Gondwana Research, V 5, No. 2, p p . 261 -273.

02002 International Association for Gondwana Research, Japan

ISSN: 1342-93ix

Granite: A Planetary Point of View

B. Bonin, J. B6bien and P. Masson
C N R S - U M R 861 6 ’Orsayterre’, Dipartement des Sciences de la Terre, Universite‘ de Paris-Sud, F-91405 Orsay Cedex, France

(Manuscript received October 3,2001; accepted October 16,2001)

Abstract
The telluric planets and the asteroid belt display the same internal structure with a metallic inner core and a silicate
outer shell. Experimental data and petrological evidence in silicate systems show that granite can be produced through
all types of magmatic processes.
On Moon, 4 4 3 . 9 Ga granite clasts displaying dry mineral assemblages correspond to discrete intrusive events.
Large K/Ca enrichment and low REE abundances in granite relative to KREEP are consistent with silicate liquid
immiscibility, a process observed in melt inclusions within olivlne of Lunar basalts. On Mars, black-and-white rhythmic
layers observed on the Tharsis rise along the flanks of Valles Marinens and the peripheral scarps of the Tharsis Montes
giant volcanoes suggest the eruption of possibly felsic pyroclastites Samples analysed In the Mars Pathfinder landing
site yield basic to intermediate (45 to 62 wt.% SiO,) compositions. Though no granites were found so far in the Martian
SNC meteorites, a component close to terrestrial continental (granitic) crust is inferred from trace element and isotope
systematics. Like the Martian northern hemisphere, Venus has suffered extensive volcanic resurfacing, whereas folded
and faulted areas resemble terrestrial continents. The hypothesis of a granitic component is again ‘tantalizing’. Finally,
extra-terrestrial granite is also found as enclaves within iron meteorites and ordinary chondrites.
Granite, a major component of the Earth’s crust, can be generated in all geodynamic settings. The low density of
granite favours continental accretion. Thus, the occurrence or absence of granite and of associated silicic volcanism
within the other telluric planets is not a trivial question. Granite is generally thought to be produced through ‘wet’
processes Lunai evidence shows that dry conditions may apply as well. In Venus, a large planet with high rates of
magma production, it is speculated that significant volumes of granite can develop.
Key words: Granites, geochemistry, extra terrestrial, Lunar, Martian.

Introduction order of abundance), that are issued from erosion and

On Earth, granitic rocks were extensivelystudied during
the last centuries for the following reasons: (i) they are
the most abundant rocks in the Earth’s upper continental
crust and, simply for volumetric reasons, should not be
ignored, (ii) like other igneous rocks, they represent probes
into the deep planetary interiors, i.e., the crust and even
the upper mantle and (iii) they are closely connected with
tectonics and geodynamics. For reviews of the conflicting
ideas until the present consensus on the magmatic origin
of granite, see e.g., Eskola (1932), Clarke (1992), Pitcher
(1993), Bonin et al. (1997).
With an average thickness of 40 km, the Earth’s
continental crust has a total mass estimated at 2.4 * 10lYt.
The upper continental crust forms 43% of this mass, and
consists of sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks
in the rough proportion of 1:4:4 (Wedepohl, 1991).
Sedimentary rocks comprise 78 vol.% detrital rocks
(shales, greywackes and quartz sandstones in the decreasing
weathering of continental (granitic) formations.
Orthogneisses, metapelites and metagreywackes are the
chief components of the metamorphic group of rocks.
Various estimates of the intrusive igneous rocks range
around 86-88 vol.% granites and 14-12 vol.% other rock
types, such as gabbros, diorites, etc. From the average
composition of the three groups of rocks (sedinieptary,
metamorphic, igneous), it can be concluded that roughly
86 vol.% of the upper continental crust is granitic in
composition. Though occasionally present, granite occurs
in relatively insignificantamounts within the oceanic crust
and the upper mantle. The total mass of Earth’s granitic
rocks amounts to at least 10lyt, which corresponds,
assuming an average density of 2.67, to a volume of
approximately 3.74 * lo9 km3.
Whether granite is likely to occur or not, outside the
Earth, is therefore, an inviting topic that will be addressed.
The fundamentals of the paper are based on the following
two lines of evidence: (i) the telluric planets, including
262 B. BONIN ET AL.
the Earth and the asteroid belt, display the same internal
structure with a metallic inner core and a silicate outer
shell, (ii) experimental petrology provides ample evidence
that granite melts at relatively shallow depths and at
temperatures of the order of 600-900°C, which are the
lowest recorded so far in silicate systems (only
natrocarbonatite, which is not a silicate rock, yields lower
melting temperatures). As granite is eniplaced in fairly
large quantities within the earth’s crust, there is no reason
why this could not happen within the silicate outer shell
of one or the other telluric planet. The available evidence
for observed and/or inferred occurrences of felsic granite-
like materials outside the earth will be critically reviewed
and discussed, with later emphasis on the critical problem
of continents within the telluric planets.
The Lunar Evidence
The Moon has its origin and composition closely
connected to the Earth (O’Neill, 1991a, 1991b). The
isotopic record provides evidence for extreme chemical
differentiation within 200 my of its formation, so that the
mantle appears to be much more differentiated on the
Moon than on the Earth (Carlson, 1994). The Moon’s outer
shells originated from the differentiation of the lunar
magma ocean. The major products of this Moon-wide
melting event include the anorthositic lunar crust, thought
to have resulted from the flotation of cumulus plagioclase,
and the ultramafic lunar mantle, thought to have formed
by sinking of dense mafic silicate minerals such,as olivine
and pyroxene. The last magmatic dregs of the lunar magma
ocean constituted ‘KREEP’, an acronym that reflects its
characteristic high concentrations of potassium, rare earth
elements, and phosphorus (Carlson, 1994). KREEP is a
globally distributed chemical component that permeates
a wide variety of lunar rocks, but which is never found in
its pristine, unadulterated state.
Lunar granite samples
As granite is abundant in the Earth’s crust, it was
tempting, before the Surveyor program, to speculate that
granitic rocks predominate in the lunar crust. But lunar
sample recovery has failed to provide large, pristine
granites. Actually,lunar ‘granites’occur either as components
in polymict breccias, or as small clasts, or as felsites.
‘Felsite’ is a descriptive term for pale brown K-Si-rich
glasses that are found in many regolith breccias and soil
samples. Felsites contain a few quench phases and rare
relict mafic phases, and almost certainly represent total
shock melts of a granite precursor, not endogenous rhyolite
magmatism (Shervais and McGee, 1999). In the lunar
vocabulary, a pristine rock is compositionally endogenous
(igneous or thermally metamorphosed igneous),
unadulterated by other materials. The vast majority of lunar
‘granites’ are non-pristine, polymict products of impact-
induced mixing of lunar plus minor meteoritic materials.
Granite clasts are relatively common at the Apollo 14
site. Based on the abundance of felsite in Apollo 14 soils
and regolith breccias, granites are estimated to constitute
0.5-2 vol.% of the crust here (Shervais and Taylor, 1983).
The largest pristine lunar granite (labelled 14321,1027)
was found as a 16 x 7 mm outcrop on breccia 14321 (total
mass 9 kg); the original mass of the clast is estimated to
be 1.8 g. A smaller clast (14303,204) was found as an
11 x 6 mm outcrop on breccia 14303, with original mass
of only 0.17 g (Warren et al., 1983). In the IUGS
classification (Le Maitre, 1989), 14321, 1027 is alkali
feldspar granite, with 40% quartz and -60% K-feldspar,
while 14303,204is monzogranite, with 23% quartz, 32%
K-feldspar and 33% plagioclase. Where not brecciated or
shock - melted (30-50 vol.%), the undamaged igneous
texture is dominantly granophyric, feldspar and quartz
occurring as 0.05 mm up to 2 mm intergrown crystals. As
the rocks are devoid of volatile-rich phases, volatiles
cannot be a prerequisite for formation of the graphic
intergrowths.
The felsic mineralogy is quite uncommon: alkali
feldspar lies in the Or80-Or97range, while plagioclase is
calcic. The alkali feldspar granite contains no albite, only
Ba-poor K-feldspar with a composition close to the pure
end-member, bracketed between Or,, and Or,l. In the
monzogranite, barian alkali feldspar (Or,,,, 1.54.8 wt.%
BaO) and normally zoned An,,.,, plagioclase constitute
the main feldspar assemblage. Moreover, scarce ternary
feldspar intergrown with quartz has average compositions
(Or45Ab25An30, -1.5 wt.% BaO) plotting in the ‘forbidden
zone’ of the feldspar triangle. The association of almost
pure K-feldspar with highly calcic plagioclase is unknown
within terrestrial monzogranites.
Anhydrous mafic and accessory minerals include
olivine, clinopyroxene (pigeonite, augite, hedenbergite),
ilmenite, Fe-Ni metal, occasionally zircon, Y-bearing
fluorapatite, whitlockite, and troilite. The alkali feldspar
granite yields extremely Fe-rich olivine and clinopyroxene,
compared with the monzogranite, i.e., Fo, (fayalite) vs.
F O ~and
~ , hedenbergite vs. zoned En,,,, augite, respectively
As they are poorer in Ni (from less than 0.2 to at most
2.8 wt.%) than meteoritic metals ( > 4 wt.%), Fe-Ni grains
are considered by Warren et al. (1983) to belong to the
Moon’s materials, suggesting crystallization at f 0 , close
to the IW(iron-wiistite)buffer. Shervais and McGee (1999)
demonstrate that variations in mineral assemblages and
compositions ( e g , BaO in alkali feldspar, Mg/Fe ratios
in mafic phases) imply the involvement of at least four
distinct parent magmas.
Gondwana Research, -!? 5, No. 2,2002
 GRANITE: A PLANETARY POINT OF VIEW 263

The clasts analysed are interpreted as probably free terrestrial mantle-normalizedarachnograms (Fig. lb). Both
of foreign contamination, according to the following LILE and HFSE yield fairly high abundances, with up to
criteria: (i) the glassy, shock-melted areas have 800 times the primitive terrestrial mantle for Ba and Th
compositions appropriate for mixtures of the crystals and 20-80 times for Yb and Lu. LILE are highly fractionated,
from the remainder of the clasts, (ii) the siderophiie while HFSE, including REE, are not. Pronounced Sr and
elements, Ir and Au, are well below the concentrations Ti negative anomalies are probably related to apatite +
recommended (Warren and Wasson, 1977) as a cut-off ilmenite fractionation. These features may be considered
for distinguishing pristine lunar rocks from nonpristine as diagnostic of extensive crystal-liquid fractionation. By
ones. Thus, chemical compositions of lunar granites may comparison, the terrestrial crust shows constantly
be examined with the same eye as terrestrial granites fractionated patterns, with no Eu negative anomaly (Fig.
(Figs. 1 and 2). 2a), and lower LILE and HFSE abundances (Fig. 2b).
Chrondrite-normalized flat REE patterns (Fig. l a ) are Despite their evolved nature, depicted by high silica
unfractionated, characterized by fairly high abundances contents, low Mg/Fe ratios, etc., lunar granites are low in

Lunar granites / chondrites (REE) 1000 3 Lunar granites I primitive mantle (Sun & McDonough)

loo0 7
500

100 o 14321,1027
o 14321,1027 14303,204
14303,204 12013
100
n 12013 rn 73255c
rn 7325%
50 10 1

10
RbBaTh K T a N b L a C e S r Nd P Hf ZrSmEu Ti Tb Y YbLu

Fig. 1. Compositional diagrams for lunar granites (data extracted from table 1, Warren et al., 1983). Samples 14321, 1027, 14303, 1204 and
73255c are clasts recovered from breccias, while sample 12013 corresponds to the average of the light portions, probably not pure felsite, of
the 12013 breccia. (a) Chondrite-normalized ME patterns. (b) Primitive terrestrial mantle (Sun and McDonough, 1989) normalized patterns.
Though not analysed, P contents are inferred to be low on the basis of modes, apatite being extremely rare.

Earth'scrust and lunar granites/chondriies (REE) Eanh'scrust and lunar oraniles I Drirnnive mantle (Sun & McDonoushl
1000
1000

Lunarclasl
~i
Lumrclast
100 A Felsite men in breccia 100 U Lunar clasl
n Lunarclast
Lunar clad
Felsite men In breccia
0 Lower CNSI Lunar clad
10 o Upper crust 10
0 Lower c ~ s t
0 Upper crust

(a)
1 T i i - - r - ~ - i - ~I 7 r
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Trn yb Lu
i I 1- i
I ' I I I I I I I I I 1 r 7 T-TY i-rl--T
RbBaTh K TaNbLaCeSrNd P HI DSrnEuTi Tb Y Y b L U

Fig. 2. Chemical compositions of lunar granites vs. terrestrial crust (lower and upper crust, from Wedepohl, 1991). (a) Chondrite-normalized REE
patterns. (b) Primitive terrestrial mantle normalized patterns.

(40-200 times the chondrites), (La,/Yb,) ratios near 1.0, any REE, but the heaviest Yb and Lu, with respect to
or even lower, and pronounced Eu negative anomalies KREEP, and yield extremely high WREE ratios. These
(Eu/Eu* ranging from 0.5 to 0.2), with the exception of features are better explained by silicate liquid immiscibility
73255c clast. Similar features are portrayed by primitive (Watson, 1976).

Gondwana Research, I? 5, No. 2,2002

264 B. BONIN ET AL.
Melt inclusions, further evidence f o r silicate liquid
immiscibility
The lunar samples display crystals that grew from a
silicate magma, and just as in most terrestrial igneous
rocks, irregularities in the growth process resulted in the
trapping of small portions of the surrounding fluid silicate
liquid. Unlike terrestrial rocks, almost all the inclusions
in the lunar samples are primary and can readily provide
information on the magmatic environment, i.e., the
temperature and pressure of trapping, and the composition
of the liquid.
A systematic survey of inclusions within crystals of all
lunar samples from Apollo missions was undertaken. The
results are reported in the numerous papers stemming
from the continuing series of Lunar Science Conferences,
since the first paper dedicated to Apollo 11 samples
(Roedder and Weiblen, 1970). In addition, the unmanned
Luna 24 spacecraft returned with drillcore materials
recovered from the regolith (Roedder and Weiblen, 1978).
Melt inclusions were systematically observed within
crystals of olivine, plagioclase, pyroxene, spinel, ilmenite,
cristobalite, and as interstitial inclusions at grain
boundaries. The major result is that the parent magma
evolved during cooling systematicallyto late-stage residual
liquids that split ultimately into immiscible high-iron and
high-silica liquids.
The high-silica melt inclusions (average 75 wt.% SO,)
are chemically identical to the granite clasts, and
correspond to low-Mg (<0.5 wt.% MgO) and Na (<0.9
wt.% Na,O), high-Fe (average 2.8 wt.% FeO, up to
5.8 wt.%) and K (6.8-9.7 wt.% K,O) potassic granite.
The coexisting, immiscible high-iron melt inclusions
(average 30 wt.% FeO, range 2311.7%) correspond to
basic-ultrabasic (<43 wt.% SiO,) ferro-pyroxenite, rich
in Ti (up to 8.7 wt.% TiO,), and fairly rich in Ca (up to
12 wt.% CaO, where not trapped by plagioclase).
The close assocation of high-silica and high-iron glasses
within one single inclusion resemble the immiscible high-
silica and high-iron liquids produced exprimentally by low
pressure (10.1MPa) fractionation of a basaltic magma
under anhydrous conditions near the iron-wiistite buffer
(Dixon and Rutherford, 1979; Dixon and Rutherford,
1983). The liquid line of descent indicates that 88 to
+
95% of an [olivine -t- plagioclase pyroxene f ilmenite]
mineral assemblage should crystallize before the onset of
silicate liquid immiscibility. There are still enough fluids,
making feasible the physical separation of the two
immiscible liquid phases. In the lunar samples, two
additional liquids, metallic Fe and iron sulphide in
composition, were apparently present, making four
simultaneously immiscible liquids (Koedder and Weiblen,
1972).
Isotopic record of lunar granites
The timing and extent of lunar magmatism was
determined primarily by the internal thermal evolution
of the Moon.Two major events marked the Moon’s
geological history: (i) the lunar magma ocean, resulting
in the formation of the first anorthositic lunar crust -4.45
Ga ago and (ii) the lunar cataclysm -3.9 Ga ago, due to
a late, heavy bombardment producing most of the
observable lunar basins. Then, more volcanism took place,
yielding discrete ages of flooding ranging from 3.9-3.6
Ga for the ‘middle-aged’high-Ti basalts to 3.4-3.2 Ga for
the ‘young’low and very low-Ti basalts. The isotopic record
(for compilation of data, see Nyquist and Shih, 1992)
-
substantiates at most a 1.2 Gy-long magmatic history.
The lunar granites have been dated by isotopic methods
including K-Ar or 40Ar-39Ar,Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd, U-Pb and
Pb-Pb systems.Ages range from 4.373 0.03 Ga to 3.87rt 0.01
Ga, indicating a 500 My-long granitic emplacement
history. Four samples have been analysed simultaneously
by different methods; three samples yield concordant ages,
but one sample, 14321, 1062, actually a subsample of
the 14321, 1027 granitic clast, gives a -230 My time lag
between the dates obtained by Sm-Nd and 40Ar-39Ar
methods.
The 4oK-40Casystem is considered as more resistant to
impact reheating than the Rb-Sr and K-Ar systems, and
three lunar granites have been analysed by this method
(Shih et al., 1993). The sample 14321,1062 yields a
K-Ca isochron age of 4.0610.07 Ga, in agreement with
the 4.09f0.03 Ga (Rb-Sr) and 4.1110.20 Ga (Sm-Nd)
ages obtained previously. The concordancy of K-Ca,
Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd isochron ages strongly suggests that
the granite crystallized from a magma -4.1 Ga ago and
underwent the brecciation event 3.88k0.03 Ga ago
recorded by the 40Ar-39Arsystem. The sample 14303,206,
a subsample of the 14303, 204 granitic clast, has an
average K-Ca model age of 4.290.12 Ga, in agreement
with the more precise U-Pb model age of 4.314&0.008
Ga determined from zircon crystals. The third sample
12013, 141, corresponding to the light portion (‘felsite’)
of the 12013 breccia (Warren et al., 1983), has an
imprecise K-Ca model age of 3.91 Ga, in agreement with
the more precise Rb-Sr isochron ages of 3.99t0.05 Ga
and 4.0lk0.09 Ga determined on other felsite fragments
of the same 12013 breccia.
Large K/Ca enrichment during genesis of the granitic
sample 14321, 1062, -16 times K/Ca of the source, is
required by the initial 40Ca-44Caratio of 47.14E 0.010.
The same WCa enrichment is observed in experimental
study of silicate-liquid immiscibility using lunar basalts
as starting material. The lunar granites crystallized from
parental magmas of a variety of ages. From a detailed
Gondwana Research, V. 5, No. 2,2002
 GRANITE: A PLANETARY POINT OF VIEW
analysis of the more retentive ages (Shih et al., 1993),
eight age peaks are recognizable from the age distribution
curve and probably represent eight discrete magmatic
events. Variable ages also imply that most of the lunar
granites did not crystallize directly from the primordial
magma ocean, but were produced as plutonic rocks in
the lunar crust after the solidificationof the magma ocean.
lmplications f o r granite generation and volumes
The lunar granites have been sampled within the
regolith on the Moon's surface. The regolith is composed
of small to tiny particles, that either form loose soils or
are set within polymict breccias, and consists mostly of
the lunar crust pulverized during a protracted meteoritic
impact history. As such, it is representative of the lunar
crust at the vicinity of the impacts. It is probably no
coincidence that the largest pristine lunar granite clasts
are from Apollo 14. Remote sensing data show that on
the Moon's surface, K, Th and U are concentrated in the
longitude range O-5O0W, which corresponds to the
Western Highland Province. After a first crude estimation
of 4% granitic glass in Apollo 14 soils (Warren et al.,
1983), later modeling results reveal that they cannot
contain more than -1% granite (Shervais and McGee,
1999). It is likely that the rest of the Moon's surface, lower
in K, Th and U, contains far lower quantities of granitic
materials.
The lunar evidence tells that granite can be generated
through differentiation of basaltic parental magmas via
crystal fractionation and silicate-liquidimmiscibilityunder
anydrous conditions at low pressures (less than 0.1 MPa)
and low oxygen fugacities (near the iron-wustite buffer).
Compared with the Earth's protracted -4.5 Gy-long
magmatic history, the volumes of granite produced during
the Moon's shorter, i.e., -1.2 Gy-long magmatic history
are insignificant.
The Martian Evidence
Like the Moon, Mars underwent early differentiation
through crystallization of an early magma ocean (Carlson,
1994). The spacecrafts that flew over Mars (Smith et al.,
1999; Bandfield et al., 2000), or landed on it (Clark and
Baird, 1979; Rieder e t al., 1997) provided ample
information on the Martian landscapes governed by
meteoritic cratering in a soft medium (Thomas and
Masson, 1986), valleys suggesting the presence of a fluid
capable of flowage (Aguirre-Puente et al., 1994), and
abundant, gigantic volcanic activity (Greeley and Spudis,
1981; Wilson and Head, 1994). The current knowledge
of Martian magmatic rocks is largely based on the SNC
(shergottite-nakhlite-chassignite) meteorites, widely
Gondwana Research, V. 5, No. 2, 2002
265
considered to have been derived from Mars (McSween,
1994). Though no granitic samples have been discovered
so far, the data collected from natural samples and remote-
sensing imagery suggest that intermediate and silicic
magmatism may have taken place on Mars.
Mars Pathfinder in-situ samples
Few natural samples have been analysed in situ on
Mars. The first source of information is the incomplete
XRF analyses of basaltic materials by the two Viking
Landers (Clark and Baird, 1979). The second source comes
from the more accurate APXS analyses performed on board
the rover of the Mars Pathfinder mission in 1997 (Rieder
et al., 1997; McSween et al., 1999). The site is covered
with pebbles, cobbles and boulders that comprise 16%of
the surface area, the remainder consisting of fines, as
windblown aeolian bedforms and as deposits strewn with
small pebbles, characteristics consistent with deposition
by catastrophic floods, possibly overprinted by ejecta from
a nearby impact crater. However, the angularity of many
blocks examined suggests that rocks at the Mars Pathfinder
site are locally derived. Textures on rock surfaces may
indicate volcanic, sedimentary, or impact-generated rocks,
but aeolian abrasion and dust coatings prevent
unambiguous interpretation.
Multispectral imaging has resolved four classes of
objects variously coated by fine ferric aeolian dust and
other minerals, probably maghmemite or ferrihydrite.
Nearly linear chemical trends in APXS compositions are
interpreted as mixing lines between rock and adhering
Fig. 3. AFM diagram comparing tholeiitic a n d calc-alkaline
differentiation trends. The S-free rock, Pathfinder analysed rocks,
and SNC liquids plot within the tholeiitic field. The anorogenic
icelandite suites are from Iceland and the Galapagos Spreading
Centre (from McSween et al., 1999).
266 B. BONIN ET AL.
dust, a conclusion supported by correlation between
sulphur abundances. Extrapolations of regression lines
down to zero sulphur give the composition of a
presumably igneous rock plotting near the andesite-dacite
boundary (SiO, = 62.Qk2.7wt.Yo). The inferred andesite
composition is akin to the terrestrial icelandites formed
by fractionation of anorogenic tholeiitic basaltic magmas,
except for its lower TiO, abundance (Fig. 3). Terrestrial
tholeiitic suites derive from fractionation of picritic to
basaltic parent magmas and include andesitic to rhyolitic
residual liquids. Andesite occurrence was unexpected; it
opens a window on the probability of more silicic
formations exposed on Mars.
SNC meteorites, magmatic water and a possible granitic
component
The SNC meteorites and the related ALH84001
meteorite are thought to be igneous Martian rocks, based
on their crystallisation ages and a close match between
the composition of gases implanted in them during shock
and the atmosphere of Mars (McSween, 1994). The
petrological and geochemical study of such Martian rocks
give additional clues to the origin and evolution of Mars.
Lithologies include: basalt, lherzolite, harzburgite
(shergottites), clinopyroxenite, wehrlite (nakhlites),
dunite (chassignites) and orthopyroxenite (ALH84001).
No andesite resembling the Mars Pathfinder rocks has been
recognized so far within the Martian meteorites.
Isotopic data for shergottites define model ages of about
4.5 Ga, interpreted as the time of planetary differentiation.
They suggest that Martian global differentiation, including
core formation, was essentially contemporaneous with the
completion of accretion. Interestingly, associated thermal
models necessitate a radioactive element-enriched
component. Crystallisatiqn ages of shergottites are a
controversial issue, the currently available dates ranging
from 1.3-0.9 G a (generally assumed to represent
crystallisation ages) down to 150 Ma (interpreted either
as time of shock metamorphism, or as crystallisation ages).
Based on trace element and radiogenic isotope
systematics, Shergotty and Zagami shergottites are
unrelated with Antarctic shergottites, implying separate
reservoirs of differing compositions early in the history
of Mars and the participation of a highly evolved residual
liquid resulting from early differentiation of the parent
body (Shih et al., 1982). This contaminant may resemble
the terrestrial continental (granitic) crust (McSween,
1994). Nakhlite and chassignite also yield isotopic ages
of 1.3 Ga. The age of ALH84001 is poorly defined, but it
seems plausible that it may represent an older (4.5 Ga ?)
crust. Shock metamorphism ages are definitively younger,
from 150 Ma down to <15 Ma.
Anhydrous partial melting experiments on a dry
Martian mantle model show that the dominant solidus
assemblage in the source regions for most of the Martian
mantle is a spinel lherzolite (Bertka and Holloway, 1994a).
Primary liquid compositions resemble terrestrial basaltic
komatiite, except they are markedly Fe-rich and Al-poor,
resulting in low plagioclase abundances and its late
appearance along the crystallisation path. Parent magmas
of SNC meteorites were likely derived from a different
source region that had been previously depleted in an
aluminous phase (Bertka and Holloway, 1994b).
The nature of the crust is a critical, yet unresolved
problem. The older crust is supposedly compositionally
similar to basaltic shergottite, except for higher K and P,
and lower Ca abundances (McSween, 1994). The most
recent estimation of the composition of the global Martian
crust (Dreibus, 2000) involves combination of basaltic
shergottite and Mars Pathfinder data, as a mixture of S-
free andesite (-54%), basaltic shergottite (-29%), plus
additional MgSO, (-9%), haematite (-7%), and ilmenite
(-1%).
The abundance and nature of water constitute a key
issue in the Martian geology. Using analysed H,O contents
of kaersutite, occurring as inclusions within all SNC types,
water abundances in the parent magmas are calculated
in the 100-1000 ppm range, implying a rather dry (1-35
ppm H,O) mantle (Mysen et al., 1998). However, trace
element distributions within shergottite pyroxene as well
as crystallisation paths, compared with hydrous and
anhydrous experimental results, imply that pre-eruptive
magmas at 1120°C and 55 MPa, i.e., a depth of 5 km,
could have contained up to 1.8wt.% water and that most
water was ultimately lost during magma ascent to the
surface (McSween et al., 2001). The presence of such a
quantity of water is inconsistent with the dry mantle of
the conventional Mars model. Several hundreds ppm of
water, comparable to the terrestrial mantle, seem a more
likely value. The water could have been added in the
magma during assimilation of Martian crustal materials
or by interaction with groundwater systems.
Martian surface compositions
Mars is distinctive in that it displays a well marked
planetary dichotomy separating the ancient, heavily
cratered and elevated plateaus of the southern hemisphere
from the younger plains of the northern hemisphere. The
planetary dichotomy and the concentration of younger
volcanism into a few large provinces raise the problem of
plate tectonics (Sleep, 1994) vs. mantle plume (s) (Harder
and Christensen, 1996) processes in the global evolution
of the planet, a relevant issue to the probabilityof occurrence
on Mars of silicic magmatism, including granite.
Gondwana Research, V. 5, No. 2,2002
 GRANITE: A PLANETARY POINT OF VIEW
~
Instruments are installed on board the Mars Global
Surveyor spacecraft to determine the topography, gravity,
and surface compositions of Mars. Global models of
topography from the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOM)
evidence two distinct crustal zones that do not correlate
with the planetary dichotomy (Zuber et al., 2000). A first
zone, that thins progressively from south (60 km)to north
(40 km), encompasses much of the southern highlands
and the Tharsis province, whereas a second zone of
approximatelyuniform crustal thickness (40 km) includes
the northern lowlands and Arabia Terra. The elastic
lithosphere yields thicknesses (only 20 km in the southern
hemisphere) that increase with time of loading in the
northern plains (100 km) and Tharsis ( > l o 0 km),
consistent with volcanic resurfacing at more recent times
than previously assumed (Hartmann et al., 1999).
Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) data from the
Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) are used to determine
compositions and distributions of the Martian surface
formations (Bandfield et al., 2000). Low-albedo areas,
making up -50 % of the surface, are selected to minimize
the contributions due to heterogeneous, fine-grained
bright dust and two spectral signatures are identified. By
comparison with spectra of terrestrial rocks, deconvolution
results indicate that the two compositions are volcanic in
origin: (i) basaltic, dominated by plagioclase and
clinopyroxene and (ii) andesitic, dominated by plagioclase
and volcanic glass. Sheet silicates, such as clays and micas,
are identified constantly at levels of around 15%, which
represent an upper limit for the abundance of weathering
products, as weathering occurs primarily on the exterior
surfaces. The dark volcanic materials vary significantly
across the planet, the distribution of the two compositions
splitting roughly along the planetary dichotomy. The
basaltic composition is confined to the older surfaces,
whereas the andesitic composition is concentrated in the
younger northern plains.
It is no suprise that Mars Pathfinder rocks, exposed at
the mouth of Are Vallis in the northern hemisphere, are
andesite, not basalt. By contrast, plagioclase abundance
(up to 65%) calculated in basalt of the southern
hemisphere is inconsistent with the scarcity of plagioclase
observed in basaltic shergottite, where it crystallised late
and is now converted into shock-induced diaplectic
maskelynite glass (McSween, 1994). This discrepancy
supports the hypothesis of contrasting source regions in
the mantle, suggested by experimental data (Bertka and
Holloway, 1994b).
Possible bimodal volcanism
The combination of lower gravity and lower
atmospheric pressure would result in volcanic features
Gondwana Research, V. 5, No.2,2002
267
differing from what is currently observed on Earth: lava
flows with a typical length of 200-350 km, giant volcanoes
of the order of 500-700 km in diameter, probably more
common plinian fall deposits and pyroclastic flows (Wilson
and Head, 1994). Based on Viking orbiters imagery
compared with unaided satellite studies on Earth, Francis
and Wood (1982) conclude provisionally that large
explosive (and by implication, silicic) structures are rare
to nonexistent. This conclusion was later challenged by
evidence of air fall deposits (Mouginis-Market al., 1982;
Crown and Greeley, 1993) and pyroclastic flows
(Mouginis-Mark et al., 1988). Even ignimbrites are
postulated (Scott and Tanaka, 1982).
The conditions prevailing on Mars have two interesting
consequences: (i) the production of large-scale plinian
deposits may not signal the presence of silicic
compositions, but rather be linked to enhanced
fragmentation of magmas of any compositions, from
basaltic to silicic, (ii) the lack of steep-sided domes formed
by viscous, more silicic magma cannot be cited as
conclusive evidence for the absence of this composition
(Wilson and Head, 1994). In addition, the widespread
occurrence of late, presumably basaltic to andesitic lava
flows (Greely and Spudis, 1981; Cipa, 1994) capping the
giant volcanoes cannot rule out the eruption of earlier,
more silicic formations, as observed within large terrestrial
volcanoes, such as Cantal (Nehlig et al., 2001).
On Mars, high-albedosurfaces, coated by heterogeneous,
fine-grained bright dust, cannot be used as evidence for
silicic compositions. More interesting is the occurrence of
‘black-and-white’layered formations on slopes of canyons
and gullies. Such banded formations are exposed on the
flanks of Olympus Mons, the largest volcano of the solar
system (Tanaka, 1985; Cipa, 1994). On the basal scarp,
materials underlying the late lava flows had been
uncovered by large landslides, and display a spur-and-
gullied pattern. Subhorizontal bright-dark bands are
clearly identified. Simple pile up of lava flows cannot
plausibly explain their regular banding as well as their
low mechanical resistance evidenced by intense gullying
and gravitational instabilities. Calculated shear stresses
in the 5-10 MPa range are consistent with low cohesive
strength and low internal friction materials, with a high
initial porosity filled with ground ice or other easily
decayed minerals, such as hydrous calcium sulphates.
Such materials may correspond to thick, more or less
consolidated pyroclastic deposits of silicic composition
(hence, their bright look) with intercalated dark lava flows
(Cipa et al., 1995).
The Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) imagery reveals, in
portions of the Valles Marineris canyon system, ubiquitous
horizontal layering to depths of at least 8 km in the
268 B. BONIN ET AL
canyons, with 5-50 m-thick bright-dark bands clearly
visible in the spurs. The banding consists of alternate dark
cliffs or steep slopes and brighter, shallower intervening
slopes. Dark strata are likely to be made up of volcanic
flows resembling terrestrial flood basalts, whereas the
brighter, shallower slopes may be interpreted as resulting
only from aeolian dust coatings (McEwen et al., 1999).
An alternative explanation, which does not exclude the
former interpretation, is offered by bimodal magmatism,
with intermediate (andesite-dacite) to rhyolitic units
intercalated within predominating basaltic flows. A large
number of terrestrial continental flood basalt provinces,
such as Karoo, ParanA-Etendeka,and Deccan (Hawkesworth
et al., 1999), are characterised by such bimodal magmatism.
To sum up, granite (or rhyolite) has not been observed
so far in the Martian materials. There is, however,
circumstantial direct and indirect evidence that materials
yielding more evolved, silicic compositions may exist on
Mars, either at the surface level as bright pyroclastic layers,
or at depths as a radioactive crustal component. These
hints offer, therefore, a tantalizing glimpse at the ‘Martian
crust’ (McSween, 1994), but more data should be collected
to substantiate the hypothesis.
Elsewhere?
The terrestrial planets, from Mercury to the asteroid
belt, issue an attractive challenge to granite inventory
within the solar system. Meteorites provide ample and
useful information on the nature and evolution of
extraterrestrial matter, especially in the asteroid belt.
Comparatively, Mercury and Venus are less well known.
Granitic enclaves within meteorites
Meteorites are broadly subdivided into undifferentiated
and differentiated families (Bischoff, 2001). The
undifferentiated family comprises four distinct classes of
chondrite defining 12 groups, and may include three
classes of primitive achondrite. The differentiated family
is made up of five classes of metal-poor achondrite, two
classes of stony-iron meteorite, and seven main classes of
iron meteorite. The Martian SNC and the Lunar meteorites
form two supplementary classes that are generally
included within the achondrites. During the 60s and 70s,
pioneering isotope studies have been performed on
meteorites to cast light on the time sequences in the
formation of planetary bodies and their evolution. Owing
to the specificity of Rb-Sr and K-Ar isotope systematics,
alkali-bearing material was searched systematically in
meteorites, even the iron ones, to obtain reliable ages. As
a result, extraterrestrial ‘granites’were known well before
their discovery on the Moon. They make up small enclaves
in three iron meteorites and clasts in two ordinary
chondrites (Shih et al., 1993).
The Colomera iron meteorite is highly interesting in
that large silicate enclaves containing alkali feldspar
phenocrysts up to several centimetres in length are
reported at its surface. The absence of large enclaves in
the core of the meteorite and the liquid droplet form of
the internal silicate enclaves indicate that Colomera
formed rather as a molten iron segregation of a small
mass contained in a silicate matrix. The drop-like silicate
enclaves are considered as globules of molten silicate
which were trapped into the freezing Fe-Ni liquid. Albite,
sanidine, anorthite (?), diopside, whitlockite, and clear
and pink glasses yield a Rb-Sr isochron age of 4.5E0.04 Ga
(recalculated with the decay constant of 1.42 * a-l).
The Colomera data are consistent with a simple
evolutionary history during the formation of the solar
system. An upper limit of 4 2 7 my can be set for the time
interval between dispersion of the silicate in the metal
phase and final Sr isotopic equilibration (Sanz et al.,
1970). The Weekeroo Station iron meteorite, though
lacking large alkali feldspar phenocrysts, is geochemically
similar (Burnett and Wasserburg, 1967a).
The Kodaikanal iron meteorite is characterised by
abundant upto 2 cm-large silicate enclaves containing
diopside, orthopyroxene, two species of alkali feldspar,
and alkali feldspar glass. A well-defined Rb-Sr isochron
yields a recalculated age of 3.720.10 Ga, with an initial
ratio of 0.713k0.020. Kodaikanal is interpreted as a
‘secondary’ body produced by ill-defined differentiation
process about 0.78 Gy after the formation of the solar
system (Burnett and Wasserburg, 1967b).
The Adzhi-Bogdo meteorite is a breccia, belonging to
the LL group, i.e., very low in iron, of the ordinary
chondrite class. The breccia contains various types of
clasts, including impact glasses, some of which are K-rich,
and alkali feldspar granite fragments. The alkali feldspar
granite consists chiefly of K-feldspar plus either quartz,
or tridymite, and minor albite, C1-apatite, whitlockite,
zircon, ilmenite, Ca-poor Fe-rich pyroxene, and a Na,
Ti-bearing silicate (Bischoff et al., 1993). Bulk rock
compositions (Bischoff, 1993) are Si, K-rich (72-79 wt.%
SiO,, 5-10 wt.% K,O) and Na-poor (I2 wt.% Na,O). So
far K-rich clasts are known in 14 LL chondritic breccias,
but only Vishnupur and Adzhi-Bogdo yield alkali fledspar
granite and associated pyroxenite clasts (Jackel and
Bischoff, 1997). ltyo types of K-rich clasts are identified:
(i) the ‘coarse-grained’(-100 pm grain size) granitic clasts
(up to 700 pm in length) may result from slow cooling of
the chondritic parent magma differentiating ultimately
into alkali feldspar granite residual liquid and pyroxenite
cumulates, (ii) the fine-grained (-1 pm grain size) clasts
Gondwana Research, V; 5, No. 2,2002
 GRANITE: A PLANETARY POINT OF VIEW
(several mm in length), composed of euhedral olivine and
skeletal pyroxene set in a K-rich groundmass, crystallised
from liquids formed by impact melting of various mixtures
of already crystallised granite and LL chrondritic parent-
body.
Granite droplets and enclaves in stony meteorites may
constitute a case for either silicate-metal liquid
immiscibility, or silicate liquid differentiation, or both.
Granite fragments in ordinary chondrites are more likely
issued from the differentation of a silicate magma.
Whatever their ultimate origin and despite their scarcity
and small sizes, the granitic material observed in
contrasting types of meteorites shed a glaring light on
the feasibility of highly evolved liquids of alkali feldspar
granite composition on the asteroids.
Granite on Mercury and Venus? Facts and speculations
Compared with the the Moon and Mars, relatively
scarce information on Mercury and Venus is available.
Mercury is currently known only by Mariner 10 imagery
acquired in 1974. Three tectonic stages are identified, like
on the Moon, though they differ in intensity (Thomas et
al., 1982). It seems reasonable to assume that Mercury
geology is similar to that of the Moon. As lunar granites exist,
occurrence of granite on Mercury cannot be ruled out.
Despite similar size (Venus has a diameter of 0.94 times
the terrestrial one), mass, density and global compostion,
Venus and the Earth are geologically different. The
Venusian surface is governed by the following factors: (i)
the atmospheric pressure is 9.8 MPa (only 0.1 MPa on the
Earth), (ii) the outer shell of the planet is considered as
constituting a single lithospheric plate, (iii) low cratering
densities imply that a large resurfacing (catastrophic?)
event occurred 500 Ma ago, or perhaps later (Namiki and
Solomon, 19941, (iv) altimetric data, acquired by radar
imagery since 1978 (Pioneer Venus) to 1990 (Magellan),
evidence a unimodal population with a mean elevation
of O.OkO.5 km. Two highland areas (Ishtar and Aphrodite
Terra), with elevations not exceeding 7 km, are analogous
in topographic style to the terrestrial continents and yield
evidence for both compressional and extensional tectonic
regimes (Vorder Bruegge and Head, 1989; Ansan, 1993).
By analogy with the terrestrial continents, Ishtar and
Aphrodite Terra can contain felsic rocks resembling the
Archaean continental nuclei (Turcotte, 1996).
The volcanic evidence (Head et al., 1992) is more
ambiguous. Besides large caldera-bearing shield volcanoes
resembling those on the Earth and on Mars, small volcanic
edifices were emplaced in the plains, the origin of which
is not fully understood (Guest et al., 1992). The Venusian
literature is referring to the typical steep-sided domes,
with a mean diameter of 24 km and heights of several
Gondwana Research, V. 5, No. 2, 2002
269
m to km, as pancake domes. Terrestrial analogues of
basaltic composition might be, e.g., the subglacial
volcanoes of Iceland and the flat-topped volcanic cones
in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans (Clague et al., 2000),
which were emplaced under a hydrostatic pressure of the
same order of magnitude as the Venusian atmospheric
pressure. Alternatively, pancake domes might be made
up from multiple pulses (Fink et al., 1993) of silicic
( ~ 6 0 - 6 5wt.% SO,) magma, with viscosities ranging
between 1014 and 1017Pa s (McKenzie et al., 1992). A
statistical study of shapes and size distributions (Smith,
1996) shows that the pancake domes on Venus differ
significantly from the terrestrial flat-topped submarine
volcanoes by their height-to-diameter ratios and flatness
values, so that one or more of the variables governing
their formation, such as magma composition, crystallinity,
volume, effusion rate, cooling rate, pre-existingtopography,
may differ. The association of pancake domes, coronae
and dyke swarms lends support to the notion that granite
bodies with batholithic sizes might exist on and beneath
the surface of Venus (Petford, 2001).
Some Venusian rocks have been analysed in-situ by XRF
installed on the Venera stations, that have landed
successively during 1972 to 1985. The crust at the landing
sites appears to be dominated by low-K tholeiitic basalts
(Surkov et al., 1982). However, two sites (Venera 8 and
13) reveal compositions with 4.0-4.8 wt.% K,O contents,
and high U, Th abundances, suggesting the possible
occurrence of more silicic (granitic) compositions (Surkov
et al., 1986).
It is speculated (Petford, 2001) that partial (about 20%)
fluid-absent melting of altered rocks, like the tholeiitic
basalts analysed by Venera landers, can leave a garnet-
bearing pyroxenite residue and produce high-Na and Al,
low-K, silicic (>70 wt.% SiO,) liquids, resembling the
Archaean and more recent adakites and trondhjemites
(Martin, 1994; Rapp, 1997). Repeated partial melting
episodes generating silicic magmas in the garnet stability
field would result over time in a bulk increase of crustal
density, with important long-term consequences for
topographic and isostatic evolution of lithosphere (Namiki
and Solomon, 1993). The combination of these lines of
evidence adds fuel to more speculations about the nature
and evolution of a granitic crustal component in Venus.
Discussion
The survey of the literature devoted to extraterrestrial
granite results in a paradox: so far, granite is found in
chondrites, iron meteorites and on the Moon, i.e., in small
planetary bodies. On the contrary, large planets, such as
Mars and Venus, provide only faint, indirect, or ambiguous
270 B. BONIN ET AL

Table 1. The genetic classification of granitoids based on the number of partial melting events from an original peridotitic mantle source
(Clarke, 1992).

Number of partial Stages Genetic type

meltinrr events
1 Ia. Partial melting of mantle peridotite produces a basaltic Primary granitoids
magma that undergoes extensive fractional crystallization, oceanic plagiogranites
or liquid immiscibility, to produce a granitoid rock non-orogenic (per)alkaline granitoids
most Proterozoic TTG suites
2 Ib. Partial melting of mantle peridotite produces a basaltic Secondary granitoids
magma that crystallizes directly or indirectly as basalt, gabbro, some plagiogranites most Archaean TTG suites
amphibolite or cclogite, and forms ancient terrestrial crust or continental arc metaluminous
modern oceanic crust tonalite-granodiorite suites
11. Partial melting of these mafic rocks produces K-poor felsic
magma volumctrically important in forming continental crust

3 Ib. (as above) Tertiary granitoids

11. (as above) Peraluminous granitoids
111. Direct melting of pre-existing granitoid rocks, or weathering
and erosion of intermediate to felsic igneous rocks of continental
crust to produce quartzo-feldspathic and pelitic sedimentary rocks
that subsequently partially melt to produce even more silicic magmas

evidence for the occurrence of granite. Sampling bias
obviously constitutes a formidable problem, that cannot
be solved easily. Even on the Earth, if the area covered by
the ocean floor is considered, basalt and related rocks are
better represented than granite. Any discussion on
probability of extraterrestrial granite in the solar system
should take this fact into account.
Granite compositions correspond to thermal minima
in experimental silicate systems, which means that they
can be produced through different ways, summarized in
table 1 (from Clarke, 1992). The main processes capable
of generating the different granite types are partial melting
and magma differentiation, including solid-liquid
fractionation and liquid-liquid immiscibility. The latter
process, that was considered as insignificant on the Earth,
is clearly identified in the iron meteorites and on the
Moon. Completely dry granites, having crystallized under
low oxygen fugacities, evidence that water is not a
prerequisite for the generation of granitic liquids. On the
Earth, the oceanic crust yields a main basaltic composition,
but can contain up to 3% granites, which correspond to
dry to water-deficient felsic residual liquids issued from
MORB by crystal fractionation (Dixon and Rutherford,
1983). Accordingly, the basic crusts of Mars and Venus
are likely to contain granitic materials.
The Earth is the only planet in the solar system to
retain liquid water. In the literature on planetary
differentiation, it is frequently argued that water in the
Earth is the major factor controlling the generation of
granite and the development of continental crust. The
‘wet’solidus is reached at much lower temperatures than
the dry one, implying that less energy is required to
produce a granitic liquid by partial melting. In a provocative
paper, Campbell and Taylor (1983) argue that the absence
of water on Venus precluded the formation of extensive
continental crust. This idea is questionable because liquid
water is absent on Venus, but the H,O compound can
occur. Water at the liquid state should not be mistaken
for water as the H,O compound. In the terrestrial
magmatic processes, H,O is never in its liquid state. It is
either bound in hydrous minerals, such as amphiboles
and micas, or dissolved in silicate liquids, or constituting
a discrete fluid phase above the pressure (21.8 MPa) and
temperature (374°C) critical values. Thus, there is no
reason to suppose that liquid water is necessary for the
production of granitic liquids.
Experimental evidence shows that granitic liquids are
easier to produce in the presence of H,O than in dry
systems. Water acts as a catalyst in magmatic processes,
and promotes generation and segregation of granitic
liquids either by partial melting (anatexis) of a solid
matrix, or by complete differentiation of a basic parent
magma into a highly evolved granitic residual liquid and
mafic-ultramafic cumulates. Accordingly, water plays a
role, not in the qualitative process of the generation of
granite, but in the quantitative process of continental
growth, since the continental crust is typified by large
volumes of granitic rocks.
Conclusion
Continents and plate tectonics are mutually necessary,
and there is a large room for doubt concerning continental
growth on the terrestrial planets other than the Earth.

Gondwuna Research, V. 5, No. 2,2002

 GRANITE: A PLANETARY POINT OF VIEW
Turcotte (1996) states that only the Earth has continents
and plate tectonics, though this hypothesis is sometimes
challenged (see Sleep, 1994). The Moon and the other
small planetary bodies are unlikely to have produced
enough granite to make continents, e.g., the K-rich portion
of the Moon can contain no more than -1% granites
(Shervais and McGee, 1999). On Mars, no evidence exists
for continental differentiation, though silicic formations
are likely to occur. Finally, Venus has apparently accreted
small continental terrains during its early history. Hence,
the ultimate question is not whether granite occurs in a
given planetary body, but rather whether sufficient
volumes of granitic materials were produced to constitute
stable continental nuclei.
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