Emilie Gagne

105 – Monday, 8:30am

AGR*1110 Intro to Agri-Food Systems

November 27, 2018

Raising Male Layer Chicks as Coquelets to Prevent Their Culling

 Commercial chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) production is divided into 2 different

sectors: meat production and egg production. Broiler chickens are used solely for meat

production and are selected for their high growth rate that results in increased carcass yields.

These birds are also extremely efficient with a very good feed conversion ratio, which measures

how effective the birds are in converting feed nutrients to body mass (Thiruvenkadan,

Prabakaran, & Panneerselvam, 2011). The egg industry uses layer chickens, which are selected

for their early sexual maturity, allowing for earlier laying of eggs, amount of eggs produced as

well as the quality of the eggs produced, and a good feed efficiency. (Silversides, 2010). Years of

genetics has specialized chickens for either meat or egg production, so one chicken cannot be

used for both. Both male and female broilers are used for meat production, but only female hens

are used for egg production. Based on sex ratios, about half of the offspring with be females,

which can be used for eggs, but the remaining half will be male. Unfortunately, no economically

feasible use has yet been found for these male layer chicks, also known as cockerels, so they are

often culled once they hatch. Annually, about 370 million layer cockerels are killed in North

America alone (Galli et al., 2017).

The culled cockerels are often used as a protein source in major pet foods, and are also

used for feed for carnivores, reptiles, and birds of prey in captivity (Damme & Ristic, 2003).

Even though the culled chicks are still being used, cockerel culling brings about major welfare

issues, however, no viable use for these birds has been found yet. Cockerels are unable to

produce eggs since they are males, so they are of no use to the egg industry. However, a fully-

grown layer cock is also unusable for meat production as they have poor fattening performance

compared to broilers. It is also a lot costlier and more time consuming to raise layers for meat as

they have a poor feed to meat conversion ratio, resulting in more feed and time needed for them
to meet the desired weight, ultimately increasing costs (Lichovníková, Jandásek, Jůzl, &

Dračková, 2009). The table below shows the differences in production value between male layer

chickens and broilers.

Table 1: Growth Performance of Male Layer Chickens, White Mini-Broilers, & Commercial Broilers. (Choo et al., 2014)

As can be seen, it takes 51 days to grow the male layers to an appropriate slaughter size, which is

much longer than broilers, which reach slaughter size in as little as 21 days. The final body

weight size of layer cocks is only 750 grams, which is much smaller than the commercial

broilers, which were 999 grams. The carcass yields are also better for broilers than layers used

for meat. Fully grown adult layers used for slaughter tend to have lower carcass dressing

percentage, with less desired meats, as well as a worsened carcass tissue composition (Murawska

& Bochno, 2007). Finally, the average daily feed intake (ADFI) is higher, and the feed to gain

ratio is much worse in layer birds, which result in increased costs for the producer (Choo et al.,

2014). There are many other costs associated with raising these birds for slaughter that makes

this an unrealistic venture. There are increased transportation costs for taking the birds from

farm to packing plant, as well as increased labor costs, and with minimum wage prices in Canada

increasing, the cost of labor is increasing. More space is also needed to raise these birds, and

with the average cost of farmland increasing 8.4% in 2017, and still expected to climb going

forward (Farm Credit Canada, 2018), the cost of land is a major expense to raise these birds.

Thus, it does not make sense for the farmers to grow layer cockerels to full size for meat when

broilers are a much better option, so culling them is seen as the best option.
PREVIOUS IDEAS TO END CULLING
Although it appears that culling layer cockerels is the only option because of their poor

carcass yields and costly and time-consuming production, there has been plenty of research that

has gone into alternatives. A seemingly possible idea to solve the issue of culling chicks is ovo-

sex determination. One of the most accurate methods for determining the sex from the egg is

with optical spectroscopy. Optical spectroscopy involves examining the biochemical

composition of the egg by looking at the fluorescent signals that are exhibited by blood vessels in

the eggs. Both males and female chickens have different fluorescent signals in their blood

vessels, so by examining these, the sex of the layer chickens can be determined to prevent their

culling (Galli et al., 2017). However, this method is still being developed and improved, and is

not ready for largescale use as it is costly and not as accurate as sexing the chicks once they

hatch (Krautwald-Junghanns et al., 2018). Another method that has been tried is a broiler-layer

hybrid, also known as a dual-purpose chicken, that should be efficient in both egg and meat

production. However, compared to the highly specialized broilers and layers, dual-purpose

chickens are impracticable, and do not have the same capabilities as specialized species. Dual-

purpose chickens have a worsened feed to gain ratio and produce less meat than broilers, and

have reduced egg production compared to layers (Siekmann et al., 2018). Ultimately, the current

options available to prevent cockerel culling are unfeasible for the farmer, as they are not viable

for making a profit.

RAISING LAYER COCKERELS AS COQUELETS

Just because a use for the layer cockerels has yet to be found since they cannot be sold

efficiently to slaughter as fully-grown birds, does not mean they have no use. The layer cockerels

could be sold as coquelets, which are young chickens less than 28 days old that weigh between
400 and 450 grams (Koenig, Hahn, Damme, & Schmutz, 2012). Since the coquelets are not aged

for as long, less food is needed to get them to a proper size for slaughter. Young layer chickens

also have a better growth rate with a shortened fattening period than adult layer cocks, making

them a more feasible option as a food source (Koenig et al., 2012). When layer cocks are reared

to adulthood for meat production, a lot of money is spent on feed, with their low feed to meat

conversion ratio, combined with their extended growing time. Producing layer cockerels to full

size costs the farmers about 70% more than it would to raise a broiler (Damme & Ristic, 2003).

Combined with the other costs associated with producing these birds, the farmers would be

unable to make a profit.

RAISING COCKERELS

Layer cockerels would be raised in a similar fashion to broilers being reared for meat.

Housing conditions can have varying effects on the birds, but optimal housing will decrease

mortality and improve the cockerels performance (Mesa, Muniz, Souza, & Geffroy, 2017).

Layer cockerels would be housed in open spaces in a contained area. Because of the importance

to ensure the birds are raised properly for optimal performance, there are many housing

requirements that should be followed. For starters, the type of flooring used for the cockerels

impacts their performance. Concrete is the “go to” material for the buildings as it improves the

cockerel’s overall performance, specifically their food conversion ratio. The cockerels housed on

concrete floors also consumed more feed, which improved their yields (Mesa et al., 2017). Each

bird also requires enough space to be able to stand, turn, and stretch their wings (Agriculture

Canada, 1989). Without adequate spacing, welfare is reduced, as the temperature and stress

levels amongst the chickens increases. The birds temperature also has a major impact on the

efficiency of the layers and their welfare – it can impact growth, and feed conversion rate but it
also increases mortality rates (May & Lott, 2000). Since layers already have a poor feed to gain

conversion ratio, the slightest improvement in this ratio can be impactful. Because of the impact

temperature has on growing chickens, it is critical that the temperature of the housing is properly

maintained. The optimal temperature for housing these birds is 28 to 32°C when they first arrive

at the facility, with a temperature decrease of 2 to 3°C each week the birds age. The temperature

should not get any lower than 21°C (Agriculture Canada, 1989). The lighting provided in the

facilities can also impact the cockerel’s health and performance. The lighting schedule

specifically affects the birds. Many birds that are grown for meat are on a continuous, or near

continuous lighting schedule which is expected to maximize the birds feed intake and improve

their growth rate, however, this lighting schedule results in traits that reduce the bird’s health and

performance, including increased fat deposition, metabolic diseases, skeletal deformities, and

circulatory problems, which reduce producer profits (Li, Guo, Chen, Wang, He, & Su, 2010).

Rather than using continuous lighting, intermittent lighting use, which involves varying light

intensities for varying durations during the day, has been found to improve the growth rate and

the feed conversion ratio of the layer cockerels (Li et al., 2010). Finally, the layer cockerels need

access to clean drinking water and proper feed for their stage of life (Agriculture Canada, 1989).

Since these layer cockerels are not being raised for egg production, they require different

nutritional needs than layer hens, whose primary focus is to enhance egg production, without

concern for the overall carcass weight. It is important to be able to use economical, yet efficient

feed to improve the cockerel’s meat gain and growth rate. So, when focusing on meat production

for these chickens, they would require a similar diet to that of broiler chickens, which focuses on

increasing yields with a low feed to gain conversion ratio. One of the most important things

when configuring the diet for these birds is to ensure that they get all the nutrients they need to
improve their growth. Majority of the bird’s diet is composed of energy sources, including corn,

barley, or wheat, to provide the birds with the energy needed for daily functions. The rest of their

diet is composed of some sort of protein source to provide the necessary amino acids to gain

meat, as well as macro-minerals, micro-minerals, vitamins, and any other additives that may be

added to the diet to make improvements (Robinson, 2018). Lacking any of these essential

nutrients will reduce the growth of the bird, resulting in reduced profits for the farmers. To

further improve the growth rate of the layer cockerels, more grains can be added to their diet.

The addition of grain to chicken’s diets has been found to improve their feed to gain ratio, which

is critical for layers with their already poor feed to gain conversion ratio. Grain will ultimately

improve their growth and efficiency, which would be beneficial to the farmers (Escarcha et al.,

2012). Another method that could be used to improve the growth rate and efficiency of layer

cockerels for slaughter would be to add additional supplementations to their diets. Adding plant

extracts to their diet greatly improves their feed conversion, and also improves the carcass yields

of desired meat, such as breast meat (Jamroz, Wiliczkiewicz, Wertelecki, Orda, & Skorupińska,

2005). Plant extracts improve the feed intake by stimulating appetite, causing the chickens to eat

more; digestive enzyme secretion also improves in the layer cockerels, allowing for better

digestion of food. (Jamroz et al., 2005). Adding plant supplements also reduces the risk of

disease in flocks by activating immune responses in the bird, and stimulating antibacterial,

antiviral, antioxidant and anthelminthic actions, which help the bird fight any diseases that may

be present (Jamroz et al., 2005). By adding plant supplements, there would be an increased profit

for the layer cockerel farmer since there is reduced death amongst the flock, and improved body

conditioning, yields, and feed to gain ratio. Also, since the chickens are only being grown to a
young age, they have a better feed to gain ratio, as well as a better growth rate than the aged

layer cocks, so it is more beneficial to grow them to a young age (Koenig et al., 2012).

ASSOCIATED COSTS

There are still many costs associated with raising the layer cockerels as coquelets,

especially when compared to the costs of culling the chicks, which is next to nothing other than t

electrical costs for incubating and euthanizing male chicks (Choo et al., 2014). However, it is

still much cheaper than growing them to a size comparable to broilers. Currently there is no need

for space to raise the layer cockerels but growing these birds to be slaughter as coquelets requires

a suitable amount of land for them once they have hatched, and they need enough space to be

able to grow. Land is going to be one of the most expensive costs associated with raising these

birds, especially with the increasing costs of land. Across Canada, agriculture land costs are

drastically increasing. Prices suitable for agriculture have increased 8.4% in 2017 and are

expected to rise even more in the up coming years. Although the costs of farmland differ in all of

the provinces, all of them are experiencing increases in land cost (Farm Credit Canada, 2018),

likely due to the increasing farm revenue, farm productivity and interest rates (Eisenhauer &

Mitchell, 2011). However, it is important to realize that land is a one-time purchase. Land is not

the only pricey purchase needed to raise these chickens, as they also need a building where they

can be contained. In general, the cost to build a standardized poultry facility is approximately

$200,000 CAD (Profitable Venture, n.d.). Similar to land however, this is a one-time cost – once

it is built, it does not have be rebuilt. It is important that the barn be upkept properly, and repairs

are done when needed to keep overall costs to a minimum. Especially in the Canadian climate, it

is critical that the cockerels have proper housing to improve their overall performance, and to

prevent sickness and death.

 Other major costs associated with raising these layer cockerels are initial expenditures,

which include expenses spent on equipment, materials and labors. These are the direct costs that

it takes to grow the layer cockerels (Growing Ontario Together, 2016). With the large amount of

birds that are no longer being culled and are being housed to be raised for slaughter, the initial

expenditures spent are quite high. Currently, in Ontario alone, approximately $1.35 billion is

spent on initial expenditures of raising broilers and layer hens (Growing Ontario Together,

2016). Thus, it is definitely a costly industry to be a part of when considering the increasing costs

of equipment needed to raise the birds, materials, and labor.

Another additional cost with raising these layer cockerels to be coquelets is added feed

and utility costs. Currently, there are no feed or watering costs with male layer chicks as they are

killed immediately, but if they were to be grown to a slaughter size, there are now costs to

provide feed and water to the birds. However, since the birds are grown to a younger size, and

since they have better feed conversion ratios at younger ages, a lot less money is spent on feed,

compared to if the birds would be grown to full size. Since these bird’s primary focus is on meat

production rather than optimal egg production (like most layers), the actual feed cost would be

cheaper as well, since a lot of the nutrients needed to enhance egg production are not added to

the cockerel’s diets. Hydro is another additional cost with raising these birds. Layer cockerels

require constant access to clean, drinkable water, which results in increased hydro costs. There

are many other utilities other than hydro that go into raising these birds, including gas, for

temperature maintenance, and electrical, to ensure proper lighting for the birds.

BENEFITS TO THE CONSUMER

Layer cockerels do not produce nearly as good of quality of meat compared to broilers.

They produce a poorer meat quality with a reduced pH value. pH values of chicken meat are
associated with general appearance of the meat, tenderness, juiciness, flavor, and shelf life

(Mueller, Kreuzer, Siegrist, Mannale, Messikommer, & Gangnat, 2018). Generally, consumers

are not as pleased with the quality of the meat, especially when compared to the meat quality of

broilers, which have higher pH levels, with better tenderness and juiciness, and is also more

visually appetizing (Mueller et al., 2018).

Figure 1: Average layer chicken before slaughter and as a carcass (above) vs. average broiler before slaughter and as a carcass
(below) (Mueller et al., 2018)

However, just because this chicken is not of good in quality as the broiler meat that is commonly

found in stores, does not mean it does not have the same nutritional properties. Chicken is a great

source of protein, contains vitamins and minerals that humans need in our diet such as

magnesium, zinc, and riboflavin, and contains desired amounts of unsaturated and saturated fatty

acids (Charlton, Probst, Tapsell, & Blackall, 2008).

Since the layer cockerels would not be producing nearly as high of quality of meat as

broilers, it would be available in stores for a much cheaper price. This would make it more

available to people that are unable to afford broiler meat, which is generally more expensive.
Since the layer meat provides similar nutritional value, those consuming it would be getting the

many nutrients they need at a cheaper price. Ultimately, by growing layer chicks, more poor

people will be able to afford adequate food with proper nutrients.

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO CANADA

By finding a way to use layer cockerels rather than having them culled brings about many

benefits for Canada. Food insecurity is a major issue in Canada, and is when people have

inadequate resources, the largest determinant being finances, to be able to have access to food.

Unfortunately, food insecurity is becoming a larger problem each year in Canada (McIntyre,

Patterson, Anderson, & Mah, 2016). People that are experiencing food insecurity do not have

access to as healthy of foods and they often experience disruptions in their eating habits, so they

often are not nearly as healthy as they should be. By making coquelets available in markets, there

will be reduced incidences of food insecurity in Canada. The coquelets are being sold at cheaper

prices since their meat is not of the same quality as broilers, so it makes it a lot more affordable

for those that are having financial issues. They are also getting good nutritional value out of the

coquelet meat, so it will result in healthier populations in Canada.

Another benefit is there is reduced food waste. Although majority of the layer chicks that

are culled end up being used as food for carnivores and pets, there are some instances where they

will end up going to waste. Food waste is a critical issue in Canada and it contributes to many

environmental issues around the world. By growing the cockerels to be food for humans, there is

reduced food waste as no more cockerels are being culled.

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO CANADIAN FARMERS

Raising cockerels to be sold to consumers as coquelets also has its benefits to Canadian

farmers. For one, these birds have the possibility to bring in added income for the farmers.

Millions of layer cockerels are killed each year and do not provide the farmers with any profit.

By finding a way to sell the cockerels as coquelets, the farmers have the opportunity to make a

lot more money than they would be just culling the birds. Also, since the birds are being grown

as coquelets, rather than full sized, they are only aged for a maximum of 28 days. Since the

growing period is shorter, there is the possibility of having more flocks grown each year, which

ultimately results in added income for the farmers. However, it is important to keep in mind that

the meat quality of these birds is not good, and their carcass yields are not comparable to

broilers, so the birds will end up being sold for a much cheaper price than broilers would be.

Another way that these birds can bring in added income is with their export potential. These

birds could be used in processed products that can be made available across Canada, and has the

potential to be exported worldwide. Another possible exportable product would be the by

products of these chickens. Specifically, around the world, the by-products of chickens can be

very popular, including their feet, gizzards and feathers. Since the total number of birds would be

increased, there would be increased amounts of by-products available, so instead of having them

go to waste, it is important that they be sold to consumers to increase income. However, are the

costs that could possibly be made by raising these birds as coquelets worth the costs that it takes

to raise them?

Ultimately, although a lot of people, specifically those concerned with welfare, believe

that there are better methods than culling the layer cockerels. A possibly viable option to prevent

their culling is to grow layer cockerels as coquelets for their meat and by-products. However,
with all the additional costs needed to raise these chickens, it is a better option for the farmers to

cull the chicks, as they would be unable to make a profit. It costs a lot more to raise these birds

than broilers do, and they cannot be sold for as much either due to their lack in meat quality and

yields. Hopefully other possible solutions arise in the future that can prevent the culling of male

layer chicks.
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