1. What is the difference between a D latch and a D Flip-Flop?

A.
The D-type latch is capable of retaining its state indefinitely. A latch has a D input, a Q
output, and an enable (EN) signal. Whereas a D flip-flop transfers its input to its
output only on the active clock edge, a latch continuously transfers D to Q while EN is
active. Latches are level sensitive, whereas flip-flops are edge sensitive. A latch retains
its state while EN is inactive. Latch takes fewer gates to implement than the flip-flop thus
are simpler than flip-flops and are unsuited to many applications in which flip-flops are
used. A latch is sensitive to glitches on enable pin whereas flip-flop is immune to
glitches. Latches are faster than flip-flops.

2. Design an XOR gate using a 2:1 MUX.

A.
The truth table for an XOR gate is as shown below.

A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

List the inputs of the MUX and also list the all the minterms in 2 rows. The 1st row lists all
the minterms with A is complemented. 2nd row lists the minterms where A is
uncomplemented. The implementation table is as shown below.

I0 I1

A’ 0 1

A 2 3

A A’

The minterms encircled indicate that the output is high for that particular minterm.
Encircled minterm 2 corresponds to A and is connected to I0. Similarly A’ is connected to
I1.

3. Implement a latch using a 2:1 MUX. Do the same using gates. Now draw the output
waveforms.

A.
Consider a D latch. The truth table is shown below.

E D Q
 0 X Q0
1 0 0
1 1 1

When enable E is low output Q= Q0. When E is high output Q=D.

This can be implemented using gates as shown in the following figure.

4. Implement a T FF using a D FF and JK FF.

A.
T FF (toggle FF) is obtained by connecting the JK inputs of a JK FF to high. Given this
condition the output toggles.

A toggle FF can also be implemented using a D FF by connecting the complement of the

output of the D FF to the D input.

5. Given a black box of a full adder with the inputs and outputs, convert it to a Full-
Subtractor.

A.
A full adder adds the given 2 bits A, B along with the initial carry Cin. In digital subtraction
is done by taking the 2’s complement of the subtrahend and then adding it to the
minuend. We get the 2’s complementing of a number by taking the complement of the
number and adding 1 to it. Thus for converting a FA to FS we should have a not gate to
the 2nd input B and should give 1 as Cin.

6. Define setup, hold time. How do you calculate the maximum operating
frequency? What happens if we violate the set up and hold time condition?

A.
Setup time (Tsu): The time required for the synchronous inputs of a flip-flop to be stable
before a CLK pulse is applied.
Hold time (Th): The time that the synchronous inputs of a flip-flop must remain stable
after the active CLK transition is finished.
Propagation delay (Tprop): The time required for the output of a digital circuit to change
states after a change at one or more of its inputs.

The maximum operating frequency is given by the equation:

Fmax < or = 1/[Tcq (first_FF) +(total) Tprop+ Tsu (second_FF)] (1)
(Such that: Th < Tcq (min) + Tprop (min). If this condition is not met then the hold
time also comes into picture in the above equation).
If the equation (1) is violated then a state called metastability state can occur.
7. How do you detect if two signals are same?

A.
Use a XOR gate

8. What is the difference between a Moore FSM and a Mealy FSM?

A.
 In Moore state machine outputs depend on current state only. In Mealy FSM
outputs depend on current state and inputs.
 Mealy Machines tend to have fewer states.
 Moore Machines are safer to use. Outputs change at clock edge (always one
cycle later).
 In Mealy machines, input change can cause output change as soon as logic is
done – a big problem when two machines are interconnected – asynchronous
feedback.
 Mealy Machines react faster to inputs. React in same cycle – don't need to wait
for clock.
 In Moore machines, more logic may be necessary to decode state into outputs –
more gate delays after.

9. Define synchronous and asynchronous inputs.

A.
Synchronous inputs: The inputs of a flip-flop that do not affect the flip-flop’s Q outputs
unless a clock pulse is applied. Examples include D, J, and K inputs.
Asynchronous inputs: The inputs of a flip-flop that change the flip-flop’s Q outputs
immediately, without waiting for a pulse at the CLK input. Examples include preset and
clear inputs.
Preset: An asynchronous set function.
Clear: An asynchronous reset function.

10. How do you swap 2 numbers without using a temporary variable?

A.
If the given 2 numbers are a, b we can swap these two numbers as follows:
Step1: a = a + b
Step2: b = a – b
Step3: a = a – b