given circle externally, M B touches the circle EFG in the
the other internally. point I. Now, M I : M B :: M K :
Cor. The problem which requires a M H (II, 29.), that is, :: M G : M D ;
circle to be described which shall touch therefore, alternando (Iſ. 19.), MI; MG
a given straight line in a given point, :: MB : MD : but, because MI touches
and also a given circle, may be solved the circle E FG, the square of MI is
equal to the rectangle M FX M G (21), quired, to which the reader will be

and consequently (II, 38. Cor. 1.) M. F: easily conducted by an investigation
MI :: M I : M G : therefore (II. 12.) similar to that which has been already
M F : M I :: M B: MD, and (38.) the given.
rectangle MIx M Bis equal to the rect 3. To describe a circle which shall
angle M F x M.D. Join MA, and let touch three given circles A, B, C.
it cut the circumference of the circle Let C be that one of the three which
A F D a second time in the point is not greater than either of the other
N: then the rectangle M A x MN is two. From the centres of A and B
equal (20.) to the rectangle M F x describe two new circles with radii less
MD, that is, by what has been just than their own respectively by the ra
* to the rectangle M I x A
Therefore, reversely, to solve the IB

problem, draw the common tangent
B I to the two given circles (58.), and
produce it to meet the line H K which
joins their centres in M: join MA:
take M N a fourth proportional (II. 53.)
C) •
to MA, MB, MI, and, as in (1), C

describe the circle A N D, passing
through the two points A, N and dius of C ; and, as in the last problem,
touching the circle B C D : A N D will describe a circle DEF which shall pass
be the circle required, . For if M D through the centre F of the circle C, and
be joined, cutting the circle EFG in touch these two new circles in the points
F and G, and if KF and K G be joined, D, E respectively: them, if a circle be de
the circle described will (20. Cor.), pass scribed concentric with the circle D E F,
through F, because (as has been shown with a radius less than that of D EF
above) M D x M F is equal to MBX by the radius of C, it will evidently touch
MI, that is to M AxM N; and (which each of the three given circles (10. Cor.
has been likewise shown) KG will be pa 2.), and will be the circle required.
rallel to HD. Therefore, if in HD pro In the case here considered, the re
duced (which (8. Cor. 1.) passes through quired circle touches each of the given
the centre of the circle A N D, because circles externally: since, however, a circle
it passes through the centre H of B CD, may be described which shall touch all
which touches A N D in D), there be three internally, or any two externally,
taken L, the centre of the circle A N D, and the third internally, or again, any
and LF be joined, the angle LFD will two internally and the third externally,
be equal (I. 6.) to LD F, that is (I. 3.) there are no less than eight different cir
to HD C, that is, again (I. 15.) to KGF, cles which satisfy the problem: the
or (I. 6.) KF G; and because DFG is construction of each of these is ob
a straight line, KF and F L likewise lie tained after a similar manner.
in a straight line (I. 3.), and therefore 4. To describe a circle which shall
the circle AND touches the circle EFG pass through a given point A, touch a
in F (9.). -
given straight line B C, and also touch
Should the given circles be equal, or a given circle D E F.
should the point N coincide with the Take G the centre (55.) of the circle
point A, the foregoing solution must be DEF, and through G draw (I. 45.)
modified accordingly. The latter case the diameter D F perpendicular to B C
is provided for by the corollary of the to meet B C in C; join AD, and take
preceding problem: both, indeed, are D H a fourth proportional (II. 53.) to
comparatively easy, and are therefore AD, D C and D F, i. e. (II. 38.) such
left to the student. that A Dx D H may be equal to D C x
It remains to observe, that we have
only considered the case in which the
required circle touches both of given
circles externally: since both, however,
may also be touched internally, or one
intermally and the other externally by
the same circle, there are evidently four
different circles which satisfy the con
ditions of the problem. For each of DF; and describe a circle H A B (59.)
these a different construction is re passing through the two points A, H,
and touching the straight line B C : (55): and (59.) describe the circle
this shall be the circle required. For, H L N passing through the point N
let it touch B C in B; join B D, and and touching the straight lines H. K.
let it cut the circumference D E F in LM: then, if a circle be described
K, and join K F: then, because (15. concentric with H L N, and with a ra
Cor. I.) D KF is a right angle, the tri dius less than that of H. L.N by the
angles D KF, D C B are equiangular, radius of EFG, it will evidently touch
and (II. 31.) D K : D F :: D C ; D B, or the straight lines A B, and CD, and
(38.) D Kx D B is equal to D C x D F, the circle EFG (10. Cor. 2.) and will
that is, to AD x D H ; therefore K is therefore be the circle required.
also a point in the circumference of the Four different circles may be described
circle A B H (20. Cor.). Now take L to satisfy this problem, viz. two touch
the centre of the circle A B H (55.) and ing the given circle externally, and two
join LB, L K, GK: and, because LB internally:" the latter two may be found
is (2. Cor. 1.) perpendicular to B C, it by drawing HK and LM between AB
is (I, 14.) parallel to DC, and therefore and CD.
(I, 15.) the angle LBK is equal to 6. To describe a circle which shall
G D K; but L. KB is equal to LBK, touch a given straight line A B, and
and G. KD to G D K, because L B is two given circles CDE, FG H.
equal to LK, and G D to G. K. (I. 6..); If the given circles be equal to one
therefore the angle L KB is equal to another, draw KL parallel to A B, at
G KD, and (I, 3.) L K G is a . a distance from it equal to their com
line: therefore the circle A B H touches mon radius (I. 48.), and (59.) describe
(9.) the circle DEF in the point K, a circle passing through the centres of
and is the circle required. the two given circles and touching the
If D H be equal to D A, a circle line K L: then it is evident that a cir
A B H is to be described touching DA cle concentric with the latter, and hav
in A, and also touching the straight ing a radius less by the common radius
line B C. (See the beginning of this of the given circles, will be the circle
Scholium.) required. But, if one of them, as
In this problem there are two circles FG, H, be greater than the other, de
satisfying the conditions: the construc
tion of that which touches the given
circle internally will readily be under
stood by applying what has been said
to the subjoined figure.
- – T.
scribe about its centre a circle fgh

with a radius less than that of FGH
by the radius of the lesser circle CDE:
draw KL parallel to A B at a distance
from it equal to the radius of C D E:
and describe a circle passing through
5. To describe a circle which shall the centre of CD E touching the line
touch two given straight lines A B, K L, and touching also the circle fgh,
CD, and also a given circle EFG. as shown in the last problem but one:
Draw H K parallel to A B, and at a then, if a circle be described concentric
distance from it equal to the radius of with this and with a radius less by the
E FG: draw also LM parallel to and radius of CD E, it will evidently be
the circle required.
. Here, also, there are four different
circles satisfying the conditions of the
problem; and the same principle leads
to the construction of them all.
* External contact is where two circles touch one
another, and each of them is without the other; in
ternal contact, where two circles touch one another,
and one of them is within the other. In the latter
case, it is evident that the circumference of the
larger circle is without the circumference of the
at the same distance from CD (I. 48): other; and yet each of them is properly said to touch
the other internally, meaning, with that descrip
take N the centre of the circle EFG tion of contact which is called internal. -
In it. GEOMETRY.
119
Much as each of the foregoin
blems may be varied in º,
the Consideration of internal Contact,
PROP, 62. Prob. 9, (Euc. iv. 2, 3.)
. Given a circle A B C, to (1) inscribe
they admit of being varied yet further **, or (2) describe about it, a triangia
by supposing, when a point is given, similar to a given triangle I E F.
that it is in the given tangent or cir: 1: Let A B C be the required in
cumference: and when it is besides sug §cribed triangle, and through Å draw the
gested that, in each of the ten problems line G A H touching the circle (56).
furnished by the proposition and scho then the angle GAB is equal to the an
lium, one of the data be changed for gle at C, and the angle HAC to the an
“a given radius,” or for “a given line gle at B (17.) Therefore, reversely, take
in which the centre is to lie,” or again, any point A of the circumference, draw
two of the data for both of these, the the tangent G. A H (56.), and make the
student will have before him a field no angles GAB, HAC equal to the angles
Gr
less pleasing than extensive, still re

maining for the exercise of his inge
nuity, in problems of contact.
PROP. 60. Prob. 7. (EUC. iii. 33.)
Upon a given straight line A B to
describe a segment of a circle which at F and E respectively (I. 47.) Then,
shall contain an angle equal to a given if A B, A C meet the circumference in
angle A B C. -
the points B, C respectively, and if B C

Let A QB be the segment required, be joined, A B C will be the triangle
and Pits centre. Then, because the angle required; for, the angles at B and C
A B C is equal to the angle in the al being equal to the angles at E and F,
ternate segment, the line B C touches each to each, the third angles at A and
the circle (17. Cor.) at B. Therefore, PB D are likewise equal (I. 19. Cor. 1.),
joined is atright angles to B C, Again, and therefore the triangles are similar
because P is the centre (II. 31. Cor. 1.). * * *
of a circle having the 2. Let KLM be the required circum

chord A, B, it is in scribed triangle, and let its sides touch
the straight line which the circle in the points A, B, C: take
bisects AB at right an O the centre of the circle (55), and join
gles (3 Cor. 2). There- A. O A, OB, O C
fore, reversely, draw %
B D perpendicular to -
k
B C (I.44.), and bisect -\B wº
A B at right angles A. Ix C
(I.43.Cor.)by a straight DTP 0.
line, cutting BD in P: -
Tº T. F. I. 3 M
with the centre P and radius PB describe
the circular arc B QA; and the segment Then, because the angles at A and B
B Q A will be the segment required, of the quadrilateral A L B O are right
PROP. 61. Prob. 8. (EUc. iii. 34.) angles (2. Cor. 1.), the remaining angles
Given a point A in the circumference Land A O B are together equal to two
of a circle A B C ; to cut off a segment right angles (I. 20. Cor.) and A O B is
which shall contain a given angle, by the supplement of the angle L, or, of
a straight line drawn from the point A. its equal, the angle E.; which Supple
From A draw AD touching the cir ment may be obtained by producing the
ºle, and let A B be the line required: side E. F. In like manner it may be
§º the angle
(l7.) is equal C
shown, that the angle B O C is the Sup
-
to the angle in ti. 2– plement of the angle M or F. Therefore

reversely, taking any point A in the cir:
ternate segment BC A, Gumference, at the point O, make (I. 47.)
it is equal to the given the angle AO B equal to the Supplement
angle. Therefore, re. A T;
of E, and the angle BOC equal to the
Versely, make DAB supplement of F: at the points A, B, C
*qual to the given an
gº. (I, 47); and AB
Will be the line required.
in º º ºk#. one another
2 *-* > 3 &n - •
angle required, LM will be the tril

Prop. 63. Prob. 10. (Euc. iv. 6, 7, a regular pentagon will be inscribed, as
11, 12, 15, 16.) require d.
4. To inscribe a regu -->
A circle being given ; to inscribe lar hexagon: divide the
£n it, or describe about it,
. . an equilateral triangle; or
circumference into six /
parts with chords each
. . a square ; or
, a regular pentagon ; or
equal to the radius (28).
//
: . a regular heragon; or
. . a regular decagon; or
, a regular pentedecagon.
5. To inscribe a regular decagon: di
vide the radius medially, and divide the
circumference into ten
Take C the centre of the circle; and, parts with chords
1. to inscribe an equilateral triangle: each equal to the
2^
from A, any point of the circumference, greater segmen ofthe

with the radius AC, describe a circle radius so t
divided
cutting the given circle in the points (28).
B, D : produce AC to
meet the circumference
6. To inscribe a re A©
in E, and join B D, gular pentedecagon:
DE, E.B. Then join take the chord A B B
ing BC, CD, BA, AD, equal (as above) to E
because the triangles the side of a regular D
ACB, ACD are equi inscribed pentagon,
lateral, the angles and the chord A D
-
-
BCA, D CA are each of them a third equal (as above) to the side of an in:
of two right angles (I. 6, and I. 19.). scribed equilateral triangle: bisect, the
Therefore the adjacent angles BCE, arc BD in E (54), and join BE. Then:
D C E are each of them two-thirds of the because the are A B is contained
same, as is also the angle B C D ; and in the whole circumference five times,
because the sides of the triangle BD E and AD three times, if the circumfer:
subtend equal angles at the centre C, ence be divided into 5 × 3, or 15 equal
they are equal to one another (12. Cor. 1.), parts, A B will contain three and
i.e. the triangle B D E is equilateral. A D five of those parts. Therefore
2. To inscribe a the difference BD contains two of the
square: draw two dia-
meters at right angles
/2 same parts, and its half B E is one-fif
teenth of the whole circumference. Di
to one another, and C
vide the circumference, therefore, into
join their extremities:
the included figure will
N N
fifteen parts with chords each equal to
BE, and a regular pentedecagon will
be a square; for its be inscribed, as required.
sides are equal, because they subtend And in every
case, if through
the am
equal angles at the centre C (12. Cor:l.), gular points of the inscribed figure,
and its angles are right angles, because or throug the bisections of the arcs,
they are contained in semicircles (15. (which is hsometimes more convenient)
Cor, 1.) y
there be drawn tangents to the circle
3. To inscribe a re- A.
gular pentagon; divide
the radius C D medi
ZDS (56.), a similar figure will be circum
scribed about the circle (27.).
Cor. Hence by the aid of II, 65. any
ally (II.59)in the point
F, so that CF may be
º
wº one of the above-mentioned figures
may be described upon a given finite
the greater segment. straight line.
Draw the radius CA
Scholium.
at right angles to CD, and join A. F.
Then, because the square of A F is Besides the figures mentioned in the
greater than the square of C F by the proposition, it has been discovered that
square of the radius AC, and that CF is any regular figure which has the num
the side of the inscribed decagon (28.), ber of its sides denoted by 2n + 1 and
AF is the side of the inscribed pentagon. prime, may be inscribed in a circle with
Therefore, a chord, equal to A F, will out any other aid than that of Plane
subtend a fifth part of the circumference, Geometry, that is, by the intersections of
and if the circumference be divided into the straight line and circle only. And
five parts with chords each equal to AF, it is evident that by dividing the sub
III. § 7.] GEOMETRY. 121.
tended arcs into two, four, &c. equal For a second example, let us take the
parts (54.) a regular figure of twice, enneagon, or, as it is sometimes called,
four times, &c. the number of sides of nonagon : here, again, 64 exceeds 7 x 9
any of the above may be inscribed; e.g. by l ; therefore, the same division of the
an octagon, (or regular figure of eight quadrant being made as in the case of
sides,) by bisecting the arcs which are the heptagon, because B G is equal to
subtended by the sides of a square, a 7 parts out of the 64, and DG to one part,
dodecagon (or regular figure of twelve B G with a ninth of D G will be con
sides) by bisecting those which are tained in the circumference 9 times ex
subtended by the sides of a hexagon; actly: and if the chord of B b be taken
and so on. Still there are many regular equal to the ninth part of the chord of
figures, as the heptagon, enneagon, hen DG, the chord of G b will be very nearly
decagon, &c. (figures of 7, 9, 11, &c. equal to the side of a regular emneagon
sides), for the inscribing of which no inscribed in the circle.
exact geometrical rule has ever been It is not, however, necessary that we
discovered. These figures we can only should always proceed with the series
inscribe approximatively; and when it is till we arrive at a number greater or less
required to do so with a considerable than the number of sides by 1. Take,
degree of accuracy, the following method for instance, the hendecagon, or, as it is
may be adopted. sometimes called, undecagon: here 11 × 6
Let it be required, for instance, to in =66, which exceeds 64 by 2. Now the
scribe a regular heptagon. Continue arc B F contains 6 out of 64 parts D G
the series 4, 8, 16, &c. which repre of the circumference. Therefore, if the
sents the numbers of parts into which circumference be increased by twice
the circumference may be divided by DG, BF will be contained in the circum
continued bisections, until a number ference so increased 11 times, and, con
be found which is greater or less by 1 sequently, if B F be diminished by two
than a multiple of 7: 64 is such a num elevenths of DG, it will be contained in
ber, being greater by 1 than 9 x 7. the circumference 11 times exactly; so
B that the side of the hendecagon will be
.--Tº
£2.É. obtained approximatively by assuming,
rºſer
as before, the chord in place of the arc,
and taking from B F two-elevenths of
the former instead of two-elevenths of
the latter.
In these examples, the real errors, if
computed, will be found far more mi
nute than those which the imperfection
of our instruments entails upon the most
accurate geometrical constructions.
Now, if the circumference be divided Seven times the arc which has been as
into 64 equal parts, and the arc AG be sumed as a seventh of the circumference
taken equal to 9 of those parts (which falls short of the whole circumference
may be done by bisecting the quadrantal by less than the Fºggºth part, and 9
arc AB in D, D B in E, Ij E in F, times the arc which has been assumed
and D F in G), the arc AG will be less as a ninth, by about an equal uantity;
than a seventh part of the circumference while 11 times the arc, which has been
by a seventh part of one of them D G. assumed as an eleventh, exceeds by
But, the arc DG being small, a seventh only about, twice the same quantity.
part of its chord (which may be found The method in may therefore be adopted
by (1,49) may without any considerable cally accurate. similar cases, as practi
in these and
ºrror be assumed for the seventh part of PROP. 64. Prob. 11.
the are itself, being somewhat less than
the latter; and if the chord of A a be To construct a triangle, any three
taken equal to this approximate seventh being assumed out of the fourfollowing
Part, the error of assuming for it the arc data, viz., the vertical angle, the base,
Aa, which is somewhat greater than its the sum of the sides, and the area.
chord, will be still less, so that G a will
This problem comprehends four cases,
be equal, very nearly, to one-seventh in which the data are respectively,
9f the circumference, and the chord of 1. Vertical angle, base, and sum of
G a very nearly equal to the side of a sides;
regular heptagon inscribed in the circle. 2. Vertical angle, base, and area;
122 GEOMETRY. [III, § 7,
3. Vertieal angle, sum of sides and taining sides, that is, they are equal to
area; one another; therefore AEF is the tri
4. Base, sum of sides, and area, angle required.
l. Let AB ... 4. Let A B be the given base, and let
be the given it be bisected in G. Let twice C M be
base, AC the the given sum of the sides, and let the
given sum of triangle D A B contain an area equal to
the two sides, the given area.
and D the Take CF (II. 52.) a third proportional
given vertical to CA, CE, and from the pointFdraw FG
angle. Upon perpendicular to EF (I,44): through
A B (60.) describe a segment A E B, Gr L B
containing an angle equal to the half of
D. With the centre A and radius A C
describe a circle cutting the arc A.I. B
in E. Join A E, BE, and at the point
B make the angle EBF equal to BEA:
the triangle F A B shall be the triangle
required. For, because the angle FEB
is equal to FB E, the side F B is equal
to FE (I.6.), and the two sides AF, FB
together are equal to AE, that is, to AC, D draw DG parallel to AB (I.48.) to
the given sum of the sides. Again, be meet FG in G, and join G. A. Through
cause the angle AFB (I. 19.) is equal E and C draw EH and C K parallel to
to the sum of the angles at E and B, FG, to meet GA and GA produced in
and that these angles are equal to one the points H, K, so that KG, KH: KA
another, the angle A F B is equal to will be proportionals (II. 29); from the
twice the angle at E, that is, to the given centre K, with the radius KH, describe a
angle D. And the triangle is described circle cutting G D in L, and join J. A.
upon the given base A. B. I.B. LAB shall be the triangle required.
Therefore, &c. Produce K to M, so that KM may
2. Let A B be be equal to G.KH; and from L draw LN
- _P lºzº >
the given base, erpendicular to AB. Then, because
upon which let ſ }. º KH, KG are proportionals, MA,
MH, MG but
are in
there be describ
ed the rectangle # (II. 46.); theharmonical
point L isprogression
in the cir
A B C D, contain cumference of a circle upon the mean
ing an area equal to twice the given MH; therefore (51. Cor.) LA : LG ::
A. H. H.C.; but LG is (I. 22) equal
area (I. 57.), and a segment AEB con
taining an angle equal to the given an
to NF, and A H : H G :: A E:EF
gle (60.). Then if the arc A. E. B cut
(II. 29.), that is, since CA, CE, CF are
#he side CD in E, and EA, E B be proportionals (II. 22. Cor. 1.) :: CA :
joined, EAB will evidently be the tri & E; therefore I, A is to N F as QA tº
CE, or in the subduplicate ratio of CA
angle required. to CF; and (II. 38. Schol. Leºn, 1. Cor.)
3. Let A be the A. if B f be taken equal to AF, LB is to
given vertical an
gle, and let the tri N f in the same ratio. Therefore the
angle ABC (II.69.) sum of LA, L. B is to the whole line
contain an area Ff in the same ratio, or, if Cebe taken
equal to the given " equal to CE, as E e to Ff: therefore,
area: and let D be # the sum of LA, LB is equal (II, 11.
the given sumof the Cor. 1.) to Ee, that is, to the given sum,
two sides. Divide and LAB is the triangle required.
D into two parts, Therefore, &c.”
such that their rect
angle may be equal to the rectangle un . . • If the difference of the sides be supposed given
der AB, AC (II.56.). Take AE equal to instead of the sum in cases 1, 3 and 4, solutions of
one, and AF equal to the other of thesesame character may be obtained; viz. in case 1,
the
by describing upon the given base AB a segment
parts, and join E.F. Then, because the
which shall contain an angle exceeding by a right
triangles ABC, AEF have the common angle half the given angle I); in case 3, by dividing
the difference D produced, so that the rectangle
angle A, they are to one another (II.40. under
Cor.) as the rectangles under the con the segments may be equal to A BXA Qi and
in case 4, by making use of the following corollary to
|||}| III, § 7.] GEOMETRY. 123
º
| Prof. 65.
'siº,
t Prob. 12. and CD in F, and take E G a third pro
portional to E B and C F. From the
Ääni,
To find two straight lines, there being centre E, with the radius E A, describe
º
assumed any two out of the sia follow a semicircle A H B ; and from the point
, allº
ing data; viz. their sum, their differ: G (I. 44.) draw GH perpendicular to
ence, the sum of their squares, the dif: A B, to meet the circumference in H.
Raúl ference of their squares, their ratio, and Join A.H., H B : they shall be the
their rectangle. straight lines required.
mň. The cases of this proposition are fif 3. Let AB be the given sum, and the
miſſiºnſ;
teen in number, and may be arranged square of AC the
!); hº as follows:– given sum of the
squares. Bisect N
N
- 1. Sum, and difference. * evº
A C in D, (I.43.)
2. Sum of squares, and difference of and from D (I.44.) º
squares.
3.
4.
Sum, and sum of squares.
Difference, and sum of squares.
draw DE
pendicular to A.C.
per- Ø
§ –,
º 4–,
N
From the centre D

5. Sum, and difference of squares. with the radius D A or D C describe a
6. Difference,and difference of squares.
circle cutting DE in E; and from the
centre E, with the radius E A or EC
7. Ratio, and rectangle (II. 63.) describe the circle C F A : lastly, from
8. Sum, and ratio (II.55. fig. 1.) the centre A with the radius A B de
9. Difference, and ratio (II.55. fig. 2.) scribe an arc cutting CFA in F. Join
10, Sum, and rectangle (II.56.f.g. 1.) AF, let A F cut the circumference
11. Difference, and rectangle (II. 56. A EC in G : and join G. C. A G and
fig. 2.) G C shall be the limes required.
4. Let A B be the given difference,
12. Sum of squares, and ratio. and the square of A C the given sum of
13. Difference of squares, and ratio. the squares. Bisect
14. Sum of squares, and rectangle. AC in D (I, 43.), and .
i.” Difference of squares, and rectan from D (I. 44.) draw
glé. DE perpendicular to
---
AC: from the centre
Those of the second division, viz. the D with the radius
7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, and 11th cases, have DA or DC describe
in effect been already considered in the a circle cutting DE
propositions referred to at the side. in E ; and from the
They will accordingly be here omitted. centre E with the radius EA or EC de
scribe the circle CFA ; lastly, from the
Of the rest the greater part are so ob. centre
vious, that it will be sufficient to indi A with the radius AB describe
cate only the construction, leaving the an arc cutting CFA in F: join AF, and
demonstration to the reader. let AF produced cut the circumference
1. Let AB be the given sum, AC the AECG in G, and join G.C. AG and
given difference, Bisect C B in D, and GC shall be the straight lines required.
5. Let A B be the given sum, and
A C D B
t 1. -
the square of A C the given difference
of the squares: take A D a third pro
AD, DB will be the straight lines re
quired. A d C E: Tº
2. Let A B2 be H
the given sum of
the squares, and portional to A B, A C (II. 52.), and
C D* the given
difference of the
Squares. Bisect
.A. ę 3.T.B.
bisect D B in E (I. 43.); A E, E B
shall be the straight lines required.
6. Let A B be the given difference,
AB in Ed., “-FT"
A - B C E ID
II, 38. Schol. Lem. 2: “If DE be taken to AB as 1
AB-AC to BC, or, which is the same thing, in a ratio

which is the subduplicate of GE to GB, then the other
segment DF of the base equally reduced in the oppo and the square of A C the given differ
site direction shall be to the other side AC in the same ence of the squares: take AD a third
ratio.” . The application of these suggestions is left
to the student. proportional to AB, A.C (II.52.), and
T24 GEOMETRY. [III. § 7.
bisect B D in E (I. 43.) ; A E, E B shall upon A.D describe a circle cutting BE
be the straight lines required. in E: A E, E B shall be the straight
12. Let the given ratio be that of limes required. For it is evident that
A B to AC, and let the square of D be the square of ED being (as in the last
the given sum of the case) by the construction equal to the
squares: from A (I. 'E',
rectangle under AD, DB (II. 34. Cor),
44.) draw A E at right E" ED is equal to C; and, because the tri
angles to A B, and from angles ABE, EBD are similar (II. 34.),
-
the centre A with the AB is to AE as EB to ED, and there

radius A C describe a — | fore the rectangle under AE, EB is
circle cutting A E in E: JA. G. T. C. (II. 38.) equal to the rectangle under
join B E: take BFequal T} AB, ED, that is to the rectangle under
to D, and through F -
AB and C.
(I. 48.) draw FG parallel to E A : G F, Scholium.
G B shall be the straight lines required.
13. Let the given ratio be that of In the cases of this Proposition we
A B to AC, and let the square of D have exhibited geometrical solutions of
be the given difference of the squares: the following well-known equations.
from B (I.44.) draw 1. a +y=q 2. *#y-º
B E at right angles E a —y =b a 2-y2 =b*
to AB, and from the /1
centre A, with the //* 3. a + y = a 4. & —y =a
radius AC, describe 2. a 2+y==bº a”--y?=5°
a circle cutting BE 5. a + y = a 6. a -y = a
in
BF E:equal
join AE;
to D, take
and KTGT is & D a 2–y? =b” as +y=bs
through F (I, 48.), draw FG parallel to 7, as a
AE: G F, G B shall be the straight
lines required. y - 5
14. Let the square of A B be the a y = cº
given sum of the squares, and let the 8. a7+y= a 9, ac-y = a |
rectangle under A B and C be the
given rectangle : di a & a b
vide A B in D (II. z.:---- gy C g Tc
56.), so that the rect- % 10. a + y = a 11, a - y = a
angle under AD, DB / ay =b2 ary =bº
may be equal to the ro -B
square of C ; from
D (II. 56.) draw DE
* cº
12. ae-Hy?=as 13, w8-y?–d?
at right angles to w__b & =}
AB; and upon AB as a diameter de g Tc gy c
scribe a circle cutting DE in E: AE, 14. as--yº =dº 15. a”-y?–d?
EB shall be the straight lines required. wy = 5? ay =bº
For it is evident, that the square of ED
being, by construction, equal to the rect In the construction of these and other
angle under AD, DB (II.34. Cor.), ED is problems of the foregoing Sections, the
equal to C ; and the rectangle under data have always been supposed such
AE, EB is equal to the rectangle under that the problem in question be not im
AB, ED, that is, to the rectangle under possible. For, as we have already had
AB and C. occasion to observe, many of them are
15. Let the square of A B be the possible, only so long as the mutual
given difference of the squares, and let relations of the data are confined within
the rectangle under A B and C be the certain limits. Thus, if it be required
given rectangle; to find two lines, such that their squares
roduce A B to
Fº 56.), so —º may together contain 9 square feet, it
that therectangle
under AD, DB
º
_-->
is evident that the sum of the lines in
question must not be less than 3 feet,
nor must their difference exceed 3 feet,
#º
may be equal to
of C, -A- IB ID
(II.56. N. B.). The solution, therefore,
from B (I. 44.) of a problem, which should require the
C
jm of the two to fall short of this quan

draw B E at right angles to AD, and tity, or their difference to exceed it,
|||}|
! IV. § 1.] GEOMETRY. 125
intº
& sº Would be impossible. In this manner 2. (Euc. xi. def. 5.) A straight line is
it iſ does one of the conditions frequently set said to be inclined to a plane, when it
itsk limits to the other—frequently, but not meets the plane but is not perpendicular
in every case:—thus, if two lines be re to it.
A $.
...', quired, which shall contain a given When a straight line A B is inclined
{ }; rectangle, their ratio may be any what to a plane CDE,
t||| ever, and a problem which should re the angle ABF
quire them to be to one another in any which it makes
àiº
ratio, how great or how small soever, with a straight
| ||
ſº would be possible. The limits of possi line drawn from
bility, when there are any, are commonly the point B in
º: indicated by the construction, if the which it meets
problem be solved geometrically, as the plane,through
they are, if algebraically, by the form the foot of the . . . .
Rºmº of the final equation. See the cases of perpendicular AF, which is let fall upon
iſſi
Prop. 64., where the vertex of the tri the plane from any other point A of the
iſſ,
angle sought is determined by the inter straight line (see Prop. 7), is called the
section of a straight line and circle, or of angle of inclination.
i=| two circles: if the data be such that no 3. A straight line is said to be pa
:=} intersection can take place, the con rallel to a plane, when it cannot meet
struction fails, and the problem becomes the plane, to whatever extent both be
itſ!
impossible. produced. Also, conversely, in this case
=} BOOK IV. the plane is said to be parallel to the
zſ! § 1. Of Lines perpendicular, or inclined, straight line.
|-} or parallel to planes.—$ 2. Of Planes 4. If two planes ABC,
which are parallel, or inclined, or per A B D intersect one an
pendicular to other Planes.—$ 3. Of other in a line as A B
Solids contained by Planes.— $4. (see Prop. 2.), they are
Problems. said to form at that line
SECTION 1-Qf Lines perpendicular, a dihedral angle CABD.
or inclined, or parallel to Planes. The magnitude of a
IN the preceding books our attention dihedral-angle does not
has been confined to lines which lie in depend upon the extent
one and the same plane, the intersection of the containing planes, but upon the
of such lines, and the figures contained opening between them. Thus, the di
by them ; we are now to consider lines hedral angle C A B D is greater than
the dihedral angle E A B D by the dihe
which lie in different planes, planes dral angle C A B.E.
which intersect one another, and solids
5. When one plane standing upon
which are contained by plane or other another plane makes the adjacent dihe
surfaces. In other words, we have
been hitherto engaged with Plane Geo dral angles equal to one another, each
of them is called a
metry; we are now to enter upon Solid right dihedral angle;
Geometry. and the plane which
Def. 1. (Euc. xi, def.3.) Astraight line stands upon the other
is said to be perpendicular (or at right is said to be perpen
angles) to a plane, when it makes right dicular (or at right
angles with every -
angles) to it.
straight line meet
ing it in that plane, A dihedral angle is also said to be
(see Prop 3.). Also, acute or obtuse, according as it less or
conversely, in this greater than a right angle.
case the plane is 6. (Euc. xi. def. 8.) Planes, which do
said to be perpendi- A not meet one another, though produced
culartothestraight “ to any extent, are said to be parallel.
line.
7. (Euc. xi. def. 9.) If three or more
The foot of the perpendicular is the planespass through apoint as A,they are
point” in which it meets the plane.
* It is evident that a straight line cannot meet a face cºmmon to both, unless they coincide altogether.
plane in more than one point, unless it lies alto (See Prop. 1.) Therefore a straight line cuts a plane
gºther in the plane; and in like manner that one in a point,; and a plane cuts a plane in a line, which
plane cannot meet another.plane in a portion of sur line (see Prop. 2.) is a straight'line.
ſ
GEOMETRY. [IV, 31.
126 |
said to form at that 11. (Euc.xi, defA) A parallelopiped
is a solid figurehāv
oint a solid angle, of
which the intercepted
lane angles (see
ingsixfaces, of which
every opposite two
.
rop. 2.) are called areSuch
parallel.
º:
a ; ſ
thesides or faces,and A be formed by taking , , , ,

the intersections of any solid º A, which is formed by
-
the planes, edges. three plane angles, assuming any points

8. A polyhedron is a solid figure in B,C,D in the three edges, and passing
cluded by any number of planes, which through those points planes parallel to
are called its faces: if it have four faces the planes A C D, A BD, A B C re
only, which is the least number possi spectively. º
ble, it is called a tetrahedron; if six, a The faces of a parallelopiped are

Žexahedron ; if eight, an octahedron ; sometimes distinguished by naming any
if twelve, a dodecahedron; if twenty, an two opposite faces the bases of the pā
icosahedron; and so on.” rallelopiped, and the other four the
-
i
The intersections of the faces of a sides: in which case the altitude of the
polyhedron are called arrises or edges, parallelopiped is the perpendicular dis
...} the points of the solid, angles tance between the two bases, , , , ,
vertices orangular points. The diagonals 12. A rectangular parallelopiped is
of a polyhedron are the straight lines that which has one of
which join any two vertices not lying in its solid angles con
the same face.
tained by three right 21 L’
The surfaces of the polyhedrons here angles, and therefore
treated of are supposed to be convex,
that is, such that the same straight line (see Prop. 17.) every
face at right angles to
can cut them in two points only.
9. A polyhedron is said to be regular, those which are adjoining to it.
13. A cube is a rectangular parallelo
when its faces are similar and equal which E.
the three
regular polygons, and its solid angles edges terminated in one of
".
equal to one another. There are only ſºſ
five such figures. (See Prop. 20. Cor.) the
10. Two polyhedrons are said to be
solid angles equal to
one another. The cube of
any straight line A B, is ºiz
º
similar, when they are contained by simi the cube of which AB is A is
an edge.
14. (Euc. xi, def. 13.) A prism is a
solid figure having any number of faces,
two of which are similar and equal rec
tilineal figures, so placed as to have
their corresponding sides parallel, and
the rest parallelograms.
lar faces similarly situated, and forming Such a figure may be formed by
equal dihedral and solid angles...}
* The Greek word for “seat” being in all cases 2. If all the planes but one which form a convex
annexed to the Greek numeral which indicates the surface be similar and similarly situated to all the
number of seats, or faces, on which the figure may be planes but one which contain a solid figure, each to
seated. A solid figure may be eontained by any each, and if the dihedral angles which every adjoin:
number of faces above three, in the same manner as ing two of the first make with one another be equal
a plane figure may be contained by any number of to the dihedral angles which every corresponding
sides above two, the numbers 4, 6, 8, 12, and 20 being two of the latter make with one another, each to
here specified only because the other solids (of 5, 7, each, the remaining edges of the surface (viz. those
&c. faces) are less frequently subjects of considera which are not common to adjoining planes) shall
tion. -
lie in one plane, and shall inclose a rectilineal figure
† The same observation may be made here as at similar to the last face of the solid, and making
Book II. def. 14, viz. that in this definition there are equal dihedral angles with the corresponding faces
some things assumed which have not been as yet a.joining to it. This may be demonstrated by
demonstrated. These are, making any two of the equal solid angles coincide.
1. If all the plane angles but one which contain (See Prop. 14. Cor.)
two solid angles be equal, each to each, in order, and It is evident, also, that the definition would be
make with one another equal dihedral angles, the complete without mentioning the equality of the
remaining plane angle of the one shall be equal to solid angles, for the several plane and dihedral àn;
the remaining plane angle of the other, and the two gles of the one being equal and similarly situated
remaining dihedral angles of the one equal respec with the corresponding plane and dihedral angles of
tively to the two remaining dihedral angles of the the other, it is evident that any two corresponding
other. This may be proved by coincidence, solid angles may be said to coincide, -
IV. § 1.] GEOMETRY. 127
drawing through the several angles of 18. A pyramid is said to be triangu

a polygon ABCDE, lar, or quadrilateral or pentagonal, &c.
but not in the same according as its base is a triangle, or a
plane with it, the pa quadrilateral, or a pentagon, &c. . .
rallels A a, B b, C c, 19. A regular pyramid is that which
&c., taking Aa, B b, has for its #. a regular polygon, and
C c, &c., each of them the straight line which is drawn from
equal to any the same the vertex to the centre of the base per
ſº straightline, and join pendicular to the base; and the lime so
º ing a b, b.c., &c. (see drawn is called the aa is of the pyra
l: Prop. 13. and 15.) mid.
} % The parallels, which join the corre 20. If a pyramid be
sponding angles of the two polygons, are divided into two parts
A. called the principal edges of the prism: by a plane parallel to
gº the polygons are called bases; the pa its base, the part next
# rallelograms, sides; and the surfaces of the base is called a
ſº the parallelograms together constitute frustum of a pyramid,
what is called the lateral or conveac sur or sometimes a trun
ºft,
face of the prism. cated pyramid. .
The altitude of a prism is the perpen 21, (Euc. xi. def. 14.) A sphere is a
dicular distance between its two bases. solid figure, every point in the surface
15. A prism is said to be triangular, of which is at the same distance from
or quadrilateral, or pentagonal, &c., a certain point within the figure, which
according as its bases are triangles, or is called the centre. The distance from
quadrilaterals, or pentagons, &c. the centre to the surface is called the
A prism is also said to be right or Tadius, or sometimes the semidiameter
oblique, according as the principal edges of the sphere, because it is the half of a
are perpendicular to the bases, or in straight line which passes through the
clined to them, centre, and is terminated both ways b
tº . 16. A regular prism is a right prism, the surface, which straight line is called
which has for its bases two regular a diameter.
polygons; and the straight line which Such a figure may A.
joins their centres is called the aavis of be conceived to be !" º |
|
the prism. generated by the re- | |
17. (Euc. xi, def. 12.) A pyramid is volution of a semi- D. | ſº
is
a solid figure, having any number of Gircle ADB, about TV.",
faces, one of which is a triangle or other its diameter A B ;-- º | y
rectilineal figure, and the rest triangles that is to say, if the tº
which have a common vertex, and for semicircle be made to revolve round its
Alſº their bases the sides of the first triangle diameter AB, its plane will, in the course
or rectilineal figure. of the revolution, pass through the whole
Such a figure may solid space about the line AB produced,
be formed by drawing and the semicircular portion AD B wili:
straight lines from pass through the whole spherical space
the angles of any "upon the diameter A B, so that there
rectilineal figure A B shall not be a point within that space
Q DE to any point with which some point or other of the
V which is not in the semicircle will not have coincided, but
same plane with it. the same cannot be said of any point
The straight lines V A, VB, &c., without the sphere. By the word “ge
which are the sides of the triangles, are nerate,” it is intended to convey the idea
called the principal edges of the pyra that the parts of the solid start into exist
mid: the first triangle or rectilineal ence as they are successively traversed
figure is called the base, the other tri by the generating plane.
angles the sides, , and their common
Vertex, the vertex or summit : the sur
PROP. 1. (EUc. xi. 2.)
faces of the latter triangles also consti
tute what is called the lateral or convea: A plane, and one only, may be made
surface of the pyramid. to pass through a given straight line
The altitude of a pyramid is the per and a given point without it, or through
pendicular distance of the vertex from three given points which are not ºn
the base or the base produced. the same straight line, -
128 GEOMETRY. [IV. § 1.
Let A B be a given -
PROP. 2. (EUc. xi. 3.)

|
straight line, and C a P tſ)
given point without If two planes cut one another, their
it: a plane, and only C common section shall be a straight
one plane, may be line.
made to pass through For, if any two points
the straight line AB 14. be taken in the common --
and the point C. section, the straightline

For a plane may be made to pass which joins them will ||
r
through A B, and this plane may be be in each of the planes |||||
turned about A B until it pass through (I. def. 7.); but the only p”
C. Now, let any other plane be made line which is in each of
to pass through the same straight line the planes is their common section;
A B and the same point C; and let P therefore the common section coincides
be any point taken in it: P shall like with the straight line which joins any
wise be a point in the first plane. For, i.
1ne.
of its points, that is, it is a straight
if in AB any two points A, B be taken,
and CA, C B be joined, the straight Therefore, &c.
lines C A, C B will lie in each of the
planes (I. def. 7.). And because P is a PROP. 3. (EUC. xi. 4.)
point in the same plane with CA and CB, If a straight line stand at right an
through P there may be drawn PQ pa gles to each of two other straight lines at
rallel to A B to meet C A in some point their point of intersection, it shall be at
Q and CB in some point R (I. 14. Cor. 3). ºright angles to every other straight line
Then, because the lines CA, CB are in which passes through the same point
the first plane, the points Q, R are and lies in the same plane with them ;
likewise in that plane, and therefore that is, (def. 1.) it shall be at right an
the straight line PQ R, which passes gles to the plane in which they are.
through them, and the point P of that Since two different planes may pass
straight line, are in the same plane, through the same straight line AP, and
Therefore, there is no point in either of
the two planes which is not also in the
other plane, that is, they are one and
the same plane.
Again, any plane which passes through
the straight line A B and the point C
without it, passes also through the three
points A, B, C, which are not in the a perpendicular may be drawn to it in
same straight line ; and reversely. each of these planes from the point
Therefore, since it has been shown that A, the case supposed in the proposi
a plane, and one only, may be made to tion is evidently pº,
pass through the straight line A B and Let the straight line AP, therefore,
, the point C, it follows that a plane, and stand at right angles to each of the
one only, may be made to pass through straight lines AB, AC, at their point of
the three points A, B, C. intersection A, and let AD be any other
Therefore, &c. straight line in the plane A B C, which
Cor. 1. A plane, and one only, may passes through the same point A: A P
be made to pass through the sides of shall be at right angles to AD.
a given rectilineal angle, or through two In AB, AC, take any points whatever
given parallels. B, C ; and in BA, C Å produced make
Cor. 2. Any number of parallels A b equal to AB, and Ac equal to AC :
through which the same straight line join B C, b c, and let A D and DA pro
passes are in one and the same plane. duced cut BC and b c respectively in D
Cor. 3. It follows from the preced and d: take any point P in AP, and
ing corollary, that a plane may be con join PB, PC, PD, Pb, Pc, Pd. Then,
ceived to be generated by a straight line because in the triangles A B C, A. bc,
which moves along a given straight line the two sides A B, A C are equal to the
so as always to continue parallel to ano two A b, A c, each to each, and the in
ther given straight line. cluded angles (I. 3.) equal to one ano
Cor. 4. Any number of planes may be ther, the base B C is equal to the base
made to pass through the same straight b c, and the angle A B C to the angle
line, A b c (I. 4.); and because in the tri
{1, IV. § 1.] GEOMETRY. 129
angles ABD, Abd the side AB is equal and from B let B H be drawn per
to the side A b, and the angles A B D, pendicular to FG: take º point A
||
BAD (I.3.) equal to the angles Abd, in A B, and join A H : A H shall be
lſº b A d, each to each, the side A D is perpendicular to FG.
equal to the side A d (I.5.), and B D to In HF take any point F, make H. G.
bd. Again, the triangles PAC, PA c equal to H. F., and join A F, A G, B F,
have the two sides PA, A C of the B G. Then in the triangles B HF,
one equal to the two PA, Ac of the B HG, because the two sides B H, H. F
other, each to each, and the included are equal to the two BH, HG, each to
angles right angles; therefore the base each, and the included angles right an
PC is equal to the base P c (I.4); and for gles, B F is equal to B G (I.4.). Again,
the like reason, PB is equal to P b : and because AB is perpendicular to the plane
(i. it was before shown that B C is equal to CDE, the angles ABF, ABG are right
ſºils bc.: therefore, the triangles PBC, Pb c angles (def. 1.): and because in the tri
| || have the three sides of the one equal to angles A B F, AB G, the two sides A B,
º the three sides of the other, each to each; B F are equal to the two AB, BG, each
therefore, also, the angle PBC is equal to to each, and the included angles right
the angle P b c (I. 7.). And, because the angles, A F is equal to A G (I. 4.).
triangles PBD, Pb d have two sides PB, Therefore, lastly, because the triangles
BD of the one equal to two sides P b, bd A H F, A H G have the three sides
h; M. of the other, each to each, and the in of the one equal to the three sides
nºſ cluded angles PB D, Pb d equal to one of the other, each to each, the angle
|bgſ another, the bases PD, Pd are likewise A H F is equal to the angle A HG
|||} equal (I. 4.). Lastly, therefore, because (I. 7.); and they are adjacent angles;
yº the triangles PAD, PAd have the therefore, each of them is a right angle
|| three sides of the one equal to the three (I. def. 10.), and A H is at right angles
||. sides of the other, each to each, the to F. G.
angles PAD, PA d are equal to one Therefore, &c.
iſº another, and (I def. 6.) PA is at right Cor. Hence, also, if a straight line
}: angles to A. D. And because PA is at be perpendicular to a plane, and if from
right angles to every straight line AD, any point of it a perpendicular be drawn
which meets it in the plane BAC, it is to a straight line taken in the plane, the
at right angles to that plane (def. 1.) straight line which joins the feet of the
Therefore, &c. perpendiculars shall likewise be perpen
Cor. 1. (Euc. xi. 5.) Any number dicular to the straight line taken in the
of straight lines which are drawn at plane. .
right angles to the same straight line
it; from the same point of it, lie all of them PROP. 5. (EUc. xi. 6 and 8.)
yº in the plane which is perpendicular to
º the straight line at that point. Straight lines, which are perpendieu
. 99r. 2: Hence, if the plane of a lar to the same plane, are parallels and,
tºº, right angle be made to revolve about conversely, if there be two paraiſe;
One of its legs, the other leg will describe straight lines, and if one of them be per
| ||
mid a plane at right angles to the first leg. pendicular to a plane, the other shaft be
jºſ PROP. 4.
perpendicular to the same plane.
* Let the straight
A? Aſ a straight line be perpendicular to lines A B, C D be
a plane, and if from its foot a perpendi each of them per- A. C
º %lar he drawn to a straight time ićiºn pendicular to the
the plane; any straight line, which is plane EFG : A B E
drawn from a point in the former per
Pendicular to meet the foot of the latter
shall be parallel to
C D * /*/
B
Pºpéndicular, shall likewisº be perpen Join B D ; and, l. H."

dicular to the straight line taken in the
plane. in the plane EFG, *
from D draw D H
, Let the straight Perpendicular to B D : in A B ta
line AB be perpen.
dicular to the plane Rººt A, and join A D. Then, i.
CDE at the point A}
i. isBDperpendicular to the plane EFG
a Pºpendicular drawn from its
B; let FG be a
Straight line taken §ºt to the line D H which is". that
in the plane CDE; ſº A D is likewise perpendicular to
H (4.); and Gi is perpendicular
K
130 GEOMETRY. [IV. § 1. IV.
to D H, because it is perpendicular to In EF take any point G, and from G, \
the plane E FG (def. 1.): therefore, in the plane of A B, E F, draw G H at pºil
I).B., DA, and D C lie (3. Cor. 1.) in one right angles to EF; and from the same }(|
and the same plane. But BA lies in the point G, in the plane of CD, E F, draw pºint
plane of D B and D A : therefore, B. A G K at right angles to EF. Then, be then
and D C lie in the same plane. Again, cause E F is at right angles to each of A di
because AB and CD are perpendicular the lines GH, G K, it is at right angles ſºld
each of them to the plane E FG, they to the plane HGK (3.). But AB and CD plan
are perpendicular each of them to the are each of them parallel to EF. There thr)
straight line BD (def. 1.). And because fore, A B and CD are also at right an AF
they are in the same plane and perpen gles to the plane H G K (5.); and be per)
dicular to the same straight line, they cause they are at right angles to the the
are parallels (I. 14.). same plane, they are paralleſ (5.). drawn
Next, let AB, CD be parallels, meet Therefore, &c. Clar
ing the plane EFG in the points B, D, any
respectively, and let A B be perpendicu PROP. 7. (EUC. xi. 11, 12, and 13.) and
lar to the plane EFG : CD shall like the
wise be perpendicular to it. A straight line may be drawn perpen will
Join B D, and draw, as before, in the dicular to a given plane of indefinite
GA.
plane EFG, DH perpendicular to B D ; eactent from any given point, whether the
and, taking any point A in A B, join $º point be without or in the plane; AG (
10 ſhe
AD. Then, as before, DA is (4.) perpen ut from the same point there cannot The
dicular to DH. Therefore, D H is per be drawn more than one perpendicular
pendicular to the plane of AD, DB (3.). to the same plane.
But CD is in that plane; because it is Let A be a point Fº
parallel to AB, and therefore in the same without the plane Tular
lane with AB and the point D (1.Oor. 1.). B C D : a perpendi Willer
herefore CD is likewise perpendicular cular, and one only, frºm
to DH (3). Again, because A B, CD may be drawn from
are parallel, and that A B (being per the point A to the
pendicular to the plane E FG) is per plane B C D.
pendicular to B. D., (def. 1.) CD is like In the plane BCD
wise perpendicular to B D (I. 14.). draw any line E F,
Therefore, CD is perpendicular to each and from the point A draw AG perpen
of the straight lines B D, D H, that is, dicular to E F : from G draw, in the
it is perpendicular to the plane BDH plane BCD, G H perpendicular to EF;
(3.) or EFG. and from A draw AH perpendicular to
Therefore, &c. GH (I. 45.). Through H draw KI, pa
Cor. If from different points in the rallel to EF (I. 48.), and therefore lying
same straight line perpendiculars be in the same plane with H and E F, that
drawn to the same plane, these perpen is, in the plane B C D. Then, because
diculars shall lie in one plane, and their E F is at right angles to each of
feet in one and the same straight line: the straight lines AG, GH, it is at
for the perpendiculars, being parallel right angles to the plane A G H (3.);
and passing through the same straight but K L is parallel to EF; therefore
line, lie in one plane (I Cor. 2.); and the KL is at right angles to the plane
common section of this plane with the A G H, and the angle A H K is a right
first is a straight line (2.). angle (5). And because A H is at
right angles to each of the straight lines
PROP. 6. (EUC. xi. 9.) R. H., H G, it is at right angles to the
plane K. H. G. (3), that is, to the
Straight lines which are parallel to plane B C D. But from the same pºint
the same straight line, though not both A, there cannot be drawn any other
of them in one plane with it, are parallel straight line which is at right angles tº
to one another. thebeplane
to any Bother
C Dstraight
; for if line
we suppose AG
drawn from
Let the gº A—% ††
lines A B, C e 7 -
A and meeting the plane BCD in G, and
each of them pay 97 & —H" if H G be joined, the angle A H G will
be a right angle, and therefore (I. 3)
rallel to the straight c the angie A GH less than a right angle;
line EF, and nºt sº i AG cannot (def. 1.) be at right
- lane with
i. º be parallel to CD. angles to the plane BCD',
ºil, IV. § 1.] GEOMETRY. 131
\mſ, Next, let A be a
Hä point in the plane al | G \Aſ
mon to both ; therefore (I, 13.) the
:Sālī.
remaining sides E. F., E G are equal to
B C D: take any B -
one another. Lastly, because A E H is
it."
*
pointplane,
the Aſ and
without
from Zº
TA
kn
Yu. a right angle, the square of A H is
ūj
equal to the squares of AE, EH (I.36 );
A draw A'H' per- |4. and for the like reason the square of
º pendicular to the Ö AF is equal to the squares of A E, E F:
à.
plane : then, if but the square of A H is greater than
lº.
through A, AH be drawn parallel to the square of AF, because AH is greater
A! H' (I. 48.), A H will likewise (5.) be than A F: therefore, the squares of
perpendicular to the plane. And from A E, E H are together greater than the
the same point A, there cannot be squares of A E, E F; therefore the
drawn any other straight line perpendi square of E H is greater than the
cular to the plane B C D : for, if AG be gº of E F, and E H is greater than
F.
any other straight line drawn from A,
and if the plane H AG cut B C D in And hence, conversely, if the distances
the line K L (2.), the angle H A K. FF, E G be equal to one another, the
will be a right angle, and therefore line AF must be equal to the line A G ;
G A K will not be a right angle; so that for, if not, the distances E.F., E G would
AG cannot be at right angles (def. 1.) be unequal: and in like manner, if the
ſº to the plane B C D. distance E H be greater than the dis
thiſ tance E F, the line AH must be greater
Therefore, &c.
ſºlº than the line A.F.
12Rop. 8. Therefore, &c.
From a point to a plane the perpendi Cor. If, from the centre A, a sphere
cular is the shortest distance: and of be described with a radius less than the
other straight lines which are drawn perpendicular A E, it will not meet the
from the point to the plane, such as are plane B C D: if with a radius equal to
equal to one another cut the plane at AE, it will meet B C D in one point
equal distances from the foot of the only, which is the foot of the perpendi
perpendicular; and such as are unequal cular; and, if with a radius greater than
cut the plane at unequal distances from AE, its surface will cut the plane in
the foot, the greater being always fur the circumference of a circle which
ther from the perpendicular; and con has for its centre the foot of the per
versely. pendicular.
Let A be a point
without the plane A. Lemma.
BCD, and letthere ſ If, in two right-angled triangles, the
fall from A to the hypotenuse of the one be equal to the -
plane, the perpen hypotenuse of the other, but a side of

dicular A E, any the first greater than a side of the other,
other straight line the angle opposite to that side shall be
A F, the straight & I) greater than the angle opposite to the
line A G which is side of the other; and conversely,
equal to A F, and the straight line Let ABC, DE F be two right-angled
A H which is greater than AF; and triangles, which have the hypotenuse AC
join E.F., EG, E. H.; the perpendicular equal to the hypote
AE shall be less than the straight line muse D F, but the
AF; the distance EG shall be equal to side A B of the first g
the distance EF, and the distance E H greater than the side
greater than the distance E F. D E of the other: the
D
º
. For, in the first place, because AE angle A C B shall p
is perpendicular to the plane B C D, the likewise be greater
angle A E F is a right angle; wherefore than the angle D FE.
Bisect AC and
| >"
19
I'
A FE is less than a right angle (I. 8.),
and in the triangle AEF (I. 9.) the side D F in the points G
A E is less than the side AF. Next, be and H respectively (I. 43.): then, if G B
cause the angles A E F, A E G are both and H. Ebejoined, they will be equal re
of them right angles (def. 1.), AEF and spectively to the halves of A C and D F
AEG are right-angled triangles which (1.19. Cor. 4.), and therefore (I. ax. 5.
have the hypotenuse A F equal to the equal to one another. And, because in
hypotenuse. A G, and the side A E com the triangles GAB, HDE, the two sides
K 2
AG, GB of the one are equal to the two AG (8.) of the other, the opposite angle
DH, HE of the other, each to each, but A B F is likewise less than the angle
the base AB greater than the base D E, A BG, by the foregoing Lemma.
the angle AGB is (I. 11.) greater than Also, from the point B in the same
the angle D H E. But the angle AGB plane CD E, there may be drawn a
is double of A C B, for A G B is equal straight line BH, making an angle with
to the sum of GCB and GBC (I. 19.), A B equal to the angle A BG, viz, upon
which are equal to one another, because the other side of the angle A B F. For,
GB is equal to G C (I. 6.); and for the if the angle FB H be made equal to the
like reason, the angle D H E is double of angle FBG, then, drawing FH perpen
D FE. Therefore (I. ax. 8.), the angledicular to BH, and joining AH, AH
A C B is greater than the angle D FE. will likewise be perpendicular to BH
And hence, conversely, if A C B be (4.); and, because in the right-angled
greater than D FE, AB must also be triangles FGB, FH B, the hypotenuse
greater than DE: for it cannot be equal F B is common to both, and the angle
to DE (I, 13.); neither, by what has FBG equal to the angle FB H, the
been just demonstrated, can it be less opposite side FG is equal to FH
than D. E. (I, 13.): therefore, also, (8.) A G is
Therefore, &c. equal to A. H. : and, because in the
right-angled triangles AGB, AH B the
PROP. 9. hypotenuse A B is common to both,
and the side A G equal to the side A H,
If a straight line be inclined to a the angle A B G is likewise equal to the
plane, of all the angles which it makes angle A B H (I, 13.).
with straight lines meeting it in that But, lastly, therecannot be drawn in the
plane, the least shall be the angle of plane CDE more than two straight lines |
inclination; and, with respect to every B G, BH, with which the straight line
other of these angles, a second angle AB shall make equal angles. For, if BK
may always be drawn which shall be be any other straight line, then, drawing
equal to it, viz., upon the other side of FK perpendicular to B K, and joining
the angle of inclination ; but there can A K, A K will likewise be perpendicular
zot be drawn in the plane more than to FK (4.): and, because in the right
two straight lines with which the in angled triangles FHB, FK B, the hy |
clined straight line shall make equal potenuse FB is common to both, but
angles, one upon each side of the angle the angle FB H not equal to the angle
of inclination. FB K, the side FH is not equal to the
side FK (Lemma): therefore (8.) A His
Let the straight line A B be inclined
not equal to A K ; and, because in the
to the plane C D E at the point B: right-angled triangles A H B, A KB,
from any point A in A B, draw AF the hypotenuse A B is common to both,
perpendicular to the plane CD E (7.), but the side A H not equal to the side
and join B F, so that, A B F may be the A K, the angle A B H is not equal to
angle of inclination (def. 2.); and let BG
be any other straight line in the plane theTherefore,
angle A B K (Lemma).
&c.
C DE passing through the point B:
the angle A B F shall be less than the Cor. If three straight lines lie in the
angle A B G. same plane and meet in the same point,
From the point A. and if a fourth straight
F draw FG per line stand at equal
pendicular to B G, angles to the three at
and join A. G. that point; the equal
Then, because AF angles shall be right
is perpendicular
to the plane in
angles, and the fourth
straight line shall be
<
which B G lies, at right angles to the plane of the
and that F G is three.
drawn from the point F perpendicular
to B G, AG is likewise perpendicular PROP. 10.
to BG (4.). And, because in the right
angled triangles A FB, A G B, the hypo If one straight line be parallel to
tenuse A B is common to both, but the another, it shall likewise be parallel to
side A F of the first less than the side any plane which passes through that
$1. IV. 5 2.] GEOMETRY. 133
ſº other; and if a straight line be paral Section 2–Of Planes which are pa
lſ. lel to a plane, it shall be parallel to rallel, or inclined, orperpendicular to
the line in which any plane passing other Planes.
Säll.
through it cuts the first plane.
W] PROP. 11. (EUC. xi. 14.)
º Let the straight line A B be paral
lel to CD, and Planes, to which the same straight
| let E. F. G. ba A-B. line is perpendicular, are parallel; and,
|
Wº: any plane pass conversely, if two planes be parallel,
ing through *- and if one of them be perpendicular to
#. CD: the line C I,
, Ali
a straight line, the other shall be per
| || A B shall be G pendicular to the same straight line.
parallel to the Let the straight line A B be perpendi
ſº plane E FG. cular to each of the planes. CDE,
{|\!
For, since A B is in the plane of AB, FG H : the plane C DE shall be pa
alº CD (I. def. 12.), if it meet the plane EFG rallel to the plane FG H.
H. : at all, it must meet it in the plane of AB,
| || For, if they are not parallel, let them
CD, and therefore in some point of the meet one another, and let K be any
Aſ line C D which is the common section
in
point of the common section. Join
of the two planes. But A B cannot KA, K. B. Then, because A B is per
{}\; meet CD, being parallel to it. There pendicular to the plane C D E, the
hº fore neither can it meet the plane
| A H.
EFG, that is, it is parallel to the plane
toºk E FG (def, 3.).
Next, let A B be parallel to the
mill; plane EFG, and let C D be the line
liſt;
it
in which any plane passing through
A B cuts the plane EFG : A B shall
p! I. ſ
i---ir
º be parallel to C D. For if not, it must
lºwſ: meet it in some point. But in the same
ji: point it would meet the plane EFG, angle KA B is a right angle (def. 1.);
iſiſ to which it is parallel: which is im and, because the same A B is perpen
. ſº pºle. Therefore A B is parallel to dicular to the plane FGH, the angle
he iſ K.B.A is a right angle: therefore, two
h ill Therefore, &c. angles of the triangle KA B are to
tº Cor. 1. If two straight lines be pa gether equal to two right angles; which
f) || rallel, the common section of any two (I. 8.) is impossible. Therefore, the
AHä planes passing through them shall be planes do not meet one another, to what
m tº parallel to either of them. For, by the ever extent they may be produced, that is,
AK} first part of the proposition, one of the (def. 6.) they are parallel to ome another.
) hi lines is parallel to the plane which Next, let the plane C D E be parallel
lº § passes through the other; and, there to the plane FGH, and from any point
fore, by the second part of the pro A of the first let A B be drawn perpen
pilº
position, it is parallel to the line in dicular to the other plane F G H : AB
which the plane passing through itself shall likewise be perpendicular to CDE.
cuts the plane passing through the For, if not, (def. 1.) there must be some
| other. line in the plane CD E which meets the
yº Cor. 2. If two straight lines, which line A B, and does not make a right
çut one another, be parallel, each of angle with it: let KA be such a line, and
them, to the same plane; the plane of let the plane KAB cut the plane FGH
the two straight lines shall be parallel in the straight line B L (2.). Then, be
to that plane. For should the planes cause AB is at right angles to the plane
meet, their common section would, by FG H, the angle A B L is a right angle:
the proposition, be parallel to each of but B A K is not a right angle : there
the cutting straight lines; which is fore the straight lines A K and B L
impossible. (I. 14. Cor. 2.) will meet, if produced, in some point (I.
15. Cor. 4.) which will be common to
* It is possible that a plane may pass through the both the planes; and, because the
Second straight line, and also through the first, which
is supposed to be parallel to it: in this case, it is planes meet one another in this point,
evident that the latter is not, as is predicated in the they cannot be parallel, which is contrary
proposition, parallel to such plane, but lies altogether
in it. The enunciation must, therefore, be under to the supposition. Therefore the straight
$1994 with the exception of this particular case, line A B makes a right angle with every
134 GEOMETRY.
- [IV. § 2.
straight line meeting it in the plane PROP. 13.
CD E, that is, it is (def. 1.) at right
angles to the plane CD E. If two parallel straight limes be cut
Therefore, &c. by two parallel planes, the parts of the
Cor. 1. Through any given point a straight lines which are intercepted
plane may be drawn, and , one only, between the planes shall be equal to
one another.
which shall be parallel to a given plane.
For a perpendicular A B may be drawn For, if the plane of the parallels be
from the given point A to the given drawn to cut the two parallel planes, the
common sections will be parallel (12.),
plane FGH (7.); and from the same and will therefore in-
point A there may be drawn in two -
different planes straight lines at right clude, together with

angles to this perpendicular; the plane the parts in question,
º: of
/H/
of which straight lines (3.), and evi -
dently none other which passes through which the parts in

the given point, is perpendicular to the question are opposite /T-7
straight line A B, and therefore parallel sides, and therefore
to the given plane FG. H. are equal to one another (I. 22.).
Cor. 2. Planes, which are parallel to Therefore, &c.
the same plane, are parallel to one Cor. 1. Parallel planes are every
another. -
where equidistant (5.).
Cor. 2. If, from any number of points
PROP. 12. (EUc. xi. 16.) in the same plane, there be drawn with
out the plane as many equal and pā
If parallel planes be cut by the same rallel straight lines, the other extre
plane, their common sections with it mities of these straight lines shall lie in
shall be parallels. a second plane parallel to the first,
For, these common sections lying one
of them in one of the planes, and the other PROP. 14. (EUC. xi. 17.)
in the other, cannot
meet one another, If any two straight lines be cut by
unless the planes
three parallel planes; the parts of the
meet one another; straight lines, which are intercepted by
the planes, shall be to one another in
which they do not, the same ratio.
because they are
parallel: also, the I et the straight lines A B, CD be
common sections lie cut by the parallel planes G. H., KL,
in the same (viz. the cutting) plane: M N in the points A, E, B, and C, F, D
therefore they are parallels (I. def. 12).
Therefore, &c.
Cor. If two planes which cut one
another be parallel to other two which
zº -
*N, 74.
respectively: A E shall be to E B as
C F to F D. -
Join AD, and let it cut the plane

KL in O: and join O E, OF, AC,
BD. Then, because the parallel planes
K L, M N are cut by the plane of the
cut one another, each to each, the triangle A B D, the common sections
common sections A B and CD of the E O, B D are parallel (12.): there:
first two and second two shall be paral fore (II. 29.) A E is to E B as A 0
lels. For, if one of the first two planes to O D. Again, because the parallel
be produced to meet that one of the planes G H, K L are cut by the plane
second two, to which it is not parallel of the triangle D A C, the common
(11. Cor. 1.), in the straight line EF
(2.)
sections A C, O F are parallel; and
E F will be parallel both to A B and therefore (II. 29.) C F is to F D as
CD; therefore (6.) A B and CD are A O to O D. Therefore (I, 12.) A E
parallel to one another.
is to E B as C F 9 FD.,
*
* , IV, $ 2.] GEOMETRY. 135
Therefore, &c. to the three sides of the other, each

Cor. If straight lines be drawn to a to each, the angle B A C is equal to
plane from any point without it, and the angle E D F (I. 7.). Again, because
if each of these straight lines, or each the straight line AB is parallel to DE,
|
of them produced, be divided in the it is parallel to the plane E D F (10);
same ratio towards the same parts; the and for the like reason A C is parallel
points of division shall all lie in a second to the same plane: therefore (10. Cor. 2.)
plane parallel to the first. the plane BAC is parallel to the plane
E D F.
PROP. 15. (Euc. xi. 10 and 15.) Therefore, &c. - -
Cor. If the planes, which contain, a.

If two straight lines, which meet one dihedral angle, be cut by two parallel
another, be parallel respectively to two planes, equal angles shall be intercepted
other straight lines, which meet one in the latter: for the lines which con
another, but are not in the same plane tain them are parallel (12.).
with the first two; the contained angles
shall be equal,” and their planes pa PROP. 16.
Tallel.
Let the straight lines AB, A C, If two planes cut one another, and
which meet one another in A, be pa if other two likewise cut one another,
rallel respectively to the straight lines and if the rectilineal angle which is
DE, DF, whichinmeet
one another D. contained by perpendiculars drawn in
ity
the two first to their common section
the angle at A shall A d from the same point of it, be equal to
be equal to the angle the rectilineal angle contained by per
at D, and the plane E. pendiculars similarly drawn in the other
B A C shall be pa łujo; the dihedral angles shall be equal
rallel to the plane To
to one another. - -
ED F. Let the two planes A B C, D B C

In the straight lines A, B, A C take cut one another in the straight line
any points B, C: make DE, equal to
AB and DF equal to AC, and join BC, 2T
Cſ
EF, AD, B.E, C F. Then, because G
A E.
the straight lines AB, D E are equal
and parallel, B E is equal to AD and
parallel to it (I. 21.): and for the
like reason C F is equal to A D and
parallel to it: therefore also CF, BE
are equal and parallel (I. ax. i. and B C, and let the two E FG, H F G cut
6), and consequently (I. 21.) B C is one another in the straight line, F G ;
equal and parallel to E F. Therefore, also, let the angle A B D which is
because the triangles A B C, D E F contained by perpendiculars to B C
have the three sides of the one equal drawn in the two first planes from the
* It will be observed that this proposition is an point B, be equal to the angle E FH
extension of I. 18. to the case in which the sides of which is contained by perpendiculars
the one angle are not in the same plane with the to FG drawn from the point F in the
sides of the other. In order to exclude the case in
which the angles would be supplementary, not equal, two others: the dihedral angle A B
to one another, it was required, in the enunciation of CD shall be equal to the dihedral
I. 18.; that the parallel sides should be “in the same
order” or direction from one another; and a similar angle EFG H.
limitation for the same purpose is obviously necessary For, if the point B be made to coin
| in the proposition before us. . In the former case, a cide with the point F, the straight line
very simple criterion is afforded by the position of the
º relatively to the joining line BE (see the figure B C with FG, and the plane A B C
of I. 18.); for, in order that the angles may be equal, with the plane EFG, the straight line
the sides which are parallel ought to be, each pair,
upon the same side, or each pair upon opposite sides, A B will coincide with E F, because
of the joining line BE; for, if one pair lie towards the the angles A B C, EFG are right an
same parts, and the other towards opposite parts, the gles (I. I.). Also, because B D is per
angles will be, not equal, but supplementary. And
the present case admits of a criterion equally simple; pendicular to B C, it will be (3 Cor. 1.)
for, in the case of equality, the parallel sides lie, each in the plane E FH which (3.) is at
pair, upon the same side, or each pair upon opposite
sides, of any plane which passes through BE; whereas, right angles to FG, and therefore
when the angles are supplementary to one another, B D will coincide with FH, because
one pair of parallel sides lie towards the same parts
of any such plane, and the other pair towards oppo the angle A B D is equal to the
site parts. - - -
angle E FH. Therefore the plane
136 GEOMETRY. [IV, 52.
C B D coincides with the plane G F H. pendiculars. And, in thus measuring
And, because the planes A B C, D B C the dihedral angle, it is indifferent from
coincide with the planes E FG, H F G. what point of the common section the
respectively, the dihedral angle A B CD perpendiculars are drawn; for, if any
coincides with the dihedral angle EF two points be taken, the planes of the
G H, and is equal to it. two pairs of perpendiculars drawn from
Therefore, &c these points will be (3.) perpendicular to
the common section, and therefore pa
PROP. 17. rallel (11); and it has been seen (15.0or.)
Any two dihedral angles are to one that, if a dihedral angle be cut by parallel
planes, the intercepted angles will be
another as the angles contained by per
pendiculars drawn as in the last pro equal to one another.
It has been already stated (17.0or.) that
position. a dihedral right angle is measured by a
Let A B C D, E FG H be any two plane right angle: it follows that a dihe.
dihedral angles, and let A B D and dral obtuse angle is measured by a plane
E FH be the angles of the perpendi obtuse angle, and a dihedral acute angle
t
culars AB, BD and E F, FH drawn by a plane acute angle. -
Many propositions with regard to cut

ting planes are readily derived from this
mode of measuring dihedral angles. Of
A. e these the following only need here be
mentioned: - -
B p IF H. 1. If two planes cut one another, the

vertical dihedral angles will be equal.
2. If a plane fall upon two parallel
planes, it shall make the alternate dihe
as in the last proposition: the dihedral dral angles equal to one another, the
angles shall be to one another as the exterior dihedral angle equal to the in
angles A B D, E FH. terior and opposite upon the same side,
For, if the angle E FH be divided and the two interior dihedral angles upon
into any number of equal angles by the same side together equal to two right
the straight lines Fe, &c., which straight angles.
lines, being in the plane of the angle 3. Of two dihedral angles, if the
EFH, are all of them perpendicular to planes of the one be parallel to the planes
the common section FG (3.), the dihedral of the other, or perpendicular fo the
angle EFG H will be divided into the planes of the other respectively, the two
same number ofequal dihedral angles by dihedral angles shall be equal."
the planes G. Fe, &c. (16.). And, if the 4. If two planes cut one another, and
angle E Fe be contained in A B D any if perpendiculars be drawn to them from
number of times with a remainder less any the same point, the adjacent angles
than E Fe, the dihedral angle EFG e contained by the perpendiculars shall
will be contained in A B C D the same measure respectively the adjacent dihe.
number of times with a remainder less dral angles contained by the two planes.
than EFG e (16.). And this will be the
case, how great soever be the number PROP. 18. (EUC. xi. 18.)
of parts into which the angle E FH is
divided. Therefore (II. def. 7.), the If one plane be perpendicular to ano
dihedral angle A B C D is to the dihe ther, any straight line which is drawn
dral angle EFG H as the angle A B D in the first plane at right angles to their
to the angle E.F H. common section shall be perpendicular
Therefore, &c. to the other plane: and, conversely, if a
Cor. If one plane be at right angles straight line be perpendicular to a plane,
to another, the perpendiculars to the any plane which passes through it shall
common section, which are drawn, in be perpendicular to the same plane.
the two planes from the same point of
the common section, will be at right an * It being provided also, that the parallel planes
gles to one another; and conversely. lie, each pair, upon the same side, or each pair upgil
opposite sides of the plane which passes through the
Scholium. common sections (A B, CD in the figure of 12. Cur);
for, if one pair lie towards the same parts, and the
Hence a dihedral angle is said to be other pair towards opposite parts of thät plane, the
dihedral angles will §e supplementary, not equal, tº .
measured by the plane angle of the per one another. See the note at Prop. 15,
ABC be º:
Let the plane be
CA
together gr
º greater than the third-
cular to DBC, and A If one of the angles B A C, B AD

let any straightline
A B be drawn in
ſ C.
be greater than CAD, or equal to it,
the proposition is evident; for this, to
the plane ABC per- w VT. gether with the other, must be greater
pendicular to the º-yº than C. A. D.
common section But, if the angles BAC, BAD be each
B C : the straight of them less than CAD, from the angle
line A B shall be perpendicular to the CAD cut off the angle CAE equal to
plane D B C. From the point B, in B A C ; in A B take any point B, make
the plane D B C, let B D be drawn at A. E. equal to A B; through E draw
right angles to BC. Then, because the any line C E D, not parallel to A C or
planes are at right angles to one ano- A D, and therefore cutting AC, A D in
ther, the angle A B D is a right angle the points C, D respectively; and join
(17. Cor.): but A B C is likewise a B C, B D. Then, because the triangles
right angle; therefore (3) A B is per- A B C, A.E. C. have two sides of the
pendicular to the plane D B C. one equal to two sides of the other,
Next, let the straight line A B be per- each to each, and the included angles
pendicular to the plane B C D; and let BAC, E.A. C. equal to one another,
A B C be any plane passing through the base B C is equal to the base E C
A B: the plane A B C shall be perpen- (I. 4.): but B D and B C are together
dicular to B C D. greater than DC, (I. 10.) that is, than
Let BC be the common section of the D E and E C : therefore B D is greater
two planes; and, from the point B, in than ED. And, because in the trian
the plane B C D, draw BD at right gles ABD, AFD the two sides A B,
angles to BC. Then, because AB AD of the one are equal to the two sides
meets the line BD drawn in the plane AE, AD of the other, each to each, but
to which A B is perpendicular, the angle the base B D greater than the base ED,
A B D is a right angle (def. 1.). But the angle BAD is greater than the
the angle AB D is contained by straight angle E A D (I.1.1.). Therefore, B A C,
lines drawn in the two planes perpen- B A D together are greater than EAC,
dicular to their common section B C. EAD together, that is, than CAD.
Therefore (17. Cor) the dihedral angle Therefore, &c.
A B C D is likewise a right dihedral Cor. If three plane angles form a
angle, and the plane A B C is perpen- solid angle, any one of them shall be
dicular to B C D. greater than the difference of the other
Therefore, &c. two. - -
Cor. 1. If through the same point

there pass any number of planes per- PROP. 20. (EUc. xi. 21.)
pendicular to the same plane, they shall -
all of them pass through the same ... If a solid angle be contained by any
straight line, viz. the perpendicular number of plane angles; these shall tº
which is drawn from the póint to the together less than four right angles,
plane. - I.et the solid an
Cor.cut
which 2. one
EUc.another,
xi. 19. beIfeach
two of
planes,
them gle at A be com
tained by any num- IR
perpendicular to a third plane,

ºommon section shall be perpendicular their ber of plane
BAC, angles
CAD,DAE Ç
to the same plane. EAF, FAB, thes. Jºn

PROP. 19. (Euc. xi. 20.) * be together A. El
If a solid angle be contained by three º four right

plane angles, any two of these shai; be
fo- ºn-
Let the ed eS of the soli
*:::::::::
t -
***". " D,planes
gle at A be com- sº, E, F ºpectively, and
which e
s B,C
therefore the -
* I -
>
BAD, CA.). any A. together cont.'

Int alla ... *; º; (2), which
e reCti ine
two of them, as - -
Ö CD
ABC becau. the altri
*}. Then, *
BAC, BAD, shall , A CD, &
*S*** are as man
Tiangles
bºr, as thesides ºf the igºi.
of these triangles are (I. 19.) together that they are contained by 4, 8, 20, 6,
equal to twice as many right angles as and 12 faces respectively.
the figure has sides. But the angles of The further consideration of solid
these triangles are those which contain angles is deferred to Book vi., where we
the solid angle at A, together with the shall find that the investigation of their
pairs of angles at the points B, C, D, properties is greatly facilitated by means
&c.; and twice as many right angles as of the spherical surface described about
the figure has sides are equal to four the angular point, and that they are,
right angles together with the angles indeed, perfectly analogous to the pro
of the figure (I.20.). Therefore, the perties of triangles upon such a surface,
angles at A, together with the pairs of
angles at B, C, D, &c. are equal to four SECTION 3.—Of Solids contained by
right angles together with the angles of Planes.
the figure B C D E F. But, because the
solid angles at B, C, D, &c. are each PROP. 21.
of them contained by three plane angles, If two triangular prisms have a prin
any two of which are (19.), together cipal edge of the one equal to a principal
greater than the third, the pairs of an edge of the other, and the dihedral an
gles at B, C, D, &c. are together greater gles at those edges equal to one another,
than the angles of the figure B C D E F. and likewise the sides which contain
Therefore, the angles at A are together those dihedral angles equal, each to
less than four right angles. each ; the two prisms shall be equal to
Therefore, &c. one another.
Cor. It follows from this proposition Let A B C DEF, a b c defbe two tri
that there cannot be more than five regu angular prisms which have the edge AB
lar solids. For the solid angles of a regu equal to the edge a b, the dihedral angle
lar solid are contained by the plane an D'A B E equal to the dihedral angle
gles ofequilateral triangles, orofsquares, da be, and the sides AC, A F equal to
or of regular pentagons, &c. (def. 9.). the sides ac, a feach to each; the prism
Now, six angles of equilateral triangles A B C D EF shall be equal to the prism
are together equal to four right angles a b c def.
(I. 19.): therefore, only three, or four, AR E tº e
or five, of such angles, may be taken
to form a solid angle ; and, accord
ingly, there cannot be more than three
different regular solids, whose faces are
equilateral triangles. Again, three an T} ſ' 2 J.f
gles of squares may be taken to form C c
a solid angle ; but four angles of

squares are equal to four right angles First, let the angle ABC be equal to
(I, def. 20.). Lastly, three angles of the angle a b c, and the angle ABF tº
regular pentagons may be taken to form the angle abſ, so that the sides A.F.
a solid angle, for these are together less A C are similar and similarly placed
(I.20) than four right angles. But, be to the sides af, a c, each to each, Then,
cause the angle of a regular pentagon is if the straight line A B be made to coin
greater (I. 20.) than that of a square, cide with the straight line ab, which is
four angles of a regular pentagon are equal to it, and the plane A F with the
greater than four right angles, so that plane af, the plane A C will also coin
not more than three of them can be taken cide with the plane ac, because the
to form a solid angle. With regard to dihedral angle D A B E is equal to the
the regular hexagon, and other regular dihedral angle da be also the lines
figures that have a still greater number B C, B F will coincide with the lines bc,
of sides, three angles of a regular hexa bf respectively; and therefore the line;
gon are equal to four right angles, and AD, A E, which are parallel and equal
those of the others still greater (I. 20.). to the former, each to each, will coin
It appears, therefore, that there cannot cide respectively with the lines ad, 46,
be more than five regular solids; of which are parallel and equal to the
which, if there be so many, three will be latter: therefore the prism. Å B C DEF
included by equilateral triangles, one by will coincide with the prism a b cdeſ.
squares, and one by regular pentagons. And because the two prisms may be
It will be seen in the section of problems, made to coincide, they are equal to One
that all of these may be constructed, and another (I. ax. 11.). " -
Next, let the sides A C, a c be equal and complete the triangular prism AB
and similar, and the sides A F, a fequal CD H G, as in the preceding case. Then,
but dissimilar. Make the angle A B G, it is evident that the prism A B C D H G
in the plane A B F, equal to the angle is equal to each of the prisms A B C D
a bf; complete the parallelogram A B EF, a b c def; to the former, because
†
GH; and join CG, D H. Then because the side AC is common to both, and the
|
GH is equal and parallel to AB (I.22.), other sides AG, AF are equal to one ano
which is equal and parallel to CD, ther; and to the latter, because the sides
the three, AB, CD, G H are equal AG, a fare equal and similar (I. 24.
and parallel, and, therefore, (def. 14.) and I. ax. 1.), and the other sides AC, a c
A B C D H G is a triangular prism. equal to one another. Therefore (I. ax. 1.)
the prism A B C D E F is equal to the
A E «r
prism a b c def.
T) H e Therefore, &c.
PROP. 22. (EUc. xi. 24 and 28.)
º B's––F 4 The opposite faces of a parallelopiped
º
º SE: N-, are similar and equal parallelograms:
º
also any two of its opposite edges are
|| Also, the parallelogram AHGB is equal parallel to one another; and the plane
| || to the parallelogram A E FB (I. 24), which passes through them bisects the
| that is, to the parallelogram a e f b : parallelopiped.
and the parallelogram A D C B is equal Let A a be
lelopiped, anda paral-
CD, &
cº,
to the parallelogram a d c b, by the
m;
*A;
supposition. Therefore, because the cd any two opposite /£, pſ
sides A C, A G of this new prism are faces; they shall be c
º respectively equal, similar, and similarly

1.
similar and equalpa- « 13
placed to the sides a c, a f of the prism rallelograms. They
º |] a b c d e f, it is equal to the prism are parallelograms, for the opposite sides
gº a b c de f, by the former case. Again, of each, as A C, D b, being sections of
gº because H G is equal to DC, that is to parallel planes by the same plane, are
EF, H E is equal to GF, and may be parallel (12). Again, their corre
made to coincide with it; also the di sponding sides, as AD, B c, are equal
hedral angle A E HD is equal to the to one another, because they are oppo
dihedral angle B FG C, and may be site sides of a parallelogram A B c D
made to coincide with it; in which case, (I. 22.); and their corresponding angles,
also, the angles H ED, H E A will co as CAD, dB c are equal to one another,
incide with the angles G FC, G F B, because they are intercepted upon pa
which (I. 15.) are equal to them respec rallel planes C.A.D, dB c by the planes
li'', tively, and the lines E. D, E A with the of the same dihedral angle C A B D
lines FC, FB, which are equal to them (15. Cor.) : therefore the parallelograms
respectively (I. 22.). Therefore the CD, cd are equal and similar.
solid HEAD, which is bounded by the Also, any two of the opposite edges of
four triangular planes HD E, H DA, the parallelopiped, as A C, a c, are pa
HEA, E A D, may be made to coincide rallel to one another; for they are the
with the solid G F B C, which is bounded common sections of parallel planes,
by the four triangular planes G. CF, namely, the opposite faces of the paral
GCB, G. FB, FB C, and (I. ax. 11.) is lelopiped (12. Cor.).
equal to it; and, therefore, adding the Lastly, therefore, let the parallelo
solid A B C D H F to each, the prism piped be divided by the plane of any two
A B C D E Fis equal to the prism A B C opposite edges AC, a c, into the two
DH G, that is, to the prism a b c def. triangular prisms dB A C a c, b D A C
Lastly, let the sides A C, a c, as also a c : these prisms shall be equal to one
A F, af, be equal, but dissimilar. Make another. For the edges b D, dB, being
the parallelogram AG similar to a f. each of them equal to CA (I. 22.), are
A re-- E. g.
equal to one another; and the dihedral
Lý H ZT angles at those edges are likewise equal
(17. Scholium, 3.) and the sides which
contain them are equal, each to each,
because they are opposite faces of the
I} F & S-. parallelopiped. Therefore the prisms are
s G. f
equal to one another (20.).
c c
Therefore, &c. tively; that is, to the squares (I.41. Cor.)
Cor. 1. If a triangular prism be com of the twelve edges, which are made up
pleted into a parallelopiped (which may of the sides of these parallelograms, and
be done by completing its triangular the four edges before mentioned.
bases into parallelograms), the prism
shall be equal to half theparallelopiped. PROP. 23. (EUc. xi. 29 and 30.)
Cor. 2. If a pa- !--->|->7 at
rallelopiped be cut -7 -
Parallelopipeds upon the same base,
by two planes which and between the same parallel planes, are
are drawn parallel equal to one another.
respectively to two of Let A B C D be the common base of
its adjoining faces, two parallelopipeds, which have their
the line of their in- A opposite bases EFG H and KLMN
tersection will be parallel to the edge lying in the same plane: the two paral
made by those faces (12. Cor.); and if lelopipeds shall be equal to one another.
that line be in the diagonal plane, and Sinºe E.F. and, KT, are both parallel
the parallelopiped be thus divided into to A B, either they
four parallelopipeds, two of which are parts of the same N M II G
are about the diagonal plane ; the straight line, or they
other two which, together with the for are parallel to one I.
mer; make up the whole parallelopiped, another (6.). And
shall be equal to one another. For, as first let them lie in the
in I. 23, the whole parallelopiped, and Same straight line.
the two parts which are about the di Then, because LM A. JX
agonal plane, are bisected by that plane. and E H are equal and parallel to B C,
and therefore fo one another (I. ax. 1.
Scholium. and 6.), M H is parallel to LE or KF
It is worthy of remark, that “the (I. 21.), and MN, G H lie in the same
four diagonals of a parallelopiped pass straight line with M H and with each
through the same point, and that the other. Therefore, the sides AL, DM, of
sum of their squares is equal to the sum the one parallelopiped, are in the same
of the squares of the twelve edges.” planes with the sides AF, D G of the
For, if the diagonal planes which pass other, each with each. And because the
through A. C., a c and bases KM, EG are equal each to the
B D, b d intersect %isre base. A C (22), they are equal to one
one another in the
line E F, the figures
C º* /º/,
&
another. Therefore, also, the parallelo

! gram KH is equal to the parallelogram
A gag and B Pºd &
will be parallelo
** I.G. And because the triangular prisms
KN H E A D, LMG F B C have the
grams, having their opposite sides bi edges KN, LM equal to one another, and
sected by the line EF, (I. 22.); where the dihedral angles at those edges equal
fore, the diagonals of each (which are (17. Scholium, 2.), and the sides con
the same with the diagonals of the pa taining those angles equal (22.), each to
rallelopiped), as, for instance, Ala, will each, they are equal to one another (21.):
bisect EF; because the triangles A E G, but, if the first of these prisms be taken
a FG having the angles of the one equal from the whole solid Ai) N KFGCB,
to the angles of the other, each to each there remains the parallelopiped AG;
(I, 15.), and the side A E equal to the and if the other be taken from the same
side a F, the side E G is likewise equal solid, there remains the parallelopiped
to the side FG (I. 5.). Therefore, the A M ; therefore the parallelopiped AG
four diagonals of the parallelopiped pass is equal to the parallelopiped A.M. (I.
through the same point, viz. the middle ax. 3.)
point of EF. And again, because A C a c Next, let E F, KL not be in the same
and B D & d are parallelograms, the straight line. Let the planes AD HE,
squares of their four diagonals are B C G F be produced to meet the planes
(I.4.1, Cor.) together equal to the squares A B L K, D C M N, themselves pro
of A C, a c, A c, a C, and BD, b d, B d, duced if necessary, and let the parallelo
b D, that is to say, to the squares of the piped A P be completed" by producing
four edges AC, ac, B d, b D, together * In this case, the sides of the parallelopiped to be
with the squares of Alc, BD, and a C, completed are already drawn, viz. by producing the
bd, which are the diagonals of the pa plete sides of the parallelopipeds AM, A G', and, to com:
the parallelopiped, it is only necessary to draw
rallelograms A.Bc D and a 5 Cd respec the upper base by producing the plane of EFGH and
TV. S 3.] GEOMETRY. 14]
the plane of the upper bases EFG H, duce A B to R, so that B R may be

K LM. N. Then, by the former case, equal to K L ; complete the parallelo
the parallelopiped A G is equal to AP, gram B C S R.; join S B, and produce it
because OP, FG are in the same to meet D A produced in T; through T
draw TU parallel to AB, to meet C B
and S R produced in the points V and
U; complete the parallelopiped DX
upon the base DTUS, and with the
edge D H ; produce the planes A B FE,
C B FG, in order to complete the paral
lelopiped BX, and draw the diagonal
plane STY Z of the parallelopiped DX.
Then the parallelopipeds BH and B X
are equal to one another, because, toge
straight line; and, for the like reason, ther with the parallelopipeds BY and
the parallelopiped A M is equal to the BZ about the diagonal plane, they com
same A P. Therefore (I. ax. 1.) the plete the whole parallelopiped DX
parallelopipeds AG, A M are equal to (22. Cor. 2.). Again, because the bases
one another.
BU and B D are complements of the
Therefore, &c. parallelogram. DU, BU is equal to
BD (I. 23.), that is, to LN; but BR
PROP. 24. (EUC. xi. 31.) is equal to K.L, and the angle R B V
Parallelopipeds upon equal bases, and to the angle A B C (I. 3.), that is, to
between the same parallel planes, are K.L. M.: therefore, also, BV is equal to
equal to one another. LM, and the bases B U, LN are both
Let A G, K Q be two parallelopipeds equal and similar. Therefore, by the
upon equal bases A B C D, KLMN, first case, the parallelopiped K Q is
and between the same parallel planes; equal to the parallelopiped BX, that is,
to B H or A. G.
the parallelopipeds AG, KQ shall be
equal to one another. -
Lastly, let the bases A B C D, K LM. N.
The bases A B C D, KLMN are be equal, but not equiangular. Make the
either similar, or equiangular, or not -Y if x G. Q.
equiangular.
In the first case, since they are equal
as well as similar, they may be made to
coincide; and the pārallelopipeds will
then stand upon a common base, and
layº between the same parallel planes: there A. Is IK I/
W&
fore they are equal to one another.
\\{ſ, Secondly, let them be equiangu angle ABS, in the plane A B C D,
lºts º lar, and not similar, having the angle equal to the angle K LM, and complete
ſº tº
at B, equal to the angle at L; and the parallelogram A B ST, and the pa
sº therefore, also, their other angles equal, rallelopiped AX, upon the base A BitST
º each to each, (I, 15. and I. ax. 3.). Pro and with the edge BF. Then is
sº II G. z Q. evident that the triangular prisms D H
,/ EATY, C G FBS X have the edges
i. A% !/H->% / / DH, C G equal to one another (23.),
Y
L^
9–H-9-Hºls
X |7-H; M.
and the dihedral angles at those edges
equal (17. Scholium 2.), and the sides
- N
7 containing those angles equal, each to
%—#4 R
each, for the sides A H, B G are oppo
/~~1 IG. L.
T r U’ site faces of the parallelopiped AG (22.),
and the sides TH, SG stand upon equal
KLMN to cut the sides. It may be observed, how bases (I. ax. 1, and ax. 2, or 3.) TD, SC,
ever, that a parallelopiped can always be completed and between the same parallels (I. 25.);
When its base A B C D and one of its principal edges
AE are given, viz. by drawing the side-planes EAB, therefore, the prisms are equal to one
EAD, and then through BC, CD the side-planes BG, another (21.); and, these being taken from
CH parallel to EAD and EA B .# and, the whole solid A. E. YT C G F B, there
. through the point E, the upper base E G pa:
rallel to ABCD. This operation is analogous to that remains the parallelopiped AG, equal
by which a parallelogram is completed from two ad to AX. But the parallelopiped K Q is
joining sides (see note, page 17); and will be some: equal to AX by the preceding case;
times understood when it is directed to complete a
parallelopiped in future propositions. because their bases are equal (I.24. and
142 GEOMETRY, [IV. § 3,
ax. 1.) and equiangular. Therefore the to cut the plane dk produced. Then,
parallelopiped K Q is equal to A. G. because the lines Ac, cc, &c. are equal
(I. ax. 1.). to one another, the bases of the paral
Therefore, &c. lelopipeds A K, c l, &c. are equal to one
Cor. Every parallelopiped is equal to another (I.25.); and the parallelopipeds
a rectangular parallelopiped of equal have the same altitude ; therefore (24.)
base and the same altitude. they are equal to one another, and the
whole tier A L is equal to three times
PROP. 25. A K ; that is, to 3 × 5, or fifteen times
the cube of M.
If the three conterminous edges of a
rectangular parallelopiped contain, each letLastly, through the points d', &c.,
planes be drawn parallel to the plane
of them, the same straight line a cer
tain number of times earactly; the pa dk, or (11. Cor. 2.) the plane BAC.
rallelopiped shall contain the cube of Then, are
as before, because A d, d d', &c.
equal, the parallelopipeds A L, d n,
that straight line, as often as is denoted
by the product of the three numbers, &c. are likewise equal to one another;
which severally denote how often the and, therefore, the whole parallelopiped
A N is equal to four times A L, that
line itself is contained in the three edges. is to 4 × 3 × 5, or sixty times the cube
Let AB, A C, AD be three edges of of M.
a rectangular parallelopiped terminated And, it is evident that a similar demon
in the same angular point, and let them stration may be applied, whatever other
numbers be taken in place of the num
bers 5, 3, and 4.
i) Therefore, &c.
Scholium.
Hence the solid content of a rectan
gular parallelopiped is said to be equal
to the product of its three dimensions,
that is to A B x A C x AD, if A B,
A N4
A C, AD are the three edges; this ex
contain the same straight line M, five, pression being interpreted in the same
three, and four times respectively: the sense with the product of the two dimen
parallelopiped shall contain the cube of sions or sides, which is said to consti
M., 5 × 3 × 4, or 60 times. tute the area of a rectangle, viz., that
In the straight line A B, take the five the number of cubical units in the pa
parts Ab, b b, &c. each equal to M, in rallelopiped is equal to the product of
A C the three parts Ac, cc, &c. each the numbers which denote how often
equal to M, and in AD the four parts the corresponding linear unit is con
A d, dd, &c., each equal to the same tained in the three edges. Thus, if the
M. Through the points b, c, and d, let linear unit be a foot, and the edges 3,
planes be drawn parallel to the planes 4, and 5 feet respectively, the solid con
c Ad, b Ad, and b A c respectively, (11. tent will be 3 x 4 x 5, or 60 cubic feet.
Cor. 1.) and let them meet one ano It is likewise said, in a similar sense,
ther in the point k; then A R is equal that the solid content of a rectangular
to the cube of M. Let the planes parallelopiped is equal to the product of
ck, dh be produced to meet the plane *ts base and altitude : thus, in the exam
B N ; and let them be cut by the planes ple just stated, the number of square
b' k', &c. which are drawn through b', feet in the base is 4 × 5, or 20; and this,
&c. parallel to the plane b k, or the plane being multiplied by 3, the number of
C AD. Then, because the lines A b, linear feet in the altitude, gives 60 for
b b', &c. are equal to one another, the the number of cubic feetin the parallelo
bases of the parallelopipeds Ak, b k', piped, as before.
&c. are equal to one another (I. 25.), The cube is also the unit in the men
and the parallelopipeds have the same suration of all other solids; their con
altitude; therefore (24.), they are equal tents being the same with the con
to one another, and the whole row A K tents of rectangular parallelopipeds equal
is equal to five times the cube of M, to them. Thus, since every parallelo
Again, through the points c', &c., let the piped (24. Cor.) is equal to a rectan
planes c l, &c. be drawn parallel to the gular parallelopiped of equal base and
plane c k, or (ll, Cor. 2.) the plane BAD, altitude, the solid content ºf every pa"
º 3.
ivision P
TRY. ints of di"
IV. § 3.j gº.ºr" dra. base ſ"
º, ºrina is*:::::A; ſºnewºf §
tº "::#. . tº one of the B
J.' AA
- se y
partsº .in
-
the pyramid will Pº

examples.
first
tained in à
E 7 /
Peop. 26. (Euc. * 32.) ! tude º º. ſ
off, have equ% numbe...". C
Parallelopp*...*. ... as their exactly 9% ...;
-
in the parak
A.
altitudes, dré llelopipeds, ...hich have remainder, ill be contained €8 in the pº
bases; and pº, | ...ther as the the othº.º. ame numbe. of tim
equalſº $200 pºlº.
a/ſitudes ; d. other in the jo, which is exactly, 9... ".
leiopiped A B ith a jorresponding...
nd 24.). Therefore
are to one anol/tº , ºf their bases mainder 25. A d AB is to
compounded of the Taizo f. 7) the parallelopipº
and altitudes. tangular #. jº D as the altitude
*
First, let AB, having

A G betwº rectanguº to the altitude C. F.
parallelopipeds, equal altitudes, A#. let AB, CD be any two
and let A E, AF be their bases; the pa" rectangular parallelopipeds, having the
rallelopipeds being so placed that a
solid angle of the one may coincide, as }}
A, with a solid angle of the other.
Then, the parallelopipeds will have a Lºk M-7”
common part A. D. which is likewise a #Tº E a E.
rectangular parallelopiped; having the
jºiâtude AI, with them, and the
two adjoining edges AG, AH common A. c
to it with A B,
A C respectively. C bases A.E, CF, and the altitudes AG,
Let the base A. K. ID CH. Take A L equal to CH, and let
of this parallelo- Zſº T;
A K be a third parallelopiped having
piped be divided .2% F. the base A E and the altitude A L.
into any number L t
Then, because the parallelopiped AB has
of equal rectangles ſ J& E
to CD the ratio which is compounded
by limes parallel to
A H ; and, there- A G.
Z. of the ratios of A B to A K, and A K to
CD (II. def. 12.); which ratios, by what
fore, the parallelo has been just demonstrated, are the same
piped into the same number of equal pa with those of AG to AL or CH, and AE
rallelopipeds, by planes passing through to C F; the parallelopiped A B has to
these lines parallel to the planes LAH the parallelopiped CD, the ratio which
(24.) Then, if one of the first parts is compounded of the ratios of the alti
be contained in the base A E any number tude A G to the altitude GH, and of
of times, exactly, or with a remainder; the base A E to the base C F.
one of the others will be contained in the And what has here been demon
parallelopiped A B the same number of strated of rectangular parallelopipeds is
times, exactly, or with a corresponding true also with regard to any two paral
remainder (24.). Therefore (II. def. 7) lelopipeds whatever, because these (24
the parallelopiped AB is to AD as the Cor.) are equal to rectangular paralleio.
base A E to the base A.K. And in the pipeds having equal bases and altitudes
same manner it may be shewn that the with them.
parallelopiped A D is to A C as the Therefore, &c.
base A K to the base A.F. Therefore,
* @quali (II. 24.), the parallelopiped PROP. 27.
A B is to the parallelopiped A C as the
base A E to the base A. F. Any two rectangular parallelopipeds
Next, let AB, CD be two rectangu are to one another in the ratio, which is
lar parallelopipeds, having equal bases; compounded of the ratios of their edges.
and let A E, C F be their altitudes.
Let A E, Ale be two rectangular pa
Then, if the altitude C F be divided into rallelopipeds, the first having the edges
any, number of equal parts; it may A B, A, C, A D, the other "the edges
easily be shown that the parallelopiped A. b. A c, Ad; the parallelopiped AE
CD will be divided into the same num shall be to the parallelopiped A B in
ber of equal parallelopipeds, by planes the ratio which is compounded of the
144 GEOMETRY. [IV. § 3
ratios of A B to A b, F. b C (26.), that is, as AB to Ab (II.
A C to Alc, and AD
to A d.
*E. cyle 35. Cor.); and in like manmer A F is
-
to AG as A D to Ad, and AG to Ae
For, the parallelo- 6 T as AC to Ac; therefore, as in the
pipeds being placed cº III proposition, the parallelopiped AE is
so that a solid an- 2–Z a/ to the parallelopiped Ale, in the ratio
gle of the one may * which is compounded of the ratios of
coincide with a solid angle of the other A B to A b, A D to Ad, and AC to
as at A, they will have a common part A c; that is, in a ratio which is com
AF, which is likewise a rectangular pa pounded of the ratio of the edges about
rallelopiped; and the face of this pa the common angle A.
rallelopiped, which is opposite to D b, Cor. 2. Cubes are to one another in
being produced to meet the plane de, the triplicate ratio of their edges (II.27.
will cut off from the parallelopiped Ale, Cor. 2.); therefore, the triplicate ratio of
the part AG, which is also a rectangu two straight lines A B, a b is the same
with the ratio of their cubes.
lar parallelopiped. Now, the parallelo
pipeds A E, AF have a common base Cor. 3. If one straight line be to ano
DC; therefore (26.) they are to one ano ther as a third to a fourth, the cube of
the first shall be to the cube of the se
ther as their altitudes AB, Ab ; and, for
the like reason, the parallelopipeds AF, cond as the cube of the third to the cube
A G are to one another as their altitudes of the fourth (II. 27.).
AD, Ad, and the parallelopipeds AG,
Ae are to one another as their altitudes PROP. 28.
A C, A c. But the parallelopiped AE
has to the parallelopiped Ae the ratio Every triangular prism is equal tº a
which is compounded of the ratios of rectangular parallelopiped, which has
A E to A F, A F to AG, and A G to an equal basé and the same altitude.
Ae. Therefore, the parallelopiped AE Let A b c be a triangular prism, and
has to the parallelopiped Ale, the ratio let E F be a rectangular parallelopiped,
which is compounded of the ratios of & C
A B to Ab, AD to Ad, and A C to 2ſ –H4

Ac; or, which is the same thing, which
is compounded of the ratios of A B to
A b, A C to Ac, and AD to A d. (II. A-ſ——C
27)* “NL- -
B D E
Therefore, &c.
Cor. 1. (Euc. xi. D.) The same may having its base EG equal to the base
be said of any two parallelopipeds A B C of the prism, and its altitude FG
A E, Ale, in which a solid angle of the same with the altitude of the prism:
the one may be T; the prism Abc shall be equal to the pa
made
with atosolid angle " J w E.
coincide rallelopiped E F.
-
-
Let the bases A B C, a b c of the prism

of the other; that 4 be completed into the parallelograms
is, such parallelo AD, a d, and let D d be joined. Then it
pipeds are to one is evident that the solid Adis a parallelo
* in thera- A D & piped (def. 11.). But the prism Abc is
tio, which is compounded of the ratios equal to halfthe parallelopiped Ad (21.);
of the edges about the equal angles. and the parallelopiped EF is also equal
For, the parallelopiped A G being com to half the parallelopiped Ad, because
pleted as in the proposition, A E is the base E G is equal to ABC, that is,
to A F as the base B C to the base to half of the base A D, and the altitude
FG is the same with the altitude Aa
* This demonstration is analogous to that of II. 36. (26.). Therefore (I. ax. 5.) the prism
The proposition may, however, be otherwise, and
more concisely established by the aid of Prop. 26: ; A b c is equal to the parallelopiped EF
for, since the parallelopipeds are to one another in
the ratio which is compounded of the ratios of their
Therefore, &c.
bases and altitudes, and that the bases, which are
rectangles under two of the conterminous edges of PROP. 29.
each, are to one another in the ratio which is com
rounded of the ratios of those edges (II, 36.), and Every prism is equal to a rectangular
the altitudes equal to the third edges, it follows that
the parallelopipeds are to one another in the ratio parallelopiped, which has an equal base
which is compounded of the ratios of their edges. And and the same altitude.
the first corollary (analogous to II. 36. Cor. 1.) admits
of a demonstration little different.
Let Ad C be a prism, having the
IV. § 3.] .GEOMETRY. 145
polygonal bases A B C DE, a b c de, and pendicular to the principal edge. For,
let FG be a rectangular parallelopiped, in the case of the right prism, the sides
having its base FH equal to the base are rectangles, which have a common
A B C D E, and its altitude G H the altitude, and for their bases the sides of
same with that of the prism: the prism the base of the prism; there
Ad C shall be equal to the parallelo fore (I. 30.) their sum is
piped F.G. Join AC, AD, ac, ad; equal to a rectangle of the
same altitude, and having its
base equal to the sum of
those sides. And, in the case
of the oblique prism, the
sides of the perpendicular section, being
perpendicular to the principal edges
TTL TIN
(5.), are the altitudes respectively of the
parallelograms, which are the sides of
then, because Aa and C c are parallel, the prism and have for their bases each
they lie in the same plane (I, def. 12.) a principal edge of the prism; therefore
and the solid Abc is a triangular prism the sum of those parallelograms is equal
upon the base A B C (def. 14.). In to a rectangle, having likewise for its base
the same manner it may be shewn, a principal edge of the prism, and for its
that Ac d, Ade, are triangular prisms altitude the sum of their altitudes, that is,
upon the bases A CD, A.D. E. Now,
the perimeterof the perpendicular section.
because the rectangle FH is equal to In the latter case it is easy
the polygon A B C D, it may be divided also to perceive that the
ſº
(I, 57.j into rectangles FK, L M, N H, content of the oblique prism
º severally equal to the triangles A B C, is measured by the product
i. A CD, A DE, which together make up of the principal edge, and
nº the polygon; and the parallelopiped FH the area of the perpendicu
may be divided into as many, rectan lar section above men
º ular parallelopipeds, having the same tioned: for, if the lateral
altitude GH, and these rectangles for surface be produced, and cut by two such
their bases. And, because these bases perpendicular planes passing through
are severally equal to the bases of the the extremities of any principal edge, as
triangular prisms Abe, A ca, Ade, and in the figure, the solidsincluded between
that their common altitude G H is the these planes and the bases of the oblique
same with the common altitude of the prism, may be made to coincide, and are
prisms, the parallelopipeds, which stand therefore equal to one another: there
lº upon them, are severally equal to the fore the whole oblique prism is equal to
prisms (28.). Therefore their sum is the right prism, which has for its bases
if equal to the sum of the prisms; that is, the two perpendicular sections.
yº the parallelopiped FG is equal to the
# The convex surface of a prism has this
prism Ad C. obvious but remarkable property, that
Therefore, &c. the sections made by any two parallel
: gº Cor. 1. The solid content of every planes are similar and equal figures (12.
is: prism is equal to the product of its base and 15. Cor.): the convex surface, also,
º and altitude (25. Scholium). of a pyramid has its parallel sections
Cor. 2. (Euc. xii. 7. Cor. 2.) Prisms similar, but they are not equal to one
which have equal altitudes are to one another.
another as their bases; and prisms which
have equal bases are to one another as PROP. 30.
their altitudes: also, any two prisms are Triangular pyramids, which have
to one another in the ratio which is
equal bases in the same plane, and their
compounded of the ratios of their bases vertices in a straight line parallel to
and altitudes. (26.). that plane, are equal to one another.
Scholium. Let A B C D, E FG H be two triangu
With regard to the lateral surface of lar pyramids, having equal bases BCD
a prism, if it be a right prism, it is FG Hin the same plane, and the straight
measured by the product of the prin line A E, which joins their vertices.
cipal edge, and the perimeter of the rallel to that plane: the pyramid A B &D
base; if oblique, by the product of the is equal to the pyramid E FG H.
principal edge and the perimeter of a Since A E is parallel to the plane of
Section, which is made by a plane per the bases, the pyramids have a common
L
146 GEOMETRY. [IV. § 3. IV,
is divided, the altitude of this prism may ld to
be diminished without limit, and so the rimid
prism itself be made less than any given }I)}.
solid. Therefore, the series of inscribed Verte
prisms may he made to approach to the tº th
pyramid A B C D, by less than any is eq
given difference. And in the same man
mer it may be shewn, that if prisms be the t
similarly inscribed in the other pyramid first
E FG H, this series will approach to thes
the pyramid EFG H, by less than the tices
altitude K L. Let K L be divided into prism upon the base FGH, which is FA,
any number of equal parts; and let the equal to that before-mentioned upon the Írt,
pyramids be cut by planes, parallel to equal base B C D ; by less, that is, than times
the plane of the bases, passing through the same given difference. But of the YAM
the points of division. Let b c d and prisms inscribed in the two pyramids, Of th
fgh, b'c' d' and f'g'h', &c. be the sec those upon the bases b c d, and fgh,
tions made by these planes. Then, be b'c' d' and f'g'h', &c. are equal to one
cause the triangles bcd, B C D lie in another, because their bases are equal hay
parallel planes, which cut the dihedral to one another, and they have the same thre
angles at the edges A B, A C, and A D altitude (29. Cor. 2.). Therefore, the edge
of the pyramid A B C D, the angles series inscribed in the pyramid A B C D hºp
b, c, d of the one are (15. Cor.) severally is equal to the series inscribed in the m
equal to the angles B, C, D of the other, pyramid EFG H (I. ax. 2.). And be. l'As
and therefore (II. 31. Cor. 1.) the two cause this equality always subsists, and |ºtal
triangles are similar. Therefore the tri that the two series may be made to ly it
angle b c d is to the triangle B C D as approach to the two pyramids respec |tism
b cº to B Cº (II.42. Cor.), that is, be tively within any the same given dif tles
cause b c is (12.) parallel to B C, as ference, the pyramid A B C D is equal With
A 52 to A B2 (II. 30. Cor. 2. and II. 37. to the pyramid EFG H. (II. 28.). the |
Cor. 4.) And, in the same manner it may Therefore, &c. |Tá
be shewn, that the triangle fgh is to the
triangle FGH as E. f* to E Fº, that is PROP. 31. (EUC. xii. 7. Cor. 1.)
(14.) as Abº to A B*. Therefore the Every triangular pyramid is equal to dºm
triangle b c d is to the triangle B C D as the third part of a prism, having the It w
the triangle fgh to the triangle FG H : same base and the same altitude with |||Ols
and, because B C D is equal to FG H the pyramid. hi
(II. 12.), b c d is equal to fgh (II. 18. Let A B C D be a triangular pyramid, l).
Cor.). In the same manner it may be having the base B C D ; let the sides º {
shewn, that b'c' d' is equal to fºg' h’; A B C, A B D be com- A &WA
and so of the rest. pleted into the parallelo
Now, if the triangular prisms with grams A B C E, A B D F, lelſ
Tºm,
the bases bcd, b'c' d', &c., and the edges and join E F; then it is
Ł B, b' b, &c., be completed, and also the evident that the triangle |& ºf
$ämt
triangular prisms with the bases B C D, A E F is the upper base Bº
be d, &c., and the edges B b, & b', &c.; of a prism BEF, stand hi
(*
the former will, together, constitute a se ing upon the same base -
º
ries of prisms inscribed in the pyramid B C D with the pyramid, and having
A B C D, and the latter a series of prisms the same altitude: the pyramid A B C D
circumscribed about the same pyramid, shall be equal to a third part of the
which, excepting that upon the base prism B E F. -
B C D, are equal to the former, each Join D E. Then the prism BEF is
to each, because they have equal alti made up of three pyramids, viz. A B
tudes towards opposite parts of the CD, A CD E, and A DEF. The
same base (29. Cor. 2.). And, because first of these is the original pyramid;
the pyramid exceeds the inscribed se the second is equal (30.) to a pyramid
ries, but is less than the circumscribed; B C D E, upon the same base CD E,
it differs from the former, by less than and having its vertex B in the same line
the difference of the two series, that A B parallel (10.) to the base; and
is, by less than the prism upon the the third is equal to a pyramid B DEF,
base B C D. But, by increasing the upon the same base D E F, and having
number of parts into which the altitude its vertex B in the same line A B paral
lel to the base (30), that is, to a py planes VA C, WAD into triangular
ramid B C D E, upon the same base pyramids, having the common vertex V;
B D F with the last, and having its and the prism, into as many triangular
vertex C in the same line CE, parallel prisms, by the planes A C ca, AD da.
to the base. Therefore the prism BE F And because the former have the same
is equal to the three pyramids A B C D, altitude, and stand upon the same bases
B C D E, and B C D F. But of these, with the latter respectively, they are
the two last are each of them equal to the equal to their third parts, each of each.
first A B C D, because they stand upon Therefore, also, the sum of the former,
the same base B C D with it, and their ver that is, the whole pyramid VA B C D E,
tices are in the same lines with it, viz., A.E, is equal to a third part of the sum of
FA, parallel to the base (30.). There the latter, that is, to a third part of the
fore, the prism B E F is equal to three whole prism Ad c.
times the pyramid A B C D ; and the py Therefore, &c.
ramid A B C D is equal to a third part Cor. 1. The solid content of every
of the prism B E F. pyramid is equal to one-third of the
Therefore, &c. product of its base and altitude (29.
Cor. If a parallelopiped be described, Cor. 1.).
having three of its edges the same with Cor. 2. (Euc. xii. 5, 6.) Pyramids
three conterminous ~ -
which have equal altitudes are to one

edges of a triangu- 21 - 21 another as their bases: and pyramids
lar pyramid, the py- |\|Q | which have equal bases are to one
ramid shall be equal s another as their altitudes: also, any
to a sixth part of the two pyramids are to one another in the
parallelopiped; for the latter is divided ratio compounded of the ratios of their
by its diagonal plane into two equal bases and altitudes. (29. Cor. 2.).
prisms (22), one of which stands upon
the same base, and is of the same altitude Scholium.
with the pyramid, and is, therefore, by It was observed in the Scholium at i.
the proposition, equal to three times the 29. that the measurement of any plane
pyramid. rectilineal figure in general depends upon
Scholium.
that of the triangle, because every such
This proposition might have been figure may be divided into triangles. In
demonstrated somewhat more concisely. like manner, we may here remark, that
It will be found, however, that our de the solid content of the pyramid leads to
monstration applies equally to the fol that of every other polyhedron; and that
lowing more general theorem:—“If the the latter may be found by adding toge
upper part of a triangular prism (see ther the contents of all the pyramids
the figure in the proposition) be cut which constitute the polyhedron. These
away by a plane AEF, whether paral may be assumed with a common vertex,
lel to the base B C D, or otherwise, the which may be either within the solid,
remaining solid will be equal to the sum in which case the several faces will be
of three pyramids standing upon the the bases of so many pyramids together
same base B C D with the prism, and making up the polyhedron, or at one
having for their vertices the upper ex of the angular points, in which case the
tremities A, E,Fof the diminished edges." adjoining faces will be dividedinto sides,
and the others will be bases of the com
PROP. 32.
ponent pyramids. -
Every
part of apyramid is equalthetosame
prism, having the third
base
PROp. 33.
and the same altitude. -
Let V A B C D E be a pyramid, and If the upper part of a pyramid be cut

let a b c de be the upper base of a prism away by a plane parallel to the base; the
standing upon the same remaining frustum shall be equal to the
base A B C D E. and , sum of three pyramids, having the same
having the same altitude "N altitude with the frustum, and for their
with the pyramid: the py bases the bases of the frustum, and a
ramid shall be equal to mean proportional between them.
the
Jointhird
A C,partAD,
of thea.ſ.
prism;
a d. First, let B C D, b c d be the two
bases of the frustum of a triangular py
Then the pyramid V.A.B ramid : draw c E parallel to b B, to
CDE is divided by the L2
148 GEOMETRY. |.
[IV. § 3.
meet B C in E, and note*); wherefore the sum of the for th:
join D E. Then, be- A mer, that is, the base A B C D E, has Ok
cause the triangles # to the sum of the means the same ().
B C D, b c d are equi ratio (II. 23. Cor. I.), viz. the subdu Amſ
angular (12. and 15.), plicate ratio of A B C to ab c, or of àng
and therefore similar, A B C D E to a b c de; and accord tſu
B C D is to b c d in ingly (II. def. 11.) the sum of the ang
the duplicate ratio (II. means is a mean proportional between &ng
42.) of B C to b c, or A B C D E and a b c de. Therefore, in fire

(I. 22.) BE, that is, in this case also, the frustum in question is whi
the duplicate ratio of the same B C D equal to the sum of three pyramids, and
to B E D (II. 39.). Therefore the tri having the same altitude with it, and for the
angle B E D is a mean proportional be. their bases its two bases, and a mean 180
tween B C D and b c d (II. def. 11.) proportional between them. 10 |
Now, the frustum is made up of three Therefore, &c. tú
pyramids, namely, c BC, D, D b c d, and
cºb B. D. And, of these the first has the PROP. 34. (EUc. xii. 8. and 8 Cor.)
same altitude with the frustum, and
stands upon the base B C D ; the second Similar pyramids are to one another
has likewise the same altitude with the in the triplicate ratio of their homolo
frustum, and stands upon the base b c d: gous edges.
and the third, because c Eis parallel (10.) In the first place, let A B C D and
to the plane B b d, is equal (30.) to the a b c d be two similar triangular pyra
pyramid E 6 BD, which has the same mids, and let the edges BC, b c be ho
altitude, and stands upon the base mologous: the pyramid A B C D shall
B E D, that is, upon a base which is a
º proportional between B C D and
C (l.
Next, let A B C D E, a b c de be the
two bases of the frustum of any pyra
mid, having the vertex W. V
Then, if the planes V AC, º
V AD be drawn cutting -
the bases in the straight have to the pyramid a bed the triplicate
lines A C, a c, A D, a d, ratio of that which B C has to b c.
the frustum in question Because the faces of the two pyramids
will be divided into frus
are similar triangles, it is evident that
tums of triangular pyra- A
mids. And each of these, " * If a magnitude A be the first of three propor
by what has been already BTT tionals A, B, C, and if the same A be the first also of
three other proportionals A, b, c, then if B be greater
demonstrated, is equal to the sum of than b, C shall likewise be greater than c. . For C is
three pyramids, having the same alti to c in the ratio which is compounded of the ratios
of C to B, B to b, and b to c, that is, (because the first
tude with the frustum, and for their of these ratios is the same with that of B to A, and
bases respectively, the two bases of the last the same with that of A to b,) in the ratio
the frustum and a mean proportional which is compounded of the ratios of B to A, A to b,
and B to b, or in the duplicate ratio of B to b. Where
between them. Therefore, their sum, fore because B is greater than b, C is likewise greater
than c.
that is, the frustum in question, is Hence it follows, that if A, B, C be proportionals, and
equal to three pyramids having the if A^, Bº, C' be likewise proportionals, and if A' has
same altitude, and for their bases the a greater ratio to B" than A to B, A’ shall also have
sum of the lower bases, the sum of a greater ratio to C' than A to C. For, if b be taken
such that A’ may have to b, the same ratio, as A to
the upper bases, and the sum of the B, b will be greater than B" (II. 11.Cor. 3.); where.
means respectively. . Now, the two fore, if c be taken such that A', b, c may be propor
tionals, c will likewise be greater than C'; and there.
former sums are the bases A B C D E, fore A’ will have to Cº a greater ratio than it has to
a b c de. And the sum of the means is a c. But A’ has to c the same ratio as A to C (II.24).
mean between the bases A B C D E, Therefore A" has to Cº a greater ratio than A to C.
And hence it is evident, that if any three magni.
a b c de; for, the triangles ABC, ACD, tudes A, B, C be proportionals, and likewise any other
&c. having to the triangles a b c, a c d, three, A’, Bº, Cº, and if A is to C as A* to Cº, A is to B
as A* tº B'; for if A has not to B the same ratio as
&c. the same ratio, each to each, viz. A* to B", then neither can A have to C the same ratio
that of V A* to v a” (II. 42. and II. 32.) as A* to Cº. This last is the theorem demanded in the
text; and is evidently the converse of II. 27. Cor. 3.,
must have the same ratio also to their from which alone, however, it may be considered as
respective means (II. 27. Cor. 3. and sufficiently apparent.
IV. § 3.] GEOMETRY. - 149
Wii y
ſh;ſº their corresponding edges are to one an base D B C to the base D B F (32. Cor.
|E|, other in the same ratio, so that AB is 2.); that is, as B C to B F (II. 39),
tº im: to a b as B C to b c, and as B D to bd. or in the triplicate ratio of B C to bc.
ºil. And, because the plane and dihedral Therefore, the pyramid A B C D is to
it, I & angles of the solid angle B are severally the pyramid a b c d in the triplicate ratio
i ºff. equal in order to the plane and dihedral of that which B C has to b c.”
m . . angles of the solid angle b, these solid The proposition is therefore demon
illº angles may be made to coincide. There strated with regard to triangular pyra
º: fore (27 Cor. 1.) the parallelopipeds, mids.
Tºimi which have the edges BA, B C, B D, Next, let VA B C DE, v abcde be
º and b a, b c, b d, are to one another in
iſiſ the ratio which is compounded of the
is Will ratios of B.A. to ba, B C to b c, and B D
to b d, that is, since these ratios are
equal to one another, the triplicate ratio
(II. 27. Cor. 2.) of that which B C has
iš(M) to be. But the pyramids A B C D,
ſº I'll
a bed are (31. Cor) the sixth parts of
these parallelopipeds, each of each, and b
| || therefore have to one another (II. 17.) cº
CD ſi
the same ratio with the parallelopipeds. any two similar pyramids, and let B C,
Therefore, the pyramid A B C D has to
lirº. 3.0, be homologous edges: the pyramid
the pyramid a bed the triplicate ratio VA,
c \, h'. of that which B C has to be. B 9 DE shall be to the pyramid
() ºl v q b c de in the triplicate ratio of that
Otherwise: which B C has to b 6.
Take B.E (II.52), a third proportional Because the plane and dihedral angles
to B C, b c; and, again, B F a third of the solid angle V are severally equal
proportional to b c, BE; so that BC to the plane and dihedral angles of the
may have to B F the triplicate ratio of solid angle v, these solid anglés may be
\ that which it has to be (II. def. l 1.): made to coincide; and, if this be done,
join D E, DF, AF; and, from A, a, let the bases A B C D E, a b c de will be
º A P, ap be drawn Jºlº, to the parallel (15.), because the faces V AB
bases B C D, b c d of the pyramids, and v a b, W B C and v b c, &c. being
sº each to each. Then, because the solid similar, their sides A B and a b, B &
Jht , angles B, b may be made to coincide, and b c. &c. will be parallel (1. 15.).
l mºnº and that in this case (5. Cor.) the tri. Hence it appears that the planes V AC
tº lº angles A BP,” a bp will be in the same and vac, VAD and v ad make equal
_--"
plane, and on account of the parallelism angles with the adjoining faces of
of A P, a p (5.) will be equiangular the pyramids; and that the triangles
(I, 15.), A P is to a p (II. 31.) as A B to V AC and vac, as also VAD and v a d,
a b, or as B C to bic. Again, because, are similar. And it is easy to show
in the triangles D B C, db c, DB is tº that the triangles A B C, A CD, A D F
d b as BC to b c ; that is, as b c to BE; are respectively similar to the triangles
the triangles D.B.E, döö are equaité a b c, a ca, a d e (II. 32.). Therefore,
One another (II. 41.) But D B 5 is to the pyramids in question are divided by
D B F (II. 39.) as B E to B. F.; that those planes into similar triangular py.
is, as BC to be. Therefore, dºg is to ramids VA B C and vab c, V AC. D.
DBF as B C to b c. But B C is to be and v acd, WADE and vade (def 10.).
as AP to a p; therefore, db c is to And, since the homologous edges of
}}}} F as AP to ap, and consequently these pyramids, B C and b c, Ci) and
(II. 11. Cor. 2.) the ratio, which is com cd, DE and de, are to one another in
pounded of the ratios of d b c to D BF, the same ratio; and, by what has been
and 4p to A P is a ratio of equality. * These demonstrations are respectively analogous
But the pyramid a b c d is to the pyrā to those given of 11.42, in page66. The second, it is
mid A. B.F.D in a ratio which is com obvious, admits of considerable abridgment, by refer
ence to 32. Cor. 2.; for, since the pyramids’are to
pounded of the ratios of d b c to D B F, one another in the ratio which is compounded of the
and ap to AP (32. Cor. 2.); therefore, ratios of their bases and altitudes, and that the bases
are to one another in the duplicate ratio of two homo
the pyramid A B F D is equal to the py: logous edges (II. 42.), and the altitudes have to one
ramid a b cd. Now, the pyramid AB another the same ratio with those edges, it follows
that the pyramids are to one another in the triplicate
CD is to the pyramid A BFD, as the ratio of their homologous edges. And in this form
the demonstration ::. equally to the general case
* The lines BP, bp are omitted in the figure. in which the bases are similar polygons.
already demonstrated, the pyramids to points A, a, with all the angular points
one another in the triplicate ratios of of their respective figures, to which they
their homologous edges, that is likewise are not already joined by the edges
(II. 27. Cor. 3.) in the same ratio; the terminating in A, a. Then, because
whole pyramid VA B C D E is (II. 23. the triangles 'A B C, a b c, are similar
Cor. 1.) to the whole pyramid v a b c de (II. 32.) the angles BAC, bac are equal
in the latter ratio, i. e. in the triplicate to one another ; but the planes BAC,
ratio of that which B C has to b c. bac are parallel, and AB is parallel to
Therefore, &c. a b ; therefore, also (15.), AC is parallel
Cor. Since the triplicate ratio of two to a c : and, for the like reason, A H is
straight lines is the same with the ratio parallel to a h. Again, because A F and
of their cubes (27. Cor. 2.), similar py FK are parallel respectively, and in the
ramids are to one another as the cubes same ratio, to a f and fit, the triangles
of their homologous edges. AFK, afk are similar (15. and II.32),
PROP. 35.
and their planes parallel; wherefore, as
before, AK is parallel to a k; and for the
Similar polyhedrons are to one ano like reason the triangles AD L, adl are
ther in the triplicate ratio of their ho similar and in parallel planes, and AL
mologous edges. is parallel to al. And because the tri
Let A CG, a cs be two similar poly angles A C L, a cl have the three sides
hedrons, and let B C, b c be any two of the one parallel to the three sides of
the other, each to each, they are equi
angular (15), and lie in parallel planes:
the same also may be said of the triangles
A K L, a kl, and A H K, a hk.
Therefore, the pyramids into which
the solid A C G is divided by the planes
ACL, ADL, AFK, AHK, AKL are simi
homologous edges: the polyhedron lar to the pyramids into which the solid
A CG shall be to the polyhedron a c g a c g is divided by the planes a cl, adl,
in the triplicate ratio of that which a fä, ah k, a k l, each to each : for it
B C has to b c. has been shown that the faces in these
In the first place, it is evident that planes are similar, each to each, and
the corresponding edges of the polyhe their other faces are similar, because
drons are to one another each to each in they are similar faces, or similar parts
the same ratio, because they are homo of similar faces, of the polyhedrons; also
logous sides of the similar faces of the the dihedral angles made by any two
polyhedrons. Let the polyhedrons be similar and adjoining faces are equal
so placed as to have two corresponding(17. Scholium, 3.), because their planes
edges A B, a b parallel to one ano. are parallel. And the former pyramids
ther, and two corresponding faces are to the latter (34.) in the triplicate
A B C D, a b c d adjoining to those ratios of their homologous edges, each
edges likewise parallel. ... Then, be to each; that is, in the triplicate ratio
cause the angles A B C, a b c are of B C to b c, because their edges have
equal to one another, BC is likewise to one another the common ratio of
parallel to b c (15.); and for the like B C to b c. Therefore, also, the sum
reason CD, D A are parallel to c d, d a of the former pyramids, that is, the po
respectively. Again, since A B is pa lyhedron A CG, is (II. 23. Cor. 1.) to
rallel to a b, a plane may be made to the sum of the latter, that is, to the
pass through A B parallel to the plane polyhedron a cy, in the same ratio, viz.,
a b h g (15.), and that plane is no other the triplicate ratio of B C to b c.
than A B HG, because the dihedral an Therefore, &c.
les at A B and a b are equal of one ano Cor. Similar polyhedrons are to one
ther (17. Scholium,3. and 11. Cor.1.); and another as the cubes of their homolo
for the like reason the other similar faces gous edges (27. Cor. 2.).
of the two polyhedrons lie in parallel
planes. Therefore, also, any two cor SECTION 4.—Problems.
responding edges being the common
sections of such planes, are parallel In the following problems it is as:
(12. Cor.). -
sumed that a sphere may be described
Join AC and a c, A H and a h, AK from any centre, and at any distance
and a k, A L and a l; that is, join the rom that centre: also, a plane is consi
IV. § 4.] GEOMETRY 151
dered to be drawn, when two straight are therefore (9. Cor) right angles;
lines are drawn which lie in that plane. and every other point of the perpendi
cular on the same side of A B is at a
PROP. 36. Prob 1. greater or a less distance from D than
To draw a straight line perpendicu G is (I, 12. Cor. 2.). Reversely, therefore,
lar to a given plane A B, from a given from the centres D, E, F, with any the
point C without it. -
same radius greater than D C, describe
From C, to the plane, draw any three spheres, and let G be the point
common to the surfaces of these
straight line CD; from the centre C,
spheres; join C G ; C G will be the
perpendicular required.
Therefore, &c.
Another method has been seen in
prop. 7.
Cor. It appears from the demonstra
tion, that, if a point be equally distant
from the three angles of a triangle, it
must lie in a perpendicular to the plane
with the radius CD, describe a sphere of the triangle, which passes through
ić D EF. If this sphere touch the plane the centre of the circumscribing circle,
in D, CD is the perpendicular required Scholium.
(8. Cor.); if not, take K, the centre of
the circle D G H in which it cuts the Had the intersection of the spherical
ić plane, and join C K ; C K will be the surfaces, in this problem, been consi
perpendicular required (8. Cor.). dered at a greater length, the analogy of
Therefore, &c. the construction to that employed in the
Another method has been seen in first method of Book i. prop. 44, might
prop. 7. have been lost sight of in the detail.
The subject is, however, of sufficient in
PROP. 37. Prob. 2. terest to merit the attention of the stu
To draw a straight line perpendicular dent; and, as it has not hitherto found
to a given plane A. B. from agiven point a place in this treatise, the present is,
C in the same.
perhaps, the most proper for its consi
From the centre C, with any radius deration.
CD, describe, in - ſº
1. Two spheres will, 1°, cut one ano
the plane Alb, the jº. ther, or 2°, touch one another, or 3°,
circle DEF. In
the circumference
of this circle, take
any three points
D, E, F, and join Å
CD, CE, C F. -
Now, let C G be the perpendicular

required. From the centre D, with
any radius greater than DC, describe
a sphere, and let its surface cut the
perpendicular C G in G ; and join
G D, G E, G F. Then, because GE
and G F are each of them equal to
G D (8.), if spheres be described from one of them fall wholly without the
the points E and F, each with a radius other, according as the distance be
equal to D G, their surfaces will like tween their centres is, 1°, less than the
wise each of them pass through the sum, and greater than the difference
point G. And G is the only point on of their radii, or, 2°, equal to the
that side of the plane A B, which is sum, or to the difference of their ra
found at the same time in the surface of dii, or, 3°, greater than the sum, or less
each of the three spheres. For, every than the difference of their radii.
point, as G, which is at equal distances This is easily inferred from what has
from the three points D, E, F, must lie been already demonstrated with regard
in the perpendicular which passes to the intersection of circles; for it
through the centre of the circle DEF, is evident that the sections of two
because (I. 7.) the angles G CD, G CE, spheres, made by a plane passing
G C F are equal to one another, and through their centre and through any
15 2 GEOMETRY. [IV. § 4.
point which is supposed to be common scribe two circles, and let them cut
to the two surfaces, will be circles hav. one another in P; and from P draw
ing the same radii and centres with the PM perpendicular to A B: then M is
spheres respectively. the centre, and MP the radius, of the
2. If two spheres cut one another, circle (dotted in the figure) in which the
they shall cut one another in a circle, spheres, whose centres are A and B, cut
the plane of which is perpendicular to one another. In like manner draw the
the line joining their centres, and its
centre in that line.
Let C,c be the centres of two spheres,
and P, Q any two points common to
the surfaces of both; join CP, Pc, C Q,
Q c, and C c; draw PO perpendicular
to C c; and join O Q. Then, because
the triangles C P c, C Q c have the three
sides of the one equal to the three sides
line Q N, so that N may be the centre,

and N Q the radius, of the circle (dotted
in the figure) in which the spheres, whose
centres are A and C, cut one another.
Then, it is evident that the only points,
of the other, each to each, the angle common to the surfaces of the three
PC O is equal (I.7.) to the angle Q CO. spheres, are those which are common to
And because the triangles PC O, QC O the circumferences of these two circles.
have two sides PC, CO of the one equal Let PM, QN be produced to meet one
to two sides QC, CO of the other, each another in the point O; and let the planes
to each, and the included angles equal to of the circles cut one another in the line
one another; the remaining sides PO, V v, which passes through O, and is
Q O are equal to one another, and the perpendicular to the plane ABC (18.
angle Q O C is equal fo PQ C, that is, to Cor. 2.), because the planes of the cir
a right angle. Therefore, the point Q is cles, being perpendicular to the lines
in the circumference of a circle which is AB, AC respectively, are perpendicular,
described from the centre O, with the each, to the plane A B C, which passes
radius O P, in a plane (3. Cor. 1.) through each of those lines (18.). Then,
perpendicular to CO or C c. And the if M P be greater than MO, the circle,
same may be shewn of every other which has the centre M and the radius
point Q in the common section of the MP, will cut the line V v in two points
two spheres. Therefore that common V, v, which are equally distant from the
section is a circle, the plane of which is point O (I. 12.). Join WN, v N. Then,
perpendicular to the line C c, and its because A N is at right angles to the
centre in that line, as above stated. plane Q NV, the angles A NW, AN v
In fact, if the plane PC c cut the spheres are right angles. And, because V, v are
in the circles A Pp and ap P, and if it points in the surface of the sphere which
be made to revolve about the line C c, has the centre A and radius A P or
the circles A P p, a p P will generate the A Q, A V and ‘A v are, each of them,
two spheres (def. 21.), and the line OP equal to A Q. Therefore, because the
(3. Cor. 2.) the circle of intersection. right-angled (3.) triangles A NW, A Nº
3. If three spheres be described, whose have their hypotenuses A V, Av, and
centres A, B, C do not lie in the same sides A N equal respectively to the
straight line, the surfaces of the three hypotenuse A Q and side A N of the
cannot have more than two points in right-angled triangle A N Q, their
common, which points (if there be any other sides NV, N v are equal each
such) lie in a straight line perpendi to N Q (I, 13.); and, consequently,
cular to the plane of the centres, and the circle which has the centre N and
at equal distances on either side of that the radius N Q also passes through the
plane. - - same two points V, v. But, the cir:
From the points A, B, with the radii of cumferences of the two circles do not
the spheres described from A, B, re meet one another in any other point;
spectively, in the plane A B C, de for they can meet only in the line Wv,
in which their planes cut one another. Through Adraw a
Therefore the points V, v, which are in plane GH (38.) per
a perpendicular to the plane A B C, and pendicular to AD, → C.
at equal distances on either side of that and let it cut the F /
plane, and none else, are common to the given plane B C in *H.
surfaces of the three spheres; as above the line A E : A E
stated. will be the straight line required. For,
If the point V coincide with 0, the AD, being perpendicular to the plane
point v will likewise coincide with it; GH, is perpendicular to the line AE,
and in this case the three spherical sur which meets it in that plane (def. 1.).
faces will have only one point common Otherwise: - -
to them, viz. the point O, which is in the From any point D in AD draw D F
plane of the three centres A, B, C. perpendicular to the plane B C (36.):
If the centres of three spheres lie in join A F; and, in the plane B C, draw
the same straight line, their circles of
A E perpendicular to AF; then A E (4.)
intersection (if there are any) cannot will be the line required.
meet one another, because their planes Therefore, &c.
are perpendicular to this straight line,
and ºtherefore (11.) parallel; and ac PROP. 40. Prob. 5.
cordingly the surfaces can have no Through a given point A in a given
point in common; unless each of them plane B É, to draw a straight line, which
passes through the same point of the shall lie in that plane, and be parallel
straight line in which the centres lie, to another given plane D.E.
for then each of them will touch the If the planes
other two in that point. B C, D E are pa
PROP. 38. Prob. 3.
rallel ; then any
straight line which F
Through a given point C, to draw a is drawn through
plane, which shall be perpendicular to a the point A in the
given straight line A. B. plane B C will be parallel to the plane
If the point C lies D E (def. 6. and def. 3.).
in the straight line If the planes are not parallel, let them
A B, from C draw be produced to cut one another in the
any straightline CD straight line FG, and through A draw
perpendicular to A H parallel to FG (I, 48.): A H will
AB (I.44.): through be the line required (10.).
AB draw any plane Therefore, &c.
not coinciding with Cor. In the same manner a straight
the plane A CD, line may be drawn through a given
and draw C E in that plane perpendi point, which shall be parallel to each
cular to A B (I. 44.): then the plane of two given planes; viz., by producing
D C E (3.) is the plane required. the planes to cut one another, and draw
But if C do not lie in A B, draw ing the required straight line parallel to
CD perpendicular their common section.
to A B (I. 45.): PROP. 41. Prob. 6.
through A B draw Through a given straight line A B,
any plane not co
inciding with the to draw a plane, which shall be perpen
plane A DC, and dicular to a given plane CD.
draw DE in that lf the straight
line A B is per
plane perpendicu
lar to A B (I. 44.): pendicular to the
then the plane CDE is the plane re plane CD, then
quired. -
any plane which
Therefore, &c. passes through AB
will be perpendi
PROP. 39. Prob. 4. cular to the plane
CD (18.).
Through a given point A in a given But, if A B be not perpendicular to
plane B C, to draw a straight line, which CD, from any point A in A B draw AE
shall lie in the plane B C, and be at perpendicular to CD (36. or 37.); and the
right angles to a given straight line plane B A E will be the plane required.
AD, which cuts the plane in that point, Therefore, &c.
PROP. 42. Prob. 7. PRop. 45. Prob. 10.
Through a given point A to draw a To find the shortest distance between
plane which shall be perpendicular to two given straight lines, AB and CD,
each of two given planes B C, D E. which do not lie in the same plane.
If the given planes are parallel, from Through A B draw the plane EF, pa
A draw (36.) a straight line perpendi rallel to the line CD (44.) ; and through
cular to either of them; and any plane the same A B draw the plane G. H., per
passing through this straight line will be pendicular to the plane E F (41).
perpendicular to each of the given planes Then, because the straight line CD is
(11. and 18.) parallel to the plane EF, which cuts the
If the planes are not parallel, letthem plane GH in the line A B, it cuts, or
be produced , to may be produced to cut, the plane GH
meet one another in some point L. From L, draw LK
in the straight line perpendicular to A B: K L shall be the
FG, and through shortest distance required.
A
H draw the plane
K perpendicu- V’
- c
-
lar to FG (38.): H K will be the plane

required (18.). Or, in this case, draw
from the point A perpendiculars to the
two planes (36.); and the plane of these
perpendiculars will be the plane re
quired (18.).
Therefore, &c,
PROP. 43. Prob. 8.
For, the plane GH, being perpendicu
Through a given point A, to draw a lar to the plane EF, the straight line
plane, which shall be parallel to a given KL, which is drawn in the former plane,
plane B C. at right angles to the common section
From A draw the straight line AD A B, must be perpendicular to the plane
perpendicular to the —R E F (18.), and therefore (10. and I. 14.)
- F
plane B C (36.); and A− /

** to the line CD, which is parallel to the
through A draw the E T plane E.F. Now, because the line
plane E F (38.) per I-7c
IDA --T, A B lies in the plane EF, CD cannot
pendicular to the be nearer to A B than it is to the plane
straight line A D : EF, to which it is parallel. But be
the plane E F is the plane required (1.1.). cause K L is perpendicular to the plane
Otherwise: E F, K L is the shortest distance of CD
In the given plane B C, draw any two the from the plane EF. Therefore KL is
shortest distance between the straight
straight lines cutting one another; and, lines A B and CD.
through the given point A, draw parallels Otherwise:
to them respectively: the plane of these
parallels will be the plane required (15.). From any point A in AB, draw A9.
Therefore, &c. perpendicular to CD (I. 45.): from C
PROP. 44. Prob. 9. A.
AN
• Through a given straight line A B,
to draw a plane, which shall be parallel
rº se"—70
C. Tu
to a second given straight line CD. MI & /

If A B is parallel to CD, then any JE B
plane (10.) which passes through AB,
and does not pass through CD, is pa draw CE perpendicular to the plane
rallel to C. D. -
A CD (37.), and let A B cut the plane
But, if A B is not parallel to CD, D C E in B: complete the rectangle
through º Pºgº of A B draw the BD CE, and join AE: from C draw
straight line L. —-,
C F perpendicular to A E (I. 45):
. to CD =y" through F draw F K (I, 48), parallel tº
(I. 48.): the plane & lº, B E or CD, to meet AB in K: take C.I.
B A E is the plane equal to FK, and join K L : K L shall
g-p
required (10.). be the shortest distance required.
Therefore, &c. For, let G be any other point in AB,
and GHits perpendicular distance from - Therefore, &c. -
CD: through G draw GM, parallel to Cor. Any point in the bisecting plane
B E or D C (I. 48), to meet AE in M, is at equal distances from the planes of
and join C M. Then, because G M and the dihedral angle A B C D (I.13); for it
H C are in the same plane (I. def. 12.), may easily be shown that these distances
G H and M C are likewise in the same are the sides of right-angled triangles,
plane; and, because CD is perpendicu which have a common hypotenuse and
lar both to C A and CE, it is perpen the angles opposite to them equal to one
dicular also to CM and CF (3.): but, CD another.
is likewise perpendicular to GH; there
fore (I. 14.) C M is parallel to HG, and PROP. 47. Prob. 12.
the quadrilateral C G is a rectangle. To circumscribe a sphere about a
Again, because FK, C L are parallel given tetrahedron or triangular pyra
and equal, and that the angle FC L is mid A B C D.
a right angle, C K is a parallelogram
(I. 21.) and a rectangle. Therefore Bisect any one of the edges, AB, in
(I. 22.) G H is equal to C M, and KL A E (I.43.): from E, in the adjoining faces
B C, ABD, draw
to C F. But C F (I. 12. Cor. 3.) is
EF, E G perpendi
less than C M, because C F is perpendi cular to AB (I, 44.):
cular to A. E. Therefore, also, K Lis less
than G. H. And in the same manner it take F, G, the cen
tres of the circles
may be shown that KL is less than any circumscribing the
other distance between the lines A. B.,
CD. If AB do not meet the plane DCE, triangles ... A B C, p C
that is, if it be parallel to that plane, A B D (III. 59.);
and therefore in the
Nº.
AC is the shortest distance required. straight lines E F, TR
Therefore, &c.
Cor. 1. The shortest distance be EG respectively: from the points F, G,
tween two straight lines is a straight in the plane FEG, draw FO, GO,
line which is at right angles to each of perpendicular to FE, G E (i. 44.)
them. This is evident from each of the respectively, and meeting one another
constructions above given. Indeed, if in O, and join OA: the sphere, which is
such were not the case, it could not be the described from the centre O, with the
shortest distance; for a perpendicular to radius Q A, shall pass through the
the line which it does not meet at right points B, C, D, and circumscribe the
àngles, drawn from the point in which tetrahedron,
it meets the other, would be shorter Join Q B. QC, OD. Then, because
(I, 12. Cor. 3.). E. F. and E G are each of them at
The problem shows, therefore, how to right angles to E A, the plane F.E. G.
draw a straight line, which shall be at is perpendicular to E A (3.j, and there.
ight angles to each of two given straight fore (18.) to each of the planes A B C,
lines not lying in the same plane. A BD, which pass through E.A. But
Col. 2. If, in the second construc OF and O G are perpendicular to the
tion, the perpendiculars AC and Bī) be common sections F E and G. E. respec
given, the length of the shortest distance tively. Therefore (18.) OF and Ó G.
are
KL may be found; for itis equal to the Perpendicular to the planes ABC j
perpendicular CF, which is drawn from A BD respectively. And because the
the right, angle to the hypotenuse of a points A, B, C, are equidistant from
right-angled triangle having those per the foot of the perpendicular O F, they
pendiculars for the two sides. are likewise equidistant from the point
PROP. 46. Prob. 11.
Q in the perpendicular (8.); therefore
QB and O.C. are each of them equal to
To bisect a given dihedral angle 9A. And for the like reason o B (as
A B C D.
befºre) and OD are each of the . equal
Draw from any the same to Q A. Therefore, the four distances
point B in the edge B C, BA 4 O A. OB, O C, Oi), are equal to one
and B D perpendicular to it ºf another; and the sphere, which is de
(I, 44.) in the planes C B A
and C B D respectively, and .*.*.* he cºntrºl.
• 1s - -
bisect the angle ABD by the tº "ribed about the

straight line B E (I.46.) : the
plane E B C will bisect the B ID. Otherwise :
given dihedral angle A B C D (17.).
Bisect three of the edges at right *
gles by planes meeting one another in
the point O (38): O is evidently the cen also, by Prop. 10, the common sections
tre of a sphere, passing through, the are all parallel to one another), there
points A, B, C, D, and circumscribing can be no such point; for, since all the
the pyramid. points which are common to the two
Therefore, &c. first planes are found in their common
section, if this common section does not
PROP. 48. Prob. 13. cut the third plane (that is, in other
To inscribe a sphere in a given tetra words, if there is no point commonto this
hedron or triangular pyramid A B C D. common section and the third plane),
Bisect the dihedral angles at the edges there can be no point which is com
BC, CD, DB of any the same face,(46.) mon to the three planes. When, on
and let the bisecting the contrary, the common section of
planes meet one an two of the planes is not parallel to the
other in the point O : third, it may be produced to cut that
from O draw OP, OQ, plane, and the point in which it cuts it
OR, OS, perpendicu is the point which is common to the
lar to the faces B C D, three planes.
ABC, ABD, ACD, re When a point is to be determined,
spectively (36): the therefore, by the intersection of three
sphere, which is de planes, in order to be satisfied with regard
scribed from the cen to the meeting of the planes, it is only
tre O, with the radius OP's shall pass necessary to consider the common sec
through the points Q, R, P, and be tion of any two of them, and examine
inscribed in the tetrahedron. whetherit is or is not parallel to the third
For, the point O being in the plane plane. Thus, in Problem 13, the ques
which bisects the dihedral angle at B C, tion occurs, whether O C is, or not, pa
is equidistant (46. Cor.) from the planes rallel to the plane which is made to pass
A B C, B C D, that is, O Q is equal to through DB ; and it is easily perceived
O P; and, for the like reason, OR and that it is not parallel; for, if the plane
O S are each of them equal to OP; D B A be supposed to be turned round
therefore, the four distances, OP, O Q, D B, in order to arrive at the position in
OR, OS, are equal to one another: and which it will be parallel to 0 C, before
the sphere, which is described from the it arrives at that position it must evi
centre O, with the radius O P, is in dently become parallel to AC, and DB0
scribed in the tetrahedron A B C D. is necessarily more distant from the po
Therefore, &c. sition of parallelism than D A B when
Cor. If the faces and altitude A L parallel to AC, for it passes between the
of the tetrahedron be given, the length face ADB of the pyramid, and the base
of the radius OP may be found. For, C DB. In the second solution of Prob.
since the pyramid, which has the alti 12, the three planes, which are supposed
tude A L and the base B C D, is equal to meet in (), are at right angles to the
to the sum of four pyramids having the edges, and therefore the common sec
common altitude O P, and for their tion of any two of them, as, for instance,
bases the four faces of the first pyra the two which are at right angles to
mid; or, which is the same thing, to a AB, A C, is perpendicular to the face
pyramid, which has the altitude O P, ABC of the pyramid (18, and 18. Cor. 2),
and a base equal to the sum of those for which reason any plane which is
faces (30.); it may easily be shown parallel to it must be perpendicular to
(32. Cor. 2. and II. 10. Cor.) that OP the same face, which is evidently not the
is to A L as the base B C D to the sum case with the plane which is at right an
of the four faces. gles to the edge A.D.
Scholium.
PRop. 49. Prob. 14."
In these problems, 12. and 13.,it is as
sumed that, three planes being given, a Three plane angles A. OB, BOC,
point may be found which is common to COA, which form a solid angle 0,
the three, or that, any three planes being being given; to find by a plane construc
drawn, there is some point through tion the angle contained by two of the
which each of them passes, and which planes, viz. A O B and B O C.
may be called their point of intersection. At the point B, in the plane BQQ,
It is evident, however, that if the com and upon either side of the angle BOC:
mon section of two of the planes be make the angles B O D, CO E equal
parallel to the third plane (in which case, to the angles Éa. COA, each to each
Wil, IV. § 4.] GEOMETRY. 157
Šiš struction becomes impossible, when the

(), hº third angle C 0 E is greater than the
*ālī; sum or less than the difference of the
tº ſº other two. For, in order that it may be
|| applied, it is necessary that B P be less
lism than B D. Now, if D F be drawn per
iſ ſº pendicular to O C, and produced to
milli meet the circle described from the centre
O with the radius O D in G, it may
lſº easily be shown that the angle FOG is
iñº,
|| || equal to the angle F OD (III. 3, and
&nd I. 7.); and, therefore, the angle C Q G
#| ||
to C O D, that is, to the sum of B O C
and B O D. And in like manner, if
(tº
* \si
df be drawn perpendicular to O C, and
|| ||
(I. 47.): in O D take any point D, and produced to meet the circumference of
make OE equal to OD; from the points the same circle in g, the angle C Qg will
D, E, draw D B, E C perpendicular be equal to the angle C Od, that is, (be
lamº (I. 45.) to AB, AC respectively, and let cause B O d, by III.3. and I, 7., is equal
ºft to B O D) to the difference of B O C
them be produced to meet one anothér in
ſing: P: from P(I. 44.) draw QP perpendicu and B O D. But if CO E be greater
is iſ lar to P B, and from the centre B, with than CO G, or less than COg, in either
10|| S& the radius BD, describe the circle DQ d case the perpendicular E C, which is
Xámi: cutting PQ in Q, and join B Q; the drawn to O C from a point E in the cir
ūgi, angle QB P shall measure the angle cumference of the circle D C g, will not
heq; of inclination contained by the two cut D d between the points D and d?
|}} planes AO B, B O C. and, therefore, B P will be greater than
kiſs Take OA equal to OD or OE, and join B D. The limits of possibility are,
AB, AC, AP. Then, because thetriangles therefore, those above stated. The in
OBA, OBD have the two sides OB, OA ferences from this are evidently the same
of the one equal to the two sides OB, OD with 19. and 19. Cor. -
of the other, each to each, and the in Cor. 1. The same construction, slightly
, ſº cluded angles equal to one another, B. A modified, may be used to find the third
ls tº is equal to B D (I. 4.), and the angle angle C O A. from the two A O B,
m|| O B A to the angle O B D, that is to a B O C, and their angle of inclination.
|º]} right angle. And, because O B is at For, if P B Q be made equal to the
} Whº right angles both to B A and BP, it is angle of inclination, and if B Q be taken
tent; at right angles to the plane A B P (3.), equal to B D, the point P will be de
he his and therefore the plane B O C, which termined by drawing QP perpendicu
ſº passes through QB, is at right angles to lar to B P; and thence the angle
* the same plane A B P (18), or, which is C O E or COA, by drawing PC per
sºlº the same thing, the plane A B P is at pendicular to OC, and producing it to
ſº right angles to the plane O B C. And meet the circumference D G g in E.
º in the same manner, it may be shown Cor. 2. (Euc. xi. A.) It follows, from the
º that the plane A C P is likewise at right solution of this problem, that if two solid
jº angles to the plane O B C. Therefore angles be contained each ofthem by three
ſº the straight line A P, which is the com plane angles, and if the planeangles which
|ti; mon section of the planes A BP, ACP, contain one of them be equal to those
wº is at right angles to the plane O B C which contain the other, each to each,
ſº (18. Cor. 2.), and the angle APB is a the dihedral angles of the one will like
gº right angle. And, because in the right wise be equal to the corresponding dihe
angled triangles QB P, AB P, the hypo dral angles of the other, each to each.
tenuse QB is equal to the hypotenuse Cor. 3. And in like manner it follows,
A B, and the side B P common to both from Cor. 1, that if two solid angles be
}| the triangles, the angle QBP is equal to contained each of them by three plane
the angle ABP (I. 13.). But ABP mea angles, and if two of the plane angles
ſº |
Sures the inclination of the planes AOB, which contain one of them be equal to
** B O C, because AB and BP are each of two of those which contain the other,
gº them perpendicular to the common sec each to each, and equally inclined to one
tion OB (17. Schol.) Therefore, the angle another, the third angle of the one shall
10% Q B P measures the same inclination. be equal to the third angle of the other,
| Therefore, &c. and its plane inclined at equal angles to
It will be found that the above con the adjacent planes.
158 GEOMETRY.
[IV. § 4.
PROP. 50. Prob. 15. to EA, (I. 4.) or A.B. Therefore, the
An edge A B of a regular polyhedron eight faces of the solid E A B C D F are
being given ; to construct the polyhe equilateral triangles. Again, each of
dron. the quadrilaterals EA F.C, E B F D is
It has been already seen (20. Cor.) that a square, because its diagonals are
the number of regular polyhedrons can equal, and (I. 22. Cor. 2.) bisect one
not exceed five, three of which (if there another at right angles: therefore, the
be so many) will be contained by equila planes of any two adjoining faces are in
teral triangles, one by squares, and one clined to one another at the same angle
by pentagons. In the present problem as the planes of any other two, (49.Cor. 2.)
it will appear that each of these five viz., the angle which is contained by
solids may be constructed. two angles of equilateral triangles form
1. Let the solid angle of the polyhe ing with the angle of a square a solid
dron in question be contained by three angle. Therefore, any two of the solid
angles of equilateral triangles. Upon angles, as E and F, may be made to co
the given edge A B, D incide, and are equal to one another.
describe (I. 42.) an N. Therefore, E A B C D F is a regular
equilateral triangle . \ solid; and, since it has eight faces, it
ABC : take the cen-
tre () (III. 26.) of
--- N - is a regular octahedron.
XC
3. Let the solid angle be contained by
the triangle A B C, 0
and from O draw A. E.
OD perpendicular to
the plane A B C (37.): in O D take the
point D such that A D may be equal
to A B, * and join D A, D B, D C.
Then, because O B and O C are each of
them equal to OA, D B and D C are
each of them equal to D A or A B (8.),
and, therefore, the faces D A B, D A C,
D B C of the solid D A B C are equi
lateral triangles: and because its solid
angles are each of them contained by
three angles of equilateral triangles,
they are equal to one another (49.Cor. 2.).
Therefore, D A B C is a regular solid;
and since it has four faces, it is a regu
lar tetrahedron.
2. Let the solid angle be contained five angles of equilateral triangles. Upon
by four angles of equilateral triangles. the given edge A B describe a regular
Upon the given edge E pentagon ABCDE,(III, 63. Cor): take
A B describe a ---. the centre O (III. 26.), and from 0
square A B C D draw O F perpendicular to the plane
(ſ. 52.); take the
centre O (III. 26.),
A B C D E (37): take O F such that
FA may be equal to AB (which may
i
and from O draw \ O be done by joining O A, and taking
o'E (37) perpendi- * I3 (I. 59.) O'F' such that the square of
cular to the plane OF may be equal to the difference of the
A B C D ; take OE I squares of O A, A B), and join FA, FB,
equal to OA, and, FC, FD, FE. Then, because the point
therefore, (I. 22. Cor. 2. and I. 36.) O is equally distant from the points A, B,
such that A E shall be equal to A B ; C, D, E, FB, FC, FD, FE are equal each
and produce EQ to F, so that QF may of them to FA or A B (8.), and there:
be equal to O E: join EA, E B, E C, fore FA B, FB C, FC D, FD E, FEA
ED, and FA, FB, FC, FID. Then, are equilateral triangles. Join BD; then
because the point O is equally distant because the triangles B F D, B C D have
from the points A, B, C, D, E B, E C, the three sides of the one equal to the
E D are each of them equal to E A or three sides of the other, each to each,
A B (8.): and for the like reason FB, the angle B F D is equal to the angle
FC, FD are each of them equal to FA; B C D (I. 7.), that is, to the angle of a
that is, because O F is equal to OE, regular pentagon; and the same is evi
–- dently true of the plane angle formed by
* That is, take O Dº equal to A B*-A O’ (I. 59.) any two of the principal edges of the
pyramid FA B C DE, which are not pentagon draw (37) a perpendicular PN’
adjacent to one another. Complete and take PN such (I. 59.) that N G may
the regular pentagon BFD GH, and be equal to G K, and join N G, NK,
join CG, CH. Then, because the point N L, NM, N H : then N G K, N. KL,
C is equally distant from the three NL M, N M H, N H G are equilateral
points B, F, D, it lies in that perpendi triangles. Therefore all the faces of
cular to the plane B FD, which passes the solid FN are equilateral triangles.
through the centre of the circle circum And it is evident that any two adjoining
scribing the triangle B F D (37. Cor.), faces on the same side of the plane
that is, through the centre of the pen GKLMH are inclined to one another at
tagon B F D G H ; therefore CG, CH thesame angle as any other two (49. Cor.
are each of them equal to C B (8.) or 2.), viz., the angle which is contained by
AB, and C D G, CGH, C H B are equi two angles of equilateral triangles form
lateral triangles. Join CE, and let it cut ing a solid angle with the angle of a pen
BD in the point Z. Then, because the tagon. Also, that any two upon opposite
diagonal BD is common to the two pen sides of that plane, as A LM, NL M, are
tagons A B C D E, H B F D G, and that inclined to one another at the same an
another diagonal C E of the former cuts gle, may be shown by comparing it with
it in Z, it may easily be shown that the the angle contained by any two G D C,
diagonal FG of the latter cuts it in the FD C, upon opposite sides of the plane
same point Z.” Therefore EF, FC, and A B C D E: for, since a solid angle is
CG lie in one plane; and because the an formed at C by the three plane angles
gles EFC, FCG, as shown in the case of B C D, B C F, D C F, of which the first
the pyramid first constructed, are equal is an angle of a regular pentagon, and
to the angles of a regular pentagon, let the two others angles of equilateral tri
the regular pentagon EF C G K be com angles, and in the same manner a solid
pleted, and join DK. Then, as above, it angle at L by the three plane angles
may be shown that DK is equal to DE R. I. M., K L N, M I, N, of which the first
or AB, and that DEK, DKG are equila is an angle of a regular pentagon, and
teral triangles. Complete in like manner the two others angles of equilateral tri
the pentagon AFD KL, and join L E ; angles, the dihedral angle, contained at
and in like manner the pentagon B FE the edge CD by the planes BCD, F C D,
LM, and join MA : then, as before, E L is equal to the dihedral angle contained
is equal to EA or AB, and EAL, E L K at the edge L M by the planes K LM,
are equilateral triangles; and AM is N LM (49. Cor. 2.): and again, since
equal to AB, and A B M, A M L are a solid angle is formed at C by the three
equilateral triangles; and because FA, plane angles B C D, B C G, D C G, of
A M, FC, C H may be shown in the which the two first are angles of regular
same way as above to be in one plane, pentagons, and the other an angle of an
and that they make with one another equilateral triangle, and in the same
angles of a regular pentagon, the line manner a solid angle at L by the three
MH will complete the regular pentagon angles K LM, KLA, MLA, of which
FA M H C, and B M H will be an equi the two first are angles of regular penta
lateral triangle. gons, and the other an angle of an equi
Again, because G K is parallel to the lateral triangle, the dihedral angle con
diagonal CE of the pentagon F C G KE, tained at the edge C D by the planes
and K L to the diagonal D A of the pen B C D, G CD, is equal to the dihedral
tagon FDKLA, and so on, the lines GK, angle contained at the edge LM by the
KL, LM, M H., H G lie all in the same planes K LM, A LM (49. Cor. 2.) ;
plane parallel to the plane A B C D E therefore, the whole dihedral angle con
(15.); and the angle contained by every tained at the edge CD by the planes
adjacent two is equal to the angle of a RC D, G C D, is equal to the whole di
pentagon, because K G H is equal to hedral angle contained at the edge LM
E Z B (15.), that is, to E A B (I.22), and by the planes N. L. M., A LM (I. ax. 2.).
so on. Therefore G. K. LM H is a regu herefore, all the plane and likewise all
lar pentagon. From the centre P of this the dihedral angles of the solid FN are
.* Because the diagonals of a regular pentagon equal to one another; and, conse
divide one another always in the same (viz. the me quently, any two of its solid angles, as
dial) ratio. In fact, the diagonals BD, EC of the at A and K, may be made to coincide,
pentagon ABCDE being parallel to the sides AE, AB
respectively (III. 26. III. 12. Cor. 1. and III. 18.), it and are equal to one another. There
follows (I.22.) that EZ is equal to AB or DC; and fore, FN is a regular solid (def. 9...);
the triangles 12CD, DCZ § 6.) being isosceles and
tºo is to CD (or EZ) as CD (or EZ) to CZ and, since it has twenty faces (viz. five,
forming the pyramid which has the ver
tex F and base A B C D ; five more, B C H N G, &c.: them, since the angles
forming the pyramid which has the ver B G M, B G N are angles of pentagons,
tex N and the base G K LM. H. : and and so inclined, that with a third angle
ten more between the two bases;) it is of a pentagon they may form a solid
a regular icosahedron. angle, the third angle M G N is an angle
4. Let the solid angle be contained of a pentagon; and for the like reason
by three angles of squares, that is, by the third angles at H, K, L, F are like
three right angles. Upon the given wise angles of pentagons. Now, it is
edge A B describe a evident from the figure thus far con
square ABCD: from structed, that, if at adjacent angles
A draw A.E at right F-F FAB, GBA of a pentagon, other angles
angles to the plane E FA E, G B C of pentagons be placed
A B C D (37.), and at the inclination I, the edges A E, A B,
therefore at right an B C will lie in one plane.* If, there
gles both to A B and D | C
fore, the pentagon GM RSN be com
AD; take A E equal V pleted, not only will HNS be an angle
to AB, and complete A. B
of a pentagon, for the reason before
the parallelopiped stated, but, for the reason justmentioned,
EC. Then it is evident that the six O H, HN, N S will lie in one plane,
faces of the parallelopiped EC are because at the adjacent angles C H N,
squares (I. def. 20, and IV. 22.); and G NH, other angles CHO, GNS of
because each of its solid angles is con pentagons are placed at the inclination
tained by three right angles, any two of I: and for the like reasons FM R is
them may be made to coincide, and are an angle of a pentagon, and QF, FM, MR
equal to one another. Therefore E C lie in one plane. In like manner, if the
is a regular solid, and since it has six pentagon H N STO be completed, PK,
faces, is a regular heasahedron. This KO, OT will be in one plane; and if
figure is the same as the cube (def. 13.). KOTU Plie completed, QL, LP, PU
5. Let the solid angle be contained will lie in one plane; and if LP UV Q
by three angles of pentagons. Upon be completed, MF, FQ, Q V will lie in
the given edge A B describe a pentagon one plane, viz., the plane Q FM, or
A B C D E:find the angle, I, at which Q FMR, and therefore M R being joined
two angles of regular pentagons must will complete the pentagon FQWR M.
be mutually inclined, in order that with Lastly, also, by the same rule, the lines
a third angle, which is likewise an angle RS, ST, TU, UV, VR lie in one plane,
of a regular pentagon, they may contain and make with one another angles of
a solid angle (49.); and through the pentagons, and therefore RSTUV is a
sides A B, BC, &c. of the pentagon, pentagon completing the solid A.T. And
already described, draw planes, each because AT has all its faces regular
making with it that angle of inclination, pentagons, and all its solid angles
and intersecting one another in the lines (49. Cor. 2.) equal (for each of them is
AF, BG, CH, DK, FL: then the angles contained by three angles of pentagons),
it is a regular solid; and, since the faces
are twelve in number, it is a regular
dodecahedron. -
And, in every case the regular solid

is described with the given edge A.B.
Therefore, &c.
As it is possible that the dotted or
occult lines, which have been necessarily
introduced in the foregoing construc
tions, may prevent the reader's acquiring
from them a clear notion of the solids
intended, we have here added shaded
representations of the five regular solids,
each in two different positions, in which
only so much of the convex surface is
exhibited as would present itself to the
eye if they were opaque bodies.
at the points A,B,C,D,E, will all of them * The same will evidently be the case if FAB,
GBA are any other equal angles, F A E, GBC any
be angles of regular pentagons; Com other two likewise equal to one another, and the
plete the regular pentagons A B G M F, common inclination I any whatever,
- 7, *,
ſº
W. IV. § 4.] GEOMETRY. -
- 1 * *º
-
tº erpendicular
j angle to
at the
A BfaceX37);
be bi º
letºfićSp a. ~2.
ligº,
dam.
A ſi
plane cutting OX in X; X shal
point in question. º 4
tºº.”j-_*
2. *
mi. Take O' the centre of the adjoining-----

{{\| face, and Y the middle point of AB,
** and join O Y, O'Y, X O', XY. Then,
Tiš because OY is perpendicular to A B
#| || (III. 3.) XY is likewise perpendicular
ºft to A B (4.); also O'Y is perpendicular |
to the same A B: therefore OY, XY
#15 and O' Y lie in one plane (3. Cor. 1.). |
: ſº And because the plane XY A bisects |
ÉA} the dihedral angle O Y A. O', the angle
tº XY O is equal to the angle XY O' (17.):
\\
also Y O is equal to Y O'; therefore
mº XO' is equal to XO (I.4.) and the angle
lº XO/Y to the angle X OY, that is, to
º: a right angle. But the plane X O'Y is
| || perpendicular to the face which has the
s(#) centre O' (18.), because it is perpendi
G\\ cular to the line A B, through which
dili. that face passes. Therefore (18.) X O'
\[]; is perpendicular to the face which has
the centre O'. Now, because X lies in
the perpendicular passing through the
centre O, it may easily be shown (4, and
I. 4.) that the planes X B C, XC D,
&c. make dihedral angles with the
plane OA B, equal each to the dihedral
wili: angle O YAX; also the dihedral angles
F|| •of the solid are equal to one another;
gº therefore those planes bisect the dihedral
Wº angles of the solid at B C, CD, &c.
#ff Hence, as above, it may be shown, that
| º the straight lines drawn from X to the
centres of each of the adjoining faces
are perpendicular to those faces, and
equal each to XO. And because the
dihedral angles at A B, B C, &c. are
bisected by planes meeting the perpen
Cor. 1. Regular solids of the same diculars from the centres of those faces
lºgº name are similar (def. 10.). in X, the same may be said of the faces
lº adjoining to them, and so on. There
Cor; 2. Any regular solid being given, fore
gº a point may be found within it, which is the straight lines drawn from X to
the common centre of two spheres, one the centres of all the faces are perpen
y: inscribed in the solid, and touching all dicular to them respectively, and equal
343 its faces, the other circumscribed about each to XO. And hence again, be
it, and passing through all its solid cause the centres of the faces are equi
º angles. distant from their several angles, the
sº Take O the centre of any face having point X is likewise equidistant from the
º the edge AB for a side, and draw OX several angles of the solid (8.). There
fore X is the common centre of two
spheres, one inscribed, and the other
circumscribed, as before said. The
point X is called the centre of the
solid.
Cor. 3. Each of the regular solids of
six, eight, twelve, and twenty faces has
for every face a face opposite and pa
rallel to it, and the opposite edges of
M
162. GEOMETRY. [IV. § 4.
those faces likewise parallel; and the This mutual relation of the regular
straight line which joins two opposite solids is very striking. We may observe
angles passes through the centre of the that if lines are drawn from the centre of
solid. That the opposite faces and edges the circumscribed solid to its different
are parallel, is evi angular points, these lines will be per
dent from the con- Aſ pendicular respectively to the faces of
struction of the so- '0E-2 the inscribed solid: hence, if we cleave
lid; and hence it is or cut away the solid angles of the
evident (11. and 7.) X circumscribed figure by planes perpen
that the lines XO, dicular to these lines; and if we con
X O' drawn to their 2–IOL” tinue the process until we arrive at the
centres from the cen-Aº centres of the several faces, we shall
tre of the solid, are in obtain the regular solid which is in
one and the same straight line: there scribed, and which forms as it were the
nucleus of the other. There are two
fore, again, because the opposite edges
are parallel, it may easily be shown that stages of this process, which geometers
the lines XA, XA' which are drawn have marked by bestowing names upon
from the centre to the opposite angles the figures which the derived solids are
A., A', lie in the same straight line made to assume on arriving at them.
(15. and I. 4.) The first is when the solid angles are so
far cut away that the remaining por
Scholium. tions of the faces are regular polygons,
which have twice as many sides as the
Upon examining the number of the original faces. The derived solids at
solid angles in each of these figures, it this stage are called the ea-tetrahedrºn,
will appear, that the tetrahedron has four ex-cube, ex-octahedron, ex-dodecahe
solid angles, which is also the number dron, and ea-icosahedron. They are
of its faces; the cube eight, which is obtained from the regular solids by in
the number of faces of the octahedron; scribinghaving
in each of as
themany
facessides
a regular
the octahedron six, which is the number figure, twice as the
of faces of the cube; the dodecahedron face, and then cutting away the small
twenty, which is the number of faces of pyramids which have for their vertices
the icosahedron; and the icosahedron the several solid angles of the regular
twelve, which is the number of faces of solid. Thus, in the face of a regular
the dodecahedron. Hence it is easily tetrahedron a hexagon may be inscribed
inferred, that if the centres of the faces by inscribing a circle in theface.joining
of a regular solid be taken, they will be the centre with the angles of the face, and
the vertices of another regular solid in drawing tangents to the circle at the
scribed in the first. In this manner a points where the circumference is cut by
tetrahedron may be inscribed in a te the joining lines: and in a similar man
trahedron; an octahedron in a cube, ner an octagon may be inscribed in a
and a cube in an octahedron; an icosa square, and a decagon in a pentagon.
hedron in a dodecahedron, and a dode The number and character of the faces
cahedron in an icosahedron.* of any of these derived solids may be
readily obtained from the number and
character of the faces and solid angles
• With the aid of this relation it will be found, of the regular solid from which it is de
also, that a regular solid being given, any one of the
regular solids which have a less number.9f faces, rived. Thus the faces of the ex-cube are
may be inscribed in it by taking for the vertices cer six octagons and eight equilateral tri
tailſ of the vertices of the former, or else of the cen
tres of its faces, or of the middle points of its edges. angles.
Thus, in the cube AF, the vertices B, D, E, F are
the vertices also of an inscribed tetrahedron.
In the octahedron E F, the centres of the several
faces are the vertices of an inscribed cube; and the &c., the inscribed solid H.G.AD PQRT is a cube:
centres of the faces E A B, E D C, FAD, FBC the hence, also, the vertices A, H, P, R are the vertices
..vertices of an inscribed tetrahedron. of an inscribed tetrahedron; and the middle points
In the dodecahedron AT, the vertices H, G, A, D, of BC, UV, E. L., S N, KO, MF, the vertices of an
P, Q, R, T, are the vertices of an inscribed cube; for inscribed octahedron.
AD and GH being equal, and also, because they are In the icosahedron AG, the centres of the several
parallel to BC, parallel to one another (6), the figure faces are the vertices of an inscribed dodecahedron;
ADHG is a parallelogram (I. 21.); but the side AD the centres of the faces FBA, ALM, MN.H., HBC,
is equal to the side DH, and the diagonal AH ma CGD, DFE, ELK, KGN, the vertices of an inscribed
be shown to be equal to the diagonal D G; therefore cube; the centres of the faces F BA, MNH, C G D,
A D H G is a rhombus, which has its two diagonals ELK, the vertices of an inscribed tetrahedron; and
equal to one another, thºſ is, a square; and, since the middle points of the edges BC, KL, EF, HN,
the same may be shown of the other figures Ai, P. Q, A M, DG, the vertices of an inscribed octahedron,
IV. § 4.] GEOMETRY. - 163
The second stage occurs when, the

solid angles being still further cut away,
the planes of cleavage meet at the mid
dle points of the edges, thus reducing
the original faces to regular polygons
which have the same number of sides
with the faces, and are inscribed in them
by joining the middle points of the edges.
In fact, if the edges of a regular solid be
bisected, and the points of bisection
joined, there will be inscribed in each of
its faces a figure similar to that face,
that is, an equilateral triangle, if the face
Ç
be an equilateral triangle; a square, if a
Square; and a pentagon, if a pentagon.
Here the forms of the derived solids
apprise us at once of the mutual rela
tions of their originals; the two derived
from the cube and octahedron being
precisely similar, as are likewise those
derived from the dodecahedron and ico
sahedron; from which circumstance
the new figures with which we are
thus presented have received the names
of the cuboctahedron and the icosado
decahedron. From the tetrahedron PROP. 51. Prob. 16.
treated in this manner we obtain the
octahedron. To find the inclination of two adjoin
Žng planes of a given regular solid.
1... If the given solid be a regular
tetrahedron, the required inclination is
that of two angles of equilateral trian
gles, which, together with a third, form
a solid angle, and therefore may be
found by the construction: Fig.
• - 3 - I1 -
given in Prop.
Or thus: 49. the right-
describe T.
)
angled triangle A CB, hav- -
ing the hypotenuse. A B

equal to three times the side
A C ; and the angle BAC
will be the angle of inclina
tion required. A C
2. If the solid be a cube, the angle
of inclination will be a right angle (17.
Cor.) -
3. If an octahedron, the required

inclination is that of two angles of equi
lateral triangles, which, together with
the angle of a square, form a solid angle,
and may be found as in Prop. 49. -
Or thus: describe the Fig. 2,

right-angled triangle ACB, 3. Tº;
having its two sides AC,
CB equal, respectively, to
the side and diagonal of a
square, and twice the angle
B. A C will be the angle of A. C
Finally, the cleavage being continued inclimation required.

4. If a dodecahedron, the required
-
till we arrive at the centres of the faces, inclination is that of tº: * of re

we obtain the inscribed regular solids,
164 - GEOMETRY. [IV. § 4
gular pentagons which, together with XF and XG will be perpendicular to
a third angle of a pentagon, form a two adjoining planes of the inscribed
solid angle, and therefore may be found dodecahedron, and therefore, A X G
as in Prop. 49. Fig. 3 being a straightline (50.00r,3), theangle
Ör thus: describe the * i. AXF will measure the inclination of those
right-angled triangle A C B, - planes (17. Schol. 4.) : now because XF
having its sides A C, CB is equal to XA or XG (50. Cor. 2.),
to one another in the medial the angle AFG is a right angle (I, 19.
ratio, and A C the lesser of Cor. 4.), and the angle AXF is double
the two; and twice the angle of the angle A G F (I. 6. and I. 19.);
BAC will be the angle re- Y. C also, FG is the diagonal of a regular
quired. pentagon, whose side is equal to AF, and
5. If an icosahedron, the required in therefore FG is to AF in the medial
climation is that of two angles of equila ratio (see note p. 159). Hence the con
teral triangles, which, together with the struction given for the inclination of the
angle of a regular pentagon, form a solid faces of a dodecahedron.
angle, and therefore may be found as in And that given for the icosahedron
Prop. 49. Fig. º is similarly derived, from considering it
as inscribed in a dodecahedron. For
Or thus: describe the right if X be taken, the centre of the dode
angled triangle A CB, having cahedron LN (see the figure of Prop.
its sides A C, C B to one an
other in a ratio which is the 50.), XN, and XH will be perpendi
cular to two adjoining planes of the
duplicate of the medial ratio ; inscribed icosahedron, and therefore,
and twice the angle BAC will LXN being a straight line (50. Cor. 3.)
be the angle required, A. C
the angle IXH will measure the incli
It will be sufficient to notice briefly nation of those planes (17. Schol. 4):
the steps which lead to the foregoing now, if I, K, KH, LH, be joined, the
constructions. angle L KH will be equal to the angle
With regard to the tetrahedron; if a E D C of a pentagon (15.), because I, K
perpendicular be drawn from the centre and KH are parallel to ED and DC
of an equilateral triangle to one of the respectively; therefore, the triangle
sides, such perpendicular will be a L KH is similar to KOH (II, 32.),
third of the whole perpendicular which and O H is to H K as H K to L H ;
is drawn to the same side from the angle and since O H is to HK in the medial
opposite to it (see the method of in ratio, OH or H N is to LH in a ratio
scribing an equilateral triangle in a which is the duplicate of that ratio
circle at III. 63.). Now, in the tetrahe (II, def. 11.): and, because XH is equal
dron the faces are equilateral triangles, to XL or XN, the angle L H N is a
and the line which joins any of its solid right angle (I. 19. Cor. 4.), and LXH
angles with the centre of the opposite is equal to twice L NH (I.6, and I. 19.);
face is perpendicular to that face (37. that is, the angle of inclination is equal
Cor.); whence, by the aid of Prop. 4., to stwice the greater acute angle of a
the first construction. right-angled triangle, whose sides are
In the octahedron, the square which to one another in a ratio which is the
divides the figure (see the construction duplicate of the medial ratio.
in Prop. 50) bisects the angles made by Therefore, &c.
the adjoining faces upon either side ofit:
and the line which joins the centre of this PROP, 52. Prob. 17.
square with either of the two solid an
gles above and below it, is equal to half The edge of any regular solid being
its diagonal, while the perpendicular given, to jind the radii of the inscribed
drawn from the centre of the square to and circumscribed spheres.
any of its sides is equal to half the side; Find AB and AC, the D
whence the construction in this case. radii of the circles in
The cases of the dodecahedron and scribing and circum
icosahedron admit of an easy demon scribing a face of the
stration by help of the mutual rela given solid (III. 26.);
tion of the dodecahedron and icosahe from Adraw AD perpen- -º-º-º-
dron mentioned in the last Scholium. dicular to AB or AC; at A #TC

For, if X be the centre of the icosahe the point B make the angle ABD equal
dron AG (see the figure of Prop. 50), to half the angle which measures the in
| IV. §4.] GEOMETRY. 165
!) clination of two adjoining faces (51); the edges of the cube, together with the
ić let B D meet AD in D, and join CD. square of the diagonal of one of the
\; Then it is evident, from the construction faces: hence, therefore, the constructions
ſ: of 50. Cor. 2, that D A is the radius for the tetrahedron and cube.
§ In the octahedron, the line which
of the inscribed sphere, and D C that
:\; of the circumscribed sphere. joins two opposite angles is at once the
º, Or the radius D C of the circum diameter of the circumscribed sphere,
| scribed sphere may be determined in and also the diagonal of a square which
º the several cases, by the following con has for its four sides four of the edges of
| structions; and then D A from the tri the octahedron; hence the construction
gº angle DAC, described with the hypo in this case.
Fi tenuse D C and side A. C. In the dodecahedron (see the figure
º 1. If the given solid be a tetrahedron, of p. 160) the triangle L H N is right
|. describe the right-angled triangle ACB angled at H, and the sides LH, HN
(i. (see 51. fig. 2.), having the sides AC, have to one another a ratio which is the
C B, equal respectively to the side and duplicate of the medial ratio, as was
ºf: diagonal of a square; and the diame shown in the last problem: also LN is
aſ: ter of the circumscribed sphere will be the diameterofthe circumscribed sphere;
l, | to the edge of the tetrahedron as AB therefore, the rule in this case is mani
º to B C. fest.
f º 2. If a cube, the diameter of the cir And, lastly, in the icosahedron (see the
|E|. cumscribed sphere will be to the edge of figure of p. 158) the triangle AFG is
º the cube as A B to A C in the above right-angled at F, and the sides GF, FA
tº triangle (51, fig. 2.); and that of the are to one another in the medial ratio,
Cº. inscribed sphere will be equal to the as was shown in the last problem; also
edge. A G is the diameter of the circumscribed
**
|| || 3. If an octahedron, the diameter of sphere: whence the construction in this
º ſº the circumscribed sphere will be to the Ca,Se. *. -
edge as the diagonal of a square to its Therefore, &c.

gº side.
sis Cor. Every regular solid may be di
d I. 4. If a dodecahedron, describe the vided into pyramids, having for their
ſº right-angled triangle ACB (see 51. bases the several faces of the solid, and
|} fig. 4.), having its sides AC, CB to one for their common vertex the centre of the
|| another in a ratio which is the duplicate solid; and the altitude of each of these
sº of the medial ratio; and the diameter of pyramids will be the same, viz. the ra
iſ!' the circumscribed sphere will be to the dius of the inscribed sphere. By help
edge as the hypotenuse A B to the lesser of this proposition, therefore, we may
side A C. find the solid content of any given regu
5. If an icosahedron, describe the lar solid; for it will be one-third of
right-angled triangle ACB (see 51, fig. the product of the above radius and
3.), having its sides A. C., C B in the the convex surface of the solid (32.
medial ratio; and the diameter of the Cor. 1.).
circumscribed sphere will be to the edge Scholium.
as the hypotenuse A B to the lesser side The regular solids have ceased to
A C.
occupy that prominent place in science
We need not enter into the details of which was assigned to them for so lon
these constructions: it will be sufficient, a period, from the time of Euclid to that
as in the preceding problem, to point of Keplerº. A volume, replete with the
out the considerations from which they most striking results, might indeed be
are derived respectively. -
written upon the subject; but as these
ſº And first, a tetrahedron may be in figures, with the exception of the cube,
ſº scribed in a cube, which shall have for have little or no concern with anything
its four angles four of the angles of the besides themselves, such a work would
cube, and for its four edges the diago be of value to the curious, only. It is
mals of four faces of the cube (see note, not surprising, perhaps, if we regard
p. 162); and the sphere which is cir: Euclid as the discoverer of the many
cumscribed about such tetrahedron will elegant relations, which characterize
be also circumscribed about the cube; them in the 13th, 14th, and 15th Books
but in a cube, the line which joins tWO of the Elements ºf, that he should have
opposite angles is the diameter of the
circumscribed sphere, and the square of *# The
See the Life of Galileo, page 27.
two last books are, however, with some pro
º this line is equal to the square of one of bability, ascribed to Apollonius.
§
166 GEOMETRY. [W. § 1,
composed his immortal treatise, as is partly curved; the plane portions being
said to have been the case, with the sole two equal and parallel circles, and the
object of demonstrating these relations; curved portion such, that any point being
it is not, perhaps, too much to say that taken in the circumference of either
at that epoch, when the properties of circle, the straight line which is drawn
numbers and geometrical figures were through it parallel to the line joining
investigated for their own sake, ab- their centres lies wholly in the sur
stractedly and without reference, as in face.
the present day, to the body of mixed Such a surface may be conceived to
sciences dependant upon them, the five be generated by a straight
regular solids were even worthy of such line Aa, which is carried
a distinction. The fate of this portion round the circumference
of his work (so rarely now perused) is, of a given circle ABD,
however, a striking illustration of the so as to be always pa
lasting and transcendant mature of what rallel and equal to a given
is really (though humbly) useful above straight line C c at the D
the merely curious and surprising. So centre.
obscure is the rank now assigned to For it is easy to perceive that the up
these once interesting and all-important per extremity of such a line will always
figures, that it may be considered even lie in the circumference of a second
trifling, in the present treatise, to have circle a ba, which is of the same dimen
established their construction, &c. at a sions with the given circle, and in a
greater length than usual. We must plane parallel to it (IV. 13. Cor. 2.).
refer the reader, by way of apology, to The curved surface of a cylinder is
the properties above alluded to, a few of called also the convea: surface; the cir
which, capable of being verified without cles are called bases ; and the straight
difficulty with the assistance which we line which joins their centres is called
have afforded, are here subjoined. the avis of the cylinder.
In the tetrahedron, the radius of the 2. A cylinder is said to be right or
circumscribed sphere is equal, to three oblique, according as the axis is per
times the radius of the inscribed sphere:
in the cube (as we have seen) the two
radii are to one another in the subdu- -
plicate of this ratio.

In the cube, the radii of the inscribed
and circumscribed spheres have to one
andther the same ratio as in the octahe- CD
dron: and the same is true of the dode- - - --
cahedron and icosahedron. pendicular to the bases, or inclined to

In the icosahedron, the distance of the them. C is a right, and C' an oblique
regular pentagon, which passes through “ylindº. .
five of the solid angles, from the centre of 3. Similar Cylinders are those whose
the solid, is equal to half the radius of the axes are perpendicular, or equally in
circle circumscribed about the pentagon. clined, to their respective basés, and in
These few may serve as a sample
of the rest, which are occupied with the
mutual inscription and circumscription
of these figures, and the proportions of
their surfaces and contents when in
scribed in one and the same sphere.
BOOK W. the same ratio to the radii of those
bases.
§ 1. Surfaces and contents of the Right .4. A coné is a solid figure, the sur
Cylinder and Right Cone-52. Sir face of which is partly plane, and partly
face and content of the Sphere.—S 3. curved ; the plane portion being a
Surfaces and contents of certain por. Gircle, and the curved portion such, that
tions of the Sphere. ; any º, be º in the circum
SECTION I.-Of the Right C//;
and Right #. yºnder erence, of the circle,
whi. joins it with the straight
a certain line
point with
Def. 1. . A cy/ºlder, is a solid figure, #. !º of the circle, lies wholly in
the surface of which is partly plane and “A. surface of this description
V. § 1.] GEOMETRY. 167
may be conceived to be an a cone, when its vertex is the same

generated by a straight with that of the come, and its base is in
line V A, which is car scribed in the base of the come : and in
ried round the circum like manner a pyramid is said to be
ference of a given circle circumscribed about a cone, when its ver
A B D, so as to pass tex is the same with that of the cone,
always through a given and its base circumscribed about the
point V without the base of the come.
plane of the circle.
The curved surface of a cone is called
also the convea surface: ... the point
through which the straight line always
passes is called the vertex or summit;
the circle is called the base; and the line
which is drawn from the vertex to the
centre of the base, the avis of the cone, The right cylinder, right cone, and
5. A come is said sphere, are sometimes styled, by way of
to be right or ob pre-eminence, the three round bodies.
lique, according They are also termed solids of revolu
as the axis is per tion, because each of them may be con
pendicular to the ceived to be generated by the revolution
base, or inclined of a plane figure about a fixed straight
to it. C is a right, line taken in its plane. Thus we have seen
and Cº an oblique cone. (IV, def. 21.) that a sphere is generated
The slant side of a right come is a by the revolution of a semicircle about
straight line which is drawn from the its diameter. If a right angle triangle
vertex to any point in the circumference W C A revolve about V
of the base. one of the sides con- \
6. Similar Cones \
taining the right an-
are those whose
gle, as VC, that side º,
axes are perpendi will be the axis of a
cular, or equally right cone, of which
inclined to their the other side A C
respective bases, will describe the base
and in the same ratio to the radii of (IV. 3. Cor. 2.) and
those bases, the hypotemuse W A
7. If a come be divided Á the convex surface.
into two parts by a plane # \ And if a rectangle Ac
tº
parallel to its base, the # i revolve about one of
|: part next the base is its sides C c, that side
called a frustum of a will be the axis of a
cone, or sometimes a right cylinder, of which the two adjoin
* truncated cone. ing sides will describe the two bases
º The aris of a frustum is that part of (IV. 3. Cor. 2.), and the side opposite,
the axis of the whole cone, which is in Aa, the convex surface.
tercepted between the cutting plane and Before we can proceed to consider the
the base of the cone. convex surfaces of the cone and cylin
8. A prism is said to be inscribed in der, it will be necessary to establish the
a cylinder, when its bases are inscribed following lemmas concerning convex
in the bases of the cylinder; and in surfaces in general.
like manner a prism is said to be cir Lemma 1.
cumscribed about a cylinder, when its
bases are circumscribed about the bases A plane surface OA. B.C.D, is less
of the cylinder. than any other surface P A B CD, ter
minated by the same contour A B C D.
s:-->
For, in wº *
rection we extend the D C
plane BPD, to cut the

plane surface in the
Øº
=l straight line B D, and A I3
the other surface in
9. A pyramid is said to be inscribed the curved or bent line BPD, the
168 GEOMETRY. [W. § 1,
dimension BD of the plane is less than
the dimension B PD of the other sur
The first part of the proposition is
manifest: we have only, therefore, to
face (I. 10. Scholium). But if the plane demonstrate that which relates to the
surface were equal to or greater than surfaces.
the other, the dimension of the plane . Let A a be the axis of a
surface could not be, in every direction, right cylinder, and B C D,
less than the dimension of the other. bc d its two bases; and,
Therefore, the plane surface OA B CD first, let E F, efbe the bases
is neither equal to nor greater than the of any prism inscribed in the
surface P A B C D ; that is, it is less cylinder: the convex surface
than the surface P A B CD. ofthecylindershall begreater
Therefore, &c. than the convex surface of
Lemma 2.
the inscribed prism.
For, if not, it must either
If a convex surface A B is enveloped be less than the latter surface
on all sides by another surface M N ; or equal to it. First, let it
whether they have any points, lines, or be supposed less, viz. by a surface ºf
planes in common, or have no point at let Q bethan
greater anythemultiple of P,
difference whichthe
between is
an in common, the enveloped surface
will always beless than the surface which two circles BCD, b c d taken together,
envelops
For it isit.the nature of C M
and ſhe two polygons EF, eſtake.
together: take A a the same multiple of
a convex surface that complete the
A a that Q is of P, and
there is no point of it cylinder which has the axis Ala' and the
through which a plane
cannot be drawn touch-
O base BCI), and the prism ef'EF,
\º D which is inscribed in it upon the base
ing, or at least not cut #'ſ." Then, by making the cylinder
ting, the surface. There which has the axis A a coincide sucºs
foº, if such a surface A B be enveloped sively with the parts of the larger cylin
by any other MN, and if Abe any point der, it may be shown that the cº,
if the former which is not also in the surface of the latter is the same multiple
latter surface, a plane CD may be drawn of the convex surface of the former that
through A, cutting the surface M. N, and A aſ is of Aa, or Q of P; and it is ºl.
not cutting the surface A. B. And be dent that the convex surface of the
cause the plane CD is less than the sºr prism inscribed in it is the same mul
face CMI) by the preceding lemma; the tiple of the convex surface of the prism
inscribed in the former cylinder: there
whole surface CND is less than the whole fore,
MN (I. ax.6.) Therefore, of all the sur: because the convex surface of the
faces which envelop the space A B, and lesser cylinder together with P is equal to
are in any part exterior to the surface the convex surface of its inscribedpºism,
AB, there is none than which a less the convex surface of the larger cylinder
cannot be found enveloping the same together with Q is likewise equal to the
space A. B. But of the surfaces enve convex surface of its inscribed prism.
löping this space, there must be some But the difference between the two Cir
(one or more) less than any of the others; cles BCD, 5c d taken together and the
for none of them can be less than of two polygons EF, eftaken together (ºr,
some certain magnitude. Therefore, which is the same thing, between the
since one or more of the surfaces must two circles B CD, by c'd taken together
be less than any of the others, and and the two polygons EF, ef' taken
since a less may be found than any together) is less than Q. Therefore, the
which is in any part exterior to the sur convex surface of the larger cylinder
face AB, such least surface is none other together with this difference is less than
than the surface A. B. Therefore, the the convex surface of its inscribed prism;
surface AB is less than the surface M.N. which is impossible (Lem.
2.), because
Therefore, &c. the convex surface of the cylinder, toge
PROP. 1.
ther with this difference and with the
two polygons EF, e' f", envelops the
A right cylinder is greater than any
£nscribed prism, and less than any cir convex surface of the prism, together
cumscribed prism : also the conver sur with the same two polygons EF, ef'.
face of the cylinder is greater than the Therefore, the convex surface of the
conver surface ºf any inscribed prism cylinder which has the axis A a is not
and less than the conver surface of any less than the convex surface of the in
scribed prism.
circumscribed prism.
W. § 1.] GEOMETRY. 169
Neither can the convex surface of the C D – C E shall be to C E in a ratio less

cylinder be equal to the convex surface than any assigned, and, therefore, in ara
of the inscribed prism. For, if this be tio less than that of P to Q. Let ABFGH
supposed, then, because a polygon may be such a polygon, and C E its apo
be inscribed in the circle B C D, which them. Join CA, C B, &c., and let the
shall have a greater perimeter than the planes AC c, B C c, &c. cut the upper
polygon EF, a prism may be inscribed base in the radii ca, c b, &c., and join
A a, B b, &c., a b, b.f, &c.; then (def. 8.)
in the cylinder which shall have (IV. 29.
Scholium) a greater convex surface thanit is evident that the polygons AB F
GH, a bfgh are the bases, and the
the prism upon the base EF, that is, than
the cylinder has. But this is impos straight lines Aa, B b, &c., the princi
pal edges of a prism inscribed in the
sible, as has been already demonstrated.
Therefore, the convex surface of the given cylinder. Again, let the polygon
cylinder must be greater than the con RL MNO, similar to A B FG H, be
vex surface of the in circumscribed about the circle A B D,
scribed prism. so that one of its sides, KL, may touch
And by a similar course the circle in D (III. 27. Cor. 2.): let the
of reasoning applied to plane D C c cut the circle a b d in the
the adjoined figure, it may radius ca, and let a similar polygon
be demonstrated that the k! m no be circumscribed about this
convex surface of a cylin circle, so that the side k l may touch it
der is less than the con in d, and join Kk, Ll, &c.; then (def. 8.)
vex surface of any cir it is evident that KL M N O, k l m no
cumscribed prism. are the bases, and the straight lines KK,
Therefore, &c. Ll, &c. the principal edges of a prism
circumscribed about the given cylinder.
- PROp. 2. Now, the convex surfaces of these
Any right cylinder being given, two prisms, inscribed and circumscribed,
prisms may be the one inscribed in it, are the sums of their rectangular faces.
and the other circumscribed about it, And, since these rectangles have all of
such that the difference of their con them the same altitude, the sums of the
vew surfaces, or of their solid contents, rectangular faces are as the sums of the
shall be less than any given difference. bases of the rectangles (II. 35.), which
Let AB G, a bg be the bases of a sums are the perimeters of the inscribed
given right cylinder; C, c their centres. and circumscribed polygons, and are,
And, first, let P be the given difference therefore, as the apothems CE, CD (III.
of surfaces, and let Q be the convex 30.). Therefore, the convex surfaces of
surface of some circumscribed prism. the prisms are to one another as CE, CD
Then, because (as in III. 31.) a regular (II. 12.); and their difference is to the
polygon may be inscribed in the circle convex surface of the inscribed prism
A BG, the apothem, C E of which ap as C D – C E to C E (II. 20.), that is
proaches to the radius CD within any in a less ratio than that of P to Q.
given difference, it is evident that a But even had the ratio of their differ
polygon may be inscribed such that ence to the convex surface of the in
scribed prism been the same with that
of P to Q, the difference would have
been less than P (II. 18. Cor.), because
the surface of the inscribed prism is
less than Q, which is the surface of
some circumscribed prism (IV. 29,
Scholium): much more, therefore, being
less, is the difference less than P.
In the next place, let S be the given
difference of solid contents, and let T be
the solid content of some circumscribed
prism. Then, as before, a polygon may
be inscribed in the lower base such that
its apothem C E shall approach to the
radius CD within any given difference;
and, therefore, such also that CDs-CE:
may be to GE” in a ratio less than any
assigned ; less, therefore, than that
of S to T. Let A B FG H be such a
170 GEOMETRY, [V, 5 li
polygon, and let the prisms be inscribed lium); therefore, the circumference of
and circumscribed as before. Then, the base of the cylinder is less than the
because these prisms have the same perimeter of this inscribed polygon,
altitude, their solid contents are to one which is impossible. -
another as their bases (IV. 29. Cor. 2.), Therefore the product in question is
which bases are the inscribed and cir neither greater nor less than the convex
cumscribed polygons, and, therefore, are surface of the cylinder; that is, it is
to one another as CE2, CDs. There equal to it.
fore, the contents are to one another as Therefore, &c.
CE", C D* (II. 12.); and their differ Cor. If R is the radius of the base of
ence is to the content of the inscribeda right cylinder, and A its altitude,
prism as C D* – CE* to C E° (II. 20.), the convex surface of the cylinder is
that is, in a less ratio than that of S to 2 ºr RA (III. 34. Scholium.),
T. Therefore, as before, because the PROP. 4.
content of the inscribed prism is less
than T, much more is the difference of . The solid content of a right cylinder
contents less than S, ts equal to the product of its base and
Therefore, &c, altitude.
Cor. 1. Any right cylinder being This proposition is demonstrated in
given, a regular prism may be inscribed exactly the same manner as the preced
(or circumscribed) which shall differ ing. If the product in question exceed
from the cylinder in convex surface, or the content of the cylinder, it must like
in solid content, by less than any given wise exceed the content of some cir
difference. For the difference between cumscribed prism (2, Cor. 1.): but this
the cylinder and either of the prisms, is impossible, because the prism (IV. 29.
whether in surface or in content, is less Cor. 1.) is equal to the product of its
than the difference of the two prisms (1.). altitude, which is the same with that of
Cor. 2. Any two similar right cylin the cylinder, by its base, which is greater
ders being given, similar regular prisms than the base of the cylinder. If, on
may be inscribed (or circumscribed) the other hand, it be less than the con
tent of the cylinder, it must likewise be
which shall differ from the cylinders in less than the content of some inscribed
convex surface or in solid content, by
less than any the same given difference. prism (2. Cor. 1.); but this is impossi
PROP. 3. ble, because the prism (IV. 29. Cor. 1.)
is equal to the product of its altitude,
* The convex surface of a right cylin which is the same with that of the cy
der is equal to the product of its alti linder, by its base, which is less than
tude by the circumference of its base. the base of the cylinder. Therefore, the
For, if this product be not equal to the product in question cannot but be
convex surface of the cylinder, it must equal to the content of the cylinder.
either be greater orless than that surface. Therefore, &c.
If greater, as by a difference D, it Cor. 1. If R is the radius of the base
must be greater also than the convex of a right cylinder, and A its altitude,
surface of some circumscribed prism; the solid content of the cylinder is
for a prism may be circumscribed, the or R2 A (III. 34. Scholium.).
convex surface of which approaches to Cor. 2. If a right cylinder and a
that of the cylinder within the difference D prism have equal bases and altitudes,
(2.cor.l.): but the convex surface of such the cylinder shall be equal to the prism
a prism is equal to the product of its alti (IV. 29. Cor. 1.). -
tude (which is the same with that of the Cor. 3. (Euc. xii. 11. and 14.) Right
cylinder) by the perimeter of some cir cylinders which have equal altitudes are
cumscribed polygon (IV. 29. Scholium); to one another as their bases; and right
therefore, the circumference of the base cylinders which have equal bases are to
of the cylinder is greater than the peri one another as their altitudes: also any
meter of this circumscribed polygon, two right cylinders are to one anotheºn
which is impossible. the ratio which is compounded of tº
And, in the same manner, if less, as ratios of their bases and altitudes (IV.
by a difference D, it must be less also 29. Cor. 2.).
than the convex surface of some in PROP. 5. (Euc. xii. 12.) -
scribed prism (2. Cor. 1.); but the con

vex surface of such a prism is equal to ders Thearesurfaces of similar
as the squares right
of the aves;cy”
and
the product of its altitude (the same with
Their solid
that of the cylinder) by the perimeter of the aaces. contents are as the cubes of
some inscribed polygon (IV. 29. Scho -
For, in the first place, there may be manifest: the latter respecting the sur
inscribed in the cylinders similar prisms, faces may be demonstrated as follows:
the convex surfaces of which approach Let VA be the axis
more nearly to the convex surfaces and B C D the base of
li
of the cylinders than by any the same a right come ; and,
§§ first, let E F be the
given difference (2. Cor. 2.): and it may
| ||
easily be shown that the convex sur base of any pyramid
faces of these prisms are to one another inscribed in the cone:
always in the same ratio, viz., as the the convex surface of
g| squares of their principal edges (II.43. the cone shall be
i. Cor. 1.), which are equal respectively greater than the con
#5 to the axes of the cylinders: therefore, vex surface of the
the convex surfaces of the cylinders inscribed pyramid.
are to one another in the same ratio For, if the axis WA
º
(II.28.), wiz., as the squares of their axes. be produced to V", so
And, in the same manner, because that AV' may be equal to AV, and if a
§
there may be inscribed in the cylin right come be described which shall have
ders, similar prisms, the solid contents the axis VA and the base B CD, it may
#1
of which approach more nearly to the be shown by coincidence that the con
º solid contents of the cylinders than by vex surface of the latter cone W B C D
Ağ any the same given difference (1.0or. 2.); is equal to the convex surface of the
Nº. and because the solid contents of these first cone W B C D ; and, because the
it (i.
utti
prisms are to one another always in the triangles which form the convex surface
same ratio, viz., as the cubes of their of the inscribed pyramid V/ E F have
W. principal edges (IV, 35.), which are their sides equal respectively to the sides
ifi equal respectively to the axes of the of the corresponding triangles which
\tild cylinders, the solid contents of the cylin form the convex surface of the inscribed
iºd ders are to one another in the same ratio pyramid V E F (I. 4.), the former trian
in (II. 28.), wiz., as the cubes of their axes, gles are equal to the latter, each to each,
# (ſº Otherwise: and the whole convex surface of the
Mºtº Let A, a represent the axes of two pyramid V'EF is equal to the whole
ºff: similar right cylinders, and R, r the radii convex surface of the pyramid V E F.
mº of their bases. Then (3. Cor.) 2 ºr R A, Therefore the convex surface of the come
(j. 2 ºr r a will represent their convex sur VB C D is equal to half the convex sur
iii. faces respectively, and (4. Cor. 1.) ºr R2A, faces of the two cones taken together;
'#'ſ. a r" a their solid contents. But, be and the convex surface of the pyramid
glū cause the cylinders are similar, (def. 3.) V E F is equal to half the convex
mºſt R; A :: r : a ; therefore (p. 47, Rule ii.) surfaces of the two pyramids taken to
ul b%
RA : A* :: ra: a*, alternando (II. 19.) gether. But the convex surfaces of the
| R A : ra:: A* : a*, and (p.47, Rule ii.) two cones taken together are greater than
2 ºr R A : 2 ºr r a .: A* : a*, that is, the the convex surfaces of the two pyramids
º convex surfaces of the cylinders are to taken together (Lemma 2), because the
# one another as the squares of their former envelop the latter. Therefore
mº 5 aXes, (I. ax. 8.), the convex surface of the
Again, because R . A :: r : a, R2 : cone W B C D is greater than the con
A*:: * : a* (II. 37. Cor. 4.), and (p. 47, vex surface of the in
Rule ii.). R* A : A* :: rº a as; there. scribed pyramid VEF.
fore, alternando (II. 19.) R* A : rea:: And by a similar
A*: a*, and (p. 47, Rule ii.) ºr R* A : demonstration applied
a r" a : A* : a*; that is, the solid con to the adjoined figure,
tents of the cylinders are to one another it may be shown that E
as the cubes of their axes. the convex surface of
Therefore, &c. the cone is less than
the convex surface of
PROP. 6.
any circumscribed py
A right cone is greater than any in ramid.
scribed pyramid, and less than any cir Therefore, &c.
cumscribed pyramid; also the convea:
surface of the come is greater than , PROP. 7.
the convex surface of any inscribed py An right cone being given, two py
Tamid, and less than the convex surface Tamids may be the one inscribed in the
of any circumscribed pyramid. ... . cone, and the other circumscribed about
The former part of the proposition is it, such that the difference of their con
172 GEOMETRY. [W. § 1, W}]]
Sibel
vea, surfaces, or of their solid con (I. 26. Cor. and I. 12. Cor. 2.), and there #0ml
tents, shall be less than any given dif fore by much more less than Q. Much (i (Ol
..ference. more, therefore, is the difference of the
id:0ſ
Let W be the vertex of a right come, convex surfaces less than P(II.18,00r.);
A B D its base, and C the centre of the and more still is the difference of the lists
IV, A
base. And, first, let P be the given dif surfaces of the inscribed and circum
* CºllSČ
ference of the surfaces; and let Q be the scribed pyramids, which have the com
convex surface of some circumscribed mon vertex W, less than P. the c
pyramid. Then, because (as in III.31.) ºf the
Next, let S be the given difference of
a regular polygon may be inscribed in the solid contents; and let T be the it half
* WEX Sl
the circle ABD, the apothem CE of solid content of some circumscribed py
which approaches to the radius CD ramid. As before, let the regular poly Als) ||
within any given difference, a polygon gon A B FG H be inscribed in the circle mºrb
may be inscribed, such that C D* — A BD, such that C D* – CE may be §that
CE* may be to CE* in a ratio less to CE* in a less ratio than that of S to iſla
than any assigned; less, therefore, T; let a similar polygon be circum (i\!
than that of P to Q. Let A B F GH scribed, and the inscribed and circum ſheb:
be such a polygon; and let a similar scribed pyramids completed. Then, Of ſh
polygon KL MNO be circumscribed because these pyramids have the same becau
altitude, their solid contents are to one than
another as their bases, that is, as CE*, tiºuſ
C D* (IV. 32.): therefore, the difference is alsº
of the contents is to that of the inscribed iſſil
pyramid as CD?—CE* to CE* (II.20) The
that is, in a less ratio than that of S to §ntil
T. Therefore, because the content of the WXSl
inscribed prism is less than T, much (Māl
more is the difference of the contents The
less than S (II. 18. Cor.). C)
Therefore, &c. -
à lig
Cor. 1. Any right cone being given, (Onyt
a regular pyramid may be inscribed (or (III,
circumscribed), which shall differ from
the come in convex surface, or in solid
content, by less than any given differ
ence; for the difference between the
cone and either of the pyramids, whe
ther in surface or in content, is less than
about the circle, so that the side K I, the difference of the two pyramids (6.).
may touch the circle in D (III. 27. Cor. 2. Any two similar right cones
Cor. 2.). Join VA, VB, &c., V K, being given, similar regular pyramids
V L., &c., and through E draw EU may be inscribed (or circumscribed),
parallel to DV, to meet CV in U, and which shall differ from the comes in
join UA, UB, &c.” . Then, it may convex surface, or in solid content, by
easily be shown, that the convex sur less than any the same given difference.
faces of the two pyramids, which have PROP. 8.
the points U, V, for their vertices, and
the inscribed and circumscribed poly The conver surface of a right cone is
gons for their bases, are made up of equal to half the product of its slant
similar triangles, which are to one an side by the circumference of its base.
other in the same ratio, each to each, For, if half this product be not equal
viz. that of C E° to C D* (II.42. Cor.). to the convex surface of the pyramid, it
Therefore, the convex surfaces of the must either be greater or less than that
ramids are to one another in the same surface. If greater, it must also be
rātio (II. 23. Cor. 1.); and the differ greater than the convex surface of some
ence of their convex surfaces is to that circumscribed pyramid (7. Cor. 1)-
of the lesser pyramid as C D*–C E* to greater, that is, than half the product
C E2 (II. 20.), that is, in a less ratio than of the slant side of the cone by the peri
that of P to Q. But the convex surface meter of the circumscribed polygon
of the lesser pyramid is less than the (I. 26. Cor.), which is the base of the
surface of the pyramid VA B F G. H. pyramid; for the triangles which form
__–
* The lines UA, U B, &c. are omitted in the the convex surface of the pyramid have
for their bases the sides of the circum
figure.
|, W. § 1.] GEOMETRY. 173
itſ. Scribed polygon, and the lines drawn solid content of the cone is , ºr R2 A
Mú from their common vertex to the points (III. 34. Scholium.).
|f|, of contact (which lines are each a slant Cor. 2. (Euc. xii. 10.). If a right cylinder
º side of the cone) perpendicular to those and a right cone have the same base and
iſiº bases respectively (III. 2. Cor. 1. and the same altitude, the cone shall be a
W. IV. 4.). But this is impossible, be third part of the cylinder (4.). -
|}| cause the circumference of the base of Cor. 3. If a right cone and a pyramid
the cylinder is less than the perimeter have equal bases and altitudes, the cone
º: of the circumscribed polygon. Again, shall be equal to the pyramid (IV. 32.
#". if half this product be less than the con Cor. 1.).
# vex surface of the cone, it must be less Cor. 4. (Euc. xii. 11 and 14.) Right
also than the convex surface of some cones which have equal altitudes are to
ſº inscribed pyramid (5.Cor. 1.)—less, that one another as their bases; and right
jºk
Włº is, than half the product of the perpen cones which have equal bases are to one
dicular drawn from the vertex to a side another as their altitudes: also, any
º| of the inscribed regular polygon which is two right cones are to one another in the
º:
| the base ofthe pyramid, by the perimeter ratio which is compounded of the ratios
|#, of that polygon; which is impossible, of their bases and altitudes (IV. 32.
because not only is the slant side greater Cor. 2.).
º PROP. 10. (Euc. xii. 12.).
"ſ:
than the perpendicular (IV. 8), but the
circumference of the base of the cylinder The surfaces of similar right cones
sº
º:
is also greater than the perimeter of the are as the squares of the aaves; and
inscribed polygon. -
their solid contents are as the cubes of
did Therefore, half the product in question the aaves.
lº) is neither greater mor less than the con
ºf Sl
For, in the first place, there may be
vex surface of the pyramid; that is, it is inscribed in the cones similar pyramids,
tº the convex surfaces of which approach
ſ mº equal to it.
Therefore, &c. more nearly to the convex surfaces of
º; Cor. If R is the radius of the base of the cones than by any the same given
a right cone, and S its slant side, the difference (7. Cor. 2.); and the convex
convex surface of the cone is ºr RS surfaces of these pyramids are, to one
ſº (III, 34. Scholium.). another, always in the same ratio, viz.
hiſ as the squares of the sides of their bases
PROP. 9.
Iſſ (II. 42. Cor. and II. 23. Cor. 1.), that
| sº The solid content of a right cone is is, as the squares of the radii of the cir
#. equal to one-third of the product of its cumscribing circles (III. 30.), or (II.
nº base and altitude. 37. Cor. 4.) as the squares of the axes
|. This proposition is demonstrated in of the cones, for the axes of the comes
iſ fill the same way as the preceding. If a are to one another as the radii of their
(5) third of the product in question exceed bases (def. 6.); therefore the convex
Cºllä the content of the cone, it must likewise surfaces of the cones are to one another
wº exceed the content of some circum in the same ratio (II. 28.), viz. as the
ſº scribed pyramid (7. Cor. 1.); but this is squares of their axes.
W54 impossible, because the latter (IV. 32. And, in the same manner, because
#'ſ Cor. 1.) is equal to a third of the pro there may be inscribed in the cones
duct of its altitude, which is the same similar pyramids, the solid contents of
with that of the cone, by its base, which which approach more nearly to the solid
is greater than the base of the cone. contents of the cones than by any the
And if, on the other hand, it be less same given difference (7. Cor. 2.); and
than the content of the cone, it must because the solid contents of these pyra
likewise be less than the content of some mids are to one another always in the
inscribed pyramid (7. Cor. 1.); but this same ratio, viz. as the cubes of the sides
is impossible, because the latter (IV. 32. of their bases (IV, 35.), or (IV. 27.
Cor. T.) is equal to a third of the pro Cor. 3.) as the cubes of the axes of the
duct of its altitude, which is. the same cones; the solid contents of the cones
with that of the come, by its base, which are to one another in the same ratio
is less than the base of the cone. (II. 28.), viz. as the cubes of their axes.
Therefore, a third of the product in
Otherwise:
question is equal to the content of the
Cone. . Let A, a represent the axes of two
Therefore, &c. similar right cones; R, r the radii of their
Cor. 1. If R is the radius of the base bases; and S, s their slant sides. Then
of a right cone, and A its altitude, the (8, Cor.) a R S and ºr r s will represent
174 GEOMETRY. [W. § 1.
their convex surfaces respectively, and equal to the trapezoid AE ea. And
(9. Cor. 1.) ºr R* A, 3 ºr r" a their solid because the trapezoid AE ea is equal
contents. But, because the comes are to the product of its altitude A a by half
similar (def. 6.) R. : A :: r : a ; and be the sum of its parallel sides A E, ae
cause the slant sides S, s are the hypo (I. 28.), the convex surface of the frus
tenuses of right-angled triangles, which tum is equal to the product of its slant
have the sides A, R and a, r about the side A a, by half the sum of the cir
right angles proportional (II. 32.) S : A cumferences A BD, a b d.
: , s : a ; therefore (II. 37. Cor. 3.), R S In the next place, with regard to the
: A*:: rs : a*, alternando (II. 19.) RS solid content. LetKLMN beatriangular
: r s :: A* : a*, and (p. 47, Rule ii.)
ºr R S : ºr r s :: A* : a*, that is, the con
vex surfaces of the comes are as the
squares of their axes.
Again, because R. A : r : a, R* : A*
: r* : a* (II. 37. Cor. 4.), and (p. 47,
Rule ii.) R* A : A* : rº a a”: therefore
alternando (II. 19.) R' A : r" a : A*
: a*, and (p. 47, Rule ii.) , ºr R." A :
# ºr rº a A* : a*, that is, the solid pyramid, having its base I, MN equal to
contents of the comes are to one another the base ABD, and in the sameplane with
as the cubes of their axes, it, and its vertex K in the same parallel
• Therefore, &c. to the base with the vertex of the come.
º PROP. 11. Then, because the cone and pyramid
The convex surface of a frustum of a have equal bases, and the same altitude,
they are equal to one another (9. Cor. 3.).
right cone is equal to the product of its
slant side by half the sum of the circum Let the plane abd be produced to cut
ferences of its two bases; and its solid the pyramid in the triangle limn; then,
content is equal to the sum of the solid because l m n is similar to L. M. N
(IV. 12, and IV. 15.), they are to one
contents of three cones, which have the another
same altitude with the frustum, and for as limº and LM” (III.42. Cor),
their bases its two bases, and a mean that is, (II. 37. Cor. 4.) as Klº and
proportional between them. K L2, or (IV. 14.) as V aº and WA":
but the bases a b d and ABD are to
Iet A BD, a b d, be the bases of the one another in the same ratio (III. 33.
frustum of a cone, which has the vertex
and II. 31.), and LMN is equal to
AB D: therefore, also, 2 m n is equal
to a b d (II. 12, and II. 18), and
(9. Cor. 3.) the come V abd is equal
to the pyramid K. l mºn, ... Therefore
(I, ax. 3.) the frustum of the cone is
equal to the frustum of the pyramid.
‘A But the latter (IV. 33) is equal to the
T) sum of three pyramids, having, the
V. Draw any slant side V a A ; from A same altitude with the frustum, and
draw any straight line AE perpendicular for their bases the bases of the frustum,
to VA (i. 44.); suppose AE to be taken and a mean proportional between them;
equal to the circumference A BD, and and (9. Cor. 3.) each of these pyra
on VE, and through a draw a e parallel
to AE (I. 48.), to meet VE in e. Then, mids is equal to a come having the same
because the circumferences A BD, a b d, altitude and an equal base. Therefore,
are as their radii (III. 33.), that is, as also, the frustum of the come is equal to
VA, V a (II. 31.), that is, again, as A E, the sum of three cones, having the same
a e (II. 31.), and that A E is equal to altitude with it, and for their bases the
ABD, a e is equal to a b d (II. 18.). bases of the frustum, and a mean pro
Now the triangle V A. E is equal to the portional between them.
convex surface of the cone W A B D Therefore, &c. -
(6.), because (I. 26. Cor.) it is equal to Cor. If a straight line A a be made to
half the product of VA the slant side, revolve about any axis, VC, in the same
and A E, which is equal to the circum plane with it, the surface generated by
ference A B D ; and, for the like reason, such straight line shall be equal to the
the triangle Va e is equal to the convex product of the straight line and the cir
surface of the cone V abd; therefore, cumference generated by its middle
the convex surface of the frustum is point F. - -
| W. § 2.] GEOMETRY. 175
For the generated surface is that of a from a given point, leads to another
(M. cylinder ifthe line be parallel to the axis; property of those surfaces, from which
||| and, in every other case, that of a frus the measures assigned in Props. 2. and
It tum of a right cone. In the former 6. may be very readily inferred. This
im;
Śl
case, the reason is sufficiently manifest property is, that they are developable,
(3.). In the latter, it may be shown, that is, they may be conceived to be
# ,
that if FG be drawn parallel to AE (in unfolded and spread out upon a plane.
the first figure of the proposition) to Now, it is easy to perceive, that if the
hº meet W E in G, FG will É. equal to the surface of a right cylinder be so deve
circumference generated by the point F: loped, it will form a rectangle, which
also, because V F is equal to half the has for its base the circumference of the
sum of VA and Va, FG is equal to half circle, which is the base of the cylinder,
the sum of AE and a e (II. 30. Cor. 2.); and for its altitude the altitude of the
therefore the circumference generated by cylinder; whence it follows, that the
the point F is equal to half the sum of convex surface of a right cylinder is
the circumferences A B D, a b d ; and equal to the product of its altitude by
hence by the proposition, the convex the circumference of its base. In like
surface of the frustum, that is, the con manner the developed surface of a right
vex surface generated by the line A a is come will form a circular sector, the arc
equal to the product of A a and the cir of which is equal to the circumference
cumference generated by its middle of the base of the cone, and its radius
point F. to the slant side; whence it follows,
that the convex surface of a right
Scholium. come is equal to half the product of its
Although the propositions of this sec slant side by the circumference of its
tion have, for greater brevity and sim base.
plicity, been stated and demonstrated
only with regard to the right cylinder and -SECTION 2–Surface and content of
right cone, it will be found that Props, 2. the sphere.,
and 7. apply equally to the oblique cylin PROP. 12.
der and oblique cone, to which the de
monstrations may be without difficulty If an isosceles triangle ABC be made
adapted, and hence it may be demon to revolve about an aaci’s which lies in
strated, almost in the words of Props, the same plane with it and passes
4. 9. 11. 5. and 10. that the solid content through the vertea A, and if a perpen
of an oblique cylinder is equal to the dicular AD be drawn from the verter
product of its base and altitude; the to the base, and EF be that portion of
solid content of an oblique come to one the aris which is intercepted by per
third of the product of its base and pendiculars drawn to it from the ev
altitude; the solid content of a truncated tremities of the base; the convex surface
oblique come to the sum of the solid generated by the base shall be equal to
contents of three cones, having the same ihe product of E F by the circumference
altitude with it, and for their bases its of a circle having the radius A D; and
two bases, and a mean proportional be the solid generated by the triangle shall
tween them;... and, lastly, that the sur be equal to one-third of the product of
faces of similar oblique cylinders and this surface by the perpendicular A.D.
cones are to one another as the squares First, of the surface generated b
of their axes, and their solid contents as the base B.C. This is evidently the
the cubes of the axes. With regard to convex surface of a truncated cone
the convex surface of the oblique cylin having the axis E F, and E B, FC
der, it may likewise be shown in a simi for the radii of its -v-
lar manner (see IV. 29. Scholium) to bases; and is there- §
be equal to the product of its side (or fore (il. Cor.) equal Åi
t
t
axis) by the perimeter of a plane sec to the product of BC, i

t \
tion perpendicular to it. and the circumfer t
t
t
It remains to observe, with regard to ence generated by its º
Props.3, and 8., that the remarkable pro middle point D, that
perty by which the convex surfaces of is, (if D G be drawn
the cylinder and cone have been defined, parallel to BE to meet
EF in G) the
viz. that of containing, the first, straight ference circum
which has •. T.
lines parallel to a given straight line,

and the other straight lines diverging the radius D G. Now, if E L be drawn
176 GEOMETRY. [W. § 2.
parallel to BC, E L will be equal to B C, the proposition is equally applicable,
(I. 22.), and the triangles L E F, A D G whether A B C be isosceles, or other
will be similar (I. 18.), because the sides wise. Therefore, if any triangle ABC
of the one are perpendicular to the sides be made to revolve about an axis which
of the other, each to each; therefore lies in the same plane with it and passes
E L or B C is to EF as A D to D G. through its vertex A; and if AD be
(II. 31.), that is, as the circumference drawn perpendicular to the base, the
of a circle which has the radius A D to solid generated by the triangle shall be
the circumference of a circle which has equal to one-third of the product of
the radius D G (III. 33. and II. 12.); A D and the surface generated by the
and therefore (II. 28, Schol. Rule I.) base B C.
the product of B C and the latter cir
cumference is equal to the product of PROP. 13.
i E F and the former. But the convex If the half AFG H KB of any regu
surface in question is equal to the pro lar polygon of an even number of sides
duct of B C and the circumference of revolve about the diagonal AB; the
which has the radius D G. Therefore whole surface of the solid generated by
(I. ax. 1.) that surface is likewise equal its revolution shall be equal to the pro
to the product of E F, and the circum duct of A B by the circumference of a
ference which has the radius A. D. circle whose radius is the apothem CE
Next, of the solid generated by the of the polygon; and its solid content
triangle A B C. Let C B and FE be shall be equal to one-third of the product
produced to meet one another in W. of this surface by the apothem CE.
Then the solid in question is the dif From the points F, G, H, K, draw
ference of those generated by the trian FL, GM, HN, KO
gles A CV and A. B.V. Now, the solid perpendicular to AB,
(I.45.) and join CF, CG, F_º_*
*Azº-I,
generated by the triangle A CV is
equal to the sum or difference of two CH, C K. Then, be
cones, having the altitudes A F, VF cause C is the centre of G
respectively, and for their common base the polygon, the trian
the circle of which C F is radius—equal, gles CAF, CFG, &c. Il
that is (9.), to one-third of the product are isosceles triangles,
of A V, which is the sum or difference having the commonver
of the altitudes, by half the radius CF, tex C, and the perpen- B
and the circumference which has the diculars drawn from C -
radius C F (III. 32.); or to one-third to their respective bases equal each of

of the product of AD, half VC, and that them to the apothem CE. And, because
circumference (for A DxV C is equal these triangles revolve about the axis AB
to A V × C.F), or lastly, to one-third of passing through C, and that AL, LM,
the product of AD, and the surface &c. are the parts of the axis intercepted
generated by W C (8.). And in the by perpendiculars drawn from the ex
same manner it may be shewn, that tremities of the base of each; the por
the solid generated by the triangle tions of the whole surface in question,
ABV is equal to one-third of the pro generated by A.F, FG, &c., are equal,
duct of A D, and the surface generated respectively, to the products of AL, LM,
by VB. Therefore the difference of &c., by the circumference of the circle
these solids, that is, the solid in question, which has the radius C E (12.). There
is equal to one-third of the product of fore the whole surface is equal to the
AD, and the surface generated by B.C. sum of these products, that is, to the
It has been supposed in the above product of A B by the circumference of
demonstrations, that E F and B C are the same circle.
not parallel. If B C be parallel to EF, Again, because the portions of the
the surface generated by B C will be whole solid which are generated by the
that of a right cylinder having the axis triangles CAF, CFG, &c. are the third
EF, whence the first part of the pro parts, respectively, ofthe products of the
position is manifest; and the solid ge portions of surface generated by AF,
nerated by the triangle A B C will be F.G., &c. by the apothem CE (12); the
equal to two-thirds of the cylinder (9), whole solid is the third part of thesum of
whence the second part of the propo these products, that is, the third part of
sition. the product of the whole surface by the
Therefore, &c. apothem CE.
Cor, The proof of the second part of Therefore, &c.
W. § 2.] GEOMETRY.
il, 177
PROp. 14.
}| altitude C B likewise equal to the differ.
i. If within and about a semicircle there ence of AB, A.C.; and with respect to
º;
ºre inscribed and circumscribed any the third, its altitude H E is likewise
\\ two half-polygons, the one having the equal to the difference of AB, A C, and
º
diameter of the semicircle for its diago its base H L is a mean proportional be
\\?
ºal, and the other the diameter pro tween the squares of AB, A C, because
†:
duced; and if these figures are made to its adjacent sides are equal to AB and AC
"evolve together with the semicircle respectively, and (II. 35.) AB2 is to AB
º: about the diameter; the sphere gene × AC as ABxAC to AC". Therefore
rated by the semicircle shall be greater the difference of the cubes is less than
than the inscribed solid of revolution, a parallelopiped, whose altitude is C B,
and less than the circumscribed solid: and its base equal to three times the
also the surface of the sphere shall be square of A. B. But, because C B may
greater than the surface of the inscribed be made less than any given line, this
solid of revolution, and less than that of parallelopiped may be made less than
the circumscribed solid. any given solid. Much more, therefore,
For, with respect to may the difference of the cubes be made
the solid contents, the less than any given solid, that is, than
sphere contains the in any given difference.
scribed solid, and is itself Therefore, &c.
contained in the circum Cor. It appears from the demonstra
scribed solid: and, with tion, that the difference of the cubes of
respect to the surfaces, two straight lines is equal to the pro
the surface of the sphere duct of the difference of the straight lines
envelops the surface of by the sum of their squares, and a mean
the inscribed solid, and proportional between those squares.
is enveloped by that of PROP. 15.
the circumscribed solid
(Lemma 2.). Any sphere being given, two figures
Therefore, &c. of revolution generated by similar half
Lemma 3. polygons may be, the one inscribed in
the sphere, and the other circumscribed
If there be two straight lines, of which about it, such that the difference of their
one is given, and the other may be made surfaces, or of their solid contents, shal&
to approach to it within any given dif be less than any given difference.
ference; the cube of the latter may also Let the given sphere be generated
be made to approach to the cube of the by the revolution of -
former within any given difference. the semicircle A D B D__":

Let AB, AC be the two straight lines, about the diameter
of which AB is given. Upon AB (I. 52.) A. B. And first, let
describe the square P be the given diffe
BD; from A draw rence of surfaces; and
A E perpendicular let Q be the surface of
to the plane BAE H any solid circumscri
(IV. 37.); make AE bing the sphere. Then, 0
equal to AB, and since (as in prop. 7.)
complete the cube a regular polygon
AF; and inlikeman may be inscribed in
ner, upon AC describe the square CG the circle A B D, such
in the same plane with B D, from AE that, CE being its
cut off A H equal to AC, and com apothem, C D* – C E shall be to
plete the cube AK; and let the faces C E2 in a ratio less than that of P to
HK and G. K of the latter cube be pro Q; let A FG H KB, be the half of
duced to meet the faces B F, EF, of thesuch a polygon, and let a similar half
former. Then the difference of the two
polygon LMNORV be circumscribed,
cubes is equal to the sum of the three so that one of its sides LM may touch
parallelopipeds GF, C L, and L E. Of the circle in D (III. 27. Cor. 2.) Then,
these, the first has its base DF equal to if these inscribed and circumscribed
the square of A B (IV. 22.), and its alti half-polygons be made to revolve with
tude D G equal to the difference of AB, the semicircle about the axis AB, they
AC; the second has its base C K equal will generate, together with the sphere
to the square of A.C (IV. 22.), and its generated by the semicircle, Nº figures
178 GEOMETRY. [V, 52,
of revolution, the one inscribed in the For if this product be not equal to
sphere, the other circumscribed about the surface of the sphere, it must either
it. And because the surfaces of these be greater or less than it.
figures are equal respectively (13.) to the If greater, it must be greater also
rectangles under AB and the circum than the surface of some circumscribed
ference which has the radius C E, and solid of revolution (15. Cor.), greater,
under L V and the circumference which that is (13.), than the product of the dia
has the radius CD, and that these rect gonal LV by the circumference which
angles are to one another as the squares has for its radius the apothem CD (see
of CE, CD (II. 37. Cor. 1.); the dif the figure of Prop. 15.); which is impos
ference of the surfaces is to the surface sible, because the diameter is less than
of the inscribed figure as C D*—C E8 LV, and the circumference of the gene
to CE* (II. 20.); that is, in a less ratio rating circle is the same with the cir
than that of P to Q. But the surface of cumference which has the radius CD.
the inscribed figure is less than Q: much If less, it must also be less than the
more, therefore, is the difference of the surface of some inscribed solid of revo
surfaces less than P (II. 18. Cor.). lution (15. Cor.)—less, that is (13.), than
Next, let S be the given difference of the product of the diameter A B, which
contents; and let T be the content of is the same with the diameter of the
any solid circumscribing the sphere. generating circle, by the circumference
Then, since a regular polygon may be which has for its radius the apothem
inscribed in the circle ABD, such that, C E ; which is impossible, because the
C E being its apothem, CD–CE shall circumference of the generating circle is
be less than any given difference, and greater than the circumference which
therefore also such that C D*–C E9 has the radius C. E.
shall be to C E3 in a ratio less than that Therefore the product in question is
of S to T (Lemma'3.); let A FG H KB neither greater nor less than the surface
be the half of such a polygon, and let the of the sphere; that is, it is equal to it.
figures of revolution be inscribed in the Therefore, &c. -
sphere, and circumscribed about it, as Cor. 1. The surface of a sphere is

before. Then, because the contents of equal to four times the area of its gene
these figures are (13.) equal respectively rating circle. For the area of this circle
to the thirds of two parallelopipeds (IV. is equal to half the product of theradius
25. Schol.), having their bases equal to and circumference (III. 32.).
the surfaces, and their altitudes equal Cor. 2. If a right cy- - -
to CE, CD, and that these parallelo linder be circumscribed ſº, T.
pipeds are to one another as the cubes about a sphere; the
of CE, CD, for their bases are, as was surface of the sphere
shown in the former part of the propo shall be equal to the
sition, as the squares of CE, CD; the convex surface of the
difference of the contents is to the con cylinder. For the latter
tent of the inscribed figure as CD3– is equal to the pro
C E8 to C E° (II. 20.), that is, in a less duct of its altitude, and the circumference
ratio than that of S to T. But the con of its base (3.); and its base is equal
tent of the inscribed figure is less than to the generating circle of the sphere,
T; much more, therefore, is the dif and its altitude to the diameter.
ference of the contents less than S (II. Cor. 3. The surface of a sphere is
18. Cor.). equal to two-thirds of the whole surface
Therefore, &c. of the circumscribing cylinder.
Cor. Any sphere being given, a Cor. 4. If D is the diameter of a
figure of revolution may be inscribed sphere, its whole surface is equal to a D*
(or circumscribed), which shall differ (III. 34. Schol.).
from the sphere in surface or in content, PROP. 17."
by less than any given difference. For
the difference between the sphere and The solid content of a sphere is equal
either of the figures of revolution, whe to one-third of the product of the radius
ther in surface or in content, is less than by the surface.
that of the two figures (14.). For the third part of this product
PROP. 16. cannot be greater than the content of
the sphere; since then it would begreater
The surface of a sphere is equal to also than the content of some circum
the product ºf thecircumference and scribed solid of revolution (15 Cor)-
diameter of the générating circle, greater, that is, than one-third of the
W. sºJ GEOMETRY. 179
product of the same radius by the sur the radii), in the triplicate ratio of the
face of that solid (13.); which is impos radii, or (IV. 27. Cor. 2.) as the cubes of
sible, because the surface of the sphere the radii.
is less than that of the solid (14.). Otherwise;
Nor, on the other hand, can it be less Let D, d be the diameters of two
than the content of the sphere, for then spheres, and R, r their radii. Then
would it be less than some inscribed (16. Cor. 4.) ºr D*, ºr d” will represent
solid of revolution (15. Cor.), less, that is, their surfaces, and (17. Cor. 4.) # ºr D*,
than one-third of the product of the apo # a dº their solid contents; or, since D
them by the surface of that solid (13.); is equal to 2R and d to 2r, 4 ºr Rº,4 ºr”
which is impossible, because not only will represent their surfaces, and # ºr Rº,
is the radius greater than the apothem, # ºr tº their solid contents. But (p. 47,
but the surface of the sphere is likewise Rule ii.) 4 ºr R2 is to 4 ºr rº as R* to r",
greater than the surface of the inscribed and ; ºr R3 is to # ºr r" as R* to r". There
solid (14.). fore, the surfaces are as the squares of
Therefore the product in question is the radii, and the solid contents as the
equal to the solid content of the sphere. cubes of the radii.
Therefore, &c. Therefore, &c.
Cor. 1. The solid content of a sphere
is equal to one-third of the product of SECTION 3.-Surfaces and contents of
the radius by four times the area of the certain portions of the sphere.
generating circle (16. Cor. 1.): In order to have a clear apprehension
Cor. 2. The solid content of a sphere of the figures intended in the following
is two-thirds of the solid content of the definitions, it is necessary to keep in
circumscribing cylinder. For the latter mind, that every section of a sphere
is equal to twice the product of the which is made by a plane is a circle, the
radius, and the area of the generating centre of which is the foot of the per
circle (4). pendicular drawn to the plane from the
Cor. 3. If any solid contained by centre of the sphere (IV. 8. Cor.).
planes be circumscribed about a sphere, Def. 10. A segment of a sphere is any
the content of the sphere will be to the portion of it which is cut off by a plane,
content of the solid as the surface of the and the circle in which the plane cuts the
sphere to the surface of the solid. For sphere is called the base of the segment.
the solid may be divided into pyramids, When the plane
having the centre of the sphere for their passes through the
common vertex, and their altitudes equal centre, the two seg
each to the radius of the sphere; and ments into which the
since each of these pyramids is equal to sphere is divided are
a third of the product of its base and equal to one another,
altitude, their sum is equal to a third of and are therefore -
the product of the convex surface of the each of them called a hemisphere,
solid and the radius of the sphere: also, The convex surface of a segment is
the sphere is equal to a pyramid, having called a 207te.
the same altitude, and its base equal to 11. A double-based spherical segment
the surface of the sphere (IV. 32.). is a portion of a sphere
Cor. 4. If D is the diameter of a intercepted between two
sphere, its whole solid content is equal parallel planes; and the
to # ºr x Dº (16. Cor. 4.). circles in which these
PROP. 18. (Euc. xii. 18.). planes cut the sphere
are called the bases of
The surfaces of spheres are as the the segment. The con
squares of the radii, and their solid con vex surface of a double-based segment
tents are as the cubes of the radii. is likewise called a 20me.
For the surfaces are equal respectively 12. A sector of a sphere is the solid
to four times the areas of the generating figure contained by
circles (16. Cor. 1.), and these areas are the convex surface of
as the squares of the radii (III. 33.). a segment, and that
And the solid contents are to one of a right cone, which
another in a ratio which is compounded has the same base
of the ratios of the surfaces and of the with the segment, and
radii; that is (because the surfaces are for its vertex the cen
ºr to one another in the duplicate ratio of tre of the sphere.
180 GEOMETRY. [V.- 3.
'. The convex surface of the segment is extremities of the arc: them, if the semi
called the base of the sector. circle be made to revolve about the dia
meter A B, the zone which is generated
13. A spherical orb
is a portion of a sphere by the arc DF, shall be greater than the
contained between its surface generated by the chord DF, and
surface and that of a less than the surface generated by the
tangent G. H.
lesser sphere, which is From the points D, F draw the straight
| concentric (or has the lines D d, Ff, each of them perpendicu
same centre) with it. lar to AB (i. 45.). Then, in the sup
14. A spherical wedge or ungula is a posed revolution of the figure, thºse
portion of a sphere intercepted between straight lines will generate two circles
two planes, each of which passes which have the points d, f for their cem
through the centre of the sphere...The tres, and d D, fE for their radii respec
convex surface of an ungula is called a tively (IV. 3. Cor. 2.). And, because
lume. the zone generated by the are DEF,
Let ADB be a semicircle, and from together with these two circles, forms a
the points D, E of convex surface which envelops, and
the semicircumfe therefore (Lemma 2) is greater than the
rence, let thestraight convex surface consisting of the surface
Iines D F, EG be generated by the chord DF and the same
drawn at right an two circles, the zone generated by the
gles to the diameter arc DEF is greater than the surface
Å B; join CE, and generated by the chord D.F.
let KN L be a se In the next place, from the points
cond semicircle, D, F draw the tangents D K, FL
having the same (III. 56.) to meet GH in the points K, L
centre C; then, if the whole figure re respectively; bisect D K in M (1.43);
volve about A B, the parts AEG, DE through M. draw MN parallel to CG
G F, AEC, and A D B L N K will ge (I, 48.) to meetG K in N, and from the
nerate a spherical segment, a double points M, N draw Mm, N n perpendi
based spherical segment, a spherical cular each of them to A B; and, lastly,
sector, and a spherical orb respectively. through m draw mp parallel to MN to
And if the semicircle A D B, instead of meet N n in p. Then, because the middle
making a complete revolution, revolve point of D K, in the supposed revolution
only through a certain angle, it will ge of the figure about the axis AB, gene
merate a spherical wedge or ungula. rates the circumference which has the
PROP. 19.
radius Mºm, the surface generated by
DK is equal to the product of DK and
If a semicircle be made to revolve the circumference which has the radius
about its diameter, the zone which is M m (11. Cor.). And, in like manner,
generated by any arc of the semicircle since N is the middle point of GK
shall be greater than the surface gene (II. 29), the surface generated by GK
rated by the chord of that arc, and less is equal to the product of GK and the
than the surface generated by the tan circumference which has the radius N n.
gent of the same arc, which is drawn But, because (III. 2. Cor. 1.) the angle
parallel to the chord, and terminated by D.G. is a right angle, and therefore
the radit passing through its extremi. (I. 8) the angle KGI) less than aright
ties. angle, that is, than K.D G, DK is less
Let A D B be a than G. K. (I.9); and, because (I. 22.)
semicircle having the M m is equal to N p, which is less than
diameter A B, and Nº, the circumference which has the
the centre C : let
D E F be any arc of
radius Min is less than the circumfer.
the semicircle, D F ºnce which has the radius N, (iii.33.)
its chord, and GH a
Therefore, upon both accounts, the sº.
straight line parallel face generated by DK is less than the
to DF, which touches surface generated by G. K. And in the
the arc D E F in E, * manner it may be shown that ſhe
and is terminated by sº ace generatedby
surface generated byLFijti. i.
L.H. T all the
the radii C D, CF
passing through the H §:e Whole convex surface ºf;
three Straightlines D K, KL, L F.
less than the whole surface generated by can it be less than the zone; for then it
the tangent G. H. But the zone gene must be less also than (some inscribed
ſili surface—less, that is, than the product
rated by the arc DE Fis less than the
surface generated by DK, KL, LF of A L and the circumference which
(Lemma 2.), for the zone together with has the radius C E ; which is impossible,
the circles which have the radii Dal, Ff, because the circumference ADB E is
is enveloped by the latter surface toge greater than that which has the radius
ther with the same two circles. Much CE. Therefore, it must be equal to
more, therefore, is the zone generated the zone; that is, the zone is equal to
by the arc DEF less than the surface the product of the circumference AD
generated by the tangent G. H. EB, and the part A. L of the diameter.
Therefore, &c. Next, let H K be any arc, by the re
PROP. 20. volution of which about the diameter
A spherical zone is equal to the pro A B a double-based zone is generated;
duct of the circumference of the gene and let HL, KN be drawn perpendi
rating circle and that portion of the cular to A. B. Then, because the whole
aris which is intercepted between its zone generated by the arc A.K is equal
convex surface and base; or, if it be to the product of A.N. and the cir
double-based, between its two bases.
... Let ADB be a semicircle, and A K
any arc, by the revolution of which
JB
cumference ADBE, and the part gene

rated by the arc AH equal to the pro
duct of AL and the same circumfe
remainder, that is, the
rence, the
about the diameter AB aspherical zone double-based zone in question, is equal
is generated, and from K draw KL to the product of LN and the same cir
perpendicular to A B : the zone shall be cumference.
equal to the product of the whole cir Therefore, &c.
cumference ADBE by the part AL of Cor. 1. If a cylinder, having the axis
the diameter. -
A B, be circumscribed about the sphere;
The demonstration is in every respect any zone having the same axis, shall be
similar to that of prop. 13. For, in the equal to that portion of the convex sur
first place, it is evident that the arc face of the cylinder which is intercepted
A K may be divided into a number of between the base of the cylinder and
equal arcs, such that, the chords AF, the plane of the base of the zone, or be
FG, &c. being drawn, their common tween the planes of its two bases, if it
distance C E from the centre C shall be double-based (3.).
approach to the radius CD within any Cor. 2. In the same or in equal spheres,
given difference; and hence it may be any two zones are to one another as the
shown, as in prop. 15., that there may parts of the axis or axes which are in
be inscribed in the zone and circum tercepted between their respective bases
scribed about it, two surfaces of revo (II. 35.).
lution which differ from each other, and PROP. 21.
therefore (19.) each of them from the Every’spherical sector is equal to
zone, by less than any given difference. one-third of the product of its base and
Therefore, the product in question can the radius of the sphere... ---
not be greater than the zone; for then The steps by which this proposition
it must be greater also than some cir is demonstrated are similar to those in
cumscribed surface—greater, that is, dicated in the preceding. In the first
than the product of M Q and the circum place, it may be shown that two solids
ference ADBE; which is impossible, of revolution may be, one inscribed
because AL is less than MQ.” Neither in the sector, the other circumscribed
** If the point Q lies between A and G.M. Q will about it, which approach each of
be the difference, not the sum, of M L, and L Q ; but, them to the sector more nearly than by
in this case also, A Lis less than MQ, because LQ any given difference. Hence, the pro
is less than KP, that is, than M.A.
182 GEOMETRY." [W. § 3.
duct in question cannot be greater than with the segment, and the other part
the sector; for then would it be greater(17. Cor. 4.) a sphere of which A G is
than some circumscribed solid, and the diameter.
therefore (12.) the base of the sector Therefore, &c.
greater than the convex surface of such PROP, 23.
a solid, which (19.) is impossible: nei
ther can it be less, for then would it be Every double-based spherical seg
less also than some inscribed solid; which onent is equal to the half of a cylinder
is impossible, because, not only is the having the same altitude with the seg
base of the sector greater (19.) than the ment and a base equal to the sum of
convex surface of such a solid, but the *ts two bases, together with a sphere of
radius C H is likewise greater than the which that altitude is the diameter.
perpendicular C E. Therefore it must Let FH K G be any portion of these
be equal to the sector. micircle ADB, by the revolution of
Therefore, &c. which about the diameter AB, a double
PROP. 22. based segment, having the altitude GK,
is generated: the segment shall be
Every spherical segment, upon a equal to the half of a cylinder having
single base, is equal to the half of a cy the same altitude and a base equal to
linder having the same base and the the sum of its two bases, together with
same altitude, together with a sphere, of a sphere of which G. K is the diameter.
which that altitude is the diameter. For, in the first place, because the
Let ADFG be any circular half solid, generated by the revolution of the
segment, by the revolu circular segment FH,
- D
tion of which about the is equal to the excess p.2.É.G
diameter A B, a spheri of the difference of the
cal segment having the sectors generated by H. R.
altitude AG is gene CAH and G
above the solid ge- A# “NSW C
rated: the spherical seg
ment shall be equal to
the half of a cylinder
having the same base and
merated by the tri
angle C FH, it may
“--|B be
sameshown
steps asbyin the
the
\ *-B.
altitude, together with a
sphere, of which A G is the diameter. last proposition, that the solid generated
Join A F ; and from the centre C by the revolution of FH is equal to
draw C E perpendicular to A. F. Then, # ºr × G. K x FHA, i.e. if F L be drawn
because the solid, generated by the seg parallel to G. K, to # ºr x G K (FL2+
ment A D F, is equal to the difference L Hº). But (I.22.) FL is equal to G K,
of the solids generated by the sector and LH is equal to the difference of FG
CA D F and the triangle CAF, the and H K (I. 22.) : therefore (I. 33.),
former of which (21.) is equal to one. I, H° is equal to F Gº-FH K*—2 FG x
third of the product of CA by its base HK, and ; ºr x G. K. (FL2+LH”), or the
A G x 2 ºr x C A (20.), and the latter solid generated by the segment FH, is
(12.) to one-third of the product of CE equal to , ºr × G. K. (FG2+H K2–2 FG
by the convex surface generated by × HK) + 4 + x G K8. To this add the
A F viz. (12.) A G x 2 ºr x C E ; the truncated come generated by the tra:
solid, generated by the segment A D F, pezoid FG KH; which (11.j is equal
is equal to # r × A G (C A* – C E°), to , ºr × G. K. (FG2 + HK2 + F G x
i. e. # ºr x A G × A E°, or to , ºr x AG HK): therefore, the double-based seg
× A Fº, because (I. 36. Cor. 1.) C A2 ment in question is equal to ºr x
— CE* is equal to A. E”, and AF* G. K. (3 FG= + 3 H Kº) + i + + G K8;
(III. 3.) to a fourth of A Fº. To this or to 3 ºr × G. K. (FG2 + H Kº) + r
add the come generated by the triangle × G. Kº ; the first part of which is the
A FG, which (9.) is equal to # ºr x AG half of a cylinder (4. Cor. I.) having
x FG*: therefore, the spherical seg the altitude G. K., and a base ºr x FG”
ment in question is equal to # ºr x AG + ºr x H K*, equal to the sum of the
(A F* + 2 FG2), i.e. to # ºr x AG (3 FG2 bases of the segment, and the other
+AG”) because AF is equal to AG2 + part a sphere of which G. K is the dia
FGs (III. 36.). And ºr x AG (3 FG2 meter (17. Cor. 4.).
+ AG”) is equal to # ºr x AG x FG3 + Therefore, &c.
# a × A G*; the first part of which is Cor. It appears from the demonstrā
(4. Cor. 1.) the half of a cylinder having tions of this and the preceding proposi
the altitude A G and the same base tion, that the solid generated by the re
| W. § 3.]] GEOMETRY. 183
: volution of any circular segment about two bases and a mean proportional
AG; a diameter of the circle, is equal to between them (IV. 33.). Therefore, the
# ºr x GK x FH"; G K being that por spherical orb is equal to the sum of
tion of the diameter, which is intercepted three pyramids, having their common
between two perpendiculars drawn to it altitude equal to the thickness of the
from the extremities of the segment, orb, and for their bases its exterior and
and FH the chord which is the base of interior surfaces, and a mean propor
the segment. tional between them.
PROP. 24. Therefore, &c.
Every spherical orb is equal to the PROp. 25.
sum of three pyramids having their
common altitude equal to the thickness Every spherical ungula is to the
of the orb, and for their bases its ea:- whole sphere, as the angle between its
terior and interior surfaces, and a mean planes to four right angles; and its
proportional between them. lune, or convex surface, is to the surface
For, a spherical orb is the differ of the whole sphere in the same ratio.
ence between two concentric spheres. Let AD B E be an ungula of a sphere
Now, if a pyramid be described having having the centre C and the diameter
its base equal to the exterior surface,
or surface of the larger sphere, and
its altitude equal to the radius of that

surface, this pyramid will be equal AB; and from C let CD, CE be
to the whole sphere (IV. 32. Cor. 1. drawn in the planes A D B, AE B, per
and 17.). And if, from this, there be pendicular to A B (I, 44.): the ungula
cut off, by a plane parallel to the A D B E shall be to the whole sphere, as
base, a pyramid, having its altitude the angle D C E to four right angles,
equal to the radius of the interior sur For, since the plane D C E is per
face, the two pyramids will be to one pendicular to A B (IV. 3.), the angle,
another as the cubes of any two homolo which measures the inclination of any
gous edges (IV, 34. Cor.); or, since it two planes passing through AB, may
may be shown that their altitudes are be drawn in that plane at the point
to one another in the same ratio with C (IV. 17. Schol.); and, if any two
the homologous edges, as the cubes of of these angles at C be equal to one
their altitudes, (IV. 27. Cor. 3.), that is, another, the dihedral angles which they
as the cubes of the radii of the spheres, or measure willbe equal (IV.17.), and there.
(18.) as the spheres, Therefore, because fore the ungulas, which have those dihe
the larger pyramid is equal to the larger dral angles, may be made to coincide, and
sphere, the smaller pyramid is equal to are equal to one another. Now, let the
the smaller sphere (II. 18.); and the dif angle D C E be divided into any number
ference of the two pyramids is equal to of equal angles D C F, FC G, &c.; and
the difference of the two spheres, that is, therefore the dihedral angle DAB E into
the frustum is equal to the spherical the same number ofdihedralangles by the
orb. And, because the larger base of planes AC F. A. C. G., &c. (IV. 17.); and
the frustum is equal to the surface of the the ungula A PBE into as many equal
larger sphere, it may be shown that its ungulas A D B F, ADBG, &c. by the
smaller base is equal to the surface of same planes. Then, if the angle D C F
the smaller sphere, exactly in the same be contained in the four right angles
manner as it has been already shown, about C any number of times exactly,
that the content of the smaller pyramid or with a remainder, the ungula ADBF
is equal to the content of the smaller will be contained in the whole sphere the
sphere; also the altitude of the frustum same number of times exactly, or with
is equal to the thickness of the orb. a remainder. Therefore the ungula
But the frustum is equal to the sum A D B E is to the whole sphere as the
of three pyramids, having the same angle D C E to four right angles (II.
altitude with it, and for their bases its def. 7.).
184 GEOMETRY. [VI. § 1.
And a similar proof may be applied the two extremities of a diameter, any }:
to show that the lune A D B E is to the number of great circles may be made to ºf
surface of the whole sphere in the same pass, for they are in the same straight |ht
ratio, viz. that of the angle D C E to four line with the centre of the sphere (IV. $100
right angles. 1. Cor. 4.).
Therefore, &c. 2. If a sphere is cutby a plane which
Cor. 1. Every spherical ungula is does not pass through the centre, the cles
equal to one-third of the product of the section is called a small circle of the in
radius by its lune or convex surface. sphere; the radius of such a section ăre
Cor. 2. In the same or in equal being less than that of the sphere. that
spheres, any two ungulas are to one A circle, it is plain, may be made to ſing
another as the angles between their pass through any three points in the
planes. And the same may be said of sphere's surface; and it will be a great §
any two lunes. or a small circle, according as its plane ACC0
passes through the centre of the sphere, (Ont.
Scholium. º or otherwise. grea
We might here add the proportions of 3. The aris of any circle of the sphere ge]
similar segments, sectors, orbs, ungulas, is that diameter of the sphere which is E.
and of their convex surfaces. The perpendicular to the plane of the circle; the
reader will, however, easily perceive, and the extremities of the axis are called dini
from the demonstration of prop. 15, that the poles of the circle. Brºs,
if similar spherical segments and sectors 4. Parallel circles of a sphere are
be defined to be such as are generated such as have their planes parallel. me
by similar circular segments and sectors, It is evident that parallel circles have ('iſ'.
their surfaces will be as the squares of the same axis and poles; for a straight Am)||
the radii, and their contents as the cubes line which is perpendicular to one of two gem
of the radii. And the same may be said parallel planes is perpendicular to the digit
of similar spherical orbs, defined to be other likewise (IV.il.). It may also be dihe
such that the radii of their exterior and observed that two parallel circles can anot
interior surfaces are to one another in
not both of them pass through the centre ally
the same ratio; and of similar ungulas of the sphere, that is, they cannot both She
defined to be such as have their dihedral millſ
be great circles of the sphere. -
angles equal to one another. These four definitions may be illus Of ti

trated by referring to the figure of prop.
BOOK WI.
1. in which PAP' is a great circle,
A B C a small circle, POP' the aris,
§ 1. Of great and small circles of the and P, P the poles of the circle A B C,
and A'B'C', ABC are parallel circles
Sphere.—S_2. Of Spherical Trian
gles—S3. Qf equal Portions of Sphe of 5.the sphere.
Any portion of the circumference
zical Surface, and the Measure of
solid Angles.—$ 4. Problems. of a great circle is called a spherical
(27°C.
§ 1.-Of great and small Circles of the Two points are said to be joined on
Sphere. the surface of the sphere when the sphe
Def. 1. If a sphere is cut by a plane rical are between them is described; and
which passes through the centre, the this arc is called the spherical distance
section is called a great circle of the of the two points, in order to distinguish
sphere; the radius of such a section it from their direct distance, which is the
being the greatest possible, the same, straight line which joins them. The
namely, with the radius of the sphere. spherical distance of opposite extremities
From this definition it is evident that of a diameter of the sphere is evidently
a great circle may be made to pass half the circumference of a great circle:
through any two points in the surface of but the spherical distance of any other
a sphere; and that, if the two points be two points is less than a semicircum
not opposite extremities of a diameter, ference, being always the lesser of the
only one great circle can be made to two arcs, into, which they divide the
pass through them, for its plane must great circle which passes through them.
pass through the centre of the sphere
and only one plane can be made to pass of 6, The polar distances of any circle
the sphere are the spherical arcs
through three points which are not in the which Join any point in the circum
same straightline (IV. 1.) But through ference with the two poles of the circle.
VI. § 1.] GEOMETRY. 185
By the polar distance (singly) the lesser meal acute angle, and a spherical obtuse
of these two arcs, or distance from angle
by a rectilineal obtuse angle.
the nearer pole, is generally to be under 9. A spherical triangle is a portion of
stood.
the sphere's surface included by three
7. If the arcs AB, arcs of different great circles, as AB C.
AC of two great cir- T} Every spherical tri- A.
cles meet one another A
angle, A B C, has three
in a point A, they sides, viz. the containing
are said to form at
arcs AB, AC, and B C,
that point aspherical and three angles A, B,
angle B.A. C. C
and C. B C
A spherical angle & In the spherical triangles here con
is greater or less, sidered, it is supposed that each of
according to the opening between its the sides is less than a semicircum
containing arcs: thus the angle BAC is
greater than the angle DAC by the an
ference. For, the greatest spherical
distance at which two points can be
gle B.A. D. placed is a semicircumference; and if
Every spherical angle is measured by any arc, as PAP', >
& the plane angle which measures the in be taken equal to P

clination of the planes of the containinga semicircumference,
arcs. For it is easy to perceive, that if its extremities P, Pl
this inclination is the same in any two will be extremities of A.
spherical angles, they may be made to a diameter POP of
coincide, and therefore are equal to one the sphere, and there
another. If, therefore, the dihedral an fore the same great
gle made by the planes of one spherical circle . . will pass *
angle contain any sub-multiple of the through both of them, =P
dihedral angle made by the planes of and any third point Q on the sphere's
another a certain number of times ex
surface, so that the arcs Q P and Q Pl
actly, or with a remainder, the first will be arcs, not of different circles, but
spherical angle will contain a like sub of the same circle.
multiple of the other the same number Any three points on the sphere's sur
of times exactly or with a remainder; face may be assumed for the angles of
and, therefore, the spherical angles are a spherical triangle (see def. 5.), pro
to one another (II. def. 7.) as the dihe vided they are not in
the great
dral angles made by their planes, and circle, nor any two of them opposite to
same
have the same measures with them.”
one another, that is, opposite extremities
8. When one spheri of a diameter of the sphere.
cal arc standing upon 10. Two spherical triangles are said to
another makes the ad be symmetrical, when the sides of the
jacent spherical angles A. ID
equal to one another,
each of them is called
a spherical right an
gle, and the arc which stands upon the
other is said to be perpendicular, or at
right angles to it. . one are equal to the sides of the other
The terms acute and obtuse are likewise
each to each, but in a reverse order, as
A B C and DE F. 3.
applied to spherical angles, in the same 11. If ABC is any

sense as in Book I. def. 11.
spherical triangle, A.
It is evident that a spherical right an and the points A, B',
gle is measured by a rectilineal right an C! are those poles of
gle, a spherical acute angle by a rectili the arcs B C, A C,
A B, respectively,
* Hence a spherical angle has been defined by which lie upon the
some writers tobe..º.º. º. the
dihedral angle B
same sides of them IB C
of its planes; while others have extended to it the
general definition of the angle in which two curves with the opposite an- -
cut one another, considering it the same with the gles A.B.C.; and the triangle A, B, C,
plane rectilineal angle of the tangents at the point
A ; for the latter angle, being contained by perpen
diculars to the common section OA, measures the
ls º in". triangle A/B/C/
is Said to
triangle A be
B C.the polar triang/
Ap tangle of the
dihedral angle of the planes.
186 GEOMETRY. [VI, § 1.
There are no fewer than eight differ one another; because the right-angled
ent triangles which have for their angu triangles OKA, OKB have their hypo
lar points poles of the sides of a given tenuses O A, O B each a radius of the
triangle A B C ; but there is only one sphere, and the side 0 K common to
triangle in which these poles A', #, C’, both (I.13.). Therefore, in this case the
lie towards the same parts with the op section is a circle having the centre K.
posite angles A, B, C, and this is the Therefore, &c. -
triangle A'B'C', which is known under Cor. 1. The radius of a great circle is
the12.
name of the polar triangle. the same with the radius of the sphere;
A spherical polygon A.
and the radius-square of a small circle
is] any portion of the is less than the radius-square of the
sphere's surface included B E
sphere by the square of the perpendicu
by more than three arcs of lar, which is drawn to its plane from
different great circles, as CTD the centre of the sphere (I. 35, Cor. 1.).
A BCD É. Cor. 2. Every diameter of a great
13. Opposite points on the surface of circle is likewise a diameter of the
the sphere are those which are opposite sphere.
extremities of a diameter of the sphere. PROp. 2.
It is evident that the arcs which join two
such points with any third point on the Either pole of a circle of the sphere is
sphere's surface, are parts of the same equally distant from all points in the
great circle, and are together equal to a circumference of that circle; whether
semicircumference (see the second figure the direct or the spherical distance be
of def. 9.) wnderstood.
Let ABC (see the figure of prop. 1.)
PROP. 1. be any circle of a sphere which has the
centre O, and let OK be drawn perpen
Every plane section of a sphere is a dicular to the plane A B C, and pro
circle; the centre of which is either the duced to meet the surface of the sphere
centre of the sphere, or the foot of the in P; then, if A, B be any two points
perpendicular which is drawn to the in the circumference of the circle ABC,
7)lane from the centre of the sphere. and if the straight lines PA, PB, as
The substance of this proposition has also the spherical arcs, PA, PB be
been already given in the corollary to drawn, the line PA shall be equal to the -
Book IV. Prop. 8; and the following line PB, and the arc PA to the arc PB.
demonstration is only a statement at Join K.A., KB. Then, because K is
greater length of the reasoning from the centre of the circle A B C (1.), the
which it was there inferred. right-angled triangles PKA and PK B
have the two sides PK, K.A. of the one
If the plane pass through the cen equal to the two sides PK, KB of the
tre O of the sphere, as PA P', the other, each to each; therefore, (I. 4.)
p the hypotenuse PA is equal to the hypo
tenuse PB. And because, in equal cir
cles, the arcs which are subtended by
equal chords are equal to one another
(III. 12. Cor. 1.), the are PA is likewise
equal to the arc PB. And in like man
ner it may be shown that the other pole
P' is also equidistant from A and B.
In this demonstration it is supposed
that the point K does not coincide with
the point O, or that the circle in ques
distance OA of any point A in, the tion is not a great circle. If, however,
circumference of the section, from the ABC is a great circle, the angles P0A,
point O, will be the same with a radius P.O B are right angles, and therefore
Öf the sphere, and therefore the section equal to one another (I. I.), from which
will be a circle having the centre O. the equality of the chords PA, PB and
And if the plane do not pass through of the arcs PA, PB will follow as
the centre, the distances A K, B K, of before. -
any two points A, B, in the circumfer Therefore, &c.

ence of the section, from K the foot of Cor. I. Hence any circle of a sphere
the perpendicular O K, will be equal to may be conceived to be described from
WI. § 1.] GEOMETRY. 187;
either of its poles as a centre with the circles of the sphere. If, however,
spherical distance of that pole as a radius. the circles are great circles, the angles
For, if this distance be carried round the
PO A, P/O Aſ are right angles, and
pole, its extremity will lie in the circum
therefore the arcs PA, P. Aſ quad
ference of the circle. w
rants: and it is evident that, conversely,
Cor. 2. The distances of any circle circles whose polar distances are quad
from its two poles are together equal to rants pass through the centre of the
a semicircumference. sphere, that is, are great circles of the
Cor. 3. A great circle is equally dis sphere, and are equal to one another.
tant from its two poles; but this is not Therefore, &c.
the case with a small circle. For if Cor. Circles whose polar distances are
A B C be supposed to be a great circle, together equal to a semicircumference
the angles P.O.A., P! O A will be right are equal to one another (2. Cor. 2.)
angles, and therefore equal to one ano PROP. 4.
ther, so that the polar distances PA,
P A will be likewise equal (III, 12.); Any two great circles of the sphere
but if A B C be a small circle, the bisect one another.
angles POA, POA will be, one of For, since the plane of each passes
them less, and the other greater than a through the centre of the sphere, which
right angle, and therefore the distances is also the centre of each of the great
PA, P/A will be unequal. circles, their common section is a dia
meter of each; and circles are bisected
PROP, 3. by their diameters.
Therefore, &c.
Equal circles of the sphere have equal Cor. 1. Any two spherical arcs may
polar distances; and conversely. be produced to meet one another in two
Let A B C and A/B/C/ (see the figure points, which are opposite extremities of
of prop. 1.) be any two equal circles of a diameter of the sphere.
the sphere; K, KV their centres, and P, Cor. 2. Any number of spherical arcs
P their poles; then, if the radius KA which pass through the same point may
is equal fo the radius K'A', the polar be produced to pass likewise through
distance PA shall be equal to the polar the opposite point.
distance P/A/; and conversely.
For, if O be the centre of the sphere, PROP. 5.
and OK, KP be joined, OK will be per
pendicular to the plane A B C (1), and The spherical arc which is drawn
therefore (def. 3.) O K, K P will lie in from the pole of a great circle to any
the same straight line; and in like man point in its circumference is a quad
mer O K will be perpendicular to the want of a great circle, and is at right
plane A'B'C', and OK!, K P will lie angles to the circumference.
in the same straight line. Join O.A., Let the point P be the pole of a great
PA and OA!, P'A'. Then, because circle A B C : let any point A be taken
the right-angled triangles OKA, OK! Al in the circumference A B C, and let
have the hypotenuse OA equal to the
º ~
hypotenuse Q A', and the side K A

* equal to the side K'A', the angle KO A
º
or POA is equal to the angle K. O Aſ
or P/O A/ (I. 13.); and therefore, also,
the arc PA (III. 12.) is equal to the are
P'A'. And, conversely, if the arc PA
be equal to the arc P'A', the angle
POA will be equal to the angle P/O A/ P A be joined by the spherical are
(III. 12.); and, therefore, because in the PDA: the arc PDA is a quadrant,
right-angled triangles O KA, OK! A', and at right angles to the circumference
the hypotenuse OA is equal to the hypo A B C.
tenuse OA', and the angle KO A to the Take O the centre of the sphere, and
angle K'OA!, the radius KA is equal join O P, OA. Then, because (def. 3.)
to the radius K' A' (I. 13.). QP is at right angles to the plane
In the foregoing demonstration it is A B C, the angle POA is a right angle
supposed that the points K and K' do (IV. def. 1.); and, therefore, the arc
not coincide with the point O, that is, PDA is a quadrant. Again, because
that the circles in question are not great OP is at right angles to the plane ABC,
I88 GEOMETRY. [VI, § 1.
the plane OPDA is at right angles to QM may be a quadrant, QR will be
the plane A B C (IV. 18.); and, there equal to MN (I, ax. 3.). And the points
fore, the arc PDA is at right angles to Q, R are the poles of A. M., A N re
the circumference A B C (def. 7. and spectively, because QM, QA, as also
def. 8.). º, -- RN, RA, are quadrants (5. Cor. 2).
Therefore, &c. "
Cor. 1. If two great circles cut one PROP. 7.
another at right angles, the circumfe If one triangle be the polar triangle
rence of each shall pass through the of another, the latter shall likewise be
poles of the other. the polar triangle of the first; and
Cor. 2. If the spherical distances of a
point P in the surface of the sphere from the sides of either triangle shall be
the supplements * of the arcs which
two other points A and C in the same
surface which are not opposite extremi measure the opposite angles of the other.
ties of a diameter be each of them equal Let A B C be any spherical triangle,
to a quadrant, P shall be the pole of the and let A, B, C' be those poles of the
great circle which passes through the sides B C, AC, AB, which lie towards
points A and C. For, if Obe the centre the same parts of the arcs B C, AC,
of the sphere, the angles POA and A B, with the opposite angles A, B, C,
PO C will be right angles, because the respectively, so that A' and A lie to
arcs PA and PC are quadrants; and, wards the same parts of B C, B and B
therefore, PO is at right angles to the towards the same parts of A C, and C/
plane O A C (IV. 3.); for which reason and C towards the same parts of AB;
PO must be the axis, and P the pole of that is, (def. 11.) let A B C be the
the great circle which passes through A polar triangle of ABC: the triangle
and C (def. 3.). A B C shall, likewise, be the polar
--a triangle of A'B'C', and the sides of
PROP. 6.
either triangle shall be the supplements
Every spherical angle is measured by of the arcs which measure the opposite
the spherical arc which is decribed from angles of the other.
the angular point as a pole, and inter For, in the first place, Bl being the
cepted between the sides of the angle. pole of AC, AB" is a
Let B A C be any spherical angle, quadrant (5.); and C/
and from the point being the pole of AB,
A, as a pole, let a R. A C' is likewise a
great circle be de quadrant: therefore
scribed cutting the (5. Cor. 2.) A is the
sides A B, A C in pole of B' C'. Also, B'
the points M, N re it is upon the same
spectively: the sphe side of B'C' that Al is: for, because
rical angle BAC C
A' and A are upon the same side of
shall} be measured BC; and that A' is the pole of B C,
by the arc M. N. Aſ A is less than a quadrant; and be.
Take O the centre of the sphere, and Cause A is the pole of B C, and that
join O A, OM, ON. Then, because A A' is less than a quadrant, A and Al
A is the pole of the spherical arc MN, are upon the same side of B/C/.
the plane M O N is perpendicular to And, in the same manner, it may be
O A (def. 3.), and M. O., NO are each shown that B is the pole of A/C, and
of them perpendicular to OA. There B, B' upon the same side of A/C/; and
fore the angle M O N measures the di that C is the pole of A/B, and C, C
hedral angle M O AN (IV. 17.), or upon the same side of A/Bſ. Therefore,
which is the same thing, (def. 7.) the the triangle A B C is the polar triangle
spherical angle MAN or BAC. There of A'B'C' (def. 11.).
fore, the arc M N which measures the Next, let the arc B, C be produced
angle M ON, measures also the spheri both ways, if necessary, to meet the arcs
cal angle B.A. C. AB, AC (produced likewise if necessary)
Therefore, &c. in the points D, E, (4 Cor. 1.). Then,
Cor. The angle contained by two because A is the pole of the arc B'C',
spherical arcs is measured by the dis the spherical angle BAC is measured by
tance of their poles, which lie towards D.E (6.). Again, because B" is the pole
the same parts of the arcs. For, if the of A C, B" E is a quadrant; and for the
arc N M be produced to R, so that RN
.* From this property polar triangles are som?"
may be a quadrant, and to Q, so that times called supplementary triangles, ".
like reason C/D is also a quadrant: But these angles are respectively mea
therefore, the sum of B' E and C/D, sured by the arcs AB, A C, and B C.
that is, of DE and B'C', is equal to a Therefore A B and A C are together
semicircumference, and the side B'C' is greater than B C. And hence, taking
the supplement of DE which measures A C from each, A B alone is greater
the spherical angle BAC. And, in the than the difference of A C and B. C.,
same manner, it may be shown that any Therefore, &c.
other side of either of the triangles Cor. 1. The three sides of a spherical
A B C, A'B'C' is the supplement of triangle are together less than the cir
the arc which measures the opposite cumference of a great circle. For, if
angle of the other. A B and A C be produced to meet in D,
Therefore, &c. the arcs A B D, A CD will be semicir
Scholium. cumferences; but B C is less than B D
If the three sides of a spherical tri and D C together; therefore, A B, A C,
angle be each of them equal to a quad and B C are together less than AB D
and A CD, that is, less than the cir
rant, the polar triangle will coincide with
it; for each of the angular points will cumference of a great circle.
be the pole of the side opposite to it. Cor. 2. In the same manner it may
(5.Gor. 2.) The surface of the sphere may be shown that all the sides of any
be divided into eight such triangles, by spherical polygon are together less than
dividing the circumference of any great
circle into quadrants, and joining the
points of division with the poles of the
great circle.
SECTION 2.—Of Spherical Triangles.
PROP. 8.
The angles which one spherical arc
makes with another upon one side of it
are either two right angles, or are to the circumference of a great circle.
This is likewise evident from IV. 20.
gether equal to two right angles.
See the Demonstration of Book I. Scholium.
Prop. 2. By help of this proposition, it may be
Cor. 1. If two spherical arcs cut one shown that the shortest distance of two
another, the vertical or opposite angles points on the surface of a sphere, mea
will be equal to one another. See the sured over that surface, is the spherical
Demonstration of Book I. Prop. 3.
Cor. 2. If any number of spherical arc between them. See Book I. prop.
10. Scholium.
arcs meet in the same point, the sum
of all the angles about that point will PROP. 10.
be equal to four right angles. " The three angles of a spherical tri
PROP. 9." angle are together greater than two
Any two sides of a spherical triangle right angles, and less than sia: right
are together greater than the third angles. -
side; and any side of a spherical tri For the arcs which measure the three
angle is greater than the difference of angles together with the three sides of the
the other two. polar triangle are equal to three semi
Let A B C be a spherical triangle; circumferences (7.), or six quadrants :
the sides B A and A C shall be to therefore, the former alone are less than
gether greater than B C ; and A B alone six quadrants, and consequently the
shall be greater than the difference of angles which they measure are less than
A C and B C, Take O A. six right angles. Again, the sides of
the centre of the sphere, f' the polar triangle are less than a whole
and join O A, O B, O C. circumference, or four quadrants (9 Cor.
Then, because the solid 1.): therefore, the arcs before mention
angle at O is contained ed are greater than two quadrants, and
by three plane angles t
t
t
consequently the angles which they
A.O B, AOC, and B O C, t
t 4. measure greater than two right angles.
the two A O B and A O C
t
t
t
A Therefore, &c.
are together greater than , i.zºº’ * Cor. 1. A spherical triangle may have
the third BOC (IV, 19.). Dº two or even three right angles, or two
or even three obtuse angles. For, it is point B to the are B C, TB is equal
evident from the demonstration of the to TC (III. 2. Cor. 3.). Therefore, the
proposition, that the sum of the angles triangles SBT and SCT have the
depends upon the magnitude of the three sides of the one equal to the three
sides of the polar triangle, and since sides of the other, each to each, and
the sum of these last may be any what consequently the angle SBT is equal to
ever less than four quadrants, the sum the angle SCT (I. 7). Therefore, also,
of the angles of the original triangle the spherical angle A B C is equal to
may be any whatever greater than two, the spherical angle A C B.
and less than six right angles. Next, let the angle A B C be equal to
Cor. 2. If one side of a spherical tri the angle A C B : the side A B shall be
angle be produced, the exterior angle will equal to the side A.C. For, if the polar
be less than the sum of the two interior triangle A'B'C' be described, its sides
and º angles. , A'B' and A'C' which are supplements
For the exterior an- ~~
to the measures of the equal angles (7.)
gle, together with its 2^ will be equal; and, therefore, by the
adjacent interior an-
gle, is only equal to
B
C
// former part of the proposition, the sphe
rical angle at C' is equal to the spherical
two right angles (8.); angle at B'. But the sides AB and
but the two interior and opposite angles, A.C. are supplements to the measures
together with the same angle, are greater of these angles (7.). Therefore, also,
than two right angles. A B is equal to A.C.
Therefore, &c.
PROP. 11.
PROP. 12.
If two sides of a spherical triangle be
equal to one another, the opposite angles If one angle of a spherical triangle
shall be likewise equal; and conversely. be greater than another, the opposite
Let A B C be a spheri- S
side shall likewise be greater than the
cal triangle, having the side opposite to that other; and con
side A B equal to the versely.
side. A C ; the angle See the demonstration of Book I.
A C B shall likewise be
equal to the angle A B C.
Take O the centre of
d
/
Prop. 11.
Cor. If one side B C of a spherical
triangle A B C be produced to D, the
the sphere, and join O A, gº
ÖB, O C. From the ºs-AE -A.
oint C, in the plane T
A O C, draw C S at right
angles to CO (and, therefore (III. 2.),
</ 5–-----
_3D
touching the arc C A in C) to meet O A
produced in S; at the points B and C exterior angle A CD shall be equal to,
draw BT and CT, touching the arc or less than, or greater than, the interior
B C, and meeting one another in T, and opposite angle ABC, according as
and join B S, ST. Then, because the the sum of the two sides AB, A C is
arc AB is equal to AC, the angle AOB equal to, or greater than, or less than,
is equal to the angle A O C (III. 12.); the semicircumference of a great circle.
and, because the triangles S O B, S O C For, if B A and B C be produced to
have two sides of the one equal to two meet one another in D, the angles at B
sides of the other, each to each, and and D will be equal to one another,
the angles SOB, S O C which are in having for their common measure the
cluded by those sides equal to one measure of the same dihedral angle
another (I. 4.), the base S B is equal to (def. 7.) ; and B A D will be a semicir
the base S C, and the angle S B O to the cumference. But, by the proposition,
angle S CO, that is, to a right angle. the angle A C D is equal to, or less than,
Therefore, BS touches the arc A B in or greater than the angle at D, accord
B (III. 2.). And, because the spherical ing as A C is equal to, or greater than,
angles A B C, A C B are measured by or less than AID. Therefore, the angle
the plane angles of the tangents at B A CD is equal to, or greater than, or
and C (see def. 7. note) they are mea less than the angle at B, according as
sured by the angles S BT, S CT re A B and A C are together equal to, or
spectively. But, because TB and TC greater than, or less than a semicircum
are tangents drawn from the same ference, -
WI, § 2.] GEOMETRY. 191
PROP. 13, angle A QP to the angle Al QP (I. 4.);

If two spherical triangles have two and in the same manner it may be shown
sides of the One equal to two sides of the that A. B is equal to A' B, and A C to
other, each to each, and likewise the in A' C. Now, because A P is perpendi
cluded angles equal; their other angles cular to the plane O B C, and that PQ
shall be equal, each to each, viz. those is perpendicular to the line OB in that
to which the equal sides are opposite, plane, A Q is likewise perpendicular to
and the base, or third side, of the one O B (IV. 4.); and for the like reason
shall be equal to the base, or third side, A'Q is perpendicular to the same O B.
of the other. Therefore, the angles AQP, Al Q Prmea
There are here two cases for consi sure the dihedral angles formed by the
deration; first, that in which the equal planes O AB, OB C, and OA' B, OBC
sides A B, A C and DE, D F lie in the (IV. 17.), or, which is the same thing,
same direction; and, secondly, that in (def. 7.) the spherical angles A B C and
which they lie in opposite directions. A! BC; and because, as has been already
The first case may be demonstrated by demonstrated, the angle A QP is equal
superposition, after the same manner as to the angle A' QP, the spherical angle
Book I. Prop. 4, to which, for brevity's A B C is equal to the spherical angle
sake, the reader is referred: the second A! BC. In the same manner, it may be
case as follows:— shown that the spherical angles A C B .
Let A B C, DEF be two spherical and A' C B are equal to one another.
A
And because the straight line {AB is
equal to the straight line Al B, the are
A B is equal to the arc Aſ B (III. 12.
Cor. 1.); and, for the like reason, the arc
A C is equal to the arc A. C. There
fore, in the isosceles spherical triangle
—”
º Af
B A A', the angle BA/A is equal to the
angle BAA', and in the isosceles sphe
rical triangle CAA' the angle C A' A is
equal to the angle C A A' (11.); and,
triangles, which have the two sides AB, consequently, the whole (or, if the points
A C equal to the two sides DE, DF, B, C, are on the same side of the arc
each to each, viz. A B to D E and A C AA', the remaining) angle BA/ C is
to DF, but DE lying in a direction from equal to the whole or remaining angle
DF, which is thereverse of that in which B.A. C. Therefore, the triangles A B C,
AB lies from AC, and let them likewise A B C have their several sides and angles
equal to one another, but lying in a
have the angle BAC equal to the angle reverse order.
EDF: their other angles shall be equal, Now, because A' B and D E are each
each to each, viz, ABC to DEF; and
A C B to D FE, and the base B C shall of them equal to A B, they are equal to
be equal to the base E F. one another; and, for the like reason,
Take O the centre of the sphere: from A/C is equal to D F, and the angle
A draw AP perpendicular to the plane B A/C to the angle E D F. Also, the
O B C, and produce it to meet the sur equal parts lie in the same direction
face of the sphere in A. Join PO, PB, from one another in these two triangles,
PC, and OB; from P draw PQ per A B C, DE F. Therefore, by the first
pendicular to OB ; join A Q, AB, A C, case, the base B C is equal to the base
Al Q," Al B, A C ; and draw the spheri E F, and the angles A' B C, A/C B to
cal arcs A/B, A/C, Al A. Then, be the angles DE F and D FE respec
cause in the right-angled triangles APO, tively. And, because the angles A B C,
A'PO, the hypotenuse A O is equal to A C B are equal to the angles A/B C,
the hypotenuse. Aſ O, and the side PO A/C B, each to each, the former angles
common to both, the remaining sides are likewise equal to DEF and D FE
A P and A P are equal to one another respectively. Therefore, &c.
-
(I, 13.); and because in the right-angled

triangles A PQ, A/P Q, the side A P is PROP. 14,
equal to the side Al P, and the side PQ
common to both, the hypotenuse A Q is If two spherical triangles have two
equal to the hypotenusé Al Q, and the angles of the one equal to two angles of
the other, each to each, and likewise the
* Aº Q is ownitted in the figure. interjacent sides equal ; their other sides
shall be equal, each to each, viz, those to Prop. 13) be two spherical triangles hav
which the equal angles are opposite, and ing the two sides of the one equal to the
the third angle of the one shall be equal two sides of the other, each to each, and
to the third angle of the other. - likewise the base B C equal to the base
The case in which the equal angles EF. The angle BAC shall be equal
lie in the same direction from one ano to the angle EDF.
ther in the two triangles may be demon Let there be described, as in Prop. 13,
strated by superposition, in the same upon the other side of the base B C the
manner as Book I. Prop. 5, to which triangle A/B C, which has its sides and
the reader is referred. The other case, º equal to those of the triangle
in which they lie in different directions, A B C, each to each, but in a reverse
my be demonstrated as follows:— order. Then, because A' B and DE are
et A B C, D E F (see the figure of each of them equal to AB, they are
Prop. 13.) be two spherical triangles, equal to one another: and, for the like
which have the two angles A B C, reason, A/C is equal to D F : also B C
A C B of the one equal to the two is equal to EF; and these equal parts
angles D EF, D FE of the other, each lie in the same direction from one ano
to each, but in a reverse order, and like ther in the two triangles A B C, DE F.
wise the side B C equal to the side EF: Therefore, by the first case, the angle
their other sides shall be equal each to BA'C is equal to the angle EDF,
each, and the third angle B A C shall Therefore, because the angle B A C is
be equal to the third angle E D F. equal to the angle BA/C, the angle
Let there be described, as in the last BAC is likewise equal to the angle
proposition, upon the other side of the E D F.
base BC the triangle A/B C, which has Therefore, &c.
its sides and angles equal to those of the
triangle A B C, each to each, but in a r PROP. 16. }
reverse order. Then, because the an
gles A/B C and DE F are equal, each If two spherical triangles have the
of them, to the angle A B C, they are three angles of the one equal to the three
equal to one another; and, for the like angles of the other, each to each, they
reason the angle A' C B is equal to the shall likewise have the three sides of the
angle DFE. Also, BC is equal to E F; one equal to the three sides of the other,
and these equal parts lie in the same each to each, viz. those which are oppo
direction from one another in the two site to the equal angles.*
triangles A B C, DEF. Therefore, by Let the spherical triangles A B C,
the first case, the angle BA/ C is equal D EF have the three angles A, B, C of
to the angle E D F, and the sides Aſ B, the one equal to the three angles D, E, F
A/C are equal to the sides DE, D F re I)"
spectively. And, because, the angle **s r
B A C is equal to the angle BA/C, and

the sides AB, A C to the sides A/B,
A' C, each to each, the angle B A C is
equal to the angle EDF, and the sides
AB, AC to the sides DE,DF respectively.
Therefore, &c. a
i.”
* ,”
i --
B^ E’
PROP. 15.
of the other, each to each. The sides AB,
If two spherical triangles have two A C and BC shall likewise be equal to
º of the
the other, oneto equal
each each, to
andtwo sides
have of the sides DE, D F and EF, each to
like
each. - f p! (Iſ
ºise their bases equal, the angle con: For, if the polar triangles, A'B C!,
iained by the two sides of the one shall D. E. F. be described, they will have the
be equal to the angle contained by the three sides of the one equal to the three
moo sides equal to them of the other. .. sides of the other, each to each, becº
The case in which the equal sides lie every two corresponding sides,as A
in the same direction from one another, and "DfE are (?) supplements of the
may be demonstrated in the same man measures of equal angles C and F.C.
ner as Book I. Prop.7. the other case, ax. 3.). Therefore, by the last proposi
in which they lie in different directions, tion, these polar triangles have likewºº
* See the Scholium at the end of this Book,
*śc, DEF (see the figure of
the three angles A, B, C' of the one D PB is greater than D. C. Again,
equal to the three angles D, E, F of because the triangles PCD, PED have
the other, each to each. And hence the the two sides PC, PD of the one equal
triangles A B C, DEF have the three to the two sides PE, PD of the other, º
sides of the one equal to the three sides each to each, but the angle CPD greater
of the other, each to each, because every than the angle EPD, the base D C is
two corresponding sides, as A B and greater than the base DE (17.). Again,
DE are supplements of the measures of because the side E D of the triangle
equal angles C' and F (7.) PDE is greater than the difference of
Therefore, &c. PD, P E the other two sides (9.), and
that PA is equal to PE, the are ED
PRop. 17. is greater than the difference of PD and
PA, that is, than AD. Therefore, DPB
If two spherical triangles have two is the greatest and D A the least of all
sides of the one .# al to two sides of the arcs which can be drawn from D to the
other, each to each, but the angle which circumference, and D C, which is nearer
is contained by the two sides of the one to D PB, is greater than DE, which is
reater than the angle which is contained more remote.
y the two sides which are equal to them Also, there can be drawn only two
of the other; the base of that which has equal arcs DE, D F from the point D
the greater angle shall be greater than to the circumference, and these make
ſº the base of the other: and conversely.
See the demonstration of Book I.
equal angles with the shortest arc D.A.
ſ: upon either side of it. For, if P F be
Prop. 11. drawn, making the angle A PF equal
PROP. 18. to the angle A PE, and D F be joined;
then, because the triangles PDF, PDE
If any point be taken within a circle have two sides of the one equal to two
of ihe sphere which is not its pole; of all sides of the other, each to each, and
the arcs which can be drawn from that the included angles DPF, D PE equal
point to the circumference, the greatest is to one another, the bases D F and D E
that in which the pole is, and the other are equal to one another, and the angles
part of that arcyroduced istheleast; and PDF, PD E which are adjacent to
of any others, that which is nearer to the A D F, A DE, likewise equal (13.).
greatest is always greater than one more But, besides D F, there cannot be drawn
Yemote: and from the same point to the any other arc from D to the circumfer
circumference there can be drawn only ence equal to DE ; for if it were pos
two arcs that are equal to one another, sible, and D G were such an arc, then
which two make equal angles, upon either D G, which is nearer to (or farther from)
side, with the shortest arc. D-PB than D F is, would be equal to DF,
Let A B C beamy which is contrary to what was shown in
circle (either a great the former part of the proposition.
or a small circle) Therefore, &c.
of the sphere, P its Cor. 1. From a point to a spherical
pole (if a great cir arc, the perpendicular is either the least
cle, either of its two or the greatest distance, the least when
poles; if a small it is less than a quadrant, the greatest
circle, the nearer when it is greater than a quadrant.
pole), and D a point on the surface of For the perpendicular are either passes,
the sphere, which is upon the same or may be produced to pass through
side of the circle A B C D with the pole the pole ofthe spherical arc (5. Cor. 1.):
P. Of all the arcs D A, D PB, D C, &c. in the former case it is, as D P B,
which can be drawn from D to the cir greater than any other arc which can be
cumference, the arc D PB which passes drawn from the point E to the circum
through P shall be the greatest, and ference of which the spherical are is a
DA the other part of that are produced portion, and it is, at the same time,
the least: and of the others, DC, which greater than (5.) the quadrant PB; in the
is nearer to D PB, shall be greater than latter case it is, as DA, less than an
DE, which is more remote. -
other, and, it is, at the same time, less

Join PE, PC. Then, because the two than (5.) the quadrant P.A. *
sides D P, P C of the triangle D PC are Cor. 2. If there be taken within a

together greater than the third D C (9.), circle (that is, anywhere on the surface
and that PB is equal to PC, the arc of the sphere, if it be a great circle, or
O
194 GEOMETRY.
on the same side with the nearer pole, them, A B being (18.
if a small circle) a point from which Cor. 1.) the least arc
there fall more than two equal arcs to which can be drawn
the circumference, that point shall be from A to B C, AC
a pole of the circle. which is nearer to it
Cor. 3. Hence, also, if there be taken is less than AD,
without a small circle a point from which is more re
which there fall more than two equal mote (18.); or, se- A.
arcs to the circumference, that point condly, if Ää and BC
shall be the more distant pole of the be both greater than
small circle. For if the opposite point quadrants, then AB
through which the equal arcs pass being (18.Cor. 1.) the
(4 Cor. 2.) be taken, three distances greatest arc which E *C
of the latter from the circumference can be drawn from "
(I, ax. 3.) will be equal, and therefore, by A to BC, AC which is further from it is
Cor. 2., it will be the nearer pole. less than AD, which is not so remote (18);
therefore, in both cases, A C is less than
PROP. 19. a quadrant. But, if either of the sides,
as AB, be greater than a quadrant, and
In a spherical triangle, which has the other, B C, less, A B being the
-
t
one of its angles a right angle, either greatest arc which can be drawn from A
t
of the other angles is greater or less to B C, A C which is nearer to it is
than a right angle, according as the greater than AD, which is more remote
opposite side is greater or less than a (18.); therefore, A C is greater than a
quadrant; and if the sides, which con quadrant. - -
tain the right angle, are both greater or Therefore, &c.

both less than quadrants, the third side, Cor. 1. It is evident from the demon
or hypotenuse, shall be less than a quad stration, that if one of the two sides
rant; but if one of these sides be greater which contain the right angle be equal
than a quadrant, and the other less, the to a quadrant, the opposite angle will
hypotenuse shall be greater than a quad be a right angle, and the hypotenuse
7"ant.
likewise a quadrant. - -
Let A B C be a spheri Cor. 2. Hence, in a right-angled

P
cal triangle, having the A/. spherical triangle, either of the two sides
right angle A B C, and let is of the same affection with the opposité
A C B be one of the other angle; and the hypotenuse is, 1% equal
two angles: the angle to, or, 2°, less than, or,as,3°,1°,greater
A C B shall be greater or a quadrant, according one ofthan,
the
less than a right angle, adjoining angles is a right angle, or
according as the opposite these two angles are, 2°, of the same ºr,
side A B is greater or less than a quad 3°, of different affections. See note,
r ant. page 61. -
For, if from BA, or from BA produced,

B P be cut off equal to a quadrant, and Section 3. – Of Equal Portiºns of
PC joined, the angle P C B will be a right spherical Surface, and the Measure
angle, because Pis the pole of B C (5.); of Solid Angles.
and it is evident that the angle A C B
is greater or less than the angle PC B, PROP. 20,
according as A B is greater or less Spherical triangles which have the
than P. B.
Also, if the sides A B, B C are both º sides of the ; equal to the three
greater or both less than quadrants, the sides of the other, each to each, Cº.
also equal portions ºf spherical sulfº,
hypotenuse, A C shall be less than a whether the triangles are summer”
quadrant; but if one of them be greater or otherwise.
than a quadrant, and the other less, - -
A C shall be greater than a quadrant. Let A B C, DEF be two splºº.

triangles, which have the three sº
For, if from B C, or from B C pro the one equal to the three sides of t
duced, B D be cut off equal to a quad
rant, and A D be joined, D will be the other, each to each, viz.A.P. º.º.
pole of A B (5.), and, therefore, A D will Ağoli, F, and Bó to EF; the i
be equal to a quadrant. And, first, if AB face of the triangle ABC shal!", "A"
and B C be both less than quadrants, tº the surface ofthe triangle Pº”
GEOMETRY. a' Pis;
the former three, if the $ºt pi S.
within the triangle A B C ; or to the dif
ference between the sum of ºl A. -
and the third, if it fall without

triangle; and the triangle DE Fis equal
to the sum of the latter three, in the first
case, or to the difference between the
Fº|
sum of the corresponding two of them º
and the third, in the other+. Therefore,
the triangle ABC is equal to the triangle
D E F (I. ax. 2. 3.). |ºº,
Therefore, &c.
| º
Let a plane be drawn through the PROP. 21. *
points A, B, C, to cut the sphere in a
circle passing through those points (1.): Every spherical triangle is equal to º
º
from the centre of the sphere, draw a half the difference between the hemi *
perpendicular to the plane A B C, and spherical surface, and the sum of three
º produce it to meet the surface of the lunes which have their angles equal to the
º sphere in P: then P is the pole of the three angles of the triangle respectively.
mº circle A B C (def. 3.); and, consequent Let A B C be any spherical triangle;
|| || ly, (2.) if the spherical arcs PA, PB, its surface shall be equal to half the
ºrſ." PC are drawn, joining the point P with difference between the hemispherical
gºt the points A, B, C, respectively, they
will be equal to one another. Make the
spherical angle DE Q equal to the
º spherical angle A BP: make also the
lſ # arc E Q equal to the arc BP, and join
**** Q D, Q F. Then, because the angles
ſº DE F (15.) and DE Q are equal to the
* angles A B C and A B P, each to each,
the angle Q EF is equal to the angle
gº PBC (I. ax. 3.). And, because in the surface, and the sum of three lunes
º triangles Q E F, PB C, two sides of the having their angles respectively equal
º one are equal to two sides of the other, to the angles A, B, C.
fºll each to each, and the included angles Let the circles be completed, of which
gº QEF, PB C likewise equal to one ano the sides AB, A C, and B C are parts,
lºſi | ther (13.) the arc Q F is equal to the and let A a, Bb, and C c be the diameters
º," are PC, and the angle E QF to the passing through the points A, B, and C.
sº | angle B PC. In the same manner, it Then, because C A c and A c a are semi
& ſº may be shown that the arc Q D is circumferences (4.), they are equal to one
equal to the arc PA, and the angle another, and A c being taken from each,
D. Q E to the angle A P B. There the remainders A C, a c are likewise
fore, because the angles D Q E and equal. In the same manner it may be
* E QF are respectively equal to the shown that A B is equal to a b, and BC
ſº angles A P B and B P C, the angle to b c. And, because the triangles
D Q F is equal to the angle A P C : A B C, a b c have the three sides of the
and because the arcs PA, PB, PC one equal to the three sides of the
are equal to one another, the arcs Q D, other, each to each, their surfaces are
Q E, QF, which are severally equal to equal to one another (20.) Now, the lune
them, are likewise equal to one another A cab A has its angle equal to the angle
(I. ax. 1.). A of the triangle A B C (8. Cor. 1.), and
-
Now, it is evident that isosceles tri the lunes B Alb C B, C B c AC have for
angles, as P B C and Q EF, which have their angles the angles B, C of the same
equal vertical angles, and equal sides triangle. And these three lunes are
containing them, may be made to coin If the arcs BP, E, Q, or these arcs produced, cut
cide, and, therefore, are equal to one the* arcs A C, D F in the points R, S, respectively, it
another. Therefore, the isosceles trian may be shewn º”. 14, that B R is equal to ÉS:
therefore, since B P is equal to EQ, if the point P
gles PAB, PB C, and PAC are re falls within the triangle A B C, the point Q must
spectively equal to the isosceles triangles likewise fall within the triangle D.E. F.; or if P fall
§ E, Q E F, and Q D F. But the without the triangle A B C, and within the angle
A B C, Q must likewise fall without the triangle
triangle ABC is equal to the sum of DEF, and within the *64. DE F,
196- GEOMETRY. [VI. § 3.
together equal to the surface of the the sum of its angles minus two right
hemisphere A B C b c together with the angles: therefore, the sum of all the tri
triangles A B C, a b c ; that is, to the angles, that is, the polygon, is measured
surface of the hemisphere, together with by the sum of all their angles minus
twice the triangle A B C. Therefore, twice as many right angles as there are
twice the triangle A B C is equal to the triangles. But the sum of all the an
difference between the sum of the three gles of the triangles is equal to the sum
lumes and the surface of the hemisphere; of all the angles of the polygon, together
and the triangle A B C is equal to half with the angles of the point P, thatis, (8.
that difference. ... Cor. 2.) together with four right angles:
Therefore, &c. and there are as many triangles as the
Cor. I. Hence, if the angles of a polygon has sides. Therefore, the sur
spherical triangle are given, we may face of the polygon is measured by the
find the proportion which its surface sum of its angles plus four right angles
bears to the surface of the sphere. minus twice as many right angles as
For, since the surface of any lune is to the polygon has sides.
the surface of the sphere, as the angle of Let X be the sum of its angles, and
the lune to four ;angles (V. 2ſ.), or n the number of its sides: then the sur
as twice its angle to eight right angles; if face of the polygon is measured by
the surface of the sphere be represented x + 4 R–2 m R.
by 8 right angles, or 8 R,” the sur
faces of the lumes which have the angles Scholium.
A, B, and C will be represented by 2 A, It follows from the last corollary, that
2 B, and 2 C ; and the hemispherical if S be the number of the solid angles of
surface will be represented by 4 R: a polyhedron, F the number of its faces,
therefore, the surface of the triangle and E the number of its edges, S-F F-E
A B C will be represented by half 2 A+ will be equal to 2. For, if a sphere be
2 B+2 C – 4 R, that is, by A+B+C – described about any point within the
2 R. And hence, it is commonly said, polyhedron as a centre, the lines which
that the surface of a spherical triangle are drawn from this point through the
is measured by the ercess of the sum of
solid angles of the polyhedron will cut
its angles above two right angles; it the surface of the sphere in S. points,
being understood that the surface of and the planes which are drawn from the
the sphere is measured by eight right same point through the edges will cut
angles. the surface in E spherical arcs; and thus
Cor. 2. The surface of a sphericalthe whole surface of the sphere will be
triangle whose angles are A, B, C is divided into F spherical polygons, cor
equal to the surface of a lune whose responding to the F faces of the poly
C hedron. Now, the surface of each of
angle is Arºre — R. For both these spherical polygons is measured by
the sum of its angles plus four right
surfaces are measured by A + B + C – angles minus twice as many right an
2 R.
gles as the polygon has sides. There
Cor. 3. The surface of a spherical fore, the surfaces of all the polygons
polygon A B C D E is measured by the taken together are measured by the sum
excess of the sum of A. Tº of all their angles taken together plus
all its angles, toge- e as many times four right angles as there
ther wº right \/ * are polygons minus twice as many right
angles, above twice /_^p-2 angles as all the polygons together have
º angles
as the polygon has
"S[/">
C
sides. But the sum of all their angles
taken together is the sum of allthe angles,
sides. at the Sangular points, and, therefore,
For the polygon may be divided into is equal to S times four right angles
as many triangles, as it has sides, by (8, Cor. 2.): the number of the polygons
joining its angles with any point P taken is F; and the number of the sides of the
within the polygon; and the surface of polygons is 2 E, because the number ºf
each of these triangles is measured by different sides is E, and each of these is
at once a side of two adjoining polygons.
* In which case, R represents the surface of the Therefore, the surfaces of all the poly
spherical triangle, which has each of its angular
jºints the pole of the side opposite to it (7. Scholium.). gons, taken together, are measured by
We shall see (28. Scholium.) that the surface of this
triangle measures a solid righê angle at the centre
(S + F – E) times four right angles.
of the sphere. Therefore, since the surface of the
VI, 53.]. GEOMETRY. 197.
sphere is made up of the surfaces of all C_the circle CD E parallel to A B c
the polygons, and that the surface of (IV. 11. Cor. 1.). Let P be the common
the sphere is measured by 8 or 2 x 4 pole of the two circles, and join PC, Pc.
right angles, S + F –E is equal to 2. Then, because C c is a diameter of the
... And from the equation S-FF-E=2 sphere, PC and Pc are arcs of the same
it may be further shown that the sum of great circle, and are together equal to a
all the plane angles which contain the semicircumference. And, because the
solid angles of any polyhedron is S-2 polar distances P C and Pc of the circles
times 4 right angles. For, the plane ABC and CD E are together equal to a
angles of each face are together equal to . semicircumference, the circles A B cand
twice as many right angles as the face CD E, which have been made to pass
has sides minus four right angles. through the two points A, B, and the
Therefore, the plane angles of all the point C, are equal to one another (3.
faces are together equal to twice as Cor.).
many right angles as all the faces taken Next, let D B be any spherical arc
together have sides, minus as many which is terminated by these circles; and
times four right angles as there are let it be cut by the great circle FGH,
faces. But the number of sides of the to which they are parallel, in the point
faces is 2 E, for the reason before men G: DG shall be equal to G. B. Join
tioned; and F is the number of faces. D P; let the great circle D G B be com
Therefore, the sum in question is equal pleted, and let its plane cut the plane of
to E–F times 4 right angles; that is, the great circle FG H in the diameter
because S –2 = E — F, to S – 2 times GQg, and the plane of the great circle
4 right angles. D P in the diameter D Od. Then, be
cause PD and Pd are together equal
PROP. 22. to a semicircumference, and that the
point D is in the circle CDE, the point
Through any two given points and a d is in the circle A B c, which is equal
third upon the surface of a sphere, to CD E, and has the same pole with it
which do not lie in the circumference of (3. Cor.). Join O G, OB, Bd; and,
the same great circle, there may be because GO, B dare sections of parallel
made to pass two equal and parallel planes F. G. H., A B c by the plane
small circles; that is, one of them D G B d, G O is parallel to B d (IV. 12.);
through the first two given points, and therefore the angle DO G is equal to
the other through the third given the angle D dB, and the angle B O G.
point; and every spherical arc which is to the angle O B d (I. 15.). But the
terminated by these circles shall be angles O B d and Od B or D dB are
bisected by the circumference of the equal to one another, because O d is
great circle to which they are parallel. equal to O B (I.6.): therefore, also, the
angle D O G is equal to the angle
BOG (I. ax. 1.), and the arc D G to the
arc G B (III. 12.).
Therefore, &c.
Cor. 1. It is shown in the latter part
of the demonstration, that if there be
two equal and parallel small circles, and
if a great circle meets one of them in
any point, it will meet the other in the
opposite extremity of the diameter which
Let A and B be any two points upon passes through that point. -
the surface of a sphere, and C any third Cor. 2. Hence if a great circle cuts
point, which does not lie in the circum one of two equal and parallel small cir
ference of the great circle passing cles, it will cut the other likewise; also
through A and B. Through the two
points A, B, and the point C, there may
be made to pass two equal and parallel
small circles of the sphere.
Let O be the centre of the sphere,
and let c be the opposite extremity of
the diameter CO c. Then it is evident
(IV: 1.) that through the three points
A, B, C there may be made to pass the
small circle A B c, and through the point
if it touches one of them, it will touch gle A B C shall be equal to the triangle
the other likewise. EBC. Let the circumference of the great
PRoP. 23.
Lunular portions of surface, which
are contained by equal spherical arcs
with the arcs of equal small circles of
the same sphere, are equal to one
another; , so also are the pyramidal
solids, which have these portions for
their bases, and their common vertea,
in the centre of the sphere. -
circle to which both AEF and B C G.
Let A B C, DE F be equal small cir are parallel cut the are A C in H; join
cles, and let the spherical arcs AB, DE BH, and produce it to meet the circumfe
contain with the small arcs ACB, D FE rence AEFin D(22.Oor. 2.), and join AD.
the lunular surfaces ACB, D FE; then, Then, because every spherical arc which
if the arcs AB and DE are equal to one is terminated by the circles AEF, BCG
another, the surfaces A CB, D FE shall is bisected by the circumference of the
be likewise equal. great circle to which they are parallel
(22.), AH is equal to H C, and D H to
H B ; and because the triangles HAD,
P | H C B have the two sides H A, HD
| equal to the two sides H C, HB, each
^.
As—- B
C
Dºs
F
to each, and the included angles equal
to one another (8. Cor. 1.), the base
AD is equal to the base C B (13.); and,
Let P be the nearer pole of the circle for the like reason, AB is equal to CD:
ABC, and Q the nearer pole of the cir therefore, the triangles A B C, CDA
cle DEF, and join PA, PB, Q D, Q E. have the three sides of the one equal
Then, because the circles are equal to to the three sides of the other, each to
one another, the polar distances PA, QD each, and are equal to one another (20.);
are likewise equal (3.) : and, because so that the quadrilateral ABCD is dou
the triangles PAB, Q DE have the two ble of the triangle A B C. In the same
sides PA, PB equal to the two sides manner, the quadrilateral E B C F may
Q D, Q E, each to each, and the base be described, which is double of the tri
A B equal to the base DE, the angle angle E B C, and has its sides E.F, FC
A PB is equal to the angle DQ E (15). equal to the sides BC, EB, each to each.
Therefore, if the pole P be applied to And, because the spherical arcs AD and
the pole Q, and the arc PA to the arc E F are each of them equal to B C, they
Q D, the arc P B will coincide with the are equal to one another : therefore,
arc Q E, and the points A and B will also, the chord AD is equal to the chord
coincide with the points D and E respec E F (III. 12. Cor. 1.) and the small arc
tively, and the arc AB with the arc DE, A D to the small arc EF; and, if the
and the small arc A. C B with the small small arc E D is added to, or taken from
arc D FE; and therefore the lunular them, the small arc A.E is equal to the
surface A C B coincides with the lunular small arc D F : and hence, again, be:
surface D F E, and is equal to it. And cause the chords of these equal small
because these surfaces may be made to arcs are equal, the spherical arc AE
coincide, it is evident that the pyramidal is equal to the spherical arc D.F
solids, which have these surfaces for their (III. 12. Cor. 1.). And, because the
bases, may likewise be made to coin triangles A B E, D C F have the three
cide, and are equal to one another.
sides of the one equal to the three sides
of the other, each to each, they are equal
. Therefore, &c. to one another (20.); but the lunular por.
PROP. 24. tions which are contained by the small
arcs A E, D F with the equal spherical
Spherical triangles, which stand upon arcs AE, DF are likewise equal (23):
the same base and between the same therefore, the remaining portions of the
equal and parallelsmall circles, are equal triangles A B E, D C Fare equal to one
to one another. another. Let each of these equals be
Let the spherical triangles A B C, taken from the whole surface included
E B C stand upon the same base B C, by the small are AEF and the spherical
and between the same equal and parallel arcs AB, B C, CF, and there remains
small circles A. E. F. B C G : the trian
WI. § 3.] GEOMETRY. 199
the surface included by the small arc PROp. 25.

E F and the spherical arcs E B, BC,
QF, equal to the surface included by Of equal spherical triangles upon the
the small arc AD and the spherical arcs same base, ine ..". the least
AB, BC, CD. To each of these equals perimeter. -
add the equal lunular portions (28.) which Let A B C, DBC be two equal spheri
are contained by the small arcs E F, cal triangles upon the same base B C,
AD, with the equal spherical arcs E F, and upon the same side of it, and there
AD; and the whole quadrilateral EBCF fore also between the same equal and
is equal to the whole quadrilateral parallel small circles A D E, B C F (24.
A B C D. Therefore, because the halves Cor.); and let the triangle A B C be
of equals are equal, the triangle E.B C P
is equal to the triangle A B C.
Therefore, &c.
Cor. Hence, if equal triangles A B C,
EB G stand upon the same base B C,
/. E.
and the same side of it, the points A, E

and B, C lie in the circumferences of
two equal and parallel small circles.
For, if the arc BE be produced to
meet the circumference A D F in some
point as E! (22. Cor. 2.), and if E C be isosceles, having the side A B equal to
joined, the triangle E' B G will be equal the side A C : the triangle A B C, shall
to the triangle A B C, by the proposition, have a less perimeter than the triangle
and therefore likewise equal to the D B C. - -
triangle E B C, which is impossible, Let P be the nearer pole of the circle

unless the point E' coincides with the A DE ; and therefore, also, the more
point E. ln fact, if the point E were distant pole of the circle B C F. Join
supposed to fall between the two circles, PA, and through the point A draw the
it is evident that a triangle E' B C might spherical arc GH at right angles to PA:
be found having its vertex E' in the then, because the arc PA, being less
circumference A D F, and including the than a quadrant, is less than any other
vertex E of the triangle E B C ; or if arc which can be drawn from P to G. H.
E were supposed to fall within the circle (18. Cor. 1.) and that PD is equal to PA,
A D F, a triangle E' B C might be the arc G H will cut the are BD in some
found having its vertex E' in the same point H which is between D and B.
circumference, and included within the From B draw the arc B G perpendicular
triangle, E B C ; and in neither case to GH, and produce it to meet CA pro
could the triangle E B C be equal to duced in the point K ; and join H C,
the triangle EBC, that is, to the triangle H K, PB, PC. Then, because the
A B C, whereas, by the proposition, spherical triangles PA B, PAC have
such triangle E B C must be equal to the three sides of the one equal to the
the triangle A B C. three sides of the other, each to each,
Scholium.
the angle PA B is equal to the anglé
PAC (15); but the angle PAG is equal
It may at first appear that the pre to the angle PAH, because they are right
ceding proposition does not apply to all angles; therefore, the remaining angle
triangles which stand upon the base B A G is equal to the remaining angle
CAH or (8.Cor. 1.) KAG. And, because
B C, and have their vertices in the cir
cumference AEF; since the arc B. A the triangles BGA, KGA have two an
(for instance) may be produced to cut gles of the one equal to two angles of the
the circumference AEF a second time other, each to each, and the interjacent
in a point A' which may be joined with side GA common to both, G. K is equal
the point C, and thus, apparently, a to G B, and A K to A B (14.). There
second triangle formed, which is greater fore, because the triangles H. G. B,
than ABC; but, if the arc B.A pro H G K have two sides of the one equai
duced cuts the circumference A E F in a
to two sides of the other, each to each,
Second point A!, the are A' A B will beand the included angles H. G. B., H. G. K.
a semicircumference (22. Cor. 1.), and equal to one another, H K is equal to
therefore the triangle which is appa HB (13.). But in the triangle HKC, the
rently contained by A/B, BC, and Āf C, side KC is less than H K and HC toge
is not a triangle (def. 9.) but a lune. ther (9.) : therefore, A B and A C are
*—
together less than H B and H. C. And are equal to the two sides GB, GH,
HB, HC together are less than DB, DC each to each, and the included angles
together, because HC is less (9.)than DC equal to one another, A H is equal to
and D H together. Much more, there H B, and the angle A H G to the angle
fore, are AB and AC together less than BHG (13.). Now,through the two points
D B and D C together. Therefore, if B, C and the third point A let there be
B C is added to each, the perimeter of made to pass two equal and parallel
the triangle A B C is less than the peri small circles B C K and A LM (22.),
meter of the triangle D B C. And, because in arcs AB and A C, ter
Therefore, &c. minated by these circles, the points of
Cor. Hence, of all triangles which bisection H and G lie in the circumfer
are upon the same base, and have equal ence of the great circle to which they
perimeters, the isosceles has the greatest are parallel (22.), the arc G H is an are
area. For triangles, which have the of that great circle. Make the angle
same or a greater area than the isosceles, C B L equal to the angle FED, and let
have greater perimeters. the arc BL cut the arc GH in N, and the
circumference ALM in L (22. Cor. 2.);
PROP. 26. and join L C, NA. Then, because the
triangles N H A, NHB have two sides
If two spherical triangles have two of the one equal to two sides of the other,
sides of the one equal to two sides of each to each, and the included angles
the other, each to each, , and the angle N H A, N H B equal to one another,
which is contained by the two sides of the arc N A is equal to NB (13.); but
the first equal to the sum of the other NB is equal to NL, because the arc GH
two angles of that triangle, but the an produced bisects every arc A. L which
gle which is contained by the two sides is terminated by the circles ALM,
of the other not so; the first triangle B C K ; therefore NA is equal to NL:
shall be greater than the other. but N A and NB are together greater
Let the spherical triangles A B C, than AB (9.); therefore, LB is likewise
D E F have the two sides AB, BC equal greater than A.B. Therefore, if BQ be
to the two sides DE, E F, each to each, cut off from the arc BL produced, equal
to A B or D E, the point Q will be be
and let the angle A B C of the first tri tween L and B. Join QC; and, be
cause the triangles Q B C, DEF have
the two sides QB, B C equal to the two
sides D E, E F, each to each, and the
included angles equal to one another,
the third sides QC, DF are equal to one
another (13.); and, consequently (20),
the triangle QBC is equal to the triangle
D E F. But I, B C is greater than QBC;
and A B C is equal to L. B C, because
they are upon the same base BC, and be:
angle be equal to the sum of the other tween the same equal and parallel small
two angles BC A, B A C, but the angle circles (24.). Therefore, the triangle
D E F of the other not equal to the sum ABC is greater than the triangle DEF.
of the other two angles E FD, E D F : Therefore, &c.
the triangle A B C shall be greater than Cor. Two given finite spherical arcs
the triangle DE F. AB, B C, together with a third indefi
Because the angle A B C is equal to nite, inclose the greatest surface possi:
the sum of the two angles BC A, B A C, ble, when placed so that the included
let it be divided into the parts G B C, angle ABC may be equal to the sum of
GBA, equal to them respectively, by the the other two angles of the triangle
arc B G which meets AC in G. Draw ' A B C. -
the arc G. H., bisecting the angle A G B, This conclusion is analogous to that
and let it meet AB in H. Then, because of III. 39. Cor, with regard to the
the angles G B C, GBA are equal to the greatest possible area which can be
angles G C B, G A B respectively, G C enclosed by two given finite straight
and G A are equal, each of them, to lines with a third indefinite; for, although
GB (11.), and therefore, also, equal to one the angle ABC included by the spherical
another ; and, because in the triangles arcs is not a right angle, it is equalſo
G HA, G H B the two sides GA, G H the sum of the other two angles of the,
VI. § 3.) GEOMETRY. - 201
triangle A B C, which is the case also the lune BAB, C, and the triangle ABC
with the right angle of a right-angled has its surface always equal to a fourth.
plane triangle (I. 19. Cor. 3.). part of the surface of the sphere; for it
Scholium.
is measured by the difference of 2 B and
2 B — 2 R, that is, by 2R, and the
In a triangle A B C which has one of sphere's surface by 8 R (21. Cor. 1.).
its angles A B C equal to the sum of the It may becbserved that asimilar course
other two, the containing sides AB, BC of reasoning to that which is exhibited in
are together less than a semicircumfer Book III. Prop. 40, 41, 42, and 43,
ence. For G, the middle point of AC, is founded upon this proposition, will lead
the pole of a small circle passing through to the same conclusions with regard to
A, B, and C, because GA, G B and G C the surfaces included by spherical poly
are equal to one another: and, because gons and circles of the sphere, which
a spherical arc (9. Schol.) is the shortest are there stated with regard to the areas
distance between two points along the of rectilineal figures, and circles on a
surface of the sphere, the great arcs plane surface: viz.
AB and B C are together less than 1. Of all spherical polygons, contained
the small arcs A B and B C, that is, by the same given sides, that one con
than the semi-circumference of a small tains the greatest portion of spherical
circle: much more, therefore, are A B surface, which has all its angles in the
and B C together less than the semi circumference of a circle.
circumference of a great circle. In fact, 2. A circle includes a greater portion
when the given sides A B and B C are of the spherical surface than any sphe
together equal to a semicircumference, rical polygon of the same perimeter.
BC coincides with BR, the polar diame 3. The lunular surface, which is in
ter of the circle BCK, and because AC cluded by a spherical arc and a small arc,
is always bisected by the circumference is greater than any other surface which
of the great circle H. G. N., A G and is included by the same perimeter, of
G C are in this case quadrants, and which the same spherical arc is a part.
consequently (19. Cor. 1.) A G C is at We may also infer from Prop. 25., that,
right angles to A B ; so that A B C is of all spherical polygons having the same
a lune, not a triangle, and equal to a number of sides and the same perimeter,
fourth part of the surface of the sphere. the greatest is that which has all its sides
And when the given sides A B and B C equal and all its angles equal. For if a
are together greater than a semicircum spherical polygon A B C D E have not
ference, it is evident, without reference all its sides equal, and A B, A E be two
to the figure, that a triangle may be adjoining sides which are unequal, a
found which shall have A B, B C for greater A/B C D E may be found with
two of its sides, and differ by as little the same perimeter by describing upon
as we please from half the surface of the the base TB E the isosceles triangle
sphere. For, in this case, if A B, BC A! B E, which has the - A
are placed in the circumference of the same perimeter with --A.
same great circle, that is, at an angle A B E. And, as above, 13 2
equal to two right angles, the arc AC if a spherical polygon
\\
which completes the circle will be less have not all its angles c I,
than a semicircumference; and if A B, lying in the circumfer- --
B C are placed at any angle less than ence of a circle, a greater D
two right angles, the arc AC will be still may be found with the same sides.
less (18.); therefore, if A B, BC are Therefore, none is greatest, but that
placed at any angle less than two right which has all its sides equal, and all its
angles, A C being joined will complete angles lying in the circumference of a cir
a spherical triangle (def. 9.), and this cle, that is, which has all its sides equal
triangle will differ less and less from and all its angles equal; and, since
the hemispherical surface, as the an there is evidently some greatest, the
gle A B C approaches to two right greatest is that which has all its sides
angles. equal and all its angles equal.
In a triangle A B C of this kind, the PROP. 27.
angle A B C, which is equal to the sum
of the other two, is always greater than Spherical pyramids, which stand upon
a right angle, because the three together equal bases, are equal to one another;
are greater than two right angles (IO). It so, likewise, are their solid angles.
is worthy of notice, also, that the triangle First, let the bases of the pyramids
B' A C, which is the difference between be equal triangles, which have one side
202 - GEOMETRY. [VI. § 3.
of the one equal to one side of the other, be taken equal to the triangle A B C or
and let the equal sides be made to coin KLM, and join K. M. Then, by the
cide, so that the triangles A B C, E B C former case, the pyramids upon the
(in the figure of Prop. 24.) may repre bases A B C, K'LM' are equal to one
sent the bases of the pyramids. Then another. And, because the triangle
the triangles ABC, E B C, being equal K LMſ is equal to the triangle KLM,
to one another, lie between the same the triangles K M M and K K M
equal and parallel small circles, and which have the common side K! M are
may be completed (as in Prop. 24.) into likewise equal; therefore, by the first
the quadrilaterals A B C D, E B C F. case, the pyramids, which have these
And it may be shown, as in the same triangles for their bases, are equal to one
proposition, that the triangles E A B, another; and, these being added to, or
F D C have the three sides of the one taken from, the pyramid upon the base
equal to the three sides of the other, K! LM, the whole or remaining pyra
each to each, and therefore may be mid upon the base K LMſ is equal to
made to coincide (15.) : wherefore, also, the whole or remaining pyramid upon
the pyramids, which have these triangles the base K LM, that is to the pyramid
for their bases, may be made to coincide, upon the base A B C.
and are equal to one another, And hence, Lastly, let the bases of the pyramids
as in Prop. 24., it was demonstrated, P, P be equal polygons. Let a triangle
by the addition and subtraction of the be found which is equal to one, and
lunular portions of surface, that the qua therefore also to the other of the
drilateral A B C D is equal to the quadri polygons, and let Q be the pyramid
lateral EBCF, so, here, it may be demon which has this triangle for its base.
strated, by the addition and subtraction Then, because this triangle is equal to
ofthe pyramidal solids (23.), which have the base of the pyramid P, it may be
these lunular portions for their bases, divided into triangles which are equal
that the pyramidal solids, which have for respectively to the triangles into which
their bases the quadrilaterals A B C D the base of P is divisible. And it has
and E B C F, are equal to one another. been already shown that pyramids which
But, because the triangles A B C, CDA have equal triangles for their bases are
have the three sides of the one equal to equal to one another; and the sums of
the three sides of the other, each to each, equals are equal; therefore, the pyra
in the same order, they may be made to mids Pand Q are equal to one another.
coincide (15.), and therefore the pyramids In the same manner it may be shown that
which have these triangles for their the pyramids P and Q are equal to one
bases may be made to coincide, and are another. Therefore P is equal to P., And
equal to one another; and each of them it is evident that what has been shown
is the half of the pyramidal solid which with regard to spherical pyramids, being
has the quadrilateral A B CD for its base. derived from coincidence, may be shown
And in the same manner it may be equally of their solid angles at the cen
shown, that each of the pyramids on the tre of the sphere.
triangular bases, E B C, CFE is the Therefore, &c.
half of the pyramidal solid, on the
quadrilateral base E B C F. Therefore, PROP. 28.
because the halves of equals are equal, Any two spherical pyramids are to
the pyramid upon the base A B C is one another as their bases; and the
equal to the pyramid upon the base E.B.C.
Next, let the bases of the pyramids solid angles of the pyramids are to one
another in the same ratio.
be any equal triangles A B C, K LM.
Let P, P be any two spherical pyra
A. K mids, and let B, B' be their bases: the
pyramid P shall be to the pyramid P.
as the base B to the base B'.
For if the base B' be divided into any
M. M. number of equal parts, then, because
‘.. pyramids which stand upon equal bases
are equal to one another, the pyramid P.
SSS will be divided into the same number of
LTRFM equal parts by planes passing through
the arcs of division (27.); and if the base
From LK or L K produced cut off LK! B contain exactly, or with a remainder,
equal to BA, and let the triangle K LM' a certain number of parts equal to the
VI. § 4.] GEOMETRY, 203.
former, the pyramid P will contain faces, are represented, upon the surface
exactly, or with a remainder, the same a sphere described about the angular
| || number of parts equal to the latter (27): point, by the sides, angles, and surface
} \, therefore, P is to P' as B to B' (II. of a spherical triangle or polygon: and
º: def. 7.) -
whatever has been stated with regard to
| And the same may be said of the solid the latter may be understood likewise of
angles. the former. It is shown (for instance)
| Therefore, &c. -
in Prop. 13. that if two solid angles, each
ki; Cor. Every spherical pyramid is equal of which is contained by three plane an
jº to the third part of the product of its gles, have two plane angles of the one
|]]: base and the radius of the sphere. equal to two plane angles of the other,
| For, if the whole sphere be divided each to each, and likewise the dihedral
into spherical pyramids, these pyramids angles contained by them equal to one
will be to one another as their bases; another, the remaining plane and dihe
and, therefore, any one of them is dral angles of the one shall be equal to
to the sum of all, as the base of that one the remaining plane and dihedral angles
to the sum of all the bases (II. 25. of the other, each to each. And, gene
Cor. 3.); that is, any pyramid is to the rally, all questions which relate to solid
whole sphere as its base to the surface angles will be placed in the clearest
of the sphere. Therefore, any pyramid view before us, when we contemplate
is to the whole sphere as the product of only their representation and that of
its base and the radius of the sphere to their parts, upon the surface of the
the product of the whole surface and sphere. -
radius (IV. 26.); and because, in this

proportion, the second term is equal to SECTION 4.—Problems.
the third part of the fourth (V. 17.), the
first term is likewise equal to the third In the solution of the following pro
part of the third (II. 19. and II. 13.). blems, it is assumed,
Scholium. 1. That of any two points, which are
given upon the surface of a sphere, the
Hence it appears that every solid direct distance may be obtained; and,
angle is measured by the spherical sur 2. That from any given point as a
face which is described with a given pole, with any given distance, less than
tadius about the angular point, and in a semicircumference, a circle may be
tercepted between its planes. For it is described upon the surface of a sphere.
shown in the proposition that any two We may observe, however, that the first
solid angles are to one another as these assumption is only used in Prob. 1 to
surfaces.
obtain the diameter of the sphere; and,
This measure bears an obvious ana therefore, if the diameter is supposed to
logy to the measure of a plane angle, as be given, it may be dismissed as unne
stated in the Scholium at Book III.
cessary. Constructions made within
Prop. 13. The angular unit of the latter the sphere are excluded.
measurement is the right angle ; into
four of which the whole angular space PROp. 29. Prob. 1.
about any point in a plane is divided by To find the diameter of
two straight lines drawn at right angles sphere A B C D. Af aa given
gi
| to one another; and each right angle is
| From any point A, as a pole, with any
measured by a quadrant, or fourth part distance
| of the circumference of a circle described AB, describe the circle B C D ;
about that point with a given radius.
! In like manner, if, through a point in
| space, three planes be made to pass at
| right angles to one another, they will
divide the whole angular space about
that point into eight solid right angles,
each of which (a solid angular unit) is
measured by an octant, or eighth part of
the surface of a sphere described about fe
that point with a given radius.
Thus, then, the plane angles, dihedral in the circumference B C D take any
angles, and magnitude of a solid angle, three points B, C, D ; describe the plane
which has three or a greater number of triangle bed with its sides be, cd, bd
204 GEOMETRY, [VI. § 4.
equal to the direct distances B C, CD, Then, because the planes of any two
BD respectively; find e the centre of great circles cut one another in a dia
the circumscribing circle (III. 59.), and meter of the sphere, the points A, a are
join e b,; from the point e draw e a per opposite extremities of a diameter.
pendicular to e b, and from the centre Therefore, &c.
b, with a radius equal to the direct dis - PROP. 31. Prob. 3.
tance B.A describe a circle cutting e a To join two given points A, B upon
in a ; produce a e to f, and from b draw the surface of a sphere.
bf perpendicular to ba (I.44.) to meet From the pole A,
af in f: a f shall be equal to the dia with the distance
meter of the sphere. of a quadrant (29.
For, if O be the centre of the sphere, Cor.), describe a
and the diameter A OF be drawn cut great circle, and
ting the plane B C D in E, and E B be from the pole B,
joined, A F will be the axis (def. 3.), with the same dis
and therefore (1) the point E the centre, tance, describe a
of the circle B C D, and the angle AP B great circle cut
will be a right angle. Also, EB is equal ing the former in the point P. From P
to e b, because the triangles B C D, b c d as a pole, with the same distance, de
may be made to coincide, and, then, the scribe the arc A.B. Then, because AB
points E, e being, each of them, the is the arc of a great circle (5.) described
centre of the same circumscribing circle, between the points A, B, it joins those
will likewise coincide. Therefore, be two points on the surface of the sphere
cause in the right-angled triangles AEB, (def. 5.).
a e b, the hypotenuse A B is equal to Therefore, &c.
the hypotenuse a b, and the side EB Cor. In the same manner, any sphe
to the side e b, the angle B A E is equal rical are being given, the great circle
to the angle b a e (I, 13.). Join AB, may be completed of which it is a part.
B F, O B. Then, because O B is equal PROP. 32. Prob. 4.
to the half of A F, the angle A B F is To bisect a given spherical arc AB,
a right angle (I., 19. Cor. 4.); and,
because, in the right-angled triangles
A B F, a b.f, the side A B and angle
From the pole A, with
the distance A B describe
a circle, and from the pole
^
B AF are equal respectively to the side B with the same distance
a b and angle b af, the hypotenuses A F AB or BA describe a cir- A -E-75
and a fare equal to one another (I. 5.), cle cutting the former cir
and a f is equal to the diameter of the cle in the points C, D,
sphere. Join CD (31.) and let it cut I)
Therefore, &c. A B in E. AB is bisected
Cor. Hence, a sphere being given, in E.
the quadrant of a great circle may be See Book I. Prop. 43.
found; for it is equal to the quadrant Therefore, &c.
of the circle which is described upon the It must here be observed that al;
diameter af. though the points C,ofDsmall
are determined
by the intersection circle; the
PROP. 30. Prob. 2.
arcs CA, CB, CD, DA, DB, which are
Any point A being given upon the the sides of the spherical triangles in the
surface of a sphere, to find the opposite demonstration, are portions of great cº
eviremity of the diameter which passes cles; and the same remark applies to
through that point. some subsequent problems. -
From the pole A, Cor. In the same manner, a spherical

with the distance of arc CD may be drawn which shall bi
a quadrant, (29. sect any spherical arc AB at right an
Cor.) describe a gles.
spherical arc P Q PROP. 33. Prob. 5.
To draw an arc, which shall be per
(5.); and, from any pendicular to a given spherical are AB,
two points P, Q of
this arc, as poles, from a given point C in the same.
with the same dis From C cut
produced, B, off
or CB
CP I),
;a
eat circles
tance, describepassing
two through A, and
equal to a quadrant,
Čutting one another again in the point a. and from the pole P,
4-1--,
A Tc B
... GEOMETRY. 205
VI. §4.]
with the distance PC, describe the spheri PROP. 37. Prob. 9.
cal arc CD, Then, because PC is To describe a circle through three
drawn from the pole of a great circle given points A, B, C, upon the surface
CD to the point C in that circle, PC of a sphere.
is at right angles to CD (5.); or, which
is the same thing, CD is at right angles Join (31.) AB and
to PC or AB. AC, and bisect them
Therefore, &c. at right angles (32.
PROP. 34. Prob. 6.
Cor) with the arcs
DP, EP, which meet
To draw an arc, which shall be per one another in the
pendicular to a given spherical arc AB, points P, P. From
from a given point C without it. either of these points,
From the pole C, P, as a pole, with the
with the distance of c distance PA, describe
a quadrant, describe -
a circle.
two pointsItBshall
andpass through
C. For PB isthe other
e ual to
a great circle, cut- -> BA, because the triangles PDB, D A
ting AB or AB pro- ** rººf
duced in P, and from have two sides of the one equal to two
the pole P, with the same distance, de sides of the other, each to each, and the
scribe the spherical arc CD. For the included angles PDA, PDB equal to
same reason as in the last problem, CD one another (13.); and in the same man
is the perpendicular required. ner it may be shown that PC, likewise,
Therefore, &c. is equal to PA.
Therefore, &c.
PROP. 35. Prob. 7.
Cor. In the same manner, the poles
fºie a given spherical angle P, Pt of any given circle AB C may be
found.
In A B take any point A. PROP. 38. Prob. 10.
B; make A C equal to Through two given points A, B, and
A B, and join B C ; from
the poles B, C, with the a third point C on the surface of a
common distance. B C, B C sphere, to describe two equal and paral.
describe two spherical
arcs cutting one another
ſ
D
/ itſ small circles; the points A, B, C not
lying in the circumference of the same
in D, and join A D (31.). great circle.
AD is the bisecting arc J. Join AB, and draw D E bisecting it
required. See Book I. Prop. 46. at right angles in the point D (32. Cor);
Therefore, &c. find. Aſ the opposite extremity of the
diameter which passes through A (30.);
PRop. 36. Prob. 8. join A C (31.), and bisect it at right
At a given point A, in a given arc DE angles with the arc FP, which meets
AB, to make a spherical angle equal to join in the points P, P (32. Cor.);
a given spherical angle C. PA, P C, and from the pole P with
-
From the pole C, with the distance of

a quadrant, describe a circle cutting the
sides of the given angle in the points
*\r E
A B C I)
D, E ; and from the pole A, with the

same distance, describe a circle B F G. the distances PA, PC describe two
cutting A B in B; from B F G cut off small circles A G H and C K L : the
BF equal to DE, and join AF (31.). The former shall likewise pass through the
§: ** F is equal to the given angle point B, and they shall be the two equal
; for
B F, DE §are measured by equal arcs and parallel small circles required.
they
For, if PA and P B be joined, they
Therefore, &c. will be equal to one another, because
206
GEOMETRY.
the triangles PDA, PDB have two Bisect AB in H
sides of the one equal to two sides of (32), and produce
the other, each to each, and the included H A to P, so that
angles PDA, PD B equal to one ano HP may be equal
ther (13.). And, for the same reason, if to a quadrant ;
PA'and PC are joined, PA will be equal from the pole P,
to PC. But PA and PA are together with the distance
equal to a semicircumference, because P B, describe the
A A' is a diameter of the sphere. There small circle BCK,
fore, PA and PC are together equal to and from the pole
a semicircumference; and, consequently B, with the distance Q, describe a circle
(3. Cor.), the parallel circles A G H, cutting the circle BC K in C. Join
CKL are equal to one another. Also, AC, B C. The triangle A B C shall be
because PA is equal to PB, the circle the triangle required.
A G H passes through the point B. For, if, with the distances PA, PH,
Therefore, &c. there are described from the pole P the
small circle A LM and the great circle
Prop. 39. Prob. 11. H G N, the latter cutting the arc AC in
To describe a triangle which shall be G, the circles A LM and B C K will be
equal to a given spherical polygon, and equal to one another, because the dis
shall have a side and adjacent angle the tances PA, PB are together equal to
same with a given side AB and adjacent twice the quadrant PH (I, ax; 9.), that
angle B of the polygon. is, to a semicircumference (3. Cor); and
First, let the given A they are parallel because they have the
N] D
-
polygon be a quadri- same poles; and HGN is the great circle

jatéral A B C D. to which they are parallel; therefore,
Through the two
-
points A, C, and the Nº. AG is equal to GC (22). But, because

P is the pole of the great circle HGN,
third point D, describe two equal and PH is at right angles to H.G. (5.); and,
parallel small circles (38.), and let the because the triangles G H A, GHB
arc B C, which cuts one of them in C, have two sides of the one equal to two
be produced to cut the other in E (22. sides of the other, each to each, and the
Cor. 2.), and join AE, AC (31.). Then, included angles G. HA, G H B equal to
because the triangles A CD, A C E lie one another, GB is equal to GA or GC
between the same equal and parallel (13.). Therefore, because in theisosceles
small circles, they are equal to one ano triangles GAB, GBC, the angles GBA,
ther; and, therefore, the triangle ABC GBC are equal to the angles GAB,
being added to each, the triangle A BE GCB respectively (11), the whole angle
is equal to the quadrilateral A B C D. A B C of the triangle A B C is equal to
Next, let A B C D E F be the given the sum of the two angles CAB, ACB;
polygon. Join AC, A. D., Make, as in wherefore the triangle A B C is the
the former case, the triangle ADG equal greatest that can be formed with the
to the quadrilateral two sides A B, B C, or the greatest that
A DE F, the trian- F
le A C H equal to G can be formed with the given sides AB
É. quadrilateral
A C D G, and the
Aeºn
N*
and Q (26. Cor.).
Therefore, &c.
PROP. 41. Prob. 13.
triangle
to ABK equal
the quadrilateral ÉTö IQ Through a given point A to describe
A B C H. It is evi a great circle, which shall touch two
dent that the triangle A B K is equal to § equal and parallel small circles
the polygon A B C D E F. CD, EFG. -
And, in each case, the triangle de Find the point P which is the com
scribed has the same side AB and angle
B with the given polygon.
Therefore, &c.
PRop. 40. Prob. 12.
Gºver two spherical arcs A B and Q,
which are together less than a semici).
|...;given, to :*, them so, that, with
a thrd not
greatest surface ºft.
t tat the
7720,ºy contain
VI, sº GEOMETRY. 207
Scholium.
mon pole of the circles B C D, EFG
(37. Cor.), and join PA (31.): from the The constructions in this section have
pole P, with the distance PA, describe little or no practical utility, and have,
a circle, and from the point H, in which accordingly, been added rather with a
P A cuts the circle B CD, draw H K at view to illustrate the analogies of Plane
right angles to PA (33.), and let it cut the and Spherical Geometry, than to furnish
circle, which was described through A. rules for practice. Some of these we
in K. join PK (31), and let it cut the have already had occasion to notice,
circle B C D in L: the great circle A L / and others will have offered themselves
which passes through the points A and to the reader; who will readily perceive
L shall be the great circle required. that these striking points of resemblance
For, because in the triangles P.H. K. (or, as he may be disposed to call them,
PLA, the two sides P.H., PK are of identity) are to be ascribed to the cir
equal to the two sides PL, PA, and cumstance, that spherical triangles,
the included angle LPH common to when their sides are but small portions
both triangles, the angle PLA is equal of great circles, and consequently their
to the angle PH K, (13) that is, to a surfaces small in comparison with the
right angle; and the arc PL is less than surface of the sphere, become more and
a quadrant; therefore, PL is the least more nearly plane, their sides more and
aré which can be drawn from the point more nearly straight lines, and the sum
P to the circle A Ll (18. Cor. 1.), and if of their angles (the excess of which
LP be produced to meet the circle in '. above two right angles bears the same
Pl is the greatest. But every point of ratio to eight right angles (21 Cor. 1.)
the circle B C D is at the distance P L ; as the surface of the triangle to the
and every point in the equal circle E FG surface of the sphere), more and more
at the distance Pl, because Pl and PI, nearly equal to two right angles. Thus
are together equal to a semicircum every plane triangle may be regarded
ference (3. Cor.). Therefore, the circle as a spherical triangle upon the sur
ALM, which has been described through face of a sphere, the radius of which
the given point A, touches the given is indefinitely great; and in this way
circles B C D and EFG in the points L of viewing the subject, the properties of
and l. plane triangles resemble those of sphe
Therefore, &c. rical triangles, only as a particular case
PRop. 42. Prop. 14. the general one in which it is included. .
But it may be asked, has the term
To inscribe a circle in a given spheri similar, which introduces us to so wide
cal triangle A B C. a field in Plane Geometry, any place
Bisect the angle ABC with the arc BP, in Spherics? . . Not in propositions
and the angle A C B with the arc CP which have reference only to the sur
which meets the former arc in P (35.); face of ome and the same sphere.
from P draw Paper- Similar figures upon the surface of the
-
pendicular to B C A. same sphere are likewise equal to one

(34.); make B c equal
to Ba, and C b equal cº
~ another, and may be made to coincide.
But, when we consider the surfaces of
to C a, and join P c, & different spheres, and compare the fi
Ph. Then, because the gures which are formed upon them,
triangles P. Ba, PB c is :- G here again we shall find room for the
have two sides of the application of the term in its full and
one equal to two sides peculiar sense. Thus, similar spherical
of the other, each to each, and the in triangles are such as are contained by
cluded angles P B a, PB c equal to one similar arcs upon the surfaces of dif
another, Pc is equal to Pa (13.), and theferent spheres. It is easy to perceive
angle Pc B to the angle Pa B, that is, that such triangles are equiangular, and
to a right angle: therefore, the circle have their sides about the equal angles
which is described from the pole P, with proportionals; and that their surfaces
the distance Pa, will touch A B in the bear the same ratio to one another as
point c (18. Cor. 1.). And, in the same the surfaces of their respective spheres,
manner, it may be shown that the same and, therefore, are to one another as the
circle will touch A C in b. Therefore, squares of the radii of the spheres, or
from the pole P, with the distance Pa, as the squares of the arcs which are
describe the circle a b c ; and it will be homologous sides of the triangles,
the circle required. Therefore, &c.
208
A PP E N DIX.
PART I.-Of Projection byy Li

Lines diverging and by Lines parallel.
#. II.-Of the Plane -
Sections of łºś. ë. §. Sections.

- -
Or
ART III—Plane Sections of the Oblique Cone, of the Right Cylinder, and of the
Oblique Cylinder.
PART I.-Of Projection by Lines di either perspectively or orthographically,

upon a given plane A B, when all its
verging and by Lines parallel.
points are so projected; and the line
IT is not here intended to enter at large p q which contains the projectionsofthe
upon the subject of perspective, or to iaſter is called the perspective (fig of
anticipate in any manner the rules by def. 1.) or orthographic (fig, of deſ. 2.)
which it affords such material assistance projection of the line PQ.
to the draughtsman and artist. We Å. A figure PQ R is said to be pro
propose, on the contrary, no more than jected, either perspectively or oth9;.
phically, upon a given plane A.B. when
the explanation of a few terms, and the
statement of a few theorems, occasion all anditsthe
containing
figure p qlines are sois projected;
r, which contained
ally serving to simplify the consideration by the projections of the latter is called
of lines in different planes, and which the perspective (fig, of def. 1) or ortho
will be of immediate service in the ac
count which will be subsequently given graphic §§ of def.2) projection of the
of the general properties of the conic jigure PQR, -
an5.original
Any point,
point,line,
line,or figure
sections. is called
or figure with
Def. 1. Let AB reference to its perspective or orthogra
be a plane given phic projection. -
in position, and V Thus, in the figures of def. 1, and

a given point with def. 2., the point P is called the original
out it; then, if of the point p, the line PQ the original
through any point of the line pº, and the figure PQR the
P a straight line original of the figure p q r.
, is drawn from V it is almost needless to observe that
to meet the plane in these definitions the planes E F and
AB in p, the point A B, although they necessarily appear
p is called the per circumscribed in the figures, are C00Sl.
spective prºjeº. dered to be of unlimited extent; and
#on of the point P upon the plane A B. the same is to be understood in the ſol
The plane A B is called the plane of
projection, the point V the verter, and lowing propositions.
the plane E F, which is drawn through PROP. 1.
the point V parallel to A B, the vertical In perspective projection, no point?"
plane.
2. Let A B be a plane given in posi the vertical plane E F can be projected
from the vertea V upon the plane of
tion, and C D a straight line given in projection A B ; but, of every point
position, not parallel to the plane A B : which is not in that plane, the projection
then, if through
any point P a may be found upon the plane A B.
straight line , is For, the straight E
drawn parallel to line which is drawn
CD to meet the from the point V
plane A B in p, through any point
the point pis called in the plane E F,
the orthographic can never meet the
projection of the plane A B ; be
point P upon the cause, it lies en
plane A.B. tirely in the plane
The straight line C D is called the EF, which is paral
direction, and the plane A B, as before lel to AB. There- J3
the plane of projection. 3.
3. A line PQ is said to be projected,

fore, no point in the plane EF can be
projected from V upon the plane AB,
Appendix.] GEOMETRY. 209
But, if P be a point which is not in the vertex V cuts QPM in some point
the plane E F, draw V Operpendicular between Q and M.
to the plane A B (IV. 36.), and let the Therefore, &c.
plane PVO cut the parallel planes EF Cor. 1. It is supposed in the propo
and A B in the straight lines W M and sition that the original straight line PQ
ON respectively. Then, because the does not pass through the vertex V;
sections of parallel planes by the same for, in this case, it is evident that all its
plane are parallel straight lines (IV. 12.), points have for their projections the sin
WM is parallel to ON; and, because VM gle point in which it cuts the plane of
is parallel to ON, and that V P cuts projection.
W M in V, WP may be produced to cut Cor. 2. The perspective projection
ON in some point p (I. 14. Cor. 3.); but of any given straight line is a part of the
if it cuts O N in any point, it must cut common section of two planes, viz. the
the plane AB in the same point, because plane which passes through the vertex
ON lies in that plane: therefore p, the and given straight line, and the plane of
projection of the point P(def. 1.), may be projection.
found. or. 3. The perspective projection of
Therefore, &c. a straight line which is parallel; to the
Cor. It is shewn in this proposition, plane of projection, is parallel to its ori
that if a straight line cuts one of two ginal (IV. 10.)
parallel planes, it may be produced to Cor. 4. The perspective projection of
cut the other likewise. a straight line which is not parallel to
the plane of projection, shall pass, if
PRop. 2. produced, through the point in which a
parallel to the original drawn through the
The perspectiveprojection of a straight vertex cuts the plane of projection. For
line is a straight line; and if any point such parallel is in the plane which passes
of the original straight line be in the through the vertex and the original
vertical plane, the straight line which straight line, and consequently the point
is its projection shall be of unlimited in which it cuts the plane of projection
eactent. is in the common section of the two
Let AB be the # planes. -
plane of projec- : Cor. 5. If the original straight lin

tion, V the ver cuts the vertical plane, in the point M,
tex, P Q any so that one part, as K M, lies upon
straightline, and one side of that plane, and the other
its projec part, as MP Q, upon the other side of
#: * } shall it, the projections of the two parts shall
likewise be a together make up the whole of a straight
straight line. line infinitely produced both ways, ex
Because the cept only the finite interval k q between
points of p q lie the projections of its extreme points K
in straight lines and Q.
drawn through { Cor. 6. And if such original finite
V and the cor straight line K M P Q be infinitely pro
responding points of PQ, and that duced both ways, the projections of the
PQ is a straight line, the points of p q produced parts shall together make up
lie in the plane W P Q. But they lie the finite interval k g between the pro
also in the plane A B. Therefore they jections of its extreme points K and Q.
lie in the common section of the planes For, if V i be drawn parallel to KQ
WPC) and AB, that is (IV. 2.), in a to meet the plane A B in i, the projec
straight line. tion of every point in the part produced
Also, if any ſº
M of the original
straight line Q. P M lie in the vertical
beyond K will be found between k and
i, and the projection of every point in
plane E. F.; the straight line qp, which the part produced beyond Q between
is its projection, shall be of unlimited q and t.
extent towards p. For the projection PROP. 3.
of the point M cannot be found upon The perspective projections o
the plane A.B (1.); and every point in straight lines, which are #:#;
q p produced is the perspective projec lel to the plane of projection, are parallel
tion of some point of QPM, because the straight lines.
Straight line which is drawn from it to Let A B be the plane of pºsion,
210 GEOMETRY. [Appendix.
V the vertex, PQ and P. Q any two projection. Therefore, because W C is
parallel straight lines, which are like parallel both to PQ and P'Q', the pro
wise parallel
and p"q" the plane AB, and p q jections p q and p' q' pass both of them
theirtopro- v
through the point C. And in the same
jections: p q shall manner, it may be shown that the pro
be parallel to p' q’. jection of any other straight line º
Because PQ is is parallel to PQ, passes through the
parallel to the same point C ; for such straight line
plane AB, the pro is likewise parallel to W C (IV. 5.).
jection p q is pa Therefore, &c.
rallel to P Q (2. PROP, 5. -
Cor. 3.) and, for The perspective projection ºf a curved

the like reason, bine” is a curved line; and, if any point
p' q' is parallel to P'Q'. Again, be of the original curve be in the vertical
cause p q and P' Q' are each of them lane, the curve which is its projection
parallel to PQ, p q is parallel to P'Q' shall have an arc of unlimited extent
(IV. 6.); and, because p q and p' q' are corresponding to the arc of the original
each of them parallel to P'Q', p q is curve" which is terminated in that
parallel to p'q'. point.
And in the same manner it may be Let A B be the plane of projection,
shewn that if there are any number of V the vertex, PQR any curved line,
parallel straight lines which are likewise and p q r its projection: pgr shall like
parallel to the plane A B, their perspec wise be a curved line.
five projections shall be parallel to one
another.
Therefore, &c.
PROP. 4.
The perspective prºjections of parallel

straight lines, which cut the plane qf
projection, are straight lines, which are
ºnoi parallels, but which pass, when pro
Anºd,point,
same all ofthe
them, through
point, oneinand
namely, the
which
a straight line drawn through the verte.”
arallel to the original straight lines,
outs the plane of projection. For, if any part of par.º. p4 be
Let A B be the a straight i. then, since PQ is the
plane of projec perspective projection of p q upon the
plane PQR (def. 1), PQ
tion, V the vertex, must likewise
P Q and P' Q' be a straight line (2), which is contrary
any two paral to the supposition. Therefore, 110 part
lel straight lines of p q r is a straight line, that is, p q r is
which are not pa" a curved line (I. def. 5.).
rallel to the plane Also, if any point M of the Quº
A B, and p q and PQ R lies in #. vertical plane EF, the
'a' their projec projection p q r shall have an are of un
{{s} also }. WC be drawn through the imited extent corresponding to the ar"
point V parallel to P Q to meet the plane MP,Letwhich
N be is
anyterminated
point in in M.
the are MP,
A # in 'cº the straight lines p q, p'g'
produced, shall, each of them, pass and let V N be joined and produced to
through the point C. -
meet the plane AB in n, which is there.
Because straight lines, which are pa fore (def. 1.) the projection of the point
rallel to the same straight line are pa" Nº from V draw VO perpendicular tº
rallel to one another (IV. 6.) WC, which the plane A B (IV. 36.), and from
is parallel to PQ, is parallel also to P'Q'.
But it has been already shown (2 Cor. # , hich fit i derstood) liesin
4.) that the perspective projection of a
straight line which is not parallel to the planes,
..º.º.
of which one or more pass through the veſſe.
&f projection, the projections of the "º". ing
plane of projection, passes through the parts will be straight lines, (see Cor. 1 of this pro
point in which a parallel to it drawn sition). "The demºnstration given in the tº applies
ihrough the vertex cuts the plane of only to a plane curve,
EF, and join On, WT. Then, because This definition will be best illustrated
Q is perpendicular to the plane AB, by the example contained in the follow
which is parallel to the plane EF, vo ing proposition.
is also perpendicular to the plane EF PROP. 6.
(IV. 11); but N T is perpendicular to
the samewº therefore N T is pa The perspective projection of a
rallel to WO (IV. 5.). And, because straight line which touches any curve is
the plane of the parallels TN, VO (I. a straight line which touches the pro
def. 12.) cuts the planes EF, AB in the jection of that curve, if the point of
lines TV, On respectively, TV is parallel contact is without the º >
to On (IV, 12.). Therefore, because but, if the point of contact is in that
the triangles V On, TN V have the plane, the projection of the tangent is an
sides VO, On of the first parallel to the asymptote to the projection of the curve.
sides NT, TW of the other, each to each, Let A B be the plane of projection, V
and their sides V n, NW in the same the vertex, and PQR any curve; and,
straight line, they are equiangular (I. first, let P be a point of the curve PQ R.
15.), and, consequently (II. 31.), O n is
to OV as TV to TN. Therefore (II.9.),
if TV contains TN any number of times
exactly or with a remainder, O m will
contain OV the same number of times
exactly or with a remainder. But, if
the point N be made to approach to the
point M, TV will approach in magni
tude, as well as position, to MV, and
TN, which is the distance of the point B
N from the plane EF, will be diminished
without limiti consequently, there is no lying without the vertical plane EF, and
limit to the number of times TV may PH a straight line which touches the
be made to contain TN. Therefore, curve PQR in the point P; then, if the
also, there is no limit to the number of point p be the projection of the point P
times On may be made to contain OV, (def. I.), because P is a point both in the
that is, the line On may be increased curve PQR and the tangent PH, p will
without limit, and the point n will de be a point in the projection of each; let,
scribe an arc of unlimited extent cor therefore, the curve p q r be the projec
responding to the arc P N M or MP, tion of the curve PQR, and the straight
which is terminated in M. lineph the projection of the tangent PH:
Therefore, &c. the straight line ph shall likewise touch
the curve p q r in the point p.
Cor. 1. In the demonstration of this Because PH touches the curve PQR,
proposition it is supposed that the plane the points of the curve PQR upon both
of the original curve does not pass sides of P lie towards the same part of
through the vertex V; for, in this case, PH, and therefore also the straight lines
it is evident that its projection upon the drawn from V through those points lie
plane A B is a straight line (IV. 2.). towards the same part of the plane
Cor. 2. If the original curve cuts the WPH or Vph. But these straight lines
vertical plane in the point M, so that are the same which are drawn from V
one part, as KLM, lies upon one side to the points of the curve p q r on both
of that plane, and the other part, as sides of p (def. l.). Therefore, the lat
MP Q, upon the other side of it, the ter also lie towards the same part of the
projection shall have two arcs which plane V p h; and, consequently, the
are extended without limit in opposite points of the curve p q r on both sides
directions, corresponding to the two of p lie towards the same part of the
arcs K LM, M PQ, which are termi straight line ph, that is, ph touches the
minated in the point M. curve p q r in the point p.
Def. 6. If a curve has an are of unli But, in the next place, let M be a
mited extent, and if a straight line is point of the curve PQR lying in the
drawn which never meets that arc, but vertical plane EF, and let M G H be a
which, being produced, may be made to straight line touching the curve PQ R.
approach nearer to it than by any given in the point M ; them, if the curve p q r
distance, such straight line is called be the projection of the curve MP QR,
an asymptote to the arc, %2
and the straight line gh the tangent
it has been shown that it never meets
the curve, to whatever extent it is pro
duced. Therefore, it is an asymptote to
the curve p q r (def, 6.).
Therefore, &c.
Cor. 1. In that part of the proposi
Etion which relates to the tangent at a
point M in the vertical plane; it is sup
osed that the tangent M H does not lie
in the vertical plane"; for in this case it
is evident that no point of the tangent
can be projected upon plane AB, and
...A consequently there is no asymptote.
Cor. 2. The perspective projection of
MGH, the straight line g h shall be an a straight
asymptote to the curve p q ^. line which cuts a curve is a
Because the point M lies in the plane straight line which cuts the projection
E F, and therefore (1.) cannot be of the curve, if the first point of inter
projected upon the plane A B, and be: section is without the vertical plane.
:ause the tangent M G H does not meet Scholium, ,
the curve MP QR in any other point, The assumption made in the demon
no point can be foundin which the pro stration of the foregoing proposition,
jection g h of the tangent meets the pro viz. that “no straight line can be drawn
jection p q r of the curve, to whatever through the point of contact between &
extent both of them may be produced. curve and its tangent so as nºt tº ºut
Again, let D be any given distance: the curve,” or, in other words, that a
produce the tangent M H to meet the curve admits of only one tangent at the
plane A B in T, and therefore also to meet same point of it, may be regarded as ºn
its projection g h in the same point T. and axiom. That such is the case in the
let the plane of the curve MP Q R be circle has been shown in Book, iii.
roduced to meet the plane A. H. in the
straight line TZ (IV. 2.); from T, in the
Prop. 2.; and hence, with regard to
other curves, generally, it may be illus
plane AB, draw TY perpendicular to irated as follows:–Čonceive a circle
T. and let TY be taken of any length, having the same tangent with the curve
so that it be less than the given distance at the point M, and suffi
D; through Y draw YZ parallel to gT, ciently small to fall within
and ſet if cut T Z in Z, and join M Z. the curve, as in the adjoined
Then, because MZ falls within the tan figure. Then, since no
gent M HT, and that no straight line can straight line can be drawn
£e drawn through the point of contact through the point M so mea.
between the curve and its tangent 50 as to the tangent as not to ºut
ji to cut the curve, M Z must cut the the
circle,circumference
and since theofcurve
this N
curve PQ R in some point N. And,
jause VM and gT are sections of the is between the circumfer. "
parallel planes EF and AB by the plane ence of this circle and the -
*
butMIT,
gTV.isMparallel
is parallel
to toYZ
gT: (IV. 12); tangent; much less can, any straight
therefore line be drawn so near to the tangent *
(IV, 6.), WM is likewise parallel to YZ. not to intercept a part of the cur."" be
#ut the point N is in the plane V. M.Z. tween itself and the tangent, and 99."
that is, in the plane of V M and Y Z. sequently, being produced, to cut the
Therefore, if V N be joined, and pro Curvè.
duced, it will cut the straight line YZ in PROP. 7.
some point n; and, because the point ºn The direction CD and the plane of
is also in the plane A B, it is the pro projection A B being given; tº ortho
jection of N, and therefore a point in the graphic projection of any point P what
curve p q r, which is the projection of ever may be found upon ihe plane A B.
MP Q R. Also, because YZ is parallel —T
to g h T, n is at the same distance from * It may, perhaps, appear at first, that if the tan
gent lies in the -vertical plane, the euº must like
gh T (I. 16.) that Y is, that is, at a less
distance than the given distance D. sary lie
Wise in that plane; this, however, is nº neces
consequence; the tangent MH may be the .
Therefore, g h T being produced may be mon section of the plane of the curye with the verties
made to approach nearer to the curve plane, and this is the case which is supposed in the
| p q r than by any given distance. And corollary.
For, the direc Cor. 3. The orthographic projection

tion CD not being of a straight line, which is parallel to
parallel to the the plane of projection, is parallel to its
plane AB (def. 2.), original (IV. 10.).
the straight line . PROP. 9.
which is drawn
through P parallel The orthographic projections of p3
to CD is not pa rallel straight lines are parallel straight
rallel to that plane; I5 lines, and have the same ratio to their
since, otherwise, respective originals.
the line thus drawn would be parallel Let C D be the
to the common section of a plane pass direction, A B the
ing through it with the plane A B plane of projection,
(IV. 10.), and therefore, also (IV. 6.), PQ and P' Q' any
CD would be parallel to the same com twoparallelstraight
mon section, that is, to a straight line lines, and p q, p' q'
in the plane A B, for which reason CD their respective pro
would be parallel also to the plane AB jections: p q shall
(IV. 10), which is contrary to the sup be parallel to p' q'.
position. Therefore, the straight line Because Q q and
which is drawn through Pparallel to CD Q' q' are each of
may be produced to meet the plane them parallel to C D (def. 2.), they are
A B in some point p; and the point p parallel to one another (IV. 6.); also
thus found (def. 2.) is the orthographic PQ is parallel to P'Q'; therefore, the
projection of the point P. plane PQ q is parallel to the plane
Therefore, &c. P'Q' q' (IV. 15.). But p q and p'º' are
PROP. 8. the respective sections of these parallel
The orthographic projection of a planes made by the plane of projection
straight line is a straight line. A B (8. Cor. 2.). Therefore, p q is pa
Let C D be the rallel to p' q' (IV. 12.).
Q ſc
direction, A B the Also, the projections p q and p' q' have
lane of projec the same ratio to the original straight
É. P Q any lines PQ and P' Q' respectively.
straight line, and For, if PQ is parallel to p q, then,
p q its orthogra because P'Q' and p q are each of them
phic projection : parallel to PQ, P'Q' is parallel to p q .
p q shall likewise (IV. 6); and because p' q' is likewise
be a straight line. B
parallel to p q by the former part of the
Because PQ is a straight line, and proposition, P, Q is parallel to p' q'.
that the parallels to CD, which are Also, because Pp and Q q are each of
drawn through the several points of PQ, them, parallel to C, D (def. 2.), Pp is
are parallel to one another (IV. 6.),these parallel to Q q.; and, for the like reason,
parallels lie in one and the same plane P' p' is parallel to Q' q'. Therefore, the
PQ q (IV. 1. Cor. 2.): but (def. 2.) the figures Pp qQ, Pºp'q'Q' are, in this case,
points of p q lie in these parallels respec parallelograms; and, because (I. 22.)
tively; therefore, the points of p q lie in the opposite sides of parallelograms are
the plane PQ q. But they lie also in equal to one another, p q and p'Q' are
the plane AB. Therefore they lie in the equal to PQ and P. Q respectively;
common section of the planes PQ q and that is, the projections have the same
A B, that is, in a straight line (IV. 2.).
ratio to their respective originals, viz.
Therefore, &c. the ratio of equality. But, if P Q is not
. Coº. 1. It is supposed in the proposi parallel to p q, draw PR parallel top q
tion that the original straight line P Q to meet Q q in R, and PTRſ parallel to
: is not parallel to CD ; for, then, it is p'q' to meet Q' q' in R'. Then, because
evident that all its points have for their Pog R and Pºp'q'R' are parallelograms,
projections the single point in which it PR and PR are equal to p q and pſ q'
cuts the plane of projection. respectively (I. 22.). But, because P R
Cor. 2. The orthographic projection and P'R' are parallel to p q and p q re
of any given straight line is a part ofthe spectively, and that p q is parallel top' q',
common section of two planes, viz. a PR is parallel to P'R' (IV. 6). There.
plane which passes through the given fore, the triangles PQR, P, Q'R' have
straight line parallel to the direction CD the three sides of the one parallel to the
and the plane of projection A.B. three sides of the other, each to each,
z
214 GEOMETRY. [Appendix,

and (IV, 15.) are º Conse is not parallel to the direction CD; for,
quently, PR is to PQ as P'R' to P'Q' then, it is evident that the projection of
(II. 31.), that is, since p q is equal to the curve is a straight line, and that the
PR and p' q' to P'R', p q is to PQ as projection of the tangent is confounded
p/q' to P. Q'. with (or, if parallel to the direction CD
Therefore, &c. (8. Cor. I.) is only a point in) the pro
Cor. If the original straight lines are jection of the curve.
parallel to the plane of projection, the Cor. 2. The orthographic projection of
orthographic projections are equal to a straight line which cuts any curve is a
their respective originals, straight line which cuts the projection
of that curve,
PROP. 10.
The orthographic projection of a curved PART II.-Of the Plane Sections of the
line“ is a curved line; and, if a straight Right Cone, or Conic Sections.
line touches the original curve, the pro It is easy to perceive that every section
jection of that straight line shall like of a right come which is made by a plane
wise touch the projection of the curve. passing through the vertex is rectilineal,
Let C D be the and, again, that every section which is
direction, A B the made by a plane parallel to the base is a
plane of projec circle. The former follows from the
tion; P Q R any definition (V. def. 4.) of a cone; the
curved line, and latter will be demonstrated at large
q r its projec hereafter (in prop. 1].). But, if a right
#! 19 Q p shall cone be cut by a plane which neither
likewise be a passes through the vertex nor is parallel
curved line. to the base, the section will be neither
For, if any part of p q r, as q, be rectilineal nor circular; but will, ac
a straight line, them, because Q is cording to the position of the cutting
the orthographic projection ofp q(def.2.) plane, take one of the three forms men
upon the plane PQR, PQ must like tioned in the following definitions.
wise be a straight line (8.), which is Def. 7. If the slant
contrary to the supposition. There. sides of a right cone &
fore, no part of p q r is a straight line, are , produced up
that is, (I. deſ. 6.) p q r is a curved line. wards through the
Next, let the straight line PH touch vertex, the produced
the curve PQR in the point P, and let parts will, it is evi
A be the orthographic projection of dent, lie in the sur
% H: phshall touch the curve p q r in p. face of another right
For, CD being parallel to Pp (def. 2), cone which has the
straight lines which are parallel to CD same vertex, and its
are parallel to Pp (IV. 6.), and there axis lying in the
fore (IV. 10.) parallel to the plane H. Pp. same straight line
Also, the points of the curve PQR on with the axis of the
both sides of Pfall, all of them, without first. This cone, with
and to the same part of the tangent PH. reference to the first,is called the opposite
Therefore, the parallels to CD or Pp, come, and its surface the opposite surface.
which pass through these points likewise The two opposite surfaces, infinitely
fall without and to the same part of the produced, are to be considered as con
plane H. P. p. But these parallels pass stituting one complete conical surface;
through the corresponding points of the which may be conceived to be gene
projection p q r (def. 2.). Therefore the rated by the revolution of a slant side
points of p q r, on both sides of p, lie with infinitely produced both ways about the
out and to the same part of the plane axis of the cone.
HPP, and consequently also without and 8. If a complete conical surface is cut
to the same part of the straight line ph by a plane which neither passes through
which is in that plane (8. Cor. 2). There the vertex nor is parallel to the base,
fore, ph meets the curve p q r in p, but the curved line in which such plane cuts
does not cut it, that is, ph touches the the surface is called a conic section",
curve p q r, * The plane sections which are here excepted, viz.
Therefore, &c. the straightline and circle, are likewise sometimes
called conie sections, inasmuch as they likewise are
Cor. 1. It is supposed in the proposi plane sectionsof a come : the term is,however, usually
tion that the plane of the original curve appropriated to the otherplane sections, viz. the ellipse
* See note, page 210, T (fleſ, ig.), the parabola (defii.), and the hyperbola
(def, 12.), -
Appendix.] GEOMETRY, - 215
9. The vertical plane of a conic sec because apart of each is intercepted be:
tion is a plane which passes through the tween the vertical plane and the plane of
vertex of the cone parallel to the plane the conic section; and because there are
of the conic section. two slant sides in each surface which lie in
10. If the ver the vertical plane, and therefore cannot
tical plane of be produced to meet the plane of the co
a conic section nic section, the section has two infinite
falls entirely with arcs in each surface corresponding to
out the surface, them.
the conic section These curves, or the conic sections
surrounds the properly so called, different as they are
lower cone, and is in form, the first a complete figure in
|
called an ellipse. closing an area, the second having two
Thereason why infinite arcs, the third four, are never
the section in this theless very nearly related to one ano
case surrounds ther in their properties, many of which
the lower cone is, A. bear a striking analogy to the proper
that the lower surface only is intercepted ties of the circle. Thus, “if, in any
between the planes; and because every conic section two chords are drawn
slant side of this surface cuts the vertical which cut (or are produced to cut) one
plane in V, it will, if produced, cut also another, and other two chords parallel
the plane of the conic section which is to the former respectively which like
parallel to the vertical plane (1. Cor.). wise cut one another, the rectangles
11. If the verti- -
contained under the segments of the
cal plane touches former two shall have the same ratio
the comical surface to one another as the rectangles which
in a slant side, the are contained under the segments of the
comic section has latter two ;” a property which we have
two infinite arcs, seen (III. 20.) obtains in the circle, the
and is called a pa. ratio in this case being always that of
Tabola. equality. . It is proposed in the present
The section has part of the Appendix to demonstrate a
in this case two in few of these properties, among them the
finite arcs, because one just stated; and it will be found
one slant side of that the demonstrations are consider
the cone lies in the vertical plane, and ably aided and abridged by help of the
therefore Gan never be produced to meet
the plane of the conic section; it is still,
pºples
part.
laid down in the preceding
however, only the lower surface which is PROP. 11.
intercepted between
the planes, and be Every section of a right cone whicſ,
cause every other is made by a plane parallel to its base,
slant side of this
surface cuts the ver-
ſ is a circle having its centre in the aris
- A. of the cone. -
tical plane in V, it -
Let V be the vertex
may be produced to of a right cone, VO its
cut the plane of the axis, and A B C its
comic section (1. - base; and let a b c be
Cor.). C a section which is
12. cuts
plane If thethe
vertical made by any plane
coni- V
parallel to the base
cal surface in two º A B C : the section
slant sides, the conic
i. has four in- /
/ |
a be shall be a circle
having its centre in
nite arcs, two lyin -
the axis V O.
in one and .; º / -
Let the plane a be cut the axis of the

the other of the op- -
cone in the point of in the curve,".
posite surfaces, and -
circumference, a be, take any two points

is called an hyper a, b} jºin Va, Vb, and produce them to
bola, M meet the circumference of the circle
The section in this A B C, in the points A, B respectively,
case cuts both of the opposite surfaces, and join oa, o b, O.A., OB. Then, be.
cause o a and OA are sections of 'pa rallel to the circular section, falls entirely
rallel planes, by the plane V OA, o ais without the come, so that no point of
parallel to O.A (IV. 12.), and conse the conic section is found in that plane.
quently (II.30. Cor. 2), o ais to OA as Cor. 3. And so, the projection of
V o to V O. And, in the same manner, it every point in the circular section may
may be shown that ob is to O B as V o be found in the conic section; except, in
to WO. Therefore (II. 12.) o a is to OA. the case of the parabola, the projection
as ob to O B ; and, because OA is equal of the point in which the vertical plane
to O B, oa is equal to o b (II. 18. Cor.). touches the circular section, and except,
In like manner, if c be any other point. in the case of the hyperbola, the projec
in the circumference a b c, and if oc be tions of the two points in which the ver
joined, it may be shown that oc is equal tical plane cuts the circular section.
to o a or ob. Therefore, every point in
the circumference a be is at the same PROP. 13.
distance from the point of that is (I. def. Every conic section is symmetrically
24.), a b c is a circle of which o is the divided by a straight line, which is the
Centre. -
common section of the cutting plane,
Therefore, &c. and a plane which passes through the
PROP. 12.
aris of the cone perpendicular to the
cutting plane.
Let W be the
Every conic section QPR is the per vertex, and W O
spective projection of a circular section the axis of the
qp r, upon the plane of the conic section, cone, and let PQR
by straight lines drawn from the ver be the conic sec
tea; V ; and the vertical plane of such tion; from V draw
perspective projection is the vertical WU, perpendicu
plane of the conic section. lar to the plane
For, every straight
line which is drawn
/V PQ R, and let the
plane UWO, which
from V through a asses through
oint of the circum VO, and (IV. 18.)
erence p q r to meet is perpendicular
the plane of the to __the plane
conic section, meets PQR, cut the lat- º
that plane in some ter plane in the straight line AM: the
point of the conic comic section PQR shall be divided
section; and there is symmetrically by the straight line A. M.
no point of Q. P R Through the point. A let there be
which is not in a
drawn a plane perpendicular to the axis
straight line with V V O, and let it cut the cone in the cir
and some point of cular section p q r, having the centre 0
q p r ; therefore (11.), and the plane Q PR in the straight
(def. 1.), QPR is line AF (IV. 2); through V drawVD
the perspective pro parallel to AF (I. 48.). Take any point P.
jection of q p r by straight lines drawn in the conic section, join VP, and let the
from V. And, because the vertical plane plane DVP cut the planes of the conic
of the conic section QPR is parallel to section and circle in the straight lines
the plane Q PR (def. 9.), that vertical PQ, and p q respectively (IV. 2); also,
plane is also the vertical plane of pro let these straight lines cut AM, AO in
jection (def. 12). the points M, m respectively. Then, be:
Therefore, &c. cause VD is parallel to AF, it is parallel
-
Cor. I. In like manner, also, every (IV. 10. Cor. 1.) to PQ and to pg, which
circular section q p r may be considered are the common sections of planes pass:
as the perspective projection of the conic ing through A F with the plane DVP
section Q PR by straight lines drawn which passes through DV: therefore,
from the vertex V. also, PQ and p q are parallel to one
Cor. 2. The projection of every point another (IV. 6.). Now, because the
in the conic section may be found in the plane p q r of the circle is perpendicular
circular section, whether it be an ellipse, to the axis VO, it is perpendicular to
or a parabola, or an hyperbola (1.): for the plane UV O, which passes through
the plane which passes through V pa VO (IV. 18.); and the plane PQR is
by the construction §º to cipal vertices of the ellipse or hyper

the same plane UW O: therefore A F, bola, and the straight line A A', which
the common section of the planes p q r, is intercepted between them, is called
P. Q R, is perpendicular to the same the principal diameter or transverse
plane (IV. 18. Cor. 2.), and, conse aris of the ellipse or hyperbola.
quently (IV. def. 1.), perpendicular to In the parabola, the axis cuts the
each of the straight lines AM, AO curve in one point, A, only; and this
which meet it in that plane. Therefore, point is called the principal vertea of
because PQ is parallel to AF, PQ is the parabola.
perpendicular to A. M. (I, 14.); and, 15. The centre of an ellipse or hyper
for the like reason, p q is perpendicular bola, is the middle point C of the trans
to A. O. And, because the chord p q of verse axis A A'. -
the circle p q r is perpendicular to the A parabola has no centre.

radius A O, it is bisected by AO in the See the figures of defs. 10, 11, 12.
point m (III.3.); but PQ is parallel to
p q; therefore (II. 30.) PQ is bisected PROP. 14.
by AM in M. And in the same man The hyperbola has two asymptotes,
ner it may be shown, that all other which pass through the centre, and
straight lines which are drawn in the make equal angles with the aa is upon
conic section parallel to A F, or (which opposite sides of it.
is the same thing) perpendicular to AM,
are bisected by A. M. Therefore, the Let W be the vertex of the cone, W O
straight line A M divides the conic its axis, VA and V Aſ the slant sides in
section PQR symmetrically. P
Therefore, &c.
Cor. 1. The straight line AF, to
which the bisected chords are parallel,
touches both the circular section and the
conic section at the point A.
Cor. 2. The
straight line A M,
which divides a pa
rabolasymmetrical
ly, is parallel to the
slant side W L, in
which the vertical
plane of the para
bola touches the
surface of the cone.
For if the vertical /M
plane cuts the plane - P
of the circle p q r in the straight line

K L, K L touches the circle, and is
therefore (III. 2.) perpendicular to the \
radius O L ; and A F was shewn in the
proposition to be perpendicular to AO;
also, K L is parallel to A F, because | Pl
they are sections of parallel planes by
the plane of the circle (IV. 12.); there which the comical surface is cut by a
fore (I. 14.) O L and O A are in the lane perpendicular to the plane of the
same straight line, and W L is in the i. A and A' the principal ver
plane V AO, that is, in the same plane tices of the hyperbola, Alef the circular
with A. M. And, because W L and section passing through the point A,
A M are sections of parallel planes by O its centre, AO aſ its diameter, and
the same plane, they are parallel to one E A F the common section of the planes
another. of the circle and hyperbola which, as has
Def. 13. The straightline A M, which been already seen (13. Cor. 1.), touches
divides a conic section symmetrically, both the circle and the hyperbola in the
is called the aaris of the conic section. point A ; also, let the vertical plane of
14. In the ellipse and hyperbola, the the hyperbola cut the circular section
axis A M cuts the curve in two points, A ef in the chord ef, and at the points
A, A'; these points are called the orin e, f, let the straight lines c E, c F be
drawn touching the circle; let c E and the like reason, C F is parallel to Vf;
c F meet one another in c and the and it has been already shown that AA!
straight line EF in the points E and F or CA is parallel to W L ; therefore the
respectively, and let the chord efcut angles E CA and FC A are equal to
the diameter A. Oa' in L, Then, because the angles eVL and f W L respectively
ef and E Fare sections of parallel planes (IV. 15.); but, because the slant sides
by the plane of the circle A ef, ef is We, Vf, are equal to one another(IV.8.),
parallel to EF (IV.12.); but EF is per and that efis bisected in L, the triangles
pendicular to the diameter A. Oa', be We L, V fl, have the three sides of the
cause it touches the circle in A (III. 2.); one equal to the three sides of the other,
therefore efis perpendicular to the same each to each, and, consequently, the angle
diameter(I.14.), and consequently (III,3,) e W L equal to the angle f W L (I, 7.);
is bisected by it in the point L.; also, be therefore, also, the angle ECA is equal
Cause ce, c% are tangents drawn from c to the angle FC A, that is, the angles
to the circle A ef, they are equal to one which C E and C F make with the axis
another (III. 2. Cor. 3.), and the triangle AA' upon either side of it, are equal to
c efis an isosceles triangle: therefore the one another. -
straight line AO a', which bisects ef at Therefore, &c.

right angles, passes through the point c Cor. 1. The asymptotes of the hyper
(I. 6. Cor. 3.). Join c V, and produce it bola are parallel respectively to the slant
to cut A A' in C (I. 14. Cor. 3.), and sides in which the vertical plane of the
from C, through the points E and F, draw hyperbola cuts the surface of the cone,
the straight lines CE, C F : the point C Cor. 2. And as the existence of
shall be the centre of the hyperbola, and asymptotes to the hyperbola has been
the straight lines CE, C F. produced, inferred from Proposition 6, so from
shall be asymptotes, making equal Cor. 1., of the same proposition, it fol
angles with the axis A A' upon either lows that fine infinite arcs of the para
side of it. bola do not admit of asymptotes; be
Join Oe and W L. Then, because cause the tangent of the circle at the
ce touches the circle in e, the triangle #. a' (see the figure of 13, Cor. 2.)
O ec is right-angled at e (III. 2.); and ies in the vertical plane of the parabola,
it has been shown that e L is perpendi
cular to the opposite side Oc, therefore, PROP. 15,
O e or O a' is a mean proportional be
tween O L and Oc (II. 34. Cor.). But A conic section cannot be cut by a
OA is equal to Oa'. Therefore, the straight line in more than two points;
straight line A c is harmonically divided and, if a straight line touches a conic
in the points L and a' (II. 46.), and, section, it shall meet it in one point only,
consequently (II. def. 20, page 68.), the viz. the point of contact.
four straight lines VA, V L, V a', and For, the circular section being consi
V c, are harmonicals. But, because dered (12. Cor. 1.) as theprojection of the
W L and A A' are sections of parallel conic section, the projection of any point,
planes by the plane WAA', A A' is par P, of the conic section, may be found in
rallel to WL (IV, 12.). Therefore (II.49. the circular section (12. Cor. 2.); and the
Cor. 1.), A A' is bisected by V c pro projection of a straight line which cuts
duced, and the point C is the centre of any curve in a point that may be pro
the hyperbola (def. 15.). jected, is a straight line which cuts the
Again, because the hyperbolic arcs projection of the curve in the projection
A P, A'P', are the projections of the of that point (6. Cor. 2.); therefore, if
circular arcs Apf, ap'ſ, by straight it were possible that a straight line
lines drawn from V (12.), and that the could cut a conic section in more points
point f of the arcs Apf, a'p'ſ, lies in than two, the straight line which is its
the vértical plane V ef; the Fº projection (2) would cut the circular
of the tangent cf. that is, the straight section in more points than two, which
line C F produced, is an asymptote to is impossible (III, J.).
the hyperbolic arcs A P, A'P' (6.), And, in the same manner, we may
And, for the like reason, C E produced reason with regard to the tangent... If
is an asymptote to the hyperbolic arcs it were possible that a straight line which
A. Q, A! Q'. touches a conic section should meet it
Lastly, because C E and We are sec in any other point besides the point of
tions of parallel planes by the plane CVe, contact; then, because the projections
C E is parallel to We (IV, 12.), and, for of the point of contact and any such
Appendix,]. GEOMETRY, 219
other point may, both of them, be found point L. But, because PN cuts the para
in the circular section (12, Cor. 2.), and bola in P, p n' likewise cuts the circle in
because the projection of a straight line p (6.Cor. 2.). Therefore, pn', if produced,
which touches a curve in a point that will cut the circle in a second point q
may be projected is a straight line which different from the point L. And, be
touches the projection of that curve cause the projection of every point, ex
(6.), the projection of such tangent cept L, may be found in the parabola (12.
would be a straight line touching the Cor. 3.), Q the projection of q may be
circular section, and meeting it also in found, and consequently PN' produced
another point besides the }. of con will meet the parabola in the point Q.
tact, which is impossible (III, 2.). And the same rea
Therefore, &c. soning, in every re
PROP. 16. spect, applies to the
case of the hyperbola.
A straight line which is parallel to For, if a straight line
the aaris of a parabola cannot cut the PN be parallel to
parabola in more than one point; and one of the asymp
a straight line which is parallel to either totes CE, it will also
of the asymptotes of an hyperbola can be parallel to the
not cut the hyperbola in more than one slant side We, to
point; but, with these exceptions, if a which (14. Cor. 1.) the
straight line cuts a conic section in any asymptote is parallel,
point, it may be produced to cut it in a and, therefore, its
second point. projection p n passing
Let PAQ be a pa through the point e,
k rabola, A M its axis, every point of PN
and PN any straight produced will fall N
line which is parallel within the surface of the come. But if
to the axis A. M. and a straight line PN' be not parallel to
: cuts the parabola in
P: PN shall not cut
the parabola in any
other point, to what.
either of the asymptotes, its projection
p n' will not pass through either of the
points e,f, but, because P.N. cuts the
hyperbola, p n cuts the circle in p, and
ever distance it may will cut it if produced in some other
be produced. point q, the projection Q of which may
Let W be the vertex be found in the hyperbola, and, conse.
of the cone, V L quently, P N produced will meet the hy
the slant side in perbola in a second point Q.
which the vertical In the case of v
plane of the parabola touches the sur the ellipse, since
face of the cone, and Ap L q the cir
cular section passing through A. Then, the projection pº
because W L (13. Cor, 2.) and PN are of any straight
line P N which
each of them parallel to AM, WL is pa cuts the ellipse
rallel to PN (IV. 6.). And, because must cut the cir
WL is parallel to PN, the projection p n cle (6. Cor. 2.),
of the straight line PN on the plane
Ap L q will, if produced, pass through p n may be pro
duced fo meet the
the point L (2. Cor. 4), and the pro circumference in
jection of every point in PN produced a second point
will, it is evident, be found between p
and L, that is, within the surface of the q as before; and
cone. Therefore, every point of PN tion since the projec
of every point
produced falls within the surface of the in the circle may be found in the ellipse
come, and consequently, since the curve (12. Cor. 3.) Q the projection of q may be
of the parabola is always in the surface
of the cone, P N cannot be produced to found, and, consequently, PN produced
meet the parabola in a second point. will meet the ellipse in a second point Q.
Therefore, &c.
But, if PN' be not parallel to the
axis of the parabola, then neither is it Def. 16. In the ellipse and hyperbola,
parallel to VL, and consequently the any straight line PP which is drawn
projection p n! does not pass through the through the centre C, and terminated
P! straight lines are drawn to touch the
circle, every straight line which is drawn
through that point to cut the circle shall
be harmonically divided by the circum
ference and the chord joining the points
C
of contact; and the tangents at the
points in which every such straight line
cuts the circumference shall meet one
another in the chord produced. -
Ö
H -
Letwithout
point A B Cit,befrom
a circle, andstraight
which the D any
…”
- Iº
A. C
~T
A.
P
D
6. / H
both ways by the curve, is called a dia
meter; and the points P, P in which it
meets the curve are called the vertices
of that diameter. lines DA, D B are drawn to touch the
In the parabola, any straight line PN, circle in the points A, B respectively:
which is drawn parallel to the axis AM, then, if D EFG be any straight line
is called a diameter, and the point P in passing through D, and cutting the cir
cumference in the points E, G and the
chord AB in the point F, D G shall be
divided harmonically in E and F, and
the tangents at the points E, G shall
meet one another in some point of AB
produced. * - -
Take O the centre of the circle, and

draw the straight line DO cutting the
circumference in the points K, C, and
the chord A B in the point L; and join
O A. Then, because D A touches the
circle, the angle D A O is a right angle
which it cuts the parabola is called the (III. 2.); also, because (III.2. Cor. 3.)
vertea of that diameter, the tangents DA, D B are equal to one
17. If at the vertex P of any diameter another, D is the centre of a circle pass
of a conic section, there he drawn a tan ing through the points A, B, and, con
gent PH, any straight line QR which sequently, DO bisects A B at right
is parallel to the tangent PH and is angles (III.3. Cor. 3.); therefore, be
terminated both ways by the conic sec cause from the right angle A of the tri
tion, is called an ordinate of that dia angle DAO, AL is drawn at right angles
meter. to the hypotenuse D O, OA or 0 K is a
18. In the ellipse and hyperbola, the mean proportional between OL and OD
segments PN, N P', into which a dia (II. 34. Cor.) But O C is equal to 0 K.
Therefore (II.46.), D C is harmonically
meter or a diameter produced is divided
divided in the points K and L. And
by any of its ordinates, are called the
because DC, the diameter produced of
abscissae corresponding to that ordinate.
the circle ABC, is harmonically divided,
In the parabola, the part of the diameter
PN, which is intercepted between the every straight line D G which passes
vertex P and the ordinate Q R is called through D is harmonically divided by
the abscissa of that ordinate. the circumference and the perpendicular
Lemma. A B which passes through i, (III, 52.
Cor.); and the tangents at the points
If from any point without a circle two E, G in which every such straight line
Appendix.] -
GEOMETRY. 221
cuts the circle meet one another in A B

produced (III. 53. Cor.).
Therefore, &c.
PROp. 17.
Every diameter of a conic section bi
sects its ordinates ; and, if the conic
section is an ellipse or an hyperbola, the
diameter is itself bisected by the centre.
Let A PQ be any conic section, A M*
its axis, P N any diameter, P.H a tan
gent at P, QR a parallel to PH, and
therefore an ordinate to the diameter
PN (def. 17.), and let QR cut PN in N:
QR shall be bisected in N.
Let the vertex W of the cone, the cir
cle A p q, its centre O, and diameter
Ao a!, as also the line AF", which is the
common section of the planes A PQ,
Ap q, remain as in the foregoing pro
positions ; let the lines q r and p in
in the circle be the projections of QR
and P N in the conic section, and
the tangent ph” (6.) the projection of
the tangent. PH; and let the vertical
plane of the comic section cut the plane
Ap q of the circle in the line KG, which
cuts Ala' or A aſ produced in L, and
join V L. Then, because W L and A M
are sections of parallel planes by the
same plane, W L is parallel to A M
(IV. 12.); and, for the like reason, KG
is parallel to AF, and therefore (III. 2.)
perpendicular to A al.
And first, in the ellipse or hyperbola,
let A' be the other principal vertex and
C the centre, join V C*, and let V C
or W C produced cut Ala' or A a' pro
duced in c. Then, because A A' is
parallel to V L, and bisected by V.C
in C, the four straight lines WL, VA',
V C, VA are harmonicals (II. 49. Cor.
2.). Therefore, A L or A L produced
is divided by these straight lines harmo
nically (II. 49.); and, because the mean
A a' is bisected in O, O L, O a' and O c
in the points K.G respectively, the pro
are proportionals (II. 46.). Let the jections pp', ph will, if produced, pass
planes WPP, WPH cut the vertical through the points K, G respectively
plane in the lines VK, V G, which meet (2. Cor. 4.), and, for the like reason, the
the line KG in the points K, G respec rojection q r of the ordinate QR, which
tively. Then, because VK and PP' are is parallel to PH or V G, will also pass
sections of parallel planes by the plane through the point G.
V PP, VK is parallel to PP' (IV. 12.): Join G p”. Then, because p p' is a
and, for the like reason, W G is parallel chord of the circle p A q passing through
to PH: therefore, because the straight the point c, and that L G is drawn per
lines W K, W G are parallel to the origi pendicular to the diameter Oc produced
nal straight limes PP, PH respectively, from a point L so taken that the dia
and meet the plane of the circle p A q meter produced is divided harmonically,
* The line VC is wanting in the upper figure, and
VN, VP, VP, VO, VR, and VT, are wanting in each sponding letters n, p. pſ, q, r, and t, in the straight
of the figures of this proposition. It has been at lines W. vP, §Wö, VR, and VT jºš.
tempted, however, to supply, the assistance which The line AF and the letter F; in the two first figures,
might have been derived to the conception from the the letters M and h; in the second the line Gp", and
visible presence of these lines by placing the corre. in the third the line Ghp, have likewise been omitted.
the tangents at the extremities of the line shall be an ordinate of the diame
chordp,p' will meet one another in some ter by which it is bisected.
point of the line LG (III, 53. Cor); but PROP. 18.
the straight line Gh p is the tangent at
p: therefore G p' is the tangent at p". In every conic section the tangents
And, because from the point G, in which at the eactremities of any ordinate, QR,
the tangents G p, G p' meet one ano meet the diameter, PN, in the same
ther, the line $$.” drawn to cut the point, T; and that in such a manner,
circumference in the points q, r and the that, in the ellipse and hyperbola, CN,
chord p p' in n, G q is harmonically Q P, and CT are proportionals, and,
divided in these points (Lem.). There in the parabola, N P is equal to PT.
fore (II. def. 20.) the four straight lines Let the construction remain as in the
V G, W rR, V nN, V q Q are harmo
nicals; and, consequently, because Q R last proposition. Then, in the ellipse
and hyperbola, because q r, the pro
is parallel to V G, it is bisected by VN jection
in N (II. 49. Cor. 1.). of QR, passes through G,
and that Gp, G p' are tangents drawn
In the parabola, from G to the circle, the tangents
the point L coin at q and r meet one another in some
cides with a', and point of pp' produced (Lem.). But these
because the dia tangents are the projections of the fan
meter PN is pa gents at the points Q and Rof the ellipse
rallel to AM, that or hyperbola (6.), and pp' produced is
is (13. Cor. 2.) to the projection of PP produced. There
W L, its projection fore, the tangents at Q and R meet one
n passes through another in some point, T, of PP pro
#. %. § duced. Again, because t g and trare
cause G q is drawn tangents drawn from t to the circle, the
from the intersec line to which passes through t is har
tion G of the tan monically divided by q r and the cir
gents G L and cumference (Lem.). Therefore, the four
Gh p", G q is har straight lines V p! P', V nN, W pp,
monically divided V t Tº, are harmonicals (II. def. 20),
by the circumfer and divide PP' produced harmonically
ence and the chord (II.49.); and, because the mean PP"
Lp (Lem.), and Q R is bisected in the is bisected in C, CN, CP, and C T are
point N, as before. proportionals (II. 46.), -
But, further, in the ellipse and hyper . In the parabola, because the projec
bola,the diameter PP is bisected by the tion q r of the ordinate QR passes
centre C. For, since Kp passes through through G, and that GL, Gp are tan
the point c, and is cut by the straight gents drawn from G to the circle, the
line KL, which is drawn perpendicular tangents at q and r meet one another in
to the diameter Oc from a point L so some point t of Lp produced (Lem.),
taken that Oc produced is harmonical and consequently, as before, the tangents
ly divided, Kp is harmonically divided at Q and R meet one another in some
by K L and the circumference (III, 52. point, T, of N P produced. Again, be
Cor.). Therefore, the four straight lines cause tº and trare tangents drawn
V K, V_p'P', V co, V p P, are harmo from t to the circle, the line ty, is har
nicals (II, def. 20.); and, because PP' monically divided by q r and the circum
is parallel to V K, it is bisected by W C ference (Lem.). Therefore, the four
in C (II. 49. Cor. I.). straight lines V L, V nN, W pp, W tº,
Therefore, &c. are harmonicals (II. def. 20.); and be:
cause N T is parallel to W L (IV, 6), it
Cor. 1. In the ellipse and hyperbola, is bisected by VP in P (II.49. Cor. 1),
the tangents at the extremities P, P of that is, N P is equal to P.T. . .
any diameter are parallel to one another; When the diameter in question is the
For they are the originals of G p and axis of the conic section, these demon
G p' in the plane of the circular section; strations will be modified, and appear
and all straight lines, the projections of under a more simple form, to which thºſ
which pass through G, are parallel to are easily reduced by substituting A M
W G and to one another (1V. 10.). for PN, A F for PH, &c.
Cor. 2. If any diameter of a conic Therefore, &c.
section bisects a straight line which is
not a diameter, the bisected straight • See note, page 221,
PROP. 19. - the base of the cone, and, therefore,

a circular section
In the ellipse and hyperbola, the cutting the comeletinpu,
squares of any two semiordinates of p q u r (11.), and q r be the projec
the same diameter are to one another tions of PU, Q R respectively, upon this
as the rectangles under the correspond plane, by straight lines drawn from the
ing abscissae: in the parabola, the vertex Vof the cone; then, becausepºur
squares of any two semiordinates of the is a circle, the rectangle under q N, N r
same diameter, are to one another as is equal to the rectangle under p N, N u
: the abscissa. (III.20.). Through V drawVK parallel to

PU to meet the plane of the circle in K,
Let PQR be an ellipse or hyperbola, and VG parallel to QR to meet the same
PU any diameter, and QR, Q'R' any plane in G ; then, because p u is the pro
two ordinates, cutting the diameter PU jection of PU, it will, if produced, pass
in the points N, N' respectively; the through the point K, and, for the like
square of Q N shall be to the square of reason, q r produced will pass through
: Q' N as the rectangle P N × N U to the the point G. (2. Cor. 4.).

rectangle PN'x N' U.
V
Then, because V K is parallel to PU,
Through N draw a plane parallel to the triangles V Kp and W Ku are simi
lar to the triangles P N p and U Nu
respectively (I. 15.); therefore (II. 31.)
: PN :p N::V K : Kp and NU : Nu::

-V K : Ku, and, consequently (II. 37.
Cor. 3.), PN × N U : p N × N u :: V Ks
: Kpx Kw. And, in the same manner,
: because the triangles QN q, RN r are
similar to the triangles V G q, W G r re
spectively”, it may be shown that Q N ×
N R or (17.) Q N* : q N × N r or p N ×
N u :: V G2 : G q x G. r. But, from the
former proportion, invertendo (II. 15.)
pM × N u : P N × N U :: Kp x Ku
: W K2. Therefore (II. def. 12.), the
ratio of QN* to PN × N.U is compound
ed of the ratios of W G* to G q x Grand
Kp x Kºu to V K*.
Now, if through N’ there be likewise
drawn a plane parallel to the base of the
cone, and which, therefore, likewise cuts
the cone in a circle (11.), p' q' w! r", and
if VK and VG are produced to meet this
new plane in the points K' and G' re
spectively, the projections p'u' and 9 r"
of the diameter PU and the ordinate Q/R/
upon this plane will pass through the
points K' and G' respectively (2, Cor. 4.),
because PU is parallel to WK! as before,
and Q/R to QR, that is (IV, 6.), to VGſ.
Therefore, as before, it may be shown,
that the ratio of Q'N' to PN/ × N. Uſ
is compounded of the ratios of W G 2 to
G! q ×G r" and K' p' x K'u' to V K 2.
But, if a y is the projection of QR
upon the plane p' q'w' r", a y produced
will pass through the point G', because
Q R is parallel to VG' (2. Cor. 4.): and,
because p'q'u'r' is a circle, G' q'x G' r is
equal to G'a, x G' y (III. 20.). Also, be
cause the triangles V.KP. VK u are simi
lar to the triangles V K'p', VK'u'respec
tively, V K : Kp :: V K : K. p. (II.31),
* The straight lines Vgºr, VRry, Vgº, and VR’r’
are omitted in each of the figures of this proposition,
and V K : K u : : V K’: K'u', and, con to meet the plane of the circle par in
sequently (II. 37. Cor. 3.), V.K.”: Kpx G; then, because q r is the projection
Kū :: W K'? : K' p'_x K'u', or, inver of QR, it will, if produced, pass through
tendo (II. 15.), Kp?& K u : V K*:: K'p' the point G. (2. Cor. 4.).
.x K'u' : V K'?; and, in like manner, Now, as in the former part of the
because the triangles W G q, W G rare proposition, it may be shown that Q N*
similar to the triangles V G' ar, V G'y : q N × N r or p N × NL :: W G : :
respectively, W G " : G q × G. r. : : G g × G. r.; also, because the triangles
V & 2 : G'+ x G' y or G'q' x G'r'. V Lp, PN p are similar, p N : PN::
Therefore the ratio of W G 3 to G q × Lp : W L (II. 31.), and consequently,
G r is the same with the ratio of W G' * since p N × N L is to PN × N Las pN
to G' q' x G'r', and the ratio of Kp x Ku to P N (II, 35), p N × N.L : PNx
to V K2 is the same with the ratio of NL: ; Lp : W L (1.I. 12.); therefore the
K' p' x K'u' to V K . Therefore, be ratio of Q N 2 to PN × N L is com
cause ratios which are compounded of pounded of the ratios of W Gº to Gq x
the same ratios are the same with one G r and Lp to WL. And in the same
another (II. 27.), the ratio of Q N* to manner, if through N' there be drawn a
PN × N U is the same with the ratio plane parallel to the base of the cone, and
of Q'N' to PN'x N' U ; and, alter if V Land W G be produced to meetit in
mando (II. 19.), Q N* : Q'N' * :: PN the points L' and G' respectively, it may
× N U : PN'x N' U. " " be shown that the projections p N' and
In the next place, let QPR be a para q'r' of the diameter PN or PN and
bola, PN any diameter, and QR, Q' R/ the ordinate QR upon this plane pass
*- through the points }. and G' respective
ly, and accordingly that the ratio of
Q'N' to PN' xN, L' is compounded
of the ratios of W G to G' q'x G' r",
and L' p' to V L. But if a y is the
projection of QR upon the plane of the
circle p' q'u'r', it may be shown, as in
the former part of the proposition, that
a y produced will pass through G', and
that G' q x G' r is equal to Gaºx Gy.
Also, because the triangle VL4) is simi
lar to the triangle V I/p', the ratio of
Lp to W L is the same with the ratio of
L' p' to W.L. (II. 3].); and, because the
triangles W G q, V Grare similar to the
triangles V G/2, VG'y respectively, the
ratio of W G to G q x G r is the same
any two ordinates cutting the diameter with the ratio of W G' to G' a x G' y
P N in the points N, N' respectively: or G' q'x G' r". Therefore (II.27) Q.N.
the square of QN shall be to the square : P N × N L :: Q. Nº : P N × N iſ,
of Q'N' as PN to P. N. and alternando (II. 19.), QN* : Q'N'
Through N draw a plane parallel to :: P N × N L : PN/x N'L'. But NL
the base of the cone, and therefore is equal to N'L' (I. 22.), and conse
cutting it in a circular section q p r (11.), quently (II. 35.), P N × N L : PN' X
and let p N, q r be the projections of PN, Nº Lif: P N : P Nſ. Therefore Q N*
Q R respectively upon this plane, by : Q. Nº 2 :: PN : P N'.
straight lines drawn from V ; also, let The foregoing demonstrations are not
W L be the slant side of the cone, which applicable, in the above form, to the
is parallel to the axis of the parabola case in which the diameter P N is also
(13. Cor. 2.), and therefore (IV. 6.) the axis of the conic section. They
likewise parallel to the diameter PN, become, however, much more simple
and let it meet the plane 9 p r in the when they are adapted to this particular
point L of the circumference q pr: then, case, and the manner in which this is to
because V I, is parallel to PN, p N be done is obvious.
produced passes through the point I, Therefore, &c.
(2. Cor. 4.), and, because q p r is a circle,
the rectangle under q N, Nºr, is equal to Cor. 1. In the ellipse and hyperbola,
the rectangle under p N, N L. (III. 20.) the square of the semiordinate varies as
Through V draw V G parallel to Q R, the rectangle under the abscissae; in the
Appendix.] GEOMETRY, 225
parabola, the square of the semiordinate being understood instead of the rectam
varies as the abscissa (II. 35. Schol.). gle under its segments, when it touches
Cor. 2. If, in the ellipse, a diameter the conic section instead of cutting it.
DZ is drawn parallel to the ordinates of For, let P U and QR cut one another
the diameter PU, (see the first figure in N, and P'U' and Q' R' in N'; also,
of the Scholium which follows this pro because Q'R' is parallel to QR, let it
position,) the square of the semiordinate cut PU in M (I, 14. Cor. 3.). Then, by
QN is to the rectangle PN × NU under the last corollary,
the abscissae, as the square of the semi QN × N R : Q'Mx MR'::PN × NU
diameter C P to the square of the semi : P M × M U, and
diameter CD. -
Q M × MR : Q N'x N' Rſ :: PM ×
Cor. 3. It is not necessary, in the MU : P'N' x N'U';
demonstration of the first part of the therefore, eac ºgu Ji (II. 24.), QN × N R.
proposition, that the conic section should : Q/N/x N' Rſ :: P N × N U : P N ×
be an ellipse or an hyperbola, or Nº Uſ.
PU a diameter having the ordinates And the same may be directly inferred
Q R, Q'R'; but only that PU should from the demonstration of the proposi
be a straight line cutting the conic tion: for the projection of P'U' will pass
section PQR in two points, and QR, through the point K' in the same man
Q' R' two parallel straight lines like ner as the projection of Q'R' passes
wise cutting the conic section, each in through G.
two points, (in which case the part Cor. 5. It is indifferent, also, in the
§§ shewing that Q N × N R and Q'N' × second part of the demonstration, whe
\{ N' Rſ are equal to Q N* and Q'Nº, will ther PQ R be a parabola and PN a
have to be omitted,) or even one or both diameter, or PQR be an hyperbola,
touching the comic section in a single and PN a straight line parallel to one of
point, the only difference being that in the asymptotes, for in this case also PN
this case the points Q and Q' coincide will be parallel to a slant side of the
with the points R and R' respectively. cone (14. Cor. 1. and IV. 6.); and in
Therefore, generally, if a straight line either case, Q R and Q'R' may be any
PU cuts a conic section in two points, two parallel straight lines cutting the
and is cut by any two parallel straight comic section each in two points, or one
lines which likewise cut the conic sec or both of them touching it in a single
tion each in two points, or one or both point.
of them touch the conic section, the Therefore, generally, if a straight line
rectangle under the segments of one PN, which is a diameter of a parabola
parallel, or its square, if it be a tangent, or parallel to one of the asymptotes of
shall be to the rectangle under the seg an hyperbola, be cut by any two parallel
ments of the other, or to its square if it straight lines which likewise cut the
be a tangent, in the same ratio as the parabola or hyperbola each in two
rectangles under the corresponding seg points, or one (or both of them, as is
ments of the straight line which is cut possible in the case of the hyperbola)
by them. touch it in a single point; the rectangle
Cor. 4. And hence, in any conic sec under the segments of one parallel, or
tion, if two straight lines, PU, QR cut its square if it be a tangent, shall be to
one another, and likewise other two the rectangle under the segments of the
P'U', Q'R', which are parallel to the other, or to its square if it be a tangent,
two first respectively, and if each of in the same ratio as the parts PN, P Nº.
them cuts the conic of the line PN, which are cut off by the
section in two points, parallels respectively.
or one or more touch it
in a single point, the Scholium.
rectangle under the seg
ments of either of the The diameter D Z, which is supposed
first shall be to the in Cor; 2. to be drawn in the ellipse
rectangle under the parallel to the Ordinates of the diameter
segments of its parallel PU, is said to be conjugate to PU. It
as the rectangle under is easy to perceive that the diameter
the segments of the PU is in this case likewise parallel to
remaining one of the first to the rectanthe ordinates of D Z: for, let Q R he
gle under the segments of its parallel; any ordinate of the diameter PU, and let
the square of any of the straight lines QC be joined and produced to * the
ellipse in X, and let RX be joined, and is yet a more striking analogy, to which
let it cut DZ in Y; then RX will be pa we are led by observing that, in the
ellipse, the curve in which the extremity
of a conjugate diameter so defined lies, is
a part of the gllipse itself, or, as we may
consider it, an ellipse having the same
centre and axes with the given ellipse.
It might be expected that the same, or
something similar, would obtain in the
hyperbola; and such, we are about to
demonstrate, is the case; viz. that “the
locus of the extremities of all the conju
gate diameters of a given hyperbola is
an hyperbola which has the same centre
rallel to PU (II. 29.), because Q R and and the same axes as the first.”
QX are bisected in N and C respectively To demonstrate this:
(17.); and RX is an ordinate to the Let C B be drawn parallel to the tan
diameter D Z, (17. Cor. 2.) because RY gent at the principal vertex A, and there
is to Y X as QC to CX, that is, in a ratio fore perpendicular to the transverse axis
of equality. From this reciprocal rela
tion such diameters PU and D Z are
called conjugate diameters ; and the dia
meter which is conjugate to the trans
º verse axis (and therefore (13. Cor. 1.)
perpendicular to that axis) is called the
conjugate aris” of the ellipse, for, being
perpendicular to its ordinates, it divides
the figure symmetrically, and therefore
is a second axis of the figure'.
In the hyperbola, which, as we have
seen, although so different in form, is
very like the ellipse in its properties, A' CA (13. Cor. 1.): let P be any point
there are no diameters, properly speak in the hyperbola, and draw PM likewise
ing, except such as lie in the angle made parallel to the tangent at A, to meet CA
by the asymptotes. Let us, however, produced in M, so that PM is a semi
define the conjugate diameter of any ordinate to the transverse axis A’ CA
diameter PU to be a straight line DZ, (17. and def. 17.): take C B such that
which is drawn through the centre C C B2 shall be to CA.” as PM” to A M
arallel to the ordinates of P U, is x MA', and make CB' equal to CB, so
isected in the centre, and is such that
that, according to the above definition,
CD2 is to CP+ as the square of the BB' is the conjugate axis of the hyper
ordinate QN to the rectangle under the bola. Let PT be drawn touching the
abscissae PN, N U. Such a straight hyperbola in P to meet C A in T;
line D Z will, it is evident, as in the through A draw A Q parallel to PT,
ellipse, bisect all straight lines which are and therefore (def. 17.) an ordinate to
drawn parallel to the diameter PU, and the diameter PU, by which it is con:
terminated by the hyperbola. But there sequently bisected (17), in the point
ºf always of intersection N; through C draw GD
* The conjugate axis of the ellipse
Iess than the º or transverse axis, the former parallel to PT, and take CD such that
is frequently called the minor axis, and the latter C D* shall be to CP2 as Q N* to PN
the major axis of the ellipse. - -
# There is, however, no other straight line which x NU, and make CZ equal to CD, so
divides the figure symmetrically, that is, no third that DZ is the diameter which is conju
axis. For, if C Q be joined in the first figure of prop. gate to the diameter CP. The points
17, and if P C P be supposed to represent the trans
verse axis, then if it were possible that Q Q could di I), Z shall lie in an hyperbola which
vide the figure symmetrically, or (which is the same has BB' for its transverse axis and AA'
thing) bisect its ordinates at right angles, C Q T
would be a right angle, and, consequently, because for its conjugate axis.
Q N is perpendicular to CT, C Q would be a mean From D draw DE perpendicular to
proportional between C N and C T, (II. 34. Cor.) CB produced. Then, because the sides
and therefore equal to CP (18.), so that Q N2 would
be to C Pº-C N2 or P N × N P' in a ratio of equa of the triangles CDE, PTM are paral
lity, and consequently (19.) the square of every other lel, each to each, those triangles are
semi-ordinate of the axis would be equal to the, rect
angle under its abscisse, and the figure would be a similar (I, 18.): therefore, CE : PM ::
circle, not an ellipse. --
CD: PT (II. 31.), and, consequently
(II. 37. Cor. 4.), CE* : P M*:: C D* mutually conjugate, each to the other,
: P T2. Now, CD2 is to PT* in a and each of them is the locus of the
ratio which is compounded of the ratios vertices of all the conjugate diameters of
of C D* to Q N2, and Q N* or NA* to the other,
PT*. And because, by supposition,
CD2 : C P2 :: Q N2 : P N × N U or PROP. 20.
(I. 34.) C N2 – C Pa alternando C D* If through any point taken within or
: Q N2 :: C P : C N3– CP2 ; also, without a comic section, there are drawn.
because N A is parallel to PT, N A* any number of straight lines, each cut
: PT2 :: C N 2 . CP2 (II. 30. Cor. 2. ting the curve in two points, and if at
and II. 37. Cor. 4.); therefore, the
every such two points tangents are
ratio which is compounded of the ratios drawn intersecting one another in a
of C D* to Q N2 and N A* to PT" is third point P, the locus of the pownts P
the same with the ratio which is com
shall be a straight line; and every
pounded of the ratios of CP” to CN*— straight line which is drawn through
CP2 and CN 9 to CP2, the same, that is,
with the ratio of C N A to C N* – C P2, the point taken to cut the curve shall be
harmonically divided by that straight
that is, again, since (II. 29.) CN : CP line and the curve.
:: C A : C T, the same with the ratio
of C A* to C A* – C T2 (II. 37, Cor. 4. For the point taken, D, may be trans
and II. 20. Cor. 1.). Therefore, C E * : ferred by a straight line drawn from the
PM2 :: CA* : CA2 – C T2 (a). vertex of the come to a corresponding
V
Again, because PM is a semiordinate
of the diameter A A' to which B B' is
conjugate, PM3 : B C2 :: A M × M Aſ
or C M – G.A. : C A*. Therefore,
combining this with the proportion (a),
eac aquo perturbato, C E * : B C2 ::
C M* – C A* : C A* – C T2 : and,
consequently, because CM, CA, CT
are proportionals (18.), C E * : B C2 ::
C. M. : C A* (II. 22.). And hence,
dividendo, C E * – C B2 : C B2 ::
CM* – C A* : C A2 (b).
But, because the triangles C D E,
PT M are similar, DE 2 : M T2 :: C E 2
: PM" (II. 31. and II. 37. Cor. 4.);
therefore, by the proportion (a), DE3
is to MT* as CA* to C.A. – CT3, that P
is, since CM, CA, C T are propor
tionals (18.), as C M to C M – C T or point d within or without the circle which
MT (II. 37. Cor. 2. and II. 20. Cor. 1.), is the projection of the conic section
or as C M × M T to MT* (II. 35.); (12.): "also any straight line passing
therefore, D EP is equal to C M × MT, through the former may, in like manne;
or, since, MA, MT, MC, MA! are pro be transferred to a corresponding straight
portionals (II. 47.), to A M × M.A.' line passing through the latter, and the
(II. 38.), that is (I. 34.) to CM* – CA2. tangents at the points in which the conic
Therefore, by the proportion (b), DE” section is cut by the former straight
: CA*:: C E*—CB2 : CB"; and alter line to tangents of the circle (6.) at
mando (II. 19.) D E2 : C E* – C B2 or the points in which it is cut by thelatter
(I. 34.) BEx EB :: CA2 : CB2, which and the point P in which the tangents of
shows that the point D is in an hyperbola the conic section intersect one another
which has the transverse axis B B' and to a corresponding point p in which the
the conjugate axis A.A. (19.) And, tangents of the circle intersect one ano
because CZ is equal to CD, and that the ther. But the points plie in a straight
diameters of an hyperbola are bisected line (III. 53.) because they are the in
by the centre, the point Z is in the same tersections of tangents to a circle at the
hyperbola. extremities of chords passing through
This hyperbola, which has for its the same point. Therefore, the projec
transverse axis the conjugate axis of the tions of the points P are such that their
given hyperbola, is called the conjugate projections lie in a straight line, that is,
hyperbola. Thus the two hyperbolas are they also lie in a straight º:(2). . .
2
. Again, in the circle, any straight line together with VB about the axis WO of
which passes through the projection of the cone, it will generate a sphere (IV.
the point taken, is divided harmonically def. 21.) which touches the comical sur
by the circumference and the straight face (in which V B always lies) in the
line which is the locus ofp(III. 53. Cor.); circle BDE(IV. 3. Cor. 2.), generated by
and lines harmonically divided are the the point B. And the same sphere will
#. of other lines which are touch the plane APQ in the point S
ikewise harmonically divided (II. 49.); (IV.8); for OS, being drawn in theplane
therefore, also, in the comic section, any VA. M. perpendicular to AM, which is
straight line which passes through the the common section of the plane WAM
point taken is divided jº. by with the plane A PQ to which it is per
the comic section and the straight liné, pendicular, is perpendicular to the plane
which is the locus of P. APQ (IV. 18.). It is supposed, there
Therefore, &c. fore, that the plane of the circle BDE is
PROP. 21. produced to meet the plane APQ in the
line RX; and it is required to show that,
In every conic section A PQ, if in if from any point P of the comic section,
the º cone of which it is a section PR is drawn perpendicular to RX, and
there be inscribed a sphere which touches SP is joined, S P shall be to PR in
the plane of the conic section in a point a constant ratio.
S, and the conical surface in a circle, Through V draw W L parallel to AM
the plane of which is produced to cut the (I. 48.), and, since VI, so drawn is in
plane of the conic section in a straight the plane V A M ( I. def. 12. and
line R X; the distances SP and PR IV. 1.) let it meet the straight line
of any point P in the conic section from EB, in which the plane of the circle
the point S, and the straight line RX, is cut by the plane WA M, or EB pro
shall be to one another ºn a constant duced, in L; join VP, and let it cut
Tatio.” the circumference B D E in D, and join
Let V O be the axis of the come, and LD, D R. Then, because the plane
A M the axis of the conic section, so BDE of the circle is perpendicular to the
axis VO (11.), and consequently to the
plane V AM which passes through VO
(IV. 18.), and that the plane APQ of
the conic section is perpendicular to the
same plane W AM, the common section
RX is perpendicular to the same plane
(IV. 18. Cor. 2.), and therefore, also, to
the line XAM which meets it in that
plane (IV. def. 1.). But RX is also
perpendicular to R. P. Therefore RP is
parallel to XAM (I. 14), that is (IV, 6),
to V L. Therefore the points L, D, R
are in the plane of the parallels WL,
RP; but they are, also, in the plane of
the circle B D E.; therefore they are in
that the plane VA MAſ passes through the common section of these two planes,
V O, and is perpendicular to the plane that is, in a straight line (IV. 2), and ID,
of the comic section APQ (13. and def. DR are in one and the same straight line.
13): then, because the axis V Q makes Again, because the plane WPS cuts the
equal angles with the slant sides VA, sphere in a circle (VI. I.), and that the
v'A', if the angle WAM be bisected by a straight lines PD, PS meet this cirºle
straightline cutting VQ in O, the point O and do not cut it, they touch it in the
will be the centre of a circle touching the points D, S respectively, and .ºOº.
three straight lines V.A.V A', and A M sequently, PD is equal to PS (III.3,
(III. 59.); and, if QB, OS be drawn per Cor. 3.). But, because VL is parallel
pendicular to V.A., AM respectively, it to R P, the triangles VDL, PDR are
will touch VA' in the point B, and AM in similar (I. 15.). Therefore, PD is to
the point S. Therefore, if the half of this PR as W D to W L (II.3.1.). Therefore,
circle, which is upon the same side of VO since S P is equal to PD, and WB to
with the tangent W B, be made to revolve VI), S P is to PR as WB to WL, that
sº
e “Transactions
* Wol, III, No.
of the
VIII.
Cambridge Philo
g
is, in a constant ratio.
Therefore, &c.
---
Cor. 1. If the comic section be an also CS', C A', CX', are proportionals.
ellipse or an hyperbola, a second circle For, since (by the proposition) SA is
may be described in the angle A.V B or to AX as SA’ to Al X, the straight
in the angle vertical to it, touching the lines A/X, Al A, and A/S, are in har
straight lines VA, VA', and A A', and monical progression (II. 45. Cor.); and
accordingly, a second sphere inscribed consequently, the mean A A' being bi
in the come touching the plane of the sected in C, CS, CA, and CX are pro
ellipse or hyperbola in a second point portionals (II.46.); and the like demon
S' of the axis, and the surface of the stration applies to C S', C A' and CX'.
come in a second circle B' D'E'. And Cor. 3. The constant ratio of S P to
if the plane of this circle be produced PR is the same with that of C S to CA,
to cut the plane of the ellipse or or (which is the same) of C S' to C A'.
hyperbola in a line R. X., it may be For A being a point of the ellipse or hy
shown, as in the proposition, that the perbola, S A is to A X in the constant
distances S P and PR of any point ratio; and because C S, C A, C X are
P, from the point S' and the line R/X', proportionals, C S is to C A as S A to
are to one another in the constant A X (II. 22.) And for the like reason
ratio of V B' to W L', that is, in the C S is to C A' as S. Aſ to A'X', that is,
same constant ratio as before, of VB likewise in the constant ratio. >
to W L (II. 29.). Cor. 4. In the ellipse S P + PS'-

AA'; and in the hyperbola S P - PS/
= A A'. For, since S P is to PR in the
constant ratio of C S to CA, or of
C A to C X, or again (II. 23.), of A.A.'
to XX', and that S! P is to PR' in the
same ratio, S P + S P is to PR + PRI
in the same ratio of A A' to XXſ (II.
23. and II. 22). But in the ellipse PR
+P R! is equal to R. R', and R. R. is
equal to XX! (I. 22.); therefore (II.
18. Cor.), S P + S' Pis equal to A A'.
And, in the hyperbola, PR - PR' is
equal to RR', and RR is equal to XX:
(I. 22.); therefore (II. 18. Cor.) S P -
S' P is equal to A A'. -
Cor. 5. In the ellipse S P is less than

PR; in the hyperbola S P is greater
than PR; and in the parabola S P is
equal to PR.
Scholium.
The points S and S'are called the foci,

and the straight lines R X, R/X, the
directrix-es, of the conic section: the
ellipse and hyperbola having two foci
at equal distances from the centre upon
either side of it, and two directrixies;
the parabola one focus and one directrix
only. From the simple properties which
have just been demonstrated with re
gard to these remarkable points, viz.,
that
1. In the ellipse SP+S' P=AA’.
2. In the hyperbola SP-S P-A. A.
3. In the parabola SP=PR, .
others of very considerable impor
In the case of the parabola no such tance are derived. The three conic
Second circle can be described, because sections are, indeed, commonly defined
VB is parallel to A. M. by these properties, and from these, by
Cor. 2. If C is the centre of the help of the theorems of Plane Geometry,
ellipse or the hyperbola, CS, CA, CX, as all other properties are derived in order.
PART III.-Plane Sections of the ob straight line Q R, which is drawn per
lique cone, of the right cylinder, and of pendicular to it from a point Q of the
the oblique cylinder. section PQR, and thatthe square QNº
PROP. 22. of the half of such straight line is equal
'. Every section of an oblique cone which to the rectangle PN × N P', under the
is made by a plane parallel to its base, segments of PP', the section PQ R is a
is a circle having its centre in the aris circle, having PP for its diameter (III.
of the cone. 3. and III. 20.).
... See the demonstration of Prop. 11. Therefore, &c.
Prop. 23. PROP. 24.
In an oblique cone, if VA, VA are Every plane section of an oblique
the slant sides in which the surface of cone which neither passes through the
the come is cut by a plane passing vertea, nor is parallel to the base, nor
through the aris VO perpendicular io is subcontrary, is a conic section, that
the base, and if the cone be cut by a is, either an ellipse or a parabola or an
plane PQR which is perpendicular to hyperbola.
the plane W A A', and is inclined to Let V be the vertex, and WO the axis
either of the slant sides VA at the same of an oblique come, and let it be cut by
le at which the base is inclined to the
any plane PQ R: through V draw the
other slant side VA', the section made straightline
by the plane PQ R shall be a circle: of the cone WD parallel both to the base
and to the plane PQR
in other words, every subcontrary sec (IV. 40. Cor.): through any point in
tion of an oblique cone is a circle. the base of the cone draw a straight
Let the plane PQR v
line parallel to WD, and (III. 57) a
cut the plane V.A.A.' straight line touching the base parallel
in the straight line to this straight line or (IV, 6.) to VD;
PP"; take any point and let V P be the slant side of the come
Q in the curve PQR, which passes through the point of con
and through Q draw
the plane A Q A' R
parallel to the base of A}_2
the cone, and let this
lane cut the plane P' Q
Vº in the straight line A'A', and the
plane PQR in the straight line QR
(IV. 2.); then A Q A' is a circle having
its centre O in the axis of the cone (22.).
And, because the planes A Q A', PQ R
are each of them perpendicular to the
lane V A A', their common section QR
is perpendicular to the same plane (IV.
18. Cor. 2.), and consequently (IV.def. 1.)
to the straight lines AA', PP' which meet
it in that plane. Now, because, by the
supposition, the planes, PQR, A Q Aſ
are equally inclined to the straight lines
WA, W Aſ respectively, the angles of
inclination V. P. P and V A' A are equal
to one another, and (I. 3.) the yertical
angles PNA' and A N P' are likewise
equal; therefore the triangles PNA'.
A N P are similar, and (II. 31.) PN
is to N Al as A N to N P', and con
sequently (II. 38.), P N × N P is equal
to AN × N A. But, because A A' is
the diameter of the circle A Q A', and is
perpendicular to the chord Q R at the
point N, Q R is bisected in N (III. 3.),
and QN2 is equal to ANXNA (III.20).
Therefore QN4 is equal to PN × N P'.
Therefore, because PP'bisects every
Appendix.] . GEOMETRY.
tact, so that the plane DVP touches the g
conical surface in the slant side V P.
Let the plane PVO cut the plane PQR
triangles V N Q, W n q sº º
byi
Q N5 to q nº (II. 37. Cor. 4.):
-
f
*
\
in the straight line PN, and the conical x n P is equal to q nº (III. 20.): tº |A
surface in the second slant side V p". fore, also, KN × N L is equal to QN***_
Then, if PN cuts V p' in a point P', (II. 18 Cor.). In the same manner, it
the section PQ R shall be an ellipse; if may be shown that K. N' x Nl L is
PN is parallel to Wp', the section shall equal to Q' N”. But, because the tri
be a parabola; and if PN cuts Vp' angles P. K.N., PN L are similar to the
produced beyond the vertex in a point triangles P. K'N', PN'L' respectivel
P the section shall be an hyperbola. (I. 15.) KN : NPl::K'N : Ni P1, an
First, let us suppose that PN is not NL : N P :: N'L' : N' P (II. 31.),
parallel to WP, and therefore, if pro and consequently, KN × N L or Q N2 is
duced, cuts it in a point P below or to PN × NP as K. N. × N. L. or QſN's
above the vertex W. Take any two points is to PN' × N P (II. 37. Cor. 3.).
Q, Q' in the curve PQR, and through Therefore, alternando, Q Nº is to Q: N/A
these points draw the planes D.V Q, as P N × N P to P N × N. P. ; and
DV Q' (IV. 1.) cutting the plane PQR consequently, PQ R is an ellipse or an
in the straight lines QR, Q'R' and the hyperbola having the diameter PP and
plane V PP in the straight lines WN, tangent PH (19.); an ellipse, if PN
VN respectively (IV. 2.); also through cuts V P below the vertex; an hyper
the point P draw a plane parallel to the bola, if above.
base of the cone, and therefore cutting And, by a similar construction, if
the come in a circular section P q r (22.), PN be parallel to Wp', it may be shown,
and let the same plane cut the plane in the same manner, that º × N L is
PQR in the straight line PH. Then, equal to Q N*, and K. N. × N. L. to
because the plane DVP touches the
conical surface, the straight line PH
touches both the circular section P q r
and the curve PQR, and consequently
the diameter PO p' of the circle is
perpendicular to P.H. Let q m r be the
projection of QNR on the plane P gr
by straight lines drawn from V, or, which
is the same thing, the common section
of the plane p q r with the plane DV Q;
them, because VD is parallel to the plane
of the circle, and likewise to the plane
PQR, it is parallel to PH, which is the
common section of these two planes Q' N/2. But, because KN is a paral
(IV. 40. Cor.); but q r is parallel to lelogram, KN is equal to K'N' (I.22.),
WD, because it is the common section and, because NL is parallel to N'L',
of a plane passing through VD with the NL is to N' L' as PN to PN/ (II. 30.
plane p q r, to which V D is parallel Cor. 2.); therefore, K N × N L is to
(IV. 10.): therefore q r is parallel to K. N. × N' L' as P N to PN/ (II. 35.).
PH (IV. 6.); and, for the like reasons, Therefore, Q N* is to Q' N” as PN to
QR is likewise parallel to PH, that is PN'; and, consequently, PQ R is a
(IV. 6.), to q r. Also, because q r is parabola haying the diameter PN and
parallel to PH, which touches the circle tangent PH (19.).
Pg r in P, it is perpendicular to the dia-. Therefore, &c.
meter PO p' (III. 2. and I. 14.), and is
therefore (III.3.) bisected in the point”; PROP. 25.
wherefore, also, since Q R is parallel to
q r, it is bisected in the point N (II. 30.). Every section of a cylinder which is
Through N and Nſ draw KL and K. L', made by a plane parallel to its base,
each of them, parallel to POp'. Then, as a circle having its centre in the
because the triangles V KN, WN L are aris of the cylinder, whether the cylin
similar to the triangles V p'n, Vº der be right or oblique.
respectively (I. 15.) KN : p'n :: V. N Let A B C, a b c be the bases of a
: W n (II. 3i. and II. 19.), and N L.;
n P :: V N : Vn, and consequently cylinder, and Oo its axis, and, let
(II. 37. Cor. 3.), KN × N L is to p' n × I; Q R be a section made by any plane
232 (GEOMETRY. [Appendix,
which is parallel to Alaa' A' in the straightline PP (IV.2),
ABC or a b c, and cuts take any point Q in the curve PQR,
the axis O o in E. The and through Q draw the plane DQ D'R
section PQ R shall be parallel to the base of the cylinder (IV.
a circle having the cen 43.), and let this plane cut the plane
tre E. Aaa' A' in the straight line DED, and
Let P be any point the plane PQ R in the straight line
in the curve P QR ; Q R; then D Q D' is a circle having
join PE; through P the centre E (25.). And, because the
draw PA parallel to E planes D Q D', PQR are each of them
O, and, consequently perpendicular to the plane Aa a A',
(V. def. 1.), lying in the convex surface their common section Q Risperpendicu
of the cylinder, to meet the circumfer lar to the same plane (IV. 18.), and con
ence A B C in A, and join OA. Then, sequently to the straight lines DD, PP,
because the parallels PA, E O are in which meet it in that plane (IV, def. 1.).
tercepted between parallel planes, they Now, because, by the supposition, the
are equal to one another (IV. 13.); planes PQR, DQD” are equally inclined
and, because PA and E O are both to the straight lines Aa, Aſ a respec
equal and parallel, EP is equal to OA tively, the angles of inclination NPD,
(I. 21.), that is, to the radius of the circle ND'P' are equal to one another; but
A B C. And, in the same manner, it ND'P' is equal to NDP, because A'a'
may be shown that the straight line is parallel to A a (I, 15.); therefore, the
drawn from E to any other point Q of angle NPD islikewise equal to NDP,
PQ R is equal to the same radius. and consequently (I. 6) the side N P is
Therefore, the point E is at the same equal to the side ND. And, for the like
distance from every point of PQR ; and, reasons, N P is equal to ND'...There:
consequently, PQ R is a circle having fore, the rectangle P N × N P is equal
the centre E. to the rectangle D N × N.D.'. But, be
Therefore, &c. cause D E D is the diameter of the cir
Cor. The radius of every circular cle D Q D', and is perpendicular to the
section of a cylinder, which is made by a chord QR at the point N, QRis bisected
plane parallel to its base, is equal to the in N (III. 3.), and Q N* is equal to DN
radius of the base. × N D! (III. 20.). Therefore, Q N* is
equal to PN × N P'. Therefore, because
. . PROP. 26. PPl bisects every straightline QR which
is drawn perpendicular to it from a point
In an oblique cylinder, if Aa and Q of the section PQR, and that the
Aſ aſ are the parallel straight lines in square QN 2 of the half of such straight
which the surface of the cylinder is cut by line is equal to the rectangle PNXNP'
aplanepassing through the aris Ooper
pendicular to the base, and if the cylin under the segments of PP, the section
PQ Ris a circle having PP for its dia
Her be cut by a plane PQR which is per meter (III. 3. and III.20). Also, the
endicular to the plane A a a A, and is middle point of PP is the centre of the
inclined to either of the parallel straight circle, “But, because 00, Aa and A'ſ
lines, Aa, at the same angle at which the are parallel, and that AO is equal, tº
base is inclined to the other A'a', the O A, PF is equal to FP (II. 29), that
section made by the plane PQR shall be is, F is the middle point of PP. There
a circle having its centre in the aris of fore, Fis the centre of the circle PQ R.
the cylinder; or, in other words, every Therefore, &c.
Cor. of
subcontrary section of an oblique cylin section Theanradius
obliqueofcylinder
every subcontrºy
is equal to
der is a circle having its centre in the
aris of the cylinder. the radius of the base of the cylinder.
Let the plane PQR cut the plane PROP. 27.
Every plane section of a cylinder
which is neither parallel to the arts" ºr
parallel to the
is an ellipse base, nor
having subcontrary,
its centre * the
-——TT
• A plane which is parallel to the axis ºf . cylin
der,* the convex surface in two straight lines
which are parallel to the axis.
Appendix.] GEOMETRY. - 233
aris of the cylinder, whether the cylinder Q Risthe common section of two planes
be right or oblique. which are parallel respectively to the two
Let A B A', a b a' be the bases, and passing through O B, Q R is parallel to
0 0 the axis of a cylinder, and let PQR OB (IV. 12, Cor.); and, for the like
be any plane section which is neither reason, Q'R' is parallel to O B or Q R.
parallel to the axis O o nor to the base Also, because K L and A' A are the
common sections of parallel planes by
the same plane A aa' A', K.I, is parallel
to A' A (IV. 12.); and, for the like rea
son, K'L' is parallel to A' A or K L.
But Al OA is at right angles to O B,
Therefore, QR is at right angles to KL,
and Q'R' is at right angles to K'L'
(IV. 15.). And, because the diameter
K L of the circle K Q L R is at right
angles to the chord Q R, it bisects Q R
in the point N (III. 3.); and, for the like
reason, Q'R' is bisected in N'. There
ABA", nor subcontrary: PQR shall fore (III. 20.) Q N* is equal to KN ×
be an ellipse having for its centre the NL, and Q'N'a to K'N' × N. L. But,
point C in which its plane cuts the axis because the triangles P/KN, PN L are
of the cylinder. similar to the triangles P' K'N', PN'L'
Through Q draw a plane parallel to respectively (I.15.) KN : NP':: K'N' :
the plane PQR (IV.43.), and let it cut N'P', and NL : P N :: N' L' : P N/
the plane ABA' in the straight line OB; (II. 31.), and, consequently, KN × N L
draw the diameter AA’ perpendicular to or Q N2 : PN × N P :: K. N. × N'L' or
O B, and let the plane AO o cut the Q: N/2 : PN'x N'P' (II. 37. Cor. 3.).
convex surface of the cylinder in the pa Therefore, alternando, Q N* : Q'N's
rallel straight lines A a, A'a', and the :: P N × N P : P N × N' P'; and
plane PQR in the straight line PC Pl: consequently (19.), P. Q R is an ellipse
in the curve PQR take any two points. having the diameter PP', and the tan
Q, Q', and through these points draw gent at P parallel to O B. Also, be
the planes KQLR, K'Q' L'R' parallel cause A A' is bisected in O, and that
to the base ABA' (IV. 43.) and cutting A a, O o and A' a' are parallel to one
the plane PQR in the straight lines another, PP' is bisected in C (II. 29.).
QNR, Q'N' R and the plane Aa aſ Al Therefore, C is the centre of the ellipse
in the straight lines K N L, K! Nº I./ PQ R.
respectively (IV. 2.). Then, because Therefore, &c.
ERRATA.
* Those marked with an asterisk are of importance.
…”
age Col. Line
º ºinLine.the
2 Scholium
read a 2 – y?case
= 62 6,, f
for w? +y? =b2
4 2' 47 for greater read greater or less
1 2) — side D E read sides DE
2 27 — same line read same side 126 2 1 of note from bottom, for said read
i 12 for to the same straight line read to made
the same straight line, and in the 126 2 26 for 17 read 17. Cor.
same plane 128 l l l — pass read passes
| 20 – 22. Cor. read 22. Cor. I 134 2 47 — will be read will lie
1. 3 and 4 for AD, and read A D. And 137 2 5 — this read that one
1 13 for 32 read 31 139 2 1 from bottom, for 20 read 21
2 32"- and hence read therefore, adding 140 2 3 from bottom, for themselves read
twice the square of A E or AC likewise
1 23 – 39. Cor. 2 read 29. Cor. 2 *143 2 33 for altitude GH read altitude CH
144 2 38 – 21 read 22
ii 53
26 —
— the
equal to read
points DEisreadthe
equal to
points D, E 145 l 16 A B C D read A B C D E
i 33 – triangle A B C read triangle a bo *I 46 l 27 omit the reference (II. 12)
2 3 from bottom, for H Q read AQ *150 l in the figurethe line AE is dotted by mistake
2 16 for [10]. Cor. read [11]. Cor. 2 152 2 30 for I. 12 read I. 12, Cor. 1.
1 5 and 2 from bottom, for A's B’: : A : B J54 2 16 — G. H., being read G H being
read A’ : B :: A : B' 157 l 4 – A B, A C read OB, OC
1 4 and 3 from bottom, for A read A', and 160 l l – A B C D read A B C DE
for A' read A #160 l 4 from bottom, for FL read EL
1 1 from bottom, for B read B', and for 160 l in the lower figure, for u read U
B” read B ió7 2 719 for right angle read right-angled
2 1 for B' read B, omitting because it is 17l 1 21 — 1 Cor. 2 read 2 Cor. 2
supposed to be greater than B, which 172 2 22 — IV. 32 read IV. 32. Cor.2
is greater than Q 173 2 12 from bottom, for pyramid read cone
13 of note, for and d read c and d 173 || 13 for 5. Cor. 1 read7. Cor. 1
for def. 7 read def. [7] 173 | in26the
–figure,
pyramidthe read
lettercone
C is wanting at the
lº. A, B, A, B read A, B, A', B”
i §f — ig. Cor. read 11. Cor. 2
— homologous, and read homolo"
gous; and
Eué. I. 17 read Euc. VI. 17
1
3
centre of A B D
9 from bottom, for 6 read 8
3 and 4 for Props. 2 and 6 read Props.
3 and 8
-
!# — I. 38 read I. 34
— A C read A c
l 29 for 13 read 13 and 16
#182 1 12 — C H read C, D
— I. 5 read I. 6 1 5 from bottom, for III. 36 read I, 36
:: — D. (I. 48 read D. (I, 48)
— 56 read 56. Cor.
2 13 from bottom, for # * +G K” read
# ºr x G K"
in the figure of the Scholium, for C" 1 20 for 15 read 18
read G igo 2 "5 from bottom, for greater read lº
1i in7 the
for figure
1 read of
l; Cor. 2 4 from bottom, for less read greater_
the 1scholium, for the C
nearest to A read c ADDENDUM.
3 39; °.foºd
2
31 readºf
31. ECor;
readl A, B, C, D, E, F Page 93, col. 2, after Book III, prop. 28, add,
§or in an isosceles triangle, which has each Of
i 17 — is greater read is, greater
i i from bottom, for impracticable read the equal angles double of the vertical angle, the
impracticable in the way of calcu sides and base are in extreme and mean prop"
lation - tion; and conversely. -
2 2 from bottom, for II.17 read II. 13 in such a triangle, each of the equal angles is
2 41 for as may easily be shown read (II. 23) four-fifths of a right angle (I. 19.) As wear; ºr
bled, therefore, to describe such a triangle by II:
1 35 for P C 15 read B C 12 59, we can thus divide a right angle intº five equal
2 31 " p A3 × A G read PA3 × E. G.
as was observed in the scholium of P. 26.
| 16 and 17 for (produced if necessary) parts,
And generally, if a regular polygon of n sides can
read produced be inscribed in a circle, (as, in the present instances
-
2 5 for B C D ºf B C D and the point A the regular polygon of five sides,) a right angle
2 read line 19 immediately before line 18 jº be divided into ºn equal parts, ºyº for
I 56 for of given read of the given j of those parts (i. 46. Cór.) a fºurth of the
1 31 — 12. Cor. } read 11. Cor.
120 - 41 – 12. Cor. } read ll. Cor. angle which the side of the pºlygon subtends at the
+122 2 in the figure the letter C is wanting be centre of the circle. (I. 3. Cor.)
t ween N and B
. . . I N D E X.
The theorems and problems of Plane Geometry will be found under the heads Straight ſine, Angle,
Triangle, Square, Rhombus, Reetangle, Parallelogram, Quadrilateral, Rectilineal Figure, Circle; those
of Solid Geometry under Plane, Dihedral Angle, Solid Angle, Tetrahedron, Cube, Rectangular Paral
lelopiped, Parallelopiped, Prism, Pyramid, Polyhedron, Regular Polyhedron, Cylinder, Cone, Sphere,
Solid of Revolution; of Spherical Geometry under that head; of Ratios and Proportion under those
respective heads; and so of Projection and the Comic Sections:
The parts included in unciae are additions; having been made, either with the view of supplying such
connecting links as seemed wanting in the present digest of the whole work, as in “Circle” (E) and
(G); or of completing what had been left imperfect, as in the notes on “Proportion " and “Rectangle;”
or of extending and generalising where only partial views had been given, as under the heads “similar,”
“symmetrical,” “touch ;” or of adding whatever of use or interest had been inadvertently omitted, as
in “Annulus,” “Lunes,” and the note on “Centrolinead.”
ABSCISSA (Lat., a part cut off) of a cular arc, which is described about
conic section . . def: 220 -
the angular point with a given radius,
Acute, (Lat., pointed,) a term applied to an and is included between the legs,
gles, whether plane, dihedral, or spherical, sch. 85
which are less than right angles. (e) By continued bisections, a given
Adjacent angles are those which one straight angle may be divided into 2, 4, 8, 16,
line, or plane, or spherical arc makes with &c. equal parts; but the division of
another upon one side of it. an angle (in general) into any other
Affection, angles said to be of the same, or number of equal parts is impracticable
of different affections . - zote 62 by a plane construction, i.e. with the
Algebra, its signs +, −, x, &c., borrowed right line and circle only sch. 26
- with advantage by geometry 20 (f) To bisect a given angle
-
25 -
Alternando, a rule in Proportion. See “Pro (g). At a given point in a given straight
portion.” line to make an angle equal to a given
Aſternate, certain angles said to be, which angle -
are made by two straight lines (or planes), See “Straight Line.”
with a third straight line (or plane) 13 Angle, solid. (See “Solid Angle.”) deſ. 125
Altitude, of any figure, is a perpendicular Angle, spherical. (See “Spherical Geome
drawn to the base from the vertex, line, or .” . def. 185 - -
plane, opposite to it. Angle in a segment. (See “Circle.") deſ. 79

Analysis, (Gr., undoing, or taking to pieces,) [Annulus (Lat., a ring,) a name given to the
in #. is that mode of demon
space which is the difference of two con
strating a theorem, or solving a problem, centric circles—two annuli are said to be
which searches into the thing proposed, similar, when the radii of the interior and
and takes it (as it were) to pieces, in order exterior circumferences are to one another
to discover the more simple truths and in the same ratio. See “Circle.”
constructions upon which it is built: the Antecedent, of a ratio, is the leading term :
reverse process is called Synthesis, (Gr, the antecedents of a proportion are the first
putting together,) and proceeds in a didactic and third terms . deſ. 32, 33 -
form, by the putting together of truths and Apothem of a regular polygon . def. 91
constructions already established, to do, or Approacimation to the area of a circle, when
establish the certainty of the thing pro the radius is given; or, to the radius when
posed - - 107 the circumference is given; or, to the radius
Angle, dihedral. See “ Dihedral Angle.” when the area is given. (See “Circle.”)
Angle, rectilineal def. 1
- - sch. 97, 98
When said to be right, oblique, acute, Are (Lat., a bow) of a circle. (See “Circle.”)
obtuse - . def.2 -
def. 78
Supplementary -note 5 Arc, spherical. (See “Spherical Geometry.”)
-
Explementary, reverse . 85 - def. 184

More complete definition of angular Area (Lat., a floor) means, sometimes, the
magnitude s - . 85 same as surface; but is more properly
(a) The magnitude of an angle is in applied to signify the number of times any
dependent of the extent of its legs surface contains the superficial unit sch, 13
deſ: 1 Area of a triangle. See “Triangle.”
(b) Equal angles may be made to Area of the circle. See “Circle.”
coincide aar. 4
-
Arithmetical mean, between two magnitudes,
-
(c) All right angles are equal to one is a magnitude which exceeds the lesser of
another . 4
- -
the two by as much as it falls short of the
(d) Every angle is measured by the cir greater.
236 GEOMETRY. [Index.
(a) Is equal to half the sum of the two Arc, chord, segment, sector, tangent
magnitudes -aa. 4 - def: 78, 79
(b) Is greater than the geometrical Similar arcs, similar segments, similar
mean cor. 42 sectors - - . def. 91
(c) Arithmetical means being continually
taken between two magnitudes, be (A) First Properties, III. § 1.
tween the new mean and the last, and (a) If a straight line meets a circle in
so on; to arrive at the approximate two points, it cuts the circle in those
result immediately, after a certain points, and the part between them falls
number have been taken note 98 within the circle - . 79
Arithmetical progression. Magnitudes A, B, (b) A straight line cannot meet a circle
C, D, &c. are said to be in arithmetical in more than two points cor. 79
progression, when their successive diffe (c) A circle is every where concave to:
wards its centre - cor. 79
rences are equal, i.e. when A is as much
greater or less than B, as B is than C, as (d) The straight line which is drawn at
C is than D, and so on. right angles to the radius of a circle
Arithmetical theory ofproportion. (See “Pro from its extremity touches the circle;
portion.”) and no other straight line can touch
In what respects inadequate to the pur it in the same point . . , 79
poses of geomet - note 57 (e) If a straightline touches a circle,the
Arris of a solid. (See: Polyhedron.”) def. 126 straight line drawn from the centre to
4s. Peculiar use of the word, in expressing the point of contact shall be perpendi.
certain proportions - - sch. 62 cular to the line touching the circle
4symptote of a curve. (See “Conic Sec 'cor. 80
tions,” and “Projection.”) . deſ. 211 (f) If a straight line touches a circle,
4xiom (Gr.), a self-evident truth . 4 and if from the point of contact, a
4rioms of equality and inequality ... 4
straight line be drawn at right angles
4a is of a circle of the sphere def. 184
to the touching line, the centre of the
Qf a cone or cylinder def. 166, 167 circle shall be in that line cor: 80
. Of a regular prism or pyramid def. 127 (g) Tangents which are drawntº a cirº
4xis of a figure of revolution (and in this from any the same point without .
sense of a sphere) is the straight line about (h)are equal to at
Tangents another
onethe ... Cº.
extremities 80
of the
which the revolution is supposed to take
place. same diameter are parallel cor. 8"
Aaris ºf a conic section e def: 217
Principal or transverse def: 217 ofthe
(B), (a) The diameters oferthe
Diameterandoth Chords,
sameIII:\}.
circle
Conjugate - - def. 226
are equal to one another def 3
(b) Every diameter divides the circle
Base of a triangle, deſ. 2—of a pyramid, 127 equal
and its circumference into twonote
--of a cone, 167—of a spherical segment, 78
179—of a spherical sector, 179. parts - e -
Bases of a parallelopiped, def. 126—of a (c) The diameter is the greatest straigh;
prism, 127—of a cylinder, 166. line in a circle; and, of others, that
which is nearer to the centre is greater
Centre of a circle, deſ. 3—of a regular poly than the more remote; also, the great.
gon, 91—of a sphere, 127—of a regular —TTT is nearer to the centre than the less 8"
polyhedron, 161—of an ellipse, or hyper let QA, QP, QC, represent the three rulers, hº
bola - e - 217
the common joint Q, . letthe angles PQA;
-
Centrolinead, an instrument for drawing con be set (or made equal) to the angles AGD and º
;
verging lines . - - - 75 respectively; fix two pins, one at A, the other * i
For a description of Mr. Nicholson's QPand move the rulers AQ, CQ, along these pinº: º
passes through the point P; let the rulº .
instrument, * see the “Transactions thensteadily fixed, and heline GP drawn; Q} is .
of the Society of Arts,” vol. xxxii. line required. For, if a circle be described throug
Circle, (also centre, circumference, radius or the points A, C, O, the point Q will always lºin.
circumference, because A QC is equal to the sum
semidiameter, diameter) def. 3 - (fig. 1) or the difference (fig. 2) of PQA and º;
i.e. of BAC and A CD, i. e. to the supplement 9
* A more simple instrument, for the same purpose, the angle O (fig. 1), or to the angle 0 (fig.2); thº,
consisting of three rulers, which are stiffly moveable fore, since the Angie Pöö is equal to BAC, QP
about a common joint in the same, or in parallel produced passes through O.
planes, is likewise of frequent use among draughts
men. Its form is not so convenient, neither from the Jig, 1.
want of the additional rulers is its adjustment sus A/
ceptible of the same accuracy as Mr. Nicholson's.
It derives its use, however, from the same principle,
and the manner of applying it may be explained as
follows:– -
Let AB and CD be two given lines, converging to

the distant point O, and let it be required to draw
through any given point P a straight _line, which
shall pass sº the same point Q. In A B take
any point A, and in CD any point C, and join AC;
! Index.] . . GEOMETRY. 237
t
º| (d) Euual straight lines in a circle are (C). Of Circles which cut or touch one
º equally distant from the centre; and another, III. § 1.
N those which are equally distant from (a) Circles which are concentric either
i. the centre are equal to one another do not meet one another, or coincide
#. cor. 81 altogether - - 81 -
- (e) If a diameter cuts any other chord (b) Circles which cut or touch one
at right angles, it bisects it; and another cannot have the same centre
tº: conversely, if a diameter bisects any - cor. 81
ſº other chord, it cuts it at right angles 80 (c) Circles cannot cut one another in
º (f) Two chords of a circle cannotbisect more than two points . 82 -
, one another, except they both pass (d) If two circles meet one another in a
º; through the centre . . . cor. 80 point which is not in the straight line
º (g) The straight line which bisects any i. their centres, or in that straight
º chord at right angles, passes through ine produced, they shall meet one
º the centre of the circle . cor. 80 another in a second point upon the
(h) If two circles have a common chord, other side of that straight line, and
º it shall be bisected at right angles by shall cut one another . 82
1: the straight line joining their centres (e) If two circles meet one another in a
º cor. 80 point which is in the straight line
º (i) A diameter bisects all chords which joining their centres, or in that straight
º are parallel to the tangent at either of line produced, they meet in no other
s its extremities - - cor. 80 point; the circumference of the circle
e {(k) Every diameter
Seedivides the circle which greater
jº- symmetrically. “Symmetrically wholly has the the
without radius falls
circumference of
divided.”] the other, and the circles touch one
(1) If a point be taken, from which to another . - - - 83
the circumference of a circle there (f) Circles which cut one another meet
fall more than two equal straight lines, in two points, [and the distance be
that point is the centre of the circle 81 tween the two is bisected at right
(m) From any other point than the centre angles by the straight line which
there cannot be drawn to the circum joins their centres] .. . cor. 83
ference of a circle more than two (g) If two circles cut one another, the
straight lines that are equal to one straight line which joins their centres
another, whether the point be within is less than the sum, and greater than
or without the circle - cor. 81 the difference of their radii cor. 83
(n) If a point be taken within a circle (h) Circles which touch one another meet
which is not the centre, of all the in one point, only; and the straight
straight lines which can be drawn line which joins their centres, or that
from that point to the circumference, straight line produced, passes through
the greatest is that which passes the point of contact - cor. 82
through the centre, and the other part (i). If two circles touch one another, the
of that diameter is the least; also, of distance of their centres is equal to
any others, that which is nearer to the sum or to the difference of their
the greatest is greater than the more radii; the sum, if they touch exter
remote, and any two,which are equally mally; the difference, if they touch
distant from the greatest upon either internally . . - cor. 82
-
side of it, are equal to one another (k) If the circumferences of two circles
sch. 83 do not meet one another in any point,
(0) If a point be taken without a circle, the distance between their centres
and straight lines be drawn from it shall be greater than the sum, or less
to the circumference, of those which than the difference of their radii, ac
fall upon the concave circumference, cording as each of the circles is with
the greatest is that which passes out the other, or one of them within
through the centre, and of the rest the other; [and the circles approach.
that which is nearer to the greatest is nearest to one another in the straight
greater than the more remote, and line joining their centres, or in that
any two which are equally distant straight line produced] - 83
from the greatest upon either side of (2) If the distance between the centres
it are equal to one another; also, of of two circles be at once less than the
those which fall upon the convex cir sum, and greater than the difference
cumference, the least is that between of their radii, the circles will cut one
the point without the circle and the another; if that, distance be equal to
diameter, and of the rest, that which the sum, or to the difference of the
is nearer to the least is less than the radii, the circles will touch one
more remote, and any two which are another; and, if that distance be
equally distant from the least upon greater than the sum, or less than the
either side of it are equal to one difference of the radii, the circles will
another - - - sch. 83 not meet one another . cor. 84
(D) 9. Arcs and Angles in a Circle, III. if the arc between a chord and tan
gent be bisected by the point of con
(a) In the same, or in equal circles, tact, the chord and tangent shall be
arallel - - . cor. 88
equal chords subtend equal angles at
the centre, and conversely; and the (p) If any two chords meet one another,
greater chord subtends the greater the angle contained by them is mea
angle at the centre, and conversely 84 sured by half the sum, or by half the
(b) In the same, or in equal circles, equal difference of the intercepted arcs, ac
angles at the centre stand upon equal cording as the point in which they
arcs, and conversely . 8 -
meet is within or without the circle 88
(c) In the same, or in equal circles, equal (q) If a chord meet a tangent,the angle
chords subtend equal arcs; and con contained by them is measured by
versely - - - cor. 85 half the difference of the intercepted
(d) In the same, or in equal circles, any arcs [and the same measure obtains
angles at the centre at the arcs upon when two tangents meet one *] cor.
which they stand; i.e., any angle at
the centre is measured by the arc upon
which it stands - 85 (E) of Rectangles under the Segments ºf
(e) The angle at the circumference is Chords, III. § 3. -
[(a) If a diameter bisects any chord,

equal to half the angle at the centre the square of half the bisected chord
upon the same base; i.e., any angle is equal to the rectangle unº the
at the circumference is measured by segments of the diameter (I, 36, and
half the arc upon which it stands 86
I. 34.
(f) In the same, or in equal circles, -
equal angles at the circumference stand [(b) #: lº at the extremities of a

upon equal arcs, and conversely; also, chord meet one another in the sam:
any angles at the circumference are point T of the bisecting diameter, and
as the arcs upon which they stand that in such a manner, that if Cisthº
cor. 86 centre of the circle, N the pºint ºf
bisection, and CA the radius, CN, CA,
(g), Angles in the same segment of a and CT, are proportionals (II.34)]
circle are equal to one another 86 (c) If any two chords cut one another,
(h) The angle in a semicircle is a right the rectangles under their segments
angle; the angle in a segment, which shall be equal, whether they cut one
is greater than a semicircle, is less
than a right angle; and the angle in another within or without the citle 8%
a segment, which is less than a semi
(d) If two straight lines AB, CD, ºut
one another in a point E, and if the
circle, is greater than a right angle
cor. 86
points A, B, and C, D, a. taken, º:
two first upon the same side of E, an
(i) If a triangle and a circular segment the two last likewise upon the sº
stand upon the same base and upon side; or the two first upon opposite
the same side of it, the vertex of the sides of E, and the twº la: likewise
triangle will fall without, or within, upon opposite sides) sothat the recº
or upon the arc of the segment, ac gle under A E, EB; shall be equal to
cording as the vertical angle is less
than, or greater than, or equal to, the the rectangle under SP, ED, the points
angle in the segment cor. 87
-
ference samelie
theshall
A, B, C,of D, in the
circle circ".
cor. 89
(k). If any chord be drawn in a circle, (e) If a chord meet & tangent, i.
the angles contained in the two oppo square of the tangent shall be equal to
site segments shall be, together, equal the rectangle under the segments ;
to two right angles - . 87
CE
(l) The opposite angles of a quadrila the chord
(f) If two straight lines, AB and
“. . . "
all d#
teral in a circle are, together, equal to meet one another in a point.” * l
two right angles - cor. 87
the points A, B, and C, are sº taken,
(m) If at one extremity of a chord a
tangent be drawn, the angles which it that A and B being upºn the º
makes with the chord shall be equal side of E, the square of E.Giº" i.
to the angles in the alternate seg - the
straight line ECunder.
rectangle touch º:
shall A.P. the clycle
ments; and conversely, if at one ex which passes through the points A,
tremity of a chord a straight line be
drawn such that the angles it makes (g)B,IfC a triangle be inscribed in *cor.
- - 89
circle,
with the chord are equal to the angles and if a perpendicular be drawn from
in the alternate segments, such straight
line is a tangent 87
the verſe: tº the base, the rectang!”
-
(n) Parallel chords intercept equal arcs,

-
under the two sides shall be equal,"
and conversely - - 88 the rectangle under the perpendicul,
(0) If a tangent and a chord be parallel, (h)andIfthe diameterareof the
triangles circle ..in
inscribed the
the arc between them is bisected by
the point of contact; and, conversely, same, or in equal circles, the rectangles
Index.] GEOMETRY. 239
under the sides, containing any two (e) The side of a regular hexagon is
angles, shall be to one another as the equal to the radius of the circle in
perpendiculars drawn to the opposite which it is inscribed; the side of a
sides • e cor. 90 regular decagon is equal to the greater
(i) If a quadrilateral be inscribed in a segment of the radius divided me
circle, its diagonals are to one another dially; and the side-square of a regu
as the sums of the rectangles under lar pentagon* is greater than the
the sides terminated in their extremi square of the radius by theside-square
ties 90
• • e e
of a regular decagon inscribed in the
(k) If a quadrilateral be inscribed in a same circle - • - 93
circle, the rectangle under its diago (f) If K and L represent two regular
mals shall be equal to the sum of the polygons of the same number of sides,
rectangles under its opposite sides 90 the one inscribed in, and the other
(1) If from any point without a circle, circumscribed about the same circle,
two straight lines are drawn to touch and if M and N represent the inscribed
the circle, every straight line which is and circumscribed polygons of twice
drawn through that point to cut the the number of sides; M shall be a
circle shall be harmonically divided geometrical mean between K and L,
by the circumference, and the chord and N an harmonical mean between
L and M 96
joining the points of contact; and the - º º
tangents at the points in which every (g) If k and l represent the radii of the
such straight line cuts the circum circles which are inscribed in any
ference shall meet one another in the regular polygon, and circumscribed
chord produced Jem. 220 about it, and if m and n represent
(m) If through any point taken within these radii for a regular polygon
or without a circle, there are drawn which has twice as many sides as the
any number of straight lines, each former, and an equal perimeter; m:
cutting the circle in two points, and shall be an arithmetical mean between
if at every such two points tangents * and l, and n a geometrical mean be
are drawn intersecting one another in tween l and m . • note 98
a point P, the locus of the points P (h) If k and 2 represent the radii of the
shall be a straight line; and every circles which are circumscribed about
straight line which is drawn through any regular polygon and inscribed in
the point taken to cut the circle shall it, and m an arithmetical mean between
be harmonically divided by that them; and if k and l’ represent these
straight line and the circle cor. 112 radii for a regular polygon which has
twice as many sides as the former and
(F) of regular Polygons, inscribed and cir
an equal area, #' shall be a mean pro
cumscribed, III. § 4. portional between k and l, and 7' a
(a) If any two adjoining angles of a mean proportional between 2 and m
regular polygon be bisected, the inter - note 98
section of the bisecting lines will be (i) The area of any regular polygon is
the common centre of two circles, the equal to half the rectangle under its
one circumscribed about, the other in perimeter and the radius of the in
scribed in, the polygon 91 scribed circle - e • 93
(b) If the circumference of a circle be (*) The perimeters of similar regular
divided into any number of equal polygons are as the radii of the in
parts, the chords joining the points of scribed or circumscribed circles, and
division shall i. a regular poly their areas are as the squares of the
radii e e - - 94
gon inscribed in the circle; and the
tangents drawn through those points (2) Table of the areas of the regular po
shall include a regular polygon of the lygons of 4, 8, 16, &c. sides up to 220
same number of sides circumscribed which are inscribed in and circum?
about the circle e 92 scribed about the same circle, as far
(c) If any regular polygon be inscribed as the 10th decimal place inclusively -
in a circle, a similar polygon may be the square of the radius being unity
circumscribed about the circle by sch. 97
drawing tangents through the angular
points of the former; and, conversely (G) Of the Circumference and Area of the
- cor. 92 Circle, III. § 4, 5.
(d) If any regular polygon be inscribed [(a) The circumference of a circle is
in a circle, and if a tangent be drawn greater than the perimeter of any in
parallel to one of its sides, and be ter scribed polygon, and less than that of
minated both ways by radii passing any circumscribed polygon; so also
through the extremities of that side,
such terminated tangent shall be a side * The diagonals, also, of a regular penta
of a similar polygon, circumscribed severally parallel to its sides, aß: #.º:
about the circle e - cor. 92 in extreme and mean ratio. Note, 159.
its area is greater than the area of the same right line for a base and the
any inscribed polygon, and less than same perimeter [and has a less peri
that of any circumscribed polygon. meter than any other plane figure
whatever having the same right line
(I.10. sch.)] for a base and the same area] cor. 106
(b) Any circle being given, a regular
polygon may be inscribed (or circum [(h) A circular annulus is equal to the
scribed), which shall differ from the product of its breadth and half the
sum of its interior and exterior cir
circle in perimeter, or in area, by less
than any given difference cor. 95 cumferences.]
(c) Any two circles being given, similar [(i) Similar annuli are as the squares of
their interior or exterior radii.
regular polygons may be inscribed,
or circumscribed, which shall differ
from the circles, in perimeter or in (I). Problems relating to the Circle. ,
area, by less than any the same given (a) To divide a given circular arc into
difference - cor. 95- 2, 4, 8, &c., equal parts . . . 112
-
(d) The area of a circle is equal to half (b) To find the centre of a given circu
the rectangle under the radius and lar arc, and to complete the circum:
circumference - - - 95 ference of which it is a part, 113
(e) The circumferences of circles are as (c) To draw a tangent to a given circle
the radii, and their areas are (in the from a given point— . .. .
duplicate ratio, or) as the squares of 1. When the given point is in the
the radii - - - • 96 circumference.
(f) The ratio of the circumference to the 2. When withoutit . . . 113
diameter is 3.1415926535 &c.; to (d) To draw a tangent to a given circle,
which number we may approximate which shall be parallel to a giyº.
by any of the theorems (f), (g), (h), straight line - . 113 -
in the last division . sch, 97

(e) To draw a common tangent to two
For rules to abridge the calculation, see given circles—
note 97
1. So as to touch them upon the
same side of the linejoining their
(g) The circumference and diameter
have been demonstrated to be incom centres.
mensurable, so that their approxima 2. So as to touch them upon º:
tion has no limit • sch, 99
site sides
Upon of that
a given line line tº11de
straight
(h). If R represents the radius of a cir (ſ. ãº segment which shall
al
cle, and ºr the number 3.1415 &c, the
circumference = 2 ºr R, and the area contain an angle equal to * gº;
- * R2 sch. 99 angle - - - -
-
(i) The circle is a mean proportionalbe

- -
(g) Éºm a given point, to draw a .

tween any circumscribed polygon and which shalicut off from a givenº"
a similar polygon which has the same a segment containing a givº *.
perimeter with the circle note 102 1. When the given point is ."
º, - 11
(k) The circle is greater than any (regu 2. When not.
lar polygon, or any rectilineal figure, - -
or any other) plane figure whatever (h) 4. ainscribe

about, given circle, .
in, ora triangle *;
which has the same perimeter; and
has a less perimeter than any other lar to a given triangle ibe about
plane figure whatever which has the (i) To inseribe in or circumscribe a
Same area - - 102, 105 a given circle- -
i. An equilateral triangle.
(H) of certain Portions of the Circumference 2. A square.
and Area, III. § 4, 5 3. A regular pentagon.
(a) Similar arcs of circles are as the 4. A regular
5. A regular decagon.
. -
radii cor. 96
- -
(b) In the same, or in equal circles, any

-
6. inscribe
(k) To A :
inpentedec agonibe ;..
or circumscr Ou
two sectors are as the arcs upon which a given circle a regular figure 0 .
they stand - - 85 required number of sides, wº
[(c) A sector of a circle is to the whole
circle as the arc upon which it stands (2) To describe a circle, in which four
to the whole circumference].
(d) A sector of a circle is equal to half given straightlines, ofwhichevº
is less than the other three, shall toge
the product of the radius and the arc ther subtend the whole dramºff
upon which it stands cor. 96 e
ence • . 9
(e) Similar sectors are as the squares of —-
-
T
- -
the radii - - cor. 96

(f) Similar segments are as the squares • Describe a circle about the same centre.º.
ing a chord which is drawn from any point of the cir.
of the radii - - cor. 96 cumference to cut off a segment containing the given
(g) A circular . is greater than angle, and through the given point draw a tangº"
any other plane figure whatever having to this circle."
Index.] GEOMETRY. 24I
(m) To describe a circle, which shall ° and d are equimultiples of a and 5

1. Pass through three given points, note 47
not in the same straight line (to & C - g c
circumscribe a circle about a (e) If 7 = 7, the fractions 75 and 7
triangle is the same as this) 114
2. Pass through two given points, Commonhave the same lowest terms note 47
measure of two (or any number of)
and touch a given straight h; magnitudes . . def. 31 - -
114
3. Pass through a given point, and (g) Measures their sum and difference
34
touch two given straight lines (b) If A contains B any number of
114
4. Touch three given straight lines, times, with a remainder R,every
of which not more than two are common measure of A and B mea
parallel (to inscribe a circle in a Sures R, and every common measure
triangle is a case of this) 114 of B and R measures A.; also the
i
*I wº
5. Pass through two given points,
and touch a given circle sch. 116
6. Pass through a given point, and
touch two given circles sch. 116
7. Touch three given circles, of
greatest common measure of B and
R is the greatest common measure of
A and B o
mon measure may be found—

1. Of two magnitudes.
e
(c) Process by which the greatest com

- . 35
which not more than two are con

| centric e .. sch, 117 2. Of any number of magnitudes 35
ſº (d) Every other common measure mea
8. Pass through a given point,
sures the greatest . 36 e
d touch a given straight line, and

|; also touch a given circle sch. 117 Common section of any two surfaces is the
W] 9. Touch two given straight lines, line in which they cut one another, and
and also a given circle ºsch lis which is common to both the surfaces, see
10. Touch a given straight line, p. 128, 131, 151,214.
and also two given circles schii; Common tangent.—See “Circle.” (I).
In what manner these problems | Complement, one angle is said to be the com
may be modified and varied, see plement of another, when the two together
sch. 119. are equal to a right angle. •
circle ºf **phere (See “Spherical Geome Complements of parallelograms about the di

agonal of a parallelogram deſ: 3 •
try”) * * * def. 184
Circular section of a ÇOne, or cylinder.—See of parallelopipeds about the dia
“Cone" and “Cylinder; gonal plane of a parallelopiped. See iv.
Qircumference of a circle. (See “Circle”) 3 22, Cor. 2.
Circumscribed about a circle, a rectilineal Complete conical surface ... deſ. 214
figure said to be . . def. 79
- Componendo, a rule in proportion. See
-
- - about a rectilineal figure, a “Proportion.” •
||| circle said to be . . def. 79

e Compound ratio, a name given to the ratio
which is compounded of two or more ra
T.T-
said to be
about a cone, a .- -
pyramid
def. 167 tios - e . cor. 45
Compounded, ratios said to be . deſ. 34
-
said to be .about a cylinder,. adeſ.

º -
prism,
167 proportions said to be . sch. 48
Commensurable, magnitudes said to be, 31 Concentric, circles (or spheres) are said to be
(a) Magnitude, which measure the when they have the same centre deſ. 79
same magnitude, are commensurable; Cone, (also its base, axis, slant side, con
and if two [or more] magnitudes are vex surface, frustum) . . deſ. 166, 167
When said to be right, when oblique
.*.*.*able, a magnitude may be def. 167
found which is measuji by them 37 When two cones are said to be similar
(b) If one magnitude is commensurable def. 167
With another, which is commensurable When a pyramid is said to be inscribed in,
With a third, the first is commensuſ. or circumscribed about a cone de/. 167
able with the third; and so, of any
number of magnituáes". . 37
(a) The convex surface of a cone may
Common Jactor of two numbers, is a number be supposed to be generated by a
which divides each of them. straight line which is carried round
the circumference of its base, so as to
(a) The greatest may be found by the pass always through the vertex def. 167
rule given for the greatest common (b) A right cone is generated by the re.
*Sure of any two magnitudes sch.36 volution of a right angled triangle
(*) Every other is contined an exact about one of the sides . 167
Inumber of times in the greatest sch.36
(c) The greatest, and the greatest only, (c) A pyramid may be inscribed in any
dividing the two numbers, gives cone (or circumscribed about it)
Prime quotients * ... sch. 36 which shall approach nearer to the
cone, in convex surface or jº solid
(d) If + # - and if a is prime to b, content, than by any given difference
- cor. 172 and sch. 173
GEOMETRY. [Index.
242
(d) A cone is greater than any inscribed tex,
X, the section is a comic214
section
and 230
pyramid, and less than any circum
Conic section º - . . deſ. 214
scribed pyramid; also, the convex ºvertical plane of ... *ſ 215
surface of the come is greater than —when said to be an ellipsº Wºº
that of any inscribed pyramid, and a parabola, when an hyperbola def 215
less than that of any circumscribed
pyramid . . 171 and sch. 175
(A) 6: the three Conic Sections, .
(e) Any two similar cones being given; (d) Every conic section is the perspec.
similar pyramids may be inscribed tive projection of a circular section ºf
(or circumscribed), which shall ap the come upon the plane of the conic
proach nearer to the comes, in convex section by straight lines drawn from
surface or in solid content, than by the vertex of the come • . 216
any the same given difference (b) And in like manner, every circular
cor. 172 and sch. 175 section may be considered as the
(f) The convex surface of a right cone perspective projection of the comic
is equal to half the product of its section by straight lines drawn from
slant side and the circumference of its the vertex of the come cor. 16
base, or (if R represents the radius of (c) The projection of ºº point in *.
the base, and S the slant side) =rſſ coi.
circularection maywhether
section, be foungit be"...'.
.
17
(g) The solid content of every cone is ellipse or a parabola, or * wº 3.
equal to one-third of the product of its d) The projection of every P*." the
base and altitude; or (if R represents
the radius of the base, and A the alti ( }.} : may be found in ".
..
tude) = , ºr R2A 173 and sch, 173 comic section; except* the case of t
(h) Every come is equal to the third parabola, the projection of the
part of a cylinder which has the same #."... the 'vertical plane touches
base and the same altitude the "circular section; * except in
cor. 173 and sch. 175 the case of the hyperbola, the ..
(i) Every cone is equal to a pyramid tions of the two points.” which tion
which has an equal base and an equal
altitude . . . cor. 173 and sch. 175
vertical plane cuts the drº
(k) Cones which have equal altitudes e) A comic section cannot be cut by *
are to one another as their bases;
and comes which have equal bases, as
º
( and, if aine in more
straight linethan two Pº.t
touches a C0 int
their altitudes; also any two cones section, it shall º: it * po

are to one another in that ratio which iz., the point of C9 s
is compounded of the ratios of their

bases and altitudes
[ §º i. point without *:
section, two straight lines,” ..
r cor. 173 and sch. 175 straight line .
to touch it, every
(l) The surfaces of similar comes are is drawn through tº point to ch l
in the duplicate ratio (or as the conic section, shall be *.§
squares) of their axes; and their divided by the curve and the C
solid contents in the triplicate ratio which joins the points
(or as the cubes) of their axes, 173 and the tºº. i.*
(m) The convex surface of the frustum which every such strº
of a right cone is equal to the product the ... meet one *. ..
the chord produced—sº lem, p. i*
-
of the slant side of the frustum by

half the sum of the circumferences of and the demonstration of App.4%
its two bases; i.e. of the slant side
and the circumference generated by o . If,227.* any poin. taken wº • 1- “
its middle point . • . 174 or without a comic sectiº". there

(n) The solid content of a frustum of a drawn any number of straight .
cone, whether it be right or oblique, each cutting the curve * two ºº:
is equal to the sum of the solid con and if at every such two points ther
tents of three cones which have the gents be drawn, cutting 9” anot ts
same altitude with the frustum, and, in a point P, the locus of the poin
for their bases, its two bases and a P shall be a straight line, and .
mean proportional between them 174 straight line which is drawn throug
(0) If a come is cut by a plane which is the point taken to cut the º
parallel to its base, the section is a shall be harmonically divided by
circle, having its centre in the axis of that straight line and the ºu"
the cone - e 215 and 229
(p) The subcontrary section of an ob (B)
lique cone is a circle . 229
e
B) Of the
TheEllipse %
curve and Hyperbola.
of the ellipse reº into -
) if a cone is cut by a plane which is itself, and incloses an area. mi

of the hyperbola has four i aef,216
*º -
neither parallel to the base nor sub

contrary, nor passes through the ver
Index.] GEOMETRY. 243:
}}| (b) In both, the curve is symmetrically ments of such parallel shall be to one
}|| divided by a certain straight line, another as the rectangles under the
|;
which cuts it in two points, and is per segments of the straight lines; the
*"
pendicular to the tangents at those square being understood instead of
}
points - - 216,217 the rectangle, if one or both touch the
Transverse (or major) axis, principal hyperbola . cor, 225-
vertices, and centre . deſ. 217 Conjugate diameter of an ellipse,

(c) The hyperbola has two asymptotes, and conjugate axis . sch. 226
which pass through the centre, and There is no other axis note 226
make equal angles with the axis upon Conjugate diameter of an hyperbola,
opposite sides of it, being parallel re and conjugate axis . sch. 226
spectively to the slant sides in which (n) The vertices of the conjugate dia
the vertical plane of the hyperbola meters of an hyperbola lie in another
cuts the surface of the cone 217 hyperbola, which has the same centre
(d) If a straight line (not parallel to and axes as the first sch. 226
either asymptote, in the hyperbola) Conjugate hyperbolas sch. 227
cuts the curve in any point, it may be The two are mutually conjugate.
produced to cut it in a second point; (0) If two spheres are described, touch
but, in the hyperbola, a parallel to ing the plane of the curve in two points
either of the asymptotes cannot meet S, S', and the conical surface in two
the curve in more than one point 219 circles, the planes of which being pro
' Diameter, vertices, ordinate, abscissae duced, cut the plane of the curve in
def: 219, 220 two straight lines XR, X'R'; then,
(e) Every diameter bisects its ordinates, if PR, PR' are the perpendiculars
and is itself bisected bythe centre 221 drawn from any point P in the curve
(f) If a straight line, which cuts the to the lines XR, X/R', S P is to PR,
curve in two points, but does not pass and S/P to PRſ, in the same constant
through the centre, be bisected by ratio; S P being less than PR in the
any diameter, it is an ordinate to that ellipse, and greater in the hyperbola
diameter - - cor. 222 229.
[(g) Two straight lines cannot bisect one (p) The same being supposed, in the
another, except they both pass through ellipse S P + Sº P = A A' ; in the
the centre *. hyperbola, SP v S P = A A'. cor.
(h) Tangents at the extremities of a 229.
diameter are parallel ... cor. 222 The points S, S. are called the foci,
(i) Tangents at the extremities of any and each of the lines X R, XI R', a
ordinate meet the diameter in the directrix e - ... sch. 229
same point, and that in such a man
ner (ſig. p. 221) that C N, CP, CT, (C) Of the Parabola,
are proportionals 222
- - (a) The curve of the parabola has two
(#) The squares of any two semiordi infinite arcs - - def. 215
mates, of the same diameter, are to one (b) It is symmetrically divided by a
another as the rectangles under the certain straight line, which cuts it in
abscissae e e • 223 one point only, and is perpendicular to
(2) If two straight lines cut one another, the tangent of that point 216
and ... likewise other two, which are Axis and principal vertex, deſ. 217
parallel to the two first respectively, (e) The infinite arcs of the parabola do
and if each of them cuts the curve in not admit of asymptotes cor. 218
two points, or if one or more touch it (d) The axis of a parabola is parallel to
in a single point, the rectangle under the slant side in which the vertical
the segments of either of the two first, plane touches the surface of the come
shall be to the rectangle under the cor. 217
segments of its parallel, as the rect (e) If a straight line (not parallel to the
angle under the segments of the re axis), cut the curve in any point, it
maining one of the first to the rect may be produced to cut it in a second
angle under the segments of its paral point; but a parallel to the axis can.
lel; the square of any of the straight not meet the curve in more than one
lines being understood, instead of the point - - - - 219
rectangle under its segments, when it Diameter, vertex, ordinate, abscissa.
touches the curve instead of cutting it - deſ. 219, 220
cor. 225 (f) Every diameter bisects its ordinates
(m) If, in the hyperbola, a parallel to 221
either of the asymptotes be cut by any (9) If a straight line, which cuts the
two parallel straight lines, the seg curve in two points, be bisected by an
diameter, it is an ordinate to that dia.
meter e - • cor. 222
* For each would be parallel to the tangent at the
extrem
ity of the diameter (f), which is impossible [(*) No two straightlines, in a parabola,
(l. 14. Gor. 2.) can bisect one another”.]
R 2
GEOMETRY. [Index.
244
plane surface which has the same
(i) Tangents at the extremities of any contour e • e 167
ordinate meet the diameter in the same (b) of two surfaces, one of which is
point, and that in such a manºr (see convex and is enveloped by the other,
jig. p. 222) that N P is equal to PT
221
Corollary ofenveloping
the surface is greatest
a proposition ..
168
3 e
(h) The squares of any two semiordi Cube. (Also “ Cube of a straight Line.”)
nates of the same diameter are tº def. 126
one another as the abscisse 223 (a) Cubes are to ºn. another in the
(1)other,
If twoandstraight
likewiselines
othercuttwo,one,”
which triplicate ratio of their edges; * *;
the triplicate ratio of two straight
are parallel lines is the same with the ratio of their
tively, &c. (seeto()the two,last
of the firstdivision)
rºpe.
cubes. - e e cor. 144
cor. 225
(b) The difference of two cubes is equal
(m)parallel
If a diameter be cut, by any tº
straight lines, the segments
to the sum of three parallelopipºds
having the same altitude, viz., the
3f the diameter are to one another as ºnce of the edges, anº for their
the rectangles under the segments of bases the respective bases of the cubes
the parallels - - cor. 225 and a mean proportion* between
(n) If a sphere is described, touching them; i. e., Rºll rº- (R – r) X
the plane of the parabola in a point S, (R2 + r. +R r) *. lem. 177 -
and'the conical surface in a circle, the (c) If the difference of the edges of
plane of which (being produced) cuts two cubes may be made less than any
the plane of the parabola in a line given difference, the difference of the
RX; then, if P R is drawn perpendi ºubes may likewise be made less than
cular from any point P in the Para any given difference. lem.177
bola to the line RX, S P is equal tº (d) The cubes of proportional straight
PR. - e 228 and cor. 229 fines are proportionals, [and ‘.
The point S is called the focus, and versely] . . cor. 14
- º
the line RX the directrix

sch. 229 (e) The cube is one of the regularsolids,
Conjugate aris of an ellipse or hyperbola and, as such, is sometimes called tº
sch. 226
Conjugate diameters of an ellipse or hexahedron . . . . . , , c. 150
hyper cuboctahedron, a sºlid derivable from eith.
bola - - - sch. 226 the cube or the octahedron sº:
Conjugate hyperbolas . . sch. 227 Curve, or curved line º e- :h
conseñuent
Consequentsofof aaratio, is the second
proportion, are theterm.
second
Upon which side concayº, upon W. *
and fourth terms.
convex -- #
(a) A curve is g eater than a strº; - º
Construction of a geometrical proposition .. 3 fine which has the sº º,

When said to be a plane construction and less (if convex) than the º.0
- sch. 26 any number of straight. lines whic
Contact of two circles, when said to be inter are exterior to it, and joins tºº,
nal, when external - . . note, 118
—— point of . tremities
. def. 79is one of which is ".
(b)** enveloped by * the
e
Ofa.is
two curves
— problems of. See “ Circle” (I) (m).
Continued proportion, magnitudes said to be t -
enveloping curve * greates

in (See “Geometrical Progression.”) 34
Content of a solid, is the number of times it cylinder (also its bases, * *
blique : - -
†:
contains the cubical unit, or unit of solidity When said to be r ht, when ºl.
sch. 142 when two cylinders * said to be simi
The terms “capacity” and “volume” are lar: when a prism * said to be tin
- - - -
used in the same sense.

w
Concave. (See “Convex Side.”) def. 1 scribed in, orămºlº;

Convertendo, a rule in proportion. See “Pro cylinder . - -
CŞº convex surface of * º -
portion.”
Conver, a line or surface is said to be, when
-
amay be supposed
straight tº be
line which gº. º
is car.” roll S
the circumference º º º:
*
S0 8.
its roundness or bulging is everywhere to
wards the same parts; the test of which,
tº be always parallel to *.
whether it be a line or a surface, is, that it (b) A right . is generated." º:
lº be cut by any the same straight revolution of a rectangle about on: 67
ine in more than two points. its sides s e e in
Conver side of a line or surface, is that side (c) A cylinder is greater than .
upon which is the roundness or bulging scribed prism, and less than *. WeX
out
cave; side.
and the other side
ide iis called the con cumscribed prism; and the co"
- - - def. 1
“Convex surface of a prism or wanº 12 • Hence the form under which
of
*...". -
of a cylinder or cone, def. 166, 167 two magnitudes, which *.*. º: and V.24
al
(a) A convex surface is greater than a -
straight lines, appears in IV. 33.,
ſ. Index.] GEOMETRY. 245
surface of the cylinder is greater than of the cone and cylinder—[All coniform
that of any inscribed prism, and less and cylindrical surfaces are developable.]
than that of any circumscribed prism sch. 1.7%
168 and sch. 175 Diagonals of a quadrilateral def. 3
(d) A prism may be inscribed in any See “Quadrilateral,” “Parallelogram,”
cylinder (or circumscribed about it) and “Circle.”
which shall approach nearer to the [The diagonals of any rectilineal figure
cylinder, in convex surface or in solid are the straight lines, which join any
content, than by any given difference | two angles not immediately adjacent
169 and sch. 175 to one another.]
(e) Any two similar cylinders being Diagonals of a polyhedron deſ, 126 -
given, similar prisms may be inscribed See “Parallelopiped.”

(or circumscribed), which shall ap Diameter of a circle 3, of a sphere 127, of a
proach nearer to the cylinders, in conic section 219.
convex surface or in solid content, Dihedral angle . def. 125 e -
than by anythe same given difference When said to be right, when acute, when
cor. 170 and sch. 175 obtuse . - • - 125
(f) The convex surface of a right (a) If a dihedral angle is cut by any
cylinder is equal to the product of its two parallel planes, it intercepts equal
altitude and the circumference of its angles in those planes cor. 133
base; or (if R represents the radius of (b) A dihedral angle is measured by the
the base, and A the axis) = 2 + R.A. rectilineal angle of the perpendiculars
170 to the common section which are
: (g) The convex surface of any cylinder drawn in its two planes from any the
is equal to the product of its axis, and same point of the common section
the perimeter of a section which is sch. 136
erpendicular to the axis sch. 175 (c) Or by the angle of two perpendicu
(h) The solid content of every cylinder lars to its planes, which are drawn
is equal to the product of its base and from any the same point sch. 136
altitude, - ºr R3A. 170 and sch. 175 (d) To bisect a given dihedral angle 155
(i) Every cylinder is equal to a prism (e) If a dihedral angle is bisected,
which has an equal base and an equal every point in the bisecting plane is
altitude cor. 170 and sch. T75. at equal distances from the planes of
(#) Cylinders which have equal altitudes the dihedral angle cor. 155 e
are to one another as their bases; and See “ Plane”

cylinders, which have equal bases, as Direction of projection, in orthographic pro
their altitudes; also any two cylinders jection . - e • def. 208
are to one another in the ratio which Directriar of a conic section sch. 229
is compounded of the ratios of their Distance between two points 9, from a point
bases and altitudes cor. 170 and sch. to a straight line 10, from a point to a
175 plane 131, from one point to another over
() The surfaces of similar cylinders are the surface of a sphere 189.
in the duplicate ratio (or as the Diverging lines, projection by. See “Pro
squares) of their axes; and their solid jection.”
contents are in the triplicate ratio (or Dividendo, a rule in proportion. See “Pro
f as the cubes) of their axes 170 and portion.”
- sch. l 75 Dodecahedron (solid contained by twelve
(m). If a cylinder be cut by a plane planes) regular. See “Regular Polyhe
which is parallel to its base, the sec drons.”
tion is a circle, having its centre in Duplicate ratio, - - e
def. 34
the axis of the cylinder, and its radius
equal to the radius of the base 231 Edge, of a polyhedron . - def. 126
(n). The subcontrary section of an ob See “Polyhedron.”
lique cylinder is a circle, having its Elementary course of Geometry, in the pre
centre in the axis of the cylinder, and sent Treatise - - - p. iv.
its radius equal to the radius of the Enneagon (figure of nine sides) regular, to in
base • - - • 232 scribe in a circle, very nearly . 12}
(o). If a cylinder, whether right or ob Enunciation, of a geometrical proposition 3
lique, be cut by a plane, which is nei Equal, circles said to be def. 79 -
ther parallel to the axis, nor parallel ratios said to be def. 32 e
to the base, nor subcontrary, the sec Equality and inequality, axioms of 4
tion is an ellipse • 231
-
Equations of two unknown quantities, solved
geometrically, . - sch. 124 e
Data (Lat. things given), in geometrical pro Equiangular, triangles are said to be, when
blems, limits of . • sch. 27, 124 the angles of the one are equal to the
Decagon (figure of ten sides) regular. See angles of the other, each to each see 59
“Circle " and “Regular Polygon.” Equilateral triangle def. 2
- -
Developable, a term applied to the surfaces Is equiangular, and conversely. See

and in which the first term A'is to A.
also « Circle” and “Regular Poly as A to A • B. . º cor. 42
on.” [(c) And the sum of any number of the
Equimultiples of two (or more) magnitudes magnitudes A. B, C, &c. insuccession,
def. 31 is equal to the difference of two of the
(a) Equimultiples of equal magnitudes magnitudes A', B, C, D, &c.; thus,
are equal; and conversely: also the A is the difference of A and B',
equimultiple of the greater
than the équimultiple of the isless;
greater
and A + B of A and C’, A+B + C of
conversely - - ar. 34 A and D', and so on.]
(b) If two magnitudes, A, A', ºre equi [(d) Hence, if A is greater than B, the
sam of the whole series A, B, C, D,
multiples of other two B, B', which ... continued without end is equal to
again are equimultiples of other two A’; i. e. the sum of a finite number
C, C, the first two shall be equimul of terms is less than A', but by the
(c)ples
If oftwo
themagnitudes
last two A, A arº equi34- -
continued
be made toaddition
approachoftoit
newbytº
less than
multiples of other twº B, B', and any given difference.]
again of other twº C. C., and if B be
a multipleofofC'.C, B" Geometry, its subject. :
is distinguished .by the. epi]
multiple . . shall be thecor.
san.
34
-
Geometry
thets of “plane,” “ solid,” and “spheri
Ea: aequali in proportione directá, or ea. cal,” according as it treats of plane
a quali, or ea acquo, a rule in proportion. figures and lines in in
onedifferent
planº planes,
"."
See “Proportion.” sºlid figures and lines
Ea. aequali in proportione perturbatá, or ear or of figures and lines "P" the surface
a quo perturbato, a rule in proportion.
of a sphere. 48 -
See “Proportion.”
Excube, eartetrahedron, eroctahedron, eacdode General
General+theory of prºp".,...;
properties of the contº sections 214
cahedron, caricosahedron, solids formed Generated, meaning of the word as wº}
from the regular
Erplementary, solidssaid
an angle ...to ,besee * 162
note 85 solids
See of
alsorevolution
“Come,”“ Cylinder,”
. . . .“. Plane, ??
Exterior angle. See “Straight Linº.” “Tri

“Sphere.”
.
angle,” “Rectilineal Figure,” “ Spherical Great of a sphere º, def. 184
Geometry.” See “ Spherical Geometry.'
Eºm and mean ratio, a straight line.sº
to be divided in. (See “Straightline.") 71 -
al mean def. 67
Extremes of a proportion,
last terms •
are the first and
• e def. 33
*:::::: harmonical mean between two e
d
n, 1s —."
2 m.” . s
numbers, m anº.” ” in L n
Faces of a polyhedron . . def. 126 (b) If five harmonical me” are taken
May be of any number, greater than
three. See “Polyhedron.” between 1 and #, Wº
- Q
obtain the prº.
3. –0-- + . if
Figure, plane, deſ. 2. plane rectilineal, deſ. 2
See “Rectilineal Figure,” and “Circle.” gression 1 % 3, # 3 tº3. " . - -
seven, the progression l, }, #, IT, 3'

Focus, of a conic section. See “Comic Sec Hºy, #, #3, #3 from which pr0greS
-
#. -
tion.”
Foot of a perpendicular, is the point in which sions, rejecting such fractions * t
it meets the line (or plane) to which it is 7, 11, and 13 in the denominatº3. -
perpendicular. those remaining, Viº. 1, 3, #, i. 2

Fourth proportional e - def: 33 –8– will represent the length: 9
May be found to any three given mag
nitudes . - - note 43, 54
#.#º: with the Samº .
ness and tension the sounds º:
-
Frustum of a pyramid, def. 127, of a cone by C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C: º be

167. See “Pyramid,” and “Cone.” Harmonically divided, a straightlines” ".
Geometrical Mean, deſ. 33. See “Arithme Harmonicals, four straight lines when said :
tical Mean,” and “Straight line.” be . " coi :
... ;-- said
Geometrical Analysis. See “Analysis.” Harmonical progression, magnitudes e
Geometrical
be in
Progression, magnitudes said to
- e -
be in
- -
–- e º
(a) The differences of magnitudes, which jat observation the namº".

mote, 57
are in geometrical progression form a Hemisphere, the half
geometrical progression having the _--—-T
ofesſºr tº: h
º. common ratio cor. 42 * By “general prºp." are here me...".
•
(b) Magnitudes A, B, C, &c., which are properties

º, as may be declare
so, (i. e. with sºme slight di. * three
- -
. geometrical progression, are the from

conic their difference of form,) to pertain moreovº
sections. Those in the 3ppendi; the circle
º: of other magnitudes A, B, only such as admit of being dérived fr jous.”
are
}, D., &c. in a geometrical pr by perspective projection.

Sion having the same tºÉ. Šee “Comic
two-thirds of a cylinder upon the same base equal to n times the last, together
and of the same altitude, cor. 179]. with the last but one * sch. 73
Hendecagon (figure of 11 sides) regular, to (f) The parts of a line divided in medial
inscribe in a circle, very nearly . 121 ratio are incommensurables of this
Heptagon (figure of 7 sides) regular, to in class, and their ratio may be approxi
scribe in a circle, very nearly . 121 mated to by the series 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8,
Heragon (figure of 6 sides) regular. See &c.: the side and the sum of the side
“Regular Polygon” and “Circle.” and diagonal of a square are incom
Hewahedron (solid contained by 6 planes) mensurables of the same class, and
regular. See “ Regular Polyhedrons.” their ratio may be approximated to
Homologous edges of similar polyhedrons, are by the series 1, 2, 5, 12, 29, &c.
d the homologous sides of their similar sch. 73
faces. Infinite are is an arc of unlimited extent ;
Homologous sides of similar figures deſ. 57 such as, for example, occurs in perspective
Homologous terms of a proportion de/.33 projection, when any point of the original
Hyperbola, one of the conic sections deſ. 215 curve lies in the vertical plane. 211
See “Conic Section.” -
The hyperbola affords an example of infi
Hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle deſ. 3 mite arcs with asymptotes, the parabola
See “Triangle.” of infinite arcs without asymptotes.
[The side opposite to the right angle is Infinite extent. Straight lines and arcs of
called the Hypotenuse also in right infinite extent may have finite projections,
angled spherical triangles.] and vice versä 209, 210 -
Inscribed in a circle, a rectilineal figure said

Icosa-dodecahedron, a solid derivable either to be • ... " - .. 79
from the icosahedron, or from the dodeca - in a rectilineal figure, a circle said
hedron . e s . 163 to be e o • -
Icosahedron (solid contained by 20 planes) — in a come or cylinder, a pyramid

regular. See “Regular Polyhedrons.” or prism said to be . 167 e
Inclination of a straight line to a straight in a sphere, a solid of revolution

line, is the acute angle which the former said to be . • e 167
makes with the latter. Interior, a term applied to any of the angles
— of a plane to a plane, is the acute of a triangle, in contradistinction to the ex
dihedral angle, which the former makes terior angle formed by producing one of
with the latter. the sides; also to certain angles made by
— of a straight line to a plane parallels with a straight line cutting them.
def. 125 - 13
Incommensurable, magnitudes said to be 32 Invertendo, a rule in proportion. (See “Pro
(a) If one magnitude is incommen portion.”)
surable with another, it is incommen Joined, two points are said to be,
surable with every magnitude which (a) In space, when the straight line be
is commensurable with that other tween them is drawn.
cor. 37 (b). Upon the surface of a sphere, when
(b) Although the ratio of two incom the spherical arc between them is
mensurable magnitudes can never be drawn. - - . 184
exactly expressed by numbers, yet two Isosceles+ triangle. (See “Triangle.”) def: 2 .
numbers may be obtained which shall Isosceles spherical triangle. See “ Spherical
express it to any required degree of Geometry,”
exactness . * - 48
(c) Magnitudes are incommensurable, * It is observed in p. 74, that this series may be
when the process for finding the great derived from the doctrine of continued fractions.
est common measure leads to no con For, every successive quotient in the division of P
clusion, but has an unlimited number by Q, of Q by R., of R by the next remainder, and so
of steps • cor. 35
-
on, being n, the ratio org to P is represented by the
(d) If P and Q are two magnitudes of - - 72 +
the same kind, and if Q be contained continued fraction HT- ; therefore the
in P any number of times with a re * + &c
mainder R, which is to Q as Q to P,
P and Q are incommensurable
sch. 73
l I | l
fractions –7& , n-FT,
i-
** n + 1 , &c., i.e. + ,
72
(e) The same being supposed, if n be the
Inumber of times that Q is contained º
in P, the ratio of Q to P shall lie be

tween the ratios of any two successive n x n72 + 1 \ *su
a pſ * n a 0.+ n »e) (;+suppose),
terms of the series 1, n., a, b, c, &c.,
where a, the third term, is equal to
n x n + 1, b, the fourth term = n a
Fº
&c. will represent the ratio, each more
+ za, e, the fifth term = n b + a, and nearly than the preceding.

so on, every successive term being + “Having equal legs,” from the Greek
GEOMETRY. TIndex.
248
Lateral surface of a prism or pyramid in the other extremity, and the diffe
def. 127 rence of their squares equal to a given
Leg, of an angle, deſ. 1. See “Angle.” square - - ... 108
(f) The points which divide the chords
Lemma (Gr.), is an auxiliary proposition. of a circle passing through any the
Jength of a line is the number of times it
contains the unit of length ... sch. 18 same given point harmonically 112
(g) The points in which the two tan
Like parts of two (or more) magnitudes, gents, drawn at the extremities of all
deſ: 31 chords pasing through a given point,
See “equimultiples” and “ratio.” meet one another - . 112
Limits.
(a) Two fixed magnitudes A, B, are
said to be limits of two others P, Q, (B) Eramples of Plane Loci,
(a) The vertices of all triangles upon
when P and Q, by increasing toge the same base and the same side of it,
ther, or by diminishing together, may which have equal vertical angles IOS
be made to approach more nearly to (b) The vertices of all triangles upon
A and B respectively, than by any the same base, which have the sum of
the same given difference, but can the squares of their sides equal to a
never become equal to, much less
pass A and B: e.g. two circles are square - - - -
the limits of the similar inscribed or (c) The vertices of all triangles upon the
same base, which have the side ter.
circumscribed regular polygons 46 minated in one extremity greater than
(b) If two magnitudes A and B are the side terminated in the other ex
the limits of two others P and Q, and
if P is always to Q in the same con tremity, and the sides (or which is
stant ratio, A is to B in the same the same thing, the squares of the
ratio + . 46
sides) in a given ratio . . . , 109
-
For examples of this theorem see

-
(d) The vertices of all triangles upon
the same base, which have the square
56, 96, 146, 171, 173. of one side in a given ratio tº the
Limits of a geometrical problem, are of fre square of the other side diminished
quent occurrence, and are commonly indi by a given square ... sch. 110
cated by the construction: loci are useful
(e) The vertices of all triangles upon
in determining them . 27, 106, 124 the same base, which have the square
Line, (also “straight line” “curved line.”) of one side diminished by a given
def. 1
See “Curve,” “Straight Line,” and square in a given ratio to the squal"
of the other side diminished by anº:
“Projection.” ther given square . . sch. 110
Locus (Lat., place), - - deſ: 106
[More generally, a locus is any part of (c) Eramples of Loci satisfying condit"
space, every point of which, and none else, in Solid Geometry. -
satisfies certain conditions.] [(a) All the points in space which ..

When said to be a simple locus, when equidistant from two given points lie
a plane locus, when of higher dimen in the plane which bisects the distance
SIOIls - - ... 107
How serviceable in the solution of pro between them at right angºl. h
blems - - - 106 areAll
[(b) the points
equidi in a given
stant from gy” wº
two planº, points
Is the limit between excess and defect
106 without the plane, lie in the *
n with the sgiven plane of the
sectiowhich
(A) Eramples of Simple Loci. plane bisect at rightangles the
(*) All, points which are equidistant distance between the two points| t
from two given points 107
(c) All the points which are º
-
(*) All points which are equidistant

from two given straight lines 107
from three straig
the same givenhtpoints, lieº
line,nºt in d e
[(c) The extremities of ºil equal parallels straight line which is drawn perpenal:
whose ... lie in the cular to their plane from the centre 0
Same given straight line, I. 16. cor. the circle which passes through them:
(d) All points Wi.º. ń. cor. 151
from a given point to a given straight All the points equidistant frº."
line in the same given ratio
(e) The vertices of all triangles upon
108
ſº .. and plane, or .
straight
.
the same base, which have the side given planes, lie in the º:
plane which bisects their angle of 1
terminated in one extremity of the
. tºº. than the side terminated clination.
(e) The * of all equal parallel:
°tween two parallel planes, or such whose other extremities lie in 9” .
* There are some very y importa
the same plane, lie in a
to it. - -
*:::::
- •.
latter part of the demºri; of
ion of whi
†.;
>
; -
(f) The points which divide all º:

sult correct
the the errata, which the reader is desired to con.
- -
lines drawn from a point to *P*

# Index.] GEOMETRY. 249
straight lines produced in a given C Na

ratio, lie in another parallel plane Id
cor. 135
(D) Eramples of Loci satisfying conditions O I.

in Spherical Geometry. the halves of equals are equal, the
[(a) All points upon the surface of a lune CDE d is equal to the triangle
sphere, which are equidistant from COE.]
two given points of that surface, lie Marinum (Lat., greatest) is a name given
in the circumference which bisects to the greatest among all magnitudes of
their distance at right angles.] the same kind which are subject to the
[ (% All points which are equidistant same given conditions: as minimum (Lat.,
- rom the circumferences of two given least) is, on the other hand, the name given
| great circles, lie in the circumference to the least.
which bisects the angle between them.] For examples of maxima and minima
(c) The vertices of all equal spherical on a plane See III. § 5, p. 99.
triangles upon the same base and on a spherical surface, See 199 and
upon the same side of it, lie in the sch, 201.
circumference of a small circle, such
that one equal and parallel to it may Mean. See “Arithmetical mean,” “Geome-.
be drawn through the extremities of trical mean,” “Harmonical mean,”
the base cor. 199
- -
Mean proportional, one or more deſ. 33,34
(d) The vertices of all spherical trian See “Geometrical mean.”
gles upon the same base, which have AMeans of a proportion, are the two middle
the vertical angle equal to the sum terms.
of the other two, lie in the circum Measure, one magnitude said to be of
ference of a small circle, whose pole another - - 31. -
is the middle point of the base, and its Measure of a rectilineal angle. See “Angle.”
polar distance half the base sch, 201 —- of a dihedral angle. See “ Ijihe
Lowest terms of the ratio of two magnitudes, dral angle.”
See “Numerical ratio.” of a solid angle. See “Solid an
Lune, (Lat., moon) spherical . def. 180 gle.”
See “Sphere” and “Spherical Geometry.” of a spherical angle. See “Sphe
Lunes (contained by circular arcs in the same rical angle.”
plane) quadrature of of the surface of a spherical tri
[(a) If a semicircumference A B C D E angle or polygon, See “Spherical Geo
be divided into any two arcs, A B C, metry.”
CD E, and if upon the chords of Medial ratio is the same with “extreme and
these arcs semicircles are described, mean ratio” - - . 71
as in the adjoined figure, the lunes See “Straight line,” and “Incommen
A B C b, CD E d shall be together surable.”
equal to the triangle A C E. Medially divided, a line said to be . 71
-
Minimum, see “Maximum.”

Multiple, one magnitude said to be of
another . - - • 31
Nonagon. See “Enneagon.”

Numbers, common factor of two or In Ore.
See “Common factor.” -
For, semicircles (III.33.) being as the Numerical ratio of two magnitudes deſ. 32
squares of their diameters, the semi Its terms, antecedent and consequent
circles upon A C and C E are together def.
equal to the semicircle upon A. E.; (a) The lowest terms are those §:
therefore, taking away the segments are determined by the greatest com
A B C and C D E, the lunes which re mon measure; and are, therefore,
main are together equal to the triangle prime to one another cor. 36 -
A C E.] (b) Any other terms are equimultiples

T(b) The lune which is included by a of the lowest terms - cor, 36
semicircumference C d E and a quad (c) The lowest terms may be found from
rant CD E, is equal to the triangle any terms by dividing them by their
C O E, whose vertex O is the centre greatest common factor: they serve
of the quadrant. when found to determine whether two
For if the arcs A C, CE, in the former numerical ratios are different, or only
figure, are equal to one another, each different forms of the same ratio
of them will be a quadrant, and the cor. 36
two lunes will be equal to one an (d) A numerical ratio, which is com
other; and the two triangles, COA, pounded of any number of ratios, has
CO E are also equal; therefore, since for its antecedent the product of their
GEOMETRY. [Index.
250
(i) Parallelog rams upon the same or
antecedents, and for its consequent equal bases, and between the same
the product of their consequents. parallels, are equal to one another 16
sch. 45
Oblique, a term applied to angles (whether (*) If a parallelogram and a triangle
stand upon the same base, and between
rectilineal, dihedral, or spherical) which are
the same parallels, the parallelogram
not right angles. is double of the triangle . 17
Oblique cone, deſ. (See “Come.”) . 167 (!) Parallelograms having the same alti
Oblique cylinder, deſ. (See “Cylinder.”) 166 tude are to one another as theirbases;
Obtuse (Lat. blunted), a term applied to an parallelograms having equal bases are
gles (whether rectilineal, dihedral, or sphe to one another as their altitudes; and
rical) which are greater than right angles. any two are to one another in the
Octagon, (figure of eight sides) regular. (See ratio which is compounded of the
sch. 121
“Regular Polygon”) . -
ratios of their bases and altitudes
Octahedron (solid contained by eight planes) cor. 62,63
regular. See “Regular Polyhedron.” (m) Equiangular parallelograms are to
Opposite cone, def: (also “opposite conical one another in the ratio which is com
pounded of the ratios of their sides
Oppos itece”)
surfa points, on the surface of a. sphere
- - 214,
cor. 63
def. (See “ Spherical Geometry.”) 186 (n) Equiangular parallelograms, which
Orb, spherical, deſ. (See “Sphere.”) 180 have their sides reciprocally propor
Ordinate, in a conic section . deſ. 220 tional, are equal; and, conversely,
See “Comic Section.” -
equiangular parallelograms, which are
Original point, line or plane, in projection equal, have their sides reciprocally
deſ. 208 proportional - cor. 64
Orthographic projection. See “Projection.”
(0) To describe a parallelogram
1. When two sides and theincluded
Paralle/* circles, of the sphere def. 184
See “Sphere.”
angle are given . .28
Parallel planes, deſ. (See “Plane.”) 125 2. Upon a given base, and with a
Parallel ruler, an instrument for drawing given angle, which shall be equal
to a given triangle, or rectilineal
parallel lines -
note, 24
- - gure - . cor. 30
Parallel straight lines. (See “Straight line.”)
deºf 2 Rectangular. See “Rectangle.”
Parallel to a plane, a straight line said to be Paral/elopiped
def. 127
125 (a) Its opposite faces are similar. and
- -
Parallel to a straight line, a plane said to be equal parallelograms, and its oppº.
125
edges are [equal and] parallel ... 139
. . deſ. 2
Parallelogram -
(a) Its opposite sides and angles are º:
(b) Its four diagonalsect
same point, and bis One all0sch. 140
-
º
equal to one another 15 -
(b) Its diagonals bisect one another 15

(c) It is bisected by each of its diago (e) It is bisected by each of the diº.
nals . - -. cor. 16-
nal planes”
(d) The squares of its fºur º:
... • : .
(d) The squares of its diagonals are, to are together equal to the squa º
gether, equal to the squares of its four the twelve edges sch. 140
sides - - . cor. 24 (e) The complements of the º:
(e) If a quadrilateral figure has its op pipeds about the diagonal plane ºf a
posite sides equal to one another, or parallelopiped are equal to one º
its opposite angles equal, or if its dia
gonals bisect one another, or if it is If one face is at right angle ."
bisected by each of its diagonals, or if ſº of its adjoining faces, eyeſſy, face
thº, squares of its diagonals are, to is at right angles to each of its adjoin
gether, equal to the squares of the
four sides, the quadrilateral is a paral faces.]
(g)ingEvery parallelopiped is equal tº
-
lelogram 15, cor. 17, and cor. 24 rectangular parallelopiped, having the
(f) The complements of parallelograms same e; **
about the diagonal of a parallelogram to thebase
produand
ct oftheitssame
basealtitud
and altitud e
are equal to one another - 16 cor. 142
(9) If one angle of a parallelogram is h) Parallelopipeds upon the samº, ";
**ight angle, all its angles are right ( * ºf º nand betwee the
§ngles . . cor. 16
-
—T
*) ºvery parallelogram is equal to a ped isdivided
jº
having the same base and * The prisms, into which a parallerical
lopi ; and, theº
º i. e. to the product itude . cor. 16
by its diagonal plane, are symmet ular parallelº
fore, except in the case of the rectang. by coin
jºined, e;their equality cannot be establish" ooked
cidenc a circumstance which has been § See
From - * -----a- -
in Book xi. p. 33, of Simson's Eucli"
another.” two Greek words, signifying “along one
“Polyhedron.”
ſh Index.] GEOMETRY. 251
tº
same parallel planes, are equal to one (B) Of a plane and perpendicular straight
another - - 140, 141 /ine.
| || (i) If a parallelopiped and a tetrahedron A straight line when said to be perpen
have the same three edges, the paral dicular to a plane . . 125
lelopiped is equal to six times the tetra (a) If a straight line stand at right
hedron . - . cor. I47 angles to each of two other straight
(k) Parallelopipeds having the same lines at their point of intersection, it
altitude are to one another as their shall be at right angles to the plane
bases; parallelopipeds having equal in which they are .
- 128
, bases are to one another as their alti (b) Any number of straight lines, which
tudes; and any two are to one another are drawn at right angles to the same
in the ratio which is compounded of straight line from the same point of it,
the ratios of their bases and altitudes lie all of them in the plane which is
143 perpendicular to the straight line at
(l) Parallelopipeds which are equiangu that point . - - cor. 129
lar (so that a solid angle of the one (c) If the plane of a right angle be
may be made to coincide with a solid made to revolve about one of its legs,
angle of the other) are to one another the other leg will describe a plane at
in the ratio which is compounded of right angles to the first leg cor. 129
the ratios of their edges cor. 144 (d) If a straight line be perpendicular
Rectangular. See “Rectangular Paral to a plane, and if from its foot a per
lelopiped.” pendicular be drawn to a straightline
Part, or measure - - def: 31 taken in the plane, any straight line,
Pentagon (figure of five sides) regular. See which is drawn from a point in the
“Regular polygon” and “Circle.” former perpendicular to meet the foot
Pentedecagon (figure of 15 sides) regular. of the latter perpendicular, shall like
See “Regular polygon” and “Circle.” wise be perpendicular to the straight
Perimeter of a plane figure . . deſ. 2 line taken in the plane 129 -
Minimum of. See “Circle.” (e) If a straight line be perpendicular to

Periphery, (Gr.) another name for “circum a plane, and if from any point of it
ference.” a perpendicular be drawn to a straight
Perpendicular to a straight line, a straight line taken in the plane, the straight
line said to be, 2.; a plane said to be, 125 line which joins the feet of the per
To a plane, a straight line said to be, 125; pendiculars shall likewise be perpen
a plane said to be, 125. dicular to the straight line taken in
To a spherical arc, a spherical arc said the plane - - . 129
to be, 185. -
(f) Straight lines which are perpendi
See “Straight line,” “Plane,” and cular to the same plane are parallel;
“Spherical Geometry.” and conversely, if there be two paral
JPlaze . - - - def. 1 lel straight lines, and if one of them
When said to be parallel or perpendicu be perpendicular to a plane, the other
lar to a plane - 125 -
shall be perpendicular to the same
When said to be parallel or perpendicular plane . - 129 -
to a straight line . . . 25. (g) Perpendiculars to the same plane,

(A) (a) A plane, and one only, may be made which are drawn to it from points of
to pass through a straight line and a the same straight line, lie in one and
point without it, or three given points the same plane . • cor. 130
not in the same straight line, or the (h) A straight line may be drawn per
sides of a given rectilineal angle, or pendicular to a plane of indefinite
two given parallels . . 127
extent, from any given point, whether
(b) Any number of parallels through the given point be without or in the
which the same straight line passes, plane; but from the same point there
are in one and the same plane cor. 128 cannot be drawn more than one per
(c) Any number of planes may be made pendicular to the same plane 130
to pass through the same straightline (i) From a point to a plane the perpen
dicular is the shortest distance; and
cor. 128 of other straight lines which are drawn
(d) The common section of two planes from the point to the plane, such as
is a straight line .
- 128 are equal to one another, cut the
(e) If there be three planes, and if the plane at equal distances from the foot
common section of two of the planes of the perpendicular; and such as are
be not parallel to the third plane, the unequal, cut the plane at unequal dis
three planes shall pass through the tances from the foot, the greater being
same point; viz., the point in which always further from the perpendict.
the common section of two of the lar, and conversely . . 131
planes meets the third plane sch. 156 (*) If from any point taken without a
(f) A plane surface is less than any plane, a sphere be described with a
other surface having the same contour radius less than the perpendicular, it
£em. I67
252 GEOMETRY. [Index
will not meet the plane; if with a (f) To draw through a given point—
radius equal to the perpendicular, it 1. In a given plane, a straight line
will meet it in one point only, viz. the which shall be parallel to another
foot of the perpendicular; and, if given plane . e 153
with a radius greater than the perpen 2. A straight line which shall be
dicular, its surface will cut the plane parallel to each of two given
in the circumference of a circle, planes . • cor. 153
having for its centre the foot of the (g) To draw through a given straight
perpendicular . . cor. 131 line a plane which shall be parallel to
(l) To draw a plane perpendicular to a a given straight line . . 154
given straight line—
(1) From a given point in the (E) Of paralle', inclined, and perpendicular
straight line. planes.
(2) From a given point without it (a) If two straight lines, which cut one
153 another, are parallel each of them to
(m) To draw a straight line perpendicu the same plane, the plane of the two
lar to a given plane— straight lines is parallel to that plane
(1) From a given point in the cor. 133
plane. (b) Planes, to which the same straight
(2) From a given point without it line is perpendicular, are parallel; and,
151 conversely, if two planes are parallel,
(C) Of a plane and inclined straight line. and if one of them is perpendicular to
Angle of inclination of a straight line to a straight line, the other is perpendi
a plane - .- deſ. 125 cular to the same straight line 133
(a) If a straight line be inclined to a (c) Through any given point a plane
plane; of all the angles which it makes may be drawn, and one only, which
with straight lines meeting it in that shall be parallel to a given plane
cor.134
plane, the least is the angle of inclina
tion; and, with respect to every other (d) Planes, which are parallel to the
of these angles, a second angle may same plane, are parallel to one an:
always be drawn which shall be equal other . - . cor. 134
to it—viz, upon the other side of the (e) If parallel planes are cut by the
angle of inclination; but there cannot same plane, their common sections
be drawn in the plane more than two with it are parallel . . 134
straight lines with which the inclined (f) If two planes, which cut one air
straight line shall make equal angles, other, are parallel to other two which
one upon each side of the angle of in cut one another, each to each, the
clination - - . 132 common sections of the first two and
[(b) If a straight line cuts a plane, every of the second two are parallels cor-134
straight line which is parallel to it (g)line
If two planes are parallel, a straight
which cuts one # º may be
shall cut, and be equally inclined to
the same plane. produced to cut the other likeWise
cor. 209
(c) Through a given point in a given
plane, to draw a straight line at right [(h) If two planes are parallel, a straight
angles to a straight line which is in line, which is parallel, or perpendicu.
clined to the plane at that point 153 lar, or inclined to one of them, shall
be parallel or perpendicular, or equally
(D) Qſ a plane and parallel straight line. inclined to the other.]
(a) If one straight line is parallel to (i) If parallel straight lines are cut by
another, it is parallel to every plane parallel planes, the parts of º
which passes through that other 132, straight lines, which are intercepte
(b) If a straightline is parallel to a plane, between the planes, are equal to ;
it is parallel to the common section another e * 13
9f every plane which passes through (k) Parallel planes are everywhere *.
it with that plane . e 132 distant - - : cor. º:
[(e)Ifa straightlineis parallel to a plane, (1) If any two straight lines are Cu
every straight line, which is parallel to by three parallel planes, the inter
parts
of the straight lines which are
* is parallel to the same plane, see
app. prop. 7.] cepted by the planes shall be to .
(d) If two straight lines are parallel, the another in the same ratio . . º:
Sºmon section of any two planes (m) If two straight lines, which
one another,
º
are parallel respectively
.*g, through them is ... parallel
either of them
to
cor. 132
-
to other two which meet one another,
[(e) If there be three planes, and if the
.*.*.ion of twoplane,
of thethe
planesis
the contained angles shall be º:
parallel to the third com and their planes parallel , -
º of the three planes are (n)twoThe dihedral
planes whichangle
meet made by...:
one another
measured by the rectilineal angle 0
Index.] GEOMETRY. 253.
the perpendiculars to the common its centre to the straight line or plane
section which are drawn in the two is the point of contact 80, 129
planes from any the same point of (b) If a circle touches a circle, or a
the common section - 136 sphere a sphere, the straight line
(0) Dihedral angles, which have the joining their centres, or that straight
sides of the one parallel, or perpendi line produced, passes through the point
cular, or equally inclined to the sides of contact . 82, 15l
-
of the other, and in the same order, Point of intersection, of three planes. (See
are equal to one another sch. 136 “Plane.”) • e sch. 156
‘(p) If one plane is at right angles to - —, of three spherical sur
another, the perpendiculars to the faces • - e sch. 151
common section, which are drawn in Pole of a circle of the sphere. (See “Sphe
the two planes from any the same rical Geometry.”) . . def. 184 -
point of the common section, are at Polar distance of a circle of the sphere
right angles to one another; and con def. 184
versely e cor. 136 - -
Polar triangle. (See “Spherical Geometry.”)
(q) If one plane is perpendicular to def. 185.
another, any straight line, which is Polygon. (See “Rectilineal Figure,” “Re
drawn in the first plane at right gular Polygon.”) - • . def. 2
angles to their common section, is Polygon, spherical. (See “Spherical Geome
perpendicular to the other plane 136 trV.” . . . . def. 186
(r) If a straight line is perpendicular to Polyhedron. (Also “Diagonals of a Poly
a plane, every plane which passes hedron.”) def. 126 -
through it is perpendicular to the same When said to be regular . . . . 126

plane e … .• 136 When two polyhedrons are said to be
-
(s) If two planes which cut one another similar. (See Note upon this def) 126
are each of them perpendicular to a [Two polyhedrons are said to be sym
third plane, their common section is metrical, when a face of the one ma
perpendicular to the same plane be made to coincide with a face of the
cor. 137 other, and, these being made td. coin
(b) If through the same point there cide, the straight lines which join the
pass any number of planes perpen. solid angles of the one with the cor
dicular to the same plane, they all of responding solid angles of the other
them pass through the same straight are perpendicular to, and bisected by,
line, viz., the perpendicular which is the plane of the faces.]
drawn from the point to the plane (a) If S, E, and F represent respec
- cor. 137 tively the number of solid angles, the
(u) If two planes are parallel, a plane number of edges, and the number of
which is parallel, or perpendicular, or faces of a polyhedron, S – E X F-2
sch. 197
inclined to one of them, shall be
parallel or perpendicular, or equally (b) If S represents the number of solid
inclined to the other . sch. 136 angles, the sum of all the plane angles
(v) Through a given point, to draw a of the faces is equal to (S - 2) times
plane which shall be parallel to a given 4 right angles ... sch. 197
e
plane - - . 154 (c) The solidity of a polyhedron may

(*) Through a given point, to draw a be obtained by dividing it into pyra
plane perpendicular to each of two mids, having for their common vertex
given planes . 154
- -
one of the vertices of the polyhedron,
(y). Through a given straight line to or some point within it ... sch. 147
draw a plane perpendicular to a given (a) Similar polyhedrons are divided into
- plane e • e . 153 the same number of similar pyra
*lane Geometry is that part of Geometry mids, by drawing diagonals from any
which treats of plane figures and lines in two corresponding angles, and planes
one plane. along those diagonals 150 e
What constructions are said to be prac (e) Similar polyhedrons are to one ano
ticable by Plane Geometry sch. 26 ther in the triplicate ratio (or as the
+lane Locus. (See “Locus.”) def. 107 cubes) of their homologous edges;
JPlane Section of a solid, is any section made and their convex surfaces are in the
by a plane. duplicate ratio (or as the squares) of
of a cone, cylinder, or sphere. those edges . . . .. - 150
See “Cone,” “Cylinder,” or “Sphere.” [(f) If four straight lines are propor
#’lanes, angle contained by. See “ Dihedral tionals, any two similar polyhedrons
angle.” which have the first and second for
Point - - -- e- def. 1 homologous edges, and any two which
Point of contact e def. 79 e have the third and fourth, are propor
(a) If a straight line touches a circle, or tionals. (IV. 27. cor. 3..]
[(g) Symmetrical polyhedrons may be
if a plane touches a sphere, the foot of
the perpendicular which is drawn from divided into the same number of
254 GEOMETRY. * [Index,
symmetrical pyramids, by drawing [(h) Symmetrical prisms are equal to one
diagonals from any two correspond another.]
ing angles, and planes along those (i) If the convex surface of a prism be
produced to any extent, the sections
diagonals.] of it by parallel planes will be similar
[(h) Symmetrical polyhedrons are equal and equal polygons .. sch. 145
to one another.] Problem (Gr., a thing put forth or proposed)3
Postulates (Lat., things required) 3 -
— in the constructions of theorems Product, strict meaning of the word when

used in geometry - sch. 18, 142
in plane geometry - - - -
And hence it is used synonimously with
—— in the constructions of problems in
rectangle.orrectangularparallelopiped,
plane geometry - - -
these figures being measured by the
, in the constructions of problems
products of their bases and altitudes,
in solid geometry - 150 or of their respective dimensions.
-
in the constructions of problems in

Progression, arithmetical. See “Arithme
spherical geometry - 203 -
Prime, numbers said to be (See “Common tical Progression.” -
Factor.”) . - sch, 36-

geometrical. See “Geometrical
al
Princip edges of a prism or pyramid , Progress ion.”
harmonical. See “Harmonical
def. 127
Principal diameter of a conic section def:217 Progression.” -
Principal vertices, or vertex, of a conic section Projection, orthographic and perspective 208
def: 217 -
Prism, deſ. (also its bases, sides, principal (A) Of Orthographic Prºjection. . . .
edges, lateral or convex surface) 127
Orthographic projection of a point, liº;
When said to be right, when oblique 127 or figure -
n,
... ... deſ: 208
Plane of projectio direction of pro
When said to be regular (its axis) 127 jection, original. . . . . def. 208
(a) Triangular prisms, which have two
sides and the included angle of the one (a) The orthographic prºjection of evºy
equal to two sides and the included given point may be found upon º
n . . .”
angle of the other, are equal to one The oforthogra
(b)plane projectio
phic pro ection of212a
another - - - 138 straight line (not parallel to the di.
(b) if the upper part of a triangular rection of projection) is 4 straight
prism be cut away by any plane, the line—viz., the common section of the
remaining solid is equal to the sum plane of projection, and a plane drawn
of three pyramids, having the same through the original, parallel to the
base with the prism, and for their ver
tices the upper extremities of the di (c)direction of projectio
If the original n , , ...
straight #.
line be 213
minished edges sch. 147
- rallel to the plane of projection, t .
(c) Every prism is equal to a rectangu orthographic projection of º
lar parallelopiped, having an equal
base and altitude; i.e. to the product (d)straight point...”
line is a hic, f
of its base and altitude - 144
Thé orthograp
straight parallel ntoo ti.i
line, which isprojectio
(d) Prisms which have equal altitudes plane of projection, is parallel, .
are to one another as their bases; and
prisms which have equal bases as equal to its original . . º
their altitudes; also, any two prisms The orthogra
(e)parallel phiclines
straight projectiº n.” l.
are pºrº els,
are to one another in the ratio which and have the same ratio to *:
is compounded of the ratios of their
bases and altitudes - cor. 145 spective originals, . action of a
(e) The solid content of any prism is (f) The orthographic yº. ral
curve (the plane of which is not pº a
equal to the product of the principal lel to the direction of projection) -
edge, and the area of a plane section curve; and the orthographic ..".
Perpendicular to it; and the convex tion of a straight line, touching -
surface is equal to the product of the original curve, is a straightline º:

Principal edge, and the perimeter of
the same section. In the right prism, ing the projection of that º ve be
this section is the same with the base (g) frthe plane of the original .
sch. 145
parallel to the direction of prºje mi
-
the projection of a straight line, ides

[(ſ) Prisms which have for their bases the projection of the tangent .f it
Similar polygons, and the principal
edges drawn from two corresponding with it, or, in one case, is a rº. 214
*śs of those polygons, making - :action of a
J.) The orthographic projection º
i. angles with each of the homo:
°39's ºljoining sides, and in the
( * .*. a .# . *
same ratio as those sides, are simi

straight line cutting the projectio
lar. that curve, except always *.º #4
[(g) Similar
their prisms
homolog are as th
ous edges. §§ of
[(i) The orthographic projection
of a
ſº Index.] GEOMETRY. 255
circle is a circle, or an ellipse (app. 25, (). The perspective projection of a

2 27y straight line touching any curve is a
(B) of Perspective Projection. straight line touching the projection
Perspective projection of a point, line, or of that curve, if the original point of
re e def. 208
- e
contact be without the vertical plane;
Vertex, vertical plane, plane of projec but if it be in that plane, the projection
tion, original edef: 208 a.
of the tangent is an asymptote to the
(a) The perspective projection may be projection of the curve - 211
found of every point which is without (m). If, however, the tangent at the ori
the vertical plane, but of no point in ginal point be also in the vertical plane,
that plane - 208e º
it has no projection, and the projec
(b) The perspective projection of a tion of the original curve has no
straight line (not passing through the asymptote . e . cor. 212
vertex) is a straight line—viz. the (n) The perspective projection of a
common section of the plane of pro straight line, which cuts a curve in a
jection, and the plane which passes point without the vertical plane, is a
through the vertex and original straight line which cuts the projection
straight line . . 209 e of that curve - e cor. 212
(c) If the original straight line passes [(2)The perspective projection of a circle
through the vertex, the projection of (except as in (k)) is a circle, or a
such straight line is a point cor. 209 conic section (app. 22, 23, 34).]
(d) The perspective projection of a Proportion, and how denoted (also its ante
straight line parallel to the plane of cedents and consequents) . def. 33
projection, is parallel to its original the first and second terms must be
- - cor. 209
(e) The perspective projection of a of the same kind, and also the third and
fourth - s - . 33
straight line, which is terminated by Of commensurable magnitudes . 37
the vertical plane, is a straight line of — general theory of . 48 e
unlimited extent in one direction; and

the projection of a straight line, which when four magnitudes A, B, C,
cuts that plane, is the whole of a D, are said to be proportionals; deſ. [7.]
straight line of unlimited extent, in p. 33; and deſ. 7 p. 49 -
both directions, excepting only the part Proportionals according to def. [7] are
which lies between the projections of also proportionals according to deſ. 7.
38, 49
the extreme points . - 209
[(f) The perspective projection of a (A) Comparative magnitude of the terms, in a
straight line, which is of unlimited
extent in one direction, but does not proportion, A : B : : C : D “.
meet the vertical plane (and is not (a) If A > or = or < B, then C >
parallel to that plane), is finite.] = or < D.; and conversely , 52
(g). The perspective projection of a (b) If A > or = or < C, then B >
or = or < D.; and conversely 53
straight line, which is not parallel to
the plane of projection, passes, if pro (c) If A > or = or < *-B. then C.
duced, through the point in which a
parallel to the original, drawn through > or = or < . D; and conversely
the vertex, cuts the plane of projection
cor. 208 cor. 50
(h) The perspective projections of paral (d) If nA > or = or < mB, then nG
lel straight lines, which are likewise > or = or < mL); and conversely.
parallel to the plane of projection, are cor. 50
parallels . - e . 209
(e) If there are four magnitudes A, B,
(i) The perspective projections of paral C, D, and if when na > or = or <
lel straight lines, which cut the plane mb, nC > or = or 3 m D, for all
of projection, are not parallels, but values of n and m, then A, B, C, D
pass, when produced, all of them are proportionals .. •. cor. 51
through the same point—viz., the (f) If four magnitudes are propor
point in which a parallel to the ori tionals, the greatest and least toge
t ginals, drawn through the vertex, cuts ther are greater than the other two
the plane of projection . . . . 0 together . - e 53
(*) The perspective projection of a
curve" (the plane of which does not (B) Rules for transforming a single propor
pass through the vertex) is a curve; tion, A : B : : C ; D. -
and, if any point of the original curve (6),theC second

: D :: ratio
B : A, by merely placing
lies in the vertical plane, the projection first e . 33
shall have an arc of unlimited extent
(b) B : A :: D : C, invertendo 52
corresponding to the arc of the original
curve, which is terminated in that * For the sign - in this division read “is less
point . • e . 210 than,” and for > “is greater than.”
Inde
(c) A : C :: B : D, alternando (when (b) The same being supposed, A X D
the four are of the same kind) 53 B × C, and conversely . . sch. 47
(d) A v B : B : : C ~ D : D, divi (c) The same being supposed, A X M :
dendo . - • . 53 B x M :: C : D ; and conversely
- sch. 47
(e) A + B : B :: C + D : D, compº:
mendo . - - . 53 (d) The same being supposed A X M ;
(f)vertendo
A : A .+ B :: C : C ;. D,cor.con: : B :: C x M : i), and conversely
- 53 sch. 47
(2)miscendo
A + B :. A & B:: C+D. : cor.
C\D (e) If four magnitudes, numerically re
- 54 presented by A, B, C, D, are propol,
tionals; and four others, represented
(c) Rules for combining two or more propor by A, B, C, D, are likewise prºpº.
...tions. tionals; then A x A : B × B ::
(a) If A : C :: A : C, and B.: C :: Cºx C : D x D'; a rule which is
B. : Cº, then A + B : C :: A' + B' called “ compounding the propor
: C'; and so, if any number of pro tions,” and is applicable to any nun.
ber of proportions • . . sch. 48
portions have the same consequents 34
(b) If A : B :: A : B', and B : C.;; Proportional. See “Third Proportional,”
B. : C, then, ea agual, A : C : : A'. “Fourth Proportional,” “Mean Propor
C’; and so, if there are any number of tional.”
magnitudes A, B, C, D, and A’, B', Proportional Straight Lines. See “ Straight
C’,i), the ratios ofwhich are the same Line.” -
respectively in the same order: 54

Pyramid, (also its vertex, base, sides, prin
(c) If A : B :: B : C', and B : C : : cipal edges, lateral or convex surface, frus
A : B', then er a quo perturbato, tum, or truncated pyramid). ... deſ. 127
A : C : : A' : C'; and so, if there when said to be regular (its axis) . 127
are any number of magnitudes A, B, When two pyramids are said to be º,
C, D, and A, B, C, D, the ratios
of which are the same respectively in When symmetrical. See “ Polyhedron.
a cross order. 55
• (a) Triangular pyramids which have
-
equal bases and altitudes are equal to

(D) Rules of Arithmetical Proportion. one another . .. 145 º
(a) If four magnitudes are proportionals, (b) Every pyramid (triangular or other.
and if A, B, C, D represent those —T
#: and this will be the case, how great" the
magnitudes numerically, then E - 77,
:C ... A C numbers m and n º,beand

taken;
m d that
may is,
be.how gºt
But be
. D 3 and, conversely, if B = D : the soever the numbers m I q
four are proportionals” ... sch. 47

cause #differs Ttº by less than nº and 7 aſ
from 72
I
a by less than mºd’ byy increasing m and ".
- -
ºn c
from in
* This is true, not only when the magnitudes are m a.
commensurable Pºiº (as is demonstrated in P- and T. may be made to dinº"
-
and
p. 47), but also when four magnitudes are propºr
tionals according to def. 7, and as such, is meant to be n b md
asserted by placing it among the properties of pro m c by less than any the same given differen".
portionals. It is necessary, therefore, to add the md *
following demonstration of the general case:- Therefore, because # is always equal to nº '.
r Let A, B, C, D, be proportionals according to def,
7, p. 49; let B be divided into any number, b, of g c
equal parts, and let A contain a of those parts; that ** =** (II. 28) and consequently T =7
is, a certain number exactly together with a frac
nb md
tion, which number and fraction are, together, re Also, conversely, if +=7.
a C A, B, C, D shall be
presented by a ; also let D be divided into any
number, d. of equal parts, and let C contain c of those
parts, c being a whole number and fraction as before; proportionals according to def. 7. For let B and
of equal D
parts;
ta, c be divided, each, into any number, m,
1
b shall be equal to T. .. (t - : ºne -
then, because A contains #ths of B, it contains 5th
Take m and n any equimultiples of b and d, so that
of B as often as the number * is contained in - ,
+ #, and consequently m d = n b ; and let B b
and D be divided, each, into m d, or, which is the I

and in like manner C contains 7, th of D as often as
same, nb equal parts; then, because A contains
c
#ths of B, it contains #hs of B, and in like . . in
n is contained . T0 ; but, because * –
— --n is con
,n 1S
mannerrC ins”. “
C contains ...ths of D; but because A, B, C, - .. ſt - -
tained in 7 with a remainder, as often as it is "

if is C0ſl”
D are proportionals accordi

Geording to def. 7, and
- -
is equal to m d, the units (p

to - -
§::ſº tained in # with a remainder; thereſ” A,B,C,D
...the units (a suppose) in m c.; and therefore -º
m b T are proportionals, .
[Infº Index.] GEOMETRY. 257
l, AX): wise) is equal to the third part of a straight lines (of which every three
, thiſ prism which has the same base and are greater than the fourth), and its
el Axl,
altitude . 146, 147
angles lying in the circumference of
mºſ (c) The solid content of a pyramid is a circle - cor. 91
will equal to one-third of the product of its In what cases a quadrilateral is a paral
base and altitude cor. 147
* AY! lelogram, and the properties of such a
Tº (d) The frustum of a pyramid is equal figure. See “Parallelogram.”
wiſ to the sum of three pyramids which In what cases it has its angles in the
have the same altitude with the frus
mº circumference of a circle, and the pro
| || ||
tum, and for their bases the sum of its perties of such a figure. See “Circle.”
, ſº two bases and a mean proportional Quindecagon. See “Pentedecagon.”
between them . - - 147
ºiºſº
BY }; (e) Pyramids which have equal altitudes Radius of a circle, or sphere def. 3, 127
is ºf are to one another as their bases, and Ratio, meaning of the word . . . . 31
tº ſº. pyramids which have equal bases, as Is independent of the kind of magni
their altitudes; also, any two pyra tudes compared, but requires that the
tº ſº mids are to one another in the ratio two shall be of the same kind 31
, iſ:
which is compounded of the ratios of Of commensurable magnitudes, how
pººl' their bases and altitudes . cor. 147 expressed in numbers 32
an º' [(f) Pyramids which have for their bases Of incommensurable magnitudes . 48
similar polygons, and the principal Ratio of equality, inverse or reciprocal
“Sºft edges drawn from two corresponding ratio - - - def. 32
angles of those polygons making Equal ratios, greater ratio, less ratio
is ſº equal angles with each of the homolo
jºins def. 32, 49
gous adjoining sides, and in the same Duplicate ratio, triplicate ratio, &c.
|||| ratio as those sides, are similar.] (Also Sub-duplicate, Sub-triplicate,
\| (g) Similar pyramids are to one another &c.) . - . def. 34
isn't
|
in the triplicate ratio (or as the cubes) Compound ratio; i.e., a ratio which is
im."
of their homologous edges . 149 compounded of any number of ratios
[(h) Symmetrical pyramids are equal to - def. 34
one another ; for they have equal When one ratio is said to be taken away
º: bases and altitudes.] from another . 45
º |j (i) If the convex surface of a pyramid
- -
º be produced to any extent, the sections (A) Of equal Ratios”.

-- of it by parallel planes will be similar (a) If A = B, then A : C = B : C ;
polygons . - sch. 145 -
and conversely . - . 51
sºrt (b) If A : B = C ; D and G : D =
Quadrature of the circle; an exact quadrature
ºrſ: is impracticable in the way of calculation, E : F, then A : B = E : F : 51
Fift: sch. 99. See “Circle” and “Lunes.” (c) If A : B = A : B', then A : B
ſ Quadrilateral plane figure def: 2 -
= A + A : B =E B' . 53, 54
#1 (a). Its angles are together equal to four (a) If A : B = At : B = A : B",
right angles. . cor. 15
then A : B = A + A* + A : B +
B' -- B"; and so of any number #
-
(b) If any other than a parallelogram,

the squares of its diagonals are to equal ratios - - -
gether greater the squares of the four (e) Magnitudes are to one another as
sides by four times the straight line their equimultiples - . 52
which joins the middle point of the (f) If A : B = C : D. m. A : m B =
diagonals. n C : n D; and conversely cor. 52
. - . 23
(c) If two quadrilaterals have three sides (g) If A : B = G : D. m. A : n C =
m C : n D; and conversely . . 52
of the one equal to three sides of the
other, each to each, and the angles of (h) If there are any number of magni
tudes of the same kind A, B, C, D,
the one lying in the circumference of and as many others A, B, C, D', and
a circle of which the fourth side is
if the ratios of the first to the second,
diameter, but the angles of the other of the second to the third, of the third
not so lying, the first quadrilateral to the fourth, and so on, are the same
shall be greater than the other * 103 respectively in the two series, any
(d) If two quadrilaterals have the sides two combinations by sum and differ
of the one equal to the sides of the ence of the magnitudes in the first
other each to each, and the angles of series shall be to one another as two
the one lying in the circumference of similar combinations of the magni
a circle, but the angles of the other tudes in the second series . cor. 55
not so lying, the first quadrilateral
shall be greater than the other 104 (B) Of unequal Ratios,
(e) To construct a quadrilateral which (a) If A > or < B, then A : C > or
shall have its sides equal to four given ~ B : C; and conversely . 51
• For the signs > and < which are here used;
* These propositions (c) and (d) are true, whether read “is greater than” for >, and “is less than”
the equal sides lie in the same, or in different orders. for -5. -
S
and said to be equal to, the product of
()and
iſ conversely
A- B, then C : B > 0 . : A51 its adjoining sides . sch. 18
- - (a) Rectangles, having the same base,
(c)orif<A E: B: F,= then
g : DA and
: B Q3
> or22
< are to one another as their altitudes
62
E : F ... cor. 52
- -
(e) Rectangles are to one another in the
(d)Dif=AE:: BF,>then
or <C.: ratio which is compounded of
A : BP>ºnor93
the
< ratios of their sides . . 62
E : F. - - ... cor. 52 (f) Rectangles, which have their sides
(e) If A : B > or < A' | B', then A
reciprocally proportional, are equal to
: B > or < A + A : B + B'
cor. 54 one another; and, conversely, rectan
gles, which are equal to one another,
(f) If A : B not = At : B', then A have their sides reciprocally propº.
4. A : B + B lies between A : B tional - - • . 63
and A’ B'. . - . cor. 54 ) The equality of two rectangles is
(c) of compound Ratios. £onvertible into a proportion of ſº,
straight lines; and vice versá sch.64
(a) Ratios which are compounded of the See “Straight Line” and “ Parallelogram."
same ratios, in whatsoever orders, are Rectangular Parallelopiped . def. 126
[(a) Its diagºnals ar. equal to one
(b)equal to one
Ratios another,
which are the .duplicates, tri
55 -
another, and every face # at right

plicates, &c. of equal ratios, are equal angles to the two adjoining faces.]
to one another - ... cor. 56 (b) If the conterminous edges of a rect
(c) If equal ratios are taken from equal angular parallelopiped contain any
£atios, the remaining ratios are equal the same straight line M, a, b, and 0
cor. 56
times respectively, the rectangular
parallelopiped shāi contain the cºlº
(D) of reciprocal Ratios. of M, a × b X times? ... 14%
(a) If a ratio, which is compounded of (c) Hence, a rectangular. parallelopiped
two ratios be a ratio of equality, one is measured by, and said to be equa
of these is the reciprocal of the other; to, the product of its three contermſ:
and conversely - . cor. 51
nous edges - ; , sº 142
(d) Rectangular parallelopipeds, having
(b) The reciprocals of equal ratios are
equal - - - 40 the same base, are to * another as
(c) In the composition (i.e.; compound altitudes parallelopined
. . . . . .a. º143
ing) of ratios, any two which are re (e)their
Rectangular to
ciprocals may be neglected without one another in the ratio which is com:
affecting the resulting compound ratio pounded of the ratios of their º
cor. 56
See also “ Numerical Ratio” and “Pro See “ Straight Line” and “Parallelo
portion.” iped.”
Rectilineal figure, or polygon “ſ,
def. 21
Reciprocal, one ratio said to be of another •
32
When said to be a regular polygon
Reciprocally proportional; two magnitudes
and other two are said to be recipro let C Ethan
greater be theC.B.;
firstthen
multip';
É liesof betwº.
this part, Whiº 5.
an hiſ
cally proportional, when the four con Complete the rectangle A C £F; and, because
stitute a proportion, in which one pair
are extremes and the other means. A.
Rectangle - def: 2 - - -
[(a). Its diagonals are equal to one.º.

other, and all its angles are right
angles (I. 4).]
(b) If the adjoining sides of a rectangle C TBED
contain any the same straight line M, M is contained in C A * times, and in CD 20 º:
the one a times and the other b times, and in C E an exact number of time. (say ſº le
the rectangle shall contain the square than
A C E3d, itsXpsquare
F 20 times, is
thatcontained the jº!º
in 2a:
is, less than s
of M, a × b times” 18
but its square is cºntained in the º to be
- -
(c) Hence, a rectangle is measured by, gº. 2d times, for the sºlº of M is suppose ctangle
contained in A B ax d times; therefore the ret
* This (although only demonstrated
-
in p.i.18,e.i when consequently d cannot be gº."

- - n the AB is greater than *::::er than :
...” to it.thatAnº:
case of whole numbers) is true º: shown
al*... . numbers whatever. iess than b, thatit is,may
it isbeequal b º as (l,
ºne general cast we add the following demonstra shown in the case in which one of the num . this,
*
let *
§§ A, C B be the sides of . rectangle is whole, the like demonstration.º. º them
a and b times respectively; and first, may be applied to the case in which neither
e M
supposed a whole number. Let the square
e
is Thºse
a whole number.
of d * contained inthe rectangle a x d times; of the rectangulº. parallelopipe" maybe -
§§§'. let d be supposed greater than b, so that

th e taken equal to d times M, it will be reater # This is true,
demonstrated in thewhatever the numbers", b, and 9
same mº".
§§§ B, which is only b times M. Let an .. of
, which is less than BD, say the half, beta º, and are—see the last note.
When said to be inscribed in a circle or its sides equal, and all its angles
circumscribed about a circle .. 79 equal, a greater may be found having
When two rectilineal figures are said to the same number of sides, and the
be similar, and what are homologous same perimeter . ...
- 100
sides. (See the Note upon this def)57 (b) Of regular polygons which have the
When straight lines are said to be simi same perimeter, that which has the
larly placed in similar rectilineal greatest number of sides is greatest
figures e e . 57 101
(c) A regular polygon is greater than
(A) (a) Any one of the sides is less than the any other rectilineal figure which has
sum of all the others . . cor. 8
the same (or a less) number of sides,
(b) The exterior angles of a rectilineal and the same perimeter cor. 101, 102
figure (formed by producing its sides) (d) A regular polygon has a less peri
are together equal to four right angles; meter than any rectilineal figure which
and the sum of its interior angles, to has the same (or a less) number of
gether with four right angles, is equal sides and the same area cor. 101
to twice as many right angles as the (e) If a rectilineal figure have not all its
figure has sides . - 15 ©
angles in the circumference of a cir
(c) The area of a rectilineal figure may cle, a greater may be found having
be obtained by dividing it into tri the same sides . - cor. 105
angles, having for their common vertex (f) A rectilineal figure, which has all
one of the angular points of the figure, its angles lying in the circumference
or some point within it . sch. 18 of a circle, is greater than any other
having the same sides, whether in the
(B) Of similar rectilineal figures. same or in different orders cor. 105
(a) Rectilineal figures of more than (g) If two rectilineal figures have all
three sides which have their several their sides but one equal each to each
angles equal in order, each to each, (in the same, or in different orders),
are not for that reason necessarily and the angles of the one lying in the
similar • - sch. 59 circumference of a circle of which the
(b) Rectilineal figures which have all excepted side is the diameter; but the
their angles but two, equal each to angles of the other not so lying, the
each in order, and the sides about the first figure shall be greater than the
equal angles proportionals, are similar other - e note 103
cor. 60
(c) Any two which are similar to the (D) Problems relating to Rectilineal Figures.
º same rectilineal figure are similar to (a) To describe a triangle which shall
* one another - . def. 57
| (d) Similar rectilineal figures are divided be equal to a given rectilineal figure,
º into the same number of similar tri and which shall have a side and angle
adjoining to it, the same with a side
angles by the diagonals which are
drawn from any two corresponding and adjoining angle of the figure 28
angles e - . cor. 60 b) To divide a given rectilineal figure
into two (or more) equal parts by a
(e) Lines, which are similarly placed in line (or lines) drawn from. a given
similar figures, cut the homologous angle, or from a given point in one 29
of
sides at equal angles, and are to one its sides . • - e
* , another as those sides . cor. 60

(f) Similar rectilineal figures are to (c) To divide a given rectilineal figure
one another in the duplicate ratio (or in a given ratio (or into any number
as the squares) of their homologous of parts having given ratios) by a line
sides; . [and their perimeters are as (or lines) drawn from one of its an:
those sides] . e. 67 gles, or from
its sides .
a given point in one of
e - s7
(g). If four straight lines are propor (a) To describe a rectilineal figure upon
# tionals, any two similar rectilineal
figures which have the first and second a given straightline, similar to a given
rectilineal figure; the given line being
for homologous sides, and any two homologous with a given side of the
which have the third and fourth, are figure • !..
- 75 -
proportionals . ...
e cor. 67
c) To describe a rectilineal figure,
(h). If, similar rectilineal figures are which shall be similar to a given rec
similarly described upon the hypo. tilineal figure, and have a given
tenuse and sides of a right angled erimeter - e - 76
triangle, the figure upon the hypote To describe a rectilineal figure,
nuse is equal to the sum of the figures which shall be similar to one given
upon the two sides e . 67
rectilineal figure, and equal to all
other e - e • 76
(C) % ºrectilineal figures which are not
se/722&az”. Regular Polygon, deſ. (also its apothem and
(a) If a rectilineal figure have not all centre) . e e 's 2 91
Regular polygons of the same name are (c) The inclination of its adjoining faces
similar . 91
- - -
is measured by the greater acute angle
To describe any regular polygon upon a of a right-angled triangle, whose hy
given straight line cor. 120 -
potenuse is equal to three times one of
See “Circle,” and “Rectilineal figure.” its sides - e - 163
Re-entering, an angle said to be 2 - (d) The diameter of the circumscribed
Regular Polyhedron . - def. 126 sphere is to the edge, as the hypo
Its centre . - cor. 161 tenuse to the greater side of a right
[The apothem of a regular polyhedron is angled triangle, whose sides are as
a perpendicular drawn from the centre the side and diagonal of a square 165
to any one of the faces, and is equal (c) The diameter of the inscribed sphere
to the radius of the inscribed sphere.] is one-third that of the circumscribed
sphere - - .. sch, 166
(A) (a) There are only five regular poly
hedrons, three of which (the tetrahedron, (C) Of the regular Herahedron, or Cube.
octahedron, and icosahedron) are contained [(a) The cube has 6 faces (squares), 8
by equilateral triangles, one (the hexahe solid angles, and 12 edges.]
dron, or cube) by squares, and one (the (b) The centres of its faces are the ver.
dodecahedron) by pentagons cor. 138 tices of an inscribed regular octahe
dron ... sch. 162
(b) A sphere may be inscribed in any of - -
the regular polyhedrons, and a sphere, (c) Four of its vertices are the vertices
concentric with the former, circum of an inscribed octahedron, as the side
scribed about it - cor. 161 and diagonal of a square note 162
[(c) The common centre of which spheres (d) Its adjoining faces are at right angles
(i.e. the centre of the polyhedron) may to one another . . . .163
be found by bisecting any three of the (e) The diameter of the circumscribed
dihedral angles, or by bisecting any sphere is to the edge, as the hypote:
three of the edges by planes at right muse to the lesser side of a right-angled
angles to them (IV. 50. cor. 2.)] triangle, whose sides are as the side
(d) The solid content of a regular poly and diagonal of a square ... . .16%
hedron is equal to one third of the (f) The diameter of the inscribed sphers
product of its convex surface and apo is equal to the edge of the cube 100
them (i. e. the radius of the inscribed
sphere) - e cor. 165
-
(D) Of the regular Octahedron. -
(e) Regular polyhedrons of the same [(a) The octahedron has 8 faces (ºil;
name are similar - cor. 161 téral triangles), 6 solid angles, and 1%
(f) The regular polyhedrons of 6, 8, (b)edges.]
The centres of its faces are the ver
-
12, and 20 faces have for every face a

face opposite and parallel to it; and tices of an inscribed cube. . sch. 162
the opposite edges of those faces like (c)isThe inclination
measured of itstheadjoining
by twice faces
greater acute
wise parallel; also the straight line
which joins two opposite angles passes angle of a right-angledtriangle, whºse
through the centre of the polyhedron sides areas the side and diagonal of 4
cor. 161 square . . e . . . *:
(g) Any one of the regular polyhedrons (d) The diameter of the º
may be inscribed in a regular polyhe sphere is to the edge, as the diagona
dron, which has a greater number of of a square to its side . . . 155
faces, by taking for its vertices certain (e) The ratio of the diameters of the in
of the vertices of the latter, or of the scribed and circumscribed sphere,
centres of its faces, or of the middle the same as in the cube, viz. 1: M3,
points of its edges note 162 sch. 166
(h) To find the inclination of the ad
joining faces of any of the regular (E)
polyhedrons . -
E) [(a)
Of theThe
regular
•
Dodecahedron.
dodecahedron
163
has 12 º:
all
(i) The edge of any regular polyhedron (pentagons), 20 solid angles,
being given, to find the radii of the in edges.
scribed and circumscribed spheres 164 (b) The centres of its faces are the ver
(*) The edge of any regular polyhedron tices of an inscribed icosahedron
being given, to describe the polyhe sch. 162
dron . . . . . * 158 c) Eight of its vertices are the vertº
( º: . inscribed cube; and four of *
(B) 9ſ the regular Tetrahedron. inscribed tetrahedron ... . not 16
[(a) The tºtrahedron has 4 faces (equi (d) The inclination of its adjoining º:
lateral triangles), 4 solid angles, and is measured
angle greater .º:
by twice thetriangle
of a right-angled
6 edges.] 2 W
(*). The Centres of its faces are the ver. sides are in the medial ratio |
tices of an inscribed regular tetrahe (e) The diameter of the circums. 0.
dron s sch. 162
sphere is to the edge as the hypotenus
Index.] GEOMETRY. 261'
to the lesser side of a right-angled an octant, or eighth part of the sphe

triangle, whose sides are in the dupli rical surface, which is described about
cate of the medial ratio º 165 its angular point with a given radius
(f) The ratio of the diameters of the sch. 203
inscribed and circumscribed spheres (b) All the solid angles about any
is the same as in the icosahedron point are together equal to eight solid
sch. 166 right angles - • sch, 203
See “Solid Angle.”
(F) Of the regular Icosahedron. Right, a cone, or cylinder said to be. (See
[(a) The icosahedron has 20 faces (equi “Cone” and “Cylinder.”) 166, 167
lateral triangles), 12 solid angles, and —, a prism said to be. (See “Prism.”) 127
30 edges.] Right-angled triangle, def. (See “ Tangº
(b) The centres of its faces are the ver
tices of an inscribed dodecahedron Right-angled spherical triangle. See “Sphe
sch. 162 rical Geometry.”
(c) The inclination of its adjoining faces Round bodies, the sphere, right cone, and
is measured by twice the greater right cylinder, so called . - 167
acute angle of a right-angled triangle,
whose sides are in the duplicate of Scalene (Gr. limping), a triangle said to be 2
the medial ratio eScholium (Gr.), an observation
e 163 3 e
(d) The diameter of the circumscribed Section (Lat., division). See “Plane Sec
sphere is to the edge, as the hypote tion.”
nuse to the lesser side of a right Sector of a circle, def. (See “Circle.”). 79
angled triangle, whose sides are in of a sphere, def. (See “Sphere.”) 179
the medial ratio - e 165 Segment, of a circle, deſ. (See “Circle.”) 79
(e) The ratio of the diameters of the of a sphere, deſ. (See “Sphere.”) 179
inscribed and circumscribed spheresis Semicircle, def. 79, (also “Semicircum
the same as in the dodecahedron, [viz. ference,” 78, “Semidiameter” 3.)
as the greater side to the hypotenuse Sides, of a triangle, 2; isosceles triangle, 2.;
of a right-angled triangle, the lesser rightangled triangle, 2.
side of which is equal to twice the homologous, of similar figures 127
lesser segment of the greater side — of a prism or pyramid 127 e
medially divided; or (if r, greater Similar, rectilineal figures said to be 57

than unity, represent the medial arcs, circular sectors and segments
ratio) in the subduplicate ratio of rº said to be 91 s - - -
to r + 4.] • e sch. 166 annuli said to be. See “Annulus.”

Regular Prism, deſ. (also its axis) 127 polyhedrons said to be . . 126
See “Prism” and “Cylinder.” cones, cylinders said to be . 167
Regular pyramid, def. (also its axis) 127 spherical segments and sectors,
See “Pyramid’ and “Cone.” -
orbs, ungulae, said to be . 184
e
Reverse angle. See “Re-entering.” —— zones, lunes, spherical triangles, said

Revolution, figures of. See “Solid of Re . . . . . .184, 207
volution.” [In all these figures there is one gene
Rhombus - e def. 2
e
ral property, and which it would not be
e
(a) Has all its sides equal, and its dia difficult to demonstrate in each sepa
gonals bisect one another at right rately, viz., that any two that are simi
angles - e - cor. 16 lar, may be so placed, as that every
I(b) If a quadrilateral has all its sides straight line which is drawn from a cer
equal, or if its diagonals bisect one tain point, to cut the perimeters or sur
* at right angles,
UIS.
it is a rhom faces, shall be divided by them in the
same ratio. Generally, therefore, let
(c) To describe a rhombus with a given the term similar be applied to all figures
side and angle e - which answer this description; i. e., let
Right, a term applied to any angle (whether it be the general test of similarity, that
rectilineal, dihedral, or spherical) which two figures, which are said to be simi
is equal to the adjacent angle, formed by lar, may be so placed as that every
producing either of its sides. straight line which is drawn from a
º
º
(a) A, right angle is measured by a certain point (similarly placed with re
quadrant, or fourth part of the circum gard to the two) to cut the perimeters or
| ference, which is described about its surfaces, shall be divided by them in
angular point with a given radius the same ratio.
sch. 85 According to this definition, plane
(b) All the angles about a point in a figures will be similar, when a point
plane, are together equal to four right may be found in each, and a straight
angles • • e cor. 5 line drawn from each of these points,
See “Angle.” such that every two straight lines which
Right solid angle . e e sch. 203 are drawn from the same points at
(a) A right solid angle is measured by equal angles to these, and terminated
by the figure, shall be to one another in if the three containing the one are
equal to the three containing the other,
the same ratio. Of such figures it may each to each, their dihedral angles are
be demonstrated— also equal, each to each—viz, those
1. That if any rectilineal figure what which are opposite to the equal plane
ever beinscribed in, or circumscribed angles . . - ... cor. 157
about the one, a similar rectilineal (e) Given the three plane º which
figure may be inscribed in, or cir contain a solid angle, to find any of
cumscribed about the other. (II.32) the dihedral angles by a plane con
2. That their areas are in the dupli struction - - 156
cate ratios (or as the squares) of (f) Given two of three plane angles con:
any two homologous lines, and their taining a solid angle, and the dihedral
perimeters as those lines. (II. 28.) angle which they contain, to find the
Again, according to this definition, third plane angle, and the other two
solid figures will be similar, when a dihedral angles by a plane construç,
point may be found in each, and two tion - - . cor. 157
straight lines drawn from each of those (g) Every solid angle is measured by
points, in the same direction from one the spherical surface described about
another, such, that any two straight its angular point with a given radius,
lines which are drawn from the same
and included between its planes
points at equal angles to these, and sch. 203
terminated by the figure, shall be to one (h) The properties of solid angles are
another in the same ratio; and of such gous to those of spherical ..
analo
angles and polygons
figures it may be demonstrated— . sch. 203
1. That if any polyhedron whatever is See “Right Solid Angle.”
inscribed in, or circumscribed about
t. tion,
Solid conten
the one, a similar polyhedron may Solid of revolu is anyent.
See “Cont , , , ,is ge
solid which
be inscribed in, or circumscribed nerated by the revolution of a plane figure
about the other.
2. That their solid contents are in the about an axis in the same plane. t
(a) If an isosceles triangle revolve abou
triplicate ratio (or as the cubes) of an axis, which passes through its ſº.
any two homologous lines, and their tex, the convex surface generated by
convex surfaces in the duplicate the base is equal to the product of that
ratio (or as the squares) of those n
portio of the axis yº. i. ls
lines. (II. 28.)] cepted b ndiculars drawn

Similarly divided, straight lines said to be 57 . i. of the base, and
Similarly pſaced, straight lines said to be, in the circumference which has ſº *
similar figures - - - 57 radius the perpendicular drº" from
Simple locus. (See “Locus.”) . deſ: 107 jt, the base; and the sºlid
Small arc, in spherical geometry, is the arc of generated by the triangle is equal to
a small circle. one-third of the product of this º:
Small circle, of the sphere, deſ. (See “spheri. by the same perpendicular º' t
cal Geometry.”) . - . 184 (b) If any triangle revolve abou -º:
Solid . - - .. def. 1 axis, which passes through its . X,

Sohº. Geometry, is that part of geometry the solid generated by the triangle :
which treats of solid figures and lines in equal to one-third of the product .
... different planes. See “Polyhedron,” &c. the surface generated by the base, *
Solid angle, def: (also its “edges”) . 125 the perpen dicular drawn from 176
When said to be a right angle sch. 203 vertex to the base - e : 011
(a), If a solid angle is contained by (c) If the half of any regular polyg
three plane angles, any two of them sides revolve
of an even number ofe whole
st convex
are together greater than the third; about the diagonal, th ict of the
and any one is greater than the dif e isand
equal
ference of the other two - 137
surfacnal
diago thetocirc
the produ
ulº, O i.
(*) The plane angles, which contain any circles;which has the apothº *
solid angle, are together less than radiu and the whole solid ...;
four right angles .- 137 is equal to one-third of the produc
(c) If two solid angles are each of them this surfa ce and apother, Cone,”
thender,
cºnta ined by three plane angle and
s, See also “Cyli one,
if two of these and the included di.
hedral angle in the one, be equal to def: re.”
Sphere,“Sphe (also its “radius, *__. 72
and #
“ dia
twº, and the included dihedral angle

in the other, each to each; their other *t * »: -
y the revolution of *
- - - -
dihedral angles are equal, each to semicircle about its diameter

each, and the third plane angle of
the one is equal to the thi :d pl (A) of the whole Spherica’ Surface and
angle of the other . º i.;
(d) If two solid angles are each of them
-
(a) A sphere is greater, both * to Sur.
Content. -
contained by three Plane angles, and

face and content, than any inscribed cepted between the base of the cylin
solid of revolution, and less than any der and the plane of the base of the
circumscribed solid - . 177 zone, or (if double-based) between the
(b) Any sphere being given, a solid of planes of its two bases . cor. 181
revolution may be inscribed in it or (d) In the same, or in equal spheres, any
circumscribed about it, which shall two zones are to one another as the
differ from the sphere, in convex sur parts of the axis, or axes, which are
face, or in solid content, by less than intercepted between their respective
any given difference . cor. 177 bases . - . cor. 181
(c) The whole convex surface of a (e) Every spherical sector is equal to
sphere, one-third of the product of its base and
= the product of the circumference the radius of the sphere; and the
and diameter of the generating same may be said of every spherical
circle . - . 178 pyramid” . - . 181
= four times the area of the gene [(f) In the same, or in equal spheres,
rating circle cor. 178
-
any two sectors are to one another as
= r D*, if D is the diameter of the their bases; and the same may be
sphere . .- cor. 178 said of any two spherical pyramids]
= the convex surface (or two-thirds (g) Every spherical segment upon a sin
of the whole surface) of the cir gle base is equal to the half of a cylin
cumscribed cylinder cor. 178 der having the same base and the
(d) The whole solid content same altitude, together with a sphere
of which that altitude is the diameter
= one-third of the product of the 182
radius and surface . . 178
= one-third of the product of the (h) Every double-based spherical seg
radius and four times the area of ment is equal to the half of a cylinder
the generating circle . cor. 179 having the same altitude with the
= # ºr Dº, if D is the diameter of segment, and a base equal to the sum
the sphere . . cor. 179 of its two bases, together with a sphere
of which that altitude is the dia
= two-thirds of the content of the
circumscribed cylinder. cor. 179 meter - - . 182
(e) If a polyhedron be circumscribed (i) The solid generated by the revolu
about a sphere, the contents of the tion of any circular segment about a
sphere and polyhedron will be to one diameter of the semicircle is equal to
another as their convex surfaces ; ºr x G Kx FH"; G K being that
cor. 179 portion of the diameter which is inter
(f) The surfaces of any two spheres are cepted between two perpendiculars
as the squares of the radii, and their drawn to it from the extremities of the
solid contents are as the cubes of the segment, and FH the chord which is
radii - - . 179 the base of the segment cor. 182
(k) Every spherical orb is equal to the
(B) ofcertain portions of the Sphere. sum of three pyramids, having their
common altitude equal to the thickness
Spherical segment, sector, orb, ungula, of the orb, and their bases equal to
zone, lune -def. 179, 180 its exterior and interior surfaces, and
These portions are generated by the re a mean proportional between them 83
volution of certain portions of a circle 180
(*) If a semicircle revolve about its dia.
(1) Every spherical ungula, is to the
meter, the zone, which is generated by whole sphere as the angle between its
any arc of the semicircle, shall be planes to four right angles, and its
greater than the surface generated by lune, or convex surface is to the sur
the chord of that arc, andless than the face of the whole sphere in the same
surface generated by the tangent of ratio . - - . 183
the same arc which is drawn parallel (m) Every spherical ungula is equal to
to the chord, and terminated by the one-third of the product of the radius
radii passing through its extremities by its lune or convex surface cor. 184
180
(b) Every spherical zone is equal to the (n). In the same, or in equal spheres,
Product of the circumference of the any two ungulas are to one another
as the angles between their respective
§enerating circle and that portion of planes; and the same may be said of
the axis which is intercepted between any two lunes . . cor. 184
its convex surface and base, or (if it
be double-based) between its two
bases . 181
• A spherical pyramid is a spherical
contained by the surface of the solid figure which is
- -
triangle or
(c) If a cylinder having the same axispolygon, and the planes which pass through the
be circumscribed about the sphere, of the triangle or polygon; the polygon is calledsides
its
any Zone generated about that axis is base, and the centre of the sphere its vertex. Two
equal to that part of the convex sur spherical pyramids are said to be similar when their
face of the cylinder which is inter bases are similar triangles or polygons.
(o) similar zones and lunes, and also one another, which two make equal
the triangular or polygonal, surfaces angles upon . either side with. 193
shortest arc
th:
e
which are the bases of similar pyra (). If there betaken a point from which
mids, are as the squares of the radii;
and similar sectors, pyramids, seg there fall more than two equal sphe
ments, orbs, and ungulas, are as the rical arcs to the circumference of 4
circle, that point is one of the pole; of
cubes of the radii sch. 184, 207
... cor. 193
(k)theA circle
Spheres, intersection and contact of sch. 151 . -
great circle is equally. distant

Spherical Geometry, is that part of geometry from its two poles; a small circle not
which treats of figures and lines upon the SO - e ... cor. 187
surface of a sphere. (l) Great circles bisect One another:
Great and small circles, axis, poles, and [but no two small circles bisect one
polar distance of a circle, parallel ºil; another; neither can a small circle
cles, opposite points def. 184
Spherical arc, spherical angle (right, bisect
(m) Thea spherical
great circle] . . . is. drawn
arc which
acute, and obtuse), spherical triangle, from the pole of a great circle to any
polar triangle, spherical polygon def. point in its circumference, is a quº"
184, 185, 186 ărant, and is at right angles tº the
When two points are said to be joined circumference . 187e
on the surface of a sphere def. 184 (n) Great circles which are at right
When two triangles are said to be sym: angles to one another, P. each 0
metrical . - . deſ. 185 them through the poles of the other
When two triangles are said to be similar C07”.
sch. 207 o). If the perpendicular drawn from
[( * point º º great circle be a qua
(A) of great and small Circles. drant, that point is a pole of the great
(a) Every plane section of a sphere is a
circle. ircl
circle, the centre of which is either p) If, from a point to a great circle,
the centre of the sphere, or the foot there fall two spherical, ** each 0
of the perpendicular which is drawn which is a quadrant, that point is:
to its plane from the centre of the pole of the great circle : cor. 1
sphere . - - . 186
(b) The radius of a great circle is the
same with the radius of the sphere; (B) %
B) Of Spherical Angles. arcs ºy be pro:
X. two spherical
duced to meet one another in two
and the radius-square of a small circle
is less than the radius-square of the points which are opposite to ;
sphere by the square of the perpen another . • • *. d
dicular which is drawn to its plane
from the centre of the sphere cor. 186 (b)atIfthe
anysame
number of angles are º
point, tº sides, being
(c) Either pole of a circle of the sphere produced, shall pass through the OP
is equally distant from all points in posite point, [and there form aS i.
the circumference of that circle, whe
angles equal to the former respec º§
ther the direct or the spherical distance
be understood . - . 186 each to each] - an10 - i."
(c)measure
A spherical
with theangle th: .
hasangle
dihedral . lits
(d) Any circle of a sphere may be con planes, and with the plane * O
ceived to be described round either of
its poles as a centre, with the sphe
rical distance of that pole as a radius
the tangents at the angular r; 185
cor. 186
a) Every spherical ang” is measured
(e) The distances of any circle from its
two poles are together equal to a ( l, the łº arc which is º:
about the angular point as a Pº e, all
semicircumference . . cor. 187
included between its legs;
(f) Equal circles have equal polar dis
tances; and conversely . 187
equal to . º: distan
the poles of its legs : .
(g) Circles whose polar distances are (e) i. spherical angles which º,..
makes with another upon". Sl are
together equal to a semicircumference
are equal to one another cor. 187
it, are either two right angles *
(h) If a point be taken within a circle together equal to twº right angles an
which is not its pole, of all the sphe if two spherical arcs cut one les
rical arcs which can be drawn from other, the vertical or opposite *;
# to the circumference, the greatest is are equal
CO7°.
that in which the pole is, and the (g) *. spherical angles o -
about any
º, Part of that arc produced is the
*; and, of any others, that which
18 nearer to the greatest is al
the same
four oint are• togeth"
right angles º;
. cor.
greater than the ..
remote º
from the same point
poi there can be
drawn only two arcs that are equal to (C) (a)
of Spherical Triangle;
If one triangle be the polar triangle
of another, the latter shall likewise be eighth part of the surface of the
the polar triangle of the first ; and sphere º e e sch. 189
the sides of either triangle shall be
the supplements of the arcs which (D) Of the surface of Spherical Truangles.
measure the opposite angles of the (a) Spherical triangles which have the
other . - e . 188 three sides of the one equal to the
(b) In a spherical triangle, any two of the three sides of the other, each to each,
sides are together greater than the third have equal surfaces; whether the tri
side; and any side is greater than the angles are symmetrical or otherwise
difference of the other two . 189 - 194
(c) The three sides of a spherical tri (b) Every spherical triangle is equal to
angle (and, generally, all the sides of half the difference between the hemi
any spherical polygon) are together spherical surface and the sum of three
less than the circumference of a great lunes which have their angles respec
circle - e cor. 189 tively equal to the three angles of the
(d) In every spherical triangle, the sum triangle . • - 195
-
of the angles is greater than two and (c) Every spherical triangle is measured
less than six right angles ... 189 by the excess of the sum of its angles
(e) A spherical triangle may have two above two right angles . cor. 196
or three right angles, or two or three (d) A spherical triangle, whose angles
obtuse angles . cor. 189
-
are A, B, and C, is equal to a lune
(f) If a spherical triangle has two of whose angle is A +B+C — R, R.
its sides equal to one another, the op being a right angle cor. 196
posite angles are likewise equal, and
conversely . .
e 190
(e) Every spherical polygon is measured
(g) If one side of a spherical triangle by the excess of the sum of its angles
be greater than another, the opposite together with four right angles above
angle is greater than the angle oppo twice as many right angles as the
site to that other; and conversely 190 figure has sides . cor. 196
e
(h) If one side of a spherical triangle is (f) Spherical triangles which stand upon
produced, the exterior angle is less the same base, and between the same
than the sum of the two interior and
equal and parallel small circles, are
opposite angles; and the exterior angle equal to one another; and conversely,
is equal to or greater than, or less equal spherical triangles which stand
than either of the interior and oppo upon the same base, and upon the
site angles, according as the sum of same side of it, are between the same
the two sides not common to them is
equal and parallel small circles 198
equal to, or less than, or greater than (g) Of equal spherical triangles upon
a semicircumference . cor. 190
the same base, the isosceles has the
(i) Two spherical triangles have all their least perimeter; and of spherical tri
sides and angles equal, each to each, angles upon the same base, and
when they have, having the same perimeter, the isos
1. Two sides, and the included celes has the greatest area 199, 200
angle equal: (h) Of all spherical triangles which
or 2. Two angles and the interja have the same two sides, the greatest
cent side:
is that in which the angle included
or 3. The three sides: by them is equal to the sum of the
or 4. The three angles: other two angles & 200 -
Whether the equal parts be Of which triangle it may be re

in the same, or in reverse marked:—
orders . . 191, 192 1. The two sides are by less than a
(k). Of spherical triangles which have semicircumference, and the angle
the two sides of the one equal to the included by them is greater than
sides of the other, each to each, that a right angle.
which has the greater vertical angle 2. The difference between the lune
has the greater base; and conversely which has the same angle, and
193 the triangle, has always the
(*) In a right-angled spherical triangle, same surface, viz., a fourth of the
either of the two sides is of the same surface of the sphere sch. 201
affection with the opposite angle; and (i) A spherical polygon, which has all
the hypotenuse is equal to, or greater its sides equal, and all its angles
than, or less than a quadrant, accord equal, is greater than any other which
ing as one of the adjoining angles is a has the same number of sides and the
right angle, or these two angles are of same perimeter . sch. 201
-
the same or of different affections 194 (k) A spherical polygon, which has all
(m) The spherical triangle, whose three its angles lying in the circumference
sides are quadrants, coincides with its of a circle, is greater than any other
polar triangle, and is equal to an which has the same sides sch, 201
266 GEOMETRY,
[Index,
(1) A small circle of a sphere is greater (d) The square of 2M is 4M, of 3M is
than any spherical polygon having 9 M*, &c. , - cor. 18
the same perimeter - sch. 201
(e) The square of 5M is equal to the
(m) The lunular surface, included by a square of 4M together with the square
small arc and a spherical arc, is of 3 M - - . cor. 18
greater than any other surface, having (f) Squares are to one another in the
the same perimeter, of which the same duplicate ratio of their sides cor.63
spherical arc is part . sch. 201
(g) The squares of proportional straight
lines are proportionals . cor. 63
(E) Problems upon the Surface of a Sphere. (h) To describe a square,
(a) To find the diameter of a given 1. Upon a given straightline 28
sphere; and, hence the quadrant of a 2. Which shall be equal to a given
great circle - - 203 -
rectangle, or other rectilineal
(b) Any point being given, to find the figure - . 30 -
opposite point - - 204 3. Which shall be equal to the dif.

(c) To join two given points . 204 ference of two given squares, or
(d) Any spherical arc being given, to other rectilineal figures .. 30
produce it, and complete the great 4. Which shall be equal to the sum
cil cle, of which it is a part cor. 204 of two or more given squares, or
{} To bisect a given spherical arc 204
f) To draw a perpendicular to a given
other rectilineal figures 30
See “Rectangle,” “Straight Line,”
spherical arc-— and “Circle.”
1. From a given point in the arc Straight Line - - - def. 1
204
When said to be perpendicular to another
2. From a given point without it straight line - 2
205 When parallel . . . 2
(g) Tobisect a given spherical angle 205
(h) At a given point, in a given arc, to (A) (a) Straight lines which pass through
make a spherical angle equal to a the same two points lie in the same
given spherical angle 205 straight line .
-
. . . ar. 4 -
(i) To circumscribe a circle about a given (b) If at a point in a straight line two
spherical triangle, or (which is the other straight lines upon opposite siles
same) to describe a circle through of it make the adjacent angles to
three given points 205 gether equal to two right angles,
-
(k) To i. the poles of a given circle these two straight lines shall be in
cor. 205 one and the same straight line 5
(/). Through two given points and a A straight
(c)tance the shortest dis;
line ispoints
third (not lying in the circumference between two sch. 8 .
of a great circle) to describe two equal (d) A perpendicular may be drawn to a
and parallel small circles . 205
given straight line from any glyºu
(m). To describe a spherical triangle point, whether without or in the
which shall be equal to a given sphe straightline; but from the same point
rical polygon, and shall have a side there cannot be drawn more than one
and adjacent angle the same with a perpendicular to the same *
given side and adjacent angle of the line . - - -
polygon . - 206
- -
(e) From a point to a straight line, the
(n). Two spherical arcs being given, perpendicular is the shortest distance,
which are together less than a semi and of other straight lines which are
circumference; to place them so, that drawn from the same point, such as
with a third not given they may con are equal to one another are at equal
tain the greatest surface possible, 206 distances from the foot of the perpell"
(o) Through a given point to describe a dicular, and conversely; and the greater
great circle which shall touch two is always further from the perpendi.
given equal and parallel small circles cular, and conversely . * 10
206
(p) To inscribe a circle in a given sphe (B) Of Angles made by Straight Line:
rical triangle, or (which is the same) (a) The adjacent angles, made by *.
to describe a circle touching three straight line with another upon º
given spherical arcs - 207 side of it, are, together, equal to *:
right angles - -
Square, def: (also “Square of a straight (b) if two straight limes cut one another,
line A B*) . ... 2
- the vertical or opposite angles *
(a) A square has all its sides equal and equal • . . " *
all its angles right angles cor. 16 (c) All the angles which, are º
[(b) Its diagonals are equal and bisect upon one side of a straight line att .
one another at right angles.] same point of it, are, together, *
(c) The squares of equal lines are equal; to two right angles - cor. t
and conversely . cor. 17
-
All the angles about the same Pº"
º Index.] GEOMETRY. 267
are, together, equal to four right an (n) If two (or more) parallels are cut by
gles - - cor. 5 any number of straight lines, which
(e) Angles, which have the sides of the pass through the same point, they shall
one parallel, or perpendicular, or be similarly divided; and, if two pa
equally inclined to the sides of the rallels are similarly divided, the
other, in the same order, are equal 14 straight lines which join the corre
sponding points of division, pass, or
(C) Of parallel Straight Lines. may be produced to pass, all of them
Difficulty in the theory . sch. 11 through the same point 58 -
(a) Straight lines which are perpendicu (0) If the legs of an angle cut two
lar to the same straight line are pa parallel straight lines, the intercepted
rallel; and conversely 11 - parts of the parallels shall be to one
(b) A parallel to a given straight line another as the parts which they cut off
may be drawn through any given from either of the legs . cor. 59
point without it; but through the
same point there cannot be drawn (C) Of Straight Lines, which are not in the
more than one parallel to the same same plane.
given straight line cor. ll (a) Straight lines, to which the same
(c) Straight lines which make equal straight line is parallel, although not
angles with the same straight line in one plane with it, are parallel to
towards the same parts are parallel; one another . - - 130
t
-
(d)andIf conversely .
a straight line falls upon two
- 12 e
(b) The shortest distance of two straight
lines, which are not in the same plane,
other straight lines, so as to make the is a straight line, which is at right
- alternate angles equal to one another, angles to each of them, and is equal
| or the exterior angle equal to the to the perpendicular which is drawn
interior and opposite upon the same from the vertex to the hypotenuse of a
side, or the two interior angles upon the right-angled triangle, whose sides are
same side together equal to two right the perpendiculars drawn to one of the
angles, those two straight lines are straight lines from the two points in
parallel A. e - cor. 13 which the other is cut by any two
(e). And conversely, if a straight line planes passing through the first at
falls upon two parallel straight lines, right angles to one another cor. 155
it makes the alternate angles equal to
one another, the exterior angle equal (D) Rectangles under the parts of divided
to the interior, and opposite upon the Lines, II. § 5 19, 20- - -
same The theorems of which section are briefly

ſº upon side, and the
the same sidetwo interiorequal
together angles
to expressed as follows:–
- two right angles cor. 13
e
(a) Aºtor D) = A B + A C
º (f) If a straight line falls upon two
º
ſº
other straight lines, so as to make the
two interior angles upon the same (b)'(A +B) x B = AB+ B.
(c) (A+B) = A*-H Bº 4-2. A B.
side together less than two right (d) (A – B)” = A + Bº – 2 A. B.
º angles, those two straight lines are (e) (A + B)” – (A – B) = 4 A. B.
- not parallel, but may be produced to (f) ºf by + (A – B)* = 2 (A*
meet one another upon that side
º: - cor. 13 (g)'(A + B) × (A – B) = A*-B.
º (g) Straight lines, to which the same
ſ: straight line is parallel, are parallel to (E) Of Straight Lines which are propor
one another - - • 13 tionals.
(h) Parallel straight lines are every (a) If four straight lines are propor
where equidistant - • 13 tionals, the rectangle under the ex
| (3) Parallel straight lines intercept equal
parts of parallel straight lines cor. 13
tremes is equal to the rectangle under
the means; and conversely, if two
(k) The straight lines which join the rectangles are equal to one another,
extremities of equal and parallel their sides are proportionals, the sides
straight lines towards the same parts, of the one being extremes, and the
g are equal and parallel . 15 sides of the other means - 63
: (). If two straight lines, which pass (b) If A, B are two straight lines, and
º through the same point, are cut by A, B other two, the rectangle Ax A^
; two parallel straight lines, their parts shall be to the rectangle BxB in the
- terminated in that point shall be pro ratio which is compounded of the
: portional . - e - 57 ratios of A to B and A’ to B' 63
(m). If two (or more), straight lines (c) If A, B and A', B' are proportionals,
which pass through the same point, AXA is to B XB' as A* to B* cor. 63
are cut by any number of parallel (d) If A, B, C are proportionals, A is to
C as A2 to B2 . cor. 63
straight lines, they shall be similarly -
divided by them . • cor. 58 (e) If A, B, C, D, and also A', B', C.,

GEOMETRY. [Index,
D', are proportionals, the rectangles vertex through the middle point of the
A 'Sº Aº, B & B', C × C', and D × D’ base, and the straight line which is
are also proportionals . cor. 63 drawn through the vertex parallel to
(f) The squares of proportional straight the base are harmonicals cor. 70
lines are proportionals; and con (i) The two sides of a triangle, and the
versely . - . cor. 63 lines which bisect the vertical and
(g) If A, B are two straightlines, A, B exterior vertical angles, are harmoni
other two, and A", B" other two, the cals • º . cor. 71
rectangular parallelopipeds A x A"
× A", BxB x B" shall be to one ano (G). Problems relating to Straight Lines.
ther in the ratio which is compounded (a) Through a given point to draw a
of the ratios of A to B, A’ to B", and straight line—
A” to B^* . - . 143
1. Perpendicular to a given straight
[(h) If the ratios of A to B.A. to B', and line; several methods 24, 25
” to B" are all equal, A x A" × A" 2. Parallel to a given straight line
is to B. × B x B." as A* to B*.] 26
[(i) If A, B, C, D are in continued pro When many parallels are to be
portion, A is to D as A* to B*.] drawn, See II, 49.
[(#) If A, B, C, D, and also A', B, C, D', 3. Which shall pass through a point
and also A", B", C", D", are propor which is the point of concourse
tionals, the rectangular parallelopipeds of two given straight lines, but is
A X A' x A", B. × B x B", C X Cº without the limits of the draught
× C”, D X D’ x D'", are also propor (See “Centrolinead.”) 75
tionals.] 4. So that its parts intercepted by
(l) The cubes of proportional straight two given straight lines shall be
lines are proportionals ; and con to one another in a given ratio
versely . 144 - e
74
5. Which shall form with the parts
(F) of Straight Lines harmonically divided. cut off by it from two given
(a) If A B, A C, AD are harmonical straight lines a triangle equal tº
progressionals in the same straight a given triangle 77
line, and A B the least, DC, DB, DA (b) To divide a given straightline
shall likewise be harmonical progres 1. Into two or more equal parts 26
sionals . • - e
- 2. straight
Similarlylineto a given divided
(b) The same being supposed, and the - 71 e
mean A C being bisected in K, KB, 3. In extreme and mean ratio 7%

K C, K D are proportionals; and, 4. In any given ratio 2 -
conversely, if KB, KC, KD are pro 5. So that the rectangle under the
portionals, and if K.A. is taken in the parts shall be
opposite direction equal to KC, AB, rectangle . equal to a givº 72 e
AC, AD shall be in harmonical pro

gression : e 68 - - (c) To produce a given straight line
(c) The same being supposed, DA, DK, 1. in a given ratio . . 72
2. So that the rectangle under the
D B, D C are proportionals . . 69
whole line produced and the part
(d) The harmonical mean between two produced shall beequalto. a gº;
straight lines is a third proportional rectangle . e 72
to the arithmetical and geometrical
meanS º • • cor. 69 (d) To find a straight line,
1. Which shall be a mean propº.
(e) If any four straight lines, pass tional between two given straigh;
through the same point, and lie in the lines . • .” . . 71
same plane, to whichsoever of the four 2. Which shall be a third prºpo.
a parallel is drawn, its parts intercepted tional to two given straight º
by the other three shall be to one an:
other in the same ratio 70
(f) If a parallel is drawn to any ºne of 3. Which shall be a fourth propº.
four harmonicals, equal parts of such tional to three given straigº
lines . e 71 e e
parallel are intercepted by the other 4. Which shall be an harmonical

three; and, conversely, if four straight mean between two given *;
lines pass through the same point, liues . t " ... . .
and if a parallel drawn to one of them 5. Which shall be a third harmo
has equal parts of it intercepted by nical progressional to two gº;
the other three, the four are harmor
nicals - - e cor. 70 straight lines . . . . . .7%
(6) Harmonicals divide every straight 6.To which a given straight inº
A shall have the ratio, which is
fine, which is cut by them, harmoni compounded of the give. ratios
cally e - • . . . 70 of A to B, A2 to B2, Asto Ba, and
(h)straight
The twoline sides
whichofis adrawn
triangle, the
from the
A4 to B4 º •* e 75
(e) To find two straightlines, there being tour upon the other side, in the same per
given the pendicular to the line (or plane), and at the
l. Sum, and difference. same distance from it.
2. Sum of squares, and difference Synthesis, geometrical. See “Analysis.”
of squares.
3. Sum, and sum of squares. Tangent, of any curve. See “Touch.”
4. Difference, and sum of squares. No straight line can be drawn be
5. Sum, and difference of squares. tween a curve and its tangent, from
6. Difference, and difference of the point of contact, so as not to cut
the curve - - . sch, 212
squares.
7. Ratio, and rectangle. Tangent of a circle. (See “Circle.”) def.
8. Sum, and ratio. Tangent of a conic section. See “Conic Sec
9. Difference, and ratio. tion.”
10. Sum, and rectangle. Tangent plane. See “Touch.”
11. Difference, and rectangle. Terms of a ratio. (See “Numerical Ratio.”)
12. Sum of squares, and ratio. deſ. 32
13. Difference of squares, and ratio. Tetrahedron, or triangular pyramid def. 126
14. Sum of squares, and rectangle. (a) Is contained by the least number of
15. Difference of squares, and rect faces possible—viz. four . 126
angle - 123
- e (b) Is equal to one-sixth of a parallelo
(f) To draw the shortest distance be piped, which has three of its edges
tween two given straight lines which coincident with, and equal to, three
do not lie in the same plane . 154 edges of the tetrahedron cor. 147
Subcontrary section of an oblique cone 229 (c) To inscribe a sphere within a given
tetrahedron . 156
- of an oblique cylinder - -
232 (d) To circumscribe a sphere about a

Subduplicate, omeratio said to be of another 34 given tetrahedron ,. 156
Subtriplicate, one ratio said to be of anothe Regular. See “Regular Polyhedron.”
34 Third proportional (see “Straight Line” def.33
Supplement, or supplementary, one angle said Third harmonical progressional def: 68
to be of another . tº- - note 5 [Touch; (a) a straight line is said to touch a
Supplementary triangle, a name sometimes curve in any point, when it meets, but does
given to the polar triangle . mote 18S not cut the curve, in that point”. Such a
Surface, (See “Convex,” “Plane.”) deſ: 1 line is called a tangent.
Surface of revolution, is the surface of a solid (b) One curve is said to touch another
of revolution. See “Solid of Revolution.” in any point when they have the
Symmetrical, spherical triangles said to be same tangent at that point.
185 (c) A plane is said to touch a curved
[Symmetrical. Any two solids are said to be surface in any point or line, when it
symmetrical, when they can be placed upon meets, but does not cut, the surface in
the two sides of a plane, so that for every that point or line: such a plane is
point in the surface of the one, there is a called a tangent-plane, and the point or
Point in the surface of the other, in the line in which it touches the surface, is
same perpendicular to the plane, and at the called the point or line of contact.
same distance from it; also, the solids, (d) One curved surface is said to touch
when so placed, are said to be symmetri another in any point or line, when they
ca'ſ situated, with regard to the piane". have the same tangent plane at that
Of such solids it may be demonstrated— point or at every point of that line.
l. That if any polyhedron what (e) The following examples may be
ever be inscribed in, or circum given of the contact of surfaces—
scribed about the one, a polyhe 1. A plane touches
dron symmetrical with it may be The surface of a sphere in a point,
inscribed in, or circumscribed the convex surface of a cylinder
about the other. -
in a straight line which is parallel
2. That they are equal to one an to the axis, the convex surface of
a cone in a slant side.
other, and have equal surfaces.]
Symmetrically divided ; a plane (or solid) 2. A spherical surface touches
figure is said to be symmetrically divided Aspherical surface, whether exter
by a straight line (or plane), when, for nally or internally, in a point; the
every point in the contour of the figure convex surface of a cylinder or
which is upon one side of that line (or
Plane), there is another point in the con * Some curves are of a winding or serpentine
T--
form, having the curvature or bending now towards
the one side, now towards the other. In such curves,
* According to a similar description, it is evident there are always one or more points of contrary
that two plane figures may be said to be symmetri flexure, i. e. points where the curvature which had
“ºl.ºl symmetrically situated with regard to a before been towards one side changes to the other
Straight line which is in the same plane with them ; side. Through such points no straight line can be
but such figures are also similar, and may be made drawn so as not to cut the curve : every other point,
ººids, which is not the case with symmetrical however, admits of a straight line being drawn,
S. which meets and does not cut the curve in that point.
270 GEOMETRY. [Index. de:
come externally in a point, inter (k). If one side of a triangle be greater

mally in one of two points or in than another, the opposite angle shall
the circumference of a circle.] likewise be greater than the angle
Transverse aris, of an ellipse or hyperbola, opposite to that other; and con
def: 217 verselv . 7
Trapezoid, (also its “Altitude”) . . def: 2 (1) Any two of the sides are together
(a) Is equal to the rectangle under its greater than the third side, and any
altitude, and half the sum of its pa side is greater than the difference of
rallel sides - - - 17 the other two - - 8
[(b) Half the sum of the parallel sides of (m) If two triangles stand upon the
a trapezoid is equal to the straight line same base, and if the vertex of the one
which joins the middle points of the falls within or upon a side of the other,
other two sides.] that triangle has a less perimeter than
the other cor. 8
Triangle, rectilineal (also its “Vertex,” (n). Of triangles which have the two
“Sides,” “Base”). - . def: 2
When said to be equilateral, isosceles, sides of the one equal to the two sides
scalene - - - of the other, each to each, that which
When said to be right-angled, oblique has the greater vertical angle has the
angled, obtuse-angled, acute-angled 2 greater º and conversely . 9
(o) The three angles of a triangle are
(A) Of the first Properties, and of Triangles together equal to two right angles;
which are equal in all respects. and if one of the sides be produced,
(a) Any one of the angles of a triangle the exterior angle is equal to the two
is less than two right angles cor. 5 interior and opposite angles . 14
(b) Triangles which have two sides and (p) In a right angled triangle
the included angle of the one equal to 1. One of the angles, viz. the right
two sides, and the included angle of angle, is equal to the sum of the
the other, each to each, are equal in other two - cor. 14- *
all respects - - .. 5 2. The straight line which joins

(c) Triangles which have two angles one of the angles, viz. the right
and the interjacent side of the one angle, with the middle point ºf
equal to two angles and the interja the opposite side is equal tº half
cent side of the other, each to each, that side; and conversely, if a tri
are equal in all respects . .. 6 angle has either of these prope.
(d) If one side of a triangle be equal to ties, it is a rightangled triangle
cor. 14
another, the opposite angle is likewise
equal to the angle opposite to the Any two triangles are equal to one
other; and conversely 6 - º
[º. in all . when they have
(e) In an isosceles triangle, 1. Two sides and the included angle
1. The angles at the base are equal included
equaloftothe
of the sneangle and
sideseach
twoother,
to one another; and if the equal
sides are produced, the angles to each (b). - - -
upon the other side of the base 2. Two angles and the interjacent
are likewise equal . cor. 6 side (c).
2. The following lines, viz. the line 3. The three sides (f). -
which bisects the vertical angle, 4. Two angles, and a side opposite
to one of them . cor. 1
the line which is drawn from the
vertex to the middle point of the 5. An angle of the one equal tº an
base, and the line which is drawn angle . the other, and the sides
about two other angles, each to
from the vertex perpendicular to each, and the remaining angles
the base, coincide with one ano of the same affection, or ºº of
ther . - - cor. 7
3. The straight line which bisects
them a right angle (see II.33.)]
the base at right angles passes
(r) Two right-angled triangles” equal
to one another in all respects, when
through the vertex, and bisects they have
the vertical angle . cor. 7
i. The hypotenuse and a side of -
(f) Triangles which have the three the one equal to the hypotenuº
sides of the one equal to the three and a side of the other, each to
sides of the other, each to each, are
each . - . 10
equal in all respects -
2. The hypotenuse and an acute
(g) Any two angles of a triangle are
together less than two right angles 7 angle . - - 10
(h) A triangle cannot have more than 3. The two sides (I, 4) . .
one right angle, or more than one
4. A side and the adjoining acute
obtuse angle cor. 7 angle (I. 5. -
-
(i) If oneside of a trianglebe produced,

-
5. º * the opposite acute

the exterior angle is greater than angle (Í. 19. and ſº triangles,
right-angled 4.)
the
(s) If in two
either of the interior and opposite hypotenuse of the one is equal to the
angles - cor. 7
—mm
[Index Index.] GEOMETRY. 271
nº ſºlº hypotenuse of the other, but a side exterior vertical angle be bisected by
site alſº shal of the one greater than a side of the a straight line which cuts the base, or
ºn the alſº other; the angle which is opposite to the base produced, the base or base
itſ; all tº the side of the first shall be greater produced shall be divided in the ratio
than the angle which is opposite to of the sides: also the square of the
the side of the other ... lem. 131 bisecting line shall be equal to the
es º tº:
lsile, all aſ . difference of the rectangles under the
he iſºlº ſi (B) Of the mutual Relations of the Sides. sides and the segments of the base,
| (a) In a right-angled triangle, the or base produced . e 70, 89
gul y tº square of the hypotenuse is equal to (i) In every triangle, if the base is
tº fileſ; the squares of the two sides . , 21 equally produced both ways, so that
sº field (b) In every triangle, the square of the the base produced is a third propor
side which is opposite to a given angle tional to the base and sum of the
jºintſ: th|
ºf: is greater or less than the squares of sides, the sides of the triangle are to
the sides containing that angle, by one another as the corresponding seg
we it iſ . -
twice the rectangle contained by ments of the base produced sch. 64

tº the lºss either of these sides, and that part of (k) In every triangle, if the base is
ºlitiº it which is intercepted between the equally reduced both ways, so that
al alſº hsil:
perpendicular, let fall upon it from the base reduced is a third proportional
ſtºl, the opposite angle, and the acute to the base and the difference of the
rift ſº angle; greater if the given angle is sides, the sides of the triangle are to
nº ſº. greater than a right angle, and less one another as the corresponding seg
sº gºal if it is less e - . 22 ments of the base reduced sch. 65
ºult) the tº
(c) Any angle of a triangle is equal to or (1) In an isosceles triangle, if the equal
s -
greater or less than a right angle, angles are each of them double of the
uſ- . according as the square of the opposite vertical angle, the sides and base are
º side is equal to or greater or less than in extreme and mean ratio. See
the squares of the containing sides ** Errata.”
cor. 21, 22
, ºft (d) In every triangle, if a perpendicular (C) of the Area of a Triangle, and of Trian
º
º, it. be drawn from the vertex to the base, gles which are not equal in all respects.
º the difference of the squares of the (a)stand
If aupon
triangle andbase,
a parallelogram
sides is equal to the difference of the the same and between
squares of the segments of the base, the same parallels, the parallelogram
i. e. the base is to the sum of the is double of the triangle e 17
sides as the difference of the sides (b) Every triangle is equal to the half of
to the difference of the segments of a rectangle which has the same base
the base or sum of the segments of and the same altitude; i.e. to half the
the base produced e . 22 product of its base and altitudecor.
* 17
(e) In a right-angled triangle, if a per
pendicular be drawn from the right
* When the sides of a triangle are given, its area.
angle to the hypotenuse, the square of may be directly computed from the following theo
the perpendicular is equal to the rect
angle under the segments of the hypo “ºry triangle is a mean proportional between two
rectangles, the sides of which are equal to the semi
tenuse, and the square of either side perimeter of the triangle and the excesses of the
is equal to the rectangle under the semiperimeter above the three sides.
hypotenuse and the segment adjoining Tº demonstration of this is briefly as follows:-
to it; i. e. the perpendicular is a Let a circle be described within the triangle A B.G.,
mean proportional between the seg A. and a circle upon the other side
of B C, the one touching B C, AC,
ments of the hypotenuse, and either and A B, in the points D, E, F,
side is a mean proportional between and the other B C and A.C.A.B
the hypotenuse and the segment ad produced in the points G, H, K :
joining to it cor. 21 and 61 then the centres L., M. of these
circles lie in the straight line
(f) In an isosceles triangle, if a straight which bisects the angle at A, and
line is drawn from the vertex to any if B L, B M be joined, the angle
I, B M will be a right angle, be
point in the base, or in the base pro cause it is half the sun of the
duced, the square of that straight line angles A B C, 9 B K; also, be
shall be less or greater than the square cause A K and A H are toge
of the side by the rectangle under the ther equal to A B, BG and A C,
C G, that is to the perimeter of
segments of the base, or of the base M
j the triangle A B C, each of then
roduced * - * . 23 is equal to "º.
o; In every triangle, the squares of the :.
in, because
equal Fto BEQ,
andand Hº
B KC(##, PP §
ºf#". C
two sides are together double of the
squares of half the base, and of the §. º.º.º.º.º..."; }; Insequen 3.
straight line which is drawn from the #º: § H, . º to E.C.A.F. ..".

semiperimeter, B K is the i. *: .
vertex to the middle point of the *: sidethe
is
A B, B F the excess above the side , all
A F the excess above the side B C,
(h) In every triangle, if the vertical or
272 GEOMETRY.
[Index.
(c) Triangles which stand upon the same. ters, the isosceles has the greatest area
or upon equal bases, and between the 9
same parallels, are equal to one ano (D) Problems relating to the Triangle. 9
ther . - . . . . .'; 17 (a) To describe a triangle, when there
(d) Triangles which have equal altitudes are given— -
are,to one another as their bases, and 1. Two sides and theincluded angle,
triangles which have equal bases, as 2. Two sides, and an angle opposite
their altitudes; also any two triangles to one of them.
are to one another in the ratio, which 3. side.
Two angles and the interjacent
is compounded of the ratios of their - -
bases and altitudes . . 65, 66

(e) Triangles which have one angle of 4. toTwo angles and a side opposite
one of them.
the one equal to one angle of the 5. The three sides . . . 27
other are to another in the ratio, which (b) To describe a triangle, when there
is compounded of the ratios of the are given the
sides about the equal angles, or as the 1. Wertical angle, base, and sum (or
rectangles under those sides . 66 difference) of the two sides.
(f) Triangles which have one angle of 2. Vertical angle, base, and area.
the one equal to one angle of the other, 3. Vertical angle, sum (or differ.
and the sides about the equal angles ence) of sides and area.
reciprocally proportional, are equal to 4. Base, sum (or difference) ofsides
one another; and, conversely, equal and area - • .
triangles, which have one angle of the (c) To describe a triangle—

one equal to one angle of the other, 1. Which shall be equal to a given
have the sides about the equal angles rectilineal figure, and have a side
reciprocally proportional . . 66
and adjoining angle the same
(g). Two triangles are similar, when with a given side, and adjoining
they have angle of the figure . . 28
1. The three angles of the one 2. Which shall be equiangular with
equal to the three angles of the a given triangle, and have a given
other, each to each . . 59
perimeter [or area . 28
or 2. The three sides of the one pro 3. Which shall have for two of its
portional to the three sides of the sides the parts which are cut off
other - - . 59
by the third side from two straight
or 3. One angle of the one equal to lines given in position, and the
one angle of the other, and the third passing through a given
sides about the equal angles pro point e . . 77 *
portionals º . 60 (d) To describe a right-angled triangle

or 4. One angle of the one equal to which shall have its three sides pro
one angle of the other, and the portionals . . . . 74
sides about two other angles see & Circle.”
proportionals, and the remaining
angles of the same affection, or Triplicate, one ratio said to be of another 34
one of them a right angle 61 Trisection of an arc or angle, under what
(h) Similar triangles are to one another form the problem has been put . 113
in the duplicate ratio (or as the
squares) of their homologous sides 67 Undecagon. See “Hendecagon.”
(). Of all triangles having the same Ungula. See “Sphere.” -
two sides, that one has the greatest Unit of length, or linear unit, is any arbitrary
area, in which the angle contained by straight line, as an inch, a foot. -
the two sides is a right angle . 103 —of surface, is the square of the linear
(k) Oftriangles which have equal bases, unit . sch. 18
• - -
and equal areas, the isosceles has the —of content, is the cube of the linear unit
sch. 142
least perimeter; and of triangles
having equal bases and equal perime Pariation, a short form of expressing certain
proportions - c . sch. 62
Now the area of the triangle A B C is equal to Pºrter of a triangle 2, polyhedron 126,
LF x A K, for it is equal to half the rectangle pyramid 127, come 267. -
under the radius L. F of the inscribed circle, and

the sum 2 A K of the three sides (I, 26. cor.); also
—of the diameter of a conic section %
B F x B K is equal to L.F. x M K, because, L.B. M —a term in perspective projection 208
being a right angle, the right-angled triangles B F L, —of a comic section . . • 2;
M K B are similar: but A K x A F : A K x FI. Pertical plane, in perspective projection 30:
; : A F_i FL, i. e. : : A K : KM, i. e. : : A K x Pertical angle, of a triangle. See “Triangle.
FL : K M × F L : therefore A K X F L is a mean
proportional between A K x A F and K M × F L or Polume. See “Content.”
B pº BK, that is (if a, b, c represent the three
sides opposite to the angles A, B, C respectively and Wedge, spherical. See “Sphere.”
S the half of (a+b+c) the area of the triangle is a
mean proportional between Sx (S -a) and (S – b)
x (S-c). | Zone, spherical. See “Sphere.”
|||
shºgulsº
|
* Trini.
lºgº, whº
theidiºiſ.
damageſ:
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14 DAY USE
RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED
LOAN DEPT.
This book is due on the last date stamped below, or
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º APR 5 1961
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General Library
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(B6221s10) 47.6B Univer;ºnoram
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
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The Study of Mathematics Elements of Tri

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The Study of Mathematics Elements of Tri

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This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized

by Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the

UNIVERSITY OF CAL FOR NIA. .

| Accessions -\'o. 2.J U-2/ She/ Yo, ---

PUBLISHED UNDER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE SOCIETY

according to the geometrical definition of an angle, be greater than the

the angle (;-A) is called the complement of A,

the arc †— a . . . complement of 2,

and (II – 2 ) . supplement of 2.

3' 14159. . . 4".

values of a and r, and not at all on their numerical values. It is mani

reduced to its lowest terms, be necessarily the same.

as we have seen, the numerical multipliers of --

(7.) The simplest relation, however, between the quantities in ques

in which case we must have

In such cases it must be carefully recollected that A represents the nume

(9) Having given thenumerical value (N*) of a proposed angle when

Similarly, if N' denote the number of seconds in the angle, and an

Ex. l. To find the length of an are subtending an angle of one degree.

The division of the circumference of a circle, which we have noticed,

and 2* = − = .0002 of a degree

Definitions of certain functions of an Angle, and of the Arc subtending

The ratio of unity to the cosine of an angle is denominated the secant ;

(14.) In the triangle CMP, we have

(Sin. A)*-i- (cos. A)* = 1

MT- (sin. A),

Vers. sin. A = 1 — cos. A

_ (cos. A) + (sin. A)*

cosec. A = V 1 + (cot. A)*

the radius of that are.

Having a figure A C P as above, complete

(17.) If we denote the length of the arc A P subtending the angle A,

(18.) Hence, if we have *Y formulae expressing the relation between *

Vers, a . 1 —90s. "

... Wers. a = r — cos. 2.

... cos a = V rº-sin.” a

. Again, let A B be two angles, a 3 their subtending ares;

r sin. (a + 3) = sin. a cos. 8 + cos. a. sin. 3

With this supposition, then, as to the value of the radius, it appears

with this understanding or convention ; –.

C, along CA; and any line, as MP, per

... a – Ms P, . cos. As = – CM, .

(23) Again, if a., as be the arcs subtending A, As, &c. -

Sin, a1 = Mi Pl; cos, a, - —C MI

by means of those of the sines and cosines; according to the relations

pendicular to A C, and the cotangents from B,

tangent of A P, and since AT, the tangent of

in such a number of cases of important elementary formulae as justifies

(25) The following formulae, involving B

Take the angles DCP, DCP, ACP/o /

Let A represent the numerical value of

rical value of a right angle.* -

It is manifest that any trigonometrical function of the angle A, sub

Sin, A = GP= . §: f º + A}by the same rule,

or generally sin. A = sin. (2n + + A); n being any whole number in

Or generally sin, A = sin, (2n + 1.7 - A).

And generally sin. A

(27.) Sin. A = GF = GF = cos. (DCP) = *(; A)

Tan. A sin. A sin. (T - A)

Section 2.] TRIGONOMETRY. 21 || ||

(32) Again, taking the negative angle A CP" = – A, we have

... tan, ( – A) = — tan. A ; cot. (– A) = — cot. A

Trigonometrical Functions of the Sum and Difference of two Angles.—

(34.) To find the sine of the sum or dif- 6.

(Sin. A)-i- (cos. A) = 1

(18.) Hence, if we have Y formulae expressing the relation between

= (sin. A). (cos. B)” – (cos.,A) (sin. B)”

co, b + co, A = 2 cº, .co.” " |