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Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by B. Crowell and V. Roundy. This lab manual is subject to the Open Publication
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manual. The lab manual is available for downloading from www.lightandmatter.com, and a copy of the
Open Publication License is also available at opencontent.org.
2
Contents
1 Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3 Free Fall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4 The Earth’s Gravitational Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5 Newton’s Second Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6 Air Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
7 Vector Addition of Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
8 Vector Addition of Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
9 Acceleration In Two Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
10 Conservation Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
11 Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
12 Conservation of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
13 Conservation of Momentum in Two Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
14 Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
15 The Moment of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
16 Absolute Zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
17 The Clement-Desormes Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
18 The Pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
19 Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
20 Resonance (short version) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
21 Standing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
22 Resonances of Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
23 Static Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
24 The Oscilloscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
25 The Speed of Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
26 Electrical Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
27 The Loop and Junction Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
28 Electric Fields and Voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
29 The Dipole Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
30 Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
31 The Earth’s Magnetic Field (Physics 222) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
32 Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
33 The Charge to Mass Ratio of the Electron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
34 Energy in Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
35 RC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
36 LRC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
37 Faraday’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
38 Electromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
39 Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
40 Refraction and Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
41 Geometric Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
42 Two-Source Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
43 Wave Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
44 Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
45 The Photoelectric Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
46 Electron Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
47 The Hydrogen Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
48 The Michelson Interferometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Contents 3
Appendix ??: Format of Lab Writeups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Appendix ??: Basic Error Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Appendix ??: Propagation of Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Appendix ??: Graphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Appendix ??: Finding Power Laws from Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Appendix ??: Using the Photogate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Appendix ??: Using a Multimeter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Appendix ??: High Voltage Safety Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Appendix ??: Laser Safety Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Appendix ??: The Open Publication License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
4 Contents
Contents 5
1 Interactions
Apparatus ball being pushed outlines two relationships involv-
ing four objects:
single neodymium magnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
triple neodymium magnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
compass
triple-arm balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/group
clamp and 50-cm vertical rod for holding balance up
string
tape
scissors
According to Aristotle, there are asymmetries in-
heavy-duty spring scales
volved in both situations.
rubber stoppers
(1) The earth’s role is not interchangeable with that
of the rock. The earth functions only as a place
where the rock tends to go, while the rock is an
Goal object that moves from one place to another.
Form hypotheses about interactions and test them. (2) The hand’s role is not analogous to the ball’s.
The hand is capable of motion all by itself, but the
ball can’t move without receiving the ability to move
Introduction from the hand.
Why does a rock fall if you drop it? The ancient If we do an experiment that shows these types of
Greek philosopher Aristotle theorized that it was be- asymmetries, then Aristotle’s theory is supported.
cause the rock was trying to get to its natural place, If we find a more symmetric situation, then there’s
in contact with the earth. Why does a ball roll if you something wrong with Aristotle’s theory.
push it? Aristotle would say that only living things
have the ability to move of their own volition, so the
ball can only move if you give motion to it. Aristo- Observations
tle’s explanations were accepted by Arabs and Euro-
The following important rules serve to keep facts
peans for two thousand years, but beginning in the
separate from opinions and reduce the chances of
Renaissance, his ideas began to be modified drasti-
getting a garbled copy of the data:
cally. Today, Aristotelian physics is discussed mainly
by physics teachers, who often find that their stu- (1) Take your raw data in pen, directly into your lab
dents intuitively believe the Aristotelian world-view notebook. This is what real scientists do. The point
and strongly resist the completely different version is to make sure that what you’re writing down is
of physics that is now considered correct. It is not a first-hand record, without mistakes introduced by
uncommon for a student to begin a physics exam recopying it. (If you don’t have your two lab note-
and then pause to ask the instructor, “Do you want books yet, staple today’s raw data into your note-
us to answer these questions the way you told us was book when you get it.)
true, or the way we really think it works?” The idea
(2) Everybody should record their own copy of the
of this lab is to make observations of objects, mostly
raw data. Do not depend on a “group secretary.”
magnets, pushing and pulling on each other, and to
figure out some of the corrections that need to be (3) If you do calculations during lab, keep them on
made to Aristotelian physics. a separate page or draw a line down the page and
keep calculations on one side of the line and raw
Some people might say that it’s just a matter of
data on the other. This is to distinguish facts from
definitions or semantics whether Aristotle is correct
inferences.
or not. Is Aristotle’s theory even testable? One
testable feature of the theory is its asymmetry. The Because this is the first meeting of the lab class,
Aristotelian description of the rock falling and the there is no prelab writeup due at the beginning of
the class. Instead, you will discuss your results with
6 Lab 1 Interactions
your instructor at various points. B Qualitative observations of the interaction of
two magnets
A Comparing magnets’ strengths
Play around with the two magnets and see how they
To make an interesting hypothesis about what will interact with each other. Can one attract the other?
happen in part C, the main event of the lab, you’ll Can one repel the other? Can they act on each other
need to know how the top (single) and bottom (triple) simultaneously? Do they need to be touching in or-
magnets’ strengths compare. It would seem logical der to do anything to each other? Can A act on B
that the triple magnet would be three times stronger while at the same time B does not act on A at all?
than the single, but in this part of the lab you’re go- Can A pull B toward itself at the same time that
ing to find out for sure. B pushes A away? When holding one of the heavier
magnets, it may be difficult to feel when there is any
push or pull on it; you may wish to have one person
hold the magnet with her eyes closed while the other
person moves the other magnet closer and farther.
7
strongly the magnet is being pushed or pulled by the you’re completely done with your analysis — it’s no
other magnet. fun to have to rebuild it from scratch because you
made a mistake!
How do you think the amount of pushing or pulling
experienced by the two magnets will compare? In D Measurement of interactions involving ob-
other words, which reading will change more, or will jects in contact
they change by the same amount? Write down a hy-
pothesis; you’ll test this hypothesis in part C of the You’ll recall that Aristotle gave completely different
lab. If you think the forces will be unequal predict interpretations for situations where one object was
their ratio. in contact with another, like the hand pushing the
ball, and situations involving objects not in contact
Discuss with your instructor your results from parts with each other, such as the rock falling down to
A and B, and your hypothesis about what will hap- the earth. Your magnets were not in contact with
pen with the two balances. each other. Now suppose we try the situation shown
Now set up the experiment described above with two below, with one person’s hand exerting a force on the
balances. Since we are interested in the changes in other’s. All the forces involved are forces between
the scale readings caused by the magnetic forces, you objects in contact, although the two people’s hands
will need to take a total of four scale readings: one cannot be in direct contact because the spring scales
pair with the balances separated and one pair with have to be inserted to measure how strongly each
the magnets close together as shown in the figure person is pulling. Suppose the two people do not
above. make any special arrangement in advance about how
hard to pull. How do you think the readings on the
When the balances are together and the magnetic two scales will compare? Write down a hypothesis,
forces are acting, it is not possible to get both bal- and discuss it with your instructor before continuing.
ances to reach equilibrium at the same time, because
sliding the weights on one balance can cause its mag-
net to move up or down, tipping the other balance.
Therefore, while you take a reading from one bal-
ance, you need to immobilize the other in the hori-
zontal position by taping its tip so it points exactly Now carry out the measurement shown in the figure.
at the zero mark.
You will also probably find that as you slide the
weights, the pointer swings suddenly to the oppo- Self-Check
site side, but you can never get it to be stable in Do all your analysis in lab, including error analysis
the middle (zero) position. Try bringing the pointer for part C. Error analysis is discussed in Appendices
manually to the zero position and then releasing it. 2 and 3; get help from your instructor if necessary.
If it swings up, you’re too low, and if it swings down,
you’re too high. Search for the dividing line between
the too-low region and the too-high region. Analysis
If the changes in the scale readings are very small In your writeup, present your results from all four
(say a few grams or less), you need to get the mag- parts of the experiment, including error analysis for
nets closer together. It should be possible to get the part C. The most common mistake is to fail to ad-
scale readings to change by large amounts (up to 10 dress the point of the lab. If you feel like you don’t
or 20 g). understand why you were doing any of this, then
Part C is the only part of the experiment where you you were missing out on your educational experi-
will be required to analyze random errors using the ence! See the back of the lab manual for the format
techniques outlined in Appendices 2 and 3 at the of lab writeups.
back of the lab manual. Think about how you can
get an estimate of the random errors in your mea-
surements. Do you need to do multiple measure- Notes For Next Week
ments? Discuss this with your instructor if you’re (1) Next week, when you turn in your writeup for
uncertain. this lab, you also need to turn in a prelab writeup for
Don’t take apart your setup until lab is over, and the next lab in the same notebook. The prelab ques-
tions are listed at the end of the description of that
8 Lab 1 Interactions
lab in the lab manual. Never start a lab without un-
derstanding the answers to all the prelab questions;
if you turn in partial answers or answers you’re un-
sure of, discuss the questions with your instructor
or with other students to make sure you understand
what’s going on.
(2) You should exchange phone numbers with your
lab partners for general convenience throughout the
semester. You can also get each other’s e-mail ad-
dresses by logging in to Spotter and clicking on “e-
mail.”
9
2 Kinematics
Apparatus Setup
computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group Set the cart on the track without the fan. Prop
track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group the motion detector (sonar gun) at one end of the
dynamics cart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group track so that it is aimed slightly upward. This angle
fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group is critical — measure 86 ◦ above horizontal with the
AA batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/group protractor, and tape it to the backrest.
aluminum slugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/group
With the computer turned off, plug the motion de-
motion detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
tector into the PORT2 plug on the interface box.
protractor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
Start up the computer. For compactness, I’ll use no-
tation like this to describe the computer commands:
Start>Programs>Vernier Software>Logger Pro
Goal
This is the command to start the computer software
Learn how to relate the motion of an object to its running. “Start” means to click on the start menu
position-versus-time graph. at the bottom left corner of the screen, “Programs”
means to select that from the menu, and so on.
Introduction Make sure that the interface box is plugged into
COM1 (the first COM port) at the back of the com-
Analyzing motion is the most fundamental thing we puter, not COM2. If the computer presents you
do in physics. The most versatile way of representing with a dialog box saying “Set Up Interface,” choose
motion is with a graph that has the object’s position COM1.
on the upright axis and time on the horizontal axis.
It takes some practice to be able to sketch and in- Once the program is running, do File>Open, then
terpret these graphs, but once you get used to them, go into Probes and Sensors and then into Motion
they become very intuitive. Detector, and open the file of the same name. At
this point, you may get the following error message,
which you can ignore: “This file cannot run properly
Apparatus with this hardware interface.”
The object whose motion you’ll study is a cart that You’ll get three graphs on the screen, but you only
rolls on a track. You can either push the cart by want one, the x − t graph. Click on the x − t graph,
hand, start it moving with a shove, or clamp a fan on and then do View>Graph Layout>One Pane, and
top of it to make it speed up or slow down steadily. the other two graphs will go away.
To measure the cart’s motion, you’ll use a little sonar If you now click the button to tell it to collect data,
gun that sends out clicks. When it hears the echo the motion detector should start clicking rapidly,
from the cart, it figures out how far away the cart and it you move the cart back and forth you should
was based on the time delay and the known speed of see a graph of its motion. Make sure it is able to
sound. The sonar gun is connected to a computer, sense the cart’s motion correctly for distances from
which produces a position-versus-time graph. 50 cm to the full length of the track. If it doesn’t
work when the cart is at the far end of the track,
play with the angle of motion detector a little.
Observations
In parts Athrough E,you don’t need to take detailed
numerical data — just sketch the graphs in your lab
notebook. All of your graphs will have garbage data
at the beginning and the end, and you need to make
10 Lab 2 Kinematics
sure you understand what’s what. with a weakened fan. Now try it.
11
Self-Check
Do the analysis in lab.
Analysis
At one-second intervals, draw nice long tangent lines
on the curve from part G and determine their slope.
Some slopes will be negative, and some positive.
Summarize this series of changing speeds in a table.
Did the velocity increase by about the same amount
with every second?
12 Lab 2 Kinematics
13
3 Free Fall
Apparatus ideal case of θ=90 ◦ , which would be the same as free
fall. Galileo’s task would have been a lot simpler
two stations: if he’d had accurate enough devices for measuring
Behr free-fall column and weight time, because then he could have simply carried out
plumb bob measurements for objects falling vertically. That’s
spark generator (CENCO) what you’ll do today.
paper tape
switch for electromagnet
Goal
Find out whether it is ∆v/∆x or ∆v/∆t that is con-
stant for an object accelerating under the influence
of gravity.
Introduction
A fundamental and difficult problem in pre-Newton-
ian physics was the motion of falling bodies. Aristo-
tle had various incorrect but influential ideas on the
subject, including the assertions that heavier objects
fell faster than lighter ones and that the object only
sped up for a short while after it was dropped and
then continued on at a constant speed. Even among
Renaissance scientists who disagreed with Aristotle’s
claim that the object no longer sped up after a while,
there was a great deal of confusion about whether it
was ∆v/∆x or ∆v/∆t that was constant. It seems
obvious to modern physicists that they could not
both be constant, but it was not at all obvious to
authorities such as Domingo de Soto and Albert of
Saxony. Galileo started out thinking they were both
constant, then realized this was mathematically im-
possible, and finally determined from experiments
that it was ∆v/∆t, now called acceleration, that was
constant. A Setup
The main reason why the confusion persisted for two The apparatus consists of a 2-meter tall column with
thousand years was that the methods for measuring a paper tape running down it. A weight is held at the
time were inaccurate, and the time required for an top with an electromagnet and then released, falling
object to fall was very short. Galileo was able to right next to the paper tape. (An electromagnet
make settle the issue because he figured out how to is an artificial magnet that works when you put an
use a pendulum to measure time accurately, and also electric current through it, unlike a permanent mag-
came up with the idea of effectively slowing down the net, which does not require power.) A spark gener-
motion by studying objects rolling down an inclined ator is hooked up to the two vertical wires, and as
plane, rather than objects falling vertically. He then the weight falls, sparks cross the gap from the first
found how to extrapolate from the case of an object wire to the metal flange on the weight, then from
rolling down an inclined plane at an angle θ to the the flange to the other wire. Sparks are produced
only briefly, at regular intervals of 1/60 of a sec-
Analysis
Since the sparks start before you release the electro-
magnet, the first dot at the very top of the tape will
give the starting position of the weight.
If you consider any adjacent pair of dots (avoiding
the top and bottom ones), then measuring the dis-
tance between them allows you to calculate an ap-
proximation to the speed of the weight, which you
can think of as being its speed at the point half-way
between the two dots.
Make one plot of speed versus time and another of
speed versus distance, preferably using a computer,
since you will have about thirty data points, and it
15
4 The Earth’s Gravitational Field
Apparatus tions of your reflexes it is impossible to make good
enough measurements with stopwatch. Instead, you
(two stations): will record the sounds of the two balls’ impacts on
vertical plank with electromagnets the floor using the computer. The computer shows
steel balls (2/station) a graph in which the x axis is time and the y axis
Linux computers with Audacity installed (in 416 and shows the vibration of the sound wave hitting the
416P) microphone. You can measure the time between the
two visible “blips” on the screen. You will measure
three things: h1 , h2 , and the time interval ∆t2 − ∆t1
between the impact of the second ball and the first.
Goal From these data, with a little algebra, you can find
Whichever of those quantities turns out to be con- g.
stant, measure it accurately. The experiment would have been easier to analyze if
we could simply drop a single ball and measure the
time from when it was released to when it hit the
Introduction floor. But since our timing technique is based on
When objects fall, and all forces other than grav- sound, and no sound is produced when the balls are
ity are negligible, we observe that the acceleration released, we need to have two balls. If h1 , the height
is the same, regardless of the object’s mass, shape, of the lower ball, could be made very small, then it
density, or other properties. However, the acceler- would hit the floor at essentially the same moment
ation does depend a little bit where on the earth the two balls were released (∆t1 would equal 0), and
we do the experiment, and even bigger variations in ∆t2 −∆t1 would be essentially the same as ∆t2 . But
acceleration can be observed by, e.g., going to the we can’t make h1 too small or the sound would not
moon. Thus, this acceleration can be considered as be loud enough to detect on the computer.
a property of space itself, and we can refer to it as B Using the computer software
the gravitational field in that region of space. Just
as you would use a magnetic compass to find out First let’s see how to record yourself on the computer
about the magnetic field in the classroom, you can saying “hello.” Use the xmix or xmixer program to
use dropping masses to find out about the gravita- set the record and mic levels all the way up. Start up
tional field. In this experiment, you’ll measure the the sound recording program, called Audacity. Set
gravitational field, g, in the classroom to sufficiently the record level on high, using the control marked
high precision that, if everybody does a good job and − . . . + next to the microphone icon. Record your
we pool and average everyone’s data to reduce ran- sound.
dom errors, we should be able to get a value that is Before you get down to serious science, you may en-
measurably different from the generic world-average joy listening to your own voice reversed in time. A
value you would find in a textbook. fun diversion is to write a sentence down backwards,
read it out loud, and then electronically reverse it
A Measuring g precisely
so it’s forward again. It sounds sort of like someone
You will measure g, the acceleration of an object in with a thick Hungarian accent.
free fall, using electronic timing techniques. The idea
of the method is that you’ll have two steel balls hang-
ing underneath electromagnets at different heights.
You’ll simultaneously turn off the two magnets us-
ing the same switch, causing the balls to drop at
the same moment. The ball dropped from the lower
height (h1 ) takes a smaller time (∆t1 ) to reach the
floor, and the ball released from the greater height
(h2 ) takes a longer time (∆t2 ). The time intervals Two thumps, as recorded on the computer through the
involved are short enough that due to the limita- microphone.
D Observations
Measure h1 , h2 , and the time interval ∆t2 − ∆t1 .
Analysis
Extract a value of g from your data, with error bars.1
If you found in part A that ∆v/∆x was constant,
then g should be defined as ∆v/∆x, and the relevant
equation (derived using calculus) is g = (1/∆t) ln(h2 /h1 ).
Self-Check
Extract the value of g, with error bars. Read Ap-
pendix 3 for information on how to do error analysis
with propagation of errors; get help from your in-
structor if necessary.
Prelab
The point of the prelab questions is to make sure
you understand what you’re doing, why you’re do-
ing it, and how to avoid some common mistakes. If
1 If you feel like it, you can add on a correction to g to
17
5 Newton’s Second Law
Apparatus the other mass would go down, until they were side
by side. Drawing them at rest at unequal heights im-
pulley plied to them that the masses were “unbalanced,” so
spirit level they thought they were faced with given information
string that was inconsistent.
weight holders, not tied to string
two-meter stick Here’s your chance to thoroughly explore this type
slotted weights of situation, and get one step closer to thoroughly
stopwatch understanding Newton’s second law.
foam rubber cushions
Observations
Goal
Test Newton’s second law for unequal weights hang-
ing from a pulley.
Introduction
We physics teachers tend to assume too often that a
single, generally correct statement such as Newton’s
second law, Ftotal = ma, is capable of wiping out
with one blow a huge number incorrect expectations
held by our students about physical phenomena. In
reality, students need to compare their expectations Set up unequal masses on the two sides of the pulley,
with reality in a variety of situations before the full and determine the resulting acceleration by measur-
implications of a general law of nature start to sink ing how long it takes for the masses to move a cer-
in. I encountered such a situation when I gave an tain distance. Use the spirit level to make the pulley
exam question about a monkey hanging from one vertical; otherwise you get extra friction. Use rela-
side of a pulley. The monkey’s mass, I said, was tively large masses (typically half a kg or a kg each
m, and the mass on the other end of the string was side) so that friction is not such a big force in com-
also m. They were initially just hanging there at parison to the other forces, and the inertia of the
rest, and then the monkey began climbing up the pulley is negligible compared to the inertia of the
rope. The students were supposed to predict what hanging masses. Do several different combinations
would happen. The vast majority of the students of masses, but keep the total amount of mass con-
got stuck at the very beginning, because my draw- stant and just divide it differently between the two
ing showed the monkey initially being lower than the holders. Remember to take the masses of the holders
other mass. They thought that the only way their themselves into account. Make sure to perform your
equal masses could be at rest was if they were “bal- measurements with the longest possible distance of
anced” at the same height, and they expected that travel, because you cannot use a stopwatch to get an
if they were initially positioned as shown, and the accurate measurement of very short time intervals.
monkey just held on, the monkey would go up and The best results are obtained with combinations of
Self-Check
Compare theoretical and experimental values of ac-
celeration for one of your mass combinations. Check
whether they come out fairly consistent.
Analysis
Use your measured times and distances to find the
actual acceleration, and make a graph of this versus
M − m. Show these experimentally determined ac-
celerations as small circles. Overlaid on the same
graph, show the theoretical equation as a line or
curve.
Prelab
The point of the prelab questions is to make sure
you understand what you’re doing, why you’re do-
ing it, and how to avoid some common mistakes. If
you don’t know the answers, make sure to come to
my office hours before lab and get help! Otherwise
you’re just setting yourself up for failure in lab.
P1 Criticize the following reasoning: The weight
fell 1.0 m in 1 s, so v = 1 m/s, and a = v/t = 1 m/s2 .
P2 Since that won’t work, plan how you really will
determine your experimental accelerations based on
your measured distance and times.
P3 If this question from Newtonian Physics has al-
ready been assigned on the homework, then you can
skip this question. If the greater mass is M , and the
lesser mass is m, apply Newton’s second law to pre-
dict their theoretical accelerations. Hints: (1) their
accelerations must be equal in magnitude but in op-
posite directions, because whatever amount of string
is “eaten” on one side is paid out on the other; (2)
choose a coordinate system and keep your plus and
minus signs straight; (3) there are two forces act-
ing on each mass, weight and the string’s upward
force; (4) the string exerts the same upward force
on each mass; (5) make up names for the unknowns;
(6) you need to apply Newton’s second law once to
each mass, and then solve two equations in two un-
knowns.
19
6 Air Friction
Apparatus push harder against the road.
coffee filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10/group Your goal in this lab is to find a proportionality re-
stopwatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group lating the force of air friction to the velocity at which
computer with sonar sensor the air rushes over the object. For instance, you may
wire cages to protect sensors find the rule
F ∝v ,
which is a shorthand for
Prelab
The point of the prelab questions is to make sure
you understand what you’re doing, why you’re do-
ing it, and how to avoid some common mistakes. If
you don’t know the answers, make sure to come to
my office hours before lab and get help! Otherwise
you’re just setting yourself up for failure in lab.
P1 Suppose you tried to do this lab with stacks of
coins instead of coffee filters. Assuming you had a
sufficiently accurate timing device, would it work?
P2 Criticize the following statement:
“We found that bigger velocities gave bigger air drag
forces, which demonstrates the proportionality F ∝
A different technique is to drop the filters onto a v.”
sonar sensor of the type used in lab 2. You can put P3 Criticize the following statement:
the sensor on the floor facing up, and put the wire
cage over it to keep it from getting damaged by being “We found F ∝ v 7 , which shows that you need more
stepped on inadvertently. force to make things go faster.”
21
7 Vector Addition of Forces
Apparatus
force table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
spirit level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
weights
string
Goal
Observations
Test whether the vector sum of the forces acting on
an object at rest is equal to zero. The apparatus consists of a small circular table, with
a small metal ring held in the middle by the tension
in four strings. Each string goes over a pulley at the
Introduction edge of the table, so that a weight can be hung on it
to control the tension. The angles can be recorded
Modern physics claims that when a bridge, an earth-
either graphically, by sliding a piece of paper un-
quake fault, or an oak tree doesn’t move, it is be-
derneath, or by reading angles numerically off of an
cause the forces acting on it, which combine accord-
angular scale around the circumference of the table.
ing to vector addition, add up to zero. Although
this may seem like a reasonable statement, it was Use the spirit level to level the table completely us-
far from obvious to premodern scientists. Aristotle, ing the screws on the feet. Set up four strings with
for instance, said that it was the nature of each of weights, using the small pin to hold the ring in place.
the four elements, earth, fire, water and air, to re- Adjust the angles or the amounts of weight or both,
turn to its natural location. Rain would fall from until the ring is in equilibrium without the pin, and
the sky because it was trying to return to its natu- is positioned right over the center of the table. Avoid
ral location in the lakes and oceans, and once it got a symmetric arrangement of the strings (e.g. don’t
to its natural location it would stop moving because space them all 90 degrees apart). The ring is an ex-
that was its nature. tended object, so in order to treat it mathematically
as a pointlike object you should make sure that all
When a modern scientist considers a book resting on
the strings are lined up with the center of the ring,
a table, she says that it holds still because the force
as shown in the figure.
of gravity pulling the book down is exactly canceled
by the normal force of the table pushing up on the
book. Aristotle would have denied that this was pos-
sible, because he believed that at any one moment an
object could have only one of two mutually exclusive
types of motion: natural motion (the tendency of the
book to fall to the ground, and resume its natural
place), and forced motion (the ability of another ob-
ject, such as the table, to move the book). According
to his theory, there could be nothing like the addi-
tion of forces, because the object being acted on was
only capable of “following orders” from one source at Because of friction, it is possible to change any one
a time. The incorrect Aristotelian point of view has of the weights slightly without causing the ring to
great intuitive appeal, and beginning physics stu- move. This is a potential source of systematic er-
dents tend to make Aristotelian statements such as, rors, but you can eliminate the error completely by
“The table’s force overcomes the force of gravity,” the following method. Find out how much you can
as if the forces were having a contest, in which the increase or decrease each weight without causing the
victor annihilated the loser. ring to move. Within the range of values that don’t
cause slipping, use the center of the range as your
Self-Check
Do both a graphical calculation and an analytic cal-
culation in lab, without error analysis. Make sure
they give the same result. Do a rough check that
the magnitude of the sum of the forces is small com-
23
8 Vector Addition of Forces
Based on a lab created by Fream Minton. dents tend to make Aristotelian statements such as,
“The table’s force overcomes the force of gravity,”
as if the forces were in a contest, in which the victor
Apparatus annihilated the loser.
unknown weight hung from three
pulleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
meter sticks
protractors
digital balance
Goal
Use vector addition of forces in three dimensions
to determine the mass of an unknown suspended
weight.
Introduction
Modern physics claims that when a bridge, an earth-
quake fault, or an oak tree doesn’t move, it is be-
cause the forces acting on it, which combine accord-
ing to vector addition, add up to zero. Although
this may seem like a reasonable statement, it was
far from obvious to premodern scientists. Aristotle,
for instance, said that it was the nature of each of
the four elements, earth, fire, water and air, to re-
turn to its natural location. Rain would fall from
the sky because it was trying to return to its natu-
ral location in the lakes and oceans, and once it got
to its natural location it would stop moving because
that was its nature.
When a modern scientist considers a book resting on
a table, she says that it holds still because the force
of gravity pulling the book down is exactly canceled
by the normal force of the table pushing up on the
book. Aristotle would have denied that this was pos- Observations
sible, because he believed that at any one moment an The setup is shown above. The tension in the string
object could have only one of two mutually exclusive is very nearly the same on both sides of a good-
types of motion: natural motion (the tendency of the quality pulley, i.e. one with low friction. Your task
book to fall to the ground, and resume its natural is to use geometrical measurements and measure-
place), and forced motion (the ability of another ob- ments of the three hanging weights to determine
ject, such as the table, to move the book). According the unknown mass of the ball hanging in the mid-
to his theory, there could be nothing like the addi- dle. This will require vector addition in three di-
tion of forces, because the object being acted on was mensions. Once you have determined the weight of
only capable of “following orders” from one source at the unknown, show it to your instructor. Once your
a time. The incorrect Aristotelian point of view has instructor checks your work for mistakes, you can
great intuitive appeal, and beginning physics stu- weigh the ball for comparison with your prediction.
Analysis
Carry out a propagation of errors for your predicted
mass (see Appendix 3), and discuss whether it is
consistent with your direct measurement.
25
9 Acceleration In Two Dimensions
Apparatus
air track (small)
cart
photogate (PASCO) (under lab benches in rm. 418)
computer
air blowers
vernier calipers
Goal
Test whether the acceleration of gravity acts like a
vector.
Introduction track.
As noted in lab 2, one of the tricky techniques Galileo The speed of the cart at any given point can be mea-
had to come up with to study acceleration was to sured as follows. The photogate consists of a light
use objects rolling down an inclined plane rather and a sensor on opposite sides of the track. When
than falling straight down. That slowed things down the cart passes by, the cardboard vane on top blocks
enough so that he could measure the time intervals the light momentarily, keeping light from getting to
using a pendulum clock. Even though you were able the sensor. The computer detects the electrical sig-
in the previous lab to use modern electronic timing nal from the sensor, and records the amount of time,
techniques to measure the short times involved in a tb , for which the photogate was blocked. Given tb ,
vertical fall, there is still some intrinsic interest in you can determine the approximate speed that cart
the idea of motion on an inclined plane. The rea- had when it passed through the photogate. The use
son it’s worth studying is that it reveals the vector of the computer software is explained in Appendix 6;
nature of acceleration. of the three modes described there, you want to use
Vectors rule the universe. Entomologists say that the software in the mode in which it measures the
God must have had an inordinate fondness for bee- time interval over which the photogate was blocked.
tles, because there are so many species of them. Plug the photogate into the DG1 plug on the inter-
Well, God must also have had a special place in her face box.
heart for vectors, because practically every natural
phenomenon she invented is a vector: gravitational
acceleration, electric fields, nuclear forces, magnetic Observations
fields, all the things that tie our universe together
The basic idea is to release the cart at a distance x
are vectors.
away from the photogate. The cart accelerates, and
you can determine its approximate speed, v, when it
passes through the photogate. (See prelab question
Setup P1. Make sure to use vernier calipers to measure the
The idea of the lab is that if acceleration really acts width of the vane, w.) From v and x, you can find
like a vector, then the cart’s acceleration should equal the acceleration. You will take data with the track
the component of the earth’s gravitational accelera- tilted at several different angles, to see whether the
tion vector that is parallel to the track, because the cart’s acceleration always equals the component of g
cart is only free to accelerate in the direction along parallel to the track.
the track. There is almost no friction, since the cart You can level the track to start with by adjusting
rides on a cushion of air coming through holes in the the screws until the cart will sit on the track without
Self-Check
Find the theoretical and experimental accelerations
for one of your angles, and see if they are roughly
consistent.
Prelab
The point of the prelab questions is to make sure
you understand what you’re doing, why you’re do-
ing it, and how to avoid some common mistakes. If
27
10 Conservation Laws
Apparatus is a statement that something always remains con-
stant when you add it all up. Most people have a
Part A: vacuum pump (Lapine) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 general intuitive idea that the amount of a substance
electronic balance (large capacity) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 is conserved. That objects do not simply appear
plastic-coated flask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group or disappear is a conceptual achievement of babies
beaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group around the age of 9-12 months. Beginning at this
Part B: propyl alcohol 200 mL/group age, they will for instance try to retrieve a toy that
canola oil 200 mL/group they have seen being placed under a blanket, rather
funnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/group than just assuming that it no longer exists. Con-
100-mL volumetric flask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group servation laws in physics have the following general
rubber stopper, fitting in features:
volumetric flask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
1-ml pipette and bulb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group Physicists trying to find new conservation laws
magnetic stirrer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group will try to find a measurable, numerical quan-
triple-beam balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1/group tity, so that they can check quantitatively whether
it is conserved. One needs an operational def-
inition of the quantity, meaning a definition
that spells out the operations required to mea-
Goal sure it.
People believe that objects cannot be made to disap- Conservation laws are only true for closed sys-
pear or appear. If you start with a certain amount tems. For instance, the amount of water in a
of matter, there is no way to increase or decrease bottle will remain constant as long as no wa-
that amount. This type of rule is called a conser- ter is poured in or out. But if water can get in
vation law in physics, and this specific law states or out, we say that the bottle is not a closed
that the amount of matter is conserved, i.e. must system, and conservation of matter cannot be
stay the same. In order to make this law scientifi- applied to it.
cally useful, we must define more carefully how the
“amount” of a substance is to be defined and mea- The quantity should be additive. For instance,
sured numerically. Specifically, there are two issues the amount of energy contained in two gallons
that scientifically untrained people would probably of gasoline is twice as much as the amount of
not agree on: energy contained in one gallon; energy is addi-
tive. An example of a non-additive quantity is
temperature. Two cups of coffee do not have
Should air count as matter? If it has weight, twice as high a temperature as one cup.
then it probably should count. In this lab, you
will find out if air has weight, and, if so, mea- Conservation laws always refer to the total amount
sure its density. of the quantity when you add it all up. If you
add it all up at one point in time, and then
Should the amount of a substance be defined in come back at a later point in time and add it
terms of volume, or is mass more appropriate? all up, it will be the same.
In this lab, you will determine whether mass
and/or volume is conserved when water and How can we pin down more accurately the concept
alcohol are mixed. of the “amount of a substance”? Should a gallon
of shaving cream be considered “more substantial”
than a brick? At least two possible quantities come
Introduction to mind: mass and volume. Is either conserved?
Both? Neither? To find out, we will have to make
Styles in physics come and go, and once-hallowed
measurements.
principles get modified as more accurate data come
along, but some of the most durable features of the We can measure mass by the “see-saw method” —
science are its conservation laws. A conservation law when two children are sitting on the opposite sides
29
volume and mass when mixed. There are two prob- If the mixture does not turn out to have a volume
lems with the obvious method: (1) when you pour that looks like exactly 100 mL, you can use the fol-
one of the liquids into the other, droplets of liquid lowing tricks to measure accurately the excess or
will be left inside the original vessel; and (2) the deficit with respect to 100 mL. If it is less than 100
most accurate way to measure the volume of a liq- mL, weigh the flask, pipette in enough water to bring
uid is with a volumetric flask, which only allows one it up to 100 mL, weigh it again, and then figure out
specific, calibrated volume to be measured. what mass and volume of water you added based on
the change in mass. If it is more than 100 mL, weigh
the flask, pipette out enough of the mixture to bring
the volume down to 100 mL, weigh it again, and
make a similar calculation using the change in mass
and the density of the oil. If you need to pipette out
some oil, make sure to wash and rinse the pipette
thoroughly afterwards.
Prelab
The point of the prelab questions is to make sure
you understand what you’re doing, why you’re do-
ing it, and how to avoid some common mistakes. If
you don’t know the answers, make sure to come to
my office hours before lab and get help! Otherwise
you’re just setting yourself up for failure in lab.
P1 Give an example of two things having the same
mass and different densities.
P2 Give an example of two things having the same
density and different masses.
Here’s a way to get around those problems. Put the P3 Why can the density of water be given in a
magnetic stirrer inside the flask. Pour water through book as a standard value under conditions of stan-
a funnel into a volumetric flask, filling it less than dard temperature and pressure, while the mass of
half-way. (Do not use the pipette to transfer the water cannot?
water.) A common mistake is to fill the flask more P4 What would your raw data in part A be like if
than half-way. Now pour a thin layer of cooking air had no weight? What would they be like if air
oil on top. Cooking oil does not mix with water, did have weight?
so it forms a layer on top of the water. (Set aside
one funnel that you will use only for the oil, since P5 Referring to the section of the lab manual on
the oil tends to form a film on the sides.) Finally, error analysis, plan how you will estimate your ran-
gently pour the alcohol on top. Alcohol does not mix dom errors.
with cooking oil either, so it forms a third layer. By P6 In part B, pick either mass or volume, and de-
making the alcohol come exactly up to the mark on scribe what your observations would be like if that
the calibrated flask, you can make the total volume quantity was not conserved.
very accurately equal to 100 mL. In practice, it is
hard to avoid putting in too much alcohol through
the funnel, so if necessary you can take some back Self-Check
out with the pipette.
Do a quick analysis of both parts without error anal-
If you put the whole thing on the balance now, you ysis. Plan how you will do your error analysis.
know both the volume (100 mL) and the mass of
the whole thing when the alcohol and water have
been kept separate. Now, mix everything up with Analysis
the magnetic stirrer. The water and alcohol form a
mixture. You can now test whether the volume or A. If your results show that air has weight, determine
mass has changed. the (nonzero) density of air, with an estimate of your
31
11 Conservation of Energy
Apparatus energy in or out.
air track
cart
springs (steel, 1.5 cm diameter)
photogate (PASCO)
computer
stopwatches
air blowers
alligator clips
spring scales Our model of this type of oscillation about equilib-
vernier calipers rium will be the motion of a cart on an air track be-
tween two springs. The sum of the forces exerted by
the two springs should at least approximately obey
Hooke’s law,
Goal F = −kx ,
Test conservation of energy for an object oscillating
where the equilibrium point is at x = 0. The nega-
around an equilibrium position.
tive sign means that if the object is displaced in the
positive direction, the force tends to bring it back
in the negative direction, towards equilibrium, and
vice versa. Of course, there are no actual springs
involved in the sun or between a rock’s atoms, but
we can still learn about this type of situation in a
lab experiment with a mass attached to a spring. In
this lab, you will study how the changing velocity of
the object, in this case a cart on an air track, can
be understood using conservation of energy. Recall
This could be a vibration of the sun, a water balloon, or that for a constant force, the potential energy is sim-
a nucleus.
ply −F x, but for a force that is different at different
locations, the potential energy is minus the area un-
der the curve on a graph of F vs. x. In the present
Introduction case, the area formed is a triangle with base = x,
height = kx, and
One of the most impressive aspects of the physical
world is the apparent permanence of so many of its 1
parts. Objects such as the sun or rocks on earth area = base · height
2
have remained unchanged for billions of years, so it
1
might seem that they are in perfect equilibrium, with = − kx2
2
zero net force on each part of the whole. In reality,
the atoms in a rock do not sit perfectly still at an
equilibrium point — they are constantly in vibration (counted as negative area because it lies below the
about their equilibrium positions. The unchanging x axis), so the potential energy is
oblate shape of the sun is also an illusion. The sun
is continually vibrating like a bell or a jiggling water 1 2
balloon, as shown in the (exaggerated) figure. The PE = kx .
2
nuclei of atoms also jiggle spontaneously like little
water balloons. The fact that these types of motion Conservation of energy, P E + KE = constant, gives
continue indefinitely without dying out or building
up relates to conservation of energy, which forbids 1 2 1
kx + mv 2 = constant .
them to get bigger or smaller without transferring 2 2
33
Self-Check
Calculate the energies at the extremes, where P E =
0 and KE = 0, and see whether the energy is staying
roughly constant. You should do this self-check as
early as possible in the lab, so that you can make
sure you’re not spending lots of time collecting data
that turn out to be bogus.
Analysis
Graph P E, KE, and E as functions of x, with error
bars (see appendices 1, 2, and 3), all overlaid on the
same plot. Discuss whether you think conservation
of energy has been verified.
First you’re going to observe some collisions between What happens now? Note that mathematically, we
two carts and see how conservation of momentum use positive and negative signs to indicate the direc-
plays out. If you really wanted to take numerical tion of a velocity in one dimension.
data, it would be a hassle, because momentum de- C An explosion
pends on mass and velocity, and there would be four
different velocity numbers you’d have to measure: Now start with the carts held together, with their
cart 1 before the collision, cart 1 after the collision, magnets repelling. As soon as you release them,
cart 2 before, and cart 2 after. To avoid all this com- they’ll break contact and fly apart due to the re-
plication, the first part of the lab will use only visual pulsion of the magnets.
observations. M × +M ×
Try gently pressing the two carts together on the =? M × +M × ,
track. As they come close to each other, you’ll feel Does momentum appear to have been conserved?
them repelling each other! That’s because they have
magnets built into the ends. The magnets act like D Head-on collision
perfect springs. For instance, if you hold one cart Now try a collision in which the two carts head to-
firmly in place and let the other one roll at it, the wards each other at equal speeds (meaning that one
incoming cart will bounce back at almost exactly the cart’s initial velocity is positive, while the other’s is
same speed. It’s like a perfect superball. negative).
A Equal masses, target at rest, elastic collision M × +M ×
Roll one cart toward the other. The target cart is =? M × +M × ,
initially at rest. Conservation of momentum reads
E Sticking
like this,
Arrange a collision in which the carts will stick to-
M × +M × gether rather than rebounding. You can do this by
=? M × +M × , letting the velcro ends hit each other instead of the
where the two blanks on the left stand for the two magnet ends. Make a collision in which the target is
carts’ velocities before the collision, and the two initially stationary.
blanks on the right are for their velocities after the M × +M ×
collision. All conservation laws work like this: the =? M × +M × ,
total amount of something remains the same. You
don’t have any real numbers, but just from eye- The collision is no longer perfectly springy. Did it
balling the collision, what seems to have happened? seem to matter, or was conservation of momentum
Let’s just arbitrarily say that the mass of a cart is still valid?
one unit, so that wherever it says “M x” in the equa-
tion, you’re just multiplying by one. You also don’t
have any numerical values for the velocities, but sup-
37
13 Conservation of Momentum in Two Di-
mensions
Apparatus
photogate (PASCO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
small steel and plastic balls of various masses 2/group
plastic rulers
protractor
scotch tape
Goal
Test whether momentum is conserved in a collision
of two balls.
Introduction
Pool players have an intuitive feeling for conserva-
tion of momentum: they can visualize the results of
a collision of two pool balls in advance. They also
know that certain shots are impossible. For instance,
there is no way to make the cue ball bounce back di- balls using the photogate and the computer. The
rectly from a collision with another ball (except by use of the photogate and the computer software that
putting spin on it, which creates an external friction works with it is explained in Appendix 6. Since on
force with the felt). They understand that the angles any given trial you can only use the photogate to
are important, so without knowing it, they are doing measure the speed of a single ball, you will have to
mental estimates involving momentum as a vector: reproduce the collision at least three times to mea-
a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. sure the three speeds involved. Actually, you will
want to measure each of the three speeds several
In this lab, you will be studying collisions similar to times in order to get a good estimate of your ran-
the collision of the cue ball with an initially station- dom errors.
ary ball. One of the basic principles involved is the
conservation of momentum:
The Principle of Conservation of Momentum
No matter how a set of objects interact with each
other, as long as no external force is present, the
vector sum of their momenta is conserved. That is,
p1i + p2i + . . . = p1f + p2f + . . ., where the “. . . ”
means that if there are more than two objects in-
volved, all their momenta should be added like vec-
tors.
The technique
To reproduce the same initial speed for the projectile
(ball 1), you can build a little ramp out of two plastic
The idea is to set up an off-center collision, as shown rulers taped together at a 90-degree angle. A block
below, and measure the initial and final speeds of the of wood can be taped in the ramp at the top to keep
39
14 Torque
Apparatus Construct a setup like the one shown above. Avoid
any symmetry in your arrangement. There are four
meter stick with holes drilled in it . . . . . . . . 1/group forces acting on the meter stick:
spring scales, calibrated in newtons
FH = the weight hanging underneath
weights
string FM = Earth’s gravity on the meter stick itself
protractors FL = tension in the string on the left
hooks FR = tension in the string on the right
Prelab
The point of the prelab questions is to make sure
you understand what you’re doing, why you’re do-
ing it, and how to avoid some common mistakes. If
you don’t know the answers, make sure to come to
my office hours before lab and get help! Otherwise
you’re just setting yourself up for failure in lab.
Observations P1 You have complete freedom in defining what
point is to be considered the axis of rotation — if
Weigh your meter stick before you do anything else;
one choice of axis causes the total torque to be zero,
they don’t all weigh the same amount.
then any other choice of axis will also cause the to-
For each spring scale, hang a known weight from it, tal torque to be zero. It is possible to simplify the
and adjust the calibration tab so that the scale gives analysis by choosing the axis so that one of the four
the correct result. torques is zero. Plan how you will do this.
40 Lab 14 Torque
P2 All the torques will be tending to cause rota-
tion in the same plane. You can therefore use plus
and minus signs to represent clockwise and counter-
clockwise torques. Choose which one you’ll call pos-
itive. Using your choice of axis, which of the four
torques, τH , τM , τL , and τR , will be negative, which
will be positive, and which will be zero?
P3 Suppose that in the figure above, the angle be-
tween the meter stick and the hanging weight is 80 ◦ ,
the mass of the hanging weight is 1 kg, and the mass
of the meter stick is 0.1 kg. If a student is then try-
ing to calculate the x components of the forces FM
and FH , why is it incorrect to say
and
Analysis
Determine the total force and total torque on the
meter stick. For the forces, I think a graphical cal-
culation will be easier than a numerical one.
Finally, repeat your calculation of the total torque
using a different point as your axis.
Error analysis is not required. For extra credit, you
can do error analysis for one of your total torques.
41
15 The Moment of Inertia
Apparatus inertia was completely linear. In his view, all the
common examples of circular motion really involved
meter stick with hole in center . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group a force, which kept things from going straight. In
nail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1/group the case of a spinning top, for instance, Newton (a
fulcrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1/group confirmed atomist) would have visualized an atoms
slottedmass set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group in the top as being acted on by some kind of sticky
duct tape force from the other atoms, which would keep it from
sliding bracket to go on flying off straight. Linear motion was the simplest
meter stick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group type, needing no forces to keep it going. Circular
U-shaped hook for hanging motion was more complex, requiring a force to bend
weights from bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group the atoms’ trajectories into circles.
computer Vernier software
1/group photogate and adapter box . . . . . . .1/group Even though circular motion is inherently more com-
triple-beam balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1/group plicated than linear motion, some very close analo-
gies can be made between the two in the case where
an object is spinning rigidly. (An examples of non-
rigid rotation would be a hurricane, in which the
Goal inner parts complete a rotation more rapidly than
the outer parts.) In analogy to Newton’s first law,
Test the equation τtotal = Iα, which relates an ob- Ftotal = ma, we have
ject’s angular acceleration to its own moment of in-
ertia and to the total torque applied to it. τtotal = Iα ,
where the angular acceleration α replaces the linear
acceleration a, the total torque plays the role given
Introduction to the total force, and the moment of inertia I is
Newton’s first law, which states that motion in a used instead of the mass. In this lab, you are going
straight line goes on forever in the absence of a force, to release an unbalanced rotating system — a meter
was especially difficult for scientists to work out be- stick on an axle with weights attached to it — and
cause long-lasting circular motion seemed much more measure its angular acceleration in response to the
prevalent in the universe than long-lasting linear mo- nonzero gravitational torque on it.
tion. The sun, moon and stars appeared to move Every equation you learned for constant acceleration
in never-ending circular paths around the sky. A can also be adapted to the case of rotation with con-
spinning top could continue its motion for a much stant angular acceleration, simply by translating all
longer time than a book sliding across a table. Ren the variables. For instance, the equation vf2 = 2ax
Descartes (b. 1596) came close to stating a law of in- for an object accelerating from rest can be translated
ertia like Newton’s, but he thought that matter was into the valid rotational formula ωf2 = 2aθ.
made out of tiny spinning vortices, like whirlwinds
mr2 ,
P
of dust. Galileo, who among Newton’s predecessors The moment of inertia is defined as I =
came closest to stating a law of inertia, was also con- where m can be thought of as the mass of an indi-
fused by the issue of circular versus linear inertia. An vidual atom comprising the rotating body, and r is
advocate of the Copernican system, in which the ap- the distance of that atom from the axis of rotation.
parent rotation of the sun, stars and moon was due The word “moment” in “moment of inertia” does
to the Earth’s rotation, he knew that the apparently not refer to a moment in time, but is used instead
motionless ground, trees, and mountains around him in a more old-fashioned sense of “importance” or
must be moving in circles as the Earth turned. Was “weight,” as in “matters of great moment.” The
this because inertia naturally caused things to move idea is that the factor of r2 gives more importance
in circles? to the an atom that is far from the axis of rotation.
Newton, like other giants of science, saw how to focus Because the symbol I is used, there is a tendency
on the simple rather than the complex. His law of for students to refer to it as “inertia,” but inertia
is a different and nonquantitative concept, referring
43
Observations ∆θ. Measuring this angle accurately is there-
fore vital in order to get a good result. A
Now add the extra weight so that the meter stick protractor cannot measure an angle this small
is slightly unbalanced. The idea of this lab is to with sufficient accuracy. Use trigonometry to
release the meter stick and use the photogate to find determine this angle.
how quickly it is moving once it has rotated through
some angle, using the photogate to find the amount It’s easiest if you use radian measure through-
of time required for the tip of the meter stick to pass out. The equation τtotal = Iα is only true if a
through the photogate. From your measurement of is measured in radians/s2 .
∆t using the photogate, you can find ω = ∆θ/∆t,
which is an approximation to the meter stick’s final The sliding bracket and hook contribute both
angular velocity. Instructions for using the computer to the total torque and the moment of inertia,
software are given in appendix 6; you want the mode so you’ll have to weigh them.
for measuring how long the photogate was blocked.
Once you know the meter stick’s final value of ω, Prelab
you can extract the angular acceleration. This can
then be compared with the theoretical value of the The point of the prelab questions is to make sure
angular acceleration from τtotal = Iα. you understand what you’re doing, why you’re do-
ing it, and how to avoid some common mistakes. If
Tips: you don’t know the answers, make sure to come to
my office hours before lab and get help! Otherwise
You may want to put something under the ful- you’re just setting yourself up for failure in lab.
crum base to raise everything up higher. P1 Derive an equation for the experimental value
of the angular acceleration, expressed in terms of
Although the balanced configuration, with τtotal = quantities you will actually measure directly, includ-
0, still has τtotal = 0 no matter what angle it ing the quantities θ and ∆θ defined in the figure be-
is at, the torque exerted by the extra weight low. Note that this lab is exactly analogous to the
does depend a little on what angle the meter previous lab where you found a linear acceleration
stick is at. This is because of the factor of using a similar setup.
sin θ in the definition τ = rF sin θ. Since the
torque is not constant, the angular accelera-
tion is not constant, leading to complications.
You can avoid this problem by confining all
your measurements to a fairly small range of
positions near horizontal. As long as θ is fairly
close to 90 ◦ , sin θ is extremely close to 1, and
it is a good enough approximation to assume a
constant torque rF producing a constant an-
gular acceleration. For instance, as long as θ
is within 20 ◦ above or below horizontal, sin θ
changes by no more than 0.06.
Although you want to work only with nearly P2 Why would it not be meaningful to try to deal
horizontal positions of the meter stick so that with the meter stick’s velocity, rather than its angu-
the torque is approximately constant, you also lar velocity?
need to make sure that the total angle tra-
versed by the meter stick is still reasonably
large compared to the angle traversed while the Self-Check
meter stick is blocking the photogate. Other- Do all your analysis in lab.
wise your measurement of ω = ∆θ/∆t will not
be a good approximation to the final instanta-
neous angular velocity. Analysis
As you will find in your prelab, the angular ac- Extract theoretical and experimental values of the
celeration depends on the square of the angle angular acceleration from your data, and compare
45
16 Absolute Zero
Note to the lab technician: The dessicant needs to
be dry before the experiment. If it’s blue, it’s dry. If
it’s pink, it needs to be pumped on for a few hours
with a vacuum pump while heating it with a hair
dryer.
Apparatus
gas capillary tube
large test tube
mercury thermometer
glass syringe
electric heating pad
oven mitts
latex tubing
ice
string
funnels
it reaches the boiling point.) If the water starts boil-
ing before you’re ready, just turn off the heat and
reheat it later – it doesn’t cool off very fast.
Introduction
The capillary tube is sealed at the bottom and open
If heat is a form of random molecular motion, then at the top, with a large bulb full of dessicant just
it makes sense that there is some minimum temper- below the top to keep the air inside dry. There is
ature at which the molecules aren’t moving at all. a small amount of mercury inside the tube. Right
With fancy equipment, physicists have gotten sam- now, the mercury is probably “floured,” i.e. broken
ples of matter to within a fraction of a degree above up into small pieces sticking on the sides of the tube.
absolute zero, but they have never actually reached The idea is to collect the mercury into a single drop,
absolute zero (and the laws of thermodynamics ac- with a sample of air trapped in the capillary tube
tually imply that they never can). Nevertheless, we under it. The mercury simply acts as a seal. As the
can determine how cold absolute zero is without even air is heated and cooled, it expands and contracts,
getting very close to it. Kinetic theory tells us that and you can measure its volume by watching the
the volume of an ideal gas is proportional to how mercury seal rise and drop. By the way, don’t be
high it is above absolute zero. In this lab, you’ll scared of the mercury; mercury vapor is a deadly
measure the volume of a sample of air at tempera- poison, but liquid mercury is entirely harmless unless
tures between 0 and 100 degrees C, and determine you ingest it or get it in an open cut. There is a small
where absolute zero lies by extrapolating to the tem- filter made of glass wool at the top end of the bulb,
perature at which it would have had zero volume. which will keep the mercury from getting out.
Remove the gas syringe from the box, being care-
Observations ful not to let the glass plunger drop out and break.
Connect it to the capillary tube with a piece of tub-
Tie a short piece of string to the thermometer so ing.
that you’ll be able to pull it back out of the beaker
when you want to without dipping your hands in First you need to get the mercury into a single blob
hot water. Start heating the water up to the boiling in the cavity at the top of the capillary, where it
point. (If you leave the thermometer in the water widens out just below the bulb. If it’s already form-
while it’s heating, you’ll be able to observe later the ing a seal across the capillary tube, you won’t be
interesting fact that the water stops heating up once able to get it to move, because it’s trapped between
the pressures of the inside air and the outside air.
47
17 The Clement-Desormes Experiment
Although the theory that matter was made of atoms tion is a slow process, we can treat this as insulated
started to be talked about seriously by scientists as expansion, as discussed in Appendix 2 of Simple Na-
early as Galileo’s time, scientists generally didn’t ture. If the gas is a monoatomic one, such as helium,
think of it as something that was literally true. They then the amount of cooling of the gas, as proved in
considered the atomic theory to be a useful model, the book, is given by the relation T ∝ P b , where
but they thought that any fundamental explanation b = 2/5. If the gas is not monoatomic, however, then
of real-world phenomena should avoid talking about its molecules can rotate,1 and at any given time some
hypothetical things like atoms. This feeling was so of its energy is in the form of kinetic energy along the
strong that the physicist Ludwig Boltzmann, who x, y, and z axes, but some is in the form of rotational
came up with an atomic explanation of entropy, was kinetic energy. Extracting a given amount of energy
driven to suicide by the harsh criticism to which his from a diatomic or polyatomic gas, therefore, doesn’t
ideas were subjected. Even more suspect than the cool it as much as it would cool a monoatomic gas,
existence of atoms was any attempt to discuss things and it turns out that b = 2/7 for a diatomic gas, and
like the shapes of molecules that could be formed 1/4 for a polyatomic gas.2
by putting them together like tinkertoys; such ideas
Wait one minute for the air to warm back up to room
seemed much too far removed from the possibility of
temperature. The pressure comes back up somewhat
any experimental testing.
as the air warms back up, and although you should
Surprisingly, then a simple experiment, due to Clement wait a full minute to make sure it’s back in thermal
and Desormes, is capable of distinguishing two sam- equilibrium, most of the rewarming occurs during
ples of gas that differ only by the shape of their the first few seconds after you finish venting the ini-
molecules, even if the gases have the same density tial pressure. The pressure will recover to a value
and are composed of molecules having the same mass. p2 which is less than p1 . The ratio p2 /p1 gives the
value of b for the gas.3
I’m still working on improving this lab, and may
have more information to add to this. The basic
idea I have in mind is to have you do the lab once
with air, and once with helium, and observe the dif-
ference in the results due to the different shapes of
the molecules. There are various systematic errors
in the experiment, so my own absolute results for
the b of air haven’t been of extremely high preci-
sion; however, in a comparative experiment, I think
it will be easy to see a difference in b between air
and helium. I also want to try using dessicant to
dry out the air, since water vapor messes up the
thermodynamic properties of the air, because water
droplets can condense out of the air when the pres-
sure is dropped suddenly, just like opening a can of
Use the glass syringe to apply a slight overpressure beer.
to the air inside the flask, causing the difference in
height between the water in the two sides of the
manometer to be about 30 cm. Wait one minute to
make sure the air is in thermal equilibrium with the
room, and then take a pressure reading, p1 . Release 1 An individual atom in a monoatomic gas has essentially
the pressure by popping the cork for precisely one all its mass concentrated in the nucleus exactly at its center,
second, timed on a stopwatch. The air cools slightly so it takes an effectively infinite amount of energy to make it
rotate with a certain amount of angular momentum.
due to its free expansion, because it does mechan- 2 You’ll often see this stated in terms of the variable γ =
ical work as it exits throught the valve. However, 1/(1 − b), which takes on the values 5/3, 7/5, and 4/3.
because the expansion is rapid, and heat conduc- 3 In terms of the variable γ, we have γ = p /(p − p ).
1 1 2
Goal
Find out how the period of a pendulum depends on
its length and mass, and on the amplitude of its
swing. From a to g is one full period of the pendulum. From a
to e is not a full period. Even though the pendulum has
returned at e to its original position in a, it is moving in the
Introduction opposite direction, and has not performed every type of
motion it will ever perform.
Until the industrial revolution, the interest of the
world’s cultures in the measurement of time was al-
most entirely concentrated on the construction of
calendars, so that agricultural cycles could be an-
ticipated. Although the Egyptians were the first to
divide the day and night into 12 hours, there was no
technology for measuring time units smaller than a
day with great accuracy until four thousand years
later.
Galileo was the first to realize that a pendulum could
be used to measure time accurately — previously, he
had been using his own pulse to measure the time re-
quired for objects to roll down inclined planes. The
legend is that the idea came to him while he watched
The amplitude of a repetitive motion is a way of
a chandelier swinging during a church service. Sen-
describing the amount of motion. We can define
tenced to house arrest for suspicion of heresy, he
the amplitude, A, of the pendulum’s motion as the
spent the last years of his life trying to build a more
maximum angle to which it rises, i.e. half the total
practical pendulum clock that would run for long
angle swept out. Let us denote the mass of the bob,
periods of time without tending. This technical feat
or weight at the end of the pendulum, by m, and
was only achieved later by Christian Huygens. Along
the length of the pendulum, from the pivot to the
with the Chinese invention of the compass, accurate
middle of the weight, as L.
clocks were vital for European exploration by sea,
because longitude can only be determined by astro-
nomical observations combined with accurate mea- Observations
surements of time.
Make observations to determine how the period, T ,
depends on A, L, and m. You will want to use the
51
niques outlined in appendix 5 to see if you can find
an equation describing the relationship between the
period and that variable. Assume that the equation
is of the form
T = cxp ,
Goals
Observe the phenomenon of resonance.
Investigate how the width of a resonance de-
pends on the amount of damping. Electrical setup, top view.
Observations
A Period of Free Vibrations
Start without any of the electrical stuff hooked up.
Twist the disk to one side, release it, and determine
its period of vibration. (Both here and at points
later in the lab, you can improve your accuracy by
Simplified mechanical drawing of the vibrator, front view. timing ten periods and dividing the result by ten.)
This is the natural period of the vibrations, i.e. the
period with which they occur in the absence of any
driving force.
Apparatus
In this lab you will investigate the phenomenon of B Damping
resonance using the apparatus shown in the figure. Note the coils of wire at the bottom of the disk.
If the motor is stopped so that the arms are locked in These are electromagnets. Their purpose is not to
place, the metal disk can still swing clockwise and attract the disk magnetically (in fact the disk is
counterclockwise because it is attached to the up- made of a nonmagnetic metal) but rather to increase
right rod with a flexible spiral spring. A push on the the amount of damping in the system. Whenever a
54 Lab 19 Resonance
metal is moved through a magnetic field, the elec- Three of the vibrators have broken “motoranschluβ”
trons in the metal are made to swirl around. As connections; they are marked. If you have one of
they eddy like this, they undergo random collisions these, you need to connect the power supply to the
with atoms, causing the atoms to vibrate. Vibration other plugs, and control the motor’s frequency from
of atoms is heat, so where did this heat energy come the power supply knob. Since this makes it difficult
from ultimately? In our system, the only source of to control the frequency accurately, you should do
energy is the energy of the vibrating disk. The net the low-Q setup in part F.
effect is thus to suck energy out of the vibration and
Set the damping current to the higher of the two
convert it into heat. Although this magnetic and
values. Turn on the motor and drive the system at a
electrical effect is entirely different from mechanical
frequency very different from its natural frequency.
friction, the result is the same. Creating damping in
You will notice that it takes a certain amount of
this manner has the advantage that it can be made
time, perhaps a minute or two, for the system to
stronger or weaker simply by increasing or decreas-
settle into a steady pattern of vibration. This is
ing the strength of the magnetic field.
called the steady-state response to the driving force
Turn off all the electrical equipment and leave it un- of the motor.
plugged. Connect the circuit shown in the top left
Does the system respond by vibrating at its natural
of the electrical diagram, consisting of a power sup-
frequency, at the same frequency as the motor, or at
ply to run the electromagnet plus a meter . You do
some frequency in between?
not yet need the power supply for driving the motor.
The meter will tell you how much electrical current D Resonance
is flowing through the electromagnet, which will give
With your damping current still set to the higher
you a numerical measure of how strong your damp-
value, try different motor frequencies, and observe
ing is. It reads out in units of amperes (A), the
how strong the steady-state response is. At what
metric unit of electrical current. Although this does
motor frequency do you obtain the strongest response?
not directly tell you the amount of damping force in
units of newtons (the force depends on velocity), the You can save yourself some time if you think of this
force is proportional to the current. part and part F as one unit, and plan ahead so that
the data you take now are also the data you need for
Once you have everything hooked up, check with
part F.
your instructor before plugging things in and turn-
ing them on. If you do the setup wrong, you could E Resonance Strength
blow a fuse, which is no big deal, but a more seri-
ous goof would be to put too much current through Set the motor to the resonant frequency, i.e. the
the electromagnet, which could burn it up, perma- frequency at which you have found you obtain the
nently ruining it. Once your instructor has checked strongest response. Now measure the amplitude of
this part of the electrical setup she/he will show you the vibrations you obtain with each of the two damp-
how to monitor the current on the meter to make ing currents. How does the strength of the resonance
sure that you never have too much. depend on damping?
The Q of an oscillator is defined as the number of With low amounts of damping, I have sometimes en-
oscillations required for damping to reduce the en- countered a problem where the system, when driven
ergy of the vibrations by a factor of 535 (a definition near resonance, never really settles down into a steady
originating from the quantity e2π ). As planned in state. The amplitude varies dramatically from one
your prelab, measure the Q of the system with the minute to the next, perhaps because the power sup-
electromagnet turned off, then with a current of 300 ply is not stable enough to control the driving fre-
mA through the electromagnet, and then 600 mA. quency consistently enough. If this happens to you,
You will be using these two current values through- check with your instructor.
out the lab. F Width of the Resonance
C Frequency of Driven Vibration Now measure the response of the system for a large
Now connect the DC power supply (circular black number of driving frequencies, so that you can graph
and red plugs) on your lab bench to the terminals the resonance curve and determine the width of the
on the motor labeled “motoranschluβ.” The coarse resonance. Concentrate on the area near the top
and fine adjustments to the speed of the motor are and sides of the peak, which is what’s important for
marked “groβ” (gross) and “fein” (fine). finding the FWHM.
55
To make this part less time-consuming, your instruc-
tor will assign your group to do only one of the two
graphs, low-Q or high-Q. Each group will have their
own data for one Q and another group’s data for
another Q.
Prelab
The point of the prelab questions is to make sure
you understand what you’re doing, why you’re do-
ing it, and how to avoid some common mistakes. If
you don’t know the answers, make sure to come to
my office hours before lab and get help! Otherwise
you’re just setting yourself up for failure in lab.
P1 Plan how you will determine the Q of your os-
cillator in part B. [Hint: Note that the energy of a
vibration is proportional to the square of the ampli-
tude.]
Self-Check
Make your graphs for part F (see below), and see if
they make sense. Make sure to make the frequency
axis expanded enough to get an accurate FWHM
from the graph,
Analysis
Compare your observations in parts C, D, and E
with theory.
For part F, construct graphs with the square of the
amplitude on the y axis and the frequency on the
x axis. The reason for using the square of the am-
plitude is that the standard way of specifying the
width of a resonance peak is to give its full width at
half resonance (FWHM), which is measured between
the two points where the energy of the steady-state
vibration equals half its maximum value. Energy is
proportional to the square of the amplitude. Deter-
mine the FWHM of the resonance for each value of
the damping current, and find whether the expected
relationship exists between Q and FWHM; make a
numerical test, not just a qualitative one. Obviously
there is no way you can get an accurate FWHM if
the peak is only as wide as a pencil on the graph —
make an appropriate choice of the range of frequen-
cies on the x axis.
56 Lab 19 Resonance
57
20 Resonance (short version)
This is a simplified version of lab 19, meant to intro-
duce some concepts related to mechanical resonance,
without any detailed data-taking.
Apparatus
vibrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
Thornton power supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
stopwatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
multimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
banana plug cables
Apparatus
Learn how to visualize phases and amplitudes In this lab you will investigate the phenomenon of
in a plane. resonance using the apparatus shown in the figure.
If the motor is stopped so that the arms are locked in
place, the metal disk can still swing clockwise and
Introduction counterclockwise because it is attached to the up-
To break a wine glass, an opera singer has to sing right rod with a flexible spiral spring. A push on the
the right note. To hear a radio signal, you have to disk will result in vibrations that persist for quite
be tuned to the right frequency. These are examples a while before the internal friction in the spring re-
of the phenomenon of resonance: a vibrating system duces their amplitude to an imperceptible level. This
will respond most strongly to a force that varies with would be an example of a free vibration, in which
a particular frequency. energy is steadily lost in the form of heat, but no
external force pumps in energy to replace it.
Suppose instead that you initially stop the disk, but
then turn on the electric motor. There is no rigid
mechanical link to the disk, since the motor and disk
are only connected through the very flexible spiral
spring. But the motor will gently tighten and loosen
the spring, resulting in the gradual building up of a
vibration in the disk.
Observations
A Period of Free Vibrations
Start without any of the electrical stuff hooked up.
Twist the disk to one side, release it, and use the
stopwatch to determine its natural period of vibra-
Simplified mechanical drawing of the vibrator, front view. tion. (Both here and at points later in the lab, you
can improve your accuracy by timing ten periods
and dividing the result by ten.)
59
should be able to estimate it to the nearest multiple
of 45 ◦ . Measure the amplitude of the steady-state
response as well.
Now measure the phase and amplitude of the re-
sponse when the driving force is at the resonant fre-
quency.
Finally, do the same measurements when the driving
force is significantly above resonance.
The point of this is to connect the mechanical analog
to what you know about the phase response of a
resonant LRC circuit. You’re measuring the phase
between F and x, which is analogous to the phase
between V and q in electrical terms. However, most
people think of AC circuits in terms of V and I, not
V and q. The phase relationships you’re expecting,
therefore, are those that would hold between F and
v = dx/dt, which differ by 90 degrees from the F − x
phases you actually measured as raw data.
Prelab
The point of the prelab questions is to make sure
you understand what you’re doing, why you’re do-
ing it, and how to avoid some common mistakes. If
you don’t know the answers, make sure to come to
my office hours before lab and get help! Otherwise
you’re just setting yourself up for failure in lab.
P1 Plan how you will determine the Q of your os-
cillator in part B. [Hint: Note that the energy of a
vibration is proportional to the square of the ampli-
tude.]
The Greek philosopher Pythagoras is said to have You may find it helpful to put a strip of white butcher
been the first to observe that two plucked strings paper behind the black string for better visual con-
sounded good together when their lengths were in trast.
the proportion of two small integers. (This is assum- For large values of N , you may find that you need to
ing the strings are of the same material and under use a paperclip instead of the weight holder, in order
the same tension.) For instance, he thought a pleas- to make the mass sufficiently small. Keep in mind,
ant combination of notes was produced when one however, that you won’t really improve the quality
string was twice the length of the other, but that the of your data very much by taking data for very high
combination was unpleasant when the ratio was, say, values of N , since the 1-gram precision with which
1.4 to 1 (like the notes B and F). Although different you can locate these resonances results in a poor
combinations of notes are used in different cultures relative precision compared to a small weight.
and different styles of music, there is at least some
scientific justification for Pythagoras’ statement. We
now know that a plucked string does not just vibrate Prelab
at a single frequency but simultaneously at a whole
series of frequencies f1 , 2f1 , 3f1 ,... These frequen- The point of the prelab questions is to make sure
cies are called the harmonics. If one string is twice you understand what you’re doing, why you’re do-
the length of the other, then its lowest harmonic is at ing it, and how to avoid some common mistakes. If
half the frequency of the other string’s, and its har- you don’t know the answers, make sure to come to
monics coincide with the odd-numbered harmonics my office hours before lab and get help! Otherwise
of the other string. If the ratio is 1.4 to 1, however, you’re just setting yourself up for failure in lab.
then there is essentially no regular relationship be- P1 Should the whole length of the string be counted
tween the two sets of frequencies, and many of the in L, or just the part from the vibrator to the pulley?
harmonics lie close enough in frequency to produce
unpleasant beats. P2 How is the tension in the string, T , related to
the mass of the hanging weight?
P3 How can the velocity of the waves be deter-
mined if you know the frequency, f , the length of
Self-Check
Do your analysis in lab.
Analysis
Use the techniques given in appendix 5 to see if you
can find a power-law relationship between the veloc-
ity of the waves in the string and the tension in the
string. (Do not just try to find the correct power
law in the textbook, because besides observing the
phenomenon of resonance, the point of the lab is to
prove experimentally what the power-law relation-
ship is.)
63
22 Resonances of Sound
Apparatus to westerners partly because the various gongs and
cymbals have overtones that are not integer multi-
wave generator (HP 200) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group ples of the fundamental.)
speaker (Thornton) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
100 mL graduated cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group One of the things that would make “A” on a clarinet
Linux computers with FFT Explorer installed (in sound different from “A” on a saxophone is that the
416 and 416P) 880 Hz overtone would be quite strong for the sax-
flexible whistling tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 ophone, but almost entirely missing for the clarinet.
tuning fork marked with frequency, mounted on a Although Helmholtz thought the relative strengths
wooden box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 of the overtones was the whole story when it came
aluminum rod, 3/4-inch dia, about 1 m long to musical timbre, actually it is more complex than
2 that, which is why electronic synthesizers still do not
sound as good as acoustic instruments. The timbre
depends not just on the general strength of the over-
Goals tones but on the details of how they first build up
(the attack) and how the various overtones fade in
Find the resonant frequencies of the air inside and out slightly as the note continues.
a cylinder by two methods.
Why do different instruments have different sound
Measure the speeds of sound in air and in alu- spectra, and why, for instance, does a saxophone
minum. have an overtone that the clarinet lacks? Many mu-
sical instruments can be analyzed physically as tubes
that have either two open ends, two closed ends, or
Introduction one open end and one closed end. The overtones
correspond to specific resonances of the air column
In the womb, your first sensory experiences were of inside the tube. A complete treatment of the subject
your mother’s voice, and soon after birth you learned is given in your textbook, but the basic principle is
to distinguish the particular sounds of your parents’ that the resonant standing waves in the tube must
voices from those of strangers. The human ear-brain have an antinode (point of maximum vibration) at
system is amazingly sophisticated in its ability to any closed end of the tube, and a node (point of zero
classify vowels and consonants, recognize people’s vibration) at any open end.
voices, and analyze musical sound. Until the 19th-
century investigations of Helmholtz, the whole pro-
Using the Wave Generator
cess was completely mysterious. How could we so
easily tell a cello from a violin playing the same note?
A radio station in Chicago has a weekly contest in The wave generator works like the amplifier of your
which jazz fanatics are asked to identify instrumen- stereo, but instead of playing a CD, it produces a
talists simply by their distinctly individual timbres sine wave whose frequency and amplitude you can
— how is this possible? control. By connecting it to a speaker, you can con-
vert its electrical currents to sound waves, making
Helmholtz found (using incredibly primitive nonelec-
a pure tone. The frequency of the sine wave corre-
tronic equipment) that part of the answer lay in the
sponds to musical pitch, and the amplitude corre-
relative strengths of the overtones. The psychologi-
sponds to loudness.
cal sensation of pitch is related to frequency, e.g. 440
Hz is the note “A.” But a saxophonist playing the The gigantic knob is the fine adjustment of the fre-
note “A” is actually producing a rich spectrum of quency.
frequencies, including 440 Hz, 880 Hz, 1320 Hz, and
The knob labeled x1, x10, etc. is the coarse adjust-
many other multiples of the lowest frequency, known
ment of the frequency.
as the fundamental. The ear-brain system perceives
all these overtones as a single sound because they are The frequency emitted by the wave generator (in
all multiples of the fundamental frequency. (The Ja- Hz) equals the number on the fine adjustment knob
vanese orchestra called the gamelan sounds strange multiplied by the number shown on the coarse ad-
65
be fixed by logging out, and then logging back wait for the transverse wave to die out before you
in again. freeze the graph on the computer.
Observations
Introduction
Stick a piece of scotch tape on a table, and then lay
Newton’s law of gravity gave a mathematical for- another piece on top of it. Pull both pieces off the
mula for the gravitational force, but his theory also table, and then separate them. If you now bring
made several important non-mathematical statements them close together, you will observe them exerting
about gravity: a force on each other. Electrical effects can also be
created by rubbing the fur against the rubber rod.
Every mass in the universe attracts every other Your job in this lab is to use these techniques to
mass in the universe. test various hypotheses about electric charge. The
most common difficulty students encounter is that
Gravity works the same for earthly objects as
the charge tends to leak off, especially if the weather
for heavenly bodies.
is humid. If you have charged an object up, you
The force acts at a distance, without any need should not wait any longer than necessary before
for physical contact. making your measurements. It helps if you keep your
hands dry.
Mass is always positive, and gravity is always
attractive, not repulsive. A Repulsion and/or attraction
Test the following hypotheses. Note that they are
The last statement is interesting, especially because mutually exclusive, i.e. only one of them can be
it would be fun and useful to have access to some true.
negative mass, which would fall up instead of down A1) Electrical forces are always attractive.
(like the “upsydaisium” of Rocky and Bullwinkle
fame). A2) Electrical forces are always repulsive.
Although it has never been found, there is no theo- A3) Electrical forces are sometimes attractive and
retical reason why a second, negative type of mass sometimes repulsive.
can’t exist. Indeed, it is believed that the nuclear Interpretation: Once you think you have tested these
force, which holds quarks together to form protons hypotheses fairly well, discuss with your instructor
and neutrons, involves three qualities analogous to what this implies about how many different types of
mass. These are facetiously referred to as “red,” charge there might be.
“green,” and “blue,” although they have nothing to
do with the actual colors. The force between two of
the same “colors” is repulsive: red repels red, green
repels green, and blue repels blue. The force be-
tween two different “colors” is attractive: red and
69
24 The Oscilloscope
Apparatus light bulb or an electric stove. It heats the cathode,
causing a small fraction of the electrons in it to be
oscilloscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group ejected from the surface of the metal by thermal vi-
microphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group bration. These freed electrons are then accelerated
sine wave generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group by the strong electric field existing between the cath-
amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group ode and anode, which together form a parallel plate
various tuning forks capacitor. The anode has a small hole in it, which
lets the electrons through without having much ef-
fect on the electric field between the plates. Two
more capacitors, the deflection plates, serve to steer
Goals the beam. For clarity, the electrical connections of
Learn to use an oscilloscope. the capacitors to the outside of the tube are omit-
ted, as are several other capacitor plates that serve
to make the beam narrower.
Observe sound waves on an oscilloscope.
In your television, the beam is swept over the screen
in a repetitive pattern, moving across the screen,
Introduction then stepping down one line, and so on. To the hu-
man eye-brain system, it is not usually evident that
One of the main differences you will notice between
the picture is being continually created and recre-
your second semester of physics and the first is that
ated, although if you wave your hand in front of a
many of the phenomena you will learn about are
TV screen, you will see a stroboscopic pattern be-
not directly accessible to your senses. For example,
cause it is only at certain specific moments that your
electric fields, the flow of electrons in wires, and the
hand blocks the same part of the screen that is be-
inner workings of the atom are all invisible. The
ing illuminated. In a color television, tiny red, green
oscilloscope is a versatile laboratory instrument that
and blue fluorescent dots are arranged in a repeat-
can indirectly help you to see what’s going on.
ing pattern — there is only one electron beam, not
three.
The Cathode Ray Tube
The Oscilloscope
The essential part of an oscilloscope is a cathode ray
tube (CRT), a glass tube with a vacuum inside. The
An oscilloscope is not meant to fill the whole screen
picture tube of your television is a more familiar type
with a picture like a TV picture tube but rather to
of CRT. A beam of electrons is created and steered
produce a graph on the screen showing how an elec-
to the desired location on the screen. The vacuum
trical signal varies over time. A 1-cm grid is perma-
is necessary because air inside the tube would stop
nently drawn on the front of the CRT, and the elec-
the electrons within a few centimeters. The screen
tron beam creates a glowing green curve or “trace”
is coated on the inside with a fluorescent material so
behind it for the graph itself. In this lab, you will
that it glows when the beam hits it. The term “cath-
be using the signal from a microphone as an input,
ode ray tube” originated before subatomic particles
allowing you to see sound waves. The input signal
such as electrons were known to exist — the tube was
is supplied in the form of a voltage, usually through
invented by trial and error, without understanding
a cable known as a BNC cable.
the nature of the mysterious “ray” that came from
the cathode. “Cathode ray” is simply an archaic A BNC cable is a specific example of coaxial cable
synonym for “beam of electrons.” Until the 1960’s, (“coax”), which is also used in cable TV, radio, and
all electrical devices contained many small vacuum computer networks. The current flows in one direc-
tubes, but now the CRT is probably the only type tion through the central conductor, and returns in
of vacuum tube left in your home that has not been the opposite direction through the outside conduc-
replaced by transistors. tor, completing the circuit. The outside conductor is
normally kept at ground, and also serves as shielding
The heater is simply a coil of wire like that in a
71
on the screen, each shifted horizontally by a differ- that is alternating, creating an alternating cur-
ent amount, and you would only see a blurry band rent, “AC.” The “DC” setting is only neces-
of light. sary when dealing with constant or very slowly
varying voltages. The “GND” simply draws a
To make sure that each trace starts from the same
graph using y = 0, which is only useful in cer-
point in the waveform, the scope has a triggering cir-
tain situations, such as when you can’t find the
cuit. You use a knob to set a certain voltage level,
trace.
the trigger level, at which you want to start each
trace. The scope waits for the input to move across
the trigger level, and then begins a trace. Once that Make sure the beam intensity is not all the way
trace is complete, it pauses until the input crosses down.
the trigger level again. To make extra sure that it is
really starting over again from the same point in the
waveform, you can also specify whether you want to Now try adjusting the trigger level until you see a
start on an increasing voltage or a decreasing volt- steady trace. If you still can’t find a signal, check
age — otherwise there would always be at least two with your instructor.
points in a period where the voltage crossed your Observe the effect of changing the voltage scale and
trigger level. time base on the scope. Try changing the frequency
and amplitude on the sine wave generator.
Setup
To start with, we’ll use a sine wave generator, which Preliminary Observations
makes a voltage that varies sinusoidally with time. Now try observing signals from the microphone. By
This gives you a convenient signal to work with while feeding the mic’s signal through the amplifier and
you get the scope working. then to the scope, you can make the signals easier
to see.
Preliminaries:
Once you have your setup working, try measuring
the period and frequency of the sound from a tuning
fork, and make sure your result for the frequency is
Put the time base on something reasonable the same as what’s written on the tuning fork.
compared to the period of the signal you’re Don’t crank the gain on the amplifier all the way
looking at. up. If you do, the amplifier will put out a distorted
waveform. Use the highest gain you can use without
Put the voltage scale (Y axis) on a reasonable
causing distortion.
scale compared to the amplitude of the signal
you’re looking at.
Observations
The scope has two channels, i.e. it can ac-
cept input through two BNC connectors and A Periodic and nonperiodic speech sounds
display both or either. Make sure you’re dis-
Try making various speech sounds that you can sus-
playing the same one you’ve hooked up the ca-
tain continuously: vowels or certain consonants such
ble to, and make sure you’re triggering on that
as “sh,” “r,” “f” and so on. Which are periodic and
channel as well.
which are not?
Make sure the triggering is set to “normal” Note that the names we give to the letters of the
mode, which means that it will act as I’ve de- alphabet in English are not the same as the speech
scribed above. sounds represented by the letter. For instance, the
English name for “f” is “ef,” which contains a vowel,
Set the trigger to positive triggering (triggering “e,” and a consonant, “f.” We are interested in the
on an increasing voltage that passes through basic speech sounds, not the names of the letters.
the trigger level). Also, a single letter is often used in the English writ-
ing system to represent two sounds. For example,
Select AC, not DC or GND, on the channel the word “I” really has two vowels in it, “aaah” plus
you’re using. You are looking at a voltage “eee.”
Prelab
The point of the prelab questions is to make sure
you understand what you’re doing, why you’re do-
ing it, and how to avoid some common mistakes. If
you don’t know the answers, make sure to come to
my office hours before lab and get help! Otherwise
you’re just setting yourself up for failure in lab.
P1 In the sample oscilloscope trace shown above,
what is the period of the waveform? What is its
frequency? The time base is 10 ms.
P2 In the same example, again assume the time
base is 10 ms/division. The voltage scale is 2 mV/division.
Assume the zero voltage level is at the middle of
the vertical scale. (The whole graph can actually be
shifted up and down using a knob called “position.”)
What is the trigger level currently set to? If the trig-
ger level was changed to 2 mV, what would happen
to the trace?
P3 Referring to the chapter of your textbook on
sound, which of the following would be a reasonable
time base to use for an audio-frequency signal? 10
ns, 1µ s, 1 ms, 1 s
P4 Does the oscilloscope show you the period of
the signal, or the wavelength? Explain. (If you’re in
Physics 222, skip this one, because you don’t know
about the definition of wavelength yet.)
Analysis
The format of the lab writeup can be informal. Just
describe clearly what you observed and concluded.
73
25 The Speed of Sound
Based on a lab by Hans Rau. range, is used for imaging fetuses in the womb.
Apparatus
oscilloscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
optical bench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
HP function generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/group
Goal
Measure the speed of sound.
Setup
The setup is shown below. A transducer is a de-
Introduction vice capable of acting as either a speaker or a micro-
There are several simple methods for getting a rough phone. The function generator is used to create a
estimate of the speed of sound, for instance tim- voltage that varies sinusoidally over time. This volt-
ing an echo, or watching the kettledrum player at age is connected through two coax cables, to the os-
a symphony and seeing how long the sound takes to cilloscope and the first transducer, used as a speaker.
arrive after you see the mallet strike the drumhead. The sound waves travel from the first transducer to
The latter method, comparing vision against hear- the second transducer, used as a microphone. You
ing, assumes that the speed of light is much greater will be using both channels of the scope to display
than the speed of sound, the same assumption that graphs of two waveforms at the same time on the
is used when estimating the distance to a lightning oscilloscope. As you slide one transducer along the
strike based on the interval between the flash and optical bench, changing the distance between them,
the thunder. The assumption is a good one, since you will change the phase of one wave relative to the
light travels about a million times faster than sound. other. Thus, you can determine the distance corre-
Military jets routinely exceed the speed of sound, sponding to a given number of wavelengths and ex-
but no human has ever traveled at speeds even re- tract the wavelength of the sound waves accurately.
motely comparable to that of light. (The electrons The wavelength of the sound will be roughly a few
in your television set are moving at a few percent of cm. The frequency can be read from the knob on
the speed of light, and velocities of 0.999999999999 the function generator. (The time scale of an os-
times the speed of light can be attained in particle cilloscope typically has a systematic error of about
accelerators. According to Einstein’s theory of rela- 2-5%, so you should not use a measurement of the
tivity, motion faster than light is impossible.) period from the scope for this purpose.)
In this lab, you will make an accurate measurement When setting up the scope, you will need to select
of the speed of sound by measuring the wavelength one channel or the other to trigger on. You can
and frequency of a pure tone (sine wave) and com- select the voltage scales for the two channels inde-
puting pendently, but they always have the same time base.
v = λf . The most common problem in this lab is that some
electrical current gets through the metal optical bench,
We will be using sound with a frequency of about causing the receiving transducer to pick up the orig-
35-40 kHz, which is too high to be audible. This has inal input signal directly, rather than by receiving
the advantage of eliminating the annoying din of six the sound waves. A precaution that usually works
lab groups producing sine waves at once. Such high- is to connect the optical bench to the ground con-
frequency, inaudible sound is known as ultrasound. tact of the scope (use an alligator clip to attach to
Ultrasound at even higher frequencies, in the MHz the body of the bench). It is easy to check whether
75
26 Electrical Resistance
Apparatus with non-constant are called non-ohmic. The inter-
esting question is why so many materials are ohmic.
DC power supply (Thornton) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group Since we know that electrons and nuclei are bound
digital multimeters (Fluke and HP) . . . . . . . 2/group together to form atoms, it would be more reasonable
resistors, various values to expect that small voltages, creating small electric
unknown electrical components fields, would be unable to break the electrons and
electrode paste nuclei away from each other, and no current would
alligator clips flow at all — only with fairly large voltages should
spare fuses for multimeters — Let students replace the atoms be split up, allowing current to flow. Thus
fuses themselves. we would expect R to be infinite for small voltages,
and small for large voltages, which would not be
ohmic behavior. It is only within the last 50 years
that a good explanation has been achieved for the
Goals strange observation that nearly all solids and liquids
Measure curves of voltage versus current for are ohmic.
three objects: your body and two unknown
electrical components.
Terminology, Schematics, and Re-
Determine whether they are ohmic, and if so,
determine their resistances.
sistor Color Codes
The word “resistor” usually implies a specific type
of electrical component, which is a piece of ohmic
Introduction material with its shape and composition chosen to
give a desired value of R. Any piece of an ohmic
Your nervous system depends on electrical currents,
substance, however, has a constant value of R, and
and every day you use many devices based on elec-
therefore in some sense constitutes a “resistor.” The
trical currents without even thinking about it. De-
wires in a circuit have electrical resistance, but the
spite its ordinariness, the phenomenon of electric
resistance is usually negligible (a small fraction of an
currents passing through liquids (e.g. cellular flu-
Ohm for several centimeters of wire).
ids) and solids (e.g. copper wires) is a subtle one.
For example, we now know that atoms are composed The usual symbol for a resistor in an electrical schematic
of smaller, subatomic particles called electrons and is this , but some recent schematics use
nuclei, and that the electrons and nuclei are elec- this . The symbol represents a fixed
trically charged, i.e. matter is electrical. Thus, we
now have a picture of these electrically charged par-
ticles sitting around in matter, ready to create an source of voltage such as a battery, while repre-
electric current by moving in response to an exter- sents an adjustable voltage source, such as the power
nally applied voltage. Electricity had been used for supply you will use in this lab.
practical purposes for a hundred years, however, be-
In a schematic, the lengths and shapes of the lines
fore the electrical nature of matter was proven at the
representing wires are completely irrelevant, and are
turn of the 20th century.
usually unrelated to the physical lengths and shapes
Another subtle issue involves Ohm’s law, of the wires. The physical behavior of the circuit
does not depend on the lengths of the wires (un-
∆V
I= , less the length is so great that the resistance of the
R wire becomes non-negligible), and the schematic is
where ∆V is the voltage difference applied across an not meant to give any information other than that
object (e.g. a wire), and I is the current that flows needed to understand the circuit’s behavior. All that
in response. A piece of copper wire, for instance, really matters is what is connected to what.
has a constant value of R over a wide range of volt- For instance, the schematics (a) and (b) above are
ages. Such materials are called ohmic. Materials
Observations
A Unknown component A
Set up the circuit shown above with unknown com-
ponent A. Most of your equipment accepts the ba-
Setup nana plugs that your cables have on each end, but
to connect to RU and RK you need to stick alligator
Obtain your two unknowns from your instructor.
clips on the banana plugs. See Appendix 7 for in-
Group 1 will use unknowns 1A and 1B, group 2 will
formation about how to set up and use the two mul-
use 2A and 2B, and so on.
timeters. Do not use the pointy probes that come
Here is a simplified version of the basic circuit you with the multimeters, because there is no convenient
will use for your measurements of I as a function of way to attach them to the circuit — just use the ba-
∆V . Although I’ve used the symbol for a resistor, nana plug cables. Note when you need three wires to
77
come together at one point, you can plug a banana the slope to extract the resistance (see Appendix 4).
plug into the back of another banana plug.
Measure I as a function of ∆V . Make sure to take
measurements for both positive and negative volt-
ages.
B Unknown component B
Repeat for unknown component B.
You will not want to use the alligator clips. With P4 Would data like these indicate a negative resis-
the power supply turned off, put small dabs of the tance, or did the experimenter just hook something
electrode paste on the subject’s left wrist and just up wrong? If the latter, explain how to fix it.
below the elbow, and simply lay the banana plug
connectors in the paste. The subject should avoid
moving. The paste is necessary because without it,
most of the resistance would come from the connec-
tion through the dry epidermal skin layer, and the
resistance would change erratically. The paste is a
relatively good conductor, and makes a better elec-
trical connection.
Prelab
The point of the prelab questions is to make sure P5 Explain why the following statements about
you understand what you’re doing, why you’re do- the resistor RK are incorrect:
ing it, and how to avoid some common mistakes. If
you don’t know the answers, make sure to come to a) “You have to make RK small compared to RU , so
my office hours before lab and get help! Otherwise it won’t affect things too much.”
you’re just setting yourself up for failure in lab. b) “RK doesn’t affect the measurement of RU , be-
P1 Check that you understand the interpretations cause the meters just measure the total amount the
of the following color-coded resistor labels: power supply is putting out.”
blue gray orange silver = 68 kΩ ± 10% c) “RK doesn’t affect the measurement of RU , be-
blue gray orange gold = 68 kΩ ± 5% cause the current and voltage only go through RK
blue gray red silver = 6.8 kΩ ± 10% after they’ve already gone through RU .”
black brown blue silver = 1 MΩ ± 10%
Now interpret the following color code: Analysis
green orange yellow silver =? Graph I versus ∆V for all three unknowns. Decide
P2 Fit a line to the following sample data and use which ones are ohmic and which are non-ohmic. For
the ones that are ohmic, extract a value for the resis-
79
27 The Loop and Junction Rules
Apparatus sistors. Passing through the first resistor, our sub-
atomic protagonist passes through a voltage differ-
DC power supply (Thornton) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group ence of ∆V1 , so its potential energy changes by −e∆V1 .
multimeter (Fluke) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group To use a human analogy, this would be like going up
resistors a hill of a certain height and gaining some gravi-
tational potential energy. Continuing on, it passes
through more voltage differences, −e∆V2 , −e∆V3 ,
and so on. Finally, in a moment of religious tran-
Goal scendence, the electron realizes that life is one big
Test the loop and junction rules in two electrical circuit — you always end up coming back where you
circuits. started from. If it passed through N resistors be-
fore getting back to its starting point, then the total
change in its potential energy was
Introduction
−e (∆V1 + . . . + ∆VN ) .
If you ask physicists what are the most fundamen-
tally important principles of their science, almost all
But just as there is no such thing as a round-trip
of them will start talking to you about conserva-
hike that is all downhill, it is not possible for the
tion laws. A conservation law is a statement that a
electron to have any net change in potential energy
certain measurable quantity cannot be changed. A
after passing through this loop — if so, we would
conservation law that is easy to understand is the
have created some energy out of nothing. Since the
conservation of mass. No matter what you do, you
total change in the electron’s potential energy must
cannot create or destroy mass.
be zero, it must be true that ∆V1 + . . . + ∆VN = 0.
The two conservation laws with which we will be This is the loop rule:
concerned in this lab are conservation of energy and
The sum of the voltage differences around any closed
conservation of charge. Energy is related to voltage,
loop in a circuit must equal zero.
because voltage is defined as V = P E/q. Charge
is related to current, because current is defined as When you are hiking, there is an important distinc-
I = ∆q/∆t. tion between uphill and downhill, which depends en-
tirely on which direction you happen to be traveling
Conservation of charge has an important consequence
on the trail. Similarly, it is important when apply-
for electrical circuits:
ing the loop rule to be consistent about the signs
When two or more wires come together at a point in you give to the voltage differences, say positive if
a DC circuit, the total current entering that point the electron sees an increase in voltage and negative
equals the total current leaving it. if it sees a decrease along its direction of motion.
Such a coming-together of wires in a circuit is called
a junction. If the current leaving a junction was,
say, greater than the current entering, then the junc-
Observations
tion would have to be creating electric charge out A The junction rule
of nowhere. (Of course, charge could have been
Construct a circuit like the one in the figure, using
stored up at that point and released later, but then
the Thornton power supply as your voltage source.
it wouldn’t be a DC circuit — the flow of current
To make things more interesting, don’t use equal
would change over time as the stored charge was
resistors. Use nice big resistors (say 100 kΩ to 1
used up.)
MΩ) — this will ensure that you don’t burn up the
Conservation of energy can also be applied to an resistors, and that the multimeter’s small internal
electrical circuit. The charge carriers are typically resistance when used as an ammeter is negligible in
electrons in copper wires, and an electron has a po- comparison. Insert your multimeter in the circuit to
tential energy equal to −eV . Suppose the electron measure all three currents that you need in order to
sets off on a journey through a circuit made of re- test the junction rule.
Self-Check
Do the analysis in lab.
81
28 Electric Fields and Voltages
Apparatus voltages. Every voltmeter has two probes, and the
meter tells you the difference in voltage between the
board and U-shaped probe ruler two places at which you connect them. Two points
DC power supply (Thornton) have a nonzero voltage difference between them if
multimeter it takes work (either positive or negative) to move
scissors a charge from one place to another. If there is a
stencils for drawing electrode shapes on paper voltage difference between two points in a conduct-
ing substance, charges will move between them just
like water will flow if there is a difference in levels.
The charge will always flow in the direction of lower
Goals potential energy (just like water flows downhill).
To be better able to visualize electric fields and All of this can be visualized most easily in terms
understand their meaning. of maps of constant-voltage curves (also known as
equipotentials); you may be familiar with topograph-
To examine the electric fields around certain ical maps, which are very similar. On a topograph-
charge distributions. ical map, curves are drawn to connect points hav-
ing the same height above sea level. For instance, a
cone-shaped volcano would be represented by con-
Introduction centric circles. The outermost circle might connect
all the points at an altitude of 500 m, and inside it
By definition, the electric field, E, at a particular you might have concentric circles showing higher lev-
point equals the force on a test charge at that point els such as 600, 700, 800, and 900 m. Now imagine
divided by the amount of charge, E = F/q. We can a similar representation of the voltage surrounding
plot the electric field around any charge distribution an isolated point charge. There is no “sea level”
by placing a test charge at different locations and here, so we might just imagine connecting one probe
making note of the direction and magnitude of the of the voltmeter to a point within the region to
force on it. The direction of the electric field at be mapped, and the other probe to a fixed refer-
any point P is the same as the direction of the force ence point very far away. The outermost circle on
on a positive test charge at P. The result would be your map might connect all the points having a volt-
a page covered with arrows of various lengths and age of 0.3 V relative to the distant reference point,
directions, known as a “sea of arrows” diagram.. and within that would lie a 0.4-V circle, a 0.5-V
In practice, Radio Shack does not sell equipment for circle, and so on. These curves are referred to as
preparing a known test charge and measuring the constant-voltage curves, because they connect points
force on it, so there is no easy way to measure elec- of equal voltage. In this lab, you are going to map
tric fields. What really is practical to measure at any out constant-voltage curves, but not just for an iso-
given point is the voltage, V , defined as the elec- lated point charge, which is just a simple example
trical energy (potential energy) that a test charge like the idealized example of a conical volcano.
would have at that point, divided by the amount You could move a charge along a constant-voltage
of charge (E/Q). This quantity would have units curve in either direction without doing any work,
of J/C (Joules per Coulomb), but for convenience because you are not moving it to a place of higher
we normally abbreviate this combination of units as potential energy. If you do not do any work when
volts. Just as many mechanical phenomena can be moving along a constant-voltage curve, there must
described using either the language of force or the not be a component of electric force along the surface
language of energy, it may be equally useful to de- (or you would be doing work). A metal wire is a
scribe electrical phenomena either by their electric constant-voltage curve. We know that electrons in a
fields or by the voltages involved. metal are free to move. If there were a force along
Since it is only ever the difference in potential en- the wire, electrons would move because of it. In fact
ergy (interaction energy) between two points that the electrons would move until they were distributed
can be defined unambiguously, the same is true for in such a way that there is no longer any force on
83
P1 Looking at a plot of constant-voltage curves,
how could you tell where the strongest electric fields
would be? (Don’t just say that the field is strongest
when you’re close to “the charge,” because you may
have a complex charge distribution, and we don’t
have any way to see or measure the charge distribu-
tion.)
P2 What would the constant-voltage curves look
like in a region of uniform electric field (i.e., one in
which the E vectors are all the same strength, and
all in the same direction)?
Self-Check
Calculate at least one numerical electric field value
to make sure you understand how to do it.
You have probably found some constant-voltage curves
that form closed loops. Do the electric field patterns
ever seem to close back on themselves? Make sure
you understand why or why not.
Make sure the people in your group all have a copy
of each pattern.
Analysis
A. After you have completed the plots for two pat-
terns, you should try to draw in electric field vectors.
You will then have two different representations of
the field superimposed on one another. Remember
that electric field vectors are always perpendicular
to constant-voltage curves. The electric field lines
point from high voltage to low voltage, just as the
force on a rolling ball points downhill.
B. Select at least five places on each plot and deter-
mine the electric field strength (E) at each of them.
Make sure to include the two points that appear to
have the strongest and weakest fields.
C. For the parallel-plate capacitor, in what region
was the electric field relatively uniform?
Introduction
This lab is designed to be used along with the sec-
tion of Simple Nature about the superposition (i.e.
addition) of fields. That chapter is about electric
fields, and the basic principle is that if we have two
sets of sources (charges) that would individually cre-
ate fields E1 and E2 , then their combined field is the
vector sum E1 + E2 . Static electric fields, however,
are difficult to control and measure. Magnetic fields
are much easier to work with, and the same vector
addition principle applies to them. In this lab, you’ll If the magnet is flipped across the vertical axis, the
expose a magnetic compass to the superposed mag- north and south poles remain just where they were,
netic fields of the earth and a bar magnet. and the field is unchanged. That means the entire
magnetic field is also unchanged, and the field at a
point such as point b, along the line of symmetry,
Preliminary Observations must therefore point straight up.
You will use a compass to map out part of the mag- If the magnet is flipped across the horizontal axis,
netic field of a bar magnet. It turns out that the then the north and south poles are swapped, and the
bar magnet is the magnetic equivalent of an electric field everywhere has to reverse its direction. Thus,
dipole. The compass is affected by both the earth’s the field at points along this axis, e.g. point a, must
field and the bar magnet’s field, and points in the point straight up or down.
direction of their vector sum, but if you put the com-
pass within a few cm of the bar magnet, you’re seeing Line up your magnet so it is pointing east-west.
mostly its field, not the earth’s. Investigate the bar Choose one of the two symmetry axes of your mag-
magnet’s field, and sketch in your lab notebook. You net, and measure the deflection of the compass at
should see that it looks like the field a dipole. a variety of points along that axis, as shown in the
second figure.
Note that the measurements are very sensitive to the
Observations relative position and orientation of the bar magnet
and compass. You can position them accurately by
Magnetic fields are actually measured in units of
laying them both on top of a piece of graph paper.
Tesla (T), but for the purposes of this lab, we’ll just
measure all the fields in units of the earth’s magnetic
1 Actually we’re defining its horizontal component to be
field. That is, we define the earth’s magnetic field
one unit — the compass can’t respond to vertical fields. The
dip angle of the magnetic field in Fullerton is fairly steep.
Prelab
The point of the prelab questions is to make sure
you understand what you’re doing, why you’re do-
ing it, and how to avoid some common mistakes. If
you don’t know the answers, make sure to come to
my office hours before lab and get help! Otherwise
you’re just setting yourself up for failure in lab.
P1 Suppose that one of your data points is as fol-
lows: when the compass is 11.0 cm from the mag-
net, it is 45 degrees away from north. What is the
strength of the bar magnet’s field at this location in
space, in units of the Earth’s field?
Analysis
Determine the magnetic field of the bar magnet as
a function of distance, and make a graph. No error
analysis is required. Look for a power-law relation-
ship using the technique described in appendix 5.
Does the power law hold for all the distances you in-
vestigated, or only at large distances? Compare this
power law result with the result given in the book
for the variation of an electric dipole’s field with dis-
tance.
87
Measuring the variation of the bar magnet’s field with respect to distance
90 Lab 30 Magnetism
ready found the horizontal component of the Earth’s you know how to do it. Does it look like the trend
magnetic field in this lab, you can infer the strength of the magnetic field values will make sense?
of the magnet’s field at a given point by putting the
compass there and seeing how much it is deflected.
The task can be simplified quite a bit if you restrict
Prelab
yourself to measuring the magnetic field at points The point of the prelab questions is to make sure
along one of the magnet’s two lines of symmetry, you understand what you’re doing, why you’re do-
shown in the figure. ing it, and how to avoid some common mistakes. If
you don’t know the answers, make sure to come to
my office hours before lab and get help! Otherwise
you’re just setting yourself up for failure in lab.
The week before you are to do the lab, briefly famil-
iarize yourself visually with the apparatus.
P1 Suppose that in part B, one of your data points
is as follows: when the compass is 11.0 cm from the
magnet, it is 45 degrees away from north. Also, sup-
pose that in part A, you find out that the Earth’s
field is 50 µT. What is the strength of the bar mag-
net’s field at this location in space?
P2 In your textbook, find the equation you will
need for calculating the field inside the solenoid.
P3 The figure shows four possible positions for the
If the magnet is flipped across the vertical axis, the compass in the determination of the Earth’s mag-
north and south poles remain just where they were, netic field: (1) inside at the center, (2) inside, off
and the field is unchanged. That means the entire center, but on-axis, (3) inside and resting on the bot-
magnetic field is also unchanged, and the field at a tom of the cavity, and (4) partially inside the mouth
point such as point b, along the line of symmetry, of the solenoid. For which of these positions would
must therefore point straight up. the equation you looked up for the previous question
If the magnet is flipped across the horizontal axis, give an accurate value for the field of the solenoid?
then the north and south poles are swapped, and the
field everywhere has to reverse its direction. Thus,
the field at points along this axis, e.g. point a, must
point straight up or down.
Line up your magnet so it is pointing east-west, and
tape it down to keep its orientation fixed. Choose
one of the two symmetry axes of your magnet, and
measure the deflection of the compass at a variety
of points along that axis, as shown in the figure on
page 91.
Note that the measurements are very sensitive to the
relative position and orientation of the bar magnet
and compass. You can position them accurately by
laying them both on top of a piece of graph paper.
Self-Check
You were already requested to extract the horizon-
tal component of the earth’s magnetic field before Analysis
proceeding to part B.
Calculate the horizontal component of the Earth’s
Analyze one data point from part B to make sure magnetic field here in Fullerton. Use standard tech-
91
niques for propagation of errors to derive error bars
for this quantity (see appendices 2 and 3).
Analyze your data from part B to determine the
magnetic field of the bar magnet as a function of
distance, and make a graph. No error analysis is
required. For extra credit, find a power-law rela-
tionship using the technique described in appendix
5. (Please do not ask for a verbal check-off if you’re
doing the extra credit.)
92 Lab 30 Magnetism
Measuring the variation of the bar magnet’s field with respect to distance
93
31 The Earth’s Magnetic Field (Physics 222)
Apparatus The classic result for the field inside a long, skinny
solenoid is given in the textbook. However, the solenoids
solenoid (Heath) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3/group we’re using are actually pretty short and squat. They
DC power supply (Thornton) were designed that way intentionally, to make it pos-
digital multimeter (HP or BK) sible to put things inside them, and still have them
neodymium magnet (3 or 6 discs stuck together) visible and accessible. If the solenoid was long and
compass skinny, then the textbook result is that the field
graph paper, with 1 cm squares should be the same at the locations 1, 2, and 3 shown
resistors in the figure, and significantly less only at location
rulers 4.
thread
stopwatch
Goal
Determine the horizontal component of the Earth’s
magnetic field in Fullerton, to high precision, by two
different techniques.
Introduction
Measuring anything to high precision requires two
things: minimizing your random errors, and min-
imizing your systematic errors. In this lab, you’ll
use two completely different techniques. They both
have fairly small random errors, and because they’re
so different, we can get a good handle on most of the
possible systematic errors, bu checking whether the One way to deal with this would be to find a more
two methods give similar results. The only system- complicated expression for the field, which would
atic error that both techniques would be likely to correctly take into account the fact that the solenoid
have in common is that the magnetic field inside this isn’t long and skinny. This is done in homework
building may not be the same as the Earth’s field; problem #30 in chapter 11 of Simple Nature.
many building materials are magnetic. For this rea- There’s a simpler method, however. The field at
son, you’ll redo one of the techniques outside on the the center of the mouth of a long, skinny solenoid is
quad, and see if the results are different from the exactly half the interior field; this follows from the
results inside the building. fact that if we put two such solenoids end to end,
each one would contribute an equal amount to the
total field at this point, which would be at the center
Observations of the new, double-length solenoid. Roughly speak-
A The Earth’s magnetic field ing, then, you can put your compass at the center
of the mouth of one of the solenoids, and get a field
The idea here is to put a compass inside the solenoid, that’s pretty close to half as much as the textbook
put current through the solenoid to generate a mag- result. To get a better approximation, you can put
netic field, and determine the horizontal component together M solenoids to make a longer solenoid, and
of the earth’s magnetic field from the deflection of put the compass at the center of the mouth. This
the compass. The Thornton power supply can be gives you the best of both worlds: you get a location
used to create an adjustable voltage. where the field is known accurately, but the compass
is still easy to see. You should find that increasing
d2 θ
τ =I
dt2
d2 θ
mBe θ = I 2 ,
dt
where the moment of inertia of a rod rotating end
over end about its center is I = (1/12)M `2 , with M
being the p
mass. The solution is θ = A sin(ωt + δ),
with ω = mBe /I.
We also know that the magnetic field of a dipole, in
its midplane, is
k
Bd = mr−3 .
c2
95
32 Relativity
Apparatus
magnetic balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
meter stick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
multimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
staples
Goal
Measure the speed of light.
you don’t know what it is. The trick is to put a tiny
weight (a staple) on top of wire A, and adjust the
Introduction current so that the balance returns to the position it
Oersted discovered that magnetism is an interac- originally had, as determined by the laser dot on the
tion of moving charges with moving charges, but wall. You now know that the gravitational torque
it wasn’t until almost a hundred years later that acting on the original apparatus (everything except
Einstein showed why such an interaction must exist: for the staple) is back to zero, so the only torques
magnetism occurs as a direct result of his theory of acting are the torque of gravity on the staple and
relativity. Since magnetism is a purely relativistic the magnetic torque. Since both these torques are
effect, and relativistic effects depend on the speed of applied at the same distance from the axis, the forces
light, any measurement of a magnetic effect can be creating these torques must be equal as well. By
used to determine the speed of light. weighing a block of staples, you can determine the
weight of one staple, and infer the magnetic force
that was acting.
Setup
The idea is to set up opposite currents in two wires, Analysis
A and B, one under the other, and use the repul-
sion between the currents to levitate the top wire, A. The mass of an aluminum atom is 4.48 × 10−26 kg.
The top wire is on the arm of a balance, which has Let’s assume that each aluminum atom contributes
a stable equilibrium because of the weight C hang- one conduction electron, and that the wires have
ing below it. You initially set up the balance with masses per unit length of 2 g/m — these two as-
no current through the wires, adjusting the coun- sumptions are only roughly right, but you’ll see later
terweight D so that the distance between the wires that they end up not mattering.
is as small as possible. What we care about is re- You can now calculate the number of coulombs per
ally the center-to-center distance (which we’ll call meter of conduction electrons, −λ, in your wires. By
R), so even if the wires are almost touching, there’s combining this with your measured levitation cur-
still a millimeter or two worth of distance between rent, you can find the average velocity, v, at which
them.) By shining a laser at the mirror, E, and ob- the electrons were drifting through the wire. This ve-
serving the spot it makes on the wall, you can very locity is quite small compared to the speed of light,
accurately determine this particular position of the so the relativistic effect is slight. However, as you
balance, and tell later on when you’ve reproduced it. found when you did the prelab, the amount of charge
If you put a current through the wires, it will raise in a piece of ordinary matter is huge, so even a slight
wire A. The torque made by the magnetic repulsion effect is enough to produce a measurable result.
is now canceling the torque made by gravity directly Now imagine yourself as one of the moving electrons
on all the hardware, such as the masses C and D. in the top wire. In your frame of reference, the elec-
This gravitational torque was zero before, but now trons in the other strip are moving at velocity −2v,
96 Lab 32 Relativity
and for each such electron there is a corresponding Solving for c, we have
proton moving at velocity −v relative to you. (You s
don’t care about the protons and electrons that are 6k`
paired off in atoms, because they cancel each other.) c=I
4Rgm
Both the electrons and the protons are squashed to-
gether by the relativistic contraction of space, so we Note that although I asked you to calculate v and
have λ for physical insight, it turns out that all you re-
1 ally need to know is their product, which equals the
λp = λ p
1 − v 2 /c2 current you read on your meter.
1 Your final result is the speed of light, with error bars.
λe = −λ p .
1 − (2v)2 /c2
In the frame of reference fixed to the tabletop, these Prelab
would have canceled each other out, but in your
frame of reference, we have The point of the prelab questions is to make sure
you understand what you’re doing, why you’re do-
λtotal = λp + λe ing it, and how to avoid some common mistakes. If
" #
1 1 you don’t know the answers, make sure to come to
=λ p −p my office hours before lab and get help! Otherwise
1 − v 2 /c2 1 − (2v)2 /c2
you’re just setting yourself up for failure in lab.
You may want to try calculating this directly just P1 Calculate −λ, the number of coulombs per me-
for fun, but unless your calculator has unusually ter in the tabletop’s frame of reference, using the
high precision, it will round off to zero, since the assumptions given above. Answer: −7 × 103 C/m
gamma factors are both very close to one. To get
a useful result, we need to use the approximation P2 This is a huge amount of charge! Why doesn’t
(1 − )−1/2 ≈ 1 + /2, which results in it produce any measurable electrical forces when the
foil is just lying there without being connected to
3v 2 any electrical circuit?
λtotal ≈ −λ .
4c2
In your frame of reference, the electric field of this
charge is what is responsible for repelling you and
causing the strip you’re in to levitate. If we had
wires instead of strips, then the electric field would
be easy to calculate by applying Gauss’ law to a
cylinder of radius R and length `:
ΦE = 4πkqin
(E)(2πR`) = 4πkλtotal `
2kλtotal
E=
R
The electrical force per unit length Eq/` = Eλ can-
cels out the gravitational force per unit length mg/`,
so ignoring plus and minus signs, we have
mg
Eλ =
`
6kλ2 v 2 mg
=
4Rc2 `
But λv is just the current, so
6kI 2 mg
2
=
4Rc `
97
33 The Charge to Mass Ratio of the Electron
Apparatus
vacuum tube with Helmholtz
coils (Leybold ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Cenco 33034 HV supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
12-V DC power supplies (Thornton) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
multimeters (Fluke or HP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
compass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
ruler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
banana-plug cables
Goal
Measure the charge-to-mass ratio of the electron.
of the magnetic field on the electrons is
F = qvB , (1)
Introduction
Why should you believe electrons exist? By the turn directed towards the center of the circle. Their ac-
of the twentieth century, not all scientists believed celeration is
in the literal reality of atoms, and few could imag-
ine smaller objects from which the atoms themselves v2
were constructed. Over two thousand years had a= , (2)
r
elapsed since the Greeks first speculated that atoms
existed based on philosophical arguments without so using F = ma, we can write
experimental evidence. During the Middle Ages in
Europe, “atomism” had been considered highly sus- mv 2
qvB = . (3)
pect, and possibly heretical. Finally by the Vic- r
torian era, enough evidence had accumulated from
If the initial velocity of the electrons is provided by
chemical experiments to make a persuasive case for
accelerating them through a voltage difference V ,
atoms, but subatomic particles were not even dis-
they have a kinetic energy equal to qV , so
cussed.
If it had taken two millennia to settle the question 1
mv 2 = qV . (4)
of atoms, it is remarkable that another, subatomic 2
level of structure was brought to light over a period
From equations 3 and 4, you can determine q/m.
of only about five years, from 1895 to 1900. Most
Note that since the force of a magnetic field on a
of the crucial work was carried out in a series of
moving charged particle is always perpendicular to
experiments by J.J. Thomson, who is therefore often
the direction of the particle’s motion, the magnetic
considered the discoverer of the electron.
field can never do any work on it, and the particle’s
In this lab, you will carry out a variation on a crucial KE and speed are therefore constant.
experiment by Thomson, in which he measured the
You will be able to see where the electrons are going,
ratio of the charge of the electron to its mass, q/m.
because the vacuum tube is filled with a hydrogen
The basic idea is to observe a beam of electrons in
gas at a low pressure. Most electrons travel large
a region of space where there is an approximately
distances through the gas without ever colliding with
uniform magnetic field, B. The electrons are emitted
a hydrogen atom, but a few do collide, and the atoms
perpendicular to the field, and, it turns out, travel
then give off blue light, which you can see. Although
in a circle in a plane perpendicular to it. The force
I will loosely refer to “seeing the beam,” you are
really seeing the light from the collisions, not the
99
is given by
2πkIb2
B= .
c2 (b2+ z 2 )3/2
Analysis
Determine q/m, with error bars.
Answer the following questions:
Q1. Thomson started to become convinced during
his experiments that the “cathode rays” observed
coming from the cathodes of vacuum tubes were
building blocks of atoms — what we now call elec-
trons. He then carried out observations with cath-
odes made of a variety of metals, and found that
q/m was the same in every case. How would that
observation serve to test his hypothesis?
Q2. Thomson found that the q/m of an electron
was thousands of times larger than that of ions in
electrolysis. Would this imply that the electrons had
more charge? Less mass? Would there be no way to
tell? Explain.
Q3. Why is it not possible to determine q and m
themselves, rather than just their ratio, by observing
electrons’ motion in electric or magnetic fields?
Analysis
Plot y versus x on a piece of graph paper. Let’s
assume that the energy in a field depends on the
field’s strength raised to some power p. Conservation
of energy then gives
|x|p + |y|p = 1 .
Prelab
The point of the prelab questions is to make sure
you understand what you’re doing, why you’re do-
ing it, and how to avoid some common mistakes. If
you don’t know the answers, make sure to come to
my office hours before lab and get help! Otherwise
you’re just setting yourself up for failure in lab.
P1 Sketch what your graph would look like for
p = 0.1, p = 1, p = 2, and p = 10. (You should
be able to do p = 1 and p = 2 without any compu-
tations. For p = 0.1 and p = 10, you can either run
some numbers on your calculator or use your math-
ematical knowledge to sketch what they would turn
out like.)
103
35 RC Circuits
Apparatus
oscilloscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
HP 3311A function generator
1/group unknown capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
known capacitors, 0.05 µF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group
Goals
Observe the exponential curve of a discharging
capacitor.
Determine the capacitance of an unknown ca-
pacitor.
Introduction
God bless the struggling high school math teacher,
but some of them seem to have a talent for mak-
ing interesting and useful ideas seem dull and use-
less. On certain topics such as the exponential func-
tion, ex, the percentage of students who figure out
from their teacher’s explanation what it really means
and why they should care approaches zero. That’s
a shame, because there are so many cases where it’s
useful. The graphs show just a few of the important
situations in which this function shows up.
The credit card example is of the form
y = aet/k ,
while the Chernobyl graph is like
y = ae−t/k ,
In both cases, e is the constant 2.718 . . ., and k is
a positive constant with units of time, referred to
as the time constant. The first type of equation is
referred to as exponential growth, and the second
as exponential decay. The significance of k is that
it tells you how long it takes for y to change by a
factor of e. For instance, an 18% interest rate on closer and closer to zero. For instance, the radioac-
your credit card converts to k = 6.0 years. That tivity near Chernobyl will never ever become exactly
means that if your credit card balance is $1000 in zero. After a while it will just get too small to pose
1996, by 2002 it will be $2718, assuming you never any health risk, and at some later time it will get too
really start paying down the principal. small to measure with practical measuring devices.
An important fact about the exponential function is Why is the exponential function so ubiquitous? Be-
that it never actually becomes zero — it only gets cause it occurs whenever a variable’s rate of change
105
the resistor and the capacitor.
If you think you have a working setup, observe the
effect of temporarily placing a second capacitor in
parallel with the first capacitor. If your setup is
working, the exponential decay on the scope should
become more gradual because you have increased
RC. If you don’t see any effect, it probably means
you’re measuring behavior coming from the internal
R and C of the function generator and the scope.
Use the scope to determine the RC time constant,
clicked into place, not in the range where it moves and check that it is correct.
freely — otherwise the times on the scope are not
B Unknown capacitor
calibrated.
Build a similar circuit using your unknown capacitor
A Preliminary observations plus a known resistor. Use the unknown capacitor
Pick a resistor and capacitor with a combined RC with the same number as your group number. Take
time constant of ∼ 1 ms. Make sure the resistor is the data you will need in order to determine the RC
at least ∼ 10kΩ, so that the internal resistance of time constant, and thus the unknown capacitance.
the function generator is negligible compared to the As a check on your result, obtain a known capacitor
resistance you supply. with a value similar to the one you have determined
Note that the capacitance values printed on the sides for your unknown, and see if you get nearly the same
of capacitors often violate the normal SI conventions curve on the scope if you replace the unknown ca-
about prefixes. If just a number is given on the ca- pacitor with the new one.
pacitor with no units, the implied units are micro-
farads, mF. Units of nF are avoided by the manufac-
turers in favor of fractional microfarads, e.g. instead Prelab
of 1 nF, they would use “0.001,” meaning 0.001 µF. The point of the prelab questions is to make sure
For picofarads, a capital P is used, “PF,” instead of you understand what you’re doing, why you’re do-
the standard SI “pF.” ing it, and how to avoid some common mistakes. If
Use the oscilloscope to observe what happens to the you don’t know the answers, make sure to come to
voltages across the resistor and capacitor as the func- my office hours before lab and get help! Otherwise
tion generator’s voltage flips back and forth. Note you’re just setting yourself up for failure in lab.
that the oscilloscope is simply a fancy voltmeter, so P1 Plan how you will determine the capacitance
you connect it to the circuit the same way you would and what data you will need to take.
a voltmeter, in parallel with the component you’re
interested in. Make sure the scope is set on DC,
not AC. A complication is added by the fact that Analysis
the scope and the function generator are fussy about
having the grounded sides of their circuits connected Determine the capacitance, with error analysis (ap-
to each other. The banana-to-BNC converter that pendices 2 and 3).
goes on the input of the scope has a small tab on
one side marked “GND.” This side of the scope’s cir-
cuit must be connected to the “LO” terminal of the
function generator. This means that when you want
to switch from measuring the capacitor’s voltage to
measuring the resistor’s, you will need to rearrange
the circuit a little.
If the trace on the oscilloscope does not look like the
one shown above, it may be because the function
generator is flip-flopping too rapidly or too slowly.
The function generator’s frequency has no effect on
the RC time constant, which is just a property of
Circuit
109
it will ring after each kick. do the calculations and graphing. To do the calcula-
tions, you can go to my web page, www.lightandmatter.com
Choose a frequency many many times lower than
. Go to the lab manual’s web page, and then click on
the resonant frequency, so that the circuit will have
“data-analysis tool for the LRC circuits lab”. Once
time to oscillate many times in between “kicks.” You
your data are ready to graph, I suggest using com-
should observe an exponentially decaying sine wave.
puter software to make your graph (see Appendix
The rapidity of the exponential decay depends on 4).
how much resistance is in the circuit, since the re-
On the high-frequency end, the impedance is dom-
sistor is the only component that gets rid of energy
inated by the impedance of the inductor, which is
permanently. The rapidity of the decay is custom-
proportional to frequency. Doubling the frequency
arily measured with the quantity Q (for “quality”),
doubles the impedance, thereby cutting the current
defined as the number of oscillations required for the
by a factor of two and the power dissipated in the re-
potential energy in the circuit to drop by a factor of
sistor by a factor of 4, which is 6.02 db. Since a factor
535 (the obscure numerical factor being e2π ). For
of 2 in frequency corresponds in musical terms to one
our purposes, it will be more convenient to extract
octave, this is referred to as a 6 db/octave roll-off.
Q from the equation
Check this prediction against your data. You should
πt
also find a 6 db/octave slope in the limit of low fre-
Vpeak = Vpeak,i · exp − quencies — here the impedance is dominated by the
QT
capacitor, but the idea is similar. (More complex fil-
where T is the period of the sine wave, Vpeak,i is the tering circuits can achieve roll-offs more drastic than
voltage across the resistor at the peak that we use 6 db/octave.)
to define t = 0, and Vpeak is the voltage of a later
peak, occurring at time t.
Collect the data you will need in order to determine
the Q of the circuit, and then do the same for the
other resistance value.
Analysis
Check whether the resonant frequency changed by
the correct factor when you changed the capacitance.
For both versions of the circuit, compare the FWHM
of the resonance and the circuit’s Q to the theoretical
equations
R
∆ω =
L
and
ωo
Q= .
∆ω
Note that there are a total of three resistances in
series: the 62-ohm resistance of the coil, the 47-
ohm resistor, and the ∼ 50-ohm resistance of the
sine-wave generator’s output. No error analysis is
required, since the main errors are systematic ones
introduced by the nonideal behavior of the coil and
the difficulty of determining an exact, fixed value for
the internal resistance of the output of the amplifier.
Graph the resonance curve — you can probably save
yourself a great deal of time by using a computer to
ΓE = −dΦB /dt
Observations
Introduction
A Qualitative Observations
Physicists hate complication, and when physicist Mi-
To observe Faraday’s law in action you will first need
chael Faraday was first learning physics in the early
to produce a varying magnetic field. You can do this
19th century, an embarrassingly complex aspect of
by using a function generator to produce a current
the science was the multiplicity of types of forces.
in a solenoid that that varies like a sine wave as a
Friction, normal forces, gravity, electric forces, mag-
function of time. The solenoid’s magnetic field will
netic forces, surface tension — the list went on and
thus also vary sinusoidally.
on. Today, 200 years later, ask a physicist to enu-
merate the fundamental forces of nature and the The emf in Faraday’s law can be observed around a
most likely response will be “four: gravity, electro- loop of wire positioned inside or close to the solenoid.
magnetism, the strong nuclear force and the weak To make the emf larger and easier to see on an os-
nuclear force.” Part of the simplification came from cilloscope, you will use 5-10 loops; which multiplies
the study of matter at the atomic level, which showed the flux by that number of loops.
that apparently unrelated forces such as friction, nor-
The only remaining complication is that the rate of
mal forces, and surface tension were all manifesta-
change of the magnetic flux, dΦB /dt, is determined
tions of electrical forces among atoms. The other
by the rate of change of the magnetic field, which
big simplification came from Faraday’s experimental
relates to the rate of change of the current through
work showing that electric and magnetic forces were
the solenoid, dI/dt. The oscilloscope, however, mea-
intimately related in previously unexpected ways, so
sures voltage, not current. You might think that
intimately related in fact that we now refer to the
you could simply observe the voltage being supplied
two sets of force-phenomena under a single term,
to the solenoid and divide by the solenoid’s 62-ohm
“electromagnetism.”
resistance to find the current through the solenoid.
Even before Faraday, Oersted had shown that there This will not work, however, because Faraday’s law
was at least some relationship between electric and produces not only an emf in the loops of wire but also
magnetic forces. An electrical current creates a mag- an emf in the solenoid that produced the magnetic
netic field, and magnetic fields exert forces on an field in the first place. The current in the solenoid is
electrical current. In other words, electric forces being driven not just by the emf from the function
are forces of charges acting on charges, and mag- generator but also by this “self-induced” emf. Even
netic forces are forces of moving charges on moving though the solenoid is just a long piece of wire, it
Self-Check
Before leaving, analyze your results from part C and
make sure you get reasonable agreement with Fara-
day’s law.
Analysis
Describe your observations in parts A and B and
As always, you need to watch out for ground loops. interpret them in terms of Faraday’s law.
The output of the function generator has one of its Compare your observations in part C quantitatively
terminals grounded, so that ground and the grounded with Faraday’s law. The solenoid isn’t very long, so
side of the scope’s input have to be at the same place the approximate expression for the interior field of a
in the circuit. long solenoid isn’t very accurate here. To correct for
First try putting the loops at the mouth of the solenoid, that, multiply the expression for the field by (cos β +
and observe the emf induced in them. Observe what cos γ)/2, which you derived in homework problem
happens when you flip the loops over. You will ob- 11-30 in Simple Nature, where β and γ are angles
serve that the two sine waves on the scope are out of between the axis and the lines connecting the point
phase with each other. Sketch the phase relationship of interest to the edges of the solenoid’s mouths.
in your notebook, and make sure you understand in
terms of Faraday’s law why it is the way it is, i.e.
why the induced emf has the greatest value at a cer- Prelab
tain point, why it is zero at a certain point, etc. The point of the prelab questions is to make sure
Observe the induced emf at with the loops at several you understand what you’re doing, why you’re do-
other positions such as those shown in the figure. ing it, and how to avoid some common mistakes. If
Make sure you understand in the resulting variations you don’t know the answers, make sure to come to
of the strength of the emf in terms of Faraday’s law. my office hours before lab and get help! Otherwise
113
you’re just setting yourself up for failure in lab.
P1 Plan what raw data you’ll need to collect for
part C, and figure out the equation you’ll use to
test whether your observations are consistent with
Faraday’s law.
117
39 Impedance
Observe how the impedances of capacitors and would cause ch. 1 to read zero, and would short
inductors change with frequency. across the capacitor as well. Instead, we need this:
Setup
We’ll start by observing the impedance of a capaci-
tor. Ideally, what we want is this:
D Impedances in series
Put the capacitor and inductor in series, and collect
the data you’ll need in order to determine their com-
bined impedance at several frequencies ranging from
100 to 1000 Hz.
Analysis
Use your data from part C to determine an experi-
mental value of the coil’s inductance, and compare
with the theoretical result based on your measure-
ments in part B.
Graph the theoretical and experimental impedance
of the series combination in part D, overlaying them
on the same graph. Show theory as a curve and ex-
periment as discrete data-points. Do the same kind
of graph for the parallel combination.
119
40 Refraction and Images
Apparatus and is slowed down. The other side of the beam,
however, gets to travel in air, at its faster speed, for
rectangular block of plastic (20x10x5 cm, longer, because it enters the water later — by the
from blackboard optics kit), or plastic box with wa- time it enters the water, the other side of the beam
ter in it has been limping along through the water for a little
laser while, and has not gotten as far. The wavefront is
spiral plastic tube and fiber optic cable for demon- therefore twisted around a little, in the same way
strating total internal reflection that a marching band turns by having the people on
ruler one side take smaller steps.
protractor
butcher paper
Goals
Observe the phenomena of refraction and total
internal reflection.
Without the phenomenon of refraction, the lens of where the index i refers to the incident light and in-
your eye could not focus light on your retina, and you cident medium, and t refers to the transmitted light
would not be able to see. Refraction is the bending of and the transmitting medium. Note that the an-
rays of light that occurs when they pass through the gles are defined with respect to the normal, i.e. the
boundary between two media in which the speed of imaginary line perpendicular to the boundary.
light is different. Light entering your eye passes from Also, not all of the light is transmitted. Some is re-
air, in which the speed of light is 3.0 × 108 m/s, into flected — the amount depends on the angles. In fact,
the watery tissues of your eye, in which it is about for certain values of ni , nt , and θi , there is no value
2.2 × 108 m/s. Since it is inconvenient to write or of θt that will obey Snell’s law (sin θt would have
say the speed of light in a particular medium, we to be greater than one). In such a situation, 100%
usually speak in terms of the index of refraction, n, of the light must be reflected. This phenomenon is
defined by known as total internal reflection. The word inter-
n = c/v, nal is used because the phenomenon only occurs for
ni > nt . If one medium is air and the other is plastic
where c is the speed of light in a vacuum, and v is or glass, then this can only happen when the incident
the speed of light in the medium in question. Thus, light is in the plastic or glass, i.e. the light is try-
vacuum has n = 1 by definition. Air, which is not ing to escape but can’t. Total internal reflection is
very dense, does not slow light down very much, so used to good advantage in fiber-optic cables used to
it has an index of refraction very close to 1. Water transmit long-distance phone calls or data on the in-
has an index of refraction of about 1.3, meaning that ternet — light traveling down the cable cannot leak
light moves more slowly in water by a factor of 1/1.3. out, assuming it is initially aimed at an angle close
enough to the axis of the cable.
Refraction, the bending of light, occurs for the fol-
lowing reason. Imagine, for example, a beam of light Although most of the practical applications of the
entering a swimming pool at an angle. Because of phenomenon of refraction involve lenses, which have
the angle, one side of the beam hits the water first, curved shapes, in this lab you will be dealing almost
Preliminaries
Observations
A Index of refraction of plastic
Make the measurements you have planned in order
to determine the index of refraction of the plastic
block (or the water, whichever you have). The laser
and the block of plastic can simply be laid flat on the
table. Make sure that the laser is pointing towards
the wall.
C A virtual image
Pick up the block, and have your partner look side-
ways through it at your finger, touching the sur-
face of the block. Have your partner hold her own
finger next to the block, and move it around un-
til it appears to be as far away as your own finger.
Her brain achieves a perception of depth by subcon-
sciously comparing the images it receives from her
two eyes. Your partner doesn’t actually need to be extrapolate the rays leaving the block back into the
able to see her own finger, because her brain knows block. They should all appear to have come from the
how to position her arm at a certain point in space. same point, where you saw the virtual image. You’ll
Measure the distance di , which is the depth of the need to photocopy the tracing so that each person
image of your finger relative to the front of the block. can turn in a copy with his or her writeup.
Now trace the outline of the block on a piece of pa-
per, remove the block, mark the location of the im- Prelab
age, and put the block back on the paper. Shine
the laser at the point where your finger was origi- The point of the prelab questions is to make sure
nally touching the block, observe the refracted beam, you understand what you’re doing, why you’re do-
and draw it in. Repeat this whole procedure several ing it, and how to avoid some common mistakes. If
times, with the laser at a variety of angles. Finally, you don’t know the answers, make sure to come to
my office hours before lab and get help! Otherwise
121
you’re just setting yourself up for failure in lab.
Read the laser safety checklist, fill it out, and turn
it in.
P1 Laser beams are supposed to be very nearly
parallel (not spreading out or contracting to a focal
point). Think of a way to test, roughly, whether this
is true for your laser.
P2 Plan how you will determine the index of re-
fraction in part A.
P3 You have complete freedom to choose any in-
cident angle you like in part A. Discuss what choice
would give the highest possible precision for the mea-
surement of the index of refraction.
Analysis
Using your data for part A, extract the index of re-
fraction. Estimate the accuracy of your raw data,
and determine error bars for your index of refrac-
tion.
Using trigonometry and Snell’s law, make a the-
oretical calculation of di . You’ll need to use the
small-angle approximation sin θ ≈ tan θ ≈ θ, for θ
measured in units of radians. (For large angles, i.e.
viewing the finger from way off to one side, the rays
will not converge very closely to form a clear virtual
image.)
Explain your results in part C and their meaning.
Compare your three values for di : the experimental
value based on depth perception, the experimental
value found by ray-tracing with the laser, and the
theoretical value found by trigonometry.
Use your unknown convex lens to project a real im- P3 It’s disappointing to construct a telescope with
age on the frosted glass screen. For your object, use a very small magnification. Given a selection of
the lamp with the arrow-shaped aperture in front of lenses, plan how you can make a telescope with the
it. Make sure to lock down the parts on the opti- greatest possible magnification.
cal bench, or else they may tip over and break the
optics!
Analysis
B The telescope
Determine the focal length of the unknown lens, with
Use your optical bench and your two known lenses error bars.
to build a telescope. Since the telescope is a device
125
Find the angular magnification of your telescope from
your data, with error bars, and compare with the-
ory. Do they agree to within the accuracy of the
measurement?
127
42 Two-Source Interference
Apparatus important ideas about light as a wave can be seen
in one simple experiment, shown in the first figure.1
ripple tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group A wave comes up from the bottom of the page, and
yellow foam pads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/group encounters a wall with two slits chopped out of it.
lamp and unfrosted straight-filament bulb The result is a fan pattern, with strong wave motion
1/group wave generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1/group coming out along directions like X and Z, but no
big metal L-shaped arms for hanging vibration of the water at all along lines like Y. The
the wave generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group reason for this pattern is shown in the second figure.
little metal L-shaped arms with yellow The two parts of the wave that get through the slits
plastic balls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/group create an overlapping pattern of ripples. To get to
rubber bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2/group a point on line X, both waves have to go the same
white plastic screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group distance, so they’re in step with each other, and re-
Thornton DC voltage source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group inforce. But at a point on line Y, due to the unequal
small rubber stopper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group distances involved, one wave is going up while the
power strip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group other wave is going down, so there is cancellation.
bucket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group The angular spacing of the fan pattern depends on
mop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 both the wavelength of the waves, λ, and the dis-
flathead screwdriver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 tance between the slits, d.
rulers and protractors
kimwipes and alcohol for cleaning
butcher paper
Goals
Observe how a 2-source interference pattern of
water waves depends on the distance between
the sources. The ripple tank is tank that sits about 30 cm above
the floor. You put a little water in the tank, and
produce waves. There is a lamp above it that makes
Observations a point-like source of light, and the waves cast pat-
terns of light on a screen placed on the floor. The
Light is really made of waves, not rays, so when we patterns of light on the screen are easier to see and
treated it was rays, we were making an approxima- measure than the ripples themselves.
tion. You might think that when the time came to
treat light as a wave, things would get very diffi- In reality, it’s not very convenient to produce a double-
cult, and it would be hard to predict or understand slit diffraction pattern exactly as depicted in the first
anything without doing complicated calculations. figure, because the waves beyond the slits are so
weak that they are difficult to observe clearly. In-
stead, you’ll simply produce synchronized circular
ripples from two sources driven by a motor.
Put the tank on the floor. Plug the hole in the side of
the tank with the black rubber stopper. If the plastic
is dirty, clean it off with alcohol and kimwipes. Wet
the four yellow foam pads, and place them around
the sides of the tank. Pour in water to a depth of
about 5-7 mm. Adjust the metal feet to level the
tank, so that the water is of equal depth throughout
1 The photo is from the textbook PSSC physics, which has
Life isn’t that bad. It turns out that all of the most a blanket permission for free use after 1970.
129
43 Wave Optics
Apparatus coherent beam of light (that is, a beam consisting
of plane waves marching in step). Then he held a
helium-neon laser thin card edge-on to the beam, observed a diffrac-
1/group optical bench with posts & holders 1/group tion pattern on a wall, and correctly inferred the
high-precision double slits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group wave nature and wavelength of light. Since Roemer
rulers had already measured the speed of light, Young was
meter sticks also able to determine the frequency of oscillation of
tape measures the light.
butcher paper
Today, with the advent of the laser, the production
of a bright and coherent beam of light has become
as simple as flipping a switch, and the wave nature
Goals of light can be demonstrated very easily. In this lab,
you will carry out observations similar to Young’s,
Observe evidence for the wave nature of light. but with the benefit of hindsight and modern equip-
ment.
Determine the wavelength of red light (specif-
ically, the color emitted by the laser), by mea-
suring a double-slit diffraction pattern. Observations
Determine the approximate diameter of a hu- A Determination of the wavelength of red light
man hair, using its diffraction pattern.
Set up your laser on your optical bench. You will
want as much space as possible between the laser
and the wall, in order to let the diffraction pattern
Introduction spread out as much as possible and reveal its fine
details.
Isaac Newton’s epitaph, written by Alexander Pope,
reads: Tear off two small scraps of paper with straight edges.
Hold them close together so they form a single slit.
Nature and Nature’s laws lay hid in night. Hold this improvised single-slit grating in the laser
God said let Newton be, and all was light. beam and try to get a single-slit diffraction pattern.
You may have to play around with different widths
Notwithstanding Newton’s stature as the greatest for the slit. No quantitative data are required. This
physical scientist who ever lived, it’s a little ironic is just to familiarize you with single-slit diffraction.
that Pope chose light as a metaphor, because it was
in the study of light that Newton made some of his Make a diffraction pattern with the double-slit grat-
worst mistakes. Newton was a firm believer in the ing. See what happens when you hold it in your
dogma, then unsupported by observation, that mat- hand and rotate it around the axis of the beam.
ter was composed of atoms, and it seemed logical to The diffraction pattern of the double-slit grating con-
him that light as well should be composed of tiny sists of a rapidly varying pattern of bright and dark
particles, or “corpuscles.” His opinions on the sub- bars, with a more slowly varying pattern superim-
ject were so strong that he influenced generations posed on top (see figure, page 130). The rapidly
of his successors to discount the arguments of Huy- varying pattern is the one that is numerically related
gens and Grimaldi for the wave nature of light. It to the wavelength, λ, and the distance between the
was not until 150 years later that Thomas Young slits, d, by the equation
demonstrated conclusively that light was a wave.
∆θ = λ/d,
Young’s experiment was incredibly simple, and could
probably have been done in ancient times if some where θ is measured in radians. To make sure you
savvy Greek or Chinese philosopher had only thought can see the fine spacing, put your slits several meters
of it. He simply let sunlight through a pinhole in a away from the wall. This will necessitate shining it
window shade, forming what we would now call a across the space between lab tables. To make it less
Prelab
The point of the prelab questions is to make sure
you understand what you’re doing, why you’re do-
ing it, and how to avoid some common mistakes. If
131
A double-slit diffraction pattern.
135
talking about in this case. A vector at a 45 ◦ angle
can be produced by adding two perpendicular vec-
tors of equal length. The crystal must therefore can-
not respond any differently to 45-degree polarized
light than it would to a 50-50 mixture of light with
0-degree and 90-degree polarization.
Prelab
The point of the prelab questions is to make sure
you understand what you’re doing, why you’re do-
ing it, and how to avoid some common mistakes. If
you don’t know the answers, make sure to come to
my office hours before lab and get help! Otherwise
you’re just setting yourself up for failure in lab.
P1 Given the angle θ between the polarizing films,
predict the roatio |E0 |/|E| of the transmitted electric
field to the incident electric field.
P2 Based on your answer to P1, predict the ra-
tio P 0 /P of the transmitted power to the incident
power.
Analysis
Discuss your qualitative results in terms of superpo-
sition and vector addition.
Graph your results from part E, and superimpose a
theoretical curve for comparison. Discuss how your
results compare with theory. Since your measure-
ments of light intensity are relative, just scale the
theoretical curve so that its maximum matches that
of the experimental data. (You might think of com-
paring the intensity transmitted through the two po-
laroids with the intensity that you get with no po-
laroids in the way at all. This doesn’t really work,
however, because in addition to acting as polarizers,
the polaroids simply absorb a certain percentage of
the light, just as any transparent material would.)
137
45 The Photoelectric Effect
Apparatus having as a particle, now called a photon. The beam
of light could be visualized as a stream of machine-
Hg gas discharge tube, light aperture gun bullets. The electrons would be small targets,
assembly, and lens/grating assembly but when a “light bullet” did score a hit, it packed
light aperture assembly enough of an individual wallop to knock the elec-
lens/grating assembly tron out immediately. Based on other experiments
photodiode module, support base, and coupling rod involving the spectrum of light emitted by hot, glow-
digital multimeter (Fluke) ing objects, Einstein also proposed that each photon
pieces of plywood had an energy given by
green and yellow filters
E = hf ,
139
base of the post can also get loose. There are three and grating in or out. If you can’t get a good
things you should check to make sure the orientation focus, check and make sure that the square side
is right: (1) Sighting along the tube like a gun, you of the unit is away from the Hg tube.
should see that it looks like it’s lined up with the
center of the grating. (2) The tube can be lifted out The photodiode module can be rotated on its
on a hinge so that you can see the glass photodi- post so that the light goes straight down the
ode tube inside the box; check that light is actually tube. If you don’t line it up correctly, you’ll
falling on the opening on the side of the tube. (3) be able to tell because the voltage will creep
Take data using the UV line. If you don’t get a big- up slowly, rather than shooting up to a certain
ger voltage for this line than for the others, then the value and stopping. There is a screw that is
light is not making it in to the photodiode. supposed to allow you to lock the photodiode
into position at the correct angle. Make sure
to loosen the screw before trying to aim the
Observations photodiode, and lock it once it’s aimed cor-
rectly. If your photodiode won’t lock in place,
You can now determine the stopping voltages corre- you need to tighten the aluminum post that
sponding to the five different colors of light. forms the base of the box.
Hints:
Prelab
The biggest possible source of difficulty is stray
light. The room should be dark when you do The point of the prelab questions is to make sure
your measurements. you understand what you’re doing, why you’re do-
ing it, and how to avoid some common mistakes. If
The shortest wavelengths of light (highest fre- you don’t know the answers, make sure to come to
quencies), for which the energy of the pho- my office hours before lab and get help! Otherwise
tons is the highest, readily produce photoelec- you’re just setting yourself up for failure in lab.
trons. The photocurrent is much weaker for
the longer wavelengths. Start with the short- The week before you are to do the lab, briefly famil-
wavelength line and graduate to the more diffi- iarize yourself visually with the apparatus.
cult, lower frequencies. Don’t forget the filters P1 In the equation eVs = hf − W , verify that all
for the yellow and green lines! three terms have the same units.
If the button to zero the voltage doesn’t work, P2 Plan how you will analyze your data to deter-
it is because the batteries are dead. mine Planck’s constant.
Goals
Observe wave interference patterns (diffraction
patterns) of electrons, demonstrating that elec-
trons exhibit wave behavior as well as particle
behavior.
Introduction
The most momentous discovery of 20th-century physics
has been that light and matter are not simply made
of waves or particles — the basic building blocks of
light and matter are strange entities which display
both wave and particle properties at the same time.
In our course, we have already learned about the
experimental evidence from the photoelectric effect The electron diffraction tube. The distance labeled as
showing that light is made of units called photons, 13.5 cm in the figure actually varies from about 12.8 cm
which are both particles and waves. That proba- to 13.8 cm, even for tubes that otherwise appear identical.
bly disturbed you less than it might have, since you
most likely had no preconceived ideas about whether
light was a particle or a wave. In this lab, however,
you will see direct evidence that electrons, which you Method
had been completely convinced were particles, also
What you are working with is basically the same
display the wave-like property of interference. Your
kind of vacuum tube as the picture tube in your tele-
schooling had probably ingrained the particle inter-
vision. As in a TV, electrons are accelerated through
pretation of electrons in you so strongly that you
a voltage and shot in a beam to the front (big end)
used particle concepts without realizing it. When
of the tube, where they hit a phosphorescent coat-
you wrote symbols for chemical ions such as Cl−
ing and produce a glow. You cannot see the electron
and Ca2+ , you understood them to mean a chlorine
beam itself. There is a very thin carbon foil (it looks
atom with one excess electron and a calcium atom
like a tiny piece of soap bubble) near where the neck
with two electrons stripped off. By teaching you to
joins the spherical part of the tube, and the elec-
count electrons, your teachers were luring you into
trons must pass through the foil before crossing over
the assumption that electrons were particles. If this
to the phosphorescent screen.
lab’s evidence for the wave properties of electrons
disturbs you, then you are on your way to a deeper The purpose of the carbon foil is to provide an ultra-
understanding of what an electron really is — both fine diffraction grating — the “grating” consists of
a particle and a wave. the crystal lattice of the carbon atoms themselves!
143
panel of the HV supply, and switch the switch on You need to get data down to about 2 or 3
the HV supply to the right, so it knows you’re using kV in order to get conclusive results from this
the right-hand panel. experiment. The tubes are not quite identi-
cal, and were not designed to operate at such
The following connections are specified in the doc-
low voltages, so they haven’t been tested un-
umentation, although I don’t entirely understand
der those conditions. Experience has shown
what they’re for. First, connect the electrode X to
that some of the tubes work at lower voltages
the same plug as the cathode.1 Also, connect F1 to
than others. The group that has the tube that
C with the wire that has the 100-kΩ resistor spliced
works the best at low voltages can share their
into it. The circuit diagram on page 146 summarizes
low-voltage data with the other groups.
all this.
Check your circuit with your instructor before turn-
ing it on! Prelab
The point of the prelab questions is to make sure
Observations you understand what you’re doing, why you’re do-
ing it, and how to avoid some common mistakes. If
You are now ready to see for yourself the evidence of you don’t know the answers, make sure to come to
the wave nature of electrons, observe the diffraction my office hours before lab and get help! Otherwise
pattern for various values of the high voltage, and you’re just setting yourself up for failure in lab.
figure out what determines the wavelength of the
The week before you are to do the lab, briefly famil-
electrons. You will need to do your measurements
iarize yourself visually with the apparatus.
in the dark.
Read the safety checklist.
You will measure the θ’s, and thus determine the
wavelength, λ, for several different voltages. Each P1 It is not practical to measure θ1 and θ2 directly
voltage will produce electrons with a different veloc- with a protractor. Come up with a plan for how to
ity, momentum, and energy. get the angles indirectly using trigonometry.
Hints: P2 If the voltage difference across which the elec-
trons are accelerated is V , and the known mass and
charge of the electron are m and e, what are the
While measuring the diffraction pattern, don’t
electrons’ kinetic energy and momentum, in terms
touch the vacuum tube — the static electric
of V , m, and e? (As a numerical check on your re-
fields of one’s body seem to be able to perturb
sults, you should find that V = 5700 V gives KE =
the pattern.
9.1 × 10−16 J and p = 4.1 × 10−23 kg·m/s.)
It is easiest to take measurements at the high- P3 Why is it not logically possible for the wave-
est voltages, where the electrons pack a wallop length to be proportional to both p and KE? To
and make nice bright rings on the phosphor. both 1/p and 1/KE?
Start with the highest voltages and take data
at lower and lower voltages until you can’t see P4 I have suggested plotting λ as a function of
the rings well enough to take precise data. To p, KE, 1/p and 1/KE to see if λ is directly propor-
get unambiguous results, you’ll need to take tional to any of them. Once you have your raw data,
data with the widest possible range of voltages. how can you immediately rule out two of these four
possibilities and avoid drawing the graphs?
In order to reach a definite conclusion about P5 On each graph, you will have two data-points
what λ is proportional to, you will need accu- for each voltage, corresponding to two different mea-
rate data. Do your best to get good measure- surements of the same wavelength. The two wave-
ments. Pay attention to possible problems in- lengths will be almost the same, but not exactly
curred by viewing the diffraction patterns from the same because of random errors in measuring the
different angles on different occasions. Try re- rings. Should you get the wavelengths by combining
peating a measurement more than once, and the smaller angle with d1 and the larger angle with
seeing how big your random errors are. d2 , or vice versa?
1 If you look inside the tube, you can see that X is an extra
145
The circuit for the new setup.
Sources of systematic errors A lens is used inside the collimator to make the light
from the slit into a parallel beam. This is important,
because we are using mλ = d sin θ to determine the
149
wavelength, but this equation was derived under the side, which is recessed inside a hole. The hole may
assumption that the light was coming in as a parallel have a dime-sized cover over it.)
beam. To make a parallel beam, the slit must be
Illuminate the slit with a dim source of light, such as
located accurately at the focal point of the lens. This
a low-wattage lamp 10-20 cm away, and look at the
adjustment should have already been done, but you
m = 0 image of the slit through the telescope and
will check later and make sure. A further advantage
collimator. At this point you should already have
of using a lens in the collimator is that a telescope
telescope adjusted correctly for viewing a parallel
only works for objects far away, not nearby objects
beam of incoming light. If the collimator is adjusted
from which the reflected light is diverging strongly.
correctly already, which it should be, then the slit
The lens in the collimator forms a virtual image at
is at the focal point of the lens, the beam is parallel
infinity, on which the telescope can work.
when it emerges from the collimator, and you should
The objective lens of the telescope focuses the light, see the slit in focus. If it is not in focus, then you
forming a real image inside the tube. The eyepiece either need to repeat your focusing of the telescope
then acts like a magnifying glass to let you see the on a distant object, or to get your instructor’s help
image. In order to see the cross-hairs and the image with adjusting the collimator. Do not try to adjust
of the slit both in focus at the same time, the cross- the collimator without consulting your instructor,
hairs must be located accurately at the focal point who has the screwdriver needed to loosen a set screw
of the objective, right on top of the image. that holds it in place.
The white plastic pedestals should have already been
adjusted correctly to get the diffraction grating ori-
Setup ented correctly in three dimensions, but you should
Turn on both gas discharge tubes right away, to let check it carefully. The white plastic piece is fitted
them get warmed up. on top of a smaller metal pedestal, which has three
adjusting screws underneath it. The tips of two of
Adjusting the optics at the start of the experiment is
the screws fit into two little indentations under the
vital. You do not want to fail to get the adjustments
metal pedestal, and tension in a spring is supposed
right and then spend several frustrating hours trying
to keep them in there. The first thing you should
fruitlessly to make your observations.
check is that they are actually in there; if they are,
First you must adjust the cross-hairs so they are at it will stay locked in place despite gentle attempts
the focal point of the objective. This can be done by to wiggle the plastic pedestal with your hand. Next,
looking at an object far away, and sliding the eye- turn the telescope to 90 degrees, and sighting over
piece in or out until both the object and the cross- the top of it like a gun to check that the diffraction
hairs can be viewed in focus at the same time. An grating is perpendicular to the central axis. Finally,
object in the room is not far enough; you need some- check that the grating is vertical, by resting the spirit
thing & 50 m away, which means going outside. If level across the top of the glass, and also by pressing
the eyepiece is too far from the objective, a converg- it gently against the plain glass that frames the grat-
ing beam will be coming into your eye, and you will ing. Don’t press it against the actual grating itself,
not be able to focus on it. If the eyepiece is too close because you could scratch it.
to the objective, the beam coming at you will be di-
verging, and you will be able to focus your eyes on
the virtual image of the object, but you will not be Observations
able to focus your eye simultaneously on the cross-
hairs. Once you think you are fairly close in your A Calibration of the grating
adjustment, the most sensitive way to tweak it is to Now put the Hg tube behind the collimator. Make
move your head from side to side, and see if the cross- sure the hottest part of the gas discharge tube is
hairs appear to move relative to the image, due to directly in front of the slits; you will need to use the
parallax. If the image and the cross-hairs are at the piece of plywood to raise the spectrometer to the
same point in space, you will not see any parallax. right height. You want the tube as close to the slits
If you cannot get the adjustment to work by moving as possible, and lined up with the slits as well as
the eyepiece, you may need to move the crosshairs possible; you can adjust this while looking through
in or out as well; this is done by sliding the tube the telescope at an m = 1 line, so as to make the
that is just outside the eyepiece tube. (You need to line as bright as possible.
use the small screwdriver to loosen the screw on the
If the focusing adjustments you made outside were
151
Analysis
Throughout your analysis, remember that this is
a high-precision experiment, so you don’t want to
round off to less than five significant figures. See ap-
pendix 4 for information on how to do error analysis
for this type of high-precision line-fitting.
The energies of the four types of visible photons
emitted by a hydrogen atom equal En − E2 , where
n = 3, 4, 5, and 6. Graph Ephoton vs. 1/n2 , and
use the slope of the graph to find the proportion-
ality constant in the Bohr equation. Since this is
a high-precision experiment, a hand-drawn graph is
not good enough; you will want to use a computer
to make the graph. If any of the points deviate vis-
ibly from the line, then you’ve messed up; fix your
mistake, or throw out the data-point, if necessary.
From the measurement of the above proportionality
constant, extract the mass of the electron, with error
bars. We assume that the following constants are
already known:
e = 1.6022 × 10−19 C
k = 8.9876 × 109 N·m2 /C2
h = 6.6261 × 10−34 J·s
c = 2.9979 × 108 m/s
The spectrometer
Optics.
153
48 The Michelson Interferometer
Apparatus by distance equal to a quarter of a wavelength of the
light, the total round-trip distance traveled by the
Michelson interferometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1/group wave is changed by half a wavelength, which switches
Na and H gas discharge tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/group from constructive to destructive interference, or vice
tools inside drawer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 set/group versa. Thus if the mirror is moved by a distance d,
2 × 4 piece of wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3/group and you see the light go through n complete cycles
colored filters (Cambosco and others) of appearance and disappearance, you can conclude
that the wavelength of the light was λ = 2d/n.
To make small and accurate adjustments of the mir-
Goals ror easier to do, the micrometer is connected to it
through a level that reduces the amount of move-
Determine the wavelength of a line of the emis- ment by a factor k, approximately equal to 5.23;
sion spectrum of sodium or hydrogen. the micrometer reads the bigger distance D = kd
that it actually travels itself, so the wavelength is
The Michelson interferometer is a device for measur- λ = 2D/kn.
ing the wavelength of light, used most famously in Another trick to make the apparatus easier to use
the Michelson-Morley experiment of 1887, which was is that the mirrors A and B are slightly curved.
later interpreted as disproving the existence of the This means that instead of seeing a field of light
luminiferous aether and supporting Einstein’s theory that varies uniformly between dark and bright as
of special relativity. you turn the knob, instead you see a set of concen-
tric rings (called fringes), which expand or contract
depending on which direction you turn the knob.
Turn on the sodium discharge tube, and let it warm
up until it’s yellow.
Remove the drawer from the box, and take out the
tool kit. Unscrew the screws on the bottom of the
box that lock the interferometer to the floor of the
box, and very carefully take the instrument out of
the box. Screw the two aluminum legs into the bot-
tom of the interferometer, and lay a piece of wood
flat under the third leg, which is a threaded rod; this
makes the apparatus level.
Place the discharge tube near the entrance window
of the apparatus. If you look through the viewing
window, you will see the image of the tube itself,
As shown in the figure, the idea is to take a beam reflected through the mirrors. To make this into a
of light from the source, split it into two perpendic- uniform circle of light, place the ground glass screen
ular beams, send it to two mirrors, and then recom- (inside the bag of tools) in the bracket at the en-
bine the beams again. If the two light waves are in trance window.
phase when recombined, they will reinforce, but if
they are out of phase, they will cancel. Since the Mirror B needs to be perfectly perpendicular to mir-
two waves originated from the splitting of a single ror A, and its vertical plane needs to be matched to
wave, the only reason they would be out of phase mirror A’s. This is adjusted using the knobs on mir-
was if the lengths of the two arms of the apparatus ror B, one for vertical adjustment and one for hor-
were unequal. Mirror A is movable, and the distance izontal. A rough initial adjustment can be done by
through which it moves can be controlled and mea- aligning the two images of the circular entrance win-
sured extremely accurately using a micrometer con- dow. You can then hang the metal pointer (from the
nected to the mirror via a lever. If mirror A is moved bag of tools) on the top of the ground glass screen,
155
Appendix 1: Format of Lab Writeups
Lab reports must be three pages or less, not counting whether the U.S. should have free trade with China.”
your raw data. The format should be as follows:
Summary box (when appropriate)
Title If this is a lab that has just one important numeri-
cal result (or maybe two or three of them), put them
Raw data — Keep actual observations separate from
right below you abstract, in a box, with error bars
what you later did with them.
where appropriate. There should normally be no
These are the results of the measurements you take
more than two to four numbers here. Do not reca-
down during the lab, hence they come first. You
pitulate your raw data here — this is for your final
should clearly mark the beginning and end of your
results. Some labs do not have numerical results,
raw data, so I don’t have to sort through many pages
or the numerical results are more appropriately dis-
to find your actual presentation of your work, below.
played in a graph, so those writeups need not have
Write your raw data directly in your lab book; don’t
a summary box.
write them on scratch paper and recopy them later.
Don’t use pencil. The point is to separate facts from Justification and Reasoning — Convince me of
opinions, observations from inferences. what you claimed in your abstract.
Cconvince me that the statements you made about
Procedure — Did you have to create your own
your results in the abstract follow logically from your
methods for getting some of the raw data?
data. This will typically involve both calculations
Do not copy down the procedure from the manual!
and logical arguments. Continuing the debate metaphor,
In this section, you only need to explain any meth-
if your abstract said the U.S. should have free trade
ods you had to come up with on your own, or cases
with China, this is the rest of the debate, where you
where the methods suggested in the handout didn’t
convince me, based on data and logic, that we should
work and you had to do something different. Do not
have free trade.
discuss how you did your calculations here, just how
you got your raw data. In your calculations, the more clearly you show what
you did, the easier it is for me to give you partial
Abstract — What did you find out? Why is it im-
credit if there is something wrong with your final re-
portant?
sult. If you have a long series of similar calculations,
The “abstract” of a scientific paper is a short para-
you may just show one as a sample. If your prelab
graph at the top that summarizes the experiment’s
involved deriving equations that you will need, re-
results in a few sentences. Although you are not
peat them here without the derivation. Try to lay
professional scientists doing original work, the goal
out complicated calculations in a logical way, go-
of communication is the same here as it is in a pro-
ing straight down the page and using indentation to
fessional paper. If your results deviated from the
make it easy to understand. When doing algebra, try
ideal equations, don’t be afraid to say so. After all,
to keep everything in symbolic form until the very
this is real life, and many of the equations we learn
end, when you will plug in numbers. The two most
are only approximations, or are only valid in certain
important methods for checking if you did a calcu-
circumstances. However, (1) if you simply mess up,
lation correctly are (1) make sure your results make
it is your responsibility to realize it in lab and do it
sense, and (2) when you plug in numbers, make sure
again, right; (2) you will never get exact agreement
the units work out right, and that you did the right
with theory, because measurements are not perfectly
conversions of units. Remember your significant fig-
exact — the important issue is whether your results
ures!
agree with theory to roughly within the error bars.
The abstract comes first in your writeup, but you’ll
write it last, so leave a little space for it.
The abstract is not a statement of what you hoped
to find out. It’s a statement of what you did find
out. It’s like the brief statement at the beginning
of a debate: “The U.S. should have free trade with
China.” It’s not this: “In this debate, we will discuss
Procedure
We followed the procedure in the lab manual with
the following additions: (1) To make sure both ob-
jects fell at the same time, we put them side by side
on a board and then tipped the board. (2) We waited
until there was no wind.
Abstract
We dropped a cannon ball weighing two hundred
pounds and a musket ball weighing half a pound si-
multaneously from the same height. Both hit the
ground at nearly the same time. This contradicts
Aristotle’s theory that heavy objects always fall faster
than light ones.
Summary Box
157
Appendix 2: Basic Error Analysis
No measurement is perfectly ex- itations of the measuring devices.
159
are to use the techniques explained below to deter- Method #2: Repeated Measurements and the Two-
mine the error bars on your final result. There are Thirds Rule
two sets of techniques you’ll need to learn: If you take repeated measurements of the same thing,
then the amount of variation among the numbers can
techniques for finding the accuracy of your raw tell you how big the random errors were. This ap-
data proach has an advantage over guessing your random
techniques for using the error bars on your raw errors, since it automatically takes into account all
data to infer error bars on your final result the sources of random error, even ones you didn’t
know were present.
Roughly speaking, the measurements of the length
Estimating random errors in raw of the sofa were mostly within a few mm of the av-
data erage, so that’s about how big the random errors
were. But let’s make sure we are stating our error
We now examine three possible techniques for es- bars according to the convention that the true result
timating random errors in your original measure- will fall within our range of errors about two times
ments, illustrating them with the measurement of out of three. Of course we don’t know the “true”
the length of the sofa. result, but if we sort out our list of measurements
in order, we can get a pretty reasonable estimate of
Method #1: Guess
our error bars by taking half the range covered by
If you’re measuring the length of the sofa with a the middle two thirds of the list. Sorting out our list
metric tape measure, then you can probably make a of ten measurements of the sofa, we have
reasonable guess as to the precision of your measure-
202.8 cm 202.9 202.9 203.1 203.1
ments. Since the smallest division on the tape mea-
203.1 203.2 203.3 203.4 203.4
sure is one millimeter, and one millimeter is also near
the limit of your ability to see, you know you won’t Two thirds of ten is about 6, and the range covered
be doing better than ± 1 mm, or 0.1 cm. Making al- by the middle six measurements is 203.3 cm - 202.9
lowances for errors in getting tape measure straight cm, or 0.4 cm. Half that is 0.2 cm, so we’d esti-
and so on, we might estimate our random errors to mate our error bars as ±0.2 cm. The average of the
be a couple of millimeters. measurements is 203.1 cm, so your result would be
stated as 203.1 ± 0.2 cm.
Guessing is fine sometimes, but there are at least two
ways that it can get you in trouble. One is that stu- One common mistake when estimating random er-
dents sometimes have too much faith in a measuring rors by repeated measurements is to round off all
device just because it looks fancy. They think that your measurements so that they all come out the
a digital balance must be perfectly accurate, since same, and then conclude that the error bars were
unlike a low-tech balance with sliding weights on it, zero. For instance, if we’d done some overenthu-
it comes up with its result without any involvement siastic rounding of our measurements on the sofa,
by the user. That is incorrect. No measurement is rounding them all off to the nearest cm, every single
perfectly accurate, and if the digital balance only number on the list would have been 203 cm. That
displays an answer that goes down to tenths of a wouldn’t mean that our random errors were zero!
gram, then there is no way the random errors are The same can happen with digital instruments that
any smaller than about a tenth of a gram. automatically round off for you. A digital balance
might give results rounded off to the nearest tenth of
Another way to mess up is to try to guess the error
a gram, and you may find that by putting the same
bars on a piece of raw data when you really don’t
object on the balance again and again, you always
have enough information to make an intelligent esti-
get the same answer. That doesn’t mean it’s per-
mate. For instance, if you are measuring the range
fectly precise. Its precision is no better than about
of a rifle, you might shoot it and measure how far
±0.1 g.
the bullet went to the nearest centimeter, conclud-
ing that your random errors were only ±1 cm. In Method #3: Repeated Measurements and the Stan-
reality, however, its range might vary randomly by dard Deviation
fifty meters, depending on all kinds of random fac-
The most widely accepted method for measuring er-
tors you don’t know about. In this type of situation,
ror bars is called the standard deviation. Here’s how
you’re better off using some other method of esti-
the method works, using the sofa example again.
mating your random errors.
161
Appendix 3: Propagation of Errors
Propagation of the error from a nificant errors in the density. The following more
general method can be applied in such cases:
single variable
(1) Change one of the raw measurements, say m, by
In the previous appendix we looked at techniques one standard deviation, and see by how much the
for estimating the random errors of raw data, but final result, ρ, changes. Use the symbol Qm for the
now we need to know how to evaluate the effects of absolute value of that change.
those random errors on a final result calculated from
the raw data. For instance, suppose you are given a m = 1.658 g gave ρ = 2.690 g/cm3
cube made of some unknown material, and you are m = 1.661 g gives ρ = 2.695 g/cm3
asked to determine its density. Density is defined Qm = change in ρ = 0.005 g/cm3
as ρ = m/v (ρ is the Greek letter “rho”), and the
volume of a cube with edges of length b is v = b3 , so (2) Repeat step (1) for the other raw measurements.
the formula b = 0.851 cm gave ρ = 2.690 g/cm3
ρ = m/b3 b = 0.852 cm gives ρ = 2.681 g/cm3
will give you the density if you measure the cube’s Qb = change in ρ = 0.009 g/cm3
mass and the length of its sides. Suppose you mea- (3) The standard deviation of ρ is given by the for-
sure the mass very accurately as m = 1.658±0.003 g, mula q
but you know b = 0.85±0.06 cm with only two digits σρ = Q2m + Q2b ,
of precision. Your best value for ρ is 1.658 g/(0.85 cm)3 =
2.7 g/cm3 . yielding σρ = 0.01 g/cm3 . Intuitively, the idea here
How can you figure out how precise this value for ρ is that if our result could be off by an mount Qm be-
is? We’ve already made sure not to keep more than cause of an error in m, and by Qb because of b, then if
twosignificant figures for ρ, since the less accurate the two errors were in the same direction, we might
piece of raw data had only two significant figures. by off by roughly Qm + Qb . However, it’s equally
We expect the last significant figure to be somewhat likely that the two errors would be in opposite di-
uncertain, but we don’t yet know how uncertain. A rections,
p and at least partially cancel. The expres-
simple method for this type of situation is simply to sion Q2m + Q2b gives an answer that’s smaller than
change the raw data by one sigma, recalculate the Qm + Qb , representing the fact that the cancellation
result, and see how much of a change occurred. In might happen.
this example, we add 0.06 cm to b for comparison. The final result is ρ = 2.69 ± 0.01 g/cm3 .
b = 0.85 cm gave ρ = 2.7 g/cm3
b = 0.91 cm gives ρ = 2.0 g/cm3
The resulting change in the density was 0.7 g/cm3 ,
so that is our estimate for how much it could have
been off by:
ρ = 2.7 ± 0.7 g/cm3 .
165
Appendix 5: Finding Power Laws from Data
For many people, it is hard to imagine how scientists It’s fairly easy to figure out what’s going on just
originally came up with all the equations that can by staring at the numbers a little. Every time you
now be found in textbooks. This appendix explains increase the height of the animal by a factor of 10, its
one method for finding equations to describe data food consumption goes up by a factor of 100. This
from an experiment. implies that f must be proportional to the square of
h, or, displaying the proportionality constant k = 3
explicitly,
Linear and nonlinear relationships f = 3h2 .
When two variables x and y are related by an equa-
tion of the form
Use of logarithms
y = cx ,
Now we have found c = 3 and p = 2 by inspection,
where c is a constant (does not depend on x or y), but that would be much more difficult to do if these
we say that a linear relationship exists between x weren’t all round numbers. A more generally appli-
and y. As an example, a harp has many strings of cable method to use when you suspect a power-law
different lengths which are all of the same thickness relationship is to take logarithms of both variables.
and made of the same material. If the mass of a It doesn’t matter at all what base you use, as long as
string is m and its length is L, then the equation you use the same base for both variables. Since the
data above were increasing by powers of 10, we’ll use
m = cL logarithms to the base 10, but personally I usually
just use natural logs for this kind of thing.
will hold, where c is the mass per unit length, with log10 h log10 f
units of kg/m. Many quantities in the physical world shrew 0 0.48
are instead related in a nonlinear fashion, i.e. the rat 1 2.48
relationship does not fit the above definition of lin- capybara 2 4.48
earity. For instance, the mass of a steel ball bearing
is related to its diameter by an equation of the form This is a big improvement, because differences are
so much simpler to work mentally with than ratios.
m = cd3 , The difference between each successive value of h
is 1, while f increases by 2 units each time. The
where c is the mass per unit volume, or density, of fact that the logs of the f 0 s increase twice as quickly
steel. Doubling the diameter does not double the is the same as saying that f is proportional to the
mass, it increases it by a factor of eight. square of h.
Measuring current
When using a meter to measure current, the meter
must be in series with the circuit, so that every elec-
tron going by is forced to go through the meter and
contribute to a current in the meter. Many multime-
ters have more than one scale for measuring a given
thing. For instance, a meter may have a milliamp
scale and an amp scale. One is used for measuring
small currents and the other for large currents. You
may not be sure in advance what scale is appropri-
ate, but that’s not big problem — once everything
is hooked up, you can try different scales and see
what’s appropriate. Use the switch or buttons on the
front to select one of the current scales. The connec-
tions to the meter should be made at the “common”
socket (“COM”) and at the socket labeled “A” for
Amperes.
Measuring voltage
For a voltage measurement, use the switch or but-
tons on the front to select one of the voltage scales.
(If you forget, and hook up the meter while the
switch is still on a current scale, you may blow a
fuse.) You always measure voltage differences with
a meter. One wire connects the meter to one point
in the circuit, and the other connects the meter to
another point in a circuit. The meter measures the
difference in voltage between those two points. For
example, to measure the voltage across a resistor,
you must put the meter in parallel with the resis-
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