MBSO805D - Understanding - Petrochemical - Business PDF

UNIT 20: Case Study
MDSO-805D
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Understanding
Petrochemical BusinessPE
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Understanding Petrochemical Business
Course Design
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Advisory Council
Chairman
Dr Parag Diwan
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Members
Dr Kamal Bansal Dr Anirban Sengupta Dr Ashish Bhardwaj
Dean Dean CIO
Dr S R Das Dr Sanjay Mittal Prof V K Nangia

VP – Academic Affairs Professor – IIT Kanpur IIT Roorkee
SLM Development Team

Wg Cdr P K Gupta
Dr Joji Rao
Dr Neeraj Anand
Dr K K Pandey
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Print Production
Mr Kapil Mehra Mr A N Sinha

Manager – Material Sr Manager – Printing
Author
V V Vara Prasad
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means,
without permission in writing from MPower Applied Learning Enterprise.
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Course Code: MDSO-805D
Course Name: Understanding Petrochemical Business
Version: July 2013
© MPower Applied Learning Enterprise

UNIT 20: Case Study
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Contents
Block-I
Unit 1 Petrochemicals: An Overview ........................................................................................ 3

Unit 2 Introduction to Petrochemical Industry ...................................................................... 13
Unit 3 Raw Materials for Petrochemical Processes................................................................ 25
Unit 4 Petrochemical Intermediates ....................................................................................... 35
Unit 5 Case Study .................................................................................................................... 47
Unit 6
UP Block-II
Packaging Aspects ........................................................................................................ 51

Unit 7 Engineering Plastics..................................................................................................... 63
Unit 8 Petroleum Refining....................................................................................................... 73
Unit 9 Hydrocracking............................................................................................................... 85
Unit 10 Case Study .................................................................................................................... 93
Block-III
Unit 11 Polymers........................................................................................................................ 97
Unit 12 Thermoplastics............................................................................................................ 105
Unit 13 Polyethylene................................................................................................................ 115
Unit 14 Polypropylene.............................................................................................................. 123
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Unit 15 Case Study .................................................................................................................. 133
Block-IV
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Unit 16 Polyvinyl Chloride ...................................................................................................... 139

Unit 17 Polystyrene.................................................................................................................. 147
Unit 18 Polycarbonates ............................................................................................................ 157
Unit 19 Synthetic Fibres.......................................................................................................... 167
Unit 20 Case Study .................................................................................................................. 177
Block-V
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Unit 21 Process Technologies .................................................................................................. 181
Unit 22 Technologies for Petrochemical Plants...................................................................... 189
Unit 23 Indian Scenario........................................................................................................... 197
Unit 24 Various Petrochemical Industries in India ............................................................... 207
Unit 25 Case Study .................................................................................................................. 217
Glossary ............................................................................................................................................ 219

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UNIT 1: Petrochemicals: An Overview
Notes
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BLOCK-I
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Detailed Contents
Notes
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UNIT 1: PETROCHEMICALS: AN OVERVIEW
___________________ UNIT 3: RAW MATERIALS FOR PETROCHEMICAL
PROCESSES
 Introduction
___________________  Introduction
 What is a “Petrochemical”?
___________________  Feedstocks
 Historical Background
___________________  Petrochemical Feedstocks from Refineries
 Developments in Petrochemicals
___________________  Initial Materials for Petrochemical
 Petrochemical Processing
___________________
UNIT 4: PETROCHEMICAL INTERMEDIATES
UNIT 2: INTRODUCTION TO PETROCHEMICAL
___________________  Introduction
INDUSTRY
 ___________________
Introduction  Production of Olefins
 ___________________
Overview  Linear Alkyl Benzene (Surfactant Alkylates)
 Indian Petrochemical Industry

___________________  Linear Alpha Olefins (LAO)

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Petrochemical Plants
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Petrochemical Products and its Uses
UNIT 5: CASE STUDY
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Unit 1
3
Notes
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Activity
Petrochemicals: An Overview
Visit___________________
a petrochemical institute
and attend a lecture on
___________________
petrochemicals and prepare a
presentation based on your
___________________
learnings.
Objectives
___________________
After completion of this unit, the students will be aware of the following
topics: ___________________
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\ What is “Petrochemical” ___________________
\ Historical Background ___________________
\ Developments in Petrochemicals
___________________
\ Petrochemical Processing
___________________
Introduction ___________________
The petrochemical industry is interlinked and developments in

different parts of the petrochemical value chain can have an effect
on your business. Understanding the different petrochemical value
chains and their end uses, how these chains interconnect, the
processes and the raw materials for making petrochemicals, and
what kind of changes are expected in the petrochemical business,
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will help you to make better informed business decisions. Joining
this course ensures that you can quickly get up to speed and source
the expertise you need to operate effectively in this complex
market.
What is “Petrochemical”?
“Petrochemical” is any chemical derived, directly or indirectly from
petroleum or natural gas or obtained from hydrocarbons and
utilised in industrial and household markets. The starting
material, also called raw material, undergoes chemical
transformation, using heat or a catalyst wherein desired product
as well as by-products are obtained in special equipment called
reactor. The finished product is separated from the rest employing
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unit operations, like distillation, crystallization, centrifuging,

drying, etc. The product is then stored, its quality checked, and if
found suitable, packed for sale. The by-products are also useful
materials, which find applications.
Two petrochemical classes are olefins including ethylene and
propylene, and aromatics including benzene, toluene, and xylene
isomers. Oil refineries produce olefins and aromatics by fluid

Notes catalytic cracking of petroleum fractions. Chemical plants produce
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___________________ olefins by steam cracking of natural gas liquids like ethane and
propane. Aromatics are produced by catalytic reforming of
___________________
naphtha. Olefins and aromatics are the building-blocks for a wide
___________________
range of materials such as solvents, detergents, and adhesives.
___________________ Olefins are the basis for polymers and oligomers used in plastics,
___________________ resins, fibers, elastomers, lubricants, and gels.
___________________ Primary petrochemicals are divided into three groups depending

on their chemical structure:
___________________
___________________
 Olefins includes ethylene, propylene, and butadiene. Ethylene
and propylene are important sources of industrial chemicals
___________________
and plastics products. Butadiene is used in making synthetic
___________________ rubber.
UP  Aromatics includes benzene, toluene, and xylenes. Benzene is
a raw material for dyes and synthetic detergents, and benzene
and toluene for isocyanates MDI and TDI used in making
polyurethanes. Manufacturers use xylenes to produce plastics
and synthetic fibers.
 Synthesis gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen
used to make ammonia and methanol. Ammonia is used to
make the fertilizer urea and methanol is used as a solvent and
chemical intermediate.
The prefix "petro-" is an arbitrary abbreviation of the word
"petroleum"; since "petro-" is Ancient Greek for "rock" and "oleum"
means "oil". Therefore, the etymologically correct term would be
"oleochemicals". However, the term oleochemical is used to
describe chemicals derived from plant and animal fats.
Usage of Petrochemicals
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A huge variety of products are made with petrochemicals,

including plastics, soaps, pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, pesticides,
detergents, flooring, solvents, and epoxies. Synthetic fibers, rubber,
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and other materials are also manufactured from petrochemicals.

Most people interact with numerous such products every day, from
the synthetic fibers used in a fleece jacket on a cool day to the
plastics used in the construction of a steering wheel.
Refineries can adjust their production of a primary petrochemical
to meet demand in a variety of ways. As crude oil is refined, it can
be treated with fractional distillation, in which it is heated to

separate out the various components for use, or it can be “cracked” Notes
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Activity
with a catalyst which breaks up hydrocarbon chains to create
Surf___________________
over internet and study
desired products. Because petrochemicals are commonly in high the history of petrochemicals
and ___________________
prepare a report.
demand, refineries must be able to act quickly to take advantage of
favorable pricing and demand. ___________________
The refining and production of end-stage petrochemical products ___________________
has been criticized on the basis of environmental concerns. ___________________

Extraction and transport of crude oil can have a very negative ___________________
environmental impact, and the refining process can be highly
___________________
polluting and sometimes dangerous for neighboring communities.
___________________
Petrochemicals are also very slow to break down in the natural
environment, raising issues about the proper use and disposal of ___________________
consumer products. These products are also not renewable, ___________________

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because they come from resources built up over the course of
millions of years, which means that once the world's deposits of
crude oil and natural gas are exhausted, a serious problem could
emerge for the petrochemical industry.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. Oil refineries produce olefins and aromatics by fluid
catalytic ……………….. of petroleum fractions.
2. …………………. includes benzene, toluene, and xylenes.
Historical Background
Organic chemistry is the starting point for the development and
production of chemicals when the industrial revolution took place
in Europe. The basic raw material then was coal, which initially
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found wide use as a source of heat energy. Experiments in

laboratory backed by theoretical knowledge gave a big thrust for
synthesizing materials starting from coal and its components.
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When coke was produced from coal a complex organic chemical

mixture was also found. This gave a boost to production of
associated organic chemicals, which in turn gave rise to several
uses.
Organic synthesis thus became the foremost means of generating
valuable useful materials, which found novel applications. Using
coal chemistry coke oven gas, tar and the residue were further
processed to make chemicals, intermediates, etc., for dyes, paints

Notes and pharmaceuticals. All these found wide spread applications in
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___________________ associated industries as well as household uses that brought more
colour and comfort to population in the 19th century.
___________________
___________________ The two organic chemicals, which found extensive use during the
wars, were Trinitrotoluene (TNT) and Phosgene, chemically known
___________________
as Carbonyl chloride. The former was used as an explosive and the
___________________ latter, a war gas. As more research on the subject took place, in the
___________________ 20th century, chemistry based on calcium carbide (produced by
thermal fusion of calcium carbonate and coke) to generate
___________________
acetylene emerged. This took place in the span of two world wars
___________________
and became a very attractive industry in Europe.
___________________
Germany also developed and commercialised coal hydrogenation
___________________ and Fischer Tropsch synthesis in the 1930s which gave a big boost
UP to industries. The said process found entrepreneurs where coal was
abundantly available, say in England, Germany, USA and Eastern
Europe. The technology later became important in South Africa,
which has a large resource of coal. When oil fields were discovered
in Texas, USA, in the 1920s, a real revolution took place in the
fossil fuel area. A liquid product thus started competing with solid
material, namely, coal.
Storage and transportation of crude oil was found to have
advantage over that of coal. Crude oil being a complex mixture of
hydrocarbon organic chemistry found a systematic methodology of
exploiting the resources. Process technologies were developed to
fractionate the complex mixture of hydrocarbons into suitable
useful fractions that found uses as fuel in different applications.
Chemical engineering unit operations as well as mechanical
engineering along with metallurgy became handy to design and
construct operating units called petroleum refineries to handle,
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process and store the raw material. Further developments in this

area brought sufficient knowledge and expertise in order to process
the crude oil fractions into more useful intermediates and
products.
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Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. Storage and transportation of crude oil was found to
have advantage over that of ………………
Contd…
2. The two organic chemicals, which found extensive use

Notes
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during the wars, were Trinitrotoluene (TNT) and Activity
Phosgene, chemically known as …………………… With___________________
the help of newspapers,
prepare a collage of
3. When …………………… was produced from coal a ___________________ in
developments
petrochemicals.
complex organic chemical mixture was also found. ___________________
___________________
Developments in Petrochemicals ___________________
Consequently, the petrochemical industry started in the late 1920s ___________________
in the USA with the production of isopropyl alcohol from
___________________
propylene. The first course in chemicals from petroleum was
offered at the University of Texas. Then the term “petrochemical” ___________________
was introduced which is now very commonly used. Theoretical ___________________

knowledge of organic chemistry combined with engineering ___________________
UP
practices became the backbone for the development of process
technologies to produce petrochemicals in commercial quantities in
USA.
As various products found useful applications in industries and
household sectors, more entrepreneurs set up large industries,
which were profitable. This gave a very big boost to Research &
Development in the field of petrochemicals, both in the
Universities and also within the industries and a wide variety of
competing process technologies were made available in the
markets in USA and Europe. As more and more applications were
found for the petrochemical products, they started substituting the
naturally occurring materials, since the former had superior
qualities with respect to mechanical strength, anti-corrosive
properties and aestheticity. Thus, over a period of two to three
decades in USA and Europe petrochemical products captured the
market and boomed after the 1950s.
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Gradually coal chemistry based industries started taking a back

seat as petrochemical industry overtook in the race. Fractions such
as ethane, LPG and naphtha, etc., were utilised for the production
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of intermediates and chemicals which started replacing chemicals

from coal. A symbiosis between petroleum refining, natural gas
processing and petrochemistry thus emerged.
Massive growth in automobiles and transportation sector gave a
boost to petroleum refining as petrol and diesel found extensive
use as fuel. Thus, it can be seen that the developed and highly
industrialised countries became the forerunners in the field of
8 petroleum refining as well as petrochemicals production which

Notes raised the standard of living of their people, both in the urban and
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Activity
Visit___________________
a petroleum industry and
rural areas.
ask about the process
___________________
followed there and prepare a Check Your Progress
flowchart of the same on a
___________________
chart paper. Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. A ………………… between petroleum refining, natural
___________________ gas processing and petrochemistry thus emerged.
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___________________
2. Massive growth in automobiles and transportation
___________________ sector gave a boost to petroleum …………………
___________________
___________________ Petrochemical Processing

___________________ A petrochemical processing plant is designed to produce physical
and chemical changes in feedstock and convert it into desired
products. Three basic processes employed at US petrochemical
plants are cracking, isomerization, and reforming. These processes
are introduced below:
Cracking
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Cracking is used to break up large hydrocarbon molecules into
smaller and more useful bits. This is achieved by using high
pressures and temperatures without a catalyst, or lower
temperatures and pressures with a catalyst. The source of the
large hydrocarbon molecules is often the naphtha fraction or the
gas oil fraction from the fractional distillation of crude oil. These
fractions are obtained from the distillation process as liquids, but
are re-vaporized before cracking.
The hydrocarbons are mixed with a very fine catalyst powder of
aluminum oxide and silicon dioxide, then the whole mixture is
blown rather like a liquid through a reaction chamber at a
temperature of about 950°F. Because the mixture behaves like a
liquid, this is known as fluid catalytic cracking. Although the
mixture of gas and fine solid behaves as a liquid, this is
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nevertheless an example of heterogeneous catalysis: the catalyst is

in a different phase from the reactants. The catalyst is recovered
afterwards, and the cracked mixture is separated by cooling and
further fractional distillation.
Isomerization
Notes
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Rearranging straight chain molecules into their isomers with
branched chains is known as isomerization. One process uses a ___________________
platinum catalyst on a zeolite (a clay material) base at a ___________________
temperature of about 480°F and a pressure of 13 - 30 atmospheres.
___________________
It is used particularly to change straight chains containing 5 or 6
carbon atoms into their branched isomers. Isomerization is ___________________
important to raise the octane rating of the molecules found in ___________________

gasoline, in order to reduce knocking and to induce the gasoline to
___________________
burn more efficiently in modern engines.
___________________
Reforming ___________________
Reforming is a process which uses heat, pressure and a catalyst to ___________________
improve the octane rating of hydrocarbons to be used in petrol; and
___________________
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is also a useful source of aromatic compounds for the chemical
industry. Aromatic compounds are based on a benzene ring.
Isomerization reactions occur, as previously described, with the
additional result of chain molecules getting converted into rings
with the loss of hydrogen. Hexane, for example, gets converted into
benzene, and heptane into methylbenzene.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. Rearranging straight chain molecules into their
isomers with branched chains is known as
………………….
2. ………………. is used to break up large hydrocarbon
molecules into smaller and more useful bits.
Summary
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Petrochemicals, in various forms, had been known since the

mid-nineteenth century. Up until that time, the availability of coal,
combined with its low cost, had ensured the prevalence of
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coal-based energy sources. By the late 1850's oil and natural gas
was readily available and scientists began to examine them as
alternatives to coal. Petroleum, rock oil as it was known, was
tested for use as an illuminator to replace the much-used but
highly-flammable camphene. Kerosene, a derivative of petroleum
and other similar materials, came onto the scene at about the same
time. Kerosene quickly and became a staple in American homes.
The refining and production of end-stage petrochemical products

Notes
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has been criticized on the basis of environmental concerns.
___________________
Extraction and transport of crude oil can have a very negative
___________________ environmental impact, and the refining process can be highly
___________________ polluting and sometimes dangerous for neighboring communities.
___________________ Chemical engineering unit operations as well as mechanical

engineering along with metallurgy became handy to design and
___________________
construct operating units called petroleum refineries to handle,
___________________ process and store the raw material. Further developments in this
___________________ area brought sufficient knowledge and expertise in order to process
___________________
the crude oil fractions into more useful intermediates and
products.
___________________
___________________
Lesson End Activity
UP Create a multiple
Petrochemicals.
choice quiz on the developments in
Keywords
Petrochemical: A petrochemical is any chemical derived, directly
or indirectly from petroleum or natural gas or obtained from
hydrocarbons and utilized in industrial and household markets.
Fertilizer: Fertilizer is any organic or inorganic material of
natural or synthetic origin that is added to a soil to supply one or
more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants.
Refinery: A refinery is a production facility composed of a group of
chemical engineering unit processes and unit operations refining
certain materials or converting raw material into products of
value.
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Distillation: Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based

on differences in volatility of components in a boiling liquid
mixture.
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Questions for Discussion

1. What is a petrochemical?
2. Discuss the usage of petrochemicals.
3. Explain the hostorical background of petrochemicals.
4. Describe the various developments in petrochemicals.

Notes
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5. What are the basic processes for petrochemicals processing?
___________________
___________________
Further Readings
___________________
Books ___________________
Robert H Perry, Don Green, Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 6th ___________________
Edn. McGraw Hill (Book)
___________________
Burdick. Donald L, Petrochemicals in Nontechnical Language.
___________________
Penn Well Corporation.
___________________
Web Readings ___________________
http://www.midwestpub.com/petrochemical_overview.php ___________________
UP
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-petrochemical.htm
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UNIT 2: Introduction to Petrochemical Industry
Notes
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Activity
___________________
Create a multichoice quiz on
Introduction to Petrochemical petrochemical industry.
___________________
Industry ___________________
___________________
Objectives ___________________
___________________
topics:
___________________
 Overview of Petrochemical Industry
 Indian Petrochemical Industry ___________________
 Petrochemical Products and its Uses ___________________

 Petrochemical Plants
___________________
Introduction
UP
As per national industrial classification, the chemical industry
encompasses more than 80000 products and basic chemicals,
petrochemicals, fertilizers, paints, soaps, perfumes, gases, and
other commercial products. The products are broadly classified as
(a) basic chemicals, which are in turn processed and converted to
(b) downstream chemicals that find use in industrial and
agricultural applications (dyes, fertilizers, adhesives) or (c) direct
consumer market chemicals (cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, paints,
etc.).
Petrochemicals are derived from various chemical compounds,
mainly hydrocarbons obtained from oil and natural gas. These
include synthetic fibres, polymers, elastomers, synthetic
detergents, plastics, olefins and aromatics, and find use in daily
need items ranging from clothing, furniture, construction,
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agriculture to medical appliances.
Overview
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The chemical industry contributes significantly to the economic

stability and development of a country. It provides key linkages in
terms of products and technical solutions to several downstream
industries like engineering, automotive, consumer durables, food
processing, etc. The global chemicals industry is the largest
manufacturing industry in the world, with sales of approximately
USD 2.5 trillion in 2010; the Indian chemical sector was estimated
Notes to stand at US $91 billion in 2011 and has the potential to reach
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___________________
US $134 billion by 2015.
___________________ Growth potential of the chemicals sector is immense, considering

the current low per-capita consumption in the country. It is one of
___________________
the fastest growing domestic sectors, comprising of both small and
___________________ large scale enterprises, and is currently in a state of restructuring
___________________ and consolidation. This movement aims to achieve product
innovation, branch building, improved technical services and
___________________
marketing abilities to stand through global competition. A recent
___________________
report by global consultancy firm McKinsey suggests that around
___________________ $350bn of the estimated $1tn world specialty chemical industry
___________________ would move eastwards to Asia to meet manufacturing costs and
downstream demand.
___________________
UP The petrochemical sector has been one of the fastest growing
sectors in the Indian economy. From its modest beginnings in mid-
sixties, this industry has come a long way. Today, plants of global
capacities operate in specialized categories and supply to both local
and global markets. Four main players dominate the petrochemical
sector, namely, Reliance Industries Ltd. (RIL), Indian
Petrochemical Ltd. (IPCL), Gas Authority of India Ltd. (GAIL),
and Haldia Petrochemicals Ltd.
The Indian petrochemical industry is presently valued at $40bn
and is expected to grow at 12-15% annually over the next five
years, according to a report from the Associated Chambers of
Commerce and Industry of India (Assocham). The sector currently
employs more than 10 lakh people.
Factors that will Drive Growth in the Chemical and

Petrochemical Sectors
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Following are the factors that will drive growthin the chemical and
petrochemical sectors:
 Compared to US and China, India’s per capita consumption of
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polymers (PO +PVC) is still in nascent stage. Opportunity to

reach out to a large population and sustain the current
economic growth would drive India’s polymer consumption.
 Asia and Middle East, which provide abundant sources of
petrochemical feedstock, are fast becoming hubs for foreign
investments.
 Indian government plans to establish new Petroleum,

Notes
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Chemical and Petrochemical Investment Regions (PCPIRs) in Activity
states like Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. With___________________
the help of internet, find
out the current position of
 Low cost infrastructure that India can offer will drive exports ___________________
Indian Petrochemical industry
and prepare a term paper.
projected to reach $300bn by 2015. ___________________
 Large unexplored reserves of oil and gas stand to create new ___________________
opportunities. ___________________
Challenges Ahead ___________________
Indian chemical industry needs to maintain competitiveness and ___________________
cost-effectiveness to overcome competition from foreign players and ___________________

also invite funds. Procurement of raw materials and feedstock from
___________________
oil and gas rich countries requires efficient management. There is
___________________
initiatives and R&D.

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a growing need to build support for new technologies, green
For the petrochemical industry, the main areas that demand

attention revolve around overcoming economic difficulties and
energy concerns wherein looking at environment friendly methods
to reduce carbon dioxide emissions will draw focus. There is a need
to develop trade and logistics infrastructure to cater to the
demands of both domestic and export markets. According to the
Planning Commission, the current logistics cost of the Indian
economy is over 13 percent of GDP, which is higher than that of
developed countries. Further, research and development is a
critical area for the petrochemical sector since new applications
lead to synthesis of new and more advanced polymers.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
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1. ………………… of raw materials and feedstock from oil

and gas rich countries requires efficient management.
2. Plants of global capacities operate in specialized
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categories and supply to both ………………… and

………………… markets.
Indian Petrochemical Industry

Petrochemicals dominates the global chemicals market with a
share of almost 40%. The coming years are expected to see the
petrochemicals industry undergoing a major metamorphosis,

Notes particularly with the Middle East as a major petrochemicals
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___________________
supplier and China emerging as a major processing hub and
end-use market.
___________________
Petrochemicals are the downstream of the oil and gas industry –
___________________
an industry whose products affect our daily lives. Petrochemicals
___________________ are a part of our daily lives – the carpeting on which we walk,
___________________ plastic soda bottles from which we drink, clothing we wear,
fertilizers that grow our crops, tires we rely on for transportation,
___________________
paints we use to brighten our surroundings, pharmaceuticals we
___________________
need to remain healthy, cosmetics, and many other applications.
___________________
___________________
___________________
UP
Figure 2.1: Cracking of Feedstocks
Petrochemicals get their raw material – known as feedstocks –

from the refinery: naphtha, components of natural gas such as
butane, and some of the byproducts of oil refining processes, such
as ethane and propane. These feedstocks are then cracked to
obtain the building blocks of the petrochemical industry: olefins,
that is, mainly ethylene, propylene, and the so-called C4
derivatives, including butadiene - and aromatics, mainly benzene,
toluene, and the xylenes. These products are then processed to
produce a wide variety of consumer and industrial products.
Global Petrochemical Industry

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Petrochemicals dominate the global chemicals market with a share

of almost 40%. The growth of the chemical industry, currently
2-3% above the average world GDP, is likely to face a slowdown in
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the coming 2 years owing to the global economic slowdown.

The coming years are expected to see the petrochemicals industry
undergoing a major metamorphosis, particularly with the Middle
East building its strength as a major petrochemicals supplier and
China emerging as a major processing hub and end-user market
for petrochemicals. The figure 2.2 shows the flow of raw materials
from the Middle East to the processing hubs and end-use markets 17
of China and India from where the finished products will reach the Notes
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markets of North America and Europe. ___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
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___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Figure 2.2: Flow of Petrochemicals from Raw Material Source

to end-use Markets
Asian markets are undergoing a sea change in the form of high

demand markets for petrochemicals. It was projected that the
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coming years will see China, India, and the rest of Asia becoming
hubs for processing of end products as well as a high demand
end-use market. By 2018, 60% of the petrochemical growth is likely
to take place in Asia, with China accounting for about one-third of
the growth. However, with the recent recession hitting the
industry, Asian markets also have been affected since Europe and
North America have cut down on import of finished goods. Even
though Asia is expected to soon become a significant end-use
market, the current world economic scenario will have a negative
effect on the industry and instead of growing at about 2-3% above
GDP; the market is expected to grow at a much lower rate.
However, this recession will affect the Western markets more than
Asian ones.
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Petrochemical Industry in India

The petrochemical industry has been one of the fastest growing
industries in the Indian economy; it provides the foundation for
manufacturing industries such as pharmaceuticals, construction,
agriculture, packaging industry, textiles, automotive, etc. The
petrochemical industry in India is oligopolistic with four main
players dominating the market, namely Reliance Industries Ltd.
18 (RIL) along with Indian Petrochemical Ltd. (IPCL), Gas Authority

Notes of India Ltd (GAIL), and Haldia Petrochemicals Ltd. (HPL).
S
___________________ Currently, India has three naphtha- and three gas-based cracker
___________________ complexes with a combined ethylene annual capacity of over
2.5 MMTA. Besides, there are four aromatic complexes also with a
___________________
combined Xylenes capacity of 2.9 MMTA. Polymers account for
___________________ more than 60 percent of total petrochemical production. The
___________________ industry has been stagnant in terms of capacity addition.
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Combining the demand for all the key segments in the
___________________
petrochemical industry, aggregate demand for the entire
___________________
petrochemical sector in India was around 20 MMTA in 2008.
___________________
Key Issues and Challenges
___________________
The Indian petrochemical industry faces a number of challenges
___________________
for sustained growth, putting India at a competitive disadvantage
in the competition with China. India's ethylene capacity is far
smaller than China's and is unlikely to rise above its Asian rival's
levels in the next 5-7 years. This will make it impossible for India
to develop applications further downstream. Other major issues
faced by the Indian petrochemical industry are lack of low cost
feedstock and dependence on western countries for technology.
)U
New crackers and derivatives projects announced are making slow
progress and their coming on stream might be further delayed.
Petrochemical Industry Outlook in India

The major driver for the growth of petrochemical industry in India
is its (India's) on-going economic development. With the
Government announcing an infrastructure development program
of over INR 500 Billion, coupled with growth in key end-use sectors
like auto, personal/lifestyle products, and retail (packaging), a
boost is expected in the demand for petrochemical products in
India. The Government has set in place policies to promote
investment in the petrochemical sector, and several key domestic
companies have unveiled ambitious expansion plans for the next
few years. Two major elements in this support are the decision to
(c
allow 100 % foreign direct investment projects in this sector, and

establishment of a series of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) and a
number of Petroleum, Chemicals, and Petrochemical Investment
Regions (PCPIRs).
The refining capacity in India is expected to rise from 135 MMTA
in 2006-07 to 210-225 MMTA in 2011-12, translating into
increased availability of 8-10 MMTA of naphtha. This additional

availability of naphtha has already prompted petrochemical majors Notes
ES
Activity
to announce major downstream expansions in naphtha crackers. ___________________
Collect information on any ten
The olefin-based capacity is expected to increase from 5 MMTA to petrochemical products and
___________________
prepare a collage.
10 MMTA and aromatics based capacity is expected to increase
from 3 MMTA to 6 MMTA. ___________________
___________________
Conclusions
___________________
The future of the Indian petrochemicals industry is bright with
___________________
domestic demand driving the market for products. With
Government support slowly falling into place, the future could see ___________________
more investments from multinationals as well as domestic ___________________
companies.
___________________
Check Your Progress ___________________
Fill in the blanks:

1.
UP
Petrochemicals are the …………………….. of the oil and
gas industry.
2. The major driver for the growth of petrochemical
industry in India is its on-going ……………………..
development.
Petrochemical Products and its Uses

Petrochemical and petroleum products are the second level
products being derived from crude oil after several refining
processes. Crude oil is the basic component to produce all
petrochemical and petroleum components after a long process of
refinement in oil refineries. The major products, crude oil produces
after refining process are asphalt, diesel fuel, fuel oil, gasoline,
kerosene, lubricating oil, paraffin wax, LPG and petrochemicals.
)
Petrochemical Products
On the basis of chemical structure, petrochemicals are categorized
(c
into three categories of petrochemical products olefins, aromatics

and synthesis gas. Ethylene and propylene, the major part of
Olefins are the basic source in preparation of several industrial
chemicals and plastic products whereas butadiene is used to
prepare synthetic rubber. Benzene, toluene and xylenes are major
components of aromatic chemicals.
20
These aromatic petrochemicals are used in manufacturing of
Notes
secondary products like synthetic detergents, polyurethanes,
S
Activity
Visit___________________
a petrochemical plant in plastic and synthetic fibres. Synthesis gas comprises of carbon
your city and see what
___________________ monoxide and hydrogen which basically used to produce ammonia
equipments are they using
and prepare a short report and methanol which are further used to produce other chemical
on it.___________________ and synthetic substances.
___________________
The largest share of petroleum products produced from refineries
___________________
are fuel oil and gasoline which are widely used as the energy
PE
___________________ carriers worldwide. As per the uses, petrochemicals are used for
___________________ production of several feed-stocks and monomers and monomer
precursors. The monomers after polymerization process creates
___________________
several polymers which ultimately used to produce gels, lubricants,
___________________ elastomers, plastics and fibres.
___________________
Business Aspects of Petrochemical Products
As petrochemical components are basic manufacturing component
of several industrial and daily use products so these products itself
have their business importance. There are several businesses
which are entirely dependent on petrochemicals and always have a
great demand of suppliers, exporters and manufacturers. B2B
e-marketplaces are the best solution to search for the best supplier
)U
or service provider in very short time and very cost effectively.
These online marketplaces are equipped with several product
listing in the desired category as here is the petrochemical
products. Every product listing shows the company name, product
title and a short description to get an overview of product and the
offers given.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. The largest share of petroleum products produced from
refineries are fuel oil and ……………………
2. …………………… oil is the basic component to produce
all petrochemical and petroleum components after a
(c
long process of refinement in oil refineries.
Petrochemical Plants
Petrochemicals are products produced from hydrocarbon-based raw
materials such as oil or gas, which are referred to as feed stocks.
The trade in petrochemicals is international and involves large

sums of money. A petrochemical plant is a facility where products Notes
ES
are made to supply this industry. ___________________
There are numerous types of petrochemicals and petrochemical ___________________
end products. Some have consumer uses and others are mainly for
___________________
industrial use. The primary petrochemical industry produces
substances such as methanol, ethylene, toluene, and propylene ___________________
directly from feed stocks. Intermediate and derivative ___________________

petrochemicals are generally produced when primary ___________________
petrochemicals are converted to a more complicated form. Such
___________________
products include vinyl acetate for paint, vinyl chloride for PVC,
and styrene for rubber and plastic. ___________________
Since feed stocks and the resulting petrochemical products vary, ___________________
there are a number of production methods. An ethylene producing ___________________

UP
petrochemical plant is likely to use a method known as catalytic
cracking, which utilizes high pressure and high temperatures to
crack natural gas by repeated compression and distillation. In a
methanol producing petrochemical plant, a reforming process is
likely to be used. This method employs high temperature steam,
medium pressure, and a catalyst to produce the product.
Differing factors, such as feed stocks, end products, production
method, and location, result in numerous types and configurations
of petrochemical plants. There are, however, characteristics of
petrochemical plants that tend to be standard. For example,
almost all petrochemical plants need extensive pipeline networks.
Most use furnaces and rotating equipment. Although the sizes
vary, every petrochemical plant needs an expanse of land to
operate on.
The petrochemical industry tends to be technology intensive. Most
petrochemical plants will, therefore, require specialized
)
equipment, sophisticated engineering, and high-skilled staff. This

means that, regardless of the feed stock or resulting products, a
petrochemical plant is normally very expensive and requires a
(c
substantial amount of capital.

Petrochemical plants are located in different countries around the
world. Gas and oil are the most common feed stocks, because they
are usually less expensive than other raw materials, are widely
available, and can be processed more efficiently. For this reason,
petrochemical companies often build their plants close to oil and
gas refineries. Doing so considerably cuts operational costs, such as

Notes transportation, associated with receiving feed stocks.
ES
___________________ Being closer to the source of necessary raw materials does not
___________________ always translate into the greatest output. The numerous
differences in petrochemical plants result in varying capacities.
___________________
Even when multiple petrochemical plants are owned by the same
___________________ company, there is usually a difference in the output of each.
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. The numerous differences in petrochemical plants
___________________
result in varying ……………………
___________________
2. Since feed stocks and the resulting ……………………
___________________
products vary, there are a number of production
UP 3.
methods.
…………………… and …………………… are the most
common feed stocks, because they are usually less
expensive than other raw materials, are widely
available, and can be processed more efficiently.
Summary
Petrochemicals are derived from various chemical compounds,
mainly hydrocarbons obtained from oil and natural gas. Growth
potential of the chemicals sector is immense, considering the
current low per-capita consumption in the country. It is one of the
fastest growing domestic sectors, comprising of both small and
large scale enterprises, and is currently in a state of restructuring
and consolidation. For the petrochemical industry, the main areas
that demand attention revolve around overcoming economic
)
difficulties and energy concerns wherein looking at environment

friendly methods to reduce carbon dioxide emissions will draw
focus.
(c
The future of the Indian petrochemicals industry is bright with

domestic demand driving the market for products. With
Government support slowly falling into place, the future could see
more investments from multinationals as well as domestic
companies. As petrochemical components are basic manufacturing
component of several industrial and daily use products so these
products itself have their business importance.
Lesson End Activity

Notes
ES
Discuss within your group about the petrochemical products that
___________________
are used in our day to day life.
___________________
Keywords ___________________
___________________
Feedstock: A feedstock is the basic material from which a good
product is manufactured or made, frequently used with an ___________________
extended meaning. ___________________
Olefins: Olefins are the basic source in preparation of several ___________________
industrial chemicals and plastic products.
___________________
Petrochemical Plant: A petrochemical plant is a facility where
___________________
products are made from feedstocks and supplied to the industry.
___________________
UP
Furnace: It refers to a direct fired heater, used in boiler
applications in chemical industries or for providing heat to
chemical reactions for processes like cracking.

1. Give an introduction of petrochemical industry.
2. Explain petrochemical industry in India.
3. What are petrochemical products?
4. Describe various uses of petrochemical products.
5. Discuss petrochemical plants.
Further Readings
Books
)
Robert H Perry, Don Green, Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 6th

(c
Web Readings
http://www.chemtech-online.com/events/chemtech/2010/01/indian-
petrochemical-industry.php
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-petrochemical-plant.htm
(c
) UP
ES
UNIT 3: Raw Materials for Petrochemical Processes
Unit 3
25
Notes
S
Activity
Raw Materials for Petrochemical

Find___________________
out 5 such organizations
which use natural gas liquids
___________________
as raw material.
Processes ___________________
___________________
Objectives ___________________
PE
___________________
topics:
___________________
\ Feedstocks
\ Petrochemical Feedstocks from Refineries ___________________
\ Initial Materials for Petrochemical ___________________
___________________
Introduction
Petrochemicals are chemical products derived from petroleum.
Some chemical compounds made from petroleum are also obtained
from other fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas, or renewable
sources such as corn or sugar cane. Two petrochemical classes are
olefins including ethylene and propylene, and aromatics including
)U
benzene, toluene, and xylene isomers. Oil refineries produce olefins
and aromatics by fluid catalytic cracking of petroleum fractions.
Chemical plants produce olefins by steam cracking of natural gas
liquids like ethane and propane. Aromatics are produced by
catalytic reforming of naphtha. Olefins and aromatics are the
building-blocks for a wide range of materials such as solvents,
detergents, and adhesives. Olefins are the basis for polymers and
oligomers used in plastics, resins, fibers, elastomers, lubricants,
and gels.
Feedstocks
Petrochemical processes begin with relatively few raw materials,
expand into a complex network of chemicals and converge to
(c
materials that serve specific functions as consumer products. The

raw material base for the petrochemical industry primarily
depends upon the types of intermediates and final products
required by the industry and the consumer. Almost all
petrochemicals are derived from these sources:
 Carbon monoxide/hydrogen (synthesis gas or syn gas) from

Notes
ES
reforming natural gas (mostly methane)
___________________
 Olefins from pyrolysis of ethane, propane-butane (LPG) or
___________________ distillates (naphtha, gas oil) and condensates (Natural Gas
___________________ Liquid)
___________________  Aromatics from catalytic reforming.

___________________ The three main sources for petrochemicals lead to products which
___________________ are marketable items in their own right, as well as raw materials
for a great many other petrochemicals used, both as intermediates
___________________
and as finished products. One man's product is often another man's
___________________ raw material. For example, a producer of basic petrochemicals
___________________ could consider methane (natural gas) as his only raw material and
synthesis gas (CO+H2), after conversion to methanol, as his
___________________
UP finished product. An intermediate producer uses the merchant
method as raw material to produce formaldehyde as a finished
product, while a resin manufacturer would see the formaldehyde
as a basic raw material for the production of phenol formaldehyde
resin.
The evaluation of Natural Gas (NG), associated gas and crude oil
and a base upon which to build a petrochemical complex requires
knowledge of their composition. As with any endeavor, it is
necessary to know the territory and it is best to start with –
natural gas and associated gas.
Natural Gas: It is a mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons
with methane (CH4) as the major constituent. It usually contains
small amount of non-hydrocarbon gases, such as, nitrogen, carbon
dioxide and hydrogen sulphide. Natural gas is found either
associated with crude oil, called "associated gas" or in gas
reservoirs with no oil present, called "non-associated gas". These
)
reservoirs can be either onshore or offshore. Natural gas and

especially associated gas are gaining greater importance not only
as a source of energy but also as a basic raw material for the
(c
petrochemical industry.
The sour gas containing hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide is
sweetened by treating with Mono and Diethanolamines (MEA &
DEA). Then it is dried using Diethylene Glycol (DEG) and
Triethylene Glycol (TEG) to remove moisture. Molecular sieves
(zeolites) are also used to absorb water, hydrogen sulphide
risercaptans and carbonyl sulphide impurities from natural gas.
95% of natural gas is used as a fuel. The primary chemical

utilisation of natural gas is through synthesis gas. Notes
ES
Transportation of natural gas through cross country pipelines from ___________________
the reservoir source to consumer end is very common e.g., trans ___________________
Alaskan pipeline, trans-Siberian pipeline from Russia to Europe,
___________________
HBJ pipeline in India. Further, natural gas is liquefied into LNG
for storage and transportation across the continents in LNG ___________________
carrier at – 170oC as a liquid. LNG terminals are built for this ___________________
purpose at seashores, to store and then regasify for transfer ___________________
through pipelines to consumers.
___________________
Associated Gas: Most oil producing reservoirs have lighter
___________________
paraffin hydrocarbon gases dissolved in the oil. This gas in excess
of that which can be carried in the crude oil at atmospheric ___________________
pressure is called "associated gas". Its important feature is that it ___________________

UP
has high concentration of ethane (C2H6), the prime feedstock for
ethylene production. Associated gas is a coproduct of crude oil
production and it is isolated from crude oil during the stabilisation
phase.
Natural Gas Liquids (NGL): NGL consists of the constituents
condensed from natural and associated gases and are the
hydrocarbon ethane through pentanes. Propane and Butane as a
mixture are referred to as Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG) and
NGL is reflected in the fact that they represent 58% of the
petrochemical feedstocks.
In India ONGC is the major player in the production of associated
and non-associated gas as well as natural gas from the on-land as
well as offshore fields. The location for Bombay High land fall point
is urban, Maharashtra and South Basin (gas field) is Hajira,
Gujarat. At Urban associated gas and at Hajira non-associated gas,
LPG and NGL are separated. The total production of NG in India
)
in 2001 was 42 million standard cubic metric per day. Lately,

another major source of commercial methane production has come
into prominence i.e., coal-bed-methane (CBM). Here, methane gas
(c
is produced directly from reserves of coal mines underground and

the gas is evacuated, processed and then transported to the
consumer location through pipeline. All the pollution problems
associated with the direct use of coal is completely eliminated in
CBM. In India many prospective CBM projects have been
commissioned. CBM, besides use as an energy source, will also
supplement the petrochemical needs in the due course.
28
LPG: Among the liquefied gaseous hydrocarbons, LPG is a mixture
Notes
of Propane (C3) and Butane (C4), 50% each by weight available
S
Activity
Visit___________________
a petrochemical company commercially. However, for captive use of IPCL, ONGC
in your city and find out what
___________________
feedstocks are they using.
cryogenically separates a mixture of Ethane (C2) and Propane (C3)
in 60:40 ratio by weight from associated gas at urban,
___________________
Maharashtra and where IPCL’s gas cracker is located. C2-C3
___________________ mixture received by IPCL is liquefied and stored in double-walled
___________________ insulated storage tanks at – 102˚C. Both LPG and C2-C3 mixtures
PE
are the major feedstocks for the gas crackers to produce olefins i.e.
___________________
ethylene, propylene and butadiene. GAIL for its gas cracker at
___________________
Auraiya, U.P. also separates C2-C3 mixtures from the NG received
___________________ through the HBJ pipeline.
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
1. Most oil producing reservoirs have lighter paraffin
……………….. gases dissolved in the oil.
2. ……………….. gas is produced directly from reserves of
coal mines underground.
)U
Petrochemical Feedstocks from Refineries
Straight-run fractions produced from atmospheric and vacuum
distillation units of refineries are one of the important sources of
liquid hydrocarbon feedstocks for petrochemical product. They are:
1. Straight-run naphtha,
2. Straight-run vacuum gas oil,
3. Kerosene and
4. Straight-run LPG.
Further, from the secondary processing units, namely, FCC,
cracked LPG is also a very valuable sources of olefins, especially
propylene, butanes, etc. A one million tonne per year FCC can
(c
produce up to 25,000 tpa propylene.

The ratios of the different types of hydrocarbons in a specific crude
oil are important in determining the refining process to be used.
For example, naphtha cut from atmospheric distillation of crude oil
with a high cycloparaffin (naphthene) content would be better used
for the production of aromatics by catalytic reforming process than
for the production of ethylene by pyrolysis. A typical case is the

Bombay High Crude derived naphtha. It is a premium feed for Notes
ES
aromatics production, so also is the Assam crude based naphtha. ___________________
The petrochemical industry has grown to such an extent that
___________________
petrochemical feed stock and fuel products are competing for the
same petroleum fraction like the naphtha for aromatics production ___________________
as well as for high octane gasoline production, respectively. ___________________
1. All petroleums contain substantially the same hydrocarbon ___________________

compounds. (Carbon Number wise) ___________________
2. The principal compounds in the naphtha fraction of ___________________
each petroleum may be placed into five main classes:
___________________
normal (straight chain) paraffins, branched paraffins,
alkylcyclopentanes, alkylcyclohexanes and alkylbenzenes. ___________________
___________________
3.
UP
Within each of these five classes, the individual compounds
occur in proportions which are usually of the same order of
magnitude for different petroleums. It should be noted,
however, that the ratios among hydrocarbon classes vary
widely from one crude oil to another.
Olefin Feedstocks
The choice of feedstocks for olefin production is progressively
growing more complicated. The NG production has peaked out and
the price of all feedstocks has increased dramatically. Therefore,
incorporating flexibility in design of an olefin plant to process
multi-feedstocks will be the best option in order to optimise the
cost. The major liquid feeds for olefin feed are light virgin naphtha
(LVN; 32˚C–120˚C), full range naphtha (FRN, 32˚C–170˚C),
Reformer Raffinate, atmospheric gas oil (AGO, 232˚C–327˚C),
vacuum gas oil (VGO, 290˚C–530˚C).
Straight run naphtha required as feedstock for aromatics
)
production can be of different cuts e.g. for BTX production it is

40˚C–140˚C , for BT production it is 40˚C–110˚C and for xylenes
production it is 110˚C–140˚C.
(c
Since the feedstock for petrochemical production is to be selected

very carefully to maximise the yields of the products, the
profitability of the business is directly linked to the following
factors associated with the feedstock:
1. Competitive price.
2. Availabilities in requisite quantities and without

Notes
ES
Activity interruptions.
___________________
Search over the internet and 3. Right quality.
further your knowledge about
___________________
initial materials for 4. Minimum transportation cost from source to user plant.
petrochemicals.
___________________
5. Minimum inventory to reduce cost.
___________________
6. Minimising losses during transportation and storage.
___________________
7. Avoiding adulteration pilferation during transportation.
___________________
___________________ Naphtha Requirement

___________________ The naphtha crackers of RIL, IPCL, HPL and Oswal requires an
___________________
overall 4 million tones per annum. The 1.3 million tonne capacity
p-xylene plant of RIL requires 3.5 million tones naphtha feedstock.
___________________
UP The average price of naphtha in 2001 was ` 11,600 per tonne.
Natural Gas
Approximately 42 Million Standard Cubic Metres per Day
(MMSCMD) of natural gas was produced in India in 2001. The
average price of NG was ` 4,180 per 1000 Standard Cubic Metres
(SCM). Whereas price of LPG was ` 9,100/tonnes. C2–C3 mixture
requirement of IPCL (Nagothane and Gandhar) and GAIL
(Auraiya) is 1.28 Million Tonne per Year (MMTPA).
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. ………………….. feed stock and fuel products are
competing for the same petroleum fraction.
2. All petroleums contain substantially the same
………………….. compounds.
)
Initial Materials for Petrochemical

Some materials which are necessary for the petrochemicals are
(c
given below:
Methane
It is the simplest hydrocarbon (CH4) abundantly available in
natural gas. In spite of its small size, methane is the precursor of a
wide variety of compounds Ammonia, Polyethylene, ethylene, urea,
polypropylene, benzene, PVC, Polystyrene, Vinyl chloride,
systrene, ethylene oxide, butadiene etc. To obtain these however,

the molecule must be reformed into useful products such as Notes
ES
methanol and ammonia. This transformation is effected through ___________________
Synthesis Gas.
___________________
Synthesis Gas ___________________
Synthesis Gas is a general term to designate various mixture of ___________________

carbon monoxide and hydrogen. These mixtures are used as such.
___________________
The mixture of CO+H2 can be produced from anything containing
___________________
carbon and hydrogen. It can be produced by steam reforming of
natural gas or naphtha over a promoted nickel catalyst at 830˚C– ___________________
850˚C and 300–500 psig pressure. ___________________
A host of chemicals and intermediates are produced from synthesis ___________________

gas and in turn these intermediates become raw materials of other ___________________
UP
compounds in a cascading manner, till finally finished products are
generated.
As mentioned earlier, refinery based hydrocarbon fractions are the
raw materials for the production of petrochemicals. Besides these,
by-product produced during major refining processes such as
catalytic reforming and hydrogen processing while others are from
the bottom of the barrel evolved during the secondary processing
are also important raw materials. Aromatics (BTX) are major
petrochemicals from catalytic reforming units of the refinery.
n-Paraffins
Paraffin hydrocarbons, alkanes, are another major source for
production of petrochemicals. These include straight-run LPG and
a serious of hydrocarbons in the carbon number range of C2
through C9 like ethane, propane, butane, pentane, hexane,
heptane, octane, nonane, etc. Light naphtha containing C5–C7
)
hydrocarbons is a good feedstock.

n-paraffins in C8–C14 range available in the kerosene fraction are
ideal feedstocks for fatty acids and alkylates are used for soaps
(c
and detergents. These paraffins are extracted out from kerosene by

adsorption over molecular sieves.
Olefins
Ethylene, propylene, butanes and butadiene generated during
thermal cracking of naphtha or gas are the building blocks for
several value-added products, since they are all very reactive.

Notes Ethylene is the “king of petrochemicals”.
ES
___________________
Methylbenzenes
___________________
Benzene, Toluene, Xylenes and Ethylbenzene produced during
___________________ catalytic reforming process are valuable intermediates which in
___________________ turn produce several chemicals, fibre intermediates and detergent
intermediates. Butadiene is the major source for the production of
___________________
synthetic rubbers and associated elastomers.
___________________
Several chemicals and intermediates, as mentioned above upon
___________________
chemical conversion produce engineering polymers, carbon fibres,
___________________ thermosetting resins etc. which find a very wide applications in
___________________ finished goods, home appliances, etc.
___________________
Check Your Progress
UP Fill in the blanks:
1. ………………… Gas is a general term to designate
various mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
2. ………………… based hydrocarbon fractions are the
raw materials for the production of petrochemicals.
Summary
All petrochemicals are derived from synthesis gas, olefins and
aromatics. The basic raw materials for petrochemical production
are natural gas (methane), associated (methane, ethane, propane
and butane mixture) gas, natural gas liquids, LPG from gas fields.
From the refineries naphtha, vacuum gas oil, kerosene and LPG
are also used as petrochemical feedstock.
)
Lesson End Activity

Create a multiple choice quiz on feedstocks used for petrochemical
processes.
(c
Keywords
Paraffins: Paraffin is a term that can be used synonymously with
“alkane”, indicating hydrocarbons with the general formula
CnH2n+2.
Olefins: Olefin, also called alkene, any unsaturated hydrocarbon

Notes
ES
containing one or more pairs of carbon atoms linked by a double
bond. ___________________
NGL: Natural Gas, the source of Natural Gas Liquids is a natural ___________________
mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons found in the ground or obtained ___________________

from specially driven wells. The composition of natural gas varies
___________________
in different parts of the world. Its chief component, methane,
___________________
usually makes up from 80% to 95% its composition.
___________________
Questions for Discussion ___________________
1. Name the three sources from which petrochemicals are ___________________
derived. ___________________
2. What are the components of natural gas and their contents in ___________________
3.
percentage volume?
UP
What is the typical composition of associated gas?
4. Associated gas is isolated from which liquid hydrocarbon
during stabilization?
5. Briefly explain Natural Gas Liquid.
6. What do you mean by LPG?
7. Which are the major liquid feeds for olefins production?
8. List out the important factors associated with olefins
feedstocks.
9. What are the paraffin hydrocarbons?
10. What are the four olefins produced by thermal cracking of
naphtha?
)
Further Readings
Books
(c

Web Readings
Notes http://business.mapsofindia.com/petrochemical/
ES
___________________
http://info.shine.com/Industry-
___________________ Information/Petrochemicals/912.aspx
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
) UP
(c
UNIT 4: Petrochemical Intermediates
Notes
ES
Activity
Visit___________________
http://www.kbr.com/
Petrochemical Intermediates Technologies/Olefins/ and find
out ___________________
the factors which drive the
demand of olefins.
___________________
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
 Production of Olefins ___________________

 Linear Alkyl Benzene ___________________
 Linear Alpha Olefins
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
UP
Petrochemical intermediates are generally produced by chemical
conversion of primary petrochemicals to form more complicated
derivative products. Petrochemical derivative products can be
made in a variety of ways: directly from primary petrochemicals;
through intermediate products which still contain only carbon and
hydrogen; and, through intermediates which incorporate chlorine,
nitrogen or oxygen in the finished derivative. In some cases, they
are finished products; in others, more steps are needed to arrive at
the desired composition. Of all the processes used, one of the most
important is polymerization. It is used in the production of
plastics, fibers and synthetic rubber, the main finished
petrochemical derivatives.
A very wide range of intermediates and products generated from
petrochemical plants find a variety of applications. Significantly,
these are a vital substitutes for conventional products available
from natural sources like plants, forests, minerals and animals.
)
Production of Olefins
Ethylene, Propylene & Butadiene are three important Olefins.
(c
These are produced by pyrolysis (steam cracking) of light alkanes

in Gas Cracker or liquid hydrocarbons like naphtha, gas oil in
Naphtha Cracker with 3 times the amount of feed per kg ethylene.
Total amount of propylene, butadiene and BTX increases with
increase in mol wt of feedstock. The liquid feedstocks are Light
Virgin Naphtha, Full Range Naphtha, Reformer Raffinate,
Atmospheric as Oil and Vacuum Gas Oil.
36
Millisecond pyrolysis furnace operates at 0.03 to 0.1 sec and Coil
Notes
Outlet Temp (COT) of 870º (low severity) to 925º (high severity); in
S
___________________ latter case ethylene yield increases by 10-20% to higher than 33%
___________________ in single pass of naphtha feed. Basically, the cracker plants consist
of following sections:
___________________
1. Cracking comprising Pyrolysis furnaces, Effluent Heat
___________________
Exchangers and Dilution Steam generation;
___________________
PE
2. Separation section of Quenching, Gas Compression and Gas
___________________
Drying (1 and 2 are called Hot Sections of the plant);
___________________
3. Cold section comprises of chilling train and H2 separation and
___________________
a series of columns, i.e., Demethaniser, Deethaniser, Ethylene
___________________ fractionator, Depropaniser, Propylene Fractionator and
___________________ Debutaniser where mixed C4’s and Pyrolysis Gasolene are
separated.
The co-product treatment comprises of:
1. Hydrogenation of raw C3’s to remove methyl acetylene (MA)
and propadiene (PD) to give polymer grade propylene;
2. Hydrogenation of C3, C4 cuts;
)U
3. Selective hydrogenation of raw C4 cuts to remove acetylene
with min. loss of butadiene;
4. Extraction of BD from C4 stream;
5. Extraction of Benzene from PG stream after hydrogenation;

6. Carbon Black Feedstock;
7. Separation of propylene from C3, C4 stream to get polymer
grade propylene.
Benzene Derivatives
Benzene is the largest volume aromatic made from petroleum. It is
the building block for fibres, plastics and elastomers. Its major
derivatives are: Cumene and Phenol used in phenolic resins, nylon
(c
fibres and resins, Epoxy resins and polycarbonates.

Chlorobenzenes, DDT used as insecticides. Cyclohexane to nylon
resins and plastics. Ethylbenzene to styrene to polystyrene
polymers, SBR, ABS and polyester resins. Maleic Anhydride to
polyester resins and alkyd resins. Alkylbenzenes to detergents,
lube oil additives, Nitrobenzene to aniline to polyurethanes.
Polymers
Notes
ES
They are macromolecules containing large no. of molecules (called
monomers); when same comonomer is used, it is Homopolymer and ___________________
when more than one comonomer is used it is Copolymer. ___________________
Copolymers are grouped as Block, Alternating and Random
___________________
copolymers. Polymers’ are classified on the basis of:
___________________
 Chemical type like polyolefins, polyesters, polyamides,
___________________
 Type of formation like condensation or addition polymers,
___________________
 Type of process like bulk, solution, suspension, emulsion,
___________________
 Type of utilisation like thermosetting, thermoplastics, fibre,
___________________
engineering plastics and elastomers.
___________________
Synthetic Fibres ___________________
UP
They are the substitutes for linen, cotton, wool Rayon and
Cellophane are “regenerated or modified cellulose”. Cellulose
Acetate fibre is acetate rayon. Others are polyesters, polyamides
(nylons), Polyacrylates and polyolefins.
 Polyester Fibre: They are Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)
produced by Transesterification of DMT or esterification of
PTA using Monoethyleneglycol.
 Polyamides: They are condensation polymers from
dicarboxylic acid and diamine (Nylon 66 & 610) or a ring
opening lactams (Nylon 6 & 12) Nylon 610 is the product of
HMDA & sebasic acid; the first no.6 indicates C Atoms of
diamine and second no. 10 of diacid. Nylon 6 is from
caprolactam.
 Nylon 66 is produced from adipic acid and HMDA.
 Acrylic Fibres are produced by polymerisation of
)
Acrylonitrile with methacrylic vinyl acetate, VCM and

acrylamide in aqueous medium using redox cat. This is the
WET process. In the DRY process aqueous medium is not
(c
used.
Synthetic Rubber
Natural Rubber consists of isoprene units in cis-l,4 configuration
which gives high resilience and strength. Synthetic Rubbers are
polymers having similar physical and mechanical properties and
being unsaturated they can be vulcanised. At ambient temperature
they can be stretched to twice their original length and after

Notes release of stress return to appx. original length. They are produced
ES
Activity
by polymerisation of mono-olefins like iso-butylene and conjugated
Visit___________________
the website of reliance
industries and find out the diolefins like styrene-butadiene (SBR) and two mono-olefins as
___________________
material from which they ethylene-propylene (EPM, EPDM).
produce LAB.
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
___________________
1. The ………………. feedstocks are Light Virgin Naphtha,
Full Range Naphtha, Reformer Raffinate, Atmospheric
___________________
as Oil and Vacuum Gas Oil.
___________________
2. Benzene is the largest volume ………………. made from
___________________ petroleum.
___________________
UP Linear Alkyl Benzene (Surfactant Alkylates)
Linear Alkyl Benzene (LAB) is a large volume intermediate to
Linear Alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS), widely regarded as being the
key active ingredient in modern detergents. It is used as a
sulphonate in light-duty liquids, heavy-duty liquids, heavy-duty
powders and cakes, general purpose household cleaners, and
various industrial and institutional cleaners. At large volumes,
routes to manufacture based on n-paraffins recovered from
kerosene fraction are more attractive. Improvement in catalyst
efficiency by UOP, the licensor of the process have greatly favoured
to economics of the paraffin route over that based on alpha-olefins.
Now LAB based detergents have completely eliminated “hard”
alkylates since the former are highly biodegradable and thus
pollution problems in rivers and ponds. The detergent industry
continues to innovate and change, driven by consumer habits,
environmental concerns and regulations, research and economics,
)
especially leaning towards lower wash temperatures – low – or

no-phosphate formulations represented new challenges because of
cleaning deficiencies composed to phosphate formulations.
(c
Use of polyester fibres in non-iron garments resulted in new

cleaning challenges, as they do not release only substances as
easily as cotton. The alternatives to STPP (Sodium
tripolyphosphate) as the builder in heavy-duty Laundry powders
are zeolites (calcium aluminosilicates) sodium silicate (Na2SO3),
Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) or soda ash and soap. Starting from
Kerosene, linear odd and even n-paraffins are separated in C9-C14 39
range. These n-paraffins are dehydrogenated into olefins using a Notes
S
catalyst. Then these olefins are alkylated with benzene in the ___________________
presence of acid, namely hydrofluoric acid, to form linear Alkyl
___________________
Benzene. The product is separated by distillation under vacuum.
___________________
Surfactants ___________________
Oxo – Another class of surfactant products that has stormed the ___________________
PE
market are alcohol sulphate (AS), alcohol ethoxylate (AE) and
___________________
alcohol ethoxysulphate (AES). They are based on higher alcohols in
the range C12–C18, which were initially manufactured from natural ___________________
fats and oils such as coconut oil and beef tallow. They are as ___________________
biodegradable as LABS. Now using petrochemical feedstocks, ___________________
Ziegler and Oxo chemistry, in the production of detergent-range
___________________
alcohols increased dramatically. During the last 25 years Oxo
surfactants with carbon chain lengths in the range C9–C18,
especially , C12–C16 have grown to 2 million tonnes worldwide.
Widespread use of synthetic fibres has stimulated increased use of
fatty alcohol ethoxylates, alkyl phenol ethoxylates,
ethoxysulphates based on ethylene, ethylene oxide, linear olefins
and phenol.
)U
Alcohol Ethoxylates
They are produced by reaction of alcohol with ethylene oxide.
Typically potassium hydroxide is used industrially.
Alcohol Sulphates and Ether Sulphates

The bulk of detergent alcohol and ether sulphate are manufactured
continuously in falling film reactor by contacting them with diluted
gaseous SO3 in air.
Oxo surfactants find extensive use in the household and personal
care sectors, especially alcohol ethoxylates. Liquid as well as toilet
soap find wide use of these. Shampoos for hair also are attractive
market for AS & ES. Besides, textile applications others include
(c
agricultural area, plastics and rubber processing aids, metal

working fluids, vehicle cleaning and polishes.
Surfactants – Alpha Olefin Sulphonates (AOS)

Laundry detergents in India, Korea, Japan, besides USA and
Europe utilise AOS in competition with LABS. AOS is also used for
many household products; including liquid soaps, light-duty
40 detergents, dish washing detergents and shampoos (personal care

Notes product) as well as ring shampoo and oven cleaners. Since AOS
S
Activity
___________________
Collect some material from
exhibits not merely mildness to the skin but also good foam
internet about LOA and properties, liquid hand soap formulations using AOS have enjoyed
___________________
prepare a slideshow based on
your findings different from the
rapid acceptance in the market. AOS is also used in bar and toilet
ones___________________
mentioned in this unit. soaps. It is also suitable for use as a foaming agent in toothpaste.
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
PE
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. Oxo ………………… find extensive use in the household
___________________
and personal care sectors.
___________________
2. The detergent industry continues to …………….. and
___________________ ………….., driven by consumer habits, environmental
___________________ concerns and regulations.
Linear Alpha Olefins (LAO)

Alpha Olefins are extremely versatile petrochemical intermediates
to a variety of industrial and consumer products. Chemistry and
chemical engineering practice have developed derivatives of LAO,
which become essential and indispensable part of our daily life. For
)U
example, the development of biodegradable surfactants for laundry
detergents are being produced from Alpha Olefins.
Cost-effective derivatives mean effective cleaning in their end-use
applications with minimal environmental impact on waterways on
highly populated areas. Tougher linear low-density polyethylene
plastic film containing alpha olefin comonomer means less damage
to goods in shipment and efficient disposal of refuse.
Linear even-carbon-number Alpha Olefins having four or more
carbons are basic petrochemical building block of over 3 MM TPA
of product in addition, consumables. Their general markets are:
z PVC plasticisers,
z Household detergents,
(c
z Linear low – and high-density polyethylenes (as comonomers),

Lubricants, and other uses.
Most important ones are: detergents, sanitisers, plastics,
lubricants, paper, metalworking, oil recovery, agriculture and
other specialty applications. The break-up is–Detergent OXO 25%,
Det. AOS 4%, Det. LAB 9%, Plasticiser 8%, Tertiary Amines 2%,
Lube oil additives 4%, Fatty acids 2%, Polyalpha olefins 7%, Notes
ES
Polybutene 1%, HDPE 7% and LLDPE 30%. ___________________
LAOs are produced in ethylene-based plants operated by Ethyl ___________________
Corpn., Shell, Chevron/Gulf. Mitsubishi & Idemitsu. Shell has a
___________________
proprietary process called Shell Higher Olefin Process (SHOP)
where lower and higher carbon no. alpha olefins together are ___________________
converted into the middle order AOs which add value compared to ___________________
the inputs. ___________________
LAOs used as comonomers in the production of LLDPE & HDPE to ___________________
improve their properties. In HDPE up to 2% LAO impart stress-
___________________
crack resistance. Butene-1 and Hexene-1 are the LAOs used in
HDPE and butene-1, hexene-1 & octene-1 are used in LLDPE ___________________
production. ___________________
UP
Plasticisers for PVC are produced starting with an OXO reaction of
C6, C8 & CI0 alpha olefins with CO & H2 to produce a semilinear
alcohol. It is then reacted with phthalic anhydride to produce
C7-C9-C11 phthalic ester. The ester is used as a plasticising agent in
flexible PVC.
In USA, Europe and Japan alpha olefin derivatives replace other
less biodegradable surfactants and Shell is the key producer of oxo
alcohols for detergents. Alpha olefin use in Alpha Olefin Sulfonates
(AOS) provides superior performance in cold, hard water
detergents. It is used in heavy-duty laundry powders in Japan.
There are plants for using AOS in India, China and other parts of
the world. Concern about skin sensitivity has been resolved by
avoidance of bleaching of AOS with hypochlorite.
The tertiary amines market is very promising. Its uses include
light-duty Liquid-detergents, disinfectants, sanitisers and oil
)
recovery. In the form of quaternary salts, these olefin derivatives

kill bacteria, fungi and viruses.
C16-C18 AOS, dimer AOS and alkylaryl sulfonate as foam-diverting
(c
agents increase oil recovery. Fatty acids in the C7 & C9 range

derived from AOs (C6&C8) are used in plasticisers, synthetic
lubricants, metal salts for grease thickeners, surfactants, cosmetics
and alkyd resins etc. AOs market in lube oil detergents and
synthetic lubricants is large. Alkenyl succinic anhydride (ASA)
based on C16-C20 AO is used as alkaline sizing agent in fine -
quality paper and gypsum board paper mills. AO converted to

Notes leather tanning agents in reaction with sulphonating agents acts
ES
___________________
as a detergent during removal of hair from animal skin. Higher AO
uses include as exposides, chlorinated paraffins, waxes, fuel
___________________
additives and drag flow improvers. AO are practically non-toxic by
___________________ oral and dermal routes of exposure. Proper storage and handling of
___________________ AO is essential to assure maintenance of the excellent quality.
Exposure to air results in absorption of O2 and water, which in
___________________
turn affect reactions.
___________________
___________________ Chemistry
___________________ In many olefinic systems, geometric isomerisation at the double
bond is possible resulting in cis-and trans-isomer pairs. With AO
___________________
this is not possible, since the double bond is at the terminus of the
___________________ molecule i.e., at the alpha position, e.g., in 1-Octene (also called
UP alpha – n – Octylene) is CH2 = CH – (CH2)5-CH3. Most common
transformations involving AO in the industrial areas include:
1. Hydroformylation (oxo reaction),
2. Oligomerisation polymerisation,
3. Addition reactions,
4. Alkylation reactions,
5. Sulfatos/Sulfonations,
6. Oxidations etc.
Hydroformylation produce alcohols, aldehydes, carboxylic acids
and esters by the reaction of CO+H2 or CO+H2O in the presence of
catalyst.
During oligomerisation using Ziegler-Natta catalyst Dimer/
Trimer/Tetramer compounds are formed and they on
hydrogenation form paraffins for syn lubes. AO as a comonomer
)
polymerise to form HDPE/LLDPE. LAO alone polymerises to

Polyalphaolefins (PAO) using Ziegler-Natta catalyst. The addition
reaction yields products like sec. Alkyl chloride, Sec. Mercaptan,
(c
sec. Alcohol, chlorinated paraffins, trialkylaluminium etc. The

primary alcohols when reacted with EO, produce Alcohol
Ethoxylates (AE). The latter on sulfonation yield Alcohol
Ethoxylate Sulphate (AES). Alpha Olefin Sulphonates (AOS) are
produced by SO2 film sulfonation technology. Both AES and AOS
are stable surfactants having good detergency, solubility and
biodegradability.
43
Production of Alpha Olefins Notes
S
LAO with four or more carbon nos. is produced from ethylene by ___________________
Ethyl, Chevron, Shell, Mitsubishi & Idemitsu. The chemistry is
___________________
similar for all these process but the carbon no. distributions are
different. Economics vary among the process and depend on the ___________________
cost of ethylene, the size of the unit and complexity of process. The ___________________
oligomerisation reaction is exothermic so the heat removal must be
___________________
PE
efficient and either the reactors are heat exchangers as in Ethyl &
___________________
Chevron/Gulf process they are commonly encountered in these
commercial processes in addition, the ability to avoid pluggage or ___________________
to handle it when occurs represents the key proprietary areas of ___________________
the technology. Because of similarity of basic equipment,
___________________
economics of these processes are similar for the same size of plant.
However, on product slate distribution, 30% of products in Chevron ___________________
process are in the less valuable C4 and C30 + ranges, while the Shell
process includes isomerisation and disproportionation (I/D) unit
requiring higher investment, but is able to utilise, alpha olefins
that do not have market. Hence, it produces besides LAO, odd and
even linear internal olefins.
)U
Ethyl can exchange unneeded or less valued AO like butene for
those more in demand such as decene. Thus can produce a range
most tailored to market demands. Ethyl process employs a
stoichiometric chain growth step forming an aluminum alkyl
mixture described by Poisson equation distribution of carbon nos.
in the product range. Chevron and Shell processes use kinetic
reaction with simultaneous chain growth and displacement to yield
AO in a Geometric distribution of carbon nos. linear internal
olefins in alpha olefin processes are formed by isomerisation of
LAO. Here it causes double bond to migrate toward the centre of
the molecule depending on the function of catalyst, time and
temperature e.g., 2-dodecene can be cis (hydrogen on same side) or
trans (hydrogen on positive sides).
Check Your Progress

(c
Fill in the blanks:

1. Chevron and Shell processes use …………….. reaction
with simultaneous chain growth and displacement.
2. AOs market in lube oil ……………… and synthetic
……………. is large.
Summary
Notes
ES
The world scale capacity of Alpha Olefins plant are of the order of
___________________
150,000 to 300,000 TPA. In addition, the cumulative built-in
___________________ capacities of these plants of 5 to 6 multinationals in the developed
___________________ countries far exceed the global demands including the developing
countries. The excess availability of LAO from only limited
___________________
renowned producers/suppliers has restrained them in licensing
___________________ their process technologies. Due to this limitation in India, no LAO
___________________ plant is built yet in any of the ethylene complexes.
___________________ Petrochemical products substitute items available from nature.

___________________
Using C1 chemistry several intermediates are produced. So also are
C2, C3 and C4 hydrocarbon based derivatives. With respect to
___________________
aromatics starting from benzene, toluene and xylenes a vast array
___________________
UP of products are manufactured. The more value added solid
products are thermoplastics, thermosetting resins and engineering
plastics and they are widely used in industry as well as household
sectors. Other products are synthetic fibres and filaments used in
textiles, synthetic rubbers used for tyres and tubes and Linear
Alkyl Benzene for detergents. More superior one is Alpha Olefins
used for soaps, shampoos, etc.
Lesson End Activity

Discuss within your group about the production of olefins.
Keywords
Olefins: Any of a class of unsaturated open-chain hydrocarbons
such as ethylene, having the general formula CnH2n; an alkene
with only one carbon-carbon double bond.
)
Surfactants: Surfactants are compounds that lower the surface

tension of a liquid, the interfacial tension between two liquids, or
that between a liquid and a solid.
(c
Linear Alpha Olefin: Linear Alpha Olefins (LAO) or Normal

Alpha Olefins (NAO) are olefins or alkenes with a chemical
formula CxH2x, distinguished from other mono-olefins with a
similar molecular formula by linearity of the hydrocarbon chain
and the position of the double bond at the primary or alpha
position.

Notes
ES
1. What are the three main sources from which petrochemicals
___________________
are derived?
___________________
2. List out derivatives of ethylene, propylene and C4
hydrocarbons. ___________________
3. Write down the derivatives of benzene, toluene and xylenes. ___________________
___________________
4. What do you mean by polymers?
___________________
5. Give some examples of synthetic fibres.
___________________
6. List out various synthetic rubbers.
___________________
7. How is Linear Alkyl Benzene manufactured?
___________________
8. What are surfactants? Give examples.
___________________
9.
UP
What is LAO? Why is it superior to LAB?
10. How is LAO produced?
Further Readings
Books
Web Readings
http://www.kbr.com/Technologies/Olefins/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_alkylbenzene
)
(c
(c
) UP
ES
UNIT 5: Case Study
Notes
ES
___________________
Case Study ___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
After analyzing this case, the student will have an appreciation of the
concept of topics studied in this Block. ___________________
___________________
Case Study: IHS Chemical
___________________
This case covers supply and demand for linear alpha-olefins
(LAOs) with carbon chain-lengths of four (butene-1) and higher ___________________
that are produced in facilities that generate an entire range of
___________________
LAOs. Most of the current commercial LAO plants produce even-
numbered alpha-olefins based on ethylene oligomerization. ___________________
UP
Butene-1 that is produced from refinery and steam cracker
C4 hydrocarbon streams is not included in the discussion.
The LAO market was relatively balanced in most of 2008.
However, by the end of the year weak demand brought about by
the global economic crisis saw LAO consumption decrease
significantly, especially for polyethylene.
Continued weak demand in the major LAO-consuming markets in
2009 resulted in lower LAO consumption and therefore
production. By late 2009 and early 2010, when demand started to
pick back up for polyethylene and polyalphaolefins, supplies were
tight, especially for hexene-1 and decene-1.
The largest uses for linear alpha-olefins are as comonomers for
polyethylene production, for the production of alcohols (used
largely in detergents and plasticizers) and for making
polyalphaolefins (used in synthetic lubricants).
The following pie chart shows world consumption of linear alpha-
olefins:
)
(c
The use of linear alpha-olefins in the production of polyethylene,

for polyalphaolefins and for use in oil field drilling applications
will be the fastest growing segments in North America. Globally,
Contd…
comonomer-grade LAO consumption will be the fastest growing

Notes application (at about 5–6% globally), particularly LAO
ES
consumption for the production of linear low-density polyethylene
___________________ resins.
___________________ Forecasts of growth rates vary significantly by region. Annual
growth during 2009–2014 is expected to average 2% in North
___________________ America, 2% in Western Europe and 0.5% in Japan. On a global
scale, growth in total LAO consumption should average 3%
___________________
annually through 2014.
___________________ Question:
___________________ Critically analyse the market of HIS Chemical for LAO.
___________________ Source: http://www.ihs.com/products/chemical/planning/ceh/linear-alpha-olefins.aspx
___________________
___________________
___________________
) UP
(c
UNIT 6: Packaging Aspects
Notes
ES
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
UP
BLOCK-II
)
(c
Detailed Contents
Notes
ES
UNIT 6: PACKAGING ASPECTS
___________________ UNIT 8: PETROLEUM REFINING
 Introduction  Introduction
___________________
 Corrugated Packaging  Crude Oil
___________________
 Paper Packaging  Crude Oil Quality and Refining Economics
___________________
 Plastic Packaging  Fundamentals of Refinery Processing
___________________
 Classifying Refineries by Configuration and
UNIT 7: ENGINEERING PLASTICS
___________________ Complexity
 Introduction
___________________
 Uses of Performance Plastics UNIT 9: HYDROCRACKING
___________________  Introduction
 Properties of Engineering Plastics
___________________  History
 Applications of Engineering Plastics
___________________  Process Configurations
UP  Chemistry and Catalysts
UNIT 10: CASE STUDY

)
(c
Notes
ES
___________________
Packaging Aspects ___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
 Corrugated Packaging ___________________

 Paper Packaging ___________________
 Plastic Packaging
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
UP
The global market of petrochemical products, which is more
fragmented and heterogeneous than ever as to the typology of
manufacturers, has needs affecting operators of any size,
geographical area and distribution channel. From multinationals
to smaller local enterprises, the need for flexibility both in terms of
speed in production exchanges and adaptability to new scenarios
and new requests is the demand that providers of filling,
packaging and logistics technology are all the more often called
upon to meet. To differentiate themselves in the boundless ocean of
references, trademarks and types of distribution, undertakings
must target innovation, all the more catchy containers, which are
however all the more difficult to fill, as well as a renewed concept
of efficiency and savings.
Thus, if reference is made to a co-packer company or a company
mainly working with its own trademarks, technology adaptability
to new or often unforeseeable commercial scenarios is what
)
Charles Darwin would probably have called the defining element of

“natural selection” in the petrochemical sector: to exist tomorrow
you need to be able to adapt today.
The assessment of a solution for the packaging of petrochemical
(c
products should thus start from that of the ability to fill, package
and handle products in continuous development; there are,
however, other very important variables to be taken into account.
A great number of, if not all, the products of the petrochemical
sector require a specific experience that takes into account their
own nature, economic value and many aspects linked with the
52 safety of staff and the environment. Therefore, the precision of

Notes fillers becomes fundamental to avoid waste, the management of
S
Activity
Find___________________
a factory in your city stock of empty boxes for certain types of productions is important
which produces corrugated for the optimization of manufacturing facilities, while weight
___________________
fibreboards and write a report
on it. reduction of packages is a great opportunity not only to save
___________________
energy but also to effectively contribute to environmental
___________________ protection.
___________________ Today companies of the petrochemical sector essentially have only
PE
___________________ two options in regard of the changes under way in this sector:
undergo change or lead it.
___________________
___________________
Maintaining Quality and weight of the finished products is very
vital to retain customers besides the price while PVC and DMT are
___________________
available in the form of powder and flakes respectively, rest of the
___________________ commodities are packed as extradites granules; all in 25 kg pilfer
proof bags. The liquid products are mostly sold in bulk. However,
for SSI they are also provided in 200 lt. barrels.
This unit covers the main types of packaging used in packing of
petrochemical products: Corrugated Packaging, Paper Packaging
and Plastic Packaging.
)U
Corrugated Packaging
Corrugated fiberboard is a paper-based material consisting of a
fluted corrugated sheet and one or two flat linerboards. It is widely
used in the manufacture of corrugated boxes and shipping
containers; using "flute lamination machines".
(c
Source: http://www.lyburnsupplies.co.uk/corrugated.htm
Figure 6.1: Corrugated Fiberboard

The corrugated medium and linerboard are made of

Notes
ES
containerboard, a paper-like material usually over 0.01 inches
(0.25 mm) thick. Corrugated fiberboard is sometimes called ___________________
corrugated cardboard, although cardboard might be any heavy
___________________
paper-pulp based board.
___________________
Corrugated cases and boxes can be printed with Pantone matched
___________________
flexographic inks, or lithographically printed in full colour and
varnished where appropriate. ___________________
Corrugated board is manufactured on large high-precision ___________________
machinery lines called corrugators, usually running at about 500 ___________________

feet per minute (2.5 m/s) or more. These machines, over time, have ___________________
become very complex with the objective of avoiding some common
___________________
problems in corrugated board production, such as warp and
washboarding. ___________________
UP
The key raw material in corrugating is paper, different grades for
each layer making up the corrugated box. Due to supply chain and
scale considerations, paper is produced in separate plants called
paper mills. Most corrugating plants keep an inventory of paper
reels.
Packaging engineers design corrugated boxes to meet the
particular needs of the product being shipped, the hazards of the
shipping environment, (shock, vibration, compression, moisture,
etc.), and the needs of retailers and consumers.
The most common box style is the Regular Slotted Container (RSC).
All flaps are the same length from the score to the edge. Typically,
the major flaps meet in the middle and the minor flaps do not.
Bulk bins are made of polycarbonate, or BPA-free resins which
display the food product, and provide an airtight, hygienic system
for dispensing foods.
)
Products compatible with bulk bin selling are:

 Nails
(c
 Grains
 Spices
 Candy
 Coffee
 Powdered or granulated items
Traditional bulk bins were typically wooden barrels, or burlap

Notes
ES
sacks the food products came in, and from which the customer
___________________
would shop. These traditional methods of dispensing were cheap,
___________________ and did not protect the food products from open air environments
___________________ which allowed the accelerated spoilage of food, and created the
potential for outside contaminants to affect the food.
___________________
___________________ Advantages
___________________ Corrugated cardboard has a number of different advantages over
other materials. This is especially true when corrugated card is
___________________
being compared to other types of paper material used for storage
___________________
(such as multi-layer paper or thin plastic), since corrugated card is
___________________ most commonly used for making boxes.
___________________
UP Recyclable
In this age of green materials and concerns about the environment,
corrugated cardboard offers a major advantage in that it's
completely recyclable. Made out of paper (which may also be
recycled) corrugated card can be made even more ecologically
friendly if it's made without any bleaches or dyes so that the color
remains natural. Of course, corrugated card can be used again and
again because it can be remade time and again, and from a variety
of different kinds of paper pulp.
Strength
Corrugated card is also quite strong. This strength comes from the
arch that's in the middle of the layers of corrugated card. There are
three layers of paper, and the middle layer looks a lot like a sine
wave. This arched shape, which is so often used in other types of
construction like bridges or doorways, lends a great deal of support
)
to corrugated card. This means that it can hold a great deal more
than it would be able to if it was made of just three, flat layers.
Shaping
(c
Corrugated card can be easily joined with a variety of different

adhesives and fasteners. Staples are difficult to put through
corrugated card (unless they're industrial staples), but glue can
easily bind corrugated card together. Additionally, corrugated card
can be cut fairly easily, even if it stands up to pressure well from
all six principle directions. The ease with which corrugated card
can be bound together is a major advantage because it means that

a variety of shapes and structures can be made out of this simple Notes
ES
material. ___________________
Disadvantages ___________________
Due to its being readily available, inexpensive and strong relative ___________________
to its weight, corrugated cardboard is a popular packing material, ___________________

as well as a popular material for a variety of large-structure arts
___________________
and crafts products. However, there are times when corrugated
___________________
cardboard is not the best choice for a project or packing need.
Consider some of the disadvantages of this material when you ___________________
decide if it's right for your current purposes. ___________________
___________________
Appearance
___________________
UP
Corrugated cardboard has an appearance that's generally less than
desirable for craft projects where beauty is a main goal for the
finished product. Corrugated cardboard, due to its internal
structure, has a rough, ridged appearance over its surface that's
prone to wrinkling and bending. Any structures built from it will
have an untidy appearance, whereas non-corrugated cardboard
holds a smooth, neat shape.
Strength
Corrugated cardboard is relatively strong for being so lightweight,
but for projects and purposes that need a bit more heft, you may
prefer a denser material. Much of the mass of corrugated
cardboard is air, due to the shape of the corrugation inside. If
placed under much sideways pressure, corrugated cardboard will
bend, pucker and crumple.
Water Resistance
)
As a packing material, corrugated cardboard provides very little

resistance to moisture. When made wet, either from ambient
moisture in the environment or from direct contact, corrugated
(c
cardboard will soften, eventually becoming pulpy. Corrugated

cardboard is also highly absorbent, and will thus readily transfer
moisture to its contents.
Edges
Due to the layered construction of corrugated cardboard, cutting
any kind of intricate or curved shape from a sheet of this material
is likely to yield untidy-looking results. The corrugated inner layer

Notes will often show on the edge of a cut.
ES
Activity
___________________
Prepare a scrapbook of
different kinds of papers used Folding
___________________
in packging of petrochemicals.
It's difficult to create neat folds in corrugated cardboard. The inner
___________________
layers will both dictate the shape of the folds (not necessarily in
___________________ the direction you want) and cause the material to stretch and
___________________ crumple in unintended (and undesirable) ways.
___________________
Bulk
___________________
While the curvy, air-filled corrugation inside the layers of the
___________________
cardboard provide excellent cushioning, their bulk makes them
___________________ inconvenient for many craft projects or structures that might
___________________ require more detail and finesse in shaping. The thickness of
UP cardboard, relative to the structural strength it provides, is
sometimes a disappointment for such designs.
Cutting
When cutting a piece of corrugated cardboard into a certain shape,
it can be difficult to get the angle just right so as to make a clean
cut through both the two outer layers and the inner corrugated
layer. Without an even cut with a blade positioned at a consistent
90-degree angle to the cardboard, the cut will angle, making the
two sides different sizes.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. The key raw material in corrugating is …….………...,
different grades for each layer making up the
corrugated box.
)
2. Corrugated cardboard provides very little resistance to

…….………...
(c
Paper Packaging
Transporting goods safely from one point to another requires care
in the packaging process. The types of packaging paper available
differ in size, protective properties, strength and durability. In
some cases, several types of packaging papers are used to protect
delicate or sensitive product materials. Many types of packaging
papers are sold at home improvement, craft, moving and business

supply stores. Notes
ES
___________________
Tissue Paper
___________________
Tissue paper is used inside a container to fill empty space so that
the packed items do not shift in transit. Fragile contents like glass ___________________
or porcelain are often wrapped in tissue paper before being placed ___________________
inside another type of protective container for shipping.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
UP
Source: http://www.ehow.com/about_5386733_different-types-packagingmaterials.html#
page=5
Figure 6.2: Tissue Paper
Asphalt Paper
Asphalt paper is used to wrap and protect goods that are at risk of
corrosion. It is made of a mixture of flammable hydrocarbons
sandwiched between two layers of paper. Asphalt paper cannot be
heat sealed but it is water resistant. It is generally used in
conjunction with another type of wrapping to ensure products are
safe from water leakage and water vapor.
Wet Strength Paper

)
Wet strength paper is a treated paper that is water and water

vapor resistant. It is generally treated by impregnation, coating or
lamination. Wet strength paper is often used in cartons to protect
goods against moisture during transit. It is also used in other
(c
packing materials such as sacks or bags.
Parchment Paper
Parchment paper is water resistant and greaseproof. It is used to
wrap and protect products that are oily or that may leak. It is also
used to wrap products that are sensitive to grease leakage.
Kraft Paper
Notes
ES
Activity Kraft paper is used to wrap products for packaging and in the
Visit___________________
a polychemical company manufacturing of paper shopping bags. It is an unbleached product
website and find out what kind
___________________
of plastic packaging is used by
that is made using wood pulp. Kraft paper is popular due to its
them for their products and strength. Kraft paper can be crumpled and used to fill in spaces as
___________________
prepare a presentation.
an alternative to Styrofoam or other filling materials. It comes in a
___________________
variety of sizes and coated options, including waxed, poly coated
___________________ and reinforced.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
UP
Source: http://www.esuppliersindia.com/premier-polymers/kraft-paper-packing-bag-pr
260014 -s CATALOG - swf.html
Figure 6.3: Kraft Paper Bag
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. Parchment paper is water ……………………. and
…………………….
2. ……………………. paper cannot be heat sealed but it is
water resistant.
)
Plastic Packaging
Plastic is the most frequently used type of packaging material
(c
because of its low cost and light weight. It can be manufactured in

a variety of sizes and shapes, allowing companies to make
convenient packages for the user of a particular item. Single-
serving pudding cups or other food items are a good example of
how plastic packaging can be used to improve the convenience of a
product.
Bubble Wrap
Notes
ES
Bubble wrap is one of the few packaging materials that can also be
a source of entertainment long after the items are unpacked. Many ___________________
people enjoy popping the air bubbles that provide the wrap's ___________________
cushioning. There are even virtual video games that simulate the
___________________
act of popping bubble wrap, complete with authentic snapping
sounds. Of course, the reason bubble wrap is so common is its ___________________
effectiveness at protecting fragile items without adding significant ___________________

weight or cost. For small items or those that require additional
___________________
protection, the bubble wrap can simply be overlapped to provide
___________________
several layers of cushioning.
___________________
Stretch Film
___________________
Stretch film is typically bigger and longer than shrink wrap and
___________________
UP
has the ability to expand. It is usually a clear plastic material
(similar to saran wrap) that is made out of polyethylene plastics.
The film is designed to bundle multiple products together or to
provide stability to a package of items (usually on a pallet). Stretch
film tends to cling together as it is wrapped over itself, creating an
easy seal, and tension is required for strength and security.
Stretch film is applied two different ways: manually or with a
machine. Manual application of the film simply involves an
individual holding the spool of film and walking around the
package to secure it. Application with a machine can be done with
either a semi-automatic or automatic mechanism. Typically, a
company would want to invest in one of these machines if they
were wrapping more than 15 loads a day. They not only increase
efficiency but also reduce the total amount of waste produced. In
addition to the clear stretch film, there are many other varieties
available. Here are a few: UV stretch wrap, vented pallet wrap,
anti-static film, colored stretch film, and pre-stretched stretch film.
)
(c
Source: http://www.sanjayindustries.in/stretch-wrap-film.htm
Figure 6.4: Stretch Film

Shrink Wrap
Notes
ES
Shrink wrap is commonly used on commercial products where
___________________ tamper-protection is a high priority, such as CDs or DVDs. After
___________________ the item is wrapped, heat is applied to make the wrap shrink to fit.
Because it creates such a tight seal and keeps moisture out, shrink
___________________
wrap can also be used to package perishable food items.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
UP Source: http://www.hiwtc.com/photo/products/29/02/98/29884.jpg
Figure 6.5: Shrink Wrap
Shrink wrap does not have the same stretchy or clingy saran wrap
properties. Instead, it is made from polymer plastic films and is
designed to package a single product or hold items together.
Shrink wrap is placed loosely around the item once and cut around
the product using a heat sealer or shrink wrap bar. This film
provides a tamper-proof barrier and protection from moisture and
dust during transportation or storage. If shrink wrapping has been
properly applied, you should have no issues with chafing or
damage and the package should represent a professional wrapping
job. Some advantages of this film include fewer odors when sealed,
a stronger overall seal, and more flexible storage. Also, shrink
wrap has the option of being ventilated, therefore reducing any
)
damage that can occur from moisture.

Multiple industries use shrink wrap for a number of different
tasks. For instance, it can be used to wrap buildings or roof parts
(c
especially after some disasters (such as hurricanes and tornadoes).

It can also facilitate safer removal of asbestos and other hazardous
materials. This film is especially popular when it comes to
CD/DVD manufacturers and food items such as cheese and meats.
Shrink wrap and stretch film are certainly intended for different
purposes. Nonetheless, it is good to know that both of them are
recyclable and have numerous uses. Now that you are familiar
with the distinctions between these two, it is easier for you to

determine what type to order from your service provider. Notes
ES
___________________
Form-Fill-Seal Bags
___________________
Mono or co-extruded form-fill-seal (FFS) bags are used for
packaging of petrochemical compounds, fertilizers, polymers, ___________________
flakes, granules, powders and building materials. ___________________
Printed tube FFS (form-fill-seal) films in rolls with two-side print ___________________
of up to four colors, side gusset and embossed materials for packing ___________________
chemical, petrochemical (resins pellet or powder) and cement
___________________
products with FFS machinery.
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1.
UP
Stretch film is applied two different
………………. or with a ……………….
ways:
2. Plastic is the most frequently used type of packaging

material because of its low ………………. and light
……………….
Summary
The precision of fillers becomes fundamental to avoid waste, the
management of stock of empty boxes for certain types of
productions is important for the optimization of manufacturing
facilities, while weight reduction of packages is a great opportunity
not only to save energy but also to effectively contribute to
environmental protection. Corrugated cases and boxes can be
printed with Pantone matched flexographic inks, or
lithographically printed in full colour and varnished where
)
appropriate.
In some cases, several types of packaging papers are used to
protect delicate or sensitive product materials. Many types of
packaging papers are sold at home improvement, craft, moving and
(c
business supply stores. Plastic is the most frequently used type of

packaging material because of its low cost and light weight.
Lesson End Activity

Collect pictures and make a collage of different kinds of packaging
of petrochemical products.
Keywords
Notes
ES
Corrugated Fiberboard: Corrugated fiberboard is a paper-based
___________________
material consisting of a fluted corrugated sheet and one or two flat
___________________ linerboards.
___________________
Bulk Bins: Bulk bins are made of polycarbonate, or BPA-free
___________________ resins which display the food product, and provide an airtight,
___________________ hygienic system for dispensing foods.
___________________ Fragile: It refers to something that is easily broken, damaged, or

destroyed.
___________________
___________________
Asphalt Paper: It is a mixture of flammable hydrocarbons
sandwiched between two layers of paper.
___________________
___________________ Questions for Discussion

UP 1. What are the three main types of packaging used in
petrochemicals?
2. Explain corrugated packaging in detail.
3. Compare and contrast stretch films and shrink wraps.
4. What are the various kinds of paper used in paper packaging?
5. What is bubble wrap and write down the uses of bubble wrap
on the basis of your understanding?
Further Readings
Books
)
Web Readings
http://www.ehow.com/list_6547670_corrugated-card-
(c
advantages.html
http://www.totalpack.com/news/?p=753
UNIT 7: Engineering Plastics
Notes
ES
___________________
Engineering Plastics ___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
 Uses of Performance Plastics ___________________

 Properties of Engineering Plastics ___________________
 Applications of Engineering Plastics
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
UP
Engineering plastics are a group of plastic materials that have
better mechanical and/or thermal properties than the more widely
used commodity plastics (such as polystyrene, PVC, polypropylene
and polyethylene).
Being more expensive, engineering plastics are produced in lower
quantities and tend to be used for smaller objects or low-volume
applications (such as mechanical parts), rather than for bulk and
high-volume ends (like containers and packaging).
The term usually refers to thermoplastic materials rather than
thermosetting ones. Examples of engineering plastics include
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS), used for car bumpers,
dashboard trim and Lego bricks; polycarbonates, used in
motorcycle helmets; and polyamides (nylons), used for skis and ski
boots.
Engineering plastics have gradually replaced traditional
engineering materials such as wood or metal in many applications.
)
Besides equalling or surpassing them in weight/strength and other

properties, engineering plastics are much easier to manufacture,
especially in complicated shapes.
(c
Each engineering plastics usually has a unique combination of

properties that may make it the material of choice for some
application. For example, polycarbonates are highly resistant to
impact, while polyamides are highly resistant to abrasion. Other
properties exhibited by various grades of engineering plastics
include heat resistance, mechanical strength, rigidity, chemical
stability and fire safety.
Uses of Performance Plastics

Notes
ES
Activity Engineering plastics are polymeric materials primarily used in
___________________
Search over internet and find
industrial applications requiring structural performance at
out the maximum uses of
___________________
engineering plastics and elevated temperatures, besides retaining their inherent plastic
prepare a small report.
___________________ attributes of being insulating mediums to electrical and thermal
energy, ease of processing as well as consistency and accuracy of
___________________
reproduced parts and components moulded from them.
___________________
Initially starting as cost-effective substitutes for metal, wood and
___________________ glass, these eventually became original materials specified in
___________________ many new applications, particularly in electrical, electronics and
___________________
telecommunication industries employing advanced technologies
and enhancing safety and reliability factors.
___________________
The demand for high performance engineering plastics has-grown
___________________
UP rapidly both from new material developments and through a new
generation of designs. Designers have learned to think in plastics
and take full advantage of their inherent benefits, rather than
simply translate metal components, into plastic items.
Through rethinking and redesigning, traditional metal assemblies
can be produced in dimensionally stable plastics, with 50% fewer
parts, engineered for automated assembly and offering a full range
of impact, heat, electrical and chemical resistance properties. Since
the material is very costly, Computer Aided Design (CAD) and
Computer Aided Manufacture (CAM) bearing hi-tech facilities is
very commonly employed to manufacture the finished items using
engineering Plastics. This optimises and saves considerable cost of
raw material. Besides this alloys-blends and composites of
different resins and fillers helps in further cost saving resistance
properties.
The consumption of engineering plastics in the world is primarily
)
driven by the growth, of the industrial economy and tile induction

of advanced technologies in telecommunications, transportation,
electrical appliances, business machines, electrical construction
industry, consumer electronics and household appliances. In all
(c
these sectors the contributing factors to growing usages had been

the increasing needs for efficiency, reliability, safety and aesthetic
appeal of the final product.
The usages of engineering plastics in India, till recently, had been
rather modest. Compared to a global annual consumption of over
2.0 million tonnes, the present consumption of the five major
engineering plastics in the country is hardly 90,000 tonnes. Bulk of

this is accounted for by Polyamides. Notes
ES
Activity
In the order of their global consumptions, the five major Collect some more information
___________________
from library of your college on
engineering thermoplastics are Polyamides. Polycarbonates, the ___________________
properties of engineering
Polyacetals, modified Polyphenylene Oxide and Thermoplastics plastics and prepare a chart.
___________________
Polyesters. Of these the country has limited manufacturing
facilities for Polyamides and Thermoplastics Polyesters. The rest of ___________________
the other products are yet to be locally produced. ___________________
Domestic production of Polycarbonates, modified Polyphenylene ___________________

Oxide and their alloys, blends and compounds started by a JV of ___________________
IPCL-GE plastics in early 90s.
___________________
Fill in the blanks: ___________________
1.
UP
The demand for high ………………….. engineering
plastics has-grown rapidly both from new material
developments and through a new generation of designs.
2. Engineering plastics are ………………… materials.
Properties of Engineering Plastics

Following are the various properties of engineering or performance
plastics:
Electrical and Electronic: Products with high impact strength,
flame redundancy of good electrical properties, terminal blocks,
switching mechanism, connectors, spacers, relay components,
covers etc; Telecommunication touch tone buttons, modular plugs,
portable phone housing, components of cellular phones etc;
Consumer electronics transparent windows, bezels and doors in
TV, housing for professional tape recorders; Electrical plugs,
)
sockets, covers and load management devices like MCBs, RCDs,

KWH meter housing etc.
Computer and Business Mechanics: Load bearing chassis,
(c
media storage devices, printer housing, CRT housing etc.

Automotive Industry: Head lamp reflectors, lenses, door handles
number plate lights, PC alloyed with polyester in bumpers because
of excellent impact resistance; PPO in dash board, radiator grille,
vertical body fenders, valence panels etc.
66
Household Appliances: Food processor bowls, dish washer safe,
Notes
coffee maker reservoir, vacuum cleaner housing, power nozzle,
S
Activity
___________________
From real life try to identify camera, hair drier, electric razors.
various applications of
___________________
engineering plastics you see Lighting Industry: PC due to transparency, impact and heat
in your daily life.
___________________ resistance used in street light lenses, covers, well glasses, security
lighting, riot proof devices, colourful illuminated hoardings.
___________________
Medical Application: Autoclave, blood oxygenator, dialiser cells,
___________________
emergency suction devices, Housings for diagnostic equipment.
PE
___________________
Fluid and Environmental Engineering: Pump impellers,
___________________ blowers, guide vanes, housing for pumps, heat exchanger tubes,
___________________ reverse osmosis plates, valves, guides.
___________________ Safety and Security: Impact resistance goggles, safety eyeware,

industrial crash helmets, security glazings, bank and cash
___________________
counters, riot proof shields for policemen.
Building and Construction Industry: Skylights, roof lights,

green houses, glazing and partitioning of multiwall configuration.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
)U
1. Engineering plastics are used in ……………….
Appliances like food processor bowls.
2. Engineering plastics are used in impact resistance
…………… and safety …………………
Applications of Engineering Plastics

Polycarbonate, modified Polyphenylene Oxide and their
alloys/blends/compounds are extensively used in various industrial
applications. While on the basis of weight these products may
appear expensive compared to many of the widely used metals, two
key advantages frequently permit users to achieve cost
effectiveness in the finished products.
Firstly, the moulded parts often completely eliminates and
(c
generally reduces the secondary finishing and coating operations

required specially for the metal parts. Like any other plastics,
parts moulded from Polycarbonate and modified Polyphenylene
Oxide do not corrode, rust or pit and can be made available in
glossy or mat finished attractive moulded-in colours.
Secondly, the design flexibility gives these materials a distinct

Notes
ES
edge over stamped metal parts. A single part can be moulded in
these materials to combine a large number of functional parts ___________________
which are otherwise required in metals thereby substantially ___________________
saving on assembly operations. Waste can also be significantly
___________________
reduced because parts can be moulded with very close dimensional
tolerance due to very low and isotropic mould shrinkage of ___________________
Polycarbonate and modified Polyphenylene Oxide. ___________________
Polycarbonate, in particular due to its clarity, high impact safety, ___________________

light weight, colourability and functionality, effectively competes ___________________
with glass. Automotive lighting systems, security glazing, outdoor
___________________
lighting fixtures are some of the areas where Polycarbonate scores
over otherwise low cost glass alternatives. ___________________
___________________
UP
Because of these combination of properties of high mechanical
strength, heat resistance, flame retardancy, very good electrical
properties, Polycarbonate and modified Polyphenylene Oxide are
used in a wide variety of applications. Major application areas
include electrical and electronic component computer and business
machines, lighting, medical devices, household appliances,
automotive and transportation etc.
Electrical and electronic products require high impact strength,
flame retardancy and good electrical properties.
In this respect, Telecommunication is the most significant
application outlet of Polycarbonate and modified Polyphenylene
Oxides, wherein, these high performance plastic materials could
effectively support the technological advances in this field.
Terminal blocks, switching mechanism, connectors, spacers, relay
components, covers are some of the areas where Polycarbonate and
modified Polyphenylene Oxide are widely used. Other
)
telecommunication usages include touch-tone buttons, modular

plugs, portable phone housing, components for cellular telephones,
etc.
(c
In the consumer electronics, transparent windows, bezels and

doors in television and in housings for portable professional
recorders Polycarbonate is most often specified. Polycarbonate is
also almost exclusively used in compact discs for audio systems
and is also being introduced for data storage devices. Electrical
hardwares include distribution-end devices like plugs, sockets,
covers and load management devices like MCBs, RCDs, KWH

Notes meter housings, various electrical boxes etc.
ES
___________________ Computer and business machines widely use modified
___________________ Polyphenylene Oxide as well as Polycarbonate for load bearing
chassis, housings and primarily Polycarbonate for the media
___________________
storage devices and transparent covers and windows. Flame
___________________ retardant Polycarbonate, because of its superior impact strength
___________________ and heat resistance, has traditionally been used for high-end
business machine and printer housing, CRT housing etc.
___________________
___________________ In most of the western countries automotive industry had been the
driving force in the growth in consumption of these engineering
___________________
thermoplastics. Various lighting systems including the headlamp
___________________ reflector and lenses are very often made from Polycarbonate.
___________________ Besides these, other functional parts like door handles, number
UP plate lights etc. are also made from PC. In the high-end car
segment Polycarbonate, suitably alloyed with a thermoplastic
polyester, is widely used as a bumper material because of its
excellent impact behavior coupled with good resistance to
automotive fluids.
The use of modified Polyphenylene Oxide is also substantial in this
application segment. Dashboard, instrument cluster housing,
radiator grille etc. widely use this material in European as well as
in Japanese cars and light commercial vehicles. Polyphenylene
Oxide suitably modified with a polyamide and an impact modifier
is also widely used for various vertical body panels like fenders,
valence panels and even for some bumper systems.
These materials are also used in various other transportation
fields. In public buses Polycarbonate in sheet form is used for
glazing, particularly to achieve an aerodynamic body design to
reduce drag coefficient and improve fuel economy. Railways use
)
Polycarbonate for the windows, both for glazing as well as for the
frames, inside lighting systems, signaling systems and modified
Polyphenylene for the cable ducting. In the aircrafts and
(c
helicopters Polycarbonate sheets are used for glazing as well as for

the cladding panels.
Household appliance industry use a variety of plastic products.
Due to its exceptional impact property, heat resistance and
excellent colouring possibility, Polycarbonate is widely used in this
segment. Food processor bowl, which needs to be transparent
impact resistant and dish washer safe, use Polycarbonate to derive
this combination of properties. Other applications include coffee

maker water reservoir, vacuum cleaner housing, bracket, power Notes
ES
nozzle, housings for power tools, cameras, hair driers, electric ___________________
razors etc.
___________________
Besides these, storage containers, tablewares, trays and many
___________________
other household products use Polycarbonates. Baby feeding bottles
almost exclusively use PC for its ability to withstand frequent ___________________
sterilisation process carried out in ‘boiling water without loosing’ ___________________

its shape or properties. ___________________
Lighting industry use Polycarbonate due to its transparency, ___________________
impact and heat resistance. Streetlight lense as well as covers, well
___________________
glasses, security lighting, traffic light aspects as well as lenses use
PC to offer all the transparency of glass, the rigidity of metal at the ___________________
same time safety and security against vandalism. ___________________

UP
Medical applications are demanding in terms of performance as
well as critical in the nature of their usages. Polycarbonate is
widely used for items that need often to be sterilised in an
autoclave or need to have high clarity and/or impact resistance.
Blood oxygenator, dialiser cells, emergency suction devices mostly
use Polycarbonate. Housings for diagnostic equipments use both
Polycarbonate and modified Polyphenylene Oxide depending on
specific performance criteria.
Fluid and environmental engineering use modified Poly phenylene
Oxide due to its very good hydrolytic stability, excellent
dimensional stability, low moisture absorption and good resistance
to mineral salts and other organic and inorganic chemicals.
Impellers, guide vanes and housings for various pumps use
modified Polyphenylene Oxide for these properties. Besides these
heat exchanger tubes, reverse osmosis plates, various types of
valves, guides and other fluid engineering systems use modified
)
PPO.
Safety and security applications mostly use Polycarbonate due to
its clarity and impact resistance. Goggles and other safety
(c
eyewares, industrial and crash helmets, security glazings, bank

and cash counters use Polycarbonate.
In the building and construction industry; skylights, roof-lights,
green houses and temporary shelters in difficult and inhospitable
terrain use Polycarbonate sheet for glazing as well for partitioning.
Besides their superior mechanical properties at the extremes of
climatic condition their insulation properties, particularly in multi-

Notes wall configuration, does substantial savings of cooling or heating
ES
___________________
loads depending in specific ambient conditions.
___________________ Check Your Progress

___________________ Fill in the blanks:
___________________ 1. ………………. is widely used for items that need often to
___________________ be sterilised in an autoclave or need to have high clarity
___________________
and/or impact resistance.
___________________ 2. Various ………………. systems including the headlamp

reflector and lenses are very often made from
___________________
polycarbonate.
___________________
___________________ Summary
UP Engineering plastics are rugged, durable polymer plastics used in
manufacturing. They frequently are found as part of consumer
goods. There are dozens of kinds of engineering plastics, but there
are five that are most popular because of their abilities to handle
stress and heat.
Engineering plastics differ from commodity plastics because they
are always used as parts, never packaging or containers. Also
known as thermoplastics, these materials are designed to
withstand large amounts of stress and high temperatures. These
plastics normally are not available to the public and frequently are
available only to manufacturers in raw material form in order to be
melted and molded into end products.
Lesson End Activity

Discuss within a group of three students about the applications of
)
engineering plastics.
Keywords
(c
Engineering Plastics: Engineering plastics are rugged, durable

polymer plastics used in manufacturing.
Polycarbonates: They are a particular group of thermoplastic
polymers.
Polyamide: A polyamide is a polymer containing monomers of

Notes
ES
amides joined by peptide bonds.
___________________
Questions for Discussion ___________________
___________________
1. What do you mean by engineering plastics?
___________________
2. Give various applications of Engineering Plastics/Performance
Plastics. ___________________
3. Discuss the uses of engineering plastics. ___________________
___________________
4. Explain the properties of engineering plastics.
___________________
Further Readings ___________________
___________________
Books
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Web Readings
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-engineering-plastics.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycarbonates
)
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) UP
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UNIT 8: Petroleum Refining
Unit 8
73
Notes
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Petroleum Refining
___________________
___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
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\ Crude Oil ___________________
\ Crude Oil Quality and Refining Economics ___________________
\ Fundamentals of Refinery Processing
___________________
\ Classifying Refineries by Configuration and Complexity
___________________
Introduction ___________________
Petroleum refining is a unique and critical link in the petroleum

supply chain, from the wellhead to the pump. The other links add
value to petroleum mainly by moving and storing it (e.g., lifting
crude oil to the surface; moving crude oil from oil fields to storage
facilities and then to refineries; moving refined products from
refinery to terminals and end-use locations, etc.). Refining adds
)U
value by converting crude oil (which in itself has little end-use
value) into a range of refined products, including transportation
fuels. The primary economic objective in refining is to maximize
the value added in converting crude oil into finished products.
Petroleum refineries are large, capital-intensive manufacturing
facilities with extremely complex processing schemes. They convert
crude oils and other input streams into dozens of refined
(co-) products, including:
z Liquified Petroleum Gases (LPG)
z Gasoline
z Jet fuel
Kerosene (for lighting and heating)
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z Diesel fuel
z Petrochemical feedstocks
z Lubricating oils and waxes
z Home heating oil
74
z Fuel oil (for power generation, marine fuel, industrial and
Notes
district heating)
S
Activity
___________________
Prepare a slideshow on crude
z Asphalt (for paving and roofing uses).
oil.
___________________
Of these, the transportation fuels have the highest value; fuel oils
___________________ and asphalt the lowest value.
___________________
Many refined products, such as gasoline, are produced in multiple
___________________ grades, to meet different specifications and standards (e.g., octane
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___________________ levels, sulfur content).
___________________ More than 660 refineries, in 116 countries, are currently in

operating, producing more than 85 million barrels of refined
___________________
products per day. Each refinery has a unique physical
___________________ configuration, as well as unique operating characteristics and
___________________ economics. A refinery’s configuration and performance
characteristics are determined primarily by the refinery’s location,
vintage, availability of funds for capital investment, available
crude oils, product demand (from local and/or export markets),
product quality requirements, environmental regulations and
standards, and market specifications and requirements for refined
products.
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Most of the existing refining capacity and virtually all new
capacity is configured to maximize distillate (diesel and jet fuel)
production and, in some areas, petrochemical feedstock production,
because these products are enjoying the fastest demand growth in
most regions of the world.
Crude Oil
Refineries exist to convert crude oil into finished petroleum
products. Hence, to understand the fundamentals of petroleum
refining, one must begin with crude oil.
Chemical Constituents of Crude Oil

Hundreds of different crude oils (usually identified by geographic
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origin) are processed, in greater or lesser volumes, in the world’s

refineries.
Each crude oil is unique and is a complex mixture of thousands of
compounds. Most of the compounds in crude oil are hydrocarbons
(organic compounds composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms).
Other compounds in crude oil contain not only carbon and
hydrogen, but also small (but important) amounts of other
(“hetero”-) elements – most notably sulfur, as well as nitrogen and 75

certain metals (e.g., nickel, vanadium, etc.). The compounds that Notes
S
make up crude oil range from the smallest and simplest ___________________
hydrocarbon molecule – CH4 (methane) – to large, complex
___________________
molecules containing up to 50 or more carbon atoms (as well
hydrogen and hetero-elements). ___________________
The physical and chemical properties of any given hydrocarbon ___________________
species, or molecule, depends not only on the number of carbon ___________________
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atoms in the molecule but also the nature of the chemical bonds
___________________
between them. Carbon atoms readily bond with one another (and
___________________
with hydrogen and hetero-atoms) in various ways – single bonds,
double bonds, and triple bonds – to form different classes of ___________________
hydrocarbons, as illustrated in Figure 8.1 on the following page. ___________________
Paraffins, aromatics, and naphthenesare natural constituents of ___________________
crude oil, and are produced in various refining operations as well.
Olefins usually are not present in crude oil; they are produced in
certain refining operations that are dedicated mainly to gasoline
production. As Figure 8.1 indicates, aromatic compounds have
higher carbon-to-hydrogen (C/H) ratios than naphthenes, which in
turn have higher C/H ratios than paraffins.
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Source: http://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT05_Refining_Tutorial_
FINAL_R1.pdf
Figure 8.1: Important Classes of Hydrocarbon Compounds in Crude Oil

76 The heavier (more dense) the crude oil, the higher its C/H ratio.
Notes Due to the chemistry of oil refining, the higher the C/H ratio of a
S
___________________ crude oil, the more intense and costly the refinery processing
required to produce given volumes of gasoline and distillate fuels.
___________________
Thus, the chemical composition of a crude oil and its various
___________________
boiling range fractions influence refinery investment requirements
___________________ and refinery energy use, the two largest components of total
___________________ refining cost.
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___________________ The proportions of the various hydrocarbon classes, their carbon
number distribution, and the concentration of hetero-elements in a
___________________
given crude oil determine the yields and qualities of the refined
___________________ products that a refinery can produce from that crude, and hence
___________________ the economic value of the crude. Different crude oils require
___________________
different refinery facilities and operations to maximize the value of
the product slates that they yield.
Characterizing Crude Oils

Assessing the refining value of a crude oil requires afull
description of the crude oil and its components, involving scores of
properties. However, two properties are especially useful for
quickly classifying and comparing crude oils: API gravity (a
)U
measure of density) and sulfur content.
API Gravity (Density)

The density of a crude oil indicates how light or heavy it is, as a
whole. Lighter crudes contain higher proportions of small
molecules, which the refinery can process into gasoline, jet fuel,
and diesel (for which demand is growing). Heavier crudes contain
higher proportions of large molecules, which the refinery can either
(1) use in heavy industrial fuels, asphalt, and other heavy products
(for which the markets are less dynamic and in some cases
shrinking) or (2) process into smaller molecules that can go into
the transportation fuels products.
In the refining industry, the density of an oil is usually expressed
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in terms of API gravity, a parameter whose units are degrees

(ºAPI) – e.g., 35º API. API gravity varies inversely with density
(i.e., the lighter the material, the higher its API gravity). By
definition, water has API gravity of 10º.
The natural yields of the heavy oils from both the light and the
heavy crudes exceed the demand for heavy refined products, and
the natural yield of heavy oil from the heavy crude is more than
twice that of the light crude. These general characteristics of crude Notes
ES
oils imply that (1) refineries must be capable of converting at least ___________________
some, and perhaps most, of the heavy oil into light products, and
___________________
(2) the heavier the crude, the more of this conversion capacity is
required to produce any given product slate. ___________________
___________________
Sulfur Content
___________________
Of all the hetero-elements in crude oil, sulfur has the most
___________________
important effects on refining.
___________________
 Sufficiently high sulfur levels in refinery streams can
___________________
(1) deactivate (“poison”) the catalysts that promote desired
chemical reactions in certain refining processes, (2) cause ___________________
corrosion in refinery equipment, and (3) lead to air emissions ___________________
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of sulfur compounds, which are undesirable and may be
subject to stringent regulatory controls.
 Sulfur in vehicle fuels leads to undesirable vehicle emissions of
sulfur compounds and interferes with vehicle emission control
systems that are directed at regulated emissions such as
volatile organic compounds, nitrogen oxides, and particulates.
Consequently, refineries must have the capability to remove sulfur
from crude oil and refinery streams to the extent needed to
mitigate these unwanted effects. The higher the sulfur content of
the crude, the greater the required degree of sulfur control and the
higher the associated cost.
The sulfur content of crude oil and refinery streams is usually
expressed in weight percent (wt%) or parts per million by weight
(ppmw). In the refining industry, crude oil is called sweet (low
sulfur) if its sulfur level is less than a threshold value (e.g.,
0.5 wt% (5,000 ppmw)) and sour (high sulfur) if its sulfur level is
)
above a higher threshold. Most sour crudes have sulfur levels in

the range of 1.0–2.0 wt%, but some have sulfur levels > 4 wt%.
Within any given crude oil, sulfur concentration tends to increase
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progressively with increasing carbon number. Thus, crude

fractions in the fuel oil and asphalt boiling range have higher
sulfur content than those in the jet and diesel boiling range, which
in turn have higher sulfur content than those in the gasoline
boiling range. Similarly, the heavier components in, say, the
gasoline boiling range have higher sulfur content than the lighter
Notes components in that boiling range.
ES
Activity
___________________
Search over the internet and
get some insights on Check Your Progress
___________________
economics of crude oil and
prepare a short report.
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. ……………….., ……………….., and naphthenes are
___________________ natural constituents of crude oil.
___________________
2. ……………….. usually are not present in crude oil; they
___________________ are produced in certain refining operations that are
___________________ dedicated mainly to gasoline production.
___________________
Crude Oil Quality and Refining Economics
___________________
___________________
This section of the unit explains the quality and economics of crude
UP oil as follows:
Average Crude Oil Quality is Trending Down

The average API gravity and sulfur content of aggregate refinery
crude slates varies by region; some regions process lighter, sweeter
crude slates than others. However, over time, the average quality
of the global crude slate has been declining gradually. Average API
gravity has been decreasing, but slowly. Average sulfur content
has been increasing more rapidly, a trend likely to continue for the
foreseeable future.
Recent trends reflect the changing relationship between the
average qualities of world crude oil reserves and annual crude oil
production. On average, total world reserves of crude oil are of
lower API gravity and higher sulfur content than is current world
production. The large reserves in the Middle East (predominately
medium sour), South America (predominately heavy sour), and
)
Canada (predominately heavy sour) are contributing increasing

shares of global crude oil supply. Crude oil produced in Europe and
Asia is, on average, of high API gravity and low sulfur content, but
it constitutes a decreasing share of global crude oil supply.
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Crude Oil Quality Influences Crude Oil Pricing

The popular press often refers to “the price of crude oil,” as though
all crude oils were priced the same. In fact, they are not. The
higher the crude quality, the higher the market price relative to
the prevailing average price for all crude oil. In other words, light
sweet crudes carry a price premium relative to medium and heavy

sour crudes. Notes
ES
Activity
Light sweet crudes have higher refining value than heavier, more Visit___________________
a petroleum company
and study the fundamentals of
sour crudes, because (1) light crudes have higher natural yields of the ___________________
refining process used
the components that go into the more valuable light products, and there.
___________________
(2) sweet crudes contain less sulfur. Hence, light sweet crudes
require less energy to process and call for lower capital investment ___________________
to meet given product demand and quality standards than heavier, ___________________
more sour crudes. ___________________
Refiners, therefore, face a key economic choice in meeting product ___________________
demand and quality standards. They can either pay a price
___________________
premium for higher quality crudes to capture their economic
benefits or incur higher investment in refinery capital stock and ___________________
higher refining costs to take advantage of the relatively lower ___________________

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prices of lower quality crudes.
Light sweet/heavy sour price differentials fluctuate over time and
vary from place to place, due to the interplay of many technical
and economic factors. These factors include crude quality
differentials, crude supply/demand balances, local product markets
and product specifications, and local refining capacity and
upgrading capabilities. However, in general, the light sweet/heavy
sour price differential tends to (1) increase (in absolute terms) with
increasing world oil price level and (2) range from about 15% to
25% of the average price of light sweet crude.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. Refiners therefore face a key economic choice in
meeting product …………… and …………….. standards.
)
2. Light sweet crudes have higher ………………… value

than heavier more sour crudes.
Fundamentals of Refinery Processing

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Petroleum refineries are large, capital-intensive, continuous-flow

manufacturing facilities. They transform crude oils into finished,
refined products (most notably LPG, gasoline, jet fuel, diesel fuel,
petrochemical feedstocks, home heating oil, fuel oil, and asphalt)
by (1) separating crude oils into different fractions (each with a
unique boiling range and carbon number distribution) and then
80 (2) processing these fractions into finished products, through a

Notes sequence of physical and chemical transformations.
S
Activity
Take ___________________
5 Indian petroleum Refineries produce dozens of refined products (ranging from the
companies and find out which
___________________ very light, such as LPG, to the very heavy, such as residual fuel
company uses which kinds of
refinery. oil). They do so not only because of market demand for the various
___________________
products, but also because the properties of crude oil and the
___________________ capabilities of refining facilities impose constraints on the volumes
___________________ of any one product that a refinery can produce.
PE
___________________ Refineries can – and do – change the operations of their refineries
___________________ to respond to the continual changes in crude oil and product
markets, but only within physical limits defined by the
___________________
performance characteristics of their refineries and the properties of
___________________ the crude oils they process. Finally, the complexity of refinery
___________________ operations is such that they can be fully understood and optimized,
in an economic sense, only through the use of refinery-wide
mathematical models. Mathematical models of refinery operations
are the only reliable means of generating achievable (i.e., feasible)
and economic (i.e., optimal) responses to changes in market
environment and to the introduction of new (usually more
stringent) product specifications.
)U
Check Your Progress
Fill in the blanks:
1. Refineries produce dozens of ……………….. products.
2. Refineries can and do change the ………………. of their
refineries.
Classifying Refineries by Configuration and

Complexity
Each refinery’s configuration and operating characteristics are
unique. They are determined primarily by the refinery’s location,
vintage, preferred crude oil slate, market requirements for refined
products, and quality specifications (e.g., sulfur content) for refined
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products.
In this context, the term configuration denotes the specific set of
refining process units in a given refinery, the size (throughput
capacity) of the various units, their salient technical
characteristics, and the flow patterns that connect these units.
81
Although no two refineries have identical configurations, they can
Notes
S
be classified into groups of comparable refineries, defined by
refinery complexity. ___________________
In this context, the term complexity has two meanings. One is its ___________________
non-technical meaning: intricate, complicated, consisting of many ___________________

connected parts. The other is a term of art in the refining industry:
___________________
a numerical score that denotes, for a given refinery, the extent,
___________________
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capability, and capital intensity of the refining processes
downstream of the crude distillation unit (which, by definition, has ___________________
complexity of 1.0). The higher a refinery’s complexity, the greater ___________________
the refinery’s capital investment intensity and the greater the
___________________
refinery’s ability to add value to crude oil by:
___________________
z Converting more of the heavy crude fractions into lighter,
___________________
high-value products and
z Producing light products to more stringent quality
specifications (e.g., ultra-low sulfur fuels).
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Source: http://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT05_Refining_Tutorial_
FINAL_ R1.pdf
Figure 8.2: Refinery Classification Scheme
Topping refineries have only crude distillation and basic support

operations. They have no capability to alter the natural yield
pattern of the crude oils that they process; they simply separate
crude oil into light gas and refinery fuel, naphtha (gasoline boiling
range), distillates (kerosene, jet fuel, diesel and heating oils), and
residual or heavy fuel oil. A portion of the naphtha material may
be suitable for very low octane gasoline in some cases.
(c
Topping refineries have no facilities for controlling product sulfur

levels and hence cannot produce ULSF.
Hydroskimming refineries include not only crude distillation and
support services but also catalytic reforming, various
hydrotreating units, and product blending. These processes enable
(1) upgrading naphtha to gasoline and (2) controlling the sulfur
content of refined products. Catalytic reforming upgrades straight

Notes run naphtha to meet gasoline octane specification and produces by-
ES
___________________
product hydrogen for the hydrotreating units. Hydrotreating units
remove sulfur from the light products (including gasoline and
___________________
diesel fuel) to meet product specifications and/or to allow for
___________________ processing higher-sulfur crudes.
___________________ Hydroskimming refineries, commonplace in regions with low
___________________ gasoline demand, have no capability to alter the natural yield
patterns of the crudes they process.
___________________
___________________ Conversion (or cracking) refineries include not only all of the
processes present in hydroskimming refineries but also, and most
___________________
importantly, catalytic cracking and/or hydrocracking. These two
___________________ conversion processes transform heavy crude oil fractions (primarily
___________________ gas oils), which have high natural yields in most crude oils, into
UP light refinery streams that go to gasoline, jet fuel, diesel fuel, and
petrochemical feedstocks.
Conversion refineries have the capability to improve the natural
yield patterns of the crudes they process as needed to meet market
demands for light products, but they still (unavoidably) produce
some heavy, low-value products, such as residual fuel and asphalt.
Deep Conversion (or coking) refineries are, as the name implies, a
special class of conversion refineries. They include not only
catalytic cracking and/or hydrocracking to convert gas oil fractions,
but also coking. Coking units “destroy” the heaviest and least
valuable crude oil fraction (residual oil) by converting it into
lighter streams that serve as additional feed to other conversion
processes (e.g., catalytic cracking) and to upgrading processes (e.g.,
catalytic reforming) that produce the more valuable light products.
Deep conversion refineries with sufficient coking capacity destroy
essentially all of the residual oil in their crude slates, converting
)
them into light products.

Almost all U.S. refineries are either conversion or deep conversion
refineries, as are the newer refineries in Asia, the Middle East,
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South America, and other areas experiencing rapid growth in

demand for light products. By contrast, most refining capacity in
Europe and Japan is in hydroskimming and conversion refineries.
Check Your Progress

Notes
ES
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. Conversion refineries have the capability to improve
___________________
the natural …………….. patterns of the crudes.
___________________
2. The term ……………….. denotes the specific set of
___________________
refining process units in a given refinery.
___________________
Summary ___________________
Petroleum refining processes are those chemical engineering ___________________
processes and other facilities used in petroleum refineries (also ___________________

referred to as oil refineries) to transform crude oil into useful ___________________
products such as Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), gasoline or
___________________
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petrol, kerosene, jet fuel, diesel oil and fuel oils.
Petroleum refineries are very large industrial complexes that
involve a great many different processing units and auxiliary
facilities such as utility units and storage tanks. Each refinery has
its own unique arrangement and combination of refining processes
largely determined by the refinery location, desired products and
economic considerations. There are most probably no two refineries
that are identical in every respect.
Lesson End Activity

Discuss within your group on the topic quality and economics of
crude oil.
Keywords
Configuration: The term configuration denotes the specific set of
)

Hydroskimming: A hydroskimming refinery is defined as a
refinery equipped with atmospheric distillation, naphtha reforming
(c
and necessary treating processes.

Conversion Refinery: A conversion refinery incorporates all the
basic building blocks found in both the topping and
hydroskimming refineries.
Crude Oil: A naturally occurring, unrefined petroleum product
composed of hydrocarbon deposits. Crude oil can be refined to
84 produce usable products such as gasoline, diesel and various forms

Notes of petrochemicals.
S
___________________
___________________
___________________ 1. What are the objectives of petroleum refinery?
___________________ 2. What are the chemical constituents of crude oil?

___________________ 3. Discuss the important classes of hydrocarbon compounds in
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___________________ crude oil.
___________________ 4. How does crude oil quality influences crude oil pricing?
___________________ 5. Explain the fundamentals of refinery processing.

___________________ 6. What is hydroskimming?
___________________
Further Readings
Books
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Web Readings
http://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT05_Refi
ning_Tutorial_FINAL_R1.pdf
http://www.afpm.org/The-Refinery-Process/
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UNIT 9: Hydrocracking
Unit 9
85
Notes
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Activity
Hydrocracking
Recreate an old
___________________ style
newspaper page covering the
history of Hydrocracking.
___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
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\ History ___________________
\ Process Configurations ___________________
\ Chemistry and Catalysts
___________________
Introduction ___________________
___________________
Hydrocracking is a catalytic chemical process used in petroleum
refineries for converting the high-boiling constituent hydrocarbons
in petroleum crude oils to more valuable lower-boiling products
such as gasoline, kerosene, jet fuel and diesel oil. The process takes
place in a hydrogen-rich atmosphere at elevated temperatures
(260–425°C) and pressures (35–200 bar).
)U
Basically, the process cracks the high-boiling, high molecular
weight hydrocarbons into lower-boiling, lower molecular weight
olefinic and aromatic hydrocarbons and then hydrogenates them.
Any sulfur and nitrogen present in the hydrocracking feedstock
are, to a large extent, also hydrogenated and form gaseous
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and ammonia (NH3) which are
subsequently removed. The result is that the hydrocracking
products are essentially free of sulfur and nitrogen impurities and
consist mostly of paraffinic hydrocarbons.
Hydrocracking plants are capable of processing a wide variety of
feedstocks of different characteristics to produce a broad range of
products. They can be designed and operated to maximize the
production of a gasoline blending component (called hydrocrackate)
or to maximize the production of diesel oil.
(c
History
Hydrocracking was first developed in Germany as early as 1915 to
provide liquid fuels derived from their domestic coal deposits. The
first plant that might be considered as a commercial hydrocracking
unit began operation in Leuna, Germany in 1927. Similar efforts to
86 convert coal to liquid fuels took place in the Great Britain, France
Notes and other countries.
S
___________________ Between 1925 and 1930, Standard Oil of New Jersey collaborated
___________________ with I.G. Farbenindustrie of Germany to develop hydrocracking
technology capable of converting heavy petroleum oils into fuels.
___________________
Such processes required pressures of 200–300 bar and
___________________ temperatures of over 375°C and were very expensive.
___________________
In 1939, Imperial Chemical Industries of Great Britain developed a
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___________________ two-stage hydrocracking process. During World War II (1939 –
___________________ 1945), two-stage hydrocracking processes played an important role
in producing aviation gasoline in Germany, Great Britain and the
___________________
United States.
___________________
After World War II, hydrocracking technology became less
___________________ important. The availability of petroleum crude oil from the Middle
East removed the motivation to convert coal into liquid fuels.
Newly developed fluid catalytic cracking processes were much
more economical than hydrocracking for converting high-boiling
petroleum oils to fuels.
In the early 1960s, hydrocracking become economical for a number
of reasons:
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z The automobile industry began manufacturing higher-
performing automobiles that required high-octane gasoline.
z Fluid catalytic cracking expanded rapidly to meet the demand
for high-octane gasoline. However, fluid catalytic cracking, in
addition to producing gasoline, produces a by-product high-
boiling oil called cycle oil that is very difficult to recycle for
further cracking. However, hydrocracking can crack that cycle
oil.
z The switch from railroad steam engines to diesel engines and
the introduction of commercial jet aircraft in the 1950's
increased the demand for diesel oil and for jet fuel. The
flexibility of hydrocracking to produce either gasoline, jet fuel
(c
or diesel oil made it desirable for petroleum refineries to

install hydrocrackers.
z Zeolite-based catalysts, developed and commercialized during
the period from about 1964 to 1966, performed much better
than the earlier catalysts. Most importantly, they permitted
operation at lower pressures than possible with the earlier
catalysts. The higher performance and lower operating
pressures made possible by the new catalysts resulted in 87

significantly more economical hydrocrackers. Notes
S
Activity
Hydrocracking enjoyed rapid growth in the United States during ___________________
Prepare a chart showing
the late 1960s and the early 1970s. By the mid-1970s, different process configurations
___________________
of hydrocracking.
hydrocracking had become a mature process and its growth began
___________________
to moderate. From then on, hydrocracking growth in the United
States proceeded at a slow pace. However, at the same time, ___________________
hydrocracking enjoyed significant growth in Europe, the Asia- ___________________
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Pacific region and the Middle East.
___________________
As of 2001, there were about 155 hydrocracker units operating ___________________
worldwide and processing about 4,000,000 barrels (550,000 metric
___________________
tons) per day of feedstock. As of 2009, The feedstock processing
capacity of the hydrocrackers in the United States was 1,740,000 ___________________
barrels (238,000 metric tons) per day. ___________________
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. The automobile industry began manufacturing higher-
performing automobiles that required high-octane
……………………
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2. Fluid catalytic …………………… expanded rapidly to
meet the demand for high-octane gasoline.
Process Configurations
There are a good many different proprietary hydrocracker designs
available for use under license as is the case for many of the other
processes used in petroleum refineries. There are also a number of
different hydrocracker process equipment configurations, the most
common of which are depicted in the below diagram:
(c
Source: http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Hydrocracking
Figure 9.1: Three Hydrocracker Configurations

88 Single Stage – Once through Hydrocracker

Notes This configuration uses only one reactor and any uncracked
S
Activity
Visit___________________
an organization and residual hydrocarbon oil from the bottom of the reaction product
study the chemical processes
___________________
fractionation (distillation) tower is not recycled for further
taking place there and prepare
a short report. cracking. For single stage hydrocracking, either the feedstock must
___________________
first be hydrotreated to remove ammonia and hydrogen sulfide or
___________________ the catalyst used in the single reactor must be capable of both
___________________ hydrotreating and hydrocracking.
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___________________
Single Stage – Hydrocracker with Recycle
___________________
This is the most commonly used configuration. The uncracked
___________________ residual hydrocarbon oil from the bottom of reaction product
___________________ fractionation tower is recycled back into the single reactor for
further cracking. Again, for single stage hydrocracking, either the
___________________
feedstock must first be hydrotreated to remove ammonia and
hydrogen sulfide or the catalyst used in the single reactor must be
capable of both hydrotreating and hydrocracking.
Two Stage Hydrocracker

This configuration uses two reactors and the residual hydrocarbon
oil from the bottom of reaction product fractionation tower is
)U
recycled back into the second reactor for further cracking. Since
the first stage reactor accomplishes both hydrotreating and
hydrocracking, the second stage reactor feed is virtually free of
ammonia and hydrogen sulfide. This permits the use of high
performance noble metal (palladium, platinum) catalysts which are
susceptible to poisoning by sulfur or nitrogen compounds.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. For single stage hydrocracking, the feedstock must first
be …………………. to remove ammonia and hydrogen
sulfide.
2. The first stage reactor accomplishes both hydrotreating
(c
and ………………….
Chemistry and Catalysts

Basically, catalytic hydrocracking involves three primary chemical
processes:
89
z Cracking of high-boiling, high molecular weight hydrocarbons
Notes
S
found in petroleum crude oil into lower-boiling, lower
molecular weight hydrocarbons. ___________________
z Hydrogenating unsaturated hydrocarbons (whether present in ___________________
the original feedstock or formed during the cracking of the ___________________

high-boiling, high molecular weight feedstock hydrocarbons) to
___________________
obtain saturated hydrocarbons usually referred to as paraffins
___________________
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or alkanes.
___________________
z Hydrogenating any sulfur, nitrogen or oxygen compounds in
the original feedstock into gaseous hydrogen sulfide, ammonia ___________________
and water. ___________________
The above primary processes include too many complex reactions ___________________
to describe each of them in detail. The following four reactions are ___________________
provided as examples of those complex reactions:
z Reaction 1: Addition of hydrogen to aromatics converts them
into hydrogenated rings. These are then readily cracked using
acid catalysts.
z Reaction 2: Acid catalyst cracking opens paraffinic rings,
breaks larger paraffins into smaller pieces and creates double
)U
bonds.
z Reaction 3: Addition of hydrogen to olefinic double bonds to
obtain paraffins.
z Reaction 4: Isomerization of branched and straight-chain
paraffins.
Hydrocracking catalysts consist of active metals on solid, acidic
supports and have a dual function, specifically a cracking function
and a hydrogenation function. The cracking function is provided by
the acid catalyst support and the hydrogenation function is
provided by the metals.
The solid acidic support consists of amorphous oxides such as
silica-alumina, crystalline zeolite or a mixture of amorphous oxides
(c
and crystalline zeolite. Cracking and isomerization reactions

(reactions 2 and 4 above) take place on the acidic support. Metals
provide the hydrogenation reactions (reactions 1 and 3 above).
The metals that provide the hydrogenation functions can be the
noble metals palladium and platinum or the base metals (i.e., non-
noble metals) molybdenum, tungsten, cobalt or nickel.
90
Catalyst cycle life has a major impact on the economics of
Notes
hydrocracking. Cycles can be as short as 1 year or as long as 5
S
___________________ years. Two years are typical.
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. Addition of hydrogen to ……………….. converts them
___________________
into hydrogenated rings.
PE
___________________
2. Addition of hydrogen to olefinic double bonds to obtain
___________________ ………………..
___________________
___________________ Summary
___________________ Hydrocracking is a two-stage process combining catalytic cracking
and hydrogenation, wherein heavier feedstock are cracked in the
presence of hydrogen to produce more desirable products. The
process employs high pressure, high temperature, a catalyst, and
hydrogen. Hydrocracking is used for feedstock that are difficult to
process by either catalytic cracking or reforming, since these
feedstock are characterized usually by a high polycyclic aromatic
)U
content and/or high concentrations of the two principal catalyst
poisons, sulfur and nitrogen compounds.
Hydrocracking produces relatively large amounts of isobutane for
alkylation feedstock. Hydrocracking also performs isomerization
for pour-point control and smoke-point control, both of which are
important in high-quality jet fuel.
Lesson End Activity

Find out 5 such organizations in India which uses hydrocracking
processes.
Keywords
(c
Hydrocracking: Hydrocracking is a catalytic chemical process

used in petroleum refineries for converting the high-boiling
constituent hydrocarbons in petroleum crude oils to more valuable
lower-boiling products such as gasoline, kerosene, jet fuel and
diesel oil.
91
Distillation: Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based
Notes
S
on differences in volatility of components in a boiling liquid
mixture. ___________________
Feedstock: A feedstock is the basic material from which a good ___________________
product is manufactured or made, frequently used with an ___________________

extended meaning.
___________________
Configuration: The term configuration denotes the specific set of ___________________
PE
___________________
___________________
___________________
1. Explain the historical background of hydrocracking.
___________________
2. What are the three types of hydrocracking configurations?
___________________
3. What are the primary chemical processes of catalytic
hydrocracking?
4. Discuss the reactions of catalytic hydrocracking processes.
Further Readings
)U
Books
Web Readings
http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Hydrocracking
http://www.setlaboratories.com/hydrocra/tabid/105/Default.aspx
(c
(c
) UP
ES
UNIT 5: Case Study
Notes
ES
___________________
Case Study ___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
___________________
Case Study: TAFE
___________________
Engineering Plastics Division (EPD) was created with the
realization that engineering design is seldom, if ever, an end unto ___________________
itself. Rather, engineers embark on design with the intent of
creating a manufacturable product. We view design as an ___________________
upstream phase in the multi-stage operation of manufacturing. ___________________
UP
The manufacturability of a design is a measure of how
successfully it can be translated from concept to computer
representation and finally, into a high-quality and cost-effective
physical product. A visually perfect design might be impractical to
manufacture. Or, minor changes to a design can result in
significantly improved tooling and production efficiency.
While computer-based technologies have made significant strides
in simulating tasks of design and analysis, there has been
relatively less progress in validating manufacturability.
Manufacture validation requires sound knowledge in the tooling
and production domain, most of which is developed through years
of experience and embedded in the minds of production floor
experts, rather than within computer programs. Validation
expertise is also specific to the exact type of manufacturing
process.
Today, the Engineering Plastics Division has a primary focus on
manufacturability in injection moUlded engineering plastics and
pressure die-castings. This is enabled by a close association with
the TAFE-Engineering Plastics Division, a truly state-of-the-art
design, engineering and production facility servicing many of the
leading automotive, electronics and appliance suppliers within
)
the nation. EPD embodies an extensive knowledge in this

engineering domain, made available through years of actual
production expertise.
Every designer at EPD possesses strong production expertise,
(c
having worked on several tooling and productions projects earlier.

Every designer is skilled in evaluating 3D designs against various
downstream production considerations. As a result,
manufacturability-centric design is not only a very natural
process, but the only design process followed at Engineering
Plastics Division.
Question:
Do a SWOT analysis of the above case.
Source: http://www.tafe.com/products_plastics.html
(c
) UP
ES
UNIT 11: Polymers
Notes
ES
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
UP
BLOCK-III
)
(c
Detailed Contents
Notes
ES
UNIT 11: POLYMERS
___________________ UNIT 13: POLYETHYLENE
___________________
 Concept of Polymer  Production and Uses
___________________
 Polymer Industry in India  Potential Dangers
___________________
 Polymerisation Techniques  Physical and Chemical Properties
___________________
UNIT 12: THERMOPLASTICS
___________________ UNIT 14: POLYPROPYLENE
___________________
 Concept of Thermoplastics  Concept of Polypropylene
___________________
 Thermoplastics Market  Production
___________________
 Recycling  Markets and Uses of Polypropylene
___________________

) UP
Thermoplastics vs. Thermoset
UNIT 15: CASE STUDY
(c
UNIT 11: Polymers
Unit 11
97
Notes
S
Activity
Polymers
Prepare a “Did You Know”
___________________
section on polymers for an
academic book.
___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
PE
\ Concept of Polymer ___________________
\ Polymer Industry in India ___________________
\ Polymerisation Techniques
___________________
Introduction ___________________
___________________
Polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of repeating
structural units. These sub-units are typically connected by
covalent chemical bonds. Although the term polymer is sometimes
taken to refer to plastics, it actually encompasses a large class of
compounds comprising both natural and synthetic materials with a
wide variety of properties. Because of the extraordinary range of
properties of polymeric materials, they play an essential and
)U
ubiquitous role in everyday life. This role ranges from familiar
synthetic plastics and elastomers to natural biopolymers such as
nucleic acids and proteins that are essential for life.
Concept of Polymer
Naturally occurring polymers, macromolecules, are synthetic and
add to comfort and enjoyment of life. These represent the end
product of a very great portion of the petro chemicals. They are
used in three broad fields – Plastics, fibres and elastomers. Other
fields include coatings, adhesives, insulation, etc. The polymer
industry is intricately integrated with industries such as,
automobiles, appliances, electrical and electronic.
(c
Ziegler-Natta catalysts are the most important industrially useful

coordination type catalyst. The polymerisation reaction of olefins
produces linear polymers e.g. ldPE. It is essentially unbranched,
whereas, HDPE has a high degree of crystallinity and greater
strength then ldPE. Three different arrangements occur during
Polymerisation;
z Isotactic (all methyl groups on one side of polymer chain)
 Syndiotactic (methyl groups alternate regularly from side to

Notes
ES
side)
___________________
 Atactic (methyl groups distributed at random)
___________________
By using Ziegler Natta catalyst, a higher percentage of the ordered
___________________
isotactic structures is obtained e.g. Polypropylene. Homo or
___________________ co-polymer. Whereas Atactic polypropylene is a soft, elastic,
___________________ rubbery polymer unlike isotactic/syndiotactic which are highly
crystalline.
___________________
___________________ Polymer Degradation

___________________ A plastic item with thirty years of exposure to heat and cold, brake
___________________ fluid, and sunlight. Notice the discoloration, swelling, and crazing
of the material
___________________
UP Polymer degradation is a change in the properties—tensile
strength, color, shape, or molecular weight—of a polymer or
polymer-based product under the influence of one or more
environmental factors, such as heat, light, chemicals and, in some
cases, galvanic action. It is often due to the scission of polymer
chain bonds via hydrolysis, leading to a decrease in the molecular
mass of the polymer.
Although such changes are frequently undesirable, in some cases,
such as biodegradation and recycling, they may be intended to
prevent environmental pollution. Degradation can also be useful in
biomedical settings. For example, a copolymer of polylactic acid
and polyglycolic acid is employed in hydrolysable stitches that
slowly degrade after they are applied to a wound.
The susceptibility of a polymer to degradation depends on its
structure. Epoxies and chains containing aromatic functionalities
are especially susceptible to UV degradation while polyesters are
)
susceptible to degradation by hydrolysis, while polymers

containing an unsaturated backbone are especially susceptible to
ozone cracking. Carbon based polymers are more susceptible to
(c
thermal degradation than inorganic polymers such as

polydimethylsiloxane and are, therefore, not ideal for most high-
temperature applications. High-temperature matrices such as
bismaleimides (BMI), condensation polyimides (with an O-C-N
bond), triazines (with a nitrogen (N) containing ring), and blends
thereof are susceptible to polymer degradation in the form of
galvanic corrosion when bare carbon fiber reinforced polymer
UNIT 11: Polymers
CFRP is in contact with an active metal such as aluminium in salt 99

water environments. Notes
S
Activity
The degradation of polymers to form smaller molecules may Take___________________
the help from the
internet and prepare a
proceed by random scission or specific scission. The degradation of ___________________
presentation on recent trends
polyethylene occurs by random scission—a random breakage of the in polymer industry.
___________________
bonds that hold the atoms of the polymer together. When heated
above 450°C, polyethylene degrades to form a mixture of ___________________
hydrocarbons. Other polymers, such as poly(alpha-methylstyrene), ___________________
PE
undergo specific chain scission with breakage occurring only at the ___________________
ends. They literally unzip or depolymerize back to the constituent
___________________
monomer.
___________________
The sorting of polymer waste for recycling purposes may be
facilitated by the use of the Resin identification codes developed by ___________________
the Society of the Plastics Industry to identify the type of plastic. ___________________
Check Your Progress

State whether the following statements are true or false:
1. The susceptibility of a polymer to degradation does not
depend on its structure.
)U
2. Naturally occurring polymers, macromolecules, are
synthetic and add to comfort and enjoyment of life.
Polymer Industry in India

Polymers account for around 70% of petrochemicals and that is the
reason that they are the most important constituent of the Indian
chemical industry.
Polymers are essentially used in the manufacture of various plastic
products. In the consumption of the basic petrochemical, polymers
form the bulk of demand with a share of around 55%.
The share of polymers in the product mix in India for various
crackers ranges from 60% to 90%. The segment of polymers have
registered a growth of 18% while there have been an increase of
(c
26% in the capacities CAGR.

The various by products of polymers are:
z Polystyrene
z PVC
z Poly propylene
100
z LDPE/LLDPE
Notes
S
___________________
z HDPE
___________________ Polystyrene, a by-product of polymers has a ` 435 crore market

size. Its market price was around ` 42.5 per kg in 1999. The major
___________________
companies involved in the production of polystyrene are Rajasthan
___________________ Polymers, Mc Dowell & Co., and Supreme Petrochem. PVC, a
___________________ polymers by product, is in demand in the Indian market at 554,000
PE
___________________
tons per annum.
___________________ This segment has been growing at the rate of 15% yearly. Around
54% of PVC is used in the manufacturing of pipes and 14% is used
___________________
in the production of cable sheathing. The cost of PVC was ` 44.95
___________________ per kg in 1999. The main companies involved in the production of
___________________ PVC are IPCL and RIL.
Polypropylene is a very light weight polymer and that is the main
reason why it is used as a substitute for various other polymers.
During 1997-1998, around 11,000 tons of poly propylene was
imported. Over the last 3 years, the demand for this product has
increased by 38% and now stands at 595,000 tons. The price of
polypropylene was ` 47.50 per kg in 1999. It is mainly used in the
)U
manufacture of injection moulding, BOPP, ropes and twines.
In India, low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and linear low density
polyethylene (LLDPE) are also widely used polymers. This
segment of polymers is growing at the rate of 12% per year. More
than 50% of LDPE/ LLDPE is used by the packaging industry and
they were priced at around ` 54.25 per kg in 1999. The companies
which make LDPE/ LLDPE are Oswal, RIL, and IPCL. The second
most used polymer in India is HDPE, with a share of 22%. The
value of its domestic consumption is ` 2,123 crore and it is growing
at the rate of 15% per year. It cost around ` 50 per kg in 1999.
HDPE is used in the manufacturing of raffia, blow molding,
injection moulding, and in the paper industry as well. The
companies involved in the production of HDPE are NOCIL, RIL,
(c
and IPCL.
Polymers form an important constituent of the Indian
petrochemical industry. So efforts must be taken by the industry
and the government of India, so that the production and quality of
polymers remain top class.
UNIT 11: Polymers
101
Check Your Progress Notes
S
Activity
Fill in the blanks: Attend a guest lecture on
___________________
polymers and prepare a report
1. …………………… is a very light weight polymer. on ___________________
the techniques used in
polymerisation.
2. The share of polymers in the product mix in India for ___________________
various crackers ranges from ………….. to ……… ___________________
___________________
PE
Polymerisation Techniques
___________________
Polymerization is a process of reacting monomer molecules
___________________
together in a chemical reaction to form polymer chains or three-
___________________
dimensional networks.
___________________
Polymerization occurs via a variety of reaction mechanisms that
vary in complexity due to functional groups present in reacting ___________________
compounds and their inherent steric effects. In more

straightforward polymerization, alkenes, which are relatively
stable due to bonding between carbon atoms, form polymers
through relatively simple radical reactions; in contrast, more
complex reactions such as those that involve substitution at the
carbonyl group require more complex synthesis due to the way in
)U
which reacting molecules polymerize.
As alkenes can be formed in somewhat straightforward reaction
mechanisms, they form useful compounds such as polyethylene
and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) when undergoing radical reactions,
which are produced in high tonnages each year due to their
usefulness in manufacturing processes of commercial products,
such as piping, insulation and packaging. In general, polymers
such as PVC are referred to as "homopolymers," as they consist of
repeated long chains or structures of the same monomer unit,
whereas polymers that consist of more than one molecule are
referred to as copolymers (or co-polymers).
Other monomer units, such as formaldehyde hydrates or simple
aldehydes, are able to polymerize themselves at quite low
(c
temperatures (ca. −80 °C) to form trimers; molecules consisting of

3 monomer units, which can cyclize to form ring cyclic structures,
or undergo further reactions to form tetramers, or 4 monomer-unit
compounds. Further compounds either being referred to as
oligomers in smaller molecules. Generally, because formaldehyde
is an exceptionally reactive electrophile it allows nucleophillic
addition of hemiacetal intermediates, which are in general
short-lived and relatively unstable "mid-stage" compounds that

Notes react with other molecules present to form more stable polymeric
ES
___________________ compounds.
___________________ Polymerization that is not sufficiently moderated and proceeds at a
___________________ fast rate can be very hazardous. This phenomenon is known as
hazardous polymerization and can cause fires and explosions.
___________________
Addition Polymerisation reactions are exothermic and hence it is
___________________
necessary to control the temperature of reactor. During
___________________ polymerisation there is a progressive increase in viscosity.
___________________
The important processes used for polymerisation reactions are
___________________ Bulk, Solution, Suspension and Emulsion:
___________________
Bulk
___________________
UP Absence of solvent is a characteristic of this type of polymerisation.
The only species found at the end of the reaction are the monomers
and the polymers. Impurities in the polymer are low.
Polymerisation of ethylene, propylene and acrylonitrile are carried
out by this process.
Solution
Here polymerisation of monomer dissolved in an appropriate
organic solvent is carried out. Many catalysts of organometallic
type are used in this process. The polymer is to be separated from
solvent to recover the latter for recycling. This method is used for
the production of stereo specific elastomers like cis-polybutadiene
and cis-polyisoprene.
Suspension
In this process the monomer is dispersed in a liquid, usually water,

by the use of mechanical agitation. Polymers produced by
)
suspension are more pure than those by solution. It is used

extensively to manufacture PVC.
Emulsion
(c
Here monomers are emulsified by use of emulsifying agents.

Polymers in the form of emulsions such as Floor Polishes and
Paints are made directly by this process and the emulsifying
medium, water is not separated. This process is extensively used
for producing polymers for the rubber industry.
UNIT 11: Polymers
ES
1. Polymerization is a process of reacting ………………… ___________________
molecules together in a chemical reaction to form
___________________
polymer chains or three-dimensional networks.
___________________
2. Polymerisation of ethylene, propylene and acrylonitrile
___________________
are carried out by ……………. process.
___________________
Summary ___________________
___________________
Polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of repeating
structural units. These sub-units are typically connected by ___________________
covalent chemical bonds. Polymer degradation is a change in the ___________________
UP
properties—tensile strength, color, shape, or molecular weight—of
a polymer or polymer-based product under the influence of one or
more environmental factors, such as heat, light, chemicals and, in
some cases, galvanic action. Polymers form an important
constituent of the Indian petrochemical industry. So efforts must
be taken by the industry and the government of India, so that the
production and quality of polymers remain top class.
Polymerization occurs via a variety of reaction mechanisms that
vary in complexity due to functional groups present in reacting
compounds and their inherent steric effects. Polymerization that is
not sufficiently moderated and proceeds at a fast rate can be very
hazardous. This phenomenon is known as hazardous
polymerization and can cause fires and explosions.
Lesson End Activity

Discuss the future of polymer industry in Indian a group of
)
4 students.
Keywords
(c
Polymer: It is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of

repeating structural units.
Polymerization: It is a process of reacting monomer molecules
together in a chemical reaction to form polymer chains or three-
dimensional networks.
104
Polymer Degradation: It is a change in the properties of a
Notes
S
polymer or polymer-based product under the influence of one or
___________________
more environmental factors.
___________________

___________________ 1. What are polymers?
___________________
2. What is polymer degradation?
PE
___________________
3. Throw some light on the polymer industry in India.
___________________
4. Explain polymerisation and discuss its various techniques.
___________________
___________________ Further Readings

___________________
Books
)U
Web Readings
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer
http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Hydrocracking
http://www.setlaboratories.com/hydrocra/tabid/105/Default.aspx
(c
UNIT 12: Thermoplastics
Notes
ES
Activity
With___________________
the help of the internet
Thermoplastics find out the properties of
___________________
thermoplastics and prepare a
chart on the same.
___________________
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
 Concept of Thermoplastics ___________________

 Thermoplastics Market ___________________
 Recycling
___________________
 Thermoplastics vs. Thermoset
___________________
Introduction ___________________
UP
A thermoplastic, also known as a thermosoftening plastic, is a
polymer that becomes pliable or moldable above a specific
temperature, and returns to a solid state upon cooling. Most
thermoplastics have a high molecular weight, whose chains
associate through intermolecular forces; this property allows
thermoplastics to be remolded because the intermolecular
interactions spontaneously reform upon cooling. In this way,
thermoplastics differ from thermosetting polymers, which form
irreversible chemical bonds during the curing process; thermoset
bonds break down upon melting and do not reform upon cooling.
Concept of Thermoplastics
A thermoplastic is a type of plastic made from polymer resins that
becomes a homogenized liquid when heated and hard when cooled.
When frozen, however, a thermoplastic becomes glass-like and
)
subject to fracture. These characteristics, which lend the material

its name, are reversible. That is, it can be reheated, reshaped, and
frozen repeatedly. This quality also makes thermoplastics
(c
recyclable.
There are dozens of kinds of thermoplastics, with each type
varying in crystalline organization and density. Some types that
are commonly produced today are polyurethane, polypropylene,
polycarbonate, and acrylic. Celluloid, which is considered the first
thermoplastic, made its appearance in the mid-1800s and reigned
in the industry for approximately 100 years. During its peak
production, it was used as a substitute for ivory. Today, it is used

Notes to make guitar picks.
ES
___________________ Sometimes, thermoplastics are confused with thermosetting
___________________ plastics. Although they may sound the same, they actually possess
very different properties. While thermoplastics can be melted to a
___________________
liquid and cooled to a solid, thermosetting plastics chemically
___________________ deteriorate when subjected to heat. Ironically, however,
___________________ thermosetting plastics tend to be more durable when allowed to
cool than many thermoplastics.
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
UP
Source: http://www.thermoplastics.us/
Figure 12.1: Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics also differ from elastomers, even though some are

considered both. While many thermoplastics can be stretched to a
point, they generally tend to both resist, and stay in the shape they
are stretched to. Elastomers, as the name suggests, bounce back.
However, the addition of plasticizers to the melt can render a more
pliable thermoplastic. In fact, this is usually the case when a
thermoplastic is being used for plastic injection molding or
extrusion.
)
The specific action of a plasticizer is to lower the material’s glass

transition temperature (Tg), which is the point it becomes brittle
when cooled and soft when heated. Tg varies with each type of
thermoplastic and is dictated by its crystallization structure.
(c
However, Tg can also be adjusted by introducing a thermoplastic

into a copolymer, such as polystyrene. Until the use of plasticizers,
some molded thermoplastic parts were prone to crack in cold
weather.
Thermoplastics have been around for a long time, but are a huge
component of everyday life today. For example, acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene (ABS) is a type of thermoplastic used to

manufacture sports equipment, toys and various automobile parts. Notes
ES
Activity
Polycarbonate is used to make compact discs (CDs), drinking ___________________
Collect information from
bottles, food storage containers, and eyeglass lenses, among other newspapers and prepare a
___________________
report on the recent news of
things. Polyethylene is likely the most commonly encountered
petrochemical industry.
thermoplastic and is used to make shampoo bottles, plastic grocery ___________________
bags, and even bullet proof vests. ___________________
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. The specific action of a …..………………. is to lower the
material’s glass transition temperature. ___________________
2. A thermoplastic is a type of plastic made from polymer ___________________
resins that becomes a homogenized …..………………. ___________________

UP
when heated and hard when cooled.
Thermoplastics Market
Thermoplastics are organic long chain polymers that usually
become soft when heated and can be molded under pressure. They
are linear or branched chain polymers with little or no
crosslinking.
The growth of thermoplastics is attributed to certain attractive
properties of the product such as lightness in weight, chemical
corrosion resistance, toughness and ease of handling. Appreciable
technological development in plastics processing has also enhanced
their growth.
Two major economic factors have had a favourable effect on the
growth rate:
Prices of many articles made of plastics are at least
)

competitive or even less than prices of articles made from
materials from natural sources,
 There is a limited supply of materials from natural sources.
(c
As a result, the diversified market for materials made from paper,

wool, cotton, leather, steel, wood and concrete is now being
replaced or the market is being penetrated by plastic. This
replacement of older types of materials is also indicated by the
increase in world per capita consumption. Growth rate will be
about 4 percent by 2003.
The packaging field is the largest plastics market and it is a steady

Notes
ES
Activity market for commodity thermoplastics. About 43 percent of this
___________________
Carry out a campaign in your market is dominated by polyethylene. One of the growing fields
city for the recycling of that uses commodity plastics is pipe production. Engineering
___________________
thermoplastics and educate
people about it. thermoplastics include polymers with special properties such as
___________________
high thermal stability, good chemical and weather resistance, and
___________________ other useful characteristics. This type of plastic includes
___________________ polycarbonates, polyethersulfones, polyacetals, nylons and
thermoplastic polyesters. Engineering plastics will be the subject
___________________
of a future article in this series.
___________________
The rise in oil prices and the tendency to find all possible ways to
___________________
save energy have caused plastics to be considered as one of the
___________________ alternative to achieve this goal. The car plastic consumption will
___________________ rise 300-450 pounds or 16 percent of the car weight. Among the
UP plastics used to reduce automobile weight are polyesters,
polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyurethane, be used as
reinforced plastic composites. Graphite reinforced plastic currently
are the material of choice.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. The packaging field is the largest …………………
market.
2. One of the growing fields that uses commodity plastics
is ………………… production.
Recycling
Thermoplastics are easily recyclable, compared to thermosets,
because the polymer chain does not degrade when melted down.
)
This is because the weaker interactions between polymer chains

break down at much lower temperatures than the chemical bonds
between monomers. This allows thermoplastics to be recycled
indefinitely until the polymers are broken down to the point that
(c
the material loses structural integrity.

Brick and concrete are good analogies when comparing the
properties of thermosets and thermoplastics. A thermoplastic is
made of strong polymers, like bricks, with weak forces holding
them together, like mortar. A thermoset is made of strong
polymers that bind together and form one molecule, similar to
concrete. Recycling or reforming a thermoplastic is like chipping 109

out the mortar and re-laying the bricks; in contrast, a thermoset, Notes
S
Activity
like concrete, can never be broken down and reformed with the Visit___________________
a petrochemical factory
same strength. However, if individual bricks are damaged, and find the practical
___________________
differences between
relaying them will not restore the strength of the unbroken bricks, thermoplastics and thermosets.
just as re-melting a degraded thermoplastic will not restore ___________________
damaged polymers. ___________________
In real-world recycling, thermoplastics have a limit recyclable ___________________
PE
lifespan due to degradation of the polymers and contamination ___________________
during the recycling process. Contaminants can be inert materials,
___________________
which act as fillers, or they can be other plastics, which alters the
physical properties of the resulting material. ___________________
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
1. …………. and ………….. are good analogies when
comparing the properties of thermosets and
thermoplastics.
2. A thermoset is made of strong ……………. that bind
together and form one molecule, similar to concrete.
)U
Thermoplastics vs. Thermoset
Though thermoset plastics and thermoplastics sound similar, they
have very different properties and applications. Understanding the
performance differences can help you make better sourcing
decisions and improve your product designs.
The primary physical difference is that thermoplastics can be
re-melted back into a liquid, whereas thermoset plastics always
remain in a permanent solid state. Think of thermoplastics as
butter – butter can be melted and cooled multiple times to form
various shapes. Thermoset is similar to bread in that once the final
state is achieved, any additional heat would lead to charring.
Though materials may be categorized in many ways (natural
(c
versus synthetic, oil-resistant versus non-oil-resistant, etc.), they

can also be classified based on the ways in which they respond to
heat. Some polymers (large, chainlike molecules) undergo a
permanent chemical reaction when heated. Others only undergo a
temporary physical change. A clear understanding of why various
110 polymers react the way they do will help you make good decisions
Notes when choosing materials.
S
___________________ Following are the main differences between thermoplastic and
___________________ thermoset:
___________________ Curing Process

___________________ Thermoplastics pellets soften when heated and become more fluid
___________________ as additional heat is applied. The curing process is completely
PE
reversible as no chemical bonding takes place. This characteristic
___________________
allows thermoplastics to be re-moulded and recycled without
___________________ negatively affecting the material’s physical properties.
___________________
Thermoset plastics contain polymers that cross-link together
___________________ during the curing process to form an irreversible chemical bond.
___________________ The cross-linking process eliminates the risk of the product
re-melting when heat is applied, making thermosets ideal for
high-heat applications such as electronics and appliances.
Features and Benefits

There are multiple thermoplastic resins that offer various
performance benefits, but most materials commonly offer high
strength, shrink-resistance and easy bendability. Depending on the
)U
resin, thermoplastics can serve low-stress applications such as
plastic bags or high-stress mechanical parts.
Thermoset plastics significantly improve the material’s mechanical
properties, providing enhances chemical resistance, heat resistance
and structural integrity. Thermoset plastics are often used for
sealed products due to their resistance to deformation.
Pros
Following are the pros of thermoplastics and thermosets:
Thermoplastics
z Highly recyclable
Aesthetically-superior finishes
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z High-impact resistance
z Remolding/reshaping capabilities
z Chemical resistant
z Hard crystalline or rubbery surface options
z Eco-friendly manufacturing
Thermosets 111
Notes
S
z More resistant to high temperatures than thermoplastics
___________________
z Highly flexible design
___________________
z Thick to thin wall capabilities
___________________
z Excellent aesthetic appearance
___________________
z High levels of dimensional stability
___________________
PE
z Cost-effective ___________________
Cons ___________________
Following are the cons of thermoplastics and thermosets: ___________________
___________________
Thermoplastics
___________________
z Generally more expensive than thermoset
z Can melt if heated
Thermosets
z Cannot be recycled
)U
z More difficult to surface finish
z Cannot be re-moulded or reshaped
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. The curing process of ………………….. is completely
reversible as no chemical bonding takes place.
2. Thermoset plastics are often used for sealed products
due to their resistance to …………………..
Summary
A thermoplastic is a type of plastic made from polymer resins that
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becomes a homogenized liquid when heated and hard when cooled.

Sometimes, thermoplastics are confused with thermosetting
plastics. Although they may sound the same, they actually possess
very different properties. While thermoplastics can be melted to a
liquid and cooled to a solid, thermosetting plastics chemically
deteriorate when subjected to heat.
The growth of thermoplastics is attributed to certain attractive

Notes
ES
properties of the product such as lightness in weight, chemical
___________________ corrosion resistance, toughness and ease of handling. Engineering
___________________ thermoplastics include polymers with special properties such as
high thermal stability, good chemical and weather resistance, and
___________________
other useful characteristics. This type of plastic includes
___________________ polycarbonates, polyethersulfones, polyacetals, nylons and
___________________ thermoplastic polyesters. Engineering plastics will be the subject
of a future article in this series.
___________________
___________________
Lesson End Activity
___________________
Prepare a collage of various types of thermoplastics.
___________________
___________________
UP Keywords
Thermoplastic: A thermoplastic is a type of plastic made from
polymer resins that becomes a homogenized liquid when heated
and hard when cooled.
Thermosetting: Thermosetting materials are made of long-chain
polymers that cross-link with each other after they have been
heated, rendering the substance permanently hard.
Celluloid: A transparent flammable plastic made in sheets from
camphor and nitrocellulose, formerly used for cinematographic
film.
Elastomer: A natural or synthetic polymer having elastic
properties, e.g., rubber.

1. What do you mean by thermoplastics?
)
2. “Thermoplastics seem to be very common”. What are some

other uses of thermoplastics?
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3. Briefly describe thermoplastics market.

4. Are thermoplastics recyclable? If yes, explain how this process
is done?
5. Differentiate between thermoplastics and thermosets.
Further Readings
Notes
ES
Books ___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Web Readings ___________________
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-thermoplastic.htm ___________________
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoplastic ___________________
http://www.modorplastics.com/thermoset-vs-thermoplastics ___________________
___________________
) UP
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) UP
ES
UNIT 13: Polyethylene
Notes
ES
___________________
Polyethylene ___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
 Production and Uses of Polyethylene ___________________

 Potential Dangers and Environmental Impact of Polyethylene ___________________
 Physical and Chemical Properties
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
UP
Polyethylene is a type of polymer that is thermoplastic, meaning
that it can be melted to a liquid and remolded as it returns to a
solid state. It is chemically synthesized from ethylene, a compound
that's usually made from petroleum or natural gas. Other
non-official names for this compound include polythene or
polyethylyne; and it is also abbreviated as PE. It is used in making
other plastic compounds much often than it's used in its pure form.
Though it has a wide variety of uses, it can be harmful to humans
and to the environment.
Polyethylene, n (CH2 – CH2)n is the most extensively used
thermoplastic. The ever-increasing demand for polyethylene is
partly due to the availability of the monomer, ethylene, from the
abundant raw material, associated gas and naphtha. The ease of
processing the polymer, its relative low cost, and its resistance to
chemicals and its flexibility are also strong influences. All these
and other factors lead to the strong market demand.
)
The two most widely used grades of polyethylene are low density
polyethylene, LDPE which has branched chains, and high density
polyethylene, HDPE, which is predominantly linear. Low density
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polyethylene is produced by a free radical initiated polymerisation

at high pressures while high density polyethylene is produced by a
low pressure process with a metallic oxide catalyst of the Ziegler
type.
The main difference between the two grades of polyethylene is that
LDPE is more flexible because of its lower crystallinity. This lower
crystallinity is caused by presence of branches of two or four
116 carbons along the backbone of the polymer. HDPE is more closely
Notes packed because of the absence of branches and thus the molecules
S
Activity
become closer and less permeable to gases.
Visit___________________
a manufacturing unit of
polyethylene and see how is it
___________________
produced and prepare a report Several processes can produce polymers with a wide range of
on it. densities that cover both the low and high density ranges as well
___________________
as medium density polymers.
___________________
___________________ Production and Uses
PE
___________________
Of all the plastics produced for industrial and commercial
___________________ products, polyethylene is the most common. As an example, 280
___________________ million metric tonnes of it was produced in 2011 alone. Over five
times as much PE is manufactured each year than a closely-related
___________________
compound, polypropylene (PP). The largest use for these polymers
___________________ is in packaging materials, like films and foam; and for bottles and
other containers that can be used in food, medical, and other
consumer industries.
The characteristics of a plastic can be adjusted by combining it
with various plasticizers, which are substances added to plastics to
make them more durable, flexible, and transparent. Adding
chromium/silica makes high-density polyethylene (HDPE), which
)U
is used to create sturdy products like garbage containers.
Combining it with organic olefin compounds makes a type of low-
density PE (LDPE) that is used for plastic grocery or shopping
bags. Other common forms of polyethylene are ultra-high
molecular weight PE (UHMWPE), which is used in bullet-proof
vests and knee joint replacements; and medium-density PE
(MDPE), which is crack resistant for applications in gas pipe
pressure fittings.
Plastics based on the PE molecule are widespread because the
compound has physical characteristics that are considered safe and
useful in a range of environments. These traits include the fact
that it remains pliable for an extended period of time while
remaining inert and impervious to damage by most liquids. Since
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its softness and strength level can be easily adjusted and it can be
dyed many colors, it is often used in consumer products from food
wrap to shampoo bottles, milk containers, toys, and grocery bags.
ES
Activity
Conduct a survey and ask
people about what they think
1. Adding ……………… makes high-density polyethylene. are___________________
the dangers of
polyethylene and prepare a
2. Plastics based on the PE molecule are widespread ___________________
presentation with text and
because the compound has physical characteristics that images.
___________________
are considered safe and useful in a range of
___________________
…………………….
___________________
Potential Dangers ___________________
___________________
The only way polyethylene can be dangerous is if you don't dispose
of it correctly. Recycling bottles and other plastic products made of ___________________
polyethylene will make it less dangerous. Harm is mostly done to ___________________
UP
the environment. Many companies today are creating their
polyethylene products to be less harmful to people.
Depending on the compounds its bonded with, PE's level of toxicity
and flammability varies considerably. There are concerns about
two versions of the compound in particular, both of which are often
used for medical and consumer purposes. Polyethylene-glycol
(PEG), which acts as a binding agent for many drugs and is also
found in products like shampoo and toothpaste, can cause allergic
reactions in certain individuals. Some people experience nausea,
flatulence, and diarrhea after being exposed to it, while others get
a hives-like rash. The elderly seem to be particularly prone to
these side effects.
In addition, harmful chemicals — including the plasticizer
phthalate — may leach from polyethylene-terephthalate (PET),
which has been widely used in the plastic bottling industry.
Phthalate is associated with hormonal imbalances, increases in
)
allergies, and reduced fertility. Some studies show that it may also
contribute to the development of obesity and breast cancer.
Environmental Impact
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While PE may help to make many useful and durable products

possible, its environmental impact concerns many experts. It
doesn't biodegrade easily, and can sit in a landfill for hundreds of
years. About 20%-24% of all landfill space in the US alone is taken
up by plastics, including polyethylene products. However, recycling
may reduce this problem, since PE scrap can be melted down and
Notes reused.
ES
___________________ Additionally, an aerobic bacteria called Sphingomonas can
___________________ significantly reduce the amount of time it takes some forms of PE
to break down, though it is not yet widely used. Environmental
___________________
preservation efforts have also led to the development of bioplastics,
___________________ with the aim of creating polyethylene from ethanol made from
___________________ sugarcane.
___________________
Biodegrading Plastics
___________________
One of the main problems of polyethelyne is that without special
___________________ treatment it is not readily biodegradable, and thus accumulates. In
___________________ Japan getting rid of plastics in an environmentally friendly way
___________________
was the major problem discussed until the Fukushima disaster in
UP 2011. Since 2008 Japan has rapidly increased the recycling of
plastics, but still has a large rate of plastic wrapping which goes to
waste.
In May 2008, Daniel Burd, a 16-year-old Canadian, won the
Canada-Wide Science Fair in Ottawa after discovering that
Pseudomonas fluorescens, with the help of Sphingomonas, can
degrade over 40% of the weight of plastic bags in less than three
months.
In 2009 it was discovered by a resident of Hawaii upon returning
from a ship race that degraded plastics are a major cause for
marine life destruction, being mixed in with plankton, comparable
in size and weight but in much larger numbers.
In 2010 a Japanese researcher Akinori Ito released the prototype
of a machine which creates oil from Polyethylene using a small,
self-contained vapor distillation process.
)
Bio-derived Polyethylene
Braskem and Toyota Tsusho Corporation started Joint marketing
activities for producing polyethylene from sugar cane. Braskem
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will build a new facility at their existing industrial unit in Triunfo,

RS, Brazil with an annual production capacity of 200,000 short
tons, and will produce high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and
low-density polyethylene (LDPE) from bioethanol derived from
sugarcane.
119
Polyethylene can also be made from other feedstocks, including
Notes
S
wheat grain and sugar beet. Retrieved from cane sugar, i.e. plant Activity
biomass renewable feedstock; Brazil is the first country to develop ___________________
Find out 2 books from your
the product. library and study
___________________
the
properties of polyethylene and
These developments are using renewable resources rather than prepare a chart.
___________________
fossil fuel, although the issue of plastic source is currently
___________________
negligible in the wake of plastic waste and in particular
___________________
PE
polyethylene waste.
___________________
The basic building block (monomer) of polyethylene is ethylene.
This is just one small chemical step from ethanol, which can be ___________________
produced by fermentation of agricultural feedstocks such as sugar ___________________

cane or corn. Bio-derived polyethylene is chemically and physically
___________________
identical to traditional polyethylene – it does not biodegrade but
___________________
can be recycled. It can also considerably reduce greenhouse gas
emissions. Brazilian chemicals group Braskem claims that using
its route from sugar cane ethanol to produce one tonne of
polyethylene captures (removes from the environment) 2.5 tonnes
of carbon dioxide while the traditional petrochemical route results
in emissions of close to 3.5 tonnes.
Braskem plans to introduce commercial quantities of its first
)U
bio-derived high density polyethylene, used in a packaging such as
bottles and tubs, in 2010 and has developed a technology to
produce bio-derived butene, required to make the linear low
density polyethylene types used in film production.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. …………….. bottles and other plastic products made of
polyethylene will make it less dangerous.
2. Polyethylene-glycol can cause ……………. reactions in
certain individuals.
Physical and Chemical Properties

(c
Probably the most important property of the polyethylenes is the

molecular weight and its distribution. Method used to determine
molecular weight is by viscosity of the polymer. The melt viscosity
and the melt flow index, MFI, measure the extent of
polymerisation. A polymer with a high melt flow index has a low
melt viscosity, a lower molecular weight and a lower impact tensile

Notes strength.
ES
___________________ Polyethylene is permeable to most gases. The higher density
___________________ polymers are less permeable than the lower density ones.
Polyethylene, has a low degree of water absorption and is not
___________________
attacked by dilute acids and alkalis. However, it is attacked by
___________________ concentrated acids. Its overall chemical resistance is excellent.
___________________ Polyethylenes are affected by hydrocarbons and chlorinated
hydrocarbons. Tensile strength of polythylenes is relatively low,
___________________
but impact resistance is high. The use of polyethylenes in
___________________
insulation is due to the excellent electrical resistance properties.
___________________
Market and Uses of Polyethylene
___________________
Low density polyethylene, ldPE, is the largest volume
___________________
UP thermoplastic.
Products made from polyethylene are numerous and range from
building materials and electrical insulation to packing materials
and sheets. It is an inexpensive plastic which can be molded into
almost any shape, extruded into fiber or filament and blown or
precipitated into film or foil. Because it is more flexible and more
transparent, the low density polymer is used in sheets, films and
injection molding. High density polyethylenes are extensively used
in blow-molded containers. About 85 percent of the blow-molded
bottles is produced from HDPE.
Irrigation pipes made from polyvinyl chloride and HDPE, are
widely used. Pipes made from HDPE are flexible, tough and
corrosion resistant. These pipes are used for carrying corrosive
materials and/or abrasives and various chemicals. Corrosion
resistant pipes are also used in well drilling and crude oil transfer.
Spun-bonded polyethylenes are extremely fine fibers
)
interconnected in a continuous network. Their uses include book

covers, wall coverings, tags, labels, etc. The point-bonded, spun-
bonded polyethylenes are used, for example, as laboratory coats,
aprons, garments and sleeping bag liners.
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Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. …………………. pipes made from polyvinyl chloride and
HDPE, are widely used.
2. Polyethylene is permeable to most ……………
Summary
Notes
ES
Polyethylene is a type of polymer that is thermoplastic, meaning
___________________
that it can be melted to a liquid and remolded as it returns to a
solid state. It is chemically synthesized from ethylene, a compound ___________________
that's usually made from petroleum or natural gas. Plastics based ___________________
on the PE molecule are widespread because the compound has
___________________
physical characteristics that are considered safe and useful in a
range of environments. LDPE is made by high pressure processes. ___________________
Either tubular or stirred autoclave reactors are used. In the stirred ___________________
autoclave reactor, the heat of reaction is absorbed by the cold ___________________
ethylene feed which is mixed with the reacting polymer. The
___________________
stirring action keeps a uniform temperature throughout the
reaction vessel. ___________________
___________________
UP
High density polyethylenes are made by a low pressure process in
a fluidised bed reactor. The catalyst is either a Ziegler type
catalyst which is a complex between an aluminum alkyl and a
transition metal halide, such as titanium tetrachloride, or a
catalyst of silica or silica alumina impregnated with a small
amount of a metal oxide, usually either chromium oxide or
molybdenum oxide.
Lesson End Activity

Find out the measures taken by Indian government for the
recycling and limited use of polyethylenes and prepare a slideshow.
Keywords
Polyethylene: Polyethylene is a type of polymer that is
thermoplastic, meaning that it can be melted to a liquid and
remolded as it returns to a solid state.
)
High-density Polyethylenes: High-density polyethylene (HDPE)

or polyethylene high-density (PEHD) is a polyethylene
thermoplastic made from petroleum. High density polyethylenes
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are made by a low pressure process in a fluidised bed reactor.

Low-density Polyethylenes: Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is
a thermoplastic made from the monomer ethylene. LDPE is made
by high pressure processes.
122 Questions for Discussion

Notes
S
1. Which are the different polyethylenes? Describe them briefly.
___________________
2. Discuss the potential dangers of polyethylenes.
___________________
3. Explain the environmental impact of polyethylenes.
___________________
4. Describe the physical and chemical properties of
___________________
polyethylenes.
___________________
PE
5. Discuss the various uses of polyethylenes.
___________________
___________________
Further Readings
___________________
___________________ Books
___________________ Robert H Perry, Don Green, Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 6th

Web Readings
http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-polyethylene.htm
)U
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethylene
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UNIT 14: Polypropylene
Notes
ES
Activity
___________________
Collect some information on
Polypropylene the concept of polypropylene
from___________________
the internet and prepare
a slideshow.
___________________
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
 Concept of Polypropylene ___________________

 Production of Polypropylene ___________________
 Markets and Uses of Polypropylene
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
UP
Polypropylene, PP, n(CH2-CH)n has been available commercially
for more than 50 years, but now it is a major thermoplastic. It is
always a by product of either refinery operations or of the steam
cracking of ethane and higher feedstocks for the production of
ethylene.
Unlike ethylene, propylene has a methyl group in the molecule
and, when polymerised, can have one of three isotactic where the
methyl groups attached to the carbon chain in the same plane or
syndiotactic, where the methyl groups are alternately distributed
in the same plane, or atactic where there is a random distribution
of methyl groups.
The revolution in polypropylene production was the development of
a Ziegler type catalyst by Natta to produce a polymer which is
predominately isotactic. Because of the stereoregularity of the
polymer, it has a high crystallinity.
Polypropylene is considered the most dynamic large-tonnage
)
polymer. Polypropylene may surpass and now it is surpassed hdPE

the "number 1" plastic.
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Concept of Polypropylene
Polypropylene is a plastic polymer with the chemical formula C3H6.
It is used in many different settings, both in industry and in
consumer goods, and it can be used both as a structural plastic and
as a fiber. This plastic is often used for food containers,
particularly those that need to be dishwasher safe.
Notes
ES
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
UP Source: http://images-en.busytrade.com/89047500/Sell Polypropylene.jpg
Figure 14.1: Polypropylene
The melting point of polypropylene is very high compared to many

other plastics, at 320°F (160°C), which means that the hot water
used when washing dishes will not cause dishware made from this
plastic to warp. This contrasts with polyethylene, another popular
plastic for containers, which has a much lower melting point.
Polypropylene is also very easy to add dyes to, and it is often used
as a fiber in carpeting that needs to be rugged and durable, such as
that for use around swimming pools or on miniature golf courses.
Unlike nylon, which is also often used as a fiber for rugged
carpeting, it doesn't soak up water, making it ideal for uses where
it will be constantly subject to moisture.
Research is ongoing with polypropylene, as makers experiment
with different methods for synthesizing it. Some of these
experiments yield the promise of exciting new types of plastic, with
)
new consistencies and a different feel from the fairly rigid version
that most people are used to. These new elastic versions are very
rubbery, making them even more resistant to shattering and
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opening up many different uses for an already pervasive plastic.

Polypropylene is not as sturdy as polyethylene, but it has benefits
that make it the better choice in some situations. One of these
situations is creating hinges from a plastic, such as a plastic lid on
a travel mug. Over time, plastics wear out from the repetitive
stress of being opened and shut, and eventually will break.
Polypropylene is very resistant to this sort of stress, and it is the

plastic most often used for lids and caps that require a hinging Notes
ES
mechanism. ___________________
Like many plastics, polypropylene has virtually endless uses, and ___________________
its development has not slowed since its discovery. Whether used
___________________
for industrial molds, rugged currency, car parts, or storage
containers, it is one of a handful of materials the world is literally ___________________
built around. ___________________
___________________
Physical and Chemical Properties of Polypropylene
___________________
Polypropylene is a form of thermoplastic used in the production of
___________________
non-woven fibre and structural plastic products. The properties of
polypropylene that make the material popular include the non- ___________________
toxic and non-staining nature of the plastic, and the relatively ___________________
UP
inexpensive cost of production. During the production phase,
polypropylene can be combined with other materials, such as
rubber, to alter its properties.
The properties of commercial polypropylene vary according to the
percentage of crystalline isotactic polymer and the degree of
polymerisation. Typically, polypropylene contains 50–60 percent
crystalline isotactic, 20–30 percent amorphous, 20–30 percent
amorphous isotactic and 10–20 percent amorphous atactic. It has a
high crystalline melting point of 170ºC. The density of
polypropylene is the lowest of all thermoplastics (0.90–0.915 g/cc).
Articles made from polypropylene have good electrical and
chemical resistance and low water absorption. It has a good heat
resistance and can be sterilised at 100ºC. Because of the resistance
of polypropylene to flex fatigue, articles made from polypropylene
have long life. Other important properties of polypropylene are its
toughness, high abrasion resistance, good dimensional stability,
)
lack of toxicity, high impact strength, and its transparency.

The properties of polypropylene that make the plastic a popular
choice for products include the lightweight nature of the material
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and its high tensile strength. This makes the plastic a very useful
for use in products like food packaging. Polypropylene also has a
strong resistance to cracking when placed under stress and a high
level of impact resistance.
Plastic product producers often make use of polypropylene as an
alternative to other types of plastic because it usually does not
contain bisphenol A (BPA). BPA is a chemical that is often used in
the production of plastic products, but when used in food and drink
Notes packaging, BPA can leach into the contents of the containers.
ES
___________________
Although this chemical has not been proven to pose a health risk to
children or adults in small amounts, many plastics manufacturers
___________________
use BPA-free polypropylene to reduce the risks of health issues
___________________ linked to the chemical.
___________________ Among the properties of polypropylene are the ability to use the
___________________ plastic products at high operating temperatures, up to 320°F
(160°C). High temperature resistance means that these products
___________________
can be used in microwaves and dishwashers. Although
___________________ polypropylene is generally considered to be a microwave-safe
___________________ plastic, there is still some concern that the high temperatures can
___________________
break down the bonds in the plastic.
___________________ When used as a non-woven textile, polypropylene is softened, and

UP fusion bonded together as slim fibres. The ability to fusion bond
the material eliminates the need for additional chemicals to bond
the fibres together. This allows the plastic to be used in the
production of diapers and protective clothing.
The ability to recycle polypropylene products is another one of the
important properties of polypropylene. During recycling, 100
percent of polypropylene can be recovered for future use. The
plastic can be combined with other chemicals and materials, such
as rubber and antioxidants, to alter its properties as well.
Chemical additions to polypropylene have resulted in products
such as PVC piping and biaxially oriented polypropylene (BOPP)
film.
The uses of polypropylene are affected by the properties of the
material. The low level of electrical conductivity means the plastic
can be used to minimize the passage of electricity passing through
electrical products. Resistance to both acidic and alkali materials is
)
high in polypropylene, but smells can be absorbed by the products

manufactured from the plastic. During the production process,
polypropylene plastics can be manufactured to maintain the
specific amount of stiffness or flexibility required.
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Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. Polypropylene is not as sturdy as ……………………..
2. Polypropylene is a plastic polymer with the chemical
formula ……………………..
Production
Notes
ES
Activity
Most polypropylene processes are at low pressure with a Ziegler-
1. ___________________
Write a magazine style
type catalyst-TiCl3 or TiCl4 in solution. Low pressure is used to article on the production
of polypropylene.
___________________
increase the stereoregular isotactic configuration in the polymer.
2. Observe from your daily
The product has qualities similar to high density polyethylene but ___________________
life and prepare a short
its brittle point is higher than that for polyethylene. report on the uses of
___________________
polypropylene.
In the low pressure process, the practice is to feed highly purified ___________________
propylene with or without ethylene, the catalyst and the
___________________
hydrocarbon diluent to the polymerisation reactor at a
temperature range of 50-100ºC and a pressure range of 5–30 bars. ___________________
Polymer is washed with either alcohol or water to decompose the ___________________

catalyst. The solvent is then recovered from the polymer by either
___________________
centrifugation, filtration or by steam treatment of the resin
___________________
UP
followed by hot air. The polymer thus obtained is in the form of
powder which can be sold as molding powder after being
homogenised, or can be processed to natural or coloured pellets.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. Polymer is washed with either ………………… or
………………… to decompose the catalyst.
2. The polymer obtained is in the form of …………………
which can be sold as molding powder.
Markets and Uses of Polypropylene

Injection molding consumes about 40 percent of the production but
blow-molded objects are made from propylene copolymers and take
only 15 percent of the production.
)
Due to its light weight and toughness, polypropylene is being used

extensively in automotive parts. This both reduces weight and cuts
gasoline consumption. They are used in automobile interior trim
parts, fender liners, heat/air-conditioner housings and ducts and
(c
battery cases.
Between 30 and 35 percent of polypropylene is used by the fiber
industry. Low-cost fibres made from polypropylene are competing
and replacing those made from jute. Properties such as low
density, high stretch and high abrasion resistance, resistance to
chemicals, no moisture absorption, and low cost are favourable for

Notes filament processing.
ES
___________________ Improvements in the polypropylene field are continuing. A new
___________________ material made from ethylene-propylene copolymers which is said
to bridge the gap between true plastic and true elastomers-a
___________________
thermoplastic elastomer-has been announced by Du Pont. The
___________________ material (EPM/EPDM) possesses rubber-like properties and can be
___________________ processed by conventional plastics processes. Products can be used
for seals, tubing, shoe soles and automotive parts.
___________________
___________________ Polypropylene plastic is usually broken down into three broad

categories of usage. These include the automotive plastics
___________________
industry, packaging plastics, and all other uses combined. Global
___________________ demand for polypropylene-based products is second only to that of
___________________ polyethylene, and, as of 2009, 36,500,000 tons of the plastic were
UP produced annually. The bulk of this at 54% went into use in the
packaging industry, and the next top demand for polypropylene
world supplies has been in automotive assembly, accounting for
15.6% of the total amount produced. Asian nations lead the way in
consuming 51.9% of polypropylene plastic produced as of 2009, and
China and India in particular are seen as the main global drivers
of growth overall.
The low weight and good mechanical properties of polypropylene
plastic have made it an ideal material in automotive construction.
It reduces the total weight of cars where it is substituted for other
interior materials in dashboards, door panels, and cushioning.
Since polypropylene plastic has good corrosion and weather
resistance, it is also used for exterior moldings and bumpers, and
can be pre-colored so that some of the painting work on
automobiles is eliminated.
)
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Source: http://blogs.princeton.edu/chm333/f2005/group3/2006/01/petrochemical.php
Figure 14.2: Polypropylene Yarn

Plastics are widely adopted when they have versatile uses, and
Notes
ES
polypropylene plastic expands on this by being manufactured to
three different ranges of specifications. Homopolymers are general ___________________
purpose grades of the plastic used in fishing nets, polypropylene
___________________
carpet, furniture, and more. Block copolymers are versions of the
___________________
plastic with improved impact and temperature resistance, and are
used for polypropylene ropes, artificial grass, and medical devices. ___________________
Random copolymers have more flexibility and a lower melting ___________________
point, and are used in polypropylene textiles, upholstery, and
___________________
bedding.
___________________
The packaging industry's use of polypropylene plastic is divided up
___________________
into flexible and rigid packaging. Polypropylene bags and films use
flexible designs of the plastic used in three main packaging ___________________
industries: food and confections, tobacco, and textiles. The food ___________________
UP
packaging industry dominates in its consumption of flexible
polypropylene. Rigid polypropylene is used to make food crates and
pallets, as well as bottles for a wide range of uses and food
containers for yogurt.
)
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Source: http://blogs.princeton.edu/chm333/f2005/group3/2006/01/petrochemical.php
Figure 14.3: Polypropylene Products
Among the thousands of other uses for polypropylene in the

consumer market, the plastic is incorporated into products in
housewares, appliances, and toys. It is made into everything from

Notes diapers to lawn and garden equipment and luggage. Despite its
ES
___________________
versatile uses, however, over 70% of the polypropylene plastic
produced for packaging needs goes to package food products.
___________________

___________________ 1. ………………….. are general purpose grades of the

___________________
plastic used in fishing nets, polypropylene carpet,
furniture, and more.
___________________
2. Low-cost fibres made from polypropylene are competing
___________________
and replacing those made from …………………..
___________________
___________________ Summary
UP Polypropylene is a plastic polymer with the chemical formula C3H6.
It is used in many different settings, both in industry and in
consumer goods, and it can be used both as a structural plastic and
as a fiber. This plastic is often used for food containers,
particularly those that need to be dishwasher safe. Polypropylene
is not as sturdy as polyethylene, but it has benefits that make it
the better choice in some situations.
The properties of commercial polypropylene vary according to the
percentage of crystalline isotactic polymer and the degree of
polymerisation. The properties of polypropylene that make the
plastic a popular choice for products include the lightweight nature
of the material and its high tensile strength.
Lesson End Activity

Hold a group discussion on the uses of polypropylene.
)
Keywords
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camphor and nitrocellulose, formerly used for cinematographic
film.
Elastomer: A natural or synthetic polymer having elastic
properties, e.g., rubber.
Polypropylene: Polypropylene is a plastic polymer with the

Notes
ES
chemical formula C3H6. It is used in many different settings, both
in industry and in consumer goods, and it can be used both as a ___________________
structural plastic and as a fiber. ___________________
___________________
___________________
1. What do you mean by polypropylene? ___________________
2. Explain the production process of polypropylene. ___________________
3. Describe the properties of polypropylene. ___________________
4. What are the various uses of polypropylene? ___________________
5. Analyze the market for polypropylene. ___________________
___________________
Further Readings
UP
Books
Web Readings
http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-polypropylene.htm
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/469069/polypropylene
)
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) UP
ES
UNIT 15: Case Study
Notes
ES
___________________
Case Study ___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
___________________
Case Study: Shell Perspective
___________________
A key element of Shell’s strategy for chemicals has been to
achieve a better geographical balance in our global manufacturing ___________________
network by focusing recent and new investments in world-scale,
___________________
integrated facilities in the Middle East and Asia-Pacific and
upgrading facilities in our historical heartlands of Europe and ___________________
North America.
UP
Today, close to 30% of our chemicals production capacity is in the
Middle East and Asia Pacific, which gives us both regional
feedstock and market access. And we are continuing to build
partnerships with national oil and chemicals producers to
strengthen our overall portfolio.
A good example of OCA at work is our new Singapore-based
development, Shell Eastern Petrochemical Complex, which is
currently undergoing commissioning for start-up early next year.
If we think back to our three ingredients for growth, the project
ticks the box on all three: integration, scale and technology.
SEPC will include a new world-scale ethylene cracker, and
benzene and butadiene extraction units on Bukom Island. The
world’s largest ethylene glycol plant using Shell’s OMEGA
technology is being built on neighbouring Jurong Island.
Shell’s existing refinery at Pulau Bukom will be modified to
produce feedstock for the new ethylene cracker.
Singapore is already Shell’s largest petrochemical production and
export centre in the Asia Pacific region. And the new complex is
strategically located to take advantage of existing infrastructure
)
and to ensure maximum benefits are achieved by integrating the

petrochemical site with the Bukom refinery. This will deliver
advantaged feedstocks, operating benefits and valuable by-
products.
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Close proximity to markets and customers will ensure that cost

efficiency and competitiveness are passed down the value-chain.
Oil-chemical integration is a key tenet of Shell’s downstream
strategy, which we believe gives us a competitive edge. Most
integration value comes from directing hydrocarbons to the
highest-value application, irrespective of traditional refining -
chemical boundaries. Secondary or by-product streams from
refining units can have their highest value as feedstock for
Contd…
chemical units. Likewise, by-products from chemical units can be

Notes most cost-effective as refinery feeds or fuel blending components.
ES
Investing in hydrocarbon integration has also improved our
___________________
operational flexibility, and helped maximise returns as feedstock
___________________ economics shift. We’re developing and deploying new optimisation
tools that day-to-day enable us to maximise and coordinate
___________________ hydrocarbon value across our integrated refining-chemical
locations. This feedstock flexibility also brings customers the
___________________
benefits of product supply security.
___________________ Extensive process design work at the Shell Global Solutions
laboratories in Amsterdam and Houston has paved the way for
___________________
innovation in heavy feed cracking, which is crucial to facilitating
___________________ enhanced production. In Singapore, our Shell Eastern
Petrochemicals Complex will use a higher percentage of heavier
___________________ feeds compared to other liquid crackers. And nearer to home in
The Netherlands, our Moerdijk cracker is being reconfigured to
___________________
enable it to crack hydrowax from the Pernis refinery.
___________________ Heavy feed cracking of this nature will bring economic
UP advantages, particularly in terms of producing more valuable
by-products such as propylene and butylenes. It will also increase
cracker capacity by 40%. However the trade-off is that heavy
feeds are more energy-intensive to process, so the challenge is to
focus on process efficiencies to reduce CO2 impacts.
As the need to reduce energy and other resources associated with
chemicals processing increases, finding more efficient routes to
products is critical. Catalyst technology can play a significant role
here.
Using new catalysts developed by Shell in our ethylene
oxide/glycols technology, for example, enables us to convert up to
90% of ethylene into EO. That’s a 10% improvement over the
previous generation of catalysts, and it also saves hundreds of
millions of dollars and lowers carbon emissions.
We’ve used Shell technology and acquired technology to
commercialise and license OMEGA, the world’s most efficient
process for MEG production. And our latest SMPO plants use 35%
less energy for every tonne of chemicals produced while emissions
to the atmosphere have been cut by 90%, and liquid and solid
waste is almost 100% recycled.
)
Conclusion
As I mentioned earlier, the Shell Group has a long history in the
region, underlined by the scale of energy and petrochemical assets
in which we have invested.
(c
From a Shell Chemicals perspective, not only is there an

abundance of natural resources to support petrochemicals growth,
there is also strong government commitment to expanding this
sector as a foundation stone for broader economic, industrial and
social development.
We also see opportunities where our technologies can support the
economic and industrial goals of MRHs, which include developing
downstream and specialty chemicals sectors such as
polyurethanes.
Contd…
UNIT 15: Case Study
In the final analysis, Shell understands the increasingly

important role the Middle East is playing in global petrochemicals Notes
ES
and we are certainly keen to extend our partnerships in the
region. ___________________
Question: ___________________
Discuss in a group of Shell’s oil chemicals advantage. ___________________
Source: http://s00.static-shell.com/content/dam/shell/static/chemicals/downloads/aboutshell/ ___________________
aslam-moola-oct-09.pdf
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
) UP
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) UP
ES
UNIT 16: Polyvinyl Chloride
Notes
ES
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
UP
BLOCK-IV
)
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Detailed Contents
Notes
ES
UNIT 16: POLYVINYL CHLORIDE
___________________ UNIT 18: POLYCARBONATES
___________________
 Concept of Polyvinyl Chloride  Concept of Polycarbonates
___________________
 Production  Properties and Processing
___________________
 Applications of Polyvinyl Chloride  Applications
___________________
 Potential Hazards in Food Contact Applications
UNIT 17: POLYSTYRENE
___________________
 Introduction UNIT 19: SYNTHETIC FIBRES
___________________
 Concept of Polystyrene  Introduction
___________________
 Properties of Polystyrene  Concept of Synthetic Fibres
___________________
 Market and Uses of Polystyrene  Polyester Fibres
___________________
 Production
) UP  Acrylic Fibres
UNIT 20: CASE STUDY

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Unit 16
139
Notes
S
Activity
Polyvinyl Chloride
Prepare a presentation on the
___________________
concept of Polyvinyl Chloride.
___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
PE
\ Concept of Polyvinyl Chloride ___________________
\ Production of Polyvinyl Chloride ___________________
\ Applications of Polyvinyl Chloride
___________________
Introduction ___________________
___________________
A polymer made by the catalytic polymerization of vinyl chloride.
PVC also includes copolymers that contain at least 50% vinyl
chloride. The neat homopolymer is hard, brittle and difficult to
process, but it becomes flexible when plasticized. Polyvinyl chloride
molding compounds can be extruded, injection molded,
compression molded, calendered, and blow molded to form a huge
variety of products, either rigid or flexible depending on the
)U
amount and type of plasticizers used. There are more compounding
recipes for PVC than for any other polymer. Rigid PVC is strong,
difficult to burn, has excellent resistance to strong acids and bases,
to most other chemicals, and to many organic solvents.
Additionally, polyvinyl chloride is one of the least expensive
plastics.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) was first produced commercially in the
USA in 1933 and had an important use as cable insulation during
the second World War. Polyvinyl chloride then became used for
many more applications soon after.
Concept of Polyvinyl Chloride

(c
Polyvinyl chloride, better known as PVC or vinyl, is an inexpensive

plastic so versatile it has become completely pervasive in modern
society. The list of products made from PVC is exhaustive, ranging
from phonograph records to drainage and potable piping, water
bottles, cling film, credit cards and toys. More uses include window
frames, rain gutters, wall paneling, doors, wallpapers, flooring,
garden furniture, binders and even pens. Even imitation leather is
made of it. In fact, it's hard to turn anywhere without seeing some
Notes form of this plastic.
ES
___________________
In 1913, polyvinyl chloride became the first synthetic product ever
___________________ patented. Its wide use is now in question, however, as it comes
___________________ from a highly toxic production industry and potentially remains an
environmental threat throughout all phases of its life. In addition
___________________
to the toxic chemical processing required to make PVC, mounting
___________________ research indicates a tendency for some products to leech harmful
___________________ chemicals, with a possible link to health risks and environmental
contamination.
___________________
___________________
Additionally, PVC is not biodegradable, a fact that manufacturers
promote as a plus, while environmentalists count it among many of
___________________
the plastic's drawbacks. They point to the ever-growing amounts of
___________________ discarded products and shrinking landfills, and the potential for
UP long-term leeching that could lead to ground water contamination.
This material should not be burned, as it can release harmful gas,
and recycling it is difficult because of the diverse additives used in
various products.
One of the byproducts of the polyvinyl chloride manufacturing
process is organochlorine. Though chlorine is found naturally in
the environment in minerals such as salt, this type is different.
Highly reactive, its effect in concentrated form can be very
destructive, as seen in other manufacturing industries. Some
familiar forms of organochlorines include polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs), banned in the 1970s; halon and CFCs,
responsible for destroying the ozone; and DDT. Purportedly, the
production of PVC results in the generation of more
organochlorines than any other material.
Aside from the environment, human health is also a concern.
Studies regarding initial outgassing of chemicals from plastics like
)
those used in shower curtains, flooring and vinyl car interiors are
ongoing. Leeching of a softening chemical called DEHP (di-2-ethyl
hexyl phthalate) in products like vinyl IV bags used in the
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neonatal wards of some hospitals has also been a concern.

Alternate softening agents are reportedly under consideration by
the industry but require further testing.
Though polyvinyl chloride products have been used without
apparent problems to human health for many years, the concern is
that growing toxic waste created by the process, possible leeching,
and plastic's non-biodegradable status will eventually and
inevitably lead to problems that could be catastrophic. The

conservative trend is headed towards environmentally friendly, Notes
ES
Activity
biodegradable alternatives. Among others, these include wood,
Visit___________________
a manufacturing unit
paper, copper, steel, and clay. Chlorine-free plastics, such as which produces the products
___________________
of PVC and write an article.
polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) and polyisobutylene, may
also be preferred over PVC, although most of these are not ___________________
biodegradable. ___________________
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. One of the byproducts of the polyvinyl chloride
manufacturing process is ……………….. ___________________
2. In 1913, polyvinyl chloride became the first synthetic ___________________
product ever ……………….. ___________________
Production
UP
Vinyl chloride monomer, VCM, is polymerised by using a free
radical initiator with any of four general methods of
polymerisation-suspension, emulsion, bulk and solution. However,
about 80 percent PVC production is by suspension polymerisation.
Water is used as the suspension and heat transfer medium along
with a suspending agent such as polyvinyl alcohol. Polymerisation
temperature is generally between 40ºC and 70ºC which
corresponds to a vinyl chloride saturation vapour pressure of 6–12
bars. A design pressure of 18 bars provides an operating pressure
safety margin.
In a typical suspension process. VCM is distributed in the aqueous
phase with the aid of protective colloids. The polymerisation is
batchwise in a water-jacketed autoclave where the initiator is
)
added. After the reaction is completed, the suspension is

transferred to a degassing unit in which the unreacted monomer
is removed. Unreacted vinyl chloride is purified, condensed and
recycled. Polymer is separated from the suspension by
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centrifuging. Finally, the polymer is dried by hot air.

The usual reactor volume for PVC units is in the range of
15 to 40 cubic metres.
Polymerisation of vinyl chloride in bulk using a water-cooled
vertical autoclave stirred by a turbulent agitator gives a clear
product. In a typical bulk process, VCM is pumped to the vertical
autoclave prepolymeriser in which 8–12 percent of the monomer is

Notes converted into PVC seed. The reaction product is then transferred
ES
Activity
___________________
Observe the applications of to a horizontal post-polymerisator where additional catalyst and
PVC in your daily life and monomer are added. Extent of conversion at the end of the
___________________
prepare a chart with text and
images. polymerisation cycle is between 80 and 85 percent. The polymer is
___________________
finally degassed and classified to PVC grades.
___________________
Markets and Uses of Polyvinyl Chloride
___________________
Polyvinyl chloride resins are rarely used alone but are usually
___________________
compounded with different types of additives. An important
___________________ property of polyvinyl chloride is its acceptance of many types of
___________________ compounding materials. Thus, its mechanical, physical and
___________________
chemical properties can be varied appreciably.
___________________ Flexible grades of PVC account for about 50 percent of the PVC
UP production. It goes into such items as calendered sheet, tablecloths,
shower curtains, furniture, automobile upholstery and wire and
cable. Rigid resins are used in many fields such as pipes, irrigation
pipes, fittings, roofing, blow-molded bottles, automobile parts and
siding. The plastic pipe market, the single largest market for PVC,
is over 40 percent of the total PVC consumption.
Polyvinyl chloride self-skinning foam pipe is a new product.
Markets for foam pipes are those that do not require high pressure.
Siding is another field in which PVC's is used.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. ………………… of vinyl chloride in bulk using a water-
cooled vertical autoclave stirred by a turbulent agitator
gives a clear product.
2. Polyvinyl chloride ………………….. foam pipe is a new
)
product.
Applications of Polyvinyl Chloride

(c
Typical applications of PVC include; window frames, drainage

pipe, water service pipe, medical devices, blood storage bags, cable
and wire insulation, resilient flooring, roofing membranes,
stationary, automotive interiors and seat coverings, fashion and
footwear, packaging, cling film, credit cards, vinyl records,
synthetic leather and other coated fabrics.
Notes
ES
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Source: http://images1.hellotrade.com/data2/HE/DH/MY-2246032/fr-electrical-pvc
insulation-tape-250x250.jpg ___________________
UP
Figure 16.1: PVC Insulation Tapes
Selected applications are explained in detail as follows:
Construction of Windows
PVC has been used extensively in a wide range of construction
products for over half a century. PVC's strong, lightweight, durable
and versatile characteristics make it ideal for window profiles.
Unplasticised PVC is one of the stiffest polymers at normal
ambient temperature and shows little deterioration after many
years in service.
PVC is versitile and can be used for different colours and effects,
often being used as an alternative to traditional wood frames.
Healthcare: Blood Bags

PVC has been used for hundreds of life-saving and healthcare
)
products for almost 50 years being used in surgery,

pharmaceuticals, drug delivery and medical packaging.
Flexible PVC is used to make blood storage bags, and in fact is the
(c
only material approved by the European Pharmacopoeia for this

purpose. The nature of the material means that blood can be stored
safely for longer.
Automotive: Cars
PVC brings both high performance qualities and important cost
benefits to the automotive industry. Independent research by
Mavel Consultants has shown that the typical cost of using

Notes alternative materials is in a range 20-100% higher per component.
ES
___________________
Sport
___________________
Over the past few years, over one hundred and forty two thousand
___________________
square metres of PVC fabric has been used to create new sporting
___________________ venues in London alone.
___________________ In celebration of the role that PVC can play at sporting events, the
___________________ BPF's Vinyls Group have produced a brochure and animated video
highlighting the use of PVC products in the construction of
___________________
sporting venues, as well as the diverse range of PVC product
___________________
applications for performance sports surfaces, sports equipment and
___________________ clothing.
___________________
Check Your Progress
1. PVC brings both high performance …………… and

important …………. benefits to the automotive
industry.
2. ………………… PVC is one of the stiffest polymers at
normal ambient temperature.
Summary
A polymer made by the catalytic polymerization of vinyl chloride.
PVC also includes copolymers that contain at least 50% vinyl
chloride. One of the byproducts of the polyvinyl chloride
manufacturing process is organochlorine. Though chlorine is found
naturally in the environment in minerals such as salt, this type is
different. Polymerisation of vinyl chloride in bulk using a water-
)
cooled vertical autoclave stirred by a turbulent agitator gives a

clear product.
Typical applications of PVC include; window frames, drainage
(c
pipe, water service pipe, medical devices, blood storage bags, cable
and wire insulation, resilient flooring, roofing membranes,
stationary, automotive interiors and seat coverings, fashion and
footwear, packaging, cling film, credit cards, vinyl records,
synthetic leather and other coated fabrics.
Lesson End Activity 145

Notes
S
Prepare a collage of images of polyvinyl chloride products from
___________________
your daily life.
___________________
Keywords ___________________
___________________
Polyvinyl Chloride: It is better known as PVC or vinyl, is an
inexpensive plastic so versatile it has become completely pervasive ___________________
PE
in modern society. ___________________
Polymer: It is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of ___________________
___________________
Monomer: It is a molecule that may bind chemically to other
___________________
molecules to form a polymer.
___________________

1. What is polyvinyl chloride (PVC)?
2. Explain the production of polyvinyl chloride.
3. Discuss the applications of polyvinyl chloride.
)U
4. Describe the properties of polyvinyl chloride with the help of
internet.
Further Readings
Books
Web Readings
http://plastics.ides.com/generics/46/polyvinyl-chloride-pvc
(c
http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-polyvinyl-chloride.htm
(c
) UP
ES
UNIT 17: Polystyrene
Notes
ES
Activity
Draft___________________
an article for a
Polystyrene newspaper on the concept of
___________________
polystyrene.
___________________
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
 Concept of Polystyrene ___________________

 Properties of Polystyrene ___________________
 Uses of Polystyrene
___________________
 Production of Polystyrene
___________________
Introduction ___________________
UP
Polystyrene, PS, n(CH2 – CH)n is the third largest thermoplastic.
This large use of polystyrene results from its favourable properties.
These include ease of fabrication, low specific gravity, thermal
stability and low cost. Polystyrene homopolymers, however,
possess certain unfavourable physical properties such as
brittleness and rigidity. These properties can be improved by
copolymerisation with other monomers and polymers.
When styrene is copolymerised with acrylonitrile. SAN, the
polymer has a higher tensile strength than polystyrene. Styrene is
also copolymerised with acrolonitrile and butadiene to produce
ABS which has special mechanical properties useful for
engineering plastics. Copolymers of styrene and butadiene in a
ratio of approximately 1 to 25 are the most important synthetic
rubber.
)
Concept of Polystyrene
Polystyrene is a type of polymer with thermoplastic properties
produced from the petroleum-derived monomer, styrene. In solid
(c
form, it is a colorless and rigid plastic, but it may also be returned

to a liquid state by heating, and used again for molding or
extrusion. It is used to produce many products for industrial and
consumer use. In fact, its presence as a plastic in everyday life is
second only to polyethylene.
The chemical structure of this material allows it to be classified as

Notes
ES
a liquid hydrocarbon, meaning that it is composed exclusively of
___________________ hydrogen and carbon. Like its precursor, it's an aromatic
___________________ hydrocarbon that participates in covalent bonding with every other
carbon atom being attached to a phenol group. It is produced via
___________________
free radical polymerization, which means that the reaction
___________________ involves breaking the bonds between electrons and leaving them
___________________ “free” to form new bonds. When burned, this material yields black
carbon particles, or soot. When completely oxidized, only carbon
___________________
dioxide and water vapor remain.
___________________
___________________ Types of Polystyrene

___________________ There are several different types that are produced explained as
below:
___________________
UP Extruded Polystyrene
Extruded polystyrene is considered to have as much tensile
strength as unalloyed aluminum, but it is lighter and more elastic.
This is the material used to make a variety of moulded products,
ranging from plastic tableware to CD cases and model cars. It is
also used to produce medical and pharmaceutical supplies.
Extruded polystyrene foam, commonly known as Styrofoam, is a
type of insulation with versatile applications, such as the
manufacture of surfboards. In fact, its buoyancy prompted the U.S.
Coast Guard to adopt its use in life rafts. This type may also be
used in building materials or in roadway construction. For
example, it may serve as a layer of insulation under pavement to
prevent freezing and thawing of the soil below from cracking the
surface.
This strong but lightweight material is also used for crafts, and it
)
is usually sold in sheets. It is typically made up of three layers,

with polystyrene at the core sandwiched by paper on either side.
The sheets are frequently used as backing to mount artwork or
photography, or to construct architectural models. This foam is
(c
also familiar to those who work with floral crafts. In fact, the
characteristic “crunch” sound made when it's cut is well-known to
florists.
Expanded Polystyrene
Notes
ES
Expanded polystyrene foam is actually made of beads of the Activity
material. It is used to make “peanuts” for packaging, disposable ___________________
Discuss within a group of 3
students about the properties
coffee cups, and foam picnic coolers. Unlike extruded foam, which ___________________
of polystyrene.
is blue in color, expanded foam is typically white.
___________________
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) is a rigid and tough, closed-cell foam. ___________________
It is usually white and made of pre-expanded polystyrene beads.
___________________
EPS is used for disposable trays, plates, bowls and cups; and for
carry-out food packaging including the hinged lid containers ___________________
popularly know as "clam shells". Other uses include molded sheets ___________________
for building insulation and packing material "peanuts" for
___________________
cushioning fragile items inside boxes. Sheets are commonly
___________________
packaged as rigid panels size 4 by 8 or 2 by 8 feet in the United
State), which are also known as "bead-board". ___________________
UP
Check Your Progress
Fill in the blanks:
1. ……………….. polystyrene foam is actually made of
beads of the material.
2. ………………. polystyrene is considered to have as
much tensile strength as unalloyed aluminum.
Properties of Polystyrene
Polystyrene material properties make it one of the most heavily-
manufactured and utilized plastics in the world as of 2011. This
includes the primary fact that the polystyrene structure is a
thermoplastic, which means that it becomes soft and pliable under
a temperature of about 212° Fahrenheit (100° Celsius) without
degrading its chemical bonds, allowing the plastic to be shaped
)
into many useful forms and products. Since it is also a naturally

clear plastic compound derived from petroleum, it can be given
many different permanent colors by mixing pigments into it when
(c
it is in a liquid state, which allows it to be used for everything from

costume jewelry to plastic lettering and toys to machine parts.
The nature of polystyrene properties were first identified in 1839
by a German named Eduard Simon who refined it from natural
resin taken from the Sweetgum, or Liquidambar orientalis, tree.
The plastic was not widely manufactured until almost a century
later, however, with German companies dominating the market in
the early 1930s and US firms getting involved by 1937. Since the
Notes expanded polystyrene properties for most products include that the
ES
___________________
plastic is fairly rigid, it is outsold globally by a softer though
related plastic known as polyethylene.
___________________
Both polystyrene and polyethylene plastics are in the class of
___________________
compounds known as vinyl polymers. A vinyl polymer displays
___________________ polystyrene chemistry with the connection of long chains of small
___________________ vinyl monomer compounds which are individual carbon atoms
double bonded to two hydrogen atoms. While polyethylene is
___________________
considered to be the most simple of vinyl polymers, others in the
___________________
group share many polystyrene properties, such as polypropylene
___________________ and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
___________________ Polystyrene foam properties, where air or carbon dioxide can be
___________________ mixed into the plastic during heating, also make it an ideal
UP packaging and insulating material for oddly-shaped merchandise,
which it can be molded around to prevent breakage during
shipment. Polystyrene chemistry also makes the compound inert
for the storage of many industrial chemicals and foods at normal
room temperature, but it is not designed to contain heated
materials as it can release carcinogenic styrene compounds into
food in the process. These polystyrene properties have led to its
most visible use in the consumer market as the material that has
come to be known as styrofoam.
The thermoplastic nature of the polystyrene chemical compound
has resulted in its use for many types of food containers and plastic
parts like eating utensils that are considered to be disposable
items. This is because polystyrene properties include that it can be
readily recycled by compacting, sterilizing, and melting it down to
reform it into other products. It is not a biodegradable product,
however, and can endure exposure to sunlight and the natural
)
environment for hundreds of years before it begins to naturally

break down.
Check Your Progress

(c
Fill in the blanks:

1. Both ……………….. and …………………… plastics are
in the class of compounds known as vinyl polymers.
2. The …………………… nature of the polystyrene
chemical compound has resulted in its use for many
types of food containers and plastic parts.
Market and Uses of Polystyrene

Notes
ES
Activity
Polystyrene is a type of plastic made from petroleum by-products.
Surf___________________
over the internet and find
It is formed from hydrocarbon molecules, which take the shape of out the major uses of
tiny foam particles after heating and processing. These foam polystyrene and prepare a
___________________
slideshow on the same.
particles, or beads, are large enough to be visible to the eye, yet ___________________
small and lightweight enough to be used in a wide variety of
___________________
applications. While many people associate polystyrene beads with
beanbag filler, they are also used to make products ranging from ___________________
building insulation to packaging materials. Outside of ___________________

manufacturing, they are also widely used to control mosquitoes ___________________
and other pests.
___________________
One of the most common uses for polystyrene beads is as a filler
___________________
material in consumer goods. These beads are used in most beanbag
___________________
UP
chairs, as well as small foot bags, pet beds, and pillows or cushions.
They also serve as a popular filler material for stuffed animals and
other toys. When used as a filler material, the beads are poured
into an outer shell or casing without the use of any resins or
adhesives.
Polystyrene beads may serve as wall cavity insulation in homes
and building. They are particularly effective when installed in
existing walls, where it may be impractical to add traditional
fiberglass blankets. Installers cut a small hole in the drywall or
plaster, then inject the polystyrene into the wall using an air
blower. The beads fill up all the available space and easily fit
around pipes, wires, and other obstructions. Polystyrene insulation
helps to improve comfort and energy efficiency in a building, which
helps to keep energy costs low and preserve fossil fuels.
Loose beads are also used to slow the growth of mosquito
populations, which helps to control diseases like malaria. These
)
beads are poured into septic tanks or latrine pits to interrupt the
respiration patterns of mosquito larvae. The layer of floating
polystyrene also prevents adult mosquitoes from exiting these
breeding grounds. Unlike alternate materials, polystyrene beads
(c
remain on the surface of the water until they are washed away.
They may also be use in wet or spongy soil, or simply around
planting beds.
The beads may be molded together to form expanded polystyrene
foam (EPS). This foam serves as a popular packaging material,
while small foam peanuts can be used to cushion objects during
shipping. Beads can also be pressed into thin sheets of foam, which
Notes are used to insulate walls, roofs, or even refrigeration units.
ES
___________________ Molded polystyrene is used in items such as automobile interior
___________________ parts, furniture, home appliances refrigerator parts, etc. Packaging
uses plus specialised food uses, such as containers for carry-out
___________________
food, are a growth area. This is result of changing eating habits
___________________ which are increasing amounts of disposable containers. Most of the
___________________ other uses of polystyrene are also for disposable items but their life
cycle is much longer.
___________________
___________________ Expanded polystyrene foams, which are produced by polymerising

styrene with a volatile solvent such as pentane, are used in
___________________
packing. Because of the excellent thermal properties of expanded
___________________ foam and its low density, it is also used as an excellent insulator
___________________ and in floating (life jackets). Foamed materials have a relatively
UP higher growth rate than other polystyrenes. In general Polystyrene
has a slower growth rate than other major thermoplastics.
Styrene-Acrylonitrile, SAN: The copolymer of styrene and
acrylonitrile has better chemical resistance, higher heat resistance
and is stiffer than polystyrene. However, SAN is not as clear as
polystyrene and is used in articles which do not require optional
clarity.
Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene Copolymers, (ABS): These
polymers are tough plastics with outstanding mechanical
properties. They are one of the few thermoplastics which combines
both toughness and hardness. It can meet properties required by a
simple ball-point pen while its specialty grades meet critical
specification for space vehicle parts.
The polymers are resistant to most chemicals and have good
electrical properties. Another outstanding property of ABS is its
ability to be blended, alloyed, with other thermoplastics to give
)
improved properties. For example, when ABS is alloyed with rigid

PVC, the product has better flame resistance. Flame-retardant
ABS may gain new markets in TV sets.
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Among the major applications of ABS are extruded pipes and pipe
fittings, uses which will increase 20 percent per year; appliances
such as refrigerator door liners, and in molded automobile bodies.
153
S
Activity
What are the various products
that are produced using
1. Polystyrene is a type of plastic made from ___________________
polystyrene as raw material?
……………….. by-products.
___________________
2. Polystyrene beads may serve as wall cavity ___________________
……………….. in homes and building.
___________________
PE
Production ___________________
___________________
During World War II, styrene production was at its peak in the
___________________
U.S. due to a need for synthetic rubber, as the majority of natural
rubber producing areas were held by the Japanese at the time. A ___________________
substitute was secretly made by producing a copolymer of ___________________
butadiene and styrene known as Government Rubber Styrene
(GRS). By the mid-1940s, GRS production exceeded twice the level
of natural rubber production prior to the onset of the war. During
the war, this material was primarily used to make tires for the
military. However, this invention stayed the course since GRS is
still used in the manufacturing of all types of tires in the U.S.
)U
today.
In other industries, styrene is used to make all sorts of products
ranging from shoes to rubber backing for carpets. However, this
material is also used to manufacture parts for cars and boats,
plumbing pipes, fiberglass, insulation, some building materials,
and electrical components. It is also used to make plastic drinking
cups and food storage containers.
Styrene is polymerised by either free radical initiators or by use of
coordination catalysts. Bulk suspension and emulsion techniques
are used with free radical initiators and the polymer produced is
atactic. Isotactic polystyrene is produced using Ziegler type
catalysts.
When polybutadiene is used as a copolymer, it is dissolved in
(c
styrene monomer prior to the suspension step. Catalysts and chain

transfer agents are added.
After the polymerisation reaction is completed, the polymer in the
form of hard beads is transferred to an agitation tank centrifuged
and dried in a rotary dryer, blended with different additives, and
finally fed to an extruder and then to a pelletizing machine.
Styrene has little, if any, environmental impact since it quickly

Notes
ES
degrades in the open air and evaporates from soil and water.
___________________ However, certain health hazards of styrene have been noted. For
___________________ one thing, the International Agency for Research on Cancer
considers styrene to be a suspected carcinogen. Other than direct
___________________
handling, exposure to this substance may occur from inhaling
___________________ automobile exhaust, cigarette smoke, and being around building
___________________ materials that contain styrene. In addition, styrene may be
released when using a photocopy machine or leached when eating
___________________
foods packed in a polystyrene container.
___________________

___________________ 1. When …………………… is used as a copolymer, it is

UP dissolved in styrene monomer prior to the suspension
step.
2. Styrene has little environmental impact since it quickly
…………………… in the open air and evaporates from
soil and water.
Summary
Polystyrene is a type of polymer with thermoplastic properties
produced from the petroleum-derived monomer, styrene. In solid
form, it is a colorless and rigid plastic, but it may also be returned
to a liquid state by heating, and used again for molding or
extrusion. Extruded polystyrene foam, commonly known as
Styrofoam, is a type of insulation with versatile applications, such
as the manufacture of surfboards. Expanded polystyrene foam is
actually made of beads of the material. It is used to make
“peanuts” for packaging, disposable coffee cups, and foam picnic
)
coolers.
Polystyrene chemistry also makes the compound inert for the
storage of many industrial chemicals and foods at normal room
(c
temperature, but it is not designed to contain heated materials as

it can release carcinogenic styrene compounds into food in the
process. It is not a biodegradable product, however, and can endure
exposure to sunlight and the natural environment for hundreds of
years before it begins to naturally break down.
Lesson End Activity

Notes
ES
Visit a manufacturing concern and click the pictures of raw
___________________
materials used in the production of polystyrene products and
prepare a small album. ___________________
___________________
Keywords ___________________
Expanded Polystyrene (EPS): Expanded polystyrene foam is ___________________

actually made of beads of the material. It is a rigid and tough, ___________________
closed-cell foam.
___________________
Extruded Polystyrene: Extruded polystyrene foam, commonly
___________________
known as Styrofoam, is a type of insulation with versatile
applications, such as the manufacture of surfboards. ___________________
___________________
UP
Styrene: Styrene is an organic hydrocarbon used to manufacture
rubber and plastic components.
Copolymer: A copolymer is made when two different types of
molecules are joined in the same polymer chain.

1. What is polystyrene?
2. Discuss the properties of polystyrene.
3. Explain the uses of polystyrene.
4. Discuss the production process of polystyrene.
Further Readings
Books
)

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Web Readings
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-the-main-polystyrene-
properties.htm
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-styrene.htm
(c
) UP
ES
UNIT 18: Polycarbonates
Notes
ES
___________________
Polycarbonates ___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
 Concept of Polycarbonates ___________________

 Properties and Processing ___________________
 Applications of Polycarbonates
___________________
 Potential Hazards in Food Contact Applications
___________________
Introduction ___________________
UP
Polycarbonate is transparent (something which can be seen
through) thermoplastic. This material is tough and stable. It can
resist a high temperature of 280°F and a low temperature of
-40°F. It is stain resistant and non-toxic. Polycarbonate weighs one
tenth of glass.
Industries use polycarbonate for making different products, from
bulletproof windows to CDs and DVDs. The main advantages of
polycarbonate are high strength and light weight. Industries use
clear polycarbonate to make eyeglasses. This is because it has a
very good transparency and durability. Lenses made from clear
polycarbonate can be thinner than lenses made from ordinary
glass.
Companies that create electronic equipment use polycarbonate to
create the cover of cell phones, laptops and other products.
Although polycarbonate is non-toxic, it needs toxic chemicals
)
during its production phase.

These are thermoplastics which were developed separately in 1957
by Bayer in Germany and General Electric in the United States.
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Chemically, polycarbonates are polyesters of carbonic acid, and are

produced by condensation polymerisation of the sodium salt of
bisphenol A and phosgene in the presence of an organic solvent.
To produce a water-while polycarbonate, a highly purified,
substantially colourless bisphenol-A is required.
Concept of Polycarbonates
Notes
ES
Activity Polycarbonate is a versatile, tough plastic used for a variety of
___________________
Prepare a slideshow on the applications, from bulletproof windows to Compact Disks (CDs).
concept of polycarbonates
with___________________
text and images. The main advantage of this material over other types of plastic is
___________________ its great strength combined with light weight. While acrylic is 17%
stronger than glass, polycarbonate is nearly unbreakable.
___________________
Bulletproof windows and enclosures as seen inside banks or at
___________________ drive-throughs are often made of this plastic. Add to this the
___________________ advantage that it is just 1/3 the weight of acrylic, or 1/6 as heavy
as glass, and the only drawback is that it is more expensive than
___________________
either.
___________________
Compact disks and Digital Versatile Discs (DVDs) are perhaps the
___________________
most readily recognized examples of polycarbonate. Anyone who
___________________ has archived files on a writable CD, then later tried to break it
UP before throwing it away, knows just how tough this material can
be.
Clear polycarbonate is used to make eyeglasses because of its
excellent transparency, durability, and high refractive index. This
means that it bends light to a far greater degree than glass or
other plastics of equal thickness. Since prescription lenses bend
light to correct vision, polycarbonate lenses can be thinner than
glass or conventional plastic, making it the ideal material for
heavy prescriptions. These thin lenses correct poor vision without
distorting the face or the size of the eyes, yet this extremely thin
lens is virtual indestructible, an important safety factor for
children and active adults.
Polycarbonate lenses are also used in quality sunglasses that
incorporate filters to block Ultra-Violet (UV) rays and near-UV
rays. The lenses can also be polarized to block glare, and their high
impact resistance makes them perfect for sports. Many sunglasses
)
manufacturers choose this material because it can be easily shaped

without problems like cracking or splitting, resulting in extremely
lightweight, distortion-free, fashionable glasses that feature all of
(c
the health benefits doctors recommend.

The electronics industry also uses polycarbonate. It has been used
to create transparent colored computer cases, for example, and
many cell phones, pagers, and laptops also use it in their casings.
Other uses for polycarbonate include greenhouse enclosures,

Notes
ES
automobile headlights, outdoor fixtures, and medical industry Activity
applications, though the list is virtually endless. Somewhat less ___________________
Prepare a draft of an article on
toxic than polyvinyl chloride (PVC) to produce, this plastic the properties of
___________________
polycarbonates.
nevertheless requires toxic chemicals in its production phase. It is,
___________________
however, recyclable and environmentally preferable to PVC in
applications for which either material can be used. ___________________
___________________
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. ……………….. is a versatile, tough plastic used for a
___________________
variety of applications, from bulletproof windows to
compact disks. ___________________
___________________
2.
UP
UV Stands for ………………..
Properties and Processing

Polycarbonate is a durable material. Although it has high impact-
resistance, it has low scratch-resistance and so a hard coating is
applied to polycarbonate eyewear lenses and polycarbonate
exterior automotive components. The characteristics of
polycarbonate are quite like those of polymethyl methacrylate
(PMMA, acrylic), but polycarbonate is stronger and usable over a
greater temperature range. Polycarbonate is highly transparent to
visible light, with better light transmission than many kinds of
glass.
Polycarbonate has a glass transition temperature of about 147°C
(297°F), so it softens gradually above this point and flows above
about 155°C (311°F). Tools must be held at high temperatures,
generally above 80°C (176°F) to make strain- and stress-free
)
products. Low molecular mass grades are easier to mould than

higher grades, but their strength is lower as a result. The toughest
grades have the highest molecular mass, but are much more
(c
difficult to process.
Unlike most thermoplastics, polycarbonate can undergo large
plastic deformations without cracking or breaking. As a result, it
can be processed and formed at room temperature using sheet
metal techniques, such as bending on a brake. Even for sharp
angle bends with a tight radius, heating may not be necessary.
This makes it valuable in prototyping applications where
160 transparent or electrically non-conductive parts are needed, which

Notes cannot be made from sheet metal. Note that PMMA/Plexiglas,
S
Activity
which is similar in appearance to polycarbonate, is brittle and
Visit___________________
a manufacturing concern
which uses polycarbonates as cannot be bent at room temperature.
raw___________________
material and find out the
various applications of Main transformation techniques for polycarbonate resins:
___________________
polycarbonates.
z Extrusion into tubes, rods and other profiles including
___________________
multiwall
___________________
PE
z Extrusion with cylinders (calenders) into sheets (0.5–20 mm
___________________
(0.020–0.79 in)) and films (below 1 mm (0.039 in)), which can
___________________ be used directly or manufactured into other shapes using
___________________ thermoforming or secondary fabrication techniques, such as
bending, drilling, routing, laser cutting etc.
___________________
z Injection molding into ready articles.
___________________
Materials made from polycarbonates are transparent and are
break and heat-resistant. They are resistant to light, water,
oxidation, fats, and salts. They are attacked by weak alkalies and
acids and are soluble in many solvents. Polycarbonates are very
tough over a wide range of temperatures. They are thermally
stable and can be molded at temperatures as high as 550°C. They
)U
are rated as self-extinguishing and have good electrical properties.
The polymers can be injected and blow molded and can be
extruded. They are especially suitable for extrusion of intricate and
exacting profile shapes. Polycarbonates are used in a variety of
articles such as laboratory safety shields, street lighting globes,
safety helmets, sunglasses, solar heat collectors, and school
windows. They can replace elements in some applications, gears
and bushings, for example. The maximum continuous usage
temperature is 125°C.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. Polycarbonate is a ………………. material.
(c
2. Polycarbonate can undergo large plastic

………………..without cracking or breaking.
Applications
Following are the various applications of polycarbonates:
Electronic Components 161

Notes
Polycarbonate is mainly used for electronic applications that
S
capitalize on its collective safety features. Being a good electrical ___________________
insulator and having heat resistant and flame retardant ___________________
properties, it is used in various products associated with electrical
___________________
and telecommunications hardware. It can also serve as dielectric in
high stability capacitors. However, commercial manufacture of ___________________
polycarbonate capacitors has mostly ceased following the decision ___________________
PE
of Bayer AG to discontinue production of capacitor-grade
___________________
polycarbonate film at the end of 2000.
___________________
Construction Materials ___________________
The second largest consumer of polycarbonates is the construction ___________________
industry, e.g. for domelights, flat or curved glazing, and sound
___________________
walls.
)U
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycarbonate
Figure 18.1: Polycarbonate Sheeting in Greenhouse
Data Storage
A major application of polycarbonate is the production of Compact
Discs, DVDs, and Blu-ray Discs. These discs are produced by
injection molding polycarbonate into a mold cavity that has on one
side a metal stamper containing a negative image of the disc data,
while the other mold side is a mirrored surface. Typical products of
sheet/film production include applications in advertisement (signs,
(c
displays, poster protection).
Automotive, Aircraft, and Security Components

In the automotive industry, injection-molded polycarbonate can
produce very smooth surfaces that make it well-suited for direct
(without the need for a basecoat) metalised parts such as

Notes decorative bezels and optical reflectors. Its uniform mold shrinkage
ES
___________________
results in parts with greater accuracy than those made
of polypropylene. However, due to its susceptibility
___________________
to environmental stress cracking, its use is limited to low-stress
___________________ applications. It can be laminated to make bullet-proof "glass",
___________________ although "bullet-resistant" is more accurate for the thinner
windows, such as are used in bullet-resistant windows in
___________________
automobiles. The thicker barriers of transparent plastic used in
___________________ teller's windows and barriers in banks are also polycarbonate.
___________________
So-called "theft-proof" large plastic packaging for smaller items,
___________________ which cannot be opened by hand, is uniformly made from
___________________ polycarbonate.
___________________ The cockpit canopy of the F-22 Raptor jet fighter is made from a
UP piece of high optical quality polycarbonate, and is the largest piece
of its type formed in the world.
South African security companies have launched the 'transparent
burglar bar' under a variety of retail names, made from
polycarbonate.
Niche Applications
Polycarbonate, being a versatile material with attractive
processing and physical properties, has attracted myriad smaller
applications. The use of injection molded drinking bottles, glasses
and food containers is common, but the use of BPA in the
manufacture of polycarbonate has stirred serious controversy
(see Potential hazards in food contact applications), leading to
development and use of "BPA-free" plastics in various
formulations.
Polycarbonate is commonly used in eye protection, as well as in
)
other projectile-resistant viewing and lighting applications that

would normally indicate the use of glass, but require much higher
impact-resistance. Many kinds of lenses are manufactured from
(c
polycarbonate, including automotive headlamp lenses, lighting

lenses, sunglass/eyeglass lenses, swimming and SCUBA goggles,
and safety glasses/goggles/visors including visors in sporting
helmets/masks and police riot gear. Windscreens in small
motorized vehicles are commonly made of polycarbonate, such as
for motorcycles, ATVs, golf carts, and small planes and helicopters.
Notes
ES
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycarbonate ___________________
Figure 18.2: Laboratory Safety Goggles ___________________
The light weight of polycarbonate as opposed to glass has led to ___________________

development of electronic display screens that replace glass with ___________________
polycarbonate, for use in mobile and portable devices. Such
___________________
UP
displays include newer e-ink and some LCD screens, though CRT,
plasma screen and other LCD technologies generally still require
glass for its higher melting temperature and its ability to be etched
in finer detail.
As more and more governments are restricting the use of glass in
pubs and clubs due to the increased incidence of glassings,
polycarbonate glasses are becoming popular for serving alcohol
because of their strength, durability, and glass-like feel.
Other miscellaneous items include durable, lightweight luggage,
MP3/digital audio player cases, ocarinas, computer cases, riot
shields, instrument panels, tealight candle containers and blender
jars. Many toys and hobby items are made from polycarbonate
parts, e.g. fins, gyro mounts, and flybar locks for use with radio-
controlled helicopters.
For use in applications exposed to weathering or UV-radiation, a
special surface treatment is needed. This either can be a coating
)
(e.g. for improved abrasion resistance), or a coextrusion for

enhanced weathering resistance.
Polycarbonate is also used as a printing substrate for nameplate
(c
and other forms of industrial grade under printed products. The

polycarbonate provides a barrier to wear, the elements, and fading.
Medical Applications
Many polycarbonate grades are used in medical applications and
comply with both ISO 10993-1 and USP Class VI standards
(occasionally referred to as PC-ISO). Class VI is the most stringent
of the six USP ratings. These grades can be sterilized using steam
Notes at 120°C, gamma radiation, or by the ethylene oxide (EtO)
ES
Activity
___________________
method. However, scientific research indicates possible problems
Collect information from
newspapers on the potential with biocompatibility. Dow Chemical strictly limits all its plastics
___________________
hazards in food contact with regard to medical applications.
applications and prepare a
___________________
report.
Check Your Progress
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
___________________
1. The light weight of polycarbonate as opposed to glass
has led to development of electronic ..………………..
___________________
screens.
___________________
2. The ..……………….. provides a barrier to wear, the
___________________ elements, and fading.
___________________
UP Potential Hazards in Food Contact Applications
The use of polycarbonate containers for the purpose of food storage
is controversial. The basis of this controversy is their hydrolysis
(degradation by water, often referred to as leaching) occurring at
high temperature, releases bisphenol A:
1/n [OC(OC6H4)2CMe2]n + H2O → (HOC6H4)2CMe2 + CO2
More than 100 studies have explored the bioactivity of bisphenol A
derived from polycarbonates. Bisphenol A appeared to be released
from polycarbonate animal cages into water at room temperature
and it may have been responsible for enlargement of the
reproductive organs of female mice. However, the animal cages
used in the research were fabricated from industrial grade
polycarbonate, rather than FDA food grade polycarbonate.
An analysis of the literature on bisphenol A leachate low-dose
effects by vom Saal and Hughes published in August 2005 seems to
)
have found a suggestive correlation between the source of funding

and the conclusion drawn. Industry funded studies tend to find no
significant effects whereas government funded studies tend to find
(c
significant effects.
Sodium hypochlorite bleach and other alkali cleaners catalyze the
release of the bisphenol A from polycarbonate containers. A
chemical compatibility chart shows that polycarbonate is
incompatible with ammonia and acetone because it dissolves in
their presence. Alcohol is one recommended organic solvent for
cleaning grease and oils from polycarbonate.
ES
1. The use of polycarbonate containers for the purpose of ___________________
food storage is …………………
___________________
2. Alcohol is one recommended organic solvent for ___________________
cleaning grease and oils from ………………….
___________________
___________________
Summary
___________________
Industries use polycarbonate for making different products, from
___________________
bulletproof windows to CDs and DVDs. The main advantages of
polycarbonate are high strength and light weight. Compact disks ___________________
and Digital Versatile Discs (DVDs) are perhaps the most readily ___________________
UP
recognized examples of polycarbonate. Anyone who has archived
files on a writable CD, then later tried to break it before throwing
it away, knows just how tough this material can be.
Polycarbonates are very tough over a wide range of temperatures.
They are thermally stable and can be molded at temperatures as
high as 550°C.
Lesson End Activity

Discuss within your group the potential hazards of polycarbonates.
Keywords
Polycarbonate: It is a versatile, tough plastic used for a variety of
applications, from bulletproof windows to compact disks.
Acrylic: These resins are a group of related thermoplastic or
)
thermosetting plastic substances derived from acrylic acid,

methacrylic acid or other related compounds.
Thermoplastic: A thermoplastic is a type of plastic made from
(c
polymer resins that becomes a homogenized liquid when heated

and hard when cooled.

1. What do you mean by polycarbonates?
2. Describe the properties of polycarbonates.
3. Discuss the processing of polycarbonates.

Notes
ES
4. What are the applications of polycarbonates.
___________________
5. Discuss the potential hazards of polycarbonates in food contact
___________________
applications.
___________________
___________________ Further Readings

___________________
Books
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
UP Web Readings
http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycarbonate
http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-polycarbonate.htm
)
(c
UNIT 19: Synthetic Fibres
Notes
ES
___________________
Synthetic Fibres ___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
 Concept of Synthetic Fibres ___________________

 Polyester Fibres ___________________
 Acrylic Fibres
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
UP
Synthetic fibres are the result of extensive research by scientists to
improve on naturally occurring animal and plant fibres. In general,
synthetic fibres are created by forcing, usually through extrusion,
fibre forming materials through holes (called spinnerets) into the
air, forming a thread. Before synthetic fibres were developed,
artificially manufactured fibres were made from cellulose, which
comes from plants. These fibres are called cellulose fibres.
Synthetic fibres are made from synthesized polymers or small
molecules. The compounds that are used to make these fibres come
from raw materials such as petroleum based chemicals or
petrochemicals. These materials are polymerized into a long, linear
chemical that bond two adjacent carbon atoms. Differing chemical
compounds will be used to produce different types of fibres.
Although there are several different synthetic fibres, they
generally have the same common properties. Generally, they are
known for being: heat-sensitive, resistant to most chemicals,
)
resistant to insects, fungi and rot but when damp and warm may
attract them, low moisture absorbency, electrostatic, flame
resistant, density or specific gravity, pilling, low melting
temperature, extremely hazardous to the environment, can shrink
(c
wrap and suffocate the user, can make you overheat, synthetic
fibres do not depend either on an agricultural crop or on animal
farming, they are generally cheaper than natural fibre, synthetic
fibres possess unique characteristics which make them popular
dress material, they dry up quickly, are durable, readily available
and easy to maintain and can make you get cold when wet.
Concept of Synthetic Fibres

Notes
ES
Activity A Polymer that is at least 100 times as long as it is wide is
___________________
Prepare a slideshow on considered a fibre. Historically, the fibres for fabric production
synthetic fibres by forming
___________________
group of 3 students. were linen, cotton and wool. The first two are from plants and are
___________________ composed of cellulose, and the third is of non-plant origin and is
protein in nature. Man-made fibres are derived either from plants,
___________________
the cellulosic fibres, or from petroleum which provides the
___________________ monomers from which the fibre polymers are produced. The fibres
___________________ from petroleum-based monomers are called synthetic fibres.
___________________ Rayon and cellophane are “regenerated cellulose.” Modified

___________________
cellulose include cellulose nitrate, cellulose ethers, cellulose
acetate. The first two are used as plastics. Cellulose acetate is used
___________________
as a fibre, acetate rayon. Rayon and acetate rayon have less than
___________________ ten percent of the fibre market.
UP The most important synthetic fibres are polyesters, polyamides
(nylons), polyacrylates and, to a lesser extent, polyolefins.
The manufacture of synthetic fibres involves the conversion of a
linear polymer with the polymer chains into a low denier filament.
The most important properties of polymers to be used for fibre
production are:
1. High melting point, preferably above 100°C
2. Linear and symmetrical structure and high molecular weight.
The two major processes used for fibre production are melt
spinning and solution spinning. Melt spinning is used for polymers
which can be melted into a highly viscous liquid and which does
not decompose during processing. The melt is extruded through
spinneret holes, either individually to form monofilaments. The
filaments are then mechanically stretched to provide the required
tensile strength.
)
A solvent is used in solution spinning. After filtering and degassing

the polymer solution, it is fed by use of a screw or gear pump
through spinnerets while exposed to hot air to evaporate the
(c
solvent. The fibres are washed and subjected to mechanical

stretching by passing them through rotating rollers.
Bulk and texture are improved by thermal or mechanical texturing
using false twist or jet texturing. Combining polymers with
different shrinkage characteristics give fabrics with attractive
luster and feel. New developments include the processing and

dyeing of polypropylene fibres. Notes
ES
Activity
___________________
Check Your Progress different kinds of polyester
___________________
fibres.
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
1. The fibres from petroleum-based ……………… are
___________________
called synthetic fibres.
___________________
2. Melt ………………… is used for polymers which can be
melted into a highly viscous liquid and which does not ___________________
decompose during processing. ___________________
___________________
Polyester Fibres
___________________
Polyester is a manufactured product, usually a textile, that is ___________________
UP
made from synthesized polymers. It tends to be very resilient,
quick drying, resistant to biological damage such as mold and
mildew, easy to wash and able to hold forms well. Although
polyester is often maligned as a textile, it has many useful
applications. It is, however, highly flammable, so care should be
taken when wearing it. Many synthetic fabrics are subject to
flammability because they are made from polymers.
This substance is made from polyethylene terephthalate (PET), the
same material that is used to make plastic drink bottles. Many
drink bottles are recycled by being reheated and turned into
polyester fibres, which, in addition to being an efficient use, also
helps keep polymers out of landfills. Polyester is a plastic that was
invented in Britain in the early 1940s. In the 1950s, it became
popular as a textile because of its easy care, its drape and its
versatility.
Chemical Process
)
To make polyester, ethylene glycol and dimethyl terephthalate are

mixed together. The chemical reaction results in bisterephthalate.
This substance is heated to 270 degrees Fahrenheit (132 degrees
(c
Celsius), and it reacts again to form polyethylene terephthalate.

Like many chemical reactions that result in polymers,
the polyester-making process results in unhealthy off-gassing, and
protection should be worn by anyone who is making PET. After
synthesizing the polymers, the manufacturer decides what to do
with them.
PET can be formed into plastics that can later be recycled. It is a

Notes
ES
highly malleable material and appears in all sorts of applications,
___________________ such as drink bottles, food trays and hoses. PET can also be used to
___________________ make fibres that are used in products such as auto upholstery,
quilt batting and clothing of all sorts.
___________________
To make polyester fibre, an extruder is used to produce very fine
___________________
threads of PET. Polyester clothing tends to be slippery and silky in
___________________ feel, although it can cause skin irritation for some wearers. This
___________________ type of fibres used to make clothing can be knitted or woven,
___________________ although most are knit, to maximize the flexibility of polyester.
Some polyester is blended with other fabrics to provide more loft or
___________________
stretch or to minimize skin irritation.
___________________
___________________
Properties and Uses
UP Polyester fibres contain crystalline and non-crystalline regions and
X-ray diffraction studies show that the unit cell is made of one
repeating unit. The degree of crystallinity and molecular
orientation is important in determining the tensile strength of the
fibre (between 18–22 denier) and its shrinkage ability. The degree
of crystallinity and molecular orientation can be obtained by use of
X-ray diffraction and optical methods. Another important property
of polyester fibres is the ability to be blended with natural fibres
such as cotton and wool. PET staple fibre is blended with cotton in
50:50 or 65:35 ratios. Polyester fibres resist environmental
conditions well. Resistance to sunlight is exceeded only by acrylics.
Polyesters have a relatively high melting point and for this reason
melt spinning is preferred since it is less expensive than solution
spinning processes. Polyester fibre is strong, durable and easy to
process but ionic dyes are hard to penetrate because of the
hydrophobic property of the fibre’s surface.
)
Important uses of polyester fibres are durable press varieties

blended with cotton and rayon for – men’s and women’s wear,
pillow cases, bed spreads, and broadloom carpeting, etc. High
(c
tenacity filament for tire cord reinforcement is increasingly used.

Cords are equivalent in strength to nylon tire cords and are
superior because they do not flat spot. V-belts and fire hose are
also made from industrial filaments.
Double knits of spun yarn have a tendency to bag but this is
overcome by texturing the yarn and then using it in apparel
manufacture. Fibre fill made from polyester is used in mattresses,
pillows, sleeping bags, etc. Deep pile with a fur-like appearance

from polyester is used increasingly for coats and jackets, bath Notes
ES
Activity
mats, soft toys, etc. Polyester films are used for electrical ___________________
Prepare a collage of images of
insulation, audio tapes, vacuum packing of foodstuffs, etc. acrylic fibres you can find at
your___________________
home.
The major uses of polyester fibre are apparel, home furnishings
___________________
and tire cord.
___________________
Nylons, however, are to some extent subject to deterioration by
___________________
light. This has been explained on the basis of chain breaking and
crosslinking. No single nylon excels all others in desirable ___________________
properties; they are remarkably similar in properties. The choice of ___________________
the appropriate nylon is usually dictated by economic
___________________
considerations except for specialised uses.
___________________
Tyre cord is the most important application for nylon fibres
___________________
UP
followed by apparel manufacture from nylon stretch to woven
fibres. Elastic textured yarns are used for ladies undergarments.
By use of a heating process, nylon can be given a permanent set or
crease useful for preshaped garments such as hosiery, permanently
pleated pants, etc. Nylon staple and filaments are extensively used
for the carpet industry. Nylon fibre is also used for a variety of
other articles such as seat belts, monofilament finishes, and
knitwear. Because of its high tenacity and elasticity, it is a
valuable fibre for ropes, parachutes, glider tow ropes, and
underwear. The remarkable resistance to abrasion accounts for its
use for driving belts and conveyor belts.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. Polyester is a manufactured product, usually a textile,
that is made from synthesized ……………………
)
2. To make polyester fibre, an …………………… is used to

produce very fine threads of PET.
Acrylic Fibres
(c
Acrylic fabric is a type of fabric made from acrylic fibres, and was
first manufactured by the DuPont Company. DuPont no longer
manufactures acrylic fabric, but it is still widely manufactured
throughout the world. It does use a chemically produced substance
called acrylonitrile, which is also used in the production of plastics.
Acrylonitrile tends to break down easily in the environment,
though there is some argument on this point. High levels of

Notes acrylonitrile exposure might be considered toxic, but the quick
ES
___________________
break down often keeps acrylic fabric marketed as environmentally
friendly.
___________________
Acrylonitrile can he polymerised using free radical or anionic type
___________________
initiators at low temperatures. The commercial polymerisation of
___________________ acrylonitrile takes place by addition reaction and it is usually
___________________ copolymerised with other monomers such as methacrylate vinyl
acetate, vinyl chloride, and acrylamide. The polymerisation takes
___________________
place continuously in an aqueous medium with a redox catalyst
___________________
such as ammonium persulfate. The resulting polymer is filtered,
___________________ washed, and dried.
___________________ Melt spinning is not used with polyacrylics since they are sensitive
___________________ to high temperatures. Solution spinning (wet or dry) is the process
UP of choice. A highly polar solvent is necessary to dissolve
polyacrylics and dimethylformamide is most often used.
Modacrylics are spun from an acetone solution. Various additives
are used such as dyes, lusterants, and brighteners which may be
added to the solution before spinning.
Properties and Uses

The commercial names of acrylic fibres are Orion, Acrilan, and
Courtelle. These fibres possess the popular properties of soft hand,
resistance to creasing, and quick drying. They have properties
similar to wool and have replaced wool in many markets such as
for blankets, sweaters, carpets, etc.
These fibres are highly resistant to degradation to sunlight and
chemicals. They were originally intended for industrial usage and
for fabrics such as used for awnings which are exposed to direct
sunlight.
)
New types of acrylics are lighter in weight and have a high water
absorption power. The new fibre is developed by Bayer AG and is
said to have properties that closely matches and in some cases
(c
surpasses those of wool. These new fibres can absorb up to

30 percent by weight of water in comparison to 5 percent for
conventional fibres and 40 percent for cotton and wool. The
absorbed water by the new acrylic-fibres does not cause the fibre to
swell as in the case of cotton and wool.
Commercially available fibres are Dynel and Verel. Dynel is
copolymerised with vinyl chloride. Because of the polymer’s fibres.
It is also resistant to inorganic chemicals and microorganisms.

Dynel is used for protective clothing, hospital blankets, and other Notes
ES
uses. The two major uses of acrylic fibres are apparel and home ___________________
furnishings.
___________________
Acrylic fabric is used widely in knits, as upholstery covering, and
___________________
the fibres may be woven to make rugs. People often think of acrylic
fabric as an excellent wool substitute, and certain forms of it are ___________________
exceptionally soft, while remaining lightweight. Certain cashmere ___________________

substitutes are made with acrylic fabric and are considered as good ___________________
or better than cashmere in softness and appearance. Some woven
___________________
garments may contain an acrylic blend with natural fibres.
___________________
Early acrylic fabric was prone to pilling, and washing it regularly
could cause the top of the fabric to have a worn appearance. To this ___________________
end, Monsanto Chemical Company developed a chemical process ___________________

UP
called Pil-Trol that keeps acrylic fabric from pilling. This has
proven helpful, but acrylic fabric still requires gentle care, may
need to be dry-cleaned or at the very least washed in cold water on
gentle cycle in your washing machine. The more carefully you treat
acrylic fabric, the more likely the garment will last longer and
retain a “new” appearance. For best results, always follow the
garment’s tags for cleaning care.
Acrylic fabric has grown popular in a variety of sports garments.
The National Football League, for instance has acrylic socks as
part of their standard uniform. You will often have to purchase
acrylic socks for kids playing baseball, football or soccer. Socks in
acrylic fabric are a great choice because they keep their shape and
can be highly elastic. They may be a better choice for hikers,
because you are far more likely to get blisters from cotton blend
socks than from those made of acrylic.
Acrylic fabric is favored for a variety of other reasons. It is warm,
)
can be quite soft, holds color well, and is both stain and wrinkle
resistant. These can make acrylic fabric a popular choice, and for
those who love wool but are allergic to it, acrylic can be an
(c
excellent substitute.
When acrylic fabric was first made, it was often thought “cheap”
and not as valuable as natural fibre garments. Some early acrylic
fabrics weren’t comfortable and were quite itchy. New
manufacturing processes have mainly solved these issues, and
many prefer acrylic to natural fibres because it tends to be easier
to care for.
Notes Check Your Progress
ES
___________________
Fill in the blanks:
___________________ 1. Melt spinning is not used with polyacrylics since they

are sensitive to high …………………
___________________
2. The two major uses of acrylic fibres are …………………
___________________
and ………………… furnishings.
___________________
___________________
Summary
___________________
Synthetic fibres are made from synthesized polymers or small
___________________ molecules. The compounds that are used to make these fibres come
___________________ from raw materials such as petroleum based chemicals or
___________________
petrochemicals. These materials are polymerized into a long, linear
UP chemical that bond two adjacent carbon atoms. Differing chemical
compounds will be used to produce different types of fibres.
Polyester is a manufactured product, usually a textile, that is
made from synthesized polymers. It tends to be very resilient,
quick drying, resistant to biological damage such as mold and
mildew, easy to wash and able to hold forms well.
Acrylic fabric is used widely in knits, as upholstery covering, and
the fibres may be woven to make rugs. People often think of acrylic
fabric as an excellent wool substitute, and certain forms of it are
exceptionally soft, while remaining lightweight.
Lesson End Activity

Hold a group discussion on the uses of synthetic fibres.
Keywords
)
Acrylic: These resins are a group of related thermoplastic or

thermosetting plastic substances derived from acrylic acid,
(c
Synthetic Fibres: These fibres are made from synthesized

polymers or small molecules.
Polyester: Polyester is a manufactured product, usually a textile,
that is made from synthesized polymers.
Acrylic Fabric: Acrylic fabric is a type of fabric made from acrylic
fibres.

Notes
ES
1. What are synthetic fibres?
___________________
2. Give a list of various synthetic fibres.
___________________
3. What are the uses of Acrylic fibres?
___________________
4. What are polyester fibres? Discuss its various uses.
___________________
5. What is the chemical process of polyester fibres? ___________________
___________________
Further Readings
___________________
Books ___________________

Edn. McGraw Hill (Book) ___________________
UP
Web Readings
http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-acrylic-fabric.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyester
)
(c
(c
) UP
ES
UNIT 15: Case Study
Unit 20
177
Notes
S
Case Study
___________________
___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
PE
___________________
Case Study: Unique Problem Solving for Petrochemical
Industry ___________________
___________________
A lubrication malfunction caused a catastrophic failure in a
Philadelphia Gear gearbox on one of the offshore gas production ___________________
platforms in the Gulf of Mexico, owned by one of the world's
largest petrochemical companies. The gearbox, designed for high- ___________________
speed pumping applications, required externally "forced"
lubrication systems, as opposed to internally designed "splash"
lubrication systems. Always important when there is metal-to-
metal contact, effective lubrication is extremely critical to high-
speed gearboxes. This is particularly true of applications that are
located miles from shore and face severe logistical challenges
during the inspect, repair and re-installation processes.
Though it is typical to have an additional lubrication unit
)U
designated as a "critical spare" and stored on the offshore
platform, in this particular case the failure was so abrupt that it
went unnoticed prior to the discovery of the actual breakdown.
The lack of lubrication caused the babbitt (an alloy material used
to line the sleeve bearings) to actually melt within minutes of the
failure. The gear set - now turning at approximately 14,000 RPM
with no effective lubrication system - soon became overheated,
causing the gear teeth to crack and break apart inside the
gearbox.
In this application, the gearbox was a compressor drive located
between a gas turbine and a gas compressor and was used for
pumping material through undersea lines directly to the
customer's processing plants located on shore.
The Problem
The offshore platform had only one of these units installed, so
when the gearbox blew, it effectively shut down. This happened at
a particularly bad time because they were rushing to meet a
(c
production deadline, with severe penalties if the contract wasn't

fulfilled on time. On average, the platform generated
approximately $1.5 million of revenue a day for its parent
company – one of the top five petrochemical companies in the
world.
Fortunately, no one was hurt when this unit went down. If the
teeth had not been broken, personnel on the rig would have
Contd…
attempted to repair it by simply changing the sleeve bearings or

Notes replacing the external lubricator. Once it became clear that the
ES
gear teeth were irreparably damaged, the customer called the
___________________ Philadelphia Gear Regional Service Center in Houston, Texas.
___________________ The Solution
___________________
The call came into Wylie Wilson, operations manager for the
Houston Regional Facility. Wylie authorized direct shipment of
___________________ the damaged gear set and the bearings for inspection and
evaluation. The customer sent the parts via helicopter from the
___________________ offshore rig to the airport, where a courier delivered them to
Houston.
___________________
The parts underwent the following examination:
___________________
1. Magnetic particle inspection of all gear elements (a
___________________ sophisticated black light test revealing pits, cracks, etc.),
___________________ 2. Because the damage was so severe, the normal process of

measuring and charting the tooth geometry at this point was
___________________ irrelevant, and
UP 3. Visual inspection of bearings to evaluate cause of failure.
A comprehensive report was then sent to the customer advising
them of the inspection results and that an expedited lead time for
replacement of the gear set would be four weeks - half the
industry standard.
Facing the aforementioned penalty, the customer asked
Philadelphia Gear to try and come up with an interim plan. The
Houston engineers, in consultation with the Engineering and
Technical Center in Norristown, Pennsylvania, settled on the idea
of making a "tough-hardened" set of gears that could operate at a
reduced service factor. Though this set would not be carburized, it
was determined that they'd last a minimum of six weeks, allowing
the platform to continue operations while it waited for the
replacement set to be manufactured.
After the customer gave an enthusiastic approval, Philadelphia
Gear manufactured and balanced the alternative gear set to
AGMA quality 14 accuracy, inspecting them, testing them, and
getting them back to the offshore platform in only four days.
This enabled the platform to begin pumping again, while
Philadelphia Gear began manufacturing another set of carburized
)
gears. Sharing the customer's sense of urgency, the Houston

facility was able to manufacture and ship the replacements in
three weeks, less than half the normal 6-8 week turnaround time.
All parts and workmanship carried Philadelphia Gear's "best in
(c
industry" one year warranty. Though the warranty allows up to

six additional months in which to re-install a gearbox, it certainly
wasn't applicable in this case.
Question:
What was the solution suggested by Houston Regional Facility for
problem solving for petrochemical industry?
Source: http://www.philagear.com/industries_case_petrochem.shtm
UNIT 21: Process Technologies
Notes
ES
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
UP
BLOCK-V
)
(c
Detailed Contents
Notes
ES
UNIT 21: PROCESS TECHNOLOGIES
___________________ UNIT 23: INDIAN SCENARIO
___________________
 Fundamentals  Petrochemical Industry in India
___________________
 Applications of Technology  Challenges Faced by Indian Petrochemical Industry
___________________
 Selection of Technology  Environment Friendly Petrochemical Technology
___________________
UNIT 22: TECHNOLOGIES FOR
___________________ UNIT 24: VARIOUS PETROCHEMICAL
PETROCHEMICAL PLANTS INDUSTRIES IN INDIA
 ___________________
Introduction  Introduction
 ___________________
Aromatics Plants  Aromatics Industry
 ___________________
Olefins Plants  Printing Industry
 Polymer Plants
___________________  Food Processing Industry
UP 

Pharmaceutical Industry
Electronics Industry
UNIT 25: CASE STUDY

)
(c
Notes
ES
Activity
___________________
Prepare a slideshow on the
Process Technologies fundamentals of process
___________________
technologies.
___________________
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
 Fundamentals of Process Technologies ___________________

 Applications of Technology ___________________
 Selection of Technology
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
UP
About 80% of all petrochemicals are derived from products of
ethylene plants, which are the heart of petrochemical complexes.
Today’s modern ethylene plants are a complex network of more
than 300 individual units, for thermal cracking, cracked gas
compression and physical scrubbing, fractionation, adsorptive
drying, catalytic hydrogenation and others, operating in the
temperature range of 1,100°C to 170°C. Due to the complexity of
the process only a few experienced contractors can offer
competitive designs for ethylene plants today.
Fundamentals
The petrochemical intermediates and products are produced from
basic raw materials either along with other inputs when chemical
reaction takes place in a reactor, in the presence of a catalyst or
without a catalyst. Molecules undergo rearrangement during the
chemical reaction to form new molecules, which are desired
)
products, as well as other molecules which essentially get formed

in the side reactions and the latter are called by-products that
have less value as compared to the desired products.
(c
The chemical reaction in the reactor are either isothermal i.e.,

taking place at a constant temperature or adiabatic, taking place
with change in temperature where desired and undesired products
are formed. It must be understood clearly that in this process
undesirable side product formation cannot be avoided even after
adjusting the process parameters as well as the catalyst.
All the reactions, namely, desired and undesired are ultimately

Notes
ES
controlled by the thermodynamic equilibrium limits as well as the
___________________
kinetic rates of these reactions that occur concurrently and in
___________________ parallel. Thermodynamically, when hydrocarbon molecules
___________________ undergo reaction, formation of carbon is the most stable option.
___________________ From economic point of view, this reaction is not desirable and is
therefore retarded to maximum extent which can be achieved by
___________________
adjusting the process variables and incorporating hydrogen in the
___________________ system. Process parameters are temperature, pressure, partial
___________________ pressure of hydrogen, space velocity or residence time etc.
___________________ Economic objectives of reactor process control are as follows (since
___________________ the reactor section is the heart of the entire petrochemical plant):
___________________  Minimise the consumption of raw material/feed and other

UP 
inputs.
Maximise the yield of desired products.
 Minimise formation of undesirable side products/byproducts.
 Maximise utilisation of heat energy released during the
exothermic reaction and minimise the heat input to the reactor
for the endothermic reaction.
Besides these, the operating parameters like temperature,
pressure, residence time/space velocity, content of corrosive
materials in the feed/other inputs which determine use of exotic
material of construction of reactor and associated equipment and
piping etc., type of reactor namely, fixed bed, moving bed, fluidised
bed (all catalytic heterogeneous) are very vital in determining the
overall economics of the heart of the petrochemical plant i.e., the
reactor section.
)
Plant Design Factor

Other very important factors which are necessarily considered in
process technology of a petrochemical plant design are:
(c
1. Quality of raw material/feed–it is not only the purity of the

feed with respect to the percentage content of the main
reactant, but the levels of impurities in the feed e.g., the
sulphur content in naphtha feed to the noble metal catalytic
reformer of an aromatics plant must be nil or 2-3 ppmw max.
(parts per million by weight maximum), otherwise the catalyst
gets poisoned and the life of the catalyst will be much shorter.
An ideal feed would be that which has nil sulphur content and
it will be very costly to obtain such a raw material. Therefore, Notes
ES
an upper limit of the impurity is imposed in order to ___________________
commercially operate the petrochemical plant such that the
___________________
impurities at tolerable levels are acceptable.
___________________
From a practical point of view, it is also possible to procure a
feed stock having a slightly higher impurities level and pass it ___________________
through a treating section in the plant where the impurities ___________________

in the feed are brought down to tolerable levels prior to ___________________
sending it into the reactor. For this a “feed pretreatment”
___________________
section has to be designed and incorporated in the plant
beforehand. ___________________
2. In many cases, the chemical reactor will be of a special design ___________________
and the supplier of the process technology invariably will ___________________

UP
closely hold such a design and it is called the “proprietary
design”. Such items are at an additional cost but it is
inevitable to bear that additional cost for the sake of good and
competitive technology.
3. The process technology normally dictates whether the
chemical reactor be a “batch” type or a “continuous” one. For
example Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) produced by “suspension
polymerisation” technique is mostly manufactured in “batch”
reactors since the quality of the product is maintained at the
highest level as compared to a “continuous” process design.
Therefore, it cannot be considered as an obsolete technology in
comparison with “continuous” process.
4. Another important aspect of chemical process technology is
that the type of equipment may be of special design e.g., to
separate para-xylene from the mixture of other components,
adsorption process using molecular sieves has the highest
)
efficiency; in this separation system the feed, desorbent,

solvent and extract streams are to pass through different
chambers in a predetermined sequence: this requirement is
(c
readily met by a novel design of “rotary valve” mechanism

specially designed by one of the reputed process licensor in this
field and this is a “proprietary” design.
In spite of higher cost, most of the p-xylene manufacturers
have installed this process mechanism in their plants due to
higher economic benefits derived from that “proprietary”
design.
184
5. Using a fluidised bed reactor or a drying system has found
Notes
S
greater advantage over the conventional designs. Therefore,
___________________
several process technologies utilise such innovative designs
___________________ incorporated therein.
___________________ 6. A built-in safety mechanism in a process system and
___________________ equipment is very essential in a petrochemical plant design
because hydrocarbons as well as obnoxious substances are
___________________
PE
invariably handled in the system at elevated temperature and
___________________ pressure. In addition, in many cases air or oxygen is used
___________________ along with such hazardous materials, which has great
___________________
potential to cause fire or explosion.
___________________ 7. The process design therefore takes great care to overcome such
hazardous situation at any cost and a built-in safety system is
___________________
incorporated with redundancy. A redundancy is necessary
because if one system fails to act instantaneously, the
redundant one will take care to overcome the hazardous
situation e.g., normally two pressure safety valves in parallel
are installed.
8. In the process technology of a petrochemical plant over the last
sixty decades two important databases have been generated.
)U
First, fundamental research which is mostly carried out in the
academic institutions/universities. This is related to
thermodynamic and kinetic data and relations between most
of the known substances, which in turn is a very massive
database.
Second, applied research, which is carried out in laboratories,
pilot plants and semi-commercial pilot, plants, all related to
various chemical processes. These experimental and
development worked costs more than the fundamental
research and sometimes quite hazardous and time consuming.
Given this background, petrochemical process technology has
come out a long way and several innovations as well as more
alternate routes to produce a product from several inputs.
(c
Both, fundamental as well as applied Research and

Development (R&D) has given dividends to commercial sectors
but it needs no emphasis that all these have a massive
cumulative cost attached to the stupendous efforts put-in.
9. Initially in the USA and UK, petrochemical plants were built

Notes
ES
since the products had ready market. More plants were built Activity
based on improved technologies after gaining operating ___________________
Prepare a magazine style
article on the applications of
experience. Later, process technologies were licensed to other ___________________
technology.
entrepreneurs.
___________________
Thus, several companies emerged to license competitive
___________________
process technologies besides those companies who had already
___________________
set up operating plants. In the last four decades, several
reputed process licensors have started competing in this field ___________________
mostly from USA, UK, Germany, France, Italy, Netherlands, ___________________
Canada and Japan. Based on their technologies several large-
___________________
scale petrochemical plants have been installed in the Middle
East, South America, South East Asia and China. ___________________
___________________
Fill in the blanks:

UP
Check Your Progress
1. The chemical reaction in the reactor are either

………………….. and …………………..
2. 2. Using a fluidised bed reactor or a drying system has
found greater advantage over the …………………..
designs.
Applications of Technology
Technology as applied to petrochemical processes is continuously
changing for better. In a free economy, many old plants have to be
scrapped due to technological obsolescence. Many plants have to be
debottlenecked/ revamped using new technology which
incorporates economic and technical advantages in the present
competitive environment. Present business atmosphere demands
)
such a novel process technology, that the product quality fully

meets the competitive market requirements at an attractive and
affordable price.
(c
The technology must be such that besides reducing overall

manufacturing costs, it must service flexibility of the feed stocks
and conserve technical as well as managerial manpower. In order
to take full advantage of the process technology licensed and
incorporated in the petrochemical plant, the operating company
must absorb it in such a way that the operating and maintenance
personnel have complete mastery over it, once the technology is
transferred by the licensor. Further, an R&D facility may be set up

Notes to improve upon the technology for future applications and
ES
Activity
Visit___________________
the website of a markets.
petrochemical company and
find___________________
out which technology is it In this facility, heterogeneous catalyst in use may be monitored
using and prepare a short and new catalysts can be evaluated for proper selection when it
___________________
report.
calls for replacement of the spent catalyst. Setting up a pilot plant
___________________
for this purpose will be very advantageous. R&D Centre of IPCL
___________________ that was set up at a cost of ` 60 crores is an excellent example
___________________ since massive application development and research work on new
catalysts/molecular sieve carried out there has given good
___________________
dividends to IPCL. In the petrochemical arena, exhaustive R&D
___________________
work is carried out by RRLs of CSIR, NCL (Pune), IIP (Dehradun)
___________________ which has benefited the entire petrochemical industry in India.
___________________
Check Your Progress
1. Technology as applied to ………………… processes is

continuously changing for better.
2. Many old plants have to be scrapped due to
………………… obsolescence.
Selection of Technology
Process technology for petrochemical plants are readily available
from reputed licensors from advanced countries. These
technologies are commercially proven i.e., they can provide a list of
operating plants built on their technology. However for some
petrochemical products such as Butyl Rubber, Linear Alpha
Olefins etc. the technologies are closely held by handful
manufacturing companies and they are reluctant to license their
)
technology to a third party.

This is because their present plant capacities are much larger than
the world market demand. If an entrepreneur would like to set up
(c
a petrochemical plant in India based on licensed technology,

following procedure may give guidance:
1. Prepare an exhaustive list of all the prospective process
licensors by compiling the information from the literature,
technical journals and by attending conferences in related
areas etc. Also, note that correct address for correspondence of
the individual party must be recorded.
2. Send enquiry to each of them informing about the

Notes
ES
new/proposed plant and their interest in licensing the same.
___________________
3. Prepare a Notice Inviting Tender (NIT) which gives all
including their exhaustive commercial reference and the ___________________
commercial offer. Send the NIT to all the short listed licensors. ___________________
4. After receiving the technical and commercial bids, a small ___________________

group of experts including finance has to evaluate the offers. ___________________
During evaluation, a number of queries would arise which
___________________
must be sent to them for clarifications. Also the licensor should
be invited to give a presentation and provide answers to all the ___________________
queries. Based on the data final evaluation will rank out the ___________________
licensors offers.
___________________
Process guarantees with liabilities for the individual offer are ___________________
UP
very important besides the license fee and the schedule of
payment in the final evaluation. An agreement will be signed
with the selected licensor after negotiating for the best terms
and conditions by the owner. Such agreement is called
“License Agreement” which has to be vetted by the legal
authorities of the owner.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. ……………. technology for petrochemical plants are
readily available from reputed licensors from advanced
countries.
2. The licensor should be invited to give a ………………..
and provide answers to all the queries.
Summary
)
The petrochemical intermediates and products are produced from

basic raw materials either along with other inputs when chemical
reaction takes place in a reactor, in the presence of a catalyst or
(c
without a catalyst. Technology as applied to petrochemical

processes is continuously changing for better. In a free economy,
many old plants have to be scrapped due to technological
obsolescence. Many plants have to be debottlenecked/ revamped
using new technology which incorporates economic and technical
advantages in the present competitive environment. Process
guarantees with liabilities for the individual offer are very

Notes important besides the license fee and the schedule of payment in
ES
___________________ the final evaluation.
___________________
___________________
Lesson End Activity
___________________ Discuss in a group of 6 students about the various technologies
used in petrochemical business as per your understanding of the
___________________
topic.
___________________
___________________
Keywords
___________________
___________________ or indirectly from petroleum or natural gas or obtained from
___________________ hydrocarbons and utilized in industrial and household markets.
UP Petrochemical Plant: A petrochemical plant is a facility where
products are made to supply this industry.
Molecule: A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two or
more atoms held together by covalent chemical bonds.

1. What are the fundamentals of process technologies?
2. Discuss the applications of technology.
3. What is the process of selecting a process technology?
4. What are the factors which are necessarily considered in
process technology of a petrochemical plant design?
Further Readings
)
Books
(c

Web Readings
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isothermal_process
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adiabatic_process
UNIT 22: Technologies for Petrochemical Plants
Unit 22
189
Notes
S
Activity
Technologies for Petrochemical

___________________
Search over the internet and
find out the various products
___________________
manufactured in aromatics
Plants plants.
___________________
___________________
Objectives ___________________
PE
___________________
topics:
___________________
\ Aromatics Plants
\ Olefins Plants ___________________
\ Polymer Plants ___________________
___________________
Introduction
In the following sections, some of the important process
technologies will be highlighted. Broadly, the areas are Aromatics,
Olefins (steam crackers), Polymer plants, Fiber intermediates, and
Synthetic Rubber.
)U
Aromatics Plants
The feed stock for the aromatics plant is straight-run naphtha and
to reduce the transportation cost it is advantageous to locate the
plant near a refinery e.g., IPCL adjacent to Gujarat Refinery,
BRPL, Kochi Aromatics plant, etc. To produce Benzene, Toluene
and Xylenes the naphtha is of wide boiling range (35 to 140˚C),
whereas it is of narrower range (35 to 110˚C) for Benzene and
Toluene production. Basically, the naphtha has to be catalytically
hydrogenated to remove sulphur and nitrogen compounds before it
is sent to the Aromatics unit.
The Aromatics plant essentially consists of a catalytic reforming
unit where a noble metal (platinum) catalyst is used. Older plants
employ three or four fixed bed reactors in series through which
(c
naphtha feed in vapour from along with hydrogen gas in a suitable

mole ration is passed. Dehydrogenation of naphthenes in naphtha
occurs on the catalyst to form aromatics. Further down the
paraffins undergo dehydrocyclisation reactions to form aromatics.
Both these reactions produce large quantity of hydrogen as the
byproduct. Major part of it is recycled using a “recycle gas
compressor” that takes care of the pressure differential between

Notes the low-pressure separator and the reactor inlet at 15 bars. Since
ES
___________________
the reactors are operated at 430˚C over a period fine coke (carbon)
is deposited over the platinum catalyst in spite of presence of
___________________
hydrogen at high pressure.
___________________
Thus the activity of the catalyst is diminished and after about
___________________ 10 to 12 months’ continuous operation, the aromatics yield become
___________________ poor and it is uneconomical to operate further. Then the production
___________________
operation is stopped and the catalyst is regenerated i.e., the coke
on the catalyst is removed by controlled combustion using air much
___________________
diluted with nitrogen. After regeneration of catalyst, it is
___________________ rejuvenated using chlorides. Then the plant can be restarted to
___________________ produce aromatics at higher yields.
___________________ Large capacity aromatics plants nowadays utilise a continuous and

UP uninterrupted catalytic reactor system called “Continuous
Catalytic Reactor” (CCR). In the CCR unlike the fixed bed reactors,
the catalyst gradually moves from top to the bottom by gravity and
the highly spent (with coke layer) catalyst is withdrawn from the
last reactor. It is sent to a regenerator where the coke is burnt and
then rejuvenated. This catalyst is recycled into the first reactor
with a small quantity of fresh virgin make-up. Therefore, a CCR
aromatics plant does not need a shutdown for catalyst regeneration
that otherwise causes loss of production. Reliance have installed a
CCR plant.
The reputed process licensors for the aromatics plant are:

Universal Oil Products (UOP), USA; Institute of French Petroleum
(IFP), France; EXXON-Mobil, USA; Engelhard, USA etc. All these
licensors can provide state-of-the-art process technology for the
catalytic reforming plants and also C8 Aromatics Isomerisation and
Toulene-C9 Aromatics Transalkylation (TA) as well as Toluene
)
Disproportionation (DP) process technology which maximises the

p-xylene/ o-xylene production. UOP and IFP license both fixed-bed
as well as CCR design of catalytic reforming processes. The
(c
technology for C8 Aromatics Isomerisation and TA-DP processes

utilises only fixed bed catalytic reactors.
Check Your Progress

Notes
ES
Activity
Fill in the blanks:
___________________
Prepare a list of feedstocks
1. The feed stock for the aromatics plant is straight-run being used in olefins plants
and___________________
write a report.
…………………
___________________
2. The Aromatics plant essentially consists of a
___________________
………………… reforming unit.
___________________
Olefins Plants ___________________
Naphtha or Gas Crackers produce olefins such as ethylene, ___________________

propylene and butadiene besides benzene. The olefins plant also ___________________
called the “mother-cracker” consist of the hot section and a cold
___________________
section that follows. The olefins produced are the “building blocks”
___________________
UP
for the downstream plants, namely, polymer or synthetic rubber.
The process essentially consists of thermal cracking of the feed in
pyrolysis furnaces. The important aspect of the cracking
technology is the furnace design with short residence time and
higher coil outlet temperature that result in higher olefins yield.
As the feed stock becomes heavier, the cracking severity has to be
higher for which most economic mode of operation is to be
determined by the process licensor. Heat recovery aspect is also
equally important for the most optimum economics of plant
operation.
Pyrolysis of hydrocarbons yield a number of byproducts in varying
ratios whose yields are higher in the case of heavier feed stocks.
The following factors are responsible for the higher production of
desired olefins and minimum coke formation:
1. High temperature
2. Short residence time
)
3. Low hydrocarbon partial pressure

The severity condition for pyrolysis is inversely proportional to the
molecular weight of the feed. The feed containing low aromatics
(c
content gives higher olefin yield.

The pyrolysis furnace is a fired tubular heater having a convection
and radiation section. ‘To achieve short residence time a high heat
flux has to be attained without exceeding the maximum
temperature limit of the material of construction of the tubes and
their supports. For this high alloy, Ni-Cr cast steel is use. In order
to minimise coke formation during pyrolysis, dilution steam is

Notes added to the feed stock. It is 0.4, 0.6, and 1.0 by weight of feed,
ES
Activity
___________________
namely, Ethane-Propane, naphtha and kerosene/gas oil
Discuss within your group
about the products of polymer respectively. The three major process sections of the plan are:
___________________
products.
 Cracking heaters and effluent quench systems,
___________________
 Gas cracking heaters and effluent quench systems,
___________________
___________________
 Gas preparation, and
___________________  Gas recovery.
___________________ One of the basic drawbacks of pyrolysis technology is that

periodically one of the heaters has to be taken out of service to
___________________
decoke the furnace tubes/coils. To overcome this problem an
___________________
additional furnace is installed so that the olefin production rate
___________________ does into get diminished.
UP The reputed process licensors who provide the olefins technology
are: ABB Lummus, USA; Stone and Webster Engineering
Corporation, USA; MW Kellogg, USA; CF Braun, USA; Linde AG,
Germany; UBE, Japan; UGC/Chiyoda Kureha, Japan, etc.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. Naphtha or Gas Crackers produce ………………….
2. An additional ……………. is installed so that the olefin
production rate does into get diminished.
Polymer Plants
In fact, the technology for polymer plants is very complicated since
various polymerisation techniques can be applied to produce the
end product starting from the polymer grade input. These can be
)
based on olefins to produce polyolefins or other monomer e.g.,

Vinyl Chloride Monomer (VCM) to produce Poly Vinyl Chloride
(PVC).
(c
LDPE
Low Density Polyethylene can be produced by an ultra-high
pressure route. The reputed licensors for the high-pressure process
are ATOCHEM, France; EXXON-MOBIL. USA; DSM, The
Netherlands etc. This plant essentially employs tubular high-
pressure reactor operated at 2500 to 3000 atm and uses hyper
compressor to achieve this pressure. The product and unconverted

ethylene from reactor passes through a Let-Down Valve (LDV) Notes
ES
where the high pressure is released and the polymer is separated ___________________
as a liquid in a separator. The ethylene gas from the top of the
___________________
separator is compressed in a primary compressor and fed to the
suction of the hyper compressor along with fresh ethylene feed. ___________________
The LDPE in liquid form from the separator is sent through an ___________________
extruder and pelletised, dried and sent to the silo for storing. If it
___________________
meets the specification, the product is bagged before dispatch to
___________________
customs. The built-in safety measures in the plant are: explosion-
proof wall surrounding the tubular reactor coils and pressure ___________________
safety valves to instantly release excess pressure from the reactor ___________________
when decomposition reactions occur since in the feed ethylene a
___________________
small quantity of oxygen is added which acts as the initiator.
___________________
UP
The pressure safety valve discharges the decomp products into the
flare. The ultra-high pressure LDPE process can also utilise
autoclave with an agitator. Reputed process licensors for this are:
CdF Chemie, France; DSM, The Netherlands; Union Carbide,
USA; Gulf, USA; Sumitomo, Japan etc. There are only three LDPE
plants operating in India. A high pressure tubular plant at IPCL,
Vadodara, the autoclave plant at IPCL, Nagothane and the other
at Oswal Petrochem, Mumbai (originally of Union Carbide).
The economics of a process are determined by factors such as
availability of polymer grade raw materials and their
transportation. Another very important factor is unit size. The
relative investment cost can be reduced by 50% by increasing the
unit size from 60,000 tpa to 120,000 tpa for high-pressure tubular
reactor.
LLDPE
The linear Low Density Polyethylene process is of more recent
)
origin. Because of techno-commercial advantage of the process

LLDPE could capture an overwhelming market as compared to
LDPE. It has capital cost and economics-of-scale advantage. Very
(c
large capacity like 250,000 tpa plants are built. Besides, the plant
can be operated on a swing mode i.e., the production can be
switched over from LLDPE to LDPE and vice versa. The process
uses a catalytic reaction and the process can use a fluidised bed
reactor or a solvent in polymerisation. The reputed licensors for
the fluidised bed technology are: BP Chemicals, UK; Union
Carbide, USA; Montell, Italy etc. Licensor for the solution process
Notes is Novacor, Canada.
ES
___________________
HDPE
___________________
The High Density Polyethylene Process uses either a swing reactor
___________________ mentioned above or a slurry mode of polymerisation. Reputed
___________________ licensor for the slurry reactor process are Hoechst AG, Germany;
Mitsui, Japan; Union Carbide, USA.
___________________
___________________ Polypropylene
___________________ Polypropylene (PP) is the most versatile among the polyolefins and
its growth rate is highest therein. PP is available as a
___________________
homopolymer and a copolymer in combination with ethylene as the
___________________ comonomer. The process of polymerisation essentially utilises a
___________________ Ziegler-Natta catalyst.
UP PVC
Poly Vinyl Chloride is produced by polymerising Vinyl Chloride
Monomer using a catalyst. Batch mode of reactor system is
commonly used to produce S-PVC (suspension PVC), Reactors of 10
to 40 cubic metres were built earlier; a volume of 200 cubic metres
is available now. However, they require better cooling and stirring
facilities. For this, a reflux condenser is installed on the top of the
reactor and this is a competing process expertise of one licensor,
which give cost benefit.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. The ethylene gas from the top of the ………………. is
compressed in a primary compressor.
2. The process of ……………………. essentially utilises a
)
Ziegler-Natta catalyst.
Summary
(c
Petrochemical intermediates and products are formed by molecules

undergoing rearrangement in a batch or continuous reactor during
isothermal or adiabatic chemical reactions. Process technology is
selected to optimize the system and cost control. Reputed process
licensors provide state-of-the-art technologies. Material balance in
a process plant ensures rigid control in accounting material as well
as the cost. Compared to a refinery, petrochemical complex is more
sophisticated and give higher value-added products. In the last

couple of decades innovations in petrochemicals include carbon Notes
ES
fibres and metallocene catalyst. ___________________
___________________
Lesson End Activity
___________________
Prepare a slideshow on olefins plant of a petrochemical
___________________
organisation of your preference.
___________________
___________________
Keywords
___________________
___________________
product is manufactured or made, frequently used with an
extended meaning. ___________________
Olefins: Olefins are the basic source in preparation of several ___________________

UP
industrial chemicals and plastic products.
Furnace: It refers to a direct fired heater, used in boiler
applications in chemical industries or for providing heat to
chemical reactions for processes like cracking.

1. Explain in detail aromatics plant technologies.
2. Briefly describe the Olefins plant.
3. List out some process licensors or polymer plants.
4. How is PVC produced?
5. What are polymer plants? Discuss their technologies.
Further Readings
)
Books
(c

Web Readings
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isothermal_process
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adiabatic_process
(c
) UP
ES
UNIT 23: Indian Scenario
Notes
ES
Activity
___________________
Collect data on the
Indian Scenario petrochemical industry in India
and___________________
prepare a speech.
___________________
Objectives
___________________
topics: ___________________
 Petrochemical Industry in India ___________________

 Challenges faced by Indian Petrochemical Industry ___________________
 Environment Friendly Petrochemical Technology
___________________
___________________
Introduction
___________________
UP
It is now clearly seen that there is slackening of efforts in India for
capacity creation in the petrochemical industry. The import level of
petrochemicals are steadily increasing, since production capacities
are not being built in tune with the growth in demand for
petrochemicals in India.
The importance of Petrochemicals is immense. Although we might
not realize it but our lives are dependent to quite a large extent on
petrochemicals. Petrochemicals are very much a part and parcel of
our day to day lives – the carpets that we use to decorate our
homes, plastic bottles, clothes that we wear, fertilizers that we use
to grow crops, tires paints, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics etc are
made up of some kind of petrochemicals.
Petrochemical Industry in India

The petrochemical industry in India has been one of the fastest
growing industries in the country. Since the beginning, the Indian
)
petrochemical industry has shown an enviable growth rate. This

industry also contributes largely to the economy of the country and
the growth and development of manufacturing industry as well. It
(c
provides the foundation for manufacturing industries like

construction, packaging, pharmaceuticals, agriculture, textiles etc.
The Indian petrochemical industry is a highly concentrated one
and is oligopolistic in nature. Even till a few days back, only four
major companies viz. Reliance Industries Ltd (RIL), Indian
Petrochemicals Corporation Ltd. (IPCL), Gas Authority of India
Ltd. (GAIL) and Haldia Petrochemicals Ltd. (HPL) used to
dominate the industry to a large extent. The recent amalgamation

Notes of IPCL with RIL has made the industry more concentrated
ES
___________________
further, as they jointly account for over 70% of country’s total
petrochemical capacity. However, the scene is a bit different for the
___________________
downstream petrochemical sector, which is highly fragmented in
___________________ nature with over 40 companies existing in the market.
___________________
Characteristics of Indian Petrochemical Industry
___________________
The Petrochemical Industry in India is a cyclical industry. This
___________________ industry, not only in India but also across the world, is dominated
___________________ by volatile feedstock prices and sulky demand. India has one of the
___________________ lowest per capita consumptions of petrochemical products in the
world. For example, the per capita consumption of polyester in
___________________
India lies at 1.4 kg only comparing to 6.6 kg for China and 3.3 kg
___________________ for the whole world. Similarly, the per capita consumption of
UP polymers is 4 kg in India, whereas the per capita consumption is
around 20 kg for the whole world.
Facts about Petrochemical Industry in India

Market size – US$700 million
Growth Rare – 15 percent
Major Player – Reliance
 According to a research conducted by Tata Strategic
Management Group the petrochemical and chemicals sector in
India is expected to grow at the rate of 12 to 15 percent in the
next five to seven years.
 According to industry experts this is a phenomenal growth
rate as compared to current rate of 3 to 4 percent.
 The direct impact of this growth rate would result in
investments of around $12 billion to $15 billion.
)
 As per the Petroleum Ministry in India the refining capacity of

India will rise from 135 million tons per annum, which is
about 2.8 million barrels per day in 2006–07 to 210 to 225
(c
million tons per annum which is about 4.6 million barrels per
day by the year 2011–12.
 This rapid expansion is already creating huge amounts of
surplus. The surplus created is mostly meant for exports.
 Reliance Industries is the leader in the petrochemical sector
with a total market share of 70 percent.
ES
Activity
Fill in the blanks: Visit___________________
any 5 industries of
petrochemical sector and ask
1. The Petrochemical Industry in India is a ………………. the ___________________
senior officials about the
challenges they are facing and
industry.
prepare a small report.
___________________
2. India has one of the lowest per capita ……………….. of ___________________
petrochemical products in the world.
___________________
___________________
Challenges Faced by Indian Petrochemical Industry
___________________
The petrochemical industry in India is faced with numerous
___________________
hurdles that prevent it from surpassing other Asian countries.
India’s production of ethylene is far lesser than China’s. According ___________________
to experts the condition is going to remain so for at least the next ___________________
UP
5–7 years. The other important setback for the Indian
petrochemical industry is the price of feedstock which is
comparatively higher in India as compared to China. India also
lags behind as far as technological development is concerned.
The challenges faced by India petrochemical industry provides the
industry with better tools which would in turn help the growth of
the economy.
India has stably established itself in the core of the international
production of petrochemical and petrochemical-related products in
the present scenario. With the economic growth cycle slowing down
in the United States, the Asian developing nations, especially
India, would ideally fortify its stand in the global petrochemical
market as a producer of these products. This is one of the major
challenges facingIndia petrochemical industry.
The global economy is a dynamic and ever-growing one in spite of
the high cost of energy. This in turn is forging the demand for
)
petrochemicals. The strong growth in demand is not backed by a

sufficient supply so the cost is still to come down. Operating rates
of major petrochemical product segments are very high presently.
(c
In the Indian economy, the petrochemical sector is one of the

fastest growing segments which and has a growth rate of around
13% which currently is more than twice the gross domestic product
growth. The investments made in the Indian petrochemical
industry are huge which bode well for the growth in this segment.
There is a steadfast growth in the production activity of the main

Notes
ES
petrochemicals and as the result, the Indian petrochemical
___________________ industry attained self-sufficiency. The dominant part of theIndia
___________________ petrochemical industry, the segment consisting of polymers is
growing at a superb pace, with the middle class household boosting
___________________
the consumption.
___________________
Following are the challenges faced by Indian petrochemical
___________________ industry:
___________________
 High cost of energy and feedstock and the impact on demand
___________________
 The transformation in the kinetics of competition in
___________________ manufacturing
___________________
 Increase in the cost of project
___________________
UP Following are the problems faced by the Indian petrochemical
industry:
 The manufacturing units mostly use obsolete format of
technology and are not able produce optimally,
 There is a necessity for the modernization of equipments,
 Excise duty on synthetic fiber should be rationalized,
 Prevention of reservation on Small Scale Units,
 Plastic waste to be recycled and the littering habits to be
discouraged,
 India requires advantage on feedstock, so the import cost has
to be brought down, and
 The industry should have access to the primary amenities of
infrastructure.
)
Key Segments in the Indian Petrochemical Industry

Petrochemical industry is constituted of the following key
segments:
(c
Polymers: The demand for polymers witnessed a growth of

13.4 percent during 2007, as compared to a demand growth of
5.6 percent in 2006. According to the prediction of Chemicals and
Petrochemicals Manufacturers’ Association (CPMA), the demand
growth for polymer would further be augmented to over 15% in the
coming year.
Polyester Intermediates: The combined production of 5 fiber

Notes
ES
intermediates (CAN, DMT, Caprolactum, MEG and PTA was 3,417
KT during 2007. Among those, PTA and MEG accounted for 69% ___________________
and 27% respectively, while the rest were DMT, Caprolactum and ___________________
CAN.
___________________
Aromatics (Paraxylene): The demand for Paraxylene (PX) saw a
___________________
growth of 18% during 2007. According to the prediction of CPMA,
___________________
it is expected to grow at the same rate in the coming year as well.
___________________
Benzene, Toluene, MX and OX: The demands for Toluene and
OX saw a contraction rate of 4% and 10% respectively during 2007. ___________________
However, Benzene and MX saw a positive growth though. ___________________
___________________
Top Petrochemical Companies in India
___________________
UP
Though the Indian petrochemical industry is highly dominated by
only a few players, however, there are a number of petrochemical
companies in India, doing their share of business. Some of the top
companies can be listed as below:
 Reliance Industries Ltd.
 Haldia Petrochemicals Ltd.
 Indian Oil Corporation
 Gas Authority of India Limited
 National Organic Chemical Industry Ltd.
 Bongaigaon Refinery and Petrochemicals Ltd.
 Manali Petrochemical Limited
 I G Petrochemicals Limited
 The Andhra Petrochemicals Limited
)
 Tamil Nadu Petro-products Limited.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
(c
1. India has stably established itself in the core of the

international …………………. of petrochemical and
petrochemical-related products in the present scenario.
2. The industry should have access to the primary
amenities of ………………..
Environment Friendly Petrochemical Technology

Notes
ES
Activity This section provides detailed information on environment friendly
___________________
Suggest some environment petrochemical technology. It also focuses on other factors that
friendly measures for
___________________
petrochemical industries and contributed to the growth of petrochemical industry and reducing
present it in the form of environment pollution.
___________________
slideshow in your class.
___________________ In the present era of industrialization and jet fast life, the benefits
of environment friendly petrochemical technology does not need to
___________________
be mentioned. The need of environment friendly petrochemical
___________________ technology is profound in our daily life and without it this world
___________________ would come to a stand still. In India the department of chemicals
___________________
and petrochemicals, GOI are the concerned highest authority of
theIndian petrochemical industry and environment related issues.
___________________
The Indian petrochemical industry and environment have taken
___________________
UP serious note of the environmental pollution related issues and have
taken guard for the promotion of environment friendly
petrochemical Technology. environment friendly petrochemical
technology is adopted to suit the needs of the country. The Indian
environment friendly petrochemical technology is at par with
world standard. Thus, India share a good portion of petrochemical
business in world market.
Asian countries, African countries and even Arab world
buysIndian petrochemical products. The demand for Indian
petrochemical products is high mainly because of its environment
friendly petrochemical technology, quality and competitive pricing.
India's low cost and high end petrochemical products
manufacturing expertise coupled with developing world class
infrastructure is the main leveraging factor for the rise of this
industry. India offers petrochemicals at a substantial discount
than its western counterparts while delivering the same grade of
output.
)
The threats that led to use of environment friendly petrochemical

technology are:
(c
 Wastes of cyanides
 Metal waste matter
 Water soluble wastes like lead, copper, zinc, chromium, nickel,
selenium, barium and antimony
 Mercury, arsenic, thallium, and cadmium
 Non-halogenated hydrocarbons
 Halogenated hydrocarbons
Notes
ES
 By products during manufacture of paints, pigments, glue,
___________________
varnish, and printing ink
___________________
 By products during manufacture of Dyes and dye
intermediates containing inorganic chemical compounds ___________________
 By products during manufacture of Dyes and dye ___________________

intermediates containing organic chemical compounds ___________________
 Waste oil and oil emulsions ___________________
 Tarry wastes from refining and tar residues from distillation ___________________
or pyrolytic treatment
___________________
 Sludges of wastewater containing heavy metals, toxic organics, ___________________
oils, emulsions, and spent chemicals, Incineration ash
___________________


Phenols
Asbestos
UP
 By products during manufacture of pesticides and herbicides
and residues from pesticides and herbicides formulation units
 Acid
 Alkali
 Slurry wastes
Environment Friendly Petrochemical Technology in India covers
different phases, like:
 Process control
 Research and development
 Laboratory testing
 Quality control
)
The new Environment Friendly Petrochemical Technology

includes:
 Refining technologies
(c
 Heavy oil catcracking

 Hydrocracking
 Hydrofining
 Residue hydrotreating
 Hydro-upgrading
 Ethylene cracking
Notes
ES
 Acrylonitrile
___________________
 Ethylbenzene
___________________
 Polypropylene
___________________
 SSBR [Solution Styrene Butadiene Rubber]
___________________
 SBS [Styrene Butadiene Styrene]
___________________
 Toluene disproportionation
___________________
 Transalkylation
___________________
 Aromatics Extraction
___________________
 C5 extraction
___________________
Some of the Indian Petrochemical products that are obtained by
___________________
UP Environment Friendly Petrochemical Technology are:
 Fiber Cotton
 Cellulosics
 Synthetics Acrylics
 Polyamides
 Polyester
 Wool
 Elastomers
 Polymers
 Surfactants
 Paints
 Alkyd Resins
 Industrial De-greasers
)
 Odorless Thinners
 Inks
 Construction Chemicals
(c
 Dry Cleaning
 Cleaning chemicals
 Maintenance Chemicals
 Insecticides
 Insecticides Aerosols
 Agricultural pesticides
Notes
ES
 Paints
___________________
 Thinners
___________________
 Charcoal Lighters ___________________
 Oil drilling ___________________
___________________
1. The demand for Indian petrochemical products is high
mainly because of its ………………… friendly ___________________
petrochemical technology. ___________________
2. India offers petrochemicals at a substantial discount ___________________

UP
than its ……………. counterparts.
Summary
Petrochemical intermediates and products in India were based on
ethyl alcohol feed and the plant capacities were small. The first
naphtha cracker was built by Union Carbide at Chembur in
Mumbai. After mid ’70s, large size petrochemicals were built and
the market demand for the products increased. So, more complexes
were setup in the ’90s. The latest ones are by RIL, GAIL and HPL.
India has stably established itself in the core of the international
production of petrochemical and petrochemical-related products in
the present scenario. The global economy is a dynamic and ever-
growing one in spite of the high cost of energy. The investments
made in theIndia petrochemical industry are huge which bode well
for the growth in this segment.
)
Lesson End Activity

Prepare a collage of news of the petrochemical sector from
(c
newspapers cuttings.
Keywords
Synthetic Fibres: These fibres are made from synthesized
polymers or small molecules.

Notes
ES
product is manufactured or made, frequently used with an
___________________ extended meaning.
___________________ Acrylic: These resins are a group of related thermoplastic or
___________________ thermosetting plastic substances derived from acrylic acid,
___________________
___________________
Polymer: It is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of
___________________
Polyester: Polyester is a manufactured product, usually a textile,
___________________
that is made from synthesized polymers.
___________________

___________________
UP 1.
2.
Name the locations of three mega complexes of RIL.
Which are the two new petrochemical complexes and where
are they located?
3. Provide a list of process technologies employed in Indian
petrochemical plants.
4. What are the environemnt friendly measures taken by Indian
government for petrochemical industry?
5. Compare environment friendly benefits in India as compared
to their western counterparts of petrochemical sector?
Further Readings
Books
)

Web Readings
(c
http://business.mapsofindia.com/india-petroleum-
industry/challenges-facing-india-petrochemical.html
industry/environment-friendly-petrochemical-technology.html
UNIT 24: Various Petrochemical Industries in India
Notes
ES
___________________
Various Petrochemical Industries ___________________
in India ___________________
___________________
Objectives ___________________
___________________
topics:
___________________
 Aromatics Industry
 Printing Industry ___________________
 Food Processing Industry ___________________

 Pharmaceutical Industry
___________________
 Electronics Industry
UP
Introduction
The opportunities for India petrochemical industry are enormous
in the present international scenario and India possesses a good
potential of becoming a global competitor in this sector.
Rapid globalization, changing technology, and modifications in the
way business is conducted today, have brought immense changes
and enormous opportunities for companies to extend and flourish
globally in all kind of industries. Petrochemical and related sectors
are no exception to this. The petrochemical industry is a novel
industry in India but it had played an important role in the
country's change from an agrarian based economy to an
industrialized one.
There are promising opportunities for India petrochemical
)
Industry, which is expected to grow significantly in the future

especially since the per capita consumption of synthetic fiber and
plastic in India is much lower in comparison to the global average.
The petrochemical industry in India produces more than 20% of
(c
the global petrochemical output. The demand facilitators for the

petrochemical industry include rapid urbanization, new products
introduction, substitution of products, and dynamics of the
domestic market. In this unit you will study about the different
industries in petrochemical sector in India.
Aromatics Industry
Notes
ES
Activity
Aromatics are named so for their trademark fragrant smell. The
Prepare a collage of the
___________________
products produced by
main chemical compounds under this group are benzene, toluene
aromatics
___________________
industry. and, xylene which are the intermediary products for various end
___________________ use consumer products.
___________________ Most of the aromatics compounds are derived from crude oil.
Everyday use products are manufactured from the aromatics
___________________
compounds, reduces the consumption of energy and so they are
___________________ very much environment friendly.
___________________
The different uses of Aromatics are:
___________________
 Clothing Industry
___________________
 Pharmaceuticals Industry
___________________
UP 

Cosmetics Industry
Fragrance Industry
 Computers
 Paints Industry
 Vehicle components Industry
 Cooking utensils Industry
 Household fabrics Industry
 Carpets Industry
 Sports equipment Industry
 Insulating foams
Indian Petrochemical Industry has emerged as one of the key
factors of growth of the Indian economy. The future of India in the
global market as a exporter of aromatic compounds is very bright.
)
Issues on Aromatics related safety, health, and environment are an

emerging science which is transforming stakeholders' interests. So
there is a need for the development of updated technological
methods of production, better manufacturing methods, proper
(c
disposal of waste for India to be one of the key exporter of aromatic

compounds in the global arena. The success also depends on the
global demand and supply trends which would dominate the factor
of pricing as the demand of these products depend on the demand
of the end products.
209
The major contributors of export of Aromatics in India:
Notes
S
z Lala Jagdish Prasad and Company, Kanpur
___________________
z Virat Exports Private Limited, New Delhi
___________________
z Karnataka Aromas, Bangalore ___________________
z Pure Mint Products, Ghaziabad ___________________
z K. K. Enterprise, Surat ___________________
PE
z Allied Udyog Private Limited, Kolkata ___________________
z Puremint Aromatics, Gaziabad ___________________
z Bavash Exports, Madurai ___________________
z Swastik Sales Corporation, Ahmedabad ___________________
___________________
z Sachee Fragrances and Chemicals Ltd., Noida
z MDS Aromatics, Ghaziabad
z Shree Exim, Dhanaura
z Industrial Aromatics, Mumbai
z Narain Terpene and Allied Chemical, Dhanaura
)U
z Shree Balaji Aromatics Pvt. Ltd., Moradabad
z Sagar Aromatics, Mumbai
z Sparchem, Mumbai
z Krishna Chemicals, Ahmedabad
z Neshiel Chemical Private Limited, Gujarat, Ahmedabad
z Ganga Rasayanie P. Ltd., Chennai
z Hindustan Mint and Agro Products Pvt. Ltd., Chandausi
z Silverline Chemicals, Panipat
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
(c
1. The future of India in the global market as a

…………………. of aromatic compounds is very bright.
2. The success depends on the global …………………. and
…………………. trends.
Printing Industry
Notes
ES
Activity The Printing Industry uses a number of petrochemical
Visit___________________
a publishing company intermediaries for their end products. It is largely dependent on
and find out the
___________________
petrochemicals being used in the petrochemical industry for its supply of inventory.
printing and prepare a list.
___________________ Petrochemicals is one of the industries of the future since it
___________________ provides a wide array of intermediary products for use in
manufacturing of many end use commodities. Many of our daily
___________________
use products are the made out of basic materials derived from
___________________ petrochemicals. Different industries use several petrochemical
___________________ intermediaries as raw materials and as products which aid
___________________
manufacturing process.
___________________ The Printing Industry use a lot of products derived from the
petrochemicals to facilitate the process of printing. Many
___________________
UP petrochemical products like solvents, inks, paints, grease
removers, acids, etc are used extensively in the printing industry.
The petrochemicals used in Printing industry:
 Benzene is one of the major petrochemicals used in the
printing. It is used as a solvent for ink solutions and also as a
cleaning agent for the machines,
 Toluene is another important petrochemical which is widely
used as a solvent in the printing industry,
 Xylene is a mixed isomer. This petrochemical used in the
manufacturing of paints and paint remover,
 Trichloroethane is an important petrochemical used for
cleaning and removing grease from metal surfaces,
 Dichloromethane is extensively used as a paint remover,
 Methyl Isobutyl Ketone(MIBK) is one of the important
)
solvents used in printing industry,

 1,1,1-Trichloroethane(TCA) is a petrochemical which is used
as a solvent for inks,
(c
 Ethylene Glycol is an important petrochemical used in the

manufacturing of ink,
 Methyl Ethyl Ketone(MEK) is also a solvent used in ink
solutions,
 Glycol Ethers is also used as a solvent in the printing industry,
 Isopropyl Alcohol a chemical which is noted for its usage in the

Notes
ES
printing industry as a cleanser and solvent, Activity
___________________
 Polyvinyl Acetate is a polymer used in form of emulsions to
different kinds of packaging
make water proof paper and also used as a binder in paints, used ___________________
in food processing
industry.
___________________
 Lubricating oils used for smooth functioning of the machines
are usually of petrochemical origin, i.e. the heavy ___________________
hydrocarbons. ___________________
___________________
1. Trichloroethane is an important petrochemical used for
………………… and ………………… grease from metal ___________________
surfaces. ___________________
UP
2. ………………… oils used for smooth functioning of the
machines are usually of petrochemical origin.
Food Processing Industry

The Food Processing Industry is one of those industries which has
a number of petrochemical applications. The basis of packaging
and preservation solely depends on the petrochemical products.
The Food Processing Industry is one of the newly emerged
industries in India. The latest methods of food processing,
preservation, packaging has made it easier for the consumers. The
packaging mainly is in form of petrochemical based products like
plastic. Many of the chemicals derived from the petrochemicals are
also used as preservatives for food products for longer period
storages.
Plastic packaged food items are making shopping adventures fast,
)
less time and energy consuming. Packaging can be customized

according to for each of the products which can be preserved and
transported with tremendous ease. Inside the plastic packaging,
(c
the food has no chances of getting contaminated by either organic

growth or chemical contaminants. So the packaging serves as an
assurance to the consumers on the edibleness of the food.
Petrochemical based food processing and packaging has become
popular for its feasibility. The transportation used for dispersion of
food products can carry much more payload when the food is
packaged in plastic material. So the number of trips is cut down
and that saves a lot of fuel. It also helps the environment to be less
Notes polluted. Even the plastic packaged food items are easier to
ES
Activity
disperse as it does not need special care in handling. Food
With___________________
the help of internet,
prepare a list of medicines processing has even reduced food spoilage due to lack of
___________________
which uses benzene as raw refrigeration, proper distribution.
material.
___________________
Different types packaging:
___________________
 Tetra Pack, used mainly for liquid food items like milk, fruit
___________________ juices, squashes, oils, etc.
___________________
 Blister Pack, used mainly for chocolates, puddings, etc.
___________________
 Pouch Pack, used mainly for jams, chips, biscuits, etc.
___________________
 Plastic Pack, used mainly for fruits, vegetables, bread, meat,
___________________
etc.
___________________
UP Petrochemicals are also used as additives, flavoring agents,
preservatives in the Food Processing Industry. Flavoring agents
duplicate tastes while the preservatives stores food for a longer
period of time. These preservatives facilitate the availability of
different exotic food items which are not local to a particular place.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. Flavoring agents duplicate tastes while the
……………….. stores food for a longer period of time.
2. The packaging mainly is in form of petrochemical based
products like ………….
Pharmaceutical Industry
The Pharmaceutical Industry has deep roots in the petrochemical
industry as it uses many of the base material of chemical
)
compounds provided by the petrochemical intermediaries.

The pharmaceutical industry facilitates the provision of specific
products and methods for improvement in the quality of life. It has
(c
increased life expectancy and helped the general population live

actively and healthily. This has led to the average longevity of
people to cross 70 years. The pharmaceutical industry has also
improved its stand on surgical drugs to ensure the success of
surgical operations. The health and safety of the consumers are the
major areas of interest of this industry.
The application of the petrochemicals in this industry is large. A

large number of intermediary products are used as basic materials Notes
ES
for the manufacturing of the pharmaceutical products. The ___________________
petrochemical derivatives are used in pharmaceuticals as solvents,
___________________
stabilizers, ointment base, surface lubrication agent, suppository
base, moistening agent, and tablet coatings. The pharmaceutical ___________________
industry also uses many of the petrochemical end products for ___________________
various purposes. The use of plastic bags for blood collection and
___________________
storage, storage of saline and medicinal solutions, polymer sterile
___________________
hypodermic syringes for injecting medicines directly to the body,
blister pack for tablets and water soluble gelatinous capsule cases. ___________________
Petrochemicals used for Pharmaceutical Industry: ___________________
 Benzene is used in a variety of pharmaceutical products. It is ___________________
the basic element for a wide array of drugs. Isobutyl Benzene ___________________
UP
(IBB) a benzene derivative manufactured from of propylene,
potassium carbonate, methanol, toluene, sodium metal etc. It
is a liquid which is organic, neutral, colorless and aromatic in
nature. It is an important element in the manufacturing of
Ibuprofen an anti inflammatory and analgesic medicine.
 Cellulose acetate is used in the pharmaceuticals industry for
the manufacturing of aspirin, a drug widely used as a
painkiller.
 Propylene glycols are used as solvents for many of the drugs.
 Ethanoic anhydride is another important chemical used for the
manufacturing of various medicine.
Check Your Progress

Fill in the blanks:
1. Cellulose acetate is used in the pharmaceuticals
)
industry for the manufacturing of aspirin, a drug

widely used as a …………………..
2. A large number of ………………….. products are used
(c
as basic materials for the manufacturing of the

pharmaceutical products.
Electronics Industry
Notes
ES
Activity The electronic industry is supported by the supply of raw materials
Visit___________________
a television from the petrochemical industry, without which it may grind to a
manufacturing unit and study
the ___________________
use of petrochemicals in halt.
that industry and prepare a
___________________
presentation with text and The petrochemical industry is an aid to many of the end-use
images.
___________________ product industries. It is one of the major supplier of number of
basic materials which is used by different other industries to
___________________
manufacture their products. It has become one of the major sources
___________________ of growth for the economy.
___________________
The fastest growing sector is the IT and electronic industry sector.
___________________ The hardware components serve as an important support to this
___________________ stupendous growth. The growth of this sector heavily depends on
the supply of various intermediary products. The electronic
___________________
UP industry will not be able to perform without the components from
the petrochemical industry. The intermediary products assure
better electrical insulation and safety, feasibility in assembling,
better design, and a superb capacity of data-storage, and reduction
of mass of components.
It is due to petrochemicals that the electronic industry has grown
by leaps and bounds in the previous decade. The progress in the
communication technology is the result of the improvements in the
hardware devices such as radios, television sets, telephones,
computers, CD players, DVD players, digital cameras, mobile
phones, laptops, palmtops, etc. The circuitry of every electronic
device is its most vital element. The circuitry mainly consists of
micro processors, integrated circuits, printed circuits, and
connectors – all derived from base materials of petrochemical
products. Even the assembly and the housings are made out of
styrenic plastics. Many of the cleansers used for cleaning the
contact pins and lenses of the optical drives are based on
)
petrochemical products.
CDs are made of a clear piece polycarbonate which is a type of a
plastic made from benzene. The polycarbonate layer is imprinted
(c
with very minute – almost microscopic – protrusions which serve

as exceedingly long spiral data tracks. The layer is covered with a
thin aluminum covering and sprayed with a thin acrylic layer as
protection. With the label printed on the acrylic layer, the CDs are
packed into jewel boxes which are the transparent polystyrene
plastic boxes in which CDs are sold. Then a thin acrylic layer is
sprayed over the aluminum to protect it. The label is then printed
onto the acrylic layer and the CD is placed into a polystyrene jewel
box, the transparent, plastic boxes in which CDs are usually Notes
ES
packaged. ___________________
___________________
1. CDs are made of a clear piece polycarbonate which is a
type of a plastic made from ……………… ___________________
2. The petrochemical industry is an aid to many of the ___________________

……………. product industries. ___________________
___________________
Summary
___________________
Everyday use products are manufactured from the aromatics ___________________
UP
compounds, reduces the consumption of energy and so they are
very much environment friendly. The Printing Industry use a lot of
products derived from the petrochemicals to facilitate the process
of printing. The Food Processing Industry is one of the newly
emerged industries in India. The latest methods of food processing,
preservation, packaging has made it easier for the consumers. The
pharmaceutical industry facilitates the provision of specific
products and methods for improvement in the quality of life. It has
increased life expectancy and helped the general population live
actively and healthily.
The fastest growing sector is the IT and electronic industry sector.
The hardware components serve as an important support to this
stupendous growth. The growth of this sector heavily depends on
the supply of various intermediary products.
Lesson End Activity

)
Visit http://business.mapsofindia.com/india-petroleum-industry/
building-and-construction.html and discuss within your group the
use of petrochemicals in building and construction industry.
(c
Keywords
Aromatics: A substance or plant emitting a pleasant and
distinctive smell.
Printing: It refers to produce something in printed form by means
of a printing press or other reproduction process.

Notes
ES
or indirectly from petroleum or natural gas or obtained from
___________________ hydrocarbons and utilized in industrial and household markets.
___________________ Benzene: A colorless volatile liquid hydrocarbon, C6H6, present in
___________________ coal tar and petroleum, used in chemical synthesis.
___________________
___________________
___________________ 1. What are the main chemical compunds used in aromatics?
___________________ 2. Discuss aromatics industry in Inida in detail.
___________________ 3. What are the petrochemical intermediates for printing

___________________
industry?
___________________ 4. Which is the main segment of food processing industry which

UP 5.
is solely dependent on petrochemical intermediates?
Discuss the use of petrochemicals in pharmaceuticals industry.
6. Explain the role of petrochemicals in the manufacturing of
CDs.
Further Readings
Books
Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 6th Edn.- Robert H Perry, Don
Green, McGraw Hill (Book)
Burdick. Donald L, “Petrochemicals in Nontechnical Language”.
Web Readings
)
industry/printing.html
http://business.mapsofindia.com/india-petroleum-industry/food-
processing.html
(c
industry/pharmaceutical.html
industry/electronics-industry.html
UNIT 15: Case Study
Notes
ES
___________________
Case Study ___________________
___________________
Objectives
___________________
___________________
Case Study: Taiwan’s Petrochemical Industry at a Cross Roads
___________________
Despite a lack of oil resources, Taiwan has had a thriving
petrochemical industry for a half century now. In ethylene ___________________
production, Taiwan is currently the ninth largest producer of the
___________________
chemicals in the world, and also takes a leading position in the
production of thermoplastic and glass fiber. ___________________
UP
According to Global Views monthly, the output of Taiwan’s
petrochemicals soared to over NT$1 trillion (US$33 billion) in
2004, becoming the third industry to top NT$1 trillion after the
semiconductor and the flat panel display industries. Including
textiles, the output value of chemical materials, petroleum and
coal products and petrochemicals exceeds NT$4 trillion (US$132
billion), and accounts for 30 percent of Taiwan’s total
manufacturing production.
Adding Value to Keep Firms in Taiwan
This April, after five years of heated debates, the construction of
the Kuokuang Petrochemical Project slated for Changhua County
(central Taiwan) was abandoned. As the largest industrial
investment project of recent years, investors still hope the project
can go ahead elsewhere, but on a reduced scale. The backlash
resulted in increasing talk of Taiwan’s petrochemical
manufacturers quitting the island.
Business leaders in the petrochemical industry have said that it is
hard to survive in Taiwan, although a scholar was quoted as
saying, “Moving abroad is the laziest policy decision. It reflects
the mentality of petrochemical businessmen and their reluctance
)
to transform and upgrade,” reported Global Views.

Global Views reported that the ratio of the Taiwanese
petrochemical industry’s R&D budget was only 0.32 percent of its
total revenues in 2009, well below the lowest figure of 3 percent
(c
for large multinational companies. Plus, the average value-added

amount in Taiwan was only 14.6 percent, far less than Japan’s 22
percent and Germany’s 33 percent. The government hopes the
petrochemical industry will increase its R&D to 2 percent by
2020, and raise its value-added percentage to 20.
In the last six months, the government has promoted a “high
value-added” policy to cope with the situation, asking
petrochemical businesses to stay in Taiwan by upgrading the
quality of their products.
Contd…
Export-oriented Industry Hinders Upgrade

Notes In the last couple of decades, the business model of the Taiwanese
ES
petrochemical industry was to buy crude oil, then export large
___________________
amounts of petrochemical raw materials post refining so as to
___________________ earn large foreign exchange reserves. Taiwan’s production
capacity of seven major petrochemical products (five general-use
___________________ plastics and two chemical fiber raw materials) reached 12.35
million metric tons in 2009, among which 63.2 percent were
___________________
exported overseas and over 70 percent of the exports headed to
___________________ China.
At present, developing countries are still clamoring for raw
___________________
petrochemical materials, so Taiwanese companies can continue to
___________________ rely on the old business model to survive for the time being.
However, a dependence on developing countries decreases the
___________________ urgency to upgrade.
___________________ Established Firm Stands out from the Crowd
Global Views noted that high-value added products are the way
___________________ for Taiwan’s petrochemical industry to go. They should keep the
UP old business model, but reduce their over dependence on
importing crude oil and export the raw materials after refining,
something that is mainly controlled by foreign companies.
Oriental Union Chemical Corporation (OUCC) is a successful case
in point. As a member of the Far Eastern Group, OUCC has been
focusing on ethylene oxide (EO) since it was established in 1975.
The firm dedicates 1-2 percent of its total budget to R&D every
year, and researchers account for over 10 percent of the company’s
employees. Currently OUCC is the world’s largest producer of
ethylene carbonate (EC), the largest maker of ethanolamine (EA) in
Asia, and has recently developed environmentally friendly “green
ethylene glycol” (EG) from rice stems.
Alex Kuo, president of OUCC, said Taiwan is congenitally scarce
in crude oil and technology patents. Most petrochemical firms run
in the mid- to down stream of the business supply chain. That’s
why Taiwan’s petrochemical industry is easily affected by the
global economic situation. The best way to get rid of this dilemma
is to move as far away as possible from the up stream crude oil.
In the last two years, the rising environmental protection
sentiment in Taiwan has cut off the possibility of domestic
expansion in the petrochemical industry and has forced the
)
government to take action to encourage such firms to move

towards the high value-added direction. In the short term,
petrochemical manufacturers have the option of moving abroad or
maintaining the status quo. None can predict how long this
(c
business model will continue to work and only the industry can
choose its direction, said Global Views.
Question:
1. Critically analyse the case.
2. Discuss the business model of Taiwan’s petrochemical
manufacturers.
Source: http://www.taiwaninsights.com/2011/11/23/taiwan%E2%80%99s-petrochemical-
industry- at-a-cross-roads/
Glossary
Glossary Notes
ES
___________________
Acrylic: These resins are a group of related thermoplastic or ___________________
thermosetting plastic substances derived from acrylic acid, methacrylic
acid or other related compounds. ___________________
Acrylic Fabric: Acrylic fabric is a type of fabric made from acrylic fibres. ___________________
Aromatics: A substance or plant emitting a pleasant and distinctive ___________________
smell. ___________________
Asphalt Paper: It is a mixture of flammable hydrocarbons sandwiched ___________________

between two layers of paper.
___________________
Benzene: A colorless volatile liquid hydrocarbon, C6H6, present in coal
___________________
tar and petroleum, used in chemical synthesis.
___________________
UP
Bulk Bins: Bulk bins are made of polycarbonate, or BPA-free resins
which display the food product, and provide an airtight, hygienic system
for dispensing foods.

camphor and nitrocellulose, formerly used for cinematographic film.
Configuration: The term configuration denotes the specific set of

Conversion Refinery: A conversion refinery incorporates all the basic

building blocks found in both the topping and hydroskimming refineries.
Copolymer: A copolymer is made when two different types of molecules

are joined in the same polymer chain.
Corrugated Fiberboard: Corrugated fiberboard is a paper-based

material consisting of a fluted corrugated sheet and one or two flat
linerboards.
Crude Oil: A naturally occurring, unrefined petroleum product composed

of hydrocarbon deposits. Crude oil can be refined to produce usable
)
products such as gasoline, diesel and various forms of petrochemicals.
Distillation: Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based on

differences in volatility of components in a boiling liquid mixture.
(c
Elastomer: A natural or synthetic polymer having elastic properties, e.g.,

rubber.
Engineering Plastics: Engineering plastics are rugged, durable polymer

plastics used in manufacturing.
Expanded Polystyrene (EPS): Expanded polystyrene foam is actually

made of beads of the material. It is a rigid and tough, closed-cell foam.
Extruded Polystyrene: Extruded polystyrene foam, commonly known as

Notes
ES
Styrofoam, is a type of insulation with versatile applications, such as the
___________________ manufacture of surfboards.
___________________ Feedstock: A feedstock is the basic material from which a good product is
manufactured or made, frequently used with an extended meaning.
___________________
Fertilizer: Fertilizer is any organic or inorganic material of natural or
___________________
synthetic origin that is added to a soil to supply one or more plant
___________________ nutrients essential to the growth of plants.
___________________ Fragile: It refers to something that is easily broken, damaged, or
___________________ destroyed.
___________________ Furnace: It refers to a direct fired heater, used in boiler applications in

chemical industries or for providing heat to chemical reactions for
___________________
processes like cracking.
___________________
UP High Density Polyethylenes: High-density polyethylene (HDPE) or
polyethylene high-density (PEHD) is a polyethylene thermoplastic made
from petroleum. High density polyethylenes are made by a low pressure
process in a fluidised bed reactor.
Hydrocracking: Hydrocracking is a catalytic chemical process used in

petroleum refineries for converting the high-boiling constituent
hydrocarbons in petroleum crude oils to more valuable lower-boiling
products such as gasoline, kerosene, jet fuel and diesel oil.
Hydroskimming: A hydroskimming refinery is defined as a refinery

equipped with atmospheric distillation, naphtha reforming and necessary
treating processes.
Linear Alpha Olefin: Linear Alpha Olefins (LAO) or Normal Alpha

Olefins (NAO) are olefins or alkenes with a chemical formula CxH2x,
distinguished from other mono-olefins with a similar molecular formula
by linearity of the hydrocarbon chain and the position of the double bond
at the primary or alpha position.
Low Density Polyethylenes: Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is a

)
thermoplastic made from the monomer ethylene. LDPE is made by high

pressure processes.
Molecule: A molecule is an electrically neutral group of two or more

atoms held together by covalent chemical bonds.
(c
Monomer: It is a molecule that may bind chemically to other molecules to

form a polymer.
NGL: Natural Gas, the source of Natural Gas Liquids is a natural

mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons found in the ground or obtained from
specially driven wells. The composition of natural gas varies in different
Glossary
parts of the world. Its chief component, methane, usually makes up from 221
80% to 95% its composition. Notes
S
Olefins: Olefins also called alkene, are unsaturated hydrocarbons ___________________
containing one or more pairs of carbon atoms linked by a double bond.
___________________
Olefins are the basic source in preparation of several industrial chemicals
and plastic products. ___________________
Paraffins: Paraffin is a term that can be used synonymously with ___________________

“alkane”, indicating hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2.
___________________
PE
Petrochemical: A petrochemical is any chemical derived, directly or ___________________
indirectly from petroleum or natural gas or obtained from hydrocarbons
___________________
and utilized in industrial and household markets.
___________________
Petrochemical Plant: A petrochemical plant is a facility where products
are made from feedstocks and supplied to the industry. ___________________
Polyamide: A polyamide is a polymer containing monomers of amides ___________________

joined by peptide bonds.
Polycarbonate: It is a versatile, tough plastic used for a variety of

applications, from bulletproof windows to compact disks.
Polyester: Polyester is a manufactured product, usually a textile, that is

made from synthesized polymers.
Polyethylene: Polyethylene is a type of polymer that is thermoplastic,

)U
meaning that it can be melted to a liquid and remolded as it returns to a
solid state.
Polymer: It is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of repeating

structural units.
Polymer Degradation: It is a change in the properties of a polymer or

polymer-based product under the influence of one or more environmental
factors.
Polymerization: It is a process of reacting monomer molecules together

in a chemical reaction to form polymer chains or three-dimensional
networks.
Polypropylene: Polypropylene is a plastic polymer with the chemical

formula C3H6. It is used in many different settings, both in industry and
in consumer goods, and it can be used both as a structural plastic and as
(c
a fiber.
Polyvinyl Chloride: It is better known as PVC or vinyl, is an

inexpensive plastic so versatile it has become completely pervasive in
modern society.
Printing: It refers to produce something in printed form by means of a

printing press or other reproduction process.
222
Refinery: A refinery is a production facility composed of a group of
Notes
chemical engineering unit processes and unit operations refining certain
S
___________________ materials or converting raw material into products of value.
___________________ Styrene: Styrene is an organic hydrocarbon used to manufacture rubber
and plastic components.
___________________
___________________
Surfactants: Surfactants are compounds that lower the surface tension
of a liquid, the interfacial tension between two liquids, or that between a
___________________ liquid and a solid.
PE
___________________ Synthetic Fibres: These fibres are made from synthesized polymers or
___________________ small molecules.
___________________ Thermoplastic: A thermoplastic is a type of plastic made from polymer

resins that becomes a homogenized liquid when heated and hard when
___________________
cooled.
___________________
Thermosetting: Thermosetting materials are made of long-chain
polymers that cross-link with each other after they have been heated,
rendering the substance permanently hard.
)U
(c

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UNIT 20: Case Study

Dr S R Das Dr Sanjay Mittal Prof V K Nangia

SLM Development Team

Mr Kapil Mehra Mr A N Sinha

Course Code: MDSO-805D

Course Name: Understanding Petrochemical Business

Version: July 2013

© MPower Applied Learning Enterprise

Unit 1 Petrochemicals: An Overview ........................................................................................ 3

Packaging Aspects ........................................................................................................ 51

Unit 15 Case Study .................................................................................................................. 133

Unit 16 Polyvinyl Chloride ...................................................................................................... 139

Unit 22 Technologies for Petrochemical Plants...................................................................... 189

Unit 23 Indian Scenario........................................................................................................... 197

Unit 24 Various Petrochemical Industries in India ............................................................... 207

Unit 25 Case Study .................................................................................................................. 217

Glossary ............................................................................................................................................ 219

 Indian Petrochemical Industry

The petrochemical industry is interlinked and developments in

unit operations, like distillation, crystallization, centrifuging,

isomers. Oil refineries produce olefins and aromatics by fluid

___________________ Primary petrochemicals are divided into three groups depending

A huge variety of products are made with petrochemicals,

and other materials are also manufactured from petrochemicals.

be treated with fractional distillation, in which it is heated to

The refining and production of end-stage petrochemical products ___________________

has been criticized on the basis of environmental concerns. ___________________

consumer products. These products are also not renewable, ___________________

Check Your Progress

found wide use as a source of heat energy. Experiments in

When coke was produced from coal a complex organic chemical

processed to make chemicals, intermediates, etc., for dyes, paints

process and store the raw material. Further developments in this

Check Your Progress

2. The two organic chemicals, which found extensive use

was introduced which is now very commonly used. Theoretical ___________________

Gradually coal chemistry based industries started taking a back

of intermediates and chemicals which started replacing chemicals

8 petroleum refining as well as petrochemicals production which

___________________ Petrochemical Processing

nevertheless an example of heterogeneous catalysis: the catalyst is

important to raise the octane rating of the molecules found in ___________________

Check Your Progress

Petrochemicals, in various forms, had been known since the

The refining and production of end-stage petrochemical products

___________________ Chemical engineering unit operations as well as mechanical

Distillation: Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based

Questions for Discussion

4. Describe the various developments in petrochemicals.

 Petrochemical Products and its Uses ___________________

agriculture to medical appliances.

The chemical industry contributes significantly to the economic

___________________ Growth potential of the chemicals sector is immense, considering

Factors that will Drive Growth in the Chemical and

polymers (PO +PVC) is still in nascent stage. Opportunity to

 Indian government plans to establish new Petroleum,

Challenges Ahead ___________________

Indian chemical industry needs to maintain competitiveness and ___________________

cost-effectiveness to overcome competition from foreign players and ___________________

initiatives and R&D.

For the petrochemical industry, the main areas that demand

Check Your Progress

1. ………………… of raw materials and feedstock from oil