ECT-431 (CN) : Unit-I

1-1

Computer Networks

By Dr. Rajender Kumar,

AP, ECED, NIT Kurukshetra
10-Sep-18 Computer Networks
 Roadmap
1-2

What is a Computer Network?

Applications of Networking

Classification of Networks

Layered Architecture

Network Core

Delay & loss in packet-switched networks

Internet Structure

Transmission Media (self study)

History (self study)

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Computer Network?
1-3

 “interconnected collection of autonomous

computers connected by a single technology”
[Tanenbaum]
 What is the Internet?

“network of networks”

“collection of networks interconnected by routers”

“a communication medium used by millions”

Email, chat, Web “surfing”, streaming media
 Internet ≠ Web

10-Sep-18 Computer Networks

 The “nuts and bolts” view of the Internet
1-4
router
workstation
 millions of connected computing server
mobile
devices: hosts, end-systems
local ISP

PCs workstations, servers

PDAs phones, toasters
running network apps regional ISP
 communication links

fiber, copper, radio, satellite

Links have different bandwidth
 routers: forward packets
company
 Packet: a piece of messg.
network
Computer Networks 10-Sep-18
 Roadmap
1-5

What is a Computer Network?

Applications of Networking

Classification of Networks

Layered Architecture

Network Core

Delay & loss in packet-switched networks

Internet Structure

Transmission Media (self study)

History (self study)

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Applications (1)
1-6

 end systems (hosts):

run application programs

e.g. Web, email

at “edge of network”
 client/server model

client host requests, receives service
from always-on server

e.g. Web browser/server; email
client/server
 Client/server model is
applicable in an intranet.

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Applications (2)
1-7
 peer-peer model:

No fixed clients or servers

Each host can act as both client & server
 Examples: Napster, Gnutella, KaZaA

10-Sep-18 Computer Networks

 Applications (3)
1-8

 WWW
 Instant Messaging (Internet chat, text messaging
on cellular phones)
 Peer-to-Peer
 Internet Phone
 Video-on-demand
 Distributed Games
 Remote Login (SSH client, Telnet)
 File Transfer
Computer Networks 10-Sep-18
 “Cool” Appliances
1-9

IP picture frame
http://www.ceiva.com/

Web-enabled toaster+weather forecaster

World’s smallest web server

http://www-ccs.cs.umass.edu/~shri/iPic.html

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Roadmap
1-10

What is a Computer Network?

Applications of Networking

Classification of Networks

Layered Architecture

Network Core

Delay & loss in packet-switched networks

Internet Structure

Transmission Media (self study)

History (self study)

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18
 A Classification of Networks
1-11

 Local Area Network (LAN)

 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Wireless LANs & WANs
 Home Networks

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Local Area Network (LAN)
1-12

 company/univ local area

network (LAN) connects end
system to edge router
 Ethernet:

shared or dedicated link
connects end system and
router

10 Mbs, 100Mbps,
Gigabit Ethernet
 deployment: institutions, home
LANs happening now
 LANs, WLAN ?
Computer Networks 10-Sep-18
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
1-13

A Cable TV Network is an example of a MAN

Typically 500 to 5,000 homes

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network (simplified)
10-Sep-18 Computer Networks
 Cable Network Architecture: Overview
1-14

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network (simplified)
10-Sep-18 Computer Networks
 Cable Network Architecture: Overview
1-15

server(s)

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network
10-Sep-18 Computer Networks
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
1-16

 Spans a large geographic

area, e.g., a country or a
continent
 A WAN consists of several
transmission lines and
routers
 Internet is an example of a
WAN

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Wireless Networks
1-17

 shared wireless access network To the wired network

connects end system to router

via base station aka “access point”
router
 wireless LANs:

802.11b (WiFi): 11 Mbps base
 wider-area wireless access station

provided by telco operator

3G ~ 384 kbps
 Will it happen??

WAP/GPRS in Europe mobile
hosts

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Home networks
1-18

Typical home network components:

 ADSL or cable modem

 router/firewall/NAT

 Ethernet

 wireless access

point
wireless
to/from laptops
cable router/
cable
modem firewall
headend
wireless
access
Ethernet point
(switched)
Computer Networks 10-Sep-18
 “internetworking”?
1-19

 internetwork – interconnection of networks – also

called an “internet”
 Subnetwork – a constituent of an internet
 Intermediate system – a device used to connect two
networks allowing hosts of the networks to
correspond with each other

Bridge

Routers

 Internet is an example of an internetwork.

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18
 Roadmap
1-20

What is a Computer Network?

Applications of Networking

Classification of Networks

Layered Architecture

Network Core

Delay & loss in packet-switched networks

Internet Structure

Transmission Media (self study)

History (self study)

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18
 Layered Architecture: Why?
1-21

 Networks are complex with many pieces

Hosts, routers, links, applications, protocols,
hardware, software
 Can we organize it, somehow?
 Let’s consider a Web page request:

Browser requests Web page from server

Server should determine if access is privileged

Reliable transfer page from server to client

Physical transfer of “bits” from server to client

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Motivation Continued …
1-22

Application logic
Application Application
Services Services

Communication
Reliable delivery Communication
Service Service

Network
Transfer “bits” Network
Services Services

Web Server Web Client

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18
 Motivation Continued …
1-23

Dealing with complex systems:

 explicit structure allows identification, relationship of
complex system’s pieces

layered reference model for discussion
 modularization eases maintenance, updating of system

change of implementation of layer’s service
transparent to rest of system

e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect rest of
system
 layering considered harmful?

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Layers, Protocols, Interfaces
1-24

Application Application logic Application

Services Services
protocol
Layer
Interface
Communication Reliable delivery Communication
Service protocol Service
Layer
Interface

Network Transfer “bits” Network

Services protocol Services

Web Server Web Client

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Layered Architecture (Review 1/2)
1-25

 Networks organized as a stack of layers?

The purpose of a layer is to offer services to the layer
above it using an interface (programming language
analogy: libraries hide details while providing a
service)

Reduces design complexity

 Protocols: peer-to-peer layer-n conversations

 Data Transfer: each layer passes data & control
information to the layer below; eventually physical
medium is reached.

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Review (2/2)
1-26

 A set of layers & protocols is called a Network

Architecture. These specifications enable
hardware/software developers to build systems
compliant with a particular architecture.

E.g., TCP/IP, OSI

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Layering: Design Issues
1-27

 Identify senders/receivers?

Addressing

 Unreliable physical communication medium?

Error detection

Error control

Message reordering

 Sender can swamp the receiver?

Flow control
 Multiplexing/Demultiplexing
Computer Networks 10-Sep-18
 Reference Models
1-28

 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model

 TCP/IP Model

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Reference Models (2)
1-29

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 TCP/IP Model: History
1-30

 Originally used in the ARPANET Application

 ARPANET required networks using
Transport
leased telephone lines &
radio/satellite networks to Internet
interoperate
 Goals of the model are: Host-to-
Network

Seamless interoperability

Wide-ranging applications

Fault-tolerant to some extent

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 The Internet Layer
1-31

 End systems inject datagrams in the networks

 A transmission path is determined for each packet
(routing)
 A “best effort” service

Datagrams might be lost

Datagrams might be arrive out of order

 Analogy: Postal system

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 The Transport Layer
1-32

 Concerned with end-to-end data transfer between

end systems (hosts)
 Transmission unit is called segment
 TCP/IP networks such as the Internet provides two
types of services to applications

“connection-oriented” service – Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP)

“connectionless” service - User Datagram Protocol
(UDP)

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 TCP: Connection-oriented Service
1-33

 Handshaking between client & server programs

Parameters for ensuing exchange

Maintain connection-state

 Packet switches do not maintain any connection-

state;

hence “connection-oriented”
 Similar to a phone conversation
 TCP is bundled with reliability, congestion control,
and flow control.

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 UDP: Connectionless Service
1-34

 No handshaking
 Send whenever and however you want
 A “best effort” service

No reliability

No congestion & flow control services

 Why is it needed?

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 The Application Layer
1-35

 Residence of network applications and their

application control logic
 Examples include:

HTTP

FTP

Telnet

SMTP

DNS

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 The Host-to-Network Layer
1-36

 Somehow, host has to connect to the network and be

able to send IP Datagrams
 How?

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Internet protocol stack
1-37

 application: supporting network

applications

FTP, SMTP, STTP
application
 transport: host-host data transfer
transport

TCP, UDP
 network: routing of datagrams from source network
to destination

IP, routing protocols
link
 link: data transfer between neighboring
network elements
physical

PPP, Ethernet
 physical: bits “on the wire”

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Layering: logical communication
1-38

Each layer: application

transport
 distributed network
link
 “entities” physical
implement layer network
functions at each application link
node transport physical
network
 entities perform link
actions, exchange physical
application application
messages with transport transport
peers network network
link link
physical physical

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Layering: logical communication
1-39 data
 take data from app application
transport
transport
 generate “segment”
network
according to transport link
protocol physical
 add addressing, ack network
reliability check info to application link
form “datagram” transport data physical
network
 send datagram to peer
link
data
 wait for peer to ack physical
application application
receipt transport transport
transport
network network
link link
physical physical

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Layering: physical communication
1-40
data
application
transport
network
link
physical
network
application link
transport physical
network
link
physical data
application application
transport transport
network network
link link
physical physical

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Protocol layering and data
1-41

Each layer takes data from above

 adds header information to create new data unit

 passes new data unit to layer below

source destination
M application application M message
Ht M transport transport Ht M segment
Hn Ht M network network Hn Ht M datagram
Hl Hn Ht M link link Hl Hn Ht M frame
physical physical

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Roadmap
1-42

What is a Computer Network?

Applications of Networking

Classification of Networks

Layered Architecture

Network Core

Delay & loss in packet-switched networks

Internet Structure

Transmission Media (self study)

History (self study)

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18
 The Network Core
1-43

 mesh of interconnected routers

 the fundamental question: how
is data transferred through
net?

circuitswitching:
dedicated circuit per call:
telephone net

packet-switching: data
sent thru net in discrete
“chunks”

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Network Core: Circuit Switching
1-44

End-to-end resources
reserved for “call”
 Link bandwidth, switch
capacity
 Dedicated resources with no
sharing
 Guaranteed transmission
capacity
 Call setup required
 “Blocking” may occur

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Network Core: Circuit Switching
1-45

 Capacity of medium exceeds the capacity required

for transmission of a single signal

How can we improve “efficiency”? Let’s multiplex.
 Divide link bandwidth into “pieces”:

frequency division - FDMA

time division – TDMA

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Circuit Switching: TDMA and TDMA
1-46
Example:
FDMA
4 users

frequency

time
TDMA

frequency

Computer Networks
time
10-Sep-18
 Network Core: Packet Switching
1-47

 “store-and-forward” transmission
 source breaks long messages into smaller
“packets”
 packets share network resources
 each packet uses full link bandwidth
 resource contention

aggregate resource demand can exceed amount
available

congestion: packets queue, wait for link use

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Packet Switching: Statistical Multiplexing
1-48
10 Mbs
A Ethernet statistical multiplexing C

1.5 Mbs
B
queue of packets
waiting for output
link

D E
Sequence of A & B packets does not have fixed pattern 
statistical multiplexing.
In TDM each host gets same slot in revolving TDM frame.
Computer Networks 10-Sep-18
 Packet switching versus circuit switching
1-49

Is packet switching a “slam dunk winner?”

 Great for bursty data

resource sharing
 Excessive congestion: packet delay and loss

protocolsneeded for reliable data transfer,
congestion control
 Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?

bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video apps

still an unsolved problem (chapter 6)

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Packet-switching: store-and-forward
1-50
L
R R R

 Takes L/R seconds to Example:

transmit (push out) packet  L = 7.5 Mbits
of L bits on to link or R bps
 R = 1.5 Mbps
 Entire packet must arrive
 delay = 15 sec
at router before it can be
transmitted on next link:
store and forward
 delay = 3L/R

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Packet Switching: Message Segmenting
1-51

Now break up the message into

5000 packets

 Each packet 1,500 bits

 1 msec to transmit
packet on one link
 pipelining: each link
works in parallel
 Delay reduced from 15
sec to 5.002 sec

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Packet-switched networks: forwarding
1-52

 datagram network:

destination address in packet determines next hop

routes may change during session (flexible?)

no “per flow” state, hence more scalable
 virtual circuit network:

each packet carries tag (virtual circuit ID), tag determines next hop

fixed path determined at call setup time

path is not a dedicated path as in circuit switched (i.e., store &
forward of packets)

routers maintain per-call state
 datagram networks need per packet routing.

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Network Taxonomy
1-53
Telecommunication
networks

Circuit-switched Packet-switched
networks networks

FDM Networks Datagram

TDM
with VCs Networks

10-Sep-18 Computer Networks

 Roadmap
1-54

What is a Computer Network?

Applications of Networking

Classification of Networks

Layered Architecture

Network Core

Delay & loss in packet-switched networks

Internet Structure

Transmission Media (Tutorial)

History (self study)

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 How do loss and delay occur?
1-55

packets queue in router buffers

 packet arrival rate to link exceeds output link capacity
 packets queue, wait for turn
 if queue is full, arriving packets dropped (Drop-Tail)
packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
Computer Networks 10-Sep-18
 Four sources of packet delay
1-56

 1. nodal processing:  2. queueing

check bit errors  time waiting at output

determine output link link for transmission

 depends on congestion
level of router

transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Delay in packet-switched networks
1-57
3. Transmission delay: 4. Propagation delay:
 R=link bandwidth (bps)  d = length of physical link

 L=packet length (bits)  s = propagation speed in

 time to send bits into link =

medium (~2x108 m/sec)
L/R  propagation delay = d/s

Note: s and R are very

different quantities!
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
Computer processing
Networks
queueing
10-Sep-18
 Nodal delay
1-58

d nodal = d proc + d queue + d trans + d prop

 dproc = processing delay

typically a few microsecs or less
 dqueue = queuing delay

depends on congestion
 dtrans = transmission delay

= L/R, significant for low-speed links
 dprop = propagation delay

a few microsecs to hundreds of msecs

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Queueing delay (revisited)
1-59

 R=link bandwidth (bps)

 L=packet length (bits)
 a=average packet arrival
rate

traffic intensity = La/R

 La/R ~ 0: average queueing delay small

 La/R -> 1: delays become large
 La/R > 1: more “work” arriving than can be
serviced, average delay infinite!
Computer Networks 10-Sep-18
 “Real” Internet delays and routes
1-60

 What do “real” Internet delay & loss look like?

 Traceroute program: provides delay measurement from
source to router along end-end Internet path towards
destination. For all i:

sends three packets that will reach router i on path towards
destination

router i will return packets to sender

sender times interval between transmission and reply.

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Roadmap
1-61

What is a Computer Network?

Applications of Networking

Classification of Networks

Layered Architecture

Network Core

Delay & loss in packet-switched networks

Internet Structure

Transmission Media (Tutorial)

History (self study)

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Internet structure: network of networks
1-62

 roughly hierarchical
 at center: “tier-1” ISPs (e.g., UUNet, BBN/Genuity, Sprint, AT&T),
national/international coverage

treat each other as equals
Tier-1 providers
also interconnect
Tier-1 at public network
providers
Tier 1 ISP
NAP access points
interconnect (NAPs)
(peer)
privately
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Tier-1 ISP: e.g., Sprint
1-63

Sprint US backbone network

10-Sep-18 Computer Networks

 Internet structure: network of networks
1-64

 “Tier-2” ISPs: smaller (often regional) ISPs

Connect to one or more tier-1 ISPs, possibly other tier-2 ISPs

Tier-2 ISPs
Tier-2 ISP pays Tier-2 ISP also peer
Tier-2 ISP
tier-1 ISP for privately with
connectivity to Tier 1 ISP each other,
rest of Internet NAP interconnect
 tier-2 ISP is
at NAP
customer of
tier-1 provider Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Computer Networks 10-Sep-18

 Internet structure: network of networks
1-65

 “Tier-3” ISPs and local ISPs

last hop (“access”) network (closest to end systems)

local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Local and tier- Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
3 ISPs are
customers of Tier 1 ISP
higher tier NAP
ISPs
connecting
them to rest Tier 1 ISP
of Internet
Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP
local
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP
Computer Networks 10-Sep-18
 Internet structure: network of networks
1-66

 a packet passes through many networks!

local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Tier 1 ISP
NAP

Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP

local
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP
Computer Networks 10-Sep-18
 Recap/ Summary
1-67

Covered a “ton” of material! You now have:

 Internet overview  context, overview, “feel”

 what’s a protocol? of networking

 network edge, core, access  more depth, detail to

network follow!

packet-switching versus
circuit-switching
 Internet/ISP structure
 performance: loss, delay
 layering and service models
 history (which you will be
reading on your own)
Computer Networks 10-Sep-18
 ECT- 431: Intro.
1-68

Thanks…
Dr. Rajender Kumar
Email: rkumar@nitkkr.ac.in,
rkumar.kkr@gmail.com
Computer Networks 10-Sep-18