Anda di halaman 1dari 6

11/27/2018 Xia Chao - Wikipedia

Xia Chao
Xia Chao (Chinese: 夏超; Wade–Giles: Hsia Ch'ao; 1882–1926) was the
long-time police chief of Zhejiang Province during the Chinese Warlord Era
Xia Chao
(1916–1928), and also served as the province's civil governor from 1924 to 夏超
1926. He was among the most powerful political figures in Zhejiang
throughout much of his career. In order to maintain and expand his
influence over the province, Xia opportunistically played out different
Chinese warlord factions against each other. Plotting to gain Zhejiang's
independence from the warlord regime of Sun Chuanfang, Xia launched a
rebellion in 1926, but was captured and executed.

Contents
Biography
Early life
Police chief of Zhejiang
Civil governor under Sun Chuanfang
Rebellion and death
References
Bibliography Civil governor of Zhejiang
Province
In office
Biography 1924–1926
Serving with Sun Chuanfang and Lu
Xiangting (de facto military governors)
Early life Deputy Liao Xunpu (as top
Born at Qingtian County, Zhejiang, in 1881[2] or 1882,[3] Xia joined the secretary)[1]
Tongmenghui and took part in the Xinhai Revolution against the Qing Preceded by Zhang Zaiyang
dynasty in 1911. Along with his fellow revolutionary Gu Naibin, he planned
Succeeded by Chen Yi
to burn down the manor of Qing Minister of Communications Sheng
Xuanhuai.[4] At some point, Xia joined Zhejiang's provincial military, Police chief of Zhejiang
trained in Japan,[5] and eventually graduated from the Zhejiang Military In office
Academy in Hangzhou.[6] He subsequently joined serveral officer c. 1910s – c. 1920s
associations, namely the Wubei Clique,[5] the Kung-huo Tang,[7] and the Personal details
"Ten Brothers". Membership in these associations helped him to garner
Born 1881 or 1882
influence and allies in Zhejiang.[8]
Qingtian,
Zhejiang, Qing
Police chief of Zhejiang China

By the time China's first president Yuan Shikai declared himself emperor in
Died 1926
1916, Xia had risen to chief of the provincial and metropolitan police in
Zhejiang, Republic
Zhejiang.[9] Many military and civilian leaders around China were opposed
of China
to Yuan's monarchism, resulting in rebellions against the Chinese Cause of death Execution
government that culminated in the National Protection War. Xia Political party Tongmenghui (c.
sympathized with the republicans, and consequently started to conspire 1911)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xia_Chao 1/6
11/27/2018 Xia Chao - Wikipedia

with Tong Baoxuan, Wubei Clique (c.


commander of the Zhejiang 1910s)
New Army's 2nd Battalion, to Zhili clique (1924–
overthrow Zhejiang's pro-Yuan 26)
provincial government. The two Kuomintang (1926)
plotted to capture and murder
Occupation Military officer,
Zhejiang's governor Zhu Rui,
policeman
but the governor fled on 11
April 1916 before they could Military service
Zhejiang (red) in the Republic of carry out their plan. Shortly Allegiance Republic of
China thereafter, Yuan Shikai died, China
resulting in the collapse of the Service/branch Zhejiang's
monarchist movement.[5] With provincial army (?–
the end of Yuan's regime, Lu Gongwang was appointed as new military 1926)
governor of Zhejiang,[10] while Shen Dingyi became president of the National
province's provincial assembly.[5] Revolutionary
Thereafter, however, Zhejiang descended into civil strife between the
Army (NRA) (1926)
Wubei Clique led by Xia and a rival association, the Baoding Clique led by Years of ?–1926
governor Lu.[9] As governor, Lu initially had the upper hand in the power service
struggle, and started to undermine Xia by abolishing the provincial police. Commands 18th Corps (NRA)
Alienating many leading Zhejiang officials through his high-handed
Battles/wars Xinhai Revolution
policies, Lu finally drove Xia into open opposition when the latter learned
National
that he was supposed to be replaced as metropolitan police chief by Lu's
Protection War
follower Fu Qiyong.[10] It is likely that Xia was extremely opposed to Fu's
Warlord Era
accession not just because he wanted to maintain his power, but also due to
Northern
his fear that his misappropriation of funds could be uncovered.[11] By fall
Expedition
1916, Xia plotted with his fellow officer and "Ten Brothers" associate,[8]
Zhou Fengqi, to overthrow Lu. In case of success, the two planned to share power, with Zhou becoming military and
Xia civil governor.[12]

Lu learned of the conspiracy, however, and ordered the police chief removed from power. When Fu Qiyong was
supposed to be appointed as the next chief on 26 December, Xia's followers struck by sizing and publicly beating Fu
during his inauguration. The other policemen did not intervene, leaving Fu humiliated and in no position to succeed
Xia. Meanwhile, Hangzhou's police went on strike in support of their old chief,[12] while Xia himself took "many"
chests of money (possibly embezzled funds) from the police headquarters to the local Bank of China.[11] He also
ordered the regional newspapers to censor their reports, and tried to bribe Fu and Lu into accepting their deposition.
Lu refused,[13] however, and the tensions quickly increased. Neither Lu nor Xia were ready to back down and their
followers prepared for open civil war.[12] Though the intervention of assembly president Shen Dingyi prevented
bloodshed,[14] the deteriorating political situation in Zhejiang caused the new central government in Beijing to appoint
Yang Shande as military governor. Though the officials in the province widely condemned the appointment of a non-
native like Yang as governor, they could not prevent his military-backed accession in January 1917.[5][15]

Xia tried to come to good terms with the new provincial government which in turn attempted to reach an
understanding with local officials. He won the attention of military governor Yang by having his wife visiting Yang's
wife, and also managed to become the protégé of Qi Yaoshan, the new civil governor. In contrast, his rival Lu left the
province and joined the Kuomintang in Guangdong.[16] In the following decade, Zhejiang came to be dominated by the
Anhui clique while China was divided among hostile warlords during the so-called Warlord Era.[5] Throughout this
time, Xia continued to serve as police chief.[3] After Yang died in 1919,[5] he sided with the Anhui clique against his
local rivals, and helped to establish Anhui associate Lu Yongxiang as the new military governor of Zhejiang. By

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xia_Chao 2/6
11/27/2018 Xia Chao - Wikipedia

backing Yang and Lu, Xia did not just maintain his own power, but also
managed to make himself irreplaceable as middleman between the military
governors and the provincial natives.[8] He also became an important
figure in the Jin-Qu-Yu-Chu association (JQYC),[17] a lobby group for the
interests of Jinhua, Quzhou, Yanzhou, and Chuzhou.[18]

Civil governor under Sun Chuanfang


In 1924, Xia and other Zhejiang officials cooperated with Zhili clique
leaders Wu Peifu and Sun Chuanfang to overthrow Lu. They probably
believed that the Zhili clique would have a weaker grip on the province
than the Anhui clique, thereby strengthening their own position.[19][3] Sun
appointed Xia civil governor of Zhejiang for his cooperation in the
takeover.[19][20] When a Kuomintang-sympathetic rebellion erupted in
Ningbo in September 1924 against Xia and his allies, Sun helped them to
suppress it.[19] In turn, the Zhejiang officials aided Sun in repelling an

Xia became the protégé of Qi invasion by the Anhui clique and its new ally, the Fengtian clique, in 1925.
Yaoshan (pictured) from 1917 Nevertheless, the warlord had grown wary of the local officials' power, and
used this conflict to keep them in check. Xia was required to act as Sun's
vice-commander during the fighting, removing him from his power base,
while the warlord placed a garrison loyal to himself in Hangzhou.[21]

Unhappy with this development, Xia and the local gentry rallied against
Sun, declared their province's autonomy and adopted a new constitution.
Sun answered by sending his subordinate Lu Xiangting to Hangzhou on 25
January 1926, appointing him as Zhejiang's "military commander-in-chief"
(de facto military governor), and positioning his army at routes into the
province. The secession was thus quelled before it could start.[22] Knowing
that further resistance was futile, Xia made a political turnaround. He
welcomed Lu upon his arrival, threw an "impressive" party for him, and
even declared an official holiday in his honor, ensuring that newly
appointed military commander-in-chief accepted his submission and kept
him in his position. Despite this, Xia continued to plot against Sun,[23]
knowing that the warlord's rule was widely resented in Zhejiang.[24][25] As
result, Xia started to build up police and security forces for a
rebellion;[26][27] his private army grew to at least 5,000 by 1925.[8]

The opportunity for an uprising came in late 1926. Poor harvests in 1925–
26 had resulted in an economic crisis in Zhejiang which was exacerbated
by Sun's taxes, so that the province's population was restive.[25]
Furthermore, the Kuomintang's National Revolutionary Army (NRA) Sun Chuanfang, Xia's superior from
under Zhejiang native Chiang Kai-shek had launched the Northern 1924
Expedition to reunify China. After the NRA invaded Sun's territories, Xia
was contacted by Kuomintang officials from Zhejiang. Secret negotiations
began, which resulted in Xia reaching an agreement with Chiang Kai-shek.[28][29] The civil governor promised to defect
if the NRA managed to defeat Wu Peifu at Wuchang (which they did on 10 October), while regional Kuomintang
representative Niu Yongjian assured him that an uprising would break out in Shanghai to support him against Sun.[30]
Though Xia continued to pretend to be neutral during summer 1926,[29] he began to prepare his bid for autonomy
from Sun. He cut the railway from Zhejiang to Shanghai (Sun's center of power) and dispersed the garrison of
Hangzhou to weaken Sun's grip on the province.[26]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xia_Chao 3/6
11/27/2018 Xia Chao - Wikipedia

Rebellion and death


On 16 October, Xia publicly declared independence for Zhejiang with the support of several local commanders and
civilian officials, and called upon all soldiers from Zhejiang to return to their home. Many followed this call, and he
quickly amassed an army[26][28] of about 10,000 fighters. These troops were not well trained or armed.[31] Xia was also
appointed "provisional chairman" of the province by the Kuomintang and commander of the 18th Corps by the
NRA.[29] Following his defection, Xia launched an attack on Sun-controlled Shanghai with 2,500 troops. Even though
Sun had detected Xia's plans days earlier,[28][29] he had few troops to spare in the defense of Shanghai and thus
ordered the railway to the city from Hangzhou torn up.[31] By late 17 October, Xia's force was just 5 kilometres of the
city. At this point, Sun received reinforcements to defend the city, whereupon Xia's advance was blocked.[26][29][31]
Nevertheless, the promised uprising in Shanghai failed to materialize, as the local Communist Party and Kuomintang
leaders still debated about the course and chances of success for a rebellion in the city. Though several Communists
urged for action, Niu Yongjian refused, reasoning that the Shanghai insurgents lacked sufficient arms.[31]

Xia was consequently forced to retreat, and attempted to salvage the situation before his former superior launched a
counter-attack. He sent a message to Sun's subordinates, claiming that he had been deceived into defecting to the
Kuomintang,[29] whereupon the warlord pretended to accept this explanation.[27][26] In truth, however, Sun's army
marched into Zhejiang on 20 October[29] and ambushed[26] the rebel force near Jiaxing during the night. Though Xia
managed to escape, 6,000 of his barely trained soldiers were captured after a short battle.[32] Hundreds of them were
then machine-gunned for taking part in the rebellion.[26][32][29] Sun's army captured Jiaxing on 21st and Hangzhou on
23rd, marking Xia's final defeat.[31] The warlord soldiers were let loose on Xia's provisional capital, looting the city
while carrying out a "terrible massacre" among its civilian population.[26] Attempting to flee into Zhejiang's hills[29] in
his car, Xia was captured soon after, and promptly shot on the streets of a nearby town.[32] His severed head was then
brought to Nanjing[32] and put on a spike as warning to others.[26][27] Sun appointed Chen Yi as new governor of
Zhejiang, but Chen promptly declared independence as well, this time with more success.[33] Meanwhile, Niu Yongjian
had ordered the launch of the rebellion in Shanghai on 23 October. It remains unknown why the Shanghai uprising
began on the same day when their potential ally Xia was defeated,[31] though it has been speculated that the insurgent
leadership was misinformed about the outcome of the fighting in Zhejiang and believed that Xia had won.[34]

References
1. Schoppa (1995), p. 173.
2. Jordan (1976b), p. 310.
3. Waldron (2002), p. 85.
4. Shêng & Danian (1983), p. 158.
5. Yeh (1996), p. 126.
6. Jordan (1976a), p. 128.
7. Jordan (1976a), pp. 128, 130.
8. Jordan (1976a), p. 130.
9. Schoppa (1995), p. 40.
10. Schoppa (1995), pp. 40–41.
11. Schoppa (1995), pp. 269–270 (note 78).
12. Schoppa (1995), p. 41.
13. Schoppa (1995), p. 270 (note 78).
14. Schoppa (1995), pp. 41–42.
15. Schoppa (1995), pp. 42–46.
16. Schoppa (1995), p. 46.
17. Schoppa (1982), p. 177.
18. Schoppa (1982), pp. 175–177.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xia_Chao 4/6
11/27/2018 Xia Chao - Wikipedia

19. Jordan (1976a), p. 131.


20. Schoppa (1995), p. 27.
21. Jordan (1976a), pp. 131–132.
22. Jordan (1976a), p. 132.
23. Jordan (1976a), pp. 132–133.
24. Jordan (1976b), pp. 89–91.
25. Jordan (1976a), pp. 133–134.
26. Bonavia (1995), p. 160.
27. Jowett (2014), p. 25.
28. Jordan (1976a), pp. 89–91.
29. Wilbur & How (1989), p. 328.
30. Smith (2000), pp. 147–148.
31. Smith (2000), p. 149.
32. Jordan (1976a), p. 91.
33. Bonavia (1995), pp. 160–161.
34. Smith (2000), p. 266 (note 39).

Bibliography
Bonavia, David (1995). China's warlords. Oxford, Hong Kong, New York City: Oxford University Press.
Jowett, Philip S. (2014). The Armies of Warlord China 1911–1928. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing.
ISBN 978-0764343452.
Jordan, Donald A. (1976a). "Provincialism within the Chinese National Revolution: The Case of Chekiang, 1926–
1927". In F. Gilbert Chan; Thomas H. Etzold. China in the 1920s. Nationalism and Revolution. New York City,
London: Franklin Watts. ISBN 0-531-05383-0.
Jordan, Donald A. (1976b). The Northern Expedition: China's National Revolution of 1926–1928 (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=s2RwAAAAMAAJ). University Press of Hawaii. ISBN 9780824803520.
Shêng, Hu; Danian, Liu (1983). The 1911 Revolution: A Retrospective After 70 Years. New World Press.
Schoppa, R. Keith (1995). Blood Road: The Mystery of Shen Dingyi in Revolutionary China (https://books.google.
de/books?id=5aQwDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false). Berkeley, Los Angeles,
London: University of California Press.
Schoppa, R. Keith (1982). Chinese Elites and Political Change: Zhejiang Province in the Early Twentieth Century
(https://books.google.de/books?id=s2TEpLAvV28C&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false).
Cambridge, Massachusetts; London: Harvard University Press.
Smith, Stephen Anthony (2000). A Road Is Made: Communism in Shanghai, 1920–1927 (https://books.google.co
m/?id=OF9h6b8tc6UC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false). Honolulu: University of Hawaii.
ISBN 9780824823146.
Waldron, Arthur (2002). From War to Nationalism: China's Turning Point, 1924–1925 (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=MOK2HJ7BHigC&g=PA95). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52332-5.
Wilbur, Clarence Martin; How, Julie Lien-ying (1989). Missionaries of Revolution: Soviet Advisers and Nationalist
China, 1920–1927 (https://books.google.com/books?id=2RHIAeZEYjIC). Harvard University Press.
ISBN 9780674576520.
Yeh, Wen-hsin (1996). Provincial Passages: Culture, Space, and the Origins of Chinese Communism (https://boo
ks.google.de/books?id=0LMat15Fe6UC&printsec=frontcover&hl=de#v=onepage&q&f=false). Berkeley, Los
Angeles, London: University of California Press.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xia_Chao&oldid=870813142"

This page was last edited on 27 November 2018, at 04:26 (UTC).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xia_Chao 5/6
11/27/2018 Xia Chao - Wikipedia

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using
this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xia_Chao 6/6

Anda mungkin juga menyukai