Workshop “The Social Origins of Modern Science”

Human society has not often changed so fundamentally as it did with the transition from feudalism to early
capitalism. These changes are generally known. Even in a very brief exposition of the problem, however, we must
mention some of them, since they form necessary conditions for the rise of science.

1) The emergence of early capitalism is connected with a change in both the setting and the bearers of
culture. In the feudal society of the Middle Ages, the castles of knights and rural monasteries were the
centers of cultures. In early capitalism, culture was centered in towns. The spirit of science is worldly and
not military. Obviously, therefore, it could not develop among clergymen and knights but only among
townspeople.
2) The end of the Middle Age was a period of rapid progressing of technology and technological inventions.
Machines began to be used both in the production of goods and in warfare. On the one hand, this set tasks
for machines and chemistry; and, on the other hand, it furthered causal thinking, and in general, weakened
magical thinking.
3) In medieval society the individual was bound to the traditions of the group to which he unalterably
belonged. In early capitalism economic success depended on the spirit of enterprise of the individual.
In early feudalism, economic competition was unknown. When it started among the craftsmen and
tradesmen of the late medieval towns, their guilds tried to check it. But competition proved stronger than
the guilds. It dissolved the organizations and destroyed the collective mindedness of the Middle Ages. The
merchant or craftsman of early capitalism, who worked in the same way as his father had, was outstripped
by less conservative competitors. The individualism of the new society is a presupposition of scientific
thinking. The scientist, too, relies in the last resort only on his own eyes and his own brain, and is supposed
to make himself independent of belief in authorities. Without criticism there is no science. The critical
scientific spirit (which is entirely unknown to all societies without economic competition) is the most
powerful explosive human society ever has produced. If the critical spirit expanded to the whole field of
thinking and acting, it would lead to anarchism and social disintegration. In ordinary life, this is prevented
by social instincts and social necessities. In science itself, the individualistic tendencies are counterbalanced
by scientific cooperation.
4) Feudal society was ruled by tradition and custom, whereas early capitalism proceeded rationally. It
calculated and measured, introduced bookkeeping, and used machines. The rise of economic rationality
furthered development of rational scientific methods. The emergence of the quantitative method, which is
virtually nonexistent in medieval theories, cannot be separated from the counting and calculating spirit of
capitalistic economy.

Zilsel, E. (2013). The Social Origins of Modern Science. Springer Science and Business Media.

Based on the text “The Social Origins of Modern Science”, do the following exercises.

I. Text Analysis - Choose the correct option in each case.

1. The text can be considered mainly

a. expository
b. argumentative
c. narrative

because
a. it intends to inform the reader about the scientific progress of the human society when it was shifting
from feudalism to capitalism.
b. it intends to entertain the audience by narrating how the “spirit of science” emerged and developed
until nowadays.
c. it intends to convince the audience that the rise of science would be impossible without capitalism.
 2. The tone of the text is
a. authoritative.
b. hopeful.
c. neutral.
d. condemnatory.

3. Which is the context of the text?

a. sociolinguistic.
b. economic.
c. sociocultural.
d. scientific.

4. The rhetorical purpose of the last paragraph is to

a. provide the reason of the rise of scientific rationality.
b. oppose the feudal society’s vision of the world.
c. argue that the spread of capitalism was beneficial for the society.
d. narrate the development of economic rationality.

II. Functional Value - Choose the most appropriate functional value that is conveyed by the following ideas within
the context.

1. “The merchant or craftsman of early capitalism, who worked in the same way as his father had, was
outstripped by less conservative competitors.” (Paragraph 4, Lines 5-7).

a. Exemplifying
b. Classifying
c. Reporting
d. Describing

2. “Without criticism there is no science.” (Paragraph 4, Line 9).

a. Suggesting
b. Generalizing
c. Possibility
d. Asserting

3. “…(which is entirely unknown to all societies without economic competition)...” (Paragraph 4, Line 10)

a. Hypothesizing
b. Reinforcing
c. Fact
d. Concluding

4. “If the critical spirit expanded to the whole field of thinking and acting, it would lead to anarchism and social
disintegration.” (Paragraph 4, Lines 11-12)

a. Assertion
b. General principle
c. Commenting
d. Speculating
III. Inferences - Decide if the author would agree or disagree with the following ideas. Mark the correct box.

IDEAS AGREE DISAGREE

1. The times of war favor the evolutionary development of science. X
2. Magic as an explanation is acceptable in some scientific contexts. X
3. The conservative collective thinking of medieval traders was hampering science. X
4. Critical spirit can be both highly beneficial and potentially destructive. X