Chapter

2: The Cytoplasm LAGRAMA | 3B7

Cytoplasm
Ø Contains various membrane-limited organelles
Blastomeres
Ø Cells that are produce at the first zygotic cellular
divisions
Ø Give rise to all tissue types of the fetus
Embryonic Stem Cells
Ø Explanted to tissue culture cells of the inner cell
mass
Differentiation
Ø A specialization process in which cells of the fetus
differentially express sets of genes that mediate
specific cytoplasmic activities
The Plasma Membrane
Plasma Membrane
Ø Cell membrane or Plasmalemma
Ø Envelops every eukaryotic cell consists of
phospholipids, cholesterol and proteins
Ø Functions:
1. Physical barrier
2. Selective permeability
3. Electrochemical gradients
4. Communication
Integrins
Ø A plasma membrane protein
Ø Linked to both the cytoskeleton and ECM
components
Ø Allow continuous exchange of influences between
the cytoplasm and material in the ECM
Phospholipids
Ø Amphipathic – consisting of two nonpolar
(hydrophobic) long chain fatty acids linked to a
charged polar (hydrophilic) head that bears the
phosphate group
Ø Most stable when organized into a bilayer
Cholesterol
Ø A sterol lipid
Ø Present in the same amount as phospholipid
Ø Insert at varying densities among the closely-
packed phospholipid fatty acids, restricting their
movements and modulating the fluidity of all
membrane components
Glycolipids
Ø Oligosaccharide chains that extend outward from
the cell surface and contribute to a delicate cell
surface coating (glycocalyx)
Integral proteins
Ø Incorporated directly within the lipid bilayer
Ø Can be extracted only by using detergents to
disrupt the lipids
Peripheral proteins
Ø Bound to one of the two membrane surfaces,
particularly on the cytoplasmic side
Ø Can be extracted with salt solutions
Multipass proteins
Ø The polypeptide chains of many integral proteins
span the membrane from one side to the other
Receptors
Ø Participate in important interactions such as cell
adhesion, cell recognition, and the response to
protein hormones
Lipid rafts
Ø Specialized membrane patches where protein
complexes are located
Transmembrane Proteins & Membrane transport
Diffusion
Ø Transport small, nonpolar molecules directly
through the lipid bilayer
Channels
Ø Multipass proteins forming transmembrane pores
through which ions or small molecules pass
selectively
Ø Aquaporins – where water molecules usually
cross
Pumps
Ø Enzymes engaged in active transport (utilizing
energy from the hydrolysis of ATP to move ion and
other solutes across membranes)
Ø Often referred as ATPases
Vesicular transport
Endocytosis
Ø Bulk movement of substances into the cell by
vesicles forming at the plasma membrane
Phagocytosis
Ø Cell eating
Ø Ingestion of particles such as bacteria or dead cell
remnants
Ø Macrophages and neutrophils
Ø Phagosome - an intracellular vacuole that
encloses the bacterium by fusion of the membrane
folds
Pinocytosis
Ø Cell drinking
Ø Vesicles are formed as interstitial fluid is taken up
by the cell
Ø Pinocytotic vesicles – either fuse with lysosome
or move to the opposite cell surface where it fuse
with the membrane and release its contents outside
the cell
 Chapter 2: The Cytoplasm LAGRAMA | 3B7
Ø Transcytosis – accomplishes bulk transfer of
dissolved substance across the cell
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Ø Receptors first bind specific substances and then
taken up by the cell
Ø Occupied cell surface receptors associate with
cytoplasmic protein and begin invagination as
coated pits
Ø Clathrin – a major polypeptide contained in the
electron-dense coating on the cytoplasmic surface
Ø Clathrin molecules interact like the struts of a
geodesic dome, forming that region of cell
membrane into a cage-like invagination that is
pinched off in the cytoplasm as coated vesicle
Ø Caveolae – invaginations produced by a type of
receptor-mediated endocytosis that is prominent in
endothelial cells; involve a membrane protein
called caveolin
Ø Endosomal compartment – a dynamic collection
in the peripheral cytoplasm of membranous tubules
and vacuoles
Ø Rab proteins – small GTPases that bind guanine
nucleotides and associated proteins
Exocytosis
Ø Bulk movement of substance out of the cell by
fusion of secretory vesicles with the plasma
membrane
Ø Ex. Release of neurotransmitter by nerve cells
Constitutive secretion
Ø Used for products that are released from cells
continuously as soon as synthesis is complete
Regulated secretion
Ø In response to signal coming to the cells such as the
release of digestive enzymes from pancreatic cells
in response to specific stimuli
Membrane trafficking
Ø Process of membrane movement and recycling
Exosomes
Ø Small vesicles that are release and which can fuse
with other cells transferring their contents and
membranes
Signal reception & transduction
Target cells
Ø Cells bearing receptors for a specific ligand
Endocrine signaling
Ø The signal molecules (hormones) are carried in
the blood from their sources to target cells
throughout the body
Paracrine signaling
Ø The chemical ligand diffuses in extracellular fluid
but is rapidly metabolized so that its effect is only
local on target cells near its source
Synaptic signaling
Ø A special kind of paracrine interaction,
neurotransmitters act on adjacent cells through
special contact areas called synapses
Autocrine signaling
Ø Signals bind receptor on the same cells that
produced the messenger molecule
Juxtacrine signaling
Ø and carbohydrate metabolism
Ø Important in early embryonic tissue interaction
Ø Signaling molecules are cell membrane-bound
proteins which bind surface receptors of the target
cell when the two cells make direct physical contact
Channel-linked receptors
Ø Open associated channels upon ligand binding to
promote transfer of molecules or ions across the
membrane
Enzymatic receptors
Ø Ligand binding induces catalytic activity in
associated peripheral proteins
G protein-coupled receptors
Ø Upon ligand binding stimulate associated G
proteins which then bind the guanine nucleotide
GTP and are released to activate other cytoplasmic
protein
Cytoplasmic Organelles
Cytoplasm
Ø Responsible for many cellular processes
Ø Contents of cells between the plasma membrane
and nuclear envelope
Cytosol
Ø Provides support for organelles
Ø Serves as the viscous fluid medium through which
diffusion occurs
Organelles
Ø Carry out specific metabolic activities of the cell
Ø Membranous (mitochondria)
Ø Non-membranous (ribosomes and proteasomes)
Cytoskeleton
Ø Determines a cell’s shape and motility
Ribosomes
Ø Macromolecular machine which assemble
polypeptide from amino acids on molecules of
transfer RNA (tRNA) in a sequence specified by
mRNA
Ø Has two subunits
Ø Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) in the ribosomal subunits
not only provide structural support but also
position tRNA molecules bearing amino acids and
catalyze the formation of the peptide bonds
Ø During protein synthesis many ribosomes typically
bind the same strand of mRNA to form larger
complexes called polyribosomes or polysomes
Ø Bound ribosomes produce proteins that are
secreted, incorporated into plasma membrane and
within lysosomes
Ø Free ribosomes produce proteins used within the
cell
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Ø A convoluted membranous network
Ø An anastomosing network of intercommunicating
channels or cisternae formed by continuous
membrane, with some regions that bear polysomes
appearing rough and other regions appearing
smooth
Ø Functions:
1. Synthesis – provides a place for chemical
reactions
a) Smooth ER – site of lipid synthesis
 Chapter 2: The Cytoplasm LAGRAMA | 3B7
b) Rough ER – synthesizes proteins for
secretion, incorporation into the
plasma, membrane and as enzymes
within lysosomes
2. Transport – move molecules through
cisternal spaces from one part of the cell to
another, sequestered away from the
cytoplasm
3. Storage – store newly synthesized
molecules
4. Detoxification – smooth ER detoxifies
both drugs and alcohol
Rough ER
Ø Modifies, transports, and stores proteins produced
by attached ribosomes
Ø Newly translated signal sequence is bound by a
protein complex called the signal-recognition
particle (SRP), which inhibits further polypeptide
elongation
Ø Ribosomes attached on cytoplasmic surface
Smooth ER
Ø Lack bound polyribosomes
Ø Continuous with RER but frequently less abundant
Ø Not basophilic
Ø Cisternae are tubular or saclike
Ø Functions:
1. Synthesis of phospholipids and steroids
2. Detoxification of potentially harmful exogenous
molecules (alcohol, barbiturates & other drugs)
3. Sequestration and controlled release of Ca2+
Golgi Apparatus
Ø Modifies, packages and sorts materials that arrive
from the ER in transport vesicles
Ø Forms secretory vesicles and lysosomes
Ø Camillo Golgi – discovered the organelle in 1898
Ø Located near the nucleus
Ø Transport vesicles – from RER cisternae to Golgi
apparatus
Ø Cis face – Golgi-receiving region
Ø Trans face – shipping region
Ø Forward movement of vesicles in the cis Golgi
network of saccules is promoted by the coat
protein COP-II, while retrograde movements in
that region involve COP-I
Ø Initiates packing, concentration, and storage of
secretory products
Secretory Granules
Ø Originating as condensing vesicles in the Golgi
apparatus
Ø Found in cells that store a product until its release
by exocytosis is signaled by a metabolic, hormonal
or neural message
Ø Zymogen granules – secretory granules with
dense contents of digestive enzymes
Lysosomes
Ø Sites of intracellular digestion and turnover of
cellular components
Ø Heterolysosome – a composite, active organelle
Ø Indigestible material is retained within a small
vacuolar remnant called residual body
Ø Lipofuscin – residual bodies in some long lived
cells
Ø Autophagy – a process in which the cell uses
lysosomes to dispose of excess or nonfunctioning
organelles or membranes
Ø A membrane from SER forms around the organelle
or cytoplasmic portion to be removed, producing an
autophagosome
Ø Lysosomal storage disorders – defects in one or
more of the digestive enzymes present in lysosomes
Proteasomes
Ø Very small abundant protein complexes not
associated with membrane
Ø To degrade denatured or nonfunctional
polypeptides
Ø Remove proteins no longer needed by the cell
Ø Deal primarily with free proteins as individual
molecules
Ø Ubiquitin – an abundant cytosolic 76-amino acid
protein found in all cells
Mitochondria
Ø Membrane-closed organelles with arrays of
enzymes specialized for aerobic respiration and
product of ATP
Ø Enzymes yield 15 times more ATP than is produced
by glycolysis alone
Ø Two compartments: matrix and a narrow
intermembrane space
Ø Outer membrane – sieve-like, containing many
transmembrane proteins (porins) that form
channels through which small molecules such as
pyruvate and other metabolites readily pass from
the cytoplasm to the intermembrane space
Ø Cristae – project into the matrix and greatly
increase the membrane’s surface are
Ø Chemiosmotic process – formation of ATP by
oxidative phosphorylation enzymes
Ø Apoptosis - a regulated process that degrade all
cellular components when protein cytochrome c
activates sets of proteases
Peroxisomes
Ø Small spherical, membranous organelles containing
enzymes that use O2 to remove hydrogen atoms
from fatty acids
Ø Detoxify specific harmful substances either by the
cell or taken into the cells
Ø Oxidases – oxidize substrates by removing
hydrogen atoms that are transferred to molecular
oxygen producing H2O2
Ø Catalase – immediately break down H2O2 which is
potentially damaging the cell
Ø Form in two ways:
1. Budding of precursor vesicles from the ER
2. Growth and division of preexisting
peroxisomes
Ø Neonatal adrenoleukodystrophy – caused by a
defective integral membrane protein need for
transport of very-long-chain fatty acids into the
peroxisome for B-oxidation
Ø Zellweger syndrome – deficiencies of peroxisomal
enzymes
 Chapter 2: The Cytoplasm LAGRAMA | 3B7
Cytoskeleton
Cytoskeleton
Ø A complex array of microtubules, microfilaments
(actin filaments) and intermediate filaments
Ø Function:
1. Structural – provide structural support to
cell; stabilizes junctions between cells
2. Movement – assists with cytosol
streaming and cell motility; helps move
organelles and material throughout the
cell; helps move chromosomes during cell
division
Microtubules
Ø Maintain cell’s shape and polarity
Ø Provide tracks for organelle and chromosome
movement
Ø Move cilia and flagella
Ø Organized into large, more stable array called
axonemes
Ø Diameter: 25 nm
Ø Subunit: Heterodimers of αβ-tubulin
Ø Microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs) –
contain short assemblies of tubulin that act as
nucleating sites for further polymerization
Ø Polarity: + and – ends
Ø Stability: Dynamic in cytoplasm; stable in
axonemes
Ø Centrosome – dominant MTOCs in most cells;
organized around two cylindrical centrioles
(consist of 9 microtubular triplets)
Ø Motor proteins – controls the transport along
microtubules; use ATP in moving the larger
structures
Ø Kinesins – carry material away from the MTOC
near the nucleus toward the plus end of
microtubules (anterograde transport)
Ø Cytoplasmic dyneins – carry material along
microtubules in opposite direction (retrograde
transport), generally toward the nucleus
Microfilaments
Ø Contract and move cells
Ø Change cell shape
Ø Cytokinesis
Ø Cytoplasmic transport and streaming
Ø Subunit: G-actin monomers
Ø Diameter: 5-7 nm
Ø Polarity: + and – ends
Ø Stability: Dynamic
Ø More flexible than microtubules
Ø Treadmilling – migration of subunits through the
polymer
Ø Cell cortex – a cytoplasmic region; region where
Arp2/3 activity produces an important branched
network of microfilament
Ø Sheet-like protrusions or lamellipodia in which the
concentrated actin filaments are continuous with
deeper parallel F-actin bundles called stress
fibers
Ø Actin-binding protein – change the dynamic
physical properties of microfilaments
Ø Myosin motors – use ATP to transport cargo
along F-actin; usually toward the barbed (+) ends of
actin filaments; myosin VI is the only known
myosin that moves in the other direction
Intermediate Filament
Ø Strengthen cell and tissue structure
Ø Maintain cell shape
Ø Maintain nuclear shape (lamins)
Ø Subunit: Antiparallel tetramers of 2-rod like
dimers
Ø Diameter: 8-10 nm
Ø Stability: Stable
Ø Keratin (Cytokeratins)
• Prominent in epithelial cells
• Tonofibril – large bundles of keratin; attach
to certain junctions between epithelial cells
• Keratinization – process where cytokeratins
accumulate during differentiation in skin
epidermal cells; produces an outer layer of
nonliving cells that reduces dehydration;
protection from minor abrasions and produces
various hard protective structure of skin
Ø Vimentin
• Most common class III intermediate filament
protein
• Found in most cells derived from embryonic
mesenchyme
• Desmin – found in almost all muscle cells
• Glial fibrillar acidic protein (GFAP) –
found in astrocytes, supporting cells of CNS
tissue
Ø Neurofilament
• Neurofilament proteins of three distinct sizes
make heterodimers that form the subunits of
the major intermediate filaments of neurons
Ø Lamins
• Family of seven isoforms present in nucleus
• Form a structural framework called nuclear
lamina
Inclusions
Inclusions
Ø Cytoplasmic structures or deposits filled with
stored macromolecules and are not present in all
cells
Ø Transitory structure not enclosed by membrane
Ø Lipid droplets – accumulations of lipid filling
adipocytes and present in various other cells
Ø Glycogen granules – aggregates of the
carbohydrate polymer in which glucose is stored;
visible as irregular clumps of periodic acid-Schiff
(PAS)
Ø Melanin – dark brown granules in skin serve to
protect cells for ultraviolet radiation
Ø Lipofuscin – pale brown granule found in many
cells (e.g. neurons, cardiac muscle); containing a
complex mix of material partly derived from
residual bodies after lysosomal digestion
Ø Hemosiderin – dense brown aggregate of
denatured ferritin proteins with many atoms of
bound iron; prominent in phagocytic cells of the
liver and spleen
 Chapter 2: The Cytoplasm LAGRAMA | 3B7

Ø Hemosiderosis – iron-containing inclusion
hemosiderin occurs in cells of organs throughout
the body

Cilia
Ø Move substances (e.g. mucus and dissolved
materials) over the cells surface
Ø Short, numerous membrane extensions supported
by microtubules
Flagellum
Ø Propels sperm
Ø Long, singular membrane extensions supported by
microtubules
Microvilli
Ø Increase membrane surface area for greater
absorption
Ø Numerous thin membrane fold projecting from the
free cell surface
Ø Supported by microfilaments
Nucleus
Ø Houses the DNA that serves as the genetic
material for directing protein synthesis
Ø Enclosed within a double membrane
Ø Contains chromatin, nucleolus and nucleoplasm
Nuclear envelope
Ø Separates nucleus from cytoplasm
Ø Double membrane
Ø Continuous with rough ER
Nuclear pores
Ø Allow passage of material between the cytoplasm
and nucleoplasm
Ø Opening through the nuclear envelope
Nucleolus
Ø Functions in synthesis of ribosomes
Ø Large, prominent structure within the nucleus