SURVEYING

Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of different objects on the surface of the earth by
measuring the horizontal distances between them, and by preparing a map to any suitable scale. Thus, in
discipline, the measurements are taken only in the horizontal plane.

1.Object
2.Uses
3.Principles
 Object of surveying

The aim of surveying is to prepare a map to show the relative positions of the objects on the surface of the
earth. The map is drawn to some suitable scale. It shows the natural features of a country, such as towns,
villages, roads, railways, rivers, etc. Maps also include details of different engineering works, such as
roads, railways, irrigation canals, etc.

 Uses of surveying

Surveying may be used for the following various applications:

 To prepare a topographical map which shows the hills, valleys, rivers, villages, towns, forests,
etc. of a country.
 To prepare a cadastral map showing the boundaries of fields, houses and other properties.
 To prepare an engineering map which shows the details of engineering works such as roads,
railways, reservoirs, irrigation canals, etc.
 To prepare a military map showing the road and railway communications with different parts of a
country. Such a map also shows the different strategic points important for the defence of a
country.
 To prepare a contour map to determine the capacity of a reservoir and to find the best possible
route for roads, railways, etc.
 To prepare a geological map showing areas including underground resources.
 To prepare an archaeological map including places where ancient relics exist.

General Principles of surveying

 The general principles of surveying are:

 To work from the whole to the part

 To locate a new station by at least two measurements (linear or angular) from fixed reference
points.
According to the first principle, the whole area is first enclosed by main stations (i.e. Controlling stations)
and main survey lines (i.e. controlling lines). The area is then divided into a number of parts by forming
well conditioned triangles. A nearly equilateral triangle is considered to be the best well-conditioned
triangle.The main survey lines are measured very accurately with a standard chain. Then the sides of the
triangles are measured. The purpose of this process of working is to prevent accumulation of error.
During the procedure, if there is any error in the measurement of any side of a triangle, then it will not
affect the whole work. The error can always be detected and eliminated.

According to the second principle, the new stations should always be fixed by at least two measurements
(linear or angular) from fixed reference points. Linear measurements refer to horizontal distances
measured by chain or tape. Angular measurements refer to the magnetic bearing or horizontal angle taken
by a prismatic compass or theodolite.

In chain surveying, the positions of main stations and directions of main survey lines are fixed by tie lines
and check lines.
 Bearing :

The horizontal angle between the reference meridian and the survey line is termed as bearing of the
survey line.

 Magnetic Bearing:
The magnetic needle of the compass always points towards the magnetic north-south (N-S) direction
indicating earth’s magnetic axis. Since this direction is same at all the places on the earth’s surface, it is
universally used as the reference direction. The angle made by survey line in a clockwise direction with
reference to magnetic N-S line is termed as magnetic bearing of the line. The value of magnetic bearing
ranges from 0 o to 360o .

 True Bearing:
The geographical north of earth is different from the magnetic north. Hence, the angle which the survey
line makes with the true geographical north is termed as true bearing of the survey line.
 Arbitrary Bearing:
It is the horizontal angle which a survey line makes with any arbitrary meridian, which is any convenient
direction towards a permanent and prominent mark or signal, such as a church spire or top of a chimney.
Such bearings are used to determine the relative position of line in a small area.

 Whole Circle Bearing (WCB):

The complete circle of angular measurement starts with north as 0 o and ends at north at 360o . The
bearing of line directly obtained by magnetic needle ranging from 0 o to 360 o is called whole circle
bearing .
 Reduced Bearing (RB):
The more convenient way to comprehend the direction of a survey line is to represent the bearing on a
quadrantal system. The angle is measured with respect to N–S line towards east or west as shown in
Figure 3.1(b). The relationship between WCB and RB is shown in Figure 3.1(c).

 Fore Bearing (FB):

The angle measured in the direction of survey line from starting survey station to the next station is called
fore bearing. In Figure 3.1(d), if the bearing of line AB is measured from A towards B, it is known as
forward bearing or fore bearing.

 Back Bearing (BB):

It is the bearing of the survey line taken from the forward survey station to the preceding station from
which the fore bearing was taken earlier. In Figure , if the bearing of same line AB is measured from B
towards A, it is known as backward bearing or back bearing.
(c) Relationship between WCB and RB