Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2014) 98:533–544
DOI 10.1007/s00253-013-5344-5
MINI-REVIEW
Unraveling the efficient applications of secondary metabolites
of various Trichoderma spp.
Chetan Keswani & Sandhya Mishra &
Birinchi Kumar Sarma & Surya Pratap Singh &
Harikesh Bahadur Singh
Received: 15 July 2013 / Revised: 16 October 2013 / Accepted: 17 October 2013 / Published online: 27 November 2013
# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013
Abstract Recent shift in trends of agricultural practices from
application of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides to organic
farming has brought into focus the use of microorganisms that
carryout analogous function. Trichoderma spp. is one of the
most popular genera of fungi commercially available as a
plant growth promoting fungus (PGPF) and biological control
agent. Exploitation of the diverse nature of secondary metab-
olites produced by different species of Trichoderma augments
their extensive utility in agriculture and related industries. As a
result, Trichoderma has achieved significant success as a
powerful biocontrol agent at global level. The endorsement
of Trichoderma spp. by scientific community is based on the
understanding of its mechanisms of action against a large set
of fungal, bacterial and in certain cases viral infections.
However, it is still an agnostic view that there could be any
single major mode of operation, although it is argued that all
mechanisms operate simultaneously in a synchronized fash-
ion. The central idea behind this review article is to emphasize
the potentiality of applications of target specific secondary
metabolites of Trichoderma for controlling phytopathogens
as a substitute of commercially available whole organism
formulations. With the aim to this point, we have compiled
an inclusive list of secondary metabolites produced by differ-
ent species of Trichoderma and their applications in diverse
areas with the major emphasis on agriculture. Outlining the
importance and diverse activities of secondary metabolites of
Trichoderma besides its relevance to agriculture would
C. Keswani : S. Mishra : B. K. Sarma : H. B. Singh (*)
Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Institute of
Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005,
India
e-mail: hbs1@rediffmail.com
C. Keswani : S. P. Singh
Department of Biochemistry, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi 221005, India
generate greater understanding of their other important and
beneficial applications apart from target specific biopesticides.
Keywords Trichoderma . Secondary metabolites . Biological
control . Antibiotics
Introduction
Over the past three decades, fungicolous fungi have attracted
global interest for their biocontrol potential against phytopath-
ogens especially in organic farming. Globally, Trichoderma
occupies the top slot in the segment of fungal biocontrol
agents (Whipps and Lumsden 2001). The biocontrol potential
of Trichoderma has been the most fascinating and interesting
topic of research for agricultural scientists. But since the initial
investigation by Weindling (1932) regarding the antagonistic
nature of Trichoderma spp., a remarkable discovery has been
made of late after the genome profiling of three commercially
important species of Trichoderma: T. virens, T. atroviride and
T. reesei (Mukherjee et al. 2012). This has opened new
avenues for understanding the molecular basis of biological
control mechanisms of Trichoderma (Kubicek et al. 2011).
The global scientific community has shown keen interest in
Trichoderma spp. owing to its broad-spectrum antagonistic
activities against various soil borne phytopathogens (Singh
et al. 2011). The major modes of action include: (a)
mycoparasitism — direct confrontation with mycopathogens,
secretion of cell wall degrading enzymes, subsequent penetra-
tion and killing are the key features of this mode (Woo and
Lorito 2007); (b) antibiosis — secretion of secondary metab-
olites having antimicrobial properties, in the vicinity of its
niche (Sivasithamparam and Ghisalberti 1998); (c) competi-
tion — being decomposers by nature, Trichoderma spp. effi-
ciently mobilize and uptake macro- and micro-nutrients from
soil, which results in scarcity of nutrients for other microbes in
534 Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2014) 98:533–544

its vicinity leading to decreased inter and intra species com- Table 1 List of Trichoderma secondary metabolites exhibiting multiple
applications
petition (Benitez et al. 2004; Verma et al. 2007).
Though it is difficult to suggest which is the major mode of Compounds Multiple applications References
operation, Di Pietro et al. (1993) and Schirmbock et al. (1994)
have suggested that Trichoderma spp. operates mainly through Emodin Cathartic stimulant, tumor Ali et al. 2004; Huang
cell adhesion inhibitor et al. 2006
synchronization between mycoparasitism and antibiosis
Gliotoxin Antimalarial, immune Pahl et al. 1996; Tanaka
against the fungal pathogens. It would be important to note system suppressor et al. 1998
that Trichoderma spp. constitutively secrete a variety of lytic
Harzianolide Antifungal, plant growth Vinale et al. 2006, 2008
enzymes to detect the presence of a competent fungi by sensing promoter
their degraded cell wall components (Harman et al. 2004; Woo Koninginins Antifungal, plant growth Cutler et al. 1991a;
and Lorito 2007; Vinale et al. 2008), while no such reports for regulator Ghisalberti and
Rowland 1993, Parker
constitutive secretion of antimicrobial secondary metabolites
et al. 1995a, b
in absence of a potential competitor are available. Thus, it
6-Pentyl-2H- Antifungal (plant pathogen), Claydon et al. 1987;
would be difficult to comment on the role of secondary me- pyran-2-one plant growth promoter, Parker et al. 1997;
tabolites in sensing the pathogens but as soon as the pathogen coconut aroma Vinale et al. 2008
has been sensed, secretion of antimicrobial secondary metab- Trichokonins Broad spectrum antifungal, Xiao-Yan et al. 2006;
olites is triggered (Vinale et al. 2009b). It is a well known fact plant defense inducer Luo et al. 2010
that Trichoderma spp. secretes a variety of secondary metab- Viridiofungins Potential anticancer Harris et al. 1993;
compound, bactericidal Mandala et al. 1997
olites that not only contribute significantly in signaling but also
interact with other organisms in various ways. Although re- Viridin Broad spectrum antifungal Brian and McGowan
compound, anti- 1945; Dodge et al.
searchers mostly focused their attention on the immense po- neoplastic, anti- 1995
tentiality of Trichoderma secondary metabolites in biological atherosclerosis
control of phytopathogens, the fact that other secondary me- Viridiol Weedicidal, anti-aging Sakuno et al. 2000;
tabolites also exhibit multiple biological functions cannot be Heraux et al. 2005b
ignored. Therefore, a representative list of secondary metabo-
lites with potential multifarious biological activities such as
plant growth regulation, weedicidal effect, antibiotic, anti- a broad range of phytopathogens. Undoubtedly, the chemical-
aging, antiplasmodial, cholesterol lowering agent, flavoring ly diverse type of secondary metabolites produced by
agent, and immune suppressor is provided in Table 1. Trichoderma is the source of its efficient biocontrol potential.
Prior art is loaded with information concerning various Multiple strategies have been adapted for development of
secondary metabolites produced by Trichoderma spp. biopesticide formulation of Trichoderma viz. whole organ-
However, limited information is available on the molecular ism, spore suspension and talc-based formulations, which
mechanisms of these secondary metabolites in inter- and intra- proved successful in controlling various plant pathogens.
species interactions. Here, we tried to appraise the variability However, such kinds of formulations do exhibit certain draw-
among different Trichoderma spp. in fabricating a wide array backs which need to be addressed for making Trichoderma-
of secondary metabolites. We also attempted to update the based biopesticide a luminary in pesticide enterprises. These
contemporary facts based on species wise classification of issues include limited shelf life, high dose requirement, effec-
secondary metabolites secreted by various non-pathogenic tiveness against soil/seed borne pathogens only, and low
and industrially valuable Trichoderma spp. and have also stability in adverse environment. For instance, Trichoderma
logically pointed out their possible prospecting for commer- spp. has a narrow application range for majority of phytopath-
cial applications in agriculture, pharmacy and food industries ogenic bacteria in comparison to fungal pathogens because
(Fig. 1, Table 2). In addition, one of our main interests is to bacteria generally have relatively higher metabolic rates than
improve or replace the conventional formulations of biopesti- fungi, thus reducing its effectiveness against bacterial patho-
cides so that next-generation secondary metabolites based gens (Verma et al. 2007). However, Fravel (1988) reported
formulations could be developed for management of that purified secondary metabolites from Trichoderma spp.
phytopathogens. could be potentially effective in controlling bacterial infec-
tions more rapidly than whole organism application under
field conditions. Furthermore, it is interesting to note that
Trichoderma secondary metabolites: impact on biological while using Trichoderma spore formulation, two mechanisms
control of phytopathogens operate parallel to each other firstly, simultaneous secretion of
cell wall degrading enzymes and antimicrobial secondary
Trichoderma is lucratively used as potent biocontrol agent metabolites which ensures pathogen killing by either way
worldwide due to its prominent antimicrobial activity against and secondly, a simultaneous increase in Trichoderma
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2014) 98:533–544 535

Fig. 1 Multi-farious role of

Trichocaranes, Koninginins ,
Trichoderma secondary
Viridiol, (3H)-benzoxazolinone , Trichosetin, Cyclonerodiol ,
metabolites
2,4-dihydroxy -1,4-(2H)- Harzianolide, Trichokonin ,
benzoxazine-3-one Viridiol, 6-pentyl-2H-pyran-2-
one
Weedicidal Plant Growth
Regulators

6-pentyl-2H-pyran-2-
one, 3-octanone, 1- R- mevalonolactone,
Flavour and Anti-aginig
Aroma Mevastatin
octen-3-ol, 3-octanol

Anti - cancer Biological Control

Viridepyrone,
Trichodenones, Massoilactone, Koninginins ,
Trichodermamide B, Viridin, Viridiofungins,
Harzianum A, Aurocitrin, Harzianopyridone ,
Harziphilone, Viridin, Virone, T22- azaphilone, Harzianolide,
Viridiofungin Trichostromaticins, Harzianic
acid

population in the field which is a major agenda of sustainable
agriculture (Fig. 2).
Trichoderma spp. secretes a chemically diverse range of
secondary metabolites, of which broad-spectrum antimicrobi-
al properties have been demonstrated well in many in vitro
assays. The volatile compound 6-pentyl-2H -pyran-2-one is
active against Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium oxysporum f.
sp. lycopersici (Scarselletti and Faull 1994). Moreover, in
another study its application was also found to reduce rotting
of stored kiwi fruits caused by Botrytis cinerea (Poole et al.
1998). Likewise, viridepyrone showed antagonistic activity
against Sclerotium rolfsii , whereas massoilactone and
δ-decanolactone were found to control B. cinerea,
Phytophthora spp., Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans
(Hill et al. 1995; Evidente et al. 2003; Kishimoto et al. 2005).
Complex pyrones such as koninginins A and B have shown
antifungal activity against take all fungus Gaeumannomyces
graminis var. tritici (Ghisalberti and Rowland 1993), while
koninginin D inhibited the growth of Bipolaris sorokiniana,
Pythium middleonii, F. oxysporum, Phytophthora cinnamomi
and R. solani (Dunlop et al. 1989). Similarly, viridin, a broad
spectrum antifungal compound, prevented spore germination
of Stachybotrys atra , Aspergillus niger , Penicillium
expansum , Colletotrichum lini , Fusarium caeruleum , and
Botrytis allii (Brian and McGowan 1945), whereas
viridiofungins have shown microbicidal activity against
Candida, Aspergillus, and Cryptococcus spp. (Harris et al.
1993). Application of racemic form of harzianopyridone
showed potent antifungal activity against R. solani, B. cinerea
(Dickinson et al. 1989), Pythium ultimum and G. graminis
var. tritici (Vinale et al. 2006). Secondary metabolites such as
T22-azaphilone, harzianolide and T39 butenolide from spe-
cific Trichoderma strains have shown in vitro inhibition of R.
solani, P. ultimum and G . graminis var. tritici (Almassi et al.
1991; Vinale et al. 2006). The effectiveness of the same
metabolites at concentrations between 1 and 10 mg/ml in
reducing the incidence of B. cinerea and Leptosphaeria
maculans on tomato and canola seedlings was further proved
in planta (Vinale et al. 2008). Furthermore, Vinale et al. (2011)
showed 100 %, 41 % and 28 % inhibition of P. ultimum , R.
solani and B. cinerea, respectively, at 100 μg/plug concen-
tration of cerinolactone. Andrade et al. (1992) reported the
antagonistic effects of 5-hydoxyvertinolide against Mycena
citricolor which causes American leaf spot of coffee, whereas
koningic acid has specific activity against anaerobic bacteria
Bacteroides fragilis (Itoh et al. 1980). TAEMC161 re-
identified as viridiol is a potent enzyme inhibitor, inhibiting
the activity of 5′-hydroxyaverantin dehydrogenase which cat-
alyzes an early step in aflatoxin biosynthesis in Aspergillus
flavus and A. parasiticus (Sakuno et al. 2000; Wipf and
Kerekes 2003). Crown and stem rot of artichoke caused by
S. rolfsii was considerably inhibited by viridepyronone at
concentration 196 μg/ml (Evidente et al. 2003).
Trichostromaticins A–E in field conditions have shown sig-
nificant results in controlling Moniliophthora perniciosa ,
which causes cocoa witches broom disease in South
America (Degenkolb et al. 2008). Another compound
harzianic acid at 10 μg showed complete inhibition of
Pythium irregulare and S. sclerotiorum while at 100 μg
completely arrested the growth of R. solani (Vinale et al.
2009a). Meanwhile, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis,
Streptococcus faecalis , Clavibacter michiganensis ssp.
michiganensis, F. oxysporum f. sp. phaseoli, F. oxysporum
f. sp. niveum, F. oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum , B. cinerea, R.
solani , Curvularia lunata , Bipolaris sorokiniana and
Colletotrichum lagenarium have all been reported to be sen-
sitive to trichokonins VI, VII and VIII in agar disk diffusion
assay (Xiao-Yan et al. 2006).
536
Table 2 Species-wise classification of secreted secondary metabolites of Trichoderma
Speciesa Secondary metabolites
T. aggresivum Mellein
T. album 5-Hydroxy-3-methoxy-5-vinylcyclopent-2-en-1-one,
Pencolide, 3-methoxy-5-hydroxy-5-allyl cyclopentenone
T. atroviride Atroviridins A, B and C, Ferricrocin, α-phellandrene,
α-terpinene, β-phellandrene, β-bisabolene,
α-bergamontene, α-curcumene, γ- curcumene
T. aureoviride Pachybasin, Chrysophanol, Koninginin G
T. cerinum Harzianolide, Dehydroharzianolide, T39butenolide,
Cerinolactone
T. citrinoviride Trichotetronine, 16,17-dihydrobislongiquinolide,
Dihydrotrichodimerol
T. hamatum Viridiol, Methyl ester derivative of Dermadin, Isonitric
acid E and F, Isonitrins A, B, C and D, Spirolactone,
Mannitol, Gliotoxin, Ergosterol, TAEMC 161
{4,6-dihydroxy-5-methoxy-6a-methylcyclohexa[de]
indano-[7,6-e]cyclopenta[c]2H-pyran-1,9-dione},
Epoxydiol, Diol isocyanide, Tetrhydroxy isocyanide
T. harzianum Harzianic acid, Dimethyl-harzianic acid, Homoharzianic
acid, 1-hydroxy-3-methyl-anthaquinone, 1,8-dihydroxy-
3-methyl-anthraquinone, Harzianolide, Trichoharzin,
Harziandione, 6-pentyl-2H-pyran-2-one, 6-(1′-pentenyl)-
2-H-pyran-2-one, Koninginin A, B and E, Cyclonerodiol,
Harzianopyridone, Melanoxadin, Trichodenones A, B
and C, Harziphilone, Fleephilone, T22azaphilone,
Harzialactones A and B, R-mevalonolactone, Harzianolide,
T39butenolide, MR304A, MR566B, Trichosetin,
Trichorzianines A, B, Trichokindins I- VII, Harzianins
HC, Trichorozins I–IV, 15-hydroxyacorenone,
Isonitrin A and D.
UV-induced Homothallin II
mutant
T. koningii 6-Pentyl-2H-pyran-2-one, Koninginin A, B, C, D and E,
Viridin, Dermadin, Isonitrile trichoviridin, Homothallin I
and II, Ergokonin A and B, Cyclonerodiol, Trichokonins
V–VIII, Trikoningin KA and KB, Koningic acid,
Trichoacorenol, Cyclo (L -Pro-L -Leu), methoxybenzoate,
Coccinol, Tri-acorenol, Ceramide, p-hydroxybenzyl alcohol
T. lignorum Lignoren
T. longibrachiatum 5-Hydroxyvertinolide, Epoxysorbicillinol, Trichodimerol,
Bisvertinolone, Bisvertinol, Sorbicillin, Trichodermolide,
Sorbiquinol, Bislongiquinolide, Trichodermolide,
Sorbiquinol, Analogues of Gliovirin {DC1149B,
DC1149R}, Ergokonin A, Trichogins A, Polysporins
A, B, C and D, Trichosporin B-V, Trichobrachin A I–IV;
B I–IV, Tricholongins B I, II and III, Longibrachin
LGB II and III, Trichogin GA IV, Mevastatin
T. polysporum Chrysophanol, Emodin, Pachybasin, Trichopolyns I and II,
Cyclonerodiol oxide, Epicyclonerodiol oxide, Valinotricin,
Egosterol, Trichosporin B-IVc
T. pseudokoningii Lanosterol, Ergosterol, Pyrocalciferol, Mevastatin, 2′,4′-di- Kamal et al. (1971), Endo et al. (1985), Watts et al. (1988),
hydroxy-3′-methoxymethyl-5′-methylacetophenone,
Clavatol, Trichokonin, 2,5-dimethylbenzoquinone,
Epifriedelinol, Itaconic acid, Trichodermene A, Methyl-2,
4, 6-octatriene carboxylate, 2-hydroxymalonic acid
T. reesei Paracelsin, Ferricrocin
T. saturnisporum Paracelsin A, B, C, D and E
T. stromaticum Trichostromaticins A, B, C, D and E
T. strigosum Lipostrigocin A1–A6, B1–B9, Tricholongin B I, II and III
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2014) 98:533–544
Reference
Krupke et al. (2003)
Strunz et al. (1977), Sivasithamparam and Ghisalberti (1998)
Oh et al. (2000), Vinale et al. (2008), Stoppacher et al. (2010)
De Stefano and Nicoletti (1999), Cutler et al. (1999)
Vinale et al. (2011)
Balde et al. (2010)
Hussain et al. (1975), Brewer et al. (1979), Fujiwara et al.
(1982), Baldwin et al. (1985), Boyd et al. (1991),
Sivasithamparam and Ghisalberti (1998), Sakuno et al.
(2000)
Fujiwara et al. (1982), Baldwin et al. (1985), El Hajji et al. (1987),
Dickinson et al. (1989), Rebuffat et al. (1989), Almassi et al.
(1991), Claydon et al. (1991), Ghisalberti et al. (1992),
Kobayashi et al. (1993), Ghisalberti and Rowland (1993),
Sawa et al. (1994), Iida et al. (1994), Lee et al. (1995a,b),
Iida et al. (1995), Rebuffat et al. (1995), Huang et al.
(1995a, b), Qian-Cutrone et al. (1996), Lee et al. (1997),
Tezuka et al. (1997), Parker et al. (1997), Amagata et al.
(1998), Marfori et al. (2002), Kawada et al. (2004), Combet
et al. (2006), Vinale et al. (2006), Vinale et al. (2009a, b)
Faull et al. (1994)
Tamura et al. (1975), Nobuhara et al. (1976), Itoh et al. (1980),
Simon et al. (1988), Edenborough and Herbert (1988), Cutler
et al. (1989), Dunlop et al.(1989), Reichenbach et al. (1990),
Cutler and Jacyno (1991), Augustiniak et al. (1991), Cutler
et al. (1991a,b), Auvin-Guette et al. (1993), Parker et al.
(1995a,b), Huang et al. (1995a, b), Mukhopadhyay et al.
(1996)
Berg et al. (2004)
Endo et al. (1985), Nakano et al. (1990), Rebuffat et al. (1991),
Andrade et al. (1992), Auvin-Guette et al. (1992, 1993), Iida
et al. (1993), Andrade et al. (1996, 1997), Sperry et al. (1998),
Vicente et al. (2001), Leclerc et al. (2001), Mohamed-Benkada
et al. (2006), Degenkolb et al. (2006)
Fujita et al. (1981), (1984), Donnelly and Sheridan (1986),
Mihara et al. (1994), Degenkolb et al. (2006)
Sivasithamparam and Ghisalberti (1998), Astudillo et al.
(2000), Luo et al. (2010)
Brueckner et al. (1984), Watts et al. (1988), Kubicek et al. (2011)
Rebuffat et al. (1993), Ritieni et al. (1995)
Degenkolb et al. (2006)
Degenkolb et al. (2006)
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2014) 98:533–544
Table 2 (continued)
Speciesa Secondary metabolites
T. virens L -735,334
{carotene type metabolite}, Trichocaranes A, B, C Brian and McGowan (1945), Stipanovic and Howell (1982),
and D, Trichodermamide A and B, Viridin, Wortmannolone,
Gliovirin, Ferricrocin, cis-fusarinine, trans-fusarine,
Dimerum acid, Coprogen B
T. viride Pachybasin, Chrysophanol, Emodin, 6-pentyl-2H-pyran-
Brown conidiating 2-one, Viridepyronone, Viridin, Viridiol, Viridiofungins
mutant (UV) A, B, C, A1–4, B2 and Z2, Dermadin, Isonitrile trichoviridin,
Gliotoxin, Ergokonin A, Suzukacillin A, Trichovirins II,
Trichorovins Ia, Ib, a, IIb, IIc, IIIa, IVa, IVb, V and VIb,
Trichodecenins I and II, Trichocellins, Koningic acid,
1-hydroxy-3-methylanthraquinone, 1,8-dihydroxy-3-
methylanthraquinone, 1,6,8-trihydroxy-
3methylanthraquinone
1,3,6,8-Tetrahydroxyanthraquinone, 1-acetyl-2,4,5,
7-tetrahydroxyanthraquinone
a
The historic species concept established by Rifai (1969) are currently replaced by phylogenetic concepts based on rDNA/ITS sequencing (Kullnig et al.
2001; Hermosa et al. 2004; Druzhinina et al. 2006)
Impact on plant growth regulation
A plethora of chemically diverse secondary metabolites secret-
ed by Trichoderma spp. have been reported as both plant
growth promoters as well as inhibitors (Vinale et al. 2008,
2009b; Luo et al. 2010). Trichocaranes A and B have shown
inhibitory effect in etiolated wheat coleoptiles up to 40 % at
10−4 M concentration, while trichocarane C inhibited growth
up to 86 % at 10−3 M concentration (Macias et al. 2000).
Similarly, koninginins B and C have also shown complete
growth inhibition of etiolated wheat coleoptiles at 10−3 M
concentration (Cutler et al. 1991a; Parker et al. 1995a) while
koninginins E and G showed 65 % and 56 % growth inhibition
of etiolated wheat coleoptiles, respectively, at 10−3 M concen-
tration (Cutler et al. 1989; Parker et al. 1995b). Marfori et al.
(2002) reported trichosetin (10 μg/ml) as an inhibitor of root
and shoot growth in seedling growth assays of Oryza sativa
(87 % and 32 %), Vigna radiata (67 % and 68 %, respective-
ly), Medicago sativa (82 % and 81 %, respectively), Capsicum
frutescens (93 % and 67 %, respectively), and Lycopersicum
esculentum (91 % and 88 %, respectively).
The laevorotatory form of harzianopyridone displayed
significant cytotoxicity in etiolated wheat coleoptiles bio-
assay and caused complete inhibition at 10−3 M concentra-
tion. It also caused necrosis in bean, tobacco and corn in a
concentration dependent manner (Cutler and Jacyno 1991).
Similarly, cyclonerodiol inhibited the growth of wheat co-
leoptiles up to 61 % at 0.001 M concentration (Cutler et al.
1991b). Interestingly, seedling growth assay of 6-pentyl-
2H -pyran-2-one demonstrated inhibitory effects at high
concentration and growth promotion at low concentration
in wheat seedlings. However, in foliar spray treatment on
tomato, the same compound at the concentration 0.166 mg/
537
Reference
Blight and Grove (1986), Jalal et al. (1987), Lee et al.
(1995a,b), Macias et al. (2000), Garo et al. (2003),
Singh et al. (2005), Kubicek et al. (2011)
Brian (1944), Wright (1954), Godtfredsen and Vangedal
(1964), Pyke and Dietz (1966), Slater et al. (1967), Moffatt
et al. (1969), Yamano et al. (1970), Collins and Halim
(1972), Golder and Watson (1980), Itoh et al. (1980), Harris
et al. (1993), Kumeda et al. (1994), Fujita et al. (1994),
Mandala et al. (1997), Sivasithamparam and Ghisalberti
(1998), Jaworski et al. (1999), Evidente et al. (2003),
Krause et al. (2006), Degenkolb et al. (2006)
Ghisalberti (2002)
l showed more vigorous growth and an extensive root
system (Vinale et al. 2008).
Treatment with harzianolide at a concentration of 1 mg/l
has positive effect on the growth and defense response in
Brassica napus and Solanum lycopersicum seedlings
(Vinale et al. 2008). In canola seedlings inhibition up to
45 % and 33 % in stem length was reported on application
of harzianic acid at concentration of 100 and 10 μg/seed,
respectively, while at concentration of 100, 10, 1 ng/seed,
stem length increased by 42 %, 44 %, 52 %, respectively, in
comparison to control (Vinale et al. 2009a). Trichokonin has
proven its activity in inducing defense responses in Nicotiana
tabacum against tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) infection.
Foliar treatment of trichokonin at concentration of 100 nM
led to 54 % lesion inhibition, 57 % reduction in average lesion
diameter and 30 % reduction in average lesion area in system-
ic tissue (Luo et al. 2010).
In an interesting study, herbicidal activity of Trichoderma
virens composted chicken manure and rye cover crop was also
observed against Setaria viridis and Amaranthus retroflexus
(broad leaf and grass weeds). The active compounds demon-
strating herbicidal activity were recognized as viridiols, (3H)-
benzoxazolinone and 2,4-dihydroxy-1,4-(2H)benzoxazine-3-
one released during composting of manure (Heraux et al.
2005a; Javaid and Ali 2011). Interestingly, T. virens was dem-
onstrated to contribute actively in the composting process
through secretion of these secondary metabolites. Additionally,
Javaid and Ali (2011) also illustrated herbicidal potential of four
Trichoderma species viz. T. harzianum Rifai, T. pseudokoningii
Rifai, T. reesei Simmons and T. viride Pers. against Rumex
dentatus, an important and noxious weed of wheat by foliar
application. These four Trichoderma species significantly re-
duced the root and shoot biomass of the same weed.
538
Fig. 2 Trichoderma antibiosis for control of soil borne phytopathogens
Impact on human health
An array of secondary metabolites from Trichoderma spp. has
shown prominent activity against many modern age human
diseases and their commercialization could make mankind a
healthier species. Trichodenone A, B and C have shown
significant cytotoxicity against P388 lymphocytic leukemia
cell lines with ED50 (median effective dose) of 0.2, 1.21 and
1.45 μg/ml, respectively (Amagata et al. 1998). In addition,
trichodermamide B was observed to be cytotoxic against
HCT-116 human colon carcinoma with IC50 (half-maximal
inhibitory concentration) of 0.32 μg/ml under in vitro condi-
tion. While harzianum A has shown cytotoxicity against
HT1080 and HeLa cell lines with IC50 values of 0.65 and
5.07 μg/ml, respectively (Lee et al. 2005), aurocitrin exhibited
moderate antiplasmodial activity and cytotoxicity against
three cancer cell lines, KB (oral human epidermoid carcino-
ma), BC (human breast cancer), and NCI-H187 (human small
cell lung cancer) having IC50 value of 4.2, 2.5 and 0.87 μM,
respectively (Berkaew et al. 2008). Similarly, harziphilone
was also demonstrated to have in vitro cytotoxicity against
murine tumor cell line M-109 at 38 μM concentration, while
another analogous compound fleephilone inhibits the binding
of the virion expression protein (REV) to REV-responsive
element in HIV infection with IC50 value of 7.6 μM (Qian-
Cutrone et al. 1996).
In an interesting study, Yamashita (2000) showed the anti-
aging effects of R-mevalonolactone by activation of choles-
terol metabolism in skin of aged humans. Another compound
compactin renamed as mevastatin (Endo et al. 1985) also acts
as a cholesterol lowering agent by inhibiting the rate limiting
step of cholesterol biosynthesis catalyzed by enzyme HMG
CoA reductase (Goldstein et al. 1979). Furthermore,
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2014) 98:533–544
viridiofungin inhibits the enzyme farnesyl transferase which
catalyzes the farnesylation of oncogenic Ras protein pointing
their potential in cancer treatment (Meinz et al. 1993). Viridin,
wortmannolone and virone are inhibitors of the enzyme
inositol-3-kinase which plays a major role in cell signaling
pathways and can be used for treatment of neoplasm, resteno-
sis and atherosclerosis (Dodge et al. 1995).
Trichodimerol demonstrated significant inhibitory activity
against lipopolysaccharide induced production of tumor ne-
crosis factor-α (TNF-α) in human monocytes and could be
very useful in treatment of septic shock (Mazzucco and Warr
1996). Similarly, dihydrotrichodimerol and trichotetronine al-
so suppress the production of TNF-α and nitric oxide in
lipopolysaccharide stimulated RAW264.7 cells. These com-
pounds also activate peroxisome proliferator activated
receptor-Y (PPAR-Y) which plays a key role in cancer cell
biology (Lee et al. 2005). Moreover, these compounds exhib-
ited growth inhibitory activity (IC50 <100 μM) in five human
cancer cell lines namely U373 glioblastoma, A549 non-small
cell lung cancer, SKMEl-28 melanoma cancer, OE21 esoph-
ageal cancer, Hs683 oligodendroglioma and one mouse can-
cer cell line B16F10 melanoma (Balde et al. 2010).
Emoidin with antineoplastic activity (Huang et al. 2006)
and bacteriostatic effect towards S. aureus at 10 μg/ml (Wu
et al. 2006) also acts as a cathartic agent (Ali et al. 2004).
While lignoren when used in common agar well diffusion
assay at concentration of 100 μg/well showed moderate anti-
microbial activity towards B. subtilis , Mycobacterium
smegmatis , Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Sporoblomyces
salmonicolor and Rhodotorula rubra (Berg et al. 2004). A
broad spectrum antifungal compound chrysophanol, was
found to be active against C. albicans (50 μg/ml),
Cryptococus neoformans (50 μg/ml), Trichophyton
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2014) 98:533–544 539

mentagrophytes (25 μg/ml) and Aspergillus fumigatus The Trichoderma toxin phobia
(50 μg/ml) (Agarwal et al. 2000). A carotane type metabolite
CAF-603 has shown antifungal activity against different There are increasing reports which present Trichoderma as an
strains of C. albicans (0.8–12.5 μg/ml), Torulopsis glabrata agriculturally imperative microorganism with extensive in-
(50 μg/ml) and A. fumigatus (25 μg/ml) (Watnanabe et al. dustrial applications. But it is interesting to note that the genus
1990). Trichoderma also comprises species performing as opportu-
Pahl et al. (1996) reported gliotoxin mediated inhibition of nistic human pathogens. The pathogenic behaviors of these
transcription factor NF-κB, a central mediator in cell mediated species are determined by particular kind of secondary me-
immune response. In addition to this, Tanaka et al. (1998) tabolites produced by brevicompactum clade (Nielsen et al.
demonstrated anti-malarial properties of gliotoxin (0.01 μg/ 2005). Noteworthy, the brevicompactum clade is recognized
ml) against merozoites and schizonts. Another compound as a separate lineage in genus Trichoderma, which includes T.
trichodermol has also shown antiplasmodial activity arundinaceum, T. turrialbense, T. protrudens and Hypocrea
(Takashima and Wataya 1999). While, a formulation of sec- rodmanii (Degenkolb et al. 2008). All the listed species of this
ondary metabolites of Trichoderma viride VCRC F24 has clade are reported to produce trichotoxins like trichodermin
shown remarkable oviposition response against female and harzianum A, B (classified as trichothecene type toxins)
Culex quinquefasciatus mosquito, which is the vector of (Nielsen et al. 2005; Degenkolb et al. 2008). Likewise,
lymphatic filariasis caused by the nematode Wuchereria Trichoderma spp. produces peptide antibiotics rich in Aib
bancrofti. Hence, this kind of formulation can be very useful (α-aminoisobutyric acid) which are classified as peptaibols.
in vector management (Geetha et al. 2003). In particularly, in vitro assays suggest that peptaibols like
alamethicins, paracelsin and trichobrachins are highly toxic
to invertebrate models Crassostrea gigas, Artemia salina and
Applications in food, flavor and aroma industry Daphnia magna (Favilla et al. 2006; Poiriera et al. 2007).
Degenkolb et al. (2008) through an extensive phylogenetic
Besides functional application in plant growth promotion, analysis have shown that brevicompactum clade is not closely
plant disease control and human curative effects, related to the species that have biological applications. Thus,
Trichoderma secondary metabolites were also found to have only members of species other than those included in
extensive application in food, flavor and aroma industries. Our brevicompactum clade could be efficiently used in biological
earlier reports have explored the possible perspective of control of soil-borne mycopathogens in field conditions.
Trichoderma in maintaining biosecurity owing to its bioactive
metabolites and tendency to modulate antioxidants potential
(Singh and Singh 2009; Singh et al. 2010). With the growing
Conclusion
interest in this area, the precise role of Trichoderma secondary
metabolites has been elaborated. The presence of volatile and
The reputation of Trichoderma spp. in the scientific commu-
non-volatile compounds in Trichoderma influences its utility
nity and industry is based on its twin advantages of plant
in enhancing mainly flavor and aroma of the food products. A
volatile compound 6-pentyl-2H -pyran-2-one imparts coconut
aroma in viable Trichoderma cultures and is significantly
used as a coconut flavoring agent in confectionary (Claydon
et al. 1987). The solid state fermentation using bagasse and
desiccated coconut is the most accepted technology for en-
hanced 6-pentyl-2H -pyran-2-one production (Sarhy-Bagnon
et al. 2000). Likewise, 3-octanone, 1-octen-3-ol and 3-octanol
produced by Trichoderma spp., contribute to mushroom fla-
vor and aroma (Combet et al. 2006). Earlier Janssens et al.
(1992) reported the methyl ketone producing ability of T.
viride TS strain. However, its industrial production has not
yet attracted much attention. Considering this fact, it could
also be used as flavoring agent particularly for cheese and
fruity flavors (Patton 1950; Hagedorn and Kaphammer 1994).
Use of these secondary metabolites in food industry has
become a major thrust area, making Trichoderma a versatile
fungus with application in natural as well as in industrial Fig. 3 Relative advantages of using formulation of antimicrobial sec-
systems. ondary metabolites in comparison to whole organism application
540
growth promoting fungus (PGPF) and biological control po-
tential. But these properties are fully expressed in field only
when, firstly, an area-specific strain is applied in the respective
region and, secondly, when the Trichoderma spore formula-
tion used has retained ample viability (high spore count). On
the contrary, a formulation of secondary metabolites would
have a much longer shelf life, a higher efficiency against soil
borne phytopathogens particularly against bacteria; also, a
consortium of antimicrobial metabolites against individual
pathogens could be formulated and used regardless of geo-
graphic location where the incidence of that particular disease
is high. This approach would be unsurpassed by current
technology, as here the formulation would specifically target
a particular pathogen while remaining soil microbiota would
remain unaffected (Fig. 3). Thus, further studies on the devel-
opment of pathogen-specific secondary metabolite-based for-
mulations are urgently needed.
Acknowledgments Chetan Keswani is grateful to Banaras Hindu Uni-
versity, Varanasi, for providing CRET-UGC fellowship.
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